,transcriber's ,notes3 ,in the text1    
there are symbolic representations of   
lines of poetry4 ,where these occur1 u  
represents an unaccented syllable and -'
 indicates an accented syllable4 ,words 
in italics in the original are          
surrounded by underscores4 ,words in    
bold in the original are surrounded by  
plus signs4 ,more transcriber's notes   
follow the text4     ,,elementary       
,,guide ,,to ,,literary ,,criticism     
,,by  ,f4 ,v4 ,n4 ,,painter1 ,a4,m41    
,d4,d4  ,,professor ,,of ,,modern       
,,languages ,,in ,,roanoke ,,college    
,,author ,,of ,a ,,history ,,of         
,,education1 ,,history     ,,of         
,,english ,,literature1 ,,introduction  
,,to ,,american ,,literature1 ,,etc4    
,,boston1 ,u4,s4,a4 ,,ginn  ,,company1  
,,publishers ,the ,athenum ,press #aijc 
,,copyright1 #aijc ,,by ,f4 ,v4 ,n4     
,,painter   ,,all ,,rights ,,reserved   
,,preface   ,the aim of the present     
work1 as is indicated by its name1 is to
 help the young student in literary     

criticism4 ,it is a sort of laboratory  
manual1 in which he will find specific  
direction for a comprehensive analysis  
of the principal kinds of literature4   
,it is intended to show him the various 
points in relation to form1 content1 and
 spirit1 to which in succession he is to
 devote his attention4 ,it is hoped that
 the book will give definiteness and    
delight to literary study1 which1 for   
lack of such a guide1 has so often been 
vague1 unsatisfactory1 and discouraging4
  ,a glance at the table of contents    
will clearly reveal the plan4 ,the work 
is divided into three parts1 the first  
of which treats of fundamental          
principles4 ,in three chapters the      
nature of criticism1 the relation of the
 author to his work1 and the sthetic    
principles underlying literary art are  
briefly discussed4 ,the facts and       
principles here presented are designed  
to give a clearer and deeper insight    
into the nature and processes of        
criticism4  ,part ,second is chiefly    

concerned with the external elements of 
literature4 ,in three chapters it       
briefly discusses the diction1 the      
various kinds of sentences1 the use of  
figures of speech1 and the different    
species of style as determined partly by
 the nature of the discourse and partly 
by the mental endowments of the writer4 
,it is intended to embrace the          
rhetorical elements of form4  ,in ,part 
,third the leading kinds of literature  
are discussed1 and the general          
principles governing each are presented4
 ,special effort has been made to throw 
light upon the nature and structure of  
poetry1 fiction1 and the drama2 and it  
is hoped that the chapters in which     
these subjects are treated will be found
 particularly interesting and helpful4  
,each chapter is followed by a list of  
review questions and by illustrative and
 practical exercises4 ,the aim has been 
to prepare not merely a theoretical but 
especially a practical text-book1 for   
which1 it is believed1 there exists a   

felt and acknowledged need4 ,it is hoped
 that this little work will contribute  
in some measure to make literature one  
of the most delightful1 as it is surely 
one of the most important1 of all       
branches of study4                      
,f4 ,v4 ,n4 ,,painter4    ,,salem1      
,,virginia1     ,august #ae1 #aijc4     
,,contents   ,,part ,,first             
,,fundamental ,,principles    ,,chapter 
,,page       ,i4 ,,nature ,,and ,,office
 ,,of ,,criticism            #a         
,,ii4 ,,the ,,author ,,and ,,his ,,work 
#ai     ,,iii4 ,,some ,,sthetic         
,,principles                 #cd        
,,part ,,second  ,,rhetorical ,,elements
       ,,iv4 ,,words1 ,,sentences1      
,,paragraphs             #ee       ,v4  
,,figures ,,of ,,speech                 
#fh      ,,vi4 ,,style                  
#hd   ,,part ,,third  ,,kinds ,,of      
,,literature     ,,vii4 ,,nature ,,and  
,,structure ,,of ,,poetry           #ajc
   ,,viii4 ,,kinds ,,of ,,poetry        
#acj     ,,ix4 ,,epic ,,and ,,dramatic  

,,poetry                 #ade      ,x4  
,,nature ,,and ,,forms ,,of ,,prose     
#aef     ,,xi4 ,,essays ,,and ,,oratory 
#afg    ,,xii4 ,,nature ,,and           
,,classification ,,of ,,fiction     #agh
     ,,literary ,,criticism     ,,part  
,,first  ,,fundamental ,,principles     
,,chapter ,i  ,,nature ,,and ,,office   
,,of ,,criticism   #a4 ,purpose of      
,literary ,study4 ,the study or reading 
of literature ordinarily has a threefold
 purpose1--knowledge1 pleasure1 and     
culture4 ,this purpose shows us both the
 character of the literature which      
should be read and the manner in which  
it should be read4 ,as a rule we should 
read only books of recognized           
excellence1 and read them with          
sympathetic intelligence4 ,trashy books1
 whatever pleasure they may give1 add   
but little to knowledge or culture2 and 
immoral books often leave an            
ineradicable stain upon the soul4       
,fortunately there are good books enough
 to satisfy every taste and supply every

 need4  #b4 ,necessity of               
,comprehending4 ,a literary work cannot 
be of much use till it is understood4   
,it is useless to read books entirely   
beyond our grasp4 ,in the perusal of an 
author we should endeavor to enter as   
fully as possible into his thoughts and 
feelings4 ,our primary aim should be not
 to criticise but to comprehend4 ,this  
is sometimes1 especially for the young  
student1 a difficult task4 ,it requires 
patient1 painstaking labor2 but in the  
end it brings a rich reward in profit1  
enjoyment1 and power4  ,in the study of 
a literary classic we should aim at more
 than a mere intellectual apprehension  
of its technique and other external     
features4 ,the soul should rise into    
sympathy with it1 and feel its spiritual
 beauty4 ,all literary study that falls 
short of this high end1 however         
scholarly or laborious it may be1 is    
essentially defective4 ,the             
externalities of a piece of literature  
are comprehended in vain1 unless they   

lead to a fuller understanding and      
appreciation of its spirit and life4    
,unfortunately1 at the present time1    
philology and literary analysis         
frequently stop short of the realization
 of the supreme end of literary study4  
,what should be only a means is         
sometimes exalted to an end4  #c4       
,definition of ,criticism4 ,criticism1  
as its etymology indicates1 is the act  
of judging4 ,literary criticism         
endeavors to form a correct estimate of 
literary productions4 ,its endeavor is  
to see a piece of writing as it is4 ,it 
brings literary productions into        
comparison with recognized principles   
and ideal standards2 it investigates    
them in their matter1 form1 and spirit2 
and1 as a result of this process1 it    
determines their merits and their       
defects4 ,the end of literary criticism 
is not fault-finding but truth4 ,the    
critic should be more than a censor or  
caviler4 ,he should discover and make   
known whatever is commendable or        

excellent4 ,at its best1 criticism is   
not a mere record of general impressions
 but the statement of an intelligent    
judgment4 ,it is not biased or vitiated 
by prejudice1 ignorance1 or             
self-interest2 but1 proceeding according
 to well-defined principles1 it is able 
to trace the steps by which it reaches  
its ultimate conclusions4  #d4 ,history 
of ,criticism4 ,criticism is a natural  
attendant of all forms of art4 ,literary
 criticism is almost as old as          
literature itself4 ,no sooner had a     
writer produced a literary work1 even in
 the most ancient times1 than his       
contemporaries proceeded to express     
their judgments concerning it4 ,among   
the ancient ,greeks ,plato and          
,aristotle were both critics2 and the   
latter's work on ,poetics is still      
valuable for its discussion of          
fundamental principles4 ,quintilian1    
,cicero1 and ,horace were distinguished 
,roman critics2 and the poet's ,ars     
,poetica1 read in every college course1 

is an admirable presentation of many    
critical principles4 ,but it is in      
modern times1 and particularly during   
the nineteenth century1 that criticism  
received its highest development4 ,in   
,england not a few of its leading       
literary men--,dryden1 ,pope1 ,addison1 
,johnson1 ,coleridge1 ,jeffrey1         
,macaulay1 ,carlyle1 ,matthew           
,arnold--have been critics2 and in      
,america we meet with such honored names
 as ,poe1 ,emerson1 ,whipple1 ,lowell1  
,stedman1 and many others4 ,in recent   
years criticism has greatly gained in   
breadth and geniality4  #e4 ,standard of
 ,criticism4 ,all criticism involves    
comparison4 ,for every species of       
literature there is an ideal of form1   
content1 and spirit1 which serves the   
intelligent critic as a standard of     
judgment4 ,this ideal is based on a     
realization of the recognized principles
 of literary art4 ,these principles     
pertain to diction1 structure1 matter1  
and spirit or purpose4 ,no one will deny

 that the diction should be well chosen2
 that the structure of the sentences    
should be correct and clear2 and that1  
in the case of poetry1 the laws of      
versification should be observed4 ,these
 elements contribute to excellence of   
form4 ,in addition to these external    
elements there should be unity of       
thought1 symmetry of presentation1 truth
 of statement1 and sincerity and        
self-restraint in sentiment4 ,these     
elements give substantial worth to the  
matter or content of literature4        
,besides all this there is a grace or   
elegance or force1 proceeding from the  
personality of the writer and           
transcending all rules of art1 that     
gives a peculiar charm to the best      
literature4 ,sometimes the personal     
element or spirit of a work is so       
pleasing that it more than              
counterbalances defects of form1 and    
wins its way to the popular heart4  #f4 
,classic ,writers4 ,our classic writers 
are those who have most nearly          

approached the ideal4 ,the writings of  
,addison1 ,goldsmith1 ,irving1 ,lowell1 
and others1 embody in a high degree     
excellence of matter and form2 and in   
addition to this there is a pervading   
spirit that imparts an irresistible     
charm to their works4 ,while the works  
of no one writer1 whether ancient or    
modern1 can be taken as an absolute     
standard of judgment1 the perusal of    
classic works is exceedingly helpful4   
,these works familiarize us with what is
 excellent in thought1 expression1 and  
spirit4 ,they cultivate the taste2 and  
at length it becomes impossible for the 
student to be satisfied with what is    
incorrect1 slovenly1 tawdry1 or         
untruthful4  #g4 ,requisites of         
,criticism4 ,many things are required   
for the best criticism4 ,first of all1  
the critic ought to be a person of sound
 judgment4 ,it is in a measure true that
 critics1 like poets1 are born1 not     
made4 ,the critic should have the power 
to divest himself of prejudice2 and1    

like a judge upon the bench1 should     
decide every question by the law and the
 evidence4 ,he should be a man of broad 
sympathies and wide culture2 nothing    
that is human should be foreign to him4 
,he should be able to enter into the    
feelings of every class and to          
appreciate the principles of every      
school4 ,he should have a strong        
imagination to enable him to realize the
 conditions of other ages or of other   
social arrangements4 ,without these     
natural gifts of a sound judgment1 broad
 sympathy1 and vigorous imagination1 the
 critic is apt to be limited1 narrow1 or
 unjust in his criticism4 ,the history  
of literature reveals numberless        
critical blunders2 indeed1 almost every 
attempt to introduce new literary forms1
 as in the case of ,wordsworth1         
,coleridge1 and ,keats1 has met with    
bitter opposition from uncatholic       
critics4  #h4 ,criticism an ,acquired   
,art4 ,criticism is an art that may in  
large measure be acquired4 ,the         

requisite faculties may be developed by 
a course of study4 ,the principles that 
are to guide the critical judgment are  
provided in grammar1 rhetoric1 logic1   
sthetics1 and moral science4 ,wide      
reading in various departments will     
banish narrowness and provincialism4    
,study and experience will bring a      
cosmopolitan culture4 ,though few are   
capable of attaining to eminence as     
critics1 it is possible for every one to
 acquire some degree of literary taste  
and to form an intelligent judgment of a
 literary work4  #i4 ,diversity in      
,criticism4 ,diversity of judgment is a 
notable feature in the history of       
criticism4 ,it tends to shake one's     
confidence in the critical art4 ,it     
often happens that what one critic      
praises another condemns4 ,this fact has
 been presented by ,irving1 with        
delightful humor4 ,even the critics1 he 
says in the conclusion of the ,sketch   
,book1 whatever may be said of them by  
others1 the author has found to be a    

singularly gentle and good-natured race2
 it is true that each has in turn       
objected to some one or two articles1   
and that these individual exceptions1   
taken in the aggregate1 would amount    
almost to a total condemnation of his   
work2 but then he has been consoled by  
observing1 that what one has            
particularly censured1 another has as   
particularly praised2 and thus1 the     
encomiums being set off against the     
objections1 he finds his work1 upon the 
whole1 commended far beyond its deserts4
  #aj4 ,sources of ,diversity4 ,this    
diversity of literary criticism1 which  
at first sight tempts us to question the
 value of the art1 is easily traced to  
its causes4 ,these are found not in the 
nature of the art but in the manner of  
its application4 ,many reviewers        
nowadays do not take the pains to read  
the works they pass judgment upon4      
,their estimate is based on little more 
than a rapid survey of the preface and  
table of contents4 ,this fact renders a 

considerable part of current newspaper  
criticism comparatively worthless4 ,it  
is still worse when to this             
superficiality is added a flippant      
manner that seems intent on nothing but 
a display of the critic's smartness4    
,other critics write from the standpoint
 of a particular sect or school of      
thought1 and undervalue or overvalue a  
work through a partisan spirit4         
,defective or erroneous principles are  
used as standards of judgment4 ,still   
others are impressionists2 and instead  
of testing a work by recognized critical
 canons1 they simply record how it      
strikes them4 ,differences of taste and 
character naturally produce some        
diversity of view1 but in general the   
painstaking and impartial application of
 critical principles to a literary work 
will yield pretty uniform results4 ,the 
merits and defects of the work will be  
brought to light1 and conscientious and 
broad-minded critics will be found in   
the main to agree in their praise or    

their censure4  #aa4 ,utility of        
,criticism4 ,criticism is not1 as has   
sometimes been supposed1 a parasitic    
growth on literature4 ,it is a handmaid 
of literature2 it belongs to the        
household of literature4 ,though it does
 not deserve to rank with the great     
creative forms of literature1 such as   
the epic1 the drama1 or the novel1 it is
 capable of a high degree of excellence4
 ,some of the greatest ,english writers1
 as we have seen1 have been critics4    
,not a few of the critical essays of ,de
 ,quincey1 ,macaulay1 ,carlyle1 ,arnold1
 ,lowell1 and others1 have an honorable 
place in the literature of the          
,english-speaking world4  ,literary     
criticism has a distinct value for three
 classes of persons4 ,to the young      
student it gives a clear insight into   
literary form1 and cultivates his taste 
for literary excellence4 ,to the author 
it is at once a stimulant and wholesome 
restraint2 it rewards him for what is   
good and chastises him for what is bad4 

,to the public it is useful in pointing 
out what books are worth reading and in 
showing the principles by which a work  
is to be judged4 ,it elevates the       
popular taste and intelligence4  #ab4   
,materials of ,criticism4 ,all          
literature is1 in some sense1 material  
for criticism4 ,it may be examined1     
tested by critical laws1 and its worth  
estimated in the class to which it      
belongs4 ,but as a rule literary        
criticism is confined to literature in  
the narrower sense2 that is to say1 to  
literature that aims at artistic        
excellence4 ,this includes the various  
forms of poetry and the principal kinds 
of prose1--history1 oratory1 essays1 and
 fiction4 ,these various kinds of       
literature1 in their higher forms1 aim  
at presenting their subject-matter in   
such a way as to minister to the        
pleasure of the reader4  #ac4 ,molding  
,influences4 ,in criticising it is      
important to recognize certain general  
molding influences in literature4 ,among

 the most potent of these influences are
 race1 epoch1 and surroundings4 ,we     
cannot fully understand any work of     
literature1 nor justly estimate its     
relative excellence1 without an         
acquaintance with the national traits of
 the writer1 the general character of   
the age in which he lived1 and the      
physical and social conditions by which 
he was surrounded4 ,these               
considerations1 independently of        
specific critical canons that determine 
intrinsic excellence1 must be taken into
 account when the critic wishes to      
decide upon the relative value of a     
work4 ,it is evidently unjust to demand 
in writers of an uncultivated period the
 same delicacy of thought1 feeling1 and 
expression that is required in the      
writers of an age of refinement and     
intelligence4 ,the indecencies in       
,chaucer and ,shakespeare are to be     
attributed to the grossness of their    
times4  #ad4 ,the ,artistic ,element4   
,there is an artistic element in        

literature upon which the value of any  
work largely depends4 ,there is art in  
the choice and marshaling of words4     
,furthermore1 every department of       
literature--history1 poetry1            
fiction--has a separate and definite    
purpose4 ,in the successful realization 
of this purpose each species or form of 
literature must wisely choose its means4
 ,this conscious and intelligent        
adaptation of a means to an end is art4 
,apart from the careful selection and   
arrangement of words in sentences1 the  
historian chooses the incidents he will 
relate1 the order in which they will    
appear1 the relative prominence they    
will have1 and the symmetry and         
completeness of his whole work4 ,the    
novelist selects or invents his story1  
portrays from actual life or creates a  
number of characters1 constructs or     
modifies his plot1 and unfolds the      
movement toward a predestined end4 ,in  
all this there is a constant exercise of
 the creative faculty2 and the complete 

product is as much a work of art as is a
 painting or statue1 which requires the 
same sort of intellectual effort4  #ae4 
,matter and ,form4 ,in any literary     
production we may distinguish between   
the thoughts that are presented and the 
manner in which they are presented4 ,we 
may say1 for example1 ,the joys of      
heaven are infinite2 or1 ascending to a 
higher plane of thought and feeling1 we 
may present the same thought in the     
language of ,moore in his ,paradise and 
the ,peri3       ,go1 wing thy flight   
from star to star1       ,from world to 
luminous world1 as far         ,as the  
universe spreads its flaming wall2      
,take all the pleasures of all the      
spheres1       ,and multiply each       
through endless years1--         ,one   
minute of ,heaven is worth them all4    
,it is thus evident that the interest   
and worth of literature depend largely  
on the manner in which the thought and  
emotion are expressed4 ,in general the  
matter of discourse1 which aims at the  

communication of ideas1 is of more      
importance than the form4 ,words without
 thought1 no matter how skillfully and  
musically they may be arranged1 are     
nonsense4 ,but in the lighter sorts of  
prose1 which aim at entertainment1 and  
in poetry1 which is dependent on meter  
and harmony1 form is of preminent       
importance4 ,the story of ,rip ,van     
,winkle1 for instance1 owes its         
perennial charm to the inimitable grace 
and humor with which ,irving has told   
it4  ,there is a natural and intimate   
relation between matter and form2 one is
 the soul1 the other is the body4 ,form 
is not to be unduly magnified by itself2
 it is excellent only when it is a      
fitting embodiment of the thought and   
feeling expressed4 ,form should be      
molded by the thought and emotion1 as   
the rose or oak is shaped by the potency
 of its inner life4 ,when1 in any way1  
the form is out of keeping with the     
subject1 the effect upon a cultivated   
taste is a disagreeable incongruity4 ,in

 the language of ,horace1--       ,sad  
words befit the brow with grief         
o'erhung2       ,anger1 that fires the  
eyeball1 bids the tongue       ,breathe 
proud defiance2 sportive jest and jeer  
,become the gay2 grave maxims the       
severe4   ,,review ,,questions  #a4     
,what is the threefold object of        
literary study8 ,what kind of literature
 should be read8 ,why8 #b4 ,what should 
be our primary aim in studying an       
author8 ,what does this often require8  
,what should be aimed at besides outward
 form8 ,what mistake is frequently made8
 #c4 ,what is criticism8 ,what is the   
purpose of literary criticism8 ,how is  
this purpose accomplished8 ,what sources
 of error are mentioned8 #d4 ,what is   
said of the history of criticism8 ,name 
two ,greek critics4 ,who were the great 
,roman critics8 ,mention some           
distinguished ,english and ,american    
critics4 ,what is said of recent        
criticism8 #e4 ,what serves as a        
standard of criticism8 ,on what is this 

ideal based8 ,mention some elements of  
excellent form2 some elements of        
excellent content4 ,what is said of the 
personal element or spirit8 #f4 ,who are
 our classic writers8 ,why study classic
 works8 #g4 ,what natural gifts should a
 critic have8 ,why should he have broad 
sympathies8 ,what is said of critical   
blunders8 #h4 ,how is criticism an      
acquired art8 ,what is the advantage of 
wide reading8 ,what may every one hope  
to acquire8 #i4 ,what is said of        
diversity in criticism8 ,illustrate4    
#aj4 ,what are the sources of diversity8
 ,what is said of much newspaper        
criticism8 ,what is meant by            
impressionists8 ,what is said of        
painstaking and impartial criticism8    
#aa4 ,what is said of the relation of   
criticism to literature8 ,what of its   
rank8 ,for what three classes has it a  
special value8 ,how8 #ab4 ,what are the 
materials of literary criticism8 ,to    
what class of literature is it chiefly  
devoted8 #ac4 ,name three great molding 

influences4 ,why should they be         
considered8 ,illustrate4 #ad4 ,what is  
meant by the artistic element8 ,in what 
does the historian's art consist8 the   
novelist's8 #ae4 ,what may be           
distinguished in any literary           
production8 ,illustrate4 ,on what does  
the worth of literature largely depend8 
,which is the more important1 matter or 
form8 ,where is form specially          
important8 ,illustrate4 ,what is the    
relation of matter to form8 ,when the   
form is out of keeping with the matter1 
what is the result8   ,,illustrative    
,,and ,,practical ,,exercises  ,the     
following critiques should be studied   
with the view of answering such         
questions as these3           ,does the 
critic seek the truth8 ,is he           
prejudiced8 ,is          he chiefly     
concerned with matter or form8 ,is his  
judgment sound8 ,is he broad or narrow  
in his          sympathies8 ,does he    
judge by mere impressions8 ,is he       
superficial or thorough8 ,does he belong

 to a          particular school8 ,is   
his criticism in any way                
helpful8 ,does he try to interpret the  
author8 ,is he          chiefly         
concerned to show his own learning or   
brilliancy8 ,is he genial and tolerant8 
,is he dogmatic          and intolerant8
 ,is he courteous and kind8 ,is he      
ill-mannered and unkind8 ,what points   
are criticised8   ,,headley',s ,,sacred 
,,mountains       ,the ,reverend ,mr4   
,headley 7why will he not put his full  
title in his title-pages87 has in his   
,sacred ,mountains been      reversing  
the facts of the old fable about the    
mountains that      brought forth the   
mouse--parturiunt montes2 nascitur      
ridiculus mus--for in this instance it  
appears to be the      mouse--the little
 ridiculus mus--that has been bringing  
forth the mountains1 and a great litter 
of them1 too4--,,poe4   ,,byron',s      
,,hours ,,of ,,idleness       ,the poesy
 of this young ,lord belongs to the     
class which      neither gods nor men   

are said to permit4 ,indeed1 we do not  
recollect to have seen a quantity of    
verse with so few      deviations in    
either direction from that exact        
standard4 ,his      effusions are spread
 over a dead flat1 and can no more get  
above or below the level1 than if they  
were so much stagnant      water4 ,as an
 extenuation of this offence1 the noble 
author is      peculiarly forward in    
pleading minority4 ,we have it in the   
title-page1 and on the very back of the 
volume2 it follows his      name like a 
favorite part of his style4 ,much stress
 is laid      upon it in the preface1   
and the poems are connected with this   
general statement of his case1 by       
particular dates1      substantiating   
the age at which each was               
written4--,,lord      ,,brougham in     
,edinburgh ,review4   ,,keats',s        
,,endymion       ,the author is a       
copyist of ,mr4 ,hunt1 but ten times    
more      tiresome than his prototype2  
his nonsense is gratuitous1 he          

writes it for its own sake1 and more    
than rivals the insanity      of his    
master4 ,he writes at random the        
suggestions of his      rhyme without   
having hardly a complete couplet to     
endorse a      complete idea in the     
book4 ,if any one should be bold enough 
to      purchase it1 and patient enough 
to get beyond the first book      and   
find any meaning1 we entreat him to make
 us acquainted      with his success2 we
 shall then return to the task which we 
now abandon in despair4--,quarterly     
,review4   ,,wordsworth       ,the      
simple ,wordsworth1 framer of a lay     
,as soft as evening in his favorite     
,may2      ,who warns his friend to     
shake off toil and trouble1      ,and   
quit his books1 for fear of growing     
double2      ,who1 both by precept and  
example1 shows      ,that prose is      
verse1 and verse is merely prose2       
,convincing all1 by demonstration plain1
      ,poetic souls delight in prose    
insane1      ,and ,christmas stories1   

tortured into rhyme1      ,contain the  
essence of the true sublime2      ,thus1
 when he tells the tale of ,betty ,foy1 
,the idiot mother of an idiot boy1      
,a moon-struck silly lad who lost his   
way1      ,and1 like his bard1          
confounded night with day2      ,so     
close on each pathetic part he dwells1  
,and each adventure so sublimely tells1 
,that all who view the idiot in his     
glory1      ,conceive the bard the hero 
of the story4                 ,,byron in
 ,english ,bards and ,scotch ,reviewers4
   ,,croker',s ,,edition ,,of           
,,boswell',s ,,life ,,of ,,johnson      
,this work has greatly disappointed us4 
,whatever faults we may      have been  
prepared to find in it1 we fully        
expected that it      would be a        
valuable addition to ,english           
literature2 that it      would contain  
many curious facts1 and many judicious  
remarks2      that the style of the     
notes would be neat1 clear1 and precise2
      and that the typographical        

execution would be1 as in new           
editions of classical works it ought to 
be1 almost faultless4      ,we are sorry
 to be obliged to say that the merits of
 ,mr4      ,croker's performance are on 
a par with those of a certain leg       
of mutton on which ,dr4 ,johnson dined1 
while travelling from      ,london to   
,oxford1 and which he1 with             
characteristic energy1      pronounced  
to be as bad as bad could be1 ill fed1  
ill killed1      ill kept1 and ill      
dressed4 ,this edition is ill compiled1 
ill      arranged1 ill written1 and ill 
printed4--,,macaulay in      ,edinburgh 
,review4   ,,carlyle       ,there is in 
,carlyle's fiercer and more serious     
passages a      fiery glow of enthusiasm
 or indignation1 in his lighter ones a  
quaint felicity of unexpected humor1 in 
his expositions a      vividness of     
presentment1 in his arguments a         
sledge-hammer      force1 all of which  
are not to be found together anywhere   
else1 and none of which is to be found  

anywhere in quite the      same form4   
,and despite the savagery1 both of his  
indignation      and his laughter1 there
 is no greater master of tenderness4    
,wherever he is at home1 and he seldom  
wanders far from it1 the      weapon of 
,carlyle is like none other1--it is the 
very sword of      ,goliath4            
,,saintsbury4   ,,gray       ,against   
the right of ,gray to be considered one 
of the leading      ,english men of     
letters no more stringent argument has  
been      produced than is founded upon 
the paucity of his published      work4 
,it has fairly been said that the       
springs of originality      in the brain
 of a great inventive genius are bound  
to bubble      up more continuously and 
in fuller volume than could be          
confined within the narrow bounds of the
 poetry of ,gray4 ,but      the         
sterility of the age1 the east wind of  
discouragement      steadily blowing    
across the poet's path1 had much to do  
with      this apparent want of         

fecundity1 and it would be an error to  
insist too strongly on a general feature
 of the century in      this individual 
case4 ,when we turn to what ,gray       
actually      wrote1 although the bulk  
of it is small1 we are amazed at the    
originality and variety1 the freshness  
and vigor of the mind      that worked  
thus tardily and in miniature4--,,gosse4
   ,,shakespeare       ,shakespeare has 
no peculiarity1 no importunate topic2   
but all      is duly given2 no views1 no
 curiosities2 no cow-painter1 no        
bird-fancier1 no mannerist is he3 he has
 no discoverable      egotism2 the great
 he tells greatly2 the small1           
subordinately4      ,he is wise without 
emphasis or assertion2 he is strong1 as 
nature is strong1 who lifts the land    
into mountain slopes      without       
effort1 and by the same rule as she     
floats a bubble in      the air1 and    
likes as well to do the one as the      
other4 ,this      makes that equality of
 power in farce1 tragedy1 narrative1 and

      love-songs2 a merit so incessant1 
that each reader is      incredulous of 
the perception of other                 
readers4--,,emerson4   ,,dowden',s      
,,life ,,of ,,shelley       ,this       
,shelley biography is a literary        
cake-walk4 ,the ordinary      forms of  
speech are absent from it4 ,all the     
pages1 all the      paragraphs1 walk by 
sedately1 elegantly1 not to say         
mincingly1      in their ,sunday-best1  
shiny and sleek1 perfumed1 and with     
boutonnires in their button-holes2 it is
 rare to find even      a chance        
sentence that has forgotten to dress4   
,if the book      wishes to tell us that
 ,mary ,godwin1 child of sixteen1 had   
known afflictions1 the fact saunters    
forth in this nobby      outfit3 ,mary  
herself was not unlearned in the lore of
      pain4--,,mark ,,twain4            
,,milton',s ,,lycidas       ,one of the 
poems on which much praise has been     
bestowed1 is      ,lycidas2 of which the
 diction is harsh1 the rhymes           

uncertain1 and the numbers unpleasing4  
,what beauty there is we      must      
therefore seek in the sentiments and    
images4 ,it is not to      be considered
 as the effusion of real passion2 for   
passion      runs not after remote      
allusions and obscure opinions4 ,passion
      plucks no berries from the myrtle 
and ivy1 nor calls upon      ,arthur and
 ,mincius1 nor tells of rough satyrs and
 fauns with      cloven heel4 ,where    
there is leisure for fiction1 there is  
little grief4                           
,,samuel ,,johnson4   ,,emerson         
,and1 in truth1 one of the legitimate   
poets ,emerson1 in my      opinion1 is  
not4 ,his poetry is interesting1 it     
makes one      think2 but it is not the 
poetry of one of the born poets4 ,i     
say it of him with reluctance1 although 
,i am sure that he      would have said 
it of himself2 but ,i say it with       
reluctance1      because ,i dislike     
giving pain to his admirers1 and because
 all      my own wish1 too1 is to say of

 him what is favorable4 ,but ,i         
regard myself1 not as speaking to please
 ,emerson's admirers1      not as       
speaking to please myself2 but rather1  
,i repeat1 as      communing with ,time 
and ,nature concerning the productions  
of      this beautiful and rare spirit1 
and as resigning what of him      is by 
their unalterable decree touched with   
caducity1 in order      the better to   
mark and secure that in him which is    
immortal4--,,matthew ,,arnold4          
,,george ,,eliot       ,what            
peculiarities of ,george ,eliot's are   
likely to leave a      strong impress   
after her8 ,i answer1 she1 of all       
novelists1 has      attacked the        
profound problems of our existence4 ,she
 has      taught that the mystery worthy
 of a great artist is not the           
shallow mystery device1 but the infinite
 perspective of the      great1 dark    
enigmas of human nature2 that there is a
 deeper      interest in human life seen
 in the modern1 scientific              

daylight1 than in life viewed through a 
mist of ancient and      dying          
superstitions2 that the interest of     
human character      transcends the     
interest of invented circumstances2 that
 the      epic story of a hero and a    
heroine is not so grand as the          
natural history of a community4 ,she1   
first of all1 has made      cross       
sections of modern life1 and shown us   
the busy human      hive in the light of
 a great artistic and philosophic       
intellect4--,,edward ,,eggleston4       
,,wordsworth       ,he has won for      
himself a secure immortality by a depth 
of      intuition which makes only the  
best minds at their best hours          
worthy1 or indeed capable1 of his       
companionship1 and by a      homely     
sincerity of human sympathy which       
reaches the humblest      heart4 ,our   
language owes him gratitude for the     
habitual purity      and abstinence of  
his style1 and we who speak it1 for     
having      emboldened us to take       

delight in simple things1 and to trust  
ourselves to our own                    
instincts4--,,lowell4   ,,paradise      
,,lost       ,it is requisite that the  
language of an heroic poem should be    
both perspicuous and sublime4 ,in       
proportion as either of these      two  
qualities is wanting1 the language is   
imperfect4      ,perspicuity is the     
first and most necessary qualification2 
insomuch that a good-natured reader     
sometimes overlooks a      little slip  
even in the grammar or syntax1 where it 
is      impossible for him to mistake   
the poet's sense4 ,of this kind      is 
that passage in ,milton1 wherein he     
speaks of ,satan1--                     
,god and his ,son except1               
,created thing nought valued he nor     
shunned1--       and that in which he   
describes ,adam and ,eve1--             
,adam the goodliest man of men since    
born1            ,his sons1 the fairest 
of her daughters ,eve4                  
,,addison4   ,,friedrich ,,nietzsche    

,from the first to the last page of     
,nietzsche's writings the      careful  
reader seems to hear a madman1 with     
flashing eyes1      wild gestures1 and  
foaming mouth1 spouting forth deafening 
bombast2 and through it all1 now        
breaking out into frenzied              
laughter1 now sputtering expressions of 
filthy abuse and      invective1 now    
skipping about in a giddy agile dance1  
and now      bursting upon the auditors 
with threatening mien and clenched      
fists4 ,so far as any meaning at all can
 be extracted from the      endless     
stream of phrases1 it shows1 as its     
fundamental      elements1 a series of  
constantly reiterated delirious ideas1  
having their source in illusions of     
sense and diseased organic              
processes4 ,here and there emerges a    
distinct idea1 which1 as      is always 
the case with the insane1 assumes the   
form of an      imperious assertion1 a  
sort of despotic command4               
,,max ,,nordau4   ,,note  ,in addition  

to these brief extracts the student     
should be encouraged or required to read
 a number of complete reviews both in   
our popular periodicals and in books of 
literary criticism1 with the view of    
determining the critic's temper1        
culture1 judgment1 thoroughness1 points 
of view1 etc4 ,the older style of       
criticism is illustrated in ,addison's  
articles on ,milton in the ,spectator   
and ,johnson's ,lives of the ,poets4    
,for the elaborate review style the     
student might read some of the critical 
essays of ,macaulay1 ,carlyle1 and      
,lowell4 ,our principal reviews1        
magazines1 and other periodicals1 as    
well as recent works on ,english        
literature1 will supply abundant        
material to show the less elaborate and 
generally more genial criticism of the  
present day4     ,,chapter ,,ii  ,,the  
,,author ,,and ,,his ,,work   #af4      
,personality of the ,author4 ,every     
literary work reveals1 to a greater or  
less degree1 the personality of the     

author4 ,every literary production may  
be regarded as the fruitage of the      
writer's spirit2 and there is good      
authority for saying that men do not    
gather grapes of thorns or figs from    
thistles4 ,a book exhibits not only the 
attainments1 culture1 and literary art  
of the writer but also his intellectual 
force1 emotional nature1 and moral      
character4 ,wide attainments are        
revealed in breadth of view and in      
mastery of large resources4 ,culture is 
exhibited in a general delicacy of      
thought1 feeling1 and expression4       
,literary art is shown in the choice of 
words and in their arrangement in       
sentences and paragraphs4 ,the artistic 
sense1 without which a finished         
excellence is not attainable1 reveals   
itself in the proportion1 symmetry1 and 
completeness of a work4  #ag4 ,thought  
and ,feeling4 ,the intellectual and the 
emotional nature o a writer is clearly  
reflected in his works4 ,intellectual   
force1 for example1 is recognized in the

 firm grasp of a subject1 in the        
marshaling of details toward a          
predetermined end1 and in the vigor of  
utterance4 ,the ,essays of ,macaulay1   
however much they may lack in delicate  
refinement of thought and feeling1      
display a virile force of intellect2 and
 many a page of ,carlyle fairly throbs  
with energy of spirit4 ,a large1        
sensitive soul manifests itself in      
sympathy with nature and human life4    
,the wee1 modest1 crimson-tipped daisy1 
and the limping wounded hare touched the
 tender sympathies of ,burns2 and it was
 ,wordsworth who said1--       ,to me   
the meanest flower that blows can give  
,thoughts that do often lie too deep for
 tears4  ,there is no class of society1 
from kings to beggars1 from queens to   
hags1 with which ,shakespeare has not   
entered into sympathy1 thinking their   
thoughts and speaking their words4  #ah4
 ,moral ,character4 ,the moral character
 of an author appears in his general    
attitude toward truth and life4 ,a      

strong moral sense appears in a firm    
adherence to right and an unblinded     
condemnation of wrong4 ,a genial1       
charitable spirit is shown in a kindly  
disposition to overlook the weaknesses  
of men and to magnify their virtues4    
,life may be looked upon as something   
earnest1 exalted1 divine2 or it may be  
regarded as insignificant1 wretched1 and
 ending at death4  ,it is character that
 gives fundamental tone to literature2  
and1 as ,matthew ,arnold has said1 the  
best results are not attainable without 
high seriousness4 ,the difference       
between the flippant and the earnest    
writer is easily and instinctively      
recognized4 ,no one can read ,ruskin1   
for instance1 without feeling his       
sincerity and integrity1 even in his    
most impracticable vagaries4 ,in        
,addison1 ,goldsmith1 and ,irving we    
find a genial1 uplifting amiability2 and
 ,whittier1 in his deep love of human   
freedom and justice1 appears as a       
resolute iconoclast and reformer4  #ai4 

