,transcrib]'s ,notes3 ,_m pr9t+ errors1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! ,fr5* & ,greek1 h be5 correct$4 ,! inconsi/5t hyph5ation ( ! ^w /&-po9t has be5 reta9$4 ,greek has be5 translit]at$ & plac$ inside 4 ,,! ,,basis ,,( ,,e>ly ,,*ri/ian ,,!ism ,,by ,,lawr5ce ,,?omas ,,cole1 ,a4 ,m41 ,s4 ,t4 ,b41 ,po/-graduate ,s*ol> ( ! ,*ur* ,univ]sity ,bo>d ( ,reg5ts ,,submitt$ ,,9 ,,p>tial ,,fulfilm5t ,,( ,,! ,,requirem5ts ,,= ,,! ,,degree ,,( ,,doctor ,,( ,,philosophy ,,9 ,,! ,,faculty ,,( ,,philosophy ,,columbia ,,univ]sity ,,new ,,york ,may1 #ahih ,,cont5ts ,,*apt] ,i3 ,introduction #i ,,*apt] ,,ii3 ,greek & ,roman ,!i/ic ,argum5ts #ad ,,*apt] ,,iii3 ,! ,patri/ic ,po9t ( ,view #bf ,,*apt] ,,iv3 ,patri/ic ,use ( ! ,!i/ic ,argum5ts #ch ,,*apt] ,v3 ,eclectic ,!ism #ee ,les preuves de ,dieu mtaphysiques sont si loignes du raisonnem5t des hommes1 et si impliques1 qu'elles frapp5t peu2 et qu& cela s]viroit quelques-uns1 ce ne s]oit que p5dant l'in/ant qu'ils voi5t cette dmon/ration2 mais1 une heure aprs1 ils craign5t de s'tre tromps4 ,quod curiositate cognov]9t1 sup]bi amis]unt4 --,p5ses de ,pascal1 ,,ii1 xv4 #b4 ,,*apt] ,i ,,introduction ,a "q :i* e au?or ought to ask ( himself be=e he s5ds =? 8 "w1 & "o :i* mu/ occur to e ?\ghtful read]1 is ! inquiry1 ,cui bono8--:at ju/ification has "o = treat+ ! subject at all1 & :y 9 ! p>ticul> way :i* he has *os58 ,to ! p]t95cy ( ?is "q to ! pres5t treatise ! au?or has be5 deeply s5sible1 & !re=e _c =be> a few prefatory words ( explanation ( 8 object & me?od4 ,9 acc\nts ( ! !i/ic argum5t1 z 9 ! hi/ory ( philosophy 9 g5]al1 x has be5 cu/om>y to pass ov] a space ( well-nigh t5 c5turies ( ! ,*ri/ian era 9 sil5ce1 or ) su* scanty & unsympa!tic notice z to make sil5ce ! bett] alt]native4 ,l>gely ?r\gh ! influ5ce ( su* treatm5t z ?is1 we mod]ns h almo/ =gott5 at times t dur+ ?is p]iod !re liv$ m5 inf]ior to none 9 hi/ory 9 end[m5ts ( m9d & influ5ce on succe$+ g5]ations1 & t !re !n took place "s ( ! mo/ significant & f>-rea*+ intellectual conflicts 9 ! hi/ory ( ?\ght4 ,) ,cic]o1 says ,pr(essor ,/irl+1 we rea*$ 9 our c\rse a mo/ important & critical halt+-place4444 ,we h /ill 444 to wait ^? ?\s& ye>s yet be=e ,anselm %all arrive ) :at is to be nam$ ! new pro(1 ! pro( ontological1 & dur+ ! entire int]val x is ! ,fa!rs ( ! ,*ur* & _! imm$iate foll[]s :o1 9 repetition ( ! old1 or sugge/ion ( ! new1 connect ?9k] ) ?9k]1 philosoph] ) philosoph]1 pagan ) ,*ri/ian4#a ,to attempt to acc\nt = ev5 "o ( ! details ( ?\ght dur+ ?is p]iod _c be )\t its advantages4 ,= ,*ri/ianity gave a new & unique turn to ?\ght4 ,x br\ght ) x a new set ( data1 & a new subject-matt]4 ,! ,*ri/ian doctr9e ( ,god1 ! di/9ctions 9 ! ,tr9ity1 ! great doctr9es c5t]+ ar\nd ! p]son ( ,jesus ,*ri/1 ?\gh1 p]haps1 fa9tly =e%ad[$ 9 "s ( ! e>li] speculations1 are1 9 _! fulness & complet5ess1 fir/ giv5 to ! _w by ! ,f\nd] ( ,*ri/ianity4 ,! claims made = ^! doctr9es1 too1 gave !m a unique "*4 ,9 contra/ ) ! half-he>t$1 falt]+ conclusions ( ! preval5t philosophical s*ools1 ,*ri/ianity ass]t$ t its tea*+s 7 absolute tru?2 x claim$ to be no?+ less ?an a revelation f ! ,creator ( ! _w4 ,x w be readily se5 t ! introduction ( su* a sy/em z ?is into ! ,greek _w w\ld be att5d$ ) important results1 n only 9 its effects ^u ! intellectual life ( ! times1 b also 9 ! influ5ce ( ! curr5t philosophical conceptions on ! /atem5t ( its doctr9e4 ,! significance ( ?is e>ly p]iod lies 9 ! fact t1 9 ! positive1 def9ite sy/em ( ,*ri/ianity1 sy/ematic ?\ght1 :i* 0 fa/ becom+ disorganiz$ & sceptical1 f\nd a c5t] ab\t :i* x might rally & focus itself1 & ! scatt]$ fragm5ts ( philosophy 7 all collect$ toge!r1 by ei!r fri5ds or foes1 ab\t ! new religion4 ,! new po9t ( view & ! new relations w\ld be mo/ significant1 too1 9 t dep>tm5t ( ?\ght ) :i* ! contact ( ?is new c5tral sy/em _h mo/ to d1 & ?us ! treatm5t ( ! !i/ic problem exhibits 9 a special degree ! alt]ation 9 ! /&po9t & me?od ( philosophy4 ,x ?rew into bold relief ! old basis ( belief 9 ! div9e1 & ar\s$ a comp>ison & discussion ( ! validity ( ! v>i\s argum5ts hi!rto us$ by speculative ?\ght1 & set !m ov] 9 %>p contra/ to ! claims ( ! new revelation4 ,9 ! e>ly p]iod :5 ?is contra/ 0 mo/ cle>ly felt1 & "t _h n yet p]mitt$ a complete fusion & bl5d+ ( ! two po9ts ( view1 we f9d a simplicity ( situation :i* w aid analysis & facilitate ! /udy ( ! relation ( ! old argum5ts = ! exi/5ce ( a ,god to ! ,*ri/ian doctr9e1 & :i* w help 9 det]m9+ ! elem5ts due to ea* & 9 int]pret+ ! reasons = ! direction ( ?\ght on ?is subject1 :i* *>act]iz$ ! :ole ( ! ,m$ival p]iod4 ,9 ! repres5tations ( e>ly ,*ri/ian ?\ght1 h[ev]1 we f9d great diff]5ces 9 ! emphasis laid ^u ! speculative side ( ! !i/ic problem4 ,*ri/ian philosophy is no exception to ! rule t ! ?\ght ( ! race develops ?r\gh ! ne$s1 temp]am5ts & t5d5cies ) :i* x comes into contact1 & unfolds itself naturally 9 response to int]nal or ext]nal /imuli--! d\bts1 intellectual ne$s & gr[+ consci\sness & exp]i5ce ( ! believ]1 & ! cavils1 objections & attacks ( 8 oppon5t4 ,! fir/ ,*ri/ian tea*]s _h to meet simple problems1 & ! mission ( ! ,apo/olic & sub-,apo/olic ,*ur* 0 to ! p4 ,its fir/ task1 det]m9$ by ! conditions 9 :i* ! ,*ri/ians f\nd !mselves1 z well z by ! comm& ( _! ,ma/]1 0 to conv]t ! ,jews1 :o1 by _! long tra9+ z a peculi> p1 7 especially adapt$ = receiv+ ?is new revelation1 bas$1 z x 01 on t mono!i/ic idea to ! pres]vation ( :i* _! national life _h be5 devot$4 ,^u !m ! primitive ,*ri/ians1 mo/ ( :om1 l ,/4 ,paul1 7 ,hebrews ( ! ,hebrews1 br\ght to be> ! in/rum5t mo/ adapt$ to _! conv]sion1 namely1 ! argum5t d$uc$ f ! sacr$ ,scriptures ( _! race4 ,& :5 ! ,*ur* f9ally turn$ t[>ds ! ,g5tile _w1 x 0 /ill ! popul> religion1 ! religion ( ! poets1 r ?an ! philosophy ( ! s*ools1 ) :i* its apologi/s fir/ came into contact1 & x is v evid5t f su* writ+s z ! rec5tly recov]$ ,apology ( ,ari/ides1 philosoph] ( ,a!ns1 & _m o!r works ext5d+ ov] ! :ole ,ante-,nic5e p]iod1 t mu* ( ! en]gy ( ! e>ly expon5ts ( ,*ri/ianity 0 direct$ t[>ds ! conv]sion ( ! populace :o /ill adh]$1 at lea/ =mally1 to ! religion ( _! own poets4 ,! function ( ! primitive ,*ri/ians1 s f> z ! cont5t ( _! belief 0 conc]n$1 0 to pres]ve & transmit to _! successors an implicit fai?4 ,! value ( ?is fai? !y attempt$ to %[ *iefly by practical1 e?ical demon/ration4 ,?us !y prea*$ *iefly by example1 & x is on ! gr\nd ( life r ?an t ( ?\ght t !y made _! plea to ! ,g5tiles4 ,9 _! /ruggle = exi/5ce1 ?reat5$ on e side by (ficial p]secution & popul> fury1 !y _h no opportunity = speculation on fundam5tals--!y plead$ m]ely to be all[$ to live ! life to :i* !y 7 pl$g$4 ,) ! ,ea/]n tra9+1 :i* mo/ ( !m _h _h1 s =eign to ! ideals ( ,greek philosophy1 & s t5aci\s ( ! idea ( ,god1 & ) ! p]son ( ,*ri/ s ne> to !m z to bl9d _! eyes to ! possibility ( any o!r /&>d ( tru? ?an ,8 words1 !y naturally af=d u no mat]ial = ! "q "u discussion4 ,?us we mu/ wait = ! rise ( ,*ri/ian philosophy1 & take z our t]m9us a quo ! middle ( ! second c5tury1 :5 fir/ !re appe>s t lit]ature :i* be>s evid5ce to ! conv]sion ( philosoph]s to ! ,*ri/ian ,*ur*1 & af=ds u examples ( _! attempts to pres5t ! new doctr9es to ! s*ools :i* !y _h ab&on$4 ,our t]m9us ad quem w be ! ,c\ncil ( ,nicea4 ,! reason = ?is is 9 "p ! dem&s ( "t & space1 & 9 "p ! fact t x w avoid ne$less & t$i\s repetition4 ,! use ( ! !i/ic argum5t = "s "t aft] ! ,nic5e p]iod is fairly homog5e\s1 & pres5ts no important new consid]ations4 ,! apologetic "w ( ! patri/ic writ]s 0 *iefly done 9 ! ante-,nic5e age2 aft] t discussion turn$ m ^u que/ions )9 ! scope ( ! ,*ri/ian ,fai?4 ,! function ( ! age ( ! ,c\ncils 0 ! =mulation & def9ition ( ,*ri/ian dogma ^u ! admitt$ basis ( ! revelation ( ,jesus ,*ri/4 ,?is inquiry1 !re=e1 w h to d ) t int]e/+ p]iod :5 ! doctr9es ( ! ,*ri/ian ,*ur* 7 f9d+ _! connection ) & relation to ! speculations ( ,greek philosophy1 & :5 ! ,*ri/ian philosoph]s & apologi/s 7 det]m9+ ! attitude :i*1 = _m c5turies1 reveal$ religion assum$ t[>d ! demon/rations ( natural !ology4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,philosophy & ,!ology1 p4 #agf4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,greek ,,& ,,roman ,,!i/ic ,,argum5ts ,! fir/ "q t confronts u z we ent] ^u ! discussion is ! prelim9>y inquiry3 ,:at _h be5 done already 9 ! way ( !i/ic argum5t1 & 9 :at condition did ! ,*ri/ian ,*ur* f9d ?is argum5t :5 x fir/ began to develop a sy/em ( apologetics8 ,& f ! conditions ( anci5t ?\ght1 or1 at lea/1 f :at we "k ( x1 ?is resolves itself into ! "q3 ,h[ f> _h ! ,greek philosoph]s advanc$ by means ( speculative ?\ght t[>d a consci\s !ism1 & by :at means did ! v>i\s individuals & s*ools among !m seek to prove ! exi/5ce ( ! ,div9e8 ,! answ] to ?is inquiry w involve a brief exam9ation ( ! contributions ( ! pre-,socratic philosoph]s 7especially ,anaxagoras71 ,socrates1 ,plato1 ,ari/otle1 ! ,/oics1 ! ,epicureans1 ,cic]o1 & ! ,hell5iz+ ,jews ( ,alex&ria4 ,! ?\ght ( ,greece be=e ! "t ( ,socrates1 f ! v nature ( its problem1 & ! mat]ial at its disposal1 yields u b little t c1 )\t do+ viol5ce to ! facts1 be con/ru$ z be>+ on ! !i/ic argum5t4 ,! se>* ( ^! e>ly philosoph]s 01 inde$1 = an ,ar*1 b _! int]e/ 9 ! inquiry1 z a p]usal ( ! extant fragm5ts ( _! writ+s w prove1 0 pre-em95tly cosmological4 ,!y /rove to discov] ! et]nal gr\nd ( all ?+s1 b x 0 a pr9ciple to acc\nt = ! ph5om5a ( physical nature t !y s\ght1 & !y _h n atta9$ to a realization ( ev5 a rude =m ( ! !i/ic problem4 ,all !y s\ght = 0 a prim>y sub/ance :i* %\ld satisfy ! ne$s ( a rudim5t>y physical sci5ce1 :i* w\ld enable !m to co-ord9ate ! scanty data :i* !y _h accumulat$ f _! contact ) ! _w 9 :i* !y liv$1 & to ^: secrets !y seem at times1 9 spite ( _! limit$ k1 to h come v close4 ,& ev5 grant+ t ! problem involv$ 9 _! se>* = ! ,ar* 0 at bottom id5tical ) t ( !ism1 !y attempt to give no pro( or argum5t = _! conclusions ) reg>d to x4 ,!y are z yet m]ely se]s1 :o report ! vision t comes to !m z !y gaze ^u ! /ress & /ra9 & ev]-*ang+ spectacle ( e>?'s ph5om5a4 ,ev5 ! teleology ( ,anaxagoras 7(t5 m5tion$ z ! g]m ( ! !i/ic argum5t7 gives u no?+ m ?an a poet's dream1 express$1 z ,diog5es ,la]tius in=ms u1 9 a l(ty & agreeable /yle4#b ,n\s1 ,anaxagoras tells u1 is inf9ite & self-rul$1 & is mix$ ) no?+1 b is alone1 itself by itself4444 ,x has all k ab\t ev]y?+1 & ! greate/ /r5g?2 & ,n\s has p[] ov] all ?