,illustration ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement ,,no4 #ffd ,,new ,,york1 ,,september #bb1 #ahhh ,scientific ,american ,supplement4 ,vol4 ,,xxvi41 ,no4 #ffd4 ,scientific ,american established #ahde ,scientific ,american ,supplement1 #e a year4 ,scientific ,american and ,supplement1 #g a year4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,,page ,i4 ,,architecture4--,the ,commercial ,exchange1 ,paris4--,history of the new building1 with its general design and architectural features4--#b illustrations #ajfjg ,the ,new ,central ,railway ,station at ,frankfort-on-the-,main4--,a full description of this gigantic structure1 with its constructive features and cost4--#b illustrations #ajfje ,,ii4 ,,art ,,of ,,war4--,gun ,practice in the ,french ,navy4--,gun practice at sea against a moving target4--#a illustration #ajeii ,modern ,cavalry on the ,field of ,battle4--,by ,col4 ,r4 ,s4 ,,liddell4--,an exhaustive paper on this subject1 treating of a much discussed branch of military tactics #ajfjj ,,iii4 ,,biology4--,subterraneous ,flora and ,fauna4--,by ,dr4 ,otto ,zacharias4--,a popular article on the interesting subject of animal and vegetable life underground4--#h illustrations #ajfab ,,iv4 ,,chemistry4--,pepsin4--,by ,a4 ,,percy ,,smith1 ,f4,i4,c41 ,f4,c4,s4--,the analysis of pepsin1 difficulties of the usual method1 and simple comparative test1 applicable by any one #ajfaa ,v4 ,,civil ,,engineering4--,timber and ,some of ,its ,diseases4--,by ,h4 ,,marshall ,,ward4--,continuation of this valuable series1 treating of fungus life and its destructive effects4--#e illustrations #ajfac ,,vi4 ,,electricity4--,a ,basis from which to ,calculate ,charges for ,electric ,motor ,service4--,a practical paper treating of the percentage of horse power hours used in different industries #ajfjh ,,vii4 ,,ethnology4--,a ,chinese ,imperial ,cemetery4--,the cemetery of the emperors of the ,ming dynasty4--,the remarkable statues and buildings4--#b illustrations #ajfaj ,how a ,mound was ,built4--,an interesting contribution to the history of the ,ohio mounds by ,mr4 ,,gerard ,,fowke #ajfji ,some ,abyssinian ,customs4--,the hair dressing of the ,abyssinian women4--,their method of grinding pepper4--#c illustrations #ajfji ,,viii4 ,,medicine ,,and ,,surgery4--,a ,new ,surgical ,operation4--,dr4 ,brudenell ,carter's operation for relieving pressure on the optic nerve #ajfaa ,dyspepsia1 its causes and prevention4--,how this malady is caused and how easily it may be guarded against1 an essay in prophylaxis #ajfaj ,,ix4 ,,mechanical ,,engineering4--,coal ,tar as ,fuel for ,steam ,boilers4--,by ,,john ,mc,c,r,a,e1 of ,dundee4--,a review of the economy of tar firing and of the method employed by the writer4--#a illustration #ajfjd ,steam ,generator of ,serpollet ,brothers1 producing steam instantaneously4--,a new inexplodible steam generator1 its construction and application to a tricycle4--#c illustrations #ajfjb ,transmission of ,power between ,bodies ,moving at ,different ,velocities4--,a simple system of transmitting power applicable in many places #ajfjb ,x4 ,,miscellaneous4--,note on ,missouri ,marble #ajfad ,water ,blast ,pump4--,a filter pump of simplified and improved construction4--#c illustrations #ajfjb ,,xi4 ,,naval ,,engineering4--,iron ,sailing ,ships4--,scotch sailing ships1 built of iron and steel1 the favorite sizes and rigging adopted4--#a illustration #ajfjb ,,xii4 ,,sanitary ,,engineering4--,putzeys' ,flushing ,reservoir4--,a ,french invention1 applicable in sewage disposal and pipe flushing4--#a illustration #ajfaa ,,xiii4 ,,technology4--,gas ,lighting by ,high ,power ,burners4--,a review of a number of regenerative and other gas burners and their practical success #ajfjc ,synchronizing ,clocks4--,a simple synchronizing mechanism described and illustrated4--#a illustration #ajfjd ,watch ,cleaning and ,repairing4--,a long paper treating of the details of watch cleaning from the practical standpoint #ajfjd 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,,gun ,,practice ,,in ,,the ,,french ,,navy4 ,,gun ,,practice ,,in ,,the ,,french ,,navy4 ,the gunners of the ,french fleet are possessed of a skill which is recognized by all the maritime powers1 and these picked men proved this at the siege of ,paris1 where they made themselves illustrious1 not only by their courage and their coolness1 but also by the accuracy of their firing4 ,nothing is neglected1 moreover1 to keep up the precision of hand and eye that distinguishes them1 and which has become so much the more necessary in that it is no longer a question of firing a broadside at the enemy and reckoning on one ball being more fortunate than another in damaging the enemy's ship4 ,at present1 the most powerful ironclad has four1 and sometimes six or eight1 guns of large caliber1 which are of from #cj to #ajj tons4 ,every shot represents not only an enormous sum1 but also a prodigious force expended1 and so powder must not be used too lavishly1 since the shot should be in relation with the colossal power that it represents1 and the shell adopted in the navy is accompanied with so disastrous effects that a single one1 well directed1 is capable of reducing the enemy's ship to impotence4 ,so exercises in firing are becoming more and more frequent1 and they have a right to be multiplied1 inasmuch as the present guns are complicated affairs1 the maneuvering of which requires constant practice4 ,our engraving represents one of these exercises performed by the ,squadron of the ,north1 which is of recent organization1 and which consists of the three ironclads ,marengo1 ,suffren1 and ,ocean1 and three coast guards ,furieux1 ,fulminant1 and ,tonnerre4 ,each of the ironclads is provided with four #bg cm4 guns and four #bd cm4 ones1 not counting the revolving guns1 which constitute the small artillery reserved for fighting torpedo boats4 ,the ,furieux has two #cd cm4 guns1 and the ,tonnerre and ,fulminant each two #cg cm4 ones4 ,an endeavor is made1 as far as possible1 to practice firing such as is done in a naval action1 that is1 at moving targets4 ,to this effect1 the dispatch boat ,epervier tows a rectangular float about two meters in length1 upon which are arranged two canvas balloons kept taut by a wooden framework4 ,one of these balloons is white and the other is black4 ,each is a meter in diameter1 and is supported by a rod which is usually a meter in height4 ,the vessels of the squadron successively fire their large guns at this target1 which moves at a definite velocity4 ,the shell1 on dropping into the water1 raises an immense jet1 which entirely hides the balloons when the projectile falls in a line with and sufficiently near the target4 ,the smoke that envelops the ships1 the thunder that echoes in the calm of the sea1 and the jet that rises in the air produce a thrilling effect and give an idea of the power of man carried to the last expression4--,l',illustration4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,modern ,,cavalry ,,on ,,the ,,field ,,of ,,battle4#a ,footnote #a3 ,a lecture lately delivered at the ,aldershot ,military ,society's library4 ,by ,col4 ,r4 ,s4 ,,liddell4 ,i feel that some apology is due from me for coming down to ,aldershot and giving my opinions before so many officers whose daily experience renders them much more capable than ,i am of bringing this subject forward1 and it was with some hesitation that ,i yielded to the flattering invitation of the ,military ,society of ,aldershot to read a paper here to-day on cavalry4 ,at the same time1 if it is thought that anything ,i can say can increase the success that this society has already met with1 ,i can only add that ,i render my services most willingly4 ,it seems to me one of the many advantages that these meetings possess is the bringing together of the different branches of the service1 and the mutual information they afford of each other's arm4 ,when we look back only a few years1 we have much to be thankful for in the disappearance of a vast amount of prejudice that used to exist between the different branches4 ,each arm thought that theirs1 and theirs only1 was worth studying4 ,infantry officers sometimes said1 as long as their arm was sufficiently numerous and well equipped1 that1 with the exception of a few scouts and orderlies1 cavalry might be dispensed with4 ,artillery might think that unless guns were largely used1 no infantry could ever make an attack at all2 while cavalry officers1 who were perhaps the most conservative of all1 would point to the past1 and show how every battle that had ever been fought was won by cavalry1 and ever would be4 ,confidence in one's own arm is most desirable1 and should be fostered1 if at the same time we can learn how to work with others1 remembering that while cavalry gives the information to and hides the movements of the army1 while artillery shakes and disperses the enemy's formation1 and prepares the way for attack1 it is the infantry alone who can assault and hold the position1 and it is for their advance and to bring them up to the point that determines the battle in the condition most favorable to insure success that all the efforts of the other two arms must be devoted4 ,i have made these preliminary remarks1 as from my paper being entirely given to the actions of cavalry1 it might appear that ,i am claiming more for that arm in the battle field than is reasonable2 but ,i wish it clearly understood that whatever ,i may say is only in an auxiliary sense to the action of infantry1 and ,i trust that ,i shall not be thought underestimating other arms1 while showing unbounded confidence in my own4 ,the necessary rest required by ,europe after the exhaustion of the wars of ,napoleon resulted in the long peace which succeeded the campaign of #ahae4 ,this1 and the improvement that took place in fire arms in the next forty years1 gave room for speculation as to whether cavalry would play as important a part in the future as it had done in the past1 under ,marlborough1 ,frederick the ,great1 ,napoleon1 and ,wellington4 ,the ,crimean war helped to confirm the opinion that the days of cavalry had gone by4 ,no account was made of the enormous distance by sea that the cavalry had to be transported1 the unfavorable nature of the seat of war for that arm1 the little scope given in a campaign that resolved itself into a siege1 the smallness of the cavalry force employed1 and the difficulty in keeping up a fresh supply of horses4 ,after this war came the introduction and improvement in the breech loader1 and with it opinions were strengthened that cavalry duties would be still further limited1 and its traditions for a time appear to have been lost4 ,the awakening from this transient period of theory came from a nation not trained to arms1 and it is to the ,american civil war that we owe the revival that took place in the use of the cavalry arm4 ,the raids made by the ,confederates under ,morgan1 ,stuart1 ,forrest1 and by the ,federals under ,sheridan1 drew attention to advanced cavalry work1 such as scouting1 reconnaissance1 outpost and dismounted work4 ,as particular examples we may select ,morgan's boldest and greatest raid in #ahfb1 when he passed through ,kentucky and ,indiana1 capturing large stores from the enemy4 ,by his rapid and skillful marches the ,federal officers were completely bewildered4 ,he was absent from his army #bd days1 in which time he traveled #a1jjj miles1 capturing #ag towns and destroying all the government supplies and arms4 ,in a second raid he forced the ,federal army to fall back by taking possession of the railway in its rear which brought it supplies4 ,in ,october1 #ahfb1 ,stuart made his greatest raid through ,pennsylvania1 around the ,northern army4 ,he set out with #a1hjj cavalry and four pieces of horse artillery1 and crossed the ,potomac4 ,the telegraph wires were cut in all directions1 railways obstructed1 and a large number of horses captured1 and all the public stores and buildings were destroyed4 ,his position at this time was very critical1 #ij miles from his own army4 ,he considered it less dangerous to return by the opposite way to which he came4 ,forrest used his cavalry in every possible manner1 dismounting in the battle field and employing it as infantry4 ,in ,october1 #ahfd1 during a raid1 he impeded the navigation of the ,tennessee ,river1 which was filled with ,federal gunboats4 ,choosing a strong position on the bank1 he masked his guns and awaited the approach of the enemy's vessels4 ,he captured a gunboat and a transport1 and manned them with his own men2 but his naval expedition did not last long4 ,pursued by several gunboats1 he had to run his ships on shore1 when the troopers gladly mounted their horses again4 ,his object was1 however1 gained--inspiring alarm throughout the country and occupying a considerable number of the enemy4 ,later on the ,federals copied this system1 when the raids of ,sheridan1 with his #aj1jjj horsemen1 armed with the magazine rifle and revolver1 with sword attached to the saddle1 brought about the final overthrow of the ,southern army4 ,the next campaign that took place was in #ahff1 known as the ,seven ,weeks' ,war1 when large bodies of cavalry were used by the ,austrians and ,prussians4 ,this campaign was of such short duration that there was not sufficient time for the experience gained in the use of cavalry to be utilized while the war lasted2 but when the war was over1 both sides1 having bought their experience1 set out to reorganize their systems1 and the course pursued by the ,prussians after this campaign in largely increasing their cavalry was fully justified by the advantages reaped in the war in ,france in #ahgj4 ,at the close of the ,franco-,german war the attention of the whole of ,europe was called to the successful use of ,german cavalry during the campaign1 more especially the advanced duties1 when at times #fj miles in breadth and #ej in advance of the army was covered by the cavalry4 ,in ,england1 after the termination of this war1 many ,german military works of great value were translated and published2 the battle fields in ,france were visited and described2 every movement of both armies1 strategical and tactical1 was studied4 ,all this tended to draw our attention to the extended use of the cavalry arm in future campaigns1 and the shortcomings of our own system were carefully scrutinized4 ,the movements of our drill book were simplified1 the careful training of our men in shooting was more fully recognized1 and the teaching of advanced cavalry duties1 reconnaissance1 outpost and dismounted work1 were gone into most thoroughly--in such a manner that ,i may confidently appeal to those officers who have the best opportunities of forming an opinion1 whether our cavalry does not bear comparison now with what is being done in other armies1 and in these matters is advancing in a satisfactory manner4 ,while all this good work has been going on 7and ,i would be the last to say one word that might seem to depreciate its value7 we may perhaps have permitted the action of cavalry on the field of battle to escape from sufficient notice4 ,it is for this reason ,i will ask your permission to bring before you this subject1 believing that the opinions of all branches of the service being brought to bear upon it1 considerable advantage maybe obtained4 ,it will be my endeavor to show1 not by my own arguments1 but by quotations from others1 that cavalry still has an important part to take on the battle field1 and far from its duties ending when armies come in contact1 that it is still reserved to them1 as has been the case before1 to decide1 perhaps by only one charge1 the issue of a whole campaign4 ,prince ,kraft in his letters on cavalry says3 ,the battle of ,mars-la-,tour1 won by the bold employment of cavalry1 made possible the blockade of ,metz1 and afterward the surrender of the whole of ,bazaine's army4 ,so it may be said1 without exaggeration1 that the charge of ,bredow's six squadrons on that day was the turning point of the ,franco-,german campaign4 ,colonel ,home1 in his ,prcis of ,modern ,tactics1 says3 ,the action of cavalry on the actual battle field is by no means a thing of the past4 ,the use of cavalry with skill at the right moment and in the right numbers has always been considered one of the most difficult problems in war4 ,modern arms have increased this difficulty manifold1 but to say the day of cavalry on the field of battle is past is merely another way of saying that the knowledge of how it should be used is wanting4 ,cavalry is apportioned to an army in two capacities3 7#a7 ,divisional cavalry1 that is 7if possible7 a regiment1 or as many squadrons as can be spared1 attached to each infantry division1 acting under the orders of the general of the division4 7#b7 ,the cavalry division1 that is1 a large body of cavalry composed of several brigades1 an independent body having its own commander4 ,on the march the divisional cavalry covers the head and flanks of its own division3 on the field of battle it will be as near as possible to its division1 in the most sheltered spot that can be found2 in the early part of the battle it would be kept as much in reserve as possible1 cheloned in rear of one flank of its own infantry4 ,it would remain there until the artillery and musketry had effected their work1 and the enemy's flanks had become thinned and shaken4 ,then1 when his infantry become tired and exhausted1 under cover of the smoke1 the cavalry may be further advanced4 ,prince ,kraft says3 ,at ,sedan the divisional cavalry were employed during the battle1 charging by single squadrons1 patrolling and reconnoitering to obtain information of the enemy and the ground4 ,every infantry body is accompanied by patrols1 however small4 ,an instance of the too early employment of cavalry in a battle occurred at ,waterloo1 when ,napoleon at the commencement launched his cavalry into the fight4 ,the result was that although it far outnumbered the ,english at first1 it became so reduced1 depressed1 and worn out1 that it was unable afterward to offer full resistance to the ,british squadrons1 who were comparatively fresh4 ,wellington1 on the contrary1 after his first successes1 kept his cavalry1 as much as possible1 in reserve4 ,the field of battle itself shows the proper situation of cavalry1 but the divisional cavalry on the defensive side must always be at hand to fall upon the flanks of the enemy's infantry when in extended order1 while that of the attacking side must be equally at hand to prevent the flanks of its own infantry being so attacked4 ,in discussing the action of divisional cavalry1 the most advantageous time for its assisting in the combat must be considered4 ,at what moment1 if any1 can infantry be attacked by cavalry8 ,when opposed to a force acting on the defensive1 divisional cavalry has its operations limited1 and probably in the earlier part of an engagement1 confined to watching1 and1 if possible1 guarding the flanks of its own attacking infantry from surprise4 ,it is the cavalry on the defenders' side that has the greatest opportunities4 ,in both cases1 however1 a rule must be made not to attack infantry when it has taken up a favorable position1 or before its ranks have been shaken by artillery or musketry4 ,prince ,kraft1 in speaking of ,mars-la-,tour1 says3 ,this same day took place a series of cavalry charges of greater or less importance1 which all showed practically to the cavalry the limits of their effective action against infantry4 ,the advancing infantry were brought to a stand1 infantry who gave way were ridden down1 but where the cavalry attacked infantry intact1 the cavalry were unable to prevail4 ,the precision of modern fire arms has necessitated great changes in infantry tactics4 ,to advance against the murderous fire of the present rifle1 infantry is compelled to adopt scattered formations in small lines1 and to move forward with sudden rushes4 ,all this lends itself to the attacks of an active cavalry4 ,when these infantry attacks take place1 it may be presumed that they have already been under arms some hours1 have marched some distance1 and been exposed to considerable loss from artillery and musketry fire4 ,their advance in extended formation will have commenced at about #a1jjj yards1 or earlier4 ,by this time the squadrons opposing them will have been brought to a more advanced position1 to the nearest point to their flank where cover is afforded1 and to carry this out successfully requires skillful handling4 ,files must be extended1 and short rushes made with small bodies1 say half a troop if over exposed ground1 into sheltered places4 ,it is true that cavalry cannot hide themselves over exposed ground as infantry can1 but they have one advantage that nothing can deprive them of--rapidity of motion2 and the distance that would take them say #aj seconds to traverse1 viz41 #aej yards1 would take infantry a minute4 ,prince ,kraft writes3 ,no battle field is a tabula rasa1 for in the most exposed country there are depressions4 ,if strong skirmishing lines of infantry can advance directly over a country devoid of cover1 cavalry can undoubtedly do the like1 if by making use of the lie of the ground they can gain the enemy's flank4 ,a skilled cavalry leader will thus undoubtedly find an opportunity to get close to the enemy4 ,having arrived at this more advanced position1 say from #ejj to #a1jjj yards1 according to the formation of the ground1 the nearer the better1 the most favorable moment to assail the flanks of the attacking infantry would probably be immediately before the last belt of the fighting line1 and before the main body had re-enforced them1 as they are preparing for their last united rush1 and as their supports are doubling up to join them4 ,at this moment the men would be to some extent out of breath1 their attention would be fixed on the point about to be attacked1 and their flanks would be neglected4 ,cavalry should then descend upon them at the utmost speed that can be extracted from the horses1 with a good interval from knee to knee4 ,if there is only one squadron1 one troop should take the flank or fighting line1 while the other throws itself upon the support4 ,as the distance to be covered in the open will probably be not more than from #bjj to #djj yards1 they will be exposed to fire1 supposing none of the ground is undulating1 for fifteen to thirty seconds when at full speed4 ,as they close on the infantry neither the supports nor those in rear of them or their artillery will dare to fire1 on account of their own men4 ,if the infantry run to get into small squares1 as is most likely1 the cavalry must endeavor to catch them before they assemble4 ,if they get together it may be too late for the cavalry to stop4 ,they must then throw themselves upon them and trust to the supporting squadron to complete the attack4 ,although it is rare that a battle field is on such ground that there are no undulations to afford shelter for cavalry in an advanced position1 this may be the case1 and if so the enemy's infantry attack must be allowed to take place1 but even then1 by cavalry showing itself on the flanks for a moment1 infantry would get together and afford a better mark for fire1 and the progress of the attack would be delayed4 ,the very appearance of cavalry frequently frightens infantry into masses4 ,if the ground was too much exposed for the charge1 men might be dismounted1 with their carbines1 at a safe distance to assist the infantry4 ,if mounted infantry were at hand1 they would be utilized in the same way1 and the machine guns of the cavalry would also pour in their volleys4 ,if the enemy's attack is successful1 cavalry must then advance on their flanks and take its chance1 and if necessary sacrifice itself to give its own infantry time to rally4 ,if it is unsuccessful1 the cavalry must be ready to take every favorable opportunity of molesting its broken ranks4 ,speaking of ,mars-la-,tour1 ,prince ,kraft says3 ,during the battle a ,german infantry brigade was forced to retire with heavy loss1 and ran some danger of being annihilated by the pursuing enemy4 ,but the ,first ,dragoons of the ,guards threw themselves on the pursuers4 ,the enemy's infantry massed round the eagles and ceased to press on1 while the thin ranks of our infantry were able to rally1 and our guns were saved and brought into position4 ,the losses were heavy2 half a regiment of cavalry 7#bej horses7 were sacrificed in order to save the brigade4 ,at ,waterloo a ,french division of infantry fled before three regiments of dragoons 7the ,union ,brigade74 ,the ,royal ,dragoons and the ,inniskillings in first line1 the ,scots ,greys on their left rear1 the whole under ,sir ,william ,ponsonby1 acting in support of the ,highland ,infantry ,brigade1 were awaiting the attack of the whole of the #ast ,french ,division under ,gen4 ,alix4 ,the three ,scotch regiments threw into them a concentrated fire1 and as they were staggered by the shock ,ponsonby gave the order to advance4 ,passing through the ,highlanders1 the ,greys having come up into line1 the three regiments charged the leading portion of the ,french column1 which yielded1 and those in rear were hurled back4 ,the dragoons having the advantage of the descent of the hill appeared to mow down the mass1 the ,greys on the left pressed on through the supporting brigade of the ,french1 while the ,royals drove back the right1 giving no time for fire4 ,many threw down their arms1 while hundreds of prisoners were hurried off to the rear of the line4 ,at the same time the ,inniskillings forced their way through the center1 when the remainder of the ,french division broke and fled4 ,it may be said that this took place before the introduction of the rifle1 and is therefore no example1 but it took place within the range of the weapon then in use1 and at that distance it was equally effective4 ,the celebrated charge of ,bredow's brigade at ,vieuville 7,mars-la-,tour7 also shows what an energetic attack may do4 ,it had become necessary to demand a sacrifice from the cavalry for the good of the army1 to enable ,prince ,frederick ,charles1 with only #bd1jjj infantry1 to hold in check ,bazaine's army of #ahj1jjj until his own main body came up4 ,bredow's