,illustration ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement ,,no4 #ajhb ,,new ,,york1 ,,september #bf1 #ahif4 ,scientific ,american1 established #ahde4 ,scientific ,american ,supplement4 ,vol4 ,,xlii41 ,no4 #ajhb4 ,scientific ,american ,supplement1 #e a year4 ,scientific ,american and ,supplement1 #g a year4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,,page ,i4 ,,architecture4--,new ,methods of ,building ,construction at ,paris4--,a typical ,french system of construction4--,combination of plaster and iron2 cement arm4--#a illustration4 #agbib ,,ii4 ,,autocars4--,the ,de ,dion and ,bouton ,road ,motor4--,an elaborate description of this typical ,french motor operated by steam4--#d illustrations4 #agbij ,,iii4 ,,chemistry4--,an ,air ,bath4--,by ,b4,j4,h4 ,,coste4--#a illustration4 #agbif ,the ,feculometer4--#a illustration4 #agbie ,,iv4 ,,domestic ,,economy4--,errors in ,our ,food ,economy4--,a very practical paper on scientific nutrition4 #agbhh ,v4 ,,geography4--,zanzibar4--,an account of the country and the recent events there4--#c illustrations4 #agbhg ,,vi4 ,,mathematics4--,goodman's ,hatchet ,planimeters4--,instrument for measuring areas and mean altitudes or irregular figures4--#e illustrations4 #agbic ,,vii4 ,,metallurgy4--,the ,great ,krupp ,works4--,notes on the great iron and steel works of the ,german empire1 with statistics4 #agcjb ,,viii4 ,,mineralogy4--,precious ,stoned--,by ,prof4 ,,henry ,a4 ,,miers4--,lecture ,i4--,first installment of a most interesting article on the minerals used in the jeweler's art4--#c illustrations4 #agbih ,,ix4 ,,mining ,,engineering4--,firedamp ,testing ,station at ,marchienne-au-,pont4--,an elaborate experimental station for investigation into firedamp4--#c illustrations4 #agbig ,x4 ,,miscellaneous4--,device for the ,display of ,lantern ,slides4--,an apparatus for the display of lantern slides in the shop window4--,a rotating carrier4--#b illustrations4 #agbie ,what the ,sea ,has ,taken4--,destruction of great areas of country in the past1 with special reference to the ,dutch coast4 #agbhi ,engineering ,notes4 #agcja ,electrical ,notes4 #agcja ,miscellaneous ,notes4 #agcja ,selected ,formul4 #agcjb ,,xi4 ,,natural ,,history4--,some ,notes on ,spiders4--,by ,rev4 ,,samuel ,,barber4--,some very curious observations on arachnids4 #agcjj ,,xii4 ,,navigation4--,from ,new ,york to ,havre in a ,rowboat4--,the most wonderful trip on record across the ocean1 with portraits of the navigators and view of the boat4--#b illustrations4 #agbia ,the ,waste of ,shipping3--,losses of steam and sailing vessels due to wreckage and condemnation1 with valuable tables4 #agbia ,,xiii4 ,,optics4--,the ,colors ,named in ,literature4--,with table4 #agbhi ,,xiv4 ,,photography4--,photography for ,chemists4--,lantern slides by reduction4--,how to produce lantern slides from large negatives4 #agbig ,,xv4 ,,physics4--,a ,research on the ,liquefaction of ,helium4--,a research in advanced experimental physics upon the newly discovered element helium4--#a illustration4 #agbii ,physics ,without ,apparatus4--,several interesting and simple experiments described4--#a illustration4 #agcjb ,,xvi4 ,,technology4--,apparatus for the ,manufacture of ,acetylene ,gas4--,description of a number of prominent acetylene apparatus1 with illustrations and sectional views thereof4--#ab illustrations4 #agbid ,belleek ,china4--,history of this beautiful china1 and foundation of its manufacture in ,ireland and subsequent introduction into ,america4--,description of different ,belleek marks4 #agbib ,the ,coming ,light4--,an incandescent gas burner employing artificial draught produced by electric motor4--#b illustrations4 #agbif 99 99 99 99 99 ,,zanzibar4 ,the sudden death on ,august #be of ,sultan ,hamid bin ,thwain1 the ruler of ,zanzibar1 the attempted usurpation by ,seyyid ,khalid1 and the bombardment of the palace by the ,british warships1 have directed public attention to this comparatively little known but important city on the east coast of ,africa4 ,the ,zanzibar dominions achieved their independence some forty years ago under ,seyyid ,majid1 whose father was ,seyyid ,said1 the ,sultan of ,muscat and ,zanzibar4 ,the dominions formerly extended from ,warsheik south to ,tanghi ,bay4 ,in #ahij the coast line from ,ruvuma to ,wanga1 with the island of ,mafia1 was ceded to ,germany1 by which partition the country was reduced to two islands1 ,zanzibar and ,pemba1 containing about a thousand square miles with #afe1jjj inhabitants1 a strip of coast line ten miles long1 together with three smaller islands and five seaports4 ,zanzibar is a ,british protectorate1 as are also the ,zanzibar dominions on the mainland as far north as the mouth of the ,juba4 ,the remainder of the mainland dominions to the south are leased to an ,italian company4 ,illustration3 ,,palace ,,square1 ,,zanzibar3 ,,troops ,,assembled ,,in ,,front ,,of ,,government ,,house2 ,,palace1 ,,with ,,the ,,late ,,sultan ,,in ,,the ,,gallery1 ,,to ,,the ,,right ,,hand2 ,,harem ,,to ,,the ,,left4 ,the island of ,zanzibar1 together with the neighboring islands of ,pemba and ,mafia1 to the north and south1 is generally of coral formation1 with here and there hills of a reddish clay1 which rise in the south to an elevation of #dej feet and in the north develop into a range of hills which runs parallel to the shore at a height of over #a1jjj feet4 ,the dense forests which originally covered the island have been cut down1 and the soil1 which is of unusual fertility1 is under thorough cultivation1 yielding heavy crops of corn and manioc1 which latter forms the staple food of the people4 ,the soil and climate are specially suited to the clove1 which is raised in great quantities1 the crop forming four-fifths of the total clove crop of the world4 ,the seaboard lying opposite the island of ,zanzibar is level and swampy1 and the many rivers which flow from the escarpment of the great inland plateau have brought down a vast deposit of rich alluvial matter1 upon which1 aided by the moist1 warm climate1 a dense growth of tropical vegetation flourishes4 ,a native growth of this region is the copal tree1 famous as yielding the best gum known to commerce4 ,rice1 maize1 millet1 the cocoa nut and the oil palm are cultivated1 and the whole country is well adapted to the raising of sugar1 coffee1 cotton1 indigo1 and the various spices4 ,of the original races of the island of ,zanzibar only a few representatives survive4 ,these live on the east side1 and are known as ,wa-,hadimu ,bantus4 ,the main population is a strange mixture of full blood and half-caste ,arabs1 ,indian ',canarians' 7that is1 half-caste ,portuguese from ,kanara on the ,malabar coast of ,india71 ,swahili of every shade1 slaves or freedmen from all parts of ,east ,africa1 with a small sprinkling of ,americans and ,europeans4 ,the city of ,zanzibar is1 next to ,alexandria and ,tunis1 the largest city on the coast of ,africa1 and contains a population variously estimated at from #hj1jjj to #ajj1jjj souls4 ,it is easily separable into two quarters1 the trading quarter1 which lies along the beach and contains the palace of the ,sultan1 and the eastern outlying suburb in which live the lower class4 ,the view of ,zanzibar from the sea is picturesque1 the palace1 forts and towers1 the ,mission ,cathedral and the successive white buildings of varied outline1 making a pleasing panorama4 ,but when the visitor passes into the heart of the city he loses himself in a tangle of foul and narrow streets1 where filth and immorality abound4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,late ,,sultan ,,of ,,zanzibar ,,and ,,his ,,ministers4 ,the palace1 which is the central point of the city's life1 is thus described by a former resident1 ,mr4 ,charles ,l4 ,lyons3 ,a low1 rambling structure divided into three parts4 ,the higher portion is of stone1 and surrounded by verandas of carved teak wood1 which are very ornate and elaborate specimens of eastern decorative art work4 ,adjoining this is the section occupied as living apartments1 and the third section is occupied by the harem1 which1 under the late ,sultan1 comprised about twenty-five ,circassian women4 ,the palace was a curious combination of magnificence and tawdriness4 ,the reception room1 which is about #bej ft4 square1 was hung with beautiful draperies embroidered in real gold4 ,in many places the walls were inlaid with precious stones curiously and indiscriminately mingled4 ,next to a valuable uncut sapphire or a ruby one would find a carbuncle or some valueless stone4 ,many of the chairs in the finer apartments were of gold inlaid with precious stones1 and about many of the rooms were inscriptions from the ,koran applied in solid gold4 ,other conspicuous buildings as seen from the water are the ,government ,house1 the ,custom ,house1 the ,signal ,tower1 and the ,mission ,cathedral4 ,illustration3 ,,exterior ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,sultan',s ,,palace1 ,,zanzibar4 ,the harbor affords a fine anchorage for shipping1 and is well worthy to be the central shipping point of the east coast of ,africa4 ,the total imports for #ahid were valued at over #f1jjj1jjj and the exports at about #e1ejj1jjj4 ,british ,india controls the greater share of the import trade1 sending over large cargoes of grain1 rice1 and piece goods from ,bombay1 the yearly value of the trade being #a1fge1jjj4 ,the ,german trade amounts to #cdj1jjj1 and a large amount of cotton goods and kerosene oil is imported from ,america4 ,the law of succession to the throne of ,zanzibar does not recognize the right of the eldest son or the son of the eldest brother deceased4 ,in the eyes of the ,mohammedan ,council of ,state ,seyyid ,khalid1 the late usurper1 has no stronger claim to the throne than his cousin1 the present ,sultan ,hamid bin ,mohammed bin ,seyyid4 ,khalid is spoken of as a rash and willful young man of twenty-five1 and ,hamid as an elderly gentleman1 fifty or sixty years of age1 respected for his prudent and peaceable conduct1 acceptable to the better class of ,mussulman townsfolk1 and trusted as a ruler likely to preserve the traditional policy of the realm4 ,immediately upon the interment of the late ,sultan1 however1 which took place two short hours after his suspicious death1 ,khalid proclaimed himself ruler4 ,he gathered the palace guards together1 placed barricades in the palace square1 trained the guns upon the ,british warships1 and awaited developments4 ,they came the next morning in the shape of an ultimatum from ,admiral ,rawson of the ,st4 ,george1 a first class cruiser of #g1gjj tons1 which1 together with four smaller cruisers and gunboats1 lay off the city in the harbor1 summoning ,khalid to surrender1 leave the palace1 and make his soldiers pile their arms in front of it4 ,if he failed to do this1 the palace would be bombarded within two hours after the dispatch of the ultimatum4 ,as ,khalid's reply was to further strengthen his defense1 at the appointed time the bombardment began4 ,meanwhile the loyal ,zanzibar troops1 with a detachment of ,british marines and seamen1 attacked the barricades4 ,the palace was knocked to pieces and set on fire by the shells1 and ,khalid1 driven from the shelter1 fled to the ,german consulate for safety4 ,hamid was proclaimed ,sultan by ,general ,matthews1 ,mr4 ,cave1 the consul1 and ,admiral ,rawson1 and order was at once restored to the city4 ,at the time of the bombardment it was freely predicted that the annexation of ,zanzibar would speedily follow2 but it now appears that the government considers that no advantages are to be gained by such a step1 the cost of a direct administration being much greater than the native administration1 which under the present protectorate is working satisfactorily4 ,we are indebted for our illustrations to the ,illustrated ,london ,news and to ,black and ,white4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,errors ,,in ,,our ,,food ,,economy4 ,scientific research1 interpreting the observations of practical life1 implies that several errors are common in the use of food4 ,first1 many people purchase needlessly expensive kinds of food1 doing this under the false impression that there is some peculiar virtue in the costlier materials1 and that economy in our diet is somehow detrimental to our dignity or our welfare4 ,and1 unfortunately1 those who are most extravagant in this respect are often the ones who can least afford it4 ,secondly1 the food which we eat does not always contain the proper proportions of the different kinds of nutritive ingredients4 ,we consume relatively too much of the fuel ingredients of food1 such as the fats of meat and butter1 the starch which makes up the larger part of the nutritive material of flour and potatoes and sugar and sweetmeats4 ,conversely1 we have relatively too little of the protein of flesh-forming substances1 like the lean of meat and fish and the gluten of wheat1 which make muscle and sinew and which are the basis of blood1 bone and brain4 ,thirdly1 many people1 not only the well-to-do1 but those in moderate circumstances1 use needless quantities of food4 ,part of the excess1 however1 is simply thrown away with the wastes of the table and the kitchen2 so that the injury to health1 great as it may be1 is doubtless much less than if all were eaten4 ,probably the worst sufferers from this evil are well-to-do people of sedentary occupations--brain workers as distinguished from hand workers4 ,finally1 we are guilty of serious errors in our cooking4 ,we waste a great deal of fuel in the preparation of our food1 and even then a great deal of the food is very badly cooked4 ,a reform in these methods of cooking is one of the economic demands of our time4 ,cheap vs4 ,dear ,food4--,we cannot judge of the nutritive value of food by the quantity4 ,there is as much nutriment in a pound of wheat flour as in #c quarts of oysters1 which weigh #g pounds4 ,there is still less connection between nutritive value and price4 ,in buying at ordinary market rates we get as much material to build up our bodies1 repair their wastes1 and give strength for work in #e cents' worth of flour or beans or codfish as #ej cents or #a will pay for in tenderloin1 salmon or lobsters4 ,round steak at #ae cents a pound is just as digestible and is fully as nutritious as tenderloin at #ej4 ,mackerel has as high nutritive value as salmon1 and costs from an eighth to half as much4 ,oysters are a delicacy4 ,if one can afford them1 there is no reason for not having them1 but #be cents invested in a pint would bring only about an ounce of protein and #bcj calories of energy4 ,the same #be cents spent for flour at #f a barrel1 or #c cents a pound1 would pay for nine-tenths of a pound of protein and #ac1gjj calories of energy4 ,when a day laborer buys bread at #g cents a pound1 the actual nutritive material costs him three times as much as it does his employer1 who buys it in flour at #f a barrel4 ,illustrations of the prejudice of people1 especially those in moderate circumstances1 against the less expensive kinds of food are very common4 ,mr4 ,lee ,meriwether1 who has given much attention to this special subject1 cites a case in point1 that of a coal laborer1 who boasted3 ,no one can say that ,i do not give my family the best flour1 the finest of sugar1 the very best quality of meat4 ,he paid #aef a year for the nicest cuts of meat1 which his wife had to cook before six in the morning or after half past six at night1 because she worked all day in a factory4 ,when excellent butter was selling at #be cents a pound he paid #bi cents for an extra quality4 ,he spent only #ajh a year for clothing for his family of nine1 and only #gb a year for rent in a close tenement house1 where they slept in rooms without windows or closets4 ,he indulged in this extravagance in diet1 when much less expensive food materials1 such as regularly come upon the tables of men of wealth1 would have been just as nutritious1 just as wholesome1 and in every way just as good1 save in the gratification to pride and palate4 ,he was committing an immense economic blunder4 ,like thousands of others1 he did so in the belief that it was wise and economical4 ,the sad side of the story is that the poor are the ones who practice the worst economy in the purchase as well as the use of food4 ,the ,massachusetts ,bureau of ,labor1 in collecting the dietaries above referred to1 made numerous inquiries of tradesmen regarding the food of the poor in ,boston1 meaning by poor those who earn just enough to keep themselves and families from want4 ,the almost universal testimony was1 ,they usually want the best and pay for it1 and the most fastidious are those who can least afford it4 ,the costliest kind of meat1 the finest flour1 and very highest priced butter were demanded1 and many scorned the less expensive meats and groceries such as well-to-do and sensible people were in the habit of buying4 ,i have taken occasion to verify these observations by personal inquiry in ,boston markets4 ,one intelligent meat man gave his experience with a poor seamstress1 who insisted on buying tenderloin steak at #fj cents per pound4 ,he tried to persuade her that other parts of the meat were just as nutritive1 as they really are1 but she would not believe him2 and when he urged the wiser economy of using them1 she became angry at him for what she regarded as a reflection upon her dignity4 ,my wealthy customers1 said he1 take our cheaper cuts1 but ,i have got through trying to sell these economical meats to that woman and others of her class4 ,i am told that people in the poorer parts of ,new ,york ,city buy the highest priced groceries1 and that the meat men say they can sell the coarser cuts of meat to the rich1 but that people of moderate means refuse them4 ,i hear the same thing in ,washington and other cities4 ,one-sidedness of ,our ,dietary4--,i have said that our diet is one-sided1 that the food which we actually eat has relatively too little protein and too much fat1 starch1 and sugar4 ,in other words1 it is relatively deficient in the materials which make muscle and bone and contains a relative excess of the fuel ingredients4 ,this is due partly to our large consumption of sugar and partly to our use of such large quantities of fat meats4 ,overeating--,injury to ,health4--,but the most remarkable thing about our food consumption is the quantity4 ,the ,american dietaries examined in this inquiry were of people living at the time in ,massachusetts and ,connecticut1 though many came from other parts of the country4 ,it would be wrong to take their eating habits as an exact measure of those of people throughout the ,united ,states4 ,for that matter1 a great deal of careful observation will be needed to show precisely what and how much is used by persons of different classes in different regions4 ,just this kind of study in different parts of the country is greatly needed4 ,but such facts as ,i have been able to gather seem to imply that the figures obtained indicate in a general way the character of our food consumption4 ,of the over #ej dietaries of reasonably well-to-do people thus far examined the smallest is that of a mechanic's family4 ,in this the potential energy per man per day was about #c1jjj calories4 ,the next smallest was that of the family of a chemist who had been studying the subject and had learned something of the excessive amounts of food which many people with light muscular labor consume4 ,this dietary supplied #c1bjj calories of energy per man a day4 ,the largest was that of brickmakers at very severe work in ,massachusetts4 ,they lived in a boarding house managed by their employers1 who had evidently found that men at hard muscular work out of doors needed ample nourishment to do the largest amount of work4 ,the food supplied #h1hej calories per day4 ,voit's standard for a laboring man at moderate work1 which is based upon the observation of the food of wage workers1 who are counted in ,germany as well paid and well fed1 allows #aah grammes of protein and #c1jee calories of energy4 ,the standards proposed by myself1 in which the studies of ,american dietaries have been taken into account1 allow #abe grammes of protein and #c1ejj calories of energy for a man at moderately hard muscular work4 ,the dietaries of ,massachusetts and ,connecticut factory operatives1 day laborers and mechanics at moderate work averaged about #abe grammes of protein and #d1ejj calories of energy4 ,for a man at severe work1 ,voit's standard calls for #ade grammes of protein and #c1cgj calories of energy4 ,the ,massachusetts and ,connecticut mechanics at hard and severe work had from #ahj to #ebj grammes of protein and from #e1jjj to #g1hjj calories of potential energy1 and in one case they rose to the #h1ejj just quoted4 ,in the dietary standards proposed by myself it did not seem to me permissible to assign less than #d1jjj calories to that for a working man at hard1 and #e1gjj for a man at severe work4#a ,footnote #a3 ,statistics are also given showing that the professional men of certain ,european countries live comfortably and have good health on much less than ,americans of the same occupation4--,,ed4 ,now it is not easy to see why these men required so much more than was sufficient to nourish abundantly men of like occupation1 but unlike temptation to overeating1 in ,europe4 ,difference in climate cannot account for it4 ,we are a little more given to muscular exercise here1 which is very well for us1 but it cannot justify our eating so much4444 ,i think the answer to this question is found in the conditions in which we live4 ,food is plenty4 ,holding to a tradition which had its origin where food was less abundant1 that the natural instinct is the measure of what we should eat1 we follow the dictates of the palate4 ,living in the midst of abundance1 our diet has not been regulated by the restraints which obtain with the great majority of the people of the ,old ,world1 where food is dear and incomes are small4 ,indeed1 the very progress which we are making in our civilization brings with it increased temptation to overeating4 ,the four quarters of the earth are ransacked to supply us with the things which will most tempt our appetites1 and the utmost effort of cooks and housewives is used in the same direction4 ,it is all the more fitting1 therefore1 that information as to our excesses and the ways of avoiding them should come at the same time4 ,how much harm is done to health by our one-sided and excessive diet no one can say4 ,physicians tell us that it is very great4 ,of the vice of overeating1 ,sir ,henry ,thompson1 a noted ,english physician and authority on the subject1 says3 ,i have come to the conclusion that more than half the disease which embitters the middle and latter part of life is due to avoidable errors in diet1 444 and that more mischief in the form of actual disease1 of impaired vigor1 and of shortened life accrues to civilized man 444 in ,england and throughout central ,europe from erroneous habits of eating than from the habitual use of alcoholic drink1 considerable as ,i know that evil to be4 ,this is in the fullest accord with the opinions of physicians and hygienists who have given the most attention to the subject1 and these opinions are exactly parallel with the statistics here cited4 ,waste of ,food in ,american ,households4--,the direct waste of food occurs in two ways1 in eating more than is needed and in throwing away valuable material in the form of kitchen and table refuse4 ,that which is thrown away does no harm to health1 and in so far as part of it may be fed to animals or otherwise utilized1 it is not an absolute loss4 ,that which we consume in excess of our need of nourishment is worse than wasted1 because of the injury it does to health4 ,a few instances taken from the investigations mentioned above will help to illustrate the waste of food4 ,one of the dietaries examined by the ,massachusetts ,labor ,bureau was that of a machinist in ,boston1 who earned #c4be per day4 ,in food purchased the dietary furnished #ahb grammes of protein and #e1fdj calories of energy per man per day1 at a cost of #dg cents4 ,one-half the meats1 fish1 lard1 milk1 butter1 cheese1 eggs1 sugar1 and molasses would have been represented by #eg grammes of protein1 #a1fej calories1 and #ai cents4 ,if these had been subtracted1 the record would have stood at #abe grammes1 #c1iij calories1 and #bh cents4 ,this family might have dispensed with one-half of all their meats1 fish1 eggs1 dairy products1 and sugar1 saved #dj per cent4 of the whole cost of their food1 and still have had all the protein and much more energy than is called for by a standard which is supposed to be decidedly liberal4 ,in the instance just cited no attempt was made to learn how much of the food purchased was actually consumed and how much was rejected4 ,in some of the dietaries published by the ,massachusetts bureau such estimates were made4 ,that of a students' club in a ,new ,england college will serve as an example4 ,the young men of the club1 some #be in number1 were mostly from the ,northern and ,eastern ,states1 and coming from the class of families whose sons go to college1 it seems fair to assume that their habits of eating formed at home would not differ materially from those of the more intelligent classes of people in that part of the country4 ,while the diet of the club was substantial and wholesome1 it was plain1 as was1 indeed1 necessary1 because several of the members were dependent upon their own exertions and the majority had rather limited means4 ,though fond of athletic sports they could hardly be credited with as much muscular exercise as the average laboring man at moderate work4 ,the matron1 a very intelligent1 capable ,new ,england woman1 had been selected because of her especial fitness for the care of such an establishment4 ,the steward who purchased the food was a member of the club1 and had been chosen as a man of business capacity4 ,he thought that very little of the food was left unconsumed4 ,all of the meat and other available food that was not actually served to the men at the table1 said he1 was carefully saved and made over into croquettes4 ,men who work their way through college cannot afford to throw away their food4 ,but actual examination showed the waste to be considerable4 ,the estimates of the quantities of nutrients were based upon the quantities of food materials for a term of three months and upon the table and kitchen refuse for a week4 ,the results were as follows3 ,in food purchased1 protein1 #afa grammes2 energy1 #e1cde calories4 ,in waste1 protein1 #bc grammes2 energy1 #ebj calories4 ,in food consumed1 protein1 #ach grammes2 energy1 #d1hbe calories4 ,one-eighth of the protein and one-tenth of the energy were simply thrown away4 ,during the succeeding term a second examination of the dietary of the same club was made4 ,another steward was then in charge4 ,he had learned of the excessive amounts of food in the former dietary1 and planned to reduce the quantities4 ,this was done largely by diminishing the meats4 ,he stated that he did not apprise the club of the change1 and that it was not noticed4 ,as he put it1 ,the boys had all