+s1 bo? great] & small]1 t h life4 ,& ,n\s _h p[] ov] ! :ole revolution1 s t x began to revolve 9 ! beg9n+4444 ,& ,n\s set 9 ord] all ?+s t 7 to be & t 71 & all ?+s t are n n[1 & t are1 & ?is revolution 9 :i* n[ revolve ! />s & ! sun & ! moon & ! air & ! !r t are sep>at$ (f4#c ,?is1 h[ev]1 am\nts to no argum5t1 & x is extremely d\btful :e!r ,anaxagoras ev] meant any?+ m by 8 ,n\s ?an ,emp$ocles did by 8 ,love & ,/rife1 ( :i* x 0 ! hi/orical successor1 & we may safely1 ,i ?9k1 endorse ! judgm5t ( ,ari/otle :5 he says t ,anaxagoras1 also1 employs m9d z a ma*9e 7i4e41 z ! ,laur5tian ,,ms4 indicates1 z a !atrical deus ex ma*9a7 = ! production ( ! cosmos2 & :5 he f9ds himself 9 a p]plexity z to ! cause ( its be+ necess>ily s1 he !n drags x 9 by =ce to 8 assi/ance2 b1 9 ! o!r in/ances1 he assigns z a cause ( ! ?+s t are be+ produc$1 ev]y?+ else 9 pref]5ce to m9d 7,n\s74#d ,?is criticism w1 ,i am confid5t1 apply fully z well to any app>5t !ism 9 ! o!r pre-,socratic writ]s1#e s t we %all be ju/ifi$ 9 assign+ to !m z _! "p 9 ! developm5t ( ! !i/ic argum5t1 ! m]e undef9$ feel+ & gr[+ conviction ( a p]man5t beh9d ! *ang+1 a "o beh9d ! _m4 ,we f9d ! natural deep & practical piety ( ,socrates re9=c+ itself ) a v full & complete /atem5t ( a teleological argum5t1 bas$ ^u f9al cause1 or adaptation ( means to ends4 ,x is 9 ! ,memorabilia#f t we get ! cle> /atem5t ( ?is1 &1 !re=e1 x is a ,socratic tea*+ :i* c1 =tunately1 be def9itely di/+ui%$ f ! ,platonic treatm5t ( ! subject4 ,b :i*1 he asks1 seem$ to y mo/ wor?y ( admiration1 ,ari/odemus--! arti/ :o =ms images void ( motion & intellig5ce1 or "o :o has ! skill to produce animals t are endu$ n only ) activity1 b und]/&+8 ,!n z ,ari/odemus answ]s1 ,! latt]1 ,socrates proce$s to a detail$ description ( ! adaptations ( ! eye1 e>1 tee?1 m\? & nose to _! sev]al uses1 & concludes ) ! "q3 ,& can/ ?\ /ill d\bt1 ,ari/odemus1 :e!r a disposition ( p>ts l ?is %\ld be a "w ( *ance1 or ( wisdom & contrivance8 ,he also argues 9 l mann] f ! exi/5ce ( intellig5ce 9 man1 ! s\l1 & ! g5]al adaptability ( man's p[]s & conditions to ! fur!r+ ( 8 life4 ,?is argum5t to design has appropriately be5 call$ peculi>ly ! ,socratic pro(1#g & to 8 treatm5t ( x1 s 9 keep+ ) ! practical1 /urdy common-s5se ( ! man1 no?+ ess5tial or important1 except 9 multiplication ( applications & details1 has be5 add$ s9ce 8 "t4 ,9 ! op9ion ( ! writ]1 h[ev]1 ,socrates1 s f> z "o c judge f 8 record$ utt]ances1 develop$ m]ely ! =m ( ! ,argum5t to ,design1 b x _c be positively ass]t$ t he us$ x z a !i/ic argum5t4 ,9 ! ,memorabilia x is always ! gods to :i* ! argum5t leads1 & ! wor%ip ( !m t he urges4 ,he may h _h a m !i/ic conception1 b ! context w>rants no fur!r mean+ ( !os ?an ! g5]ic "o ( an object ( wor%ip--9 ?is case ! national gods4 ,9 ! ,apology ho !os is us$ almo/ inv>iably ( ! local div9ity ( ! oracle at ,delphi1 & ( ! daemon :i*1 at ! in/igation ( ! ,delphian div9ity1 z he 0 conv9c$1 guid$ 8 actions4 ,! pres5t writ] is /rongly ( ! op9ion t mu* viol5ce has be5 done ! words ( ,socrates by translators & int]pret]s1 & t ?is fact w acc\nt = mu* ( ! alleg$ !i/ic tea*+ :i* is1 )\t w>rant1 ascrib$ to ! ,a!nian sage4 ,! contribution ( ,plato to ! !i/ic argum5t 01 *>act]i/ically1 ! =m ( ! ,ontological pro( :i* has be5 call$ ,idealogical4 ,?is process is a v natural developm5t = ,plato's ,dialectic4#h ,once divide ! univ]se1 z he did1 into ! two classes ( p]man5t exi/5ce & transi5t ph5om5a1 & id5tify ! =m] ) ! ideas 7:i* are no?+ else ?an univ]sals1 ea* ( :i* expresses ! ess5ce ( _m ph5om5a71 & x is a v easy process to conceive ( ^! ideas !mselves be+ unit$ 9 ano!r m inclusive idea1 & s1 by a process ( g5]alization1 to rea* at l5g? ! ,idea ( ,ideas--! absolute ,idea1 9 :i* lies ! ess5ce ( all 9 ! univ]se4 ,?us f any "o fact ( beauty1 h>mony1 etc41 ! human m9d may rise to ! notion ( a common quality 9 all objects ( beauty1 etc43 f a s+le beautiful body to two1 f two to all o!rs2 f beautiful bodies to beautiful s5tim5ts1 f beautiful s5tim5ts to beautiful ?\ghts1 until1 f ?\ght to ?\ght1 we arrive at ! highe/ ?\ght1 :i* has no o!r object ?an ! p]fect1 absolute1 ,div9e ,beauty4#i ,! ideas1 too1 & especially ! ,good or absolute ,idea1 h 9 !m a teleological elem5t1 s9ce ! ,idea n only /ates z :at1 b also = :at a ?+ exi/s4#aj ,! absolute ,idea is n only ! fir/ pr9ciple ( ! univ]se1 b also its f9al purpose1 & ?us we h indicat$ 9 v>i\s places a teleological argum5t4 ,traces ( o!r =ms ( ! !i/ic argum5t h be5 detect$ 9 ,plato's writ+s1 b none ( !m are at all explicitly develop$1 & "o _c b feel t "s writ]s on ! subject h claim$ altoge!r too mu* = ,plato's !ology4#aa ,! poetical & allegorical =m into :i* he s con/antly ?r[s 8 discussion makes x extremely difficult to det]m9e 8 exact position1 especially on su* a subject z 8 !ology1 9 :i* he is con/antly adapt+ 8 metaphysical doctr9es to ! prevail+ poly!i/ic religi\s ideas2 & at ! same "t ?is me?od ( expression gives a good opportunity = ! collection ( isolat$ quotations :i* may support almo/ any !ory4 ,! religi\s "* ( ,plato's philosophy is1 z ,zell] says1 to be f\nd mu* m on ! moral ?an on ! sci5tific side1 & h5ce he 0 cont5t to leave ! m exact =mulation ( su* argum5ts z ^! to 8 successors4 ,z to ! results to :i* ?is me?od l$ him1 ! /atem5t ( ,zell]1 9 view ( ! _m conflict+ op9ions1 seems satisfactory3 ,9 ev]y?+ t he /ates conc]n+ ! ,div9ity ! lead+ po9t ( view is ! idea ( ! ,good1 ! highe/ metaphysical & e?ical p]fection4 ,z ?is highe/ ,idea /&s ov] all ideas z ! cause ( all be+ & kn[+1 s ov] all gods1 alike h>d to f9d & to describe1 /&s ! "o1 et]nal1 invisible god1 ! ,fram] & ,fa!r ( all ?+s4#ab ,( ! p]sonality ( ,god ,plato _h no conception1#ac & x w\ld be a v difficult und]tak+ to prove f 8 extant works t he 01 9 any real s5se ( ! ^w1 a !i/4 ,( ! ?ree divisions ( ! speculative sci5ces--physical1 ma!matical & !ological--,ari/otle makes ! la/ ! mo/ excell5t1#ad = x is conv]sant ab\t t "o among/ entities :i* is m entitl$ to respect ?an ! re/4#ae ,x is to ! discussion ( ?is subject 9 ,book ,,xi4 t ! great] "p ( ! ,metaphysics leads up4 ,he has e/abli%$ 9 ! previ\s portions ( ! "w ! two sub/ances :i* he calls natural or physical--namely1 matt] & =m--& n[ he proce$s to ju/ify ! h9ts he has giv5 ( a ?ird sub/ance :i* is immovable4#af ,x has be5 cu/om>y to divide ?is discussion ( ,ari/otle into sev]al =mal !i/ic argum5ts1#ag b 9 ! op9ion ( ! writ] ! text ( ! ,metaphysics does n l5d itself readily to any su* cut & dri$ arrangem5t ( its argum5t4 ,ari/otle does1 inde$1 to avoid ! absurdity ( an endless regress1 argue f ! k9\m5a & ! k9\nta ( ! physical ,_w to a prton k9\n :i* is a pure en]geia1 ak9ton1 aneu hyls1 & h5ce =eign to all ! passivity & cont+5cy ( matt]2#ah concludes f motion 9 ! _w t !re mu/ be a ,fir/ ,mov]2#ai & ass]ts ! actuality ( ! et]nal z oppos$ to pot5tiality2 b ^! argum5ts are s bl5d$ toge!r1 & take ea* "o s mu* f ! o!rs1 t ,i _c be conv9c$ t ,ari/otle _h ev] cle>ly diff]5tiat$ !m4 ,b x is cle> en\gh t ! cr[n ( ,ari/otle's :ole sy/em is ?is prime mov]1 unmov$ & ap>t f matt]1 & t ?is conception1 up to :i* 8 ?\ght leads f e side1 z ! necess>y implication f ! motion ev]y:]e se5 9 ! _w1 is 8 *ief contribution to ! argum5t = ! exi/5ce ( ! ,div9e4 ,ari/otle's *ief int]e/ lay 9 ! cosmological problem1 & 8 =m ( pro( & ! result :i* he rea*$ by x 7 m\ld$ by ?is fact4 ,8 argum5t did n lead him to a ,creator ( ! _w1 = ! univ]se1 no less ?an ! prime mov]1 0 et]nal1 & ! latt] is no?+ m ?an a pr9ciple ( reason imman5t 9 ! _w--p]vad+ x1 n di/+ui%$ f x--& ! au?or ( motion only 9 a passive way1 aft] all1 z a sort ( magnetic object ( desire4#bj ,9 o!r places ,ari/otle makes pass+ ref]5ces to diff]5t =ms ( ! argum5t to prove ! exi/5ce ( ! gods1#ba b x is evid5t t 8 own int]e/ c5t]$ ar\nd ?is unmov$ f9al cause1 & x is 9 8 pro( ( its exi/5ce f cosmological consid]ations t 8 significance = u lies4 ,9 ! po/-,ari/otelian s*ools we h an entire *ange ( ! po9t ( view1 & in/ead ( a philosophy ( nature1 su* z occupi$ ! att5tion ( ! pre-,socratic ?9k]s1 or a philosophy ( m9d1 su* z ,socrates1 ,plato1 & to a l>ge ext5t1 ,ari/otle attempt$ to con/ruct1 we f9d ! int]e/ ( m5 9 speculative que/ions c5t]$ 9 a philosophy ( life1 ( morals4 ,correspond+ to ?is *ange 9 ! po9t ( view1 we may easily detect an alt]ation 9 ! mann] ( deal+ ) ! argum5ts = ! exi/5ce ( ! gods4 ,!re 01 9 ! fir/ place1 an increas$ emphasis laid ^u ?is l9e ( ?\ght1 9 common ) religi\s subjects 9 g5]al1 & ! reasons = ! belief 9 ! exi/5ce ( ! gods 7= ! ,greek s*ools nev] transc5d$ poly!ism--:5 !y speak ( !os !y mean simply ! ab/ract div9ity ( ! _m sep>ate div9ities7 seems1 s f> z we may judge f ! comp>atively scanty rema9s t h come d[n to u1 to h be5 discuss$ at great l5g?2 critically & negatively by ! ,sceptics1 positively & app>5tly ) full conviction by ! ,/oics1 & ) a curi\s mixture ( bo? ( ^! attitudes by ! ,epicureans4 ,^! latt]1 if ! report$ doctr9e ( ,epicurus himself be tru/wor?y1 d5i$ ! popul> gods1 &1 9 ord] to insure fre$om1 reject$ ! ,/oic doctr9e ( provid5ce2 b1 on ! o!r h&1 ass]t$ a belief 9 gods ^: ess5tial *>act]i/ics are immortality & p]fect happ9ess 7to insure :i* !y mu/ c>e no?+ = ! _w or = m571 & ^: exi/5ce 0 held to be prov5 on ! basis ( ! common cons5t ( all m5 7,argum5tum e ,cons5su ,g5tium74 ,?is argum5t is ! result ( a natural idea or pre-notion1 :i* ,epicurus call$ prolepsis2--t is1 an antec$5t conception ( ! fact 9 ! m9d1 )\t :i* no?+ c be und]/ood1 inquir$ aft]1 or disc\rs$ on4#bb ,! ,/oics1 on ! o!r h&1 ) _! /rong conviction ( provid5ce work+ 9 ! _w1 7 r incl9$ to d5y ! validity ( ?is argum5t f common cons5t1 & re/$ _! belief 9 ! gods1 z ,cic]o makes 8 ,/oic d 9 ,de ,natura ,deorum1#bc on ! evid5ce ( design & purpose 9 ! univ]se1 b by ?is process succe$$ only 9 prov+ to _! own satisfaction t ! _w is div9e--a fatali/ic pan!ism :i* r\s$ ! ire ( ! ,epicurean & ,sceptic alike1 & :i* ev5 ,cic]o seem$ h>dly to be able to accept4 ,f ?is necess>ily brief review ( ! developm5t ( ! argum5t = ! exi/5ce ( a ,div9ity 9 ,greek & ,roman ?