cavalry brigade consisted of six squadrons of the #gth ,cuirassiers and the #afth ,uhlans4 ,they were ordered to make a breach in the front of the #afth ,french ,army ,corps4 ,the six squadrons advanced in column1 the cuirassiers leading1 when they received the word to change direction to the right1 then to form line1 which was done under heavy fire4 ,the cuirassiers getting into line first1 charged at once1 the #afth following in echelon4 ,in a moment the batteries1 vomiting flames1 were reached with a loud hurrah1 and the gunners cut down at their guns1 when the whole brigade1 which had now got into one line1 charged the long lines of infantry in rear1 who received them with a heavy fire from their chassepots4 ,these lines1 too1 were broken through1 and the main object of the charge was attained1 but1 carried away by the ardor of the combat1 they charged and took the mitrailleuses1 when the ,french cuirassiers1 with a dragoon brigade in support1 come down upon them1 and compelled them to fall back4 ,this they did1 having to force their way back through the enemy's masses of infantry with enormous loss4 ,the object1 however1 was gained1 and the attack of the ,french corps checked and never resumed4 ,the cavalry division covers the advance of the whole army1 and is a day or two in front of it4 ,it conceals and guards the army1 while finding out the movements of the enemy4 ,it collects information1 and is also used with horse artillery on great enterprises on the enemy's communications4 ,having finished the reconnaissance and covering the army on the day of battle1 it falls back as the two opposing sides come in contact1 and awaits further orders4 ,on the battle field it should be placed so as to suffer as little loss as possible--as a rule1 in rear of the flanks4 ,how far must depend on the formation of the ground2 if shelter is to be obtained nearer the front1 the better4 ,if not1 then some #b1jjj yards in rear of one flank would seem advisable4 ,its duties are to guard the exposed flank or flanks and rear of the army1 while it watches the cavalry of the enemy4 ,if within range of artillery1 it should be kept on the move from front to rear4 ,its strength should not be wasted or frittered away on doubtful enterprises1 as it maybe required for some decisive blow1 in pursuit1 or in covering the retreat4 ,prince ,kraft1 speaking of the battle of ,st4 ,privat1 says3 ,on the #ahth of ,august the gigantic fight of ,st4 ,privat took place4 ,the cavalry divisions were held back in reserve1 but the divisional cavalry took an active part4 ,during the battle a squadron of hussars advanced and sent information of the enemy making a flank movement4 ,he also says3 ,at ,sedan the cavalry division was kept in reserve4 ,the massing of artillery at the commencement of a battle must expose a long line with some weak spot to attack4 ,if protected by cavalry1 then probably a cavalry combat will ensue4 ,prince ,kraft says3 ,the action of the masses of ,german cavalry at ,mars-la-,tour excited wonder and admiration2 they surprised the enemy's cavalry when in bivouac1 they met and surrounded the hostile infantry in a threatening manner1 and thus #h1jjj cavalry occupied #fe1jjj infantry1 until the ,prussian infantry came up4 ,the cavalry made no charges which could not have been successful1 but carried out their task of occupying the enemy almost without loss4 ,in the old days these squadrons would have charged and ridden down the infantry4 ,the change is the result of the improvement in fire arms4 ,during the early stages of a battle1 advanced parties1 under officers selected for the purpose1 must be kept out from the cavalry division to watch the enemy's movements1 and the information they should be able to afford should be invaluable to the general-in-chief4 ,an engagement with the enemy's cavalry should not be sought unless they are much weaker2 but should the necessity arise1 the ground should be reconnoitered1 and every advantage of position taken to insure success4 ,the attack being determined on1 the preparations for it should be carried out rapidly4 ,echelon movements have many advantages4 ,they favor the formation of oblique lines1 they also insure in a charge direct to the front the bringing up of squadron after squadron in support4 ,the attack of ,vivian's ,hussar ,brigade upon the ,french reserves at ,waterloo gives a brilliant illustration of this1 and has been termed by ,siborne the crisis of ,waterloo4 ,this celebrated charge1 intended to be in line1 became virtually a charge in echelon of squadrons in consequence of the rapid pace of the head of the column4 ,the movement of cavalry must be rapid and unexpected1 and bear the character of determined confidence2 an effort should be made by maneuvering to come suddenly on the enemy's flank4 ,a gentle declivity for the final charge must be sought4 ,the rapid1 vigorous1 and determined charge in line on to cavalry1 riding knee to knee1 is what is required4 ,the charge to be made effectual1 the horses must be brought up in wind1 the gallop must not be begun too early2 when begun it must gradually be increased to a fast gallop1 the final charge for the last sixty yards made with every horse extended4 ,nothing1 then1 must be left undone to excite the spirit of enthusiasm1 even to ferocity2 then1 and only then1 the 'cheer' to be raised4 ,at ,waterloo the charge of the heavy brigade1 the #ast and #b;d ,life ,guards and ,king's ,dragoon ,guards1 with the ,blues in support1 is a good example of a successful attack on cavalry4 ,the ,french line of cavalry as it advanced presented an imposing appearance4 ,they had ascended the brow of the ridge1 when a vigorous fire from ,ross' ,horse ,artillery was opened on to them4 ,in the next moment their trumpets sounded the charge and they rushed to the attack1 and as cuirassiers approached the ,british squares1 the ,heavy ,brigade dashed into them4 ,the shock was terrific4 ,the right of the ,life ,guards being thrown forward1 came first into collision4 ,the right of the ,french was suddenly thrown out by coming unexpectedly on to a hollow way1 and as they passed it the #b;d ,life ,guards came full speed upon them4 ,the ,french cuirassiers were driven back and pursued until the ,english brigade came under infantry fire4 ,the charge of the ,heavy ,cavalry ,brigade at ,balaklava1 under ,gen4 ,scarlett1 is another good example1 when the ,russian cavalry1 receiving the ,british charge at a halt1 were entirely overthrown4 ,one of the greatest difficulties after the charge is to know when and how to stop1 and it is then that the squadron and troop leaders1 well in front of their men1 must use all their efforts to carry out the ends of their commander4 ,i think this is the time when a strong whistle carried by the commanding officer and the squadron leaders can be used with good effect4 ,being an unusual sound1 it would attract attention4 ,the battle being over1 some of the most serious duties of cavalry commence4 ,if the enemy is victorious1 the pursuit has immediately to follow4 ,history points out the difficulty of carrying this out4 ,uncertainty of the victory1 or how far it can be counted on1 often delays its commencement4 ,battles are often ended by nightfall1 valuable time is lost1 and the golden opportunities are past4 ,an active cavalry leader will1 however1 without further orders at least1 follow with his advanced parties and not lose touch of the enemy4 ,he will soon learn the condition of the enemy1 act accordingly1 harass his flanks and rear and play upon him with his artillery4 ,an example of another manner in which cavalry may be employed after a victory can be taken from the ,egyptian campaign of #ahhb1 when1 after the battle of ,tel-el-,kebir1 by a rapid advance of the cavalry some fifty miles ahead of the infantry1 the capital of the country was captured by the ,english cavalry division4 ,if the battle is lost1 still greater are the responsibilities of the cavalry4 ,detached squadrons with scouts must be sent round the flanks to ascertain the strength of the enemy sent in pursuit4 ,every available position must be taken up by the horse artillery1 and every advantage seized for counter attack4 ,above all1 accurate information must be obtained for the general-in-chief of the nature of the pursuit1 in order that he may not harass his main body by falling back further than necessary4 ,this subject1 however1 is beyond the scope of this lecture1 and is one of study of past campaigns4 ,of the action of cavalry in savage warfare1 the recent campaigns in ,africa have given some experience4 ,in the presence of an enemy met with in such enormous numbers as in the desert1 cut off from all help1 knowing that unless you win you die1 it seems to be decided that our infantry must adopt the square as the most suitable formation4 ,in the ,zulu war1 the cavalry at the battle of ,ulundi was placed inside the square4 ,the experience met with there was exceptional1 and from the swarms of savages surrounding the square in all directions it was considered desirable to keep the #agth ,lancers in the center of it1 in order that they should not interfere with the infantry fire1 and that when the enemy was repulsed1 they should be launched out upon them1 and this was done with perfect success4 ,it is1 however1 contrary to the instincts and traditions of cavalry to be shut up in a square1 and1 where practicable1 ,i should think cavalry outside a square1 even at some distance out of the way of the infantry fire1 acting with horse artillery1 would very much disturb the attacking bodies of the enemy1 and perhaps attract away a portion of them1 and they could be brought up1 when called upon to do so1 to carry out the pursuit4 ,in the first campaign on the east coast of the ,soudan1 on the advance to ,el ,teb and afterward to ,tokar1 squadrons were sent in front and on the flanks of the square with scouts thrown out to feel the way and obtain information1 while the main body of the cavalry was echeloned on the rear and flank opposite an angle of the square in the most suitable manner to avoid any interference with its fire4 ,during the action it remained in this position until after the first attack on the square1 when it moved away past the square on the outward flank and acted on the enemy's rear and engaged their reserves until the action was over4 ,during the desert march in the ,nile expedition1 the #aith ,hussars1 by its scouting1 protected the square and gave it timely notice of the approach of the enemy4 ,in a country where a great deal of bush abounds the effective charge of cavalry on to groups of savages is very much curtailed4 ,the ,arabs throw themselves on to the ground behind the prickly bushes1 the ranks are opened out as the horses avoid the thorns1 and the men get no chance of using their swords2 but although much execution is not achieved under these circumstances1 the natives have great fear of cavalry1 and they are prevented from attacking elsewhere4 ,when their attention is thus occupied1 horse artillery and machine guns might make great havoc among them4 ,at the action of ,tamai1 where the ground1 from the rocks and ravines of the neighboring mountains1 was unsuitable for cavalry charges1 when one of the infantry squares was broken1 the cavalry advanced1 and one squadron of the #ajth ,hussars1 dismounting1 helped to create a favorable diversion by pouring fire into the flanks of the attacking ,arabs4 ,my remarks would1 ,i think1 be considered incomplete if ,i did not touch on the question of cavalry charging squares1 as this point is always made very prominent in all discussions on the action of cavalry4 ,i therefore must not pass it by4 ,i will say at once that ,i think it most undesirable1 even under favorable circumstances1 that cavalry should charge a formed square and men armed with the breech loader4 ,at best the gain can be but local and partial1 while the loss to the cavalry--an arm so difficult to keep up in numbers--must be disastrous1 and it seems to me that if cavalry by its appearance can force infantry to form square1 it has done enough1 and that the artillery1 infantry1 and machine guns should do the rest4 ,the necessity might1 however1 arise1 and by looking at the past we see its possibility4 ,at ,langensalza two ,prussian squares were broken by the ,hanoverian cavalry1 and the major part taken prisoners4 ,we have only to turn to the recent campaigns in ,egypt to see the effect of determined rushes of men1 intending to succeed1 charging on to squares carefully formed on ground affording shelter1 with an enormous amount of fire being poured upon them4 ,it will be said that these men were fanatics1 but our cavalry1 too1 have been1 and will be1 fanatics in a charge2 and ,i still think1 if the necessity recurs1 that an attack1 properly conducted on favorable ground1 one troop charging on the corner of a square1 followed by another at double distance1 others in echelon on both flanks immediately following1 the whole charging with the greatest impetuosity1 intended to win1 will break down any square that ,englishmen are likely to meet with4 ,if we look back again on the past1 we will find many instances of ,british cavalry not being called upon in vain to make a sacrifice4 ,at ,talavera1 the #bc;d ,light ,dragoons1 supported by the #ast ,hussars of the ,german ,legion1 advanced against the ,french squares4 ,in their impetuous rush they came upon a hollow cleft covered with long grass1 eight feet deep1 and eighteen feet broad4 ,too late to pull up1 the foremost rode headlong into it1 some tumbled in1 others over it1 some rode boldly at it and gained the other side4 ,still they went on1 swept past the infantry columns1 and fell upon a brigade of ,french chasseurs4 ,at ,balaklava #fgj ,british horsemen were launched against an entire wing of the ,russian army4 ,the brigade1 at first in two lines1 the #aath ,hussars1 #agth ,lancers1 and #acth ,light ,dragoons1 followed by the #dth ,light ,dragoons and #hth ,hussars1 advanced down a gradual descent of three-quarters of a mile2 the ,russian guns vomiting shell and shot upon them1 one battery bearing on their right1 another on their left1 and all the intermediate ground covered with riflemen4 ,the guns were charged and forced through1 the forces drawn up in rear were overpowered4 ,they then had to turn1 and1 retiring up hill1 ran through the same gauntlet4 ,in the ,sikh war1 at the battle of ,ferozeshah1 the #c;d ,light ,dragoons charged the enemy's entrenchments at a point defended by some of their heaviest batteries4 ,when within #bej yards the regiment moved at speed under a destructive fire of grape and musketry1 and pressing forward at the charge entered the enemy's camp and captured the whole of the batteries4 ,cavalry attacks have been made with success after dark1 and the advantage1 of course1 is gained of obviating opposing fire4 ,prince ,kraft mentions that after the battle of ,mars-la-,tour1 the cavalry division1 re-enforced by the divisional cavalry1 rode forward to complete the advantages gained4 ,it was almost night1 and fault has been found with making the attack in the dark4 ,if the ground is well known a night attack may be advisable4 ,while criticising it1 we have to think of the feelings of a half-defeated army about to bivouac being attacked by unknown forces in the dark4 ,in this case1 at ,vionville1 the enemy did not wait for a second1 but withdrew1 and abandoned the whole field of battle4 ,prince ,kraft quotes the attack of ,blcher at ,gross-,gorchen and a cavalry attack at ,loon4 ,during the first ,egyptian campaign the ,life ,guards made an attack by moonlight at ,kassassin4 ,i have now1 ,i think1 touched lightly on some important cavalry duties on a campaign4 ,in some points perhaps these remarks may appear contradictory4 ,how to combine keeping cavalry in reserve for any great action it may be called upon to perform1 while using it unsparingly to assist on the battle field1 if the necessity arises4 ,it may1 however1 be noticed that1 much as they may be criticised1 few cavalry commanders have been severely blamed when they have thought it best to take the bolder course4 ,to insure to cavalry the power of carrying out its duties successfully in war1 organization and practice in peace is most essential4 ,infantry may suddenly be increased without much deranging its action in the field1 but cavalry cannot be hurried into an increased augmentation4 ,in tactics simplicity in every evolution and rapidity in execution are the most important principles4 ,this simplicity of drill1 ,i think1 might be assisted if our squadrons were divided into four divisions1 zuges1 or pelotons4 ,when squadrons have #dh files in the front rank there might be four of these1 while weak regiments with #cf files could drill equally as well with three divisions4 ,this system1 introduced by the late ,gen4 ,valentine ,baker into the ,english service for a time1 and now used by all ,european countries1 was found to work well4 ,i think the whistle could be carried with advantage by all cavalry officers4 ,for advanced work attention can be drawn by it without being heard at a distance like a bugle4 ,in movements the commanding officers would find it useful to call the attention of leaders to himself1 especially in extended or chelon formation4 ,i have omitted to make much mention of the action of horse artillery combined with cavalry1 as it seems beyond the limits of this paper2 but it is one to which the cavalry officer's attention requires to be brought most strongly to bear4 ,i would also have wished to have made some remarks on the many advantages to be obtained by having mounted infantry attached to cavalry4 ,i understand that this force would be under the orders of the cavalry general1 and if so1 ,i think a cavalry division well found in horse artillery1 with mounted infantry1 whether conveyed on horses1 or1 where the cavalry admitted of it1 on cars1 and accompanied by machine guns on wheels1 could act in such an independent manner as to enable it to penetrate far ahead into an enemy's country1 or threaten his communications1 and be absent from its main body for many days or weeks4 ,as regards the ,english cavalry1 ,i think it may be said1 without boasting1 that the material is excellent4 ,the men are of the best physique1 recruited from a good class1 and plenty of them to be had4 ,the non-commissioned officers are intelligent and always ready for instruction2 the riding compares favorably with cavalry of other nations1 certainly far better than any ,i have ever seen abroad1 either ,german1 ,russian1 or ,french1 and among all foreign countries we have the reputation of being the best horsemen in the world1 which at all events has a good moral effect4 ,our horses are undoubtedly first-rate1 having more quality and greater speed than foreigners4 ,we have in our officers the exact stuff we want4 ,their very sports and amusements start them with all the makings of cavalry soldiers4 ,but the quickness of eye1 the self-confidence and readiness that these sports and games may give1 require nowadays more than ever something beyond this to produce the trained cavalry leader4 ,cavalry is an arm of opportunity1 and above all others depends greatly on its leaders1 but with the chances now available of reading1 in every detail1 the campaigns of the past1 if taken advantage of1 as is now daily becoming more common1 we should produce in the future the best and most accomplished cavalry officers that this country or any other has ever seen4 ,as there appeared to be a unanimity of opinion on the lecture1 there was no discussion1 and the proceedings closed with a vote of thanks to the lecturer4--,broad ,arrow4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,iron ,,sailing ,,ships4 ,messrs4 ,russell ,co41 ,greenock and ,port ,glasgow1 show at the ,glasgow exhibition a very numerous and varied show of sailing models4 ,first1 we find the noble four-masted ships of from #a1hjj tons to #b1bjj tons1 which sail and carry well on their tonnage1 and which are worked by fewer hands than are required for a ship of the same burden with three masts but squarer yards4 ,some owners prefer the latter1 and so ,messrs4 ,russell show not only such handsome specimens as the four-masted ,falls of ,earn1 but also the three-masted ,ardencraig and ,soudan4 ,one of the favorite models of this firm is that of their #a1ejj ton ship with three masts1 represented by the ,cromartyshire1 of which type they have built a large number of vessels noted alike for their carrying capacity and their excellent sailing qualities4 ,the ,main1 built for ,mr4 ,james ,nourse1 of ,london1 is a good specimen of their #a1gjj ton ship1 as designed for the special trade of the owner1 between ,calcutta1 ,demerara1 and ,london4 ,their #a1cjj ton bark is represented by the model of the ,aboukir ,bay and her sisters of the ,bay ,line1 owned by ,messrs4 ,hatfield1 ,cameron ,co41 of ,glasgow2 while their #a1jjj ton barks are shown in the model of the ,banca1 belonging to ,messrs4 ,p4 ,denniston ,co41 of the same city4 ,these are about the smallest class of sailing ships built during recent years1 the demands of the shipping trade being such as to make it unprofitable to sail anything smaller than about #a1ejj tons2 while the tendency is to exceed #b1jjj tons in burden1 and to reach even as high as #c1jjj tons4--,the ,engineer4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,water ,,blast ,,pump4 ,it is well known that the principle which is applied to the construction of vacuum or filter pumps1 and which aims at the production of rarefied air in a certain inclosed space1 may also be applied to the production of air pressure4 ,a simple apparatus by which this may be accomplished has recently been constructed by ,a4 ,beutell4 ,a tall cylindrical flask1 ,k 7see cut71 is provided with an outlet tube near the bottom1 and its stopper carries two tubes1 one 7,m7 for the entrance of a jet of water1 and the other 7,l7 for the exit of the compressed air1 which may be conducted to a blast lamp or wherever air under pressure may be needed4 ,the column of water entering through ,m causes air to be sucked in through the little hole at c1 and this air1 after arriving in the flask1 is gradually compressed by the continuously entering water4 ,in order that the apparatus may work properly1 it is necessary to construct the tube1 ,m1 in a particular manner1 and of certain definite proportions4 ,fig4 #c exhibits its bore and shape in an enlarged view4 ,a short distance below the orifice of the tube it is slightly expanded1 and then gradually contracts to the place1 b4 ,it then again expands to an oblong cavity1 and contracts again to a neck1 e1 which is a trifle wider than that at b1 and which must be so situated that the column of water passing through b is exactly perpendicular to the center of the aperture at e4 ,the tube then expands again to its original diameter1 and is slightly curved1 which is done to prevent any of the compressed air in the cylinder1 ,k1 from regurgitating upward4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a41 ,,fig4 #b41 ,,fig4 #c4 ,,beutell',s ,,water ,,blast ,,pump4 ,the outlet tube at ,a is preferably constructed as shown in ,fig4 #b4 ,instead of being made of one piece1 it is there represented as consisting of two pieces joined together by rubber tubing1 a sort of check valve1 ,g1 being introduced into the rubber joint4 ,by regulating the check valve1 that is by approaching it more or less to the exit of the tube1 ,a1 the outflow of water may be regulated4 ,it is important to adjust this so that the cylindrical flask will always be at least half full1 and never over three-fourths filled4 ,while the column of water falls through the aperture at b1 into the expanded portion of ,m1 it aspirates air through the little orifice1 c1 communicating with the outer air1 and this air is carried along with it into the flask1 where it accumulates until it is under a pressure equal to that of the column of water entering the apparatus1 when the latter will cease to flow4 ,by allowing the air to escape through ,l1 more will be successively compressed1 so that a steady blast may be obtained4 ,the proportions between the diameters of the expanded and contracted portions of the glass tube1 ,m1 are important4 ,if the bore at b amounts to #b4e millimeters1 that at e should be #c millimeters4 ,under these circumstances1 and with a pressure of water equal to a column of #fa4g cubic centimeters1 the apparatus will furnish #hij liters of air for every #a1jjj liters of water consumed4 ,if the two diameters were3 b1 #a millimeter1 and e1 #b4d mm41 one liter of water aspirates #b4ce liters of air4 ,these proportions are1 no doubt1 capable of improvement4--,chem4 ,zeit4 and ,ch4 ,centralbl4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,transmission ,,of ,,power ,,between ,,bodies ,,moving ,,at ,,different ,,velocities4 ,a few months ago there was exhibited1 in the society's reading room1 a working model of an application to railway working of what the inventor calls division of the mass4 ,in causing a body1 moving at a high velocity1 to communicate motion to another at rest1 or moving at a lower velocity1 he splits one of them up into parts all the more numerous1 and therefore tenuous1 as the difference in velocity is greater2 and this is accomplished by causing one of the parts to take the form of a brush composed of metal fibers4 ,in applying this principle to the transmission of motion for driving machinery1 a disk1 fitted with segmental brushes1 is slid laterally along the shaft1 so that the fibers come into contact with radial projections on a second disk2 and1 although the contact is made instantaneously1 the action is exerted gradually1 owing to the flexibility of the fibers4 ,that is to say1 the full power is communicated without any shock4 ,a similar arrangement1 but with one of the disks fixed1 serves as a brake for arresting motion1 and this again without shock1 but with gradually increasing action4 ,where space is very much circumscribed1 the clutch and the brake may be combined1 by fitting a disk with brushes on one side1 and projections on the other1 so that it may be brought by a lever against a second disk1 for transmitting