,,the ,,new ,,world ,,of ,,islam ,,by ,,lathrop ,,stoddard1 ,a4,m41 ,,ph4,d4 7,harv47 ,,author ,,of3 ,,the ,,rising ,,tide ,,of ,,colour1 ,,the ,,stakes ,,of ,,the ,,war1 ,,present ,,day ,,europe3 ,,its ,,national ,,states ,,of ,,mind1 ,,the ,,trench ,,revolution ,,in ,,san ,,domingo1 ,,etc4 ,,with ,,map ,,second ,,impression ,,london ,,chapman ,,and ,,hall1 ,,ltd4 #aibb ,,printed ,,in ,,great ,,britain ,,by ,,richard ,,clay ,,sons ,,limited4 ,,bungay1 ,,suffolk ,,preface ,the entire world of ,islam is to-day in profound ferment4 ,from ,morocco to ,china and from ,turkestan to the ,congo1 the #bej1jjj1jjj followers of the ,prophet ,mohammed are stirring to new ideas1 new impulses1 new aspirations4 ,a gigantic transformation is taking place whose results must affect all mankind4 ,this transformation was greatly stimulated by the late war4 ,but it began long before4 ,more than a hundred years ago the seeds were sown1 and ever since then it has been evolving2 at first slowly and obscurely2 later more rapidly and perceptibly2 until to-day1 under the stimulus of ,armageddon1 it has burst into sudden and startling bloom4 ,the story of that strange and dramatic evolution ,i have endeavoured to tell in the following pages4 ,considering in turn its various aspects--religious1 cultural1 political1 economic1 social--,i have tried to portray their genesis and development1 to analyse their character1 and to appraise their potency4 ,while making due allowance for local differentiations1 the intimate correlation and underlying unity of the various movements have ever been kept in view4 ,although the book deals primarily with the ,moslem world1 it necessarily includes the non-,moslem ,hindu elements of ,india4 ,the field covered is thus virtually the entire ,near and ,middle ,east4 ,the ,far ,east has not been directly considered1 but parallel developments there have been noted and should always be kept in mind4 ,,lothrop ,,stoddard4 ,,contents ,,chap ,,page ,,introduction3 ,,the ,,decline ,,and ,,fall ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,islamic ,,world #a ,i4 ,,the ,,mohammedan ,,revival #bj ,,ii4 ,,pan-,,islamism #cg ,,iii4 ,,the ,,influence ,,of ,,the ,,west #ge ,,iv4 ,,political ,,change #aaj ,v4 ,,nationalism #acb ,,vi4 ,,nationalism ,,in ,,india #bja ,,vii4 ,,economic ,,change #bbf ,,viii4 ,,social ,,change #bej ,,ix4 ,,social ,,unrest ,,and ,,bolshevism #bgc ,,conclusion #cjj ,,index #cja ,,map ,,the ,,world ,,of ,,islam at end of volume ,,the ,,new ,,world ,,of ,,islam ,das ,alte strzt1 es ndert sich die ,zeit1 ,und neues ,leben blht aus den ,ruinen4 ,,schiller1 ,wilhelm ,tell4 ,,introduction ,,the ,,decline ,,and ,,fall ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,islamic ,,world ,the rise of ,islam is perhaps the most amazing event in human history4 ,springing from a land and a people alike previously negligible1 ,islam spread within a century over half the earth1 shattering great empires1 overthrowing long-established religions1 remoulding the souls of races1 and building up a whole new world--the world of ,islam4 ,the closer we examine this development the more extraordinary does it appear4 ,the other great religions won their way slowly1 by painful struggle1 and finally triumphed with the aid of powerful monarchs converted to the new faith4 ,christianity had its ,constantine1 ,buddhism its ,asoka1 and ,zoroastrianism its ,cyrus1 each lending to his chosen cult the mighty force of secular authority4 ,not so ,islam4 ,arising in a desert land sparsely inhabited by a nomad race previously undistinguished in human annals1 ,islam sallied forth on its great adventure with the slenderest human backing and against the heaviest material odds4 ,yet ,islam triumphed with seemingly miraculous ease1 and a couple of generations saw the ,fiery ,crescent borne victorious from the ,pyrenees to the ,himalayas and from the deserts of ,central ,asia to the deserts of ,central ,africa4 ,this amazing success was due to a number of contributing factors1 chief among them being the character of the ,arab race1 the nature of ,mohammed's teaching1 and the general state of the contemporary ,eastern world4 ,undistinguished though the ,arabs had hitherto been1 they were a people of remarkable potentialities1 which were at that moment patently seeking self-realization4 ,for several generations before ,mohammed1 ,arabia had been astir with exuberant vitality4 ,the ,arabs had outgrown their ancestral paganism and were instinctively yearning for better things4 ,athwart this seething ferment of mind and spirit ,islam rang like a trumpet-call4 ,mohammed1 an ,arab of the ,arabs1 was the very incarnation of the soul of his race4 ,preaching a simple1 austere monotheism1 free from priestcraft or elaborate doctrinal trappings1 he tapped the well-springs of religious zeal always present in the ,semitic heart4 ,forgetting the chronic rivalries and blood-feuds which had consumed their energies in internecine strife1 and welded into a glowing unity by the fire of their new-found faith1 the ,arabs poured forth from their deserts to conquer the earth for ,allah1 the ,one ,true ,god4 ,thus ,islam1 like the resistless breath of the sirocco1 the desert wind1 swept out of ,arabia and encountered--a spiritual vacuum4 ,those neighbouring ,byzantine and ,persian ,empires1 so imposing to the casual eye1 were mere dried husks1 devoid of real vitality4 ,their religions were a mockery and a sham4 ,persia's ancestral cult of ,zoroaster had degenerated into ,magism--a pompous priestcraft1 tyrannical and persecuting1 hated and secretly despised4 ,as for ,eastern ,christianity1 bedizened with the gewgaws of paganism and bedevilled by the maddening theological speculations of the decadent ,greek mind1 it had become a repellent caricature of the teachings of ,christ4 ,both ,magism and ,byzantine ,christendom were riven by great heresies which engendered savage persecutions and furious hates4 ,furthermore1 both the ,byzantine and ,persian ,empires were harsh despotisms which crushed their subjects to the dust and killed out all love of country or loyalty to the state4 ,lastly1 the two empires had just fought a terrible war from which they had emerged mutually bled white and utterly exhausted4 ,such was the world compelled to face the lava-flood of ,islam4 ,the result was inevitable4 ,once the disciplined strength of the ,east ,roman legions and the ,persian cuirassiers had broken before the fiery onslaught of the fanatic sons of the desert1 it was all over4 ,there was no patriotic resistance4 ,the down-trodden populations passively accepted new masters1 while the numerous heretics actually welcomed the overthrow of persecuting co-religionists whom they hated far worse than their alien conquerors4 ,in a short time most of the subject peoples accepted the new faith1 so refreshingly simple compared with their own degenerate cults4 ,the ,arabs1 in their turn1 knew how to consolidate their rule4 ,they were no bloodthirsty savages1 bent solely on loot and destruction4 ,on the contrary1 they were an innately gifted race1 eager to learn and appreciative of the cultural gifts which older civilizations had to bestow4 ,intermarrying freely and professing a common belief1 conquerors and conquered rapidly fused1 and from this fusion arose a new civilization--the ,saracenic civilization1 in which the ancient cultures of ,greece1 ,rome1 and ,persia were revitalized by ,arab vigour and synthesized by the ,arab genius and the ,islamic spirit4 ,for the first three centuries of its existence 7circ4 ,a4,d4 #fej-ajjj7 the realm of ,islam was the most civilized and progressive portion of the world4 ,studded with splendid cities1 gracious mosques1 and quiet universities where the wisdom of the ancient world was preserved and appreciated1 the ,moslem ,east offered a striking contrast to the ,christian ,west1 then sunk in the night of the ,dark ,ages4 ,however1 by the tenth century the ,saracenic civilization began to display unmistakable symptoms of decline4 ,this decline was at first gradual4 ,down to the terrible disasters of the thirteenth century it still displayed vigour and remained ahead of the ,christian ,west4 ,still1 by the year ,a4,d4 #ajjj its golden age was over4 ,for this there were several reasons4 ,in the first place1 that inveterate spirit of faction which has always been the bane of the ,arab race soon reappeared once more4 ,rival clans strove for the headship of ,islam1 and their quarrels degenerated into bloody civil wars4 ,in this fratricidal strife the fervour of the first days cooled1 and saintly men like ,abu ,bekr and ,omar1 ,islam's first standard-bearers1 gave place to worldly minded leaders who regarded their position of ,khalifa#a as a means to despotic power and self-glorification4 ,the seat of government was moved to ,damascus in ,syria1 and afterward to ,bagdad in ,mesopotamia4 ,the reason for this was obvious4 ,in ,mecca despotism was impossible4 ,the fierce1 free-born ,arabs of the desert would tolerate no master1 and their innate democracy had been sanctioned by the ,prophet1 who had explicitly declared that all ,believers were brothers4 ,the ,meccan caliphate was a theocratic democracy4 ,abu ,bekr and ,omar were elected by the people1 and held themselves responsible to public opinion1 subject to the divine law as revealed by ,mohammed in the ,koran4 ,but in ,damascus1 and still more in ,bagdad1 things were different4 ,there the pure-blooded ,arabs were only a handful among swarms of ,syrian and ,persian converts and ,neo-,arab mixed-bloods4 ,these people were filled with traditions of despotism and were quite ready to yield the caliphs obsequious obedience4 ,the caliphs1 in their turn1 leaned more and more upon these complaisant subjects1 drawing from their ranks courtiers1 officials1 and ultimately soldiers4 ,shocked and angered1 the proud ,arabs gradually returned to the desert1 while the government fell into the well-worn ruts of traditional ,oriental despotism4 ,when the caliphate was moved to ,bagdad after the founding of the ,abbaside dynasty 7,a4,d4 #gej71 ,persian influence became preponderant4 ,the famous ,caliph ,haroun-al-,rashid1 the hero of the ,arabian ,nights1 was a typical ,persian monarch1 a true successor of ,xerxes and ,chosroes1 and as different from ,abu ,bekr or ,omar as it is possible to conceive4 ,and1 in ,bagdad1 as elsewhere1 despotic power was fatal to its possessors4 ,under its blight the successors of ,mohammed became capricious tyrants or degenerate harem puppets1 whose nerveless hands were wholly incapable of guiding the great ,moslem ,empire4 ,the empire1 in fact1 gradually went to pieces4 ,shaken by the civil wars1 bereft of strong leaders1 and deprived of the invigorating amalgam of the unspoiled desert ,arabs1 political unity could not endure4 ,everywhere there occurred revivals of suppressed racial or particularist tendencies4 ,the very rapidity of ,islam's expansion turned against it1 now that the well-springs of that expansion were dried up4 ,islam had made millions of converts1 of many sects and races1 but it had digested them very imperfectly4 ,mohammed had really converted the ,arabs1 because he merely voiced ideas which were obscurely germinating in ,arab minds and appealed to impulses innate in the ,arab blood4 ,when1 however1 ,islam was accepted by non-,arab peoples1 they instinctively interpreted the ,prophet's message according to their particular racial tendencies and cultural backgrounds1 the result being that primitive ,islam was distorted or perverted4 ,the most extreme example of this was in ,persia1 where the austere monotheism of ,mohammed was transmuted into the elaborate mystical cult known as ,shiism1 which presently cut the ,persians off from full communion with the orthodox ,moslem world4 ,the same transmutive tendency appears1 in lesser degree1 in the saint-worship of the ,north ,african ,berbers and in the pantheism of the ,hindu ,moslems--both developments which ,mohammed would have unquestionably execrated4 ,these doctrinal fissures in ,islam were paralleled by the disruption of political unity4 ,the first formal split occurred after the accession of the ,abbasides4 ,a member of the deposed ,ommeyyad family fled to ,spain1 where he set up a rival caliphate at ,cordova1 recognized as lawful not only by the ,spanish ,moslems1 but by the ,berbers of ,north ,africa4 ,later on another caliphate was set up in ,egypt--the ,fatimite caliphate1 resting its title on descent from ,mohammed's daughter ,fatima4 ,as for the ,abbaside caliphs of ,bagdad1 they gradually declined in power1 until they became mere puppets in the hands of a new racial element1 the ,turks4 ,before describing that shift of power from ,neo-,arab to ,turkish hands which was so momentous for the history of the ,islamic world1 let us first consider the decline in cultural and intellectual vigour that set in concurrently with the disruption of political and religious unity during the later stages of the ,neo-,arab period4 ,the ,arabs of ,mohammed's day were a fresh1 unspoiled people in the full flush of pristine vigour1 eager for adventure and inspired by a high ideal4 ,they had their full share of ,semitic fanaticism1 but1 though fanatical1 they were not bigoted1 that is to say1 they possessed1 not closed1 but open minds4 ,they held firmly to the tenets of their religion1 but this religion was extremely simple4 ,the core of ,mohammed's teaching was theism plus certain practices4 ,a strict belief in the unity of ,god1 an equally strict belief in the divine mission#b of ,mohammed as set forth in the ,koran1 and certain clearly defined duties--prayer1 ablutions1 fasting1 almsgiving1 and pilgrimage--these1 and these alone1 constituted the ,islam of the ,arab conquerors of the ,eastern world4 ,so simple a theology could not seriously fetter the ,arab mind1 alert1 curious1 eager to learn1 and ready to adjust itself to conditions ampler and more complex than those prevailing in the parched environment of the desert4 ,now1 not only did the ,arabs relish the material advantages and luxuries of the more developed societies which they had conquered2 they also appreciated the art1 literature1 science1 and ideas of the older civilizations4 ,the effect of these novel stimuli was the remarkable cultural and intellectual flowering which is the glory of ,saracenic civilization4 ,for a time thought was relatively free and produced a wealth of original ideas and daring speculations4 ,these were the work not only of ,arabs but also of subject ,christians1 ,jews1 and ,persians1 many of them being heretics previously depressed under the iron bands of persecuting ,byzantine orthodoxy and ,magism4 ,gradually1 however1 this enlightened era passed away4 ,reactionary forces appeared and gained in strength4 ,the liberals1 who are usually known under the general title of ,motazelites1 not only clung to the doctrinal simplicity of primitive ,islam1 but also contended that the test of all things should be reason4 ,on the other hand1 the conservative schools of thought asserted that the test should be precedent and authority4 ,these men1 many of them converted ,christians imbued with the traditions of ,byzantine orthodoxy1 undertook an immense work of ,koranic exegesis1 combined with an equally elaborate codification and interpretation of the reputed sayings or traditions of ,mohammed1 as handed down by his immediate disciples and followers4 ,as the result of these labours1 there gradually arose a ,moslem theology and scholastic philosophy as rigid1 elaborate1 and dogmatic as that of the medival ,christian ,west4 ,naturally1 the struggle between the fundamentally opposed tendencies of traditionalism and rationalism was long and bitter4 ,yet the ultimate outcome was almost a foregone conclusion4 ,everything conspired to favour the triumph of dogma over reason4 ,the whole historic tradition of the ,east 7a tradition largely induced by racial and climatic factors#c7 was toward absolutism4 ,this tradition had been interrupted by the inrush of the wild libertarianism of the desert4 ,but the older tendency presently reasserted itself1 stimulated as it was by the political transformation of the caliphate from theocratic1 democracy to despotism4 ,this triumph of absolutism in the field of government in fact assured its eventual triumph in all other fields as well4 ,for1 in the long run1 despotism can no more tolerate liberty of thought than it can liberty of action4 ,some of the ,damascus caliphs1 to be sure1 toyed with ,motazelism1 the ,ommeyyads being mainly secular-minded men to whom freethinking was intellectually attractive4 ,but presently the caliphs became aware of liberalism's political implications4 ,the ,motazelites did not confine themselves to the realm of pure philosophic speculation4 ,they also trespassed on more dangerous ground4 ,motazelite voices were heard recalling the democratic days of the ,meccan caliphate1 when the ,commander of the ,faithful1 instead of being an hereditary monarch1 was elected by the people and responsible to public opinion4 ,some bold spirits even entered into relations with the fierce fanatic sects of inner ,arabia1 like the ,kharijites1 who1 upholding the old desert freedom1 refused to recognize the caliphate and proclaimed theories of advanced republicanism4 ,the upshot was that the caliphs turned more and more toward the conservative theologians as against the liberals1 just as they favoured the monarchist ,neo-,arabs in preference to the intractable pure-blooded ,arabs of the desert4 ,under the ,abbasides the government came out frankly for religious absolutism4 ,standards of dogmatic orthodoxy were established1 ,motazelites were persecuted and put to death1 and by the twelfth century ,a4,d4 the last vestiges of ,saracenic liberalism were extirpated4 ,the canons of ,moslem thought were fixed4 ,all creative activity ceased4 ,the very memory of the great ,motazelite doctors faded away4 ,the ,moslem mind was closed1 not to be re-opened until our own day4 ,by the beginning of the eleventh century the decline of ,saracenic civilization had become so pronounced that change was clearly in the air4 ,having lost their early vigour1 the ,neo-,arabs were to see their political power pass into other hands4 ,these political heirs of the ,neo-,arabs were the ,turks4 ,the ,turks were a western branch of that congeries of nomadic tribes which1 from time immemorial1 have roamed over the limitless steppes of eastern and central ,asia1 and which are known collectively under the titles of ,uralo-,altaic or ,turanian peoples4 ,the ,arabs had been in contact with the ,turkish nomads ever since the ,islamic conquest of ,persia1 when the ,moslem generals found the ,turks beating restlessly against ,persia's north-eastern frontiers4 ,in the caliphate's palmy days the ,turks were not feared4 ,in fact1 they were presently found to be very useful4 ,a dull-witted folk with few ideas1 the ,turks could do two things superlatively well--obey orders and fight like devils4 ,in other words1 they made ideal mercenary soldiers4 ,the caliphs were delighted1 and enlisted ever larger numbers of them for their armies and their body-guards4 ,this was all very well while the caliphate was strong1 but when it grew weak the situation altered4 ,rising everywhere to positions of authority1 the ,turkish mercenaries began to act like masters4 ,opening the eastern frontiers1 they let in fresh swarms of their countrymen1 who now came1 not as individuals1 but in tribes or hordes under their hereditary chiefs1 wandering about at their own sweet will1 settling where they pleased1 and despoiling or evicting the local inhabitants4 ,the ,turks soon renounced their ancestral paganism for ,islam1 but ,islam made little change in their natures4 ,in judging these ,turkish newcomers we must not consider them the same as the present-day ,ottoman ,turks of ,constantinople and ,asia ,minor4 ,the modern ,osmanli are so saturated with ,european and ,near ,eastern blood1 and have been so leavened by ,western and ,saracenic ideas1 they that are a very different people from their remote immigrant ancestors4 ,yet1 even as it is1 the modern ,osmanli display enough of those unlovely ,turanian traits which characterize the unmodified ,turks of central ,asia1 often called ,turkomans1 to distinguish them from their ,ottoman kinsfolk to the west4 ,now1 what was the primitive ,turkish nature8 ,first and foremost1 it was that of the professional soldier4 ,discipline was the ,turk's watchword4 ,no originality of thought1 and but little curiosity4 ,few ideas ever penetrated the ,turk's slow mind1 and the few that did penetrate were received as military orders1 to be obeyed without question and adhered to without reflection4 ,such was the being who took over the leadership of ,islam from the ,saracen's failing grasp4 ,no greater misfortune could have occurred both for ,islam and for the world at large4 ,for ,islam it meant the rule of dull-witted bigots under which enlightened progress was impossible4 ,of course ,islam did gain a great accession of warlike strength1 but this new power was so wantonly misused as to bring down disastrous repercussions upon ,islam itself4 ,the first notable exploits of the immigrant ,turkish hordes were their conquest of ,asia ,minor and their capture of ,jerusalem1 both events taking place toward the close of the eleventh century#d4 ,up to this time ,asia ,minor had remained part of the ,christian world4 ,the original ,arab flood of the seventh century1 after overrunning ,syria1 had been stopped by the barrier of the ,taurus ,mountains2 the ,byzantine ,empire had pulled itself together2 and thenceforth1 despite border bickerings1 the ,byzantine-,saracen frontier had remained substantially unaltered4 ,now1 however1 the ,turks broke the ,byzantine barrier1 overran ,asia ,minor1 and threatened even ,constantinople1 the eastern bulwark of ,christendom4 ,as for ,jerusalem1 it had1 of course1 been in ,moslem hands since the ,arab conquest of ,a4,d4 #fcg1 but the caliph ,omar had carefully respected the ,christian ,holy ,places1 and his successors had neither persecuted the local ,christians nor maltreated the numerous pilgrims who flocked perennially to ,jerusalem from every part of the ,christian world4 ,but the ,turks changed all this4 ,avid for loot1 and filled with bigoted hatred of the ,misbelievers1 they sacked the holy places1 persecuted the ,christians1 and rendered pilgrimage impossible4 ,the effect of these twin disasters upon ,christendom1 occurring as they did almost simultaneously1 was tremendous4 ,the ,christian ,west1 then at the height of its religious fervour1 quivered with mingled fear and wrath4 ,myriads of zealots1 like ,peter the ,hermit1 roused all ,europe to frenzy4 ,fanaticism begat fanaticism1 and the ,christian ,west poured upon the ,moslem ,east vast hosts of warriors in those extraordinary expeditions1 the ,crusades4 ,the ,turkish conquest of ,islam and its counterblast1 the ,crusades1 were an immense misfortune for the world4 ,they permanently worsened the relations between ,east and ,west4 ,in the year ,a4,d4 #ajjj ,christian-,moslem relations were fairly good1 and showed every prospect of becoming better4 ,the hatreds engendered by ,islam's first irruption were dying away4 ,the frontiers of ,islam and ,christendom had become apparently fixed1 and neither side showed much desire to encroach upon the other4 ,the only serious debatable ground was ,spain1 where ,moslem and ,christian were continually at hand-grips2 but1 after all1 ,spain was mutually regarded as a frontier episode4 ,between ,islam and ,christendom1 as a whole1 intercourse was becoming steadily more friendly and more frequent4 ,this friendly intercourse1 if continued1 might ultimately have produced momentous results for human progress4 ,the ,moslem world was at that time still well ahead of western ,europe in knowledge and culture1 but ,saracenic civilization was ossifying1 whereas the ,christian ,west1 despite its ignorance1 rudeness1 and barbarism1 was bursting with lusty life and patently aspiring to better things4 ,had the nascent amity of ,east and ,west in the eleventh century continued to develop1 both would have greatly profited4 ,in the ,west the influence of ,saracenic culture1 containing1 as it did1 the ancient learning of ,greece and ,rome1 might have awakened our ,renaissance much earlier1 while in the ,east the influence of the medival ,west1 with its abounding vigour1 might have saved ,moslem civilization from the creeping paralysis which was overtaking it4 ,but it was not to be4 ,in ,islam the refined1 easygoing ,saracen gave place to the bigoted1 brutal ,turk4 ,islam became once more aggressive--not1 as in its early days1 for an ideal1 but for sheer blood-lust1 plunder1 and destruction4 ,henceforth it was war to the knife between the only possible civilization and the most brutal and hopeless barbarism4 ,furthermore1 this war was destined to last for centuries4 ,the ,crusades were merely ,western counter-attacks against a ,turkish assault on ,christendom which continued for six hundred years and was definitely broken only under the walls of ,vienna in #afhc4 ,naturally1 from these centuries of unrelenting strife furious hatreds and fanaticisms were engendered which still envenom the relations of ,islam and ,christendom4 ,the atrocities of ,mustapha ,kemal's ,turkish ,nationalists and the atrocities of the ,greek troops in ,asia ,minor1 of which we read in our morning papers1 are in no small degree a carrying on of the mutual atrocities of ,turks and ,crusaders in ,palestine eight hundred years ago4 ,with the details of those old wars between ,turks and ,christians this book has no direct concern4 ,the wars themselves should simply be noted as a chronic barrier between ,east and ,west4 ,as for the ,moslem ,east1 with its declining ,saracenic civilization bowed beneath the brutal ,turkish yoke1 it was presently exposed to even more terrible misfortunes4 ,these misfortunes were also of ,turanian origin4 ,toward the close of the twelfth century the eastern branches of the ,turanian race were welded into a temporary unity by the genius of a mighty chieftain named ,jenghiz ,khan4 ,taking the sinister title of ,the ,inflexible ,emperor1 this arch-savage started out to loot the world4 ,he first overran northern ,china1 which he hideously ravaged1 then turned his devastating course toward the west4 ,such was the rise of the terrible ,mongols1 whose name still stinks in the nostrils of civilized mankind4 ,carrying with them skilled ,chinese engineers using gunpowder for the reduction of fortified cities1 ,jenghiz ,khan and his mounted hosts proved everywhere irresistible4 ,the ,mongols were the most appalling barbarians whom the world has ever seen4 ,their object was not conquest for settlement1 not even loot1 but in great part a sheer satanic lust for blood and destruction4 ,they revelled in butchering whole populations1 destroying cities1 laying waste countrysides--and then passing on to fresh fields4 ,jenghiz ,khan died after a few years of his westward progress1 but his successors continued his work with unabated zeal4 ,both ,christendom and ,islam were smitten by the ,mongol scourge4 ,all eastern ,europe was ravaged and re-barbarized1 the ,russians showing ugly traces of the ,mongol imprint to this day4 ,but the woes of ,christendom were as nothing to the woes of ,islam4 ,the ,mongols never penetrated beyond ,poland1 and western ,europe1 the seat of ,western civilization1 was left unscathed4 ,not so ,islam4 ,pouring down from the north-east1 the ,mongol hosts whirled like a cyclone over the ,moslem world from ,india to ,egypt1 pillaging1 murdering1 and destroying4 ,the nascent civilization of medival ,persia1 just struggling into the light beneath the incubus of ,turkish harryings1 was stamped flat under the ,mongol hoofs1 and the ,mongols then proceeded to deal with the ,moslem culture-centre--,bagdad4 ,bagdad had declined considerably from the gorgeous days of ,haroun-al-,rashid1 with its legendary million souls4 ,however1 it was still a great city1 the seat of the caliphate and the unquestioned centre of ,saracenic civilization4 ,the ,mongols stormed it 7,a4,d4 #abeh71 butchered its entire population1 and literally wiped ,bagdad off the face of the earth4 ,and even this was not the worst4 ,bagdad was the capital of ,mesopotamia4 ,this ,land between the ,rivers had1 in the very dawn of history1 been reclaimed from swamp and desert by the patient labours of half-forgotten peoples who1 with infinite toil1 built up a marvellous system of irrigation that made ,mesopotamia the perennial garden and granary of the world4 ,ages had passed and ,mesopotamia had known many masters1 but all these conquerors had respected1 even cherished1 the irrigation works which were the source of all prosperity4 ,these works the ,mongols wantonly1 methodically destroyed4 ,the oldest civilization in the world1 the cradle of human culture1 was hopelessly ruined2 at least eight thousand years of continuous human effort went for naught1 and ,mesopotamia became the noisome land it still remains to-day1 parched during the droughts of low water1 soaked to fever-stricken marsh in the season of river-floods1 tenanted only by a few mongrel fellahs inhabiting wretched mud villages1 and cowed by nomad ,bedouin browsing their flocks on the sites of ancient fields4 ,the destruction of ,bagdad was a fatal blow to ,saracenic civilization1 especially in the ,east4 ,and even before that dreadful disaster it had received a terrible blow in the ,west4 ,traversing ,north ,africa in its early days1 ,islam had taken firm root in ,spain1 and had so flourished there that ,spanish ,moslem culture was fully abreast of that in the ,moslem ,east4 ,the capital of ,spanish ,islam was ,cordova1 the seat of the ,western caliphate1 a mighty city1 perhaps more wonderful than ,bagdad itself4 ,for centuries ,spanish ,islam lived secure1 confining the ,christians to the mountainous regions of the north4 ,as ,saracen vigour declined1 however1 the ,christians pressed the ,moslems southward4 ,in #abac ,spanish ,islam was hopelessly broken at the tremendous battle of ,las ,navas de ,tolosa4 ,thenceforth1 for the victorious ,christians it was a case of picking up the pieces4 ,cordova itself soon fell1 and with it the glory of ,spanish ,islam1 for the fanatical ,christian ,spaniards extirpated ,saracenic civilization as effectually as the pagan ,mongols were at that time doing4 ,to be sure1 a remnant of the ,spanish ,moslems held their ground at ,granada1 in the extreme south1 until the year ,columbus discovered ,america1 but this was merely an episode4 ,the ,saracen civilization of the ,west was virtually destroyed4 ,meanwhile the ,moslem ,east continued to bleed under the ,mongol scourge4 ,wave after wave of ,mongol raiders passed over the land1 the last notable invasion being that headed by the famous 7or rather infamous7 ,tamerlane1 early in the fifteenth century4 ,by this time the western ,mongols had accepted ,islam1 but that made little difference in their conduct4 ,to show that ,tamerlane was a true scion of his ancestor ,jenghiz ,khan1 it may be remarked that his foible was pyramids of human skulls1 his prize effort being one of #gj1jjj erected after the storming of the ,persian city of ,ispahan4 ,after the cessation of the ,mongol incursions1 the ravaged and depopulated ,moslem ,east fell under the sway of the ,ottoman ,turks4 ,the ,ottoman ,turks1 or ,osmanli1 were originally merely one of the many ,turkish hordes which entered ,asia ,minor after the downfall of ,byzantine rule4 ,they owed their greatness mainly to a long line of able sultans1 who gradually absorbed the neighbouring ,turkish tribes and used this consolidated strength for ambitious conquests both to east and west4 ,in #adec the ,osmanli extinguished the old ,byzantine ,empire by taking ,constantinople1 and within a century thereafter they had conquered the ,moslem ,east from ,persia to ,morocco1 had subjugated the whole ,balkan ,peninsula1 and had advanced through ,hungary to the walls of ,vienna4 ,unlike their ,mongol cousins1 the ,ottoman ,turks built up a durable empire4 ,it was a barbarous sort of empire1 for the ,turks understood very little about culture4 ,the only things they could appreciate were