\ght1 x w be se5 t1 at "o "t or ano!r1 9 a m or less fully develop$ =m1 ea* "o ( ! pr9cipal types ( ! !i/ic argum5t receiv$ ! *ief emphasis & _h its me?od enunciat$4 ,! pre-,socratic natural philosoph]s1 on ! basis ( ! maxim z old z philosophy itself--,adynaton g9e/hai ti ek md5os pr\p>*ontos--po9t$ to an ,ar*--a real beh9d ph5om5a1 a p]man5t beh9d ! *ange--& ?us po9t$ to ! s-call$ ,aetiological argum5t f\nd$ on ! pr9ciple ( causality4 ,socrates1 ) 8 pre-em95tly practical disposition & e?ical po9t ( view1 saw above all ?+s int5tion 9 nature1 & s f ! consid]ation ( ?is *oice & adaptation ( means to _! end1 & ! resultant ,f9al ,cause he con/ructs a v complete ,teleological argum5t = ! exi/5ce ( "s intellig5ce beh9d ! visible _w4 ,plato's ,ideas1 z we h se51 det]m9e ! me?od by :i* he arrives at 8 ab/ract div9ity1 namely1 by ! ,idealogical =m ( argum5t bas$ ^u a process ( g5]alization4 ,ari/otle1 /ruck by ! ph5om5a ( motion 9 ! univ]se1 lays mo/ /ress on ! c\rse ( reason+ :i* w\ld lead back to ! ,prime ,mov]4 ,! ,epicureans1 subord9at+ _! !ology to _! e?ical !ory1 & unwill+ to all[ _! deity to int]f]e ) ! _w or ) m5's affairs1 develop$ & plac$ _! dep5d5ce on ! argum5t f common cons5t4 ,! ,/oics1 lay+ great /ress ^u ! ord]1 proportion & h>mony 9 ! _w1 argu$ to m9d z ! reason = ?is condition ( ?+s4 ,b none ( ^! philosoph]s1 9 ! op9ion ( ! writ]1 atta9$ to a conception ( ,god :i* c\ld 9 any real or accept$ s5se ( ! ^w be call$ !i/ic1 or :i* w\ld satisfy a m9d accu/om$ to ! idea ( ! ,*ri/ian doctr9e ( ,god4 ,= ! ,greek writ]s nev] make any accurate di/9ction betwe5 ho !os1 hoi !oi1 to !ion & ta !ia4 ,!y nev] conceive ( _! !os z any?+ m ?an a r l>g] & m maje/ic memb] ( ! innum]able family ( ! div9ities ( :i* ! poets _h sung--m spiritual only 9 s f> z x 0 m vague & indef9ite1 a sort ( my/]i\s1 my?ical be+ to :i* is sometimes attribut$ ! same k9d ( p]sonality possess$ by ! inf]ior gods1 & sometimes reg>d$ z simply ! ab/ract div9ity :i* *>act]iz$ all ( ! gods4 ,b t to :i* ! argum5ts t we h be5 discuss+ g5]ally lead is n ev5 s ne> to ! !i/ic conception z ?is modifi$ poly!ism1 = !y usually conduct u1 z we h already indicat$1 to no?+ m ?an a 7sometimes7 p]sonifi$ =ce ( nature1 pr9ciple ( ord]1 or ab/ract conception--n a ,god4 ,take away ! inaccurate & mislead+ t]ms by :i* ! orig9al ,greek is r5d]$ 9 mo/ ( ! ,engli% v]sions1 9 :i* ! en?usiasm ( ! /ud5t ( comp>ative religions has tak5 ! place ( ! c>eful & accurate translator1 &1 aside f frequ5t apo/rophes1 su* z are cont9ually address$ by ! poets to ! _m gods ( ! popul> religion1 ! end ( ! argum5ts we h be5 consid]+ w be f\nd to be z depict$ above4 ,9 a ^w3 ,greek philosophy1 indep5d5t ( ,semitic influ5ces1 develop$ ! =m ( ! *ief types ( ! !i/ic argum5t1 b x fail$ utt]ly to d$uce f !m a !ism1 be+ ?r\gh\t 9 its !ology ei!r poly!i/ic or pan!i/ic4 ,:ile consid]+ ?is bran* ( our subject x w\ld be impossible to ignore ano!r s*ool ( ?\ght1 :i*1 :ile nei!r ,greek nor ,roman 9 its nationality1 yet d]ives s mu* ( its philosophical /&-po9t f ! =m] ( ^! races z to be (t5 class$ "u ! same head4 ,?is is ! s*ool ( ,hell5iz+ ,jews1 9 :i* !re is built up on ! f\ndation ( ! traditional fai? ( ! ,hebrew race1 to ! tru? & au?ority ( :i* !y always held1 a sup]/ructure ( philosophical speculation :i* foll[s closely ! models af=d$ !m by ,greek ?\ght4 ,to effect a reconciliation betwe5 ^! two elem5ts x 0 necess>y = !m to resort to ! allegorical int]pretation ( ! anci5t inspir$ hi/ory ( ! race1 & h5ce to ! ,ori5tal m9d t wi%$ to engage 9 speculative ?\ght x 0 naturally ,platonic & ,py?agorean1 r ?an ,ari/otelian1 me?ods t 7 mo/ attractive4 ,! *ief & probably ! e>lie/ develop$ example ( ?is comb9ation ( ,ori5tal & ,occid5tal ?\ght is f\nd 9 ! writ+s ( ,philo ,judaeus4#bd ,to him ! p[]s ( man seem$ to be :olly unreliable & delusive1 & only ! special grace ( ,god enables "o to p]ceive any tru?--,autos !os ar* kai pg te*nn kai epi/mn anmologtai4 ,to approa* ,god "o mu/ flee f "o's self--ei g> ztis !on exel?\sa apo sauts anaztei4 ,nei!r reason nor any o!r function ( ! s\l c conduct u to ,god1 nor c we atta9 to a conception ( ,him z ! supreme cause ( all by reg>d+ ! manifold p]fections & p[]s ( nature1 = su* a process c give u only %ad[s4 ,x is only by a sup]ior faculty :i* is a grace ( ,god t "o c atta9 "s idea ( ! div9e1 b ev5 by ?is means we arrive at only negative k--we c "k only :at ,god is n4#be ,yet 9 spite ( all ?is ,philo uses q an elaborate teleological argum5t drawn f ! ord] 9 ! _w4#bf ,?is inconsi/5cy1 :i*1 z ,erdmann rem>ks1#bg may be expla9$ by ! fact t ,philo makes ,god only ! ord]] ( ! _w1 &1 fur!rmore1 int]poses an int]m$iate be+1 ! fam\s ,philonian ,logos1 we h ?\ght x wor? :ile to m5tion 9 ?is place1 z x =ms a connect+ l9k betwe5 ! ,greek philosoph]s & ! ,alex&rian ,fa!rs1 & =e%ad[s1 9 "s degree1 ! direction 9 :i* _! ?\ght 0 to be l$4 ,,footnotes3 #b ,d4 ,l41 ,i1 #af2 ,,ii1 #f4 #c ,ritt] & ,prell]1 #abc4 ,translat$ by ,burnet2 ,e>ly ,greek ,philosophy1 p4 #bhc1 #d4 #d ,metaphysics1 ,i1 #d4 #e ,! "o god1 ! greate/ among gods & m5 ( ,x5ophanes has l$ m5 to call him ! fir/ mono!i/1 b an exam9ation ( ! fragm5ts attribut$ to him w1 ,i am sure1 confirm ! v]dict ( ,burnet 7ut supra1 p4 #abc7 t :at ,x5ophanes proclaim$ z ! 'greate/ god' 0 no?+ m nor less ?an :at we call ! mat]ial _w4 #f ,x5ophon3 ,memorabilia1 ,i1 #d4 #g ,cock]3 ,*ri/ianity & ,greek ,philosophy1 p4 #dia4 #h ,la dialectique et le sy/me des ides conduisai5t directem5t ,platon la dmon/ration de l'exi/5ce de ,dieu2 et son ,dieu porte en quelque faon l'empre9te de cette orig9e1 puisqu'il e/ la fois l'unit absolue et l'intellig5ce p>faite4 ,jules ,simon3 ,etudes sur la ,?odice de ,platon et d',ari/ote1 p4 #bi4 #i ,banquet1 #cd4 #aj ,erdmann3 ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy1 #gg1 #d4 #aa ,e4g4 ,cock]3 ,*ri/ianity & ,greek ,philosophy1 pp4 #cgg1 ff4 #ab ,zell]3 ,philosophie d] ,grie*51 ,,ii1 i1 s4 #ibf4 #ac ,plato nev] rais$ ! "q ( ! p]sonality ( ,god4 7,zell]2 ,greek ,philosophy 7brief] edition7 #di47 ,sie 7die ,idee d] ,ide57 i/ natrli* ke9e gottli*e ,p]snli*keit4 7,kahnis3 ,v]hltniss d] ,alt5 ,philosophie zum ,*ri/5?um1 p4 #ed47 #ad ,metaphysics1 ,v1 #a4 #ae ,ibid43 x1 #g4 #af ,metaphysics1 xi1 #f4 #ag ,e4g41 ,s*wegl]3 ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy2 ,cock]2 ut supra1 p4 #dab1 ff4 #ah xi1 #f4 #ai xi1 #g4 #bj ,jules ,simon3 ,etudes sur la ,?odice de ,platon et d',ari/ote1 p4 #hh1 et al42 ,davidson3 ,!ism & ,human ,nature1 p4 #de4 #ba ,ari/otle makes good use ( ! argum5t to design 9 a /rik+ passage f a lo/ "w quot$ by ,cic]o 9 ,de ,natura ,deorum1 ,,ii1 #cg1 & 9 ,physica auscultatio1 ,,ii1 #h1 says3 ,! appe>ance ( ends & means is a pro( ( design4 #bb ,cic]o2 ,de ,natura ,deorum1 ,i1 #af1 #ag1 & frequ5tly4 ,see also ,s5eca2 ,epi/41 cxvii1 ^: ,syncretism all[s him to borr[ f ,/oic & ,epicurean alike4 ,see also ,zell]2 ,/oics1 ,epicureans & ,sceptics1 p4 #dfe4 #bc ,e4g41 ,i1 #cf2 ,,ii1 #b1 #e1 ff4 #bd ,va*]ot3 ,hi/oire ,critique de l',ecole d',alex&rie1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #adb4 #be ,ibid43 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #adc1 #add4 #bf ,see e4g41 ! quotation 9 ,/irl+2 ,philosophy & ,!ology1 p4 #agc4 #bg ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy1 ,vol4 ,i1 #aad1 #c4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,! ,,patri/ic ,,po9t ,,( ,,view ,! philosophy ( ! ,greeks dur+ ! fir/ c5tury ( our era pres5ts a great contra/ to t ( ! age ( ,socrates1 ,plato & ,ari/otle4 ,no long] d we f9d m5 engag$ 9 ! processes ( positive1 con/ructive ?\ght1 b we h pres5t$ to our view an age ( retrospection1 ( lit]>y criticism1 &1 to a great ext5t1 ( intellectual exhau/ion4 ,m5 live amid ! ru9s ( ! sy/ems con/ruct$ by _! ance/ors1 & ea* "o attempts to =m = himself1 out ( ! scatt]$ fragm5ts1 a comb9ation :i* may s]ve him z a suffici5tly coh]5t rule ( ?\ght1 &1 especially1 ( life4 ,/oicism1 ,epicureanism1 ,scepticism1 ! ,ori5taliz+ ,hell5es1 & ! ,hell5iz+ ,ori5tals1 all by _! re/less1 n]v\s1 frequ5tly erratic & aimless activity1 be> witness to ! fact t ! m9d ( man has _h reveal$ to x its own limitations1 & is well on ! way t[>ds despair ( ev] arriv+ at tru?4 ,! ,greek m9d no long] exhibits t ela/icity & spontaneity & en?usiasm 9 ! se>* = tru?1 or t confid5ce 9 its results1 :i* *>act]iz$ ! repres5tatives ( ! be/ p]iod ( ! ?\ght ( ! race4 ,! political =tunes ( ,greece d b typify ! process :i* 0 go+ on 9 ! ,greek m9d itself1 & ! p]iod :i* we are consid]+ is an age ( intellectual z well z political decad5ce4 ,?is is manife/$ by ! fur!r fact t ! ?\ght ( ! age 0 l>gely turn$ backw>d & dwelt 9 ! pa/4 ,! day ( orig9al ?\ght _h pass$ by1 & m5 7 n[ cont5t to deal ) ideas at second h&--to be comm5tators r ?an creators4 ,?is lit]>y "* :i* ,greek philosophy n[ fir/ began to exhibit 0 (t5 se5 & prote/$ aga9/4 ,?us ,epictetus says3 ,if ,i /udy philosophy ) a view only to its lit]ature1 ,i am n a philosoph]1 b a littrateur2 ! only diff]5ce is t ,i int]pret ,*rysippus in/ead ( ,hom]4#bh ,b prote/ z !y might1 ! inexorable signs ( old age crept ov] ! nation z irresi/ibly z !y d ov] ! individual1 &1 l ! v5]able man1 pres]v$ beyond 8 g5]ation1 ,hellas liv$ l>gely 9 ! memories ( ! pa/4 ,! influ5ce ( ?is condition ( ?+s is se5 9 ! education ( ! times4 ,! ,greek _w ( ?is p]iod1 z we "k x1 0 pre-em95tly educat$1 b 9 a special1 lit]>y s5se ( ! t]m4 ,! f\ndation ( _! education 0 ,gramm>--! ,belles ,lettres ( mod]n times4 ,sextus ,empiricus says1 ,we are all giv5 ov] to ,gramm> f *ildhood1 & almo/ f our baby-clo!s4#bi ,aft] ,gramm> came ,rhetoric1 ! /udy ( lit]ature by ! /udy ( lit]>y expression & quasi-=5sic argum5t1#cj & ,rhetoric 0 foll[$ by ,philosophy1 :i*1 h[ev]1 l ! o!r bran*es ( /udy1 s p>took ( ! *>act]i/ics ( ! age t we f9d ,m>cus ,aurelius congratulat+ himself 9 ?is mann]3 ,i owe x to ,ru/icus t ,i f\nd ! idea ( ! ne$ ( moral re=mation1 & t ,i 0 n div]t$ to lit]>y ambition1 or to write treatises on philosophical subjects1 or to make rhetorical exhortations4#ca ,?is say+ ( ! imp]ial ,/oic sugge/s ano!r *>act]i/ic ( ! ?\ght ( ! age--its e?ical ca/4 ,f ! "t ( ,ari/otle m5 _h be5 cont5t to h1 to a l>ge ext5t1 ! ab/ract problems ( ,ontology1 ,epi/emology1 & ! o!rs1 & to lay emphasis on que/ions ( life & mann]s4 ,/oicism1 ,epicureanism1 ,scepticism1 & all ! m9or s*ools ( ! age1 are pre-em95tly e?ical 9 _! "*4 ,to be sure x 0 e?ical !ory r ?an practice ) :i* !y 7 busi$1 b ?is fact makes ! *>act]i/ic none ! less important = ! /ud5t ( ! hi/ory ( philosophy4 ,?is disorganiz$ condition ( ?