motion1 and against a third1 fixed1 for stopping it4 ,safety appliances for arresting the descent of mine cages1 in the event of the rope breaking1 have hitherto depended upon the entrance of claws into the guides1 or the clipping of the latter1 or the wedging of the cage between the guides4 ,in this application of the system1 the guides of the shaft are fitted with corrugated iron plates1 and the sides of the cage with steel brushes4 ,in the normal state of working1 the brushes are kept clear of the guides1 but1 should the rope break1 a small brush1 fitted on a sector1 constantly rubbing against the corrugations of the guides1 aided by a spring or counterweight1 brings the main brushes into contact with the guides by a link arrangement1 like that of the parallel ruler1 thus arresting the cage1 and holding it suspended until the brushes are gradually relaxed1 for braking the cage slowly down to the next landing4 ,many attempts have been made to cause a locomotive1 running at full speed1 to exert such a mechanical action as would set a signal to danger1 so as to protect the train from another following in the rear4 ,by fitting the engine with a steel brush1 attached to the axle boxes1 so as to preserve a uniform height with respect to the rails1 a stationary lever may be gradually moved1 so that the signal is set at danger without shock4 ,moreover1 by means of another brush1 in the event of the engine being turned upon the wrong line1 a lever may be made to shut off the steam1 apply the brakes1 blow the whistle1 or move an index on a dial1 recording a neglect of duty1 or may exert these four actions simultaneously4 ,all the above applications of this principle--the division of the mass--have been tested experimentally1 the last named by the model above referred to4 ,the clutch arrangement has transmitted six horse power from a petroleum motor1 making #bjj revolutions a minute1 to a dynamo making #b1jjj revolutions1 while applications to industrial purposes are now being made1 both in this country and in ,belgium4 ,the inventor of the system is ,m4 ,raymond ,snyers1 ,ingnieur des ,mines1 du ,gnie ,civil1 et des ,arts et ,manufactures1 of the ,louvain ,university4--,journal of the ,society of ,arts4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,steam ,,generator ,,of ,,serpollet ,,brothers1 ,,producing ,,steam ,,instantaneously4 ,the explosibility of a steam generator may be measured by the relation of its total capacity to its vaporizing power4 ,the old fashioned generators and some of the modern ones are so constructed as to contain from fifteen to twenty times more water than they are able to vaporize within one hour4 ,thus a great quantity of heat is obtained and a uniform pressure assured1 but the steam-generating apparatus is costly1 heavy1 and cumbersome2 it requires a long time before the necessary pressure is obtained1 and the generator is only suitable for a stationary installation and where it can uninterruptedly work for a long period of time4 ,besides1 the enormous quantity of hot water under pressure constitutes a constant danger1 and the explosion of a steam generator with boiler tubes becomes a real disaster4 ,in order to satisfy the requirements which have newly arisen in connection with navigation1 locomotion1 small motors and apparatus which need for their working an intermittent supply of steam1 it became necessary to modify the construction of steam boilers1 to augment their heating surface1 to diminish their residue of water1 and to gradually construct so-called inexplosible apparatus1 of which the ,belleville boiler forms one of the most characteristic prototypes4 ,in trying to reduce the inexplosibility to the utmost1 ,messrs4 ,serpollet ,brothers have succeeded in constructing a type of boilers which may be called absolutely inexplosible1 and this result has been obtained by reducing the capacity of the boiler to practically nil1 thus rendering the explosibility also nil1 for under the circumstances the relation between capacity and vaporizing power becomes itself nil4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--;,,instantaneous ,,vaporization ,,boiler ,,of ,,messrs4 ,,serpollet4 #a4 ,general view of boiler 7experimental arrangement74 #b4 ,cross section of boiler 7natural size74 ,the line ,a ,b indicates1 at somewhat exaggerated scale1 the cross section of the interior empty space of the boiler4 ,the method employed for this purpose by ,messrs4 ,serpollet is an extremely simple one4 ,a cylindrical steel tube of convenient diameter and sufficient thickness is rolled flat at a temperature below the white heat of the metal1 and the last touch of the rollers is given to it when already cold4 ,by this means a flat tube is obtained1 the empty interior space of which looks in a cross section 7,fig4 #a1 ,no4 #b7 like a black line not thicker than a hair1 and measures from #j4a to #j4c millimeter4 ,this tube is finally rolled up in the form of a spiral1 or left straight1 according to the use to be made of it1 and put into an appropriate furnace 7,fig4 #a1 ,no4 #a74 ,to either end of the tube a joint is attached1 the one for the purpose of admitting the water1 the other for admitting the steam4 ,when under these circumstances the tube has been heated to a high temperature in a convenient fire box1 the water which has been pumped into it1 by a feed pump fastened to one of its extremities1 is instantly changed into steam and escapes at the other end at a pressure and in a state of dryness depending on the working conditions of the apparatus4 ,the ingenious and really original and novel idea in this invention is this flattened tube1 which constitutes an actual capillary boiler inside of which the water squeezed in between its walls cannot assume its spheroidal state1 and the formation of drops becomes absolutely impossible4 ,there exists no longer a residue of hot water1 nor are water gauges1 safety valves1 or any other of those numerous accessories required which make all steam boilers so complicated and which augment considerably their cost4 ,it also becomes unnecessary to connect the joint from which the steam escapes by means of a valve with the motor for which the steam is to be used4 ,if the supply of steam is to be stopped1 this can be done by simply suppressing the supply of water1 i4e41 by emptying the boiler4 ,the regular working is assured by the quantity of heat contained in the heated iron tube1 to which1 for this purpose1 an intentionally great thickness has been given1 and it is this heat of the iron which replaces the heat furnished by the hot water in the steam generators with boiler tubes4 ,from the above it will be easy to understand the general arrangement of the new steam generator1 when connected with its motor4 ,this motor works a small intermitting pump1 which supplies the capillary boiler with water1 according to the quantity consumed4 ,the machine is started by means of a small special pump worked by hand4 ,whenever the velocity of the motor tends to increase1 a centrifugal regulator placed upon the motor reduces the action of the pump and1 consequently1 the supply of water to the tube1 thus checking the velocity of the machine4 ,if the velocity tends to slacken1 the inverse process is employed4 ,in order to stop the machine1 it suffices to turn off the water furnished by the pump by means of a three-way cock1 and to send the water back to the reservoir of supply4 ,the boiler can be emptied in less than a second1 and the motor stops in consequence of being deprived of motive power4 ,the whole is marvelously simple1 and creates astonishment and admiration in the mind of even the most skeptical persons who see the apparatus4 ,the boiler of the one horse power type weighs #cc kilogrammes4 ,it consists of an iron tube having a length of #b meters and a height of #aj4e centimeters after it has been flattened2 the total heating surface thus obtained being #dh square centimeters4 ,the power of vaporization amounts to #bj kilogrammes of water per hour1 while the quantity of coal consumed during the same period amounts to only #d kilogrammes1 which is comparatively little for a boiler of so small a power4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,,tricycle ,,propelled ,,by ,a ,,serpollet ,,boiler ,fig4 #b shows the first model of a tricycle constructed by ,messrs4 ,serpollet as an application of their boiler for locomotion4 ,the writer has seen the working of this apparatus1 and consequently is able to give some data4 ,the total weight of the machine is #ahe kilogrammes1 or about #bej kilogrammes when mounted by a person4 ,the boiler is placed behind the tricycle1 the motor is under the seat1 inside of which is the water reservoir and the supply of coal4 ,in the motor employed in the present case the feed pump is a constant supply pump1 but by means of a directing lever turning around its own axis and acting upon a three-way cock1 the water can be divided into two streams1 the one emptying into the feeding reservoir1 the other into the boiler4 ,by varying the position of the cock1 the power of the machine can be modified and its velocity regulated4 ,the machine can be brought to a stop within less than two meters by means of the combined action of a brake and the complete suppression of water in the boiler4 ,in order to start the machine1 the water is sent into the tube by a little extra pump worked for a moment by the left hand of the cyclist when starting4 ,on ,july #be some experiments were made before the ,society of ,civil ,engineers with the tricycle above described1 and on that occasion it traversed the ,rue ,girardon and the ,rue de ,norvino to ,montmartre 7streets in which the gradient rises to #ae centimeters per meter7 with a velocity of three meters per second4 ,fig4 #c represents the arrangement of the first stationary boiler of the new kind4 ,the letters of reference will suffice to indicate the position of the principal parts of it1 the forms of which may be varied according to the object for which the boiler is to be used4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--;,,complete ,,view ,,of ,a ,,serpollet ,,boiler4 #a4 ,exterior view4 #b4 ,cross section4 #c4 ,horizontal section at the height of the tube4 ,messrs4 ,serpollet are occupied at present with studying the special arrangements which will be needed for connecting their boiler with a quadricycle1 a torpedo boat1 a stove1 a locomotive1 or a stationary machine of #aj horse power1 and with rectangular parts4 ,the inexplosibility of their boiler has been tested during an experiment made before the engineers of mines1 on which occasion a manometer 7steam gauge7 graduated for a pressure of upward #bjj kilogrammes per square centimeter was used1 and the pressure raised far beyond the limits indicated4 ,the result was that the hand of the manometer1 being pressed against the walls of the box1 became bent1 and though the boiler was submitted to a pressure the degree of which it was impossible to measure1 it was not changed in the slightest4 ,incrustation of the boiler is not to be feared1 for1 in consequence of the great velocity with which the steam circulates through the tube1 the solid matter dissolved in the water becomes pulverized and is forced out1 mechanically assisting to lubricate and polish the parts of the motor4 ,the invention of ,messrs4 ,serpollet is still too new to foretell all its possible applications1 but their apparatus1 in its present form1 is exactly the steam generator which will be useful for producing a small motive force2 while it will be necessary to wait until it has been ascertained1 by further study1 how the system can economically be used for high motive power4 ,the most natural and immediate application of the invention seems to be its use for the electric lighting of restaurants1 in which case one of the instantaneous vaporization tubes might be connected with stoves which remain lighted all day1 and which might thus besides supply the necessary motive force to work a small dynamo charging some accumulators4--,e4 ,hospitalier1 in ,la ,nature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,gas ,,lighting ,,by ,,high-,,power ,,burners4 ,in the course of a communication presented to the ,societe ,industrielle du ,nord de la ,france by the manager of the ,wazemmes ,gas ,company1 he made the following remarks on gas lighting with high-power burners3 ,for gas of a standard illuminating value1 the lighting power increases with the temperature of the flame4 ,it also increases1 under favorable conditions1 if the quantity of gas consumed by the burner in a certain period is augmented4 ,thus1 two burners consuming #fj liters 7rather more than #b cubic feet7 of gas1 placed in juxtaposition1 produce less light than one burner consuming #abj liters4 ,as it is impossible to indefinitely increase the supply to ordinary burners1 multiple-flame burners have been invented1 in which two or more ordinary flames are united so that they may impinge upon each other4 ,by an ingenious arrangement for bringing the air into contact with the multiple flames1 two excellent types of lamps are obtained1 consuming respectively #gjj and #a1djj liters per hour1 which meet with a rapid demand in ,paris1 and in many other towns1 for lighting wide public thoroughfares1 squares1 and large open spaces4 ,if1 however1 it is desired to obtain a flame with a much higher temperature1 it is necessary to resort to a special arrangement for heating the air intended for combustion with the gas4 ,the principle of heating the air by means of waste heat escaping with the products of the waste gas--the regenerative principle--was adopted by ,mr4 ,f4 ,siemens1 and applied not only to gas burners1 but to high temperature stoves4 ,with the ,siemens burner on the regenerative principle the following results are obtained3 ,with a consumption of #aej liters per hour1 the light of from #a to #c carcels2 #bej to #cjj liters1 #f to #g carcels2 #fjj liters1 #ae carcels2 #hjj liters1 #bj to #bb carcels2 #a1fjj liters1 #df to #dh carcels2 #b1bjj liters1 #gb carcels4 ,unfortunately1 the construction of the ,siemens ,argand lamps is very delicate1 and1 moreover1 they have the disadvantage of being heavy and rather unsightly4 ,in ,germany they have been widely adopted2 but in ,france they have met with but little success4 ,the ,schulke lamp is made on the same principle2 and this appears to be too delicate to come into general use4 ,one of the latest burners of the regenerative class is the ,wenham1 which has been before the public for some time in ,england and is now being adopted in ,france4 ,in point of fact it is merely a very effective improvement on ,breittmayer's burner1 from which it differs only in its construction2 being produced in some elegant styles1 which lend themselves perfectly to the decorations of private houses4 ,the ,no4 #b lamp of this type1 with a consumption of #bhc liters 7#aj cubic feet7 per hour1 has given #abf candles1 in a vertical direction without reflectors3 horizontally1 #ej candles4 ,but the gas employed in the tests had an illuminating power about #bj per cent4 higher than that usual in ,paris4 ,when experimenting in ,paris with a ,no4 #c lamp in a vertical direction1 it showed a consumption of #cd4f liters 7#a4b cubic feet7 per carcel obtained4 ,the ,wenham lamp is constructed to give light in a vertical direction2 and by adopting a large reflector1 the illuminating power is increased #ah per cent4 in a vertical line and #ee per cent4 at #hj1 which is a highly satisfactory result4 ,there are at present five sizes of these lamps4 ,there is also the ,delmas hot air burner1 in which the batswing flame is completely inclosed in a glass1 mounted with a sheet-iron casing1 heated by the products of combustion1 through which the air passes on its passage downward to feed the flame2 and it thus increases the temperature1 improves the illuminating power1 and produces a beautiful steady light4 ,mention also may be made of the ,siemens radiated heat burner1 by means of which the heating of the air is effected simply by the radiation of the metallic parts of the appliance which are in contact with the flame4 ,these burners produce the light of #a carcel 7#i4e candles7 with a gas consumption of #gj liters 7about #b cubic feet71 and are therefore1 from an economical point of view1 intermediary between the high power and regenerative burners4 ,this degree of economy can be ascertained by an ingenious arrangement of the air supply in a burner with holes1 which has been made in the laboratory of the ,wazemmes ,gas ,company by ,m4 ,verl1 the engineer1 who has invented a very simple burner called the ,lillois1 with which the light of #a carcel is obtained with a consumption of #gj liters4 ,this produces a tulip-shaped flame1 and it has a specially constructed glass arrangement on the outside for regulating the combustion4 ,comparing the above-mentioned burners with each other1 we arrive at the following results3 ,the ,lillois burner consumes #gj liters of gas per carcel2 the ,siemens ordinary1 #gj liters2 the ,siemens-,breittmayer1 #ce to #ci liters2 the ,wenham1 about #ce liters4 ,taking this into account1 and considering that a carcel corresponds with #aje liters of gas consumed in the ,bengal form of burner1 we see that the economy in gas might1 by employing these burners1 reach from #cc to #ga per cent4 ,if this is compared with the batswing burner1 which produces the light of #a carcel with a consumption of #abj liters of gas1 the economy is greater--varying1 according to the type of lamp1 from #da to #he per cent4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,synchronizing ,,clocks4 ,illustration3 ,,davey',s ,,pendulum ,,for ,,synchronizing ,,clocks4 ,w1 friction wheel attached to pendulum4 ,l gives no impulse except when the electro-magnet is excited4 ,k1 lever and weight lifted by electro-magnet1 ,e4 ,a1 open contact completed by pendulum each swing4 ,b1 battery4 ,r1 ratchet wheel and pawl4 ,m1 lever fixed at top4 ,l1 weight at end of bell crank lever1 which drives pendulum once each minute1 being raised by the electro-magnets4 ,at the recent meeting of the ,institution of ,mechanical ,engineers1 ,dublin1 ,mr4 ,davey1 of ,leeds1 spoke of synchronizing mechanisms4 ,he had occupied some of his spare time in attempting to synchronize clocks from a standard clock4 ,the problem is similar to the present one1 except that it is rough-and-ready1 compared to the present one4 ,he had a novel electrical pendulum1 to drive a seconds pendulum by electricity4 ,electrical clocks are notoriously bad timekeepers2 on account of variation in the strength of the electrical current1 the battery falls off4 ,he had constructed an electric clock having a seconds pendulum1 and recording an impulse once a minute4 ,on the pendulum he had a little ratchet wheel1 ,r1 having thirty teeth4 ,the pawl was connected with a lever1 ,m1 fixed at the top4 ,on the face of the wheel a little pin rotates with the wheel4 ,on the side of the clock case was a contact maker1 which closed the circuit by the pin on the ratchet wheel1 ,r1 once every minute4 ,the weight was lifted by the electric current1 and by its fall gave an impulse to the pendulum4 ,the pendulum was a free swinging pendulum for #ei sec41 and the increase of the arc could scarcely be detected4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,coal ,,tar ,,as ,,fuel ,,for ,,steam ,,boilers4 ,by ,,john ,mc,c,r,a,e1 of ,dundee4 ,about three years ago1 when the sudden and serious fall took place in the value of the secondary products produced in gas works1 many gas managers--ever desirous of doing their very best for their employers--were forced to look around for some better market in which to dispose of the products which had so seriously fallen in value4 ,this was no easy task2 and even now it forms very uphill work indeed4 ,a comparatively new market has been created for the disposal of boiled tar at several of the ,german ports4 ,but the expense and difficulty of loading ships with tar in casks take very much from the saving derived from the new manner of disposal4 ,it occurred to me1 therefore1 that we must look nearer home for a remedy4 ,in all gas works of any magnitude1 a considerable quantity of fuel must be employed for the purpose of supplying the works with steam for the exhauster engines1 chemical apparatus1 thawing purposes1 etc4 ,whether this fuel consists of coke or of coal1 will not in the least affect or alter my figures4 ,i have no doubt if any manager discovers that he is working more economically by selling the coke and using a cheap small or other coal1 he will adopt the cheapest process4 ,in ,dundee1 where we get a good price for coke1 ,i found1 for the purpose of steam fuel1 it would be far cheaper to buy small coal costing from #es4 to #es4 #f;d4 per ton delivered in the works1 and dispose of the coke4 ,the question of fuel then lay between coal and tar2 and ,i have experimented somewhat extensively to ascertain the true relative values of the two classes of fuel4 ,for the purpose of this paper1 and within the last few days1 ,i made a further examination into the question2 and the results arrived at will be those here quoted4 ,the coal we employed was what is known as ,stravenhouse small coal1 which costs #es4 per ton delivered4 ,the experiment in each case lasted #dh hours4 ,the tar employed was what is known as boiled tar2 the naphtha having been previously removed1 but the pitch oil left in the tar4 ,the value of this tar in ,dundee is about #ds4 per ton4 ,the following are the figures3 ,coal1 #aj tons #af cwt41 at #es4 #b #ad #j ,tar1 #a1dfj gallons 7or #i tons #c cwt4 #afj gallons #a ton71 at #ds4 #a #af #g ------- ,saving per day by using tar4 #j #ag #e ,and this at the longest day1 when we are using a mere fraction of steam1 as compared with our winter requirements1 and consequently the profit is proportionally less than it will be when we are in full work4 ,illustration ,and now allow me to direct your attention for a short time to the appliance made use of in accomplishing this tar burning4 ,on the wall is shown a diagram giving in detail the injector known as ,c4 ,w4 ,walker's patent tar sprayer burner2 and it is supplied only by that firm4 ,the tar1 which has been brought forward to the boilers in a thoroughly liquid state1 is discharged from the center of the injector into the furnace of the boiler4 ,surrounding the center nozzle of the injector is an annular space through which high pressure steam passes1 also into the furnace4 ,the meaning of this steam moving along with the tar is to force a draught1 as well as to raise the temperature of the tar1 and so partially convert the tar into vapor2 thereby making the combustion more complete4 ,the flow of the tar is regulated by the very delicate sluices attached to the injectors4 ,these valves consist of elongated cones and plugs1 and are constructed not only for the purpose of regulating the flow of tar1 but also for removing any obstruction or incrustation which may accumulate in the nozzle4 ,in order to keep the tar in a liquid state 7which in the winter time is not an easy matter71 a small steam pipe is passed through the center of the tar pipe2 but1 of course1 no steam is discharged among the tar1 as the presence of water in the injector prevents its correct working4 ,the steam pipe is simply passed through the tar pipe1 and a steam trap attached to its end4 ,in changing from the coal or coke fuel to the tar1 little or no difficulty is experienced1 and very rarely is a shovelful of any kind of solid material required4 ,the furnace bars have only to be kept covered to prevent the waste of tar and the too rapid ingress of air2 and when the furnaces are in full work1 and being well and carefully attended to1 the tar will be found to have been nearly all consumed before reaching the solid material covering the bars4 ,the action is very much the same as in the paraffin oil lamp4 ,the wick is the medium by which the oil is brought to the point of combustion1 where it is developed into light2 but the wick remains little injured1 although in close proximity to such intense heat4 ,the oil burns1 not the wick4 ,in the tar furnace1 the tar itself burns1 and the tar only4 ,it will be easily understood that a little experience is necessary to enable the attendant to fully understand the quantity of tar by which complete combustion is to be obtained1 and which in no case must be exceeded4 ,the moment one atom of tar is sent into the furnace beyond that which can be thoroughly consumed1 you have then the most hideous discharge of black smoke 7carbon7 which it is difficult to describe1 but which can be easily understood1 and1 ,i believe1 can be seen within a few miles of where we now sit4 ,i should mention that the injectors are fitted on the furnace doors2 but the connections are of such a nature that the doors can be opened without disturbing any of the permanent fittings4 ,and now ,i have told you that the results detailed in this short paper were those obtained in the ,dundee gas works4 ,this is so2 but were ,i to leave the matter here1 it might be inferred that ,i considered similar results might be obtained in any and every gas works4 ,i would not mislead you2 and therefore must detain you for a few moments longer in order to show you how my town is different from many others4 ,dundee is very peculiarly situated in this respect4 ,it is a long distance from any tar distiller's works capable of dealing with the large quantity of tar we have for sale during the winter4 ,a large portion of the value of our tar must1 therefore1 go to the railway company1 to cover the cost of transit between the two points1 and so the tar distiller can allow us but a small figure for it at the starting point4 ,then again1 ,dundee being far distant from the coal fields1 the coal is exceptionally high in price4 ,i quite believe that in many of the west country towns the coal for which we are paying #es4 per ton could be had for #cs42 and the tar for which we are receiving #ds4 per ton1 they would get not much under the double of this4 ,therefore1 you see1 in a place so circumstanced1 the figures ,i have given would be most misleading4 ,still1 ,i doubt not there are places as badly