military improvements4 ,these1 however1 they thoroughly appreciated and kept fully abreast of the times4 ,in their palmy days the ,turks had the best artillery and the steadiest infantry in the world1 and were the terror of ,europe4 ,meantime ,europe was awakening to true progress and higher civilization4 ,while the ,moslem ,east was sinking under ,mongol harryings and ,turkish militarism1 the ,christian ,west was thrilling to the ,renaissance and the discoveries of ,america and the water route to ,india4 ,the effect of these discoveries simply cannot be over-estimated4 ,when ,columbus and ,vasco da ,gama made their memorable voyages at the end of the fifteenth century1 ,western civilization was pent up closely within the restricted bounds of west-central ,europe1 and was waging a defensive and none-too-hopeful struggle with the forces of ,turanian barbarism4 ,russia lay under the heel of the ,mongol ,tartars1 while the ,turks1 then in the full flush of their martial vigour1 were marching triumphantly up from the south-east and threatening ,europe's very heart4 ,so strong were these ,turanian barbarians1 with ,asia1 ,north ,africa1 and eastern ,europe in their grasp1 that ,western civilization was hard put to it to hold its own4 ,western civilization was1 in fact1 fighting with its back to the wall--the wall of a boundless ocean4 ,we can hardly conceive how our medival forefathers viewed the ocean4 ,to them it was a numbing1 constricting presence2 the abode of darkness and horror4 ,no wonder medival ,europe was static1 since it faced on ruthless1 aggressive ,asia1 and backed on nowhere4 ,then1 in the twinkling of an eye1 the sea-wall became a highway1 and dead-end ,europe became mistress of the ocean--and thereby mistress of the world4 ,the greatest strategic shift of fortune in all human history had taken place4 ,instead of fronting hopelessly on the fiercest of ,asiatics1 against whom victory by direct attack seemed impossible1 the ,europeans could now flank them at will4 ,furthermore1 the balance of resources shifted in ,europe's favour4 ,whole new worlds were unmasked whence ,europe could draw limitless wealth to quicken its home life and initiate a progress that would soon place it immeasurably above its once-dreaded ,asiatic assailants4 ,what were the resources of the stagnant ,moslem ,east compared with those of the ,americas and the ,indies8 ,so ,western civilization1 quickened1 energized1 progressed with giant strides1 shook off its medival fetters1 grasped the talisman of science1 and strode into the light of modern times4 ,yet all this left ,islam unmoved4 ,wrapping itself in the tatters of ,saracenic civilization1 the ,moslem ,east continued to fall behind4 ,even its military power presently vanished1 for the ,turk sank into lethargy and ceased to cultivate the art of war4 ,for a time the ,west1 busied with internal conflicts1 hesitated to attack the ,east1 so great was the prestige of the ,ottoman name4 ,but the crushing defeat of the ,turks in their rash attack upon ,vienna in #afhc showed the ,west that the ,ottoman ,empire was far gone in decrepitude4 ,thenceforth1 the empire was harried mercilessly by ,western assaults and was saved from collapse only by the mutual jealousies of ,western ,powers1 quarrelling over the ,turkish spoils4 ,however1 not until the nineteenth century did the ,moslem world1 as a whole1 feel the weight of ,western attack4 ,throughout the eighteenth century the ,west assailed the ends of the ,moslem battle-line in eastern ,europe and the ,indies1 but the bulk of ,islam1 from ,morocco to ,central ,asia1 remained almost immune4 ,the ,moslem world failed to profit by this respite4 ,plunged in lethargy1 contemptuous of the ,european ,misbelievers1 and accepting defeats as the inscrutable will of ,allah1 ,islam continued to live its old life1 neither knowing nor caring to know anything about ,western ideas or ,western progress4 ,such was the decrepit ,moslem world which faced nineteenth-century ,europe1 energized by the ,industrial ,revolution1 armed as never before by modern science and invention which had unlocked nature's secrets and placed hitherto-undreamed-of weapons in its aggressive hands4 ,the result was a foregone conclusion4 ,one by one1 the decrepit ,moslem states fell before the ,western attack1 and the whole ,islamic world was rapidly partitioned among the ,european ,powers4 ,england took ,india and ,egypt1 ,russia crossed the ,caucasus and mastered ,central ,asia1 ,france conquered ,north ,africa1 while other ,european nations grasped minor portions of the ,moslem heritage4 ,the ,great ,war witnessed the final stage in this process of subjugation4 ,by the terms of the treaties which marked its close1 ,turkey was extinguished and not a single ,mohammedan state retained genuine independence4 ,the subjection of the ,moslem world was complete--on paper4 ,on paper6 ,for1 in its very hour of apparent triumph1 ,western domination was challenged as never before4 ,during those hundred years of ,western conquest a mighty internal change had been coming over the ,moslem world4 ,the swelling tide of ,western aggression had at last moved the immovable ,east4 ,at last ,islam became conscious of its decrepitude1 and with that consciousness a vast ferment1 obscure yet profound1 began to leaven the #bej1jjj1jjj followers of the ,prophet from ,morocco to ,china and from ,turkestan to the ,congo4 ,the first spark was fittingly struck in the ,arabian desert1 the cradle of ,islam4 ,here at the opening of the nineteenth century1 arose the ,wahabi movement for the reform of ,islam1 which presently kindled the far-flung ,mohammedan ,revival1 which in its turn begat the movement known as ,pan-,islamism4 ,furthermore1 athwart these essentially internal movements there came pouring a flood of external stimuli from the ,west--ideas such as parliamentary government1 nationalism1 scientific education1 industrialism1 and even ultra-modern concepts like feminism1 socialism1 ,bolshevism4 ,stirred by the interaction of all these novel forces and spurred by the ceaseless pressure of ,european aggression1 the ,moslem world roused more and more to life and action4 ,the ,great ,war was a shock of terrific potency1 and to-day ,islam is seething with mighty forces fashioning a new ,moslem world4 ,what are those forces moulding the ,islam of the future8 ,to their analysis and appraisal the body of this book is devoted4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,i4 e4 ,successor2 anglicized into the word ,caliph4 #b ,to be carefully distinguished from divinity4 ,mohammed not only did not make any pretensions to divinity1 but specifically disclaimed any such attributes4 ,he regarded himself as the last of a series of divinely inspired prophets1 beginning with ,adam and extending through ,moses and ,jesus to himself1 the mouthpiece of ,god's last and most perfect revelation4 #c ,the influence of environment and heredity on human evolution in general and on the history of the ,east in particular1 though of great importance1 cannot be treated in a summary such as this4 ,the influence of climatic and other environmental factors has been ably treated by ,prof4 ,ellsworth ,huntington in his various works1 such as ,the ,pulse of ,asia 7,boston1 #aijg72 ,civilization and ,climate 7,yale ,univ4 ,press1 #aiae71 and ,world-,power and ,evolution 7,yale ,univ4 ,press1 #aiai74 ,see also ,chap4 ,,iii4 in ,arminius ,vambry--,der ,islam im neunzehnten ,jahrhundert4 ,eine culturgeschichtliche ,studie 7,leipzig1 #ahge74 ,for a summary of racial influences in ,eastern history1 see ,madison ,grant--,the ,passing of the ,great ,race 7,n4 ,y41 #aiaf74 #d ,the ,turkish overrunning of ,asia ,minor took place after the destruction of the ,byzantine army in the great battle of ,manzikert1 ,a4,d4 #ajga4 ,the ,turks captured ,jerusalem in #ajgf4 ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,mohammedan ,,revival ,by the eighteenth century the ,moslem world had sunk to the lowest depth of its decrepitude4 ,nowhere were there any signs of healthy vigour1 everywhere were stagnation and decay4 ,manners and morals were alike execrable4 ,the last vestiges of ,saracenic culture had vanished in a barbarous luxury of the few and an equally barbarous degradation of the multitude4 ,learning was virtually dead1 the few universities which survived fallen into dreary decay and languishing in poverty and neglect4 ,government had become despotism tempered by anarchy and assassination4 ,here and there a major despot like the ,sultan of ,turkey or the ,indian ,great ,mogul maintained some semblance of state authority1 albeit provincial pashas were for ever striving to erect independent governments based1 like their masters'1 on tyranny and extortion4 ,the pashas1 in turn1 strove ceaselessly against unruly local chiefs and swarms of brigands who infested the countryside4 ,beneath this sinister hierarchy groaned the people1 robbed1 bullied1 and ground into the dust4 ,peasant and townsman had alike lost all incentive to labour or initiative1 and both agriculture and trade had fallen to the lowest level compatible with bare survival4 ,as for religion1 it was as decadent as everything else4 ,the austere monotheism of ,mohammed had become overlaid with a rank growth of superstition and puerile mysticism4 ,the mosques stood unfrequented and ruinous1 deserted by the ignorant multitude1 which1 decked out in amulets1 charms1 and rosaries1 listened to squalid fakirs or ecstatic dervishes1 and went on pilgrimages to the tombs of holy men1 worshipped as saints and intercessors with that ,allah who had become too remote a being for the direct devotion of these benighted souls4 ,as for the moral precepts of the ,koran1 they were ignored or defied4 ,wine-drinking and opium-eating were well-nigh universal1 prostitution was rampant1 and the most degrading vices flaunted naked and unashamed4 ,even the holy cities1 ,mecca and ,medina1 were sink-holes of iniquity1 while the ,hajj1 or pilgrimage ordained by the ,prophet1 had become a scandal through its abuses4 ,in fine3 the life had apparently gone out of ,islam1 leaving naught but a dry husk of soulless ritual and degrading superstition behind4 ,could ,mohammed have returned to earth1 he would unquestionably have anathematized his followers as apostates and idolaters4 ,yet1 in this darkest hour1 a voice came crying out of the vast ,arabian desert1 the cradle of ,islam1 calling the faithful back to the true path4 ,this puritan reformer1 the famous ,abd-el-,wahab1 kindled a fire which presently spread to the remotest corners of the ,moslem world1 purging ,islam of its sloth and reviving the fervour of olden days4 ,the great ,mohammedan ,revival had begun4 ,mahommed ibn ,abd-el-,wahab was born about the year ,a4,d4 #agjj in the heart of the ,arabian desert1 the region known as the ,nejd4 ,the ,nejd was the one clean spot in the decadent ,moslem world4 ,we have already seen how1 with the transformation of the caliphate from a theocratic democracy to an ,oriental despotism1 the free-spirited ,arabs had returned scornfully to their deserts4 ,here they had maintained their wild freedom4 ,neither caliph nor sultan dared venture far into those vast solitudes of burning sand and choking thirst1 where the rash invader was lured to sudden death in a whirl of stabbing spears4 ,the ,arabs recognized no master1 wandering at will with their flocks and camels1 or settled here and there in green oases hidden in the desert's heart4 ,and in the desert they retained their primitive political and religious virtues4 ,the nomad ,bedouin lived under the sway of patriarchal sheiks2 the settled dwellers in the oases usually acknowledged the authority of some leading family4 ,but these rulers possessed the slenderest authority1 narrowly circumscribed by well-established custom and a jealous public opinion which they transgressed at their peril4 ,the ,turks1 to be sure1 had managed to acquire a precarious authority over the holy cities and the ,red ,sea littoral1 but the ,nejd1 the vast interior1 was free4 ,and1 in religion1 as in politics1 the desert ,arabs kept the faith of their fathers4 ,scornfully rejecting the corruptions of decadent ,islam1 they held fast to the simple theology of primitive ,islam1 so congenial to their ,arab natures4 ,into this atmosphere of an older and better age1 ,abd-el-,wahab was born4 ,displaying from the first a studious and religious bent1 he soon acquired a reputation for learning and sanctity4 ,making the ,meccan pilgrimage while still a young man1 he studied at ,medina and travelled as far as ,persia1 returning ultimately to the ,nejd4 ,he returned burning with holy wrath at what he had seen1 and determined to preach a puritan reformation4 ,for years he wandered up and down ,arabia1 and at last he converted ,mahommed1 head of the great clan of ,saud1 the most powerful chieftain in all the ,nejd4 ,this gave ,abd-el-,wahab both moral prestige and material strength1 and he made the most of his opportunities4 ,gradually1 the desert ,arabs were welded into a politico-religious unity like that effected by the ,prophet4 ,abd-el-,wahab was1 in truth1 a faithful counterpart of the first caliphs1 ,abu ,bekr and ,omar4 ,when he died in #aghg his disciple1 ,saud1 proved a worthy successor4 ,the new ,wahabi state was a close counterpart of the ,meccan caliphate4 ,though possessing great military power1 ,saud always considered himself responsible to public opinion and never encroached upon the legitimate freedom of his subjects4 ,government1 though stern1 was able and just4 ,the ,wahabi judges were competent and honest4 ,robbery1 became almost unknown1 so well was the public peace maintained4 ,education was sedulously fostered4 ,every oasis had its school1 while teachers were sent to the ,bedouin tribes4 ,having consolidated the ,nejd1 ,saud was now ready to undertake the greater task of subduing and purifying the ,moslem world4 ,his first objective was of course the holy cities4 ,this objective was attained in the opening years of the nineteenth century4 ,nothing could stand against the rush of the ,wahabi hosts burning with fanatic hatred against the ,turks1 who were loathed both as apostate ,moslems and as usurpers of that supremacy in ,islam which all ,arabs believed should rest in ,arab hands4 ,when ,saud died in #ahad he was preparing to invade ,syria4 ,it looked for a moment as though the ,wahabis were to sweep the ,east and puritanize all ,islam at a blow4 ,but it was not to be4 ,unable to stem the ,wahabi flood1 the ,sultan of ,turkey called on his powerful vassal1 the famous ,mehemet ,ali4 ,this able ,albanian adventurer had by that time made himself master of ,egypt4 ,frankly recognizing the superiority of the ,west1 he had called in numerous ,european officers who rapidly fashioned a formidable army1 composed largely of hard-fighting ,albanian highlanders1 and disciplined and equipped after ,european models4 ,mehemet ,ali gladly answered the ,sultan's summons1 and it soon became clear that even ,wahabi fanaticism was no match for ,european muskets and artillery handled by seasoned veterans4 ,in a short time the holy cities were recaptured and the ,wahabis were driven back into the desert4 ,the nascent ,wahabi empire had vanished like a mirage4 ,wahabism's political rle was ended4#e ,however1 ,wahabism's spiritual rle had only just begun4 ,the ,nejd remained a focus of puritan zeal whence the new spirit radiated in all directions4 ,even in the holy cities ,wahabism continued to set the religious tone1 and the numberless ,hajjis1 or pilgrims1 who came annually from every part of the ,moslem world returned to their homes zealous reformers4 ,soon the ,wahabi leaven began to produce profound disturbances in the most distant quarters4 ,for example1 in northern ,india a ,wahabi fanatic1 ,seyid ,ahmed1#f so roused the ,punjabi ,mohammedans that he actually built up a theocratic state1 and only his chance death prevented a possible ,wahabi conquest of northern ,india4 ,this state was shattered by the ,sikhs1 about #ahcj1 but when the ,english conquered the country they had infinite trouble with the smouldering embers of ,wahabi feeling1 which1 in fact1 lived on1 contributed to the ,indian mutiny1 and permanently fanaticized ,afghanistan and the wild tribes of the ,indian ,north-,west ,frontier4#g ,it was during these years that the famous ,seyid ,mahommed ben ,sennussi came from his ,algerian home to ,mecca and there imbibed those ,wahabi principles which led to the founding of the great ,pan-,islamic fraternity that bears his name4 ,even the ,babbist movement in ,persia1 far removed though it was doctrinally from ,wahabi teaching1 was indubitably a secondary reflex of the ,wahabi urge4#h ,in fact1 within a generation1 the strictly ,wahabi movement had broadened into the larger development known as the ,mohammedan ,revival1 and this in turn was developing numerous phases1 chief among them being the movement usually termed ,pan-,islamism4 ,that movement1 particularly on its political side1 ,i shall treat in the next chapter4 ,at present let us examine the other aspects of the ,mohammedan ,revival1 with special reference to its religious and cultural phases4 ,the ,wahabi movement was a strictly puritan reformation4 ,its aim was the reform of abuses1 the abolition of superstitious practices1 and a return to primitive ,islam4 ,all later accretions--the writings and interpretations of the medival theologians1 ceremonial or mystical innovations1 saint worship1 in fact every sort of change1 were condemned4 ,the austere monotheism of ,mohammed was preached in all its uncompromising simplicity1 and the ,koran1 literally interpreted1 was taken as the sole guide for human action4 ,this doctrinal simplification was accompanied by a most rigid code of morals4 ,the prayers1 fastings1 and other practices enjoined by ,mohammed were scrupulously observed4 ,the most austere manner of living was enforced4 ,silken clothing1 rich food1 wine1 opium1 tobacco1 coffee1 and all other indulgences were sternly proscribed4 ,even religious architecture was practically tabooed1 the ,wahabis pulling down the ,prophet's tomb at ,medina and demolishing the minarets of mosques as godless innovations4 ,the ,wahabis were thus1 despite their moral earnestness1 excessively narrow-minded1 and it was very fortunate for ,islam that they soon lost their political power and were compelled thenceforth to confine their efforts to moral teaching4 ,many critics of ,islam point to the ,wahabi movement as a proof that ,islam is essentially retrograde and innately incapable of evolutionary development4 ,these criticisms1 however1 appear to be unwarranted4 ,the initial stage of every religious reformation is an uncritical return to the primitive cult4 ,to the religious reformer the only way of salvation is a denial of all subsequent innovations1 regardless of their character4 ,our own ,protestant ,reformation began in just this way1 and ,humanists like ,erasmus1 repelled and disgusted by ,protestantism's puritanical narrowness1 could see no good in the movement1 declaring that it menaced all true culture and merely replaced an infallible ,pope by an infallible ,bible4 ,as a matter of fact1 the puritan beginnings of the ,mohammedan ,revival presently broadened along more constructive lines1 some of these becoming tinged with undoubted liberalism4 ,the ,moslem reformers of the early nineteenth century had not dug very deeply into their religious past before they discovered--,motazelism4 ,we have already reviewed the great struggle which had raged between reason and dogma in ,islam's early days1 in which dogma had triumphed so completely that the very memory of ,motazelism had faded away4 ,now1 however1 those memories were revived1 and the liberal-minded reformers were delighted to find such striking confirmation of their ideas1 both in the writings of the ,motazelite doctors and in the sacred texts themselves4 ,the principle that reason and not blind prescription was to be the test opened the door to the possibility of all those reforms which they had most at heart4 ,for example1 the reformers found that in the traditional writings ,mohammed was reported to have said3 ,i am no more than a man2 when ,i order you anything respecting religion1 receive it2 when ,i order you about the affairs of the world1 then ,i am nothing more than man4 ,and1 again1 as though foreseeing the day when sweeping changes would be necessary4 ,ye are in an age in which1 if ye abandon one-tenth of that which is ordered1 ye will be ruined4 ,after this1 a time will come when he who shall observe one-tenth of what is now ordered will be redeemed4#i ,before discussing the ideas and efforts of the modern ,moslem reformers1 it might be well to examine the assertions made by numerous ,western critics1 that ,islam is by its very nature incapable of reform and progressive adaptation to the expansion of human knowledge4 ,such is the contention not only of ,christian polemicists1#aj but also of rationalists like ,renan and ,european administrators of ,moslem populations like ,lord ,cromer4 ,lord ,cromer1 in fact1 pithily summarizes this critical attitude in his statement3 ,islam cannot be reformed2 that is to say1 reformed ,islam is ,islam no longer2 it is something else4#aa ,now these criticisms1 coming as they do from close students of ,islam often possessing intimate personal acquaintance with ,moslems1 deserve respectful consideration4 ,and yet an historical survey of religions1 and especially a survey of the thoughts and accomplishments of ,moslem reformers during the past century1 seem to refute these pessimistic charges4 ,in the first place1 it should be remembered that ,islam to-day stands just about where ,christendom stood in the fifteenth century1 at the beginning of the ,reformation4 ,there is the same supremacy of dogma over reason1 the same blind adherence to prescription and authority1 the same suspicion and hostility to freedom of thought or scientific knowledge4 ,there is no doubt that a study of the ,mohammedan sacred texts1 particularly of the sheriat or canon law1 together with a glance over ,moslem history for the last thousand years1 reveal an attitude on the whole quite incompatible with modern progress and civilization4 ,but was not precisely the same thing true of ,christendom at the beginning of the fifteenth century8 ,compare the sheriat with the ,christian canon law4 ,the spirit is the same4 ,take1 for example1 the sheriat's prohibition on the lending of money at interest2 a prohibition which1 if obeyed1 renders impossible anything like business or industry in the modern sense4 ,this is the example oftenest cited to prove ,islam's innate incompatibility with modern civilization4 ,but the ,christian canon law equally forbade interest1 and enforced that prohibition so strictly1 that for centuries the ,jews had a monopoly of business in ,europe1 while the first ,christians who dared to lend money 7the ,lombards7 were regarded almost as heretics1 were universally hated1 and were frequently persecuted4 ,again1 take the matter of ,moslem hostility to freedom of thought and scientific investigation4 ,can ,islam show anything more revolting than that scene in ,christian history when1 less than three hundred years ago1#ab the great ,galileo was haled before the ,papal ,inquisition and forced1 under threat of torture1 to recant the damnable heresy that the earth went round the sun8 ,as a matter of fact1 ,mohammed reverenced knowledge4 ,his own words are eloquent testimony to that4 ,here are some of his sayings3 ,seek knowledge1 even1 if need be1 on the borders of ,china4 ,seek knowledge from the cradle to the grave4 ,one word of knowledge is of more value than the reciting of a hundred prayers4 ,the ink of sages is more precious than the blood of martyrs4 ,one word of wisdom1 learned and communicated to a ,moslem brother1 outweighs the prayers of a whole year4 ,wise men are the successors of the ,prophet4 ,god has created nothing better than reason4 ,in truth1 a man may have prayed1 fasted1 given alms1 made pilgrimage1 and all other good works2 nevertheless1 he shall be rewarded only in the measure that he has used his common sense4 ,these citations 7and there are others of the same tenor7 prove that the modern ,moslem reformers have good scriptural backing for their liberal attitude4 ,of course ,i do not imply that the reform movement in ,islam1 just because it is liberal and progressive1 is thereby ipso facto assured of success4 ,history reveals too many melancholy instances to the contrary4 ,indeed1 we have already seen how1 in ,islam itself1 the promising liberal movement of its early days passed utterly away4 ,what history does show1 however1 is that when the times favour progress1 religions are adapted to that progress by being reformed and liberalized4 ,no human society once fairly on the march was ever turned back by a creed4 ,halted it may be1 but if the progressive urge persists1 the doctrinal barrier is either surmounted1 undermined1 flanked1 or swept aside4 ,now there is no possibility that the ,moslem world will henceforth lack progressive influences4 ,it is in close contact with ,western civilization1 and is being increasingly permeated with ,western ideas4 ,islam cannot break away and isolate itself if it would4 ,everything therefore portends its profound modification4 ,of course critics like ,lord ,cromer contend that this modified ,islam will be ,islam no longer4 ,but why not8 ,if the people continue to call themselves ,mohammedans and continue to draw spiritual sustenance from the message of ,mohammed1 why should they be denied the name8 ,modern ,christianity is certainly vastly different from medival ,christianity1 while among the various ,christian churches there exist the widest doctrinal variations4 ,yet all who consider themselves ,christians are considered ,christians by all except bigots out of step with the times4 ,let us now scrutinize the ,moslem reformers1 judging them1 not by texts and chronicles1 but by their words and deeds2 since1 as one of their number1 an ,algerian1 very pertinently remarks1 men should be judged1 not by the letter of their sacred books1 but by what they actually do4#ac ,modern ,moslem liberalism1 as we have seen1 received its first encouragement from the discovery of the old ,motazelite literature of nearly a thousand years before4 ,to be sure1 ,islam had never been quite destitute of liberal minds4 ,even in its darkest days a few voices had been raised against the prevailing obscurantism4 ,for example1 in the sixteenth century the celebrated ,el-,gharani had written3 ,it is not at all impossible that ,god may hold in reserve for men of the future perceptions that have not been vouchsafed to the men of the past4 ,divine munificence never ceases to pour benefits and enlightenment into the hearts of wise men of every age4#ad ,these isolated voices from ,islam's ,dark ,time helped to encourage the modern reformers1 and by the middle of the nineteenth century every ,moslem land had its group of forward-looking men4 ,at first their numbers were1 of course1 insignificant1 and of course they drew down upon themselves the anathemas of the fanatic ,mollahs#ae and the hatred of the ignorant multitude4 ,the first country where the reformers made their influence definitely felt was in ,india4 ,here a group headed by the famous ,sir ,syed ,ahmed ,khan started an important liberal movement1 founding associations1 publishing books and newspapers1 and establishing the well-known college of ,aligarh4 ,sir ,syed ,ahmed is a good type of the early liberal reformers4 ,conservative in temperament and perfectly orthodox in his theology1 he yet denounced the current decadence of ,islam with truly ,wahabi fervour4 ,he also was frankly appreciative of ,western ideas and eager to assimilate the many good things which the ,west had to offer4 ,as he wrote in #ahfg3 ,we must study ,european scientific works1 even though they are not written by ,moslems and though we may find in them things contrary to the teachings of the ,koran4 ,we should imitate the ,arabs of olden days1 who did not fear to shake their faith by studying ,pythagoras4#af ,this nucleus of ,indian ,moslem liberals rapidly grew in strength1 producing able leaders like ,moulvie ,cheragh ,ali and ,syed ,amir ,ali1 whose scholarly works in faultless ,english are known throughout the world4#ag ,these men called themselves ,neo-,motazelites and boldly advocated reforms such as a thorough overhauling of the sheriat and a general modernization of ,islam4 ,their view-point is well set forth by another of their leading figures1 ,s4 ,khuda ,bukhsh4 ,nothing was more distant from the ,prophet's thought1 he writes1 than to fetter the mind or to lay down fixed1 immutable1 unchanging laws for his followers4 ,the ,quran is a book of guidance to the faithful1 and not an obstacle in the path1 of their social1 moral1 legal1 and intellectual progress4 ,he laments ,islam's present backwardness1 for he continues3 ,modern ,islam1 with its hierarchy of priesthood1 gross fanaticism1 appalling ignorance1 and superstitious practices is1 indeed1 a discredit to the ,islam of the ,prophet ,mohammed4 ,he concludes with the following liberal confession of faith3 ,is ,islam hostile to progress8 ,i will emphatically answer this question in the negative4 ,islam1 stripped of its theology1 is a perfectly simple religion4 ,its cardinal principle is belief in one ,god and belief in ,mohammed as his apostle4 ,the rest is mere accretion1 superfluity4#ah ,meanwhile1 the liberals were making themselves felt in other parts of the ,moslem world4 ,in ,turkey liberals actually headed the government during much of the generation between the ,crimean ,war and the despotism of ,abdul ,hamid1#ai and ,turkish liberal ministers like ,reshid ,pasha and ,midhat ,pasha made earnest though unavailing efforts to liberalize and modernize the ,ottoman ,empire4 ,even the dreadful ,hamidian tyranny could not kill ,turkish liberalism4 ,it went underground or into exile1 and in #aijh put through the revolution which deposed the tyrant and brought the ,young ,turks to power4 ,in ,egypt liberalism took firm root1 represented by men like ,sheikh ,mohammed ,abdou1 ,rector of ,el ,azhar ,university and respected friend of ,lord ,cromer4 ,even outlying fragments of ,islam like the ,russian ,tartars awoke to the new spirit and produced liberal-minded1 forward-looking men4#bj ,the liberal reformers1 whom ,i have been describing1 of course form the part of evolutionary progress in ,islam4 ,they are in the best sense of the word conservatives1 receptive to healthy change1 yet maintaining their hereditary poise4 ,sincerely religious men1 they have faith in ,islam as a living1 moral force1 and from it they continue to draw their spiritual sustenance4 ,there are1 however1 other groups in the ,moslem world who have so far succumbed to ,western influences that they have more or less lost touch with both their spiritual and cultural pasts4 ,in all the more civilized portions of the ,moslem world1 especially in countries long under ,european control like ,india1 ,egypt1 and ,algeria1 there are many ,moslems1 ,western educated and ,western culture-veneered1 who have drifted into an attitude varying from easygoing religious indifference to avowed agnosticism4 ,from their minds the old ,moslem zeal has entirely departed4 ,the ,algerian ,ismael ,hamet well describes the attitude of this class of his fellow-countrymen when he writes3 ,european scepticism is not without influence upon the ,algerian ,moslems1 who1 if they have kept some attachment for the external forms of their religion1 usually ignore the unhealthy excesses of the religious sentiment4 ,they do not give up their religion1 but they no longer dream of converting all those who do not practise it2 they want to hand it on to their children1 but they do not worry about other men's salvation4 ,this is not belief2 it is not even free thought2 but it is lukewarmness4#ba ,beyond these tepid latitudinarians are still other groups of a very different character4 ,here we find combined the most contradictory sentiments3 young men whose brains are seething with radical ,western ideas--atheism1 socialism1 ,bolshevism1 and what not4 ,yet1 curiously enough1 these fanatic radicals