file which includes the original illustrations4 ,see #bdffg-;h4htm or #bdffg-;h4zip3 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/dirs_/#b_/ d_/f_/f_/bdffg_/bdffg-;h_/#bdffg-;h4htm7 or 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/dirs_/#b_/ d_/f_/f_/bdffg_/bdffg-;h4zip7 ,transcriber's note3 ,numbers preceded by a carat character are superscripts 7example3 #cb #i74 ,numbers preceded by an underscore are subscripts 7example3 ,,co#b7 ,text enclosed by underscores is italicized4 ,a detailed transcriber's note is at the end of the text4 ,,aether ,,and ,,gravitation by ,,william ,,george ,,hooper1 ,f4,s4,s4 ,illustration ,london ,chapman and ,hall1 ,ltd4 #aijc ,,introductory ,,notes ,the author in this work endeavours to solve the greatest scientific problem that has puzzled scientists for the past two hundred years4 ,the question has arisen over and over again1 since the discovery of universal gravitation by ,sir ,isaac ,newton1 as to what is the physical cause of the attraction of gravitation4 ,action at a distance has long ceased to be recognized as a possible phenomenon1 although up to the present1 the medium and method of gravitational attraction have not yet been discovered4 ,it is1 however1 generally accepted by scientists1 that the only possible medium which can give rise to the phenomena incidental to1 and associated with the ,law of ,gravitation1 must be the universal aether1 which forms the common medium of all phenomena associated with light1 heat1 electricity and magnetism4 ,it is impossible1 however1 to reconcile gravitational phenomena with the present conception of the universal aether medium1 and a new theory is therefore demanded1 before the long-sought-for explanation will be forthcoming4 ,professor ,glazebrook definitely states the necessity for a new theory in his work on ,j4 ,c4 ,maxwell1 page #bba1 where he writes3 ,we are waiting for some one to give us a theory of the aether1 which shall include the facts of electricity and magnetism1 luminous radiation1 and it may be gravitation4 ,a new theory of the aether is also demanded in view of the recent experimental results of ,professor ,lebedew1 and ,nichols and ,hull of ,america4 ,it is logically impossible to reconcile a frictionless aether1 with their results relative to the pressure of light waves4 ,in the following pages of this work the author has endeavoured to perfect a theory1 which will bring aetherial physics more into harmony with modern observation and experiments2 and by so doing1 believes that he has found the key that will unlock the problem not only of the cause of universal gravitation1 but also other problems of physical science4 ,the author has taken ,newton's ,rules of ,philosophy as his guide in the making of the new theory1 as he believes that if any man knew anything of the rules of ,philosophy1 that man was ,sir ,isaac ,newton4 ,the first chapter therefore deals with the generally recognized rules which govern philosophical reasoning1 the same being three in number2 the fundamental rule being1 that in making any hypothesis1 the results of experience as obtained by observation and experiments must not be violated4 ,in applying the rules to the present theory of the aether1 he found that the theory as at present recognized violated two of the most important rules of ,philosophy1 because1 while aether is supposed to be matter1 yet it failed to fulfil the primary property of all matter1 that is1 it is not subject to the ,law of ,gravitation4 ,if aether is matter1 then1 to be strictly logical and philosophical1 it must possess the properties of matter as revealed by observation and experiment4 ,those properties are given in ,chapter ,,iii41 where it is shown that they are atomicity1 heaviness or weight1 elasticity1 density1 inertia1 and compressibility4 ,to be strictly logical and philosophical1 the author was compelled to postulate similar properties for the aether1 or else his hypotheses would contravert the results of all experience4 ,the application of these properties to the aether will be found in ,chapter ,,iv41 where the author has postulated atomicity1 heaviness or weight1 density1 elasticity1 inertia1 and compressibility for the aether1 and so brought the theory of the aether into perfect harmony with all observation and experiments relative to ordinary matter4 ,it will be shown that ,clerk ,maxwell also definitely affirms the atomicity of the aether1 while ,tyndall and ,huyghens also use the term particles of aether over and over again4 ,moreover1 in view of the most recent researches in electricity made by ,sir ,william ,crookes and ,professor ,j4 ,j4 ,thomson1 we are compelled to accept an atomic basis for electricity1 and as ,dr4 ,lodge1 in his ,modern ,views of ,electricity1 states that ,aether is made up of positive and negative electricity1 then1 unless we postulate atomicity for the aether1 we have to suppose that it is possible for a non-atomic body 7aether7 to be made up of atoms or corpuscles1 which conclusion is absurd1 and therefore must be rejected as illogical and unphilosophical4 ,after postulating atomicity for the aether1 we are then able to apply the ,newtonian ,law of ,gravitation to it1 which distinctly affirms that every particle of matter attracts every other particle1 and so we arrive at ,thomas ,young's fourth hypothesis given in the ,philosophical ,transactions of #ahjb1 where he asserts that ,all material bodies have an attraction for the aetherial medium1 by means of which it is accumulated within their substance1 and for a small distance around them in a state of greater density4 ,he adds the significant remark that this hypothesis is opposed to that of ,newton's4 ,with an atomic and gravitative aether it is shown in ,chapter ,,iv4 how the elasticity1 density1 and inertia of the medium are brought into harmony with all observation and experiments4 ,in the succeeding chapters the new theory is applied to the phenomena of heat1 light1 electricity1 and magnetism1 and the principles enunciated therein are then applied to solar and stellar phenomena4 ,one of the greatest stumbling-blocks to the discovery of the physical cause of gravitation1 apart from the unphilosophical theory of the aether medium1 lies in the fact that apparently the ,law of ,gravitation only recognizes a force of one kind4 ,dr4 ,lodge refers to this phase of the subject on page #ci of his ,modern ,views of ,matter just published4 ,it is here where scientists have failed to solve the problem of universal gravitation1 as there are two forces at work in the solar system and not one2 that is1 if we are to accept the results of up-to-date experiments in relation to radiant light and heat as performed by ,professor ,lebedew1 and ,nichols and ,hull of ,america4 ,their experiments conclusively prove that light waves exert a pressure upon all bodies on which they fall1 and by no reasoning can this pressure be resolved into an attractive force4 ,herschel in his ,lectures on ,scientific ,subjects definitely refers to the existence of a repulsive force in the solar system1 and asserts that it offers the most interesting prospect of any future discovery4 ,the author has therefore attacked the problem of the cause of gravitation1 by trying to solve the problem of the cause of the repulsive force which has been experimentally demonstrated to exist by ,professor ,lebedew and others4 ,in his efforts to ascertain the physical cause of the ,centrifugal ,force1 he has been assisted by an unknown and original essay written by an unknown writer over twenty years ago4 ,that unknown writer was the author's father1 who wrote an essay on the ,complementary ,law of ,gravitation1 and if it had not been for that essay1 the present work would never have been attempted4 ,the main object of the author in ,chapters ,,vi41 ,,vii41 and ,,viii41 is to prove beyond the possibility of contradiction1 from the phenomena of heat1 light1 and electricity1 the existence of two forces in the solar system2 and by so doing1 to bring our philosophy of the aether medium1 and all gravitational phenomena1 into harmony with all observation and experiments1 which at present is not the case4 ,in seeking to do this he found that the new theory of the aether harmonized with views given1 by ,faraday and ,clerk ,maxwell in relation to electric and magnetic phenomena1 and by the new theory ,maxwell's hypothesis of ,physical ,lines of ,force receives a definite and physical basis4 ,in ,chapter ,x4 the author endeavours to show what the ,electro-,kinetic energy is1 which term is used by ,clerk ,maxwell1 the term being brought for the first time into harmony with our experience4 ,the ,electro-,magnetic ,theory of ,light also receives fresh light from the new theory of an atomic and gravitating aether4 ,in the succeeding chapters the theory is applied to ,newton's ,laws of ,motion and ,kepler's ,laws1 and is found to harmonize with all the results given by these laws4 ,such a result is a distinct advance on the application of a frictionless aether to solar and stellar phenomena1 as it is impossible for ,kepler's ,laws to be reconciled in any way with our present theory of the aether4 ,in the concluding chapter on the unity of the universe1 certain views are suggested as to the ultimate constitution of all matter1 upon an aetherial basis1 which hypothesis practically resolves itself into an electric basis for all matter4 ,it is suggested that aether and electricity are one and the same medium1 both being a form of matter1 and both possessing exactly the same properties1 viz4 atomicity1 weight1 density1 elasticity1 inertia1 and compressibility4 ,this view of matter harmonizes with the most ,modern ,views of ,matter as suggested by ,sir ,oliver ,lodge in his ,romanes ,lecture #aijc4 ,the author has accepted ,newton's way of spelling aether as given in his work on ,optics1 and has given aetherial the same suffix as material1 in order to differentiate the word from ethereal1 which is too metaphysical a term for a material medium4 ,nottingham1 ,sept4 #aijc4 ,,contents ,,chapter ,i ,,philosophy ,,of ,,gravitation ,,page ,,art4 #a4 ,,gravitation #a #b4 ,,cause ,,of ,,gravitation #a #c4 ,,newton',s ,,rules ,,of ,,philosophy #c #d4 ,,first ,,rule ,,of ,,philosophy #c #e4 ,,second ,,rule ,,of ,,philosophy #d #f4 ,,third ,,rule ,,of ,,philosophy #g #g4 ,,application ,,of ,,rules ,,to ,,gravitation #i #h4 ,,analysis ,,of ,,law ,,of ,,gravitation #i #i4 ,,primitive ,,impulse #aj #aj4 ,,centripetal ,,force #ab #aa4 ,,centrifugal ,,force #ac #ab4 ,,newton',s ,,laws ,,of ,,motion #ae #ac4 ,,force #af #ad4 ,,first ,,law ,,of ,,motion #af #ae4 ,,second ,,law ,,of ,,motion #ai #af4 ,,third ,,law ,,of ,,motion #bj #ag4 ,,summary ,,of ,,chapter #bb ,,chapter ,,ii ,,philosophy ,,of ,,gravitation--7continued7 ,,art4 #ah4 ,,gravitation ,,attraction #bd #ai4 ,,universality ,,of ,,gravitation #bd #bj4 ,,direction ,,of ,,the ,,forces #bf #ba4 ,,proportion ,,of ,,the ,,forces #bf #bb4 ,,law ,,of ,,inverse ,,squares #bg #bc4 ,,terrestrial ,,gravity #bi #bd4 ,,centrifugal ,,force #cj #be4 ,,kepler',s ,,laws #cb #bf4 ,,first ,,law ,,of ,,kepler #cc #bg4 ,,second ,,law ,,of ,,kepler #cf #bh4 ,,third ,,law ,,of ,,kepler #cg ,,chapter ,,iii ,,matter ,,art4 #bi4 ,,what ,,is ,,matter8 #dj #cj4 ,,conservation ,,of ,,matter #db #ca4 ,,matter ,,is ,,atomic #db #cb4 ,,what ,,is ,,an ,,atom8 #dc #cc4 ,,the ,,atomic ,,theory #dd #cd4 ,,kinds ,,of ,,atoms #dd #ce4 ,,elements ,,of ,,matter #dg #cf4 ,,three ,,kinds ,,of ,,matter #dg #cg4 ,,matter ,,is ,,gravitative #ej #ch4 ,,matter ,,possesses ,,density #ea #ci4 ,,matter ,,possesses ,,elasticity #ea #dj4 ,,matter ,,possesses ,,inertia #eb ,,chapter ,,iv ,,aether ,,art4 #db4 ,,aether ,,is ,,matter #ed #dc4 ,,aether ,,is ,,universal #eh #dd4 ,,aether ,,is ,,atomic #ei #de4 ,,aether ,,is ,,gravitative #fd #df4 ,,aether ,,possesses ,,density #ga #dg4 ,,aether ,,possesses ,,elasticity #gd #dh4 ,,aether ,,possesses ,,inertia #gf #di4 ,,aether ,,is ,,impressible #gh #ej4 ,,aether ,,and ,,its ,,motions #hj ,,chapter ,v ,,energy ,,art4 #ea4 ,,energy #hc #eb4 ,,conservation ,,of ,,energy #hd #ec4 ,,transformation ,,of ,,energy #hf #ed4 ,,potential ,,energy #hg #ee4 ,,kinetic ,,energy #hi #ef4 ,,energy ,,and ,,motion #ia #eg4 ,,conservation ,,of ,,motion #ib #eh4 ,,transformation ,,of ,,motion #ic #ei4 ,,motion ,,and ,,work #ie ,,chapter ,,vi ,,heat1 ,a ,,mode ,,of ,,motion ,,art4 #fj4 ,,heat1 ,a ,,mode ,,of ,,motion #ih #fa4 ,,heat ,,and ,,matter #ajj #fb4 ,,radiation ,,and ,,absorption #ajd #fc4 ,,heat ,,is ,a ,,repulsive ,,motion #ajg #fd4 ,,radiant ,,heat #aji #fe4 ,,direction ,,of ,a ,,ray ,,of ,,heat #aaa #ff4 ,,law ,,of ,,inverse ,,squares #aab #fg4 ,,first ,,law ,,of ,,thermodynamics #aad #fh4 ,,second ,,law ,,of ,,thermodynamics #aaf #fi4 ,,identity ,,of ,,heat ,,and ,,light #aai ,,chapter ,,vii ,,light1 ,a ,,mode ,,of ,,motion ,,art4 #gj4 ,,light1 ,a ,,mode ,,of ,,motion #abb #ga4 ,,transverse ,,vibration ,,of ,,light #acj #gb4 ,,reflection ,,and ,,refraction #ace #gc4 ,,the ,,solar ,,spectrum #aci #gd4 ,,direction ,,of ,a ,,ray ,,of ,,light #add #ge4 ,,intensity ,,of ,,light #ade #gf4 ,,velocity ,,of ,,light #adh #gg4 ,,dynamical ,,value ,,of ,,light #aej #gh4 ,,electro-,,magnetic ,,theory ,,of ,,light #aee ,,chapter ,,viii ,,aether ,,and ,,electricity ,,art4 #gi4 ,,electricity1 ,a ,,mode ,,of ,,motion #afb #hj4 ,,electric ,,field #aff #ha4 ,,electric ,,induction #agd #hb4 ,,electric ,,energy #agi #hc4 ,,electric ,,radiation #ahb #hd4 ,,law ,,of ,,inverse ,,squares #ahd #he4 ,,second ,,law ,,of ,,electricity #ahf ,,chapter ,,ix ,,aether ,,and ,,magnetism ,,art4 #hf4 ,,electro-,,magnetism #aib #hg4 ,,the ,,earth ,a ,,magnet #aie #hh4 ,,the ,,sun ,,an ,,electro-,,magnet #aii #hi4 ,,faraday',s ,,lines ,,of ,,force #bjc #ij4 ,,terrestrial ,,magnetism #bjf #ia4 ,,solar ,,magnets #baa #ib4 ,,cause ,,of ,,rotation ,,of ,,the ,,earth ,,on ,,its ,,axis #bai #ic4 ,,vortex ,,motion #bba #id4 ,,relative ,,motion ,,of ,,aether ,,and ,,matter #bbd #ie4 ,,vibrations ,,in ,,the ,,electro-,,magnetic ,,theory ,,of ,,light #bbh ,,chapter ,x ,,aether ,,and ,,newton',s ,,laws ,,of ,,motion ,,art4 #if4 ,,aether ,,and ,,centrifugal ,,force #bcb #ig4 ,,aether ,,and ,,centripetal ,,force #bcf #ih4 ,,aether ,,and ,,newton',s ,,first ,,law ,,of ,,motion #bci #ii4 ,,aether ,,and ,,newton',s ,,second ,,law ,,of ,,motion #bdd #ajj4 ,,aether ,,and ,,newton',s ,,third ,,law ,,of ,,motion #bea #aja4 ,,why ,,planets ,,revolve ,,from ,,west ,,to ,,east #bec ,,chapter ,,xi ,,aether ,,and ,,kepler',s ,,laws ,,art4 #ajb4 ,,aether ,,and ,,kepler',s ,,first ,,law #bef #ajc4 ,,aether ,,and ,,kepler',s ,,second ,,law #bfj #ajd4 ,,aether ,,and ,,kepler',s ,,third ,,law #bfc #aje4 ,,orbital ,,motion ,,of ,,planets #bff #ajf4 ,,eccentricity ,,of ,,the ,,moon',s ,,orbit #bfh #ajg4 ,,the ,,sun ,,and ,,kepler',s ,,first ,,law #bgj #ajh4 ,,the ,,sun ,,and ,,kepler',s ,,second ,,law #bgd #aji4 ,,aether ,,and ,,the ,,plane ,,of ,,the ,,ecliptic #bgg #aaj4 ,,aether ,,and ,,the ,,centripetal ,,force #bhb ,,chapter ,,xii ,,aether ,,and ,,comets ,,art4 #aaa4 ,,what ,,is ,a ,,comet8 #bia #aab4 ,,orbits ,,of ,,comets #bic #aac4 ,,kinds ,,of ,,comets #bif #aad4 ,,parts ,,of ,a ,,comet #bih #aae4 ,,centrifugal ,,force ,,and ,,comets #cjj #aaf4 ,,formation ,,of ,,tails #cjc ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,aether ,,and ,,starry ,,world ,,art4 #aag4 ,,starry ,,world #cjf #aah4 ,,stars ,,and ,,kepler',s ,,laws #cji #aai4 ,,aether ,,and ,,nebulae #cac #abj4 ,,what ,,is ,a ,,nebula8 #cad #aba4 ,,aether ,,and ,,nebular ,,hypothesis #cag #abb4 ,,kinds ,,of ,,nebulae #cai ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,aether ,,and ,,the ,,universe ,,art4 #abc4 ,,the ,,universe #cbc #abd4 ,,unity ,,of ,,the ,,universe #cbf #abe4 ,,constitution ,,of ,,matter #ccd #abf4 ,,quod ,,erat ,,faciendum #ccg #abg4 ,,god ,,and ,,the ,,univers #cdb ,,appendix #cdi ,,index #cea ,,aether ,,and ,,gravitation ,,chapter ,i ,,philosophy ,,of ,,gravitation ,,art4 #a4 ,gravitation4--,in the realm of ,science1 there exists a ,force or ,law that pervades and influences all ,nature1 and from the power of which1 nothing1 not even an atom1 is free4 ,it holds together the component parts of each and every individual world1 and in the world's revolving prevents both its inhabitants and its vegetation from being whirled off its surface into space4 ,it exists in each and every central sun1 and circles round each sun its associated system of planets4 ,it rolls each satellite around its primary planet1 and regulates the comet's mysterious flight into the depths of space1 while the pendulation of even the remotest star is accomplished by this same force4 ,our own rocking world obeys the same mysterious power1 that seems to grasp the entire material creation as with the grasp of the ,infinite4 ,it exists in1 and influences every atom1 whose combinations compose and constitute the entire material creation1 or each and every orb that bespangle the blue infinity4 ,as is readily seen1 it weaves as it were around each and all1 a mysterious network or chain1 that binds star to star1 and world to world1 blending all into one entire1 vast and complete unity4 ,it decides all their orbits and distances1 regulates and controls all their motions1 from the most simple even to the more complex and intricate1 ultimately producing that wondrous and beauteous order1 unity and harmony that everywhere pervade and blend all the universe into one grand and harmonious whole4 ,that ,law ,i need hardly say is the ,law of ,gravitation4 ,,art4 #b4 ,cause of ,gravitation4--,now the question arises1 and indeed has arisen a thousand times since the discovery of this law by ,sir ,isaac ,newton over two hundred years ago1 as to what is the physical cause1 the true explanation of this universal attraction4 ,mac,laurin in his work on the philosophical discoveries of ,sir ,isaac ,newton says3 ,in all cases when bodies seem to act upon each other at a distance1 and tend towards one another without any apparent cause impelling them1 this force has been commonly called ,attraction1 and this term is frequently used by ,sir ,isaac ,newton4 ,but he gives repeated caution that he pretends not by the use of this term to define the nature of the power1 or the manner in which it acts4 ,nor does he ever affirm or insinuate that a body can act upon another body at a distance1 but by the intervention of other bodies4 ,the results of modern discovery show that action at a distance1 without the intervention of any medium1 as for example the sun attracting the earth1 is not the universal condition which governs all so-called forces4 ,it is now recognized that light and heat are both forms of energy1 and therefore forces1 using the term in the same sense that it is applied to ,gravitation4 ,both light and heat are transmitted through space with finite velocity through the intervention of a medium1 the universal ,aether4 ,it is therefore only reasonable to suppose1 that if one or more particular kinds of energy1 or forces1 require a medium for their transmission1 why not another force1 as for example ,gravitation8 ,gravitation is an universal force which operates throughout the length and breadth of the entire universe1 and if there be a medium which is to ,gravitation1 what the ,aether is to light and heat1 the question at once confronts us1 as to what are the characteristics1 properties1 and qualities of that universal medium1 which is to form the physical basis of this universal attraction8 ,newton himself suggested that ,gravitation was due to an aetherial subtle medium1 which filled all space4 ,in his well-known letter to ,bentley1 ,newton writes as follows3 ,that ,gravity should be innate1 inherent1 and essential to matter1 so that one body can act upon another body at a distance through a vacuum1 without the mediation of anything else1 by and through which their action and force may be conveyed from one to another1 is to me so great an absurdity1 that ,i believe no man who has any philosophical nature or competent faculty of thinking can ever fall into it4 ,we also know from his ,queries in his book on ,optics1 that he sought for the explanation of ,gravitation in the properties of a subtle1 aetherial medium diffused over the universe4 ,mac,laurin on this point says3 ,it appears from his letters to ,boyle1 that this was his opinion early1 and if he did not publish his opinion sooner1 it proceeded from hence only1 that he found he was not able from experiment and observation to give a satisfactory account of this medium1 and the manner of its operations in producing the chief phenomena of ,nature4 ,therefore1 if we accept ,newton's suggestion1 and endeavour to trace the physical cause of ,gravitation in the qualities1 properties1 and motions of this subtle aetherial medium to which he refers1 we shall be simply working on the lines laid down by ,sir ,isaac ,newton himself4 ,i wish therefore to premise1 that the future pages of this work will deal with the hypothesis of this aetherial medium1 by which will be accounted for1 and that on a satisfactory and physical basis1 the universal ,law of ,gravitation4 ,,art4 #c4 ,rules of ,philosophy4--,in order that we may rightly understand the making of any hypothesis1 ,i purpose giving some rules laid down by such philosophers as ,newton and ,herschel1 so that we may be guided by right principles in the development of this new hypothesis as to the cause of ,gravitation4 ,the rules that govern the making of any hypotheses1 so far as ,i can discern1 may be summed up under the three following heads-- 7#a7 ,simplicity of conception4 7#b7 ,agreement with experience1 observation1 and experiment4 7#c7 ,satisfactorily accounting for1 and explaining all phenomena sought to be explained4 ,,art4 #d4 #ast ,rule4 ,simplicity of ,conception4--,from this rule we learn that the hypothesis must be simple in conception1 and simple in its fundamental principles1 and further1 that the same characteristic of simplicity must mark each step of its development4 ,this rule of simplicity is distinctly laid down by ,sir ,isaac ,newton in his ,principia1 ,book #c1 under the heading ,regulae ,philosophandi4 ,in that work he writes3 ,natura simplex est1 et rerum causis superfluis non luxuriat4--,nature is simple1 and does not abound in superfluous causes of things4 ,he further states that3 ,not more of the natural causes of things ought to be admitted1 than those which are true and suffice to explain phenomena4 ,in the nature of ,philosophy nothing is done in vain1 and by means of many things1 it is done in vain when it can be done by fewer4 ,for ,nature is simple1 and does not abound in superfluous causes4 ,while again in ,rule #c1 he adds3 ,natura simplex est et sibi semper consona4--,nature is simple1 and always agrees with itself4 ,whewell also considers simplicity as a fundamental principle of all true hypotheses4 ,on this point he writes3 ,all the hypotheses should tend to simplicity and harmony4 ,the new suppositions resolve themselves into the old ones1 or at least only require some easy modification of the hypothesis first assumed4 ,in false theories the contrary is the case4 ,thus1 it is the very essence of philosophy to build upon a foundation of simplicity1 combined with the results of experience1 observation1 and experiment4 ,for example1 if we desired to form a hypothesis as to the cause of day and night1 two hypotheses might be assigned as to the cause4 ,first1 that the earth revolves on its axis once a day1 and so presents each part successively to the light and heat of the sun2 and second1 that the sun revolves round the earth once every #bd hours4 ,but such an assumption as the latter would involve the revolution of the sun through an immense orbit at an enormous velocity1 in order for the journey to be accomplished in the time4 ,so that it is much simpler to conceive of the earth revolving on its axis once every #bd hours1 than it is for the sun to perform this journey in the same period4 ,hence the rule of simplicity is in favour of day and night being caused by the revolving of the earth on its axis4 ,the same rule might be illustrated in many ways2 but1 however illustrated1 the principle1 according to ,newton1 always holds good that all effects are produced by the simplest causes1 and if there are apparently two causes to the same phenomenon1 then the simpler cause is the true and correct one4 ,so that in the making and development of any hypotheses of the physical cause of ,gravitation1 this rule of simplicity must always be recognized2 and1 in conjunction with the other rules1 we must seek to make our hypotheses1 so as to be able to account and explain all phenomena sought to be explained4 ,,art4 #e4 #bnd ,rule4 ,experience4--,newton fully recognized the necessity of experience in ,philosophy4 ,he saw the absolute necessity of appealing to experience1 observation1 and experiment1 both as a basis for philosophical reasoning1 and further1 for the data which were necessary to verify particular applications of the hypotheses suggested4 ,in his ,rules of ,philosophy1 referring to experience as a guide1 he says3 ,hoc est fundamentum philosophiae4--,this is the basis of philosophy4 ,herschel1 writing on the same subject in his ,natural ,philosophy1 writes thus with regard to experience3 ,we have pointed out that the great1 and indeed the only ultimate source of our knowledge of nature1 and its laws1 is experience4 ,by which ,i mean1 not the experience of one man only1 or of one generation1 but the accumulated experience of all mankind in all ages registered in books or recorded in tradition4 ,but experience may be acquired in two ways1 either first by noticing facts as they occur without any attempt to influence the frequency of their occurrence1 or to vary the circumstances under which they occur4 ,this is observation4 ,second1 by putting in action causes and agents over which we have no control1 and purposely varying their combination1 and then noticing what effects take place4 ,this is experiment4 ,to these two sources we must look as the fountains of all natural science4 ,herschel further writes3 ,experience once recognized as the fountain of all our knowledge of nature1 it follows1 that in our study of nature and its laws1 we ought at once to make up our minds to dismiss1 as idle prejudices1 or at least suspend as premature1 all preconceived notion of what might1 or ought to be the order of nature in any proposed case1 and content ourselves as a plain matter of fact with what is4 ,to experience we refer as the only ground for all physical enquiry4 ,but before experience itself can be used to advantage1 there is one preliminary step to make which depends wholly upon ourselves4 ,it is the absolute dismissal and clearing the mind of all prejudices from whatever source arising1 and the determination to stand or fall by the result of direct appeal to facts in the first instance1 and to strict logical deduction from them afterwards4 ,from extracts like these1 from such men as ,newton and ,herschel1 it can at once be seen that experience1 and experience alone1 should be the chief fountain from whence we draw all our data to form the bases of any hypothesis or theory4 ,if the hypothesis formed is contradicted by the result of any present or future observation or experiment1 then such hypothesis will either become untenable1 or must be so modified as to take in the new fact furnished by that observation and experiment4 ,it is a sine qu non of all true philosophy1 that philosophy should always agree with experience4 ,to the extent that our ,philosophy of ,nature fails to agree with our experience1 or with the results of observation and experiment1 then to that extent it ceases to be philosophy4 ,it may be a hypothesis or even a theory1 but certainly it is not true ,philosophy4 ,now1 in the elaboration and development of the theory as to the physical cause of ,gravitation1 ,i can premise that nothing will be postulated or supposed1 unless such supposition can be directly verified by our own observation and experiments4 ,any theory or hypotheses that are contradicted by our own experience in its widest form1 will find no place in the development of this work4 ,further1 any present accepted theory in relation to any natural phenomena1 which is controverted by experiment1 or observation1 will be rejected as untenable in the scheme of ,natural ,philosophy to be submitted to the reader4 ,whatever else the theory suggested may1 or may not be1 one thing it certainly shall be1 and that is1 that it shall be strictly based upon the ,philosophical ,rules as given by some of the greatest philosophers the world has ever seen4 ,i do not premise that the hypotheses advanced will be strictly correct in every detail4 ,that would be to assume that my experience of all natural phenomena was perfect4 ,to the extent that our experience is limited1 to that extent our hypotheses will be limited and faulty4 ,it would need an ,infinite mind to form a perfect theory of the philosophy of the universe1 because only an ,infinite mind possesses infinite experience4 ,a finite mind can1 however1 form true philosophical conceptions of natural phenomena1 if that mind will only follow the guidance of his own experience1 and be willing to accept the teaching that always arises from the results of that experience4 ,in order to do this1 however1 it must be observed1 as ,herschel points out1 that all old prejudices must be put away1 and the question or problem to be considered must be viewed with an open mind4 ,let me illustrate what ,i mean4 ,suppose1 for example1 that for two hundred years1 chalk had always been thought to be a mineral1 and then1 owing to the development of the microscope1 and to the increased magnifying powers of the lenses1 it was conclusively demonstrated that chalk is made up of the shells and remains of certain organisms that lived in the sea ages ago4 ,would it be philosophical to throw over the results of the microscopical research1 and1 simply because for two hundred years chalk had been thought to be a mineral1 to argue1 and still retain the idea that chalk was a mineral8 ,such a result would be entirely opposed to all the teaching and principles of philosophy4 ,in a similar way1 suppose in the development of the physical cause of ,gravitation1 a certain conception of the universal ,aether has to be put forth in order to account for ,gravitation1 and that that conception is opposed to some of the theories which have been held relative to the ,aether medium for the past two hundred years2 but that the conception so advanced is supported by the experiments and observation of some of the ablest scientists of the present century1 would it be philosophical to reject the newer conception which harmonized with all experiment and observation1 and still retain the old conception of the aetherial medium2 or1 to accept the newer conception of that medium1 and to reject some of the ideas included in the old conception8 ,from a purely philosophic standpoint1 there can only be one reply1 which would be in favour of the newer conception1 by which our philosophy would be brought into harmony with our experience4 ,this ,i premise will be done in this work1 and the result will be1 that for the first time1 our philosophy of the aetherial medium will agree with our experience2 and1 as the natural result1 several outstanding problems will be explained on a physical basis1 which at the present time cannot be satisfactorily explained except from the mathematical standpoint4 ,,art4 #f4 #crd ,rule4 ,satisfactory explanation of the ,phenomena sought to be ,explained4--,the third rule which governs the making of any hypothesis is1 that the hypothesis formed in accordance with the first and second rules shall satisfactorily account for all the phenomena sought to be explained4 ,newton writes on this point as follows3 ,no more causes of natural things are to be admitted1 than such as are true1 and sufficient to explain the phenomena4 ,while again in his fourth rule he states3 ,in experimental philosophy1 propositions collected by induction from phenomena are to be regarded as accurately true1 or very nearly true1 notwithstanding any contrary hypothesis1 till other phenomena occur by which they are made more accurate1 or are rendered subject to exceptions4 ,principia1 ,book #c4 ,herschel in his ,natural ,philosophy points out1 that one of the chief requirements of any assumed hypothesis is1 that it shall be sufficient to account for the phenomena to be explained1 and that it shall be suggested by analogy4 ,now the object of this work is to give a physical explanation of the cause and working of ,gravitation1 and to show how1 by the properties1 qualities and motions of the universal ,aether1 ,universal ,gravitation may be accounted for on a physical basis4 ,so that every phenomenon1 associated with1 or included in the ,law of ,gravitation1 should receive a satisfactory physical explanation by the proposed theory4 ,thus the physical cause of the centripetal and centrifugal forces should receive for the first time a physical explanation4 ,newton's ,laws of ,motion1 in so far as they conform to his own ,rules of ,philosophy1 should also receive a physical explanation4 ,kepler's ,laws1 which govern the motion of planets in their orbits1 should also receive a similar physical explanation4 ,indeed1 all phenomena which the ,law of ,gravitation explains from a mathematical standpoint1 ought to receive a physical explanation by the proposed new conception of the ,aether medium4 ,in addition to the outstanding physical cause of ,gravitation1 there are other physical problems that yet remain to be solved2 as1 for example1 there is the question as to what is the relative motion of ,aether to moving matter4 ,does the ,aether move with matter through space as suggested by ,michelson's and ,morley's experiment of ,america1 or does it flow freely through all matter1 as it is usually thought to do8 ,i premise ,i will give a satisfactory solution of this problem in due course4 ,again1 in relation to the ,phenomena of ,light1 there is still outstanding the problem of the physical explanation as to the transverse vibration of light4 ,this problem will also be dealt with from the standpoint of our new conception of the ,aether4 ,whether it will be as satisfactorily solved1 as the physical cause of ,gravitation1 remains to be seen4 ,further1 there is also the important question yet unsolved1 as to what ,matter is4 ,lord ,kelvin and ,dr4 ,larmor have recently given to the world certain conceptions as to the origin of ,matter1 and ,i shall endeavour to show that such conceptions receive confirmation and support by the proposed new conception of the ,aether4 ,another problem that will be attacked and solved1 will be the cause of the ,permanent ,magnetism of the earth1 with an answer to some of the questions propounded by ,professor ,schuster at the ,british ,association of #ahib relative to the magnetism of solar bodies4 ,there is certainly some physical explanation as to the cause of the earth being a magnet1 yet up to the present no satisfactory physical theory has been given4 ,i premise that the new conception of the ,aether1 to be submitted in the after pages1 will satisfactorily account1 and that on a philosophical basis1 for this phenomenon4 ,lastly1 one of the most interesting discoveries of the present day will receive an added confirmation and explanation in the conception of the ,aether medium to be advanced4 ,i refer to the system of ,wireless ,telegraphy that has been so successfully developed by ,signor ,marconi1 and ,i premise that new light will be thrown on that discovery by the suggested theory of the ,aether4 ,now1 if all these problems can be partially or wholly solved by the same theory that is advanced to explain the physical cause of ,gravitation1 it needs no further comment to show that that theory is considerably strengthened and more firmly established4 ,for it is a rule in ,philosophy1 that the more problems any suggested theory can solve1 the greater are the claims of that theory for acceptance by scientists generally4 ,for1 if two rival theories can solve three and ten physical problems respectively1 then1 in giving a decision as to which is the better theory1 the balance of opinion would be overwhelming in favour of that theory which could solve the ten problems4 ,so that1 if in addition to the satisfactory explanation of the physical cause of ,gravitation1 some1 if not all of the other problems can be solved1 as ,i premise they can1 by the same conception of the ,universal ,aether1 then it follows our third rule of ,philosophy will be more than fulfilled1 and the theory so advanced will be placed upon such a strong foundation1 that it can only be overthrown by proving that it contradicts the results of some undiscovered phenomena4 ,,art4 #g4 ,application of ,rules to ,gravitation4--,let us therefore apply ,newton's own ,rules of ,philosophy to the ,law of ,gravitation1 and endeavour to find out if the law1 as at present understood1 fully satisfies his own ,rules of ,philosophy4 ,no one can reasonably object to subjecting the ,law of ,gravitation to the test of those principles which he lays down as the fundamental ,rules of ,philosophy4 ,if it comes through the ordeal with complete success1 that is1 if it is essentially simple in its conception and development1 and if all its details are fully in accord with experience1 as revealed by observation and experiment1 then there will be no need to alter any of its hypotheses or axioms4 ,if1 on the other hand1 it violates any of the rules as laid down by ,newton1 then1 to that extent1 an alteration will be necessary1 in order that the ,law of ,gravitation may be brought into conformity with his own rules1 and our ,philosophy made to agree with our experience and observation4 ,,art4 #h4 ,analysis of ,law of ,gravitation4--,in order to accomplish this1 let us ask ourselves1 ,what are the component parts of this ,law of ,gravitation8 ,the ,law is not a simple law1 but a compound one4 ,it is compounded primarily of three parts4 #ast4 ,a ,primitive ,impulse4 #bnd4 ,a ,centripetal ,force4 #crd4 ,a ,centrifugal ,force4 ,to these must be added the three ,laws of ,motion2 although they are not directly part of the ,law of ,gravitation1 yet they are essential to its effectiveness and completion4 ,without any one of these1 the ,law of ,gravitation would fail to account for all the phenomena that it does account for4 ,if there were no ,primitive ,impulse1 then the planets and meteors1 sun and stars would for ever remain at rest1 and the ,laws of ,motion would remain inoperative4 ,if there were no ,centripetal ,force1 then the ,centrifugal ,force would hurl the planets and comets1 asteroids or minor planets away into the depths of space1 never to return to their central sun4 ,if there were no ,centrifugal ,force1 then the ,centripetal ,force would draw all bodies1 i4 e4 all planets1 etc41 to their central sun1 and1 instead of the planets continually revolving round the sun1 there would be but one immense solitary mass in the centre of the solar system4 ,if there were no ,laws of ,motion1 with their necessary corollary the ,parallelogram of ,forces1 the ,primitive ,impulse would cease to act1 and the ,law of ,gravitation would again fail in its attempt to account for those phenomena it does account for4 ,thus1 as it may easily be seen1 ,gravitation is a compound ,law1 depending upon at least four hypotheses1 and therefore is not essentially a simple ,force1 or ,law4 ,if1 therefore1 in giving a physical explanation of the cause of ,gravitation1 we can reduce all these four elements of the ,law into one single physical cause1 i4 e4 the ,universal ,aether1 and show how they may all be explained and accounted for by the properties1 qualities and motions of that physical medium1 then such a result will be strictly in harmony with the first ,rule of ,philosophy1 as laid down by ,newton and others4 ,we will1 therefore1 proceed to consider some of these parts of the ,law of ,gravitation in detail4 ,,art4 #i4 ,primitive ,impulse4--,this may be explained as follows4 ,at the creating and launching of each world1 ,newton supposed that there was given to each world an impulse or tendency to fly off from the controlling centre into space4 ,on this matter ,mac,laurin writes as follows3 ,if we had engines of sufficient force1 bodies might be projected from them1 so as not only to be carried a vast distance away without falling to the earth1 but so as to move round the whole earth without touching it2 and1 after returning to the first place1 commence a new revolution with the same force they first received from the engine2 and after the second revolution1 a third1 and thus revolve as a moon or satellite round the earth for ever4 ,if this can be effected near the earth's surface1 it may be done higher in the air1 or even as high as the moon4 ,by increasing the force or power1 a body proportionately larger may be thus projected1 and by a power sufficiently great1 a heavy body1 not inferior to the moon1 might be put in motion1 which might revolve for ever round the earth4 ,thus ,sir ,isaac ,newton saw that the curvilineal motion of the moon in her orbit1 and of a projectile at the surface of the earth1 were phenomena of the same kind1 and might be explained from the same principle extended from the earth so as to reach the moon1 and that the moon was only a greater projectile that received its motion in the beginning of things from the ,almighty ,author of the ,universe4 ,now what ,i desire to know is1 ,what is the nature1 the mode of operation1 and1 above all1 the physical cause of this ,primitive ,impulse8 ,is it in its nature and mode of operation a simple ,force1 or ,cause8 ,does it fulfil the condition of ,newton's ,first ,rule of ,philosophy8 ,permit me to suggest several lines of thought which may be made the basis of its analysis4 ,astronomers tell us that there are in existence millions of stars1 and suns1 flooding immensity and space with their light and heat4 ,now the question ,i wish to ask regarding ,primitive ,impulse in relation to all these stars is this3 ,was the ,primitive ,impulse imparted to each sun1 and star1 and planet1 separately and distinctly8 ,if so1 then there must have been just as many ,primitive ,impulses as there are stars and suns and planets1 and there would be according to a certain astronomer's estimate at least #hjj1jjj1jjj ,primitive ,impulses1 which assumption is altogether opposed to1 and violates the ,first ,rule of ,philosophy4 ,if1 on the other hand1 it is affirmed that they all received their motion at one and the same time1 then ,i ask3 ,what was the physical cause and method adopted to communicate the impulse to each one at the same time8 ,if the reply is given1 that it was by ,universal ,gravitation1 ,i have two objections to make to such a reply3 first1 that ,gravitation is altogether inoperative without the ,primitive ,impulse1 otherwise why was it conceived8 and secondly1 what is the physical cause of ,gravitation8 ,again1 scientists inform us that there is every reason for believing1 that stars and suns are still being formed in the universe1 and that there are certain distinctive phenomena which go to prove that statement4 ,now1 if that be true1 and ,i believe it to be true1 ,i wish to ask if the ,primitive ,impulse as suggested by ,newton1 is applicable to the stars and suns already in process of formation in the various nebulae8 and1 if so1 at what point in the star's history or development is that ,impulse applied8 ,personally1 ,i cannot conceive of the ,great ,creator of all things being so lacking in inventive genius1 if ,i may reverently use that term1 as to necessitate a separate ,impulse being given to every separate star1 or sun1 as each one is created or formed during the progress and development of the universe of worlds4 ,i would much rather believe that which ,i hold to be the correct explanation1 viz4 that ,he has given to a certain fundamental and primordial medium1 certain qualities and properties1 by1 and through which are originated and perpetuated1 all the motions of the heavenly bodies already existent in the universe1 or that are ever likely to be existent throughout all time4 ,the question of separate ,primitive ,impulses for separate bodies becomes more and more incongruous and inadmissible1 as we consider it in its application to such small bodies as meteors and planetoids4 ,is it not contrary to our fundamental principles of ,philosophy1 that a separate ,impulse should be necessary for all small bodies that exist in their myriads throughout the solar system1 not to speak of the universe of which that system forms a part8 ,such a conception as ,primitive ,impulse1 to each separate world1 is altogether opposed to one's idea of that simplicity and beauty which govern the universe at large1 and violates the first rule of our philosophical reasoning1 and for this reason must be rejected from the ,system of ,philosophy to be propounded in this work4 ,,art4 #aj4 ,centripetal ,force4--,let us now look at the ,centripetal ,force1 and ask ourselves what is meant by such a force1 and what is its mode of action and working4 ,centripetal ,force1 strictly1 may be defined as that force which is always exerted towards the centre of the attracting body4 ,taking the earth as an example1 ,newton points out1 that though the gravity of bodies arises from their gravitation towards several parts of the earth2 yet1 because this power acts always towards the centre of gravity of the earth1 it is therefore called the ,centripetal ,force4 ,this force1 then1 is that part of the ,law of ,gravitation which corresponds to the ,attraction of ,gravitation1 and is always exerted in that straight line from the body attracted1 to the centre of the attracting body1 which joins the centres of gravity of the two bodies concerned4 ,the combination and effect of the various forces included in the ,law of ,gravitation are illustrated by the familiar illustration of the ball whirled round the hand by a piece of string1 or the bucket filled with water1 whirled round in the same way4 ,let us take the former4 ,a piece of string with a ball attached to one of the ends is held firmly by the hand4 ,an impulse or motion is imparted to the ball by the hand1 that motion being continued by the movement from the hand4 ,the first impulse given to the ball by the hand represents the ,primitive ,impulse4 ,the tension on the string which holds the ball to its controlling centre represents the ,centripetal ,force1 while the opposite force on the string1 which takes up the ,primitive ,impulse and continues it1 is represented by the ,centrifugal ,force4 ,the conception of the ,centripetal ,force is therefore simple1 and entirely in accordance with our experience as gathered from observation and experiments4 ,both in the spheres of electricity1 and magnetism1 we find a similar force acting1 which tends towards the centre of the attracting body1 and therefore the ,centripetal ,force satisfies the first two ,rules of our ,philosophy4 ,further1 it adequately accounts for certain distinctive phenomena which occur through the ,law of ,gravitation1 as1 for example1 the falling of bodies to the earth1 and therefore is entirely in harmony with all the requirements of those principles enunciated by ,newton for the successful explanation of any phenomena4 ,i need hardly point out1 therefore1 this being so1 any physical cause suggested as the explanation of ,gravitation must deal with the ,centripetal ,force1 and be able to give a physical explanation of the mode and manner in which the ,centripetal ,force operates4 ,the ,attraction of ,gravitation or the ,centripetal ,force1 however1 being1 as its name implies1 simply a drawing or pulling power to a centre1 that is1 a force that is ever and ever only drawing matter to matter1 or body to body1 it could not of1 and by itself1 accomplish those necessary stellar and planetary motions by which are produced that universal order1 unity and harmony which characterize the universe4 ,it is essentially in its operations and influences1 a one-sided force1 ever tending and influencing towards self1 and therefore by itself would only be a detriment and an evil2 and1 unless it were accompanied by some companion or complementary and counter force1 with which it acts in union and concert1 and which exactly counteracts its pulling power and influence1 it would soon draw star to star1 and world to world1 crashing and heaping them together in ruinous and dire confusion4 ,so that1 instead of the infinitude of worlds which now exist1 which flash and sparkle in the heavens1 and in their intricate1 elaborate1 and mazy motions move through the vast infinity like stately armies on the march1 there would only be one agglomeration of matter1 a silent and solitary mass existing in the vast abyss of space4 ,therefore1 as soon as ,sir ,isaac ,newton had discovered and demonstrated the existence of the power of ,attraction1 as represented by the ,centripetal ,force1 and its association with the universe at large1 there was seen at once the necessity of another ,force1 of an opposite character1 which would form the companion and complementary force to ,attraction2 a repulsive1 repellent force1 one tending or repelling from a centre1 so as to counterbalance the influence of the ,centripetal ,force which ever tends towards the centre4 ,to fill up the blank1 there was conceived to exist what is called a ,centrifugal ,force1 that is1 literally1 a ,force acting1 and ever acting from a centre1 and with that ,force we will now deal4 ,,art4 #aa4 ,centrifugal ,force4--,in applying our ,rules of ,philosophy to this ,force1 if by ,centrifugal ,force is simply meant that ,force which is the exact opposite of the ,centripetal ,force1 that is1 a ,force which acts from a centre1 instead of to a centre1 then such a ,force is strictly in harmony with1 and satisfies all the conditions of the two first ,rules of ,philosophy4 ,not only is such a conception simple1 but it is also in accordance with experience and observation4 ,professor ,hicks in his address to the ,british ,association in #ahie said3 ,what is called ,centrifugal ,force is an apparent bodily ,force directed outwards from the centre of curvature of the body's path1 and having an intensity equal to the distance from the centre multiplied by the square of the absolute angular velocity4 ,in the sphere of magnetism and electricity1 the operation of two equal and opposite forces prevails4 ,the attractive force of electricity1 which is exerted to the centre1 is always accompanied by the generation and development of a repulsive force1 it being one of the fundamental rules of electricity that equal and opposite quantities of electricity are always generated at one and the same time4 ,so that if the ,centrifugal ,force is viewed as being simply the exact opposite of the ,centripetal ,force1 it fully satisfies the test when the first two rules laid down by ,newton are applied to it4 ,if1 on the other hand1 ,centrifugal ,force implies and embodies the idea of continuance of the ,primitive ,impulse1 as ,i believe it is supposed to do1 then to that extent it is not conformable to the principles of our ,philosophy1 as embodied in the rules given by ,newton4 ,simply because1 while it supposes a source or origin of its activity at the first1 it goes on to suppose a continuance of that activity1 without recognizing a continuing source or cause4 ,it only recognizes and supposes the one original impulse given at the beginning1 to account for the cause of the continually existing1 and exerted power of the ,centrifugal ,force4 ,i do not for a moment suggest1 that the ,divine ,creator of all things1 and the ,ordainer and ,upholder of all powers1 forces and laws could not1 had ,he chosen to give such a force1 have given it and for ever operating4 ,with that aspect of the question ,i have nothing to do1 and of it nothing to say4 ,i am dealing1 and only wish to deal1 with scientific facts1 and scientific teaching from the purely philosophical standpoint4 ,such an idea of a continuing effect1 without a continuing cause1 is altogether opposed to experience and observation1 and is a violation of the second ,rule of ,philosophy4 ,look where we will1 or at what we will1 and not only effects and causes are seen on every side1 and in every thing1 linked together inseparably1 but wherever1 and in whatever phenomena there is found a continuance of effect or effects1 there is always and without exception found also a continuing source or cause4 ,wherever ,nature1 therefore1 gives us a continuous effect of any kind or sort1 she always gives us a continuing cause1 that can be both proved and demonstrated to exist4 ,nowhere in ,nature1 amid all her powers1 principles and laws1 is there to be found an effect without a cause1 and in all continuing effects1 a continuing and perpetuating cause also1 and that effect exists just as long as the cause exists4 ,if the effect is perpetual1 then the source and cause is perpetual also1 both in its existence and energy4 ,hence if the ,centrifugal ,force embodies the idea of continuance of the ,primitive ,impulse1 without showing how that ,primitive ,impulse is continued1 then such an idea is an anomaly in the universe1 is altogether opposed to the teaching of ,nature and science1 and violates the most fundamental principles of our ,philosophy4 ,the philosophic explanation1 therefore1 of the ,centrifugal ,force1 is that ,force which flows from a centre1 and which is the exact opposite and counterpart of the ,centripetal ,force4 ,further1 as the ,centripetal ,force is an attractive ,force ever attracting to a centre1 so the ,centrifugal ,force1 being its exact opposite1 is a repulsive ,force1 which fulfils all the laws and conditions which govern the ,centripetal ,force1 as it is in every phase and aspect the exact opposite1 being indeed its complement and counterpart4 ,any physical explanation of the ,law of ,gravitation1 therefore1 must also give a satisfactory physical explanation of this ,force1 and show its mode of operation and working4 ,this ,i premise ,i will do without the faintest shadow of doubt or failure2 that is1 if we are to accept the evidence of some of the most delicate experiments of modern times relative to aetherial physics4 ,,art4 #ab4 ,laws of ,motion4--,one of the most important factors in the successful application of the ,attraction of ,gravitation to the universe at large1 are the ,laws of ,motion enunciated by ,sir ,isaac ,newton4 ,these are three in number1 and are as follows-- #ast4 ,every body continues in its state of rest1 or of uniform motion in a straight line1 except in so far as it may be compelled by impressed ,forces to change that state4 #bnd4 ,change of motion is proportionate to the impressed ,force1 and takes place in the direction of the straight line in which the ,force acts4 #crd4 ,to every action there is always an equal and contrary reaction4 ,corollary4--,to these must be added the first ,corollary of the three laws which is commonly known as the ,parallelogram of ,forces1 which is as follows3 ,that when a body is acted upon by two ,forces at the same time1 it will describe a diagonal1 by the motion resulting from their composition1 in the same time that it would describe the sides of the parallelogram4 ,now let us apply ,newton's ,rules of ,philosophy to these laws1 and see if they fulfil the conditions laid down therein4 ,in the first place1 there being three laws necessary to cover all the motions involved1 there is not that simplicity of conception which is a primary factor in the making of any hypothesis4 ,then it will be observed that even after postulating the three laws1 ,newton was unable to account for the elliptic orbits of the planets1 until he had added a ,corollary known as the ,parallelogram of ,forces4 ,,art4 #ac4 ,force4--,the question has arisen also1 as to the meaning of the term ,force which ,newton uses4 ,what is a ,force1 its cause and mode of operation8 ,the idea of ,force is conveyed to us by our muscular sense1 which gives us the idea of pressure1 as for example when we push or pull a body along the ground4 ,we must not1 however1 limit our idea of ,force to that narrow circle4 ,it has now been fully established that ,sound and ,heat1 ,light1 ,magnetism1 and ,electricity are ,forces1 and therefore capable of doing work1 as will be shown later on4 ,newton's use of the term ,force is therefore somewhat vague2 he does not definitely say what the ,force is which causes the change of position1 of the body1 or of the rate of motion of that body4 ,that it is something to do with ,gravitation is obvious1 but its exact nature or character is not revealed4 ,since ,newton's time we have made an advance in the definition of ,force1 and have come to consider ,force as a kind of energy2 the application of ,force being the application of energy4 ,such terms as ,mechanical ,force1 ,chemical ,force1 ,vital ,force1 are therefore out of date1 and in their place the more definite ideas of energy are substituted4 ,instead1 therefore1 of getting such terms as ,transformation of ,forces1 we now get ,transformations of ,energy4 ,in the chapter on ,energy1 ,i hope to show that even that is not a satisfactory solution of the definition of a ,force4 ,if we are to make our ,philosophy agree with our experience1 then ,force is due to motion1 and motion alone4 ,so that ,centrifugal ,force will imply a motion from the centre2 ,centripetal ,force a motion whose effect is ever towards the centre of gravity of any body4 ,,art4 #ad4 ,first ,law of ,motion4--,this may naturally be divided into two parts for the purpose of applying the ,rules of ,philosophy4 7,i7 ,every body continues in a state of rest1 except in so far as it is compelled by impressed ,forces to change that state4 ,to what extent is this statement conformable to our experience and observation8 ,if ,i place a body1 as for example a weight1 on a table1 will it remain in that state until it is moved by some other ,force8 ,i think that it will so remain1 and to that extent the law conforms to experiment4 ,wider observation1 and all experience1 also prove the conformity of this part of the ,first ,law of ,motion to the second ,rule of ,philosophy1 as all experience testifies to the fact that a body remains at rest1 until some other power or force moves it from the position of rest4 ,the application of this position of rest to any of the planets is1 however1 very difficult to conceive4 ,mac,laurin1 in relation to this fact1 states3 ,this perseverance of a body in a state of rest can only take place in absolute space1 and can then only be intelligible by admitting it4 ,in dealing with the physical cause of ,gravitation1 ,i hope to be able to show that it can not only be admitted as a mathematical proposition1 but that it can be made intelligible from the physical standpoint4 ,the second part of the ,first ,law of ,motion may be stated as follows3 ,every body continues in a state of uniform motion in a straight line1 except in so far as it is compelled by impressed forces to change that state4 ,now what is the testimony of observation and experiment in regard to this part of the ,first ,law of ,motion8 ,let us test the question by the results of our experience4 ,if a ball is sent rolling along the ground1 its motion is gradually reduced until it comes to rest4 ,if the ground is very rough indeed1 as for example a ploughed field1 then its speed will be very soon reduced1 and the ball quickly comes to a standstill4 ,if1 however1 the ground is smooth and level1 like a well-kept cricket-field1 then the motion of the ball will be reduced more slowly1 and it will travel further before being brought to rest2 while1 if the ball is thrown along a very smooth surface of ice1 it will travel a much longer distance before it is finally brought to rest4 ,thus we learn1 that the more we can get rid of all resistances to the motion of any body1 the greater distance will the body travel1 and the less diminution there is in the uniform motion of the body4 ,so that1 if it were possible to obtain a medium which offered no resistance at all to a moving body1 then it would be a legitimate inference to infer that a body in such a medium1 when once set in motion1 would move with uniform motion for ever4 ,under such conditions1 therefore1 this part of ,newton's ,first ,law of ,motion is physically conceivable4 ,the crux of the whole matter1 therefore1 lies in the problem as to whether there is1 or there is not1 in existence1 such a thing as a frictionless medium4 ,we will therefore consider the problem of the existence of a frictionless medium from the philosophical standpoint4 ,professor ,lodge1 in ,modern ,views of ,electricity1 p4 #cca1 writes3 ,now1 if there is one thing with which the human race has been more conversant than another1 and concerning which more experience has been unconsciously accumulated than about almost anything else that can be mentioned1 it is the action of one body upon another2 the exertion of ,force by one body on another1 the transfer of motion and energy from one body to another1 any kind of effect1 no matter what1 which can be produced in one body by means of another1 whether the bodies be animate or inanimate4 ,now ,i wish to appeal to this mass of experience1 and to ask1 ,is not the direct action of one body on another across empty space1 and with no means of communication whatever1 is not this absolutely unthinkable8 ,we must not answer the question offhand1 but must give it due consideration1 and we shall find1 ,i think1 that wherever one body acts on another body by obvious contact1 we are satisfied and have a feeling that the phenomena is simple and intelligible1 and that1 whenever one body apparently acts on another body at a distance1 we are irresistibly impelled to look for the connecting medium4 ,again1 on p4 #ccc of the same work1 he adds3 ,remember then1 that whenever we see a thing being moved1 we must look for the rope4 ,it may be visible1 or it may be invisible1 but unless there is either a push or a pull1 there can be no action4 ,now1 in relation to celestial phenomena1 we are confronted with the fact of bodies acting on one another1 and yet apparently they do not act upon one another by or through a medium1 and to that extent according to the above extracts1 such phenomena are opposed to universal experience4 ,again1 we find planets and satellites moving through space with more or less uniform speed1 and yet apparently there is no physical medium that acts upon them with either a push or a pull1 as the present conception of the ,aether is that of a frictionless medium1 so that experience in its widest form seems altogether opposed to the existence of a frictionless medium4 ,again1 ,tait in his ,natural ,philosophy says3 ,the greater masses1 planets and comets moving in a less resisting medium1 show less indications of resistance4 ,indeed it cannot be said that observations upon any one of these bodies1 with the exception of ,encke's ,comet1 has demonstrated resistance4 ,the greater masses1 planets and comets moving in a less resisting medium1 show less indications4 ,no motion in ,nature can take place without meeting resistance due to some if not all of these influences4 ,the analogies of ,nature and the ascertained facts of physical science forbid us to doubt that every one of them1 every star1 and every body of every kind has its relative motion impeded by the air1 gas1 vapour1 medium1 or whatever we choose to call the substance occupying the space around it1 just as the motion of a rifle-bullet is impeded by the resistance of the air4 ,what is the testimony of our own personal observation and experiments to such an impossible entity as a frictionless medium8 ,can any of the readers tell me of any medium1 be it solid1 liquid1 or gaseous1 that they have ever heard of1 or read of1 or experimented with1 that possesses the quality of being frictionless8 ,the answer is unanimously in the negative4 ,but a frictionless medium was absolutely imperative to the success of the ,newtonian aspect of the ,law of ,gravitation4 ,if the ,aether had not been frictionless1 then the ,first ,law of ,motion would have been violated1 and a body1 as for example a planet set in motion1 would not then have moved with uniform motion1 but would have been brought to a standstill by the resistance of the ,aether4 ,accepting therefore experience as a guide1 as we are bound to do if we wish to be strictly philosophical1 as ,newton pointed out1 then we are compelled to come to the conclusion that there is no such thing in the entire universe as a frictionless medium4 ,such a hypothesis is contrary to all laws and rules of ,philosophy1 and to continue to advocate its claims is to remain where we are in relation to the cause of ,gravitation1 and in complete ignorance of the beauty and harmony of the wonderful physical mechanism that underlies the whole of the universe4 ,of course1 if experience and observation are no guide to ,philosophy1 then we will let imagination run riot1 and postulate the most extravagant explanations for the varied phenomena of the heavens4 ,with experience of no account1 we will affirm that the moon is made of green cheese1 that the earth is flat1 that the sun revolves round the moon1 and a host of other absurd hypotheses that require no correction by experience and observation4 ,but there1 a truce to such absurd imaginations4 ,experience is a guide to ,philosophy1 its claims are recognized by the greatest ,philosopher the world has ever known1 and therefore as either experience or a frictionless medium has to go1 we will part with the frictionless medium1 and endeavour to make a hypothesis of the ,aether that is in greater harmony with our ,rules of ,philosophy4 ,,art4 #ae4 ,second ,law of ,motion4--,the application of ,newton's ,rules of ,philosophy to the ,second ,law of ,motion is attended with greater success than was the case with his ,first ,law4 ,change of motion1 he states1 is proportionate to the impressed ,force1 and takes place in the direction of the straight line in which the ,force acts4 ,newton adds this explanation to his ,second ,law3 ,if a ,force generates any motion1 a double ,force will generate double motion1 and a triple ,force triple motion1 whether they are applied simultaneously or gradually and successively4 ,and this motion1 if the body were already moving1 is either added to the previous motion1 if it is in the same direction1 or subtracted from it if directly opposed to it1 or is compounded with the previous motion if the two are inclined at an angle4 ,according to that1 a force which presses or pushes with a four-pound pressure per square inch1 if doubled1 would press with a force of eight pounds per square inch1 which fact agrees with experience4 ,if the force is applied gradually1 then the change of motion would be gradual2 if applied suddenly1 then the resultant motion would be sudden and violent4 ,the impressed force1 therefore1 always produces a definite and corresponding effect on any moving body1 however that force may be originated1 and however it may be applied4 ,the effect so produced is always a change of motion1 or1 in present scientific terms1 a change of momentum in the moving body4 ,if the impressed force is halved1 by an alteration in the mass of the body which exerts the impressed force1 then the resultant momentum produced is halved also4 ,if the impressed force is doubled1 through any alteration in the velocity of the body which exerts the force1 then the momentum produced in the moving body will be doubled also4 ,so that the impressed force is equal to the change of momentum in the moving body upon which it is impressed4 ,when similar forces are impressed upon exactly similar bodies1 the velocities produced are exactly the same2 but1 if similar forces act on dissimilar bodies1 then the velocities produced in the different bodies are not the same2 yet the total motion produced on all bodies1 according to the ,second ,law of ,motion1 must always be proportionate to the impressed force4 ,so that when we compare the effect of similar forces on different bodies1 we find that there are two factors involved1 viz41 the mass and velocity of the moving body4 ,the product of these two quantities is termed the momentum of the body4 ,when we apply the ,second ,law of ,motion to the theory of aetherial dynamics1 as suggested in this work1 we shall seek to show that ,newton's ,second ,law of ,motion holds good in its application to the new theory4 ,with the present conception of a frictionless ,aether1 however1 it is philosophically impossible for the ,aether to exert force on any body that may exist in it4 ,because1 to the extent that it is frictionless1 to that extent it ceases to possess mass4 ,if it does possess mass1 then it cannot be frictionless4 ,such an assumption violates all the ,rules of ,philosophy4 ,yet the ,aether is supposed1 in some unknown manner1 to possess inertia1 which property is also dependent on mass4 ,if the ,aether really possesses inertia1 then it must possess mass1 and possessing mass it ceases to be a frictionless medium4 ,so that if it possesses mass1 then it can exert force the same as any other body1 and ,newton's ,second ,law of ,motion is applicable to it4 ,,art4 #af4 ,third ,law of ,motion4--,newton's ,third ,law of ,motion reads as follows-- ,action and re-action are equal and opposite1 or1 to every action there is always an equal and contrary re-action4 ,this law is also conformable to experience2 for1 by experiment1 it has been proved to hold good for electric and magnetic action4 ,as ,mac,laurin points out1 the ,third ,law of ,motion may be extended to all sorts of powers that take place in ,nature1 and belongs to attraction and repulsion of all kinds1 and must not be considered as being arbitrarily introduced by ,newton4 ,the mutual action between any two bodies has1 therefore1 a double action4 ,thus a piece of stretched string must be conceived as pulling at both ends2 the pull at the one end being exactly equal and opposite to the pull on the other end4 ,a magnet will attract a piece of iron with a certain force1 but it is equally true that the iron attracts the magnet with an exactly equal and opposite force4 ,we might even extend the application of this ,third ,law to a falling stone in its relation to the earth4 ,thus1 if a stone is dropped from a high altitude to the surface of the earth1 although the motion seems to be all in one direction1 yet if the ,third ,law holds good1 then the earth is attracted by the stone in exactly an equal1 but opposite direction1 to that in which the earth attracts the stone4 ,as1 however1 the mass of the earth is very great compared with that of the stone1 it follows that the velocity of the stone compared with the velocity of the earth1 must be very much greater1 in order that the forces shall be equal4 ,the application of this ,third ,rule of ,motion to planetary and celestial phenomena is therefore philosophical1 in that its conception agrees with experience and observation4 ,thus1 while it is true that the sun attracts each of the planets in his system1 it is equally true that the planets1 in their turn1 attract the sun with an exactly equal and opposite force4 ,but the velocity of motion induced by the earth's attractive power upon the sun1 would be less than the velocity of motion induced by the sun's attractive power upon the earth1 although the two forces would be equal and opposite1 simply because force1 being a compound quantity1 is dependent upon the mass of a body as well as upon its velocity4 ,not only1 however1 is it true that the sun and all the planets jointly attract each other1 but it is equally true that the planets attract each other also1 with an exactly equal and opposite effect4 ,indeed1 as ,gravitation is universal1 it has to be conceived that there are no two bodies existing1 but what the ,third ,law of ,motion equally applies to those two bodies2 so that equality of action and re-action is as universal as the ,law of ,gravitation itself4 ,in coming to a conclusion with reference to ,philosophy and the ,laws of ,motion1 ,i wish to say that ,i am strongly of the opinion that the day has come1 or will soon come1 when they will pass away and give place to a more direct and simple method of working of the great ,law of ,gravitation4 ,i look upon the ,laws of ,motion as part of the scaffolding which has been used to build up the ,law of ,gravitation4 ,that ,law has now been erected1 and stands firm and secure in its position in the universe4 ,whatever changes may take place in its scaffolding1 the ,law itself will stand out with greater beauty and clearness1 if we could but see the perfected structure1 apart from the props and helps which have assisted in its successful erection and completion4 ,as ,dr4 ,larmor said1 in his address to the ,british ,association1 #aijj3 ,there has even appeared a disposition to consider that the ,newtonian principles1 which have formed the basis of physical phenomena for nearly two centuries1 must be replaced in these deeper subjects by a method of more direct description of the cause of the phenomena4 ,the question has arisen1 as to how far the new methods of aetherial physics are to be considered as an independent departure2 or how far they form the natural development of existing dynamical science4 ,i hope1 therefore1 to be able in this work to do something towards clearing the completed ,law from some of the outside props1 which have long hidden the simplicity1 beauty and harmony of the physical working of ,gravitation from the eyes of those who feign would see its wonderful mechanism4 ,in the elaboration and development1 therefore1 of the physical cause of ,gravitation1 it will be necessary to conceive a medium1 whose properties and motions shall be able to account for all the movements of the planets1 comets1 suns and stars that the ,laws of ,motion now account for4 ,instead1 however1 of there being several ,laws purely and simply mathematical in their application1 there will be one physical medium1 which will by its properties and motions account for--and that in a satisfactory manner--all the motions of the heavenly bodies4 ,that such a medium is required in the scientific world is proved by the statement made by ,professor ,glazebrook1 in his work on ,j4 ,c4 ,maxwell1 page #bba1 where he says3 ,we are still waiting for some one to give us a theory of the ,aether1 which shall include the facts of electricity and magnetism1 luminous radiation1 and it may be ,gravitation4 ,,art4 #ag4 ,summary of the ,chapter4--,in summing up the contents of this chapter1 we find therefrom1 that there is a ,universal ,law in existence that is known as the ,law of ,gravitation4 ,the physical cause of this ,law1 however1 is unknown2 ,newton suggesting that it was due to the properties of an aetherial medium that pervaded the universe4 ,to form a right conception of this medium1 and to develop the hypotheses of the same on strictly philosophical lines1 it is essential for us to know the rules which govern the making of any hypothesis4 ,those rules1 according to ,newton1 and other philosophers1 are chiefly three in number1 and form the very essence of any philosophical reasoning4 ,any departure from those rules will entail partial or entire failure in the success of the undertaking4 ,the application of ,newton's rules to parts of the great ,law of ,gravitation show that some of those parts are not fully in harmony with the rules which ,newton laid down in his ,principia4 ,any physical theory that may be hereafter suggested as the physical basis for the ,law of ,gravitation1 must itself not only account for the various forces already referred to1 but must itself fulfil the ,rules of ,philosophy laid down by ,newton4 ,that is to say1 the conception of the physical medium must be simple in character1 its properties and motions must agree with all our experience1 as given by observation1 and experiments2 and the properties and motions postulated for it must satisfactorily account for1 and explain all the phenomena that are presented to us by the ,universal ,law of ,gravitation4 ,if all this be done1 then from the standpoint of strict philosophical reasoning1 the physical medium so suggested1 and the theory so made1 will be incapable of being overthrown or disproved4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,philosophy ,,of ,,gravitation ,,art4 #ah4 ,gravitation ,attraction4--,the ,law of ,gravitation being a compound law1 and not a simple law 7,art4 #h71 it is necessary that the principles which govern universal attraction should now be considered4 ,the law which governs ,gravitation ,attraction may be defined as follows3 ,every particle of matter in the universe attracts every other particle with a force whose direction is that of a line joining the centre of their masses1 whose magnitude is directly as the product of their masses1 and inversely as the square of the distance between them4 ,this may be divided into four parts4 7#a7 ,the ,universality of ,gravitation4 7#b7 ,the ,direction of the ,forces involved4 7#c7 ,the ,proportion of these ,forces4 7#d7 ,the ,law of ,inverse ,squares4 ,the theory of the ,aether1 therefore1 which will be perfected in this work1 must not only satisfactorily account for the ,attraction of ,gravitation on a strictly philosophical basis1 but the laws1 governing the pressures or tensions of that physical medium1 must harmonize with each of the parts of the complex ,law of ,gravitation into which it has been resolved4 ,,art4 #ai4 ,universality of the ,attractive ,force4--,the principle upon which ,universal ,attraction rests is found in the words3 ,every particle of matter in the universe attracts every other particle4 ,it must1 however1 be admitted that this statement has never actually been proved4 ,the smallest body that ,newton used to prove his ,law of ,attraction was our satellite the moon4 ,cavendish1 however1 in #agih1 by a series of experiments1 conclusively demonstrated that the force of ,gravitation existed in small bodies4 ,he took two small leaden balls of a certain weight1 and fixed them at the ends of a rod about six feet long1 the rod being suspended by a piece of wire in the air4 ,large leaden balls were then brought near the small ones1 and great care was taken to see if there were any twist in the wire by which they were suspended4 ,it was found that the wire had become twisted on the approach of the large leaden balls1 and thus he was able to prove that every particle of the attracted and attracting body are mutually concerned in the ,attraction of ,gravitation4 ,there is abundant evidence of the application of this force in relation to our earth1 as we shall see later on4 ,the universality of the ,attraction of ,gravitation is a fact that has been proved in a thousand ways1 and a thousand times4 ,all stars and suns1 and all planets1 satellites and comets and nebulae are subject to this universal law4 ,astronomy teaches us that its power extends across the vast abysses of space1 and that stars situated at distances that cannot possibly be measured1 are subject to this world-wide law4 ,some of the greatest discoveries in astronomical science were due to the operations of this wonderful law1 the gravitating influences of certain planets indicating their existence1 although their discovery had not yet been made4 ,the discovery of ,neptune through the mathematical calculations of ,le ,verrier and ,mr4 ,adams in #ahdf was the crowning proof of the ,law of ,gravitation4 ,mr4 ,adams in ,england had noticed that the planet ,uranus was being pulled out of the course by some unknown power1 and so set to work to calculate the position of the body which thus influenced the motion of ,uranus in its orbit4 ,he located the position of the supposed influencing body strictly by mathematical calculations1 and then took his results to the ,astronomer ,royal4 ,delay1 however1 occurred in the search for the supposed new planet1 and nothing was done further in the matter for many months4 ,meanwhile ,le ,verrier in ,france1 unknown to ,mr4 ,adams1 had been making similar calculations with reference to the perturbations of ,uranus1 and had arrived at similar results4 ,these results were sent to the ,berlin astronomers1 and the heavens were searched for the supposed new planet4 ,after a time1 the planet was discovered in that part of the heavens indicated by ,le ,verrier1 and for a time his name stood out as the sole discoverer4 ,gradually1 however1 the claims of ,adams were admitted and recognized1 and to-day his claims to participate in the honour of the wonderful achievement are generally admitted4 ,thus the discovery of ,neptune gave to the ,law of ,gravitation a stability and proof that perhaps it had never received before4 ,further evidence of the existence of the universality of the attractive force1 is to be found in a certain system of stars known as binary stars1 which revolve around each other1 while they gravitate around a common centre4 ,recent researches in astronomy only seek more and more to confirm the universality and effectiveness of this grand law1 that seems to hold the entire universe in its sway4 ,any medium1 therefore1 which is postulated as the physical cause of ,gravitation1 must itself be as universal as ,gravitation1 in order for it to be able to fulfil this condition of universality4 ,we shall find1 as we proceed1 that the only possible medium which can fulfil this condition1 is the universal ,aether1 whose qualities and properties are already partly known and partly understood4 ,,art4 #bj4 ,direction of the ,forces4--,the attraction of ,gravitation is always directed along the straight line which joins the centres of masses of the attracting and attracted bodies4 ,thus1 if the earth and moon are taken as examples1 an imaginary straight line drawn from the centre of the earth's mass to the centre of the mass of the moon would be the direction in which the gravitative force would be exerted4 ,now a line which joins the central body to its satellite we shall see when we come to deal with ,kepler's ,laws is known as the ,radius ,vector4 ,thus the path of the attraction between the two bodies is along the ,radius ,vector4 ,it is a singular coincidence that the path of a ray of light from the sun also coincides with the ,radius ,vector1 as it is one of the laws of light that the path of a ray always follows a straight line4 ,it must not1 however1 be assumed1 that while the attractive power is being exerted along any one straight line joining the centres of two bodies1 therefore the attractive power is not operative in relation to any other part of the space1 around the body4 ,if our earth1 for example1 had four moons instead of one1 and they were each in different positions in relation to the earth1 then the law as to the direction of the forces would still hold good4 ,we have examples of this in the case of ,jupiter with his five moons1 and ,saturn with his eight moons4 ,so that the attractive force of ,gravitation is again like light1 it operates on all sides equally at one and the same time4 ,a lamp in the middle of a room sends its light waves on every side at one and the same time1 so that while each ray has for its path a straight line1 yet those rays are emitted equally on every side4 ,in like manner1 though the direction of the forces between two attracting bodies is that of a straight line1 yet the law of universal attraction is equally exerted on every side of the planet at one and the same time4 ,in the theory of the ,aether1 therefore1 to be developed in this work1 it will have to be demonstrated that the direction of the forces1 which are originated and transmitted by that physical medium1 must philosophically fulfil the conditions which govern the direction of the forces1 as observed in gravitational phenomena4 ,,art4 #ba4 ,proportion of the ,forces4--,newton proved that the attraction is proportional to the product of the masses of the bodies concerned4 ,hence it is that the sun1 which is the centre of the solar system1 is capable of attracting the most remote planets1 because the mass of the sun is greater than the mass of all the planets put together4 ,or take another illustration4 ,suppose that the sun and the earth are at equal distances from ,saturn4 ,now the sun's mass is about #cjj1jjj times that of our earth4 ,therefore if the earth draws ,saturn through a certain distance in one second1 the sun would draw ,saturn through a distance which is #cjj1jjj greater than the earth in the same period4 ,the governing principle1 therefore1 which decides the proportion of the attractive forces between two bodies is mass1 and not simply density or volume4 ,the mass of a body is a property which remains the same1 as long as the inertia of the body remains constant4 ,mass is really a measure of the inertia of a body1 or that property of a body by which it continues in its state of motion or of rest4 ,mass is therefore a compound quantity1 being equal to volume multiplied by density1 so that if the volume of any body is halved1 the density is doubled4 ,thus1 the proportion of the attractive force between any two bodies ever remains the same1 so long as the masses of the two bodies remain the same4 ,through all the changes of volume and density of any body1 its attractive force remains constant1 as long as the mass remains constant2 for the simple reason1 that as the volume of a body is increased1 the density is proportionately decreased2 or1 as the volume is decreased1 the density is increased4 ,for example1 the volume of the sun as compared with the volume of the earth1 is about #a1cjj1jjj times greater1 but the proportion of the attractive forces between the two bodies1 is about #cbd1jjj to #a4 ,this difference is accounted for by the fact1 that the density of the sun is about one quarter the mean density of the earth1 hence their masses are in the proportion of #cbd1jjj to #a4 ,thus the proportion of the attractive forces between any two bodies is dependent upon their masses1 and not simply upon their volume or density4 ,,art4 #bb4 ,law of ,inverse ,squares4--,the ,law of ,inverse ,squares which is applicable to ,gravitation is equally true of ,sound1 ,light1 ,heat and ,electricity1 the ,law being that ,gravitation acts inversely as the square of distance4 ,that is to say1 if the distance of any body from the sun1 for example1 be doubled1 then the force of ,gravitation is diminished to one quarter of the intensity which would be exerted on the body in the first position4 ,thus the further a body is from its controlling centre1 the weaker the ,attraction of ,gravitation upon it becomes4 ,taking therefore ,mercury and the earth as examples1 we find that their mean distances are respectively #ce1jjj1jjj miles and #ib1jjj1jjj1 which is a proportion of about #a to #b-a_/b4 ,so that the intensity of the sun's attraction on the earth is about four-twenty-fifths of what it is on ,mercury1 that being the inverse square of the relative distances of the two bodies4 ,now the intensity of ,light and ,heat received by the earth is regulated by the same law of inverse squares1 so that the earth would receive about four-twenty-fifths the intensity of light and heat which ,mercury receives when they are both at their mean distances4 ,this law of inverse squares is applicable to every body which acts as a gravitating source throughout the whole of the universe1 whether that body be small or large1 and whether it be in the form of meteor1 satellite1 planet1 sun or star4 ,each satellite1 planet or sun exerts an attractive influence upon every body that exists1 that attractive influence being regulated by the masses of the respective bodies1 and decreasing inversely as the square of the distance from the body viewed as the centre of attraction4 ,so that1 the further the attracted body is from the attracting body1 the less is the intensity of the mutual attracting forces1 though that intensity does not vary simply as the distance1 but rather as the square of the distance1 and that in its inverse ratio4 ,thus if we take two masses of any kind or sort1 and place them at various distances as represented by the numbers #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f1 the intensity of the attracting forces between the same masses at the relative distances will be represented by the numbers #a1 #a_/d1 #a_/i1 #a_/af1 #a_/be1 #a_/cf1 which are the inverse squares of the respective numbers representing their distances4 ,as we shall see1 the same law holds good in relation to heat1 light and electricity1 and indeed to all forms of energy which radiate out from a centre equally in all directions4 ,there is no need to apply ,newton's ,rules of ,philosophy to this ,attraction of ,gravitation1 as it has been demonstrated to exist1 times without number4 ,moreover its laws are exactly the same as those governing the phenomena of sound1 light1 heat1 and electricity1 so that apart from being proved by actual experiments in relation to the gravity of the earth1 we have a wider experience of the application of the same ruling principles of the law in other departments of science4 ,the ,law of ,universal ,attraction1 which is strictly the ,centripetal ,force of the compound ,law of ,gravitation1 fully satisfies the three governing rules of ,newton's ,philosophy4 ,not only is it simple in its conception1 but it is borne out by experience1 and adequately accounts for the distinctive phenomena which it seeks to explain4 ,by it1 astronomical observations can be taken with a precision and certainty that defy error or failure4 ,the motion of a planet in its orbit can be so perfectly calculated1 that its position in space in relation to other planets can be foretold years in advance4 ,the theory of the ,aether1 therefore1 which is to be perfected in this work1 must philosophically show that the pressures or tensions of that medium1 which are postulated as the cause of ,gravitation ,attraction1 must themselves fulfil the laws of inverse squares1 which govern light1 heat1 electricity and the ,attraction of ,gravitation4 ,i premise that this will be done in the theory of the ,aether to be submitted to the reader in the after pages of this work4 ,,art4 #bc4 ,terrestrial ,gravity4--,before passing from this phase of the subject1 ,i should like briefly to look at the question of the ,attraction of ,gravitation from the standpoint of our own earth1 as by so doing we shall notice some facts regarding the same1 hitherto unnoticed1 in the preceding articles4 ,terrestrial ,gravity is but a phase of ,universal ,gravitation4 ,one of the most familiar facts and phenomena of everyday life is1 that when a body1 such as a stone or stick or bullet1 is thrown or projected into the air1 it always falls to the earth again4 ,this is due to the attraction of the earth and the stone for each other4 ,it has been proved experimentally that if a stone and a weight are let fall from a height of #af feet1 they would reach the earth in one second of time4 ,again1 a feather1 or cork1 or even a piece of iron would take exactly the same time falling through the same space1 provided that the feather or cork could be screened from the resistance of the air4 ,the distance1 however1 through which a body falls in one second varies at different parts of the earth's surface1 being least at the equator1 and greatest at the ,north and ,south ,poles4 ,this is accounted for by the fact that the polar diameter is only #ghii miles1 while the equatorial diameter is #gibe miles1 thus the distance from the centre of the earth to either pole is about #ciej miles1 or #ac miles less than the equatorial radius of the earth4 ,now the force of gravity decreases upwards from the earth's surface inversely as the square of the distance from the earth's centre of gravity1 but decreases downwards simply as the distance from the centre decreases4 ,thus if a ball were taken down #bjjj miles1 that is half the distance to the centre1 it would only weigh half-a-pound1 while if it were taken to the centre of the earth1 it would have no weight at all2 while a pound weight at the equator would not weigh one pound at the poles1 because it would be nearer the centre of the earth by #ac miles4 ,thus a pound weight is not always a pound weight4 ,it varies as we carry it to different parts of the earth's surface1 depending upon its relation to the centre of the earth for its exact weight4 ,the point which ,i wish to make perfectly clear1 as it will be necessary for future reference1 is1 that there is no such thing as weight apart from the gravity of the earth2 or1 if we apply the principle to the solar system1 there is no gravitating force in that system apart from the gravitating force of the central body1 the sun1 or the planets and other bodies which form the solar system4 ,let us look at this matter from another standpoint1 in order to prove this truth and make the same perfectly clear4 ,if a pound weight were put in a spring-balance1 then at the surface of the earth it would weigh one pound4 ,now1 we will suppose that we have taken the weight to a height of #djjj miles above the surface of the earth1 that is exactly double the distance from the centre of the earth1 the radius of the earth being approximately #djjj miles4 ,according to the law of inverse squares1 the force of ,gravitation decreases inversely as the square of the distance4 ,the distance having been doubled1 the proportion of the forces at the two places1 i4 e4 the earth's surface and #djjj miles above it1 are as #a to #a_/d4 ,thus at a distance of #djjj miles the weight which weighed one pound at the earth's surface1 now only weighs a quarter of a pound4 ,at a distance of #hjjj miles1 the distance would be trebled1 therefore the force of ,gravitation is one-ninth1 and the weight would weigh one-ninth of a pound4 ,if we could take the pound weight to the moon1 the attractive force of the earth would be reduced to #a-cfjj1 as the moon is #bdj1jjj miles distant1 that is sixty times the earth's radius4 ,the square of #fj is #cfjj1 and if we invert that we get #a-cfjj1 so that the weight which weighs a pound at the earth's surface1 would only weigh #a-cfjj part of a pound at the distance of the moon4 ,this again proves1 that apart from the ,attraction of ,gravitation1 there is no such thing as weight1 and that the weight so called of any body1 such as a planet or satellite1 increases or decreases as its distance increases or decreases from its central attracting body4 ,,art4 #bd4 ,centrifugal ,force4--,i have already shown in ,art4 #aj that the ,centripetal ,force and ,universal ,attraction are one and the same2 as the ,centripetal ,force always acts towards the centre1 and must therefore be in its operation and influence a gravitating or attractive power4 ,i have also pointed out in the same article1 the necessity of another force1 which is to be the complement1 and the counter part of ,gravitation ,attraction4 ,that complement and counter force was conceived by ,newton1 and called by him the ,centrifugal ,force4 ,the very nature of the ,centripetal ,force demands and necessitates a force which in its mode of operation is exactly the opposite of the ,centripetal ,force4 ,unless there were such a force1 a repellent and repulsive force1 then instead of there being that harmonious working of the universe that now exists1 there must inevitably be a gradual drawing together of all planets and satellites1 of all stars and suns1 into one vast1 solitary1 and ruinous body4 ,there are also other phenomena which demand a ,centrifugal ,force in the universe4 ,it is a well-known fact1 that there exist between the orbits of ,jupiter and ,mars1 what are called planetoids1 about #ejj in number1 which are supposed to be the remnants of a broken or shattered world4 ,as may be expected from such an accumulation1 they present the most extraordinary diversities and eccentricities in the orbits that can possibly be conceived4 ,they are of all shapes and sizes1 and besides their orbits round the sun1 have orbits among themselves4 ,they are so clustered together that their orbits intersect each other at numerous points1 and when in conjunction are said to suffer great perturbations1 being pulled great distances this way and that by each other's attractive influence4 ,it is further stated that their orbits so intersect each other1 that if they were imagined to be material rings1 they would be inseparable1 and the whole could be suspended by taking any one of them up at random4 ,here1 then1 is presented to us a kind or order of celestial phenomena for whose well-being and effectual working the ,centripetal ,force or the ,attraction of ,gravitation cannot possibly account4 ,in their case another force is demanded which shall be the exact complement and counterpart of the ,centripetal ,force4 ,there needs therefore a force1 not an imagined one1 simply conceived to fill a want1 but a real ,force1 as real and as plainly to be understood as the ,centripetal ,force4 ,a force existing in each world just like the ,attraction of ,gravitation1 only the reverse of ,gravitation1 a repellent1 repulsive ,force1 acting in the reverse mode1 and way1 to universal attraction4 ,this ,force must be governed by the same rules and laws that govern the ,centripetal ,force1 if it is to work in harmony with the same4 ,it must be universal in its character1 having a proportion of forces equal to the product of the masses of the two bodies which are concerned1 and its path must coincide with the path of gravitational attraction1 that is1 in the straight line which joins the centres of gravity of the two bodies4 ,further1 and what is perhaps the most important of all1 it must act as a repelling or repulsive force which shall be in the same proportion in regard to distance1 as the law governing ,centripetal ,force1 that is1 inversely as the square of the distance4 ,again1 and briefly1 there are also in existence small bodies called meteors1 which are said to exist by myriads1 which float in space1 and circle round the sun4 ,they are of all shapes and sizes1 from one ounce to a ton or even tons1 thousands of them coming into contact with our earth's atmosphere every year1 especially in ,august and ,november4 ,all of these small bodies have orbits among themselves1 and gravitate round one another1 as they revolve round the sun4 ,now if the orbits of the planetoids be such an entangled mass1 what must be the orbits of these meteors8 ,what an indescribable1 unimaginable mass of labyrinthian motions must exist among these myriads of little bodies6 ,how they must intersect1 cross and intermingle each other's orbits6 ,what attraction and counter-attraction they must exert upon each other6 ,let me ask any man to sit down and try to imagine how the present recognized ,centripetal and ,centrifugal ,forces can account for the effectual working of these meteors4 ,as illustrating the necessity of a real and physical ,centrifugal ,force which is to be the exact counterpart of the ,centripetal ,force1 ,i would call the attention of the reader to ,herschel's view of this matter4 ,in dealing with the phenomena of comets' tails he writes3#a ,beyond a doubt1 the widest and most interesting prospect of future discovery1 which this study holds out to us1 is1 that distinction between gravitating and levitating matter1 that positive and irrefutable demonstration in nature of a repulsive force1 co-extensive with1 but enormously more powerful than the attractive force we call gravity which the phenomena of their tails afford4 ,i premise that this prophecy of ,herschel's will be fully demonstrated and proved in the succeeding pages of this work4 ,for1 in the theory of the ,aether that is to be afterwards perfected1 it will be philosophically proved that the physical medium so conceived will satisfactorily account for a force or motion from the centre of all bodies2 which motions fulfil all the conditions required by that ,centrifugal ,force1 which is the complement and counterpart of the ,attraction of ,gravitation4 ,at the present time1 with the conception of a frictionless ,aether1 it is impossible to harmonize the existence of such a force or motion with our theory of the ,aether4 ,yet ,professor ,lebedew of ,moscow1 and ,nichols and ,hull of ,america1 have incontrovertibly demonstrated by actual experiments the existence of such a force4 ,therefore it follows1 that if our present theory of the ,aether fails to agree with experimental evidence1 such a theory must be reconstructed in order that our philosophy may be made to agree with our experiments and our experience4 ,footnote #a3 ,lectures on ,scientific ,subjects4 ,,art4 #be4 ,kepler's ,laws4--,a long time before ,newton had discovered the ,law of ,gravitation1 ,kepler had found out that the motions of the planets were governed by certain laws1 and these came to be known as ,kepler's ,laws4 ,these laws which were given to the world by ,kepler1 simply represented facts or phenomena which had been discovered by observation1 as ,kepler was unable to account for them1 or to give any mathematical basis for the same4 ,on the discovery1 however1 of ,universal ,gravitation1 ,newton saw at once that these laws were simply the outcome of the application of the ,law of ,gravitation to the planets1 and that they could be accounted for on a mathematical basis by the ,law of ,gravitation1 as they seemed to flow naturally from that law4 ,kepler's ,laws are three in number and may be thus stated-- #ast ,law4 ,each planet revolves round the sun in an elliptic orbit1 with the sun occupying one of the ,foci4 #bnd ,law4 ,in the revolution of a planet round the sun1 the ,radius ,vector describes equal areas in equal times4 #crd ,law4 ,the squares of the periodic times of planets are proportional to the cubes of their mean distances4 ,now the question arises1 whether it is possible to form a theory of the ,aether which shall satisfactorily and philosophically account for all the phenomena associated with ,kepler's ,laws in their relation to the motions of planets1 satellites1 or other solar bodies8 ,on the present conception of the ,aether such a result is an absolute impossibility4 ,with the theory of the ,aether1 however1 to be submitted to the reader in this work1 the result is possible and attainable4 ,if1 therefore1 such a result is philosophically proved1 as ,i submit will be done1 then we shall have greater evidence still that the theory so propounded is a more perfect theory than the one at present recognized by scientists generally4 ,,art4 #bf4 ,kepler's ,first ,law4--,each planet revolves round the sun in an elliptic orbit1 the sun occupying one of the ,foci4 ,the ancients thought that the paths of the planets around the sun were circular in form1 because they held that circular motion was perfect4 ,a system of circular orbits for the paths of the planets round the sun would be very simple in its conception1 and would be full of beauty and harmony4 ,but exact calculations reveal to us that the path of a planet is not exactly that of a circle1 as the distance of a planet from the sun in various parts of its orbit is sometimes greater1 and sometimes less1 than its mean distance4 ,the planet ,venus has the nearest approach to a circular orbit1 as there are only #ejj1jjj miles between the mean1 and greatest and least distances1 but both ,mercury and ,mars show great differences between their greatest and least distances from the sun4 ,if1 therefore1 the orbits of a planet are not exactly circular1 what is their exact shape8 ,kepler solved this problem1 and proved that the exact path of a planet round its central body the sun was that of an ellipse1 or an elongated circle4 ,thus he gave to the world the first of his famous laws which stated that each planet revolves round the sun in an orbit which has an elliptic form1 the sun occupying one of the ,foci4 ,not only is the orbit of a planet round the sun elliptic in form1 but the path of the moon round the earth1 or the path of any satellite1 as for example a satellite of ,mars or ,jupiter or ,saturn1 is also that of an ellipse1 the planet round which it revolves occupying one of the ,foci4 ,it has also been found that certain comets have orbits which cannot be distinguished from that of an elongated ellipse1 the sun occupying one of the ,foci4 ,now let us apply the ,law of ,gravitation to ,kepler's ,first ,law1 and note carefully its application4 ,illustration3 ,fig3 #a4 ,let ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d be an ellipse representing the orbit of the earth1 and let ,s represent the sun situated at one of the ,foci4 ,we will suppose that the earth is projected into space at the point ,a1 then according to the ,first ,law of ,motion1 it would proceed in a straight line in the direction of ,a ,e1 if there were no other force acting upon the earth4 ,but it is acted upon by the attraction of the sun1 that is the ,centripetal ,force which is exerted along the straight line ,s ,a 7,art4 #bj71 which continues to act upon it according to the principle already explained in ,arts4 #ba and #bb4 ,now1 according to the ,second ,law of ,motion and the ,parallelogram of ,forces1 instead of the earth going off at a tangent in the direction of ,a ,e1 it will take a mean path in the direction of ,a ,b1 its path being curved instead of being a straight line4 ,if the sun were stationary in space1 then the mean distance1 that is1 the length of the imaginary straight line joining the sun ,s ,a to the earth1 would remain unaltered4 ,the ,radius ,vector ,s ,a1 or the straight line referred to1 would then be perpendicular to the tangent1 and the velocity of the earth round the sun would be uniform1 its path being that of a circle4 ,the ,radius ,vector ,s ,a1 however1 is not always perpendicular to the tangent ,f ,e1 and therefore the velocity of the earth is not always uniform in its motion in its orbit1 as sometimes it travels at a lesser or greater speed than its average speed1 which is about #ah miles per second4 ,it has to be remembered that the sun itself is in motion1 having a velocity through space of about #d-a_/b miles per second1 so that1 while the earth is travelling from ,a to ,b the sun is also travelling in the direction of ,s ,b4 ,thus the orbital velocity of the earth1 and the orbital velocity of the sun1 together with the ,centripetal ,force or universal ,gravitation ,attraction1 are all acting in the same direction when the earth is travelling from ,a to ,b1 that is1 in the direction of the orbit situated at ,b4 ,this point of the orbit is known as the perihelion1 and at that point the velocity of the earth is at its greatest1 because the earth is then nearest the sun4 ,according to ,newton1 the planet when at ,b would still have a tendency to fly off into space owing to its ,centrifugal ,force1 but it is held in check by the ,centripetal ,force1 so that instead of it flying off into space1 it is whirled round and starts off on its journey away from the sun in the direction of ,b1 ,c4 ,the sun1 however1 is still continuing its journey in the direction of ,s1 ,h1 so that not only is the increased orbital velocity of the earth1 which it obtained at its perihelion1 urging the earth away from the sun1 but the sun itself in its advance through space is leaving the earth behind it4 ,the combined effect of the two motions1 the advancing motion of the sun1 and the receding motion of the earth1 due to its increased orbital velocity1 drives the earth towards the aphelion1 where its distance from the sun is greatest1 and its orbital velocity is the least4 ,by the time the planet has arrived at point ,c1 its motion through space has gradually decreased1 and the ,centripetal ,force begins to re-assert itself1 with the result that the earth is slowly made to proceed towards the point ,d of the ellipse1 at which point its motion is the slowest in orbital velocity1 only travelling about #af miles per second1 while the distance of the earth from the sun is the greatest and has increased from #ia1jjj1jjj miles at the perihelion to #id1ejj1jjj4 ,this point of the orbit is known as its aphelion4 ,after rounding this point1 the orbital velocity of the earth begins to increase again1 owing to the diminishing distance of the earth from the sun1 which according to the law of inverse squares 7,art4 #bb7 gives an added intensity to the ,centripetal ,force4 ,thus by the combination of the ,laws of ,motion and the ,law of ,gravitation discovered by ,newton1 he was able to satisfactorily account for and explain on a mathematical basis1 the reason why the earth and all the other planets move round the sun in elliptic orbits1 according to ,kepler's ,first ,law4 ,in the development of the physical cause of gravitation1 therefore1 the same physical medium1 which accounts for that law1 must also give a satisfactory explanation of the first of ,kepler's ,laws4 ,,art4 #bg4 ,kepler's ,second ,law4--,this law states that the ,radius ,vector describes equal areas in equal times4 ,the ,radius ,vector is the imaginary straight line joining the centres of the sun and the earth or planet4 ,while the ,first ,law shows us the kind of path which a planet takes in revolving round the sun1 the ,second ,law describes how the velocity of the planet varies in different parts of its orbit4 ,if the earth's orbit were a circle1 it can be readily seen that equal areas would be traversed in equal times1 as the distance from the sun would always be the same1 so that the ,radius ,vector being of uniform length1 the rate of motion would be uniform1 and consequently equal areas would be traversed in equal times4 ,take as an illustration the earth1 which describes its revolution round the sun in #cfe-a_/d days4 ,now if the orbit of the earth were circular1 then equal parts of the earth's orbit would be traversed by the ,radius ,vector in equal times4 ,so that with a perfectly circular orbit1 one half of the orbit would be traversed by the ,radius ,vector in half a year1 one quarter in one quarter of a year1 one-eighth in one-eighth of a year1 and so on2 the area covered by the ,radius ,vector being always exactly proportionate to the time4 ,from ,kepler's ,first ,law1 however1 we know that the planet's distance does vary from the sun1 and therefore the ,radius ,vector is sometimes longer and sometimes shorter than when the earth is at its mean distance2 the ,radius ,vector being shortest at the perihelion of the orbit1 and longest at the aphelion4 ,we learn from ,kepler's ,second ,law that when the ,radius ,vector is shortest1 that is1 when the planet is nearest the sun1 it acquires its greatest orbital velocity2 and when the ,radius ,vector is longest1 that is1 when the planet is farthest from the sun1 the orbital velocity of a planet is the slowest4 ,let ,a1 ,b1 ,d1 ,c represent the elliptic orbit of a planet1 with ,s sun at one of the ,foci1 and let the triangles ,a1 ,s1 ,b and ,d1 ,s1 ,c be triangles of equal area4 ,then1 according to ,kepler's ,second ,law1 the time taken for the ,radius ,vector to traverse the area ,a1 ,s1 ,b is equal to the time that the ,radius ,vector takes to traverse the area ,d1 ,s1 ,c4 ,so that the planet would take an equal time in going from ,a to ,b of its orbit1 as it would take in going from ,d to ,c4 ,thus the nearer the planet is to the sun1 the greater is its orbital velocity1 and the farther it is away from the sun the slower is its velocity1 the velocity being regulated by the distance4 ,the manner in which the difference of velocity is accounted for by the ,law of ,gravitation has already been explained in the preceding article4 ,thus ,newton proved that ,kepler's ,second ,law was capable of being mathematically explained1 and accounted for1 by the universal ,law of ,gravitation4 ,illustration3 ,fig3 #b4 ,if1 therefore1 a physical cause can be given for ,newton's ,law of ,gravitation1 then such physical cause must also be able to account for1 and that on a strictly philosophical basis1 the second of ,kepler's ,laws as well as the first4 ,,art4 #bh4 ,kepler's ,third ,law4--,the ,third ,law of ,kepler gives the relation between the periodic time of a planet1 and its distance from the sun4 ,the periodic time of any planet is the time which it takes to go once round the sun4 ,thus the periodic time of the earth is #cfe-a_/d days4 ,the periodic time of ,venus is #bbd4g days1 while that of ,mars is #fhf4i days4 ,kepler had found out that different planets had different periodic times2 he also found out that the greater the mean distance of the planet1 the greater was the time which the planet took to perform its journey round the sun1 and so he set to work to find out the relationship of the periodic time to the planet's mean distance4 ,after many trials and many failures he arrived at the right conclusion1 and at last discovered the true law which is known as ,kepler's ,third ,law1 which states that for each and every planet1 the squares of their periodic times are proportional to the cubes of their mean distances4 ,for purposes of illustration let us take the earth and the planet ,venus and compare these two4 ,the periodic time of the earth is #cfe days1 omitting the quarter day4 ,the periodic time of ,venus is #bbd days approximately4 ,now1 according to ,kepler's ,third ,law1 the square of #cfe is to the square of #bbd1 as the cube of the earth's mean distance is to the cube of ,venus's mean distance1 which are #ib4g millions of miles and #fg millions of miles respectively4 ,the problem may be thus stated-- ,as #cfeb3 #bbdb33 #ib4gc3 #fgc3 ,this worked out gives-- #acc1bbe3 #ej1agf3 #gif1eig4ihb3 cube of ,venus's mean distance4 ,so that by ,kepler's ,third ,law1 if we have the periodic time of any two planets1 and the mean distance of either1 we can find out the mean distance of the other by simple proportion4 ,in making astronomical calculations1 the distances of the planets are generally obtained by means of ,kepler's ,third ,law1 as the periodic time of the planet is a calculation that may be made by astronomers with great certainty1 and when once the periodic times are found1 and the mean distance of a planet1 as our earth for example1 is known1 the mean distances of all the other planets in the solar system may soon be obtained4 ,in like manner this ,third ,law of ,kepler's is equally applicable to the satellites of any planet4 ,for example1 when the periodic time of both of ,mars' satellites1 ,phobos and ,deimos1 are known1 being about #h hours and #cj hours respectively1 and the distance of either is known1 as ,phobos with a mean distance of #ehjj miles1 then the mean distance of ,deimos can easily be calculated by this law1 and is found to be #ad1ejj miles4 ,as discovered by ,kepler1 the ,third ,law was simply the result of observation4 ,he was unable to give any mathematical basis for its existence4 ,the ,laws as they were given to the world by ,kepler were simply three great truths which had been discovered by observation4 ,it rested with ,newton to show how these laws could be accounted for on a mathematical basis1 and to show how they all sprang from one and the same source1 namely the universal ,law of ,gravitation4 ,in his ,principia1 he proved that all ,kepler's ,laws were fully expounded and explained by his great discovery of ,universal ,gravitation4 ,now what ,newton has done for ,kepler's ,laws from the mathematical standpoint1 we propose to do from the physical standpoint4 ,in the development of the physical agency or cause of ,gravitation1 therefore1 among the phenomena and laws1 which have to be satisfactorily accounted for on a physical basis1 are these three ,laws of ,kepler's just referred to4 ,so that in addition to the satisfactory explanation of a physical cause for the ,laws of ,motion1 and the ,centripetal and ,centrifugal ,forces1 the hypothesis of a physical cause of ,gravitation must fully and satisfactorily account for the ,laws of ,kepler1 whose mathematical explanation was given by ,newton4 ,further1 and what is as equally important1 the explanation so given must be strictly in harmony with the ,rules of ,philosophy as laid down in ,art4 #c4 ,that is1 the explanation must be simple in character1 must not be contrary to experience or observation1 and must satisfactorily account for the laws which the hypothesis of the physical cause of ,gravitation seeks to explain4 ,this ,i premise we will do as we pass from stage to stage in the development of the theory4 ,i can safely premise that it will be simple in character and conception1 that it will be entirely in harmony with all experience and observation1 and that the physical cause so advanced will give as physical a basis to ,kepler's ,laws as ,newton's mathematical calculations gave them a mathematical basis4 ,in summing up1 ,i need hardly point out1 that if all that ,i have premised in this and the preceding chapter is accomplished in the after chapters of this book1 then for the first time since the discovery of ,universal ,gravitation by ,sir ,isaac ,newton1 his great discovery will have received the long-expected and long-desired physical explanation1 that explanation and cause being founded on his own ,rules of ,philosophy given in his immortal ,principia1 and for the first time our ,philosophy will be brought strictly into harmony with our universal experience4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,matter ,,art4 #bi4 ,what is ,matter8--,the law of ,universal ,attraction states that ,every particle of matter attracts every other particle1 etc41 and the question at once arises as to what is meant by the term ,matter1 what are its properties and its constitution8 ,tait1 in his ,natural ,philosophy1 gives the following as the definition3 ,matter is that which can be perceived by the senses1 or is that which can be acted upon by1 or can exert force4 ,it has already been pointed out in ,art4 #ac that force is due to motion1 and that wherever we get motion of any kind or sort1 there we get energy1 or what used to be termed force4 ,the consideration of this phase of the question will be more fully dealt with in the chapter on ,energy and ,motion4 ,suffice to say1 that all experience teaches us that force is the outcome of motion4 ,accepting this definition therefore of force1 ,tait's definition of matter will read thus1 if brought up to date3 ,matter is that which can be perceived by the senses1 or is that which can be acted upon by motion1 or