,,the ,,story ,,of ,,eclipses ,,simply ,,told ,,for ,,general ,,readers4 ,,with ,,especial ,,reference ,,to ,,the ,,total ,,eclipse ,,of ,,the ,,sun ,,of ,,may #bh1 #aijj4 ,,by ,,george ,f4 ,,chambers1 ,f4,r4,a4,s4 ,of the ,inner ,temple1 ,barrister-at-,law4 ,,author ,,of ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,the ,,solar ,,system2 ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,the ,,stars2 ,a ,,handbook ,,of ,,descriptive ,,astronomy1 ,,etc4 ,,london3 ,,george ,,newnes1 ,,ltd4 ,,southampton ,,street1 ,,strand #ahii4 ,the rights of translation and of reproduction are reserved4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,,the ,,total ,,eclipse ,,of ,,the ,,sun1 ,sept4 #g1 #aheh 7,liais74 ,,preface4 ,the present ,volume is intended as a sequel to my two former volumes in the ,newnes ,series of ,useful ,stories1 entitled respectively the ,story of the ,solar ,system1 and the ,story of the ,stars4 ,it has been written not only as a necessary complement1 so to speak1 to those works1 but because public attention is already being directed to the forthcoming total eclipse of the ,sun on ,may #bh1 #aijj4 ,this eclipse1 though only visible as a partial one in ,england1 will be total no further off than ,portugal and ,spain4 ,considering also that the line of totality will pass across a large tract of country forming part of the ,united ,states1 it may be inferred that there will be an enormous number of ,english-speaking spectators of the phenomenon4 ,it is for these in general that this little book has been written4 ,for the guidance of those who may be expected to visit ,portugal or ,spain1 a temporary ,appendix has been prepared1 giving a large amount of information showing how those countries can be best reached1 whether by sea or overland1 from the shores of ,england4 ,if anyone is inclined to doubt whether an eclipse expedition is likely to provide non-astronomical tourists with incidents of travel1 pleasant1 profitable1 and even amusing1 perhaps the doubt will be removed by a perusal of the accounts of ,sir ,f4 ,galton's trip to ,spain in #ahfj 7,vacation ,tourists in #ahfj1 p4 #dbb71 or of ,professor ,tyndall's trip to ,algeria in #ahgj 7,hours of ,exercise in the ,alps1 p4 #dbi71 or of ,professor ,langley's ,adventures on ,pike's ,peak in the ,rocky ,mountains1 ,colorado1 ,u4,s41 in #ahgh 7,washington ,observations1 #ahgf1 ,appendix ,,iii4 p4 #bjc72 or of some of the many ,magazine and other narratives of the ,norway eclipse of #ahif and the ,indian eclipse of #ahih4 ,subject to these special points no further prefatory explanation seems needed1 the general style of the contents being1 mutatis mutandis1 identical with the contents of the ,volumes which have gone before4 ,i have to thank my friend1 ,dr4 ,a4 ,m4 ,w4 ,downing1 the ,superintendent of the ,nautical ,almanac1 for kindly verifying the calculations in chapters ,,ii4 and ,,iii4 ,g4 ,f4 ,c4 ,,northfield ,,grange1 ,,eastbourne1 #ahii4 ,,contents4 ,,chap4 ,,page ,i4 ,,introduction #i ,,ii4 ,,general ,,ideas #aa ,,iii4 ,,the ,,saros ,,and ,,the ,,periodicity ,,of ,,eclipses #ah ,,iv4 ,,miscellaneous ,,theoretical ,,matters ,,connected ,,with ,,eclipses ,,of ,,the ,,sun 7,,chiefly7 #cd ,v4 ,,what ,,is ,,observed ,,during ,,the ,,earlier ,,stages ,,of ,,an ,,eclipse ,,of ,,the ,,sun #dj ,the ,moon's ,shadow and the ,darkness it causes #da ,shadow ,bands #df ,the ,approach of ,totality #di ,the ,darkness of ,totality #ec ,meteorological and other effects #ed ,,vi4 ,,what ,,is ,,observed ,,during ,,the ,,total ,,phase ,,of ,,an ,,eclipse ,,of ,,the ,,sun #ef ,baily's ,beads #eg ,the ,corona #fb ,,vii4 ,,what ,,is ,,observed ,,after ,,the ,,total ,,phase ,,of ,,an ,,eclipse ,,of ,,the ,,sun ,,is ,,at ,,an ,,end #gc ,,viii4 ,,eclipses ,,of ,,the ,,sun ,,mentioned ,,in ,,history--,,chinese #ge ,,ix4 ,,are ,,eclipses ,,alluded ,,to ,,in ,,the ,,bible #hf ,x4 ,,eclipses ,,mentioned ,,in ,,history--,,classical #ajg ,,xi4 ,,eclipses ,,mentioned ,,in ,,history--,,the ,,christian ,,era ,,to ,,the ,,norman ,,conquest #abh ,,xii4 ,,eclipses ,,mentioned ,,in ,,history--,,medi,,val ,,and ,,modern #ade ,,xiii4 ,,eclipses ,,mentioned ,,in ,,history--,,nineteenth ,,century #afb ,,xiv4 ,,the ,,electric ,,telegraph ,,as ,,applied ,,to ,,eclipses ,,of ,,the ,,sun #agi ,,xv4 ,,eclipses ,,of ,,the ,,moon--,,general ,,principles #ahf ,,xvi4 ,,eclipses ,,of ,,the ,,moon ,,mentioned ,,in ,,history #aig ,,xvii4 ,,catalogues ,,of ,,eclipses3 ,,and ,,their ,,calculation #bah ,,xviii4 ,,strange ,,eclipse ,,customs #bbd ,,xix4 ,,eclipses ,,in ,,shakespeare ,,and ,,the ,,poets #bbi ,,xx4 ,,brief ,,hints ,,to ,,observers ,,of ,,eclipses #bcc ,,xxi4 ,,transits ,,and ,,occultations #bce ,,appendix--,,information ,,respecting ,,the ,,total ,,eclipse ,,of ,,may #bh1 #aijj1 ,,for ,,travellers ,,visiting ,,portugal ,,and ,,spain #bci ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations4 ,,page ,,fig4 #a4 ,,total ,,eclipse ,,of ,,the ,,sun1 ,,september #g1 #aheh ,frontispiece #b4 ,,theory ,,of ,,total ,,eclipse ,,of ,,the ,,sun #ae #c4 ,,theory ,,of ,,an ,,annular ,,eclipse ,,of ,,the ,,sun #af #d4 ,,annular ,,eclipse ,,of ,,the ,,sun #af #e4 ,,partial ,,eclipse ,,of ,,the ,,sun #ag #f4 ,,shadow ,,bands #dg #g4 ,,rays ,,of ,,light ,,seen ,,during ,,totality #di #h4 ,,brushes ,,of ,,light #eg #i4 ,,baily',s ,,beads1 ,,four ,,stages1 ,,at ,,brief ,,intervals 7,,may #ae1 #ahcf7 #eh #aj4 ,,corona ,,of #ahhb4 ,,sun-,,spot ,,maximum #fh #aa4 ,,corona ,,of #ahfg4 ,,sun-,,spot ,,minimum #gj #ab4 ,,eclipse ,,of ,,jan4 #aa1 #fhi ,b4,c4 ,,at ,,jerusalem #ajj #ac4 ,,theory ,,of ,,an ,,eclipse ,,of ,,the ,,moon #ahg #ad4 ,,conditions ,,of ,,eclipses ,,of ,,the ,,moon #ahi #ae4 ,,occultation ,,of ,,jupiter1 ,,aug4 #g1 #ahhi 7,,immersion7 #bcg #af4 ,,occultation ,,of ,,jupiter1 ,,aug4 #g1 #ahhi 7,,immersion7 #bcg #ag4 ,,occultation ,,of ,,jupiter1 ,,aug4 #g1 #ahhi 7,,emersion7 #bch #ah4 ,,occultation ,,of ,,jupiter1 ,,aug4 #g1 #ahhi 7,,emersion7 #bch #ai4 ,,path ,,of ,,the ,,total ,,eclipse ,,of ,,the ,,sun ,,of ,,may #bh1 #aijj at end of book4 ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,eclipses4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,introduction4 ,it may1 ,i fear1 be taken as a truism that the man in the street 7collectively1 the general public7 knows little and cares less for what is called physical science4 ,now and again when something remarkable happens1 such as a great thunderstorm1 or an earthquake1 or a volcanic eruption1 or a brilliant comet1 or a total eclipse1 something in fact which has become the talk of the town1 our friend will condescend to give the matter the barest amount of attention1 whilst he is filling his pipe or mixing a whisky and soda2 but there is not in ,england that general attention given to the displays of nature and the philosophy of those displays1 which certainly is a characteristic of the phlegmatic ,german4 ,however1 things are better than they used to be1 and the forthcoming total eclipse of the ,sun of ,may #bh1 #aijj 7visible as it will be as a partial eclipse all over ,great ,britain and ,ireland1 and as a total eclipse in countries so near to ,great ,britain as ,spain and ,portugal1 to say nothing of the ,united ,states71 will probably not only attract a good deal of attention on the part of many millions of ,english-speaking people1 but may also be expected to induce a numerically respectable remnant to give their minds and thoughts1 with a certain amount of patient attention1 to the ,science and ,philosophy of ,eclipses4 ,there are other causes likely to co-operate in bringing this about4 ,it is true that men's minds are more enlightened at the end of the #aith century than they were at the end of the #afth century1 and that a trip to ,spain will awaken vastly different thoughts in the year #aijj to those which would have been awakened1 say in the year #aehg2 but for all that1 a certain amount of superstition still lingers in the world1 and total eclipses as well as comets still give rise to feelings of anxiety and alarm amongst ill-educated villagers even in so-called civilized countries4 ,some amusing illustrations of this will be presented in due course4 ,for the moment let me content myself by stating the immediate aim of this little book1 and the circumstances which have led to its being written4 ,what those circumstances are will be understood generally from what has been said already4 ,its aim is the unambitious one of presenting in readable yet sound scientific language a popular account of eclipses of the ,sun and ,moon1 and 7very briefly7 of certain kindred astronomical phenomena which depend upon causes in some degree similar to those which operate in connection with eclipses4 ,these kindred phenomena are technically known as ,transits and ,occultations4 ,putting these two matters entirely aside for the present1 we will confine our attention in the first instance to eclipses2 and as eclipses of the ,sun do not stand quite on the same footing as eclipses of the ,moon1 we will1 after stating the general circumstances of the case1 put the eclipses of the ,moon aside for a while4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,general ,,ideas4 ,the primary meaning of the word ,eclipse 7,greek3 ekleipsis7 is a forsaking1 quitting1 or disappearance4 ,hence the covering over of something by something else1 or the immersion of something in something2 and these apparently crude definitions will be found on investigation to represent precisely the facts of the case4 ,inasmuch as the ,earth and the ,moon are for our present purpose practically solid bodies1 each must cast a shadow into space as the result of being illuminated by the ,sun1 regarded as a source of light4 ,what we shall eventually have to consider is3 ,what results arise from the existence of these shadows according to the circumstances under which they are viewed8 ,but before reaching this point1 some other preliminary considerations must be dealt with4 ,the various bodies which together make up the ,solar system1 that is to say1 in particular1 those bodies called the planets--some of them primary1 others secondary 7alias ,satellites or ,moons7--are constantly in motion4 ,consequently1 if we imagine a line to be drawn between any two at any given time1 such a line will point in a different direction at another time1 and so it may occasionally happen that three of these ever-moving bodies will come into one and the same straight line4 ,now the consequences of this state of things were admirably well pointed out nearly half a century ago by a popular writer1 who in his day greatly aided the development of science amongst the masses4 ,when one of the extremes of the series of three bodies which thus assume a common direction is the ,sun1 the intermediate body deprives the other extreme body1 either wholly or partially1 of the illumination which it habitually receives4 ,when one of the extremes is the ,earth1 the intermediate body intercepts1 wholly or partially1 the other extreme body from the view of the observers situate at places on the ,earth which are in the common line of direction1 and the intermediate body is seen to pass over the other extreme body as it enters upon or leaves the common line of direction4 ,the phenomena resulting from such contingencies of position and direction are variously denominated ,eclipses1 ,transits1 and ,occultations1 according to the relative apparent magnitudes of the interposing and obscured bodies1 and according to the circumstances which attend them4#a ,the ,earth moves round the ,sun once in every year2 the ,moon moves round the ,earth once in every lunar month 7#bg days74 ,i hope everybody understands those essential facts4 ,then we must note that the ,earth moves round the ,sun in a certain plane 7it is nothing for our present purpose what that plane is74 ,if the ,moon as the ,earth's companion moved round the ,earth in the same plane1 an eclipse of the ,sun would happen regularly every month when the ,moon was in ,conjunction 7,new ,moon71 and also every month at the intermediate period there would be a total eclipse of the ,moon on the occasion of every ,opposition 7or ,full ,moon74 ,but inasmuch as the ,moon's orbit does not lie in quite the same plane as the ,earth's1 but is inclined thereto at an angle which may be taken to average about #e-a_/h1 the actual facts are different2 that is to say1 instead of there being in every year about #be eclipses 7solar and lunar in nearly equal numbers71 which there would be if the orbits had identical planes1 there are only a very few eclipses in the year1 never1 under the most favourable circumstances1 more than #g1 and sometimes as few as #b4 ,nor are the numbers equally apportioned4 ,in years where there are #g eclipses1 #e of them may be of the ,sun and #b of the ,moon2 where there are only #b eclipses1 both must be of the ,sun4 ,under no circumstances can there be in any one year more than #c eclipses of the ,moon1 and in some years there will be none4 ,the reasons for these diversities are of a technical character1 and a full elucidation of them would not be of interest to the general reader4 ,it may here be added1 parenthetically1 that the occasions will be very rare of there being #e solar eclipses in one year4 ,this last happened in #ahbc1b and will only happen once again in the next two centuries1 namely in #aice4 ,if a total eclipse of the ,sun happens early in ,january there may be another in ,december of the same year1 as in #ahhi 7,jan4 #a and ,dec4 #bb74 ,this will not happen again till #bjeg1 when there will be total eclipses on ,jan4 #e and ,dec4 #bf4 ,there is one very curious fact which may be here conveniently stated as a bare fact1 reserving the explanation of it for a future page1 namely1 that eclipses of the ,sun and ,moon are linked together in a certain chain or sequence which takes rather more than #ah years to run out when the sequence recurs and recurs ad infinitum4 ,in this #ah-year period1 which bears the name of the ,saros1 there usually happen #gj eclipses1 of which #da are of the ,sun and #bi of the ,moon4 ,accordingly1 eclipses of the ,sun are more numerous than those of the ,moon in the proportion of about #c to #b1 yet at any given place on the ,earth more lunar eclipses are visible than solar eclipses1 because the former when they occur are visible over the whole hemisphere of the ,earth which is turned towards the ,moon whilst the area over which a total eclipse of the ,sun is visible is but a belt of the ,earth no more than about #aej to #agj miles wide4 ,partial eclipses of the ,sun1 however1 are visible over a very much wider area on either side of the path traversed by the ,moon's shadow4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,,theory ,,of ,a ,,total ,,eclipse ,,of ,,the ,,sun4 ,confining our attention in the first instance to eclipses of the ,sun1 the diagrams fig4 #b and fig4 #c will make clear1 with very little verbal description1 the essential features of the two principal kinds of eclipses of the ,sun4 ,in these figures ,s represents the ,sun1 ,m the ,moon and ,e the ,earth4 ,they are not1 of course1 even approximately drawn to scale either as to the size of the bodies or their relative distances1 but this is a matter of no moment as regards the principles involved4 ,m being in sunshine receives light on1 as it were1 the left hand side1 which faces ,s the ,sun4 ,the shadow of the ,moon cast into space is1 in the particular case1 thrown as regards its tip on to the ,earth and is intercepted by the ,earth4 ,persons at the moment situated on the ,earth within the limits of this shadow will not see any part of the ,sun at all2 they will see1 in fact1 nothing but the ,moon as a black disc with only such light behind and around it as may be reflected back on to the sky by the illuminated 7but to the ,earth invisible7 hemisphere of the ,moon1 or as may proceed from the ,sun's ,corona 7to be described presently74 ,the condition of things therefore is that known as a total eclipse of the ,sun so far as regards the inhabitants of the narrow strip of ,earth primarily affected4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,,theory ,,of ,,an ,,annular ,,eclipse ,,of ,,the ,,sun4 ,fig4 #c represents nearly but not quite the same condition of things4 ,here the ,earth and the ,moon are in those parts of their respective orbits which put the two bodies at or near the maximum distance possible from the ,sun and from one another4 ,the ,moon casts its usual shadow1 but the tip does not actually reach any part of the ,earth's surface4 ,or1 in other words1 to an observer on the ,earth the ,moon is not big enough to conceal the whole body of the ,sun4 ,the result is this2 at the instant of central coincidence the ,moon covers up only the centre of the ,sun1 leaving the outer edge all round uncovered4 ,this outer edge shows as a bright ring of light1 and the eclipse is of the sort known as an annular eclipse of the ,sun4#c ,as the greatest breadth of the annulus can never exceed #a minutes of arc1 an annular eclipse may sometimes1 in some part of its track1 become almost or quite total1 and vice vers4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--;,,annular ,,eclipse ,,of ,,the ,,sun4 ,the idea will naturally suggest itself1 what exactly does happen to the inhabitants living outside 7on the one side or the other7 of the strip of the ,earth where the central line of shadow falls8 ,this depends in every case on circumstances1 but it may be stated generally that the inhabitants outside the central line but within #ajjj to #bjjj miles on either side1 will see a larger or smaller part of the ,sun concealed by the ,moon's solid body1 simultaneously with the total concealment of the ,sun to the favoured individuals who live1 or who for the moment are located1 within the limits of the central zone4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4--,,partial ,,eclipse ,,of ,,the ,,sun4 ,now we must advance one stage in our conceptions of the movements of the ,earth and the ,moon1 so far as regards the bearing of those movements on the question of eclipses4 ,the ,earth moves in a plane which is called the ,plane of the ,ecliptic1 and correspondingly1 the ,sun has an apparent annual motion in the same plane4 ,the ,moon moving in a different plane1 inclined to the first mentioned one to the extent of rather more than #e1 the ,moon's orbit will evidently intersect the ecliptic in two places4 ,these places of intersection are called ,nodes1 and the line which may be imagined to join these ,nodes is called the ,line of ,nodes4 ,when the ,moon is crossing the ecliptic from the ,s4 to the ,n4 side thereof1 the ,moon is said to be passing through its ,ascending ,node 7,symbol3 ,ascending node72 the converse of this will be the ,moon passing back again from the ,n4 side of the ecliptic to the ,s4 side1 which is the ,descending ,node 7,symbol3 ,descending node74 ,such changes of position1 with the terms designating them1 apply not only to the ,moon in its movement round the ,earth1 but to all the planets and comets circulating round the ,sun2 and also to satellites circulating round certain of the planets1 but with these matters we have no concern now4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #a3 ,d4 ,lardner1 ,handbook of ,astronomy1 #crd ed41 p4 #bhh4 ,footnote #b3 ,but not one of them was visible at ,greenwich4 ,footnote #c3 ,latin ,annulus1 a ring4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,saros ,,and ,,the ,,periodicity ,,of ,,eclipses4 ,to bring about an eclipse of the ,sun1 two things must combine3 7#a7 the ,moon must be at or near one of its ,nodes2 and 7#b71 this must be at a time when the ,moon is also in ,conjunction with the ,sun4 ,now the ,moon is in ,conjunction with the ,sun 7 ,new ,moon7 #ab or #ac times in a year1 but the ,sun only passes through the ,nodes of the ,moon's orbit twice a year4 ,hence an eclipse of the ,sun does not and cannot occur at every ,new ,moon1 but only occasionally4 ,an exact coincidence of ,earth1 ,moon1 and ,sun1 in a straight line at a ,node is not necessary to ensure an eclipse of the ,sun4 ,so long as the ,moon is within about #ah of its ,node1 with a latitude of not more than #a #cd'1 an eclipse may take place4 ,if1 however1 the distance is less than #ae and the latitude less than #a #bc' an eclipse must take place1 though between these limits#d the occurrence of an eclipse is uncertain and depends on what are called the horizontal parallaxes and the apparent semi-diameters of the two bodies at the moment of conjunction1 in other words1 on the nearness or far-offness of the bodies in question4 ,another complication is introduced into these matters by reason of the fact that the ,nodes of the ,moon's orbit do not occupy a fixed position1 but have an annual retrograde motion of about #ai1 in virtue of which a complete revolution of the ,nodes round the ecliptic is accomplished in #ah years #bah-g_/h days 7 #ah4eiig years74 ,the backward movement of the ,moon's ,nodes combined with the apparent motion of the ,sun in the ecliptic causes the ,moon in its monthly course round the ,earth to complete a revolution with respect to its ,nodes in a less time 7#bg4b days7 than it takes to get back to ,conjunction with the ,sun 7#bi4e days72 and a curious consequence1 as we shall see directly1 flows from these facts and from one other fact4 ,the other fact is to the ,sun starting coincident with one of the ,moon's ,nodes1 returns on the ,ecliptic to the same ,node in #cdf4f days4 ,the first named period of #bg4b days is called the ,nodical ,revolution of the ,moon or ,draconic ,month1 the other period of #bi4e days is called the ,synodical ,revolution of the ,moon4 ,now the curious consequence of these figures being what they are is that #bdb ,draconic ,months1 #bbc ,lunations1 and #ai ,returns of the ,sun to one and the same ,node of the ,moon's orbit1 are all accomplished in the same time within #aa hours4 ,thus 7ignoring refinements of decimals73-- ,days ,days4 ,years4 ,days4 ,hours4 #bdb times #bg4b #fehe4cf #ah #aj #h #bbc times #bi4e #fehe4cb #ah #aj #g #ai times #cdf4f #fehe4gh #ah #aj #ah ,the interpretation to be put upon these coincidences is this3 that supposing ,sun and ,moon to start together from a ,node they would1 after the lapse of #fehe days and a fraction1 be found again together very near the same ,node4 ,during the interval there would have been #bbc ,new and ,full ,moons4 ,the exact time required for #bbc ,lunations is such that in the case supposed the #bbcrd conjunction of the two bodies would happen a little before they reached the ,node2 their distance therefrom would be #bh' of arc4 ,and the final fact is that eclipses recur in almost1 though not quite1 the same regular order every #fehe-a_/c days1 or more exactly1 #ah years1 #aj days1 #g hours1 #db minutes4#e ,this is the celebrated ,chaldean ,,saros1 and was used by the ancients 7and can still be used by the moderns in the way of a pastime7 for the prediction of eclipses alike of the ,sun and of the ,moon4 99 99 99 99 99 ,at the end of a ,saros period1 starting from any date that may have been chosen1 the ,moon will be in the same position with respect to the ,sun1 nearly in the same part of the heavens1 nearly in the same part of its orbit1 and very nearly indeed at the same distance from its ,node as at the date chosen for the terminus a quo of the ,saros4 ,but there are trifling discrepancies in the case 7the difference of about #aa hours between #bbc lunations and #ai returns of the ,sun to the ,moon's ,node is one7 and these have an appreciable effect in disturbing not so much the sequence of the eclipses in the next following ,saros as their magnitude and visibility at given places on the ,earth's surface4 ,hence1 a more accurate succession will be obtained by combining #c ,saros periods1 making #ed years1 #ca days2 while1 best of all1 to secure an almost perfect repetition of a series of eclipses will be a combination of #dh ,saroses1 making #hfe years for the ,moon2 and of about #gj ,saroses1 or more than #abjj years for the ,sun4 ,these considerations are leading us rather too far afield4 ,let us return to a more simple condition of things4 ,the practical use of the ,saros in its most elementary conception is somewhat on this wise4 ,given #ah or #ai old ,almanacs ranging1 say1 from #ahhj to #ahih1 how can we turn to account the information they afford us in order to obtain from them information respecting the eclipses which will happen between #ahii and #aiag8 ,nothing easier4 ,add #ahy #aj;d #g;h #dbm to the middle time of every eclipse which took place between #ahhj and #ahih beginning1 say1 with the last of #ahgi or the first of #ahhj1 and we shall find what eclipses will happen in #ahih and #ag following years1 as witness by way of example the following table3-- ,error of ,saros by d4 h4 m4 ,exact ,calculation4 ,,moon4 #ahgi ,dec4 #bh #d #bf p4m4 7,mag4 #j4ag7 #ah #aj #g #db ---------------------------------------- ----- 7,mag4 #j4af7 #ahih ,jan4 #h #ab #h a4m4 7civil time7 #c m4 d4 h4 m4 ,,sun4 #ahhj ,jan4 #aa #aj #dh p4m4 7,total7 #ah #aj #g #db ---------------------------------------- ----- 7,total7 #ahih ,jan4 #bb #f #cj a4m4 7civil time7 -#a h4 #g m4 d4 h4 m4 ,,moon4 #ahhj ,june #bb #a #ej p4m4 7,mag4 ,total7 #ah #aa #g #db ---------------------------------------- ----- 7,mag4 #j4ic7 #ahih ,july #c #i #cb p4m4 #ce m4 d4 h4 m4 ,,sun4 #ahhj ,july #g #a #ce p4m4 7,mag4 ,annular7 #ah #aa #g #db ---------------------------------------- ----- 7,mag4 ,annular7 #ahih ,july #ah #i #ag p4m4 #a h4 #aj m4 d4 h4 m4 ,,sun4 #ahhj ,dec4 #b #c #aa a4m4 7civil time74 7,mag4 #j4jd7 #ah #aa #g #db ---------------------------------------- ----- 7,mag4 #j4jb7 #ahih ,dec4 #ac #aj #ec a4m4 -#a h4 #e m4 d4 h4 m4 ,,moon4 #ahhj ,dec4 #af #c #ci p4m4 7,mag4 ,total7 #ah #aa #g #db ---------------------------------------- ----- 7,mag4 ,total7 #ahih ,dec4 #bg #aa #ba p4m4 -#ac m4 d4 h4 m4 ,,sun4 #ahhj ,dec4 #ca #a #de p4m4 7,mag4 #j4ga7 #ah #aa #g #db ---------------------------------------- ----- 7,mag4 #j4gb7 #ahii ,jan4 #aa #i #bg p4m4 -#a h4 #aa m4 ,there having been #e recurrences of ,feb4 #bi between ,dec4 #ahgi and ,jan4 #ahii1 #e leap years having intervened1 we have to add an extra day to the ,saros period in the later part of the above ,table4#f ,let us make another start and see what we can learn from the eclipses1 say1 of #ahhc4 ,error of ,saros by ,exact ,calculation4 h4 m4 ,,moon #ahhc ,april #bb #aa #ci a4m4 7,mag4 #j4h7 #ah #aa #g #db ---------------------------------------- ---- 7,mag4 ,penumbral7 #aija ,may #c #g #ba p4m4 #ea m4 h4 m4 ,,sun #ahhc ,may #f #i #de p4m4 ,visible1 ,philippines4 7,mag4 ,total7 #ah #aa #g #db ---------------------------------------- ---- 7,mag4 ,total7 #aija ,may #ah #e #bg a4m4 7civil time74 -#b m4 h4 m4 ,,moon #ahhc ,oct4 #af #f #ed a4m4 ,visible1 ,california4 7,mag4 #j4bh7 #ah #aa #g #db ---------------------------------------- ---- 7,mag4 #j4bc7 #aija ,oct4 #bg #b #cf p4m4 -#ci m4 h4 m4 ,,sun #ahhc ,oct4 #cj #aa #cg p4m4 ,visible1 ,n4 ,japan4 7,mag4 ,annular7 #ah #aa #g #db ---------------------------------------- ---- 7,mag4 ,annular7 #aija ,nov4 #aa #g #ai a4m4 7civil time7 #a m4 ,the foregoing does not by any means exhaust all that can be said respecting the ,saros even on the popular side4 ,if the ,saros comprised an exact number of days1 each eclipse of a second ,saros series would be visible in the same regions of the ,earth as the corresponding eclipse in the previous series4 ,but since there is a surplus fraction of nearly one-third of a day1 each subsequent eclipse will be visible in another region of the ,earth1 which will be roughly a third of the ,earth's circumference in longitude backwards 7i4e4 about #abj to the ,w471 because the ,earth itself will be turned on its axis one-third forwards4 ,after what has been said as to the ,saros and its use it might be supposed that a correct list of eclipses for #ah4jc years would suffice for all ordinary purposes of eclipse prediction1 and that the sequence of eclipses at any future time might be ascertained by adding to some one eclipse which had already happened so many ,saros periods as might embrace the years future whose eclipses it was desired to study4 ,this would be true in a sense1 but would not be literally and effectively true1 because corresponding eclipses do not recur exactly under the same conditions1 for there are small residual discrepancies in the times and circumstances affecting the real movements of the ,earth and ,moon and the apparent movement of the ,sun which1 in the lapse of years and centuries1 accumulate sufficiently to dislocate what otherwise would be exact coincidences4 ,thus an eclipse of the ,moon which in ,a4,d4 #efe was of #f digits#g was in #ehc of #g digits1 and in #fja nearly #h4 ,in #ijh the eclipse became total1 and remained so for about twelve periods1 or until #ajhh4 ,this eclipse continued to diminish until the beginning of the #aeth century1 when it disappeared in #adac4 ,let us take now the life of an eclipse of the ,sun4 ,one appeared at the ,north ,pole in ,june ,a4,d4 #abie1 and showed itself more and more towards the ,s4 at each subsequent period4 ,on ,august #bg1 #acfg1 it made its first appearance in the ,north of ,europe2 in #adci it was visible all over ,europe2 in #afja1 being its #aith appearance1 it was central and annular in ,england2 on ,may #e1 #ahah1 it was visible in ,london1 and again on ,may #ae1 #ahcf4 ,its three next appearances were on ,may #bf1 #ahed1 ,june #f1 #ahgb1 and ,june #ag1 #ahij4 ,at its #cith appearance1 on ,august #aj1 #aihj1 the ,moon's shadow will have passed the equator1 and as the eclipse will take place nearly at midnight 7,greenwich ,m4,t471 the phenomenon will be invisible in ,europe1 ,africa1 and ,asia4 ,at every succeeding period the central line of the eclipse will lie more and more to the ,s41 until finally1 on ,september #cj1 #bffe1 which will be its #ghth appearance1 it will vanish at the ,south ,pole4#h ,the operation of the ,saros effects which have been specified above1 may be noticed in some of the groups of eclipses which have been much in evidence 7as will appear from a subsequent chapter71 during the second half of the #aith century4 ,the following are two noteworthy ,saros groups of ,solar eclipses3-- #ahdb ,july #h4 #ahej ,aug4 #g4 #ahfj #ah4 #ahfh #ag4 #ahgh #bi4 #ahhf #bi4 #ahif ,aug4 #i4 #aijd ,sept4 #i4 ,if the curious reader will trace1 by means of the ,nautical ,almanac 7or some other ,almanac which deals with eclipses in adequate detail71 the geographical distribution of the foregoing eclipses on the ,earth's surface1 he will see that they fulfil the statement made on p4 #bd 7ante71 that a ,saros eclipse when it reappears1 does so in regions of the ,earth averaging #abj of longitude to the ,w4 of those in which it had1 on the last preceding occasion1 been seen2 and also that it gradually works northwards or southwards4 ,but a given ,saros eclipse in its successive reappearances undergoes other transformations besides that of ,terrestrial longitude4 ,these are well set forth by ,professor ,newcomb#i3-- ,since every successive recurrence of such an eclipse throws the conjunction #bh' further toward the ,w4 of the node1 the conjunction must1 in process of time1 take place so far back from the node that no eclipse will occur1 and the series will end4 ,for the same reason there must be a commencement to the series1 the first eclipse being ,e4 of the node4 ,a new eclipse thus entering will at first be a very small one1 but will be larger at every recurrence in each ,saros4 ,if it is an eclipse of the ,moon1 it will be total from its #acth until its #cfth recurrence4 ,there will be then about #ac partial eclipses1 each of which will be smaller than the last1 when they will fail entirely1 the conjunction taking place so far from the node that the ,moon does not touch the ,earth's shadow4 ,the whole interval of time over which a series of lunar eclipses thus extend will be about #dh periods1 or #hfe years4 ,when a series of solar eclipses begins1 the penumbra of the first will just graze the earth not far from one of the poles4 ,there will then be1 on the average1 #aa or #ab partial eclipses of the ,sun1 each larger than the preceding one1 occurring at regular intervals of one ,saros4 ,then the central line1 whether it be that of a total or annular eclipse1 will begin to touch the ,earth1 and we shall have a series of #dj or #ej central eclipses4 ,the central line will strike near one pole in the first part of the series2 in the equatorial regions about the middle of the series1 and will leave the ,earth by the other pole at the end4 ,ten or twelve partial eclipses will follow1 and this particular series will cease4 ,these facts deserve to be expanded a little4 ,we have seen that all eclipses may be grouped in a series1 and that #ah years or thereabouts is the duration of each series1 or ,saros cycle4 ,but these cycles are themselves subject to cycles1 so that the ,saros itself passes through a cycle of about #fd ,saroses before the conditions under which any given start was made1 come quite round again4 ,sixty-four times #ah make #aaeb1 so that the duration of a ,solar eclipse ,great ,cycle may be taken at about #aaej years4 ,the progression of such a series across the face of the ,earth is thus described by ,mrs4 ,todd1 who gives a very clear account of the matter3-- ,the advent of a slight partial eclipse near either pole of the ,earth will herald the beginning of the new series4 ,at each succeeding return conformably to the ,saros1 the partial eclipse will move a little further towards the opposite pole1 its magnitude gradually increasing for about #bjj years1 but during all this time only the lunar penumbra will impinge upon the ,earth4 ,but when the true shadow begins to touch1 the obscuration will have become annular or total near the pole where it first appeared4 ,the eclipse has now acquired a track1 which will cross the ,earth slightly farther from that pole every time it returns1 for about #gej years4 ,at the conclusion of this interval1 the shadow path will have reached the opposite pole2 the eclipse will then become partial again1 and continue to grow smaller and smaller for about #bjj years additional4 ,the series then ceases to exist1 its entire duration having been about #aaej years4 ,the series of great eclipses of which two occurred in #ahfe and #ahhc1 while others will happen in #aija1 #aiai1 #aicg1 #aiee1 and #aigc1 affords an excellent instance of the northward progression of eclipse tracks2 and another series1 with totality nearly as great 7#ahej1 #ahfh1 #ahhf1 #aijd1 and #aibb71 is progressing slowly southwards4 ,the word ,digit1 formerly used in connection with eclipses1 requires some explanation4 ,the origin of the word is obvious enough1 coming as it does from the ,latin word ,digitus1 a finger4 ,but as human beings have only eight fingers and two thumbs it is by no means clear how the word came to be used for twelfths of the disc of the ,sun or ,moon instead of tenths4 ,however1 such was the case2 and when a #afth-century astronomer spoke of an eclipse of six digits1 he meant that one-half of the luminary in question1 be it ,sun or ,moon1 was covered4 ,the earliest use of the word ,digit in this connection was to refer to the twelfth part of the visible surface of the ,sun or ,moon2 but before the word went out of use1 it came to be applied to twelfths of the visible diameter of the disc of the ,sun or ,moon1 which was much more convenient4 ,however1 the word is now almost obsolete in both senses1 and partial eclipses1 alike of the ,sun and of the ,moon1 are defined in decimal parts of the diameter of the luminary--tenths or hundredths according to the amount of precision which is aimed at4 ,where an eclipse of the ,moon is described as being of more than #ab ,digits or more than #a4j 7 #a diameter7 it is to be understood that the eclipse will be 7or was7 not only total1 but that the ,moon will be 7or was7 immersed in the ,earth's shadow with a more or less considerable extent of shadow encompassing it4 ,there are some further matters which require to be mentioned connected with the periodicity of eclipses4 ,to use a phrase which is often employed1 there is such a thing as an ,eclipse ,season1 and what this is can only be adequately comprehended by looking through a catalogue of eclipses for a number of years arranged in a tabular form1 and by collating the months or groups of months in which batches of eclipses occur4 ,this is not an obvious matter to the casual purchaser of an almanac1 who1 feeling just a slight interest in the eclipses of a coming new year1 dips into his new purchase to see what those eclipses will be4 ,a haphazard glance at the almanacs of even two or three successive years will probably fail to bring home to him the idea that each year has its own eclipse season in which eclipses may occur1 and that eclipses are not to be looked for save at two special epochs1 which last about a month each1 and which are separated from one another and from the eclipse seasons of the previous and of the following years by intervals of about six months1 within a few days more or less4 ,such1 however1 is the case4 ,a little thought will soon make it clear why such should be the case4 ,we have already seen that the ,moon's orbit1 like that of every other planetary member of the ,solar ,system1 has two crossing places with respect to the ecliptic which are called ,nodes4 ,we know also that the apparent motion of the ,sun causes that body to traverse the whole of the ecliptic in the course of the year4 ,the conjoint result of all this is that the ,moon passes through a ,node twice in every lunar month of #bg days1 and the ,sun passes 7apparently7 through a ,node twice in every year4 ,the first ultimate result of these facts is that eclipses can only take place at or near the nodal passages of the ,moon and the ,sun1 and that as the ,sun's nodal passages are separated by six months in every case the average interval between each set of eclipses1 if there is more than one1 must in all cases be six months1 more or less by a few days1 dependent upon the latitude and longitude of the ,moon at or about the time of its ,conjunction or ,opposition under the circumstances already detailed4 ,if the logic of this commends itself to the reader's mind1 he will see at once why eclipses or groups of eclipses must be separated by intervals of about half an ordinary year4 ,hence it comes about that1 taking one year with another1 it may be said that we shall always have a couple of principal eclipses with an interval of half a year 7say #ahc days7 between each2 and that on either side of these dominant eclipses there will1 or may be1 a fortnight before or a fortnight after1 two other pairs of eclipses with1 in occasional years1 one extra thrown in4 ,it is in this way that we obtain what it has already been said dogmatically that we do obtain2 namely1 always in one year two eclipses1 which must be both of the ,sun1 or any number of eclipses up to seven1 which number will be unequally allotted to the ,sun or to the ,moon according to circumstances4 ,though it is roughly correct to say that the two eclipse seasons of every year run to about a month each1 in length1 yet it may be desirable to be a little more precise1 and to say that the limits of time for solar eclipses cover #cf days 7namely #ah days before and #ah days after the ,sun's nodal passages72 whilst in the case of the ,moon1 the limits are the lesser interval of #bc days1 being #aa on either side of the ,moon's nodal passages4 ,we have already seen#aj that the ,moon's nodes are perpetually undergoing a change of place4 ,were it not so1 eclipses of the ,sun and ,moon would always happen year after year in the same pair of months for us on the ,earth4 ,but the operative effect of the shifting of the nodes is to displace backwards the eclipse seasons by about #bj days4 ,for instance in #ahii the eclipse seasons fall in ,june and ,december4 ,the middle of the eclipse seasons for the next succeeding #bj or #cj years will be found by taking the dates of ,june #h and ,december #b1 #ahii1 and working the months backwards by the amount of #ai-b_/c days for each succeeding year4 ,thus the eclipse seasons in #aijj will fall in the months of ,may and ,november2 accordingly amongst the eclipses of that year we shall find eclipses on ,may #bh1 ,june #ac1 and ,november #bb4 ,perhaps it would tend to the more complete elucidation of the facts stated in the last half dozen pages1 if ,i were to set out in a tabular form all the eclipses of a succession1 say of half a ,saros or #i years1 and thus exhibit by an appeal to the eye directly the grouping of eclipse seasons the principles of which ,i have been endeavouring to define and explain in words4 ,approximate ,mid-interval4 #ahid4 ,march #ba4 ,symbol3 ,moon ,march #bi4 99 ,april #f4 ,symbol3 ,sun ,sept4 #ae4 ,symbol3 ,moon ,sept4 #bb4 9999 ,sept4 #bi4 ,symbol3 ,sun #ahie4 ,march #aa4 ,symbol3 ,moon ,march #ah4 99 ,march #bf4 ,symbol3 ,sun ,aug4 #bj4 ,symbol3 ,sun ,sept4 #d4 ,symbol3 ,moon ,sept4 #d4 9999 ,sept4 #ah4 ,symbol3 ,sun #ahif4 ,feb4 #ac4 ,symbol3 ,sun ,feb4 #bj4 99 ,feb4 #bh4 ,symbol3 ,moon ,aug4 #i4 ,symbol3 ,sun ,aug4 #af4 9999 ,aug4 #bc4 ,symbol3 ,moon #ahig4 ,feb4 #a4 ,symbol3 ,sun ,feb4 #a4 99 ,july #bi4 ,symbol3 ,sun ,july #bi4 9999 #ahih4 ,jan4 #g4 ,symbol3 ,moon ,jan4 #ad4 99 ,jan4 #bb4 ,symbol3 ,sun ,july #c4 ,symbol3 ,moon ,july4 #aj4 9999 ,july #ah4 ,symbol3 ,sun ,dec4 #ac4 ,symbol3 ,sun ,dec4 #bg4 ,symbol3 ,moon ,dec4 #bg4 99 #ahii4 ,jan4 #aa4 ,symbol3 ,sun ,june #h4 ,symbol3 ,sun ,june #ae4 9999 ,june #bc4 ,symbol3 ,moon ,dec4 #b4 ,symbol3 ,sun ,dec4 #i4 99 ,dec4 #af4 ,symbol3 ,moon #aijj4 ,may #bh4 ,symbol3 ,sun ,june #e4 9999 ,june #ac4 ,symbol3 ,moon ,nov4 #bb4 ,symbol3 ,sun ,nov4 #bb4 99 #aija4 ,may #c4 ,symbol3 ,moon ,may #aj4 9999 ,may #ah4 ,symbol3 ,sun ,oct4 #bg4 ,symbol3 ,moon ,nov4 #c4 99 ,nov4 #aa4 ,symbol3 ,sun #aijb4 ,april #h4 ,symbol3 ,sun ,april #bb4 ,symbol3 ,moon ,april #bb4 9999 ,may #g4 ,symbol3 ,sun ,oct4 #ag4 ,symbol3 ,moon ,oct4 #bd4 99 ,oct4 #ca4 ,symbol3 ,sun ,the ,epochs in the last column which are marked with stars 7997 or 799997 as the case may be1 represent corresponding nodes so that from any one single-star date to the next nearest single-star date means an interval of one year less 7on an average7 the #ai-b_/c days spoken of on p4 #cb 7ante74 ,a glance at each successive pair of dates will quickly disclose the periodical retrogradation of the eclipse epochs4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #d3 ,these limits are slightly different in the case of eclipses of the ,moon4 7,see p4 #aij1 post47 ,footnote #e3 ,this assumes that #e of these years are leap years4 ,footnote #f3 ,if there are #e leap years in the #ah1 the odd days will be #aj2 if #d they will be #aa2 if only #c leap years 7as from #agig to #ahae and #ahig to #aiae71 the odd days to be added will be #ab4 ,footnote #g3 ,see p4 #bh 7post7 for an explanation of this word4 ,footnote #h3 ,in ,mrs4 ,d4 ,p4 ,todd's interesting little book1 ,total ,eclipses of the ,sun 7,boston1 ,u4,s41 #ahid71 which will be several times referred to in this work1 two maps will be found1 which will help to illustrate the successive northerly or southerly progress of a series of ,solar eclipses1 during centuries4 ,footnote #i3 ,in his and ,professor ,holden's ,astronomy for ,schools and ,colleges1 p4 #ahd4 ,footnote #aj3 ,see p4 #ai 7ante74 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,miscellaneous ,,theoretical ,,matters ,,connected ,,with ,,eclipses ,,of ,,the ,,sun 7,,chiefly74 ,one or two miscellaneous matters respecting eclipses of the ,sun 7chiefly7 will be dealt with in this chapter4 ,it is not easy to explain or define in words the circumstances which control the duration of a ,solar eclipse1 whereas in the case of a lunar eclipse the obscuration is the same in degree at all parts of the ,earth where the ,moon is visible4 ,in the case of a ,solar eclipse it may be total1 perhaps1 in ,africa1 may be of six digits only in ,spain1 and of two only in ,england4 ,under the most favourable circumstances the breadth of the track of totality across the ,earth cannot be more than #agj miles1 and it may be anything less than that down to zero where the eclipse will cease to be total at all1 and will become annular4 ,the question whether a given eclipse shall exhibit itself on its central line as a total or an annular one depends1 as has been already explained1 on the varying distances of the ,earth and the ,moon from the ,sun in different parts of their respective orbits4 ,hence it follows that not only may an eclipse show itself for several ,saros appearances as total and afterwards become annular1 and vice vers1 but on rare occasions one and the same eclipse may be annular in one part of its track across the ,earth and total in another part1 a short time earlier or later4 ,this last-named condition might arise because the ,moon's distance from the ,earth or the ,sun had varied sufficiently during the progress of the eclipse to bring about such a result2 or because the shadow just reaching the ,earth and no more the eclipse would be total only for the moment when a view perpendicular upwards could be had of it1 and would be annular for the minutes preceding and the minutes following the perpendicular glimpse obtained by observers actually on the central line4 ,the eclipse of ,december #ab1 #ahij1 was an instance of this4 ,if the paths of several central eclipses of the ,sun are compared by placing side by side a series of charts1 such as those given in the ,nautical ,almanac or in ,oppolzer's ,canon1 it will be noticed that the direction of the central line varies with the season of the year4 ,in the month of ,march the line runs from ,s4,w4 to ,n4,e41 and in ,september from ,n4,w4 to ,s4,e4 ,in ,june the line is a curve1 going first to the ,n4,e4 and then to the ,s4,e4 ,in ,december the state of things is reversed1 the curve going first to the ,s4,e4 and then to the ,n4,e4 ,at all places within about #bjjj miles of the central line the eclipse will be visible1 and the nearer a place is to the central line1 so much the larger will be the portion of the ,sun's disc concealed from observers there by the ,moon4 ,if the central line runs but a little to the ,n4 of the ,equator in ,winter or of #be of ,n4 latitude in ,summer1 the eclipse will be visible all over the ,northern ,hemisphere1 and the converse will apply to the ,southern ,hemisphere4 ,it is something like a general rule in the case of total and annular eclipses1 though subject to many modifications1 that places within #bjj-bej miles of the central line will have partial eclipse of #aa digits2 from thence to #ejj miles of #aj digits1 and so on1 diminishing something like #a digit for every #bej miles1 so that at #bjjj miles1 or rather more1 the ,sun will be only to a very slight extent eclipsed1 or will escape eclipse altogether4 ,the diameter of the ,sun being #hff1jjj miles and the ,moon being only #bafj miles or #a_/djjth how comes it to be possible that such a tiny object should be capable of concealing a globe #djj times bigger than itself8 ,the answer is--,distance4 ,the increased distance does it4 ,the ,moon at its normal distance from the ,earth of #bcg1jjj miles could only conceal by eclipse a body of its own size or smaller1 but the ,sun being #ic1jjj1jjj miles away1 or #cib times the distance of the ,moon1 the fraction #a_/cib representing the main distance of the ,moon1 more than wipes out the fraction #a_/djj which represents our satellite's smaller size4 ,during a total eclipse of the ,sun1 the ,moon's shadow travels across the ,earth at a prodigious pace--#ahcj miles an hour2 #cj miles a minute2 or rather more than a mile a second4 ,this great velocity is at once a clue to the fact that the total phase during an eclipse of the ,sun lasts for so brief a time as a few minutes2 and also to the fact that the shadow comes and goes almost without being seen unless a very sharp watch is kept for it4 ,indeed1 it is only observers posted on high ground with some miles of open low ground spread out under their eyes who have much chance of detecting the shadow come up1 go