they wanted1 and were just as well pleased as if they had more4 ,estimates as before but with more care in determining the waste1 showed in food purchased1 protein1 #aae grammes2 energy1 #c1hge calories4 ,in waste1 protein1 #aa grammes2 energy1 #dfj calories4 ,in food consumed1 protein1 #ajd grammes2 energy1 #c1dae calories4 ,one-tenth of the nutritive material of the food this time was thrown away4 ,the young men were amply nourished with three-fifths of the nutrients they had purchased in the previous term4 ,how much food is required on the average by men whose labor is mainly intellectual is a question to which physiology has not yet given a definite answer1 but it is safe to say that the general teaching of the specialists who have given the most attention to the subject would call for little more than the #ajd grammes of protein and very much less than the #c1djj calories of energy in the food estimated to be actually consumed by these young men when the second examination was made4 ,they could have dispensed with half of all the meats1 fish1 oysters1 eggs1 milk1 butter1 cheese1 and sugar purchased for the first dietary and still have had more nutritive material than they consumed in the second4 ,not only was one-tenth or more of the nutrients thrown away in each of the two cases1 but what makes the case still worse pecuniarily1 the rejected material was very largely from the animal foods in which it is the most expensive4 ,the estimates of the quantities of food in the two dietaries just quoted were made from tradesmen's bills and the composition was calculated from analyses of similar materials rather than of those actually used4 ,the figures are therefore less reliable than if the foods and wastes had been actually weighed and analyzed4 ,in some dietaries lately examined in ,middletown1 ,conn41 all the food has been carefully weighed and portions have been analyzed1 and the same has been done with the table and kitchen refuse4 ,the results1 therefore1 show exactly how much was purchased1 consumed and thrown away4 ,one dietary so investigated was that of a boarding house4 ,the boarders were largely mechanics of superior intelligence and skill1 and earning good wages2 the mistress was counted an excellent housekeeper and the boarding house a very good one4 ,about one-ninth of the total nutritive ingredients of the food was left in the kitchen and table refuse4 ,the actual waste was worse than this proportion would imply1 because it consisted mostly of the protein and fats1 which are more costly than the carbohydrates4 ,the waste contained nearly one-fifth of the total protein and fat1 and only one-twentieth of the total carbohydrates of the food4 ,or to put it in another way1 the food purchased contained about #bc per cent4 more protein1 #bd per cent4 more fats1 and #f per cent4 more carbohydrates than were eaten4 ,and worst of all for the pecuniary economy1 or lack of economy1 the wasted protein and fats were mostly from the meats which supply them in the costliest form4 ,in another dietary1 that of a carpenter's family1 also in ,middletown ,conn41 #g4f per cent4 of the total food purchased was left in the kitchen and table wastes4 ,the total waste was somewhat worse than this proportion would imply1 because it consisted mostly of the protein and fats1 which are more costly than the carbohydrates4 ,the waste contained about one-tenth of the total protein and fat and only one-twenty-fifth of the total carbohydrates of the food4 ,at the rate in which the nutrients were actually eaten in this dietary1 the protein and fats in the waste would have each supplied one man for a week and the carbohydrates for three days4 ,these cases are probably exceptional2 at least it is to be hoped that they are4 ,among eight dietaries lately studied in ,middletown those above named showed the largest proportion of material thrown away4 ,in the rest it was much less4 ,in two cases there was almost none4 ,it is worth noting1 however1 that the people in these two had the largest incomes of all4 ,in other words the best-to-do families were the least wasteful4 ,this form of bad economy is not confined to the kitchen1 but begins in the market4444 ,the common saying that the average ,american family wastes as much food as a ,french family would live upon is a great exaggeration1 but the statistics cited show that there is a great deal of truth in it4 ,even in some of the most economical families the amount of food wasted1 if it could be collected for a month or a year1 would prove to be very large1 and in many cases the amounts would be little less than enormous4--,w4,o4 ,atwater1 ,charities ,review4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,colors ,,named ,,in ,,literature4 ,mr4 ,havelock ,ellis has made 7,contemporary ,review1 ,may7 an interesting study of the color terms used by imaginative writers1 which is a real contribution to scientific sthetics4 ,the fact that the ,greeks did not name green and blue does not1 of course1 indicate 7as ,mr4 ,gladstone and others have alleged7 that they could not see the more refrangible rays of the spectrum1 but it does show a lack of interest in these colors4 ,mr4 ,ellis' statistics are given in the annexed table1 the number of times each of the colors is used by the author in selected passages being reduced to percentages4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,white4,yellow4,red4,green4,blue4,black4 ,,predominant ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,mountain of ,chant #bh #ac #c 444 #ai #cg ,black1 white4 ,wooing of ,emer #cd #c #dh 444 444 #ad ,red1 white4 ,volsunga ,saga #ad 444 #ga 444 #ad 444 ,red4 ,isaiah1 ,job1 ,song of ,songs #ah #d #bi #cc 444 #ae ,green1 red4 ,homer #ba #ba #g #b 444 #di ,black1 white-yellow4 ,catullus #dj #ba #ag #i #d #h ,white1 yellow4 ,chaucer #cd #aj #bh #ad #a #ac ,white1 red4 ,marlowe #ai #ba #ai #f #f #bh ,black1 yellow4 ,shakespeare #bb #ag #cj #g #d #bj ,red1 white4 ,thomson #i 444 #ah #bg #i #cf ,black1 green4 ,blake #ag #ag #ac #af #g #bi ,black1 white-yellow4 ,coleridge #ba #g #ag #be #ad #af ,green1 white4 ,shelley #ag #ai #aa #ba #ba #aa ,green-blue4 ,keats #ad #bc #bd #bi #h #a ,green1 red4 ,wordsworth #ad #ah #aj #ce #aa #ab ,green1 yellow4 ,poe #h #cb #bj #ab #d #bd ,yellow1 black4 ,baudelaire #aa #i #ai #aj #af #cd ,black1 red4 ,tennyson #bb #ae #bg #ae #aj #aa ,red1 white4 ,rossetti #cj #bb #bb #i #g #aj ,white1 yellow4 ,swinburne #bh #ah #bh #af #f #d ,red1 white4 ,whitman #be #aj #bf #ad #h #af ,red1 white4 ,pater #dc #ai #aa #aa #i #g ,white1 yellow4 ,verlaine #bj #ae #bd #i #ad #ah ,red1 white4 ,olive ,schreiner #ch #ab #be #c #ai #b ,white1 red4 ,d',annunzio #ae #aa #df #g #ad #f ,red1 white4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,mr4 ,ellis makes a number of acute psychological and literary suggestions and concludes that a numerical study of color vision possesses at least two uses in the precise study of literature4 ,it is1 first1 an instrument for investigating a writer's personal psychology1 by defining the nature of his sthetic color vision4 ,when we have ascertained a writer's color formula and his colors of prediction we can tell at a glance1 simply and reliably1 something about his view of the world which pages of description could only tell us with uncertainty4 ,in the second place1 it enables us to take a definite step in the attainment of a scientific sthetic1 by furnishing a means of comparative study4 ,by its help we can trace the colors of the world as mirrored in literature from age to age1 from country to country1 and in finer shades among the writers of a single group4 ,at least one broad and unexpected conclusion may be gathered from the tables here presented4 ,many foolish things have been written about the 'degeneration' of latter-day art4 ,it is easier to dogmatize when you think that you are safe from the evidence of precise tests4 ,but here is a reasonably precise test4 ,and the evidence of this test1 at all events1 by no means furnishes support for the theory of decadence4 ,on the contrary1 it shows that the decadence1 if anywhere1 was at the end of the last century1 and that our own vision of the world is fairly one with that of classic times1 with ,chaucer's and with ,shakespeare's4 ,at the end of the nineteenth century we can say this for the first time since ,shakespeare died4--,science4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,what ,,the ,,sea ,,has ,,taken4 ,it was recently announced that the committee sitting under the presidency of ,minister ,lely1 at the ,hague1 had determined to reclaim the ,zuider ,sea1 and that for this purpose a dam is to be constructed from the peninsula of ,north ,holland to the opposite coast of ,friesland4 ,this announcement brings back to recollection the proud old ,dutch proverb3 ,god created the sea1 the ,hollander the coast4 ,the proposal is to construct a dam from ,ewyk1 on the northeastern point of ,north ,holland1 to the island of ,wieringen1 and then from the eastern point of this island another dam1 #ah miles long1 to the coast of ,friesland1 by the shortest route4 ,the ,hollanders1 in their great reclamation works1 the ,sea of ,harlem1 for instance1 prepare the entire foundation first and then gradually raise the dam on it4 ,the watercourse is not narrowed during the progress of the work1 as the dam is raised uniformly throughout the whole length2 the current therefore passes slowly over it1 and the dam is not subject to damage from flood waters4 ,these deposit enormous quantities of sand and mud within the intercepted area1 and after a few years the land shows above the surface of the water2 the land while still in course of formation is locally known as ,heller1 and the reclaimed land as ,polder4 ,as soon as the land has attained the required height1 the dam is built sufficiently high1 and also strong enough1 to answer the purposes of a dike and to withstand the force of the largest tidal waves4 ,in constructing these dams1 enormous rafts are made on the shore and then floated to the works1 where they are weighted by stones and sunk in the required position4 ,within a few weeks large quantities of silt and mud accumulate1 and the whole forms an exceedingly tough and strong elevation under the water2 the currents grow weaker1 and deposits are lodged also outside the dam1 the base of which is of course of great width4 ,the ,zuider ,sea is one of the strongest evidences we have of the power of the sea over the land4 ,its formation commenced as far back as the twelfth century1 prior to which it was only an inland lake4 ,on ,december #ad1 #abhg1 during a terrific storm1 the sea broke through the dividing shore line and widened the lake into a wide bay 7,southern ,sea1 ,dutch1 ,zuider ,sea7 of the ,north ,sea2 #hj1jjj persons lost their lives on that occasion4 ,the same storm also did enormous damages in other localities4 ,this was1 however1 not the first occasion on which the sea had made inroads into the coast lands4 ,before the works of destruction commenced a narrow isthmus connected ,great ,britain with the ,continent4 ,the ,north ,sea was then--comparatively speaking--calm2 vast chains of sandy downs ran parallel to the coast1 and stretched from this isthmus to the coast of ,jutland2 they were of considerable height1 those on the west coast of ,schleswig attaining an altitude of #bjj feet4 ,behind these downs enormous swamps are formed1 in which the rivers1 with few exceptions1 disappeared2 but the deposits they brought down formed those rich agricultural lands now known locally as ,marschland4 ,the destruction of the shores commenced from the date that the narrow isthmus above referred to was carried away by the tidal waves which broke the ,english ,channel during westerly gales4 ,traces1 found far inland1 show that this catastrophe occurred when the locality was inhabited1 in fact a legend1 in circulation to this day1 relates that an ,english queen1 to revenge herself on a ,danish king1 had the dam which connected ,england with ,france pierced1 and so destroyed ,denmark4 ,when the ,romans appeared on the scene the work of destruction was in progress1 the chain of downs had been broken1 and its place taken by many islands1 far larger and more numerous than at present4 ,the first historical accounts of the storm tidal waves is referred to by ,strabo as having occurred in #aac ,b4,c41 this1 he relates1 drove the ,cimbers and ,teutons from their homes and was the cause of their threatening ,rome4 ,many other floods occurred which are known as ,manntranke 7man drowning74 ,in the flood of #abaf1 for instance1 #aj1jjj persons lost their lives1 and three years later the ,marcellus flood caused similar destruction4 ,in #acjj the second ,marcellus flood broke #ab feet over the highest dikes and ,schleswig alone lost #g1fjj persons in the waves4 ,heligoland was at that time a large island1 #df miles long and #bd miles wide1 it contained a monastery1 many churches1 large villages1 extensive cultivations and forests2 the island was all but destroyed by this inundation4 ,before that disastrous occurrence the island could be seen from the shores of ,friesland1 which in the days of ,charles the ,great was twice as large as now4 ,the ,friesland of to-day is only the southern and poorest remnant of the magnificent lands which were completely destroyed on ,october #aa1 #afhd2 #bj parishes and #aej1jjj persons disappeared beneath the waves1 which broke through the dikes simultaneously in twenty-four places4 ,to relate all inundations would lead too far1 but the most serious may be mentioned as showing the struggles in which the inhabitants of the ,north ,sea coast are engaged4 ,that of #adba1 which swallowed #ba parishes and #ajj1jjj persons2 then the most terrible of which there is any record1 and which is known as the ,all ,saints' ,day flood of #aegj2 the sea raged along the whole of the coast from ,holland to ,jutland for forty-eight hours1 carried away all the dikes and caused the loss of #djj1jjj lives2 the whole country lay waste for years1 for the want of population to rebuild the dikes4 ,the ,christmas flood of #agag also visited the whole coast and #ae1jjj lives were lost4 ,during the present century the destruction by the sea has been minimized1 as the dikes are now built strong and high enough to withstand the heaviest seas4 ,the various islands along the coast act as breakwaters and protect1 to a great extent1 the coast line2 the various governments are endeavoring to strengthen the islands by vegetation1 but it appears to be only a question of time when they will disappear altogether4 ,although the sea has1 during the past #a1jjj years1 robbed the ,dutch of great tracts of land1 yet they have1 by enduring perseverance1 recovered a great deal1 and there appears no doubt that they will succeed to form the ,zuider ,sea into rich agricultural lands1 just as they have already dried up the ,harlem ,sea and converted it into waving cornfields4 ,ground is also gained yearly in other directions1 by continually extending the dikes2 the richest lands on the coasts of ,holland and ,germany have thus been reclaimed from the ocean1 and they are protected by means which secure the coasts against future encroachment4 99 99 99 99 99 ,continued from ,,supplement1 ,no4 #ajhj1 page #agbfc4 ,,the ,,de ,,dion ,,and ,,bouton ,,road ,,motor4 ,it was with a vehicle of the kind described in our last article that ,messrs4 ,de ,dion and ,bouton obtained a conspicuous success in #ahid4 ,in this competition they were the first to arrive at ,mantes1 doing the #cf miles in #c hours1 so that they made an average of #ab miles an hour2 they were followed very closely by the ,peugeot and ,panhard-,levassor carriages4 ,in spite of a series of difficult hills and bad roads1 and an unintentional detour1 they traversed the #dh miles between ,mantes and ,rouen in #d hours #aj minutes4 ,they recorded a speed of #ae miles an hour on some of the level roads1 and on several occasions touched a maximum of #ai miles4 ,the fact that they were able to ascend gradients of #a in #aj at a speed of from #f to #ab miles an hour sufficiently proved the efficiency of the machine4 ,the same constructors ran another vehicle in this competition of a somewhat similar design1 but not adapted for a traction engine2 this carried six passengers1 and weighed about #c1jjj lb4 in working order4 ,it was mounted on a rectangular and strongly braced frame1 and was furnished with a boiler similar to that already described1 but having only some #ad square feet of heating surface1 a capacity of about #f gallons of water1 and #ah rows of tubes4 ,the ratio of gearing was #d4jf2 the small cylinder was #c4ed in4 in diameter and the low pressure cylinder #e4ea in41 the stroke being #c4id in4 ,about the same time ,messrs4 ,de ,dion and ,bouton built for one of their clients a carriage in which the driving wheels were entirely independent1 each of them being driven direct by a separate steam engine without any intermediate gear4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,the ,count de ,dion was one of the most enthusiastic organizers of the ,paris to ,bordeaux competition in #ahie1 and naturally his firm took part in the trials4 ,they entered three vehicles for competition2 one of these1 called ,no4 #a1 was the traction engine which had taken part in the #ahid trials1 and which we have already described4 ,for the second time this machine gave very excellent results1 as it made the distance from ,paris to ,angoulme 7#bhj miles7 in #cj hours1 but on account of various mishaps it had to run very slowly from ,angoulme to ,bordeaux 7#hd miles71 taking1 in fact1 #ca hours for this part of the journey1 and not arriving until long after it had been ruled out of the competition4 ,their second vehicle1 ,no4 #b1 was a four seated brake which was1 in fact1 a modified traction engine4 ,the boiler1 which was of the ,de ,dion and ,bouton type1 had a heating surface of #cf square feet1 and was registered at #bjj lb4 per square inch2 it weighed #eej lb4 ,as to the motor1 it was a ,woolfe engine1 the moving parts of which were carefully counterbalanced4 ,the cranks were set at an angle of #ahj2 the diameter of the high pressure cylinder was #b4ie in41 and that of the low pressure #e4ij in42 the low pressure cylinder was steam jacketed4 ,this motor1 which weighed #ccj lb41 developed #aa horse power at a speed of #hjj revolutions4 ,the engine was coupled direct to the shaft of the differential motion1 on which were mounted two pinions for changing the speed1 and which could be moved to and fro on the shaft2 the movement of the differential gear was transmitted to the wheels by articulated shafts1 such as those we have already referred to in describing the traction engine2 sufficient water and coke could be carried for a run of #de miles1 and on a good road a speed of more than #be miles an hour was obtained4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,messrs4 ,de ,dion and ,bouton anticipated great things from this carriage1 and for the long run from ,paris to ,bordeaux they had provided only three changes of drivers1 in order that the machine might be in as few hands as possible4 ,their hopes1 however1 were not realized1 for although it made a better start than any of the other competitors1 it only succeeded in running for #abe miles2 after having passed ,blois the transmission shaft broke1 and the brake was useless for the time being1 but the machine did enough to satisfy the constructors of the soundness of their idea2 it ran the #cd4e miles between ,versailles and ,etampes in #b hours and #af minutes1 making an average speed of #ae miles an hour over difficult country2 between ,versailles and ,blois the speed touched nearly #ah miles4 ,the vehicle ,no4 #c was a tricycle driven by a petroleum motor2 this was not seriously entered for competition1 but rather to show a first effort of a new departure which the constructors have since followed with some success4 ,at the present time ,messrs4 ,de ,dion and ,bouton are making preparations to take part in the competition which is to be arranged for the autumn of the present year4 ,they have a traction engine with considerable modifications in its design1 with which they1 expect to run from ,paris and ,marseilles1 and they have the intention of hauling with it one of the #dj-seat omnibuses of the ,paris ,company1 which is usually drawn by three horses4 ,fig4 #aj is a general view of the engine attached to the omnibus4 ,this type of vehicle is furnished with a compound engine1 which can be worked up to #cj horse power1 and which is to be capable of hauling a load of #e tons at a speed of #ab4e miles2 the principal points of difference between this machine and the other1 which we have already described1 lie in the great care which has been bestowed on the details1 the precautions taken to secure the moving parts from dust1 and the oil bath in which the engine works4 ,the water supply carried is sufficient for a run of #be miles over an average road with a load of #c tons2 the manufacturers state that the cost of hauling this load amounts to #a;d4 per kilometer4 ,great care has been taken as to the quality of the steel employed in the frame and other parts of the machine4 ,by reference to ,fig4 #aj it will be seen that the boiler 7#b7 is surrounded by the fuel tank1 while the water reservoir forms a seat2 the motor 7#a7 is placed beneath the platform as usual4 ,the driver has all the controlling levers conveniently at hand2 the starting lever is shown at #i1 while at #e is a small wheel controlling the steam admission2 the reversing gear is actuated by the lever1 #g4 ,the vehicle is steered by means of a turning bar1 similar to those of hand brakes on some wagons2 the feed pump is started and stopped by a small wheel marked #aj1 while #h and #aa are the hand and steam brakes respectively4 ,we referred just now to the tricycle made by ,messrs4 ,de ,dion and ,bouton1 and shown by them at the competition of #ahie1 although it was not entered for the race4 ,since that time they have made two types of this class of vehicle1 of which we give engravings in ,figs4 #ab and #ac4 ,in the former the motor is attached to the back of the frame by a suspended connection4 ,it will be seen that the frame is not a little complex1 and necessarily so1 in order that it may carry the different parts of the mechanism4 ,the motor has a single cylinder and is quite inclosed in a casing that is kept filled with oil2 the moving parts of the engine are within this casing2 the main shaft drives1 by means of a pinion1 the differential gear that is mounted on the axle4 ,it will be seen from the illustration that the builders do not rely wholly on the motor1 but have provided the usual cycle pitched chain so that1 in the event of a breakdown1 the rider can propel his machine with the pedals4 ,indeed1 this is always necessary in starting1 though a few strokes with the pedals suffice1 and as soon as the engine is started the pedal clutch is thrown out of gear4 ,in mounting a steep gradient the pedals are also useful as an auxiliary to the motor4 ,the mechanical power provided is sufficient to drive the machine on a good and level road at the rate of #bj kilometers an hour4 ,it can also travel up grades of #a in #bj or #be2 the weight of the machine in working order is only #ajj lb4 ,on referring to the engraving there will be seen attached to the frame beneath the saddle a rectangular reservoir that contains the gasoline1 the capacity being sufficient for a six hours' run4 ,to the reservoir is attached the carburetor1 which is connected to the motor by a pipe4 ,the explosive mixture in the cylinder is fired electrically1 and for this purpose a compact and reliable battery is hung to the forward part of the frame almost beneath the steering bar4 ,this battery will give #ajj hours of work without recharging2 it supplies current to a ,ruhmkorff coil placed beneath the rear bar of the frame in a metal case that can be seen in the engraving2 the other cylinder near it is a pressure reducer into which the gases from the cylinder are exhausted before they pass into the air4 ,the second type of tricycle1 illustrated by ,fig4 #ac1 is an improvement on the first4 ,it will be seen that the frame is much simpler2 the total weight is reduced2 the gasoline reservoir is triangular1 in order to economize space4 ,the motor employed is very ingenious1 and appears to be efficient2 we have seen it in operation at the works of ,,mm4 ,de ,dion and ,bouton4 ,it can be run easily at a speed of #b1ejj revolutions1 although in practice the rate is limited to #gjj revolutions1 in order to reduce the wear of the moving parts4 ,in this1 as in the earlier type1 the use of water for cooling the cylinder is avoided1 the outside of the latter being made with a number of wings that are intended to keep the cylinder cool by contact with the air4 ,the method of igniting the gases has also been changed1 in so far as the arrangement of the battery is concerned4 ,the four cells used for this purpose are carried in a leather case hung to one of the frames of the machine4 ,an interesting detail is that the exact moment for producing the spark is regulated by the motor itself1 and the ,ruhmkorff coil is suppressed4 ,the contact breaker has been placed on the motor1 and a cylindrical cam is mounted on the shaft that controls the exhaust valve4 ,in this cam there is formed a recess into which the blade of the contact breaker1 which is fixed on an insulated mount1 falls at the proper instant2 at the same moment the spark is produced1 the blade being raised as it leaves the recess in the cam4 ,it is1 of course1 necessary to regulate exactly the relative positions of the blade and the cam1 so that the spark may take place when the mixture has to be exploded4 ,the frame of the motor is of aluminum1 by which considerable saving in weight is effected2 as in the earlier model1 the moving parts of the motor are immersed in an oil bath4 ,the pedals are employed to start1 or as an auxiliary1 or in the event of a breakdown4 ,when not required for propulsion1 they are thrown out of gear1 when they serve as foot rests1 and also as a means for actuating an emergency brake4 ,the carburetor is no longer attached to the gasoline reservoir1 but is separate2 the explosions in the cylinder are regulated by a lever close to the steering bar4 ,the greatest credit must be accorded to ,,mm4 ,de ,dion and ,bouton for the perseverance and ingenuity they have shown in the design and construction of the types of power vehicle they have made their own4 ,as to their larger carriages1 experience has proved their practical value2 they have expended even more trouble on their power cycles1 but it appears to us that ingenuity and skill are largely wasted in this direction1 since the raison d'etre of the cycle in all its forms lies in the fact that it should give perfect freedom to the rider and leave him dependent for his progress upon his own efforts4--,engineering4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,from ,,new ,,york ,,to ,,havre ,,in ,a ,,rowboat4 ,the rowboat ,fox1 of the port of ,new ,york1 manned by ,george ,harbo1 thirty-one years of age1 captain of a