which can exert motion4 ,the common idea that matter can only be that which can be seen or actually felt1 is not large enough for a definition of ,matter4 ,there are numbers of things in ,nature which cannot either be seen or felt1 yet which are included in the term ,matter4 ,let us take one or two examples4 ,every one admits that nitrogen and oxygen are matter1 yet ,i venture to say that no one has actually seen or felt either of these gases4 ,both of these gases are colourless and invisible1 and are both tasteless4 ,you may open your mouth and inspire both gases1 and yet if they are pure1 you cannot taste either of them4 ,they are only matter1 in the sense that they appeal to our sense of force through the motion which they may acquire4 ,or again1 take air1 which is a mechanical mixture of several gases4 ,can you see air8 ,if it be free from vapour and smoke1 air is invisible1 and on a clear day you may look for miles across the sea1 or from the top of a mountain1 and yet not have your sight impeded in any way by the atmosphere4 ,neither can it be felt by the sense of touch4 ,open and shut your hand1 and see if you can feel the air while you do so4 ,in similar ways it may be demonstrated that the air is tasteless4 ,so that it is not necessary for us to see1 or feel1 or taste1 or even smell that which we term ,matter1 in order for it to be included in that term4 ,so long as that which we term ,matter is able to accept motion in any manner from any body that is either moving1 or in a state of vibration1 and not only accepts1 but also transmits the vibratory1 or the kinetic motion so called of the moving body1 then that which accepts the motion is legitimately termed ,matter4 ,it becomes perfectly clear1 therefore1 why air1 aether1 oxygen1 and hydrogen are termed ,matter4 ,because they can be all acted upon by motion1 and after being so acted upon1 they can exert motion upon some other body4 ,heat is a form of motion1 and when heat acts upon the air1 the latter is set in motion1 and we have what are commonly known as winds4 ,it is unnecessary for me to prove that the motion of winds can be transmitted to other matter1 as we have numerous examples from our observation and experience1 in the case of windmills driven by the motive power of the winds1 and also balloons urged along by the same cause2 apart from the devastating effect produced in towns and country by a hurricane or storm4 ,the point which ,i wish to emphasize is1 that ,matter1 strictly defined1 is that which can be acted upon by motion1 such as heat or electricity1 both being forms of motion1 and which can exert the motion so derived upon some other body4 ,wherever1 therefore1 in the universe we find any body1 whether it be solid1 liquid or gaseous1 or any medium which can be acted upon by motion1 and after being so acted upon1 can exert motion1 that body or medium may legitimately be included in the term ,matter1 although it may be absolutely invisible to the eyes1 or insensible to the sense of touch1 or taste1 or smell4 ,in the same work1#b ,tait states that in the physical universe there are but two classes of things1 ,matter and ,energy1 and then goes on to give examples of both4 ,he adds that a stone1 piece of brass1 water1 air1 aether1 are particles of matter1 while springs1 water-power1 wind1 waves1 heat and electric currents are examples of energy associated with ,matter4 ,now ,i may add here1 that within these two statements is to be found the germ of the physical cause of ,gravitation1 together with the satisfactory explanation of all phenomena that the universe reveals to us1 either by observation or by experiments4 ,i purpose therefore1 before giving any detailed accounts of that medium which is to form the physical basis for the cause of ,gravitation1 to look at the term ,matter in all its aspects1 in order that we may get a right conception of the universe1 and of the part that ,matter plays in the same4 ,footnote #b3 ,tait1 ,natural ,philosophy4 ,,art4 #cj4 ,conservation of ,matter4--,the ,theory of the ,indestructibility of ,matter was first introduced by ,lavoisier in #aghi4 ,this theory may be thus summed up2 that ,matter which fills the universe is unchangeable in quantity1 so that the total quantity ever remains the same4 ,changes may take place in regard to the state of the ,matter1 but the sum-total of ,matter throughout all the changes remains unaltered4 ,thus when we burn coal1 it is changed into carbonic acid by combination with the oxygen of the atmosphere2 when sugar is put into water1 it simply passes from the solid to the liquid condition4 ,if a piece of iron or steel is allowed to rust1 the surface of the iron has entered into combination with the oxygen and water of the atmosphere1 and formed a new substance4 ,so that a body may change from solid to liquid1 as for example from ice to water1 or from liquid to a gaseous condition1 as from water to steam1 and probably from a gaseous condition to an aetherial condition as we shall see later on1 but the sum-total of ,matter throughout all these changes ever remains the same4 ,thus1 throughout all the physical and chemical changes that ,matter may undergo in the universe1 there is no actual loss in weight or quantity4 ,throughout the whole realm of ,nature we do not find a single instance of the production of absolutely new ,matter4 ,we may1 and can produce new combinations of the forms of ,matter4 ,the substance so formed by chemical combination may be different from anything that has ever been seen or produced before1 but the elements of which it is formed must have existed in some other form before its production4 ,this principle is the great underlying principle of all chemical investigation and research1 and may be proved at any time by means of the scales or balance in the laboratory4 ,lavoisier first made the experiment with the scales and proved this truth by actual demonstration4 ,,art4 #ca4 ,matter is ,atomic4--,the hypothesis that ,matter is made up of infinitely small particles which are termed atoms1 was first proposed by the ,grecian philosophers4 ,this hypothesis has gradually taken definite shape1 but it remained for ,dalton to first put the hypothesis into a connected form1 and that form is now known as ,dalton's ,atomic ,theory4 ,according to this theory1 an atom of hydrogen was the lightest atom known1 but comparatively recent researches by ,sir ,w4 ,crookes have shown that there are possibly in existence minute particles which are even lighter than an atom of hydrogen4 ,thus ,sir ,w4 ,crookes has suggested that there are certain particles associated with an atom of hydrogen which are #gjj times less in weight than the atom itself4 ,professor ,j4 ,j4 ,thompson has further suggested that if we could divide an atom into a thousand parts1 and could take one of those parts1 we should find that this corpuscle1 as he has termed it1 would be the carrier of the charges in an electric current1 so that it will be seen that we are moving into the direction of the continuity of ,matter4 ,let us now look at the question as to what is meant by an atom more fully4 ,,art4 #cb4 ,what is an ,atom8--,clerk ,maxwell's definition of an atom is1 a body that cannot be cut in two4 ,an atom is the smallest part of a simple substance which can enter into combination with another element1 and is incapable of being further subdivided4 ,an atom of hydrogen is the smallest part of that particular gas which can enter into combination with any other element1 as oxygen1 to form a chemical compound as water1 which is composed of two atoms of hydrogen and one of oxygen4 ,further1 an atom of any kind or sort1 retains its identity and remains the same throughout all chemical combinations or physical changes which it may undergo4 ,by spectroscopic analysis1 it has been ascertained1 for example1 that hydrogen exists in the sun and stars1 and the conclusion is arrived at in connection therewith1 that an atom of hydrogen in any sun or star is the same as an atom of hydrogen in our atmosphere1 or in any of the compounds1 as water1 in which it is found4 ,thus it has come to be received as an accepted fact1 that every atom of any substance1 as oxygen1 nitrogen1 and hydrogen1 whether they exist in the earth or sun1 in meteorites or the farthest stars or nebulae1 wherever they are found1 possesses the same identity and the same physical properties4 ,atoms attract one another1 and this atomic attraction is known as affinity4 ,there is not the least possible doubt that affinity is a form of universal attraction1 except that the affinity of atoms is selective4 ,this affinity of atoms for each other gives rise to the combination of atoms known as molecules and chemical compounds4 ,size of ,atoms4--,it has been computed by ,lord ,kelvin and others1 that an atom may be as small as #a_/ej1jjj1jjj of an inch in diameter1 so that if #ej1jjj1jjj of them were put side by side1 they would just measure one inch in length4 ,atoms are not all of the same size or weight4 ,an atom of oxygen weighs #af times as much as an atom of hydrogen4 ,it has been proved by ,kirchhoff and ,bunsen1 that the #c_/a1jjj1jjj part of a milligramme of sodium chloride is sufficient to give a yellow colour to a gas-jet4 ,faraday prepared some sheets of gold1 so thin that he estimated they only measured the #a_/ajj part of the length of a light-wave4 ,we have to remember that each sheet of gold must have contained molecules of gold composed of atoms4 ,what must have been the size of the atoms therefore of which the sheet was composed8 ,,art4 #cc4 ,the ,atomic ,theory4--,the ,atomic ,theory was revived by ,dalton in #ahjd1 in order to account for the fact that elements unite in certain definite proportions4 ,from that time to the present1 the theory has grown and developed until at the present time it is looked upon as a well-established theory4 ,it is1 however1 simply a theory1 and from the very nature of the hypothesis is incapable of proof4 ,no one has ever seen an atom of hydrogen or oxygen1 or an atom of any solid1 liquid1 or gaseous matter4 ,the ,atomic ,theory suggests1 therefore1 that there is a limit to the divisibility of matter4 ,all chemical experiments lend support to the theory1 and by it we are able to give an intelligible and easy method of expression to what would otherwise be difficult phenomena to explain4 ,ancient philosophers were divided on the question of the infinite divisibility of matter4 ,the ,epicureans were of the opinion that matter was incapable of infinite division1 and that even if we were able to make the smallest possible division1 it would be impossible for us to reach the smallest particle termed ,atom4 ,,art4 #cd4 ,kinds of ,atoms4--,various forms of atoms have been conceived by philosophers from time to time1 ranging from the ,hard ,atom1 and the simple point-centres of ,boscovitch1 until we come to the more modern ,vortex ,atom of ,lord ,kelvin1 or the ,strain ,atom of ,dr4 ,larmor1 which will be looked at separately4 ,democritus conceived a hard atom as long ago as #ejj ,b4,c41 while the notion of a hard atom is not absent from the works of ,newton himself4 ,we find that ,newton suggested that the particles of air might be hard spherical bodies1 at a distance from one another of about nine times their diameter4 ,the hard atom1 however1 seems to be refuted by spectroscopic analysis1 which reveals to us in a manner that has never been revealed before1 something of the sizes and vibrations of atoms4 ,from the phenomenon of heat1 which is simply matter in motion1 we feel compelled to accept the fact that an atom is not a hard particle1 but that it is something which is more closely allied to the ,vortex ,atom1 or the ,strain ,atom of ,dr4 ,larmor4 ,boscovitch ,atom4--,according to ,boscovitch's theory1 each atom is simply an indivisible point in space capable of motion1 and possessing a certain mass whereby a certain amount of energy is required to produce a certain change of motion4 ,in addition to this1 any two atoms could attract or repel each other with a force depending upon their distance apart4 ,the ,law which regulates these forces for all distances greater than #a_/ajjj of an inch is an attraction varying inversely as the square of the distance1 and a repulsion for less distances4 ,we have1 therefore1 to suppose that in place of the hard atom1 there is merely a geometrical point which can exert attractive or repulsive forces to1 or from1 the central point4 ,so far as external particles are concerned1 they would behave just the same as a hard atom would do4 ,this conception was largely entertained in recent times by ,faraday4 ,it is more a mathematical explanation than a physical one1 but has been found convenient in explaining what takes place in the interior of bodies in their three states1 namely3 solid1 liquid1 and gaseous4 ,lord ,kelvin's ,vortex ,atom4--,another hypothesis which has been suggested for the constitution of an atom1 is that known as the ,vortex ,atom1 which received its birth at the hands of ,lord ,kelvin4 ,the underlying principle of this ,vortex ,atom is1 that matter may be entirely due to the rotating parts of a fundamental medium1 the ,aether1 which fills all space4 ,the properties of vortex motion were first mathematically calculated by ,helmholtz1 but it was left to ,sir ,wm4 ,thompson1 now ,lord ,kelvin1 to give a physical idea of the ,vortex ,atom4 ,before entering further into the question of the ,vortex ,atom1 it may be as well to explain how vortex smoke rings may be made4 ,illustration3 ,fig3 #c4 ,all that is required is a wooden box1 about one cubic foot in size1 with a round hole perforated in one of the sides1 and the opposite side covered with a piece of linen in place of the wooden side4 ,the bottom of the box should then be covered with some strong solution of ammonia1 and some hydrochloric acid poured into a saucer and put into the box4 ,the combination of these two will cause thick clouds to form in the box1 and if the linen is sharply tapped by the hand1 a ring of this cloud will be forced through the hole on the opposite side of the box4 ,the ring so formed will be circular in shape1 and will go sailing through the room in which it is made4 ,when the hole is circular1 the rings will be found circular also1 but if the hole is square1 then the rings will be irregular in shape4 ,one remarkable characteristic about these rings is1 that when two of the rings are travelling in the same straight line1 the one behind will overtake the front one1 and while so doing1 the diameter of the front one is enlarged1 while that of the one behind contracts4 ,the front one will also travel slower1 while the one behind travels faster until it has caught up the former1 and then the latter1 having contracted sufficiently1 will pass through the diameter of the former as illustrated in the figure4 ,this alternation of contraction and expansion is continued as long as the two rings move in the same plane and until they are destroyed4 ,when1 however1 the two rings are moving in opposite directions1 and meeting each other in the same straight line1 they will repel one another1 instead of attracting each other4 ,their rate of progress is gradually reduced as they approach together1 and they begin to expand and enlarge1 but they never touch each other4 ,another peculiar feature about the rings consists in the fact1 that the central core of air in the ring remains the same all the time the ring is in motion through the room1 so that it has the same core of air at the end of its journey as it had when it left the box4 ,as ,lord ,kelvin pointed out1 if there were no friction of the air1 the ring once created would rotate for ever4 ,if1 therefore1 there were such a thing as a perfect fluid1 and there were vortex rings in it1 nothing could destroy these rings when once they were created1 and this is one of the most striking suggestions with reference to the ,vortex ,atom theory of matter4 ,it remains to be seen whether in the universe we have such a medium as a perfect fluid4 ,sir ,wm4 ,thompson has applied the ,vortex ,atom theory of matter to the ,aether1 but from mathematical calculation he was unable to arrive at a satisfactory conclusion as to the ,aether being composed of vortex atoms4 ,another remarkable property belonging to these rings1 lies in the fact that they cannot be cut in two4 ,it will be found that when the knife is brought near to them1 they seem to recoil from the knife4 ,in that sense1 it is literally an atom1 a thing which cannot be cut in two4 ,the ,vortex ,atom has many recommendations in its favour4 ,many of the most important properties of matter are possessed by it1 as for example indestructibility1 elasticity1 inertia1 compressibility1 and its incapability to be cut in two4 ,further1 it may be linked with another ring1 and so give the basis to the combining properties of atomic weights4 ,the ,vortex ,atom theory is simple in character1 as it does not postulate any extravagant hypothesis1 but makes use of the ,aether as the common basis for all matter1 simply stating that this property of rotation may be the basis of all that we call matter4 ,we shall further consider the relation of the ,vortex ,atom to matter1 when we deal with the constitution of matter and the unity of the universe4 ,,art4 #ce4 ,elements of ,matter4--,as is well known1 modern chemistry has succeeded in reducing all the complex forms of matter in ,nature into a number of simple substances1 which are called elements4 ,of these elements about seventy are at present known1 some of which1 however1 are very rare4 ,an element therefore is a simple substance which cannot be decomposed by any known force or process1 as heat or electricity1 into other elements4 ,there are1 however1 only about fourteen of these elements that enter largely into the constitution of the earth1 the most common being oxygen and silicon4 ,by the use of the spectroscope1 it has been proved that many of these elements1 as for example oxygen1 hydrogen1 sodium and calcium1 exist in the sun and stars1 as well as in the most distant nebulae4 ,most of the elementary bodies are to be found in a gaseous form as hydrogen1 oxygen1 fluorine and chlorine1 though it has been found possible to liquefy even these gases4 ,thus we see that matter may be roughly divided into three states1 viz4 solid1 liquid1 or gaseous4 ,the condition in which the substance is found depends upon its temperature and pressure4 ,an example of matter in its three stages is best shown in the case of water1 where in the solid condition we have it as ice1 in the liquid condition as water1 and in the gaseous condition as steam4 ,by recent researches it has been found possible to liquefy gases at a very low temperature and increased pressure1 with the result that now nearly all known gases as hydrogen1 oxygen1 and carbonic acid are to be obtained in liquid form4 ,by still more recent experiments made by ,professor ,dewar1 it has even become possible to liquefy the air we breathe1 with the result that at a temperature of about #bgj degrees below freezing-point and at an increased pressure1 the otherwise invisible and gaseous air may be changed into a liquid1 and poured out from one vessel into another in the same way that water can be poured out4 ,a vessel1 however1 at the ordinary temperature into which such liquid air is poured1 would be so hot compared with the coldness of the liquid air1 that as soon as the exceedingly cold liquid air came into contact with the vessel1 the comparatively hot vessel would make the liquid air to boil4 ,,art4 #cf4 ,three ,divisions of ,matter4--,matter has been divided into three divisions1 viz4 solid1 liquid1 and gaseous4 ,these divisions are each known by characteristic qualities1 which separate the one division from another4 ,at the same time1 it is possible for matter to pass from one division into another1 as for example in the case of water1 which may exist in solid1 liquid1 and gaseous form4 ,in view of the recent researches of ,sir4 ,wm4 ,crookes and ,professor ,j4 ,j4 ,thompson1 it is very probable that before long we shall have to add a fourth division to matter1 which we should have to call ultra-gaseous form1 or it may possibly be the aetherial form4 ,if it should prove to be true that ,aether is matter1 and possesses the essential qualities of matter as suggested by ,lord ,kelvin1 then certainly we shall have reached the boundary of another great division of matter1 and our conception of the divisions of matter will have to be enlarged to take in that form1 so that matter would then be divided into four great divisions1 viz4 solid1 liquid1 gaseous1 and aetherial4 ,we will now consider the three groups as at present recognized4 ,solid4--,examples of solid bodies are common and familiar1 and are typified by such things as iron1 silver1 copper1 and lead4 ,the chief characteristic of this condition of matter is that its condition or state is fixed1 and cannot be altered without the expenditure of heat or electricity or some other form of energy4 ,all solid elementary substances1 with the exception of carbon1 can be melted or reduced to a molten condition1 although some of them require a very high temperature to effect this reduction1 as1 for example1 platinum4 ,when a still higher temperature is applied1 the metals may be vaporized1 or reduced from a molten state to that of a vaporous condition4 ,in the case of solids1 the atoms have not a free path in which to move4 ,it must not be thought1 however1 that the atoms of a solid are motionless1 as there is nothing absolutely motionless in the universe4 ,in the case of the solid1 the molecules which compose it1 preserve their relative position and are linked together in relation to each other by the force of ,cohesion4 ,liquid4--,when matter is in a liquid condition1 as1 for example1 water and oil1 the condition of its molecules are not so fixed and stable as they are in the solid state4 ,the molecules can move freely about one another1 and their freedom is increased compared with their condition when in the solid state4 ,as already indicated1 the reduction of a solid body to a liquid or molten state may be effected by heat4 ,when heat is applied to a solid body1 several results follow1 each of which is the outcome of the other4 #a4 ,there is an increase of temperature which is due to the increased energy of the molecules1 through the added heat4 #b4 ,there is an enlargement of the volume or size of the body1 and if the addition of heat be continued1 the molecular forces which hold the molecules together are broken down1 and then the molecules1 loosened from those forces which in the solid state have bound them together1 begin to move about with greater freedom1 and thus give rise to the molten condition of metals1 or liquid condition of water4 ,thus1 it is the heat which has set the atoms which compose the molecules in motion4 ,the atoms of the solid have absorbed the heat1 and the heat which has thus been absorbed has imparted vibratory energy to the atoms1 which they did not possess before4 ,now when a substance is in the liquid state1 the atoms of that substance have not only a vibratory motion1 but have also a translatory motion1 so that they can move in and out among one another4 ,this is proved by the phenomenon of diffusion1 where we have the case of two different-coloured liquids1 for example1 intermingling with each other1 which is conclusive evidence of the translatory motion of the atoms in liquids4 ,gaseous4--,the third state in which matter is found is the gaseous state4 ,in this condition1 the particles of matter which form the gas have the greatest possible freedom of movement1 and are able to move about with inconceivable velocity4 ,there is abundant evidence to prove that gases consist of particles of matter which are perfectly free1 and are able to fly about in all directions4 ,the simplest proof is obtained by mixing two gases together1 as1 for example1 when any gaseous substance is allowed to mix with the air of a room1 when we find that the particular gas soon mixes itself thoroughly with all the air in the room4 ,this process of mixing is known as ,diffusion1 and the lighter a gas is1 the more quickly does it diffuse itself4 ,the rate of movement of the various particles is varied1 by reason of the encounters which each particle undergoes from time to time4 ,through experiments made by ,joule1 he arrived at the conclusion that particles of hydrogen attained a velocity of #fjee feet per second at #j ,c41 which is a velocity much greater than that of a cannon-ball4 ,in spite of the enormous velocity with which a particle of hydrogen would move1 there are such a large number of particles in a single cubic inch of space1 that no one particle has an absolutely free path from the one side of the enclosed space to the other4 ,to this constant movement of the individual particles is due the elasticity or pressure of gases4 ,the outward pressure which they exert on any body which encloses the gas is caused by the total effect of the impact of the particles1 and is proportional to the sum of their masses multiplied into the square of their velocities4 ,if we halve the enclosed space1 then we should double the number of impacts in a given time1 so that the number of impacts is inversely as the volume of the gas4 ,this is equivalent to the statement1 that the pressure of a gas varies inversely as its volume1 which is ,boyle and ,marriotte's ,law4 ,,art4 #cg4 ,matter is ,gravitative4--,if there is one property which is essentially characteristic to all matter1 it is that all matter is gravitative4 ,to this rule there is no exception1 as the universal ,law of ,attraction states that every particle of matter attracts every other particle4 ,thus1 wherever in the whole universe there is a particle of matter of any kind or sort1 whether such matter be solid1 liquid1 or gaseous1 there the force of attraction will be exerted with a force proportionate to the mass of the particle1 and inversely as the square of the distance between the attracted particles4 ,gravitation1 then1 is a property which is essentially inherent in matter1 and any substance which is termed matter1 or fulfils the conditions that govern matter1 must be gravitative1 whatever other property it may1 or may not1 possess4 ,unless this be so1 we should have a violation of the universal ,law of ,gravitation1 which would cease at once to be a universal law1 for instead of reading every particle of matter attracts every other particle1 we should have to say that some particles of matter attract some other particles1 which would be a violation of that universal law which1 through the genius of ,newton1 has given to the universe an unity from the philosophical standpoint that it did not possess before4 ,some matter may1 or may not be elastic2 it may1 or may not be solid1 or liquid1 or gaseous2 but there is this fact regarding matter which is absolutely undeniable1 and that is1 ,all matter is gravitative4 ,that this is true of each and all kinds of matter has been proved by direct experiment times without number1 and the constant application of the law to all forms of matter is a fact observable from the phenomena incidental to every-day life4 ,astronomical observation teaches us also1 that all stars1 suns1 planets1 satellites1 and comets are subject to this great ,law of ,gravitation1 as indeed they must be if they are composed of matter4 ,that they are all composed of exactly similar elements of which the earth is composed1 has been proved again and again by spectroscopic analysis1 which teaches that hydrogen1 iron1 and calcium1 etc41 are to be found in distant stars and nebulae1 as they are equally to be found in the composition of the earth4 ,thus throughout the wide universe so far as observation and experiment can teach us1 we learn that without any exception1 everything that is termed matter is subject to this universal ,law of ,gravitation4 ,,art4 #ch4 ,matter possesses ,density4--,density is that property of matter which decides the weight of a body per unit of volume4 ,the density of any substance may be shown in several ways4 ,it may denote1 first of all1 the number of molecules in a given body4 ,let us take as an illustration1 the case of air being forced into a vessel of a given size1 say one cubic foot capacity4 ,we will suppose that in such a vessel there are #a1jjj1jjj molecules4 ,if we pump in a quantity of air equal to the amount it contained at first1 then it is obvious that we have doubled the number of molecules in the same vessel1 and therefore we say we have doubled the density4 ,not only so1 but the weight of the air in the vessel will have been doubled4 ,looked at from this standpoint1 density means the number of molecules in unit volume such as a cubic inch1 or cubic centimetre4 ,again1 as has already been shown in ,art4 #ce1 the different elements have different atomic weights4 ,thus an atom of carbon weighs twelve times as much as an atom of hydrogen1 that is to say1 there are twelve times as much matter by weight in an atom of carbon as there is in an atom of hydrogen1 so that it would take twelve times as many hydrogen atoms to weigh a pound as compared with the number of atoms of carbon4 ,this is only another way of stating that carbon has twelve times the density of hydrogen4 ,if we compare lead and silver with hydrogen in the same way1 we find that the density is #bjf times and #ajg times greater than that of hydrogen4 ,thus1 it may be seen1 that all matter possesses density1 and that that density depends partly upon its atomic constitution4 ,if the molecule of matter is composed of atoms whose atomic weights are very large compared with that of hydrogen1 as iron1 silver1 lead and gold1 then the molecules will have a much greater density1 than a molecule formed of oxygen and hydrogen1 i4 e4 water4 ,this property of the density of matter plays a most important part in the transmission of any kind of wave-motion4 ,,art4 #ci4 ,matter possesses ,elasticity4--,matter possesses elasticity4 ,elasticity is that property of matter which enables all bodies to resume their original shape1 when the pressure which has caused the alteration of shape has been removed4 ,for example1 suppose an ivory ball be dropped upon a marble table1 or any other hard surface4 ,it will then rebound1 and rise almost to the same height from which it was dropped4 ,if the surface upon which it fell was first covered with blacklead1 a circular spot of lead will be found on the ivory ball4 ,from this fact1 we arrive at the conclusion that when the ball came into contact with the table1 at the moment of contact it was flattened1 and then owing to its elasticity it rebounded into the air again4 ,now the measure of the elasticity of a body is proportionate to the velocity of the wave-motion which it can transmit4 ,a good illustration of the transmission of wave-motion may be shown with a number of ivory bagatelle or billiard balls4 ,if eight or more of these be put in a row1 all touching each other1 and a single ball be placed about an inch or so away from the others in a straight line with them1 then when the single ball is struck with a cue against the other eight1 the motion of the single ball is transmitted by each one of the eight successively with such rapidity1 that the end ball would be set in motion in a quicker time than a single ball would take to reach the end ball1 if it had been free to move along without encountering any opposition4 ,it is a fact capable of demonstration1 that the smaller the particle of matter1 the greater will be its vibratory motion4 ,thus the particles of air are very1 very small1 and consequently air is found to be very elastic1 and allows sound to be transmitted through it with comparatively great velocity1 some sounds travelling at the rate of over #ajjj feet per second4 ,a most important factor in determining the propagation of any wave-motion1 through a gas or solid1 is the relationship of the elasticity of the gas or solid to its density4 ,suffice to say1 that the velocity of any wave-motion is determined by the relation of the elasticity to the density4 ,for example1 sound1 which is a wave-motion of the air1 can not only be transmitted through gaseous bodies as air1 but also through liquids and solids4 ,sound travels faster through solids than through liquids1 and faster through liquids than through gases4 ,in liquids1 the relation of the elasticity to density is greater than in air1 and in solids the relation is greater still4 ,therefore sound travels much faster in liquids than in gases1 and faster in solids than in liquids4 ,this is the reason why a train can be heard coming if the ear is put to the railway-line1 when no indication of its approach is given to the ear by the atmosphere4 ,some examples of the velocities of sound through different substances are as follows-- ,gases ,o4 ,c4 ,liquids4 ,solids4 ,,feet ,,feet ,,feet ,air #ajij per sec4 ,water #dgjh per sec4 7#h ,c474 ,gold #egag per sec4 ,oxygen #ajdj ,alcohol #dbah 7#bj ,c474 ,silver #heec ,,art4 #dj4 ,matter possesses ,inertia4--,inertia is that property of matter1 by which matter cannot of itself alter1 or change its state of motion1 or of rest4 ,newton's first law of motion states that a body at rest remains at rest until some force or motion acts upon it4 ,if a stone be dropped from a balloon1 the stone does not fall because of any property which it possesses1 but because the force of gravity acts upon it4 ,if it were possible to eliminate this force of gravity1 then if there were no other force which could act upon the stone1 it would remain suspended in space4 ,the inertia of a body is equal to the mass of that body1 or the amount of matter in the body as measured by gravity1 so that if a body is halved1 its inertia will be halved also1 and if doubled1 its inertia will be doubled also4 ,as the inertia of matter opposes all kinds of motion1 the amount of force required to overcome the inertia of a body is proportionate to its mass4 ,so that if the mass of a body is doubled1 then twice the force would be required to move it1 while if the body were halved1 half the force would suffice to do it4 ,inertia is possessed quite as much by a moving body as a body at rest4 ,the definition given points this out1 as it states that matter cannot of itself change its state of motion4 ,if a body therefore is in motion1 it requires a certain amount of resistance to bring the body to a state of rest1 or the loss of an equal amount of energy1 by friction or otherwise1 equal to the quantity which it absorbed in order for it to be set in motion4 ,we get numerous examples of this property of the inertia of bodies in our daily experience4 ,many of the accidents that befall people in various ways are due to this property of the inertia of matter4 ,a cyclist is riding a machine down-hill1 and loses control over his machine1 with the result that he runs into a wall1 and is killed4 ,now what has happened8 ,the cyclist has participated in the motion of the machine1 with the result that when the machine has been suddenly stopped1 the body has been thrown forward owing to the momentum it had acquired4 ,we are constantly being affected by the property of inertia of matter1 in tram and train and bus4 ,whenever any of these are suddenly stopped1 or suddenly started1 we are thrown either backward or forward1 owing to the body either not having acquired the motion of the train1 or1 having acquired it1 is unable to lose its motion as quickly as the train1 and is therefore thrown forward4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,aether ,,is ,,matter ,,art4 #db4 ,aether is ,matter4--,the hypothesis of an ,aether which fills all space was made in order that scientists might be able to account for certain phenomena of ,light1 which otherwise were difficult to account for4 ,its existence is demanded not only for the phenomena of ,light1 and ,heat1 but1 in view of the comparatively recent researches of ,hertz on ,electric ,waves1 of ,electricity also4 ,the ,aetherial ,medium is generally assumed to be that fundamental medium1 by means of which possibly all the properties of matter1 and all the phenomena of motion of the universe are to be explained4 ,light and ,heat have been proved to be due to the periodic wave-motion of this universal ,aether1 while from the investigations and researches of such men as ,clerk ,maxwell1 ,poynting1 ,thompson and ,hertz1 it has been proved that electro-magnetic phenomena are due to this same medium4 ,several different forms of ,aether have been postulated by various philosophers from time to time1 but the only ,aether that has survived1 is that which was first conceived by ,huyghens to explain the phenomena of ,light1 though it was ,thomas ,young who finally succeeded in placing the conception of the ,aether on a sound basis4 ,each discovery of science has only strengthened the hypothesis and existence of the ,aether1 the latest discovery1 that of wireless telegraphy so successfully developed by ,signor ,marconi1 being attributed to the electro-magnetic properties of this self-same ,aether4 ,it has already been pointed out that ,newton endeavoured to account for ,gravitation by the pressure of the ,aether4 ,if1 therefore1 ,gravitation be really due to this universal medium it becomes necessary to ask ourselves1 ,what are the properties and characteristic qualities of this wonderful medium8 ,what then is ,aether1 and what its properties8 ,it has already been pointed out in ,art4 #bi that ,aether is matter4 ,such an assumption is strictly in accordance with the ,rules of ,philosophy1 quoted in ,chap4 ,i4 ,not only is this hypothesis a simple one1 but it is also in accord with all our experience and observation4 ,it is a simple supposition1 because1 unless ,aether is assumed to be matter1 then1 instead of the universe being composed of two classes of things1 matter and motion1 we have to add a third class1 which we call ,aether4 ,it can be readily seen1 that by the introduction of a third class into the composition of the universe1 such an addition1 instead of simplifying the constitution of the universe1 adds greater complexity to the same4 ,by accepting the hypothesis that ,aether is matter1 we do away with the third class of essentials in the universe1 and so reduce the number to two classes4 ,if we could go one step further1 and prove that instead of there being two classes of things in the universe1 there was only one group1 and show that all material things1 and all phenomena could come under the head of either matter1 or motion1 then we should have reduced the universe to the simplest conception possible4 ,as1 however1 it is not possible1 at least in our present state of knowledge1 for us to come to this fundamental and simple hypothesis of unity for the entire universe1 we must accept the next simpler solution1 and affirm that the universe is composed of two classes of things1 viz4 matter and motion1 and this as ,i have already shown is a simpler classification than by putting ,aether into a class by itself1 and therefore is in accord with our first ,rule of ,philosophy4 ,again1 it is entirely in accord with our second ,rule of ,philosophy1 as it in no way violates the results of experiment1 experience1 or observation4 ,look where we will1 or at what we will1 whatever we see1 touch1 taste1 or smell is termed matter4 ,the burning sun1 the glowing star1 the flying meteor1 the glowing comet1 the earth1 our own island home1 the towering rock1 the wide ocean1 the running river1 the green trees of the forest1 the tiny insect1 the lordly elephant1 all animals1 plants1 and our own physical body1 all are composed of matter1 either in solid1 liquid or gaseous form4 ,therefore when we affirm that ,aether is matter1 the affirmation is strictly in accordance with the elementary principles of ,philosophy1 and in no way violates their rules or laws4 ,to affirm that ,aether is not matter1 is to affirm something contrary to all experience1 unless it be affirmed that ,aether is motion1 for which assumption the evidence is not nearly so strong or conclusive as that it is matter4 ,therefore the objector to this assumption is himself unphilosophical1 in that he postulates or supposes that the ,aether is a medium1 with qualities which lie altogether outside the range of our experience and observation4 ,there is a growing conviction in the minds of scientific men1 that ,aether belongs to that group of things which we describe by the term matter4 ,lord ,kelvin in giving an address to the ,british ,association1 #aija1 on ,clustering of ,gravitational ,matter in any part of the ,universe1 said3 ,we are all convinced with our ,president 7,professor ,rucker7 that ,aether is ,matter4 ,aether we relegate to a distinct species of matter which has inertia1 rigidity1 elasticity1 compressibility1 but not heaviness4 ,dr4 ,larmor in ,aether and ,matter writes3 ,matter must be constituted of isolated portions1 each of which is of necessity a permanent nucleus belonging to the ,aether1 of some such type as is represented for example by a minute vortex ring in a perfect fluid4 ,faraday in relation to this subject writes 7,exp4 ,res41 vol4 ii473 ,the view now stated of the composition of matter would seem to involve the conclusion that matter fills all space1 or at least all space to which ,gravitation extends1 including the sun and its system1 for ,gravitation is a property of matter dependable on a certain ,force1 and it is this ,force which constitutes matter4 ,as the ,aether fills all space1 including the solar system1 therefore1 according to ,faraday1 ,aether must also be ,matter4 ,by the hypothesis that ,aether is matter1 with all the properties that such a hypothesis logically gives to ,aether1 ,i venture to premise that the third ,rule of ,philosophy will be fulfilled1 and that there is no phenomenon of the astronomical world1 and no part of the universal ,law of ,gravitation which such a hypothesis will fail to account for on a satisfactory physical basis4 ,for the first time a physical explanation will be given to ,newton's ,laws of ,motion1 at least to those laws which are strictly in accordance with the first and second ,rules of ,philosophy4 ,for the first time a physical conception will be given to all ,kepler's ,laws1 and what the mathematical ,laws of ,gravitation have done to ,kepler's ,laws1 in giving them a mathematical basis1 the simple hypothesis that ,aether is matter1 with all that is logically involved therein1 will do for the same laws from the physical standpoint4 ,for the first time a physical conception will be given to the ,centrifugal and ,centripetal ,forces1 which are the complement and the counterpart of each other1 that physical conception being the outcome of the same hypothesis that ,aether is matter4 ,in addition to this1 light is thrown upon such problems as are referred to by ,lord ,kelvin 7,phil4 ,mag41 ,july #aijb7 in his paper on ,clouds on the ,undulatory ,theory of ,light1 and further light is given to some theories of ,electricity advanced by such men as ,faraday1 ,clerk ,maxwell1 and ,professor ,thompson4 ,i venture to think1 therefore1 that the hypothesis advanced1 and the conception put forward that ,aether is matter1 is philosophically correct1 and is warranted by the results that arise out of such a hypothesis4 ,it may be thought by some that the hypothesis that ,i have advanced is already conceded1 and that the fact that ,aether is matter is already admitted by scientists and advanced thinkers generally4 ,but such an idea is only partly correct4 ,it is already admitted by some of our most advanced scientists that ,aether is matter1 but that admission is only carried partially to its logical conclusion4 ,lord ,kelvin in an address to the ,british ,association1 #aija1 gave utterance to the following remarks on the relation of ,aether to ,matter3 ,we are convinced with our ,president 7,professor ,rucker7 that ,aether is ,matter1 but we are forced to say that the properties of ,matter are not to be looked for in ,aether1 as generally known to us by action resulting from force between atoms of ,matter and atoms of ,aether4 ,here ,i am ,,illogical when ,i say between ,matter and ,aether1 as if ,aether were not ,matter4 ,aether we relegate to a distinct species of ,matter which has inertia1 rigidity1 elasticity1 compressibility1 but ,,not ,,heaviness4 ,from a quotation of this kind1 which is from the lips of one of the keenest intellects of the present time1 ,i think ,i am justified when ,i make the statement1 that it is not conceded that ,aether is matter1 with all that that concession logically involves4 ,because1 as ,lord ,kelvin points out1 though it is admitted that ,aether is matter1 yet that admission is only a qualified admission1 and not one which carries with it all the properties that essentially belong to matter1 or an admission which includes the fact that ,aether is gravitative1 that is1 subject to ,gravitation4 ,to be strictly logical and philosophical1 in the statement that ,aether is matter1 it must be conceded not only that ,aether is subject to such properties as elasticity1 inertia1 and compressibility1 but that it is also gravitative or possesses weight4 ,for either ,aether is matter1 or it is not matter4 ,it cannot be both at one and the same time4 ,such a conception is altogether opposed to that simplicity which is the chief characteristic of ,nature as pointed out by ,newton4 ,if therefore ,aether be matter1 then1 to be strictly logical and philosophical1 it must be conceded that ,aether is gravitative1 as well as having the other properties of matter1 as elasticity and inertia1 etc4 ,unless this is conceded1 then we have the anomaly in ,nature of matter1 which is not matter1 because it violates the very principles which above all others decide what is matter1 viz41 ,that every particle of matter attracts every other particle1 etc41 that is1 that it is gravitative4 ,thus by supposing that the ,aether is matter1 and yet not being gravitative1 all the ,rules of ,philosophy are violated1 as such a hypothesis is opposed to both the first and second ,rules of ,philosophy1 and is contrary to all observation and experience4 ,if ,aether therefore be matter1 as is conceded by the most advanced thinkers of the time1 then it follows that the only logical and philosophical conclusion that can be arrived at is1 that it is also subject to those properties which are the chief characteristics of all matter4 ,these properties may be classified as follows3 atomicity1 gravitation1 density1 elasticity1 inertia1 and compressibility4 ,,art4 #dc4 ,aether is ,universal4--,young in his first ,hypothesis on the ,aether medium states that1 ,a ,luminiferous ,aether pervades the ,universe rare and elastic in a high degree 7,phil4 ,tran41 #ahjb74 ,as ,young points out1 this invisible and elastic ,aether fills all space and floods the universe at large4 ,in it suns blaze1 stars shine1 worlds and planets roll1 meteors flash1 and comets rush in their mysterious flight4 ,in it all material and physical things exist1 for it is to them not only the primary medium of their existence1 but1 just as the infinite and ever-active energy of the ,divine is to the universe in its entirety and fulness1 the exciting and stimulating spirit of its energies and powers1 so this aetherial ocean is to the material and physical universe1 the exciting and stimulating medium of all its activities1 energies1 and powers2 and without which1 though all material and physical things were endowed with the varied capacities of their kind or life1 yet they could neither exert nor exercise them1 nor even exhibit the simple activity of motion4 ,hence everywhere1 where material and physical things are1 there1 as the medium of their existence and energy1 the ,aether is2 and where the ,aether is not1 no material or physical thing is1 or can be4 ,that the ,aether is universal is proved by the phenomena of light4 ,light-waves have a velocity of about #ahf1jjj miles per second4 ,now the distance of the sun from the earth is about #ib1jjj1jjj of miles1 so that light takes about eight minutes and a half to travel from the sun to the earth4 ,a ray of light from the nearest fixed star takes about three and a half years to reach the earth1 while there are some stars so far away that astronomers tell us1 that though light travels with so great a velocity1 yet it would take several thousand years to reach the earth4 ,this fact implies that throughout boundless space there is to be found this aetherial medium4 ,thus interplanetary and interstellar space is not empty1 but is filled with this ever-present1 all-pervading ,aether2 and not only so1 but every particle of matter in the universe is surrounded by this universal ,aether1 which forms the exciting and stimulating medium of all the activities1 energies1 and motions of all ,matter4 ,thus the ,aether is both universal and infinite in its extent4 ,clerk ,maxwell1 in his paper on ,action at a ,distance 7,collected ,works1 by ,niven71 with reference to the universality of the ,aether1 writes3 ,the vast interplanetary and interstellar regions will no longer be regarded as waste places in the universe1 which the ,creator has not seen fit to fill with the symbols of the manifold order of ,his ,kingdom4 ,we shall find them to be full of this wonderful medium1 so full1 that no human power can remove it from the smallest portion of space1 or produce the slightest flaw in its infinite continuity4 ,it extends unbroken from star to star1 and when a molecule of hydrogen vibrates in the ,dog ,star1 the medium receives the impulses of those vibrations1 and transmits them to distant worlds4 ,but the medium has other functions besides bearing light from world to world1 and giving evidence of the absolute unity of the material system of the universe4 ,its minute parts may have rotatory as well as vibratory motions1 and the axes of rotation form those lines of magnetic force which extend in unbroken continuity into regions which no eye has seen1 and which1 by their action on our magnets1 are telling us in language not yet interpreted what is going on in the hidden world from century to century4 ,now ,i premise1 that in the theory of the ,aether to be submitted in this work1 the physical interpretation of this statement of ,maxwell's will receive its literal fulfilment4 ,,art4 #dd4 ,aether is ,atomic4--,if there is one fundamental truth which is applicable to all matter1 it is1 that all matter is atomic4 ,professor ,rucker1 in his ,presidential ,address to the ,british ,association of #aija1 in dealing with this question1 said3 ,the believer in the atomic theory asserts that matter exists in a particular state1 that it consists of parts which are separate and distinct from one another1 and as such are capable of independent movement4 ,it is certain that matter consists of discrete parts in a state of motion1 which can penetrate into spaces between the corresponding parts of surrounding bodies4 ,every great advance in chemical knowledge during the last ninety years finds its interpretation in ,dalton's ,atomic ,theory4 ,from such an authority as this1 and from the facts which he gave in his dealing with the question1 we are bound to admit that all matter is atomic4 ,that being granted1 when the statement is made1 therefore1 that ,aether is matter1 the only logical conclusion that can be arrived at1 with reference to the question of the atomicity of the ,aether1 is1 that ,aether is also atomic4 ,unless this be conceded1 we have the first and second rules of our ,philosophy violated1 as an atomless ,aether is opposed to that simplicity of conception1 which is an essential requirement of all hypotheses1 and is moreover contrary to that presumptive evidence gathered from observation and experiment1 which teaches us that all matter is atomic4 ,if it be argued1 that it is impossible to decide upon a question as to the atomicity of the ,aether1 my reply is that the same argument may reasonably be applied to all matter4 ,but1 as ,professor ,rucker stated1 all the evidence on matter points out and supports the theory of its atomicity1 and1 therefore1 the only logical and philosophical conclusion is1 that ,aether is atomic also4 ,again1 it may be suggested that we cannot see or touch an atom of ,aether1 and that it is not only invisible1 but apparently incapable of being made sensible to our senses4 ,in reply to that1 as ,i have already shown in ,art4 #ca1 that objection can be equally used against an atom of hydrogen1 or an atom of oxygen4 ,does any one doubt the existence of the hydrogen atom or the atom of oxygen1 because it is invisible to the sense of sight1 or cannot be revealed to the limited sense of touch8 ,certainly not6 ,by the same reasoning1 it is just as illogical to deny the existence of an atom of ,aether because it cannot be seen or felt1 as it is to deny the existence of an atom of hydrogen or oxygen4 ,an atom of ,aether reveals itself to the senses in the same way that an atom of hydrogen or oxygen does1 that is1 by the force or energy which it exerts4 ,its vibrations can be manifested to the body in the form of heat1 while the undulatory motion which the aetherial atoms transmit in the form of light1 reveal the presence of the aetherial atom to the sense of sight4 ,the question at once arises as to what constitutes an aetherial atom1 what are its properties and motions8 ,now1 in order for us to enter successfully into this speculative region1 it is essential that we should1 as far as possible1 conform to the ,rules of ,philosophy1 and endeavour to gain some conception of an aetherial atom from the results of experience and observation4 ,in doing this1 we are at once confronted with the difficulty1 that no one has ever seen an atom1 or analyzed the properties of one4 ,actual experiment has revealed nothing absolutely certain as to the ultimate character of an atom1 and if this be true of the atoms of matter1 then it must also be true of an aetherial atom4 ,it would seem at first1 therefore1 that we have no results of experiment1 or observation1 by which we may be guided in formulating a right conception as to the constitution of an aetherial atom1 and therefore we are thrown simply into the regions of speculation as to its constitution and properties4 ,but ,i venture to suggest1 that there is a method which is strictly philosophical in its application1 by which we may possibly arrive at a clear conception of an aetherial atom4 ,all great discoveries of science have been the outcome of applying the principle1 that what is true of the visible and seen1 is true of the invisible and unseen2 that what is true of the known1 is true of the unknown2 that the principles and laws which govern the small also govern the large and the great4 ,it was thus that ,newton discovered his great ,law of ,gravitation1 as he was able from the falling of an apple1 to rise to the application of the same principle to our satellite the moon1 and this led him on to the discovery of the ,law of ,gravitation4 ,if1 therefore1 in ,philosophy1 the laws governing the small things are also applicable to the great things1 then the converse equally holds good1 that the laws governing great things are the reflex of the laws which govern the small things4 ,for example1 the laws which govern the light and heat of the sun are the same which govern the light and heat of a candle or a glow-worm2 and the laws which govern a planet or world are the same as those which govern an atom4 ,thus a planet or world1 which is simply an agglomeration of atoms1 may reveal to us in its motions and laws1 what are the motions and laws which govern the atomic world4 ,in looking at the properties and motions of a planet1 therefore1 as our earth for example1 we find that a planet is a sphere1 or more correctly an oblate spheroid2 that the earth or planet is a magnet possessing polarity1 having a north and south pole2 that it has rotation on an axis1 in addition to translation in an orbit1 and that it is subject to the universal ,law of ,gravitation4 ,if1 therefore1 it holds good in ,philosophy1 that the small things are the index to the greater1 and that the laws governing the small things also govern the greater1 then the converse holds good1 that what is true of the large is true of the small1 and that the laws governing the great also govern the small4 ,so that gathering up those chief properties of the earth to which ,i have already referred1 and applying them to an aetherial atom1 or any other atom if necessary1 we arrive at the conclusion that an atom must be spherical in shape1 must possess rotation1 and must have an orbit1 must possess polarity1 and also be subject to the universal ,law of ,gravitation4 ,here1 then1 we have given to us certain data by which we are enabled to form our conception of an atom1 aetherial or otherwise4 ,the question arises1 whether1 among the forms of atoms which have been devised by scientists1 any of the atoms so conceived fulfil all1 or nearly all of these requirements4 ,we have ,boscovitch's ,atom1 the ,hard ,atom of ,lucretius1 and the more recent conception of the ,vortex ,atom of ,lord ,kelvin4 ,of all the hypotheses in regard to the ultimate nature and constitution of an atom1 the ,vortex ,theory probably is the one which offers to the mind the simplest conception of an aetherial atom4 ,the ,vortex ,ring ,atom1 however1 which has been so fully developed by ,lord ,kelvin1 hardly fulfils all the requirements of an aetherial atom4 ,in the first place it is not spherical in shape1 and ,i hold that to be one of the fundamental bases of the aetherial atom4 ,then1 in the next place it does not1 so far as ,i can read1 possess polarity2 that is1 it does not possess a north and south pole1 through being a magnet in the same way as the earth is a magnet4 ,we must therefore look for a modification of the vortex ring to discover the constitution of our aetherial atom1 and ,i venture to think that such a modification is to be found in ,professor ,hill's conception of a ,spherical ,vortex ,atom 7,phil4 ,trans41 #ahid74 ,in the conception there put forward1 and mathematically worked out1 ,professor ,hill showed that his spherical vortex atom possessed similar properties and characteristics to the vortex rings of ,lord ,kelvin4 ,so that the spherical vortex atom would possess rotation on an axis1 and it would be a magnet1 as ,i shall prove later on1 because it rotates in an electro-magnetic medium4 ,it would possess elasticity1 compressibility1 inertia1 and1 further1 would possess a certain amount of mass4 ,that mass might be infinitely small1 but nevertheless it would possess mass of an infinitesimal order4 ,further1 if we are to be strictly correct1 in our analogy between the earth and the aetherial atom1 its polar diameter must be shorter than its equatorial diameter1 as that is one of the facts observable regarding the shape of our earth1 so that the shape of the aetherial atom will not be strictly spherical1 but its actual shape would be that of an oblate spheroid1 being flatter at the poles1 and bulging out in the equatorial regions4 ,this exact analogy between the earth and an aetherial atom may not at present seem of very great importance1 but its importance will be seen later on1 when we come to deal with the phenomena of heat1 light1 and electricity4 ,here1 then1 is our conception of an aetherial atom in the rough1 based not upon any imaginative hypothesis1 but rather upon that strict conformity to observation and experience1 which is the very groundwork of all true ,philosophy4 ,for1 after all1 what is the earth but an atom on a large scale8 ,in comparison with illimitable space1 with its infinite distances1 that can alone be measured by the velocity of light1 our own earth is but a speck of dust1 a very atom that helps to make up the universe1 and1 as such1 should teach us the shape and properties of other atoms of which the same universe is composed4 ,we have therefore to conceive of the all-space-pervading ,aether as being composed of infinitesimal portions of ,aether1 which are nearly spherical in shape1 and ever in a state of rotation2 this state of rotation differentiating the atom of ,aether from the free ,aether1 if such an entity exists4 ,so that an atom of ,aether would simply be an infinitesimal portion of the ,aether in a state of rotation4 ,if1 by any means1 we could stop the rotation1 we should at once destroy the atom1 in the same way that the smoke vortex ring would cease to be a ring1 if its rotation were stopped4 ,the cessation of the rotation ,i1 however1 believe to be impossible4 ,so that even in the ultimate atom of that universal medium the ,aether1 we have an illustration of the combination of those two forms which are inseparably connected throughout the whole universe1 viz4 matter and motion1 and it is the combination of these two that gives to the aetherial atom its form1 and its very existence1 without which it has no life1 and ceases to exist4 ,it may be necessary in the development of this work as we proceed1 to slightly modify our conception of the aetherial atom1 but that modification will rather be of a constructive character1 than a destructive one4 ,there may also be certain objections to meet and explain away when we deal with the phenomena of light1 heat1 and electricity1 and ,gravitation1 and the part which the aetherial atom plays in those phenomena1 but these objections ,i hope to meet and answer as they arise4 ,the atomicity of the ,aether has already been suggested by such scientists as ,clerk ,maxwell1 ,lord ,kelvin1 ,dr4 ,larmor1 and ,professors ,lodge and ,j4 ,j4 ,thompson4 ,clerk ,maxwell1 in an article on ,action at a ,distance1#c referring to the atomicity of the ,aether1 writes3 ,its minute parts may have rotatory as well as vibratory motions1 and the axes of rotation may form those lines of magnetic force which extend in unbroken continuity into regions which no eye has seen4 ,i premise that ,i will conclusively prove that this statement finds its literal fulfilment in the theory of the ,aether that will be developed in this work4 ,lord ,kelvin1 in several articles on ,vortex ,motion in the ,philosophical ,magazines of recent years1 has mathematically dealt with the ,aether from the atomic standpoint1 and has endeavoured to prove that the ,aether medium is composed of vortex rings1 but he was unable to come to any satisfactory conclusion4 ,with the theory that ,aether is matter1 and therefore possesses mass1 his conception is now brought within the range of physical explanation1 as well as mathematical calculation4 ,dr4 ,larmor1 in his ,aether and ,matter1 has successfully applied the principle of the atomicity to the ,aether1 on what is termed the ,electron basis4 ,he states that an electron is nothing more or less than a point singularity in the electro-dynamic and optical ,aether4 ,so that our aetherial atom is practically synonymous with ,dr4 ,larmor's electron4 ,again1 ,dr4 ,larmor1 in the same work1 states that the atomicity of electricity is coming within the scope of direct experiment4#d ,but ,professor ,lodge1 in his ,modern ,views of ,electricity1 states that the ,aether is composed of positive and negative electricity1 the combination of these two forming the ,aether medium4#e ,now1 if the ,aether is composed of positive and negative electricity1 and the atomicity of electricity is coming within the scope of direct experiment1 it follows as a matter of necessity that the atomicity of ,aether and the atomicity of electricity are one and the same1 and therefore the atomicity of ,aether is coming within the scope of direct experiment4 ,professor ,j4 ,j4 ,thompson1 who has also attacked the problem of the atomicity of electricity1 speaks of corpuscles which are the actual carriers of the positive and negative electricity1 in the atoms of the various elements4 ,these corpuscles therefore indicate the fact that electricity has an atomic basis4 ,now if there is any such identity between ,aether and electricity1 as there undoubtedly is1 and electricity has an atomic basis1 then the atomicity of the ,aether follows as a matter of course1 otherwise we shall have a medium composed of atoms which is itself not atomic1 which conclusion is absurd and therefore unphilosophical4 ,so that the most recent researches into electricity confirm and establish the atomicity of the ,aether4 ,footnote #c3 ,collected ,works1 by ,niven4 ,footnote #d3 ,preface to ,aether and ,matter4 ,footnote #e3 ,page #cdh4 ,,art4 #de4 ,aether is ,gravitative4--,young1 in the ,philosophical ,trans4 of #ahjb1 in regard to this question1 states in his ,fourth ,hypothesis3 ,all material bodies have an attraction for the aetherial medium1 by means of which it is accumulated within their substance1 and for a small distance around them1 in a state of greater density1 but not greater elasticity4 ,he adds that this fourth hypothesis is opposed to that of ,newton's4 ,scientific research has justified the conception of his first three hypotheses with respect to the universality1 elasticity and vibrations of the aetherial medium1 but up to the present ,i am not aware that science has accepted his fourth hypothesis4 ,i propose to show how1 from a strictly philosophical and logical standpoint1 his fourth hypothesis is just as true as his first three hypotheses1 and that it henceforth passes out of the realm of the hypothetical into the realms of fact and science1 not only by philosophical reasoning1 but by actual experiment made by some of the most advanced scientists of the present time4 ,let us consider the question first from the standpoint of the ,rules of ,philosophy4 ,our first ,rule of ,philosophy states1 that any hypothesis must be simple in connection4 ,now ,i put it to any intelligent man1 and ask him which is the simpler conception of ,aether8 ,to affirm that ,aether is matter1 and therefore subject to the properties of matter1 as elasticity1 density1 inertia and ,gravitation1 or to affirm that ,aether is matter1 but while it is subject to some of the properties of matter1 as elasticity1 density and inertia1 it is not subject to the very property which of all properties is the most fundamental1 viz4 ,gravitation4 ,there can1 in my opinion1 only be one answer to the question1 so that1 when we affirm that ,aether is matter1 we are compelled to affirm1 in order to conform to the first ,rule of ,philosophy1 that it is gravitative also4 ,faraday was also of the opinion that ,aether was subject to the ,law of ,gravity1 for1 writing in ,experimental ,researches1 he states3 ,the view now stated of the constitution of matter1 would seem to involve the conclusion1 that matter fills all space1 or at least all space to which ,gravitation extends1 ,,including ,,the ,,sun ,,and ,,its ,,system4 ,for ,gravitation is a property of matter1 dependable on a certain force1 and it is this force which constitutes matter4 ,let us also test the question by our second ,rule of ,philosophy1 and we shall find greater evidence still for the statement that ,aether is gravitative4 ,what do experience and observation teach us with reference to matter8 ,as we have already seen 7,art4 #cg71 if there is one truth that they teach us regarding matter1 it is that it is gravitative4 ,there is not the slightest evidence throughout the universe1 as far as our observation can lead us to form an opinion1 that there is any kind of matter which is not subject to the ,law of ,gravitation4 ,therefore to assume that ,aether is matter1 and yet not to assume that it is also subject to ,gravitation1 is to assume that which is directly opposed to the most fundamental principle of all philosophical teaching and scientific research4 ,if ,aether be matter1 therefore1 and yet is not gravitative1 we shall have an anomaly in an otherwise universal law1 as we shall have some kind of matter which fails to come within the scope of the universal ,law of ,gravitation4 ,to be consistent1 therefore1 we must either cease to call ,aether matter1 or else admit that ,aether1 like all other matter1 is gravitative4 ,it is absolutely impossible to be strictly logical and admit that ,aether is matter1 and not to admit that it is subject to the most universal law that governs matter1 as the ,law of ,gravitation distinctly states that every particle or atom of matter attracts every other particle4 ,this universal law in view of a gravitationless ,aether would have to be amended to ,some particles of matter attract some other particles4 ,thus the universal ,law of ,gravitation ceases at once to be a universal law1 and such a result is opposed to all experience and experiment4 ,again1 let us apply our third ,rule of ,philosophy to this supposed gravitationless ,aether1 and see what the result is4 ,our third rule states1 that any hypothesis put forward must satisfactorily account for the phenomena sought to be explained and accounted for4 ,the ,aether was conceived in order to explain the phenomena of light1 and one of the properties it was conceived to possess was elasticity1 yet that very conception was devoid of the most fundamental property of matter1 without which there is no elasticity1 that is1 that it was not atomic4 ,i have already shown in ,art4 #dd1 that ,aether is atomic1 and therefore there is given to the ,aether a structure which is capable of exhibiting elasticity1 inertia1 density1 and even ,gravitation1 while at the same time1 the conception is fully in harmony with philosophical reasoning and ,newton's ,rules of ,philosophy4 ,let us consider the question whether ,aether is1 or is not gravitative1 from another aspect4 ,for several hundred years1 the physical cause of ,gravitation has been outstanding1 while the world has held the conception that ,aether is a gravitationless and frictionless medium4 ,the earth has been rolling on in her orbit year in1 year out1 together with all the other planets in their annual march round the sun1 and yet through all that time no one has been able to suggest1 or give any satisfactory or adequate physical explanation1 as to what moves the earth along4 ,i am fully aware that ,newton suggested and proved1 that it was because of the ,law of ,gravitation4 ,but ,i look upon that as a mathematical explanation and not as a physical one4 ,now ,i venture to predict this1 that on the assumption of a gravitationless medium1 the physical explanation so longed for will always be outstanding1 as a gravitationless ,aether is synonymous with a frictionless medium1 and so long as we admit that there is a frictionless medium1 so long will the physical cause of ,gravitation1 and therefore the physical cause of all the movements of the planets and comets1 be outstanding and unexplained4 ,if1 however1 instead of being illogical in our reasoning1 we become logical1 and affirm that ,aether is matter1 and because all matter is gravitative1 therefore ,aether is gravitative2 and if1 instead of being unphilosophical1 we become philosophical1 and affirm that because a gravitationless ,aether violates both the first and second ,rules of ,philosophy1 such a conception must be put away1 and in its place a more philosophical conception must be forthcoming1 which is that ,aether is gravitative2 then1 upon such a logical and philosophical basis1 ,i venture to premise that the great problem which is still outstanding of the cause of ,gravitation1 will remain outstanding no longer1 and the physical cause of all the movements of all celestial bodies will be put upon a physical basis1 in addition to a mathematical one4 ,if such a result can be arrived at by the logical and philosophical conception of a gravitative ,aether1 then the three ,rules of ,philosophy are fully satisfied1 and the assumption of a gravitative ,aether is warranted on a strictly philosophical basis4 ,so that ,thomas ,young is strictly correct from a philosophical standpoint in his fourth hypothesis1 when he states3 ,that all material bodies have an attraction for the aetherial medium1 by means of which it is accumulated within their substance and for a small distance around them in a state of greater density but not greater elasticity4 ,he is not1 however1 correct when he states that though there is a greater density near the body1 there is not a greater elasticity1 as such an assumption is opposed to experiment and observation in relation to perfect gases1 as ,i shall show when dealing with the elasticity of the ,aether4 ,again1 in view of the fact that the ,aether is atomic1 it can now be easily understood how it may be subject to ,gravitation4 ,the very essence of ,gravitation is that atoms1 or particles1 attract each other4 ,if there were no particles1 or atoms1 it is obvious that there would be no attraction1 and therefore no ,gravitation4 ,wherever1 therefore1 there are to be found atoms of any kind or sort1 whether they be atoms of hydrogen1 oxygen1 silver or aetherial atoms1 there the ,law of ,gravitation holds good1 and attraction between these atoms is to be found4 ,in other words1 any substance which is atomic1 is also gravitative4 ,now ,aether is atomic as has been shown1 and therefore from that standpoint it is also gravitative4 ,it may1 however1 be objected that the assumption of gravitative properties for the ,aether is after all but a speculation1 and that ,young's fourth hypothesis was only a hypothesis1 and that the gravitating properties of the aetherial medium have never come within the scope of direct experiment1 without which no hypothesis can be fully accepted4 ,if such an argument be advanced against a gravitating ,aether1 then ,i must differ from those scientists who advance such an objection4 ,my contention is that the gravitating properties of the ,aether have already been made the subject of some of the most refined and delicate experiments that have been made during the past few years4 ,i refer to the experiments of ,michelson and ,morley of ,america4 ,for an outline and explanation of such experiments ,i must refer the reader to the ,phil4 ,mag4 of ,december #ahhg4 ,now what is the result of these experiments8 ,i believe it is almost unanimously conceded by all scientists1 that their experiments prove that the ,aether is carried along by the earth4 ,let us carefully look at this conclusion and see what it implies in relation to the question at issue4 ,if the ,aether is carried along by the earth1 it necessarily follows that there is some governing law or principle which holds it to the earth1 while the earth moves through space with its velocity of #fh1jjj miles per hour4 ,now what is that governing principle or law1 which is capable of holding such an aetherial atmosphere to its central body8 ,if we wish to be strictly philosophical1 it is necessary1 according to our second ,rule of ,philosophy1 that we should not go outside experience and the analogy of ,nature4 ,where is there a similar analogy in ,nature to that of the ,aether being carried along through space by the earth8 ,i know of only one analogy which can be used1 and that is the analogy of the atmosphere1 which is also carried along by the earth through space1 as it rushes on in its orbit round the sun4 ,that being so1 the question arises1 what principle or law holds the atmosphere to the earth8 for1 whatever be the law which governs the atmosphere1 to be consistent with the second ,rule of ,philosophy1 we must infer that the same law also holds the ,aether in its place4 ,there is only one answer to the latter question1 and that is the ,law of ,gravitation4 ,if it were not for that law1 and the fact that the atmosphere is subject to that law1 the atmosphere would simply be swept off from its central body1 the earth1 as the latter rushed through space with its comparatively enormous velocity4 ,the only legitimate and philosophical conclusion that we can arrive at1 therefore1 is that the ,aether must be carried along with its central body1 the earth1 through being acted upon by the self-same ,law of ,gravitation1 and for it to be so acted upon it must obviously be gravitative4 ,it would be unphilosophical to suggest that it was held in its place by any other force1 as that would be introducing a new force or law into ,nature1 contrary to our experience in relation to an exactly similar phenomenon of ,nature4 ,we have therefore1 it seems to me1 direct proof by actual experiment that ,young's fourth hypothesis was correct1 and that not only in relation to the atomic world1 but also in relation to the planetary world1 and the stellar world1 all bodies exert an attractive influence upon the surrounding ,aether1 by means of which the ,aether is accumulated near the surfaces of all bodies in a state of greater density1 and therefore of greater elasticity4 ,let us apply this truth to the solar system1 and see what we get4 ,if it is true that the earth exerts an attractive influence upon the surrounding ,aether by means of which it is held in its place relatively to the earth1 then it is equally true that ,mercury1 ,venus1 ,mars1 ,jupiter1 ,saturn1 ,uranus and ,neptune also exert gravitating or attractive influences upon the surrounding ,aether1 in the same way that they do upon their own atmospheres4 ,so that in their cases also1 the surrounding ,aether is carried along by them through space4 ,professor ,stokes has suggested that this is so1 in order to account for the aberration of light1 as we shall see later on4 ,not only so1 but the sun also would have an attractive power over the ,aether by means of which its aetherial atmosphere would be carried through space1 as it moved along in its progress at an estimated rate of #ag1jjj or #ah1jjj miles per hour4 ,i would like to point out here1 that this explanation of the effect of the planets' attractive power over the surrounding ,aether is only a partial one1 as there are other effects directly involved in the fact that the ,aether is subject to the gravitating influence of all satellites and planets4 ,this is not the place1 however1 to go fuller into the matter1 the consideration of the subject being taken up in a later chapter4 ,thus ,i have tried to show a gravitating ,aether is strictly in accord with the three ,rules of ,philosophy1 for it is simple in conception1 is not contrary to experience1 and by it ,i premise that it is possible to explain the physical cause of ,gravitation1 with all that is involved in that law4 ,once more1 if ,aether is gravitative1 then every atom and particle in the universe1 as well as every planet1 and sun1 and star1 exert an attractive power over the ,aether1 so that every atom is enveloped in an atmosphere of ,aether1 in the same way that every planet1 and sun1 and star is enveloped by the aetherial atmosphere4 ,the ,aether1 however1 while it may flow through the spaces that exist between the molecules of bodies1 yet is held bound to those molecules in the same way1 and by exactly the same force1 that holds the atmosphere to a planet or world4 ,further1 if the atoms possess different masses or weights1 as they do1 then each atom would possess an aetherial atmosphere proportionate to its mass1 with the result that an atom of carbon1 with its atomic weight of #ab1 ought to possess a denser aetherial atmosphere than an atom of hydrogen1 and so on right through the atomic scale4 ,i need hardly point out that this conception of the ,aether in relation to atoms1 and molecules of bodies1 will solve certain problems relating to the density of ,aether in connection with matter1 which problem up to the present cannot be solved by the present conception of a frictionless medium4 ,that problem may be stated as follows3 ,does the presence of matter affect the ,aether in any way1 so as to load or make it denser8 ,professor ,lodge1 in ,modern ,views of ,electricity1 in relation to the density of the ,aether1 writes3 ,the neighbourhood of gross matter seems to render ,aether more dense4 ,it is difficult to suppose that it can really condense an incompressible fluid1 but it may load it1 or otherwise modify it1 so as to produce the effect of increased density4 ,in view of the fact that ,aether is gravitative1 the reply is to be found in the ,law of ,gravitation1 ,every particle of matter attracts every other particle of matter1 etc41 and as ,aether is matter1 it will be attracted by the other matter irrespective of whether that matter be in the atomic1 molecular1 or planetary or stellar form4 ,we shall see that this is so when we come to deal with the density of the ,aether4 ,it may be objected in relation to this aspect of ,aether1 that ,young also asserted that the ,aether flows as freely through matter1 as the air flows through the trees of the forest1 and that such a statement therefore contradicts his fourth proposition regarding the gravitating properties of ,aether4 ,a little reflection will1 however1 put a different construction on this objection4 ,let us consider the analogy from the standpoint of experience1 and see what that analogy teaches us4 ,from experience we learn that the air is gravitative1 but we also learn that it is possible to be moved from place to place as winds1 and that as such it can move freely between the trees of the forest1 causing their boughs and leaves to tremble and bend beneath its energy and power4 ,i have yet to learn1 however1 that while it moves between the trees as separate and distinct objects1 such a movement militates or destroys its gravitating properties4 ,does the air cease to be any less gravitative1 or subject to the ,law of ,gravity1 when it is subject to certain movements1 which give rise to certain currents as winds8 ,such an assumption is altogether opposed to philosophical reasoning4 ,whether the air is stationary or in motion1 it is ever subject to the great ,law of ,gravitation1 and accepting that as an analogy1 the apparent contradiction between the oft-quoted simile of ,young and his fourth hypothesis is at once removed1 and from analogy we learn that it is quite possible for ,aether to move between bodies because of certain currents which may be originated by heat1 light or electricity1 yet at the same time the existence of such currents does not violate its gravitating tendency4 ,young's fourth hypothesis is therefore in perfect harmony with his oft-quoted simile1 that the ,aether flows through the interstices of bodies as the wind flows through a group of trees1 but like the air-currents it does not so flow unless the currents are generated by some form of energy1 as heat or light1 electricity or magnetism4 ,from these considerations therefore we are compelled to come to the conclusion that ,aether1 like all other matter1 is subject to the same universal ,law of ,gravitation4 ,if further evidence of the gravitating tendency of the ,aether were required1 ,i would refer the reader to ,lord ,kelvin's utterance on this subject4 ,lord ,kelvin1 ,phil4 ,mag41 ,november #ahii1 in relation to the ,aether writes3 ,we are accustomed to call ,aether imponderable4 ,how do we know that it is imponderable8 ,if we had never dealt with air except by our senses1 air would be imponderable to us1 but we know by experiment that a vacuum glass tube shows an increased weight when air is allowed to flow into it4 ,we have not the slightest reason to believe that ,aether is imponderable4 ,it is just as likely to be attracted by the sun as air is4 ,at all events the onus of proof rests with those who assert it is imponderable4 ,i think we shall have to modify our ideas of what ,gravitation is1 if we have a mass spreading through space with mutual attraction between its parts1 without being attracted by other bodies4 ,we have already seen in the previous article that ,faraday was of opinion that the ,law of ,gravitation extended throughout the whole of the solar system1 and as ,aether fills the solar system1 then obviously ,aether must also be subject to the ,law of ,gravitation4 ,,art4 #df4 ,aether possesses ,density4--,that matter possesses density has already been shown in ,art4 #ch1 and on the hypothesis that ,aether is matter1 ,aether must possess density also4 ,this property has already been postulated for the ,aether1 in order to account for certain phenomena in connection with the reflection and refraction of light4 ,young assumed different densities for the ,aether near bodies owing to its being attracted by those bodies 7,art4 #de74 ,reflection and refraction of light are produced by a change of density of the ,aether4 ,it is now generally accepted that the optical difference of bodies depends mainly on the different densities of ,aether in association with those bodies4 ,professor ,tyndall1 in his ,lectures on ,light1 writes on the density of the ,aether as follows3 ,the density of the ,aether is greater in liquids and solids than in gases1 and greater in gases than in vacuo4 ,a compressing force seems to be exerted on the ,aether by the molecules of these bodies4 ,apart1 however1 from the atomicity and gravitative properties of the ,aether1 it is difficult to understand how there can be density of the medium1 and still more difficult to give a satisfactory explanation of different degrees of density for the same medium1 which some scientists assume it to have4 ,if1 however1 all that is logically included in the statement that ,aether is matter1 and therefore is atomic and gravitative1 is conceded1 then1 from the analogy of our own atmosphere in relation to the earth1 the density of the ,aether1 and different degrees of density also1 is at once put upon a logical and philosophical basis1 as it is brought into harmony with all experience and observation1 and is simple in its conception4 ,on the other hand1 an ,aether which is not atomic or gravitative cannot possess different degrees of density1 except by assuming the existence of some unknown law of which we have no knowledge1 which conception is altogether opposed to the fundamental principles of simplicity1 observation1 and experiment as laid down not only by ,newton but by every true philosopher4 ,therefore1 that ,aether can possess different degrees of density1 is only the logical outcome of the statement that ,aether is matter1 seeing that such a statement without the shadow of a doubt must at least imply that it is gravitative4 ,i need hardly point out1 that it is much more philosophical to be able to account for the density of the ,aether in a reasonable and philosophical manner1 than simply to postulate for the ,aether certain properties and qualities1 because certain phenomena demand the existence of such properties4 ,the ,aether has been such a hypothetical medium1 that it has been easy to postulate for it certain properties1 if certain phenomena have demanded the existence of those properties4 ,thus if the ,aether were required to be elastic1 then elasticity was postulated for it2 if more elastic1 then greater elasticity was added4 ,if density were demanded1 then density was postulated1 and if less or more density1 less or more density was given to it4 ,that method of speculation may be satisfactory up to a certain point1 but no one will admit that such a method is wholly philosophical4 ,it will be a far better method to adopt1 if1 in dealing with the universal ,aether1 we can make it conform to certain recognized laws and principles1 and from the application of those well-known laws1 be able to infer the exact constitution of this space-filling ,aether medium4 ,now the question arises1 if ,aether is gravitative1 what effect has the ,gravitation of any body1 be it an atom1 or a meteor or planet1 sun or star1 upon the ,aether in which it moves1 and which surrounds it8 ,that we may have some light thrown upon the matter1 ,i would like now to take the reader to ,newton's ,optics1 in order that he may give us his opinion as to this property of density of the ,aether4 ,in his nineteenth query ,newton 7,optics7 asks this question-- ,is not this medium much rarer within the dense bodies of the sun1 stars1 planets and comets than in the empty spaces between them1 and in passing from them to great distances1 doth it not grow denser and denser perpetually1 and thereby cause the gravity of those great bodies towards one another1 and of their part towards the bodies1 every body endeavouring to go from the denser parts of the medium towards the rarer8 ,here then we have given to us an indication of what is the possible state of things in relation to the gravitation of the ,aether1 and all bodies in solar and stellar space4 ,the only mistake that ,newton made1 was in inverting the right order of comparatively dense and rarer parts of the aetherial medium1 by putting the rarer parts of the medium near to the bodies1 and supposing the denser parts to be farther away in space4 ,as a matter of fact1 the correct view is exactly the opposite1 that is1 if we are to form our conception by following out those philosophical rules that ,newton laid down4 ,for either the rules are right1 or his supposition is right4 ,they cannot both be right1 as his supposition is contrary to the second ,rule of ,philosophy1 as all experience and observation from the analogy of ,nature teach us that a medium enveloping any body1 as planet1 star or sun1 is densest nearest to the body1 becoming rarer the further that medium gets away from the central body4 ,let us take for our illustration the best example1 that experience and observation afford1 that of the atmosphere surrounding the earth4 ,the analogy is so perfect1 that one is almost tempted to believe that the atmosphere and the ,aether are in some way intimately associated with each other4 ,some years ago ,lord ,kelvin was of the opinion that the ,aether was but an extension of the atmosphere1 though ,i am not certain whether he holds that view at the present time4 ,clerk ,maxwell1 writing in the ,phil4 ,mag4 in ,may #ahfa1 writes3 ,i have deduced from this result the relation between statical or dynamical electricity1 and have shown that the elasticity of the magnetic medium in air is the same as that of the luminiferous medium1 if these two coexistent1 coextensive1 and equally elastic media are not rather one medium4 ,now for the comparison4 ,both the atmosphere and ,aether are matter4 ,both are atomic1 both are gravitative1 both possess elasticity1 and both possess density4 ,the atmosphere also possesses different degrees of density1 so does the ,aether4 ,in the case of the atmosphere1 however1 experience and experiment teach us that the atmosphere is denser nearer the earth than farther away4 ,when we ascend mountains1 it is a matter of common knowledge that the higher we ascend1 that is the further we get from the earth1 the rarer the atmosphere becomes4 ,when we ascend in balloons1 we find that the air becomes so rare and so light1 that the blood will flow from the nose1 on account of the reduced pressure exerted on it1 the pressure inside the body being greater than that outside4 ,now in accordance with our second ,rule of ,philosophy1 if experience is to be any guide at all1 then it most conclusively teaches us that the ,aether being subject to the same laws as the atmosphere1 the same results inevitably follow4 ,therefore the ,aether nearest the earth is denser than any layer immediately above it1 and that layer denser than the one above it1 and so on for great distances1 with the result that the only conclusion we can come to in regard to the density and rarity of ,aether in relation to all gravitating bodies is1 that the densest part of the ,aether is nearest to them1 and the rarest1 the farthest away from them4 ,so that while ,newton's suggestion in his nineteenth query is correct in principle1 it is incorrect in application to space4 ,i would like to point out here1 that what is true of the earth in relation to the density of the surrounding ,aether1 must also be true1 according to our second ,rule of ,philosophy1 of every other planet1 or sun1 or star4 ,so that every planet1 satellite1 every sun or star has its atmosphere1 if ,i may so term it1 of ,aether1 which obeys and follows the same laws as the earth's atmosphere does4 ,this is a most important fact1 and has a most important bearing upon the physical cause of ,gravitation as applied to each planet1 and sun and star1 as ,i shall afterwards show4 ,i wish now to bring the reader into contact with a ,theory of ,gravitation that was given to the world by ,professor ,challis of ,cambridge1 #ahgb4 ,in the ,philosophical ,magazine of ,june of that year he writes3 ,i assume that all the active forces of ,nature are different modes of pressure under different circumstances of a universal elastic ,aether1 which presses always proportionately to its density4 ,now what ,i wish to point out is1 that while ,prof4 ,challis admits the density of the ,aether1 and also varying degrees of density1 as he states that the ,aether presses proportionately to the density1 he does not show how that varying density is accounted for4 ,if there is this varying density1 then there must be some underlying principle which governs the variation in density1 and ,i know of only one principle or law which can regulate that variation in density1 and that is that ,aether is gravitative1 and being gravitative it not only possesses density1 but also variations in density4 ,thus by admitting that ,aether is gravitative1 because it is matter1 we have at once a satisfactory explanation for the density of the ,aether and also for different degrees of density both in the atomic world1 and in the planetary and stellar world4 ,,art4 #dg4 ,aether is ,elastic4--,in ,art4 #ci1 matter was shown to be elastic1 and on the assumption that ,aether is matter1 the elasticity of the ,aether1 which has been postulated for it by various scientists1 can be logically and philosophically accounted for4 ,in view of the transmission of light through space with a definite and finite velocity1 we are compelled to regard ,aether as possessing elasticity1 similar to that of an elastic solid body4 ,if we take the analogy of sound1 we find that sound is transmitted and propagated through matter1 by waves of alternate condensation and rarefaction1 and that transmission is regulated by the relation of the density of the medium to its elasticity4 ,light has been proved to be due to the undulatory wave-motions of the ,aether1 and in order to account for the transmission of the wave-motion1 it is essential that the ,aether should possess the property of elasticity4 ,as ,young points out in his ,first ,hypothesis1#f the ,aether possesses this property of elasticity1 but with the advance of scientific knowledge and research1 the elasticity of the ,aether may be said to have passed out of the hypothetical stage1 into the state of actual fact and experiment4 ,both ,mc,cullagh and ,fresnel have assumed this property of elasticity for the aetherial medium in order to account for certain phenomena of light4 ,apart1 however1 from the atomicity of the ,aether1 it is exceedingly difficult to understand how such a property can belong to it4 ,atoms are exceedingly small particles1 possessing the property of elasticity1 or the power to recover their original shape after distortion or change of shape4 ,if the ,aether therefore be atomic1 as is pointed out in ,art4 #dd1 it can at once be readily understood how the ,aether as a whole can possess the property of elasticity4 ,the atoms of the ,aether must be inconceivably small1 as the light-waves travel with the enormous velocity of #ahf1jjj miles per second4 ,what must therefore be the atomic vibration which such a statement implies8 ,if1 on the other hand1 the ,aether is assumed to be continuous and non-atomic1 it must be seen how exceedingly difficult it is to account for the elasticity of the ,aether1 as it seems absolutely impossible for a medium which is continuous1 and non-atomic1 to be able to transmit the waves of light with a finite velocity4 ,apart1 therefore1 from atomicity of some kind or other1 elasticity of the ,aether is an assumption philosophically incorrect1 as it is contrary to that simplicity of conception laid down by ,newton1 and is also contrary to all experience1 and thus violates the second ,rule of ,philosophy4 ,aether therefore must be said to be perfectly elastic2 so perfectly elastic1 that it is susceptible to the least touch of any natural thing1 so that even an atom1 so small that it cannot be seen with the most powerful microscope1 yet so elastic is this ,aether medium1 that the least motion or vibration of one of these atoms1 though the motion did not exceed the #bj- or #dj-millionth part of an inch1 yet even this would create in the aetherial ocean1 ,aether-waves1 just as a body moving in water creates water-waves1 which1 radiating from the place of their birth1 beget and create others1 the process continuing until they reach the margin of the water in which they were generated4 ,it is precisely so with these ,aether-waves1 when once generated and set in motion4 ,they create others1 the process being continued and perpetuated2 and1 unless arrested in their course1 may continue until they reach the very limits and confines of material immensity and space4 ,it is1 perhaps1 only necessary to say1 regarding the perfection of the elasticity of the ,aether medium1 that though it takes from #dj1jjj to #fi1jjj waves to complete the space of one inch in extent1 yet it is done with such miraculous rapidity1 as to speed the distance of #ahf1jjj miles in the short space of a second of time2 or1 taking the number of ,aether-waves to complete an inch as #ej1jjj1 its elasticity is such that it makes #ej1jjj #ahf1jjj #ab #ebhj vibrations in one second of time4 ,we have already seen in ,art4 #ci1 that according to ,boyle and ,marriotte's ,law1 the velocity of a wave-motion1 as sound in the air1 is determined by the relation of the elasticity of the medium to its density4 ,if the temperature of the atmosphere remains the same1 then the elasticity varies in the same proportion as its density4 ,according to ,art4 #de1 ,aether is gravitative1 and that fact produces different degrees of density in the aetherial atmosphere of an atom or planet or meteor1 sun or star2 that part of the ,aether being densest nearest the central body1 and rarer the further we go away from that body4 ,now the question at once arises1 what is the effect of the increased density of the ,aether near the body upon the elasticity of the ,aether8 ,from the analogy of sound in air1 we arrive at the conclusion that ,boyle and ,marriotte's ,law equally applies to the ,aether1 as it does to the atmosphere of any planet4 ,that is1 if the temperature of any stratum or layer of the ,aether remains the same1 then the elasticity of the aetherial medium in that layer is proportionate to its density1 so that while the gravitating property of the ,aether makes it denser nearest the central body1 the fact that the elasticity is proportionate to the density1 does not affect the transmission of any wave-motion4 ,footnote #f3 ,phil4 ,trans41 #ahjb4 ,,art4 #dh4 ,aether possesses ,inertia4--,from ,art4 #dj we have seen that all matter possesses inertia1 inertia being that property of matter by which it cannot of itself change its state of motion or of rest4 ,if ,aether be matter1 therefore1 then it must also possess inertia4 ,this property of inertia is already postulated for ,aether by scientists1 and to that extent is conformable to the ,rules of ,philosophy4 ,professor ,tyndall1 with reference to the inertia of the ,aether1 writes3 ,the motion of ,aether communicated to material substances throws them into motion4 ,it must be therefore itself a substance4 ,aether is a substance endowed with inertia1 and capable1 in accordance with the established laws of motion1 of imparting its motion to other substances4#g ,again1 ,lord ,kelvin in his ,address to the ,british ,association1 #aija1 on the ,clustering of ,gravitational ,matter in any part of the ,universe1 states3 ,aether we relegate to a distinct species of matter which has inertia1 etc4 ,aether1 therefore1 according to ,tyndall1 is a substance or medium endowed with inertia1 and capable1 in accordance with ,newton's ,laws of ,motion1 of imparting its motion to other substances4 ,if1 however1 the ,aether is frictionless1 as has generally been supposed1 then it cannot possess inertia1 because to the extent that a body possesses inertia1 to that extent it is opposed to being frictionless4 ,inertia is really the equivalent of mass1 or the amount of matter measured by gravity1 and if ,aether possesses mass in any sense at all1 as it must do if it is matter1 then1 possessing mass or weight1 it must offer resistance to any body moving through it1 and to that extent cannot be frictionless4 ,to suppose that the ,aether is frictionless1 and yet possesses inertia1 is to suppose something altogether opposed to all the ,rules of ,philosophy and therefore of experience4 ,i have already shown that a frictionless medium is opposed to all philosophy and experience1 and is an anomaly in the universe4 ,on the strictly philosophical assumption that ,aether is matter1 and therefore atomic and gravitative1 the whole question of the inertia of the ,aether is reduced to one of common experience4 ,it is1 at least to my mind1 difficult to conceive of mass without weight or without atomicity1 and yet that is the unphilosophical position of the present state of science in relation to the ,aether4 ,in other words1 while the ,aether is supposed to possess inertia1 which is dependent upon mass1 as measured by gravity1 yet it is supposed not to be gravitative1 that is1 that the mass of the ,aether has no weight at all1 and therefore is not mass1 which assumption contradicts itself4 ,from ,arts4 #dd and #de1 however1 we have seen1 to be strictly philosophical1 that ,aether must be atomic and also gravitative4 ,it can now be easily understood how it can possess inertia like any other matter1 and is therefore capable of receiving motion from other matter1 and also of imparting that motion to other matter4 ,so that1 wherever there is motion of any kind in the ,aether1 either in the form of vibratory motion as heat1 or undulatory motion as light1 or rotatory motion as electricity1 those motions will affect adjoining matter in the same way that the motion of any other moving matter affects any body with which it comes into contact4 ,from the fact that ,aether possesses inertia1 and is also gravitative1 we have now to alter our conception of this universal space-filling medium1 and in place of a frictionless medium1 which is incapable of imparting motion to any body1 we have now to remember henceforth that the ,aether is matter1 which possesses inertia1 and therefore has the capacity not only of offering resistance to any body moving through it1 as a comet or meteor1 but also of imparting the motion which it may receive in any manner to any other matter1 as a planet1 satellite1 or sun1 that may be floating in it4 ,with this philosophical view of the ,aether1 which is entirely in harmony with our first and second ,rules of ,philosophy1 we shall be able to give a physical explanation of the ,law of ,gravitation1 as we have now a physical medium existing in all atomic1 solar1 and stellar space1 which can both accept motion1 and transmit that motion to other bodies4 ,in other words1 we have a medium which can both push and pull4 ,footnote #g3 ,lectures on ,light4 ,,art4 #di4 ,aether is ,impressible4--,another characteristic property of this ,aether medium is1 that it is as perfectly impressible as it is elastic4 ,so perfectly impressible1 that it receives1 retains1 and perpetuates for thousands of years1 and for distances to human mind incalculable1 every impression given to it of light1 form1 colour1 tint1 and shade2 and that1 too1 with a perfect fidelity that nothing mars1 even to the least and most infinitesimal detail4 ,therefore1 irrespective of distance1 wherever there is matter to arrest and reflect the impressions received1 there those impressions of light 7and all that in the luminosity is involved and contained7 become visible and revealed1 and wherever there is power of vision to receive and concentrate these ,aether- or light-waves1 there1 not only luminosity or light1 but all that constitutes and is involved in that luminosity1 becomes at once visible and seen4 ,it is by this means we see the colour1 tints1 shades1 and forms of suns and planets2 of stars1 constellations1 etc41 with all the varied forms1 configurations1 and movements of the celestial phenomena4 ,each and every one1 small or great1 glittering or blazing1 sun or planet1 are ever creating or generating ,aether-waves1 and impressing them with all the details and particulars of their nature and existence2 and these ,aether-waves ever bear upon their mystic wings the impressions received1 carrying the information given with lightning speed to the very confines and limits of infinite space or the material universe2 beyond which exists nothing but the ever-living and active energy of the ,divine1 the only unlimited1 unbounded1 and absolute infinitive4 ,it is by the interception and concentration of these waves by our perceptive powers1 aided with the giant powers of the telescope1 that we obtain the information given1 or become cognizant of the nature and existence of the varied lights1 colours1 tints1 and shades of the celestial bodies4 ,the vision1 assisted by the giant power of the telescope1 collects and concentrates these ,aether-waves into a perfect image of those things that gave them birth1 and by this means reveals to us the knowledge of things afar1 their existence1 nature1 characteristics1 properties1 and powers4 ,thus it is we see the solar orb1 with its huge fires all aglow1 obtain a knowledge of its character and powers1 see its huge spots1 its quivering fringe of flame1 and high-leaping prominences1 or watch its slowly revolving form4 ,thus we see the planets that around it sweep and roll2 swift-footed ,mercury with his wondrous speed1 and dazzling ,venus with her silver sheen2 ,mars the god of war with his ruddy glow1 and mighty ,jupiter with his orange hue1 and the yellow ,saturn with her mysterious rings1 the blue ,uranus1 and the more distant ,neptune1 with all the satellites that to it belong4 ,then far far away the brilliant ,sirius--the ,dog ,star1 ,cygnet1 ,centauri1 the ,great ,bear1 and a thousand others4 ,the ,pleiades and the twenty millions of suns that form our own galaxy and the ,milky ,way1 with all their varied colours1 tints1 and hues of white1 golden1 orange1 ruby1 red and blue1 green and grey1 silver1 purple and yellow1 buff and fawn1 emerald and green1 lilac and coppery4 ,thus we see the distant ,orion1 so far away that swift-footed ,light1 with its speed of more than eleven million miles per minute1 has to travel for more than thirty thousand years before it spans the gulf that intervenes between it and us1 and brings to us the news of its existence there4 ,then the spectroscope with its revealing power literally tears asunder wave from wave1 and reveals the mystic message which each doth bear1 of the distant things from which they come1 of each and every sort and kind4 ,thus we know1 that in the solar fires there ever burn such things as hydrogen1 oxygen and nitrogen1 and also1 in a vaporous state1 aluminium1 sodium1 iron1 magnesium1 cobalt1 calcium1 chromium1 copper1 manganese1 zinc1 and others4 ,thus light-waves are speeding everywhere1 and from all material things4 ,they come from our own sun1 and rush in1 and flood the earth's aerial veil1 the atmosphere2 and ,each little atom of matter1 like a mirror1 reflects and re-reflects them as if in sport1 buffeting each luminous ray from one to another1 increasing and amplifying it by an infinity of repercussions 7,herschel71 and then in their entirety and whole1 like a huge multi-mirror1 so blend and mingle them that they come to earth's surface in that soft radiance we call ,light1 and bathe it as in a sea of mellowed glory4 ,,art4 #ej4 ,aether3 its ,motions4--,the question of the exact motions of the ,aether is a question which has involved the attention of scientific men for many years1 and which is at the present time receiving the attention of some of our most advanced scientists1 not only in this country but in other countries also4 ,whether the ,aether in space is at rest1 or is moving along with all the bodies that float in it1 so to speak1 is a question of the greatest importance to scientists and philosophers generally1 as the particular character of the motions of the ,aether1 which are either suggested or ascribed to it from the analogies of ,nature1 are sure to have a most important bearing not only on the motions of all the planets and satellites1 but also upon such questions as the aberration of light1 and such difficulties as presented by ,lord ,kelvin in his paper on ,clouds on the ,undulatory ,theory of ,light 7,phil4 ,mag41 ,july #aijb74 ,i need hardly point out that the hypothesis that ,aether is gravitative1 is bound to play a most important part in the consideration and development of this phase of the study of the universal aetherial medium4 ,it is not my intention1 however1 at this stage of the work to go fully into the development of this aspect of the subject4 ,the application of this principle will be considered at the right time1 and in the right place4 ,it is1 however1 generally assumed1 that the ,aether is at rest in space1 and that the earth1 the planets1 and the sun and all stars1 move through it with varying velocity1 although1 as ,lord ,kelvin points out1 such an assumption is covered with a cloud which up to the present is as dense as ever4 ,of course1 if the ,aether be at rest1 and the planets and other heavenly bodies move through it with varying velocity1 then the only assumption regarding the ,aether is1 that it is frictionless1 but1 as ,i have shown in ,art4 #de1 this is opposed to all philosophical reasoning1 and therefore to experience and observation4 ,we have1 therefore1 to postulate for the ,aether such motions as shall fulfil all the ,rules of ,philosophy1 that is1 shall be simple in conception1 shall be in harmony with our experience and observation1 and which shall satisfactorily account for the phenomena sought to be explained1 that is1 the universal ,law of ,gravitation2 for it is by the properties1 combined with the motions of the ,aether1 that the physical cause of ,gravitation is alone to be explained4 ,let us revert to the question of a stationary ,aether for a moment or two1 and let us ask ourselves1 where is the evidence for such an assumption8 ,has the sun ever ceased to shine1 or to send its light-waves with their enormous velocity speeding through the solar system8 ,so far as experience and observation go1 ,i have never read of any record of such a fact1 or that light-waves have ceased to proceed from the sun and fill the solar system with ,aether-waves4 ,not only is this true of the sun1 but it is equally true of every planet and satellite1 every meteor or comet1 every star and sun that exist or dwell in this aetherial medium2 for1 as has already been shown 7,art4 #di71 every body emits ,aether-waves1 and these waves spread out in all directions in a spherical form4 ,the truth is1 that the universal ,aether is in eternal motion1 and that motion forms the physical life of the universe4 ,if it were possible to destroy the motion1 then the whole fabric of the universe would fall to pieces1 and the beauty1 order1 and harmony of the celestial mechanism would be replaced by disorder1 confusion1 and ultimate ruin4 ,take any analogy of ,nature1 and see what such an analogy teaches us4 ,look at any planet1 sun1 or star4 ,do we find any one of these stationary or at rest8 ,why from the smallest meteorite or satellite1 to the largest star that shines in the firmament of heaven1 there is nothing but motion2 each satellite1 planet1 sun1 and star moving on and on1 ever and ever through the countless ages of time until its course is run and its existence ended4 ,but rest1 never6 ,such a thing as rest is unknown in the entire universe1 whether it be in the atomic systems of matter1 or the systems of stars and suns that form the universe of worlds4 ,take another illustration--that of the ocean6 ,is that ever at rest1 with its unceasing wave and tidal motion8 ,has the reader ever stood on the shore and seen the ocean when it has been absolutely still1 or when the tide has ceased to flow8 ,such a possibility is almost absurd to contemplate4 ,the same argument applies to the air with its regular flow of winds4 ,now in regard to the aetherial and universal medium1 there are just as regular motions as the flowing of the tide round the earth1 or the revolving of a satellite round a planet1 or a planet round the sun4 ,and what is as important1 all the motions can be as satisfactorily explained and accounted for from the physical standpoint1 as the flow of the tide1 or the revolution of a planet4 ,year in and year out1 the motions of the ,aether remain the same1 governed by the same laws and producing the same effects4 ,age after age1 the ,aether has been moving1 producing by its various motions the continuity of that beauty1 order1 and harmony that govern the universe as a whole4 ,i have already indicated in ,art4 #de the effect of ,gravitation on the ,aether surrounding each satellite1 or planet1 or star1 or sun4 ,as each satellite1 or planet1 or star moves through the universal ,aether1 it takes with it its surrounding ,aether as indicated in ,art4 #de1 in the same way that each planet or sun takes with it its own associated atmosphere1 which is held in contact with it by the self-same force of ,gravitation4 ,in addition to this motion of the aetherial atmosphere through space1 there are other motions of this same gravitating ,aether that have to be taken into consideration1 before a complete and adequate conception of all the motions of the ,aether can be arrived at4 ,i do not intend1 however1 at this stage to go fully into such motions1 but rather wish to lead up to them from a consideration of hypotheses put forward by such men as ,rankine1 ,challis1 ,maxwell1 ,lord ,kelvin1 ,mc,cullagh1 and ,helmholtz1 and from a consideration of such hypotheses in the realm of heat1 light1 and electricity to be able to form a scientific conception of the proper motions of the ,aether1 as well as a philosophical one4 ,,chapter ,v ,,energy ,,art4 #ea4 ,energy4--,in the days of ,newton1 and for a long time afterwards1 all energy went by the name of ,force4 ,thus ,newton in his ,laws of ,motion refers to the action of forces on stationary or moving bodies1 and shows how the motion of any body is effected by the impressed force4 7,art #ac47 ,as science advanced1 and scientific research was carried into the fields of heat1 light1 and electricity1 we find that the various forces began to be particularized1 with the result that such terms as electrical force1 magnetic force1 chemical force1 etc41 became common and familiar terms4 ,as gradually it became known that one particular kind of force was the outcome of another kind1 there was given to the world such terms as the ,correlation of ,forces 7,grove71 in which he proved that whenever one kind of force appeared as heat or light1 it was at the expense of another kind of force1 as electricity4 ,of later years1 however1 another term has crept into ,philosophy1 and instead of the term ,force1 which is very indistinct and indefinite in character1 there appeared the term ,energy1 although ,force and ,energy are not exactly synonymous terms4 ,thus electricity1 heat1 and light are forms of energy1 and are convertible into one another1 in the same way that the forces were convertible4 ,thus we get transformations of energy in the same way that we had transformations of force1 and conservation of energy in the same way that we had conservation of force4 ,even the term ,energy1 however1 is being replaced in the present times by something more definite and simple1 and instead of the term ,energy1 we shall find1 in the development of this phase of natural phenomena1 that that term is being replaced by the simple idea of motion1 or modes of motion1 and that all forms of energy1 as light1 heat1 magnetism1 and electricity1 and even ,gravitation itself1 are due to motion of some kind or other4 ,we will1 however1 lead up to this truth by looking briefly at the term ,energy1 and see what it implies and embodies4 ,energy1 therefore1 is that property which a body possesses1 by which it is capable of doing work4 ,thus our ideas of work give us our conception of energy4 ,for example1 when a weight is lifted1 work is done1 and a certain amount of energy is expended in the process4 ,further1 the amount of work done is proportionate to the weight lifted1 and the height to which the body is raised4 ,work is done against resistance1 so that whenever resistance is overcome1 then work is the result4 ,for example1 suppose one pound is lifted one foot high1 in opposition to the force of gravity1 then work is done1 and this amount of work is known as a foot-pound4 ,if a body weighs ten pounds1 and is lifted ten feet1 the work done is equal to ten pounds multiplied by ten feet 7#aj #aj equals #ajj71 so that one hundred times the amount of work has been done in comparison with the lifting of the one pound one foot high4 ,as all weight is essentially a gravitational measure1 depending upon the intensity of gravity at the place1 then1 whenever a body is raised or lifted1 the work so done is done against the gravity of the earth4 ,work is also done1 as ,newton points out in the first and second laws1 whenever we apply force to any body1 either stationary or already in motion4 ,the results of all observation and experiments prove1 that whenever we have two bodies upon which work is being done1 the amount of work is determined by the amount of energy transferred from one body to the other1 and that the actual amount of energy gained by one is equal to the amount of energy lost by the other4 ,energy is always found in association with matter1 so that matter has sometimes been termed the ,vehicle of ,energy4 ,wherever1 therefore1 we find energy of any kind or sort1 there we find matter also1 as the two are inseparably connected together4 ,thus1 wherever we have heat1 we have matter in a particular state of motion1 generally understood as vibratory motion ,wherever we have light1 which is also a form of energy1 we also have matter in motion1 that is the ,aether1 in a state of periodic wave-motion2 and wherever we have electricity1 we have again matter possibly in a state of rotatory motion1 as we shall see later on4 ,energy1 therefore1 is the power which a body possesses