,authorship and ,character4 ,it is      
sometimes supposed that the art of      
authorship can be divorced from the     
personality of the writer4 ,in serious  
authorship this supposition is a        
mistake4 ,the best writing is more than 
grace of rhetoric and refinement of     
intellectual culture4 ,back of all      
outward graces there is need of a       
right-thinking and truth-loving soul4   
,one of the essential things in the     
training of a great writer is the       
development of an upright1 noble        
character4 ,milton was right in         
maintaining that the great poet should  
make his life a noble poem4 ,as a rule  
the writers of the world's greatest     
classics have been men of sincerity1    
truth1 and honor4 ,such was the         
character of ,plato1 ,vergil1 ,dante1   
,chaucer1 ,shakespeare1 ,milton1        
,wordsworth1 ,tennyson1 ,browning1 and  
many others4 ,our best ,american        
writers1 almost without exception1 have 
been distinguished for moral worth4 ,in 

men like ,burns1 ,byron1 and ,heine1 the
 absence of a high moral purpose has    
detracted1 in spite of their            
unquestioned intellectual power1 from   
the excellence of a large part of their 
writings4  #bj4 ,autobiographic         
,elements4 ,our knowledge is of two     
kinds3 the first comes from our own     
experience2 the other1 from the         
experience and testimony of our         
fellow-men4 ,personal experience carries
 with it a conviction and power that do 
not usually belong to the knowledge     
received from the testimony of others4  
,what we have experienced has become a  
part of our lives4 ,the writers of      
vitality and power are those who draw   
largely on their individual             
resources1--the treasures of their own  
experience4 ,they write1 not from the   
memory1 but from the heart4 ,if they    
borrow from others1 they assimilate the 
information1 and thus vitalize it before
 giving it out again4  ,the best part of
 our knowledge is that which comes to us

 through experience and assimilation4   
,it is a permanent possession4 ,when an 
author's experience1 either in an ideal 
or a realistic form1 is introduced in   
his work1 it becomes an interesting     
biographical element4 ,it presents a    
part of his life1 and often it exhibits 
the transforming and glorifying power of
 his genius4 ,in the drama ,she ,stoops 
to ,conquer1 for example1 ,goldsmith has
 turned to excellent account a          
humiliating incident of his youth4 ,his 
,deserted ,village is full of childhood 
reminiscences4 ,scott's poems and novels
 are in large measure only an expansion 
of the medival and other lore that he   
enthusiastically collected in his youth 
and early manhood4 ,george ,eliot's     
earlier novels are filled with the      
scenes and characters of her early life2
 and ,dickens's best novel1 ,david      
,copperfield1 is largely                
autobiographical4 ,an author's best     
work--that which possesses the greatest 
degree of interest and vitality--is     

generally that which springs from the   
treasure of his deepest experience1 and 
is the fullest expression of his        
individual thought and feeling4  #ba4   
,view of ,life4 ,every writer of        
originality and power takes a           
fundamental view of life4 ,he has       
settled convictions of some sort in     
regard to the world in which he lives4  
,sometimes this view comes from religion
 and sometimes from philosophy or       
science1 though in any case it is apt to
 be influenced by the writer's physical 
condition4 ,german philosophy has       
influenced many able                    
writers1--,coleridge1 ,carlyle1         
,emerson1 and others in ,england and    
,america2 and at the present time the   
theory of evolution is leaving a deep   
impress on literature4  ,whence came    
this magnificent universe8 ,what is the 
origin and destiny of man8 ,is the      
general drift of human affairs upward or
 downward8 ,these are great fundamental 
questions1 and the answers we give them 

lie at the bottom of our thinking and   
give tone to our writing4 ,the world is 
not the same to the ,christian theist   
and to the agnostic4 ,human life has a  
deeper significance to the man who      
believes in the loving providence of    
,god than to the man who believes only  
in the existence of matter and natural  
law4 ,the man who believes in the       
presence and sovereignty of ,god in all 
things looks hopefully to the future4   
,he is optimistic rather than           
pessimistic4 ,the presence of an        
exuberant vitality reveals itself in a  
cheerful1 buoyant tone4 ,scott's        
exuberant spirit forms a pleasing       
contrast with ,carlyle's dyspeptic      
cynicism4  ,it is often highly important
 to understand the fundamental beliefs  
of a writer4 ,his works may be in a     
measure unintelligible till his         
standpoint is fully understood4         
,sometimes his various writings are only
 an expansion and application of one or 
two great fundamental principles4 ,the  

works of ,herbert ,spencer1 for example1
 are in the main an elaboration of the  
theory of evolution4 ,byron represented 
a skeptical reaction against the        
conventional manners and beliefs of his 
day4 ,the essential feature of          
,emerson's work is found in a single    
sentence in ,nature4 ,we learn1 he says1
 that the ,highest is present to the    
soul of man1 that the dread universal   
,essence1 which is not wisdom1 or love1 
or beauty1 or power1 but all in one1 and
 each entirely1 is that for which all   
things exist1 and that by which they    
are2 that spirit creates2 that behind   
nature1 throughout nature1 spirit is    
present2 that spirit is one1 and not    
compound2 that spirit does not act upon 
us from without1 that is1 in space and  
time1 but spiritually1 or through       
ourselves4  #bb4 ,literary ,school4 ,in 
like manner it is interesting and       
sometimes illumining to know the        
literary school or tendency to which a  
writer belongs4 ,every author has his   

limitations and idiosyncrasies4 ,first  
of all1 he may be a writer of prose     
alone or of poetry alone4 ,in prose he  
may confine himself to a single         
department1 as fiction or history2 or in
 poetry he may be chiefly lyric1        
didactic1 or dramatic4 ,within these    
narrower spheres he may identify himself
 with a single tendency or group of     
writers4 ,in history he may be          
philosophic or narrative2 in fiction he 
may be a romanticist or a realist2 in   
poetry he may be subjective or objective
 in his treatment of themes4 ,scott's   
romanticism1 for instance1 which        
delights in medival scenes and          
incidents1 is very unlike ,dickens's    
realism1 which depicts the scenes and   
incidents of actual contemporary life4  
,george ,eliot's psychologic novels are 
different from those of either ,scott or
 ,dickens4 ,bryant's clear descriptions 
of nature stand in striking contrast    
with ,poe's mystical melodies4  #bc4    
,mood and ,purpose4 ,it is important to 

understand the mood and purpose of an   
author4 ,we are not in a position fairly
 to judge a work until we know its      
spirit and object4 ,until we know       
whether the writer is playful or        
earnest1 joyous or sad1 satirical or    
serious1 we cannot give his words the   
right tone and value2 and until we see  
clearly what he is driving at1 we cannot
 properly estimate the successive steps 
in his production nor judge of its worth
 as a whole4  ,the moods expressed in   
literature are exceedingly various4     
,since literature is the expression of  
the intellectual life of man1 it        
embodies the various moods and passions 
to which human nature is subject4       
,sometimes1 for example1 there is       
laughing humor1 as in ,holmes's ,the    
,deacon's ,masterpiece4 ,sometimes there
 is violent anger1 as in ,byron's       
,english ,bards and ,scotch ,reviewers4 
,we feel his unrestrained wrath1 as he  
exclaims1--       ,prepare for          
rhyme--,i'll publish right or wrong2    

,fools are my theme1 let satire be my   
song4  ,sometimes the mood is one of    
pensive meditation1 as when ,gray sits  
alone in the country churchyard amid    
deepening twilight3       ,the curfew   
tolls the knell of parting day1         
,the lowing herd winds slowly o'er the  
lea1       ,the plowman homeward plods  
his weary way1         ,and leaves the  
world to darkness and to me4  ,sometimes
 it is a righteous indignation that     
blazes and burns1 as when ,carlyle      
exclaims1 in the presence of selfishness
 and wrong3 ,foolish men imagine that   
because judgment for an evil thing is   
delayed1 there is no justice but an     
accidental one1 here below4 ,judgment   
for an evil thing is many times delayed 
some day or two1 some century or two1   
but it is sure as life1 it is as sure as
 death6 ,in the center of the           
world-whirlwind1 verily now as in the   
oldest days1 dwells and speaks a ,god4  
,the great soul of the world is just4   
,often the mood or spirit of gifted     

writers is something too intangible to  
be firmly grasped1 yet its presence is  
felt as a pervasive and delightful      
atmosphere4 ,a work is sometimes        
suffused with the divine touch of       
genius1 as the delicate and             
indescribable hues of autumn glorify the
 valleys and mountains4 ,while hovering 
near the earth for a time1 the spirit of
 genius1 as in ,shakespeare and ,ruskin1
 sometimes suddenly and spontaneously   
soars to regions of supernal            
splendor1--altitudes of beauty          
absolutely inaccessible to ordinary and 
unaided mortals4  ,the purpose of a     
literary work1 like its mood or spirit1 
may be various4 ,in a measure it varies 
with the department of literature to    
which the work belongs4 ,the purpose of 
history1 which brings before us the     
achievements of the past1 is chiefly    
instruction4 ,the oratory of the pulpit 
and the forum aims at persuasion4       
,fiction aims primarily at              
entertainment1 though it may also be    

made the vehicle for religious1         
sociological1 or moral teachings4       
,poetry aims at pleasure by means of    
melody1 felicity of expression1 the     
picturing of moods and scenes1 and the  
narration of interesting incidents or   
important events4 ,when the purpose of a
 production is clearly apprehended we   
are prepared to judge of the wisdom of  
the author in his choice and adaptation 
of means4  #bd4 ,study of an ,author's  
,life4 ,the foregoing considerations    
show us the value of an acquaintance    
with an author's life4 ,without this    
acquaintance we are not prepared1 in    
many cases1 to understand or judge his  
productions4 ,a good biography will     
acquaint us with the circumstances in   
which his talents were developed1 and   
disclose to us the autobiographic       
materials which have been embodied in   
his works4 ,it will reveal to us his    
views of life and his principles of art4
 ,it will show us1 in short1 the man    
behind the work1 and thus help us to    

grasp the full significance of his      
utterance4  ,no one is absolutely       
independent of his surroundings4 ,men   
are frequently led1 and sometimes driven
 by them1 into the lines of work which  
they pursue4 ,hawthorne's stories1 for  
the most part1 grew out of his ,new     
,england life4 ,had he been brought up  
south of the ,potomac1 they would have  
been different4 ,had ,irving never gone 
to ,england1 he would not have written  
,bracebridge ,hall2 and had he not      
sojourned in ,spain1 he would not have  
written ,alhambra and the ,life of      
,columbus4 ,byron's ,childe ,harold is  
but a poetic record of his travels4     
,thus it is seen that an author's work1 
in large measure1 grows out of his      
surroundings and experience1 and cannot 
be thoroughly understood without an     
acquaintance with his life4 ,it         
sometimes happens1 as ,shelley has sung 
in his interesting ,julian and ,maddalo1
 that                       ,most       
wretched men      ,are cradled into     

poetry by wrong2      ,they learn in    
suffering what they teach in song4      
,,review ,,questions  #af4 ,how is a    
book related to its author8 ,what does  
it exhibit8 ,what is said of the        
artistic sense8 #ag4 ,how is            
intellectual force revealed8 ,how does a
 sensitive nature show itself8          
,illustrate4 #ah4 ,in what does the     
moral nature appear8 ,what gives        
fundamental tone to literature8         
,illustrate4 #ai4 ,what must be back of 
the best writing8 ,what was ,milton's   
opinion of the poet8 ,what is said of   
the world's great classics8 #bj4 ,whence
 does our knowledge come8 ,what gives   
power and vitality to a piece of        
literature8 ,what is meant by           
autobiographic elements8 ,illustrate    
from ,goldsmith and ,dickens4 #ba4 ,what
 is said of a writer's fundamental      
views8 ,whence do they come8            
,illustrate4 ,what questions lie at the 
basis of our thinking8 ,illustrate4     
,what has physical vitality to do with  

literature8 ,what thought dominates     
,spencer's works8 ,what is the dominant 
belief of ,emerson8 #bb4 ,mention some  
of a writer's limitations4 ,explain the 
difference between ,scott and ,dickens2 
between ,bryant and ,poe4 #bc4 ,why is  
it important to know the mood and       
purpose of an author8 ,why are the moods
 different8 ,give examples of different 
moods4 ,explain the general purpose of  
history1 oratory1 fiction1 and poetry4  
,why should we know the purpose of an   
author8 #bd4 ,why study the biography of
 an author8 ,what will it reveal to us8 
,what have surroundings to do with an   
author8 ,give illustrations4 ,what is   
the quotation from ,shelley8            
,,illustrative ,,and ,,practical        
,,exercises  ,the following selections  
should be studied with reference to such
 questions as these3           ,what    
light does the selection throw on the   
author8 ,is          he a man of large  
attainments8 ,does it show              
refinement of thought and feeling8 ,does

 it display          literary art8 ,has 
it virile force8 ,does it show a        
true sense of right8 ,is there a large1 
noble nature          back of it8 ,does 
it grow out of the author's personal    
experience8 ,has it the force of        
conviction8 ,how does          the      
author conceive of the world8 ,what does
 he think          of ,god8 ,how does he
 regard human life8 ,is he hopeful      
or pessimistic8 ,is he a writer of      
prose1 poetry1 or          both8 ,to    
what school of writing does he belong8  
,what          is the mood or           
spirit1--humorous1 buoyant1 serious1    
sad1 ironical1 angry1 genial1 urbane8   
,what is its          purpose1--to      
instruct1 please1 persuade8        ,the 
love of dirt is among the earliest of   
passions1 as it is      the latest4     
,mud-pies gratify one of our first and  
best      instincts4 ,so long as we are 
dirty1 we are pure4 ,fondness for       
the ground comes back to a man after he 
has seen the round of      pleasure and 

business1 eaten dirt1 and sown          
wild-oats1 drifted      about the world1
 and taken the wind of all its moods4   
,the love      of digging in the ground 
7or of looking on while he pays         
another to dig7 is as sure to come back 
to him as he is sure1      at last1 to  
go under the ground and stay            
there4--,,charles      ,,dudley         
,,warner4        ,the end of learning is
 to repair the ruins of our first       
parents by regaining to know ,god       
aright1 and out of that      knowledge  
to love him1 to imitate him1 to be like 
him1 as we      may the nearest by      
possessing our souls of true virtue1    
which      being united to the heavenly 
grace of faith makes up the      highest
 perfection4                            
,,milton4        ,we are like lambs in a
 field1 disporting themselves under the 
eye of the butcher1 who chooses out     
first one and then another      for his 
prey4 ,so it is that in our good days we
 are all      unconscious of the evil   

,fate may have presently in store for   
us--sickness1 poverty1 mutilation1 loss 
of sight or                             
reason4--,,schopenhauer4        ,alas6  
'tis true ,i have gone here and there1  
,and made myself a motley to the view2  
,gor'd mine own thoughts1 sold cheap    
what is most dear1      ,made old       
offences of affections new2      ,most  
times it is that ,i have looked on truth
      ,askance and                      
strangely4--,,shakespeare4        ,in   
order to secure my credit and character 
as a tradesman1 ,i      took care not   
only to be in reality industrious and   
frugal1      but to avoid the           
appearances to the contrary4 ,i dressed 
plain1      and was seen at no places of
 idle diversion4 ,i never went out      
a fishing or shooting2 a book1 indeed1  
sometimes debauched me      from my     
work1 but that was seldom1 was private1 
and gave no      scandal2 and to show   
that ,i was not above my business1 ,i   
sometimes brought home the paper ,i     

purchased at the stores      through the
 streets on a wheelbarrow4--,,franklin4 
,given1 a man with moderate intellect1 a
 moral standard not      higher than the
 average1 some rhetorical affluence and 
great      glibness of speech1 what is  
the career in which1 without the        
aid of birth or money1 he may most      
easily attain power and      reputation 
in ,english society8 ,where is the      
,goshen of      mediocrity in which a   
smattering of science and learning will 
pass for profound instruction1 where    
platitudes will be      accepted as     
wisdom1 bigoted narrowness as holy zeal1
 unctuous      egoism as ,god-given     
piety8 ,let such a man become an        
evangelical preacher2 he will then find 
it possible to      reconcile small     
ability with great ambition1 superficial
      knowledge with the prestige of    
erudition1 a middling morale      with a
 high reputation for sanctity4--,,george
 ,,eliot4        ,careless seems the    
great ,avenger2 history's pages but     

record      ,one death-grapple in the   
darkness 'twixt old systems and the     
,word2      ,truth forever on the       
scaffold1 ,wrong forever on the         
throne1--      ,yet that scaffold sways 
the future1 and1 behind the dim         
unknown1      ,standeth ,god within the 
shadow1 keeping watch above his own4    
,,lowell4        ,thus ,i live in the   
world rather as a spectator of mankind  
than as one of the species1 by which    
means ,i have made myself      a        
speculative statesman1 soldier1         
merchant1 and artisan1      without ever
 meddling with any practical part in    
life4 ,i am      very well versed in the
 theory of a husband or a father1 and   
can discern the errors in the economy1  
business1 and      diversions of others 
better than those who are engaged in    
them2 as standers-by discover blots1    
which are apt to escape      those who  
are in the game4 ,i never espoused any  
party with      violence1 and am        
resolved to observe an exact neutrality 

between the ,whigs and ,tories1 unless  
,i shall be forced to      declare      
myself by the hostilities of either     
side4                                   
,,addison4        ,out--out are the     
lights--out all6        ,and over each  
quivering form1      ,the curtain1 a    
funeral pall1        ,comes down with   
the rush of a storm2      ,and the      
angels1 all pallid and wan1             
,uprising1 unveiling1 affirm      ,that 
the play is the tragedy ,man1           
,and its hero the ,conqueror            
,worm4--,,poe4        ,the essays       
professedly serious1 if ,i have been    
able to execute      my own intentions1 
will be found exactly conformable to the
      precepts of ,christianity1 without
 any accommodation to the               
licentiousness and levity of the present
 age4 ,i therefore look      back on    
this part of my work with pleasure1     
which no praise or      blame of man can
 diminish or augment4 ,i shall never    
envy the      honors which wit and      

learning obtain in any other cause1 if  
,i      can be numbered among the       
writers who have given ardor to         
virtue and confidence to                
truth4--,,samuel ,,johnson4        ,what
 tho' on hamely fare we dine1           
,wear hodden gray1 and a' that2         
,gie fools their silks1 and knaves their
 wine--        ,a man's a man for a'    
that4      ,for a' that1 and a' that1   
,their tinsel show1 and a' that2        
,the honest man1 though e'er sae poor1  
,is king of men for a' that4--,,burns4  
,i said to myself that my hero should   
work his way through      life as ,i had
 seen real living men work theirs2 that 
he should      never get a shilling he  
had not earned2 that no sudden turn     
should lift him in a moment to wealth   
and high station2 that      whatever    
small competency he might gain1 should  
be won by the      sweat of his brow2   
that before he could find so much as an 
arbor to sit down in1 he should master1 
at least1 half the      ascent of the   

,hill of ,difficulty2 that he should not
 even      marry a beautiful girl or a  
lady of rank4 ,as ,adam's son he        
should share ,adam's doom1 and drain1   
throughout life1 a mixed      and       
moderate cup of enjoyment4--,,charlotte 
,,bront4        ,day set on ,norham's   
castled steep1      ,and ,tweed's fair  
river1 broad and deep1        ,and      
,cheviot's mountains lone3      ,the    
battled towers1 the donjon keep1        
,the loophole grates1 where captives    
weep1      ,the flanking walls that     
round it sweep1        ,in yellow lustre
 shone4      ,the warriors on the       
turrets high1      ,moving athwart the  
evening sky1        ,seemed forms of    
giant height2      ,their armor1 as it  
caught the rays1      ,flashed back     
again the western blaze1        ,in     
lines of dazzling light4--,,scott4      
,it is a restful chapter in any book of 
,cooper's when somebody      doesn't    
step on a dry twig and alarm all the    
reds and whites      for two hundred    

yards around4 ,every time a ,cooper     
person is in      peril1 and absolute   
silence is worth four dollars a minute1 
he      is sure to step on a dry twig4  
,there may be a hundred handier         
things to step on1 but that wouldn't    
satisfy ,cooper4 ,cooper      requires  
him to turn out and find a dry twig2 and
 if he can't      do it1 go and borrow  
one4 ,in fact the ,leather ,stocking    
,series      ought to have been called  
the ,broken ,twig ,series4              
,,mark ,,twain4                         
,live and love1      ,doing both nobly1 
because lowlily2      ,live and work1   
strongly1 because patiently6      ,and1 
for the deed of ,death1 trust to ,god   
,that it be well done1 unrepented of1   
,and not to loss4 ,and thence with      
constant prayers      ,fasten your souls
 so high1 that constantly      ,the     
smile of your heroic cheer may float    
,above all floods of earthly agonies1   
,purification being the joy of          
pain4--,,mrs4 ,,browning4   ,,note  ,the

 autobiographic elements in ,goldsmith's
 ,deserted ,village and ,vicar of       
,wakefield1 in ,charlotte ,bront's      
,shirley and ,villette1 in ,dickens's   
,david ,copperfield and ,george ,eliot's
 ,mill on the ,floss1 will be found     
interesting and helpful studies4 ,in    
each case a good biography of the author
 will give the necessary information to 
the student4     ,,chapter ,,iii  ,,some
 ,,sthetic ,,principles   #be4 sthetics4
 ,the science of beauty in general is   
called sthetics1 to which we have to    
look for some of the principles that are
 to guide our critical judgment4        
,unfortunately for us1 the science of   
beauty has not yet been fully and       
satisfactorily wrought out1 and the     
ablest writers1 from ,aristotle to      
,herbert ,spencer1 exhibit great        
diversity of view4 ,there are two main  
theories of beauty3 the one makes beauty
 subjective1 or an emotion of the mind2 
the other makes it objective1 or a      
quality in the external object4 ,without

 entering into the intricacies and      
difficulties of the discussion1 beauty  
will here be regarded as that quality in
 literature which awakens in the        
cultivated reader a sense of the        
beautiful4 ,this sense of the beautiful 
is a refined and pleasurable feeling2   
and1 as we shall see1 it is traceable to
 a variety of sources4  #bf4 ,literary  
,taste4 ,literary taste is that power or
 faculty of the mind which apprehends   
and appreciates what is beautiful and   
artistic in literature4 ,it embraces two
 elements3 first1 the apprehension of   
the sthetic quality2 and secondly1 an   
appreciation or emotional response to   
its appeal4 ,these two elements are not 
always equally developed in the critic2 
and it frequently happens that an       
artistic literary production affords    
exquisite pleasure without a clear      
apprehension of the sthetic elements    
from which the pleasure springs4  ,in   
literary criticism1 as has already been 
shown1 the standard of taste is the     

ideal1 developed by an application of   
necessary and recognized principles1    
which the intelligent critic is able to 
form in every department of literature4 
,the capacity of taste is a natural     
gift2 but1 like other powers of the     
mind1 it is capable of great            
development4 ,it is cultivated by a     
study of the principles of beauty and by
 a contemplation of beautiful objects in
 nature and art4 ,bad taste exhibits    
itself in a failure to apprehend and    
appreciate what is genuinely beautiful2 
it often mistakes defects for           
excellences4 ,a refined taste responds  
to what is delicate in beauty1 and a    
catholic taste recognizes and responds  
to beauty of every kind4 ,the critic who
 would do honor to his office must have 
a taste both refined and catholic4  #bg4
 sthetic ,elements4 ,literary beauty may
 pertain either to the form or to the   
content4 ,deferring to subsequent       
chapters the elements of external       
beauty1 we here consider the elements of

 internal beauty4 ,though beauty of form
 and beauty of content may thus be      
distinguished1 they are always combined 
in works of the highest excellence4     
,both alike have their source in the    
cultivated1 creative spirit of the      
writer4 ,they cannot be effectually     
learned by rule2 and the best training  
for successful authorship is the        
development of the intellectual and     
moral faculties4  ,vividness of         
description is a frequent source of     
literary beauty4 ,scenes1 objects1 and  
events are sometimes so presented as to 
become visible to the inner eye4 ,thus  
,tennyson describes the flinging of     
,arthur's sword3                        
,the great brand      ,made lightnings  
in the splendor of the moon4  ,carlyle  
was a master of graphic description1 and
 in a few touches he thus brings ,de    
,quincey before us3 ,one of the smallest
 man figures ,i ever saw2 shaped like a 
pair of tongs1 and hardly above five    
feet in all4 ,when he sate1 you would   

have taken him by candlelight for the   
beautifullest little child2 blue-eyed1  
sparkling face1 had there not been      
something1 too1 which said1             
',eccovi--this child has been in hell6' 
,meditative reflection1 when aptly      
associated with circumstance or         
occasion1 may become a pleasing source  
of beauty4 ,when employed by way of     
introduction1 it may1 as frequently in  
,irving and ,hawthorne1 strike the      
keynote of what follows4 ,sometimes it  
gives natural expression to the vague   
thought or feeling that had been        
produced in the reader by the preceding 
narrative and that would otherwise have 
remained unsatisfied4 ,in the darkness  
and silence of night the poet hears the 
striking of a deep-toned bell4          
,naturally he thinks of the flight of   
time4       ,the bell strikes one4 ,we  
take no note of time       ,but from its
 loss3 to give it then a tongue         
,is wise in man4 ,as if an angel spoke1 
,i feel the solemn sound4 ,if heard     

aright1       ,it is the knell of my    
departed hours4  ,a meditation may1 as a
 conclusion1 impart a satisfying        
completeness to a piece4 ,nothing could 
be finer1 for example1 than ,addison's  
reflections at the close of his essay on
 the tombs of ,westminster ,abbey3 ,when
 ,i look upon the tombs of the great1   
every emotion of envy dies in me2 when  
,i read the epitaphs of the beautiful1  
every inordinate desire goes out2 when  
,i meet with the grief of parents upon a
 tombstone1 my heart melts with         
compassion2 when ,i see the tomb of the 
parents themselves1 ,i consider the     
vanity of grieving for those whom we    
must quickly follow4 ,when ,i see kings 
lying by those who deposed them1 when ,i
 consider rival wits placed side by     
side1 or the holy men that divided the  
world with their contests and disputes1 
,i reflect with sorrow and astonishment 
on the little competitions1 factions1   
and debates of mankind4 ,when ,i read   
the several dates of the tombs1 of some 

that died yesterday1 and some six       
hundred years ago1 ,i consider that     
great day when we shall all of us be    
contemporaries1 and make our appearance 
together4  ,harmony of thought and      
expression is another source of         
excellence4 ,the thought should be      
clothed in a perfect body1 so that      
nothing can be added or subtracted      
without marring the beauty4 ,the        
following stanza from ,holmes's ,the    
,last ,leaf will serve for illustration3
       ,the mossy marbles rest       ,on
 the lips that he has prest             
,in their bloom2       ,and the names he
 loved to hear       ,have been carved  
for many a year             ,on the     
tomb4  ,when1 in addition to perfect    
harmony between spirit and form1 the    
sound renforces the sense1 there is an  
added element of beauty4 ,the intellect 
is thus assisted in imaging or realizing
 the scene4 ,as the heroine returns to  
her palace in ,tennyson's ,godiva1--    
,all at once      ,with twelve great    

shocks of sound1 the shameless noon     
,was clashed and hammered from a hundred
 towers4  ,a well-known illustration is 
furnished in ,pope's ,essay on          
,criticism3       ,soft is the strain   
when ,zephyr gently blows1       ,and   
the smooth stream in smoother numbers   
flows2       ,but when loud surges lash 
the sounding shore1       ,the hoarse1  
rough verse should like the torrent     
roar4  ,the felicitous expression of    
some well-known truth or experience is  
always pleasing4 ,in its happiest form  
such an expression is received as the   
final embodiment of its truth4 ,it is   
henceforth taken up by the multitude and
 quoted as having the authority of a    
sacred text4 ,pope tells us1 for        
example1 that       ,to err is human2 to
 forgive1 divine2  and also that        
,fools rush in where angels fear to     
tread4  ,but no other ,english writer   
has equaled ,shakespeare in the number  
of felicitous expressions that have     
passed into current use4 ,his works are 

a veritable mine of jeweled phrases4 ,we
 often feel1 for example1 that somehow  
there is a mysterious power controlling 
our lives2 and this experience he voices
 in the well-known lines1--             
,there's a divinity that shapes our     
ends1       ,rough-hew them how we will4
  ,yet at the same time1 recognizing the
 truth of human freedom1 he declares1-- 
,our remedies oft in ourselves do lie1  
,which we ascribe to heaven2 the fated  
sky       ,gives us free scope1 only    
doth backward push       ,our slow      
designs when we ourselves are dull4     
,high spiritual truth1 in fitting       
expression1 is a source of great beauty4
 ,there are three great provinces of    
thought1--man1 nature1 and ,god4 ,the   
last is the greatest of all2 and the    
highest achievement of literature is to 
lead us to a new or fuller appreciation 
of his character4 ,as we look upon the  
irrepressible and unending conflict     
between good and evil in this world1 we 
are sometimes tempted to doubt a        

favorable issue2 but ,lowell tells us1  
in self-evidencing words1 that          
,behind the dim unknown      ,standeth  
,god within the shadow1 keeping watch   
above his own4  ,to ,ruskin the various 
phenomena of nature brought a sweet     
message3 ,all those passings to and fro 
of fruitful shower and grateful shade1  
and all those visions of silver palaces 
built about the horizon1 and voices of  
moaning winds and threatening thunders1 
and glories of colored robe and cloven  
ray1 are but to deepen in our hearts the
 acceptance1 and distinctness1 and      
dearness of the simple words1 ',our     
,father1 which art in heaven4'  ,another
 principal source of literary beauty is 
found in a worthy expression of noble   
thought and sentiment4 ,this may be     
regarded as the soul of enduring        
literature1 and it is as exhaustless as 
the human mind itself4 ,the dauntless   
love of liberty that breathes through   
,patrick ,henry's famous speech is      
thrilling in its eloquence3 ,what is it 

that gentlemen wish8 ,what would they   
have8 ,is life so dear1 or peace so     
sweet1 as to be purchased at the price  
of chains and slavery8 ,forbid it1      
,almighty ,god6 ,i know not what course 
others may take1 but1 as for me1 give me
 liberty1 or give me death6  ,carlyle   
conceived of nature as the vesture of   
,god2 and1 as he speaks of the universe1
 this thought lifts his style to great  
majesty3 ,oh1 could ,i transport thee   
direct from the beginnings to the       
endings1 how were thy eyesight unsealed1
 and thy heart set flaming in the       
,light-sea of celestial wonder6 ,then   
sawest thou that this fair ,universe1   
were it in the meanest province thereof1
 is in very deed the star-domed ,city of
 ,god2 that through every star1 through 
every grass-blade1 and most1 through    
every ,living ,soul1 the glory of a     
present ,god still beams4 ,but ,nature1 
which is the ,time-vesture of ,god1 and 
reveals ,him to the wise1 hides ,him    
from the foolish4  ,love is a perennial 

inspiration both in prose and poetry4   
,it partakes of the divine1 for ,god is 
love4 ,its highest manifestations1      
whether in the family1 among relatives  
and friends1 or between lovers1 are     
always beautiful2 and perhaps ,browning 
was not far wrong when he sang1--       
,there is no good in life but love--but 
love6       ,what else looks good1 is   
some shade flung from love2       ,love 
yields it1 gives it worth4  ,the        
portrayal of noble character is always  
inspiring4 ,it appeals to the better    
side of our nature1 and strengthens our 
confidence in humanity4 ,no literary art
 can confer immortality on what is      
ignoble4 ,the fiction that is devoted to
 obscene realism1 whatever may be the   
prestige of its authors or its current  
vogue1 is surely doomed4 ,only that     
which is morally good is destined to    
live through the ages4 ,the genial      
,dickens will always be more popular    
than the satirical ,thackeray4          
,boswell's ,life of ,johnson owes its   

principal charm not to any trick of     
style1 but to the honest1 rugged piece  
of manhood it brings before us4 ,only a 
man of ,luther's heroic spirit could    
have inspired this magnificent tribute  
in ,carlyle's ,heroes and               
,hero-,worship3 ,i will call this       
,luther a true great man2 great in      
intellect1 in courage1 affection1 and   
integrity2 one of our most lovable and  
precious men4 ,great1 not as a hewn     
obelisk1 but as an ,alpine mountain1--so
 simple1 honest1 spontaneous1 not       
setting up to be great at all2 there for
 quite another purpose than being great6
 ,ah yes1 unsubduable granite1 piercing 
far and wide into the heavens2 yet in   
the clefts of it fountains1 green1      
beautiful valleys with flowers6 ,a right
 spiritual hero and prophet2 once more1 
a true son of nature and fact1 for whom 
these centuries1 and many that are to   
come yet1 will be thankful to ,heaven4  
,heroic self-sacrifice strongly appeals 
to us4 ,whenever a man or woman gives up

 self for the good of others1 we        
intuitively admire and honor the deed4  
,the story of ,thermopyl1 the leap of   
,curtius into the yawning chasm1 the    
charge of the ,light ,brigade1--        
444 though the soldier knew       ,some 
one had blundered1--  are instances of  
heroic self-sacrifice which the world is
 unwilling to forget4 ,there is a charm 
in ,tennyson's ,godiva or his ,enoch    
,arden beyond the reach of mere art2 it 
is found in the noble spirit of the     
heroine who replies to the taunt of her 
husband1--       ,but ,i would die2  and
 in the deep self-renunciation of the   
hero who1 in heartbreaking anguish1     
prayed1--       ,help me not to break in
 upon her peace4  ,the beauty of a life 
of simplicity and benevolence is seen in
 the immortal ,vicar of ,wakefield4 ,his
 unaffected goodness has made him dear  
to successive generations4 ,in like     
manner we pay a spontaneous tribute to  
,chaucer's poure parson of a toune1 and 
to the preacher of the ,deserted        

,village3       ,a man he was to all the
 country dear1       ,and passing rich  
with forty pounds a year2       ,remote 
from towns he ran his godly race1       
,nor e'er had changed1 nor wished to    
change1 his place4       ,unskilful he  
to fawn1 or seek for power1       ,by   
doctrines fashioned to the varying hour2
       ,far other aims his heart had    
learned to prize1       ,more bent to   
raise the wretched than to rise4  ,the  
fitting description of scenes and       
incidents of grandeur imparts dignity   
and charm to a production4 ,grandeur is 
of two kinds3 first1 the grandeur or    
sublimity of natural objects1 such as   
the ocean1 a storm1 an earthquake1 or   
other exhibitions of tremendous power2  
and secondly1 the moral sublime1 in     
which the heroic soul rises superior to 
dangers and death4 ,milton's ,paradise  
,lost abounds in grave and sublime      
passages4 ,byron reaches the sublime in 
many of the descriptions of ,childe     
,harold1 of which the following will    

serve for illustration3                 
,far along      ,from peak to peak1 the 
rattling crags among1      ,leaps the   
live thunder6 ,not from one lone cloud1 
,but every mountain now hath found a    
tongue1      ,and ,jura answers1 through
 her misty shroud1      ,back to the    
joyous ,alps1 who call to her aloud4    
,perhaps no finer instance of the moral 
sublime is to be found than in the      
bearing of ,luther before the ,imperial 
,diet in the city of ,worms4 ,he was    
confronted by the chief dignitaries of  
,church and ,empire4 ,the emperor       
himself1 ,charles ,v1 was present4 ,will
 you1 or will you not1 retract8 solemnly
 demanded the speaker of the ,diet4     
,unless1 replied the intrepid reformer1 
unless ,i am convinced by the testimony 
of ,holy ,scripture or by clear and     
indisputable reasoning1 ,i cannot1 and  
will not1 retract anything2 for it is   
unsafe for a ,christian to do anything  
against his conscience4 ,here ,i stand1 
,i cannot do otherwise1 ,god help me4   

,amen6  ,another source of beauty is    
found in tenderness and pathos4 ,these  
feelings appeal to the gentler side of  
our nature4 ,the pathos may arise from  
various causes1--from bereaved          
affection1 from fond memories1 from sore
 disappointments1 or from helpless      
suffering4 ,every one is familiar with  
,dickens's description of the death of  
little ,nell in ,old ,curiosity ,shop4  
,irving's story of ,the ,broken ,heart  
is deeply pathetic4 ,the deathbed scene 
of ,colonel ,newcome in ,thackeray's    
great novel is notable for its simple   
pathos3 ,at the usual evening hour the  
chapel bell began to toll1 and ,thomas  
,newcome's hands outside the bed feebly 
beat time4 ,and just as the last bell   
struck1 a peculiar sweet smile shone    
over his face1 and he lifted up his head
 a little1 and quickly said ',adsum6'   
and fell back4 ,it was the word used at 
school1 when names were called2 and lo1 
he1 whose heart was that of a little    
child1 had answered to his name1 and    

stood in the presence of his ,master4   
,there is a tender regret in ,hood's    
little poem1 ,i ,remember3       ,i     
remember1 ,i remember1         ,the     
fir-trees dark and high2       ,i used  
to think their slender tops             
,were close against the sky2       ,it  
was a childish ignorance1         ,but  
now 'tis little joy       ,to know ,i'm 
further off from heaven         ,than   
when ,i was a boy4  ,the ludicrous often
 adds charm to literature4 ,it is       
divided into two species1--wit and      
humor4 ,wit consists in the discovery of
 remote analogies or relations1 and     
produces an amusing surprise4 ,it has   
various forms4 ,in the pun1 which is a  
rather low order of wit1 there is a play
 on the meaning of words4 ,punning is an
 art easily acquired2 but a pun is      
usually an impertinence to be excused   
only by its felicity4 ,hood was one of  
the most ingenious of punsters2 and in  
his ballad1 ,faithless ,nelly ,gray1 the
 wit of each stanza is found in a pun4  

,ben ,battle was a soldier bold1        
,and used to war's alarms2       ,but a 
cannon-ball took off his legs1          
,so he laid down his arms4  ,satire     
ridicules the follies and vices of men1 
and is frequent in both ancient and     
modern literature4 ,sometimes it is     
good-natured1 but oftener it is bitter4 
,swift's ,tale of a ,tub is a fierce    
attack upon ecclesiastical divisions1   
while ,pope's ,dunciad1 which impales   
many of his contemporary writers1 almost
 ruined the reputations it touched4     
,addison in the ,spectator is genial in 
his satire4 ,byron is a master of       
powerful satire1 and in the ,english    
,bards and ,scotch ,reviewers he        
indiscriminately lampoons his           
contemporaries4 ,for example3           
,shall gentle ,coleridge pass unnoticed 
here1       ,to turgid ode and tumid    
stanza dear8       ,though themes of    
innocence amuse him best1       ,yet    
still obscurity's a welcome guest4      
,if inspiration should her aid refuse   

,to him who takes a ,pixy for a muse1   
,yet none in lofty numbers can surpass  
,the bard who soars to elegize an ass4  
,how well the subject suits his noble   
mind6       ',a fellow-feeling makes us 
wondrous kind6'  ,a parody is a         
burlesque imitation and degradation of  
something serious4 ,in his song1 ,those 
,evening ,bells1 ,moore wrote in pensive
 mood1--       ,and so 'twill be when ,i
 am gone2       ,that tuneful peal will 
still ring on1       ,while other bards 
shall walk these dells1       ,and sing 
your praise1 sweet evening bells4  ,but 
in ,hood's parody of the same title1    
this stanza is travestied as follows3   
,and so 'twill be when she is gone2     
,that tuneful peal will still ring on1  
,and other maids with timely yells      
,forget to stay those evening bells4    
,the other principal form of the        
ludicrous is humor4 ,it is wit modified 
by a genial or sympathetic feeling4 ,it 
has its origin in the disposition or    
character1 while wit springs alone from 

the intellect4 ,it often pervades an    
entire production4 ,while wit generally 
breaks out in brief and sudden flashes1 
humor is frequently diffused through an 
entire work like a delicious fragrance4 
,addison's ,sir ,roger de ,coverley     
papers in the ,spectator are delightful 
examples of delicate humor4 ,hood's ,up 
the ,rhine is a rich commingling of wit 
and humor4 ,dickens's ,pickwick ,papers 
and ,mark ,twain's ,innocents ,abroad   
are humorous works of a broader type4   
,irving's minor writings are suffused   
with a delightful humor4 ,and no one who
 has read the humorous beginning of the 
,vicar of ,wakefield is likely to forget
 it3 ,i was ever of opinion1 that the   
honest man who married and brought up a 
large family1 did more service than he  
who continued single and only talked of 
a population4 ,from this motive1 ,i had 
scarcely taken orders a year1 before ,i 
began to think seriously of matrimony1  
and chose my wife1 as she did her       
wedding-gown1 not for a fine glossy     

surface1 but for such qualities as would
 wear well4   ,,review ,,questions  #be4
 ,what is meant by sthetics8 ,what are  
the two theories of beauty8 ,how is     
beauty considered in this book8 #bf4    
,what is meant by taste8 ,what are its  
two elements8 ,what is said of their    
development8 ,how may taste be          
cultivated8 ,how is bad taste exhibited8
 ,what is the distinction between a     
refined and a catholic taste8 #bg4 ,to  
what may literary beauty pertain8 ,what 
elements are considered in this chapter8
 ,where do we find beauty of form and of
 content united8 ,why is vivid          
description an element of beauty8 ,give 
an illustration4 ,how may meditative    
reflection become an element of beauty8 
,illustrate4 ,what is meant by harmony  
of thought and expression8 ,give an     
example4 ,how may sound renforce the    
sense8 ,illustrate4 ,what is said about 
felicitous expression8 ,what writers    
excel in felicity of expression8        
,illustrate4 ,what is said of high      

spiritual truth8 ,name the three great  
provinces of thought4 ,what does ,lowell
 think of the evils in the world8 ,what 
does ,ruskin say of the phenomena of    
nature8 ,what is said of noble thought  
and sentiment8 ,what makes ,patrick     
,henry's speech thrilling8 ,how did     
,carlyle conceive of nature8 ,what is   
said of love in literature8 ,what is    
,browning's idea8 ,what is the effect of
 portraying noble character8 ,what is   
said of obscene realism8 ,to what does  
,boswell's ,life of ,johnson owe its    
principal charm8 ,what does ,carlyle say
 of ,luther8 ,what is said of heroic    
self-sacrifice8 ,illustrate4 ,where do  
we see the beauty of simple goodness    
portrayed8 ,what is the effect of the   
fitting portrayal of grandeur8 ,what two
 kinds of grandeur are distinguished8   
,mention some objects of natural        
grandeur4 ,illustrate from ,byron4 ,give
 an illustration of the moral sublime4  
,to what does pathos appeal8            
,illustrate4 ,repeat the quotation from 