merchantman1 and ,frank ,samuelson1 twenty-six years of age1 left ,new ,york for ,havre on the #fth of ,june4 ,ten days later the boat was met by the ,german trans-atlantic steamer ,frst ,bismarck proceeding from ,cherbourg to ,new ,york4 ,on the #hth1 #ith and #ajth of ,july1 the ,fox was cast by a tempest upon the reefs of ,newfoundland4 ,the two men jumped into the sea1 and thanks to the watertight compartments provided with air chambers fore and aft1 it was possible for them to right the boat2 but the unfortunates lost their provisions and their supply of drinking water4 ,on the #aeth they met the ,norwegian three masted vessel ,cito1 which supplied them with food and water4 ,the captains of the vessels met with signed the log book and testified that the boat had neither sail nor rudder4 ,the ,fox reached the ,scilly ,islands on the #ast of ,august1 having at this date been on the ocean fifty-five days4 ,it arrived at ,havre on the #gth of ,august4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,navigators ,,of ,,the ,,fox4 ,cost what it might1 the men were bent upon reaching this port in order to gain the reward promised by ,mr4 ,fox1 of the ,police ,gazette4 ,thanks to the wind and a favorable current1 they made #abe miles in #bd hours4 ,one slept three hours while the other rowed4 ,their skins and faces were tumefied by the wind1 salt water and sun2 the epidermis of their hands was renewed three times2 their legs were anchylosed2 and they were worn out4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,rowboat ,,fox4 ,the boat was #ah feet in length1 #e in breadth1 and #bc inches in depth1 and carried a small kerosene stove for cooking4--,l',illustration4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,waste ,,of ,,shipping4 ,burdensome as are the restrictions imposed upon shipowners by legislation1 considerable justification is found for them when we compare the percentage of ,british vessels lost at sea with that of foreign-owned vessels4 ,the great shipping countries1 that is1 those which have more than #a1jjj1jjj tons afloat1 are the ,united ,kingdom1 the ,british colonies1 the ,united ,states of ,america1 ,france1 ,germany and ,norway4 ,of these six the ,united ,kingdom suffered the least comparative loss in its mercantile fleet in #ahie4 ,under all the heads of abandoned at sea1 broken up or condemned1 burnt1 collision1 foundered1 lost1 missing and wrecked1 the total loss was #b4ii per cent4 of the vessels owned and #b4cf per cent4 of the tonnage owned4 ,no other of the countries named has less than #c per cent4 of loss1 while only the ,british colonies have less than #d1 as the subjoined table shows4 ,,total ,,losses ,,of ,,steam ,,and ,,sailing ,,vessels ,,in #ahie4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,vessels ,owned4 ,percentage ,lost4 ------------------------------------ ,flag4 ,vessels ,tonnage ,no4 ,tons4#a ,owned4 ,owned4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,united ,kingdom4 #ibbg #ab1aag1ieg #b4ii #b4cf ,british ,colonies4 #bcjg #a1abd1fhb #c4ch #c4gj ,united ,states of ,america4 #cbbj #b1afd1gec #d4gb #d4jf ,french4 #aafd #a1jid1geb #f4ja #d4jb ,german4 #agcj #a1hhf1hab #f4gf #d4ch ,norwegian4 #cjda #a1fei1jab #g4dc #f4df ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,footnote #a3 ,gross tonnage for steamers2 net for sailing vessels4 ,when we turn from the contemplation of the complete fleets1 and differentiate between steam and sail1 we find that the ,united ,kingdom no longer holds the premier position1 being surpassed1 as regards steam1 both by the colonies and by the ,united ,states4 ,steam vessels are safer than sailing craft all over the world1 partly1 of course1 because their average age is less4 ,the losses they suffered last year are as follows3 ,,total ,,losses ,,of ,,steam ,,vessels ,,in #ahie4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,vessels ,owned4 ,percentage ,lost4 ---------------------------------------- ---- ,flag4 ,vessels ,tonnage ,no4 ,net4 ,gross4 ,owned4 ,owned4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,united ,kingdom4 #fddf #e1iic1fffi1fie1igf #c4cc #b4ac ,british ,colonies4 #hgd #cbi1hde #edb1jbe #a4gb #a4fi ,united ,states of ,america4 #fbf #ffj1ghd #ibj1fgb #b4bc #a4ic ,french4 #ega #dfg1eec #ijc1aje #d4bj #c4db ,german4 #iec #iaj1efga1cdc1ceg #c4jd #b4fd ,norwegian4 #ehf #bhe1cdi #ddf1chd #b4ef #b4hg ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,the ,united ,kingdom here stands third in the list1 and curiously it only stands second under the head of number of sailing ships lost1 while it is first as regards sailing tonnage lost4 ,the sailing tonnage of the ,united ,kingdom is only about #bj per cent4 of the total1 while in the colonies it is about #eb per cent4 ,the following are the figures3 ,,total ,,losses ,,of ,,sailing ,,vessels ,,in #ahie4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,vessels ,owned4 ,percentage ,lost4 ----------------------------------- ,flag4 ,vessels ,tonnage ,no4 ,tons4 ,owned4 ,owned4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,united ,kingdom4 #bgha #b1dba1iha #d4ec #c4bg ,colonies4 #adce #ehb1feg #d4ci #e4ef ,united ,states of ,america4 #beid #a1bdd1jha #e4cb #e4fc ,french4 #eic #aia1fdg #g4gf #f4hc ,german4 #ggg #edc1dee #aa4cc #h4ff ,norwegian4 #bdee #a1bab1fbh #h4ei #g4gh ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,the losses of sailing vessels are very serious among the ,continental nations1 especially in ,germany1 where more than one in nine was lost or condemned last year4 ,this is greatly due to the fact that our old ships are largely sold to the foreigner when they will no longer comply with legislative conditions of this country4 ,we break up a few1 but only #j4ge per cent41 against #a4ge per cent4 for ,norway and #b4e per cent4 for ,france and ,germany4 ,we are more chary of breaking up our steamers2 last year only #j4df per cent4 met this fate here1 #j4cd per cent4 in the colonies1 #j4cb per cent4 in the ,united ,states1 #j4hf per cent4 in ,france1 #j4ca per cent4 in ,germany1 while ,norway did not lose a single steamer in this way4 ,turning now to the present year we find that in the first quarter the vessels lost1 condemned or reported missing before ,august #g were1 according to returns made out by ,lloyd's ,register of ,british and ,foreign ,shipping1 #bhb vessels1 of an aggregate of #aie1dhj tons4 ,these figures are respectively #bc per cent4 and #bd per cent4 of the total losses last year1 thus showing a favorable beginning1 for the winter losses are naturally the heaviest4 ,the materials of the vessels lost were3 ,steel1 #bd vessels of #dj1dgd tons2 iron1 #gd vessels of #gh1cad tons2 and wood and composite1 #ahd vessels of #gf1fib tons4 ,the ,united ,kingdom shows best under the heads of total losses and losses of sailing vessels1 but in steamers it actually comes last among the six nationalities we have selected for comparison4 ,it must be remembered1 however1 that the ,british fleet is large enough for a very fair average to be attained in three months1 while in all other fleets a single loss1 more or less1 makes a great difference to the figures of merit4 ,the steam tonnage of the ,united ,kingdom is more than seven times greater than that of ,germany1 which is our chief competitor4 ,in sailing tonnage we do not hold this immense superiority1 our amount being only about double that of the ,united ,states and of ,norway respectively4 ,when we examine the various causes of loss of vessels at sea1 we find nearly #dc per cent4 of the tonnage under the head of wrecked1 which includes vessels lost through stranding1 or through striking rocks1 sunken wrecks1 etc4 ,next come #bb per cent4 broken up or condemned2 #ad per cent4 lost1 missing2 #h per cent4 lost by collision2 #d4c per cent4 burnt2 #e per cent4 abandoned at sea2 and #c4f per cent4 foundered4 ,the following table shows the mercantile marine of the world1 according to ,lloyd's ,register1 at the end of ,march1 #ahif3 ,flag4 ,steam and ,sailing ,vessels ,owned4 ,no4 ,tons4 ,british4 _/,united ,kingdom4 #ibbg #ab1aag1ieg ,colonies4 #bcji #a1abd1fhb ,america1 ,united ,states of4 #cbbj #b1afd1gec ,austro-,hungarian4 #cji #cjd1igj ,danish4 #hab #cef1gad ,dutch4 #deh #ddf1hfa ,french4 #aafd #a1jid1geb ,german4 #agcj #a1hhf1hab ,italian4 #abci #ggh1ida ,norwegian4 #cjda #a1fei1jab ,russian4 #ajhf #dhg1fha ,spanish4 #gdh #eed1bch ,swedish4 #adcb #dig1hgg ,other ,european countries4 4444 444444444 ,central and ,south ,america4 4444 444444444 ,asia4 4444 444444444 ,other countries4 4444 444444444 --,engineering4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,new ,,methods ,,of ,,building ,,construction ,,at ,,paris4 ,during recent years an interesting change has been gradually brought about in the various methods of building construction employed in ,france1 and more especially at ,paris1 where the size and importance of public buildings and the many-storied houses divided up into flats necessitate special systems of construction1 which possess the advantages of combining economy in cost with strength and durability4 ,parisian architects and builders1 although far from approving the extremes to which their ,american confrres go in the employment of iron for the construction of their somewhat exaggerated sky-scraping buildings1 in which the style of architecture employed is often scarcely logical or consistent with the modern methods of construction1 are nevertheless obliged to own to the necessity and the utility of employing iron in moderation for the framework of their buildings4 ,up to the present the use of iron in its ordinary form has chiefly been confined to floors1 partitions1 and roofs1 where1 as a rule1 its presence is masked by coverings of cement1 wood1 or stone1 except in recent examples of the new style of buildings destined for brasseries or drinking halls1 where the iron construction is left visible1 and emphasized by means of bronze or color painting and mosaic work1 or1 again1 in the few examples of well known work where the architect has endeavored to obtain a decorative effect by means of iron lintels and columns4 ,but where the use of iron is fast finding favor at ,paris is in its employment in combination with other materials such as cement or concrete1 and in a special form known as the cement arm systems1 in which iron or steel is employed in the form of thick wire1 trellis1 or light bars embedded in cement or concrete4 ,this method of construction1 of which there are three different systems1 has for some time been employed in the construction of various buildings of more or less importance1 and has given proof of its strength and practical use as well as its advantages when employed for floors1 partitions1 walls and roof1 both as regards its conveniences for internal arrangements1 its economy1 and as regards the manner in which it lends itself to modern schemes of polychrome decoration4 ,two of these systems have been employed by the architect of the new building now being constructed in the ,rue ,blanche for the ,society of ,civil ,engineers of ,france4 ,the third system is much employed by ,m4 ,de ,baudot in various buildings designed by this architect1 an advocate of rational construction and design and the logical employment of modern building materials4 ,it will be interesting to examine the merits of each system as employed in these buildings1 together with any other points of construction worthy of remark4 ,the building for the ,society of ,civil ,engineers is remarkable from several points of view as regards construction and the arrangement of plan4 ,the faade and plans will appear in the ,building ,news as soon as the work is completed1 and will form an interesting subject for comparison with the building recently completed for the ,english ,society of ,engineers1 and with that about to be commenced at ,new ,york for the ,american ,society4 ,before entering into a detailed description of the system employed1 a summary idea of the plan and general scheme of construction will not be uninteresting4 ,the architect1 ,m4 ,fernand ,delmas1 has endeavored to construct the building on economical lines1 employing to a large extent iron and those modern materials which have been tried and found fitting as regards suitability and economy2 the building will cost #bb1jjj1 and it has been made a sine qua non that all the contractors shall be members of the ,society of ,engineers4 ,the length of the faade is #ajj ft42 the total depth of the building is nearly equal to the frontage2 the height from pavement to cornice is #fj ft4 ,the faade is built of solid stonework throughout its length and height4 ,the thickness of the masonry is #bd in4 at the lower stories and #ah in4 at the upper portion4 ,the faade wall is really the only portion of solid masonry work in the whole building1 and forms a decorative mask to the body of the building1 which is constructed of a framework of iron4 ,the chief supports of the building proper consist of four framed iron uprights1 #af in4 by #af in4 rising from the basement to the roof4 ,these uprights are solidly trussed and held together at the floor levels by strong iron girders supporting the iron joists of the upper floors and the light partitions which divide up each story4 ,this system is at once economical and practical4 ,the whole building is thus self-supporting1 and the thick walls which would otherwise be necessary for carrying the upper floors are thus avoided4 ,illustration3 ,,cement ,,arm ,,construction ,,of ,,floors1 ,,pillars ,,and ,,arches4 ,the faade wall is built according to the system always employed at ,paris1 and is formed of blocks of stone roughly cut at the quarries to the outside dimensions of the proposed moulding and decorative work4 ,as soon as the whole front is erected the work of cutting it into shape will commence1 the mouldings1 pilasters1 and all carving work being done while the interior is being prepared4 ,the buildings at ,paris are by this means erected much more rapidly than when the stone is dressed or moulded before being put into place4 ,greater facilities are thus given for studying the general ensemble of the faade and the proper scale to be given to the mouldings and decoration4 ,the stone is as a rule soft when first from the quarries1 but becomes hard and durable after dressing and exposure to the air4 ,the courtyard wall of the building is formed of light brick or metallic fillings between the iron uprights and the party walls4 ,the ground floor comprises a large entrance hall or vestibule1 #dj ft4 by #dd ft41 forming1 with the cloakroom1 the principal staircase1 the rooms for the concierge1 and the area1 the whole front of the building4 ,this large vestibule is vaulted over by means of one of the systems of cement arm to be described4 ,the floor is constructed on another similar system1 and will be paved with mosaic work4 ,the ground floor of the courtyard will be occupied by the conference hall1 #ej ft4 by #ej ft41 to hold #cjj seats4 ,an annex1 #ej ft4 by #bj ft41 adjoining this hall1 will open on the same by a large arched bay1 and may be separated from the larger hall by means of a special system of wooden soundproof roller shutters4 ,the floor of the large hall will be a movable one1 to be raised or lowered by an ingenious system of hydraulics1 and capable of being placed in an inclined position for conference meetings1 or raised to a horizontal position for ball room purposes4 ,the entresol floor will comprise a large room for meeting1 smoking and conversation rooms1 and a reading room1 to be used as a club for the members of the society4 ,the first floor will contain the offices of the society1 a large committee room1 and all conveniences4 ,the second floor will be devoted entirely to the purposes of the important library1 comprising the library proper1 a room #de ft4 by #be ft4 by #ag ft4 high1 rising to the ceiling of the low story above1 and lighted by a large semicircular bay at either end3 the surrounding rooms of the height of the second floor will be destined for the librarian1 catalogues1 drawing office1 and library offices4 ,the third floor will be devoted entirely to the purpose of storing the books of the library1 in low rooms communicating by means of the gallery overlooking the library below1 which will be crossed by means of a light1 iron bridge4 ,the bookcases will be suspended from the upper floor1 and will be arranged in vertical tiers hung on rollers1 after the system employed at the ,british ,museum4 ,the roof story will be divided up into an apartment for the chief secretary1 and reached by a private staircase from the ground floor4 ,the large basement1 occupying the whole of the ground surface of the building1 will be used for storing the records of the society1 and will contain the heating apparatus1 stores1 etc4 ,a hydraulic lift will afford access to the landings of each floor4 ,the chief feature of the faade1 which is simple in style1 is the wide arched bay1 #bd ft4 across1 rising from the pavement to above the cornice2 this bay will be filled in with an open decorative framework of wrought and cast iron4 ,some of the most interesting points of the construction1 besides the large use of iron1 are the systems employed in the construction of the floor4 ,the ground floor is built after the ,coignet system1 composed of light iron bars and cement2 the first floor and its supporting pillars and arches is constructed after the ,hennebique system of cement arm2 the upper floors are formed of iron joists1 filled in either with the system of light supports and plaster1 much employed at ,paris1 or with terracotta fillings between joints4 ,the roof is lined internally with agglomerated cork bricks1 affording protection from excessive heat or cold1 and the walls of the area will be lined with opaline1 a vitreous material of a bluish white color1 which in this case will insure cleanliness1 and afford additional light2 the lavatories and water closets will also be lined with the same material4 ,speaking of the ,hennebique system of cement arm1 employed for the arches and floor of the first story1 it will be interesting to illustrate the method by a few sketches1 explaining the theory of this system1 which has been put to practical proofs in a large number of buildings1 chiefly for industrial purposes1 in the north of ,france4 ,the perspective section will give an idea of the construction as employed in the building for the civil engineers1 a system which holds its ground well against its rivals of other methods of cement arm4--,the ,building ,news4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,belleek ,,china4 ,belleek porcelain 7frequently pronounced ,bleak by those who do not know the derivation of the name7 is a thin eggshell ware of great lightness and translucency1 characterized by a creamy1 or sometimes grayish1 tint1 and usually covered with a delicate pearly or lustrous glaze4 ,it is in reality a variety of ,parian ware1 being formed in the same manner by the process called casting1 or pouring diluted clay or slip of the consistency of cream into plaster moulds1 which1 by absorbing a part of the moisture from the portion of the liquid preparation in direct contact1 retain a thin shell of partially dried clay after the superfluous contents are taken out4 ,after standing a few minutes the thin cast can be liberated from the mould4 ,the thickness of the walls1 of course1 depends upon the length of time the slip is allowed to remain in the mould before the surplus is removed4 ,by this ingenious method cups1 saucers and other forms of ware can be made almost as thin as an egg shell or a piece of heavy paper1 and after being allowed to become thoroughly dry can be safely burned in the kiln4 ,it can readily be understood that it would not be possible to make such fragile pieces by the usual processes with plastic clay1 which must be of the consistency of putty or dough1 on the potter's wheel or by pressing in moulds4 ,belleek ware was first made at ,stoke upon ,trent by the eminent potter ,william ,henry ,goss1 who invented the body or composition some thirty-five years ago2 but it was not then known by this name4 ,soon after its introduction ,messrs4 ,mc,birney ,armstrong induced some of ,mr4 ,goss' workmen1 including his manager1 ,william ,bromley1 to join them at their porcelain works1 then recently started 7in #ahfc7 in the town of ,belleek1 ,county ,fermanagh1 ,ireland1 and the art was established so successfully there that the name of the village was given to the ware which has since become so noted4 ,the distinguishing characteristic of this beautiful product is its lustrous glazing1 which varies in form from white to yellow and through graded tints to a dark leaden hue4 ,mr4 ,goss has continued to manufacture this dainty variety of porcelain until the present time1 and his factory has become one of the most noted in the ,british empire4 ,among the most popular of his productions in this body are loving cups and little cream jugs1 cups and saucers1 and fairy tea sets embellished with beautifully colored crests and coats of arms of the different ,english cities and of prominent personages1 such as ,queen ,elizabeth1 ,sir ,walter ,raleigh1 ,king ,henry of ,navarre1 ,queen ,victoria1 the ,prince of ,wales1 ,shakespeare1 ,sir ,walter ,scott1 and ,robert ,burns4 ,of more interest1 perhaps1 to ,americans are the porcelain tumblers which have just been produced at the same factory1 bearing on the front a faithful duplication in blue and yellow enamels of the insignia of the society of ,sons of the ,revolution1 which were made at the suggestion of a member of the society in ,pennsylvania4 ,the soft1 satiny ,belleek body seems to be particularly well adapted to show off to advantage the rich designs of these badges1 and this suggestion will doubtless be followed by other patriotic hereditary societies in the ,united ,states4 ,john ,hart ,brewer1 of ,trenton1 first attempted the manufacture of ,belleek ware in this country4 ,he commenced his experiments in this line in #ahhb1 and in the following year brought over from ,england ,william ,bromley and his son from the ,belleek works in ,ireland4 ,subsequently the elder ,bromley joined the ,willets ,manufacturing ,company1 of the same place1 and introduced the manufacture of eggshell porcelain there1 and at the present time there are no less than five or six establishments in ,trenton where the same class of ware is made4 ,among many specialties recently introduced is a new style of decoration which has been worked out by ,miss ,kate ,sears1 a ,kansas girl who studied modeling in ,boston4 ,going to ,trenton for the purpose of pursuing her studies in this direction1 one day in #ahia1 while engaged in working over the wet ,belleek1 the idea of carving delicate designs in the dry clay occurred to her1 and after conducting a series of experiments her efforts were crowned with success4 ,the process of modeling which ,miss ,sears has originated is as follows3 ,a vase or other piece which has been formed in the wet clay and dried is taken before it has been in the kiln1 and with knives or other tools the design is cut or chiseled so as to leave the background as thin and transparent as possible when finished4 ,as the dry ,belleek1 besides being thin1 is extremely brittle1 and crumbles easily1 the carving is an exceedingly difficult operation4 ,it is necessarily a very slow process1 since at any moment the knife is liable to cut through the wall and ruin the piece4 ,the result of this process is a clear cut1 chiseled effect1 which cannot be obtained by moulding or casting1 a moonlight effect of fairy like character1 most beautiful in conception1 and possessing marked originality4 ,while sometimes several weeks are consumed in executing a single piece of the carved ware1 ,miss ,sears has produced a large number of such designs1 each one of which is a perfect work of art1 reflecting credit upon the artist and the manufacturers4 ,the marks which appear on the various productions of ,belleek porcelain are of considerable interest to collectors and admirers of this beautiful ware4 ,mr4 ,gross has adopted as a factory mark his family crest1 a falcon rising ducally gorged1 which is printed on each piece in black4 ,the mark of the ,belleek factory in ,ireland1 consists of the four ,irish emblems1 the watch tower1 the hound1 the harp of ,erin1 and the shamrock1 and is printed on the ware in green or black4 ,at the ,etruria ,pottery1 formerly operated by ,messrs4 ,ott ,brewer1 now known as the ,cook ,pottery ,company1 the mark used on ,belleek ware was a crescent bearing the name with the initials of the proprietors1 ,o4 ,b4 ,the ,willets ,manufacturing ,company uses for a factory mark on its decorated ,belleek pieces the figure of a serpent looped in the form of a ,w1 which is printed in red4 ,on similar ware produced by the ,ceramic ,art ,company is printed in red a design composed of a painter's palette and a circle inclosing the monogram ,c4 ,a4 ,c41 while ,messrs4 ,morris and ,willmore1 of the ,columbian ,art ,pottery1 employ a shield with the initials of the firm name1 ,m4 ,w4 ,the manufacture of ,belleek ware was introduced into this country by ,english potters who had learned the processes at the potteries in ,england and ,ireland1 and we cannot1 therefore1 lay claim to originality so far as the product itself is concerned2 yet1 in a measure1 the ware as made in ,america differs materially from the foreign in many respects1 and has been developed in new directions1 so that it has come to have distinctive characteristics of its own which entitle it to be ranked with original ,american productions4 ,while our potters1 perhaps1 have not yet reached the high degree of elaborate modeling which characterizes some of the imported ,belleek1 they have already surpassed the foreign manufacturers in the simplicity and elegance of their forms and the artistic quality of their decorations1 while in delicacy of coloring1 in the excellence and lightness of body1 the ,american products are not surpassed4 ,a visit to the showrooms of the ,trenton potteries will prove a revelation to those who still believe that no artistic china is made in this country4--,edwin ,atlee ,barber1 in ,china1 ,glass and ,lamps4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,goodman',s ,,hatchet ,,planimeters4 ,the instrument we are about to describe is an improvement on the hatchet planimeter and is due to ,prof4 ,goodman1 of ,leeds4 ,one form of the instrument is intended for the measurement of areas of surfaces1 and the other form for the measurement of the mean height of a figure such as an indicator diagram4 ,london ,engineering1 to which we are indebted for the cuts and copy1 describes the instruments as follows3 ,the method of using the two instruments is practically the same1 but for the present we shall confine our remarks to the instrument for measuring areas4 ,in order to familiarize oneself with the peculiar action of the instrument1 it will be well to get a large sheet of paper on a drawing board or a large blotting pad1 and holding the instrument vertical to the paper1 grasp the tracing leg very lightly indeed between the forefinger and thumb of