situated as ,dundee2 and it is to such places that my remarks are directed4 ,i believe also that1 in many towns distant from collieries1 the tar might be sold to manufacturers for use in their steam boilers2 and such an arrangement would1 ,i think1 prove advantageous both to the seller and the user of this liquid fuel4 ,i think that as much has been said in regard to my subject as is necessary2 but permit me to add that ,i believe there is a future for liquid fuels4 ,i do not say tar1 but more concentrated fuels1 such as crude naphthas1 paraffins1 and pitch oil4 ,when you see one of our large steamers taking coal into her bunker1 it must have appeared to you that there was great waste of power here4 ,every ton of coal laid in must require a certain amount of power to carry it2 and every ton of coal so laid in reduces the cargo-carrying power to this extent4 ,a few gallons of oil will give you the steam-producing power of a ton of coal2 and this is a fact which the owners of non-paying steamships should note4 ,take our locomotives also4 ,everything ,i have said in regard to steamships applies to them2 and the comfort to the stokers and the general reduction in labor would be very marked indeed4 ,of course1 it may be argued that if there were such a large demand created for oils for furnaces1 the old fashioned law of supply and demand might come into play1 and so force up the price of the article for which the increased demand had taken place4 ,but ,i think this state of matters is rather remote1 when we bear in mind the great oil wells only now becoming developed1 and the oils from which can be run in bulk direct from the wells into ships1 and brought to this country at very low rates4--,journal of ,gas ,lighting4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,watch ,,cleaning ,,and ,,repairing4 ,by ,,old ,,fogy4 ,before proceeding with what ,i consider the best methods in this department of the watch and jewelry business1 ,i will say that ,i do not1 by any means1 consider that my way is the best1 for although ,i have been in the business quite a while1 yet ,i find that ,i learn something new almost every day that ,i live1 and expect to do so1 so long as ,i continue in the business4 ,be very particular in selecting your tools2 about three widths of screwdrivers1 and keep them in the best of order1 square across the point of blade1 and never use a screwdriver too narrow nor too wide for the screw1 and in using be careful not to let it slip1 and thus mar the plates or bridges of a watch4 ,i also recommend that the handles of these screwdrivers be of different shapes or styles1 so as to save time in picking up the one you want 7and just here ,i will say that every device or method that saves time will be of great value to the operator72 then have about the same number of tweezers 7#c71 one of good1 solid1 heavy points1 say #a_/af inch wide at the points1 for taking down a watch1 and handling the heavier parts1 and then one a little finer1 and one very fine to work in about the train1 hairspring1 etc41 and always keep these tweezers in perfect order at the points1 so that whatever you handle1 you will not mar or drop the things you are handling4 ,right in this connection ,i will say that ,i cannot find tweezers that suit me4 ,so ,i make my own1 and you can do the same if you will by selecting some nice steel4 ,then a good assortment of pliers1 cutting1 flat1 and round4 ,in selecting brushes1 you will have to be very particular and secure the open and straight bristle brushes1 which are also hard to find these latter years4 ,take all the coarser brushes and hold them on a coarse grindstone1 running them whole length1 both ways2 this takes off the new rough end of the bristles before using first time4 ,then there are punches1 broaches1 drills1 calipers1 countersinks1 files1 etc41 etc4 ,besides this1 ,i have adopted the plan of making any tool ,i happen to need for any special purpose1 so that by making these at the time ,i happen to want a tool that ,i cannot purchase1 ,i have accumulated quite a variety of odd tools2 among them are a varied lot of millers1 for milling and raising jewels1 and deepening the countersink holes for jewel settings and screw heads1 also a tool for holding a roller1 to set the jewel pin1 and one for holding the hair spring collet1 and a pair of tweezers for holding jewels while cleaning1 etc41 etc4 ,as to lathes1 ,i have found that there is a necessity of about two lathes2 one a ,swiss1 light running lathe for cementing any pivot work1 and ,i prefer these because they run much lighter and easier than those heavier ,american lathes2 and yet if confined to but one lathe1 ,i would use a small sized ,american lathe1 with a good assortment of split chucks1 particularly those with the smaller sized holes1 for holding balance staffs1 wheel arbors1 etc41 which come in use almost everyday1 for taking off the burr from the point of a balance pivot1 which has come from a collapse of the case2 driving the end stones down on the end of pivots1 even sometimes to the extent of heading them over inside of the hole jewel4 ,these small size split chucks ,i have found extremely useful for the last named purpose1 and ,i am not so sentimental but that ,i oftener use these split chucks1 even for setting fine balance pivots1 rather than take time to cement them2 and while ,i do not advise the use of a split chuck for this purpose in every case1 yet with a little experience one can tell when a staff is held so that the new pivot when set will line and be true1 and of a clear beat or swing4 ,to make a very nice pivot the cementing process is preferable1 and yet1 for nearly a year1 my old ,no4 #a ,american lathe was not set up 7for reasons ,i need not take space to explain71 and during that time ,i employed a very skillful workman to do my pivoting1 and this man would not think of ever doing a nice job unless he cemented it1 and ,i can assure you that he put in more pivots out of line1 and out of true1 in the course of those few months1 than ,i had done badly in my life4 ,speaking of sentiment1 ,i will say that too many young workmen use the lathe too much1 and seem to depend on a fine looking lathe and handsome tools1 and spend too much time in using the lathe and in decorating their bench with a fine display4 ,but don't construe this as meaning that one can do nice work with a jack knife and handsaw1 for ,i most certainly believe in a good and substantial set of tools1 or ,i would not have taken so much space in speaking of them4 ,next1 one must have a good bench1 wide and of good length3 and if no other drawers1 a shallow depth drawer1 exactly in center of the bench1 with no knob in front1 but rather a lip running its whole length1 underneath4 ,so that wherever you place your hand you can pull it out4 ,this drawer ,i would have large and roomy 7wide and long and extending back as far as the depth of the bench will allow1 but shallow1 not deep down in71 and then partition it off by narrow slats1 diagonally across it1 running these slats from the extreme near right hand corner to the further and extreme left hand corner1 so that as you reach your right hand in to take out a tool1 you can grasp it naturally without twisting or cramping your hand4 ,about eight inches below the top of the bench1 ,i would place a skin drawer 7the name comes from the practice at watch factories1 formerly using sheepskins for the bottoms71 which is made with a square frame 7say like a picture frame71 sliding on slats or a groove1 so that it can be drawn out toward the operator1 and when so drawn1 the elbows will rest on this frame1 with the wrists resting on the edge of the top of the bench1 thus giving a firm support for both arms and hands1 and this frame having stretched across its bottom a skin or canvas1 will catch and retain anything that drops or rolls from the bench4 ,this latter drawer ,i consider almost an indispensable article to doing good and successful work4 ,at the right hand of these two drawers named1 running down to floor if need be1 there can be a series of drawers for tools and materials4 ,now with these equipments1 and some others1 not herein named1 such as vise1 file block1 bench stake or anvil1 and a large variety of such tools as will accumulate1 ,i am ready to give you my ideas regarding the cleaning and repairing of watches4 ,first and foremost1 do not undertake any job that you have any or considerable doubt but what you can do successfully1 and never leave a job worse than you found it2 and never mar1 cut1 or slash any part of a watch4 ,in other words1 don't undertake a job that you have doubts as to whether you can do it correctly4 ,one of my old masters told me never to undertake to improve on the maker's work1 and this1 while not true in every case 7particularly cheap watches71 yet is a safe rule to go by4 ,never allow your file1 screwdriver1 pliers1 tweezers1 or any tool to deface any part of a watch4 ,i shall speak of this as ,i proceed4 ,first1 be careful and not let the movement swing so as to in any way injure the balance1 in taking from case1 and if a lever watch1 take out the balance the first thing after getting out of case4 ,now see that the mainspring is let down and then remove the screws from the plates1 taking care not to damage or bend any of the pivots as you do this4 ,when all in pieces1 before you proceed to clean1 examine with a strong glass to see if the rim of any wheel is rubbing or clashing with anything1 particularly the center wheel in any full plate ,american watch1 for these wheels are often dragging on the plate or striking the ratch wheel because it is not true1 and if examined before cleaning the places where it drags1 are a tell-tale of the mischief4 ,also make any diagnosis of the watch that is needed to discover any errors from wear or accident1 and correct them before going further1 such as looking to each jewel1 pivot1 and other parts1 and make all necessary repairs before cleaning4 ,i have been in the habit for several years of putting my balance wheel separate from all connections1 and trying its freedom in all positions1 and if you will try this method1 you will be surprised how many you will find that bind or are not perfectly free in all positions1 when you give them the very slightest impulse by a twirl of the hand1 holding the plate4 ,then1 too1 a careful examination of each jewel2 you will be surprised how many are either loose in the setting or plate4 ,in regard to cleaning1 ,i use the old method 7after trying all ways suggested7--that of chalk 7but ,i use the old lump chalk1 for those carpenters' chalk balls are made with some kind of paste that adheres to the plate7--and have this lump of chalk at my right hand1 in a perforated bottom box1 so that any coarse pieces fall through to the floor1 and by rubbing the brush across it and then giving it a slight rap1 before applying it to plate1 any hard or heavy substance will fall out1 and then with light pressure with the brush that is medium soft 7and prepared on grindstone as before mentioned1 if a new one7 brush the plates1 with an occasional breathing on the surface1 clean the old oil or tarnish1 and then peg out each hole many times1 until you are sure every hole is clean1 by pegging both sides1 and then with a soft dust brush dust thoroughly by striking the brush into the holes on both sides4 ,of course1 remove all end stones1 and clean out with soft pith1 holding the jewels in a pair of hook nose tweezers1 mentioned4 ,should the plates and wheels be very much soiled and oily1 a covered dish of alcohol is indispensable1 and ,i have had a glass stopper bottle1 with ether1 in which to dip the jewels1 pallets1 and other small pieces1 which takes the oil all off1 but be sure and clean off with soft pith or pegwood such pieces as you have thus dipped4 ,this ether will carry all loose lint or other things to its bottom1 from hairsprings or roller table1 and if held but a moment will do effective work1 and not loosen shellac4 ,regarding loose jewels1 ,i am not so sentimental as to refuse using some shellac1 if the burnished lip has been so thin as to be partially gone1 thus loosening the jewel to hold in the jewel1 by taking small and minute particles1 and placing around the edge of the jewel1 and then holding the plate or bridge over an alcohol flame1 and allowing the shellac to flow around the jewel and fasten it firm1 and by this process ,i have kept jewels firm in place for years1 with no other attention than the first1 and as a rule this can be done and not show4 ,when you have thoroughly cleaned the different parts1 holding everything with soft tissue paper1 then with the paper put the watch together1 never forcing any part into place1 and when screwed or pinned together1 try every wheel to see that there is the proper end and side shake to each pivot1 then introduce the balance wheel1 having been once tried alone as described1 and see that the banking pins are so adjusted that the guard pin on the fork 7lever7 does not drag on either side1 and that the jewel pin enters the slot1 clearing the opposite corner1 and that the guard pin is so in position that it will not allow the pin to pass by at any point and bring the jewel pin outside the lever1 or so it will strike in hollow1 or on the corners of the hollow of the roller4 ,when you have oiled each pivot exactly on its connecting point of bearing with just the right amount of oil 7of course1 oil those jewels having end stones before putting watch together71 your watch is ready for the dial1 and in replacing the hands you cannot be too particular about their being free and clearing each other and the dial and glass4 ,there is the care of the mainspring ,i have intentionally reserved till the last4 ,there are lots of theories why a spring will break just after cleaning1 but ,i only know that since ,i have adopted the method of never taking out the spring 7except when1 after taking off the cap of barrel1 ,i find it is all gummed up with bad oil1 and then of course clean it7 ,i have found that a spring does not break any oftener than is common1 even if the watch is not cleaned2 but ,i invariably remove the barrel arbor and clean out the holes and the arbor itself4 ,of course to explain every detail of the method of repairing the various parts of a watch would take more space than you would allow in your journal1 and hence ,i will not attempt to go into minute detail1 except perhaps some of the more important items1 and the most common things found in everyday experience4 ,among these are broken pivots1 worn pivots 7sometimes requiring new ones71 worn holes in plates1 and at the intersection of barrel arbor1 ratch and bridge of ,swiss watches1 etc41 which1 as a rule1 require common sense as much as practice1 and it varies in different watches1 so that the common sense rule applies the best to nearly all of these1 and if you have not got common mechanical sense1 then you have mistaken your calling and should do something else4 ,in any of these repairs don't go it blind1 but study your case carefully and do the best thing you study out4 ,when there is a worn pivot hole in a plate1 and one side is countersunk for oil1 then have a punch rounded at the point1 just the shape of the countersink 7and if you have not one make one1 and here is where my rule1 that of making a tool as the need comes for it1 comes in play71 and by screwing this punch into the vise1 and with a smooth1 flat point punch 7slightly cornered of course7 in one hand and holding the plate or bridge with the other1 with the countersink on the punch1 have a striker tap light and quick blows1 and you move the punch around on the side most worn 7and one side is almost invariably worn most1 throwing the wheel arbor out of upright7 and close up1 even a little too much1 and then with a round1 smooth broach enlarge it1 so that it will be right size1 and this leaves it hard and smooth4 ,broken pivots1 as ,i have hinted1 ,i place the arbor in a split chuck1 and if true1 ,i drill into the staff with a drill1 made from a nice piece of steel wire1 the old and ordinary shape of a drill1 which is a trifle larger at the cutting point than it is back of the point1 and ,i make these as ,i need them1 and harden simply by holding the wire in a flame till red hot1 and then dash into an apple1 potato1 soap1 or pure rubber4 ,which is the best of these ,i have as yet been unable to determine1 so ,i use either as the most handy4 ,take a good1 tough and small pointed graver and turn a slight center in the end of arbor ,i am to drill1 and then by giving my lathe a back and forward motion1 ,i begin to drill1 and by the sense of feeling ,i can tell whether my drill is cutting or not1 and if not1 ,i have a small1 smooth oilstone at hand and sharpen the drill as often as it refuses to cut1 and if that drill will not cut1 ,i make another4 ,i make my drills of very small wire1 filing them at point and then tap the point 7holding the wire in a very fine pin vise71 thus flattening as well as spreading it1 and then shape the cutting edges as spoken of above4 ,when you have drilled sufficiently to hold a plug firmly1 then have a piece of steel of spring temper filed so as to fit closely and so straight that it will not act too wedging 7and split the arbor71 drive it in1 cut it off and turn down1 finishing with an oilstone slip1 and polish by running the lathe rapidly and with a piece of thin boxwood 7or hard pegwood7 charged with diamantine1 being sure that the end of the pivot has no burr1 thrown either way1 over end or on side1 for such a burr will cause a lack of freedom of a balance pivot particularly4 ,this matter of setting pivots requires a longer experience than almost any other work1 and it needs a long practice to do a nice job4 ,if your split chuck will not hold your staff or arbor true1 then use cement2 but in this1 too1 you must be sure that your center is true1 and that the sound pivot enters it perfectly4 ,sometimes you meet with steel so hard that you cannot touch it with a drill1 in which case draw the temper of the staff or arbor you are drilling1 and if it projects so little that you cannot draw the temper without injury to the wheel1 then unstake or separate the wheel1 and by drilling a hole into a piece of brass wire1 about the size of the staff you are drilling1 insert the staff in this hole1 and then heat the wire near the staff and thus gradually and yet effectively draw the temper4 ,i consider it well for young workmen to practice pivot setting in some old and useless watch any spare time they may have1 and thus become adepts at this work4 ,unhindered1 ,i am not over on an average of one-half hour in setting any ordinary pivot1 especially if ,i do not have to cement my work4 ,if this is a balance pivot1 be very careful to see that your balance is true and poised before putting on hairspring and roller4 ,there are some pivots that are underturned 7to make look tidy and light71 and sometimes it is about an impossibility to put in a new one1 and in this case1 if an ,american watch1 ,i always put in an entire new staff1 and hence keep a full assortment on hand4 ,regarding replacing broken jewels1 ,i also keep a full stock of these1 turned 7the setting7 to match any make or style of watch2 except1 of course1 ,swiss watches1 and for these ,i keep a large assortment of sizes1 both of cock and foot and wheel jewels1 and a full stock once procured1 they last a long time and are a good investment1 for with them you can meet any emergency4 ,in a ,swiss watch1 or any watch where the jewel is set into the plate1 have some one of the devices for throwing up the burnished lip1 and then select a jewel that just fills the space1 and then with a smooth pointed punch1 such as ,i described ,i used for closing up a pivot hole1 ,i turn this lip back by sliding this round pointed punch around the outside1 making it act as a burnish4 ,cap jewels ,i either treat in the same manner as the last1 or cut away the setting1 and insert them as they are inserted in most ,swiss watches4 ,i have now taken up the more common repairs1 and will close by hastily speaking of the more rare cases1 and the adjustment of the hair spring1 etc41 etc4 ,it is often the case that there is never end shake to the balance to make it absolutely safe when screwed into the case1 and when this happens ,i take the point of a sharp graver and prick up a burr on the bridge1 and never on the plate1 as any unskilled workman does1 for the under side of the bridge never being finished1 you really mar nothing1 and sometimes this raising of the cock 7or bridge7 becomes a necessity1 to have it clear the rim of the balance1 which1 if raised1 it will clear1 and then by bending down the end of the cock at point where the jewel is1 and thus regulate the end shake4 ,i hardly know how to give directions how to proceed in adjusting hairsprings1 when they are disarranged1 but if ,i could see you1 ,i could explain by example what ,i cannot well do in words4 ,to commence1 a hairspring1 when there is no power applied to balance from the jewel pin1 should be1 when pinned1 just as free from any twist or cramping as it would be if lying flat and free on a smooth piece of glass1 before it has been pinned at either end1 and when it is pinned in the watch 7at stud and collet7 it should be thus free4 ,to bring it thus requires demonstration that cannot be made on paper1 unless you could make diagrams1 too numerous for this article4 ,what ,i have said regarding it1 however1 gives an idea of how a hairspring should be pinned4 ,common sense is demanded here as elsewhere4 ,to put a watch in beat1 too1 is a very important item1 which ,i do by placing sharp pointed tweezers1 first on one side of the arm of balance and then on the other1 and so pin my hairspring in the stud1 that it will let off as readily on one side as the other4 ,i had forgotten to say that every watch should have a little oil on the face of the pallet stones4 ,i know full well that some workmen will say that there should be none1 but ,i can tell of scores of watches that have failed and indeed stopped simply for want of oil on the pallets4 ,selecting mainsprings1 too1 needs much more care than is usually given to this department1 and as a rule even the watch factories fill the barrel too full1 that is1 too long springs4 ,whether ,i am correct in this or not1 you cannot be too particular in selecting the right strength1 length1 and width of mainsprings4 ,mainsprings should be well and carefully oiled4 ,there are many ways of replacing broken teeth in wheels1 and the width of the web and the size of the teeth has much to do with how they are put in1 but ,i usually dovetail them in1 and then with the very tiniest bit of soft solder fasten them1 but in so doing be positive you have got off all soldering fluid1 that it will not rust the pinion into which it meshes1 and be very particular to have it exactly like the rest of the teeth in same wheel1 and don't mar the web of the wheel more than is possible4 ,i will now draw this article to a close1 well appreciating the fact that ,i have only made a superficial attempt to instruct younger men in the cleaning and repairing of watches1 for there is almost an endless variety of special repairs coming almost unexpectedly to any one1 even if they have been in the business a long time1 as ,i have1 and as ,i first said1 ,i am learning daily some new phase of the business1 and am surprised that ,i never had known it before4 ,i have1 too1 taken perhaps more space than ,i ought1 regarding tools and bench1 yet the older ,i grow1 the more ,i can see the importance of this part1 that ,i may be enabled to do work well and quick4 ,besides1 ,i have left such repairs as the chain and fusee1 uprighting wheels1 repairing cases1 adjustment to position1 heat and cold1 isochronism1 enlarging jewels1 or changing angles of pallet stones1 etc41 etc41 all of which ,i do as necessity demands1 as well as the care of striking watches1 fly backs1 etc41 which1 too1 ,i make a specialty of1 and of chronometer escapement watches1 which would take more space than ,i feel disposed to ask you to give me4--,american ,jeweler4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,new ,,central ,,railway ,,station ,,at ,,frankfort ,,on ,,the ,,main4 ,the new central railway station at ,frankfort on the ,main is one of the most imposing structures of modern times1 not only as regards its dimensions1 but also because of the effect which its architectural proportions produce upon the eye4 ,nobody looking at the long line of buildings surrounded by gigantic perron halls can help being impressed with their grandeur4 ,the beholder1 however1 is not only struck by the general aspect1 but also by the beauty of detail in this magnificent specimen of the ,renaissance style4 ,the interior of the perron hall shown in one of our engravings is especially impressive1 and every one will admire the graceful outlines of the heavy iron structures in the upper part1 which1 in consequence of their enormous height1 look from below like a spider web4 ,the base and the earth works were begun in the summer of #ahha1 and if we take into consideration the fact that #b1gjj1jjj cubic meters of sand and gravel were necessary for the foundation1 we will have some idea of the scale on which the edifice was undertaken4 ,in #ahhc1 the great hall1 which has a width of #bbj meters and which will shortly be opened to traffic1 was begun4 ,the perspective view of this portion of the station is given in one of our engravings4 ,inspector ,eggert had the general management of the building1 which was erected after the plan submitted by him1 and which received the prize in the competition between the different architects4 ,herr ,frantz1 a distinguished engineer1 who undertook the general supervision of the construction1 had an important part in the execution of the entrance hall for the trains1 and it was he1 also1 who built the perron hall1 after designs of ,herr ,schwedler4 ,the middle part of the station1 which contains the porch1 the ticket offices1 the baggage department1 the police quarters and the telegraph offices1 projects1 as shown in the picture1 considerably beyond the rest of the building1 and by the distinct membering of its moulding