over them1 and pass forwards4 ,places at or near the ,earth's equator enjoy the best opportunities for seeing total eclipses of the ,sun1 because whilst the ,moon's shadow travels eastwards along the ,earth's surface at something like #bjjj miles an hour1 an observer at the equator is carried in the same direction by virtue of the ,earth's axial rotation at the rate of #ajdj miles an hour4 ,but the speed imparted to an observer as the result of the ,earth's axial rotation diminishes from the equator towards the poles where it is nil1 so that the nearer he is to a pole the slower he goes1 and therefore the sooner will the ,moon's shadow overtake and pass him1 and the less the time at his disposal for seeing the ,sun hidden by the ,moon4 ,it was calculated by ,du ,sjour that the greatest possible duration of the total phase of a ,solar eclipse at the equator would be #gm #ehs1 and for the latitude of ,paris #fm #ajs4 ,in the case of an annular eclipse the figures would be #abm #bds for the equator1 and #im #efs for the latitude of ,paris4 ,these figures contemplate a combination of all the most favourable circumstances possible2 as a matter of fact1 ,i believe that the greatest length of total phase which has been actually known was #fm and that was in the case of the eclipse of ,august #bi1 #ahhf4 ,it was in the open ,atlantic that this duration occurred1 but it was not observed4 ,the maximum observed obscuration during this eclipse was no more than #dm4 ,though total eclipses of the ,sun happen with tolerable frequency so far as regards the ,earth as a whole1 yet they are exceedingly rare at any given place4 ,take ,london1 for instance4 ,from the calculations of ,hind1 confirmed by ,maguire1#aa it may be considered as an established fact that there was no total eclipse visible at ,london between ,a4,d4 #hgh and #agae1 an interval of #hcg years4 ,the next one visible at ,london1 though uncertain1 is also a very long way off4 ,there will be a total eclipse on ,august #aa1 #aiii1 which will come as near to ,london as the ,isle of ,wight1 but ,hind1 writing in #ahga1 said that he doubted whether there would be any other total eclipse visible in ,england for #bej years#ab from the present time4 ,maguire states that the ,sun has been eclipsed1 besides twice at ,london1 also twice at ,dublin1 and no fewer than five times at ,edinburgh during the #hdf years examined by him4 ,in fact that every part of the ,british ,isles has seen a total eclipse at some time or other between ,a4,d4 #hgh and #agbd except a small tract of country at ,dingle1 on the ,west coast of ,ireland4 ,the longest totality was on ,june #ae1 #hhe1 namely1 #dm #ees1 and the shortest in ,july #af1 #accj1 namely1 #jm #efs4 ,contrast with this the obscure island of ,blanquilla1 off the northern coast of ,venezuela4 ,the inhabitants of that island not long ago had the choice of two total eclipses within three and a half years1 namely1 ,august #bi1 #ahhf1 and ,december #bb1 #ahhi2 whilst ,yellowstone1 ,u4,s41 had two in twelve years 7,july #bi1 #ahgh1 and ,january #a1 #ahhi74 ,counting from first to last1 ,du ,sjour found that at the equator an eclipse of the ,sun might last #d;h #bim1 and at the latitude of ,paris #c;h #bfm4 ,these intervals1 of course1 cover all the subordinate phases4 ,the total phase which alone 7with perhaps a couple of minutes added7 is productive of spectacular effects1 and interesting scientific results is a mere matter of minutes which may be as few as one 7or less71 or only as many as #f or #h4 ,as a rule1 a summer eclipse will last longer than a winter one1 because in summer the ,earth 7and the ,moon with it71 being at its maximum distance from the ,sun1 the ,sun will be at its minimum apparent size1 and therefore the ,moon will be able to conceal it the longer4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #aa3 ,month4 ,not41 ,r4,a4,s41 vol4 xlv41 p4 #djj4 ,june #ahhe4 ,footnote #ab3 ,johnson makes the eclipse of ,june #ad1 #baea1 to be nearly1 if not quite1 total at ,london4 ,possibly it was this eclipse which ,hind had in his thoughts when he wrote in the ,times 7,july #bh1 #ahga7 the passage quoted above4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,what ,,is ,,observed ,,during ,,the ,,earlier ,,stages ,,of ,,an ,,eclipse ,,of ,,the ,,sun4 ,the information to be given in this and the next following chapters will almost exclusively concern total and annular eclipses of the ,sun1 for1 in real truth1 there is practically only one thing to think about during a partial eclipse of the ,sun4 ,this is1 to watch when the ,moon's black body comes on to the ,sun and goes off again1 for there are no subsidiary phenomena1 either interesting or uninteresting1 unless1 indeed1 the eclipse should be nearly total4 ,the progress of astronomical science in regard to eclipses has been so extensive and remarkable of late years that1 unless the various points for consideration are kept together under well-defined heads1 it will be almost impossible either for a writer or a reader to do full justice to the subject4 ,having regard to the fact that the original conception of this volume was that it should serve as a forerunner to the total solar eclipse of ,may #bh1 #aijj 7and through that to other total eclipses71 from a popular rather than from a technical standpoint1 ,i think it will be best to mention one by one the principal features which spectators should look out for1 and to do so as nearly as may be in the order which ,nature itself will observe when the time comes4 ,of course the commencement of an eclipse1 which is virtually the moment when the encroachment on the circular outline of the ,sun by the ,moon begins1 or can be seen1 though interesting as a proof that the astronomer's prophecy is about to be fulfilled1 is not a matter of any special importance1 even in a popular sense1 much less in a scientific sense4 ,as a rule1 the total phase does not become imminent1 so to speak1 until a whole hour and more has elapsed since the first contact2 and that hour will be employed by the scientific observer1 less in looking at the ,sun than in looking at his instruments and apparatus4 ,he will do this for the purpose of making quite sure that everything will be ready for the full utilisation to the utmost extent of the precious seconds of time into which all his delicate observations have to be squeezed during the total phase4 ,with these preliminary observations ,i shall proceed now to break up the remainder of what ,i have to say respecting total eclipses into what suggest themselves as convenient sectional heads4 ,,the ,,moon',s ,,shadow ,,and ,,the ,,darkness ,,it ,,causes4 ,in awaiting the darkness which is expected to manifest itself an unthinking and inexperienced observer is apt to look out for the coming obscurity1 as he looks out for night-fall half an hour or more after sunset and during the evening twilight4 ,the darkness of an eclipse is all this and something more4 ,it is something more in two senses2 for the interval of time between the commencement of an eclipse and totality is different in duration and different in quality1 so to speak1 from the diminution of daylight on the ,earth which ensues as the twilight of evening runs its course4 ,speaking roughly1 sunset may be described as an almost instantaneous loss of full sunlight2 and the gradual loss of daylight is noticeable even at such short intervals as from one five minutes to another4 ,this is by no means the case previous to a total eclipse of the ,sun4 ,when that is about to occur1 the reduction of the effective sunlight is far more gradual4 ,for instance1 half an hour after an eclipse has commenced more than half the ,sun's disc will still be imparting light to the ,earth3 but half an hour after sunset the deficiency of daylight will be very much more marked and1 if no artificial light is at hand1 very much more inconvenient4 ,if there should be within easy reach of the observer's post a bushy tree1 such for instance as an elm1 #cj ft4 or #dj ft4 high1 and spreading out sufficiently for him to place himself under it in a straight line with the ,sun1 and with a nice smooth surface of ground for the sun's rays to fall on1 he will see a multitude of images of the ,sun thrown upon the ground4 ,until the eclipse has commenced these images will be tiny circles overlapping one another1 and of course each of these circles means so many images of the ,sun4 ,these images indeed can be seen on any fine day1 and the circles increase in size in proportion to the height of the foliage above the ground1 being something like #a inch for every #aj feet4 ,it may be remarked1 by the way1 that the images are circles1 because the ,sun is a source of light having a circular outline1 and is not a point of light like a star4 ,if it were1 the outline of the foliage would be reproduced on the ground leaf for leaf4 ,it follows naturally from all this that when in consequence of there being an eclipse in progress the shape of the ,sun's contour gradually changes1 so will the shape of the ,solar images on the ground change1 becoming eventually so many crescents4 ,moreover1 the horns of the crescent-shaped images will be in the reverse direction to the horns of the actual crescent of the ,sun at the moment1 the rays of the ,sun crossing as they pass through the foliage1 just as if each interstice were a lens4 ,supposing there are some spots on the ,sun at a time when an eclipse is in progress the ,moon's passage over these spots may as well be noticed4 ,in bygone years some amount of attention was devoted to this matter with the view of ascertaining whether any alteration took place in the appearance of the spots2 distortion1 for instance1 such as might be produced by the intervention of a lunar atmosphere4 ,no such distortion was ever noticed1 and observations with this idea in view may be said to possess now only an academic interest1 for it may be regarded as a well-established fact that the ,moon has no atmosphere4 ,during the passage of the ,moon over ,sun-spots an opportunity is afforded of comparing the blackness1 or perhaps we should rather say1 the intensity of the shade of a ,sun-spot with the blackness of the ,moon's disc4 ,testimony herein is unanimous that the blackness of the ,moon during the stages of partial eclipse is intense compared with the darkest parts of a ,sun-spot2 and this1 be it remembered1 in spite of the fact that during the partial phase the atmosphere between the observer and the ,sun is brilliantly illuminated1 whilst the ,moon itself1 being exposed to ,earth-shine1 is by no means absolutely devoid of all illumination4 ,when the ,moon is passing across the ,sun there have often been noticed along the limb of the ,moon fringes of colour1 and dark and bright bands4 ,this might not necessarily be a real appearance for it is conceivable that such traces of colour might be due to the telescopes employed not having been truly achromatic1 that is1 not sufficiently corrected for colour2 but making every allowance for this possible source of mistake there yet remains proof that the colour which has often been seen has been real4 ,as to whether the ,moon's limb can be seen during a partial eclipse1 or during the partial phase of what is to be a total eclipse1 the evidence is somewhat conflicting4 ,there is no doubt that when the totality is close at hand the ,moon's limb can be seen projected on the ,corona 7presently to be described72 but the question is1 whether the far-off limb of the ,moon can be detected in the open sky whilst something like full daylight still prevails on the ,earth4 ,undoubtedly the preponderance of evidence is against the visibility of the ,moon as a whole1 under such circumstances2 but there is nevertheless some testimony to the contrary4 ,a ,french observer1 ,e4 ,liais1 said that three photographic plates of the eclipse of #aheh seen in ,s4 ,america all showed the outer limb of the ,moon with more or less distinctness4 ,this testimony1 be it noted1 is photographic and not visual2 and on the whole it seems safest to say that there is very small probability of the ,moon as a whole ever being seen under the circumstances in question4 ,what has just been said concerns the visibility of the ,moon during quite the early1 or on the other hand during quite the late1 stages of a total eclipse4 ,immediately before or after totality the visibility of the whole contour of the ,moon is a certain fact2 and the only point upon which there is a difference of opinion is as to what are the time-limits beyond which the ,moon must not be expected to be seen4 ,the various records are exceedingly contradictory3 perhaps the utmost that can be said is that the whole ,moon must not be expected to be visible till about #bj minutes before totality1 or for more than #e minutes after totality--but it must be admitted that these figures are very uncertain in regard to any particular eclipse4 ,it has been sometimes noticed when the crescent of the ,sun had become comparatively small1 say that the ,sun was about #g_/hths covered1 that the uncovered portion exhibited evident colour which has been variously described as violet1 brick-red1 reddish1 pink1 orange1 yellowish4 ,the observations on this point are not very numerous and1 as will appear from the statement just made1 are not very consistent2 still it seems safe to assume that a hue1 more or less reddish1 does often pervade the uncovered portion of a partially-eclipsed ,sun4 ,the remark just made as regards the ,sun seems to have some application to the ,moon4 ,there are a certain number of instances on record that what is commonly spoken of as the black body of the ,moon does1 under certain circumstances1 display traces of red which has been variously spoken of as crimson1 dull coppery1 reddish-brownish and dull glowing coal4 ,,shadow ,,bands4 ,let us suppose that we have a chance of observing a total eclipse of the ,sun2 have completed all our preliminary preparations2 have taken note of everything which needs to be noted or suggests itself for that purpose up till nearly the grand climax2 and that the clock tells us that we are within1 say1 five minutes of totality4 ,somewhere about this time perhaps we shall be able to detect1 dancing across the landscape1 singular wavy lines of light and shade4 ,these are the ,shadow ,bands1 as they are called4 ,the phrase is curiously inexplicit1 but seemingly cannot be improved upon at present because the philosophy of these appearances--their origin and the laws which regulate their visibility--are unknown1 perhaps because amid the multitude of other things to think about sufficient attention has hitherto not been paid to the study of them4 ,these shadow bands are most striking if a high plastered wall1 such as the front of a stone or stuccoed house1 is in their track as a screen to receive them4 ,the shadow bands seem to vary both in breadth and distance apart at different eclipses1 and also in the speed with which they pass along4 ,though1 as already stated1 little is known of their origin yet they may be conceived to be due to irregularities in the atmospheric refraction of the slender beam of light coming from the waning or the waxing crescent of the ,sun1 for be it understood they may be visible after totality as well as before it4 ,it is to be remarked that they have never been photographed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4--,,shadow ,,bands4 ,in addition to the shadow bands there are instances on record of the limbs of the ,sun's crescent appearing to undulate violently on the approach of totality4 ,these undulations were noticed by ,airy in #ahdb about #f minutes before totality4 ,blake1 in ,america in #ahfi1 observed the same phenomenon #h minutes before totality4 ,in other cases the interval would seem to have been very much shorter--a mere matter of seconds4 ,a very singular observation was made in #aheh by ,mr4 ,j4 ,d4 ,smith at ,laycock ,abbey1 ,wiltshire1 on the occasion of the annular eclipse of that year4 ,he says#ac3--;,both my brother and myself were distinctly impressed with the conviction that the withdrawal of light was not continuous1 but by pulsations1 or1 as it were1 waves of obscuration1 the darkness increasing by strokes which sensibly smote the eye1 and were repeated distinctly some five or seven times after we had remarked the phenomenon and before the time of greatest obscuration4 ,this did not occur on the return of light1 which came back continuously and without shock or break4 ,rmker mentions that though this phenomenon was very apparent to the naked eye it was not visible in the telescope4 ,faint rays or brushes of light sometimes seem to spring from the diminishing crescent of the ,sun4 ,these rays generally are very transient and not very conspicuous1 and perhaps must be distinguished as regards both their appearance and their origin from the more striking rays which are usually seen a few minutes before or after totality1 and which are generally associated with1 or even deemed to belong to1 the ,corona4 ,fig4 #g represents these rays as seen in ,spain on ,july #ah1 #ahfj1 some minutes after totality4 ,they are described as having been well defined1 but at some moments more marked than at others1 and though well-defined yet constantly varying4 ,radiations of light more or less of the character just described may probably be regarded as a standing feature of every total eclipse4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4--,,rays ,,of ,,light ,,seen ,,near ,,the ,,time ,,of ,,totality4 ,,the ,,approach ,,of ,,totality4 ,the next thing to think about and to look out for is the approach of the ,moon's shadow4 ,i have mentioned this already1#ad and also the appalling velocity with which it seems to approach4 ,by this time the coming darkness1 which characterises every total phase1 will have reached an advanced stage of development4 ,the darkness begins to be felt4 ,the events which manifest themselves at this juncture on the ,earth 7rather than in the sky around the ,sun7 are so graphically described by the ,american writer whom ,i have already quoted1 and who writes1 moreover1 from personal experience1 that ,i cannot do better than transfer her striking account to my pages4#ae ,then1 with frightful velocity1 the actual shadow of the ,moon is often seen approaching1 a tangible darkness advancing almost like a wall1 swift as imagination1 silent as doom4 ,the immensity of nature never comes quite so near as then1 and strong must be the nerves not to quiver as this blue-black shadow rushes upon the spectator with incredible speed4 ,a vast1 palpable presence seems overwhelming the world4 ,the blue sky changes to gray or dull purple1 speedily becoming more dusky1 and a death-like trance seizes upon everything earthly4 ,birds1 with terrified cries1 fly bewildered for a moment1 and then silently seek their night-quarters4 ,bats emerge stealthily4 ,sensitive flowers1 the scarlet pimpernel1 the ,african mimosa1 close their delicate petals1 and a sense of hushed expectancy deepens with the darkness4 ,an assembled crowd is awed into absolute silence almost invariably4 ,trivial chatter and senseless joking cease4 ,sometimes the shadow engulfs the observer smoothly1 sometimes apparently with jerks2 but all the world might well be dead and cold and turned to ashes4 ,often the very air seems to hold its breath for sympathy2 at other times a lull suddenly awakens into a strange wind1 blowing with unnatural effect4 ,then out upon the darkness1 gruesome but sublime1 flashes the glory of the incomparable corona1 a silvery1 soft1 unearthly light1 with radiant streamers1 stretching at times millions of uncomprehended miles into space1 while the rosy1 flaming protuberances skirt the black rim of the ,moon in ethereal splendour4 ,it becomes curiously cold1 dew frequently forms1 and the chill is perhaps mental as well as physical4 ,suddenly1 instantaneous as a lightning flash1 an arrow of actual sunlight strikes the landscape1 and ,earth comes to life again1 while corona and protuberances melt into the returning brilliance1 and occasionally the receding lunar shadow is glimpsed as it flies away with the tremendous speed of its approach4 ,in connection with the approach of the ,moon's shadow1 it is to be noted that at totality the heavens appear in a certain sense to descend upon the ,earth4 ,if an observer is looking upwards towards the zenith over his head1 he will see the clouds appear to drop towards the ,earth1 and the surrounding gloom seems also to have the effect of vitiating one's estimate of distances4 ,to an observer upon a high hill1 a plain below him appears to become more distant4 ,although what has been called the descent of the clouds 7that is to say their appearance of growing proximity7 is most manifest immediately before the totality1 yet a sense of growing nearness may sometimes be noticed a very considerable time before the total phase is reached4 ,whilst on the subject of clouds1 it may be mentioned that although there is in the vault of heaven generally during the total phase an appreciable sensation of black darkness1 more or less absolute1 that is to say1 either blackish or greyish1 yet in certain regions of the sky1 7generally in the direction of the horizon7 the clouds1 when there are any1 often exhibit colours in strata1 orange hue below and red above1 with indigo or grey or black higher up still1 right away to the ,sun's place4 ,the cause of these differences is to be found in the fact that the lower part of the atmosphere within the area of the ,moon's shadow is1 under the circumstances in question1 illuminated by light which having passed through many miles of atmosphere near to the ,earth's surface1 has lost much from the violet end of its spectrum1 leaving an undue proportion of the red end4 ,on certain occasions iridescent or rainbow-tinted clouds may be seen in the vicinity of the ,sun1 either before1 or during1 or after totality1 depending on circumstances unknown4 ,such clouds have been observed at all these three stages of a total eclipse4 ,the effects of course are atmospheric1 and have no physical connection with either ,sun or ,moon4 ,,the ,,darkness ,,of ,,totality4 ,with respect to the general darkness which prevails during totality1 great discrepancies appear in the accounts1 not only as between different eclipses1 but in respect of the same eclipse observed by different people at different places4 ,perhaps the commonest test applied by most observers is that of the facility or difficulty of reading the faces of chronometers or watches4 ,sometimes this is done readily1 at other times with difficulty4 ,in ,india in #ahfh1 one observer stated that it was impossible to recognise a person's face three yards off1 and lamplight was needed for reading his chronometer4 ,on the other hand in ,spain in #ahfj1 it was noted that a thermometer1 as well as the finest hand-writing1 could be read easily4 ,the foregoing remarks apply to the state of things in the open air4 ,in #ahfj1 it was stated that inside a house in ,spain the darkness was so great that people moving about had to take great care lest they should run violently against the household furniture4 ,perhaps on the whole it may be said that the darkness of an ordinary totality is decidedly greater than that of a full ,moon night4 ,many observers have noted during totality that even when there has not been any very extreme amount of absolute darkness1 yet the ruddy light already mentioned as prevailing towards the horizon often gives rise to weird unearthly effects1 so that the faces of bystanders assume a sickly livid hue not unlike that which results from the light of burning salt4 ,,meteorological ,,and ,,other ,,effects4 ,it is very generally noticed that great changes take place in the meteorological conditions of the atmosphere as an eclipse of the ,sun runs its course from partial phase to totality1 and back again to partial phase4 ,it goes without saying that the obstruction of the solar rays by the oncoming ,moon would necessarily lead to a steady and considerable diminution in the general temperature of the air4 ,this has often been made the matter of exact thermometric record1 but it is not equally obvious why marked changes in the wind should take place4 ,as the partial phase proceeds it is very usual for the wind to rise or blow in gusts and to die away during totality1 though there are many exceptions to this1 and it can hardly be called a rule4 ,the depression of temperature varies very much indeed according to the locality where the eclipse is being observed and the local thermometric conditions which usually prevail4 ,the actual depression will often amount to #aj or #bj and the deposit of dew is occasionally noticed4 ,in addition to the general effects of a total solar eclipse on men1 animals1 and plants as summarised in the extract already made from ,mrs4 ,todd's book a few additional particulars may be given culled from many recorded observations4 ,flowers and leaves which ordinarily close at night begin long before totality to show signs of closing up4 ,thus we are told that in #ahcf the crocus1 gentian and anemone partially closed their flowers and reopened them as the phenomenon passed off3 and a delicate ,south ,african mimosa which we had reared from a seed entirely folded its pinnate leaves until the ,sun was uncovered4 ,in #ahea the night violet1 which shortly before the beginning of the eclipse had little of its agreeable scent about it1 smelt strongly during the totality4 ,in the insect world ants have been noticed to go on working during totality1 whilst grasshoppers are stilled by the darkness1 and earth-worms come to the surface4 ,birds of all kinds seem always upset in their habits1 almost invariably going to roost as the darkness becomes intensified before totality4 ,in #ahfh a small cock which had beforehand been actively employed in grubbing about in the sand went to sleep with his head under his wing and slept for about #aj minutes1 and on waking uttered an expression of surprise1 but did not crow4 ,in #ahfi mention is made of an unruly cow accustomed to jump into a corn-field at night being found to have trespassed into the said corn-field during the total phase4 ,the thrilling descriptions of the effects of the oncoming darkness of totality1 derived from the records of past total eclipses1 are not likely to be improved upon in the future1 for we shall receive them more and more from amateurs and less and less from astronomical experts4 ,every additional total eclipse which happens testifies to the fact that the time and thoughts of these latter classes of people will be to an increasing degree dedicated to instrumental work rather than to simple naked eye or even telescopic observation4 ,the spectroscope and the camera are steadily ousting the simple telescope of every sort and unassisted eye observations from solar eclipse work4 ,mrs4 ,todd has the following apt remarks by way of summary of the results to an individual of observing a total eclipse of the ,sun3--,i doubt if the effect of witnessing a total eclipse ever quite passes away4 ,the impression is singularly vivid and quieting for days1 and can never be wholly lost4 ,a startling nearness to the gigantic forces of ,nature and their inconceivable operation seems to have been established4 ,personalities and towns and cities1 and hates and jealousies1 and even mundane hopes1 grow very small and very far away4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #ac3 ,month4 ,not41 ,r4,a4,s41 vol4 xviii4 p4 #bea4 ,footnote #ad3 ,see p4 #cf 7ante74 ,footnote #ae3 ,mrs4 ,d4 ,p4 ,todd1 ,total ,eclipses of the ,sun1 p4 #ba4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,what ,,is ,,observed ,,during ,,the ,,total ,,phase ,,of ,,an ,,eclipse ,,of ,,the ,,sun4 ,the central feature of every total eclipse of the ,sun is undoubtedly the ,corona#af and the phenomena connected with it2 but immediately before the extinction of the ,sun's light and incidental thereto there are some minor features which must be briefly noticed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4--;,,brushes ,,of ,,light4 ,the ,corona first makes its appearance on the side of the dark ,moon opposite to the disappearing crescent1 but brushes of light are sometimes observed on the same side1 along the convex limb of the disappearing crescent4 ,the appearance of the brushes will be sufficiently realised by an inspection of the annexed engraving without the necessity of any further verbal description4 ,these brushes are little1 if at all1 coloured1 and must not be confused with the ,red ,flames or ,prominences hereafter to be described4 ,,baily',s ,,beads4 ,when the disc of the ,moon has advanced so much over that of the ,sun as to have reduced the ,sun almost to the narrowest possible crescent of light1 it is generally noticed that at a certain stage the crescent suddenly breaks up into a succession of spots of light4 ,these spots are sometimes spoken of as rounded spots1 but it is very doubtful whether 7certainly in view of their supposed cause7 they could possibly be deemed ever to possess an outline1 which by any stretch1 could be called rounded4 ,collating the recorded descriptions1 some such phrase as shapeless beads of light would seem to be the most suitable designation4 ,these are observed to form before the total phase1 and often also after the total phase has passed4 ,under the latter circumstances1 the beads of light eventually run one into another1 like so many small drops of water merging into one big one4 ,the commonly received explanation of ,baily's ,beads is that they are no more than portions of the ,sun's disc1 seen through valleys between mountains of the ,moon1 the said mountains being the cause why the bright patches are discontinuous4 ,it is exceedingly doubtful whether this is the true explanation4 ,the whole question is involved in great uncertainty1 and well deserves careful study during future eclipses2 but this it is not likely to get1 in view of the current fashion of every sufficiently skilled observer concentrating his attention on matters connected with the solar ,corona 7observed spectroscopically or otherwise71 to the exclusion of what may be called older subjects of study4 ,i will dismiss ,baily's ,beads from our consideration with the remark that the first photograph of them was obtained at ,ottumwa1 ,illinois1 ,u4,s41 during the eclipse of #ahfi4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4--;,,baily',s ,,beads1 ,,four ,,stages1 ,,at ,,brief ,,intervals4 ,,may #ae1 #ahcf4 ,baily's ,beads received their name from ,mr4 ,francis ,baily1 who1 in #ahcf1 for the first time exhaustively described them2 but they were probably seen and even mentioned long before his time4 ,at the total eclipse of the ,sun1 seen at ,penobscot in ,north ,america1 on ,october #bg1 #aghj1 they would seem to have been noticed1 and perhaps even earlier than that date4 ,almost coincident with the appearance of ,baily's ,beads1 that is1 either just before or just after1 and also just before or just after the absolute totality 7there seems no certain rule of time7 jets of red flame are seen to dart out from behind the disc of the ,moon4 ,it is now quite recognised as a certain fact that these ,red ,flames belong to the ,sun and are outbursts of hydrogen gas4 ,moreover1 they are now commonly called ,prominences1 and with the improved methods of modern science may be seen almost at any time when the ,sun is suitably approached2 and they are not restricted in their appearance to the time when the ,sun is totally eclipsed as was long supposed4 ,i may have more to say about these ,red ,flames later on2 but am at present dealing only with the outward appearances of things4 ,carrington's description has been considered very apt4 ,one which he saw in #ahea he likened to a mighty flame bursting through the roof of a house and blown by a strong wind4 ,certain ambiguous phrases made use of in connection with eclipses of ancient date may perhaps in reality have been allusions to the ,red ,flames2 otherwise the first account of them given with anything like scientific precision seems to be due to a ,captain ,stannyan1 who observed them at ,berne during the eclipse of #agjf4 ,his words are that the ,sun at his getting out of his eclipse was preceded by a blood-red streak from its left limb which continued not longer than six or seven seconds of time2 then part of the ,sun's disc appeared all of a sudden4 ,some subsequent observers spoke of the ,red ,flames as isolated jets of red light appearing here and there2 whilst others seem to have thought they had seen an almost or quite continuous ring of red light around the ,sun4 ,the last-named idea is now recognised as the more accurate representation of the actual facts1 the ,red ,flames being emanations proceeding from a sort of shell enveloping the ,sun1 to which shell the name of ,chromosphere has now come to be applied4 ,as regards the ,moon itself during the continuance of the total phase1 all that need be said is that our satellite usually exhibits a disc which is simply black2 but on occasions observers have called it purple or purplish4 ,although during totality the ,moon is illuminated by a full allowance of ,earth-shine 7light reflected by the ,earth into space71 yet from all accounts this is always insufficient to reveal any traces of the irregularities of mountains and valleys1 etc41 which exist on the ,moon4 ,when during totality any of the brighter planets1 such as ,mercury1 ,venus1 ,mars1 ,jupiter1 or ,saturn1 happen to be in the vicinity of the ,sun they are generally recognised2 but the stars seen are usually very few1 and they are only very bright ones of the #ast or #bnd magnitudes4 ,perhaps an explanation of the paucity of stars noticed is to be found in the fact that the minds of observers are usually too much concentrated on the ,sun and ,moon for any thought to be given to other things or other parts of the sky4 ,perhaps this is a convenient place in which to recall the fact that there has been much controversy in the astronomical world during the last #ej years as to whether there exist any undiscovered planets revolving round the ,sun within the orbit of ,mercury4 ,whilst there is some evidence1 though slight1 that one or more such planets have been seen1 opponents of the idea base their scepticism on the fact that with so many total eclipses as there have been since #ahei 7when ,lescarbault claimed to have found a planet which has been called ,vulcan71 no certain proof has been obtained of the existence of such a planet2 and what better occasion for finding one 7if one exists of any size7 than the darkness of a total solar eclipse8 ,at present it must be confessed that the sceptics have the best of it4 ,,the ,,corona4 ,we have now to consider what ,i have already called the central feature of every total eclipse4 ,it was long ago compared to the nimbus often placed by painters around the heads of the ,virgin ,mary and other saints of old2 and as conveying a rough general idea the comparison may still stand4 ,it has been suggested that not a bad idea of it may be obtained by looking at a ,full ,moon through a wire-gauze window-screen4 ,the ,corona comes into view a short time 7usually to be measured by seconds7 before the total extinction of the ,sun's rays1 lasts during totality and endures for a brief interval of seconds 7or it might be a minute7 after the ,sun has reappeared4 ,it was long a matter of discussion whether the ,corona belonged to the ,sun or the ,moon4 ,in the early days of telescopic astronomy there was something to be said perhaps on both sides1 but it is now a matter of absolute certainty that it belongs to the ,sun1 and that the ,moon contributes nothing to the spectacle of a total eclipse of the ,sun1 except its own solid body1 which blocks out the ,sun's light1 and its shadow1 which passes across the ,earth4 ,of the general appearance of the ,corona some idea may be obtained from ,fig4 #a 7see ,frontispiece7 which so far as it goes needs little or no verbal description4 ,stress must however be laid on the word general because every ,corona may be said to differ from its immediate predecessor and successor1 although1 as we shall see presently1 there is strong reason to believe that there is a periodicity in connection with ,coronas as with so many other things in the world of ,astronomy4 ,a curious point may here be mentioned as apparently well established1 namely1 that when long rays are noticed in the ,corona they do not seem to radiate from the ,sun's centre as the short rays more or less seem to do4 ,though the aggregate brilliancy of the ,corona varies somewhat yet it may be taken to be much about equal on the whole to the ,moon at its full4 ,the ,corona is quite unlike the ,moon as regards heat for its radiant heat has been found to be very well marked4 ,there is another thing connected with the ,sun's ,corona which needs to be mentioned at the outset and which also furnishes a reason for treating it in a somewhat special manner4 ,the usual practice in writing about science is to deal with it in the first instance descriptively1 and then if any historical information is to be given to exhibit that separately and subsequently4 ,but our knowledge of the ,sun's ,corona has developed so entirely by steps from a small beginning that it is neither easy nor advantageous to keep the history separate or in the background and ,i shall therefore not attempt to do so4 ,astronomers are not agreed as to what is the first record of the ,corona4 ,it is commonly associated with a total eclipse which occurred in the #ast century ,a4,d4 and possibly in the year #if ,a4,d4 ,some details of the discussion will be found in a later chapter1#ag and ,i will make no further allusion to the matter here4 ,passing over the eclipses of #ifh ,a4,d4 and #ajcj ,a4,d4 the records of both of which possibly imply that the ,corona was noticed1 we may find ourselves on thoroughly firm ground in considering the eclipse of ,april #i1 #aefg4 ,clavius1 a well-known writer on chronology1 undoubtedly saw then the ,corona in the modern acceptation of the word but thought it merely the uncovered rim of the ,sun4 ,in reply to this ,kepler showed by some computations of his own1 based on the relative apparent sizes of the ,sun and ,moon1 that ,clavius's theory was untenable4 ,kepler1 however1 put forth a theory of his own which was no better1 namely1 that the ,corona was due to the existence of an atmosphere round the ,moon and proved its existence4 ,from this time forwards we have statements1 by various observers1 applying to various eclipses1 of the ,corona seeming to be endued with a rotatory motion4 ,the ,spanish observer1 ,don ,a4 ,ulloa1 in #aggh1 wrote thus respecting the ,corona seen in that year3--,after the immersion we began to observe round the ,moon a very brilliant circle of light which seemed to have a rapid circular motion something similar to that of a rocket turning about its centre4 ,modern observations furnish no counterpart of these ideas of motion in the ,corona4 ,passing over many intervening eclipses we must note that of #ahcf 7which gave us ,baily's ,beads7 as the first which set men thinking that total eclipses of the ,sun exhibited subsidiary phenomena deserving of careful and patient attention4 ,such attention was given on the occasion of the eclipses of #ahdb and #ahea1 still however without the ,corona attracting that interest which it has gained for itself more recently4 ,it was noticed indeed that the ,corona always first showed itself on the side of the ,moon farthest from the vanishing crescent but the full significance of this fact was not at first realised4 ,mrs4 ,todd well remarks3--,in the early observations of the ,corona it was regarded as a halo merely and so drawn4 ,its real structure was neither known1 depicted1 nor investigated4 ,the earliest pictures all show this4 ,preconceived ideas prejudiced the observers1 and their sketches were mostly structureless4444 ,it should not be forgotten that the ,coronal rays project outward into space from a spherical ,sun and do not lie in a plane as they appear to the eye in photographs and drawings4 ,after remarking on the value of photographs of the ,corona up to a certain point because of their automatic accuracy ,mrs4 ,todd very sensibly says1 but pencil drawings1 while ordinarily less trustworthy because involving the uncertain element of personal equation are more valuable in delineating the finest and faintest detail of which the sensitive plate rarely takes note2 the vast array of both1 however1 shows marked differences in the structure and form of the ,corona from one eclipse to another though it has not yet revealed rapid changes during any one observation4 ,this last interesting feature can be studied only by comparison of photographs near the beginning of an eclipse track and its end1 two or three hours of absolute time apart4 ,concerted efforts to accomplish this were made in #ahga1 #ahhg1 and #ahhi1 but they broke down because the weather failed at one or other end of the chain of observing stations and a succession of photographs not simultaneous but separated by sufficient intervals of time could not be had4 ,the eclipse of #ahic1 however1 yielded successful though negative results4 ,photographs in ,south ,america compared with photographs in ,africa two hours later in time disclosed no appreciable difference in the structure of the ,corona and its streamers4 ,the eclipse of ,may #bh1 #aijj1 will furnish the next favourable opportunity for a repetition of this experiment by reason of the fact that the line of totality begins in ,north ,america1 crosses ,portugal and ,spain and ceases in ,africa4 ,in other words1 traverses countries eminently calculated to facilitate the establishment of photographic observing stations where observations can be made not simultaneously but at successive intervals spread over several hours4 ,although of course the ,corona had been observed long before the year #ahea1 as indeed we have already seen1 yet the eclipse of #ahea is the farthest back which we can safely take as a starting-point for gathering up thoroughly precise details1 because it was the first at which photography was brought into use4 ,starting1 therefore1 with that eclipse ,i want to lay before the reader some of the very interesting and remarkable generalisations which 7thanks especially to ,mr4 ,w4 ,h4 ,wesley's skilful review of many of the photographic results7 are now gradually unfolding themselves to astronomers4 ,to put the matter in the fewest possible words there seems little or no doubt that according as spots on the ,sun are abundant or scarce so the ,corona when visible during an eclipse varies in appearance from one period of eleven years to another like period4 ,or1 to put it in another way1 given the date of a coming total eclipse we can predict to a certain extent the probable shape and character of the ,corona if we know how the forthcoming date stands as regards a ,sun-spot maximum or minimum4 ,the most recent important eclipses up to date which have been observed1 namely those of ,april #af1 #ahic1 ,aug4 #i1 #ahif1 and ,jan4 #ba1 #ahih1 do not add much to our useful records of the outward appearances presented by the ,corona4 ,the #ahif ,corona is described as intermediate between the two ,types respectively associated with years of maximum and minimum ,sun-spots1 and this is as it should have been1 albeit there was one extension which reached to about two diameters of the ,sun4 ,the #ahih ,corona yielded four long ,coronal streamers reaching much farther from the ,sun than any previously seen1 the two longest reaching to #d and #f diameters of the ,sun respectively4 ,these dimensions are quite unprecedented4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--;,,corona ,,of #ahhb4 7,,sun-,,spot ,,maximum47 ,the application of the spectroscope to observations of eclipses of the ,sun demands a few words of notice in this place1 but it would not be consistent with the plan of this work to go into details4 ,though the spectroscope has been applied under many different circumstances to different parts of the ,sun's surroundings in connection with total eclipses yet it is in regard to the ,corona that most has been done and most has been discovered4 ,the substance of the discoveries made is that the ,corona shines with an intrinsic light of its own1 that is to say1 that it is composed of constituents whose temperature is sufficiently elevated to be self-luminous4 ,these constituents are chiefly hydrogen2 the body which corresponds to the line ,d#c 7of ,fraunhofer's scale71 and which has been named ,helium2 and the body which corresponds to the bright green line #adgd of ,kirchoff's scale and which1 since its existence was first suspected and then assured1 has been named ,coronium4 ,the reader will not be surprised to learn1 from what has gone before1 that an immense mass of records have accumulated respecting the appearance of the ,corona4 ,correspondingly numerous and divergent are the theories which have been launched to explain the observations made4 ,one thing is in the highest degree probable1 namely1 that electricity is largely concerned4 ,going back to the question of ,sun-spots regarded in their possible or probable association with the ,corona1 the present position of matters appears to be this3 that there is a real connection between the general form of the ,corona and disturbances on the ,sun1 taking ,sun-spots as an indication of solar activity4 ,when ,sun-spots are at or near their maximum1 the ,corona has generally been somewhat symmetrical1 with synclinal groups of rays making angles of #de with its general axis4 ,on the other hand1 at the epochs of minimum ,sun-spots1 the ,corona shows polar rifts much more widely open1 with synclinal zones making larger angles with the axis1 and being1 therefore1 more depressed towards the equatorial regions1 in which1 moreover1 there is usually a very marked extension of ,coronal matter in the form of elongated streamers reaching to several diameters of the ,sun4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--;,,corona ,,of #ahfg4 7,,sun-,,spot ,,minimum47 ,this generalisation is well borne out by the maximum-epoch ,coronas of #ahgj and #ahga1 and the minimum-epoch ,coronas of #ahfg1 #ahgd1 #ahge1 #ahgh1 and perhaps #ahhg1 and certainly #ahhi4 ,on the other hand1 the eclipses of #ahhc1 #ahhe and #ahhf do not strikingly confirm this theory4 ,the eclipse of #ahhc was at a time of rapidly decreasing solar activity1 yet the ,corona had the features of a ,sun-spot maximum4 ,the same1 though in a somewhat less degree1 may be said of the eclipses of #ahhe and #ahhf4 ,at the times of both of these eclipses the solar activity was decreasing4 ,the forthcoming eclipse of #aijj will nearly coincide with a ,sun-spot minimum1 and if the above conclusions are well founded the ,corona in #aijj should resemble that of #ahhi1 and be characterised by1 amongst other things1 some very elongated groups of rays extending in nearly opposite directions4 ,we are still a long way off from being able to state with perfect confidence what the ,corona is4 ,it is certainly a complex phenomenon1 and the various streamers which we see are not1 as was at one time imagined1 a simple manifestation of one radiant light4 ,mrs4 ,todd thus conveniently summarises the present state of our knowledge3--,the true corona appears to be a triple phenomenon4 ,first1 there are the polar rays1 nearly straight throughout their visible extent4 ,gradually1 as these rays start out from points on the solar disc farther and farther removed from the poles1 they acquire increasing curvature1 and very probably extend into the equatorial regions1 but are with great difficulty traceable there1 because projected upon and confused with the filaments having their origin remote from the poles4 ,then there is the inner equatorial corona1 apparently connected intimately with truly solar phenomena1 quite like the polar rays2 while the third element in the composite is the outer equatorial corona1 made up of the long ecliptic streamers1 for the most part visible only to the naked eye1 also existing as a solar appendage1 and possibly merging into the zodiacal light4 ,the total eclipses