the right hand1 with the hatchet toward the left hand1 as shown in ,fig4 #a4 ,then by moving the tracing point round and round an imaginary figure and allowing the hatchet to go where it pleases1 it will be seen that the hatchet moves to and fro along zigzag lines1 and travels sideways--the side travel being nearly proportional to the area of the figure described by the tracing point4 ,if the tracing point be too tightly grasped1 the hatchet will not move freely1 and1 will have a side slip4 ,when this occurs the side travel of the hatchet ceases to be proportional to the area traced out4 ,a loose weight is hung on the hatchet to prevent this side slip1 but as soon as a little skill is attained in the use of the instrument1 this weight may be dispensed with4 ,illustration3 ,,goodman',s ,,hatchet ,,planimeter4 ,when measuring the area of such a surface as that inclosed by the boundary line shown in ,fig4 #c1 a point1 ,a1 is chosen somewhat near the center of the figure2 the exact position is1 however1 immaterial4 ,from the point1 ,a1 a line1 ,,ab1 is drawn in any direction to the boundary2 the tracing point of the planimeter is now placed at ,a1 with the hatchet at ,x1 ,fig4 #c1 that is1 with the instrument roughly square with ,,ab4 ,the hatchet is now lightly pressed in order to mark its position on the paper by making a slight dent1 then leaving the hatchet free to move as shown in ,fig4 #a1 the tracing point is caused to traverse the line1 ,,ab1 and the boundary line in a clockwise direction1 as shown by the arrows1 returning to ,a via ,,ab4 ,the hatchet will now be found to have taken up a new position1 ,y1 which must be marked by again pressing the hatchet to make a slight dent in the paper4 ,if the figure under measurement be on a separate sheet of paper1 the paper must now be revolved about the point1 ,a1 through about #ahj deg4 7by eye71 using the tracing point of the instrument as a center1 care being taken that neither the point nor the hatchet be shifted while the paper is being turned4 ,the line1 ,,ab1 will again be roughly at right angles to the instrument1 but in the reverse direction 7see dotted lines in ,fig4 #c74 ,again cause the tracing point to traverse the line1 ,,ab1 and the boundary line as before1 but this time in a contra-clockwise direction4 ,the hatchet after this backward motion will take up the new position1 ,x#a1 which may or may not coincide with ,x2 if not1 prick a central point between ,x and ,x#a1 as shown1 then1 of course1 the distance of this point from ,y is the mean side shift of the hatchet2 this distance measured from the zero of the scale on the back of the instrument is the area of the figure in square inches4 ,the scale is read in exactly the same manner as a geometrical scale on a drawing1 the whole numbers being read to the right of the zero and the decimals to the left4 ,the instrument does not profess to give results nearer than one-tenth of a square inch4 ,in some cases on large maps1 for example1 the figure cannot be turned round as indicated above2 in that case the instrument itself must be turned round through #ahj and two fresh dents1 ,x,y1 obtained2 the area of the figure is then the mean of the two readings1 ,,xy and ,x,y4 ,when the area is large the instrument will move through a large angle1 and consequently1 if square with ,,ab to start with1 it will be considerably out of square at the finish4 ,in such a case it is only necessary to see that the mean position of the instrument is square with ,,ab4 ,by carefully examining the scale it will be observed 7see ,fig4 #a7 that the divisions are not equal1 but that they gradually increase from zero upward2 herein consists the improvement of this instrument over the ordinary hatchet planimeter invented by ,knudsen1 of ,copenhagen1 who shows in a pamphlet published by him that c#a c#b ,i ------------- p #a - 7,r _/ #bp7 #b ,where ,i the area traced out by the pointer in square inches4 c#a the distance between the dents1 ,x and ,y1 in inches4 c#b the distance between the dents1 ,x#a and ,y1 in inches4 p the length of the instrument from center of hatchet to point in inches4 ,r the mean square of the radii of the figure4 ,the making of such a calculation for every area measured is1 of course1 quite out of the question4 ,the labor involved would be as great as calculating the area by the ordinate or by ,simpson's method2 hence it is usual to neglect that part of the formula inclosed within the square brackets1 which amounts to assuming the area to be equal to the product of the mean side shift of the hatchet by the length of the instrument2 this1 however1 involves an error too big to be neglected1 and1 moreover1 one that is not a constant fraction of the area measured1 thus3 ,area of circle1 square inches4 #aj #bj #cj #dj ,error per cent4 #j4h #a4f #b4d #c4b ,these errors are1 however1 compensated for in ,goodman's improved instrument by making the scale with constantly and regularly increasing divisions4 ,if1 however1 the area dealt with be not a circle1 the error involved in assuming that its ,r is equal to the ,r of a circle of equal area is so small that it is quite inappreciable on a scale which only reads to one-tenth of a square inch4 ,if the ,r for any given area were say #e per cent4 greater than that of the equivalent circle1 the error involved would be #j4jjaf of the whole quantity when measuring an area of #dj square niches1 or #j4jfd square inch1 a quantity which cannot be measured on the scale4 ,it has been proposed to use a roller and vernier to enable the readings between the dents to be measured with a greater degree of accuracy1 but it will be readily seen that the instrument is not reliable to the second place of decimals1 hence such refinements are only imaginary4 ,even with this special scale that we have described above1 the inventor does not profess to get as good results as with an ,amsler planimeter2 he regards his instrument as equivalent to a foot rule in comparison with a micrometric gage as representing ,amsler's instrument2 but for a great number of purposes the foot rule is sufficiently accurate1 and only when great accuracy is required will a micrometer be used1 so with the two forms of planimeter4 ,the rougher instrument has some advantages1 however2 there are no delicate moving parts to get out of order1 and the cost is but one-fourth4 ,in order to ascertain the relative accuracy of various methods of measuring areas1 ,prof4 ,goodman has had a large number of irregular areas measured by his first year students within a week or so of their entering the department1 before they have attained to any degree of skill in using instruments4 ,the results were as follows4 ,amsler's planimeter was taken as the standard1 the area measured by it being independently checked by an assistant4 ,measurement of ,areas ,method4 ,reduced to #ajj4 ,amsler planimeter #ajj ,goodman #ajj or - #j4f ,simpson's rule #ajj or - #a4j ,mean ordinates #ajj or - #b4d ,cutting out in cardboard and weighing against piece of known area #ajj or - #d4d ,equalizing curved edges by drawing straight lines along boundary and calculating by triangles #ajj or - #g4j ,in the averaging instrument for getting mean heights of figures1 the length of the instrument between the hatchet and the pointer is variable4 ,the length is set to the length of the diagram 7see ,fig4 #b72 it is then used in precisely the same manner as the planimeter described above4 ,from what we have already said1 our diagram in ,fig4 #e will be perfectly clear4 ,the mean distance between the dents is in this case the mean height of the diagram1 measured on an ordinary scale1 or the mean pressure in the case of an indicator diagram measured on a scale to suit the indicator spring4 ,knudsen's formula given above applies equally well to this averaging instrument4 ,neglecting for the moment the quantity in the square brackets1 we have ,i c p where c 7c#a c#b7_/b but we also have ,i h l where h is the mean height and l the length of the figure1 therefore h l c p2 but in this instrument we make p l4 ,hence h c1 or the mean height of the figure is equal to the mean distance between the dents4 ,the quantity in the brackets is too great to be neglected1 however4 ,if we were always dealing with circles1 the ratio 7,r_/#bp7 would be a constant1 and numerically equal to #a_/af or #f4be per cent4 ,then all we should have to do would be to use a scale #f4be per cent4 longer than the true scale4 ,but with a long narrow figure such as an indicator diagram1 this ratio is much smaller4 ,the measurement of a large number of diagrams gave a mean value of #a_/fj for diagrams #d in4 long4 ,it is obvious that1 if a diagram be shortened1 this ratio will increase1 for the value of ,r does not decrease as rapidly as p1 and vice versa2 hence this ratio varies approximately inversely as the length of the diagram4 ,taking the value of #a_/fj for the #d in4 diagram1 this is equivalent to saying that there is an error of #a in #fj1 or #a4fg per cent41 in the result1 and from the formula it will be seen that the result is too great by this amount2 hence1 if we make the length1 l1 between the legs of the instrument #a4fg per cent4 of #d in41 or #j4jfg in4 less than the length from the tracing point to the center of the hatchet1 p1 we shall compensate for the error on a diagram #d in4 long4 ,but the ratio of this constant quantity #j4jfg in4 to the length of the diagram also varies inversely as the length in just the same manner as the ratio ,r_/#bp1 hence this method of correcting the instrument is approximately right for all lengths of diagrams4 ,it must be remembered that if this correction were entirely neglected1 it would not exceed two per cent42 hence any inaccuracy in this correction is an exceedingly small quantity1 well under #a per cent4 ,whenever errors have been attributed to the instrument1 on examination it has always been found that they were due to carelessness in setting the length to the diagram1 or to the tracing leg having been grasped so tightly as to cause side slip4 ,the accuracy of the instrument may be easily demonstrated by drawing a rectangle1 say about #d in4 long and #b in4 high1 and finding the mean height by the averager1 then by doubling the paper over and comparing its height with the mean distance between the dents1 it will be found that they agree if the instrument has been carefully used4 ,in many quarters we know that there is a great deal of prejudice against instruments of this kind4 ,we are quite sure1 however1 that if only draughtsmen and others would spend half an hour in trying them over1 they would save themselves many hours of tedious labor in calculating areas by methods which are seldom as accurate as the results obtained by a planimeter in the same number of minutes4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,apparatus ,,for ,,the ,,manufacture ,,of ,,acetylene ,,gas4 ,we give herewith1 from ,le ,genie ,civil1 illustrations and brief descriptions of some of the more prominent apparatus used for the manufacture of acetylene gas4 ,trouv ,apparatus 7,fig4 #a74--,the principle of the gas generator is that of the hydrogen briquet already applied by ,mr4 ,trouv in his portable lamp4 ,it consists of two vessels1 one entering the other4 ,the internal vessel is provided at the bottom with a discharge pipe communicating1 through a cock1 with the gasometer4 ,it carries a suspended open work basket containing the carbide of calcium4 ,the bottom of this vessel is provided with an aperture through which it communicates with the external vessel containing the water4 ,the latter is brought to a level in the two vessels and attacks the carbide4 ,the acetylene formed is disengaged and enters the gasometer4 ,at the same time1 the excess of pressure forces back the water into the external vessel in suppressing its contact with the carbide4 ,the latter1 nevertheless1 continues to be attacked slowly through the action of the aqueous vapor4 ,if the cock of the apparatus now be closed1 the gas will accumulate in the interior vessel and will soon escape through the aperture in the bottom in raising the column of water4 ,mr4 ,trouv has endeavored to remedy this inconvenience by arranging the pieces of carbide in the basket in distinct layers separated by disks of glass4 ,he has1 besides1 provided his apparatus with an electric alarm1 designed to give warning when the holder is too full or when it is on the point of being empty4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,,trouve',s ,,acetylene ,,apparatus4 ,clauzolles ,apparatus 7,fig4 #b74--,this apparatus consists of a gas generator1 ,a1 hermetically closed and containing the carbide1 of a water reservoir1 ,b1 communicating with ,a through a cock1 ,h1 and of a gasometer1 ,d1 connected with ,a by the tube and cock1 ,a4 ,the cock1 ,h1 is provided with a lever fixed by its extremity to a chain that follows the motions of the holder4 ,when the latter rises or descends1 it causes the cock1 ,h1 to close or open4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--;,,clauzolles' ,,acetylene ,,apparatus4 ,the receptacle1 ,a1 is held by a cover fixed by means of four nuts which are removed when it becomes necessary to renew the carbide4 ,the receptacle is removed and replaced by a duplicate one1 after the cock1 ,k1 has been closed so as to keep the gas in the gasometer4 ,bon ,apparatus 7,figs4 #c and #d74--,the acetylene is produced by the reaction of the water falling in small quantity upon the carbide contained in the gas generator1 ,a4 ,the latter is divided into compartments1 ,f1 which1 filled with carbide1 are reached by the water only successively and progressively4 ,when the carbide of the first compartment is exhausted1 the water enters the second1 and so on4 ,the dimensions and numbers of these departments vary with the size of the apparatus4 ,each of them contains from lb4 to #d4e lb4 of carbide4 ,the box with compartments1 ,f1 is covered by a rectangular holder1 ,h1 which enters a flat-bottomed receptacle1 ,e1 opened above and filled about two-thirds full of water4 ,the latter serves as a hydraulic joint1 and1 at the same time1 as a refrigerator4 ,the holder1 ,h1 carries a lead pipe1 ,g'1 terminating in a funnel into which falls the water from the reservoir1 ,c1 led by the pipe1 ,g4 ,this water flows through the extremity1 i1 of the pipe1 ,g'1 into the first compartment4 ,each of the compartments carries1 upon the top of the partition that separates it from the following1 an aperture through which the water enters the adjoining compartment as soon as the gas in the preceding compartment has made its exit from the gasometer1 and so on until the last in the order of the numbers of the compartments4 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #c ,,and #d4--;,,bon ,,acetylene ,,apparatus ,the flow of the water through the pipe1 ,g1 is regulated automatically by a cock1 r'1 with counterpoise4 ,the holder1 in rising1 closes this cock and gradually cuts off the entrance of the water4 ,the gas produced1 once consumed1 the holder descends in opening the cock1 and the water begins to flow again4 ,the disengaged acetylene enters the gasometer1 ,b1 through the pipe1 ,d4 ,the extremity of the latter is bent into the form of a swan's neck4 ,the gas is thus forced to bubble up through about #b in4 of water1 in which it is cooled and freed from all traces of the ammonia that it may contain4 ,the cock1 ,r1 in the pipe1 ,d1 is a three-way one4 ,the first opens and the second intercepts communication between the gas generator and the gasometer1 while the third puts these two parts of the apparatus in communication with the atmosphere4 ,the total capacity of the gasometer is so calculated that the acetylene produced by a single one of the compartments1 ,f1 may be stored up therein upon its exit from the gasometer through the pipe1 ,k4 ,the acetylene traverses a purifying column1 ,i1 filled with pumice stone saturated with a solution of sulphate of copper and surmounted by a thin layer of carbide of calcium4 ,the object of the sulphate of copper is to free the gas from phosphorus and arseniuret of hydrogen4 ,the layer of carbide serves to dry it4 ,it is well to use salt water for the gasometer1 as acetylene is but slightly soluble therein4 ,lequeux-,wiesnegg ,apparatus 7,figs4 #e1 #f1 and #g74--,the apparatus represented in ,fig4 #e is capable of being used in lecture courses4 ,it consists of a tank1 ,b1 and a holder1 ,a1 which is provided at the top with a wide aperture closed by a hydraulic plug1 ,f4 ,when the apparatus is at the bottom of its travel and ready to be filled with acetylene1 the plug1 ,f1 as well as the basket1 ,d1 and the bucket1 ,e1 are removed4 ,the quantity of carbide necessary to fill the gasometer is introduced into the basket4 ,after care has been taken to put a certain quantity of water into the gutter forming the hydraulic joint of the plug1 ,f1 the parts1 ,e1 ,d1 ,f1 are introduced into the tube1 ,c1 in operating rapidly enough to prevent the loss of gas4 ,the holder immediately rises as a consequence of the production of acetylene4 ,the gas redescends through a tube to the bottom of the tank and rises laterally in a column by serving as a guide to the holder and as a support to the cocks designed to send the gas to the points of utilization4 ,a cock1 ,h1 placed at the lower part of the apparatus1 permits of clearing the piping in case a condensation of water occurs4 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #e1 #f1 ,,and #g4--,,lequeux-,,wiesnegg ,,acetylene ,,apparatus4 ,the apparatus represented in ,figs4 #f and #g is continuous4 ,it consists of an apparatus with two holders1 that is to say1 so arranged as to put the least liquid possible in contact with the gas produced1 and to thus prevent absorptions and losses4 ,this gasometer consists of a tank1 ,a1 of a movable holder1 ,c1 and of a stationary holder1 ,b4 ,the generator1 ,e1 is formed of a cylinder1 at the bottom of which there is a bucket1 ,f1 designed for the reception of the greater part of the lime resulting from the reaction4 ,it is closed by a cover1 ,g1 arranged with a simple or multiple joint1 according to the precision that it is desired to obtain and that may reach #cj centimeters of water4 ,the figure represents the holder at the bottom of its travel4 ,mr4 ,edward ,n4 ,dickerson's ,apparatus 7,figs4 #h to #ac74--,mr4 ,dickerson1 of ,new ,york in ,june1 #ahie1 patented several arrangements permitting of automatically regulating the production of acetylene in measure as it is consumed4 ,in the apparatus represented in ,fig4 #h the water is led from a sufficiently high reservoir1 ,a1 through the pipe1 ,b1 into the gas generator1 ,d1 and over the carbide1 ,c1 placed upon a grate1 ,o4 ,the acetylene forms when the water reaches the carbide1 and its disengagement ceases when the pressure forces the water back4 ,the gas passes through the intermedium of a cock1 e1 into the pipe1 ,w1 provided with a cock1 ,z1 into the automatic regulator1 ,g1 and then into the gasometer1 ,p ,r4 ,between the regulator1 ,g1 and the gasometer1 ,mr4 ,dickerson interposes an arrangement consisting of an engine1 ,h1 actuating an air pump1 ,k1 through the pressure of the gas when it is desired to introduce a mixture of acetylene and air into the gasometer4 ,this arrangement is evidently useless when it is desired to collect the acetylene alone4 ,the gas upon making its exit from the gasometer flows through the pipe1 ,t1 to the burners1 ,v4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4--;,,dickerson ,,acetylene ,,apparatus1 ,,with ,,automatic ,,regulation ,when the holder1 ,r1 is filled1 the cord or chain1 a1 passing over the pulley1 b1 revolves the sector1 c1 until the pin1 g1 meets the counterpoised lever1 d1 of the stopcock1 e4 ,in the return of the chain1 the other pin1 o1 carries the lever back to the position shown in the figure4 ,the gas generator1 ,d1 is provided with a discharge cock1 ,e1 and a charging aperture1 m4 ,figs4 #i to #ac show another of ,mr4 ,dickerson's apparatus that permits of an intermittent automatic distribution either of the water upon the carbide or of the carbide in the water in regulating such distribution through the displacement of the holder of a gasometer that collects the excess of gas necessary for the consumption4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4--;,,dickerson ,,acetylene ,,apparatus1 ,,permitting ,,of ,,the ,,automatic ,,intermittent ,,distribution ,,of ,,water ,,upon ,,carbide ,,of ,,calcium4 ,mr4 ,dickerson rightly remarks that it is disadvantageous to directly control the distribution of the water upon the carbide by means of the holder of the gasometer4 ,in fact1 the water cock may remain open before the holder has moved1 and there may thus fall upon the carbide an excess of water1 giving rise to a production of acetylene greater than the capacity of the holder warrants4 ,the object of the ,dickerson apparatus is to prevent such overproduction and to furnish water or carbide to the gas generator only as long as the gasometer will have been emptied of the desired quantity of gas4 ,fig4 #aj shows a modification of the gas generator relative to the introduction of the carbide into the water2 but the same letters designate the same parts4 ,we shall describe the operations corresponding to the figures4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--,,modification ,,of ,,the ,,gas ,,generator ,,of ,,the ,,dickerson ,,apparatus4 #a represents the gasometer2 #d1 the gas generator2 #aa1 the funnel through which the water is introduced into the generator through the pipe1 #ac2 #ab1 the pipe that connects the generator with the gasometer2 #e1 a stopcock with counterpoise that alternately opens and closes the communication between the funnel and the generator2 #aj1 a lever connected with the cock1 #e2 #b1 a chain that moves with the holder and maneuvers the lever1 #aj4 ,the plug1 #f1 of the cock1 #e1 is provided with two conduits1 #g and #h1 at right angles4 ,this plug turns #ij degrees1 when it is maneuvered by the chain of the gasometer4 ,in the position shown in ,fig4 #ac the holder is at the top of its travel1 and the counterpoise1 #i1 of the cock is in the position marked by dotted lines in ,fig4 #i4 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #aa1 #ab1 ,,and #ac4--;,,details ,,of ,,the ,,dickerson ,,acetylene ,,apparatus ,in this case1 a charge of water fills the chamber #g and #h of the cock4 ,this chamber may be oblong1 as shown in ,fig4 #ab1 in order to increase its capacity4 ,on the contrary1 in the position of the counterpoise1 #i1 marked in continuous lines in ,figs4 #i and #aa1 the channel1 #h1 communicates with the pipe1 #ac2 the charge of water of chamber1 #g and #h1 has fallen upon the carbides1 but another quantity of water has not been able to enter1 because the revolution of the cock has cut off all communication between the funnel1 #aa1 and the generator1 #d4 ,the acetylene produced by the reaction of the water upon the carbide raises the gasometer holder1 which then actuates the plug1 #f1 of the cock1 #e1 and allows a new charge of water to enter the chambers1 #g1 #h4 ,it is only when the holder descends anew to the position1 #a1 that the water in the chamber1 #g1 #h1 can fall upon the carbide4 ,the quantity of water that the cock is capable of containing is not sufficient to produce a quantity of gas exceeding the capacity of the gasometer1 and1 as it is impossible to introduce another quantity of water as long as the gasometer has not been emptied anew1 any overproduction of gas is thus rendered impossible4 ,fig4 #aj applies to the introduction of the carbide into the water4 ,it is necessary in this case that the carbide shall have been previously reduced to powder4 ,the funnel1 #aa1 is then closed by a cover1 #ba1 in order to prevent any accidental escape of the gas4 ,the carbide falls into the generator1 the bottom of which is open4 ,the latter enters a tank into which flows a current of water1 escaping through the waste pipe1 #ai1 in carrying along the lime formed4 ,the height of the water in the tank is sufficient to furnish the pressure necessary to allow the gas to enter the gasometer through the pipe1 #ab4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,device ,,for ,,the ,,display ,,of ,,lantern ,,slides4 ,those who would wish to have a little extra shop window attraction by way of displaying slides for the season now at hand might do worse than resort to something of the following style4 ,the appliance can hold any number of slides1 according to the diameter of the wheel portion1 but in the diagram herewith it is for holding a dozen4 ,the slides can be changed readily1 hence a little time would be expended in making a complete change at least once a day4 ,illustration3 ,,front ,,elevation4 ,the relative portions of the sketch being to scale1 particulars as to the making of the revolving wheel need not be entered into1 as any mechanic could grasp the whole idea at a glance4 ,the edge of the wheel should1 of course1 be placed facing the window1 and a band on the pulley wheel1 ,a1 attached to a clockwork or electric motor would supply all the driving power necessary4 ,in order to get good illumination on the slides1 it will be necessary to have a piece of white cardboard or opal glass1 ,b1 hung on the axle1 the lower side being the heavier1 so that although the wheel revolves1 it will remain stationary4 ,various devices may be resorted to for hanging the slides on the cross rods1 but perhaps the method shown at ,c will prove as simple as any1 and consists of small springs which grip the slide at both sides4 ,illustration3 ,,side ,,elevation4 ,by the judicious arrangement of shielded lights placed at side of reflector1 a pretty effect is produced as each slide is gradually brought to view4--,the ,optical ,magic ,lantern ,journal and ,photographic ,enlarger4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,feculometer4 ,the selling price of beets naturally depends upon their yield in sugar1 and what gives potatoes their value is their yield in fecula or starch1 a product that serves to nourish man and animals and that is also used in the manufacture of alcohol and glucose4 ,no account1 however1 is taken of this important coefficient in business transactions1 potatoes containing proportions of starch varying from #ac to #bc per cent4 being sold at the same price4 ,nevertheless1 it is of the greatest interest to cultivators to make such measurements1 since1 in order to increase the value of their product1 they might thereby be led to make a judicious selection in their planting4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,feculometer4 ,mr4 ,a4 ,allard1 starting from the fact that the richness in starch increases along with the density1 has constructed a simple apparatus that gives both these data at once1 with sufficient precision1 and without calculations1 tables1 etc4 ,it is1 upon the whole1 a large areometer with constant weight and variable volume that is plunged into a cylindrical vessel #j4e m4 in depth and #j4c m4 in diameter1 filled with water4 ,the instrument itself consists of three parts3 7#a7 ,a lower receptacle in which is placed a