tend to join hands with the fanatic reactionaries of ,islam in a common hatred of the ,west4 ,considering themselves the born leaders 7and exploiters7 of the ignorant masses1 the radicals hunger for political power and rage against that ,western domination which vetoes their ambitious pretensions4 ,hence1 they are mostly extreme ,nationalists1 while they are also deep in ,pan-,islamic reactionary schemes4 ,indeed1 we often witness the strange spectacle of atheists posing as ,moslem fanatics and affecting a truly dervish zeal4 ,mr4 ,bukhsh well describes this type when he writes3 ,i know a gentleman1 a ,mohammedan by profession1 who owes his success in life to his faith4 ,though1 outwardly1 he conforms to all the precepts of ,islam and occasionally stands up in public as the champion and spokesman of his co-religionists2 yet1 to my utter horror1 ,i found that he held opinions about his religion and its founder which even ,voltaire would have rejected with indignation and ,gibbon with commiserating contempt4#bb ,later on we shall examine more fully the activities of these gentry in the chapters devoted to ,pan-,islamism and ,nationalism4 ,what ,i desire to emphasize here is their pernicious influence on the prospects of a genuine ,mohammedan reformation as visualized by the true reformers whom ,i have described4 ,their malevolent desire to stir up the fanatic passions of the ignorant masses and their equally malevolent hatred of everything ,western except military improvements are revealed by outbursts like the following from the pen of a prominent ,young ,turk4 ,yes1 the ,mohammedan religion is in open hostility to all your world of progress4 ,learn1 ye ,european observers1 that a ,christian1 whatever his position1 by the mere fact that he is a ,christian1 is in our eyes a being devoid of all human dignity4 ,our reasoning is simple and definitive4 ,we say3 the man whose judgment is so perverted as to deny the evidence of the ,one ,god and to fabricate gods of different kinds1 cannot be other than the most ignoble expression of human stupidity4 ,to speak to him would be a humiliation to our reason and an offence to the grandeur of the ,master of the ,universe4 ,the worshipper of false gods is a monster of ingratitude2 he is the execration of the universe2 to combat him1 convert him1 or annihilate him is the holiest task of the ,faithful4 ,these are the eternal commands of our ,one ,god4 ,for us there are in this world only ,believers and ,misbelievers2 love1 charity1 fraternity to ,believers2 disgust1 hatred1 and war to ,misbelievers4 ,among ,misbelievers1 the most odious and criminal are those who1 while recognizing ,god1 create ,him of earthly parents1 give ,him a son1 a mother2 so monstrous an aberration surpasses1 in our eyes1 all bounds of iniquity2 the presence of such miscreants among us is the bane of our existence2 their doctrine is a direct insult to the purity of our faith2 their contact a pollution for our bodies2 any relation with them a torture for our souls4 ,while detesting you1 we have been studying your political institutions and your military organizations4 ,besides the new arms which ,providence procures for us by your own means1 you yourselves have rekindled the inextinguishable faith of our heroic martyrs4 ,our ,young ,turks1 our ,babis1 our new fraternities1 all are sects in their varied forms1 are inspired by the same thought1 the same purpose4 ,toward what end8 ,christian civilization8 ,never6#bc ,such harangues unfortunately find ready hearers among the ,moslem masses4 ,although the liberal reformers are a growing power in ,islam1 it must not be forgotten that they are as yet only a minority1 an lite1 below whom lie the ignorant masses1 still suffering from the blight of age-long obscurantism1 wrapped in admiration of their own world1 which they regard as the highest ideal of human existence1 and fanatically hating everything outside as wicked1 despicable1 and deceptive4 ,even when compelled to admit the superior power of the ,west1 they hate it none the less4 ,they rebel blindly against the spirit of change which is forcing them out of their old ruts1 and their anger is still further heightened by that ubiquitous ,western domination which is pressing upon them from all sides4 ,such persons are as clay in the hands of the ,pan-,islamic and ,nationalist leaders who mould the multitude to their own sinister ends4 ,islam is1 in fact1 to-day torn between the forces of liberal reform and chauvinistic reaction4 ,the liberals are not only the hope of an evolutionary reformation1 they are also favoured by the trend of the times1 since the ,moslem world is being continually permeated by ,western progress and must continue to be thus permeated unless ,western civilization itself collapses in ruin4 ,yet1 though the ultimate triumph of the liberals appears probable1 what delays1 what setbacks1 what fresh barriers of warfare and fanaticism may not the chauvinist reactionaries bring about6 ,neither the reform of ,islam nor the relations between ,east and ,west are free from perils whose ominous possibilities we shall later discuss4 ,meanwhile1 there remains the hopeful fact that throughout the ,moslem world a numerous and powerful minority1 composed not merely of ,westernized persons but also of orthodox conservatives1 are aware of ,islam's decadence and are convinced that a thoroughgoing reformation along liberal1 progressive lines is at once a practical necessity and a sacred duty4 ,exactly how this reformation shall be legally effected has not yet been determined1 nor is a detailed discussion of technical machinery necessary for our consideration4#bd ,history teaches us that where the will to reform is vitally present1 reformation will somehow or other be accomplished4 ,one thing is certain3 the reforming spirit1 in its various manifestations1 has already produced profound changes throughout ,islam4 ,the ,moslem world of to-day is vastly different from the ,moslem world of a century ago4 ,the ,wahabi leaven has destroyed abuses and has rekindled a purer religious faith4 ,even its fanatical zeal has not been without moral compensations4 ,the spread of liberal principles and ,western progress goes on apace4 ,if there is much to fear for the future1 there is also much to hope4 ,,footnotes3 #e ,on the ,wahabi movement1 see ,a4 ,le ,chatelier1 ,l',islam au dix-neuvime ,sicle 7,paris1 #ahhh72 ,w4 ,g4 ,palgrave1 ,essays on ,eastern ,questions 7,london1 #ahgb72 ,d4 ,b4 ,macdonald1 ,muslim ,theology 7,london1 #aijc72 ,j4 ,l4 ,burckhardt1 ,notes on the ,bedouins and ,wahabys 7#b vols41 ,london1 #ahca72 ,a4 ,chodzko1 ,le ,disme des ,wahhabis1 ,journal ,asiatique1 ,,iv41 ,vol4 ,,ii41 pp4 #afh et seq4 #f ,not to be confused with ,sir ,syed ,ahmed of ,aligarh1 the ,indian ,moslem liberal of the mid-nineteenth century4 #g ,for ,english alarm at the latent fanaticism of the ,north ,indian ,moslems1 down through the middle of the nineteenth century1 see ,sir ,w4 ,w4 ,hunter1 ,the ,indian ,musalmans 7,london1 #ahgb74 #h ,for the ,babbist movement1 see ,clment ,huart1 ,la ,rligion de ,bab 7,paris1 #ahhi72 ,comte ,arthur de ,gobineau1 ,trois ,ans en ,perse 7,paris1 #ahfg74 ,a good summary of all these early movements of the ,mohammedan revival is found in ,le ,chatelier1 op4 cit4 #i ,mishkat-el-,masabih1 ,i41 #df1 #ea4 #aj ,the best recent examples of this polemical literature are the writings of the ,rev4 ,s4 ,m4 ,zwemer1 the well known missionary to the ,arabs2 especially his ,arabia1 the ,cradle of ,islam 7,edinburgh1 #aijj71 and ,the ,reproach of ,islam 7,london1 #aiae74 ,also see volume entitled ,the ,mohammedan ,world of ,to-day1 being a collection of the papers read at the ,protestant ,missionary ,conference held at ,cairo1 ,egypt1 in #aijf4 #aa ,cromer1 ,modern ,egypt1 ,vol4 ,,ii41 p4 #bbi 7,london1 #aijh74 ,for ,renan's attitude1 see his ,l',islamisme et la ,science 7,paris1 #ahhc74 #ab ,in the year #afcc4 #ac ,ismael ,hamet1 ,les ,musulmans franais du ,nord de l',afrique 7,paris1 #aijf74 #ad ,quoted by ,dr4 ,perron in his work ,l',islamisme 7,paris1 #ahgg74 #ae ,the ,mollahs are the ,moslem clergy1 though they do not exactly correspond to the clergy of ,christendom4 ,mohammed was averse to anything like a priesthood1 and ,islam makes no legal provision for an ordained priestly class or caste1 as is the case in ,christianity1 ,judaism1 ,brahmanism1 and other religions4 ,theoretically any ,moslem can conduct religious services4 ,as time passed1 however1 a class of men developed who were learned in ,moslem theology and law4 ,these ultimately became practically priests1 though theoretically they should be regarded as theological lawyers4 ,there also developed religious orders of dervishes1 etc42 but primitive ,islam knew nothing of them4 #af ,from the article by ,lon ,cahun in ,lavisse et ,rambeaud1 ,histoire ,gnrale1 ,vol4 ,,xii41 p4 #dih4 ,this article gives an excellent general survey of the intellectual development of the ,moslem world in the nineteenth century4 #ag ,especially his best-known book1 ,the ,spirit of ,islam 7,london1 #ahia74 #ah ,s4 ,khuda ,bukhsh1 ,essays3 ,indian and ,islamic1 pp4 #bj1 #bd1 #bhd4 7,london1 #aiab74 #ai #ahef to #ahgh4 #bj ,for the liberal movement among the ,russian ,tartars1 see ,arminius ,vambry1 ,western ,culture in ,eastern ,lands 7,london1 #aijf74 #ba ,ismael ,hamet1 ,les ,musulmans franais du ,nord de l',afrique1 p4 #bfh 7,paris1 #aijf74 #bb ,s4 ,khuda ,bukhsh1 op4 cit41 p4 #bda4 #bc ,sheikh ,abd-ul-,haak1 in ,sherif ,pasha's organ1 ,mecheroutiette1 of ,august1 #aiba4 ,quoted from ,a4 ,servier1 ,le ,nationalisme musulman1 ,constantine1 ,algeria1 #aiac4 #bd ,for such discussion of legal methods1 see ,w4 ,s4 ,blunt1 ,the ,future of ,islam 7,london1 #ahhb72 ,a4 ,le ,chatelier1 ,l',islam au dix-neuvime ,sicle 7,paris1 #ahhh72 ,dr4 ,perron1 ,l',islamisme 7,paris1 #ahgg72 ,h4 ,n4 ,brailsford ,modernism in ,islam1 ,the ,fortnightly ,review1 ,september1 #aijh2 ,sir ,theodore ,morison1 ,can ,islam be ,reformed8 ,the ,nineteenth ,century and ,after1 ,october1 #aijh2 ,m4 ,pickthall1 ,la ,morale islamique1 ,revue ,politique ,internationale1 ,july1 #aiaf2 ,,xx1 ,l',islam aprs la ,guerre1 ,revue de ,paris1 #ae ,january1 #aiaf4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,pan-,,islamism ,like all great movements1 the ,mohammedan ,revival is highly complex4 ,starting with the simple1 puritan protest of ,wahabism1 it has developed many phases1 widely diverse and sometimes almost antithetical4 ,in the previous chapter we examined the phase looking toward an evolutionary reformation of ,islam and a genuine assimilation of the progressive spirit as well as the external forms of ,western civilization4 ,at the same time we saw that these liberal reformers are as yet only a minority1 an lite2 while the ,moslem masses1 still plunged in ignorance and imperfectly awakened from their age-long torpor1 are influenced by other leaders of a very different character--men inclined to militant rather than pacific courses1 and hostile rather than receptive to the ,west4 ,these militant forces are1 in their turn1 complex4 ,they may be grouped roughly under the general concepts known as ,pan-,islamism and ,nationalism4 ,it is to a consideration of the first of these two concepts1 to ,pan-,islamism1 that this chapter is devoted4 ,pan-,islamism1 which in its broadest sense is the feeling of solidarity between all ,true ,believers1 is as old as the ,prophet1 when ,mohammed and his few followers were bound together by the tie of faith against their pagan compatriots who sought their destruction4 ,to ,mohammed the principle of fraternal solidarity among ,moslems was of transcendent importance1 and he succeeded in implanting this so deeply in ,moslem hearts that thirteen centuries have not sensibly weakened it4 ,the bond between ,moslem and ,moslem is to-day much stronger than that between ,christian and ,christian4 ,of course ,moslems fight bitterly among themselves1 but these conflicts never quite lose the aspect of family quarrels and tend to be adjourned in presence of infidel aggression4 ,islam's profound sense of solidarity probably explains in large part its extraordinary hold upon its followers4 ,no other religion has such a grip on its votaries4 ,islam has won vast territories from ,christianity and ,brahmanism1#be and has driven ,magism from the face of the earth2#bf yet there has been no single instance where a people1 once become ,moslem1 has ever abandoned the faith4 ,extirpated they may have been1 like the ,moors of ,spain1 but extirpation is not apostasy4 ,islam's solidarity is powerfully buttressed by two of its fundamental institutions3 the ,hajj1 or pilgrimage to ,mecca1 and the caliphate4 ,contrary to the general opinion in the ,west1 it is the ,hajj rather than the caliphate which has exerted the more consistently unifying influence4 ,mohammed ordained the ,hajj as a supreme act of faith1 and every year fully #ajj1jjj pilgrims arrive1 drawn from every quarter of the ,moslem world4 ,there1 before the sacred ,kaaba of ,mecca1 men of all races1 tongues1 and cultures meet and mingle in an ecstasy of common devotion1 returning to their homes bearing the proud title of ,hajjis1 or ,pilgrims--a title which insures them the reverent homage of their fellow ,moslems for all the rest of their days4 ,the political implications of the ,hajj are obvious4 ,it is in reality a perennial ,pan-,islamic congress1 where all the interests of the faith are discussed by delegates from every part of the ,mohammedan world1 and where plans are elaborated for ,islam's defence and propagation4 ,here nearly all the militant leaders of the ,mohammedan ,revival 7,abd-el-,wahab1 ,mahommed ben ,sennussi1 ,djemal-ed-,din el-,afghani1 and many more7 felt the imperious summons to their task4#bg ,as for the caliphate1 it has played a great historic rle1 especially in its early days1 and we have already studied its varying fortunes4 ,reduced to a mere shadow after the ,mongol destruction of ,bagdad1 it was revived by the ,turkish sultans1 who assumed the title and were recognized as caliphs by the orthodox ,moslem world4#bh ,however1 these sultan-caliphs of ,stambul#bi never succeeded in winning the religious homage accorded their predecessors of ,mecca and ,bagdad4 ,in ,arab eyes1 especially1 the spectacle of ,turkish caliphs was an anachronism to which they could never be truly reconciled4 ,sultan ,abdul ,hamid1 to be sure1 made an ambitious attempt to revive the caliphate's pristine greatness1 but such success as he attained was due more to the general tide of ,pan-,islamic feeling than to the inherent potency of the caliphal name4 ,the real leaders of modern ,pan-,islamism either gave ,abdul ,hamid a merely qualified allegiance or were1 like ,el ,sennussi1 definitely hostile4 ,this was not realized in ,europe1 which came to fear ,abdul ,hamid as a sort of ,mohammedan pope4 ,even to-day most ,western observers seem to think that ,pan-,islamism centres in the caliphate1 and we see ,european publicists hopefully discussing whether the caliphate's retention by the discredited ,turkish sultans1 its transference to the ,shereef of ,mecca1 or its total suppression1 will best clip ,pan-,islam's wings4 ,this1 however1 is a distinctly short-sighted view4 ,the caliphal institution is still undoubtedly venerated in ,islam4 ,but the shrewd leaders of the modern ,pan-,islamic movement have long been working on a much broader basis4 ,they realize that ,pan-,islamism's real driving-power to-day lies not in the caliphate but in institutions like the ,hajj and the great ,pan-,islamic fraternities such as the ,sennussiya1 of which ,i shall presently speak4#cj ,let us now trace the fortunes of modern ,pan-,islamism4 ,its first stage was of course the ,wahabi movement4 ,the ,wahabi state founded by ,abd-el-,wahab in the ,nejd was modelled on the theocratic democracy of the ,meccan caliphs1 and when ,abd-el-,wahab's princely disciple1 ,saud1 loosed his fanatic hosts upon the holy cities1 he dreamed that this was but the first step in a puritan conquest and consolidation of the whole ,moslem world4 ,foiled in this grandiose design1 ,wahabism1 nevertheless1 soon produced profound political disturbances in distant regions like northern ,india and ,afghanistan1 as ,i have already narrated4 ,they were1 however1 all integral parts of the ,wahabi phase1 being essentially protests against the political decadence of ,moslem states and the moral decadence of ,moslem rulers4 ,these outbreaks were not inspired by any special fear or hatred of the ,west1 since ,europe was not yet seriously assailing ,islam except in outlying regions like ,european ,turkey or the ,indies1 and the impending peril was consequently not appreciated4 ,by the middle of the nineteenth century1 however1 the situation had radically altered4 ,the ,french conquest of ,algeria1 the ,russian acquisition of ,transcaucasia1 and the ,english mastery of virtually all ,india1 convinced thoughtful ,moslems everywhere that ,islam was in deadly peril of falling under ,western domination4 ,it was at this time that ,pan-,islamism assumed that essentially anti-,western character which it has ever since retained4 ,at first resistance to ,western encroachment was sporadic and unco-ordinated4 ,here and there heroic figures like ,abd-el-,kader in ,algeria and ,shamyl in the ,caucasus fought brilliantly against the ,european invaders4 ,but though these paladins of the faith were accorded widespread sympathy from ,moslems1 they received no tangible assistance and1 unaided1 fell4 ,fear and hatred of the ,west1 however1 steadily grew in intensity1 and the seventies saw the ,moslem world swept from end to end by a wave of militant fanaticism4 ,in ,algeria there was the ,kabyle insurrection of #ahga1 while all over ,north ,africa arose fanatical ,holy ,men preaching holy wars1 the greatest of these being the ,mahdist insurrection in the ,egyptian ,sudan1 which maintained itself against ,england's best efforts down to ,kitchener's capture of ,khartum at the very end of the century4 ,in ,afghanistan there was an intense exacerbation of fanaticism awakening sympathetic echoes among the ,indian ,moslems1 both of which gave the ,british much trouble4 ,in ,central ,asia there was a similar access of fanaticism1 centring in the powerful ,nakechabendiya fraternity1 spreading eastward into ,chinese territory and culminating in the great revolts of the ,chinese ,mohammedans both in ,chinese ,turkestan and ,yunnan4 ,in the ,dutch ,east ,indies there was a whole series of revolts1 the most serious of these being the ,atchin ,war1 which dragged on interminably1 not being quite stamped out even to-day4 ,the salient characteristic of this period of militant unrest is its lack of co-ordination4 ,these risings were all spontaneous outbursts of local populations2 animated1 to be sure1 by the same spirit of fear and hatred1 and inflamed by the same fanatical hopes1 but with no evidence of a central authority laying settled plans and moving in accordance with a definite programme4 ,the risings were inspired largely by the mystical doctrine known as ,mahdism4 ,mahdism was unknown to primitive ,islam1 no trace of it occurring in the ,koran4 ,but in the traditions1 or reputed sayings of ,mohammed1 there occurs the statement that the ,prophet predicted the coming of one bearing the title of ,el ,mahdi#ca who would fill the earth with equity and justice4 ,from this arose the widespread mystical hope in the appearance of a divinely inspired personage who would effect the universal triumph of ,islam1 purge the world of infidels1 and assure the lasting happiness of all ,moslems4 ,this doctrine has profoundly influenced ,moslem history4 ,at various times fanatic leaders have arisen claiming to be ,el ,mahdi1 ,the ,master of the ,hour1 and have won the frenzied devotion of the ,moslem masses2 just as certain ,messiahs have similarly excited the ,jews4 ,it was thus natural that1 in their growing apprehension and impotent rage at ,western aggression1 the ,moslem masses should turn to the messianic hope of ,mahdism4 ,yet ,mahdism1 by its very nature1 could effect nothing constructive or permanent4 ,it was a mere straw fire2 flaring up fiercely here and there1 then dying down1 leaving the disillusioned masses more discouraged and apathetic than before4 ,now all this was recognized by the wiser supporters of the ,pan-,islamic idea4 ,the impotence of the wildest outbursts of local fanaticism against the methodical might of ,europe convinced thinking ,moslems that long preparation and complete co-ordination of effort were necessary if ,islam was to have any chance of throwing off the ,european yoke4 ,such men also realized that they must study ,western methods and adopt much of the ,western technique of power4 ,above all1 they felt that the political liberation of ,islam from ,western domination must be preceded by a profound spiritual regeneration1 thereby engendering the moral forces necessary both for the war of liberation and for the fruitful reconstruction which should follow thereafter4 ,at this point the ideals of ,pan-,islamists and liberals approach each other4 ,both recognize ,islam's present decadence2 both desire its spiritual regeneration4 ,it is on the nature of that regeneration that the two parties are opposed4 ,the liberals believe that ,islam should really assimilate ,western ideas4 ,the ,pan-,islamists1 on the other hand1 believe that primitive ,islam contains all that is necessary for regeneration1 and contend that only ,western methods and material achievements should be adopted by the ,moslem world4 ,the beginnings of self-conscious1 systematic ,pan-,islamism date from about the middle of the nineteenth century4 ,the movement crystallizes about two foci3 the new-type religious fraternities like the ,sennussiya1 and the propaganda of the group of thinkers headed by ,djemal-ed-,din4 ,let us first consider the fraternities4 ,religious fraternities have existed in ,islam for centuries4 ,they all possess the same general type of organization1 being divided into lodges 7,zawias7 headed by ,masters known as ,mokaddem1 who exercise a more or less extensive authority over the ,khouan or ,brethren4 ,until the foundation of the new-type organizations like the ,sennussi1 however1 the fraternities exerted little practical influence upon mundane affairs4 ,their interests were almost wholly religious1 of a mystical1 devotional nature1 often characterized by great austerities or by fanatical excesses like those practised by the whirling and howling dervishes4 ,such political influence as they did exert was casual and local4 ,anything like joint action was impossible1 owing to their mutual rivalries and jealousies4 ,these old-type fraternities still exist in great numbers1 but they are without political importance except as they have been leavened by the new-type fraternities4 ,the new-type organizations date from about the middle of the nineteenth century1 the most important in every way being the ,sennussiya4 ,its founder1 ,seyid ,mahommed ben ,sennussi1 was born near ,mostaganem1 ,algeria1 about the year #ahjj4 ,as his title ,seyid indicates1 he was a descendant of the ,prophet1 and was thus born to a position of honour and importance4#cb ,he early displayed a strong bent for learning and piety1 studying theology at the ,moorish ,university of ,fez and afterwards travelling widely over ,north ,africa preaching a reform of the prevailing religious abuses4 ,he then made the pilgrimage to ,mecca1 and there his reformist zeal was still further quickened by the ,wahabi teachers4 ,it was at that time that he appears to have definitely formulated his plan of a great puritan order1 and in #ahdc he returned to ,north ,africa1 settling in ,tripoli1 where he built his first ,zawia1 known as the ,zawia ,baida1 or ,white ,monastery1 in the mountains near ,derna4 ,so impressive was his personality and so great his organizing ability that converts flocked to him from all over ,north ,africa4 ,indeed1 his power soon alarmed the ,turkish authorities in ,tripoli1 and relations became so strained that ,seyid ,mahommed presently moved his headquarters to the oasis of ,jarabub1 far to the south in the ,lybian desert4 ,when he died in #ahei1 his organization had spread over the greater part of ,north ,africa4 ,seyid ,mahommed's work was carried on uninterruptedly by his son1 usually known as ,sennussi-el-,mahdi4 ,the manner in which this son gained his succession typifies the ,sennussi spirit4 ,seyid ,mahommed had two sons1 ,el ,mahdi being the younger4 ,while they were still mere lads1 their father determined to put them to a test1 to discover which of them had the stronger faith4 ,in presence of the entire ,zawia he bade both sons climb a tall palm-tree1 and then adjured them by ,allah and his ,prophet to leap to the ground4 ,the younger lad leaped at once and reached the ground unharmed2 the elder boy refused to spring4 ,to ,el ,mahdi1 who feared not to commit himself to the will of ,god1 passed the right to rule4 ,throughout his long life ,sennussi-el-,mahdi justified his father's choice1 displaying wisdom and piety of a high order1 and further extending the power of the fraternity4 ,during the latter part of his reign he removed his headquarters to the oasis of ,jowf1 still farther into the ,lybian desert1 where he died in #aijb1 and was succeeded by his nephew1 ,ahmed-el-,sherif1 the present head of the ,order1 who also appears to possess marked ability4 ,with nearly eighty years of successful activity behind it1 the ,sennussi ,order is to-day one of the vital factors in ,islam4 ,it counts its adherents in every quarter of the ,moslem world4 ,in ,arabia its followers are very numerous1 and it profoundly influences the spiritual life of the holy cities1 ,mecca and ,medina4 ,north ,africa1 however1 still remains the focus of ,sennussism4 ,the whole of northern ,africa1 from ,morocco to ,somaliland1 is dotted with its ,zawias1 or lodges1 all absolutely dependent upon the ,grand ,lodge1 headed by ,the ,master1 ,el ,sennussi4 ,the ,sennussi stronghold of ,jowf lies in the very heart of the ,lybian ,sahara4 ,only one ,european eye#cc has ever seen this mysterious spot4 ,surrounded by absolute desert1 with wells many leagues apart1 and the routes of approach known only to experienced ,sennussi guides1 every one of whom would suffer a thousand deaths rather than betray him1 ,el ,sennussi1 ,the ,master1 sits serenely apart1 sending his orders throughout ,north ,africa4 ,the influence exerted by the ,sennussiya is profound4 ,the local ,zawias are more than mere lodges4 ,besides the ,mokaddem1 or ,master1 there is also a ,wekil1 or civil governor1 and these officers have discretionary authority not merely over the ,zawia members but also over the community at large--at least1 so great is the awe inspired by the ,sennussiya throughout ,north ,africa1 that a word from ,wekil or ,mokaddem is always listened to and obeyed4 ,thus1 besides the various ,european colonial authorities1 ,british1 ,french1 or ,italian1 as the case may be1 there exists an occult government with which the colonial authorities are careful not to come into conflict4 ,on their part1 the ,sennussi are equally careful to avoid a downright breach with the ,european ,powers4 ,their long-headed1 cautious policy is truly astonishing4 ,for more than half a century the order has been a great force1 yet it has never risked the supreme adventure4 ,in many of the fanatic risings which have occurred in various parts of ,africa1 local ,sennussi have undoubtedly taken part1 and the same was true during the ,italian campaign in ,tripoli and in the late war1 but the order itself has never officially entered the lists4 ,in fact1 this attitude of mingled cautious reserve and haughty aloofness is maintained not only towards ,christians but also towards the other powers that be in ,islam4 ,the ,sennussiya has always kept its absolute freedom of action4 ,its relations with the ,turks have never been cordial4 ,even the wily ,abdul ,hamid1 at the height of his prestige as the champion of ,pan-,islamism1 could never get from ,el ,sennussi more than coldly platonic expressions of approval1 and one of ,sennussi-el-,mahdi's favourite remarks was said to have been3 ,turks and ,christians3 ,i will break both of them with one and the same stroke4 ,equally characteristic was his attitude toward ,mahommed ,ahmed1 the leader of the ,mahdist uprising in the ,egyptian ,sudan4 ,flushed with victory1 ,mahommed ,ahmed sent emissaries to ,el ,sennussi1 asking his aid4 ,el ,sennussi refused1 remarking haughtily3 ,what have ,i to do with this fakir from ,dongola8 ,am ,i not myself ,mahdi if ,i choose8 ,these ,fabian tactics do not mean that the ,sennussi are idle4 ,far from it4 ,on the contrary1 they are ceaselessly at work with the spiritual arms of teaching1 discipline1 and conversion4 ,the ,sennussi programme is the welding1 first1 of ,moslem ,africa and1 later1 of the whole ,moslem world into the revived ,immt of ,islam's early days2 into a great theocracy1 embracing all ,true ,believers--in other words1 ,pan-,islamism4 ,but they believe that the political liberation of ,islam from ,christian domination must be preceded by a profound spiritual regeneration4 ,toward this end they strive ceaselessly to improve the manners and morals of the populations under their influence1 while they also strive to improve material conditions by encouraging the better cultivation of oases1 digging new wells1 building rest-houses along the caravan routes1 and promoting trade4 ,the slaughter and rapine practised by the ,sudanese ,mahdists disgusted the ,sennussi and drew from their chief words of scathing condemnation4 ,all this explains the ,order's unprecedented self-restraint4 ,this is the reason why1 year after year and decade after decade1 the ,sennussi advance slowly1 calmly1 coldly2 gathering great latent power1 but avoiding the temptation to expend it one instant before the proper time4 ,meanwhile they are covering ,north ,africa with their lodges and schools1 disciplining the people to the voice of their ,mokaddems and ,wekils2 and1 to the southward1 converting millions of pagan negroes to the faith of ,islam4#cd ,nothing better shows modern ,islam's quickened vitality than the revival of missionary fervour during the past hundred years4 ,of course ,islam has always displayed strong proselytizing power4 ,its missionary successes in its early days were extraordinary1 and even in its period of decline it never wholly lost its propagating vigour4 ,throughout the ,middle ,ages ,islam continued to gain ground in ,india and ,china2 the ,turks planted it firmly in the ,balkans2 while between the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries ,moslem missionaries won notable triumphs in such distant regions as ,west ,africa1 the ,dutch ,indies1 and the ,philippines4 ,nevertheless1 taking the ,moslem world as a whole1 religious zeal undoubtedly declined1 reaching low-water mark during the eighteenth century4 ,the first breath of the ,mohammedan ,revival1 however1 blew the smouldering embers of proselytism into a new flame1 and everywhere except in ,europe ,islam began once more advancing portentously along all its far-flung frontiers4 ,every ,moslem is1 to some extent1 a born missionary and instinctively propagates his faith among his non-,moslem neighbours1 so the work was carried on not only by priestly specialists but also by multitudes of travellers1 traders1 and humble migratory workers4#ce ,of course numerous zealots consecrated their lives to the task4 ,this was particularly true of the religious fraternities4 ,the ,sennussi have especially distinguished themselves by their apostolic fervour1 and from those natural monasteries1 the oases of the ,sahara1 thousands of ,marabouts have gone forth with flashing eyes and swelling breasts to preach the marvels of ,islam1 devoured with a zeal like that of the ,christian mendicant friars of the ,middle ,ages4 ,islam's missionary triumphs among the negroes of ,west and ,central ,africa during the past century have been extraordinary4 ,every candid ,european observer tells the same story4 ,as an ,englishman very justly remarked some twenty years ago3 ,mohammedanism is making marvellous progress in the interior of ,africa4 ,it is crushing