,! ,categories   ,by  ,ari/otle         
,translat$ by ,e4 ,m4 ,edghill          
,section #a  ,"p #a  ,?+s are said to be
 nam$ 'equivocally' :51 ?\gh !y h a     
common "n1 ! def9ition correspond+ ) !  
"n diff]s = ea*4 ,?us1 a real man & a   
figure 9 a picture c bo? lay claim to ! 
"n 'animal'2 yet ^! are equivocally s   
nam$1 =1 ?\gh !y h a common "n1 !       
def9ition correspond+ ) ! "n diff]s =   
ea*4 ,= %\ld any "o def9e 9 :at s5se ea*
 is an animal1 8 def9ition 9 ! "o case w
 be appropriate to t case only4  ,on !  
o!r h&1 ?+s are said to be nam$         
'univocally' :i* h bo? ! "n & !         
def9ition answ]+ to ! "n 9 common4 ,a   
man & an ox are bo? 'animal'1 & ^! are  
univocally s nam$1 inasmu* z n only !   
"n1 b also ! def9ition1 is ! same 9 bo? 
cases3 = if a man %\ld /ate 9 :at s5se  
ea* is an animal1 ! /atem5t 9 ! "o case 
w\ld be id5tical ) t 9 ! o!r4  ,?+s are 
said to be nam$ 'd]ivatively'1 :i* d]ive
 _! "n f "s o!r "n1 b diff] f x 9       
t]m9ation4 ,?us ! gramm>ian d]ives 8 "n 

f ! ^w 'gramm>'1 & ! c\rage\s man f ! ^w
 'c\rage'4    ,"p #b  ,=ms ( spee* are  
ei!r simple or composite4 ,examples ( ! 
latt] are su* expressions z '! man      
runs'1 '! man w9s'2 ( ! =m] 'man'1 'ox'1
 'runs'1 'w9s'4  ,( ?+s !mselves "s are 
pr$icable ( a subject1 & are nev] pres5t
 9 a subject4 ,?us 'man' is pr$icable ( 
! individual man1 & is nev] pres5t 9 a  
subject4  ,by be+ 'pres5t 9 a subject'  
,i d n mean pres5t z p>ts are pres5t 9 a
 :ole1 b be+ incapable ( exi/5ce ap>t f 
! said subject4  ,"s ?+s1 aga91 are     
pres5t 9 a subject1 b are nev] pr$icable
 ( a subject4 ,= in/ance1 a c]ta9 po9t (
 grammatical k is pres5t 9 ! m9d1 b is n
 pr$icable ( any subject2 or aga91 a    
c]ta9 :it5ess may be pres5t 9 ! body 7= 
col\r requires a mat]ial basis71 yet x  
is nev] pr$icable ( any?+4  ,o!r ?+s1   
aga91 are bo? pr$icable ( a subject &   
pres5t 9 a subject4 ,?us :ile k is      
pres5t 9 ! human m9d1 x is pr$icable (  
gramm>4  ,!re is1 la/ly1 a class ( ?+s  
:i* are nei!r pres5t 9 a subject nor    

pr$icable ( a subject1 su* z !          
individual man or ! individual horse4   
,b1 to speak m g5]ally1 t :i* is        
individual & has ! "* ( a unit is nev]  
pr$icable ( a subject4 ,yet 9 "s cases  
!re is no?+ to prev5t su* be+ pres5t 9 a
 subject4 ,?us a c]ta9 po9t (           
grammatical k is pres5t 9 a subject4    
,"p #c  ,:5 "o ?+ is pr$icat$ ( ano!r1  
all t :i* is pr$icable ( ! pr$icate w be
 pr$icable also ( ! subject4 ,?us1 'man'
 is pr$icat$ ( ! individual man2 b      
'animal' is pr$icat$ ( 'man'2 x w1      
!re=e1 be pr$icable ( ! individual man  
also3 = ! individual man is bo? 'man' & 
'animal'4  ,if g5]a are diff]5t &       
co-ord9ate1 _! diff]5tiae are !mselves  
diff]5t 9 k9d4 ,take z an in/ance ! g5us
 'animal' & ! g5us 'k'4 ',) feet'1      
'two-foot$'1 'w+$'1 'aquatic'1 are      
diff]5tiae ( 'animal'2 ! species ( k are
 n di/+ui%$ by ! same diff]5tiae4 ,"o   
species ( k does n diff] f ano!r 9 be+  
'two-foot$'4  ,b :]e "o g5us is         
subord9ate to ano!r1 !re is no?+ to     

prev5t _! hav+ ! same diff]5tiae3 = !   
great] class is pr$icat$ ( ! less]1 s t 
all ! diff]5tiae ( ! pr$icate w be      
diff]5tiae also ( ! subject4    ,"p #d  
,expressions :i* are 9 no way composite 
signify sub/ance1 quantity1 quality1    
relation1 place1 "t1 position1 /ate1    
action1 or affection4 ,to sket* my mean+
 r\ghly1 examples ( sub/ance are 'man'  
or '! horse'1 ( quantity1 su* t]ms z    
'two cubits long' or '?ree cubits long'1
 ( quality1 su* attributes z ':ite'1    
'grammatical'4 ',d\ble'1 'half'1        
'great]'1 fall "u ! category ( relation2
 '9 ! m>ket place'1 '9 ! ,lyceum'1 "u t 
( place2 'ye/]day'1 'la/ ye>'1 "u t (   
"t4 ',ly+'1 'sitt+'1 are t]ms indicat+  
position1 '%od'1 'arm$'1 /ate2 'to      
lance'1 'to caut]ize'1 action2 'to be   
lanc$'1 'to be caut]iz$'1 affection4    
,no "o ( ^! t]ms1 9 & by itself1        
involves an affirmation2 x is by !      
comb9ation ( su* t]ms t positive or     
negative /atem5ts arise4 ,= e ass]tion  
mu/1 z is admitt$1 be ei!r true or      

false1 :]eas expressions :i* are n 9 any
 way composite su* z 'man'1 ':ite'1     
'runs'1 'w9s'1 _c be ei!r true or false4
    ,"p #e  ,sub/ance1 9 ! true/ &      
prim>y & mo/ def9ite s5se ( ! ^w1 is t  
:i* is nei!r pr$icable ( a subject nor  
pres5t 9 a subject2 = in/ance1 !        
individual man or horse4 ,b 9 a second>y
 s5se ^? ?+s are call$ sub/ances )9 :i*1
 z species1 ! prim>y sub/ances are      
includ$2 also ^? :i*1 z g5]a1 include ! 
species4 ,= in/ance1 ! individual man is
 includ$ 9 ! species 'man'1 & ! g5us to 
:i* ! species belongs is 'animal'2 ^!1  
!re=e--t is to say1 ! species 'man' & ! 
g5us 'animal1-are t]m$ second>y         
sub/ances4  ,x is pla9 f :at has be5    
said t bo? ! "n & ! def9ition ( !       
pr$icate mu/ be pr$icable ( ! subject4  
,= in/ance1 'man' is pr$icat$ ( !       
individual man4 ,n[ 9 ?is case ! "n ( ! 
species 'man' is appli$ to ! individual1
 = we use ! t]m 'man' 9 describ+ !      
individual2 & ! def9ition ( 'man' w also
 be pr$icat$ ( ! individual man1 = !    

individual man is bo? man & animal4     
,?us1 bo? ! "n & ! def9ition ( ! species
 are pr$icable ( ! individual4  ,)      
reg>d1 on ! o!r h&1 to ^? ?+s :i* are   
pres5t 9 a subject1 x is g5]ally ! case 
t nei!r _! "n nor _! def9ition is       
pr$icable ( t 9 :i* !y are pres5t4      
,?\gh1 h[ev]1 ! def9ition is nev]       
pr$icable1 !re is no?+ 9 c]ta9 cases to 
prev5t ! "n be+ us$4 ,= in/ance1 ':ite' 
be+ pres5t 9 a body is pr$icat$ ( t 9   
:i* x is pres5t1 = a body is call$ :ite3
 ! def9ition1 h[ev]1 ( ! col\r ':ite' is
 nev] pr$icable ( ! body4  ,ev]y?+      
except prim>y sub/ances is ei!r         
pr$icable ( a prim>y sub/ance or pres5t 
9 a prim>y sub/ance4 ,?is becomes evid5t
 by ref]5ce to p>ticul> in/ances :i*    
occur4 ',animal' is pr$icat$ ( ! species
 'man'1 !re=e ( ! individual man1 = if  
!re 7 no individual man ( :om x c\ld be 
pr$icat$1 x c\ld n be pr$icat$ ( !      
species 'man' at all4 ,aga91 col\r is   
pres5t 9 body1 !re=e 9 individual       
bodies1 = if !re 7 no individual body 9 

:i* x 0 pres5t1 x c\ld n be pres5t 9    
body at all4 ,?us ev]y?+ except prim>y  
sub/ances is ei!r pr$icat$ ( prim>y     
sub/ances1 or is pres5t 9 !m1 & if ^!   
la/ did n exi/1 x w\ld be impossible =  
any?+ else to exi/4  ,( second>y        
sub/ances1 ! species is m truly sub/ance
 ?an ! g5us1 be+ m ne>ly relat$ to      
prim>y sub/ance4 ,= if any "o %\ld r5d] 
an acc\nt ( :at a prim>y sub/ance is1 he
 w\ld r5d] a m in/ructive acc\nt1 & "o m
 prop] to ! subject1 by /at+ ! species  
?an by /at+ ! g5us4 ,?us1 he w\ld give a
 m in/ructive acc\nt ( an individual man
 by /at+ t he 0 man ?an by /at+ t he 0  
animal1 = ! =m] description is peculi>  
to ! individual 9 a great] degree1 :ile 
! latt] is too g5]al4 ,aga91 ! man :o   
gives an acc\nt ( ! nature ( an         
individual tree w give a m in/ructive   
acc\nt by m5tion+ ! species 'tree' ?an  
by m5tion+ ! g5us 'plant'4  ,moreov]1   
prim>y sub/ances are mo/ prop]ly call$  
sub/ances 9 virtue ( ! fact t !y are !  
entities :i* und]lie ev]y?+ else1 & t   

ev]y?+ else is ei!r pr$icat$ ( !m or    
pres5t 9 !m4 ,n[ ! same relation :i*    
subsi/s betwe5 prim>y sub/ance & ev]y?+ 
else subsi/s also betwe5 ! species & !  
g5us3 = ! species is to ! g5us z subject
 is to pr$icate1 s9ce ! g5us is pr$icat$
 ( ! species1 :]eas ! species _c be     
pr$icat$ ( ! g5us4 ,?us we h a second   
gr\nd = ass]t+ t ! species is m truly   
sub/ance ?an ! g5us4  ,( species        
!mselves1 except 9 ! case ( su* z are   
g5]a1 no "o is m truly sub/ance ?an     
ano!r4 ,we %\ld n give a m appropriate  
acc\nt ( ! individual man by /at+ !     
species to :i* he belong$1 ?an we %\ld (
 an individual horse by adopt+ ! same   
me?od ( def9ition4 ,9 ! same way1 (     
prim>y sub/ances1 no "o is m truly      
sub/ance ?an ano!r2 an individual man is
 n m truly sub/ance ?an an individual   
ox4  ,x is1 !n1 ) good reason t ( all t 
rema9s1 :5 we exclude prim>y sub/ances1 
we conc$e to species & g5]a alone ! "n  
'second>y sub/ance'1 = ^! alone ( all ! 
pr$icates convey a k ( prim>y sub/ance4 

,= x is by /at+ ! species or ! g5us t we
 appropriately def9e any individual man2
 & we %all make our def9ition m exact by
 /at+ ! =m] ?an by /at+ ! latt]4 ,all   
o!r ?+s t we /ate1 su* z t he is :ite1 t
 he runs1 & s on1 are irrelevant to !   
def9ition4 ,?us x is j t ^! alone1 ap>t 
f prim>y sub/ances1 %\ld be call$       
sub/ances4  ,fur!r1 prim>y sub/ances are
 mo/ prop]ly s call$1 because !y und]lie
 & are ! subjects ( ev]y?+ else4 ,n[ !  
same relation t subsi/s betwe5 prim>y   
sub/ance & ev]y?+ else subsi/s also     
betwe5 ! species & ! g5us to :i* !      
prim>y sub/ance belongs1 on ! "o h&1 & e
 attribute :i* is n includ$ )9 ^!1 on ! 
o!r4 ,= ^! are ! subjects ( all su*4 ,if
 we call an individual man 'skill$ 9    
gramm>'1 ! pr$icate is applicable also  
to ! species & to ! g5us to :i* he      
belongs4 ,?is law holds good 9 all      
cases4  ,x is a common *>act]i/ic ( all 
sub/ance t x is nev] pres5t 9 a subject4
 ,= prim>y sub/ance is nei!r pres5t 9 a 
subject nor pr$icat$ ( a subject2 :ile1 