\ght :i* we h be5 attempt+ to depict has be5 well describ$ by ,dr4 ,/irl+3 ,! fall ( ! old _w1 :i* 0 at once political1 religi\s & philosophical1 0 *>act]iz$ by a univ]sal atomism4 ,politically1 ! individual1 z an atom1 f\nd himself alone1 )\t a c\ntry1 h>dly ) a home4 ,religi\sly1 ! individual1 z an atom1 has lo/ 8 ,god2 he looks up into an empty heav52 8 he>t is brok51 & he is hopeless1 helpless1 hapless1 9 despair4 ,philosophically1 all is contradiction2 !re is no long] any k he c tru/4 ,:at ! _w is he kn[s n at all4 ,he kn[s n at all :at he himself is4 ,( :at he is "h =1 ( :at x is all ab\t1 he is 9 ! pr(\nde/ d\bt1 despond5cy & d>kness4 ,politically1 religi\sly & philosophically ?us empty & alone1 x is only ( himself t ! individual c ?9k2 x is only = himself t ! individual mu/ c>e4 ,!re is n a s+le ne$ left him n[--he has n a s+le ?\ght 9 8 he>t--b eu pratte91 8 own welf>e4#cb ,x 0 9 ! mid/ ( ?is lump ( ,eclecticism1 ,syncretism & ,scepticism t ! leav5 ( ,*ri/ianity 0 deposit$1 & ! result ( ! fusion :i* took place aft] ! fir/ antagonism _h pass$ away1 makes ?is p]iod a turn+-po9t 9 ! hi/ory ( philosophy1 & ( ! utmo/ importance z reg>ds its effects on subsequ5t ?\ght4 ,& ( ?is antagonism & subsequ5t reconciliation1 ! e>ly ,*ri/ian ,apologi/s 7 concrete examples4 ,!y _h mo/ ( !m1 be=e !y became ,*ri/ians1 be5 adh]5ts ( "o or ! o!r ( ! diff]5t philosophical sects1 & sev]al ( !m _h tri$ all 9 turn4#cc ,!y exemplifi$ well ! prevail+ re/less di/ru/ ( ! results & me?ods ( ! old] s*ools1 b 9 ,*ri/ianity--! belief 9 a ,p]son1 :o 0 = !m ! ,way1 ! ,tru? & ! ,life--!y f9ally f\nd ! c]ta9ty = :i* !y _h s long s\ght 9 va94 ,! effect ( ?is process1 & ( ?is result ^u ! attitude ( ! e>ly ,*ri/ian philosoph]s1 c\ld be none o!r ?an an increas$ di/ru/ ( ! argum5ts = ! exi/5ce ( ,god1 & an incl9ation to ignore !m completely4 ,^! already suspect$ processes ( reason+ by :i* ! ,greeks _h be5 able to atta9 only to an ab/ract pr9ciple1 or =ce1 or me*anical cause1 or arrang] ( ! _w1 mu/ be ( v small importance to ^! m51 ^u ^: sight _h bur/ all at once1 9 ! height ( _! despair1 ! vision ( ! ,*ri/ian doctr9e ( ,god1 c]tifi$ to by "o :om !y believ$ to be ! v]itable ,son ( ,god1 ( "o sub/ance ) ! ,fa!r1 & ^: te/imony to ! tru? ( any fact br\ght a c]ta9ty :i* 0 inf9itely sup]ior to t :i* c\ld be atta9$ by any rational argum5t on o!r gr\nds4 ,! transc5d5t au?ority ( ! tea*+ ( ,jesus ,*ri/ = ^! m51 sudd5ly rescu$ by a belief 9 ,8 claims f an absolute scepticism :i* 0 rapidly ov]fl[+ _! m9ds1 ne$s to be ?or\ghly appreciat$ be=e "o c und]/& ! position :i* !y assum$1 especially ) ref]5ce to su* a "q z ! "o "u discussion4 ,b ?\gh ?is basis ( belief 0 suffici5t = !m1 yet1 z ! prim>y mission ( ! ,*ri/ian 0 to g1 disciple all nations1 !y 7 soon br\ght1 9 _! endeavors to fulfil ?is comm&1 into contact ) ^? :o n only d5i$ ! au?ority ( _! ,tea*]1 b :o 7 sceptical ab\t ! v fundam5tals ( religi\s belief4 ,= ! sake ( ^!1 !n1 & occasionally = ! fur!r confirmation ( ! fai? ( believ]s1 & = purposes ( illu/ration1 ! patri/ic writ]s return aga9 to ! discussion ( ^? elem5ts ( belief = :i* !y !mselves felt no ne$1 & h5ce we h 9 _! works a r frequ5t ref]5ce to ! v>i\s =ms ( ! !i/ic argum5t2 b "o :i* is evid5tly only incid5tal to _! ma9 c\rse ( ?\ght1 & :i* is br\ght 9 m]ely 9 accommodation to ! ne$s ( _! read]s4 ,! ord9>y argum5ts to prove ! exi/5ce ( ,god 7 n at all an ess5tial1 or ev5 prom95t1 feature ( e>ly ,*ri/ian ,!ology4 ,& because ( ?is second>y & incid5tal position ( ^! argum5ts1 !y 7 nev]1 z we %all see1 giv5 def9ite1 conv5tional %ape 9 ! patri/ic use ( !m1 nor 7 ! v>i\s =ms ( ! argum5t diff]5tiat$2 b !y 7 us$ 9 :at we may call a mix$ =m1 a comb9ation ( two or m diff]5t =ms be+ put =? z "o composite :ole4 ,besides ^! g5]al influ5ces :i* %ap$ ! patri/ic treatm5t ( ! !i/ic argum5ts1 we %\ld notice c]ta9 fundam5tal & *>act]i/ic pr9ciples assum$ by ! ,fa!rs1 or by mo/ ( !m1 :i* h _! be>+ on our subject4 ,9 ! fir/ place x is held by mo/ ( ! e>ly ,*ri/ian au?ors1 & explicitly /at$ by _m ( !m1 t ! idea ( ! exi/5ce ( ,god is innate 9 man z a natural op9ion4 ,we h already notic$ ! doctr9e ( prolepsis advanc$ by ,epicurus1 & ! some:at simil> position assum$ by ,philo1 & we are n surpris$ to f9d t ?is idea took a /rong hold on ! dev\t m9ds ( ! e>ly ,*ri/ians4 ,?us ,/4 ,ju/9 ,m>tyr /ates t ! appellation ',god' is n a "n1 b an op9ion 7prosagoreuma7 plant$ 9 ! nature ( man ( a ?+ t c h>dly be expla9$1#cd & makes "o ( 8 discussions conclude t s\ls c p]ceive 7noe97 t ,god exi/s4#ce ,/4 ,clem5t ( ,alex&ria goes ev5 fur!r & affirms t ! ,fa!r1 !n1 & ,mak] ( all ?+s is appreh5d$ by all ?+s1 agreeably to all1 by innate p[] & )\t tea*+4#cf ,t]tullian ?9ks t ! s\l 0 be=e prophecy4 ,f ! beg9n+ ! k ( ,god is ! d[ry 7dos7 ( ! s\l1#cg & among ! ?+s kn[n ev5 by nature is ! k ( our ,god :i* is possess$ by all1#ch s t he c\ld write a treatise1 ,de ,te/imonio ,anim1 & exclaim1 ,o noble te/imony ( ! s\l by nature ,*ri/ian4#ci ,orig5 speaks ( ! uncorrupt$ idea ( ,him :i* is implant$ 9 ! human m9d1#dj & ,/4 ,cyprian makes ?is k s pla9 t ?is is ! v height ( s9fulness to refuse to ackn[l$ge ,him :om y _c b "k4#da ,arnobius1 too1 9 a passage 9 :i* mu* all[ance mu/ be made = rhetorical f]vor1 exclaims1 ,is !re any human be+ :o has n ent]$ on ! fir/ day ( 8 life ) an idea ( t ,great ,head8 ,9 :om has x n be5 implant$ by nature1 on :om has x n be5 impress$1 aye1 /amp$ almo/ 9 8 "m's womb ev51 9 :om is !re n a native in/9ct1 t ,he is ,k+ & ,"l1 ! rul] ( all ?+s t be8 ,9 f9e1 if ! dumb animals ev5 c\ld /amm] =? _! ?\ghts1 if !y 7 able to use our languages2 nay1 if trees1 if ! clods ( ! e>?1 if /ones dom9at$ by vital p]ceptions 7 able to produce vocal s\nds1 & to utt] articulate spee*1 w\ld !y n 9 t case1 ) nature z _! guide & tea*]1 9 ! fai? ( uncorrupt$ innoc5ce1 bo? feel t !re is a ,god1 & proclaim t ,he alone is ,"l ( all8#db ,su* language z ?is la/ example is1 ( c\rse1 ! exclamation ( ! orator r ?an ! delib]ate judgm5t ( ! philosoph]1 b tak5 9 connection ) ! o!r passages cit$ x w indicate h[ /rong a hold ?is conviction _h on ! ,fa!rs1 & w anticipate1 to "s ext5t1 :at we %all h to say lat] z to ! use ( ! ,argum5tum e ,cons5su ,g5tium4 ,9 direct connection & %>p contra/ ) ?is op9ion ( ! ,fa!rs1 !re /&s ! seem+ly contradictory /atem5t1 z frequ5tly enc\nt]$ 9 _! writ+s1 t ! s\l ( itself _c see ,god nor atta9 to true religion4 ,9 ! v same s5t5ce 9 :i* ,/4 ,ju/9 ,m>tyr ass]ts t s\ls c p]ceive 7noe97 t ,god exi/s1 he /ates t !y d n see 7ide97 ,god1#dc & insi/s 9 m ?an "o place t nei!r by nature nor by human conception is x possible = m5 to "k ?+s s great & div9e4#dd ,frequ5tly ! patri/ic writ]s h occasion to emphasize ! inability ( man to atta9 by any ( 8 natural p[]s to religi\s tru?1 & to po9t to ! impot5t long+s & aspirations ( ,greek philosophy z an example ( ?is4 ,/4 ,clem5t ( ,alex&ria1 = example1 ass]ts t ! *iefs ( philosophy only guess$ at religi\s tru?1#de & lays d[n ! g5]al pr9ciple t ,god1 !n1 be+ n a subject = demon/ration1 _c be ! object ( sci5ce4#df ,orig51 too1 /ates t = ourselves1 we ma9ta9 t human nature is 9 no way able to seek aft] ,god1 or to atta9 a cle> k ( ,him )\t ! help ( ,him :om x seeks4#dg ,! inconsi/5cy betwe5 ^! two fundam5tal positions ( ! ,fa!rs1 ( :i* mu* is (t5 made1 is1 ,i ?9k1 m app>5t ?an real4 ,= !y make a cle> di/9ction 9 _! ?\ght1 ?\gh ! m]e language :i* !y use is sometimes confus+1 betwe5 k ( ! exi/5ce ( ,god--! undef9$ feel+ or belief t !re is a ,god--:i* is ! innate op9ion1 = :i* !y give e man cr$it2 & ! k ( ,god1 i4e41 ( ,8 attributes1 etc41 ! subject-matt] ( dogmatic !ology4 ,! exi/5ce ( ! =m] ( ^!1 x is true1 z ( ! latt]1 may be obscur$ & ne>ly oblit]at$ by s9 & ! consequ5t disorganization2 = 9 ! tea*+ ( ! ,fa!rs1 z 9 t ( _! ,ma/]1 x is ! pure 9 he>t t see ,god1#dh & x is only ! man ^: nature is kept 9 due balance by a life ( moral rectitude--! righte\s man ( ! ,scriptures--:o c be expect$ to exhibit cle>ly ?is natural op9ion or to atta9 to a full k & appreciation ( ! ,*ri/ian doctr9e ( ,god4 ,at ! v be/1 ! k ( ! ,deity atta9$ ap>t f revelation seem$ to ! ,fa!rs to be1 9 comp>ison ) _! own c]ta9ty1 mis]ably vague & conjectural1 & !y are con/antly contra/+1 9 ! mo/ /rik+ & graphic way1 ! contradictory & unc]ta9 results to :i* ! philosoph]s atta9$ ) ! def9it5ess & consi/5cy ( ! already well-def9$ doctr9e ( ! ,*ri/ian *ur*4 ,to !m c]ta9ty 9 reg>d to k ( ,god c only come by means ( ! te/imony ( "o :o _h se5 & kn[n1#di & ?is te/imony !y are satisfi$ t !y f9d 9 two places *iefly--fir/1 9 ! te/imony ( ! ,prophets ( ! ,old ,te/am5t1 &1 second1 b 9 fact prim>ily1 9 ! life & words ( ,jesus ,*ri/1 ! ,^w4 ,( ! antiquity & reliability ( ?is fir/ s\rce--! ,prophets--!y 7 nev] tir$ ( talk+1 & !y 7 s confid5t ( ! necessity ( resort+ to x t !y develop$ _! fam\s !ory ( ! indebt$ness ( ,plato & ,ari/otle to ^? ,hebrew se]s = _! !ology4 ,f e po9t ( view1 !re=e1 concludes ,/4 ,ju/9 ,m>tyr1 x mu/ be se5 t 9 no o!r way ?an only f ! prophets1 :o tea* u by div9e inspiration1 is x at all possible to le>n any?+ conc]n+ ,god & ! true religion4#ej ,b ! *ief s\rce f :i* ! ,fa!rs drew t c]ta9ty :i* !y c\ld n f9d 9 ! demon/rations ( philosophy 0 9 ! tea*+ ( ! ,^w1 ,jesus ,*ri/4 ,god1 inde$1 z we h se51 is n an object ( sci5ce1 b ! ,son is wisdom & k & tru?1 & all else t has aff9ity !reto4 ,he is also susceptible ( demon/ration & ( description4#ea ,x is 9 ! inc>nate ,^w ( ,god t ! patri/ic writ]s f9d express$ all t man is able to compreh5d1 & all t he ne$s to "k 9 ?is pres5t _w1 ( ! ,div9e ,nature1 & x is ,8 words t confirm _! confid5ce 9 t innate op9ion ( ! exi/5ce ( ,god1 ( ! pres5ce ( :i* 9 e man !y 7 s sure4 ,! subject ( ! demon/ration ( ! exi/5ce ( ,god is spok5 ( at "s l5g? 9 sev]al places by ,/4 ,clem5t ( ,alex&ria1 & ) 8 position mo/ ( ! ,fa!rs agree 9 ! ma94 ,he reg>ds ! subject l>gely f an ,ari/otelian po9t ( view4 ,all k is d]iv$ f ,s5sation & ,und]/&+4 ,intellectual appreh5sion is fir/ 9 ! ord] ( nature2 b 9 our case1 & 9 relation to ourselves1 ,s5sation is fir/1 & ( ,s5sation & ,und]/&+ ! ess5ce ( k is =m$1 & evid5ce is common to ,und]/&+ & ,s5sation4#eb ,b %\ld any "o say t k is f\nd$ on demon/ration 7:i* dep5ds on prim>y & bett] kn[n pr9ciples1#ec be+ disc\rse agreeable to reason1 produc+ belief 9 po9ts disput$1 f po9ts admitt$#ed7 by a process ( reason+1 let him he> t fir/ pr9ciples are incapable ( demon/ration1 = !y are nei!r by art 7te*n71 :i* is practical solely1 & n !oretical1 nor by sagacity 7phronsis practical wisdom71 :i* is conv]sant ab\t objects :i* are susceptible ( *ange1#ee b are prim>y1 self-evid5t1 & indemon/rable4#ef ,?us ?is demon/ration by a process ( reason+1 ap>t f ,s5sation & ,und]/&+1 is only to syllogize2 = to draw ! prop] conclusion f ! premisses is m]ely to syllogize4 ,b to h also ea* ( ! premisses true is n m]ely to h syllogiz$1 b also to h demon/rat$1 s t if !re is demon/ration at all1 !re is an absolute necessity t !re be some?