paganism out4 ,against it the ,christian propaganda is a myth4#cf ,and a ,french ,protestant missionary remarks in similar vein3 ,we see ,islam on its march1 sometimes slowed down but never stopped1 towards the heart of ,africa4 ,despite all obstacles encountered1 it tirelessly pursues its way4 ,it fears nothing4 ,even ,christianity1 its most serious rival1 ,islam regards without hate1 so sure is it of victory4 ,while ,christians dream of the conquest of ,africa1 the ,mohammedans do it4#cg ,the way in which ,islam is marching southward is dramatically shown by a recent incident4 ,a few years ago the ,british authorities suddenly discovered that ,mohammedanism was pervading ,nyassaland4 ,an investigation brought out the fact that it was the work of ,zanzibar ,arabs4 ,they began their propaganda about #aijj4 ,ten years later almost every village in southern ,nyassaland had its ,moslem teacher and its mosque hut4 ,although the movement was frankly anti-,european1 the ,british authorities did not dare to check it for fear of repercussions elsewhere4 ,many ,european observers fear that it is only a question of time when ,islam will cross the ,zambezi and enter ,south ,africa4 ,and these gains are not made solely against paganism4 ,they are being won at the expense of ,african ,christianity as well4 ,in ,west ,africa the ,european missions lose many of their converts to ,islam1 while across the continent the ancient ,abyssinian ,church1 so long an outpost against ,islam1 seems in danger of submersion by the rising ,moslem tide4 ,not by warlike incursions1 but by peaceful penetration1 the ,abyssinians are being ,islamized4 ,tribes which1 fifty or sixty years ago1 counted hardly a ,mohammedan among them1 to-day live partly or wholly according to the precepts of ,islam4#ch ,islam's triumphs in ,africa are perhaps its most noteworthy missionary victories1 but they by no means tell the whole story1 as a few instances drawn from other quarters of the ,moslem world will show4 ,in the previous chapter ,i mentioned the liberal movement among the ,russian ,tartars4 ,that1 however1 was only one phase of the ,mohammedan ,revival in that region1 another phase being a marked resurgence of proselyting zeal4 ,these ,tartars had long been under ,russian rule1 and the ,orthodox ,church had made persistent efforts to convert them1 in some instances with apparent success4 ,but when the ,mohammedan ,revival reached the ,tartars early in the nineteenth century1 they immediately began labouring with their christianized brethren1 and in a short time most of these reverted to ,islam despite the best efforts of the ,orthodox ,church and the punitive measures of the ,russian governmental authorities4 ,tartar missionaries also began converting the heathen ,turko-,finnish tribes to the northward1 in defiance of every hindrance from their ,russian masters4#ci ,in ,china1 likewise1 the nineteenth century witnessed an extraordinary development of ,moslem energy4 ,islam had reached ,china in very early times1 brought in by ,arab traders and bands of ,arab mercenary soldiers4 ,despite centuries of intermarriage with ,chinese women1 their descendants still differ perceptibly from the general ,chinese population1 and regard themselves as a separate and superior people4 ,the ,chinese ,mohammedans are mainly concentrated in the southern province of ,yunnan and the inland provinces beyond4 ,besides these racially ,chinese ,moslems1 another centre of ,mohammedan population is found in the ,chinese dependency of ,eastern or ,chinese ,turkestan1 inhabited by ,turkish stocks and conquered by the ,chinese only in the eighteenth century4 ,until comparatively recent times the ,chinese ,moslems were well treated1 but gradually their proud-spirited attitude alarmed the ,chinese ,government1 which withdrew their privileges and persecuted them4 ,early in the nineteenth century the breath of the ,mohammedan ,revival reached ,china1 as it did every other part of the ,moslem world1 and the ,chinese ,mohammedans1 inflamed by resurgent fanaticism1 began a series of revolts culminating in the great rebellions which took place about the year #ahgj1 both in ,yunnan and in ,eastern ,turkestan4 ,as usual1 these fanaticized ,moslems displayed fierce fighting power4 ,the ,turkestan rebels found an able leader1 one ,yakub ,beg1 and for some years both ,turkestan and ,yunnan were virtually independent4 ,to many ,european observers at that time it looked as though the rebels might join hands1 erect a permanent ,mohammedan state in western ,china1 and even overrun the whole empire4 ,the fame of ,yakub ,beg spread through the ,moslem world1 the ,sultan of ,turkey honouring him with the high title of ,commander of the ,faithful4 ,after years of bitter fighting1 accompanied by frightful massacres1 the ,chinese ,government subdued the rebels4 ,the ,chinese ,moslems1 greatly reduced in numbers1 have not yet recovered their former strength2 but their spirit is still unbroken1 and to-day they number fully #aj1jjj1jjj4 ,thus1 ,chinese ,islam1 despite its setbacks1 is a factor to be reckoned with in the future4#dj ,the above instances do not exhaust the list of ,islam's activities during the past century4 ,in ,india1 for example1 ,islam has continued to gain ground rapidly1 while in the ,dutch ,indies it is the same story4#da ,european domination actually favours rather than retards the spread of ,islam1 for the ,moslem finds in ,western improvements1 like the railroad1 the post-office1 and the printing-press1 useful adjuncts to ,islamic propaganda4 ,let us now consider the second originating centre of modern ,pan-,islamism--the movement especially associated with the personality of ,djemal-ed-,din4 ,seyid ,djemal-ed-,din el-,afghani was born early in the nineteenth century at ,asadabad1 near ,hamadan1 in ,persia1 albeit1 as his name shows1 he was of ,afghan rather than ,iranian descent1 while his title ,seyid1 meaning descendant of the ,prophet1 implies a strain of ,arab blood4 ,endowed with a keen intelligence1 great personal magnetism1 and abounding vigour1 ,djemal-ed-,din had a stormy and chequered career4 ,he was a great traveller1 knowing intimately not only most of the ,moslem world but western ,europe as well4 ,from these travels1 supplemented by wide reading1 he gained a notable fund of information which he employed effectively in his manifold activities4 ,a born propagandist1 ,djemal-ed-,din attracted wide attention1 and wherever he went in ,islam his strong personality started an intellectual ferment4 ,unlike ,el ,sennussi1 he concerned himself very little with theology1 devoting himself to politics4 ,djemal-ed-,din was the first ,mohammedan who fully grasped the impending peril of ,western domination1 and he devoted his life to warning the ,islamic world of the danger and attempting to elaborate measures of defence4 ,by ,european colonial authorities he was soon singled out as a dangerous agitator4 ,the ,english1 in particular1 feared and persecuted him4 ,imprisoned for a while in ,india1 he went to ,egypt about #ahhj1 and had a hand in the anti-,european movement of ,arabi ,pasha4 ,when the ,english occupied ,egypt in #ahhb they promptly expelled ,djemal1 who continued his wanderings1 finally reaching ,constantinople4 ,here he found a generous patron in ,abdul-,hamid1 then evolving his ,pan-,islamic policy4 ,naturally1 the ,sultan was enchanted with ,djemal1 and promptly made him the head of his ,pan-,islamic propaganda bureau4 ,in fact1 it is probable that the success of the ,sultan's ,pan-,islamic policy was largely due to ,djemal's ability and zeal4 ,djemal died in #ahif at an advanced age1 active to the last4 ,djemal-ed-,din's teachings may be summarized as follows3 ,the ,christian world1 despite its internal differences of race and nationality1 is1 as against the ,east and especially as against ,islam1 united for the destruction of all ,mohammedan states4 ,the ,crusades still subsist1 as well as the fanatical spirit of ,peter the ,hermit4 ,at heart1 ,christendom still regards ,islam with fanatical hatred and contempt4 ,this is shown in many ways1 as in international law1 before which ,moslem nations are not treated as the equals of ,christian nations4 ,christian governments excuse the attacks and humiliations inflicted upon ,moslem states by citing the latter's backward and barbarous condition2 yet these same governments stifle by a thousand means1 even by war1 every attempted effort of reform and revival in ,moslem lands4 ,hatred of ,islam is common to all ,christian peoples1 not merely to some of them1 and the result of this spirit is a tacit1 persistent effort for ,islam's destruction4 ,every ,moslem feeling and aspiration is caricatured and calumniated by ,christendom4 ',the ,europeans call in the ,orient fanaticism what at home they call nationalism and patriotism4 ,and what in the ,west they call self-respect1 pride1 national honour1 in the ,east they call chauvinism4 ,what in the ,west they esteem as national sentiment1 in the ,east they consider xenophobia4'#db ,from all this1 it is plain that the whole ,moslem world must unite in a great defensive alliance1 to preserve itself from destruction2 and1 to do this1 it must acquire the technique of ,western progress and learn the secrets of ,european power4 ,such1 in brief1 are the teachings of ,djemal-ed-,din1 propagated with eloquence and authority for many years4 ,given the state of mingled fear and hatred of ,western encroachment that was steadily spreading throughout the ,moslem world1 it is easy to see how great ,djemal's influence must have been4 ,and of course ,djemal was not alone in his preaching4 ,other influential ,moslems were agitating along much the same lines as early as the middle of the nineteenth century4 ,one of these pioneers was the ,turkish notable ,aali ,pasha1 who was said to remark3 ,what we want is rather an increase of fanaticism than a diminution of it4#dc ,arminius ,vambry1 the eminent ,hungarian ,oriental scholar1 states that shortly after the ,crimean ,war he was present at a militant ,pan-,islamic gathering1 attended by emissaries from far parts of the ,moslem world1 held at ,aali ,pasha's palace4#dd ,such were the foundations upon which ,sultan ,abdul ,hamid built his ambitious ,pan-,islamic structure4 ,abdul ,hamid is one of the strangest personalities of modern times4 ,a man of unusual intelligence1 his mind was yet warped by strange twists which went to the verge of insanity4 ,nursing ambitious1 grandiose projects1 he tried to carry them out by dark and tortuous methods which1 though often cleverly ,macchiavellian1 were sometimes absurdly puerile4 ,an autocrat by nature1 he strove to keep the smallest decisions dependent on his arbitrary will1 albeit he was frequently guided by clever sycophants who knew how to play upon his superstitions and his prejudices4 ,abdul ,hamid ascended the throne in #ahgf under very difficult circumstances4 ,the country was on the verge of a disastrous ,russian war1 while the government was in the hands of statesmen who were endeavouring to transform ,turkey into a modern state and who had introduced all sorts of ,western political innovations1 including a parliament4 ,abdul ,hamid1 however1 soon changed all this4 ,taking advantage of the confusion which marked the close of the ,russian war1 he abolished parliament and made himself as absolute a despot as any of his ancestors had ever been4 ,secure in his autocratic power1 ,abdul ,hamid now began to evolve his own peculiar policy1 which1 from the first1 had a distinctly ,pan-,islamic trend#de4 ,unlike his immediate predecessors1 ,abdul ,hamid determined to use his position as caliph for far-reaching political ends4 ,emphasizing his spiritual headship of the ,mohammedan world rather than his political headship of the ,turkish state1 he endeavoured to win the active support of all ,moslems and1 by that support1 to intimidate ,european ,powers who might be formulating aggressive measures against the ,ottoman ,empire4 ,before long ,abdul ,hamid had built up an elaborate ,pan-,islamic propaganda organization1 working mainly by secretive1 tortuous methods4 ,constantinople became the ,mecca of all the fanatics and anti-,western agitators like ,djemal-ed-,din4 ,and from ,constantinople there went forth swarms of picked emissaries1 bearing to the most distant parts of ,islam the ,caliph's message of hope and impending deliverance from the menace of infidel rule4 ,abdul ,hamid's ,pan-,islamic propaganda went on uninterruptedly for nearly thirty years4 ,precisely what this propaganda accomplished is very difficult to estimate4 ,in the first place1 it was cut short1 and to some extent reversed1 by the ,young-,turk resolution of #aijh which drove ,abdul ,hamid from the throne4 ,it certainly was never put to the test of a war between ,turkey and a first-class ,european ,power4 ,this is what renders any theoretical appraisal so inconclusive4 ,abdul ,hamid did succeed in gaining the respectful acknowledgment of his spiritual authority by most ,moslem princes and notables1 and he certainly won the pious veneration of the ,moslem masses4 ,in the most distant regions men came to regard the mighty ,caliph in ,stambul as1 in very truth1 the ,defender of the ,faith1 and to consider his empire as the bulwark of ,islam4 ,on the other hand1 it is a far cry from pious enthusiasm to practical performance4 ,furthermore1 ,abdul ,hamid did not succeed in winning over powerful ,pan-,islamic leaders like ,el ,sennussi1 who suspected his motives and questioned his judgment2 while ,moslem liberals everywhere disliked him for his despotic1 reactionary1 inefficient rule4 ,it is thus a very debatable question whether1 if ,abdul ,hamid had ever called upon the ,moslem world for armed assistance in a holy war1 he would have been generally supported4 ,yet ,abdul ,hamid undoubtedly furthered the general spread of ,pan-,islamic sentiment throughout the ,moslem world4 ,in this larger sense he succeeded2 albeit not so much from his position as caliph as because he incarnated the growing fear and hatred of the ,west4 ,thus we may conclude that ,abdul ,hamid's ,pan-,islamic propaganda did produce profound and lasting effects which will have to be seriously reckoned with4 ,the ,young-,turk revolution of #aijh greatly complicated the situation4 ,it was soon followed by the ,persian revolution and by kindred symptoms in other parts of the ,east4 ,these events brought into sudden prominence new forces1 such as constitutionalism1 nationalism1 and even social unrest1 which had long been obscurely germinating in ,islam but which had been previously denied expression4 ,we shall later consider these new forces in detail4 ,the point to be here noted is their complicating effect on the ,pan-,islamic movement4 ,pan-,islamism was1 in fact1 cross-cut and deflected from its previous course1 and a period of confusion and mental uncertainty supervened4 ,this interim period was short4 ,by #aiab ,pan-,islamism had recovered its poise and was moving forward once more4 ,the reason was renewed pressure from the ,west4 ,in #aiaa came ,italy's barefaced raid on ,turkey's ,african dependency of ,tripoli1 while in #aiab the allied ,christian ,balkan states attacked ,turkey in the ,balkan ,war1 which sheared away ,turkey's ,european provinces to the very walls of ,constantinople and left her crippled and discredited4 ,moreover1 in those same fateful years ,russia and ,england strangled the ,persian revolution1 while ,france1 as a result of the ,agadir crisis1 closed her grip on ,morocco4 ,thus1 in a scant two years1 the ,moslem world had suffered at ,european hands assaults not only unprecedented in gravity but1 in ,moslem eyes1 quite without provocation4 ,the effect upon ,islam was tremendous4 ,a flood of mingled despair and rage swept the ,moslem world from end to end4 ,and1 of course1 the ,pan-,islamic implication was obvious4 ,this was precisely what ,pan-,islam's agitators had been preaching for fifty years--the ,crusade of the ,west for ,islam's destruction4 ,what could be better confirmation of the warnings of ,djemal-ed-,din8 ,the results were soon seen4 ,in ,tripoli1 where ,turks and ,arabs had been on the worst of terms1 both races clasped hands in a sudden access of ,pan-,islamic fervour1 and the ,italian invaders were met with a fanatical fury that roused ,islam to wild applause and inspired ,western observers with grave disquietude4 ,why has ,italy found 'defenceless' ,tripoli such a hornets' nest8 queried ,gabriel ,hanotaux1 a former ,french minister of foreign affairs4 ,it is because she has to do1 not merely with ,turkey1 but with ,islam as well4 ,italy has set the ball rolling--so much the worse for her--and for us all4#df ,the ,anglo-,russian man-handling of ,persia likewise roused much wrathful comment throughout ,islam1#dg while the impending extinction of ,moroccan independence at ,french hands was discussed with mournful indignation4 ,but with the coming of the ,balkan ,war the wrath of ,islam knew no bounds4 ,from ,china to the ,congo1 pious ,moslems watched with bated breath the swaying battle-lines in the far-off ,balkans1 and when the news of ,turkish disaster came1 ,islam's cry of wrathful anguish rose hoarse and high4 ,a prominent ,indian ,mohammedan well expressed the feelings of his co-religionists everywhere when he wrote3 ,the ,king of ,greece orders a new ,crusade4 ,from the ,london ,chancelleries rise calls to ,christian fanaticism1 and ,saint ,petersburg already speaks of the planting of the ,cross on the dome of ,sant' ,sophia4 ,to-day they speak thus2 to-morrow they will thus speak of ,jerusalem and the ,mosque of ,omar4 ,brothers6 ,be ye of one mind1 that it is the duty of every ,true ,believer to hasten beneath the ,khalifa's banner and to sacrifice his life for the safety of the faith4#dh ,and another ,indian ,moslem leader thus adjured the ,british authorities3 ,i appeal to the present government to change its anti-,turkish attitude before the fury of millions of ,moslem fellow-subjects is kindled to a blaze and brings disaster4#di ,most significant of all were the appeals made at this time by ,moslems to non-,mohammedan ,asiatics for sympathy and solidarity against the hated ,west4 ,this was a development as unprecedented as it was startling4 ,mohammed1 revering as he did the ,old and ,new ,testaments1 and regarding himself as the successor of the divinely inspired prophets ,moses and ,jesus1 had enjoined upon his followers relative respect for ,christians and ,jews 7,peoples of the ,book7 in contrast with other non-,moslems1 whom he stigmatized as ,idolaters4 ,these injunctions of the ,prophet had always been heeded1 and down to our own days the hatred of ,moslems for ,christians1 however bitter1 had been as nothing compared with their loathing and contempt for ,idolaters like the ,brahmanist ,hindus or the ,buddhists and ,confucianists of the ,far ,east4 ,the first symptom of a change in attitude appeared during the ,russo-,japanese ,war of #aijd4 ,so great had ,islam's fear and hatred of the ,christian ,west then become1 that the triumph of an ,asiatic people over ,europeans was enthusiastically hailed by many ,moslems1 even though the victors were ,idolaters4 ,it was quite in keeping with ,pan-,islamism's strong missionary bent that many pious ,moslems should have dreamed of bringing these heroes within the ,islamic fold4 ,efforts to get in touch with ,japan were made4 ,propagandist papers were founded1 missionaries were selected1 and the ,sultan sent a warship to ,japan with a ,pan-,islamic delegation aboard4 ,throughout ,islam the projected conversion of ,japan was widely discussed4 ,said an ,egyptian journal in the year #aijf3 ,england1 with her sixty million ,indian ,moslems1 dreads this conversion4 ,with a ,mohammedan ,japan1 ,mussulman policy would change entirely4#ej ,and1 at the other end of the ,moslem world1 a ,chinese ,mohammedan sheikh wrote3 ,if ,japan thinks of becoming some day a very great power and making ,asia the dominator of the other continents1 it will be only by adopting the blessed religion of ,islam4#ea ,of course it soon became plain to these enthusiasts that while ,japan received ,islam's emissaries with smiling courtesy1 she had not the faintest intention of turning ,mohammedan4 ,nevertheless1 the first step had been taken towards friendly relations with non-,moslem ,asia1 and the ,balkan ,war drove ,moslems much further in this direction4 ,the change in ,moslem sentiment can be gauged by the numerous appeals made by the ,indian ,mohammedans at this time to ,hindus1 as may be seen from the following sample entitled significantly ,the ,message of the ,east4 ,spirit of the ,east1 reads this noteworthy document1 arise and repel the swelling flood of ,western aggression6 ,children of ,hindustan1 aid us with your wisdom1 culture1 and wealth2 lend us your power1 the birthright and heritage of the ,hindu6 ,let the ,spirit ,powers hidden in the ,himalayan mountain-peaks arise4 ,let prayers to the god of battles float upward2 prayers that right may triumph over might2 and call to your myriad gods to annihilate the armies of the foe6#eb ,to any one who realizes the traditional ,moslem attitude towards ,idolaters such words are simply amazing4 ,they betoken a veritable revolution in outlook4 ,and such sentiments were not confined to ,indian ,moslems2 they were equally evident among ,chinese ,moslems as well4 ,said a ,mohammedan newspaper of ,chinese ,turkestan1 advocating a fraternal union of all ,chinese against ,western aggression3 ,europe has grown too presumptuous4 ,it will deprive us of our liberty2 it will destroy us altogether if we do not bestir ourselves promptly and prepare for a powerful resistance4#ec ,during the troublous first stages of the ,chinese revolution1 the ,mohammedans1 emerging from their sulky aloofness1 co-operated so loyally with their ,buddhist and ,confucian fellow-patriots that ,dr4 ,sun-,yat-,sen1 the ,republican leader1 announced gratefully3 ,the ,chinese will never forget the assistance which their ,moslem fellow-countrymen have rendered in the interest of order and liberty4#ed ,the ,great ,war thus found ,islam everywhere deeply stirred against ,european aggression1 keenly conscious of its own solidarity1 and frankly reaching out for ,asiatic allies in the projected struggle against ,european domination4 ,under these circumstances it may at first sight appear strange that no general ,islamic explosion occurred when ,turkey entered the lists at the close of #aiad and the ,sultan ,caliph issued a formal summons to the ,holy ,war4 ,of course this summons was not the flat failure which ,allied reports led the ,west to believe at the time4 ,as a matter of fact1 there was trouble in practically every ,mohammedan land under ,allied control4 ,to name only a few of many instances3 ,egypt broke into a tumult smothered only by overwhelming ,british reinforcements1 ,tripoli burst into a flame of insurrection that drove the ,italians headlong to the coast1 ,persia was prevented from joining ,turkey only by prompt ,russo-,british intervention1 while the ,indian ,north-,west ,frontier was the scene of fighting that required the presence of a quarter of a million ,anglo-,indian troops4 ,the ,british ,government has officially admitted that during #aiae the ,allies' ,asiatic and ,african possessions stood within a hand's breadth of a cataclysmic insurrection4 ,that insurrection would certainly have taken place if ,islam's leaders had everywhere spoken the fateful word4 ,but the word was not spoken4 ,instead1 influential ,moslems outside of ,turkey generally condemned the latter's action and did all in their power to calm the passions of the fanatic multitude4 ,the attitude of these leaders does credit to their discernment4 ,they recognized that this was neither the time nor the occasion for a decisive struggle with the ,west4 ,they were not yet materially prepared1 and they had not perfected their understandings either among themselves or with their prospective non-,moslem allies4 ,above all1 the moral urge was lacking4 ,they knew that athwart the ,khalifa's writ was stencilled ,made in ,germany4 ,they knew that the ,young-,turk clique which had engineered the coup was made up of ,europeanized renegades1 many of them not even nominal ,moslems1 but atheistic ,jews4 ,far-sighted ,moslems had no intention of pulling ,germany's chestnuts out of the fire1 nor did they wish to further ,prussian schemes of world-dominion which for themselves would have meant a mere change of masters4 ,far better to let the ,west fight out its desperate feud1 weaken itself1 and reveal fully its future intentions4 ,meanwhile ,islam could bide its time1 grow in strength1 and await the morrow4 ,the ,versailles peace conference was just such a revelation of ,european intentions as the ,pan-,islamic leaders had been waiting for in order to perfect their programmes and enlist the moral solidarity of their followers4 ,at ,versailles the ,european ,powers showed unequivocally that they had no intention of relaxing their hold upon the ,near and ,middle ,east4 ,by a number of secret treaties negotiated during the war1 the ,ottoman ,empire had been virtually partitioned between the victorious ,allies1 and these secret treaties formed the basis of the ,versailles settlement4 ,furthermore1 ,egypt had been declared a ,british protectorate at the very beginning of the war1 while the ,versailles conference had scarcely adjourned before ,england announced an agreement with ,persia which made that country another ,british protectorate in fact if not in name4 ,the upshot was1 as already stated1 that the ,near and ,middle ,east were subjected to ,european political domination as never before4 ,but there was another side to the shield4 ,during the war years the ,allied statesmen had officially proclaimed times without number that the war was being fought to establish a new world-order based on such principles as the rights of small nations and the liberty of all peoples4 ,these pronouncements had been treasured and memorized throughout the ,east4 ,when1 therefore1 the ,east saw a peace settlement based1 not upon these high professions1 but upon the imperialistic secret treaties1 it was fired with a moral indignation and sense of outraged justice never known before4 ,a tide of impassioned determination began rising which has set already the entire ,east in tumultuous ferment1 and which seems merely the premonitory ground-swell of a greater storm4 ,so ominous were the portents that even before the ,versailles conference had adjourned many ,european students of ,eastern affairs expressed grave alarm4 ,here1 for example1 is the judgment of ,leone ,caetani1 ,duke of ,sermoneta1 an ,italian authority on ,mohammedan questions4 ,speaking in the spring of #aiai on the war's effect on the ,east1 he said3 ,the convulsion has shaken ,islamic and ,oriental civilization to its foundations4 ,the entire ,oriental world1 from ,china to the ,mediterranean1 is in ferment4 ,everywhere the hidden fire of anti-,european hatred is burning4 ,riots in ,morocco1 risings in ,algiers1 discontent in ,tripoli1 so-called ,nationalist attempts in ,egypt1 ,arabia1 and ,lybia are all different manifestations of the same deep sentiment1 and have as their object the rebellion of the ,oriental world against ,european civilization4#ee ,those words are a prophetic forecast of what has since occurred in the ,moslem world4 ,because recent events are perhaps even more involved with the nationalistic aspirations of the ,moslem peoples than they are with the strictly ,pan-,islamic movement1 ,i propose to defer their detailed discussion till the chapter on ,nationalism4 ,we should1 however1 remember that ,moslem nationalism and ,pan-,islamism1 whatever their internal differences1 tend to unite against the external pressure of ,european domination and equally desire ,islam's liberation from ,european political control4 ,remembering these facts1 let us survey the present condition of the ,pan-,islamic movement4 ,pan-,islamism has been tremendously stimulated by ,western pressure1 especially by the late war and the recent peace settlements4 ,however1 ,pan-,islamism must not be considered as merely a defensive political reaction against external aggression4 ,it springs primarily from that deep sentiment of unity which links ,moslem to ,moslem by bonds much stronger than those which unite the members of the ,christian world4 ,these bonds are not merely religious1 in the technical sense2 they are social and cultural as well4 ,throughout the ,moslem world1 despite wide differences in local customs and regulations1 the basic laws of family and social conduct are everywhere the same4 ,the truth is that ,islam is more than a creed1 it is a complete social system2 it is a civilization with a philosophy1 a culture1 and an art of its own2 in its long struggle against the rival civilization of ,christendom it has become an organic unit conscious of itself4#ef ,to this ,islamic civilization all ,moslems are deeply attached4 ,in this larger sense1 ,pan-,islamism is universal4 ,even the most liberal-minded ,moslems1 however much they may welcome ,western ideas1 and however strongly they may condemn the fanatical1 reactionary aspects of the political ,pan-,islamic movement1 believe fervently in ,islam's essential solidarity4 ,as a leading ,indian ,moslem liberal1 ,the ,aga ,khan1 remarks3 ,there is a right and legitimate ,pan-,islamism to which every sincere and believing ,mohammedan belongs--that is1 the theory of the spiritual brotherhood and unity of the children of the ,prophet4 ,the real spiritual and cultural unity of ,islam must ever grow1 for to the follower of the ,prophet it is the foundation of the life and the soul4#eg ,if such is the attitude of ,moslem liberals1 thoroughly conversant with ,western culture and receptive to ,western progress1 what must be the feelings of the ,moslem masses1 ignorant1 reactionary1 and fanatical8 ,besides perfectly understandable fear and hatred due to ,western aggression1 there is1 among the ,moslem masses1 a great deal of genuine fanaticism caused1 not by ,european political domination1 but by religious bigotry and blind hatred of ,western civilization4#eh ,but this fanaticism has1 of course1 been greatly inflamed by the political events of the past decade1 until to-day religious1 cultural1 and political hatred of the ,west have coalesced in a state of mind decidedly ominous for the peace of the world4 ,we should not delude ourselves into minimizing the dangerous possibilities of the present situation4 ,just because the fake ,holy ,war proclaimed by the ,young-,turks at ,german instigation in #aiad did not come off is no reason for believing that a real holy war is impossible4 ,as a ,german staff-officer in ,turkish service during the late struggle very candidly says3 ,the ,holy ,war was an absolute fiasco just because it was not a ,holy ,war4#ei ,i have already explained how most ,moslems saw through the trick and refused to budge4 ,however1 the long series of ,european aggressions1 culminating in the recent peace settlements which subjected virtually the entire ,moslem world to ,european domination1 have been steadily rousing in ,moslem hearts a spirit of despairing rage that may have disastrous consequences4 ,certainly1 the materials for a holy war have long been heaping high4 ,more than twenty years ago ,arminius ,vambry1 who knew the ,moslem world as few ,europeans have ever known it1 warned the ,west of the perils engendered by recklessly imperialistic policies4 ,as time passes1 he wrote in #ahih1 the danger of a general war becomes ever greater4 ,we should not forget that time has considerably augmented the adversary's force of resistance4 ,i mean by this the sentiment of solidarity which is becoming livelier of late years among the peoples of ,islam1 and which in our age of rapid communication is no longer a negligible quantity1 as it was even ten or twenty years ago4 ,it may not be superfluous to draw the attention of our nineteenth-century ,crusaders to the importance of the ,moslem press1 whose ramifications extend all over ,asia and ,africa1 and whose exhortations sink more profoundly than they do with us into the souls of their readers4 ,in ,turkey1 ,india1 ,persia1 ,central ,asia1 ,java1 ,egypt1 and ,algeria1 native organs1 daily and periodical1 begin to exert a profound influence4 ,everything that ,europe thinks1 decides1 and executes against ,islam spreads through those countries with the rapidity of lightning4 ,caravans carry the news to the heart of ,china and to the equator1 where the tidings are commented upon in very singular fashion4 ,certain sparks struck at our meetings and banquets kindle1 little by little1 menacing flames4 ,hence1 it would be an unpardonable legerity to close our eyes to the dangers lurking beneath an apparent passivity4 ,what the ,terdjuman of ,crimea says between the lines is repeated by the ,constantinople ,ikdam1 and is commented on and exaggerated at ,calcutta by ,the ,moslem ,chronicle4 ,of course1 at present1 the bond of ,pan-,islamism is composed of tenuous and dispersed strands4 ,but ,western aggression might easily unite those strands into a solid whole1 bringing about a general war4#fj ,in the decades which have elapsed since ,vambry wrote those lines the situation has become much more tense4 ,moslem resentment at ,european dominance has increased1 has been reinforced by nationalistic aspirations almost unknown during the last century1 and possesses methods of highly efficient propaganda4 ,for example1 the ,pan-,islamic press1 to which ,vambry refers1 has developed in truly extraordinary fashion4 ,in #aijj there were in the whole ,islamic world not more than #bjj propagandist journals4 ,by #aijf there were #ejj1 while in #aiad there were well over #ajjj4fa ,moslems fully appreciate the post-office1 the railroad1 and other modern methods of rapidly interchanging ideas4 ,every ,moslem country is in communication with every other ,moslem country3 directly1 by means of special emissaries1 pilgrims1 travellers1 traders1 and postal exchanges2 indirectly1 by means of ,mohammedan newspapers1 books1 pamphlets1 leaflets1 and periodicals4 ,i have met with ,cairo newspapers in ,bagdad1 ,teheran1 and ,peshawar2 ,constantinople newspapers in ,basra and ,bombay2 ,calcutta newspapers in ,mohammerah1 ,kerbela1 and ,port ,said4#fb ,as for the professional ,pan-,islamic propagandists1 more particularly those of the religious fraternities1 they swarm everywhere1 rousing the fanaticism of the people3 ,travelling under a thousand disguises--as merchants1 preachers1 students1 doctors1 workmen1 beggars1 fakirs1 mountebanks1 pretended fools or rhapsodists1 these emissaries are everywhere well received by the ,faithful and are efficaciously protected against the suspicious investigations of the ,european colonial authorities4#fc ,furthermore1 there is to-day in the ,moslem world a widespread conviction1 held by liberals and chauvinists alike 7albeit for very different reasons71 that ,islam is entering on a period of ,renaissance and renewed glory4 ,says ,sir ,theodore ,morison3 ,no ,mohammedan believes that ,islamic civilization is dead or incapable of further development4 ,they recognize that it has fallen on evil days2 that it has suffered from an excessive veneration of the past1 from prejudice and bigotry and narrow scholasticism not unlike that which obscured ,european thought in the ,middle ,ages2 but they believe that ,islam too is about to have its ,renaissance1 that it is receiving from ,western learning a stimulus which will quicken it into fresh activity1 and that the evidences of this new life are everywhere manifest4#fd ,sir ,theodore ,morison describes the attitude of ,moslem liberals4 ,how ,pan-,islamists with anti-,western sentiments feel is well set forth by an ,egyptian1 ,yahya ,siddyk1 in his well-known book1 ,the ,awakening of the ,islamic ,peoples in the ,fourteenth ,century of the ,hegira4#fe ,the book is doubly interesting because the author has a thorough ,western education1 holding a law degree from the ,french university of ,toulouse1 and is a judge on the ,egyptian bench4 ,although1 writing nearly a decade before the cataclysm1 ,yahya ,siddyk clearly foresaw the imminence of the ,european ,war4 ,behold1 he writes1 these ,great ,powers ruining themselves in terrifying armaments2 measuring each other's strength with defiant glances2 menacing each other2 contracting alliances which continually break and which presage those terrible shocks which overturn the world and cover it with ruins1 fire1 and blood6 ,the future is ,god's1 and nothing is lasting save ,his ,will4 ,yahya ,siddyk considers the ,western world degenerate4 ,does this mean1 he asks1 that ,europe1 our 'enlightened guide1' has already reached the summit of its evolution8 ,has it already exhausted its vital force by two or three centuries of hyperexertion8 ,in other words3 is it already stricken with senility1 and will it see itself soon obliged to yield its civilizing rle to other peoples less degenerate1 less neurasthenic1 that is to say1 younger1 more robust1 more healthy1 than itself8 ,in my opinion1 the present marks ,europe's apogee1 and its immoderate colonial expansion means1 not strength1 but weakness4 ,despite the aureole of so much grandeur1 power1 and glory1 ,europe is to-day more divided and more fragile than ever1 and ill conceals its malaise1 its sufferings1 and its anguish4 ,its destiny is inexorably working out6444 ,the contact of ,europe on the ,east has caused us both much good and much evil3 good1 in the material and intellectual sense2 evil1 from the moral and political point of view4 ,exhausted by long struggles1 enervated by a brilliant civilization1 the ,moslem peoples inevitably fell into a malaise2 but they are not stricken1 they are not dead6 ,these peoples1 conquered by the force of cannon1 have not in the least lost their unity1 even under the oppressive rgimes to which the ,europeans have long subjected them4444 ,i have said that the ,european contact has been salutary to us from both the material and intellectual point of view4 ,what reforming ,moslem princes wished to impose by force on their ,moslem subjects is to-day realized a hundredfold4 ,so great has been our progress in the last twenty-five years in science1 letters1 and art that we may well hope to be in all these things the equals of ,europe in less than half a century4444 ,a new era opens for us with the fourteenth century of the ,hegira1 and this happy century will mark our ,renaissance and our great future6 ,a new breath animates the ,mohammedan peoples of all races2 all ,moslems are penetrated with the necessity of work and instruction6 ,we all wish to travel1 do business1 tempt fortune1 brave dangers4 ,there is in the ,east1 among the ,mohammedans1 a surprising activity1 an animation1 unknown twenty-five years ago4 ,there is to-day a real public opinion throughout the ,east4 ,the author concludes3 ,let us hold firm1 each for all1 and let us hope1 hope1 hope6 ,we are fairly launched on the path of progress3 let us profit by it6 ,it is ,europe's very tyranny which has wrought our transformation6 ,it is our continued contact with ,europe that favours our evolution and inevitably hastens our revival6 ,it is simply history repeating itself2 the ,will of ,god fulfilling itself despite all opposition and all resistance4444 ,europe's tutelage over ,asiatics is becoming more and more nominal--the gates of ,asia are closing against the ,european6 ,surely we glimpse before us a revolution without parallel in the world's annals4 ,a new age is at hand6 ,if this was the way ,pan-,islamists were thinking in the opening years of the century1 it is clear that their views must have been confirmed and intensified by the ,great ,war4#ff ,the material power of the ,west was thereby greatly reduced1 while its prestige was equally sapped by the character of the peace settlement and by the attendant disputes which broke out among the victors4 ,the mutual rivalries and jealousies of ,england1 ,france1 ,italy1 and their satellites in the ,east have given ,moslems much food for hopeful thought1 and have caused corresponding disquietude in ,european minds4 ,a ,french publicist recently admonished his fellow ,europeans that ,islam does not recognize our colonial frontiers1 and added warningly1 the great movement of ,islamic union inaugurated by ,djemal-ed-,din el-,afghani is going on4#fg ,the menacing temper of ,islam is shown by the furious agitation which has been going on for the last three years among ,india's #gj1jjj1jjj ,moslems against the dismemberment of the ,ottoman ,empire4 ,this agitation is not confined to ,india4 ,it is general throughout ,islam1 and ,sir ,theodore ,morison does not overstate the case when he says3 ,it is time the ,british public realized the gravity of what is happening in the ,east4 ,the ,mohammedan world is ablaze with anger from end to end at the partition of ,turkey4 ,the outbreaks of violence in centres so far remote as ,kabul and ,cairo are symptoms only of this widespread resentment4 ,i have been in close touch with ,mohammedans of ,india for close upon thirty years and ,i think it is my duty to warn the ,british public of the passionate resentment which ,moslems feel at the proposed dismemberment of the ,turkish ,empire4 ,the diplomats at ,versailles apparently thought that outside the ,turkish homelands there is no sympathy for ,turkey4 ,this is a disastrous blunder4 ,you have but to meet the ,mohammedan now in ,london to realize the white heat to which their anger is rising4 ,in ,india itself the whole of the ,mohammedan community from ,peshawar to ,arcot is seething with passion upon this subject4 ,women inside the ,zenanas are weeping over it4 ,merchants who usually take no interest in public affairs are leaving their shops and counting-houses to organize remonstrances and petitions2 even the medival theologians of ,deoband and the ,nadwatul-,ulama1 whose detachment from the modern world is proverbial1 are coming from their cloisters to protest against the destruction of ,islam4#fh ,possibly the most serious aspect of the situation is that the ,moslem liberals are being driven into the camp of political ,pan-,islamism4 ,receptive though the liberals are to ,western ideas1 and averse though they are to ,pan-,islamism's chauvinistic1 reactionary tendencies1 ,europe's intransigeance is forcing them to make at least a temporary alliance with the ,pan-,islamic and ,nationalist groups1 even though the liberals know that anything like a holy war would dig a gulf between ,east and ,west1 stop the influx of ,western stimuli1 favour reactionary fanaticism1 and perhaps postpone for generations a modernist reformation of ,islam4 ,perhaps it is symptomatic of a more bellicose temper in ,islam that the last few years have witnessed the rapid spread of two new puritan1 fanatic movements--the ,ikhwan and the ,salafya4 ,the ,ikhwan movement began obscurely about ten years ago in inner ,arabia--the ,nejd4 ,it is a direct outgrowth of ,wahabism1 from which it differs in no essential respect4 ,so rapid has been ,ikhwanism's progress that it to-day absolutely dominates the entire ,nejd1 and it is headed by desert ,arabia's most powerful chieftain1 ,bin ,saud1 a descendant of the ,saud who headed the ,wahabi movement a hundred years ago4 ,the fanaticism of the ,ikhwans is said to be extraordinary1 while their programme is the old ,wahabi dream of a puritan conversion of the whole ,islamic world4#fi ,as for the ,salaf movement1 it started in ,india even more obscurely than ,ikhwanism did in ,arabia1 but during the past few years it has spread widely through ,islam4 ,like ,ikhwanism1 it is puritanical and fanatical in spirit1 its adherents being found especially among dervish organizations4#gj ,such phenomena1 taken with everything else1 do not augur well for the peace of the ,east4 ,so much for ,pan-,islamism's religious and political sides4 ,now let us glance at its commercial and industrial aspects--at what may be called economic ,pan-,islamism4 ,economic ,pan-,islamism is the direct result of the permeation of ,western ideas4 ,half a century ago the ,moslem world was economically still in the ,middle ,ages4 ,the provisions of the sheriat1 or ,moslem canon law1 such as the prohibition of interest rendered economic life in the modern sense impossible4 ,what little trade and industry did exist was largely in the hands of native ,christians or ,jews4 ,furthermore1 the whole economic life of the ,east was being disorganized by the aggressive competition of the ,west4 ,europe's political conquest of the ,moslem world was1 in fact1 paralleled by an economic conquest even more complete4 ,everywhere percolated the flood of cheap1 abundant ,european machine-made goods1 while close behind came ,european capital1 temptingly offering itself in return for loans and concessions which1 once granted1 paved the way for ,european political domination4 ,yet in economics as in politics the very completeness of ,europe's triumph provoked resistance4 ,angered and alarmed by ,western exploitation1 ,islam frankly recognized its economic inferiority and sought to escape from its subjection4 ,far-sighted ,moslems began casting about for a modus vivendi with modern life that would put ,islam economically abreast of the times4 ,western methods were studied and copied4 ,the prohibitions of the sheriat were evaded or quietly ignored4 ,the upshot has been a marked evolution toward ,western economic standards4 ,this evolution is of course still in its early stages1 and is most noticeable in lands most exposed to ,western influences like ,india1 ,egypt1 and ,algeria4 ,yet everywhere in the ,moslem world the trend is the same4 ,the details of this economic transformation will be discussed in the chapter devoted to economic change4 ,what we are here concerned with is its ,pan-,islamic aspect4 ,and that aspect is very strong4 ,nowhere does ,islam's innate solidarity come out better than in the economic field4 ,the religious1 cultural1 and customary ties which bind ,moslem to ,moslem enable ,mohammedans to feel more or less at home in every part of the ,islamic world1 while ,western methods of transit and communication enable ,mohammedans to travel and keep in touch as they never could before4 ,new types of ,moslems--wholesale merchants1 steamship owners1 business men1 bankers1 even factory industrialists and brokers--are rapidly evolving2 types which would have been simply unthinkable a century1 or even half a century1 ago4 ,and these new men understand each other perfectly4 ,bound together both by the ties of ,islamic fraternity and by the pressure of ,western competition1 they co-ordinate their efforts much more easily than politicals have succeeded in doing4 ,here liberals1 ,pan-,islamists1 and nationalists can meet on common ground4 ,here is no question of political conspiracies1 revolts1 or holy wars1 challenging the armed might of ,europe and risking bloody repression or blind reaction4 ,on the contrary1 here is merely a working together of fellow ,moslems for economic ends by business methods which the ,west cannot declare unlawful and dare not repress4 ,what1 then1 is the specific programme of economic ,pan-,islamism8 ,it is easily stated3 the wealth of ,islam for ,moslems4 ,the profits of trade and industry for ,moslem instead of ,christian hands4 ,the eviction of ,western capital by ,moslem capital4 ,above all1 the breaking of ,europe's grip on ,islam's natural resources by the termination of concessions in lands1 mines1 forests1 railways1 custom-houses1 by which the wealth of ,islamic lands is to-day drained away to foreign shores4 ,such are the aspirations of economic ,pan-,islamism4 ,they are wholly modern concepts1 the outgrowth of those ,western ideas whose influence upon the ,moslem world ,i shall now discuss4#ga ,,footnotes3 #be ,islam has not only won much ground in ,india1 ,brahmanism's homeland1 but has also converted virtually the entire populations of the great islands of ,java and ,sumatra1 where ,brahmanism was formerly ascendant4 #bf ,the small ,parsi communities of ,india1 centring in ,bombay1 are the sole surviving representatives of ,zoroastrianism4 ,they were founded by ,zoroastrian refugees after the ,mohammedan conquest of ,persia in the seventh century ,a4,d4 #bg ,though ,mecca is forbidden to non-,moslems1 a few ,europeans have managed to make the ,hajj in disguise1 and have written their impressions4 ,of these1 ,snouck ,hurgronje's ,mekka 7#b vols41 ,the ,hague1 #ahhh7 and ,het ,mekkaansche ,feest 7,leiden1 #ahhi7 are the most recent good works4 ,also see ,burton and ,burckhardt4 ,a recent account of value from the pen of a ,mohammedan liberal is3 ,gazanfar ,ali ,khan1 ,with the ,pilgrims to ,mecca2 ,the ,great ,pilgrimage of ,a4 ,h4 #acai 7,a4,d4 #aijb71 with an ,introduction by ,arminius ,vambry 7,london1 #aije74 #bh ,the ,shiite ,persians of course refused to recognize any ,sunnite or orthodox caliphate2 while the ,moors pay spiritual allegiance to their own ,shereefian sultans4 #bi ,the ,turkish name for ,constantinople4 #cj ,on the caliphate1 see ,sir ,w4 ,muir1 ,the ,caliphate3 ,its ,rise1 ,decline1 and ,fall 7,edinburgh1 #aiae72 ,sir ,mark ,sykes1 ,the ,caliph's ,last ,heritage 7,london1 #aiae72 ,,xx1 ,l',islam aprs la ,guerre1 ,revue de ,paris1 #ae ,january1 #aiaf2 ,the ,indian ,khilafat ,delegation1 ,foreign ,affairs1 ,july1 #aibj 7,special ,supplement74 #ca ,literally1 he who is guided aright4 #cb ,seyid means ,lord4 ,this title is borne only by descendants of the ,prophet4 #cc ,the explorer ,dr4 ,nachtigal4 #cd ,on the ,islamic fraternities in general and the ,sennussiya in particular see ,w4 ,s4 ,blunt1 ,the ,future of ,islam 7,london1 #ahhb72 ,o4 ,depont and ,x4 ,coppolani1 ,les ,confrries rligieuses musulmanes 7,paris1 #ahig72 ,h4 ,duveyrier1 ,la ,confrrie musulmane de ,sidi ,mohammed ben ,ali es ,snoussi 7,paris1 #ahhd72 ,a4 ,le ,chatelier1 ,les ,confrries musulmanes du ,hedjaz 7,paris1 #ahhg72 ,l4 ,petit1 ,confrries musulmanes 7,paris1 #ahii72 ,l4 ,rinn1 ,marabouts et ,khouan 7,algiers1 #ahhd72 ,a4 ,servier1 ,le ,nationalisme musulman 7,constantine1 ,algeria1 #aiac72 ,simian1 ,les ,confrries islamiques en ,algrie 7,algiers1 #aiaj72 ,achmed ,abdullah 7himself a ,sennussi71 ,the ,sennussiyehs1 ,the ,forum1 ,may1 #aiad2 ,a4 ,r4 ,colquhoun1 ,pan-,islam1 ,north ,american ,review1 ,june1 #aijf2 ,t4 ,r4 ,threlfall1 ,senussi and ,his ,threatened ,holy ,war1 ,nineteenth ,century1 ,march1 #aijj2 ,captain ,h4 ,a4 ,wilson1 ,the ,moslem ,menace1 ,nineteenth ,century and ,after1 ,september1 #aijg2 444 ,la ,puissance de l',islam3 ,ses ,confrries ,rligieuses1 ,le ,correspondant1 #be ,november and #aj ,december1 #aiji4 ,the above judgments1 particularly regarding the ,sennussiya1 vary greatly1 some being highly alarmist1 others minimizing its importance4 ,a full balancing of the entire subject is that of ,commandant ,binger1 ,le ,pril de l',islam1 ,bulletin du ,comit de l',afrique franaise1 #aijb4 ,personal interviews of educated ,moslems with ,el ,sennussi are ,si ,mohammed el ,hechaish1 ,chez les ,senoussia et les ,touareg1 ,l',expansion ,coloniale franaise1 #aijj2 ,muhammad ibn ,utman1 ,voyage au ,pays des ,snoussia travers la ,tripolitaine 7translated from the ,arabic71 ,paris1 #aijc4 #ce ,on ,moslem missionary activity in general1 see ,jansen1 ,verbreitung des ,islams 7,berlin1 #ahig72 ,m4 ,townsend1 ,asia and ,europe1 pp4 #df-di1 #fj-fa1 #ha2 ,a4 ,le ,chatelier1 ,l',islam au dix-neuvime ,sicle 7,paris1 #ahhh72 various papers in ,the ,mohammedan ,world ,to-day 7,london1 #aijf74 #cf ,t4 ,r4 ,threlfall1 ,senussi and ,his ,threatened ,holy ,war1 ,nineteenth ,century1 ,march1 #aijj4 #cg ,d4 ,a4 ,forget1 ,l',islam et le ,christianisme dans l',afrique centrale1 p4 #fe 7,paris1 #aijj74 ,for other statements regarding ,moslem missionary activity in ,africa1 see ,g4 ,bonet-,maury1 ,l',islamisme et le ,christianisme en ,afrique 7,paris1 #aijf72 ,e4 ,w4 ,blyden1 ,christianity1 ,islam1 and the ,negro ,race 7,london1 #ahhg72 ,forget1 op4 cit4 #ch ,a4 ,gurinot1 ,l',islam et l',abyssinie1 ,revue du ,monde musulman1 #aiah4 ,also see similar opinion of the ,protestant missionary ,k4 ,cederquist1 ,islam and ,christianity in ,abyssinia1 ,the ,moslem ,world1 ,april1 #aiba4 #ci ,s4 ,brobovnikov1 ,moslems in ,russia1 ,the ,moslem ,world1 ,january1 #aiaa4 #dj ,broomhall1 ,islam in ,china 7,london1 #aiaj72 ,nigrnd1 ,notes sur les ,musulmans ,chinois1 ,revue du ,monde musulman1 ,january1 #aijg2 paper on ,islam in ,china in ,the ,mohammedan ,world ,to-day 7,london1 #aijf74 #da ,see papers on ,islam in ,java and ,sumatra in ,the ,mohammedan ,world ,to-day 7,london1 #aijf72 ,a4 ,cabaton1 ,java1 ,sumatra1 and the ,dutch ,east ,indies 7translated from the ,dutch71 ,new ,york1 #aiaf4 #db ,quoted from article by ,x1 ,le ,pan-,islamisme et le ,pan-,turquisme1 ,revue du ,monde musulman1 ,march1 #aiac4 ,this authoritative article is1 so the editor informs us1 from the pen of an eminent ,mohammedan--un homme d'tt musulman4 ,for other activities of ,djemal-ed-,din1 see ,a4 ,servier1 ,le ,nationalisme musulman1 pp4 #aj-ac4 #dc ,quoted from ,w4 ,g4 ,palgrave1 ,essays on ,eastern ,questions1 p4 #aaa 7,london1 #ahgb74 #dd ,a4 ,vambry1 ,western ,culture in ,eastern ,lands1 p4 #cea 7,london1 #aijf74 #de ,abdul ,hamid's ,pan-,islamic schemes were first clearly discerned by the ,french publicist ,gabriel ,charmes as early as #ahha1 and his warnings were published in his prophetic book ,l',avenir de la ,turquie--,le ,panislamisme 7,paris1 #ahhc74 #df ,gabriel ,hanotaux1 ,la ,crise mditerranenne et l',islam1 ,revue ,hebdomadaire1 ,april #ac1 #aiab4 #dg ,see ,x1 ,la ,situation politique de la ,perse1 ,revue du ,monde musulman1 ,june1 #aiad2 ,b4 ,temple1 ,the ,place of ,persia in ,world-,politics1 ,proceedings of the ,central ,asian ,society1 ,may #d1 #aiaj2 ,w4 ,m4 ,shuster1 ,the ,strangling of ,persia 7,new ,york1 #aiab74 #dh ,quoted from ,a4 ,vambry1 ,die trkische ,katastrophe und die ,islamwelt1 ,deutsche ,revue1 ,july1 #aiac4 #di ,shah ,mohammed ,naimatullah1 ,recent ,turkish ,events and ,moslem ,india1 ,asiatic ,review1 ,october1 #aiac4 #ej ,quoted by ,f4 ,farjanel1 ,le ,japon et l',islam1 ,revue du ,monde musulman1 ,november1 #aijf4 #ea ,farjanel1 supra4 #eb ,quoted by ,vambry1 supra4 #ec ,vambry1 ,an ,approach between ,moslems and ,buddhists1 ,nineteenth ,century and ,after1 ,april1 #aiab4 #ed ,vambry1 ,an ,approach between ,moslems and ,buddhists1 ,nineteenth ,century and ,after1 ,april1 #aiab4 #ee ,special cable to the ,new ,york ,times1 dated ,rome1 ,may #bh1 #aiai4 #ef ,sir ,t4 ,morison1 ,england and ,islam1 ,nineteenth ,century and ,after1 ,july1 #aiai4 #eg ,h4 ,h4 ,the ,aga ,khan1 ,india in ,transition1 p4 #aeh 7,london1 #aiah74 #eh ,this hatred of ,western civilization1 as such1 will be discussed in the next chapter4 #ei ,ernst ,paraquin1 formerly ,ottoman lieutenant-colonel and chief of general staff1 in the ,berliner ,tageblatt1 ,january #bd1 #aibj4 #fj ,a4 ,vambry1 ,la ,turquie d'aujourd'hui et d'avant ,quarante ,ans1 pp4 #ga1 #gb 7,paris1 #ahih74 #fa ,a4 ,servier1 ,le ,nationalisme musulman1 p4 #ahb4 #fb ,b4 ,temple1 ,the ,place of ,persia in ,world-,politics1 ,proceedings of the ,central ,asian ,society1 ,may1 #aiaj4 #fc ,l4 ,rinn1 ,marabouts et ,khouan1 p4 vi4 #fd ,sir ,t4 ,morison1 ,england and ,islam1 op4 cit4 #fe ,yahya ,siddyk1 ,le ,reveil des ,peuples islamiques au quatorzime ,sicle de l',hgire 7,cairo1 #aijg74 ,also published in ,arabic4 #ff ,for a full discussion of the effect of the ,great ,war upon ,asiatic and ,african peoples1 see my book ,the ,rising ,tide of ,colour against ,white ,world-,supremacy 7,new ,york and ,london1 #aibj74 #fg ,l4 ,massignon1 ,l',islam et la ,politique des ,allis1 ,revue des ,sciences politiques1 ,june1 #aibj4 #fh ,sir ,t4 ,morison1 ,england and ,islam1 op4 cit4 #fi ,for the ,ikhwan movement1 see ,p4 ,w4 ,harrison1 ,the ,situation in ,arabia1 ,atlantic ,monthly1 ,december1 #aibj2 ,s4 ,mylrea1 ,the ,politico-,religious ,situation in ,arabia1 ,the ,moslem ,world1 ,july1 #aiai4 #gj ,for the ,salaf movement1 see ,wahhabisme--,son ,avenir sociale et le ,mouvement salaf1 ,revue du ,monde musulman1 #aiai4 #ga ,on the general subject of economic ,pan-,islamism1 see ,a4 ,le ,chatelier1 ,le ,reveil de l',islam--,sa ,situation conomique1 ,revue conomique internationale1 ,july1 #aiaj2 also his article ,politique musulmane1 ,revue du ,monde musulman1 ,september1 #aiaj2 ,m4 ,pickthall1 ,la ,morale islamique1 ,revue ,politique internationale1 ,july1 #aiaf2 ,s4 ,khuda ,bukhsh1 ,essays3 ,indian and ,islamic 7,london1 #aiab74 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,influence ,,of ,,the ,,west ,the influence of the ,west is the great dynamic in the modern transformation of the ,east4 ,the ubiquitous impact of ,westernism is modifying not merely the ,islamic world but all non-,moslem ,asia and ,africa1#gb and in subsequent pages we shall examine the effects of ,western influence upon the non-,moslem elements of ,india4 ,of course ,western influence does not entirely account for ,islam's recent evolution4 ,we have already seen that1 for the last hundred years1 ,islam itself has been engendering forces which1 however quickened by external ,western stimuli1 are essentially internal in their nature1 arising spontaneously and working toward distinctive1 original goals4 ,it is not a mere copying of the ,west that is to-day going on in the ,moslem world1 but an attempt at a new synthesis--an assimilation of ,western methods to ,eastern ends4 ,we must always remember that the ,asiatic stocks which constitute the bulk of ,islam's followers are not primitive savages like the ,african negroes or the ,australoids1 but are mainly peoples with genuine civilizations built up by their own efforts from the remote past4 ,in view of their historic achievements1 therefore1 it seems safe to conclude that in the great ferment now stirring the ,moslem world we behold a real ,renaissance1 whose genuineness is best attested by the fact that there have been similar movements in former times4 ,the modern influence of the ,west on the ,east is quite unprecedented in both intensity and scope4 ,the far more local1 partial influence of ,greece and ,rome cannot be compared to it4 ,another point to be noted is that this modern influence of the ,west upon the ,east is a very recent thing4 ,the full impact of ,westernism upon the ,orient as a whole dates only from about the middle of the nineteenth century4 ,since then1 however1 the process has been going on by leaps and bounds4 ,roads and railways1 posts and telegraphs1 books and papers1 methods and ideas1 have penetrated1 or are in process of penetrating1 every nook and cranny of the ,east4 ,steamships sail the remotest seas4 ,commerce drives forth and scatters the multitudinous products of ,western industry among the remotest peoples4 ,nations which only half a century ago lived the life of thirty centuries ago1 to-day read newspapers and go to business in electric tram-cars4 ,both the habits and thoughts of ,orientals are being revolutionized4 ,to a discussion of the influence of the ,west upon the ,moslem world the remainder of this book will be devoted4 ,the chief elements will be separately analysed in subsequent chapters1 the present chapter being a general survey of an introductory character4 ,the permeation of ,westernism is naturally most advanced in those parts of ,islam which have been longest under ,western political control4 ,the penetration of the ,british ,raj into the remotest ,indian jungles1 for example1 is an extraordinary phenomenon4 ,by the coinage1 the post-office1 the railroads1 the administration of justice1 the encouragement of education1 the relief of famine1 and a thousand other ways1 the great organization has penetrated all ,india4 ,but even in regions where ,european control is still nominal1 the permeation of ,westernism has gone on apace4 ,the customs and habits of the people have been distinctly modified4 ,western material improvements and comforts like the kerosene-oil lamp and the sewing-machine are to-day part and parcel of the daily life of the people4 ,new economic wants have been created2 standards of living have been raised2 canons of taste have been altered4#gc ,in the intellectual and spiritual fields1 likewise1 the leaven of ,westernism is clearly apparent4 ,we have already seen how profoundly ,moslem liberal reformers have been influenced by ,western ideas and the spirit of ,western progress4 ,of course in these fields ,westernism has progressed more slowly and has awakened much stronger opposition than it has on the material plane4 ,material innovations1 especially mechanical improvements1 comforts1 and luxuries1 make their way much faster than novel customs or ideas1 which usually shock established beliefs or ancestral prejudices4 ,tobacco was taken up with extraordinary rapidity by every race and clime1 and the kerosene-lamp has in half a century penetrated the recesses of ,central ,asia and of ,china2 whereas customs like ,western dress and ideas like ,western education encounter many setbacks and are often adopted with such modifications that their original spirit is denatured or perverted4 ,the superior strength and skill of the ,west are to-day generally admitted throughout the ,east1 but in many quarters the first receptivity to ,western progress and zeal for ,western ideas have cooled or have actually given place to a reactionary hatred of the very spirit of ,western civilization4#gd ,western influences are most apparent in the upper and middle classes1 especially in the ,western-educated intelligentsia which to-day exists in every ,eastern land4 ,these lites of course vary greatly in numbers and influence1 but they all possess a more or less definite grasp of ,western ideas4 ,in their reactions to ,westernism they are sharply differentiated4 ,some1 while retaining the fundamentals of their ancestral philosophy of life1 attempt a genuine assimilation of ,western ideals and envisage a higher synthesis of the spirits of ,east and ,west4 ,others break with their traditional pasts1 steep themselves in ,westernism1 and become more or less genuinely ,westernized4 ,still others conceal behind their ,western veneer disillusionment and detestation4#ge ,of course it is in externals that ,westernization is most pronounced4 ,the ,indian or ,turkish intellectual1 holding ,western university degrees and speaking fluently several ,european languages1 and the wealthy prince or pasha1 with his motor-cars1 his racing-stables1 and his annual cure at ,european watering-places1 appear very ,occidental to the casual eye4 ,such men wear ,european clothes1 eat ,european food1 and live in houses partly or wholly furnished in ,european style4 ,behind this faade exists every possible variation of inner life1 from earnest enthusiasm for ,western ideals to inveterate reaction4 ,these varied attitudes toward ,westernism are not parked off by groups or localities1 they co-exist among the individuals of every class and every land in the ,east4 ,the entire ,orient is1 in fact1 undergoing a prodigious transformation1 far more sudden and intense than anything the ,west has ever known4 ,our civilization is mainly self-evolved2 a natural growth developing by normal1 logical1 and relatively gradual stages4 ,the ,east1 on the contrary1 is undergoing a concentrated process of adaptation which1 with us1 was spread over centuries1 and the result is not so much evolution as revolution--political1 economic1 social1 idealistic1 religious1 and much more besides4 ,the upshot is confusion1 uncertainty1 grotesque anachronism1 and glaring contradiction4 ,single generations are sundered by unbridgeable mental and spiritual gulfs4 ,fathers do not understand sons2 sons despise their fathers4 ,everywhere the old and the new struggle fiercely1 often within the brain or spirit of the same individual4 ,the infinite complexity of this struggle as it appears in ,india is well summarized by ,sir ,valentine ,chirol when he speaks of the many currents and cross-currents of the confused movement which is stirring the stagnant waters of ,indian life--the steady impact of alien ideas on an ancient and obsolescent civilization2 the more or less imperfect assimilation of those ideas by the few2 the dread and resentment of them by those whose traditional ascendancy they threaten2 the disintegration of old beliefs1 and then again their aggressive revival2 the careless diffusion of an artificial system of education1 based none too firmly on mere intellectualism1 