of a half century have cleared up a few obscurities1 and added many perplexities4 ,there is little or no doubt about the substantial1 if not entire1 reality of the corona as a truly solar phenomenon4 ,the ,moon1 if it has anything at all to do with the corona1 aside from the fact of its coming in conveniently between ,sun and ,earth1 so as to allow a brief glimpse of something startlingly beautiful which otherwise could never have been known1 is probably responsible for only a very narrow ring of the inner radiance of pretty even breadth all round4 ,this diffraction effect is accepted2 but the problem still remains how wide this annulus may be1 and whether it may vary in width from one eclipse to another4 ,these questions once settled1 the spurious structure may then be excerpted from the true4 ,indeed the coronal streamers1 delicately curving and interlacing1 may tell the whole story of the ,sun's radiant energy4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #af3 ,there seems sufficient evidence to show that the ,corona may be seen even on occasions when the ,sun is not totally eclipsed1 provided that the visible crescent of the ,sun is exceedingly narrow4 ,footnote #ag3 ,see p4 #acj 7post74 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,what ,,is ,,observed ,,after ,,the ,,total ,,phase ,,of ,,an ,,eclipse ,,of ,,the ,,sun ,,is ,,at ,,an ,,end4 ,in a certain sense1 a description of the incidents which precede the total disappearance of the ,sun in connection with a total ,eclipse will apply more or less to the second half of the phenomenon2 only1 of course1 in the reverse order and on the opposite side of the compass4 ,the ,corona having appeared first of all on the ,w4 side of the ,sun1 then having shown itself complete as surrounding the ,sun1 will begin to disappear on the ,w4 side1 and will be last seen on the ,e4 side4 ,baily's ,beads may or may not come into view2 the ,sun will reappear first as a very thin crescent1 gradually widening2 the quasi-nocturnal darkness visible on the ,earth will cease1 and eventually the ,moon will completely pass away from off the ,sun1 and the ,sun once again will exhibit a perfect circle of light4 ,whilst there is so much to look for and look at and think about1 one thing must be sought for instantly after totality1 or it will be gone for ever1 and that is the ,moon's shadow on the ,earth4 ,we have already seen in the last chapter the startling rapidity and solemnity with which the shadow seems to rush forward to the observer from the horizon on the western side of the ,meridian4 ,passing over him1 or even1 so to speak1 through him1 it travels onwards in an easterly direction and very soon vanishes4 ,its visibility at all depends a good deal upon whether the observer1 who is looking for it1 is sufficiently raised above the adjacent country to be able to command at least a mile or two of ground4 ,if he is in a hollow1 he will have but little chance of seeing the shadow at all3 on the other hand1 if he is on the top of a considerable hill 7or high up on the side of a hill71 commanding the horizon for a distance of #aj or #bj miles1 he will have a fair chance of seeing the shadow4 ,sir ,g4 ,b4 ,airy states1 in #ahea1 ,my eye was caught by a duskiness in the ,s4,e41 and ,i immediately perceived that it was the ,eclipse-shadow in the air1 travelling away in the direction of the shadow's path4 ,for at least six seconds1 this shadow remained in sight1 far more conspicuous to the eye than ,i had anticipated4 ,i was once caught in a very violent hail and thunder-storm on the ,table-land of the ,county of ,sutherland called the ,moin1 and ,i at length saw the storm travel away over the ,north ,sea2 and this view of the receding ,eclipse-shadow1 though by no means so dark1 reminded me strongly of the receding storm4 ,in ten or twelve seconds all appearance of the shadow had passed away4 ,perhaps this may be a convenient place to make a note of what seems to be a fact1 partly established at any rate1 even if not wholly established1 namely--that there seems some connection between eclipses of the ,sun and ,earthquakes4 ,a ,german physicist named ,ginzel#ah has found a score of coincidences between solar eclipses and earthquakes in ,california in the years between #ahej and #ahhh inclusive4 ,of course there were eclipses without earthquakes and earthquakes without eclipses1 but twenty coincidences in thirty-eight years seems suggestive of something4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #ah3 ,himmel und ,erde1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #bee1 #cji2 #ahij4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,eclipses ,,of ,,the ,,sun ,,mentioned ,,in ,,history--,,chinese4 ,this is the first of several chapters which will be devoted to historical eclipses4 ,of course the total eclipse of the ,sun of ,august #i1 #ahif1 observed in ,norway and elsewhere1 is1 in a certain sense1 an eclipse mentioned in history1 but that is not what is intended by the title prefixed to these chapters4 ,by the term historical eclipses1 as used here1 ,i mean eclipses which have been recorded by ancient historians and chroniclers who were not necessarily astronomers1 and who wrote before the invention of the telescope4 ,the date of this may be conveniently taken as a dividing line1 so that ,i shall deal chiefly with eclipses which occurred before1 say1 the year #afjj4 ,there is another reason why some such date as this is a suitable one from which to take a new departure4 ,without at all avowing that superstition ceased on the ,earth in the year #afjj 7for there is far too large a residuum still available now1 #cjj years later71 it may yet be said that the ,revival of ,letters did do a good deal to divest celestial phenomena of those alarming and panic-causing attributes which undoubtedly attached to them during the earlier ages of the world and during the ,dark ,ages in ,western ,europe quite as much as during any other period of the world's history4 ,no one can examine the writings of the ancient ,greek and ,roman historians1 and the chronicles kept in the monasteries of ,western ,europe by their monkish occupiers1 without being struck by the influence of terror which such events as eclipses of the ,sun and ,moon and such celestial visitors as ,comets and ,shooting ,stars exercised far and wide4 ,and this influence overspread1 not only the unlettered lower orders1 but many of those in far higher stations of life who1 one might have hoped1 would have been exempt from such feelings of mental distress as they often exhibited4 ,illustrations of this fact will be adduced in due course4 ,it has always been supposed that the earliest recorded eclipse of the ,sun is one thus mentioned in an ancient ,chinese classic--the ,chou-,king 7sometimes spelt ,shou-,ching74 ,the actual words used may be translated3--,on the first day of the last month of ,autumn the ,sun and ,moon did not meet harmoniously in ,fang4 ,to say the least of it1 this is a moderately ambiguous announcement1 and ,chinese scholars1 both astronomers and non-astronomers1 have spent a good deal of time in examining the various eclipses which might be thought to be represented by the inharmonious meeting of the ,sun and the ,moon as above recorded4 ,to cut a long story short1 it is generally agreed that we are here considering one or other of two eclipses of the ,sun which occurred in the years #bacf or #babh ,b4,c4 respectively1 the ,sun being then in the sidereal division ,fang1 a locality determined by the stars ,greek3 beta1 ,greek3 delta1 ,greek3 pi1 and ,greek3 rho,scorpii1 and which includes a few small stars in ,libra and ,ophiuchus to the ,n4 and in ,lupus to the ,s4 ,how this simple and neat conclusion1 which ,i have stated with such apparent dogmatism1 was arrived at is quite another question1 and it would hardly be consistent with the purpose of this volume to attempt to work it out in detail1 but a few points presented in a summary form may be interesting4 ,in the first place1 be it understood1 that though it is fashionable to cast ridicule on ,john ,chinaman1 especially by way of retaliation for his calling us ,barbarians1 yet it is a sure and certain fact that not only have the ,chinese during many centuries been very attentive students of ,astronomy1 but that we ,westerns owe a good deal of our present knowledge in certain departments to the information stored up by ,chinese observers during many centuries both before and after the ,christian ,era4 ,this1 however1 is a digression4 ,the circumstances of this eclipse as regards its identification having been carefully examined by ,mr4 ,r4 ,w4 ,rothman1#ai in #ahci were further reviewed by ,professor ,s4 ,m4 ,russell in a paper published in the proceedings of the ,pekin ,oriental ,society4#bj ,the substance of the case is that in the reign of ,chung-,k'ang1 the fourth ,emperor of the ,hsia ,dynasty1 there occurred an eclipse of the ,sun1 which is interesting not only for its antiquity1 but also for the dread fate of the two ,astronomers ,royal of the period1 who were taken by surprise at its occurrence1 and were unprepared to perform the customary rites4 ,these rites were the shooting of arrows and the beating of drums1 gongs1 etc41 with the object of delivering the ,sun from the monster which threatened to devour it4 ,the two astronomers by virtue of their office should have superintended these rites4 ,they were1 however1 drunk and incapable of performing their duties1 so that great turmoil ensued1 and it was considered that the land was exposed to the anger of the gods4 ,by way of appeasing the gods1 and of suitably punishing the two ,state officials for their neglect and personal misconduct1 they were forthwith put to death1 a punishment which may be said to have been somewhat excessive1 in view of the fact that the eclipse was not a total but only a partial one4 ,an anonymous verse runs3-- ,here lie the bodies of ,ho and ,hi1 ,whose fate though sad was visible-- ,being hanged because they could not spy ,th' eclipse which was invisible4 ,it appears beyond all reasonable doubt that the eclipse in question occurred on ,october #bb1 #bacf ,b4,c4 ,the preliminary difficulties to be got over in arriving at the date arose from the fact that there was an uncertainty of #ajh years in the date when the ,emperor ,chung-,k'ang ascended the throne2 and within these limits of time there were #ad possible years in which an eclipse of the ,sun in ,fang could have occurred4 ,then the number was further limited by the necessity of finding an eclipse which could have been seen at the place which was the ,emperor's capital4 ,the site of this1 again1 was a matter of some uncertainty4 ,however1 step by step1 by a judicious process of exhaustion1 the year #bacf ,b4,c4 was arrived at as the alternative to the previously received date of #babh ,b4,c4 ,considering that we are dealing with a matter which happened full #djjj years ago1 it may fairly be said that this discrepancy is not perhaps much to be wondered at1 seeing what disputes often happen nowadays as to the precise date of events which may have occurred but a few years or even a few months before the controversy springs up4 ,professor ,russell says that3--,some admirers of the ,chinese cite this eclipse as a proof of the early proficiency attained by the ,chinese in astronomical calculations4 ,i find no ground for that belief in the text4 ,indeed1 for many centuries later1 the ,chinese were unable to predict the position of the ,sun accurately among the stars4 ,they relied wholly on observation to settle their calendar1 year by year1 and seem to have drawn no conclusions or deductions from their observations4 ,their calendar was continually falling into confusion4 ,even at the beginning of this dynasty1 when the ,jesuits came to ,china1 the ,chinese astronomers were unable to calculate accurately the length of the shadow of the ,sun at the equinoxes and solstices4 ,it seems to me therefore very improbable that they could have been able to calculate and predict eclipses4 ,i am not at all sure that this is quite a fair presentation of the case4 ,i do not remember ever to have seen the power to predict eclipses ascribed to the ,chinese1 but it is a simple matter of fact that we owe to them during many centuries unique records of a vast number of celestial phenomena4 ,their observations of comets may be singled out as having been of inestimable value to various #aith-century computers1 especially ,e4 ,biot and ,j4 ,r4 ,hind4 ,the second recorded eclipse of the ,sun would seem to be also due to the ,chinese4 ,confucius relates that during the reign of the ,emperor ,yew-,wang an eclipse took place4 ,this ,emperor reigned between #gha ,b4,c4 and #gga ,b4,c41 and it has been generally thought that the eclipse of #gge ,b4,c4 is the one referred to1 but ,johnson doubts this on the ground that this eclipse was chiefly visible in the circumpolar regions1 and if seen at all in ,china must have been of very small dimensions4 ,he leans to the eclipse of ,june #d1 #ghj ,b4,c4 as the only large one which happened within the limits of time stated above4 ,an ancient ,chinese historical work1 known as the ,chun-,tsew1 written by ,confucius1 makes mention of a large number of solar eclipses which occurred before the ,christian ,era4 ,this work came under the notice of ,m4 ,gaubil1 one of the ,french ,jesuit missionaries who laboured in ,china some century and a half ago1 and he first gave an account of it in his ,trait de la ,chronologie ,chinoise1 published at ,paris in #aggj4ba ,the ,chun-,tsew is said to be the only work really written by ,kung-,foo-,tze1 commonly known as ,confucius1 the other treatises attributed to him having been compiled by disciples of his either during his life-time or after his decease4 ,the ,german chronologist1 ,ideler1 was acquainted with this work1 and in a paper of his own1 presented to the ,berlin ,academy1 remarked3--,what gives great interest to this work is the account of #cf solar eclipses observed in ,china1 the first of which was on ,feb4 #bb1 #gbj ,b4,c41 and the last on ,july #bb1 #die ,b4,c4 ,in #ahfc ,mr4 ,john ,williams1 then ,assistant ,secretary of the ,royal ,astronomical ,society1 communicated to the ,society in a condensed form the particulars of these eclipses as related in ,confucius's book1 together with some remarks on the book itself4 ,the ,chun-,tsew treats of a part of the history of the confederated nations into which ,china was divided during the ,chow ,dynasty1 that is between #aabb ,b4,c4 and #bee ,b4,c4 ,the particular period dealt with is that which extended from #gbb ,b4,c4 to #dgi ,b4,c4 ,it was during the latter part of this interval of about #bdb years that ,confucius flourished4 ,but the book is not quite a general history for it is more particularly devoted to the small ,state of ,loo of which ,confucius was a native1 where he passed a great portion of his life1 and where he was advanced to the highest honours4 ,it contains the history of twelve princes of this ,state with incidental notices of the other confederated nations4 ,the number of the years of each reign is accurately determined1 and the events are classed under the years in which they occurred4 ,each year is divided into sections according to the four seasons1 ,spring1 ,summer1 ,autumn1 ,winter1 and the sections are subdivided into months1 and often the days are distinguished4 ,the name ,chun-,tsew is said to have been given to this work from its having been commenced in ,spring and finished in ,autumn1 but ,williams thinks that the name rather refers to the fact that its contents are divided into seasons as stated4 ,the style in which it is written is very concise1 being a bare mention of facts without comment1 and although on this account it might appear to us dry and uninteresting1 it is much valued by the ,chinese as a model of the ancient style of writing4 ,it forms one of the ,woo-,king or ,five ,classical ,books1 without a thorough knowledge of which1 and of the ,sze-,shoo or ,four ,books1 no man can attain to any post of importance in the ,chinese ,empire4 ,the account of each eclipse is but little more than a brief mention of its occurrence at a certain time4 ,the following is an example of the entries3--,in the #ehth year of the #cbnd cycle in the #east year of the ,emperor ,king-,wang1 of the ,chow ,dynasty1 the #crd year of ,yin-,kung1 ,prince of ,loo1 in the spring1 the second moon1 on the day called ,kea-,tsze1 there was an eclipse of the ,sun4 ,this #ehth year of the #cbnd cycle answers to #gbj ,b4,c4 ,mr4 ,williams in the year #ahfc presented to the ,royal ,astronomical ,society a paper setting out the whole of the eclipses of which ,i have cited but one example1 converting1 of course1 the very complicated ,chinese dates into ,european dates4 ,these ,chinese records of eclipses were in #ahfd subjected to examination by the late ,sir ,g4 ,b4 ,airy1#bb with results which were highly noteworthy1 and justify us in reposing much confidence in ,chinese astronomical work4 ,airy remarks3--,the period through which these eclipses extend is included in the time through which calculations of eclipses have been made in the ,french work entitled ,l',art de vrifier les ,dates4 ,i have several times had occasion to recalculate with great accuracy eclipses which are noted in that work 7edition of #ahbj71 and ,i have found that1 to the limits of accuracy to which it pretends1 and which are abundantly sufficient for the present purpose1 it is perfectly trustworthy4 ,i have therefore made a comparison of the ,chun-,tsew eclipses with those of ,l',art de vrifier les ,dates4 ,the result is interesting4 ,of the #cf eclipses1 #cb agree with those of the ,art de vrifier les ,dates1 not only in the day1 but also in the general track of the eclipse as given in the ,art de vrifier1 which appears to show sufficiently that the eclipse would be visible in that province of ,china to which the ,chun-,tsew is referred4 ,airy then proceeds to point out that1 with regard to the four eclipses which he could not confirm1 there cannot have been eclipses in ,april #fde ,b4,c4 or in ,june #eib ,b4,c4 ,it appears1 however1 from a note by ,williams1 that the date attached to the eclipse of #fde ,b4,c4 is1 in reality1 an erroneous repetition 7in the ,chinese mode of expressing it7 of that attached to the next following one1 and in the absence of correct date it must be rejected4 ,in the record of #eib ,b4,c41 ,june #af1 no clerical error is found1 and there must be an error of a different class4 ,the eclipses of #eeb ,b4,c41 ,september #ai1 and #edi ,b4,c41 ,july #ah1 to which there is nothing corresponding in the ,art de vrifier1 are in a different category4 ,these occur in the lunations immediately succeeding #eeb ,b4,c41 ,august #bj1 and #edi ,b4,c41 ,june #ai1 respectively1 and there is no doubt that those which agree with the ,art de vrifier were real eclipses4 ,now there cannot be eclipses visible at the same place in successive lunations1 because the difference of the ,moon's longitudes is about #bi1 and the difference of latitudes is therefore nearly #c1 which is greater than the sum of the diameters of the ,sun and ,moon increased by any possible change of parallax for the same place4 ,these1 therefore1 were not real eclipses4 ,it seems probable that the nominal days were set down by the observer in his memorandum book as days on which eclipses were to be looked for4 ,airy conjectured that the eclipses of #eeb ,b4,c41 ,august #bj1 and #edi ,b4,c41 ,june #ai1 were observed by one and the same person1 and that he possessed science enough to make him connect the solar eclipses with the change of the ,moon1 but not enough to give him any idea of the limitations to the visibility of an eclipse4 ,on a subsequent occasion ,mr4 ,williams laid before the ,society a further list of solar eclipses observed in ,china1 and extending from #dha ,b4,c4 to the ,christian ,era4 ,he collected these from a ,chinese historical work1 entitled ,tung-,keen-,kang-,muh4 ,this work1 which runs to #aja volumes1 contains a summary of ,chinese history from the earliest times to the end of the ,yuen ,dynasty1 ,a4,d4 #acfh1 and was first published about #adgc4 ,the copy in ,mr4 ,williams's possession was published in #ahjh4 ,the text is very briefly worded1 and consists merely of an account of the accessions and deaths of the emperors and of the rulers of the minor states1 with some of the more remarkable occurrences in each reign4 ,the appointments and deaths of various eminent personages are also noticed1 together with special calamities such as earthquakes1 inundations1 storms1 etc4 ,the astronomical allusions include eclipses and comets4 ,amongst the eclipses are also all1 or most of those which are recorded in the ,chun-,tsew as having occurred prior to #dgi ,b4,c4 ,though no particular expressions are used to define the exact character of the eclipses1 it is to be presumed that some of them must have been total1 because it is stated that the stars were visible1 albeit that seemingly in only one instance is a word attached which specifically expresses the idea of totality4 ,here again all the dates were expressed in ,chinese style1 but1 as published by ,williams1 were rendered1 as before1 in ,european style by aid of chronological tables1 published about #ahfj in ,japan4 ,mr4 ,williams1 in his second paper1 from which ,i have been quoting1 states that he brought his published account down to the ,christian ,era only as a matter of convenience1 but that he had in hand a further selection of eclipses from the ,tung-,keen-,kang-,muh1 the interval from the ,christian ,era to the #dth century ,a4,d4 yielding nearly #ajj additional eclipses4 ,this further transcript has not yet been published1 but remains in ,,ms4 in the ,library of the ,royal ,astronomical ,society4 ,mr4 ,williams died in #ahgd at the age of #gg1 one of the most experienced ,chinese scholars of the century4 ,it is remarkable that none of the ,chinese annals to which reference has been made include any mention of eclipses of the ,moon2 but the records of ,comets are exceedingly numerous and1 as ,i have already stated1 have proved of the highest value to astronomers who have been called upon to investigate the ancient history of ,comets4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #ai3 ,memoirs1 ,r4,a4,s41 vol4 xi4 p4 #dg4 ,footnote #bj3 ,republished in the ,observatory ,magazine1 vol4 xviii4 p4 #cbc1 et seq41 #ahie4 ,footnote #ba3 ,a good deal of information respecting ,chinese eclipse records1 so far as known up to the beginning of the #aith-century1 will be found in ,delambre's ,histoire de l',astronomie ,ancienne4 ,paris1 #ahag4 ,footnote #bb3 ,month4 ,not41 ,r4,a4,s41 vol4 xxiv4 p4 #da4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,are ,,eclipses ,,alluded ,,to ,,in ,,the ,,bible8 ,an interesting question has been suggested3 ,are there any allusions to eclipses to be found in ,holy ,scripture8 ,it seems safe to assert that there is at least one1 and that there may be three or four4 ,in ,amos viii4 #i we read3--,i will cause the ,sun to go down at noon1 and ,i will darken the ,earth in the clear day4 ,this language is so very explicit and applies so precisely to the circumstances of a solar eclipse that commentators are generally agreed that it can have but one meaning2#bc and accordingly it is considered to refer without doubt to one or other of the following eclipses3--#gia ,b4,c41 #gga ,b4,c41 #ggj ,b4,c41 or #gfc ,b4,c4 ,archbishop ,usher1#bd the well-known chronologist1 suggested the first three more than two centuries ago1 whilst the eclipse of #gfc ,b4,c4 was suggested in recent times and is now generally accepted as the one referred to4 ,the circumstances connected with the discovery and identification of the eclipse of #gfc ,b4,c4 are very interesting4 ,the date when ,amos wrote is set down in the margin of our ,bibles as #ghg ,b4,c4 and if this date is correct it follows that for his statement to have been a prediction he must be alluding to some eclipse of later date than #ghg ,b4,c4 ,this obvious assumption not only shuts out the eclipse of #gia ,b4,c41 but opens the door to the acceptance of the eclipse of #gfc ,b4,c4 ,apparently the first modern writer who looked into the matter after ,archbishop ,usher was the ,german commentator ,hitzig who suggested the eclipse of ,feb4 #i1 #ghd ,b4,c4 ,dr4 ,pusey was so far taken with this idea that he thought it worth while to secure the co-operation of the ,rev4 ,r4 ,main1 ,f4,r4,a4,s41 the ,radcliffe ,observer at ,oxford1 for the purpose of a full investigation4 ,mr4 ,main had the circumstances of that eclipse calculated1 with the result that though the eclipse was indeed total in ,africa and ,hindostan1 yet at ,samaria it was only partial and of no considerable magnitude4 ,dr4 ,pusey's words1 summing up the situation are3--,the eclipse then would hardly have been noticeable at ,samaria1 certainly very far indeed from being an eclipse of such magnitude1 as could in any degree correspond with the expression1 ',i will cause the ,sun to go down at noon4' 444 ,beforehand1 one should not have expected that an eclipse of the ,sun1 being itself a regular natural phenomenon1 and having no connection with the moral government of ,god1 should have been the subject of the prophet's prediction4 ,still it had a religious impressiveness then1 above what it has now1 on account of that wide-prevailing idolatry of the ,sun4 ,it exhibited the object of their false worship1 shorn of its light1 and passive4 ,dr4 ,pusey's ,commentary from which the above quotation is made#be bears the date #ahgc1 but he appears not to have been acquainted with the important discovery announced no less than six years previously by the distinguished ,oriental scholar1 ,sir ,h4 ,c4 ,rawlinson4 ,the discovery to which ,i allude is a contemporary record on an ,assyrian tablet of a solar eclipse which was seen at ,nineveh about #bd years after the reputed date of ,amos's prophecy4 ,this tablet had been described by ,dr4 ,hinckes in the ,british ,museum ,report for #ahed but its chronological importance had not then been realised4 ,sir ,h4 ,rawlinson#bf speaks of the tablet as a record of or register of the annual archons at ,nineveh4 ,he says3--,in the eighteenth year before the accession of ,tiglath-,pileser there is a notice to the following effect--',in the month ,sivan an eclipse of the ,sun took place' and to mark the great importance of the event a line is drawn across the tablet although no interruption takes place in the official order of the ,eponymes4 ,here then we have notice of a solar eclipse which was visible at ,nineveh which occurred within #ij days of the 7vernal7 equinox 7taking that as the normal commencement of the year7 and which we may presume to have been total from the prominence given to the record1 and these are conditions which during a century before and after the era of ,nabonassar are alone fulfilled by the eclipse which took place on ,june #ae1 #gfc4 ,this record was submitted to ,sir ,g4 ,b4 ,airy and ,mr4 ,j4 ,r4 ,hind1 and the circumstances of the eclipse were computed by the latter1 by the aid of ,hansen's ,lunar ,tables and ,le ,verrier's ,solar ,tables4 ,the result1 when plotted on a map1 showed that the shadow line just missed the site of ,nineveh1 but that a very slight and unimportant deviation from the result of the ,tables would bring the shadow over the city of ,nineveh where the eclipse was observed1 and over ,samaria where it was predicted4 ,the identification of this eclipse1 both as regards its time and place1 has also proved a matter of importance in the revision of ,scripture chronology1 by lowering1 to the extent of #be years1 the reigns of the kings of the ,jewish monarchy4 ,the need for this revision is further confirmed1 if we assume that the celebrated incident in the life of ,king ,hezekiah1 described as the retrogradation of the ,sun's shadow on the dial of ,ahaz1 is to be interpreted as connected with a partial eclipse of the ,sun4 ,we will now consider this event1 and see what can be made out of it4 ,one ,scripture record 7#b ,kings xx4 #aa7 is as follows3--,and ,isaiah the prophet cried unto the ,lord3 and he brought the shadow ten degrees backward1 by which it had gone down in the dial of ,ahaz4 ,this passage has greatly exercised commentators of all creeds in different ages of the ,church2 and the most divergent opinions have been expressed as to what happened4 ,this has been due to two causes jointly4 ,not only is the occurrence incomprehensible1 looked at on the surface of the words1 but we are entirely ignorant of the construction of the so-called dial of ,ahaz1 and have little or no material directly available from outside sources to enable us to come to a clear and safe conclusion4 ,no doubt1 however1 it was a sun-dial1 or gnomon of some kind4 ,bishop ,wordsworth lays stress on the apparent assertion that the miracle was not wrought on any other dial at ,jerusalem except that of ,ahaz1 the father of ,hezekiah1 and he treats as a confirmation of this the statement in #b ,chron4 xxxii4 #ca1 that ambassadors came from ,babylon to ,jerusalem1 being curious to learn all about the wonder that had been done in the land 7i4e4 in the land of ,judah74 ,but there is more taken for granted here than is necessary1 or1 as we shall presently see1 is justifiable4 ,to begin with1 how do we know that there was any other dial at ,jerusalem like that of ,ahaz8 ,but1 in point of fact1 we must make a new departure altogether1 for it has been suggested 7,i know not exactly by whom1 or when for the first time7 that an eclipse of the ,sun1 under certain circumstances1 would explain all that happened1 and reconcile all that has to be reconciled4 ,what happened to ,hezekiah is thought by many to imply clearly a miracle1 and it may be said that an eclipse of the ,sun cannot be held to be a miracle#bg by the ordinary definition of the word4 ,but1 on the other hand1 it certainly might count as such in the eyes of ignorant spectators1 who know nothing of the theory or practice of eclipses1 and who would regard such a thing as quite unforeseen1 unexpected1 and alarming4 ,illustrations of this might be multiplied from all parts of the world1 in all ages of the world's history4 ,let us see now what the argument is1 as it was worked out by the late ,mr4 ,j4 ,w4 ,bosanquet1 ,f4,r4,a4,s4 ,shortly before the invasion of ,juda by ,sennacherib--say in the beginning of the year #fhi ,b4,c4--,hezekiah was sick unto death4 ,in answer to his fervent prayer for recovery the prophet ,isaiah was sent to him with this message3--,thus saith the ,lord1 the ,god of ,david thy ,father1 ,i have heard thy prayer1 ,i have seen thy tears2 behold1 ,i will add unto thy days fifteen years 444 and ,i will defend this city1 and this shall be a sign unto thee from the ,lord1 that the ,lord will do this thing that ,he hath spoken4 ,behold1 ,i will bring again the shadow of the degrees1 which is gone down in the sun-dial of ,ahaz ten degrees backward4 ,so the ,sun returned ten degrees1 by which degrees it had gone down4 7,isaiah xxxviii4 #e-h74 ,in these words we evidently have mention of some instrument erected in ,hezekiah's palace1 in the days of his father ,ahaz1 for showing the change in the position of the shadow cast by the ,sun from day to day4 ,this statement is confirmed by a profane writer1 ,glycas1 who states3 ,they say that ,ahaz1 by some contrivance1 had erected in his palace certain steps1 which showed the hours of the day1 and also measured the course of the ,sun4 ,the idea involved in bringing again1 through ten degrees backward1 the shadow of the degrees which had gone down1 is very noteworthy4 ,we seem intended to learn from these words several things4 ,for one thing 7to begin with7 that the steps 7as we must consider them to have been7 on this sun-dial of ,ahaz1 were turned away from the ,sun4 ,for only in that position could they cast their shadow1 or could the number of the illuminated steps be varied1 upwards or downwards1 according to the varying altitude of the sun4 ,the only conceivable use of a fixed instrument so placed would be to show the rise and fall of the shadow from day to day1 as the ,sun on the meridian gradually rose higher between mid-winter and mid-summer1 or descended lower between mid-summer and mid-winter1 in passing of course through the winter and summer solstices in turn4 ,no simple motion of the ,sun in its ordinary diurnal progress would produce the effect described4 ,on the other hand1 it is equally clear that the shadow cast by a gnomon properly adjusted at the head of such a series of steps would travel upwards and downwards upon the steps with the ,sun1 from winter to summer and from summer to winter1 indicating at each noon the meridian altitude of the ,sun from day to day1 the latitude of ,jerusalem being #ca #dg'1 and the ,sun's altitude there on the shortest day being #cd #da'4 ,if the gnomon were raised above the topmost step so as to bring the tip of the gnomon or any aperture in it so much above the step as would be the equivalent of #b #ed' or slightly more1 then the top of the shadow of the gnomon 7or a spot of light passing through a hole in it7 would1 on the shortest day of the year1 fall just beyond the lowermost step4 ,an instrument constructed on the principle just set forth was known to and used by the ,greek astronomers of antiquity under the name of a ,sciotheron or shadow-taker4 ,sometimes1 and perhaps more properly1 it was called a ,heliotropion1 that is1 an instrument designed to indicate the turning of the ,sun at the ,tropics4#bh ,this1 be it remembered1 was information needed by the ancients for the correct regulation of the seasons of the year1 and of special service to the ,jews whose greater festivals were fixed in connection with the seasons4 ,there is reason to believe that instruments of this character were of early invention1 going back perhaps to the times of ,homer1 for we find a passage in the ,odyssey1 7xv4 #djc7 as follows3-- ,above ,ortygia lies an isle of fame ,far hence remote1 and ,syria ,syros is the name2 ,there curious eyes inscrib'd with wonder trace ,the ,sun's diurnal and his summer race4 ,pope's rendering of this passage fails1 however1 to bring out the salient idea involved4 ,butcher and ,lang translate the passage thus3--,there is a certain isle called ,syria1 if haply thou hast heard tell of it1 over above ,ortygia1 and there are the turning-places of the ,sun4 ,merry#bi calls these island names mere inventions of the poet4 ,it seems to me a great question whether ,homer's words really support the statement ,i have made just before quoting it4 ,diogenes ,lartius refers to this same instrument when he speaks of the ,heliotropion preserved in the ,island of ,syra4#cj ,according to ,lartius1 ,anaximander#ca was the first ,greek to use gnomons1 which he placed on the ,sciothera of ,lacedmon1 for the express purpose of indicating the ,tropics and ,equinoxes4 ,these ,sciothera were pyramidal in form4 ,an obelisk was the simplest1 though an imperfect form of ,heliotropion1 marking indistinctly the length of a shadow at different times of the year1 especially the extremes of length and shortness at mid-winter and mid-summer4 ,it is perhaps interesting to mention that travellers have recorded1 in various places1 various devices for furnishing information respecting these matters4 ,for instance1 in ,milan ,cathedral the meridian line is marked on the pavement1 and along this line1 an image of the ,sun coming through an aperture in the southern wall travels backwards and forwards during the year according to the seasons4 ,some ,jesuit missionaries who visited ,china about the middle of the last century1 noticed a device of this character in operation at the ,observatory at ,pekin4 ,a gnomon had been set up in a low room and one of the missionaries1 ,m4 ,le ,comte1 describes in the following words what they saw in connection with this gnomon3--,the aperture through which the rays of the ,sun came was about #h ft4 above the floor2 it is horizontal and formed of two pieces of copper1 which may be turned so as to be farther from1 or closer to1 each other to enlarge or contract the aperture4 ,lower was a table with a brass plate in the middle on which was traced a meridian line #ae ft4 long1 divided by transverse lines which are neither finished nor exact4 ,all round the table there are small channels to receive the water1 whereby it is to be levelled4#cb ,all this may seem rather a digression1 and so it is1 but ,i am following ,mr4 ,bosanquet herein in order the better to justify the argument that it was an eclipse of the ,sun which marked the important incident in ,hezekiah's life which has been handed down to us by the sacred writer4 ,it is evident that if a flight of steps were erected on the principles which were set forth above1 the steps sloping upwards and southwards 7for the ,northern ,hemisphere7 from the lowest step to within a few inches below an aperture in the gnomon suitably arranged1 the ray or image of the ,sun1 whichever it was1 would travel day by day up and down such steps between solstice and solstice4 ,we may conclude1 therefore1 that the instrument which ,hezekiah gazed at1 and which is called in ,scripture1 the ,dial of ,ahaz1 was what the ,greeks would have termed a ,heliotropion4 ,the historian's record is to the effect that on the day of ,hezekiah's recovery an extraordinary motion of the shadow was observed on the ,steps of ,ahaz by the rising of the shadow ten steps from the point to which it had gone down with the ,sun4 ,this effect is spoken of not as a miracle but as a sign4 ,it should also be remembered that the cure of ,hezekiah was effected not by a miracle but by a simple application of a lump of figs4 ,the promise of his recovery was confirmed by the motion of the shadow as already stated4 ,we are justified1 therefore1 in looking for some ordinary natural phenomenon by which to account for this peculiar motion on the dial1 and something miraculous is not essential4 ,dean ,milman once suggested that the effect might have been produced by a cloud refracting the light4 ,no doubt a dark cloud might produce an apparent interference with the shadow1 but it is well pointed out by ,bosanquet that such a cause as a cloud would have been so manifest to everyone1 and the effect so transient1 that the phenomenon could hardly have been referred to afterwards as it was in another place as a wonder that was done in the land4 7#b ,chron4 xxxii4 #ca74 ,it becomes1 therefore1 alike an obvious and a simple explanation that a shadow caused by the ,sun might be deflected downwards on such an instrument with a regular and steady motion by the ,moon passing slowly over the upper part of the ,sun's disc1 as ,sun and ,moon both approached the meridian4 ,the critical question has now to be raised3 ,can astronomers inform us whether a considerable eclipse of the ,sun occurred at the beginning of the year #fhi ,b4,c4 anywhere near noon and which was visible at ,jerusalem8 ,and the answer to this it is interesting to be able to say is a plain and distinct affirmative4 ,there was a large partial eclipse of the ,sun on ,january #aa1 #fhi ,b4,c41 about #aa4cj ,a4,m41 and it was the upper limb which underwent eclipse4 ,this eclipse fulfils all the requirements of the case1 both from the historian's and the astronomer's point of view4 ,it occurred about the year fixed by ,demetrius as that of ,hezekiah's illness3 it occurred while the ,sun was approaching and actually passing the meridian2 the obscuration was on that part of the ,sun's disc 7namely the upper part7 which would have had the effect of causing the point of light1 which would seem to emanate from the ,sun1 to appear to be depressed downwards2 and it was visible at ,jerusalem4 ,but there still remains for consideration the final and most important question1 ,would a deflection of light proceeding from the ,sun1 regarded as a moving body1 be capable of affecting1 to the extent of 'ten steps1' the shadow on such an instrument as has been described8 ,and arising out of this1 there is the subordinate question1 ,would ,january1 being the month when this eclipse certainly occurred1 also be a month suitable for the exhibition of such a phenomenon8 ,it is ascertainable by calculation that the time occupied by the ,moon in passing over the ,sun1 in the way it did during this eclipse1 was about #b hours4 ,but from the time of central conjunction1 when the obscuration was the greatest and the point of light depressed the most1 to the time when the uppermost portion of the ,sun's disc was released by the eastward motion of the ,moon1 and the light from that uppermost portion was again manifest1 was about #bj minutes1 and this1 therefore1 was the time during which the phenomenon of retrogression on the steps would have been exhibited to the ,king's eyes4 ,assuming then that the time when the ascending shadow had travelled upwards to the tenth step coincided1 or nearly so1 with the time when the ,sun had reached its highest altitude for the day1 at noon1 we infer that the time of central conjunction during this eclipse was not later than from #bj to #ae minutes before noon4 ,it could not have been much earlier1 because the phenomenon of the resting of the shadow for a time at its apparently highest point for the day 7which preceded the promise that it should rise ten steps7 has also to be accounted for1 and this cessation of its motion upwards could not have taken place till about #be minutes before noon1 when the decreasing motion of the ,sun in altitude 7or its slackening motion upwards as it approached mid-day7 would have become counteracted by the coming on of the eclipse4 ,now at #aa4ce ,a4,m4 the sun's disc would have risen to the altitude of #ce #h'2 and the highest visible point of light would1 owing to the eclipse1 then have been about #ce #d'2 and at #aa4dj ,a4,m41 being the time of greatest obscuration1 the extreme cusps of light produced by the intervention of the ,moon would still have stood at about #ce #d'1 just #bc' below the highest point of light at noon 7,fig4 #ab74 ,the whole disc of the sun had now risen above the gnomon1 yet no motion of the shadow on the steps had been observed for fully five minutes4 ,the time shown by the dial was seemingly mid-day4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--;,,eclipse ,,of ,,the ,,sun1 ,,january #aa1 #fhi ,b4,c41 ,,at ,,jerusalem4 ,sun's apparent semi-diameter #af' #ac ,moon's #ae' #ac ,moon's relative hourly motion in declination #e' #dd northward4 ,right ascension1 #bi' #cc eastward4 ,corrected for ,jerusalem1 #ai' #db eastward4 ,altitude of the ,gnomon1 #cd #da' #ac4 ,,sun',s ,,altitude ,,before ,,and ,,at ,,noon4 ,illustration3 ,phase at #bj minutes before noon4 ,illustration3 ,phase at noon4 ,we have now to consider to what extent would a staircase rising at an angle of #ca #dg' towards the ,sun1 with a gnomon so placed at the top as to cast a shadow to the foot of the lower step on the shortest day of the year be affected by a movement in a perpendicular direction of the point of light to the extent of #bc'1 or #a_/c of a degree8 ,the effect would be widely different at different times of the year1 being greatest at mid-winter when the shadows are longest1 and least at mid-summer when the shadows are shortest4 ,it follows from this that ,january #ac being a day but three weeks removed from mid-winter day the normal shadow would be not far from its longest possible length1 and the effect of a displacement of #bc' would be neither more nor less than #a_/abth of the whole range of the steps whatever that range might have been4 ,this extent of motion1 then1 is fully sufficient to satisfy the condition prescribed by the ,biblical narrative of there being such a deflection of the ,sun's light as would affect the shadow to the extent implied by the words ten steps or ten degrees1 which is virtually the same idea4 ,the same extent of motion could not have been produced under the same conditions either a few days earlier or a few days later2 that may certainly be taken for granted4 ,and the only point in which we are necessarily in doubt arises from the fact that we are ignorant of the actual number and nature of the graduations of ,ahaz's so-called ,dial4 ,if it were permissible to assume that there were #abj graduations on the instrument1 be they steps properly so-called on a structure erected in the open air or be they lines on a flat surface on some instrument standing in a room1 or what not1 then the problem is solved1 for #a_/ab 7as above7 of #abj is ten--the ten degrees stated in the history4 ,as to whether the dial of ,ahaz was a device built up of masonry in the open air or was an instrument for indoor use we know absolutely nothing1 and speculation is useless4 ,there is something to be said on both sides4 ,bosanquet1 on abstract grounds1 leans to the latter view2 on the other hand he calls attention to the present existence in ,india1 at ,delhi and ,benares1 of ruined ,hindoo observatories in the form of huge masonry sun-dials many yards in length and breadth and height4#cc ,finally it may be pointed out that there is some incidental confirmation to be found for this ,hezekiah incident having happened in winter4 ,that the season of the year was winter seems to be suggested by the word used in the original ,hebrew in connection with the return of the shadow4 ,backward in ,isaiah xxxviii4 #h might also be translated1 ,from the end4 ,it would be very natural to hold that this implied that the motion of the shadow was upwards from the lower end of the group of steps towards which the shadow had gone down4 ,now the lower end of the steps could only have been the place of the shadow in ,december or ,january at or near the time of the winter solstice4 ,moreover the mention of the lump of figs seems to suggest the winter season4 ,a cake of figs means dried figs1 not newly gathered summer figs4 ,putting all the facts together we may fairly conclude that the astronomical event which happened in connection with ,hezekiah's illness was an eclipse of the ,sun1 and that its date was ,january #aa1 #fhi ,b4,c4 ,a few other ,scripture passages need a passing mention4 ,in ,isaiah xiii4 #aj we read3-- ,the ,sun shall be darkened in his going forth1 and the ,moon shall not cause her light to shine4 ,it has been thought by ,johnson that this passage is an allusion to an eclipse of the ,sun1 and so it might be2 but on the other hand1 it may be no more than one of those highly figurative phrases which abound in holy ,scripture1 and of which the well-known passage1 ,the stars in their courses fought against ,sisera 7,judges v4 #bj71 is a familiar example4 ,in ,jeremiah x4 #b we read3-- ,be not dismayed at the signs of heaven2 for the heathen are dismayed at them4 ,this is cited as an eclipse allusion by ,johnson1 who points out that the utterance of this caution preceded by about fifteen years the celebrated eclipse of ,thales 7#ehe ,b4,c474 ,but surely this is far-fetched4 ,i shall be inclined to attach the same criticism to his next citation4 ,ezekiel employs these expressions3--,when ,i shall put thee out1 ,i will cover the heaven1 and make the stars thereof dark2 ,i will cover the ,sun with a cloud1 and the ,moon shall not give her light 7xxxii4 #g74 ,this language resembles1 in no small degree1 ,isaiah's1 already quoted1 and1 like that1 might apply to the phenomenon of a solar eclipse1 but whether that was actually the prophet's intention is another matter4 ,he may have witnessed the eclipse of #ehe ,b4,c4 on the banks of the river ,chebar1 and that spectacle may have put this imagery into his head4 ,further than this it seems hardly safe to go4 ,this seems an appropriate place to mention a very interesting matter1 to which attention has been called by ,oriental scholars in recent times1 who have investigated ,assyrian and ,egyptian monuments1 and other monuments of the same type4 ,the story would be a long and interesting one if presented in detail1 and would far exceed my limits of space4 ,i must1 therefore1 be content with such a summary as that which has been worked out by ,mr4 ,e4 ,w4 ,maunder4 ,briefly the facts are these4 ,there are to be found in many places carvings in stone1 symbolic of