weight to assure the equilibrium2 7#b7 a central float into which is put a kilogramme of very clean and very dry potatoes2 and 7#c7 a rod graduated for density and feculometric richness4 ,the deeper the apparatus sinks1 the more valuable is the potato4 ,how much more8 ,the degree to which the rod sinks shows this4 ,the same principle and the same instrument might be applied to the determination of the density of various agricultural products1 such as beets1 cider fruits1 grain1 etc4 ,it would suffice to graduate a special scale each time4 ,for each variation of a thousandth in density1 the areometer sinks about #e millimeters--that is to say1 it presents a sensitiveness that is more than sufficient in practice4--,le ,monde ,illustr4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,coming ,,light4 ,there is no more eager contest than that which has been going on for some time between gas and electricity4 ,which of these two systems of lighting will triumph8 ,will electricity suppress gas1 as gas has dethroned the oil lamp8 ,a few years ago1 the answer to this question would not have been doubtful1 and it seemed as if gas in such contest must play the role of the earthen pot against the iron one4 ,at present the case is otherwise4 ,the ,auer burner has re-established the equilibrium1 and the ,denayrouse burner is perhaps going to decide the fate of electricity4 ,as naturalists say1 the function creates the organ1 and it is truly interesting to observe that in measure as the need of an intenser and cheaper light grows with us1 science makes it possible for us to satisfy it by giving us new systems of lighting or by improving those that we already have at our disposal4 ,what a cycle traversed in twenty years6 ,what progress made6 ,let us remember that the electric light scarcely became industrial until the time of the ,exposition 7#ahgh71 and that the ,auer burner obtained the freedom of the city only five or six years ago4 ,is there any need of recalling the advantages of these two lights8 ,in the first1 a feeble disengagement of caloric1 automatic lighting and a steadier light2 in the second1 a better utilization of the gas1 which gives more light and less heat4 ,a description of the ,auer burner will not be expected from us4 ,it is now so widely employed as to render a new description useless4 ,as an offset we think that our readers will be more interested in a description of the ,denayrouse burner1 the industrial application of which has but just begun4 ,this burner has been constructed in view of the best possible utilization of the gas1 in approaching a complete theoretical combustion4 ,in order that it may give its entire illuminating power1 gas1 as we know1 must be burned in five and a half times its volume of air4 ,in the ,denayrouse burner the gas burns in four and four-tenths its volume of air4 ,the result reached is1 consequently1 very appreciable4 ,illustration3 ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,lamp4 ,a1 entrance for the air2 ,g1 entrance for the gas2 ,v1 mixer2 ,m1 electric motor4 ,the apparatus consists essentially of a bronze or brass box in which revolves a fan keyed upon an axle that passes through the box4 ,the axle is revolved by means of a small electro-magnetic machine mounted upon one of the external sides of the box4 ,the motor may also be a hydraulic or compressed air one4 ,upon the axle is arranged a speed regulator4 ,the air enters at the bottom of the box and the gas at the center4 ,the exit of the mixture takes place through a chimney arranged at the top and to which is fixed a luminous mantle4 ,the apparatus operates as follows3 ,the motor causes the fan to make about #a1bjj revolutions a minute4 ,there is thus formed a strong draught of air1 which mixes with the gas that enters at the side4 ,the ignition occurs at the upper aperture of the chimney4 ,although in this competition of gas and electricity the intensity of the light and1 its quality are important factors1 it is certain that what will decide the victory will be the price4 ,this is why we are going to establish the net cost of the different lights2 for1 although up to the present the contest has seemed to be limited to gas and electricity 7oil and kerosene not being capable of having any other pretension than to preserve their position71 a new competitor--acetylene--will perhaps soon put gas manufacturers and electricians in accord1 to the great benefit of the public1 by furnishing a brilliant light at a price that defies competition4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,denayrouse ,,lamp4 ,in all systems of lighting1 save electricity1 the unit of light is the carcel4 ,this represents the light produced for one hour by #aj wax candles1 or1 better still1 it is the illuminating power given by the combustion of #db grammes of pure colza oil for one hour in what is called a carcel lamp4 ,in electricity we count by watts4 ,the watt1 like the kilogrammeter1 of which it represents nearly a tenth1 is not a unit of light1 but a unit of energy4 ,what is called a kilogrammeter is the force capable of lifting #a kilogramme to #a meter in height during #a second4 ,further along we shall estimate the watts in carcels4 ,this stated1 let us ascertain the net cost of the unit of light in each system of lighting4 ,we shall take as a basis the ,paris prices1 which are generally higher than those of other countries1 owing to taxes1 and shall confine our researches to the eight following systems3 ,electricity 7incandescent and arc lamps71 gas 7butterfly1 ,auer and ,denayrouse burners71 lamp oil1 kerosene and acetylene4 #a4 ,oil ,lamp4--,this method of lighting has become more and more neglected because it is the most troublesome4 ,the mean price of the kilo is #a4f francs4 ,as the carcel hour consumes #db grammes1 it consequently amounts to #j4jf1 say #f centimes4 #b4 ,the ,incandescent ,lamp4--,in the scale of prices one of the oldest processes of lighting is closely followed by one of the most recent--the incandescent lamp4 ,we shall base our calculations upon the ,edison #af candle electric lamp1 which is the one most widely used4 ,in this it takes #ce watts to obtain a carcel4 ,as the hectowatt1 the mean price of which is #ae centimes1 gives approximately #c carcels1 the price of the carcel will1 consequently1 be #e centimes4 #c4 ,gas4--,gas1 with the butterfly burner1 burns from #abe to #acj liters to furnish the carcel4 ,as the price of a cubic meter is #cj centimes1 the carcel will cost #j4ci1 that is to say1 #d centimes4 #d4 ,kerosene1 the decline of which is perhaps beginning1 costs about #j4ge centime per kilo4 ,the consumption per carcel is nearly #dj grammes4 ,it amounts1 therefore1 to #c centimes4 #e4 ,the arc lamp is of very varied model4 ,we shall take as a type those used for lighting the large boulevards4 ,they are of #h amperes and #ej volts2 that is to say1 of #d hectowatts1 and are presumed to give an illuminating power of #cjj carcels4 ,the carcel is consequently obtained with #ac watts and its net cost is #j4jaie1 or1 approximately1 #b centimes4 #f4 ,acetylene4--,this new system of lighting has hardly as yet made its exit from the laboratory4 ,so we must not be greatly astonished at the variations in the price at which it is claimed that it can be obtained on the two sides of the ,atlantic4 ,as a kilo of carbide of calcium gives #cjj liters of acetylene1 and as the minimum price of the carbide is #dj centimes per kilo in ,france1 a cubic meter of the gas costs #a4ce franc4 ,as it requires about #g4e liters to give the carcel1 the latter will consequently amount to #j4ja2 say #a centime4 #g4 ,the ,denayrouse ,burner4--,this burns nearly #cjj liters of gas to produce #cj carcels1 normally4 ,as the photometric experiments are recent1 let us suppose that it gives but #be carcels4 ,as #cjj liters of gas represent an approximate expense of #aj centimes1 we shall obtain the carcel at the price of #j4jjd1 or at less than half a centime4 #h4 ,the ,auer ,burner4--,this burns nearly #aae liters of gas to produce #e carcels4 ,the expense per carcel1 with the cubic meter of gas at #cj centimes1 is therefore #j4jjfi2 say #j4g of a centime4 ,finally1 in the ,united ,states1 thanks to particularly favorable hydraulic installations1 it is claimed that it is possible to produce acetylene at a very low price1 say at #cc centimes per cubic meter4 ,under such conditions1 the carcel would cost no more than #j4jjbe1 say of a centime4 ,it seems1 however1 that these are hypotheses as yet4 ,if they chanced to be realized1 it is certain that acetylene would be the light of the future2 but those who are best informed in the matter assert that they never will be realized4 ,in order to establish still more accurately the net cost of each of these systems of lighting1 it is necessary to take into account the wear of the mantles of the incandescent lamps and the carbons of the arc ones4 ,as regards these latter1 it is customary to estimate the wear of the carbons at #h centimeters an hour4 ,as for the mantles1 we shall base our calculations upon the data furnished by those interested2 say #a1jjj hours for the ,edison lamp1 #a1bjj for the ,auer burner and #djj hours for the ,denayrouse burner4 ,it must be remarked that in practice such duration generally drops to a half4 ,the price of the mantles in these different systems is approximately #b4e francs4 #a4 ,as the ,edison #af candle lamp gives #a4f carcels and its filament burns #a1jjj hours1 the wear will increase the price of the carcel by #j4jjae4 #b4 ,as the ,auer burner gives #e carcels and its mantle burns #a1bjj hours1 the wear will increase the price of the carcel by #j4jjjd4 #c4 ,as the ,denayrouse burner gives #be parcels1 and its mantle burns but #djj hours1 the wear will increase the price of the carcel by #j4jjjb4 ,finally1 if we compare the butterfly1 ,auer and ,denayrouse burners with each other1 in taking into account the cost of replacing the mantles of the two latter and the actuating of the ,denayrouse burner1 we find the following figures per carcel hour3 ,butterfly burner1 consumption #j4jd _/consumption #j4jjfi ,auer burner1 wear of mantle #j4jjjd _/consumption #j4jd ,denayrouse burner1 wear of mantle #j4jjjb expense of motor #j4jjjc ,say #d centimes per carcel hour ,butterfly burner4 #j4g ,auer #d4e ,denayrouse ,for the same sum1 the ,auer burner1 therefore1 burns six times more and the ,denayrouse nine times more than the butterfly4 ,these figures may give an idea of the surprising intensity of the ,denayrouse light4 ,upon the whole1 if the experiments that are being made publicly at this moment confirm the data of the laboratory1 the ,denayrouse burner will be destined to play a considerable role in the lighting of public gardens1 streets and buildings1 for the very intensity of the light that it gives renders it unfitted for private use4 ,moreover1 it must not be forgotten that it requires a motor to actuate its fan1 and everyone has not the necessary motive power in his house4 ,this new burner will likewise prove very valuable for the righting of theaters4--,l',illustration4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,an ,,air ,,bath4 ,by ,j4,h4 ,,coste4 ,this has been found useful for drying substances at temperatures above #ajj ,c4 ,it is usually difficult to obtain a temperature much above1 say1 #abj in the ordinary air oven without using a large burner1 which is generally difficult to regulate4 ,the temperature also varies considerably at different heights in the oven4 ,if the substance is attacked by air at high temperatures or gives off other substances than water1 an estimation of the water is difficult4 ,illustration3 ,air ,bath ,apparatus ,the apparatus figured--which is made from a square tin or copper box1 with a lid perforated at the top to take a thermometer 7,t71 the bulb of which is level with the tubes 7,a and ,b7 passing through the sides of the box--is heated by an ,argand burner and supported on a retort stand4 ,dry air 7or other gas7 passes through the tube1 ,b1 where it undergoes a preliminary heating1 and then through the drying tube1 ,a4 ,the substance to be dried is placed in a porcelain boat1 or in a tube passing through the cork of ,a 7by the latter means precipitates on filter tubes can be dried74 ,it is usually sufficient to estimate the loss in weight of the substance in the boat2 but1 if necessary1 drying tubes can be used to collect the water1 or special absorbing apparatus for other volatile substances4 ,a temperature of over #bjj ,c4 can be easily obtained with an ordinary ,argand flame and maintained fairly constant4 ,when a thermometer was placed inside as well as one outside the drying tube1 it was found that the temperatures only differed by a few degrees when a water pump was drawing air through the system at the rate of about #h liters per hour4 ,if this bath is protected from draught1 any temperature can be maintained within a few degrees easily4--,journal of the ,society of ,chemical ,industry4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,firedamp ,,testing ,,station ,,at ,,marchienne-,,au-,,pont4#a ,footnote #a3 ,h4 ,schmerber1 ,genie ,civil1 xxix1 ,no4 #aa4--;,from the ,colliery ,guardian4 ,in a previous paper#b a description was given of the experimental gallery at the ,st4 ,william pit of the ,kaiser-,ferdinands-,nordbahn ,colliery at ,mahrisch-,ostrau 7,moravia74 ,in the present article a similar experimental station1 designed for the same purpose1 but presenting certain considerable advantages on the score of economy by reason of the moderate expense of its installation1 will be described4 ,footnote #b3 ,reproduced in the ,colliery ,guardian1 vol4 lxxi1 p4 #cag4 ,some few years ago the ,socit des ,explosifs ,favier obtained permission from the proprietors of the ,marchienne-au-,pont1 near ,charleroi1 ,belgium1 to construct there an experimental station for testing the explosives manufactured by the company4 ,though of but modest proportions1 this station is well designed1 and many valuable researches and tests have been made on the explosives used in the fiery pits of ,belgium1 thanks to which investigations one is able to readily determine in a practical manner the degree of security offered by any explosive intended for use in pits containing coal-dust in suspension or firedamp4 ,in order to avoid the expense of constructing a large gallery above ground1 recourse was had to the cylindrical shell of a disused boiler of large dimensions--some #e m4 in length by #a m4 internal diameter--one end of which was taken out1 and the shell made to do duty for a testing gallery4 ,with this object it was mounted on two settings of brickwork 7,fig4 #b71 and the further end backed by a brick wall of very substantial construction1 being #a m4 thick and #b m4 in height1 and forming the base of a high bank of earth4 ,the boiler1 as may be seen in ,figs4 #a and #b1 was let into the ground a little1 in order that in case of an explosion there might be less chance of the debris being projected to a distance4 ,on one side the boiler was pierced by six rectangular openings #bj cm4 in height fitted with thick glass panes in caoutchouc frames1 to prevent their becoming fractured by the aerial vibrations resulting from explosions4 ,these windows enable the operators to observe the phenomena occurring within the chamber at the moment the explosion is produced4 ,at the top of the boiler1 two circular apertures1 each #ej cm4 diameter1 were made for the purpose of acting as safety valves4 ,by means of two rabbets1 one fixed at the open end of the gallery and the other in the center1 the testing chamber could be made either large or small by means of paper disks pasted on to the first or second rabbet4 ,the capacity of the large chamber was double that of the smaller one1 and the cubical area of each was known beforehand4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a1 ,,fig4 #b1 and ,,fig4 #c4 ,firedamp ,testing ,station ,in the backing wall was fitted a large mortar of cast steel1 which in carrying out the tests served to replace the borehole used in actual mining operations4 ,a pipe for conveying the gas and another for steam were laid on the floor of the chamber1 the latter for heating purposes1 in order to ascertain whether1 in certain cases1 an increase in temperature exerts any sensible influence on the inflammability of the explosive mixture4 ,the temperature of the chamber is read off from a thermometer placed at the top of the boiler1 its position being indicated by ,t in ,fig4 #b4 ,in view of the possibility of the boiler1 notwithstanding its strength1 bursting1 in the event of a violent explosion of the gas1 it became necessary to make special arrangements for allowing the operators to observe everything occurring in the testing chamber without being themselves exposed to the consequences of any accident that might ensue4 ,a special shelter was1 therefore1 erected for occupation by the operators at the moment of the explosion4 ,this shelter1 at about a dozen yards away from the boiler1 consisted of a chamber protected on the side next the gallery by a stout bank of earth1 in which a longitudinal aperture was provided 7by means of a lining of boards7 at about the height of the face1 through which the operators could observe the progress of the tests1 without danger4 ,it may be stated1 however1 that hitherto no accident has occurred1 the boiler effectually resisting the force of the explosions4 ,the chamber of shelter likewise contained the gasometer for regulating the supply of gas to the testing apparatus1 and the electrical machine for firing the cartridges under test4 ,there being no continuous current of firedamp at disposal1 use was made of illuminating gas in preparing the explosive mixtures for the tests4 ,the borehole is charged with the explosive to be fired1 and the temperature is regulated by means of the steam pipe4 ,the entrance of the chamber and the two safety apertures in the roof having been closed by disks of paper fastened by paste1 the gas is turned on until the desired percentage1 has been introduced2 the mixture of the air and gas takes merely a short time to effect by diffusion1 the difference in density causing the gas to rise on issuing from the jet1 which is on the floor of the chamber4 ,the detonating cap is then ignited by the passage of the electric current and the shot fired4 ,the operator1 placed in his shelter1 can observe1 by means of the small lateral windows1 whether any flame is produced1 and indeed1 a little experience will enable him to determine by the sound alone1 whether an explosion has ignited the mixture or not4 ,fig4 #a is a front view of the testing chamber with transverse section of the shelter4 ,fig4 #b is a longitudinal section of the chamber along ,,cd1 and ,fig4 #c a view1 half in plan1 half in section1 along ,,ab4 ,the following are the references3 ,m1 backing wall2 ,c1 boiler2 ,g1 gas pipe2 ,v1 steam pipe2 ,m1 mortar2 ,e1 electric wires2 ,a1 shelter2 ,,rg1 gasometer2 ,,me1 electrical machine2 ,r'1 protective bank2 ,r1 backing of earth2 ,r1 glazed windows2 ,s1 apertures serving as valves2 ,t1 thermometer4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,photography ,,for ,,chemists4 ,,lantern ,,slides ,,by ,,reduction4 ,when a negative happens to be of larger size than a quarter plate1 it rarely happens that we can print a small portion by contact on a lantern plate without spoiling the composition of the picture4 ,this is assuming1 of course1 that the operator has composed a picture and not put his camera down anywhere4 ,there is no great difficulty in making lantern slides by reduction2 the exposure is the only bugbear1 as usual4 ,there are two distinct methods of reduction3 7#a7 daylight2 7#b7 artificial light4 ,there is nothing to choose between them1 and the question of time and opportunity must decide which is to be adopted4 ,the apparatus required is not expensive4 ,it can be made in odd moments for a few pence1 and is applicable to day and artificial light4 ,it consists of a printing frame the size of the large negative1 four pieces of bamboo a quarter of an inch in diameter1 some black twill1 the ordinary camera and lens1 and a carrier to take lantern plates #c ,x #c inches4 ,the negative is placed in the printing frame upside down and kept in position by four little slips of wood1 or better still1 a frame such as the gold slip used in picture frames1 which will fit tightly into the frame and hold the negative securely4 ,of course1 brads may be driven into two sides of the frame and the negative slipped behind them1 but in this case it is necessary to safe edge the negative4 ,this is done by cutting strips of tinfoil just wide enough to cover the rabbet of the negative so that no clear glass can be seen2 these should be pasted and stuck on the glass of negative round the four sides4 ,the strips of bamboo are either nailed to the printing frame or merely fastened together by stout copper wire1 the shape being exactly that of the printing frame4 ,the other end of the bamboos are tied with stout string to a piece of cardboard tube1 postal tube1 which slips over the lens4 ,the length of the bamboos depends upon the focus of the lens and the amount of reduction4 ,it will sometimes be found convenient to have the bamboo in two lengths2 thus1 supposing we want as a general rule #cf inches1 two pieces1 #bd inches each1 should be obtained1 and by fastening these together in the middle by two loose rings of copper wire we can extend them to #dh inches or reduce them to #bd inches4 ,the black twill or the focusing cloth 7or even a dark table cloth may be used7 must also depend for its size on the length of bamboo1 but sufficient should be obtained to completely cover over the space between lens and negative1 and hang down on each side4 ,of course1 two laths of wood can be used1 merely resting them on the top of printing frame and camera1 but the other plan is preferable1 the arrangement being more complete and adaptable to both day and artificial light1 and also more rigid1 especially when the camera is sloped toward the sky4 ,the ordinary camera may be used1 but a carrier to take lantern plates must be used in the dark slide4 ,the ordinary lens may be used unless of inordinately long focus1 when it becomes inconvenient on account of the great distance between negative and lens4 ,to find the required distance there is a simple rule1 which is as follows3 7a7 ,divide the longer base of the plate by the longer base of the image required1 to the quotient add #a1 and multiply by the focus of lens used2 the result will be the distance between negative and lens4 7b7 ,divide the distance found as above by the quotient obtained in the first rule1 and the result will be the distance between lens and plate4 ,example4--,what are the relative distances in reducing a whole plate negative1 #h ,x #f inches1 to lantern1 size with an #h inch focus lens8 ,now that the whole of the lantern plate is not used1 we reckon that #c inches is all that can be used1 because of the mask1 hence3 7a7 #h #c #ag_/f the amount of reduction4 #ag_/f #a #h #bc_/f #h #cj-b_/c inches4 7b7 #cj-b_/c #ag_/f #aa inches 7practically74 ,therefore1 if we place our lens about #cj inches from the negative and rack the camera out to about #aa inches1 we shall have an image on the ground glass which merely requires a little adjustment of the camera screw to be sharp and of the right size4 ,in focusing1 it is always advisable to temporarily affix to the outside of the focusing screen a square mark1 this being1 of course1 accurately placed as regards the center of the screen1 and to use a focusing magnifier to obtain critical sharpness4 ,having satisfactorily arranged our image as regards composition by shifting the camera nearer to or farther from the negative--because it will be obvious that the nearer the lens to the negative1 the less of the negative we shall include1 and vice versa--we fill our dark slide and are ready for exposure4 ,for daylight work the arrangement of frame and camera should be placed near a window1 and if anything but sky is seen opposite the negative1 place outside the window a large sheet of white cardboard at an angle of #de4 ,this will reflect equal skylight through all parts of the negative4 ,now cover over the space between negative and lens1 insert your dark slide1 in front of the negative place an opaque card1 draw the shutter of the dark slide1 and remove the opaque card from negative and expose4 ,very little assistance can really be given as to exposure1 but with a negative of average density1 which will give a good silver print1 and using a lens working at ,f_/#aa and a ,mawson lantern plate at midday in ,may1 ten seconds will give a good black slide4 ,there is but one little point that has been missed--the diaphragm2 always use the largest diaphragm which will give satisfactory definition1 this will usually be ,f_/#aa or ,f_/#af4 ,be very careful while exposing not to shake the camera--it is quite sufficient for anyone weighing about eleven or twelve stones to walk across the room to give double outlines4 ,daylight is not a constant quantity1 and although visually the same on two different days1 the actinic power of the light varies enormously2 therefore we prefer artificial light4 ,precisely the same apparatus can be used for artificial light with one or two additions4 ,in some such arrangement in use the printing frame containing the negative is fastened to the side of a cube sugar box in which a hole is cut4 ,opposite to the negative on the other side of the box is placed a sheet of white cardboard bent slightly to the arc of a circle4 ,the lights1 etc4--two incandescent gas burners do well with tin reflectors behind them--are placed one on each side of the negative inside the box1 so that the light is reflected on to the card and thence on to the negative1 and no direct light reaches the negative4 ,absolutely even illumination1 even of a large negative1 is thus obtained1 and the exposure1 using the same conditions as stated for daylight1 is only twenty seconds4 ,of course1 the light may be placed directly behind the negative1 but in this case a diffuser1 such as a sheet of opal glass1 must be placed between light and negative1 and even then1 unless great care is exercised1 uneven illumination of the negative and consequent unequal density of the slide must ensue4 ,we may use magnesium ribbon1 and a diffuser of opal is then necessary1 and the ribbon must be kept in motion the whole of the time4 ,magnesium is objectionable because the particles of magnesia form a voluminous cloud1 which tastes and smells unpleasantly and settles down on everything4 ,still1 for those who wish to work with this substance1 about #ah inches burnt close to the opal and moved about all over it will be about sufficient to obtain good results under above mentioned conditions4 ,an ordinary oil lamp or gas may also be used1 provided the light is diffused4 ,only the bromide lantern plates are suitable for reduction1 the exposure1 especially with the chloride emulsions1 being so long as to place them out of court4 ,the chloro-bromide may be used for daylight and magnesium ribbon4 ,after development and