to do work4 ,,art4 #eb4 ,conservation of ,energy4--,the principle of the ,conservation of ,energy was first enunciated by ,mayer in #ahdb4 ,the principle may be defined as follows3 ,the total amount of all the energy1 as light1 heat1 electricity and magnetism1 ,gravitation1 etc41 in ,nature is unchangeable2 so that1 according to this law1 the universe possesses a store of energy which is unchangeable in quantity throughout all time4 ,the energy may pass from one form to another1 yet the total amount ever remains the same4 ,it is almost unnecessary to say1 that this is a principle which1 like the conservation of matter1 is incapable of absolute proof1 but its assumption has greatly helped scientific thought and speculation from time to time4 ,clerk ,maxwell says 7,theory of ,heat7 on this point3 ,the total energy of any body is a quantity which can neither be increased nor decreased by any mutual action of the bodies1 though it may be transformed into those forms of which energy is susceptible4 ,the conservation of energy is inseparably connected with the conservation of matter 7,art4 #cj74 ,they cannot be divided1 because1 if energy is only to be found in association with matter1 then if the law of the conservation of matter falls to the ground1 the principle of the conservation of energy falls with it4 ,energy1 therefore1 like matter1 cannot be destroyed or created by any process known to man4 ,as there is no process known1 either in the chemical or in the physical world1 by which new matter may be created by man1 so1 in relation to energy of any kind or sort1 there is no process known by which man can create or even destroy the smallest form of energy that exists4 ,if energy appears in any body or in any particular form1 it is solely because of the loss of energy in some other body1 or in some other form4 ,all changes of energy1 therefore1 are simply changes due to the difference in form in which the energy is manifested4 ,at one time it will be manifested in the form of light1 then of heat1 then in mechanical motion1 and so on4 ,joule gave us some good illustrations of this principle of the conservation of energy4 ,he showed us how electricity could be changed into heat1 and the heat into work4 ,when light1 which is a form of energy1 is absorbed by any opaque body1 it is found that the body which has absorbed it has become hotter4 ,the energy of light has not been destroyed1 but as its energy cannot pass through the opaque body1 it has been employed in agitating the particles and atoms of that body1 which becomes hotter in consequence4 ,thus from the principle of the conservation of energy1 which is in operation not only in our planetary world1 but throughout the whole of the solar and stellar space1 and indeed throughout the whole universe1 we arrive at the conclusion that the total quantity of energy throughout the universe is unchangeable4 ,in the evolution and development of worlds1 and in the destruction of those worlds after long periods of time1 throughout all the varied manifestations of heat1 light1 electricity1 and magnetism1 associated with the development and destruction of each globe1 the sum-total of the energy of the universe remains the same4 ,meteors may rush into the atmosphere of planets1 and be dissolved into ,aether through the friction1 comets may be dissolved into their component gases as they near the sun1 water may be changed into vapour by the heat of the summer sun1 vegetation may be produced from apparently dead matter1 and then that vegetation may itself decay and return to the dust by which it had been built up1 but throughout all these processes of birth and death1 of evolution and devolution1 the sum-total of active living energy which is associated with all the phenomena1 remains unalterable and unchangeable4 ,such is the teaching of the great principle of the ,conservation of ,energy as enunciated by ,mayer and ,helmholtz4 ,,art4 #ec4 ,transformation of ,energy4--,one of the chief characteristics of energy is1 that we can transform it1 and it is chiefly of use to us because of its capability to be transformed1 but in all its transformations1 the total quantity of energy remains the same4 ,the transformation of energy renders it necessary to the existence of all life1 and to all physical change in the universe4 ,mayer showed us that all energy in the solar system primarily derives its existence from the sun1 and that all plant life and physical life owe their continued existence to the energy which is poured out from the sun upon the planetary worlds4 ,so that energy is always flowing from the sun into the surrounding space in the form of light1 heat1 and electricity1 the medium of its passage being the universal ,aether4 ,this principle of transformation teaches us1 that heat may be converted into electricity2 that light may be converted into heat1 or electricity may be converted into either heat or light or both4 ,this principle of transformation naturally follows from the principle of the conservation of energy2 because1 if energy cannot be destroyed in any way1 but is made to disappear by any process1 it must reappear in some other form1 and therefore has been transformed from its original state4 ,so that1 whenever one kind of energy disappears1 then it is absolutely necessary1 according to the principle of conservation of energy1 that some other kind shall be produced4 ,there cannot be any real loss or destruction4 ,that leads us to the next point regarding this principle of transformation1 which is that all transformations of energy take place in fixed proportions4 ,when a certain quantity of coal is burned1 a certain quantity of heat1 or thermal energy as it is sometimes called1 is produced1 and the quantity of heat so produced is definitely proportionate to the quantity of coal consumed4 ,if a certain quantity of coal were burned in a perfect steam-engine1 that is one in which there would be no loss of heat1 then also a definite amount of mechanical work would be done1 which would be strictly proportionate to the heat generated by the consumption of the coal4 ,so that when coal is put into an engine1 the potential energy of the coal is transformed into kinetic energy of the steam1 and that is again transformed into actual mechanical energy of the engine itself1 by which work is done in driving or pushing or pulling the train along1 and the amount of work done is proportionate to the coal consumed4 ,illustrations of transformation are common1 and may be seen by any person living in a large town4 ,thus at any electrical station or electric tram terminus1 these transformations of various forms of energy are very familiar sights4 ,we have first the transformation of the coal in the furnace into heat4 ,this heat converts water into steam1 whose motion is communicated by proper machinery into a dynamo1 the product of which is electricity4 ,that electricity is then conveyed along wires1 and work is done by it1 by moving trams along the connected tram system1 or it may be converted into heat in the carbon filament in the car itself1 which1 if heated enough1 will then produce the electric light4 ,so that starting from the coal1 we have several transformations therefrom into the forms of heat1 light1 motion1 and finally mechanical energy1 which results in ,work4 ,the question arises as to what is the law of equivalence in regard to the transformation of energy4 ,that is1 if we have a certain amount of energy of a given sort1 how much of any other sort can be produced by it8 ,the answer is partly to be found in a statement made by ,joule in #ahdc1 which practically embodies what is known as the first law of ,thermo-dynamics1 and is as follows3 ,when equal quantities of mechanical effects are produced by any means whatever1 from purely thermal sources1 or lost in purely thermal effects1 then equal quantities of heat are put out of existence or are generated1 and for every unit of heat measured by raising a pound of water one degree ,f4 in temperature1 you have to expend #ggb foot-pounds of work4 ,from this law we learn that heat may be used to do work1 but that a certain amount of heat is always used up in the process4 ,it can also be demonstrated that electric currents can do work1 but to generate the currents a certain amount of work must be done4 ,this equivalence and transformation prevail in all forms of energy1 whether it be mechanical energy1 thermal or heat energy1 or electrical energy4 ,,art4 #ed4 ,potential ,energy4--,energy has been divided into two classes1 which are termed respectively ,potential ,energy and ,kinetic ,energy4 ,we will look at the former first4 ,potential ,energy may be briefly defined as energy of position4 ,thus if we lift a body from the ground1 the energy which has been imparted to it is energy of position1 or potential energy4 ,a glacier high up the mountain possesses potential energy1 because of its position4 ,by the mere fact that it is situated high up the mountain1 it has a capacity for doing work by its descent1 and if that descent be very sudden1 the work done will be destructive work1 as it may sweep away all houses and villages in its sudden descent4 ,thus1 by the mere fact of its elevation1 it possesses a power of doing work1 which it has lost when it has descended4 ,again1 work done in winding up the spring of a clock is stored up in the form of potential energy1 and gradually runs out in the form of motion or kinetic energy4 ,potential energy is really the complementary principle of kinetic energy4 ,that is to say1 the amount of potential energy lost by any body1 is equal to the amount of kinetic energy gained by the other body1 to which the energy has been transferred4 ,in the case of a body falling1 as the potential energy diminishes1 the kinetic energy increases1 but the total amount of the two combined always remains the same4 ,this is well illustrated in the case of a swinging pendulum4 ,when a pendulum is at the highest point of its swing1 its velocity or kinetic energy is zero1 but at that point its potential energy is greatest4 ,as it descends1 the potential energy decreases1 but the kinetic energy increases4 ,when the pendulum is at the lowest point its energy is wholly kinetic1 the potential energy being zero at that point1 while it has sufficient kinetic energy to raise it to the highest level again4 ,throughout the cycle of these operations1 the sum-total of the two energies always remains the same4 ,professor ,tait points out1 in his ,recent ,advances in ,physical ,science1 that the available sources of all potential energy may be divided into four classes-- #ast4 ,fuel4 #bnd4 ,food of ,animals4 #crd4 ,water-power4 #dth4 ,tidal ,water-power4 ,all these are different forms of potential energy4 ,under the head of fuel he includes not only wood1 coal1 but also all forms of matter that may be used or burnt up by heat1 or dissolved by chemical agencies4 ,thus zinc and lead1 which are used in batteries1 are merely forms of fuel4 ,that potential energy resides in such things as wood and coal is a matter of common experience4 ,all our coal-fields are stores of energy1 which received their energy when in plant form1 ages ago1 from the sun1 and this energy is now being used to drive our machinery1 to warm our houses1 and to give light to our homes and our cities4 ,it has been calculated that a pound of coal would give out #ad1jjj heat units1 which is equal to #aa1jjj1jjj foot-pounds of work1 which is also equal to the amount of work a horse can do in five hours4 ,again1 all food1 whether it be the food of animals1 as vegetables and plants1 or of man1 as bread1 meat1 etc41 are all forms of potential energy1 or energy which is stored up in matter4 ,all forms of food have a certain amount of energy in them1 which is used up in the body in building up waste tissue and imparting energy to the physical frame4 ,again1 all forms of water-power1 whether it be in the form of the flowing river or the tidal motion of the sea1 possess a large amount of potential energy which may be used up to do mechanical work4 ,they also possess kinetic energy1 or energy of motion4 ,we find illustrations of the possession of potential energy by rivers and tides1 in the fact that by their fall from a higher to a lower level they may be made to do mechanical work1 as in the case of the turning of the water-wheel by the fall of the water1 which motion is communicated to machinery1 and various forms of work are the result4 ,in ,switzerland and ,america advantage is being taken of the energy of falling water to generate electricity1 by means of which villages and towns are being supplied with electric light at a very small cost4 ,,art4 #ee4 ,kinetic ,energy4--,kinetic energy may be defined as energy of motion1 and is the energy which a body possesses in consequence of its motion4 ,a body in motion thus possesses kinetic energy1 which it must impart to some other body before it can be brought to a state of rest4 ,the body may be simply an atom1 as a vortex atom1 but if it be in motion1 as all atoms are1 then it must possess kinetic energy1 which may be transferred to another atom by collision1 or by some other method4 ,as has already been pointed out in previous articles1 kinetic and potential energy are complementary to one another1 the sum-total of the two combined always remaining the same in any cycle of work1 according to the principle of the conservation of energy4 ,we get a good example of this oscillation from kinetic to potential1 and vice vers1 in the planetary system4 ,when the earth is farthest from the sun1 its velocity1 and consequently its kinetic energy1 is at its lowest point2 but there the potential energy is at its greatest4 ,as the earth turns round in its orbit1 however1 and begins to approach the sun again1 its potential energy decreases1 while its kinetic energy increases with its increased velocity4 ,so that by the time it has reached the nearest part of its orbit to the sun1 its velocity1 and consequently its kinetic energy1 is at a maximum1 while the potential energy is at a minimum4 ,then as the earth passes round its perihelion1 the kinetic energy is used up in assisting the earth to overcome the attraction of the sun4 ,thus there is this oscillation from kinetic to potential1 and from potential to kinetic1 year in and year out1 as the earth performs its cycle round its central body the sun4 ,professor ,tait1 in the work referred to in the previous ,article1 gives examples of kinetic forms of energy under the following heads-- #ast4 ,winds4 #bnd4 ,currents of ,water4 #crd4 ,hot ,springs and ,volcanoes4 ,it can be readily seen that winds are a form of energy1 as we have innumerable instances of the power and energy which they exert4 ,advantage is taken of that kinetic energy by means of windmills1 in which the energy of the wind is imparted to the revolving sails1 and thence to the machinery1 various forms of mechanical work being the result1 as1 for example1 the grinding of corn1 or the pumping of water4 ,the pressure or energy of winds has even been calculated1 the following figures being examples-- ,,velocity ,,in ,,miles ,,per ,,hour4 ,,force ,,in ,,lbs4 ,,per ,,sq4 ,,foot #a mile4 4#jje lb4 per sq4 foot4 #e 4#abc #aj 4#dif #ae #a4aa #bj #a4ih #cj #d4e #dj #g4i #ej #ab4e ,in the case of currents of water1 whether they are in the form of river currents or ocean currents1 as has already been pointed out in the previous article1 the question of potential energy1 or energy of position1 is associated with their kinetic energy4 ,water is taken at a certain elevation1 and then allowed to fall to a lower level1 and in its fall from the high level to the lower level1 its kinetic energy is used to drive mill-wheels1 and thus work is done1 the kinetic energy of the water being transformed into the motion of the machinery4 ,this machinery may be used to work a dynamo1 and thus electric light may be generated1 or it may drive an electric motor which may perform all sorts of mechanical work4 ,the great underlying principle of either kinetic or potential energy rests in the fact1 that wherever we have energy of any kind or sort1 whether it be associated with water1 wind1 or ,aether1 there we have the capacity to do work1 the amount of work depending upon the amount of energy that exists in the matter which is the vehicle of energy4 ,in ,art4 #ej it has been indicated that the ,aether possesses several kinds of motions4 ,from the sphere of light and heat1 we learn that the ,aether possesses certain motions which are always exerted in a direction from the central body1 which gives rise to the light- and heat-waves4 ,that being so1 it conclusively follows that the ,aether possesses kinetic energy1 and therefore1 possessing this energy1 it also possesses the power to do work4 ,it must be remembered we are no longer dealing with a frictionless medium1 but with a gravitating medium1 possessing mass and inertia1 and1 that being so1 wherever we have the ,aether in motion1 there we have kinetic energy or the power to do work2 and that work will correspond to the particular kind of motion which is exerted on any body by the aetherial motions1 and will be equally subject to ,newton's ,laws of ,motion4 ,,art4 #ef4 ,energy and ,motion4--,an advance1 however1 as to the meaning of the term ,energy has been made within recent years1 which brings it more into harmony with that simplicity of conception1 and accordance with experience which are the very foundation of all philosophy4 ,instead of the term ,energy1 there is now being used another term to denote the forces which form the life of the universe1 and that term is the word ,motion4 ,professor ,poynting says3 ,all energy is energy of motion 7,british ,association ,report1 #ahii74 ,thus motion is the fundamental principle of all phenomena4 ,if we analyze all forms of energy with which we are familiar1 we shall soon find that they are only changes of one form of motion into another4 ,thus we shall see that heat is a mode of motion1 as has been proved by ,tyndall1 that light is another mode of motion1 and that electricity is also a mode of motion4 ,i need hardly point out that this advance in our conception of energy is strictly in accord with the ,rules of ,philosophy4 ,first1 it is simple in conception4 ,when we say that a body possesses energy1 whether that energy be potential energy or kinetic energy1 it does not convey to the mind some definite concrete fact1 as does the statement that a body possesses motion4 ,every one1 whether familiar with scientific teaching or not1 understands and is familiar with the word ,motion1 as it is a common phenomenon of everyday life and experience4 ,as ,energy was simpler in conception than ,newton's term ,force1 so ,motion is simpler in conception than the rather vague and indefinite term ,energy2 therefore when we say that all energy is energy of motion of some kind or sort1 we state that which is philosophically correct4 ,it is also in accord with the second ,rule of ,philosophy1 in that it is strictly in harmony with experience and observation4 ,look where we will1 or at what we will1 there we find motion of some kind or other1 whether it be among the innumerable stars1 or in our own solar system1 or any phenomena on the earth1 or even among the world of atoms in their minute and atomic systems4 ,such a thing as absolute rest1 or stagnation1 is unknown in the universe4 ,wherever there is matter1 there we find motion of some kind or other4 ,it may be vibratory motion as heat1 or wave motion as light1 or rotatory motion as electricity1 but motion of some sort is inseparably connected with all matter4 ,so that when we say that all energy of the universe is the energy of motion1 and motion only1 we state that which according to the second ,rule of ,philosophy is absolutely correct4 ,further1 ,i wish to premise that by the use of the term modes of motion1 in lieu of energy1 the third ,rule of ,philosophy will be fulfilled4 ,for if all phenomena of the universe1 whether it be heat1 light1 electricity1 be due to different modes of motion1 then ,gravitation should be explained from the physical standpoint by some kind of aetherial motion also4 ,this ,i can safely premise will be done1 and in the later chapters of this work1 ,gravitation will be shown to be due to the motions of the aetherial medium which floods all space4 ,by so doing1 all the ,rules of ,philosophy will be fully satisfied1 and ,gravitation will then be brought into line with all the other forms of motion1 as heat1 light1 electricity1 and magnetism1 which are in themselves modes of motion1 as will be shown in subsequent articles4 ,,art4 #eg4 ,conservation of ,motion4--,if it be true that all energy is the energy of motion1 then the principle of the conservation of energy ought also to apply to all the modes of motion1 and in its place we should then have the principle of the conservation of the various forms of motion4 ,this defined would be1 that the total amount of all motion in the universe1 as heat and light1 electricity1 magnetism1 and ,gravitation also1 if that be due to the motion of the ,aether1 is unalterable and unchangeable4 ,there may be changes from one form of motion to another1 from heat to light1 and light back to heat2 heat into electricity1 and electricity into light or heat2 from ,gravitation into heat or into light1 or even into electricity2 but the sum-total of the whole remains the same4 ,again1 as the principle of the conservation of energy is inseparably connected with the conservation of matter1 so the principle of the conservation of all the modes of motion is also inseparably connected with the conservation of matter4 ,they cannot be divided1 so that wherever we get matter of any kind or sort1 there we get motion of some kind1 either in the form of heat1 light1 or electricity1 or those aetherial motions which produce those phenomena associated with ,gravitation4 ,as matter cannot be destroyed by any known process to man1 so motion cannot be destroyed either4 ,on the vortex atom theory of matter1 this principle of the conservation of any mode of motion is perfectly intelligible1 especially if added to that theory we have ,dr4 ,larmor's electron theory as the basis of the vortex atom4 ,an atom in its ultimate state is nothing more or less than ,aether in rotation1 and as ,aether is matter1 we see that on the assumption of this atomic basis1 we have even in the atomic world an illustration of this conservation of matter and motion1 as in such an atom we have nothing but matter 7i4 e4 ,aether7 and motion4 ,carrying the idea upwards in the atomic scale1 if atoms of hydrogen or oxygen are multiples of these vortex atoms1 then again we have nothing in all the elements1 or combination of the elements1 but matter and motion4 ,again1 as all planets and satellites1 suns and stars1 are but agglomerations of elements1 we have still the same two classes of things1 matter and motion1 and so from the most infinitesimal atom in existence1 up to the most ponderous star that exists in the universe1 we have running through them all the principle of the conservation of motion1 which is to matter the source of all its activities1 energies1 and powers4 ,motion1 therefore1 might almost be said to be eternal4 ,we have heard from time to time of the term perpetual motion4 ,philosophers have from time to time endeavoured to discover some application of this perpetual motion1 but all efforts in this direction up to the present have proved futile4 ,in one sense there is no such thing as perpetual motion4 ,in another sense1 that is from the standpoint of the conservation of all modes of motion1 as motion cannot be destroyed1 it must therefore be perpetual4 ,it is an absolute impossibility to obtain motion except from some antecedent energy1 which is itself a form of motion4 ,it would require the distinctive fiat of an ,almighty ,creator to produce motion from nothing1 and ,i question whether such a result is obtainable1 as ,i hold that if the ,creator1 at any time in the history of the universe1 set any substance in motion1 the source from which that motion was derived1 was ,his own ,divine ,energy1 and in that sense the physical motion was not produced from nothing4 ,such an assumption is altogether opposed to all philosophical reasoning and experience4 ,i hope to deal with the question either in the last chapter of this book1 or in another work4 ,,art4 #eh4 ,transformation of ,motion4--,again1 if energy be the energy of motion1 and the principle of the transformations of energy holds good1 then it is equally true that all modes of motion are also transformable4 ,thus heat is a mode of motion1 being due to the vibration of the atoms which go to make up any body4 ,light is also a mode of motion1 being due1 as far as solar light is concerned1 to the periodic wave motion of the ,aether4 ,while electricity1 as we shall see later on1 is also due to some form of rotatory motion4 ,it has already been shown 7,art4 #ed7 that light can be converted into heat1 so that the periodic wave motion of light can be transformed into the vibratory motion of heat4 ,heat can also be converted into electricity1 and if electricity be rotatory motion1 then the vibratory motion of heat can be transformed into the rotatory motion of electricity4 ,again1 as electricity can be converted into light1 the rotatory motion of electricity can thus be transformed into the periodic wave motion of light4 ,thus through all the forms of motion with which we are familiar1 we find this principle of transformation holds good1 so that each form of motion may be directly or indirectly transformed into any one of the other kinds4 ,whenever1 therefore1 one kind of motion disappears1 it is absolutely necessary1 according to the principle of the conservation of motion1 that some other kind shall be produced4 ,there cannot be any real loss or destruction of the motion4 ,it may be transformed1 but not lost4 ,by the use of proper apparatus1 therefore1 any form of motion with which we are familiar may be converted into another form1 and in the process not the least quantity of any form of motion is lost4 ,heat may be changed into light1 and light into heat2 electricity into light1 and light into electricity2 heat into electricity1 and electricity into heat4 ,indeed1 starting from any one form1 any of the other modes of motion may be produced1 either directly or indirectly1 and mechanical effects or work may be produced by each and all4 ,then1 again1 the order can be reversed1 as by doing work which is simply applied motion1 any of the other modes of motion can be produced4 ,thus heat can be produced by friction1 and if the friction which is the outcome of muscular energy be continued long enough1 a light will be the result1 in the form of fire4 ,when certain forms of work are done1 as the turning of the handle of an electrical machine1 frictional electricity will be produced4 ,so that not only are all the modes of motion convertible into work1 but work itself can be transformed into the modes of motion known as heat1 light1 electricity1 and magnetism4 ,now1 if ,gravitation be due to motion of the ,aether1 and if it is true that all modes of motion are convertible1 then the application of this principle should also hold good in relation to ,gravitation4 ,it has been demonstrated by ,joule and others that ,gravitation can be converted into heat1 light1 and electricity4 ,it can be converted first into heat4 ,joule made a number of experiments to ascertain what quantity of heat is produced by falling bodies1 that is bodies under the influence of ,gravitation4 ,from experiments he has calculated that if one lb4 of water falls through a space of #ggb feet1 it would raise the temperature of the water one degree ,fahrenheit--that is1 the water after its fall will be one degree hotter than when it started to fall4 ,here1 then1 we have the exact equivalence of a certain amount of gravitational motion expressed in terms of heat4 ,so that1 whenever motion of a falling body produced by gravity is arrested1 heat is generated1 and as heat is a mode of motion1 it follows that the motion of ,gravitation has been converted into the motion of heat4 ,again1 the motion of gravity may be converted into that of light4 ,this may be demonstrated as follows3 ,lord ,kelvin has suggested that the light and heat of the sun are maintained by the falling into the sun of meteorites4 ,now the cause of the falling of these meteorites into the sun is the ,attraction of ,gravitation1 and therefore if the falling of these meteorites produces light and heat1 it necessarily follows that the motion of ,gravitation1 whatever that may be due to1 is converted into the motion known as light and heat4 ,thus it can be seen that ,gravitation1 looked at from the standpoint of a mode of motion1 is itself conformable to the principle of the transformation of motion1 and this is an indirect argument in favour of the fact that ,gravitation is itself due to certain motions of the universal ,aether4 ,,art4 #ei4 ,motion and ,work4--,in ,art4 #eb we have seen that energy is the power which a body possesses to do work1 the amount of work which a body can perform being regulated by the amount of energy which such a body possesses4 ,in ,art4 #eg we have further seen that all energy is the energy of motion1 and that wherever we have energy of any kind or sort1 whether it be in the form of light1 heat1 or electricity1 there we have motion of some kind or other4 ,that being so1 we arrive at the conclusion1 that wherever in the universe we have motion of any kind or sort1 whether it be the motion of ,aether1 or wind1 or water1 there we have the power of doing work1 and the work so done will be proportionate to the motion which the medium possesses4 ,the amount of work that air in motion can do has been measured1 as we have already seen 7,art4 #ee7 that air which moves at the rate of #cj miles per hour exerts a force of #d-a_/b lb4 per square foot4 ,the amount of work that water in motion can do has also been measured4 ,the carrying and erosive powers of a river depend on the rapidity of its currents4 ,it has been calculated that a velocity of three inches per second will transport fine clay2 eight inches per second coarse sand2 while three feet per second will transport stones as large as eggs4 ,if1 therefore1 air moving at the rate of #cj miles an hour can exert a force of #d-a_/b lb4 per square foot1 what must be the force or pressure of aetherial motion1 as light-waves for example1 which move with a velocity of #ahf1jjj miles per second8 ,the amount of work which such an aetherial motion can perform has actually been measured by ,professor ,lebedew of ,moscow1 and will be dealt with in the chapter on ,light1 a ,mode of ,motion1 when the application of the work done on a body1 as a planet for example1 will also be considered4 ,work1 therefore1 can always be done by motion against resistance4 ,this is a fundamental principle in the sphere of dynamics1 which is incontrovertible1 as all experience1 observation1 and experiment teach us1 that wherever we get motion of any kind or sort1 there we have the capacity or power to do work4 ,the work done may be either in the form of pushing a body along1 or pulling a body towards a centre4 ,all experience and observation teach us that no body moves 7whether it be an atom1 or moon1 or planet1 or sun1 or star71 unless some other body or medium1 which is in direct contact with the moving body1 exercises some pressure or pull upon the moving body4 ,the action is purely and simply a mechanical one4 ,so that if this be true1 then the earth and the planets1 the sun and stars1 comets and meteors1 are moved through space solely because they are being pushed by some medium1 or pulled to the centre by the motions of the same medium4 ,if this can be proved to be true1 then1 as can be readily seen1 our philosophy will then be made to agree with our experience1 and the second ,rule of ,philosophy fully satisfied4 ,as has already been pointed out1 there is no such thing as action at a distance1 therefore the ,law of ,gravitation demands a medium for its operation1 production1 and continuity4 ,newton distinctly points this out in his ,letters to ,bentley1 where he says3 ,that one body should act upon another through empty space without the mediation of anything else1 by and through which their action and pressure may be conveyed from one to another1 is to me so great an absurdity that ,i believe no man who has in philosophical matters a faculty for thinking can ever fall into it4 ,it has already been pointed out 7,art4 #db71 that the only medium which is universal is the ,aether medium1 and we have therefore to look to the motions and properties of that medium for the solution of the problem as to the physical cause of ,gravitation4 ,that such a medium has motions which are as regular as the tides of the sea1 or the trade winds of the atmosphere1 will be proved later on1 when it will be found that ,gravitation1 with all that that law implies1 is due1 as ,newton and ,challis suggested1 to the pressure1 properties1 and motions of the aetherial medium1 which is as universal as ,gravitation itself4 ,this being so1 it is essential that we should set ourselves to find out from the analogies of ,nature1 what are those properties and motions of the ,aether which give rise to the universal ,law of ,gravitation4 ,this ,i propose doing by a consideration of three different modes of motion--viz4 ,heat1 a mode of motion2 ,light1 a mode of motion2 and ,electricity1 a mode of motion4 ,i venture to premise1 from a careful consideration of these three truths1 that we shall be able logically and philosophically to arrive at the simple1 yet grand truth which reveals the physical source of all motion of the universe4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,heat ,,is ,,motion ,,art4 #fj4 ,heat is ,motion4--,on the phenomena of ,heat1 ,newton in his eighteenth query in ,optics asks the questions3 ,is not the heat of a warm room conveyed through the vacuum by the vibrations of a much subtler medium than air1 and is not the medium the same as that medium by which light is reflected and refracted1 or by whose vibrations light communicates heat to bodies8 ,and do not the vibrations of this medium in hot bodies1 contribute to the intenseness and duration of their heat8 ,and do not hot bodies communicate their heat to contiguous cold ones by the vibrations of this medium propagated from them into the cold ones8 ,and is not this medium exceedingly more rare and subtle than air1 and exceedingly more elastic and active8 ,thus it can be seen that ,newton was of the opinion that heat consists in a minute vibratory motion of the particles of bodies1 and that such motion was communicated through what he calls a vacuum by the vibrations of an elastic medium1 the ,aether1 which was also concerned in the phenomena of light4 ,one of the first experimental investigations into the real nature of ,heat was made in #agih by ,count ,rumford4 ,while he was engaged in boring brass cannon in the arsenal at ,munich1 he was struck with the degree of heat which the brass gun acquired1 and with the still more intense heat which the metallic chips1 which were thrown off1 possessed4 ,of the phenomena he says3 ,the more ,i meditated on these phenomena1 the more they appeared to me to be curious and interesting4 ,a thorough investigation seemed even to bid fair to give us a farther insight into the hidden nature of ,heat4 ,rumford therefore set himself to find out by actual experiments what the nature of ,heat was4 ,for this purpose he constructed a cylinder1 and mounted it so that it could be made to rotate by horse-power4 ,at the beginning of the experiment the thermometer stood at #fj ,fahrenheit1 and after half-an-hour1 when the cylinder had made #ijj revolutions1 the temperature was found to be #acj ,fahrenheit1 so that there had been an increase in the temperature of the cylinder of #gj ,fahrenheit4 ,the experiment was again repeated in another form with similar results4 ,rumford in dealing with the results of his experiments said3 ,it appears to me to be extremely difficult1 if not quite impossible1 to form any distinct idea of anything capable of being excited and communicated1 in the manner the ,heat was excited and communicated1 in these experiments1 except it be ,motion4 ,only a year later1 ,davy gave to the world some results of experiments which he had performed1 by which he had arrived at a similar conclusion to that of ,rumford1 viz4 that ,heat is motion of some kind4 ,his experiment consisted of rubbing two pieces of ice together1 and by so doing showed the ice could be melted4 ,he then caused two pieces of metal to be rubbed together1 keeping them surrounded by ice1 and still he found that the two pieces of metal when rubbed together1 produced heat1 and melted the ice4 ,he therefore rightly concluded that heat was produced by friction1 and of the experiment adds3 ,a motion or vibration of the corpuscles of bodies must necessarily be generated by friction4 ,therefore we may reasonably conclude that this motion or vibration is ,heat4 ,heat then may be defined as a peculiar motion1 probably a vibration of the corpuscles of bodies tending to separate them4 ,it may with propriety be called a repulsive motion4 ,now bodies exist in different states1 and those states depend upon the action of the attractive and of the repulsive powers on their corpuscles1 or in other words1 on their different quantities of repulsion and attraction4 ,it was not1 however1 till #ahab that ,davy confidently stated that ,the immediate cause of the phenomena of ,heat is motion1 and the laws of its communication are precisely the same as the laws of the communication of motion4 ,the question therefore confronts us1 if heat be motion1 what is the particular character of that motion8 ,is it a vibratory motion as ,davy suggested1 or is it similar to the undulatory wave motion of light8 ,i need hardly point out1 that we have evidence in favour of the hypothesis that light is due to some form of periodic wave motion in the ,aether1 the hypothesis being that known as the undulatory theory4 ,we have also similar evidence in favour of the hypothesis1 that heat is also due to some form of motion of the same aetherial medium4 ,indeed1 it can be shown that heat possesses all the properties of light1 and is subject to the same laws1 with the exception that it cannot affect the sense of sight4 ,heat1 then1 is due to some motion in the universal aetherial medium1 that not only fills all space1 but also forms an atmosphere around every atom or particle of matter that exists in the universe1 and that motion is generally known as a vibratory or backward and forward motion4 ,heat1 then1 may be said to be due to the vibrations of the ,aether that surrounds all atoms and molecules1 and of which those very atoms are composed1 that is if we accept the aetherial constitution of all matter4 ,so that1 whenever a body1 whether it be an atom or a molecule1 or a planet or sun or star1 is heated in any way whatever1 such bodies excite waves in the surrounding ,aether1 and these waves travel through the ,aether towards us from the heated body with the velocity of light4 ,when these waves fall upon any other body1 they become more or less absorbed by the body on which they fall1 and cause corresponding vibratory motions in the same1 which give rise to the phenomenon of heat in that particular body4 ,it has to be remembered that nothing definite is actually known as to the character of this vibratory motion4 ,it is called a vibratory motion because it possesses a periodic vibratory movement1 but as to its exact character1 that has not yet been discovered4 ,i hope1 however1 to indicate what the motion is that produces heat before the completion of this work4 ,,art4 #fa4 ,heat and ,matter4--,if it be true that heat is due to the vibrations of the aetherial medium1 the question now arises1 as to how a body may become heated1 and by so doing be transformed into the three stages in which matter is found4 ,we have already seen 7,art4 #cf71 that matter may be found in three forms1 viz4 solid1 liquid1 and gaseous1 and that all these different forms of matter are composed of minute parts called atoms4 ,in the case of the solid1 the atoms are held closely together by some strong attractive power1 termed cohesion2 in the case of the liquid1 the atoms have a greater freedom2 while in the gaseous form they have a greater freedom of movement than when in either the liquid or the solid state4 ,according to ,young's ,fourth ,hypothesis 7,art4 #de71 we find that all matter1 and therefore all atoms have an attraction for the ,aether1 by means of which it is accumulated within their substance1 and for a small distance around them in a state of greater density1 and therefore of greater elasticity4 ,in other words1 as ,aether is gravitative1 every atom possesses an atmosphere of ,aether in the same way that the earth has its atmosphere of air2 and further1 the aetherial atmosphere of each atom is densest nearest to the atom1 gradually getting rarer and rarer the further the atmosphere recedes from the nucleus or centre1 the elasticity or pressure being always proportionate to the density4 ,professor ,challis1 in his ,dynamical ,theory of ,light and ,heat1 states that all the forces in ,nature are different modes of pressure under different circumstances of the universal ,aether1 and as heat is a ,force1 and therefore a mode of motion1 that also must be due to some form of pressure due to the vibrations of the ,aether4 ,professor ,challis#h on this point says3 ,according to this theory1 the atoms of any substance are kept in position of equilibrium by attractions and repulsions resulting from the dynamical action of the vibrations of the ,aether which have their origin at the atoms4 ,each atom is the centre of vibration propagated equally from it in all directions1 and that part of the velocity of the vibration which is accompanied by change of density 7of the ,aether7 gives rise to a repulsive action on the surrounding atoms4 ,this action is the repulsion of heat1 which keeps the individual atoms asunder4 ,with all these facts before us1 we are now in a position to account for the changes of matter which take place when heat is applied to either a solid or a liquid body4 ,we have already seen 7,art4 #cf7 that it is by the application of heat that matter in its solid form is changed into a liquid1 and from a liquid into a vaporous or gaseous form4 ,it is now for us to endeavour to form a mental picture as to how this is done4 ,for example1 let us take an iron ball1 and apply heat to it1 either by putting it in a furnace or suspending it in some way over an intense heat4 ,as the heat1 which is vibratory motion of the ,aether1 begins to be absorbed by the iron ball1 it sets the atoms which compose the ball in motion1 urging them to separate1 and thus cause the iron ball to expand and increase in volume4 ,as greater heat is absorbed1 so greater motion among the atoms is the result4 ,so that the motion of heat is tending all the time to expand the body1 while they are held together by the attraction of cohesion1 whatever that may be4 ,as the heat is further increased1 the iron ball begins to assume a liquid or molten form1 its atoms beginning to move about with greater freedom1 though held together by a decreased attractive power4 ,in this condition we now say that it is in the molten state4 ,now during all this time1 what has the ,aether been doing1 or what part has it played in the expansion and changing of the solid to a liquid8 ,we have to remember1 from ,art4 #fj1 that wherever there is motion of any kind or sort1 there we have a capacity to do work1 and that the aetherial motion which we term heat is no exception to this rule4 ,we are now no longer dealing with a frictionless medium1 but with a medium which possesses weight1 because it is gravitative1 and consequently possesses inertia also4 ,so that whenever the ,aether is set in motion by flame or heat1 its motion would be transmitted by waves of some kind to the iron ball4 ,these periodic waves1 acting upon the mass of the ball1 attack the molecules of the ball and begin to set them in motion4 ,it is supposed that they are already in motion1 as nothing is absolutely cold1 and the motion of the aetherial waves imparts a greater motion still to the molecules1 with the result that the agitation becomes greater and greater1 until at length the agitation becomes so great1 that the molecules break away from the power of attraction that holds them together1 and so begin to move about with greater freedom and with greater rapidity4 ,it is this state which we call molten4 ,now if ,aether be frictionless1 as has hitherto been supposed1 and if heat be due to the vibratory motions of ,aether1 the problem confronts us1 as to how the motion of a frictionless medium can do work in expanding a body1 and urging the molecules of a body further and further apart4 ,if the ,aether be frictionless1 then the waves of ,aether known as aetherial heat waves ought to pass between the atoms as water passes through a sieve1 or wind passes through a forest4 ,yet it is assumed that the vibratory motions of a hot body are caused by vibrations of the periodic waves of the ,aether1 which act upon the molecules of the body2 and1 in order for such an assumption to be consistent with the results1 the only possible conception that can be accepted of the ,aether1 is that it is gravitative1 and consequently possesses mass and inertia1 and therefore has a capacity not only to accept motion1 but also to transmit motion to another body1 and impart the motion which it has accepted to a colder body4 ,by imparting such motion1 it increases the motion of the cold body1 and gradually changes its state from a solid to a liquid condition4 ,here1 then1 from the realm of heat we have another argument in favour of the fact that ,aether is gravitative1 and therefore possesses mass and inertia4 ,in the experiment of reducing the iron ball from a liquid state1 so to speak1 to a vaporous condition1 we have practically a continuation of the same process1 only that greater heat or greater aetherial motion is required1 and whereas in the previous experiment the molecules of the ball were acted upon1 in this case the atoms are more directly acted upon by the ,aether waves4 ,in all these processes it suggests itself to me that the aetherial atmosphere must take its share in the expansion and transformation of the liquid form into a gaseous form1 or the solid into a liquid form4 ,taking the analogy of our atmosphere in its relation to the earth1 we know that when heat is absorbed by it1 it expands1 the result being that a greater pressure is exerted by the expanding atmosphere1 than would be exerted if it remained at the same temperature all the time4 ,if1 therefore1 each atom has an aetherial atmosphere1 which is capable of expansion1 then the effect of the absorbed aetherial motion of the heat waves on each atomic atmosphere must be to expand it1 and thus there will be a pressure away from the atom1 because of the increased elasticity acquired by the heated aetherial atmosphere4 ,so that the expansion of the liquid is due to the increased elasticity of the aetherial atomic atmosphere1 which has been expanded by heat1 and which exerts an increased pressure on neighbouring atoms1 thus seeking to push them farther away from each other4 ,there are other motions of the atoms themselves in addition to this to be considered1 but ,i am now seeking to show only the effect of the aetherial atmosphere of each atom upon the neighbouring atoms4 ,this would give each atom a larger sphere of freedom in which to move1 and that state would then be called a gaseous and not a liquid one4 ,this assumption of the part which the aetherial atmosphere plays in the expansion of a body is therefore in agreement with ,professor ,challis' theory of heat already referred to1 in which he states that heat gives rise to aetherial vibrations which act repulsively on the neighbouring atoms4 ,in further confirmation of the existence of these aetherial atmospheres that exist around atoms1 ,i would like to draw the attention of the reader to a theory of heat given to the world by ,rankine1 ,phil4 ,mag41 #ahea4 ,his theory is known as the ,hypothesis of ,molecular ,vortices4 ,he assumed that each atom of matter consists of a nucleus or central point1 enveloped by an elastic atmosphere1 which is retained in its position by attractive forces1 and that the elasticity due to heat arises from the centrifugal force of those atmospheres revolving or oscillating about their nuclei or centres4 ,now in this assumption we find that he admits that each atom has an atmosphere1 such atmosphere evidently being an aetherial one1 and in that case the hypothesis would agree with the statement in ,art4 #df1 that every atom possesses an aetherial atmosphere4 ,he further points out that the atmosphere is retained in its position by attractive forces4 ,this is also in harmony with the hypothesis given in ,art4 #de1 which proves that ,aether is gravitative1 and therefore the atmosphere of the atom would be held in its position by the attractive force of ,gravitation1 as suggested by ,young in his ,fourth ,hypothesis4 ,further1 he goes on to show that the elasticity of the atomic atmosphere is proportionate to its density1 which is also in conformity with the statement made in ,art4 #dg1 and is also in accordance with ,boyle's ,law4 ,then he goes on to prove that the quantity of heat in a body is measured by the molecular revolutions of the vortices4 ,he does not clearly define the exact character of those molecular vortices1 but ,i take it to mean that each atmosphere is in a state of revolution around its atomic centre1 in the same way that the atmosphere of a planet is in a state of revolution around its central body4 ,such an assumption is entirely in harmony with experience1 as there is an analogy for its assumption from the planetary system2 and if an atom is a world in miniature1 as ,i believe it to be1 then the atmosphere of the atom ought to revolve around its central nucleus in the same way that the atmosphere of a planet revolves around its nucleus or central body4 ,he then deals with temperature1 and with the pressure of gases caused by heat1 showing the relation of elasticity and pressure to temperature in a table of results given in the ,phil4 ,mag4 for #ahea4 ,i must refer the reader to the paper itself for fuller details4 ,thus from one of the greatest thinkers of modern times we have further testimony to the hypothesis that ,aether is matter and is therefore gravitative1 and because of its gravitating tendency1 it forms around every atom and molecule elastic envelopes or atmospheres1 whose pressure is always proportionate to their density4 ,footnote3#h ,phil ,mag41 #ahei4 ,,art4 #fb4 ,radiation and ,absorption4--,we have already seen 7,art4 #ca7 that all matter is made up of atoms and molecules1 each of which is surrounded by its atmosphere of ,aether4 ,by means of the ,aether1 motion in the form of light and heat may be transmitted from one atom and molecule to another4 ,the transmission of heat from one body to another is termed ,radiation1 while the acceptance of heat is termed ,absorption4 ,tyndall defines ,radiation as the communication of molecular motion from the heated body to the ,aether in which it is immersed1#i and ,absorption1 therefore1 would be the acceptance of motion by the body from the ,aether4 ,so that in ,radiation1 the atom1 molecule1 or body parts with motion to the ,aether1 while in ,absorption it gains motion from the ,aether4 ,now in order for us to understand this theory of ,radiation and ,absorption1 it will be well for us if we look at a similar effect in the sphere of music and sound4 ,let us suppose that we have two tuning-forks of the same pitch1 placed on a table at a distance of a foot from each other4 ,if we set one of the forks vibrating1 the waves which it radiates through the air will fall upon the other one1 and will also set it in vibration1 because they are of the same period or size as those waves which it would itself give off when sounded4 ,thus while one is losing its motion1 the other is gaining it1 or while one is radiating motion1 the other is absorbing motion4 ,this can readily be proved by stopping the vibration of the first fork1 when it will be found that the second fork is now giving out a similar note to the first1 although it was silent at the commencement4 ,thus we have here an example of radiation and absorption of sound1 the success of the experiment depending upon the fact that both forks shall have the same pitch4 ,again1 it must be noted1 that if we have two tuning-forks both of which are of the same pitch1 and both vibrating at the same time1 then1 while one is radiating sound and consequently losing motion to the other1 yet at the same time it is absorbing motion from the other4 ,because1 if fork ,a can transfer motion to fork ,b1 the latter can equally transfer its motion to fork ,a1 and when both are vibrating together1 each is the recipient of part of the other's motion1 while at the same time giving off motion in the form of sound waves itself4 ,so that the power of a fork to radiate sound waves equals its power to absorb sound waves4 ,if now we apply this simile to the atomic and molecular world1 we shall be able to form a mental picture as to what takes place in radiation and absorption4 ,all atoms and molecules are ever in a state of ceaseless motion1 ever moving1 never still4 ,all are creating ,aether waves which move away with the velocity of light4 ,if1 in the transmission of the waves by the ,aether1 they fall upon another atom which can emit a wave of similar length1 in the same way that two tuning-forks emitted sound waves of the same length1 then the atom upon which the waves strike will be set in vibration1 as the second tuning-fork was set in vibration by the first4 ,we shall look again at the principle of wave motion in the next chapter4 ,further1 from the simile of the two forks1 which absorb sound at the same time that they radiate sound1 we learn that an atom or body radiates heat waves at the same time that it is absorbing heat waves4 ,suppose that we have two bodies at equal temperatures1 it must not be thought that the radiation or absorption has ceased1 for1 according to the simile used1 they both still continue to vibrate and emit the aetherial heat waves2 but where we get equality of temperatures1 there we get equality of radiation and absorption4 ,before this equality of temperatures1 however1 is reached1 the hotter body will radiate more heat waves than it absorbs1 while the colder body will absorb more heat waves than it emits4 ,all bodies1 whatever their temperature1 are incessantly radiating heat waves4 ,this may be proved experimentally with proper apparatus1 as for example with an instrument known as the thermopile4 ,when1 however1 the total heat waves radiated out by a body are less than it absorbs1 the body gets gradually colder1 and the temperature decreases4 ,so long as this is continued1 so long will the body continue to get colder and colder1 until it arrives at the same temperature as the surrounding bodies1 at which point the total heat waves radiated out will equal the total heat waves absorbed1 and at that point the temperature of the body will remain constant4 ,this aspect of temperature was first introduced by ,prevost of ,geneva in #agib1 in an article in which he tried to explain the radiation from a cold body4 ,according to his reasoning1 a body is not simply regarded as radiating heat when its temperature is falling1 or absorbing heat when it is rising4 ,what he tried to make clear was1 that both radiation and absorption were going on at one and the same time2 the radiation depending upon the body itself1 but the absorption depending upon the nature of the body4 ,while radiation and absorption are thus reciprocal1 which implies that a good radiator is a good absorber1 and a bad radiator is a bad absorber1 it does not follow that all bodies radiate and absorb alike4 ,the capacity of bodies to radiate and to absorb differ considerably4 ,dr4 ,franklin made several simple experiments to prove the relative powers of radiation and absorption with several pieces of cloth4 ,these were put out on the snow1 and exposed to the heat of the sun4 ,he found that the pieces which were dark in colour sank deepest into the snow1 while those which were lightest in colour sank the least4 ,from this he inferred that the darkest pieces were the best absorbers1 and therefore the best radiators1 while the light-coloured cloths were the worst absorbers1 and therefore the worst radiators4 ,radiation1 therefore1 may be said to be the propagation of a wave motion through the ,aether2 and1 as all motion is a source of power or energy1 we have in the radiation of heat from one body to another by the aetherial waves1 the transmission of a motive power capable of doing work1 either internal work as increasing the temperature of the molecule or body1 or external work as separating the atoms1 or driving them further apart4 ,it can readily be seen that if the ,aether were frictionless1 as has generally been supposed1 the ,aether could not have any motive power at all1 and therefore could not transmit heat from one body to another4 ,professor ,tyndall#aj on this point says1 referring to the cooling of a red-hot ball3 ,the atoms of the ball oscillate in a resisting medium1 which accepts their motion and transmits it on all sides with inconceivable velocity4 ,now in the previous quotation given in this article from the same authority1 he states that the atoms are immersed in the ,aether4 ,so that evidently in his opinion the ,aether and the resisting medium are one and the same4 ,so that our assumption of the gravitative property of the ,aether is perfectly in accord with ,professor ,tyndall's conception of the ,aether1 in so far as it concerns the propagation of heat waves2 and1 as will be shown later on1 heat and light waves are due to the same physical agent--that is1 the ,aether2 therefore1 wherever we get heat and light1 there1 according to ,professor ,tyndall's statement1 we must have a resisting medium1 and as ,aether fills all space1 the resisting medium must fill all space4 ,this is perfectly in accord with our assumption that the ,aether is gravitative and possesses inertia--that is1 the capacity to receive and to impart motion1 and being gravitative it possesses mass or weight1 which is the very quality necessary for the existence of a resisting medium4 ,footnote #i3 ,heat1 a ,mode of ,motion4 ,footnote #aj3 ,heat1 a ,mode of ,motion4 ,,art4 #fc4 ,heat is a ,repulsive ,motion4--,whatever be the particular character of the vibratory motion of the ,aether termed heat1 there is one fact regarding the same that is very patent and obvious to all2 and that is1 that the vibratory motion of heat is essentially a repulsive motion1 or a motion from a centre and not one to a centre4 ,professor ,davy points this out 7,art4 #fj7 where he says of heat1 ,it may with propriety be called a repulsive motion1 while ,professor ,challis 7,art4 #fa7 states that ,each atom is the centre of vibrations propagated from it equally in all directions1 which give rise to a repulsive action on the surrounding atoms4 ,this action 7he adds7 is the repulsion of heat which keeps the individual atoms asunder4 ,there have been many experiments undertaken which go to prove that a repulsive action between atoms and molecules is produced by heat4 ,it has been demonstrated that certain coloured rings1 known as ,newton's rings1 change their shape and position when the glasses between which they appear are heated1 thus indicating the presence of a repulsive power due to the increased heat4 ,if we consider the change of state that heat induces in matter1 as1 for example1 from solid to a liquid1 or liquid to a gaseous form1 we are compelled to admit that heat possesses an expanding and therefore a repulsive motion4 ,it is almost an universal law that heat expands and cold contracts1 and the greater the heat absorbed1 the greater the expansion4 ,in the case of a solid being converted into a liquid1 a much greater heat or repulsive motion is required to separate the particles1 on account of the power of cohesion being greater in the solid than in the liquid4 ,as ,professor ,tyndall#aa states when dealing with the stability of matter from the molecular standpoint3 ,every atom is held apart from its neighbour by a force of repulsion4 ,why then do not the mutually repellent members of the group part company8 ,the reason of this stability is that two forces1 the one attractive and the other repulsive1 are in operation between every two atoms1 and the position of every atom is determined by the equilibration of these two forces4 ,the points at which attraction and repulsion are equal to each other is the atom's position of equilibrium4 ,when the atoms approach too near each other1 repulsion predominates and drives them apart2 when they recede to too great a distance1 attraction predominates and draws them together4 ,if1 therefore1 there are ,,two forces at work in the atomic world1 viz4 attraction and repulsion1 then the question arises1 ,can that repulsive power be increased in any way1 and if so1 by what means8 ,such repulsive motion1 as experiment and experience teach us1 can be increased1 and such increase may be derived from the absorption of heat which gives rise to increased atomic motion1 and so to increased aetherial motion away from the atom1 by which the repulsive action of one atom upon another is increased4 ,thus an atom's repulsive power may be increased by heat2 the greater the heat absorbed1 the greater the repulsive power that any atom or body exerts upon a neighbouring atom or body4 ,we can therefore understand how it is1 that a body when changed from a solid to a liquid condition occupies a larger space in the latter condition than in the former2 or why a body when changed from a liquid to a gaseous condition occupies a still larger volume in the latter than in its previous condition4 ,the expansion in both cases is essentially the result of the increased repulsive motion that has been imparted to its atoms or molecules by the increased heat1 and this increased repulsive power has overcome the attractive power of the atoms or molecules1 with the result that they have been driven further and further apart1 until1 in the gaseous state1 the atoms may be very far apart indeed4 ,wherever1 therefore1 we have heat of any kind1 there we have a repulsive motion1 such motion being proportionate to the heat radiated1 that is1 the aetherial waves propagated by the body4 ,if1 therefore1 in the atomic world we find a repulsive motion1 which is due to the vibratory motions of the ,aether generated by heat1 the question now confronts us1 as to whether in the solar system1 and indeed all through the universe1 there is not the same repulsive motion from a central body due to the wave motions of the ,aether termed ,heat4 ,may we not find in the repulsive power of heat in the atomic world1 an indication of that very power for which we are seeking in the solar system--that is1 a ,centrifugal ,force or motion which is the exact opposite of the ,centripetal ,force or attractive power of ,gravitation8 ,for if heat be a repulsive motion at all1 then to be strictly logical it must be equally repulsive in relation to large masses1 the sun and the planets for example1 as it is in the atomic world1 otherwise we have a phenomenon in ,nature which contradicts itself1 which assumption would be contrary to the simplicity which is to govern our philosophy1 and also contradictory to experience1 which is the primary factor of philosophical reasoning4 ,now what are the facts with reference to the sun1 which is the central body of our solar system1 and the source of all light and heat in that system8 ,we will look at this aspect of the question under the heading of ,radiant ,heat4 ,footnote #aa3 ,heat1 a ,mode of ,motion4 ,,art4 #fd4 ,radiant ,heat4--,the source of all light and heat1 not only of our earth1 but also of all the other planets1 is to be found in the sun4 ,we have therefore to deal1 not with an atom which is generating heat waves on every side1 but with a globe about #hfj1jjj miles in diameter1 and with a circumference of over #b1gjj1jjj miles4 ,this huge orb consists of a central body1 molten or partly solid1 with a temperature so hot that it is almost impossible to conceive its intensity4 ,the quantity of heat emitted by the sun has been ascertained by ,sir ,john ,herschel from experiments made at the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 and by ,m4 ,pouillet in ,paris4 ,sir ,john ,herschel found that the heating power of the sun when it was directly overhead was capable of melting 4#jjged of an inch of ice per minute4 ,according to ,m4 ,pouillet the quantity was 4#jjgjc of an inch1 which is equal to about half-an-inch per hour4 ,from these results it has been calculated that if the direct heat of the sun were received upon a block of ice one mile square1 #bf1jjj tons would be melted per hour by the heat which would be absorbed4 ,again1 as ,herschel#ab puts it3 ,supposing a cylinder of ice1 #de miles in diameter1 to be continually darted into the sun with the velocity of light1 the heat given off constantly from the sun by radiation would be wholly expended in liquefaction on the one hand1 while on the other1 the actual temperature at the sun's surface would undergo no diminution4 ,sir ,john ,herschel further says3 ,all the heat we enjoy comes from the sun4 ,imagine the heat we should have to endure if the sun were to approach us1 or we the sun1 to a point the one hundred and sixtieth part of the present distance4 ,it would not be merely as if #afj suns were shining on us all at once1 but #afj times #afj suns according to the rule of inverse squares--that is1 #be1fjj4 ,imagine a globe emitting heat #be1fjj times fiercer than that of an equatorial sunshine at noonday1 with the sun vertical4 ,in such a heat there is no solid substance we know of which would not run like water1 boil1 or be converted into smoke or vapour4 ,lockyer points out that the heat radiated from every square yard of the sun's surface is equal to the amount of heat produced by the burning of six tons of coal on that area in one hour4 ,now the surface of the sun may be estimated at #b1bhd1jjj1jjj1jjj square miles1 and there are #c1jig1fjj square yards in each square mile2 what therefore must be the number of tons of coal which must be burnt per hour to represent the amount of heat radiated from the sun into space8 ,the approximate result may be calculated by multiplication1 but the figures arrived at fail to give any adequate conception of the actual result4 ,from these facts it may be seen that the sun has a temperature far exceeding any temperature that can be produced on the earth by artificial means4 ,all known elements would be transformed into a vaporous condition if brought close to the sun's surface4 ,it may readily be seen1 therefore1 that the sun is constantly sending forth an incessant flood of radiant heat in all directions1 and on every side into space4 ,now if heat be motion1 and be primarily due to the vibratory motion of ,aether1 what must be the volume and the intensity of the aetherial waves1 known as heat waves1 generated by the sun8 ,when we remember its ponderous mass1 with its volume more than #a1bjj1jjj times that of our earth1 its huge girth of more than #b-a_/b millions of miles1 and this always aglow with fire the most extensive known--fires so intense that they cover its huge form with a quivering fringe of flames which leap into space a distance of #hj1jjj miles1 or even #ajj1jjj miles1 or over one-third of the distance of the moon from the earth1--remembering all these facts1 what must be the volume and intensity of the aetherial heat waves which they generate and send upon their course into space on all sides6 ,what a very storm of energy and power must there be in this aetherial atmosphere which exists around the sun's huge form1 and with what volume of power must the aetherial heat waves speed away from so great a generating source6 ,some idea as to their velocity of motion may be gained by the fact1 that these aetherial heat waves traverse the distance of #ib1jjj1jjj miles between the sun and our earth in the short space of #h-a_/b minutes4 ,with such a velocity of motion as that1 and with the fact before us that all motion is a source of energy or power1 what must be the energy possessed by these heat waves6 ,there must1 therefore1 be a power in these aetherial heat waves which is strictly proportionate to their intensity and flow4 ,so that1 whenever they come into contact with any body1 as a planet1 as they flow outwards from the sun1 they must exert a power upon such a planet which is directed away from the sun1 and therefore act upon that planet by the energy of their motion away from the sun1 the source of the aetherial heat waves4 ,therefore1 not only in the atomic world is heat a repulsive motion1 but equally in the solar world1 which is but an atomic world on a large scale1 the same principle prevails1 and the effect of radiant heat is essentially a repulsive1 that is1 a centrifugal motion1 as it is always directed from the central body1 the sun4 ,further1 it can be shown that the repulsive power of heat in the solar system has already received the attention of scientists1 especially in ,france4 ,this will be seen more fully when we come to deal with the phenomena of comets' tails4 ,one remarkable feature about comets' tails is1 that they are always directed away from the sun1 and various hypotheses have been advanced to account for that fact4 ,among them is the hypothesis of ,m4 ,faye1 in which he assumes that there is a repulsive force which has its origin in the heat of the sun4 ,this repulsive force is not propagated instantaneously1 but the velocity of propagation is the same as that of a ray of light4 ,by means of this repulsive power due to the heat of the sun1 ,m4 ,faye explains how it is that the tails of comets are always turned away from the sun4 ,here1 then1 we have an indication of the existence of this repulsive force of heat which we are considering--a repulsive power which finds its source in the aetherial waves1 which give rise to the phenomena of ,heat1 and to which we must look for the ultimate source of that repulsive power or ,centrifugal ,force which is to form the complementary power to the attractive force of ,gravitation4 ,footnote #ab3 ,lectures on ,scientific ,subjects4 ,,art4 #fe4 ,direction of ,ray of ,heat4--,the question as to the path which a ray of heat takes may best be attacked by finding out what is the path which a ray of light takes in its progress through the ,aether4 ,when we come to deal with light1 we shall find that it has been experimentally proved that the path of a ray of light is that of a straight line through space2 so that if we have any body emitting light1 the rays of light will proceed from that body in straight lines1 with decreasing intensity1 according to the law of inverse squares1 the same as ,gravitation4 ,it can readily be shown1 that wherever there is light there is heat4 ,for example1 the radiant heat from the sun proceeds through space along with the light from the sun1 and when one set of waves1 the light waves for instance1 are intercepted1 the heat waves are also intercepted4 ,or1 to take another illustration1 when the sun is eclipsed1 we feel the sun's heat as long as any portion of the sun is visible1 but as soon as the sun is totally eclipsed1 then the light waves disappear1 and with it the heat waves4 ,from this we can readily see1 that not only do the heat and light waves from the sun proceed in the same straight line1 but that they also travel at the same rate through space1 at the rate of #ahf1jjj miles per second4 ,then again the common lens1 which is so familiar to every one1 will prove the same fact by concentrating the rays of light to a focus1 and by so doing will produce sufficient heat to burn a piece of paper1 or even set fire to wood4 ,if1 therefore1 the path of a ray of light be that of a straight line1 proceeding from the luminous or lighted body1 and the path of a ray of heat coincides with the path of a ray of light1 the path of the ray of heat must also be in the direction of a straight line from the heated or luminous body1 which1 as we shall see in a subsequent article1 also decreases in intensity according to the law of inverse squares the same as ,gravitation ,attraction4 ,professor ,tyndall1 on the direction of a ray of heat1#ac states his opinion on the matter as follows3 ,a wave of ,aether starting from a radiant point in all directions in a uniform medium constitutes a spherical shell1 which expands with the velocity of light or of radiant heat4 ,a ray of light or a ray of heat is a line perpendicular to the wave1 and in the case here supposed1 the rays would be the radii of the spherical shell4 ,from this it can be seen that a ray of light or heat corresponds to what is known as the radius vector of a circle 7,art4 #bj71 and therefore a ray of light and heat takes exactly the same path through space 7if we consider the sun as the source of the light and heat7 as the path of the attractive power of ,gravitation4 ,collecting1 therefore1 our results from the preceding articles of this chapter1 we learn that heat is due to vibrating wave motion of the ,aether1 and that that motion is a motion which is always directed from the central body which is the source of the heat2 and further1 that this motion amounts to a repulsive motion acting in an opposite direction to the attractive power of gravity or to the centripetal force of ,gravitation4 ,what is more remarkable still1 the path of a ray of heat corresponds with1 and takes up exactly the same direction through space1 whether it be atomic space1 solar space1 or interstellar space1 as the attractive force of ,gravitation4 ,looking at the subject from the standpoint of the solar system1 with the sun as the central body1 we see that while we have the sun1 which acts as the controlling centre of the particular system of planets1 holding all the planets in their orbits by its attractive power1 yet at the same time it is also the source of all light and heat4 ,now heat being due to the wave motion of the aetherial medium1 such motion being always exerted from the central body1 we arrive at the only legitimate conclusion that can be arrived at1 viz4 that the sun is also the source of a repulsive motion1 which motion coincides with the path that the attractive power of ,gravitation takes1 that is1 along the radius vector of the circle1 as shown in ,art4 #bj4 ,,art4 #ff4 ,law of ,inverse ,squares applied to ,heat4--,the law of inverse squares which governs not only the ,law of ,gravitation ,attraction 7,art4 #bb71 but also electricity and light1 is equally applicable to the phenomena of heat1 so that we say the intensity of heat varies inversely as the square of the distance4 ,thus1 if we double the distance of any body from the source of heat1 the amount of heat which such a body receives at the increased distance is one-quarter of the heat compared with its original position4 ,if the distance were trebled1 then the intensity of the heat would be reduced to one-ninth2 while if the distance were four times as great1 the intensity of the heat would only be one-sixteenth of what it would receive in its first position4 ,this may be proved from experiments as given by ,tyndall in his ,heat1 a ,mode of ,motion4 ,let us apply the law of inverse squares in relation to heat to the solar system1 and see what the result gives4 ,in our solar system1 we have the sun as the central body1 the source of all light and heat1 with the eight planets1 ,mercury1 ,venus1 the ,earth1 ,mars1 ,jupiter1 ,saturn1 ,uranus1 ,neptune1 describing orbits around the central body1 and at the same time receiving from it the light and heat which the sun is ever pouring forth into space4 ,the mean distance of ,mercury from the sun is about #cf1jjj1jjj miles1 while that of the ,earth is about #ib1jjj1jjj miles1 so that reckoning the distance of ,mercury as unity1 the distance of the ,earth is a little more than #b-a_/b times that of ,mercury from the sun4 ,now the square of #b-a_/b is #be_/d1 and that inverted gives us #d_/be1 so that according to the law of inverse squares1 the intensity of heat at the ,earth's distance from the sun is #d_/be of what the intensity of heat is at the mean distance of ,mercury4 ,again1 the mean distance of ,mars is #ada1jjj1jjj miles1 while the mean distance of ,saturn is #hhd1jjj1jjj miles1 and taking ,mars' distance from the sun as unity1 the distance of ,saturn would be represented by #f-a_/d4 ,now the square of #f-a_/d is 7#be_/d7b which gives #fbe_/af and the inverse of that is #af_/fbe1 so that the intensity of heat at the distance of ,saturn's mean distance from the sun1 in comparison with the intensity of heat at ,mars' mean distance1 would be about #af_/fbe2 or in other words1 the heat received by ,saturn would be only #af_/fbe of the intensity of heat received by the planet ,mars4 ,in ,art4 #fc we have seen that heat is a repulsive motion1 being a wave motion of the ,aether which is propagated from the heated and central body1 which in this case is the sun4 ,therefore1 according to the law of inverse squares from the standpoint of heat1 we find in the solar system a repulsive motion1 due to the wave motion of the ,aether1 which is always exerted away from the sun in the same path that the centripetal force takes1 and which like that force diminishes in intensity inversely as the square of the distance4 ,so that1 wherever the centripetal force1 or the attractive force of ,gravitation1 is diminished on account of the increased distance from the sun1 the repulsive motion due to heat is also diminished in exactly the same proportion and along exactly the same path4 ,if at any point in the solar system the attractive force is doubled1 then according to our repulsive theory of heat1 and the law of inverse squares1 the repulsive motion is also doubled4 ,if the attractive force is halved1 then the repulsive motion is halved also1 the repulsive motion being always and at all places exactly proportional to the increase or decrease of the attraction of ,gravitation4 ,footnote #ac3 ,heat1 a ,mode of ,motion4 ,,art4 #fg4 ,first ,law of ,thermodynamics4--,the ,law of ,thermodynamics is based on two fundamental truths which have reference to the conversion of ,heat into ,work1 and ,work into ,heat4 ,in ,art4 #ed we have already seen that energy in the form of heat1 light1 electricity and magnetism is capable of being converted into other forms of energy1 while in ,art4 #ei we have seen that ,joule gave us the exact relation in foot-pounds between heat and work4 ,he showed that when #a lb4 of water fell through #ggb feet its temperature was raised one degree ,fahr4 ,thus the principle underlying the first law of thermodynamics states1 that whenever work is spent in producing heat1 the amount of work done is proportionate to the quantity of heat generated2 and conversely1 whenever heat is employed to do work1 a certain amount of heat is used up1 which is the equivalent of the work done4 ,this principle is also in accord with the conservation of ,energy and ,motion 7,arts4 #eb and #eg71 which assert that whenever energy or motion disappears in one form1 it is manifested in some other form4 ,thus1 from the first law of thermodynamics1 we learn that wherever we have heat we have the power to do work1 and the amount of work so done is proportionate to the heat used up4 ,heat1 then1 has a capacity to perform work1 and that power is known as the mechanical equivalent of heat4 ,both ,mayer of ,germany1 and ,dr4 ,joule of ,manchester1 have worked out this problem1 and have given us the mechanical value of heat4 ,by experiments ,mayer found out that a quantity of heat sufficient to raise #a lb4 of water one degree ,fahr4 in temperature was able to raise a weight #gga4d lb4 one foot high4 ,dr4 ,joule of ,manchester1 after making a number of experiments which lasted over many years1 came to the conclusion that the mechanical equivalent of a unit heat was #ggb foot-pounds1 a unit of heat being the quantity of heat which would raise #a lb4 of water one degree ,fahr4 ,so that if a #a-lb4 weight fell from a height of #ggb feet1 an amount of heat is generated which would raise #a lb4 of water one degree ,fahr42 and conversely1 to lift #a lb4 #ggb feet high1 one degree ,fahr4 of heat would be consumed4 ,now if this law of thermodynamics is true1 it must not only be true in relation to terrestrial heat1 or heat produced by artificial means on our earth1 but it must equally hold good in relation to the solar system2 and not only the solar system1 but equally true throughout all the systems of worlds that flood the universe4 ,so that wherever we get heat in the universe1 in the solar system for example1 there1 according to our first law of thermodynamics1 we should have the capacity to do work of some kind or other4 ,that work may take either the form of expanding a body1 as the atmosphere of a planet for example1 or it may take a mechanical form1 that is1 actually moving a body by the increased pressure due to aetherial heat waves generated by the sun4 ,we have already seen in ,art4 #fd1 on ,radiant ,heat1 what a store of heat the sun has4 ,for thousands and millions of years the sun has been pouring forth its heat rays into space1 and yet its temperature does not seem to be diminished4 ,the great ,carboniferous or coal period of past geological times is an indication of the heat and light of the sun1 which it must have radiated out millions of years ago2 and year by year1 these aetherial heat waves are still being poured forth by the sun on every side into space1 so that no matter where a planet may be in its orbit1 there it may be the recipient of these aetherial heat waves which break upon its surface4 ,now if there be this quantity of heat existing in the sun1 and heat according to the first law of thermodynamics has a mechanical value1 which is that it can push or lift a body through space1 the question arises1 as to what is the mechanical value of this heat of the sun8 ,are we to suppose that if one unit of heat can lift #a lb4 #ggb feet1 the millions and millions of units of heat which are constantly being poured out of the sun into space are doing no work at all8 ,such an assumption is not only contrary to that simplicity which governs our ,philosophy1 but is entirely opposed to experience1 which is the very foundation of all philosophical reasoning4 ,if1 therefore1 experience is to be any guide at all1 we are compelled to come to the conclusion that the heat poured forth into space does do work on the bodies1 as comets1 meteors1 planets1 upon which the aetherial heat waves fall4 ,the problem is1 what is the character of the work done8 ,i have already indicated part of the work1 viz4 in the expansion of the atmosphere of the planets4 ,then there is also the reception of the heat by the animal and vegetable life of the planet1 but these do not account for all the motive power of the aetherial waves1 which break upon the planet or its atmospheres4 ,the true solution of the first law of thermodynamics1 in its relation to the solar system1 seems to me to be found in the fact already stated in ,art4 #fc1 viz4 that heat is a repulsive motion1 and the law of thermodynamics confirms that statement1 and shows that the work done on a planet by the aetherial heat waves is that of pushing it1 or urging it by their very energy and motion away from their controlling centre1 the sun4 ,this would practically amount to a repulsive force which had its home in the sun1 and this conception would bring our ,philosophy into harmony with our experience1 which teaches us that wherever there is heat there is the capacity of doing work1 the amount of work being proportionate to the heat generated and consumed4 ,,art4 #fh4 ,second ,law of ,thermodynamics4--,this law was enunciated by ,sadi ,carnot in #ahbd1 when he wrote an essay on the ,motive ,power of ,heat4 ,previous to the time of ,carnot no definite relation seems to have been suggested between work and heat2 ,carnot1 however1 discovered what were those general laws which govern the relation between heat and work4 ,in arriving at his conclusion1 he based his results on the truth of the principle of the conservation of energy already referred to 7,art4 #eb74 ,carnot started his reasoning on the assumption that heat was matter1 and therefore indestructible4 ,the two great truths in relation to heat and work1 enunciated by ,carnot1 are known as1 first1 a ,cycle of operations2 and1 secondly1 what he termed a ,reversible ,cycle4 ,in order to be able to reason upon the work done by a heat-engine1 say a steam-engine for example1 ,carnot stated we must imagine a cycle of operations1 by which1 at the end of such operations1 the steam or water is brought back to exactly the same state in which it was at its start4 ,he calls this a cycle of operations1 and of it he says1 that only at the conclusion of the cycle are we entitled to reason upon the relation between the work done and the heat spent in doing it4 ,his other idea of the reversible cycle implies that an engine is reversible when1 instead of using heat and getting work from it1 the engine may be driven through the cycle of operations the reverse way1 that is1 by taking in work1 it can pump back heat to the boiler again4 ,carnot showed that if you can obtain such a reversible engine1 it is a perfect engine4 ,all perfect engines1 that is all reversible engines1 will do exactly the same amount of work with the same amount of heat1 the amount of work being strictly proportionate to the amount of heat consumed4 ,i need hardly point out that the reversible engine1 or the perfect engine of ,carnot1 is only the ideal one1 as there is no engine in which all the heat is converted into work1 as a great deal of the heat is radiated away and not converted into work at all4 ,again1 working from the standpoint that heat is matter1 ,carnot reasoned that in the heat-engine the work is performed1 not by the actual consumption of heat1 but by its transportation from a hot body to a cold one4 ,thus1 by the fall of heat from a higher to a lower temperature1 work could be done in the same way that work could be done by allowing water to fall from a higher to a lower level4 ,the quantity of water which reaches the lower level is exactly the same as that which leaves the higher level1 as none of the water is destroyed in the fall4 ,he argued1 therefore1 that the work produced by a heat-engine was produced in a similar manner1 the quantity of heat which reaches the condenser being supposed to be equal to that which left the source4 ,thus the work was done by the heat flowing from a hot body to a cold one1 and1 in doing this work1 it lost its momentum like falling water1 and was brought to rest4 ,one of the most important points noted by ,carnot is the necessity that1 in all engines which derive work from heat1 there must be two bodies at different temperatures1 that is1 a source and a condenser1 which correspond to a hot and cold body1 so that there may be the passage of heat from the hot to the cold body4 ,in order to get work out of heat it is absolutely necessary to have a hotter and a colder body4 ,from this reasoning we learn1 therefore1 that work is obtained from heat by using up the heat of the hotter body1 part of which is converted into actual work1 while part is absorbed by the colder body4 ,so that wherever we have two bodies at different temperatures1 according to the second law of thermodynamics1 there we have the power of doing work by the transmission of heat1 from the body of higher to the one of lower temperature4 ,that ,carnot ultimately came to believe in the dynamical theory of heat1 is proved by the following passage taken from his notes on the ,motive ,power of ,heat3 ,it would be ridiculous to suppose that it is an emission of matter1 while the light which accompanies it could only be a movement4 ,could a motion produce matter8 ,no6 undoubtedly1 it can only produce a motion4 ,heat is then the result of motion4 ,it is plain then that it could be produced by the consumption of motive power1 and that it could produce this power4 ,heat is then simply motive power1 or rather motion which has changed its form4 ,it is a movement among the particles of bodies4 ,wherever there is a destruction of motive power1 there is at the same time production of heat in quantity exactly proportional to the quantity of motive power destroyed4 ,reciprocally1 whenever there is destruction of heat there is production of motive power4 ,let us apply this principle to the solar system1 and endeavour to find out whether in that system we have1 in relation to the heat thereof1 either a cycle of operations or a reversible cycle4 ,we have again to consider the sun as the source of all light and heat in the solar system1 radiating forth on every side1 year by year1 the countless units of heat which go to form the continuance of all planetary life and existence4 ,one of the problems that has confronted scientific men for many years is this1 ,where does the sun get its supply of heat from8 ,when we remember the incessant loss of heat which the sun suffers through its radiation of heat into space1 we are compelled to ask1 ,how is that supply maintained1 and how has it been kept up through the countless ages of the past8 ,several suggestions have been made1 and several theories advanced to account for the fact4 ,mayer1 of ,germany1 suggested that the heat is partly maintained by the falling into the sun of meteors1 which1 like comets1 pursue a path through the heavens1 and are subject to the attractive influence of the sun4 ,in the combustion of these meteorites1 or meteors1 he contended there were the means by which the light and heat of the sun might be maintained4 ,whatever theory1 however1 may be suggested as to the maintenance and the source of the continuity of the sun's heat1 ,i do not think it has been suggested by any scientist that the heat emitted and radiated by the sun is ever returned in any way back to the sun from infinite space1 whether by reflection or by any other method4 ,so far as ,i can learn1 there are no facts in connection with the solar system which would lead us to make that assumption4 ,on the contrary1 experience and experiment teach us that radiation implies loss of heat1 and that the body1 which so radiates1 ultimately becomes cold1 unless its internal heat is kept up by some means or other4 ,so that the terms introduced by ,carnot in the second law of thermodynamics1 viz4 that of a ,cycle of ,operations and of a ,reversible ,cycle1 do not apply to the solar system1 and the solar system1 viewed from the standpoint of a machine1 with the sun as the source of the heat1 does not represent a perfect engine1 that is1 all the heat is not used up in doing work1 some of it being radiated out into space4 ,wherever1 however1 the heat1 that is the aetherial heat waves generated by the sun1 comes into contact with a planet1 as ,mercury1 ,venus1 or ,jupiter1 then1 in accordance with ,carnot's reasoning1 work is done4 ,carnot points out that1 in order for work to be done1 we must have a source and a condenser1 that is1 two bodies at different temperatures1 a hot body and a cold one4 ,now these conditions of work are satisfactorily fulfilled in the solar system1 and as a result work is performed4 ,we have the sun with its huge fires1 and its intensity of heat1 representing the source or the hot body1 while every planet and every meteor and comet1 that come under its influence1 represent the cold body1 and between the two work is always going on4 ,that work is represented by the repulsive power of heat1 which ,i have already indicated1 so that1 viewed from ,carnot's standpoint with relation to the motive power of heat1 we find that there are in the solar system those conditions which govern work1 and by which1 from a mechanical standpoint1 work is performed2 further1 that work takes the form of a repulsive power on every planet or other body upon which the aetherial heat waves fall4 ,therefore1 from the second law of thermodynamics we have another proof of this repulsive power of heat already indicated and referred to in ,art4 #fc4 ,,art4 #fi4 ,identity of ,heat and ,light4--,we have seen from the preceding articles of this chapter1 that heat is due to a periodic wave motion of the ,aether1 and in the succeeding chapter we shall also see that light is due to some kind of periodic wave motion in the ,aether4 ,so that not only heat1 but light also1 it would appear1 is due to certain periodic wave motions that are set up in the ,aether by the vibrations of hot or luminous bodies4 ,the question therefore arises1 how many wave motions are there in the ,aether8 ,are there different wave motions which in one case produce light1 and in the other case produce heat1 or are light and heat both produced by the same set of aetherial waves8 ,the identity of light waves with heat waves is manifested by the fact that wherever we get light we get heat1 as can be proved in many ways4 ,one of the simplest proofs is found in the common lens or burning-glass1 by which the light waves are brought to a focus1 and as a result1 heat is manifested4 ,although there is this close identity between light and heat waves1 yet there must be some distinction between the heat and light waves1 because while light waves affect the eye1 heat waves do not4 ,there is actually a difference between the two kinds of waves1 and that difference is one of period or length4 ,it must not1 however1 be thought that there are really two classes or sets of waves in the ,aether1 one of which could be called light waves1 and the other heat waves1 but rather the same wave may be manifested in two different forms because of its different wave lengths4 ,in one case the waves may affect the eye1 and we have the sensation of sight1 but in the other case they affect the body1 and we experience the sensation of warmth4 ,an analogy from the waves of sound may make these facts much clearer4 ,we know that sound travels about #aajj feet per second4 ,if1 therefore1 we have a bell which vibrates about #aajj times per second1 we should have a wave one foot long4 ,if it vibrated #ajj times per second the waves would be #aa feet long1 while if it vibrated only #aa times per second1 the waves would be #ajj feet long4 ,now the impression made upon the ear depends upon the number of vibrations the bell makes per second1 and from the rate of vibration we get the idea of pitch4 ,if the vibrations are very rapid1 then we get a note of high pitch1 and if the vibrations are slow1 then we get a note of low pitch4 ,a note of high pitch1 therefore1 will correspond to waves of short length1 while a low note will correspond to waves of a greater length2 so that the greater the rapidity with which a sounding bell vibrates1 the shorter will be the length of the sound waves which it generates1 and vice vers4 ,the range of the ear however for sound waves is limited1 so that if the vibrations be too rapid or too slow1 the ear may not be able to respond to the vibrations1 and so no distinct impression of the sound will be conveyed to the brain4 ,it need hardly be pointed out1 that both the very short and long waves are of exactly the same character as those of a medium length1 which the ear can detect1 the only difference being one of rapidity4 ,we do not therefore suggest that in the case of sound1 where the vibrations lie outside the compass of the ear1 those which lie outside are not sound waves1 or that they are different from those which lie within the compass of the ear1 and which the ear can detect4 ,whether the sound waves are long or short1 whether they can be detected by the ear or not1 we still say that all are sound waves1 and that all are due to the vibrations of the sounding body1 which vibrations are transmitted through the air1 in waves1 that fall upon the tympanum or drum of the ear1 and set that vibrating1 which vibrations are transmitted to the auditory nerve and so give rise to the sensation of hearing4 ,in a similar manner1 every atom and every particle of matter1 every planet1 every sun and star1 is constantly in a state of vibration1 sending off aetherial waves on every side4 ,nothing in ,nature is absolutely cold1 nothing is absolutely still4 ,therefore all matter1 whether in the atomic form1 or in the planetary or solar world1 is constantly generating aetherial waves1 which travel from their source or origin with the velocity of light4 ,if these aetherial waves so generated fall within certain limits1 then they affect the eye1 and we get the sensation of sight4 ,to do this they must vibrate #ejjj billion times per second1 and if they fail to do this1 they fail to give rise to the sensation of sight4 ,if the aetherial waves fall below this limit1 then they affect the body1 and give rise to the sensation of heat4 ,for it must be remembered1 that as the ear has a certain compass for sound waves1 which may vary in different individuals1 so the eye has also a certain compass for aetherial waves1 with the result that some waves may be too slow or too rapid to affect the eye1 and consequently fail to give rise to the sensation of sight4 ,when that is so1 the sensation of warmth helps us to detect these longer waves1 so that the longer waves would warm us and make their presence felt in that manner4 ,we shall see in the next chapter that there are both shorter and longer waves1 which may be detected in other ways4 ,from these facts it can be readily seen1 that we have a common origin for both light and heat1 and that they are both due to periodic waves in the ,aether1 and therefore all the laws that govern heat should also govern the phenomena of light4 ,further1 if heat possesses a dynamical value1 and if there be such a truth as the motive power of heat1 then there ought equally to be a motive power of light2 and further1 if heat possesses a repulsive motion1 then because of the identity of light and heat1 light should equally possess this repulsive power1 because it is due to similar periodic wave motions in the ,aether4 ,with regard to the same laws governing both light and heat1 we shall see that this fact also holds good4 ,we have already seen 7,art4 #ff7 that the intensity of heat is inversely as the square of the distance1 and we shall also see in the succeeding chapter that the same law holds good in relation to light4 ,we have seen 7,art4 #fe7 that the path of a ray of heat is that of a straight line2 we shall see in the succeeding chapter that the path of a ray of light is that of a straight line also4 ,indeed1 there is no law applicable to heat which is not applicable to light4 ,the law of reflection and refraction of heat equally holds good in relation to light2 and further1 ,professor ,forbes has shown that heat can be polarized in a similar manner to the polarization of light4 ,this last fact is considered the most conclusive argument as to the identity of light and heat1 and proves that the only difference between the two is simply the difference corresponding to the difference between a high note and a low note in sound4 ,that being so1 ,i hope to be able to show that as heat possesses a dynamical value1 so light equally possesses a dynamical value1 and that as heat is a repulsive motion1 then light must equally possess a similar repulsive motion1 that motion always being directed from the central body1 being caused by the same agency1 viz4 the waves of the ,aether1 the common source of both light and heat4 ,i purpose to address myself to this subject in the following chapter1 which ,i have termed ,light1 a ,mode of ,motion4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,light1 ,a ,,mode ,,of ,,motion ,,art4 #gj4 ,light1 a ,mode of ,motion4--,no subject has in the past received greater attention from philosophers and scientists than that involved in the question as to ,what is ,light8 ,indeed1 it may truthfully be said1 that even to-day its exact character is not positively known4 ,that it is due like heat to some periodic wave motion in the ,aether is known1 but the exact character of that wave motion has yet to be determined4 ,as in the case of heat1 so in the case of light1 there have been two theories which have contended with each other for supremacy in endeavouring to answer the question as to ,what is ,light8 ,those two theories are known as the ,emission or ,corpuscular ,theory1 and the ,undulatory or ,wave ,theory4 ,the corpuscular theory was introduced and developed by ,newton in his work on ,optics1 which ranks second only to the ,principia as a work revealing masterly research and scientific genius4 ,newton supposed that a luminous or lighted body actually emitted minute particles1 which were shot out from the body with the velocity of light1 that is1 at the rate of #ahf1jjj miles per second4 ,these minute particles he termed corpuscles4 ,in the work just referred to regarding this matter1 he asks the question1 ,are not rays of light very small bodies emitted from shining substances8 ,these small particles or corpuscles were supposed by him to actually strike the retina of the eye1 and so produce the sensation of ,sight1 in the same way that odorous particles entering the nostril1 come into contact with the olfactory nerves and produce the sensation of ,smell4 ,in order1 however1 to account for certain phenomena of light1 he was compelled to postulate an aetherial medium to fill all space1 in which his luminous corpuscles travelled1 and which would excite waves in that medium4 ,in his eighteenth query on this point he asks3 ,is not the heat of a warm room conveyed through the vacuum by the vibration of a much subtler medium than air1 and is not this medium the same with that medium by which light is reflected or refracted1 and by whose vibrations light communicates ,heat to bodies1 and is put into fits of easy reflection and easy transmission8 ,the corpuscular theory1 however1 received its death-blow when1 in competition with the wave theory of light1 as developed by ,young1 it was found that the latter theory satisfactorily accounted for certain phenomena as the refraction of light1 which the corpuscular theory did not adequately account for4 ,even while ,newton was developing his theory1 ,huyghens1 a contemporary of ,newton1 was developing another theory which is now known as the undulatory or wave theory4 ,huyghens drew his conclusions from the analogy of sound4 ,he knew that sounds were propagated by waves through the air1 and from the region of the known1 endeavoured to carry the principle into the region of the unknown1 a strictly philosophical method1 and one in accordance with the second ,rule of ,philosophy4 ,he supposed that light1 therefore1 like sound1 might be due to wave motion1 but if it were wave motion1 there must have been a medium to propagate the waves4 ,in order to account for this wave motion1 he supposed all space to be filled with a luminiferous ,aether1 which would be to his light waves what air is to sound waves4 ,in this conception he was supported by ,euler the mathematician1 and in #afij he was able to give a satisfactory explanation of the reflection and refraction of light1 on the hypothesis that light was due to wave motion in the ,aether4 ,it was not1 however1 till the advent of ,thomas ,young1 that the undulatory or wave theory reached its perfection1 and finally overthrew its competitor the corpuscular theory4 ,young made himself thoroughly acquainted with wave motion of all kinds1 and applied his knowledge and experience to the phenomena of light1 and from the analogies so obtained1 he gradually built up the undulatory theory1 and gave to it a foundation from which it has not yet been moved4 ,young made use of the same aetherial medium in order to propagate the wave motion of light in the same way that ,huyghens did4 ,from that conception1 the ,aether has been gradually perfected1 until we have the conception which has been presented to the reader in ,chapter ,,iv41 in which ,i have endeavoured to show that this aetherial medium is matter1 but infinitely more rarefied and infinitely more elastic1 but notwithstanding its extreme rarefaction and elasticity1 it possesses inertia1 because it is gravitative4 ,it is this ,aether1 then1 that is concerned in the propagation of light1 and is the universal medium which is to light what air is to sound4 ,young1 therefore1 having applied himself to the wave motion of sound1 from such researches was able to explain the physical cause of colour1 and that phenomenon termed interference4 ,we will therefore look at wave motion1 in order to understand the wave theory of light4 ,now in all wave motion1 whether it be water waves or sound waves1 that which is propagated or conveyed from place to place is energy1 or motion4 ,if a stone is thrown into water1 a series of concentric circles of waves are generated1 which spread out with increasing size1 but decreasing power or motion1 regularly on all sides4 ,the water1 however1 does not move away from the generating source4 ,there is a motion of the water1 but it is simply a wave motion1 so that the propagation of a wave is the propagation of motion1 rather than the transference of the actual water which constitutes the wave4 ,in the case of sound waves1 we have again an illustration of the same principle4 ,for example1 suppose we strike a bell1 and so set the particles of that bell in a state of vibration4 ,these vibrations give the air in contact with the bell a forward movement1 and then1 owing to the elasticity and inertia of the air1 a backward movement is set up1 with the result that a series of waves are set in motion from the bell on every side1 which gradually diminish in intensity the farther they recede from the generating body4 ,according to the wave theory1 therefore1 we have to picture all heated and luminous bodies in a state of vibration1 and the atoms of such luminous bodies imparting the vibrations to the atoms of the ,aether1 in the same way that the atoms of a bell impart their vibrations to the atoms of the air in contact with it4 ,these vibrations are then propagated through the ,aether in waves1 which1 entering the eye1 impinge or strike upon the retina at the back of the eye1 and being transmitted to the brain give rise to the sensation of sight4 ,it must not be forgotten that the waves of ,aether1 as pointed out in ,art4 #fd in relation to heat1 really form spherical shells which radiate out in all directions from the central body which gives rise to them4 ,thus it can be seen1 that all points in the spherical wave which are at equal distances from the vibratory or luminous body1 must possess the same intensity1 and possess equal lighting powers4 ,light1 therefore1 like heat1 is due to a periodic wave motion set up in the ,aether by the vibrating atomic motion of heated or luminous bodies4 ,it must be also noticed1 that if we could see the air through which the sound waves are passing1 we should see that each atom or particle of the atmosphere was vibrating to and fro in the direction of propagation4 ,if1 however1 we could see an atom of ,aether in vibration1 accepting the principle that ,aether is atomic1 we should see that each aetherial atom is not vibrating in the direction of propagation1 but across the line in which the wave is travelling4 ,thus the vibration of the air is said to be longitudinal1 but the vibrations of the ,aether are transversal4 ,an illustration of the transverse motion of a light wave may be obtained by taking a rope and imparting to it a series of undulations by shaking it up and down1 when it will be observed that the wave motion of the rope is transverse to the straight line in which it is propagated4 ,the physical explanation of the transverse vibration of light will be dealt with in a subsequent article4 ,now the question suggests itself to our mind1 as to what effect the atomicity of the ,aether has upon the undulatory theory of light4 ,does it establish it upon a firmer basis1 or does it in any way destroy its truth as a theory8 ,i venture to think that the atomicity of the ,aether in no sense destroys any part of the undulatory theory of light1 but rather tends to confirm and establish it upon a logical and philosophical basis4 ,for instance1 as has been pointed out in ,art4 #dg1 in order for the undulatory theory to have any existence at all1 it is essential that the ,aether should possess the property of elasticity4 ,but how the ,aether possessed the property of elasticity while at the same time it was frictionless1 and therefore possessed no mass1 has been a problem that has taxed the ingenuity and resources of scientists for a century past1 and up to the present is a problem which still remains unsolved4 ,now1 however1 with our atomic ,aether1 it is just as easy to conceive ,aether transmitting a wave as it is for air to transmit sound waves1 or water to transmit water waves4 ,tyndall1 in his ,lectures on ,light1 seems to have appreciated the difficulty1 and to avoid confusion1 again and again refers to a particle of ,aether4 ,while ,huyghens himself in speculating upon the elasticity of the ,aether in his ,trait de la ,lumire1 #afgh1 makes a suggestion as to its origin1 which practically amounts to the fact that the aetherial atom which gives rise to this elasticity is the core or centre of a vortex ring4 ,thus it can be seen that the elasticity of the ,aether1 so essential to the undulatory theory1 is a problem that cannot be solved apart from recognizing the hypothesis of an atomic ,aether4 ,then1 again1 in the undulatory theory of light1 the density of the ,aether around molecules of bodies has to be taken into consideration to account for such phenomena as the refraction and reflection of light1 but1 as we have seen in ,art4 #df1 such a property as density is inconceivable in connection with a medium which is neither atomic and possesses no mass4 ,on the assumption1 however1 of an atomic and gravitative ,aether1 the difficulty is at once solved1 and the density of the ,aether1 and different degrees of density are at once placed upon a logical and philosophical basis4 ,so that in relation to the elasticity and density of the ,aether upon which the transmission and reflection of wave motion depend1 an atomic and gravitative ,aether establishes and confirms the undulatory theory4 ,there is also another aspect of the subject that is worthy of notice4 ,i refer to the effect of an atomic and gravitative ,aether upon ,newton's corpuscular theory of light4 ,newton's corpuscular theory failed in not being able to account for the relative velocity of light in rare and denser media1 and if by an atomic ,aether in conjunction with the undulatory theory1 the phenomenon can be accounted for1 as ,i believe it can1 then our aetherial vortex atoms are analogous to ,newton's corpuscles4 ,this distinction will1 however1 have to be made1 viz4 that ,newton supposed his luminous corpuscles to be emitted by the luminous body1 whereas in the conception of our aetherial atoms1 we conceive them to be stationary relatively in space1 and only subject to those vibrations and oscillations that give rise to the aetherial waves recognized in the undulatory theory4 ,it would indeed be a consummation to be desired1 if1 by an atomic ,aether1 it can be proved that ,newton's ,corpuscular ,theory was made to harmonize with the ,undulatory ,theory1 and that it can be ,i am profoundly convinced4 ,professor ,preston is also of this view1 for in his ,theory of ,light1 writing on this subject1 he says1 page #ai3 ,in conclusion1 we may state that we believe an ingenious exponent of the emission theory1 by suitably framing his fundamental postulates1 might fairly meet all the objections that have been raised against it4 ,we will now apply the hypothesis of an atomic and gravitating ,aether to ,huyghens' principle of wave propagation1 and see if this atomicity in any way destroys that principle1 or whether it simplifies and confirms it4 ,let us briefly review our conception of the ,aether before making the application4 ,in the first place1 because ,aether is gravitative1 we learned from ,art4 #de that it surrounds all bodies in the universe1 from the smallest atom to the largest sun or star in the firmament of heaven4 ,our sun1 then1 which is to our system the source of all its light1 will be surrounded by what are practically spherical aetherial envelopes or shells which decrease in density as they recede from the sun 7,art4 #df74 ,these aetherial shells are1 according to our conception1 made up of minute aetherial spherical vortex atoms possessing polarity and rotation 7,art4 #dc71 and these atoms will be closer together the nearer they are to the central body1 because of the increased density of the ,aether due to the attractive influence of the sun4 ,thus1 when a wave motion is set up in the ,aether around the sun by the intense atomic activity of that incandescent body1 each atom of that aetherial spherical shell or envelope participates in the motion or impulse received1 at one and the same time1 so that the wave is transmitted from envelope to envelope1 by the elasticity of the aetherial atoms which compose the envelope or shell4 ,thus the light wave is always spherical in form1 or nearly so1 as the rotational and orbital motion of the sun affect the exact shape of the aetherial envelope as we shall learn more fully later on4 ,further1 the wave front always takes the form of a sphere1 as the waves are radiated out from the luminous body in all directions1 and we shall learn1 in the next article1 that the vibrations are always in the wave front1 that is1 take place on the surface of each of these envelopes1 and these vibrations are also transverse to the propagation of the wave4 ,as these aetherial envelopes extend right into space1 the wave is transmitted from envelope to envelope by means of the aetherial atoms with the velocity of #ahf1jjj miles per second1 but as each succeeding envelope possesses a larger surface than the preceding one1 the intensity of the light is proportionally decreased4 ,the surface of such envelope is always proportionate to the square of the radius1 the other quantities remaining equal4 ,so that the intensity of the light waves1 which are coincident with the surface of each spherical envelope1 will always vary inversely as the square of the distance from the luminous body1 which agrees with the law of inverse squares that governs light and heat4 ,illustration3 ,fig3 #d4 ,we have considered the wave motion as a whole1 that is1 we have viewed it from the standpoint of the whole of the aetherial elastic envelope4 ,now we will look at the subject from the atomic standpoint1 and see if it is in accordance with ,huyghens' principle of wave propagation4 ,we will suppose that an undulatory movement is started by a luminous body at point ,a situated in the ,aether1 and surrounded by that medium4 ,a may represent a part of any luminous body1 as the sun or star1 while ,b ,c and ,b' ,c' represent a segment of the aetherial envelopes already referred to1 which exist around the sun4 ,we will further suppose that the small dots surrounding the luminous body represent the aetherial atoms forming the envelope1 which transmit the impulse or energy received from the atomic vibrations of the luminous body4 ,as each aetherial atom is moved or pushed forwards1 each atom directly in contact with it accepts and transmits the impulse4 ,but each of these atoms stands in relation to those in front of them1 as they did in relation to the first row of atoms1 so to speak1 and therefore exert a corresponding impulse on the front row4 ,but the third row stands in relation to the fourth row as the second row did to the third1 and so on to infinity4 ,thus each atom being surrounded by other atoms may be looked on as the centre of a new wave system1 so that every particle of the wave system is itself a centre of a new wave system which is transmitted in all directions4 ,as these innumerable and minute wave systems co-operate with one another1 they form a principal wave system which is coincident with the surface of the spherical envelope1 part of which is represented by ,b ,c4 ,then if we conceive of all the aetherial atoms in part of the principal wave system ,b ,c1 as themselves becoming the centre of wave propagation1 by their wave systems the principal wave will be transmitted further on into space to another aetherial envelope ,b' ,c'1 which represents part of another principal wave1 which again is coincident with the surface of one of the spherical aetherial envelopes4 ,so that by the action of the aetherial atoms which exist on all sides of the luminous body1 the aetherial wave can be transmitted from atom to atom in more or less spherical form4 ,now let us compare this explanation of the transmission of light by an atomic ,aether with the celebrated ,huyghens' principle which is thus enunciated4 ,when an undulatory movement propagates itself through an elastic medium1 every particle imitates the movement of the particle first excited4 ,but every particle stands in relation to the adjoining ones in exactly the same relation that the first particle did to its neighbours1 and consequently must exert upon those surrounding it1 exactly the same influence as the first did4 ,every vibratory particle is therefore to be regarded as if it were the originally excited particle of the wave system2 and as the innumerable and simultaneous elementary wave systems co-operate with one another at each instant1 we obtain exactly that principal wave system by which the elastic medium appears at any moment to be moved4 ,now here1 in this statement1 we have the definite term particles used several times by ,huyghens4 ,but in the generally accepted theory of the ,aether1 such a term is unknown and unrecognized1 with the obvious result that the definite and simple statement of ,huyghens loses all its simplicity and meaning4 ,replace1 however1 the non-atomic ,aether as at present recognized1 by an atomic and gravitating ,aether1 and then ,huyghens' exposition or principle