) reg>d to second>y sub/ances1 x is cle>
 f ! foll[+ argum5ts 7ap>t f o!rs7 t !y 
are n pres5t 9 a subject4 ,= 'man' is   
pr$icat$ ( ! individual man1 b is n     
pres5t 9 any subject3 = manhood is n    
pres5t 9 ! individual man4 ,9 ! same    
way1 'animal' is also pr$icat$ ( !      
individual man1 b is n pres5t 9 him4    
,aga91 :5 a ?+ is pres5t 9 a subject1   
?\gh ! "n may q well be appli$ to t 9   
:i* x is pres5t1 ! def9ition _c be      
appli$4 ,yet ( second>y sub/ances1 n    
only ! "n1 b also ! def9ition1 applies  
to ! subject3 we %\ld use bo? !         
def9ition ( ! species & t ( ! g5us )    
ref]5ce to ! individual man4 ,?us       
sub/ance _c be pres5t 9 a subject4  ,yet
 ?is is n peculi> to sub/ance1 = x is   
also ! case t diff]5tiae _c be pres5t 9 
subjects4 ,! *>act]i/ics 't]re/rial' &  
'two-foot$' are pr$icat$ ( ! species    
'man'1 b n pres5t 9 x4 ,= !y are n 9    
man4 ,moreov]1 ! def9ition ( ! diff]5tia
 may be pr$icat$ ( t ( :i* ! diff]5tia  
itself is pr$icat$4 ,= in/ance1 if !    

*>act]i/ic 't]re/rial' is pr$icat$ ( !  
species 'man'1 ! def9ition also ( t     
*>act]i/ic may be us$ to =m ! pr$icate (
 ! species 'man'3 = 'man' is t]re/rial4 
,! fact t ! p>ts ( sub/ances appe> to be
 pres5t 9 ! :ole1 z 9 a subject1 %\ld n 
make u appreh5sive le/ we %\ld h to     
admit t su* p>ts are n sub/ances3 = 9   
expla9+ ! phrase 'be+ pres5t 9 a        
subject'1 we /at$' t we meant 'o!rwise  
?an z p>ts 9 a :ole'4  ,x is ! m>k (    
sub/ances & ( diff]5tiae t1 9 all       
propositions ( :i* !y =m ! pr$icate1 !y 
are pr$icat$ univocally4 ,= all su*     
propositions h = _! subject ei!r !      
individual or ! species4 ,x is true t1  
inasmu* z prim>y sub/ance is n pr$icable
 ( any?+1 x c nev] =m ! pr$icate ( any  
proposition4 ,b ( second>y sub/ances1 ! 
species is pr$icat$ ( ! individual1 !   
g5us bo? ( ! species & ( ! individual4  
,simil>ly ! diff]5tiae are pr$icat$ ( ! 
species & ( ! individuals4 ,moreov]1 !  
def9ition ( ! species & t ( ! g5us are  
applicable to ! prim>y sub/ance1 & t ( !

 g5us to ! species4 ,= all t is pr$icat$
 ( ! pr$icate w be pr$icat$ also ( !    
subject4 ,simil>ly1 ! def9ition ( !     
diff]5tiae w be applicable to ! species 
& to ! individuals4 ,b x 0 /at$ above t 
! ^w 'univocal' 0 appli$ to ^? ?+s :i*  
_h bo? "n & def9ition 9 common4 ,x is1  
!re=e1 e/abli%$ t 9 e proposition1 ( :i*
 ei!r sub/ance or a diff]5tia =ms !     
pr$icate1 ^! are pr$icat$ univocally4   
,all sub/ance appe>s to signify t :i* is
 individual4 ,9 ! case ( prim>y sub/ance
 ?is is indisputably true1 = ! ?+ is a  
unit4 ,9 ! case ( second>y sub/ances1 :5
 we speak1 = in/ance1 ( 'man' or        
'animal'1 our =m ( spee* gives !        
impression t we are "h also indicat+ t  
:i* is individual1 b ! impression is n  
/rictly true2 = a second>y sub/ance is n
 an individual1 b a class ) a c]ta9     
qualification2 = x is n "o & s+le z a   
prim>y sub/ance is2 ! words 'man'1      
'animal'1 are pr$icable ( m ?an "o      
subject4  ,yet species & g5us d n m]ely 
indicate quality1 l ! t]m ':ite'2 ':ite'

 indicates quality & no?+ fur!r1 b      
species & g5us det]m9e ! quality )      
ref]5ce to a sub/ance3 !y signify       
sub/ance qualitatively diff]5tiat$4 ,!  
det]m9ate qualification cov]s a l>g]    
field 9 ! case ( ! g5us t 9 t ( !       
species3 he :o uses ! ^w 'animal' is    
h]e9 us+ a ^w ( wid] ext5sion ?an he :o 
uses ! ^w 'man'4  ,ano!r m>k ( sub/ance 
is t x has no contr>y4 ,:at c\ld be !   
contr>y ( any prim>y sub/ance1 su* z !  
individual man or animal8 ,x has none4  
,nor c ! species or ! g5us h a contr>y4 
,yet ?is *>act]i/ic is n peculi> to     
sub/ance1 b is true ( _m o!r ?+s1 su* z 
quantity4 ,!re is no?+ t =ms ! contr>y (
 'two cubits long' or ( '?ree cubits    
long'1 or ( 't5'1 or ( any su* t]m4 ,a  
man may cont5d t 'mu*' is ! contr>y (   
'little'1 or 'great' ( 'small'1 b (     
def9ite quantitative t]ms no contr>y    
exi/s4  ,sub/ance1 aga91 does n appe> to
 admit ( v>iation ( degree4 ,i d n mean 
by ?is t "o sub/ance _c be m or less    
truly sub/ance ?an ano!r1 = x has       

already be5 /at$ t ?is is ! case2 b t no
 s+le sub/ance admits ( v>y+ degrees )9 
itself4 ,= in/ance1 "o p>ticul>         
sub/ance1 'man'1 _c be m or less man    
ei!r ?an himself at "s o!r "t or ?an "s 
o!r man4 ,"o man _c be m man ?an ano!r1 
z t :i* is :ite may be m or less :ite   
?an "s o!r :ite object1 or z t :i* is   
beautiful may be m or less beautiful ?an
 "s o!r beautiful object4 ,! same       
quality1 moreov]1 is said to subsi/ 9 a 
?+ 9 v>y+ degrees at diff]5t times4 ,a  
body1 be+ :ite1 is said to be :it] at "o
 "t ?an x 0 be=e1 or1 be+ w>m1 is said  
to be w>m] or less w>m ?an at "s o!r "t4
 ,b sub/ance is n said to be m or less t
 :i* x is3 a man is n m truly a man at  
"o "t ?an he 0 be=e1 nor is any?+1 if x 
is sub/ance1 m or less :at x is4        
,sub/ance1 !n1 does n admit ( v>iation (
 degree4  ,! mo/ di/9ctive m>k (        
sub/ance appe>s to be t1 :ile rema9+    
num]ically "o & ! same1 x is capable (  
admitt+ contr>y qualities4 ,f among ?+s 
o!r ?an sub/ance1 we %\ld f9d ourselves 

unable to br+ =w>d any :i* possess$ ?is 
m>k4 ,?us1 "o & ! same col\r _c be :ite 
& black4 ,nor c ! same "o action be good
 & bad3 ?is law holds good ) ev]y?+ t is
 n sub/ance4 ,b "o & ! selfsame         
sub/ance1 :ile reta9+ its id5tity1 is   
yet capable ( admitt+ contr>y qualities4
 ,! same individual p]son is at "o "t   
:ite1 at ano!r black1 at "o "t w>m1 at  
ano!r cold1 at "o "t good1 at ano!r bad4
 ,?is capacity is f\nd n[h]e else1 ?\gh 
x might be ma9ta9$ t a /atem5t or op9ion
 0 an exception to ! rule4 ,! same      
/atem5t1 x is agre$1 c be bo? true &    
false4 ,= if ! /atem5t 'he is sitt+' is 
true1 yet1 :5 ! p]son 9 "q has ris51 !  
same /atem5t w be false4 ,! same applies
 to op9ions4 ,= if any "o ?9ks truly t a
 p]son is sitt+1 yet1 :5 t p]son has    
ris51 ?is same op9ion1 if /ill held1 w  
be false4 ,yet al?\gh ?is exception may 
be all[$1 !re is1 nev]!less1 a diff]5ce 
9 ! mann] 9 :i* ! ?+ takes place4 ,x is 
by !mselves *ang+ t sub/ances admit     
contr>y qualities4 ,x is ?us t t :i* 0  

hot becomes cold1 = x has ent]$ into a  
diff]5t /ate4 ,simil>ly t :i* 0 :ite    
becomes black1 & t :i* 0 bad good1 by a 
process ( *ange2 & 9 ! same way 9 all   
o!r cases x is by *ang+ t sub/ances are 
capable ( admitt+ contr>y qualities4 ,b 
/atem5ts & op9ions !mselves rema9       
unalt]$ 9 all respects3 x is by !       
alt]ation 9 ! facts ( ! case t ! contr>y
 quality comes to be !irs4 ,! /atem5t   
'he is sitt+' rema9s unalt]$1 b x is at 
"o "t true1 at ano!r false1 accord+ to  
circum/ances4 ,:at has be5 said (       
/atem5ts applies also to op9ions4 ,?us1 
9 respect ( ! mann] 9 :i* ! ?+ takes    
place1 x is ! peculi> m>k ( sub/ance t x
 %\ld be capable ( admitt+ contr>y      
qualities2 = x is by itself *ang+ t x   
does s4  ,if1 !n1 a man %\ld make ?is   
exception & cont5d t /atem5ts & op9ions 
are capable ( admitt+ contr>y qualities1
 8 cont5tion is uns\nd4 ,= /atem5ts &   
op9ions are said to h ?is capacity1 n   
because !y !mselves und]go modification1
 b because ?is modification occurs 9 !  

case ( some?+ else4 ,! tru? or falsity (
 a /atem5t dep5ds on facts1 & n on any  
p[] on ! "p ( ! /atem5t itself ( admitt+
 contr>y qualities4 ,9 %ort1 !re is no?+
 :i* c alt] ! nature ( /atem5ts &       
op9ions4 ,z1 !n1 no *ange takes place 9 
!mselves1 ^! _c be said to be capable ( 
admitt+ contr>y qualities4  ,b x is by  
reason ( ! modification :i* takes place 
)9 ! sub/ance itself t a sub/ance is    
said to be capable ( admitt+ contr>y    
qualities2 = a sub/ance admits )9 itself
 ei!r disease or heal?1 :it5ess or      
blackness4 ,x is 9 ?is s5se t x is said 
to be capable ( admitt+ contr>y         
qualities4  ,to sum up1 x is a di/9ctive
 m>k ( sub/ance1 t1 :ile rema9+         
num]ically "o & ! same1 x is capable (  
admitt+ contr>y qualities1 !            
modification tak+ place ?r\gh a *ange 9 
! sub/ance itself4  ,let ^! rem>ks      
suffice on ! subject ( sub/ance4    ,"p 
#f  ,quantity is ei!r discrete or       
cont9u\s4 ,moreov]1 "s quantities are   
su* t ea* "p ( ! :ole has a relative    

position to ! o!r p>ts3 o!rs h )9 !m no 
su* relation ( "p to "p4  ,in/ances (   
discrete quantities are numb] & spee*2 (
 cont9u\s1 l9es1 surfaces1 solids1 &1   
besides ^!1 "t & place4  ,9 ! case ( !  
p>ts ( a numb]1 !re is no common b\nd>y 
at :i* !y jo94 ,= example3 two fives    
make t51 b ! two fives h no common      
b\nd>y1 b are sep>ate2 ! p>ts ?ree &    
sev5 also d n jo9 at any b\nd>y4 ,nor1  
to g5]alize1 w\ld x ev] be possible 9 ! 
case ( numb] t !re %\ld be a common     
b\nd>y among ! p>ts2 !y are always      
sep>ate4 ,numb]1 !re=e1 is a discrete   
quantity4  ,! same is true ( spee*4 ,t  
spee* is a quantity is evid5t3 = x is   
measur$ 9 long & %ort syllables4 ,i mean
 "h t spee* :i* is vocal4 ,moreov]1 x is
 a discrete quantity = its p>ts h no    
common b\nd>y4 ,!re is no common b\nd>y 
at :i* ! syllables jo91 b ea* is sep>ate
 & di/9ct f ! re/4  ,a l9e1 on ! o!r h&1
 is a cont9u\s quantity1 = x is possible
 to f9d a common b\nd>y at :i* its p>ts 
jo94 ,9 ! case ( ! l9e1 ?is common      