stands out conspicuously from the whole4 ,protruding portals of peculiar structure and corner pavilions enliven the aspect of the wings of the edifice1 the great round arched windows of which are separated from each other by powerful stone pillars4 ,the corner pavilions to the left in the view contain the so-called imperial apartments for the reception of royal travelers1 and on the other side are the meeting hall and reception rooms of the different railway administrations4 ,on the right and left of the imposing main vestibule1 which is distinguished by the strength and the beauty of its style1 lobbies with arched roofs lead to the waiting and dining rooms1 the ladies' rooms1 the imperial apartments and the above mentioned meeting hall of the administration4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,new ,,central ,,railway ,,station4 ,,frankfort ,,on ,,the ,,main4--,drawn by ,fr4 ,schurmann4 ,the ladies' and gentlemen's toilet rooms also are in that part of the building4 ,the architect has laid especial stress upon the architectural ornamentation of the building4 ,upon the apex of the arch over the main vestibule a great group will be placed1 representing ,atlas carrying the world on his shoulders1 and supported in his work by the allegorical figures of ,steam and ,electricity4 ,this group1 which is at the present moment being executed in copper by ,houwald1 in ,brunswick1 is the work of a ,frankfort sculptor1 ,herr ,gustav ,herold4 ,in the arch itself1 near the clock1 we see two allegorical female figures1 over life size1 in a sitting posture1 modeled by ,prof4 ,gustav ,kaupert in ,frankfort1 and representing ,day and ,night4 ,in front of the pillars supporting the arch1 two other female sitting figures1 also above life size1 will be perceived4 ,these were modeled by ,professor ,calandrelli in ,berlin1 and represent ,agriculture and ,commerce1 and in the niches on both sides there are the statues of ,navigation and ,industry1 the work of the sculptor ,hundrieser1 of ,berlin4 ,the two side portals of the entrance hall are surmounted by figures of boys1 having a height #b4dj meters2 on the left the commercial traveler and traveling student1 modelled by ,rudolph ,eckhardt in ,frankfort2 on the right the traveler for pleasure and the emigrant1 the works of the sculptor ,scholl1 of ,mayence4 ,the groups of the corner pavilions1 allegoric representations of machine building and engineering1 were modeled by ,professor ,max ,wiese1 of ,hanau4 ,the figures1 like the whole building1 are of ,heibronn sandstone4 ,either wing has a vestibule leading to the middle perron of the great hall4 ,they resemble in style the architecture of the front of the middle building1 only their arches are smaller4 ,here also we meet rich architectural ornamentation on the pillars in the great arch4 ,the ornaments consist1 as in the former case1 of allegorical figures of boys4 ,they have a height of #b4bj meters1 and represent ,agriculture and ,art ,industry on the one side and ,art and the ,retail ,trade of ,frankfort on the other side4 ,the two former figures are the work of the sculptor ,a4 ,brutt1 of ,berlin2 the two latter were modeled by ,hermann ,becker1 of ,frankfort4 ,the side facades are very long1 but of simpler style than the front of the building1 and connect with the perron halls1 which on their part end in semi-towers4 ,there the offices of the administrations are located4 ,the main vestibule leads directly to the middle of the perron in the large hall1 which consists of three naves1 and into which enter the trains of six railway lines1 each separated from the other by perrons4 ,the perron hall has a length of #ahf meters and a width of #afh meters4 ,the height of the naves1 with their low arched roofs1 rises in the center to #bh4e meters4 ,tunnels connect the different railway lines1 in order to assist the rapid transit of through trains4 ,the port also benefits by these tunnels4 ,the inside front of the main vestibule is very richly decorated4 ,in its center a large clock is situated1 and on both sides of it are colossal allegorical figures modeled by ,f4 ,kruger1 of ,frankfort1 and representing the hours of ,morning and ,evening1 while on the pillars we perceive large male figures in a sitting posture1 representing the ,defense of the ,country and ,mining1 the work of ,herr ,keller1 of ,frankfort4 ,the pillars are crowned by groups of sculpture1 representing the ,honeymoon ,travel and ,instruction in ,traveling1 the one modeled by ,a4 ,c4 ,rumpf1 and the other by ,friedrich ,schierholz1 of ,frankfort4 ,the whole edifice is fire proof1 scarcely any wood having been used in its erection4 ,the hall as well as the other parts of the building are heated by steam and lighted by electricity4 ,the whole cost of the structure amounted to about #h1ejj1jjj4--;,illustrirte ,zeitung4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,commercial ,,exchange1 ,,paris4 ,at the beginning of the year #ahha1 the committee on finances of the common council of ,paris received a petition from the central committee of the syndical chambers asking for the establishment of an official exchange for merchandise and commercial transactions for the especial use of ,parisian commerce4 ,to this petition was added a project of organization which proposed the appropriation of the grain market1 with a clearing of the approaches4 ,the ,paris chamber of commerce had likewise been for a long time contemplating the establishment of a merchandise exchange1 and was studying the practical means of organizing it4 ,called upon to decide1 the common council1 at its session of ,may #bh1 #ahha1 decreed that an official merchandise exchange for the commerce of ,paris should be organized1 and that the grain market1 or any other place considered favorable by the administration1 should be appropriated4 ,desirous of aiding in carrying out this decree1 the chamber of commerce offered its services to the city4 ,it proposed to take upon itself the responsibility of organizing and managing the exchange1 and of borrowing the money necessary for converting the grain market into a merchandise exchange1 and for clearing the approaches and opening ,louvre ,street4 ,the study of this project soon became connected1 by reason of the proximity of the places1 with the one having for its object the enlarging of the central markets and the construction of two pavilions to complete them4 ,it was recognized that it would be of interest to make the appropriation necessary for the enlarging of the markets and to unite the two operations4 ,after many vicissitudes1 this project received the approval of the common council4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--;,,external ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,commercial ,,exchange ,,of ,,paris4 ,the contract for the work was given on the #b;d of ,march1 #ahhf1 to ,mr4 ,blondel1 the well known architect4 ,let us now see how the contract has been followed out4 ,the grain market was built in #agfg1 upon the site of the hotel of ,soissons4 ,of this1 nothing was preserved but the astronomical tower of ,catherine de ,medicis1 which still remains4 ,the central part of the market left free was soon covered with a wooden framework1 which was destroyed by fire in #ahjb4 ,this was then replaced by the architect ,brunet with an iron cupola covered with sheet copper4 ,this market was designed for the reception of the grain and flour necessary to supply the city1 but was soon supplanted by public granaries1 and then by general stores4 ,it afterward became a depot in which grain and flour brokers received merchandise from shippers in order to effect a sale of it4 ,the abolition of the factorat gave it its last blow4 ,let us examine the transformations made by ,mr4 ,blondel in the old structure4 ,he began by excavating under the entire extent of the market a basement #ac ft4 in depth4 ,the old foundations of the circular walls1 which are more than #f ft4 thick1 and which are extremely solid1 extend to a depth of about #b ft4 beneath the surface4 ,the ceiling of the basement1 in the annular part between the walls1 is formed of large ,t iron girders1 resting upon the circular walls4 ,these support transverse girders1 which1 in turn1 support the floor irons4 ,the flooring of the hall is formed of ordinary floor irons1 assembled upon large girders1 which are supported here and there by cast iron columns4 ,under this flooring there is a second one1 leaving a free space of about ten inches1 in which will be placed the tubes serving for ventilation4 ,to these pipes will be joined vertical ones debouching in the flooring of the hall4 ,the old dome did not have apertures enough1 and the skylight even was not transparent1 and so the lighting of the hall was very defective4 ,the mode of covering the dome was therefore completely modified4 ,the copper was removed1 and upon the old framework was laid a wooden framework1 to which will be nailed laths designed to receive a slate roof4 ,the slate will not extend to the summit of the dome1 but will leave above it a spherical cap1 which will be glazed1 and through which the light will enter the hall in abundance4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--;,,internal ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,exchange4 ,in the basement will be installed the ventilating and heating apparatus4 ,another part of the basement will be occupied by the dynamo machines that are to furnish the electric light4 ,another part will receive the bake ovens that belong to the laboratory of the committee on grain and flour4 ,the rest of the basement will be rented4 ,the central part will probably be converted into a cold room for the preservation of early fruit and vegetables4 ,on the ground floor1 we find1 in the first place1 the rooms that the contractor is to furnish gratuitously for post office1 telegraph1 and telephones1 and to licensed brokers1 and especially a hall of superb dimensions designed for the public sale of raw materials by the brokers4 ,what remains of the ground floor will be devoted to offices looking at once upon the hall and ,viarones ,street4 ,the entresol and the two stories will be connected by several staircases4 ,the various stories will also be reached through elevators4 ,a circular balcony will extend around the hall at the level of each of the two upper stories4 ,these will be occupied by offices smaller than those on the ground floor1 which will1 some of them1 get their light from the hall1 and others from the street4 ,a part of the second story will be reserved for the service of the committees on grain and flour1 who1 as experts1 are called upon to determine to what type each specimen is to be referred4 ,from the exchange1 let us pass to the annexes4 ,the one on the right is destined to become a large hotel for the accommodation of provincial and foreign merchants4 ,the one to the left will be a tenement house1 with shops and apartments4 ,along each of these annexes1 on ,viarones ,street1 will extend a covered colonnade4--,abstract from ,le ,genie ,civil4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,basis ,,from ,,which ,,to ,,calculate ,,charges ,,for ,,electric ,,motor ,,service4#a ,footnote #a3 ,read before the electric light convention1 ,new ,york1 ,august1 #ahhh4 ,the theoretical side of the electric motor question has been very ably presented to and discussed by this association1 but thus far the practical side has been somewhat neglected4 ,it will be my purpose in this paper1 if possible1 to show that there is a general average controlling the use of machinery which it will be safe for electric light and power companies to follow in making their charges for motor service1 rather than adopt an arbitrary price per horse power regardless of the character of service required of the motor4 ,i have arranged what might be called a power curve1 representing the approximate average actual service in electric motors in connection with the several classes of work represented in the list accompanying the diagram4 ,this curve is calculated on motors which are only of sufficient capacity in each case to carry the full load4 ,if the motor should be larger than is necessary to drive the machinery1 the percentage of actual service will1 of course1 drop below that shown in the diagram4 ,by adopting a basis of averages which shall be general among members of this association1 the charges for a constant horse power of current may vary with the circumstances of its first cost in each case1 but the general classification of motor service may be a comparatively fixed rule4 ,i am not prepared to say that this is the best plan to follow1 but respectfully submit the following as a possible solution of the frequently asked question1 ,how shall we charge for electric motor service8 99 99 99 99 99 ,,exhaust ,,fans4 ,first on the list of power consumers is the exhaust fan1 taking it in average use4 ,there are1 however1 circumstances under which its use will be limited to as low as #gj or #ge per cent4 of its contract hours of service4 ,as1 for instance1 in a dining room it may be cut out except during meal hours1 or entirely cut out on cool days4 ,in places of this description1 however1 its contract use is usually limited to five or six months in the year1 and other than electric power is1 by circumstances of first cost and inconvenience1 but a feeble competitor4 ,the first four applications on the accompanying list1 viz41 exhaust fans1 blowers1 ceiling fans1 and fan outfits1 are all more or less subject to the foregoing conditions1 and therefore currents supplied to motors for these purposes command the maximum price per horse power4 ,one important feature in the installation of ceiling fans is the countershafting to the motor4 ,in one recent case we had a complaint from a customer that the half horse power motor sent him would not drive the ceiling fans1 and that the motor must be defective1 and should he return it for repairs4 ,we immediately sent a representative to find out the difficulty1 which was found1 as is usual in such cases1 in the countershafting1 or rather the want of it4 ,the #c in4 pulley on the motor was connected to a #f in4 pulley on the line shafting4 ,the rated speed of the motor was #b1jjj revolutions1 and had it been able to develop this speed1 would have driven the line shaft #a1jjj revolutions and the fans a relative speed4 ,to accomplish this would probably require a motor of #c or #d ,h4 ,p4 ,the line shafting driving ceiling fans usually runs about #ge revolutions4 ,to give this speed on the line shaft with a rated speed of #b1jjj on the #c in4 pulley of the motor would require a countershaft with a #bd in4 pulley belted to the motor4 ,on the same countershaft should be a #e in4 pulley belted to a #ae or #af in4 pulley on the line shaft4 ,fully three-fourths of the trouble found in electric motors arises from improper shafting and belting4 ,the average make of #cj in4 exhaust wheel1 a ,h4 ,p4 motor should drive about #djj revolutions4 ,say1 then1 the speed of the motor is #b1jjj and the pulley #c in41 it would require a #ae in4 pulley on the fan to do the work4 ,a #cf in4 wheel requires #a ,h4 ,p4 to develop the same speed4 ,if the motor speed is #a1hjj1 the pulley #d in41 it would require an #ah in4 pulley on the fan to do the work4 ,these are the most popular sizes of exhaust wheels4 ,the next application on the list1 open tank elevator pumps1 commands the highest price for current per ,h4 ,p4 in the motor of any elevator application4 ,the methods of operating the open tank hydraulic elevators in question are undoubtedly familiar to you all4 ,instead of the usual steam pump1 a power pump of some approved design is substituted1 and connected to the motor by suitable countershafting to give the required revolutions at the pump4 ,the regulation of the motor in this case should be controlled by the position of water in the lower tank1 as in the case of the steam pump4 ,and in this connection let me suggest the necessity of great care1 both in installation and insulation4 ,on all installations in basements and cellars or elsewhere where there is the slightest tendency to dampness1 raise the motor off the floor on a suitable frame or stand and build around it on all sides of possible approach a low platform1 using glass insulators as legs or standards to support it4 ,so arrange this that the motor or its connections cannot be reached except when standing on this insulated platform1 and the liability to a shock will be reduced to the difference of potential between the terminals of the machine4 ,to return to the subject4 ,let us take for an illustration an elevator using #abj gallons of water per trip and consuming one minute in making its entire up trip or about two per round trip4 ,the lower tank or water supply is on a level with the pump4 ,the upper tank is #gj ft4 above the pump1 and in the piping to the upper tank are five elbows4 ,for each elbow add #b ft4 to the elevation1 or an approximate total elevation of #hj ft4 #abj gallons gives us #i1fjj foot gallons4 ,this amount would be required every two minutes if the elevator was in absolutely constant operation1 or #d1hjj foot gallons per minute #h gives us #dj1hjj foot pounds4 ,this we must at least double to allow for friction in pump shafting1 etc41 making #ha1fjj foot pounds1 or about #b ,h4 ,p41 say #c required in the motor4 ,this class of elevator is confined almost entirely to passenger use4 ,therefore the service required of the motor is much more constant and the margin between the ,h4 ,p4 hours contracted for and the ,h4 ,p4 hours of actual service much smaller than in any other elevator use1 excepting possibly the services in connection with pressure tank elevators in the more popular office buildings4 ,in this case we have a maximum average use of #hj1 and instances such as the hotels1 small office buildings1 etc41 where the service will not exceed #fj of the contract ,h4 ,p4 hours4 ,in order1 however1 that the electric light company shall derive the greatest benefit from this inconstant service1 the installation and wiring should be the best1 and only the most approved and economical apparatus employed4 ,the next application on our list1 pressure tank pumps in connection with elevators1 represents a somewhat smaller percentage of ,h4 ,p4 hours of actual service in the motor as compared with the possible ,h4 ,p4 hours than in the case of an open tank pump4 ,in case of the pressure tank the water reserve is usually limited1 and the motor therefore must be equal to the continuous operation of the elevator at maximum load4 ,taking this fact into consideration1 and the circumstances of elevator use being about the same in this case as in the case of the open tank elevator1 we have a greater ratio of difference between the possible or contract ,h4 ,p4 hours in the motor and the ,h4 ,p4 hours of actual service1 the maximum average use being about #gj per cent4 to #ge per cent4 and the minimum as low as #ce per cent4 to #dj per cent41 depending1 of course1 on the character of building in which the elevator is employed or the character of service4 ,in calculating the size of motor required on an elevator of this description1 a very convenient fact to remember is that every pound of pressure per square inch is equivalent to lifting water about #bc ft41 or about #bcj ft4 per #ajj pounds pressure1 ,by reducing the required pressure to a relative lift in feet1 and knowing the amount of water required by the elevator per minute1 the motor calculation becomes the same as in case of the open tank elevator1 the same allowances being made for friction1 etc41 as in the first case4 ,the regulation of the motor in this case should be accomplished by the conditions of pressure in the pressure tank1 as is the case with a steam pump employed in this service4 ,the next application of importance on the list is sewing machines4 ,in the tests ,i have been able to make on this class of work ,i have obtained some singular results4 ,one item of importance is the fact that the single thread machines1 which are lightest running1 consume the most power in operating4 ,paradoxical as this may seem1 it is easily explained4 ,as a rule this class of machine is used on light work1 such as shirts1 ladies' underwear1 etc41 and operated at a higher speed than any other class of machine4 ,at equal speed the volts consumed on a single thread machine as compared with a shuttle machine is about as #b to #c4 ,in average commercial use1 however1 the positions are reversed1 and the ratio of volts consumed in the single thread as compared with the shuttle machine is about as #e to #c4 ,to double the speed on a sewing machine requires about #b times the power4 ,the difference in volts consumed on the different makes of sewing machines is so small that we may disregard it entirely1 as well as the character of work done by the machine1 for the heavier the work the slower the speed1 and more frequent and longer stops on the machine1 thus keeping the average volts per operator about constant in all cases4 ,this leaves the speed in stitches per minute at the sewing machine the factor from which we must calculate the power required in a sewing machine plant4 ,to illustrate this ,i will give you the record of two cases which are about the average4 ,case ,no4 #a is a shop in which are #cj sewing machines connected to a #b ,h4 ,p4 motor4 ,at the time tests were made there were but twenty operators at work1 leaving ten idle machines1 the entire shafting1 however1 being in operation4 ,the class of goods manufactured in this shop is a cheap grade of cotton and wool pants1 rather heavy goods to sew4 ,a volt meter across the terminals of the motor gave the following readings with the current at #i amperes3 ,minimum #ij volts1 maximum #adh volts1 average #aai1 which gives us a minimum average per operator of #d4e volts and a maximum average of #g4d volts1 or a general average of #e4i volts per operator4 ,this motor was driving the shafting for #cj machines1 and as the average operators employed the year round will not exceed #ge per cent4 of the shop capacity1 it will1 ,i think1 be entirely fair to estimate the average volts per machine rather than per operator1 as the user of the motor has contracted for power sufficient to drive his entire plant4 ,in this case1 then1 we have a minimum average of #c volts per machine and a maximum of #d4i volts1 or a general average of say #d volts per machine4 ,a #b horse motor of #hb per cent4 efficiency with #i amperes of current will require about #bjj volts to develop #b actual ,h4 ,p4 ,two hundred volts therefore is what the electric light company contract to deliver1 while1 in reality1 they deliver only #abi volts or #fj percent41 or a minimum average of #ij volts or #de per cent4 of the power contracted for4 ,these machines were making about #a1bjj stitches per minute--an average of #d volts per #ajj stitches4 ,case ,no4 #b is a shop in which there are #cb machines1 running about #a1bjj stitches1 each being supplied with an individual motor of #a_/h ,h4 ,p4 capacity1 and the class of goods manufactured being men's summer clothing1 such as white duck vests1 flannel coats and vests1 etc41 the duck from which these vests are made being about as hard work on a sewing machine as can be found4 ,in this shop were #bd operators at work4 ,the maximum volts in this case were #aaf and the minimum #dj1 or general average of but #gh volts1 or about #b volts per machine with #d more operators than in the first case1 in which we had an average of #aai volts4 ,this shop has been paying the electric light company #cb per month for more than a year1 which is the price the company charge for current for a #d ,h4 ,p4 motor which approximates #djj volts1 the company contracts to deliver4 ,this gives us a minimum average use of but #aj per cent4 and a maximum of #bi per cent4 with a general average of #ai per cent4 ,in other words1 the company is saving in this shop the price of a #a_/h ,h4 ,p4 motor each month1 besides making a profit on the volts actually delivered4 ,on a contract for three years the electric light company would be money in pocket if they would present the customer with #cj small motors1 charging him #a per month per motor for current1 rather than let him buy a #b ,h4 ,p4 motor to operate the same machines with the necessary shafting at a charge of #ah per month for current4 ,taking this average in case ,no4 #b of #b volts per machine1 from a #ej light machine1 we could run not less than #ijj sewing machines1 or about #ah to the arc lamp4 ,at #a per month per machine an income of #ijj per month would be derived from a #ej light machine without any lamp expenses1 such as carbons1 repairs on lamps1 globes1 etc4 ,on the average1 in case ,no4 #a1 of #d volts per machine1 we could operate but about #efb1 say #fjj machines4 ,divided up in shops of #cj machines and a #b ,h4 ,p4 motor to each shop1 we would have #bj two ,h4 ,p4 motors4 ,at a charge of #ah per month each1 we would have an earning capacity of but #cfj per month from the same #ej light machine4 ,this is but one page from the thus far unwritten history of the much maligned small motor4 ,still the question is frequently asked1 ,can we sell current for #a per month for a small motor driving a sewing machine and make a profit8 ,as a matter of fact1 #ej cents per month for small motors driving sewing machines yields a better profit to the company supplying the current than #aj per month per ,h4 ,p4 in large motors to drive the same machines1 besides the immense advantage which the small motors possess of keeping the circuit in much better balance1 the fluctuations due to the stopping and starting of large motors being at times a serious matter4 ,one electric light company1 making rather a specialty of these small machines1 rent the motor and supply the current for #a4be per month per sewing machine1 and report that at this price the motor pays them a better percentage of profit than their lamps4 ,this company have some #bjj small motors on their circuits4 ,a more striking illustration of the advantages to the electric light company in the subdivision of power into the smallest possible units it would be hard to find4 ,there