the ,sun-god once worshipped in the ,east4 ,the general design1 with of course variations1 is a circle with striated wings extending right and left to two diameters of the wing1 more or less1 with a lesser extension in a downward direction4 ,allowing for the roughness of the art1 and for the fact that the material was stone1 it does not require any very great stretch of imagination to see in these carvings the disc of a totally-eclipsed ,sun with1 right and left and below it1 that form of corona which we have come to associate with total eclipses occurring at periods of ,sun-spot minima4#cd ,this idea should not seem far-fetched if we bear in mind the fact that the ancient ,orientals worshipped the ,sun1 ,moon1 and ,planets2 and one of the natural outcomes of this is submitted for our consideration by ,maunder in the words following#ce3-- ,there can be little doubt that the ,sun was regarded partly as a symbol1 partly as a manifestation of the unseen1 unapproachable ,divinity4 ,its light and heat1 its power of calling into active exercise the mysterious forces of germination and ripening1 the universality of its influence1 all seemed the fit expressions of the yet greater powers which belonged to the ,invisible4 ,what happened in a total solar eclipse8 ,for a short time that which seemed so perfect a divine symbol was completely hidden4 ,the light and heat1 the two great forms of solar energy1 were withdrawn1 but something took their place4 ,a mysterious light of mysterious form1 unlike any other light1 unlike any other single form1 was seen in its place4 ,could they fail to see in this a closer1 a more intimate revelation1 a more exalted symbolism of the ,divine ,nature and ,presence8 ,just as in the various ,greek 'mysteries' the student was gradually advanced from one set of symbols to another even more abstruse and esoteric1 so here1 on the broad face of heaven itself1 vouchsafed for a brief space of time and at long intervals apart1 the ,deity revealed ,himself to the initiated by a higher and more difficult symbol than ordinarily4 ,the symbol would vary in shape4 ,we may take it for granted that the old ,chaldeans1 as modern astronomers to-day1 had at one time or another presented to them every type of ,coronal structure4 ,but there would1 no doubt1 be a difficulty in grasping or remembering the irregular details of the ,corona as seen in most eclipses4 ,it occasionally happens1 however1 that the ,corona shows itself under a form of grand and striking simplicity4 ,it is now widely recognised that the typical ,corona of the minimum of the ,sun-spot cycle consists chiefly of two great equatorial streamers4 ,maunder then goes on to cite certain ,american pictures by ,trouvelot and others of the eclipse of ,july #bi1 #ahgh1 in which the great extension of the ,corona to the ,east and the ,west is specially shown4 ,one drawing in particular1 by ,miss ,k4 ,e4 ,wolcott1 exhibits the ,sun with a perfect bright ring round it from which the ,coronal streamers emanate in the directions mentioned4 ,maunder then remarks that he has a strong conviction that it was a ,corona of this type which was the origin of the ,ring with ,wings1 the symbol which on ,assyrian monuments is always shown as floating over the head of the ring which is designed to indicate the presence and protection of the ,deity4 ,in the article cited he gives illustrations of two forms under which the ,ring with ,wings appears on ,assyrian and ,egyptian monuments respectively1 remarking that ,egyptians too were ,astronomers and ,sun-worshippers and were experts in the language of symbols4 ,equally with the ,chaldeans the ,egyptian priests should have regarded the ,corona as a symbolical revelation of the ,deity whose usual manifestation they recognised in the ,sun1 and accordingly we find them employing a symbol which is almost as perfect a representation of the ,corona of minimum as that which the ,assyrians adopted4 ,another curious point commented upon by ,maunder is that the ,assyrians frequently insert the figure of their ,deity within the ring1 and attach thereto a kilt-like dress4 ,even when they show the ring without the figure the kilt1 as it may be called1 is still there1 indicating that it is not simply a garment worn by the figure1 but an integral part of the symbol4 ,this kilt is represented as pleated1 and the resemblance of the pleatings to the polar rays shown in ,trouvelot's drawing of the ,corona1 is practically perfect4 ,on this point ,maunder adds3--,if this be a mere chance coincidence1 it seems to me a most extraordinary one4 ,he concludes by saying that these symbols1 so frequently met with1 and so clearly designed to indicate the presence of the ,deity1 are1 in their origin1 drawings of the solar ,corona1 as seen at the ,sun-spot minimum1 and as such are the earliest eclipse representations which have been preserved to us4 ,i give these ideas for what they are worth2 they are very ingeniously worked out1 and though the argument is not conclusive1 yet ,i do think that there is enough in it to be worth attention4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #bc3 ,less certain is the allusion in ,amos v4 #h3--,seek him that 444 maketh the day dark with night4 ,footnote #bd3 ,annales1 ,a4,m41 #cbac1 p4 #de4 ,folio ,ed4 ,footnote #be3 ,minor ,prophets1 p4 #bag4 ,footnote #bf3 ,athenum1 ,may #ah1 #ahfg4 ,footnote #bg3 ,after all1 do the circumstances necessarily presuppose a miracle8 ,hezekiah had only asked for a sign4 ,in #b ,chron4 xxxii4 #ca the word wonder is applied to the event4 ,footnote #bh3 ,hence the word ,tropic1 from ,greek3 trep 7,i turn74 ,footnote #bi3 ,homer1 ,odyssey1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bee4 ,clarendon ,press ,series4 ,footnote #cj3 ,life of ,pherecydes1 sec4 #f4 ,footnote #ca3 ,life of ,anaximander1 sec4 #c4 ,footnote #cb3 ,du ,halde's ,china1 #crd edition1 #agda1 vol4 iii4 p4 #hf4 ,footnote #cc3 ,paper by ,w4 ,hunter in ,asiatic ,researches1 vol4 v41 p4 #aij4 ,the ,benares ,observatory is described by ,sir ,r4 ,barker in ,phil4 ,trans41 vol4 lxvii41 p4 #eih4 #aggg4 ,footnote #cd3 ,see p4 #gj 7ante74 ,footnote #ce3 ,knowledge1 vol4 xx41 p4 #i1 ,january #ahig4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,eclipses ,,of ,,the ,,sun ,,mentioned ,,in ,,history--,,classical4 ,in this chapter we shall1 for the most part1 be on firmer ground than hitherto1 because several of the most eminent ,greek and ,latin historians have left on record full and circumstantial accounts of eclipses which have come under their notice1 and which have been more or less completely verified by the computations and researches of astronomers in modern times4 ,but these remarks do not1 however1 quite apply to the first eclipse which will be mentioned4 ,plutarch1 in his ,life of ,romulus1 refers to some remarkable incident connected1 in point of time at any rate1 with his death3--,the air on that occasion was suddenly convulsed and altered in a wonderful manner1 for the light of the ,sun failed1 and they were involved in an astonishing darkness1 attended on every side with dreadful thunderings and tempestuous winds4 ,this so-called darkness is considered to have been the same as that mentioned by ,cicero4#cf ,there is so much myth about ,romulus that it is not safe to write in confident language4 ,nevertheless it is a fact1 according to ,johnson1 that there was a very large eclipse of the ,sun visible at ,rome in the afternoon of ,may #bf1 #gae ,b4,c41 and #gae ,b4,c4 is supposed to have been the year1 or about the year1 of the death of ,romulus4 ,plutarch is also responsible for the statement that a great eclipse of the ,sun took place sometime before the birth of ,romulus2 and if there is anything in this statement ,johnson thinks that the annular eclipse of ,november #bh1 #gga ,b4,c41 might meet the circumstances of the case1 but too much romance attaches to the history of ,romulus for anyone to write with assurance respecting the circumstances of his career4 ,much of it is generally considered to be fabulous4 ,in one of the extant fragments of the ,greek poet ,archilochus 7said to be the first who introduced iambics into his verses71 the following sentence occurs3--,zeus the father of the ,olympic ,gods turned mid-day into night hiding the light of the dazzling sun2 an overwhelming dread fell upon men4 ,the poet's language may evidently apply to a total eclipse of the ,sun2 and investigations by ,oppolzer and ,millosevich make it probable that the reference is to the total eclipse of the ,sun which happened on ,april #f1 #fdh ,b4,c4 ,this was total at about #aj a4m4 at ,thasos and in the northern part of the gean ,sea4 ,the acceptance of this date displaces by about half a century the date commonly assigned for the poet's career1 but this is not thought to be of much account having regard to the hazy character of ,grecian chronology before the ,persian wars4#cg ,on ,may #bh1 #ehe ,b4,c4 there occurred an eclipse the surrounding circumstances of which present several features of particular interest4 ,one of the most celebrated of the astronomers of antiquity was ,thales of ,miletus1 and his astronomical labours were said to have included a prediction of this eclipse1 which moreover has the further interest to us that it has assisted chronologists and historians in fixing the precise date of an important event in ancient history4 ,herodotus#ch describing a war which had been going on for some years between the ,lydians and the ,medes gives the following account of the circumstances which led to its premature termination3--,as the balance had not inclined in favour of either nation1 another engagement took place in the sixth year of the war1 in the course of which1 just as the battle was growing warm1 day was suddenly turned into night4 ,this event had been foretold to the ,ionians by ,thales of ,miletus1 who predicted for it the very year in which it actually took place4 ,when the ,lydians and ,medes observed the change they ceased fighting1 and were alike anxious to conclude peace4 ,peace was accordingly agreed upon and cemented by a twofold marriage4 ,for 7says the historian7 without some strong bond1 there is little security to be found in men's covenants4 ,the exact date of this eclipse was long a matter of discussion1 and eclipses which occurred in #faj ,b4,c4 and #eic ,b4,c4 were each thought at one time or another to have been the one referred to4 ,the question was finally settled by the late ,sir ,g4 ,b4 ,airy1 after an exhaustive inquiry1 in favour of the eclipse of #ehe ,b4,c4 ,this date has the further advantage of harmonising certain statements made by ,cicero and ,pliny as to its having happened in the #dth year of the #dhth ,olympiad4 ,another word or two may be interesting as regards the share which ,thales is supposed to have had in predicting this eclipse1 the more so1 that very high authorities in the domains of astronomy1 and chronology1 and antiquities take opposite sides in the matter4 ,sir ,g4 ,c4 ,lewis1 ,bart41 ,m4,p41 may be cited first as one of the unbelievers4 ,he says#ci that ,thales is reported to have predicted it to the ,ionians4 ,if he had predicted it to the ,lydians1 in whose country the eclipse was to be total1 his conduct would be intelligible1 but it seems strange that he should have predicted it to the ,ionians who had no direct interest in the event4 ,bosanquet replies to this by pointing out that ,miletus1 in ,ionia1 was the birthplace of ,thales1 and also that a shadow1 covering two degrees of latitude1 passing through ,ionia1 would also necessarily cover ,lydia4 ,another dissentient is ,sir ,h4 ,c4 ,rawlinson1#dj who1 remembering that ,thales is said to have predicted a good olive crop1 and ,anaxagoras the fall of an arolite1 says3--,the prediction of this eclipse by ,thales may fairly be classed with the prediction of a good olive crop1 or the fall of an arolite4 ,thales1 indeed1 could only have obtained the requisite knowledge for predicting eclipses from the ,chaldeans2 and that the science of these astronomers1 although sufficient for the investigation of lunar eclipses1 did not enable them to calculate solar eclipses--dependent as such a calculation is1 not only on the determination of the period of recurrence1 but on the true projection also of the track of the ,sun's shadow along a particular line over the surface of the earth--may be inferred from our finding that in the astronomical canon of ,ptolemy1 which was compiled from the ,chaldean registers1 the observations of the ,moon's eclipse are alone entered4 ,airy#da replied to these observations as follows3--,i think it not at all improbable that the eclipse was so predicted1 and there is one easy way1 and only one of predicting it--namely1 by the ,saros1 or period of #ah years1 #aj days1 #h hours nearly4 ,by use of this period an evening eclipse may be predicted from a morning eclipse but a morning eclipse can rarely be predicted from an evening eclipse 7as the interval of eight hours after an evening eclipse will generally throw the eclipse at the end of the ,saros into the hours of night74 ,the evening eclipse1 therefore1 of ,b4,c4 #ehe1 ,may #bh1 which ,i adopt as being most certainly the eclipse of ,thales1 might be predicted from the morning eclipse of ,b4,c4 #fjc1 ,may #ag4444 ,no other of the eclipses discussed by ,baily and ,oltmanns present the same facility for prediction4 ,xenophon#db mentions an eclipse as having led to the capture by the ,persians of the ,median city ,larissa4 ,in the retreat of the ,greeks on the eastern side of the ,tigris1 they crossed the river ,zapetes and also a ravine1 and then reached the ,tigris4 ,according to ,xenophon1 they found at this place a large deserted city formerly inhabited by the ,medes4 ,its wall was #be feet thick and #ajj feet high2 its circumference #b parasangs #g miles4 ,it was built of burnt brick on an under structure of stone #bj feet in height4 ,xenophon then proceeds to say that when the ,persians obtained the ,empire from the ,medes1 the ,king of the ,persians besieged the city but was unable by any means to take it till a cloud having covered the ,sun and caused it to disappear completely1 the inhabitants withdrew in alarm1 and thus the city was captured4 ,close to this city was a pyramid of stone1 one plethrum in breadth1 two plethra in height4444 ,thence the ,greeks proceeded six parasangs to a great deserted castle by a city called ,mespila formerly inhabited by the ,medes2 the substructure of its wall was of squared stone abounding in shells 444 the ,king of the ,persians besieged it but could not take it2 ,zeus terrified the inhabitants with thunderbolts1 and so the city was taken4 ,the minute description here given by ,xenophon enabled ,sir ,a4 ,h4 ,layard1 ,captain ,felix ,jones1 and others1 to identify ,larissa with the modern ,nimrud and ,mespila with ,mosul4 ,a suspicion is thrown out in some editions of the ,anabasis that the language cited might refer to an eclipse of the ,sun4 ,it is to be noted1 however1 that it is not included by ,ricciolus in the list of eclipses mentioned in ancient writers which he gives in his ,almagestum ,novum4 ,sir ,g4 ,b4 ,airy1 having had his attention called to the matter1 examined roughly all the eclipses which occurred during a period of #dj years1 covering the supposed date implied by ,xenophon4 ,having selected two1 he computed them accurately but found them inapplicable4 ,he then tried another 7,may #ai1 #eeg ,b4,c47 which he had previously passed over because he doubted its totality1 and he had the great satisfaction of finding that the eclipse1 though giving a small shadow1 had been total1 and that it had passed so near to ,nimrud that there could be no doubt of its being the eclipse sought4 ,sir ,g4 ,b4 ,airy was such a very careful worker and investigator of eclipses that his conclusions in this matter have met with general acceptance4 ,it must1 however1 in fairness be stated that a very competent ,american astronomer1 ,professor ,newcomb1 has expressed doubts as to whether after all ,xenophon's allusion is to an eclipse1 but1 judging by his closing words1 the learned ,american does not seem quite satisfied with his own scepticism1 for he says--,notwithstanding my want of confidence1 ,i conceive the possibility of a real eclipse to be greater than in the eclipse of ,thales1 while we have the great advantages that the point of occurrence is well defined1 the shadow narrow1 and1 if it was an eclipse at all1 the circumstance of totality placed beyond serious doubt4#dc ,in the same year as that in which1 according to the common account1 the battle of ,salamis was fought 7#dhj ,b4,c471 there occurred a phenomenon which is thus adverted to by ,herodotus#dd--;,at the first approach of ,spring the army quitted ,sardis and marched towards ,abydos2 at the moment of its departure the ,sun suddenly quitted its place in the heavens and disappeared though there were no clouds in sight and the day was quite clear2 day was thus turned into night4 ,we are told#de that ,as the king was going against ,greece1 and had come into the region of the ,hellespont1 there happened an eclipse of the ,sun in the ,east2 this sign portended to him his defeat1 for the ,sun was eclipsed in the region of its rising1 and ,xerxes was also marching from that quarter4 ,so far as words go these accounts admirably befit a total eclipse of the ,sun1 but regarded as such it has given great trouble to chronologers1 and the identification of the eclipse is still uncertain4 ,hind's theory is that the allusion is to an eclipse and in particular to the eclipse of ,february #ag1 #dgh ,b4,c4 ,though not total at ,sardis yet the eclipse was very large1 #id_/ajjths of the ,sun being covered4 ,if we accept this1 it follows that the usually recognised date for the battle of ,salamis must be altered by two years4 ,airy thought it extremely probable that the narrative related to the total eclipse of the ,moon1 which happened on ,march #ac1 #dgi ,b4,c41 but this is difficult to accept1 especially as ,plutarch1 in his ,life of ,pelopidas1 says--,an army was soon got ready1 but as the general was on the point of marching1 the ,sun began to be eclipsed1 and the city was covered with darkness in the daytime4 ,this seems explicit enough1 assuming the record to be true and that the same incident is referred to by ,plutarch as by ,herodotus and ,aristides4 ,since the time when ,airy and ,hind examined this question1 all the known facts have been again reviewed by ,mr4 ,w4 ,t4 ,lynn1 who pronounces1 but with some hesitation1 in favour of the eclipse of ,october #b1 #dhj ,b4,c41 as the one associated with the battle of ,salamis4 ,he does this by refusing to see in the above quotations from ,herodotus any allusion to a solar eclipse at all1 but invites us to consider a later statement in ,herodotus#df as relating to an eclipse though the historian only calls it a prodigy4 ,after the battle of ,thermopyl the ,peloponnesian ,greeks commenced to fortify the isthmus of ,corinth with the view of defending it with their small army against the invading host of ,xerxes4 ,the ,spartan troops were under the command of ,cleombrotus1 the brother of ,leonidas1 the hero of ,thermopyl4 ,he had been consulting the oracles at ,sparta1 and ,herodotus states that while he was offering sacrifice to know if he should march out against the ,persian1 the ,sun was suddenly darkened in mid-sky4 ,this occurrence so frightened ,cleombrotus that he drew off his forces and returned home4 ,it is uncertain from the narrative of ,herodotus whether ,cleombrotus returned to ,sparta in the autumn of the year of the battle of ,salamis1 or in the spring of the next following year which was that in which the battle of ,plata was fought4 ,bishop ,thirlwall#dg thinks that it was the latter1 but ,lynn pronounces for the former1 adding that the date may well have been in ,october1 and the solar eclipse of ,october #b1 #dhj ,b4,c4 may have been the phenomenon which attracted notice1 particularly as the ,sun would have been high in the heavens1 the greatest phase 7#f_/ajths7 occurring1 according to ,hind1 at #ej minutes past noon4 ,here ,i must leave the matter1 merely remarking that this alternative explanation obviates the necessity for disturbing the commonly received date of the battle of ,salamis4 ,thucydides states that during the ,peloponnesian war things formerly repeated on hearsay1 but very rarely confirmed by facts1 became not incredible1 both about earthquakes and eclipses of the ,sun which came to pass more frequently than had been remembered in former times4 ,one such eclipse he assigns to the first year of the war and says#dh that in the same summer1 at the beginning of a new lunar month 7at which time alone the phenomenon seems possible7 the ,sun was eclipsed after mid-day1 and became full again after it had assumed a crescent form and after some of the stars had shone out4 ,aug4 #c1 #dca ,b4,c4 is generally recognised as the date of this event4 ,the eclipse was not total only three-fourths of the ,sun's disc being obscured4 ,venus was #bj and ,jupiter #dc distant from the ,sun1 so probably these were the stars that were seen4 ,this eclipse nearly prevented the ,athenian expedition against the ,lacedmonians4 ,the sailors were frightened by it1 but a happy thought occurred to ,pericles1 the commander of the ,athenian forces4 ,plutarch1 in his ,life of ,pericles1 says3--,the whole fleet was in readiness1 and ,pericles on board his own galley1 when there happened an eclipse of the ,sun4 ,the sudden darkness was looked upon as an unfavourable omen1 and threw the sailors into the greatest consternation4 ,pericles observing that the pilot was much astonished and perplexed1 took his cloak1 and having covered his eyes with it1 asked him if he found anything terrible in that1 or considered it as a bad presage8 ,upon his answering in the negative1 he said1 ',where is the difference1 then between this and the other1 except that something bigger than my cloak causes the eclipse8' ,another eclipse is mentioned by ,thucydides#di in connection with an expedition of the ,athenians against ,cythera4 ,he says3--,at the very commencement of the following summer there was an eclipse of the ,sun at the time of a new moon1 and in the early part of the same month an earthquake4 ,this has been identified with the annular eclipse of ,march #ba1 #dbd ,b4,c41 the central line of which passed across ,northern ,europe4 ,it is not quite clear whether the historian wishes to insinuate that the eclipse caused the earthquake or the earthquake the eclipse4 ,an eclipse known as that of ,ennius is another of the eclipses antecedent to the ,christian ,era which has been the subject of full modern investigation1 and the circumstances of which are such that1 in the language of ,professor ,hansen1 it may be reckoned as one of the most certain and well-established eclipses of antiquity4 ,the record of it has only been brought to light in modern times by the discovery of ,cicero's ,treatise1 ,de ,republic4 ,according to ,cicero1#ej ,ennius the great ,roman poet1 who lived in the second century ,b4,c41 and who died of gout contracted1 it is said1 by frequent intoxication1 recorded an interesting event in the following words3--,nonis ,junii soli luna obstetit et nox1 ,on the ,nones of ,june the ,moon was in opposition to the ,sun and night4 ,this singular phrase has long been assumed to allude to an eclipse of the ,sun1 but the precise interpretation of the words was not for a long time realised4 ,in ,cicero's time the ,nones of ,june fell on the #eth1 but in the time of ,ennius1 who lived a century and a half before ,cicero1 the ,nones of ,june fell between ,june #e and ,july #d on account of the lunar years and the intercalary month of the ,roman ,calendar4 ,the date of this eclipse is distinctly known to be ,june #ba1 #djj ,b4,c41 but the hour was long in dispute4 ,professor ,zech found that the ,sun set at ,rome eclipsed1 and that the maximum phase took place after sun-set4 ,hansen1 however1 with his better ,tables1 found that the eclipse was total at ,rome1 and that the totality ended at #g4cc p4m41 the ,sun setting almost immediately afterwards at #g4cf4 ,this fact1 ,hansen considers1 explains the otherwise unintelligible passage of ,ennius quoted above3 instead of saying et nox1 he should have said et simul nox1 and immediately it was night4 ,newcomb questions the totality of this eclipse1 but assigns no clear reasons for his doubts4#ea ,on ,august #ad1 #cid ,b4,c41 there was a large eclipse of the ,sun visible in the ,mediterranean4 ,it occurred in the forenoon1 and is mentioned by ,xenophon#eb in connection with a naval engagement in which the ,persians were defeated by ,conon4 ,plutarch1 in his ,life of ,pelopidas1 relates how one1 ,alexander of ,pher1 had devastated several cities of ,thessaly1 and that as soon as the oppressed inhabitants had learned that ,pelopidas had come back from an embassy on which he had been to the ,king of ,persia1 they sent deputies to him to ,thebes to beg the favour of armed assistance1 with ,pelopidas as general4 ,the ,thebans willingly granted their request1 and an army was soon got ready1 but as the general was on the point of marching1 the ,sun began to be eclipsed1 and the city was covered with darkness in the day-time4 ,this eclipse is generally identified with that of ,july #ac1 #cfd ,b4,c4 ,if this is correct1 ,plutarch's language must be incorrect1 or at least greatly exaggerated1 for no more than about three-fourths of the ,sun was obscured4 ,on ,february #bi1 #ceg ,b4,c41 there happened an eclipse1 also visible in or near the ,mediterranean4 ,this is supposed to have been the eclipse for the prediction of which ,helicon1 a friend of ,plato1 received from ,dionysius1 ,king of ,syracuse1 payment in the shape of a talent4 ,we have now to consider another ancient eclipse which has a history of peculiar interest as regards the investigations to which it has been subjected4 ,it is commonly known as the ,eclipse of ,agathocles1 and is recorded by two historians of antiquity in the words following4 ,diodorus ,siculus#ec says3-- ,agathocles also1 though closely pursued by the enemy1 by the advantage of the night coming on 7beyond all hope71 got safe off from them4 ,the next day there was such an eclipse of the ,sun1 that the stars appeared everywhere in the firmament1 and the day was turned into night1 upon which ,agathocles's soldiers 7conceiving that ,god thereby did foretell their destruction7 fell into great perplexities and discontents concerning what was like to befall them4 ,justin says#ed3-- ,by the harangue the hearts of the soldiers were somewhat elevated1 but an eclipse of the ,sun that had happened during their voyage still possessed them with superstitious fears of a bad omen4 ,the king was at no less pain to satisfy them about this affair than about the war1 and therefore he told them that he should have thought this sign an ill presage for them1 if it had happened before they set out1 but having happened afterwards he could not but think it presaged ill to those against whom they marched4 ,besides1 eclipses of the luminaries always signify a change of affairs1 and therefore some change was certainly signified1 either to ,carthage1 which was in such a flourishing condition1 or to them whose affairs were in a very ruinous state4 ,the substance of these statements is that in the year #caj ,b4,c4 ,agathocles1 ,tyrant of ,syracuse1 while conducting his fleet from ,syracuse to the ,coast of ,africa1 found himself enveloped in the shadow of an eclipse1 which evidently1 from the accounts1 was total4 ,his fleet had been chased by the ,carthaginians on leaving ,syracuse the preceding day1 but got away under the cover of night4 ,on the following morning about #h or #i a4m4 a sudden darkness came on which greatly alarmed the sailors4 ,so considerable was the darkness1 that numerous stars appeared4 ,it is not at the first easy to localise the position of the fleet1 except that we may infer that it could hardly have got more than #hj or at the most #ajj miles away from the harbour of ,syracuse where it had been closely blockaded by a ,carthaginian fleet4 ,agathocles would not have got away at all but for the fact that a relieving fleet was expected1 and the ,carthaginians were obliged to relax their blockade in order to go in search of the relieving fleet4 ,thus it came about not only that ,agathocles set himself free1 but was able to retaliate on his enemies by landing on the coast of ,africa at a point near the modern ,cape ,bon1 and devastating the ,carthaginian territories4 ,the voyage thither occupied six days1 and the eclipse occurred on the second day4 ,though we are not informed of the route followed by ,agathocles1 that is to say whether he passed round the ,north or the ,south side of the island of ,sicily1 yet it has been made clear by astronomers that the southern side was that taken4 ,baily1 who was the first modern astronomer to investigate the circumstances of this eclipse1 found that there was an irreconcilable difference between the path of the shadow found by himself and the historical statement1 a gap of about #ahj geographical miles seeming to intervene between the most southerly position which could be assigned to the fleet of ,agathocles1 and the most northerly possible limit of the path of the eclipse shadow4 ,this was the condition of the problem when ,sir ,g4 ,b4 ,airy took it up in #ahec4ee ,he1 however1 was able to throw an entirely new light upon the matter4 ,the tables used by ,baily were distinctly inferior to those now in use1 and ,sir ,g4 ,b4 ,airy thought himself justified in saying that to obviate the discordance of #ahj miles just referred to it is only necessary to suppose an error of #c' in the computed distances of the ,sun and ,moon at conjunction1 a very inconsiderable correction for a date anterior to the epoch of the tables by more than twenty-one centuries4 ,it deserves to be mentioned1 though the point cannot here be dwelt upon at much length1 that these ancient eclipses all hang together in such a way that it is not sufficient for the man of ,astronomy and the man of ,chronology to agree on one eclipse1 unless they can harmonise the facts of several4 ,for instance1 the eclipse of ,thales1 the date of which was long and much disputed1 has a material bearing on the eclipse of ,agathocles1 the date of which admits of no dispute2 and one of the problems which had to be solved half a century ago was how best to use the eclipse of ,agathocles to determine the date of that of ,thales4 ,if #faj ,b4,c4 were accepted for the ,thales eclipse1 so as to throw the zone of total darkness anywhere over ,asia ,minor 7where for the sake of history it was essential to put it7 the consequence would be that the shadow of the eclipse of #caj ,b4,c4 would have been thrown so far on to land1 in ,africa1 as to make it out of the question for ,agathocles and his fleet to have been in it1 yet we know for a certainty that he was in it in that year1 and no other year4 ,conversely1 if #fjc ,b4,c4 were accepted for the ,thales eclipse1 then to raise northwards the position of the shadow in that year from the line of the ,red ,sea and the ,persian ,gulf1 that it might pass through ,asia ,minor1 would so raise the position of the shadow in #caj ,b4,c4 as to throw it far too much to the ,n4 of ,sicily for ,agathocles1 who we know must have gone southwards to ,africa1 to have entered it4 ,but if we assume #ehe ,b4,c4 as the date of the eclipse of ,thales1 we obtain a perfect reconciliation of everything that needs to be reconciled2 the shadow of the eclipse of #ehe ,b4,c4 will be found to have passed where ancient history tells us it did pass--namely1 through ,ionia1 and therefore through the centre of ,asia ,minor1 and on the direct route from ,lydia to ,media2 whilst we also find that the shadow of the #caj ,b4,c4 eclipse1 that is the one in the time of ,agathocles1 passed within #ajj miles of ,syracuse1 a fact which is stated almost in those very words by the two historians who have recorded the doings of ,agathocles and his fleet in those years4 ,this is where the matter was left by ,airy in #ahec4 ,four years later the new solar and lunar tables of the ,german astronomer ,hansen were published1 and having been applied to the eclipse of #ehe ,b4,c41 the conclusions just stated were amply confirmed4 ,as if to make assurance doubly sure1 ,airy went over his ground again1 testing his former conclusions with regard to the eclipse of ,thales by the eclipse of ,larissa1 in #eeg ,b4,c4 already referred to1 and bringing in the eclipse of ,stiklastad in #ajcj ,a4,d41 to be referred to presently4 ,and as the final result1 it may be stated that all the foregoing dates are now known to an absolute certainty1 especially confirmed as they were in all essential points by a computer of the eminence of the late ,mr4 ,j4 ,r4 ,hind4 ,on a date which corresponds to ,february #aa1 #bah or #bag ,b4,c41 an eclipse of the ,sun1 which was partial in ,italy1 is mentioned by ,livy4#ef ,newcomb found that the central line passed a long way from ,italy1 to wit1 far down in ,africa4 ,an eclipse of the ,sun is mentioned by ,dion ,cassius#eg as having happened when ,csar crossed the ,rubicon1 a celebrated event made use of by speakers1 political and otherwise1 on endless occasions in modern history4 ,there seems no doubt that the passage of the ,rubicon took place in #ea ,b4,c41 and that the eclipse must have been that of ,march #g1 #ea ,b4,c4 ,the circumstances of this eclipse have been investigated by ,hind1 who found that the eclipse was an annular one1 the annular phase lasting #f minutes in ,northern ,italy4 ,arago associates the death of ,julius ,csar in #dd ,b4,c4 with an annular eclipse of the ,sun1 but seemingly without sufficient warrant4 ,the actual record is to the effect that about the time of the great warrior's death there was an extraordinary dimness of the ,sun4 ,whatever it was that was noticed1 clearly it could not have been an annular eclipse1 because no such eclipse then happened4 ,johnson suggests that ,arago confused the record of some meteorological interference with the ,sun's light with the annular eclipse that happened seven years previously when ,csar passed the ,rubicon1 to which eclipse allusion has already been made4 ,that there was for a long while a great deficiency of sunshine in ,italy about the time of ,csar's death seems clear from remarks made by ,pliny1 ,plutarch1 and ,tibullus1 and the words of ,suetonius seem to imply something of a meteorological character4 ,i should not have mentioned this matter at all1 but for ,arago's high repute as an astronomer4 ,according to ,seneca#eh during an eclipse a comet was also seen4 ,it is an interesting question to inquire whether any allusions to eclipses are to be found in ,homer1 and no very certain answer can be given4 ,in the ,iliad 7book xvii41 lines #cff-h7 the following passage will be found3--,nor would you say that the ,sun was safe1 or the ,moon1 for they were wrapt in dark haze in the course of the combat4 ,in the ,odyssey 7book xx41 lines #cef-g7 we find3--,and the ,sun has utterly perished from heaven and an evil gloom is overspread4 ,this was considered by old commentators to be an allusion to an eclipse1 and in the opinion of ,w4 ,w4 ,merry#ei this is not impossible1 as they were celebrating the ,festival of the ,new ,moon4 ,certainly this language has somewhat the savour of a total eclipse of the ,sun1 but it is difficult to say whether the allusion is historic1 as of a fact that had happened1 or only a vague generality4 ,perhaps the latter is the most justifiable surmise4 ,i have in the many preceding pages been citing ancient eclipses1 for the reason1 more or less plainly expressed1 that they are of value to astronomers as assisting to define the theory of the ,moon's motions in its orbit1 and this they should do2 but it is not unreasonable to bring this chapter to a close by giving the views of an eminent ,american astronomer as to the objections to placing too much reliance on ancient accounts of eclipses4 ,says ,prof4 ,s4 ,newcomb#fj3--,the first difficulty is to be reasonably sure that a total eclipse was really the phenomenon observed4 ,many of the statements supposed to refer to total eclipses are so vague that they may be referred to other less rare phenomena4 ,it must never be forgotten that we are dealing with an age when accurate observations and descriptions of natural phenomena were unknown1 and when mankind was subject to be imposed upon by imaginary wonders and prodigies4 ,the circumstance which we should regard as most unequivocally marking a total eclipse is the visibility of the stars during the darkness4 ,but even this can scarcely be regarded as conclusive1 because ,venus may be seen when there is no eclipse1 and may be quite conspicuous in an annular or a considerable partial eclipse4 ,the exaggeration of a single object into a plural is in general very easy4 ,another difficulty is to be sure of the locality where the eclipse was total4 ,it is commonly assumed that the description necessarily refers to something seen where the writer flourished1 or where he locates his story4 ,it seems to me that this cannot be safely done unless the statement is made in connection with some battle or military movement1 in which case we may presume the phenomena to have been seen by the army4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #cf3 ,de ,republic1 ,lib4 vi41 cap4 #bb4 ,footnote #cg3 ,e4 ,millosevich1 ,memorie della ,societa ,spettroscopisti ,italiani1 vol4 xxii4 p4 #gj4 #ahic4 ,footnote #ch3 ,herodotus1 ,book i41 chap4 #gd4 ,this eclipse is also mentioned by ,pliny 7,nat4 ,hist41 ,book ii41 chap4 #i7 and by ,cicero 7,de ,divinatione1 cap4 #di74 ,footnote #ci3 ,astronomy of the ,ancients1 p4 #hh4 ,footnote #dj3 ,herodotus1 edited by ,rev4 ,g4 ,rawlinson1 vol4 i4 p4 #bab4 ,footnote #da3 ,month4 ,not41 ,r4,a4,s41 vol4 xviii4 p4 #adh2 ,march #aheh4 ,footnote #db3 ,anabasis1 ,lib4 iii41 cap4 #d1 sec4 #g4 ,footnote #dc3 ,washington ,observations1 #ahge1 ,appendix ,,ii41 p4 #ca4 ,footnote #dd3 ,book vii41 chap4 #cg4 ,see ,rawlinson's ,herodotus1 vol4 iv4 p4 #ci4 ,footnote #de3 ,scholia1 in ,aristidis ,orationes1 ,ed4 ,frommel1 p4 #bbb4 ,footnote #df3 ,book ix41 chap4 #aj4 ,see ,rawlinson's ,herodotus1 #crd ed4 vol4 iv4 p4 #cgi4 ,footnote #dg3 ,history of ,greece1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ccj4 ,footnote #dh3 ,book ii41 chap4 #bh4 ,footnote #di3 ,book iv41 chap4 #eb4 ,footnote #ej3 ,de ,republic1 ,lib4 i4 c4 #af4 ,footnote #ea3 ,washington ,observations1 #ahge1 ,appendix ,,ii41 p4 #cc4 ,footnote #eb3 ,hellenics1 ,book iv41 chap4 #c1 sec4 #aj4 ,footnote #ec3 ,bibliothec ,historic1 ,lib4 xx41 cap4 #a1 sec4 #e4 ,footnote #ed3 ,historia1 ,lib4 xxii41 cap4 #f4 ,footnote #ee3 ,phil4 ,trans41 vol4 cxliii4 pp4 #ahg-ia1 #ahec4 ,footnote #ef3 ,hist4 ,rom41 ,lib4 xxii41 cap4 #a4 ,footnote #eg3 ,hist4 ,rome1 ,book xli41 chap4 #ad4 ,footnote #eh3 ,naturalium ,questionum1 ,lib4 vii4 ,footnote #ei3 ,homer1 ,odyssey1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cbh4 ,clarendon ,press ,series4 ,footnote #fj3 ,washington ,observations1 #ahge1 ,appendix ,,ii41 p4 #ah4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,eclipses ,,of ,,the ,,sun ,,mentioned ,,in ,,history4-- ,,the ,,christian ,,era ,,to ,,the ,,norman ,,conquest4 ,the ,christian ,era is1 for several reasons1 a suitable point of time from which to take a new departure in speaking of historical eclipses1 although the ,first ,century1 at least1 might obviously be regarded as belonging to classical history--but let that pass4 ,dion ,cassius#fa relates that on a date corresponding to ,march #bh1 ,a4,d4 #e1 the ,sun was partly eclipsed4 ,johnston says that the central line passed over ,norway and ,sweden4 ,it seems1 perhaps1 a little strange that a writer who lived in ,bithynia in the #crd ,century of the ,christian ,era should have picked up any information about something that happened in the extreme ,north of ,europe two centuries previously4 ,but probably the eclipse must have been seen in ,italy4 ,on ,november #bd1 ,a4,d4 #bi1 there happened an eclipse of the ,sun which is sometimes spoken of as the eclipse of ,phlegon4 ,eusebius1 the ecclesiastical historian1 records ,phlegon's testimony4 ,phlegon was a native of ,tralles in ,lydia1 and one of the ,emperor ,adrian's freedmen4 ,the eclipse in question happened at noon1 and the stars were seen4 ,it was total1 and the line of totality1 according to ,hind1#fb passed across the ,black ,sea from near ,odessa to ,sinope1 thence near the site of ,nineveh to the ,persian ,gulf4 ,a partial eclipse with four-fifths of the ,sun's diameter covered was visible at ,jerusalem4 ,this is the only solar eclipse which was visible at ,jerusalem during the period usually fixed for ,christ's public ministry4 ,this eclipse was for a long time1 and by various writers1 associated with the darkness which prevailed at ,jerusalem on the day of our ,lord's ,crucifixion1 but there seems no warrant whatever for associating the two events4 ,the ,crucifixion darkness was assuredly a supernatural phenomenon1 and there is nothing supernatural in a total eclipse of the ,sun4 ,to this it may be added that both ,tertullian at the beginning of the #crd century and ,lucian1 the martyr of ,nicomedia1 who died in #cab1 appealed to the testimony of national archives then in existence1 as witnessing to the fact that a supernatural darkness had prevailed at the time of ,christ's death4 ,moreover1 the generally recorded date of the ,crucifixion1 namely1 ,april #c1 ,a4,d4 #cc1 would coincide with a full ,moon4 ,as it happened1 that full ,moon suffered eclipse1 but she emerged from the ,earth's shadow about a quarter of an hour before she rose at ,jerusalem 7#f h4 #cf m4 p4m473 the penumbra continued upon her disc for an hour afterwards4 ,speaking of the ,emperor ,claudius1 ,dion ,cassius#fc says3--,there was going to be an eclipse on his birthday4 ,claudius feared some disturbance1 as there had been other prodigies1 so he put forth a public notice1 not only that the obscuration would take place and about the time and magnitude of it1 but also about the causes which produce such events4 ,this is an interesting statement1 especially in view of what ,i have said on a previous page about the indifference of the ,romans to ,astronomy4 ,it would1 likewise1 be interesting to know how ,claudius acquired his knowledge1 and who coached him up in the matter4 ,this eclipse occurred on ,august #a1 ,a4,d4 #de4 ,barely half the ,sun's diameter was covered4 ,philostratus#fd states that about this time while he was pursuing his studies in ,greece such an omen was observable in the heavens4 ,a crown resembling ,iris surrounded the disc of the ,sun and darkened its rays4 ,about this time is to be understood as referring to some date shortly preceding the death of the ,emperor ,domitian which occurred on ,september #ah1 ,a4,d4 #if4 ,this has usually been regarded as the earliest allusion to what we now call the ,sun's ,corona2 or1 as an alternative idea1 that the allusion is simply to an annular eclipse of the ,sun4 ,but both these theories have been called in question2 by ,johnston because he cannot find an eclipse which in his view of things will respond as regards date to the statement of ,philostratus1 and by ,lynn on the same ground and on other grounds1 more suo4 ,the question of identification requires looking into more fully4 ,there was a total eclipse on ,may #ba1 ,a4,d4 #ie1 but it was only visible as a partial eclipse in ,western ,asia and not visible at all in ,greece4 ,this is given as the conclusion arrived at by the ,german astronomer ,ginzel4 ,but it does not seem to me sufficient to overthrow1 without further investigation1 the fairly plain language of ,philostratus1 which is possibly confirmed by a passage in ,plutarch#fe in which he discusses certain eclipse phenomena in the light of a recent eclipse4 ,the date of ,plutarch's recent eclipse is somewhat uncertain1 but that fact does not necessarily militate against his testimony respecting the ,corona or what is regarded to have been such4 ,the statement of ,philostratus1 treated as a mention of a total solar eclipse1 is accepted as sufficiently conclusive by ,sir ,w4 ,huggins and the late ,professor ,r4 ,grant4 ,johnston1 to meet the supposed difficulty of finding an eclipse to accord with the assertion of the historian1 suggests that perhaps some peculiar solar halo or mock ,sun1 or other meteorological formation is referred to4 ,but ,stockwell has advanced very good reasons for the opinion that the eclipse of ,sept4 #c1 ,a4,d4 #aah1 fully meets the circumstances of the case4 ,grant's opinion is given in these emphatic words3--,it appears to me that the words here quoted from ,apollonius refer beyond all doubt to a total eclipse of the ,sun1 and thus the phenomenon seen encompassing the ,sun's disc was1 really as well as verbally1 identical with the modern ,corona4#ff ,with the end of the first century of the ,christian ,era we may be said to quit the realms of classical history and to pass on to eclipse records of a different character1 and1 so far as regards ,european observations1 of comparatively small scientific value or usefulness4 ,our information is largely derived from ecclesiastical historians and1 later on1 from monkish chronicles1 which as a rule are meagre in a surprising degree4 ,perhaps ,i ought not to say surprising1 because after the times of the ,greek astronomers 7who in their way may almost be regarded as professionals71 and after the epoch of the famous ,ptolemy1 ,astronomy well-nigh ceased to exist for many centuries in ,europe1 until1 say1 the #aeth century1 barring the labours of the ,arabians and their kinsmen the ,moors in ,spain in the #ith and following centuries4 ,in examining therefore the records of eclipses which have been handed down to us from ,a4,d4 #ajj forwards through more than #ajjj years1 ,i shall not offer my readers a long dry statement of eclipse dates1 but only pick out here and there such particular eclipses as seem to present details of interest for some or other reason4 ,on ,april #ab1 #bcg ,a4,d41 there was1 according to ,julius ,capitolinus1 an eclipse of the ,sun1 so great that people thought it was night1 and nothing could be done without lights4 ,ricciolus remarked that this eclipse happened about the time of the ,sixth ,persecution of the ,christians1 and when the younger ,gordian was proclaimed ,emperor1 after his father had declined the proffered dignity1 being #hj years of age4 ,the line of totality crossed ,italy about #e p4m4 in the afternoon1 to the ,n4 of ,rome1 and embraced ,bologna4 ,calvisius records1 on the authority of ,cedrenus1 an eclipse of the ,sun on ,august #f1 #cbd ,a4,d41 which was sufficiently great for the stars to be seen at mid-day4 ,the eclipse was associated with an earthquake1 which shattered thirteen cities in ,campania4 ,johnston remarks that no more than three-fourths of the ,sun's disc would have been covered1 as seen in ,campania1 but that elsewhere in ,italy1 at about #c p4m41 the eclipse was much larger1 and perhaps one or two of the planets might have been visible4 ,on ,july #ag1 #ccd ,a4,d41 there was an eclipse1 which seems to have been total in ,sicily1 if we may judge from the description given by ,julius ,firmicus4#fg ,ammianus ,marcellinus#fh describes an eclipse1 to which the date of ,august #bh1 #cfj ,a4,d41 has been assigned4 ,humboldt1 quoting this historian1 says that the description is quite that of a solar eclipse1 but its stated long duration 7daybreak to noon71 and the word caligo 7fog or mist7 are awkward factors4 ,moreover1 the historian associates it with events which happened in the eastern provinces of the ,roman ,empire2 but ,johnston seems in effect to challenge ,marcellinus's statement when he says1 ,it is true that there was an annular eclipse of the ,sun in the early morning on the above date1 but it could only be seen in countries ,e4 of the ,persian ,gulf4 ,about the time that ,alaric1 ,king of the ,visigoths appeared before ,rome1 there was a gloom so great that the stars appeared in the daytime4 ,this narrative is considered to apply to an eclipse of the ,sun1 which occurred on ,june #ah1 #daj ,a4,d4 ,the eclipse was an annular one1 but as the central line must have crossed far ,s4 of ,rome1 the stars must have been seen not at ,rome but somewhere else4 ,an eclipse occurred on ,july #ai1 #dah ,a4,d41 which is remarkable for a twofold reason4 ,people had an opportunity not only of seeing an eclipse1 but also a comet4 ,we owe the account of the circumstances to ,philostorgius1#fi who tells us that--,on ,july #ai1 towards the #hth hour of the day1 the ,sun was so eclipsed1 that even the stars were visible4 ,but at the same time that the ,sun was thus hid1 a light1 in the form of a cone was seen in the sky2 some ignorant people called it a comet1 but in this light we saw nothing that announced a comet1 for it was not terminated by a tail2 it resembled the flame of a torch1 subsisting by itself1 without any star for its base4 ,its movement too was very different from that of a comet4 ,it was first seen to the ,e4 of the equinoxes2 after that1 having passed through the last star in the ,bear's tail1 it continued slowly its journey towards the ,w4 ,having thus traversed the heavens1 it at length disappeared1 having lasted more than four months4 ,it first appeared about the middle of the summer1 and remained visible until nearly the end of autumn4 ,boillot1 a ,french writer1 has suggested that this description is that of the zodiacal light1 but this seems out of the question in view of the details given by the ,chinese of a comet having been visible in the autumn of this year for #aa weeks1 and having passed through the square of ,ursa ,major4 ,reverting to the eclipse--,johnston finds that the greatest phase at ,constantinople1 which was probably the place of observation1 occurred at about half an hour after noon1 when a thin crescent of light might have been seen on the northern limb of the ,sun4 ,from this it would appear that the central line of eclipse must have passed somewhat to the south of ,constantinople4 ,to the same effect ,hind1 who found that #ie_/ajjths of the ,sun's diameter was covered at ,constantinople4 ,an eclipse of the ,sun seems to be referred to by ,gregorius ,turonensis1 when he says#gj that3--,then even the ,sun appeared hideous1 so that scarcely a third part of it gave light1 ,i believe on account of such deeds of wickedness and shedding of innocent blood4 ,this would seem to have been the eclipse which occurred on ,february #bd1 #dec ,a4,d41 when ,attila and the ,huns were ravaging ,italy1 and to them it was doubtless that the writer alluded4 ,at ,rome three-fourths of the ,sun's disc would have been eclipsed at sunset1 a finding which tallies fairly with the statement of ,gregorius4 ,it is not till far into the #fth century that we come upon a native ,english record of an eclipse of the ,sun as having been observed in ,england4 ,this deficiency in our national annals is thus judiciously explained and commented on by our clever and talented ,american authoress4#ga ,speaking of the eclipse of ,february #ae1 #ech ,a4,d41 she says3--,the accounts1 however1 are greatly confused and uncertain1 as would perhaps be natural fully #fj years before the advent of ,st4 ,augustine1 and when ,britain was helplessly harassed with its continual struggle in the fierce hands of ,west ,saxons and ,east ,saxons1 of ,picts and conquering ,angles4 ,men have little time to record celestial happenings clearly1 much less to indulge in scientific comment and theorising upon natural phenomena1 when the history of a nation sways to and fro with the tide of battle1 and what is gained to-day may be fatally lost to-morrow4 ,and so there is little said about this eclipse1 and that little is more vague and uncertain even than the monotonous plaints of ,gildas--the one writer whom ,britain has left us1 in his meagre accounts of the conquest of ,kent1 and the forsaken walls and violated shrines of this early epoch4 ,the well-known ,anglo-,saxon ,chronicle#gb is our authority for this eclipse having been noted in ,england1 but the record is bare indeed3--,in this year the ,sun was eclipsed #ad days before the ,calends of ,march from early morning till #i a4m4 ,tycho ,brahe1 borrowing from ,calvisius1 who borrowed from somebody else1 says that the eclipse happened in the #eth year of ,henry1 ,king of the ,west ,saxons1 at the #ast hour of the day till nearly the #crd1 or immediately after sunrise4 ,johnson finds that at ,london nearly three-fourths of the ,sun's disc was covered at #g4dc a4m4 ,the next eclipse recorded in the ,anglo-,saxon ,chronicle is somewhat difficult to explain4 ,it is said that in #edj ,a4,d4 ,the ,sun was eclipsed on the #abth of the ,calends of ,july ,june #bj1 and the stars appeared full nigh half an hour after #i a4m4 ,johnson's calculations make the middle of the eclipse to have occurred at about #g4cg a4m4 at ,london1 two-thirds of the ,sun's diameter being covered4 ,he notes that the ,moon's semi-diameter was nearly at its maximum whilst the ,sun's semi-diameter was nearly at its minimum--a favourable combination for a long totality4 ,the visibility of the stars seems difficult to explain in connection with this eclipse1 and therefore he suggests that the annalist has made a mistake of four years and meant to refer to the eclipse of ,september #a1 #ecf ,a4,d41 but this does not seem a satisfactory theory4 ,the year after ,pope ,martin held a ,synod to condemn the ,monothelite heresy1 an eclipse of the ,sun took place4 ,it is mentioned by ,tycho ,brahe in his catalogue of eclipses as having been seen in ,england4 ,johnson gives the date as ,february #f1 #fej ,a4,d41 and finds that the ,sun was three-fourths obscured at ,london at #c4cj p4m4 ,the ,anglo-,saxon ,chronicle tells us under the year ,a4,d4 #ffd that1 ,in this year the ,sun was eclipsed on the #eth of the ,nones of ,may2 and ,earcenbryht1 ,king of the ,kentish people died and ,ecgbryht his son succeeded to the ,kingdom4 ,kepler thought this eclipse had been total in ,england1 and ,johnson calculating for ,london found that on ,may #a1 at #e p4m41 there would only have been a very thin crescent of the ,sun left uncovered on the southern limb1 so that the line of totality would have passed across the country some distance to the ,n4 of ,london4 ,the eclipse of ,dec4 #g1 ,a4,d4 #fga1 seems to be associated with a comic tragedy4 ,the ,caliph ,moawiyah had a fancy to remove ,mahomet's pulpit from ,medina to his own residence at ,damascus4 ,he said that the walking-stick and pulpit of the ,apostle of ,god should not remain in the hands of the murderers of ,othman4 ,great search was made for the walking-stick1 and at last they found it4 ,then they went in obedience to his commands to remove the pulpit1 when immediately1 to their great surprise and astonishment1 the ,sun was eclipsed to that degree that the stars appeared4#gc ,once again the question of visible stars is in some sense a source of difficulty4 ,hind found that the eclipse was annular on the central line4 ,at ,medina the greatest phase occurred at #aj;h4 #dcm4 a4m4 when #he_/ajjths of the ,sun's diameter was obscured4 ,hind suggests that in the clear skies of that part of the world such a degree of eclipse might be sufficient to bring out the brighter planets or stars4 ,at any rate no larger eclipse visible at ,medina occurred about this epoch4 ,prof4 ,ockley seems to refer to this eclipse in making1 on the authority of several ,arabian writers1 the mention he does of an eclipse in the quotation just given4 ,perhaps this will be a convenient place to bring in some remarks on certain ,arabian observations of eclipses only made known to the scientific world in modern times4 ,that the ,arabians were very capable practical astronomers has long been recognised as a well-established fact1 and if it had not been for them there would have been a tremendous blank in the history of astronomy during at least six centuries from about the year ,a4,d4 #gjj onwards4 ,in the year #ahjd there was published at ,paris a ,french translation of an ,arabian manuscript preserved at the ,university of ,leyden of which little was known until near the end of the last century4 ,the manuscript was then sent to ,paris on loan to the ,french ,government which caused a translation to be made by ,citizen ,caussin1 and this was published under the title of ,le ,livre de la grande ,table ,haknate4#gd ,caussin was ,professor of ,arabic at the ,college of ,france4 ,newcomb considers this to contain the earliest exact astronomical observations of eclipses which have reached us4 ,he remarks that some of the data left us by ,ptolemy1 ,theon1 ,albategnius and others may be the results of actual observations1 but in no case1 so far as is known1 have the figures of the actual observations been handed down4 ,for example1 we cannot regard midnight nor the middle of an eclipse as moments capable of direct observation without instruments of precision2 but in the ,arabian work under consideration we find definite statements of the altitudes of the heavenly bodies at the moments of the beginning and ending of eclipses--data not likely to be tampered with in order to agree with the results of calculation4 ,the eclipses recorded are #bh in number and usually the beginning and end of them were observed4 ,the altitudes are given sometimes only in whole degrees1 sometimes in coarse fractions of a degree4 ,the most serious source of error to be confronted in turning these observations to account arises from the uncertainty as to how long after the first contact the eclipse was perceived and the altitude taken2 and how long before the true end was the eclipse lost sight of4 ,making the best use he could of the records available ,newcomb found that they could safely be employed in his investigations into the theory of the ,moon4 ,the observations were taken1 some at ,bagdad and the remainder at ,cairo4 ,i do not propose to occupy space by transcribing the accounts in detail1 but one extract may be offered as a sample of the rest--,eclipse of the ,sun observed at ,bagdad1 ,august #ah1 #ibh ,a4,d4 ,the ,sun rose about one-fourth eclipsed4 ,we looked at the ,sun on a surface of water and saw it distinctly4 ,at the end when we found no part of the ,sun was any longer eclipsed1 and that its disc appeared in the water as a complete circle1 its altitude was #ab in the ,e41 less the one-third of a division of the instrument1 which itself was divided to thirds of a degree4 ,one must therefore reduce the stated altitude by one-ninth of a degree1 leaving1 therefore1 the true altitude as #aa #ec' #bj4 ,the skill and care shown in this record shows that the ,arab who observed this eclipse nearly a thousand years ago must have been a man of a different type from an ordinary resident at ,bagdad in the year #ahii4 ,no description is given of the instrument used1 but presumably it was some kind of a quadrant4 ,it does not appear why some of the observations were made at ,bagdad and some at ,cairo4 ,the ,bagdad observations commence with an eclipse of the ,sun on ,november #cj1 #hbi1 and end with an eclipse of the ,moon on ,november #e1 #icc4 ,the ,cairo observations begin with an eclipse of the ,sun on ,december #ab1 #igg1 and end with an eclipse of the ,sun on ,january #bd1 #ajjd4 ,these statements apply to the #be observations which ,newcomb considered were trustworthy enough to be employed in his researches1 but he rejected three as imperfect4 ,i have broken away from the strict thread of chronological sequence in order to keep together the notes respecting ,arabian observations of eclipses4 ,let us now revert to the ,european eclipses4 ,under the date of ,a4,d4 #gcc1 the ,anglo-,saxon ,chronicle tells us that1 ,in this year thelbald captured ,somerton2 and the ,sun was eclipsed1 and all the ,sun's disc was like a black shield2 and ,acca was driven from his bishopric4 ,johnston suggests that the reference is to an annular eclipse which he finds occurred on ,august #ad1 at about #h h4 in the morning4 ,in ,schnurrer's ,chronik der ,seuchen 7pt4 i41 #aac1 p4 #afd71 it is stated that1 ,one year after the ,arabs had been driven back across the ,pyrenees after the battle of ,tours1 the ,sun was so much darkened on the #aith of ,august as to excite universal terror4 ,it may be that the ,english eclipse is here referred to1 and a date wrong by five days assigned to it by ,schnurrer4 ,humboldt 7,cosmos1 vol4 iv4 p4 #chd1 ,bohn's ed47 reports this eclipse in an enumeration he gives of instances of the ,sun having been darkened4 ,on ,may #e1 ,a4,d4 #hdj1 there happened an eclipse of the ,sun which1 amongst other effects1 is said to have so greatly frightened ,louis ,le ,debonnaire 7,charlemagne's son7 that it contributed to his death4 ,the ,emperor was taken ill at ,worms1 and having been removed to ,ingelheim1 an island in the ,rhine1 near ,mayence1 died there on ,june #bj4 ,hind#ge found that this was a total eclipse1 and that the northern limit of totality passed about #ajj miles south of ,worms4 ,the middle of the eclipse occurred at #a;h4 #aem4 p4m4 with the ,sun at an altitude of #eg4 ,the duration of the eclipse was unusually long1 namely about #e minutes4 ,with the ,sun so high and the obscuration lasting so long1 this eclipse must have been an unusually imposing one1 and well calculated to inspire special alarm4 ,on ,oct4 #bi1 #hgh1 in the reign of ,king ,alfred1 there was a total eclipse visible at ,london4 ,the mention of it in the ,anglo-,saxon ,chronicle is as follows3--,the ,sun was eclipsed at #a hour of the day4 ,no month is given1 and the year is said to have been #hgi1 which is undoubtedly wrong4 ,hind found that the central line of the eclipse passed about #bj miles ,n4 of ,london1 and that the totality lasted #am4 #eas4 ,tycho ,brahe in his ,historia ,coelestis quotes from the ,annales ,fuldenses a statement that the ,sun was so much darkened after the #ith hour that the stars appeared in the heavens4 ,thorpe in his edition of the ,anglo-,saxon ,chronicle quotes from ,mr4 ,richard ,price a note which assigns the date of ,march #ad1 #hhj1 to this eclipse1 and cites in confirmation a passage from the ,chronicle of ,florence of ,worcester1 anno #hgi4 ,the #hhj eclipse is mentioned by ,asser in his ,de ,vit et ,rebus gestis ,alfredi in the words following3--,in the same year #hgi an eclipse of the ,sun took place between three o'clock and the evening1 but nearer three o'clock4 ,the confusion of dates is remarkable4 ,in the ,chronicon ,scotorum1 under the date of #hhe1 we find3--,an eclipse of the ,sun2 and stars were seen in the heavens4 ,the reference appears to be to the total eclipse of ,june #af1 ,a4,d4 #hhe4 ,the totality lasted more than four minutes1 and as the stars are said to have been visible in the ,north of ,ireland1 doubtless that part of ,ireland came within the eclipse limits4 ,on ,dec4 #bb1 #ifh1 there was an eclipse of the ,sun1 which was almost total at ,london at about #h;h4 #ccm4 a4m41 or soon after sunrise4 ,the central line passed across the ,s4-,w4 of ,england1 and thence through ,france to the ,mediterranean4 ,one ,leon1 a deacon at ,corfu1 observed this eclipse1 and has left behind what probably is the first perfectly explicit mention of the ,corona4#gf ,on ,aug4 #cj1 #ajcj1 there happened an eclipse visible in ,norway1 which has already been alluded to on a previous page under the name of the eclipse of ,stiklastad4 ,this was one of those eclipses1 the circumstances of which were examined many years ago in detail by ,sir ,g4 ,b4 ,airy1#gg because he thought that information of value might be obtained therefrom with respect to the motions of the ,moon4 ,its availability for that purpose has1 however1 been seriously questioned by ,professor ,newcomb4 ,stiklastad is a place where a battle was fought1 at which ,olav1 ,king of ,norway1 is said to have been killed4 ,while the battle was in progress the ,sun was totally eclipsed1 and a red light appeared around it4 ,this is regarded as an early record of the ,corona1 though not the first4#gh ,johnston found that the eclipse was nearly total at about #b;h4 #bam4 p4m4 ,in #ajcc there happened on ,june #bi an eclipse of the ,sun1 which evidently had many observers1 because it is mentioned by many contemporary writers4 ,for instance1 the ,french historian1 ,glaber1#gi says that on the #crd of the ,calends of ,july there was an eclipse from the sixth to the eighth hour of the day exceedingly terrible4 ,for the ,sun became of a sapphire colour2 in its upper part having the likeness of a fourth part of the ,moon4 ,this sufficiently harmonises with ,johnston's calculations that about four-fifths of the ,sun on the lower side was covered at #aj;h4 #ejm4 in the morning4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #fa3 ,hist4 ,rome1 ,book lv41 chap4 #bb4 ,footnote #fb3 ,letter in the ,times1 ,july #ai1 #ahgb4 ,footnote #fc3 ,hist4 ,rome1 ,book lx41 chap4 #bf4 ,footnote #fd3 ,life of ,apollonius of ,tyana1 ,book viii41 c4 #bc4 ,footnote #fe3 ,plut4 ,opera ,mor4 et ,phil41 vol4 xix4 p4 #fhb ,ed4 ,lipsi1 #aggh4 ,footnote #ff3 ,ast4 ,nach1 ,no4 #ahch1 vol4 lxxvii4 p4 #bbc3 ,march #ca1 #ahga4 ,footnote #fg3 ,matheseos1 ,lib4 i41 cap4 #b1 p4 #e1 ,basile4 #aecc4 ,footnote #fh3 ,histori1 ,lib4 xx41 cap4 #c1 sec4 #a4 ,footnote #fi3 ,epitome ,histori ,ecclesiastic1 ,lib4 xii41 cap4 #h4 ,footnote #gj3 ,historia ,francorum1 ,lib4 ii41 cap4 #c 7ad fin474 ,footnote #ga3 ,mrs4 ,d4 ,p4 ,todd1 ,total ,eclipses of the ,sun1 p4 #aja4 ,footnote #gb3 ,the ,anglo-,saxon ,chronicle1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ad4 ,ed4 ,b4 ,thorpe1 #ahfa4 ,footnote #gc3 ,prof4 ,s4 ,ockley1 ,history of the ,saracens1 vol ii4 p4 #aaj4 ,camb4 #ageg4 ,footnote #gd3 ,it should be stated that prior to the publication of the work in a book form the greater part of the eclipse observations had been published in the ,mmoires de l',institut ,national des ,sciences et ,arts3 ,sciences ,mathmatiques et ,physiques1 tome ii4 ,footnote #ge3 ,letter in the ,times1 ,july #ai1 #ahgb4 ,footnote #gf3 ,j4 ,f4 ,j4 ,schmidt1 ,ast4 ,nach41 vol4 lxxvii4 p4 #abg1 ,feb4 #a1 #ahga4 ,footnote #gg3 ,memoirs1 ,r4,a4,s41 vol4 xxvi4 p4 #aca1 #aheh4 ,footnote #gh3 ,j4 ,l4 ,e4 ,dreyer1 ,nature1 vol4 xvi4 p4 #edi1 ,oct4 #be1 #ahgg4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,eclipses ,,of ,,the ,,sun ,,mentioned ,,in ,,history4-- ,,medi,,val ,,and ,,modern4 ,one of the most celebrated eclipses of medival times was that of ,august #b1 #aacc1 visible as a total eclipse in ,scotland4 ,it was considered a presage of misfortune to ,henry ,i4 and was thus referred to by ,william of ,malmesbury#hj3-- ,the elements manifested their sorrow at this great man's last departure from ,england4 ,for the ,sun on that day at the #fth hour shrouded his glorious face1 as the poets say1 in hideous darkness agitating the hearts of men by an eclipse2 and on the #fth day of the week early in the morning there was so great an earthquake that the ground appeared absolutely to sink down2 an horrid noise being first heard beneath the surface4 ,this eclipse is also alluded to in the ,anglo-,saxon ,chronicle though the year is wrongly given as #aace instead of #aacc as it certainly was4 ,the ,chronicle says3--,in this year ,king ,henry went over sea at ,lammas1 and the second day as he lay and slept on the ship the day darkened over all lands2 and the ,sun became as it were a three-night-old ,moon1 and the stars about it at mid-day4 ,men were greatly wonder-stricken and affrighted1 and said that a great thing should come hereafter4 ,so it did1 for the same year the king died on the following day after ,st4 ,andrew's ,mass day1 ,dec4 #b1 in ,normandy4 ,the king did die in #aace1 but there was no eclipse of the ,august new ,moon1 and without doubt the writer has muddled up the year of the eclipse and of the king's departure from ,england 7to which he never returned7 and the year of his death4 ,calvisius states that this eclipse was observed in ,flanders and that the stars appeared4 ,respecting the above-mentioned discrepancy ,mrs4 ,todd aptly remarks3--,so ,henry must have died in #aacc1 which he did not2 or else there must have been an eclipse in #aace1 which there was not4 ,but this is not the only labyrinth into which chronology and old eclipses1 imagination1 and computation1 lead the unwary searcher4 ,professor ,freeman's explanation fairly clears up the difficulty3--,the fact that he never came back to ,england1 together with the circumstances of his voyage1 seems to have made a deep impression on men's minds4 ,in popular belief the signs and wonders which marked his last voyage were transferred to the ,lammas-tide before his death two years later4#ha ,the central line of this eclipse traversed ,scotland from ,ross to ,forfar and the eclipse was of course large in every part of the country4 ,the totality lasted #dm4 #bjs4 in ,forfarshire4 ,hind has furnished some further information respecting this eclipse4 ,it appears that during the existence of the ,kingdom of ,jerusalem created by the ,crusaders an eclipse occurred which would appear to have been total at ,jerusalem or in its immediate neighbourhood4 ,no date is given and a date can only be guessed1 and ,hind guessed that the eclipse of #aacc was the one referred to4 ,he found that after leaving ,scotland and crossing ,europe the central line of the #aacc eclipse entered ,palestine near ,jaffa and passed over ,jerusalem where the ,sun was hidden for #d minutes at about #c;h4 p4m4 ,from ,nablous on the ,n4 to ,ascalon on the ,s4 the country was in darkness for nearly the same period of time4 ,the alternative eclipses to this one would be those of ,sept4 #d1 #aahg1 magnitude at ,jerusalem #i_/ajths of the ,sun's diameter2 or ,june #bc1 #aaia1 magnitude at the same place about #g_/ajths2 but these do not seem to harmonise so well with the accounts handed down to us as does the eclipse of #aacc4 ,in #aadj1 on ,march #bj1 there happened a total eclipse of the ,sun visible in ,england which is thus referred to by ,william of ,malmesbury#hb3-- ,during this year1 in ,lent1 on the #acth of the ,calends of ,april1 at the #ith hour of the #dth day of the week1 there was an eclipse1 throughout ,england1 as ,i have heard4 ,with us1 indeed1 and with all our neighbours1 the obscuration of the ,sun also was so remarkable1 that persons sitting at table1 as it then happened almost everywhere1 for it was ,lent1 at first feared that ,chaos was come again3 afterwards1 learning the cause1 they went out and beheld the stars around the ,sun4 ,it was thought and said by many1 not untruly1 that the ,king ,stephen would not continue a year in the government4 ,the same eclipse is also thus mentioned in the ,anglo-,saxon ,chronicle3--,afterwards in ,lent the ,sun and the day darkened about the noontide of the day1 when men were eating1 and they lighted candles to eat by2 and that was the #acth of the ,calends of ,april1 ,march #bj4 ,men were greatly wonder-stricken4 ,the greatest obscuration at ,london took place at #b;h4 #cfm4 p4m41 but it is not quite clear whether the line of totality did actually pass over ,london4 ,it was long supposed that this eclipse was total at ,london1 an idea which seems to have arisen from ,halley having told the ,royal ,society anent the total eclipse of ,may #c1 #agae1 that he could not find that any total eclipse had been visible at ,london since ,march #bj1 #aadj4 ,in consequence of this statement of ,halley's1 ,hind carefully investigated the circumstances of this eclipse1 and found that it had not been total at ,london4 ,the central line entered our island at ,aberystwith1 and passing near ,shrewsbury1 ,stafford1 ,derby1 ,nottingham1 and ,lincoln1 reached the ,german ,ocean1 #aj miles ,s4 of ,saltfleet4 ,the southern limit of the zone of totality passed through the ,south ,midland counties1 and the nearest point of approach to ,london was a point on the borders of ,northamptonshire and ,bedfordshire4 ,for a position on the central line near ,stafford1 ,hind found that the totality began at #b;h4 #cfm4 p4m4 local mean time1 the duration being #cm4 #bfs41 and the ,sun's altitude being more than #cj4 ,the stars seen were probably the planets ,mercury and ,venus1 then within a degree of each other1 and #aj ,w4 of the ,sun1 and perhaps the stars forming the well-known ,square of ,pegasus4 ,mars and ,saturn were also1 at that time1 within a degree of each other1 but very near the western horizon4 ,it is therefore necessary to look further back than #aadj to find a total solar eclipse visible in ,london4#hc ,a solar eclipse seems to have been alluded to by certain historians as having happened in ,a4,d4 #aaec4 ,we have the obscure statement that something singular happened to the ,sun the day after the ,conversion of ,st4 ,paul4 ,a somewhat large eclipse having been visible at ,augsburg in ,germany1 on ,january #bf1 this may have been the something referred to4 ,it would seem that about #aa_/abths of the ,sun's diameter was covered4 ,on ,may #ad1 ,a4,d4 #abcj1 there happened a great eclipse of the ,sun1 thus described by ,roger of ,wendover#hd3--,on the #adth of ,may1 which was the ,tuesday in ,rogation ,week1 an unusual eclipse of the ,sun took place very early in the morning1 immediately after sunrise2 and it became so dark that the labourers1 who had commenced their morning's work1 were obliged to leave it1 and returned again to their beds to sleep2 but in about an hour's time1 to the astonishment of many1 the ,sun regained its usual brightness4 ,this eclipse1 as regards its total phase1 is said by ,johnston to have begun in the horizon1 a little to the ,n4 of ,london1 in the early morning4 ,on ,june #c1 ,a4,d4 #abci1 and ,october #f1 #abda1 there occurred total eclipses of the ,sun1 which have been very carefully discussed by ,professor ,celoria of ,milan1 with the view of using them in investigations into the ,moon's mean motion4#he ,the second of these eclipses is mentioned by ,tycho ,brahe4#hf ,he states that a few stars appeared about noonday1 and the ,sun was hidden from sight in a clear sky4 ,the eclipse was total in ,eastern ,europe4 ,dr4 ,lingard1#hg the well-known ,roman ,catholic historian1 speaking of the battle of ,cressy1 which was fought on ,august #bf1 #acdf1 says3--,never1 perhaps1 were preparations for battle made under circumstances so truly awful4 ,on that very day the ,sun suffered a partial eclipse3 birds in clouds1 precursors of a storm1 flew screaming over the two armies2 and the rain fell in torrents1 accompanied with incessant thunder and lightning4 ,about #e in the afternoon1 the weather cleared up1 the ,sun in full splendour darted his rays in the eyes of the enemy2 and the ,genoese1 setting up their shouts1 discharged their quarrels4 ,this was not an eclipse1 for none was due to take place2 and the phenomenon could only have been meteorological--dense clouds or something of that sort in the sky4 ,on ,june #af1 #adjf1 there was a large eclipse of the ,sun1 #i_/ajths of its diameter being covered at ,london2 but on the ,continent it seems to have been total4 ,it is stated that the darkness was such that people could hardly recognise one another4 ,one of the most celebrated eclipses during the ,middle ,ages was undoubtedly that of ,june #ag1 #adcc4 ,this was long remembered in ,scotland as the ,black ,hour1 and its circumstances were fully investigated some years ago by ,hind4 ,it was a remarkable eclipse in that the ,moon was within #ac of perigee and the ,sun only #b from apogee4 ,the central line traversed ,scotland in a south-easterly direction from ,ross to ,forfar1 passing near ,inverness and ,dundee4 ,maclaurin#hh who lived in the early part of the last century mentions that in his time a manuscript account of this eclipse was preserved in the library of the ,university of ,edinburgh wherein the darkness is said to have come on at about #c p4m41 and to have been very profound4 ,the duration of the totality at ,inverness was #dm4 #cbs42 at ,edinburgh #cm4 #das4 ,the central line passed from ,britain to the ,n4 of ,frankfort-on-the-,maine1 through ,bavaria1 to the ,dardanelles1 to the ,s4 of ,aleppo and thence nearly parallel to the river ,euphrates to the ,n4-,e4 border of ,arabia4 ,in ,turkey1 according to ,calvisius1 near evening the light of the ,sun was so overpowered that darkness covered the land4 ,in #aedd1 on ,jan4 #bd1 there occurred an eclipse of the ,sun which was nearly but not quite total4 ,the chief interest arises from the fact that it was one of the first observed by professed astronomers3 ,gemma ,frisius saw it at ,louvain4 ,kepler says#hi that the day became dark like the twilight of evening and that the birds which from the break of day had been singing became mute4 ,the middle of the eclipse was at about #i a4m4 ,in #aefj an eclipse of the ,sun took place which was total in ,spain and ,portugal4 ,clavius who observed it at ,coimbra says#ij that the ,sun remained obscured for no little time3 there was darkness greater than that of night1 no one could see where he trod and the stars shone very brightly in the sky3 the birds moreover1 wonderful to say1 fell down to the ground in fright at such startling darkness4 ,kepler is responsible for the statement that ,tycho ,brahe did not believe this1 and wrote to ,clavius to that effect #dj years afterwards4 ,in #aefg there was an annular eclipse visible at ,rome on ,april #i4 ,clavius says#ia that the whole ,sun was not eclipsed but that there was left a bright circle all round4 ,this in set terms is a description of an annular eclipse1 but ,johnston who calculated that at ,rome the greatest obscuration took place at #bjm4 past noon points out that the augmentation of the ,moon's semi-diameter would almost have produced totality4 ,tycho tells us that he saw this eclipse on the shores of the ,baltic when a young man about #bj years of age4 ,the total eclipse of ,february #be1 #aeih1 long left a special mark on the memories of the people of ,scotland4 ,the day was spoken of as ,black ,saturday4 ,maclaurin states#ib3--,there is a tradition that some persons in the ,north lost their way in the time of this eclipse1 and perished in the snow--a statement which ,hind discredits4 ,the central line passed from near ,stranraer1 over ,dalkeith1 and therefore ,edinburgh was within the zone of totality4 ,totality came on at ,edinburgh at #aj;h4 #aem4 and lasted #am4 #cjs4 ,from the rapid motion of the ,moon in declination1 the course of the central line was a quickly ascending one in latitude on the ,earth's surface1 the totality passing off within the ,arctic circle4 ,kepler in his account of the new star in the constellation ,ophiuchus#ic refers to the total eclipse of the ,sun of ,october #ab1 #afje1 as having been observed at ,naples1 and that the ,red ,flames were visible as a rim of red light round the ,sun's disc3 at least this seems to be the construction which may fairly be put upon the ,latin of the original description4 ,the partial eclipse of the ,sun of ,may #cj1 #afab1 is recorded to have been seen through a tube4 ,no doubt this is an allusion to the newly-invented instrument which we now call the telescope4 ,seemingly this is the first eclipse of the ,sun so observed1 but it is on record that an eclipse of the ,moon had been previously observed through a telescope4 ,this was the lunar eclipse of ,july #f1 #afaj1 though the observer's name has not been handed down to us4 ,the eclipse of ,april #h1 #afeb1 is another of those ,scotch eclipses1 as we may call them1 which left their mark on the people of that country4 ,maclaurin#id speaks of it in his time 7he died in #agdf7 as one of the two central eclipses which are still famous among the populace in this country ,scotland1 and known amongst them by the appellation of ,mirk ,monday4 ,the central line passed over the ,s4,e4 of ,ireland1 near ,wexford and ,wicklow1 and reaching ,scotland near ,burrow ,head in ,wigtownshire1 and passing not far from ,edinburgh1 ,montrose and ,aberdeen1 quitted ,scotland at ,peterhead4 ,greenock and ,elgin were near the northern limit of the zone of totality1 and the ,cheviots and ,berwick upon the southern limit4 ,the eclipse was observed at ,carrickfergus by ,dr4 ,wyberd4#ie ,hind found that its duration there was but #dds4 ,this short duration1 he suggested1 may partly explain the curious remark of ,dr4 ,wyberd that when the ,sun was reduced to a very slender crescent of light1 the ,moon all at once threw herself within the margin of the solar disc with such agility that she seemed to revolve like an upper millstone1 affording a pleasant spectacle of rotatory motion4 ,wyberd's further description clearly applies to the ,corona4 ,a ,scotch account says that the country people tilling1 loosed their ploughs4 ,the birds dropped to the ground4 ,the eclipse of ,november #d1 #affh1 visible as a partial one in ,england1 was of no particular interest in itself but deserves notice as having been observed by ,flamsteed1#if who gives a few diagrams of his observations at ,derby4 ,he states that the eclipse came on much earlier than had been predicted4 ,it was well known at this time that the tables of the ,sun and ,moon then in use were very defective1 and it was a recognition of this fact which eventually led to the foundation of the ,greenwich ,observatory in #afge4 ,on ,september #bc1 #afii1 an eclipse of the ,sun occurred which was total to the ,n4 of ,caithness for the very brief space of #aj-ae secs4 ,at ,edinburgh1 about #aa_/abths of the ,sun's diameter was obscured4 ,in the ,appendix to ,pepys's ,diary#ig there is a letter from ,dr4 ,wallis mentioning that his daughter's attention was called to it by noticing the light of the ,sun look somewhat dim at about #i a4m41 whilst she was writing a letter1 she knowing nothing of the eclipse4 ,an eclipse of the ,sun occurred on ,may #ab1 #agjf1 which was visible as a partial eclipse in ,england and was total on the ,continent1 especially in ,switzerland4 ,a certain ,captain ,stannyan who made observations at ,berne1 writes thus to ,flamsteed#ih3--,that the ,sun was totally darkened there for four and a half minutes of time2 that a fixed star and a planet appeared very bright2 and that his getting out of his eclipse was preceded by a blood-red streak of light from its left limb1 which continued not longer than six or seven seconds of time2 then part of the ,sun's disc appeared all of a sudden as bright as ,venus was ever seen in the night2 nay1 brighter2 and in that very instant gave a light and shadow to things as strong as the ,moon uses to do4 ,on this communication ,flamsteed remarks3--,the ,captain is the first man ,i ever heard of that took notice of a red streak preceding the emersion of the ,sun's body from a total eclipse1 and ,i take notice of it to you the ,royal ,society1 because it infers that the ,moon has an atmosphere2 and its short continuance1 if only six or seven seconds' time1 tells us that its height was not more than five or six hundredths part of her diameter4 ,on the whole1 perhaps1 the most celebrated eclipse of the ,sun ever recorded in ,england was that of ,may #c1 #agae4 ,the line of totality passed right across ,england from ,cornwall to ,norfolk1 and the phenomenon was carefully observed and described by the most experienced astronomer of the time1 ,dr4 ,edmund ,halley4 ,the line of totality passed over ,london amongst other places1 and as the maximum phase took place soon after #i a4m4 on a fine spring morning1 the inhabitants of the ,metropolis saw a sight which their successors will not see again till many generations have come and gone4 ,halley has left behind him an exceedingly interesting account of this event1 some allusions to which have already been made4 ,he seems to have seen what we call the ,corona1 described by him however as a luminous ring1 of a pale whiteness1 or rather pearl colour1 a little tinged with the colours of the ,iris1 and concentric with the ,moon4 ,he speaks also of a dusky but strong red light which seemed to colour the dark edge of the ,moon just before the ,sun emerged from totality4 ,jupiter1 ,mercury1 ,venus1 and the stars ,capella and ,aldebaran were seen in ,london1 whilst ,n4 of ,london1 more directly under the central line1 as many as twenty stars were seen4 ,the inhabitants of ,england who lived in the reign of ,george ,i4 were singularly fortunate in their chances of seeing total eclipses of the ,sun1 for only nine years after#ii the one just described1 namely1 on ,may #bb1 #agbd1 another total eclipse occurred4 ,the central line crossed some of the southern countries1 and the phenomenon was well seen and reported on by ,dr4 ,stukeley1#ajj who stationed himself on ,haraden ,hill1 near ,salisbury4 ,the ,doctor says of the darkness that he seemed to feel it1 as it were1 drop upon us 444 like a great dark mantle1 and that during the totality the spectacle presented to his view was beyond all that he had ever seen or could picture to his imagination the most solemn4 ,he could with difficulty discern the faces of his companions which had a ghastly startling appearance4 ,when the totality was ending there appeared a small lucid spot1 and from it ran a rim of faint brightness4 ,in about #c minutes from this appearance the hill-tops changed from black to blue1 the horizon gave out the grey streaks previous to morning dawn1 and the birds sprang joyously into the air4 ,this eclipse seems to have had royal observers4 ,it was watched at ,kensington apparently by the ,king or some of the royal family of ,england1 and at ,trianon 7,paris7 by the ,king of ,france1#aja under the competent guidance of ,maraldi1 ,cassini and ,de ,louville4 ,it was the last which was visible as a total one in any part of ,england4 ,on ,may #b1 #agcc1 there was an eclipse of the ,sun1 which was total in ,sweden and partial in ,england4 ,in ,sweden the total obscuration lasted more than #c minutes4 ,jupiter1 the stars in ,ursa ,major1 ,capella1 and several other stars were visible to the naked eye1 as also was a luminous ring round the ,sun4 ,three or four spots of reddish colour were also perceived near the limb of the ,moon1 but not in immediate contact with it4 ,these so-called red spots were doubtless the ,red ,flames of the present century1 and the luminous ring the ,corona4 ,on ,march #a1 #agcg1 a good annular eclipse was observed at ,edinburgh by ,maclaurin4#ajb ,in his account he says3--,a little before the annulus was complete a remarkable point or speck of pale light appeared near the middle of the part of the ,moon's circumference that was not yet come upon the disc of the ,sun4444 ,during the appearance of the annulus the direct light of the ,sun was still very considerable1 but the places that were shaded from his light appeared gloomy4 ,there was a dusk in the atmosphere1 especially towards the ,n4 and ,e4 ,in those chambers which had not their lights westwards the obscurity was considerable4 ,venus appeared plainly1 and continued visible long after the annulus was dissolved1 and ,i am told that other stars were seen by some4 ,lord ,aberdour mentions a narrow streak of dusky red light on the dark edge of the ,moon immediately before the ring was completed1 and after it was dissolved4 ,no doubt this is a record of the ,red ,flames4 ,in #agdh ,scotland was again favoured with a central eclipse1 but it was only annular4 ,the ,earl of ,morton#ajc and ,james ,short1 the optician1 who observed the phenomenon at ,aberdour ,castle1 #aj miles ,n4-,w4 of ,edinburgh1 just outside the line of annularity1 saw a brown coloured light stretching along the circumference of the ,moon from each of the cusps4 ,a star 7probably the planet ,venus7 was seen to the ,e4 of the ,sun4 ,the annular eclipse of ,april #a1 #agfd1 visible as such in ,north ,kent1 was the subject of the following quaint letter by the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,stukeley3-- ,to the ,printer of ,whitehall ,evening ,post1-- ,in regard to the approaching solar eclipse of ,sunday1 ,april #a1 ,i think it advisable to remark that1 it happening in the time of divine service1 it is desired you would insert this caution in your public paper4 ,the eclipse begins soon after #i1 the middle a little before #aa1 the end a little after #ab4 ,there will be no total darkness in the very middle1 observable in this metropolis1 but as people's curiositys will not be over with the middle of the eclipse1 if the church service be ordered to begin a little before #ab1 it will properly be morning prayer1 and an uniformity preserved in our duty to the ,supreme ,being1 the author of these amazing celestial movements1-- ,yours1 ,,rector ,,of ,,st4 ,,geo41 ,q4,s4#ajd ,the year #agff furnishes the somewhat rare case of a total eclipse of the ,sun observed on board ship on the high seas4 ,the observers were officers of the ,french man-of-war the ,comte d',artois4 ,though the total obscuration lasted only #ec secs41 there was seen a luminous ring about the ,moon which had four remarkable expansions1 situate at a distance of #ij from each other4#aje ,these expansions are doubtless those rays which we now speak of as streamers from the ,corona4 ,curiously enough the next important total eclipse deserving of notice was also observed at sea4 ,this was the eclipse of ,june #bd1 #aggh4 ,the observer was the ,spanish ,admiral1 ,don ,antonio ,ulloa1 who was passing from the ,azores to ,cape ,st4 ,vincent4 ,the total obscuration lasted #d minutes4 ,the luminous ring presented a very beautiful appearance3 out of it there issued forth rays of light which reached to the distance of a diameter of the ,moon4 ,before it became very conspicuous stars of the #ast and #bnd magnitudes were distinctly visible1 but when it attained its greatest brilliancy1 only stars of the #ast magnitude could be perceived4 ,the darkness was such that persons who were asleep and happened to wake1 thought that they had slept the whole evening and only waked when the night was pretty far advanced4 ,the fowls1 birds1 and other animals on board took their usual position for sleeping1 as if it had been night4#ajf ,on ,sept4 #e1 #agic1 there happened an eclipse which1 annular to the ,n4 of ,scotland1 was seen and observed in ,england by ,sir ,w4 ,herschel#ajg as a partial eclipse4 ,he made some important observations on the ,moon on this occasion measuring the height of several of the lunar mountains4 ,considerations respecting the shape of one of the ,moon's horns led him to form an opinion adverse to the idea that there the ,moon had an atmosphere4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #gi3 ,historiarum ,sui ,temporis1 ,lib4 iv41 cap4 #i4 ,footnote #hj3 ,historia ,novella1 ,lib4 i41 sec4 #h4 ,footnote #ha3 ,norman ,conquest1 vol4 v4 p4 #bci4 ,footnote #hb3 ,historia ,novella1 ,lib4 ii41 sec4 #ce4 ,footnote #hc3 ,letter in the ,times1 ,july #bh1 #ahga4 ,footnote #hd3 ,rogerus de ,wendover1 ,flores ,historiarum1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ece1 ,bohn's ed4 ,footnote #he3 ,sugli ,eclissi ,solari ,totali del #c ,giugno #abci1 e del #f ,ottobre #abda in the ,memorie del ,r4 ,istituto ,lombardo di ,scienze e ,littere1 vol4 xiii4 p4 #bge4 ,footnote #hf3 ,historia ,coelestis1 vol4 i4 p4 #ch4 ,footnote #hg3 ,hist4 ,engl41 vol4 iii4 chap4 xviii4 p4 #ej1 #dto4 ed4 ,footnote #hh3 ,phil4 ,trans41 vol4 xl4 p4 #aid1 #agcg4 ,footnote #hi3 ,astronomi ,pars ,optica1 c4 viii4 sec4 #c2 ,opera ,omnia1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cae4 ,ed4 ,frisch1 #ahei4 ,footnote #ij3 ,quoted by ,kepler1 as above1 at p4 #cae4 ,footnote #ia3 ,commentarius in ,sacroboscum1 cap4 iv42 quoted in ,kepler's ,astronomi ,pars ,optica1 c4 viii4 sec4 #c2 ,opera ,omnia1 vol ii4 p4 #caf4 ,ed4 ,frisch1 #ahei4 ,footnote #ib3 ,phil4 ,trans41 vol4 xl4 p4 #aic2 #agcg4 ,footnote #ic3 ,de ,stell ,nov in ,pede ,serpentarii1 p4 #aae2 ,prag1 #afjf4 ,footnote #id3 ,phil4 ,trans41 vol4 xl4 p4 #aic2 #agcg4 ,footnote #ie3 ,v4 ,wing1 ,astronomia ,britannica1 p4 #cee4 ,footnote #if3 ,historia ,coelestis1 vol4 i4 pp4 #g and #ba4 ,footnote #ig3 ,diary of ,samuel ,pepys1 vol4 vi4 p4 #bjh2 ,ed4 ,m4 ,bright1 #ahgi4 ,footnote #ih3 ,phil4 ,trans41 vol4 xxv4 p4 #bbdj2 #agjf4 ,footnote #ii3 ,being half a ,saros period 7see p4 #bj1 ante74 ,footnote #ajj3 ,itinerarium ,curiosum1 #bnd ed41 vol4 i4 p4 #ahj4 ,footnote #aja3 ,mem4 de ,mathmatique et de ,physique de l',acad4 des ,sciences1 #agbd1 p4 #bei4 ,footnote #ajb3 ,phil4 ,trans41 vol4 xl4 pp4 #aha1 #ahd4 #agcg4 ,footnote #ajc3 ,phil4 ,trans41 vol4 xlv4 p4 #ehf4 #agej4 ,this is the man who under the designation of ,lord ,aberdour observed the eclipse of #agcg 7ante74 ,footnote #ajd3 ,rev4 ,w4 ,stukeley1 ,rector of ,st4 ,george's1 ,queen's ,square1 ,london1 ,diary1 vol4 xx4 p4 #dd1 ed4 ,surtees ,soc41 vol4 lxxvi4 p4 #chd4 ,footnote #aje3 ,le ,gentil1 ,voyage dans les ,mers de l',inde1 vol4 ii4 p4 #af4 ,paris1 #agfi4 ,footnote #ajf3 ,phil4 ,trans41 vol4 lxix4 p4 #aje4 #aggi4 ,footnote #ajg3 ,phil4 ,trans41 vol4 lxxxiv4 p4 #ci4 #agid4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,eclipses ,,of ,,the ,,sun ,,during ,,the ,,nineteenth ,,century4 ,observations of total solar eclipses during the #aith century have been1 for the most part1 carried on under circumstances so essentially different from everything that has gone before1 that not only does a new chapter seem desirable but also new form of treatment4 ,up to the beginning of the #ahth century the observations 7even the best of them7 may be said to have been made and recorded with but few exceptions by unskilled observers with no clear ideas as to what they should look for and what they might expect to see4 ,things improved a little during the #ahth century and the observations by ,halley1 ,maclaurin1 ,bradley1 ,don ,antonio ,ulloa1 ,sir ,w4 ,herschel1 and others in particular rose to a much higher standard than any which had preceded them4 ,however1 it has only been during the #aith century1 and especially during the latter half of it1 that total eclipses of the ,sun have been observed under circumstances calculated to extract from them large and solid extensions of scientific knowledge4 ,inasmuch as it has been deemed convenient to sort out and classify our knowledge under particular heads in previous chapters1 ,i shall in this chapter speak only of the leading facts of each eclipse in such an outline form as will avoid as far as possible unnecessary repetition4 ,in #ahjf a total eclipse of the ,sun occurred1 visible in ,n4 ,america4 ,observations made in the ,united ,states have been handed down to us4 ,don ,joachin ,ferrer1 a ,spanish astronomer1 observed the eclipse at ,kinderhook in the ,state of ,new ,york4 ,the totality lasted more than #d m4--a somewhat unusual length of time4 ,one or two planets and a few #ast magnitude stars were seen4 ,during the totality there was a slight fall of dew4 ,on ,nov4 #ai1 #ahaf1 there occurred the first total eclipse of the ,sun in the #aith century1 the central line of which passed over ,europe4 ,there is only one known observation of the total phase1 and this was by ,hagen at ,culm in ,bohemia1 but he appears to have seen only the beginning of the totality and not the whole of it4 ,a partial eclipse of the ,sun visible as such in ,england but which was annular in the ,shetland ,isles took place on ,sept4 #g1 #ahbj4 ,the only reason why this is worth mention is for its political associations4 ,the trial of ,queen ,caroline was going on in the ,house of ,lords1 and the ,house suspended its sitting for a short time for the sake of the eclipse4 ,on ,may #ae1 #ahcf1 there occurred an annular eclipse of the ,sun1 which though it was nowhere total1 may be looked upon as the first of the modern eclipses the observations of which have taken such a great development during recent years4 ,the annularity of this eclipse was observed in the ,n4 of ,england and in the ,s4 of ,scotland2 and it was at ,jedburgh in ,roxburghshire that ,mr4 ,francis ,baily#ajh observed that feature of eclipses of the ,sun now universally known as ,baily's ,beads4 ,some indications of the ,red ,flames were also obtained at places where the eclipse was annular4 ,probably it was the recognition of ,baily's ,beads as a regular concomitant of eclipses of the ,sun1 which helped to pave the way for the extensive preparations made in ,france1 ,italy1 ,austria1 and ,russia for observing the total eclipse of ,july #h1 #ahdb4 ,many of the most eminent