b\nd>y is ! po9t2 9 ! case ( ! plane1 x 
is ! l9e3 = ! p>ts ( ! plane h also a   
common b\nd>y4 ,simil>ly y c f9d a      
common b\nd>y 9 ! case ( ! p>ts ( a     
solid1 namely ei!r a l9e or a plane4    
,space & "t also belong to ?is class (  
quantities4 ,"t1 pa/1 pres5t1 & future1 
=ms a cont9u\s :ole4 ,space1 likewise1  
is a cont9u\s quantity2 = ! p>ts ( a    
solid occupy a c]ta9 space1 & ^! h a    
common b\nd>y2 x foll[s t ! p>ts ( space
 also1 :i* are occupi$ by ! p>ts ( !    
solid1 h ! same common b\nd>y z ! p>ts (
 ! solid4 ,?us1 n only "t1 b space also1
 is a cont9u\s quantity1 = its p>ts h a 
common b\nd>y4  ,quantities consi/ ei!r 
( p>ts :i* be> a relative position ea*  
to ea*1 or ( p>ts :i* d n4 ,! p>ts ( a  
l9e be> a relative position to ea* o!r1 
= ea* lies some:]e1 & x w\ld be possible
 to di/+ui% ea*1 & to /ate ! position ( 
ea* on ! plane & to expla9 to :at sort (
 "p among ! re/ ea* 0 contigu\s4        
,simil>ly ! p>ts ( a plane h position1 =
 x c\ld simil>ly be /at$ :at 0 !        

position ( ea* & :at sort ( p>ts 7      
contigu\s4 ,! same is true ) reg>d to ! 
solid & to space4 ,b x w\ld be          
impossible to %[ t ! p>ts ( a numb] _h a
 relative position ea* to ea*1 or a     
p>ticul> position1 or to /ate :at p>ts 7
 contigu\s4 ,nor c\ld ?is be done 9 !   
case ( "t1 = none ( ! p>ts ( "t has an  
abid+ exi/5ce1 & t :i* does n abide c   
h>dly h position4 ,x w\ld be bett] to   
say t su* p>ts _h a relative ord]1 9    
virtue ( "o be+ prior to ano!r4         
,simil>ly ) numb]3 9 c\nt+1 '"o' is     
prior to 'two'1 & 'two' to '?ree'1 & ?us
 ! p>ts ( numb] may be said to possess a
 relative ord]1 ?\gh x w\ld be          
impossible to discov] any di/9ct        
position = ea*4 ,?is holds good also 9 !
 case ( spee*4 ,none ( its p>ts has an  
abid+ exi/5ce3 :5 once a syllable is    
pron\nc$1 x is n possible to reta9 x1 s 
t1 naturally1 z ! p>ts d n abide1 !y _c 
h position4 ,?us1 "s quantities consi/ (
 p>ts :i* h position1 & "s ( ^? :i* h n4
  ,/rictly speak+1 only ! ?+s :i* ,i h  

m5tion$ belong to ! category ( quantity3
 ev]y?+ else t is call$ quantitative is 
a quantity 9 a second>y s5se4 ,x is     
because we h 9 m9d "s "o ( ^!           
quantities1 prop]ly s call$1 t we apply 
quantitative t]ms to o!r ?+s4 ,we speak 
( :at is :ite z l>ge1 because ! surface 
ov] :i* ! :ite ext5ds is l>ge2 we speak 
( an action or a process z l5g?y1       
because ! "t cov]$ is long2 ^! ?+s _c 9 
_! own "r claim ! quantitative epi!t4 ,=
 in/ance1 %\ld any "o expla9 h[ long an 
action 01 8 /atem5t w\ld be made 9 t]ms 
( ! "t tak51 to ! effect t x la/$ a ye>1
 or some?+ ( t sort4 ,9 ! same way1 he  
w\ld expla9 ! size ( a :ite object 9    
t]ms ( surface1 = he w\ld /ate ! area   
:i* x cov]$4 ,?us ! ?+s already m5tion$1
 & ^! alone1 are 9 _! intr9sic nature   
quantities2 no?+ else c claim ! "n 9 its
 own "r1 b1 if at all1 only 9 a second>y
 s5se4  ,quantities h no contr>ies4 ,9 !
 case ( def9ite quantities ?is is       
obvi\s2 ?us1 !re is no?+ t is ! contr>y 
( 'two cubits long' or ( '?ree cubits   

long'1 or ( a surface1 or ( any su*     
quantities4 ,a man might1 inde$1 argue t
 'mu*' 0 ! contr>y ( 'little'1 & 'great'
 ( 'small'4 ,b ^! are n quantitative1 b 
relative2 ?+s are n great or small      
absolutely1 !y are s call$ r z ! result 
( an act ( comp>ison4 ,= in/ance1 a     
m\nta9 is call$ small1 a gra9 l>ge1 9   
virtue ( ! fact t ! latt] is great] ?an 
o!rs ( its k9d1 ! =m] less4 ,?us !re is 
a ref]5ce "h to an ext]nal /&>d1 = if ! 
t]ms 'great' & 'small' 7 us$ absolutely1
 a m\nta9 w\ld nev] be call$ small or a 
gra9 l>ge4 ,aga91 we say t !re are _m p 
9 a village1 & few 9 ,a!ns1 al?\gh ^? 9 
! city are _m times z num]\s z ^? 9 !   
village3 or we say t a h\se has _m 9 x1 
& a !atre few1 ?\gh ^? 9 ! !atre f>     
outnumb] ^? 9 ! h\se4 ,! t]ms 'two      
cubits long'1 '?ree cubits long'1 & s on
 indicate quantity1 ! t]ms 'great' &    
'small' indicate relation1 = !y h       
ref]5ce to an ext]nal /&>d4 ,x is1      
!re=e1 pla9 t ^! are to be class$ z     
relative4  ,aga91 :e!r we def9e !m z    

quantitative or n1 !y h no contr>ies3 = 
h[ c !re be a contr>y ( an attribute :i*
 is n to be appreh5d$ 9 or by itself1 b 
only by ref]5ce to some?+ ext]nal8      
,aga91 if 'great' & 'small' are         
contr>ies1 x w come ab\t t ! same       
subject c admit contr>y qualities at "o 
& ! same "t1 & t ?+s w !mselves be      
contr>y to !mselves4 ,= x happ5s at     
times t ! same ?+ is bo? small & great4 
,= ! same ?+ may be small 9 comp>ison ) 
"o ?+1 & great 9 comp>ison ) ano!r1 s t 
! same ?+ comes to be bo? small & great 
at "o & ! same "t1 & is ( su* a nature z
 to admit contr>y qualities at "o & !   
same mom5t4 ,yet x 0 agre$1 :5 sub/ance 
0 be+ discuss$1 t no?+ admits contr>y   
qualities at "o & ! same mom5t4 ,= ?\gh 
sub/ance is capable ( admitt+ contr>y   
qualities1 yet no "o is at ! same "t bo?
 sick & heal?y1 no?+ is at ! same "t bo?
 :ite & black4 ,nor is !re any?+ :i* is 
qualifi$ 9 contr>y ways at "o & ! same  
"t4  ,moreov]1 if ^! 7 contr>ies1 !y    
w\ld !mselves be contr>y to !mselves4 ,=

 if 'great' is ! contr>y ( 'small'1 & ! 
same ?+ is bo? great & small at ! same  
"t1 !n 'small' or 'great' is ! contr>y (
 itself4 ,b ?is is impossible4 ,! t]m   
'great'1 !re=e1 is n ! contr>y ( ! t]m  
'small'1 nor 'mu*' ( 'little'4 ,& ev5   
?\gh a man %\ld call ^! t]ms n relative 
b quantitative1 !y w\ld n h contr>ies4  
,x is 9 ! case ( space t quantity mo/   
plausibly appe>s to admit ( a contr>y4  
,= m5 def9e ! t]m 'above' z ! contr>y ( 
'bel['1 :5 x is ! region at ! c5tre !y  
mean by 'bel['2 & ?is is s1 because no?+
 is f>!r f ! extremities ( ! univ]se ?an
 ! region at ! c5tre4 ,inde$1 x seems t 
9 def9+ contr>ies ( e k9d m5 h rec\rse  
to a spatial metaphor1 = !y say t ^? ?+s
 are contr>ies :i*1 )9 ! same class1 are
 sep>at$ by ! greate/ possible di/ance4 
,quantity does n1 x appe>s1 admit (     
v>iation ( degree4 ,"o ?+ _c be two     
cubits long 9 a great] degree ?an ano!r4
 ,simil>ly ) reg>d to numb]3 :at is     
'?ree' is n m truly ?ree ?an :at is     
'five' is five2 nor is "o set ( ?ree m  

truly ?ree ?an ano!r set4 ,aga91 "o     
p]iod ( "t is n said to be m truly "t   
?an ano!r4 ,nor is !re any o!r k9d (    
quantity1 ( all t h be5 m5tion$1 ) reg>d
 to :i* v>iation ( degree c be pr$icat$4
 ,! category ( quantity1 !re=e1 does n  
admit ( v>iation ( degree4  ,! mo/      
di/9ctive m>k ( quantity is t equality &
 inequality are pr$icat$ ( x4 ,ea* ( !  
a=esaid quantities is said to be equal  
or unequal4 ,= in/ance1 "o solid is said
 to be equal or unequal to ano!r2 numb]1
 too1 & "t c h ^! t]ms appli$ to !m1    
inde$ c all ^? k9ds ( quantity t h be5  
m5tion$4  ,t :i* is n a quantity c by no
 means1 x w\ld seem1 be t]m$ equal or   
unequal to any?+ else4 ,"o p>ticul>     
disposition or "o p>ticul> quality1 su* 
z :it5ess1 is by no means comp>$ ) ano!r
 9 t]ms ( equality & inequality b r 9   
t]ms ( simil>ity4 ,?us x is ! di/9ctive 
m>k ( quantity t x c be call$ equal &   
unequal4    ,section #b   ,"p #g  ,^?   
?+s are call$ relative1 :i*1 be+ ei!r   
said to be ( some?+ else or relat$ to   

some?+ else1 are expla9$ by ref]5ce to t
 o!r ?+4 ,= in/ance1 ! ^w 'sup]ior' is  
expla9$ by ref]5ce to some?+ else1 = x  
is sup]iority ov] some?+ else t is      
meant4 ,simil>ly1 ! expression 'd\ble'  
has ?is ext]nal ref]5ce1 = x is ! d\ble 
( some?+ else t is meant4 ,s x is )     
ev]y?+ else ( ?is k9d4 ,!re are1        
moreov]1 o!r relatives1 e4g4 habit1     
disposition1 p]ception1 k1 & attitude4  
,! significance ( all ^! is expla9$ by a
 ref]5ce to some?+ else & 9 no o!r way4 
,?us1 a habit is a habit ( some?+1 k is 
k ( some?+1 attitude is ! attitude (    
some?+4 ,s x is ) all o!r relatives t h 
be5 m5tion$4 ,^? t]ms1 !n1 are call$    
relative1 ! nature ( :i* is expla9$ by  
ref]5ce to some?+ else1 ! preposition   
'(' or "s o!r preposition be+ us$ to    
indicate ! relation4 ,?us1 "o m\nta9 is 
call$ great 9 comp>ison ) ano!r2 = !    
m\nta9 claims ?is attribute by comp>ison
 ) some?+4 ,aga91 t :i* is call$ simil> 
mu/ be simil> to some?+ else1 & all o!r 
su* attributes h ?is ext]nal ref]5ce4 ,x

 is to be not$ t ly+ & /&+ & sitt+ are  
p>ticul> attitudes1 b attitude is itself
 a relative t]m4 ,to lie1 to /&1 to be  
seat$1 are n !mselves attitudes1 b take 
_! "n f ! a=esaid attitudes4  ,x is     
possible = relatives to h contr>ies4    
,?us virtue has a contr>y1 vice1 ^! bo? 
be+ relatives2 k1 too1 has a contr>y1   
ignorance4 ,b ?is is n ! m>k ( all      
relatives2 'd\ble' & 'triple' h no      
contr>y1 nor inde$ has any su* t]m4  ,x 
also appe>s t relatives c admit (       
v>iation ( degree4 ,= 'l' & 'unlike'1   
'equal' & 'unequal'1 h ! modifications  
'm' & 'less' appli$ to !m1 & ea* ( ^! is
 relative 9 "*3 = ! t]ms 'l' & 'unequal'
 be> a ref]5ce to some?+ ext]nal4 ,yet1 
aga91 x is n e relative t]m t admits (  
v>iation ( degree4 ,no t]m su* z 'd\ble'
 admits ( ?is modification4 ,all        
relatives h correlatives3 by ! t]m      
'slave' we mean ! slave ( a ma/]1 by !  
t]m 'ma/]'1 ! ma/] ( a slave2 by        
'd\ble'1 ! d\ble ( its half2 by 'half'1 
! half ( its d\ble2 by 'great]'1 great] 