is a difference in efficiency of from #ae to #bj per cent4 in these two sizes of motors1 but this difference is fully lost to the large motor in driving the shafting1 and the small motor still has the advantage of being out of circuit entirely when the machine it is driving is stopped4 ,there is scarcely a manufacturing industry which does not possess its busy and dull seasons4 ,this means that in no industry will over #ge per cent4 of the machines or machinery employed be in average operation4 ,the entire shafting in the shops must be kept in operation the entire year1 often for less than #ej per cent4 of the machinery4 ,subdivide these same shops into as many small units as possible1 and the current necessary to operate the shafting for this idle machinery will be saved1 besides the saving from frequent stops while the machinery is in active use4 ,to return again to the list1 the next two applications1 picture frame manufacturers and moulding manufacturers1 are very similar4 ,their busy seasons1 as a rule1 are in the spring and fall1 and also follow closely any activity in house building4 ,in the case of the larger manufacturers in this line1 a maximum average of #ge per cent4 will possibly be reached1 but probably never exceeded4 ,in the case1 however1 of the picture dealer who has a small shop in which he makes picture frames and mouldings to order the actual service of the motor will fall as low as #be per cent4 or #cj per cent4 of its contract hours1 one case in our experience the actual service having reached this low average4 ,a fair general average in this class of works would be about #fj per cent4 ,the next application1 nickel and silver platers and buffers1 are good contract customers as a rule2 one case in our experience showing but an average use of #bj per cent4 of the contract horse power hours4 ,this1 however1 is probably an exceptional case1 and1 as near as we can estimate on this class of work1 the actual motor service will not exceed in any case #fj per cent4 of the contract hours2 a fair average being probably #de or #ej per cent4 ,the next two applications1 printing presses on news and job work1 are probably met with more frequently than any other4 ,on exclusively news work1 the instances where the motor is in service more than #c or #d hours is rare4 ,it is1 however1 usual in news offices to find two or more job presses4 ,if the newspaper printed happens to be a morning paper1 the hours of news work are usually between #ab midnight and #d o'clock in the morning1 the job work being done through the day4 ,i have in mind a case of this description4 ,in the shop is one cylinder press and three job presses connected to a #b ,h4 ,p4 motor4 ,this motor is on an incandescent circuit of #aaj volts4 ,to develop its rated power at #aaj volts would require about #af amperes in the motor4 ,an ampere motor in series with the motor while running off the morning paper with only the cylinder press in operation stood at #ab amperes4 ,for #c hours this load was practically constant1 when it was thrown off entirely4 ,this gave on the night service but #cj per cent4 of the contract hours4 ,this motor required #e amperes to drive the shafting1 and but #h amperes or one ,h4 ,p4 to drive the three job presses with the cylinder press off4 ,here then is but a #ej per cent4 use if the presses be used constantly2 there are1 however1 many days when they are comparatively idle1 #cj to #dj per cent41 therefore1 is a very safe estimate of the maximum use of this motor on the day circuit1 or1 had the motor been a #a ,h4 ,p41 which would have been sufficient to drive the job presses1 the use would be #fj to #hj per cent4 of the contract hours1 probably not above #fj per cent4 ,all printing offices will probably come within this range1 unless the motor be larger than is necessary to do the work4 ,machine shops doing principally lathe work as a matter of course use a larger percentage of their contracted power than shops doing lathe and bench work with the same hands4 ,in no case will the service of the motor exceed #fe or #gj per cent4 of its contract use1 for machine shops1 like sewing machine shops1 will never average over #ge per cent4 of the shop capacity for operators the year round4 ,the average1 especially in the case of a shop doing much bench work1 will fall as low as #dj per cent4 ,the driving of laundry machinery1 which is our next application1 usually proves a profitable contract1 according to reports4 ,this fact arises from the intermittent use of the machinery4 ,the heaviest service on motor will probably be found during the early part of each week1 with a general falling off in work during the summer months1 while the patrons of the laundry are away at the sea-shore or in the mountains4 ,in this application1 therefore1 a #ge per cent4 service would probably be an exception1 with1 probably1 many instances where the service would fall below #ej per cent4 ,the next application1 model and pattern makers1 are small users of power1 as their occupation requires a large proportion of hand work4 #ej per cent4 service in the motor will be found a fair average maximum use1 with instances as low as #bj or #be per cent4 ,the next application1 direct power or belt elevators1 is another application frequently met4 ,the average service in the motor is also much smaller than in any other elevator application4 ,let us suppose a case of the familiar grip connected to the ordinary hand hoist1 with a lifting capacity of #b1jjj pounds4 ,in this case the motor is in use only going up1 and the usual brake is used in coming down4 ,connected to this elevator1 in the loft of the building1 we have a #e ,h4 ,p4 motor wired to a cut-out on the ground floor4 ,we will call the lift #de feet and the time consumed per trip #a minute4 ,we will allow #fj full trips of the elevator at full load1 at #b1jjj lb4 per trip1 each day4 ,this would approximate #aj car loads of merchandise handled by the elevator1 which is certainly above the average4 ,this motor1 we will say1 is on a ten hour day circuit4 ,its possible horse power hours1 therefore1 would be #e ,h4 ,p4 for #aj hours1 or #ej ,h4 ,p4 hours per day4 #fj trips of #a minute each gives us exactly #a hour's service of the full #e ,h4 ,p4 or #e ,h4 ,p4 hours4 ,to drive the shafting only while the elevator is coming down or idle would require about #aej volts or #a ,h4 ,p41 and if this was in constant operation the balance of the day1 #i hours1 its total use on shafting would be #ac ,h4 ,p4 hours1 which1 added to the #e ,h4 ,p4 hours1 gives us a grand total of #ah ,h4 ,p4 hours1 or #cg per cent4 of the contract hours4 ,if1 however1 the user of the motor avails himself of the cut-out box1 and cuts the current out when the motor is not in use1 the average use would drop to #bj or #be per cent41 instead of #cg per cent4 ,in the case of a direct power passenger elevator1 the use might possibly run up to #fj per cent41 but this would be exceptional4 ,coffee mills will average from #dj to #fj per cent4 of their contract hours1 manufacturing jewelers about the same1 while retail jewelers will run as low as #be per cent4 ,ice cream freezers will not average over #be per cent41 but as the contract season in this case is usually short1 they should be rated at least a #ej per cent4 basis1 except possibly in cases where the customer pays the cost of installation and wiring1 which is usual in these cases4 ,a dentist is one of the smallest of power users1 so small1 in fact1 that if every one in a city were connected with a circuit1 the load from this cause would never be felt4 ,we will1 however1 put them down at from #aj to #bj per cent4 ,the optician uses a motor to turn his grind stones1 and its use in this case will average from #bj to #cj per cent4 ,the last application on the list--church organs--uses only from #aj to #bj per cent4 of the contract service4 ,these are1 of course1 but few of the very many applications of the electric motor1 and if1 as ,i trust1 the possible subsequent discussion of this general plan may establish a basis for rating motor applications1 not only will the objects of this paper be obtained1 but a question of considerable annoyance now existing between the motor man and the electric light or power company will be solved4 ,in conclusion1 ,mr4 ,chairman1 ,i beg to suggest that the supply and rates of charge for electric power have become of sufficient importance to this association to be represented by a permanent committee1 whose duty it should be to obtain from the different members of the association1 as far as possible1 their experience in the supply of power in such manner and form as shall be deemed by the committee best suited to the wants of this association4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,some ,,abyssinian ,,customs4 ,illustration3 ,,woman ,,with ,,undressed ,,hair4 ,illustration3 ,,abyssinian ,,hair ,,dresser4 ,abyssinian women have an extraordinary head of hair4 ,the hair1 though not very long1 is very bushy1 so that it takes the capillary artist no less than a day to succeed in reducing this forest into a small bulk4 ,as it requires some force to draw the comb through the hair1 the operation is painful1 and this is why the ,abyssinian women have it performed every forty or fifty days only4 ,the ,abyssinian women of rank pass their life in almost complete idleness1 occupied almost exclusively in bedecking themselves and in making or receiving calls4 ,it is not the same with the women of the people4 ,they have many labors to perform1 and are the ones who manipulate the grains1 hydromel and beer1 and grind pepper in the matt-biett4 ,this latter operation is very painful1 and so they take the precaution to first close the nostrils with plugs of cotton4 ,women who have children of a tender age go at these operations with their progeniture upon the back1 after the manner of negro peoples4--,l',illustration4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,pepper ,,grinder4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,how ,a ,,mound ,,was ,,built4 ,while exploring mounds in ,ohio this season1 under the direction of the ,national ,bureau of ,ethnology1 says ,mr4 ,gerard ,fowke1 in a paper prepared for ,science1 ,i used great care in the examination of one mound in ,pike ,county1 in order to ascertain1 if possible1 the exact method of its construction4 ,the mound was built upon the site of a house1 which had probably been occupied by those whose skeletons were found4 ,the roof had been supported by side posts1 and at intervals by additional inner posts4 ,the outer posts were arranged in pairs a few inches apart1 then an interval of about three feet1 then two more1 and so on4 ,they were all about eight inches in diameter1 and extended from two and a half to three feet into the ground1 except one a few feet from the center1 which went down fully five feet4 ,all the holes were filled with the loose dark dirt which results from decay of wood2 a few contained fragments of charcoal1 burned bones or stone1 but no ashes2 nor was the surrounding earth at all burned4 ,around the outside a trench from three to four feet wide1 and from eighteen to twenty inches deep1 had been dug1 to carry away the water which fell from the roof4 ,near the middle of this house1 which measured about forty feet from side to side1 a large fire had been kept burning for several hours1 the ashes being removed from time to time4 ,the ash bed was elliptical in form1 measuring about thirteen feet from east to west1 and five from north to south4 ,under the center of it was a hole1 ten inches across and a foot deep1 filled with clean white ashes in which was a little charcoal1 packed very hard4 ,at the western end1 on the south side 7or farthest from the center of the house71 was a mass of burned animal bones1 ashes1 and charcoal4 ,this was continuous with the ash bed1 though apparently not a part of it4 ,the bones were in small pieces1 and were1 no doubt1 the remains of a funeral feast or offering4 ,after the fire died down1 rude tools were used to dig a grave at the middle of the house4 ,it measured ten feet in length1 from east to west1 by a little more than six in breadth4 ,the sides were straight1 slanting inward1 with rounded corners4 ,the bottom was nearly level1 fourteen inches deep1 but slightly lower at the center4 ,over the bottom1 ashes had been thinly sprinkled1 and on these a single thickness of bark had been laid4 ,the sides had been lined with wood or bark from two to four inches thick4 ,when this was done1 two bodies were placed side by side in the grave1 both extended at full length on the back1 with heads directly west4 ,one1 judging from the bones and condition of the teeth1 was a woman of considerable age4 ,she was placed in the middle of the grave4 ,her right arm lay along the side1 the left hand being under the pelvic bones of the other skeleton4 ,this was apparently of a man not much1 if any1 past maturity4 ,the right arm lay across the stomach1 the left across the hips4 ,this skeleton was five feet ten inches in length2 the other1 five feet four inches4 ,the space between the first skeleton and the south side of the grave was covered with the ashes that had been removed from the fire4 ,beginning at the feet in a thin layer--a mere streak--they gradually increased in thickness toward the head1 where they were fully six inches thick4 ,the head was embedded in them4 ,they extended to the end of the grave1 reaching across its entire width and coming almost1 but not quite1 in contact with the other head4 ,a considerable amount of the burned bones lay in the southwestern corner of the grave1 and the ashes along this part curved up over the side until they merged into what remained of the ash bed4 ,this had extended to the west slightly beyond the end of the grave4 ,as the earth removed from the grave had been thrown out on every side1 the bodies were in a hole that was nearly two feet deep4 ,the next step was to cover them4 ,there was no sign of bark1 cloth1 or any other protecting material above them4 ,they were covered with a black sandy earth1 which must have been brought from the creek not far distant4 ,this was piled over them while wet1 or at least damp enough to pack firmly1 as it required the pick to loosen it1 and1 besides1 was steeper on the sides than dry dirt would have been4 ,it reached just beyond the grave on every side1 and was about five and a half feet high1 or as high as it could be conveniently piled4 ,so far1 all was plain enough2 but now another question presented itself that puzzled me not a little2 and that was1 ,what became of the house8 ,that there had been one1 the arrangement of the numerous post holes plainly showed2 but the large earth mound above the tumulus or grave was perfectly solid above the original surface1 giving not the slightest evidence that the posts or any part of the house had ever reached up into it4 ,i incline to the opinion that the great fire near the middle of the house had been made from the timbers composing it2 that the upper timbers had been torn down1 and the posts cut off at the surface1 the whole being a kind of votive offering to the dead4 ,at any rate1 it is plain that a house stood there until the time the mound was built2 and it was not there afterward4 ,for the purpose of covering the grave1 sand was brought from a ridge a short distance away4 ,there was no stratification1 either horizontal or curving4 ,earth had been piled up first around the black mass forming the grave mound1 and then different parties had deposited their loads at convenient places1 until the mound assumed its final conical arrangement4 ,the lenticular masses through almost the whole mound showed that the earth had been carried in skins or small baskets4 ,the completed mound was thirteen feet high1 and about one hundred feet in diameter4 ,two and a half feet above the original surface was an extended skeleton1 head west4 ,it lay just east of the black earth over the grave4 ,sixteen feet south of the grave1 on the original surface1 and within the outer row of post holes1 were two skeletons extended1 heads nearly west4 ,it would seem that the flesh was removed before burial1 as the bones were covered with a dull red substance1 which showed a waxy texture when worked with a knife blade4 ,no relics of any description were found with any of the skeletons2 but a fine copper bracelet was picked up in a position that showed it was dropped accidentally4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,chinese ,,imperial ,,cemetery4 ,by ,lieut4 ,hon4 ,h4 ,n4 ,,shore1 ,r4,n4 ,some ten miles north of ,peking1 in a valley where silence reigns supreme1 is situated one of the most remarkable and imposing burial grounds in the world4 ,here1 nestling along the slopes of the inclosing mountains1 which form a natural amphitheater1 are a series of vast mausoleums where lie buried the emperors of the last ,chinese dynasty4 ,this was the celebrated ,ming dynasty1 which continued from #acff till #afdd1 when1 after a sanguinary struggle lasting for twenty-seven years1 it succumbed to the ,manchu ,tartars1 who1 under the title of the ,tsin dynasty1 have occupied the throne to the present time4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,avenue4 ,it has been very truly remarked of the ,chinese that they have probably expended more labor over their public works than any other nation of antiquity2 and assuredly when any great national work is undertaken1 however rare the occurrence1 it is invariably carried out on a scale of unparalleled magnificence4 ,it was1 therefore1 only fitting that the tombs containing the emperors of their own native dynasty should be constructed on a scale commensurate with the wealth and extent of the empire whose destinies they swayed for nigh #cjj years4 ,the valley contains altogether thirty tombs1 each of which stands in the center of a wooded inclosure several acres in extent1 surrounded by a high wall1 with an imposing gateway4 ,the largest and most celebrated is that of ,yen-wang1 whose body reposes in a lofty building resting on an immense brick mound pierced by a slanting tunnel1 whose curious acoustic properties entitle it to be ranked as a whispering gallery4 ,in front of the mausoleum is a hall measuring #bbj ft4 long by over #ij ft4 broad1 which contains the emperor's tablet4 ,the roof of this building is supported in the center by thirty-two pillars1 composed of single trees #fj ft4 high and over #aa ft4 in circumference1 which are said to have been brought from ,corea4 ,the transport of these enormous blocks must have been a work of no ordinary difficulty1 more especially in the absence of good roads4 ,according to the description of a missionary who recently witnessed the moving of a somewhat similar object1 it would seem that the ,chinese followed the practice of the ancient ,egyptians1 as depicted on their tombs1 and in a country where labor is abundant such a method would be natural4 ,an inscription near the entrance states that this tomb1 among others1 was repaired by the ,emperor ,kienlung1 who reigned in the early part of last century2 but like every other ancient building in ,china at the present day1 it is fast going to ruin for the want of ordinary care1 large trees being permitted to grow out of the very roof itself1 although there are several attendants residing in the inclosure2 while1 doubtless1 certain officials are entrusted with the care of this splendid mausoleum1 and draw their salaries regularly4 ,but laisser faire is the order of the day everywhere in the neighborhood of ,peking1 and nothing is ever repaired nowadays by any chance4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,road ,,to ,,peking4 ,a part of the original scheme1 which shows the magnificent scale on which the whole thing was planned and executed1 was a fine paved road1 carried over streams and rivers by marble bridges and extending the whole way from ,peking1 a distance of ten miles4 ,on approaching the valley where the tombs repose the road passes under three handsome pailaus1 or gateways1 and then through one of the most imposing avenues that was ever constructed4 ,this avenue1 which extends for about two-thirds of a mile1 is flanked on either side with colossal stone figures at intervals of about #ej yards1 representing men and animals in the following order3 ,six men1 apparently warriors and priests1 in pairs1 standing2 four horses1 four griffins1 four elephants1 four camels1 and four lions1 the first pair in each set standing1 the second recumbent4 ,as the ,chinese have never achieved any great distinction in the art of sculpture1 the representations of animal life are1 needless to say1 somewhat caricatured4 ,but the conception of the whole was magnificent1 and the effect of this long avenue of colossal figures standing in silent grandeur is as impressive as anything that ever emanated from the genius of the ,chinese race4--,ill4 ,naval and ,military ,magazine4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,dyspepsia3 ,,its ,,causes ,,and ,,prevention4 ,dyspepsia has once been called the ,american sickness1 and although this may be a slander against which many of the inhabitants of our great republic might protest1 bad digestion is a disease frequent enough among us to justify us in considering its causes and in ascertaining by what means this curse of modern civilization may be avoided4 ,a ,frenchman1 under the title ,la dyspepsie des gens d'esprit1 in the ,paris ,revue ,scientifique of ,august #ah1 shows how utterly disregarded are the sanitary rules at the dinners of well bred people in ,france2 and an ,american lady in a recent edition of a well known ,new ,york daily humoristically enlarges upon the offenses committed against health by persons of her own sex while dining in the largest city of the ,united ,states4 ,speaking of the lunch of shop girls up town1 the contributor to the ,american paper deprecates the fact that the young ,american girls employed in business houses at luncheon time live almost entirely on sweets and food that renders little or no nourishment1 rather than procuring at the same cost a repast which1 though perhaps less dainty1 would be far better for their constitution4 ,left to herself1 the writer says1 ,miss ,saleslady1 pretty and refined though she may be1 day after day and day after day keeps her temper1 and waits on her customers1 leaning on a slim luncheon of pie and tea4 ',it is sweet and nice1' pleaded one girl to me the other day1 'and it goes so much further than anything else4' ',not further than bread and milk' ,i urged1 'and it is surely not half as good for your complexion4' ',oh1 but the other ladies would laugh at me well if they saw me eating bread and milk for my luncheon4 ,i think myself a bit of something light and nice1 like eclairs or a charlotte russe1 is ever so much more ladylike and nice4' ,heaven save the mark6 ,what sort of flesh and blood do they make to put on the slender bones of a growing girl8 ,how will they stand by her1 when perhaps she leaves the shop and chooses the life of wife and mother8 ,the answer is easy4 ,when the pie-eating1 cooky-feeding girl gets married1 put it down in your note book3 ,one more dyspeptic1 peevish woman entered the lists of the unlovely4 ,the contributor to the ,french review1 although also condemning the careless choice of food1 more especially points out the evil consequences of eating too hastily2 and though ,m4 ,julva directs his attack chiefly against the gens d'esprit1 i4e41 the well bred people of ,france who neglect the rules of health for politeness' sake1 his words apply equally well to the ,american business man who sacrifices his health during luncheon to the almighty dollar4 ,the feverish activity of modern life1 he says1 induces many people to abridge the duration of their repast1 and1 particularly1 luncheon is taken too hastily--a practice the danger of which1 as a cause of dyspepsia1 cannot be overrated4 ,this practice might not be so dangerous if1 during the short time which we dedicate to our midday meal1 we would at least imitate the habit of the ,japanese1 whom politeness requires to be absolutely silent while eating4 ,when they like a certain dish1 they express their satisfaction by graceful gestures addressed to their host1 but they think it would offend him if they open their mouth for anything else except eating4 ,watch1 on the other hand1 one of our lawyers at luncheon4 ,he has just dismissed his last client1 at the moment when he should be already at court1 and in order not to be too late he has to lunch in double quick time4 ,he has to eat his viands without having time to masticate them1 and he swallows his big pieces1 washing them down with several glasses of wine and water1 and hastens to his carriage almost without giving himself time to breathe1 in order not to miss his call4 ,look at a ,parisian dining in town4 ,french politeness forbids him to be silent like the ,japanese1 and also requires of him not to speak with his mouth full of food4 ,and if this were not enough1 ,french gallantry commands him to serve the ladies first1 so that just about when they have finished1 he may commence to eat4 ,in addition to this1 if he does not want to appear ill bred1 he must reply to all their questions1 which he would not be able to do if he did not gulp down his morsels unchewed4 ,what wonder1 then1 that most men have to suffer from eating dinner in such a manner1 while all discomfort could be avoided1 if the viands were served to one guest after the other in succession8 ,we don't want to exaggerate4 ,there are privileged stomachs which can stand all that4 ,but there are many to which half-masticated food is a real poison4 ,the unconscious dyspeptic constitutes an extremely frequent variety4 ,dyspeptics rarely complain of suffering from the stomach2 many of them will even say to you that their stomach is excellent4 ,but let us remember the old fable of ,menenius ,agrippa3 ,the whole organism suffers when the stomach is ill treated4 ,premature calvity 7baldness71 some eruptions of acne 7pustules of the skin71 a slight dyspnoea 7difficulty in breathing7 when mounting stairs1 a blush of heat on the cheeks a quarter of an hour after luncheon1 a violent craving for