astronomers of ,europe repaired to different stations on the central line in order to see the phenomenon4 ,amongst these may be named ,arago1 ,valz1 ,airy1 ,carlini1 ,santini1 and ,o4 ,struve4 ,the eclipse was witnessed under favourable circumstances at all the various stations on the central line across ,europe1 from ,perpignan in ,france in the ,west to ,lipesk in ,russia in the ,east4 ,arago wrote#aji such an exceedingly graphic account of this eclipse from what may be termed the standpoint of the general public1 that ,i will quote it at some length1 because1 with an alteration of date1 it might be re-written and applied to every total eclipse visible in much populated tracts of country4 ,at ,perpignan persons who were seriously unwell alone remained within doors4 ,as soon as day began to break the population covered the terraces and battlements of the town1 as well as all the little eminences in the neighbourhood1 in hopes of obtaining a view of the ,sun as he ascended above the horizon4 ,at the citadel we had under our eyes1 besides numerous groups of citizens established on the slopes1 a body of soldiers about to be reviewed4 ,the hour of the commencement of the eclipse drew nigh4 ,more than twenty thousand persons1 with smoked glasses in their hands1 were examining the radiant globe projected upon an azure sky4 ,although armed with our powerful telescopes1 we had hardly begun to discern the small notch on the western limb of the ,sun1 when an immense exclamation1 formed by the blending together of twenty thousand different voices1 announced to us that we had anticipated by only a few seconds the observation made with the unaided eye by twenty thousand astronomers equipped for the occasion1 whose first essay this was4 ,a lively curiosity1 a spirit of emulation1 the desire of not being outdone1 had the privilege of giving to the natural vision an unusual power of penetration4 ,during the interval that elapsed between this moment and the almost total disappearance of the ,sun we remarked nothing worthy of relation in the countenances of so many spectators4 ,but when the ,sun1 reduced to a very narrow filament1 began to throw upon the horizon only a very feeble light1 a sort of uneasiness seized upon all2 every person felt a desire to communicate his impressions to those around him4 ,hence arose a deep murmur1 resembling that sent forth by the distant ocean after a tempest4 ,the hum of voices increased in intensity as the solar crescent grew more slender2 at length the crescent disappeared1 darkness suddenly succeeded light1 and an absolute silence marked this phase of the eclipse with as great precision as did the pendulum of our astronomical clock4 ,the phenomenon in its magnificence had triumphed over the petulance of youth1 over the levity which certain persons assume as a sign of superiority1 over the noisy indifference of which soldiers usually make profession4 ,a profound stillness also reigned in the air2 the birds had ceased to sing4 ,after an interval of solemn expectation1 which lasted about two minutes1 transports of joy1 shouts of enthusiastic applause1 saluted with the same accord1 the same spontaneous feeling1 the first reappearance of the rays of the ,sun4 ,to a condition of melancholy produced by sentiments of an indefinable nature there succeeded a lively and intelligible feeling of satisfaction which no one sought to escape from or moderate the impulses of4 ,to the majority of the public the phenomenon had arrived at its term4 ,the other phases of the eclipse had few attentive spectators beyond the persons devoted especially to astronomical pursuits4 ,the total eclipse of ,july #bh1 #ahea1 may be said to have been the first which was the subject of an ,eclipse ,expedition1 a phrase which of late years has become exceedingly familiar4 ,the total phase was visible in ,norway and ,sweden1 and great numbers of astronomers from all parts of ,europe flocked to those countries4 ,amongst those who went from ,england were ,sir ,g4 ,b4 ,airy1 the ,astronomer ,royal 7then ,mr4 ,airy71 ,mr4 ,j4 ,r4 ,hind and ,mr4 ,lassell4 ,the ,red ,flames were very much in evidence1 and the fact that they belonged to the ,sun and not to the ,moon was clearly established4 ,hind mentions that the aspect of ,nature during the total eclipse was grand beyond description4 ,this feature is dwelt upon with more than usual emphasis in many of the published accounts4 ,i have never seen it suggested that the mountainous character of the country may have had something to do with it1 but that idea would seem not improbable4 ,in the year #aheh1 two central eclipses of the ,sun occurred1 both presenting some features of interest4 ,that of ,march #ae was annular1 the central line passing across ,england from ,lyme ,regis in ,dorsetshire to the ,wash1 traversing portions of ,somersetshire1 ,wiltshire1 ,berkshire1 ,oxfordshire1 ,northamptonshire1 ,lincolnshire1 and ,norfolk4 ,the weather generally was unfavourable and the annular phase was only observed at a few places1 but important meteorological observations were made and yielded results1 as regards the diminution of temperature1 which were very definite4 ,all over the country rooks and pigeons were seen returning home during the greatest obscuration2 starlings in many places took flight2 at ,oxford a thrush commenced its evening song2 at ,ventnor a fish in an aquarium1 ordinarily visible in the evening only1 was in full activity about the time of greatest gloom2 and generally1 it was noted that the birds stopped singing and flew low from bush to bush4 ,the darkness1 though nowhere intense1 was everywhere very appreciable and decided4 ,the second central eclipse of #aheh took place on ,september #g and was observed in ,peru by ,lieutenant ,gilliss of the ,u4,s4 ,navy4 ,the totality only lasted one minute1 and the general features of a total eclipse do not appear to have been very conspicuously visible4 ,gilliss remarks#aaj3--,two citizens of ,olmos stood within a few feet of me1 watching in silence1 and with anxious countenances1 the rapid and fearful decrease of light4 ,they were wholly ignorant that any sudden effect would follow the total obscuration of the ,sun4 ,at that instant one exclaimed in terror ,la ,gloria1 and both1 ,i believe1 fell to their knees1 filled with awe4 ,they appreciated the resemblance of the ,corona to the halos with which the old masters have encircled their ideals of the heads of our ,saviour and the ,madonna1 and devoutly regarded this as a manifestation of the ,divine ,presence4 ,the year #ahfj saw the departure from ,england of the first great ,ship ,expedition to see an eclipse4 ,one was due to happen on ,july #ah1 and a large party went out from ,england to ,spain in ,h4,m4,s4 ,himalaya4 ,mr4 ,de ,la ,rue took a very well-equipped photographic detachment1 and his photographs were eminently successful4 ,this eclipse settled for ever the doubt as to whether the ,red ,flames belonged to the ,sun or the ,moon1 and in favour of the former view4 ,the years #ahfh1 #ahfi1 and #ahgj were each marked by total eclipses1 which were observed to a greater or less extent4 ,in the first-named year the eclipse occurred on ,august #ah1 the central line passing across ,india4 ,the weather was not everywhere favourable1 but several expeditions were dispatched to the ,east ,indies4 ,the spectroscope was largely brought into play with the immediate result of showing that the ,corona was to be deemed a sort of atmosphere of the ,sun1 not self-luminous1 but shining by reflected light4 ,the eclipse of #ahfi was observed by several well-equipped parties in the ,united ,states1 and a very complete series of excellent photographs was obtained4 ,to view the eclipse of ,december #bb1 #ahgj1 several expeditions were dispatched1 the central line passing over some very accessible places in ,spain1 ,sicily1 and ,north ,africa4 ,the ,english observers went chiefly in ,h4,m4,s4 ,urgent1 though some of them travelled overland to ,sicily4 ,the expenses1 both of the sea and land parties1 were to a large extent defrayed by ,her ,majesty's ,government4 ,it deserves to be noted that so great was the anxiety of the ,french astronomer ,janssen to see this eclipse1 that he determined to try and escape in a balloon from ,paris 7then besieged by the ,germans7 and succeeded1 carrying his instruments with him4 ,the weather seriously interfered with the work of all the observers who went out to see this eclipse1 which was the more to be regretted because the preparations had been on a very extensive and costly scale4 ,the chief result was that it was ascertained that the ,red ,flames 7hence forward generally called ,prominences7 are composed of hydrogen gas in an incandescent state4 ,the year #ahga saw1 on ,december #ab1 another ,indian eclipse1 noteworthy for the numerous and excellent photographs which were obtained of the ,corona1 of the rifts in it1 and of the general details1 which were well recorded on the plates4 ,there was an eclipse visible in ,south ,africa on ,april #af1 #ahgd4 ,some useful naked eye views were obtained and recorded1 but as no photographic work was done1 this eclipse cannot be said to come into line with those which preceded or followed it4 ,in the following year1 that is to say on ,april #f1 #ahge1 there was a total eclipse of the ,sun1 visible in the far ,east1 especially ,siam2 but the distance from ,england1 coupled with the very generally unfavourable weather1 prevented this from being anything more than a second-class total eclipse1 so to speak1 although extensive preparations had been made1 and the sum of #ajjj had been granted by the ,british ,government towards the expenses4 ,a certain number of photographs were obtained1 but none of any very great value4 ,perhaps of the next eclipse which we have to consider1 it may be said that the circumstances were more varied than those of any other during the second half of the #aith century4 ,the eclipse in question occurred on ,july #bi1 #ahgh4 ,several favourable circumstances concurred to make it a notable event4 ,in the first place1 the central line passed entirely across the ,united ,states2 in other words1 across a long stretch of inhabited and civilised territory1 accessible from both sides to a nation well provided with the requisite scientific skill and material resources of every kind4 ,but there was another special and rare facility available3 the central line crossed the chain of the ,rocky ,mountains1 an elevated locality1 which an ,american writer speaks of as overhung by skies of such limpid clearness1 that on several evenings ,jupiter's satellites were seen with the naked eye4 ,on the summit of a certain peak1 known as ,pike's ,peak1 a party of skilled observers1 headed by ,professor ,langley1 observed the wonderful developments of the ,corona1 mentioned on a previous page4 ,the fact that such a display came under the eyes of man was no doubt mainly due to the superbly clear atmosphere through which the observations were made4 ,that this is not a mere supposition may be inferred from the fact that at the lower elevation of only #hjjj feet1 instead of #ad1jjj feet1 the ,coronal streamers were seen by ,professor ,newcomb's party1 far less extended than ,langley saw them4 ,perhaps the best proof of the importance of a diaphanous sky is to be found in the fact that on the summit of ,pike's ,peak1 the ,corona remained visible for fully #d minutes after the total phase had come to an end4 ,a comparison of the descriptions shows that even at the elevation of #aj1bjj ft4 the observers placed there1 whilst they were better off than those at #hjjj ft41 assuredly did not see so much or so well as those at #ad1jjj ft4 ,there occurred a total eclipse on ,july #aa1 #ahhj1 visible in ,california1 but as the totality lasted only #cb secs4 and the ,sun's elevation was only #aa1 not much was got out of this eclipse notwithstanding that it was observed in a cloudless sky at a station #fjjj ft4 above the sea4 ,the eclipse of ,may #ag1 #ahhb1 yielded several interesting and important features although the totality was short--only about #a minutes4 ,here again favourable local circumstances helped astronomers in more ways than one4 ,it was in ,egypt that the eclipse was visible1 and ,egypt is a country which it is exceedingly easy for travellers to reach1 and it is also noted for its clear skies4 ,these were doubtless two of the reasons which combined to inspire the elaborate preparations which were made for photographic and spectroscopic observations4 ,the former resulted in a very unprecedented success4 ,one of ,dr4 ,schuster's photographs of the totality showed not only the expected ,corona1 but an unexpected comet4 ,though on more than one previous occasion in history the darkness which is a special accompaniment of a total eclipse had caused a comet to be seen1 yet the #ahhb eclipse was the first at which a comet had thrust itself upon the notice of astronomers by means of a photographic plate4 ,it will be remembered that the political circumstances of ,egypt in #ahhb were of a somewhat strained character and probably this contributed to the development of an unusual amount of astronomical competition in connection with this eclipse4 ,not only did the ,egyptian ,government grant special facilities1 but strong parties went out representing ,england1 ,france1 and ,italy1 although not perhaps in set terms at the direct instigation of their respective ,governments4 ,the next eclipse1 that of ,may #f1 #ahhc1 had some dramatic features about it4 ,to begin with its duration was unusually long--nearly #e minutes1 and ,mrs4 ,todd in her genial ,american style remarks3--,after the frequent manner of its kind1 the path lay where it would be least useful--across the wind-swept wastes of the ,pacific4 ,but fortunately one of a small group of coral islands lay quite in its line1 and1 nothing daunted1 the brave scientific men set their faces toward this friendly cluster1 in cheerful faith that they could locate there4 ,directed to take up their abode somewhere on a diminutive island about which nothing could be ascertained beforehand1 save the bare fact of its existence at a known spot in mid-ocean1 the ,american observers were absent from the ,united ,states more than three months1 most of which time was spent in travelling1 #ae1jjj miles in all1 with ten full weeks at sea4 ,their tiny foothold in the ,pacific was ,caroline ,island1 a coral atoll on the outskirts of the ,marquesas group4 ,in spite of the unattractive1 not to say forbidding1 character of the place to which they would have to go1 parties of astronomers went out from ,england1 ,france1 ,austria1 and ,italy1 and although rain fell on the morning of the day the sky became quite clear by the time of totality and the observations were completely successful4 ,one of the pictures of the ,corona obtained by ,trouvelot1 an observer of ,french descent1 but belonging to the ,american party1 has been often reproduced in books and exhibited the ,corona in a striking form4 ,how few were the attractions of ,caroline ,island as an eclipse station may be judged from the fact that the inhabitants consisted of only four native men1 one woman1 and two children who lived in three houses and two sheds4 ,on ,september #h1 #ahhe1 there occurred a total eclipse1 which was seen as such in ,new ,zealand1 but the observations were few1 and with one exception1 unimportant and uninteresting4 ,a certain ,mr4 ,graydon1 however1 made a sketch which showed at one point a complete break in the ,corona so that from the very edge of the ,moon outwards into space1 there was a long and narrow black space showing nothing but a vacuity4 ,if this was really the condition of things1 such a break in the ,corona is apparently quite unprecedented4 ,in #ahhf1 on ,august #bi1 there occurred a total eclipse1 visible in the ,west ,indies1 which yielded various important results4 ,it was unfortunate that for the greater part of its length1 the zone of totality covered ocean and not land1 the only land being the ,island of ,grenada and some adjacent parts of ,south ,america4 ,the resulting restriction as regards choice of observing stations was the more to be regretted because the duration of the totality was so unusually long1 and therefore favourable1 being more than #f minutes in the middle of the ,atlantic ,ocean4 ,parties of ,english1 ,american1 and ,italian astronomers assembled1 however1 at ,grenada1 and though the weather was not the best possible1 some interesting photographs were obtained which exhibited an unusual development of hydrogen protuberances4 ,the central line in this eclipse not only stretched right across the ,atlantic1 but entered ,africa on the ,west ,coast where a missionary saw the eclipse as a mere spectator1 and afterwards expressed his regret that no astronomers were within reach with instruments to record the remarkable ,corona which was displayed to his gaze4 ,though the unusual opportunities which1 so far as the ,sun and the ,moon were concerned1 were afforded by the eclipse of #ahhf were lost1 astronomers looked out hopefully for ,august #ai1 #ahhg1 when another eclipse was due to happen which1 weather permitting1 would be observable over a very long stretch of land1 from ,berlin through ,russia and ,siberia to ,japan4 ,unusually extensive preparations were made in ,russia at one end and in ,japan at the other1 but clouds prevailed very generally1 and the pictures of the ,corona which were obtained fell far short in number and quality from what had been hoped for1 having regard to the number and importance of the stations chosen1 and of the astronomers who made their preparations thereat4 ,an enthusiastic ,russian1 in the hopes of emancipating himself from the risks of terrestrial weather at the ,earth's surface1 went up in a balloon to an elevation of more than two miles4 ,his enthusiasm was so far rewarded that he had a very clear view of a magnificent ,corona2 but as1 owing to some mischance1 the balloon rose1 conveying only the astronomer and leaving behind his assistant who was to have managed the balloon1 all his time was engrossed by the management of the balloon1 and he could do very little in the way of purely astronomical work4 ,the year #ahhi afforded two total eclipses of the ,sun for which the usual preparations were made4 ,the first occurred on ,new ,year's ,day1 and the path of the shadow crossed the ,north ,american ,continent from ,california to ,manitoba4 ,the weather was nearly everywhere very favourable1 and an enormous number of observers and instruments were assembled along the central line4 ,the consequence was that a very large number of photographs were obtained4 ,it may be said generally of this eclipse1 that as it coincided with a ,sun-spot minimum1 it left us in a position to learn very distinctly what are the characteristic features of a solar ,corona at a period which is one of rest and repose on the ,sun1 at least1 so far as regards visible ,sun-spots4 ,the second eclipse of #ahhi occurred on ,december #bb1 and should have been visible off the northern coast of ,south ,america and on the ,west ,coast of ,africa4 ,attempts were made to utilise the ,south ,american chances by ,english and ,american parties1 whilst a small expedition comprising astronomers of both nations went to ,cape ,ledo in ,west ,africa4 ,the ,african efforts failed entirely owing to clouds1 but the ,south ,american parties at ,cayenne were successful4 ,one very deplorable result1 however1 arising out of the expedition to ,cayenne was the illness and subsequent death of the ,rev4 ,s4 ,j4 ,perry1 ,s4,j41 who was struck down by malaria and died at sea on the return journey4 ,none who knew ,mr4 ,perry personally could fail to realise what a loss he was both to astronomy generally and to his own circle of friends particularly4 ,on ,april #af1 #ahic1 there happened a total eclipse of the ,sun1 which was successfully watched by a large number of skilled observers throughout its entire length4 ,indeed it is believed that only one party was unsuccessful4 ,the line of totality started on the coast of ,chili1 passed over the highlands of that country1 across the borders of ,argentina and ,paraguay1 and over the vast plains and forests of ,central ,brazil1 emerging at about noon of local time at a short distance to the ,n4-,w4 of ,ceara on the ,north ,atlantic seaboard4 ,crossing the ,atlantic nearly at its narrowest part1 it struck the coast of ,africa ,n4 of the river ,gambia1 and finally disappeared somewhere in the ,sahara4 ,the ,south ,american observations were the most extensive and successful1 the latter fact being due to the circumstance that the sky at many of the principal stations was pre-eminently favourable1 owing to the clearness and dryness of the atmosphere4 ,on ,sept4 #bi1 #ahid1 there was a total eclipse of the ,sun1 but as its duration was brief and the zone of totality lay chiefly over the ,indian ,ocean1 practically nothing came of it4 ,things seemed1 however1 much more promising for the total eclipse of ,aug4 #i1 #ahif1 and a very large number of observers went out to the ,north of ,norway hoping to catch the shadow at its ,european end1 whilst a yacht party went to ,nova ,zembla in the ,arctic ,ocean1 and a few observers travelled as far as ,japan4 ,so far as the very large number of would-be observers who went from ,england to ,norway were concerned1 the eclipse was a profound disappointment1 for owing to bad weather practically nothing was seen in ,norway except on the ,west coast near ,bod1 where the weather was beautifully fine1 but where no adequate preparations had been made1 because nobody believed that the coast would be free from fog4 ,exceptionally fine weather prevailed at ,nova ,zembla1 and the small but select party who were kindly taken there by the late ,sir ,g4 ,b4 ,powell1 ,m4,p41 in his yacht1 were very fortunate1 and an excellent series of photographs was secured4 ,one important result obtained at ,nova ,zembla was a full confirmation by ,mr4 ,shackleton of ,prof4 ,young's discovery in #ahgj of the ,reversing ,layer1 a discovery which was long and vehemently disputed by ,sir ,norman ,lockyer4 ,fairly successful observations were made of this eclipse in ,siberia and ,japan4 ,the last total eclipse of the ,sun which has to be noticed as an accomplished fact was the ,indian ,eclipse of ,jan4 #bb1 #ahih1 which was very successfully seen by large numbers of people who went to ,india from all parts of the world4 ,as usual in all total eclipses of the ,sun nowadays1 the photographers were very much to the front1 and the photographs of the inner ,corona1 taken by the ,astronomer ,royal1 are thought to have been probably the best that have yet been done4 ,amongst the miscellaneous observations made1 it may be mentioned that more stars were seen during the second partial phases than during totality 7a circumstance which had been noticed by ,don ,a4 ,ulloa as far back as #aggh74 ,it is stated also that a mysterious object was seen between ,mars and ,venus by two officers of ,h4,m4,s4 ,melpomene1 which was not put down on the published chart as a star to be looked for4 ,the identity of this object has not been ascertained4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #ajh3 ,memoirs1 ,r4,a4,s41 vol4 x4 p4 #e4 ,footnote #aji3 ,l',annuaire1 #ahdf1 p4 #cjc4 ,footnote #aaj3 ,month4 ,not41 ,r4,a4,s41 vol4 xx4 p4 #cja2 ,may #ahfj4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,the ,,electric ,,telegraph ,,as ,,applied ,,to ,,eclipses ,,of ,,the ,,sun4 ,amongst the auxiliary agencies which have been brought into use in recent years1 to enable astronomers the better to carry out systematic observations of eclipses of the ,sun1 the electric telegraph occupies a place which may hereafter become prominent4 ,as it is not likely that this little book will fall into the hands of any persons who would be able to make much use of telegraphy in connection with eclipse observations1 it will not be necessary to give much space to the matter1 but a few outlines will certainly be interesting4 ,when the idea of utilising the telegraph wire first came into men's minds1 it was with the object of enabling observers who saw the commencement of an eclipse at one end of the line of totality1 to give cautionary notices to observers farther on1 or towards the far end1 of special points which had been seen at the beginning of the totality1 and as to which confirmatory observations1 at a later hour1 were evidently very desirable4 ,it is obvious that a scheme of this kind depends for its success upon each end 7or something like it7 of the line of totality being in telegraphic communication with the other end1 and this involves a combination of favourable circumstances not likely to exist at every occurrence of a total eclipse1 and in general only likely to prevail in the case of eclipses visible over inhabited territory1 such as the two ,americas1 ,europe1 and parts of ,asia4 ,this use of the telegraph was1 ,i think1 first proposed as far back as #ahgh1 by an ,american astronomer1 in connection with the total eclipse of that year4 ,his proposal fell upon sympathetic ears1 with the result that arrangements were concluded with the ,western ,union ,telegraph ,company of ,north ,america for the expeditious forwarding of messages from northern stations on the eclipse line to southern stations4 ,some attention was being given at that time to the question of ,intra-,mercurial planets1 and it was thought that if by good fortune any such objects were unexpectedly found at the northern station1 and observers at a southern station could be advised of the fact1 there might be a better chance of procuring an accurate and precise record of the discovery4 ,as it happened1 nothing came of it on that occasion1 but the idea of utilising the telegraph having once taken possession of men's minds1 it was soon seen what important possibilities were opened up4 ,the want of telegraph organisation curiously made itself felt in the ,egyptian eclipse of #ahhb4 ,it is stated in another chapter of this work that during the total phase a comet was unexpectedly discovered4 ,now comets sometimes move very rapidly 7especially when they are near the ,sun71 and had it been possible to have warned some observer to the ,e4 of ,egypt to look out for this comet1 and had he seen it even only a couple of hours after it had been found in ,egypt1 some data respecting its position might have been obtained which would have permitted a rough estimate being formed of its movement through the heavens4 ,such an estimate might have enabled astronomers to have hunted up the comet at sunset or sunrise on the days immediately following the eclipse4 ,as it happened1 however1 the comet was not seen again in #ahhb1 and1 so far as we know1 may never be seen again4 ,it was not till #ahhi that a complete organisation of a telegraph service in connection with an eclipse was accomplished4 ,the eclipse of ,january #a of that year began in the ,pacific and the line of totality touched land in ,california1 passing across ,north ,america to ,manitoba4 ,the first ,californian station was at ,willows1 and was occupied by a party from ,harvard ,college ,observatory1 who were supplied with an unusually complete equipment of photographic apparatus1 together with a large camera for charting all the stars in the neighbourhood of the ,sun1 so as to detect an ,intra-,mercurial planet if one existed4 ,the telegraph scheme which had to be worked out was somewhat complicated1 and one of the chief actors in the scene has furnished a fairly full account of what was done4 ,first of all1 a complete list of the instruments and of the work proposed to be done by them had to be prepared4 ,the weather probabilities being everywhere very unsatisfactory1 there was a possibility of all degrees of success or failure1 and one thing which had to be prearranged for each station was a cypher code which should be available for all the likely combinations of instruments1 weather and results4 ,it was found that about one hundred words would suffice for the necessary code1 including words which would indicate in a sufficiently precise manner the position of any new planet which a photograph might disclose4 ,the following1 being a part of the code prescribed for use at ,willows1 will serve to indicate the nature of the whole scheme3-- ,africa1 ,perfectly clear throughout the whole eclipse4 ,alaska1 ,perfectly clear during totality4 ,belgium1 ,clear sky for the partial phases1 but cloudy for totality4 ,bolivia1 ,entirely cloudy throughout the whole eclipse4 ,brazil1 ,observed all the contacts4 ,bremen1 ,observed three of the contacts4 ,ceylon1 ,made observations on the shadow-bands4 ,chili1 ,observed lines of the reversing layer visually4 ,china1 ,the ,corona showed great detail4 ,cork1 ,obtained #dj-ej negatives during totality4 ,corsica1 ,obtained #ej-fj negatives during totality4 ,crimea1 ,obtained #fj-gj negatives during totality4 ,cuba1 ,observed a comet4 ,upwards of twenty codes were prepared for the like number of stations1 and the observers were to report their results at the earliest possible moment4 ,on a rehearsal of the programme the thought occurred that the sending and reception of so many cypher messages in the ordinary course of business might lead to delays which would be productive of serious inconvenience1 and that the success of the whole scheme could be only well assured if a special wire1 in direct circuit from ,new ,york to the eclipse stations in turn1 could be dedicated to the work4 ,thanks to the liberality of the ,western ,union ,telegraph ,company this privilege was secured1 and a branch wire was led across from the ,company's ,new ,york office to the office of the ,new ,york ,herald1 which journal had undertaken to be responsible for the non-astronomical part of the business4 ,mrs4 ,todd gives the following account of the final arrangements1 and of how they began to work when the moment for action arrived3--,from ,san ,francisco every ,california observer was within easy telegraphic reach1 and the wire thus extended by direct circuit to each eclipse station in turn4 ,from the editorial rooms of the ,herald ,professor ,todd was in immediate communication with any observers whom he chose to call4 ,as previously intimated1 arrangements had been made with the ,harvard astronomers at ,willows to receive their message first and with the utmost despatch1 in order to test the feasibility of outstripping the ,moon4 ,shortly before #e o'clock in the afternoon despatches began to come in4 ,of course a slight delay was unavoidable1 as the observers at the various stations were some rods distant from the local telegraph offices1 and it would take a few minutes after the eclipse was over to prepare the suitable message from the cypher code4 ,on the astronomer's table in the ,herald office were a large map and a chronometer4 ,the latter indicated exact ,greenwich time1 and the former showed the correct position of the ,moon's shadow at the beginning of every minute by the chronometer4 ,in this way it was possible to follow readily the precise phase of the eclipse at every station4 ,about the rooms and accessible for immediate use were arranged the cypher codes pertaining to the several stations and other papers necessary in preparing the reports for the press4 ,everything being1 as was supposed1 in working order1 ,new ,york about a quarter of an hour before totality commenced inquired of ,willows the state of the weather4 ,the answer was that the sky was getting dark1 and that there were no clouds anywhere near the ,sun4 ,at that time the ,moon's shadow was travelling across the open waters of the ,pacific4 ,it rapidly rushed along2 totality came and went at ,willows2 a two minutes' glimpse of the ,corona was had1 and the ,corona swept rapidly eastwards4 ,after a brief interval ,professor ,pickering sent off from ,willows a telegram which began--,alaska1 ,china1 ,corsica1 and then the connection failed4 ,the break was located somewhere between ,california and ,utah1 and more than half an hour elapsed ere the circuit was re-established1 and the rest of the message received4 ,the remainder of the thrilling incidents of that eventful day cannot possibly be better told than in ,mrs4 ,todd's crisp and striking language#aaa3-- ,during this interval the lunar shadow1 advancing over ,montana and ,dakota1 had left the ,earth entirely1 sweeping off again into space4 ,still1 however1 the prospect that the telegraph might win the race was hopeful4 ,had ,new ,york been located in the eclipse path as well as ,willows1 with both stations symmetrically placed1 the total eclipse would have become visible at ,new ,york about an hour and a quarter after the shadow had left ,california4 ,thus there was time to spare4 ,having recovered the wire1 ,professor ,pickering's message was completed at #aj;h4 #cfm4 ,g4,m4,t41 the cypher translated1 and the stenographer's notes were written out and despatched to the composing-room six minutes later4 ,the copy was quickly put in type1 and the hurried proof handed to ,professor ,todd at #aj;h4 #ejm41 exactly an hour of absolute time after the observations were concluded4 ,had the ,moon's shadow been advancing from ,california toward ,new ,york1 there was still a margin of several minutes before the eclipse could become total at the latter place4 ,in point of fact1 while the proof sheet of the first message was being read1 the lunar shadow would have been loitering among the ,alleghanies4 ,man's messenger had thus outrun the ,moon4 ,the telegraphic reports of the other astronomers were gradually gathered and put in type1 and the forms of the ,herald were ready for the stereotyper at the proper time1 some two hours after midnight4 ,at #c o'clock a4m4 the ,european mails closed1 and the pouches put on board the steamship ,aller carried the usual copies for the foreign circulation4 ,within twenty-four hours after the observations of the eclipse were made near the ,pacific coast1 the results had been telegraphed to the ,atlantic seaboard1 collected and printed1 and the papers were well out on their journey to ,european readers4 ,the foregoing narrative will make amply clear the future possibilities of telegraphy as a coadjutor of ,astronomy in the observation of total eclipses of the ,sun4 ,and if the will and the funds are forthcoming1 the eclipse of ,may #bh1 #aijj1 will afford an excellent opportunity of again putting to the test the excellent ideas of which our ,american friends worked out so successfully ten years ago4 ,the zone of totality in that eclipse passing as it will through so many of the densely populated ,southern ,states of ,north ,america1 and then through ,portugal1 ,spain1 and ,algiers1 great facilities will present themselves for telegraphic combinations1 if political and financial difficulties do not interfere4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #aaa3 ,there is a want of uniformity in ,mrs4 ,todd's references to times which ,i have not thought it necessary to put straight4 ,greenwich ,mean ,time1 ,eastern ,u4,s4 ,standard ,time1 and ,pacific ,time1 are all severally quoted in happy-go-lucky confusion4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,eclipses ,,of ,,the ,,moon--,,general ,,principles4 ,in dealing with eclipses generally1 but with more especial reference to eclipses of the ,sun1 in a previous chapter1 it was unavoidable to mix up in some degree eclipses of the ,moon with those of the ,sun4 ,there are1 however1 distinctions between the two phenomena which make it convenient to separate them as much as possible4 ,eclipses of the ,moon are1 like those of the ,sun1 divisible into partial and total eclipses1 but those words have a different application in regard to eclipses of the ,moon from what they have when eclipses of the ,sun are in question4 ,a little thought will soon make it clear why this should be the case4 ,a partial eclipse of the ,sun results from the visible body of the ,sun being in part concealed from us by the solid body of the ,moon1 and so in a total eclipse there is total concealment of the one object by the other4 ,but when we come to deal with partial and total eclipses of the ,moon1 the situation1 is materially different4 ,the ,moon becomes invisible by passing into the dark shadow cast by the ,earth into space4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--,,theory ,,of ,,an ,,eclipse ,,of ,,the ,,moon4 ,fig4 #ac will make this clear without the necessity of much verbal explanation4 ,s represents the ,sun1 ,e the ,earth1 and mn the orbit of the ,moon4 ,it is obvious that whilst the ,moon is moving from m to n it becomes immersed in the ,earth's shadow4 ,but before actually reaching the shadow the ,moon passes through a point in its orbit at which it begins to lose the full light of the ,sun4 ,this is the entrance into the penumbra 7or ,partial shade74 ,similarly1 after the eclipse1 when the ,moon has emerged from the full shadow it does not all at once come into full sunshine1 but again passes through the stage of penumbral illumination1#aab and under such circumstances 7to speak in the style of ,old ,oireland7 the invisible ,moon is very often not invisible1 and the part partially eclipsed is often not eclipsed1 and when the ,moon is totally eclipsed it is frequently still visible4 ,of course the general idea involved in all cases of a body passing into the shadow of another body is that the body which so passes disappears1 because all direct light is cut off from it4 ,in the case1 however1 of a lunar eclipse this state of things is not always literally accomplished1 and very often some residual light reaches the ,moon 7of course from the ,sun7 with the result that traces of the ,moon may often be discerned4 ,the laws which govern this matter are very ill-understood4 ,the fact remains that if we examine a series of reports of observed eclipses of the ,moon extending over many centuries 7and records exist which enable us to do this7 we shall find that in some instances when the ,moon was totally eclipsed in the technical sense of that word1 it was still perfectly visible1 whilst during other eclipses it absolutely and entirely disappeared from view4 ,such eclipses are sometimes spoken of as black eclipses of the ,moon1 but the phrase is not a happy one4 ,many instances of both kinds will be found mentioned in the chapter on historical lunar eclipses4#aac ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--;,,conditions ,,of ,,eclipses ,,of ,,the ,,moon4 ,the different conditions of eclipses of the ,moon are illustrated by ,fig4 #ad which must be studied with the aid of the remarks made in a former chapter concerning the apparent movements of the ,sun and ,moon and their nodal passages4 ,suffice it to state here that in ,fig4 #ad ,,ab represents the ecliptic1 and ,,cd the ,moon's path4 ,the three black circles are imaginary sections of the ,earth's shadow as cast when the ,earth is in three successive positions in the ecliptic4 ,if when the ,earth's shadow is near ,a the ,moon should be at ,e1 and in ,conjunction with the ,earth the ,moon will escape eclipse2 if the ,conjunction takes place with both the ,earth's shadow and the ,moon a little further forward1 say at ,f1 the ,moon will be partially obscured2 but if the ,moon is at or very near its node1 as at ,g1 it will be wholly involved in the ,earth's shadow and a total eclipse will be the result4 ,in the case contemplated at ,g in the diagram1 the ,moon is concentrically placed with respect to the shadow1 but the eclipse will equally be total even though the two bodies are not concentrically disposed1 so long as the ,moon is wholly within the cone of the ,earth's shadow4#aad ,just as in the case of the ,sun so with the ,moon there are certain limits on the ecliptic within which eclipses of the ,moon may take place1 other 7narrower7 limits within which they must take place1 and again other limits beyond which they cannot take place4 ,reverting to what has been said on a previous page#aae with respect to these matters when an eclipse of the ,sun is in question it is only necessary to substitute for the word ,conjunction1 the word ,opposition2 and for #ah and #ae of longitude the figures #ab and #i4 ,the limits in latitude will be #a #c' and #j #eb' instead of #a #cd' and #a #bc'4 ,these substitutions made1 the general ideas and facts stated with regard to the conditions of an eclipse of the ,sun will apply also to the one of the ,moon4 ,it is to be noted that whereas eclipses of the ,sun always begin on the ,w4 side of the ,sun1 eclipses of the ,moon begin on the ,e4 side of the ,moon4 ,this difference arises from the fact that the ,sun's movement in the ecliptic is only apparent 7it being the ,earth which really moves71 whilst the ,moon's movement is real4 ,eclipses of the ,moon1 though more often and more widely visible than eclipses of the ,sun1 do not offer by any means the same variety of interesting or striking phenomena to the mere star-gazer1 and it was long thought that they were in a certain sense of no use to science4 ,now1 however1 astronomers are inclined to utilise them for determining the diameter of the ,moon by noting occultations#aaf of stars by the ,moon1 the duration of a star's invisibility behind an eclipsed ,moon being a measure of the lunar diameter when such an observation is properly transformed and reduced4 ,observations of the heat radiated 7or rather reflected7 by an eclipsed ,moon have also been made with the interesting result of showing that during an eclipse the ,moon's power to reflect solar heat to the ,earth sensibly declines4 ,the duration of an eclipse of the ,moon is dependent on its magnitude4 ,where the eclipse is total the darkness1 or what counts for such1 may last for nearly #d hours1 though this is an extreme limit rarely attained4 ,an eclipse of from #f to #ab digits 7to use the old-fashioned nomenclature which has been already explained7 will continue from #b to #c hours4 ,an eclipse of #c to #f digits will last #b or #c hours1 and a smaller eclipse only #a or #b hours4 ,the visual observations to be made in connection with partial or total eclipses of the ,moon chiefly relate to the appearances presented by our satellite when immersed in the ,earth's shadow4 ,on such occasions1 as has been already stated1 it frequently happens that the ,moon does not wholly disappear1 but may be detected either with a telescope or even without one4 ,it may exhibit either a dull grey appearance1 or more commonly a pinkish-red hue to which the designation coppery is generally applied4 ,perhaps the most remarkable instance of this was the eclipse of ,march #ai1 #ahdh4 ,mr4 ,forster who observed the phenomenon at ,bruges thus describes#aag what he saw3--,i wish to call your attention to the fact which ,i have clearly ascertained1 that during the whole of the late eclipse of ,march #ai the shaded surface presented a luminosity quite unusual1 probably about three times the intensity of the mean illumination of the eclipsed lunar disc4 ,the light was of a deep red colour4 ,during the totality of the eclipse the light and dark places on the face of the ,moon could be almost as well made out as on an ordinary dull moonlight night1 and the deep red colour where the sky was clearer was very remarkable from the contrasted whiteness of the stars4 ,my observations were made with different telescopes1 but all presented the same appearance1 and the remarkable luminosity struck everyone4 ,the ,british ,consul at ,ghent1 who did not know there was an eclipse1 wrote to me for an explanation of the blood-red colour#aah of the ,moon at #i o'clock4 ,in striking contrast to this stands the total eclipse of ,oct4 #d1 #ahhd1 which is described by ,mr4 ,e4 ,j4 ,stone#aai as much the darkest that ,i have ever seen1 and just before the instant of totality it appeared as if the ,moon's surface would be invisible to the naked eye during totality2 but such was not the case1 for with the last appearance of the bright reflected sunlight there appeared a dim circle of light around the ,moon's disc1 and the whole surface became faintly visible1 and continued so until the end of totality4 ,a total eclipse of the ,moon which happened on ,january #bh1 #ahhh1 was observed in many places under exceptionally favourable circumstances as regards weather4 ,the familiar copper colour is spoken of by many observers4 ,the ,rev4 ,s4 ,j4 ,perry makes mention#abj of patches of colour even as bright as brick red1 almost orange in the brighter parts1 and this1 #bj minutes before the total phase began4 ,mr4 ,perry conducted on this occasion spectroscopic observations for the first time on an eclipsed ,moon1 but no special results were obtained4 ,various explanations have been offered for these diversities of appearance4 ,undoubtedly they depend upon differences in the condition of the ,earth's atmosphere1 such as the unusual presence or unusual absence of aqueous vapour2 but it cannot be said that the laws which control these diversities are by any means capable of being plainly enunciated1 notwithstanding that the explanation generally in vogue dates from as far back as the time of ,kepler4 ,he suggested that the coppery hue was a result of the refraction of the ,earth's atmosphere which had the effect of bending the solar rays passing through it1 so that they impinged upon the ,moon even when the ,earth was actually interposed between the ,sun and the ,moon4 ,that the outstanding rays which became visible are red may be considered due to the fact that the blue rays are absorbed in passing through the terrestrial atmosphere1 just as both the eastern and western skies are frequently seen to assume a ruddy hue when illuminated in the morning or evening by the solar rays at or near sunrise or sunset4 ,owing to the variable meteorological condition of our atmosphere1 the actual quantity of light transmitted through it is liable to considerable fluctuations1 and no wonder therefore that variations occur in the appearances presented by the ,moon during her immersion in the ,earth's shadow4 ,it has been suggested that if the portion of the ,earth's atmosphere through which the ,sun's rays have to pass is tolerably free from aqueous vapour1 the red rays will be almost wholly absorbed1 but not the blue rays2 and the resulting illumination will either only render the ,moon's surface visible with a greyish blue tinge1 or not visible at all4 ,this will yield the black eclipse--to recall the phrase quoted elsewhere4 ,if1 on the other hand1 the region of the ,earth's atmosphere through which the ,sun's rays pass be highly saturated1 it will be the blue rays which suffer absorption1 whilst the red rays will be transmitted and will impart a ruddy hue to the ,moon4 ,finally1 if the ,earth's atmosphere is in a different condition in different places1 saturated in some parts and not in others1 a piebald sort of effect will be the result1 and some portions of the ,moon's disc will be invisible1 whilst others will be more or less illuminated4 ,further illustrations of all these three alternatives will be found amongst the eclipses of the ,moon recorded in the chapter#aba devoted to historical matters4 ,a few instances are on record of a curious spectacle connected with eclipses of the ,moon which must have a word of mention4 ,i refer to the simultaneous visibility of the ,sun and the ,moon above the horizon1 the ,moon at the time being eclipsed4 ,at the first blush of the thing this would seem to be an impossibility1 remembering that it is a cardinal principle of eclipses1 both of the ,sun and of the ,moon1 that the three bodies must be in the same straight line in order to constitute an eclipse4 ,the anomalous spectacle just referred to is simply the result of the refraction exercised by the ,earth's atmosphere4 ,the setting ,sun which has actually set has apparently not done so1 but is displaced upwards by refraction4 ,on the other hand1 the rising ,moon which has not actually risen is displaced upwards by refraction and so becomes1 as it were1 prematurely visible4 ,in other words1 refraction retards the apparent setting of one body1 the ,sun1 and accelerates the apparent rising of the other body1 the ,moon4 ,the effect of these two displacements will be to bring the two bodies closer by more than #a of a