,hood4 ,what two species of the         
ludicrous are distinguished8 ,what is   
wit8 ,what is a pun8 ,illustrate4 ,what 
is satire8 ,what are the two kinds of   
satire8 ,give an illustration4 ,what is 
a parody8 ,illustrate4 ,how does humor  
differ from wit8 ,give an example of    
humor4   ,,illustrative ,,and           
,,practical ,,exercises  ,the following 
extracts should be carefully studied for
 the purpose of determining their       
elements of internal excellence or      
beauty4 ,they should be tested by such  
questions as these3           ,is the   
extract descriptive or meditative8 ,what
 gives          vividness to the        
description8 ,what points are brought   
out in the meditation8 ,what is the main
 thought or          feeling presented8 
,does it pertain to man1 nature1 or     
,god8 ,what phases of nature are        
considered8 ,what          element of   
character is set forth8 ,is there       
dignity          or felicity of         
expression8 ,is grandeur portrayed8 ,is 

it physical or moral8 ,is there         
tenderness or pathos8          ,what    
gives it this element8 ,is there art or 
humor8          ,what kind of wit8 ,what
 is the chief source of beauty8         
,a man from ,maine1 who had never paid  
more than twenty-five      cents for    
admission to an entertainment1 went to a
 ,new ,york      theatre where the play 
was ,the ,forty ,thieves1 and was       
charged a dollar and a half for a       
ticket4 ,handing the      pasteboard    
back1 he remarked1 ,keep it1 ,mister2 ,i
 don't want      to see the other       
thirty-nine4--,,anon4   ,,old           
,,ironsides       ,o better that her    
shattered hulk        ,should sink      
beneath the wave2      ,her thunders    
shook the mighty deep1        ,and there
 should be her grave2      ,nail to the 
mast her holy flag1        ,set every   
threadbare sail1      ,and give her to  
the god of storms1        ,the lightning
 and the gale4--,,holmes4        ,though
 ,i speak with the tongues of men and of

 angels1 and have      not charity1 ,i  
am become as sounding brass1 or a       
tinkling      cymbal4 ,and though ,i    
have the gift of prophecy1 and          
understand all mysteries1 and all       
knowledge2 and though ,i have      all  
faith1 so that ,i could remove          
mountains1 and have not      charity1 ,i
 am nothing4 ,and though ,i bestow all  
my goods to      feed the poor1 and     
though ,i give my body to be burned1 and
      have not charity1 it profiteth me 
nothing4--,,paul4        ,forth goes the
 woodman1 leaving unconcerned      ,the 
cheerful haunts of man1 to wield the axe
      ,and drive the wedge in yonder    
forest drear1      ,from morn to eve his
 solitary task4      ,shaggy1 and lean1 
and shrewd1 with pointed ears      ,and 
tail cropped short1 half lurcher and    
half cur1      ,his dog attends him6    
,close behind his heel      ,now creeps 
he slow2 and now1 with many a frisk     
,wide-scampering1 snatches up the       
drifted snow      ,with ivory teeth1 or 

ploughs it with his snout2      ,then   
shakes his powdered coat1 and barks for 
joy4      ,heedless of all his pranks1  
the sturdy churl      ,moves right      
toward the mark2 nor stops for aught1   
,but now and then with pressure of his  
thumb1      ,to adjust the fragrant     
charge of a short tube1      ,that fumes
 beneath his nose2 the trailing cloud   
,streams far behind him1 scenting all   
the air4--,,cowper4        ,oh1 the     
grave6 the grave6 ,it buries every      
error1 covers every      defect1        
extinguishes every resentment4 ,from its
 peaceful bosom      spring none but    
fond regrets and tender recollections4  
,who can      look down upon the grave  
even of an enemy1 and not feel a        
compunctious throb that he should ever  
have warred with the      poor handful  
of earth that lies moldering before him8
 ,but the      grave of those we        
loved1--what a place for meditation6    
,there      it is we call up1 in long   
review1 the whole history of virtue     

and gentleness1 and the thousand        
endearments lavished upon us1           
almost unheeded1 in the daily           
intercourse of intimacy2 there      it  
is that we dwell upon the tenderness1   
the solemn1 awful      tenderness of the
 parting scene4--,,irving4   ,,joan ,,of
 ,,arc       ,the executioner had been  
directed to apply his torch from        
below4 ,he did so4 ,the fiery smoke rose
 up in billowy columns4      ,a         
,dominican monk was then standing almost
 at her side4 ,wrapped      up in his   
sublime office1 he saw not the danger1  
but still      persisted in his prayers4
 ,even then when the last enemy was     
racing up the fiery stairs to seize her1
 even at that moment      did this      
noblest of girls think only for him1 the
 one friend      that would not forsake 
her1 and not herself2 bidding him with  
her last breath to care for his own     
preservation1 but to leave      her to  
,god4--,,de ,,quincey4        ,o1 lay   
thy hand in mine1 dear6        ,we're   

growing old2      ,but ,time hath       
brought no sign1 dear1        ,that     
hearts grow cold4      ',tis long1 long 
since our new love        ,made life    
divine2      ,but age enricheth true    
love1        ,like noble                
wine4--,,massey4        ,the noon-day   
sun came slanting down the rocky slopes 
of ,la      ,ricca1 and its masses of   
entangled and tall foliage1 whose       
autumnal tints were mixed with the wet  
verdure of a thousand      evergreens1  
were penetrated with it as with rain4 ,i
 cannot      call it color1 it was      
conflagration4 ,purple1 and crimson1 and
      scarlet1 like the curtains of     
,god's tabernacle1 the rejoicing        
trees sank into the valley in showers of
 light1 every separate      leaf        
quivering with buoyant and burning life2
 each1 as it      turned to reflect or  
to transmit the sunbeam1 first a torch  
and then an emerald4 ,far up into the   
recesses of the valley1      the green  
vistas1 arched like the hollows of      

mighty waves of      some crystalline   
sea1 with the arbutus flowers dashed    
along      their flanks for foam1 and   
silver flakes of orange spray           
tossed into the air around them1        
breaking over the gray walls      of    
rock into a thousand separate stars1    
fading and kindling      alternately as 
the weak wind lifted and let them       
fall4--,,ruskin4        ,gineral ,c4 is 
a dreffle smart man2        ,he's ben on
 all sides that give places or pelf1    
,but consistency still wuz a part of his
 plan1--        ,he's been true to one  
party1--and thet is himself2            
,so ,john ,p4                           
,robinson he                ,sez he     
shall vote for ,gineral ,c4             
,gineral ,c4 he goes in fer the war2    
,he don't vally principle more 'n an old
 cud2      ,wut did ,god make us        
raytional creeturs fer1        ,but     
glory an' gunpowder1 plunder an' blood8 
,so ,john ,p4                           
,robinson he                ,sez he     

shall vote for ,gineral ,c4--,,lowell4  
,,woman       ,not she with traitorous  
kiss her ,saviour stung1      ,not she  
denied him with unholy tongue2          
,she1 while apostles shrank1 could      
dangers brave1      ,last at the cross  
and earliest at the grave4--,,barrett4  
,tears1 idle tears1 ,i know not what    
they mean1      ,tears from the depths  
of some divine despair      ,rise in the
 heart1 and gather to the eyes1      ,in
 looking on the happy ,autumn-fields1   
,and thinking of the days that are no   
more4       ,fresh as the first beam    
glittering on a sail      ,that brings  
our friends up from the underworld1     
,sad as the last which reddens over one 
,that sinks with all we love below the  
verge2      ,so sad1 so fresh1 the days 
that are no more4--,,tennyson4          
,no nation which did not contemplate    
this wonderful universe      with an    
awe-stricken and reverential belief that
 there was a      great unknown1        
omnipotent1 and all-wise and all-just   

,being1      superintending all men in  
it1 and all interests in it--no         
nation ever came to very much1 nor did  
any man either1 who      forgot that4   
,if a man did forget that1 he forgot the
 most      important part of his mission
 in this world4--,,carlyle4             
,,goldsmith       ,think of him         
reckless1 thriftless1 vain if you       
like--but      merciful1 gentle1        
generous1 full of love and pity4 ,he    
passes      out of our life and goes to 
render his account beyond it4           
,think of the poor pensioners weeping at
 his grave2 think of      the noble     
spirits that admired and deplored him2  
think of the      righteous pen that    
wrote his epitaph--and the wonderful and
      unanimous response of affection   
with which the world has paid      the  
love he gave it4 ,his humor delighting  
us still2 his song      fresh and       
beautiful as when he first charmed with 
it2 his      words in all our mouths2   
his very weaknesses beloved and         

familiar--his benevolent spirit seems   
still to smile upon us2      to do      
gentle kindnesses2 to succor with sweet 
charity2 to      caress1 to soothe1 and 
forgive2 to plead with the fortunate    
for the unhappy and the                 
poor--,,thackeray4        ,we watched   
her breathing through the night1        
,her breathing soft and low1      ,as in
 her breast the wave of life            
,kept heaving to and fro4       ,our    
very hopes belied our fears1        ,our
 fears our hopes belied1--      ,we     
thought her dying when she slept1       
,and sleeping when she died4       ,for 
when the morn came1 dim and sad1        
,and chill with early showers1      ,her
 quiet eyelids closed1--she had         
,another morn than ours4--,,hood4       
,,note  ,in addition to the foregoing   
extracts1 those appended to the previous
 chapters may be examined again with the
 special view of discovering their      
sthetic elements4 ,furthermore1 the     
student may be required to study        

complete works--such as ,goldsmith's    
,deserted ,village1 ,burns's ,cotter's  
,saturday ,night1 ,tennyson's ,enoch    
,arden1 ,scott's ,ivanhoe1 ,dickens's   
,david ,copperfield1 and others that    
will occur to the teacher--in order to  
discover the beauties of description1   
meditation1 thought1 sentiment1         
character1 and other sthetic elements   
awakening pleasure and imparting        
excellence4 ,the results may be         
presented either orally or in writing4  
,,part ,,second  ,,rhetorical ,,elements
     ,,chapter ,,iv  ,,words1           
,,sentences1 ,,paragraphs   #bh4        
,english ,composite4 ,the ,english      
language is composite1 its words being  
drawn from various sources4 ,the        
original and principal element is       
,anglo-,saxon1 which prevailed in       
,england for about five hundred years4  
,by the conquest of ,william of         
,normandy1 ,french was introduced into  
,england1 and was spoken by the ruling  
classes for about three hundred years4  

,the amalgamation of the ,anglo-,saxon  
and the ,norman ,french--a process that 
was fairly completed in the fourteenth  
century--resulted in modern ,english4   
,but numerous words came in from other  
sources4 ,the early introduction of     
,roman ,christianity into ,england1 and 
the revival of learning at the close of 
the ,middle ,ages1 introduced a large   
,latin element4 ,the ,celtic population 
of the ,british ,isles contributed a few
 words1 such as pibroch1 clan1 bard4 ,a 
considerable ,greek element has been    
introduced by theology and science1 and 
,english conquests and commerce have    
introduced words from almost every      
portion of the globe1 of which pagoda1  
bazaar1 veda1 bamboo1 taboo1 and raccoon
 will serve as examples4  ,the composite
 character of our language has made it  
very copious and very interesting4 ,no  
other language has so many words1 our   
largest dictionaries defining more than 
a hundred thousand4 ,every word has its 
history1 and often a very interesting   

one4 ,raccoon1 for instance1 takes us   
back to the adventures of the           
redoubtable ,john ,smith in ,virginia4  
,the word bishop carries us back to the 
introduction of ,christianity among the 
,anglo-,saxons at the close of the sixth
 century1 and then through the ,latin to
 the primitive days of the ,church1 when
 an episkopos1 or overseer1 presided    
over the newly founded congregations in 
the leading cities of ,greece4 ,taboo   
reminds us of ,english explorations and 
conquests in the islands of the         
,pacific4 ,thus nearly every word may be
 traced to its source and1 rightly      
understood1 is freighted with tales of  
conquest1 battle1 exploration1 commerce1
 science1 and invention4 ,it carries    
with it its meaning and atmosphere of   
association1 which the intelligent and  
skillful writer knows how to use to     
advantage4  #bi4 ,anglo-,saxon and      
,latin ,elements4 ,the ,anglo-,saxon or 
,teutonic element of our language       
embraces about sixty per cent of the    

words in common use4 ,it may be regarded
 as the trunk1 on which the other       
elements have been grafted as branches4 
,the ,latin element embraces about      
thirty per cent of an ordinary          
vocabulary1 nearly two thirds of which1 
or about twenty per cent1 comes through 
the ,french4 ,the question has been     
raised as to which element is           
preferable4 ,should a writer's style be 
,saxonized or ,latinized8  ,no absolute 
rule can be laid down4 ,the two elements
 supplement each other4 ,in general the 
,anglo-,saxon element comprises concrete
 terms1 and the ,latin element abstract 
terms4 ,as ,trench has pointed out1 ,the
 great features of nature1 sun1 moon1   
and stars1 earth1 water1 and fire2 the  
divisions of time2 three out of the four
 seasons1 spring1 summer1 and winter2   
the features of natural scenery1 the    
words used in earliest childhood1 the   
simpler emotions of the mind2 all the   
prime social relations1 father1 mother1 
husband1 wife1 son1 daughter1 brother1  

sister1--these are of native growth and 
unborrowed4#eg3a  ,it is thus seen that 
the ,anglo-,saxon element is full of    
force in its presentation of definite   
concrete objects2 and it is a noteworthy
 fact that our best writers use a large 
proportion of native words4 ,in ordinary
 discourse none of our best writers1    
perhaps1 fall below seventy per cent of 
,anglo-,saxon4 ,but in philosophy1 which
 deals largely with abstract ideas1 the 
,anglo-,saxon element1 as in passages   
from ,herbert ,spencer1 may fall as low 
as sixty per cent4 ,it is interesting to
 estimate the percentage of             
,anglo-,saxon or ,latin in an author4   
,this may easily be done by counting the
 number of words in a given passage for 
the denominator1 and the number of      
,anglo-,saxon or ,latin words for the   
numerator of a common fraction1 which   
may then be reduced to a decimal4  #cj4 
,what ,element to ,choose4 ,a writer's  
style should be determined by higher    
considerations than the deliberate      

purpose to use as far as possible any   
single element of our language4 ,such a 
purpose degenerates into affectation1   
and becomes a mannerism4 ,the following 
extract from a sonnet by ,addison       
,alexander shows what may be done by    
short ,anglo-,saxon words2 but1 because 
of its lack of musical rhythm and fine  
poetic quality1 it is not to be         
commended as a model3       ,think not  
that strength lies in the big round     
word1         ,or that the brief and    
plain must needs be weak4       ,to whom
 can this be true who once has heard    
,the cry for help1 the tongue that all  
men speak       ,when want1 or woe1 or  
fear1 is in the throat1         ,so that
 each word gasped out is like a shriek  
,pressed from the sore heart1 or a      
strange wild note         ,sung by some 
fay or fiend4  ,with this may be        
compared the following lines from a     
sonnet by ,longfellow1 in which the     
musical effect of the ,latin element    
will be clearly recognized3       ,i saw

 the long line of the vacant shore1     
,and the sea-weed and the shells upon   
the sand1         ,and the brown rocks  
left bare on every hand1       ,as if   
the ebbing tide would flow no more4     
,then heard ,i1 more distinctly than    
before1         ,the ocean breathe and  
its great breast expand1         ,and   
hurrying came on the defenceless land   
,the insurgent waters with tumultuous   
roar4  ,the use of ,latin words often   
gives clearness and melody to style2 and
 instead of a violent effort to         
,saxonize his writing1 an author should 
clothe his thoughts in the diction that 
is most fitting and expressive4  #ca4   
,diction4 ,aristotle truly said that the
 beginning of style is correctness of   
diction4 ,by diction is meant the choice
 and use of words4 ,good diction lies at
 the basis of good writing4 ,words are  
used to express ideas2 and in view of   
this fundamental principle1 it follows  
that they should be intelligible and    
correct4 ,they should belong to our     

language2 and hence the use of foreign  
words and phrases1 except to supply a   
real want in ,english1 is generally in  
bad taste4 ,the use of provincial       
expressions1 such as tote for carry1 is 
to be avoided1 except in the portrayal  
of provincial character4 ,archaic words1
 as well as those that have not yet     
established themselves1 should not be   
employed4 ,for these two classes of     
words ,pope has laid down an excellent  
rule in his ,essay on ,criticism3       
,in words1 as fashions1 the same rule   
will hold1       ,alike fantastic1 if   
too new or old2       ,be not the first 
by whom the new are tried1       ,nor   
yet the last to lay the old aside4      
,there is sometimes an obvious effort   
among young or half-cultured writers to 
seek after unusual words4  ,unless the  
purpose of discourse is to be defeated1 
it is evident that the words used by a  
writer should have their accepted and   
exact meaning4 ,the study of etymology1 
though sometimes misleading1 is very    

helpful in learning the exact force of  
words4 ,there are very few words in our 
language that are exactly synonymous2   
and while synonyms are often loosely    
used1 the skillful writer is careful to 
distinguish their different shades of   
meaning4 ,this nice use of words1       
impossible to the uncultivated mind1    
adds an exquisite charm to writing4  ,a 
very common fault of diction results in 
what is called fine writing4 ,this fault
 consists in the choice of high-sounding
 words to express commonplace ideas4 ,it
 is the besetting vice of half-educated 
writers4 ,in the hands of such persons a
 fair lady becomes a female possessing  
considerable personal attractions1 and  
drinking liquor turns into ingurgitating
 spirituous stimulus4 ,except for       
purposes of wit or humor1 this          
affectation is not to be tolerated4     
#cb4 ,sentences4 ,in reading various    
authors1 it is readily observed that    
they use different kinds of sentences4  
,some writers use short sentences1      

others long and complicated sentences4  
,in comparing recent authors with those 
of two or three centuries ago1 it will  
generally be found that shorter         
sentences are now more frequent4 ,this  
brevity and simplicity of predication   
has resulted in greater clearness4 ,but 
the constant use of short1 simple       
sentences produces a disagreeable       
monotony4  ,sentences are rhetorically  
distinguished as loose1 periodic1 and   
balanced4 ,a loose sentence is one in   
which the meaning is complete at one or 
more points before the end4 ,thus1 at   
the beginning of ,pilgrim's ,progress1  
we read3 ,as ,i walked through the      
wilderness of this world1 ,i lighted on 
a certain place where was a den1 and    
laid me down in that place to sleep2 and
 as ,i slept1 ,i dreamed a dream4  ,a   
periodic sentence holds the meaning in  
suspense till the close4 ,for example1  
,macaulay writes3 ,if any man could have
 succeeded in this attempt1 a man of    
talents so rare1 of judgments so        

prematurely ripe1 of temper so calm1 and
 of manners so plausible1 might have    
been expected to succeed4  ,a balanced  
sentence consists of two parts1 the one 
corresponding to the other4 ,in         
,johnson's famous parallel we read3 ,the
 style of ,dryden is capricious and     
varied1 that of ,pope is cautious and   
uniform2 ,dryden obeys the motions of   
his own mind1 ,pope constrains his mind 
to his own rules of composition4 ,dryden
 is sometimes vehement and rapid2 ,pope 
is always smooth1 uniform1 and gentle4  
,a good style is apt to make use of all 
three kinds of sentences1 which give an 
agreeable diversity to composition4 ,the
 exclusive use of any one form produces 
monotony4 ,in studying a writer's style1
 it is important to determine the       
prevailing type1 as well as the average 
length1 of his sentences4 ,this         
investigation will give us some insight 
into a source of his weakness or power1 
and furnish a basis of interesting      
comparison with others4  ,every sentence

 should have clearness1 unity1 harmony1 
and strength4 ,of these four qualities1 
clearness is the most important2 for    
without it the purpose of discourse is  
defeated4 ,apart from the right choice  
and position of words1 clearness is     
secured by unity of thought4 ,this      
requires that the main subject retain a 
dominant place throughout the sentence4 
,the writer should not allow himself to 
be switched off from the main           
proposition4 ,harmony is attained by the
 choice of euphonious words1 and by     
their arrangement in an agreeable or    
rhythmical order4 ,strength is secured1 
in large measure1 by the omission of    
unnecessary words4 ,the error of        
repeating the same thought in different 
words is called tautology1 while the use
 of more words than are necessary is    
known as pleonasm or redundancy4 ,the   
fault of redundancy is most likely to be
 found in the use of adjectives2 and a  
chaste or classic style appears         
particularly in a severe self-restraint 

in the use of qualifying expressions4   
#cc4 ,paragraph4 ,a paragraph consists  
of a group of sentences related in      
thought4 ,it contains the discussion of 
a single phase of the subject4 ,the     
nature of the paragraph determines its  
laws4 ,the paragraph1 like each         
sentence1 should be characterized by    
unity4 ,the opening sentence should     
contain the subject1 or phase of the    
subject1 to be discussed4 ,the          
succeeding treatment should be          
cumulative in character1 so that the    
reader is led on by a sense of the      
unfolding of the point under            
consideration4  ,there are various ways 
of expanding or building up the         
paragraph4 ,it may be expanded by a     
process of definition4 ,frequently one  
specification after another is given    
till all sides of the subject have been 
presented4 ,sometimes a general         
statement is followed by concrete and   
individual instances4 ,again1 the       
development of the paragraph takes the  

form of proof or illustration4 ,but     
whatever may be the form of development1
 it should grow in importance till the  
conclusion4  ,the importance of         
paragraphing is often lost sight of by  
even experienced writers4 ,sometimes    
there is an absence of clear1 definite  
thought4 ,hence it happens that we      
frequently find whole pages without any 
break to indicate the transitions of    
thought4 ,such writing is apt to leave a
 confused or obscure impression4        
,,footnotes3  #eg3a ,trench's ,study of 
,words1 #aee4   ,,review ,,questions    
#bh4 ,why is the ,english language      
called composite8 ,which is the         
principal element8 ,how was ,french     
introduced8 ,what was the origin of our 
present ,english8 ,whence came the      
,latin element8 ,name some other        
elements and their sources4 ,what is    
said of the copiousness of our language8
 of the history of words8 ,give         
illustrations4 #bi4 ,what per cent in   
daily use is ,anglo-,saxon8 ,what per   

cent is ,latin8 ,what proportion of the 
,latin element comes through the        
,french8 ,which element is preferable8  
,what classes of words are              
,anglo-,saxon8 ,what per cent of        
,anglo-,saxon words is used by our best 
writers8 ,how do you estimate the       
percentage8 #cj4 ,how is the purpose to 
use a single element of our language    
characterized8 ,contrast the sonnets of 
,alexander and ,longfellow4 ,what should
 determine the writer's choice of words8
 #ca4 ,what did ,aristotle say of       
diction8 ,what is meant by diction8     
,what qualities should diction have8    
,what is said of the use of foreign     
words and phrases8 ,what is a           
provincialism8 ,define archaism and     
neologism4 ,what is ,pope's rule in     
regard to them8 ,what is said of the    
study of etymology8 of synonyms8 of the 
nice use of words8 ,what is meant by    
fine writing8 ,give an illustration4    
#cb4 ,what is the difference in the     
sentences of recent and older writers8  

,what is the gain in short predication8 
,what is the rhetorical classification  
of sentences8 ,define loose1 periodic1  
and balanced sentences4 ,illustrate4    
,what is said of a good style8 ,what    
four characteristics should a sentence  
have8 ,which is the most important8     
,why8 ,what is meant by unity8 ,how is  
harmony attained8 ,how is strength or   
energy secured8 ,explain tautology and  
redundancy4 ,by what is a classic style 
characterized8 #cc4 ,what is a          
paragraph8 ,what should be its chief    
characteristic8 ,what should the opening
 sentence do8 ,how is the paragraph     
expanded or developed8 ,what is the     
effect of bad paragraphing8             
,,illustrative ,,and ,,practical        
,,exercises  ,the following extracts    
should be tested by such questions as   
these3           ,what percentage of the
 words is ,anglo-,saxon8 ,what          
percentage is ,latin8 ,from what sources
 are there          other words8 ,is the
 diction pure1 appropriate1 and         

precise8 ,are there provincialisms1     
archaisms1          neologisms8 ,are    
synonyms carefully discriminated8 ,is   
the diction high-flown8 ,what proportion
 of sentences          are simple8      
complex8 compound8 ,what proportion are 
loose8 periodic8 balanced8 ,what is the 
average          number of words8 ,are  
the sentences clear8 ,do they           
show unity of structure8 ,are they      
harmonious8 ,are          they forcible8
 ,can any words be omitted without loss8
          ,is there tautology or        
redundancy8 ,are the paragraphs         
well built up8 ,by what means are they  
developed8        ,yea1 here they heard 
continually the singing of birds1 and   
saw      every day the flowers appear in
 the earth1 and heard the voice      of 
the turtle in the land4 ,in this country
 the sun shineth      night and day2    
wherefore this was beyond the valley of 
the      ,shadow of ,death1 and also out
 of the reach of ,giant ,despair2       
neither could they from this place so   

much as see      ,doubting-,castle4     
,here they were within sight of the     
,city they      were going to3 also here
 met them some of the inhabitants       
thereof2 for in this land the shining   
ones commonly walked1      because it   
was upon the borders of                 
heaven4--,,bunyan4        ,god that made
 the world and all things therein1      
seeing that he      is ,lord of heaven  
and earth1 dwelleth not in temples made 
with      hands2 neither is worshipped  
with men's hands1 as though he          
needed any thing1 seeing he giveth to   
all life1 and breath1      and all      
things2 and hath made of one blood all  
nations of men      for to dwell on all 
the face of the earth1 and hath         
determined      the times before        
appointed1 and the bounds of their      
habitation2 that they should seek the   
,lord1 if haply they      might feel    
after him1 and find him1 though he be   
not far from      every one of us2 for  
in him we live1 and move1 and have our  

being2 as certain also of your own poets
 have said1 for we are      also his    
offspring4--,,paul4        ,criticism1  
either didactic or defensive1 occupies  
almost all      his prose1 except those 
pages which he has devoted to his       
patrons2 but none of his prefaces were  
ever thought tedious4      ,they have   
not the formality of a settled style1 in
 which the      first half of the       
sentence betrays the other4 ,the clauses
 are      never balanced1 nor the       
periods modeled2 every word seems to    
drop by chance1 though it falls into its
 proper place4 ,nothing      is cold or 
languid2 the whole is airy1 animated1   
and vigorous2      what is little1 is   
gay2 and what is great1 is splendid4 ,he
 may      be thought to mention himself 
too frequently2 but while he      forces
 himself upon our esteem1 we cannot     
refuse him to stand      high in his    
own4 ,everything is excused by the play 
of images      and the spriteliness of  
expression4 ,though all is easy1        

nothing is feeble2 though all seems     
careless1 there is nothing      harsh2  
and though1 since his earlier works1    
more than a      century has passed1    
they have nothing yet uncouth or        
obsolete4--,,samuel ,,johnson4          
,the only accession which the ,roman    
empire received1 during the      first  
century of the ,christian era1 was the  
province of      ,britain4 ,in this     
single instance1 the successors of ,csar
 and      ,augustus were persuaded to   
follow the example of the former1       
rather than the precept of the latter4  
,the proximity of its      situation to 
the coast of ,gaul seemed to invite     
their arms2      the pleasing though    
doubtful intelligence of a pearl fishery
      attracted their avarice2 and as   
,britain was viewed in the      light of
 a distinct and insulated world1 the    
conquest scarcely      formed any       
exception to the general system of      
continental      measures4 ,after a war 
of about forty years1 undertaken by the 

most stupid1 maintained by the most     
dissolute1 and terminated      by the   
most timid of all the emperors1 the far 
greater part of      the island         
submitted to the ,roman yoke4           
,,gibbon4        ,a mob is a society of 
bodies voluntarily bereaving themselves 
of reason1 and traversing its work4 ,the
 mob is man voluntarily      descending 
to the nature of the beast4 ,its fit    
hour of      activity is night4 ,its    
actions are insane1 like its whole      
constitution4 ,it persecutes a          
principle2 it would whip a      right2  
it would tar and feather justice by     
inflicting fire and      outrage upon   
the houses and persons of those who have
 these4      ,it resembles the prank of 
boys who run with fire-engines to       
put out the ruddy aurora streaming to   
the stars4 ,the inviolate      spirit   
turns that spite against the            
wrong-doers4 ,the martyr      cannot be 
dishonored4 ,every lash inflicted is a  
tongue of      fame2 every prison a more

 illustrious abode2 every burned book   
or house enlightens the world2 every    
suppressed or expunged      word        
reverberates through the earth from side
 to side4 ,hours      of sanity and     
consideration are always arriving to    
communities1 as to individuals1 when the
 truth is seen1 and      the martyrs are
 justified4--,,emerson4        ,i deny  
not but that it is of greatest          
concernment1 in the      ,church and    
,commonwealth1 to have a vigilant eye   
how books      demean themselves1 as    
well as men2 and thereafter to confine1 
imprison1 and do sharpest justice on    
them as malefactors4 ,for      books are
 not absolutely dead things1 but do     
contain a potency      of life in them  
to be as active as that soul was whose  
progeny      they are2 nay1 they do     
preserve as in a vial the purest        
efficacy and extraction of that living  
intellect that bred      them4 ,i know  
they are as lively1 and as vigorously   
productive1      as those fabulous      

dragon's teeth2 and1 being sown up and  
down1      may chance to spring up armed
 men4 ,and yet1 on the other hand1      
unless wariness be used1 as good almost 
kill a man as kill a      good book3 who
 kills a man kills a reasonable         
creature1 ,god's      image2 but he who 
destroys a good book kills reason       
itself1      kills the image of ,god1 as
 it were1 in the eye4 ,many a man       
lives a burden to the earth2 but a good 
book is the precious      life-blood of 
a master-spirit1 embalmed and treasured 
up on      purpose to a life beyond     
life4--,,milton4        ,thus the       
,puritan was made up of two different   
men1 the one all      self-abasement1   
penitence1 gratitude1 passion1 the other
      proud1 calm1 inflexible1          
sagacious4 ,he prostrated himself in    
the dust before his ,maker2 but he set  
his foot on the neck of      his king4  
,in his devotional retirement1 he prayed
 with      convulsions1 and groans1 and 
tears4 ,he was half-maddened by         

glorious or terrible illusions4 ,he     
heard the lyres of angels      or the   
tempting whispers of fiends4 ,he caught 
a gleam of the      ,beatific ,vision1  
or woke screaming from dreams of        
everlasting      fire4 ,but when he took
 his seat in the council1 or girt on his
      sword for war1 these tempestuous  
workings of the soul had left      no   
perceptible trace behind them4 ,people  
who saw nothing of      the godly but   
their uncouth visages1 and who heard    
nothing      from them but their groans 
and their whining hymns1 might          
laugh at them4 ,but those had little    
reason to laugh who      encountered    
them in the hall of debate or in the    
field of      battle4--,,macaulay4      
,more manifest still are the            
physiological benefits of      emotional
 pleasures4 ,every power1 bodily and    
mental1 is      increased by good       
spirits1 which is our name for a general
      emotional satisfaction4 ,the truth
 that the fundamental vital             

actions--those of nutrition--are        
furthered by laughter-moving            
conversation1 or rather by the          
pleasurable feeling causing             
laughter1 is one of old standing2 and   
every dyspeptic knows      that in      
exhilarating company1 a large and varied
 dinner1      including not very        
digestible things1 may be eaten with    
impunity1 and1 indeed1 with benefit1    
while a small1 carefully      chosen    
dinner of simple things1 eaten in       
solitude1 will be      followed by      
indigestion4--,,herbert ,,spencer4      
,,note  ,in addition to the foregoing   
extracts1 some of those previously      
given1 in poetry as well as prose1 may  
be studied in the same way4             
,furthermore1 the student may be        
required to examine more at length a few
 authors designated by the teacher1 in  
order to determine 7#a7 the proportion  
of simple1 complex1 and compound        
sentences2 7#b7 the proportion of loose1
 periodic1 and balanced sentences2 7#c7 

the percentage of ,anglo-,saxon or      
,latin words2 and 7#d7 the average      
number of words in a sentence4 ,the     
results will give occasion for          
interesting and instructive comparisons4
     ,,chapter ,v  ,,figures ,,of       
,,speech   #cd4 ,definition4 ,a figure  
of speech is a deviation from the plain 
and ordinary mode of speaking4 ,its     
object is greater effect4 ,figures      
originated1 perhaps1 in a limitation of 
vocabulary2 and many words that are now 
regarded as plain were at first         
figurative4 ,but the use of figures is  
natural1 and at present they are used to
 embellish discourse and to give it     
greater vividness and force4 ,to say    
with ,thomson1 for example1--       ,but
 yonder comes the powerful ,king of day1
       ,rejoicing in the east1--  is far
 more vivid and forceful than to say the
 sun is rising4 ,nearly all great       
writers1 especially poets1 enrich their 
style by the use of figures4  #ce4      
,kinds of ,figures4 ,there are various  

kinds of figures1 which may be reduced1 
however1 to three classes or groups4    
,the figures based upon resemblance are 
simile1 metaphor1 personification1 and  
allegory4 ,those founded on contiguity  
are metonymy1 synecdoche1 exclamation1  
hyperbole1 apostrophe1 and vision4      
,those resting upon contrast are        
antithesis1 climax1 epigram1 and irony4 
,other forms of classification have been
 proposed4 ,there are figures of diction
 and figures of thought2 the former are 
found in the choice of words1 the latter
 in the form of the sentence4 ,to       
figures of diction has been given the   
name of figures of intuition1 because   
they present a sensible image to the    
mind2 to figures of thought has been    
given the name of figures of emphasis1  
because they emphasize the thought4 ,we 
thus get the following division3        
,,figures ,,of ,,intuition       ,simile
      ,metaphor      ,personification   
,allegory      ,metonymy                
,synecdoche      ,apostrophe            

,vision       ,,figures ,,of ,,emphasis 
,interrogation      ,exclamation        
,climax      ,antithesis      ,epigram  
,irony      ,hyperbole  #cf4 ,figures of
 ,resemblance4 7#a7 ,simile is a form of
 comparison in which one thing is       
likened to another4 ,it is usually      
introduced by like or as1 or some other 
word of comparison2 as1--       ,the    
twilight hours like birds flew by1      
,as lightly and as free4  ,it is obvious
 that the things compared in simile     
should have some sort of resemblance4   
,when the points of resemblance are too 
remote the simile is said to be         
farfetched4 ,this was a frequent mistake
 among the so-called metaphysical poets 
of the seventeenth century4 ,except in  
burlesque or mock-heroic styles1        
dignified subjects should not be likened
 to what is trifling or low4 ,the effect
 of such a simile is ridiculous1 as in  
the well-known lines from ,butler's     
,hudibras3       ,and1 like a lobster   
boiled1 the morn       ,from black to   

red began to turn4  7#b7 ,metaphor is an
 abridged simile1 the words expressing  
likeness being omitted4 ,in the         
sentence1 ,roderick ,dhu fought like a  
lion1 we have a simile2 but when we say1
 ,he was a lion in the fight1 we have a 
metaphor4 ,the metaphor is briefer and  
more striking than the simile2 it       
springs from greater emotion or mental  
energy1 and often imparts great force or
 beauty to a passage4 ,thus1 likening   
human life to a voyage at sea1          
,shakespeare says3       ,there is a    
tide in the affairs of men1             
,which1 taken at the flood1 leads on to 
fortune2       ,omitted1 all the voyage 
of their life       ,is bound in        
shallows and in miseries4  ,there are   
several errors that are not infrequent  
in the use of metaphor4 ,a metaphor     
should not be blended with plain        
language in the same sentence1 nor      
should it be extended too far4 ,the     
latter fault is called straining the    
metaphor4 ,two incongruous metaphors    

should not be used in the same sentence4
 ,in the following lines from ,addison  
his muse is first conceived of as a     
steed that needs to be restrained with a
 bridle1 and then as a ship that is     
eager to be launched3       ,i bridle in
 my struggling ,muse with pain1         
,that longs to launch into a bolder     
strain4  7#c7 ,personification is the   
attribution of life to inanimate things4
 ,when we speak of the thirsty ground or
 the angry ocean1 we endow these objects
 with the feelings of living creatures4 
,personification is a bold species of   
metaphor2 it is the offspring of vivid  
feeling or conception1 and often lifts  
discourse to a high plane4 ,thus1 in    
,romeo and ,juliet1 we read1--          
,night's candles are burnt out1 and     
jocund day       ,stands tiptoe on the  
misty mountain tops2  and in ,shelley's 
,queen ,mab1--          ,how wonderful  
is ,death1          ,death and his      
brother ,sleep6      ,one1 pale as      
yonder waning moon1          ,with lips 

of lurid blue2          ,the other1 rosy
 as the morn      ,when1 throned on     
ocean's wave1          ,it blushes o'er 
the world3      ,yet both so passing    
wonderful6  7#d7 ,allegory is the       
description of one object in terms of   
another4 ,it is a sort of continued     
metaphor in which1 however1 the main    
subject of discourse is not mentioned4  
,in the following beautiful allegory1   
the ,jewish people are described in the 
character of a vine3 ,thou hast brought 
a vine out of ,egypt2 thou hast cast out
 the heathen1 and planted it4 ,thou     
preparedst room before it1 and didst    
cause it to take deep root1 and it      
filled the land4 ,the hills were covered
 with the shadow of it1 and the boughs  
thereof were like the goodly cedars4    
,she sent out her boughs unto the sea1  
and her branches unto the river4 ,why   
hast thou then broken down her hedges1  
so that all they which pass by the way  
do pluck her8 ,the boar out of the wood 
doth waste it1 and the wild beast of the

 field doth devour it4 ,return1 we      
beseech thee1 ,o ,god of hosts2 look    
down from heaven1 and behold1 and visit 
this vine2 and the vineyard which thy   
right hand hath planted1 and the branch 
that thou madest strong for             
thyself4#gb3a  ,the parable and the     
fable are closely akin to allegory4 ,a  
parable is a brief narrative of real or 
imaginary incidents for the purpose of  
inculcating some moral or religious     
truth4 ,it has been described as an     
earthly story with a heavenly meaning4  
,a considerable part of ,christ's       
teaching was in parables1 many of which 
are as beautiful as they are profound4  
,a fable is a fictitious story          
introducing animals or even inanimate   
things as rational speakers and actors1 
for the purpose of teaching or enforcing
 a moral4 ,the fables of sop are almost 
universally known1 and the fables of ,la
 ,fontaine exhibit a high degree of     
artistic merit4  #cg4 ,figures of       
,contiguity4 7#a7 ,metonymy consists in 

naming an object by one of its          
attributes or accompaniments4 ,it is    
based1 not on resemblance1 but on       
relation1 such as cause and effect1     
container and thing contained1 material 
and thing made of it1 etc4 ,when we say1
 for example1 that gray hairs are       
venerable1 we mean old age1 putting an  
effect for the cause4 ,in the sentence1 
,socrates drank the fatal cup1 the      
container is put for the thing          
contained1 namely1 the deadly hemlock4  
,the general effect of metonymy is to   
bring before the mind a definite image1 
and thus to impart a graphic quality to 
the style4 ,to say1 ,the pen is mightier
 than the sword1 is more graphic and    
forcible than to say1 ,literature is    
mightier than war4  7#b7 ,synecdoche    
puts a part for the whole1 or a whole   
for the part2 as1 ,the harbor was       
crowded with masts4 ,synecdoche is a    
species of metonymy1 and has the same   
effect of giving vividness4 ,this is    
apparent in a well-known quatrain from  