?an t :i* is less2 by 'less'1 less ?an t
 :i* is great]4  ,s x is ) e o!r        
relative t]m2 b ! case we use to express
 ! correlation diff]s 9 "s in/ances4    
,?us1 by k we mean k ( ! kn[able2 by !  
kn[able1 t :i* is to be appreh5d$ by k2 
by p]ception1 p]ception ( ! p]ceptible2 
by ! p]ceptible1 t :i* is appreh5d$ by  
p]ception4  ,sometimes1 h[ev]1          
reciprocity ( correlation does n appe>  
to exi/4 ,?is comes ab\t :5 a blund] is 
made1 & t to :i* ! relative is relat$ is
 n accurately /at$4 ,if a man /ates t a 
w+ is necess>ily relative to a bird1 !  
connexion betwe5 ^! two w n be          
reciprocal1 = x w n be possible to say t
 a bird is a bird by reason ( its w+s4  
,! reason is t ! orig9al /atem5t 0      
inaccurate1 = ! w+ is n said to be      
relative to ! bird qua bird1 s9ce _m    
creatures besides birds h w+s1 b qua w+$
 creature4 ,if1 !n1 ! /atem5t is made   
accurate1 ! connexion w be reciprocal1 =
 we c speak ( a w+1 hav+ ref]5ce        
necess>ily to a w+$ creature1 & ( a w+$ 

creature z be+ su* because ( its w+s4   
,occasionally1 p]haps1 x is necess>y to 
co9 words1 if no ^w exi/s by :i* a      
correlation c adequately be expla9$4 ,if
 we def9e a rudd] z necess>ily hav+     
ref]5ce to a boat1 our def9ition w n be 
appropriate1 = ! rudd] does n h ?is     
ref]5ce to a boat qua boat1 z !re are   
boats :i* h no rudd]s4 ,?us we _c use ! 
t]ms reciprocally1 = ! ^w 'boat' _c be  
said to f9d its explanation 9 ! ^w      
'rudd]'4 ,z !re is no exi/+ ^w1 our     
def9ition w\ld p]haps be m accurate if  
we co9$ "s ^w l 'rudd]$' z ! correlative
 ( 'rudd]'4 ,if we express ourselves ?us
 accurately1 at any rate ! t]ms are     
reciprocally connect$1 = ! 'rudd]$' ?+  
is 'rudd]$' 9 virtue ( its rudd]4 ,s x  
is 9 all o!r cases4 ,a head w be m      
accurately def9$ z ! correlative ( t :i*
 is 'head$'1 ?an z t ( an animal1 = !   
animal does n h a head qua animal1 s9ce 
_m animals h no head4  ,?us we may      
p]haps mo/ easily compreh5d t to :i* a  
?+ is relat$1 :5 a "n does n exi/1 if1 f

 t :i* has a "n1 we d]ive a new "n1 &   
apply x to t ) :i* ! fir/ is            
reciprocally connect$1 z 9 ! a=esaid    
in/ances1 :5 we d]iv$ ! ^w 'w+$' f 'w+' 
& f 'rudd]'4  ,all relatives1 !n1 if    
prop]ly def9$1 h a correlative4 ,i add  
?is condition because1 if t to :i* !y   
are relat$ is /at$ z haphaz>d & n       
accurately1 ! two are n f\nd to be      
int]dep5d5t4 ,let me /ate :at ,i mean m 
cle>ly4 ,ev5 9 ! case ( ackn[l$g$       
correlatives1 & :]e names exi/ = ea*1   
!re w be no int]dep5d5ce if "o ( ! two  
is d5ot$1 n by t "n :i* expresses !     
correlative notion1 b by "o ( irrelevant
 significance4 ,! t]m 'slave'1 if def9$ 
z relat$1 n to a ma/]1 b to a man1 or a 
bip$1 or any?+ ( t sort1 is n           
reciprocally connect$ ) t 9 relation to 
:i* x is def9$1 = ! /atem5t is n exact4 
,fur!r1 if "o ?+ is said to be          
correlative ) ano!r1 & ! t]m9ology us$  
is correct1 !n1 ?\gh all irrelevant     
attributes %\ld be remov$1 & only t "o  
attribute left 9 virtue ( :i* x 0       

correctly /at$ to be correlative ) t    
o!r1 ! /at$ correlation w /ill exi/4 ,if
 ! correlative ( '! slave' is said to be
 '! ma/]'1 !n1 ?\gh all irrelevant      
attributes ( ! said 'ma/]'1 su* z       
'bip$'1 'receptive ( k'1 'human'1 %\ld  
be remov$1 & ! attribute 'ma/]' alone   
left1 ! /at$ correlation exi/+ betwe5   
him & ! slave w rema9 ! same1 = x is ( a
 ma/] t a slave is said to be ! slave4  
,on ! o!r h&1 if1 ( two correlatives1 "o
 is n correctly t]m$1 !n1 :5 all o!r    
attributes are remov$ & t alone is left 
9 virtue ( :i* x 0 /at$ to be           
correlative1 ! /at$ correlation w be    
f\nd to h disappe>$4  ,= suppose !      
correlative ( '! slave' %\ld be said to 
be '! man'1 or ! correlative ( '! w+' is
 '! bird'2 if ! attribute 'ma/]' be     
)drawn f '! man'1 ! correlation betwe5  
'! man' & '! slave' w cease to exi/1 =  
if ! man is n a ma/]1 ! slave is n a    
slave4 ,simil>ly1 if ! attribute 'w+$'  
be )drawn f '! bird'1 '! w+' w no long] 
be relative2 = if ! s-call$ correlative 

is n w+$1 x foll[s t '! w+' has no      
correlative4  ,?us x is ess5tial t !    
correlat$ t]ms %\ld be exactly          
designat$2 if !re is a "n exi/+1 !      
/atem5t w be easy2 if n1 x is d\btless  
our duty to con/ruct names4 ,:5 !       
t]m9ology is ?us correct1 x is evid5t t 
all correlatives are int]dep5d5t4       
,correlatives are ?\ght to come into    
exi/5ce simultane\sly4 ,?is is = ! mo/  
"p true1 z 9 ! case ( ! d\ble & ! half4 
,! exi/5ce ( ! half necessitates !      
exi/5ce ( t ( :i* x is a half4 ,simil>ly
 ! exi/5ce ( a ma/] necessitates !      
exi/5ce ( a slave1 & t ( a slave implies
 t ( a ma/]2 ^! are m]ely in/ances ( a  
g5]al rule4 ,moreov]1 !y cancel "o      
ano!r2 = if !re is no d\ble x foll[s t  
!re is no half1 & vice v]sa2 ?is rule   
also applies to all su* correlatives4   
,yet x does n appe> to be true 9 all    
cases t correlatives come into exi/5ce  
simultane\sly4 ,! object ( k w\ld appe> 
to exi/ be=e k itself1 = x is usually ! 
case t we acquire k ( objects already   

exi/+2 x w\ld be difficult1 if n        
impossible1 to f9d a bran* ( k ! beg9n+ 
( ! exi/5ce ( :i* 0 contemporane\s ) t (
 its object4  ,aga91 :ile ! object ( k1 
if x ceases to exi/1 cancels at ! same  
"t ! k :i* 0 its correlative1 ! conv]se 
( ?is is n true4 ,x is true t if !      
object ( k does n exi/ !re c be no k3 = 
!re w no long] be any?+ to "k4 ,yet x is
 equally true t1 if k ( a c]ta9 object  
does n exi/1 ! object may nev]!less q   
well exi/4 ,?us1 9 ! case ( ! squ>+ ( ! 
circle1 if inde$ t process is an object 
( k1 ?\gh x itself exi/s z an object (  
k1 yet ! k ( x has n yet come into      
exi/5ce4 ,aga91 if all animals ceas$ to 
exi/1 !re w\ld be no k1 b !re might yet 
be _m objects ( k4  ,?is is likewise !  
case ) reg>d to p]ception3 = ! object ( 
p]ception is1 x appe>s1 prior to ! act (
 p]ception4 ,if ! p]ceptible is         
annihilat$1 p]ception also w cease to   
exi/2 b ! annihilation ( p]ception does 
n cancel ! exi/5ce ( ! p]ceptible4 ,=   
p]ception implies a body p]ceiv$ & a    

body 9 :i* p]ception takes place4 ,n[ if
 t :i* is p]ceptible is annihilat$1 x   
foll[s t ! body is annihilat$1 = ! body 
is a p]ceptible ?+2 & if ! body does n  
exi/1 x foll[s t p]ception also ceases  
to exi/4 ,?us ! annihilation ( !        
p]ceptible involves t ( p]ception4  ,b !
 annihilation ( p]ception does n involve
 t ( ! p]ceptible4 ,= if ! animal is    
annihilat$1 x foll[s t p]ception also is
 annihilat$1 b p]ceptibles su* z body1  
heat1 sweetness1 bitt]ness1 & s on1 w   
rema94  ,aga91 p]ception is g5]at$ at ! 
same "t z ! p]ceiv+ subject1 = x comes  
into exi/5ce at ! same "t z ! animal4 ,b
 ! p]ceptible surely exi/s be=e         
p]ception2 = fire & wat] & su* elem5ts1 
out ( :i* ! animal is itself compos$1   
exi/ be=e ! animal is an animal at all1 
& be=e p]ception4 ,?us x w\ld seem t !  
p]ceptible exi/s be=e p]ception4  ,x may
 be que/ion$ :e!r x is true t no        
sub/ance is relative1 z seems to be !   
case1 or :e!r exception is to be made 9 
! case ( c]ta9 second>y sub/ances4 ,)   

reg>d to prim>y sub/ances1 x is q true t
 !re is no su* possibility1 = nei!r     
:oles nor p>ts ( prim>y sub/ances are   
relative4 ,! individual man or ox is n  
def9$ ) ref]5ce to some?+ ext]nal4      
,simil>ly ) ! p>ts3 a p>ticul> h& or    
head is n def9$ z a p>ticul> h& or head 
( a p>ticul> p]son1 b z ! h& or head ( a
 p>ticul> p]son4 ,x is true also1 = !   
mo/ "p at lea/1 9 ! case ( second>y     
sub/ances2 ! species 'man' & ! species  
'ox' are n def9$ ) ref]5ce to any?+     
outside !mselves4 ,wood1 aga91 is only  
relative 9 s f> z x is "s "o's prop]ty1 
n 9 s f> z x is wood4 ,x is pla91 !n1 t 
9 ! cases m5tion$ sub/ance is n         
relative4 ,b ) reg>d to "s second>y     
sub/ances !re is a diff]5ce ( op9ion2   
?us1 su* t]ms z 'head' & 'h&' are def9$ 
) ref]5ce to t ( :i* ! ?+s indicat$ are 
a "p1 & s x comes ab\t t ^! appe> to h a
 relative "*4 ,inde$1 if our def9ition (
 t :i* is relative 0 complete1 x is v   
difficult1 if n impossible1 to prove t  
no sub/ance is relative4 ,if1 h[ev]1 our