+ t is self-evid5t1 :i* is call$ prim>y & indemon/rable4#eg ,on ! basis ( ?is !ory ( k1 x is evid5t t ! usual argum5ts = ! exi/5ce ( ,god w\ld h b little weight4 ,= !y ei!r attempt to atta9 _! end by =mal ?\ght alone1 & ?us result 9 m]e syllogiz+2 or1 />t+ f valid en\gh premises1 !y try to ext5d ! conclusion beyond ! limits impos$ by ! laws ( demon/ration4 ,= ,/4 ,clem5t1 !n1 ,god is n appreh5d$ by ! sci5ce ( demon/ration4 ,if ! ,deity is to be kn[n1 !re mu/ be "s place 9 :i* a union ( ! mat]ial & =mal elem5ts ( demon/ration ( ,8 exi/5ce is to be f\nd4 ,?is he places 9 ! life & tea*+ ( ,jesus ,*ri/1 :o1 z ,god inc>nate1 furni%es ! evid5ce :i* is common to ,und]/&+ & ,s5sation1 & ?us translates ! ,inf9ite & ,ineffable into t]ms ( ! f9ite & compreh5sible4 ,9 ?is p>adox ,*ri/ian !ology has ev] s9ce be5 cont5t to re/ z "o ( ! fundam5tal my/]ies ( ! ,fai?4 ,b ev5 ) all ! aids ( revelation1 ! ,fa!rs w\ld n claim t man c advance to a full or adequate k ( ,god--we c simply "k s mu* ab\t ,god z is necess>y = practical purposes--= asc]ta9+ our prop] end & duties4 ,god is1 f ! v limitations ( ! human m9d1 ineffable1 incompreh5sible1 ! unkn[n2#eh & ,/4 ,clem5t ( ,alex&ria expressly /ates ev5 ! be/ k ( ,god t man c by any means atta9 is only negative4#ei ,^! g5]al positions1 :i* 9 _! broad l9es are common to practically all ( ! ,ante-,nic5e ,fa!rs1 s]ve to confirm ! hi/orical int]pretation ( ! place occupi$ by e>ly ,*ri/ian !i/ic ?\ght1 & w pave ! way to an appreciation ( _! use ( ! argum5ts = ! exi/5ce ( ,god4 ,,footnotes3 #bh ,en*iridion1 #di4 #bi ,adv]sus ,grammaticos1 ,i1 #dd4 #cj ,hat*3 ,hibb]t ,lectures1 #ahhh1 ,lect4 ,,ii1 :]e a full acc\nt is giv5 ( ! education ( ! "t1 & :at x signifi$4 #ca ,i1 #g4 #cb ,philosophy & ,!ology1 p4 #afd4 #cc ,see e4g41 ,/4 ,ju/9 ,m>tyr3 ,dialogue ) ,trypho1 ,,ii4 #cd ,second ,apology1 ,,vi4 #ce ,dialogue ) ,trypho1 ,,iv 7end74 #cf ,/romata1 ,v1 #ad4 #cg ,aga9/ ,m>cion1 ,i1 #aj4 #ch ,resurrection ( ! ,fle%1 ,,iii4 #ci ,apology1 ,,xvii4 #dj ,aga9/ ,celsus1 ,,ii1 #dj4 #da ,treatise ,,vi1 #i4 ,see1 also1 ,t]tullian3 ,apology1 ,,xvii2 ,& ?is is ! cr[n+ guilt ( m5 t !y w n recognize ,"o ( :om !y _c possibly be ignorant4 #db ,aga9/ ! ,hea!n1 ,i4 #cc4 #dc ,dialogue ) ,trypho1 ,,iv1 ,ev5 ,hom] di/+ui%es simple see+ 7ide97 f noe91 :i* implies p]ception by ! m9d z consequ5t ^u sight4 #dd ,hortatory ,address to ! ,greeks1 ,v4 #de ,exhortation to ! ,hea!n1 ,,xi4 #df ,/romata1 ,,iv1 #be4 ,9 ,v1 #ab1 he expla9s :at he means by demon/ration3 ,nor any m is ,he appreh5d$ by ! sci5ce ( demon/ration1 = x dep5ds on prim>y & bett] kn[n pr9ciples4 ,b !re is no?+ antec$5t to ! ,unbegott54 #dg ,aga9/ ,celsus1 ,,vii1 #bj4 ,see also ,,vii1 #dd1 & ,clem4 ,alex43 ,/romata1 ,,ii1 ii1 #d1 & (t54 #dh ,e4g41 ,!ophilus 7,i1 #a1 #b7 replies to ! dem&3 ,%[ me ?y ,god1 by ! c\nt]-dem&3 ,%[ me y\rself1 & ,i w %[ y my ,god4 #di ,e4g41 ,/4 ,ju/93 ,hortatory ,address1 ,v4 #ej ,ibid41 ,,xxxviii4 ,see also ,v1 ,,viii1 & ,a!nagoras3 ,embassy1 ,,vii2 ,clem4 ,alex43 ,exhortion to ,hea!n1 ,,vi1 ,,xi2 ,/romata1 ,i1 #ac2 ,,ii1 #b1 #aa2 ,v1 #ad2 ,t]tullian3 ,apology1 ,,xviii2 ,me?odius3 ,miscellane\s ,fragm5ts1 #a4 #ea ,/4 ,clem4 ,alex43 ,/romata1 ,,iv1 #be4 ,= a few among _m ref]5ces1 see3 ,/4 ,ir5aeus3 ,aga9/ ,h]esies1 ,v1 i1 #a2 ,/4 ,clem4 ,alex43 ,exhortation to ,hea!n1 ,,xi2 ,in/ructor1 ,i1 #ab2 ,/romata1 ,i1 #e1 #ai2 ,,ii1 #b2 ,v1 #a1 #f1 #aa-ac2 ,,vii1 #a2 ,,vi1 #e2 ,t]tullian3 ,aga9/ ,m>cion1 ,v1 #af2 ,aga9/ ,praxeas1 ,,xiv2 ,orig53 ,de ,pr9cipiis ,i1 iii1 #a2 ,aga9/ ,celsus1 ,,vii1 #db1 #dd2 ,novatian3 ,de ,tr9itate1 ,,viii2 ,arnobius3 ,aga9/ ! ,hea!n1 ,i1 #ch4 #eb ,/romata1 ,,ii1 #d3 ek de ai/hses kai t\ n\ h ts epi/ms syni/atai ousia ko9on de n\ te kai ai/hses to en>ges4 ,! /ud5t ( ,kant's ,kritik d] ,re95 ,v]nunft w f9d a numb] ( famili> passages 9 ,/4 ,clem5t4 #ec ,ibid41 ,v1 #ab4 #ed ,ibid41 ,,viii1 #c4 #ee ,ibid41 ,,ii1 #d4 #ef ,ibid41 ,,viii1 #c4 #eg ,/romata1 ,,viii1 #c4 #eh ,e4g41 ,!ophilus3 ,to ,autolycus1 ,i1 #c2 ,/4 ,clem4 ,alex43 ,/romata1 ,v1 #ab4 #ei ,/romata1 ,v1 #ab3 ,if1 !n1 ab/ract+ all t belongs to bodies & ?+s call$ incorporeal1 we ca/ ourselves into ! greatness ( ,*ri/1 & !n advance into imm5sity by hol9ess1 we may rea* someh[ to ! conception ( ! ,almighty1 kn[+ n :at ,he is1 b :at ,he is n4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,patri/ic ,,use ,,( ,,! ,,!i/ic ,,argum5ts ,f ?is acc\nt ( ! g5]al attitude ( ! ante-,nic5e writ]s t[>d a possible k ( ,god1 x w readily be anticipat$ t ! =ms ( ! !i/ic argum5t us$ by ,plato & by ,ari/otle w f9d no place 9 _! sy/em4 ,/4 ,clem5t ( ,alex&ria1 9 a passage already ref]r$ to1#fj %[s t any ,ontological or ,idealogical argum5t c only lead u to an ,unkn[n1 :i* may be und]/ood & giv5 mean+ by ! ,^w alone t proce$s f ,him2 & he & o!rs ( ! e>ly ,*ri/ian writ]s seem to h9t at t di/9ction betwe5 ,epi/emology & ,ontology :i* has always be5 ! *ief enemy ( any purely rational !i/ic argum5t4 ,! ,aetiological argum5t1 too1 is n explicitly /at$ by !m2 &1 ?\gh ,lactantius does1 9 oppos+ a!i/ic atomism1 ask ! "q1 ,:5ce are ^? m9ute se$s8 yet ! casual "* ( ! inquiry %[s ! small emphasis he plac$ on x1 & ! sil5ce ( ! o!r writ]s1 ev5 :5 !re 0 e opportunity = call+ att5tion to su* an argum5t1 gives evid5ce to _! e/imate ( its usefulness4 ,x is ! m practical & common-s5se =ms ( ! !i/ic argum5t--! ,cosmological1 ! ,teleological1 ! argum5t f common cons5t1 & mixtures ( ^! types--t ! e>ly ,*ri/ian writ]s use mo/ frequ5tly1 & 9 ?is !y d b con=m to ! g5]al t5d5cy ( _! age1 z well z to ! practical _s ( ,*ri/ianity4 ,z we h se51 ! m artificial & ab/ract argum5ts ( ,plato & ,ari/otle did n take mu* hold ^u o!rs ?an _! orig9ators or =mulators1 & ! di/9ct t5d5cy ( ! !ology ( ! lat] ,greek & ,lat9 s*ools ( philosophy 0 t[>d ! m concrete =ms ( ! !i/ic argum5t4 ,& ?is incl9ation w\ld be emphasiz$ 9 ! e>ly ,*ri/ian writ]s1 s f> z !y make use ( ! argum5t at all1 by ! em95tly simple & common-s5se attitude ( ,*ri/ianity t[>d all su* problems1 & also by ! peculi> "w :i* ! primitive ,*ur* _h to d 9 ! conv]sion ( ! common p1 to :om an ab/ract argum5t w\ld h be5 a wa/e ( words4 ,b we %\ld expect t to m51 ^u :om a close p]usal & /udy ( ! ,old ,te/am5t ,scriptures _h impress$ ! idea ( ,god z ! ,creator1 ,law-,giv] & ,gov]nor ( ! univ]se1 ! ,cosmological argum5t w\ld appeal /rongly4 ,moreov]1 ! /rong ,/oic influ5ce :i* is se5 9 _! works1 p>ticul>ly 9 _! treatm5t ( que/ions ( morals1 & 9 _! e?ical t]m9ology1 w\ld naturally1 "o w\ld ?9k1 pre-dispose !m to reg>d ) favor ?is argum5t1 s 9 vogue among ! philosoph]s ( ! ,por*4 ,x is1 !re=e1 all ! m rem>kable t1 among ! important works ( ! ,ante-,nic5e ,fa!rs1 n m ?an a doz5 in/ances1 at mo/1 ( ?is argum5t c be f\nd2 & ( ^! m ?an half are m]ely pass+ ref]5ces to ! pat5t fact ( ord] 9 ! _w4 ,?us ,t]tullian ass]ts 7q incid5tally1 9 ! c\rse ( an argum5t on an e?ical "q71 t ,nature h]self is ! tea*] ( ! fact t ,god is ! ,mak] ( ! univ]se1#fa b ev5 "h x is d\btful :e!r he means to appeal to ord] or design 9 ! _w4 ,9 ano!r place he makes ! m]e /atem5t t ! fact ( ,god's exi/5ce is te/$ by ,8 works2 ,8 "* by ! b5efic5ce ( !m2#fb 9 ano!r t ! ,creator ought to be kn[n ev5 by nature2#fc & 9 /ill ano!r t nature tea*es all m5 ! exi/5ce & "* ( ,god4#fd ,orig5 9 a passage sometimes quot$1 appeals to ! ord] & h>mony ( ! _w1#fe b x is to prove ! unity ( ,god r ?an ,8 exi/5ce4 ,p]haps ! be/ & mo/ elaborate example ( ! use ( ! ,cosmological argum5t by ! ,ante-,nic5e au?ors1 is t made ( x by ,a!nagoras ! ,a!nian2 ,philosoph] & ,*ri/ian1 z he /yl$ himself4#ff ,he is conc]n$ ) mak+ a di/9ction betwe5 ,god & matt]1 9 opposition to ! popul> idolatry1 & decl>es t ,*ri/ians see ! ,fram] beh9d ! ord]ly _w--^: relation "o to ! o!r he lik5s to t betwe5 ! arti/ & ! mat]ials ( 8 art4 ,b z clay _c become vessels ( itself )\t art1 s nei!r did matt]1 :i* is capable ( tak+ all =ms1 receive ap>t f ,god ! ,fram]1 di/9ction & %ape & ord]4 ,& ^! few incid5tal & scatt]$ in/ances repres5t practically ! explicit use ( ! ,cosmological argum5t 9 ! writ+s ) :i* we are occupi$4 ,:5 we consid] h[ con/antly !y mu/ h met ) ! /atem5ts ( x :i* are preval5t 9 ! writ+s ( ! ,/oics1 by :om !y 71 we "k1 pr(\ndly influ5c$ 9 bo? ! =m & ! t]m9ology ( _! ?\ght1 we mu/ surely consid] ?is omission a significant fact1 = :i* x is wor? :ile try+ to acc\nt4 ,nor does ! ,socratic pro(1 ! argum5t to design1 meet ) any m cordial reception at ! h&s ( e>ly ,*ri/ian writ]s4 ,al?\gh ! cases 9 :i* x is us$ are g5]ally m explicit & fully develop$1 yet ! appeals to design 9 nature are few] ev5 ?an ^? to ord]4 ,! e>lie/1 & "o ( ! be/ examples ( ! use ( ?is argum5t is t made by ,!ophilus1 ,bi%op ( ,antio*1 9 8 "w address$ to ! idolat] ,autolycus4#fg ,he seeks to prove t ! invisible ,god is p]ceiv$ ?r\gh ,8 works4 ,z ! s\l is unse51 yet p]ceiv$ ?r\gh ! motion ( ! body2 z ! pilot is inf]r$ f ! motion ( ! %ip2 z ! k+1 ?\gh n pres5t 9 p]son1 is believ$ to exi/ f 8 laws1 ord9ances & au?orities2 s ! unse5 ,god is beheld & p]ceiv$ ?r\gh 8 provid5ce & works4 ,consid]1 ,o man1 ,8 works1 he exclaims2 & proce$s to enum]ate ! evid5ces ( design 9 ! univ]se--! timely rotation ( ! seasons1 ! regul> m>* ( ! />s1 ! v>i\s beauty ( se$s & plants & fruits1 & _m o!rs4 ,x is a passage ( consid]able beauty1 & evid5ces no mean rhetorical skill4 ,x is 9 ?is same connection--9 ! refutation ( idolatry--t ,/4 ,clem5t ( ,alex&ria uses ?is argum5t1 contra/+ ! liv+ organism ( man ) ! hea!n idols4#fh ,none ( ^! 7arti/s7 ev] made a brea?