,goethe3       ,who ne'er his bread in  
sorrow ate1         ,who ne'er the      
mournful midnight hours       ,weeping  
upon his bed has sate1         ,he knows
 you not1 ye heavenly ,powers4  7#c7    
,exclamation is a figure of thought4 ,it
 is the result of kindled emotion1 and  
expresses in exclamatory form what would
 usually be stated in declarative form4 
,thus ,hamlet1 outraged at the conduct  
of his mother1 bursts forth3       ,o   
that this too too solid flesh would     
melt1       ,thaw and resolve itself    
into a dew6       ,or that the          
,everlasting had not fixed       ,his   
canon 'gainst self-slaughter6 ,o ,god6  
,god6       ,how weary1 stale1 flat and 
unprofitable1       ,seem to me all the 
uses of this world6  ,though chiefly    
confined to poetry1 exclamation is      
frequent in fervid prose1 and ,carlyle's
 works fairly bristle with exclamation  
points4  7#d7 ,apostrophe is a direct   
address to the absent as present1 the   
inanimate as living1 or the abstract as 

personal4 ,it is closely allied to      
personification1 with which it is often 
associated4 ,this figure is expressive  
of intense emotion4 ,the following      
passage from ,king ,lear will serve for 
illustration3       ,blow1 winds1 and   
crack your cheeks6 rage6 blow6          
,you cataracts and hurricanoes1 spout   
,till you have drench'd our steeples1   
drown'd the cocks6       ,you sulphurous
 and thought-executing fires1           
,vaunt-couriers to oak-cleaving         
thunderbolts1       ,singe my white     
head6 ,and thou1 all-shaking thunder1   
,smite flat the thick rotundity o' the  
world6  7#e7 ,vision is a description of
 absent things as present4 ,it is suited
 only to animated discourse in either   
prose or poetry4 ,in the midst of the   
argument of ,milton's ,areopagitica we  
find this splendid outburst portraying  
the future of ,england3 ,methinks ,i see
 in my mind a noble and puissant nation 
rousing herself like a strong man after 
sleep1 and shaking her invincible locks2

 methinks ,i see her1 as an eagle1      
mewing her mighty youth1 and kindling   
her undazzled eyes at the full midday   
beam2 purging and scaling her long      
abused sight at the fountain itself of  
heavenly radiance2 while the whole noise
 of timorous and flocking birds1 with   
those also that love the twilight1      
flutter about1 amazed at what she means1
 and in their envious gabble would      
prognosticate a year of sects and       
schisms4  7#f7 ,hyperbole is an         
exaggerated form of statement1 and is   
used to magnify or diminish an object4  
,it is quite natural1 under the impulse 
of strong emotion or imagination1 to use
 exaggerated statements1 and frequently 
it serves to lend piquancy and force to 
style4 ,but this tendency is dangerous1 
and should be kept under restraint4 ,as 
a rule it is best to see and describe   
things as they are4 ,the following from 
,julius ,csar will serve as an example  
of hyperbole3       ,why1 man1 he doth  
bestride the narrow world       ,like a 

,colossus1 and we petty men       ,walk 
under his huge legs and peep about      
,to find ourselves dishonorable graves4 
#ch4 ,figures of ,contrast4 7#a7        
,antithesis presents a strong contrast  
of words or sentiments1 usually in the  
form of balanced sentences4 ,it gives   
force to style by uniting opposite      
things in one conception4 ,its excessive
 use1 however1 becomes monotonous2 and  
antithesis in construction1 without a   
real contrast of thought1 is confusing  
and disagreeable4 ,macaulay1 perhaps1   
makes more frequent use of antithesis   
than any other of our great modern      
writers4 ,of the ,puritans he says3 ,if 
they were unacquainted with the works of
 philosophers and poets1 they were      
deeply read in the oracles of ,god2 if  
their names were not found in the       
registers of heralds1 they felt assured 
that they were recorded in the ,book of 
,life2 if their steps were not          
accompanied by a splendid train of      
menials1 legions of ministering angels  

had charge over them4  7#b7 ,climax     
arranges its words1 phrases1 or clauses 
in an order of increasing               
impressiveness4 ,its proper use gives an
 accumulative force to the sentence4 ,no
 better illustration of the climax can  
be given than the well-known one in     
,cicero's oration against ,verres3 ,to  
bind a ,roman citizen is an outrage2 to 
scourge him is an atrocious crime2 to   
put him to death is almost parricide2   
but to crucify him--what shall ,i call  
it8  ,the arrangement of the words or   
clauses in a descending order is called 
anticlimax or bathos4 ,it is frequently 
used in wit and humor4 ,the following   
sentence is a ridiculous anticlimax3    
,the enemy is now hovering upon our     
borders1 preparing to press the knife to
 our throats1 to devastate our fields1  
to quarter themselves in our houses1 and
 to devour our poultry4  ,the principle 
of the climax is of wide application4   
,not only in the sentence but also in   
the paragraph1 chapter1 and entire work1

 there should be1 as far as possible1   
progress in the importance1 intensity1  
or amplitude of the thought4  7#c7      
,interrogation strengthens an           
affirmation or denial by throwing it    
into the form of a question4 ,it is a   
figure frequent in poetry and emotional 
prose4 ,the following example from      
,gray's ,elegy will be sufficient for   
illustration3       ,can storied urn or 
animated bust         ,back to its      
mansion call the fleeting breath8       
,can ,honor's voice provoke the silent  
dust1         ,or ,flattery soothe the  
dull cold ear of death8  ,these         
questions are not asked for information1
 but for rhetorical effect1 and they    
forcibly suggest the truth of their     
negation4  7#d7 ,epigram is the pungent 
phrasing of a shrewd observation4 ,it   
may be recognized by two                
characteristics1--it must be brief1 and 
it must have an unexpected turn of      
thought4 ,this turn of thought may      
spring from an apparent contradiction1  

from the solemn assertion of a truism1  
from a play on words1 or from other     
sources4 ,there is an apparent          
contradiction in ,wordsworth's          
epigrammatic line1--       ,the child is
 father of the man4  ,there is a play on
 words in the following epigrammatic    
characterization of a loud and violent  
speaker3 ,he mistakes perspiration for  
inspiration4  7#e7 ,irony expresses a   
thought contrary to the form of words4  
,its seeming praise is really           
condemnation2 its compliments are       
insults4 ,its advantage lies in the     
difficulty its victim experiences in    
making a reply4 ,it is useful in        
chastising follies and vices2 but as a  
rule ironic touches are to be preferred 
to continuous irony4 ,the following is  
from ,thackeray3 ,so was ,helen of      
,greece innocent4 ,she never ran away   
with ,paris1 the dangerous young        
,trojan4 ,menelaus1 her husband1        
ill-used her2 and there never was any   
siege of ,troy at all4 ,so was          

,bluebeard's wife innocent4 ,she never  
peeped into the closet where the other  
wives were with their heads off4 ,she   
never dropped the key1 or stained it    
with blood2 and her brothers were quite 
right in finishing ,bluebeard1 the      
cowardly brute6 ,yes1 ,madam ,laffarge  
never poisoned her husband1 and ,mary of
 ,scotland never blew up hers2 and ,eve 
never took the apple--it was a cowardly 
fabrication of the serpent's4           
,,footnotes3  #gb3a ,psalm lxxx4 #h-ae4 
,,review ,,questions  #cd4 ,what is a   
figure8 ,how did it originate8 ,what is 
its object8 ,in what two ways is it     
used8 ,illustrate4 #ce4 ,to how many    
classes may figures be reduced8 ,on what
 are these several groups based8 ,name  
the figures based on resemblance2 those 
based on contiguity2 on contrast4 ,what 
name is given to figures of diction8 to 
figures of thought8 ,state the figures  
of intuition2 of emphasis4 #cf4 ,what is
 a simile8 ,how is it introduced8 ,give 
an illustration4 ,what errors should be 

avoided in the use of simile8 ,what is a
 metaphor8 ,what is its effect as       
compared with a simile8 ,what errors in 
the use of metaphor are to be avoided8  
,what is mixed metaphor8 ,illustrate4   
,what is personification8 ,give an      
example4 ,what is allegory8 ,illustrate4
 ,what is a parable8 ,give an example4  
,what is a fable8  #cg4 ,what is        
metonymy8 ,on what is it based8         
,illustrate4 ,what is its effect on     
style8 ,what is synecdoche8 ,illustrate4
 ,what is exclamation8 ,illustrate4     
,what is apostrophe8 ,to what is it     
closely related8 ,illustrate4 ,what is  
vision8 ,illustrate4 ,what is hyperbole8
 ,give an example4 ,what is said of the 
use of hyperbole8  #ch4 ,what is        
antithesis8 ,what is said of its use8   
,give an example4 ,what is climax8 ,give
 an illustration4 ,what is bathos8      
,illustrate4 ,what is interrogation8    
,illustrate4 ,what is epigram8 ,how     
recognized8 ,illustrate4 ,what is irony8
 ,what is said of its use8 ,illustrate4 

,,illustrative ,,and ,,practical        
,,exercises  ,the following passages    
should be studied in the light of such  
questions as these3           ,what     
figure or figures does the piece        
contain8 ,is it          a figure of    
resemblance1 contiguity1 or contrast8   
,is          it a figure of diction or  
of thought8 ,what is its                
effect8 ,does it give force or beauty to
 the sentence8          ,how would the  
thought be expressed in plain language8 
,is it used consistently8 ,in what way  
does it          strengthen or weaken   
the sentence8 ,is the figure            
trite or original8 ,is it farfetched or 
natural8 ,what          percentage of   
sentences is figurative8 ,are figures   
more common in prose or poetry8 ,why8   
,do the minor or          the major     
poets use more figures8        ,what    
stronger breast-plate than a heart      
untainted8      ,thrice is he armed that
 hath his quarrel just2      ,and he but
 naked though locked up in steel        

,whose conscience with injustice is     
corrupted4                              
,,shakespeare4        ,hast thou left   
thy blue course in heaven1 golden-haired
 son of      the sky8 ,the west hath    
opened its gates2 the bed of thy repose 
is there4 ,the waves gather to behold   
thy beauty2 they lift      their        
trembling heads2 they see thee lovely in
 thy sleep2 but      they shrink away   
with fear4 ,rest in thy shadowy cave1 ,o
 ,sun6      and let thy return be in    
joy4--,,macpherson4        ,i see before
 me the ,gladiator lie2      ,he leans  
upon his hand2 his manly brow           
,consents to death1 but conquers agony1 
,and his drooped head sinks gradually   
low2      ,and through his side the last
 drops1 ebbing slow      ,from the red  
gash1 fall heavy1 one by one1      ,like
 the first of a thunder-shower2 and now 
,the arena swims around him2 he is gone1
      ,ere ceased the inhuman shout     
which hailed the wretch who             
won4--,,byron4        ,if a man indulges

 himself in murder1 very soon he comes  
to      think little of robbing2 and    
from robbing he comes next to           
drinking and ,sabbath-breaking1 and from
 that to incivility and                 
procrastination4--,,de ,,quincey4       
,assemble all the poor men of your sort2
      ,draw them to ,tiber banks and    
weep your tears      ,into the channel1 
till the lowest stream      ,do kiss the
 most exalted shores of                 
all4--,,shakespeare4        ,no doubt   
but ye are the people1 and wisdom shall 
die with      you4--,,job4        ,the  
,assyrian came down like the wolf on the
 fold1      ,and his cohorts were       
gleaming in purple and gold2      ,and  
the sheen of their spears was like stars
 on the sea1      ,when the blue wave   
rolls nightly on deep                   
,galilee4--,,byron4                     
,the best of men      ,that e'er wore   
earth about him was a sufferer1         
,the first true gentleman that ever     
breathed4--,,dekker4        ,the glories

 of our birth and state        ,are     
shadows1 not substantial things2        
,there is no armor against fate2        
,death lays his icy hand on kings4      
,scepter and crown              ,must   
tumble down1        ,and in the dust be 
equal made        ,with the poor crooked
 scythe and spade4--,,shirley4          
,what a piece of work is man6 how noble 
in reason6 how infinite      in faculty6
 in form and moving how express and     
admirable6 in      action how like an   
angel6 in apprehension how like a god6  
the      beauty of this world6 the      
paragon of animals6 ,and yet1 to me1    
what is this quintessence of dust8 man  
delights not me2 no1      nor woman     
neither1 though by your smiling you seem
 to say      so4--,,shakespeare4        
,great lords1 wise men ne'er sit and    
wail their loss1      ,but cheerly seek 
how to redress their harms4      ,what  
though the mast be now thrown overboard1
      ,the cable broke1 the holding     
anchor lost1      ,and half our sailors 

swallowed in the flood8      ,yet lives 
our pilot still4 ,is 't meet that he    
,should leave the helm1 and1 like a     
fearful lad1      ,with tearful eyes1   
add water to the sea1      ,and give    
more strength to that which hath too    
much1      ,while in his moan the ship  
splits on the rock1      ,which industry
 and courage might have saved8      ,ah1
 what a shame6 ah1 what a fault were    
this6                                   
,,shakespeare4        ,the unwonted     
lines which momentary passion had ruled 
in ,mr4      ,pickwick's clear and open 
brow gradually melted away1 as his      
young friend spoke1 like the marks of a 
black lead pencil      beneath the      
softening influence of ,india           
rubber4--,,dickens4        ,when thus1  
as ,i may say1 before the use of the    
loadstone1 or      knowledge of the     
compass1 ,i was sailing in a vast ocean1
      without other help than the       
pole-star of the ancients1 and      the 
rules of the ,french stage among the    

moderns4--,,dryden4        ,once as ,i  
told in glee      ,tales of the stormy  
sea1      ,soft eyes did gaze on me1    
,burning but tender2      ,and as the   
white stars shine      ,on the dark     
,norway pine1      ,on that dark heart  
of mine        ,fell their soft         
splendor4--,,longfellow4        ,since  
the vessel of thy unbounded ambition    
hath been wrecked      in the gulf of   
thy self-love1 it would be proper that  
thou      shouldst take in the sails of 
thy temerity1 and cast the      anchor  
of repentance in the port of sincerity  
and justice1      which is the port of  
safety2 lest the tempest of our         
vengeance      make thee perish in the  
sea of the punishment thou              
deservest4--,,anon4                     
,she never told her love1      ,but let 
concealment1 like a worm in the bud1    
,feed on her damask cheek2 she pined in 
thought2      ,and1 with a green and    
yellow melancholy1      ,she sat like   
,patience on a monument1      ,smiling  

at grief4--,,shakespeare4               
,england ne'er had a king until his     
time2      ,virtue he had1 deserving to 
command2      ,his brandished sword did 
blind men with its beams2      ,his arms
 spread wider than a dragon's wings2    
,his sparkling eyes1 replete with awful 
fire1      ,more dazzled1 and drove back
 his enemies1      ,than midday sun     
fierce beat against their faces4        
,what should ,i say8 his deeds exceed   
all speech2      ,he never lifted up his
 hand1 but conquered4                   
,,shakespeare4        ,earth proudly    
wears the ,parthenon1      ,as the best 
gem upon her zone1      ,and ,morning   
opes with haste her lids      ,to gaze  
upon the ,pyramids2      ,o'er          
,england's abbeys bends the sky1        
,as on its friends1 with kindred eye2   
,for out of ,thought's interior sphere  
,those wonders rose to upper air2       
,and ,nature gladly gave them place1    
,adopted them into her race1      ,and  
granted them an equal date      ,with   

,andes and with ,ararat4--,,emerson4    
,,note  ,in addition to the extracts    
here given1 the student might examine   
those connected with previous chapters1 
and discover the various figures they   
contain4 ,furthermore1 it is recommended
 that he study the figures in a whole   
piece2 as ,milton's ,l',allegro or ,il  
,penseroso1 ,goldsmith's ,deserted      
,village1 ,gray's ,elegy1 ,burns's      
,cotter's ,saturday ,night1             
,wordsworth's ,ode on ,intimations of   
,immortality1 ,coleridge's ,ancient     
,mariner1 ,moore's ,paradise and the    
,peri1 ,shelley's ,adonais1 ,tennyson's 
,passing of ,arthur1 ,longfellow's      
,building of the ,ship1 ,lowell's       
,vision of ,sir ,launfal1 and many      
others that will occur to the teacher4  
,let him determine the percentage of    
figurative sentences1 and compare the   
results with those obtained from an     
examination of the prose of ,macaulay1  
,ruskin1 ,carlyle1 ,de ,quincey1        
,lowell1 and other standard writers4    

,this comparison will throw light on the
 essential difference between poetry and
 prose4     ,,chapter ,,vi  ,,style     
#ci4 ,definition4 ,style means an       
author's mode of expression4 ,it is not1
 as is sometimes supposed1 an artificial
 trick1 but a genuine expression of the 
mind and character4 ,buffon had the     
right idea when he said1 ,the style is  
the man4 ,it derives its leading        
characteristics from the intellect1     
culture1 and character of the writer4 ,a
 man of independent force and integrity 
gives natural expression to his         
personality4 ,his style reveals his     
mental and moral qualities4 ,only       
weaklings1 who are afraid to be natural 
and who are destitute of substantial    
worth1 become conscious imitators or    
affect artificial peculiarities4  ,we   
have already considered style as related
 to diction1 different kinds of         
sentences1 and figures of speech4 ,it   
remains to consider it1 first1 in       
relation to the various kinds of        

discourse1 and1 secondly1 to the generic
 types of mind4  #dj4 ,kinds of         
,discourse4 ,there are four generic     
kinds of discourse1 namely1 description1
 narration1 exposition1 and argument4   
,though frequently united in the same   
work1 or even in the same paragraph1    
they are yet clearly distinguishable4   
,each has a well-defined purpose and    
method1 to which the mode of expression 
is naturally bent or adapted4 ,the      
result is what may be called a          
descriptive1 narrative1 expository1 or  
argumentative style4 ,these different   
kinds of discourse will now be          
considered and illustrated in greater   
detail4  7#a7 ,description is the       
portrayal of an object by means of      
language4 ,the object described may     
belong either to the material or the    
spiritual world4 ,it may be a single    
flower1 a landscape1 or a stellar       
system4 ,the purpose of description is  
to enable the reader to reproduce the   
scene1 object1 or experience in his own 

imagination4 ,in general there are two  
kinds of description1--the objective and
 the subjective2 but the laws of both   
are the same4 ,there must be a judicious
 selection and grouping of the details1 
and their number must be so restricted  
as not to produce confusion4  ,objective
 description portrays objects as they   
exist in the external world4 ,it points 
out in succession their distinguishing  
features4 ,thus we read in ,wordsworth's
 ,a ,night ,piece1--       ,the         
traveller looks up--the clouds are split
       ,asunder--and above his head he  
sees       ,the clear moon1 and the     
glory of the heavens4       ,there1 in a
 black-blue vault she sails along1      
,followed by multitudes of stars1 that1 
small       ,and sharp1 and bright1     
along the dark abyss       ,drive as she
 drives2 how fast they wheel away1      
,yet vanish not6--the wind is in the    
tree1       ,but they are silent2--still
 they roll along       ,immeasurably    
distant2 and the vault       ,built     

round by those white clouds1 enormous   
clouds4  ,subjective description notes  
the effects produced by an external     
object or scene on the mind and heart4  
,the eye of the writer is turned inward 
rather than outward2 he brings before us
 the thoughts1 feelings1 fancies that   
are started within his soul4 ,thus      
,browning speaks of music in his early  
poem1 ,pauline3       ,for music 7which 
is earnest of a heaven1       ,seeing we
 know emotions strange by it1       ,not
 else to be revealed7 is as a voice1    
,a low voice calling fancy1 as a friend1
       ,to the green woods in the gay   
summer time2       ,and she fills all   
the way with dancing shapes       ,which
 have made painters pale1 and they go   
on1       ,while stars look at them and 
winds call to them1       ,as they leave
 life's path for the twilight world     
,where the dead gather4  7#b7 ,narration
 is a recital of incidents or events in 
an orderly sequence4 ,it is closely     
related to description1 with which it is

 frequently joined in the same          
paragraph4 ,the one is used to aid or   
supplement the other4 ,like description1
 narration has its place in nearly every
 form of composition2 and in history1   
fiction1 and epic poetry it constitutes1
 perhaps1 the body of discourse4 ,the   
incidents narrated should be selected   
according to their interest and         
importance2 they should usually be      
presented in their chronological order1 
and there should be a perceptible and   
often a rapid movement toward a definite
 end4 ,in all artistic narration we find
 unity1 proportion1 and completeness4   
,the following extract from ,addison's  
,vision of ,mirza will serve for        
illustration3 ,on the fifth day of the  
moon--which1 according to the custom of 
my forefathers1 ,i always keep          
holy--after having washed myself and    
offered up my morning devotions1 ,i     
ascended the high hills of ,bagdat1 in  
order to pass the rest of the day in    
meditation and prayer4 ,as ,i was here  

airing myself on the tops of the        
mountains1 ,i fell into a profound      
contemplation on the vanity of human    
life2 and1 passing from one thought to  
another1 ',surely1' said ,i1 'man is but
 a shadow1 and life a dream4'  7#c7     
,exposition explains the nature or      
meaning of things4 ,the purpose of      
description is to form a picture2 of    
narration1 to portray an event2 of      
exposition1 to set forth the distinctive
 nature of an object or conception4 ,the
 methods of exposition are various4 ,in 
the first place1 the distinguishing     
features of an object may be presented2 
and in this case exposition partakes of 
the nature of description4 ,in the      
second place1 an object or idea may be  
explained by pointing out its effects2  
and in this case exposition partakes of 
the character of narration4 ,in the     
third place1 we may explain or define an
 object or conception by indicating its 
resemblance or its unlikeness to        
something else that is known4 ,but      

whatever method of exposition is        
adopted1 it should be full and definite 
enough to impart a clear idea of the    
thing explained4 ,every text-book will  
furnish examples of exposition2 the     
following is taken from ,hitchcock's    
,geology3 ,a volcano is an opening in   
the earth from whence matter has been   
ejected by heat1 in the form of lava1   
scoria1 or ashes4 ,usually the opening  
called the crater is an inverted cone2  
and around it there rises a mountain in 
the form of a cone1 with its apex       
truncated1 produced by the elevation of 
the earth's crust and the ejection of   
lava4  7#d7 ,argumentation is the       
process of establishing the truth or    
falsity of a thing4 ,the means it uses  
is called proof or evidence1 and will be
 considered more fully in a subsequent  
chapter treating of oratory4 ,this proof
 or evidence may be derived from        
principles originating in the mind1 in  
which case it is called intuitive2 or it
 may be found in external sources1 in   

which case it is called empirical4 ,the 
latter includes1 among other forms of   
proof1 a statement of facts1 a          
consideration of the nature or          
circumstances of the case1 the testimony
 of eyewitnesses1 and an appeal to      
authority or generally accepted         
principles4 ,when the argument is       
attended with an appeal to the feelings 
and will1 it is known as persuasion4 ,in
 the following extract1 note the three  
facts adduced by ,mark ,antony to prove 
that ,csar was not ambitious4       ,he 
was my friend1 faithful and just to me3 
,but ,brutus says he was ambitious2     
,and ,brutus is an honorable man4       
,he hath brought many captives home to  
,rome1       ,whose ransoms did the     
general coffers fill3       ,did this in
 ,csar seem ambitious8       ,when that 
the poor have cried1 ,csar hath wept3   
,ambition should be made of sterner     
stuff4              99       99       99
       99       99        ,you all did  
see that on the ,lupercal       ,i      

thrice presented him a kingly crown1    
,which he did thrice refuse3 was this   
ambition8  #da4 ,generic ,differences of
 ,mind4 ,as we have just seen1 style is 
affected in a measure by the species of 
discourse4 ,it is determined1 further1  
by the mental constitution of the       
writer1 and varies according to the     
dominance of particular faculties4 ,we  
may distinguish four generic types of   
mind1 which are reflected in four       
fundamental differences of style4  7#a7 
,when the logical faculties of the mind 
predominate1 the style will be simple1  
direct1 and plain4 ,it is apt to be dry4
 ,the following extract from ,locke's   
,thoughts on ,education will serve for  
illustration3 ,i say this1 that1 when   
you consider of the breeding of your    
son1 and are looking out for a          
schoolmaster1 or a tutor1 you would not 
have 7as is usual7 ,latin and logic only
 in your thoughts4 ,learning must be    
had1 but in the second place1 as        
subservient only to greater qualities4  

,seek out somebody that may know how    
discreetly to frame his manners2 place  
him in hands1 where you may1 as much as 
possible1 secure his innocence1 cherish 
and nurse up the good1 and gently       
correct and weed out any bad            
inclinations1 and settle in him good    
habits4 ,this is the main point2 and1   
this being provided for1 learning may be
 had into the bargain4  7#b7 ,again1 the
 imagination may predominate4 ,in this  
case the writer is continually leaving  
the main thought to bring in additional 
and embellishing ideas1 particularly if 
he is a man of wide experience or great 
learning4 ,the result is apt to be an   
elaborate or stately style4 ,lowell's   
style is eminently characterized by a   
play of the imagination4 ,his essay on  
,spenser begins as follows3 ,chaucer had
 been in his grave one hundred and fifty
 years ere ,england had secreted choice 
material enough for the making of       
another great poet4 ,the nature of men  
living together in societies1 as of the 

individual man1 seems to have its       
periodic ebbs and floods1 its           
oscillations between the ideal and the  
matter-of-fact1 so that the doubtful    
boundary line of shore between them is  
in one generation a hard sandy actuality
 strewn only with such remembrances of  
beauty as a dead sea-moss here and      
there1 and in the next is whelmed with  
those lacelike curves of ever-gaining1  
ever-receding foam1 and that dance of   
joyous spray which for a moment catches 
and holds the sunshine4  ,when the      
imagination is ill-governed1 and        
especially in the case of inexperienced 
writers1 the resulting style is apt to  
be florid or bombastic4 ,the following  
passage from ,headley's ,sacred         
,mountains1 connected with a description
 of the crucifixion1 is imaginative     
extravagance1--a vain1 artificial effort
 at the sublime3 ,i know not but all the
 radiant ranks on high1 and even        
,gabriel himself1 turned with the       
deepest solicitude to the ,father's     

face1 to see if ,he was calm and        
untroubled amid it all4 ,i know not but 
,his composed brow and serene majesty   
were all that restrained ,heaven from   
one universal shriek of horror when they
 heard groans on ,calvary--dying groans4
 ,i know not but they thought ,god had  
given ,his glory to another1 but one    
thing ,i do know1 that when they saw    
through the vast design1 comprehended   
the stupendous scene1 the hills of ,god 
shook to a shout that never before rang 
over their bright tops1 and the crystal 
sea trembled to a song that had never   
before stirred its bright depths1 and   
the ',glory to ,god in the ,highest' was
 a sevenfold chorus of hallelujahs and  
harping symphonies4 ,thoughtful writers 
of refined taste are more reserved and  
reverent in speaking of occurrences in  
the celestial world4  7#c7 ,again1 the  
sensibilities may be in the ascendant4  
,there is then a quick and full response
 to the beauties of nature and human    
life4 ,the style becomes warm1 graphic1 

glowing1 pictorial4 ,unless held in     
check by intellectual culture1 an excess
 of sensibility is likely to degenerate 
into sentimentalism4 ,when combined with
 judgment and imagination1 as in the    
case of ,ruskin1 an emotional           
temperament yields admirable results4   
,take the following splendid passage    
from ,modern ,painters1 descriptive of a
 sunrise in the ,alps3 ,wait for one    
hour1 until the east again becomes      
purple1 and the heaving mountains1      
rolling against the darkness1 like waves
 of a wild sea1 are drowned one by one  
in the glory of its burning2 watch the  
white glaciers blaze in their winding   
paths about the mountains1 like mighty  
serpents with scales of fire2 watch the 
columnar peaks of solitary snow1        
kindling downwards1 chasm by chasm1 each
 in itself a new morning2 their long    
avalanches cast down in keen streams    
brighter than the lightning1 sending    
each its tribute of driven snow1 like   
altar-smoke1 up to the heaven2 the      

rose-light of their silent domes        
flushing that heaven about them and     
above them1 piercing with purer light   
through its purple lines of lifted      
cloud1 casting a new glory on every     
wreath as it passes by1 until the whole 
heaven--one scarlet canopy--is          
interwoven with a roof of waving flame1 
and tossing1 vault beyond vault1 as with
 the drifted wings of many companies of 
angels2 and then1 when you can look no  
more for gladness1 and when you are     
bowed down with fear and love of the    
,maker and ,doer of this1 tell me who   
has best delivered this ,his message    
unto men6  7#d7 ,once more1 force of    
will1 firmness of conviction1 energy of 
character are conducive to strength4    
,where these exist there will be        
directness of aim1 and the style will be
 clear1 unwavering1 and strong4 ,there  
will be positiveness of statement1 and  
sometimes intolerant dogmatism4 ,carlyle
 and ,macaulay are among our strongest  
writers1 the former being rugged1 and   

the latter more polished in his         
strength4 ,macaulay's broad-shouldered1 
stout-limbed constitution is reflected  
in such passages as the following from  
his essay on ,lord ,bacon3 ,the moral   
qualities of ,bacon were not of a high  
order4 ,we do not say that he was a bad 
man4 ,he was not inhuman or tyrannical4 
,he bore with meekness his high civil   
honors1 and the far higher honors gained
 by his intellect4 ,he was very seldom1 
if ever1 provoked into treating any     
person with malignity and insolence4 ,no
 man more readily held up the left cheek
 to those who had smitten the right4 ,no
 man was more expert at the soft answer 
which turneth away wrath4 ,his faults   
were--we write it with pain--coldness of
 heart and meanness of spirit4 ,he seems
 to have been incapable of feeling      
strong affection1 of facing great       
dangers1 of making great sacrifices4    
,his desires were set on things below4  
,wealth1 precedence1 titles1 patronage1 
the mace1 the seals1 the coronet1 large 

houses1 fair gardens1 rich manors1      
massive services of plate1 gay hangings1
 curious cabinets1 had as great         
attractions for him as for any of the   
courtiers who dropped on their knees in 
the dirt when ,elizabeth passed1 and    
then hastened home to write to the ,king
 of ,scots that her ,grace seemed to be 
breaking fast4  #db4 ,symmetrical       
,faculties4 ,when the mental faculties  
are symmetrical and harmonious in their 
operation1 no particular feature of     
style may stand out prominent4 ,it will 
bend to suit the exigencies of the      
subject4 ,it will rise and sink with the
 varying thought and feeling4 ,it will  
be judicious1 and at times commonplace4 
,but if1 at the same time1 mental       
symmetry is united with fineness of     
fiber and with adequate culture and     
practice1 the style will probably be1 as
 in the case of ,addison and ,irving1   
full of grace and elegance4 ,note the   
easy grace with which ,addison begins   
his first paper on the ,pleasures of the

 ,imagination3 ,our sight is the most   
perfect and most delightful of all our  
senses4 ,it fills the mind with the     
largest variety of ideas1 converses with
 its objects at the greatest distance1  
and continues longest in action without 
being tired or satiated with its proper 
enjoyments4 ,the sense of feeling can   
indeed give us a notion of extension1   
shape1 and all other ideas that enter at
 the eye1 except colors2 but at the same
 time it is very much strained1 and     
confined in its operations1 to the      
number1 bulk1 and distance of its       
particular objects4 ,our sight seems    
designed to supply all these defects1   
and may be considered as a more delicate
 and diffusive kind of touch1 that      
spreads itself over an infinite         
multitude of bodies1 comprehends the    
largest figures1 and brings into our    
reach some of the most remote parts of  
the universe4  ,every passing mood and  
every peculiarity of mind or character  
are reflected in the style4 ,it may be  

gay1 humorous1 serious1 sad1 melancholy1
 according to the state of the writer's 
feelings4 ,it may be colloquial or      
stately1 concise or diffuse1 plain or   
florid1 flowing or abrupt1 feeble or    
energetic1 natural or affected1         
commonplace or epigrammatic1--as varied1
 in fact1 as the character and mental   
constitution of the writers4 ,but every 
writer has a prevailing style2 and it is
 an interesting study to determine the  
nature of his mind and character from   
his works4  #dc4 ,importance of ,style4 
,a good style is a matter of importance4
 ,the success or failure of a literary  
work depends largely upon the manner in 
which its statements are presented4 ,the
 classic works of ,greece and ,rome owe 
their popularity and influence not so   
much to the facts which they contain as 
to the art with which their contents are
 given4 ,our most popular ,english      
writings1 especially in fiction and     
poetry1 owe their vogue1 in no small    
degree1 to some excellence or charm of  

style4 ,it is chiefly in history1       
science1 and philosophy that the weight 
of fact and thought may be in a measure 
independent of style4 ,darwin's ,origin 
of ,species would be a great book even  
if its style were far more uninteresting
 than is really the case4   ,,review    
,,questions  #ci4 ,what is style8       
,whence does it derive its              
characteristics8 ,what is ,buffon's     
remark8 ,who become imitators8 #dj4     
,what four general kinds of discourse   
are there8 ,to what four kinds of style 
do they lead8 ,what is description8     
,what is its purpose8 ,what two kinds of
 description are there8 ,illustrate4    
,what is narration8 ,how is it related  
to description8 ,where is it dominant8  
,how should its facts be presented8     
,what is necessary in artistic          
narration8 ,illustrate4 ,what is        
exposition8 ,how does it differ from    
description and narration8 ,what three  
kinds of exposition are mentioned8 ,what
 constitutes a good exposition8         