stands out in all its simplicity and clearness1 and finds in an atomic ,aether its literal fulfilment and complete verification4 ,in conclusion on this point1 viz4 that light is a mode of aetherial motion1 let us endeavour to form a mental picture of our atomic and aetherial world4 ,we have to remember that every particle and atom of matter in existence are ever vibrating1 and by their vibrations are ever creating and generating ,aether waves in the aetherial medium4 ,these waves1 begetting others1 the process is continued until they are either intercepted and brought to rest by other matter1 or else speed away until they reach the boundary of space4 ,now it is scarcely necessary for me to say1 that if one atom can create and generate these ,aether waves1 a thousand atoms can create them in greater abundance still1 and millions of atoms in even still greater abundance1 and so on in proportion to the quantity or bulk of the matter vibrating4 ,further1 as it is with quantity1 so will it be with intensity1 or activity of vibration4 ,the more intensely an atom vibrates1 the more intense would be the movement of the generated ,aether waves1 and the intensity would be in exact proportion to the intensity of the motion of the atoms vibrating4 ,in regard to the power of atomic motions or vibrations1 those are the greatest and most intense in energy or motion1 which are produced by combustion or burning4 ,the chemical activity by which the burning is brought about arouses and excites the atoms of matter subject thereto1 into an intensity of motion1 thousands1 it may be millions of times greater than can be produced by any other known means4 ,therefore it can be readily seen1 that the ,aether waves generated by this means will be greater and more abundant1 both in their volume and intensity1 than the ,aether waves produced merely by a cold body4 ,for example1 take a candle at night-time when the light has disappeared2 look at it and feel it4 ,though its atoms are all in motion1 generating ,aether waves which are impressed with its own particular form and colour1 yet it can scarcely be seen even at a short distance2 but light it1 and what a change takes place6 ,we can both see it1 and are enabled by its light to see other things also4 ,by the power of combustion1 its atoms have been excited into greater energy or motion1 generating and speeding ,aether waves on every side1 and these ,aether waves being reflected and re-reflected by the atoms of the air1 and the walls of the house1 give light to all that are in the house4 ,i must now ask the reader to refer to ,art4 #fd on ,radiant ,heat1 in order that we may recall facts regarding the heat of the sun4 ,remembering the intensity of the heat of the sun as calculated by ,herschel and others1 and remembering that the sun is #a1bjj1jjj times larger in volume than our earth1 the question naturally suggests itself to our mind1 what must be the volume and intensity of the light waves as they flow from the sun into space8 ,what a storm of fury and of motion must there be within the aetherial atmosphere around the sun1 and with what volume and power must these light waves speed away from so mighty a source6 ,some idea may be gained from the fact that they speed away to the distant ,neptune1 a distance of nearly three thousand millions of miles1 and impart to that planet the energy of light and heat which to the planet forms the physical source of all its life and activities4 ,thus from the sun1 the centre of the solar system1 there are ever being poured forth into space these aetherial light waves4 ,the solar fires are ever glowing1 and their flames ever burning1 robing the solar disc with its quivering fringe1 or madly leaping on every side to a distance of one hundred thousand miles1 and by their madness lashing the aetherial atmosphere into fury1 creating aetherial waves1 myriads upon myriads1 and sending them with lightning speed across the intervening space4 ,as swift-footed messengers they come1 the bearers of life and beauty to distant planets4 ,they come to this our island home in space1 these aetherial light waves1 like rich argosies freighted with the treasures of light1 of life1 of beauty1 and of glory1 and the transmission of this life and beauty is effected by the incessant wave motion generated in the ,aether by the central body of our solar system1 the sun4 ,let us therefore endeavour to form a mental picture of this aetherial wave motion with its transverse vibrations4 ,,art4 #ga4 ,transverse ,vibration of ,light4--,in the previous article we saw that the vibration of light was transverse to the line of propagation4 ,if we could see the particles of air which are vibrating when sound waves are produced1 we should find that each particle or atom is vibrating backwards and forwards in the direction of propagation4 ,in the case of an aetherial atom1 however1 which1 according to our own theory1 participates in the vibration1 we have to try to conceive of each atom as vibrating across the line of propagation4 ,so that if ,a ,b represents a ray of light proceeding from a luminous body1 as the sun 7,fig4 #e71 then the vibration must be across the line1 as up and down and across that line as shown in the figure1 each phase of the vibration being at right angles to the line of propagation--that is1 to ,a ,b4 ,how can we form a physical conception of this phenomenon8 ,there must be some physical explanation to it1 for if it be an effect there must be a cause for its existence and production4 ,up to the present1 however1 no physical explanation has been forthcoming1 so that for over #bjj years a frictionless medium has failed to account for1 or to explain1 the transverse vibration of light as suggested by ,fresnel4 ,if1 therefore1 by the hypothesis of an atomic and gravitative ,aether1 we succeed in accomplishing a result that a frictionless ,aether has failed to accomplish1 then the explanation will be a most important factor in proving the atomicity and consequent gravitative property of the ,aether4 ,let us therefore revert to our hypothesis of the ,aether as given in ,art4 #de4 ,from that we learn1 because ,aether is atomic1 it is also gravitative1 and therefore forms around every atom and molecule1 every satellite1 planet1 sun and star1 an aetherial atmosphere--such aetherial atmosphere being doubtless proportionate to the mass of the atom or molecule or planet as the case may be1 in accordance with the ,law of ,gravitation4 ,we shall consider this view of the subject later on4 ,illustration3 ,fig3 #e4 ,thus we learn that every particle of matter1 and every body in the universe has its aetherial atmosphere so to speak1 to which it is held bound by the universal ,law of ,gravitation4 ,in the case of a satellite or planet or sun or star1 that atmosphere will be more or less spherical in shape1 decreasing in density as it recedes from the attracting body4 ,as we saw in the previous chapter1 ,tyndall stated that the waves of light really formed spherical shells which surrounded the luminous body4 ,in the conception of an atomic and gravitating ,aether we can form a physical conception of these aetherial shells1 which can be pictured as elastic envelopes1 or rather series of envelopes surrounding each particle of matter1 and also surrounding each satellite1 planet1 sun1 and star2 each envelope getting gradually less and less dense as the distance from the central body is increased4 ,now we learn from experiments that the vibration is always in the wave front1 but the wave front is coincident with the surface of each aetherial spherical shell1 therefore the vibration must be in1 and coincide with1 the surfaces of the spherical shells that are formed around every body in the universe4 ,we are now1 however1 dealing specially with one body which is the source of light1 viz4 the sun1 and have therefore to picture the sun as being surrounded by these aetherial elastic envelopes1 which gradually get less and less dense as they recede from it4 ,what1 therefore1 will be the effect of the heat of that body as it is poured forth into space8 ,we have already learned 7,art4 #fc7 of the untold quantity of heat that is continually being poured forth into space from the sun with its diameter of #hef1jjj miles1 and its circumference of over #b-a_/b million miles4 ,what intense activity it must generate in the ,aether near its surface6 and what must be the direct effect of that heat upon the aetherial elastic envelopes or shells which surround it8 ,perhaps the answer can be best illustrated by a simple experiment4 ,let us take an ordinary toy balloon1 with its elastic envelope1 and fill it moderately full with air1 and observe what the effect on it is when we put it near the fire4 ,gradually1 as heat is imparted to the air in the balloon1 the air which is also elastic expands1 with the result that the envelope of the balloon is extended1 and its size enlarged4 ,now withdraw it from the fire and note what happens4 ,as the air inside gets cold again1 the elastic envelope of the balloon gradually shrinks1 until it has been reduced to its former size4 ,what has been taking place during this experiment with regard to the elastic envelope and the atoms thereof8 ,may we not say that there has been a vibration or oscillation1 among the particles which go to make up the elastic envelope1 that forms the surface of the balloon8 ,certainly there has been some form of motion1 and that motion took first the form of an expansion1 and then contraction of the individual particles2 and we have only to conceive of this process being repeated quickly and continuously1 to form a mental picture of what takes place in any aetherial elastic envelope or shell that surrounds the sun4 ,the illustration is not1 however1 perfect1 because we have made the source of heat to be outside instead of inside the elastic envelope1 as is the case with the sun and its aetherial atmosphere or envelope4 ,we will therefore slightly modify the experiment1 and take two balloons1 ,a1 ,b1 one smaller than the other1 and put the smaller one ,a into the interior of the larger one1 inflating the smaller one1 so that it can be situated in the middle of the larger one1 the latter having twice the diameter of the smaller one1 as in the diagram 7,fig4 #f74 ,to the neck of the smaller balloon ,a we will attach an india-rubber tube which ends in a closed bulb ,c4 ,we have now the two balloons inflated4 ,let us press the bulb ,c and notice what happens4 ,the effect will be exactly the same as it was when we brought the balloon in contact with the heat of the fire in the first experiment--that is1 the elastic envelope will be again expanded4 ,as soon as we take the pressure from the bulb ,c the envelope1 being elastic1 seeks to recover its original position1 with the result that it springs back to its original size4 ,if we pressed the bulb ,c #bj times per minute1 we should get #bj vibrations of the particles of the envelopes per minute1 and if we pressed it #ajjj times per minute1 we should get #ajjj vibrations among the particles of the elastic envelope1 so that the number of vibrations would correspond to the number of times we pressed the bulb4 ,now how did this vibration reach the elastic envelope of the balloon ,b from the balloon ,a8 ,illustration3 ,fig3 #f4 ,the reply is1 by means of the particles1 or atoms of air that exist between the two surfaces of the balloons1 and that transmission would take the form of a wave propagated from particle to particle1 so that we might put dots on the right side of ,a to represent the atoms of air which transmit the wave from ,a to ,b4 ,but the vibration which takes place in the surface of the envelope of the outer balloon is across this line of propagation1 because as the wave proceeds from ,a to ,b1 the elastic envelope expands and stretches always across the line of propagation--that is1 it stretches up and down1 left and right1 as it is expanded outwards1 so that the vibration or oscillation of the particles always takes place in the surface of the elastic envelope across the line of propagation4 ,let us therefore apply the result of this simple experiment to our solar system and the ,aether1 and see if it can be made to explain the transverse vibration of light4 ,let ,a represent the sun 7,fig4 #g7 and ,b an aetherial elastic envelope surrounding the sun4 ,in this case we dispense with the bulb ,c1 as the sun possesses within itself the power to generate heat1 and so to produce the required expansion of the elastic aetherial envelopes ,b1 ,g1 ,h1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,fig3 #g4 ,instead1 however1 of having air particles between ,a and ,b1 we will put in their place our aetherial atoms which we have conceived according to ,art4 #dd4 ,these surround the sun1 represented by ,a1 forming elastic spherical shells or envelopes4 ,as the sun radiates its heat into space1 it urges the aetherial atoms against each other1 with the result that they transmit the energy from atom to atom1 or particle to particle1 till they come to the elastic aetherial envelopes of ,h1 ,g1 ,b4 ,the effect on ,b1 or on any other aetherial envelope1 is to expand it outwardly1 and thus set the atoms of which it is composed into vibration4 ,the wave1 which is now an aetherial wave travelling with a velocity of #ahf1jjj miles per second1 may be represented by the line ,d ,e4 ,but while it is travelling from ,d to ,e the same energy is being radiated out in all directions1 so that a wave reaches the whole surface of the elastic envelope ,b at the same time1 with the result that the whole of the shell or envelope is set in vibration as it expands outwardly4 ,thus the vibration is always in the wave front1 and the wave front is always coincident with the surface of one of these envelopes1 and as these aetherial envelopes are themselves formed by aetherial atoms1 the wave is spread outwardly from any central point in a spherical form as proved by experiment4 ,not only1 therefore1 is the vibration in the wave front1 but it is always transverse to the line of propagation1 for the simple reason that the surface of the spherical shell or envelope is always at right angles to the radius vector or straight line which joins any centre to the surface of a spherical envelope4 ,as soon as the aetherial atom which forms the spherical aetherial envelope has reached the limit of its expansion1 it seeks to recover its former position because of its elasticity1 with the result that the whole envelope contracts again1 and arrives at its original position in space ready to accept motion again and transmit it onwards in the same manner as before4 ,thus1 by the acceptance of an atomic and gravitating ,aether1 we may form a physical conception of one of the greatest problems in optical phenomena1 viz4 the transverse vibration of light which always takes place in the wave front1 and across the line of propagation4 ,whether this explanation is exactly correct in detail1 or not1 ,i am convinced that the true physical explanation of the problem is to be found in an atomic and gravitating ,aether1 as hitherto a frictionless ,aether has failed even to suggest to any scientist how such a transverse vibration can take place4 ,,art4 #gb4 ,reflection and ,refraction4--,a ray or wave of light is said to be reflected when it meets with an obstacle which opposes its free passage and turns it back4 ,we have illustrations of this law of reflection in the case of water waves striking against a breakwater1 or a sound wave striking against the wall of a room4 ,in either case the wave is turned back1 and reflection is the result4 ,a ray or a wave of light is said to be refracted when1 in passing from one medium into another1 it is turned from the straight path in which it was going before it entered the refracting medium4 ,an illustration of the refraction of light is to be found in the case of the glass lens1 so often used to converge the light waves into one focus4 ,we have up to the present dealt with only two theories of light1 the ,corpuscular theory and the ,undulatory or ,wave theory4 ,we have seen how both harmonize with ,huyghens' principle1 and the question arises as to whether both can be made to harmonize with the phenomena of reflection and refraction4 ,in the ,corpuscular theory we have luminous particles emitted by luminous bodies4 ,these particles we have learned are practically synonymous with our aetherial atoms4 ,in the ,wave theory it is impossible to conceive of a wave without conceiving of particles which transmit the wave2 even ,huyghens refers to particles of ,aether1 and so does ,tyndall in his ,notes on ,light4 ,in the ,electro-magnetic theory of light we have again to think of atoms1 which are termed electrons by ,dr4 ,larmor and ,sir ,william ,crookes2 while ,professor ,j4 ,j4 ,thompson calls them corpuscles4 ,so that in all three theories we have the same fundamental idea of atoms1 either expressed or imagined1 underlying all the three theories4 ,now what is the property of the ,aether on which all reflection and refraction is based8 ,is it not the property of density8 ,fresnel assumes that reflection and refraction of light are dependent upon different degrees of density of the ,aether associated with any body1 and has given a mathematical formula1 which decides the index of refraction1 such formula being entirely dependent upon the relative density of the ,aether in association with the refracting medium4 ,but with a frictionless medium1 it is an absolute impossibility to conceive of different degrees of density of the ,aether in association with matter4 ,if the ,aether does possess different degrees of density which decide the refractive index of the substance1 then of a certainty there must be some law to govern and decide the density1 and that law can only be the ,law of ,gravitation4 ,as ,young points out in his ,fourth ,hypothesis1 every particle of matter has an attraction for the ,aether by which it is accumulated around it with greater density4 ,now on the basis of our conception of a gravitative ,aether1 every atom and molecule1 and indeed every body in the universe1 possess aetherial atmospheres1 which possess varying degrees of density1 the denser layers being nearest to the nucleus of the atom or molecule as the case may be1 the elasticity of each layer or envelope being always proportionate to its density4 ,when we apply the corpuscular theory to the reflection of light we find that it satisfactorily accounts for the phenomenon4 ,according to ,newton's corpuscular theory1 each luminous particle travels in a straight line through a homogeneous medium4 ,when1 however1 it comes almost into contact with a reflecting surface1 which in our case we conceive to be a layer of one of the aetherial elastic envelopes surrounding the atoms or molecules of the reflecting body1 then1 according to ,newton1 the light particle is repelled1 or reflected by the medium2 the angle of reflection or repulsion being always equal to the angle of incidence4 ,so that the emission theory harmonizes with the wave theory in regard to reflection4 ,when1 however1 we come to deal with the refraction of light1 the corpuscular theory apparently breaks down1 and it was in relation to this phase of the phenomena of light that the undulatory theory overthrew the corpuscular theory4 ,according to the corpuscular theory1 when a luminous particle or corpuscle is nearing the surface of a denser medium1 as glass or water1 it was attracted by the denser medium1 with the result that the velocity of the particle in the denser medium was greater than its velocity in air4 ,but direct experiments prove exactly the opposite1 as it is found that when light passes from a rare into a denser medium1 the velocity of light in the denser or more refracting medium is less than it was in the air4 ,here then was a test to decide the respective merits of the two theories4 ,as the undulatory theory was able to give a satisfactory explanation of the phenomenon1 the corpuscular theory was rejected1 and the undulatory theory was accepted4 ,now the question suggests itself1 as to whether it is possible to reconcile the two theories in relation to the refraction of light by our conception of an atomic and gravitative ,aether4 ,i believe it is possible4 ,let us look at the case for a moment4 ,we have1 according to our theory of the ,aether1 to conceive of all atoms and molecules1 of all planets and suns and stars1 being surrounded by aetherial elastic atmospheres1 or envelopes1 which1 like the atmosphere in association with the earth1 are always the densest nearest the nucleus of the atom1 getting gradually less and less dense the further they recede from the central point4 ,further1 according to our theory1 with regard to the elasticity or pressure of these elastic envelopes1 they exert a pressure proportionate to their density4 ,so that the nearer the aetherial atmosphere or envelope is to the central point or nucleus of the atom1 the greater will be the elasticity or pressure4 ,now what ,i wish to call the reader's special attention to is1 that the pressure in each and every case of the aetherial elastic envelopes which surround the central nucleus1 is always directed away from the central point1 and here it seems to me is the solution of the difficulty which ,newton failed to solve4 ,for when a luminous corpuscle enters any medium1 assuming it to do so1 it would have to overcome the pressure due to the increased elasticity of the denser aetherial envelopes1 and as the two motions1 viz4 that of the incident ray1 and the pressure due to the elasticity of the elastic envelope1 would be in opposition to each other1 the result would be that the luminous corpuscle1 if it entered the medium at all1 would be retarded and not accelerated as suggested by ,newton1 and such a result is perfectly in harmony with experiment4 ,so that by our theory of an atomic and gravitating ,aether1 it seems to me that it now becomes possible to reconcile the two theories4 ,there is another difficulty that the emission theory had to contend with1 and that was1 how was it possible for the same surface of any substance to reflect and refract a corpuscle at one and the same time8 ,newton overcame this difficulty by suggesting1 from the results of his observations on certain coloured rings1 that each particle had what he called certain phases or fits1 of easy reflection or refraction1 so that at certain times they would be refracted1 and at other times they would be reflected4 ,boscovitch has suggested that the fits were due to the fact that each luminous corpuscle possessed polarity2 which1 by rotating1 alternately offered their different sides to the refractive and reflecting surfaces1 so that sometimes they would be reflected or repelled1 and at other times attracted or refracted4 ,a similar hypothesis has also been suggested by ,biot4 ,now if such a hypothesis will satisfactorily account for the fact that the same medium will reflect or refract the luminous corpuscles1 as the case may be1 then in our aetherial atom we have the very conditions which would satisfy both ,boscovitch and ,biot's hypothesis4 ,for one of the properties that we suggested regarding our aetherial atom was1 that it possessed rotation like our own earth1 and that it also possessed polarity4 ,the harmonizing of the two theories1 therefore1 seems to rest upon the atomicity or non-atomicity of the ,aether4 ,it is absolutely certain that the electro-magnetic theory of light demands the recognition of some form of atomicity for the ,aether4 ,for if light be really an electro-magnetic phenomena1 as has been proved by ,maxwell and experimentally demonstrated by ,hertz1 then1 in view of the fact that the atomicity of electricity is coming within the scope of direct experiment as asserted by ,dr4 ,larmor1 unless we accept atomicity of the ,aether in some way1 we shall be in the unphilosophical position of having the ,aether of space not being composed of atoms1 while the electricity associated with that ,aether in some unknown way is composed of atoms4 ,in other words1 we shall have a non-atomic body composed of atoms1 which conclusion is absurd4 ,therefore1 from the electro-magnetic theory of light1 we are again compelled to postulate atoms of some kind for the ,aether4 ,if there are electrical atoms in association with the ,aether1 then they must be of two kinds1 positive and negative1 as it is impossible to find positive electricity disassociated from negative4 ,therefore1 from the electro-magnetic theory of light we get further evidence of the polarity of the aetherial atom1 by which ,newton's fits of easy reflection or refraction may be physically conceived4 ,i am convinced1 that with the hypothesis of an atomic and gravitative ,aether as suggested by ,young in his ,fourth ,hypothesis1 all three theories of light in relation to the phenomena of reflection and refraction can be harmonized4 ,i wish only to point out the direction in which to look for the solution1 and must leave it to scientists to work out the problem4 ,,art4 #gc4 ,the ,solar ,spectrum4--,when a ray or beam of solar light is passed through a prism1 it is broken up or decomposed into its constituent parts4 ,this is called dispersion1 and conclusively proves that the light from the sun is not a simple1 but a compound colour4 ,we have illustrations of this decomposition of pure white light in the rainbow1 where the colours of the sunlight are revealed against the sky with clearness and precision4 ,a simple experiment to prove that the solar light is a compound one may be made by boring a small hole in a shutter1 and then allowing the sunlight that passes through the hole to fall upon a prism1 such as the pendant of a candelabrum4 ,when this is done1 then on the opposite wall of the room will be seen1 not one colour1 but seven colours1 ranged in the following order3 ,red1 ,orange1 ,yellow1 ,green1 ,blue1 ,indigo1 ,violet4 ,this is termed the ,visible ,spectrum4 ,it may be asked1 ,what is the cause of the various colours in the spectrum8 ,we have already seen that light is due to a wave motion of the ,aether1 and it can be demonstrated that the various colours of light are due to different wave lengths4 ,colour is to light what pitch is to sound4 ,as has been shown in ,art4 #fb1 the pitch of a note depends upon the number of air waves which strike upon the tympanum of the ear in a given time4 ,the more rapid the vibration1 the higher the note4 ,the more rapidly a sounding body vibrates1 the shorter will be the length of each wave4 ,if a violinist wants to produce a note of higher pitch1 he presses his finger on the string1 thereby shortening it1 and by so doing increases the rapidity of vibration1 and raises the pitch of the note4 ,now the colours of the spectrum are to the eye what the notes are to the ear4 ,the aetherial waves which produce the red colour are slower in their vibrations1 and are longer than those which produce the orange colour4 ,those which produce the orange colour are of slower vibrations1 and longer than those which produce the yellow colour1 and so on through all the other colours2 until we get to the violet and to the ultra-violet1 or invisible violet rays1 which are the most rapid in their vibrations1 and consequently their wave lengths are the shortest of the whole group4 ,it has been ascertained that it takes about #ci1jjj waves of red light to measure an inch if placed end to end4 ,now light has a velocity of #ahf1jjj miles per second4 ,if this is reduced to inches1 we find that there are #aa1ghd1ifj1jjj in that distance4 ,let us therefore multiply this number by #ci1jjj1 and we shall then find how many waves of red light must enter the eye to produce the sensation of red colour4 ,that number is #dei1fac1ddj1jjj1jjj1 so that all these waves enter the eye in one second of time1 and must strike the retina of the eye in order to produce the sensation of redness4 ,in the same way1 the number of waves that must strike the retina of the eye to produce the sensation of violet can be determined4 ,it takes about #eg1ejj waves of violet to measure an inch1 so that a violet wave is only #a_/egjjj part of an inch in length4 ,all the other colours of the spectrum which lie between the violet and the red waves gradually get longer and longer in their wave lengths1 and slower and slower in their vibrations1 until at the red end of the spectrum and beyond it we have the longest waves1 which are from #a_/cijjj part of an inch in length to #a_/ajjjj part of an inch4 ,the seven colours seen in the spectrum are called the ,visible ,spectrum4 ,there are1 however1 rays of light beyond both ends of the spectrum which do not affect the optic nerves of the eye1 and therefore are invisible to sight4 ,the rays in the spectrum which lie beyond the red are termed ultra-red rays1 while those beyond the violet are called ultra-violet rays4 ,it can be proved the former are rich in heating power1 while the latter possess great chemical power4 ,by means of an instrument known as the thermo-electric pile1 or thermopile1 the various heating power of the whole spectrum1 visible and invisible1 can be determined4 ,let us look for a moment at these invisible or dark rays4 ,strictly speaking1 all light is invisible1 as we cannot see light itself1 we can only see it by reflection4 ,we have seen that light is due to a wave motion in the ,aether1 but we cannot see that wave motion1 neither can we see the ,aether itself1 so that it is not strictly correct to call a ray visible or invisible4 ,we have1 however1 accepted the terms in relation to the rays of the spectrum1 to distinguish between the invisible or obscure rays of the spectrum and the visible rays4 ,it was ,sir ,w4 ,herschel who first discovered the existence of these invisible waves4 ,he passed a thermometer through the various colours of the solar spectrum1 and then noted the temperature of each colour4 ,he did not1 however1 stop at the limit of the visible spectrum1 but experimented with his thermometer beyond its limits1 and then found that beyond the red rays there were other rays1 the ultra-red rays1 which possessed greater heating power than any other rays of the spectrum4 ,thus his experiments proved1 that side by side with the luminous or light waves1 there were other rays1 which1 though they possessed greater heating power1 yet were not able to excite the optic nerve1 and so produce the sensation of sight4 ,from these facts we learn that the solar spectrum may be divided into three parts-- #a4 ,the red or ultra-red end of the spectrum which possesses the greatest heating power4 #b4 ,the central part1 yellow and green1 which is the greatest in luminous power or light waves4 #c4 ,the violet or ultra-violet end1 which possesses great chemical or actinic power as it is sometimes termed4 ,we have already seen 7,art4 #fi7 that the same aetherial waves which give rise to heat1 also give rise to light1 and that the only physical difference between heat and light is1 that the waves which cause the phenomena of heat are of slower period1 and of greater length1 than those which cause the phenomena of light4 ,from the solar spectrum we learn that there are a third class of ,aether waves1 which are of more rapid vibration1 and therefore shorter in length than either the aetherial heat waves or the aetherial light waves4 ,as already stated1 these are called chemical or actinic waves1 because they possess a greater chemical power than either the heat or the light waves that form the central part of the spectrum4 ,now this question suggests itself to us in relation to these chemical waves4 ,what are these so-called chemical waves that are produced in the aetherial medium by the activity and heat of the sun8 ,it must be remembered that the aetherial waves which give rise to both light and heat1 and also these chemical waves1 are first set in motion by the sun1 at least as far as our solar system is concerned4 ,we are perfectly conversant with the phenomena and characteristics of both heat and light4 ,we are able to exactly determine what their particular effect will be on matter1 and to describe that effect in a perfectly straightforward manner4 ,the same1 however1 cannot be said of these so-called chemical waves that lie chiefly in the violet and ultra-violet end of the solar spectrum4 ,what1 then1 is a chemical wave1 its particular nature1 and its exact properties8 ,that we know it can decompose certain compounds1 as ,carbonic ,acid ,gas1 ,,co#b1 and so give rise to chemical decomposition1 has been proved by ,professor ,tyndall and others1 but ,i have never yet seen any record of any attempt to find out what these chemical waves are4 ,there may have been such attempts made to discover their origin and character1 but ,i have not seen any such record4 ,i purpose1 therefore1 to offer an explanation as to the character and origin of these chemical or actinic waves1 which ,i hope to prove by philosophical reasoning4 ,we have already seen 7,arts4 #ed and #ei7 that both heat and light are convertible1 or can be transformed into electricity1 so that the same aetherial wave motion which can produce light can also produce heat1 and that in its turn can produce electricity4 ,thus we learn that there is a very close identity between light1 heat1 and electricity2 indeed it can be demonstrated that the same aetherial wave motion which produces electricity can produce the other two4 ,lorentz1#ad in an article on ,the ,identity of ,light ,vibrations with ,electric ,currents1 states that the vibrations of light are themselves electric currents4 ,now if this is true1 and ,i believe it to be true1 as ,i hope to prove later on from ,clerk ,maxwell's works1 then it necessarily follows1 that wherever we get aetherial light waves1 we must at the same time also get aetherial electric waves4 ,if that be so1 then in the solar spectrum we ought to have revealed to us1 not only indications of the presence of the heat and light vibrations1 but equally so the presence of electric waves4 ,this1 ,i believe1 is actually the case1 and the electric waves are the so-called chemical waves in the violet and ultra-violet end of the spectrum4 ,i think that we shall find sufficient arguments and analogy to support this hypothesis1 as we look further into the matter4 ,one of the greatest scientists of the past century1 ,clerk ,maxwell1 has given to the world the genesis of what he termed the ,electro-,magnetic ,theory of ,light1 in which he proved that light was nothing more nor less than an electro-magnetic phenomenon4 ,he pointed out that the same ,aether which was concerned in the propagation of light and heat through space1 must therefore be equally concerned in the propagation of electric displacements in the free ,aether2 as he states1 it would be philosophically wrong to assume that there was one aetherial medium for light1 and another for electric phenomena4 ,if1 therefore1 there is such a theory as the ,electro-,magnetic ,theory of ,light1 and there undoubtedly is1 as has been proved by the researches of ,hertz on electric waves1 then it follows1 either that light waves are themselves electric currents1 as suggested by ,lorentz1 or that the light waves are directly associated with electric waves in the same way that they are associated with heat waves4 ,so that the only difference between them would be one of period of vibration and of length1 the electric waves of the ,aether being of greater rapidity and therefore of shorter length than either the light or heat waves4 ,the only conclusion1 therefore1 that it seems possible to come to regarding these chemical waves is1 that they are the electric waves of the spectrum4 ,thus1 in the solar spectrum1 there are three classes of waves indicated by the various colours1 and beyond the limits of these colours1 viz4 7#a7 ,thermal or ,heat waves in the red or ultra-red end of the spectrum2 7#b7 ,luminous or ,light waves at the middle of the spectrum2 and 7#c7 ,electric or ,chemical waves in the violet or ultra-violet end of the spectrum4 ,now in looking at this hypothesis from the standpoint of our ,rules of ,philosophy1 ,i venture to assert that all the three rules are satisfactorily fulfilled1 and that being so1 the hypothesis advanced is philosophically correct4 ,in the first place1 such a conception that the chemical waves or violet waves are really electric waves is simple in its hypothesis1 and so fulfils our first ,rule of ,philosophy4 ,it is simple1 because it puts in the place of unknown chemical waves1 a certain kind of aetherial waves with whose action we are definitely familiar1 and whose origin and effect can be satisfactorily accounted for1 as proved by ,hertz4 ,chemical waves are not simple in conception1 because we do not know exactly what they are1 or how they are originated4 ,besides1 as ,newton points out1 there is nothing superfluous in ,nature4 ,if one cause can effect the desired end1 as electric waves1 then another cause as chemical waves is superfluous and unnecessary4 ,further1 in our hypothesis of the electric character of these chemical waves1 we have a solution which satisfactorily fulfils the second ,rule of our ,philosophy4 ,experience and experiment teach us1 that there are electric waves constantly being generated in a thousand ways4 ,indeed1 it is an absolute impossibility to perform the simplest act of ordinary life1 as brushing a hat1 or wiping the boots on a mat1 cutting an orange1 or any other act of simple everyday life1 but that these aetherial electric waves are generated4 ,but as for these so-called chemical waves1 experience has little to say about them1 and experiment still less4 ,if we decompose water1 dividing it up into two gases1 ,oxygen and ,hydrogen1 we do it by passing a current of electricity through the water4 ,if we want to decompose or split up a binary compound1 as ,h,cl1 into its two elements1 ,hydrogen and ,chlorine1 then we can do it by electricity--that is1 by the decomposing action of these electric waves4 ,in all these experiments and results we know definitely what we are doing1 and what the effect will be4 ,there is no vagueness about the terms used4 ,when we speak of chemical action we look to a definite source for that action1 and we do not say that such action is produced by chemical waves1 but rather by electricity4 ,so that all experience teaches us1 and all experiments made by such men as ,faraday1 ,davy1 ,maxwell1 and ,hertz confirm the statement1 that these aetherial electric currents can accomplish all that the so-called chemical waves accomplish1 and that being so1 the third ,rule of our ,philosophy is also fulfilled1 as we have in the aetherial electric waves a satisfactory explanation for the fact which we seek to explain1 viz4 the character and origin of the chemical waves that exist in the violet end of the spectrum4 ,thus1 we learn1 that not only is the sun the source of all heat and light1 in that it gives rise to the vibrations of the ,aether which are propagated through it in waves1 but that it is also the source of all electric waves in the solar system1 in that electric currents are primarily due to the wave motion set up in the ,aether1 those electric waves also traversing space with the velocity of light4 ,footnote #ad3 ,phil4 ,mag41 #ahfg4 ,,art4 #gd4 ,direction of ,ray of ,light4--,in ,art4 #fe it was shown that the direction of a ray of heat was that of a straight line from the heated or luminous body from which the ,aether waves proceeded4 ,we have also seen in ,art4 #fi that the aetherial waves which give rise to the phenomena of heat are identical with those that give rise to light1 so the direction of a ray of light must also be that of a straight line proceeding from the luminous body4 ,a ray of light is a line perpendicular to the ,aether waves which are propagated through space in concentric spheres from the luminous body1 which1 by its atomic vibrations1 gives rise to the light waves4 ,it must1 however1 be remembered that rays have no physical existence1 for it is the waves that are propagated1 and not the ray1 which simply indicates the direction that the light takes1 this truth being known as the rectilineal propagation of light4 ,that light proceeds in straight lines may be proved in several ways4 ,for example1 we cannot see round corners1 which would be possible if light took a curved path instead of a straight one4 ,a better proof1 however1 may be obtained by making a small hole in the window-shutter1 and allowing the sunlight to pass into the darkened room4 ,the beam of light which passes into the room will then be seen to take a straight course1 its presence being revealed by the particles of dust that float about the room4 ,another conclusive proof that light proceeds in straight lines is to be found in the fact1 that all images formed on any screen by the rays of light after passing through a small hole are inverted4 ,for example1 suppose we have a window-shutter with a small hole in it1 while in the garden fronting the window there stands a tree4 ,now if the rays of light which pass from the tree through the hole in the window-shutter are allowed to fall upon a screen in the darkened room1 it will be found that the image is inverted4 ,this is accounted for by the fact1 that the rays cross each other at the hole1 and proceeding in straight lines1 form an inverted picture on the screen4 ,it can further be proved1 that the path of a ray of light through space as it proceeds from the sun is also that of a straight line4 ,whenever there is a solar eclipse we have light so long as we can see the smallest part of the sun's surface4 ,the instant1 however1 that we have a total eclipse1 at that instant the whole of the light of the sun is shut off1 and for a brief space there is darkness1 until the planet which is causing the eclipse has passed on in its orbit and the sun's surface reappears again4 ,now if light did not proceed in straight lines1 such an event as a total eclipse would be impossible2 because1 if the light proceeded in curved lines instead of straight ones from the sun1 then even when the planet which causes the eclipse got directly between the earth and the sun1 the rays of light being curved instead of straight would bend round the eclipsing planet1 and so would not all be intercepted1 and thus such an event as a total eclipse would be an impossibility4 ,from this we learn1 therefore1 that the path of a ray of light as it proceeds from the sun through space is that of a straight line1 and that the path corresponds to the radius vector of a circle1 which is also the path that the centripetal force takes4 ,viewing the matter from the standpoint of the solar system1 we find the sun1 which is the centre of that system1 exerting an attractive force along the radius vector of all the orbits of the planets1 with a force which decreases in intensity inversely as the square of the distance4 ,at the same time1 being the source of all light1 it is constantly propagating into space aetherial light waves with a velocity almost inconceivable2 which also decrease in exactly the same ratio as the attractive power of the sun decreases4 ,if1 therefore1 it can be shown that there is such a truth as the dynamical value of light1 in the same way that it has been shown that there is a dynamical value of heat1 then it follows1 that not only is the sun the centre of an attractive power which proceeds in straight lines1 but it is equally the centre of a power whose influence and motion are exerted along exactly the same path as the centripetal force1 but in an opposite direction1 that is1 away from the sun4 ,i hope to be able to show that the aetherial light waves do possess such a dynamical value1 and if that is accomplished1 then not only from the realm of heat1 but also from the realm of light1 we shall have conclusive evidence of a power or motion whose influence is directed away from the sun1 which1 therefore1 would correspond to a centrifugal force--that is1 a force or motion directed from a central body as the sun4 ,,art4 #ge4 ,intensity of ,light4--,the intensity of light diminishes with the distance from the luminous body1 according to the same law that governs sound1 and heat1 and electricity4 ,we have already seen 7,art4 #fg7 that the intensity of heat diminishes inversely as the square of the distance1 so that if the same law holds good for light that holds good for heat1 then1 according to the law of the inverse squares1 if we double the distance from the luminous body1 the intensity of light is only #a_/d of what it was in its first position4 ,if the distance be trebled1 then the intensity will be decreased #a_/i4 ,this can easily be proved by the following experiment3 ,suppose we have a lighted lamp1 and at a distance of #a1 #b and #c feet respectively1 we have three square surfaces4 ,it can then be demonstrated that the light which falls on the square #a foot away1 if allowed to fall upon the square #b feet away1 would cover four times the area of the first square2 and if allowed to fall on the square #c feet away1 it would cover nine times the area4 ,therefore the intensity of the light on the square #b feet away1 covering four times the area1 would only be #a_/d of what it is on the square #a foot away1 while the intensity of light on the square #c feet away1 which covers nine times the area1 would only be #a_/i of the intensity received by the first square4 ,if the difference in the distances therefore be represented by the figures #a1 #b1 and #c feet respectively1 the intensity would be represented by the figures #a1 #a_/d1 #a_/i4 ,the decrease in the intensity of light is really a decrease in motion4 ,the intensity of a note in sound depends upon the vibration of the particles of air1 while the intensity of light also depends upon the vibrations of the aetherial atom4 ,if1 therefore1 we get a decrease in the vibration of the aetherial atom1 the further we get from the luminous body1 it can be readily seen that the intensity of light really implies a decrease of motion4 ,now let us apply the law of inverse squares in relation to light to the solar system4 ,we have the sun with its huge form all aglow with fires1 as the source of all light to the planetary worlds that revolve around it4 ,year in and year out1 for many ages past1 the sun has been pouring out its light into space on every side1 lighting up the planets or other bodies that revolve round it on that side only which is presented to the sun4 ,thus ,mercury1 at its distance of about #cf1jjj1jjj miles1 obtains a light from the sun which is of far greater intensity than the light which ,venus receives1 while ,venus receives a light of greater intensity than the light which the ,earth receives1 and the ,earth receives light of greater intensity than any of the planets outside its orbit in the solar system1 as ,mars1 ,jupiter1 ,saturn1 ,uranus1 or ,neptune4 ,this decrease in the intensity of light is according to the inverse square of the distance from the central body1 the sun4 ,so that if we have one planet at twice the distance from the sun1 as compared with another planet1 the intensity of light at that distance will be only #a_/d of the intensity received by the nearer planet4 ,this decrease of the intensity of light1 however1 may be compensated for by a difference in the constituents of the planets' atmosphere1 by means of which it may be possible that the outermost planets enjoy climatic conditions similar to our own4 ,now we have proved1 in the previous chapter1 that heat is a repulsive motion1 and as the same aetherial waves give rise to the phenomena of light1 then it ought to follow that light has equally a repulsive power on the planets with which it comes into contact4 ,if that can be proved1 and ,i submit that it can1 then from the phenomena of light1 we learn that there is a force1 or rather a motion1 ever proceeding from the sun in straight lines1 as shown in the previous ,art41 which decreases in power or intensity inversely as the square of the distance4 ,so that not only is the sun the centre of an attractive ,force1 the ,centripetal force1 or the attractive ,force of ,gravity1 which proceeds in straight lines through space1 decreasing in intensity inversely as the square of the distance1 but at the same time it is also the centre of a motion1 that is1 the aetherial wave motion of light1 which takes exactly the same path as ,gravitation ,attraction1 and which is subject to exactly the same laws4 ,unlike ,gravitation ,attraction1 however1 its power and motion is ever directed away from the central body1 the sun2 and if such motion exerts any power on any planet with which it comes into contact1 that power or motion can only be a repulsive motion in the same way that heat is a repulsive motion4 ,assuming1 therefore1 that light1 through the medium of the aetherial waves1 does exert this repulsive motion1 then1 according to the law of inverse squares1 it can be seen that if a planet's distance be doubled1 the repelling power of the aetherial light waves would be decreased #a_/d1 while at the same time the attractive power of the centripetal force would be decreased #a_/d also4 ,if1 on the other hand1 the planet's distance from the sun be reduced to #a_/b of its former distance1 then the repelling power of the aetherial light waves would be increased four times1 but contemporaneously with the increase there would be an increase in the attractive power of gravity1 which would exactly counterbalance the increased repelling power of the light waves4 ,so that in assuming that there is this repelling power in the light waves1 there are thus two forces in existence in the solar system 7which is a type of all other systems71 or rather two motions1 as all forces resolve themselves into motions of some kind1 one motion ever tending from the central body1 that is1 the motion of the aetherial light waves1 and the other tending to the central body1 that is1 the force of gravity1 which we shall see later on is also a motion of the ,aether1 whose influence is ever towards the central body1 be it a sun1 star1 or planet4 ,these two motions1 therefore1 are subject to the same law1 viz4 that their power or intensity is not only directed in straight lines from the central body1 but their intensity is regulated exactly by the same law of inverse squares4 ,if the repelling motion be doubled1 then the attractive motion or power would be doubled also2 if the repelling motion be quadrupled or halved1 then the attractive force of gravity would be quadrupled or halved in the same way1 the two forces being exactly increased or decreased in the same ratio according to the law of inverse squares4 ,,art4 #gf4 ,velocity of ,light4--,the transmission of light is not instantaneous1 as it requires time for its propagation through space1 from the luminous body which gives rise to all light1 as the sun for example1 until it reaches the body which it lights up4 ,the velocity of the light waves1 however1 is so great1 that it is almost impossible to give any comparative idea of their rate of transmission4 ,the velocity of the light waves was first established by ,roemer1 a ,danish astronomer1 in #afge4 ,he ascertained the velocity of light by observations made on the satellites of ,jupiter4 ,his methods of reasoning can easily be understood by reference to the following diagram4 ,illustration3 ,fig3 #h4 ,let ,s represent the sun1 and ,a and ,b the orbit of the earth round the sun2 ,c ,e ,d part of ,jupiter's orbit round the sun2 while ,d ,e ,f represents the orbit of ,jupiter's satellite4 ,when the earth1 ,jupiter1 and the satellite are in a straight line with each other1 the satellite suffers an eclipse through passing into the shadow thrown by ,jupiter4 ,now ,roemer found that there was a difference in the time of the eclipse when the earth was at ,b1 that is1 when it was nearest to ,jupiter1 and when it was at ,a1 which is that part of the earth's orbit furthest away from ,jupiter4 ,that difference was accounted for by the fact1 that when the earth was at ,a the light had to travel further from ,jupiter than when the earth was nearest to ,jupiter1 that is at point ,b4 ,thus1 when the earth was nearest to ,jupiter1 the light had a shorter journey to travel than when it was furthest from ,jupiter4 ,the difference1 he found1 was about #af minutes1 and he reasoned that this difference was caused by the light having to cross the earth's orbit from ,b to ,a1 in its longer journey1 than when it only had to reach the earth at ,b4 ,the mean distance of the earth from the sun1 that is1 the radius of the earth's orbit1 is about #ib-a_/b million miles1 so that the diameter of the earth's orbit is about #ahe1jjj1jjj miles1 and if it takes about #af minutes for light to traverse this distance1 we find that light has a velocity1 according to ,roemer1 of #aib1ejj miles per second4 ,the result1 however1 arrived at by ,roemer was not generally accepted at that time1 and it was not till #agbh that ,bradley discovered what is known as the ,aberration of ,light1 and from that discovery proved that light was not transmitted instantaneously through space1 but that it was transmitted with finite velocity2 and that that velocity corresponded fairly well with the velocity given by ,roemer4 ,bradley1 in his astronomical observations1 noticed that some of the fixed stars1 so called1 did not appear to be really fixed1 but that they described small circles in the heavens each year4 ,this fact greatly perplexed him1 until at last he hit upon the true solution by taking into account the motion of the earth in its orbit1 together with the fact that light had a finite velocity4 ,this result showed that the light from the stars travelled with the same velocity as that which travelled from ,jupiter's satellites4 ,the ,aberration of ,light1 as his discovery was termed1 may be illustrated in the following way--,suppose that you are standing still1 and that it is raining1 the rain descending vertically on the umbrella that you hold up to cover you4 ,as soon as you begin to walk1 the rain-drops will apparently begin to slant1 and if the walk is changed into a run1 the greater apparently will be the slanting direction that the rain-drops take4 ,in the same way1 the rays of light from a star would fall vertically upon the earth if it were motionless1 but as the earth is moving through space with varying velocity1 it gives to the rays of light a slanting direction4 ,by calculating the speed of the earth1 and ascertaining the exact slanting direction of the rays1 the velocity of light may be ascertained4 ,this ,bradley did1 and showed that it coincided almost with the result arrived at by ,roemer4 ,various other means have been adapted to test the results arrived at by these two astronomers4 ,fizeau1 in #ahdi1 was able to measure the velocity of light by using1 not planetary or stellar distances1 but by simply using distances in the city of ,paris2 while ,foucault1 in #ahfj1 devised a method of measuring the velocity of light in air or any other medium4 ,the results arrived at by these men leave no doubt as to the exact speed of light1 which may now be reckoned to have a velocity of #ahf1jjj miles1 or #cjj1jjj1jjj metres per second4 ,notwithstanding this great speed at which light travels1 the nearest stars are so far off that their light takes about #c-a_/b years to reach the earth1 while scientists tell us that some of the most distant stars are so remote1 that their light takes thousands of years to reach our earth1 travelling at the rate of #ahf1jjj miles per second4 ,from considerations like these we get a dim conception of the almost illimitable extent of the universe4 ,now let us try to understand what this rate of motion really means4 ,we have to remember that light is caused by wave motions in the ,aether1 so that we have here a wave motion which is travelling through the ,aether at the enormous rate already quoted4 ,light takes about #h-a_/b minutes to travel from the sun to the earth1 a distance of #ib1jjj1jjj miles4 ,our fastest trains do not travel #hj miles an hour1 and if a train left the sun and continued its journey through space at that rate1 it would take over #acj years before it reached our earth1 while the light would perform the journey in #h-a_/b minutes4 ,we have some idea of the velocity of a train travelling at #hj miles an hour2 what1 however1 must be the velocity of a wave motion which travels #bb1ejj times as fast8 ,in ,art4 #ef we have seen that all energy is the energy of motion1 and therefore wherever we get motion of any kind or sort1 there we must have energy accompanying it1 or the power to do work4 ,we have here1 then1 a source of energy in the aetherial waves known as light waves1 with their enormous velocity which is almost inconceivable and illimitable4 ,what must be the energy which exists in space due to the wave motion of the ,aether8 ,we have to remember on this point that we are no longer dealing with a frictionless medium1 but that we are dealing with matter1 only in a far more rarefied and far more elastic form than ordinary matter1 but nevertheless matter just as air is considered matter1 and1 being matter1 its very motion imparts to the light waves a power and a force which make them capable of doing work4 ,the kind of work done will be considered later on1 when we deal with the dynamical value of light4 ,that we do not feel the power and energy of the light waves is due to the well-known fact that their power is broken by the activity of the atmospheric particles1 each of which1 in their myriads1 is ever moving with great velocity1 and therefore bombard the light waves1 as they endeavour to strike the earth4 ,thus the aetherial light waves are broken up and shattered1 and fall to the earth not with their full energy or power1 but in a blended form1 or with that reflected energy which we call light4 ,if they were to come unbroken and unchecked upon us1 and on the earth1 in the same way that they apparently do upon our satellite the moon1 we doubtless should experience very different effects of their energy and power due to their enormous velocity4 ,,art4 #gg4 ,dynamical ,value of ,light4--,we have already learned 7,art4 #fh7 that heat possesses a dynamical value1 such value being measured by ,joule1 and its equivalent in foot-pounds being exactly ascertained4 ,we have further seen 7,art4 #fi1 on the identity of light and heat71 that the same aetherial waves which produce heat are also concerned in the production of light4 ,if1 therefore1 the aetherial waves which give rise to heat possess a dynamical action and equivalent1 it follows that light must also possess a dynamical action and equivalent1 and such action should be capable of being expressed in terms of foot-pounds4 ,clerk ,maxwell has recorded the exact dynamical equivalent of light4 ,on this matter he writes3#ae ,if in strong sunlight the energy of light which falls upon a square foot is #hc4d foot-pounds per second1 the mean energy of one cubic foot of sunlight is about 4#j1jjj1jjj1hhb of a foot-pound1 and the mean pressure on a square foot is 4#j1jjj1jjj1hhb of a pound weight4 ,we have here then the exact dynamical equivalent1 according to ,maxwell1 of a cubic foot of sunlight near the earth's surface1 and of the pressure exerted by light on a body with which it comes into contact4 ,again1 ,lord ,kelvin#af has measured the exact dynamical equivalent of a cubic mile of sunlight1 both near the surface of the sun and then near the surface of the earth1 and in a note adds that the relation of the two values is as #df1jjj to #a4 ,so that if the dynamical value of a cubic mile of sunlight near the earth's surface be represented by unity1 then the value of a cubic mile of sunlight near the sun's surface would be #df1jjj times greater1 while he further adds that it would take #dadj horse-power every minute1 as the amount of work required to generate the energy existing in a cubic kilometre of light near the sun1 a kilometre being equal to about #ajic yards4 ,professor ,challis#ag stated in #ahgb that ,light is to be ranked with the physical forces1 and its dynamical action is equally to be ascribed to the pressure of the ,aether4 ,now ,i want to put this question to the reader3 ,if light possesses this dynamical action1 that is1 if it possesses a motive or driving power1 what must be the exact effect of the dynamical action of the light waves from the sun upon all the planets and meteors that revolve round it8 ,we know that the sun is #cbd1jjj times the mass of our earth1 and that it has a diameter of about #hef1jjj miles and a circumference of over two million and a half miles4 ,what1 therefore1 must be the energy of the aetherial light waves that it speeds on their way through space on every side8 ,stokes1#ah in regard to the mechanical energy of ,light1 states that the amount of energy poured forth into space corresponds in round numbers to #ab1jjj horse-power per square foot1 and that every square foot of the sun's surface supplies energy at the above rate4 ,the number of feet in the sun's surface can be approximately determined4 ,roughly1 there are #b1bhd1jjj1jjj square miles of surface on the sun's huge form1 and there are #bg1hgh1djj square feet in a mile4 ,by multiplying these two numbers we can ascertain the exact number of square feet on the surface of the sun4 ,if1 therefore1 every square foot possesses a mechanical value equal to #ab1jjj horse-power1 what must be the mechanical equivalent of the sun's radiation of light that it pours forth into space8 ,i want to call the attention of the reader to another fact1 and that is1 that light always proceeds in straight lines from the sun 7,art4 #gf71 and therefore if there be any mechanical action in light at all1 that action must be one which is always directed from the sun in straight lines4 ,now experience universally teaches us1 that if a body is pushed1 and pushed with such a force as has been indicated1 then that body not only moves1 but moves in the direction that the supposed horses would push4 ,i have already shown 7,art4 #gf7 that the path of light is that of a straight line corresponding to the path of the attractive force of gravity2 therefore these horses must ever push in a direction from the sun along the same path that the sun's attractive power takes4 ,in other words1 the mechanical action of these supposed horses will be a repulsive one1 that repulsion being due to the dynamical action of the light waves upon the body that they come into contact with4 ,if this is correct1 then not only is heat a repulsive motion1 as stated in ,art4 #fc1 but light is equally the possessor of a repulsive motion1 because its action is ever directed from the sun4 ,we might continue to follow the supposed horses as they continued their course through space1 and we should find that their energy decreased inversely as the square of the distance1 partly because the further they proceeded into space the larger the area would be they would have to cover1 and therefore their energy would be decreased proportionately4 ,professor ,stokes1 in the same work#ai already referred to1 in continuation of the same idea1 states3 ,at the distance of the earth the energy received would correspond to about one horse-power for every square of #e feet1 on that side of the earth's surface facing the sun1 supposing the rays to fall perpendicularly4 ,that being so1 we can exactly calculate in horse-power the energy received from light on that side of the earth facing the sun1 at its distance of #ib1jjj1jjj miles4 ,the area of the earth's surface is1 roughly1 #bjj1jjj1jjj #ebhj square feet1 and if the energy received is equal to one horse-power for every #e square feet1 then the amount of energy received by the earth on that side facing the sun would be equal to #bjj1jjj1jjj #ebhj #a_/b #a_/e horse-power4 ,this power1 it must be remembered1 is ever directed away from the sun1 and upon that side of the planet that faces the solar orb4 ,so that we have virtually a repulsive force ever directed against the earth1 estimated by ,professor ,stokes to be equal to the estimated horse-power4 ,this assumption of the repulsive power of light brings the phenomena of light into harmony with that of heat1 because we have already seen 7,art4 #fc7 that heat is essentially a repulsive motion1 as indicated by ,davy1 ,rumford and others2 and1 as heat and light both have a common origin1 then light should possess a repulsive power also4 ,as further proof of this statement1 let me again quote from ,clerk ,maxwell4 ,in the quotation already given in this ,art4 we have seen that the pressure of sunlight on a square foot is equal to #hc4d lb4 ,he adds the following words to those already quoted3 ,a flat body exposed to sunlight would experience this pressure on its illuminated side only1 and would therefore be repelled from the side on which the light falls4 ,now if more conclusive proof of the correctness of the argument ,i am advancing were required1 ,i do not think it could be given from any greater authority than that just quoted4 ,coming from the pen of one of the most brilliant scientists that the past century has known1 ,i venture to think the opinion will be received with that due weight which it demands4 ,this statement of ,clerk ,maxwell's has received1 however1 definite and experimental proof from ,professor ,lebedew of ,moscow ,university1 and by ,nichols and ,hull of ,america4 ,the former has given1 in the ,annalen der ,physik for ,november #aija1 the results of his experiments in relation to the pressure of light4 ,the following are the results3 ,he proved1 #ast1 that the incident beam of light exerts pressure both upon an absorbing and a reflecting body2 #bnd1 that the pressure of light is proportionate to the amount of incident energy1 and is independent of the colour of light2 #crd1 that the pressure of light corresponds with the forces of radiation as calculated by ,maxwell4 ,about the same time1 ,nichols and ,hull of ,america were engaged upon experiments relating to the pressure of light waves1 and their results were published in the ,november ,physical ,review1 #aija4 ,thus1 from two separate and independent sources1 ,maxwell's equations as to the pressure which light waves exert upon any body on which they fall received definite experimental confirmation4 ,the repulsive power of the light waves receives further confirmation from that theory known as the electro-magnetic theory1 which supposes light to be nothing more or less than an electro-magnetic phenomenon2 that is to say1 it is directly or indirectly due to the action of electric currents4 ,as already indicated1 ,lorentz was of the opinion that the light waves were themselves electric currents1 and whether this is the actual fact or not1 certainly it is true that the electro-magnetic theory of light is no mere fable or myth1 but that it ranks as one of the most advanced and correct hypotheses in regard to light that has ever been given to the world4 ,according to that theory1 which we shall look at subsequently1 we find that the aetherial medium is not only the medium for the light waves1 but that it is also the medium which conveys and carries the electric currents through space1 and even through all matter4 ,further1 from that theory we shall have good reasons for assuming that the aetherial light waves are either themselves electric currents1 or closely identified with them1 in the same way that the light waves are identified with heat waves4 ,if these facts should be found to hold good relative to the identity of aetherial light waves and the aetherial electric waves1 then it can very readily be seen that such a hypothesis gives added weight to the repulsive power of light4 ,one of the very commonest facts regarding electricity and its currents is1 that wherever we get electricity1 we not only get attraction1 but there is always associated with that attractive force a repulsive force1 which is equal in amount to the attractive force4 ,so that if1 wherever we get electric currents1 we find associated with those currents a repulsive force1 then1 in view of the electro-magnetic theory of light1 it should also follow that on that hypothesis we ought also to find a repulsive power in light4 ,from the dynamical aspect of light on the bases of facts given to the world by such men as ,professor ,stokes1 ,clerk ,maxwell1 ,lord ,kelvin1 and ,professor ,lebedew1 we are compelled1 therefore1 to come to the conclusion that light does possess such a repulsive force1 such force being due to the dynamical action of the aetherial light waves4 ,thus we learn from the dynamical action of light1 that not only is the sun the centre of an attractive force1 but that it is equally the centre of a repellent or repulsive power or motion2 which repulsive power always follows the path of the radius vector1 and diminishes with an intensity which is inversely as the square of the distance4 ,what we have to ask ourselves therefore is1 whether the repulsive power of light is the ,centrifugal ,force that we are trying to discover8 ,in ,art4 #bd we found out what were the necessary characteristics of the ,centrifugal ,force1 which is to form the companion law to the attractive law of gravity1 or the ,centripetal ,force4 ,we there saw that this centrifugal law must be universal in character2 that it must coincide with the path of the centripetal force2 that it must also be subject to the same law of intensity1 viz4 the law of inverse squares2 and further1 that the force must be proportional to the product of the two masses concerned4 ,we find in the repulsive power of light three at any rate of these conditions fulfilled4 ,light is universal because ,aether is universal4 ,it is always subject to the law of inverse squares1 and what is more1 its repelling power coincides exactly with the path which the centripetal force takes1 that is1 the radius vector4 ,we have not1 however1 discovered that light fulfils the remaining necessary condition1 which is1 that the repelling powers of light emitted by any two bodies are equal to the product of their masses4 ,so that until this is done1 it cannot be said that the aetherial light waves form the centrifugal force or motion from a central body that we are seeking for4 ,but while that may be true1 yet if light be not the centrifugal motion1 it certainly indicates in what direction we are to look for that force1 and that is to the ,aether1 whose periodic waves give rise to the phenomena of light4 ,for1 after all1 light is due to aetherial wave motion1 and1 therefore1 while light from certain standpoints may be conceived to be the cause of other phenomena1 yet primarily the real cause of all phenomena which are due to light are due to the aetherial waves which themselves give rise to the phenomena of light4 ,thus light acts as a guide-post to us1 pointing out the direction we should take in order to find out the real centrifugal force or motion1 and as plainly as it possibly can1 it indicates to us that the true solution of our centrifugal motion that we are seeking for is to be found1 and alone found1 in that universal aetherial medium which1 by its vibrations and wave motions1 gives rise to that which we term ,light4 ,in conclusion of this point1 it may be pointed out that ,professor ,challis#bj also took this view of light1 as he distinctly states that ,light is to be ranked with the physical forces1 and its dynamical action is equally to be ascribed to the pressure of the ,aether1 and then proceeded to show how repulsion could be exerted on atoms by the periodic wave motion of the ,aether4 ,footnote #ae3 ,magnetism and ,electricity4 ,footnote #af3 ,phil4 ,mag41 #aijb4 ,footnote #ag3 ,ibid41 #ahgb4 ,footnote #ah3 ,burnet ,lectures4 ,footnote #ai3 ,burnet ,lectures4 ,footnote #bj3 ,phil4 ,mag41 #ahgb4 ,,art4 #gh4 ,the ,electro-,magnetic ,theory of ,light4--,we have seen 7,art4 #ga7 that light is due to a periodic wave motion of the ,aether1 and we have previously seen that heat is also due to a periodic wave motion of the ,aether4 ,thus in the phenomena of light and heat1 ,aether is the medium in which the energy of light is stored1 and by which it is transmitted in its passage from a luminous body1 as the sun1 until it comes into contact with a planet or satellite from which it is reflected1 thus giving rise to light and heat4 ,when1 however1 we come to deal with electro-magnetic phenomena1 which are the results and effects produced by electricity and magnetism1 we find certain phenomena similar to those that we find in relation to light and heat4 ,thus1 when light is emitted by a luminous body1 a certain amount of energy is given out by that body1 and if such light is absorbed by another body1 the latter becomes heated1 a clear proof that it has received energy or motion from some outside source4 ,from the time it left the luminous body till it reached the lighted or absorbing body1 it must have existed as energy1 that is1 motion in the ,aether4 ,as we have already seen1 ,newton thought that the transference of energy was accomplished by the actual transference of certain small corpuscles or atoms given out by the luminous body1 which conveyed the energy of the one body to the other4 ,according to the wave theory of light1 however1 we find that the transference of energy is accomplished by a wave motion in the ,aether1 which is periodic both in time and space1 by which wave motion the energy is transferred from the luminous to the illuminated body4 ,now every one is familiar with the effects of magnetism and electricity in some form or other1 and such familiarity teaches that various kinds of work may be done by electricity4 ,if an electric current be generated and allowed to flow through any circuit1 as the ramifications1 for example1 of an electric-tram system1 it can readily be seen that by the action of the current large masses or bodies as trams may be moved4 ,to generate the current requires the expenditure of energy1 and for the tram to be moved requires the transmission of that energy from the generating station till it reaches the body to be moved4 ,by what means is such energy transmitted8 because if it disappears at one place and reappears at another1 it must have passed through a medium during the interval4 ,it has been demonstrated that the medium which conveys the current from place to place is the ,aether1 so that as light is transmitted through space by the ,aether1 in a similar manner electric currents are transmitted through space also by the same medium4 ,the discoverer of this great truth was ,clerk ,maxwell1 and it was from the consideration of electro-magnetic phenomena that he was able to lay the foundation of that theory known as the ,electro-,magnetic ,theory of ,light4 ,in paragraph #gha of his greatest work#ba he says3 ,in several parts of this treatise an attempt has been made to explain electro-magnetic phenomena by means of mechanical action from one body to another by means of a medium occupying space between them4 ,the undulatory theory of light also assumes the existence of a medium4 ,we have now to show that the properties of the electro-magnetic medium are identical with those of the luminiferous medium4 ,he then points out that1 to fill all space with a new medium1 whenever any new phenomenon is to be explained1 is by no means philosophical2 and further adds1 that ,if it should be found that the velocity of propagation of electro-magnetic disturbances is the same as the velocity of light1 and this not only in air1 but in other transparent media1 we shall have strong reasons for believing that light is an electro-magnetic phenomena4 ,in the wave theory of light we have seen 7,art4 #gj71 that two properties are necessary to any medium before it is capable of transmitting wave motion of any kind4 ,those two properties are elasticity and inertia4 ,water possesses these properties1 and so can transmit ocean waves2 air also possesses these properties1 and so can transmit sound waves2 and ,aether1 being matter1 also possesses these properties 7,arts4 #dg and #dh71 and is therefore capable of transmitting light waves4 ,the elasticity is essential in order for the medium to store up energy1 and also to enable it to resume its original shape after deformation1 while the inertia is necessary in order that the medium may transmit the impulse1 and oscillate to and fro until the impulse received has been passed on4 ,this elasticity and inertia may be well illustrated by the bending of a lath or cane4 ,if we pull one end down1 holding the other end quite still1 we shall see that the lath oscillates to and fro until gradually it comes to rest4 ,the elasticity of the lath allows it to be pulled out of its original position1 and also enables it to rebound1 while its inertia causes it to swing back again past its original position4 ,both combined together cause it to swing backwards and forwards till its energy is used up4 ,if such a series of springs could be set in motion at equal intervals of space and time1 we should then have a good illustration of a wave motion4 ,what analogy1 may be asked1 is there in electro-magnetic phenomena to correspond to this elasticity and inertia of the ,aether1 so essential to the propagation of light8 ,let us look at the familiar illustration of charging a ,leyden jar4 ,in charging a ,leyden jar with electricity a certain amount of energy is spent1 work is done1 and the result is found in the electrified state of the jar4 ,that which has actually been accomplished is the storing up of energy in the ,aether around the jar4 ,this storing up of energy is analogous to pulling aside the lath1 and is the making use of the elasticity of the ,aether1 in order to produce a tendency to recoil4 ,when the jar is discharged1 which is analogous to letting go the lath1 the ,aether seeks to recover its former condition by discharging the energy it received4 ,in these operations the elasticity of the ,aether is called into play4 ,after the jar is discharged1 however1 the recoil of the ,aether produces a current1 and the inertia of the current causes it to overshoot its original position1 and for an instant the charge of the jar is reversed4 ,the current now flows backwards in the same way that the lath returned back1 and charges the jar as at first4 ,this discharging and recharging continue backward and forward1 so to speak1 until all the energy which was originally given to the jar has been expended1 and it resumes its normal condition4 ,in this experiment the elasticity and inertia of the ,aether have both been called into play1 so that we see in this electrical experiment a similar illustration of the elasticity and inertia of the ,aether1 as manifested in the undulatory or wave theory of light4 ,the question now arises1 what are the corresponding properties as given by ,maxwell in his electro-magnetic theory8 ,in ,art4 #ghb he writes3 ,in the theory of electricity and magnetism adopted in this treatise two forms of energy are recognized--the electro-static and the electro-kinetic--and these are supposed to have their seat1 not merely in the electrified or magnetized bodies1 but in every part of the surrounding space where electric or magnetic force is observed to act4 ,hence our theory agrees with the undulatory theory in assuming the existence of a medium which is capable of becoming a receptacle of two forms of energy4 ,faraday1 in his ,experimental ,researches1 paragraph #cjge1 in referring to the character of magnetic phenomena external to the magnet1 writes3 ,i am more inclined to the notion that in the transmission of force there is such an action external to the magnet1 than that the effects are merely attraction and repulsion at a distance4 ,such a function may be a function of the ,aether if it should have other uses than simply the conveyance of radiations 7light and heat74 ,from this extract we learn that ,faraday was also of the opinion that the ,aether around a magnet or any electrified body was directly concerned in the propagation of the electric and magnetic forces1 these forces according to ,maxwell being of two kinds4 ,from the illustration of the charging and discharging of the ,leyden jar1 we learn that aetherial electrical waves can be produced by electric means1 and from the alternate charging and recharging of the jar we learn that these aetherial waves travel to and from the jar with a periodic wave motion4 ,here1 therefore1 we have an aetherial wave motion which is produced wholly by electricity1 and yet which answers our definition of a wave motion of light1 in that it is periodic both in time and space1 and in that aetherial wave motion ,maxwell states that two forms of energy are called into play1 which he calls ,electro-,static and ,electro-,kinetic4 ,these correspond respectively to the elasticity and inertia in the older theory of the wave motion of light4 ,it was upon this basis that ,maxwell built up his electro-magnetic theory4 ,even this theory does not tell us what is the exact character or nature of the periodic wave motion of the ,aether4 ,all it tells us is1 that the electro-magnetic wave motion of the ,aether is the same in nature and character as the wave motion which produces light and heat4 ,thus it shows that light and electricity have a common origin1 and proves that light is nothing more or less than an electro-magnetic phenomenon4 ,maxwell gave a number of proofs in support of his theory4 ,he showed that the velocity of the electro-magnetic waves was almost identical with the velocity of light waves1 his results being as follows-- ,,velocity ,,of ,,electro-,,magnetic ,,velocity ,,of ,,light ,,in ,,waves4 ,,metres ,,per ,,sec4 ,weber #caj1gdj1jjj metres per sec4 ,fizeau #cad1jjj1jjj ,maxwell #bhh1jjj1jjj ,foucault #bih1cfj1jjj ,thompson #bhb1jjj1jjj ,from these figures it can readily be seen that the velocity of an aetherial wave1 generated by electric means1 is approximately the same as an aetherial wave generated by a luminous body4 ,thus one of the most important results of ,maxwell's theory was to show that electro-magnetic disturbances produced in the ,aether by an electrified or magnetic body might be propagated through space with a velocity equal to that of light4 ,it was left1 however1 for ,professor ,hertz to place the electro-magnetic theory of light upon a sure and certain foundation4 ,the results are to be found in his work on ,electric ,waves1 translated by ,professor ,jones1 #ahic4 ,in his paper on ,the ,velocity of ,propagation of ,electro-dynamic ,action1 he gave definite and experimental proof of the hitherto theoretical fact that the velocity of the electric waves in air was exactly the same as that of light1 whereas he found that in wires the ratio was not the same1 being #d to #g4 ,this was afterwards found out to be an error by some experiments made at ,geneva1 when it was discovered that the propagation in wires was the same as in the air4 ,among his experiments ,hertz succeeded in producing very short electric waves of #cj centimetres in length1 that is1 about one and one-fifth of an inch4 ,according to ,maxwell's theory1 such a wave ought to behave exactly as a beam of ordinary light does4 ,hertz proved that this was the case1 and published his proofs in his paper on ,electric ,radiation4 ,in that paper he showed how such electric radiation was propagated in straight lines1 like light1 and that it could also be refracted and reflected4 ,thus he gave to ,maxwell's electro-magnetic theory experimental demonstration1 and placed it on a solid and immovable foundation4 ,in summing up the results of this theory1 we learn1 therefore1 that ,hertz has conclusively proved that electric and magnetic effects are propagated through the ,aether which fills all space with the same velocity that light is propagated4 ,further1 he has conclusively proved the identity between light and electricity1 and shown that electric and light radiations are essentially one and the same1 and that they are both propagated by periodic wave motions of the ,aether4 ,further1 he has proved that the velocity of the propagation of light is the same as that of the electro-magnetic waves1 and that these waves obey all the laws that govern light and heat4 ,we have here1 therefore1 experimental proof of the identity between electricity and light1 and in ,art4 #fi we have also proved the identity of light and heat1 so that we have now experimental proof that light1 heat and electricity are all due to the periodic wave motions and vibrations of the universal ,aether1 which not only fills all space1 but which surrounds every atom and every particle of matter throughout the whole universe4 ,having established1 therefore1 the identity of heat1 light and electricity1 and having proved that they are all due to the periodic wave motions or vibrations of the universal ,aether1 it must follow as a matter of necessity that wherever in interplanetary or interstellar space we find light or heat waves we must also find electricity4 ,we have already seen that aetherial light waves flood all space1 both interplanetary and interstellar space1 so that in view of the identity of the aetherial light waves and aetherial electric waves1 it follows that the aetherial electric waves flood all space in the same way1 and at the same time4 ,wherever1 therefore1 we find the light waves1 there we find the electric waves also2 and it will be impossible to find the one without the other4 ,thus1 throughout all space1 and indeed throughout the universe1 light waves will not be found apart from electric waves4 ,they are as incapable of being dissociated as are light and heat waves4 ,now we have already seen 7,art4 #fd71 so far as the solar system is concerned1 that the sun is the generator of all light and heat1 and that these light waves speed from the sun on every side with a velocity of #ahf1jjj miles per second4 ,from the identity of light and electric waves1 therefore1 given to us by the electro-magnetic theory of light1 it must follow that the sun is equally the source and generator of the electric waves4 ,not only so1 but as the light waves flood all solar space1 these electric waves1 being identical with the light waves1 must flood the solar system also4 ,thus we learn from ,maxwell's theory as developed by ,hertz1 that not only is the sun the generator of light and heat waves which are poured forth into space continually with a velocity almost inconceivable1 but at the same time the sun is pouring forth into space electric waves which travel outwards in spherical shells in the same way as light waves do1 and with a similar intensity1 as we shall see in the next chapter4 ,now let me ask the reader to ponder over the fact given to us by this electro-magnetic theory in its relation to the solar system1 and endeavour to find out what such an application teaches us4 ,let it be remembered that we are looking for a ,centrifugal force or motion1 that is1 a motion from a centre1 which is to be the exact counterpart of the ,centripetal force1 i4 e4 motion to a centre2 and further1 that the ,centrifugal motion must be a repulsive motion acting in the opposite way to the attractive power of the ,centripetal force1 that is1 the attractive power of gravity4 ,we have seen 7,art4 #gg7 that light possesses a repulsive power4 ,we have now only to prove that electricity or the aetherial electric waves have a repulsive motion1 which will be the easiest of all to prove1 and then we shall have proved beyond the possibility of contradiction1 the existence of that repulsive force referred to by ,herschel in ,art4 #bd1 which is to form the complementary and counterpart of the attractive power of gravity4 ,if it can be proved that electricity does possess such a power1 that is1 a repulsive power1 ever acting from a centre1 then in view of the identity of light1 heat and electricity1 the correctness of the views we have advanced as to the repulsive power of light and heat will be proved beyond the shadow of a doubt1 otherwise ,maxwell's electro-magnetic theory of light is a fable and a myth1 and ,hertz' experiments were never performed4 ,further1 if all electro-magnetic phenomena are due to the same aetherial medium which gives rise by its wave motions to light1 heat and electricity1 then we shall have discovered a medium which throughout the universe can by its wave motions transmit and propagate both repulsions and attractions1 that is1 the aetherial medium which is to be the physical cause of ,universal ,gravitation4 ,in order to further develop and establish this point we will now consider the subject of ,electricity as a ,mode of ,motion4 ,footnote #ba3 ,mag4 and ,elec4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,aether ,,and ,,electricity ,,art4 #gi4 ,electricity1 a ,mode of ,motion4--,the question as to ,what is ,electricity8 is one of the greatest problems of modern times4 ,in view of the electro-magnetic theory of light1 however1 science is able to give a better definition as to what electricity is1 than it was able to do previous to the introduction of the theory by ,maxwell1 and its practical establishment by ,hertz4 ,if that theory teaches us anything at all with regard to the nature of electricity1 it teaches us that electricity is due to certain motions of the universal ,aether1 that not only fills all so-called ,space1 but surrounds all particles and atoms of all ,matter4 ,the question has been asked by various scientists1 ,is ,aether ,electricity1 or1 in other words1 are ,aether and ,electricity one and the same8 ,let us look at the question from the standpoint of the analogy from the phenomena of light and heat4 ,as we have already seen 7,art4 #fa71 heat is due to a particular kind of motion of the universal ,aether1 generally known as vibratory motion1 which motion is communicated to the ,aether by a luminous or heated body4 ,so that we learn that heat at any rate has an aetherial basis1 as it is a particular kind of aetherial motion4 ,from ,art4 #gj we learn also that light is due to an undulatory or wave motion in the ,aether2 the waves1 however1 in this case being shorter1 and of more rapid vibration than those waves which give rise to heat4 ,thus light and heat both have an aetherial basis1 being due to vibrations of that medium4 ,from these analogies1 therefore1 we come to the conclusion that electricity and magnetism have an aetherial basis1 and are also due to certain kinds of motion in the ,aether4 ,that motion may be rotatory motion or vibratory motion1 as the case may be1 but whatever definition we give of electricity1 we cannot as yet say definitely that ,aether is electricity4 ,we may assume1 and indeed prove1 that ,aether has an electrical and magnetic basis1 in the same way that it has a thermal or heat basis1 or a luminiferous or light basis2 but while we admit such a hypothesis1 we cannot admit as yet that ,aether and electricity are one and the same thing4 ,it is not within the province of this work1 however1 to prove what electricity is1 or show the relation of ,aether to all the various forms of electricity with which we are conversant1 but ,i think ,i may venture to make this statement1 that all forms of electricity1 whether it is electro-static1 that is electricity at rest1 or current electricity1 or electro-magnetism1 are due to certain forms of motion of the universal ,aether1 in the same way that light and heat are also particular forms of motion of the same medium4 ,i need hardly point out that it is an absolute impossibility for me to deal with such a subject as ,electricity in all its details and various aspects in one chapter2 so that ,i shall have to assume that the reader is familiar with some of the elementary truths of the subject4 ,at the same time1 ,i will endeavour to make clear most of the technical terms used as we proceed4 ,from the ,electro-,magnetic theory of light1 therefore1 we learn that ,aether has an electrical or electro-magnetic basis1 so that1 wherever we get ,aether1 there we have the bases and conditions which will produce all the phenomena with which we are conversant in the sphere of electricity4 ,given the required motions in the ,aether necessary to produce any particular form of electricity1 then that form is produced as soon as the motions of the ,aether are generated by any charged or electrified body4 ,produce a circular current in any way in the ,aether1 and you will have a circular current of electricity2 produce radiations from a radiating body1 and you will get electric radiations which speed away with the velocity of light4 ,this phase of the ,aether is entirely in harmony with ,dr4 ,larmor's ,hypothesis of ,electrons1 which has already been referred to in ,art4 #dd4 ,dr4 ,larmor in his work indicates that electricity has an atomic basis1 and further states that the atomicity of electricity is coming within the scope of direct experiment4#bb ,now1 if electricity1 as ,i have indicated1 be due to certain motions in the ,aether1 then it can easily be seen that postulating atomicity for electricity will be the same as postulating atomicity for the ,aether4 ,dr4 ,larmor#bc definitely and clearly states1 that each electron has an effective mass of aetherial origin1 which forms part1 and may be the whole1 of the mass of matter to which it is attached2 and again points out 7p4 #fd7 that an electron is nothing more than a point singularity or pole in the electro-dynamic and optical ,aether4 ,thus we see that ,dr4 ,larmor's hypothesis as to the atomicity of electricity is a further proof of the atomicity of ,aether1 and is also in harmony with the electro-magnetic theory of light4 ,now in dealing with electricity as a mode of motion1 it will be necessary to show that electricity is also a form of energy in the same way that heat and light are forms of energy4 ,if it can be demonstrated that electricity is a form of energy1 then it can easily be demonstrated that work can be done by it1 and that that work may take a mechanical form in the same way that the energy of heat and light may produce mechanical results4 ,clerk ,maxwell has given us1 in his greatest work1 his conception of the two kinds of energy due to electricity and magnetism4 ,on the subject he writes3 ,in the theory of ,electricity and ,magnetism accepted in this treatise1 two forms of energy are recognized1 the ,electro-,static and ,electro-,kinetic 7paragraphs #fcj and #fcf71 and these are supposed to have their seat not merely in electrified or magnetized bodies1 but in every part of surrounding space1 wherever electric or magnetic force is observed to act4 ,hence our theory agrees with the undulatory theory of light in assuming the existence of a medium which is capable of becoming susceptible to two forms of energy4#bd ,the question has arisen many times as to what is meant by the terms ,electro-,static and ,electro-,kinetic energy used by ,maxwell1 and various hypotheses have been advanced to explain the same4 ,electro-static energy is said to be that phase of electricity in which we deal with stresses set up in the ,aether by an electrified body at rest1 whether that body be small or large4 ,it further deals with the process of induction1 that is1 the action of an electrified body upon another body1 such action taking place through the medium between the two bodies4 ,electro-kinetic energy is the energy due to electricity in motion4 ,on this point ,maxwell says3 ,a conducting circuit in which the current has been set up has the power of doing work in virtue of the current1 for it is really and truly energy4 ,it appears1 therefore1 that a system containing an electric current is a seat of energy of some kind2 and1 since we can form no conception of electric current except as a kinetic phenomenon1 its energy must be kinetic energy1 that is to say1 the energy which a moving body has in virtue of its motion4 7,arts4 #eea and #eeb47 ,it is not our purpose to deal with the electro-kinetic form of energy referred to by ,maxwell in this chapter4 ,we shall deal with that form of energy due to electricity in the succeeding chapter4 ,we will consider first the effect of the electro-static energy in relation to electrified bodies1 but ,i wish it to be distinctly understood1 that in all the different kinds of electric phenomena manifested1 the ,aether plays the chief part1 and without it1 none of the phenomena observed could be produced2 because1 what ,aether is to light and heat1 so it is to electricity1 being that medium which by its motions propagates and gives rise to all electrical phenomena4 ,this being so1 we have now to apply some of the facts taught us by electricity1 and especially by the electro-magnetic theory of light1 to our solar system1 with the hope that we shall find further evidence of a ,centrifugal ,force which is physical in character1 and whose action can be traced throughout the whole realm of space4 ,let us1 in starting to apply some of the truths already learned1 recall some of the facts concerning light1 its production and its propagation4 ,we recall the fact that light is produced by the action of the sun upon the ,aether1 giving rise to waves which speed away from the generating source with a velocity of #ahf1jjj miles per second4 ,we further remember that ,hertz has definitely proved that these light waves are identical with electro-magnetic waves1 as they ought to be if the ,aether possesses an electrical basis1 as ,dr4 ,larmor and ,professor ,lodge suggest4 ,in order that there may be no mistake on this point1 let me quote from one of ,hertz' papers1 where1 in his conclusion1 he says3 ,the experiments described appear to me1 at any rate1 eminently adapted to remove any doubt of the identity of light1 radiant heat1 and electro-magnetic wave motion4 ,now1 what ,i want to point out regarding this fact is this4 ,if the sun gives rise to the aetherial light waves1 and these light waves are identical with electro-magnetic waves as proved by ,hertz1 then the sun must either be an electrified body or else a magnet4 ,it must be one or the other1 because1 if it were not1 we should then have an anomaly in ,nature of a body emitting electro-magnetic waves which is itself neither electrified nor a magnet4 ,therefore1 according to our second ,rule of ,philosophy1 such a body would be incapable of giving rise to these waves1 as such a result would be contrary to universal experience and experiment4 ,we know that the earth is a magnet1 but up to the present it has never been proved that the sun is a magnet1 although1 as ,i shall show later on1 ,lord ,kelvin and others have suggested such a possibility4 ,if we assume that the sun is a magnet1 our grounds for assumption would not be so strong at this point1 and our reasons so philosophical1 as they are if we assume that the sun is an electrified body4 ,we have philosophical reasoning to prove that the sun is an electrified body in the fact that it emits or gives rise to electro-magnetic waves in the ,aether1 and no other hypothesis can be made other than that the sun is an electrified body1 in order to prove the connection between the two4 ,thus we affirm that the sun is an electrified body1 which like any other electrified body is capable of generating electric waves1 and speeding them through the ,aether with similar velocity to that of light4 ,not only so1 but1 like any other electrified body1 it must have its electric field and possess the ability to electrify any other body by induction1 that may happen to be in its electric field1 as we shall see later on4 ,further1 being an electrified body1 the electric density will be greatest near the sun's surface1 and this fact fully accords with our statement in ,art4 #de1 that ,aether is gravitative4 ,as pointed out in that ,art41 if ,aether be gravitative1 it must be densest nearest to the attracting body2 and1 as ,aether has an electric basis1 then with the denser ,aether there must be an increased electric density1 which can only happen provided the sun is an electrified body4 ,sir ,g4 ,stokes was also of this opinion1 for in his ,burnet ,lectures on ,light he writes 7p4 #bab73 ,there is nothing1 therefore1 unreasonable in supposing that the sun may be a permanently charged body4 ,so that all the reasoning that has led to this result seems to harmonize and confirm each several hypothesis which has been advanced4 ,there can be little doubt1 therefore1 that the sun is an electrified body1 and it is for us now to carry out this fact to its logical and philosophical conclusion1 by applying all the truths which circle round it to the solar system1 when we shall find greater confirmation of the statement just advanced than any we have yet adduced4 ,according to ,professor ,young of ,america1 the sun is not only an electrified body1 but is also the abode of living and sentient beings4 ,this astronomer has suggested that the sun is the centre of electric force1 and that converging streams of ,electricity are ever flowing to it as a centre2 but on meeting with the atmosphere they give rise to brilliant discharges1 which thus gives the appearance of a solid incandescent body4 ,now1 whether this hypothesis is correct or not1 it is absolutely certain that the sun is an electrified body1 as it gives rise to electro-magnetic waves in the ,aether1 as philosophically proved by direct experiments4 ,footnote #bb3 ,aether and ,matter1 p4 #h4 ,footnote #bc3 ,ibid41 p4 #fd4 ,footnote #bd3 ,magnetism and ,electricity1 by ,c4 ,maxwell1 ,art4 #ghb4 ,,art4 #hj4 ,aether and ,electric ,fields4--,before proceeding to apply some of the facts of ,electricity to the solar system1 let us find out what is meant by an ,electric ,field4 ,an electric field is to an electrified body1 what a thermal or heat field is to a heated body1 or a luminous or lighted field is to a luminous body4 ,if a lamp1 for example1 be lighted1 its light waves spread out on every side1 and extend for a considerable distance unless impeded by such obstacles as the wall of a room4 ,the extent to which the light waves reach and flow might well be called the lighted or luminous field1 and in that field the effect of the aetherial light waves would be manifested and seen4 ,now1 in a similar manner1 when any body is electrified1 the electric waves spread out on every side of the electrified body1 and the extent to which the waves spread out form what is known as an electric field4 ,so that an electric field may be defined as any region or space in which electric energy is manifested by means of the aetherial electric waves1 and across which induction may take place4 ,illustration3 ,fig3 #i4 ,thus1 for example1 let ,e be an electrified body 7,fig4 #i71 then it will generate electric waves which will speed from the body with a velocity equal to that of light4 ,if the body be a sphere1 then the waves will be spherical in shape1 and will proceed from the generating source in the shape of concentric spheres as indicated in the figure4 ,before proceeding any further1 it is necessary that we should look at the electric field from the physical aspect1 with a view to discover something of what takes place therein4 ,as has already been indicated1 all electric phenomena are due to motions of the universal ,aether4 ,it was left for ,faraday to give us a true conception of an electric field1 and for ,maxwell to perfect that conception and give us a physical aspect of the same4 ,faraday conceived that stretching out from a magnet or electrified body through space1 that is1 through the ,aether1 were what he called ,lines of ,force1 and that these lines of force indicated not only the direction of the magnetic and electric forces1 but also their intensity or power4 ,where the lines of force were closest together1 there the electric or magnetic energy was the greatest and most intense2 and where they were the farthest apart1 there the field was weakest in energy4 ,an illustration of the magnetic lines of force may be obtained by placing a piece of paper over a magnet1 and then strewing iron filings over the same1 when it will be seen that the iron filings will arrange themselves in certain curved lines1 which ,faraday called ,magnetic ,lines of ,force4 ,in this way ,faraday mapped out the lines of force1 relative not only to single magnets1 but also to magnets with poles placed in various positions relatively to poles of other magnets4 ,now as there are lines of force which reveal the intensity and direction of the magnetic energy1 so there are lines of force radiating out from electrified bodies which reveal the intensity and power of the electric field4 ,the electric lines of force are radial1 and are shown in the figure 7,fig4 #i7 by the straight lines ,d ,f1 ,d ,h1 ,d ,k4 ,if an electrified pith ball1 for example1 be hung up in a room1 then the lines of force1 which extend from the ball1 indicate the stress in the ,aether surrounding the pith ball1 so that if a hair be placed across these lines of force1 any movement of the pith ball will be indicated by the motion of the hair4 ,it was ,clerk ,maxwell1 however1 who gave to the world a true physical conception of ,faraday's ,lines of ,force1 in his paper on ,physical ,lines of ,force4#be ,in the opening words of that paper he writes as follows3 ,we cannot help thinking that in every place where we find these lines of force1 some physical state or action must exist in sufficient energy to produce the actual phenomena4 ,maxwell then went on to show what these physical actions were1 which took place in the dielectric--that is1 the medium surrounding the electrified body which we now know to be the ,aether4 ,this electric field1 he pointed out1 was in a state of stress1 which consisted of pressures or tensions different in different directions at the same part of the medium4 ,the relation of these forces were threefold1 and consisted in the most general type of stress of three pressures or tensions in directions at right angles to each other4 ,thus1 in ,maxwell's opinion1 the existence of a medium1 which by its physical character was able to exert energy on material bodies1 was one of the fundamental hypotheses of his theory as to the physical character of ,faraday's ,lines of ,force4 ,this physical medium was to be capable of certain motions1 and both electric and magnetic forces were produced by its motions and its stresses4 ,maxwell's conception1 however1 of the physical lines of force was more or less hypothetical1 and up to the present1 as far as ,i can learn1 has not received that authority from science that such a hypothesis requires to make it an accepted theory in science4 ,but what ,i venture to point out is1 that with the view of the aetherial medium that is submitted in this work1 ,maxwell's hypothesis remains a hypothesis no longer1 and that the hypothetical character of his theory ceases to exist4 ,for1 by our conception of an atomic and gravitative ,aether1 we are able to see that his physical lines of force are indeed physical1 and that his brilliant hypothesis now receives a true physical foundation which otherwise it would not receive from a frictionless ,aether4 ,there is nothing1 ,i venture to predict1 in ,maxwell's hypothesis which cannot be accounted for on a truly physical basis1 by the conception of the ,aether as given in this work4 ,so that when ,faraday saw in his mind's eye lines of force traversing space1 he saw by his imagination that which was actually the real state of affairs1 and when ,maxwell enlarged the conception by giving to those lines of force a definite atomic and cellular structure1 he1 too1 but anticipated the real nature and character of the ,aether as given in ,chapter ,,iv41 which theory is the direct outcome of ,newton's philosophical rules1 and the result of discarding everything that is not in accordance with experience and observation4 ,thus the lines of force which exist and surround a magnetic or electrified body are as real as ocean currents1 or the waves of the sea1 in that they are the manifestations of the motions of the universal ,aether1 which is as truly matter as air or water4 ,let us look at the analogy which exists between the lines of force and the gravitative ,aether1 and we shall see that a gravitative ,aether fully agrees with the conception of an electric ,aether as revealed to us by the lines of force in an electric field4 ,as is well known1 the lines of force are closer together in that part of the electric field where the intensity of the field is greatest2 and the intensity of a field being greatest at the surface of an electrified body1 the lines of force are therefore closer together nearest to the surface of such a body than further away4 ,now according to ,art4 #de ,aether is gravitative1 therefore the ,aether nearest the surface of a body is densest1 and the aetherial atoms are therefore more pressed upon than the layer immediately above it4 ,such a result is exactly what should happen provided that ,aether has an electric basis1 and that ,aether is gravitative4 ,for1 in ,art4 #de1 we have seen that because ,aether is gravitative1 therefore it must possess various degrees of density1 being densest nearest the surface of an attracting body4 ,in electricity we find a similar phenomenon which corresponds to aetherial density1 which is known as ,electric ,density1 by which term is meant the amount or quantity of electricity spread over a certain area or surface4 ,if we double the quantity of electricity on that given surface1 then we double the density1 and we say that the electric density is doubled1 while if we halve the quantity of electricity1 then we say the electric density is halved1 and so on4 ,but this is exactly what happens in the case of aetherial density1 as proved in ,art4 #df4 ,we have only to picture the number of aetherial atoms being doubled on a given area1 and at once the physical conception of electric density is furnished1 if we remember that ,aether has an electric basis as suggested by ,maxwell and proved by ,hertz4 ,thus we see at once why it is the lines of force should be closer together nearer the electrified body than farther away4 ,electric ,potential4--,there is another aspect of the electric field that ,i wish to call the reader's attention to1 and that is the ,electric ,potential of such a field4 ,electric potential is to electricity what temperature is to heat1 or pressure is to any medium of different densities4 ,we have already seen1 according to the laws of thermodynamics1 that heat will flow from a higher temperature to a lower one1 with the result that work is done4 ,in the case also of water at two different levels1 work can also be done by the water flowing from a higher to a lower level4 ,a similar thing happens in electricity2 where we have two conductors or two parts of an electrical fluid at different potentials1 electricity will flow from the place of higher potential1 until the potentials are equalized1 in the same way that the temperature of two bodies at different temperatures would be equalized by the flow of heat4 ,so that electric potential agrees with our conception of a gravitative ,aether in that1 being gravitative1 it is denser in those parts nearest to the attracting body than farther away1 and as the elasticity or pressure is proportionate to the density 7,art4 #dg71 therefore we learn that the electric potential of the ,aether1 and the thermal condition of the ,aether1 if ,i may use such a term1 both agree and coincide with the density and elasticity of the ,aether4 ,any equipotential surface which represents a particular aetherial density1 would also correspond with a particular elasticity or pressure of the ,aether1 while it would further correspond with a particular temperature1 if such a term is applicable to the ,aether4 ,equipotential ,surfaces4--,the fact that in an electric field there are different points at different potentials1 leads us to the truth that in an electric field there are also equipotential surfaces2 that is to say1 there are surfaces where the electric density or the aetherial density are equal at all points on such a surface4 ,if1 for example1 ,e be an electrified body 7,fig4 #i71 and ,a ,a'1 ,b ,b'1 represent equipotential surfaces around the body1 then all the points on ,a ,a' would be of equal potential--that is1 of equal energy1 or pressure4 ,we have to remember that ,a ,a'1 ,b ,b'1 are sections of a sphere1 so that when the body as ,e is a sphere1 then the equipotential surfaces are spheres also4 ,this agrees with ,art4 #gg1 in which we saw that the pressure around any body due to aetherial density also possessed equipotential surfaces4 ,it could equally be shown that there were equipotential surfaces so far as the phenomena of heat and light are concerned1 as these also are subject to the same laws4 ,having now very briefly considered the meaning of the ,electric ,field1 ,electric ,potential1 ,electric ,density1 and ,equipotential ,surfaces1 we are now in a position to apply these facts to our solar system1 at least as far as the sun is concerned4 ,in the foregoing ,art4 we arrived at the conclusion that the sun was an electrified body1 therefore1 in accordance with all experiment and observation1 it1 too1 must have an electric field4 ,not only must it have an electric field2 but that field must possess different potentials1 possessing a higher potential the nearer the field gets to the sun1 and a lower potential the farther away the field is4 ,further1 around the sun there must also exist not imaginary but real physical lines of force which indicate the electric and magnetic forces1 and which are made real by the atomic character of the ,aether that surrounds it2 and those lines of force would be closer together the nearer they got to the sun on account of the electric density of the electric ,aether1 which coincides with the density of the ,aether from the gravitative standpoint4 ,there would also be aetherial equipotential spheres1 or rather oblate spheroids around the sun1 as the sun is not strictly a sphere1 its polar diameter being less than its equatorial diameter4 ,illustration3 ,fig3 #aj4 ,let us therefore endeavour to picture the sun under these conditions as the centre of our solar system4 ,let ,s be the sun 7,fig4 #aj71 and the lines ,a ,a'1 ,b ,b'1 ,c ,c'1 etc4 represent ,equipotential ,surfaces1 ,fig4 #aa being a vertical section and ,fig4 #aj being an equatorial section4 ,in ,fig4 #aa the sections of the equipotential surfaces would be vertical1 while in ,fig4 #aj the sections of the equipotential surfaces would be horizontal1 while the electric lines of force would be radial1 as all electric radiations take place in straight lines1 as we shall see was proved by ,hertz1 later on4 ,we will suppose that the sun is stationary1 as the question of the movement of the sun1 both axially and through space1 will be considered in a subsequent article4 ,illustration3 ,fig3 #aa4 ,then the question arises1 ,how far does the sun's electric field extend8 ,that is rather a difficult question to answer1 but the correct answer would be1 ,as far as the sun's light extends1 so far does the sun's electric field extend4 ,from the electro-magnetic theory of light we know that wherever there are light waves1 there are electro-magnetic waves1 though at the present moment we are only dealing with the electric aspect of those waves4 ,we know that the aetherial light waves reach at least as far as ,neptune1 a distance of #b1gej1jjj1jjj miles1 therefore we know that the sun's electric field must also extend to that distance4 ,how much further in space it extends we cannot tell1 because the data on which to form a basis is inadequate4 ,illustration3 ,fig3 #ab4 ,thus we learn that the sun's electric field extends east and west for that enormous distance1 but we cannot say that it extends the same distance north and south4 ,now why is that8 ,the first reason ,i should give is the well-known experiment of a revolving body1 by which we learn that when a body is revolving1 as the sun for example1 the atmosphere around it would seek to extend itself east and west1 owing to the ,centrifugal ,force so called4 ,but a better reason than that will be found from an analogy of a magnetized body4 ,faraday has shown in his drawings illustrating lines of force1 that if a spherical body is magnetized1 the magnetic lines of force extend in circles east and west1 but go out into space in almost straight lines north1 and south as the preceding figure shows4 ,therefore1 accepting ,faraday's experiment as the basis for our conception of the magnetic lines of force in the sun's electric field1 we come to the conclusion that the electric field around the sun extends east and west1 while the lines of force1 north and south1 are more or less radial into space as depicted in the figure4 ,throughout the whole of the field1 the electric potential1 at different distances from the sun1 would differ in accordance with all experiment and observation4 ,the greatest electric potential would therefore be nearest the sun's surface1 and would be greatest in the equatorial regions of the sun1 in accordance with a well-known rule which determines electric density and electric potential on conductors4 ,as we proceed from the sun's surface east and west into space1 we should pass equipotential surfaces of different potentials4 ,thus the pressure on every point of equipotential surfaces would be regulated by the electric density of the ,aether1 which would coincide with the actual aetherial density at that point2 and as the aetherial density is the measure of its elasticity or pressure1 so the electric potential would correspond with the elasticity or pressure at the same point4 ,thus it is possible to map out the electric field east and west by ever-increasing and widening circles which would be at lower potential the further they receded from the sun4 ,so that by carrying out the electro-magnetic theory of light to its logical conclusion1 we are able to bring the whole of the solar system into line with electric phenomena2 and1 as we proceed1 we shall see that all other facts relating to electricity1 and magnetism also1 are equally as applicable thereto1 otherwise this theory of light must fall to the ground4 ,that this conception of the universal ,aether in its application to solar space is not extravagant may be proved from the writings of ,prof4 ,tyndall and ,clerk ,maxwell4 ,tyndall1 writing on the subject of ,faraday's ,lines of ,force1 says3#bf ,the aspect of these curves so fascinated ,faraday that the greater part of his intellectual life was devoted to pondering over them4 ,he invested the space through which they run with a kind of materiality1 and the probability is that the progress of science1 by