fixing1 which may be performed in the developers recommended by the makers of the plates used1 the lantern slide must be well washed and cleared in an alum and acid bath1 then again well washed and finally given a gentle rub with a piece of cotton wool under the tap1 and set up to dry4 ,the finishing off of a slide is not a difficult matter1 but one which wants doing properly4 ,place the slide film downward upon a piece of white paper1 and with a box of assorted masks try various shapes till the one most suitable to the picture is found1 and frequently a mask with a comparatively small opening will give the best results pictorially4 ,having found the most suitable mask1 lay it on the slide1 on the top of this a cover glass well cleaned1 and it is ready for binding4 ,binding strips can be purchased commercially in long strips1 but personally we prefer to use #c strips1 as somewhat easier to apply4 ,wet #c in4 of the strip1 lay it flat on the table1 pick up the slide and cover glass and adjust on the wetted slip so that there is an equal width on either side2 now press the glasses firmly on to the strip and lift from the table and with a handkerchief or soft duster wipe the strip on to the glass of the slide and cover1 taking care that these do not slip2 when it adheres firmly1 that is1 does not immediately rise up1 lay the whole on one side and go on with next slide2 by the time half a dozen have been thus treated a second side may be stuck down1 and thus with the third and fourth4 ,by working in this way a far neater and safer job is made of it than if all four sides are bound at once4 ,the final operation is tilting and spotting4 ,there are several makes of masks on the market on which a blank white space is left for the title1 and it is just as well to write the title on the mask1 as it is then protected by the cover glass4 ,if the ordinary masks are used1 ,chinese white may be used for the titles4 ,spotting the slides is affixing to them two marks1 by means of which the lantern operator can tell which side is to be placed next the lantern1 and these marks usually take the form of two white circles4 ,such spots can be bought commercially already gummed1 or postage stamp edging may be used4 ,a few minutes' thought will show that the projecting lens of the lantern will reverse an image just as the lens of the camera does1 so that we must insert the slide into the lantern carrier upside down and wrong way round1 and as the spots are used to indicate this1 they must be placed at the top of the slide1 when the view appears to us as we saw it in nature4 ,if it be a subject with lettering in it1 the spots must be placed at the top of the slide1 when we can read the lettering the right way as the slide is looked at against a piece of white paper4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,precious ,,stones4#a ,footnote #a3 ,lecture delivered before the ,society of ,arts1 from the ,journal of the ,society4 ,by ,prof4 ,,henry ,a4 ,,miers1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,,lecture ,i4 ,the object which ,i have proposed to myself in these two lectures is to consider1 not the history nor the artistic interest of precious stones1 but simply some of their curious properties4 ,in the first place1 then1 ,i will ask you to accompany me in the inquiry as to those characters of precious stones to which they owe their beauty and their value1 and next to pursue the inquiry a little farther and to see how1 by means of these characters1 the same stones may be studied1 and hence1 also1 identified with accuracy4 ,from the earliest times certain minerals1 which are conspicuous for their beauty1 have been prized for decorative purposes2 the brilliant green hue of malachite1 the deep blue of lapis lazuli and the rich color of red jasper would naturally attract early attention4 ,but these particular minerals are not numbered among the true precious stones2 they do not possess the remarkable qualities which endow the diamond1 the ruby or the topaz with their peculiar attractiveness4 ,the two essential qualities1 namely1 brilliancy and hardness1 are only possessed by certain rare minerals2 a brilliancy which makes them unrivaled for ornamental purposes and a hardness which protects them from wear and tear and makes them practically indestructible4 ,it is difficult in a town like ,london1 where every jeweler's shop is ablaze with diamonds1 to realize that large and good stones possessing these qualities are so rare2 that thousands of natives are toiling in the river beds of ,india1 ,burma and ,ceylon washing out from the gravel or the sand the little blue and red pebbles which are to be converted by the lapidary's art into brilliant jewels of sapphire and ruby4 ,even in that wonderful pit at ,kimberley1 where half the diamonds of the world seem to have been crowded together for the use of man1 although1 perhaps1 ten tons of diamonds1 worth more than #ej1jjj1jjj1 have been extracted in twenty-five years1 yet those which weigh more than an ounce each may be counted on the fingers4 ,it is in the qualities of hardness and brilliancy that such minerals as malachite and lapis lazuli fail2 owing to their comparative softness1 they would not1 if cut and polished1 possess the sharp edges and brilliant surface of the emerald or sapphire1 and would soon become dull and rounded by friction1 even by the friction of ordinary dust4 ,again1 since they are opaque1 they can never flash like the sapphire or the emerald2 and yet it is quite a mistake to suppose that the necessary qualities are confined to those few stones which are familiar to everyone1 such as the diamond1 ruby1 sapphire1 emerald1 garnet and amethyst4 ,there are many others1 though they are not so well known4 ,i think we may fairly assert that such minerals as tourmaline1 jargoon1 peridote1 spinel and chrysoberyl1 though their names may be familiar1 are not stones which would be recognized by any but those who are in some sense experts2 while other minerals1 such as sphene1 andalusite1 axinite1 idocrase and diopside1 are possibly almost unknown to most people1 even by reputation4 ,yet all these minerals possess qualities of transparency1 hardness and beauty of color which render them extraordinarily interesting and attractive as precious stones4 7,a number of faceted stones cut from the less known minerals were thrown upon the screen by reflected light47 ,take first the hardness4 ,a few years ago the hardness of stones was a very important character in the eyes of the mineralogist2 it was one of the characters by which they were invariably identified1 and a distinguished ,german mineralogist drew up a table by means of which the hardness of minerals can be compared4 ,any stone is said to be harder than the minerals of this scale which it can scratch1 and softer than those by which it can be scratched4 ,in the right hand column the gem stones are arranged according to their hardness4 ,,mohs' ,,scale ,,of ,,hardness4 #a4 ,talc4 #b4 ,gypsum4 #c4 ,calcite4 #d4 ,fluor4 #e4 ,apatite4 _/ ,sphene4 ,opal4 #f4 ,feldspar4 _/ ,diopside4 ,moonstone4 _/ ,epidote4 ,idocrase4 ,peridote4 ,axinite4 #g4 ,quartz4 _/ ,quartz4 ,tourmaline4 ,cordierite4 ,garnet4 _/ ,andalusite4 ,zircon4 ,emerald4 ,phenacite4 #h4 ,topaz4 _/ ,spinel4 ,topaz4 ,chrysoberyl4 #i4 ,corundum4 _/ ,ruby4 ,sapphire4 #aj4 ,diamond4 ,diamond4 ,among precious stones diamond stands out pre-eminent as the hardest of all known substances4 ,ruby and sapphire are scratched by diamond alone1 while chrysoberyl1 topaz and spinel scratch all the remaining stones1 although they do themselves yield to the scratch of ruby and sapphire4 ,the hardness is a character still generally utilized by the expert when he is in doubt2 in experienced hands it has some value4 ,by long practice it is possible to form a very close estimate of the hardness of a given stone1 and that often1 not by the scratch of the other minerals in the scale1 but by the feel of the stone against a file2 the resistance offered by the stone to the file is taken as a measure of its hardness4 ,it is not a character capable of any accurate measurement1 neither is it to be recommended for use by inexperienced persons4 ,i hope to show1 as ,i go on1 that we have now accurate methods of testing at our disposal which render the trial of hardness quite unnecessary4 ,but1 none the less1 the character is one of great importance1 as investing the stone with durability4 ,all the precious stones1 except moonstone1 opal and sphene1 have at least the hardness of quartz1 and can barely be scratched by metals1 even by hard steel4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,,total ,,reflection ,,of ,,light ,,in ,,glass4 ,take next the quality of brilliancy4 ,this depends upon two things--first1 the manner in which rays of light are affected when they enter or leave the stone1 and1 secondly1 the manner in which this action can be intensified by the art of the lapidary4 ,when light passes from one transparent substance to another it is bent or refracted1 as every one knows from the bent appearance of a stick plunged into water4 ,consider1 now1 a ray of light falling upon the surface of a transparent stone2 a portion of the light is reflected1 but a portion enters the stone4 ,in passing from air into the stone it is refracted inward4 ,when1 on the other hand1 it passes from a transparent stone into air1 its course is reversed and the emerging ray is refracted outward or toward the surface4 ,it is1 however1 with the emerging as with the entering light1 the beam is subdivided1 only a portion is refracted out1 another portion of the light is reflected within the stone4 ,consider next successive rays within a piece of glass or a stone which are about to emerge with different inclinations4 7,see ,fig4 #a47 ,as their course approaches more nearly to the surface1 so will the emerging rays issue more nearly along the surface of the stone2 but the obliquity of the emerging rays increases much more rapidly than that of the internal rays1 until for one ray in the series the direction of the light 7,c in the figure7 refracted out coincides with that surface4 ,what1 then1 will happen to the light within the stone1 which falls still more obliquely8 ,it cannot be refracted out1 and1 as a fact1 it is entirely reflected within the stone4 ,imagine1 then1 how much greater is the brilliancy of the beam of light1 c1 e1 d1 which is completely reflected1 than that of the intermediate portion of the reflected light1 a1 b1 c1 which has lost a large part of its rays by refraction4 ,the difference is easily seen by looking at a glass of water held above the head2 the brilliant silvery appearance of the surface1 when viewed obliquely1 is due to total reflection4 ,the light1 c1 d1 e1 is said to have been totally reflected2 and half the angle between ,c and c is called the angle of total reflection4 ,this angle depends upon the refractive power of the stone4 ,the angle of total reflection for diamond is about #be2 in no other stone is the corresponding angle less than #cj2 for most of them it is much greater2 while for heavy glass it is about #dj4 ,light striking the internal surface more obliquely is reflected without losing any of its rays by refraction4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,,total ,,reflection ,,of ,,light ,,within ,a ,,brilliant4 ,it is very clear1 then1 that of the light traveling in directions within a diamond1 a far larger proportion is internally reflected than is the case with any other stone4 ,we shall see presently that it is this property which gives the diamond its consummate brilliancy4 ,another effect produced by refraction is1 as every one knows1 the separation of ordinary light into rays of different colors--it is seen in any prism of glass4 ,this property is known as the dispersion of light2 and a stone which possesses great dispersion will exhibit a beautiful play of spectral colors--will exhibit a high degree of what is called fire4 ,in this respect again the diamond is pre-eminent2 its dispersion is nearly twice as great as that of other stones4 ,all these optical properties are beautifully shown by those unworked jewels of which the smooth facets have been produced by nature2 ,i mean the crystals of the various minerals4 ,the beauty of natural crystals of transparent minerals is largely due to the optical effects which ,i have just been describing4 ,the beautiful specimens of rock crystal1 calc spar1 topaz1 emerald1 and other stones which adorn mineral collections are sufficient evidence of these properties4 ,but it is very certain that natural crystals1 although they possess a beauty of form which is all their own1 are not by a long way so brilliant as the faceted stones which are cut from them by the art of the lapidary2 that a natural diamond is not so lustrous as a faceted brilliant4 ,in fact1 many of the finest gem stones present a very mean and sordid aspect before they have passed through the hands of the lapidary2 one has only to compare the dull and unattractive appearance of a parcel of rough rubies1 sapphires or rough diamonds with the finished jewels displayed in the jewelers' windows to see how much these owe to the lapidary's art4 ,in recutting the ,koh-i-noor it was thought advisable to spend #h1jjj on the process and to reduce its weight from #ahf to #ajf carats4 ,when the great ,pitt diamond was cut1 its weight was reduced from #daj carats to #acg2 and the fragments and dust removed were valued at #h1jjj2 but the extent to which the stone was improved is indicated in the fact that having been purchased for #bj1jjj1 it was after cutting sold for #ace1jjj4 ,to understand how the cutting of a precious stone adds to its brilliancy1 we have only to trace the course of the rays within the stone1 and consider how it can best be faceted in order that the light which enters in various directions on the upper side1 or crown1 may be reflected internally from facet to facet on the under side of the stone with as little loss as possible1 and may be thrown out from the front of the stone4 ,for this purpose the facets must be so arranged that as much of the light as possible within the crystal shall meet the facets at an inclination exceeding the angle of total reflection4 ,a brilliant with its #eh facets is one of the forms which experience has shown to be best adapted for the purpose4 ,how little of the light gets through a stone so faceted1 and1 therefore1 how much of it is totally reflected internally1 is easily shown by holding the stone in a strong beam of light2 first so that the light is so reflected1 and then so that the light shall1 if possible1 be transmitted4 ,in the latter case1 the stone merely throws a dark shadow1 indicating that little light1 if any1 has passed through it4 ,a faceted stone is always cut from a single crystal1 and not from an ordinary lump of the mineral1 which is generally a mass of crystals4 ,the chief reason why jewels are cut from natural crystals is that these1 by virtue of their crystalline nature1 are remarkably homogeneous1 and therefore clear and limpid when free from cracks and flaws4 ,a stone which is not homogeneous can never have the purity and limpid brilliancy of a single crystal1 for at every point of contact of one part with another reflection takes place4 ,among minerals used as precious stones which are not crystals may be mentioned the opal4 ,the opal probably owes its peculiar beauty to the very fact that it is filled with minute cracks or cavities1 each of which contributes some tint of color by reason of its extreme thinness1 just as the colors of the soap bubble are due to the thinness of its film4 ,or take the agate4 ,here the stone consists of layers of different materials differently colored4 ,its beauty is of a different nature from that of clear crystals1 which it can never rival in brilliancy4 ,stones like the agate are generally classed apart as semi-precious stones1 and their interest depends upon beauty of structure or color1 or possibly to a large extent upon their rarity4 ,the turquois1 for example1 is a very rare stone1 which is apparently absolutely uncrystallized1 but possesses great beauty of color1 and is therefore much prized4 ,the same is true of carnelian4 ,on the present occasion we are not concerned with those opaque or curiously structured minerals whose beauty resides almost solely in their color4 ,those who have had no practical acquaintance with minerals have little idea how variable and accidental are their colors4 ,they may scarcely realize that the ruby and the sapphire are the same mineral1 and that this mineral also occurs1 and is used in jewelry1 absolutely colorless1 when it is known as lux sapphire1 green as the so-called ,oriental emerald1 and yellow as the so-called ,oriental topaz2 that topaz itself may be yellow1 brown1 blue1 or colorless2 that zircons range from colorless through almost all conceivable shades of brown and green1 and that even diamond has been found green1 red and blue4 ,when we come to consider the properties by which precious stones are recognized1 ,i shall say little or nothing about color1 for it is of little value as a criterion4 ,there are1 for example1 certain red stones which the most skillful experts cannot by their color alone refer with certainty to ruby1 garnet or spinel4 ,it might be expected that a noteworthy difference in chemical composition would accompany this difference of color1 or that the pigment could be ascertained by analysis4 ,in reality this is scarcely ever the case4 ,it is fairly certain that the emerald owes its color to the presence of chromium1 but the variation in the analyses of precious stones cannot generally be attributed to anything indicated by the variation of color4 ,the chemical composition1 though of great general importance in mineralogy1 is of little practical value in the discrimination of precious stones1 since it is usually impossible to sacrifice a sufficient quantity for chemical analysis4 ,if we are dealing with a faceted stone1 not even the smallest portion can be utilized1 for fear of injuring it4 ,there is1 however1 one remarkable optical property1 which is ultimately related to the chemical composition4 ,as is well known1 many substances possess the property of absorbing certain rays of light4 ,when the solar spectrum produced by admitting ordinary daylight through a slit1 and transmitting it through a prism1 is passed through the glowing vapor of certain substances1 particular rays of light are absorbed1 and their absence from the emerging fight is manifested by corresponding dark bands in the spectrum4 ,the instrument by which the observations are made is the spectroscope4 ,it is well known to most people that the solar spectrum itself contains certain dark bands of this sort1 which are produced by vapors that can be identified by the position of the bands in the spectrum2 and thus it is possible to ascertain something regarding the chemical constitution of the sun and certain of the heavenly bodies4 ,now1 a precisely similar effect is produced by certain elements if present in a mineral1 by merely transmitting the light through a piece of it4 ,thus1 transparent minerals which contain the rare element didymium betray the presence of that element as soon as they are viewed through a spectroscope by ordinary daylight2 the spectrum is seen to be traversed by black bands in the green1 which are quite characteristic4 ,among gem stones there are two which possess this curious property4 ,one is the variety of red garnet known as almandine1 and the other is the jargoon4 ,the almandine produces characteristic bands in the green and the jargoon in the red1 green and blue portion of the spectrum4 ,to see these remarkable absorption spectra1 to which attention was first called1 ,i think1 by my friend1 ,prof4 ,church1 it is not necessary to look through the stone1 it is quite sufficient to place it in a strong light1 and look at it through an ordinary pocket spectroscope2 the light which enters the instrument consists largely of rays which have penetrated the stone1 and been reflected from the facets at the back4 ,these rays produce the absorption spectrum4 ,in this way we are enabled to identify a jargoon or an almandine merely by looking at it4 ,there is no test so simple or so easy of application4 ,it is curious that the almandine1 or iron aluminum garnet1 is the only garnet which presents an absorptive spectrum1 and it is not yet certain to what element the bands are due4 ,in the case of jargoon1 they are supposed to be caused by the presence of some uranium compound in the mineral4 ,all the almandine garnets which ,i have examined1 and nearly all the jargoons1 show these characteristic absorption spectra4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,graph of ,specific gravity vs ,refractive index of gems ,by way of summary1 ,i have thought it desirable to indicate the general characters of precious stones in a diagram1 which exhibits some of their relationships and also some of their differences in a graphic manner4 ,opal1 which is a comparatively light mineral1 has a low refractive power2 zircon or jargoon is a heavy mineral1 and has a high refractive power4 ,let now the refractive power of any mineral 7as measured by its refractive index for yellow light7 be represented by a corresponding length set off from left to right1 and let its density 7as measured by its specific gravity7 be represented by a corresponding length measured downward4 ,fixing in this way a point corresponding to opal1 and another representing the character of zircon1 draw a straight line from the one to the other4 ,it will then be found that the points which1 by their position on the diagram1 represent the specific gravity and refractive index of the various minerals will be very nearly upon this line2 that is to say1 as the refractive index of precious stones increases1 so also does their density1 and the two increase together in a remarkably regular manner4 ,it appears from this table that those minerals which1 by their high refractive power1 possess the greatest brilliancy1 possess also the highest specific gravity or weightiness2 that the precious stones are therefore all heavy minerals4 ,there is also a rough general correspondence between these characters and the hardness of the stones2 the brilliant heavy minerals are also generally speaking hard4 ,two remarkable exceptions display themselves4 ,sphene lies far to the right of the position which it should occupy according to its specific gravity2 it possesses an extraordinarily high refractive index1 and is1 therefore1 an extremely brilliant gem stone4 ,on the other hand1 a glance at the scale of hardness shows that it is1 unfortunately1 one of the softest of the possible gem stones1 and that in this respect it is not very well fitted for jewelry4 ,diamond is still more remarkable2 its refractive index places it at the extreme right of the diagram1 with a refractive power1 and therefore a brilliancy1 greater than that of any other stone2 at the same time its hardness exceeds that of any mineral1 and this combination of qualities renders it the chief among gem stones1 unequaled for brilliancy and durability1 although not a heavy mineral4 ,moreover1 in dispersion1 and therefore in fire1 it stands alone4 ,minerals which are heavier than zircon1 such as the metallic sulphides and iron glance1 are unsuitable for gem stones1 since they are nearly opaque1 but they follow the same law1 and possess a refractive power still greater than that of zircon or even diamond4 ,there is one other stone which is exceptional1 but in less degree and in the other direction1 namely1 topaz1 whose refractive index is not #a4g1 as it should be by its position on the line due to the specific gravity1 but #a4fb2 the point corresponding to topaz must therefore be placed a short distance to the left of the line4 ,it is curious that these three exceptional stones lie on the same horizonal line1 having all the same specific gravity1 #c4e4 ,in mentioning the specific gravity ,i have introduced a property which is not essential to win esteem for a precious stone1 but one which is of great value in its identification4 ,we have next then to consider those properties by which precious stones may in practice be most readily recognized4 ,the table shows very clearly that specific gravity is one such property4 ,the meaning of specific gravity is easily explained4 ,a piece of tourmaline of any size weighs three times as much as an equal volume of pure water at #d ,c41 the specific gravity of tourmaline is therefore said to be #c2 a piece of almandine garnet of any size weighs four times as much as an equal volume of water under the same conditions1 and the specific gravity of garnet is therefore #d4 ,now any substance immersed in water loses in weight by an amount exactly equal to that of the water displaced4 ,hence1 to ascertain the specific gravity it is only necessary to suspend the stone by a fine thread to the beam of a balance and weigh it first in air1 and then immersed in water4 ,the first weighing gives the weight of the stone itself1 the difference between the first weighing and the second gives the weight of the displaced water2 hence the specific gravity is found at once by dividing the weight of the stone by this difference4 ,for very small stones1 where the weights concerned are slight1 it is necessary to use a refined chemical balance4 ,but for ordinary stones a well made ,westphal balance is sufficient4 ,the ,westphal balance is constructed on the principle of the common steelyard4 ,at one end of the beam is a counterweight1 at the other end the stone is suspended2 the beam is divided into ten equal parts4 ,a weight can be suspended on the beam1 and its action1 of course1 varies with its position on the beam2 at the tenth division from the center it has a value ten times as great as at the first division4 ,the specific gravity is then found as follows3 ,first1 counterpoise the counterweight4 ,let this require a weight1 ,a1 on the right hand side of the beam4 ,next1 find the weight necessary to restore equilibrium when the stone is suspended from the beam4 ,let this be ,b4 ,then ,a-,b is the weight of the stone in air4 ,next raise the vessel of distilled water below the stone until it is immersed4 ,if ,c be the weight now required to restore equilibrium1 ,c-,b is the loss of weight in water1 and1 finally1 the specific gravity is 7,a-,b7_/7,c-,b74 ,this process is known as hydrostatic weighing1 and can be applied to any stone1 except such as are very small4 ,great precautions must be taken1 in order to determine the specific gravity with accuracy4 ,especially it is necessary to free the stone from all adhering bubbles of air4 ,for this reason the process of hydrostatic weighing is a somewhat laborious one4 ,now1 in order to identify a mineral1 it ought to be unnecessary to determine exactly the specific gravity1 provided that means can be devised for showing that its specific gravity is the same as that of some known substance4 ,for purposes of identification1 a comparative method is often quite as efficacious1 and much more easy than actual measurement4 ,this may now be done by means of certain heavy liquids4 ,wood floats in water because it is lighter than water2 iron sinks because it is heavier2 but a substance which possessed exactly the specific gravity of water would neither float nor sink1 but would remain suspended in the water like a balloon in midair4 ,taken1 then1 a liquid which is heavy--the most convenient is methylene iodide1 whose specific gravity is #c4c--;a fragment of zircon will sink in this1 and a fragment of tourmaline will float1 but a fragment of the mineral augite1 whose specific gravity is also #c4c1 will remain exactly suspended4 ,this liquid1 then1 enables one to say with certainty whether a given stone has a specific gravity greater or less than #c4c2 in the one case it will sink1 in the other it will float4 ,but methylene iodide further possesses the valuable property of mixing easily with benzene1 which is a very light liquid4 ,every drop of benzene added reduces the specific gravity of the mixture1 which can thus easily be made to range between that of chrysolite and that of opal4 ,to identify any one of the stones which lie between those limits on the diagram1 it is only necessary to drop it into a test tube or small vessel containing methylene iodide--the stone will float--benzene is added drop by drop1 the mixture being kept well stirred until a point is reached at which the stone neither sinks nor floats4 ,then different fragments of mineral possessing specific gravities between #c4c and #b4e are taken in order of increasing density and dropped into the liquid2 the stone under examination possesses a specific gravity between that of the last which floated and the first which sinks1 and the limits may1 if necessary1 be further narrowed by comparing it with other mineral fragments of known density intermediate between those two4 ,one great advantage of this method is that the size of the fragment does not affect the result2 a minute fragment only just large enough to be visible is equally convenient2 in fact1 more convenient than a larger one4 ,if a stone in the rough is under examination1 a minute chip can easily be taken from it1 and used for the experiment in the most satisfactory manner4 ,the method is1 moreover1 extremely sensitive2 a mere drop of benzene added to a considerable volume of the liquid is sufficient to send to the bottom a stone which was previously floating4 ,so much for stones whose density is less than that of chrysolite4 ,as regards the denser minerals1 it was until a short time back impossible to test them by any such method2 they all sank in the heaviest liquid available4 ,but now1 thanks to the fortunate discovery by ,dr4 ,retgers of the remarkable properties of thallium silver nitrate1 all the known gem stones may be distinguished by a similar process4 ,this salt1 which may be prepared by fusing together in equal molecular proportions nitrate of silver and nitrate of thallium1 possesses the remarkable property of fusing at a temperature far below that of either of its constituents1 and well below that of boiling water1 while at the same time the fused salt possesses a specific gravity greater than that of zircon4 ,the salt fuses at #ge ,c4 to a clear colorless liquid in which zircon just floats2 it further possesses the useful property of being miscible in all proportions with water1 so that the specific gravity can be reduced to any desired extent by adding water1 just as that of methylene iodide1 was reduced by adding benzene4 ,the substance can be kept liquid by maintaining it at a temperature above #ge ,c41 and this may easily be done by immersing the vessel in which it is contained in water heated to near the boiling point4 ,in these two liquids then we have the means of producing a liquid of any required density for the discrimination of gem stones1 since we can obtain from one or the other a liquid in which any precious stone will be exactly suspended4 ,the nitrate might be used by itself to include the whole series1 but it is more convenient to use the methylene iodide when possible1 both because it can be employed at ordinary temperatures and because it is cheaper than the nitrate4 ,both substances darken on exposure to light1 and should be both kept and used in the dark as far as possible3 they are easily freed from the liquid employed to dilute them4 ,the benzene readily evaporates spontaneously from the methylene iodide1 and the water can be driven off from the diluted thallium silver nitrate by boiling4 7,to be continued47 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,research ,,on ,,the ,,liquefaction ,,of ,,helium4#a ,footnote #a3 ,translated from the original paper1 by ,prof4 ,k4 ,olszewski1 in the ,bulletin de l',academie des ,sciences de ,cracovie for ,june1 #ahif1 ,ein ,versuch1 das ,helium zu verflunigen1 by ,morris ,travers1 and published in ,nature4 ,my experiments on the liquefaction of helium were carried out with a sample of that gas1 sent to me by ,prof4 ,ramsay from ,london1 in a sealed glass tube holding about #adj c4 cm4 ,i take this opportunity of rendering him my most sincere thanks4 ,in his letter ,prof4 ,ramsay informed me that the gas had been obtained from the mineral clevite1 and that it was quite free from nitrogen and other impurities1 which could be removed by circulation over red hot magnesium1 oxide of copper1 soda lime1 and pentoxide of phosphorus4 ,the density of the gas was #b4acc and the ratio of its specific heats 7,cp_/,cv7 #a4feb1 the latter figure indicating that the molecule of helium was monatomic1 as had already been found to be the case with argon4 ,prof4 ,ramsay further informed me that the gas was only very slightly soluble in water1 #ajj c4 cm4 of water dissolving scarcely #j4g c4 cm4 of helium4 ,from the results of my earlier experiments ,i had been led to expect that it would be only possible to liquefy helium at a very low temperature2 the small values obtained for the density and solubility of the gas1 together with the fact that its molecule is monatomic1 indicating a very low boiling point4 ,for this reason ,i did not consider it necessary to use liquid ethylene as a preliminary cooling agent1 but proceeded directly to conduct my experiments at the lowest temperature that could be produced by means of liquid air4 ,the apparatus employed in these investigations is figured in the accompanying diagram4 ,the helium was contained in the glass tube1 c1 of the ,cailletet's apparatus1 ,c4 ,the tube1 c1 reached to the bottom of a glass vessel1 a1 which was intended to contain the liquid air4 ,the vessel1 a1 was surrounded by three glass cylinders1 b1 b' and b1 closed at the bottom and separated from one another4 ,the outer vessel1 b1 was made just large enough to fit into the brass collar1 o1 which supported the lid1 u1 of the apparatus4 ,the tube1 a1 fitted into an opening in the center of the lid2 the tube1 t1 connected with an apparatus delivering liquid oxygen1 passed through a hole on the right4 ,the vessel1 b1 was also connected with a mercury manometer and air pump by means of a ,t tube1 p1 v1 one arm of which passed through the third hole in the lid of the apparatus4 ,the tube1 a1 was closed by a stopper1 through which passed the tube1 c1 of the ,cailletet's apparatus1 a tube connected with the drying apparatus1 u1 u'1 and one limb of a ,t tube1 by means of which the manometer and air pump could be put in connection with the interior of the vessel4 ,the lower part of the whole apparatus was inclosed in a thick walled vessel1 e1 containing a layer of phosphorus pentoxide4 ,by turning the valve1 k1 the vessel1 b1 could be partially filled with liquid oxygen1 which1 under a pressure of #aj mm4 of mercury1 boiled at about -#baj ,c4 ,almost immediately the gaseous air began to condense and collect in the tube1 a2 a supply of fresh air was constantly maintained through the drying tubes1 u and u'1 which were filled with sulphuric acid and soda lime respectively4 ,when the quantity of liquid air ceased to increase1 the tap on the ,u tube1 u1 was closed1 the ,t tube1 p' v'1 was connected with the manometer and air pump1 and the liquid air was made to boil under a pressure of #aj mm4 of mercury4 ,in order to protect the liquid air from its warmer surroundings1 a very thin1 double wall tube1 f1 reaching to the level of the liquid in the outer vessel1 was placed inside the tube1 a4 ,when1 as in some of my experiments1 liquid oxygen was used in the inner vessel1 this part of the apparatus was dispensed with4 ,illustration3 ,helium cooling apparatus ,using the apparatus ,i have just described1 ,i carried out two series of experiments1 in which liquid air and liquid oxygen were employed as cooling agents4 ,the tube of the ,cailletet's apparatus was thoroughly exhausted by means of a mercury pump1 and then carefully filled with dry helium4 ,in the first series of experiments the helium1 confined under a pressure of #abe atmospheres1 was cooled to the temperature of oxygen boiling1 first under atmospheric pressure 7-#ahb4e71 and then under a pressure of #aj mm4 of mercury 7-#baj74 ,the helium did not condense under these conditions1 and even when1 as in subsequent experiments1 ,i expanded the gas till the pressure fell to twenty atmospheres1 and in some cases to one atmosphere1 ,i could not detect the slightest indication that liquefaction had taken place4 ,the first time that ,i compressed the gas ,i had1 indeed1 noticed that a small quantity of a white substance separated out and remained at the bottom of the tube when the pressure was released4 ,possibly this may have been due to the presence of a small trace of impurity in the helium1 but it could not have constituted more than #a per cent4 of the total volume of the gas4 ,in the second series of experiments ,i employed liquid air1 boiling under a pressure of #aj mm4 of mercury4 ,the helium was first confined under a pressure of #adj atmospheres1 and then allowed to expand till the pressure fell to twenty atmospheres1 or1 in some cases1 to one atmosphere4 ,the results of these experiments were also negative1 the gas remained perfectly clear during the expansion1 and not the slightest trace of liquid could be detected4 ,the boiling point of liquid air was taken1 from my previous determination1 to be -#bbj ,c4 7,comptes ,rendus1 #ahhe1 p4 #bch74 ,this number cannot1 however1 be taken as a constant1 as the liquid air1 boiling under reduced pressure1 becomes gradually poorer in nitrogen4 ,further1 the quantity of nitrogen lost by the liquid air on partial evaporation varies not only with the rate of boiling1 but even according to the manner in which it has been liquefied4 ,if air1 under high pressure1 be cooled first to the temperature of boiling ethylene1 and then to -#aej ,c41 it liquefies1 and1 on reducing the pressure slowly1 liquid air is obtained boiling under atmospheric pressure4 ,during the process a considerable quantity of the liquid air evaporates1 and the proportion of nitrogen to oxygen in the remaining liquid is less than in air liquefied under high pressure4 ,if the liquid air obtained by this process be made to boil under a pressure of #aj mm4 of mercury1 the proportion of nitrogen in the mixture continues to decrease1 but1 on account of the large quantity of oxygen present1 the liquid does not solidify1 although its temperature is some six degrees below the freezing point of nitrogen4 ,when1 as in some of my former experiments1 the air was liquefied under normal pressure by means of liquid oxygen boiling under a pressure of #aj mm4 of mercury1 the ratio of nitrogen to the oxygen in the liquid air was the same as in the gaseous air from which it had been produced4 ,the liquid air1 obtained by direct condensation at normal pressure1 appeared to lose oxygen and nitrogen with about equal rapidity1 and at the end of the experiment a considerable quantity of liquid nitrogen remained behind in the apparatus4 ,on reducing the pressure to #aj mm4 of mercury the nitrogen solidified4 ,prof4 ,dewar has stated that liquid air solidifies as such1 the solid product containing a slightly smaller percentage of nitrogen than is present in the atmosphere4 ,my experiments have proved this statement to be incorrect2 liquid oxygen does not solidify even when boiling under a pressure of #b mm4 of mercury4 ,after carrying these experiments to a successful conclusion1 ,i found that it was yet necessary to prove that1 on reducing the vapor pressure of boiling oxygen1 to a minimum1 no corresponding fall of temperature takes place4 ,the vessel1 e1 was partially filled with liquid oxygen1 and1 by means of a small siphon1 a small quantity of the liquid was allowed to flow into the tube1 a4 ,the inner vessel1 a1 was then connected with the air pump and manometer1 and the pressure was reduced to #b mm4 of mercury4 ,the oxygen remained liquid and quite clear4 ,in a second experiment the temperature of the liquid oxygen1 boiling under #b mm4 of mercury pressure1 was measured by means of a thermometer4 ,the temperature indicated lay above -#bbj ,c41 a temperature easily arrived at by means of liquid air4 ,i1 therefore1 concluded that liquid air was a much more efficient cooling agent than liquid oxygen1 and that it would be quite unnecessary to make further experiments on the liquefaction of helium4 ,in every single instance ,i have obtained negative results1 and1 as far as my experiments go1 helium remains a permanent gas1 and apparently much more difficult to liquefy than even hydrogen4 ,the small quantity of the gas at my disposal1 and1 indeed1 the extreme rarity of the minerals from which it is obtained1 compelled me to carry out my investigation on a very small scale4 ,using a larger apparatus1 and working at a much higher pressure1 ,i could have submitted the gas to greater expansion4 ,further1 ,i should have been able to measure the temperature of the gas at the moment of expansion by means of a platinum thermometer1 as ,i did when working with hydrogen2 but to make such experiments ,i should have required #aj1 if not #ajj1 liters of the gas4 ,as ,i was unable to determine the temperatures to which ,i cooled the gas1 by any experimental means1 ,i have been obliged to calculate them from ,laplace's and ,poisson's formula for the change of temperature in a gas during adiabatic expansion4 ,t_/,t#a 7p_/p#a77k - #a_/k7 ,where3 ,t1 p are the initial temperature and pressure of the gas4 ,t#a1 p#a are the final temperature and pressure of the gas4 k is the ratio 7cp_/cv7 which1 for a monatomic gas1 is #a4ff4 ,in the first series of experiments the gas1 under a pressure of #abh atmospheres1 was cooled down to -#baj ,c4 p ,t p#a ,t#a ,at4 ,deg4 ,at4 ,deg4 ,deg4 #abe -#baj ,c4 #ej -#bbi4c ,c4 #dc4g ,a4 444 444 #bj -#bdb4g ,c4 #cj4c ,a4 444 444 #aj -#bej4a ,c4 #bb4i ,a4 444 444 #e -#bee4f ,c4 #ag4d ,a4 444 444 #a -#bfc4i ,c4 #i4a ,a4 ,the results of these calculations tend to show that the boiling point of helium lies below -#bfd ,c41 at least #bj lower than the value ,i have found for the boiling point of hydrogen4 ,if the boiling point of a gas be taken as a simple function of its density1 helium1 which1 according to ,prof4 ,ramsay's determination1 has a density of #b4acc1 more than double that of hydrogen1 should liquefy at a much higher temperature4 ,both argon and helium have much lower boiling points than might be expected1 judging from their densities4 ,this anomalous condition may be accounted for by the fact that in each case the molecular structure is monatomic1 as shown by the values obtained for the ratios of their specific heats4 ,the permanent character of helium might be taken advantage of in its application to the gas thermometer4 ,the helium thermometer could be used to advantage in the determination of the critical temperature and boiling point of hydrogen4 ,to determine whether the hydrogen thermometer is of any value at temperatures below -#aih ,c4 ,i carried out a series of experiments1 in which ,i measured the temperature of liquid oxygen boiling under reduced pressure4 ,i made use of the identical thermometer tube employed by ,t4 ,estreicher 7,phil4 ,mag4 #e #dj1 #ed1 #ahih7 as a hydrogen thermometer for the same purpose1 and applied the same corrections as were made in his experiments4 ,temperature4 ,pressure ,helium ,thermometer4 ,hydrogen ,thermometer4 ,mm4 ,deg4 ,deg4 #gda -#ahb4f ,c4 -#ahb4f ,c4 #bdj -#aia4h ,c4 -#aia4he ,c4 #ij4d -#aih4g ,c4 -#aih4ge ,c4 #ab -#bji4c ,c4 -#bji4b ,c4 #i -#baj4eg ,c4 -#baj4f ,c4 ,the results of these experiments prove that the coefficient of expansion of hydrogen does not change between these limits of temperature1 and that the hydrogen thermometer is a perfectly trustworthy instrument even when employed to measure the very lowest temperatures4 ,i have already pointed out 7,wied4 ,ann41 ,bd4 xxxi1 #hfi1 #ahhg7 that the gas thermometer can be used to measure temperatures which lie even below the critical point of the gas with which the instrument is filled4 ,for instance1 the critical temperature of hydrogen1 which ,i have found to be -#bcd4e ,c4 7,wied4 ,ann41 #ef1 #acc2 ,phil4 ,mag4 #e #dj1 #bjb1 #ahih7 can be determined by means of a hydrogen thermometer4 ,the helium thermometer could be used at much lower temperatures1 and would probably give a more exact value for the boiling point of hydrogen than it is possible to obtain by means of a platinum thermometer4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,some ,,notes ,,on ,,spiders4 ,by ,rev4 ,,samuel ,,barber4 ,the instinct of spiders in at once attacking a vital part of their antagonist--as in the case of a theridion butchering a cockroach by first binding its legs and then biting the neck--is most remarkable2 but they do not always have it their own way4 ,a certain species of mason wasp selects a certain spider as food for its larv1 and1 entombing fifteen or sixteen in a tunnel of mud1 fastens them down in a paralyzed state as food for the prospective grubs4 ,perhaps the most entertaining points in connection with spiders are their concentration of energy1 their amazing rapidity of action1 and their inscrutable methods of transition and flotation4 ,during the past autumn large numbers of these creatures appeared at intervals4 ,thus ,i observed a vast network of lines that seemed to have descended over the town of ,whitstable1 in ,kent1 and which were not visible the day before or the day after4 ,many were fifteen to twenty feet long2 they stretched from house to lamppost1 from tree to tree1 from bush to bush2 and within six or seven feet of the ground ,i counted1 in a garden1 twenty-four or more parallel strands4 ,the rapidity with which spiders work may be gathered from the fact that1 while moving about in my room1 ,i found their lines strung from the very books ,i had1 a moment before1 been using4 ,insect life1 as might have been expected after so mild a winter and so dry a spring and summer1 is 7#ahif7 intensely exuberant4 ,the balance is preserved by a corresponding number of ,arachnida4 ,on ,may #be and #bf the east wall of the vicarage of ,burgh-by-sands was coated with a tissue of web so delicate that it required a very close scrutiny to detect it4 ,i could find none of the spinners4 ,every square inch of the building appeared coated with filmy lines1 crossing in places1 but mostly horizontal1 from north to south4 ,walking by the edge of a wheatfield in ,suffolk on ,may #ad1 ,i observed all over the path1 which was cracked with the drought1 dark objects flitting to and fro4 ,they were spiders--mostly of the hunting order4 ,tens of thousands must have occupied a moderate space of the field1 and the cracks in the parched soil afforded them a handy retreat4 ,in reference to the visitation of spiders at ,whitstable during the autumn and winter of #ahie-f1 it is right to note that the people of that place regard them as a sign of an east wind4 ,in this connection we can note the fact of the phenomenal clouds of flies occurring at times on the east coast of ,england2 and it would be interesting if observers could ascertain whether spiders ever cross the ,channel and accompany such visitations of insects4 ,the production of the flotation line1 and its method of attachment1 are the two points to which ,i ask the attention of observers4 ,is it not evident that air 7and probably at a high temperature7 must be inclosed within the meshes of the substance forming the line when it passes from the spinnerets into the atmosphere8 ,the creature with this substance within its body drops to the ground at once by force of gravitation2 yet1 when emitted1 the very same substance lifts it into the air4 ,it has been usual to explain the ascent by the kite principle1 i4e41 the mechanical force of the contiguous atmosphere4 ,but air movements1 especially on a small scale1 are so capricious and uncontrollable that1 without a directive force1 the phenomena seem quite inexplicable4 ,moreover1 all my own observations lead me to accept the theory of a direct propelling force1 and ,i can hardly accept the conclusions on this point of ,mr4 ,blackwall1 though he is an authority on the subject4 ,the intense rapidity with which the initial movements are made cannot be reconciled with any theory of simple atmospheric convection2 and illustrations such as the following go to prove that spiders possess the faculty of weighting or condensing the ends of their threads1 and throwing them1 within limited distances1 to a point fixed upon4 ,i was writing1 and had two sheets of quarto before me4 ,perceiving a small spider on the paper ,i rose and went to the window to observe it4 ,to test its power of passing through the air1 ,i held another sheet about a foot from that on which the creature was running4 ,it ascended to the edge1 and vanished2 but in a moment ,i saw it landing upon the other sheet through midair in a horizontal direction1 and picking up the thread as it advanced4 ,in this case there was no air movement to facilitate1 nor any time to throw a line upward1 which1 indeed1 would not have solved the difficulty4 ,propulsion appears the only explanation4 ,the next illustration is more marvelous1 and seems to indicate that some species1 at any rate1 have the power of movement through the air in any direction at will4 ,some years ago1 at a dinner party in ,kent1 four candles being lighted on the table1 ,i noticed a thread strung from the tip of one of the lighted candles close to the flame1 and attached to another candle about a yard off2 and all the four lights were connected in this way1 and that by a web drawn quite tight4 ,no little surprise was caused among the guests on finding that the diamond form of the web was complete4 ,no satisfactory explanation of this has been offered1 and ,i can only suggest that the spinner was suspended at first by a vertical line from above1 and thus swayed itself to and fro1 from tip to tip of the candles4 ,it was certain that the spider could not have ascended from the table2 and it was equally certain that aerial flotation of the line from a fixed point was impossible1 as it involved floating in four opposite directions4 ,i have seen a creature of this or a nearly allied species moving laterally through the air of a room in this way4--,knowledge4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,engineering ,,notes4 ,,austria is turning out a new variety of ,mannlicher repeating rifle for its army1 which is the lightest rifle in the world1 weighing #c4c kilogrammes1 seven pounds and four ounces1 instead of #d4d kilogrammes1 nine pounds eleven ounces1 the weight of the old pattern4 ,all the individual parts in the new rifle1 including the locking box1 the magazine and the barrel1 are lighter than in the old4 ,the bayonet and sheath are also made lighter4 ,a ,,trolley express car system is now in successful operation in ,brooklyn1 ,n4,y4 ,the trolley system of ,brooklyn is one of the most extensive in the world1 and many of the outlying districts are now served with great dispatch4 ,parcels are collected by wagons1 they are then brought to the cars1 and1 after being carried to the nearest express station to their destination1 they are then transported again by wagons4 ,on ,sundays the cars are run to carry bicycles4 ,,in ,,stanislau oil gas is being a good deal used for incandescent lighting1 says the ,gas ,world4 ,the gas is used at a pressure of from #a4a in4 to #a4b in4 ,when #a4g cubic feet per hour is used the ,welsbach mantle gives #fi candles at first1 #fe candles after #abj hours1 #dh candles after #ejj hours4 ,the fall in lighting power is comparatively slow with oil gas1 and the mantles are not so much worn by lighting the gas1 for the kind of oil gas is not as explosive as that of coal gas4 ,the mantles are found to last from #djj to #fjj hours4 ,,during ,,the construction of the ,simplon tunnel every possible alleviation will be made for the workmen employed1 says the ,railway ,review4 ,on leaving the tunnel when they are hot and wet through they will go at once to the douche and bathrooms provided for their accommodation1 where1 after a refreshing shower bath1 they will resume their dry clothes4 ,the sheds from which the workmen leave the tunnel are to be covered in and closed at the sides so as to protect them from cold4 ,water will be taken at intervals to the workmen who may require it1 either from the pipe which feeds the drills or from that which brings water for cooling4 ,no provision has been made as regards workmen's lodgings1 because it is supposed that they will easily find accommodation in the neighborhood4 ,as it is believed that the temperature of the rock of the ,simplon tunnel may reach a maximum of #ajd ,f41 costly measures will have to be taken to cool the air in many parts where the works are to be carried on4 ,,recent ,,developments ,,in ,,lighthouse ,,engineering was the title of a paper read recently at the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers1 by ,mr4 ,n4,g4 ,gedye1 says the ,colliery ,guardian4 ,the author pointed out the marked development which has of late years taken place in the direction of reducing the length of flash emitted by lighthouse apparatus to a minimum1 and the consequent increase obtained in intensity4 ,the apparatus now being erected at ,cape ,leeuwin1 ,western ,australia1 gives a flash of one-fifth of a second duration every five seconds4 ,it is the most powerful oil light in the world1 the flash being over #ade1jjj candle power emitted from a pair of dioptric lenses mounted on a mercury float revolving once every ten seconds4 ,each of the two lenses is #h feet in diameter4 ,the powers of these oil lights are far exceeded by electric lighthouse lights1 there being several in ,france up to #bc1jjj1jjj candle power1 while there has recently been established at ,fire ,island1 at the entrance to ,new ,york ,harbor1 an electric light1 of ,french design and construction1 of #abc1jjj1jjj candle power2 this is the most powerful lighthouse light in the world4 ,,discussing ,,the use of potassium cyanide for steel-hardening purposes1 ,t4,r4 ,almond1 of ,brooklyn1 ,n4,y41 suggests that this salt assists the hardening process because of its powerful deoxidizing properties1 and also because it forms a liquid film on the surface of the steel1 which causes a more perfect contact between the steel and the water1 