smoking after the repast1 a feeling of sleepiness1 which1 however1 quickly fades toward ten o'clock in the evening1 little inclination to work during the first hours after awakening in the morning1 all these symptoms1 or any part of them1 show that you have before you a candidate of the disease known as bloating of the stomach or the gout4 ,according to the wise enumeration of ,moliere1 who was evidently prompted by ,renaudot1 such a person begins with bradypepsia 7slow digestion71 then suffers from dyspepsia 7bad digestion71 afterward from apepsia 7indigestion71 and later lyentery 7a lax or diarrhea in which food is discharged only half digested71 and at the last the vicious circle is often completed by obesity1 uric affections of the liver or bladder1 and all the other diseases belonging to that class4 ,unfortunately1 we are still far from the time when the public will appreciate that prevention is better than cure4 ,perhaps this fundamental principle of health will be honored during the #bjth century4 ,at present it certainly is not4 ,meanwhile1 those who have ruined their health by modern city life take recourse for their cure to a holiday1 hasten to places where they find mineral waters1 or try laxatives or milk diet to improve their condition4 ,they wish to do something for their health once or twice a year4 ,how much better1 if they had not been acting against their health all the year round4 ,it is extremely difficult to teach our people to eat healthily4 ,you will find no difficulty to persuade them to take medicine4 ,people have always time to swallow a pill1 but you will certainly have trouble to teach them to chew with leisure4 ,how many people who find time every year to spend the season at ,vichy will tell you it is quite impossible for them to spend five minutes more every day at luncheon time4 ,and nevertheless they would regain these few minutes a day with interest1 if they would avoid that host of maladies which will stop them one day in the midst of their occupations4 ,i have seen a good many of my clients getting entirely rid of their rheumatic pains and gout and ceasing to suffer from sleepless nights by observing the following simple rules4 ,in order to chew meat conveniently--and this is one of the main points--one must accustom one's self never to mix meat and bread in the same mouthful4 ,take a small mouthful1 chew it about thirty times1 then swallow that part which has been reduced to pulp1 and so on until all has been masticated4 ,in doing this you will soon find out that roasted and broiled beef or mutton requires a longer trituration than boiled meats or stews2 you will also perceive that fish is more easily masticated than meat1 and you will finally understand why certain dyspeptics are forced to limit their food to fish1 eggs1 and milk diet4 ,in fact1 milk diet serves no other purpose than to furnish a perfectly digestible nourishment4 ,one of the indirect and unforeseen benefits of a careful mastication is that people gradually become accustomed to be satisfied with a comparatively small quantity of food1 for as slow chewing is always more or less tedious1 those who observe this rule soon cease to be great eaters1 and also learn quickly to accustom themselves to another very important rule1 viz41 to drink moderately while eating4 ,two glasses of liquid will then quite suffice for a person who would drink four if he ate his viands swallowing them down without chewing4 ,many obese dyspeptics when they once commence to masticate carefully and to take liquid moderately while eating lose weight with an astonishing rapidity and become cured of the bloating of the stomach without being finally obliged to have recourse to the rigorous dry diet of ,prof4 ,bouchard4 ,wine and water1 the ,french national drink1 is an extremely frequent1 and very often misunderstood1 cause of dyspepsia4 ,a good many people would enjoy excellent health if they were satisfied with pure water1 that favorite drink of the aged4 ,it is quite perplexing sometimes to see at the same table three neighbors1 drinking at their dinner1 the one wine1 the other beer1 and the third tea4 ,how much better would it be if people1 instead of choosing their habitual drink according to the place that they come from1 would select it more with regard to their individual constitution6 ,i know many who1 after having1 for fifty years1 quietly ignored the fact1 have come to the recognition that for them1 wine1 even if diluted with much water1 is absolutely hurtful1 and who1 by giving it up1 and by taking pure water1 tea1 or cider1 to which ,prof4 ,c4 attributes great success in his practice1 instead1 have got rid of their ailments almost as if by enchantment4 ,in conclusion1 ,i should like to say a word with regard to salt1 this panacea of arthritic persons 7persons suffering from arthritis1 swelling of the joints1 as in gout74 ,for many years ,i have been laboring under the wrong impression1 that salt is placed on the table merely for the purpose of salting boiled eggs1 which the cook cannot salt in advance4 ,great mistake6 ,the wisdom of nations has discovered that there are people for whom a great quantity of salt is a necessity1 and that there are others who would become ill if they were to eat viands that are much salted4 ,the salt cellar is there in order to enable every one to salt his food according to his own requirements4 ,many people are led by their natural instinct to salt their viands in a proportion to suit them4 ,but there are others1 among them1 above all1 the well bred persons previously mentioned1 who treat eating with disdain and for whom the whole attraction of a repast is the charm of conversation1 and to them the idea of having recourse to the salt cellar never occurs4 ,whether salt is needed in order to add acid to the gastric juice or whether it has an antiseptic action in the digestive channel1 ,i do not know4 ,certain1 however1 it is1 that it possesses very appreciable laxative qualities1 and under its influence those who go to drink the waters at ,wiesbaden often see their intestinal functions restored to a surprising degree4 ,it is just as well1 however1 and even better1 to take one's ,vichy at home1 and nothing is more simple than to use one's ,wiesbaden at home1 by using the salt cellar4 ,the cure may then be completed by distributing over a whole year the thirty warm baths which have to be taken during the season at that watering place4 ,the bath at #dj ,celsius is a real boon for arthritic persons4 ,the warmer it is1 whether salt or not1 the better it acts in producing an exuberant perspiration1 and the less is one apt to catch cold when leaving it4 ,the above by no means exhausts the vast subject of dyspepsia and arthritis4 ,but without ignoring the utility of thermal waters1 of morning promenades1 of dry frictions and gymnastics1 the sufferers should1 above all1 be advised to minutely masticate their food1 to limit the amount of liquids at meal time1 to use salt1 which will by no means increase their thirst2 and in certain cases to abstain entirely from alcoholic drinks4 ,those who observe these rules may with impunity dine out1 although those so-called great dinners1 where all rules of health are left aside1 are absolutely baneful for a great number of the inhabitants of our cities4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,new ,,surgical ,,operation4 ,among the matters of interest which were brought before the ,british ,medical ,association1 at the recent ,glasgow meeting1 was an account by ,mr4 ,brudenell ,carter of a method which he had devised of opening the sheath of the optic nerve behind the eye1 for the relief of pressure within this sheath and within the cavity of the skull4 ,the brain is invested by firm membranes1 which secrete a certain amount of fluid and are continued down to the eye in the form of a sheath which surrounds the optic nerve2 and1 whenever the pressure within the cavity of the skull is increased1 as by the growth of a brain tumor1 or even by excess of secretion from the membranes themselves1 a superabundance of fluid is apt to find its way down the nerve sheath to the level of the eye1 to subject the optic nerve to injurious pressure1 and1 in many cases1 to destroy the sight4 ,it not infrequently happens that the pressure within the brain cavity may be increased by temporary or curable causes1 which1 nevertheless1 continue in action sufficiently long to produce permanent blindness1 even although the patient may1 in other respects1 recover4 ,in view of these conditions it was suggested by ,dr4 ,de ,wecker1 of ,paris1 sixteen or seventeen years ago1 that it might be possible to open the optic nerve sheath1 and thus not only to relieve the nerve from pressure and to preserve it from injury1 but also1 on account of the position of the eye relatively to the brain cavity1 to drain the latter by gravitation1 and to relieve the brain as well as the eye4 ,dr4 ,de ,wecker made two endeavors to accomplish this object1 but he tried to feel his way to the optic nerve without the aid of sight1 and to incise the sheath by means of an instrument carrying a concealed knife1 capable of being projected by means of a spring4 ,the risks of failure1 and1 still more1 the risks of inflicting irreparable injury upon the nerve1 were such that he only attempted his operation in two well nigh hopeless cases1 and only one attempt to follow his example has been recorded4 ,mr4 ,carter's attention was called to the matter last year by a case in which the diminution of pressure within the optic nerve sheath was manifestly desirable2 and he devised a method of operating by which the sheath could be exposed to view1 and the object attained with certainty1 under the guidance of sight at every step of the process4 ,he read before the ,medical ,society of ,london1 last year1 an account of the first case in which he operated1 which was successful2 and he read an account of three more cases at ,glasgow1 in one of which the result was negative1 as far as sight was concerned1 while in the other two the patients were not only quickly restored to useful vision1 in one instance from complete1 in the other from nearly complete1 blindness1 but were at the same time relieved or cured of other symptoms1 such as headache and sickness1 arising from direct pressure on the brain4 ,in his paper at ,glasgow1 ,mr4 ,carter claimed for the new operation that it could be performed with certainty and without risk either to life or to any important structure1 and that it afforded a reasonable prospect of the preservation of sight in many forms of disease in which it is now habitually or frequently lost4 ,as in the case of every new operation1 time and further experience of its effects are required in order to determine the precise limits of its usefulness4 ,in the discussion which followed the paper1 ,mr4 ,bickerton1 of ,liverpool1 said that1 in consequence of reading the account of ,mr4 ,carter's first case1 he had himself performed the operation in two instances1 in one of which temporary restoration of sight was followed by relapse1 while in the second the ultimate issue was favorable4--,london ,times4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,putzeys' ,,flushing ,,reservoir4 ,every sewer is more or less exposed to intermissions in the flow of the water that it leads1 and the result is a diminution in velocity which leads to deposits of solid material4 ,hence the necessity of regularly flushing the sewer with water1 which removes from the sides the substances that have attached themselves thereto1 and which1 without such precaution1 soon decompose4 ,in a word1 it is necessary that a perfect washing shall be assured1 and this can be done only by heavy rains or by strong currents of water4 ,as regards rain1 that could not be relied upon2 and to have a force of men specially charged with the service of washing1 that would be too costly1 and so recourse has been had to automatic apparatus4 ,illustration3 ,,flushing ,,reservoir4 ,the automatic siphons used for flushing sewers are characterized in general by the presence1 at the base of the discharge branch1 of a fixed or movable receiving vessel full of water4 ,this vessel has the inconvenience of breaking the effect of the charge1 and the result is that these apparatus do not render the services that might be expected from them4 ,some of these apparatus have valves1 floats1 chains1 pulleys1 and levers4 ,these are still more defective1 since their operation is delicate4 ,the parts of which they are composed easily get out of order1 and then the reservoir does no more flushing at all4 ,a good automatic flushing reservoir must therefore be of the greatest simplicity1 and its parts must be fixed and strong1 and the outflow of the water must be rapid and energetic and directly from the reservoir into the sewer4 ,in a word1 its construction should be such that there shall be no need of inspecting it1 and that its operation be regular4 ,the apparatus devised by ,mr4 ,e4 ,putzeys1 ,director of ,works of the city of ,verviers1 well fulfills the conditions of an excellent flushing reservoir with an automatic siphon4 ,the siphon has a double curve1 but may1 however1 have different forms according to the various uses for which it may be employed1 such as for flushing sewers1 urinals1 closets1 etc4 ,the annexed figure represents the apparatus as arranged for flushing a sewer4 ,the apparatus operates as follows3 ,in the bottom of the branch of the siphon1 ,s1 there is always some water1 so that1 during the filling of the reservoir by means of the cock seen in the figure1 the air is compressed in the branch ,s to a degree that cannot exceed the pressure of an equal height of water to about double the height of the siphon4 ,the reservoir therefore can continue to fill without the water escaping4 ,the submersion of the small siphon1 a1 b1 c1 is less than that of the principal siphon1 ,s1 and it follows that when the level of the reservoir reaches a height equal to b1 a1 a new influx1 however small it be1 causes the discharge of a few drops of water from the auxiliary siphon1 a1 b1 c1 which is always full of water4 ,at this moment the water that it contains can no longer resist the thrust of the compressed air in the branch of the siphon1 ,s1 and is therefore forced1 along with the compressed air1 into the flushing pipe4 ,by virtue of the principle of communicating vessels1 the water of the reservoir tends to resume its level in the interior of the apparatus1 and it then enters with such impetuosity that the siphon1 whatever be its dimensions1 is primed4 ,the entire reservoir empties instantaneously1 and the water flows to open the sewer4 ,from the experiments made at ,verviers by the inventor1 it results that1 with a pipe #aj inches in diameter1 the emptying of a #age cubic foot reservoir can be effected in #cj seconds4 ,we may remark that with this apparatus we obtain the maximum of useful effect1 seeing that the work developed is represented by the total head of the water diminished simply by losses of charge due to friction in the pipes4 ,in other apparatus the loss of charge is much less1 since the flushing is broken by a receiver4 ,putzeys' apparatus1 therefore1 with a much less discharge of water1 is capable of producing an effect superior to that of similar apparatus4 ,on account of its simplicity and plain character1 there is no need of precision in the installation of this apparatus1 and horizontality1 even1 is not a sine qua non for its perfect operation4 ,the siphon is very easily cleaned1 and this is a great advantage1 since it permits of utilizing sewage matter for filling the flushing reservoir4--,chronique ,industrielle4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,pepsin4 ,by ,a4 ,,percy ,,smith1 ,f4,i4,c41 ,f4,c4,s41 ,rugby4 ,the method usually adopted for estimating the peptonizing power of pepsina porci consists in dissolving #a to #b grains in #h to #ab ounces of water1 to which #dj to #fj minims of hydrochloric acid has been added4 #ejj to #a1jjj grains of hard-boiled white of egg1 granulated by rubbing through a wire sieve1 is immersed in the liquid1 and the whole kept at #ih to #acj ,f4 for four hours1 when the undissolved albumen is filtered off through muslin1 and1 after partial drying1 is weighed to ascertain the amount dissolved4 ,the variable numbers above quoted embrace various formul recommended by different experimenters4 ,this method of analysis is excessively crude and untrustworthy4 ,when hard-boiled white of egg is kept in warm water1 it absorbs a considerable quantity of that menstruum1 as much as several units per cent42 consequently1 on weighing the residual albumen1 you may find that the weight is greater instead of less than that with which you started1 the gain in weight due to absorbed water more than counterbalancing the loss obtaining through solution1 as has happened with indifferent samples of pepsin4 ,then who shall say when1 by simple air drying1 the albumen has regained its former condition8 ,the enormous quantity of albumen is foreign to the usual habits of the scientific analyst1 and involves an enormous waste of time in manipulation4 ,one trial of this method was enough for me4 ,the first modification ,i adopted consisted in substituting for the large quantity of granulated albumen a single half of the white of an egg in one piece4 ,i likewise arranged a check experiment in which the pepsin was omitted1 other conditions remaining unaltered4 ,at the end of four hours the residual pieces of albumen were placed on blotting paper to remove superfluous moisture1 and weighed4 ,the gain in weight of the albumen in the check experiment1 due to absorbed water1 was calculated into percentage1 and the same deducted from the weights of the other portions which had been subjected to the action of various pepsins4 ,this1 although an improvement upon the old method1 proved likewise unreliable1 because the water absorbed was not equal in each experiment4 ,the albumen which was immersed in acidulated water only quickly dried1 superficially1 when placed on blotting paper1 whereas that which had been acted on by pepsin was rendered glutinous and incapable of being dried in this manner4 ,in fact1 one sample weighed considerably more than it did at starting1 even after deducting the allowance for water absorbed4 ,i next tried much smaller pieces of albumen1 about #a c4c41 in hope that complete solution might ensue1 and a time value be obtained4 ,i soon found1 however1 that the solubility does not depend upon the mass1 but upon the surface exposed4 ,finally ,i discarded altogether the use of fresh white of egg1 and had recourse to dry powdered albumen1 prepared by drying in a steam oven and levigation in a mortar4 ,with this ,i succeeded in getting accurate comparisons between the digestive powers of various pepsins4 ,albumen in this form dissolves with rapidity1 owing to its state of fine division4 ,any remaining undissolved can be filtered off on a counterpoised filter paper1 and heated in a water oven until absolutely dry4 ,it is1 however1 unnecessary to do this when two samples only are compared against each other1 nor is it essential to know the actual weight of albumen employed1 provided it be the same in each experiment4 ,this is insured by placing some on the naked pan of the balance 7there is no objection to so doing1 as it is a dry gritty powder1 and does not adhere to the metal71 and counterpoising by a similar addition to the other pan4 ,let the albumen fall on the center of the filtered liquid1 avoiding1 if possible1 contact with the glass of the beaker4 ,it soon sinks1 and after the lapse of some time1 a simple inspection will show which is dissolving with the greater rapidity4 ,agitation assists solution4 ,therefore take the two beakers1 one in each hand1 and rotate the contents equally4 ,when one sample has dissolved all the albumen1 it is manifestly superior to the other which has failed to do so in the given time4 ,if many samples have to be compared1 it will be necessary to start with known quantities of albumen1 and weigh the undissolved residues in the manner above indicated4 ,an objection may possibly be raised to this modified method1 viz41 that albumen as ingested is not in the form of a dry powder1 and that we ought to copy as nearly as possible the conditions existing in the stomach4 ,to this ,i would reply that it does not matter in the least1 to us1 as analysts1 what are the conditions which obtain in the stomach2 since there is no absolute test for pepsin1 we can only compare one sample against another1 and that which dissolves the most albumen in the shortest time is taken to be the best4 ,another imperfect method of analysis is that employed in the examination of malt extracts for diastase1 in which a certain weight of extract ought to dissolve a certain weight of starch in ten minutes1 when if it does so dissolve it1 the extract is a good one2 if not1 it is to be condemned4 ,the more correct way is to ascertain the reducing power on ,fehling's solution1 before and after digestion with an excess of starch1 and ,i intend to say a few words upon this subject on a future occasion1 when ,i have ascertained the maximum amount of diastase existing in the best samples of malt4--,the ,analyst4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,subterraneous ,,flora ,,and ,,fauna4 ,by ,dr4 ,,otto ,,zacharias4 ,it is generally correct to say that air1 light and moisture form the chief conditions necessary for the development of organic plant or animal life4 ,one of these conditions1 however1 namely light1 is not of equal importance with the two others4 ,for modern investigation and the discoveries made during the progress of natural sciences have shown that in the depths of the ocean1 where an everlasting darkness reigns1 and where the temperature is extremely low1 nevertheless a great abundance of animal life is to be found1 and that there exist living beings1 not only of the lowest organization1 but even fishes and crustaceans of very complicated structure1 all of which thrive without enjoying the slightest ray of light4 ,a similar example of animal life in the absence of light is to be found in the fauna of caves and grottoes4 ,this was first made known to the world by ,austrian and ,american naturalists4 ,the well known ,adelsberg grotto in ,krain1 and the gigantic ,mammoth ,cave in ,kentucky1 furnished much interesting material for a detailed study of the biological conditions of subterraneous animal life4 ,it was gradually discovered that in those dark places there existed not only insects1 spiders1 crustaceans1 centipedes1 worms1 and snails1 but also a kind of salamander and fishes4 ,but what gave special interest to these discoveries was the fact1 ascertained by careful study1 that not all of these beings were gifted with normally developed organs of vision1 but that in some these organs had undergone a retrograde development1 while others were entirely blind4 ,among the latter1 the blind fish of the ,mammoth ,cave 7,amblyopsis spelacus7 is especially remarkable1 because in this being the retrograde development of the organ of vision is accompanied by the production of certain ridges of skin on the body which are endowed with an extreme sensitiveness of touch1 and which1 according to a work lately published by ,professor ,von ,leydig1 are composed of little warts in which the nerve fibers end4 ,nature1 therefore1 has in this case compensated the amblyopsis for his loss of sight by endowing him with a highly developed organ of feeling4 ,a similar phenomenon is to be observed in the blind crab 7,cambaras pellucidus71 which is also found in the ,mammoth ,cave1 for in this being1 according to ,professor ,von ,leydig1 the little warts on the interior feelers1 which constitute the organ of smell1 have also received an abnormal development4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,,the ,,semi-,,blind ,,salamander 7,,proteus ,,anguineus7 ,,of ,,the ,,adelsberg ,,grotto1 ,,in ,,austria4 ,better known than the blind fish and the blind crab of ,kentucky is the ,proteus anguineus1 a kind of salamander1 of a pale rose color1 endowed with gills and found in the ,adelsberg grotto in ,austria4 7,fig4 #a47 ,this amphibium has an eye which lies very deep in the body and is almost overgrown by the skin4 ,but this eye is by no means as developed as the organ of vision1 for instance1 of the water salamander 7the triton7 or of the so-called axolotl1 for it exists only in a kind of embryonic development1 and contains neither a vitreous humor nor a lens for the refraction of the rays of light4 ,as1 however1 the nerve of vision exists1 it is possible that this salamander may be able to discern in some manner between light and darkness4 ,the thinking student1 when discovering such imperfect organs of sight1 will naturally ask how the eye of this salamander1 which is so useless for its real purpose1 has come into existence1 and he will weigh the comparative value of the two following explanations4 ,it may be assumed that there existed once in the ,adelsberg grotto a salamander which was absolutely blind1 and in which1 in consequence of an innate power of evolution1 an organ of vision of the lowest kind was gradually formed4 ,but to this assumption the objection may be raised at once1 why nature should have produced an organ of vision in an animal living in a grotto1 where such an organ is absolutely useless1 and where such a development would be quite as paradoxical and improbable as1 for instance1 the development of fins instead of legs in an animal living on dry land4 ,on the other hand1 one may suppose1 and this is the more probable explanation1 that the ,proteus anguineus is descended from a kind of salamander1 which possessed perfectly developed eyes in the beginning1 and that the imperfect organ of vision in the descendants living in the dark caves is the result of gradual degeneration4 ,this is the more likely to be true as in many other cases1 also1 we find that organs which become useless and cannot be employed have gradually degenerated4 ,our common mole furnishes an example4 ,its eyes also have become small and are deeply hidden in the muscles1 although they are by no means as much degenerated