connecting the phenomena of magnetism with the luminiferous ,aether1 will prove these ',lines of ,force1' as ,faraday loved to call them1 to represent a condition of this mysterious substratum of all radiant action4 ,while ,clerk ,maxwell1#bg writing on ,action at a ,distance1 says3 ,these ,lines of ,force must not be regarded as mere mathematical abstractions4 ,they are the directions in which the medium is exerting tension like that of a rope1 or rather like that of our own muscles4 ,i therefore premise1 that both these statements will find a literal fulfilment in the conception of the ,aether advanced and perfected in this work4 ,footnote #be3 ,phil4 ,mag41 #ahfa4 ,footnote #bf3 ,tyndall on ,light4 ,footnote #bg3 ,collected ,papers1 by ,niven4 ,,art4 #ha4 ,aether and ,induction4--,we have seen in the preceding ,arts4 that the sun is an electrified body1 possessing an electric field1 which field possesses different intensities at different distances from its surfaces4 ,if such be the case1 the question at once confronts us1 as to what is the effect of such an electrified body with its electric field upon all the planets which revolve around it2 for1 if its electric field extends as far as ,neptune1 then all the planets and meteors1 that revolve around the sun1 must revolve in the sun's electric field4 ,such a question can best be answered from the consideration of experiments and theories advanced first by ,faraday1 who gave to the world his theory of ,induction1 which we shall now consider4 ,let ,a be an electrified body 7,fig4 #ac71 and ,c be a body not electrified1 but situated within the electric field of ,a4 ,then it can be experimentally proved1 that ,c will also become an electrified body by induction4 ,as is well known1 there are two kinds of electricity1 ,positive and ,negative4 ,we will suppose ,a to be charged with positive electricity4 ,then it can be proved that ,c will also be charged with negative electricity on the half nearest to ,a1 while the other half will be charged with positive electricity4 ,illustration3 ,fig3 #ac4 ,now how has this result been brought about8 ,according to ,faraday's theory the particles of air1 the dielectric1 between ,a and ,c play a most important part in the process4 ,as a matter of fact1 each atom or particle of air is polarized1 as the process of separating the two kinds of electricity is termed1 so that every atom has one half of it covered with positive electricity1 and the other half with negative electricity4 ,for example1 let ,a and ,c be the same brass balls with the particles of air between them1 ,a being the positively charged ball and ,c the unelectrified ball1 the shaded parts representing positive electricity and the unshaded parts negative electricity4 ,then ,a will act inductively on the unelectrified ball ,c through the medium of the particles of air d1 e1 f1 g1 h4 ,the electrified ball ,a will act first on the layer of particles next to it1 attracting their negative electricity and repelling the positive according to the well-known law that ,unlike electricities attract1 like electricities repel each other4 ,the positive electricity in the first layer then acts in the particles of the next layer in the same way1 and thus the inductive action is transmitted through the particles1 from layer to layer1 until we come to the last layer of particles next to the ball ,c4 ,as the half of each atom or particle nearest to ,c is positively electrified1 then the half of the ball ,c nearest to the layer becomes negatively electrified1 while the half further away is positively electrified4 ,thus we say that ,c has become electrified by induction through the polarization of the particles of air which lie between the two bodies4 ,faraday on this point says3 ,thus induction appears to be essentially an action of contiguous particles1 through the intermediations of which the ,electric ,force1 originating at a certain place1 is propagated or sustained at a distance1 appearing there as a ,force of the same kind exactly equal in amount1 but opposite in its direction and tendencies4#bh ,while again he states3#bi ,induction appears to consist in a certain polarized state of particles into which they are thrown by the electrified body sustaining the action1 the particles assuming positive and negative parts which are symmetrically the lines of ,inductive ,force4 ,thus in the case of any electrified body1 acting on an unelectrified body at a distance1 it has to be definitely understood that the action at a distance is alone communicated and propagated by the dielectric or medium which exists between the two bodies4 ,though in the case of ,gravitation it has been mathematically assumed1 that action at a distance is possible1 yet experimentally and physically such an assumption is philosophically incorrect1 as all experience and experiment go to prove that there is no such thing as action at a distance manifested1 except such action is propagated through the intervening medium1 as stated and proved by ,faraday4 ,in order to bring ,gravitation1 therefore1 into line with our experience1 it will have to be demonstrated that it1 too1 is the result of the action of the intervening medium1 that is1 the ,aether1 which is a result we are being led up to4 ,we have already seen that the sun is an electrified body1 possessing an electric field1 and as all electrified bodies can act on other bodies in their field inductively1 then a similar result should happen in the solar system1 that happens in any electrical experiment on induction1 with the result that all the planets should become electrified bodies by induction1 such action taking place1 as ,faraday points out1 through the medium which divides the sun and the planets1 that is1 the ,aether4 ,of course with a frictionless and non-atomic ,aether such a result would be an impossibility1 but with our conception of an atomic and gravitative ,aether the result is now attainable4 ,we have therefore to think of the sun1 the centre of the solar system1 being an electrified body1 and for illustration we will suppose it to be a positively charged body4 ,all around the sun is the atomic ,aether1 which is polarized in the same way that the particles of air were polarized2 that is1 the two kinds of electricities in the aetherial atom are separated1 the negative being on that side nearest to the sun1 and the positive on the side further away4 ,in this way the whole aetherial medium would be polarized1 and any body in the field would be electrified by induction1 with the result that the side nearest the sun would be negatively charged1 and the opposite side positively charged4 ,thus let ,s 7,figs4 #aj and #aa7 be the sun1 and the circles represent equipotential surfaces1 then one half of every surface would be negatively electrified and the other half positively electrified1 that is1 assuming the sun to be a positively electrified body4 ,if ,m represents ,mercury1 ,v represents ,venus1 and ,e represents the ,earth 7,fig4 #aj71 then it can readily be seen that all these would be negatively electrified on the side facing the sun2 and1 as they rotate on their axes1 each part of the planet would be positively and negatively electrified once each day4 ,we are assuming that the medium is at rest1 but according to our conception in ,art4 #dd1 all the aetherial atoms are in rotation on their axes1 in the same way that the earth rotates on its axis1 so that each of these aetherial atoms would present different parts of its surface to the sun as it rotates on its axis2 but1 as that does not affect the principle of induction1 such a fact need not now be fully considered4 ,let us now ask1 ,what is the result of all the planets becoming electrified bodies in the same way that the sun is an electrified body8 ,arguing from experience1 we come to the conclusion that each planet must also possess its electric field1 which also must have its lines of force1 its different potentials at different distances1 and its equipotential surfaces4 ,so that ,mercury1 ,venus1 the ,earth1 ,mars1 ,jupiter1 ,saturn1 ,uranus1 and ,neptune all have their electric fields1 with their own lines of force1 and with their equipotential surfaces4 ,if we carry the analogy further still1 then it can also be proved that the ,earth1 and those planets which have moons or satellites1 also act inductively on their satellites1 with the result that they too become electrified bodies1 with their own smaller electric fields and lines of force4 ,this may seem at first sight a little confusing1 but the confusion will gradually disappear if we will look at it carefully for a moment or two4 ,let us endeavour to picture the solar system from this new standpoint1 and map out the equipotential surfaces1 which this idea suggests4 ,let ,s represent the sun 7,fig4 #ad71 the initials of all the planets and satellites representing the various planets2 then we get the following plan of the solar system with the various equipotential surfaces shown by the circular lines4 ,we are now supposed to be looking down on all the solar system from above it1 so to speak1 so that we should be looking at what we call the ,north ,poles of the sun and planets4 ,illustration3 ,fig3 #ad4 ,thus we see that the equipotential surfaces around the sun are huge circles which stretch out as far as ,neptune or even beyond1 but within those circles we find each of the planets revolving round the sun1 each with its own equipotential spheres1 which are circles also1 while around the various planets are the satellites1 from the moon of our ,earth1 to the two satellites of ,mars1 five of ,jupiter1 eight of ,saturn1 each with its own lines of force and electric fields4 ,of course we must not forget that all these revolve round the sun1 and the question may suggest itself to the reader's mind1 if such a result is possible4 ,i shall prove later on1 that according to ,maxwell such an event is possible1 but at present we will consider them stationary4 ,now let us see how such a conception compares with our hypothesis of a gravitative ,aether4 ,if ,aether be gravitative1 then the sun must have an attraction for the ,aether1 and its aetherial field would stretch out into space as far as ,neptune at least4 ,so that it can readily be seen that the aetherial field of the sun's attractive power coincides with the electric field which the sun possesses as an electrified body4 ,again1 if ,aether be gravitative1 then all the planets must also have an aetherial field1 which will be co-extensive with their electric field also4 ,the same principle applies to each of the satellites1 with the result that they too will possess an aetherial field which will be equal in extent and limit to their electric field4 ,as the satellites revolve around their primary planet taking their electric fields with them1 so the planets with their associated satellites revolve around the sun taking their electric and aetherial fields with them4 ,thus we get a glimpse1 though at this point very shadowy and indistinct1 of those motions of the universal ,aether1 which help to constitute the harmony1 beauty1 and order of the universe4 ,we have seen1 therefore1 that as the sun is an electrified body1 so all the planets and satellites are electrified bodies also1 each possessing its own field1 with all that such a field implies4 ,we shall find that such a conception is borne out by experience and observation1 when we come to deal with the ,earth as a magnet2 because we shall afterwards learn that the ,earth is an electro-magnet1 possessing its magnetic field1 which is co-existent and equipollent with its electric field4 ,footnote #bh3 ,exp4 ,res41 #abig1 #abih4 ,footnote #bi3 ,par4 #abih4 ,,art4 #hb4 ,energy of the ,field4--,we have seen in ,art4 #gi that every electrified body has an electric field4 ,we have further learned1 in carrying the electro-magnetic theory of light to its logical conclusion1 that all the planets and satellites together with the sun must be electrified bodies1 each possessing its electric field4 ,we have now to determine the effect of such a truth from its dynamical aspect upon the bodies within the field1 that is to say1 we have to consider the energy of such electric fields1 and endeavour to find out the effect of such energy upon other bodies within that field4 ,maxwell1#cj in his introduction to a paper on ,the ,dynamical ,theory of the ,electro-magnet ,field1 writes on the matter thus3 ,it appears therefore that certain phenomena in electricity and magnetism lead to the same conclusion as those of optics1 namely1 that there is an aetherial medium pervading all bodies and modified only in degree by their presence2 that the parts of this medium are capable of being set in motion by electric currents and magnets2 that this motion is communicated from one part of the medium to another by forces arising from the connection of these parts2 that under the action of these forces1 there is a certain yielding depending upon the elasticity of these connections2 and that therefore energy in two different forms may exist in the medium1 the one form being the actual energy of motion of its parts1 and the other being the potential energy stored up in the connections in virtue of their elasticity4 ,the two forms of energy he gives us in his work on ,magnetism and ,electricity1 where1 in the quotation already given in ,art4 #gi1 he states them to be electro-static and electro-kinetic energy1 while in paragraph #gib of the same work he adds3 ,the intrinsic energy of the medium is half electro-static and half electro-kinetic1 that is1 half is due to electricity and half is due to magnetism4 ,we are1 however1 only dealing at this point with the electro-static energy in the electric field1 as we shall deal with the electro-kinetic energy in the following chapter4 ,we have1 therefore1 to conceive of an electrified body generating electric or electro-magnetic waves1 which speed away from the generating source on every side with the velocity of light4 ,now we have already seen that the aetherial waves which give rise to heat and light possess a repulsive power1 that is1 they exert a pressure on the body with which they come into contact4 ,if1 therefore1 in the electric field there is this energy manifested as proved by ,maxwell1 and that energy takes partly the form of a pressure as stated by ,maxwell1 then we have in the electro-static energy of the electric field1 another indication of that centrifugal force for which we are looking1 and whose existence was so satisfactorily demonstrated to ,herschel by the phenomena of comets' tails4 ,that there is this pressure in an electric field was conclusively proved by ,maxwell1 and experimentally demonstrated by ,professor ,lebedew 7,art4 #gg74 ,maxwell distinctly states on this point1 that the combined effect of the electro-static and electro-kinetic stresses is a pressure equal to #b ,p4 in the direction of the propagation of the waves1 that is1 away from the electrified or charged body4 ,he continues3 ,thus1 if in strong sunlight the energy of light which falls on one square foot is #hc4d foot-pounds per second1 the mean energy in one cubic foot of sunlight is about 4#j1jjj1jjj1hhb of a foot-pound1 and the mean pressure on a square foot is 4#j1jjj1jjj1hhb of a pound weight4 ,a flat body exposed to sunlight would experience this pressure on its illuminated side only1 and would therefore be repelled from the side on which the light falls4#ca ,this pressure only gives the result due to the pressure of one cubic foot of sunlight4 ,what must be the pressure1 therefore1 due to the whole of the sunlight received by the flat body from the sun8 ,the total pressure1 whatever it may be1 would be equal to #b ,p4 according to ,maxwell1 and half of that is due to electricity1 and half due to magnetism4 ,now such a result is entirely in harmony with the conception of the ,aether as given in this work4 ,for1 if ,aether possess an electric basis as suggested by ,maxwell1 and it is also gravitative as suggested in ,art4 #de1 then it must follow1 as pointed out in a previous ,art41 that throughout the field there is a varying difference in the potential of the field2 the potential being regulated by the electric density1 that density being equivalent to the aetherial density4 ,further1 as the elasticity of the medium which regulates the pressure is proportional to the density1 so the pressure must decrease1 as the elasticity decreases--that is1 as the electric potential decreases1 or the electric density is diminished4 ,therefore1 if the sun be an electrified body1 ever generating electro-magnetic waves which speed away from it on every side1 then1 whenever any of these waves come into contact with a planet or comet1 that planet or comet would be repelled from the sun by the pressure of these electro-magnetic waves to which the sun gives rise in its electric or electro-magnetic field4 ,thus we again come to the conclusion that the sun is not only the centre of a centripetal force due to ,gravitation1 and subject to certain laws1 whose physical cause is unknown1 but it is equally the centre and source of a centrifugal force1 in that it is an electrified body1 and gives rise to electric waves which produce a pressure on any body upon which they fall1 in the sun's electric or aetherial field4 ,it has only to be demonstrated1 therefore1 that this centrifugal force satisfactorily fulfils all the laws required as laid down in ,art4 #bd1 that is1 that its course is along the same path as the ,centripetal ,force of ,gravitation1 that it is subject to the same law of intensity1 which is inversely as the square of the distance2 and further 7what is the most important at this stage71 that the combined effect of the pressure of two bodies is equal to the product of their masses1 then we shall have discovered that which we set out to discover1 viz4 a complementary force to the attractive force of ,gravitation4 ,unlike the centripetal force1 however1 the centrifugal force will be purely a physical one1 due to a purely physical medium1 the ,aether1 whose properties and motions can be accounted for on a physical1 and not on a hypothetical basis4 ,further1 as the planets are also electrified bodies 7,art4 #ha71 they too will possess an electric field1 and will generate electric waves1 which will also exert a centrifugal force upon all bodies upon which the waves fall4 ,so that1 like the sun1 the planets are not only the centre of a centripetal force1 which ever acts towards their centre2 but they are also the centre of a centrifugal force1 due to the aetherial electric waves to which they give rise in the ,aether4 ,the application of the same principle may be extended to every satellite that exists in the solar system1 and indeed to every particle and atom of matter that exist throughout the universe1 for wherever we find the ,aether1 there we find this centrifugal force1 which is due to the electric aetherial waves generated by the atom or particle of matter1 or by any combination of atoms1 as a meteor1 satellite1 planet1 sun or star4 ,footnote #cj3 ,collected ,papers1 by ,niven4 ,footnote #ca3 ,magnetism and ,electricity1 ,arts4 #gia and #gic4 ,,art4 #hc4 ,electric ,radiation4--,we learn1 therefore1 that the sun1 together with every planet and satellite in the solar system1 is the centre of a centrifugal force1 which is due to the radiation of electric waves by an electrified body4 ,we have now to prove that this force fulfils all the laws required1 in order for it to become the complementary law to the ,centripetal ,force of ,gravitation4 ,we will first show that this centrifugal force which proceeds from the electrified body is radiated out into space in straight lines with the velocity of light and radiant heat4 ,as we have already seen1 it was due to the genius of ,hertz to show the identity between electric radiation and radiant light and heat4 ,in his paper on ,electric ,radiation he says3#cb ,i have succeeded in producing distinct rays of electric force1 and in carrying out with them the elementary experiments which are commonly performed with light and radiant heat4 ,we have seen in ,arts4 #fe and #gf that radiant heat and light are propagated in straight lines1 so that1 according to ,maxwell's electro-magnetic theory1 a ray of electric radiation should also be propagated in straight lines4 ,this ,hertz proved1 and gave his results in his paper ,on the ,action of a ,rectilinear ,oscillation upon a ,neighbouring ,circuit1 in which he fully demonstrated that when electric action takes place between two charged bodies1 the electric force is radiated out into space in straight lines in the same way that light and radiant heat are radiated4 ,in his paper on ,the ,finite ,velocity of ,electro-magnetic ,actions1 he showed that the velocity of the electro-magnetic waves was the same as that of light4 ,in the summary of this paper 7paragraph #c7 he states3 ,there are many reasons for believing that the transverse waves of light are electro-magnetic waves2 a firm foundation for this hypothesis is furnished by showing the actual existence in free space of electro-magnetic transverse waves which are propagated with a velocity akin to light4 ,again1 in his paper on ,electric ,radiation1 he not only showed how the radiation was propagated in straight lines1 like light1 but also proved that while it was reflected by metals1 the electric beam was able to pass through doors and stone walls1 and adds1 that it was with astonishment that one saw the electric beam appear inside a closed room after its passage through the door4 ,thus ,hertz has shown that both electric and magnetic effects are propagated through the ,aether with finite velocity1 and that that velocity is exactly the same as the velocity of light4 ,he further proved that this propagation takes place in straight lines1 in the same way that radiant heat and light are propagated4 ,this being so1 it is necessary for us to apply these truths to the solar system1 with a view to find out what such a result teaches us4 ,we have seen in a preceding article1 that the sun is an electrified body2 therefore it1 too1 must generate these electro-magnetic waves1 and radiate them into space on every side with the velocity of light4 ,let us try to picture the scene4 ,let ,s represent the sun1 and the circle round it represent the equipotential spheres which exist round the sun4 7,see ,figs4 #aj and #aa47 ,as the intensity of the electric force is greater nearer the sun than further away1 these equipotential surfaces will be closer nearer the sun than further away4 ,then let the straight lines which radiate out from the sun represent the path of an electric ray4 ,it can be easily seen that these electric rays cut the equipotential surfaces at right angles1 as they pass from the centre of the sun outwards into space4 ,now these lines not only represent the path which the electric ray takes in its journey through space1 but exactly coincide with the electric lines of force as conceived by ,faraday4 ,this great thinker and experimentalist not only conceived lines of magnetic forces existing in the dielectric or medium between two electrified bodies1 which in this case is the ,aether1 but also conceived lines of electric force which started at a conductor1 or an electrified body1 and radiated out into space4 ,thus a line of electric force has a definite direction1 and always starts from an electrified body4 ,if it were possible to move a planet along one of these lines of force1 its path would be that of a straight line4 ,if on the other hand a planet moved at right angles to one of these lines of force1 that is1 along the surface of an equipotential sphere1 then no work would be done against the electric force1 as on such a sphere the electric force would be of the same intensity4 ,so that from ,hertz' experiments it can be demonstrated1 that if there be any electric force existent in the ,aether1 due to the action of the sun upon the ,aether1 then such a force is directed along the path of a straight line into space with the velocity of light1 which1 as already pointed out1 is the path taken by a ray of radiant heat and light1 and coincides with the path taken by the centripetal force4 ,it has been demonstrated that such electric force is accompanied by a repulsive force1 or more correctly a pressure1 so that here we have further evidence of the existence of a centrifugal force which finds its generating source in the sun1 which is also the centre of the attractive force of ,gravitation in the solar system4 ,the application of ,hertz' experiments may be made not only to the sun1 but also to every planet and satellite that exists in space with the same result2 and1 further1 may be extended to every particle and atom that exists throughout the universe4 ,for1 according to ,art4 #dc1 we have learned that ,aether is universal1 and we have seen that it is gravitative1 and have learned from the electro-magnetic theory of light that it has an electro-magnetic basis4 ,therefore1 to be thoroughly consistent1 we must not stop in the application of this principle at any point in the whole universe4 ,either the whole principle is of universal application1 or it ceases to be a universal law4 ,therefore1 if there is this centrifugal force operating along a straight line from the centre of an electrified body1 such centrifugal force must be in its application universal1 in order to be complete1 and in order to satisfactorily form the counterpart of the centripetal force which is also universal1 and operates along the straight line joining the centres of gravity of any two bodies4 ,footnote #cb3 ,hertz on ,electric ,waves4 ,,art4 #hd4 ,law of ,inverse ,squares4--,we have learned therefore from the preceding ,arts41 that the solar system may be looked upon as an electric field1 with the sun as the electrified body occupying the centre4 ,we have also seen that there is a centrifugal force in all electric fields1 which is due partly to electric waves1 and partly to the magnetic waves of the ,aether4 ,it will be interesting to find out1 what law governs the intensity of this force in any part of the field1 or at a given distance from the central body4 ,we have seen 7,art4 #ff7 that the law governing the intensity of heat at any distance from the sun1 is the law of inverse squares4 ,further1 from ,art4 #ge we have also learned that light is subject to the same law of inverse squares1 as indeed it should be1 if it be due to one and the same medium1 the ,aether4 ,if1 therefore1 electricity is also due to certain motions of the aetherial medium originated by the action of an electrified body as the sun1 in the same way that light and heat waves are originated1 then it ought to follow that the repulsive power of electricity is also subject to the same law of inverse squares4 ,as a matter of fact1 that is exactly the state of affairs1 so that we find the intensity of the repulsive power in the ,aether from any central body1 due to the electric waves1 or the pressure due to the wave motions of the electric ,aether1 in relation to that body1 is governed and controlled by the same law that governs light and heat4 ,it may be suggested that such a coincidence is not a very strong argument1 as all forces emanating from a central body are subject to the same law of inverse squares4 ,in reply to that1 ,i should like to point out1 that even that objection only strengthens the conception of the ,aether that we are endeavouring to complete4 ,our contention is1 that all physical forces1 whether they be light1 heat1 electricity1 magnetism or ,gravitation1 are all due to the motions of the aetherial medium2 which motions may be generated by a heated or luminous or electrified body1 and are radiated from such a body in waves of concentric spherical form1 and are all subject to the laws of inverse squares4 ,so that the fact of the intensity of the centrifugal force due to the repulsive power of electricity falling into line with the law governing light and heat is1 to my mind at any rate1 only a clearer proof of the one common origin of all the physical forces4 ,the law of inverse squares in relation to electricity may be thus stated4 ,the ,centrifugal or ,repulsive ,force between two charged electrified bodies acts inversely as the square of the distance between them4 ,this law was proved by ,coulomb by means of an instrument known as ,coulomb's ,torsion ,balance1 and ,i must refer the reader to any work on electricity for a full establishment of this law4 ,suffice to say1 that it has been experimentally demonstrated that the law holds good in relation to the phenomena of electricity2 and1 wherever we get the two kinds of electricity present in any medium or conductor1 owing to the polarization of its particles1 there we have this law operating in relation to the intensity of the repulsions of the two bodies directly concerned4 ,we have already learned that the sun is an electrified body1 and from that hypothesis we have arrived at the conclusion that the earth and all the other planets are electrified bodies4 ,this being so1 it naturally follows that the intensity of the centrifugal force between any two of these bodies1 as the sun and the earth for example1 or the sun and ,jupiter1 is subject to the law of inverse squares2 and that the repulsion of the sun and the earth for each other is always regulated by their distance1 being inversely as the squares of the distance between them4 ,thus1 if the distance between the sun and any planet is reduced to one-half1 which is an exaggerated view1 the intensity of the centrifugal force is increased four times2 if the distance be doubled the force is reduced to four times its former intensity1 and so on4 ,whatever the distance may be between the sun and any of the planets1 if that distance be increased or decreased1 then the intensity of the centrifugal force due to electric waves is increased or decreased in accordance with the law of inverse squares4 ,this agrees with the centripetal law of ,gravitation1 as the ,attraction of ,gravitation is also subject to the same law of inverse squares1 and1 as we have seen 7,art4 #hc71 its path coincides with the path of centrifugal force1 as it pursues the path represented by the straight lines joining the two bodies4 ,so that1 whenever1 and wherever1 at any point in space in relation to the central body1 the sun1 the intensity of the attractive force is increased according to the law of inverse squares by the distance from the central body being diminished1 at exactly the same time and in exactly the same manner1 the repulsive force due to aetherial electric waves is also increased4 ,if the attractive force is doubled1 then the repulsive force is doubled4 ,if the attractive force is halved1 the repulsive force is halved4 ,if the attractive force is lessened gradually1 then the repulsive force is lessened gradually2 and if quickly1 by the quicker motion of the planet through space1 then the repulsive motion is also increased with a quicker motion4 ,further1 like the repulsive power of light and heat1 the repulsive power of electricity takes exactly the same path as the attractive power of ,gravitation4 ,thus we learn that the sun is the centre of two forces3 first1 a centrifugal force due to the pressure of the aetherial medium which is ever directed away from the sun1 and which may either be produced by electric or thermal or light waves2 and second1 it is the centre of a centripetal force known as the ,law of ,gravity1 whatever that may be due to4 ,further1 the centrifugal force is also subject to the same law of intensity as the centripetal force1 and moreover takes exactly the same path which the centripetal force takes4 ,so that we have only to prove that they both agree in another particular1 viz4 that their power is regulated by the product of their masses1 and then we shall have discovered a real physical force1 which is the exact complement and counterpart of the centripetal force due to gravity4 ,,art4 #he4 ,second ,law of ,electricity4 7,product of ,masses47--,we have now to prove that the centrifugal force exerted by any electrified body operates upon another electrified body in the same proportion and with exactly the same force which governs the centripetal force4 ,from ,art4 #ba we learn that the centripetal force which is exerted by one body upon another is equal to the product of their masses4 ,in order1 therefore1 for any centrifugal force to be the exact counterpart of that force1 it too must be subject to the same law of proportion1 that is1 the repulsive force between any two bodies must be equal to the product of their masses4 ,we have shown that there is a repulsive force exerted by the ,aether from the phenomena of heat1 light1 and electricity1 and that that repulsive force or energy fulfils every condition required by a centrifugal force or motion1 with the exception of the part referring to the fact that such a force must be proportionate to the product of their masses4 ,what we were unable to accomplish1 however1 from the phenomena of heat or light we are now able to accomplish from the phenomena of electricity4 ,for in the phenomena of electricity we find a law which runs thus3 ,the force of repulsion 7which is the part of electricity we are now dealing with7 between two electrified bodies is equal to the quantities of electricity with which the body is charged4 ,this law was established and proved by ,coulomb by means of a delicate instrument known as the ,torsion ,balance1 with which he also established the law of inverse squares4 ,it will be seen at a glance that there is a slight difference between stating the law of proportion with reference to the centripetal force1 and the centrifugal force or motion4 ,in the former we state the proportion is equal to the product of the masses1 while in the latter we say that the proportion is equal to the product of the quantities of electricity4 ,in the one case we deal with the mass of the body1 whether it be atom1 molecule1 planet or star2 in the other case we deal with quantities of electricity4 ,at first sight it may seem that there is little1 if any1 connection between the two laws1 but a careful reflection of the hypotheses laid down with regard to the aetherial medium will show that there is not only a close connection between these two laws of proportion1 but also that the law governing the repulsive power of the aetherial electric waves is the direct outcome of the law of proportion governing the centripetal force4 ,let us restate our case in regard to the aetherial medium4 ,we have learned that the ,aether is gravitative1 and that it also has an electro-magnetic basis is proved from ,maxwell's electro-magnetic theory of light4 ,let me ask the reader this question therefore4 ,if the ,aether be gravitative1 what must be the rule governing the extent and density of the aetherial atmosphere surrounding any planet or sun or other body8 ,if the ,law of ,gravity teaches us anything at all1 it distinctly teaches us that the gravitating power of any body is regulated by the mass of the body1 as the law states that the attraction is proportionate to the product of the masses4 ,it states nothing about volume or condition of a body4 ,the exact size or state of a body has no direct result bearing on gravitation attraction2 the underlying principle being that the attractive force is dependent on the mass1 and only on the mass of a body4 ,so that if the volume of any body1 whether atom1 planet1 satellite or sun1 be doubled1 its attractive power remains the same1 simply because the mass of the whole body remains the same4 ,mass1 we are told by mathematicians1 is equal to the volume multiplied by the density1 and whenever we increase the volume of a body we decrease the density1 the total mass of the body remaining the same4 ,if the volume be doubled1 then the density of the body would be halved1 and vice vers1 but through all the changes of volume and density that may arise from the addition of heat or diminution of heat1 the total mass of a body always remains the same4 ,looked at from the atomic standpoint1 taking hydrogen as unity1 an atom of oxygen would always weigh sixteen times an atom of hydrogen1 and this principle applies throughout the whole realm of the atomic world4 ,further1 the same principle or law1 that the mass is equal to the volume multiplied by the density1 is true of the planetary or even the stellar world4 ,thus the great regulating principle of the attractive force of gravity is mass1 and not volume1 or density1 or any other condition4 ,now as ,aether is subject to the attractive force of gravity1 the extent of the aetherial field1 and the density of the ,aether near the surface of any body1 must be subject to the same law regarding mass4 ,that is1 the aetherial atmosphere of any atom1 or molecule1 or satellite1 or planet1 or star is dependent upon the mass of the atom1 the molecule1 or the planet1 or the star as the case may be4 ,thus an atom of oxygen would have a larger or denser aetherial atmosphere than an atom of hydrogen1 exactly proportionate to their respective masses4 ,a planet whose mass was represented by #a1jjj1jjj tons would have twice the quantity of ,aether around it1 compared to a planet weighing only #ejj1jjj tons1 and so on1 the aetherial atmosphere always being proportionate to the mass of the planet1 or the satellite1 or the sun1 or the star4 ,the fact which we learn from these considerations is that the quantity of ,aether1 which is attracted by any body1 is always proportionate to the mass of the body attracting it4 ,but we have learned from ,art4 #gh that ,aether has an electro-magnetic basis1 and that the density of the ,aether is co-equal with electric density1 so that the quantity of ,aether which is attracted and held bound by any body is really equal to the quantity of electricity that such a body is covered with1 or is charged with4 ,if the quantity of ,aether around any body is doubled because its mass is doubled1 then the quantity of electricity is also doubled1 but as long as the mass remains unaltered1 the quantity of electricity held bound by that mass remains unaltered also4 ,the area of the mass may be doubled1 and in that case the density of the electricity would be halved1 but as long as the mass remained the same1 the quantity of electricity would remain the same also4 ,so that we learn from this reasoning that the mass of a body1 and quantities of electricity on that mass1 are always proportionate to each other1 because of the fact that ,aether is gravitative1 and also has an electro-magnetic basis4 ,if we wanted further evidence of the hypothesis that has just been advanced1 such evidence is to be found in the hypothesis suggested by ,faraday as to the electro-chemical equivalents of all elements4 ,according to this hypothesis every element has its exact electro-chemical equivalent1 or definite quantities of electricity are to be found in association with each and every particular atom of each element4 ,writing on the subject in his ,exp4 ,res41 par4 #heb1 he says3 ,the theory of definite electro-chemical action appears to me to touch upon the absolute quantity of electricity or electrical power belonging to different bodies4 ,although we know nothing of what an atom is1 yet we cannot resist forming some idea of a small particle which represents it to our mind1 and though we cannot say what electricity is1 so as to be able to say whether it is a particular matter or matters1 or mere motion of ordinary matter1 yet there is immensity of facts which justify us in believing that the atoms of matter are in some way endowed or associated with electrical powers to which they owe their most striking qualities1 and amongst them their chemical affinity4 ,further1 in ,art4 #heg1 he states3 ,i can have no doubt that1 assuming hydrogen as #a1 and dismissing small fractions for the simplicity of expression1 the equivalent number or atomic weight of oxygen is #h1 of chlorine #cf1 of bromine #gh4d1 and of lead #ajc4e1 etc41 notwithstanding that a high authority doubles several of these numbers4 ,then1 writing upon the definite relationship of these equivalents in compounds1 he states 7,art4 #hce73 ,electro-chemical equivalents are always consistent1 that is1 the same number which represents the equivalent of a substance ,a when it is separating from a substance ,b will also represent ,a when separating from a third substance ,c4 ,thus #h is the electro-chemical equivalent of oxygen1 whether separating from hydrogen1 tin1 or lead2 and #ajc4e is the electro-chemical equivalent of lead1 whether separating from oxygen1 or chlorine1 or iodine4 ,here1 then1 from the pen of one of the greatest thinkers and experimentalists of modern times we have confirmatory evidence that the mass of any body is practically synonymous with the quantity of electricity associated with that body4 ,for if the principle is true in its application to atoms1 it is true in its application to molecules2 and if it is true in relation to molecules1 it is equally true in relation to small bodies composed of molecules4 ,and if it holds good in relation to small bodies1 the principle is equally true in its application to larger bodies1 as the earth1 and therefore is of universal application and proves the statement already made1 that the masses of bodies and quantities of electricity in association with that mass are always proportionate to each other4 ,we are now in a position to compare the proportion of the centripetal and centrifugal forces4 ,the attractive power of the former1 between two bodies1 is equal to the product of their masses2 the repulsive power of the latter is equal to the product of the quantities of electricity bound to them1 and that1 as we have seen1 is regulated by the respective mass of each body4 ,let us apply this fact to the solar system and see how it works4 ,taking the mass of the earth as unity1 we find that the mass of the sun is #cbd1jjj greater1 so that the attractive power of the two bodies would be represented by the product of the two numbers2 but because the sun is that number of times greater1 its aetherial and1 therefore1 its electric field would be so many times greater1 with the result that the proportion of the repulsive forces between the two bodies would be exactly the same as the attractive forces between the two bodies1 that is1 if the mean distance remains the same4 ,in the same way1 it can be shown that the attractive forces between the earth and ,jupiter exactly equal the repulsive forces between the two planets at their mean distance1 or the attractive forces between any two planets or satellites are exactly counterbalanced by the repulsive power of the centrifugal force at their mean distances4 ,thus the centrifugal force of every body is the exact opposite of its centripetal force at their mean distance1 because the laws governing the centrifugal force are the exact counterpart of the laws governing the centripetal force4 ,a comparison of the two will prove this4 ,from ,arts4 #bj1 #ba1 and #bb we have seen that the centripetal force is exerted along the straight lines joining the attracting bodies1 that the intensity of the attracting body is inversely as the square of the distance1 while the total force is proportionate to the product of their masses4 ,from the phenomena of light1 heat1 and electricity1 we learn that the centrifugal force due to aetherial pressure is exerted along straight lines1 that the intensity is inversely as the square of the distance1 while the total force between two bodies is equal to the product of the quantities of electricity1 which are regulated by the product of their masses4 ,thus1 if every planet and satellite could be conceived to be motionless in space1 and these two forces could be set in operation without producing rotation or translation in space1 which is impossible1 then every planet and satellite would occupy1 by the joint exercise of these two forces1 the same position in relation to the sun represented by their mean distances1 as long as the solar system existed as a separate system in the realm of aetherial space4 ,we have therefore discovered by strict philosophical reasoning1 based on ,newton's ,rules of ,philosophy1 a real tangible centrifugal force existing throughout the universe2 because it is entirely due to the pressure of an universal ,aether1 whose operation is ever directed from a central body1 which force was indicated by ,herschel1 and its existence to his mind was demonstrated by the repulsion exhibited in connection with the tails of comets4 ,we have now to go a step further1 and show that the same pressure also includes the magnetic phenomena1 as indicated by ,clerk ,maxwell1 and that magnetic phenomena are also due to the aetherial medium1 and then we shall have linked together in one common medium the majority of the forms of energy1 as light1 heat1 electricity and magnetism1 with which we are familiar4 ,if it be demonstrated that these two forces1 the centrifugal force and the centripetal force1 can conjointly account for all the motions of the celestial bodies1 then we shall have conclusive evidence that one of the forces is physical and due to the pressure of a physical medium4 ,after that it will be comparatively easy to show that the centripetal force is also due to the same aetherial medium1 and then we shall have accomplished that which we set out to accomplish1 viz4 the establishment of a physical cause for universal ,gravitation1 which physical cause is alone to be found in the pressures1 tensions and motions of an universal ,aether4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,aether ,,and ,,magnetism ,,art4 #hf4 ,electro-magnetism4--,we have now to look at the relation of magnetism to electricity1 or1 in other words1 to prove the identity that exists between magnetism and electricity4 ,in ,art4 #gh we have proved the identity between electricity and light1 so that if we can now prove the identity between electricity and magnetism1 then1 wherever we get aetherial light waves1 we must also get aetherial electro-magnetic waves4 ,as the light waves due to the vibrations of the ,aether are practically universal in extent1 then it must follow1 if the identity of the light waves with electro-magnetic waves is established1 that the universality of electro-magnetic waves is established also1 with the natural result1 that1 wherever we get these electro-magnetic waves1 there we shall have the conditions by which all electro-magnetic phenomena are produced4 ,now it can be demonstrated by actual experiment that wherever we get a circular current of electricity1 there we have magnetic phenomena manifested4 ,the two are inseparably connected1 and it is impossible to obtain the one without the other4 ,for example1 suppose we have a wire conveying a current of electricity and make it into a coil as in ,figure #ae1 what is the result8 ,the result is1 that the coil of wire has actually been converted into a magnet4 ,it will attract iron filings that are brought near it1 and also magnetize an iron bar placed in the centre of the coils1 and convert that into a magnet4 ,indeed1 there is nothing which can be done by an ordinary bar magnet which cannot be done by a coiled wire conveying an electric current4 ,from this and similar experiments it can be demonstrated that wherever we get a circular current of electricity1 there1 associated with that current1 are all the phenomena incidental to and associated with the ordinary bar magnet4 ,this leads us to the truth discovered by ,ampre1 that magnetism is nothing more or less than electricity in rotation1 or that it is due to a whirl of electricity circulating round the molecule of any body4 ,from certain experiments which he made in relation to the mutual action of two circuits on each other1 with currents flowing through them1 he came to the conclusion that the magnetism of the molecule of each magnet is due to electric currents circulating round it4 ,the question arises as to what effect our new theory of the ,aether has upon ,ampre's theory3 does it confirm it1 or does it destroy it8 ,we have learned that every atom has its aetherial atmosphere1 so to speak1 which is bound to the atom by the ,law of ,gravitation 7,art4 #de74 ,we have also learned that ,aether has an electrical basis1 as proved by ,maxwell and ,hertz1 so that we learn that every atom has really an aetherial electric atmosphere in association with it4 ,we have only to conceive of this atmosphere being set in rotation either by the rotation of the atom or molecule itself1 or by outside agencies1 and we have at once a physical interpretation of ,ampre's theory of magnetism in the rotation of electric currents around the atom1 such currents being due to the circulating or rotating motion of the ,aether which surrounds the atom or molecule4 ,illustration3 ,fig3 #ae4 ,thus we learn from experiment1 and from ,ampre's theory also1 that magnetism is directly associated with circulating currents of electricity1 and that wherever we get currents of electricity circulating round any atom or body1 there we get all the phenomena associated with magnetism4 ,that is to say1 we shall have such phenomena as magnetic fields1 magnetic lines of force1 magnetic induction1 and the production of permanent magnets by electricity4 ,further1 with reference to the identity of electricity and magnetism1 ,faraday has conclusively proved their relation to each other2 and ,i would strongly advise any reader who desires further light on the subject to carefully read paragraphs #cbfe-cbfi in his ,experimental ,researches1 where he will find experiments which place the identity of electricity and magnetism beyond the possibility of doubt4 ,in paragraph #cbfe he writes3 ,the well-known relation of the electric and magnetic forces may be thus stated4 ,let two rings in planes at right angles to each other represent them4 ,if a current of electricity be sent round the ring ,e in the direction marked1 then lines of magnetic force will be produced4 ,as these rings represent the lines of electro-dynamic force and of magnetic force respectively1 they will serve for a standard of comparison4 ,i have elsewhere called the electric current or the line of electro-dynamic force an axis of power having contrary forces exactly equal in amount in contrary directions 7#eag74 ,the line of magnetic force may be described in precisely the same terms1 and these two axes of power considered as right lines are perpendicular to each other1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,fig3 #af4 ,again in #cbfg he adds3 ,like electric currents or lines of force1 or axes of power when placed side by side attract each other4 ,this is well known and well illustrated when wires carrying such currents are placed parallel to each other4 ,but like magnetic axes of power or lines of force repel each other4 ,the parallel case to that of electric currents is given by placing two magnetic needles side by side with like poles in the same direction4 ,then in #cbfh he shows that these effects are not merely contrasts1 but they are contrasts which coincide when the two axes of power at right angles to each other are considered4 ,then in #cbfi he adds3 ,the mutual relation of the magnetic lines of force and the electric axis of power has been known since the time of ,oersted and ,ampre1 and further states he is of the opinion that the magnetic lines have a physical existence the same as the electric lines1 and having that opinion1 asks whether the lines have a dynamic condition analogous to the electric axis to which they are so closely and inevitably associated1 or whether they consist in a state of tension of the ,aether round the electric axis1 and may therefore be considered as static in their nature4 ,thus ,faraday proved the intimate and close relationship that existed between the electric current and the circles which represent the magnetic force in association with that current2 and1 what is more noticeable1 he asks whether such magnetic results are due to a state of tension in the ,aether around the axis of the electric current1 evidently being of the opinion that the ,aether played an important part in the phenomena of magnetism1 as well as in electricity1 as other parts of his writings abundantly show4 ,if1 therefore1 there is this close identity between electricity and magnetism1 then in view of the fact that all electricity is due to the motions of the universal ,aether1 it must follow that all magnetism is also due to motions of the same aetherial medium1 which is as universal as it is invisible4 ,what these motions are has already been indicated by previous statements in this article1 being comprised of circular or rotatory motions of the aetherial electric medium about any body1 whether that body be an atom1 planet1 or sun or star4 ,such a conclusion as this is perfectly in harmony with ,maxwell's electro-magnetic theory of light1 as the conclusion that he arrived at in that theory was1 that the light waves were identical in nature and character with electro-magnetic waves produced by an electro-magnetic source4 ,up to the present we have only dealt with the electric character of those waves1 and have therefore now to deal with the magnetic character of the same4 ,so that throughout the whole realm of space1 and indeed wherever there is ,aether1 there we have the conditions which give rise to magnetic phenomena1 such as those already indicated4 ,it matters not whether it be in the atomic systems whose combinations comprise all material forms of life with which we are familiar1 or whether it is in the systems of planets that revolve around their central sun1 or whether it be in the constellations that fill the universe1 wherever we find the ,aether1 there we find the conditions in that ,aether which will produce all the results ordinarily produced by magnetism1 or with which magnetism is associated1 and it is to the application of these phenomena to our solar system that we will now turn our attention4 ,,art4 #hg4 ,the ,earth a ,magnet4--,if there is any fact in relation to a planet that holds good1 it is that the earth1 with which planet we are more intimately associated than any other1 is a magnet4 ,this truth was clearly explained by ,dr4 ,gilbert about the year #afjj in his work on ,de ,magnete4 ,not only has the earth geographical ,north and ,south poles1 but it has also magnetic ,north and ,south poles1 and indeed has all the phenomena incidental to a magnet1 such as magnetic dip and magnetic lines of force1 as we shall see later on4 ,we know1 however1 that the earth is simply one of a system of planets1 which revolves with all the others of that system round its central body the sun2 and the question arises1 whether the earth is the only one out of all the planets that is actually a magnet4 ,suppose it is affirmed that the earth is the only planet which is a magnet4 ,on what basis would such a statement be made8 ,the only ground for making such a statement that ,i can see is1 that we have never lived on ,mars or ,jupiter or ,saturn1 or any of the other planets1 and therefore been unable to experiment on them1 which reason is totally insufficient and inadequate for such a conclusion4 ,if philosophy simply dealt with the results attained by such limited reasoning1 then the progress of science would be retarded1 and would be limited and confined to actual experience obtained on our own planet and in relation only to that planet4 ,but philosophy is not satisfied with such a narrow and limited outlook1 but drawing its conclusions from actual experience on our own planet1 in accordance with the rules of philosophy1 it seeks to apply such experience gained to the explanation of phenomena of other planets which also revolve round the sun4 ,by such reasoning we learn that all the other planets have ,north and ,south geographical poles like our earth1 although we have never actually trodden on those planets1 or discovered the poles4 ,we also learn that ,mars possesses climatic conditions probably similar to our own earth1 as there are certain changes on the surface around the poles1 which by analogy we assume to be caused by increase and decrease of snow during the ,arctic winter and summer of ,mars respectively4 ,the analogy between our earth and the other planets is very full and complete1 as the following results show4 ,our earth has an atmosphere1 so have all the rest of the planets4 ,the earth revolves on its axis from ,west to ,east1 so do all the rest4 ,the earth possesses two geographical poles1 so do all the other planets4 ,the earth revolves round the sun in an orbit of elliptic form1 so do the other planets4 ,the earth fulfils all the laws of motion as given by ,newton1 and all the other planets do the same4 ,the earth fulfils all ,kepler's laws1 and this is also true of all the others4 ,indeed1 the only difference apparently that exists at present between the earth and all the other planets is1 that our earth is a magnet1 while at present it is not conceded that all the others are magnets4 ,now such a conclusion ,i venture to say is altogether opposed to every rule of philosophy4 ,for if experience be any guide in philosophy1 then according to experience and observations made in respect to the only planet that we can actually experiment on1 it most conclusively follows1 that not only the earth1 but every planet1 and indeed every satellite that revolves round its primary planet1 is a magnet2 otherwise the rule of philosophy which permits us to formulate hypotheses based on experience is entirely violated1 and ceases at once to be an universal rule4 ,so that either the earth is not a magnet1 or else1 being a magnet by our second ,rule of ,philosophy1 all the other planets are magnets also4 ,this conclusion has already been arrived at by ,lord ,kelvin1 who in writing in his ,popular ,lectures#cc on the subject says3 ,if it is true that terrestrial magnetism is a necessary consequence of the magnetism and the rotation of the earth1 other bodies comparable in these qualities with the earth1 and comparable also with the earth in respect to materials and temperature1 such as ,venus and ,mars1 must be magnets1 comparable in strength with the earth2 and they must have poles similar to the earth1 ,north and ,south poles on the ,north and ,south sides of the equator4 ,it seems probable also that the sun1 because of its great mass and its rotation in the same direction as the earth's rotation1 is a magnet1 with polarities on the ,north and ,south sides of the equator1 similar to terrestrial ,north and ,south magnetic poles4 ,further1 such a conclusion is entirely in harmony with the view of the solar system revealed in ,art4 #ha1 where we saw that each planet was an electrified body having its own electric field1 with its lines of force1 being capable of giving rise to all the phenomena associated with electricity4 ,so that if we combine that view of the subject with the view that we are now coming to1 we arrive at the conclusion that each planet and satellite1 and indeed all bodies that move or revolve in space1 are electro-magnets giving rise to magnetic waves in the ,aether1 which assumption is fully consistent with the electro-magnetic theory of light4 ,we must now go one step further and apply a similar line of reasoning to the sun1 when we shall arrive at exactly the same result that ,lord ,kelvin arrived at1 according to the previous extract4 ,all planets possess an atmosphere1 the sun also possesses an atmosphere4 ,all planets revolve on their axes from ,west to ,east1 so does the sun4 ,all planets possess a ,north and ,south pole the same as the sun4 ,the equatorial diameter of every planet is greater than its polar diameter1 and the same truth applies to the sun4 ,it is hotter at the equatorial regions of every planet1 and this truth also applies to the sun4 ,now1 if the sun agrees with all the planets in these respects1 then we may philosophically conclude that it agrees with them in another respect1 viz4 that the sun is also a magnet possessing its own magnetic field1 which is co-equal and co-extensive with its aetherial electrical field4 ,we have already seen that the sun is an electrified body1 possessing its electric field1 with its electric lines of force4 ,therefore the sun is also a magnet1 or1 to speak more correctly1 it is an electro-magnet1 and as such gives rise to electro-magnetic waves4 ,the conclusion to which we have come1 that the sun is an electro-magnet1 can be arrived at from an altogether different method of reasoning1 and as that different method of reasoning will tend to confirm the statement made1 ,i will just indicate it1 and then leave it for fuller development in another article4 ,it is a matter of common knowledge to all students1 that the magnetism of the earth varies in several important particulars from time to time4 ,the magnetic poles of the earth do not always occupy the same place in relation to the geographical poles1 so that the magnetic force varies as regards intensity or magnitude4 ,the reasons of the variations have never been satisfactorily accounted for1 though various hypotheses have been suggested as a solution from time to time4 ,there is1 ,i believe1 only one satisfactory solution to the problem1 and that is1 that the sun is an electro-magnet1 and this conclusion may be arrived at by strictly adhering to ,newton's rules of ,philosophy4 ,for we have learned that any hypothesis put forward to account for any phenomena1 must be simple in character1 must agree with experience and observation1 and1 lastly1 must satisfactorily account for the phenomena sought to be explained4 ,here then are the variations in time of the magnetic force of the earth1 the variations in intensity1 and in the inclination of the magnetic axis1 together with other variations4 ,what solution shall we offer to such a problem8 ,the only philosophical solution that can be suggested lies in the statement that the sun is an electro-magnet4 ,such statement is simple in conception1 does not violate our experience or observation1 as we find a similar revolving body1 the earth1 which is a magnet2 and further1 such a statement ,i premise will satisfactorily account for the whole of the variations and changes in relation to the magnetic forces of the earth4 ,we shall see that this is so when we consider more fully the sun as an electro-magnet4 ,therefore1 apart altogether from any previous analogies1 we can philosophically arrive at the conclusion that the sun is an electro-magnet1 as well as all the planets4 ,that being so1 it will possess its magnetic field1 its magnetic lines of force1 and be capable of bringing into operation in the solar system all the phenomena or effects associated with any ordinary magnet that we may experiment with on the earth4 ,footnote #cc3 ,popular ,lectures1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,,art4 #hh4 ,the ,sun an ,electro-magnet4--,if the sun is an electro-magnet1 as stated in the previous article1 then it is necessary for us to apply the phenomena of magnetism to it in order to ascertain what effect such application will have on the solar system as a whole4 ,illustration3 ,fig3 #ag4 ,the first thing that we will look at is the magnetic field which is always associated with every magnet4 ,the magnetic field may be defined as that region or space around every magnet in which the magnetic force acts or is in operation4 ,an illustration of a magnetic field may easily be obtained by taking a bar magnet and bringing near to it a magnetized needle1 when it will be found that the needle will set itself in various positions relative to the magnet1 on account of the lines of force which exist in the field4 ,thus let ,a ,b 7,fig4 #ag7 be a bar magnet with its ,north pole at point ,a and ,south pole at point ,b4 ,if a number of freely suspended needles be hung above it1 as shown in the figure1 they assume the positions indicated there4 ,it will be seen that at the ,north and ,south poles the needles hang vertical1 while midway between the two poles there is no dip of the needle1 as it is parallel to the bar magnet2 while between the place of no dip and the place of vertical dip1 which is directly over each pole1 the dip gradually changes1 becoming more and more vertical as it gets nearer to the pole4 ,if the bar magnet be a strong one1 then its magnetic field will be manifested at a great distance2 and any magnetized needle brought into the field will be1 affected by the same1 and will tend to set itself along the lines of force4 ,as already stated in ,art4 #hj1 it was ,faraday who originated the term ,lines of ,force1 and gave to the world some idea of the motions of the aetherial medium1 which plays so important a part in electro-magnetic phenomena4 ,a visible manifestation of these lines of force which gather round every magnet may be made by strewing iron filings over a piece of glass1 underneath which are several bar magnets1 when it will be found that the iron filings will set themselves in well-defined lines or curves1 which ,faraday termed ,lines of ,force4 ,illustration3 ,fig3 #ah4 ,as the bar magnets are placed in different positions1 ,north pole to ,north pole1 or ,north to ,south1 and so on1 the iron filings will change the figures assumed1 indicating in1 each case the effect of the lines of force of each magnet upon one another4 ,the iron filings strewed over the magnet are magnetized by induction1 with the result that the ,north pole of one filing attracts the ,south pole of the next one to it1 and this is continued along the whole of one line of force1 as revealed by the united iron filings4 ,faraday believed in the real physical existence of these lines of force1 and that belief has been perfected by ,clerk ,maxwell in two papers which he wrote on ,physical ,lines of ,force1 which will be considered in another article4 ,we will simply deal with them at present as indications of the existence of the magnetic forces in the medium surrounding any magnet4 ,let us apply these facts to the solar system and see what the application yields4 ,we have the sun revolving in the ,aether medium represented by the circle ,s in ,fig4 #ai4 ,then we have the lines of force extending in curved lines ,e4 and ,w41 but in almost straight lines ,north and ,south4 ,we will suppose the axis of the sun to be vertical for the sake of simplicity4 ,it may be asked1 how far will these lines of force stretch out into space8 ,the reply is that they stretch and extend throughout the whole solar system1 and far away into the depths of space1 though with ever-decreasing intensity according to the law of inverse squares4 ,wherever the aetherial light waves are manifested1 there the electro-magnetic waves1 with all that they imply1 are manifested also4 ,we know that the light waves are existent at least as far as ,neptune1 a distance of #bhjj millions of miles1 therefore at least to that extent the electro-magnetic waves are manifested2 and wherever the electro-magnetic waves to which the sun has given birth are manifested1 there we have the existence of the electro-magnetic field1 which is co-existent and co-extensive with the electric field of the sun4 ,further1 wherever we get the magnetic field1 there we get the lines of force which are as real as air or ocean currents1 and are caused1 as ,maxwell indicated 7,art4 #dd71 by the motions of the atomic ,aether4 ,wherever these lines of force are closest together1 there the intensity of the magnetic force is at its greatest4 ,illustration3 ,fig3 #ai4 ,by actual experiment1 it can be demonstrated that the lines of force are closest together nearest to the magnet1 and therefore applying that fact to the solar magnetic field1 the lines of force should be closest together nearest to the surface of the sun1 which is exactly what we have already learned4 ,for if ,aether be gravitative1 then it will be densest nearest to the sun than further away1 and the vortex atoms which represent our aetherial atoms will be pressed more closely together near to the surface than further away4 ,we have learned that ,aether has an electro-magnetic basis1 and it is that very fact which gives rise to the existence of these lines of force4 ,so that the magnetic phenomena as indicated in the lines of force conceived by ,faraday harmonize with the fact that the sun is an electro-magnet2 and that ,aether1 which has an electro-magnetic basis1 is also gravitative1 with the result that the lines of force are closest together nearest the surface of the sun1 where the magnetic force is greatest in its intensity and power4 ,now let us apply the principle of the experiment to the solar system by bringing a magnet into a magnetic field1 and let us see what the result is4 ,we have learned from the experiment1 that if a magnet is moved along any one of the lines of force the dip of the magnet changes1 gradually changing from a horizontal to a perpendicular position in accordance with its relation to the two poles of the magnet4 ,from the previous article we have come to the conclusion that not only is the earth a magnet1 but that all the other planets are magnets also1 so that if any of these are brought into the magnetic field of the sun1 then the magnetic axis of the planet1 which corresponds to the needle in our experiment1 must assume a certain dip in relation to the sun1 setting itself along those lines of force which are in the immediate neighbourhood of the planet4 ,let us place the earth1 for example1 at a distance of #ij millions of miles from the sun in the magnetic equator1 or that line which exactly divides the magnetic field into two equal halves4 ,according to our experiment1 the magnetic axis will now be exactly parallel with the axis of the sun1 that is1 exactly vertical1 pointing ,north and ,south1 as seen in position #a in ,fig4 #ai4 ,but suppose that the earth is to the ,north of the magnetic equator of the field1 what happens then8 ,the result will be that the magnetic axis of the earth will dip towards the magnetic ,north pole of the sun 7position #b1 ,fig4 #ai71 while if the earth be to the ,south of the magnetic equator1 its axis will dip in the opposite direction 7position #c71 the magnetic axis setting itself in each case along the lines of force which exist in the ,aether in that region or space4 ,thus it can be seen at a glance1 that if the earth changes its position at any time in its orbit in relation to the magnetic equator1 such a change will effect the total dip of the magnetic axis4 ,in other words1 the magnetic poles which indicate the position of the magnetic axis will not occupy the same position in relation to the geographical ,north and ,south poles1 sometimes appearing to the ,east and sometimes to the ,west1 and at other times being coincident with the same as it moves to the ,north or ,south of the magnetic equator of the sun's electro-magnetic field4 ,we have to remember1 also1 that the earth is constantly varying its distance in relation to the sun1 being at a distance of ninety and a half millions of miles at its perihelion1 or that part of its orbit nearest to the sun2 while it is ninety-four and a half millions of miles at its aphelion1 or that part of its orbit furthest away from the sun4 ,this implies that as it proceeds from that point in space furthest away from the sun1 and approaches a point nearer to the sun1 it will pass into places of greater magnetic intensity1 with the result that the intensity of the electro-magnetic waves is increased2 and the magnetism of the earth is accordingly affected by that fact4 ,when we come to deal with the earth as a magnet more directly1 we shall see that all the variations of terrestrial magnetism may be satisfactorily explained by the fact that the sun is1 as we have indicated in this article1 an electro-magnet1 possessing its magnetic field with its lines of force1 and therefore able to give rise to all the phenomena incidental to and associated with any ordinary magnet4 ,,art4 #hi4 ,aether and ,faraday's ,lines of ,force4--,we have now to face the question of the physical character of the ,lines of ,force conceived by ,faraday4 ,we have seen in ,fig4 #ah illustration of these lines of force1 which are manifested by the iron filings in the neighbourhood of a magnet1 and the question suggests itself to the mind1 as to what is the relation of the ,aether to those lines of force8 ,does the ,aether play any part in their existence1 and if so what8 ,faraday was of the opinion that the ,aether did play some part in the existence of the lines1 and that they were no mere hypothetical lines1 but were caused by the actual physical state or condition of the aetherial medium1 which existed around every magnet and every electrified body4 ,on this point he says1 ,art4 #cbfc3cd ,to acknowledge the action in curved lines seems to me to imply at once that the lines have a physical existence4 ,it may be the vibration of the hypothetical ,aether1 or a state of tension of that ,aether equivalent to either a dynamic or static condition4 ,par4 #cbgg3 ,i conceive that when a magnet is in free space1 there is such a medium1 magnetically speaking1 around it4 ,that a vacuum has its own magnetic relations of attractions and repulsions is manifest from former experimental results 7#bghg74 ,what that surrounding magnetic medium deprived of all material substance may be1 ,i cannot tell1 perhaps the ,aether4 ,it was1 however1 left for ,clerk ,maxwell to develop the idea as to their physical character1 and this he did in his paper on ,physical ,lines of ,force1 ,phil4 ,mag41 #ahfa4 ,he had previously written a paper on ,faraday's ,lines of ,force1 delivered to the ,cambridge ,phil4 ,society in #ahee and #ahef1 but his more matured conception of ,faraday's ,lines of ,force was given in the later article4 ,what ,maxwell did was to conceive a physical theory of electricity and magnetism1 by which electrified and magnetized bodies could act upon each other by means of the stress or strain of some medium1 which existed in the space surrounding these bodies4 ,now ,faraday looked upon electro-static and magnetic induction as always taking place along curved lines4 ,these lines may be conceived as atoms or molecules starting from the poles of a magnet1 and acting on all bodies in the electro-magnetic field4 ,these atoms or molecules1 joined together in a definite manner1 tend to shorten in the direction of their length1 that is to say1 there is a tension along the lines of force while at the same time they swell out laterally or sideways4 ,thus there is a tension along the lines of force1 and a pressure at right angles to them owing to their bulging out sideways4 ,maxwell used as an illustration of the tension and pressure1 the contraction and thickening of a muscle4 ,as the fibres of the muscle contract1 and the arm or leg is drawn up1 the muscle swells in its centre outwardly1 and so thickens4 ,thus there would be a tension along the muscle1 and a pressure at right angles to it1 which would cause any body placed on it to move away from it1 owing to the pressure of the contracted muscle4 ,in the conception of an aetherial atom 7,art4 #dd7 drawn purely from observation of the shape of the earth1 we came to the conclusion that the aetherial atom was a spherical vortex atom1 or1 to be more correct1 that it was an oblate spheroid with its polar diameter1 so to speak1 shorter than its equatorial diameter1 and further1 that the aetherial atom possessed polarity4 ,now if we can conceive of these aetherial vortex atoms being joined together1 ,north pole to ,south pole1 and revolving round their axes1 we shall then have an exact image of ,maxwell's physical conception of ,faraday's ,lines of ,force4 ,we know that when any liquid body is caused to rotate rapidly about its axis1 it will expand laterally and contract longitudinally in the direction of the axis2 and it was on this analogy that ,maxwell worked out his physical conception of the lines of force4 ,maxwell's fundamental idea was1 that in a magnetic field there is a rotation of the molecule ever going on about the lines of force4 ,for example1 let ,a ,b be a magnet1 and ,a ,c ,b be a line of force composed of spherical vortex atoms joined end to end1 that is1 each ,north pole 7assuming the vortex atoms to be magnets7 being directly associated with the ,south pole of the one next to it1 and vice-vers 7,fig4 #bj74 ,thus it can be readily seen that there will be a tension along the line of force1 while there will be a pressure at right angles to it owing to the lateral expansion1 partly due to the rotation of the vortex atom1 and partly due to the attraction of the vortices for each other in the direction of the line of force4 ,maxwell in his paper says3 ,it appears therefore that the stress in the axis of the line of magnetic force is a tension like that of a rope4 ,further1 he adds3 ,let us now suppose that the phenomena of magnetism depend upon the existence of the tension in the direction of the lines of force1 combined with a hydrostatic pressure1 or in other words1 a pressure greater in the equatorial than in the axial direction4 ,the next question is1 ,what mechanical explanation can we give of these inequalities of pressure in a fluid or mobile medium8 ,the explanation which most readily occurs to the mind is1 that the excess of pressure in the equatorial direction arises from the centrifugal force of the vortices or eddies in the medium1 having their axes in the direction parallel to the lines of force4 ,he adds3 ,a medium of this kind filled with molecular vortices1 having their axes parallel1 differs from an ordinary medium in having different pressures in different directions4 ,illustration3 ,fig3 #bj4 ,he then goes on to develop the idea in relation to different intensities of the magnetic field4 ,i must1 however1 refer the reader to the paper itself for fuller details4 ,in his greatest work1#ce writing on this subject1 he says3 ,i think we have good evidence for the opinion that some phenomenon of rotation is going on in the magnetic field1 that this rotation is performed by a great number of very small portions of matter1 each rotating on its own axis1 being parallel to the direction of the magnetic force1 and that the rotations of these different vortices are made to depend on one another by means of some kind of mechanism4 ,from the foregoing extracts taken from ,maxwell's writings1 we learn that the constitution of the ,aether1 as given in ,art4 #dd1 exactly coincides with1 and satisfactorily fulfils the conditions that he lays down with reference to his physical conception of the lines of force around a magnet or electrified body4 ,so that the theory of ,maxwell is not merely hypothetical1 as is suggested by scientists1 but exactly describes the conditions and state of the atomic ,aether medium which surrounds all magnets4 ,we have1 however1 seen that the sun is a magnet1 and therefore it possesses around it on every side1 the same as any other magnet1 these aetherial lines of force composed of infinitesimal vortices1 or mere whirling points which correspond to an aetherial atom4 ,these aetherial lines of force stretch out into space on every side of the sun1 and in fact form concentric magnetic shells around the sun2 which magnetic shells coincide with the equipotential surfaces of the ,aether viewed merely from the point of elasticity and density of the medium4 ,we learn by experiment1 that these lines are closest together nearest to the magnet1 which fact agrees with the statement that ,aether is gravitative1 and therefore the ,aether would be densest nearest the sun4 ,that is1 the atoms would be pressed closer together1 so that the lines of force of which these atoms are composed ought also to be closer together at the surface of the magnet1 which we find by experiment is the case4 ,as the sun is an electro-magnet1 therefore1 it possesses these magnetic lines of force on all sides1 forming a series of magnetic shells4 ,we have now arrived by the aid of ,maxwell's theory to a physical conception of the ,aether from a magnetic standpoint1 which fully agrees with our physical conception of the ,aether which was arrived at by purely philosophical reasoning1 based on ,newton's ,rules of ,philosophy4 ,thus we are able to combine into one whole by our conception that ,aether is matter1 and therefore atomic and gravitative1 not only ,faraday's ,lines of ,force1 but also ,maxwell's physical conception of the same1 apart from the solutions given to the other problems of science by the self-same conception1 which solutions will be dealt with in their proper order4 ,as further evidence of ,maxwell's belief in the physical existence of ,faraday's ,lines of ,force1 let me again quote from his paper on ,action at a ,distance1#cf already referred to in ,art4 #dc4 ,he writes3 ,its minute parts may have rotatory as well as vibratory motions1 and the axes of rotation form those lines of ,magnetic ,force which extend in unbroken continuity into regions which no eye has seen4444 ,these lines must not be regarded as mere mathematical abstractions4 ,they are the directions in which the medium is exerting tension like that of a rope1 or rather like that of our own muscles4 ,footnote #cd3 ,exp4 ,res4 ,footnote #ce3 ,magnetism and ,electricity4 ,footnote #cf3 ,collected ,works1 by ,niven4 ,,art4 #ij4 ,terrestrial ,magnetism4--,we have already seen that the earth is a magnet1 and like any other magnet will therefore possess its magnetic field with its magnetic lines of force4 ,the earth's magnetic field is co-existent and co-equal with its electric field 7,art4 #hj71 and that is co-existent with the earth's aetherial atmosphere which is held bound to the planet by the force of gravity4 ,how far the earth's magnetic field reaches1 is impossible to say1 but we know that it extends at least as far as #bfj1jjj miles1 the distance of the moon2 as we find that this satellite of the earth is affected very considerably by the electro-magnetic attractive power of the earth4 ,any body which is placed in the earth's magnetic field is affected by the lines of force which exist in the magnetic field2 for wherever the field exists1 there the lines of force exist also4 ,these lines of force1 which are associated with the earth1 extend therefore into space1 and any body such as the moon would become a magnet1 if not already one by the process known as magnetic induction1 which physical process is well illustrated in the action of a magnet upon iron filings strewed over it as in the illustration 7,art4 #hh74 ,an experiment which well illustrates the inductive power of the earth's magnetism1 may be made by placing a poker in one of these lines of force1 whose direction can be found at any part of the earth's surface by means of proper instruments4 ,when the poker is so placed1 it will be seen that it has actually become magnetized by the magnetism of the earth1 and it is itself able to attract iron filings or small needles4 ,these lines of force of the earth are closer together nearest to the earth's surface than further away in space1 and congregate around the ,north and ,south magnetic poles1 where they are greatest in number in a given area1 and there the magnetic intensity is the greatest4 ,faraday1 writing on the terrestrial lines of force1 says3 ,the lines of force issue from the earth in the northern and southern parts with different but corresponding degrees of inclination1 and incline to1 and coalesce with each other over the equatorial parts4 ,there seems reason to believe that the lines of magnetic force which proceed from the earth return to it1 but in their circuitous course they may extend through space to a distance of many diameters of the earth1 to tens of thousands of miles4#cg ,from this extract it will be seen that ,faraday was of the opinion that the lines of force extended beyond the atmosphere of the earth into the ,aether1 which statement is confirmed by other parts of his writings2 though he was not able to give any physical explanation of how these lines extended beyond the atmosphere on account of the doubtful constitution and character of the ,aether1 although in another part of his work he definitively refers to the magnetic character of space4 ,in writing on the magnetic character of space he says3#ch ,from such experiments1 and also from general observations and knowledge1 it seems manifest that the lines of magnetic force can traverse pure space1 just as gravitating force does1 and as static electric forces do 7#afaf71 and therefore space has a magnetic character of its own1 and one that we shall probably find hereafter to be of the utmost importance in natural phenomena4 ,with the view of the ,aether presented in this work1 viz4 that ,aether is matter1 though in an infinitely more rarefied and elastic form1 we can now see the physical cause of the lines of force with which by his imagination he filled all space4 ,again1 from the conception of the ,aether presented to the reader in ,art4 #de1 we learn that around any body in space there are existing aetherial concentric spheres or shells which are equipotential surfaces1 or surfaces of equal pressure1 and that these surfaces coincide with the electric equipotential surfaces1 as shown in ,art4 #hj4 ,not only so1 but they coincide with the magnetic shells which the lines of force actually form around a circular and globular magnet1 as the earth4 ,for it must not be forgotten that these lines of force exist equally on all sides of the earth1 and therefore really form a spherical shell1 or to speak more correctly an aetherial electro-magnetic shell1 which is an oblate spheroid in shape1 partaking of the shape of the earth or other planet which the lines of force surround4 ,if these shells were divided into two equal halves1 the line so dividing them would be called the magnetic equator1 and on that line any magnet would set itself in a horizontal position1 so that all round the earth on the magnetic equator would correspond to a line of no dip4 ,at the magnetic poles1 a magnet would set itself vertically1 or at an angle of #ij1 and between these two parts1 the place of no dip1 and that of #ij1 the dip gradually changes as illustrated in the figure4 ,again1 in relation to the magnetism of the earth we find that there are certain variations in the magnetic force1 which not only influence the dip at any place1 but also the intensity at that place4 ,the variations in ,magnetic ,force are chiefly three-- #ast4 ,diurnal ,variations4 #bnd4 ,annual ,variations4 #crd4 ,secular ,variations4 ,let us look at these three variations from the standpoint of the magnetic lines of force which exist around the earth1 and around every planet4 ,in relation to the variations of the magnetic forces upon the surface of the earth1 ,faraday points out that these variations are caused by the action of the sun's rays upon the terrestrial lines of force4 ,he uses the following figure to illustrate his meaning4 ,let ,h be the sun1 ,e the earth-- ,illustration3 ,fig3 #ba4 ,he writes as follows3 ,if the magnetic and astronomical poles of our earth be supposed to be coincident1 then ,north and ,south poles will also represent the ,north and ,south magnetic poles1 and the different curves cutting the earth will sufficiently represent a course of magnetic lines as they occur at1 or about1 the surface of the earth4 ,h represents the sun1 and a the place immediately underneath it1 which is also coincident with the magnetic equator4 ,point a will be a line of no dip1 while at point b there will be dip4 ,this dip will be increased by the action of the sun's rays1 because the atmosphere under the influence of the sun's rays has expanded the air1 and has thus acquired a power to affect the lines of magnetic force4 ,all the lines passing through the heated and expanded air will1 because of its being a worse magnetic conductor1 tend to open out1 and the mass of heated air will as a whole assume the condition of diamagnetic polarity 7#bibc74 ,the case may be more simply stated for the facility of recollection by saying1 that the effect of the sun is to raise the magnetic circles over the equatorial and neighbouring parts from their normal position1 in doing which the ,north and ,south dip are simultaneously affected and increased4 ,thus it can readily be seen that every day as the earth turns round on its axis1 and presents each side of the globe successively to the rays of the sun1 there should be a gradual change in the intensity of the terrestrial magnetism4 ,in ,art4 #bibe1 ,faraday points out that the maximum of dip would be when the sun was at its zenith or directly overhead4 ,with reference to the ,annual ,variation1 ,faraday points out 7#bhhb7 that if the axis of the earth were perpendicular to the plane of its orbit1 the intensity and direction of the magnetic forces might be considered constant1 but 7#bhhc7 as the axis of the earth's rotation is inclined #bc to the plane of the ecliptic1 the two hemispheres will become alternately warmer and colder than each other1 and then a variation in the magnetic condition may arise4 ,the consideration of this annual variation is further considered by ,faraday in the subsequent paragraphs to those already quoted1 and ,i must refer the reader to them for fuller details2 ,i wish simply to indicate the possible explanation of the terrestrial magnetism1 in so far as that explanation is in conformity with the aspect of the ,aether submitted in ,chapter ,,iv4 ,with regard to secular variations ,faraday points out 7#bhhj7 that the temperature of the air at the equatorial parts of the earth is greater than in latitudes north and south1 and as an elevation of temperature diminishes the conducting power of magnetism1 so the proportion of force passing through those parts ought to be less1 and that passing through the cooler parts1 greater1 than if the temperature were at the same degree over the whole surface of the globe4 ,now with our definite conception of the aetherial lines of force traversing space1 and existing on all sides of the earth1 these suggestions of ,faraday's obtain an increased value in relation to the varying intensity of terrestrial magnetism1 and will account for the variations in a satisfactory manner from the aetherial standpoint1 if taken in conjunction with the electro-magnetic character of the ,aether4 ,of course1 what applies to the earth equally applies to all the other planets1 as they also are magnets according to ,art4 #hg1 so that they will also possess their magnetic fields1 with their own lines of force1 and their variations in intensity and magnetic dip4 ,hitherto we have only considered the problem of the earth and all the other planets1 as magnets1 from the stationary standpoint1 and the problem faces us as to what effect the movement of the earth and all other planets through the ,aether will have upon their magnetic fields1 and their lines of force4 ,now from ,clerk ,maxwell's mathematical calculations1 we learn that the movement of any magnetic body through space will practically have no effect upon the relation of the field1 and the lines of force to the moving magnet2 that is to say1 the magnetic field and the lines of force move with the earth and the planets through space1 as they journey round the sun with their varying velocity4 ,maxwell has conclusively proved that the mathematical equations for moving bodies in relation to their magnetic lines of force1 and induction1 are exactly the same as the equations for stationary bodies1 and if this be true1 then it follows that the physical conditions for both stationary and moving bodies are the same4 ,on this point ,maxwell writes3 ,by its motions this 7moving7 matter carries with it its lines of force1 and electricity and magnetism may be regarded as free ends of these lines4 ,hence when both causes act together there can be no relative motion of true magnetism with reference to surrounding matter1 etc4 ,under these circumstances electricity and magnetism move with the matter in which they are present as if they were indestructible and adhered firmly to the parts thereof4 ,so that from ,maxwell's equations and statements we learn that the magnetic lines of force around every planet1 and every satellite in space1 move with the planets in their orbits round the sun4 ,but as these magnetic lines of force are composed of aetherial atoms1 as already indicated1 it follows that the ,aether which is associated with each planet and held bound to it by the so-called force of gravity moves with the planet also4 ,this result is entirely consistent with our experience and observation1 as we shall see later on4 ,we find that the atmosphere1 which is also gravitative1 moves with the earth1 and therefore from experience we are compelled to arrive at the conclusion that the ,aether which is also gravitative moves with each planet1 and this result is confirmed by mathematical calculations given by ,clerk ,maxwell1 and is in perfect harmony with the same4 ,here then is the key to one of the problems that has been the subject of investigation and research for many years past1 and one which is at the present time occupying the attention of some of our most advanced scientists1 viz4 the relation of the ,aether to moving matter4 ,that problem was solved by ,maxwell from an electric and magnetic standpoint1 and his result was that the ,aether1 which we now know to be the source of all electricity and magnetism1 moves with the moving matter4 ,what is more1 this result has been confirmed by actual experiment made by ,michelson and ,morley in ,america1 which experiment conclusively proves that ,maxwell's result is physically correct1 and that the ,aether does move through space with its associated planet1 and therefore its magnetic field and its lines of force move with it because of the electro-magnetic character of the ,aether4 ,footnote #cg3 ,art4 #bhej1 ,exp4 ,res4 ,footnote #ch3 ,art4 #bgeg1 ,exp4 ,res4 ,,art4 #ia4 ,solar ,magnets4--,we have now to attack the problem as to the cause of all the satellites and planets1 together with the sun1 being electro-magnets4 ,what is the continuing and ever-acting cause which makes all planetary bodies1 including the sun1 their centre1 to be permanent magnets8 ,according to the ,rules of ,philosophy there are two causes which would be simple in conception1 which are suggested by experiment and observation1 and both causes would satisfactorily account for all the planets being magnets4 ,the first cause suggested to our minds is1 that in view of the fact that the sun is an electro-magnet1 and therefore possesses a magnetic field with its aetherial line of force1 all the planets may become magnets by the process of magnetic induction1 which process has already been illustrated by the action of the iron filings placed over the magnet4 ,such a hypothesis would fulfil all the ,rules of ,philosophy1 as it would be simple in conception1 would not violate experience1 and would satisfactorily account for the fact sought to be explained4 ,but such a hypothesis would be based upon the assumption that the sun was an electro-magnet1 and then we should have to find out the cause of that fact also4 ,hence the hypothesis that the planets are magnets1 because they are situated in the magnetic field of the sun1 is not a satisfactory solution of the whole problem1 as it fails to account for the fact that the sun is also an electro-magnet4 ,we must therefore seek for another solution of the problem1 which1 while fulfilling all the ,rules of ,philosophy as laid down in ,art4 #c1 will also account for the sun being an electro-magnet1 as well as every planet1 satellite1 meteor1 or any other body that exists in space4 ,if we can ascertain such a cause by philosophical reasoning1 then we may say we have satisfactorily solved the problem as to the cause of all planetary and stellar bodies being electro-magnets4 ,if1 at the same time1 we can solve other outstanding problems by the solution thus offered1 then such solution is more likely to be correct than if it simply solved the problem of solar magnetism4 ,the only other solution that can possibly present itself to our minds1 as to the cause of all magnetism in any planet1 sun1 or star1 is the explanation which has already been given in ,art4 #hf on electro-magnetism4 ,in that article we learned that magnetism was really due to the circular motion of an electric current2 and that1 whenever and wherever we had an electric current moving or revolving with a circular motion1 there we should always have those conditions which would give rise to an electro-magnet4 ,as long as the current continued to flow in its circular course1 so long would there be those conditions which would give rise to permanent magnetism4 ,now in the solar system we find that there are these magnets1 which have been in existence for millions of years4 ,we also learn from the electro-magnetic theory of light that ,aether has an electro-magnetic basis1 which gives rise to electro-magnetic waves when disturbed1 or set in motion by any heated or luminous body4 ,it can readily be seen1 therefore1 that we have only to set this electro-magnetic ,aether in circular motion around any planet or sun1 and we have at once a circular current of electricity flowing round that planet or sun1 which would give rise to those conditions by which any body within its influence may be formed into a magnet4 ,our hypothesis1 therefore1 to explain the reason why all the planets and the sun are magnets1 is that the electro-magnetic ,aether moves round the sun or planet or satellite as the case may be1 thus giving rise to currents of electricity around the planet or sun1 and so forming those conditions in the ,aether by which the permanency of any planetary or stellar magnetism may be maintained and perpetuated4 ,in other words1 to put it plainly and tersely1 each aetherial atmosphere revolves round the planet1 subject to certain limitations1 in the same way that the aerial atmosphere turns round with the earth1 as that planet revolves on its axis4 ,at first sight1 such an assumption may seem impossible1 but a little careful consideration will show not only the possibility of such a cause1 but will establish it1 as the only reasonable and philosophical explanation for the phenomena we are seeking to explain1 viz4 the electro-magnetism of all celestial bodies4 ,there is nothing extravagant in this assumption1 as we already have a similar illustration in the case of the atmosphere which goes round with the earth as it revolves on its axis4 ,we have only to extend the same principle a little further1 viz4 to the aetherial atmosphere1 and we at once get the true physical conception of the hypothesis suggested to explain the magnetism of all celestial bodies4 ,we have already learned that ,maxwell has proved that the equations for moving magnetic bodies are the same as those for stationary bodies1 from which we came to the conclusion that the electric and magnetic field of any planet goes with that planet as it revolves on its axis in its journey round the sun4 ,i would like to ask the reader to try to conceive of any electric or magnetic field traversing space in association with any planet or sun which is revolving on its axis1 while that electric or magnetic field does not revolve either partially or wholly with the revolving body4 ,the field can only be stationary relatively to the planet or sun1 as it revolves with the planet or sun on its axis4 ,there may be1 as there doubtless are1 conditions governing that revolution1 as is the case with the atmosphere moving and revolving with the planet1 but it is an absolute impossibility for ,maxwell's equations relating to moving magnetic bodies to be carried to their logical conclusion1 without affirming some such hypothesis as we have affirmed in relation to the cause of all solar magnetism4 ,let me at once point out1 this solution has already been offered by one whose name has been referred to several times4 ,i refer to ,professor ,challis4 ,let us see what he has to say as to the cause of the earth's magnetism4 ,in dealing with this subject1 and writing in the ,phil4 ,mag41 #ahgb1 par4 #db1 he states3 ,with respect to all magnetism which has a cosmical origin1 the view ,i now take is that it is due to gyrations of the ,aether1 produced by the impulses which it receives from the motions of the constituent atoms of the bodies of the solar system4 ,the gyrations may either be immediately generated by the rotations of the bodies about their axes1 or directly result from disturbances of the ,aether caused by their motions of translation4 ,this impressed motion will be converted into circulatory or gyratory motion4 ,such circulatory motion will necessarily partake of the motion of translation of the bodies which generate them1 so as to have always the same geometrical relation to these bodies provided their motion be uniform4 ,in paragraph #df he continues3 ,from what has been already argued 7#db71 the motions impressed on the ,aether by the earth in consequence of its rotatory or orbital motions result in circulating motions which would be steady motions1 having always the same geometrical relation to the position of the earth's centre4 ,again1 ,ampre and ,faraday were also of the opinion that the magnetism of the earth was due to the circulation of electric currents round it1 for in par4 #ddf1 ,exp4 ,res41 ,faraday states3 ,assuming with ,ampre that the magnetism of the earth is due to electric currents circulating round it1 parallel to the equator4 ,i think it will be seen from these extracts that the hypothesis suggested for all planetary and stellar magnetic bodies is thus confirmed by ,professor ,challis1 and by ,faraday and ,ampre4 ,professor ,challis in these passages clearly and definitely points out that there are circulatory motions in the ,aether1 which motions are produced by the rotation of the earth or other body on its axis1 and that these circular motions of the aetherial medium always maintain the same geometrical shape relative to the earth's centre4 ,so that we have only to combine with his hypothesis the electro-magnetic basis of the ,aether1 and we at once get the circulating currents of electricity constantly flowing round the heavenly bodies1 which produce and give rise to the permanent magnetism of those bodies4 ,if we desired still further confirmation as to the circulating motions of the ,aether caused by a rotating body1 we find it in the writings of ,herschel1 who in relation to this matter asks3#ci ,what is the law of density of the resisting medium which surrounds the sun8 ,is it at rest or in motion8 ,if the latter1 in what direction does it move8 ,circularly round the sun1 or traversing space8 ,if circularly1 in what plane8 ,supposing the neighbourhood of the sun to be filled with material fluid1 it is not conceivable that the circulation of the planets in it for ages should not have impressed upon it some degree of rotation in their own direction1 and this may preserve them from the extreme effects of accumulated resistance6 ,words like these from one of the most searching intellects of the last century are well worthy of our consideration1 and the suggested effect on the ,aether caused by the continued rotation of the earth gives us the key not only to the problem of celestial magnetism1 but also to the other outstanding scientific problems4 ,for example1 there is the problem of the relation of moving matter to the ,aether around it which still remains unsolved4 ,the physical cause of the rotation of the earth1 and all other celestial bodies upon their axes1 with unceasing regularity1 still remains to be discovered4 ,the physical explanation as to the reason why the earth moves round the sun in its orbit according to ,kepler's ,laws1 has yet to be determined1 and1 lastly1 there is the relation of the magnetic vibration to the electric vibration in connection with the electro-magnetic theory of light still to be solved4 ,now1 presuming that all these can be solved by the philosophical hypothesis1 that the electro-magnetic ,aether circulates round each planet and sun and star1 that revolves in space1 then we are justified in our conclusion that such is the true cause of all electro-magnetism that exists in connection with planetary and stellar bodies4 ,i venture to premise that all these problems can be solved by the simple solution here given1 and will prove that this solution adequately accounts for all the other phenomena referred to4 ,before proceeding to do this1 we will endeavour to prove this hypothesis by an altogether different method of reasoning1 in order to confirm the statements made in this article4 ,let us therefore endeavour to form a complete view of the physical state of the solar system1 and for the sake of simplicity we will suppose it to be at rest in space4 ,we shall deal with the effect of its motion upon its own planetary system1 when we explain ,kepler's ,laws4 ,we have1 therefore1 the ,sun in the centre 7see ,fig4 #ad7 of the system1 with ,mercury1 ,venus1 the ,earth1 ,mars1 ,jupiter1 ,saturn1 ,uranus1 and ,neptune revolving round the sun at their respective distances1 which are subject to variations owing to certain causes which can be satisfactorily explained4 ,but circulating round the sun1 in the same direction as the rotation of the sun on its axis1 we have the electro-magnetic ,aether1 with its wide-spreading flow and extensive electro-magnetic field4 ,in like manner1 we have each planet with its aetherial electro-magnetic field1 which also circulates round each planet in the same direction as the planet revolves1 that is1 from west to east1 and in the same direction as the sun's electro-magnetic field revolves4 ,thus we have to picture the whole of the solar system in a state of regular and harmonious rotation1 while each planet adds to the harmony of the rotation by itself rotating in its own aetherial electro-magnetic field1 while all rotate in the same direction1 viz4 from west to east4 ,of course there are several objections that can be raised to such a hypothesis1 and those objections will be briefly dealt with in a subsequent article1 but ,i venture to think that this hypothesis is the true philosophical explanation of a problem which has formed one of the greatest outstanding difficulties in regard to the ,aether medium for many years1 that problem being the relative motion of the ,aether and ,matter4 ,lord ,kelvin1 in an article in the ,phil4 ,mag4 for ,july #aija1 entitled ,clouds over the ,dynamical ,theory of ,light1 refers to this very difficulty1 and states there are two clouds over the present undulatory theory of light1 one of which has reference to the difficulty of conceiving a body like the earth or any planet rushing through the ,aether without subjecting the ,aether to enormous laceration1 and concludes by saying that we must still regard this cloud as very dense4 ,here1 then1 is the key to the solution of the problem4 ,the earth does not rush through the ,aether1 but the ,aether being gravitative1 it is associated with and bound to each planet1 and accompanies that planet in its journey though space1 rotating with it in the same way that the atmosphere does1 as we shall prove later on4 ,this conception is fully in accord with our hypothesis as to the physical explanation of the cause of the electro-magnetic character of all the heavenly bodies1 and indeed is the only physical solution that can adequately account for all the varied phenomena hitherto unexplained in connection with the celestial mechanism4 ,from the foregoing statements1 we are now in a position to consider the term ,electro-,kinetic ,energy1 as used by ,clerk ,maxwell4 ,what does he mean by ,electro-,kinetic ,energy8 ,let us see what he has to say about the term himself4 ,in par4 #fcf of his ,magnetism and ,electricity he writes3 ,according to our hypothesis we assume kinetic energy to exist wherever there is magnetic force1 that is1 in general1 in every part of the field4 ,this energy exists1 therefore1 in some kind of motion of the matter in every portion of space2 while again1 in par4 #efi1 he states3 ,the electric current cannot be conceived except as a kinetic phenomenon4 ,even ,faraday speaks of the electric current as something progressive1 and not a mere arrangement 7,exp4 ,res4 #bhc74 ,then again in par4 #eeb he writes3 ,it appears1 therefore1 that a system containing an electric current is a seat of energy of some kind1 and1 since we can form no conception of an electric current except as a kinetic phenomenon1 its energy must be kinetic energy1 that is to say1 the energy which a moving body has in virtue of its motion4 ,here1 therefore1 according to ,clerk ,maxwell1 the kinetic energy of an electro-magnetic field is nothing more or less than the energy which a moving body possesses in virtue of its motion4 ,any other explanation of kinetic energy would be opposed to all the ,rules of ,philosophy2 for experience in its widest form incontrovertibly proves that all kinetic energy is associated1 and alone associated1 with a moving body2 therefore in all electro-magnetic fields there is this kinetic energy ever being manifested4 ,we have1 however1 learned that the solar system forms a huge electro-magnetic field1 traversed by lines of force1 as ,maxwell and ,faraday suggested4 ,therefore1 in the solar system1 there must be this kinetic energy due to the motion of a moving body1 which is the electro-magnetic ,aether4 ,we have1 however1 just arrived at the conclusion that in the solar system there is ever going on a circulatory or rotatory movement of the electro-magnetic ,aether forming currents around each electro-magnet4 ,on the hypothesis of an atomic and gravitating ,aether we have1 therefore1 a medium or body continually circulating1 which medium possesses inertia and momentum1 and it is philosophically possible for such a rotating medium to possess kinetic energy4 ,so that our explanation of this term1 as used by ,clerk ,maxwell1 is1 that this kinetic energy is indeed due to the momentum of the moving ,aether4 ,such a hypothesis is strictly philosophical1 and literally fulfils the statements made by ,clerk ,maxwell himself in the paragraphs already referred to4 ,a remarkable feature about this hypothesis lies in the fact1 that it is the very hypothesis that ,von ,helmholtz suggested as the explanation of the term4 ,he came to the conclusion that the kinetic energy was due to the momentum of the moving ,aether4 ,but with a frictionless ,aether such a hypothesis1 although correct1 was philosophically untenable4 ,in view of the theory of the ,aether presented in this work1 however1 both ,clerk ,maxwell's and ,von ,helmholtz's statements find their literal and perfect fulfilment4 ,so that in an atomic ,aether1 which is gravitative because atomic1 and rotatory because it is gravitative1 combined with its electro-magnetic basis as proved by ,hertz1 we find for the first time a correct philosophical explanation of one of the most puzzling terms used by ,maxwell in his greatest work on ,magnetism and ,electricity4 ,this solution alone ought to stamp the theory of an atomic and gravitating electro-magnetic ,aether with that authority that is always associated with the names of two such great thinkers and experimentalists as those just mentioned4 ,the fact that the ,aether is held bound to a planet has already been suggested by ,sir ,g4 ,stokes to account for the aberration of light already referred to4 ,in the ,phil4 ,mag41 ,july #ahde1 he writes3 ,i shall suppose that the earth and the planets carry a portion of ,aether along with them1 so that the ,aether close to the surface is at rest relatively to the earth1 while its velocity alters as we recede from its surface1 till at no great distance it is at rest in space4 ,sir ,g4 ,stokes does not1 however1 say how the ,aether is held bound to the earth1 and apart from an ,aether which is gravitative1 no satisfactory explanation can be given4 ,further1 it is noticeable1 that he suggests that the other planets also carry part of the ,aether associated with them along with each planet as it pursues its journey4 ,it would be distinctly unphilosophical to assume that the earth was the only planet that carried its aetherial field with it4 ,so that by following ,sir ,g4 ,stokes' suggestion1 we practically arrive at the same conclusion in relation to the motions of the ,aether that we have already arrived at from magnetic phenomena4 ,with this view of the case we are now in a position to answer a question asked by ,professor ,schuster at the ,british ,association in #ahib4 ,he asked1 ,is not every large rotating mass a magnet8 and added1 ,if it is1 the sun must be a powerful magnet4 ,the comets' tails1 which eclipse observations show stretching out from the sun in all directions1 probably consist of electric discharges4 ,now1 in relation to this question1 the answer is that every rotating body in the ,aether is undoubtedly an electro-magnet4 ,thus1 not only is the sun an electro-magnet1 but every planet and satellite1 and every meteor that rotates in the electro-magnetic ,aether1 is converted into a magnet1 partly by that rotation1 and partly by the currents induced in the ,aether by that rotation4 ,we shall also find when we come to deal with the phenomena of comets' tails1 that ,professor ,schuster is also right as to their cause1 and that they are due to electro-magnetic repulsions originated in the ,aether by the sun1 which is an electro-magnet4 ,footnote #ci3 ,outlines of ,astronomy1 ,herschel4 ,,art4 #ib4 ,cause of ,rotation of the ,earth on its ,axis4--,if there is one fact true in relation to the earth as a planet1 it is that the earth rotates on its axis every #bd hours4 ,day in and day out1 for centuries past1 this revolution has taken place as the earth journeys in its annual path round the sun4 ,not only does the earth rotate on its axis1 but every other planet rotates on its axis in varying times1 as the following table shows-- ,,hrs4 ,,min4 ,,sec4 ,mercury #bd #e #j ,venus #bc #bd #j ,the ,earth #bc #ef #d ,mars #bd #cg #bc ,jupiter #i #ee #j ,sarturn #aj #ad #bc ,uranus 8 ,neptune 8 ,further1 the sun also rotates on its axis in a period of #bf days4 ,here1 then1 are certain phenomena in connection with the solar system1 for which up to the present no explanation as to the physical cause of rotation has ever been offered4 ,surely there is some physical cause1 to account for such a rotation1 and if there be a physical cause1 then the problem to be solved is--find the physical cause to account for the continuous and ever-recurring rotation of all the planets and the sun on their axes1 which shall be so effective and continual that1 year in and year out1 the rotation of all the planets may be continued as observed4 ,in solving this problem we have to revert to our reason why the earth is a magnet4 ,in ,art4 #ia we learned that the earth and all the other planets1 and indeed all stellar bodies1 were electro-magnets1 because the electro-magnetic ,aether was constantly circulating round them4 ,if1 by accepting this explanation1 we can at the same time solve the problem of the rotation of the planets1 and the sun1 on their axes1 then we shall have further evidence that our hypothesis is the correct one4 ,now let me ask1 ,what is the effect of an electric current continually circulating round any magnet in the same way that the electro-magnetic ,aether continually circulates round the earth1 which is a magnet8 ,to find out what the effect is1 we must resort to experiment4 ,professor ,lodge1 in his ,modern ,views of ,electricity1 shows us the effect of any circulating current of electricity revolving round a magnet4 ,in his chapter on ,electro-,magnetism he writes as follows3 ,how does a current act on a magnetic pole8 ,two currents attract or repel each other1 two poles attract or repel each other1 but a current and a pole exert a mutual force which is neither attraction nor repulsion4 ,it is a rotatory force4 ,they tend neither to approach nor to recede1 they tend to revolve round each other4 ,a singular action this and at first sight unique 7p4 #ace74 ,the two things will revolve round each other for ever4 ,this affords and has afforded a fine field for the perpetual motionist1 and if only the current would maintain itself without a sustaining power1 perpetual motion in fact would be attained4 ,faraday has shown by experiment the action of a current on the magnet1 and vice vers4 ,faraday1 in his description of an electro-magnetic apparatus for the exhibition of rotatory motion1 shows how the rotation of a current round a magnet1 and a magnet round a current1 may be experimentally proved4 ,with the apparatus used he shows that the current of electricity may be made to revolve round the pole of the magnet in the direction dependent on the pole used1 and further1 illustrates how the magnet may be made to revolve round the current4 7,plate #d1 ,fig4 #e1 ,exp4 ,res47 ,thus we learn that wherever we have a current constantly circulating round a magnet1 there we have the conditions by which1 according to ,professor ,lodge1 perpetual motion may be obtained1 that is to say1 the two will revolve round each other as long as the current is maintained4 ,here then we find in space those very conditions by which perpetual motion may be obtained4 ,we find the electro-magnetic ,aether constantly circulating round the planetary magnets1 with the result that not only will the current continue to revolve around the planet1 but the planet will continue to revolve upon its axis as it revolves round the current4 ,in fact we get in space an example of perpetual motion4 ,we know that the rotation of the earth on its axis has been in existence for several thousand years1 and therefore we have a right to assume that it revolved on its axis through the untold ages of past geological times as revealed by the strata1 and rocks of pre-historic ages4 ,thus the motion must have continued1 so far as the earth is concerned1 at least #ajj1jjj1jjj years1 accepting that period as the age of the earth1 but no physical reason so far as ,i know has ever been assigned for such continued rotation4 ,if1 therefore1 it be true that the joint action of a current and a magnet is a rotatory one1 then1 seeing that in all planetary and stellar space we have both these conditions of matter1 that is1 the electro-magnetic aetherial current1 constantly circulating round an electro-magnet1 we have1 in space1 the conditions by which perpetual rotation may be maintained4 ,we have therefore presented to