thereby permitting a more rapid abstraction of heat4 ,the inevitable formation of a thin coat of oxide is unfavorable to the process of rapid cooling2 and as rapid cooling seems to be the one thing necessary for success in hardness1 any means used for the removal of a bad conductor of heat1 like the black oxide1 will be of advantage1 and more especially if this means also results in the formation of a liquid film on the steel surface having the affinity for water which1 it is well known1 is peculiar to potassium cyanide4 ,mr4 ,almond recommends the removal of all scale or oxide from the surfaces of steel to be hardened1 either by pickling or by the cyanide4 ,steel covered with a very thin film of oxide will take the heat less quickly when immersed in hot lead than if the steel be bright before being immersed4 ,this being the case1 it would seem to follow that1 because of a film of oxide1 heat will leave steel more slowly when being cooled by water4 ,,the ,,gigantic ,,wheel1 now being erected on the site of the old bowling green in a corner of the ,winter ,gardens1 ,blackpool1 was commenced on ,december #a1 #ahie1 says the ,building ,news4 ,the work of erecting the supports was not finished until the third week in ,march1 and then the most difficult portion of the work1 viz41 that of hoisting the axle1 was commenced4 ,the axle1 a steel forging weighing over #bh tons and measuring nearly #da ft4 long and #bf in4 in diameter1 was forged at the works of ,messrs4 ,w4 ,beardmore ,company1 of ,glasgow4 ,the axle and bearings being fixed complete1 the work of building the rims of the wheel will be pushed forward rapidly under the direction of ,mr4 ,walter ,b4 ,basset1 who also built the ,earl's ,court wheel4 ,the carriages1 thirty in number1 and each capable of carrying forty persons1 are rapidly approaching completion in the works of ,messrs4 ,brown1 ,marshall ,company1 of ,birmingham4 ,the driving engines and most of the intermediate gearing are already in position in the engine house4 ,these engines will operate two steel wire ropes1 one on either side of the rim of the wheel1 and arrangements have been made and provided for in such gearing to enable the wheel to be turned at a quicker speed than that at ,earl's ,court4 ,the ,blackpool wheel will be able to carry more passengers per hour than its predecessor in ,london4 ,the particulars of the great wheel are3 ,total height above sea level1 #bej ft42 total diameter 7across centers of pins71 #bjj ft42 total weight1 #a1jjj tons4 ,the solid axle is of a diameter through the journals of #b ft4 #b in41 a diameter across the flanges of #e ft4 #c in41 length over all #da ft41 and weight #bh tons4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,electrical ,,notes4 ,,portraits of ,morse and ,fulton are printed on the reverse of the new two dollar silver certificate1 affording a relief to the dreary monotony of ex-presidents1 generals and statesmen4 ,a ,,monster electric elevator is to be erected at ,allegheny1 ,pa4 ,it will be large enough to carry up several wagons at once4 ,the new elevator will save a trip of a mile and a quarter4 ,,an ,,excursion ,,trolley car on the ,milwaukee ,street ,railway has #gjj incandescent lights4 ,the car is #cb feet over all4 ,the platforms are #e foot4 ,the floor of the car is carpeted and a few tables for refreshments are provided4 ,,amsterdam will have next year an international exhibition of hotel arrangements and accommodations for travelers4 ,among the features of the exhibition will be an electric restaurant1 without waiters1 in which visitors will be served automatically with a complete dinner on pressing an electric button4 ,,prof4 ,,fleming has shown by experiments that with a #b1jjj volt alternating current with a water resistance1 that the latter is quite non-inductive1 and that the readings of the amperes may be taken1 says the ,electrical ,world1 as a measurement of the voltage1 and the product of the volts and amperes will represent correctly the power consumed4 ,,our contemporary1 ,the ,engineer1 suggests doing away with windsails on board steamers entirely and substituting electric fans4 ,in warships the fan ought to be placed where room can be found for it low down in the ship1 far below the water line4 ,an electrically driven horizontal fan1 with its motor1 can be got into the thickness of a deck with its beams1 if needs be4 ,this would clearly be better than depending on a flimsy construction1 which would certainly be greatly damaged1 if not entirely shot away1 in action4 ,if clear decks are wanted1 the windsail is about as inconvenient as it is ugly1 and that is saying a great deal4 ,,since ,january #a1 last1 a new and reduced telephone tariff has been in force in ,switzerland1 and from reports to hand it appears to have worked satisfactorily all round4 ,the former charge per annum for a telephone1 with an annual limit of #hjj conversations1 was #hj francs 7#c #ds47 ,the new tariff now in force is #dj francs 7#a #abs47 per annum1 plus an additional charge of #e centimes for each local connection4 ,the charges for interurban connections1 with a time limit of three minutes1 are as follows3 ,up to a distance of thirty-one miles1 #c d42 up to sixty-two miles1 #e d42 and above sixty-two miles1 #g d4 ,the telephone system throughout ,switzerland is owned by the government1 and the service1 says the ,electrician1 is first class in every respect4 ,,there ,,are three ways by which high temperature may be measured1 says the ,electrical ,engineer1 ,london4 ,the first uses an air thermometer of refractory material2 the second depends on the change in the resistance of a platinum wire with change in temperature2 and the third is based on the employment of a thermo couple of relatively infusible metals4 ,according to ,messrs4 ,holborn and ,w4 ,wein1 in a paper published in ,wiedemann's ,annalen1 the air thermometer method was valueless until recently1 as suitable vessels could not be made4 ,but now these are produced from refractory clays1 and permit of measurements up to #a1ejj ,c4 7#b1gcb ,f47 ,the results are1 however1 vitiated by the effects of capillarity in the interior of the vessel4 ,the resistance method has also its disadvantages4 ,at high temperatures the resistance generally increases1 but the temperature coefficient is irregular4 ,the presence of free hydrogen also affects the resistance4 ,the third or thermopile method is favored by the authors1 who prefer a circuit of platinum and an alloy of platinum with ten per cent4 of rhodium4 ,temperatures up to #a1fjj ,c4 7#b1iab ,f47 can be measured by it1 and it is remarkably constant under various conditions4 ,,the ,,london ,,electrician states that at a special meeting of the ,south ,african ,philosophical ,society held on ,august #b1 a lecture on the above subject was delivered by ,mr4 ,a4,p4 ,trotter1 ,government ,electrician and ,inspector4 ,toward the end of the lecture the lecturer rang up the ,capetown ,telephone ,exchange1 and asked if any of the longer post office telegraph lines were clear4 ,the ,port ,elizabeth line was then connected up1 and by means of a ,wheatstone bridge on the lecture table1 the resistance of the line was measured4 ,the lecturer then observed that1 with the extremely sensitive instrument used in the ,government ,electrical ,laboratory1 it was not necessary to use ordinary electric batteries for signaling to such a distance as to ,port ,elizabeth4 ,he disconnected the battery1 and1 plunging a steel knife and silver fork into an orange1 sent signals by means of the feeble current thus generated4 ,he then asked the front row of the audience to join hands1 and1 putting them in the circuit1 sent signals through their bodies to ,port ,elizabeth and back by means of the orange cell4 ,as a concluding experiment an omelette was made under some disadvantages1 and the cost of the electrical energy was stated to be only two cents4 ,,the ,,question of injury to the eyes from the electric light is being prominently discussed by scientists1 oculists1 and laymen throughout the country1 says the ,american ,journal of ,photography4 ,while opinion widely differs as to the ultimate injury likely to result from the rapidly increasing use of electricity1 the consensus of opinion is that light from uncovered or uncolored globes is working damage to eyesight of humanity4 ,in a discussion of the subject a ,london electric light journal in defending its trade feels called upon to make some important admissions4 ,it says3 ',it is not customary to look at the sun1 and not even the most enthusiastic electrician would suggest that naked arcs and incandescent filaments were objects to be gazed at without limit4 ,but naked arc lights are not usually placed so as to come within the line of sight1 and when they do so accidentally1 whatever may result1 the injury to the eye is quite perceptible4 ,the filament of a glow lamp1 on the other hand1 is most likely to meet the eye1 but a frosted bulb is an extremely simple and common way of entirely getting over that difficulty4 ,the whole trouble can be easily remedied by the use of properly frosted or colored glass globes4 ,in any case1 however1 the actual permanent injury to the eye by the glowing filament is no greater than that due to an ordinary gas flame4' 99 99 99 99 99 ,,miscellaneous ,,notes4 ,,rubber trees are reported found growing in ,manatee ,county1 ,fla4 ,,japan proposes to build up her commercial navy by giving subsidies to ship builders on every ton above #a1jjj1 and to ship owners for ships of #a1jjj tons that can make ten knots an hour1 the subsidy being increased for every #ejj tons additional burden or every knot additional speed4 ,,rosa ,,bonheur began to work seriously at painting when she was about fifteen1 and donned male attire so that she could go about without attracting attention4 ,she wore it so naturally that no one ever suspected her of being a girl1 and found it so comfortable that she has worn it ever since to work in4 ,she and ,mme4 ,dieulafoy1 the wife of the explorer1 are the only two women in ,france who are legally authorized to appear in public in men's clothes4 ,a ,,device for permitting the unsophisticated guest to blow out the gas in his bedroom at the city hotel without inconvenience to himself or anybody else has been devised4 ,the gas burner is made of a metal having great expansive and contractive properties4 ,the gas is turned on in the regular way and a small screw is turned which admits a small flow of gas through the burner4 ,the gas is lighted1 and the heat expands the metal and automatically opens a valve permitting a full flow of gas4 ,the gas can be turned off in the ordinary way1 but if the gas is blown out the metal contracts1 closing the valve1 and all the gas that escapes is the very small quantity admitted by the screw valve4 ,a ,,movement is on foot in ,europe having for its object the securing of a complete census of the inhabitants of all the civilized countries of the world4 ,with this end in view the several governments are to be approached with the request that they will endeavor to decide upon a mutual date for counting the people under their various jurisdictions4 ,heretofore the different countries have taken their census on different dates1 and it has been impossible to obtain accurate statistics in regard to the world's population at any one particular period4 ,it is suggested that the last year of the present century or the first year of the coming century would be the most appropriate date for obtaining statistics4 ,,of ,,the #cgf suicides who ended their lives in ,new ,york last year1 by far the greater number were divorced people1 says the ,medical ,review4 ,from a table prepared for the year #ahie1 it is shown that there were in ,germany during that year #b1hcd suicides of men either divorced or separated from their wives and #idh suicides of widowers1 as against only #bhf suicides of married men4 ,it is also shown that #cdc women separated from their husbands and #abd widows died by their own hands1 in contrast with #fa married women and #hg unmarried4 ,in ,wurtemburg1 to every million inhabitants1 there are #a1edj lunatics among divorcs or women separated from their husbands and #cch among the widows1 while there are only #bbd among unmarried women4 ,there are #a1dhd lunatics among the men who are divorced or separated from their wives1 #cch among the widowers1 and only #bcf among the bachelors4 ,,the ,,quarterly list of ,american tin plate works1 which was published in the ,metal ,worker a short time ago1 shows that on ,july #a there were thirty-six complete tin plate plants rolling their own black plates in actual operation in the ,united ,states and three in course of construction4 ,the active plants possessed an aggregate of #agi tin mills1 having an estimated yearly capacity of about #e1ejj1jjj boxes of tin plates4 ,in addition to these establishments there were thirty-one tin plate dipping works1 without rolling mills1 possessing an aggregate of #afi tinning sets4 ,at the end of ,june the production of ,american tin plate is estimated to have been going on at the rate of over #d1jjj1jjj boxes yearly4 ,during the last quarter the ,new ,castle ,steel and ,tin ,plate ,company1 of ,new ,castle1 ,pa41 has completed large extensions to its works1 making it an eighteen-mill plant4 ,this gives the ,united ,states the largest and most complete tin plate works in the world4 ,its annual capacity is three-quarters of a million boxes4 ,,the ,,moniteur ,,vinicole has recently published a statement showing the wine production of the various countries of the world4 ,from this statement it appears the yield in ,france amounted in the years #ahie and #ahid to #ehg1abg1jjj gallons and #hei1afb1jjj gallons respectively2 in ,algeria to #hc1edi1jjj and #hj1abd1jjj gallons2 ,tunis1 #c1ief1jjj and #c1icf1jjj3 ,italy1 #dfi1eee1jjj and #eci1jjj1jjj2 ,spain #cgi1ejj1jjj and #ebh1jjj1jjj2 ,portugal1 #dc1hij1jjj and #cc1jjj1jjj2 ,azores1 ,canaries1 and ,madeira1 #d1fbj1jjj and #b1fdj1jjj2 ,austria1 #ff1jjj1jjj and #hh1jjj1jjj2 ,hungary1 #fc1jcj1jjj and #df1ajc1jjj2 and ,germany1 #hj1aij1jjj and #aaj1jjj1jjj gallons4 ,in ,turkey and ,cyprus the production last year amounted to #eb1hjj1jjj gallons1 and this compares with an average yield of #dj1jjj1jjj gallons4 ,in ,bulgaria the yield was #bf1djj1jjj gallons2 ,servia1 #ag1fjj1jjj2 ,greece1 #ce1bjj1jjj2 ,roumania1 #fh1fdj1jjj2 ,switzerland1 #bg1ejj1jjj2 the ,united ,states1 #hi1gjj1jjj2 ,mexico1 #a1ihj1jjj2 ,argentine ,republic1 #bi1gjj1jjj2 ,chile1 #cc1jjj1jjj1 ,brazil1 #g1gjj1jjj2 ,cape of ,good ,hope1 #b1dbj1jjj2 ,persia1 #eid1jjj2 and ,australia1 #c1cjj1jjj gallons4 ,,the ,historical ,museum of ,hesse ,cassel1 in ,germany1 says the ,carpenter and ,builder1 contains a most remarkable collection of curiosities4 ,it is in the form of a wooden library1 composed of five hundred and forty volumes of folio and quarto sizes4 ,the books are made of the different specimens of trees found in the famous park of ,wilhelmshoehe4 ,on the back of each of these singular books is pasted a large shield of red morocco1 which bears the popular and scientific names of the tree and the family to which it belongs4 ,each label is inlaid with some of the bark of the tree1 the moss and lichen1 and a drop or two of the resin1 if the tree produces it4 ,the upper edge of the book shows the tree in its youth1 cut from a horizontal section1 with the sap in the center and the eccentric circles4 ,the same method prevails with the lower edge1 showing the changes that have taken place4 ,the interior of the book1 in the shape of a box1 contains in manuscript the history of the tree1 with numerous hints as to its treatment1 capsules filled with seeds1 buds1 roots1 leaves1 and so on4 ,the inner sides show the diverse transformations which take place from bloom to fruit4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,selected ,,formul4 ,,ambrosia ,,sirup4-- ,raspberry sirup444444444444444444444 #h vol4 ,vanilla sirup44444444444444444444444 #h ,hock wine444444444444444444444444444 #a ,,amycose4-- ,shaved ice44444444444444444444444444 tumblerful4 ,raspberry juice444444444444444444444 #a fl4 oz4 ,orange sirup444444444444444444444444 #b ,juice of half an orange4 ,shake well1 add soda water1 and before serving add a small1 thin slice of orange or pineapple4 ,serve with two straws in a #ad oz4 tumbler4 ,,banana ,,sirup4-- ,cut the fruit in slices and place them in a jar2 sprinkle with sugar and cover the jar1 which is then enveloped in straw and placed in cold water1 and the latter is heated to the boiling point4 ,the jar is then removed1 allowed to cool1 and the juice is poured into bottles4 ,,banana ,,cream4-- ,shaved ice44444444444444444444444444 tumblerful4 ,banana sirup444444444444444444444444 #b fl4 oz4 ,cream of milk44444444444444444444444 #h ,shake well1 add a few pieces of banana1 and fill with soda water1 using the fine stream1 and serve in a #ab oz4 tumbler with a spoon and straws4 ,,charlotte ,,russe4-- ,shaved ice44444444444444444444444444 tumblerful4 ,vanilla sirup44444444444444444444444 #a fl4 oz4 ,cream4444444444444444444444444444444 #f ,one egg4 ,shake and fill with soda water1 using the fine stream4 ,serve in a #ad oz4 tumbler with a spoon2 it will have a head like a charlotte russe4 ,,chocolate ,,sirup4-- ,best chocolate4444444444444444444444 lb4 ,gelatin44444444444444444444444444444 #c oz4 ,water4444444444444444444444444444444 #d pts4 ,sugar4444444444444444444444444444444 #g lb4 ,the chocolate and gelatin are dissolved in the water by boiling1 and then the sugar is added and stirred until dissolved2 or1 ,chocolate444444444444444444444444444 lb4 ,glycerin4444444444444444444444444444 #ab fl4 oz4 ,heat together on hot water bath until the chocolate is melted1 constantly stirring1 and then add enough sirup to make #a gallon4 ,the sirup must be added in small portions at first1 under constant stirring1 and the result will be a superior sirup4 ,extract of vanilla may be added if it is desired to further improve the taste4 ,,clam ,,juice ,,shake4-- ,clam juice44444444444444444444444444 #a fl4 oz4 ,milk44444444444444444444444444444444 #b ,soda water44444444444444444444444444 #e ,add a pinch of salt and a little white pepper to each glass2 shake well4 ,,coffee ,,sirup4-- ,mocha coffee444444444444444444444444 lb4 ,java coffee4444444444444444444444444 ,boiling water44444444444444444444444 #a gal4 ,granulated sugar44444444444444444444 #aj lb4 ,boil together1 or pass through a suitable filter coffee pot1 until one gallon of infusion is obtained2 let it settle and add the sugar4 ,,egg ,,lemonade4-- ,shaved ice44444444444444444444444444 tumblerful4 ,one egg4 ,juice of one large lemon4 ,powdered sugar4444444444444444444444 #c teaspoonfuls4 ,water4444444444444444444444444444444 #f fl4 oz4 ,shake thoroughly4 ,draw a small quantity of soda water1 fine stream only1 and grate a little nutmeg on top4 ,,egg ,,phosphate4-- ,draw into a thin #i oz4 tumbler1 #b oz4 of ,maltese 7red7 orange sirup1 and add an egg1 a few squirts of acid phosphate1 and a small piece of ice2 shake well1 fill shaker with soda water--using the large stream only--and strain4 ,,orange ,,phosphate4-- ,,red ,,orange ,,phosphate4 ,red orange sirup44444444444444444444 #f pints4 ,orange wine4444444444444444444444444 #a ,pineapple sirup444444444444444444444 #a ,acid solution phosphates444444444444 #h fl4 oz4 ,,tangerine ,,phosphate4 ,tangerine sirup444444444444444444444 #g pints4 ,pineapple sirup444444444444444444444 ,muscatel4444444444444444444444444444 ,acid solution of phosphates444444444 #h fl4 oz4 --,montreal ,pharmaceutical ,journal4 ,,american ,,metal ,,polishing ,,paste4-- ,bohemian ,tripoli powder4444444444444 #a pound4 ,spanish whiting444444444444444444444 #a ,commercial red oxide of iron44444444 ,common petrolin-burning oil444444444 #a ounce4 ,glycerine444444444444444444444444444 q4 s4 ,water4444444444444444444444444444444 q4 s4 ,oil of citronella4444444444444444444 ounce4 ,thoroughly mix the powders1 then add the petrolin1 etc4--,mag4 ,pharmacy4 ,,cement ,,for ,,porcelain ,,letters4-- ,solution sodium silicate444444444444 #cj parts4 ,slaked lime4444444444444444444444444 #de ,mix1 and add3 ,litharge4444444444444444444444444444 #cj parts4 ,glycerine44444444444444 quantities sufficient4 ,make a paste1 and use immediately4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,great ,,krupp ,,works4 ,more than #a1bej1jjj tons of coal are consumed yearly by the famous ,krupp works at ,essen1 ,westphalia1 commenced in #ahaj by ,peter ,friedrich ,krupp1 and now in the possession of ,herr ,friedrich ,krupp1 member of the ,reichstag4 ,the establishment consists1 according to the ,eisen ,zeitung1 of two steel works1 with #ae ,bessemer converters2 four steelworks1 with ,siemens-,martin open hearth furnaces2 iron1 steel and brass foundries2 puddling1 melting1 reheating and annealing furnaces2 draw benches2 a hardening and tempering department2 file manufactory2 rolling mills for plates1 rails and tires2 railway spring and wheel manufactory2 steam hammers1 forges1 axle turning shop1 boiler shop1 engineering and repair shop4 ,besides the above and many other departments1 at ,essen1 connected with the making of cannons1 there are steel works at ,annen1 in ,westphalia1 three collieries in ,westphalia1 besides participation in several others2 #edg iron mines in ,germany2 various iron mines at ,bilboa1 in ,spain2 four iron works1 including one at ,duisburg1 one at ,engers1 one at ,neuwid1 and one at ,sahn2 various quarries of clay1 sandstone1 etc42 four steamers1 and artillery ground at ,meppen1 ,hanover4 ,the property owned extends over #igd hectares1 and the number of hands employed in the mines and steelworks is #be1cja4 ,there are altogether #a1ejj furnaces of various kinds1 #c1jjj engines and machine tools1 #bb roll trains1 #aaa steam hammers1 #b hydraulic presses1 #bfc stationary boilers1 #dba steam engines1 representing together a force of #cc1aci horse power1 and #dcj cranes1 including travelers1 having a collective lifting power of #d1ffb tons4 ,the total length of the shafting is #h4h kiloms4 7#e miles71 and that of railways1 standard and small gage1 #he kiloms4 7#ec miles71 worked by #cb regular trains1 with #cc locomotives4 ,the annual consumption of coal amounts to #a1bec1afa tons1 and that of lighting gas to #ab1jjj1jjj cubic meters1 while there are #egc arc and #a1hjd incandescent electric lamps4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,physics ,,without ,,apparatus4 ,the ,chain and the ,string4--,to the extremity of a string about #ah in4 in length attach a chain about #ae in4 in length1 the extremities of which are united4 ,holding the string vertically between the fingers1 give it a rapid rotary motion4 ,the chain will first open out as seen at ,a of the figure4 ,upon increasing the velocity of rotation1 it will be thrown out farther and farther until it finally forms a circle in a horizontal plane4 ,in this motion1 the string forms a sort of conoidal surface1 distended by centrifugal force4 ,illustration3 ,the ,chain and the ,string ,b of the figure gives the exact aspect that the arrangement offers to the eye during the revolution4 ,in the same way1 a penholder attached by one of its extremities to a string assumes an almost horizontal position4 ,this experiment illustrates the principle of centrifugal force4 ,a ,coin ,rolling ,upon a ,parasol4--,in treatises upon physics and mechanics inertia is defined as follows3 ,no particle of matter in a state of rest possesses within itself the power of putting itself in motion2 or1 if it be moving1 of bringing itself to a state of rest4 ,as an example of this principle1 we may recall here the trick performed by certain jugglers1 and that consists in making a coin roll over the top of a ,japanese paper parasol4 ,the parasol is revolved very rapidly1 and1 to the eyes of the spectator1 the coin seems to remain immovable4 ,it is1 in reality1 the parasol that revolves under the coin4 ,breaking ,stones with the ,fist4--,it is through the live force acquired1 or inertia at rest1 that stones are broken by a blow of the fist4 ,this experiment is performed as follow3 ,the right hand being properly bandaged with a handkerchief1 the stone to be broken is taken with the left and allowed to rest upon a larger stone or upon an anvil4 ,then the stone to be broken is struck with the right fist1 while care is taken to raise it a slight distance above the anvil just before the fist touches it4 ,the stone then takes on the velocity of the fist that strikes it1 and coming into violent contact with its support1 is very promptly broken4 ,as simple as this experiment is1 it always surprises the spectators4 ,experiment on ,inertia4--,it is not impossible to remove from a table set for a guest a large napkin employed in lieu of a table cloth1 without disarranging the objects placed upon it4 ,to this effect1 it suffices to give the napkin a quick horizontal jerk in stiffening the edges held by the hands4 ,we recommend our readers to try this experiment only with table ware of slight value1 for one cannot always be sure of succeeding immediately4 ,tinware may be employed very advantageously4 ,the ,dice and the ,dice ,box4--,a dice box and two dice are held in the hand1 and the question is to throw one die into the air and catch it in the box4 ,this is not difficult1 but the difficulty is to cause the second to enter1 for if this be thrown into the air1 the first1 which is already in the box1 will fly into the air likewise and fall outside4 ,in order to make the second enter while the first is already in the box1 it must not be thrown into the air1 but the hand and the box must be quickly lowered in freeing it1 so that the first die1 which is in the box1 shall be at a less height than the second1 which is in the fingers4 ,the dice fall less quickly than the hand and the box4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement4 ,,published ,,weekly4 ,,terms ,,of ,,subscription1 #e ,a ,,year4 ,sent by mail1 postage prepaid1 to subscribers in any 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99 99 ,,catalogues ,a ,catalogue of ,valuable ,papers contained in ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement during the past ten years1 sent free of charge to any address2 also1 a comprehensive catalogue of useful books by different authors1 on more than fifty different subjects1 has recently been published for free circulation1 at the office of this paper4 ,subjects classified with names of authors4 ,persons desiring a copy have only to ask for it1 and it will be mailed to them4 ,address ,,munn ,,co41 #cja ,,broadway1 ,,new ,,york4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,patents6 ,,messrs4 ,,munn ,,co41 in connection with the publication of the ,,scientific ,,american1 continue to examine improvements1 and to act as ,solicitors of ,patents for ,inventors4 ,in this line of business they haw had nearly fifty years' experience1 and now have unequalled facilities for the preparation of ,patent ,drawings1 ,specifications1 and the prosecution of ,applications for ,patents in the ,united ,states1 ,canada1 and ,foreign 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