 def9ition 0 n complete1 if ^? ?+s only 
are prop]ly call$ relative 9 ! case (   
:i* relation to an ext]nal object is a  
necess>y condition ( exi/5ce1 p]haps "s 
explanation ( ! dilemma may be f\nd4  ,!
 =m] def9ition does inde$ apply to all  
relatives1 b ! fact t a ?+ is expla9$ ) 
ref]5ce to some?+ else does n make x    
ess5tially relative4  ,f ?is x is pla9  
t1 if a man def9itely appreh5ds a       
relative ?+1 he w also def9itely        
appreh5d t to :i* x is relative4 ,inde$ 
?is is self-evid5t3 = if a man kn[s t "s
 p>ticul> ?+ is relative1 assum+ t we   
call t a relative 9 ! case ( :i*        
relation to some?+ is a necess>y        
condition ( exi/5ce1 he kn[s t also to  
:i* x is relat$4 ,= if he does n "k at  
all t to :i* x is relat$1 he w n "k :e!r
 or n x is relative4 ,?is is cle>1      
moreov]1 9 p>ticul> in/ances4 ,if a man 
kn[s def9itely t su* & su* a ?+ is      
'd\ble'1 he w also =?) "k def9itely t ( 
:i* x is ! d\ble4 ,= if !re is no?+     
def9ite ( :i* he kn[s x to be ! d\ble1  

he does n "k at all t x is d\ble4 ,aga91
 if he kn[s t a ?+ is m beautiful1 x    
foll[s necess>ily t he w =?) def9itely  
"k t also ?an :i* x is m beautiful4 ,he 
w n m]ely "k indef9itely t x is m       
beautiful ?an some?+ :i* is less        
beautiful1 = ?is w\ld be supposition1 n 
k4 ,= if he does n "k def9itely t ?an   
:i* x is m beautiful1 he c no long]     
claim to "k def9itely t x is m beautiful
 ?an some?+ else :i* is less beautiful3 
= x might be t no?+ 0 less beautiful4 ,x
 is1 !re=e1 evid5t t if a man appreh5ds 
"s relative ?+ def9itely1 he necess>ily 
kn[s t also def9itely to :i* x is       
relat$4  ,n[ ! head1 ! h&1 & su* ?+s are
 sub/ances1 & x is possible to "k _!    
ess5tial "* def9itely1 b x does n       
necess>ily foll[ t we %\ld "k t to :i*  
!y are relat$4 ,x is n possible to "k   
=?) ^: head or h& is meant4 ,?us ^! are 
n relatives1 &1 ?is be+ ! case1 x w\ld  
be true to say t no sub/ance is relative
 9 "*4 ,x is p]haps a difficult matt]1 9
 su* cases1 to make a positive /atem5t  

)\t m exhau/ive exam9ation1 b to h rais$
 que/ions ) reg>d to details is n )\t   
advantage4    ,"p #h  ,by 'quality' ,i  
mean t 9 virtue ( :i* p are said to be  
su* & su*4  ,quality is a t]m t is us$ 9
 _m s5ses4 ,"o sort ( quality let u call
 'habit' or 'disposition'4 ,habit diff]s
 f disposition 9 be+ m la/+ & m firmly  
e/abli%$4 ,! v>i\s k9ds ( k & ( virtue  
are habits1 = k1 ev5 :5 acquir$ only 9 a
 mod]ate degree1 is1 x is agre$1 abid+ 9
 its "* & difficult to displace1 unless 
"s great m5tal upheaval takes place1    
?r\gh disease or any su* cause4 ,!      
virtues1 also1 su* z ju/ice1            
self-re/ra9t1 & s on1 are n easily      
dislodg$ or dismiss$1 s z to give place 
to vice4  ,by a disposition1 on ! o!r   
h&1 we mean a condition t is easily     
*ang$ & quickly gives place to its      
opposite4 ,?us1 heat1 cold1 disease1    
heal?1 & s on are dispositions4 ,= a man
 is dispos$ 9 "o way or ano!r ) ref]5ce 
to ^!1 b quickly *anges1 becom+ cold    
in/ead ( w>m1 ill in/ead ( well4 ,s x is

 ) all o!r dispositions also1 unless    
?r\gh lapse ( "t a disposition has      
itself become invet]ate & almo/         
impossible to dislodge3 9 :i* case we   
%\ld p]haps g s f> z to call x a habit4 
,x is evid5t t m5 incl9e to call ^?     
conditions habits :i* are ( a m or less 
p]man5t type & difficult to displace2 = 
^? :o are n ret5tive ( k1 b volatile1   
are n said to h su* & su* a 'habit' z   
reg>ds k1 yet !y are dispos$1 we may    
say1 ei!r bett] or worse1 t[>ds k4 ,?us 
habit diff]s f disposition 9 ?is1 t :ile
 ! latt] 9 ephem]al1 ! =m] is p]man5t & 
difficult to alt]4  ,habits are at !    
same "t dispositions1 b dispositions are
 n necess>ily habits4 ,= ^? :o h "s     
specific habit may be said also1 9      
virtue ( t habit1 to be ?us or ?us      
dispos$2 b ^? :o are dispos$ 9 "s       
specific way h n 9 all cases !          
correspond+ habit4  ,ano!r sort (       
quality is t 9 virtue ( :i*1 = example1 
we call m5 good box]s or runn]s1 or     
heal?y or sickly3 9 fact x includes all 

^? t]ms :i* ref] to inborn capacity or  
incapacity4 ,su* ?+s are n pr$icat$ ( a 
p]son 9 virtue ( 8 disposition1 b 9     
virtue ( 8 inborn capacity or incapacity
 to d some?+ ) ease or to avoid defeat (
 any k9d4 ,p]sons are call$ good box]s  
or good runn]s1 n 9 virtue ( su* & su* a
 disposition1 b 9 virtue ( an inborn    
capacity to accompli% some?+ ) ease4 ,m5
 are call$ heal?y 9 virtue ( ! inborn   
capacity ( easy resi/ance to ^? unheal?y
 influ5ces t may ord9>ily arise2        
unheal?y1 9 virtue ( ! lack ( ?is       
capacity4 ,simil>ly ) reg>d to s(tness &
 h>dness4 ,h>dness is pr$icat$ ( a ?+   
because x has t capacity ( resi/ance :i*
 enables x to )/& dis9tegration2        
s(tness1 aga91 is pr$icat$ ( a ?+ by    
reason ( ! lack ( t capacity4  ,a ?ird  
class )9 ?is category is t ( affective  
qualities & affections4 ,sweetness1     
bitt]ness1 s\rness1 are examples ( ?is  
sort ( quality1 toge!r ) all t is ak9 to
 ^!2 heat1 moreov]1 & cold1 :it5ess1 &  
blackness are affective qualities4 ,x is

 evid5t t ^! are qualities1 = ^? ?+s t  
possess !m are !mselves said to be su* &
 su* by reason ( _! pres5ce4 ,honey is  
call$ sweet because x conta9s sweetness2
 ! body is call$ :ite because x conta9s 
:it5ess2 & s 9 all o!r cases4  ,! t]m   
'affective quality' is n us$ z indicat+ 
t ^? ?+s :i* admit ^! qualities are     
affect$ 9 any way4 ,honey is n call$    
sweet because x is affect$ 9 a specific 
way1 nor is ?is :at is meant 9 any o!r  
in/ance4 ,simil>ly heat & cold are call$
 affective qualities1 n because ^? ?+s  
:i* admit !m are affect$4 ,:at is meant 
is t ^! said qualities are capable (    
produc+ an 'affection' 9 ! way (        
p]ception4 ,= sweetness has ! p[] (     
affect+ ! s5se ( ta/e2 heat1 t ( t\*2 & 
s x is ) ! re/ ( ^! qualities4  ,:it5ess
 & blackness1 h[ev]1 & ! o!r col\rs1 are
 n said to be affective qualities 9 ?is 
s5se1 b because !y !mselves are !       
results ( an affection4 ,x is pla9 t _m 
*anges ( col\r take place because (     
affections4 ,:5 a man is a%am$1 he      

blu%es2 :5 he is afraid1 he becomes     
pale1 & s on4 ,s true is ?is1 t :5 a man
 is by nature liable to su* affections1 
aris+ f "s concomitance ( elem5ts 9 8   
con/itution1 x is a probable inf]5ce t  
he has ! correspond+ complexion ( sk94  
,= ! same disposition ( bodily elem5ts1 
:i* 9 ! =m] in/ance 0 mom5t>ily pres5t 9
 ! case ( an access ( %ame1 might be a  
result ( a man's natural temp]am5t1 s z 
to produce ! correspond+ col\r+ also z a
 natural *>act]i/ic4 ,all conditions1   
!re=e1 ( ?is k9d1 if caus$ by c]ta9     
p]man5t & la/+ affections1 are call$    
affective qualities4 ,= pallor &        
dusk9ess ( complexion are call$         
qualities1 inasmu* z we are said to be  
su* & su* 9 virtue ( !m1 n only if !y   
orig9ate 9 natural con/itution1 b also  
if !y come ab\t ?r\gh long disease or   
sunburn1 & are difficult to remove1 or  
inde$ rema9 ?r\gh\t life4 ,= 9 ! same   
way we are said to be su* & su* because 
( ^!4  ,^? conditions1 h[ev]1 :i* arise 
f causes :i* may easily be r5d]$        

ineffective or spe$ily remov$1 are      
call$1 n qualities1 b affections3 = we  
are n said to be su* 9 virtue ( !m4 ,!  
man :o blu%es ?r\gh %ame is n said to be
 a con/itutional blu%]1 nor is ! man :o 
becomes pale ?r\gh fe> said to be       
con/itutionally pale4 ,he is said r to h
 be5 affect$4  ,?us su* conditions are  
call$ affections1 n qualities4 ,9 l     
mann] !re are affective qualities &     
affections ( ! s\l4 ,t temp] ) :i* a man
 is born & :i* has its orig9 9 c]ta9    
deep-seat$ affections is call$ a        
quality4 ,i mean su* conditions z       
insanity1 irascibility1 & s on3 = p are 
said to be mad or irascible 9 virtue (  
^!4 ,simil>ly ^? abnormal psy*ic /ates  
:i* are n inborn1 b arise f !           
concomitance ( c]ta9 o!r elem5ts1 & are 
difficult to remove1 or altoge!r        
p]man5t1 are call$ qualities1 = 9 virtue
 ( !m m5 are said to be su* & su*4  ,^?1
 h[ev]1 :i* arise f causes easily r5d]$ 
ineffective are call$ affections1 n     
qualities4 ,suppose t a man is irritable

 :5 vex$3 he is n ev5 spok5 ( z a       
bad-temp]$ man1 :5 9 su* circum/ances he
 loses 8 temp] some:at1 b r is said to  
be affect$4 ,su* conditions are !re=e   
t]m$1 n qualities1 b affections4  ,!    
f\r? sort ( quality is figure & ! %ape t
 belongs to a ?+2 & besides ?is1        
/raightness & curv$ness & any o!r       
qualities ( ?is type2 ea* ( ^! def9es a 
?+ z be+ su* & su*4 ,because x is       
triangul> or quadrangul> a ?+ is said to
 h a specific "*1 or aga9 because x is  
/raight or curv$2 9 fact a ?+'s %ape 9 e
 case gives rise to a qualification ( x4
  ,r>ity & d5sity1 r\ghness & smoo?ness1
 seem to be t]ms indicat+ quality3 yet  
^!1 x w\ld appe>1 really belong to a    
class diff]5t f t ( quality4 ,= x is r a
 c]ta9 relative position ( ! p>ts       
compos+ ! ?+ ?us qualifi$ :i*1 x appe>s1
 is indicat$ by ea* ( ^! t]ms4 ,a ?+ is 
d5se1 ow+ to ! fact t its p>ts are      
closely comb9$ ) "o ano!r2 r>e1 because 
!re are int]/ices betwe5 ! p>ts2 smoo?1 
because its p>ts lie1 s to speak1 ev5ly2

 r\gh1 because "s p>ts project beyond   
o!rs4  ,!re may be o!r sorts ( quality1 
b ^? t are mo/ prop]ly s call$ h1 we may
 safely say1 be5 enum]at$4  ,^!1 !n1 are
 qualities1 & ! ?+s t take _! "n f !m z 
d]ivatives1 or are 9 "s o!r way dep5d5t 
on !m1 are said to be qualifi$ 9 "s     
specific way4 ,9 mo/1 inde$ 9 almo/ all 
cases1 ! "n ( t :i* is qualifi$ is d]iv$
 f t ( ! quality4 ,?us ! t]ms ':it5ess'1
 'gramm>'1 'ju/ice'1 give u ! adjectives
 ':ite'1 'grammatical'1 'j'1 & s on4    
,!re are "s cases1 h[ev]1 9 :i*1 z !    
quality "u consid]ation has no "n1 x is 
impossible t ^? possess$ ( x %\ld h a "n
 t is d]ivative4 ,= in/ance1 ! "n giv5  
to ! runn] or box]1 :o is s call$ 9     
virtue ( an inborn capacity1 is n d]iv$ 
f t ( any quality2 = bo? ^? capacities h
 no "n assign$ to !m4 ,9 ?is1 ! inborn  
capacity is di/9ct f ! sci5ce1 ) ref]5ce
 to :i* m5 are call$1 e4g4 box]s or     
wre/l]s4 ,su* a sci5ce is class$ z a    
disposition2 x has a "n1 & is call$     
'box+' or 'wre/l+' z ! case may be1 & ! 