and bereft of all moral or religious sanction2 the application of ,western theories of administration and of jurisprudence to a social formation stratified on lines of singular rigidity2 the play of modern economic forces upon primitive conditions of industry and trade2 the constant and unconscious but inevitable friction between subject races and their alien rulers2 the reverberation of distant wars and distant racial conflicts2 the exaltation of an ,oriental people in the ,far ,east4#gf ,these lines1 though written about ,india1 apply with fair exactitude to every other portion of the ,near and ,middle ,east to-day4 ,as a ,french writer remarks with special reference to the ,levant3 ,the truth is that the ,orient is in transformation1 and the ,mohammedan mentality as well--though not perhaps exactly as we might wish4 ,it is undergoing a period of crisis1 wherein the past struggles everywhere against the present2 where ancient customs1 impaired by modern innovations1 present a hybrid and disconcerting spectacle4#gg ,to this is largely due the unlovely traits displayed by most of the so-called ,westernized ,orientals2 the stucco civilization#gh of the ,indian ,babu1 and the boulevardier culture of the ,turkish ,effendi--syphilized rather than civilized4 ,any profound transformation must engender many worthless by-products1 and the contemporary ,westernization of the ,orient has its dark as well as its bright side4 ,the very process of reform1 however necessary and inevitable1 lends fresh virulence to old ills and imports new evils previously unknown4 ,as ,lord ,cromer says3 ,it is doubtful whether the price which is being paid for introducing ,european civilization into these backward ,eastern societies is always recognized as fully as it should be4 ,the material benefits derived from ,european civilization are unquestionably great1 but as regards the ultimate effect on public and private morality the future is altogether uncertain4#gi ,the good and the evil of ,westernization are alike mostly clearly evident among the ranks of the educated lites4 ,some of these men show the happiest effects of the ,western spirit1 but an even larger number fall into the gulf between old and new1 and there miserably perish4 ,lord ,cromer characterized many of the ,europeanized ,egyptians as at the same time de-,moslemized ,moslems and invertebrate ,europeans2#hj while another ,british writer thus pessimistically describes the superficial ,europeanism prevalent in ,india3 ,beautiful ,mogul palaces furnished with cracked furniture from ,tottenham ,court ,road4 ,that is what we have done to the ,indian mind4 ,we have not only made it despise its own culture and throw it out2 we have asked it to fill up the vacant spaces with furniture which will not stand the climate4 ,the mental ,eurasianism of ,india is appalling4 ,such minds are nomad4 ,they belong to no civilization1 no country1 and no history4 ,they create a craving that cannot be satisfied1 and ideals that are unreal4 ,they falsify life4 ,they deprive men of the nourishment of their cultural past1 and the substitutes they supply are unsubstantial4444 ,we sought to give the ,eastern mind a ,western content and environment2 we have succeeded too well in establishing intellectual and moral anarchy in both4#ha ,these patent evils of ,westernization are a prime cause of that implacable hatred of everything ,western which animates so many ,orientals1 including some well acquainted with the ,west4 ,such persons are precious auxiliaries to the ignorant reactionaries and to the rebels against ,western political domination4 ,the political predominance of the ,west over the ,east is1 indeed1 the outstanding factor in the whole question of ,western influence upon the ,orient4 ,we have already surveyed ,europe's conquest of the ,near and ,middle ,east during the past century1 and we have seen how helpless the backward1 decrepit ,moslem world was in face of the twofold tide of political and economic subjugation4 ,in fact1 the economic phase was perhaps the more important factor in the rapidity and completeness of ,europe's success4 ,to be sure1 some ,eastern lands were subjugated at a stroke by naked military force1 as in the ,french expedition to ,algiers1 the ,russian conquest of central ,asia1 and the ,italian descent upon ,tripoli4 ,much oftener1 however1 subjection began by the essentially economic process known as pacific penetration--the acquirement of a financial grip upon a hitherto independent ,oriental country by ,western capital in the form of loans and concessions1 until the assumption of ,western political control became little more than a formal registration of what already existed in fact4 ,such is the story of the subjection of ,egypt1 ,morocco1 and ,persia1 while ,england's ,indian ,empire started in a purely trading venture--the ,east ,india ,company4 ,the tremendous potency of pacific penetration is often not fully appreciated4 ,take the significance of one item alone--railway concessions4 ,says that keen student of ,weltpolitik1 ,doctor ,dillon3 ,railways are the iron tentacles of latter-day expanding ,powers4 ,they are stretched out caressingly at first4 ,but once the iron has1 so to say1 entered the soul of the weaker nation1 the tentacles swell to the dimensions of brawny arms1 and the embrace tightens to a crushing grip4#hb ,on the question of the abstract rightness or wrongness of this subjection of the ,east by the ,west1 ,i do not propose to enter4 ,it has been exhaustively discussed1 pro and con1 and every reader of these pages is undoubtedly familiar with the stock arguments on both sides4 ,the one thing certain is that this process of subjugation was1 broadly speaking1 inevitable4 ,given two worlds at such different levels as ,east and ,west at the beginning of the nineteenth century--the ,west overflowing with vitality and striding at the forefront of human progress1 the ,east sunk in lethargy and decrepitude--and it was a foregone conclusion that the former would encroach upon the latter4 ,what does concern us in our present discussion is the effect of ,european political control upon the general process of ,westernization in ,eastern lands4 ,and there can be no doubt that such ,westernization was thereby greatly furthered4 ,once in control of an ,oriental country1 the ,european rulers were bound to favour its ,westernization for a variety of reasons4 ,mere self-interest impelled them to make the country peaceful and prosperous1 in order to extract profit for themselves and reconcile the inhabitants to their rule4 ,this meant the replacement of inefficient and sanguinary native despotisms inhibiting progress and engendering anarchy by stable colonial governments1 maintaining order1 encouraging industry1 and introducing improvements like the railway1 the post1 sanitation1 and much more besides4 ,in addition to these material innovations1 practically all the ,western governments endeavoured to better the social1 intellectual1 and spiritual condition of the peoples that had come under their control4 ,the ,european ,powers who built up colonial empires during the nineteenth century were actuated by a spirit far more enlightened than that of former times1 when the early colonial empires of ,spain1 ,portugal1 ,holland1 and the ,english ,east ,india ,company had been run on the brutal and short-sighted doctrine of sheer exploitation4 ,in the nineteenth century all ,western rule in the ,orient was more or less impregnated with the ideal of ,the ,white ,man's ,burden4 ,the great empire-builders of the nineteenth century1 actuated as they were not merely by self-interest and patriotic ambition but also by a profound sense of obligation to improve the populations which they had brought under their country's sway1 felt themselves bearers of ,western enlightenment and laboured to diffuse all the benefits of ,western civilization4 ,they honestly believed that the extension of ,western political control was the best and quickest1 perhaps the only1 means of modernizing the backward portions of the world4 ,that standpoint is ably presented by a ,british liberal imperialist1 ,professor ,ramsay ,muir1 who writes3 ,it is an undeniable fact that the imperialism of the ,european peoples has been the means whereby ,european civilization has been in some degree extended to the whole world1 so that to-day the whole world has become a single economic unit1 and all its members are parts of a single political system4 ,and this achievement brings us in sight of the creation of a world-order such as the wildest dreamers of the past could never have anticipated4 ,without the imperialism of the ,european peoples ,north and ,south ,america1 ,australia1 ,south ,africa1 must have remained wildernesses1 peopled by scattered bands of savages4 ,without it ,india and other lands of ancient civilization must have remained1 for all we can see1 externally subject to that endless succession of wars and arbitrary despotisms which have formed the substance of their history through untold centuries1 and under which neither rational and equal law nor political liberty1 as we conceive them1 were practicable conceptions4 ,without it the backward peoples of the earth must have continued to stagnate under the dominance of an unchanging primitive customary rgime1 which has been their state throughout recorded time4 ,if to-day the most fruitful political ideas of the ,west--the ideas of nationality and self-government--which are purely products of ,western civilization1 are beginning to produce a healthy fermentation in many parts of the non-,european world1 that result is due to ,european ,imperialism4#hc ,the ethics of modern imperialism have nowhere been better formulated than in an essay by ,lord ,cromer4 ,an imperial policy1 he writes1 must1 of course1 be carried out with reasonable prudence1 and the principles of government which guide our relations with whatsoever races are brought under our control must be politically and economically sound and morally defensible4 ,this is1 in fact1 the keystone of the imperial arch4 ,the main justification of imperialism is to be found in the use which is made of imperial power4 ,if we make good use of our power1 we may face the future without fear that we shall be overtaken by the ,nemesis which attended ,roman misrule4 ,if the reverse is the case1 the ,british ,empire will deserve to fall1 and of a surety it will ultimately fall4#hd ,such are the basic sanctions of ,western imperialism as evolved during the nineteenth century4 ,whether or not it is destined to endure1 there can be no question that this prodigious extension of ,european political control greatly favoured the spread of ,western influences of every kind4 ,it is1 of course1 arguable that the ,east would have voluntarily adopted ,western methods and ideas even if no sort of ,western pressure had been applied4 ,but they would have been adopted much more slowly1 and this vital element of time renders such arguments mere academic speculation4 ,for the vital1 expanding nineteenth-century ,west to have deliberately restrained itself while the backward ,east blunderingly experimented with ,westernism1 accepting and rejecting1 buying goods and refusing to pay for them1 negotiating loans and then squandering and repudiating them1 inviting in ,europeans and then expelling or massacring them1 would have been against all history and human nature4 ,as a matter of fact1 ,western pressure was applied1 as it was bound to be applied2 and this constant1 ubiquitous1 unrelenting pressure1 broke down the barriers of ,oriental conservatism and inertia as nothing else could have done1 forced the ,east out of its old ruts1 and compelled it to take stock of things as they are in a world of hard facts instead of reminiscent dreams4 ,in subsequent chapters we shall examine the manifold results of this process which has so profoundly transformed the ,orient during the past hundred years4 ,here we will continue our general survey by examining the more recent aspects of ,western control over the ,east and the reactions of the ,east thereto4 ,in my opinion1 the chief fallacy involved in criticisms of ,western control over ,eastern lands arises from failure to discriminate between nineteenth-century and twentieth-century imperialism4 ,nineteenth-century imperialism was certainly inevitable1 and was apparently beneficial in the main4 ,twentieth-century imperialism cannot be so favourably judged4 ,by the year #aijj the ,oriental peoples were no longer mere fanatical obscurantists neither knowing nor caring to know anything outside the closed circle of their ossified1 decadent civilizations4 ,the ,east had been going to school1 and wanted to begin to apply what it had been taught by the ,west4 ,it should have been obvious that these peoples1 whose past history proved them capable of achievement and who were now showing an apparently genuine desire for new progress1 needed to be treated differently from what they had been4 ,in other words1 a more liberal attitude on the part of the ,west had become advisable4 ,but no such change was made4 ,on the contrary1 in the ,west itself1 the liberal idealism which had prevailed during most of the nineteenth century was giving way to that spirit of fierce political and economic rivalry which culminated in the ,great ,war4#he ,never had ,europe been so avid for colonies1 for spheres of influence1 for concessions and preferential markets2 in fine1 so imperialistic1 in the unfavourable sense of the term4 ,the result was that with the beginning of the twentieth century ,western pressure on the ,east1 instead of being relaxed1 was redoubled2 and the awakening ,orient1 far from being met with sympathetic consideration1 was treated more ruthlessly than it had been for two hundred years4 ,the way in which ,eastern countries like ,turkey and ,persia1 striving to reform themselves and protect their independence1 were treated by ,europe's new ,realpolitik would have scandalized the liberal imperialists of a generation before4 ,it certainly scandalized present-day liberals1 as witness these scathing lines written in #aiab by the well-known ,british publicist ,sidney ,low3 ,the conduct of the ,most ,christian ,powers during the past few years has borne a striking resemblance to that of robber-bands descending upon an unarmed and helpless population of peasants4 ,so far from respecting the rights of other nations1 they have exhibited the most complete and cynical disregard for them4 ,they have1 in fact1 asserted the claim of the strong to prey upon the weak1 and the utter impotence of all ethical considerations in the face of armed force1 with a crude nakedness which few ,eastern military conquerors could well have surpassed4 ,the great cosmic event in the history of the last quarter of a century has been the awakening of ,asia after centuries of somnolence4 ,the ,east has suddenly sprung to life1 and endeavoured to throw itself vigorously into the full current of ,western progress4 ,japan started the enterprise2 and1 fortunately for herself1 she entered upon it before the new ,western policy had fully developed itself1 and while certain archaic ideals about the rights of peoples and the sanctity of treaties still prevailed4 ,when the new era was inaugurated by the great ,japanese statesmen of the nineteenth century1 ,europe did not feel called upon to interfere4 ,we regarded the ,japanese renaissance with interest and admiration1 and left the people of ,nippon to work out the difficulties of their own salvation1 unobstructed4 ,if that revolution had taken place thirty years later1 there would probably have been a different story to tell2 and ,new ,japan1 in the throes of her travail1 would have found the armed ,great ,powers at her bedside1 each stretching forth a mailed fist to grab something worth taking4 ,other ,eastern countries which have endeavoured to follow the example of ,japan during the present century have had worse luck4 ,during the past ten years a wave of sheer materialism and absolute contempt for international morality has swept across the ,foreign ,offices of ,europe1 and has reacted disastrously upon the various ,eastern nations in their desperate struggles to reform a constitutional system4 ,they have been attempting to carry out the suggestions made to them for generations by benevolent advisers in ,christendom4 ,now1 when they take these counsels to heart1 and endeavour1 with halting steps1 and in the face of immense obstacles1 to pursue the path of reform1 one might suppose that their efforts would be regarded with sympathetic attention by the ,governments of the ,west2 and that1 even if these offered no direct aid1 they would at least allow a fair trial4 ,but1 on the contrary1 one ,great ,power after another has used the opportunity presented by the internal difficulties of the ,eastern countries to set out upon a career of annexation4#hf ,we have already seen how rapid was this career of annexation1 extinguishing the independence of the last remaining ,mohammedan states at the close of the ,great ,war4 ,we have also seen how it exacerbated ,moslem fear and hatred of the ,west4 ,and the ,west was already feared and hated for many reasons4 ,in the preceding chapter we traced the growth of the ,pan-,islamic movement1 and in subsequent chapters we shall trace the development of ,oriental nationalism4 ,these politico-religious movements1 however1 by no means exhaust the list of ,oriental reactions to ,westernism4 ,there are others1 economic1 social1 racial in character4 ,in view of the complex nature of the ,orient's reaction against ,westernism1 let us briefly analyse the problem in its various constituent elements4 ,anti-,western feeling has been waning in some quarters and waxing in others during the past hundred years4 ,by temperamental reactionaries and fanatics things ,western have1 of course1 always been abhorred4 ,but1 leaving aside this intransigeant minority1 the attitude of other categories of ,orientals has varied greatly according to times and circumstances4 ,by liberal-minded persons ,western influences were at first hailed with cordiality and even with enthusiasm4 ,in the opening chapter we saw how the liberal reformers welcomed the ,western concept of progress and made it one of the bases of their projected religious reformation4 ,and the liberals displayed the same attitude in secular matters4 ,the liberal statesmen who governed ,turkey during the third quarter of the nineteenth century made earnest efforts to reform the ,ottoman ,state1 and it was the same in other parts of the ,moslem world4 ,an interesting example is the attempt made by ,general ,kheir-ed-,din to modernize ,tunis4 ,this man1 a ,circassian by birth1 had won the confidence of his master1 the ,bey1 who made him vizier4 ,in #ahfj he toured ,europe and returned greatly impressed with its civilization4 ,convinced of ,europe's infinite superiority1 he desired passionately to transplant ,western ideas and methods to ,tunis4 ,this he believed quite feasible1 and the result would1 so he thought1 be ,tunis's rapid regeneration4 ,kheir-ed-,din was not in the least a hater of the ,west4 ,he merely recognized clearly the ,moslem world's peril of speedy subjection to the ,west if it did not set its house rapidly in order1 and he therefore desired1 in a perfectly legitimate feeling of patriotism1 to press his country along the road of progress1 that it might be able to stand alone and preserve its independence4 ,so greatly was the ,bey impressed by ,kheir-ed-,din's report that he gave him a free hand in his reforming endeavours4 ,for a short time ,kheir-ed-,din displayed great activity1 though he encountered stubborn opposition from reactionary officials4 ,his work was cut short by his untimely death1 and ,tunis1 still unmodernized1 fell twenty years later under the power of ,france4 ,kheir-ed-,din1 however1 worked for posterity4 ,in order to rouse his compatriots to the realities of their situation he published a remarkable book1 ,the ,surest ,means of ,knowing the ,state of ,nations4 ,this book has profoundly influenced both liberals and nationalists throughout the ,near ,east1 especially in ,north ,africa1 where it has become the bible of ,tunisian and ,algerian nationalism4 ,in his book ,kheir-ed-,din shows his co-religionists the necessity of breaking with their attitude of blind admiration for the past and proud indifference to everything else1 and of studying what is going on in the outer world4 ,europe's present prosperity is due1 he asserts1 not to natural advantages or to religion1 but to progress in the arts and sciences1 which facilitate the circulation of wealth and exploit the treasures of the earth by an enlightened protection constantly given to agriculture1 industry1 and commerce3 all natural consequences of justice and liberty--two things which1 for ,europeans1 have become second nature4 ,in past ages the ,moslem world was great and progressive1 because it was then liberal and open to progress4 ,it declined through bigotry and obscurantism4 ,but it can revive by reviving the spirit of its early days4 ,i have stressed the example of the ,tunisian ,kheir-ed-,din rather than the better-known ,turkish instances because it illustrates the general receptivity of mid-nineteenth-century ,moslem liberals to ,western ideas and their freedom from anti-,western feeling4#hg ,as time passed1 however1 many of these erstwhile liberals1 disillusioned with the ,west for various reasons1 notably ,european aggression1 became the bitterest enemies of the ,west1 hating the very spirit of ,western civilization4#hh ,this anti-,western feeling has1 of course1 been greatly exacerbated since the beginning of the present century4 ,as an influential ,mohammedan wrote just before the ,great ,war3 ,the events of these last ten years and the disasters which have stricken the ,mohammedan world have awakened in its bosom a sentiment of mutual cordiality and devotion hitherto unknown1 and a unanimous hatred against all its oppressors has been the ferment which to-day stirs the hearts of all ,moslems4#hi ,the bitter rancour seething in many ,moslem hearts shows in outbursts like the following1 from the pen of a popular ,turkish writer at the close of the ,balkan ,wars3 ,we have been defeated1 we have been shown hostility by the outside world1 because we have become too deliberative1 too cultured1 too refined in our conceptions of right and wrong1 of humanity and civilization4 ,the example of the ,bulgarian army has taught us that every soldier facing the enemy must return to the days of barbarism1 must have a thirst of blood1 must be merciless in slaughtering children and women1 old and weak1 must disregard others' property1 life1 and honour4 ,let us spread blood1 suffering1 wrong1 and mourning4 ,thus only may we become the favourites of the civilized world like ,king ,ferdinand's army4#ij ,the ,great ,war itself was hailed by multitudes of ,moslems as a well-merited ,nemesis on ,western arrogance and greed4 ,here is how a leading ,turkish newspaper characterized the ,european ,powers3 ,they would not look at the evils in their own countries or elsewhere1 but interfered at the slightest incident in our borders2 every day they would gnaw at some part of our rights and our sovereignty2 they would perform vivisection on our quivering flesh and cut off great pieces of it4 ,and we1 with a forcibly controlled spirit of rebellion in our hearts and with clinched but powerless fists1 silent and depressed1 would murmur as the fire burned within3 ',oh1 that they might fall out with one another6 ,oh1 that they might eat one another up6' ,and lo6 to-day they are eating each other up1 just as the ,turk wished they would4#ia ,such anti-,western sentiments are not confined to journalists or politicians1 they are shared by all classes1 from princes to peasants4 ,each class has its special reasons for hating ,european political control4 ,the native princes1 even when maintained upon their thrones and confirmed in their dignities and emoluments1 bitterly resent their state of vassalage and their loss of limitless1 despotic power4 ,do you know1 ,i can hardly buy a pen or a sword for myself without asking the ,resident for permission8 remarked an ,indian rajah bitterly4 ,his attitude was precisely that of ,khedive ,tewfik ,pasha1 who1 in the early days of the ,british occupation of ,egypt1 while watching a review of ,british troops1 said to one of his ministers3 ,do you suppose ,i like this8 ,i tell you1 ,i never see an ,english sentinel in my streets without longing to jump out of my carriage and strangle him with my own hands4#ib ,the upper classes feel much the same as their sovereigns4 ,they regret their former monopoly of privilege and office4 ,this is especially true of the ,western-educated intelligentsia1 who believe that they should hold all government posts and resent bitterly the reservation of high-salaried directive positions for ,europeans4 ,of course many intelligent liberals realize so fully the educative effect of ,european control that they acquiesce in a temporary loss of independence in order to complete their modernization and ultimately be able to stand alone without fear of reaction or anarchy4 ,however1 these liberals are only a small minority1 hated by their upper-class fellows as time-servers and renegades1 and sundered by an immense gulf from the ignorant masses4 ,at first sight we might think that the masses would1 on the whole1 be favourably disposed toward ,european political control4 ,despite certain economic disadvantages that ,westernization has imposed1 the masses have unquestionably gained most by ,european rule4 ,formerly exploited ruthlessly by both princes and upper classes1 the peasants and town workers are to-day assured peace1 order1 justice1 and security for their landholdings and the fruits of their toil4 ,now it would be a mistake to think that the masses are insensible to all this4 ,the fact is1 they do recognize the benefits of ,european rule4 ,nevertheless1 the new rulers1 while tolerated and even respected1 are never beloved4 ,furthermore1 as the generation which knew the old rgime dies off1 its evils are forgotten1 and the younger generation1 taking present benefits for granted1 murmurs at the flaws in the existing order1 and lends a readier ear to native agitators extolling the glories of independence and idealizing the good old times4 ,the truth of the matter is that1 despite all its shortcomings1 the average ,oriental hankers after the old way of life4 ,even when he recognizes the good points of the new1 he nevertheless yearns irrationally for the old4 ,a ,moslem ruler though he oppress me and not a kafir#ic though he work me weal is a ,moslem proverb of long standing4 ,every colonial administration1 no matter how enlightened1 runs counter to this ineradicable aversion of ,moslems for ,christian rule4 ,a ,russian administrator in ,central ,asia voices the sentiments of ,european officials generally when he states3 ,pious ,moslems cannot accommodate themselves to the government of ,giaours4#id ,furthermore1 it must be remembered that most ,orientals either do not recognize much benefit in ,european rule1 or1 even though they do recognize considerable benefits1 consider these more than offset by many points which1 in their eyes1 are maddening annoyances or burdens4 ,the very things which we most pride ourselves on having given to the ,orient--peace1 order1 justice1 security--are not valued by the ,oriental anywhere near as highly as we might expect4 ,of course he likes these things1 but he would prefer to get less of them if what he did get was given by native rulers1 sharing his prejudices and point of view4 ,take the single factor of justice4 ,as an ,english writer remarks3 ,the ,asiatic is not delighted with justice per se2 indeed1 the ,asiatic really cares but little about it if he can get sympathy in the sense in which he understands that misunderstood word4444 ,this is the real reason why every ,asiatic in his heart of hearts prefers the rule of his own nationality1 bad though it be1 to the most ideal rule of aliens4 ,for when he is ruled by his own countrymen1 he is dealt with by people who understand his frailties1 and who1 though they may savagely punish him1 are at least in sympathy with the motives which prompt his delinquencies4#ie ,take again the matter of order4 ,the average ,oriental not only does not appreciate1 but detests1 our well-regulated1 systematic manner of life4 ,accustomed as he has been for centuries to a slipshod1 easygoing existence1 in which1 if there was much injustice1 there was also much favouritism1 he instinctively hates things like sanitary measures and police regulations4 ,accustomed to a wide personal liberty in the anarchic sense1 he is not willing to limit this liberty for the common weal4 ,he wants his own way1 even though it involves possible dangers to himself--dangers which may always be averted by bribery1 favouritism1 or violence4 ,said an ,american who had listened to a ,filipino's glowing words on independence3 ,what could you do1 if you were independent1 that you cannot do now8 ,i could build my house there in the middle of the street1 if ,i wanted to4 ,but suppose your neighbour objected and interfered8 ,i would 'get' him4 ,but suppose he 'got' you8 ,a shrug of the shoulders was the only answer4#if ,the fact is that the majority of ,orientals1 despite the considerable penetration of ,western ideas and methods that has been going on for the last century1 still love their old ruts and hate to be budged out of them4 ,they realize that ,western rule furthers more than anything else the ,westernization of their social system1 their traditional manner of life1 and they therefore tend to react fanatically against it4 ,every innovation imposed by the colonial authorities is apt to rouse the most purblind resistance4 ,for example1 compulsory vaccination was bitterly opposed for years by the natives of ,algeria4 ,the ,french officials pointed out that smallpox1 hitherto rampant1 was being rapidly extirpated4 ,the natives replied that1 in their opinion1 it was merely a crafty scheme for sterilizing them sexually and thus make room for ,french colonists4 ,the officials thereupon pointed to the census figures1 which showed that the natives were increasing at an unprecedented rate4 ,the natives merely shrugged their shoulders and continued to inveigh against the innovation4 ,this whole matter has been well summarized by a ,french writer with a wide knowledge of ,mohammedan lands4 ,says ,louis ,bertrand3 ,in reality1 all these peoples1 indisposed as they are by their traditions1 customs1 and climates to live according to our social ideal1 hate to endure the constraint of our police1 of our administration--in a word1 of any sort of regulated government1 no matter how just and honest4 ,delivered from the most anarchic and vexatious of tyrannies1 they remain in spirit more or less like our vagabonds1 always hoping to escape from the gendarmes4 ,in vain do we point out to the ,arabs of ,north ,africa that1 thanks to the protection of ,france1 they are no longer pillaged by ,turkish despots nor massacred and tortured by rival tribes4 ,they see only one thing3 the necessity of paying taxes for matters that they do not understand4 ,we shall never realize the rage1 the fury1 aroused in our ,algerian towns by the simple health department ordinance requiring the emptying of a garbage-can at a fixed hour4 ,at ,cairo and elsewhere ,i have observed the same rebellious feelings among the donkey-boys and cab-drivers subjected to the regulations of the ,english policeman4 ,but it is not merely our municipal and administrative regulations which they find insupportable2 it is all our habits1 taken en bloc--in a word1 the order which regulates our civilized life4 ,for instance3 on the railway-line from ,jaffa to ,jerusalem the train stops at a station beside which stands the tomb of a holy man4 ,the schedule calls for a stop of a minute at most4 ,but no sooner had we arrived than what was my stupefaction to see all the ,mohammedans on the train get off1 spread their prayer-rugs1 and tranquilly begin their devotions4 ,the station-master blew his whistle1 the conductor yelled at them that he was going to leave them behind2 nobody budged4 ,a squad