great circle than they really are1 this being the conjoint amount of the double displacements due to refraction4 ,amateur observers of eclipses of the ,moon will find some pleasure1 and profit as well1 in having before them on the occasion of an eclipse a picture of the ,moon's surface in diagrammatic form with a few of the principal mountains marked thereon2 and then watching from time to time 7say by quarters of an hour7 the successive encroachments of the ,earth's shadow on the ,moon's surface and the gradual covering up of the larger mountains as the shadow moves forward4 ,the curved lines represent the gradual progress of the shadow during the eclipse named4 ,this diagram1 ignoring the curved lines actually marked on it1 may be used over and over again for any number of eclipses1 simply noting from the ,nautical ,almanac or other suitable ephemerides the points on the ,moon's disc at which the shadow first touches the disc as it comes on1 and last touches the disc as it goes off4 ,the ,almanac indicates these points by stating that the eclipse begins1 or ends1 as the case may be1 at a point which is so many degrees from the ,n4 point of the ,moon measured round the ,moon's circumference by the ,e4 or by the ,w4 as the case may be4 ,one other point and we have disposed of eclipses of the ,moon4 ,the shadow which we see creeping over the ,moon during an eclipse is1 as we know1 the shadow cast by the ,earth4 ,if we notice it attentively we shall see that its outline is curved1 and that it is in fact a complete segment of a circle4 ,moreover that the circularity of this shadow is maintained from first to last so far as we are able to follow it4 ,what is this1 then1 but a proof of the rotundity of the earth8 ,this shape of the ,earth's shadow on the ,moon during a lunar eclipse was suggested as a proof of the rotundity of the ,earth by two old ,greek astronomers1 ,manilius and ,cleomedes1 who lived about #bjjj years ago1 and is one more illustration of the great powers of observation and the general acuteness of the natural philosophers of antiquity4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #aab3 ,the time occupied by the ,moon in passing through the penumbra1 before and after a lunar eclipse1 will generally run to about an hour for each passage4 ,it will occasionally happen that the ,moon gets immersed in a penumbra but escapes the dark shadow4 ,such an event will not be announced in the almanacs under the head of ,eclipses4 ,footnote #aac3 ,see p4 #aig 7post74 ,footnote #aad3 ,the shadow is spoken of as being in the form of a cone because it is necessarily such on account of the light-giving disc of the ,sun being so enormously larger in diameter than the light-receiving sphere of the ,moon4 ,this idea can be pursued by any reader with the aid of a lamp enclosed in a glass globe and an opaque sphere such as a cricket ball4 ,footnote #aae3 ,see p4 #ai 7ante74 ,footnote #aaf3 ,as to occultations see chap4 xxi4 7post74 ,footnote #aag3 ,month4 ,not41 ,r4,a4,s41 vol4 viii4 p4 #acb4 ,march1 #ahdh4 ,footnote #aah3 ,a very striking chromolithograph of the lunar eclipses of ,oct4 #d1 #ahhd1 and ,jan4 #bh1 #ahhh1 showing the contrast of--7#a7 an almost invisible grey ,moon1 and 7#b7 a reddish-pink ,moon1 will be found in the ,german astronomical monthly1 ,sirius1 vol4 xxi4 p4 #bda4 ,nov4 #ahhh4 ,footnote #aai3 ,month4 ,not41 ,r4,a4,s41 vol4 xlv4 p4 #ce4 ,footnote #abj3 ,month4 ,not41 ,r4,a4,s41 vol4 xlviii4 p4 #bbg4 ,march #ahhh4 ,footnote #aba3 p4 #aig 7post74 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,eclipses ,,of ,,the ,,moon ,,mentioned ,,in ,,history4 ,we saw in a previous chapter that we owe to the ,chinese the first record of an eclipse of the ,sun4 ,it must now be stated that the same remark applies to the first recorded eclipse of the ,moon1 and ,prof4 ,s4 ,m4 ,russell is again our authority4 ,he refers to a book called the ,chou-,shu or book of the ,chou ,dynasty1 said to have been found in #bhj ,a4,d4 in the tomb of an ,emperor who lived many centuries previously4 ,in this book it is stated that in the #ceth year of ,wen-,wang on the day ,ping-,tzu there was an eclipse of the ,moon4 ,russell finds that this event may be assigned to ,january #bi1 #aacf ,b4,c41 and that the eclipse was total4 ,next after this ,chinese eclipse1 in point of time1 come several eclipses recorded by ,ptolemy1 on the authority of records collected or examined by himself4 ,the three earliest of these came from ,chaldan sources4 ,the first of these eclipses was observed at ,babylon1 in the #bgth year of the era of ,nabonassar1 the #ast of the reign of ,mardokempadius1 on the #bith of the ,egyptian month ,thoth1 answering to ,march #ai1 #gba ,b4,c4 ,the eclipse began before moonrise1 and the middle of the totality appears to have occurred at #i;h4 #cjm4 p4m4 ,the other two eclipses1 also observed at ,babylon1 occurred on ,march #h1 #gbj ,b4,c41 and ,september #a1 in the same year1 respectively4 ,three other lunar eclipses1 recorded by ,ptolemy1 assisted ,sir ,i4 ,newton in fixing the ,terminus a quo from which the #gj weeks of years were to run which the prophet ,daniel#abb predicted were to elapse before the death of ,christ4 ,this ,terminus a quo dates from the ,restoration of the ,jews under ,artaxerxes1 #deg ,b4,c4 ,the three eclipses which ,newton made use of were those of ,july #af1 #ebc1 ,november #ai1 #ejb1 and ,april #be1 #dia ,b4,c4 ,aristophanes1 in ,the ,clouds 7lines #efa-ff71 makes an allusion to which has been supposed 7but probably without adequate warrant1 in ,spanheim's opinion71 to refer to an eclipse of the ,moon4 ,the eclipse1 ,october #i1 #dbe ,b4,c41 has1 moreover1 been suggested as that referred to1 but the whole idea seems to me too shadowy4 ,an eclipse of the ,moon took place in the #dth year of the #iast ,olympiad1 answering to ,august #bg1 #dac ,b4,c41 which produced very disastrous consequences to an ,athenian army1 owing to the ignorance and incapacity of ,nicias1 the commander4 ,the army was in ,sicily1 confronted by a ,syracusan army1 and having failed1 more or less1 and sickness having broken out1 it was decided that the ,athenians should embark and quit the island4 ,plutarch1 in his ,life of ,nicias1 says3--,everything accordingly was prepared for embarkation1 and the enemy paid no attention to these movements1 because they did not expect them4 ,but in the night there happened an eclipse of the ,moon1 at which ,nicias and all the rest were struck with a great panic1 either through ignorance or superstition4 ,as for an eclipse of the ,sun1 which happens at the ,conjunction1 even the common people had some idea of its being caused by the interposition of the ,moon2 but they could not easily form a conception1 by the interposition of what body the ,moon1 when at the full1 should suddenly lose her light1 and assume such a variety of colours4 ,they looked upon it therefore as a strange and preternatural phenomenon1 a sign by which the gods announced some great calamity4 ,and the calamity came to pass1 but only indirectly was it caused by the ,moon6 ,plutarch and ,pliny both mention that eleven days before the victory of ,alexander over ,darius1 at ,arbela in ,assyria1 there was an eclipse of the ,moon4 ,plutarch's words 7,life of ,alexander7 are1 that there happened an eclipse of the ,moon1 about the beginning of the festival of the great mysteries at ,athens4 ,the eleventh night after that eclipse1 the two armies being in view of each other1 ,darius kept his men under arms1 and took a general review of his troops by torch-light4 ,this seems to have led to a great deal of disorderly tumult in the ,assyrian camp1 a fact which was noticed by ,alexander4 ,several of his friends urged him to make a night attack on the enemy's camp1 but he preferred that his ,macedonians should have a good night's rest1 and it was then that he uttered the celebrated answer1 ,i will not steal a victory4 ,plutarch enters upon some rather interesting moral reflections connected with this answer1 but which of course are foreign to the subject of this volume4 ,this eclipse happened on ,september #bj1 #cca ,b4,c41 and was total1 the middle of the eclipse being at about #h4ae p4m4 ,it follows therefore1 that the celebrated battle of ,arbela was fought on ,october #a1 #cca ,b4,c4 ,in #bai ,b4,c4 an eclipse of the ,moon was seen in ,mysia1 according to ,polybius4#abc ,the date of ,september #a has been assigned for this eclipse which is said to have so greatly alarmed some ,gaulish ,mercenary troops in the service of ,attalus1 ,king of ,pergamos1 that he had to get rid of them as soon as he could--make terms with them to go home4 ,on the eve of the battle of ,pydna when ,perseus1 ,king of ,macedonia1 was conquered by ,paulus milius1 there happened an eclipse of the ,moon4 ,plutarch in his ,life of ,paulus milius1 speaking of his army having settled down in a camp1 says3--,when they had supped and were thinking of nothing but going to rest1 on a sudden the ,moon1 which was then at full and very high1 began to be darkened1 and after changing into various colours1 was at last totally eclipsed4 ,the ,romans1 according to their custom1 made a great noise by striking upon vessels of brass and held up lighted faggots and torches in the air in order to recall her light2 but the ,macedonians did no such thing2 horror and astonishment seized their whole camp1 and a whisper passed among the multitude that this appearance portended the fall of the king4 ,as for milius1 he was not entirely unacquainted with this matter2 he had heard of the ecliptic inequalities which bring the ,moon at certain periods under the shadow of the ,earth and darken her till she has passed that quarter of obscurity and receives light from the ,sun again4 ,nevertheless1 as he was wont to ascribe most events to the ,deity1 was a religious observer of sacrifices and of the art of divination1 he offered up to the ,moon #aa heifers as soon as he saw her regain her former lustre4 ,at break of day he also sacrificed oxen to ,hercules to the number of #bj without any auspicious sign1 but in the twenty-first the desired tokens appeared and he announced victory to his troops1 provided they stood upon the defensive4 ,the astronomical knowledge ascribed in this account to ,paulus milius1 constitutes a very interesting feature in this record because the ,romans though they were good at most things1 were by no means adepts at the science of ,astronomy4 ,livy#abd tells us that ,sulpicius ,gallus1 one of the ,roman tribunes1 foretold this eclipse1 first to the ,consul and then1 with his leave1 to the army1 whereby that terror which eclipses were wont to breed in ignorant minds was entirely taken off and the soldiers more and more disposed to confide in officers of so great wisdom and of such general knowledge4 ,this eclipse is often identified with that of ,june #ba1 #afh ,b4,c41 but ,johnson gives reasons why this cannot be the case and that the eclipse in question was that which happened on the night of ,june #aj-aa1 #afg ,b4,c41 and commenced about midnight1 whereas the eclipse of #afh ,b4,c4 was nearly over when the ,moon was above the horizon at ,rome4 ,stockwell1 however1 fixes on the eclipse of ,september #c1 #agb ,b4,c4 as that which was connected with the ,battle of ,pydna4 ,josephus#abe speaking of the barbarous acts of ,herod1 says3--,and that very night there was an eclipse of the ,moon4 ,there has been some controversy respecting the identification of this eclipse 7the only one mentioned by ,josephus7 which also is associated with ,herod's last illness1 it not having been easy to reconcile some discordant chronological statements connected with the length of ,herod's reign and the date when he began to reign4 ,on the whole1 probably1 we shall be safe in saying that the reference is to the eclipse of ,march #ac1 #d ,b4,c4 ,this was a partial eclipse to the extent of less than half the ,moon's diameter1 a defalcation of light sufficient1 however1 to attract public notice even at #c a4m41 seeing that no doubt1 even at that hour1 the streets of ,jerusalem were in a state of turmoil owing to the burning alive by ,herod of some seditious ,rabbis4 ,it should be stated1 however1 that ,hind assigns the account by ,josephus to the eclipse which occurred on ,january #i1 #a ,b4,c4 ,on this occasion the ,moon passed nearly centrally through the ,earth's shadow soon after midnight1 emerging at #b4eg a4m4 on the early morning of ,january #aj1 local ,mean ,time at ,jerusalem4 ,tacitus#abf mentions an eclipse of the ,moon as having happened soon after the death of ,augustus4 ,this has been identified with the eclipse of ,september #bg1 ,a4,d4 #ad4 ,tacitus says3--,the ,moon in the midst of a clear sky became suddenly eclipsed2 the soldiers who were ignorant of the cause took this for an omen referring to their present adventures3 to their labours they compared the eclipse of the planet1 and prophesied 'that if to the distressed goddess should be restored her wonted brightness and splendour1 equally successful would be the issue of their struggle4' ,hence they made a loud noise1 by ringing upon brazen metal1 and by blowing trumpets and cornets2 as she appeared brighter or darker they exulted or lamented4 ,there was an eclipse of the ,moon on the generally recorded date of the ,crucifixion of our ,lord1 ,april #c1 ,a4,d4 #cc4 ,hind found that our satellite emerged from the ,earth's dark shadow about a quarter of an hour before she rose at ,jerusalem 7#f;h4 #cfm4 p4m471 but the penumbra continued upon her disc for an hour afterwards4 ,on ,jan4 #a1 ,a4,d4 #dg1 a total eclipse of the ,moon was seen at ,rome1 and on the same night an island rose up in the gean ,sea4 ,the total eclipse of ,feb4 #bb1 ,a4,d4 #gb1 noted by ,pliny1#abg is the first in which it is recorded that ,sun and ,moon were both visible at the same time1 the eclipse occurring when the ,sun was rising and the ,moon setting4 ,trithenius speaks of an eclipse of the ,moon observed in the time of ,merovus4 ,johnson identifies it with the eclipse of ,sept4 #ae1 #deb ,a4,d4 ,it was from ,merovus that the line of ,french kings known as ,merovingians received their name4 ,on ,april #af1 ,a4,d4 #fhc1 according to ,anastasius the ,papal historian1 the ,moon for nearly the whole night exhibited a blood-red appearance1 and did not emerge from obscurity till cockcrowing4 ,in ,a4,d4 #fij an eclipse of the ,moon was observed in ,wales4 ,we are told#abh that the ,moon was turned to the colour of blood4 ,this would seem to be the first eclipse of the ,moon recorded in ,britain4 ,the ,anglo-,saxon ,chronicle tells us that in ,a4,d4 #gcd the ,moon was as if it had been sprinkled with blood1 and ,archbishop ,tatwine and ,beda died and ,ecgberht was hallowed bishop4 ,the intended inference apparently is that the ,moon had something to do with the deaths of the two ecclesiastics1 but this theory will not hold water4 ,beda1 it may be remarked1 is the correct name of the man generally known to us as the ,venerable ,bede4 ,it is evident that from the description of the ,moon it exhibited on that occasion the well-known coppery hue which is a recognised feature of many total eclipses of our satellite4 ,this eclipse occurred on ,january #bd1 beginning at about #a a4m4 ,on the night of ,january #bc1 ,a4,d4 #gec1 the ,moon was covered with a horrid black shield4 ,this is the record of an eclipse4 ,it occurred at about midnight1 and apparently we are entitled to infer that on this occasion the ,moon disappeared altogether1 instead of being discoverable during the total phase by exhibiting a coppery hue4 ,in ,a4,d4 #gee or #gef in orig41 on ,november #bc1 there happened an exceedingly interesting event which stands1 ,i think1 without a precedent in the annals of science--an eclipse of the ,moon contemporaneous with an occultation of a planet by the ,moon4 ,this singular combination is thus described in the annals of ,roger de ,hoveden#abi3--,on the #hth day before the ,calends of ,december the ,moon on her #aeth day being about her full1 appeared to be covered with the colour of blood1 and then the darkness decreasing she returned to her usual brightness2 but1 in a wondrous manner1 a bright star followed the ,moon1 and passing across her1 preceded her when shining1 at the same distance which it had followed her before she was darkened4 ,the details here given are not astronomically quite correct1 but let that pass2 the writer's intention is fairly clear4 ,calculation shows that the eclipse occurred on ,november #bc1 and that the planet1 which was ,jupiter1 was concealed in the evening by the ,moon for about an hour from #g;h4 #cjm4 to #h;h4 #cjm4 p4m41 the immersion taking place about the end of the total phase4 ,this is the first occultation of a star or planet by the ,moon observed and recorded in ,england4 ,under the year #gie the ,anglo-,saxon ,chronicle says3--,in this year the ,moon was eclipsed between cockcrowing and dawn on the #eth of the ,calends of ,april2 and ,eardwalf succeeded to the kingdom of the ,northumbrians on the #bnd of the ,ides of ,may4 ,this signifies that the eclipse happened on ,march #bh between #c;h4 and #f;h4 in the morning1 the method of dividing the hours of night into equal portions of three hours each being still in use4 ,there was no eclipse in #gie on the date in question but there was one in #gif1 so we may suppose an error in the year4 ,this assumed1 ,johnson found that the eclipse began at about #d;h4 a4m41 was total for nearly an hour1 and ended at about #g;h41 so that the ,moon set eclipsed4 ,but the above assumption is dispensed with by ,lynn who substitutes one of his own4#acj ,for #eth of the ,calends he reads #eth of the ,ides1 which means ,april #i2 and on that day in #gie he says there was an eclipse of the ,moon1 but ,i have not found any other record of it4 ,in the year ,a4,d4 #hjj1 according to the ,anglo-,saxon ,chronicle1 the ,moon was eclipsed at the #bnd hour of the night 7#h;h4 p4m47 on the #agth day of the ,calends of ,february4 ,johnson finds that there was an eclipse of the ,moon on ,jan4 #ae4 ,the middle of the eclipse occurred at #h;h4 #cdm41 #i_/ajths of the ,moon's upper limb having been obscured4 ,under the date of #hjf the ,anglo-,saxon ,chronicle says3--,this year was the ,moon eclipsed on the ,kalends #ast of ,september2 and ,eardwulf1 ,king of the ,northumbrians1 was driven from his kingdom1 and ,eanberht1 ,bishop of ,hexham1 died4 ,this eclipse was total1 the totality lasting from #i;h4 #cgm4 to #aj;h4 #eim4 p4m4 ,on ,feb4 #ae1 #hag1 according to the ,annales ,fuldenses1 an eclipse of the ,moon was observed in the early evening at ,paris1 and on the same night a ,comet was seen4 ,this ,comet is described by another authority as a monstrous one and as being in ,sagittarius on ,feb4 #e4 ,the ,chinese date it for ,feb4 #ag1 and place it near the stars ,greek3 alpha and ,greek3 gamma ,tauri4 ,in #hbh two lunar eclipses were seen in ,europe1 the first on ,july #a very early in the morning1 and the second on the morning of ,christmas ,day4 ,the ,anglo-,saxon ,chronicle thus speaks of the second eclipse3--,in this year the ,moon was eclipsed on ,mid-winter's ,mass-night1 and the same year ,king ,ecgbryht subdued the kingdom of the ,mercians and all that was ,south of the ,humber4 ,the totality occurred after midnight4 ,there is some confusion in the year of this eclipse1 the ,chronicle giving it as #hbg1 whilst calculation shows that it must have been #hbh4 ,lynn defines ,mid-winter's ,mass-night as ,christmas ,eve4 ,under the date of #ijd the ,anglo-,saxon ,chronicle says3--,in this year the ,moon was eclipsed4 ,there were two total eclipses of the ,moon this year1 one on ,may #ca1 and the other on ,nov4 #be1 and it does not appear which one is referred to in the ,chronicle cited4 ,another writer1 ,cedrenus1 speaks of a great eclipse of the ,moon this year which he says foretold the death of a kinsman of the ,emperor4 ,on ,october #f1 #ajji1 there was a total eclipse of the ,moon which presumably is referred to in the statement that this year the ,moon was changed into blood4 ,on ,nov4 #h1 #ajdd1 there was a large partial eclipse in the morning4 ,raoul ,glaber#aca 7a ,french chronicler who died about #ajej7 comments upon it thus3--,in what manner it happened1 whether a prodigy brought to pass by the ,deity or by the intervention of some heavenly body1 remains known to the author of knowledge4 ,for the ,moon herself became like dark blood1 only getting clear of it a little before the dawn4 ,truly those times were the ,dark ,ages in which ignorance and folly were rampant1 seeing that more than #ajjj years previously the ,greeks knew all about the causes of eclipses4 ,under #ajgh the ,anglo-,saxon ,chronicle says3--,in this year the ,moon was eclipsed #c nights before ,candlemas1 and gelwig1 the 'world-wide' ,abbot of ,evesham1 died on ,st4 ,juliana's ,mass-day ,feb4 #af2 and in this year was the dry summer1 and wildfire came in many ,shires and burned many towns4 ,johnson found that a total eclipse of the ,moon happened in the early evening of ,jan4 #cj4 ,on ,may #e1 #aaaj1 in the reign of ,henry ,i41 there occurred a total eclipse of the ,moon during which1 says the ,anglo-,saxon ,chronicle1 the ,moon appeared in the evening brightly shining and afterwards by little and little its light waned1 so that as soon as it was night it was so completely quenched that neither light nor orb nor anything at all of it was seen4 ,and so it continued very near until day1 and then appeared full and brightly shining4 ,it was on this same day a fortnight old4 ,all the night the air was very clear1 and the stars over all the heaven were brightly shining4 ,and the tree-fruits on that night were sorely nipt4 ,the totality occurred before mid-night4 ,it is evident that this was an instance of a black eclipse when the ,moon becomes quite invisible instead of shining with the familiar coppery hue4 ,in #aaag there were two total eclipses1 the first on ,june #af1 and the second on ,december #aj4 ,the latter is thus referred to in the ,anglo-,saxon ,chronicle3--,in the night of the #crd of the ,ides of ,december the ,moon was far in during a long time of the night as if it were all bloody1 and afterwards eclipsed4 ,the totality commenced at #aa4cf p4m4 ,it is recorded by ,matthew ,paris#acb in connection with the death of ,henry ,i4 that the ,moon also was eclipsed the same year on the #bith of ,july #aace4 ,these words seem to indicate a total eclipse of the ,moon4 ,johnson gives the date as ,dec4 #bb1 #aace4 ,if this is correct the text of the ,chronicle must be corrupt4 ,the whole eclipse was not visible in ,england1 the ,moon setting before the middle of the eclipse4 ,stephen had been crowned king the same day1 namely ,dec4 #bb4 ,on ,june #cj1 #acdi1 there was a total eclipse of the ,moon visible at ,london to which some interest attaches4 ,archdeacon ,churton#acc connects it with the following incident3--,the worthy ,abp4 ,bradwardine1 who nourished in the reign of the ,norman ,edwards1 and died ,a4,d4 #acdi1 tells a story of a witch who was attempting to impose on the simple people of the time4 ,it was a fine summer's night1 and the ,moon was suddenly eclipsed4 ',make me good amends1' said she1 'for old wrongs1 or ,i will bid the ,sun also to withdraw his light from you4' ,bradwardine1 who had studied the ,arabian astronomers1 was more than a match for this simple trick1 without calling in the aid of the ,saxon law4 ',tell me1' he said1 'at what time you will do this1 and we will believe you2 or if you will not tell me1 ,i will tell you when the ,sun or the ,moon will next be darkened1 in what part of their orb the darkness will begin1 how far it will spread1 and how long it will continue4' ,an eclipse of the ,moon which happened when ,columbus was at the ,island of ,jamaica proved of great service to him when he was in difficulties owing to the want of food supplies which the inhabitants refused to afford4 ,the eclipse was a total one1 and so far as the description goes the eclipses of ,april #b1 #adic1 and ,march #a1 #aejd1 both respond to the recorded circumstances3 both were total and both occurred soon after sunset4 ,but1 inasmuch as in the life of ,columbus written by his son the incident is placed nearly at the end of the work1 there can be no doubt that it is the later of the above eclipses which was the one in question4 ,the story is very graphically told by ,sir ,a4 ,helps#acd in the words following3-- ,the ,indians refused to minister to their wants any longer2 and famine was imminent4 ,but just at this last extremity1 the admiral1 ever fertile in devices1 bethought him of an expedient for re-establishing his influence over the ,indians4 ,his astronomical knowledge told him that on a certain night an eclipse of the ,moon would take place4 ,one would think that people living in the open air must be accustomed to see such eclipses sufficiently often not to be particularly astonished at them4 ,but ,columbus judged--and as the event proved1 judged rightly--that by predicting the eclipse he would gain a reputation as a prophet1 and command the respect and the obedience due to a person invested with supernatural powers4 ,he assembled the caciques of the neighbouring tribes4 ,then1 by means of an interpreter1 he reproached them with refusing to continue to supply provisions to the ,spaniards4 ',the ,god who protects me1' he said1 'will punish you4 ,you know what has happened to those of my followers who have rebelled against me2 and the dangers which they encountered in their attempt to cross ,haiti1 while those who went at my command made the passage without difficulty4 ,soon1 too1 shall the divine vengeance fall on you2 this very night shall the ,moon change her colour and lose her light1 in testimony of the evils which shall be sent upon you from the skies4' ,the night was fine3 the moon shone down in full brilliancy4 ,but at the appointed time the predicted phenomenon took place1 and the wild howls of the savages proclaimed their abject terror4 ,they came in a body to ,columbus and implored his intercession4 ,they promised to let him want for nothing if only he would avert this judgment4 ,as an earnest of their sincerity they collected hastily a quantity of food and offered it at his feet4 ,at first1 diplomatically hesitating1 ,columbus presently affected to be softened by their entreaties4 ,he consented to intercede for them2 and1 retiring to his cabin1 performed1 as they supposed1 some mystic rite which should deliver them from the threatened punishment4 ,soon the terrible shadow passed away from the face of the moon1 and the gratitude of the savages was as deep as their previous terror4 ,but being blended with much awe1 it was not so evanescent as gratitude often is2 and henceforth there was no failure in the regular supply of provisions to the castaways4 ,tycho ,brahe observed a lunar eclipse on ,july #g1 #aeij4 ,he writes3--,in the morning about #c;h4 the ,moon began to be eclipsed3 in this eclipse it is notable that both luminaries were at the same time above the horizon2 a like case which ,pliny cites4 ,for the centre of the ,sun emerged when the ,moon was #b elevated above the ,western horizon1 and when her centre was setting1 the centre of the ,sun was elevated nearly #b4ace ,on ,august #af1 #aeih1 there occurred a total eclipse of the ,moon1 observed by ,kepler1#acf in which during totality a part of the ,moon was visible and the rest invisible4 ,he says1 that while one-half of the disc was seen with great difficulty the other half was discernible by a deep red light of such brilliancy that at first he was doubtful whether our satellite was immersed in the ,earth's shadow at all4 ,this is an instance of the simultaneous operation of those causes 7whatever they may be7 which result in a totally-eclipsed ,moon being sometimes wholly invisible and sometimes entirely visible as a copper-coloured disc4 ,an eclipse of the ,moon which happened on the morning of ,july #f1 #afaj1 may be mentioned as having been the first to be viewed through a telescope4 ,the eclipse was only a large partial one4 ,the following record of the fact is due to ,tycho ,brahe4#acg ,the beginning of the eclipse of the ,moon as observed through the ,roman telescope1 appeared like a dark thread in contact with the shadow--a description which cannot be said to be unduly explicit4 ,in #afbj1 on ,june #ae1 there was a total eclipse of the ,moon1 when during the total phase the ,moon was seen with great difficulty4 ,it shone1 moreover1 like the thinnest nebula1 far fainter than the ,milky ,way1 without any copper tinge4 ,about the middle of the second hour nothing at all could be seen of the ,moon with the naked eye1 and through the telescope so doubtfully was anything seen that no one could tell whether the ,moon was not something else4 ,it is expressly stated1 however1 that the sky was quite clear4 ,kepler also observed this eclipse1 and says that the ,moon quite disappeared1 though stars of the #dth and #eth magnitudes were plainly visible4#ach ,in this same year #afbj1 there was on ,december #i another total eclipse1 when the ,moon altogether disappeared so that nothing could be seen of it1 though the stars shone brightly all around3 she continued lost and invisible for a quarter of an hour more or less4 ,this observation seems to have been made at ,ingolstadt4 ,wendelinus mentions the eclipse of ,april #ad1 #afbc1 in connection with the question of the visibility of the ,moon when totally eclipsed4 ,he says1 but sometimes it so far retains the light derived from the ,sun that you would doubt whether any part of it were eclipsed4 ,this eclipse was observed by ,gassendi1 and if the above record is correct1 it is the more remarkable seeing that the eclipse was not total1 only #aa_/abths of the ,moon's diameter being obscured4 ,on ,april #be1 #afdb1 on the occasion of a total eclipse1 ,hevelius#aci noted that the ,moon wholly disappeared when immersed in the ,earth's shadow4 ,crabtree is stated by ,flamsteed#adj to have observed this eclipse1 but he does not plainly state that he lost sight of the ,moon4 ,crabtree or his editor dates this eclipse for ,april #d2 ,ferguson for ,april #ae4 ,there appears to be some muddle as between old style and new style4 ,ferguson professing to be ,n4,s4 is evidently wrong4 ,hevelius gives the double date1 #ae_/be1 which is evidently right4 ,on ,june #af1 #afff1 the ,moon was seen in ,tuscany to rise eclipsed1 the ,sun not having yet set in the ,w4 ,on ,may #bf1 #affh1 an eclipse of the ,moon was in progress in the early morning1 when the ,sun was seen to rise by members of the ,academy of ,sciences who were observing the phenomenon at ,montmartre near ,paris4 ,on ,december #bc1 #agjc1 the ,moon when totally immersed was seen at ,avignon showing a ruddy light of such brilliancy that we are told it had the appearance of a transparent body illuminated by a light placed behind4 ,johnson finds that the total phase took place in the early morning1 and lasted from #e;h4 #cfm4 to #g;h4 #bbm4 a4m4 ,the lunar eclipse of ,may #ah1 #agfa1 as observed by ,wargentin1#ada at ,stockholm1 furnishes a remarkable instance of the invisibility of the ,moon on certain occasions1 when completely immersed in the earth's shadow4 ,the total immersion of the ,moon took place at #aj;h4 #dam4 p4m4 ,the part of the margin of the lunar disc which had last entered the shadow was fairly conspicuous for #e or #f minutes after the immersion1 and to the naked eye exhibited a lustre equal to that of a star of the #bnd magnitude2 but at #aj;h4 #ebm4 this part1 as well as the whole of the rest of the ,moon's body1 had disappeared so completely1 that not the slightest trace of any portion of the lunar disc could be discerned either with the naked eye or with the telescope1 although the sky was clear1 and the stars in the vicinity of the ,moon were distinctly visible in the telescope4 ,after more than half an hour's search1 ,wargentin at length discovered the whereabouts of the ,moon by means of a faint light1 which was visible at the ,eastern edge of the disc4 ,a few minutes afterwards1 some persons of acute vision were able to discern1 with the naked eye1 a trace of the ,moon1 looking like a patch of thin vapour1 but more than half the disc was still invisible4 ,an eclipse of the ,moon1 on ,march #bi1 #ahja1 was observed by ,humboldt1 on board ship1 off the ,island of ,baru1 not far from ,cartagena de las ,indias1 in the ,caribbean ,sea4#adb ,he remarks that he was exceedingly struck with the greater luminous intensity of the ,moon's disc under a tropical sky than in my native ,north4 ,johnson makes ,humboldt to refer to the greater clearness of the reddened disc1 but these words do not appear either in the ,german or in the ,english version4 ,a total eclipse of the ,moon occurred on ,june #aj1 #ahaf4 ,as observed by ,beer and ,mdler and others1 the ,moon completely disappeared4 ,the summer of #ahaf1 be it remembered1 was very wet1 and probably this had something to do with the ,moon's invisibility at the eclipse in question4 ,on ,october #ac1 #ahcg1 there happened a total eclipse of the ,moon1 of which ,sir ,j4 ,herschel and ,admiral ,w4 ,h4 ,smyth have left us interesting accounts4#adc ,the changes of tint1 both as regards times and places on the ,moon's disc1 recorded by the latter1 are very remarkable4 ,and the tints themselves varied very much inter se3 ,the ,admiral speaks of copper1 sea-green1 neutral tint1 and silvery1 as hues visible in one part of the ,moon or another1 and at one time or another4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #abb3 ,dan4 ix4 #bd4 ,footnote #abc3 ,histories1 ,book v41 chap4 lxxviii4 ,footnote #abd3 ,hist4 ,rom41 ,lib4 xliv41 cap4 #cg4 ,footnote #abe3 ,antiq41 ,lib4 xvii41 cap4 #f1 sec4 #d4 ,footnote #abf3 ,annales1 ,lib4 i41 cap4 #bh4 ,footnote #abg3 ,nat4 ,hist41 ,lib4 ii41 cap4 #c4 ,footnote #abh3 ,annales ,cambri1 ,rolls ed41 p4 #h4 ,footnote #abi3 ,annales1 ,rogerus de ,hoveden1 ,bohn's ed41 p4 #e4 ,footnote #acj3 ,observatory1 vol4 xv4 p4 #bbd4 ,may #ahib4 ,footnote #aca3 ,historiarum sui ,temporis1 ,lib4 v41 cap4 #c4 ,footnote #acb3 ,chronica ,majora1 ,rolls ed41 edited by the ,rev4 ,h4 ,r4 ,luard1 vol4 ii4 p4 #afa4 ,another version of this work is in circulation under the name of ,rogerus de ,wendover1 ,flores ,historiarum4 ,the passage here quoted appears in vol4 i4 p4 #dhb1 ,bohn's ed4 ,footnote #acc3 ,history of the ,early ,english ,church1 #ahgj ed41 p4 #bga4 ,footnote #acd3 ,life of ,columbus1 p4 #bdg4 ,footnote #ace3 ,historia ,coelestis1 vol4 i4 p4 xci4 ,footnote #acf3 ,astronomi ,pars ,optica1 p4 #bgf2 ,opera ,omnia1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cjb2 ,frisch's edition4 ,footnote #acg3 ,historia ,coelestis1 vol4 ii4 p4 #iba4 ,footnote #ach3 ,epitomes ,astronomi1 p4 #hbe2 ,opera ,omnia1 vol4 vi4 p4 #dhb2 ,frisch's edition4 ,footnote #aci3 ,selenographia1 p4 #aag4 ,footnote #adj3 ,historia ,coelestis1 vol4 i4 p4 #d4 ,footnote #ada3 ,phil4 ,trans41 vol4 lii4 p4 #baj4 #agfb4 ,footnote #adb3 ,cosmos4 ,trans4 ,sabine1 vol4 iii4 p4 #cef2 vol4 iv4 p4 #dhc4 ,bohn's ed4 ,footnote #adc3 ,cycle of ,celest4 ,obj41 vol4 i4 p4 #add2 transcribed in ,g4 ,f4 ,chambers's ,handbook of ,astronomy1 vol4 i4 p4 #cbi4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,catalogues ,,of ,,eclipses3 ,,and ,,their ,,calculation4 ,this must of necessity be a brief chapter1 so far as mere lines of text are concerned1 but it will not on that account be unimportant4 ,it will be evident to the reader that many more eclipses of interest have happened1 and will happen1 than it has been possible to speak of in these pages4 ,accordingly1 as it is one of the main objects of this series of volumes to create a thirst for knowledge1 to be satisfied by the study of other and bigger volumes1 it will be desirable to furnish a list of some of the various books and publications1 in which eclipses will be found catalogued or described in detail1 so that readers desirous of pursuing the matter further1 may possess facilities for doing so4 ,by far the most complete and comprehensive catalogue of solar eclipses is that prepared some years ago by an ,austrian astronomer1 the late ,theodore ,von ,oppolzer of ,vienna1 and published under the title of ,canon der ,finsternisse1 in the ,memoirs of the ,imperial ,academy of ,sciences4#add ,this work supplies approximate calculations of about #hjjj eclipses of the ,sun1 for a period of more than #cjjj years1 from ,november #aj1 #abjg ,b4,c4 7,julian ,calendar71 to ,november #ag1 #bafa ,a4,d4 7,gregorian ,calendar74 ,there are appended #afj charts1 of all the principal eclipses2 but as the charts only exhibit the beginnings1 middles1 and ends of the eclipses dealt with1 they are frequently misleading1 because the intermediate lines of path are1 in many cases1 more or less considerably curved4 ,another very important and comprehensive catalogue of eclipses1 solar and lunar together1 will be found in the well-known ,french work1 ,l',art de vrifier les ,dates1#ade compiled by a member of the religious order of ,st4 ,maur4 ,one volume of this famous work contains eclipses from the year #ajja ,b4,c4 to the ,christian ,era1 whilst another volume gives a similar catalogue from the year #a ,a4,d4 to #bjjj ,a4,d4 ,the other volumes deal with chronological matters only4 ,although not strictly a work of extreme astronomical exactness1 yet ,l',art de vrifier les ,dates stands unrivalled as a record not only to subserve the purpose indicated by its title1 but of the bare facts of the eclipses which have happened during the period of #cjjj years stated above4 ,there has not been much done in ,england in the way of publishing eclipse records or tables1 past or future1 but in the ,british ,almanac and ,companion for #ahcb there is given a catalogue1 which was useful in its day1 of eclipses1 then future from #ahcb to #aijj1 omitting1 however1 solar eclipses hardly visible to any inhabited portion of the ,earth1 and lunar eclipses where the part of the ,moon's diameter obscured was less than #a_/abth4 ,in by-gone days several attempts were made to gather together in a tabular or paragraph form the details of eclipses which had happened1 and some of these have been important sources of information for the guidance of us moderns4 ,foremost amongst these efforts must be named the ,almagestum ,novum of ,j4 ,b4 ,ricciolus4#adf ,this work contains a catalogue of eclipses observed from #ggb ,b4,c4 to ,a4,d4 #afdg1 and continued in tables to ,a4,d4 #agjj4 ,it is prefaced 7pp4 #bhf-h7 by a long series of quotations from classical authors relating to eclipses1 some few of which have already been mentioned in these pages4 ,kepler paid much attention to eclipses1 and left behind him a large mass of notes and original observations4 ,these will be found chiefly in his ,astronomi ,pars ,optica1 c4 vii4 #b1 originally published at ,frankfurt in #afjd4 ,the most convenient and accessible edition of this is to be found in ,frisch's reprint of all ,kepler's works4#adg ,tycho ,brahe also gathered together from various sources many observations of eclipses1 and combined them with a number of his own1 the whole being published in his ,historia ,coelestis4#adh ,tycho ,brahe was a very interesting personage in spite of the fact that he went all astray on the subject of the system of the ,universe1 and he well deserves1 what has been given to him1 a book#adi all to himself4 ,it is peculiarly appropriate that ,i should give him a good word in this little volume on eclipses1 because it was the solar eclipse of ,aug4 #ba1 #aefj1 which first seriously led him to take up astronomical pursuits1 he being then #ad years of age1 and struck with wonder that eclipses could be predicted4 ,a vast amount of historical and other information respecting eclipses will be found in a book1 the latinised name of whose author is ,sethus ,calvisius4 ,the title of the work is ,opus ,chronologicum4#aej ,the historical matter is very much mixed1 but the eclipses can be got hold of through the ,index1 which is very full4 ,p4 ,gassendi1#aea a well-known astronomer of the #agth century1 left behind him observations of many eclipses observed by himself between #afbh and #afee4 ,in a book entitled ,an ,introduction to ,universal ,geography1#aeb one ,nicolas ,struyck in the middle of the #ahth century published a very full array of eclipse observations collected with infinite pains from an endless variety of authors ancient and modern4 ,in #ageg the well-known ,james ,ferguson reprinted in his ,astronomy1#aec but in a very condensed form1 all ,struyck's eclipses from #gba ,b4,c4 to ,a4,d4 #adhe4 ,then he carried on his catalogue to #ahjj by means of the materials furnished by ,ricciolus and ,l',art de vrifier les ,dates4 ,ferguson also invented a machine for illustrating mechanically the circumstances of an eclipse4 ,he called it the ,eclipsareon4 ,a full description is given in his book1 mentioned above1 but ,i do not know whether any such instrument is still in existence1 or1 if so1 where it is to be found4 ,ferguson apologises#aed for the incompleteness of his eclipse information in the following words3--,i have not cited one half of ,ricciolus's list of portentous eclipses1 and for the same reason that he declines giving any more of them than what that list contains1 namely1 that 'tis most disagreeable to dwell any longer on such nonsense1 and as much as possible to avoid tiring the reader4 ,the superstition of the ancients may be seen by the few here copied4 ,my author further says that there were treatises written to show against what regions the malevolent effects of any particular eclipse was aimed1 and the writers affirmed that the effects of an eclipse of the ,sun continued as many years as the eclipse lasted hours1 and that of the ,moon as many months4 ,the most comprehensive 7indeed almost the only7 modern ,english book on eclipses is the ,rev4 ,s4 ,j4 ,johnson's1#aee of which frequent use has already been made in these pages4 ,it contains a vast amount of matter put together in a condensed form but the references to authorities are rather defective and deficient4 ,less comprehensive in one sense yet exceedingly valuable and interesting as a succinct summary of solar eclipse knowledge up to the date of #ahif is ,mrs4 ,d4 ,p4 ,todd's excellent little volume#aef which has been several times quoted on previous pages4 ,on various occasions in #ahij and following years ,professor ,j4 ,n4 ,stockwell contributed to the ,american ,astronomical ,journal a number of papers#aeg discussing in a very interesting and exhaustive manner many of the eclipses recorded by the ancient classical authors4 ,these papers should be consulted by all who desire to realise the value of eclipse records in connection with mundane chronology4 ,the calculation of eclipses is a matter of some interest4 ,it is beyond the scope of the present work to explain even in outline the methods in use1 but with the aid of the books mentioned below#aeh a reader possessed of the necessary time1 mathematical knowledge1 and patience1 will be able to pursue this matter as far as his inclination may lead him4 ,johnson has found very useful the tables given in the eighth edition of the ,encyclopdia ,britannica 7,article1 ,astronomy7 but strange to say these tables do not appear in ninth edition of that famous work4 ,lalande#aei has given numerous references to eclipses of the ,sun during the #afth1 #agth and #ahth centuries which may be useful to those who wish to work at the history of eclipses4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #add3 ,denkschriften der ,kaiserlichen ,akademie der ,wissenschaften1 vol4 lii4 ,vienna1 #ahhg4 ,footnote #ade3 ,there are several editions of this work in circulation4 ,the first 7published in #aghc7 was in folio volumes1 but the best known edition is in a large number of octavo volumes published in #ahah and following years4 ,the eclipse lists will be found in the #ast volumes of the first and second series respectively4 ,the ,french astronomer1 ,pingr1 is responsible for them4 ,footnote #adf3 ,published at ,bononia 7,bologna7 in #afec4 ,footnote #adg3 ,omnia ,opera1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #caa-af4 ,edited by ,ch4 ,frisch4 #h vols4 #hvo4 ,frankofurti-a-,m41 #aheg-fj4 ,footnote #adh3 ,a collected edition of ,tycho ,brahe's works1 edited by ,lucius ,barettus1 was published at ,august ,vindilicorum 7,augsburg7 in #afff4 ,lucius ,barettus is an anagram for the real name ,albertus ,curtius4 ,footnote #adi3 ,j4 ,l4 ,e4 ,dreyer1 ,tycho ,brahe3 a ,picture of ,scientific ,life and ,work in the ,sixteenth ,century4 ,footnote #aej3 ,opus ,chronologicum4 ,francofurti ad ,moenum1 #afej4 ,footnote #aea3 ,astronomica1 vol4 iv4 ,lugduni1 #afeg4 ,footnote #aeb3 ,inleiding tot de ,algemeene ,geographie4 ,amsterdam1 #agdj4 ,footnote #aec3 ,astronomy ,explained upon ,sir ,isaac ,newton's ,principles4 #bnd ed4 #dto1 pp4 #afg-gi4 ,london1 #ageg4 ,footnote #aed3 ,astronomy1 p4 #agh4 ,footnote #aee3 ,historical and ,future ,eclipses4 #bnd ,ed41 #ahif4 ,footnote #aef3 ,total ,eclipses of the ,sun4 ,boston1 ,u4,s41 #ahid4 ,footnote #aeg3 ,astronomical ,journal1 vol4 x4 pp4 #be1 #ahe2 vol4 xi4 pp4 #e1 #bh1 #eg2 vol4 xii4 p4 #aba2 vol4 xiii4 p4 #gc2 vol4 xv4 p4 #gc2 vol4 xvi4 pp4 #hi1 #age4 ,footnote #aeh3 ,j4 ,ferguson4 ,op4 cit42 ,w4 ,d4 ,snooke1 ,brief ,astronomical ,tables for the ,expeditious ,calculation of ,eclipses1 #hvo4 ,lond4 #aheb4 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,strange ,,eclipse ,,customs4 ,i had intended heading this chapter ,eclipse ,customs amongst ,barbarous ,nations1 but in these days it is dangerous to talk of barbarians or to speak one's mind on points of social etiquette so ,i have thought it well to tone down the original title1 otherwise ,i should have the partisans of the ,heathen ,chinee holding me up to scorn as a reviler of the brethren4 ,did space permit a very interesting record might be furnished of eclipse customs in foreign parts4 ,an eclipse happened during ,lord ,macartney's embassy to ,china#afj which kept the ,emperor and his ,mandarins for a whole day devoutly praying the gods that the ,moon might not be eaten up by the great dragon which was hovering about her4 ,the next day a pantomime was performed1 exhibiting the battle of the dragon and the ,moon1 and in which two or three hundred priests1 bearing lanterns at the end of long sticks1 dancing and capering about1 sometimes over the plain1 and then over chairs and tables1 bore no mean part4 ,professor ,russell1 who is quoted elsewhere in this work with respect to ,chinese eclipses1 makes the following remarks in regard to what happens now in ,china when eclipses occur3--,it will be interesting here to note that1 even at present1 by ,imperial command1 special rites are performed during solar and lunar eclipses4 ,a president from each of the six boards1 with two inferior officials1 dressed in their official clothes1 proceed to the ,t'ai-,ch'ang-,ssu4 ,when the eclipse begins they change their robes for common garments made of plain black material1 and kneeling down1 burn incense4 ,the president then beats one stroke on a gong1 and the ceremony is taken up by all the attendant officials4 ,a writer in ,chambers's ,journal#afa in an article entitled ,the ,hindu view of the late ,eclipse1 gives an interesting and original account of divers ,hindu superstitions and ceremonies which came under his notice in connection with the total eclipse of the ,sun of ,aug4 #ah1 #ahfh4 ,he remarks that ,european science has as yet produced but little effect upon the minds of the superstitious masses of ,india4 ,of the many millions who witnessed the eclipse of the #ahth of ,august last there were comparatively few who did not verily believe that it was caused by the dragon ,rahu in his endeavour to swallow up the ,lord of ,day4444 ,the pious ,hindu1 before the eclipse comes on1 takes a torch1 and begins to search his house and carefully removes all cooked food1 and all water for drinking purposes4 ,such food and water1 by the eclipse1 incur ,grahana seshah1 that is1 uncleanness1 and are rendered unfit for use4 ,some1 with less scruples of conscience1 declare that the food may be preserved by placing on it dharba or ,kusa grass1 and much more to the like effect is