,illustrate4 ,what is argumentation8    
,what means does it use8 ,what two kinds
 of proof are mentioned8 ,what may      
constitute empirical proof8 ,illustrate4
  #da4 ,what further determines style8  
,what four generic types of mind are    
there8 ,what is the result when the     
logical faculties are dominant8 ,what is
 the effect of a dominant imagination8  
,what author is quoted in illustration8 
,when the imagination is ill-regulated1 
what is the result8 ,what illustration  
is given8 ,what is the effect of strong 
sensibilities8 ,into what may sentiment 
degenerate8 ,what is the result when    
combined with judgment and imagination8 
,who is quoted in illustration8 ,what is
 the effect of will power8 ,who are     
mentioned as strong writers8  #db4 ,what
 is said of symmetrical faculties8 ,what
 will be the result when united with    
delicacy and culture8 ,who are mentioned
 in illustration8 ,what may be reflected
 in style8 ,what kinds of style thus    
result8 ,why has every writer a         

distinctive style8 #dc4 ,why is a good  
style important8 ,to what do many       
writings1 ancient and modern1 owe their 
popularity8   ,,illustrative ,,and      
,,practical ,,exercises  ,the following 
extracts should be carefully studied4   
,the diction1 forms of sentences1 and   
figures1 as presented in the two        
preceding chapters1 may be investigated 
along with the further elements of style
 just considered4 ,such questions as the
 following may be applied to the        
selections3           ,what kind of     
discourse is it8 ,is it descriptive8 ,is
          it objective or subjective8   
,what points are          described8 ,is
 it narrative8 ,is it expository8 ,by   
what          means is the elucidation  
made8 ,is it argumentative8             
,what kind of proof is used8 ,is the    
thought the chief          concern of   
the writer8 ,is the piece imaginative8  
,does          it abound in adjectives8 
,does it present pictures8 ,is          
it stately and in full dress8 ,what     

faculty          predominates8 ,does it 
glow with feeling8 ,does it             
reach the point of sentimentalism8 ,does
 it show a          love of nature8 of  
humanity8 ,do the emotions count        
for more than the thought8 ,is it       
energetic or          vehement8 ,has the
 writer positive convictions8 ,is he    
hesitating or dogmatic8 ,is it graceful 
or elegant8          ,does it exhibit   
eccentricity or sanity8 ,is it smooth1  
abrupt1 laconic1 epigrammatic1 humorous1
 colloquial8          ,are there other  
characteristics8        ,long lines of  
cliff breaking have left a chasm2       
,and in the chasm are foam and yellow   
sands2      ,beyond1 red roofs about a  
narrow wharf      ,in cluster2 then a   
mouldered church2 and higher      ,a    
long street climbs to one tall-towered  
mill2      ,and high in heaven behind it
 a gray down      ,with ,danish barrows2
 and a hazel-wood1      ,by autumn      
nutters haunted1 flourishes      ,green 
in a cuplike hollow of the              

down4--,,tennyson4        ,the ,normans 
gave way4 ,the ,english pressed forward4
 ,a cry went      forth among the       
,norman troops that ,duke ,william was  
killed4      ,duke ,william took off his
 helmet1 in order that his face         
might be distinctly seen1 and rode along
 the line before his      men4 ,this    
gave them courage4 ,as they turned again
 to face the      ,english1 some of the 
,norman horse divided the pursuing body 
of      the ,english from the rest1 and 
thus all that foremost portion      of  
the ,english army fell1 fighting        
bravely4--,,dickens4        ,poetry of  
late has been termed a force1 or mode of
 force1 very      much as if it were the
 heat1 or light1 or motion known to     
physics4 ,and1 in truth1 ages before our
 era of scientific      reductions1 the 
energia--the vital energy--of the       
minstrel's      song was undisputed4 ,it
 seems to me1 in spite of all we hear   
about materialism1 that the sentiment   
imparting this      energy--the poetic  

impulse1 at least--has seldom been more 
forceful than at this moment4           
,,stedman4        ,how inexhaustibly the
 spirit grows6      ,one object1 she    
seemed erewhile born to reach      ,with
 her whole energies and die content1--  
,so like a wall at the world's edge it  
stood1      ,with nought beyond to live 
for1--is that reached8--      ,already  
are new undreamed energies              
,outgrowing under1 and extending farther
      ,to a new object2 there's another 
world6--,,browning4        ,i have heard
 that nothing gives an author so great  
pleasure as      to find his works      
respectfully quoted by other learned    
authors4 ,this pleasure ,i have seldom  
enjoyed2 for though ,i      have been1  
if ,i may say it without vanity1 an     
eminent author      7of almanacs7       
annually1 now a full quarter of a       
century1 my      brother authors in the 
same way 7for what reason ,i know not7  
have ever been very sparing in their    
applauses2 and no other      author has 

taken the least notice of me3 so that1  
did not my      writings produce me some
 solid pudding1 the great deficiency    
of praise would have quite discouraged  
me4--,,franklin4        ,studies serve  
for delight1 for ornament1 and for      
ability4      ,their chief use for      
delight is in privateness and retiring2 
for ornament1 is in discourse2 and for  
ability1 is in the      judgment and    
disposition of business2 for expert men 
can      execute1 and perhaps judge of  
particulars1 one by one2 but      the   
general counsels1 and the plots and     
marshalling of      affairs1 come best  
from those that are learned4 ,to spend  
too      much time in studies1 is sloth2
 to use them too much for      ornament1
 is affectation2 to make judgment wholly
 by their      rules1 is the humor of a 
scholar3 they perfect nature1 and are   
perfected by experience2 for natural    
abilities are like      natural plants1 
that need pruning by study2 and studies 
themselves do give forth directions too 

much at large except      they be       
bounded in by experience4--,,bacon4     
,we want the same glorious privileges   
which we enjoy to go down      to our   
children4 ,we cannot sleep well the last
 sleep1 nor will      the pillow of dust
 be easy to our heads until we are      
assured      that the ,god of our       
,american institutions in the past1 will
 be      the ,god of our ,american      
institutions in the days that are to    
come4 ,oh1 when all the rivers which    
empty into the ,atlantic      and       
,pacific seas shall pull on factory     
bands1 when all the      great mines of 
gold1 and silver1 and iron1 and coal    
shall be      laid bare for the nation1 
when the last swamp shall be            
reclaimed1 and the last jungle cleared1 
and the last ,american      desert      
,edenized1 and from sea to sea the      
continent shall be      occupied by more
 than twelve hundred million souls1 may 
it be      found that moral and         
religious influences were multiplied in 

more rapid ratio than the population4   
,and then there shall be      four      
doxologies coming from north1 and south1
 and east1 and      west--four          
doxologies rolling toward each other and
 meeting      mid-continent with such   
dash of holy joy that they shall mount  
to the throne4                          
,,talmage4        ,books6 'tis a dull   
and endless strife3        ,come1 hear  
the woodland linnet1      ,how sweet his
 music6 on my life1        ,there's more
 of wisdom in it4       ,and hark6 how  
blithe the throstle sings6        ,he1  
too1 is no mean preacher2      ,come    
forth into the light of things1         
,let ,nature be your                    
teacher4--,,wordsworth4        ,she is  
sensible of my sufferings4 ,this morning
 her look      pierced to my very soul4 
,i found her alone1 and she was         
silent2 she steadfastly surveyed me4 ,i 
no longer saw in her      face the charm
 of beauty or the fire of genius2 these 
had      disappeared4 ,but ,i was       

affected by an expression much more     
touching1 a look of the deepest sympathy
 and of the softest      pity4 ,why was 
,i afraid to throw myself at her feet8  
,why did ,i      not dare to take her in
 my arms1 and answer her by a thousand  
kisses8 ,she had recourse to her piano  
for relief1 and in a low      and sweet 
voice accompanied the music with        
delicious sounds4      ,her lips never  
appeared so lovely2 they seemed but just
 to      open1 that they might imbibe   
the sweet tones which issued from       
the instrument1 and return the heavenly 
vibration from her      lovely mouth4   
,oh6 who can express my sensations8 ,i  
was quite      overcome1 and1 bending   
down1 pronounced this vow3 ,beautiful   
lips1 which the angels guard1 never will
 ,i seek to profane      your purity    
with a kiss4                            
,,goethe4        ,the only happiness a  
brave man ever troubled himself with    
asking much about was happiness enough  
to get his work done4      ,not ,i can't

 eat6 but ,i can't work6 that was the   
burden of      all wise complaining     
among men4 ,it is1 after all1 the one   
unhappiness of a man4 ,that he cannot   
work2 that he cannot get      his       
destiny as a man fulfilled4 ,behold1 the
 day is passing      swiftly over1 our  
life is passing swiftly over2 and the   
night      cometh1 wherein no man can   
work4 ,the night once come1 our         
happiness1 our unhappiness1--it is all  
abolished2 vanished1      clean gone2 a 
thing that has been3 not of the         
slightest      consequence whether we   
were as happy as eupeptic ,curtis1 as   
the fattest pig of ,epicurus1 or unhappy
 as ,job with potsherds1      as musical
 ,byron with ,giaours and sensibilities 
of the heart4      ,but our             
work1--behold1 that is not abolished1   
that has not      vanished3 our work1   
behold1 it remains1 or the want of it   
remains2 for endless ,times and         
,eternities1 remains2 and that      is  
now the sole question with us           

forevermore4--,,carlyle4        ,among  
the powers in man which suffer by this  
too intense life      of the social     
instincts1 none suffers more than the   
power of      dreaming4 ,let no man     
think this a trifle4 ,the machinery for 
dreaming planted in the human brain was 
not planted for      nothing4 ,that     
faculty1 in alliance with the mystery of
      darkness1 is the one great tube   
through which man communicates      with
 the shadowy4 ,and the dreaming organ1  
in connection with      the heart1 the  
eye1 and the ear1 composes the          
magnificent      apparatus which forces 
the infinite into the chambers of a     
human brain1 and throws dark reflections
 from eternities below      all life    
upon the mirrors of the sleeping        
mind4--,,de ,,quincey4                  
,thus with the year      ,seasons       
return2 but not to me returns      ,day1
 or the sweet approach of even or morn  
,or sight of vernal bloom1 or summer's  
rose1      ,or flocks1 or herds1 or     

human face divine2      ,but cloud      
instead and ever-during dark            
,surrounds me1 from the cheerful ways of
 men      ,cut off1 and1 for the book of
 knowledge fair1      ,presented with a 
universal blank      ,of ,nature's      
works1 to me expunged and rased1        
,and wisdom at one entrance quite shut  
out4                                    
,,milton4        ,it happened one day1  
about noon1 going towards my boat1 ,i   
was      exceedingly surprised with the 
print of a man's naked foot on      the 
shore1 which was very plain to be seen  
in the sand4 ,i      stood like one     
thunder-struck1 or as if ,i had seen an 
apparition4 ,i listened1 ,i looked      
around me1 ,i could hear      nothing1  
nor see anything4 ,i went up to a rising
 ground to      look farther4 ,i went up
 the shore1 and down the shore1 but it  
was all one1 ,i could see no other      
impressions but that one4 ,i      went  
to it again to see if there were any    
more1 and to observe      if it might   

not be my fancy2 but there was no room  
for that1      for there was exactly the
 very print of a foot1 toes1 heel1      
and every part of a foot4 ,how it came  
thither ,i knew not1 nor      could in  
the least imagine4--,,defoe4   ,,note   
,it would be well to apply the critical 
principles of this chapter1 and indeed  
of the entire ,part ,second1 to some    
brief but complete work4 ,for this      
purpose the teacher might assign        
,macaulay's ,essay on ,milton1 ,de      
,quincey's ,joan of ,arc1 ,tennyson's   
,enoch ,arden1 ,webster's ,first ,bunker
 ,hill ,oration1 or some other similar  
work4 ,after determining the diction1   
prevailing type of sentences1 and       
figures of speech1 let the student      
divide the work1 as far as possible1    
into its descriptive1 narrative1        
expository1 argumentative1 and          
persuasive portions4 ,in many cases the 
various kinds of discourse will be so   
interwoven that the classification will 
be doubtful and difficult4 ,at the same 

time the student might point out the    
passages in which thought1 imagination1 
feeling1 or energy of will predominates 
in a marked degree4 ,the effort should  
be made accurately to characterize the  
author's style as a whole4     ,,part   
,,third  ,,kinds ,,of ,,literature      
,,chapter ,,vii  ,,nature ,,and         
,,structure ,,of ,,poetry   #dd4        
,definition4 ,we may approximately      
define poetry as the metrical expression
 of lofty or beautiful thought1 feeling1
 or action1 in imaginative and artistic 
form4 ,its metrical character           
distinguishes it from prose2 for there  
is no such thing as prose poetry1 though
 we sometimes find1 as in the best      
passages of ,ruskin1 poetical prose4    
,its sthetic idea or content1 its       
exquisite diction1 and its artistic form
 distinguish genuine poetry from mere   
verse1 which is the mechanical or       
unartistic expression of commonplace    
thought1 feeling1 or incident4 ,poetry  
is1 in large measure1 a product of the  

creative imagination2 and in its highest
 forms there must be energy of passion1 
intensity yet delicacy of feeling1      
loftiness of thought1 depth and         
clearness of intuitive vision4 ,it is   
the metrical expression of an exaltation
 of soul1 which sometimes suffuses the  
objects of nature and the scenes of     
human life with a beauty and glory of   
its own1--       ,the light that never  
was on sea or land1       ,the          
consecration and the poet's dream4  #de4
 ,poetry and ,prose4 ,poetry occupies a 
region above prose4 ,while prose in its 
highest flights approaches the plane of 
poetry1 and poetry in its lowest descent
 touches the level of prose1 they are   
yet essentially different4 ,the one is  
commonplace1 the other elevated or      
ideal4 ,this truth is brought out       
clearly when we compare the same fact or
 incident of history as related in      
poetry and prose4 ,the neid is very     
unlike a prose account of the founding  
of ,rome4 ,we sometimes say in plain    

prose1 ,the evening passed pleasantly   
and quickly2 but when the poet describes
 it1 there is an elevation of thought   
and glow of feeling that make it ideal3 
,the twilight hours like birds flew by1 
,as lightly and as free2       ,ten     
thousand stars were in the sky1         
,ten thousand in the sea4       ,for    
every wave with dimpled face            
,that leaped upon the air1       ,had   
caught a star in its embrace1           
,and held it trembling there4  #df4     
,sources of ,poetry4 ,nature is filled  
with poetry4 ,the great poet is ,god1   
and he has filled the universe with     
rhythm1 harmony1 beauty4 ,human poems   
are but faulty shells gathered on the   
shore of the divine ocean of poetry4    
,the stars are the poetry of the skies4 
,the planets and stellar systems that   
circle in their glorious orbits preserve
 a sublime harmony of movement4 ,the    
light that reaches us from distant      
worlds comes to us in rhythmical        
wavelets4 ,every human life is a        

poem1--often an amusing comedy1 but     
still oftener a moving tragedy4 ,the    
tender friendships1 the innocent joys1  
the noble aspirations1 the high         
achievements of men1 form the lyric     
poetry of human existence4 ,the rippling
 of the forest stream within its shady  
banks of fern1 the rhythmical roll and  
heavy roar of the ocean surges1 are the 
poetry of the sparkling waters4 ,the    
audible silence and mysterious          
whisperings of the dark and majestic    
forest1 the modest hiding of the little 
violet that gives charm to some         
neglected spot1--this is the poetry of  
the woods and fields4 ,whether we look  
upon earth1 or air1 or sky1 we may be   
sure that the unwritten poetry of ,god  
is there4 ,in our best moments we feel  
its presence1--its mute yet eloquent    
appeal to our higher natures4 ,it lifts 
us up into fellowship with ,him who thus
 speaks to us4  #dg4 ,the ,poet4 ,when  
material interests dominate the life of 
a people1 the poet is generally         

undervalued4 ,he is apt to be regarded  
as an unpractical1 or even an eccentric 
and valueless member of society4 ,too   
often the eccentricities of genius      
afford some basis for this prejudice2   
but it is wholly groundless in the case 
of the largest and most gifted of the   
poetic race4 ,high poetic gifts are     
favorable to the noblest types of       
manhood4 ,the great poet1 beyond all    
other men1 possesses an intuitive       
insight into truth1 depth of feeling1   
and appreciation of beauty4 ,these gifts
 lift the poet out of the rank of common
 men1 and make him1 in his moments of   
highest inspiration1 a prophet to his   
people4 ,in the language of ,bailey in  
his ,festus1--       ,poetry is itself a
 thing of ,god2       ,he made ,his     
prophets poets1 and the more       ,we  
feel of poesy1 do we become       ,like 
,god in love and power--under makers4   
,among the greatest of every nation1    
whether ancient or modern1 poets stand  
almost preminent4 ,in the ,old          

,testament history there is no one      
greater than the sweet ,psalmist of     
,israel4 ,homer stands in almost        
solitary grandeur in the early annals of
 ,greece4 ,in the history of ,italy1    
what name is to be placed above that of 
,dante8 ,in ,england there are1 perhaps1
 no names to be ranked above those of   
,chaucer1 ,shakespeare1 ,milton1        
,tennyson1 whose imperishable works     
abide with us1 and in no small degree   
mould the thought and feeling of each   
succeeding generation4 ,and among the   
illustrious citizens of our own country 
there are few or none who have reached a
 higher nobility of character than its  
great singers1--,longfellow1 ,bryant1   
,whittier1 ,hayne1 and ,lowell4 ,their  
lives were no less sane than beautiful4 
#dh4 ,the ,poet as ,seer4 ,the poet is  
preminently a seer4 ,he discerns the    
divine beauty and truth of life which   
escape the common sight2 and because he 
reveals them to us in his melodious art 
he becomes an exalted teacher4 ,in the  

midst of the tumults of greed and gain  
he lifts up his voice to witness of     
higher things4 ,in the presence of what 
seemed to her a sordid generation1 ,mrs4
 ,browning calls poets       ,the only  
truth-tellers now left to ,god1         
,the only speakers of essential truth1  
,opposed to relative1 comparative1      
,and temporal truths2 the only holders  
by       ,his sun-skirts1 through       
conventional gray glooms2       ,the    
only teachers who instruct mankind1     
,from just a shadow on a charnel-wall1  
,to find man's veritable stature out1   
,erect1 sublime--the measure of a man4  
,the poet1 with his intenser nature1    
gives expression to our deepest thoughts
 and feelings4 ,what we have often felt 
but vaguely1 he utters for us in        
imperishable forms4 ,in how many things 
,shakespeare has voiced the human soul6 
,while poetry has rippling measures     
suited to our smiles1 it belongs1 in its
 richest form1 to the deeper side of our
 nature4 ,its loftiest numbers are given

 to truth and righteousness1 to the     
tragic strivings and sorrows of life1   
and to the mysteries of deathless love4 
#di4 ,versification4 ,versification is  
the science of making verse4 ,the unit  
or starting point in versification is   
the syllable1 which may be long or      
short1 according to the time it requires
 in pronouncing1 and accented or        
unaccented1 according to the stress of  
tone with which it is pronounced4       
,quantity1 by which is meant the length 
of syllables1 formed the basis of       
versification in ,latin and ,greek      
poetry2 but in ,english poetry it is    
used to give variety1 music1 or some    
other element of effectiveness to the   
verse4 ,this may be illustrated in a    
well-known passage from ,pope3          
,when ,ajax strives some rock's vast    
weight to throw1       ,the line1 too1  
labors1 and the words move slow2        
,not so1 when swift ,camilla scours the 
plain1       ,flies o'er the unbending  
corn1 and skims along the main4  ,the   

first two lines occupy more time in     
reading than the last two1 the sound in 
each case corresponding in some measure 
to the sense4 ,an examination of the    
lines will show that the first two have 
more long vowel sounds than the last    
two1 and that these and other vowel     
sounds are lengthened in pronunciation  
by the presence of difficult consonant  
combinations4 ,ajax strives and rock's  
vast weight are not phrases that slip   
quickly from the tongue4 ,furthermore1  
the second line is lengthened by no     
fewer than three pauses4  ,the principle
 of ,english verse is accent1 and not   
quantity4 ,in the line1       ,the mossy
 marbles rest1  it will be observed that
 every other syllable receives a stress 
of voice or is accented4 ,the scheme of 
the verse may be represented as follows3
       u-'u-'u-'1  the line being broken
 up into three equal and similar parts1 
each of which is called a foot4 ,the    
foot consisting of an unaccented        
followed by an accented syllable is     

called an iambus4  ,in the line1        
,home they brought her warrior dead1  we
 observe that beginning with the first  
syllable every other one is accented1   
giving us the following as the scheme of
 the verse3       -'u-'u-'u-'4  ,the    
last foot is obviously incomplete or    
catalectic4 ,the foot that consists of  
two syllables1 the first of which is    
accented1 is called a trochee4 ,it is   
the opposite of the iambus4  ,again1 in 
the line1       ,this is the forest     
primeval2 the murmuring pines and the   
hemlocks1  it will be noticed that1     
beginning with the first1 each accented 
syllable is followed by two unaccented  
syllables1 except in the last foot1     
which is a trochee4 ,the scheme of the  
verse is as follows3                    
-'uu-'uu-'uu-'uu-'uu-'u4  ,this foot1   
consisting of one accented syllable1    
followed by two unaccented syllables1 is
 called a dactyl4  ,once more1 in the   
line1       ,through the depths of ,loch
 ,katrine the steed shall career1  the  

third syllable is accented1 and the     
scheme of the verse may be thus         
indicated3       uu-'uu-'uu-'uu-'4      
,this foot1 which is the opposite of the
 dactyl1 is known as the anapest4  ,a   
spondee is a foot of two equally        
accented syllables2 as1 mainspring1     
sea-maid4 ,there is still another foot1 
known as the amphibrach1 which consists 
of three syllables1 the second of which 
is accented1 as in the word de-ni'-al4  
,the scheme of the following line1      
,the flesh was a picture for painters to
 study1  may be indicated thus3         
u-'uu-'uu-'uu-'u4  ,but nearly all      
,english poetry is based upon the four  
feet1--iambus1 trochee1 dactyl1 and     
anapest1--first given4  #ej4 ,meters4 ,a
 verse is named from the number of      
prevailing feet4 ,a verse containing one
 iambic foot is called iambic monometer2
 two feet1 iambic dimeter2 three feet1  
iambic trimeter2 four feet1 iambic      
tetrameter2 five feet1 iambic           
pentameter2 six feet1 iambic hexameter4 

,the line1       ,the twilight hours    
like birds flew by1  is made up of four 
iambic feet1 and is therefore an iambic 
tetrameter4 ,iambic pentameter1 in which
 ,milton's ,paradise ,lost1 much of     
,pope's poetry1 ,shakespeare's dramas1  
and1 indeed1 a large proportion of      
,english verse1 are written1 is called  
heroic measure4  ,in like manner we have
 trochaic monometer1 dimeter1 trimeter1 
tetrameter1 pentameter1 and hexameter4  
,the following line1       ,as unto the 
bow the cord is1  is trochaic           
tetrameter1 which is the meter of       
,hiawatha4  ,the foregoing are called   
dissyllabic meters2 but the trisyllabic 
measures have the same names according  
to the number of feet4 ,a verse         
consisting of a single dactyl is thus   
dactylic monometer2 of two dactyls1     
dactylic dimeter2 and so on up to       
dactylic hexameter1 which is the meter  
of ,homer's ,iliad1 ,vergil's neid1 and 
,longfellow's ,evangeline and ,courtship
 of ,miles ,standish4 ,the line1        

,softly the breezes descend in the      
valley1  is dactylic tetrameter1 though 
the last foot is a trochee4  ,in like   
manner we have anapestic lines of all   
lengths from monometer to hexameter4    
,the line1       ,how she smiled1 and ,i
 could not but love1  contains three    
anapests1 and is therefore anapestic    
trimeter4  ,but the time element of a   
poetic foot is important1 as it explains
 the seeming irregularities often met   
with in verse4 ,an additional syllable  
may be added to a foot or subtracted    
from it when the time of the foot or    
verse is not changed4 ,by rapid         
utterance two syllables are often equal 
to one1 and in this way an anapest is   
frequently used with the time value of  
an iambus4 ,in like manner a pause may  
sometimes take the place of an          
unaccented syllable4 ,both cases are    
fully illustrated in ,tennyson's        
well-known lyric1--             ,break1 
break1 break1      ,on thy cold gray    
stones1 ,o sea6  ,in spite of the       

seeming irregularity of this poem1 the  
presence of the proper time element1    
together with the regular accents1      
preserves its metrical harmony4  ,there 
are few poems without slight metrical   
irregularities4 ,the meter is varied to 
prevent monotony1 to give emphasis to a 
word1 or to respond better to some turn 
of the thought or feeling4 ,take1 for   
example1 the following couplet from     
,wordsworth3       ,to me the meanest   
flower that blows can give              
,thoughts that do often lie too deep for
 tears4  ,the meter is iambic           
pentameter2 but the first foot of the   
second line is a trochee1 and emphasizes
 thoughts with fine effect4 ,the time of
 the line remains unchanged4  ,in       
,milton we read1--       ,leviathan1    
which ,god of all his works             
,created hugest that swim the ocean     
stream4  ,this is likewise iambic       
pentameter2 but in the second line a    
clumsy anapestic foot is inserted to    
correspond to the nature of the monster 

described4 ,no doubt irregularities     
sometimes occur by oversight or from    
lack of skill2 but with our greater     
poets1 whose thought and emotion        
instinctively assume the proper metrical
 form1 the irregularities are motived4  
#ea4 ,rhyme4 ,rhyme1 or as it is more   
correctly spelled rime1 is a similarity 
of sound between words or syllables4    
,identity of sound1 as heir1 air1 site1 
sight1 is not rhyme4 ,it usually occurs 
between words at the end of a verse1 and
 serves to lend both beauty and emphasis
 to poetry4 ,the order in which rhymes  
occur is various4 ,they may be found in 
succeeding lines2 as1--       ,the tear 
down childhood's cheek that flows       
,is like the dewdrop on the rose2       
,when next the summer breeze comes by1  
,and shakes the bush1 the flower is dry4
  ,they may occur in alternate lines2   
as1--       ,the sun has long been set2 
,the stars are out by twos and threes2  
,the little birds are piping yet        
,among the bushes and the trees4  ,or   

the rhymes may occur at longer          
intervals2 as1--       ,i envy not in   
any moods         ,the captive void of  
noble rage1         ,the linnet born    
within the cage1       ,that never knew 
the summer woods4  ,in double rhyme the 
correspondence of sound extends to two  
syllables1 and in triple rhyme to three4
 ,a double rhyme1 as pleasure1 measure1 
is also called feminine1 while single   
rhymes are called masculine4 ,the       
following illustrates both double1 or   
feminine1 and masculine rhymes3         
',tis the hour when happy faces         
,smile around the taper's light2        
,who will fill our vacant places8       
,who will sing our songs to-night8  ,the
 following from ,hood illustrates triple
 rhyme3       ,take her up tenderly1    
,lift her with care2       ,fashioned so
 slenderly1         ,young and so fair4 
,triple rhyme is usually employed only  
in a light1 satirical1 or mocking vein4 
,byron uses it frequently in his        
frivolous or reckless moods2 for        

example1--       ,o world that was and  
is6 ,what is cosmogony8         ,some   
people have accused me of misanthropy1  
,and yet ,i know no more than the       
mahogany         ,that forms this desk  
of what they mean2 lycanthropy       ,i 
comprehend2 for1 without transformation 
,men become wolves on any slight        
occasion4  ,middle rhyme is that which  
exists between the middle and final     
words or syllables of a verse4 ,it is   
frequently used in the ,the ,ancient    
,mariner3       ,the fair breeze blew1  
the white foam flew1           ,the     
furrow followed free2       ,we were the
 first that ever burst           ,into  
that silent sea4  ,sectional rhyme is   
that occurring in the first half or     
section of a verse2 as1--       ,lightly
 and brightly breaks away       ,the    
morning from her mantle gray4           
,alliteration is the use of the same    
letter at the beginning of two or more  
words or syllables in the same verse or 
successive verses4 ,it was the          

determining principle in ,anglo-,saxon  
poetry1 and has remained ever since a   
source of harmony in ,english verse4    
,its effects are sometimes most pleasing
 when the alliteration turns on one or  
more internal syllables4 ,the following 
from ,mrs4 ,browning's ,romance of the  
,swan's ,nest will serve for            
illustration3       ,little ,ellie sits 
alone1         ,and the smile she softly
 uses       ,fills the silence like a   
speech1         ,while she thinks what  
shall be done1       ,and the sweetest  
pleasure chooses         ,for her future
 within reach4  ,the light rippling     
melody of this stanza is due1 in        
considerable measure1 to its fine       
alliterative structure4  ,tennyson      
likewise makes effective use of         
alliteration1 as may be noted especially
 in the matchless lyrics interspersed   
throughout ,the ,princess4 ,a single    
stanza will make this clear3        ,the
 splendor falls on castle walls         
,and snowy summits old in story2        

,the long light shakes across the lakes 
,and the wild cataract leaps in glory4  
,blow1 bugle1 blow1 set the wild echoes 
flying1      ,blow1 bugle2 answer1      
echoes1 dying1 dying1 dying4  #eb4      
,stanzas4 ,a stanza is a separate       
division of a poem1 and contains two or 
more lines or verses4 ,a stanza of two  
lines is called a couplet2 of three     
lines1 a triplet2 of four lines1 a      
quatrain4 ,tennyson's ,locksley ,hall is
 in two-line stanza3       ,men1 my     
brothers1 men the workers1 ever reaping 
something          new2      ,that which
 they have done but earnest of the      
things that they          shall do4     
,his ,two ,voices is in the triplet     
stanza3       ,a still small voice spake
 unto me1       ',thou art so full of   
misery1       ,were it not better not to
 be8'       ,then to the still small    
voice ,i said1       ',let me not cast  
in endless shade       ,what is so      
wonderfully made4'  ,numerous examples  
of the four-line stanza have already    

been given4  ,rhyme royal is a          
seven-line stanza invented by ,chaucer4 
,as will be seen from the following     
example1 it is made up of iambic        
pentameter lines1 the first four forming
 a quatrain of alternate rhymes1 the    
fifth line repeating the rhyme of the   
fourth1 and the last two lines forming a
 rhyming couplet4 ,its scheme is a b a b
 b c c1 in which the same letters       
indicate rhymes4       ,for lo6 the sea 
that fleets about the land1         ,and
 like a girdle clips her solid waist1   
,music and measure both doth understand1
         ,for his great crystal eye is  
always cast         ,up to the moon1 and
 on her fixeth fast2           ,and as  
she circles in her pallid sphere1       
,so danceth he about the centre here4   
,ottava rima is composed of eight iambic
 pentameter verses with alternate       
rhymes1 except the last two lines1 which
 form a rhymed couplet4 ,byron's ,don   
,juan is written in this stanza4 ,the   
scheme of rhyme is a b a b a b a c4     

',tis sweet to hear the watch-dog's     
honest bark         ,bay deep-mouthed   
welcome as we draw near home2           
',tis sweet to know there is an eye will
 mark         ,our coming1 and look     
brighter when we come2       ',tis sweet
 to be awakened by the lark         ,or 
lulled by falling waters2 sweet the hum 
,of bees1 the voice of girls1 the song  
of birds1       ,the lisp of children1  
and their earliest words4  ,the         
,spenserian stanza1 invented by ,edmund 
,spenser and employed by him in the     
,faerie ,queene1 is a difficult but     
effective form of poetry4 ,it consists  
of nine verses1 the first eight being   
iambic pentameter1 and the ninth line   
iambic hexameter1 or ,alexandrine4 ,its 
rhyme scheme is a b a b b c b c c4 ,the 
following from ,byron's ,childe ,harold 
will serve for illustration3            
,to sit on rocks1 to muse o'er flood and
 fell1            ,to slowly trace the  
forest's shady scene1          ,where   
things that own not man's dominion      

dwell1            ,and mortal foot hath 
ne'er or rarely been2            ,to    
climb the trackless mountain all unseen1
          ,with the wild flock that     
never needs a fold2            ,alone   
o'er steeps and foaming falls to lean2  
,this is not solitude2 'tis but to hold 
,converse with ,nature's charms1 and    
view her stores unrolled4  ,the         
principal hymn stanzas are known as long
 meter1 common meter1 and short meter4  
,the long-meter stanza is composed of   
four iambic tetrameter lines1 rhyming   
either alternately or in couplets2 as1  
,wide as the world is ,thy command2     
,vast as eternity ,thy love2       ,firm
 as a rock ,thy truth must stand1       
,when rolling years shall cease to move4
  ,the common-meter stanza contains four
 iambic lines1 the first and third being
 tetrameter1 and the second and fourth  
trimeter4 ,the rhymes are alternate2 as1
       ,eternity1 with all its years1   
,stands present to ,thy view2       ,to 
,thee there's nothing old appears1      

,to ,thee there's nothing new4  ,the    
short-meter stanza consists of four     
iambic lines1 the first1 second1 and    
fourth being trimeter1 and the third    
tetrameter4 ,the rhymes are alternate2  
as1       ,let good or ill befall1      
,it must be good for me2       ,secure  
of having ,thee in all1         ,of     
having all in ,thee4  #ec4 ,blank       
,verse4 ,unrhymed poetry1 usually in    
iambic pentameter measure1 is known as  
blank verse4 ,it is our ordinary epic   
and dramatic verse1 as exemplified in   
,shakespeare and ,milton4 ,blank verse  
has greater freedom than rhymed verse1  
but the attainment of a high degree of  
excellence in it is scarcely less       
difficult4 ,it approaches the ease and  
freedom of prose1 and perhaps for that  
reason it is apt to sink below a high   
level of poetry4  ,apart from its       
diction and meter1 the harmony of blank 
verse depends upon two things1--namely1 
its pauses and its periods4 ,the        
rhythmical pause occurring in a line is 

called a csura4 ,though usually falling 
near the middle of the line1 the csural 
pause may occur at any point1 and       
sometimes there may be two csuras4      
,there is generally a rhythmical pause  
at the end of a verse1 and when this    
pause is stressed by a completion of the
 sense the line is said to be end-stopt2
 but if the sense awaits completion in  
the following verse1 the line is said to
 be run-on4 ,the ,french name           
enjambement is sometimes used to        
designate a run-on line4 ,the following 
extract from ,thomson will serve to     
illustrate the csural pauses1 as well as
 end-stopt and run-on lines3            
,these as they change1  ,almighty       
,father1  these       ,are but the      
varied ,god4  ,the rolling year         
,is full of thee4  ,forth in the        
pleasant ,spring       ,thy beauty      
walks1  thy tenderness and love4        
,wide flush the fields2  the softening  
air is balm2       ,echo the mountains  
round2 the forest smiles2       ,and    

every sense1  and every heart1 is joy4  
,then comes thy glory  in the summer    
months       ,with light and heat       
refulgent4  ,then thy sun       ,shoots 
full perfection  through the swelling   
year4  ,by period is meant the          
conclusion of the sentence4 ,the period 
or end of a sentence may fall at the end
 of a line or at any point in it4 ,the  
period serves to break up the poem into 
longer or shorter parts4 ,in ,milton the
 sentences are generally long1 and the  
periods thus break up the poem into a   
sort of stanza of varying length4       
,run-on lines are the prevailing type2  
and this fact1 in connection with the   
length of the sentences and the constant
 shifting of the pauses1 imparts to his 
,paradise ,lost its peculiar organ roll4
 ,the following passage will serve to   
make this clear3       ,of man's first  
disobedience1  and the fruit       ,of  
that forbidden tree1  whose mortal taste
       ,brought death into our world1   
and all our woe1       ,with loss of    

,eden1  till one greater ,man           
,restore us1  and regain the blissful   
seat1       ,sing1 ,heavenly ,muse1     
that on the secret top       ,of ,oreb1 
or of ,sinai1  didst inspire       ,that
 shepherd  who first taught the chosen  
seed       ,in the beginning  how the   
heavens and earth       ,rose out of    
,chaos4                                 
,or1 if ,sion hill       ,delight thee  
more1  and ,siloa's brook that flowed   
,fast by the oracle of ,god1  ,i thence 
,invoke thy aid  to my adventurous song1
       ,that with no middle flight      
intends to soar       ,above the ,aonian
 mount1  while it pursues       ,things 
unattempted yet  in prose or rhyme4     
,these sixteen lines practically make   
two stanzas4 ,twelve lines1 or three    
fourths of the whole number1 are run-on4
 ,the csural pause1 as will be seen on  
counting the feet in connection with    
which they occur1 is exceedingly varied4
  ,with the two foregoing extracts may  
be compared the following from          

,shelley's ,alastor1 in which all the   
periods are end-stopt1 and divide the   
selection into clearly recognizable and 
almost regular stanzas4 ,it will be     
noted that the movement and effect are  
very different from those of ,thomson   
and ,milton4       ,there was a poet    
whose untimely tomb       ,no human hand
  with pious reverence reared1          
,but the charmed eddies  of autumnal    
winds       ,built o'er his mouldering  
bones  a pyramid       ,of mouldering   
leaves  in the waste wilderness4        
,a lovely youth1  no mourning maiden    
decked       ,with weeping flowers  or  
votive cypress wreath       ,the lone   
couch  of his everlasting sleep2        
,gentle and brave and generous1  no lorn
 bard       ,breathed o'er his dark fate
  one melodious sigh2       ,he lived1  
he died1 he sang1  in solitude4         
,strangers have wept  to hear his       
passionate notes2       ,and virgins1   
as unknown he passed1  have pined       
,and wasted  for fond love of his wild  

eyes4       ,the fire of those soft orbs
  has ceased to burn1       ,and        
,silence1  too enamored of that voice1  
,locks its mute music  in her rugged    
cell4  ,it will be observed that not    
only all the periods1 but also twelve   
out of the seventeen lines are          
end-stopt4  #ed4 ,poetic ,style4 ,by    
poetic style is meant the choice and    
arrangement of words peculiar to poetry4
 ,while in the main poetic and prose    
diction is the same1 still there are    
words and verbal combinations admissible
 only in poetry4 ,poetry strives after  
concreteness and vividness of           
expression4 ,such words as steed1 swain1
 wight1 muse1 ,pegasus1 yclept1 a-cold1 
sprent1 bower1 meed1 isle1 a-field1     
dight1 sooth1 hight1 and many others1   
are hardly ever met with in ordinary    
prose4 ,their prose equivalents are     
generally preferred4  ,poetry uses great
 freedom1 called poetic license1 in the 
order of words and construction of      
sentences4 ,the principal deviations    

from the prose order are as follows3    
7#a7 ,the verb may precede the subject  
for the sake of emphasis or meter2 as1  
,came a troop with broad swords         
swinging4  7#b7 ,the verb may follow its
 object2 as1       ,thee1 shepherd1 thee
 the woods1 and desert caves1       ,and
 all their echoes1 mourn4  7#c7 ,the    
infinitive may precede the word on which
 it depends2 as1       ,when first thy  
sire1 to send on earth       ,virtue1   
his darling child1 designed4  7#d7      
,prepositional phrases may precede the  
verbs they modify2 as1       ,of man's  
first disobedience1 sing1 ,heavenly     
,muse4  7#e7 ,the preposition may follow
 the noun it governs2 as1       ,from   
peak to peak1 the rattling crags among1 
,leaps the live thunder4  7#f7 ,adverbs 
may precede the words they modify2 as1  
,the plowman homeward plods his weary   
way4  7#g7 ,condensed expressions in the
 form of compound epithets are          
frequently used2 as1       ,o music1    
sphere-descended maid6  7#h7 ,an        

expletive pronoun may be used to throw  
the subject after the verb2 as1         
,it ceased1 the melancholy sound4  7#i7 
,the relative pronoun may be omitted2   
as1       ',tis fancy1 in her fiery car1
       ,transports me to the thickest   
war4  7#aj7 ,intransitive verbs are     
sometimes used with an objective case2  
as1       ,still in harmonious          
intercourse they lived       ,the rural 
day1 and talked the flowing heart4      
7#aa7 ,archaic or antiquated words and  
modes of expression may be used2 as1    
,whilome in ,albion's isle there dwelt a
 youth       ,who ne in virtue's ways   
did take delight4  7#ab7 ,the noun may  
precede the adjective modifying it2 as1 
,the willows1 and the hazel copses      
green4   ,,review ,,questions  #dd4     
,what is poetry8 ,how is it             
distinguished from prose8 ,what is the  
difference between poetry and verse8    
#de4 ,what is the relative position of  
poetry and prose8 ,illustrate the       
difference4 #df4 ,what is the source of 

poetry8 ,what is said of human life8    
,what constitutes its lyric poetry8     
,mention some mental aspects of nature4 
#dg4 ,how is the poet regarded in a     
materialistic age8 ,with what is the    
great poet gifted8 ,what is ,bailey's   
estimate of poets8 ,what is said of the 
rank of great poets8 ,mention some of   
the world's greatest poets4 #dh4 ,why is
 the poet called a seer8 ,what is his   
relation to his contemporaries8 ,what   
does ,mrs4 ,browning say of poets8 ,what
 is said of ,shakespeare8 ,to what class
 of themes does the best poetry give    
itself8  #di4 ,what is versification8   
,what is its unit8 ,how are syllables   
distinguished8 ,what is the function of 
quantity in ,english verse8 ,illustrate4
 ,what is the principle of ,english     
verse8 ,what is a metrical foot8 ,define
 iambus8 ,illustrate4 ,define a trochee1
 with example4 ,when is a verse or foot 
catalectic8 ,define a dactyl1 with      
illustration4 ,define an anapest1 with  
example4 ,define a spondee2 amphibrach1 

with example4  #ej4 ,how is a verse     
named8 ,what is iambic trimeter8 ,what  
is iambic pentameter called8 ,what is   
trochaic tetrameter8 ,illustrate4 ,what 
is dactylic hexameter8 ,illustrate4     
,mention some well-known poems written  
in this meter4 ,what is anapestic       
trimeter8 ,illustrate4 ,on what         
principle may a syllable be added to a  
foot or omitted from it8 ,explain the   
irregularities in the first two lines of
 ,tennyson's ,break1 break1 break4 ,what
 is said of metrical irregularities8    
,what is their purpose8 ,illustrate from
 ,wordsworth and ,tennyson4  #ea4 ,what 
is rhyme8 ,of what use is it8 ,in what  
order may rhymes occur8 ,illustrate4    
,what is a double rhyme8 ,what other    
name has it8 ,illustrate4 ,what is a    
triple rhyme8 ,illustrate4 ,when is     
triple rhyme usually employed8 ,what is 
middle rhyme8 ,illustrate4 ,what is     
sectional rhyme8 ,illustrate4 ,what is  
alliteration8 ,what is said of it8 ,give
 illustrations from ,mrs4 ,browning and 

,tennyson4  #eb4 ,what is a stanza8     
,what is a stanza of two lines called8  
of three8 of four8 ,illustrate4 ,explain
 rhyme royal2 ottava rima2 ,spenserian  
stanza4 ,illustrate4 ,explain the usual 
hymn meters1 illustrating in each case4 
#ec4 ,what is blank verse8 ,what is said
 of its freedom and difficulty8 ,on what
 does its harmony depend8 ,what is meant
 by csura8 ,what is an end-stopt line8  
,a run-on line8 ,what ,french name is   
used for the latter8 ,what is meant by  
period8 ,into what does the period      
practically divide blank verse8 ,on what
 does ,milton's organ roll depend8      
,point out a notable difference between 
,milton's and ,shelley's blank verse4   
#ed4 ,what is meant by poetic style8    
,what is said of poetic diction8        
,mention some poetic words4 ,state some 
of the leading deviations in            
construction8   ,,illustrative ,,and    
,,practical ,,exercises  ,the following 
selections should be examined in the    
light of such questions as these3       