"n giv5 to ^? dispos$ 9 ?is way is d]iv$
 f t ( ! sci5ce4 ,sometimes1 ev5 ?\gh a 
"n exi/s = ! quality1 t :i* takes its "*
 f ! quality has a "n t is n a          
d]ivative4 ,= in/ance1 ! upright man    
takes 8 "* f ! possession ( ! quality ( 
integrity1 b ! "n giv5 him is n d]iv$ f 
! ^w 'integrity'4 ,yet ?is does n occur 
(t54  ,we may !re=e /ate t ^? ?+s are   
said to be possess$ ( "s specific       
quality :i* h a "n d]iv$ f t ( ! a=esaid
 quality1 or :i* are 9 "s o!r way       
dep5d5t on x4  ,"o quality may be !     
contr>y ( ano!r2 ?us ju/ice is ! contr>y
 ( inju/ice1 :it5ess ( blackness1 & s   
on4 ,! ?+s1 also1 :i* are said to be su*
 & su* 9 virtue ( ^! qualities1 may be  
contr>y ! "o to ! o!r2 = t :i* is unju/ 
is contr>y to t :i* is j1 t :i* is :ite 
to t :i* is black4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is n    
always ! case4 ,r$1 yell[1 & su* col\rs1
 ?\gh qualities1 h no contr>ies4  ,if "o
 ( two contr>ies is a quality1 ! o!r w  
also be a quality4 ,?is w be evid5t f   
p>ticul> in/ances1 if we apply ! names  

us$ to d5ote ! o!r categories2 =        
in/ance1 grant$ t ju/ice is ! contr>y ( 
inju/ice & ju/ice is a quality1 inju/ice
 w also be a quality3 nei!r quantity1   
nor relation1 nor place1 nor inde$ any  
o!r category b t ( quality1 w be        
applicable prop]ly to inju/ice4 ,s x is 
) all o!r contr>ies fall+ "u ! category 
( quality4  ,qualities admit ( v>iation 
( degree4 ,:it5ess is pr$icat$ ( "o ?+ 9
 a great] or less degree ?an ( ano!r4   
,?is is also ! case ) ref]5ce to ju/ice4
 ,moreov]1 "o & ! same ?+ may exhibit a 
quality 9 a great] degree ?an x did     
be=e3 if a ?+ is :ite1 x may become     
:it]4  ,?\gh ?is is g5]ally ! case1 !re 
are exceptions4 ,= if we %\ld say t     
ju/ice admitt$ ( v>iation ( degree1     
difficulties might ensue1 & ?is is true 
) reg>d to all ^? qualities :i* are     
dispositions4 ,!re are "s1 inde$1 :o    
dispute ! possibility ( v>iation "h4 ,!y
 ma9ta9 t ju/ice & heal? _c v well admit
 ( v>iation ( degree !mselves1 b t p v>y
 9 ! degree 9 :i* !y possess ^!         

qualities1 & t ?is is ! case )          
grammatical le>n+ & all ^? qualities :i*
 are class$ z dispositions4 ,h[ev] t may
 be1 x is an incontrov]tible fact t !   
?+s :i* 9 virtue ( ^! qualities are said
 to be :at !y are v>y 9 ! degree 9 :i*  
!y possess !m2 = "o man is said to be   
bett] v]s$ 9 gramm>1 or m heal?y or j1  
?an ano!r1 & s on4  ,! qualities        
express$ by ! t]ms 'triangul>' &        
'quadrangul>' d n appe> to admit (      
v>iation ( degree1 nor inde$ d any t h  
to d ) figure4 ,= ^? ?+s to :i* !       
def9ition ( ! triangle or circle is     
applicable are all equally triangul> or 
circul>4 ,^?1 on ! o!r h&1 to :i* ! same
 def9ition is n applicable1 _c be said  
to diff] f "o ano!r 9 degree2 ! squ>e is
 no m a circle ?an ! rectangle1 = to    
nei!r is ! def9ition ( ! circle         
appropriate4 ,9 %ort1 if ! def9ition ( !
 t]m propos$ is n applicable to bo?     
objects1 !y _c be comp>$4 ,?us x is n   
all qualities :i* admit ( v>iation (    
degree4  ,:]eas none ( ! *>act]i/ics ,i 

h m5tion$ are peculi> to quality1 ! fact
 t lik5ess & unlik5ess c be pr$icat$ )  
ref]5ce to quality only1 gives to t     
category its di/9ctive feature4 ,"o ?+  
is l ano!r only ) ref]5ce to t 9 virtue 
( :i* x is su* & su*2 ?us ?is =ms !     
peculi> m>k ( quality4  ,we mu/ n be    
di/urb$ because x may be argu$ t1 ?\gh  
propos+ to discuss ! category ( quality1
 we h includ$ 9 x _m relative t]ms4 ,we 
did say t habits & dispositions 7       
relative4 ,9 practically all su* cases !
 g5us is relative1 ! individual n4 ,?us 
k1 z a g5us1 is expla9$ by ref]5ce to   
some?+ else1 = we mean a k ( some?+4 ,b 
p>ticul> bran*es ( k are n ?us expla9$4 
,! k ( gramm> is n relative to any?+    
ext]nal1 nor is ! k ( music1 b ^!1 if   
relative at all1 are relative only 9    
virtue ( _! g5]a2 ?us gramm> is said be 
! k ( some?+1 n ! gramm> ( some?+2      
simil>ly music is ! k ( some?+1 n !     
music ( some?+4  ,?us individual bran*es
 ( k are n relative4 ,& x is because we 
possess ^! individual bran*es ( k t we  

are said to be su* & su*4 ,x is ^! t we 
actually possess3 we are call$ exp]ts   
because we possess k 9 "s p>ticul>      
bran*4 ,^? p>ticul> bran*es1 !re=e1 ( k1
 9 virtue ( :i* we are sometimes said to
 be su* & su*1 are !mselves qualities1 &
 are n relative4 ,fur!r1 if any?+ %\ld  
happ5 to fall )9 bo? ! category (       
quality & t ( relation1 !re w\ld be no?+
 extraord9>y 9 class+ x "u bo? ^! heads4
    ,section #c   ,"p #i  ,action &     
affection bo? admit ( contr>ies & also (
 v>iation ( degree4 ,heat+ is ! contr>y 
( cool+1 be+ heat$ ( be+ cool$1 be+ glad
 ( be+ vex$4 ,?us !y admit ( contr>ies4 
,!y also admit ( v>iation ( degree3 = x 
is possible to heat 9 a great] or less  
degree2 also to be heat$ 9 a great] or  
less degree4 ,?us action & affection    
also admit ( v>iation ( degree4 ,s mu*1 
!n1 is /at$ ) reg>d to ^! categories4   
,we spoke1 moreov]1 ( ! category (      
position :5 we 7 deal+ ) t ( relation1 &
 /at$ t su* t]ms d]iv$ _! names f ^? ( !
 correspond+ attitudes4  ,z = ! re/1 "t1

 place1 /ate1 s9ce !y are easily        
intelligible1 ,i say no m ab\t !m ?an 0 
said at ! beg9n+1 t 9 ! category ( /ate 
are includ$ su* /ates z '%od'1 'arm$'1 9
 t ( place '9 ! ,lyceum' & s on1 z 0    
expla9$ be=e4    ,"p #aj  ,! propos$    
categories h1 !n1 be5 adequately dealt  
)4 ,we mu/ next expla9 ! v>i\s s5ses 9  
:i* ! t]m 'opposite' is us$4 ,?+s are   
said to be oppos$ 9 f\r s5ses3 7i7 z    
correlatives to "o ano!r1 7ii7 z        
contr>ies to "o ano!r1 7iii7 z          
privatives to positives1 7iv7 z         
affirmatives to negatives4  ,let me     
sket* my mean+ 9 outl9e4 ,an in/ance ( !
 use ( ! ^w 'opposite' ) ref]5ce to     
correlatives is af=d$ by ! expressions  
'd\ble' & 'half'2 ) ref]5ce to contr>ies
 by 'bad' & 'good'4 ,opposites 9 ! s5se 
( 'privatives' & 'positives' are        
'bl9dness' & 'sight'2 9 ! s5se (        
affirmatives & negatives1 ! propositions
 'he sits'1 'he does n sit'4  7i7 ,pairs
 ( opposites :i* fall "u ! category (   
relation are expla9$ by a ref]5ce ( ! "o

 to ! o!r1 ! ref]5ce be+ indicat$ by !  
preposition '(' or by "s o!r            
preposition4 ,?us1 d\ble is a relative  
t]m1 = t :i* is d\ble is expla9$ z !    
d\ble ( some?+4 ,k1 aga91 is ! opposite 
( ! ?+ kn[n1 9 ! same s5se2 & ! ?+ kn[n 
also is expla9$ by its relation to its  
opposite1 k4 ,= ! ?+ kn[n is expla9$ z t
 :i* is kn[n by some?+1 t is1 by k4 ,su*
 ?+s1 !n1 z are opposite ! "o to ! o!r 9
 ! s5se ( be+ correlatives are expla9$  
by a ref]5ce ( ! "o to ! o!r4  7ii7     
,pairs ( opposites :i* are contr>ies are
 n 9 any way int]dep5d5t1 b are contr>y 
! "o to ! o!r4 ,! good is n spok5 ( z ! 
good ( ! bad1 b z ! contr>y ( ! bad1 nor
 is :ite spok5 ( z ! :ite ( ! black1 b z
 ! contr>y ( ! black4 ,^! two types (   
opposition are !re=e di/9ct4 ,^?        
contr>ies :i* are su* t ! subjects 9 :i*
 !y are naturally pres5t1 or ( :i* !y   
are pr$icat$1 mu/ necess>ily conta9 ei!r
 ! "o or ! o!r ( !m1 h no int]m$iate1 b 
^? 9 ! case ( :i* no su* necessity      
obta9s1 always h an int]m$iate4 ,?us    

disease & heal? are naturally pres5t 9 !
 body ( an animal1 & x is necess>y t    
ei!r ! "o or ! o!r %\ld be pres5t 9 !   
body ( an animal4 ,odd & ev51 aga91 are 
pr$icat$ ( numb]1 & x is necess>y t ! "o
 or ! o!r %\ld be pres5t 9 numb]s4 ,n[  
!re is no int]m$iate betwe5 ! t]ms (    
ei!r ( ^! two pairs4 ,on ! o!r h&1 9 ^? 
contr>ies ) reg>d to :i* no su*         
necessity obta9s1 we f9d an int]m$iate4 
,blackness & :it5ess are naturally      
pres5t 9 ! body1 b x is n necess>y t    
ei!r ! "o or ! o!r %\ld be pres5t 9 !   
body1 inasmu* z x is n true to say t    
ev]ybody mu/ be :ite or black4 ,badness 
& goodness1 aga91 are pr$icat$ ( man1 & 
( _m o!r ?+s1 b x is n necess>y t ei!r !
 "o quality or ! o!r %\ld be pres5t 9 t 
( :i* !y are pr$icat$3 x is n true to   
say t ev]y?+ t may be good or bad mu/ be
 ei!r good or bad4 ,^! pairs ( contr>ies
 h int]m$iates3 ! int]m$iates betwe5    
:ite & black are grey1 sall[1 & all !   
o!r col\rs t come betwe52 ! int]m$iate  
betwe5 good & bad is t :i* is nei!r ! "o

 nor ! o!r4  ,"s int]m$iate qualities h 
names1 su* z grey & sall[ & all ! o!r   
col\rs t come betwe5 :ite & black2 9 o!r
 cases1 h[ev]1 x is n easy to "n !      
int]m$iate1 b we mu/ def9e x z t :i* is 
n ei!r extreme1 z 9 ! case ( t :i* is   
nei!r good nor bad1 nei!r j nor unju/4  
7iii7 'privatives' & 'positives' h      
ref]5ce to ! same subject4 ,?us1 sight &
 bl9dness h ref]5ce to ! eye4 ,x is a   
univ]sal rule t ea* ( a pair ( opposites
 ( ?is type has ref]5ce to t to :i* !   
p>ticul> 'positive' is natural4 ,we say 
t t is capable ( "s p>ticul> faculty or 
possession has suff]$ privation :5 !    
faculty or possession 9 "q is 9 no way  
pres5t 9 t 9 :i*1 & at ! "t at :i*1 x   
%\ld naturally be pres5t4 ,we d n call t
 too?less :i* has n tee?1 or t bl9d :i* 
has n sight1 b r t :i* has n tee? or    
sight at ! "t :5 by nature x %\ld4 ,=   
!re are "s creatures :i* f bir? are )\t 
sight1 or )\t tee?1 b ^! are n call$    
too?less or bl9d4  ,to be )\t "s faculty
 or to possess x is n ! same z !        