duly set out in the interesting article cited4 ,during the total eclipse of the ,sun of ,aug4 #g1 #ahfi1 the following incident is noted#afb to have occurred at a station on the ,chilkaht river1 in ,alaska1 ,north ,america1 frequented by ,indians3-- ,about the time the ,sun was half obscured the chief ,koh-,klux and all the ,indians had disappeared from around the observing tent2 they left off fishing on the river banks2 all employments were discontinued2 and every soul disappeared2 nor was a sound heard throughout the village of #ec houses4 ,the natives had been warned of what would take place1 but doubted the prediction4 ,when it did occur they looked upon me as the cause of the ,sun's being 'very sick and going to bed4' ,they were thoroughly alarmed1 and overwhelmed with an undefinable dread4 ,a still more thrilling incident is thus recorded#afc of the eclipse of ,july #bi1 #ahgh1 by a witness at ,fort ,sill1 ,indian ,territory1 ,u4,s43-- ,on ,monday last we were permitted to see the eclipse of the ,sun in a beautiful bright sky4 ,not a cloud was visible4 ,we had made ample preparation1 laying in a stock of smoked glass several days in advance4 ,it was the grandest sight ,i ever beheld1 but it frightened the ,indians badly4 ,some of them threw themselves upon their knees and invoked the ,divine blessing2 others flung themselves flat on the ground1 face downward2 others cried and yelled in frantic excitement and terror4 ,finally one old fellow stepped from the door of his lodge1 pistol in hand1 and fixing his eyes on the darkened ,sun1 mumbled a few unintelligible words and raising his arm took direct aim at the luminary1 fired off his pistol1 and after throwing his arms about his head in a series of extraordinary gesticulations retreated to his own quarters4 ,as it happened1 that very instant was the conclusion of totality4 ,the ,indians beheld the glorious orb of day once more peep forth1 and it was unanimously voted that the timely discharge of that pistol was the only thing that drove away the shadow and saved them from the public inconvenience that would have certainly resulted from the entire extinction of the ,sun4 ,a certain ,mr4 ,f4 ,kerigan1 in a book published in #ahdd1 made the following remarks on ancient ,jewish ideas respecting eclipses3-- ,the ,israelites1 like their benighted neighbours1 esteemed an eclipse of either luminary as a supernatural and inauspicious omen1 which filled them with the most gloomy and fearful apprehensions3 as may fairly be deduced from the #hth chapter of ,ezekiel1 v4 #ae3 ',then he brought me to the door of the ,lord's ,house1 which was towards the ,n42 and1 behold there sat women weeping for ,tammuz4' ,now ,tammuz is the name under which ,adonis was known in ,palestine3 he was the favourite of ,venus1 or ,astarte1 the principal goddess of the ,philistines and ,phoenicians4 ,being killed by a wild boar1 the prevailing superstition of the age induced the uninformed multitude to believe that when the ,moon was eclipsed1 it was in complement to their beloved goddess ,venus or ,astarte1 who1 concealed behind the full ,moon1 sat weeping under a dark veil for the loss of her beloved ,tammuz or ,adonis4#afd ,the ,african travellers1 ,r4 and ,j4 ,lander1 have given#afe a graphic account of what took place on the occasion of the eclipse of the ,moon of ,sept4 #b1 #ahcj1 as witnessed by themselves3--,the earlier part of the evening had been mild1 serene1 and remarkably pleasant4 ,the ,moon had arisen with uncommon lustre1 and being at the full1 her appearance was extremely delightful4 ,it was the conclusion of the holidays1 and many of the people were enjoying the delicious coolness of a serene night1 and resting from the laborious exertions of the day2 but when the ,moon became gradually obscured1 fear overcame every one4 ,as the eclipse increased they became more terrified4 ,all ran in great distress to inform their sovereign of the circumstance1 for there was not a single cloud to cause so deep a shadow1 and they could not comprehend the nature or meaning of an eclipse4444 ,groups of men were blowing on trumpets1 which produced a harsh and discordant sound2 some were employed in beating old drums1 others again were blowing on bullocks' horns4444 ,the diminished light1 when the eclipse was complete1 was just sufficient for us to distinguish the various groups of people1 and contributed in no small degree to render the scene more imposing4 ,if a ,european1 a stranger to ,africa1 had been placed on a sudden in the midst of the terror-struck people1 he would have imagined himself to be among a legion of demons1 holding a revel over a fallen spirit4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #aei3 ,bibliographie ,astronomique4 ,paris1 #ahjc4 ,indexed at p4 #ich4 ,footnote #afj3 ,authentic ,account of an ,embassy to ,china1 by ,sir ,g4 ,staunton4 ,footnote #afa3 ,fourth ,series1 vol4 v4 p4 #fgf4 ,october #bd1 #ahfh4 ,footnote #afb3 ,report ,u4,s4 ,coast ,survey1 #ahfi1 p4 #agi4 ,footnote #afc3 ,letter published in the ,philadelphia ,inquirer4 ,footnote #afd3 ,a ,practical ,treatise on ,eclipses1 p4 #b4 ,footnote #afe3 ,journal of an ,expedition to ,explore the ,niger1 vol4 i4 p4 #cff4 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,eclipses ,,in ,,shakespeare ,,and ,,the ,,poets4 ,the sound of these words may be large but facts do not bear out the theory1 for eclipses do not appear to have captivated our great poets to anything like the extent that ,moon1 ,stars1 and ,comets have done4 ,shakespeare has a few allusions to eclipses1 but they are not of prime importance4 ,in ,macbeth we find3-- ,and slips of yew ,shivered in the ,moon's eclipse --,act iv4 sc4 #a4 the precise meaning of which is not very obvious4 ,shivered of course means divided into pieces1 but the idea intended is obscure4 ,the next quotation is more comprehensive and reflects more plainly the current of thought prevalent in ,shakespeare's day1 albeit here again the word eclipse will be found to stand without much definite connection with what goes before4 ,however the reader shall judge for himself3-- ,as stars with trains of fire and dews of blood1 ,disasters in the ,sun2 and the moist star1 ,upon whose influence ,neptune's ,empire stands1 ,was sick almost to doomsday with eclipse4 --,hamlet1 act i4 sc4 #a4 ,in ,king ,lear we seem to come upon something very definitely historical1 but ,i am not able to say what it is4 ,the ,earl of ,gloster says3-- ,these late eclipses in the ,sun and ,moon portend no good to us4 ,with this1 ,edmund1 ,gloster's son1 apparently agrees1 for he exclaims3-- ,these eclipses do portend these divisions4 --,act i4 sc4 #b4 ,in ,othello1 the ,moor of ,venice himself1 in a moment of excitement1 says3-- ,o1 insupportable6 ,o1 heavy hour6 ,methinks it should be now a huge eclipse ,of ,sun and ,moon1 and that the affrighted globe ,should yawn at alteration4 --,act v4 sc4 #b4 ,in ,anthony and ,cleopatra we find ,anthony expressing what our forefathers so often thought in connection with astronomical matters3-- ,alack1 our terrine ,moon is now eclipsed2 ,and it portends alone ,the fall of ,anthony6 --,act iii4 sc4 #aa4 ,milton has an allusion to an eclipse of the ,sun which possesses a two-fold interest--intrinsic and extrinsic4 ,the former feature will be self-evident when the passage is read4 ,the poet1 in describing#aff the faded splendour of the fallen archangel1 compares him to the ,sun seen under circumstances which have temporarily deprived it of its normal brilliancy and glory3-- ,as when the ,sun new-risen ,looks through the horizontal misty air ,shorn of his beams1 or1 from behind the ,moon ,in dim eclipse1 disastrous twilight sheds ,on half the nations1 and with fear of change ,perplexes ,monarchs4 ,it has been well said by ,dr4 ,orchard#afg that this passage affords us an example of the sublimity of ,milton's imagination and of his skill in adapting the grandest phenomena of nature to the illustration of his subject4 ,what ,i alluded to in saying that extrinsic interest attached to this quotation1 is the fact that these lines might have caused the suppression of the poem as a whole4 ,mrs4 ,todd puts the matter thus3--,paradise ,lost was begun probably in #afeh1 although not finished until #affc1 nor its thorough revision completed until #affe4 ,the censorship still existed1 and ,tomkyns 7one of the chaplains through whom the ,archbishop gave or refused license71 although a broader-minded man than many of his day1 found this passage especially objectionable4 ,the poem was allowed to see the light only through the interposition of a friend of ,milton4 ,upon such slender chances may hang the life of an incomparable work of art6 ,but it is easy to see that in the turbulent days when ,charles the ,second had returned to power1 after the death of ,cromwell1 these lines should have been deemed dangerously suggestive1 in imputing to monarchs 'perplexity' and 'fear of change4' ,other allusions to eclipses by ,milton will be found as follows3-- ,through the air she comes1 ,lur'd with the smell of infant blood1 to dance ,with ,lapland witches1 while the labouring ,moon ,eclipses at their charms4 --,paradise ,lost1 ,bk4 ii4 lines #ffc-f4 ,so saying1 he dismiss'd them2 they with speed ,their course through thickest constellation held1 ,spreading their bane2 the blasted stars look'd wan1 ,and planets1 planet-struck1 real eclipse1 ,then suffer'd4 --,paradise ,lost1 ,bk4 x4 lines #daj-ad4 ,o dark1 dark1 dark1 amid the blaze of ,noon1 ,irrecoverably dark1 total eclipse1 ,without all hope of day6 --,samson ,agonistes1 ,lines #hj-b4 ,it was that fatal and perfidious bark1 ,built in th' eclipse1 and rigg'd with curses dark1 ,that sunk so low that sacred heart of thine4 --,lycidas1 ,lines #ajj-b4 ,pope1 in the following lines1 may be presumed to mean that the covering up of the ,sun by the ,moon1 during a total eclipse1 results in the ,moon becoming visible1 at the cost of the ,sun's disappearance3-- ,for ,envy'd wit1 like ,sol eclips'd1 makes known ,th' opposing body's grossness1 not its own4 --,essay on ,criticism1 ,lines #dfi-gj4 ,i have not attempted to pursue this matter through the pages of our modern poets1 but it is not unlikely that ,scott and ,tennyson 7especially7 would have something on the subject of eclipses4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #aff3 ,paradise ,lost1 ,book i41 lines #eid-i4 ,footnote #afg3 ,the ,astronomy of ,milton1 p4 #bei4 ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,brief ,,hints ,,to ,,observers ,,of ,,eclipses ,,of ,,the ,,sun4 ,a few words 7they must be few for lack of space7 may usefully be added1 by way of advice1 to persons proposing to choose a suitable locality at which to station themselves for viewing a total eclipse of the ,sun4 ,to begin with1 of course they ought to get as close as possible to the central line1 say within #aj or #bj miles at the most2 this matter settled1 the next important point is to find out where the duration of the totality will be longest1 coupled with the ,sun at its maximum elevation above the horizon 7to escape the influence of mists and fogs74 ,no advice1 properly so-called1 can be given on these points1 because they depend on the special circumstances of every eclipse1 and must be ascertained ad hoc from the ,nautical ,almanac4 ,in anticipation of a forthcoming eclipse1 it is very important to know beforehand the probabilities of weather4 ,if the locus in quo of an expected eclipse is in a civilised country1 there will generally not be much difficulty in obtaining a certain amount of information as to this #f or #ab months in advance4 ,but inasmuch as total eclipses of the ,sun1 and often the best of them1 are visible only in uncivilised countries or over trackless wastes1 the problem becomes a complicated and anxious one4 ,in such cases it is exceedingly desirable1 where competent observers 7including money7 are available1 that preliminary notes of weather should be made for a year or even two years in advance4 ,there is in one sense no difficulty as to this1 for all the mathematical local elements of every eclipse are always made public three or four years in advance through the pages of books like the ,nautical ,almanac1 the ,connaissance des ,temps1 the ,berliner ,jahrbuch1 c4 ,one difficulty always confronts every eclipse expedition4 ,if an out-of-the-way part of the world has to be visited1 accessible by sea1 transport from ,england1 say1 to the foreign shore is not usually a matter of difficulty1 because ,government ships are often placed at the disposal of astronomers4 ,but the gravest difficulties often have to be faced after the arrival at the foreign shore1 and for this reason4 ,every sea coast is1 as a general rule applicable to the whole world1 bad for astronomical observations4 ,the problem then which has to be solved is1 how best to get away from the coast inland to a high hill1 and to find the means of transporting thither heavy packing-cases of instruments1 personal luggage1 creature comforts1 and1 if needs be1 tents and the other accessories of camp life4 ,let not the reader of either sex take fright at the idea of sleeping under a tent4 ,i speak with considerable experience when ,i say that1 given fine or fairly fine weather1 nothing is more enjoyable in a temperate climate4 ,under the term creature comforts ,i mean such things as tinned soups and preserved provisions which nowadays can so easily be purchased everywhere in ,england1 and of such good quality4 ,i would recommend these being taken even when the eclipse traveller expects to be lodged in the dwelling-places of civilised nations4 ,of course1 if in order to see his eclipse he has to go into the wilds of ,america1 ,asia1 or ,africa1 he must start fully equipped with all those personal impedimenta which will be found scheduled in the books mentioned in the footnote4#afh ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #afh3 ,the ,tourists' ,pocket-,book1 #as4 7,philip72 ,f4 ,galton's ,art of ,travel1 #gs4 #f;d4 7,murray72 ,royal ,geographical ,society's ,hints to ,travellers1 #es4 7,r4 ,g4 ,s41 ,savile ,row74 c4 ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,transits ,,and ,,occultations4 ,no book professing to deal with eclipses would be complete without a few words of mention of transits and occultations4 ,a transit is the passing of a primary planet across the ,sun1 or of a secondary planet 7i4e4 satellite7 across its primary1 whilst an occultation is the concealment of a star by the ,moon1 or of a secondary planet 7i4e4 satellite7 by its primary4 ,a little thought given to this definition will make it clear that a transit is essentially the same in principle as an eclipse of the ,sun by the ,moon--one body comes in front of another1 and the former conceals in succession parts of the latter4 ,practically the word transit in this connection is more especially applied to passages of the inferior planets1 ,mercury and ,venus1 across the ,sun1 or of the satellites of ,jupiter across the disc of ,jupiter1 whilst the word occultation more particularly calls to mind the concealment of a star 7apparently a little body7 by the ,moon 7apparently a big body7 or of a satellite of ,jupiter 7a little body7 by ,jupiter 7a big body71 the star and the satellite in each respective case passing behind the occulting body and being concealed for a shorter or longer time4 ,commonly the occulted body will remain hidden for an hour or two1 more or less4 ,in the case of ,jupiter the satellites of that planet may also1 on occasions1 be seen to undergo eclipse in the shadow cast by ,jupiter itself4 ,an eclipse of a ,jovian satellite is therefore on all fours in principle the same as an eclipse of the ,moon1 caused1 as we know1 by the ,moon passing for a short time into the dark shadow cast by the ,earth4 ,the conditions just laid down in respect of ,jupiter and its satellites also find a counterpart in the case of the satellites of ,saturn1 but whilst these phenomena are incessantly occurring and visible in the case of ,jupiter1 they are exceedingly rare in the case of ,saturn owing to its greater distance and the difficulty of seeing most of its satellites because of their small apparent size4 ,having regard to the circumstance that transits of ,mercury and ,venus only happen at intervals of many years1 it is not worth while for the purposes of this work to devote any great amount of space to them4 ,in point of fact1 whilst the next three transits of ,mercury are as remote as #aijg1 #aiad and #aibd1 there will be no transit of ,venus at all during the #bjth century2 not another indeed until ,a4,d4 #bjjd4 ,from the standpoint of an amateur astronomer the various phenomena which attend the movements of the satellites of ,jupiter1 constitute an endless variety of interesting scenes1 which are the more deserving of attention in that they can be followed with the aid of a telescope of very moderate size and capabilities4#afi ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae-af4--,,occultation ,,of ,,jupiter1 ,,aug4 #g1 #ahhi 7,immersion7 ,occultations of planets and stars by the ,moon may also be recommended to the notice of the owners of small telescopes as events which are constantly happening and which may be readily observed4 ,the ,moon being rapidly in motion it will happen in point of fact that stars are occulted by it1 one may say every day1 but of course the ,moon's light entirely blots out the smaller stars and only those as large as1 say1 about the #eth magnitude are as a rule worth trying to see in this connection4 ,a table of the occultations of such stars1 copied from the ,nautical ,almanac1 will be found in such almanacs as ,whitaker's and the ,british4 ,if such a table is consulted it will be found that never does a lunation pass without a few stars being noted as undergoing occultation1 and now and then a planet4 ,an occultation of a planet is obviously still more interesting than that of a star4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag-ah4--,,occultation ,,of ,,jupiter1 ,,aug4 #g1 #ahhi 7,emersion74 ,from the epoch of ,new to ,full ,moon the ,moon moves with its dark edge foremost from the epoch of ,full to ,new with its illuminated edge foremost4 ,during therefore the first half of a lunation the objects occulted disappear at the dark edge and reappear at the illuminated edge1 during the second half of a lunation things are vice vers4 ,the most interesting time for watching occultations is with a young ,moon no more than1 say1 from #b to #f days old1 because under such circumstances the star occulted is suddenly extinguished at a point in the sky where there seems nothing to interfere with it4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #afi3 ,for details as to these matters1 see my ,handbook of ,astronomy1 #dth ed41 vol4 i4 pp4 #ahf-aif4 ,,appendix4 ,,the ,,total ,,eclipse ,,of ,,the ,,sun ,,of ,,may #bh1 #aijj4 ,this ,appendix deals solely with geographical and transport matters as to which accurate information is not easily obtainable1 the ,european locus in quo of the ,eclipse being in the benighted and somewhat untravelled countries of ,portugal and ,spain4 ,the intending ,eclipse excursionist must first make his choice between 7practically7 a journey of all sea or of all land4 ,the several sea routes are one and all very much cheaper than any possible land journey1 and almost as quick in point of time1 with the minimum amount of personal knocking about4 ,but 7some persons will say7 sea is sea1 and so it is4 ,on the other hand the land journey is exceedingly expensive2 and beyond ,france the trains are very incommodious as regards hours1 speed1 and connections4 ,moreover1 there being more frontiers than one to cross1 there are extra opportunities for ,custom-house squabbles1 and ,spain especially is famous for this sort of thing4 ,as the ,eclipse shadow will strike ,europe in ,portugal and quit ,europe in ,spain the intending traveller must first decide for himself whether he will prefer to go to ,portugal or ,spain4 ,this settled1 he will have the choice of several sea routes and1 in particular1 of two land routes4 ,but before considering these further it will be well to state what are the chief of the various places which are available as observing stations for mixed travelling parties of ladies and gentlemen who have no desire to rough it in out-of-the-way parts of the country4 ,the line of central eclipse passes across the ,peninsula diagonally from ,n4,w4 to ,s4,e4 ,it enters ,portugal on the coast not far from ,oporto in latitude #dj #ej' ,n41 longitude #h #ch' ,w4 of ,greenwich4 ,it quits ,spain on the coast at ,cape ,santa ,pola1 not far from ,alicante1 in latitude #ch #ac' ,n41 longitude #j #cj' ,w4 ,at ,ovar in ,portugal 7pop4 #aa1jjj71 #bcm4 ,s4 of ,oporto the duration of the total phase will be #am4 #ccs41 and the ,sun's altitude at totality will be #db4 ,at ,talavera de la ,reina in ,spain 7pop4 #igjj7 the duration will be #am4 #bgs41 and the altitude #ci2 whilst at ,alicante 7pop4 #dj1jjj7 the duration will be still less1 #am4 #ais41 and the ,sun's altitude only #cd4 ,the three towns of ,ovar1 ,talavera and ,alicante are selected ,nautical ,almanac ,eclipse stations1 for which special calculations have been made4 ,hotel accommodation may be had at all the foregoing places1 ,oporto1 ,ovar1 ,talavera and ,alicante1 as will be stated later on1 but the ,hotels at ,ovar and ,talavera are not of much account4 ,other towns more or less handy for the central line are few in number1 and as a rule deficient in lodging accommodation conforming to the ,english standard4 ,amongst such possible alternative places the following may be named 7in order of position from ,n4,w4 to ,s4,e47 as accessible by railway3-- ,,vizeu 7pop4 #gjjj2 hotels1 ,mabilia1 ,cadite71 on a branch of the ,beira ,alta ,railway #cam4 from ,santa ,comba ,dao ,junction1 which itself is #hhm4 from ,oporto4 ,,mangualde 7pop4 #cjjj71 on the ,beira ,alta ,railway1 #aaem4 from ,oporto1 and #dim4 from ,pampilhosa ,junction4 ,,plasencia 7pop4 #fjjj2 hotel1 ,f4 de ,eusebio ,sierra71 #fm4 ,n4 of the station of that name on the ,lisbon and ,madrid ,railway4 ,,navalmoral 7pop4 #ccjj1 buffet71 a station on the ,lisbon and ,madrid ,railway about #hm4 ,w4 of the central line of eclipse4 ,,urda1 a small station on the ,madrid and ,ciudad ,real ,railway1 crossed by the central line4 ,the nearest accommodation would seem to be at ,ciudad ,real 7pop4 #ad1jjj2 hotel1 ,baltasar ,garcia71 #ccm4 to the ,s4 ,,alcazar ,,de ,,san ,,juan ,junction 7pop4 #hdjj2 good buffet2 hotel1 ,casa ,briseo74 ,alcazar is #ibm4 ,s4 of ,madrid2 the central line crosses the railway about #aem4 to the ,s4 of the town4 ,,tobarra 7pop4 #gejj71 a station on the ,chinchilla and ,cartagena ,railway1 #babm4 ,s4 of ,madrid1 and #aaem4 ,n4 of ,cartagena1 lies about #fm4 ,s4 of the central line4 ,,novelda 7pop4 #hjjj71 a station on the ,alicante and ,madrid ,railway1 in a beautiful valley about #bjm4 ,n4 of ,alicante4 ,in addition to the above places it must not be forgotten that both ,oporto at one end of the zone of totality and ,alicante at the other are within the track of the shadow1 but the question of the meteorological conditions of the atmosphere at these places 7on the seaboard as they virtually are7 has to be considered4 ,a traveller from ,england to ,portugal or ,spain by sea has the following choice of routes3-- #a4 ,southampton to ,oporto1 fortnightly1 on ,fridays1 by the steamers of the ,royal ,mail ,steam ,packet ,co4 ,fare1 first-class return1 about #aa4 ,time1 about #ed;h4 ,the return tickets are conveniently grouped in various ways1 e4g4 ,southampton to ,oporto1 and back from ,vigo or ,lisbon2 or ,southampton to ,lisbon and back1 or back from ,vigo 7but not back from ,oporto74 ,where the booking is to ,vigo1 or ,lisbon1 of course the local railway fares have to be paid in addition4 ,lisbon is #bjim4 ,s4 of ,oporto2 ,vigo1 #aajm4 ,n4 of ,oporto4 ,one objection to making any use of ,vigo is the extra ,custom-house formalities which have to be gone through on the frontier1 and ,spanish ,custom-house officials are specially objectionable4 #b4 ,liverpool to ,corunna1 ,carril1 ,vigo and ,oporto1 fortnightly1 on ,thursdays1 by the steamers of the ,pacific ,steam ,navigation ,co4 ,fares1 to the ,spanish ports1 first-class single1 #f1 #ajs41 return1 #i1 #aes42 second-class single1 #d4 ,to the ,portuguese ports1 first-class single1 #h1 return1 #ab2 second-class single1 #e4 ,time1 about #d to #e days4 ,this does not mean that the steamers are very slow1 but they call also at ,la ,rochelle1 in ,france4 #c4 ,london 7,irongate ,wharf7 to ,oporto1 at intervals of #c weeks1 on ,thursdays1 by the steamers of the ,general ,steam ,navigation ,co4 ,fares1 first-class single1 #d 7no return tickets issued2 no second-class74 ,the steamers of this line are inferior to all the others4 #d4 ,london 7,tilbury7 to ,gibraltar1 weekly1 on ,thursdays1 by the ,p4 ,o4 steamers4 ,fares1 first-class single1 #aj1 return1 #af4 ,time1 #d to #e days4 #e4 ,london 7,tilbury7 and ,plymouth to ,gibraltar1 fortnightly1 on ,fridays1 by the steamers of the ,orient ,co4 ,fares and time the same as the ,p4 ,o4 ,travellers journeying to ,oporto from ,england will probably not attempt to do any more local sight-seeing than what can be readily accomplished by simple railway trips in ,portugal to or from ,lisbon2 but travellers landing at ,gibraltar will have it within their power to visit some of the important towns of ,southern ,spain1 such as ,granada1 ,seville1 ,cordova1 ,toledo1 ,cadiz1 ,malaga1 c4 ,an ,eclipse excursionist who finds himself at ,gibraltar1 and who wishes to avoid as much as possible land travelling in ,spain by going on to ,alicante and stationing himself in that neighbourhood1 must take shipping locally at ,gibraltar4 ,there are ,spanish steamer services from ,gibraltar1 and ,malaga1 to ,alicante4 ,an overland traveller to ,spain 7it is presumed that none such will go as far as ,portugal7 has the choice of two routes to eclipse stations in ,spain1 both starting from ,paris3--7#a7 vi ,bordeaux1 ,hendaye1 ,vittoria1 ,burgos and ,medina del ,campo1 to ,madrid1 and thence either ,w4 to ,talavera 7#hdm4 from ,madrid71 or ,s4 towards ,alcazar de ,san ,juan 7#ibm4 from ,madrid72 7#b7 vi ,lyons1 ,perpignan1 ,barcelona and ,valencia to ,alicante4 ,the character of the train service on the second of these routes is almost prohibitive1 so that it is almost a question of vi ,madrid or not at all4 ,the foregoing paragraphs will furnish the reader with an outline of the whole problem of how to reach from ,england a suitable eclipse station in the ,peninsula4 ,this outline will pave the way for further details as to land journeys1 which will be exhibited somewhat in the order of relative complexity and expense1 beginning with the simplest4 ,,vigo ,,to ,,oporto4 ,chief stations and distances from ,vigo3--,redondela 7#hm471 ,guillarey ,junct4 7#bdm471 ,tuy 7#bfm471 ,vianna 7#egm471 ,famalicao ,junct4 7#hhm471 ,oporto 7#ajhm474 ,,vigo 7pop4 #ag1jjj2 hotel1 ,continental7 is an important commercial centre with fine scenery all round4 ,,redondela is one of the prettiest towns in ,spain1 especially as viewed from the railway viaducts4 ,at ,,guillarey carriages may have to be changed for ,,tuy1 the last station in ,spain and a ,custom-house4 ,there is a fine cathedral at ,tuy4 ,the boundary is formed by the river ,minho1 spanned by a magnificent bridge #djj yards long1 railway above and carriage road underneath4 ,crossing it the train enters the ,portuguese town of ,,valen,a1 where there is a strong fortress and a custom-house4 ,,vianna 7pop4 #gjjj2 hotel1 ,central74 ,the river ,lima is here spanned by a double bridge 7rail and road7 #gjj ft4 long4 ,from ,,famalicao there is a loop line to ,oporto running round the coast and #aem4 longer than the main line4 ,,ermezinde is the junction with the ,spanish line to ,barca d',alva1 ,salamanca and ,france4 ,,oporto ,,to ,,ovar ,,and ,,lisbon4 ,from ,oporto to ,lisbon by the direct line it is #baam4 ,fares--first1 single1 #a1 #aas42 second1 single1 #a1 #cs4 ,but forwards from ,pampilhosa 7#ffm47 there is a loop line to ,lisbon1 running along the coast1 and #bem4 longer than the direct line4 ,if it is proposed to visit some of the sights which will be mentioned presently1 the coast line must be taken4 ,chief stations between ,oporto and ,lisbon by the coast line3--,ovar 7#bcm471 ,pampilhosa ,junct4 7#ffm471 ,figueira da ,foz 7#ibm471 ,leiria 7#acbm471 ,torres ,vedras 7#aibm471 ,lisbon1 ,rocio station1 7#bcfm474 ,,oporto 7pop4 #abj1jjj2 hotels1 ,grande ,hotel do ,porto1 ,hotel de ,paris7 is a busy commercial city with much ,english colouring2 e4g4 church1 hospital1 doctor1 club1 and full modern facilities for locomotion by tramways1 cabs and excursion carriages4 ,the chief sights are3--7#a7 ,cathedral1 7#b7 ,bishop's ,palace1 7#c7 ,church of ,st4 ,francisco1 7#d7 ,palacio da ,bolsa1 7#e7 ,museu ,portuense1 7#f7 ,museu ,industrial1 7#g7 ,crystal ,palace and ,gardens1 7#h7 ,bridge of ,don ,luiz ,i41 and 7#i7 ,convent immortalised by ,wellington in #ahji when he made his celebrated ,passage of the ,douro4 ,the port for ,oporto where the steamers from ,england load and discharge is ,leixes1 about #dm4 to the ,w41 with a service of trains and trams into the city4 ,,ovar4--,this town being the nearest eclipse centre to ,england may be expected to draw many travellers in #aijj4 ,being only #bbm4 or #a hours from ,oporto1 a day trip may be made thither from ,oporto1 and this will suit the convenience of those who prefer for lodgings a large city to a small provincial town4 ,a train from ,oporto at #g a4m4 returning at #g4de p4m4 will suffice for the requirements of all who will go armed only with small instruments4 ,,pampilhosa ,,junction 7,good ,hotel74--,within #ajm4 to the ,n4-,e4 of this station is the first of the special sights which can be seen in connection with the ,oporto-,lisbon railway4 ,take the train from ,pampilhosa to ,luzo 7#fm471 omnibus thence 7 hour7 to ,busaco 7,good ,hotel71 and see the battlefield1 the site of one of ,wellington's least successful victories4 ,the panoramic views in all directions are superb4 ,the famous convent is now a ,government ,school of ,forestry4 ,after seeing ,busaco progress may be made to ,,figueira ,,da ,,foz 7#chm4 from ,luzo--,good ,hotel71 where the tourist may pass the night1 unless he prefers to stay at ,pampilhosa4 ,figueira is a seaside bathing-place of repute on a branch line4 ,,leiria 7pop4 #cjjj1 ,novo ,hotel74--,stay here two nights in order to have the whole of the intervening day available for a circular tour by road to the ,dominican ,monastery at ,batalha 7#gm471 and to the ,cistercian ,monastery at ,alcobaa 7#acm4 from ,batalha1 and also #acm4 from ,leiria74 ,the ,batalha ,monastery 7built #achh-aeae7 is by common consent the finest piece of architecture in ,portugal4 ,the ,alcobaa ,monastery1 the largest in the world1 is of earlier date 7#aadh-abbb74 ,the ch41 #cfj ft4 long1 is the most interesting example of early ,christian art in ,portugal1 whilst the cloisters are reputed to be amongst the finest in ,europe4 ,refreshments must be taken by the traveller1 for none can be procured during the drive4 ,vallado is really the nearest station to ,alcobaa 7#cm471 but there is no sleeping accommodation there4 ,,lisbon 7pop4 #bej1jjj2 hotels--,braganza1 ,avenida1 and some adjoining the railway station7 owing to its great length from ,e4 to ,w41 and narrow breadth from ,n4 to ,s41 is a less easy city to find one's way in than many other cities4 ,this difficulty is aggravated by the want of leading thoroughfares and an efficient system of street naming and numbering4 ,the sights are the usual ones of every large ,continental city1 such as churches1 museums1 and picture galleries2 e4g4 the ,church of ,san ,roque1 the ,church of ,san ,vincente with its remarkable ,royal ,mortuary ,chapel1 the church and convent at ,belem1 and the gardens of the ,escola ,polytechnica4 ,but a day should certainly be set apart for a trip to ,cintra 7#agm4 by rail1 trains about every hour74 ,the town 7pop4 #ejjj1 hotel--,lawrence's7 is #ahjj ft4 above the sea4 ,see the ,royal or ,moorish ,palace in the town1 the beautiful ,pena ,palace and grounds1 and the gardens of ,sir ,f4 ,cook at ,villa ,montserrate 7#cm74 ,these last are open daily to visitors who write their names at the entrance lodge4 ,about #ae miles from ,cintra is ,mafra1 with a palace1 convent1 and church of wonderful magnificence4 ,an ,eclipse excursionist planning a time-table for sight-seeing between ,oporto and ,lisbon inclusive1 and with the intention of returning to ,england from ,lisbon1 must remember that the ,royal ,mail ,company's boats only sail fortnightly 7on ,tuesdays or ,wednesdays7 from ,lisbon4 ,the boats anchor in the river1 and are reached by a steam tender4 ,,oporto ,,to ,,paris4 ,this route for getting from or to possible eclipse stations in ,northern ,spain or ,portugal is set out on the supposition that a certain number of ,eclipse excursionists may wish to combine the ,paris ,exhibition with the eclipse4 ,there is an ,international ,express from ,oporto 7and ,lisbon7 every ,tuesday and ,friday1 which does the journey to ,paris in #dj hours1 but no one travelling for pleasure would use this train1 especially as much of the best scenery is traversed by night4 ,the journey should therefore be performed in sections1 which may be made up as follows3-- ,miles4 ,oporto to ,salamanca vi ,pampilhosa #bfi ,salamanca to ,burgos #aej ,burgos to ,biarritz #ahf ,biarritz to ,paris #dic ,use should be made as far as possible of the ,international ,express4 ,where this is not done1 and ordinary trains have to be taken1 the delays are interminable and the combinations most exasperating to an ,englishman4 ,the hotel accommodation in all the smaller towns of ,spain is so universally bad that it is not easy to suggest what otherwise would seem obvious1 namely1 how best to subdivide1 at any rate1 the first three of the above sections4 ,the ,international ,express has a connection with ,lisbon1 the main train being made up or divided as the case may be at ,pampilhosa ,junction4 ,,lisbon ,,to ,,talavera ,,and ,,madrid4 ,observers who think they will be able to do better as regards a clear sky inland in ,spain than near either the coast of ,portugal or that of ,spain will still find in many cases that ,lisbon is their most convenient port for landing4 ,the chief stations on this route are3--,entroncamento ,junction 7#fgm471 ,marvo 7#adim471 ,valencia de ,alcantara 7#aeim471 99,plasencia 7#befm471 99,navalmoral 7#bhgm471 99,talavera de la ,reina 7#cbhm471 ,madrid1 ,delicias ,stat4 7#dabm474 ,the places marked 7997 are all within the shadow track of the eclipse4 ,,entroncamento 7,good ,buffet7 is the junction station for the lines ,n4 to ,oporto and ,s4-,e4 to ,badajos and most trains wait here3 #hm4 beyond1 the ,tagus is crossed by a fine bridge commanding good views4 ,,marv,o 7,custom-house7 is the last station in ,portugal but the actual frontier is #fm4 further on4 ,,valencia ,,de ,,alcantara 7,custom-house7 is the first station in ,spain4 ,during the next #ejm4 the railway passes through much wild mountain scenery4 ,,plasencia1 ,,navalmoral1 and ,,talavera as eclipse stations have been mentioned on a previous page4 ,many celebrated struggles during the ,peninsular ,war took place in this part of ,spain1 notably at ,talavera in #ahji and at ,almaraz in #ahab4 ,,madrid 7pop4 #dgj1jjj2 ,hotel de ,paris1 ,hotel de la ,paix74 ,,gibraltar ,,to ,,madrid 7,,with ,,excursions1 ,,on ,,the ,,way1 ,,to ,,granada ,,and ,,seville74 ,from ,algeiras 7opposite ,gibraltar7 there runs every ,wednesday an ,international ,express train to ,madrid and ,paris4 ,the eclipse central line crosses this route about #aem4 ,s4 of ,alcazar de ,san ,juan ,junction 7pop4 #hdjj2 ,good ,buffet1 ,hotel1 ,casa ,briseo7 which is #cfhm4 ,n4 of ,algeiras and #icm4 ,s4 of ,madrid4 ,the chief stations between ,algeiras and ,madrid are3--,bobadilla ,junct4 7#aajm471 ,cordova 7#ahem471 ,alcazar de ,san ,juan 7#cfim471 ,aranjuez 7#dcjm471 and ,madrid 7#dfam474 ,bobadilla is a double junction4 ,a line runs thence ,e4 to ,granada 7#gem471 and ,w4 to ,seville 7#ajdm474 ,a traveller visiting ,granada must return to ,bobadilla to get to ,seville1 but from ,seville he can rejoin the main line at ,cordova #gem4 ,n4 of ,bobadilla1 and avoid ,bobadilla4 ,from ,seville to ,cordova is #ham4 ,algeiras is reached from ,gibraltar by a local steamer4 ,about one hour is allowed to make the connection with the train4 ,eclipse travellers going to this part of ,spain who wish to take advantage of their proximity to ,granada and ,seville will find the following time-table usefully suggestive3-- ,may #af1 ,w4 ,gibraltar to ,granada1 #h a4m4 to #h p4m4 #ag1 ,t4 ,at ,granada4 #ah1 ,f4 ,at ,granada4 #ai1 ,s4 ,granada to ,seville1 #g a4m4 to #f p4m4 #bj1 ,sun4 ,at ,seville4 #ba1 ,m4 ,at ,seville4 #bb1 ,tu4 ,seville to ,cordova1 #aa a4m4 to #c p4m4 #bc1 ,w4 ,at ,cordova4 #bd1 ,t4 ,cordova to ,alcazar1 #b a4m4 to #c p4m4 #be1 ,f4 ,at ,alcazar4 #bf1 ,s4 ,at ,alcazar4 #bg1 ,sun4 ,at ,alcazar4 #bh1 ,m4 ,eclipse day4 ,corresponding to the above ,international train there is an express from ,paris on ,mondays reaching ,algeiras on ,wednesdays4 ,this1 of course1 might suit the convenience of ,eclipse travellers proposing to go to ,spain vi ,france1 and perhaps return vi ,gibraltar4 ,the time occupied by the ,international train between ,paris and ,algeiras and vice vers is about #di hours4 ,,london ,,to ,,alicante4 ,the central line of the eclipse quits ,spain at ,cape ,santa ,pola about #ajm4 ,s4 of ,alicante 7pop4 #dj1jjj73 it crosses the line of the ,alicante and ,madrid railway at ,novelda 7pop4 #hjjj7 a station about #bjm4 inland from ,alicante4 ,alicante may be reached from ,england as follows3--7#a7 ,all sea1 vi ,gibraltar and ,malaga2 7#b7 all land1 vi ,paris1 ,biarritz and ,madrid 7#ajggm471 or ,paris1 ,lyons and ,perpignan 7#aabfm472 or 7#c7 part land and part sea1 vi ,paris and ,marseilles1 and thence by steamer to ,barcelona and ,valencia4 ,as regards the two land routes there is not very much to choose except that the ,biarritz-,madrid route is somewhat shorter and much quicker than the ,perpignan-,barcelona route4 ,as regards the two sea routes both are probably bad from the standpoint of comfort1 the steamers in which the voyage would have to be completed being ,spanish coasting vessels1 but it is difficult to obtain particulars of them in ,england4 ,the following are some of the chief places between ,paris and ,alicante on the ,perpignan route3--,dijon 7#aiem471 ,lyons 7#cahm471 ,avignon 7#dfam471 ,nmes 7#dijm471 ,perpignan 7#fbcm471 ,spanish frontier at ,port ,bou 7#fejm471 ,barcelona 7#gehm471 ,tarragona 7#hbem471 ,valencia 7#iigm471 ,alicante 7#aabfm474 ,the journey from ,paris to ,barcelona is accomplished in #bc;h4 by the ,international ,express3 the remaining #cfh miles take #bg hours owing to the bad connections of the trains4 ,madrid is #bhem4 from ,alicante1 the journey occupying about #bi;h4 ,,useful ,,books ,,for ,,portugal ,,and ,,spain4 ,as the result of much inquiry and research1 the following may be suggested3-- ,,guide-,,books4 ,handbook for ,spain1 #b vols4 #bjs4 7,j4 ,murray47 ,handbook to ,spain and ,portugal1 ,dr4 ,charnock4 #gs4 #f;d4 7,w4 ,j4 ,adams47 ,guide to ,spain and ,portugal1 ,o',shea and ,lomas4 #aes4 7,a4 ,c4 ,black47 ,handbook for ,portugal4 #abs4 7,j4 ,murray47 ,,dictionaries4 ,j,,schke1 ,r4 ,english-,spanish ,conversation ,dictionary4 #cs4 #f;d4 7,nutt47 ,,castro ,,de ,,la ,,fayette4 ,novo ,diccionario ,inglez-,portugueze4 #b vols4 #fs4 ,,grammars ,,and ,,phrase ,,books4 ,d',,orsey1 ,rev4 ,a4 ,j4 ,d4 ,colloquial ,portuguese4 #cs4 #f;d4 7,kegan ,paul47 ,,wall1 ,c4 ,h4 ,practical ,portuguese ,grammar4 #gs4 7,nutt47 ,,thimm1 ,c4 ,a4 ,spanish ,self-taught4 #as4 #f;d4 7,marlborough47 ,spanish ,conversation ,book4 #as4 7,walter ,scott47 ,,hugo4 ,spanish ,simplified4 #b ,parts and ,key4 #as4 #f;d4 7#a;,a ,paternoster ,row47 ,,various4 ,,chambers1 ,g4 ,f4 ,the ,tourist's ,pocket-,book4 ,vocabulary of #af ,languages4 #as4 7,philip47 ,,thimm1 ,c4 ,a4 ,spanish ,washing ,lists for both ,sexes4 #f;d4 7,marlborough47 ,illustration3 ,,diagram ,,of ,,conspicuous ,,stars ,,and ,,planets ,,likely ,,to ,,be ,,visible ,,during ,,the ,,total ,,eclipse ,,of ,,the ,,sun1 ,,may #bh1 #aijj4 ,,index4 999999 ,the ,eclipses referred to in the ,chapters on ,history 7,,viii4-,,xiii47 are not1 as regards dates1 dealt with in this ,index4 ,a4 ,aberdour1 ,lord1 #aei4 ,agathocles1 ,the ,eclipse of1 #abj4 ,ahaz1 ,dial of1 #ij1 #if1 #aja4 ,airy1 ,sir ,g4 ,b41 #dh1 #gd1 #hc1 #hd1 #hi1 #aaj1 #aaa1 #aac1 #aae1 #abc1 #abd1 #add1 #afd1 #afg4 ,almanac1 ,british1 #bai4 ,almanac1 ,nautical1 #bf1 #ce1 #bcd1 #bch4 ,ammianus ,marcellinus1 #acc4 ,anglo-,saxon ,chronicle1 #acf1 #acg1 #ach1 #adb1 #adc1 #adf1 #adh1 #bje1 #bjf1 #bjg1 #bjh1 #bji4 ,annales ,fuldenses1 #adc1 #bjg4 ,annular ,eclipses of the ,sun1 #af4 ,apollonius of ,tyana1 #acj4 ,arabian ,records1 #acb1 #ach4 ,arago1 #abe1 #afd4 ,archilochus1 #ajh4 ,aristophanes1 #aii4 ,ascending ,node1 #ah4 ,asser1 #add4 ,b4 ,baily1 ,f41 #eg1 #aab1 #abb1 #afd4 ,baily's ,beads1 #eg1 #fd1 #afd4 ,barker1 ,sir ,r41 #ajb4 ,bede1 #bje4 ,beer1 #bag4 ,bible1 ,eclipses mentioned in1 #hf4 ,biot1 ,e41 #hj4 ,black ,eclipses of the ,moon1 #ahi4 ,blackness of the ,moon during ,solar ,eclipses1 #dc4 ,blake1 #dh4 ,boillot1 #ace4 ,bosanquet1 ,j4 ,w41 #ia1 #ie1 #aja4 ,c4 ,calvisius1 #acc1 #acg1 #adf1 #bba4 ,carlini1 #afd4 ,carrington1 ,r4 ,c41 #fj4 ,cassini1 #aeh4 ,caussin1 #aci4 ,cedrenus1 #bjh4 ,celoria1 ,prof41 #aej4 ,chinese ,eclipses of the ,sun1 #ge4 ---- of the ,moon1 #aig4 ,chromosphere1 #fj4 ,chronicon ,scotorum1 #adc4 ,churton1 ,archdeacon1 #baj4 ,cicero1 #ajh1 #aji1 #aah4 ,classical ,history1 ,eclipses mentioned in1 #ajg4 ,clavius1 #fd1 #aeb4 ,columbus1 #baa4 ,confucius1 #ha4 ,conjunction of the ,moon1 #ca4 ,copper colour of ,moon in ,lunar ,eclipses1 #aib4 ,corona1 #ef1 #fb1 #aje1 #acj1 #add1 #aeg1 #aei1 #afa1 #afh1 #afi4 ,coronium1 #fi4 ,crabtree1 ,w41 #bae4 ,crucifixion1 ,the darkness at1 #abi4 ,d4 ,delambre1 #ha4 ,de ,la ,rue1 ,w41 #afh4 ,de ,louville1 #aeh4 ,descending ,node1 #ah4 ,dial of ,ahaz1 #ij1 #if1 #aja4 ,digit explained1 #bh4 ,diodorus ,siculus1 #abj4 ,diogenes ,lartius1 #id4 ,dion ,cassius1 #abh1 #acj4 ,draconic ,month1 #bj4 ,dreyer1 ,j4 ,l4 ,e41 #bba4 ,du ,sjour1 #cg1 #ci4 ,e4 ,earthquakes and ,eclipses1 #ge4 ,earth-shine1 #fa4 ,eclipsareon1 ,ferguson's1 #bbb4 ,eclipse1 ,derivation of the word1 #aa4 ----1 number of in a year1 #ac4 ---- of the ,moon1 #aa4 ---- of the ,sun1 #aa4 ----1 ,theory of1 #ae4 ,eclipse of the ,sun of ,may #bh1 #aijj1 #i1 #dj1 #ff1 #ga1 #bci4 ,ennius1 #aah4 ,f4 ,ferguson1 ,j41 #bae1 #bba4 ,ferrer1 ,don ,j41 #afc4 ,flamsteed1 ,j41 #aee1 #bae4 ,florence of ,worcester1 #adc4 ,forster1 #aib4 ,freeman1 ,prof4 ,e4 ,a41 #adf4 ,full ,moon1 #ac4 ,g4 ,gassendi1 ,p41 #bae1 #bba4 ,gaubil1 #hj4 ,gemma ,frisius1 #aeb4 ,gilliss1 ,lieut4 ,j4 ,m41 #afh4 ,ginzel1 #ge1 #aca4 ,glaber1 #ade1 #bjh4 ,glycas1 #ib4 ,grant1 ,r41 #aca4 ,graydon1 #agd4 ,gregorius ,turonensis1 #ace4 ,h4 ,hagen1 #afc4 ,halley1 ,e41 #adh1 #aeg4 ,hansen's ,lunar ,tables1 #hi1 #aah1 #aai1 #abd4 ,helium1 #fi4 ,helps1 ,sir ,a41 #baa4 ,herodotus1 #aji1 #aad1 #aaf4 ,herschel1 ,sir ,j41 #bag4 ,herschel1 ,sir ,w41 #afa1 #afb4 ,hevelius1 #bae4 ,hezekiah1 ,king of ,judah1 #ij4 ,hinckes1 ,dr41 #hi4 ,hind1 ,j4 ,r41 #ch1 #hj1 #hi1 #aae1 #aaf1 #abe1 #ach1 #adb1 #adc1 #adg1 #adh1 #aea1 #aec1 #aed1 #afg1 #bjc1 #bjd4 ,hitzig1 #hg4 ,homer's ,iliad quoted1 #abf4 ,homer's ,odyssey quoted1 #id1 #abf4 ,huggins1 ,sir ,w41 #aca4 ,humboldt1 ,a4 ,von1 #acc1 #adb1 #bag4 ,hunter1 ,w41 #ajb4 ,i4 ,ideler1 #ha4 ,j4 ,janssen1 #afi4 ,jesuit ,missionaries in ,china1 #ha1 #ie4 ,johnson1 ,rev4 ,s4 ,j41 #ch1 #hj1 #abh1 #aca1 #acc1 #ace1 #acg1 #ach1 #adb1 #add1 #ade1 #aej1 #bjb1 #baj1 #baf1 #bbb4 ,jones1 ,capt4 ,f41 #aac4 ,josephus1 #bjb4 ,justin1 #aba4 ,k4 ,kepler1 #fd1 #aeb1 #aec1 #bac1 #bad1 #bbj4 ,kerigan1 ,f41 #bbg4 ,kirchoff1 #fi4 ,l4 ,lalande1 ,j4 ,de1 #bbd4 ,lander1 ,r4 and ,j41 #bbh4 ,langley1 ,prof41 #aga4 ,lardner1 ,d41 ,his ,hand-book of ,astronomy cited1 #ab4 ,lassell1 ,w41 #afg4 ,layard1 ,sir ,a4 ,h41 #aac4 ,leon of ,corfu1 #add4 ,le ,verrier's ,solar ,tables1 #hi4 ,lewis1 ,sir ,g4 ,c41 #aaj4 ,liais1 ,e41 #dd4 ,limits1 ,lunar ,ecliptic1 #aij4 ,lingard1 ,dr41 #aej4 ,livy1 #abe1 #bjb4 ,lockyer1 ,sir ,n41 #agh4 ,lynn1 ,w4 ,t41 #aae1 #aca4 ,m4 ,macartney1 ,lord1 his ,embassy to ,china1 #bbd4 ,maclaurin1 #aea1 #aec1 #aei4 ,mdler1 #bag4 ,magnitude of an ,eclipse1 #bi4 ,main1 ,rev4 ,r41 #hh4 ,maraldi1 #aeh4 ,matthew ,paris1 #baj4 ,maunder1 ,e4 ,w41 #ajd1 #ajf4 ,meteorological effects of a solar eclipse1 #ed1 #afg4 ,millosevich1 #aji4 ,milton1 ,j41 #bca4 ,moon1 ,eclipses of1 #ahf4 ,n4 ,nautical ,almanac1 #bf1 #ce1 #bcd1 #bch4 ,newcomb1 ,s41 #aai1 #abg1 #aci1 #add1 #aga4 ,newcomb1 ,s41 ,his ,astronomy cited1 #bf4 ,new ,moon1 #ac4 ,newton1 ,sir ,i41 #aih4 ,nicias1 #aii4 ,nineveh ,tablets1 #hi4 ,nodes1 #ah1 #ai1 #cj4 ,o4 ,occultations1 #aj1 #ab1 #bce1 #bcg4 ,ockley1 ,s41 #ach4 ,oltmanns1 #aab4 ,oppolzer1 ,t4 ,von1 ,his ,canon cited1 #ce1 #aji1 #bah4 ,opposition of the ,moon1 #ca4 ,orchard1 ,dr41 #bca4 ,p4 ,partial ,eclipses of the ,sun1 #ag4 ,pekin1 ,observatory at1 #ie4 ,penumbra in ,lunar ,eclipses1 #ahh4 ,pepys1 ,s41 ,his ,diary cited1 #aee4 ,perry1 ,s4 ,j41 #agg1 #aic4 ,philostorgius1 #acd4 ,philostratus1 #acj4 ,pickering1 ,e4 ,h41 #ahd4 ,pingr1 #bai4 ,planets1 ,primary1 #ab4 ----1 ,secondary1 #ab4 ----1 ,visibility of during ,eclipses1 #fa4 ,pliny1 #abf1 #bjj1 #bjd1 #bac4 ,plutarch1 ,lives1 #ajh1 #aae1 #aag1 #abj1 #abf1 #aca1 #aii1 #bjj1 #bja4 ,polybius1 #bjj4 ,pope1 ,a41 #id1 #bcc4 ,powell1 ,sir ,g4 ,b41 #agh4 ,prominences1 #ei4 ,pusey1 ,dr4 ,e4 ,b41 #hg1 #hh4 ,r4 ,rawlinson1 ,sir ,h4 ,c41 #hh1 #aaa4 ,red ,flames1 #ei1 #aef1 #aei1 #afh4 ,ricciolus1 ,j4 ,b41 #bbj1 #bbb4 ,roger of ,wendover1 #adi1 #baj4 ,roger de ,hoveden1 #bje4 ,rothmann1 ,r4 ,w41 #gg4 ,rmker1 #dh4 ,russell1 ,s4 ,m41 #gh1 #gi1 #aih1 #bbe4 ,s4 ,santini1 #afd4 ,saros1 ,the1 #ad1 #ah1 #aab1 #aeg4 ,schnurrer1 #adb4 ,schuster1 #agb4 ,season of ,eclipses1 #bi4 ,seneca1 #abf4 ,shadow ,bands1 #df4 ,shadow of ,moon on ,earth1 #cf1 #da1 #di1 #gc4 ,shakespeare1 ,w41 #bbi4 ,smith1 ,j4 ,d41 #dh4 ,smyth1 ,admiral ,w4 ,h41 #bag4 ,short1 ,j41 #aei4 ,suetonius1 #abf4 ,snooke1 ,w4 ,d41 #bbc4 ,spain1 ,eclipse of #aijj visible in1 #aj4 ,spots on the ,sun1 #fg1 #fi4 ,stannyan1 ,capt41 #fj1 #aef4 ,staunton1 ,sir ,g41 #bbd4 ,stockwell1 ,j4 ,n41 #aca1 #bjb1 #bbc4 ,stone1 ,e4 ,j41 #aic4 ,stiklastad1 ,eclipse of1 #add4 ,struve1 ,o41 #afd4 ,struyck1 ,n41 #bba4 ,stukeley1 ,dr4 ,w41 #aeg1 #afj4 ,t4 ,tacitus1 #bjc4 ,telegraph1 ,electric1 and ,eclipses1 #agi4 ,thales1 ,eclipse of1 #ajc1 #aji1 #abc4 ,thirlwall1 ,bishop1 #aaf4 ,thucydides1 #aag1 #aah4 ,tibullus1 #abf4 ,todd1 ,mrs4 ,d4 ,t41 her ,total ,eclipses cited1 #be1 #bg1 #ej1 #ef1 #fe1 #ga1 #acf1 #adf1 #agc1 #ahc1 #bbc1 #bca4 ,totality1 ,approach of1 #di4 ----1 ,darkness of1 #ec4 ,transits1 #aj1 #ab1 #bce4 ,trithenius1 #bjd4 ,trouvelot1 #ajf4 ,tycho ,brahe1 #acg1 #adc1 #aej1 #aeb1 #bac1 #bad1 #bbj4 ,u4 ,ulloa1 ,don ,a41 #fd1 #afa1 #agi4 ,usher1 ,archbishop1 #hg4 ,v4 ,valz1 #afd4 ,w4 ,wallis1 ,dr41 #aee4 ,wargentin1 #baf4 ,wesley1 ,w4 ,h41 #ff4 ,william of ,malmesbury1 #ade1 #adg4 ,williams1 ,j41 #ha1 #hb1 #hc1 #he1 #hf4 ,wolcott1 ,miss ,k4 ,e41 #ajf4 ,wyberd1 ,dr41 #aed4 ,x4 ,xenophon1 #aab1 #aac1 #aai4 ,y4 ,young1 ,prof41 #agh4 ,z4 ,zech1 #aai4 ,transriber's ,note3 ,the table below lists all corrections applied to the original text4 p4 #jad3 removed extra hyphen more than #ah-years - #ah years p4 #jbc3 ,phillipines - ,philippines p4 #jbg3 occuring at regular intervals - occurring p4 #jdh3 ,rumker mentions that - ,rmer p4 #jei3 every sufficiently skilled obersver - observer p4 #jgj3 added closing bracket 7,,sun-,,spot ,,minimum47 p4 #aed3 removed comma ,greenock and ,elgin1 were near p4 #bag3 in the ,carribean ,sea - ,caribbean p4 #bbg3 ,a certain ,mr ,f4 ,kerigan - ,mr4 ,f4 ,kerigan p4 #bcj3 removed comma ,as1 stars with trains of fire p4 #bda3 ,casa ,briseno - ,briseo p4 #bdd3 ,vienna 7#egm47 - ,vianna p4 #bdi3 normalized ,plasentia 7#befm47 - ,plasencia p4 #bej3 ,casa ,briseno - ,briseo