,is it poetry or verse8 ,what lifts it  
above prose8          ,does it treat of 
nature1 man1 or ,god8 ,is it            
intellectual1 emotional1 or both8 ,what 
is the poet's          idea8 ,is it     
commonplace1 true1 elevated1 delicate1  
exquisite8 ,what is the mood of the     
poet1--serious1          playful1       
humorous1 calm1 exalted8 ,what          
imaginative          features has it8   
,what concrete pictures8 ,what          
figures8 ,is it self-restrained and     
classic8 ,is it          loose and      
voluble8           ,as to structure1    
what is the fundamental foot8 ,name     
each line4 ,what irregularities may     
exist and for what          purpose8 ,is
 the movement slow or rapid8 ,explain   
the          source of slowness or      
rapidity4 ,what is the order of         
rhymes8 ,are they perfect or defective8 
,are there          double1 triple1     
middle1 or sectional rhymes8 ,point     
out the alliteration4 ,what is the      
effect8 ,name the          stanza4 ,is  

it blank verse8 ,where does the csural  
pause fall in each line8 ,is there      
variety8 ,are the          lines        
end-stopt or run-on8 ,point out the     
poetic          words4 ,what is their   
effect8 ,what poetic                    
constructions are there8 ,divide the    
selections into          three          
classes1--feeble1 good1 excellent4      
,now all our neighbors' chimneys smoke1 
,and ,christmas blocks are burning2     
,their ovens they with baked meats      
choke1        ,and all their spits are  
turning4      ,without the door let     
sorrow lie2      ,and if for cold it hap
 to die1      ,we'll bury it in a       
,christmas pie1        ,and evermore be 
merry4--,,wither4       ,silence in love
 betrays more woe        ,than words1   
though ne'er so witty2      ,a beggar   
that is dumb1 you know1        ,may     
challenge double pity4       ,then wrong
 not1 dearest to my heart1        ,my   
true1 though secret passion2      ,he   
smarteth most that hides his smart1     

,and sues for no compassion4--,,raleigh4
                                        
,father1 thy hand      ,hath reared     
these venerable columns1 thou           
,didst weave this verdant roof4 ,thou   
didst look down      ,upon the naked    
earth1 and forthwith rose      ,all     
these fair ranks of trees4 ,they1 in thy
 sun1      ,budded and shook their green
 leaves in thy breeze1      ,and shot   
toward heaven4 ,the century-living crow 
,whose birth was in their tops1 grew old
 and died      ,among their branches1   
till at last they stood1      ,as now   
they stand1 mossy1 and tall1 and dark1  
,fit shrine for humble worshipper to    
hold      ,communion with his           
,maker4--,,bryant4        ,but since1 ,o
 man6 thy life and health demand        
,not food alone1 but labor from thy     
hand1      ,first1 in the field1 beneath
 the sun's strong rays1      ,ask of thy
 mother ,earth the needful maize2       
,she loves the race that courts her     
yielding soil1      ,and gives her      

bounties to the sons of toil4--,,barlow4
        ,my days among the dead are     
passed2        ,around me ,i behold1    
,where'er these casual eyes are cast1   
,the mighty minds of old2      ,my      
never-failing friends are they1         
,with whom ,i converse day by day4      
,with them ,i take delight in weal1     
,and seek relief in woe2      ,and while
 ,i understand and feel        ,how much
 to them ,i owe1      ,my cheeks have   
often been bedewed      ,with tears of  
thoughtful gratitude4--,,southey4       
,it is a beauteous evening1 calm and    
free2        ,the holy time is quiet as 
a nun        ,breathless with adoration2
 the broad sun      ,is sinking down in 
its tranquillity2      ,the gentleness  
of heaven is on the sea2        ,listen6
 the mighty being is awake1        ,and 
doth with his eternal motion make       
,a sound like thunder--everlastingly4   
,,wordsworth4        ,lives of great men
 all remind us        ,we can make our  
lives sublime1      ,and departing leave

 behind us        ,footprints on the    
sands of time2       ,footprints1 that  
perhaps another        ,sailing o'er    
life's solemn main1      ,a forlorn and 
shipwrecked brother1        ,seeing1    
shall take heart again4       ,let us1  
then1 be up and doing1        ,with a   
heart for any fate2      ,still         
achieving1 still pursuing1        ,learn
 to labor and to wait4--,,longfellow4   
,beneath those rugged elms1 that        
yew-tree's shade1        ,where heaves  
the turf in many a mouldering heap1     
,each in his narrow cell forever laid1  
,the rude forefathers of the hamlet     
sleep4       ,the breezy call of        
incense-breathing morn1        ,the     
swallow twittering from the straw-built 
shed1      ,the cock's shrill clarion1  
or the echoing horn1        ,no more    
shall rouse them from their lowly bed4  
,for them no more the blazing hearth    
shall burn1        ,or busy housewife   
ply her evening care2      ,no children 
run to lisp their sire's return1        

,or climb his knees the envied kiss to  
share4--,,gray4       ,and slowly       
answered ,arthur from the barge3        
,the old order changeth1 yielding place 
to new1      ,and ,god fulfils himself  
in many ways1      ,lest one good custom
 should corrupt the world4      ,comfort
 thyself3 what comfort is in me8      ,i
 have lived my life1 and that which ,i  
have done1      ,may ,he within himself 
make pure6 but thou1      ,if thou      
shouldst never see my face again1       
,pray for my soul4 ,more things are     
wrought by prayer      ,than this world 
dreams of4 ,wherefore1 let thy voice    
,rise like a fountain for me night and  
day4      ,for what are men better than 
sheep or goats      ,that nourish a     
blind life within the brain1      ,if1  
knowing ,god1 they lift not hands of    
prayer      ,both for themselves and    
those who call them friend8      ,for so
 the whole round earth is every way     
,bound by gold chains about the feet of 
,god4                                   

,,tennyson4          ,all day thy wings 
have fanned      ,at that far height1   
the cold1 thin atmosphere1      ,yet    
stoop not1 weary1 to the welcome land1  
,though the dark night is near4         
,and soon that toil shall end2          
,soon shalt thou find a summer home1 and
 rest1      ,and scream among thy       
fellows2 reeds shall bend1        ,soon1
 o'er thy sheltered nest4--,,bryant4    
,then from a neighboring thicket the    
mocking-bird1 wildest of                
singers1      ,swinging aloft on a      
willowy spray that hung o'er the water1 
,shook from his little throat such      
floods of delirious music1      ,that   
the whole air and the woods and the     
waves seemed silent          to listen4 
,plaintive at first were the tones1 and 
sad2 then soaring to          madness   
,seemed they to follow or guide the     
revel of frenzied          ,bacchantes4 
,single notes were then heard1 in       
sorrowful1 low lamentation2      ,till1 
having gathered them all1 he flung them 

abroad in          derision1      ,as   
when1 after a storm1 a gust of wind     
through the tree-tops      ,shakes down 
the rattling rain in a crystal shower on
 the          branches4                 
,,longfellow4        ,over his keys the 
musing organist1        ,beginning      
doubtfully and far away1      ,first    
lets his fingers wander as they list1   
,and builds a bridge from ,dreamland for
 his lay2      ,then1 as the touch of   
his loved instrument        ,gives hope 
and fervor1 nearer draws his theme1     
,first guessed by faint auroral flushes 
sent        ,along the wavering vista of
 his dream4--,,lowell4        ,and when 
,i am stretched beneath the pines1      
,where the evening star so holy shines1 
,i laugh at the lore and the pride of   
man1      ,at the sophist schools1 and  
the learned clan2      ,for what are    
they all1 in their high conceit1        
,when man in the bush with ,god may     
meet8--,,emerson4        ',twas twilight
 and the sunless day went down          

,over the waste of waters2 like a veil  
,which1 if withdrawn1 would but disclose
 the frown        ,of one whose hate is 
masked but to assail4      ,thus to     
their hopeless eyes the night was shown1
        ,and grimly darkled o'er the    
faces pale1      ,and the dim desolate  
deep3 twelve days had ,fear      ,been  
their familiar1 and now ,death was      
here4--,,byron4        ,and oft the     
craggy cliff he loved to climb1         
,when all in mist the world below was   
lost--      ,what dreadful pleasure6    
there to stand sublime1      ,like      
shipwrecked mariner on desert coast1    
,and view the enormous waste of vapor1  
tossed      ,in billows1 lengthening to 
the horizon round1      ,now scooped in 
gulfs1 with mountains now embossed1     
,and hear the voice of mirth and song   
rebound1      ,flocks1 herds1 and       
waterfalls1 along the hoar profound6    
,,beattie4   ,,note  ,in addition to the
 foregoing poetical selections1 those   
previously given may be analyzed with   

reference to form1 content1 and mood4   
,their beauty or excellence will now be 
more clearly understood4 ,furthermore1  
it is recommended that the teacher      
assign brief poems1 either from our     
standard authors or from current        
literature1 for full analysis and       
criticism4 ,the blank verse of          
,tennyson1 ,shelley1 ,milton1 and       
,shakespeare might be investigated and  
compared at considerable length in order
 to determine the average length of     
their sentences1 the place of the csural
 pause1 and the proportion of end-stopt 
or run-on lines4     ,,chapter ,,viii   
,,kinds ,,of ,,poetry   #ee4            
,classification4 ,poetry may be divided 
into four general types or classes3 7#a7
 didactic poetry1 which is chiefly      
concerned with instruction2 7#b7 lyric  
poetry1 which generally gives expression
 to some emotion2 7#c7 epic poetry1     
which is devoted principally to         
narration2 and 7#d7 dramatic poetry1    
which deals with direct representation4 

,all these types or classes have        
variations and subdivisions1 which call 
for consideration in some detail4  #ef4 
,didactic ,poetry4 ,the term didactic as
 applied to poetry involves a seeming   
contradiction4 ,instruction is a        
function peculiar to prose2 but in the  
hands of a genuine poet1 didactic verse 
may be so adorned by the imagination and
 so warmed by the feelings as to lift it
 sometimes into the realm of genuine    
poetry4 ,thus ,dryden's ,religio ,laici1
 the first didactic poem of special note
 in our language1 is essentially prosaic
 in theme and purpose4 ,but its opening 
lines1 by a happy simile1 are           
unmistakably poetic3       ,dim as the  
borrowed beams of moon and stars        
,to lonely1 weary1 wandering travellers1
       ,is ,reason to the soul2 and as  
on high       ,those rolling fires      
discover but the sky1       ,not light  
us here1 so ,reason's glimmering ray    
,was lent1 not to assure our doubtful   
way1       ,but guide us upward to a    

better day4  ,a didactic poem1 at its   
best1 is apt to be more or less prosaic4
 ,in estimating its worth1 three points 
are principally to be considered3 7#a7  
,to what extent has it a true poetic    
quality8 7#b7 ,to what extent is it     
complete1 symmetrical1 and true8 and    
7#c7 ,to what extent is it correct and  
skillful in versification8  ,our        
language is specially rich in didactic  
poems1 among which may be mentioned     
,dryden's ,religio ,laici and ,hind and 
,panther1 ,pope's ,essay on ,criticism  
and ,essay on ,man1 ,young's ,night     
,thoughts1 ,johnson's ,vanity of ,human 
,wishes1 ,cowper's ,task1 ,akenside's   
,pleasures of the ,imagination1         
,rogers's ,pleasures of ,memory1        
,campbell's ,pleasures of ,hope1        
,wordsworth's ,excursion1 and ,pollok's 
,course of ,time4  7#a7 ,satire is a    
species of didactic poetry4 ,it is the  
use of wit1 irony1 and sarcasm to       
ridicule foibles1 vices1 or evils of any
 kind4 ,three kinds of satire may be    

distinguished3 personal satire1 which is
 directed against individuals1 and      
usually springs from malignant or       
unworthy motives2 partisan satire1 which
 aims to make an opposing party or sect 
odious2 and social satire1 which seeks  
to improve the manners or morals of     
society4 ,dryden1 himself a master of   
the dangerous art1 says1--       ,satire
 has always shone among the rest1       
,and is the boldest way1 if not the     
best1       ,to tell men freely of their
 faintest faults1       ,to laugh at    
their vain deeds and vainer thoughts4   
,the mood of satire may be various3 it  
may be genial and pleasant2 it may be   
earnest and just2 or it may be personal1
 unjust1 and malicious4 ,any species of 
satire may exhibit keenness of wit1 but 
satire reaches its highest excellence   
only when it springs from upright       
motives and confines itself to truth4   
,if there is exaggeration or caricature1
 as is generally the case1 there still  
must be a substantial basis of fact4 ,no

 amount of intellectual brilliancy or   
artistic skill can justify what is false
 and slanderous4  ,satirical poetry is  
very old4 ,aristophanes1 ,juvenal1      
,horace were distinguished satirists of 
antiquity4 ,satire is found in almost   
every period of ,english literature4    
,among our well-known satires are       
,butler's ,hudibras1 ,dryden's ,mac     
,flecknoe and ,absalom and ,achitophel1 
,pope's ,dunciad1 ,byron's ,english     
,bards and ,scotch ,reviewers and       
,waltz1 ,lowell's ,fables for ,critics1 
,moore's ,fudge ,family in ,paris1 and  
not a few others4  7#b7 ,descriptive    
poetry1 or the nature epic1 as it has   
been called1 may be classed under       
didactic poetry4 ,it is devoted to the  
description not of successive events but
 of successive scenes in nature4 ,it is 
sober and reflective in character4      
,beginning with ,chaucer1 who delights  
in ,may time and the daisies1 nature    
occupies a prominent place and displays 
an ever-unfolding richness in ,english  

poetry4 ,pope's ,windsor ,forest is an  
elaborate though artificial piece of    
description4 ,milton's ,l',allegro and  
,il ,penseroso are nature pictures that 
have never been surpassed in their      
graphic portraiture4 ,other celebrated  
descriptive poems are ,goldsmith's      
,traveller and ,deserted ,village1      
,thomson's ,seasons1 ,bryant's ,forest  
,hymn1 ,whittier's ,snow-,bound4 ,but in
 poems of every class there are         
descriptions of nature1 though occupying
 an incidental and secondary position4  
,in these nature poems there should be  
truthfulness of description4 ,they      
should be genuine2 not coldly           
conventional1 as ,pope's ,windsor       
,forest1 but real or idealized pictures 
from nature4 ,the descriptions should be
 specific rather than general2 and if1  
in addition to faithful portraiture1 we 
have the warmth and elevation that come 
from human emotion or from the          
recognition of an all-pervading         
,presence1 the result is the highest    

type of descriptive poetry4 ,these finer
 descriptions of nature are found in all
 the great poets since the days of      
,wordsworth4  7#c7 ,pastoral poetry is a
 species of descriptive poetry4 ,it is  
devoted to a portrayal of country life  
and manners1 and generally embodies a   
slight degree of dramatic action4 ,a    
pastoral1 says ,alexander ,pope1 is an  
imitation of the action of a shepherd1  
or one considered under that character4 
,the form of this imitation is dramatic 
or narrative1 or mixed of both2 the     
fable simple1 the manners not too polite
 nor too rustic2 the thoughts are plain1
 yet admit a little quickness and       
passion1 but that short and flowing2 the
 expression humble1 yet as pure as the  
language will afford2 neat but not      
florid2 easy and yet lively4  ,english  
literature is not rich in pastoral      
poetry4 ,what we have is generally an   
imitation or translation of classical   
models4 ,one of the best known ,english 
pastorals is ,spenser's ,shepherd's     

,calendar1 which contains imitations of 
,theocritus and ,marot4 ,milton's ,comus
 is a kind of pastoral4 ,the purest     
examples of pastoral poetry are found in
 ,pope1 who has a series which he calls 
,pastorals4 ,keats's ,endymion has been 
classed with pastoral poetry1 but it is 
not a pure example of the type4  #eg4   
,lyric ,poetry4 ,lyric poetry gives     
intense expression to thought and       
emotion4 ,as the name indicates1 it was 
originally accompanied by music4 ,though
 lyric poems are short1 they constitute1
 in the aggregate1 a large part of      
,english poetry4 ,at the present day    
didactic and epic poetry is rarely      
written2 but lyric poetry continues to  
flourish4 ,its range of theme is        
practically without limits4  ,there are 
numerous kinds or classes of lyric      
poetry1 of which we may distinguish the 
following3 7#a7 ballads1 7#b7 songs1    
7#c7 odes1 7#d7 elegies1 7#e7 sonnets4  
,these will now be considered in the    
order given4  7#a7 ,a ballad is a brief 

narrative poem in lyric form4 ,the      
ballad was originally the production of 
wandering minstrels1 and in its old     
,english form it possessed a simplicity1
 directness1 and charming crudeness that
 a more cultivated age cannot           
successfully imitate4 ,the old ,english 
ballads1 most of which were composed in 
the north of ,england1 depict the       
lawlessness1 daring1 fortitude1 and     
passion characteristic of life along the
 ,scottish border4 ,a group of ballads  
gathers about the name of ,robin ,hood1 
the gentlest thief1 as ,scott calls him1
 that ever was4 ,a stanza or two will   
illustrate their general tone and style3
       ,he that hath neither beene kithe
 nor kin         ,might have seen a full
 fayre sight1       ,to see how together
 these yeomen went         ,with blades 
both brown and bright4       ,to see how
 these yeomen together they fought      
,two hours of a summer's day1       ,yet
 neither ,robin ,hood nor ,sir ,guy     
,them fettled to flye away4  ,recent    

poets have written ballads1 among the   
best of which may be mentioned          
,longfellow's ,skeleton in ,armor and   
,wreck of the ,hesperus1 ,tennyson's    
,edward ,gray and ,lady ,clare1 and     
,goldsmith's ,hermit4 ,these are all    
ballads of a pure type4  7#b7 ,a song is
 a lyric poem intended to be sung4      
,songs may be classified according to   
sentiment or occasion4 ,in this way we  
may distinguish love songs1 convivial or
 drinking songs1 political songs1 war   
songs1 national songs1 religious songs  
or hymns4 ,as with lyric poems in       
general1 there is no thought or         
sentiment of the human soul that may not
 find expression in song4 ,burns is     
distinguished as one of the best of all 
song writers4 ,moore's ,irish ,melodies 
and ,national ,airs are bright though   
somewhat artificial4 ,among the writings
 of nearly all our poets are pieces     
suitable for music4  ,our hymns do not  
as a rule reach a high degree of poetic 
excellence4 ,the reason is1 perhaps1 not

 difficult to find4 ,the hymn writers   
are concerned less with a free play of  
the imagination and emotions than with a
 strict regard to theological or even   
dogmatic truth4 ,but notwithstanding the
 difficulties of the case1 not a few    
hymn writers have given beautiful       
expression to their faith1 adoration1   
and love4 ,keble1 ,watts1 ,wesley1      
,cowper1 ,bonar1 and many others have   
written hymns that give satisfying      
expression to a deep religious fervor4  
7#c7 ,the ode1 is a somewhat lengthy    
lyric1 characterized by exalted feeling1
 dignity of theme1 and irregular and    
complicated structure4 ,our literature  
contains a number of excellent and      
famous odes1 among which may be         
mentioned ,dryden's ,alexander's ,feast1
 which the confident author thought     
would never be surpassed4       ',twas  
at the royal feast1 for ,persia won     
,by ,philip's warlike son3              
,aloft in awful state         ,the      
godlike hero sate           ,on his     

imperial throne2         ,his valiant   
peers were placed around1       ,their  
brows with roses and with myrtles bound2
         7,so should desert in arms be  
crowned74       ,the lovely ,thais1 by  
his side1       ,sate like a blooming   
,eastern bride1       ,in flower of     
youth and beauty's pride4               
,happy1 happy1 happy pair6              
,none but the brave1           ,none but
 the brave1         ,none but the brave 
deserve the fair4  ,pope's ,ode on      
,saint ,cecilia's ,day is scarcely      
inferior4 ,collins's ,ode on the        
,passions is well known1 though not     
equal perhaps to his ,ode to ,evening4  
,gray's ,ode on a ,distant ,prospect of 
,eton ,college and ,progress of ,poesy  
are deserving of mention4 ,shelley wrote
 an ,ode to ,liberty and an ,ode to the 
,west ,wind1 both well worth reading and
 study4 ,coleridge's ,ode on ,france    
deservedly ranks high1 and ,wordsworth's
 ,ode to ,duty and ,ode on the          
,intimations of ,immortality are almost 

unsurpassed4 ,lowell's ,commemoration   
,ode is justly admired4  7#d7 ,the elegy
 is a meditative poem of sorrowful      
theme1 usually lamenting the dead4      
,english literature may boast of several
 elegies unsurpassed in any age or      
country4 ,spenser's ,astrophel is a     
lament over the death of ,sir ,philip   
,sidney4 ,milton's ,lycidas is a monody 
on the death of the poet's friend1      
,edward ,king4 ,gray's ,elegy in a      
,country ,churchyard is celebrated for  
its graphic description and beautiful   
thought4 ,shelley's ,adonais1 a lament  
for ,keats1 belongs to the upper regions
 of song2 and ,tennyson's ,in ,memoriam 
belongs to the great poetic achievements
 of the nineteenth century4  7#e7 ,the  
sonnet is a lyric poem consisting of    
fourteen iambic pentameter lines4 ,it is
 divided into two parts3 the first      
consisting of an octave or double       
quatrain1 and the other of a sestet4    
,the rhymes of the first two quatrains  
are usually the same2 those of the      

sestet are variously arranged4 ,the     
sonnet is an artificial and complicated 
poetic form2 but it lends itself        
admirably to the development of a single
 poetic thought1 and ,shakespeare1      
,milton1 ,wordsworth1 ,mrs4 ,browning1  
,longfellow1 ,hayne1 and many others    
have used it with great skill and power4
 ,the following sonnet by ,mrs4         
,browning will serve for illustration3  
,i thought once how ,theocritus had sung
         ,of the sweet years1 the dear  
and wished-for years1         ,who each 
one in a gracious hand appears       ,to
 bear a gift for mortals1 old or young2 
,and1 as ,i mused it in his antique     
tongue1         ,i saw in gradual vision
 through my tears1         ,the sweet1  
sad years1 the melancholy years1        
,those of my own life1 who by turns had 
flung       ,a shadow across me4        
,straightway ,i was 'ware1         ,so  
weeping1 how a mystic ,shape did move   
,behind me1 and drew me backward by the 
hair1         ,and a voice said in      

mastery while ,i strove1       ',guess  
now who holds thee8' ',death1' ,i said4 
,but1 there1         ,the silver answer 
rang1 ',not ,death but ,love6'  ,as will
 be seen on examination1 the rhyme      
scheme is as follows3 a b b a a b b a c 
d c d c d4 ,but the quatrains may have  
alternate rhymes1 and the sestet may    
consist of a quatrain and couplet or of 
interwoven triplets1 as in the following
 schemes3 a b a b a b a b c d c d e e2 a
 b b a a b b a c d e c d e4  #eh4 ,some 
,criteria4 ,the brief lyric1 above all  
other kinds of poetry1 should be        
finished in form and expression4 ,the   
imperfections of diction that might go  
unchallenged in a longer poem are       
inexcusable in a lyric4 ,delicacy of    
thought and intensity of feeling        
constitute its breath of life1 and      
should mold for themselves a beauteous  
form4 ,what is commonplace1 harsh1 or   
unmusical in expression should be       
avoided1 unless such diction is wedded  
to the thought4 ,concrete and suggestive

 words are to be used rather than       
abstract and vague expressions4 ,there  
is always a distinct gain when the poem 
evokes pleasing pictures4  ,as a rule   
the thought and expression should be    
clear2 the poet should not mystify the  
reader nor tax too far his efforts at   
comprehension4 ,browning sometimes      
grievously offends in this particular4  
,while insisting on clearness1 however1 
we should not forget that the mystical  
and the musical have their place in     
poetry4 ,a poem may sometimes be        
pleasing through its melodious and      
mystical character1 even when it is not 
clearly intelligible4  ,whether the poet
 has a distinct introduction1 or whether
 he plunges into the midst of his theme1
 he should observe method and symmetry  
of structure2 and in spite of the       
liveliest play of the imagination and   
sensibilities1 he should impose a severe
 restraint upon himself4 ,he should     
leave something to the imagination of   
the reader4   ,,review ,,questions  #ee4

 ,into how many classes is poetry       
divided8 ,name them1 giving the general 
character of each class4 #ef4 ,what     
contradiction is there in the term      
didactic poetry8 ,how is it saved from  
this contradiction8 ,illustrate4 ,what  
points are to be considered in          
estimating didactic poetry8 ,mention    
some principal didactic poems4  ,what is
 poetic satire8 ,what three species are 
mentioned8 ,what is said of the mood of 
satire8 ,mention some well-known        
satires4 ,what is meant by descriptive  
poetry8 ,what is said of nature in      
poetry8 ,mention some descriptive       
pieces1 or nature epics4 ,what are their
 criteria8 ,what is pastoral poetry8    
,what was ,pope's conception of it8     
,what is its place in ,english          
literature8 ,mention our principal      
pastorals4  #eg4 ,what is lyric poetry8 
,mention the principal kinds4 ,what is a
 ballad8 ,what is said of old ,english  
ballads8 ,mention some recent ballads4  
,what is a song8 ,name the different    

kinds4 ,who are mentioned as song       
writers8 ,what is said of hymns8 ,why   
are they not better8 ,name some         
prominent hymn writers8 ,what is an ode8
 ,what place does it hold in our        
literature8 ,name a few famous odes4    
,what is an elegy8 ,mention some famous 
elegies4 ,what is a sonnet8 ,how is it  
divided8 ,what is the rhyme scheme of   
the sonnet8 ,name some of our great     
sonneteers4 #eh4 ,what are some of the  
criteria for judging lyric poetry8 ,what
 was one of ,browning's faults8         
,,illustrative ,,and ,,practical        
,,exercises  ,the following selections  
should be studied in the light of such  
questions as these3           ,to what  
division of poetry does it belong8 ,is  
it          didactic1 descriptive1      
pastoral1 satirical8 ,what is           
the spirit of the piece8 ,is it a       
ballad1 song1 hymn1          ode1 elegy1
 sonnet8 ,is it elevated and intense8   
,is it          true in sentiment and   
thought8 ,is it well constructed        

and harmonious8 ,is it clear or hazy8   
,is it natural or          affected8    
,what is its meter8        ,of all the  
causes which conspire to blind          
,man's erring judgment1 and misguide the
 mind1      ,what the weak head with    
strongest bias rules1      ,is pride1   
the never-failing vice of fools4        
,whatever nature has in worth denied1   
,she gives in large recruits of needful 
pride2      ,for as in bodies1 thus in  
souls1 we find      ,what wants in blood
 and spirits1 swelled with wind3        
,pride1 where wit fails1 steps in to our
 defence1      ,and fills up all the    
mighty void of sense4--,,pope4          
,of these the false ,achitophel was     
first1      ,a name to all succeeding   
ages cursed3      ,for close designs1   
and crooked counsels fit2               
,sagacious1 bold1 and turbulent of wit2 
,restless1 unfixed in principles and    
place2      ,in power unpleased1        
impatient of disgrace3      ,a fiery    
soul1 which1 working out its way1       

,fretted the pigmy-body to decay2       
,a daring pilot in extremity2           
,pleased with the danger1 when the waves
 went high1      ,he sought the storms2 
but1 for a calm unfit1      ,would steer
 too nigh the sands to boast his wit4   
,,dryden4        ,deign on the passing  
world to turn thine eyes1      ,and     
pause awhile from letters to be wise2   
,there mark what ills the scholar's life
 assail1      ,toil1 envy1 want1 the    
patron1 and the jail4      ,see nations1
 slowly wise1 and meanly just1      ,to 
buried merit raise the tardy bust4      
,if dreams yet flatter1 once again      
attend1      ,hear ,lydiat's life and   
,galileo's end4--,,johnson4        ,the 
groves of ,eden1 vanished now so long1  
,live in description1 and look green in 
song3      ,these1 were my breast       
inspired with equal flame1      ,like   
them in beauty1 should be like in fame4 
,here hills and vales1 the woodland and 
the plain1      ,here earth and water   
seem to strive again2      ,not         

chaos-like together crushed and bruised1
      ,but1 as the world1 harmoniously  
confused3      ,where order in variety  
we see1      ,and where1 though all     
things differ1 all agree4      ,here    
waving groves a chequered scene display1
      ,and part admit1 and part exclude 
the day2      ,as some coy nymph her    
lover's warm address      ,nor quite    
indulges1 nor can quite                 
repress4--,,pope4        ,right against 
the eastern gate1      ,where the great 
sun begins his state1      ,robed in    
flames1 and amber light1      ,the      
clouds in thousand liveries dight2      
,while the plowman1 near at hand1       
,whistles o'er the furrowed land1       
,and the milkmaid singeth blithe1       
,and the mower whets his sithe1         
,and every shepherd tells his tale      
,under the hawthorn in the              
vale4--,,milton4        ,in this1 our   
happy and progressive age1      ,when   
all alike ambitious cares engage2       
,when beardless boys to sudden sages    

grow1      ,and ,miss her nurse abandons
 for a beau2      ,when for their dogmas
 ,non-,resistants fight1      ,when     
dunces lecture1 and when dandies write2 
,when spinsters1 trembling for the      
nation's fate1      ,neglect their      
stockings to preserve the state2        
,when critic wits their brazen lustre   
shed      ,on golden authors whom they  
never read2      ,with parrot praise of 
,roman grandeur speak1      ,and in bad 
,english eulogize the ,greek2--         
,when facts like these no reprehension  
bring1      ,may not1 uncensured1 an    
,attorney sing8--,,saxe4        ,in the 
street ,i heard a thumping2 and ,i knew 
it was the          stumping      ,of   
the ,corporal1 our old neighbor1 on that
 wooden leg he wore1      ,with a knot  
of women round him1--it was lucky ,i had
 found him1      ,so ,i followed with   
the others1 and the ,corporal marched   
before4       ,they were making for the 
steeple1--the old soldier and his       
people2      ,the pigeons circled round 

us as we climbed the creaking stair2    
,just across the narrow river--,o1 so   
close it made me shiver6--      ,stood a
 fortress on the hill-top that but      
yesterday was bare4                     
,,holmes4        ,jenny kissed me when  
we met1        ,jumping from the chair  
she sat in4      ,time1 you thief6 who  
love to get        ,sweets into your    
list1 put that in4      ,say ,i'm weary1
 say ,i'm sad2        ,say that health  
and wealth have missed me3      ,say    
,i'm growing old1 but add--             
,jenny kissed me4--,,leigh ,,hunt4      
,those evening bells6 those evening     
bells6      ,how many a tale their music
 tells1      ,of youth1 and home1 and   
that sweet time      ,when last ,i heard
 their soothing chime6       ,those     
joyous hours are passed away2      ,and 
many a heart that then was gay1         
,within the tomb now darkly dwells1     
,and hears no more those evening        
bells4--,,moore4        ,there was a    
time when meadow1 grove1 and stream1    

,the earth1 and every common sight1     
,to me did seem            ,apparelled  
in celestial light1      ,the glory and 
the freshness of a dream4      ,it is   
not now as it hath been of yore2--      
,turn wheresoe'er ,i may1               
,by night or day1      ,the things which
 ,i have seen ,i now can see no more4   
,,wordsworth4        ,abide with me6    
fast falls the even-tide2      ,the     
darkness deepens2 ,lord1 with me abide6 
,when other helpers fail1 and comforts  
flee1      ,help of the helpless1 oh1   
abide with me4       ,swift to its close
 ebbs out life's little day2            
,earth's joys grow dim2 its glories pass
 away2      ,change and decay in all    
around ,i see2      ,o ,thou who        
changest not1 abide with me6--,,lyte4   
,when ,i consider how my light is spent 
,ere half my days in this dark world and
 wide1        ,and that one talent which
 is death to hide1        ,lodged with  
me useless1 though my soul more bent    
,to serve therewith my ,maker1 and      

present        ,my true account1 lest he
 returning chide2        ,doth ,god     
exact day-labor1 light denied8        ,i
 fondly ask2 but ,patience1 to prevent  
,that murmur1 soon replies1 ,god doth   
not need        ,either man's work or   
his own gifts2 who best        ,bear his
 mild yoke1 they serve him best2 his    
state      ,is kingly3 thousands at his 
bidding speed1        ,and post o'er    
land and ocean without rest2            
,they also serve who only stand and     
wait4--,,milton4   ,,note  ,in addition 
to these selections the student might   
classify1 as far as possible1 the       
poetical extracts previously given4 ,in 
some cases1 owing to brevity1 this      
classification will be difficult4       
,furthermore1 the teacher might assign  
particular didactic1 descriptive1       
satirical1 or lyric poems for special   
study as to form1 content1 and mood4    
,the special criteria of this chapter   
should be applied4 ,a comparative study 
of ,pope's ,windsor ,forest1            

,goldsmith's ,deserted ,village1 and    
,wordsworth's ,tintern ,abbey would be  
specially instructive1 as showing the   
different ways of treating nature4      
,,chapter ,,ix  ,,epic ,,and ,,dramatic 
,,poetry   #ei4 ,the ,epic4 ,the epic is
 a long poem celebrating in stately     
verse some important and heroic event of
 the past4 ,it may be based either on   
history or tradition1 though in our     
greatest epics there is a commingling of
 the two4 ,the method of the epic is    
chiefly narrative and descriptive4 ,the 
theme is generally stated in the        
beginning1 and the narrative1 frequently
 interspersed with episodes1 pursues an 
even course4 ,homer thus begins the     
,iliad3       ,of ,peleus' son          
,achilles1 sing1 ,o ,muse1       ,the   
direful wrath1 which sorrows numberless 
,brought on the ,greeks1 and many mighty
 souls       ,of youthful heroes1 slain 
untimely1 sent       ,to ,pluto's dark  
abode1 their bodies left       ,a prey  
to dogs and all the fowls of heaven4    

,vergil begins the neid in a similar    
manner1 and the opening lines of        
,paradise ,lost follow classic models4  
,the structure of the epic may be       
determined from the fundamental         
conception of its nature4 ,as a         
narrative of an important and heroic    
event1 it should be simple1 direct1 and 
dignified in its treatment4 ,the        
incidents should be introduced in a     
natural order1 and their prominence     
should be regulated according to their  
relative importance4 ,in an epic poem1  
as in every other creation of art1 the  
law of symmetry should be observed4     
,but the epic admits of episode4 ,the   
poet may stop the flow of his narrative 
for a time to dwell upon some incident  
connected with or growing out of the    
main theme4 ,such an episode is the     
story of the destruction of ,troy in the
 second and third books of the neid4    
,the episode may be employed to throw   
light on existing conditions or to add  
interest to the general narrative4 ,in  

the neid it serves both purposes to an  
eminent degree4  ,the epic makes        
extensive use of dialogue1 and thus1 in 
a measure1 partakes of the nature of the
 drama4 ,the introduction of the        
dialogue serves a double purpose3 first1
 it lends greater vividness to the      
narrative2 and second1 it lends variety 
to the story1 enabling the ancient      
minstrel1 and in a less degree the      
modern reader1 to do a little acting4   
,often the dialogue is highly dramatic1 
as in the quarrel between ,achilles and 
,agamemnon in the first book of the     
,iliad4 ,a large part of our greatest   
epics is in dialogue4  ,the great epics 
of the world are all heroic4 ,they      
celebrate great events--the ,trojan war1
 the founding of ,rome1 the loss of     
,paradise--and bring before us a large  
number of heroes1 divinities1 and       
angels4 ,the ,iliad is made up chiefly  
of battle scenes1 in which mighty heroes
 and ,olympian deities take part4 neas  
is the hero of the neid2 but back of the

 tribulations through which he passes1  
we recognize the agency of contending   
divinities4 ,and in ,paradise ,lost     
,milton introduces the mighty beings of 
heaven and hell4 ,the epic is thus the  
stateliest and grandest form of poetry4 
,there are minor varieties of the epic1 
which occupy an important place in      
modern poetry4  7#a7 ,the principal of  
these varieties is the metrical romance1
 of which ,scott's ,the ,lady of the    
,lake or ,owen ,meredith's ,lucile may  
be taken as the type4 ,it differs from  
the grand or heroic epic in confining   
itself to lowlier themes1 and in        
introducing the passion of love4 ,the   
metrical romance lends itself readily to
 every form of romantic story4 ,in      
,scott it introduces the scenes and     
characters of medival ,scotland4 ,byron1
 in ,the ,giaour1 ,the ,siege of        
,corinth1 ,the ,bride of ,abydos1 and   
others1 works up oriental legends4      
,moore's ,lalla ,rookh is a beautiful   
oriental romance4 ,owen ,meredith's     