correspond+ 'privative' or 'positive'4  
',sight' is a 'positive'1 'bl9dness' a  
'privative'1 b 'to possess sight' is n  
equival5t to 'sight'1 'to be bl9d' is n 
equival5t to 'bl9dness'4 ,bl9dness is a 
'privative'1 to be bl9d is to be 9 a    
/ate ( privation1 b is n a 'privative'4 
,moreov]1 if 'bl9dness' 7 equival5t to  
'be+ bl9d'1 bo? w\ld be pr$icat$ ( !    
same subject2 b ?\gh a man is said to be
 bl9d1 he is by no means said to be     
bl9dness4  ,to be 9 a /ate (            
'possession' is1 x appe>s1 ! opposite ( 
be+ 9 a /ate ( 'privation'1 j z         
'positives' & 'privatives' !mselves are 
opposite4 ,!re is ! same type ( anti!sis
 9 bo? cases2 = j z bl9dness is oppos$  
to sight1 s is be+ bl9d oppos$ to hav+  
sight4  ,t :i* is affirm$ or d5i$ is n  
itself affirmation or d5ial4 ,by        
'affirmation' we mean an affirmative    
proposition1 by 'd5ial' a negative4 ,n[1
 ^? facts :i* =m ! matt] ( ! affirmation
 or d5ial are n propositions2 yet ^! two
 are said to be oppos$ 9 ! same s5se z !

 affirmation & d5ial1 = 9 ?is case also 
! type ( anti!sis is ! same4 ,= z !     
affirmation is oppos$ to ! d5ial1 z 9 ! 
two propositions 'he sits'1 'he does n  
sit'1 s also ! fact :i* con/itutes !    
matt] ( ! proposition 9 "o case is      
oppos$ to t 9 ! o!r1 8 sitt+1 t is to   
say1 to 8 n sitt+4  ,x is evid5t t      
'positives' & 'privatives' are n oppos$ 
ea* to ea* 9 ! same s5se z relatives4 ,!
 "o is n expla9$ by ref]5ce to ! o!r2   
sight is n sight ( bl9dness1 nor is any 
o!r preposition us$ to indicate !       
relation4 ,simil>ly bl9dness is n said  
to be bl9dness ( sight1 b r1 privation (
 sight4 ,relatives1 moreov]1            
reciprocate2 if bl9dness1 !re=e1 7 a    
relative1 !re w\ld be a reciprocity (   
relation betwe5 x & t ) :i* x 0         
correlative4 ,b ?is is n ! case4 ,sight 
is n call$ ! sight ( bl9dness4  ,t ^?   
t]ms :i* fall "u ! heads ( 'positives' &
 'privatives' are n oppos$ ea* to ea* z 
contr>ies1 ei!r1 is pla9 f ! foll[+     
facts3 ,( a pair ( contr>ies su* t !y h 

no int]m$iate1 "o or ! o!r mu/ ne$s be  
pres5t 9 ! subject 9 :i* !y naturally   
subsi/1 or ( :i* !y are pr$icat$2 = x is
 ^?1 z we prov$1 9 ! case ( :i* ?is     
necessity obta9s1 t h no int]m$iate4    
,moreov]1 we cit$ heal? & disease1 odd &
 ev51 z in/ances4 ,b ^? contr>ies :i* h 
an int]m$iate are n subject to any su*  
necessity4 ,x is n necess>y t e         
sub/ance1 receptive ( su* qualities1    
%\ld be ei!r black or :ite1 cold or hot1
 = some?+ int]m$iate betwe5 ^! contr>ies
 may v well be pres5t 9 ! subject4 ,we  
prov$1 moreov]1 t ^? contr>ies h an     
int]m$iate 9 ! case ( :i* ! said        
necessity does n obta94 ,yet :5 "o ( !  
two contr>ies is a con/itutive prop]ty (
 ! subject1 z x is a con/itutive prop]ty
 ( fire to be hot1 ( sn[ to be :ite1 x  
is necess>y det]m9ately t "o ( ! two    
contr>ies1 n "o or ! o!r1 %\ld be pres5t
 9 ! subject2 = fire _c be cold1 or sn[ 
black4 ,?us1 x is n ! case "h t "o ( !  
two mu/ ne$s be pres5t 9 e subject      
receptive ( ^! qualities1 b only 9 t    

subject ( :i* ! "o =ms a con/itutive    
prop]ty4 ,moreov]1 9 su* cases x is "o  
memb] ( ! pair det]m9ately1 & n ei!r !  
"o or ! o!r1 :i* mu/ be pres5t4  ,9 !   
case ( 'positives' & 'privatives'1 on ! 
o!r h&1 nei!r ( ! a=esaid /atem5ts holds
 good4 ,= x is n necess>y t a subject   
receptive ( ! qualities %\ld always h   
ei!r ! "o or ! o!r2 t :i* has n yet     
advanc$ to ! /ate :5 sight is natural is
 n said ei!r to be bl9d or to see4 ,?us 
'positives' & 'privatives' d n belong to
 t class ( contr>ies :i* consi/s ( ^?   
:i* h no int]m$iate4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !y d 
n belong ei!r to t class :i* consi/s (  
contr>ies :i* h an int]m$iate4 ,= "u    
c]ta9 conditions x is necess>y t ei!r ! 
"o or ! o!r %\ld =m "p ( ! con/itution (
 e appropriate subject4 ,= :5 a ?+ has  
rea*$ ! /age :5 x is by nature capable (
 sight1 x w be said ei!r to see or to be
 bl9d1 & t 9 an indet]m9ate s5se1       
signify+ t ! capacity may be ei!r pres5t
 or abs5t2 = x is n necess>y ei!r t x   
%\ld see or t x %\ld be bl9d1 b t x %\ld

 be ei!r 9 ! "o /ate or 9 ! o!r4 ,yet 9 
! case ( ^? contr>ies :i* h an          
int]m$iate we f\nd t x 0 nev] necess>y t
 ei!r ! "o or ! o!r %\ld be pres5t 9 e  
appropriate subject1 b only t 9 c]ta9   
subjects "o ( ! pair %\ld be pres5t1 & t
 9 a det]m9ate s5se4 ,x is1 !re=e1 pla9 
t 'positives' & 'privatives' are n      
oppos$ ea* to ea* 9 ei!r ( ! s5ses 9 :i*
 contr>ies are oppos$4  ,aga91 9 ! case 
( contr>ies1 x is possible t !re %\ld be
 *anges f ei!r into ! o!r1 :ile !       
subject reta9s its id5tity1 unless inde$
 "o ( ! contr>ies is a con/itutive      
prop]ty ( t subject1 z heat is ( fire4  
,= x is possible t t t :i* is heal?y    
%\ld become diseas$1 t :i* is :ite1     
black1 t :i* is cold1 hot1 t :i* is     
good1 bad1 t :i* is bad1 good4 ,! bad   
man1 if he is be+ br\ght into a bett]   
way ( life & ?\ght1 may make "s advance1
 h[ev] slight1 & if he %\ld once        
improve1 ev5 ev] s little1 x is pla9 t  
he might *ange completely1 or at any    
rate make v great progress2 = a man     

becomes m & m easily mov$ to virtue1    
h[ev] small ! improvem5t 0 at fir/4 ,x  
is1 !re=e1 natural to suppose t he w    
make yet great] progress ?an he has made
 9 ! pa/2 & z ?is process goes on1 x w  
*ange him completely & e/abli% him 9 !  
contr>y /ate1 provid$ he is n h9d]$ by  
lack ( "t4 ,9 ! case ( 'positives' &    
'privatives'1 h[ev]1 *ange 9 bo?        
directions is impossible4 ,!re may be a 
*ange f possession to privation1 b n f  
privation to possession4 ,! man :o has  
become bl9d does n rega9 8 sight2 ! man 
:o has become bald does n rega9 8 hair2 
! man :o has lo/ 8 tee? does n gr[ a new
 set4  7iv7 ,/atem5ts oppos$ z          
affirmation & negation belong manife/ly 
to a class :i* is di/9ct1 = 9 ?is case1 
& 9 ?is case only1 x is necess>y = ! "o 
opposite to be true & ! o!r false4      
,nei!r 9 ! case ( contr>ies1 nor 9 !    
case ( correlatives1 nor 9 ! case (     
'positives' & 'privatives'1 is x        
necess>y = "o to be true & ! o!r false4 
,heal? & disease are contr>ies3 nei!r ( 

!m is true or false4 ',d\ble' & 'half'  
are oppos$ to ea* o!r z correlatives3   
nei!r ( !m is true or false4 ,! case is 
! same1 ( c\rse1 ) reg>d to 'positives' 
& 'privatives' su* z 'sight' &          
'bl9dness'4 ,9 %ort1 :]e !re is no sort 
( comb9ation ( words1 tru? & falsity h  
no place1 & all ! opposites we h m5tion$
 s f> consi/ ( simple words4  ,at ! same
 "t1 :5 ! words :i* ent] into oppos$    
/atem5ts are contr>ies1 ^!1 m ?an any   
o!r set ( opposites1 w\ld seem to claim 
?is *>act]i/ic4 ',socrates is ill' is ! 
contr>y ( ',socrates is well'1 b n ev5 (
 su* composite expressions is x true to 
say t "o ( ! pair mu/ always be true & !
 o!r false4 ,= if ,socrates exi/s1 "o w 
be true & ! o!r false1 b if he does n   
exi/1 bo? w be false2 = nei!r ',socrates
 is ill' nor ',socrates is well' is     
true1 if ,socrates does n exi/ at all4  
,9 ! case ( 'positives' & 'privatives'1 
if ! subject does n exi/ at all1 nei!r  
proposition is true1 b ev5 if ! subject 
exi/s1 x is n always ! fact t "o is true