us in that joint action1 the true cause of the continued rotation of the earth on its axis1 and therefore of all the planets on their axes1 together with the sun on its axis2 and1 if we carry the principle into the stellar world1 we can philosophically come to the conclusion that the same conditions prevail there that prevail in the solar system1 with the result that we have now a physical cause which fully satisfies all ,rules of ,philosophy to account for certain phenomena which up to the present have never yet been accounted for from the physical standpoint4 ,thus in solving the problem of the earth's rotation on its axis1 we find greater confirmation in the view presented in a previous article as to the circulating motion of the electro-magnetic ,aether around any and every body in space4 ,we shall deal again with the relation of a current and a magnet1 when we come to the physical explanation of ,kepler's ,laws4 ,,art4 #ic4 ,vortex ,motion4--,from ,art4 #ia we have seen that the electro-magnetic ,aether possesses a circulating or rotatory motion around each central body1 and because of this rotatory motion1 the body is at once converted into a magnet4 ,we have also seen that ,professor ,challis believed in the circulatory or rotatory motion of the ,aether1 as also did ,ampre4 ,thus we are led back by scientific experiment and philosophical reasoning to the conception of vortex motion with which the world was familiar in the days of ,kepler1 ,descartes1 ,huyghens and ,bernoulli4 ,there is this difference1 however1 that whereas the vortex motion of those philosophers was to displace and do away with ,gravitation1 the circulatory or rotatory ,aether suggested by electro-magnetic phenomena is to supplement1 confirm and establish more firmly than ever the true powers and laws of ,gravitation ,attraction4 ,before passing1 it will be as well to briefly glance at the conception of vortex motion as suggested by ,kepler and ,descartes and others4 ,whewell on this matter in his ,inductive ,sciences states that ,kepler assumed that a certain force or virtue resided in the sun by which all bodies within his influence were carried round him4 ,he illustrated the nature of the force in various ways1 comparing it to light1 and to the magnetic power which it resembles in the circumstances of operating at a distance1 and also of exercising a feebler influence as the distance increases4 ,another image to which he referred suggested a much more conceivable kind of mechanical action by which the celestial motions might be produced1 viz4 a current of fluid matter circulating round the sun1 and carrying the planets with it like a boat in a stream4 ,whewell adds3 ,a ,vortex fluid constantly whirling round the sun1 kept in this whirling motion by the sun itself1 and carrying the planets round the sun by its revolution1 as a whirlpool carries straws1 could be readily understood1 and though it appears to have been held by ,kepler that this current and ,vortex were immaterial1 he ascribes to it the power of overcoming the inertia of bodies1 and of putting them and keeping them in motion4 ,now1 as we have seen1 the electro-magnetic ,aether is not immaterial but material1 as it is matter possessing mass and inertia1 the same as any other matter1 as ,tyndall and ,lord ,kelvin stated 7,chap4 ,,iv474 ,thus the objection to ,kepler's immaterial vortices is met and overcome by our conception of the ,aether 7,chap4 ,,iv474 ,descartes1 as ,whewell points out1 asserted1 that a vacuum in any part of the universe is impossible4 ,the whole universe must be filled with matter1 which must be divided into equal angular parts4 ,this matter being in motion1 the parts are necessarily grounded into a spherical form1 and the corners thus rubbed off1 forming a second or subtle matter4 ,there is besides a third kind of matter1 of parts more coarse and less fitted for motion4 ,the first part makes the luminous bodies as sun and stars1 the second part is the transparent substance of the skies1 and the third part is the material of opaque bodies as the earth1 planets and comets4 ,we may suppose that the motion of these parts takes the form of revolving circular currents or vortices4 ,by this means the first matter will be collected to the centre of each vortex1 while the second or subtle matter surrounds it1 and by its centrifugal effect constitutes light4 ,the planets are carried round the sun by the motion of the vortex1 each planet being at such distance from the sun as to be in a part of the vortex suitable to its solidity and mobility4 ,the satellites are in like manner carried round their ordinary planets by subordinate vortices4 ,it would almost seem from this quotation that we had adopted purely and simply ,descartes' and ,kepler's ideas in toto1 whereas the truth is that the hypothesis of a rotating electro-magnetic ,aether has been arrived at by following ,newton's own ,rules of ,philosophy1 and by discarding everything not in harmony with experience and experiment4 ,further1 ,descartes was unable to give1 or explain the ellipticity of the orbits of planets1 and had to assume that there were elliptic vortices4 ,when we come to deal with ,kepler's ,laws1 and their physical interpretation1 the correct solution of this problem will be given from a purely experimental and philosophical standpoint1 and in a way and manner never suggested by ,descartes or any other believer in the theory of vortices as then known and understood4 ,indeed there is no objection to the theory of vortices1 which cannot be satisfactorily explained by a rotating electro-magnetic ,aether1 as we shall see when we deal with ,newton's ,laws of ,motion and ,kepler's ,laws4 ,both ,liebnitz and ,huyghens were believers in the theory of vortices1 and the fact that ,huyghens' undulatory theory of light stands to-day as an accepted theory1 is conclusive evidence that he was a philosopher of the highest order1 and his adhesion to the theory of vortices proves that he was convinced that there was some truth in it4 ,it is a result greatly to be desired1 therefore1 if it can be demonstrated1 that in the ,aether there is this rotatory motion continually going on around every planet1 satellite1 sun or star2 because it will then join together1 in perfect harmony1 two great theories in relation to celestial phenomena1 that contended with each other for supremacy for very many years4 ,it will prove that1 after all1 men like ,kepler1 ,descartes1 ,huyghens1 and ,bernoulli had caught glimpses of the great truth which was partly revealed by celestial phenomena1 and that it was only for lack of data that they were unable to successfully compete with ,newton's mathematical genius1 by which he was able to bring his ,law of ,gravitation safely through the conflict with the simpler conception of aetherial vortex motion4 ,of course certain objections will have to be met and answered before this aspect of aetherial dynamics can be expected to supplant the more cumbrous and somewhat intricate mathematical laws of motion1 but ,i shall prove later on1 that all these objections can be answered from a satisfactory standpoint4 ,so that if a modified form of aetherial vortex motion can be successfully demonstrated to exist in the electro-magnetic ,aether1 then we shall see the conflict that waged about two hundred years ago1 brought to a satisfactory issue1 in the union of the two greatest philosophic theories for the explanation of celestial phenomena that the world has ever seen4 ,from that union1 therefore1 there will then emerge a truer1 simpler1 and yet grander conception of the motions of the universe1 which1 when perfected by abler minds1 will be as perfect a theory as human intelligence and philosophy can make it4 ,so that1 what an atomic and gravitative ,aether has done for ,newton's corpuscular theory of light1 in showing that it can be united and combined with the undulatory theory1 and by such combination1 for the first time1 such phenomena as the transverse action of light can be probably demonstrated and explained1 together with other phenomena relating to reflection and refraction of light1 the enlarged conception of a rotating electro-magnetic ,aether will do for the two great theories that vied with each other for supremacy for so many years4 ,thus it will be shown that the philosophers like ,kepler1 ,descartes1 and ,huyghens1 the former of whom has stamped his name on the three laws that bear his name to-day1 and the latter who gave us the inception of the very theory that overthrew ,newton's theory of light1 had after all a more or less true philosophic conception of the physical mechanism of the solar system and of the universe at large4 ,,art4 #id4 ,relative ,motion of ,aether and ,matter4--,there is hardly any subject of greater importance which is engaging the attention of scientists at the present time1 than the question as to what is the relative motion of ,matter to the ,aether in which it moves4 ,i venture to premise the successful solution of the problem will be accompanied with the greatest advance to science that has been known for a long time4 ,the problem to be solved may be stated thus3 ,does the ,aether surrounding a planet or sun or any body in space move with that body1 or does it allow the body to pass through it8 ,up to the present1 opinions on the subject have been varied and conflicting4 ,some scientists hold that the planetary and other bodies in space pass through the ,aether without disturbing it1 while others hold that part of the ,aether is carried along by the moving planet4 ,fresnel assumed that the surrounding ,aether was carried along by the earth1 so that all relative phenomena would be the same as if the earth were at rest4 ,fizeau1 from experiments which he conducted on running water1 also came to the same conclusion4 ,with the old idea of a frictionless medium1 some of the present accepted theories are altogether untenable1 because1 if ,aether is frictionless1 how can it be carried along with the moving body1 unless it is held bound to that body8 and how can it be held bound to that body if it is frictionless8 ,the whole view of the ,aether is1 however1 changed by the conception of the ,aether put forward in ,chapter ,,iv4 ,aether is ,matter1 and being matter it is also gravitative1 and therefore is just as much subject to the ,law of ,gravitation as any other kind of matter1 as ,young stated in his ,fourth ,hypothesis 7,art4 #de74 ,we will therefore attack the problem of the relative motion of the earth and the ,aether around it from this new standpoint4 ,in order to be strictly philosophical1 we must base our hypothesis and conception on experience and observation4 ,where in the whole of planetary phenomena do we find similar conditions which exist between the ,aether and the earth8 ,such conditions are alone to be found between the atmosphere and the earth4 ,the analogy between the atmosphere and the earth1 and the ,aether and the earth is very striking1 as the following comparisons will prove4 ,the atmosphere 7when pure7 is invisible1 so is the ,aether4 ,the atmosphere is atomic1 the ,aether is also atomic4 ,both are subject to the same laws of elasticity and density1 and both are gravitative1 according to our conception of the ,aether4 ,now what is the effect of any large revolving body on a liquid or gaseous medium surrounding that revolving body8 ,if experience is any guide1 we learn that the motion of the revolving body is either partially or entirely transmitted to the liquid or gaseous medium surrounding such a body4 ,so far as our experience teaches us anything1 it teaches us that to that rule there is no exception1 and no experiment can be devised of any body revolving in water or a gaseous medium as air1 without that body imparting its rotation to the water or the air4 ,the atmosphere in relation to the earth is no exception to this rule4 ,we know that the earth has an equatorial circumference of about #bd1jjj miles1 and that it revolves on its axis once every day1 so that at the equator the surface of the earth is whirling round in space at the rate of #ajjj miles per hour4 ,try to conceive what the result would be if the atmosphere were stationary at the earth's surface in the equatorial regions4 ,it would mean that any body on its surface would be whirled round at that rate1 while the atmosphere1 being stationary1 would exert a power equal to a wind travelling at the rate of #ajjj miles per hour4 ,under the influence of such a hurricane1 nothing could exist on the surface of the earth at the equator1 if the earth revolved on its axis and the atmosphere did not participate in that motion4 ,but the atmosphere is gravitative1 and being gravitative1 it is not only held bound to the earth as it revolves on its axis in its onward rush through space1 but accepts the revolving motion of the earth1 with the result that as the earth revolves on its axis1 the atmosphere revolves also4 ,thus a balloon at the equator if allowed to rise several hundred feet above the surface could remain comparatively stationary if held by a rope to overcome its tendency to rise1 whereas such an event would be impossible if the atmosphere failed to receive only half of the motion of the earth's surface1 as it would still have a power equal to that of a wind blowing at the rate of #ejj miles an hour4 ,if1 however1 we come further north1 or go further south1 then we find that the surface of the earth does not have the same velocity as at the equator1 with the result that the atmosphere has not the same velocity either2 consequently it would travel slower in the temperate regions than in the equatorial regions1 and slower still at the poles than in the temperate regions4 ,we know by experiment what the effect of increased velocity has upon any whirling body2 it tends to enlarge the body at those parts where the velocity is the greatest1 the consequence being that the bulging out of the atmosphere would be greatest at the equator4 ,we find a similar result in the shape of the earth1 where the equatorial diameter is greater than the polar diameter1 because of the centrifugal force being greatest in the equatorial regions4 ,we have1 therefore1 to apply these facts to the aetherial medium which surrounds all planetary and stellar bodies in the same way as the atmosphere does2 and which1 being also gravitative1 is equally subject to the same laws of motion4 ,we have seen1 therefore1 that not only does the earth revolve on its axis1 but that the atmosphere revolves on its axis also1 and that the velocity of its revolution is greatest in the equatorial regions1 the atmosphere spreading or bulging out in those parts more than in any other part of the earth's surface4 ,let us suppose that the atmosphere extends #bjj miles above the earth1 and that there we come to the pure ,aether of universal space4 ,in view of the fact that ,aether is ,matter1 and therefore gravitative1 it is reasonable and logical to conclude that exactly the same result follows in relation to the atmosphere and the ,aether at that height1 as follows in relation to the earth and the atmosphere #bjj miles beneath4 ,unless this view is accepted1 we should then have our second ,rule of ,philosophy violated1 as we should have matter revolving in more rarefied matter1 and failing to impress upon that rarefied condition of matter the motion either partially or wholly which it itself possesses2 and such a result being contradictory to all experience cannot be admitted from a philosophical standpoint4 ,therefore1 the only solution is1 that the rotating atmosphere imparts some of its motion to the aetherial atmosphere1 which in its turn rotates1 and that that rotation is governed by exactly the same conditions as govern the relation that exists between the earth and the atmosphere4 ,therefore the ,aether in space associated with each planet or satellite or sun or star1 rotates with the rotating body1 and that rotation imparts to the ,aether a greater bulging out in the equatorial regions of the aetherial atmosphere than in any other part thereof4 ,it is interesting in relation to this point to note ,herschel's view of the effect of the rotation of any body upon the ,aether4 ,in his ,outlines of ,astronomy1 in a note1 p4 #ceh1 he states3 ,supposing the neighbourhood of the sun to be filled with a material fluid2 it is not conceivable that the circulation of planets in it for ages should not have impressed upon it some degree of rotation in their own direction1 and this may preserve them from the effects of accumulated resistance4 ,in this way we arrive at the conception of the motions of the ,aether suggested by ,prof4 ,challis from the magnetic character of the earth1 which he thought were due to aetherial currents circulating around it1 and we learn that such physical conception of the ,aether fully agrees with the explanation of celestial bodies being electro-magnets2 because1 we have only to add to our rotating ,aether that which it has been proved to possess1 viz4 an electro-magnetic basis1 and we have at once the currents of electricity circulating round the earth and other planetary or solar bodies1 by which is obtained the true explanation of the permanent magnetism of all celestial bodies4 ,now to some minds unconversant with scientific research and knowledge1 such a supposition may seem to be incredible1 but that incredibility may disappear1 when ,i say that the fact that the ,aether is bound to the earth1 and goes along through space with it1 has actually been proved by some of the most delicate and successful experiments that have been made in recent times3 experiments of which ,lord ,kelvin has stated that he can find no error or flaw in them4 ,i refer to the scientific experiments of ,michelson and ,morley of ,america4 ,for full particulars of these experiments ,i must refer the reader to the ,american ,journal of ,science1 #ahhf1 vol4 #ca1 or to the ,phil4 ,mag41 vol4 #dd4 ,the conclusion which is arrived at from their experiments is1 that the ,aether is carried along with the earth as it rushes on its journey through space4 ,of course such a result is altogether opposed to the ordinary conception of a frictionless medium1 and indeed to any conception of the ,aether except to that submitted in this work1 which is also in harmony with ,young's ,fourth ,hypothesis 7,art4 #de74 ,so that ,michelson's and ,morley's experiment is a direct experimental demonstration of the fact that ,aether is gravitative1 and because it is gravitative1 it is carried along with the earth1 as that planet journeys through space4 ,it further conclusively proves that not only is the ,aether carried along with the earth1 but that the ,aether circulates round the earth in the same way that the atmosphere circulates round the earth4 ,this result naturally follows from the experiment1 because1 if it were carried along by the earth and yet did not rotate with the atmosphere1 then we should have a result opposed to all experience and experiment1 as these teach us that when a body revolves in a medium which is held bound to that body by ,gravitation1 the medium so held bound participates in the rotation of the revolving body4 ,so that in ,michelson's and ,morley's experiment we have experimental evidence of the fact1 already stated1 that the ,aether circulates round the earth1 and therefore1 in view of the electro-magnetic character of the ,aether1 this circulation results in the production of magnetism in all the planets1 and other bodies around which it circulates4 ,thus not only does the ,aether circulate round the earth1 but it also circulates around every other planet1 and not only round every other planet1 but equally so around every sun and star1 as stated in ,art4 #ia4 ,these results are perfectly consistent with philosophical reasoning1 and any other result would be inconsistent with the analogies presented to us by the phenomena of the ,aether in relation to our earth as ascertained by experiments made by the scientists referred to4 ,thus for the first time the experiment is brought into harmony with our ,philosophy1 which up to the present has not been the case1 a result which at once stamps the experiment with that validity of truth and fact which will ultimately win for it universal acceptance and favour4 ,we are now in a position to answer some queries regarding the motions of the ,aether asked by ,herschel in his work on ,astronomy1 p4 #cde4 ,these ,i give with the answers opposite4 ,,queries4 ,,answers4 #a4 ,what is the law of density ,the ,law of ,gravitation of the resisting medium which 7,art4 #de74 surrounds the sun8 #b4 ,is it at rest or in motion8 ,in motion4 #c4 ,if the latter1 in what ,rotates round the sun4 direction does it move8 #d4 ,circularly round the sun ,both1 as it circulates round or traversing space8 the sun while that body traverses space4 #e4 ,if circularly1 in what ,the plane of the ecliptic4 plane8 ,,art4 #ie4 ,physical ,explanation of the ,vibration in the ,electro-,magnetic ,theory of ,light4--,in ,art4 #gh we learned that light was an electro-magnetic disturbance in the ,aether which was propagated through the ,aether1 with a finite velocity2 and from this we gathered that light waves were nothing more or less than electro-magnetic waves1 which were radiated from the sun1 out into the ,aether on every side4 ,we were unable1 however1 at that time to give a definite physical conception of the aetherial vibrations1 or of the relation of the various types of vibration to each other4 ,since1 however1 the development of the ,aether from the electric and magnetic standpoint1 which has led us up to the fact that the ,aether possesses a circulating motion round the sun 7,art4 #ia71 the solution of the problem appears probable4 ,i am of the opinion that the physical conception of the various vibrations to each other is now within the region of possibility1 and in this article ,i wish to endeavour to give what seems to me to be a correct and philosophical explanation of this part of the electro-magnetic theory of light1 the physical conception of which up to the present has not been generally understood4 ,the explanation may1 or may not1 be fully complete1 but even if it be not perfectly correct1 ,i am convinced that it will ultimately lead to a satisfactory physical explanation of this part of ,maxwell's ,theory of ,light4 ,in forming a conception as to the physical character of the vibrations in the electro-magnetic theory1 we have to remember that there are three distinct vibrations1 or motions1 concerned in this theory4 ,illustration3 ,fig3 #bb4 #ast4 ,there is the direction of propagation4 #bnd4 ,there is the direction of the electric vibration which is at right angles to the direction of propagation4 #crd4 ,there is the direction of the magnetic vibration or motion which is at right angles to both of the other two4 ,now we have seen that the direction of propagation of any aetherial light ray1 is that of a straight line from the sun corresponding to the radius vector 7,art4 #gf74 ,we have also seen that the front of a light wave is really that of a spherical shell 7,art4 #ga74 ,we have also learned that the electric and the magnetic vibrations are in the wave front1 so that these two vibrations1 which are at right angles to each other1 are to be found on the surface1 so to speak1 of each aetherial spherical shell1 that surrounds the sun with ever-decreasing density1 and ever-decreasing elasticity4 ,let us try to picture the actual fact by an illustration4 ,let ,s be the sun1 with concentric spherical aetherial shells surrounding it 7,fig4 #bb74 ,then ,s ,a and ,s ,c will be rays of light being radiated out from the sun1 and the magnetic and electric vibrations have to be both at right angles to the line of propagation and in the wave front2 the wave front being represented by the circular lines showing the section of the concentric shells running north and south4 ,now how can we picture these two motions at right angles to each other1 and yet both at right angles to the line of propagation8 ,first1 let us take three straight lines and see how this may be done 7,fig4 #bc74 ,let ,a ,b1 ,a ,s be two straight lines at right angles to each other1 and ,a ,c another straight line at right angles to both4 ,this can only be done by making ,a ,c perpendicular to the plane of the paper1 and can be illustrated by supposing that it represents a pencil or pen placed upright on the paper1 the point of the pencil being at point ,a4 ,if this be done1 then not only will ,a ,b and ,a ,c be at right angles to each other1 but both will be at right angles to ,a ,s1 which corresponds to the line of propagation4 ,illustration3 ,fig3 #bc4 ,now refer to ,fig4 #bb1 and we shall see that the line ,a ,b and the boundary of the shell will practically correspond4 ,so that any section of a spherical wave front will always be at right angles to the ray of light4 ,but we have learned from ,art4 #hi that these sections of the aetherial spherical shell are really identical with ,faraday's ,lines of ,force1 with the result that along any line which stretches from the ,north pole of the sun to the ,south pole1 there will ever be an electric vibration1 which is put into motion by the elasticity of the aetherial vortex atoms4 ,so that on every side of the sun there is ever going on this electric vibration1 along the lines of force which correspond to a section of the aetherial shell1 the surface of which really constitutes the wave front4 ,therefore it can readily be seen1 that1 as these lines are at right angles to the propagation of the ray of light1 the electric vibration is at right angles to the lines of propagation1 and is thus in accordance with the result demanded by ,maxwell's theory4 ,we have now to give a physical conception of the magnetic vibration or motion of the ,aether1 and this has to be at right angles to both the electric vibration and the line of propagation4 ,in ,art4 #ia we have learned that the ,aether possesses a rotatory motion1 by which it rotates round the central body of the solar system1 the sun4 ,so that if we take any point1 for example1 in the path of the ray as ,s#a1 ,s#b1 ,s#c1 and ,s#d1 situated upon some definite equipotential surface or lines of force1 and if we will imagine those lines to rotate round the sun1 as the sun rotates on its axis1 then in time the points will have described half the circle1 and will come to the position on the right of the sun indicated by the same ,nos4 ,s#a1 ,s#b1 ,s#c1 ,s#d4 ,thus there has been an aetherial motion at right angles to the electric motion1 as the ,aether circulates round the sun1 because this motion may be represented as taking place from west to east of the sun1 while the electric vibration takes place from north to south1 or transverse to the line of propagation4 ,we have1 however1 learned that the ,aether has an electro-magnetic basis1 and therefore the rotation of the ,aether gives rise to electro-magnetic currents2 hence the motion west to east is really the motion of electro-magnetic currents which circulate round the sun4 ,as these are at right angles to the line of propagation1 and we have seen that they are at right angles to the electric vibration1 it follows that all three are at right angles to each other1 which is in accordance with the requirements as laid down by ,maxwell4 ,we have considered these vibrations1 first1 from the view of the solar system as a whole in its relation to the universal ,aether2 but the same principle holds good if considered from the aetherial atomic standpoint4 ,for if we take a line of force1 composed as it is of aetherial vortex atoms1 and suppose them to be rotating1 we know that by that rotation there will be a tension due to that rotation1 and ,maxwell has shown this tension is due to magnetism1 as in his standard work he says3 ,this magnetic force is the effect of the ,centrifugal ,force of the ,vortices4 ,so that by postulating a rotatory movement for the ,aether around the sun1 as we have done in ,art4 #ib1 we have not only solved the problem of all planetary and solar magnetism1 but we have also solved the problem of the relative motion of the ,aether and the earth1 and also given for the first time 7though it may be in an incomplete form7 a physical explanation of that part of the electro-magnetic theory of light1 which has hitherto been unexplained from the purely physical standpoint4 ,such results1 therefore1 supported as they are by the direct experiment of ,michelson and ,morley of ,america1 justify us in concluding that the conception of a rotating ,aether is not only philosophically correct1 but is in actual accord with experimental investigation and research1 as indeed it ought to be4 ,,chapter ,x ,,aether ,,and ,,newton',s ,,laws ,,of ,,motion ,,art4 #if4 ,centrifugal ,force4--,before proceeding to apply some of the principles and laws which govern the electro-magnetic aetherial medium to solar and stellar phenomena1 it will be as well just to review the conception of our new aetherial ,centrifugal ,force1 so that we may form a right view of it in its completeness and entirety4 ,in ,art4 #aa we premised that there was in existence another force1 which was the exact opposite of the centripetal force1 and that this force was the complementary and counterpart of the centripetal force or ,gravitation ,attraction2 and further1 that this force was due to the motion of the universal ,aether which filled all space4 ,in ,art4 #ac we saw that all force resolved itself into energy of some kind1 the same being due either to potential energy1 i4 e4 energy of position1 or to kinetic energy1 which is the energy belonging to matter actually in motion4 ,from ,art4 #ef we learned that all energy was energy of motion1 so that all force resolves itself into motion of some kind4 ,thus our term ,centrifugal ,force really implies1 and demands1 a motion of the ,aether which is ever directed away from the centre of gravity of any body1 whether that body be an atom or molecule1 satellite or planet1 sun or star4 ,from the phenomena of heat we have seen that there exists a repulsive motion1 due to the aetherial medium1 which is ever exerted from the central body of any atomic1 planetary or stellar system1 that repulsive motion being due to the pressure of the universal ,aether1 which not only surrounds all atoms1 but also surrounds all other bodies in the universe4 ,from the phenomena of light we have also seen that the ,aether possesses a repulsive or centrifugal motion1 which is also due to the pressure of the same ,aether as mathematically proved by ,maxwell1 and experimentally proved by ,prof4 ,lebedew1 and ,nichols and ,hull of ,america4 ,further1 from the phenomena of electricity1 we have also seen that there exists this centrifugal motion1 due to the pressure of the same aetherial medium1 which pressure is ever directed away from the electrified body1 as the sun or planets4 ,so that from these three phases of the universal ,aether1 that is1 from its thermal or heat manifestation1 its luminiferous or light manifestation1 and its electro-magnetic manifestation1 we get irrefutable evidence of the existence of a centrifugal motion1 which motion is ever directed away from the central body2 and the result of that motion takes the form of a pressure upon any body with which the motion comes into contact4 ,again1 it was premised1 that such a centrifugal force or motion must fulfil all the laws which governed the centripetal force or motion4 ,first1 it had to be universal 7,art4 #ai74 ,second1 it had to follow exactly the same path as the centripetal force or motion1 which was that of a straight line joining the centre of gravity of two bodies1 as for example the earth and the sun 7,art4 #bj74 ,third1 the centrifugal force or motion must be equal to the product of the masses1 in the same way that the centripetal force was governed by such a law 7,art4 #ba74 ,fourth1 its intensity was to be governed by the law of inverse squares1 the same as the centripetal force or ,gravitation ,attraction was governed 7,art4 #bb74 ,now all these conditions are satisfactorily fulfilled1 and have been shown to be satisfactorily fulfilled1 from the phenomena of heat1 light1 and electricity in their relation to the universal ,aether4 ,for in ,art4 #dc we saw that the ,aether was universal1 and therefore if the centrifugal motion is produced and originated by the ,aether1 then such motions must be as universal as that medium1 which under qualifying conditions gives rise to these motions4 ,from ,arts4 #fe and #gf we have learned that the path of this centrifugal motion is that of a straight line1 and follows exactly the same path that the centripetal force of gravity takes4 ,in ,art4 #he we learned that the centrifugal force between any two bodies was equal to the product of their masses1 which is exactly the same as the centripetal force that exists between any two bodies2 and1 lastly1 from the phenomena of heat1 light1 and electricity we learned that the intensity of this centrifugal motion due to aetherial pressure was inversely as the square of the distance1 which is the law governing the intensity of its counterpart1 the centripetal force4 ,thus we have learned that there is in existence throughout universal space1 a physical force or motion due to a physical medium1 the universal ,aether1 which force or motion is the exact opposite of the centripetal force or ,gravitation ,attraction1 which may be stated as follows-- ,every particle in the universe repels every other particle with a force whose direction is in the line joining the centres of gravity of the two bodies1 and whose magnitude is directly as the product of their masses1 and inversely as the square of the distance between them1 at their mean distances4 ,we shall see that it is by the conjoint working of these two forces1 the ,centripetal and ,centrifugal1 in combination with other motions of the ,aether1 that the harmonious working of the whole celestial mechanism is maintained and perpetuated4 ,in confirmation of the existence of the centrifugal force1 ,i should like to draw the attention of the reader to certain phenomena relative to the solar system1 which phenomena violate the centripetal force as at present recognized1 and can alone be accounted for by the existence of another force or motion existing in space1 such as the centrifugal motion already proved and demonstrated4 ,we know that the law governing the centripetal force1 or ,gravitation ,attraction1 is regulated by the product of the masses of the two attracting bodies4 ,so that if there were three bodies in space whose masses are respectively represented by #b1 #c and #ajj1 the proportion of the attractive force of gravitation between the largest and the other two1 would be #bjj 7#ajj #b7 and #cjj 7#ajj #c7 respectively4 ,so that if the centripetal force1 or the ,attraction of ,gravitation1 is the only governing force in the universe1 then it naturally follows that the two bodies1 between which the attractive force is greater1 will be closer together than the two bodies between which the attractive force is less4 ,thus the two bodies1 whose product of their masses is represented by #cjj1 will1 according to the ,law of ,gravitation1 be closer together than the two bodies1 the product of whose masses is represented by only #bjj4 ,unless this is so1 we should have a violation of the ,law of ,gravitation1 and it would at once cease to be a law4 ,let us therefore apply the centripetal force1 or ,gravitation ,attraction1 to the solar system1 and see how it works out4 ,the law strictly defined is given in ,art4 #ah1 from which we learn that the attractive force between two bodies is as the product of their masses4 ,now what are the masses of some of the bodies in the solar system8 ,we find that the sun1 with its diameter of #hfe1jjj miles1 is about #cbd1jjj times greater in mass than our earth1 so that it would take about #cbd1jjj bodies of the size and density of our earth to equal a body of the size and density of the sun4 ,it has been calculated1 however1 by ,von ,asten1 from observations made on comets by the planet ,mercury1 that the mass of ,mercury is about #a_/bd of the mass of the ,earth4 ,therefore the mass of the sun must exceed the mass of ,mercury #cbd1jjj #bd #g1ggf1jjj2 the exact relation according to ,von ,asten is #g1fcf1ddj4 ,again1 the planet ,jupiter1 with its diameter of #he1jjj miles and its density of #ach1 is only #a_/ajdh part of the mass of the sun1 so that it would take about #ajdh ,jupiters to equal the mass of the sun1 therefore ,jupiter must weigh about #gdjj times the mass of ,mercury4 ,if the mass of ,mercury1 therefore1 be represented by #a1 the mass of the ,earth would be represented by #bd1 the mass of ,jupiter by #gdjj1 and the mass of the sun by #g1fcf1djj4 ,so that the attractive forces between the planets as regards their masses only will be represented numerically as follows-- ,sun and ,mercury #g1fcf1djj #a #g1fcf1djj4 ,sun and ,earth #g1fcf1djj #bd #aij1jjh1jjj4 ,sun and ,jupiter #g1fcf1djj #g1djj #ef1dce1cfj1jjj4 ,thus we see that the attractive force between the sun and the earth exceeds #bd times the attractive force between the sun and ,mercury1 while the attractive force of gravity between the sun and ,jupiter is #gdjj times greater than the attractive force between the sun and ,mercury1 relative to their masses4 ,therefore1 according to the ,law of ,gravity1 as regards the masses of bodies1 ,jupiter and the sun should be nearer together than ,mercury and the sun1 because their attractive powers are greater1 and the earth and the sun should be nearer together than ,mercury and the sun1 because their joint attractive powers are also greater4 ,in the same way it can be proved that all the other planets whose masses are greater than ,mercury ought1 according to the ,law of ,gravity in regard to masses only1 to be nearer to the sun than what ,mercury is1 simply because the total attractive forces between any two are greater than the attractive force between ,mercury and the sun4 ,the respective masses of the planets compared with the sun1 taking the mass of the sun as unity1 are as follows-- ,jupiter #a_/a1jdh of mass of sun4 ,saturn #a_/c1ebi ,neptune #a_/ah1ebj ,uranus #a_/bb1jbj ,earth #a_/cbd1dci ,venus #a_/cig1jjj ,mars #a_/b1iid1gij ,mercury #a_/g1fcf1ddj ,therefore1 if the total attractive force of gravity is equal to the product of the masses of any two bodies1 then the planets ought to be in the following order in relation to their distance from the sun3 ,jupiter1 first1 followed by ,saturn1 ,neptune1 ,uranus1 ,earth1 ,venus1 ,mars and ,mercury2 that being the order in which the attractive power of gravity is regulated by their respective masses4 ,yet the very opposite is nearly the case1 as we find that some of the further planets1 as ,jupiter1 ,saturn1 ,uranus and ,neptune1 possess greater masses than any of the nearer planets2 so that here we have a distinct violation of the ,law of ,gravitation ,attraction1 which states that the attraction between any two bodies is directly as the product of their masses1 because we find certain bodies with greater attracting powers further away from the sun1 than other planets possessing less attracting powers1 because of their smaller masses4 ,i cannot recall having ever read of any explanation which has been given for such an anomaly1 and indeed this apparent violation admits of no other explanation than the conception of the dual character of the so-called ,law of ,universal ,gravitation1 which includes a repelling or repulsive force or motion1 such motion being due to the pressure of the universal ,aether4 ,thus in the light of the centrifugal motion1 combined with the fact that ,aether is gravitative1 by which each body possesses an aetherial atmosphere and electrical equivalent proportionate to its mass1 it can be demonstrated within a reasonable limit how it is that such planets as ,jupiter1 ,saturn1 ,uranus1 ,neptune1 possessing aetherial atmospheres and electrical equivalents proportionate to their masses1 revolve in orbits round the sun at much greater distances than ,mercury1 ,venus1 the ,earth1 or ,mars4 ,this explanation will follow as we consider the ,centrifugal ,force and the ,centripetal ,force in their relation to ,newton's ,laws of ,motion4 ,,art4 #ig4 ,centripetal ,force4--,we have now to apply the ,centripetal ,force1 together with the new ,aetherial ,centrifugal ,force1 to the solar system1 and show that by their conjoint working taken in conjunction with the motions of the ,aether1 all celestial phenomena may be satisfactorily explained on a physical basis1 in a similar way that ,newton proved the same result from the mathematical standpoint4 ,we saw in ,art4 #aj that the centripetal force was really none other than the ,attraction of ,gravitation1 in that it always acted to a centre1 and in no other way1 and therefore by the centripetal force for the present we must understand is meant the attractive power of ,gravitation4 ,afterwards1 when it has been demonstrated that the centripetal force and the new aetherial centrifugal force can account for all celestial phenomena1 then we shall be in a position to show what the physical cause of the centripetal force is4 ,let us again refer to the centripetal force1 so that we may see exactly what its governing conditions are4 ,in ,art4 #ah we learned that this force might be thus expressed3 ,every particle of matter in the universe attracts every other particle with a force whose direction is that of a line joining their centres of gravity1 and whose magnitude is directly as the product of their masses1 and inversely as the square of the distance between them4 ,now we have seen from the previous ,art4 that the centrifugal force due to the pressure of the ,aether medium is the exact counterpart of this1 in every way1 so that if we combine the two1 we get the complete statement of the universal law which governs all matter1 and which we may define as follows-- ,every particle in the universe attracts and repels every other particle in the universe with a force whose direction is that of a line joining their centres of gravity1 and whose magnitude is directly as the product of their masses1 and inversely as the square of the distance between them4 ,this complete law1 however1 only holds good when the two forces are in equilibrium4 ,with this conception of the universal law which governs all matter1 the harmony and stability of the universe becomes possible from the physical standpoint4 ,apart from this conjoint working of the two forces or motions1 a physical explanation of ,universal ,gravitation is impossible1 as with one force operating only throughout the universe1 ultimate stability is inconceivable1 and the harmony of the spheres might at any time be suddenly destroyed4 ,with this conception of the universal law which governs all matter1 the great ,law of ,gravitation is brought into harmony with all experience and observation4 ,look where we will1 or at what we will1 there we find forces possessing a dual character1 as we have already seen proved4 ,professor ,tyndall1 as we have already learned 7,art4 #fc71 definitely states that the stability of atomic systems is preserved by the existence and operation of two forces1 one attractive and the other repulsive1 and what is true of the atomic world is equally true of solar or stellar worlds4 ,thus for the first time in this respect1 our philosophy agrees with our experience1 and the true relation of the centrifugal force or motion to the centripetal force is made manifest4 ,so that1 wherever in the solar system the centripetal force or ,gravitation ,attraction operates1 there1 with exactly equal intensity and power1 the aetherial centrifugal force operates1 at the respective mean distances of the planets and satellites1 where the two forces are in equilibrium4 ,if it were possible to conceive of a stationary solar system1 then1 by the conjoint working of the two forces1 it would be equally possible to conceive of perfect stability and harmony existing between the respective planets and satellites of that system while stationary4 ,such a conception is altogether impossible in the present state of ,philosophy1 as the stability of the system1 with the old view of the ,centrifugal ,force1 is entirely dependent upon the motions of the respective bodies in that system2 and if such orbital motions could be stayed1 then the only physical conception possible would be1 that every planet and satellite1 planetoid and meteor within the attractive force of the central body1 the sun1 would be slowly but surely drawn to a fiery death1 as they would all ultimately be attracted and swallowed up by the sun4 ,thus we learn1 that while the sun is the centre of a centripetal force1 which ever operates far and wide throughout space1 it is equally the centre of a repulsive or centrifugal force or motion which also operates co-extensively and co-equally with the former4 ,not only so1 but every planet and satellite1 nay every particle and every atom1 while it is the centre of a centripetal force1 is also the centre of a repulsive force1 as pointed out by ,professor ,tyndall1 which force is due in each and every case to the pressure of the aetherial atmosphere which surrounds the atom or molecule1 satellite or planet4 ,thus the physical conception of heat in its effect on molecules having a repulsive force 7,art4 #fc7 is confirmed1 and that that force is due to the pressure of the ,aether is also confirmed by subsequent investigations into the phenomena of light and electricity1 by which we have arrived at our physical conception of the ,universal ,centrifugal ,force4 ,so that we have now a physical conception of the experiment performed by ,nichols and ,hull of ,america1 and by ,professor ,lebedew of ,russia1 in which they conclusively demonstrated the existence of the pressure of aetherial light waves1 which proves beyond the possibility of doubt the existence of this physical centrifugal force4 ,every atom and molecule1 therefore1 is the centre of two forces1 which co-exist together1 and every meteor and satellite and every planet is also the centre of the same two forces1 and this we shall find in its application to planetary phenomena will have a most important bearing on the physical conception of those phenomena4 ,thus it is the ,aether medium1 by its energy of motions1 that constitutes the companion and complementary force to ,gravitation ,attraction1 and which1 as we shall see later1 is the medium which forms the physical basis of that attraction also4 ,it is1 then1 by the combined and harmonious working of these two co-equal1 co-existent1 and co-extensive forces that worlds roll and rush1 sweep and swing1 move and rotate about their respective centres2 and1 by these two forces working in perfect harmony1 that that order and stability are produced1 which everywhere pervade the universe of worlds1 and form them in their entirety into one grand1 ultimate1 and harmonious system4 ,to develop and prove this fact1 by explaining their manner and mode of working1 we shall now proceed to consider ,newton's ,laws of ,motion1 and their relation to the aetherial medium1 and by so doing shall be able to show the unmistakable reality and complete efficiency of this physical conception of the ,aether medium1 which forms the physical basis of all universal motion and phenomena4 ,,art4 #ih4 ,newton's ,first ,law of ,motion4--,we will now apply the centrifugal and centripetal forces to ,newton's ,laws of ,motion1 and endeavour to form a physical conception of the same from the aetherial standpoint4 ,before doing so1 we must recall some of the statements made in ,art4 #ad with reference to the ,first ,law of ,motion4 ,it will be remembered that we divided the ,first ,law of ,motion into two parts3 #ast1 ,every body continues in a state of rest except in so far as it is compelled by impressed forces1 i4 e4 impulses or motions1 to change that state4 ,this we saw agreed with our experience1 and therefore was philosophically correct1 and must hold good in its application to the centrifugal and centripetal forces of the ,aether in their effect upon any body in space4 ,let us proceed to apply the ,first ,law of ,motion to the planetary world4 ,we have seen in the previous ,art4 so far as the distances of the planets are concerned in their relation to the sun1 that the ,law of ,gravity is violated1 and that planetary distance is not regulated by the law governing the centripetal force of ,gravitation1 otherwise the planets possessing the largest masses would be nearer to the sun than those possessing smaller masses4 ,the question arises1 as to whether there is any law which governs planetary distance1 by which the distance of any planet was regulated at the birth or creation of the solar system4 ,it has been assumed by some scientists that planetary density is the regulating factor which determines the relative distance of the respective planets from their central body1 the sun1 but such an assumption is not consistent with scientific data4 ,for we find that ,venus1 with a density of #d4ha compared with water1 occupies a nearer position than the ,earth with a density of #e4ff1 whereas the reverse should be the case if the density of a planet were the deciding factor in regulating a planet's distance4 ,again1 we find ,saturn1 which possesses a density of 4#ge1 occupying a nearer position to the sun than ,uranus1 which possesses a density of #a4bh2 so that here again1 if density were the regulating factor which decided planetary distance1 such a law is violated4 ,according to the various densities of the planets1 the respective positions of the planets in relation to the sun would be as follows3 ,the nearest planet would be ,mercury1 which possesses a density of #f4he4 ,this would be followed by the ,earth1 with a density of #e4ff4 ,then ,venus would come next1 with a density of #d4ha1 followed by ,mars1 with a density of #d4ja4 ,after these we should have ,jupiter1 whose density is #a4ch1 with ,uranus1 whose density is #a4bh1 followed by ,neptune possessing a density of #a4ae1 and ,saturn would take ,neptune's place1 as it possesses the least density of all1 its density being only 4#ge4 ,so that it is manifest1 that density cannot be the governing condition1 as has been proved in the previous article4 ,now1 if all the planets ever formed part of the sun1 and they were hurled off into space by the centrifugal motion of the ,aether1 then there certainly would be some law which governs the relative distance of the various planets2 but as far as we can see1 there is no such law1 as a law which is violated ceases to be a law1 so that the law of masses or densities of a planet1 governing their distances1 has no place in the solar system4 ,this leads up to the question as to whether the planets ever did form part of the sun1 as is generally supposed2 and1 in view of the fact that there is no law by which planetary distances are regulated1 we are compelled to come to the conclusion that each planet and satellite once existed in an aetherial condition in space1 and that it was by the condensation of that ,aether1 that each planet was formed2 and that1 at its birth1 each planet occupied the relative distance from the sun which it occupies to-day4 ,at first sight this may appear startling1 but ,i would ask the reader how he can account otherwise for the great irregularity which exists in the distances of the planets in their relation to the sun1 as every known law which governs masses and density seems to be altogether set at defiance4 ,i hope to prove later on1 that all matter has an aetherial origin1 and if that be correct1 then the origin of a planet briefly outlined can be accepted without violating the results of experience or experiment1 and to that extent will be philosophically correct4 ,dr4 ,larmor speaks of the aetherial constitution of matter1 and refers to the views of ,faraday and ,davy in support of such a theory1 while ,lord ,kelvin has referred to the same principle in an article on the ,condensation of ,gravitational ,matter in any part of the ,universe 7,phil4 ,mag41 ,july #aijb74 ,so that if it be possible for ,aether to be condensed1 and so form the nucleus of a planet or satellite1 then1 seeing that the ,aether is universal1 any planet or satellite or meteor may be formed in any part of the solar system2 and the process has only to be continued1 until we have planets of various sizes at various distances from the central body1 the sun4 ,here1 therefore1 at any rate1 is a physical hypothesis which will satisfactorily account for all the different distances of the various planets4 ,apart from some such hypothesis1 ,i fail to see how we can account for the irregularity that exists between planetary distances1 when viewed from the standpoint of their masses and their densities4 ,further1 such a conception is entirely in harmony with the view of the dual character of the motions or powers of the aetherial medium1 that would co-exist with the evolution and development of the planet4 ,for1 as the planet was evolved and developed from the aetherial medium which surrounded it on every side1 two motions would be developed and grow with it--the centrifugal force or motion1 and the centripetal motion of the ,aether1 or the attractive force known as ,gravity4 ,thus1 through all the growth and development of a planet1 these two powers1 the centripetal force and the centrifugal force1 would be co-equal and co-existent4 ,the same truth applies to the sun or any other body in the universe2 so that1 if a planet1 as the ,earth1 was formed in the beginning at its mean distance of #ib1gjj1jjj miles1 then the joint centripetal motions produced by the ,earth and sun in the ,aether1 would always equal the joint centrifugal motions produced by the same two bodies1 simply because the two laws are the exact opposite of each other both in regard to intensity1 distance1 and magnitude4 ,thus the ,earth would always occupy its relative position in relation to the sun that it occupies to-day1 as long as the two aetherial forces or motions1 the centripetal and the centrifugal1 exist4 ,with this brief outline of a planet's history1 we are now in a position to form a physical picture of the solar system when it first existed in the beginning4 ,we find the sun then occupying its centre4 ,at various distances1 we find the various planets situated without any regard to their relative masses or densities1 as the following table shows4 7,the mass of sun is taken as unity47 ,,mean ,,distance4 ,,mass4 ,,density4 ,mercury #ce1ijj1jjj #a_/g1fcf1ddj #f4he ,venus #fg1jjj1jjj #a_/cig1jjj #d4ha ,earth #ib1gjj1jjj #a_/cbd1dci #e4ff ,mars #ada1jjj1jjj #a_/b1iid1gij #d4ja ,jupiter #dhb1jjj1jjj #a_/a1jdh #a4ch ,saturn #hhd1jjj1jjj #a_/c1ebi 4#ge ,uranus #a1ghj1jjj1jjj #a_/bb1jbj #a4bh ,neptune #b1ghj1jjj1jjj #a_/ah1ebj #a4ae ,now1 in order for any of these planets to fulfil ,newton's ,first ,law of ,motion1 the sun1 which occupies the centre of the solar system1 must be assumed to have no rotatory or orbital motion of its own2 because1 so long as it has a rotatory motion on its axis1 or an orbital motion of its own through space1 so long will even the first part of ,newton's ,first ,law of ,motion be inapplicable to the solar system4 ,but if the sun can be assumed to possess at some point in its history no orbital motion1 or rotatory motion on its axis1 then the physical interpretation of the first law of motion can be physically conceived1 and a planet at rest will remain at rest relatively to its central body1 the sun1 for ever4 ,let us take the sun and ,mercury as an example of the effect of the two motions operating in the aetherial medium4 ,we will consider first the effect of the centrifugal motion4 ,the sun1 with its huge form1 occupies the centre of the solar system1 while ,mercury has its mean distance about #cf1jjj1jjj miles away4 ,the solar fires are intensely burning1 and every atom and every particle composing them are excited thereby into the most intense activity1 and by their energy of motion create myriads upon myriads of waves in the surrounding ,aether1 which flow away on every side with the velocity of light4 ,with such velocity are they generated1 that they speed across the distance of #cf1jjj1jjj miles which exist between ,mercury and the sun in the short time of about three minutes1 and if it were not for the aetherial and aerial atmosphere of the planet1 would fall upon the surface of ,mercury with an intensity of heat that would scorch up all vegetable life1 if any existed thereon4 ,now let us for a moment ignore the existence of the centripetal force1 and then in that light view the influence of the electro-magnetic ,aether waves upon ,mercury4 ,we have seen that when aetherial light waves come into contact with any body1 they exert a pressure upon that body 7,art4 #gg71 so that under the influence of the centrifugal force only1 ,mercury would be borne away from its central body1 the sun1 with a power and energy of motion entirely dependent upon the intensity of the electro-magnetic ,aether waves which give rise to the centrifugal force4 ,thus ,mercury would be carried away from the sun1 far far away into the depths of space1 with ever-decreasing rapidity1 the rapidity of its motion through space being entirely dependent upon the intensity and energy of the ,aether waves2 and1 as that intensity varies inversely as the square of the distance from the central body1 the sun1 so the impelling and repelling energy of the ,aetherial waves would vary inversely as the square of the distance from the central body4 ,thus the motion of ,mercury or any other planet through space would not be uniform1 but would gradually decrease1 and such a result is perfectly in harmony with all experience and experiment in relation to moving bodies on this earth4 ,this effect of the ,aetherial electro-magnetic light waves upon a planet is in harmony with ,newton's nineteenth query in ,optics1 and is indeed the physical illustration of that query in its corrected form which we have already referred to in ,art4 #df1 where ,newton says3 ,doth it 7,aether7 not grow denser and denser1 etc42 every body endeavouring to go from the denser parts of the medium towards the rarer8 ,that the ,aether does grow denser and denser nearer to a body we have already seen in ,art4 #df1 and now we learn that a body1 when under the influence of the centrifugal force only1 would pass from the denser parts of a medium to the rarer parts1 as suggested by ,newton4 ,we will now suppose that ,mercury has been repelled1 by the pressure due to the aetherial waves generated by the sun1 to the distance of ,neptune1 a distance of #b1ghj1jjj1jjj miles2 and that at this point the centrifugal force is cancelled1 and in its place is put the centripetal force of ,gravitation4 ,what will be the effect upon ,mercury then8 ,at first sight the effect will be exceedingly slight1 but slowly1 yet surely1 the attractive power of the sun would begin to make itself manifest1 and we should find ,mercury retracing its path along exactly the same straight line that it had taken in its outward journey4 ,not only so1 but its motion would be accelerated just in the same proportion that it had decreased on its outward journey4 ,on and on through the intervening space the planet would rush1 and if there were no centrifugal force in existence1 the planet would ultimately rush into the central body1 the sun1 and being swallowed up by it1 would maintain for a time the heat thereof4 ,let us now view the case from the conjoint working of these forces1 or motions1 the centripetal and centrifugal1 and we shall see1 that under certain conditions it is possible to conceive physically of a planet being in a state of rest as stated in ,newton's ,first ,law of ,motion1 and also remaining in that state of rest1 until it is compelled by other forces or motions to change that state4 ,mercury is now situated at its mean distance of about #cf1jjj1jjj miles4 ,at the same instant let both the centrifugal and the centripetal forces or motions be applied to it1 and to the sun4 ,what is the result of such application8 ,will the planet move nearer the sun1 which we are supposing to be perfectly at rest1 or will it be urged further away8 ,the effect is nil6 for the simple reason1 that when we set in motion the centripetal force of ,gravitation1 at exactly the same time we set in motion an exactly opposite force which is the exact complement and counterpart of the other1 so that they exactly counterbalance each other1 and ,mercury under the influence of both forces still retains its mean position of #cf1jjj1jjj miles2 and1 until we either set the sun rotating1 or give it a motion of its own through space1 ,mercury would remain at its distance of #cf1jjj1jjj miles comparatively at rest4 ,the same reasoning may be applied to all the other planets1 in relation to their mean distances1 with the result that they too would remain in a comparative state of rest1 so long as they were only under the influence of the two forces or motions1 viz4 the centrifugal and centripetal4 ,each of these1 being the exact complement and counterpart of the other1 when applied together to any planet of any size or mass or density1 at any distance1 fails to affect the distance of that planet in its relation to the sun1 but simply establishes it in that distance1 subject to certain regulations dependent upon other motions of the sun1 and the aetherial medium in which they exist4 ,thus we learn1 that if1 in the beginning1 ,mercury were formed at a distance of #cf1jjj1jjj miles1 it would for ever remain at that distance2 and the same is true of the other planets at their mean distances1 no matter what their mass or density may be2 and that1 according to the first law of motion1 the planet would remain in a state of rest until compelled by other forces or motions to change that state1 when it would continue moving with uniform motion so long as the motive power applied was uniform4 ,if1 however1 the motive power applied was not uniform1 then the result would be an increase or decrease of the planet's motion1 just in proportion to the increase or decrease of the motive power4 ,this result is in perfect harmony with our statement in ,art4 #ae1 and is in accordance with observation and experience4 ,,art4 #ii4 ,second ,law of ,motion4--,according to ,newton's ,second ,law of ,motion1 ,change of motion is proportional to the impressed force1 and takes place in the direction in which the force is impressed4 ,from a consideration of this ,law 7,art4 #ae7 we saw that the impressed force was a compound quantity1 being regulated by the mass of the moving body which exerted the impressed force1 and that it was also proportionate to the velocity of the moving body2 so that if either of these quantities are changed1 the total impressed force would be changed also4 ,we have now to show that our aetherial medium agrees with this second law of motion in so far as the second law of motion agrees with experience and experiments4 ,to do this1 we must review our conception of the universal ,aether1 and remember that ,aether is matter1 and being matter1 it is atomic and gravitative1 possessing density1 elasticity1 inertia1 and kinetic energy1 the same as any other moving matter4 ,in this ,aether medium we have1 according to this conception1 something that can both push and pull1 or exert force upon any body with which it comes into contact4 ,further1 the inertia and kinetic energy of the ,aether at any part of space will be regulated by its mass in that particular part1 and if its mass is denser in some parts than others1 that part of the aetherial medium possessing the greatest mass will also possess the greatest capacity for impressing force upon any body that exists in the medium4 ,now we have learned from ,art4 #de that ,aether being gravitative1 it is denser nearer to the sun1 getting gradually less and less dense1 the further it recedes from the central body1 except where it is bound or associated to some other planet or satellite1 and there it gradually gets denser1 for the same reason that it is denser nearer to the sun4 ,as1 therefore1 the ,aether gets gradually less dense as it recedes from the sun1 the density of the ,aether at the mean distance of ,mercury1 #ce1ijj1jjj miles1 would not be so great as near the sun's surface2 while the density of the aetherial medium at the distance of ,venus1 #fg1jjj1jjj miles1 would be less than the density of the aetherial medium at the distance of ,mercury4 ,this principle may be applied right through the sun's aetherial electro-magnetic field1 until we come to the mean distance of ,neptune1 which is #b1ghj1jjj1jjj miles1 and there the density of the ,aether would be less than at any other part of the aetherial electro-magnetic field around the sun4 ,so that the mass of the ,aether at ,mercury1 which is equal to the number of aetherial atoms per unit volume1 is greater than the mass at ,venus4 ,thus the impressed force which the aetherial medium at the mean distance of ,mercury can exert upon any body in its neighbourhood1 is greater than the impressed force which the ,aether can exert upon any body at the distance of ,venus1 because of its decreased mass at that distance4 ,in the same way it can be proved that the impressed force which the electro-magnetic ,aether exerts on any body at the distance of ,venus1 is greater than the impressed force which the ,aether exerts upon a body at the mean distance of the ,earth4 ,so that at the respective mean distances of ,mercury1 ,venus1 ,earth1 ,mars1 ,jupiter1 ,saturn1 ,uranus and ,neptune1 the electro-magnetic ,aether1 if in motion1 would exert less force at each of the mean distances of these planets exactly proportionate to the decreased mass and decreased velocity of the ,aether4 ,now what is the motion which the ,aether possesses1 so far as the sun is concerned8 because1 upon the particular kind of motion which it possesses will depend the direction in which the impressed force will be exerted according to the second law of motion4 ,in ,art4 #ih we supposed the sun and planets to be stationary in the solar system1 each planet being at its respective mean distance1 from which it cannot move owing to the equality of the two forces4 ,now give to the central sun from whence the electro-magnetic ,aether waves flow1 a rotatory motion on its own axis1 which it really possesses1 as it rotates on its axis once in every twenty-six days nearly1 and this will give to the ,aether medium a circular or rotatory motion4 ,this circular or rotatory motion the ,aether has already been proved to possess 7,art4 #ia1 where we learned that all solar magnets were caused by electro-magnetic aetherial currents constantly circulating round them74 ,so that the ,aether will actually possess two motions3 #ast1 a radial motion due to the ,aether waves generated by the sun1 which are radiated out into space with the velocity of light2 and #bnd1 a circular or rotatory motion4 ,this result is in perfect harmony with our hypothesis as to the cause of the electro-magnetism of the sun 7,art4 #ia1 where we saw that solar magnetism was due to electric currents circulating round the various planets71 and we have proved that the ,aether has an electro-magnetic basis2 thus the rotatory ,aether currents and the rotatory electro-magnetic currents are due to one and the same medium4 ,now what will be the effect of these circular or rotatory ,aether currents on the bodies situated within their field8 ,it must be remembered that we are no longer dealing with a frictionless medium1 but with a medium which possesses inertia and kinetic energy the same as any other moving matter4 ,therefore1 as soon as it is set in motion1 it will impress its motions upon all planets that come under its control and influence1 with the result that as the impressed force is ever directed in a circular form1 the planet will be pushed along through space by the moving ,aether1 and the path it describes will be circular also4 ,thus the actual result of the rotatory electro-magnetic ,aether currents will be1 that all dependent and associated planets under their influence will be carried by them around the central body which generates the ,aether currents4 ,so that they will literally and truly have an orbit1 and the circle they describe will be1 in its size and circumference1 regulated by the mean distance of each planet1 which mean distance will form the radius of the circular orbit4 ,further1 as we shall see later1 if the sun were always stationary1 and had no orbital motion of its own1 then the orbit of each planet would always be circular1 each planet always occupying its mean distance from the sun1 because at that mean distance the centripetal and centrifugal forces are equal4 ,that the actual path of any planet is a circle has been proved by ,sir ,w4 ,r4 ,hamilton4 ,tait1 in his ,natural ,philosophy1 on this point writes 7,art4 #ch73 ,the ,hodograph for the motion of a planet or comet is always a circle1 whatever be the form and dimensions of the orbit4 ,this path has been termed the ,hodograph4 ,so that we have in the circling electro-magnetic ,aether currents a physical explanation for the ,hodograph of any planet4 ,in applying the rotatory ,aether currents to the various planets1 and in endeavouring to find out the quantity of the force impressed upon the various planets at their mean distances1 by those currents1 we have to take into consideration1 as we have already seen1 two facts1 viz4 the mass of the ,aether at any point in space1 and the velocity of the ,aether at the same point4 ,we will first take the effect of the difference in mass4 ,we have seen that at the distance of ,mercury from the sun the density of the ,aether is greater than at the distance of ,venus1 and that the density at ,mars is greater than the aetherial density at the ,earth1 the aetherial density decreasing the further the ,aether recedes from the sun4 ,what1 therefore1 is the effect of the decreased density of the ,aether on each planet8 ,even supposing the velocity of the moving ,aether is the same at the respective mean planetary distances1 which it is not1 the total impressed force at the respective mean planetary distances will gradually be decreased upon the various planets1 proportionate to the decrease in the mass and density of the ,aether4 ,so that on ,mercury1 which is pushed along by a denser electro-magnetic ,aether than ,venus1 the impressed force1 according to ,newton's ,second ,law of ,motion1 will be greater than the impressed force exerted by the moving electro-magnetic ,aether on ,venus2 and1 consequently1 ,mercury should have a greater velocity through space than ,venus1 due partly to the difference of the aetherial mass and density1 by which the impressed force or motive power that acts upon ,mercury is produced4 ,in the same way1 ,venus should have a greater velocity through space than ,mars1 and ,mars a greater velocity than the ,earth4 ,the same principle1 when applied to the outer planets1 equally holds good2 with the result1 that the greater the mean distance1 the less the orbital velocity of each planet1 due partly to the decreased aetherial density at the increased distance from the sun4 ,but this is only part of the cause4 ,not only is there a decrease in density of the ,aether1 as the distance from the sun is increased1 but there is also a decrease in the velocity of the moving ,aether1 with the result that the ,aether at the distance of ,mercury1 possesses a greater angular velocity than at the distance of ,venus4 ,it may be at once asked1 ,how do we know that8 ,well1 ,philosophy alone can give us the key1 and ,philosophy tells us to base our theories and hypotheses on experience and experiment4 ,now what does experiment and experience teach us as to the effect of a body revolving in any medium upon that medium8 ,if experience teaches us anything at all1 it teaches us that the further away any medium is from the revolving body1 the less is the angular velocity of that medium at that distance1 while the nearer the medium is to the revolving body1 the greater is the angular velocity4 ,this applies in each and every case1 whether the medium is either fluid or gaseous1 and ,i will challenge the reader to perform any experiment on any solid body rotating in a fluid or gaseous medium1 and prove by that experiment that the angular velocity of the outermost part of the fluid or gaseous medium is equal to the angular velocity of the medium directly associated with the body1 or even at a short distance from it4 ,but we have most conclusive evidence of the fact that a solid body does not communicate all its rotational surface motion to the medium directly in contact with that body in the case of the earth revolving on its axis1 surrounded by an atmosphere4 ,if the principle held good anywhere in relation to a revolving body1 viz4 that the whole of the rotational velocity is communicated to the medium surrounding the body1 it should certainly hold good at the surface of the body where the two media1 the solid and gaseous media1 meet4 ,if a solid body fails to impart all its rotational velocity to the medium there1 then it will certainly fail to impart its full rotational velocity to the enveloping medium #ajj miles away1 and fail still more at a distance of #ajjj1 and still more at a distance of #ajj1jjj1jjj1 and so on proportionate to the distance4 ,what1 then1 is the effect of the rotational velocity of the surface of the earth on the atmosphere near to it8 ,we know that the velocity of the surface of the earth is greatest at the equator1 as at that place the circumference of the earth is about #be1jjj miles1 but the further we get away from the equator1 and the nearer we get to the ,north and ,south poles1 the velocity of the surface decreases1 simply because the circumference of the earth decreases4 ,or1 to reverse the statement1 the velocity of the surface of the earth is least at the poles1 but increases the nearer we get to the equator4 ,it is also familiar knowledge that there are currents of cold air ever moving from the ,north and ,south poles to the equatorial regions near the surface of the earth4 ,thus the cold air currents1 in passing from the ,north and ,south poles1 are ever passing over surfaces which are increasing in velocity as they journey on their way to the equator4 ,this of course occurs all round the earth1 so that the earth is continually revolving in these currents1 and if the rotational velocity of the surface of the earth were wholly imparted to the air directly over its surface1 then the currents would be always flowing due ,north and ,south4 ,if1 however1 the earth fails to impart all its rotational velocity to the atmosphere1 or the atmosphere fails to pick up the whole of the rotational velocity at once1 then the result will be that the atmosphere as it passes over the surfaces of greatest velocity will lag behind1 because its rotational velocity will be less than the velocity of the earth's surface4 ,now this is exactly what does happen in regard to the atmosphere1 with the result1 that instead of getting winds blowing due north and south1 we get what are known as ,trade ,winds1 which blow north-east in the northern hemisphere and south-east in the southern hemisphere4 ,here then we have direct experimental proof on a large scale of the very principle ,i have stated1 viz1 that a medium surrounding any rotating body does not move through the whole of its extent with the same velocity as its does at the surface4 ,thus it can be seen that the velocity of the rotating ,aether will be greatest at the surface of the sun1 but its angular velocity will decrease the further the medium recedes from the sun4 ,the same principle can easily be proved from an electrical standpoint2 for if we consider the ,aether currents as electric currents1 no one would think of suggesting that the intensity of the currents was the same at a distance of several million miles away1 as it is near the source of the currents1 which in this case may be looked upon as the sun1 because at its surface we have the greatest electric potential 7,art4 #hj74 ,so that we see from this reasoning1 that not only is there a decreased mass of the ,aether at the distance of ,venus1 compared with ,mercury1 but there is also a decreased velocity in the rotatory electro-magnetic ,aether currents1 with the result that the impressed force exerted upon ,venus is less than the impressed force exerted upon ,mercury1 and therefore ,venus should move slower through space than ,mercury1 which is exactly what happens1 as ,mercury has an orbital velocity of #bi miles per second1 while ,venus has an orbital velocity of #bb miles per second4 ,as the angular velocity decreases in proportion as the distance increases1 it follows that at the respective mean distances not only of ,venus1 but also of ,mars1 ,jupiter1 ,saturn1 ,uranus and ,neptune1 the capacity of the ,aether to exert its impressed force upon the various planets will decrease as the distance increases1 with the result that the farther a planet is from the sun1 the less force will the ,aether currents exert upon that planet1 with the result that its orbital velocity should decrease as the distance increases1 and this is perfectly in accordance with planetary phenomena4 ,here1 then1 we have at once a physical basis for ,newton's ,second ,law of ,motion1 the results of which are entirely in harmony with observation and experiment1 and whose conception fully satisfies all the ,rules of ,philosophy2 as it is simple in conception1 fully agrees with observation and experiment1 and satisfactorily explains the ,second ,law of ,motion sought to be explained4 ,thus we find that from the physical standpoint1 as well as from the mathematical standpoint1 ,change of motion is proportional to the impressed force1 and takes place in the direction in which the force is impressed1 that is1 in a circular direction4 ,we have therefore arrived at exactly the same result that ,newton arrived at1 except that he had to introduce a third factor1 viz4 the ,parallelogram of ,forces1 while we have produced the result by a simpler method1 which1 according to his own rules1 is more philosophical1 as all effects are produced by the simplest causes1 as ,newton himself stated in ,rule #a4 ,thus it is the rotatory electro-magnetic ,aether currents that urge the planets round the sun2 and1 as will be shown later1 it is the same ,aether currents in combination with the other motions that give rise to the physical cause of ,kepler's ,laws4 ,it is the electro-magnetic ,aether currents that produce the regular decrease in the velocity of the planets in their orbits1 because of the regular decrease of the mass and velocity of the ,aether currents themselves4 ,we have now a physical cause as well as a mathematical explanation of the decrease of the velocity of a planet in its orbit1 which physical cause is in perfect harmony with all philosophical rules4 ,the following table shows the gradual decrease in the velocity of each planet as the various planets recede from the sun-- ,,mean ,,period ,,of ,,velocity ,,in ,,distance4 ,,revolution4 ,,orbit ,,per ,,hour4 ,mercury #ce1ijj1jjj #hg4i days ,venus #fg1jjj1jjj #bbd4g #gg4jjj ,earth #ib1gjj1jjj #cfe4b #ff4ejj ,mars #ada1jjj1jjj #fhf4i #ec4jjj ,jupiter #dhb1jjj1jjj #d1ccb4f #bh4gdd ,saturn #hhd1jjj1jjj #aj1gei4 #ba4bba ,uranus #a1ghj1jjj1jjj #cj1fhg4 #ad4ifc ,neptune #b1ghj1jjj1jjj #fj1abg4 #aa4ieh ,,art4 #ajj4 ,aether and ,third ,law of ,motion4--,we have seen 7,art4 #af7 that action and reaction are equal and opposite1 and that it is true of the centripetal force in its application to all matter throughout the universe4 ,if1 therefore1 the centrifugal force is the exact opposite of the centripetal force1 then the ,third ,law of ,motion should equally hold good in relation to that force also4 ,we have1 therefore1 to form a physical conception of the application of the third law of motion1 as it relates to the centrifugal force4 ,as we have already learned1 this force is due to the universal electro-magnetic ,aether1 which being gravitative1 surrounds all atoms and molecules that may exist throughout the whole universe4 ,it can readily be seen1 therefore1 that if the ,aether surrounds every atom and molecule1 then each atom repels another atom or molecule when the two forces are in equilibrium with exactly the same intensity with which the atom and molecule attract each other4 ,but the centrifugal force in each case is due to the pressure of the ,aether1 which presses always proportionately to the density of the ,aether surrounding the atom or molecules1 as suggested by ,professor ,challis4 ,the mean density1 however1 of each atomic or molecular atmosphere is regulated solely by the mass of the atom or planet1 therefore the pressure exerted by one atom on another is proportionate to the mass of each atom1 and to that extent is strictly in accordance with the law which governs the proportion of the forces between the two atoms or molecules4 ,if1 therefore1 we have two atoms1 ,a and ,b1 of different masses1 then it is true that while ,a exerts a pressure on ,b1 which pressure takes the form of a repulsion1 at the same time ,b exerts a pressure on ,a which is equal and opposite in its character and intensity1 and in each case the pressure is due to the aetherial medium which surrounds each atom or molecule4 ,when the atoms are equal in mass1 then the resultant motion produced on each atom would be exactly equal1 but when the masses vary1 the resultant motion produced on each atom would vary also1 though the momentum in each case would be exactly equal and opposite1 as momentum is a compound term dependent partly upon the mass of the body concerned4 ,in ,art4 #af we saw that when this third law was applied to planetary phenomena1 not only did the sun attract all the planets1 but all the planets attracted the sun with equal and opposite forces1 and the planets also attracted each other with equal and opposite forces4 ,in the same way it can be proved1 that as the sun repels all the planets by the pressure exerted by the aetherial centrifugal force on those planets1 the planets repel the sun with an exactly equal and opposite force at their mean distances4 ,in ,newton's conception1 however1 of the third law of motion1 there was simply mathematical data to deal with1 by which the law was shown to apply to the planetary and stellar world4 ,in the case1 however1 of the centrifugal motion1 we have a definite physical medium1 which by its motions produces the pressure on the planets or suns that exist in space1 which pressure forms the physical centrifugal force that forms the counterpart of ,gravitation ,attraction4 ,let us look at this phase of the case in detail1 and by so doing help to establish and confirm the physical existence of the force or motion referred to4 ,we have learned from ,chapter ,,iv4 that as ,aether is gravitative1 it surrounds all satellites and planets1 suns and stars that exist in the universe4 ,we have also learned from ,art4 #hf that ,aether has an electro-magnetic basis1 as mathematically proved by ,maxwell and experimentally proved by ,hertz4 ,thus we came to the conclusion that each satellite and planet1 sun and star1 was an electrified body 7,art4 #ha71 or an electro-magnet 7,art4 #hh71 possessing its own electric or electro-magnetic field4 ,we also learned that in every electro-magnetic field there was a pressure which was ever directed away from the body that generated the electro-magnetic waves4 ,now1 as every satellite and planet1 sun and star1 is a generator of these waves according to our theory1 it follows that every satellite and planet1 sun and star1 is the centre of a centrifugal force1 which centrifugal force is regulated by the mass of the satellite1 planet1 sun or star which gives rise to the centrifugal force or motion4 ,now1 in relation to all electro-magnetic action1 it can be experimentally demonstrated1 that action and reaction are equal and opposite1 so that if we have two electrified or magnetized bodies1 then the joint forces of attraction or repulsion between them are equal and opposite4 ,this being so1 when we apply the same law of action and reaction to the planets' influence on each other1 it follows that the same law must hold good in relation to them4 ,so that if we compare the repulsive powers of two planets on each other in the solar system1 say the ,earth and ,jupiter1 then1 according to the third law of motion1 the repulsive action of ,jupiter on the ,earth is exactly equal and opposite to the repulsive action of the ,earth on ,jupiter4 ,if we compare the ,earth and the sun1 the repulsive action of the sun on the ,earth is exactly equal and opposite to the repulsive action of the ,earth on the sun1 that action or force being caused directly by the electro-magnetic ,aether waves1 which are generated by each electric1 or electro-magnetic body4 ,thus1 as the third law of motion is true of the centripetal force1 whether in relation to the atomic world1 or in relation to the solar system1 or even to the universe at large1 seeing that the centrifugal force is the exact counterpart in every way of the centripetal force1 exactly fulfilling all the laws which govern it1 it follows as a matter of absolute necessity that the third law is also applicable to its complement or counterpart also1 or else it would cease to be the complement and counterpart of the centripetal force4 ,,art4 #aja4 ,why ,planets revolve from ,west to ,east4--,in ,art4 #ii we have seen that the revolution of the planets around the sun is produced and maintained by the electro-magnetic ,aether currents1 which are generated by the axial motion of that electro-magnetic body4 ,there is1 however1 another effect produced1 and another scientific fact which can be accounted for by the circulating motions of the ,aether medium1 viz4 that the orbital direction of each and all the planets would not only be in the same direction1 but they would also be in the same direction as the sun's rotation on its axis4 ,so that1 whichever way the sun turns upon its axis1 that way1 and that alone1 should be the orbital direction of all the planets in which they are circled round the sun by the circulating electro-magnetic ,aether currents4 ,it is the sun's axial motion that partly gives to the ,aether currents their circling motion1 and it is the circling motion of the ,aether currents that gives rise to the orbital motion of the planets1 literally carrying them round the sun by their kinetic energy and power4 ,therefore1 if this be true1 whichever way the sun turns upon its axis1 that will be the direction in which the ,aether currents must circle round the sun1 and in that direction the planets should travel in their orbits4 ,as must readily be seen1 it is the inevitable result of the established working of the electro-magnetic ,aether currents4 ,if the sun rotated on its axis from east to west1 then the electro-magnetic ,aether currents would also travel in the same direction1 from east to west1 and the planets would then revolve round the sun from east to west4 ,if the sun1 however1 rotates on its axis from west to east1 then1 if there are such electro-magnetic ,aether currents in existence1 as those we have already proved to exist1 they1 too1 would travel from west to east1 and as a natural result the planets1 which are carried round the sun by the currents1 would also possess the same orbital motion1 that is from west to east4 ,as is well known1 the sun rotates on its axis from west to east1 therefore the ,aether currents also rotate from west to east1 with the result that the orbital directions of all the planets should also be in the same direction1 from west to east4 ,now1 as is well known1 all the planets without exception1 ,mercury1 ,venus1 the ,earth1 ,mars1 ,jupiter1 ,saturn1 ,uranus1 and ,neptune1 all travel round the sun from west to east4 ,here1 then1 we have indisputable evidence of the existence and mode of working of the electro-magnetic aetherial currents1 whose action alone can produce the phenomena with which we are so familiar1 and for which there must be some physical cause4 ,i am not aware that any reason or explanation either mathematical or otherwise has ever been given1 or even suggested1 as to the cause of the phenomena which we have just endeavoured to explain4 ,indeed1 there can be no other physical explanation of the fact1 that all the planets revolve round the sun in the same direction that the sun rotates on its axis1 than the one here given1 viz4 that the cause is to be found1 and alone found1 in the circulating electro-magnetic ,aether currents which are generated in the ,aether by the electro-magnetic body1 the sun4 ,again1 in order to confirm the existence of these ,aether currents that exist in space1 not only those generated by the sun1 but also by all the other electro-magnetic bodies1 as all the planets 7,art4 #hh71 we will consider the working of the same upon the satellites of those planets which possess them4 ,the ,earth we know has one satellite1 the moon1 ,mars has two satellites1 ,phobos and ,deimos1 ,jupiter has five satellites1 ,saturn has eight satellites1 while up to the present ,uranus has been found to possess four1 and ,neptune one4 ,there is1 however1 little doubt but that both ,uranus and ,neptune possess more than those already discovered1 as it is inconceivable that ,jupiter and ,saturn1 which are nearer to the sun1 should possess a greater number of satellites by which the nights of the respective planets are illuminated1 while the further planets1 which need the increased lighting1 because of the decreased intensity of the aetherial light waves at the increased distance1 possess apparently a less number of satellites1 and therefore less illumination for their respective nights4 ,but what have these satellites to teach us as to the existence of the electro-magnetic aetherial currents that circulate round the planets8 ,we have to apply a similar course of reasoning to the planets1 as we have done in the case of the sun4 ,if the sun is an electro-magnetic body1 by its axial rotation it generates rotating ,aether currents1 and those ,aether currents partake of the same rotation as the revolving body1 that is1 from west to east4 ,in a like manner each planet1 being an electro-magnet1 generates electro-magnetic aetherial currents which also possess the same rotation as the planetary body which gives rise to them4 ,so that if the planets rotate on their axes from east to west1 the ,aether currents will also rotate from east to west1 but if the rotation of each planet is from west to east1 then the rotation of the ,aether currents associated with each planet will also be from west to east1 with the result that each satellite will be carried round its primary planet by the circulating ,aether currents in exactly the same way as the planet rotates on its axis4 ,now if this is the case1 then we have further evidence of the existence of the circulating electro-magnetic ,aether currents1 not only those associated with the sun1 but those also associated with each of the planets1 as explained in ,art4 #ia4 ,it might have been urged in the case of the planet's revolution round the sun being in the same direction as the sun's axial action1 that such a fact was merely a coincidence1 but such an objection loses its force if it is proved that the same principle or truth when applied to other bodies equally holds good4 ,when we come to analyze the direction of the satellites round their primary planets1 we find that each satellite has an orbital motion1 or is carried round its central and controlling planet by that planet's ,aether currents in exactly the same direction that the planet rotates on its axis1 viz4 from west to east4 ,so that we have in the orbital direction of the satellites1 as we have also in the orbital direction of the planets1 conclusive evidence of the existence and mode of working of the ,aether and of the electro-magnetic currents generated in that aetherial medium by the electro-magnetic bodies which rotate in it4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,aether ,,and ,,kepler',s ,,laws ,,art4 #ajb4 ,aether and ,kepler's ,first ,law4--,in ,art4 #bf we learned that according to the ,first ,law of ,kepler1 each planet revolves round the sun in an elliptic orbit1 with the sun occupying one of the foci4 ,we also saw that that elliptic orbit was produced according to ,newton by the conjoint working of the centripetal and centrifugal forces in association with the three ,laws of ,motion1 to which laws had to be added a corollary1 which is termed the ,parallelogram of ,forces1 before the ,first ,law of ,kepler could be fulfilled4 ,in making any hypothesis as to the physical cause of ,kepler's ,laws1 if it can be shown that the same aetherial medium that gives rise to the centrifugal force1 also gives rise to the centripetal force1 and that the same medium by its rotatory motions also fulfils the three laws of motion1 and gives a satisfactory physical explanation of all ,kepler's ,laws2 then1 according to our three ,rules of ,philosophy1 we shall have found a physical medium which1 by its motions and pressures and tensions1 can give rise to all the phenomena exhibited in the celestial mechanism4 ,such a physical explanation will be philosophically correct1 in that it is simple in its conception1 is entirely in harmony with observation and experiment1 and satisfactorily accounts for1 and that on a physical basis1 all the phenomena associated with the whole of the celestial mechanism4 ,we have therefore to apply the motions of the ,aether medium to the solar system1 and by so doing reveal the physical explanation of all ,kepler's ,laws1 in the same way that ,newton revealed their correctness from the mathematical standpoint4 ,let us review the conception of the solar system as given in ,art4 #ii1 so that we may be able to proceed from that physical conception of a stationary solar system to a moving system4 ,thus we see the sun in a stationary system occupying exactly the centre of that system4 ,the solar energies are in full play1 generating electro-magnetic ,aether waves which are radiated forth into space with the velocity of light4 ,then1 as there is given to the sun a rotatory motion on its axis1 that rotatory motion imparts to the gravitating aetherial medium a circulatory or rotatory motion which spreads out through space with ever-increasing intensity4 ,by their radiating motion the ,aether waves would repel all planets from their central body1 the sun1 if they were not counterbalanced by the centripetal force2 and the two forces1 the centrifugal and the centripetal forces1 find their equilibrium at the mean distance of each planet1 thus fixing and regulating permanently the distance and orbit of each planetary world4 ,at the same time1 the rotatory motion of the electro-magnetic ,aether currents1 according to the second law of motion1 would act on the planets by their kinetic or moving energy1 and so circle them round the sun1 their controlling centre4 ,as long as the sun was quite stationary1 while still possessing a rotation on its axis1 if such a thing were possible1 so long would the conception of the ancients be fulfilled1 and the rotation of all the planets would be strictly circular in form1 and their orbits would be that of a circle only1 as proved by ,sir ,w4 ,r4 ,hamilton 7,art4 #ii74 ,illustration3 ,fig3 #bd4 ,but1 as is well known1 the sun itself possesses an orbital motion of its own1 so that1 while all the associated planetary system is revolving round it1 the sun with all that system is being carried along through space in an orbit which is also elliptic in form1 as we shall see later on4 ,according to ,herschel1 the sun is moving towards the constellation of ,hercules with a velocity of about #ah1jjj miles per hour1 and the problem to be faced is1 what is the effect of the sun's orbital velocity upon the circular motion of the planets8 ,by solving that problem1 we shall arrive at a physical conception for the first time of ,kepler's ,laws1 and shall see that the first of ,kepler's ,laws is solved simply by giving an orbital velocity to any central body1 the result of which will be that the circular form of any planet's orbit will be changed from the circular into one of elliptic form4 ,let me ask the reader to perform a very simple experiment to confirm this fact4 ,take a piece of string and a lead pencil1 and start to draw a circle on a piece of paper 7,fig4 #bd74 ,when1 however1 one quarter of the circle has been drawn1 viz4 ,d ,f1 move the end of the piece of string representing the centre of the circle along the paper1 as represented in the diagram1 from ,a to ,b4 ,the result will be that the pencil will now travel parallel with the moving centre for a time from ,f to ,g1 and then1 when the centre is brought to rest again1 the other part of the half ellipse ,g ,h may be completed4 ,in the same way1 by reversing the motion1 the other half of the ellipse may be completed4 ,so that it is possible for an ellipse to be formed simply by moving the central point of a circle1 and the motion of that central point will change the form of a circle into an ellipse4 ,it is something like this that takes place in the planetary world1 with this difference1 that the central point which represents the sun does not return from one focus to another1 but continues to journey on through space1 with the result that the orbit of any planet is not strictly an ellipse1 as we shall see later on4 ,we have1 then1 the sun occupying the centre of the solar system1 with all the planets revolving round it4 ,we will take the sun and the ,earth as examples4 ,let ,s in the diagram represent the sun1 and ,e the ,earth at its mean distance of #ib1jjj1jjj miles away 7,fig4 #be74 ,illustration3 ,fig3 #be4 ,the ,earth we know is moving with a velocity of about #fd1hjj miles per hour around the sun1 or an average velocity of #ah miles per second1 so that while the ,earth is moving #fd1hjj miles through space to perform the half-circle1 ,e ,d ,c1 the sun is also travelling #ah1jjj miles towards the point ,d4 ,what1 therefore1 is the effect of this onward movement of the sun towards the ,earth as it tries to complete the half-circle ,e ,d ,c8 ,we have seen that the centrifugal force due to the pressure of the electro-magnetic ,aether waves is exactly equal to the centripetal force exerted by the sun on any planet1 and if that be so1 it can be readily seen that as the sun journeys towards the point ,d of the ,earth's orbit1 it tends to approach nearer and nearer the ,earth4 ,thus the intensity of the aetherial pressure owing to the decreased distance will be greatly increased1 and the effect of the increased pressure of the ,aether upon the planet will be to push it away from the sun1 so that the two forces may be equalized1 and its mean distance1 which is definitely fixed1 be maintained as far as possible4 ,the result will be that1 instead of the ,earth describing the half-circle ,e ,d ,c1 it actually describes the part of the ellipse ,e ,f ,c4 ,thus it can be seen that while the sun is travelling through space1 it is at the same time giving rise to the electro-magnetic ,aether waves1 which1 by their repelling power1 repel the ,earth from the sun in the direction that the sun is travelling1 and hence the half-circle is elongated into that part of the elliptic orbit known as the perihelion1 which is that part of the orbit where the distance of any planet from the sun is the least4 ,illustration3 ,fig3 #bf4 ,the repelling power of the ,aether waves is not1 however1 sufficient to overcome altogether the centripetal force in conjunction with the ,earth's motion1 with the result that when the ,earth arrives at ,f1 its distance is only #ia million miles1 that being the least distance between the sun and the ,earth4 ,we shall see the result of this decreased distance when we deal with ,kepler's ,second ,law4 ,we will now proceed to notice the effect of the sun's orbital velocity upon that part of the ,earth's orbit which includes the aphelion1 or that part in which the ,earth occupies a position of the greatest distance from the sun4 ,proceeding on the same method of reasoning1 if the sun were stationary1 with the ,earth being circled round it by the electro-magnetic ,aether currents1 then the path described by the ,earth would be that of a circle1 being represented by the half-circle ,c ,g ,e 7,fig4 #bf74 ,but it has to be remembered that while the ,earth is being circled round the sun by the rotatory electro-magnetic ,aether currents1 the sun is still travelling on towards ,s ,f at the rate of #ah1jjj miles per hour1 while the ,earth is travelling in almost an opposite direction towards ,c ,g1 so that by the time the ,earth has got to ,g1 which we will suppose is one quarter of its ellipse1 the sun has travelled millions of miles in that time4 ,thus it can readily be seen1 that by the time the ,earth has got to its aphelion1 it is at its furthest distance from the sun1 simply because the sun has been travelling onwards through space all the time1 while the ,earth has been receding from it2 and as the motion of the ,earth has been in an opposite direction1 the mean distance has been exceeded1 and instead of the ,earth being now at its mean distance from the sun1 its distance is now #id1ejj1jjj miles4 ,at that part of its orbit1 its orbital velocity is at a minimum1 because the rotating ,aether currents have there a decreased flow and a decreased mass and density1 and therefore possess a decreased kinetic energy or motive power4 ,thus by the rotating ,aether currents working in conjunction with the centrifugal and centripetal forces1 can be accounted on a physical basis the first of ,kepler's ,laws in a manner which is strictly philosophical1 as the explanation is simple in conception1 does not violate experience or experiment1 and satisfactorily accounts for1 on a physical basis1 the law which it is required to explain4 ,if we consider the rotating ,aether currents as purely currents of electricity1 then exactly the same results follow4 ,for1 as we shall see later1 ,professor ,lodge in his ,modern ,views of ,electricity proves that electricity possesses both inertia and momentum1 and if electricity possesses these properties1 then it also possesses the requisite properties to enable the currents to propel or push any planet around its central body1 or a satellite round its primary planet4 ,therefore the same course of reasoning that applies to the rotating ,aether currents1 equally applies to the currents of electricity that circulate round each satellite1 planet1 and sun and star1 and by that circulation gives rise to the electro-magnetism associated with each body1 while at the same time they supply the kinetic energy which enables any dependent or associated body to be propelled round their controlling centre4 ,,art4 #ajc4 ,second ,law of ,kepler4--,according to ,kepler's ,second ,law 7,art4 #bg71 we learn that the radius vector1 which is the imaginary straight line joining any planet to the sun1 describes1 or sweeps over1 equal areas in equal times4 ,so that1 while ,kelper's ,first ,law describes the path which a planet takes in revolving round the sun1 the ,second ,law shows how the velocity of that planet varies in different parts of its orbit4 ,while1 however1 there is a difference in the velocity of any planet at various points in the orbit1 there is still a proportion existing between its various velocities1 in that equal areas are covered in equal times4 ,we have now to apply the hypothesis of our rotatory ,aether currents1 in conjunction with the centripetal and centrifugal forces1 in order to see whether the ,second ,law of ,kepler can be explained on a physical basis1 in the same way that ,newton explained it from the mathematical standpoint4 ,we have again to conceive the sun as the centre of two equal but exactly opposite forces1 and also possessing a rotatory motion on its axis1 with the electro-magnetic ,aether currents ever circulating round it4 ,if the sun were stationary1 it will be manifest at once that ,kepler's ,second ,law would be literally and strictly fulfilled1 for in that case the orbit of all the planets would be perfect circles1 and the motion of planets in their orbits would be perfectly uniform1 and therefore equal areas would be covered by the radius vector in equal times4 ,thus any quarter of the orbit would be described in exactly a #a_/d of a year1 #a_/ab in #a_/ab of a year1 #a_/dj in #a_/dj of a year1 and so on1 the time being exactly proportional to the proportion of the area covered by the radius vector4 ,the area covered would always be uniform1 because the radius vector would always be uniform in length4 ,but1 as we have seen in the previous article1 the distance of a planet from the sun1 that is1 the length of the radius vector1 is not uniform1 as the ,earth is nearer to the sun at perihelion1 and further away at aphelion1 its distance gradually changing as it passes from each of these points to the other4 ,now what is the effect of the decreased distance upon the circulating or rotatory ,aether currents8 ,we have already seen 7,art4 #ii7 that the closer these ,aether currents are to the central body1 the sun1 the greater is their velocity and the greater their mass1 so that the total impressed force which they exert over any planet is greater the nearer that planet is to the sun4 ,this is proved by the fact that ,mercury has a greater orbital velocity than ,venus1 ,venus than the ,earth1 the ,earth than ,mars1 and so on right through the whole of the planetary system4 ,in view of these facts1 let us again consider the effect of the sun not being stationary1 but having an orbital velocity of its own through space4 ,thus let the sun be at ,s and the ,earth be at point ,d of its orbit 7,fig4 #be74 ,the circulating ,aether currents are ever acting upon the ,earth1 carrying it round the sun with them1 while at the same time the centripetal force is pulling it towards the sun with a certain intensity1 but the centrifugal force is repelling the ,earth with exactly the same intensity1 and if the sun remained motionless the two forces would exactly balance each other1 while the ,earth would describe the half-circle ,e ,d ,c4 ,but while the ,earth is moving towards the point ,d with a velocity of #fd1jjj miles per hour1 the sun is also moving at the velocity of about #ah1jjj miles per hour towards that point4 ,thus the repelling power of the radiating electro-magnetic ,aether waves has to overcome1 not only its exact counterpart1 the centripetal force1 but also the onward motion of the sun as it rushes on its course through space4 ,this the centrifugal force is unable to do1 with the result that the distance is gradually lessened1 and instead of the ,earth describing the arc ,e ,d1 it describes the arc ,e ,f1 at which point its distance is at the minimum1 or about #ia millions of miles4 ,or1 to put the same fact in another way4 ,when the ,earth is at ,e1 the centripetal force and the orbital velocity of the ,earth and the sun are acting conjointly1 with the result that they overcome the centrifugal force1 and the distance is gradually decreased4 ,this decreased distance means an increased aetherial density and an increased velocity of the aetherial currents1 with the result1 that as the distance is decreased1 the orbital velocity of the ,earth is gradually increased1 so that by the time the ,earth gets to ,f1 at its perihelion1 it has now acquired its greatest orbital velocity1 and is carried round the sun by the electro-magnetic ,aether currents at its maximum velocity4 ,now let us look at the ,earth being circled round the sun by the electro-magnetic ,aether currents as it goes on to perform the other half of the orbit4 ,in this case we have the orbital motion of the sun and the centrifugal force working conjointly1 with the result that together they overcome the centripetal force1 and the ,earth is repelled and carried beyond its mean distance4 ,let ,s represent the sun1 the ,earth being at point ,c of its orbit1 after passing round its perihelion1 and at this decreased distance it is carried along by the circulating and denser ,aether with its maximum velocity 7,fig4 #bf74 ,now while the ,earth is going on to describe the half-circle ,c ,g ,e1 the sun is still pursuing its journey at the rate of about #ah1jjj miles per hour1 only this time in a direction away from the ,earth4 ,as1 however1 the ,earth has not yet regained its mean distance of #ib1jjj1jjj miles1 the centrifugal force is still greater than the centripetal force1 so that the centrifugal force is urging the planet away from the sun with greater intensity than the centripetal force is attracting it1 as the two forces are only in equilibrium at the mean distance of the ,earth4 ,thus1 as stated1 the orbital motion of the sun and the centrifugal forces are now working conjointly together1 with the result that the ,earth is repelled gradually further and further from its central body1 until it reaches its maximum distance of #id1ejj1jjj miles4 ,while1 however1 the distance is gradually being increased1 it is passing into a part of the ,aether possessing not only a decreased mass1 but also a decreased velocity1 with the result that the motive power or kinetic energy of the aetherial currents at the increased distance is gradually lessened1 and as a natural result the velocity of the ,earth is also decreased2 so that by the time the ,earth has got to its furthest distance from the sun1 its orbital velocity is slowest1 because of the decreased momentum of the aetherial currents4 ,thus we can account for the difference of velocity of a planet in its orbit by the same electro-magnetic ,aether currents working in conjunction with the sun's orbital motion1 and that upon a strictly physical basis4 ,this result is in perfect harmony with ,kepler's ,second ,law1 which states that equal areas are described by the radius vector in equal times4 ,newton proved that by the ,law of ,gravitation ,attraction he could account for this second law1 as well as all the others1 and as we have not destroyed that law1 but perfected it by giving it its exact complement and counterpart1 the same mathematical reasoning that applies to the centripetal force must equally apply to the centrifugal force1 and if it is true that the centripetal force works harmoniously with the second of ,kepler's ,laws1 then it is equally true that the centrifugal force does also1 as the two are inseparably and indisputably united together in the atomic ,aether4 ,we have1 however1 a physical basis for this centrifugal force1 and we have an equal physical basis for the centripetal force1 as we shall see later1 and therefore1 by the conjoint working of these two forces taken in conjunction with the orbital motion of the sun1 we have now a physical conception for the first time of ,kepler's ,laws1 as well as a mathematical conception1 that physical conception being derived from the pressure and motions of the universal ,aether4 ,,art4 #ajd4 ,aether and ,kepler's ,third ,law4--,in ,art4 #bh we saw that according to the ,third ,law of ,kepler1 the square of the periodic time was proportionate to the cube of the mean distance of that planet from its controlling centre4 ,newton proved that this ,third ,law was mathematically correct1 and that it could be mathematically accounted for by the existence and operation of the universal ,law of ,gravitation4 ,as the centrifugal force is the exact opposite of that force in intensity1 proportion and mode of operation1 it follows that mathematically the centrifugal force also bears the same relation to the ,third ,law that the centripetal force does4 ,we have1 however1 a physical basis for the centrifugal force1 and it is with the physical conception of this ,third ,law rather than with its mathematical character that we are now dealing4 ,kepler by his ,third ,law showed that the chief regulating factor in the orbital velocity of a planet was its mean distance from the sun4 ,the great regulator of the velocity of any planet in its orbit is simply planetary distance1 and planetary distance alone4 ,if there were no other law which operated in the solar system than the centripetal force1 or the attractive force due to gravity1 then such factors as mass and density of a planet ought to play a most important part in the orbital velocity of a planet1 as the centripetal force directly recognizes the influence of mass1 that is1 volume and density1 but says nothing about mean distances4 ,this fact unmistakably points to the existence1 and demands the operation1 of another force1 which shall explain1 and that on a physical as well as a mathematical basis1 how it is that the mean distance of a planet from any centre regulates the orbital velocity of that planet4 ,the only real and true conception of such a force is to be found in the radiating waves and circulating motions of the aetherial medium1 which waves1 like water waves1 increase in their radial outflow and extent with a regular decreasing intensity1 and at the same time decrease in their angular velocity as they recede from the sun4 ,with such a regular decrease of kinetic energy1 there must necessarily be imparted to the planets1 as their mean distance is increased1 a decreased velocity of motion1 with the natural result1 that the further a planet is from the sun1 the less will be its orbital velocity1 and that in a regular and uniform proportion as the distance is increased4 ,now let us view the matter for a moment in its application to the solar system1 and by so doing show the simplicity of the explanation1 and at the same time give added proof to the existence and operation of the circulating aetherial currents that exist in space4 ,let us again picture the solar fires burning in all their fierceness and intensity1 every atom and particle of the sun being thrown thereby into the most intense state of activity1 and by their energy of motion creating electro-magnetic ,aether waves in their myriads1 which speed away from the sun on every side4 ,under their influence1 all subordinate worlds would be carried away into space1 were it not for the complementary ,law of ,gravitation ,attraction1 that is1 the centripetal force4 ,but to every planet1 by the operation of some governing and determining principle1 a mean distance has been given1 and at that mean distance the two forces find their equilibrium2 and by their conjoint and co-equal working hold each planet at that mean distance with a power that cannot be broken4 ,each power or force may be modified under certain conditions1 as shown in the two preceding articles2 but1 whether the planet be repelled further away1 or attracted nearer to the sun1 through the onward motion of the sun1 the two forces ever seek to maintain their equilibrium1 and to place the planet at its mean position assigned to it in the solar system4 ,the nearer that mean position is to the sun1 the greater is the velocity of the aetherial currents which circulate round the sun2 and the greater their mass1 volume for volume1 on account of the increasing density of the ,aether1 the nearer it is to the sun4 ,the effect of this increased velocity1 and the increased mass of the circulating ,aether currents1 is to impart to planets nearest to the sun the greatest orbital velocity2 while1 the greater the distance1 the less will be the orbital velocity of the planet4 ,that this is exactly in accordance with observation and experience may be proved by considering the respective mean distances and orbital velocities of the various planets4 ,mercury1 with a mean distance of #ce1ijj1jjj miles1 is circled round the sun at the enormous rate of about #ajh1jjj miles per hour1 accomplishing its entire journey in the short period of #hh days4 ,venus1 whose mean distance is about #fg1jjj1jjj miles1 is carried round the sun at the reduced rate of #gh1jjj miles per hour1 completing her orbit in the increased time of #bbd days4 ,our own ,earth1 at the still further increased mean distance of #ib1jjj1jjj miles1 performs her journey at the reduced velocity of #fd1jjj miles per hour1 accomplishing the journey round the sun in a period of #cfe days4 ,thus1 the further we get from the sun1 the slower becomes the movement of a planet in its orbit1 and the longer it takes to complete its revolution round its controlling centre4 ,mars1 at the increased distance of #ada1jjj1jjj miles1 possesses a reduced velocity of #ed1jjj miles per hour1 and completes its orbit in the increased duration of #fhf days4 ,so the decrease of velocity goes on1 as the planets increase their mean distance from the sun1 as the following figures show-- ,,mean ,,distance4 ,,period ,,of ,,orbital ,,velocity ,,revolution4 ,,per ,,hour4 ,jupiter #dhb millions #d1ccb days #bh1jjj miles ,saturn #hhd #aj1gei #ba1fjj ,uranus #a1ghj #cj1fhg #a1hjj ,neptune #b1ghj #fj4abg #ijj ,the relation of this decrease of velocity to the mean distance is exactly determined by ,kepler's ,third ,law1 in which he states that the square of the periodic time is proportionate to the cube of the mean distance4 ,that this is true has already been proved in ,art4 #bh4 ,in conclusion on this point1 let me ask the reader to try to conceive any other physical explanation for this decrease of orbital velocity as the mean distance is increased1 than the one given here1 namely1 the decrease in the velocity and mass of the radiating and circulating ,aether currents1 and if such attempt is made1 ,i premise that its only result will be utter failure4 ,no other physical conception to account on a physical basis for all ,kepler's ,laws can be given or conceived1 than that which finds its origin in the universal electro-magnetic ,aether1 which by its pressures1 tensions and motions gives rise to all the phenomena incidental to1 and associated with1 planetary and stellar phenomena4 ,therefore1 inasmuch as all the laws of motion1 and all ,kepler's ,laws can be accounted for by a gravitating and rotatory ,aether medium1 those facts alone1 apart from the explanation of other phenomena associated with light and heat1 would stamp the circulating ,aether medium as the physical cause of all the motions and phenomena associated with the whole of the celestial mechanism4 ,,art4 #aje4 ,orbital ,motions of ,satellites and ,planets4--,according to ,kepler's ,first ,law1 the ,earth and all the other planets move round the sun