,lucile is a modern love story1 while   
,morris's ,story of ,sigurd is derived  
from ,scandinavian legends4  7#b7 ,the  
metrical tale may be distinguished from 
the metrical romance by the absence of  
romantic love and adventure4 ,it is     
naturally briefer in form4 ,byron's     
,prisoner of ,chillon and ,burns's ,tam 
,o',shanter may be taken as types of the
 metrical tale4 ,on the one side it     
approaches the metrical romance1 and on 
the other the lyrical ballad4 ,since the
 days of ,gower and ,chaucer the        
metrical tale has added to ,english     
poetry some of its choicest pieces4     
7#c7 ,the mock epic is1 as the name     
suggests1 a burlesque4 ,it narrates     
trivial incidents in a stately manner4  
,it is not to be taken seriously1 and   
may be employed either to satirize or to
 amuse4 ,butler's ,hudibras is a mock   
heroic satire1 while ,pope's ,the ,rape 
of the ,lock was intended to amuse with 
its pleasant conceits and to effect a   
reconciliation between two alienated    

families among the nobility4 ,here are  
the opening lines of ,canto ,,iii3      
,close by those meads1 forever crowned  
with flowers1       ,where ,thames with 
pride surveys his rising towers1        
,there stands a structure of majestic   
frame1       ,which from the neighboring
 ,hampton takes its name4       ,here   
,britain's statesmen oft the fall       
foredoom       ,of foreign tyrants1 and 
of nymphs at home2       ,here thou1    
great ,anna1 whom three realms obey1    
,dost sometimes counsel take--and       
sometimes tea4  #fj4 ,the ,drama4 ,the  
drama is a composition in prose or verse
 usually intended to be acted on the    
stage4 ,representation takes the place  
of narration4 ,in order to add to the   
reality and interest of the             
representation1 the accessories of dress
 and scenery are carefully employed4    
,whether in prose or verse1 the laws of 
dramatic structure are the same4  ,the  
two principal divisions of the drama are
 tragedy and comedy4 ,tragedy represents

 an important and serious action1 which 
usually has a fatal termination2 it     
appeals to the earnest side of our      
nature1 and moves our deepest feelings4 
,comedy consists in a representation of 
light and amusing incidents2 it exhibits
 the foibles of individuals1 the manners
 of society1 and the humorous phases of 
life4 ,the name tragi-comedy is applied 
to a drama in which tragic and comic    
scenes are intermingled4 ,a farce is a  
short comedy distinguished by its slight
 thought and ridiculous caricature or   
extravagance4 ,a melodrama is a drama   
with a romantic story or plot1 and      
sensational situations and incidents4   
,an opera is a musical drama1 the higher
 forms of which are known as grand      
opera1 and the lower or farcical forms  
as opera bouffe4  ,the laws of the drama
 are substantially the same for all     
forms4 ,there should be unity of        
dramatic action2 that is1 the separate  
scenes and incidents should contribute  
in some way to the development of the   

plot and to the final result or         
dnouement4 ,a collection of disconnected
 scenes1 no matter how interesting in   
themselves1 would not make a drama4  ,in
 addition to unity of action1 which is  
obviously the one indispensable law of  
the drama1 two other unities were       
prescribed by ancient authorities4 ,the 
one is unity of time1 which requires    
that the action fall within the limits  
of a single day2 the other is unity of  
place1 which requires that the action   
occur in the same locality4 ,while      
evidently artificial and dispensable1   
these latter unities conduce to clear   
and concise treatment4 ,among the       
,greeks and ,romans the three unities1  
as they are called1 were strictly       
observed2 they have been followed also  
by the older ,french drama2 but the     
,english stage1 breaking away in the    
days of ,elizabeth from every artificial
 restriction1 recognizes unity of action
 alone4  ,the action of the drama should
 exhibit movement or progress1 in which 

several stages may be clearly marked4   
,the introduction acquaints us1 more or 
less fully1 with the subject to be      
treated4 ,it usually brings before us   
some of the leading characters1 and     
shows us the circumstances in which they
 are placed4 ,after the introduction    
follows the growth or development of the
 action toward the climax4 ,from the    
days of ,aristotle this part of the     
drama has been called the tying of the  
knot1 and it needs to be managed with   
great care4 ,if the development is too  
slow1 the interest lags2 if too rapid1  
the climax appears tame4  ,the interest 
of a drama depends in a large measure   
upon the successful arrangement of the  
climax1 or the point in which the       
opposing forces immediately confront    
each other4 ,in our best dramas it      
usually occurs near the middle of the   
piece4 ,from this point the action      
proceeds to the close or dnouement4 ,the
 knot is untied2 the complications in   
which the leading characters have become

 involved are either happily removed or 
lead to the inevitable catastrophe4     
,avoiding every digression1 the action  
should go forward rapidly1 in order not 
to weary the patience and dissipate the 
interest of the spectator4 ,the         
dnouement should not be dependent upon  
some foreign element introduced at the  
last moment1 but should spring naturally
 from the antecedent action4  ,in       
addition to the five principal parts    
just indicated--introduction1 rise or   
tying of the knot1 climax1 fall or      
untying of the knot1 and                
dnouement--there are three other        
elements or factors that need to be     
pointed out4 ,the first is the cause or 
exciting impulse of the dramatic action1
 and naturally stands between the       
introduction and the rise or tying of   
the knot4 ,the second is the cause or   
tragic impulse of the counteraction1 and
 stands between the climax and the fall 
or untying of the knot4 ,the third is   
the cause or impulse that sometimes     

holds the action in check for a moment  
before reaching its final issue1 and    
stands between the fall and the         
dnouement4  ,the structure and eight    
component parts of a complete or ideal  
drama may be represented in a diagram as
 follows4              ,c               
,a  ,introduction4            _/        
,b  ,rise or tying of knot4           _/
    b             ,c  ,climax4          
_/                      ,d  ,fall or    
untying of knot4         _/ ,b          
,e  ,dnouement4        _/            ,d 
a  ,cause or exciting impulse4       _/ 
b  ,tragic impulse4     _/a           c 
c  ,impulse of last suspense4     _/    
_/,a              ,e  #fa4 ,characters  
and ,manners4 ,apart from the plot or   
story the interest of a drama depends to
 a large extent on the dramatis         
personae4 ,in the classic drama the     
characters are few and dignified2 in the
 romantic drama1 as first developed in  
the age of ,shakespeare1 the characters 
are numerous and drawn from every class 

of society4 ,the same difference is     
found in the classic school of ,france1 
represented by ,corneille1 ,molire1 and 
,racine1 and the romantic school founded
 by ,victor ,hugo4  ,the characters     
should be clearly drawn and sufficiently
 differentiated4 ,each one should have  
his peculiar individuality1 and be      
reasonably consistent with himself in   
all parts of the dramatic action4 ,the  
whole world of mankind is at the service
 of the dramatist1 and there is no type 
of humanity that may not be brought upon
 the stage4 ,the ancient world of       
history or of tradition may be          
represented1 or the stage may hold up   
the mirror to contemporary manners and  
society4  ,the drama should be true to  
the time and locality in which the      
action is placed4 ,the dress and manners
 should be in keeping with the          
conditions assumed1 and the tone of     
thought and expression should not do    
violence to time or place4 ,a           
,carthaginian nobleman1 for example1    

should not ascertain the time of day by 
means of a gold watch1 nor should an    
unlettered rustic speak in strains of   
eloquent poetry4 ,a violation of the    
truth in time is called an anachronism4 
,but in some dramas1 and in some species
 of drama1 as ,ward has said1 time and  
place are so purely imaginary and so    
much a matter of indifference that the  
adoption of a purely conventional       
standard of manners1 or at least the    
exclusion of any definitely fixed one1  
is here desirable4 ,this is shown in    
,shakespeare's ,a ,midsummer ,night's   
,dream4  ,the drama should be moral both
 in tone and teaching4 ,we may apply to 
the drama1 as to every other species of 
composition1 ,pope's well-known couplet3
       ,immodest words admit of no      
defense1       ,for want of decency is a
 want of sense4  ,indecent language and 
grossly immoral situations should be    
excluded from the stage4 ,when this is  
not done1 as is frequently the case1 the
 drama1 instead of uplifting1 degrades  

humanity4 ,this fact has brought the    
stage into disrepute with many excellent
 people4 ,in its close or dnouement the 
drama should not let vice triumph over  
virtue1 nor should it make the          
impression that wickedness ever escapes 
unpunished4 ,such teaching places the   
stage in contravention with the moral   
order of the world1 according to which1 
even when the punitive consequences are 
not openly manifest1 wickedness is      
inevitably accompanied with some form of
 internal or external retribution4      
,,review ,,questions  #a4 ,what is an   
epic8 ,on what may it be based8 ,what is
 the method of the epic8 ,where is the  
theme stated8 ,illustrate4 ,what should 
be the structure of the epic8 ,what is  
meant by symmetry8 ,what is an episode8 
,why may it be introduced8 ,illustrate4 
,what is said of the use of dialogue8   
,what is the nature of the great epic8  
,what is meant by heroic here8          
,illustrate4 ,what is a metrical        
romance8 ,how does it differ from the   

grand epic8 ,what is said of the        
adaptability of the metrical romance8   
,illustrate4 ,what is a metrical tale8  
,name an example or two4 ,what is a mock
 epic8 ,for what ends may it be used8   
,mention a mock epic4  #b4 ,what is a   
drama8 ,what is said of the laws of the 
drama8 ,name the two chief divisions4   
,define tragedy2 comedy4 ,what is       
tragi-comedy8 farce8 melodrama8 opera8  
,what is the difference between grand   
opera and opera bouffe8 ,what is meant  
by unity of action8 ,what other two     
unities are there8 ,what is meant by    
unity of time8 ,what is meant by unity  
of place8 ,where are the three unities  
strictly observed8 ,which is observed on
 the ,english stage8 ,mention the       
successive steps of dramatic action4    
,what is the function of the            
introduction8 ,what follows the         
introduction8 ,what name did ,aristotle 
give it8 ,what is the climax8 ,what is  
said about the arrangement of the       
climax8 ,what is the fall or untying of 

the knot8 ,why should it not be         
protracted8 ,what is meant by the       
dnouement8 ,what are the three other    
dramatic elements8 ,what is meant by the
 cause or exciting impulse8 ,what is    
meant by the tragic impulse8 ,by the    
impulse of last suspense8  #c4 ,on what 
does the interest largely depend8 ,what 
is the difference in the characters of  
the classic and the romantic drama8     
,what is said of each character8 ,whence
 may the drama draw its characters8     
,where may the dramatist get his        
materials8 ,to what should the drama be 
true8 ,what is an anachronism8          
,illustrate4 ,is conformity to time and 
place always to be adhered to8 ,what is 
said of the moral tone of the drama8    
,what is ,pope's opinion8 ,in what two  
ways should the stage be moral8   ,,note
  ,in place of the illustrative and     
practical exercises1 as heretofore      
given1 it is recommended that the       
student be referred to representative   
epic and dramatic productions4 ,besides 

the great epics mentioned in the text1  
some of the following works might be    
used3 ,scott's ,the ,lady of the ,lake  
or ,marmion1 ,tennyson's ,elaine or     
,enoch ,arden1 ,dryden's ,palamon and   
,arcite1 ,byron's ,bride of ,abydos and 
,prisoner of ,chillon1 ,burns's ,tam    
,o',shanter1 ,pope's ,rape of the ,lock1
 ,goldsmith's ,she ,stoops to ,conquer1 
,sheridan's ,rivals1 and ,shakespeare's 
,merchant of ,venice1 ,julius ,csar1 and
 ,hamlet4 ,to show the difference       
between the classic and the             
,shakespearian drama the student should 
read one or more of the plays of        
,euripides1 ,corneille1 and ,molire in  
good translations4 ,victor ,hugo's ,ruy 
,blas is recommended as an excellent    
type of the romantic drama of the       
nineteenth century4  ,apart from the    
criticism of diction1 sentence1 and     
figure1 the pieces assigned should be   
studied with the view of answering such 
questions as the following3 ,to what    
division of the epic or drama does the  

work belong8 ,what is its source8 ,is it
 legend or history8 ,what is the story8 
,has it a beginning1 middle1 and end8   
,is it symmetrical in structure8 ,what  
episodes are introduced8 ,is the        
treatment in keeping with the subject8  
,is it true to fact and character8 ,does
 it faithfully portray an age or        
country8 ,what customs are reflected8   
,what is the state of society8 ,describe
 the leading characters4 ,what is the   
rank of the piece8 ,what other          
productions resemble it8 ,is it classic 
or romantic8 ,are there autobiographic  
elements8 ,what light is thrown on the  
author8 ,how is nature treated8 ,what   
fundamental views of life are reflected8
 ,what is the moving impulse in the     
drama8 ,what constitutes the            
introduction8 ,where is the climax8 ,is 
the dnouement natural and satisfactory8 
,trace the tying and the untying of the 
knot4 ,what furnishes the tragic        
impulse8 ,is there an impulse of last   
suspense8 ,what unities are observed8   

,what is the length of time consumed8   
,what is the ethical teaching of the    
piece8     ,,chapter ,x  ,,nature ,,and 
,,forms ,,of ,,prose   #fb4 ,definition4
 ,prose is the ordinary form of         
discourse4 ,it is distinguished from    
poetry not only by more commonplace     
thought but also by the absence of      
regular metrical structure4 ,prose and  
poetry together constitute the great    
body of literature2 but at the present  
time1 which is characterized by the     
predominance of material and commercial 
interests1 prose forms by far the larger
 part4 ,in our popular magazines1 poetry
 is relegated to a very subordinate     
place4  ,the forms of prose are various4
 ,they may be approximately classified  
under history1 essays1 oratory1 fiction1
 science1 philosophy1 and epistolary    
correspondence4 ,these classes1 as will 
be seen later1 are subject to numerous  
subdivisions4 ,the last three           
classes--science1 philosophy1 and       
epistolary correspondence--do not come  

within the scope of the present work1   
but in general it may be said that they 
are subject to the same laws of truth   
and beauty that govern other forms of   
literary composition4  #fc4 ,history4   
,history is a systematic record of past 
events4 ,it rests upon contemporary     
testimony1 which may exist in the form  
of written documents or of oral         
tradition4 ,history passes into         
mythology when it treats of legendary   
heroes and divinities1 and into fiction 
when it treats of imaginary events4     
,metrical chronicles1 however valuable  
may be the historical materials they    
contain1 are not to be regarded as      
history in the true sense of the word4  
,history presupposes change1 which may  
take the form of progress or decadence4 
,without the element of change1 there is
 nothing to relate beyond the existing  
state of things4 ,english literature is 
very rich in historical writing of every
 kind1 and in the century that has just 
passed1 we meet in ,england with the    

names of ,macaulay1 ,carlyle1 and       
,froude1 and in ,america with the names 
of ,bancroft1 ,prescott1 and ,motley4   
,as to time1 history has a well-defined 
and generally accepted division4 ,this  
division recognizes three great         
periods1--namely1 ancient1 medival1 and 
modern4 ,in each of these periods a     
general type of social condition1       
varying somewhat in different countries1
 prevailed without essential change4    
,ancient history extends from the       
beginning of trustworthy records to the 
fall of the ,roman empire in ,a4,d4     
#dgf2 medival history extends from that 
date to the revival of learning and the 
beginning of the ,protestant            
,reformation in #aeag2 and modern       
history embraces the period extending   
from that time down to the present4  ,as
 to subject-matter1 history has been    
variously divided4 ,when it treats of   
human progress in all nations and ages  
it is called general or universal       
history4 ,when it deals with a single   

country it becomes national history2    
thus we have histories of ,england and  
of the ,united ,states4 ,when it treats 
of separate institutions or interests it
 may be regarded as special history1--as
 church history or a history of         
literature4 ,again1 history may be      
divided according to the sources from   
which it derives its data4 ,when based  
on the facts supplied in the ,scriptures
 it is known as sacred history2 when    
based on other sources of information it
 is called profane or secular history4  
,this1 however1 is only an arbitrary    
though convenient distinction2 for all  
history1 as a record of the unfolding   
purposes of ,god1 is sacred4  ,as to    
form1 history is divided into several   
classes4 ,a chronicle is a register of  
facts and events in the order of time in
 which they occurred4 ,it does not enter
 into a discussion either of causes or  
effects4 ,it is rather a source of      
historical materials than history       
itself4 ,the ,anglo-,saxon ,chronicle1  

for example1 contains valuable facts1   
but can hardly be regarded as a history 
of the ,anglo-,saxons4 ,annals are      
chronicles that give the events year by 
year4  ,as to method1 history may be    
divided into narrative1 descriptive1 and
 philosophical4 ,each has its definite  
object1 by which its treatment of       
materials is determined4 ,narrative     
history is chiefly concerned with a     
systematic presentation of the facts4   
,it is satisfied when these are clearly 
presented in due perspective1 and afford
 a comprehensive survey of the period or
 subject treated of4 ,nearly all the    
manuals of history in common use belong 
to this class4  ,descriptive history    
aims at presenting a graphic portraiture
 of the past4 ,its method is not so much
 narration as description4 ,men and     
events are brought forward in vivid     
colors4 ,it makes the past live again   
before our eyes like a moving pageant2  
and better to accomplish this result1   
perspective1 and even a full statement  

of events1 are sometimes sacrificed4    
,while narrative history is concerned   
mostly with the succession of important 
public events1--wars1 changes of        
administration1 and far-reaching        
legislative enactments1--descriptive or 
scenic history introduces1 in large     
measure1 the social life and manners4   
,macaulay is a prince among descriptive 
historians1 though no better example of 
scenic history can be found than        
,carlyle's ,french ,revolution4         
,philosophic history is concerned less  
with narration and description than with
 the underlying causes and effects of   
events4 ,it regards all human events as 
an outward movement or evolution1 which 
proceeds according to fixed and         
ascertainable laws4 ,it looks upon      
history1 to use the words of ,macaulay1 
as philosophy teaching by example4      
,philosophic history is a product of    
recent times2 and among the best        
examples are ,hegel's ,philosophy of    
,history1 ,guizot's ,history of         

,civilization1 and ,lecky's ,history of 
,european ,morals4  ,it is evident that 
an ideal history will be a combination  
of the narrative1 descriptive1 and      
philosophic4 ,the first gives the events
 in due order and proportion2 the second
 clothes them in living reality2 and the
 third explains their causes and        
results4 ,but the production of such a  
history requires a rare combination of  
mental gifts2 the vivid imagination     
required in scenic description is not   
usually found associated with           
philosophic depth4 ,perhaps ,green's    
,history of ,england and ,bancroft's    
,history of the ,united ,states are as  
good examples of the highest type of    
historical writing as can be found4     
,there is a very noticeable difference  
between the methods of ancient and      
modern historians4 ,the former1 it has  
been said1 were artistic1 and the latter
 sociological4 ,these terms1 while      
aiming at the facts1 are neither        
accurate nor happy4 ,the ancient        

historians1 as ,herodotus and           
,thucydides1 aimed at a pleasing        
narrative4 ,to attain this end1 neither 
an exhaustive investigation of facts nor
 a conscientious abstention from fiction
 was necessary4 ,hence we find the works
 of the one filled with impossible      
events1 and those of the other with     
orations confessedly fictitious2 but in 
both cases the introduction of legend   
and fiction has imparted an interest    
that would otherwise be lacking in their
 works4  ,with modern historians1       
especially in the presence of the       
existing dominant scientific spirit1 it 
is different4 ,the first requisite of   
historical writing at the present day is
 absolute truth1 as nearly as it can be 
ascertained4 ,the modern historian is   
not allowed to draw upon his imagination
 for facts2 he is held to a laborious   
and exhaustive investigation of the     
sources of information4 ,he writes out  
of abundant stores of accurate          
information2 and not content with the   

mere chronological narration of facts1  
he seeks beneath them the principles or 
laws that bind them together as a whole4
 ,modern history1 particularly that of  
the last fifty years1 has a breadth1    
accuracy1 and depth1 of which the       
historians of ,greece and ,rome hardly  
dreamed4  #fd4 ,biography4 ,biography is
 that department of history that gives  
the facts and events of an individual   
life4 ,it is at once an interesting and 
important form of history4 ,we have a   
natural desire to know the lives and    
characters of the men who have in any   
way risen above their fellows1 and been 
associated with great social1 literary1 
or political movements4 ,while great men
 are in large measure the creatures of  
mighty movements1 they at the same time 
give direction to historic development4 
,there is truth in ,carlyle's idea that 
universal history is at bottom the      
history of the great men who have worked
 there4  ,there are three general types 
of biography1 corresponding to the three

 kinds of history4 ,the first is        
narrative biography1 which is concerned 
chiefly with an orderly statement of the
 leading facts--birth1 parentage1       
education1 marriage1 and                
achievements--in a person's life4 ,the  
second is scenic or descriptive         
biography1 which aims at interest by    
means of characteristic incidents or    
anecdotes4 ,the third is philosophic1   
which tries to trace the relation of a  
person's life to the age in which he    
lived1 and to estimate the influence he 
exerted on his own and subsequent ages4 
,the first is more common1 the second   
more interesting1 the third more        
instructive2 but it is evident that the 
best biographies present a judicious    
combination of all three types4  ,the   
first essential of biography1 as of     
history in general1 is truth4 ,when we  
are studying a man's life we want to    
know the facts2 otherwise we shall not  
be able to judge correctly of his life  
and work4 ,there are two principal      

sources of error in writing biography3  
the first is ignorance1 which leads to  
the omission of important particulars or
 to a misinterpretation of those that   
are known2 the other source of error is 
prejudice for or against the person     
whose life is portrayed4 ,this prejudice
 leads1 on the one hand1 to such a      
presentation of the biographical facts  
as to magnify the merits of the man2 and
 on the other1 it leads to such a       
suppression or distortion of the facts  
as to detract from his just deserts4    
,both faults are illustrated in         
,johnson's ,lives of the ,poets1 which1 
though excellent in the main1 are       
sometimes defective for lack of         
research1 and colored by the writer's   
strong ,tory and ,anglican sentiments4  
,autobiography is the story of a man's  
life written by himself4 ,it is perhaps 
the most interesting form of biography4 
,in autobiography the writer has the    
advantage of an intimate acquaintance   
not only with the outward facts but also

 with the secret influences and motives 
by which his life has been controlled4  
,it takes us1 as it were1 behind the    
scenes of history2 but at the same time 
there is inevitably the error that      
springs from undue partiality4 ,and     
though men like ,rousseau1 ,gibbon1 and 
,franklin attempt to divest themselves  
of this prejudice1 and even succeed in a
 remarkable degree1 there is reason to  
suspect the omission of facts and       
motives that would reflect too          
unfavorably upon the character4  ,a     
diary is a record of one's daily        
occupations and experiences4 ,it        
sustains the same relation to biography 
that chronicles or annals do to history3
 it furnishes the materials out of which
 biography is made4 ,when the diarist is
 a man of prominence1 as in the case of 
,dean ,swift1 his journal throws an     
interesting light not only upon his own 
life but also upon the times in which he
 lives4 ,it introduces us to men in the 
freedom and frankness of private life4  

,when the diary is kept1 not with a view
 to subsequent publication but merely to
 aid one's memory1 it becomes a valuable
 record of facts4  #fe4 ,some ,criteria4
 ,in judging a historical work three    
principal points are to be taken into   
consideration4  7#a7 ,the first is      
concerned with the mode of execution4   
,is the outward form of the work such as
 is required by the laws of art8 ,the   
diction should be conformable to the    
subject1 and marshaled in correct1      
varied1 and forcible sentences4 ,the    
style should bend to suit the changing  
themes4 ,the interest and impressiveness
 of a work1 as may be seen in ,macaulay 
and ,irving1 depend in no small measure 
upon its literary quality4 ,furthermore1
 there should be movement and symmetry4 
,the progress of events should be       
followed in a natural order1 and the    
place and treatment of each should be   
according to its relative importance4   
,as in a drama1 there should be a       
beginning1 middle1 and end4  7#b7 ,the  

second point to be considered in a      
history is the subject-matter4          
,obviously this is of prime importance1 
for the object of history is the        
preservation and communication of truth4
 ,in weighing a historical work1 we     
should consider both the writer's       
sources of information and the use he   
has made of them4 ,has he gone to       
original and trustworthy sources of     
information or has he taken his         
materials at secondhand8 ,has he given  
them thorough or only partial           
examination8 ,has he well digested his  
materials1 so that he writes from the   
fullness of assimilated knowledge1 or   
does he present only the raw materials  
of history8 ,while delightful and useful
 histories may be written largely of    
secondhand materials1 it is evident that
 monumental historic achievements1 like 
,gibbon's ,decline and ,fall or         
,carlyle's ,oliver ,cromwell1 must be   
based on exhaustive original            
investigation4 ,and however useful may  

be the works that serve up undigested   
materials1 they cannot be regarded as   
constituting history in a literary      
sense1 for they lack the element of art4
  7#c7 ,the third point to be considered
 in judging a historical work is the    
personality of the author4 ,what is his 
mental caliber8 ,he should have the     
breadth of view that enables him to     
grasp the subject in its entirety1 and  
to cordinate the facts according to     
their relative importance4 ,otherwise he
 will dwell on insignificant details1   
lack largeness of movement1 and1 instead
 of sweeping forward like a river1      
spread out aimlessly like a dreary      
marsh4 ,he should have the breadth of   
culture that will enable him to weigh   
the facts he uses4 ,this requires       
familiarity with various systems of     
belief4 ,whether a theologian or a      
scientist1 a ,protestant or a ,romanist1
 he should be able to do justice to the 
facts and motives of the opposite party4
 ,his love of truth should be supreme4  

,he should have soundness of judgment in
 connection with a clear logical sense4 
,he must not jump at conclusions1 but   
base them on sufficient evidence4 ,and  
then the mood1 attitude1 and prejudices 
should be ascertained4 ,this constitutes
 his standpoint4 ,most writers have     
convictions or belong to schools of     
belief that consciously or unconsciously
 influence their work4 ,a skeptic like  
,gibbon could hardly do justice to the  
rise and progress of ,christianity4     
,,review ,,questions  #a4 ,what is      
prose8 ,how is it distinguished from    
poetry8 ,what is said of prose in this  
age8 ,name the principal forms of prose4
 ,which do not come within the scope of 
this book8  #b4 ,what is history8 ,on   
what does it rest8 ,how is it different 
from mythology8 from fiction8 ,what is  
the relation of history to change8 ,what
 is said of history in ,english         
literature8 ,what threefold division of 
history is there in regard to time8     
,name the limits of each4 ,as to        

subject-matter1 how is history divided8 
,what division is based on the sources  
of information8 ,define a chronicle2    
annals4 ,as to method1 what threefold   
division of history is there8 ,define   
narrative1 descriptive1 and philosophic 
history4 ,what method does the best     
history follow8 ,what difference is     
there between ancient and modern methods
 in history8 ,what is the first         
requisite of historic writing to-day8   
#c4 ,what is biography8 ,why is it      
interesting8 ,what was ,carlyle's idea8 
,what three different types exist8 ,what
 is the chief requisite8 ,what are the  
two principal sources of error8 ,what is
 autobiography8 ,what advantage has     
autobiography8 what source of error8    
,what is a diary8 ,of what use is a     
diary8  #d4 ,in judging a history1 what 
is the first point to be considered8    
,what is required by the laws of art8   
,what is said of style8 ,what is meant  
by symmetry8 ,what is the second point  
to be considered8 ,what two inquiries   

should be made8 ,on what are the        
greatest historical works based8 ,what  
is the third point to be considered8    
,what should be the historian's mental  
equipment8 ,why is it important to know 
his fundamental philosophical or        
religious beliefs8   ,,note  ,in place  
of illustrative and practical           
selections1 as given in earlier         
chapters1 it is suggested that the      
student be referred to a few leading    
works in the department of history4     
,among those that might be used1 apart  
from popular text-books on the subject1 
are ,macaulay's ,history of ,england1   
,green's ,history of the ,english       
,people1 ,carlyle's ,french ,revolution1
 ,prescott's ,conquest of ,mexico1      
,motley's ,rise of the ,dutch ,republic1
 ,irving's ,life of ,goldsmith1 the     
autobiographies of ,franklin1 ,gibbon1  
and ,ruskin1 the diaries of ,pepys and  
,evelyn1 ,johnson's ,lives of the       
,poets1 volumes from the ,english ,men  
of ,letters series1 the ,american ,men  

of ,letters series1 the ,american       
,statesmen series1 or any other works to
 which the student may have access4     
,the volumes assigned by the teacher    
should be studied with reference to     
diction and style as presented in ,part 
,second of this work4 ,in addition to   
this1 the narrative1 descriptive1 and   
philosophical passages should be        
distinguished4 ,by an analysis of a     
single chapter or of the whole book1 the
 symmetry and completeness of the       
author's treatment may be judged4 ,the  
writer's purpose and standpoint should1 
if possible1 be ascertained1 and the    
effect upon the work pointed out4 ,his  
mood1 character1 and intellectual gifts 
should be traced as reflected in his    
work4 ,the results of this investigation
 might be presented in the form of a    
written critique4     ,,chapter ,,xi    
,,essays ,,and ,,oratory   #ff4 ,essays4
 ,an essay is a brief dissertation on   
some special subject4 ,it aims to       
present its statements in a clear and   

interesting manner1 and this careful    
regard for a finished form brings the   
essay within the scope of literature in 
the strict sense of the word4 ,the essay
 does not usually aim at an elaborate   
discussion of a subject in all its      
phases1 and it is thus distinguished    
from the treatise4 ,its origin dates    
from the ,french author ,montaigne in   
the latter part of the sixteenth        
century2 but since the vast             
multiplication of periodicals in recent 
years1 the essay has become a prominent 
department of literature4 ,there is     
scarcely any subject of human interest  
that may not be discussed in an essay4  
,the principal forms of the essay are as
 follows3  7#a7 ,the tract1 which is    
usually a brief discussion of some      
religious or moral subject4  7#b7 ,the  
editorial1 which is an editor's         
discussion of some theme of public      
interest4  7#c7 ,the review or critique1
 which is a critical examination and    
discussion of some literary work4  ,two 

general and well-defined types of essays
 may be profitably distinguished4 ,the  
first may be called the personal essay4 
,it allows great freedom of treatment1  
and in large measure reflects the       
personality of the author4 ,it has      
something of the ease and charm of      
conversation4 ,the essays of ,montaigne1
 of ,addison1 and of ,lamb are of this  
personal type4  ,the other kind may be  
designated as the didactic essay4 ,its  
aim is the impartation of knowledge and 
the formation of public opinion4 ,the   
personality of the author is concealed  
behind his statements and arguments4 ,he
 does not write in the first person4 ,in
 our best writing of this kind there is 
a careful treatment of the subject4     
,the method of the essay is chiefly     
exposition4 ,it uses narration and      
description only in a subordinate way4  
,the essayist usually has some          
information to impart1 some argument to 
present1 or some conclusion to be       
reached4 ,his purpose naturally         

determines the mode of treatment4       
,generally there will be a beginning or 
introduction1 a middle containing the   
body of treatment1 and a conclusion4    
,very frequently1 however1 the writer   
plunges at once into his subject without
 the formality of an introduction4  ,in 
estimating the worth of an essay three  
things are to be chiefly taken into     
account4 ,the first is its form1        
including diction1 sentences1           
paragraphs1 and arrangement4 ,the       
various points brought forward should be
 in a natural order1 and each should    
have the prominence to which its        
relative importance entitles it4 ,there 
should be movement or progress in the   
treatment1 and the essay should gain in 
weight as it advances to the conclusion4
  ,the second point is the              
subject-matter of the essay4 ,as the    
essay is not intended to be exhaustive1 
there should be judgment in the         
selection of points to be presented4 ,a 
skillful writer will be recognized as   

much by what he leaves in the inkstand  
as by what he says4 ,in the presentation
 of facts there should be a             
conscientious regard for truth4 ,the    
author's originality1 force1 culture    
will be reflected in the matter and     
manner of his discussion4  ,then1 last  
of all1 the writer's mood and standpoint
 should be considered4 ,is he serious1  
satirical1 humorous8 ,is he writing from
 the standpoint of party or sect1 or is 
he seeking only to know and present the 
truth8 ,is he thoroughly acquainted with
 the subject that he discusses8 ,only as
 we answer questions like these can we  
enter into full sympathy with an author 
and form a just and adequate conception 
of his work4  #fg4 ,oratory4 ,oratory is
 that form of discourse that is         
primarily intended not to be read but to
 be spoken4 ,its object is mingled      
instruction and persuasion1 and it may  
be defined as instruction suffused with 
feeling4 ,in its lofty and impassioned  
forms oratory attains to                

eloquence1--that quality which          
profoundly moves the hearts and wills of
 the hearers4  ,but it is well to       
recognize the source of eloquence1 which
 is to be distinguished from bombast and
 fustian4 ,eloquence is not a trick of  
rhetoric2 it springs from the moral     
character of the speaker1 from his gifts
 and attainments1 and from the subject  
and occasion4 ,mere eloquence1 said     
,webster1 does not consist in speech4   
,it cannot be brought from far4 ,labor  
and learning may toil for it1 but they  
will toil in vain4 ,words and phrases   
may be marshaled in every way1 but they 
cannot compass it4 ,it must exist in the
 man1 in the subject1 and in the        
occasion4 ,affected passion1 intense    
expression1 the pomp of declamation1 all
 may aspire to it2 they cannot reach it4
 ,it comes1 if it come at all1 like the 
outbreaking of a fountain from the      
earth1 or the bursting of volcanic      
fires1 with spontaneous1 original1      
native force4  ,oratory is variously    

divided1 but perhaps no other division  
is better than that of ,aristotle4 ,he  
distinguishes three species of oratory3 
7#a7 ,deliberative oratory1 which has   
its place in deliberative bodies4 ,in   
,parliament or ,congress it is concerned
 with questions of legal enactment1     
finance1 or administration2 in religious
 bodies1 with ecclesiastical questions2 
in scientific bodies1 with questions of 
science4 ,at the present day a large    
part of oratory is deliberative in      
character4  7#b7 ,judicial or forensic  
oratory1 which is heard before courts of
 justice4 ,it is chiefly concerned with 
human conduct in relation to law1 and   
its aim is to determine what is legally 
right and just4  7#c7 ,demonstrative    
oratory is chiefly occupied with the    
presentation of abstract or practical   
truth4 ,it is heard in lectures1        
sermons1 and other public addresses4 ,it
 draws its themes from any department of
 human knowledge1 and aims at imparting 
instruction1 uplifting character1 or    

influencing conduct4  ,a finished       
oration is a work of art4 ,ancient      
rhetoricians distinguished six parts1   
which may still be found in some        
elaborate specimens of pulpit or        
forensic eloquence4 ,these six parts    
were 7#a7 the exordium or introduction1 
7#b7 the division of the subject1 7#c7  
the statement of what is to be          
established1 7#d7 the argumentation1    
7#e7 the appeal to the feelings1 and    
7#f7 the peroration or conclusion4  ,it 
is evident that this scheme for an      
oration is1 as a rule1 much too         
artificial and elaborate for use at the 
present day4 ,modern intelligence and   
modern intensity of life demand greater 
brevity and directness4 ,an audience of 
the present time rarely has patience    
with a discourse of more than an hour1  
and it generally prefers one of half    
that length4 ,in a modern discourse we  
may generally recognize a threefold     
division3  7#a7 ,the introduction1 which
 points out the relation of the subject 

to the occasion1 or otherwise prepares  
the audience better to appreciate the   
discussion that is to follow4 ,it should
 be natural1 and not so lengthy as to be
 out of keeping with the main body of   
the discourse4  7#b7 ,the discussion of 
the subject in hand4 ,this consists of a
 statement of the theme and the various 
facts1 arguments1 and illustrations that
 are designed to throw light upon it and
 establish its truth4 ,this is the main 
part of the discourse1 and great care   
should be exercised in the statement of 
facts and the arrangement of arguments4 
,personal conviction should be back of  
what is said1 for without this tone of  
sincerity the most brilliant rhetoric   
and eloquent declamation will be in     
vain4  7#c7 ,the conclusion1 in which   
the results of the discussion are       
presented4 ,it should be clear and claim
 no more than has been fairly           
established in the preceding discussion4
 ,on the basis of the truth previously  
presented it may contain an appeal to   

the feelings and the will1 urging the   
course of action that has been shown to 
be advisable1 wise1 or obligatory4      
,argumentation may seek to establish the
 truth of a proposition in four         
different ways3  7#a7 ,there may be the 
introduction of testimony4 ,by testimony
 is meant the statements of actual      
observers or witnesses4 ,it rests on    
experience1 and may be given orally or  
in writing2 hence we have oral and      
written testimony4  7#b7 ,a proposition 
may be supported or established by      
analogy4 ,reasoning from analogy is that
 process by which we infer that when two
 objects resemble each other in several 
known particulars they will also        
resemble each other in a certain unknown
 particular4 ,the planet ,mars1 for     
example1 resembles the earth in shape1  
motion1 atmosphere1 change of seasons1  
and relation to the sun2 and from the   
resemblance in these known particulars  
some persons have inferred that1 like   
the earth1 it is also inhabited4        

,analogical reasoning has a prominent   
place in our mental operations4 ,analogy
 lies at the basis of simile1 metaphor1 
and personification1 which are often    
used in argumentation4 ,we frequently   
use analogical processes in the         
practical affairs of life1 inferring1   
for example1 that there will be rain    
to-day because the temperature1         
appearance of the clouds1 and the       
condition of the atmosphere resemble    
those of a rainy day last week4  ,but it
 is to be observed that the arguments   
from analogy give us at the best only   
probable truth4 ,the degree of          
probability depends upon the nature and 
number of the resemblances upon which   
the conclusion is based4 ,there must be 
no point of dissimilarity that would    
disprove the conclusion inferred4  7#c7 
,we may establish a conclusion by an    
array of facts4 ,this is called         
inductive reasoning4 ,we observe1 for   
example1 that ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 and all other 
men of the past1 so far as our knowledge

 goes1 have died2 and in view of these  
individual cases we draw the            
comprehensive conclusion that all men   
are mortal4  ,but this mode of          
reasoning1 common and indispensable as  
it is1 needs to be employed with        
caution4 ,there is always danger of     
inferring more than the facts warrant4  
,when the inference is based on an      
inadequate induction of facts1 the      
process is called jumping at a          
conclusion1--a mistake that is          
frequently made4 ,even large inductions 
are not always safe4 ,we might conclude1
 for instance1 that1 because the        
bulldog1 hound1 mastiff1 setter1        
spaniel1 terrier1 and other species we  
have known1 are accustomed to bark1     
therefore all dogs bark4 ,yet this      
apparently well-founded conclusion is   
erroneous1 for there is a non-barking   
species in ,greenland4  7#d7 ,again1 we 
may establish a truth by showing that it
 comes within an established and        
recognized principle4 ,this process is  

known as deductive reasoning4 ,the      
principle on which deductive reasoning  
depends is the self-evident truth that  
whatever is true of the whole is true of
 the parts4 ,starting from the general  
truth that all men are mortal1 we may   
conclude that ,a1 ,b1 and ,c are mortal4
  ,the general truth that supplies the  
basis of deductive reasoning may be     
taken from various sources4 ,sometimes  
the truth is self-evident or intuitive1 
as the axioms that lie at the basis of  
mathematical reasoning4 ,sometimes they 
are truths arrived at by inductive      
processes4 ,sometimes they are maxims   
that have gained the assent of mankind2 
and again1 they are the statements of an
 accepted philosophy1 creed1 code1 or   
other recognized source of authority4   
,in deductive reasoning two points need 
particular attention3 7#a7 the          
fundamental principle on which the      
argument is based should be well        
established or recognized as true2 and  
7#b7 the conclusion should necessarily  

follow from the truth assumed in the    
beginning1 and not embrace more than is 
duly warranted by it4  ,the general     
structure of an oration is determined by
 its object4 ,there should be1 in large 
measure1 simplicity1 unity1 and         
progress4 ,the language should be within
 the comprehension of the average       
hearer2 the sentences1 as a rule1 should
 be brief and forcible2 and the general 
style should be concrete rather than    
abstract4 ,all parts of the oration     
should be bound together by the single  
truth and purpose at which the orator   
aims4 ,the arguments should not be      
abstruse but clear and striking4        
,irrelevant matter of every kind1 no    
matter how brilliant in itself1 should  
be excluded2 and every fact and         
principle should be scrupulously        
correct4 ,understatement is better than 
overstatement4 ,the orator should       
continually advance toward his          
conclusion2 the auditor should feel     
himself borne along not on a circling   

eddy but on the bosom of a full1 strong 
current of thought and feeling4  ,it was
 ,cicero who said that the orator should
 know everything4 ,however desirable    
such attainments might be1 they are no  
longer possible2 but the orator should  
have a wide range of culture and        
experience4 ,this is necessary to give  
breadth and proportion to his outlook   
upon the world4 ,in addition to this    
general culture he should1 as far as    
possible1 be master of his subject2 and 
to this end he should bestow upon his   
discourse careful and even laborious    
preparation4 ,without these requisites  
the orator is apt to prove              
uninteresting1 inconclusive1 and        
unsuccessful4   ,,review ,,questions    
#a4 ,what is an essay8 ,what brings it  
within the range of art8 ,how is it     
distinguished from a treatise8 ,with    
whom did it originate8 ,what gives it   
prominence now8 ,name its principal     
forms4 ,what is a tract8 an editorial8 a
 critique or review8 ,name two types of 

essay4 ,what is the character of the    
personal essay8 ,give examples4 ,define 
the didactic essay4 ,what is the method 
of the essay8 ,what parts may usually be
 distinguished8 ,what three things are  
to be considered in estimating the worth
 of an essay8 ,how should the successive
 points be presented8 ,how is a skillful
 writer recognized8 ,what is said of the
 essayist's mood and standpoint8  #b4   
,what is oratory8 ,what is its object8  
,what is eloquence8 ,whence does it     
rise8 ,what is the substance of         
,webster's view8 ,how did ,aristotle    
divide oratory8 ,what is deliberative   
oratory8 judicial or forensic8          
demonstrative8 ,what parts were         
anciently distinguished8 ,what is said  
of this scheme8 ,what three parts are   
now generally recognized8 ,what is the  
purpose of the introduction8 ,what is   
said of the discussion8 ,what is said of
 the speaker's convictions8 ,what is the
 nature of the conclusion8 ,what four   
methods of proof may be used8 ,what is  

meant by testimony8 ,what are the two   
kinds of testimony8 ,what is meant by   
reasoning from analogy8 ,illustrate4    
,what is said of its use8 ,what sort of 
truth is furnished by analogical        
reasoning8 ,on what does the degree of  
its probability depend8 ,what is        
inductive reasoning8 ,illustrate4 ,what 
is meant by jumping at a conclusion8    
,give a case of erroneous conclusion4   
,what is deductive reasoning8           
,illustrate4 ,whence may come the       
general truth lying at the basis of     
deduction8 ,what two points must be     
attended to carefully8 ,what qualities  
should an oration have8 ,why should the 
diction and sentence structure be       
simple8 ,what should give unity to the  
oration8 ,what is said of irrelevant    
matter8 of movement or progress8 ,what  
was ,cicero's view of an orator's       
attainments8 ,what is the advantage of  
broad culture8 ,what is said of special 
preparation8   ,,note  ,in place of     
brief illustrative and practical        

selections1 it is recommended that the  
student be referred to complete essays  
and orations4 ,in addition to current   
literature1 in which will be found      
essays of various kinds1 ,bacon's       
,essays1 the papers of the ,spectator1  
,lamb's ,essays of ,elia1 and the essays
 of ,macaulay1 ,de ,quincey1 ,carlyle1  
and ,emerson may be used4 ,under the    
head of oratory1 apart from contemporary
 speeches and sermons1 the student might
 be referred to ,burke's ,speech on     
,american ,taxation1 ,webster's ,bunker 
,hill ,orations1 ,patrick ,henry's      
,speech before the ,virginia            
,convention1 ,emerson's ,representative 
,men1 and ,carlyle's ,heroes and ,hero  
,worship4  ,the essays assigned should  
be investigated as to form1 matter1 and 
mood or purpose4 ,such questions as the 
following may be answered3 ,what kind of
 essay is it8 ,is it personal or        
didactic8 ,what is the theme8 ,what is  
the writer's aim8 ,what is his mood8    
,what constitutes the introduction8 the 

body of the essay8 the conclusion8 ,what
 may be said of the diction1 sentences1 
and style8 ,what is the order of thought
 as determined by analysis8 ,is there   
symmetry8 ,is there movement8 ,is       
irrelevant matter excluded8 ,is the     
treatment lit up by humor8 ,is there    
breadth of view8 ,what is the writer's  
standpoint8 ,is there care and          
self-restraint of statement8  ,in the   
case of a speech the same questions may 
be asked in reference to form1 content1 
mood1 or purpose4 ,in addition the      
student may determine the class of      
oratory to which the speech belongs4 ,he
 may ask such questions as the          
following3 ,is it eloquent in any part8 
,what is the mode of argumentation8     
,what is the form of proof8 ,is the     
argument sound and convincing8 ,the     
student should analyze the speech1 in   
whole or in part1 and make a synopsis of
 its principal propositions and proofs4 
,the result may be presented in a       
written or oral critique4     ,,chapter 