of railway employees had to be mobilized1 who1 with blows and curses1 finally bundled these pious persons back into the train again4 ,the business lasted a good quarter of an hour1 and was not easy4 ,the more vigorous of the worshippers put up an energetic resistance4 ,the above is only a casual instance1 chosen at random4 ,what is certain is that these peoples do not yet understand what we mean by exactitude1 and that the concept of a well-regulated existence has not yet penetrated their heads4#ig ,what has just been written of course applies primarily to the ignorant masses4 ,but this attitude of mind is more or less common to all classes of ,oriental peoples4 ,the habits of centuries are not easily transformed4 ,in fact1 it must not be forgotten that the upper classes were able to enjoy most fully the capricious personal liberty of the unmodified ,east1 and that1 therefore1 though they may be better able to understand the value of ,westernization1 they have in one sense the most to lose4#ih ,in fact1 for all ,orientals1 high and low alike1 the good old times had charms which they mournfully regret4 ,for the prince1 the pasha1 the courtier1 existence was truly an ,oriental paradise4 ,to be sure1 the prince might at any moment be defeated and slain by a rival monarch2 the pasha strangled at his master's order2 the courtier tortured through a superior's whim4 ,but1 meanwhile1 it was life1 rich and full4 ,each of these men had his own character and his own renown among his countrymen1 and each enjoyed a position such as is now unattainable in ,europe1 in which he was released from laws1 could indulge his own fancies1 bad or good1 and was fed every day and all day with the special flattery of ,asia--that willing submissiveness to mere volition which is so like adoration1 and which is to its recipients the most intoxicating of delights4 ,each1 too1 had his court of followers1 and every courtier shared in the power1 the luxury1 and the adulation accruing to his lord4 ,the power was that of life and death2 the luxury included possession of every woman he desired2 the adulation was1 as ,i have said1 almost religious worship4#ii ,but1 it may be asked1 what about the poor man1 exploited by this hierarchy of capricious despots8 ,what had he to gain from all this8 ,well1 in most cases1 he got nothing at all2 but he might gain a great deal4 ,life in the old ,orient was a gigantic lottery4 ,any one1 however humble1 who chanced to please a great man1 might rise to fame and fortune at a bound4 ,and this is just what pleases the ,eastern temperament2 for in the ,east1 luck and caprice are more prized than the security cherished in the ,west4 ,in the ,orient the favourite stories are those narrating sudden and amazing shifts of fortune--beggars become viziers or viziers become beggars1 and all in a single night4 ,to the majority of ,orientals it is still the uncertainties of life1 and the capricious favour of the powerful1 which make it most worth living2 not the sure reward of honesty and well-regulated labour4 ,all these things made the life of the ,orient infinitely interesting to all4 ,and it is precisely this gambler's interest which ,westernization has more or less destroyed4 ,as an ,english writer very justly remarks propos of modern ,egypt3 ,our rule may be perfect1 but the ,east finds it dull4 ,the old order was a ragged garment1 but it was gay4 ,its very vicissitude had a charm4 ',ah6 yes1' said an ,egyptian to a champion of ,english rule1 'but in the old days a beggar might sit at the gate1 and if he were found pleasing in the eyes of a great lady1 he might be a great man on the morrow4' ,there is a natural and inevitable regret for the gorgeous and perilous past1 when favour took the place of justice1 and life had great heights and depths--for the ,egypt of ,joseph1 ,haroun-al-,rashid1 and ,ismail ,pasha4 ,we have spread the coat of broadcloth over the radiant garment4#ajj ,saddened and irritated by the threatened loss of so much that they hold dear1 it is not strange that many ,eastern conservatives glorify the past as a sort of ,golden ,age1 infinitely superior to anything the ,west can produce1 and in this they are joined by many quondam liberals1 disillusioned with ,westernism and flying into the arms of reaction4 ,the result is a spirit of hatred against everything ,western1 which sometimes assumes the most extravagant forms4 ,says ,louis ,bertrand3 ,during a lecture that ,i attended at ,cairo the speaker contended that ,france owed ,islam 7#a7 its civilization and sciences2 7#b7 half of its vocabulary2 7#c7 all that was best in the character and mentality of its population1 seeing that1 from the ,middle ,ages to the ,revolution of #aghi1 all the reformers who laboured for its enfranchisement--,albigensians1 ,vaudois1 ,calvinists1 and ,camisards--were probably descendants of the ,saracens4 ,it was nothing less than the total annexation of ,france to ,morocco4 ,meanwhile1 it has become the fashion for fervent 7,egyptian7 nationalists to go to ,spain and meditate in the gardens of the ,alcazar of ,seville or in the patios of the ,alhambra of ,granada on the defunct splendours of western ,islam4#aja ,even more grotesque are the rhapsodies of the ,hindu wing of this ,golden ,age school4 ,these ,hindu enthusiasts far outdo the wildest flights of their ,moslem fellows4 ,they solemnly assert that ,hindustan is the nursery and home of all true religion1 philosophy1 culture1 civilization1 science1 invention1 and everything else2 and they aver that when ,india's present regrettable eclipse is past 7an eclipse of course caused entirely by ,english rule7 she is again to shine forth in her glory for the salvation of the whole world4 ,employing to the full the old adage that there is nothing new under the sun1 they have discovered in the ,vedas and other ,hindu sacred texts irrefutable evidence that the ancient ,hindu sages anticipated all our modern ideas1 including such up-to-date matters as bomb-dropping aeroplanes and the ,league of ,nations4#ajb ,all this rhapsodical laudation of the past will1 in the long run1 prove futile4 ,the ,east1 like the ,west1 has its peculiar virtues2 but the ,east also has its special faults1 and it is the faults which1 for the last thousand years1 have been gaining on the virtues1 resulting in backwardness1 stagnation1 and inferiority4 ,to-day the ,east is being penetrated--and quickened--by the ,west4 ,the outcome will never be complete ,westernization in the sense of a mere wholesale copying and absolute transformation2 the ,east will always remain fundamentally itself4 ,but it will be a new self1 the result of a true assimilation of ,western ideas4 ,the reactionaries can only delay this process1 and thereby prolong the ,orient's inferiority and weakness4 ,nevertheless1 the reactionary attitude1 though unintelligent1 is intelligible4 ,westernization hurts too many cherished prejudices and vested interests not to arouse chronic resistance4 ,this resistance would occur even if ,western influences were all good and ,westerners all angels of light4 ,but of course ,westernization has its dark side1 while our ,western culture-bearers are animated not merely by altruism1 but also by far less worthy motives4 ,this strengthens the hand of the ,oriental reactionaries and lends them the cover of moral sanctions4 ,in addition to the extremely painful nature of any transformative process1 especially in economic and social matters1 there are many incidental factors of an extremely irritating nature4 ,to begin with1 the mere presence of the ,european1 with his patent superiority of power and progress1 is a constant annoyance and humiliation4 ,this physical presence of the ,european is probably as necessary to the ,orient's regeneration as it is inevitable in view of the ,orient's present inferiority4 ,but1 however beneficial1 it is none the less a source of profound irritation4 ,these ,europeans disturb everything1 modify customs1 raise living standards1 erect separate quarters in the cities1 where they form extraterritorial colonies exempt from native law and customary regulation4 ,an ,english town rises in the heart of ,cairo1 a ,little ,paris eats into ,arabesque ,algiers1 while ,european ,pera flaunts itself opposite ,turkish ,stambul4 ,as for ,india1 it is dotted with ,british enclaves4 ,the great ,presidency towns1 ,calcutta1 ,bombay1 ,madras1 are ,european cities planted on ,indian soil4 ,all the prominent buildings are ,european1 though in some of the more recent ones an endeavour has been made to adopt what is known as the ',indo-,saracenic' style of architecture4 ,for the rest1 the streets are called by ,english names1 generally the names of bygone viceroys and governors1 or of the soldiers who conquered the land and quelled the mutiny--heroes whose effigies meet you at every turn4 ,the shops are ,english shops1 where ,english or ,eurasian assistants traffic in ,english goods4 ,english carriages and motors bowl along the macadamized or tarred roads of ,old ,england4 ,on every hand there is evidence of the instinctive effort to reproduce1 as nearly as the climate will permit1 ,english conditions of life4444 ,almost the whole life of the people of ,india is relegated to the back streets1 not to say the slums--frankly called in ,madras the ,black ,town4 ,there are a few points--clubs and gymkhanas specially established to that end--where ,englishmen1 and even women1 meet ,indian men1 and even women1 of the wealthier classes1 on a basis of social equality4 ,but few indeed are the points of contact between the ,asian town and the ,european city which has been superimposed upon it4 ,the missionary1 the ,salvation ,army outpost1 perhaps the curiosity-hunting tourist1 may go forth into the bazaars2 but the ,european community as a whole cares no more for the swarming brown multitudes around it than the dwellers on an island care for the fishes in the circumambient sea4#ajc ,and what is true of the great towns holds good for scores of provincial centres1 stations1 and cantonments4 ,the scale may be smaller1 but the type is the same4 ,the ,european in the ,orient is thus everywhere profoundly an alien1 living apart from the native life4 ,and the ,european is not merely an aloof alien2 he is a ruling alien as well4 ,always his attitude is that of the superior1 the master4 ,this attitude is not due to brutality or snobbery2 it is inherent in the very essence of the situation4 ,of course many ,europeans have bad manners1 but that does not change the basic reality of the case4 ,and this reality is that1 whatever the future may bring1 the ,european first established himself in the ,orient because the ,west was then infinitely ahead of the ,east2 and he is still there to-day because1 despite all recent changes1 the ,east is still behind the ,west4 ,therefore the ,european in the ,orient is still the ruler1 and so long as he stays there must continue to rule--justly1 temperately1 with politic regard for ,eastern progress and liberal devolution of power as the ,east becomes ripe for its liberal exercise--but1 nevertheless1 rule4 ,wherever the ,occidental has established his political control1 there are but two alternatives3 govern or go4 ,furthermore1 in his governing1 the ,occidental must rule according to his own lights2 despite all concessions to local feeling1 he must1 in the last analysis1 act as a ,western1 not as an ,eastern1 ruler4 ,lord ,cromer voices the heart of all true colonial government when he says3 ,in governing ,oriental races the first thought must be what is good for them1 but not necessarily what they think is good for them4#ajd ,now all this is inevitable1 and should be self-evident4 ,nevertheless1 the fact remains that even the most enlightened ,oriental can hardly regard it as other than a bitter though salutary medicine1 while most ,orientals feel it to be humiliating or intolerable4 ,the very virtues of the ,european are prime causes of his unpopularity4 ,for1 as ,meredith ,townsend well says3 ,the ,european is1 in ,asia1 the man who will insist on his neighbour doing business just after dinner1 and being exact when he is half-asleep1 and being 'prompt' just when he wants to enjoy1--and he rules in ,asia and is loved in ,asia accordingly4#aje ,furthermore1 the ,european in the ,orient is disliked not merely as a ruler and a disturber1 but also as a man of widely different race4 ,this matter of race is very complicated1#ajf but it cuts deep and is of fundamental importance4 ,most of the peoples of the ,near and ,middle ,east with which our present discussion is concerned belong to what is known as the brown category of the human species4 ,of course1 in strict anthropology1 the term is inexact4 ,anthropologically1 we cannot set off a sharply differentiated group of brown types as a brown race1 as we can set off the white types of ,europe as a white race or the yellow ,mongoloid types of the ,far ,east as a yellow race4 ,this is because the ,near and ,middle ,east have been racially a vast melting-pot1 or series of melting-pots1 wherein conquest and migration have continually poured new heterogeneous elements1 producing the most diverse ethnic amalgamations4 ,thus to-day some of the ,near and ,middle ,eastern peoples are largely white1 like the ,persians and ,ottoman ,turks2 others1 like the southern ,indians and ,yemenite ,arabs1 are largely black2 while still others1 like the ,himalayan and ,central ,asian peoples1 have much yellow blood4 ,again1 as there is no brown racial type-norm1 as there are white and yellow type-norms1 so there is no generalized brown culture like those possessed by yellows and whites4 ,the great brown spiritual bond is ,islam1 yet in ,india1 the chief seat of brown population1 ,islam is professed by only one-fifth of the inhabitants4 ,lastly1 while the spiritual frontiers of the ,moslem world coincide mainly with the ethnic frontiers of the brown world1 ,islam overlaps at several points1 including some pure whites in eastern ,europe1 many true yellows in the ,far ,east1 and multitudes of negroes in ,africa4 ,nevertheless1 despite these partial modifications1 the terms brown race and brown world do connote genuine realities which science and politics alike recognize to be essentially true4 ,there certainly is a fundamental comity between the brown peoples4 ,this comity is subtle and intangible in character2 yet it exists1 and under certain circumstances it is capable of momentous manifestations4 ,its salient feature is the instinctive recognition by all ,near and ,middle ,eastern peoples that they are fellow ,asiatics1 however bitter may be their internecine feuds4 ,this instinctive ,asiatic feeling has been noted by historians for more than two thousand years1 and it is true to-day as in the past4 ,the great racial divisions of mankind are the most fundamental1 the most permanent1 the most ineradicable things in human experience4 ,they are not mere diverse colorations of skin4 ,matters like complexion1 stature1 and hair-formation are merely the outward1 visible symbols of correlative mental and spiritual differences which reveal themselves in sharply contrasted temperaments and view-points1 and which translate themselves into the infinite phenomena of divergent group-life4 ,now it is one of these basic racial lines of cleavage which runs between ,east and ,west4 ,broadly speaking1 the ,near and ,middle ,east is the brown world1 and this differentiates it from the white world of the ,west in a way which never can be really obliterated4 ,indeed1 to attempt to obliterate the difference by racial fusion would be the maddest of follies4 ,east and ,west can mutually quicken each other by a mutual exchange of ideas and ideals4 ,they can only harm each other by transfusions of blood4 ,to unite physically would be the greatest of disasters4 ,east and ,west have both given much to the world in the past1 and promise to give more in the future4 ,but whatever of true value they are to give can be given only on condition that they remain essentially themselves4 ,ethnic fusion would destroy both their race-souls and would result in a dreary mongrelization from which would issue nothing but degeneration and decay4 ,both ,east and ,west instinctively recognize the truth of this1 and show it by their common contempt for the ,eurasian--the mongrel offspring of unions between the two races4 ,as ,meredith ,townsend well says3 ,the chasm between the brown man and the white is unfathomable1 has existed in all ages1 and exists still everywhere4 ,no white man marries a brown wife1 no brown man marries a white wife1 without an inner sense of having been false to some unintelligible but irresistible command4#ajg ,the above summary of the political1 economic1 social1 and racial differences between ,east and ,west gives us a fair idea of the numerous cross-currents which complicate the relations of the two worlds and which hinder ,westernization4 ,the ,westernizing process is assuredly going on1 and in subsequent chapters we shall see how far-reaching is its scope4 ,but the factors just considered will indicate the possibilities of reaction and will roughly assign the limits to which ,westernization may ultimately extend4 ,one thing is certain3 ,western political control in the ,orient1 however prolonged and however imposing in appearance1 must ever rest on essentially fragile foundations4 ,the ,western rulers will always remain an alien caste2 tolerated1 even respected1 perhaps1 but never loved and never regarded as anything but foreigners4 ,furthermore1 ,western rule must necessarily become more precarious with the increasing enlightenment of the subject peoples1 so that the acquiescence of one generation may be followed by the hostile protest of the next4 ,it is indeed an unstable equilibrium1 hard to maintain and easily upset4 ,the latent instability of ,european political control over the ,near and ,middle ,east was dramatically shown by the moral effect of the ,russo-,japanese ,war4 ,down to that time the ,orient had been so helpless in face of ,european aggression that most ,orientals had come to regard ,western supremacy with fatalistic resignation4 ,but the defeat of a first-class ,european ,power by an ,asiatic people instantly broke the spell1 and all ,asia and ,africa thrilled with a wild intoxication which we can scarcely conceive4 ,a ,scotch missionary thus describes the effect of the ,japanese victories on northern ,india1 where he was stationed at the time3 ,a stir of excitement passed over the north of ,india4 ,even the remote villagers talked over the victories of ,japan as they sat in their circles and passed round the huqqa at night4 ,one of the older men said to me1 ',there has been nothing like it since the mutiny'4 ,a ,turkish consul of long experience in ,western ,asia told me that in the interior you could see everywhere the most ignorant peasants 'tingling' with the news4 ,asia was moved from end to end1 and the sleep of the centuries was finally broken4 ,it was a time when it was 'good to be alive1' for a new chapter was being written in the book of the world's history4#ajh ,of course the ,russo-,japanese ,war did not create this new spirit1 whose roots lay in the previous epoch of subtle changes that had been going on4 ,the ,russo-,japanese ,war was thus rather the occasion than the cause of the wave of exultant self-confidence which swept over ,asia and ,africa in the year #aijd4 ,but it did dramatize and clarify ideas that had been germinating half-unconsciously in millions of ,oriental minds1 and was thus the sign manual of the whole nexus of forces making for a revivified ,orient4 ,furthermore1 this new temper profoundly influenced the ,orient's attitude toward the series of fresh ,european aggressions which then began4 ,it is a curious fact that just when the ,far ,east had successfully resisted ,european encroachment1 the ,near and ,middle ,east should have been subjected to ,european aggressions of unparalleled severity4 ,we have already noted the furious protests and the unwonted moral solidarity of the ,moslem world at these manifestations of ,western ,realpolitik4 ,it would be interesting to know exactly how much of this defiant temper was due to the heartening example of ,japan4 ,certainly our ultra-imperialists of the ,west were playing a dangerous game during the decade between #aijd and #aiad4 ,as ,arminius ,vambry remarked after the ,italian raid on ,tripoli3 ,the more the power and authority of the ,west gains ground in the ,old ,world1 the stronger becomes the bond of unity and mutual interest between the separate factions of ,asiatics1 and the deeper burns the fanatical hatred of ,europe4 ,is it wise or expedient by useless provocation and unnecessary attacks to increase the feeling of animosity1 to hurry on the struggle between the two worlds1 and to nip in the bud the work of modern culture which is now going on in ,asia8#aji ,the ,great ,war of course immensely aggravated an already critical situation4 ,the ,orient suddenly saw the ,european peoples1 who1 in racial matters1 had hitherto maintained something like solidarity1 locked in an internecine death-grapple of unparalleled ferocity2 it saw those same peoples put one another furiously to the ban as irreconcilable foes2 it saw white race-unity cleft by moral and political gulfs which white men themselves continuously iterated would never be filled4 ,the one redeeming feature of the struggle1 in ,oriental eyes1 was the liberal programme which the ,allied statesmen inscribed upon their banners4 ,but when the war was over and the ,allies had won1 it promptly leaked out that at the very time when the ,allied leaders were making their liberal speeches they had been negotiating a series of secret treaties partitioning the ,near ,east between them in a spirit of the most cynical imperialism2 and in the peace conferences that closed the war it was these secret treaties1 not the liberal speeches1 which determined the ,oriental settlement1 resulting 7on paper at least7 in the total subjugation of the ,near and ,middle ,east to ,european political control4 ,the wave of wrath which thereupon rolled over the ,east was not confined to furious remonstrance like the protests of pre-war days4 ,there was a note of immediate resistance and rebellion not audible before4 ,this rebellious temper has translated itself into warlike action which has already forced the ,european ,powers to abate some of their extreme pretensions and which will undoubtedly make them abate others in the near future4 ,the details of this post-war unrest will be discussed in later chapters4 ,suffice it to say here that the ,great ,war has shattered ,european prestige in the ,east and has opened the eyes of ,orientals to the weaknesses of the ,west4 ,to the ,orient the war was a gigantic course of education4 ,for one thing1 millions of ,orientals and negroes were taken from the remotest jungles of ,asia and ,africa to serve as soldiers and labourers in the ,white ,man's ,war4 ,though the bulk of these auxiliaries were used in colonial operations1 more than a million of them were brought to ,europe itself4 ,here they killed white men1 raped white women1 tasted white luxuries1 learned white weaknesses--and went home to tell their people the whole story4#aaj ,asia and ,africa to-day know ,europe as they never knew it before1 and we may be sure that they will make use of their knowledge4 ,the most serious factor in the situation is that the ,orient realizes that the famous ,versailles ,peace which purports to have pacified ,europe is no peace1 but rather an unconstructive1 unstatesmanlike futility that left old sores unhealed and even dealt fresh wounds4 ,europe to-day lies debilitated and uncured1 while ,asia and ,africa see in this a standing incitement to rash dreams and violent action4 ,such is the situation to-day3 an ,east1 torn by the conflict between new and old1 facing a ,west riven with dissension and sick from its mad follies4 ,probably never before have the relations between the two worlds contained so many incalculable1 even cataclysmic1 possibilities4 ,the point to be here noted is that this strange new ,east which now faces us is mainly the result of ,western influences permeating it in unprecedented fashion for the past hundred years4 ,to the chief elements in that permeation let us now turn4 ,,footnotes3 #gb ,for the larger aspects1 see my book ,the ,rising ,tide of ,colour against ,white ,world-,supremacy 7,new ,york and ,london1 #aibj74 #gc ,on these points1 see ,arminius ,vambry1 ,western ,culture in ,eastern ,lands 7,london1 #aijf72 also his ,la ,turquie d'aujourd'hui et d'avant ,quarante ,ans 7,paris1 #ahih72 ,c4 ,s4 ,cooper1 ,the ,modernizing of the ,orient 7,new ,york1 #aiad72 ,s4 ,khuda ,bukhsh1 ,essays3 ,indian and ,islamic 7,london1 #aiab72 ,a4 ,j4 ,brown1 ,economic ,changes in ,asia1 ,the ,century1 ,march1 #aijd4 #gd ,for the effect of the ,west intellectually and spiritually1 see ,vambry1 op4 cit42 ,sir ,valentine ,chirol1 ,indian ,unrest 7,london1 #aiaj72 ,j4 ,n4 ,farquhar1 ,modern ,religious ,movements in ,india 7,new ,york1 #aiae72 ,rev4 ,j4 ,morrison1 ,new ,ideas in ,india3 ,a ,study of ,social1 ,political1 and ,religious ,developments 7,edinburgh1 #aijf72 the ,earl of ,cromer1 ,modern ,egypt1 especially ,vol4 ,,ii41 pp4 #bbh-bdc 7,london1 #aijh74 #ge ,for the ,westernised lites1 see ,l4 ,bertrand1 ,le ,mirage ,orientale 7,paris1 #aiaj72 ,cromer1 op4 cit42 ,a4 ,mtin1 ,l',inde d'aujourd'hui3 tude ,sociale 7,paris1 #aiah72 ,a4 ,le ,chatelier1 ,politique musulmane1 ,revue du ,monde musulman1 ,september1 #aiaj4 #gf ,chirol1 op4 cit41 pp #cba-cbb4 #gg ,bertrand1 op4 cit41 p #ci4 ,see also ,bukhsh1 op4 cit42 ,farquhar1 op4 cit42 ,morrison1 op4 cit42 ,r4 ,mukerjee1 ,the ,foundations of ,indian ,economics 7,london1 #aiaf72 ,d4 ,h4 ,dodwell1 ,economic ,transition in ,india1 ,economic ,journal1 ,december1 #aiaj4 #gh ,w4 ,s4 ,lilly1 ,india and ,its ,problems1 p4 #bdc 7,london1 #aijb74 #gi ,cromer1 op4 cit41 ,vol4 ,,ii41 p4 #bca4 #hj ,ibid41 p4 #bbh4 #ha ,j4 ,ramsay ,macdonald1 ,the ,government of ,india1 pp4 #aga-agb 7,london1 #aibj74 ,on the evils of ,westernization1 see further3 ,bukhsh1 ,cromer1 ,dodwell1 ,mukerjee1 already cited2 ,sir ,w4 ,m4 ,ramsay1 ,the ,turkish ,peasantry of ,anatolia1 ,quarterly ,review1 ,january1 #aiah2 ,h4 ,m4 ,hyndman1 ,the ,awakening of ,asia 7,new ,york1 #aiai72 ,t4 ,rothstein1 ,egypt's ,ruin 7,london1 #aiaj72 ,captain ,p4 ,azan1 ,recherche d'une ,solution de la ,question indigne en ,algrie 7,paris1 #aijc74 #hb ,e4 ,j4 ,dillon1 ,persia1 ,contemporary ,review1 ,june1 #aiaj4 #hc ,ramsay ,muir1 ,europe and the ,non-,european ,world1 ,the ,new ,europe1 ,june #bh1 #aiag4 #hd ,the ,earl of ,cromer1 ,political and ,literary ,essays1 p4 #e 7,london1 #aiac74 #he ,for a full discussion of these changes in ,western ideas1 see my ,rising ,tide of ,colour against ,white ,world-,supremacy1 especially chaps4 vi4 and vii4 #hf ,sidney ,low1 ,the ,most ,christian ,powers1 ,fortnightly ,review1 ,march1 #aiab4 #hg ,on this point see also ,a4 ,vambry1 ,western ,culture in ,eastern ,lands 7,london1 #aijf72 ,w4 ,s4 ,blunt1 ,the ,future of ,islam 7,london1 #ahhb72 also the two articles by ,lon ,cahun on intellectual and social developments in the ,islamic world during the nineteenth century in ,lavisse et ,rambaud1 ,histoire ,gnrale1 ,vol4 ,,xi41 chap4 xv42 ,vol4 ,,xii41 chap4 xiv4 #hh ,see ,a4 ,vambry1 ,der ,islam im neunzehnten ,jahrhundert1 chap4 vi4 7,leipzig1 #ahge74 #hi ,x1 ,la ,situation politique de la ,perse1 ,revue du ,monde musulman1 ,june1 #aiad4 ,as already stated1 the editor vouches for this anonymous writer as a distinguished ,mohammedan official--un homme d'tt musulman4 #ij ,ahmed ,emin1 ,the ,development of ,modern ,turkey as ,measured by ,its ,press1 p4 #ajh 7,columbia ,university ,ph4,d4 ,thesis1 ,new ,york1 #aiad74 #ia ,the ,constantinople ,tanine4 ,quoted from ,the ,literary ,digest1 ,october #bd1 #aiad1 p4 #ghd4 ,this attitude toward the ,great ,war and the ,european ,powers was not confined to ,mohammedan peoples2 it was common to non-white peoples everywhere4 ,for a survey of this feeling throughout the world1 see my ,rising ,tide of ,colour against ,white ,world-,supremacy1 pp4 #ac-af4 #ib ,both the above instances are taken from ,c4 ,s4 ,cooper1 ,the ,modernizing of the ,orient1 pp4 #cci-cdj 7,new ,york1 #aiad74 #ic ,an ,unbeliever--in other words1 a ,christian4 #id ,quoted by ,a4 ,woeikof1 ,le ,turkestan russe 7,paris1 #aiad74 #ie ,b4 ,l4 ,putnam ,weale1 ,the ,conflict of ,colour1 p4 #aic 7,london1 #aiaj74 #if ,quoted from ,h4 ,h4 ,powers1 ,the ,great ,peace1 p4 #hb 7,new ,york1 #aiah74 #ig ,l4 ,bertrand1 ,le ,mirage oriental1 pp4 #dda-ddb 7,paris1 #aiaj74 #ih ,on this point see the very interesting essay by ,meredith ,townsend entitled ,the ,charm of ,asia for ,asiatics1 in his book ,asia and ,europe1 pp4 #abj-abh4 #ii ,townsend1 op4 cit41 p4 #ajd4 #ajj ,h4 ,spender1 ,england1 ,egypt1 and ,turkey1 ,contemporary ,review1 ,october1 #aijf4 #aja ,bertrand1 pp4 #bji1 #baj4 #ajb ,for discussion of this ,hindu attitude see ,w4 ,archer1 ,india and the ,future 7,london1 #aiah72 ,young and ,ferrers1 ,india in ,conflict 7,london1 #aibj74 ,also see ,hindu writings of this nature3 ,h4 ,maitra1 ,hinduism3 ,the ,world-,ideal 7,london1 #aiaf72 ,a4 ,coomaraswamy1 ,the ,dance of ,siva 7,new ,york1 #aiah72 ,m4 ,n4 ,chatterjee1 ,the ,world and the ,next ,war1 ,journal of ,race ,development1 ,april1 #aiaf4 #ajc ,archer1 pp4 #aa1 #ab4 #ajd ,cromer1 ,political and ,literary ,essays1 p4 #be4 #aje ,townsend1 ,asia and ,europe1 p4 #abh4 #ajf ,i have dealt with it at length in my ,rising ,tide of ,colour against ,white ,world-,supremacy4 #ajg ,townsend1 p4 #ig4 #ajh ,rev4 ,c4 ,f4 ,andrews1 ,the ,renaissance in ,india1 p4 #d 7,london1 #aiaa74 ,for other similar accounts of the effect of the ,russo-,japanese ,war upon ,oriental peoples generally1 see ,a4 ,m4 ,low1 ,egyptian ,unrest1 ,the ,forum1 ,october1 #aijf2 ,f4 ,farjanel1 ,le ,japon et l',islam1 ,revue du ,monde musulman1 ,november1 #aijf2 ,oriental ,ideals as ,affected by the ,russo-,japanese ,war1 ,american ,review of ,reviews1 ,february1 #aije2 ,a4 ,vambry1 ,japan and the ,mahometan ,world1 ,nineteenth ,century and ,after1 ,april1 #aije2 ,yahya ,siddyk1 op4 cit41 p4 #db4 #aji ,a4 ,vambry1 ,an ,approach between ,moslems and ,buddhists1 ,nineteenth ,century and ,after1 ,april1 #aiab4 #aaj ,for the effect of the war on ,asia and ,africa1 see ,a4 ,demangeon1 ,le ,dclin de l',europe 7,paris1 #aibj72 ,h4 ,m4 ,hyndman1 ,the ,awakening of ,asia 7,new ,york1 #aiai72 ,e4 ,d4 ,morel1 ,the ,black ,man's ,burden 7,new ,york1 #aibj72 ,f4 ,b4 ,fisher1 ,india's ,silent ,revolution 7,new ,york1 #aiai72 also1 my ,rising ,tide of ,color against ,white ,world-,supremacy4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,political ,,change ,the ,orient's chief handicap has been its vicious political tradition4 ,from earliest times the typical form of government in the ,east has been despotism--the arbitrary rule of an absolute monarch1 whose subjects are slaves1 holding their goods1 their honours1 their very lives1 at his will and pleasure4 ,the sole consistent check upon ,oriental despotism has been religion4 ,some critics may add custom2 but it amounts to the same thing1 for in the ,east custom always acquires a religious sanction4 ,the mantle of religion of course covers its ministers1 the priests forming a privileged caste4 ,but1 with these exceptions1 ,oriental despotism has usually known no bounds2 and the despot1 so long as he respected religion and the priesthood1 has been able to act pretty much as he chose4 ,in the very dawn of history we see ,pharaoh exhausting all ,egypt to gratify his whim for a colossal pyramid tomb1 and throughout history ,oriental life has been cursed by this fatal political simplicity4 ,now manifold human experience has conclusively proved that despotism is a bad form of government in the long run4 ,of course there is the legendary benevolent despot--the father of his people1 surrounded by wise counsellors and abolishing evils by a nod or a stroke of the pen4 ,that is all very well in a fairy-tale4 ,but in real life the benevolent despot rarely happens and still more rarely succeeds himself4 ,the father of his people usually has a pompous son and a vicious grandson1 who bring the people to