in orbits which are in the shape of an ellipse4 ,not only1 however1 is the first law true of planetary motion1 it is equally true of the motions of all satellites moving round their primary planets4 ,i wish1 however1 to point out1 and prove in an indisputable manner1 that ,kepler's ,first ,law does not sufficiently explain and determine the exact orbit of any satellite as it revolves around its primary planet1 or even of any planet as it revolves around the sun4 ,simply because1 if any satellite or planet is to perform a perfect ellipse as it revolves around its central body1 that central body must only move for a time and must then come to rest1 or partly return in its journey in order for a perfect ellipse to be formed1 as shown in a previous figure4 ,now we know from observation that such a thing as rest in space by any planet1 or by the sun1 is absolutely unknown in the celestial mechanism4 ,from ,art4 #ib we learned that the electro-magnetic ,aether currents not only circulate round the sun1 but they also circulate round each planet4 ,thus we found there were electro-magnetic ,aether currents circulating round each planet1 while those planets themselves were circled round the sun by the ,aether currents generated by the sun2 the planetary ,aether currents in their turn propel the satellites round their primary planets4 ,it can easily be seen1 therefore1 that such phenomena as rest and return of a planet in its journey are physical impossibilities1 for either the circulating ,aether currents would have to cease circulating1 or would have to return upon themselves in some inconceivable manner4 ,thus there is ever going on this conjoint motion1 so to speak1 of the sun's aetherial currents which circle all the planets round that body1 and the planetary aetherial currents which circle all the satellites round their central body1 and it is the effect of the conjoint working of these currents on the planets and satellites to which ,i wish to call the reader's attention4 ,let us in starting represent the earth's orbit by a perfect ellipse ,a ,b ,c ,d1 with the sun occupying one of the foci ,s 7,fig4 #bg74 ,we will suppose that the earth is at point ,a of its orbit and is being circled round the sun with uniform velocity4 ,as it is circled round the sun by the sun's aetherial currents1 at the same time its satellite the moon is being circled round the earth by the electro-magnetic ,aether currents which circulate round that planet4 ,we will represent the orbit of the moon by part of a smaller circle ,d ,e ,f1 and suppose the moon to be at point ,d of that orbit4 ,the mean distance of the moon from the earth is about #bdj1jjj miles1 so that the diameter of the orbit is #dhj1jjj miles1 therefore the circumference of the orbit is #dhj1jjj #c4adaf1 which gives us about #a1ejj1jjj miles4 ,illustration3 ,fig3 #bg4 ,that distance is traversed in about #bh days1 so that the moon's average velocity in its orbit1 as it is circled or pushed round the earth1 is about #bbjj miles per hour4 ,while1 therefore1 the moon is travelling #bbjj miles1 the earth in its journey round the sun has travelled about #fd1hjj miles in the same time4 ,so that by the time the moon has travelled half its orbit1 that is1 from ,d to ,f1 which would take about #ad days1 the earth has also travelled in its orbit #fd1hjj #bd #ad #ba1ggb1hjj miles1 with the result1 that instead of the moon arriving at point ,f1 which it would do if the earth were stationary1 it really arrives at a point about #ba1ggb1hjj miles in front of that point4 ,in a similar way1 while the moon goes on to describe the other half of the orbit1 the earth still proceeds on its journey1 so that at the end of #ad days it is again #ba1ggb1hjj miles further on1 with the result1 that the centripetal force 7by which the moon is attracted to the earth7 keeps it at the distance of #bdj1jjj miles according to ,kepler's ,second ,law as explained in ,art4 #ajc4 ,the moon1 therefore1 completes its orbit about #ba1ggb1hjj miles further on than it would do if the earth were stationary4 ,the effect of this continual progress of the earth on the moon's orbit as it describes its orbit round the sun is seen in the diagram4 ,as the moon revolves round the earth thirteen times in one year1 it performs thirteen revolutions round that planet2 but it cannot be said that these orbits are perfect ellipses1 as the earth is ever being circled round its central body1 the sun4 ,even this diagram does not accurately represent the orbital motion of the moon through space1 as it assumes that the earth returns to the same point in space from whence it started4 ,this1 however1 is incorrect1 as we have to remember that the sun has also an orbital velocity of #ah1jjj miles per hour1 so that while the earth has performed one revolution in its orbit1 the sun has actually progressed through space to the extent of #ah1jjj #bd #cfe #aeg1fhj1jjj miles4 ,when we come to deal with the sun's motion through space1 we shall see that this distance only represents a fraction of the sun's orbit1 as it can be philosophically proved1 that if the sun moves at all1 it1 too1 obeys ,kepler's ,laws2 and therefore1 according to his ,first ,law1 it also describes and possesses an orbit of its own4 ,so that by the time the earth has made its annual revolution round the sun1 the whole system has been carried #aeg1fhj1jjj miles through space1 and therefore the earth does not complete a perfect ellipse1 but its orbital motion round the sun will be represented by a similar kind of diagram to the one which represents the orbital motions of the moon1 or any other satellite round its central body4 ,,art4 #ajf4 ,eccentricity of ,orbit of ,moon4--,from astronomical observation we learn1 that all the satellites and planets do not possess uniformity of motion1 as they are carried round their controlling centres by the circulating aetherial currents1 because the respective controlling centres themselves move through space4 ,the result is1 that the orbit of any satellite or planet is not always of the same size1 but constantly varies1 sometimes having a larger circumference than at other times1 and sometimes a smaller circumference4 ,this change in the size of the orbit of a satellite or planet is known as the eccentricity of the orbit1 which eccentricity is constantly changing1 being sometimes greater and sometimes less4 ,we will look at this truth in its relation to the moon first1 and then consider the same principle in its relation to the earth and other planets later on4 ,for the purpose of illustration1 we will consider the earth as being circled round the sun by the electro-magnetic ,aether currents in a closed orbit1 ,a ,b ,c ,d1 which forms a perfect ellipse1 the sun occupying one of the foci ,s 7,fig4 #bh71 the earth occupying a position in the orbit represented by point ,c1 with the moon being circled round the earth by that planet's aetherial currents4 ,as we have already seen in ,art4 #ajc1 according to ,kepler's ,second ,law1 at this point the earth is furthest from the sun1 being now at a distance of #id-a_/b millions of miles1 and therefore its orbital velocity will be slowest at that part of its orbit4 ,if it were absolutely at rest in space1 and simply revolving on its own axis1 then the result would be that the moon would be circled round the earth in an orbit ,m ,c ,f which is perfectly circular in form2 but1 as the earth is being carried along slowly through space by the circulating ,aether currents1 this onward movement changes the circular orbit into an orbit of elliptic form4 ,illustration3 ,fig3 #bh4 ,the eccentricity of the moon's orbit when the earth is at its aphelion1 or furthest from the sun1 is now at a minimum1 for the simple reason that the earth is proceeding slowly through space1 owing to the decreased kinetic energy of the aetherial currents at the increased distance4 ,so that1 at this point of the earth's orbit1 the difference between the two axes of the moon's orbit will be the least1 and its orbit at that point will be the nearest approach to that of a circle4 ,but1 as we have already seen1 as soon as the earth leaves this part of its orbit1 and begins to get nearer to the sun1 it passes into a part of the aetherial medium possessing greater kinetic energy1 with the result that its own velocity is accelerated4 ,now what is the effect of this increased acceleration of the earth on the eccentricity of the orbit of the moon8 ,the earth's rotation on its axis remains unaltered during this increasing orbital velocity1 consequently the aetherial currents generated by the earth will remain uniform1 and the moon will still be circled round the earth in the same period of about #bh days4 ,but while the time of the moon's revolution remains unaltered1 the orbit that she has to describe is now increased owing to the increased orbital velocity of its central body1 with the result1 that by the time the earth gets to that part of its orbit represented by point ,d1 it is then two millions of miles nearer to the sun than at point ,c1 and will be circled round the sun by the aetherial currents at a much greater rate4 ,therefore1 the eccentricity of the moon's orbit is increased just in proportion to the increased velocity of the earth in its orbit round the sun4 ,by the time the earth has arrived at point ,a1 when it is only a distance of about #ia millions of miles from the sun1 it reaches the minimum distance1 and is circled round at the decreased distance with its maximum velocity4 ,at this point1 therefore1 the eccentricity of the orbit of the moon will be at its greatest1 and1 if one revolution could be represented by an ellipse ,e ,g ,h1 then that ellipse would be more elongated1 and the difference between the two axes of the moon's orbit would be greater than at any other point of the earth's orbit4 ,thus it can readily be seen that the eccentricity of the moon's orbit is primarily due to the different velocities of the central body1 in this case the earth1 as that body is carried round its central body1 the sun4 ,where the earth's motion is slowest1 there the eccentricity of the moon's orbit will be at a minimum2 but where the earth's velocity is greatest1 there the eccentricity of the moon's orbit will be at a maximum4 ,between this minimum and maximum velocity of the earth in its orbit there is the constant increase or decrease in the eccentricity of the orbit of the moon2 the eccentricity increasing as the orbital velocity of the central body increases1 and decreasing as the orbital velocity of the earth decreases4 ,a further fact has1 however1 to be taken into consideration1 which is that the primary body about which the moon revolves is itself subject to the same eccentricity of its orbit1 and for similar reasons1 as we shall see later on4 ,so that when the eccentricity of the earth's orbit is at its greatest1 then the moon's orbit will possess its greatest possible eccentricity1 and as the eccentricity of the earth's orbit is dependent upon the orbital velocity of the sun1 so the greatest possible eccentricity of the moon's orbit is indirectly connected and associated with the sun's motion through space1 which motion will now be considered4 ,,art4 #ajg4 ,the ,sun and ,kepler's ,first ,law4--,we have learned in the previous articles that ,kepler's ,laws not only apply to planetary motion1 but are equally applicable to the motion of all satellites as they revolve round their respective planets4 ,the question now confronts us1 as to whether ,kepler's ,laws are equally true in their application to the sun8 ,now the sun is one of the host of stars that move in the vast infinity of space1 and if it can be proved that ,kepler's ,laws hold good in relation to one star1 as they do in relation to all planets and satellites1 then such a result will have a most important bearing upon the motions of other stars1 and we shall be able to determine with some degree of exactness what are the motions and orbits by which all the stars in the universe are governed4 ,sir ,wm4 ,herschel first attacked the question as to whether the sun1 like all the other stars1 was in motion1 and if in motion1 what was the shape of its orbit1 and the laws which governed its orbital velocity4 ,we know that the sun is the centre of the solar system1 and the question to be considered is1 whether that system is circled round a controlling centre while the sun is at rest in space1 simply possessing its one axial rotation1 or whether1 like every planet and satellite1 it is subject to two motions1 an axial rotation and an orbital velocity through space4 ,further1 if it possesses an orbital velocity through space1 what is the cause of that orbital velocity8 ,it was due to the genius of ,sir ,wm4 ,herschel to first solve this problem1 and by careful research he was able to determine that the sun1 with all its attendant planets1 was indeed moving through space4 ,not only did he discover this fact1 but he also found out the direction in which the whole of our solar system was moving1 as well as the velocity with which the general movement was performed4 ,herschel proved that the onward march of the solar system was in the direction of the constellation of ,hercules1 and that the velocity of the march of this system exceeds five miles per second1 or #ejj1jjj miles per day4 ,thus we learn that the whole of our solar system1 comprising the sun1 with all its planets with their attendant satellites which circle round each planet1 and the asteroids or minor planets1 are bound together by the two forces1 the centripetal and the centrifugal1 while the system as a whole is urged on its way by some force or power through the realms of space4 ,what that power is we shall try to find out as we consider the application of ,kepler's ,laws to this onward movement of the sun4 ,if1 then1 the sun is moving through space with this enormous velocity1 the question arises as to what is the shape of the path or orbit which it describes8 ,sir ,wm4 ,herschel attacked this question from a mathematical standpoint1 and came to a certain conclusion1 as we shall see4 ,we will1 however1 attack the problem solely from the philosophical standpoint1 by applying to it the ,rules of ,philosophy given in our first chapter1 and we will then see whether our result is in harmony with the conclusions arrived at by ,sir ,wm4 ,herschel4 ,now what has experience and observation to tell us regarding the orbit which any body moving in space assumes8 ,take1 for example1 our moon as illustrating the movement of all satellites1 and our earth as illustrating all planetary motion4 ,what does observation teach us as to the orbits which these bodies describe8 ,if it teaches us anything at all1 it teaches us that every satellite and planet moves with varying velocity in a varying orbit around some central body4 ,so far as our observation goes1 then1 in relation to planetary motion1 or the motion of satellites1 we learn that every body which moves in space fulfils ,kepler's ,first ,law1 and describes an orbit round a central body1 that body occupying one of the foci4 ,thus1 wherever we get any body moving in space1 if there be any truth in philosophy which is based on experiment and observation1 that body ought also to move in similar elliptic orbits1 and be subject to exactly similar conditions governing those orbits4 ,but we have learned that the sun moves through space with a velocity of about five miles per second1 therefore it follows1 philosophically1 that the sun must also move around some other central body1 and the path of such movement is that of an elliptic orbit1 with the central body around which it moves occupying one of the foci4 ,in other words1 the sun obeys the first of ,kepler's ,laws1 the same as all the planets and satellites do4 ,suppose1 for a moment1 that it is denied that the sun moves in an elliptic orbit6 ,what path would it pursue in place of that8 ,would the path be that of a straight line towards the constellation of ,hercules8 ,such an assumption would be altogether unphilosophical1 as it is contrary to all experience and observation1 and is therefore untenable4 ,before such an assumption can be made1 it must be proved that every planet and satellite moves in a straight line1 and not till that has been done can it be assumed that the sun moves in a straight line1 or indeed in any other path than that stated in the first of ,kepler's ,laws4 ,this conclusion is in perfect harmony with the conclusion arrived at by ,herschel1 for in his work on ,astronomy1 in ,arts4 #bib1 #bie and #big1 he points out that the sun's path is elliptic in form1 and that ,kepler also showed the sun fulfilled the first of his laws1 and described an orbit which was in the shape of an ellipse4 ,we have therefore philosophically arrived at the conclusion that the sun moves in an elliptic orbit1 and to do so it must move round some central body1 which is to the sun what the sun is to the planets1 and what the planets are to the satellites4 ,it is impossible to conceive of the sun moving in an elliptic orbit1 and yet not moving around some central body1 as we should have a celestial phenomenon altogether opposed to all experience and observation4 ,for we have already seen that the central body is just as important a factor to the elliptic orbit as the planet itself1 because1 without the central body there cannot possibly be any elliptic orbit4 ,where then in the universe is the central body around which the sun revolves8 ,what is its distance away from the sun8 ,what is its size8 ,these are questions that philosophy alone cannot answer1 as there is no law1 so far as ,i can see1 that regulates the size and distance of the central body in proportion to the size and distance of the planets or satellites4 ,if there were1 then it would be possible for philosophy to apply such a law or rule4 ,that there is a central body around which the sun revolves is as true as the fact that there is a central body about which each planet revolves1 or each satellite revolves1 and it remains for the practical astronomer1 or the mathematician1 to endeavour to discover the exact part of the heavens in which it is situated1 and ascertain its distance and possibly its size4 ,what will be the effect of the existence of this central body of the sun upon the solar system8 ,one effect will be to do away with that isolation that up to the present has apparently existed with regard to our solar system and stellar space4 ,instead of the solar system being a solitary system that moves through space subject to apparently no law1 and moved by apparently no physical power1 that system1 through the influence and effect of the aetherial currents originated by that central body1 will be linked to other parts of the universe1 and will become a part of one harmonious whole1 its physical connection being made manifest and plain in the self-same electro-magnetic ,aether medium that forms the connecting medium between the satellites and planets1 or the planets and the sun4 ,another result will be1 that as the sun is a star1 we shall be able to apply the self-same principles and laws of ,kepler to the stellar world in exactly the same way that we have done to the solar system4 ,thus1 by bringing all stellar phenomena under the influence of ,kepler's ,laws1 we shall be able to philosophically give an unity to the universe1 and show1 within rational limits1 how such unity may be physically conceived1 which result will be an advance upon any physical conception of the universe hitherto manifested or revealed4 ,further1 by accepting the first of ,kepler's ,laws in relation to the sun1 and admitting the existence of a central body1 we shall be able then to apply the second of ,kepler's ,laws1 and by so doing shall be able to give a physical explanation of two scientific facts which up to the present have never been physically explained1 viz4 the physical conception of the plane of the ecliptic1 and a physical explanation of the eccentricity of the earth's orbit1 which is but the result of the application of ,kepler's ,second ,law to the sun's orbital motion around its central body4 ,,art4 #ajh4 ,the ,sun and ,kepler's ,second ,law4--,we will now proceed to apply the second of ,kepler's ,laws to the orbital motion of the sun1 and1 in so doing1 shall find we are able to give at the same time a physical explanation of the eccentricity of the earth's orbit4 ,in order to obtain a physical conception of the sun's orbital motion according to ,kepler's ,first ,law1 it is essential that we should consider the effect of the existence of a central body around which the sun revolves2 or1 to put the matter into another form1 we will ask the question as to what is the physical cause of the sun revolving round that central body8 ,let us look at the case for a moment4 ,here1 according to astronomical observation1 we find a certain phenomenon which takes the form of a huge body #hfe1jjj miles in diameter moving through space with a velocity of nearly #ejj1jjj miles per day4 ,what then is the physical cause of the movement of this large sphere8 ,certainly there must be some physical cause1 or else we have a violation of all experience1 which indisputably teaches us that no body moves unless it is either pushed or pulled4 ,we have1 however1 done away with a pulling power so far as the cause of the actual revolution of bodies around a central body is concerned1 and in its place have substituted a medium that pushes or carries them round each central body4 ,for over #bjj years the scientific world has accepted a pulling power1 that is1 an attractive power1 solely as the cause of the movements of celestial bodies1 with the result that the physical cause of all the motions of planets and satellites has been outstanding and undiscovered4 ,it would1 therefore1 be unphilosophical to revert to the old conception of a gravitating attractive power as the sole cause of the sun's orbital motion through space4 ,if we desire to know what is the cause of its revolution round that central body1 then we must seek to find the same from the result of observation and experience in other directions4 ,we have learned from ,art4 #ajb that the orbital motion of the moon is caused by the electro-magnetic ,aether currents that circulate round its central body1 the earth4 ,by the same means every satellite is circled round its central body also4 ,we have also learned from ,art4 #ii that the earth is carried round the sun by the circulating and rotating electro-magnetic ,aether currents1 and that these same currents also form the physical cause of the revolution of all the other planets round their central body1 the sun4 ,thus we arrive at the fact that wherever there is a body moving in space1 it is moving solely because it is pushed along1 or carried round its controlling centre by the rotating ,aether currents4 ,but we have just learned that the sun is moving through space1 and that it describes an elliptic orbit around some central body in accordance with ,kepler's ,first ,law4 ,so that the only philosophical conclusion that we can possibly arrive at in relation to the orbital motion of the sun is1 that such motion is caused by similar electro-magnetic ,aether currents whose circulating motion is partly caused by the rotation of that central body4 ,thus we are led up to the philosophical conclusion1 that it is the aetherial currents of the central body around which the sun revolves1 that produce1 and alone produce1 the onward motion of the sun through space4 ,any other conclusion must be unphilosophical1 and therefore untenable4 ,we have1 therefore1 to conceive of the sun's central body generating and giving rise to electro-magnetic aetherial currents that extend through space to the limits at least of the solar system1 and these aetherial currents1 acting upon the sun's huge form by their kinetic energy1 carry it with all its associated worlds through infinite space4 ,there is nothing extravagant in this conception1 when we remember that the solar system has been moving on and on through infinite space year after year1 and yet it never seems to get appreciably nearer to the other stars1 but ,i hope to show the reason of this by strictly philosophical reasoning later on4 ,with this conception of the sun in its relation to its central body we are now in a position to consider the application of ,kepler's ,second ,law upon the sun's orbital motion1 and its resultant effect upon the orbit of our earth and all the other planets4 ,from ,kepler's ,second ,law we know that equal areas are described by the radius vector in equal times1 and if the first law of ,kepler is at all applicable to the sun1 then it must follow that if the sun has an orbit1 and moreover an elliptic orbit as stated by ,kepler himself1 then1 as a natural result1 the radius vector of the sun must move over equal areas in equal times4 ,the physical explanation of ,kepler's ,second ,law was given in ,art4 #ajc1 and there is no need to traverse the same ground again4 ,it is1 therefore1 true that the sun moves faster in certain parts of its orbit than in others1 being urged through space at its greatest velocity when it is nearest its controlling centre1 and slowest when farthest away from that controlling centre4 ,herschel1 in his work on ,astronomy1 states3 ,the motion of the sun will be such that equal areas are thus swept over by the revolving radius vector in equal times in whatever part of the circumference of the ellipse the sun may be moving4 ,he1 however1 suggested that the earth forms a focus of the sun's ellipse1 a suggestion which is unphilosophical1 it seems to me1 as we might equally suggest that the earth revolves round the moon1 which is contrary to all observation4 ,thus the sun is not carried uniformly through space by the aetherial currents of its central body1 because it is nearer to that central body at certain times2 its velocity being regulated by its distance from that body1 the same being increased as the distance is decreased1 and decreased as the distance increases4 ,now if this reasoning be correct1 and if the sun really moves round a central body and is subject to ,kepler's ,second ,law1 then that increase and decrease of distance will be made manifest in the increase and decrease of the eccentricity of the earth's orbit4 ,so that if the eccentricity of the earth's orbit should vary from century to century1 then we have conclusive evidence that the sun obeys the first and second of ,kepler's ,laws1 and therefore that it revolves around a controlling centre of its own4 ,from observation we find that this is exactly what is happening1 and that at the present time the eccentricity of the earth's orbit is gradually diminishing1 and in about #bd1jjj years the orbit will be very nearly a circle4 ,now1 from what was stated in ,art4 #ajf1 we know that the moon's orbit will be nearly a circular orbit when the earth is farthest from the sun1 and that then its orbital velocity is at a minimum4 ,in order for this result to be produced1 the earth must reach that part of its orbit known as aphelion1 where the distance from its controlling centre is greatest1 so that the eccentricity of the moon's orbit is always an indication of the position of the earth in its relation to the sun4 ,when the eccentricity of the moon's orbit is decreasing1 the earth's distance from the sun is increasing1 but when the eccentricity of the moon's orbit is increasing1 then the earth's distance from the sun is decreasing4 ,now if we apply this analogy to the eccentricity of the earth's orbit1 we shall be able to obtain some idea of the relation of the sun to its central body4 ,we find then that the eccentricity of the earth's orbit is decreasing1 therefore1 arguing from analogy1 we arrive at the conclusion that the sun's distance from its controlling centre is increasing1 and that its orbital velocity is decreasing4 ,if it be true that in #bd1jjj years the earth's orbit will be nearly circular1 then it follows that in #bd1jjj years the sun will be at that part of its orbit corresponding to the aphelion of the orbit of the earth1 that is1 its distance from its controlling centre will then be at a maximum4 ,after that the eccentricity of the earth's orbit will begin to increase1 and will continue to increase for about #dj1jjj years1 according to some scientists1 which implies that the sun will then have started from its aphelion point1 so to speak1 and will begin its return journey towards its central body1 gradually getting nearer and nearer4 ,as it gets nearer its orbital velocity will be proportionately increased1 with the result that the eccentricity of the earth's orbit will increase also4 ,from a consideration of the movement of the major axis of the earth's orbit1 which is moving forward at the rate of #aa per year1 we are told that a whole revolution will be made in #ajh1jjj years4 ,we have here1 then1 an indication of the time that the sun takes to revolve round its central body1 because the time of the whole revolution of the eccentricity of the orbit should correspond with one complete revolution of the sun around its central body4 ,so that from a consideration of the eccentricity of the earth's orbit1 we are not only able to demonstrate that the sun satisfactorily fulfils the first and second of ,kepler's ,laws1 but1 conversely1 we are able to give a satisfactory physical explanation of the cause of the eccentricity of the earth's orbit1 which explanation is again primarily to be found in the universal ,aether medium4 ,,art4 #aji4 ,plane of the ,ecliptic and ,zodiacal ,light4--,as already pointed out1 another phenomenon which can be physically accounted for by the sun's orbital motion through space around its central body1 is that celestial plane known as the ,plane of the ,ecliptic4 ,what then is the ,plane of the ,ecliptic whose physical explanation we are to attempt8 ,we know that the moon revolves round the earth as the earth revolves round the sun1 while the sun is pursuing its way through space4 ,it has been found also1 that all these motions of these different bodies take place on one level1 so to speak2 that is to say1 they do not go up or down in space1 but straight on4 ,so straight do they move1 that their path has been likened to the level of the ocean1 on which a ship may sail for thousands of miles1 always keeping the same level and even course4 ,on some such ocean as this in space all the planetary systems and solar systems seem to move1 ever moving on and on with the same uniformity of level through infinite space4 ,further1 this plane of the ecliptic is to the celestial sphere what the sea-level is to the earth4 ,the height of a mountain on the earth is stated to be so much above the sea-level4 ,in a similar way astronomers say that a star is a certain height above the plane of the ecliptic4 ,what then is the physical explanation of this scientific term8 ,we will lead up to it by first considering the effect that rotation has upon a liquid body4 ,it has been demonstrated that if a mass of oil is placed in a transparent liquid of the same density1 so long as the oil is perfectly at rest1 its shape will be that of a sphere which will float about in the liquid1 but as soon as the oil is made to rotate by means of a piece of wire1 then the spherical shape is changed into that of an oblate spheroid4 ,further1 the faster it is made to rotate1 the more it will bulge out1 so that its equatorial diameter will greatly exceed its polar diameter4 ,the same principle may be illustrated by making a hoop to revolve rapidly on its axis1 when a similar effect of bulging out will be produced4 ,now let us apply this principle to the earth with its electro-magnetic ,aether currents circulating round it1 and ask what is the effect of the rotation first upon the earth1 and then upon the rotating ,aether currents8 ,it is a matter of common knowledge that the effect of rotation upon the earth when it was in a fluid state was to make its equatorial parts bulge out as it rotated1 with the result that as it solidified the equatorial diameter exceeded the polar diameter by #bf miles4 ,if1 therefore1 the result of rotation upon the earth when in its fluid state was to make it spread out greater in the equatorial regions than in any other part of its surface1 what must be the effect of a similar rotation upon the rotatory ,aether currents8 ,it can easily be seen that the rotation of these currents will be to make them spread out into space in a region which corresponds to the equatorial regions of the earth1 so that the rotating ,aether currents will be congregated more in the equatorial regions of the earth than in any other part of the earth's surface4 ,the further also they extend into space the less depth they will have1 gradually tapering off1 as shown in the illustration1 where ,e represents the earth and ,b ,c the ,aether currents 7,fig4 #bi74 ,any body1 therefore1 situated within the sphere of their influence would be carried round the earth by the currents1 and the currents would be to them their governing and controlling level4 ,so that the moon1 which is held bound to the earth by the two opposite and equal forces1 would always be carried around the earth by those electro-magnetic ,aether currents1 and outside of those currents it could not pass4 ,but the earth is only #hjjj miles in diameter1 therefore if the currents gradually tapered off as suggested1 by the time the aetherial currents reached the distance of the moon1 their depth would not exceed #bjjj or #cjjj miles4 ,the diameter of the moon is1 however1 only #bafj miles1 so that the rotating ,aether currents would practically form an ocean in which the moon would swim1 and one constant level on which it revolves in space4 ,wherever the earth was carried by the aetherial currents of the sun1 there the aetherial currents of the earth would carry the moon1 its mean distance by the conjoint working of the two co-equal forces having been permanently fixed4 ,illustration3 ,fig3 #bi4 ,so that it can be readily seen1 as regards the moon1 that the earth's aetherial currents form the plane on which it revolves around the earth4 ,now in exactly the same way it can be proved that it is the sun's aetherial currents which form the plane or level on which all the planets revolve or are carried around their central body4 ,we have only to enlarge our conception and the same result follows4 ,instead of dealing with a body #hjjj miles in diameter1 we are now dealing with a body #hfe1jjj miles in diameter1 and as this huge body is more or less in an incandescent state1 the aetherial currents will therefore be proportionate in intensity and flow to its size and atomic activity4 ,instead1 therefore1 of the aetherial currents which circulate round the sun only extending a quarter of a million of miles1 their energy and flow extend far away into space1 even beyond the greatest distance of ,neptune1 a distance of #b1hjj1jjj1jjj miles4 ,the same truths apply here1 however1 as in the case of the earth and the moon4 ,the aetherial currents which circulate round the sun congregate together1 and possess their greatest depth nearest to the equator1 while the further away they recede1 the less and less depth they possess1 with a decreased intensity and decreased kinetic energy4 ,these ,aether currents will be to all the planets1 therefore1 what the earth's aetherial currents will be to the moon1 being to them the ocean level on which they alone can move1 and by which they are carried round their central body4 ,thus these currents will form for all the planets the level in infinite space upon which they float1 and from which they cannot pass4 ,let us further consider the movements of these currents in space1 and we shall find further confirmation of this fact by so doing4 ,astronomers tell us that it takes light about three and a half years to reach us from the nearest star4 ,by calculation1 therefore1 we find that the nearest star to our system is about #bje1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj miles away1 that being about the distance that light travels in three and a half years4 ,the diameter of the sun is about #hfe1jjj miles1 so that the distance of the nearest star is #bdj1jjj1jjj times the diameter of the sun4 ,we could therefore put #bdj1jjj1jjj of our solar systems in the space that exists between us and the nearest star4 ,how is it1 then1 that all the planets as they revolve round the sun do not float up and down in the space that extends between us and the nearest star8 ,i can give no other answer1 and can see no other possible physical explanation than the one already given1 which is1 that they are bound to the sun by the two co-equal forces1 the centrifugal and centripetal forces1 and while so bound are carried round the sun by the electro-magnetic aetherial currents which extend out into space4 ,it has to be remembered that the aetherial electro-magnetic currents circulating round the earth are situated within the aetherial currents which circulate round the sun1 therefore the plane of the moon's orbit will coincide more or less with the plane of the earth's orbit4 ,we have now only to go one step further to get our complete conception of the plane of the ecliptic4 ,in ,arts4 #ajg and #ajh we learned that the sun was subject to ,kepler's #ast and #bnd laws1 and as a natural result we came to the conclusion that it1 too1 was circled round some central body4 ,we have only to apply a similar course of reasoning to the sun and its central body as we have to the moon and the earth1 and the earth and the sun1 and then we arrive at our physical conception of the plane of the ecliptic1 which is due to the aetherial currents that circle round the sun1 while that body is carried round some other central body4 ,thus by the circulating ,aether currents1 originated and outflowing from their respective sources1 each source being immutably fixed and bound to each other by the two equal and complementary forces1 can be accounted for1 the uniformity of position and plane of the various orbits of the various satellites1 planets1 and the sun1 as they move in one great plane1 termed the ,plane of the ,ecliptic4 ,it could not be otherwise than it is1 and thus another celestial phenomenon can be accounted for on a real tangible basis by accepting the existence of those aetherial currents which form the physical basis of all the celestial mechanism4 ,if further evidence were required of the existence of these rotating ,aether currents round the sun1 such evidence is found in that phenomenon of the solar system known as the ,zodiacal ,light1 of which up to the present no physical explanation has been forthcoming4 ,in the conception of the atomic and gravitating ,aether which rotates round the sun1 ,i venture to premise will be found the physical solution of this phenomenon also4 ,i will refer the reader to an extract taken out of ,outlines of ,astronomy1 by ,herschel 7,art4 #hid71 so that we may see what his conception of the zodiacal light was1 and we will see how far his explanation is in conformity with our hypothesis of an atomic1 gravitating and rotatory ,aether medium4 ,he writes3 ,we shall conclude this chapter by the mention of two phenomena1 which to me indicate the existence of some slight degree of nebulosity about the sun itself1 and even to place it in the list of nebulous stars4 ,the first is that called the ,zodiacal ,light1 which may be seen any very clear evening soon after sunset1 about the months of ,march1 ,april and ,may1 as a cone or lenticularly-shaped light extending from the horizon obliquely upwards1 and following generally the course of the ecliptic1 or rather that of the sun's equator4 ,the apparent angular distance of its vertex from the sun varies1 according to circumstances1 from #dj to #ij1 and the breadth of its base perpendicular to its axis from #h to #cj4 ,it is extremely faint and ill-defined1 at least in this climate1 though better seen in tropical regions1 but cannot be mistaken for any atmospheric meteor or aurora borealis4 ,it is manifestly in the nature of a lenticularly-formed envelope surrounding the sun1 and extending beyond the orbits of ,mercury and ,venus1 and nearly1 perhaps quite1 attaining that of the earth1 since its vertex has been seen fully #ij from the sun's place in a great circle4 ,it may be conjectured to be no other than the denser part of that medium which we have some reason to believe resists the motions of comets2 loaded perhaps with the actual materials of the tails of millions of those bodies of which they have been stripped in their successive perihelion passage4 ,if its particles have inertia1 they must necessarily stand with respect to the sun in the relation of separate and independent minute planets1 each having its own orbit1 plane of motion1 and periodic time4 ,let me call the reader's special attention to one or two statements of ,herschel's given in this extract1 in order to see how these statements harmonize with the view of the ,aether submitted in this work4 ,in the first place he states its shape is that of a lenticularly-formed envelope surrounding the sun1 and extending beyond the orbits of ,mercury and ,venus1 and probably to our earth4 ,this harmonizes with the shape of the aetherial envelope as given in ,art4 #gj4 ,then ,herschel states it may be the denser part of that medium which we have reason to believe resists the motions of comets4 ,that is exactly what it is1 though ,herschel failed to show why it should be the denser part of the ,aether1 as we have seen is the case1 on account of its being gravitative4 ,i will also prove later on1 that ,herschel was right with regard to the resistance of the motion of comets through it4 ,then he refers to its particles probably possessing inertia1 as though he had anticipated the atomicity of the ,aether1 and assuming that atomicity1 he was compelled to postulate inertia also as we have done in ,art4 #dh4 ,lastly1 he points out that each separate particle must have its own plane of motion1 its own orbit1 and its periodic time4 ,now this view fully coincides with that laid down in this article1 where we have learned that the rotating ,aether has its own plane of motion1 that plane being the ,plane of the ,ecliptic1 and as every particle or atom has its allotted place in the rotating ,aether1 then1 as ,herschel points out1 the particle must have its own orbit1 and plane of motion1 and also its own periodic time4 ,if1 therefore1 we had desired fuller confirmation of this atomic gravitating ,aether1 we could not have wished for more conclusive proof than that given by one of the greatest philosophical astronomers of the last century4 ,we shall see later that ,herschel also had a clearer view of cometary phenomena1 and of the forces which played a part in those phenomena1 than any of his contemporaries1 when we deal with the origin and motions of all comets4 ,thus from ,herschel we learn that the zodiacal light is caused by the atomic1 gravitating1 and rotatory ,aether as that aetherial medium revolves round the sun1 while at the same time every atom of the medium is itself in a state of rotation on its axis1 as it performs its journey in its own orbit and in its own plane of motion4 ,,art4 #aaj4 ,centripetal ,force4--,we have now to consider what is the physical cause of that part of the compound ,law of ,gravitation known as the ,centripetal ,force4 ,as we have already learned 7,art4 #aj71 this force is really none other than the ,attractive ,force of ,gravitation1 in that its mode of operation always acts towards the centre of the attracting body1 and hence was called by ,newton the ,centripetal ,force4 ,the centripetal force is1 however1 the exact counterpart and complement of the centrifugal force1 in the same way that the latter is the exact counterpart of the former1 as we have already learned that the centrifugal force operates along the same path1 and that it is subject to the same law of proportion1 being equal to the product of the masses of a body 7,art4 #he71 and further1 that its intensity is inversely as the square of the distance 7,arts4 #ff1 #gd and #hd74 ,we have1 however1 discovered that the physical cause of the centrifugal force is due to the pressure of the electro-magnetic ,aether 7,art4 #if74 ,if1 therefore1 the physical cause of that law which is the complement and counterpart of ,gravitation ,attraction is to be found1 and alone found1 in the pressure and motions of the electro-magnetic ,aether1 then it is only logical and reasonable to infer that the physical cause of the ,attraction of ,gravitation is to be found in the same electro-magnetic ,aether4 ,that the ,attraction of ,gravitation is to be found in this medium is now an accepted hypothesis among scientists4 ,because1 unless the physical cause of ,gravitation ,attraction is to be found in this electro-magnetic ,aether1 then1 in order to account for that attraction1 we should have to postulate the existence of another medium in space1 in lieu of the ,aether1 which would be to the centripetal force what the ,aether is to the centrifugal force4 ,this would be distinctly unphilosophical1 as it would be a violation of the first two rules of our philosophy1 in that it would not be simple in its conception1 and that such a hypothesis would imply the existence of two media which would occupy the same planetary and interstellar space at one and the same time1 and this is a violation of all experience in its widest form4 ,therefore the physical cause of ,gravitation must be sought for in the same medium which gives the physical cause of the companion force1 and that medium is the electro-magnetic ,aether4 ,professor ,preston in his ,theory of ,light is of this opinion4 ,in ,art4 #cbg he writes3 ,to account for the propagation of heat and light1 that is1 of radiant energy1 we have postulated the existence of a medium filling all space4 ,but the transference of the energy of radiant heat and light is not the only evidence we have in favour of the existence of an ,aether4 ,electric1 magnetic and electro-magnetic phenomena and ,gravitation itself point in the same direction4 ,professor ,lodge1 in his ,modern ,views of ,electricity1 is even more explicit in his statement of the case4 ,on page #cch he states3 ,gravitation is explainable by differences of pressure in the medium 7i4 e4 the ,aether7 caused by some action between it and matter not yet understood4 ,further1 ,newton himself suggested that the physical cause of ,gravitation ,attraction was to be found in that aetherial medium which pervaded all space4 ,if1 therefore1 we attempt to explain the physical cause of ,gravitation ,attraction by the tensions of the universal ,aether1 we shall not only be dealing with the subject from a philosophical standpoint1 but we shall solve the problem in that direction in which ,professors ,preston and ,lodge and other scientists have suggested we are to seek for the solution4 ,professor ,curry1 in his ,theory of ,electricity and ,magnetism1 page #djf1 states3 ,if we regard the luminiferous ,aether1 as defined by ,von ,helmholtz's equations1 as the given medium or transmitter of so-called gravitating action1 we are then able on the one hand to interpret its longitudinal oscillations as gravitational waves propagated through space with the given enormous velocity1 and on the other hand1 to form some conception of the mysterious force of ,gravitation itself1 for we can then conceive it as a medium stress arising from a certain type of ,aether oscillations1 its longitudinal ones1 that pervade entire space4 ,now in order for us to lead up to the physical cause of the centripetal force1 we must recall some of the facts already given with regard to planetary and solar space4 ,thus we have learned that the sun is an electro-magnet possessing its own magnetic field1 with its lines of force 7,art4 #hh74 ,we have also learned that all the planets are electro-magnets1 each possessing its own field with its lines of force 7,art4 #ia74 ,we have further seen that the cause of all this electro-magnetism is due to the fact that electric currents are continually circulating round each body1 and by their conjoint action with the magnets there are produced the electro-magnetic fields that are associated with each body in the solar system4 ,from this hypothesis we arrived at the conclusion1 that wherever there was ,aether1 there we found electricity1 because of the electro-magnetic basis which ,aether possesses4 ,this result is fully confirmed by ,maxwell's electro-magnetic theory of light 7,art4 #gh71 which has been so fully experimentally demonstrated by ,hertz4 ,indeed1 in the minds of several scientists there is a growing conviction that ,aether and ,electricity are possibly one and the same substance4 ,professor ,lodge1 in the work already referred to1 in relation to this hypothesis1 writes in the preface to that book3 ,crudely1 one may say that as heat is a form of energy1 so electricity is a form of ,aether1 or a mode of aetherial manifestation4 ,and again3 ,a rough and crude statement adapted for popular use is that ,electricity and ,aether are identical4 ,but that is not all that has to be said1 for there are two opposite kinds of electricities1 and there are not two ,aethers4 ,but there may be two aspects of one ,aether1 just as there are two sides to a sheet of paper4 ,as1 therefore1 we learn that ,aether has an electro-magnetic basis1 and that electricity is a mode of aetherial manifestation1 we have therefore to consider one of the most fundamental laws of electricity1 and note its application to solar and planetary space4 ,it is one of the fundamental laws of electricity1 that equal and opposite quantities of electricity are always generated at one and the same time4 ,faraday's well-known ice-pail experiment proved this4 ,it is an absolute impossibility for one kind of electricity to be generated without an equal quantity of the opposite kind being produced1 although it is not strictly correct to use the term generated or produced in relation to electricity1 as electricity cannot really be produced by any process whatever4 ,another way of stating this law is1 that the total induced charge on any body is always equal and opposite to the inducing charge4 ,so that if we look upon the sun as an electrified body 7,art4 #hj7 surrounded by the aetherial envelopes or shells1 then we can conceive of the inductive action of the sun upon any planet as taking place along the tubes of force in the ,aether1 which tubes are sections of the spherical envelopes that surround it4 ,but this inductive action implies the existence of the very law already enunciated1 viz4 that equal and opposite quantities are always generated at one and the same time1 and before that law can become operative in relation to the ,aether1 it must be postulated that the ,aether possesses a dual character1 that is1 it possesses a positive and negative electrical basis4 ,this view of the ,aether has already been developed by ,dr4 ,larmor in his ,electron ,basis of the ,aether1 as in that hypothesis he postulates both positive and negative electrons4 ,in his ,aether and ,matter he writes1 page #c3 ,it assumes that the mass of each sub-atom is proportional to the absolute number of electrons1 positive and negative1 that it carries1 and that the effective interatomic forces are entirely or mainly electric4 ,further1 ,professor ,lodge on this point writes3#dj ,we now proceed a step further and analyze the ,aether into two constituents1 two equal opposite constituents1 each endowed with inertia and each connected to the ,aether by elastic ties4 ,the two constituents are called positive and negative electricity respectively1 and of these two electricities we imagine the ,aether to be composed4 ,again1 later on1 p4 #cdi of the same work1 he adds3 ,is ,aether electricity then8 ,i do not say so1 but that they are connected there can be no doubt4 ,what ,i have to suggest is1 that positive1 and negative electricity together may make up the ,aether4 ,now1 accepting this as correct1 and ,i will prove that it is correct later on1 from experiments performed by ,faraday1 we can see how the inductive action of the sun may be transmitted through space1 and how that inductive action will effect any body in its electrical field1 such inductive action always taking place through the polarization of the atomic ,aether1 and taking the form of an attractive power which is exerted towards the centre of the attracting body4 ,further1 this inductive action will be subject to the same laws of electricity as the centrifugal force is1 which is the repulsive power due to the pressure of the ,aether4 ,therefore the inductive action of the sun upon any body will1 according to the laws of electricity1 act inversely as the square of the distance 7,art4 #hd71 and will be directly as the product of the charges on the two attracting bodies1 which we have seen according to ,art4 #he is equal to the product of their masses4 ,not only will this inductive action apply to the sun1 but it will equally apply to all planets1 satellites and stars that exist in the heavens1 each of these bodies according to ,art4 #hj being an electrified body possessing its electric field and lines of force radiating out into space4 ,thus we arrive at the conclusion1 that each body in the solar system is not only the centre of a centrifugal force due to the pressure of the electro-magnetic ,aether1 but that it is also the centre of an attractive force due to the existence of the positive and negative elements of the ,aether1 and of their attractive power for each other4 ,this attractive power is also subject to exactly the same laws that the centrifugal force is subject to in regard to intensity1 proportion1 and the direction which it takes4 ,so that we have now two centripetal forces existing in space1 which exactly correspond with each other1 viz4 ,gravitation ,attraction and the attraction due to ,electrical ,induction4 ,the cause of one1 however1 is known1 being due to the inductive influence of the various electrified bodies that exist in space1 which inductive influence can be traced through the whole of the atomic ,aether that exists between the two bodies1 whereas the cause of the centripetal force or ,gravitation ,attraction is unknown4 ,according to the ,rules of ,philosophy1 therefore1 it will be much simpler if we replace our ,gravitation ,attraction1 whose cause is unknown1 by the inductive power of the various bodies1 the physical cause of which lies in the electro-magnetic ,aether1 or the dielectric as ,faraday called it4 ,in other words1 we are compelled to come to the conclusion that the centripetal force1 or ,gravitation ,attraction so called1 is an electrical phenomenon1 which finds its physical cause in the same universal ,aether that the centrifugal force does4 ,unless this view of the attraction of ,gravitation is accepted1 we should have two forces operating between all bodies1 both operating at exactly the same time1 in exactly the same direction1 and with exactly the same intensity1 and this phenomenon according to ,newton would be unphilosophical4 ,in ,art4 #d we learn that ,newton in the first rule states that ,nature is simple1 and does not abound in superfluous causes of things4 ,and again3 ,in the nature of ,philosophy nothing is done in vain2 and by means of many things1 it is done in vain when it can be done by fewer4 ,here then we have apparently two forces which act in the same molecular or planetary or interstellar space1 at one and the same time4 ,therefore if this be true1 ,nature does abound in a superfluous cause1 because we have two forces in existence where one will suffice1 and one of them therefore exists in vain4 ,so that it will be philosophical if we do away with one of the causes1 and replace the two causes by only one4 ,now which shall be done away with--the electrical attraction which is due to a physical medium1 the electro-magnetic ,aether1 or the ,gravitation ,attraction1 that is caused by some virtue of a body of which we have no knowledge1 which is transmitted through space in a way that we cannot understand1 and acts upon distant bodies in a manner altogether outside our usual experience and observation8 ,there can only be one answer4 ,if either of the two forces has to be done away with1 it must be the mysterious1 intangible1 unphilosophical attraction of ,gravitation1 which must be replaced by the philosophical and known attraction of electricity1 which can be traced to a physical medium1 the electro-magnetic ,aether that joins atom to atom1 molecule to molecule1 satellite to planet1 planet to sun1 and sun to star1 and so gives unity to the universe of worlds4 ,from philosophical considerations1 therefore1 we are compelled to come to the conclusion that the attraction of gravity and electrical attraction are one and the same4 ,faraday arrived at this conclusion and performed certain experiments to confirm that conclusion1 but he was unable to experimentally prove the truth4 ,it does not follow1 however1 that because he failed to experimentally establish the connection1 therefore the conclusion is wrong4 ,in his ,experimental ,researches he writes1 par4 #bgje1 ,on the possible relation of gravity to electricity3--,first of all1 a body which was to be allowed to fall1 was surrounded by a helix1 and then its effect in falling sought for4 ,this experiment ,faraday states produced negative results 7par4 #bgjf74 ,a solid cylinder of copper was introduced into the helix1 and carefully fastened to it1 and this compound arrangement was allowed to fall4 ,the result of this experiment may be classified as doubtful4 ,it gave very minute1 but remarkable indications of a current in the galvanometer1 and the probability of these being related to gravity appeared the greater1 when it was found1 in raising the helix or core1 similar indications of contrary currents appeared4 ,in par4 #bgag ,faraday thus sums up3 ,here end my trials for the present4 ,the results are negative4 ,they do not shake my strong feeling of the existence of a relation between gravity and electricity1 though they give no proof that such a relation exists4 ,here then we have expressed the strong conviction of the relation that undoubtedly exists between gravity and electricity by one of the greatest scientists that has ever lived1 and ,i believe that it is a fact that he was engaged upon experiments to prove his conviction about the time of his death4 ,we will now endeavour to trace the action of the ,law of ,gravitation in its compound working1 in its application to the atomic ,aether that fills all space1 and by its gravitating property surrounds all bodies situated in that space4 ,we are dealing no longer with a frictionless medium1 which is incapable of accepting and transmitting motion of any kind or sort1 but we are now dealing with a medium composed of atoms1 which can give rise to pressures and tensions1 or repulsions and attractions from any one part of space to another4 ,if we can prove that an atomic ,aether can give rise to these pressures and tensions from one body to another1 and those pressures and tensions harmonize with1 and satisfactorily account for1 the phenomena sought to be explained1 then we shall have succeeded in making our philosophy agree with our experience1 and such a result as action at a distance will for ever disappear from the mental conception of all men1 as it has long disappeared from the pages of philosophical and scientific works1 though that disappearance was not accompanied with a satisfactory solution of the problem4 ,let us1 therefore1 consider these pressures and tensions1 or so-called repulsions and attractions that exist in this electro-magnetic ,aether from the atomic standpoint1 and by so doing try to realize how it is that one body1 as the sun1 acts upon another body1 as the earth1 through the intervening medium1 the ,aether4 ,we can either consider it from the material standpoint1 that is1 by considering the ,aether as matter1 pure and simple1 or by viewing it from the electrical standpoint1 which may be considered from ,clerk ,maxwell's physical conception of an electric field4 ,we will briefly consider it from the latter standpoint4 ,our conception of an aetherial atom was that of a spherical vortex atom possessing polarity and rotation on an axis4 ,we must1 however1 make the distinction between the two kinds of aetherial atoms that ,clerk ,maxwell first indicated in his paper on ,physical ,lines of ,force1 ,phil4 ,mag41 #ahfa1 and that ,dr4 ,larmor has worked out in his ,aether and ,matter from the electron standpoint1 viz4 that the ,aether is composed of positive and negative electrons4 ,or we can accept ,professor ,lodge's theory1 that ,aether is made up of positive and negative electricity4 ,we are compelled to accept the hypothesis of two kinds of aetherial or electrical atoms1 whatever they may be called1 in view of the teaching of electricity1 that positive and negative electricity are always to be found in association1 and in combination1 wherever electricity exists4 ,we have proved that electricity is to be found throughout the realm of space 7,art4 #gh72 therefore in all planetary and stellar regions electricity is present4 ,thus it exists in the so-called space between the sun and planets1 and between the planets and satellites1 forming around them all spherical shells1 that become less and less dense as they recede from the central body4 ,now it is by the action of these positive and negative electrical atoms1 that the attraction of one body is transmitted across space from the sun to the earth1 or from the earth to the sun1 or from the earth to ,jupiter1 or from ,jupiter to any of the planets1 the action always taking place along the line joining the centres of gravity of the bodies1 i4 e4 the radius vector1 and with a force equal to the quantities of electricity in association with those bodies 7,art4 #he71 and with an intensity that always acts inversely as the square of the distance4 ,thus the inductive action of any sun1 planet or satellite1 or any other planet or satellite1 can be mentally traced from atom to atom1 across the intervening space1 that is filled with the atomic ,aether1 between any two attracting bodies4 ,so that1 if the sun attracts the earth1 it attracts it by and through the motions and properties of the electro-magnetic ,aether that is made up of positive and negative electricity1 and that attraction1 being produced by a physical medium which is as real and tangible as air or water1 is brought into harmony with our experience and observation1 as no body pushes or pulls another body1 be it what it may1 unless both bodies are joined together by some medium which transmits the push or the pull4 ,professor ,lodge1 in his ,modern ,views of ,electricity1 has illustrated from an electrical standpoint how the pressure and tension in any electrical field may be transmitted from particle to particle1 or atom to atom4 ,he supposes that a positive atom of electricity rotates in one direction while a negative atom rotates in the opposite direction4 ,in any electric field these atoms are so associated with each other1 that when one atom revolves1 it makes the other to revolve in the opposite direction1 with the result1 that the spin or rotation is transmitted through the medium at a speed dependent upon the density of the medium4 ,for fuller details of the description ,i must refer the reader to the work already referred to4 ,what ,i wish to call the reader's attention to is1 that the tension and pressure in this field is not transmitted across a vacuum1 in some unknown way1 but is transmitted solely by a physical medium4 ,the action is direct1 and is produced1 and alone produced1 continued1 and perpetuated by a physical medium which is composed of atoms of negative and positive electricity4 ,so that if one body ,a acts upon another body ,b1 it acts upon ,b solely and entirely by the action of the atoms which form the magnetic lines of force1 and the equipotential surfaces around the electrified body1 and that action can be traced mentally step by step across the intervening space that may exist between the two bodies4 ,it is in an exactly similar manner1 that the ,attraction of ,gravitation1 which we conceive to be the same as electrical attraction1 is transmitted from body to body in the atomic1 molecular1 planetary or stellar world4 ,in each and every case1 the pressure and tensions1 which are inseparably connected1 are transmitted by the atoms of the electro-magnetic ,aether1 that is1 by the positive and negative atoms of electricity of which1 according to ,professor ,lodge and ,dr4 ,larmor1 the ,aether is composed4 ,so that1 if the sun acts on the earth1 by the centrifugal force1 it acts on it solely through and by the pressures which are originated in the atomic ,aether by the central body4 ,if the sun attracts the earth1 by the centripetal force1 that action can also be traced to the tensions that are originated among the atoms of the electro-magnetic ,aether4 ,there is nothing mysterious about the phenomenon in either case1 as by accepting this view of an atomic ,aether with its dual character of positive and negative electricity1 the action may be traced mentally from point to point across the so-called intervening space that exists between any two bodies4 ,in each and every case1 wherever the centripetal or centrifugal force acts1 the action is direct1 because it is caused by a physical medium1 which physical medium is in direct contact with each body acted upon1 and also fills the space between those bodies4 ,with this view of the centripetal force of ,gravitation1 our ,philosophy is made to agree definitely with our experience1 which teaches us beyond contradiction1 that no body moves1 unless it is either pushed or pulled by a physical medium4 ,unless this view of the centripetal force is accepted1 we shall have to stumble on in darkness as to the physical cause of the centripetal force1 and mentally accept the unphilosophical proposition1 that a body can act on another in a way that we cannot understand1 and by means which lie outside our experience and observation1 and this hypothesis1 as ,newton and ,herschel pointed out1 is distinctly an unphilosophical proposition4 ,footnote #dj3 ,modern ,views of ,electricity1 p4 #bba4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,aether ,,and ,,comets ,,art4 #aaa4 ,comets4 ,what are ,comets8--,in addition to the planets and asteroids which revolve around the sun1 there are also other bodies termed ,comets1 which revolve round the solar orb4 ,unlike the planets1 however1 they do not all keep to the plane of the ecliptic1 but approach to1 and recede from the sun at all angles to that plane1 as well as in that plane itself4 ,comets are supposed to be huge masses of gaseous matter1 in a more or less condensed condition4 ,that they are not composed of absolutely solid matter is proved by the fact that it is possible to see the stars through the gaseous matter of which they are composed4 ,how the gaseous matter of which these comets are formed is originated1 or how it is formed in solar or stellar space1 has1 ,i believe1 up to the present never been explained1 and indeed1 with the idea of a frictionless ,aether1 ,i fail to see how any physical explanation of the origin and development of a comet can be satisfactorily given4 ,with the conception of the ,aether1 however1 that is put forward in this work1 viz4 that ,aether is matter in its most rarefied and attenuated form1 which can be condensed into a gaseous condition1 with such a conception of the universal aetherial medium1 the origin and development of gaseous matter from this ,aether becomes a physical possibility4 ,lord ,kelvin1 in the ,philosophical ,magazine1 ,july #aijb1 on the ,clustering of ,gravitational ,matter in any part of the ,universe1 has already suggested the possibility of the condensation of the ,aether1 but with the old idea of a frictionless ,aether1 that is1 an ,aether which does not possess mass1 such a hypothesis is improbable4 ,because1 if the ,aether becomes condensed at all1 it must be condensed into gaseous and solid matter1 and all experiments and observation teach us that both these forms of matter possess mass and weight4 ,therefore1 if the frictionless ,aether1 which possesses no mass and weight1 is to be condensed into gaseous or solid matter1 there must come a period in the process of condensation when it must pass out of the condition of possessing no mass and no weight1 into the condition of possessing mass and weight1 which assumption is altogether opposed to those ,rules of ,philosophy based upon experiment and observation4 ,aether can only pass into a gaseous or solid condition1 in which condition it will possess mass and weight1 on the assumption that in the aetherial condition it possesses the same properties1 only in a modified form1 which it possesses after the process of condensation has taken place4 ,in a similar way that air can pass out of its gaseous condition into a liquid condition1 or any gas can pass out of its gaseous into a liquid condition1 so ,aether1 on the conception as given in ,chapter ,,iv41 can pass out of its aetherial and rarefied condition into that form of matter which is known as gaseous4 ,we shall deal with this aspect of ,aether more fully when we come to deal with the ,nebular ,hypothesis1 as the same principle underlies that hypothesis as underlies the origin and development of comets4 ,thus1 comets may be formed at any time in interstellar space out of the ,aether that exists there1 provided the conditions of its formation are to be found there4 ,then1 as they are gradually formed1 they would1 like any other bodies1 come more directly under the influence of any large bodies1 as the sun1 and be attracted by them4 ,this conception of the origin and development of a comet will also account1 and that on a logical and philosophical basis1 for another fact which is associated with cometary phenomena4 ,i refer to the fact of the expulsion of gaseous matter out of the head of a comet as it nears the sun1 which expulsion will be dealt with in the article on ,parts of a ,comet4 ,another problem that might be solved by this conception of a comet lies in the question1 as to whether comets shine by their own light8 ,if comets are really formed of condensed ,aether1 as ,i believe them to be1 then1 as light is due to a periodic wave motion of the ,aether1 as soon as the ,aether 7of which the comets' tails1 for example1 were formed7 was made to vibrate with that rapidity sufficient to produce light waves in the surrounding ,aether1 the tails would then shine by their own light1 in exactly the same way that any other body emits light waves1 as soon as its aetherial vibrations reach the rapidity necessary to produce the waves of light1 which vibrations would lie between #bjjj to #hjjj billions per second4 ,the number of the comets that exist in the solar system cannot be ascertained with any degree of accuracy1 but the total probably extends into millions4 ,they are of all sizes1 from those which possess diameters of several miles1 to those extending over thousands of miles4 ,they also possess orbits1 with which we will now deal4 ,,art4 #aab4 ,orbits of ,comets4--,as has already been pointed out1 comets perform their journey round the sun1 not only in the plane of the ecliptic1 but also at all angles relatively to that plane4 ,in this respect they differ from the orbits of planets and satellites1 which perform their journey in orbits situated wholly in the plane of the ecliptic 7,art4 #aji74 ,there is another important difference between the orbits of the comets and those of the planets4 ,in the case of the latter the orbit is that of an ellipse1 while in the case of the comet the orbit may be either that of a parabola or a hyperbola1 which may be looked upon as elongated ellipses open at one end4 ,there are1 however1 some comets whose orbits are perfectly elliptical1 and whose return may be calculated with a fair amount of accuracy4 ,these are known either as ,short ,period ,comets1 as represented by ,faye's ,comet1 ,encke's and ,de ,vico's2 or ,long ,period ,comets1 as represented by the comets of #ahaa1 #ahdd1 and #aheh4 ,in the case of all these1 as their return to our solar system can be determined1 it follows that they must revolve around the sun in some sort of a closed orbit1 probably that of an exceedingly elongated ellipse4 ,there are1 however1 other comets which appear once1 or it may be several times only1 and then disappear out of the solar system for ever4 ,now the question arises1 as to whether the orbits of the comets which are so variable can be explained by the motions of the ,aether which we have already ascribed to it8 ,we have seen 7,art4 #aji7 how it is possible to account physically for the plane of the ecliptic from the motions of the ,aether1 and how it is that all the planets move within that plane1 but here we have a phenomenon of a different kind1 as observation distinctly teaches us that the comets do not move in1 or keep within the plane of the ecliptic1 but gravitate round the sun at all angles to that plane4 ,in order for us1 therefore1 to be able to account1 and that on a philosophical basis1 for this fact1 we must revert to our conception of the sun in its relation to the solar system4 ,in ,art4 #hh we learned that the sun was an electro-magnet possessing its electro-magnetic field1 and generating electro-magnetic waves which were radiated forth from it on every side4 ,from ,art4 #hi we learn that an electro-magnetic body possesses lines of force1 and that these lines of force take various directions as they are generated by the body1 as proved by ,faraday's illustrations4 ,further1 a moving electro-magnet1 as the sun for example1 carries its lines of force with it1 as proved by ,maxwell4 ,now these lines of force extend not only east and west1 but also north and south1 as depicted in ,fig4 #bi4 ,hitherto we have only dealt with the lines of force proceeding from the sun equatorially1 which lines form the plane of the ecliptic4 ,we have1 now1 to take into consideration those lines which extend out into space1 north and south of that plane4 ,these are not so curved as the others1 but are more inclined to be straight1 or less curved1 as they are really parts of large curves which extend much further outwards into space4 ,the orbits of the ,short or ,long ,period ,comets can be explained by the fact that they perform their journey more or less in the plane of the ecliptic1 though in some cases at a much greater angle than that of any of the planets4 ,provided1 however1 they remain within the influence of the electro-magnetic field of the sun1 there is then a physical explanation as to their orbital motion round the sun1 in a similar way to the orbital motion of the planets1 though at greater angles to the plane of the ecliptic4 ,for we have to remember1 that wherever the electro-magnetic waves of the sun's electro-magnetic field extend1 there we have also the rotation of that field round its central body1 though with a continually decreasing intensity1 as already pointed out4 ,wherever1 therefore1 we get rotatory ,aether currents1 due to the rotation of the electro-magnetic field1 there we get the conditions which would enable any kind of gaseous or material body to be circulated round the sun4 ,the case1 however1 of comets which do not return has to be viewed from a different standpoint4 ,here it seems to me we are dealing with masses of condensed ,aether that come within the inductive influence of the electro-magnetic waves of the sun1 as that body moves through space with its velocity of about #ejj1jjj miles per day4 ,we have to conceive of this condensed ,aether situated north and south of the plane of the ecliptic1 and situated probably millions of miles away4 ,as the sun moves onward in its journey through space1 carrying its electro-magnetic field with it1 then1 by the inductive action of the sun1 the comet would be attracted by that body1 and so would be gradually drawn towards it4 ,under this inductive influence it would rush towards the sun1 until1 approaching very close to it1 it would be repelled by the electro-magnetic waves or centrifugal force of that body1 and be hurled again by their repulsive energy far far away into space to the north or south of the plane of the ecliptic4 ,as it was moving away from the syn1 north or south of the ecliptic1 the sun would be moving onwards through space in the plane of the ecliptic1 which would practically be at right angles to the motion of the comet1 so that by the time the comet had receded far into the depths of space1 the sun with its electro-magnetic field would have moved on also in a direction at right angles to the comet's motion4 ,the effect of the sun's orbital motion would be1 that it would be unable to again exert sufficient inductive power upon the comet to bring it within its inductive influence once more4 ,for example1 suppose there is a mass of ,aether condensing at point ,a in interstellar space situated some millions of miles north of the plane of the ecliptic1 which is represented by the straight lines ,b ,c4 ,the sun is moving in the direction towards the part of space represented by point ,b4 ,we will suppose that when the sun is near point ,c the mass of ,aether at point ,a is too far away to be appreciably influenced by the inductive action of the sun4 ,but as the sun moves towards point ,f1 then the condensed ,aether1 which practically forms the body of the comet1 will come within its influence and be drawn towards the sun1 at an angle to the plane of the ecliptic4 ,illustration3 ,fig3 #cj4 ,by the time the body of the comet has reached the sun1 it will have acquired a momentum which enables it to rush past the sun1 and then it will be repelled by the electro-magnetic waves in the direction of ,f ,g1 which is still at an angle to the plane of the ecliptic2 but its motion1 combined with the repulsive power of the electro-magnetic waves1 is carrying it outside the sphere and influence of the sun's electro-magnetic field4 ,at the same time the sun is proceeding onwards through space1 leaving the comet far behind1 so that by the time the comet has reached the confines of the solar system1 it has either passed under the influence of another star1 or has become further condensed to form a meteor1 which begins to circle around the largest and nearest body4 ,i do not assert that this hypothesis is strictly correct1 but it seems to me that only on some such hypothesis can the appearance and apparent loss of irregular comets be explained4 ,,art4 #aac4 ,short ,period ,comets and ,long ,period ,comets4--,we have seen in the previous article1 that some ,comets revolve round the sun in closed orbits of exceeding great eccentricity1 and the return of these may be calculated with certainty4 ,there are about two dozen comets which revolve around the sun1 and which return at intervals lying between three years and #gf years4 ,this class of comets may be divided into two kinds1 which are known as ,short ,period ,comets and ,long ,period ,comets respectively4 ,the following table gives a list of the chief of the ,short ,period ,comets1 together with some particulars relating to time of revolution1 etc43-- ,,comets4 ,,period ,,of ,,perihelion ,,aphelion ,,revolution4 ,,distance4 ,,distance4 ,encke's 444 #c-a_/d years4 #cb1jjj1jjj miles4 #chg1jjj1jjj miles4 ,de ,vico's 444 #e-a_/b #aaj1jjj1jjj #dge1jjj1jjj ,biela's 444 #f-a_/b #hb1jjj1jjj #ehe1jjj1jjj ,d',arrest's 444 #f-a_/b ,faye's 444 #g-a_/b #aib1jjj1jjj #fjc1jjj1jjj ,halley's 444 #gf-c_/d #ef1jjj1jjj #c1bjj1jjj1jjj ,encke's ,comet was discovered by ,professor ,encke of ,berlin1 and named after him4 ,it revolves in an ellipse of great eccentricity1 as proved by the fact that when nearest to the sun1 it is inside ,mercury's orbit1 but when furthest away from the sun1 it passes beyond the orbit of ,mars1 reaching almost to the orbit of ,jupiter4 ,one of the most remarkable facts about this comet is1 that it has done more to establish the existence of that resisting medium around the sun1 whose existence we have demonstrated1 than any other comet4 ,encke found on its periodical return that its mean distance was gradually getting less1 and in order to account for this1 he supposed that it was due to the existence of a resisting medium which enveloped the sun1 and extended some distance into space4 ,this conclusion has been supported in recent years by ,von ,asten1 a ,german mathematician1 who has supported the theory of a resisting medium4 ,on this point ,herschel writes in his ,outlines of ,astronomy1 ,art4 #egg3 ,this is evidently the effect which would be produced by a resistance experienced by the comet from a very rare aetherial medium pervading the regions in which it moves2 for such resistance1 by diminishing its actual velocity1 would diminish its centrifugal force4 ,accordingly1 this is the solution proposed by ,encke1 and at present generally received4 ,so that we have in ,encke's ,comet another proof of the existence of that aetherial medium1 which is not frictionless1 but has the power to oppose any body which moves through it1 when that body moves in an opposite direction to its own motions4 ,another ,short ,period ,comet worthy of notice is that of ,biela1 named after ,m4 ,biela1 its discoverer4 ,this comet had a period of six and a half years1 and reappeared at several successive intervals until about the year #ahde1 when it seems to have been broken or split up into two parts4 ,in ,december #ahde the comet divided into two parts1 which travelled parallel to each other for a long distance4 ,during this separation1 very singular changes were observed to be taking place in both the original comet and its offshoot4 ,both had a nucleus1 and both had tails1 which were parallel to each other4 ,the comets continued to travel together until the #aeth ,march #ahdf1 when the new comet began to fade away1 until1 on the #bdth ,march1 the old comet only was visible1 while in ,april both had disappeared entirely4 ,a similar phenomenon was again observed at its next passage in #aheb1 but since then ,biela's ,comet has entirely disappeared4 ,it is suggested by astronomers1 that the comet has become condensed1 and broken up1 forming a shoal of meteors4 ,support is lent to this theory by the fact that in ,november #ahgb1 when the earth was passing through space and had arrived at that part of its orbit which intercepted the orbit of ,biela's ,comet1 instead of the comet being seen1 the earth came into contact with a swarm of meteors1 and this is accepted as evidence that ,biela's ,comet was condensed far away in the colder regions of interplanetary space into a more solid form of matter1 known as meteors4 ,one of the more famous of the short period class of comets is that known as ,halley's ,comet1 which has a period of about #gf years4 ,this comet has been seen in its return journey to the sun about #be times4 ,it was named after its discoverer1 ,edmund ,halley4 ,he was led to identify this comet with that of #aeca and #afjg1 and thus to conclude that it had a period of #ge or #gf years4 ,he therefore predicted its reappearance in #agei4 ,as the year approached1 its arrival was eagerly looked for1 to see if the prediction would be verified4 ,it was thought1 however1 by a certain astronomer named ,clairaut1 that the larger planets1 as ,saturn and ,jupiter1 might interfere with its orbital motions1 and after careful calculations a difference of #fah days was allowed1 which brought its anticipated reappearance down to ,april #agei4 ,it actually reappeared in ,march of that year4 ,its next reappearance was fixed to take place about ,november #ahce4 ,the comet became visible on #eth ,august #ahce1 and continued to be seen till ,april #ahcf1 when it again disappeared4 ,as the reappearance of the comet was calculated by the application of the ,newtonian ,law of ,gravitation1 such a result only gave added confirmation to the application of that law to cometary bodies4 ,of the ,long ,period ,comets there are several known4 ,that of #aheh has a period1 it is thought1 of #bjjj years4 ,the #ahaa comet has a period of #cjjj years1 while that of #ahdd has a period of over #aj1jjj years4 ,all these comets move in orbits of such great size that their return is improbable4 ,one of the characteristic features about ,long ,period ,comets is their great brilliancy and size4 ,the #aheh comet1 known as ,donati's ,comet1 was first seen by that astronomer at ,florence in ,june4 ,it was invisible1 however1 to the naked eye1 as it only appeared through the telescope like a faint cloud of light1 gradually getting brighter and brighter4 ,toward the end of ,august it began to show signs of developing a tail1 and became visible to the eye on ,august #bith4 ,during ,september and ,october it greatly increased in size and brilliancy1 and was plainly visible in the western heavens4 ,after ,october #ajth it was only visible in the southern hemisphere1 gradually decreasing in brightness4 ,it was seen till ,march #ahei1 when it disappeared1 and will probably not return till the year #cheh1 as its period of revolution is about #bjjj years4 ,donati's ,comet passed between the earth and many stars1 which could be seen very distinctly through its tail4 ,one of the stars was ,arcturus1 and1 though some of the densest parts of the comet passed over it1 yet the star could be seen all the time1 thus conclusively proving that the head and tail of a comet are only composed of gaseous matter1 probably condensed ,aether1 as suggested in ,art4 #aaa4 ,,art4 #aad4 ,parts of a ,comet4--,a comet may be divided into three parts3 #ast1 ,nucleus2 #bnd1 ,head or ,coma2 and #crd1 ,tail4 ,the nucleus is the central part of the head or coma1 and is generally the brightest part of the whole comet4 ,on the theory that a comet is due to the condensation of ,aether1 the nucleus would represent the first act in the process of condensation1 as there would have to be some centre of condensation1 and that centre would be represented by the nucleus4 ,further1 the process of condensation would assume a spherical form1 as the conception of our aetherial atom is that of a sphere or an oblate spheroid4 ,as the process of condensation went on1 the layers that would be produced would form a kind of envelope around the point of condensation1 with the result that the nucleus would ultimately consist of a large mass of gaseous matter1 made up of layer upon layer of condensed ,aether around some central point1 which formed the nucleus4 ,this hypothesis agrees with observed phenomena1 because1 when we deal with the tails of comets1 we shall see that the tail is simply formed by the reverse process to that of condensation1 as in the case of cometary tails the gaseous envelopes so formed will be thrown off 7either through heat generated by friction1 or by the increased heat as the comet nears the sun71 which are then repelled away from the sun by the centrifugal force4 ,herschel1#da referring to the nucleus1 states1 paragraph #eei3 ,an atmosphere free to expand in all directions would envelop the nucleus spherically1 while in his ,reflection on ,halley's ,comet1 he states1 ,art4 #egj1 #ast1 ,that the matter of the nucleus of a comet is powerfully excited and dilated into a vaporous state by the action of the sun's rays1 escaping in streams and jets at those points of its surface which oppose the least resistance4 #bnd1 ,that the process chiefly takes place in that portion of the nucleus which is turned towards the sun1 the vapour escaping in that direction4 #crd1 ,that when so emitted1 it is prevented from proceeding in the direction originally impressed upon it1 by some force directed from the sun1 drifting it back and carrying it out to vast distances behind the nucleus forming the tail4 ,when we come to deal with the question of the formation of the tail1 we shall find that every reflection made by ,herschel is satisfactorily fulfilled by the conception of a gravitating and condensing ,aether4 ,before considering the tail1 however1 we will deal with the head or coma4 ,the head or coma is that part of the comet which exists round the nucleus4 ,it is less bright than the nucleus1 and oftentimes appears as a shadowy mass of light4 ,herschel1 in his #dth ,reflection1 states that a considerable part of the vapour actually produced remains in the neighbourhood of the nucleus forming the head or coma4 ,so that the head of a comet is simply the vaporised part of the nucleus which is produced by the increased heat of the sun1 in the same way that water would be vaporised by the addition of heat1 the vapour in that case being thrown off in the form of steam4 ,this formation of the head is but a continuation of the reversal of the process of condensation1 which originally gave existence to the mass of matter termed the comet4 ,the diameter of this head or coma often extends to thousands of miles4 ,the head of the #ahaa comet was #edj1jjj miles in diameter1 while that of the #ahdc was #aab1jjj miles4 ,as the nucleus is formed of a series of envelopes1 so the head also consists of a series of envelopes4 ,the comet of #aheh constantly threw off these envelopes1 which were first expelled towards the sun1 and then repelled away from the sun1 forming the tail4 ,the matter forming the head and the nucleus is perfectly transparent1 as stars have been seen through the matter which forms those parts4 ,herschel1#db paragraph #eeh1 states that whenever powerful telescopes have been turned on these bodies1 they have not failed to dispel the illusion which attributes solidity to that more condensed part of the head which appears to the naked eye1 though it is true that in some a very minute stellar point has been seen indicating the existence of a stellar body4 ,tails4--,the tail of a comet is that part which flows from the head1 and is afterwards repelled by the repulsive power of the sun into space4 ,we shall deal with this repulsive power1 whose existence we have already demonstrated1 and the part which it plays in the formation of a comet's tail1 in the next article4 ,the tail of a comet is oftentimes considered to be the comet itself1 rather than a part of the same1 but as the tail is the most distinctive feature of a comet1 and is the part most visible to the naked eye1 there has arisen the popular but mistaken idea of identity between the tail and the comet itself4 ,tails are of all kinds4 ,there are some which are short1 while others are long4 ,then we have comets with single tails1 or double1 and in some cases even multiple tails4 ,occasionally comets appear which have no tails at all4 ,the comet of #agdd had six tails1 which spread out in the shape of a large fan4 ,one of the most remarkable features of tails is their abnormal length1 which oftentimes reaches into millions of miles4 ,the comet of #ahdc had a tail #aab1jjj1jjj miles long4 ,another feature about the tails of comets is that they are always directed away from the sun4 ,up to the present ,i believe no satisfactory explanation has been given of this fact1 but with the conception of the rotating ,aether as given in ,art4 #id1 we shall for the first time be able to give a satisfactory physical explanation of that phenomenon4 ,in addition to this1 the formation of cometary tails of all shapes receives a physical explanation1 when taken into account with the fact that the sun is an electro-magnet1 possessing its electro-magnetic field1 and its lines of force1 as described in ,art4 #hh4 ,footnote #da3 ,outlines of ,astronomy4 ,footnote #db3 ,outlines of ,astronomy4 ,,art4 #aae4 ,centrifugal ,force and ,comets' ,tails4--,in order to account for the existence of the tails of comets1 various repulsive forces have been introduced from time to time into the solar system1 so that the phenomena of cometary tails might be satisfactorily accounted for4 ,it has been felt by every astronomer that some repulsive force1 which had its origin in the sun1 was absolutely necessary to explain the existence of the tails1 and as no real force could be demonstrated to exist1 recourse had to be made to repulsive forces of a more or less hypothetical nature4 ,the necessity of this repulsive force is nowhere more plainly indicated than by ,sir ,j4 ,herschel in his ,lectures on ,scientific ,subjects1 where1 dealing with the phenomena of comets' tails1 he writes3 ,they have furnished us with a proof1 amounting to demonstration1 of the existence of a repulsive force directed from the sun1 as well as that great and general attractive force which keeps planets in their orbits4 ,in the same work1 referring to the comet of #afhj1 he writes3 ,this comet was perhaps the most magnificent ever seen4 ,it appeared from ,november #afhj to ,march #afha4 ,in its approach to the sun it was not very bright1 but began to throw out its tail when about as far from the sun as the earth4 ,it passed its perihelion on ,december #hth1 and when nearest to the sun was only about #a_/aj part of the sun's diameter from the surface4 ,no wonder it gave evidence of violent excitement1 coming from the cold region outside planetary space4 ,already1 when arrived even in our temperate regions1 it began to show signs of internal activity4 ,the head had begun to develop and the tail to elongate1 till the comet was for a time lost sight of4 ,no human eye beheld the wondrous spectacle which it must have offered on ,december #hth4 ,only four days afterwards1 however1 it was seen again1 and the tail1 whose direction was reversed1 and which observe could not possibly be the same tail1 its tail had already lengthened out to the extent of about #ij millions of miles1 so that it must have been shot out with immense force in a direction from the sun4 ,the reader will have observed it took from ,november #ajth to ,december #hth1 or #bh days1 to fall to the sun for the same distance1 and that with all the velocity it had on ,november #ajth to start with4 ,herschel sums up the matter thus3 ,beyond a doubt1 the widest and most interesting prospect of future discovery which their study 7comets' tails7 holds to us1 is1 that distinction between gravitating and levitating matter1 that positive and unrefutable demonstration of the existence in nature of a repulsive force co-extensive with1 but enormously more powerful than the attractive force we call gravity1 which the phenomena of their tails afford4 ,thus the philosophic mind of ,herschel saw in the existence of cometary tails1 the irrefutable evidence of the existence of a repulsive force1 not of a hypothetical character1 but as real as the existence of gravity itself4 ,various attempts have been made to define that repulsive force which was thus demanded1 and the same force has been ascribed by scientists to the repulsion due to heat1 to light1 and also to electricity4 ,several ,french scientists have suggested that the repulsive force was due to the heat of the sun4 ,m4 ,roche was one of those who stated that the phenomena of cometary tails was due to the repulsive power of heat1 which found its origin in the heat of the sun4 ,m4 ,faye1 another ,french scientist1 states that the repulsive force had its origin in the heat of the sun4 ,by a series of experiments he demonstrated that there was a repulsive power in all heat waves1 which gave his theory that experimental support that any theory must possess to make it permanent4 ,now in ,art4 #fc it was shown that heat does possess a repulsive power1 but that that power is rather due to the electro-magnetic ,aether whose vibrations produce the heat waves1 than to the repulsion of heat2 so that1 indirectly1 the assumption of both these ,french scientists1 that the repulsive power of heat gave rise to the tails of comets1 is correct4 ,then again it has been suggested that the repulsive power is produced by the pressure of the light waves4 ,professor ,lebedew suggested this after he had experimentally proved that light waves did possess a repulsive power 7,annalen der ,physik1 ,november #aija74 ,it can easily be seen1 as pointed out in ,art4 #gj1 that1 inasmuch as light is due to the vibrations of the ,aether1 they too possess this repulsive power1 and therefore ,professor ,lebedew's suggestion as to the nature of the repulsive power is correct1 as the real centrifugal force is really due to an aetherial pressure4 ,whether1 therefore1 we consider it from the standpoint of heat1 or light or electricity1 it ultimately resolves itself into the same aetherial medium which is at once the common source of all these forces4 ,again1 it has been suggested that the repulsive power is electrical or electro-magnetic1 and this view is receiving more support than either of the others from modern scientists4 ,herschel suggested that the repulsive power was electrical1 while ,bredichin has worked out a very careful theory as to the effect of electrical repulsion upon different elements that are found in the comets' tails1 with a view to explain the different shapes of the tails4 ,but whether the force is looked at from the standpoint of heat1 light or electricity1 it ultimately resolves itself into the motions of the ,aether1 which gives rise by its different vibrations and motions to all the three forms of energy referred to4 ,when we also take into account the fact that ,aether is gravitative1 and therefore denser nearer to the sun than further away1 and that it is also rotating round the central body the sun 7,art4 #ia71 then we have at once every condition necessary to explain all the various kinds of cometary tails1 and also for the remarkable fact that the tail is always turned away from the sun1 which is simply due to the effect of the rotating ,aether with its outflowing electro-magnetic waves upon the gaseous matter of the comet4 ,thus from the phenomena of comets' tails1 we have again arrived at the conclusion of the existence of that centrifugal force1 whose origin and continuity are to be found in the electro-magnetic ,aether which surrounds the sun1 and which by its electro-magnetic waves gives rise to pressure on all bodies upon which they fall4 ,,art4 #aaf4 ,formation of ,tails4--,with the conception of the formation of the comet advanced in ,art4 #aaa1 viz4 that it is nothing more or less than ,aether in a state of condensation1 and remembering the explanation given of the parts of the comet1 as the nucleus1 and head or coma1 we are now in a position to give a philosophical account of the formation of the tails of comets1 which will satisfactorily fulfil all the ,rules of ,philosophy4 ,in addition to the facts already referred to in the previous articles of this chapter1 we must also recall our conception of the ,aether as given in ,chapter ,,iv41 remembering that it gets denser nearer the sun1 and that it is not frictionless2 therefore1 when a body is urged through it1 friction is produced1 and heat is generated4 ,we must also remember that the ,aether is rotating round the sun as that body proceeds through space4 ,we have1 therefore1 to picture the condensed mass of ,aether situated out in the cold interstellar space1 gradually coming under the influence of the sun1 as that body rushes on its journey through space with a velocity of #ejj1jjj miles per hour4 ,slowly1 but surely1 the mass of condensed ,aether begins to respond to the attractive power of the sun1 and to move through space towards the sun4 ,so long as it is moving towards the sun1 it is encountering and having to overcome the resistance of the ,aether4 ,at first this resistance is very feeble1 owing to the decreased density of the ,aether1 but as it proceeds on its journey it is constantly passing into denser parts of the aetherial electro-magnetic field around the sun4 ,the result is1 that as the resistance is increased1 so there is greater friction between the matter of the comet and the atomic ,aether in space1 and1 in consequence1 heat is generated4 ,in addition to the generated heat1 the comet is all the while passing into regions of greater intensity of heat4 ,in both cases1 the effect is only manifested on that side of the comet which is approaching the sun2 for1 if there be any friction at all1 it will only be on that half of the comet which encounters the ,aether1 so to speak1 while the same part will receive the added heat1 as the distance between the comet and the sun is decreased4 ,as can readily be seen therefore1 this added heat acts only upon the half of the comet which is advancing1 and which faces the sun1 and as the effect of heat is always to vaporise1 so the effect on the nucleus of the comet is to vaporise the condensed aetherial matter1 and this vaporised aetherial matter is thrown off in layers which are partly spherical in form1 the layers always being expelled in the first instance towards the sun1 on account of that centrifugal motion which has its birth in the nucleus of the comet4 ,this explanation fully establishes and confirms the first and second ,reflections of ,herschel as given in ,art4 #aad1 and1 moreover1 is itself established by the very phenomena which comets present in their approach to the sun4 ,as soon1 however1 as the vaporised matter is expelled from the nucleus towards the sun1 it is met by the centrifugal motion of the electro-magnetic ,aether which proceeds from the sun1 and this pressure of the aetherial waves on the advancing comet acts as a repelling power1 literally repelling the vaporised matter from the sun1 and thus giving rise to the existence of its tail4 ,this explanation fully confirms the third ,reflection of ,herschel referred to in ,art4 #aad1 and is itself also confirmed by actual observation4 ,during all this time1 however1 the comet has been approaching the sun with a decreased velocity1 for its velocity has been minimised by the resistance it has had to overcome in its approach to the sun4 ,as soon1 however1 as it reaches the sun1 it is whirled round that body by the rotating ,aether medium1 as the intensity of its rotation is greatest nearest the sun1 with a velocity which often exceeds thousands of miles per hour4 ,having passed its perihelion1 in view of the physical existence of our centrifugal motion1 let us now ask ourselves what ought to happen to the comet8 ,previous to its perihelion1 the comet's motion and the centrifugal motion due to the pressure of the ,aether were in opposition1 but after passing the perihelion1 the comet's motion and the centrifugal motion will be acting conjointly1 with the result that the motion of the comet would be accelerated4 ,now this is exactly what observation teaches us does happen in regard to comets1 when they have passed their perihelion passage4 ,as ,herschel pointed out with reference to the comet of #afhj 7,art4 #aad71 it took #bh days to fall to the sun1 but only took four days to cover the same distance1 after it had passed the sun and rounded the perihelion4 ,so that we have here1 as ,herschel stated1 an irrefutable evidence of the existence of the repulsive power whose existence we have demonstrated4 ,again1 there is another fact which has to be taken into consideration in regard to the tails of comets4 ,observation teaches us that their tails are invariably turned from the sun1 though why they always are so turned away is an unsolved problem1 apart from some real or hypothetical repulsive power4 ,we have1 however1 to further remember that the electro-magnetic ,aether around the sun is ever rotating with that body1 and carrying with it in its rotation all associated planets and meteors4 ,this rotation of the ,aether plays a most important part in the phenomena stated4 ,whether the comet is approaching the sun1 or receding from the sun1 it is still subject to the influence of this rotatory ,aether medium4 ,the result will be that the lighter particles of the vaporised matter will be acted upon more powerfully than the heavier parts1 so that even when the comet is receding from the sun1 after it has passed the perihelion1 the lighter parts which go to form the tail will be more under the influence of the repelling ,aether waves than the heavier parts1 as the nucleus1 as suggested by ,bredichin4 ,thus the natural result will be that the tail will still be directed away from the sun even when it is receding from that body4 ,gradually1 however1 as the comet recedes1 it passes out of the denser ,aether1 where the intensity of motion and vibration are greatest1 to those slower parts of the sun's aetherial field where they are less intense4 ,the effect of this is soon made manifest on the tail and head of the comet4 ,the process which took place as it approached the sun is now exactly reversed1 as it is now passing out of a denser into a more rarefied medium1 where its motions and vibrations are less intense4 ,the tail1 therefore1 appears to be drawn back to the head1 while the head will itself gradually contract into the nucleus1 as it recedes further and further into space4 ,if the comet be situated within the plane1 or nearly the plane of the ecliptic1 then it is possible for it to return again1 and go through the same process1 unless it is captured on its outward journey by some of the large outer planets1 as ,jupiter4 ,if1 however1 their planes do not coincide with the plane of the ecliptic1 then it is very possible that they will not reappear again1 but pass on to some other stellar system4 ,thus we can explain on a strictly philosophical basis one of the most interesting1 and yet one of the most mysterious phenomena associated with our solar system1 from the simple yet truly philosophical assumption that ,aether is matter1 in conjunction with all that that assumption logically involves4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,aether ,,and ,,stars ,,and ,,nebulae ,,art4 #aag4 ,the ,starry ,world4--,in addition to the planets and comets that are found in the heavens1 there are other bodies1 countless in their number1 which we know as stars4 ,who has not looked up into the heavens on some clear night1 and noticed how the vault of heaven was spangled over with points of light1 each point representing a huge sun that exists in far-off space8 ,for it must be remembered that every star is a sun1 which1 reasoning by analogy1 is the centre of a stellar system1 just in the same way that our sun is the centre of our solar system4 ,like our sun1 all stars shine by their own light1 and the quality of that brilliancy decides the magnitude of the star1 the magnitude being indicative of the relative brilliancy of a star rather than its size4 ,so that stars are divided into groups according to their magnitude1 the magnitudes ranging from the first to the sixteenth1 and even beyond4 ,those of the first magnitude are more brilliant than those of the second1 those of the second more brilliant than those of the third1 each magnitude decreasing in relative brilliancy as the number which indicates the magnitude increases4 ,there are about sixteen different degrees of magnitude1 in which are classified the millions of stars that exist in infinite space1 but only stars up to the sixth magnitude are visible to the naked eye1 the telescope revealing those which lie beyond4 ,the total number of stars visible to the naked eye are about #fjjj1 half of which are visible in each hemisphere4 ,about #bj stars comprise the group of the first magnitude1 which include all the brightest stars visible1 as ,sirius1 ,canopus1 ,alpha1 ,arcturus1 ,rigel1 and ,capella4 ,those of the second magnitude number about #fe1 and include the brighter stars to be found in the constellation known as the ,great ,bear4 ,stars of the third magnitude number about #bjj1 of the fourth magnitude about #djj1 of the fifth magnitude #aajj1 and of the sixth magnitude about #cbjj4 ,with the aid of the telescope about #ac1jjj stars of the seventh magnitude are revealed to us1 and #dj1jjj of the eighth magnitude1 while of the ninth magnitude over #adj1jjj are revealed by the telescope4 ,as the power of the telescope is increased1 so the number revealed is increased also1 until by the time we have reached stars of the fourteenth magnitude1 at least #bj1jjj1jjj are revealed to us4 ,if we look into the heavens on a clear moonlight night1 we shall further see that here and there are groups of stars clustered together4 ,these clusters are termed constellations1 and are named after some object which the arrangement of the stars seemed to suggest4 ,thus every one is familiar with that constellation known as the ,great ,bear1 or the ,plough1 so called because of its resemblance to a plough4 ,the brightest stars of each constellation are named after the letters of the ,greek alphabet1 the brightest being called ,alpha1 the next in brilliancy ,beta1 and so on1 right through the ,greek alphabet4 ,for example1 the seven stars in the ,great ,bear are known as ,alpha1 ,beta1 ,gamma1 ,delta1 ,epsilon1 ,zeta1 and ,eta4 ,the constellations are grouped into two divisions1 known as the ,northern and ,southern constellations respectively4 ,the visible ,northern constellations are #be in number1 and include the following well-known groups-- ,ursa ,major ,the ,great ,bear4 ,ursa ,minor ,the ,little ,bear4 ,draco ,the ,dragon4 ,hercules ,hercules4 ,cygnus ,the ,swan4 ,lyra ,the ,lyre4 ,the visible ,southern constellations are #ah in number1 and include such groups as-- ,cetus ,the ,whale4 ,orion ,orion4 ,canis ,major ,the ,great ,dog4 ,canis ,minor ,the ,little ,dog4 ,corona ,australis ,the ,southern ,crown4 ,crux ,australis ,the ,southern ,cross4 ,variable ,stars4--,not only are the stars of different magnitudes1 but the brilliancy of some of them changes from time to time4 ,this class of stars is known as variable stars1 and has received the attention of modern astronomers for many years1 in order that the cause of their variation might1 if possible1 be ascertained4 ,the periods of variation differ in length1 ranging from a number of days to #fj or #gj years4 ,one of the most interesting of variable stars is that known as ,omicron ,ceti1 whose period of change is about #cca days4 ,its brilliancy varies from one of the second magnitude to one of the tenth4 ,beta ,persei is another well-known variable star4 ,this star shines as one of the second magnitude for #b days and #ac hours1 and then suddenly loses its light1 and in less than #d hours becomes a star of the fourth magnitude4 ,its brilliancy then increases again1 and in a similar time it regains its former brilliancy4 ,the conclusion that has been arrived at in regard to the cause of the variation of these stars is1 that in each case the diminution of light is due to the existence of dark bodies1 probably planets1 which revolve round the central star4 ,this hypothesis was confirmed by ,professor ,vogel about #ahhi by means of spectroscopic results4 ,another interesting fact about stars is that they shine with various colours4 ,the colours of stars are as various as the colours of the rainbow1 and range through the whole spectrum1 of red1 orange1 yellow1 green1 blue1 indigo1 violet1 and white4 ,what is more remarkable is the fact that the colours of the stars seem to change through great periods of time4 ,if we turn to ancient records we learn that ,sirius was red then1 but is now green1 while ,capella was also red1 but is now pale blue4 ,double and ,multiple ,stars4--,many stars when looked at through powerful telescopes are found to be double1 triple1 quadruple1 and even multiple1 although when looked at by the naked eye1 they seem to be single in appearance4 ,an example of a double star is to be found in the constellation of ,lyra4 ,a moderate telescope reveals this as a double star1 while a still more powerful telescope reveals the strange fact that each apparently single star which forms the double is itself double1 so that we have in this constellation a system of four stars1 in which each pair revolves round a point situated between them4 ,several thousand double stars are known altogether1 while the motions of several hundreds of them have been detected with powerful telescopes4 ,some of the double stars are as follows--,zeta ,hercules1 ,eta ,coronae ,borealis1 ,gamma ,coronae ,borealis1 ,beta ,cygni1 ,alpha ,centauri4 ,the colours of some of the double stars are very beautiful4 ,some are yellow and blue2 others1 yellow and purple1 while others are orange and green4 ,some of the double stars are only optical doubles1 that is to say1 they apparently seem close together1 while as a matter of fact they are immense distances from each other1 the apparent doubleness being due to the fact that they are more or less in the same line of vision4 ,real double stars1 where the component stars are situated close together1 are known as physical doubles1 to distinguish them from the optical doubles4 ,binary ,stars4--,another class of double stars are known as ,binary ,stars4 ,this class of stars is composed of two stars which revolve around each other in regular orbits1 and are among some of the most interesting objects in the heavens4 ,about #ajjj ,binary stars are known altogether4 ,their motions1 however1 are very slow1 and only in a comparatively few cases have the dimensions of their orbits been ascertained4 ,some of the ,binary stars are ,zeta ,hercules1 which has a period of about #cf years2 ,eta ,coronae ,borealis1 which has a period of #dc years2 while the brightest star1 ,sirius1 is also a ,binary star1 with a period of about #ej years4 ,the ,milky ,way4--,the ,milky ,way is the name given to that band of light which stretches across the sky at night-time1 and forms a zone or belt that completely circles the celestial sphere4 ,this belt of light has maintained from the earliest ages the same relative position among the stars1 and1 when resolved by powerful telescopes1 is found to consist entirely of stars scattered by millions across the expanse of the heavens4 ,the whole zone or belt is composed of nothing but stars1 whose average magnitude1 according to ,herschel1 is about the tenth4 ,stars of all magnitudes are1 however1 found in this zone4 ,of the brightest stars1 about twelve are found in this region1 while the majority of stars of the second1 third1 and fourth magnitudes are also found in or near it4 ,the great majority of star clusters are also found along the course of the ,milky ,way1 while many of the irresolvable nebulae seem to congregate near the poles of this starry region4 ,the ,milky ,way is divided in one part of its course by a stream of stars1 which seems to branch off as a separate stream1 thus dividing it into two parts4 ,all these facts seem to point to the conclusion that the stars of the universe1 instead of being scattered about haphazard in the space1 form a ring or layer1 of which the thickness is very small compared with its length and breadth4 ,our own solar system1 according to ,herschel1 occupies a place somewhere about the middle of the thickness of the zone1 and near the point where it divides into two parts4 ,recent observations go to show that there is a tendency of the sun's apex to drift along the edge of the ,milky ,way1 and this drift seems to point to a plane of motion of the sun1 nearly coinciding with the plane of the ,milky ,way4 ,,art4 #aah4 ,stars and ,kepler's ,laws4--,we have learned in a previous chapter that the sun is the centre of a system which comprises a retinue of planets1 with their attendant satellites1 together with a number of asteroids or minor planets1 with the addition of meteors and comets to complete the system4 ,now if the sun is a star1 then1 according to our ,first and ,second ,rules of ,philosophy1 every star ought also to be the centre of a stellar system and the centre of two aetherial motions1 that is1 the ,centrifugal and ,centripetal forces1 due to the pressures and tensions of the ,aether medium4 ,further1 every stellar system would be composed of exactly similar bodies to those which compose our solar system1 as planets with their attendant satellites1 together with meteors and comets2 the whole of the stellar planets being bound to the central body by the combination of the two aetherial motions1 and kept revolving round the central star by the rotating electro-magnetic ,aether currents4 ,such a hypothesis is entirely philosophical1 as it is simple in conception1 and fully agrees with our experience in relation to the only star of which we have any complete knowledge4 ,it is unthinkable to conceive of a star existing in so-called space1 and constantly radiating out its light and heat for no purpose at all4 ,all ,nature teaches us that there is not a single thing in existence but what has a definite purpose1 and a definite place to fill in the universe4 ,even the aetherial atoms1 which form the foundation stones of the universe1 have their own purpose to fulfil in the glorious scheme of the ,universe conceived by the ,eternal ,infinite2 and to suppose that a star has no purpose to fulfil1 no task to perform1 is to suppose something altogether opposed to the teaching of all ,philosophy4 ,why even man1 with his finite wisdom1 would not be so foolish1 so unwise1 as to make a star1 and set it in the firmament of heaven for no purpose at all6 ,are we therefore to suppose that the ,divine ,creator of all things possesses less wisdom than the creatures which ,he ,himself hath made8 ,such an assumption would be a reflection not only on the wisdom of an ,all ,wise ,being1 but would also be a reflection on our own ideas of philosophical reasoning4 ,therefore the conclusion that we are compelled to come to1 in relation to the millions of stars that exist in interstellar space1 is that every star is the centre of a stellar system1 and the centre of two aetherial motions due to the pressures and tensions of the electro-magnetic ,aether2 while rotating round each star are the ever-circulating electro-magnetic ,aether currents1 which form the medium by which all the stellar planets with their attendant satellites are ever made to revolve around that central body which supplies them with their light and heat4 ,some such conclusion as this ,sir ,john ,herschel arrived at1 for in his ,treatise of ,astronomy1 ,art4 #eib1 he writes3 ,now for what purpose are we to suppose such magnificent bodies scattered through the abyss of space8 ,surely not to illuminate our nights1 which an additional moon of the #a_/ajjj part of our own moon would do much better4 ,he must have studied astronomy to little purpose who can suppose man to be the only object of the ,creator's care1 or who does not see in the vast and wonderful apparatus around us1 provisions for other races of animated beings4 ,the stars1 