as in the ,proteus anguineus1 and are still possessed of a lens and a retina4 ,their nerve of vision1 however1 has become very imperfect1 and its connection with the brain is interrupted1 so that the animal for this reason can have no perception of light4 ,notwithstanding the above1 however1 it is doubtful whether the degeneration and gradual disappearance of the visual organ is in all cases the result of their being no longer employed1 since there exists in dark caves a kind of beetle1 the ,machaerites1 in which species the female only is blind1 while the male has a well developed organ of sight4 ,in this case it cannot be maintained that the absence of light has been the cause of the blindness of the female beetle1 because it would have acted equally upon the male4 ,nevertheless1 no other explanation can be found for the blindness4 ,the problem1 therefore1 is hitherto unsolved4 ,of late the investigations of naturalists have been extended to the animal life existing not only in grottoes and caves1 but also in mines and pits created by the action of man1 and this has led to many interesting discoveries and remarkable results4 ,a naturalist who has especially enlarged our knowledge with regard to the subterraneous fauna and flora is ,dr4 ,robert ,schneider1 of ,berlin1 who made his studies in the coal mines near ,waldenburg and ,altwasser1 in ,silesia1 the salt mines of ,stassfurt and the metal mines of ,klausthal1 in the ,upper ,harz ,mountains4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--;,,group ,,of ,,pyrenomycetes1 ,a ,,species ,,of ,,fungi ,,frequent ,,in ,,the ,,waters ,,of ,,mines4 a4 ,found in the mines of ,waldenburg2 b4 ,in the brown-coal pits near ,westeregeln2 c4 ,in the ,dorothea pit at ,klausthal4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 a4 ,rhizomorpha canalicularis of ,hoffmann1 b4 ,club fungus 7,clavaria deflexa7 of ,hoffmann1 found in the mines at ,klausthal4 ,as regards the subterraneous flora1 ,dr4 ,schneider's investigations resulted in showing that the plants which thrive in the dark regions under ground are those which possess no chlorophyl and are sensitive to light4 ,those which vegetate most luxuriantly there are the fungi1 and among them especially the pyrenomycetes1 which are frequent in the waters of mines4 ,their general aspect is shown in a #dhj times magnified form in ,fig4 #b4 ,they resemble fine threads of delicate structure1 and where found are always discovered in great abundance4 ,most conspicuous by their shape and considerable size are the rhizomorph1 ,fig4 #c;a1 and they are remarkable1 not only for their brilliant phosphorescence1 but also for the peculiar fact that they are only found in places where light does not enter4 ,these rhizomorph1 though this is not easily recognizable from their external appearance1 also belong to the fungi and are often seen in strings of the length of over a meter and the thickness of a quill1 spreading out in peculiar branches and hanging down from moist beams in dark places4 ,sometimes they grow like seaweed in the water of the mines1 and in this case they give much embarrassment to the miners1 because they are apt to obstruct the channels constructed for leading off the superfluous water4 ,in the mines of ,freiberg these rhizomorph exist in great abundance1 and ,humboldt already mentions specimens of the length of #d feet4 ,miners in ,germany call them zwirn 7thread74 ,the student of natural sciences1 when encountering these peculiar forms of vegetation1 will ask in how far they are the product of their surrounding circumstances 7i4e41 of the absence of light or the presence of moisture71 and in order to find a reply to this question experiments have been made to grow these rhizomorph under different conditions of existence4 ,these experiments have shown that from several species of rhizomorph other ordinary fungi can be developed1 and that the subterraneous specimens therefore may be considered a degeneration and variation of the fungi found above the surface of the ground4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 a4 ,agaricus myurus of ,hoffmann1 a subterranean fungus4 b4 ,himantia villosa1 a species of rhizomorpha found in the ,upper ,harz ,mountains4 ,in ,fig4 #d;b the ,himantia villosa is represented1 a rhizomorpha found in the mines of the ,upper ,harz ,mountains1 thus showing another form of this vegetable growth4 ,though it is difficult1 as above stated1 to recognize by their shape the rhizormorph as fungi1 the origin of the peculiar ,agaricus myurus of ,hoffmann 7,fig4 #d;a7 will be much easier discovered1 though a retrograde development and degeneration has taken place also in this fungus4 ,it still shows1 however1 the elements of a regular toadstool1 only that the stem is much elongated and looks like a thread or a tube1 while the cap is small1 and this explains how1 by gradual degeneration1 the cap may disappear entirely1 leaving nothing but a stem1 as1 for instance1 in the case of the ,clavaria deflexa1 the club fungus1 shown in ,fig4 #c;b4 ,in connection with the above it may be well to speak of the fungi constituting the mould which often covers the roof and the doors in the brown-coal mines of ,halle1 specimens of which are shown in ,fig4 #e4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4--;,,forms ,,of ,,mould ,,fungi ,,found ,,in ,,the ,,brown-,,coal ,,mines ,,near ,,halle ,a4 ,s4 ,we now come to the animal life in mines and pits4 ,this is mostly represented1 of course1 by lower organisms1 as infusoria and worms4 ,thus1 in the slime on the bottom of the waters in mines1 several species of amoeb are found1 which consist of microscopically small animated bodies1 continually floating about1 nourishing themselves by absorbing organic matter1 possessing sensation1 propagating1 etc41 and1 in fact1 having actually the qualities of real animal nature4 ,further1 we find in those subterraneous waters a species of the sun infusorium 7,actinophrys71 which is especially frequent in the mines of ,klausthal4 ,fig4 #f shows one of these peculiar little beings4 ,also the ,stylonychia 7,fig4 #g7 is a characteristic inhabitant of those places1 and always present there4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4--,,the ,,sun ,,infusorium 7,,actinophrys74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4--,,the ,,rapacious ,,infusorium 7,,stylonychia74 ,it moves with great rapidity in the water by means of the numerous hairs covering its body1 can turn quickly in any direction1 and thus is enabled to catch suddenly the little beings on which it lives and which it hunts2 for which reason the stylonychia is called the rapacious infusorium4 ,the above are organisms which can be seen only through the microscope1 but the fauna of mines contains also larger organisms1 though they are not found as regularly and are not as characteristic for those places as the forms mentioned hitherto4 ,among these organisms there are several species of worms1 spiders1 gnats1 and1 above all1 crustaceans of the lower class4 ,the most interesting of the latter is perhaps a variety of the sand flea 7,fig4 #h--;,gammarus pulex74 ,the crustacean found in the pits of mines1 which is related to the sand flea1 shows1 according to ,dr4 ,r4 ,schneider1 a slight degeneration of the organ of sight1 which has taken place in consequence of its adaptation to the dark places1 in which this variety of the ,gammarus pulex is found1 which can make no use of eyes1 while the sand flea possesses them fully developed4 ,otherwise1 however1 the two varieties are almost absolutely alike1 differing only in some details4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4--,,the ,,sand ,,flea 7,,gammarus ,,pulex74 ,from the above the reader will see that breathing in the rosy light1 as ,schiller calls it1 is not an absolutely necessary condition for the existence of organic beings1 but that life exists everywhere1 where there is air and moisture1 and a temperature which is not always below freezing point1 though even eternal frost does not exclude life entirely1 as is proved by the existence of the glacier flea1 showing that even in the icy coverings of the ,alps life still is possible4 ,mephistopheles may therefore well say3 ,from water1 earth1 and air unfolding1 ,a thousand germs break forth and grow ,in dry and wet1 and warm and chilly2 ,and had ,i not the ,flame reserved1 why really1 ,there's nothing special of my own to show6 --,leipziger ,illustrirte ,zeitung4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,nature4 ,,timber1 ,,and ,,some ,,of ,,its ,,diseases4#a ,footnote #a3 ,continued from ,supplement1 ,no4 #ffa1 page #ajeeh4 ,by ,h4 ,,marshall ,,ward4 ,,ix4 ,in the months of ,april and ,may1 the younger needle-like leaves of the ,scotch pine are occasionally seen to have assumed a yellow tinge1 and on closer examination this change in color1 from green to yellow1 is seen to be due to the development of what look like small orange colored vesicles standing off from the surface of the epidermis1 and which have in fact burst through from the interior of the leaf 7,fig4 #ca74 ,between these larger orange yellow vesicles the lens shows certain smaller brownish or almost black specks4 ,each of the vesicular swellings is a form of fungus fructification known as an cidium1 and each of the smaller specks is a fungus structure called a ,spermogonium1 and both of these bodies are developed from a mycelium in the tissues of the leaf4 ,i must employ these technical terms1 but will explain them more in detail shortly3 the point to be attended to for the moment is that this fungus in the leaf has long been known under the name of ,peridermium ,pini 7var4 acicola1 i4e41 the variety which lives upon the needle-like leaves74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca4--,to the right is a pair of leaves of the ,scotch pine1 with the blister-like cidia a4 of ,peridermium ,pini 7var4 acicola7 projecting from their tissues3 these blisters are orange yellow in color1 and contain spores1 as shown in ,fig4 #cc4 ,between the blisters are the minute spermogonia1 b4 ,to the left is a small branch1 killed at a a a by ,peridermium ,pini 7var4 corticola71 the blister-like yellow cidia of the fungus being very conspicuous4 7,reduced1 after ,hartig47 ,on the younger branches of the ,scotch pine1 the ,weymouth pine1 the ,austrian pine1 and some others1 there may also be seen in ,may and ,june similar but larger bladder-like orange vesicles 7cidia7 bursting through the cortex 7,fig4 #ca72 and here1 again1 careful examination shows the darker smaller ,spermogonia in patches between the cidia4 ,these also arise from a fungus mycelium in the tissues of the cortex1 whence the fungus was named ,peridermium ,pini 7var4 corticola74 ,it is thus seen that the fungus ,peridermium ,pini was regarded as a parasite of pines1 and that it possessed two varieties1 one inhabiting the leaves and the other the cortex3 the varieties were so considered1 because certain trivial differences were found in the minute structure of the cidia and ,spermogonia4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb4--;,blisters 7cidia7 of ,peridermium ,pini 7var4 corticola7 on a branch of the ,scotch pine3 some of the cidia have already burst at the apex and scattered their spores1 b1 b2 the others are still intact4 7,natural size1 after ,hess74 ,if we cut thin vertical sections through a leaf and one of the smallest cidia1 and examine the latter with the microscope1 it will be found to consist of a mass of spores arranged in vertical rows1 each row springing from a branch of the mycelium3 the outermost of these spores--i4e41 those which form a compact layer close beneath the epidermis--remain barren1 and serve as a kind of membrane covering the rest 7,fig4 #cc1 p74 ,it is this membrane which protrudes like a blister from the tissues4 ,the hyph of the fungus are seen running in all directions between the cells of the leaf tissue1 and as they rise up and form the vertical chains of spores1 the pressure gradually forces up the epidermis of the leaf1 bursts it1 and the mass of orange yellow powdery spores protrude to the exterior enveloped in the aforesaid membrane of contiguous barren spores4 ,if we examine older cidia1 it will be found that this membrane bursts also at length1 and the spores escape4 ,similar sections across a ,spermogonium exhibit a structure which differs slightly from the above4 ,here also the hyph in the leaf turn upward1 and send delicate branches in a converging crowd beneath the epidermis2 the latter gives way beneath the pressure1 and the free tips of the hyph constrict off very minute spore-like bodies4 ,these minute bodies are termed ,spermatia1 and ,i shall say no more about them after remarking that they are quite barren1 and that similar sterile bodies are known to occur in very many of the fungi belonging to this and other groups4 ,sections through the cidia and ,spermogonia on the cortex present structures so similar1 except in minute details which could only be explained by lengthy descriptions and many illustrations1 that ,i shall not dwell upon them2 simply reminding the reader that the resemblances are so striking that systematic mycologists have long referred them to a mere variety of the same fungus4 ,now as to the kind and amount of damage caused by the ravages of these two forms of fungus4 ,in the leaves1 the mycelium is found running between the cells 7,fig4 #cc1 h71 and absorbing or destroying their contents3 since the leaves do not fail the first season1 and the mycelium remains living in their tissues well into the second year1 it is generally accepted that it does very little harm4 ,at the same time1 it is evident that1 if very many leaves are being thus taxed by the fungus1 they cannot be supplying the tree with food materials in such quantities as if the leaves were intact4 ,however1 the fungus is remarkable in this respect--that it lives and grows for a year or two in the leaves1 and does not 7as so many of its allies do7 kill them after a few weeks4 ,it is also stated that only young pines are badly attacked by this form3 it is rare to find cidia on trees more than twenty years or so old4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc4--,vertical section through a very young cidium of ,peridermium ,pini 7var4 acicola71 with part of the subjacent tissue of the leaf1 h1 the mycelium of the parasitic fungus running between the cells of the leaf2 immediately beneath the epidermis of the leaf1 the ends of the hyph give rise to the vertical rows of spores 7b71 the outermost of which 7p7 remain barren1 and form the membrane of the blister-like body4 ,the epidermis is already ruptured at p by the pressure of the young cidium4 7,after ,k4 ,hartig3 highly magnified47 ,much more disastrous results can be traced directly to the action of the mycelium in the cortex4 ,the hyph grow and branch between the green cells of the true cortex1 as well as in the vast tissues beneath1 and even make their way into the medullary rays and resin canals in the wood1 though not very deep4 ,short branches of the hyph pierce the cells1 and consume their starch and other contents1 causing a large outflow of resin1 which soaks into the wood or exudes from the bark4 ,it is probable that this effusion of turpentine into the tissues of the wood1 cambium1 and cortex has much to do with the drying up of the parts above the attacked portion of the stem3 the tissues shrivel up and die1 the turpentine in the canals slowly sinking down into the injured region4 ,the drying up would of course occur if the conducting portions are steeped in turpentine1 preventing the conduction of water from below4 ,the mycelium lives for years in the cortex1 and may be found killing the young tissues just formed from the cambium during the early summer3 of course the annual ring of wood1 etc41 is here impoverished4 ,if the mycelium is confined to one side of the stem1 a flat or depressed spreading wound arises2 if this extends all round1 the parts above must die4 ,when fairly thick stems or branches have the mycelium on one side only1 the cambium is injured locally1 and the thickening is of course partial4 ,the annual rings are formed as usual on the opposite side of the stem1 where the cambium is still intact1 or they are even thicker than usual1 because the cambium there diverts to itself more than the usual share of food substances2 where the mycelium exists1 however1 the cambium is destroyed1 and no thickening layer is formed4 ,from this cause arise cancerous malformations which are very common in pine woods 7,fig4 #cd74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd4--,section across an old pine stem in the cancerous region injured by ,peridermium ,pini 7var4 corticola74 ,as shown by the figures1 the stem was fifteen years old when the ravages of the fungus began to affect the cambium near a4 ,the mycelium1 spreading in the cortex and cambium on all sides1 gradually restricted the action of the latter more and more2 at thirty years old1 the still sound cambium only extended half way round the stem--no wood being developed on the opposite side4 ,by the time the tree was eighty years old1 only the small area of cambium indicated by the thin line marked #hj was still alive2 and soon afterward the stem was completely ringed1 and dead1 all the tissues being suffused with resin4 7,after ,hartig47 ,putting everything together1 it is not difficult to explain the symptoms of the disease4 ,the struggle between the mycelium on the one hand1 which tries to extend all round in the cortex1 and the tree itself1 on the other1 as it tries to repair the mischief1 will end in the triumph of the fungus as soon as its ravages extend so far as to cut off the water supply to the parts above3 this will occur as soon as the mycelium extends all round the cortex1 or even sooner if the effusion of turpentine hastens the blocking up of the channels4 ,this may take many years to accomplish4 ,so far1 and taking into account the enormous spread of this disastrous disease1 the obvious remedial measures seem to be1 to cut down the diseased trees--of course this should be done in the winter1 or at least before the spores come--and use the timber as best may be2 but we must first see whether such a suggestion needs modifying1 after learning more about the fungus and its habits4 ,it appears clear1 at any rate1 however1 that every diseased tree removed means a source of cidiospores the less4 ,probably every one knows the common groundsel1 which abounds all over ,britain and the ,continent1 and no doubt many of my readers are acquainted with other species of the same genus 7,senecio7 to which the groundsel belongs1 and especially with the ragwort 7,senecio ,jacoba74 ,it has long been known that the leaves of these plants1 and of several allied species1 are attacked by a fungus1 the mycelium of which spreads in the leaf passages1 and gives rise to powdery masses of orange yellow spores1 arranged in vertical rows beneath the stomata3 these powdery masses of spores burst forth through the epidermis1 but are not clothed by any covering1 such as the cidia of ,peridermium ,pini1 for instance4 ,these groups of yellow spores burst forth in irregular powdery patches1 scattered over the under sides of the leaves in ,july and ,august3 toward the end of the summer a slightly different form of spore1 but similarly arranged1 springs from the same mycelium on the same patches4 ,from the differences in their form1 time of appearance1 and 7as we shall see7 functions1 these two kinds of spores have received different names4 ,those first produced have numerous papill on them1 and were called ,uredospores1 from their analogies with the uredospore of the rust of wheat2 the second kind of spore is smooth1 and is called the ,teleutospore1 also from analogies with the spores produced in the late summer by the wheat rust4 ,the fungus which produces these uredospores and teleutospores was named and has been long distinguished as ,coleosporium ,senecionis 7,pers47 ,we are not immediately interested in the damage done by this parasite to the weeds which it infests1 and at any rate we might well be tempted to rejoice in its destructive action on these garden pests4 ,it is sufficient to point out that the influence of the mycelium is to shorten the lives of the leaves1 and to rob the plant of food material in the way referred to generally in my last article4 ,what we are here more directly interested in is the following4 ,a few years ago ,wolff showed that if the spores from the cidia ,peridermium ,pini 7var4 acicola7 are sown on the leaf of ,senecio1 the germinal hyph which grow out from the spores enter the stomata of the ,senecio leaf1 and there develop into the fungus called ,coleosporium ,senecionis4 ,in other words1 the fungus growing in the cortex of the pine1 and that parasitic on the leaves of the groundsel and its allies1 are one and the same3 it spends part of its life on the tree and the other part on the herb4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce4 ,a spore of ,peridermium ,pini germinating4 ,it puts forth the long1 branched germinal hyph on the damp surface of a leaf of ,senecio1 and one of the branches enters a stoma1 and forms a mycelium in the leaf3 after some time1 the mycelium gives rise to the uredospores and teleutospores of ,coleosporium ,senecionis4 7,after ,tulasne3 highly magnified47 ,if ,i left the matter stated only in this bald manner1 it is probable that few of my readers would believe the wonder4 ,but1 as a matter of fact1 this phenomenon1 on the one hand1 is by no means a solitary instance1 for we know many of these fungi which require two host plants in order to complete their life history2 and1 on the other hand1 several observers of the highest rank have repeated ,wolff's experiment and found his results correct4 ,hartig1 for instance1 to whose indefatigable and ingenious researches we owe most that is known of the disease caused by the ,peridermium1 has confirmed ,wolff's results4 ,it was to the brilliant researches of the late ,prof4 ,de ,bary that we owe the first recognition of this remarkable phenomenon of heteroecism--i4e41 the inhabiting more than one host--of the fungi4 ,de ,bary proved that the old idea of the farmer1 that the rust is very apt to appear on wheat growing in the neighborhood of berberry bushes1 was no fable2 but on the contrary1 that the yellow cidium on the berberry is a phase in the life history of the fungus causing the wheat rust4 ,many other cases are now known1 e4g441 the cidium abietinum1 on the spruce firs in the ,alps1 passes the other part of its life on the rhododendrons of the same region4 ,another well known example is that of the fungus ,gymnosporangium1 which injures the wood of junipers4 ,oersted first proved that the other part of its life is spent on the leaves of certain ,rosace1 and his discovery has been repeatedly confirmed4 ,i have myself observed the following confirmation of this4 ,the stems of the junipers so common in the neighborhood of ,silverdale 7near ,morecambe ,bay7 used to be distorted with ,gymnosporangium1 and covered with the teleutospores of this fungus every spring3 in ,july all the hawthorn hedges in the neighborhood had their leaves covered with the cidium form 7formerly called ,roestelia71 and it was quite easy to show that the fungus on the hawthorn leaves was produced by sowing the ,gymnosporangium spores on them4 ,many other well established cases of similar heteroecism could be quoted4 ,but we must return to the ,peridermium ,pini4 ,it will be remembered that ,i expressed myself somewhat cautiously regarding the ,peridermium on the leaves 7var4 acicola74 ,it appears that there is need for further investigations into the life history of this form1 for it has been thought more than probable that it is not a mere variety of the other1 but a totally different species4 ,only so lately as #ahhc1 however1 ,wolff succeeded in infecting the leaves of ,senecio with the spores of ,peridermium ,pini 7acicola71 and developing the ,coleosporium1 thus showing that both the varieties belong to the same fungus4 ,it will be seen from the foregoing that in the study of the biological relationships between any one plant which we happen to value because it produces timber and any other which grows in the neighborhood there may be 7and there usually is7 a series of problems fraught with interest so deep scientifically1 and so important economically1 that one would suppose no efforts would be spared to investigate them3 no doubt it will be seen as time progresses that what occasionally looks like apathy with regard to these matters is in reality only apparent indifference due to want of information4 ,returning once more to the particular case in question1 it is obvious that our new knowledge points to the desirability of keeping the seed beds and nurseries especially clean from groundsel and weeds of that description3 on the one hand1 such weeds are noxious in themselves1 and on the other they harbor the ,coleosporium form of the fungus ,peridermium under the best conditions for infection4 ,it may be added that it is known that the fungus can go on being reproduced by the uredospores on the groundsel plants which live through the winter4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in ,st4 ,genevieve and ,cape ,girardeau ,counties1 ,mo41 in the ,niagara limestone is found a handsome marble of a variegated liver color4 ,near ,sheppard ,landing it is #hj feet thick1 and at ,janis ,mill1 in ,st4 ,genevieve ,county1 ,dr4 ,shumard speaks of beds of fine texture and various shades of flesh1 yellow1 green1 pink1 purple1 and chocolate1 all handsomely blended4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,new ,,catalogue ,,of ,,valuable ,,papers ,contained in ,scientific ,american ,supplement during the past ten years1 sent free of charge to any address4 ,,munn ,,co41 #cfa ,broadway1 ,new ,york4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,scientific ,,american ,,architects ,,and ,,builders ,,edition4 #b4ej ,a ,,year4 ,,single ,,copies1 #be ,,cts4 ,this is a ,special ,edition of the ,scientific ,american1 issued monthly--on the first day of the 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