+ image1 or out ( e>? m\ld$ s(t fle%4 ,:o liquefi$ ! m>r[8 or :o solidifi$ ! bones8 :o /ret*$ ! n]ves8 :o di/5d$ ! ve9s8 :o p\r$ ! blood into !m8 or :o spread ! sk98 :o ev] c\ld h made eyes capable ( see+8 :o brea!d _s into ! lifeless =m8 :o be/[$ righte\sness8 :o promis$ immortality8 ,! ,mak] ( ! univ]se alone2 ! great ,arti/ & ,fa!r has =m$ u1 su* a liv+ image z man is4 ,b y\r ,olympian ,jove1 ! image ( an image1 greatly out ( h>mony ) tru?1 is ! s5seless "w ( ,attic h&s4 ,?is1 x w be readily se51 is m an attempt to %[ ! insuffici5cy ( idolatry to acc\nt = man's nature1 ?an a delib]ate attempt at !i/ic pro(4 ,! o!r examples ( ! use ( ?is =m ( ! argum5t = ! exi/5ce ( ,god are f\nd 9 ,lactantius1 ! ,*ri/ian ,cic]o4 ,9 speak+ ( ,socrates he introduces#fi ) approval an epitome ( ! ,a!nian sage's argum5t1 :i* we h already consid]$1#gj &1 9 combatt+ ! atomi/ic !ory ( ! orig9 ( ! _w1 he ass]ts#ga t nei!r atoms nor ! ,nature ( ,lucretius c acc\nt = ! adaptations 9 ! actual _w2 & ! ph5om5a ( m9d1 especially1 proclaim an intellig5t ,provid5ce4 ,8 treatise ,on ! ,workman%ip ( ,god1 or ! ,=mation ( ,man1 is almo/ entirely an argum5t to design f ! ph5om5a ( man's physical & m5tal nature4 ,f ! /&po9t ( ! physiology & psy*ology ( 8 "t1 he discusses 9 detail ! function & work+ ( ! diff]5t p>ts ( man's nature1 & f ! adaptation ( means to ends1 ( organs to _! functions1 :i*1 ev5 ) ! scanty data ( ! sci5ce ( t day1 is a /rik+ consid]ation1 he concludes t man's be+ c only be acc\nt$ = on ! supposition ( an ,arrang] or ,plann]1 ^: purposes are c>ri$ out 9 ex]cise ( ! v>i\s functions4 ,! argum5t e ,cons5su ,g5tium has (t5 be5 accr$it$ ) be+ peculi>ly ! patri/ic argum5t = ! exi/5ce ( ,god1#gb & = ?is conclusion ! use ( x 9 ,epicurean !ology1 & ! doctr9e ( ! natural1 innate idea ( ,god already consid]$1 w\ld fully prep>e u2 b ! fact is t1 ap>t f frequ5t pass+ ref]5ces to ! natural op9ion m5tion$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt]1 ! in/ances 9 :i* ! argum5t is explicitly made use ( are n mu* m num]\s ?an 9 ! case ( ! o!r =ms4 ,!y con/antly appeal to ! common cons5t1 b x is g5]ally aga9/ poly!ism1 z indicat+ a consci\sness ( ! unity ( ,god4 ,/4 ,ju/9 ,m>tyr1 9 ! passage to :i* we h already allud$1 ass]ts#gc ?is common cons5t1 b only z prep>atory to ! c]ta9ty :i* he f9ds 9 revelation4 ,/4 ,clem5t ( ,alex&ria1 aft] ass]t+ t ! ,fa!r & ,mak] ( all ?+s is appreh5d$ by all ?+s1 agreeably to all1 by innate p[]1 & )\t tea*+1 goes on to confirm 8 /atem5t 9 ?is mann]3#gd ,b no race any:]e1 ( till]s ( ! soil1 or nomads1 & n ev5 ( dwell]s 9 cities1 c live )\t be+ imbu$ ) ! fai? ( a sup]ior be+4 ,:]e=e1 e ea/]n nation1 & e nation t\*+ ! we/]n %ore2 or ! nor?1 & ea* "o t[>d ! s\?--all h "o & ! same preconception respect+ ,him1 :o ha? appo9t$ gov]nm5t2 s9ce ! mo/ univ]sal ( ,8 op]ations equally p]vade all4 ,x is ) ! pr9ciples & end ( ?is argum5t 9 view t ,t]tullian appeals#ge to ! witness ( ! s\l1 n z :5 fa%ion$ 9 s*ools1 tra9$ 9 libr>ies1 f$ 9 ,attic academies & porticoes1 b rude1 uncultur$ & untaught1 su* z !y h !e :o h !e only2 t v ?+ ( ! road1 ! /reet1 ! work%op :olly2 & f 8 exam9ation ( ?is ord9>y s\l he concludes t ! k ( our ,god is possess$ by all4#gf ,m9ucius ,felix appeals to ?is same common in/9ct & exclaims3#gg ,:at6 is x n true t ,i h 9 ?is matt] ! cons5t ( all m58 & ,orig51 9 8 reply to ! attack ( ,celsus1 po9ts to ! in]adicable idea ( ,him4#gh ,novatian ass]ts#gi t ! :ole m9d ( man is consci\s ( ,him1 ev5 if does n express itself1 & ,lactantius ?9ks t = ,cic]o x 0 no difficult task1 inde$1 to refute ! falsehoods ( a few m5 :o ent]ta9$ p]v]se s5tim5ts by ! te/imony ( communities & tribes1 :o on ?is "o po9t _h no disagreem5t4#hj ,besides ^! in/ances 9 :i* ! diff]5t types ( ! !i/ic argum5t are us$ 9 an undevelop$1 b yet 9 a pure =m1 !re are sev]al places :]e a mix$ =m appe>s1 ! diff]5t conv5tional processes be+ us$ 9 comb9ation )\t be+ cle>ly diff]5tiat$4 ,?us ! argum5t f common cons5t & ! argum5t bas$ on ord] or design are us$ 9 conjunction1 ! necessity ( ! univ]sal k ( ,god's exi/5ce be+ se5 f ! witness to ,him f\nd 9 nature4#ha ,s1 too1 ! argum5ts f ord] & f design 9 nature are (t5 us$ 9 conjunction1 & 9 _m passages x is difficult to decide to :i* "o ( ^! two ! au?or int5ds to appeal prim>ily4#hb ,^! undiff]5tiat$ or mix$ argum5ts are q frequ5tly to be se5 9 ! patri/ic writ+s1 & s]ve to illu/rate ! eclectic "* ( _! ?\ghts1 (t5 pres5t+ 9 "o passage ! =ms ( ! !i/ic argum5ts peculi> to two oppos$ s*ools 9 ,greek philosophy2 & !y also indicate h[ incid5tally & navely ! ,fa!rs us$ su* weapons1 n tak+ ! tr\ble to diff]5tiate "o =m f ! o!r1 ?\gh !y c\ld n h be5 ignorant ( su* di/9ctions4 ,! fir/ ?+ t /rikes "o's att5tion 9 ?is exam9ation ( ! use ( ! !i/ic argum5t 9 ! e>ly ,*ri/ian writ]s is1 z has be5 indicat$1 ! paucity ( examples4 ,:5 we consid] ! emphasis laid ^u ?is subject 9 ! contemporane\s philosophical s*ools2 ! con/ant appeal to "o =m or ano!r ( ! argum5t by ,/oic & ,epicurean alike2 ! v>i\s comb9ations & adaptations made by ,eclectics & ,syncreti/s2 ! use ( su* mat]ial 9 ! ex]cises ( ! rhetorical in/ruction !n s prom95t 9 education2 x w\ld seem t a weapon s ready to _! h& mu/ h be5 seiz$ ^u by ! ,fa!rs1 & made full use ( = ! advancem5t ( ! cause 9 :i* !y 7 enli/$4 ,& ?is sil5ce on _! "p _c be due to ignorance ( :at _h be5 writt5 on ! subject1 or ( :at 0 go+ on 9 ! _w ab\t !m4 ,! patri/ic writ+s %[ ! ke5e/ int]e/ 91 & fulle/ k ( :at m5 7 ?9k+ ab\t 9 ! outside _w z well z )9 ! ,*ur*4 ,_m ( ! ,fa!rs1 z we h _h occasion to notice1 _h be5 tra9$ 9 ! philosophical s*ools1#hc & %[ !mselves fully conv]sant n only ) su* subjects1 b ) poetry & g5]al lit]ature z well4#hd ,9 ! c\rse ( _! education1 z well z 9 _! read+1 !y mu/ h become fully acqua9t$ ) all ! =ms ( ! !i/ic argum5t4 ,& ?is k !y _h e opportunity to use4 ,_m ( _! works t h come d[n to u are ei!r apologies or else answ]s to critics ( ,*ri/ianity1 :o attack$ its doctr9es f ! /&-po9t ( ei!r poly!ism or a!ism4 ,9 ma9ta9+ ! ,*ri/ian doctr9e ( ,god aga9/ ^! oppon5ts1 ! !i/ic argum5t w\ld seem to be a mo/ natural weapon = "o :o 0 confid5t ( its validity4 ,b ! fact is1 t 9 mo/ ( ^! apologies no su* reason+ is employ$1 & ev5 :5 x is to be f\nd 9 _! pages1 is only incid5tal & by way ( illu/ration1 to expla9 ! rational "* ( ! ,*ri/ian doctr9e ( ,god by a sort ( argum5tum ad hom9em4 ,"o reason = ?is neglect ( ! !i/ic argum5t may be readily f\nd 9 ! subject-matt] ( ! treatises !mselves4 ,almo/ exclusively ) ! e>li] ,fa!rs1 z we h se51 & v l>gely ) _! successors1 ! emphasis 0 laid on life1 r ?an on ?\ght1 & ! appeal 0 to au?ority r ?an to reason4 ,m5 7 ask$ to judge ( ,*ri/ianity by its fruits1 & to receive ! fai? :i* x pr(ess$1 n because ( its rational demon/ration1 b because ( ! au?ority ( ,him :o promulgat$ x4 ,! p]sons to :om ! argum5ts 7 address$1 too1 expla9 mu* ( ! sil5ce ( ! ,fa!rs4 ,to ! ,jew or religi\s ,g5tile x w\ld be sup]flu\s to address elaborate argum5ts to prove ! exi/5ce ( ,god1 & x 0 to ^! classes t _m ( ! works "u discussion 7 address$4 ,to !m ! argum5t1 su* z we frequ5tly f9d1 f ! ,old ,te/am5t types & prophecies1 or f ! sup]ior beauty & morality ( ! ,*ri/ian doctr9e & life1 tak+ = grant$ ! exi/5ce ( ,god1 0 :at ! case requir$4 ,& :51 z is v frequ5tly ! case1 !y address ! popul> idolat]s1 x is a negative argum5t to %[ ! unwor?9ess ( idol-wor%ip1 & ! sup]iority ( _! own doctr9e1 ( :i* !y naturally make use1 & n a !i/ic argum5t :i* w\ld h no significance to ^? :o 7 already too religi\s4 ,_m ( ! apologies ( ! e>ly ,*ur* 7 call$ =? by ! attacks :i* 7 made on ! ,*ri/ians by ! adh]5ts ( ! popul> religions4 ,! *>ges usually br\ght aga9/ !m 7 ^? ( a!ism1 because ( _! rejection ( ! gods ( ,greece & ,rome2 ( immorality1 because ( ! secrecy & my/]y ( _! meet+s1 & cannibalism1 because ( _! doctr9e ( ! p>tak+ ( ! ,body & ,blood ( ,*ri/ 9 ! ,eu*>i/4 ,9 refut+ ^! *>ges1 especially ! fir/1 no place 0 af=d$ = ! use ( a !i/ic argum5t1 b !y naturally exhibit _! belief 9 ,god z sup]ior to t ( _! accus]s1 & appeal to _! lives z ju/ify+ _! belief4 ,b aside f ^! cases 9 :i* ! !i/ic argum5t w\ld h be5 sup]flu\s1 !re are _m places 9 :i* x is conspicu\s = its abs5ce4 ,t !y _h o!r argum5ts besides ^? f scripture & au?ority1 & t !y believ$ 9 us+ !m :5 necess>y1 we h1 z we h se51 _m pro(s 9 _! writ+s4 ,_! position is well indicat$ by ,lactantius1 :o blam$ ,/4 ,cyprian = us+ a ,scripture argum5t to an unbeliev]1#he & we %all be oblig$ to look deep] ?an m]e ignorance or lack ( occasion to acc\nt = ! paucity ( cases 9 :i* !y use ! argum5t = ! exi/5ce ( ,god4 ,! fact is t ! hi/ory ( ,greek ?\ght _h %[n conclusively ! absolute futility ( any ef=ts to arrive at a c]ta9 pro( ( ! exi/5ce ( ,god by purely rational me?ods4 ,! attempts ( ea* s*ool to atta9 su* c]ta9ty 7 repudiat$ by _! successors1 & ev5 by _! contempor>ies2 & ! lat] trials--:i* ! religi\s in/9cts & aspirations ( m5 w\ld n p]mit !m to =ego1 ev5 :5 !y 7 sceptical ( obta9+ any valid & positive results--frequ5tly became1 in/ead ( a s9c]e seek+ aft] ,god1 m]e practice 9 ! art ( ,rhetoric4 ,& n only 0 x true t no "o ( ! =ms ( ! !i/ic argum5t br\ght conviction to any o!r m9d ?an t ( ! man :o reg>d$ x ) ! p>tial en?usiasm ( an orig9ator or =mulator1 b ev5 su* an "o 0 l$ to only ! mo/ vague & indef9ite results4 ,we h already se5 h[ ev5 ! be/ !ology ( ! ,greeks l$ to no?+ b a sort ( organiz$ or unifi$ poly!ism4 ,a vague1 fanciful fir/ cause ( physical ph5om5a1 a g5]al idea1 ab/ract$ out ( all cont5t1 s z to leave no mean+ = ! human m9d--:atev] ! imag9ation might make ( x--a me*anical1 magnetic =ce1 to :i* all motion might conv5i5tly be ref]r$2 a deifi$ pr9ciple ( ord]--& ^! held 9 conjunction ) ! popul> poly!ism1 & impregnat$ ) ! national pan!i/ic conceptions--0 all t ,greek philosophy c\ld (f] to ! high] religi\s aspirations ( ! educat$ man4 ,! op9ion ( ! ,greek m9d itself z to ! "* ( ! k ( ,god1 to :i* ! ?\ght ( _! race _h l$ !m at ! beg9n+ ( ! ,*ri/ian era 0 fitly express$ by ^? ,a!nians1 :o erect$ ne> ! ,areopagus ! alt> on :i* 0 writt51 ',to ! ,unkn[n ,god4'#hf ,! op9ion 7= 9 mo/ cases x did n am\nt to a conviction7 t !re 0 an ,unkn[n 7or ev51 z _m ?\ght1 an ,unkn[able7 ,div9ity ( "s sort1 :i* might acc\nt = ! ph5om5a ( ! _w1 & :i* might be ! tru? beh9d ! vag>ies ( ! an?ropomorphic poly!ism1 0 z f> z ,greek ?\ght _h l$ m5 at ! p]iod ) :i* we h to d4 ,_! !os 0 really no?+ m ?an ,mr4 ,h]b]t ,sp5c]'s ,unkn[able1--a my/]i\s =ce1 to :i* ev]y?