,,xii  ,,nature ,,and ,,classification  
,,of ,,fiction   #fh4 ,definition4      
,fiction is that form of prose narrative
 in which the characters1 scenes1 and   
incidents are partly or entirely        
imaginary4 ,in its highest form it is a 
sort of prose epic2 and ,homer's        
,odyssey finds a parallel in ,fnelon's  
,telemachus4 ,in the arrangement of     
characters and incidents to form a plot1
 fiction resembles the drama2 and at the
 present time every notable work of     
fiction is apt to make its way to the   
stage4 ,like poetry in general1 fiction 
has its principal source in the creative
 imagination1 which1 working on the     
basis of experience1 modifies or        
produces character1 scene1 and incident4
  ,a common division of fiction1 though 
not consistently observed1 is the novel 
and the romance4 ,the novel is a        
fictitious narrative in which the       
characters and incidents are in keeping 
with the ordinary train of events in    
society4 ,goldsmith's ,vicar of         

,wakefield1 which brings before us the  
simple life of a country pastor1 may be 
taken as a type4 ,a romance is a        
fictitious narrative in which the       
characters and scenes and incidents are 
uncommon1 improbable1 or marvelous4     
,scott's ,ivanhoe may be taken as a     
representative of the best type of      
romance4 ,the one form of fiction may   
readily shade into the other1 and it    
becomes difficult in some cases to      
determine the classification2 but in    
general the two species are clearly     
marked4  #fi4 ,romanticism4 ,during the 
past century there were two far-reaching
 movements in the field of fiction4     
,both came in the character of a        
reaction2 taken together they have given
 greater breadth and depth to this      
department of literature4 ,the first    
movement1 which dates near the beginning
 of the last century1 is known as       
romanticism4 ,it was a reaction against 
the formal and the conventional4        
,romanticism may be defined as          

liberalism in literature2 it is a       
breaking away from authority and a      
return to nature4 ,it manifested itself 
in two particulars both in fiction and  
poetry3 first1 there was greater freedom
 in subject1 form1 and character2 and   
second1 there was a return to the past1 
particularly to an idealized age of     
chivalry in the ,middle ,ages4 ,scott   
was the great leader of the romantic    
movement both in poetry and in fiction4 
,in their wide range of character and   
incident1 and in their idealization of  
the past1 the ,waverley ,novels are in  
general perfect types of romanticism4   
#gj4 ,realism4 ,realism came about the  
middle of the ,victorian era as a       
reaction against romanticism4 ,it was   
born of the scientific spirit1 which    
rendered the public dissatisfied with   
fanciful pictures of past ages and with 
the impossibilities of wild romance4    
,realism1 as the word indicates1 adheres
 to reality4 ,discarding what is        
idealistic or unreal in characters and  

situations1 it aims at being true to    
life4 ,all the great novelists of this  
period--,dickens1 ,thackeray1 ,george   
,eliot--were in the best sense of the   
word realists4  ,as an effort to        
represent life as it is1 the worth of   
realism must be acknowledged4 ,in its   
proper application it places the novel  
on an immovable basis4 ,while idealism  
shows us how life might be or ought to  
be1 realism shows how it actually is4   
,unfortunately1 realistic writers have  
not1 in many cases1 been true to their  
fundamental principles4 ,the great      
continental leaders of                  
realism--,tolstoi1 ,zola1 ,ibsen--have  
been tainted with a fatal pessimism4    
,realists of this type seem to see only 
one side of life1--the darker side of   
sin and wretchedness and despair4 ,they 
often describe what is coarse1 impure1  
obscene4 ,no doubt their pictures are   
true as far as they go2 but the fatal   
defect of their work is that it does not
 reflect life as a whole4 ,it does not  

portray the pure and noble and happy    
side of life1 which is just as real as  
the other4  ,except in the hands of     
genius1 realism is apt to be dull4 ,it  
gives us uninteresting photographs4     
,there are times when we do not care so 
much for instruction as for amusement   
and recreation4 ,this fact opens a      
legitimate field for the imaginative    
story-teller4 ,there is to-day a decided
 reaction against realism in the form of
 what has been called the new           
romanticism4 ,it does not present to us 
elaborate studies of actual life1 but   
entertains us with an interesting or    
exciting story4 ,stevenson1 ,weyman1    
,hope1 and ,doyle have been leaders in  
this movement1 and some of the most     
widely read novels of the past few years
 have belonged to this new romanticism4 
#ga4 ,idealism4 ,the influence of       
idealism in fiction should be           
recognized4 ,it may tinge the work both 
of romanticism and of realism4 ,it is1  
perhaps1 to be regarded as an atmosphere

 rather than as a method4 ,the aim of   
idealism is to soften the hard realities
 of life4 ,it in a measure portrays     
things not as they are but as they      
should be2 and as far as it definitely  
pursues this course it presents a       
contrast to realism4 ,it naturally      
chooses for the most part the nobler    
types of character2 and to the villains 
that may be introduced it metes out in  
due time a merited punishment4 ,the     
trials of life are brought to happy     
issue4 ,the hero and heroine1 both      
somewhat above the characters of        
ordinary life1 at length triumph over   
all the obstacles that beset their path4
 ,kept within due bounds1 idealism gives
 a hopeful and uplifting tone to        
fiction2 but without careful restraint  
it is in danger of becoming false and   
injurious4 ,it presents to the young a  
caricature of the world1 and exposes    
them1 at a later period1 to bitter and  
dangerous disillusionment4 ,among our   
greatest novelists an idealistic        

tendency is very perceptible in ,scott  
and ,dickens4  #gb4 ,component          
,elements4 ,in every important work of  
fiction there are six things to be      
considered1 namely1 the characters1 the 
incidents1 the environment1 the plot1   
the purpose1 and the view or philosophy 
of life4 ,the first three elements      
constitute the materials out of which   
the novelist builds his work2 the last  
three supply the general plan by which  
he builds it4 ,the excellence of the    
work1 as in architecture1 depends both  
on the character of the materials and on
 the manner in which they are put       
together4 ,when ,solomon constructed his
 famous temple he not only used cedar   
and gold but also joined them together  
according to a wise design and noble    
purpose4 ,these various elements are    
worthy of separate consideration4  7#a7 
,the characters of a novel are of prime 
importance4 ,as in actual life1 they    
give tone to the society to which we are
 introduced4 ,they should be clearly    

individualized1 as in the drama1 and    
maintain throughout a reasonable        
consistency4 ,they may be taken from any
 class of society2 and writers of large 
creative genius1 like ,shakespeare1     
,scott1 ,dickens1 ,balzac1 will be      
distinguished both for the number and   
for the variety of their characters4 ,it
 is not enough that the characters be   
described in their outward appearance   
and experiences4 ,in all profounder     
work1 as in ,george ,eliot1 there will  
be an unveiling of the hidden springs of
 motive and disposition4 ,the great     
potentialities of human nature both for 
good and evil will be brought to light1 
and thus the mimic world of the novelist
 will reflect the life of the great real
 world in its more tragic aspects4  7#b7
 ,by the incidents of a novel we mean   
the acts and experiences of the         
characters4 ,they make up the connected 
and progressive story4 ,the incidents   
may be as varied1 as the occurrences of 
human life1 sweeping the whole range of 

toil1 sorrow1 and joy4 ,they may be     
either comic or tragic4 ,the interest of
 a work of fiction depends largely upon 
its incidents4 ,separately they may be  
entertaining1 absorbing1 or thrilling2  
and taken together in their sequence    
they may carry us forward irresistibly  
to the conclusion4 ,they should be in   
keeping with the time and place1 and the
 several acts of the personages should  
be in harmony with their character and  
culture4  7#c7 ,as in real life1 the    
personages of a novel or romance live   
and move in the midst of an environment4
 ,they are placed in the midst of       
circumstances1 upon which they act and  
by which they are acted upon4 ,they may 
live on land or sea1 in the country or  
in the city1 amid the wildness of       
unsubdued forests or the culture of     
long-established communities4 ,they may 
be surrounded by intelligence and luxury
 or by ignorance and squalor4  ,the     
environment is brought before us by     
description1 which necessarily          

constitutes no inconsiderable part of   
every work of fiction4 ,the descriptive 
passages should be true to fact1 and    
graphic enough to enable the reader to  
picture the scenes in his mind2 but they
 should not be so long drawn as to      
encumber or impede the story4           
,description is subordinate in fiction2 
instead of being an end in itself1 its  
purpose is to throw light upon the      
characters and incidents of the story4  
7#d7 ,by plot1 we mean the manner in    
which the incidents of a story are      
arranged with reference to the final    
issue4 ,the incidents may be loosely    
connected or they may be so skillfully  
ordered as to arouse the reader's       
breathless interest4 ,a skillful plot   
presupposes dramatic talent4 ,this is   
not always found in union with a strong 
creative imagination2 and thus it       
happens that some of our greatest       
novelists1 as ,thackeray and ,george    
,eliot1 are defective in dramatic plots4
 ,while a skillfully arranged plot is   

not an essential element in a work of   
fiction1 it is always a source of       
interest and power4  7#e7 ,every work of
 fiction has an aim or purpose4         
,sometimes the author merely aims at    
telling an interesting story which has  
no other significance than to provoke a 
smile or a tear4 ,sometimes it may be   
intended to illustrate a period in      
history or the manners of a particular  
locality4 ,sometimes it is designed to  
throw light on some phase of human      
character or human experience4 ,and     
again1 it may be a vehicle for conveying
 some form of teaching or for           
illustrating the growth of culture and  
character4 ,in studying a work of       
fiction the purpose should be clearly   
apprehended1 for the merit of a novel or
 romance depends in a measure upon the  
author's aim and his degree of success  
in realizing it4  7#f7 ,every work of   
fiction1 consciously or unconsciously to
 the author1 is apt to embody a         
particular view or philosophy of life4  

,every thoughtful person has convictions
 in regard to ,god1 nature1 and man4 ,he
 may believe in a personal deity or an  
unconscious force as the source of all  
things4 ,he may think of nature as a    
creation or as a product of impersonal  
natural law4 ,he may think of man as an 
immortal being or as a creature whose   
existence ceases with death4 ,but       
whatever may be an author's fundamental 
beliefs1 they will inevitably color his 
work4  #gc4 ,kinds of ,novels4 ,novels  
may be divided into various classes     
according to subject or method of       
treatment4 ,as to method1 we have       
already had the general division of     
romanticism and realism4 ,another       
generic classification has been         
proposed3 first1 novels of life1 which  
include the works portraying both past  
and contemporary life2 and second1      
novels of idea1 which include didactic  
and artistic works of fiction4 ,the     
didactic novel discusses some practical 
problem or advances some social or moral

 theory2 the artistic novel subordinates
 the story to perfection of form4  ,it  
will be helpful to the student to       
distinguish the following classes3  7#a7
 ,the society novel is devoted to a     
portrayal of existing men and manners4  
,the field is a wide one4 ,the          
characters may be taken from any class  
of society4 ,the society novel may bring
 before us1 as in ,thackeray's ,vanity  
,fair1 what is known as fashionable     
life4 ,it may again1 as in ,george      
,eliot's ,adam ,bede or ,goldsmith's    
,vicar of ,wakefield1 introduce us to   
the lives of plain people4 ,it may      
acquaint us1 as in ,du ,maurier's       
,trilby1 with the ,bohemian or artist   
class in our great cities4 ,it may deal1
 as in ,dickens's ,oliver ,twist or     
,bulwer's ,paul ,clifford1 with the     
criminal class4 ,in short1 there is no  
class of society or type of character   
that may not become the subject of      
treatment in novels of this class4  7#b7
 ,local novels are devoted to the       

portrayal of the life and manners of a  
well-marked locality4 ,they are social  
novels within a restricted field4       
,differences of race1 of language1 of   
pursuit1 and of intelligence1 as seen in
 particular localities1 are reflected in
 novels of this kind4 ,there is scarcely
 any portion of ,england that has not   
been described in some work of fiction4 
,charlotte ,bront brings ,yorkshire     
scenery and character before us in      
,shirley2 ,george ,eliot portrays the   
scenes of her native ,warwick in ,the   
,mill on the ,floss2 ,blackmore's ,lorna
 ,doone portrays the scenery1 life1 and 
language of ,devonshire4  ,america has  
afforded a very rich field for the local
 novel4 ,not a few of its choicest works
 belong to this class4 ,scarcely any    
part of our wide country or any special 
phase of its life has escaped the eyes  
of the enterprising story-teller4 ,in   
his ,grandissimes1 for example1 ,george 
,w4 ,cable gives us a glimpse of the    
,creole life of ,louisiana4 ,in the     

,hoosier ,schoolmaster ,edward          
,eggleston describes pioneer life in    
,indiana4 ,in ,gabriel ,conroy ,bret    
,harte brings before us the wild and    
lawless life of ,california a half      
century ago4 ,in various works ,miss    
,murfree has described the dwellers in  
the ,tennessee mountains4 ,new ,england 
and the ,south have been portrayed by   
various writers4  7#c7 ,the historical  
novel is devoted to the description of  
life in the past4 ,it should be based on
 a careful study of the period to be    
portrayed4 ,it may deal with the scenes 
of a hundred years ago or it may go back
 a thousand years before the ,christian 
era4  ,no other department of fiction   
has a prouder array of great books4     
,historical fiction has gone hand in    
hand with a revived interest in         
historical and archological research4   
,the greatest of all historical         
novelists is ,scott1 whose ,waverley    
series covers the centuries between the 
crusades1 which ,ivanhoe describes1 and 

the rebellion of ,prince ,edward        
,charles in #agde1 which ,waverley      
describes4 ,but other great             
names--,german1 ,english1               
,american--belong to this class of      
fiction4 ,uarda1 for example1 by ,george
 ,ebers1 describes life in ,egypt a     
thousand years before ,christ4          
,kingsley's ,hypatia takes us back to   
the city of ,alexandria in the fifth    
century of our era4 ,in the ,last ,days 
of ,pompeii ,bulwer ,lytton describes   
the life of the ,roman city at the time 
of its destruction4 ,george ,eliot's    
,romola portrays the spirit and manners 
of the city of ,florence in the days of 
,savonarola and the revival of learning4
 ,ben ,hur by ,lew ,wallace is a tale of
 the ,christ4 ,the ,schnberg-,cotta     
,family by ,mrs4 ,elizabeth ,charles is 
a graphic portrayal of movements and    
scenes in ,germany at the period of the 
,reformation4  ,recently there has been 
a notable revival in historical fiction4
 ,it has come1 perhaps1 as a reaction   

against a hard realism and empty        
romanticism4 ,it probably strikes its   
roots in the desire for knowledge which 
at the present time is so generally     
characteristic of the ,american people4 
,not a few of the recent books of       
phenomenal popularity--,churchill's     
,richard ,carvel1 ,miss ,johnson's ,to  
,have and to ,hold1 ,ford's ,janice     
,meredith1 ,page's ,red ,rock1          
,thompson's ,alice of ,old              
,vincennes--deal with interesting       
periods in the history of our country4  
7#d7 ,the problem or purpose novel has  
been prominent in recent fiction4 ,it   
has been a natural product of this      
restless1 intellectual age4 ,fiction has
 been made the medium for the discussion
 of political1 social1 and religious    
problems4 ,not a few of them1 as        
,bellamy's socialistic ,looking         
,backward1 have had an enormous         
circulation4 ,uncle ,tom's ,cabin by    
,mrs4 ,stowe was a severe arraignment of
 slavery1 and exerted a strong influence

 in molding the sentiment of a large    
part of our country4 ,recent theological
 unrest is reflected in ,mrs4 ,ward's   
,robert ,elsmere and in ,margaret       
,deland's ,john ,ward1 ,preacher4 ,the  
nature and influence of labor           
organizations are presented in ,charles 
,reade's ,put ,yourself in ,his ,place1 
and in the anonymous ,american story    
,the ,bread ,winners4 ,hall ,caine's    
,christian involves a serious indictment
 against the church in ,england4        
,disraeli traversed the field of        
,english politics in his ,coningsby and 
,endymion1 as did ,trollope in his      
,phineas ,finn and ,prime ,minister4 ,in
 his ,guardian ,angel and ,elsie ,venner
 ,oliver ,wendell ,holmes traces the    
effects of heredity1 a subject          
previously handled by ,hawthorne in his 
,house of ,seven ,gables4 ,in this way  
we see that nearly every great practical
 question of general interest may be    
discussed or portrayed in fiction4  7#e7
 ,the love story and the story of       

adventure embrace a considerable though 
unambitious part of fiction4 ,the love  
story deals with courtship and marriage4
 ,as a rule1 after encountering more or 
less opposition or difficulty1 the      
lovers are at last happily united4 ,a   
thread of love usually runs through all 
the more ambitious types of fiction1 for
 it is a source of universal interest   
that cannot lightly be set aside2 but in
 the love story it is the central and   
dominant interest4  ,the story of       
adventure consists of a succession of   
interesting or thrilling incidents4 ,the
 type of this species of fiction is     
,defoe's ,robinson ,crusoe4 ,the new    
romantic movement already referred to   
lays much stress on a rapid succession  
of exciting incidents4 ,this is         
illustrated by ,hope's ,prisoner of     
,zenda or by most of ,r4 ,l4            
,stevenson's works1 of which ,kidnapped 
and ,the ,master of ,ballantrae may be  
taken as fair examples4  7#f7 ,naval    
fiction belongs to the sea4 ,it is an   

interesting field1 though somewhat      
limited in its range of character and   
incident4 ,the sea itself1 with its     
magnificent and changing moods1 is a    
sublime object4 ,the restricted life on 
shipboard--the telling of yarns beneath 
the starlit skies1 the spirit of mingled
 superstition and daring1 the prompt and
 brave activities attending a storm1    
and1 above all1 the excitement and      
dangers of battle--has for the landsman 
a peculiar charm4  ,novelists of the sea
 are not numerous2 for1 in order to be  
in the best sense successful1 the writer
 must have had a seafaring experience4  
,james ,fenimore ,cooper1 who had been  
in the navy1 criticised ,scott's ,pirate
 as the work of a landsman4 ,he         
undertook to produce a genuine story of 
the sea in his ,pilot1 which1 whatever  
else may be its defects1 is correct in  
sailor's lingo and briny flavor4 ,he was
 no less successful in ,the ,red ,rover1
 the scenes of which antedate the       
,revolution4 ,but the prince of marine  

novelists is unquestionably ,frederick  
,marryat1 whose ,peter ,simple1 ,jacob  
,faithful1 and ,mr4 ,midshipman ,easy   
are perhaps unsurpassed in their sphere4
  7#g7 ,the psychologic novel is        
concerned chiefly with mental analysis4 
,it traces the workings of the soul     
under different circumstances and       
different influences4 ,it follows the   
character in its ascent to higher       
goodness or in its descent to lower     
degradation4 ,stevenson's ,dr4 ,jekyll  
and ,mr4 ,hyde1 for example1 is a       
powerful exhibition of the duality--the 
brute and the divinity--in human nature4
 ,hawthorne's ,scarlet ,letter1 while in
 one sense a historical novel1 is an    
incomparable study of the human soul    
under the weight of guilt and remorse4  
,throughout ,george ,eliot's novels     
there is a constant portrayal of mental 
and moral conditions that give to her   
works an unusual depth and power4 ,her  
method has been justly called           
psychologic realism4 ,under this head we

 may place what has been called the art 
and culture novel1 the object of which  
is to exhibit the gradual development of
 individual character by means of a     
changing environment4 ,the type of this 
sort of fiction is ,goethe's ,wilhelm   
,meister4  ,the short story1 which our  
magazines have rendered so popular in   
recent years1 is a novel in miniature4  
,it paints on a small canvas but with   
exceeding delicacy4 ,like the novel or  
the romance1 it may find its materials  
in any age or in any class of society2  
and in its general method it conforms to
 the laws of fiction in general4        
,,review ,,questions  #fh4 ,what is     
fiction8 ,how does it resemble the      
drama8 ,what is said of dramatized      
novels8 ,define novel and romance4 ,give
 examples of each4 #fi4 ,what is        
romanticism8 ,when did it manifest      
itself8 ,in what two particulars8 #gj4  
,what is realism8 ,whence did it spring8
 ,what are its merits8 ,what tendency of
 realistic writers is noted8 ,what is   

the danger of realism8 ,what is meant by
 the new romanticism8 ,mention some of  
its representative writers4 #ga4 ,what  
is the aim of idealism8 ,how does it do 
this8 ,what two great novelists show    
idealistic tendencies8 #gb4 ,what six   
things are to be noted in every novel8  
,what two groups are distinguished among
 them8 ,on what does the excellence of a
 novel depend8 ,what is said of the     
characters8 ,whence may they be drawn8  
,how are great writers distinguished8   
,what characterizes profound novels8    
,what is meant by incidents8 ,what is   
said of their variety8 ,how should they 
be arranged8 ,what is meant by          
environment8 ,what environments may be  
used8 ,how may they be brought before   
us8 ,what should be the character of    
this description8 ,what is its place8   
,what is meant by plot8 ,what is        
presupposed in a skillful plot8 ,what   
great writers are lacking in dramatic   
power8 ,what purposes may be aimed at8  
,why should the purpose be apprehended8 

,about what have thoughtful persons     
convictions8 ,what is the effect of     
these convictions8 ,why should the      
writer's aim or purpose be understood8  
#gc4 ,how may novels and romances be    
divided8 ,what are novels of life8      
novels of idea8 ,what seven classes are 
distinguished8 ,what is a society novel8
 ,what may it portray8 ,what are local  
novels8 ,what is said of them in        
,america8 ,mention some well-known local
 novels4 ,what is a historical novel8   
,on what should it be based8 ,what is   
said of historical fiction8 ,who is the 
greatest of historical novelists8       
,mention some others4 ,what is said of  
recent tendencies8 ,mention some recent 
historical novels4 ,what is meant by    
problem or purpose novels8 ,illustrate  
by various examples4 ,what is the nature
 of the love story8 of the story of     
adventure8 ,illustrate4 ,what is naval  
fiction8 ,why are sea novelists not     
numerous8 ,what is said of ,cooper8 ,who
 is the chief of marine novelists8 ,with

 what is the psychologic novel          
principally concerned8 ,give examples4  
,what gives ,george ,eliot's novels     
their depth8 ,what is said of the short 
story8 ,to what laws is it subject8     
,,note  ,as illustrative and practical  
exercises1 let the student criticise    
several pieces of fiction assigned by   
the teacher4 ,for this purpose any of   
the standard or popular works mentioned 
in the text may be selected1 or any     
others to which the student may have    
access4  ,after classifying the work and
 determining its style1 the student     
should investigate it according to its  
six component elements1--characters1    
incidents1 environment1 plot1 purpose1  
and views of life4 ,the points to be    
investigated under each head are        
suggested in the text4  ,as points of   
special interest1 he may inquire into   
the origin of the work and the sources  
from which its materials were derived4  
,this investigation will frequently     
reveal1 as in the case of ,thackeray1   

,charlotte ,bront1 ,dickens1 and ,george
 ,eliot1 interesting autobiographic     
details4  ,the results of this          
investigation may be presented in a     
written critique1 in which the value of 
the work as a whole1 in the light of    
correct sthetic and critical principles1
 should be determined4 ,it will         
sometimes be found that novels of wide  
popularity are destitute of great       
intrinsic excellence4     ,,index       
sthetics defined1 #cd2     sthetic      
elements1 #ce4    ,allegory1 #ga4       
,alliteration1 #aad4    ,analogy1       
argument from1 #agb4    ,anglo-,saxon   
and ,latin elements of ,english1 #ef4   
,annals1 #aeh4    ,antithesis1 #ge4     
,apostrophe1 #gc4    ,argumentation1    
#hg2     four kinds of1 #agb4           
,artistic element in literature1 #h4    
,author and his work1 #ai2              
personality of1 #ai2     mental         
qualities of1 #ai2     character of1    
#bj2     view of life of1 #bb2          
literary school of1 #bd2     mood and   

purpose of1 #bd2     life of1 #bg4      
,autobiographic elements in literature1 
#ba4    ,autobiography1 #afb4           
,ballad defined1 #acd4    ,beauty1 #ce4 
,biography1 #afj2     three types of1   
#afa2     essentials of1 #afa4    ,blank
 verse1 #aag4     ,csura1 #aah4         
,character and authorship1 #ba4         
,chronicle1 #aeh4    ,classic writers1  
#d4    ,climax1 #ge4    ,comedy1 #adh4  
,criticism1 defined1 #b2     history of1
 #c2     standard of1 #c2     requisites
 of1 #d2     as an art1 #e2             
diversity of1 #e2     diversity of1     
explained1 #f2     utility of1 #g2      
materials of1 #h4     ,description1 #ce1
 #db1 #he4    ,diary1 #afb4    ,diction1
 #eh4    ,discourse1 kinds of1 #hd4     
,drama1 #adh-aec2     unity of1 #adi2   
five principal parts1 #aej2     other   
elements1 #aej4    ,dramatis personae1  
#aea4     ,elegy1 #acg4    ,eloquence1  
source of1 #afi4    ,english language1  
composite1 #ee2     copious1 #ef2       
elements of1 #ef2     what elements to  

choose1 #eg4    ,enjambement1 #aah4     
,epic poetry1 #adf2     different       
species of1 #adg2     mock epic1 #adg4  
,epigram1 #gf4    ,essay1 #afg2         
principal forms of1 #afg2     criteria  
of1 #afh4    ,exclamation1 #gc4         
,exposition1 #hg4     ,fable1 #gb4      
,faculties1 symmetrical1 #ib4    ,farce1
 #adi4    ,felicity of expression1 #ch4 
,fiction1 defined1 #agh2     elements   
of1 #aha2     characters of1 #ahb2      
incidents of1 #ahb2     environment in1 
#ahc2     plot in1 #ahc2     aim of1    
#ahd2     view of life of1 #ahd2        
kinds of1 #ahd2     society novel1 #ahe2
     local novel1 #ahe2     historical  
novel1 #ahf2     problem or purpose     
novel1 #ahg2     love story1 #ahh2      
marine novel1 #ahi2     psychologic     
novel1 #ahi2     short story1 #aij4     
,figures1 defined1 #fh2     kinds of1   
#fh2     of resemblance1 #fi2     of    
contrast1 #ge4     ,harmony of thought  
and expression1 #cg4    ,heroism1 #da4  
,history1 defined1 #aef2     divisions  

of1 #aeg2     methods of1 #aeh2         
criteria of1 #afc4    ,humor1 #df4      
,hymns1 #ace4    ,hyperbole1 #gd4       
,idealism1 #ahj4    ,imagination1 #hi2  
ill-governed1 #ij4    ,interrogation1   
#gf4    ,irony1 #gg4     ,life1 an      
author's view of1 #bb4    ,literary     
school1 #bd4    ,love in literature1    
#dj2     love story1 #ahh4              
,ludicrous1 the1 in literature1 #dd4    
,matter and form in literature1 #i4     
,metaphor1 #gj4    ,meter1 #aaa1 #aaf4  
,metonymy1 #gb4    ,mind1 generic       
differences of1 #hh4    ,mock epic1     
#adg4    ,molding influences in         
literature1 #h4    ,moral character1    
#bj2     moral sublime1 #dc4            
,narration1 #hf4    ,necessity of       
understanding a work1 #a4    ,novel and 
romance1 #agh4     ,see ,fiction4       
,ode defined1 #acf4    ,opera1 #adi4    
,oration1 divisions of1 #agj2           
criteria of1 #agd4    ,oratory1 #afi2   
different kinds of1 #agj4     ,parable1 
#gb4    ,paragraph1 #fb4    ,parody1    

#de4    ,period in verse1 #aah4         
,personification1 #gj4    ,poet1 the1   
#aje2     as seer1 #ajf4    ,poetic     
license1 #abj-abb4    ,poetry1 defined1 
#ajc2     and prose1 #ajd2     sources  
of1 #ajd2     classification of1 #acj2  
didactic1 #acj2     descriptive1 #acb2  
pastoral1 #acc2     lyric1 #acd2        
criteria of1 #ach2     epic1 #ade4      
,prose and poetry1 #ajd2     defined1   
#aef4    ,purpose of literary study1 #a4
     ,realism1 #agi4    ,rhyme1 #aab2   
different kinds of1 #aab-aad4           
,romance1 metrical1 #adg2     defined1  
#agh4     ,see ,fiction4                
,romanticism1 #agi4     ,satire1 #de1   
#aca4    ,sensibilities in ascendant1   
#ij4    ,sentences1 different kinds of1 
#fj2     qualities of1 #fa4    ,simile1 
#fi4    ,song defined1 #ace4    ,sonnet1
 #acg4    ,spiritual truth1 #ci4        
,stanza1 defined1 #aae2     different   
kinds of1 #aae-aag4    ,style1 #fa2     
defined1 #hd2     importance of1 #id2   
poetic1 #abj4    ,synecdoche1 #gb4      

,tale1 metrical1 #adg2     of adventure1
 #ahh4    ,taste1 literary1 #cd4        
,tenderness and pathos1 #dc4            
,tragedy1 #adh4    ,tragi-comedy1 #adh4 
,versification1 defined1 #ajg2          
quantity in1 #ajg2     accent in1 #ajg2 
poetic feet in1 #ajh-aaj2     time      
element in1 #aaa2     meter in1 #aaa4   
,vision1 #gd4     ,will1 force of1 in   
literature1 #ia4     ,,advertisements   
,,books ,,on ,,english ,,literature     
,alexander's ,introduction to the       
,poetry of ,robert ,browning            
#a4jj    ,athenum ,press ,series3 #bd   
volumes now ready4    ,baldwin's        
,inflections and ,syntax of ,malory's   
,morte d',arthur       #a4dj            
,bellamy's ,twelve ,english ,poets      
4#ge    ,browne's ,shakspere's          
,versification                          
4#be    ,corson's ,primer of ,english   
,verse                                  
#a4jj    ,eaton's ,college ,requirements
 in ,english4 ,third ,series            
4#ge    ,emery's ,notes on ,english     

,literature                             
#a4jj    ,garnett's ,selections in      
,english ,prose from ,elizabeth to      
,victoria  #a4ej    ,gayley's ,classic  
,myths in ,english ,literature          
#a4ej    ,gayley and ,scott's ,literary 
,criticism                              
#a4be    ,gummere's ,handbook of        
,poetics                                
#a4jj    ,hudson's ,life1 ,art1 and     
,characters of ,shakespeare4 #b vols4   
#d4jj    ,hudson's ,classical ,english  
,reader                                 
#a4jj    ,hudson's ,text-,book of ,prose
                                        
#a4be    ,hudson's ,text-,book of       
,poetry                                 
#a4be    ,hudson's ,essays on ,english1 
,studies in ,shakespeare1 etc4          
4#be    ,kent's ,shakespeare ,note-,book
                                        
4#fj    ,lewis' ,beginnings of ,english 
,literature                             
4#ij    ,litchfield's ,spenser's        
,britomart                              

4#fj    ,minto's ,manual of ,english    
,prose ,literature                      
#a4ej    ,minto's ,characteristics of   
the ,english ,poets                     
#a4ej    ,phelps' ,beginnings of the    
,english ,romantic ,movement            
#a4jj    ,smith's ,synopsis of ,english 
and ,american ,literature               
4#hj    ,standard ,english ,classics3   
#bb volumes now ready4    ,thayer's     
,best ,elizabethan ,plays               
#a4be    ,white's ,philosophy of        
,american ,literature                   
4#cj    ,white's ,philosophy of ,english
 ,literature                            
#a4jj    ,winchester's ,five ,short     
,courses of ,reading in ,english        
,literature   4#dj            ,,ginn    
,,company1 ,,publishers    ,boston      
,new ,york   ,chicago    ,san ,francisco
   ,atlanta   ,dallas     ,columbus     
,london     ,,the ,,athenaeum ,,press   
,,series              ,issued under the 
general editorship of   ,professor      
,,george ,,lyman ,,kittredge of ,harvard

 ,university1 and        ,professor ,c4 
,t4 ,,winchester of ,wesleyan           
,university4   ,,the ,,following        
,,volumes ,,are ,,now ,,ready3  ,burke's
 ,speech on ,conciliation with ,america4
 ,edited by ,professor ,,hammond        
,,lamont1 recently of ,brown            
,university4 #ej cents4  ,burns3        
,selections from4 ,edited by the late   
,,john ,g4 ,,dow1 formerly of the       
,university of ,wisconsin4 #gj cents4   
,carlyle's ,heroes1 ,hero-,worship1 and 
the ,heroic in ,history4 ,edited by     
,professor ,,archibald ,,macmechan of   
,dalhousie ,college1 ,halifax1 ,n4,s4   
#hj cents4  ,carlyle's ,sartor          
,resartus4 ,edited by ,professor        
,,archibald ,,macmechan of ,dalhousie   
,college1 ,halifax1 ,n4,s4 #hj cents4   
,collins3 ,poems of4 ,edited by         
,professor ,,walter ,c4 ,,bronson of    
,brown ,university4 #fj cents4  ,cowper3
 ,selections from4 ,edited by the late  
,professor ,,james ,o4 ,,murray1        
formerly of ,princeton ,university4 #fj 

cents4  ,de ,quincey3 ,selections from4 
,edited by ,professor ,,milton ,h4      
,,turk of ,hobart ,college4             
,elizabethan ,lyrics4 ,edited by        
,professor ,f4 ,e4 ,,schelling of the   
,university of ,pennsylvania4 #ge cents4
  ,gibbon's ,memoirs4 ,edited by        
,professor ,,oliver ,f4 ,,emerson of    
,western ,reserve ,university4 #ge      
cents4  ,gray3 ,selections from the     
,works of4 ,edited by ,professor ,,wm4  
,l4 ,,phelps of ,yale ,university4 #fj  
cents4  ,herrick3 ,selections from the  
,hesperides and the ,noble ,numbers4    
,edited by ,professor ,e4 ,e4 ,,hale1   
,jr41 of ,union ,university4 #fj cents4 
,jeffrey3 ,selections from the ,essays  
of4 ,edited by ,,lewis ,e4 ,,gates of   
,harvard ,university4 #fj cents4        
,jonson's ,timber2 or ,discoveries4     
,edited by ,professor ,f4 ,e4           
,,schelling of the ,university of       
,pennsylvania4 #hj cents4  ,keats3      
,selections from4 ,edited by ,professor 
,,arlo ,,bates of the ,massachusetts    

,institute of ,technology4 #fj cents4   
,landor3 ,selections from4 ,edited by   
,w4 ,b4 ,s4 ,,clymer1 formerly of       
,harvard ,university4 #fj cents4        
,malory's ,morte ,darthur1 ,selections  
from4 ,edited by ,professor ,,william   
,e4 ,,mead of ,wesleyan ,university1    
,middletown1 ,conn4 #hj cents4  ,old    
,english ,ballads4 ,edited by ,professor
 ,f4 ,b4 ,,gummere of ,haverford        
,college4 #hj cents4  ,pre-,shaksperean 
,drama1 ,specimens of4 ,edited by       
,professor ,,john ,m4 ,,manly of        
,university of ,chicago4 ,in three      
volumes4 ,vols4 ,i4 and ,,ii4 now ready4
 #a4be each4  ,seventeenth ,century     
,lyrics4 ,edited by ,professor ,f4 ,e4  
,,schelling of the ,university of       
,pennsylvania4 #ge cents4  ,shelley3    
,selections from4 ,edited by ,w4 ,j4    
,,alexander of the ,university of       
,toronto4 #hj cents4  ,sidney's ,defense
 of ,poesy4 ,edited by ,professor       
,,albert ,s4 ,,cook of ,yale            
,university4 #fe cents4  ,steele3       

,selections from4 ,edited by ,professor 
,,george ,r4 ,,carpenter of ,columbia   
,university4 #fj cents4  ,wordsworth3   
,selections from4 ,edited by ,professor 
,,edward ,,dowden of the ,university of 
,dublin4 #ij cents4  ,,ginn  ,,company  
,publishers     ,,transcriber',s        
,,notes3   ,the following changes have  
been made to the text3       page #cf3  
quotation mark missing in original,the  
great brand       page #gd3 exaggerated 
form of statement1original has period   
,the following words appear in the text 
with and without hyphens4 ,they have    
been left as in the original4           
common-meter       common meter         
long-meter         long meter           
love-songs         love songs           
short-meter        short meter  ,the    
following words have variations in      
spelling4 ,they have been left as in the
 original4       ,athenum               
,,athenaeum      d',arthur              
,darthur      ,pre-,shaksperean         
,shakespearian      ,shakspere's        

,shakespeare