 & ! o!r false4 ,= ',socrates has sight'
 is ! opposite ( ',socrates is bl9d' 9 !
 s5se ( ! ^w 'opposite' :i* applies to  
possession & privation4 ,n[ if ,socrates
 exi/s1 x is n necess>y t "o %\ld be    
true & ! o!r false1 = :5 he is n yet    
able to acquire ! p[] ( vision1 bo? are 
false1 z also if ,socrates is altoge!r  
non-exi/5t4  ,b 9 ! case ( affirmation &
 negation1 :e!r ! subject exi/s or n1 "o
 is always false & ! o!r true4 ,=       
manife/ly1 if ,socrates exi/s1 "o ( !   
two propositions ',socrates is ill'1    
',socrates is n ill'1 is true1 & ! o!r  
false4 ,?is is likewise ! case if he    
does n exi/2 = if he does n exi/1 to say
 t he is ill is false1 to say t he is n 
ill is true4 ,?us x is 9 ! case ( ^?    
opposites only1 :i* are opposite 9 !    
s5se 9 :i* ! t]m is us$ ) ref]5ce to    
affirmation & negation1 t ! rule holds  
good1 t "o ( ! pair mu/ be true & ! o!r 
false4    ,"p #aa  ,t ! contr>y ( a good
 is an evil is %[n by induction3 !      
contr>y ( heal? is disease1 ( c\rage1   

c[>dice1 & s on4 ,b ! contr>y ( an evil 
is sometimes a good1 sometimes an evil4 
,= defect1 :i* is an evil1 has excess = 
its contr>y1 ?is also be+ an evil1 & !  
mean1 :i* is a good1 is equally !       
contr>y ( ! "o & ( ! o!r4 ,x is only 9 a
 few cases1 h[ev]1 t we see in/ances (  
?is3 9 mo/1 ! contr>y ( an evil is a    
good4  ,9 ! case ( contr>ies1 x is n    
always necess>y t if "o exi/s ! o!r %\ld
 also exi/3 = if all become heal?y !re w
 be heal? & no disease1 & aga91 if      
ev]y?+ turns :ite1 !re w be :ite1 b no  
black4 ,aga91 s9ce ! fact t ,socrates is
 ill is ! contr>y ( ! fact t ,socrates  
is well1 & two contr>y conditions _c bo?
 obta9 9 "o & ! same individual at !    
same "t1 bo? ^! contr>ies c\ld n exi/ at
 once3 = if t ,socrates 0 well 0 a fact1
 !n t ,socrates 0 ill c\ld n possibly be
 "o4  ,x is pla9 t contr>y attributes   
mu/ ne$s be pres5t 9 subjects :i* belong
 to ! same species or g5us4 ,disease &  
heal? require z _! subject ! body ( an  
animal2 :ite & black require a body1 )\t

 fur!r qualification2 ju/ice & inju/ice 
require z _! subject ! human s\l4       
,moreov]1 x is necess>y t pairs (       
contr>ies %\ld 9 all cases ei!r belong  
to ! same g5us or belong to contr>y g5]a
 or be !mselves g5]a4 ,:ite & black     
belong to ! same g5us1 col\r2 ju/ice &  
inju/ice1 to contr>y g5]a1 virtue &     
vice2 :ile good & evil d n belong to    
g5]a1 b are !mselves actual g5]a1 ) t]ms
 "u !m4    ,"p #ab  ,!re are f\r s5ses 9
 :i* "o ?+ c be said to be 'prior' to   
ano!r4 ,prim>ily & mo/ prop]ly ! t]m has
 ref]5ce to "t3 9 ?is s5se ! ^w is us$  
to indicate t "o ?+ is old] or m anci5t 
?an ano!r1 = ! expressions 'old]' & 'm  
anci5t' imply great] l5g? ( "t4         
,secondly1 "o ?+ is said to be 'prior'  
to ano!r :5 ! sequ5ce ( _! be+ _c be    
rev]s$4 ,9 ?is s5se '"o' is 'prior' to  
'two'4 ,= if 'two' exi/s1 x foll[s      
directly t '"o' mu/ exi/1 b if '"o'     
exi/s1 x does n foll[ necess>ily t 'two'
 exi/s3 ?us ! sequ5ce subsi/+ _c be     
rev]s$4 ,x is agre$1 !n1 t :5 ! sequ5ce 

( two ?+s _c be rev]s$1 !n t "o on :i* !
 o!r dep5ds is call$ 'prior' to t o!r4  
,9 ! ?ird place1 ! t]m 'prior' is us$ ) 
ref]5ce to any ord]1 z 9 ! case ( sci5ce
 & ( oratory4 ,= 9 sci5ces :i* use      
demon/ration !re is t :i* is prior & t  
:i* is po/]ior 9 ord]2 9 geometry1 !    
elem5ts are prior to ! propositions2 9  
read+ & writ+1 ! lett]s ( ! alphabet are
 prior to ! syllables4 ,simil>ly1 9 !   
case ( spee*es1 ! exordium is prior 9   
ord] to ! n>rative4  ,besides ^! s5ses (
 ! ^w1 !re is a f\r?4 ,t :i* is bett] & 
m hon\rable is said to h a natural      
priority4 ,9 common p>lance m5 speak (  
^? :om !y hon\r & love z 'com+ fir/' )  
!m4 ,?is s5se ( ! ^w is p]haps ! mo/    
f>-fet*$4  ,su*1 !n1 are ! diff]5t s5ses
 9 :i* ! t]m 'prior' is us$4  ,yet x    
w\ld seem t besides ^? m5tion$ !re is   
yet ano!r4 ,= 9 ^? ?+s1 ! be+ ( ea* (   
:i* implies t ( ! o!r1 t :i* is 9 any   
way ! cause may reasonably be said to be
 by nature 'prior' to ! effect4 ,x is   
pla9 t !re are in/ances ( ?is4 ,! fact (

 ! be+ ( a man c>ries ) x ! tru? ( !    
proposition t he is1 & ! implication is 
reciprocal3 = if a man is1 ! proposition
 :]e9 we allege t he is true1 &         
conv]sely1 if ! proposition :]e9 we     
allege t he is true1 !n he is4 ,! true  
proposition1 h[ev]1 is 9 no way ! cause 
( ! be+ ( ! man1 b ! fact ( ! man's be+ 
does seem someh[ to be ! cause ( ! tru? 
( ! proposition1 = ! tru? or falsity ( !
 proposition dep5ds on ! fact ( ! man's 
be+ or n be+4  ,?us ! ^w 'prior' may be 
us$ 9 five s5ses4    ,"p #ac  ,! t]m    
'simultane\s' is prim>ily & mo/         
appropriately appli$ to ^? ?+s ! g5esis 
( ! "o ( :i* is simultane\s ) t ( ! o!r2
 = 9 su* cases nei!r is prior or po/]ior
 to ! o!r4 ,su* ?+s are said to be      
simultane\s 9 po9t ( "t4 ,^? ?+s1 aga91 
are 'simultane\s' 9 po9t ( nature1 ! be+
 ( ea* ( :i* involves t ( ! o!r1 :ile at
 ! same "t nei!r is ! cause ( ! o!r's   
be+4 ,?is is ! case ) reg>d to ! d\ble &
 ! half1 = ^! are reciprocally dep5d5t1 
s9ce1 if !re is a d\ble1 !re is also a  

half1 & if !re is a half1 !re is also a 
d\ble1 :ile at ! same "t nei!r is !     
cause ( ! be+ ( ! o!r4  ,aga91 ^?       
species :i* are di/+ui%$ "o f ano!r &   
oppos$ "o to ano!r )9 ! same g5us are   
said to be 'simultane\s' 9 nature4 ,i   
mean ^? species :i* are di/+ui%$ ea* f  
ea* by "o & ! same me?od ( division4    
,?us ! 'w+$' species is simultane\s ) ! 
't]re/rial' & ! 'wat]' species4 ,^! are 
di/+ui%$ )9 ! same g5us1 & are oppos$   
ea* to ea*1 = ! g5us 'animal' has !     
'w+$'1 ! 't]re/rial'1 & ! 'wat]'        
species1 & no "o ( ^! is prior or       
po/]ior to ano!r2 on ! contr>y1 all su* 
?+s appe> to be 'simultane\s' 9 nature4 
,ea* ( ^! also1 ! t]re/rial1 ! w+$1 & ! 
wat] species1 c be divid$ aga9 into     
subspecies4 ,^? species1 !n1 also w be  
'simultane\s' 9 po9t ( nature1 :i*1     
belong+ to ! same g5us1 are di/+ui%$ ea*
 f ea* by "o & ! same me?od (           
diff]5tiation4  ,b g5]a are prior to    
species1 = ! sequ5ce ( _! be+ _c be     
rev]s$4 ,if !re is ! species            

'wat]-animal'1 !re w be ! g5us 'animal'1
 b grant$ ! be+ ( ! g5us 'animal'1 x    
does n foll[ necess>ily t !re w be !    
species 'wat]-animal'4  ,^? ?+s1 !re=e1 
are said to be 'simultane\s' 9 nature1 !
 be+ ( ea* ( :i* involves t ( ! o!r1    
:ile at ! same "t nei!r is 9 any way !  
cause ( ! o!r's be+2 ^? species1 also1  
:i* are di/+ui%$ ea* f ea* & oppos$ )9 !
 same g5us4 ,^? ?+s1 moreov]1 are       
'simultane\s' 9 ! unqualifi$ s5se ( ! ^w
 :i* come into be+ at ! same "t4    ,"p 
#ad  ,!re are six sorts ( movem5t3      
g5]ation1 de/ruction1 increase1         
dim9ution1 alt]ation1 & *ange ( place4  
,x is evid5t 9 all b "o case t all ^!   
sorts ( movem5t are di/9ct ea* f ea*4   
,g5]ation is di/9ct f de/ruction1       
increase & *ange ( place f dim9ution1 & 
s on4 ,b 9 ! case ( alt]ation x may be  
argu$ t ! process necess>ily implies "o 
or o!r ( ! o!r five sorts ( motion4 ,?is
 is n true1 = we may say t all          
affections1 or ne>ly all1 produce 9 u an
 alt]ation :i* is di/9ct f all o!r sorts

 ( motion1 = t :i* is affect$ ne$ n     
suff] ei!r increase or dim9ution or any 
( ! o!r sorts ( motion4 ,?us alt]ation  
is a di/9ct sort ( motion2 =1 if x 7 n1 
! ?+ alt]$ w\ld n only be alt]$1 b w\ld 
=?) necess>ily suff] increase or        
dim9ution or "s "o ( ! o!r sorts (      
motion 9 addition2 :i* z a matt] ( fact 
is n ! case4 ,simil>ly t :i* 0 und]go+ !
 process ( increase or 0 subject to "s  
o!r sort ( motion w\ld1 if alt]ation 7 n
 a di/9ct =m ( motion1 necess>ily be    
subject to alt]ation also4 ,b !re are "s
 ?+s :i* und]go increase b yet n        
alt]ation4 ,! squ>e1 = in/ance1 if a    
gnomon is appli$ to x1 und]goes increase
 b n alt]ation1 & s x is ) all o!r      
figures ( ?is sort4 ,alt]ation &        
increase1 !re=e1 are di/9ct4  ,speak+   
g5]ally1 re/ is ! contr>y ( motion4 ,b !
 diff]5t =ms ( motion h _! own contr>ies
 9 o!r =ms2 ?us de/ruction is ! contr>y 
( g5]ation1 dim9ution ( increase1 re/ 9 
a place1 ( *ange ( place4 ,z = ?is la/1 
*ange 9 ! rev]se direction w\ld seem to 

be mo/ truly its contr>y2 ?us motion    
upw>ds is ! contr>y ( motion d[nw>ds &  
vice v]sa4  ,9 ! case ( t sort ( motion 
:i* yet rema9s1 ( ^? t h be5 enum]at$1 x
 is n easy to /ate :at is its contr>y4  
,x appe>s to h no contr>y1 unless "o    
%\ld def9e ! contr>y "h also ei!r z 're/
 9 its quality' or z '*ange 9 !         
direction ( ! contr>y quality'1 j z we  
def9$ ! contr>y ( *ange ( place ei!r z  
re/ 9 a place or z *ange 9 ! rev]se     
direction4 ,= a ?+ is alt]$ :5 *ange (  
quality takes place2 !re=e ei!r re/ 9   
its quality or *ange 9 ! direction ( !  
contr>y may be call$ ! contr>y ( ?is    
qualitative =m ( motion4 ,9 ?is way     
becom+ :ite is ! contr>y ( becom+ black2
 !re is alt]ation 9 ! contr>y direction1
 s9ce a *ange ( a qualitative nature    
takes place4    ,"p #ae  ,! t]m 'to h'  
is us$ 9 v>i\s s5ses4 ,9 ! fir/ place x 
is us$ ) ref]5ce to habit or disposition
 or any o!r quality1 = we are said to   
'h' a piece ( k or a virtue4 ,!n1 aga91 
x has ref]5ce to quantity1 z1 = in/ance1

 9 ! case ( a man's height2 = he is said
 to 'h' a height ( ?ree or f\r cubits4  
,x is us$1 moreov]1 ) reg>d to app>el1 a
 man be+ said to 'h' a coat or tunic2 or
 9 respect ( some?+ :i* we h on a "p (  
ourselves1 z a r+ on ! h&3 or 9 respect 
( some?+ :i* is a "p ( u1 z h& or foot4 
,! t]m ref]s also to cont5t1 z 9 ! case 
( a vessel & :eat1 or ( a j> & w9e2 a j>
 is said to 'h' w9e1 & a corn-measure   
:eat4 ,! expression 9 su* cases has     
ref]5ce to cont5t4 ,or x ref]s to t :i* 
has be5 acquir$2 we are said to 'h' a   
h\se or a field4 ,a man is also said to 
'h' a wife1 & a wife a husb&1 & ?is     
appe>s to be ! mo/ remote mean+ ( ! t]m1
 = by ! use ( x we mean simply t ! husb&
 lives ) ! wife4  ,o!r s5ses ( ! ^w     
might p]haps be f\nd1 b ! mo/ ord9>y    
ones h all be5 enum]at$4