+ 0 ref]r$ :i* c\ld n be acc\nt$ = on ! basis ( sci5tific pr9ciples4 ,n[ if ?is 0 ! case ) ! adh]5ts ( ! hea!n philosophical s*ools1 h[ mu/ ! realization ( ! pov]ty ( ?is result1 & ! di/ru/ ( ! means :i* l$ to x1 h be5 emphasiz$ by ! conv]sion ( individuals f !m to ,*ri/ianity4 ,x is a graphic picture :i* "s ( ! ,fa!rs pa9t = u ( _! eag] se>*1 9 ! diff]5t s*ools 9 turn1 = "s religi\s tru? :i* w\ld br+ ) x conviction2 ( _! disappo9tm5t & consequ5t despair & scepticism1 & !n ( ! satisfaction :i* !y _h f\nd = _! aspirations 9 ! tea*+ ( ,jesus ,*ri/1 :o1 !y 7 conv9c$1 0 ! v ,^w ( ,god4 ,view$ m]ely f ! hi/orical po9t ( view1 ?is process is full ( int]e/ z illu/rat+ t :i* 0 go+ on 9 _m m9ds t /opp$ at ! sceptical /age1 &1 = "o reason or ano!r1 nev] f\nd refuge 9 ! ,*ri/ian ,*ur*4 ,b = ^? :o did take ?is /ep1 _! =m] di/ru/ ( ! !i/ic argum5t1 z a basis = religi\s conviction1 mu/ h be5 greatly emphasiz$4 ,! contra/ betwe5 _! =m] scepticism z to man's ability to atta9 to any k ( ?+s beyond ! ph5om5al _w1 & _! pres5t fai? & conviction :i* _! belief 9 ! ,p]son ( ,*ri/ gave !m1 mu/ h made ! "p ( any su* means ( arriv+ at tru? z ! already discr$it$ !i/ic argum5t mo/ insignificant4 ,!y1 !mselves1 _h no ne$ = x4 ,all x _h be5 able to d = !m1 z = ^? to :om !y wrote1 0 to raise an aspiration :i* w\ld n d[n--to br+ !m to ! hypo!sis 7sub/itut$ = poly!ism1 n[ outgr[n7 ( an ,unkn[n ,god1 & !y felt t _! message to _! contempor>ies 01 l t ( ,/4 ,paul to ! ,a!nians on ,areopagus3 ,:om1 !re=e1 ye ignorantly wor%ip1 ,him decl>e ,i unto y4 ,x is ) ?is attitude 9 m9d1 ,i am conv9c$1 t we mu/ int]pret ! doctr9e1 s (t5 enunciat$ by ! e>ly ,*ri/ian writ]s1 b especially by ,/4 ,ju/9 ,m>tyr & ,/4 ,clem5t ( ,alex&ria1 ( ! p>tial1 fragm5t>y "* ( ! !ological tru? arriv$ at by ,greek philosophy4 ,!y h sometimes be5 *>g$ ) inconsi/5cy 9 ?us *>act]iz+ ! "w ( m5 f :om !y borr[$ s mu*1 b !y seem1 9 fact1 to h be5 rem>kably appreciative ( _! old ma/]s :5 we consid] ! position 9 :i* !y /ood4 ,9 fact1 !y seem to grant to ,greek philosophy all t its adh]5ts w\ld claim = x1 namely1 t1 by means ( ! argum5ts adduc$ by its diff]5t s*ools1 ! ,greeks _h atta9$ to ! op9ion t !re 0 some?+ beh9d ! ph5om5a ( nature1 b ?is might z well be a transc5d5t =ce or a pan!i/ic _w-s\l z an imman5t ,god4 ,) ! ,apo/le on ,m>s' ,hill !y w\ld say t ! be/ !ology ( ! ,greeks simply put !m 9 a position t !y %\ld seek ! ,"l1 if haply !y might feel aft] ,him & f9d ,him4 ,& ea* ( ! ,greek s*ools1 !y w\ld say1 by re/+ _! case on "s "o ( ! v>i\s argum5ts1 & emphasiz+ "s "o ( ! attributes ( ! ,deity at ! exp5se ( ! o!rs1 _h atta9$ only a p>tial & inadequate view1 ?\gh true s f> z x w5t4 ,s9ce1 !re=e1 says ,/4 ,clem5t ( ,alex&ria1#hg tru? is "o 7= falsehood has t5 ?\s& by-pa?s72 j z ! ,bac*antes tore asund] ! limbs ( ,p5!us1 s ! sects bo? ( b>b>ian & ,hell5ic philosophy h done ) tru?1 & ea* vaunts z ! :ole tru? ! portion :i* has fall5 to its lot4 ,b all1 9 my op9ion1 are illum9at$ by ! dawn ( ,light4 ,^! m5 7 deeply appreciative ( ! "w ( ,greek philosophy s f> z x w5t--ev5 assign+ to x a place analog\s to ! ,hebrew ,scriptures#hh--;b !y always attribute to x a di/9ctly propdeutic (fice1 & are c>eful to emphasize its failure to lead to any firm & positive conviction ( ! exi/5ce ( ,god4 ,t ?is 0 ! position ( ! e>ly ,*ri/ian philosoph]s might be %[n by _m passages1 b we w cont5t ourselves ) "o example f ! pages ( ,/4 ,clem5t ( ,alex&ria1 :o assign$ to ,greek philosophy a high] place ?an any ( ! patri/ic writ]s--s mu* s t 8 or?odoxy has frequ5tly be5 que/ion$ because ( x4 ,he is fond ( designat+ ! k ( ,god to :i* ! ,greeks _h atta9$ by ! t]m p]iphrasis4 ,?us he concludes#hi an argum5t f common cons5t1 already quot$1 9 ^! words3 ,mu* m did ! philosoph]s among ! ,greeks1 devot$ to inve/igation1 />t+ f ! ,b>b>ian philosophy1 attribute provid5ce to ! 'invisible1 & sole & mo/ p[]ful1 & mo/ skilful & supreme cause ( all ?+s1 mo/ beautiful2'--n kn[+ ! influ5ces f ^! tru?s1 unless in/ruct$ by u1 & n ev5 h[ ,god is to be kn[n naturally1 b only1 z we h already (t5 said1 by a true p]iphrasis4 ,! m5 ( highe/ repute among ! ,greeks knew ,god1 n by positive k1 b by indirect expression 7p]iphrasis74#ij ,! indef9ite & m]ely probable "* ( ! results :i* ! ,fa!rs ?9k 7 rea*$ by ! !i/ic argum5t 9 ,greek ?\ght expla9s to u ! few examples ( ^! pro(s :i* we f9d 9 _! writ+s1 & ! c]ta9ty :i* !y ?\ght !y _h f\nd1 & _! consequ5t attitude t[>d all argum5ts ( ?is nature1 :i* we h tri$ to depict1 is ! key to ! explanation ( a new phase 9 ! hi/ory ( ?\ght :i* 0 to la/ = sev]al c5turies4 ,9 our exam9ation ( ^! examples ( ! !i/ic argum5t 9 ! ,fa!rs1 x _c escape our notice t !y occur mu* m frequ5tly1 & 9 m develop$ & conv5tional =m 9 ! ,we/ ?an 9 ! ,ea/--"u ! influ5ce ( ,rome ?an "u t ( ,alex&ria & ! ,ori5t4 ,! reason = ?is is n f> to seek1 & is "o t ?r[s light also on ! motive ) :i* ! patri/ic writ]s made use ( ^! argum5ts4 ,9 ,alex&ria & ! ,ea/ !re 0 no inc5tive = ! ,*ri/ians to try to prove ! exi/5ce ( ,god1 = ! philosophy ( t portion ( ! _w 0 ess5tially religi\s 9 its "*1 & bas$ its speculation on ! exi/5ce ( ,god z a fundam5tal po/ulate ( revelation & ( reason z well4 ,9 ! comb9ation ( ,judaism & ,hell5ic philosophy made by ! ,hell5iz+ ,jews & by ! ,judaiz+ ,hell5es1 ! exi/5ce ( ,god 0 admitt$ q z freely1 & ma9ta9$ q z zeal\sly1 z by ! ,*ri/ians !mselves1 & ev5 ! incipi5t ,neo-,platoni/s made no qu>rel ) !m on ?is gr\nd4 ,s we f9d t ! ref]5ce 9 ! ,alex&rian & o!r ,ea/]n ,fa!rs are ma9ly ( ! "* ( examples & illu/rations z to pr9ciples t are well und]/ood & admitt$1 & are employ$ *iefly = ! purpose ( refut+ idolatry by a di/9ction betwe5 ,god & matt]1 or ( prov+ ! unity ( ,god 9 opposition to ! /ill lat5t poly!ism4 ,"u ! influ5ce ( ,rome1 h[ev]1 o!r t5d5cies came 9 to give a r diff]5t significance to ! !i/ic argum5t4 ,= ,rome _h become ! *ief c5t] ( ! lat] s*ools ( ,greek philosophy1 & "u ! %ad[ ( ! sev5 hills r ?an 9 ! ,a!nian groves & porticoes 7 f\nd ! disciples ( ,pyrrho1 ( ,z5o & ( ,epicurus4 ,?us1 v naturally1 :]ev] ,roman civilization 0 dom9ant ! tea*] ( ,*ri/ian doctr9e 0 oblig$ to pres5t 8 subject ) ref]5ce to ! =ces already at "w 9 ! m9ds ( ^? :om he address$4 ,9 accordance ) ?is1 we f9d1 fir/1 a negative influ5ce 9 ! ho/ile attitude assum$ by ! ,sceptics & memb]s ( o!r s*ools :o t5d$ t[>d _! position1 t[>d any religi\s k4 ,t ?is influ5ce is n an imag9>y "o may be se5 especially 9 ! in/ance already quot$ f ,lactantius1 ^: use ( ! !i/ic argum5t is call$ =? by ! cavils ( ,sceptics & a!i/ic atomi/s4 ,b !re 0 also a positive influ5ce at "w to facilitate ! use ( ! !i/ic argum5t by ! ,we/]n ,fa!rs 9 ! preval5ce at ,rome ( ,/oic & ,epicurean doctr9e4 ,f ! =m] ( ^! s*ools w\ld result a famili>ity1 &1 9 _m cases1 an agreem5t ) ! =ms ( ! argum5t drawn f ord] & design2 f ! latt]1 = ! demon/ration f common cons5t4 ,bo? ( ^! influ5ces1 no d\bt1 _h "s influ5ce on ! %ape 9 :i* ,t]tullian ( ,c>?age1 ,m9ucius ,felix1 ,novatian & ,lactantius pres5t$ _! doctr9e1 &1 toge!r ) ! m mat]ial & less religi\s "* ( ! ,we/1 acc\nts 9 l>ge degree = ! comp>ative frequ5cy ( _! appeal to ! !i/ic argum5t4 ,b :5 we consid] ! frequ5cy ) :i* we meet ) ! !i/ic argum5t1 & ) ref]5ce to its use 9 o!r writ]s1 9 ! pages ( ,cic]o1 = example1 ^! scanty in/ances af=d$ u by ! writ+s ( ! ante-,nic5e ,fa!rs1 ^: works occupy1 say1 #d1ejj l>ge1 closely-pr9t$ pages 9 ! translation1 & :o 71 let u rememb]1 deal+ exclusively ) religi\s ?\ght1 indicate pla9ly a fundam5tal *ange 9 position1 ! influ5ce ( :i* 0 op]ative = c5turies 9 ?is dep>tm5t ( ?\ght1 & :i*1 ev5 to-day1 gov]ns ! attitude ( ! great] "p ( ! ,we/]n _w4 ,! absolute failure ( ! ,greeks to arrive at any c]ta9ty ( ,god's exi/5ce by demon/ration1 ! introduction ( ! ,*ri/ian doctr9e ( ,god1 be=e :i* ! d$uctions ( ,greek philosophy seem empty & unsatisfactory1 ev5 to _m :o _c accept t doctr9e z tru?1 & ! sub/itution ( fai? 9 a ,p]son = purely rational pro(1 r5d] x impossible1 s long z t fai? cont9ues1 t any "o %\ld ?9k x wor? :ile to devote m ?an a pass+ notice to any su* argum5t1 unless = ! purposes ( an argum5tum ad hom9em4 ,& s x is n until fai? beg9s to gr[ cold & m5 become m]e speculators & debat]s ab\t religion1 r ?an believ]s 9 ,*ri/1 t ! revival ( ^! argum5ts "u ! title ( pro(s is possible4 ,ev5 ! fam\s ,ontological ,argum5t ( ,/4 ,anselm 01 ,i am conv9c$1 no s]i\s attempt to =mulate an a priori pro( ( ! exi/5ce ( ,god1 b 0 address$ to a p>ticul> case#ia--! fool :o said 9 8 he>t1 ',!re is no ,god1' & :o also ma9ta9$ t ,god 0 t ?an :i* no great] c be ?\ght4 ,f ?is survey x w be se5 t1 9 ! view ( ! ,ante-,nic5e ,*ri/ian au?ors1 ! !i/ic argum5t 0 valuable m]ely z a propdeutic to ,*ri/ianity1 b 0 sup]flu\s = ! believ] 9 ,jesus ,*ri/2 ! use ( x _c1 z x _h n 9 ,greek ?\ght1 br+ pro(1 b only probability2 ev5 ?is unc]ta9 result is only vague & fragm5t>y 9 "*1 & 0 nev] unifi$ & made significant by ! ,greeks2 its (fice 9 ,*ri/ian evid5ces 0 m]ely ( an ad hom9em sort1 & ?is only 9 its simpl] & m practical =ms1 9 :i* ! s5ses z well z reason _h _! te/imony to be>2 &1 la/ly1 ! argum5t 0 us$ mu* m frequ5tly by ! ,we/]n ?an by ! ,alex&rian & o!r ,ea/]n ,fa!rs4 ,,footnotes3 #fj ,/romata1 ,v1 #ab4 #fa ,de ,spectaculis1 ,,ii4 #fb ,aga9/ ,m>cion1 ,i1 #ag4 #fc ,ibid41 ,v1 #af4 ,?is is to ju/ify 8 doctr9e ( ! puni%m5t ( ! hea!n4 #fd ,scapula1 ,,ii4 #fe ,aga9/ ,celsus1 ,i1 #bc4 #ff ,plea = ! ,*ri/ians1 ,,xv1 ,,xvi4 #fg ,i1 #e & #f4 #fh ,exhortation to ! ,hea!n1 ,x4 #fi ,div9e ,in/itutes1 ,,iii1 #bj4 #gj ,*ap4 ,,ii4 #ga ,treatise on ! ,ang] ( ,god1 ,x4 #gb ,e4g41 ,/irl+3 ,philosophy & ,!ology1 p4 #agi4 #gc ,trypho1 ,,iii1 ,,iv4 #gd ,/romata1 ,v1 #ad4 #ge ,! ,s\l's ,te/imony1 ,i4 #gf ,( ! ,resurrection ( ! ,fle%1 ,,iii4 #gg ,octavius1 ,,xviii4 #gh ,aga9/ ,celsus1 ,,ii1 #dj4 #gi ,de ,tr9itate1 ,,viii4 #hj ,div9e ,in/itutes1 ,i1 #b4 #ha ,e4g41 ,ir5aeus3 ,aga9/ ,h]esy1 ,,ii1 #i1 #a2 ,t]tullian3 ,aga9/ ,m>cion1 ,i1 #aj2 ,orig53 ,de ,pr9cipiis1 ,i1 #c1 #a2 ,t]tullian3 ,apology1 ,,xvii2 ,lactantius3 ,div9e ,in/itutes1 ,i1 #b4 #hb ,e4g41 ,m9ucius ,felix3 ,octavius1 ,,xvii1 ,,xviii2 ,novatian3 ,de ,tr9itate ,,viii2 ,dionysius ! ,great3 ,fragm5ts1 ,,ii1 #a4 #hc ,e4g41 ,ju/91 9 ,philosoph]'s g>b1 prea*$ ! ^w ( ,god4 ,eusebius1 ,,iv1 #aa4 #hd ,! m]e li/ ( ,greek au?ors quot$ by ,/4 ,clem5t ( ,alex&ria occupies ov] f\rte5 qu>to pages 9 ,fabricius' ,biblio!ka ,graeca4 #he ,div9e ,in/itutes1 ,v4 #d4 #hf ,acts1 ,,xvii1 #bc4 #hg ,/romata1 ,i1 #ac4 #hh ,e4g41 ,/romata1 ,,vi1 #e3 ,! "o & only ,god 0 kn[n by ! ,greeks 9 a ,g5tile way1 by ! ,jews ,judaically1 & 9 a new & spiritual way by u4 ,9 ,i1 #e1 he says3 ,= ?is 7philosophy7 0 a s*oolma/] to br+ ! ,hell5ic m9d1 z ! law ! ,hebrews1 to ,*ri/4 #hi ,/romata1 ,v1 #ad4 #ij ,ibid41 ,,vi1 #e4 ,see also1 e4g41 ,i1 #ai2 ,v1 #ac4 #ia ,see ,/irl+3 ,philosophy & ,!ology1 p4 #ce4 ,,*apt] ,v ,,eclectic ,,!ism ,! e>ly ,*ri/ian writ]s1 s f> z !y assum$ any philosophical position1 7 inv>iably ,eclectics4 ,9 ?is1 z we h se51 !y 7 ! true *ildr5 ( _! age1 ^: mo/ /rik+ *>act]i/ic 0 t x _h des]t$ ! old] sy/ems1 :ile attempt+ to pres]ve out ( _! ru9s ! p>ticul> tru? = :i* ea* ( ! s*ools _h cont5d$4 ,b ) ! ,*ri/ian philosoph]s x 0 n m]ely ! negative influ5ce ( scepticism :i* drove !m to ,eclecticism4 ,_! conviction ( a sure k ( ?