doubtless1 are themselves suns1 and may perhaps each in its sphere be the presiding centre around which other planets or bodies may be circulating4 ,further1 with reference to the stability of each of these stellar systems1 it is essential that the existence of a physical centrifugal force should be recognized1 in order that the unity and harmony of the spheres should be maintained4 ,professor ,challis points this out very conclusively in the ,phil4 ,mag4 of #ahei1 where1 writing on this point1 he states3 ,it may also be remarked1 that if the ,law of ,gravity be absolute1 there is no security for the stability of a system of stars1 whether the system be a ,milky ,way or a nebulous cluster4 ,for1 however small the mutual attraction between the constituent bodies may be1 in the course of ages it must produce a general movement towards the centre or densest region4 ,but the form of the ,milky ,way and of certain nebulae seems to present an utter contradiction to any such tendency4 ,with the conception1 however1 of a physical centrifugal force or motion due to the pressure of a physical medium1 the stability of even the ,milky ,way may be physically conceived and understood4 ,again1 when we consider the sun as a star1 we find that it has two motions of its own1 one of rotation on an axis1 and the other of translation in an orbit1 such rotation being due to the fact that it is a magnet and has ever circulating round it electro-magnetic ,aether currents 7,art4 #ia74 ,by inference1 therefore1 we arrive at the fact that every star is a magnet1 as suggested by ,professor ,schuster1 and possesses rotation on an axis1 such rotation being due to exactly the same cause as produces the rotation of any other planetary or solar body 7,art4 #ib74 ,not only has each star a rotation on its axis1 but it must also possess translational motion in an orbit1 and that orbital motion must be due to exactly a similar cause as that which produces the orbital motion of the sun4 ,are there any indications given by astronomical observations which lead us to the conclusion that stars do possess such orbital motions8 ,the answer is unanimously in the affirmative2 for1 although all the stars and the constellations retain apparently the same relative position to each other1 yet they are all in motion4 ,the actual translational motion of the stars is termed proper motion1 and has been calculated with more or less success in relation to many of the stars nearest to us4 ,there are other motions of the stars known as apparent motions1 which are easily noted by any observer4 ,these apparent motions are due to the rotation of the earth on its axis1 and its orbital motion round the sun4 ,nothing is more certain1 however1 than that careful astronomical observations have revealed the fact that stars have actual orbital motions of their own through space4 ,in many cases the orbital velocity has been approximately ascertained4 ,halley discovered proper motions of certain stars as far back as #agae1 when he found out1 by comparing different observations1 that ,sirius1 ,arcturus1 and ,aldebaran had moved during the period which had elapsed since the respective observations were taken4 ,more recent observations tend to confirm the fact that stars have indeed proper motions1 due to their actual translation through space4 ,it has been ascertained1 for example1 that ,arcturus is travelling at least #ed miles per second4 ,the proper motion of the stars1 however1 only gives us an indication of their relative motion through so-called space4 ,it does not tell us whether the star is apparently receding from the earth1 or approaching it4 ,dr4 ,vogel has ascertained by a special system of photography in relation to the spectra of stars1 that ,rigel has a velocity away from the earth of nearly #ci miles per sec41 ,aldebaran of #cj miles per sec41 and ,capella of #ae miles per sec41 while the ,pole star is apparently approaching the earth at a rate of nearly #af miles per sec4 ,now if all the stars move through space with varying velocities1 as spectroscopic and telescopic observations seem to suggest1 the question naturally confronts us as to what is the particular kind of orbit which each star completes8 ,is the orbit that of an ellipse1 or a circle1 or a parabola8 ,that it must have some kind of orbit is obvious from the proper motions exhibited by the several stars4 ,we have already learned from ,arts4 #ajg and #ajh that the sun possesses an orbit1 which orbit fulfils the first and second of ,kepler's ,laws4 ,if therefore the sun1 as representing all stars1 is subject to ,kepler's ,laws1 then1 according to our ,second ,rule of ,philosophy by which we base our hypotheses on our experience1 we are compelled to come to the conclusion that every star which possesses any motion at all through space must also be subject to ,kepler's ,laws1 and therefore must each possess a controlling centre around which they severally revolve4 ,kepler himself was of the opinion that the stars were subject to the laws which go by his name1 and this view of the subject was also accepted by ,sir ,william ,herschel4 ,thus from philosophical considerations we affirm that each star1 while it is itself the centre of a starry system1 is also dependent upon and associated with some other body1 to which it is held bound by the electro-magnetic ,aether1 and around which it is made to revolve by the circulating electro-magnetic currents associated with that central body4 ,so that by philosophical reasoning we are led to view the whole of the innumerable stars that flood interstellar space1 not as so many individual and isolated units1 that have no relation to each other1 but rather as parts of one great system1 which in its entirety may form in its ultimate unity one harmonious whole1 a universe4 ,as we come to consider star clusters and nebulae1 we shall see how this idea of unity seems to be manifested throughout all celestial phenomena4 ,,art4 #aai4 ,aether and ,nebulae4--,in addition to the host of stars that flood the infinite space1 there are other celestial bodies that meet the gaze of the astronomer as the telescope is turned upon the heavens4 ,these bodies1 which are glowing masses of gaseous matter1 are termed ,nebulae4 ,the word ,nebulae signifies a cloud1 but they are not clouds in the same sense as we apply that term to masses of vapour that exist in our own atmosphere4 ,sir ,wm4 ,herschel did more towards the discovery of nebulae than perhaps any other astronomer1 either before his time or since4 ,his labours in the direction were completed and enlarged by his son1 ,sir ,john ,herschel1 who surveyed the ,southern heavens in a way that had never been accomplished before4 ,the result of the combined labours of the two ,herschels has placed information of the nebulae at our disposal which is invaluable4 ,several thousands of different nebulae are now known to us1 and as the telescope is improved and its powers increased1 fresh nebulae are being added to the number4 ,like stars1 nebulae vary not only in size1 but also in colour1 shape1 and even in the materials of which they are composed4 ,they also vary in brightness1 the light from some being much fainter than the light from others4 ,it has been estimated by ,huggins that the light received from a nebula will not exceed the light of a sperm candle looked at from a distance of a quarter of a mile4 ,it is thought by some astronomers that the light received from a nebula is indicative of the stage of development to which it has arrived4 ,where the light is faint1 the nebulae are in their first stages of formation1 and where it is brighter it is indicative of a more advanced stage of development4 ,thus nebulae may consist of nebulous matter in various stages of condensation1 but they are not yet in that condition which corresponds to the condition supposed to exist in our sun4 ,nearly all the nebulae lie outside the ,milky ,way1 so that it would seem as if in ages past all the nebulae that had ever existed in this starry zone had passed out of their nebulous condition and been further condensed into suns or stars1 as they are called4 ,astronomical observations teach us that there are very few nebulae indeed to be seen in this starry highway1 the part of the heavens which are richest in them lying far beyond the confines of this zone4 ,for many years certain aggregations of luminous points in the heavens were supposed to be nebulae1 but by the aid of more powerful telescopes they have now been resolved into clusters of stars4 ,one of these clusters is the cluster in ,hercules1 while another is the great nebula of ,orion4 ,in the case of the former1 situated in the constellation of ,hercules1 we find a great number of very small points of light grouped together in a more or less globular form4 ,when looked at through a small telescope1 this object looks like a nebula1 but looked at through ,lord ,rosse's1 or some other great telescope1 it becomes at once resolved into an immense number of separate points of light1 each one representing a star1 there being between one and two thousand altogether in this constellation4 ,clusters of stars are usually globular in form1 though some are irregular in outline4 ,the latter are generally rich in stars1 with a less condensation of stars towards the centre4 ,sir ,wm4 ,herschel considered the irregular clusters as being in a less advanced stage of condensation1 as he was of the opinion that all groups ultimately tended to clusters which were globular in form4 ,before dealing with the different kinds of true nebulae we will now consider the question as to ,what are ,nebulae8 ,,art4 #abj4 ,what are ,nebulae8--,the question which presents itself to the mind of all astronomers when they have viewed the wondrous nebulae that exist in far-off space is1 ,what are ,nebulae8 ,this question is so closely identified with the question as to ,what is ,matter8 that the solution of the one will give us the key to the solution of the other4 ,it is now generally admitted1 that nebulae are composed of a glowing mass of gaseous matter1 that gaseous matter being partly composed of the gas ,hydrogen4 ,dr4 ,huggins in #ahfd first made the discovery of the existence of ,hydrogen in certain nebulae by means of the spectroscope1 which distinctly revealed certain lines that proved the existence of ,hydrogen in the nebulae4 ,in the spectra of some of the nebulae1 that of #ca ,andromeda1 for example1 there are no dark lines shown1 but only a continuous band of bright light1 which would seem to indicate that there was no glowing gaseous matter in that nebula at all4 ,but accepting the fact that the nebulae are composed of glowing gaseous matter1 the problem confronts us as to where this gaseous matter comes from4 ,if1 as spectrum analysis seems to teach us1 there are nebulae in various stages of formation1 there must be a period in their history of development when they had an origin4 ,what1 then1 is the origin of a nebula1 and what the physical explanation of that origin8 ,from optical phenomena we learn that all space is not empty1 but filled with the ,aether which is universal 7,art4 #db74 ,what is the relation1 then1 of this glowing nebulous matter to this universal ,aether8 ,if it be suggested that there is no relation1 then we are in the unphilosophical position of having to admit1 either that the nebulous matter of which the nebulae are composed never had any origin1 or that it had its origin in some unknown and still undiscovered medium which exists in space4 ,but both of these hypotheses are unphilosophical1 as the former is contrary to all experience1 while the latter is opposed to that simplicity of conception by which we only postulate one medium1 the ,aether1 to fill all space4 ,thus we are led to the conclusion1 that the gaseous matter1 be it hydrogen or nitrogen1 must have some relation to the electro-magnetic ,aether that is so universal in its extent4 ,already this relationship has been dealt with by one who has done more for the development of aetherial physics than any other scientist4 ,lord ,kelvin1 in his paper ,on the ,clustering of ,gravitational ,matter in any part of the ,universe1#dc has solved this relationship1 though in so doing he has had to depart somewhat from the idea of an incompressible ,aether4 ,in that paper he writes as follows3 ,if we consider ,aether to be matter1 we postulate that it has rigidity enough for the vibrations of light1 but we have no right to say that it is absolutely incompressible4 ,we must admit that sufficiently great pressure could condense the ,aether in a given space1 allowing the ,aether in the surrounding space to come in towards the ideal shrinking surface4 ,in another part of the paper1 dealing with the same question1 he writes3 ,in regions where the density was greater than in neighbouring regions1 the density would become greater still2 in places of less density1 the density would become less1 and large regions would quickly become void or nearly void of atoms4 ,these large void regions would extend so as to completely surround regions of greater density4 ,he then points out1 that as soon as this density becomes something like the density of the atmosphere1 then collisions would take place between the particles1 and continues3 ,each collision would give rise to a train of waves in the ,aether4 ,these waves would carry away energy1 spreading it out through the void ,aether of infinite space4 ,the loss of energy thus taken away from the atoms would reduce large condensing clusters to the conditions of a gas in equilibrium under the influence of its own gravity1 rotating like our sun or moving at moderate speed as in spiral nebulae4 ,gravitational condensation would at first produce rise of temperature1 followed later by cooling1 ultimately freezing1 giving solid bodies1 collision between which would produce meteoric stones such as we see them4 ,here then we have a definitive relationship between ,aether and nebulae given to us from one of the keenest intellects of the present time1 but in order for that relationship to become strictly philosophical1 the conception of the ,aether as advanced in this work must be accepted4 ,for with the present conception of a frictionless ,aether1 such a hypothesis is altogether untenable1 because it supposes something that is contrary to all experience and observation4 ,on the basis of a condensing frictionless ,aether into any kind of solid body1 be it nebula1 meteor1 sun or star1 we have to suppose that it is possible for a medium 7the ,aether1 which is outside the ,law of ,gravitation according to the present theory7 to be condensed into a body1 that is1 a nebula or meteor which is subject to the ,law of ,gravitation2 and the question arises1 at what point in the history of its condensation does this frictionless ,aether pass out of the condition of having no weight1 to the condition when it has weight2 or1 in other words1 from the condition when it is outside the ,law of ,gravitation1 to the condition when it comes under the ,law of ,gravitation8 ,no satisfactory solution can possibly be offered to such a problem4 ,therefore one of two results must follow1 either that the ,aether is not frictionless1 but possesses weight2 or1 that the condensation of the ,aether is not possible4 ,with the theory of ,aether presented in this work1 the whole question receives a simple and philosophical solution4 ,as ,aether is matter1 it is therefore atomic2 and being atomic1 it is subject to the ,law of ,gravitation2 and therefore1 possessing mass and weight1 it can readily pass into other forms of matter1 and with such a conception ,lord ,kelvin's hypothesis becomes not only possible but probable4 ,so that it is exceedingly probable that nebulae are nothing more nor less than condensed ,aether1 the same as comets were suggested to be condensed ,aether4 ,it may be asserted that such a hypothesis lacks that experimental evidence which is so necessary for its establishment1 but ,i hope to show in the last chapter that ,faraday has given the world that very experimental evidence which will place this hypothesis upon a firm and solid foundation1 and enable it to pass out of the region of the hypothetical into the region of fact and experiment4 ,according to our hypothesis1 therefore1 nebulae are simply condensations of the electro-magnetic ,aether that exists in interstellar space1 and the various spectra of the different nebulae indicate the stage of development to which the process has arrived4 ,where the spectra are bright1 and continuous1 and free from any dark lines1 there we have simply the ,aether in its very first stage of condensation2 and where we have the dark lines appearing1 such lines indicate a more advanced stage to which the process has arrived4 ,footnote #dc3 ,philosophical ,magazine1 ,july #aijb4 ,,art4 #aba4 ,nebular ,hypothesis4--,the ,nebular ,hypothesis was first introduced by ,kant in his work on the ,history of the ,earth and ,theory of the ,heavens4 ,in that work he attempted to explain the origin of the universe on purely mechanical lines4 ,laplace1 a ,french mathematician1 about the same time came to similar conclusions as ,kant had done1 and published his views in his work on ,exposition du ,systme du ,monde1 and later on in his more famous work the ,mcanique ,cleste4 ,a feature common to both these theories rested in the fact1 that they supposed that all material bodies which exist in the universe once existed in a nebulous condition1 and that they were formed out of this nebulous matter4 ,further1 that this nebulous matter gradually condensed1 and as it condensed1 a rotational motion was imparted to them1 which rotation quickened as the condensation was continued4 ,then1 as the rotation was accelerated1 portions were flung off by the centrifugal force1 and these portions of nebulous matter gradually condensed1 forming the various planets of the system4 ,as these condensed1 they1 in their turn1 parted with some of their nebulous matter through the repulsive energy of the centrifugal force1 and these secondary parts gave origin to the various satellites that exist round the planets4 ,now1 while the general principle involved in the nebular hypothesis is true1 yet the conception according to ,laplace is not verified by fact1 as we learn that ,uranus and ,neptune are still in a state of self-luminosity1 while their density is the smallest of all the planets4 ,from this we should infer that the two outermost planets are the youngest planets of our solar system1 but according to ,laplace's theory1 they ought to be the oldest1 as they would have been flung off first by the parent body as it rotated2 and therefore1 being flung off first1 should be in a more advanced stage of development than any of the inner planets4 ,m4 ,faye has suggested a remedy for this defect in the theory4 ,he supposes that the nebulous matter out of which the planets were formed1 was not flung off by the central body the sun1 but that each planet was formed at different centres of condensation within the nebular mass that existed in space4 ,this would1 undoubtedly1 meet the difficulty already referred to1 and solves the problem as to how the various planets were formed at different distances in space4 ,further1 such a solution is in perfect harmony with all the ,rules of ,philosophy4 ,it is much more simple to conceive of ,aether condensing at various points in what originally was the solar nebula1 than it is to conceive of ,aether condensing and shrinking towards one central point1 and yet while condensing and shrinking1 portions were flung off into space which would form the planet4 ,a greater objection has to be met1 when we come to deal with the origin of all the meteors and minor planets that exist in their numbers in the solar system4 ,in relation to their origin1 it is much easier to conceive of portions of the ,aether condensing at different centres of condensation1 than to suppose that each portion of aetherial matter that originally formed the meteor1 or asteroid1 was flung off as a separate portion from the central body4 ,with the conception of an atomic and gravitating ,aether1 the ,nebular ,hypothesis1 therefore1 for the first time is placed upon a sound and philosophical basis1 because the condensation of ,aether1 which is matter and possesses mass1 admits of the origin of other matter from it which also possesses mass1 together with other properties1 as elasticity1 density1 compressibility and inertia4 ,when there is added to the atomic ,aether the conception of a rotatory aetherial atom1 as was indicated in ,art4 #dd1 we have at once a source from whence the rotation of the whole mass may be derived4 ,thus1 as the condensation continued1 and the nucleus or central part of the body was gradually formed1 the rotation would be accelerated1 because of the inherent energy which would exist in the condensed part4 ,further1 as the condensation continued1 the body so formed would be more or less spherical in form1 as the conception of our aetherial atom was spherical1 and when we conceive of the primary point of condensation1 we have to think of a large number of spherical atoms coming together2 and1 as all the motions of the ,aether which give rise to light1 heat1 electricity and magnetism1 and which now include gravitation1 are spherical in their operations1 so their effect upon any condensing ,aether would take a spherical form4 ,thus such bodies as nebulae1 comets1 asteroids1 satellites1 planets and suns should possess bodies more or less of a spherical form1 subject to certain qualifying conditions1 as rotation and orbital velocity1 and this is in harmony with observation and experience4 ,for we shall find that even in the case of nebulae1 we have globular1 ring or annular nebulae1 and elliptic nebulae1 while in the case of comets1 the nuclei and coma are more or less spherical4 ,further1 it is a familiar fact that the shape of all asteroids1 satellites1 planets1 and even the sun is spherical or that of an oblate spheroid1 which latter is simply due to its rotational velocity on its axis4 ,thus the principle involved in the nebular hypothesis receives its confirmation in the atomic and gravitating ,aether1 and with certain modifications of the different hypotheses advanced1 is capable of uniting all those hypotheses that have ever been put forth in this direction into one perfect and harmonious whole4 ,again1 the condensation of the ,aether1 composed as it is of its atoms1 ever in a state of rotation1 does away with the ,primitive impulse which was objected to in ,art4 #i4 ,for in that article it was shown that the conception of a primitive impulse as conceived by ,newton was unphilosophical1 in that its conception was not simple1 and failed to satisfactorily account for observed phenomena4 ,with the hypothesis1 however1 of a rotatory aetherial atom1 we have at once those conditions which at any time1 in the history of the universe1 may give rise to those conditions by which a body may be set rotating not only on its axis1 but also revolving around some central body1 as the process of condensation is continued4 ,so that in the primordial and universal electro-magnetic ,aether that exists in all space1 we get those conditions which will not only give rise to the phenomena of light1 heat1 magnetism and electricity1 but also those properties1 qualities and motions by which are produced1 maintained and perpetuated1 the various bodies that exist in the ,aether1 which is at once the physical source and cause of the bodies4 ,,art4 #abb4 ,kinds of ,nebulae4--,nebulae may be classified into the following groups-- #a4 ,irregular ,nebulae4 #b4 ,ring and ,elliptical ,nebulae4 #c4 ,spiral or ,whirlpool ,nebulae4 #d4 ,planetary ,nebulae4 ,irregular ,nebulae4--,of this class the most conspicuous are those in the constellations of ,orion and ,andromeda4 ,so clearly defined are they1 that they are oftentimes seen by the naked eye on a clear night1 and are often mistaken for comets4 ,the great nebula in ,orion is one of the most noticeable objects in the heavens4 ,it is noted for its size and brilliancy1 and also for the successful observation which it has been subjected to from time to time4 ,this large nebula is situated in that part of ,orion which is occupied by several stars known as the ,sword ,handle4 ,these multiple stars are known by the name of ,theta4 ,around these multiple stars is to be seen the nebula1 as though the multiple stars really were enveloped by the nebula extending for a great distance out into space4 ,it is of a faint bluish colour1 with the central parts possessing the greatest brilliancy4 ,the suggestion arises in our mind as to whether the nebulae are in any ways indicative of the presence of the electro-magnetic aetherial field that each star undoubtedly possesses4 ,we learned in ,art4 #hh that the sun is an electro-magnet1 and that it possesses its electro-magnetic field4 ,we have also seen in ,art4 #aji that the zodiacal light1 which is to be observed in connection with our solar system1 is really indicative of the presence of that electro-magnetic field1 as it rotates round the central body4 ,now1 if an observer were situated out in space1 where the nebula of ,orion is situated1 and could look at our system with telescopes equally as powerful as those we possess1 would not our sun present an equally nebulous light to them because of the presence of its electro-magnetic field8 ,conversely1 if every star possesses an electro-magnetic aetherial field1 as they undoubtedly do1 then it seems only reasonable to infer that that electro-magnetic field possesses a nebulosity which corresponds with our zodiacal light4 ,the fact that the spectra of the nebulae are continuous1 revealing no dark lines1 seems to indicate the purity of some of the nebulae1 and that therefore they are free from all known elements4 ,so that spectroscopic results seem to confirm this hypothesis1 as the pure ,aether that would surround every star1 or multiples of stars1 would certainly not reveal any dark lines by means of the spectroscope4 ,such a hypothesis1 as to the real nature of a nebula1 is entirely in harmony with the theory of the ,aether presented in ,chapter ,,iv41 because being gravitative it will surround each star or multiples of stars1 and therefore be denser nearest to those stars1 and being atomic1 there will be a certain amount of nebulosity manifested by the denser parts of the medium1 as is the case in our own solar system4 ,ring or ,elliptical ,nebulae4--,these forms of nebulae are so named from their ring-shaped appearance1 sometimes being known as ,annular ,nebulae4 ,the elliptical nebulae are usually classed with them1 as they are supposed to be similar kinds of nebulae looked at edgeways4 ,the best known of this class is that found in the constellation of ,lyra1 and known as #eg,m1 which is the number of the star in ,messier's catalogue of stars4 ,it is small but well-defined1 so that it looks more like a flat oval solid ring than a nebula4 ,the central part is not entirely dark1 but is filled up with a hazy light4 ,another annular nebula is that situated to the south-west of ,lambda ,scorpii4 ,sir ,j4 ,herschel#dd writes of it thus3 ,it is a delicate but well-defined annulus4 ,the field is crowded with stars1 two of which are nebulae4 ,a beautiful delicate ring of a faint ghost-like appearance1 about #dj in diameter1 in a field of about #aej stars1 of #aa and #ab magnitude and under4 ,of the elliptical nebulae the best known is the one in the constellation of ,andromeda1 which goes by the name of #ca,m4 ,it is visible on a clear night1 and can be seen by the naked eye as a hazy light4 ,there are several other elliptical nebulae1 lying to the north-west of this great nebula4 ,planetary ,nebulae4--,the planetary nebulae represent a number of minute objects visible in the heavens4 ,they look like globes of a bluish-coloured gas and are sometimes mistaken for small stars4 ,sir ,j4 ,herschel writes about them as follows3 ,planetary nebulae are very extraordinary objects4 ,they have1 as their name implies1 a resemblance to planets1 presenting discs1 round or slightly oval1 some being quite sharply defined1 terminating in others a little hazy or softened at the border4 ,they are comparatively rare objects1 not more than #be having been observed1 and of these nearly three-quarters are in the southern hemisphere4 ,their disc is circular or slightly elliptic1 with sharp1 clear1 and well-defined outline1 having exactly the appearance of a planet with the exception only of its colour1 which is full blue1 varying somewhat upon green4 ,m4 ,arago has surmised that they may possibly be envelopes shining by reflected light from a solar body placed in their centre1 invisible to us because of its excessive distance4 ,the suggestion which arises to our mind in view of the atomic and gravitating ,aether is1 that the planetary nebulae are exactly what their names imply1 that is1 nebulous matter around planets4 ,we have already learned that each satellite and planet possesses an electro-magnetic field1 which field takes more or less the shape of a spherical form1 so that if there are planets existing in the far-off systems in space1 as we are compelled to believe that there are1 then they too would possess an electro-magnetic field1 which would be composed of spherical envelopes surrounding the several planets4 ,these planets would shine by reflected light1 as suggested by ,m4 ,arago4 ,the possession by the planet of the nebulous matter1 which we have already suggested is composed of the denser parts of the ,aether around the planet1 would give to the planet a nebulous appearance which would satisfactorily account for the term already given4 ,they would indeed be what ,sir ,john ,herschel suggested they were1 viz1 planetary nebulae4 ,spiral ,nebulae4--,the ,spiral1 or ,whirlpool ,nebulae1 are remarkable objects1 and were first discovered by ,lord ,rosse with his six-foot telescope4 ,one of the best examples of the spiral nebulae is that known as #ea,m4 ,small telescopes show this as two clusters1 one of them being surrounded by a ring1 at a distance1 which is divided into two parts4 ,lord ,rosse1 however1 found it to be really a spiral nebula1 the ring running into a series of spiral coils of nebulous matter1 the outlying parts being connected with the main part by curved bands4 ,huggins has found that the spectrum of this nebula is not gaseous4 ,other examples of this class are #ii,m and #cc,m4 ,what these spiral or whirlpool nebulae are1 is unknown1 but1 on the hypothesis of a condensing and gravitating ,aether which is in a state of rotation1 the spiral nebulae can be easily pictured4 ,for1 as the condensation goes on1 rotation will set in1 and if we can picture such a phenomenon taking place in a plane which is at right angles to the line of vision1 then we should have a full view of a nebula which would present a spiral form4 ,indeed1 there is no phenomenon in connection with nebulae that cannot be physically explained by a condensing1 gravitating and rotatory ,aether2 and as ,aether is universal1 the same properties will apply to it in distant space as they do in the solar system2 and apart from a gravitating and rotatory electro-magnetic ,aether1 the phenomena of our own solar system cannot be physically conceived or explained4 ,therefore1 if such an ,aether can explain the phenomena associated with our own system1 it ought also to explain1 and that to the fullest extent1 all phenomena incidental to and associated with the innumerable systems that flood the universe at large4 ,footnote #dd3 ,outlines of ,astronomy4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,unity ,,of ,,universe ,,art4 #abc4 ,the ,universe4--,in the preceding chapters we have endeavoured to deal with some of the principal phenomena that help to give a mechanical conception to the entire ,universe4 ,it now remains for us to show1 in this last chapter1 how1 underlying all the physical structure of the ,universe1 there is one fundamental and primordial medium1 in which all the forms of matter and motion find their ultimate unity4 ,the ,universe literally means one ultimate whole1 though that whole may be compounded of many parts1 the very essence of the term embodying the idea of a complete unity which runs throughout its whole physical structure4 ,apart from some such hypothesis as will be suggested in this chapter1 that ultimate unity is incapable of a physical or mechanical conception4 ,in ,art4 #bi we learned that the ,universe was composed of two classes of things1 matter and motion1 while in ,art4 #cj we learned that the sum total of matter according to the law of the conservation of matter ever remains the same2 while further1 in ,art4 #ec1 according to the law of the conservation of energy1 the sum total of energy ever remains the same4 ,we have also learned that the two are indissolubly united1 so that wherever we found matter1 whether that matter was in its atomic1 molecular1 planetary or stellar form1 there1 as its necessary complement and counterpart1 was the ever-present and unceasing motion1 in one or other of its many forms4 ,thus1 throughout the entire ,universe1 we find the same two essentials ever working in unison and harmony4 ,nowhere in the realm of infinite space is there such a phenomenon as rest or absolute death4 ,the ideal that seems to be the key of the ,universe1 is that continuity of motion which science teaches us is so inseparably connected with all matter4 ,grouped1 however1 here and there throughout the ,universe are modifications of this aetherial matter1 termed molecules1 satellites1 planets1 suns1 or stars1 which modifications are1 however1 not so real and abiding as the electro-magnetic ,aether from which they receive their physical origin4 ,the physical character of the universe is progressive4 ,even in its ultimate unity there is no such thing as stagnation or standing still2 for1 while in some parts of the ,universe new stars and suns and planets1 yea1 even new systems are being evolved out of the primordial ,aether1 in other parts of the ,universe old stars and suns1 with all their attendant planets and satellites1 are passing on towards that final end1 when they themselves will be again resolved into the original form of matter from which they were first made4 ,this assertion is in perfect harmony not only with science1 but also with revelation4 ,for even revelation teaches us that all the stars shall grow old as doth a garment1 and as a vesture shall they be folded up 7,heb4 i4 #aa71 and that 7out of their ruins7 a new heaven and a new earth shall be created and the former shall not be remembered 7,isaiah lxv4 #ag74 ,thus amid all the modifications of that which is the real physical basis of all matter1 we find indissolubly associated with each and all of the varied forms and modifications certain motions which are analogous to each other4 ,in the aetherial atom itself1 so infinitesimal in its proportions that even our imagination is almost strained in our attempt to conceive it1 yet even here we have rotation and translation in an orbit1 such rotation and translation being due to the motions of the electro-magnetic ,aether4 ,then in the gaseous forms of matter into which these atoms may be condensed1 we find the same two essentials1 of matter and motion1 of rotation and translation in an orbit1 always working harmoniously together1 through the motions of the selfsame ,aether1 which gives rise to the attraction and repulsions of the atoms4 ,then following the principle into the planetary world1 and taking the planet ,saturn with its ring of satellites as an example1 we find again the same two factors ever working in unison and in harmony1 with their incessant rotation and translation in an orbit1 forming a complete and perfect unity in themselves1 such unity being due to the pressures and tensions of the ,aether combined with its rotatory character4 ,then going a step further1 we find a number of planets1 with or without satellites1 all rotating around one central body1 that rotation and translation again being due to the motions of the rotating electro-magnetic ,aether1 combined with its pressures and tensions4 ,for millions of years1 so far as we can tell1 this solar system of ours has been moving through space as one complete unit4 ,then out in stellar space there are millions of such systems1 each distinct and perfect in themselves1 each of which is made up of exactly similar parts to our solar system1 these innumerable systems being doubtless joined together by the same electro-magnetic ,aether1 forming one larger and grander unity1 known as a constellation4 ,then these constellations1 increasing in their number1 are again joined together1 and form a still larger unity called a ,galaxy2 and galaxy being joined to galaxy1 constellations to constellations1 we get such an ocean of suns and stars like that known as the ,milky ,way1 the ultimate whole revealing in all its beauty and harmony the unison of the two essentials of matter and motion4 ,it may even be that all the oceans of suns and stars1 that exist in far-off space1 are joined together by one common bond1 the universal electro-magnetic ,aether by its two complementary motions1 the centripetal and the centrifugal1 the whole forming one ultimate unity which we call the ,universe1 having for its centre one common point or central orb1 which indeed forms the centre of gravity of the entire ,universe4 ,thus the key to the physical conception of the ,universe is to be found1 and alone found1 in that beauty of order1 and harmony of motion1 which are so inseparably associated with the varied forms of matter1 graduating through a series of units or atoms1 each with its dual nature complete in itself1 through a series of minor entities termed elements1 which in their aggregations form meteorites1 satellites1 planets1 suns and stars1 and systems of stars and oceans of suns and stars1 until all are united into one ultimate unity where all are blended into one complete and perfect whole2 the whole of the universal fabric being held together in its mechanical order and beauty by the electro-magnetic ,aether4 ,then in the very centre of the ,universe there dwells that ,supreme ,being whom we call ,god1 who is at once the one real fountain and source of all the light and life of the ,universe itself4 ,for it is ,his universal ,spirit that moulds and fashions the plastic matter into the many forms which it assumes1 and uses the various modes of motion1 as heat1 light1 electricity and magnetism1 as instruments to build up and erect in all their beauty and harmony the innumerable systems that flood immensity and space4 ,for if there be a centre of gravity to an atomic system1 and a centre of gravity to a planetary system1 and a centre of gravity to a solar system1 then there is also a centre of gravity to a group of systems1 even to a constellation1 or a galaxy2 otherwise our philosophy relative to the centres of gravity of masses fails in its application to wider phenomena of an exactly similar kind4 ,thus1 if there is a centre of gravity to a galaxy1 even to the ,milky ,way itself1 then1 going one step further1 with a faith that laughs at scientific data and leaps beyond the narrow bounds of pure reasoning1 we affirm that there must even be a centre of gravity to the entire ,universe4 ,now let me ask the reader1 ,what can be more fitting1 more appropriate1 more reasonable than to infer that the centre of gravity of the ,universe is to be found in that celestial orb or orbs where the throne of ,god exists and endures1 and where ultimately there will be congregated together in perfect felicity the spirits of just men made perfect1 not only from our insignificant planet1 but all the spirits of all beings from all the planets which in their almost infinite number are circled round their central suns by the electro-magnetic ,aether8 ,it is there1 in these bright orbs1 with their vision and powers spiritualized1 quickened and intensified1 that all perfected spirits shall look out into space1 with increasing wonder1 upon the birth and decay of worlds1 the evolution and devolution of planets and systems and constellations1 and shall watch the continuation and working out of that grand and glorious plan1 which alone finds its perfection and its ultimate fulfilment in the wisdom1 and power1 and glory of the ,eternal ,spirit of the ,living ,god4 ,to see if this conception of the ,universe is borne out by scientific data1 we will now address ourselves more particularly to those fundamental truths which underlie the unity of the ,universe4 ,,art4 #abd4 ,the ,unity of the ,universe4--,the ,unity of the ,universe is a dream which has passed before the imagination of many philosophers in by-gone times1 and has been a fruitful source of speculation to old-world1 as well as more modern philosophers4 ,the researches of such living scientists as ,sir ,william ,crookes1 ,professor ,j4 ,j4 ,thomson and others1 have1 however1 made this dream come within the range of practical research and direct experiment4 ,professor ,j4 ,j4 ,thomson believes that it is possible to break off from an atom1 a part which is only #a_/ajjj part of the whole1 and these infinitesimal parts he has called corpuscles1 which he considers are the carriers of the electric current4 ,if1 therefore1 it can be philosophically proved that the hypothesis of an atomic1 gravitating1 and condensing ,aether can satisfactorily account for the physical existence of all atoms1 and therefore of all matter1 the dream of old-world philosophers will be helped on its way to a successful realization4 ,we have already suggested1 that nebulae are formed out of the condensation of the electro-magnetic ,aether that fills the ,universe2 and as that nebula1 according to the ,nebular ,hypothesis1 ultimately resolves itself into a sun1 or planet1 or satellite1 as the case may be1 it follows that the condensation of this electro-magnetic ,aether forms the basis of all the various elements1 as ,hydrogen1 ,nitrogen1 ,oxygen and the other seventy elements of which those bodies are composed4 ,thus the conclusion that we are compelled to come to in regard to the ultimate nature of matter1 in its primordial condition1 is1 that all matter which exists in its varied forms throughout the entire ,universe finds its physical origin and source in the universal electro-magnetic ,aether1 which is itself atomic1 and possesses all the essential properties of matter4 ,with the conception of the ,aether as advanced in this work1 this hypothesis is perfectly philosophical and logical4 ,for the conception is simple1 in that it supposes one form of matter to spring out of another form1 that is1 from an aetherial form to gaseous1 in a similar manner to that in which a gaseous form changes into a liquid form1 that is1 by condensation1 or a closer drawing together of the aetherial elastic envelopes that surround each atom2 each particular gas1 as ,hydrogen1 ,nitrogen1 or ,oxygen1 representing different quantities of aetherial condensations1 as will be seen in the next article4 ,the aetherial constitution of matter has received recognition from the hands of such scientists as ,lord ,kelvin and ,dr4 ,larmor4 ,the latter1 in his ,aether and ,matter1 writes on the subject as follows 7page #g73 ,matter must be constituted of isolated portions1 each of which is of necessity a permanent nucleus or singularity in and belonging to the ,aether1 of some such type as is represented for example by a minute vortex ring in a perfect fluid1 or a centre of permanent strain in a rotational elastic medium4 ,and again on the same page he adds3 ,it is incumbent on us to recognize an aetherial substratum of matter1 in so far as this proves conducive to simplicity and logical consistency in our scheme of physical relations1 and helpful towards the discovery of hitherto unnoticed ones4 ,dr4 ,larmor1 as has already been pointed out in ,art4 #dd1 speaks of his aetherial atoms as electrons1 which are of two kinds1 negative and positive1 and of these he states 7page #ig73 ,each electron has an effective mass of aetherial origin1 which forms part1 and may be the whole of the mass of the matter to which it is attached4 ,here1 then1 we have definite statements as to the hypothesis of all matter having a definite aetherial origin4 ,if1 therefore1 it can be proved experimentally that matter does possess this aetherial basis1 then the hypothesis will pass out of the region of speculation into the region of fact and science4 ,the question1 therefore1 suggests itself to our mind1 as to whether among all the experiments that have ever been performed by any scientist1 there are any which will conclusively confirm and establish the hypothesis as to the aetherial origin of all matter4 ,in my opinion there are such experiments1 which have been given to the world by such eminent scientists as ,faraday and ,sir ,humphry ,davy4 ,before1 however1 the value of their experiments can be rightly understood and valued1 we shall have to ask ourselves another question1 and that is1 ,what is the relation of ,aether to electricity8 ,upon the correct answer to this question depends the application of ,faraday's experiments to the hypothesis of the aetherial constitution of all matter1 and therefore of the great underlying principle of the unity of the ,universe4 ,is there any relation therefore between ,aether and electricity8 ,if so1 what is that relation1 and to what extent does it hold good8 ,professor ,lodge1 in his preface to ,modern ,views of ,electricity1 asks a similar question4 ,electricity1 he states1 has been thought to be a form of energy1 it has been shown to be a form of ,aether4 ,there remains the question1 ,what is ,aether8 ,while again he writes3 ,a rough and crude statement adopted for popular use is that electricity and ,aether are identical4 ,but that is not all that has to be said1 for there are two opposite kinds of electricities1 and there are not two ,aethers4 ,but there may be two aspects of one ,aether1 just as there are two sides to a sheet of paper4 ,that there is a definite relation between ,aether and electricity is as certain as there is a definite relation between electricity and light4 ,in order to find out how far the relationship and identity between ,aether and electricity extend we will review our conception of the ,aether as given in ,chapter ,,iv4 ,according to the conception advanced in that chapter1 on the hypothesis that ,aether was matter1 we philosophically came to the conclusion that ,aether was atomic1 and therefore gravitative4 ,because it was gravitative1 it possessed density1 and varying degrees of density2 and having mass1 it possesses the property of inertia the same as any other matter2 and was also elastic4 ,we have now to add to these properties that of compressibility1 which property we have ascribed to it from philosophical considerations when dealing with comets1 and nebulae1 and the origin of planets and satellites4 ,now1 if there is any identity between ,aether and electricity1 then it follows that that identity will be more or less manifested1 as we find electricity possessing more or less of the properties which have been ascribed to the electro-magnetic ,aether4 ,for1 if we find two apparently different substances1 or entities1 possessing exactly the same properties1 and occupying the same space at one and the same time1 then the only logical conclusion that we can come to is1 that these two apparently different substances are not two substances1 but one4 ,we have already proved that they both occupy exactly the same space1 that is1 they occupy the planetary and interstellar regions of space1 and fill indeed the entire ,universe4 ,the electro-magnetic theory of ,light 7,art4 #gh7 indisputably proves this4 ,we will therefore find out if electricity possesses the properties which have already been ascribed to the ,aether4 ,the first property1 and indeed the fundamental property1 of ,aether is that it is atomic1 and upon the atomicity of the medium depends the whole of the theory as worked out in relation to heat1 light1 electricity and so-called gravitational phenomena4 ,is there anything about electricity that can suggest the hypothesis that electricity is atomic8 ,the answer is unquestionably in the affirmative4 ,many of the greatest scientists of the past and present century have believed and worked at the hypothesis of the atomic character of electricity1 and none more so than ,dr4 ,larmor in his ,aether and ,matter and ,professor ,j4 ,j4 ,thomson4 ,now what is ,dr4 ,larmor's opinion as to the atomicity of electricity8 ,these are some of his statements quoted in the work4 ,in the very first words of his preface he writes3#de ,the following essay was originally undertaken mainly as a contribution towards the development of the standpoint which considers electricity1 as well as the matter1 to be constituted on an atomic basis4 ,he continues3 ,since ,faraday's work on ,electrolysis1 the notion of the atomic constitution of electrification in its electro-chemical aspect has never been entirely absent4 ,while later on he adds3 ,thus1 for example1 the present view of the atomic character of electricity1 which is at length coming within the scope of direct experiment1 has been in evidence with gradually increasing precision ever since theoretical formulations were attempted on the subject4 ,we are1 however1 possibly indebted to ,professor ,j4 ,j4 ,thomson for the most direct experimental evidence as to the atomic nature of electricity1 for1 as is well known to scientists1 he has discovered what he termed corpuscles1 in association with electricity1 which he makes the carriers of the charges involved in electrical phenomena4 ,here1 then1 we have one proof of the identity that exists between ,aether and electricity1 in that while they both fill the same space1 they are both equally atomic2 ,dr4 ,larmor's ultimate atom1 as we have already seen1 being known as positive and negative electrons4 ,aether1 we also learned1 was gravitative 7,art4 #de71 but we have since learned that gravitation is itself an electrical phenomenon1 in that both the centripetal and centrifugal forces are due to the repulsions and attractions or pressure and tension of this electro-magnetic ,aether4 ,so that when we affirm that ,aether is gravitative1 we do but affirm it is subject to the laws of electricity1 which govern all electrical phenomena1 and therefore we might just as truly affirm that electricity is gravitative1 because such an affirmation is simply another way of saying that electricity gives rise to the attractions and repulsions incidental to1 and associated with1 all electrical phenomena4 ,here1 again1 we have further evidence of the identity that exists between ,aether and electricity4 ,then we learned that ,aether possessed density1 and also different degrees of density1 and the question arises as to whether there is anything corresponding to this property in electricity4 ,as a matter of fact1 this very property of density is itself recognized and known to all scientists by the term ,electric ,density1 the electric density being always proportionate to the charge of electricity on a given area4 ,we learned also in ,art4 #gi that aetherial density and electrical density were identical in relation to solar and planetary space2 so that1 wherever there was the denser ,aether1 there was also the denser electricity1 the density of the one increasing or decreasing exactly in the same ratio as the other increased or decreased4 ,from aetherial and electrical density1 therefore1 we have another proof of the close identity that exists between ,aether and electricity4 ,again1 we learned 7,art4 #dh7 that ,aether possessed inertia4 ,here at least1 it may be thought1 we shall find the first point of difference between the two entities4 ,surely such an intangible1 aetherial manifestation as electricity cannot possess inertia4 ,let us see what ,professor ,lodge has to say on the subject4 ,in the chapter on electrical inertia he writes 7p4 #hi1 par4 #cfe of ,modern ,views of ,electricity73 ,a current does not start instantaneously3 it takes a certain time1 often very short1 to rise to its full strength2 and when started it tends to persist1 so that if its circuit be suddenly broken1 it refuses to stop quite suddenly1 and bursts through the introduced insulating partition with violence and heat4 ,it is this ram or impetus of the electric current which causes the spark seen on breaking a circuit2 and the more sudden the breakage1 the more violent is the spark apt to be4 ,we shall understand them better directly2 meanwhile they appear to be direct consequences of the inertia of electricity2 and certainly if electricity were a fluid possessing inertia it would behave to a superficial observer just in this way4 ,from these statements we learn then that electricity does possess inertia1 although there are other phenomena of electricity that would destroy the hypothesis4 ,but undoubtedly an electric current possesses momentum1 and it is philosophically impossible to associate momentum with any body that does not possess inertia1 as one of the factors of momentum implies mass1 even though it be a mass of an infinitesimal form1 and mass is the very essence of the property of inertia 7,art4 #dj74 ,dr4 ,larmor1 in the work already referred to1 dealing with the subject of electric inertia1 explains that it is concentrated at the nucleus of the electron 7p4 #bcj71 while on p4 #bjb he states3 ,each electron as it is moved by the aetherial displacement belonging to the radiation1 resists with its own definite inertia4 ,apart from this evidence1 the philosophical evidence already adduced in ,chapter ,x4 is altogether in favour of the fact that electricity possesses inertia4 ,so that we may say that1 though the evidence as to the identity of electrical and aetherial inertia is not fully complete1 the balance of opinion lies in favour of the identity rather than otherwise4 ,see ,appendix ,a4 ,it can further be demonstrated that electricity possesses elasticity the same as the ,aether does4 ,the charge and discharge of a ,leyden jar are conclusive evidence of the elasticity associated with electrical phenomena1 while further proof is to be found in the fact that ,dr4 ,larmor attributes elasticity to his electrons1 such elasticity being of a rotational type4 ,the identity1 therefore1 that exists between ,aether is now almost complete4 ,we have now only to prove that both are compressible1 and the identity is fully established4 ,this will be done by reference to certain of ,faraday's experiments before the conclusion of this article4 ,as we have established1 logically1 the identity that exists between ,aether and electricity1 the question arises now as to whether they are not one and the same medium4 ,if they are not one and the same medium1 then we are in the distinctly unphilosophical position of having to admit that all interplanetary and interstellar space are filled at one and the same time by two different media1 and such an assumption is directly opposed to all observation and experience4 ,therefore1 to be strictly philosophical1 one of these media must be done away with1 and we may either assert that interplanetary and interstellar space is filled with electricity1 or else it is filled with ,aether1 as it is much simpler to conceive of space being filled with one medium1 than it is to suppose it to be filled with two media1 which are absolutely identical in all their characteristic properties and functions4 ,both can give rise to exactly the same kind of phenomena1 whether they are the phenomena of heat1 light1 electricity1 or magnetism1 and even gravitation itself4 ,so that1 if ,science wishes to be distinctly philosophical in her statements in future1 it will be necessary1 it seems to me1 to do away either with the ,aether1 or with the electricity1 and as the latter is the better known entity1 ,i am of the opinion that ,science will retain the electric conception of space and matter1 and do away with the aetherial1 as being altogether unnecessary4 ,see ,appendix ,b4 ,thus are we led to the conclusion that electricity is itself a form of matter1 as indeed it must be if it is atomic1 as suggested by ,dr4 ,larmor and ,professor ,thomson4 ,professor ,lodge1 on p4 #i of the work already referred to1 states3 ,electricity in this respect behaves just like a substance2 and again1 p4 #cac1 he writes3 ,we cannot assert that it is a form of matter1 neither can we deny it2 on the other hand1 we certainly cannot assert that it is a form of energy1 and ,i should be disposed to deny it4 ,it may be that electricity is an entity per se1 just as matter is an entity per se4 ,whether electricity be a form of matter or not1 as ,i believe it undoubtedly is1 we have arrived at the fact1 in view of the identity between ,aether and electricity1 that1 wherever the one is present1 the other is present also4 ,so that if it can be demonstrated by direct experiment that matter can be changed into its equivalent quantities of electricities1 or that equivalent quantities of electricities could produce their equivalent forms of matter1 then the electrical basis of matter1 and consequently the aetherial basis of matter1 are proved beyond contradiction1 and we are thus led one step nearer to the ultimate unity of the ,universe1 which unity is to be found in the universal electro-magnetic ,aether1 which is identical with universal electricity4 ,for if ,aether be the basis of all modes of motion1 as heat1 light1 and gravitation1 and it is identical with electricity1 it follows that electricity is equally the basis of all the varied phenomena1 and if to that we add the constitution of matter itself1 then we are within sight of the medium in which the ultimate unity of the ,universe is to be found4 ,this view of the subject has already been dealt with by a ,german scientist1 ,professor ,vogt1 in his book on ,the ,nature of ,electricity and ,magnetism1 a book1 however1 which is not translated into ,english4 ,in that work ,i believe he shows the possibility of all matter having its origin in electricity2 and if that be so1 then that theory is really identical with an aetherial basis of matter1 seeing that ,aether and electricity philosophically seem to be one and the same medium4 ,let us therefore turn to ,faraday's experiments1 and see what they teach us on the subject of the electrical basis of matter1 and therefore the aetherial basis at the same time4 ,in paragraph #heb of his ,experimental ,researches ,faraday writes3 ,the theory of definite electro-chemical action appears to me to touch upon the absolute quantity of electricity1 or electrical power1 belonging to different bodies4 ,although we know nothing of what an atom is1 yet we cannot resist forming some idea of a small particle which represents it to our mind1 and though we cannot say what electricity is1 so as to be able to say whether it is a particular matter or matters1 or mere motion of ordinary matter1 yet there is immensity of facts which justify us in believing that the atoms of matter are in some way endowed or associated with electrical powers to which they owe their most striking qualities1 and amongst them their chemical affinity4 ,as soon as we perceive1 through the teaching of ,dalton1 that chemical powers are 7however varied the circumstances in which they are exerted7 definite for each body1 we learn to estimate the relative degree of ,force which resides in such bodies2 and when upon that knowledge comes the fact that electricity1 which we appear to be capable of loosening from its habitation for a while1 or conveying from place to place1 whilst it retains its chemical ,force1 can be measured out1 and being so measured1 is found to be as definite in its action as any of those portions which1 remaining associated with the particles of matter1 give them their chemical relation1 we seem to have found a link which connects the proportion of that belonging to the particles in their natural state4 ,then in paragraph #hee he writes as follows3 ,it seems a probable and almost a natural consequence1 that the quantity which passes is the equivalent of1 and therefore equal to1 that of the particles separated1 i4 e4 that if the electrical power which holds the elements of a grain of water in combination 7or which makes a grain of oxygen and hydrogen1 in the right proportions1 unite into water when they are made to combine7 could be thrown into the condition of a current1 it would exactly equal the current required for the separation of that grain of water into its elements again4 ,further1 in ,art4 #heg1 he states1 ,i can have no doubt that1 assuming hydrogen as #a1 and dismissing small fractions for the simplicity of expression1 the equivalent number or atomic weight of oxygen is #h1 of chlorine #cf1 of bromine #gh4d1 of lead #ajc4e1 of tin #ei1 etc41 notwithstanding that a very high authority doubles several of these numbers4 ,then1 writing upon the definite relationship of electro-chemical equivalents1 he states1 ,art4 #hce3 ,electro-chemical equivalents are always consistent2 i4 e4 the same number which represents the equivalent of a substance ,a1 when it is separating from a substance ,b1 will also represent ,a when separating from a third substance ,c4 ,thus #h is the electro-chemical equivalent of oxygen1 whether separating from hydrogen or tin or lead2 and #ajc4e is the electro-chemical equivalent of lead1 whether separating from oxygen or chlorine or iodine4 ,so that from ,faraday's experiments we learn definitely that the electro-chemical equivalents coincide with and agree with the ordinary chemical equivalents according to ,dalton's theory4 ,from these experimental results of ,faraday's we therefore learn that ,faraday was of the opinion that each atom had a definite and certain quantity of electricity associated with it2 and if this be true1 then1 in view of the identity of ,aether with electricity1 it follows that each atom must have definite and certain quantities of ,aether associated with each atom4 ,so that through ,faraday's experimental researches we are again led to the hypothesis enunciated by ,lord ,kelvin in his paper ,on the ,clustering of ,gravitational ,matter in any part of the ,universe1 viz4 that all matter has an aetherial1 that is1 an electrical basis1 and that it is by the condensation of this electricity1 and combinations of the condensational particles1 that all the various elements are formed which compose the infinite variety of forms that constitute the entire ,universe4 ,here1 then1 it seems to me1 we have the evidence which gives to the aetherial ,nebular ,hypothesis 7,art4 #aba7 that experimental evidence which places that hypothesis upon a firm and philosophical foundation1 and conclusively proves that it is possible for ,aether out in the colder regions of interstellar space to be condensed into masses of gaseous matter1 which form nebulae1 and other masses in the cold regions of interplanetary space to condense and form comets and meteors4 ,footnote #de3 ,aether and ,matter4 ,,art4 #abe4 ,physical ,constitution of ,matter4--,in ,art4 #ca we learned that all matter was made up of minute parts called atoms4 ,when these atoms enter into combination with each other1 they form the smallest particles of elementary substances as well as compound bodies1 these particles or bodies being termed molecules4 ,a molecule1 therefore1 may consist of any number of atoms of the same element1 or may be formed of the union of the atoms of two different elements4 ,in the preceding article we have learned that the atom of hydrogen or carbon1 however1 is divisible1 at least theoretically if not experimentally1 as we came to the conclusion that all atoms are composed of infinitesimal aetherial atoms1 which are synonymous with atoms of electricity4 ,whether we shall ever be able to experimentally prove the existence of such an atom remains to be seen1 though ,dr4 ,larmor states that the atomicity of electricity is coming within the scope of direct experiment2 while the researches of ,professors ,crookes and ,j4 ,j4 ,thomson have undoubtedly given direct evidence of the existence of corpuscles1 which are part of the atoms of the various elements4 ,when we try to conceive1 however1 of the manner in which the various elements can be formed from one primary medium1 that is1 the ,aether or electricity1 we find it difficult to arrive at a simple physical conception of the process involved4 ,we are indebted to ,professor ,j4 ,j4 ,thomson for what is practically the only simple physical conception of the method in which various elements may be formed from that medium1 which gives unity to the whole of the universe4 ,in the ,adams ,prize ,essay of #ahhc ,professor ,thomson indicated a theory based on the vortex atom 7,art4 #dc7 which satisfactorily accounted for the various laws which governed gaseous matter1 and also showed how the varied chemical combinations might be physically conceived as being produced from one primary medium4 ,in this theory we have to conceive of the vortex atom as possessing a hollow core1 while in our conception of an aetherial atom 7,art4 #dc7 we conceived it as being more of a spherical or globular form than ring-shaped4 ,we have1 then1 to consider the atom of any element as being composed of a vortex ring of various thickness1 the thickness of the ring being an indication of its atomic weight4 ,each vortex ring must also be conceived as itself being composed of a number of aetherial atoms1 or atoms of electricity1 the number of such atoms being proportionate to the respective atomic weights of the various elements4 ,dr4 ,larmor suggests that a vortex ring may have this constitution in his work on ,aether and ,matter4 ,according to ,professor ,j4 ,j4 ,thomson1 then1 any vortex ring1 which we have supposed to be constituted of aetherial atoms1 or atoms of electricity1 may unite with any other vortex ring1 thus producing a vortex ring of double density1 which would possess double the electricity of the unit vortex ring4 ,if we united three vortex rings1 then the result would be an atom of threefold the density and strength of the unit vortex ring4 ,we might conceive of four or any number of these rings uniting together to form a separate element1 and then each element would simply be a multiple of the unit vortex ring1 and so possess regular multiples of the atoms of electricity1 each multiple representing a distinct element4 ,we will now let ,professor ,thomson speak for himself on the matter1 and will describe the theory in his own words1 always keeping in mind the hypothesis that the unit vortex ring is itself composed of a definite number of atoms of electricity or electrons1 as proved by ,faraday4 ,see ,appendix ,c4 ,in the work already referred to1 ,professor ,thomson states3 ,we may suppose that the union or pairing in this way of two vortex rings of different kinds is what takes place1 when two elements of which these vortex rings are atoms combine chemically2 while1 if the vortex rings are of the same kind1 this process is what occurs when atoms combine to form molecules4 ,now let us suppose that the atoms of different chemical elements are made up of vortex rings1 all of the same strength1 but that some of these elements consist of only one ring1 others of two rings linked together1 others of three loops1 and so on4 ,then if any of these rings combine to form a permanent combination1 the strength of all the primaries in the system so formed by the combination must be equal4 ,thus an atom of one element may combine with another atom of the same kind1 to form a molecule of that substance consisting of two atoms4 ,again1 three of these atoms may combine1 and form a system consisting of three primary elements1 but the chance of their doing so is small compared with the chance of two pairing2 so that the number of systems of this kind will be small compared with the number of the systems consisting only of two atoms4 ,we might have systems of four atoms1 but the number would be small compared with the number of systems that consist of three atoms4 ,now1 suppose that an atom of one element is to combine with an atom of another4 ,suppose1 to fix our ideas1 that the atom consisting of two vortex rings linked together1 is to combine with an atom consisting of one vortex ring2 then1 since1 for the stability of connection1 the strength of all the primaries which form the components of the compound must be equal1 the atom consisting of two links must unite with molecules containing two atoms of the one with one link4 ,thus the compound formed will be the simplest combination1 consisting of one of the atoms which consist of two vortex rings linked together with two of the atoms consisting of only one vortex ring4 ,similarly1 if an atom consisting of three vortex rings linked together were to combine directly with atoms consisting of only one vortex ring1 the compound formed would consist of the three linked atoms with three of the others1 and so on for all the combinations of atoms formed by any number of vortex rings linked together4 ,this suggests that the elements1 called by the chemists monads1 dyads1 triads and so on1 consist of one1 two1 etc4 vortex rings linked together1 for then we should know that a dyad could not combine with less than two atoms of a monad to form a stable compound1 or a triad with less than three1 and so on1 which is just the definition of the terms monad1 dyad1 triad4 ,on looking at chemical combination from this point1 we expect to find that such compounds as ,hydrochloric acid1 where one atom of ,hydrogen has only to meet one atom of ,chlorine2 or water1 where one atom of ,oxygen has only to meet two atoms or a molecule of ,hydrogen1 would be much more easily and quickly formed than a compound such as ammonia gas1 to form which an atom of ,nitrogen has to find itself close to three atoms of ,hydrogen at once4 ,it is the case1 ,i believe1 in direct combination1 that simple compounds are formed more quickly than compound ones4 ,we might call the ratio of the number of links in the atom of any element1 to the number in the atom of ,hydrogen1 the ,valency of the element4 ,thus the compounds ,h-,,cl1 ,h-,i1 ,h-,f1 show that the atoms of ,chlorine1 ,iodine1 ,fluorine have the same number of links as the atom of ,hydrogen1 so that the valency of each of these elements is unity4 ,from the compound ,h#b,o we infer that the atom of ,oxygen consists of twice as many links as the atom of ,hydrogen4 ,the compound ,h#b,s indicates that the atoms of ,sulphur have twice as many links as the atom of ,hydrogen4 ,the molecules ,,co#b and ,marsh ,gas have each three primaries represented by ,c-,o-,o and ,c-,h-,h respectively4 ,according to the view we have taken1 atomicity corresponds to complexity of atomic arrangement1 and the elements of high atomicity consist of more vortex rings than those whose atomicity is low4 ,thus high atomicity corresponds to complicated atomic arrangement1 and we should expect to find the spectra of bodies of low atomicity much simpler than those of high4 ,this seems to be the case1 for we find that the spectra of ,sodium1 ,potassium1 ,lithium1 ,hydrogen1 ,chlorine1 which are all monad elements1 consist of comparatively few lines4 ,here then1 on the vortex theory of matter1 especially when that vortex theory is given an electric basis1 as is the case in ,dr4 ,larmor's electron theory1 we have a thinkable and logical explanation of the physical and chemical properties of matter1 by which all elements and compounds may be formed from the primordial aetherial or electric atom4 ,as all ,nature is composed of about seventy elements1 and it has been conclusively demonstrated that an atom of ,hydrogen is the same all over the universe1 no matter whether it exists on this planet1 or in some distant star or nebula1 we arrive at the conclusion that all the other elements are exactly the same in their properties and qualities wherever they are found4 ,if1 therefore1 we couple ,faraday's experiments and results as to the electro-chemical equivalents of all atoms1 with this theory of ,professor ,j4 ,j4 ,thomson's1 then we are again compelled to come to the conclusion that the unity of the universe in all its universality1 and infinite variety of forms and modes of matter1 is to be found1 and alone found1 in the universal ,aether1 which is co-existent and coextensive with electricity4 ,,art4 #abf4 ,quod ,erat ,faciendum4--,before concluding this work let us briefly review the whole of the theory submitted herein to the reader4 ,that which was to be done consisted primarily in ascertaining the physical cause of ,gravitation1 by which would be accounted for on a philosophical basis all the phenomena incidental to and associated with the ,law of ,gravitation4 ,such phenomena included the physical cause of the ,centripetal and ,centrifugal ,forces1 the physical cause of ,kepler's ,laws1 together with a physical conception of the application of ,newton's ,laws of ,motion to all solar and stellar bodies4 ,in addition to this1 there were other outstanding problems in physics that it was premised would receive either a partial or an entire physical explanation4 ,it was premised1 for example1 that the problem of the relative motion of ,aether and matter would be solved1 that the cause of the permanent magnetism of the earth would be revealed1 and the great problem of the constitution of matter attacked1 together with the unity of the universe which arose from that conception4 ,in order1 however1 for any theory to be philosophical in its initial stages1 the rules of some of the greatest philosophers which govern the making of any hypotheses were briefly outlined1 and were found to resolve themselves into three divisions4 ,the first rule dealt with the general simplicity of ,nature's mode of working1 and therefore the general simplicity which must govern our hypotheses in perfecting any theory as to the cause of all phenomena1 gravitational or otherwise4 ,the second rule showed that the only sound basis from whence we could derive all our data upon which to speculate and reason1 lay in our experience of all natural phenomena4 ,whatever else we might do1 or not do1 it was absolutely necessary1 if we wished to be perfectly philosophical in our conclusions1 that we should not traverse the direct results of observations and experiments4 ,the third rule laid down was the obvious axiom1 that the theory so perfected by logical reasoning must satisfactorily account for and explain all the phenomena sought to be explained4 ,now ,i wish to submit the whole theory as propounded in this work in its completion and in its entirety to the reader1 and to ask him if the ,rules of ,philosophy have not been adhered to throughout the whole work8 ,can any theory be more simple than the one submitted in this work1 by which we have endeavoured to account for all1 and even more1 than was premised in the opening chapters8 ,the very simplicity of the fundamental hypothesis that ,aether is matter1 in all its properties and qualities1 has been the chief obstacle to the retardation of its earlier discovery4 ,any proposition more simple1 more easy of comprehension1 is1 to my mind1 difficult of conception4 ,why1 children in our homes and schools may be taught the truth1 and grasp it in its concrete form1 and that is the highest test of the simplicity of any hypothesis4 ,thus the first ,rule of ,philosophy is satisfied and fulfilled in the initial hypothesis1 and ,i venture to affirm that the same simplicity has characterized the development of the theory throughout its entire progress4 ,step by step1 simple facts and simple truths which are known to any ordinary student have been shown to have a wider and more universal application than even the writer dreamed of1 when he started out on his voyage of discovery in philosophical research4 ,when we consider the second ,rule of ,philosophy in its application to our theory1 we find that experience1 as revealed by observation and experiment1 is fulfilled to the minutest detail4 ,the simple hypothesis that ,aether is matter1 fulfils to the very fullest extent all requirements demanded by the experience of all the scientists and experimentalists that the world has ever known4 ,to assert that ,aether is not matter is to assert a proposition contrary to all the accumulated experience of the past generations4 ,therefore1 if ,aether is matter1 then its fundamental qualities must be those which belong to and are associated with all matter1 those qualities being atomicity1 gravity1 density1 elasticity1 inertia1 and compressibility4 ,the objector to this statement is himself violating the chief rule of all philosophy1 in that he is going contrary to the tenor and teaching of his own experience4 ,then1 following out the second rule step by step we arrive at the one grand central truth1 that electricity is also a form of matter1 and that all the forces of the entire universe are but different modes of motion1 different vibrations of the universal electro-magnetic ,aether2 while all the varied bodies that exist are themselves but different manifestations in a gaseous1 liquid1 or solid form of the same electro-magnetic substance4 ,thus1 step by step1 we have tried to build up a theory of the physical cause of all phenomena1 which will satisfactorily account for those phenomena1 and even for the structure of the universe itself1 from the mechanical standpoint1 and by so doing have fulfilled the third ,rule of our ,philosophy as enunciated by ,newton and others4 ,so that by the conception that ,aether is matter1 in its primordial state1 we have more than fulfilled all that was premised should be done4 ,thus the long-sought-for and long-expected cause of ,gravitation1 together with the cause of the two complementary forces1 is found in the simple statement that ,aether is matter1 with all that is logically included therein4 ,kepler's ,laws and ,newton's ,laws of ,motion also receive a physical explanation in the same universal electro-magnetic ,aether4 ,in addition to the solution of these problems1 the transverse vibrations of light has received for the first time a physical conception1 and a physical explanation1 even admitting that that explanation may not be perfect in detail4 ,the origin of the permanent magnetism of the earth has also received a physical explanation through the motions of this same electro-magnetic ,aether1 while certain theories in relation to electricity given to the world by ,ampre1 ,weber1 ,faraday1 and ,clerk ,maxwell have found their consummation in this atomic electro-magnetic medium4 ,further1 astronomical hypotheses in relation to comets and nebulae are not untouched by the theory of a compressible and condensing atomic ,aether4 ,indeed1 there is not a phase of natural phenomena which is not affected in some way or other by the philosophical result arrived at that ,aether is matter in its original state4 ,therefore1 we claim1 however imperfectly it may have been done1 that not only have the ,rules of ,philosophy been fulfilled1 but that the theory so advanced has accomplished more than even we in our wildest imagination hoped and dreamed for it4 ,look at the problem of the ,aether how we may1 the advantages of the theory of an atomic electro-magnetic ,aether far surpass and outweigh the advantages of a frictionless medium1 which in some unknown way possesses mass and inertia1 although the conception of such properties themselves disproves the existence of such a frictionless medium4 ,after all1 how much of this theory is there which is entirely new or absolutely original8 ,age after age1 men have had exactly similar dreams1 and seen similar visions4 ,in the old ,grecian days similar views were expressed by their philosophers2 and1 even in the philosophy of less civilized countries1 many of the suggested hypotheses found their place in a more or less perfect form4 ,analyze the whole theory from its initial stages to the last chapter1 and we shall find1 with the exception of one or two features1 that every hypothesis first had its origin in the mind of some of the greatest thinkers and philosophers that the world has ever known4 ,take several hypotheses as examples4 ,the hypothesis that ,aether is atomic was suggested by such men as ,newton1 ,huyghens1 ,descartes1 ,challis1 ,clerk ,maxwell1 and others4 ,that ,aether is gravitative has been suggested by ,young1 ,grove1 ,faraday1 and ,lord ,kelvin4 ,huyghens1 ,fresnel1 and ,young postulated different degrees of density for the ,aether1 while ,stokes and ,mc,cullagh have affirmed and proved different degrees of elasticity of the medium4 ,the inertia of the medium has received experimental evidence from ,tyndall1 ,maxwell1 ,faraday1 ,lodge1 and others1 and its compressibility has received the adherence of men like ,faraday1 ,maxwell1 and ,lord ,kelvin4 ,then1 when we come to deal with the causes of the forces involved in gravitational phenomena1 we find that exactly similar hypotheses in regard to the ,centrifugal ,force have been postulated by ,herschel1 ,bredichin1 ,m4 ,faye1 and ,lebedew2 while ,faraday1 ,gauss and others have suggested the close relationship that exists between electrical and gravitational phenomena4 ,the physical explanation of ,kepler's ,laws was suggested by ,kepler himself1 while ,huyghens1 ,bernoulli1 ,descartes1 and many of their contemporaries believed in the existence of some kind of vortices4 ,the unity of the universe has been a dream of philosophers for generations past1 and that dream is now crystallized in the definite conception of an atomic universal electro-magnetic medium1 while the electrical basis of matter receives the support of such men as ,crookes1 ,j4 ,j4 ,thomson1 ,larmor and ,vogt4 ,thus we learn that all the dreams and thoughts1 all the hypotheses and postulates of old-world as well as present-day philosophers find their consummation and ultimate realization in one universal1 atomic1 electro-magnetic medium4 ,if this fact does not stamp the theory with that authority which is undeniably associated with the names of some of the scientists quoted1 then all the greatest men in the scientific world have lived and toiled1 thought and dreamed in vain1 while the priceless gems of their imagination and research are treated as worthless and valueless4 ,again1 what shall we say of the discoveries of to-day8 ,what is the key to the greatest scientific discovery of modern times1 viz4 wireless or aetherial telegraphy1 which is girdling the earth with its mysterious communications8 ,is not the key to that discovery to be found in this universal electro-magnetic medium8 ,whence come the ,x-rays1 ,rontgen rays1 and other light rays with their adaptability to human suffering1 if they come not from this same electro-magnetic medium8 their adaptability to human suffering being dependent upon the intimate and close relationship that exists between the physical body and the electro-magnetic medium4 ,where is the key to the principle underlying the gramophone1 the phonograph and the telephone1 if it be not in this self-same atomic and easily impressible medium8 ,nay6 let us go further1 and ask ourselves where is the key to be found for the many marvellous effects of so-called spirit phenomena8 ,who can read ,f4 ,w4 ,myer's ,human ,personality and its ,survival of ,bodily ,death1 and not feel that we are standing on the threshold of the unseen world8 ,already men are asking themselves the meaning of the strange sensations which they receive from unseen sources2 already men's spirits are vibrating in unison with vibrations that come from the unseen world2 and to-day we see spiritual phenomena as through a glass darkly1 and the question arises1 what is the medium of all this communication1 of all these vibrations8 ,is there no medium at all which forms the medium of communication8 ,to assert that would be to assert something opposed to all experience and therefore would be unphilosophical4 ,may not then the theory of an atomic universal electro-magnetic medium help us on in our groping and searching after light in this direction8 ,who will uplift the veil8 ,already we peer almost into the spirit world4 ,a little more light1 a little more truth1 and then there will burst forth upon the hearts and minds of men the grandest and most glorious truth that ,nature can reveal of her ,creator1 and then men shall come to know and understand the place that ,god holds in the ,universe1 such truth being advanced on its way by an atomic1 universal electro-magnetic ,aether which is as truly matter as our own bodies4 ,,art4 #abg4 ,god and the ,universe4--,to the superficial reader it may appear at first sight1 that the theory of the ,aether suggested in this work leaves no place in the ,universe for the operations and existence of an ,infinite and living ,spirit1 a ,god4 ,it may be objected1 that if all matter and all modes of motion find their physical origin in one common and primordial medium1 the electro-magnetic ,aether1 where is the necessity for the existence of an ,eternal and ,infinite ,spirit8 ,at first sight there appears some force in the objection1 but it loses its point when we come to view the ,universe from the standpoint of spirit phenomena4 ,the purpose of the writer in this work has been to deal with natural phenomena only1 purely from the philosophical and scientific standpoint4 ,spirit phenomena 7which is equally as real and obvious as natural phenomena7 have no part or place in a work which deals with scientific facts and data1 but demand and will receive in a future work equal consideration and philosophic treatment4 ,a man must indeed be lacking in vision who cannot see behind all things the evidence of a richer and fuller truth than that which merely lies on the surface1 or who fails to read and learn the greatest truth that circles the ,universe in its ultimate unity1 which indisputably points to the existence of an ,eternal and ever-living ,spirit1 a ,god4 ,i affirm that there is no scientific truth1 even including the law of the conservation of matter and motion1 which has been enunciated in this work1 but what is reconcilable with the existence of an ,eternal and ,infinite ,spirit2 and although such a statement may seem a paradox1 yet ,i am convinced that before many more years have passed1 the reconciliation of natural with spiritual phenomena will be an accomplished fact4 ,the fool to-day may say in his heart1 there is no ,god1 but ere long not only religion1 but ,science herself1 shall expose his lack of wisdom and his folly4 ,for all things derive their existence primarily1 with all the energies and powers they possess1 from ,god4 ,look where we will1 or at what we will1 from the smallest atom or molecule up to the most stupendous world1 or myriads of worlds that roll and sparkle in the blue infinity1 in each and all we see the indisputable evidence of the existence of a mysterious spirit1 or power1 that controls and governs them4 ,a spirit or power that we cannot see1 but which is so indisputably evidenced that its existence cannot be denied4 ,for example1 we see forms of many kinds1 some of which are simple entities of themselves1 while others are complex and made up of many parts1 but while each part is inseparably connected with the other1 yet each part is itself distinct from the others in nature and substance4 ,the whole combined forms a complete mechanism or organism1 and1 like all mechanisms of human make1 not only needs a controlling and governing power1 but also evidences a maker4 ,even the laws of ,nature and modes of motion1 whether it be heat1 light1 electricity1 or magnetism1 are1 however1 unable of themselves to control the mechanism1 and therefore prove themselves to be but the servants of an infinite ,intelligence1 a ,,god4 ,thus1 behind and beyond all we see1 in every living form1 there is the evidence of a hidden spirit1 which is the governing and controlling and sustaining power1 and without which the organism ceases to be an organism4 ,a spirit which animates the mechanism1 and uses its activities and powers as it wills for its own purposes and ends4 ,this spirit or power we call its life1 which gives to the form its existence1 together with all that it possesses1 as its powers1 activities1 energies and productions1 for all are but the effects of the hidden life4 ,if this mysterious something1 termed its life1 becomes in any way separated from the mechanism or organism1 then as a distinct and separate organism it ceases to be2 and though the mechanism may still exist for a time1 yet all its powers are gone1 while the organism1 robbed of its very life1 begins slowly to decay4 ,we cannot see this power2 we cannot find it ,we may search for it1 rend and tear part from part1 only to find that it baffles all our skill1 and laughs at our endeavours to discover the secret of its existence4 ,we know that it is there1 just as truly as we know that in these forms of ours1 these living stoves1 these perfect mechanisms called our bodies1 there exists and dwells a spirit1 a living1 conscious1 self-acting and controlling power4 ,a spirit which we know is not the mechanism itself1 and which by experience and observation we know to be distinct from the organism4 ,it is this mysterious spirit which controls and governs all our acts1 that rules and reigns as king of our bodies1 and makes the physical mechanism1 with all its wondrous parts1 obey and do its bidding4 ,that this is so1 that the spirit is distinct from the body1 and is the controlling and governing principle within us1 is evident in a thousand ways4 ,if1 however1 that spirit departs from the mechanism of our bodies1 then the controlling and governing influence is gone2 and the mechanism1 robbed of its life1 ceases to work1 ceases to fulfil its functions1 and ceases to exist in that particular form4 ,just as it is with ourselves1 so it is with the ,universe4 ,for look where we will1 from the smallest atom to the great aggregation of atoms1 as our earth1 or even to the more stupendous orbs of heaven1 the working of a secret and mysterious power or spirit meets our gaze4 ,a spirit or power that is not the form or the mechanism1 but is separate and distinct from the mechanism1 while at the same time it is inseparably connected with each and all4 ,for everything that we see1 from an atom to the ,universe itself1 is a perfect mechanism1 or complexity of mechanisms4 ,the entire ,universe is one vast1 intricate1 and elaborate piece of mechanism1 beginning with the simple aetherial atom1 ranging through all the atomic systems1 graduating by successive steps through compound substances1 which1 in their aggregations1 form meteors1 satellites1 planets1 suns1 and stars2 until the ultimate whole is reached1 where everything is blended into one vast whole2 a perfect1 infinite1 complex mechanism1 a ,universe4 ,now if philosophy teaches anything at all regarding mechanisms of human invention1 it indisputably teaches that every machine or mechanism that has ever been made1 implies the existence of a maker1 and that the maker possessed intelligent attributes1 as reason1 judgment1 perception1 and imagination4 ,for example1 stand before some elaborate machine of human invention1 as a lace machine1 and watch the working of that machine in all its details4 ,it is composed of many parts1 each of which is perfect in itself4 ,each part may be distinct in nature and purpose1 yet each and all are inseparably and unitedly connected with each other1 and all work harmoniously together for the accomplishment of a definite and specific end1 that is1 the production of a lace curtain of exquisite design and pattern4 ,as we watch the machine and its workings1 we see therein the evidence of the existence of a spirit or power that gave it its birth4 ,a spirit or mind that made and formed the machine1 that constituted1 arranged1 and gave it its governing and controlling power2 fitted and ordered every part1 gave to each part its allotted task1 and moulded all to the harmonious fulfilment of the definite end and purpose he had in view4 ,thus in the machine we see evidence of contrivance and design1 of method and arrangement1 of conception1 perception and judgment1 which are all the effects and outflowings of intelligence which belong1 and alone belong1 to mind2 and therefore we say1 ,the machine was made1 and there was and must have been a maker4 ,so universally is this fact accepted1 that any one who seriously challenged the statement1 or dared to deny it1 would be at once pitied as insane or laughed at as a fool4 ,thus all experience proves1 and philosophy testifies1 that wherever we get a machine or mechanism of any kind or sort1 there must have been a living1 conscious being or person1 who is distinct from and outside of the machine4 ,he made it1 and therefore must have existed before it1 in order to make it4 ,wherever1 therefore1 we find a mechanism that bears the marks of intelligence and design1 of judgment1 perception and conception1 it is only logical and philosophical to infer1 that such a mechanism equally evidences the existence of an intelligent being4 ,the more intricate and elaborate the mechanism1 the greater the ingenuity displayed1 the more complex and perfect the design1 the more harmonious the working1 the greater will be the wisdom1 the more profound the judgment1 the keener the perception1 the more perfect the understanding1 and the vaster1 nobler1 and more sublime the order of ,being who originated and made it4 ,this being so1 according to philosophical reasoning1 let us glance at the ,universe in all its fulness and oneness1 and we shall see the indisputable evidence of the existence of an ,infinite ,being1 who made1 controls and governs the infinite ,universe4 ,in the atomic world we get an illustration of the perfect mechanism that underlies all atomic systems4 ,our conception of an aetherial atom was based upon the analogy of our own planet1 and there is every reason to believe that the little world in which all atoms live and move and have their being1 is analogous to a planetary or solar system1 in which we find the two essentials of matter and motion ever associated together1 to form a larger and more complete mechanism4 ,for atoms are not simply mere points2 they possess real dimensions1 with a determinate and fixed form1 differing in their relative weights1 and in the amount of motion or force with which each is endowed4 ,the very fact that they possess atomic weights which are unalterable throughout the long periods of time that mark the history of the ,universe1 and that they combine in definite and fixed proportions1 indisputably evidence the fact that they but do the bidding of an ,eternal and ,infinite ,spirit1 a ,god4 ,thus each molecule1 or atomic system forms a perfect mechanism in itself1 with its own centre of gravity1 and subject to the same laws of repulsion and attraction1 or pressures and tensions--due to the vibrations and motions of the universal electro-magnetic ,aether4 ,in each of the planetary systems we get an illustration of the same perfect mechanism1 which is indicative of all systems whether large or small2 each system being characterised by the same beauty of order and harmony of motion which are equally characteristic of atomic systems4 ,our own solar system1 composed as it is of many parts1 of thousands of meteors and comets1 of numbers of satellites and planets1 all revolving around one common centre1 also forms a complete and perfect mechanism in itself4 ,for millions and millions of years this perfect mechanism has been harmoniously working together in all its parts1 as it moves in all its unity through the realms of infinite space4 ,yet through all the unknown ages of the past1 such a phenomenon as disorder in the working of any part of the system is inconceivable and unknown4 ,out in stellar space there are1 however1 innumerable systems1 similar to our own solar system1 each distinct and perfect in itself2 each being made up of similar parts1 as meteors1 comets1 satellites1 planets1 and central sun4 ,these systems are1 however1 united together into one vast aggregation of worlds1 having one common controlling centre of their own1 and by their unity form a constellation1 a larger and grander mechanism4 ,throughout the whole constellation there is the same order1 and harmonious working of part with part1 that characterise the solar system4 ,then these constellations increasing in their aggregations form a still larger complexity of systems1 called a ,galaxy2 and galaxy being added to galaxy1 constellation to constellation1 there is formed by such union1 an ocean of suns and stars like our own ,milky ,way1 the ultimate whole being characterised by the same mechanical order and harmonious working that characterise the solar system4 ,it may even be1 that there are numbers of these oceans of suns and stars existing in infinite space1 all bound together by one common bond1 the universal electro-magnetic ,aether1 and forming one vast ultimate whole1 a ,universe2 with all its oceans of suns moving around one central ,orb or mass of ,orbs called the ,throne of ,,god4 ,thus the whole ,universe is a mechanism1 complete and perfect in every detail1 and forming a system1 so great1 so grand1 so sublime1 so magnificent that it puts all mechanisms of human origin to shame and scorn4 ,now1 if a mechanism of human invention evidences the existence of intelligence and mind1 and proves itself to be the production of a living1 sentient1 conscious1 and intelligent being1 how much more1 incomparably more1 does the ,universe with its infinite complexity evidence a ,maker also2 and that ,maker must be as infinitely greater in wisdom1 knowledge1 perception and judgment as the ,universe is infinitely greater in mechanical perfection than any mechanism of human origin4 ,the ,universe is ,god's teaching in symbol and in type4 ,it is ,his great picture-book1 where in living form ,he has portrayed ,himself1 and all that belongs to ,him--,his nature1 character1 wisdom2 ,his greatness1 glory1 and ,his power4 ,the ,universe is a temple1 where ,he sits enshrined in the things ,his own hands have made1 and where those who have eyes to see1 and hearts to learn and understand1 may adore and worship ,him4 ,thus is it true that the heavens declare the glory of ,god1 i4 e4 the character of ,god1 ,his infinite wisdom1 ,his infinite knowledge1 ,his profound judgment1 and ,his eternal righteousness2 while the firmament showeth ,his handiwork4 ,day unto day uttereth speech1 and night unto night showeth 7,his7 knowledge4 ,the ,lord by wisdom hath founded the earth1 by understanding hath ,he established the heavens4 ,he hath made the earth by ,his power4 ,he hath established the world by ,his wisdom1 and hath stretched out the heavens by ,his discretion4 ,thou1 ,lord1 in the beginning hast laid the foundations of the earth1 and the heavens are the work of ,thy hands2 they shall perish1 but ,thou remainest2 and they all shall wax old1 as doth a garment2 and as a vesture shalt ,thou fold them up1 and they shall be changed2 but ,thou art the same1 and ,thy years shall not fail4 ,to prove the validity of these statements from a scientific and philosophic standpoint1 and to show the harmony that exists between the natural and the ,divine revelation as given in the ,word of ,god1 will form the subject of a future work4 ,,appendix ,a ,according to ,sir ,oliver ,lodge the fact that electricity possesses mass or inertia has now passed out of the hypothetical stage into the realm of fact and experiment4 ,in his ,romanes ,lecture recently published1 he states1 page #d3 ,my first thesis is that an electric charge possesses the most fundamental and characteristic property of matter1 viz4 mass or inertia2 so that if any one were to speak of a milligramme or an ounce or a ton of electricity1 though he would certainly be speaking inconveniently1 he might not necessarily be speaking erroneously4 ,now in view of the identity that exists between ,aether and electricity1 as proved by ,hertz' experiments1 the only logical conclusion that can be arrived at is1 that ,aether must also possess mass and inertia4 ,so that the most recent experiments in relation to electricity confirm the theory of the ,aether presented in this work1 viz4 that it also possesses mass and inertia1 otherwise we should have a massless medium being composed of electrons which possess mass1 and that would be a violation of all experience1 and therefore an unphilosophical statement4 ,,appendix ,b ,the hypothesis of electricity being the fundamental basis of all matter made in the last chapter on the ,unity of the ,universe1 receives confirmation from ,sir ,oliver ,lodge in his ,modern ,views of ,matter1 where he writes1 page #ac3 ,the fundamental ingredient of which1 in this view1 the whole of matter is made up1 is nothing more or less than electricity1 in the form of an aggregate of an equal number of positive and negative electric charges4 ,this1 when established1 will be a unification of matter such as has through all the ages been sought2 it goes further than had been hoped1 for the substratum is not an unknown and hypothetical protile1 but the familiar electric charge4 ,,appendix ,c ,the hypothesis that all elements have definite quantities of electricity in them1 or a definite number of electrons1 as suggested on page #cce1 receives added weight by the testimony of ,sir ,oliver ,lodge in the work already referred to4 ,writing on the subject1 he says3 ,it is a fascinating guess that the electrons constitute the fundamental substratum of which all matter is composed4 ,that a grouping of say #gjj electrons1 #cej positive and #cej negative1 interleaved or interlocked in a state of violent motion so as to produce a stable configuration under the influence of their centrifugal inertia and their electric forces1 constitutes an atom of hydrogen4 ,that sixteen times as many1 in another stable grouping1 constitute an atom of oxygen4 ,that some #af1jjj of them go to form an atom of sodium2 about #ajj1jjj an atom of barium2 and #afj1jjj an atom of radium4 ,from these extracts1 taken from ,modern ,views of ,matter1 the author claims that the theory of the ,aether presented to the reader in ,aether and ,gravitation receives added confirmation and support4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,errata ,the author regrets that ,professor ,j4 ,j4 ,thomson's name has been incorrectly spelled in several places4 ,,index ,aberration of light1 #fi1 #adi1 #bah ,absorption1 #ajd-f ,acceleration1 #bci ,actinic rays1 #ada ,action at a distance1 #if1 #agd1 #agf and re-action1 #bj1 #bea ,adams' discovery of ,neptune1 #be ,aether is matter1 #ed-h is atomic1 #ei-fg is gravitative1 #fd-i density of1 #fi1 #ga1 #acf1 #bdc elasticity of1 #gd-g inertia of1 #gf1 #ccj its motions1 #hj compressibility of1 #bia1 #cae waves1 #gi-hj ,aetherial basis of matter1 #cbf ,affinity1 chemical1 #dc ,aldebaran1 #cab ,aluminium1 #gi ,ampre1 #aib ,ampre's theory of magnetism1 #aic ,andromeda1 #cad ,annual magnetic variation1 #bjh ,annular nebulae1 #cbj ,aphelion of earth1 #cf ,arago1 ,m41 #cba ,arcturus1 #cab ,areas1 ,kepler's law of1 #cf ,asten1 ,von1 #bcd1 #bif ,asteroids1 #ca ,atmosphere1 #fh1 #gc1 #ajb1 #bbe ,atom1 vortex1 #de1 #df1 #fa what it is1 #dc electron1 #fc ,boscovitch1 #fa hard1 #fa size of1 #dc ,attraction1 electrical1 #b1 #bhf of gravitation1 #ac1 #bd1 #ca magnetic1 #aie ,balance1 ,torsion1 #ahg ,bernoulli1 #bba1 #cda ,beta ,persei1 #cjh ,biela's comet1 #bif-g ,binary compound1 #adc stars1 #be1 #cji ,biot1 #ach ,boscovitch atoms1 #dd1 #ach ,boyle and ,marriotte's law1 #gf1 #ajc ,bradley's discovery of aberration1 #adi ,bredichin on comets' tails1 #cjb ,brilliancy of stars1 #cjg1 #cji ,british ,association ,report1 #eg1 #ei ,calcium1 #gi ,canis major1 #cjg minor1 #cjg ,capella1 #cab ,carbon1 #dh ,carboniferous period1 #aae ,carnot on heat1 #aaf-ah ,cassini1 #cjg ,cause and effect1 #ad of gravitation1 #a1 #bhb-i ,cavendish experiment1 #bd ,centauri1 #gi ,centre of gravity1 #cbe ,centrifugal force1 #i1 #ac1 #ae1 #cj1 #bcf-h ,centripetal force1 #i1 #ab1 #bhb ,cetus1 #cjg ,chalk1 #f ,challis1 ,prof41 #gd1 #if1 #ajj1 #ajg1 #aea1 #aee1 #bad1 #bbg1 #caa ,chemistry1 #dg1 #ccf ,coal1 #hf1 #hh ,clairaut1 #big ,clusters of stars1 #cad ,cohesion1 #dh ,colour1 #ach ,colours of stars1 #cjh seven primary1 #aci ,comets1 #bia attracted by planets1 #bih condensation of1 #bib ,comets and meteors1 #big short period1 #bic-d long period1 #bic-d tails of1 #bih-i orbits of1 #bic nucleus of1 #bih-i 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,natural philosophy1 #d ,nebulae and aether1 #cac structure of1 #cad spiral1 #cbb annular1 #cbj elliptical1 #cbj planetary1 #cba spectrum of1 #cad irregular1 #cai ,nebular hypothesis1 #cag ,nebulous stars1 #caa ,neptune1 #fh discovery of1 #be mass of1 #bce orbital velocity of1 #bea1 #bfe distance from sun1 #bdb a magnet1 #aif ,newton's coloured rings1 #ajg ,optics1#gb1 #ih1 #abb letter to ,bentley1 #b1 #if ,rules of ,philosophy1 #c ,principia1 #c1 #g1 #ch emission theory1 #abc law of gravitation1 #bd atoms1 #dd on aether1 #ih ,nichols and ,hull1 #cb1 #aec ,ocean1 #ha1 #ij ,operations1 cycle of1 #aad ,optics1 ,newton's1 #b1 #abb ,orbital motions of planets1 #bff ,orbit of earth1 #cc of ,venus1 #cc ,orbits of satellites1 #cd of planets1 #cc-d1 #bff moon1 #bfg stars1 #caj sun1 #bgj ,origin of sun's heat1 #ie ,orion1 #gi1 #cjg1 #cad1 #cai ,oxygen1 #dj1 #dd1 #fj1 #ic ,parallelogram of forces1 #ae ,pendulum1 #hh ,periodic times1 #cg ,perpetual motion1 #ic1 #bbj ,phil4 ,mag41 #eh1 #fg1 #ga1 #gc1 #gd1 #hj ,phil4 ,trans41 #eh1 #fb1 #fd1 #ge ,philosophy1 ,rules of1 #c ,phobos1 #ch ,physical lines of force1 #bjc-f ,pitch of ,sound1 #aje1 #abj1 #aci ,plane of ecliptic1 #bgg-i ,planetoids1 #ca ,planets1 minor1 #ca origin of1 #bdj orbits of1 #cc1 #bff electrified bodies1 #agg masses of1 #bdb relative distances of1 #bdb orbital velocities of1 #bea periodic times of1 #bea ,platinum1 #dh ,pleiades1 #gi ,polarization1 #agf ,potential energy1 #hg ,potential1 electric1 #agj magnetic1 #aid ,pouillet1 ,m41 #aji ,poynting1 #ia ,pressure1 aetherial1 #aha ,preston1 ,prof41 #bhc ,prevost1 theory of exchanges1 #aje ,primitive impulse1 #i1 #aj1 #ab1 #cai ,principia1 ,newton's1 #c1 #g1 #ch-i1 #abb ,properties of matter1 #db ,quantity of sun's heat1 #aji ,query1 #ah-ai ,optics1 #gb1 #abb ,radiant heat1 #aji energy1 #aae ,radiation1 #ajd ,radius ,vector1 #bf ,rankine1 #ajc ,rays1 actinic1 #ada dark heat1 #adj infra-red1 #ada ultra-violet1 #adj ,rontgen1 #cda ,x1 #cda ,rectilinear propagation of light1 #add of heat1 #aaa ,reflection1 #afj ,refraction1 #afj ,relative motion of aether and matter1 #bbd-f ,resistance to motion1 #ag ,resisting medium1 #bbh ,reversible cycle1 #aaf1 #aah ,rings1 vortex1 #de ,rival theories1 #h ,rivers1 #hi-ij ,roemer1 and velocity of light1 #adh ,rotation of earth1 #bai of planets1 #bai of sun1 #bdf ,rotatory motion1 #ic ,rucker1 ,prof41 #ei ,rules of ,philosophy1 #c first1 #c second1 #d third1 #c1 #g ,rumford1 #ih ,running water1 #ie ,satellites of ,mars1 #ch1 #agh ,jupiter1 #adi1 #agh ,uranus1 #bed ,neptune1 #bed ,saturn1 #bf-g1 #fh mass of1 #bce1 #bdb orbital velocity of1 #bea1 #bfe rotation of1 #bai density of1 #bdb a magnet1 #aif satellites of1 #agh ,schuster1 ,prof41 #h1 #bah1 #caa ,sirius1 #cjf1 #cjh-i ,sodium1 #dc ,solar system1 motion of1 #beg1 #bga spectrum1 #gi1 #aci magnetism1 #baa ,sound1 #ge waves1 #ajd1 #abj ,space1 interstellar1 #caj1 #cac ,spectroscope1 #dg1 #gi ,spectrum analysis1 #ej1 #aci ,spiral nebulae1 #cbb ,stars1 fixed1 #eh number of1 #aa1 #cjf binary1 #cji distances of1 #bhj magnitude of1 #cjf1 #cji colour of1 #gi1 #cjh motion of1 #caj-aa nebulous1 #cbj proper motions of1 #cab variable1 #cjg double1 #cjh clusters of1 #cad orbits of1 #caj are magnets1 #cjg ,stokes1 ,sir ,g41 #fi1 #aeb1 #bah ,string1 #ba ,sun1 diameter of1 #bhj constitution of1 #gi a magnet1 #afd1 #aih-i mass of1 #aij heat of1 #aji motions of1 #bgj orbital velocity of1 #ce rotation of1 #bdf centre of two forces1 #ahf ,tails of comets1 #cjj1 #cjd straight1 #cjj curved1 #cja multiple1 #cjj ,tait1 ,prof41 #ah1 #dj-a1 #hh1 #bdg ,telescope1 #gi ,temperature1 #ajd-e ,terrestrial magnetism1 #bjg-ab gravity1 #bi ,theory1 atomic1 #dd rules for making1 #c undulatory1 #abc of exchanges1 #aje ,thermodynamics1 first law of1 #hg1 #aad second law of1 #aaf ,thomson1 ,j4 ,j41 ,prof41 #dc1 #cbf1 #cce ,tidal water-power1 #hh ,tides1 #hi1 #if ,torsion balance1 #ahe ,trade winds1 #if1 #bdi ,transformation of energy1 #hf of motion1 #ic ,transverse vibration of light1 #acj ,tuning-fork1 #ajd ,tympanum1 #abj ,tyndall on radiation1 #ajd1 #ajf on light1 #ga on ,lines of ,force1 #agd on aether1 #gg on atoms1 #ajf on aether waves1 #aab ,ultra-violet rays1 #adj red rays1 #adj ,unity of universe1 #cbb-i ,universal gravitation1 #bd aether1 #eh ,universe1 #cac1 #cbb1 #cdg ,uranus1 #fh mass of1 #bce density of1 #bdb orbital velocity of1 #bfe a magnet1 #aif ,ursa ,major1 #cjg ,minor1 #cjg ,vapour1 #di ,variation1 magnetic1 #bji-aa ,velocity of light1 #adh of electric waves1 #ahb of heat waves1 #adh of falling bodies1 #ba of wave motion1 #gf ,velocity1 angular1 #bej ,venus1 #cc1 #fh1 #gi a magnet1 #aig mass of1 #bce rotation of1 #bai orbital velocity of1 #bea periodic time of1 #bea ,vibration1 atomic1 #ge ,vibrations1 transverse1 #acj longitudinal1 #acj of sound1 #abc ,vibratory motion1 #ia ,vogel1 ,prof41 #cjh1 #cab ,vogt1 ,prof41 #ccb ,volume of sun1 #bg ,von ,asten1 #bcd1 #bif ,vortex theory1 #ib1 #ccg motion1 #bba-d atom1 #ic1 #abf1 #ccg rings1 #abe1 #ccg ,vortices1 molecular1 #ajc ,water waves1 #abd currents1 power of1 #ie composition of1 #ada power1 #hh ,wave front1 #abh motion1 #abd1 #afj ,wave lengths1 #abj envelope1 #aab ,waves1 chemical1 #ada sound1 #ajd1 #abj1 #abd light1 #abf heat1 #ada electric1 #aei spherical1 #aab electro-magnetic1 #afe ,weight1 #bi1 #fi1 #hd variation of1 #bi pound1 #cj ,whewell1 #c1 #bba ,winds1 #ha1 #ij energy of1 #ij trade1 #bbe ,work1 #if and energy1 #hd from heat1 #aaf ,young1 ,thomas1 #ed1 #fd1 #fg1 #abc on aether1 #eh fourth hypothesis1 #gj ,prof41 of ,america1 on electric space1 #aff ,zinc1 #hh ,zodiacal light1 #bgg-i ,richard ,clay ,sous1 ,limited1 ,london ,bungay4 ,some ,new ,publications ,,of ,messrs4 ,chapman ,hall1 ,ltd4 #aijc-d 99 99 99 99 99 ,,mr4 ,h4 ,g4 ,,wells',s ,,new ,,work4 ,,mankind ,,in ,,the ,,making4 ,by ,h4 ,g4 ,,wells1 author of ,anticipations1 etc4 ,crown #hvo1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,in this new and important work ,mr4 ,wells attempts to deal with social and political questions in a new way and from a new starting-point1 viewing the whole social and political world as aspects of one universal evolving scheme1 and placing all social and political activities in a defined relation to that2 and it is to this general method and trend that the attention of the reader is especially directed4 ,,dr4 ,,alfred ,,russel ,,wallace',s ,,new ,,book4 ,,man',s ,,place ,,in ,,the ,,universe4 ,a study of the results of scientific research in relation to the unity or plurality of worlds4 ,by ,,alfred ,,russel ,,wallace1 ,,ll4,d41 ,d4,c4,i41 ,f4,r4,s41 author of ,natural ,selection1 ,darwinism1 etc41 etc4 ,with ,diagrams4 ,demy #hvo1 #abs4 #f;d4 net4 ,this volume is an amplification and extension of the much-discussed article contributed by ,dr4 ,wallace to the ,fortnightly ,review for ,march #aijc1 and presents the whole subject in a more complete and systematic manner1 besides containing many new and forcible arguments which a more careful consideration of the whole problem has suggested4 ,in the course of the work the various astronomical and other criticisms of the article are considered and replied to4 ,a ,,new ,,theory ,,of ,,gravitation4 ,,aether ,,and ,,gravitation4 ,by ,w4 ,g4 ,,hooper1 ,f4,s4,s4 ,with ,diagrams4 ,demy #hvo1 #abs4 #f;d4 net4 ,this work seeks to offer an acceptable solution of the greatest scientific problem that has puzzled scientists for the past #bjj years4 ,ever since the discovery of universal gravitation by ,sir ,isaac ,newton1 the question has arisen1 over and over again1 as to what is the physical cause of the attraction of gravitation4 ,is it due1 as ,newton himself suggested1 to the properties and qualities of the universal aether1 or is it due to some still unknown and undiscovered medium8 ,by the theory propounded in this work1 the author has for the first time brought aetherial physics into harmony with all observation and experiments2 so that the inertia1 the density1 and the elasticity of the aether are brought into harmony with all experience by philosophical reasoning based on ,newton's ,rules of ,philosophy4 ,,life ,,and ,,topography ,,of ,,dickens4 ,,the ,,real ,,dickens ,,land4 ,with an outline of ,charles ,dickens's life4 ,by ,h4 ,,snowden ,,ward and ,,catharine ,,ward1 authors of ,shakespeare's ,town and ,times4 ,with a ,steel ,plate ,portrait of ,dickens1 ,three ,photogravures1 and nearly #cjj full-page and other ,illustrations4 ,crown #dto1 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,charles ,dickens's understanding of the human character is apparent to every good reader of his works2 but his intimate knowledge of the character of places1 and of the important effect of place upon the human being1 is not so apparent1 because the reader has not the necessary knowledge of the places upon which to base an estimate4 ,in ,the ,real ,dickens ,land the authors have attempted to supply this necessary knowledge1 not only by literary identification1 but by presenting one of the fullest collections of photographic views thus identified ever got together4 ,,london3 ,,chapman ,,hall1 ,,ltd4 ,,carlyle',s ,,life ,,and ,,topography4 ,,the ,,carlyle ,,country4 ,with a study of ,carlyle's life4 ,by ,j4 ,m4 ,,sloan4 ,with a ,foreword by ,,sir ,,james ,,crichton-,,brown1 ,m4,d41 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,with a ,photogravure of the ,whistler ,portrait of ,carlyle1 ,two other ,photogravures1 and about #ajj ,portraits1 full-page and other ,illustrations4 ,crown #dto1 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,this new ,carlyle ,book deals with the ,carlyles in all their multiform relations to the ,carlyle ,country1 and casts much valuable light upon the complex problems raised by ,carlyle's earlier and later life4 ,it forms a most useful and instructive ,guide to the ,carlyle ,country1 and will appeal to old ,carlylean ,readers by its careful grouping of biographical events around the places with which they are inextricably identified4 ,a valuable ,carlyle ,chronology is appended1 together with an ,index and ,map4 ,,history ,,of ,,china4 ,,china1 ,,past ,,and ,,present4 ,by ,e4 ,h4 ,,parker1 ,professor of ,chinese at the ,owens ,college1 ,manchester2 formerly ,h4,b4,m4 ,consul at ,kiungchow2 ,author of ,china1 ,john ,chinaman1 etc41 etc4 ,with a ,map of ,china4 ,demy #hvo1 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,mr4 ,parker is one of the great authorities on all that concerns ,china and the ,chinese1 and has been writing upon every phase of the subject for many years past4 ,in this work he deals with the whole history of the nation from the earliest times to the present day4 ,his volume is divided into nine books3 ,i4 ,historical and ,statistical2 ,,ii4 ,the ,boxer ,wars2 ,,iii4 ,religious2 ,,iv4 ,the ,imperial ,power2 ,v4 ,the ,foreigner in ,china2 ,,vi4 ,mandarin or ,official2 ,,vii4 ,celestial ,peculiarities2 ,,viii4 ,political2 ,,ix4 ,the ,seamy ,side4 ,each of these books is divided into chapters dealing comprehensively with the whole subject4 ,,new ,,work ,,on ,,pagan ,,idolatry4 ,,the ,,worship ,,of ,,the ,,dead4 ,the ,origin1 ,nature1 and ,history of ,pagan ,idolatry4 ,by ,,colonel ,j4 ,,garnier1 ,r4,e4 ,with ,four full-page ,illustrations and numerous ,pictures in the text4 ,demy #hvo1 #afs4 net4 ,the intimate relation of the ancient ,paganism to the early history of mankind and its influence on the fate and fortunes of the human race gives no little interest and importance to any inquiry into its origin and nature1 and the facts collected and compared in the present work will be found1 not only to throw a remarkable light on the early history of ,egypt and ,babylonia but to have an especial bearing on important questions of the present day4 ,,everyday ,,life ,,in ,,china4 ,,life ,,and ,,sport ,,in ,,china4 ,by ,,oliver ,g4 ,,ready1 ,b4,a4 ,with ,thirteen ,illustrations and a ,map4 ,demy #hvo1 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,in this work the author1 who has resided in various parts of the country for upwards of twelve years1 has endeavoured to place before readers an account of things and events as he saw them1 and to convey to their minds an idea of how ,europeans live there1 of their amusements1 of their work1 and of those things which are matters of daily interest to them1 so that the work may serve as a kind of preface to that enthralling volume1 the current history of ,china1 as it is daily revealed in the ,press1 in ,magazines1 and in learned works4 ,,izaak ,,walton4 ,,izaak ,,walton ,,and ,,his ,,friends4 ,by ,,stapleton ,,martin1 ,m4,a41 ,christ's ,college1 ,cambridge1 ,barrister-at-,law4 ,with ,portraits and ,illustrations4 ,demy #hvo1 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,mr4 ,stapleton ,martin has written this book with the primary object of bringing out the spiritual side of ,walton's character4 ,he traces carefully the inner workings of ,walton's mind1 and aims at setting forth the man as he was best known to the circle of intimates with whom he shared his confidences4 ,the better to indicate this aspect1 the volume also contains brief biographical sketches of ,walton's3 poet and ecclesiastic friends1 together with a fine collection of portraits and illustrations of places connected with ,walton's life4 ,there is also a selection from the poetical works of ,walton1 ,cotton1 ,donne1 ,herbert1 ,wotton1 ,duport4 ,,london3 ,,chapman ,,hall1 ,,ltd4 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber's note3 ,,art4 #da is missing from the book4 ,in several instances changed ,s1 ,w1 ,e into italics to be consistent with the rest of the book4 ,page #aid3 ,fixed typographical error for demonstated ,changed ,figure captions so that all are of the form ,fig3 number4 ,left unknown_/misspelled word protile in appendix b ,page #adh3 444 and the ,index1 ,the surname of ,ole ,christensen ,rmer is spelled multiple times ,roemer and once as ,rmer in the index4 ,changed ,rmer to the ,english spelling ,roemer4