+s div9e--! f9al "q = all philosophy--ex]t$ a positive influ5ce z well1 :i* l$ !m to =mulate m or less explicitly a view ( ! function ( philosophy z an organon ( ! tru?1 n m]ely ) ref]5ce to ! pa/ hi/ory ( ,greek ?\ght1 z _! contempor>ies outside ( ! ,*ri/ian ,*ur* 7 accu/om$ to d1 b ) a view to all possible speculation on ! ,deity4 ,= ?is deposit ( reveal$ tru?1 to :i* !y gave ass5t z ! mo/ c]ta9 ( all k1 !y reg>d$ z ! :ole tru?1 ( :i* ! v>i\s speculations ( philosophy on ! exi/5ce & attributes ( ,god1 7 b portions & fragm5ts--true & tru/wor?y s f> z !y w5t1 & f _! own p>ticul> /&po9t1 b1 nev]!less1 ess5tially & necess>ily p>tial1 & h5ce productive1 n ( c]ta9ty1 b ( m]e op9ion4 ,& ?is e/imate ( ! function ( philosophy ) respect to !ological tru?1 :i* ! ,fa!rs work$ out on ! basis ( ! concrete example ( ! c\rse ( ,greek ?\ght1 ?\gh ) a view to a mu* wid] application1 has its ju/ification 9 ! v nature & conditions ( ?\ght itself4 ,= philosophy is ess5tially a process--its v life dep5ds on its be+ 9 motion1 9 process ( *ange & developm5t4 ,ea* sy/em is evolv$ out ( its pr$ecessors1 & conta9s )9 itself ! g]ms ( its successors--x is ! l9k :i* connects ! pa/ ) ! future4 ,x expresses ! common-s5se1 ! unconsci\s convictions & in/9ctive t5d5cies ( ! "t1 & ! man :o fir/ gives voice to ?is unspok5 message is ! philosoph]4 ,he utt]s ! tru? :i* ! times dem&--t :i* satisfies ! conditions4 ,?us ) ,pr(essor ,erdmann#ib ! patri/ic writ]s w\ld say t ea* /atem5t ( philosophical tru? is ! f9al tru? only = t "t4 ,x is ! phase or aspect or p>ticul> /atem5t ( ! tru? :i* ! times dem&1 :i* ! situation calls =?1 & :i* appeals mo/ /rongly to ! m9ds t make up "p ( t situation4 ,*ang$ conditions dem& a diff]5t /atem5t ( ! tru? to satisfy !m1 & furni% ! data ^u :i* su* a /atem5t is bas$4 ,philosophy1 l sci5ce1 does n really accumulate1 b is entirely trans=m$ by ea* fre% hypo!sis4 ,x is only ! data t accumulate2 & :5 we say t a new hypo!sis is 'tru]' ?an t :i* prec$$ x1 we mean m]ely t x enables u to co-ord9ate a l>g] numb] ( ^! data4#ic ,& ?is trans=mation takes place1 9 reality1 n only by addition1 b by subtraction ( data4 ,= x is a ph5om5on common to ! ?\ght ( all ages1 t ea* s*ool n only calls att5tion to new data1 ignor$ by its pr$ecessor1 b also %uts its eyes to m or less ( ! valid data set =? by ! e>li] sy/em4 ,9 no p]iod ( ! hi/ory ( ?\ght 7 m5 m commonly l$ into ab/ractions by be+ dazzl$ by ! brilliancy & novelty ( ! late/ idea ?an 9 ! pione] age repres5t$ by ,greek philosophy1 :5 m5 _h n yet atta9$ to a cle> p]spective1 & ! foot-hills (t5 hid ! l(ty m\nta9 peak4 ,x is ?is trait1 s evid5t 9 ! nave ?\ght ( ! ,greeks1 t makes x possible = ! e>ly ,*ri/ian ?9k]s to take ! attitude1 at once appreciative & critical ) reg>d to ! ,hell5ic !ology4 ,!y borr[$ mu*1 n only f ! =m1 b also f ! results ( ! speculations ( ! philosoph]s1 b always ) a deep s5se ( ! limitations :i* ! conditions impos$ ^u !m4 ,socrates1 ,plato1 ,ari/otle & ! re/ _h spok5 ! tru?1 b ea* only f "o po9t ( view1 & on ! basis ( only "o me?od ( approa*4 ,! conclusions ( ea* 7 ! result ( a process ( m or less complete ab/raction1 & 9 ab/ractions ! ,fa!rs1 true to ! g5ius ( ,*ri/ian ?\ght1 c\ld nev] re/ cont5t1 b c\ld only accord to !m ! appreciation :i* belongs to a tempor>y & prelim9>y /age 9 ! se>* = ! f9al unity4 ,to ?is p>tial1 tempor>y1 relatively f9al1 & con/antly *ang+ cont5t1 ! reveal$ doctr9e ( ,god1 manife/$ 9 due relations1 unity & complet5ess by ! ,inc>nate ,^w1 /&s ) ! ,fa!rs z ! pr9ciple to ! p>ticul> rule or application--z ! :ole to ! "p4 ,z ! revelation ( ,god x came to !m1 n z ! result ( man's inve/igation & speculation1 color$ by e *ange ( "t1 place & environm5t1 a m]e mom5t>y phase ( a process2 b z et]nal v]ity1 view$1 s f> z man's p[]s w\ld all[1 9 its entirety & unity4 ,dorn] expresses _! position well :5 he says t 9 ,*ri/ianity z ! organism ( ! tru?1 ! elem5ts ( tru?1 else:]e "h & !re to be met ) 9 a scatt]$ =m or a disfigur$ guise1 come toge!r 9 unity--a unity :i*1 z x p]sonally appe>$ 9 ! ,god-,man1 s 9 ! c\rse ( hi/ory ev] m & m rises ^u ! consci\sness ( mank9d4 ,! ,fa!rs ?9k t 9 ! ,*ri/ian doctr9e ( ,god !y f9d all ! true elem5ts contribut$ by previ\s ?\ght1 & besides ^! an inf9ite dep? ( tru? un?\ght ( by ! ,greeks1 all unifi$ & h>moniz$ 9 a way t makes x a %>p contra/ to ! fragm5t>y & ab/ract "* ( ! ,hell5ic !ology4 ,*ri/ian doctr9e repres5ts to !m ! /able1 absolute tru?1 s f> z x 0 reveal$ by ! ,inc>nate ,^w1 ! et]nal v]ities 9 _! complet5ess & unity1 s f> z man is able to compreh5d !m4 ,philosophy repres5ts ! phase or aspect ( ! tru? :i* ! conditions ( ?\ght at ! "t dem&s & emphasizes1 :i* w co-ord9ate ! data at pres5t 9 ! =egr\nd ( consci\sness4 ,?us !y conceive ( ! facts ( ,*ri/ian ,!ology z ! goal t[>ds :i* philosophy is 7(t5 unconsci\sly7 /riv+1 b at :i* x c nev] arrive )\t ! leap ( fai?4 ,once ?is leap is tak51 h[ev]1 ^! !ological v]ities become ! major factors 9 ! data to be co-ord9at$1 & philosophy & !ology come into t union & h>mony :i*1 9 ! eyes ( ! ,*ri/ian philosoph]s1 is _! normal relation4 ,?is ,eclectic attitude ( ! ,fa!rs1 & _! deprecation ( any ab/raction or p>tial /atem5t usurp+ ! place ( ! tru?1 expla9s to "s ext5t _! treatm5t ( ! !i/ic argum5t4 ,9 ! fir/ place x l$ !m to di/ru/ & reject any argum5t = ! exi/5ce ( ,god :i* proce$$ on ! basis ( reason alone1 ap>t f any cont5t furni%$ by s5sibility4 ,:ile ! ,fa!rs d n make any explicit & sci5tific di/9ction betwe5 ,epi/emology & ,ontology1 su* z has 9 mod]n times be5 ! bane ( any attempt$ natural !ology1 yet !y seem to h made a pretty con/ant practical sep>ation betwe5 ! two4 ,/4 ,clem5t ( ,alex&ria1 z we h se51 holds t by a me?od ( ab/raction ( specific *>act]i/ics we c arrive only at an ,unkn[n1 to :i* mean+ c be giv5 only by comb9+ ) ?is rational process "s cont5t furni%$ directly by ! s5ses or1 indirectly1 by te/imony1 & he fur!r /ates t ,god is n a subject = demon/ration--i4e41 ! sci5ce t dep5ds on prim>y & bett] kn[n pr9ciples--= fir/ pr9ciples are incapable ( demon/ration4#id ,?is position seems to be tacitly assum$ by ! patri/ic writ]s ?r\gh\t1 & ev5 :]e !y speak ( ,plato ) gratitude & admiration !y nev] seem to be at all incl9$ to make any use ( 8 ,idealogical argum5t or any?+ relat$ !reto4 ,!y seem to take a common-s5se /& = ! te/imony ( ! :ole man1 z well z = ! :ole tru?1 & to in/9ctively di/ru/ any rational concept 9 ! =mation ( :i* s5su\s cont5t _h be5 ignor$4 ,! ,eclectic "* ( ! patri/ic ?\ght is se5 also 9 ! frequ5cy ) :i* !y use ! diff]5t =ms ( ! !i/ic argum5t 9 conjunction1 or pres5t x 9 mix$ =ms4 ,! ,greek philosoph]s1 z we h se51 ea* select$ "s "o ( ! =ms ( ! argum5t1 & by means ( x1 attempt$ to e/abli% ! sort ( an ,ar*1 to :i* su* a c\rse ( reason+ w\ld lead1 ignor+1 or attack+ ! =ms 9 use by _! rival s*ool4 ,?us e>ly1 h[ev]1 z 9 mod]n times1 ,*ri/ian !ology1 9 contra/ ) ! attempts ( rational !ology1 began to emphasize ! int]dep5d5ce ( ^! diff]5t =ms ( ! !i/ic argum5t1 & ! cumulative "* ( _! evid5ce4 ,ea* "o ( itself c\ld br+ no conviction1 nor ev5 high degree ( probability1 & fur!rmore1 ev5 if all its claims be admitt$1 w\ld lead to a result f> %ort ( !ism--a m]e indef9ite fir/ cause1 an ,ar*itect ( ! univ]se1 etc4 ,ea* "o1 h[ev]1 adds its quota to a great cumulative argum5t1 :i*1 tak5 9 its entirety1 raises an exce$+ly high presumption1 :i* am\nts to moral ?\gh possibly n intellectual pro(4 ,&1 aft] all1 probability is ! guide ( life4 ,& ?is is all t ! ,fa!rs1 or ,*ri/ian apologi/s1 g5]ally1 w\ld claim = ! !i/ic argum5t4 ,x is a practical1 n a !oretical pro(1 & x is 9 ?is way t ! e>ly ,*ri/ian writ]s seem to reg>d x4 ,!y resort to x mo/ frequ5tly to %[ t ! ,*ri/ian doctr9e ( ,god is n contr>y to reason nor inconsi/5t ) ! nature ( ?+s1 & to demon/rate t su* a conception is dem&$ by man's v nature4 ,9 a ^w1 _! use ( ! argum5t is confirmatory & explanatory r ?an by way ( absolute pro( & demon/ration4 ,?is attitude t[>ds & use ( ! !i/ic argum5t1 s radically diff]5t f t ( ! ,greek philosoph]s1 p]petuat$ itself 9 ! po/-,nic5e lit]ature ( ! ,*ri/ian ,*ur*1 &1 9 its ma9 features1 rema9$ unalt]$1 until ! "t :5 m5 :o _h ab&on$ ! fai? 9 ! ,^w :i* _h be5 ! ma9 /ay ( ! ante-,nic5e writ]s1 & :o yet 7 unwill+ to ab&on ! great !i/ic idea = :i* ! _w 0 indebt$ to ,*ri/ianity alone1 s\ght to ju/ify ?is idea on ! basis ( reason4 ,x took ! scepticism ( a ,hume & ! criticism ( a ,kant1 & ! re-adju/m5t ( all _! foll[]s to br+ u back at ! close ( ?is n9ete5? c5tury into sub/antial agreem5t ) ! common-s5se e/imate plac$ ^u ! !i/ic argum5t by ! ante-,nic5e ,fa!rs4 ,,footnotes3 #ib ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy1 ,vol4 ,i1 #d4 #ic ,burnet3 ,e>ly ,greek ,philosophy1 p4 #be4 #id ,/romata1 ,,ii1 iv4 ,,vita4 ,! writ] 0 born ,april #bd1 #ahfi1 9 ,ann ,arbor1 ,mi*igan4 ,he att5d$ ! ,ann ,arbor ,public ,s*ools & ! ,ann ,arbor ,high ,s*ool4 ,9 #ahib he receiv$ ! degree ( ,a4 ,b4 f ! ,univ]sity ( ,mi*igan4 ,9 #ahie he graduat$ f ! ,g5]al ,!ological ,sem9>y1 ,new ,york1 & 0 aw>d$ ! degree ( ,b4 ,d41 :i* 0 =mally conf]r$ 9 accordance ) ! rules ( ! ,sem9>y "o ye> lat]4 ,9 #ahif1 he receiv$ ! degree ( ,a4 ,m4 f ! ,univ]sity ( ,mi*igan4 ,he pursu$ /udies 9 ,philosophy at ,h>v>d ,univ]sity dur+ ! fir/ t]m ( ! ye> #ahif-g1 & at ,columbia ,univ]sity f ,febru>y1 #ahig1 to ,febru>y1 #ahih4 ,he has be5 ! po/-graduate s*ol> ( ! ,*ur* ,univ]sity ,bo>d ( ,reg5ts f ,july1 #ahie1 to ! pres5t "t4