ruin4 ,the melancholy trinity--,david1 ,solomon1 ,rehoboam--has reappeared with depressing regularity throughout history4 ,furthermore1 even the benevolent despot has his limitations4 ,the trouble with all despots1 good or bad1 is that their rule is entirely personal4 ,everything1 in the last analysis1 depends on the despot's personal will4 ,nothing is fixed or certain4 ,the benevolent despot himself may discard his benevolence overnight1 and the fate of an empire may be jeopardized by the monarch's infatuation for a woman or by an upset in his digestion4 ,we ,occidentals have1 in fact1 never known despotism1 in its ,simon ,pure1 ,oriental sense2 not even under the ,roman ,empire4 ,indeed1 we can hardly conceive what it means4 ,when we speak of a benevolent despot we usually think of the enlightened autocrats of eighteenth-century ,europe1 such as ,frederick the ,great4 ,but these monarchs were not despots as ,orientals understand it4 ,take ,frederick1 for example4 ,he was regarded as absolute4 ,but his subjects were not slaves4 ,those proud ,prussian officers1 starched bureaucrats1 stiff-necked burghers1 and stubborn peasants each had his sense of personal dignity and legal status4 ,the unquestioning obedience which they gave ,frederick was given not merely because he was their king1 but also because they knew that he was the hardest-working man in ,prussia and tireless in his devotion to the state4 ,if ,frederick had suddenly changed into a lazy1 depraved1 capricious tyrant1 his obedient ,prussians would have soon showed him that there were limits to his power4 ,in the ,orient it is quite otherwise4 ,in the ,east there lies upon the eyes and foreheads of all men a law which is not found in the ,european decalogue2 and this law runs3 ',thou shalt honour and worship the man whom ,god shall set above thee for thy ,king3 if he cherish thee1 thou shalt love him2 and if he plunder and oppress thee thou shalt still love him1 for thou art his slave and his chattel4'#aaa ,the ,eastern monarch may immure himself in his harem1 casting the burdens of state upon the shoulders of a grand vizier4 ,this vizier has thenceforth limitless power2 the life of every subject is in his hands4 ,yet1 any evening1 at the pout of a dancing-girl1 the monarch may send from his harem to the vizier's palace a negro mute1 armed with the bowstring4 ,and when that black mute arrives1 the vizier1 doffing his robe of office1 and with neither question nor remonstrance1 will bare his neck to be strangled4 ,that is real despotism--the despotism that the ,east has known4 ,such is the political tradition of the ,orient4 ,and it is surely obvious that under such a tradition neither ordered government nor consistent progress is possible4 ,eastern history is1 in fact1 largely a record of sudden flowerings and equally sudden declines4 ,a strong1 able man cuts his way to power in a period of confusion and decay4 ,he must be strong and able1 or he would not win over other men of similar nature struggling for the coveted prize4 ,his energy and ability soon work wonders4 ,he knows the rough-and-ready way of getting things done4 ,his vigour and resolution supply the driving-power required to compel his subordinates to act with reasonable efficiency1 especially since incompetence or dishonesty are punished with the terrible severity of the ,persian king who flayed an unjust satrap alive and made the skin into the seat of the official chair on which the new satrap sat to administer justice4 ,while the master lives1 things may go well4 ,but the master dies1 and is succeeded by his son4 ,this son1 even assuming that he has inherited much of his father's ability1 has had the worst possible upbringing4 ,raised in the harem1 surrounded by obsequious slaves and designing women1 neither his pride nor his passions have been effectively restrained1 and he grows up a pompous tyrant and probably precociously depraved4 ,such a man will not be apt to look after things as his father did4 ,and as soon as the master's eye shifts1 things begin to go to pieces4 ,how can it be otherwise8 ,his father built up no governmental machine1 functioning almost automatically1 as in the ,west4 ,his officers worked from fear or personal loyalty2 not out of a patriotic sense of duty or impersonal esprit de corps4 ,under the grandson1 matters get even worse1 power slips from his incompetent hands and is parcelled out among many local despots1 of whom the strongest cuts his way to power1 assuming that the decadent state is not overrun by some foreign conqueror4 ,in either eventuality1 the old cycle--,david1 ,solomon1 ,rehoboam--is finished1 and a new cycle begins--with the same destined end4 ,that1 in a nutshell1 is the political history of the ,east4 ,it has1 however1 been modified or temporarily interrupted by the impact of more liberal political influences1 exerted sometimes from special ,eastern regions and sometimes from the ,west4 ,not all the ,orient has been given over to unrelieved despotism4 ,here and there have been peoples 7mostly mountain or pastoral peoples7 who abhorred despotism4 ,such a people have always been the ,arabs4 ,we have already seen how the ,arabs1 fired by ,islam1 established a mighty caliphate which1 in its early days1 was a theocratic democracy4 ,of course we have also seen how the older tradition of despotism reasserted itself over most of the ,moslem world1 how the democratic caliphate turned into a despotic sultanate1 and how the liberty-loving ,arabs retired sullenly to their deserts4 ,political liberalism1 like religious liberalism1 was crushed and almost forgotten4 ,almost--not quite2 for memories of the ,meccan caliphate1 like memories of ,motazelism1 remained in the back of men's minds1 ready to come forth again with better days4 ,after all1 free ,arabia still stood1 with every ,arab tribesman armed to the teeth to see that it kept free4 ,and then1 there was ,islam4 ,no court theologian could entirely explain away the fact that ,mohammed had said things like ,all ,believers are brothers and ,all ,moslems are free4 ,no court chronicler could entirely expunge from ,moslem annals the story of ,islam's early days1 known as the ,wakti-,seadet1 or ,age of ,blessedness4 ,even in the darkest times ,moslems of liberal tendencies must have been greatly interested to read that the first caliph1 ,abu ,bekr1 after his election by the people1 said3 ,oh nation6 you have chosen me1 the most unworthy among you1 for your caliph4 ,support me as long as my actions are just4 ,if otherwise1 admonish me1 rouse me to a sense of my duty4 ,truth alone is desirable1 and lies are despicable4444 ,as ,i am the guardian of the weak1 obey me only so long as ,i obey the ,sheriat ,divine ,law4 ,but if you see that ,i deviate but in the minutest details from this law1 you need obey me no more4#aab ,in fine1 no subsequent distortions could entirely obliterate the fact that primitive ,islam was the supreme expression of a freedom-loving folk whose religion must necessarily contain many liberal tendencies4 ,even the sheriat1 or canon law1 is1 as ,professor ,lybyer states1 fundamentally democratic and opposed in essence to absolutism4#aac ,vambry well summarizes this matter when he writes3 ,it is not ,islam and its doctrines which have devastated the western portion of ,asia and brought about the present sad state of things2 but it is the tyranny of the ,moslem princes1 who have wilfully perverted the doctrines of the ,prophet1 and sought and found maxims in the ,koran as a basis for their despotic rule4 ,they have not allowed the faintest suspicion of doubt in matters of religion1 and1 efficaciously distorting and crushing all liberal principles1 they have prevented the dawn of a ,moslem ,renaissance4#aad ,in the opening chapter we saw how ,oriental despotism reached its evil maximum in the eighteenth century1 and how the ,mohammedan ,revival was not merely a puritan reformation of religion1 but was also in part a political protest against the vicious and contemptible tyrants who misruled the ,moslem world4 ,this internal movement of political liberalism was soon cross-cut by another political current coming in from the ,west4 ,comparing the miserable decrepitude of the ,moslem ,east with ,europe's prosperity and vigour1 thinking ,moslems were beginning to recognize their shortcomings1 and they could not avoid the conclusion that their woes were in large part due to their wretched governments4 ,indeed1 a few even of the ,moslem princes came to realize that there must be some adoption of ,western political methods if their countries were to be saved from destruction4 ,the most notable examples of this new type of ,oriental sovereign were ,sultan ,mahmud ,,ii of ,turkey and ,mehemet ,ali of ,egypt1 both of whom came to power about the beginning of the nineteenth century4 ,of course none of these reforming princes had the slightest idea of granting their subjects constitutional liberties or of transforming themselves into limited monarchs4 ,they intended to remain absolute1 but absolute more in the sense of the enlightened autocrat of ,europe and less in the sense of the purely ,oriental despot4 ,what they wanted were true organs of government--army1 civil service1 judiciary1 etc4--which would function efficiently and semi-automatically as governmental machinery1 and not as mere amorphous masses of individuals who had to be continuously prodded and punished by the sovereign in order to get anything done4 ,mahmud ,,ii1 ,mehemet ,ali1 and their princely colleagues persisted in their new policies1 but the outcome of these reforms from above was1 on the whole1 disappointing4 ,the monarchs might build barracks and bureaux on ,european models and fill them with soldiers and bureaucrats in ,european clothes1 but they did not get ,european results4 ,most of these ,western-type officials knew almost nothing about the ,west1 and were therefore incapable of doing things in ,western fashion4 ,in fact1 they had small heart for the business4 ,devoid of any sort of enthusiasm for ideas and institutions which they did not comprehend1 they applied themselves to the work of reform with secret ill-will and repugnance1 moved only by blind obedience to their sovereign's command4 ,as time passed1 the military branches did gain some modern efficiency1 but the civil services made little progress1 adopting many ,western bureaucratic vices but few or none of the virtues4 ,meanwhile reformers of quite a different sort began to appear3 men demanding ,western innovations like constitutions1 parliaments1 and other phenomena of modern political life4 ,their numbers were constantly recruited from the widening circles of men acquainted with ,western ideas through the books1 pamphlets1 and newspapers which were being increasingly published1 and through the education given by schools on the ,western model which were springing up4 ,the third quarter of the nineteenth century saw the formation of genuine political parties in ,turkey1 and in #ahgf the liberal groups actually wrung from a weak sultan the grant of a parliament4 ,these early successes of ,moslem political liberalism were1 however1 followed by a period of reaction4 ,the ,moslem princes had become increasingly alarmed at the growth of liberal agitation among their subjects and were determined to maintain their despotic authority4 ,the new ,sultan of ,turkey1 ,abdul ,hamid1 promptly suppressed his parliament1 savagely persecuted the liberals1 and restored the most uncompromising despotism4 ,in ,persia the ,shah repressed a nascent liberal movement with equal severity1 while in ,egypt the spendthrift rule of ,khedive ,ismail ended all native political life by provoking ,european intervention and the imposition of ,british rule4 ,down to the ,young-,turk revolution of #aijh there were few overt signs of liberal agitation in those ,moslem countries which still retained their independence4 ,nevertheless1 the agitation was there1 working underground4 ,hundreds of youthful patriots fled abroad1 both to obtain an education and to conduct their liberal propaganda1 and from havens of refuge like ,switzerland these ,young-,turks1 ,young-,persians1 and others issued manifestoes and published revolutionary literature which was smuggled into their homelands and eagerly read by their oppressed brethren4#aae ,as the years passed1 the cry for liberty grew steadily in strength4 ,a young ,turkish poet wrote at this time3 ,all that we admire in ,european culture as the fruit of science and art is simply the outcome of liberty4 ,everything derives its light from the bright star of liberty4 ,without liberty a nation has no power1 no prosperity2 without liberty there is no happiness2 and without happiness1 existence1 true life1 eternal life1 is impossible4 ,everlasting praise and glory to the shining light of freedom6#aaf ,by the close of the nineteenth century keen-sighted ,european observers noted the working of the liberal ferment under the surface calm of absolutist repression4 ,thus1 ,arminius ,vambry1 revisiting ,constantinople in #ahif1 was astounded by the liberal evolution that had taken place since his first sojourn in ,turkey forty years before4 ,although ,constantinople was subjected to the severest phase of ,hamidian despotism1 ,vambry wrote1 ,the old attachment of ,turkey for the absolute rgime is done for4 ,we hear much in ,europe of the ',young-,turk' ,party2 we hear even of a constitutional movement1 political emigrs1 revolutionary pamphlets4 ,but what we do not realize is the ferment which exists in the different social classes1 and which gives us the conviction that the ,turk is in progress and is no longer clay in the hands of his despotic potter4 ,in ,turkey1 therefore1 it is not a question of a ,young-,turk ,party1 because every civilized ,ottoman belongs to this party4#aag ,in this connection we should note the stirrings of unrest that were now rapidly developing in the ,eastern lands subject to ,european political control4 ,by the close of the nineteenth century only four considerable ,moslem states--,turkey1 ,persia1 ,morocco1 and ,afghanistan--retained anything like independence from ,european domination4 ,since ,afghanistan and ,morocco were so backward that they could hardly be reckoned as civilized countries1 it was only in ,turkey and ,persia that genuine liberal movements against native despotism could arise4 ,but in ,european-ruled countries like ,india1 ,egypt1 and ,algeria1 the cultural level of the inhabitants was high enough to engender liberal political aspirations as well as that mere dislike of foreign rule which may be felt by savages as well as by civilized peoples4 ,these liberal aspirations were of course stimulated by the movements against native despotism in ,turkey and ,persia4 ,nevertheless1 the two sets of phenomena must be sharply distinguished from each other4 ,the ,turkish and ,persian agitations were essentially movements of liberal reform4 ,the ,indian1 ,egyptian1 ,algerian1 and kindred agitations were essentially movements for independence1 with no settled programme as to how that independence should be used after it had been attained4 ,these latter movements are1 in fact1 nationalist rather than liberal in character1 and it is in the chapters devoted to nationalism that they will be discussed4 ,the point to be noted here is that they are really coalitions1 against the foreign ruler1 of men holding very diverse political ideas1 embracing as these nationalist coalitions do not merely genuine liberals but also self-seeking demagogues and even stark reactionaries who would like to fasten upon their liberated countries the yoke of the blackest despotism4 ,of course all the nationalist groups use the familiar slogans freedom and liberty2 nevertheless1 what many of them mean is merely freedom and liberty from foreign tutelage--in other words1 independence4 ,we must always remember that patriotism has no essential connection with liberalism4 ,the ,spanish peasants1 who shouted liberty as they rose against ,napoleon's armies1 greeted their contemptible tyrant-king with delirious enthusiasm and welcomed his glorification of absolutism with cries of ,long live chains6 ,the period of despotic reaction which had afflicted ,turkey and ,persia since the beginning of the last quarter of the nineteenth century came dramatically to an end in the year #aijh4 ,both countries exploded into revolution1 the ,turks deposing the tyrant ,abdul ,hamid1 the ,persians rising against their infamous ruler ,muhammad ,ali ,shah1 perhaps the most perverted1 cowardly1 and vice-sodden monster that had disgraced the throne of ,persia in many generations4#aah ,these revolutions released the pent-up liberal forces which had been slowly gathering strength under the repression of the previous generation1 and the upshot was that ,turkey and ,persia alike blossomed out with constitutions1 parliaments1 and all the other political machinery of the ,west4 ,how the new rgimes would have worked in normal times it is profitless to speculate1 because1 as a matter of fact1 the times were abnormal to the highest degree4 ,unfortunately for the ,turks and ,persians1 they had made their revolutions just when the world was entering that profound malaise which culminated in the ,great ,war4 ,neither ,turkey nor ,persia were allowed time to attempt the difficult process of political transformation4 ,lynx-eyed ,western chancelleries noted every blunder and1 in the inevitable weakness of transition1 pounced upon them to their undoing4 ,the ,great ,war merely completed a process of ,western aggression and intervention which had begun some years before4 ,this virtual absence of specific fact-data renders largely academic any discussion of the much-debated question whether or not the peoples of the ,near and ,middle ,east are capable of self-government2 that is1 of establishing and maintaining ordered1 constitutional political life4 ,opinions on this point are at absolute variance4 ,personally1 ,i have not been able to make up my mind on the matter1 so ,i shall content myself with stating the various arguments without attempting to draw any general conclusion4 ,before stating these contrasted view-points1 however1 ,i would draw attention to the distinction which should be made between the ,mohammedan peoples and the non-,mohammedan ,hindus of ,india4 ,moslems everywhere possess the democratic political example of ,arabia as well as a religion which1 as regards its own followers at least1 contains many liberal tendencies4 ,the ,hindus have nothing like this4 ,their political tradition has been practically that of unrelieved ,oriental despotism1 the only exceptions being a few primitive self-governing communities in very early times1 which never exerted any widespread influence and quickly faded away4 ,as for ,brahminism1 the ,hindu religion1 it is perhaps the most illiberal cult which ever afflicted mankind1 dividing society as it does into an infinity of rigid castes between which no real intercourse is possible2 each caste regarding all those of lesser rank as unclean1 polluting creatures1 scarcely to be distinguished from animals4 ,it is obvious that with such handicaps the establishment of true self-government will be apt to be more difficult for ,hindus than for ,mohammedans1 and the reader should keep this point in mind in the discussion which follows4 ,considering first the attitude of those who do not believe the peoples of the ,near and ,middle ,east capable of real self-government in the ,western sense either now or in the immediate future1 we find this thesis both ably and emphatically stated by ,lord ,cromer4 ,lord ,cromer believed that the ancient tradition of despotism was far too strong to be overcome1 at least in our time4 ,from the dawn of history1 he asserts1 ,eastern politics have been stricken with a fatal simplicity4 ,do not let us for one moment imagine that the fatally simple idea of despotic rule will readily give way to the far more complex conception of ordered liberty4 ,the transformation1 if it ever takes place at all1 will probably be the work1 not of generations1 but of centuries4444 ,our primary duty1 therefore1 is1 not to introduce a system which1 under the specious cloak of free institutions1 will enable a small minority of natives to misgovern their countrymen1 but to establish one which will enable the mass of the population to be governed according to the code of ,christian morality4 ,a freely elected ,egyptian parliament1 supposing such a thing to be possible1 would not improbably legislate for the protection of the slave-owner1 if not the slave-dealer1 and no assurance can be felt that the electors of ,rajputana1 if they had their own way1 would not re-establish suttee4 ,good government has the merit of presenting a more or less attainable ideal4 ,before ,orientals can attain anything approaching to the ,british ideal of self-government1 they will have to undergo very numerous transmigrations of political thought4 ,and ,lord ,cromer concludes pessimistically3 ,it will probably never be possible to make a ,western silk purse out of an ,eastern sow's ear4#aai ,in similar vein1 the veteran ,english publicist ,doctor ,dillon1 writing after the ,turkish and ,persian revolutions1 had little hope in their success1 and ridiculed the current faith in the sacramental virtue of constitutional government4 ,for1 he continues3 ,no parchment yet manufactured1 and no constitution drafted by the sons of men1 can do away with the foundations of national character4 ,flashy phrases and elegant declamations may persuade people that they have been transmuted2 but they alter no facts1 and in ,persia's case the facts point to utter incapacity for self-government4 ,referring to the ,persian revolution1 ,doctor ,dillon continues3 ,at bottom1 only names of persons and things have been altered2 men may come and men may go1 but anarchy goes on for ever4444 ,financial support of the new government is impossible4 ,for foreign capitalists will not give money to be squandered by filibusters and irresponsible agitators who1 like bubbles in boiling water1 appear on the surface and disappear at once4#abj ,a high ,french colonial official thus characterizes the ,algerians and other ,moslem populations of ,french ,north ,africa3 ,our natives need to be governed4 ,they are big children1 incapable of going alone4 ,we should guide them firmly1 stand no nonsense from them1 and crush intriguers and agents of sedition4 ,at the same time1 we should protect them1 direct them paternally1 and especially obtain influence over them by the constant example of our moral superiority4 ,above all3 no vain humanitarian illusions1 both in the interest of ,france and of the natives themselves4#aba ,many observers1 particularly colonial officials1 have been disappointed with the way ,orientals have used experimental first steps in self-government like ,advisory ,councils granted by the ,european rulers2 have used them1 that is1 to play politics and grasp for more power1 instead of devoting themselves to the duties assigned4 ,as ,lord ,kitchener said in his #aiac report on the state of ,egypt3 ,representative bodies can only be safely developed when it is shown that they are capable of performing adequately their present functions1 and that there is good hope that they could undertake still more important and arduous responsibilities4 ,if representative government1 in its simplest form1 is found to be unworkable1 there is little prospect of its becoming more useful when its scope is extended4 ,no government would be insane enough to consider that1 because an ,advisory ,council had proved itself unable to carry out its functions in a reasonable and satisfactory manner1 it should therefore be given a larger measure of power and control4#abb ,these nationalist agitations arise primarily among the native upper classes and ,western-educated lites1 however successful they may be in inflaming the ignorant masses1 who are often quite contented with the material benefits of enlightened ,european rule4 ,this point is well brought out by a leading ,american missionary in ,india1 with a lifetime of experience in that country1 who wrote some years ago3 ,the common people of ,india are1 now1 on the whole1 more contented with their government than they ever were before4 ,it is the classes1 rather1 who reveal the real spirit of discontent4444 ,if the common people were let alone by the agitators1 there would not be a more loyal people on earth than the people of ,india4 ,but the educated classes are certainly possessed of a new ambition1 politically1 and will no longer remain satisfied with inferior places of responsibility and lower posts of emolument4444 ,these people have little or no sympathy with the kind of government which is gradually being extended to them4 ,ultimately they do not ask for representative institutions1 which will give them a share in the government of their own land4 ,what they really seek is absolute control4 ,the ,brahmin 7only five per cent4 of the community7 believes that he has been divinely appointed to rule the country and would withhold the franchise from all others4 ,the ,sudra--the ,bourgeois of ,india--would no more think of giving the ballot to the fifty million ,pariahs of the land than he would give it to his dog4 ,it is the ,british power that has introduced1 and now maintains1 the equality of rights and privileges for all the people of the land4#abc ,the apprehension that ,india1 if liberated from ,british control1 might be exploited by a tyrannical ,brahmin oligarchy is shared not only by ,western observers but also by multitudes of low-caste ,hindus1 known collectively as the ,depressed ,classes4 ,these people oppose the ,indian nationalist agitation for fear of losing their present protection under the ,british ,raj4 ,they believe that ,india still needs generations of education and social reform before it is fit for home rule1 much less independence1 and they have organized into a powerful association the ,namasudra1 which is loyalist and anti-nationalist in character4 ,the ,namasudra view-point is well expressed by its leader1 ,doctor ,nair4 ,democracy as a catchword1 he says1 has already reached ,india and is widely used4 ,but the spirit of democracy still pauses east of ,suez1 and will find it hard to secure a footing in a country where caste is strongly intrenched4444 ,i do not want to lay the charge of oppressing the lower castes at the door of any particular caste4 ,all the higher castes take a hand in the game4 ,the ,brahmin oppresses all the non-,brahmin castes4 ,the high-caste non-,brahmin oppresses all the castes below him4444 ,we want a real democracy and not an oligarchy1 however camouflaged by many high-sounding words4 ,moreover1 if an oligarchy is established now1 it will be a perpetual oligarchy4 ,we further say that we should prefer a delayed democracy to an immediate oligarchy1 having more trust in a sympathetic ,british bureaucracy than in an unsympathetic oligarchy of the so-called high castes who have been oppressing us in the past and will do so again but for the ,british ,government4 ,our attitude is based1 not on 'faith' alone1 but on the instinct of self-preservation4#abd ,many ,mohammedans as well as ,hindus feel that ,india is not ripe for self-government1 and that the relaxing of ,british authority now1 or in the immediate future1 would be a grave disaster for ,india itself4 ,the ,moslem loyalists reprobate the nationalist agitation for the reasons expressed by one of their representative men1 ,s4 ,khuda ,bukhsh1 who remarks3 ,rightly or wrongly1 ,i have always kept aloof from modern ,indian politics1 and ,i have always held that we should devote more attention to social problems and intellectual advancement and less to politics1 which1 in our present condition1 is an unmixed evil4 ,i am firmly persuaded that we would consult our interest better by leaving politics severely alone4444 ,it is not a handful of men armed with the learning and culture of the ,west1 but it is the masses that must feel1 understand1 and take an intelligent interest in their own affairs4 ,the infinitesimal educated minority do not constitute the population of ,india4 ,it is the masses1 therefore1 that must be trained1 educated1 brought to the level of unassailable uprightness and devotion to their country4 ,this goal is yet far beyond measurable reach1 but until we attain it our hopes will be a chimera1 and our efforts futile and illusory4 ,even the educated minority have scarcely cast off the swaddling-clothes of political infancy1 or have risen above the illusions of power and the ambitions of fortune4 ,we have yet to learn austerity of principle and rectitude of conduct4 ,nor can we hope to raise the standard of private and public morality so long as we continue to subordinate the interest of our community and country to our own4#abe ,such pronouncements as these from considerable portions of the native population give pause even to those liberal ,english students of ,indian affairs who are convinced of the theoretical desirability of ,indian home rule4 ,as one of these1 ,edwyn ,bevan1 says3 ,when ,indian ,nationalists ask for freedom1 they mean autonomy2 they want to get rid of the foreigner4 ,our answer as given in the reforms is3#abf ',yes1 autonomy you shall have1 but on one condition--that you have democracy as well4 ,we will give up the control as soon as there is an ,indian people which can control its native rulers2 we will not give up the control to an ,indian oligarchy4' ,this is the root of the disagreement between those who say that ,india might have self-government immediately and those who say that ,india can only become capable of self-government with time4 ,for the former1 by 'self-government'1 mean autonomy1 and it is perfectly true that ,india might be made autonomous immediately4 ,if the foreign control were withdrawn to-day1 some sort of indigenous government or group of governments would1 no doubt1 after a period of confusion1 come into being in ,india4 ,but it would not be democratic government2 it would be the despotic rule of the stronger or more cunning4#abg ,the citations just quoted portray the standpoint of those critics1 both ,western and ,oriental1 who maintain that the peoples of the ,near and ,middle ,east are incapable of self-government in our sense1 at least to-day or in the immediate future4 ,let us now examine the views of those who hold a more optimistic attitude4 ,some observers stress strongly ,islam's liberal tendencies as a foundation on which to erect political structures in the modern sense4 ,vambry says1 ,islam is still the most democratic religion in the world1 a religion favouring both liberty and equality4 ,if there ever was a constitutional government1 it was that of the first ,caliphs4#abh ,a close ,english student of the ,near ,east declares3 ,tribal ,arabia has the only true form of democratic government1 and the ,arab tribesman goes armed to make sure that it continues democratic--as many a would-be despot knows to his cost4#abi ,regarding the ,young-,turk revolution of #aijh1 ,professor ,lybyer remarks3 ,turkey was not so unprepared for parliamentary institutions as might at first sight appear4 ,there lay hidden some precedent1 much preparation1 and a strong desire1 for parliamentary government4 ,both the religious and the secular institutions of ,turkey involve precedents for a parliament4 ,mohammed himself conferred with the wisest of his companions4 ,the ,ulema#acj have taken counsel together up to the present time4 ,the ,sacred ,law 7,sheriat7 is fundamentally democratic and opposed in essence to absolutism4 ,the habit of regarding it as fundamental law enables even the most ignorant of ,mohammedans to grasp the idea of a ,constitution4 ,he points out that the early sultans had their ,divan1 or assemblage of high officials1 meeting regularly to give the sultan information and advice1 while more recently there have been a ,council of ,state and a ,council of ,ministers4 ,also1 there were the parliaments of #ahgg and #ahgh4 ,abortive though these were and followed by ,hamidian absolutism1 they were legal precedents1 never forgotten4 ,from all this ,professor ,lybyer concludes3 ,the ,turkish ,parliament may therefore be regarded1 not as a complete innovation1 but as an enlargement and improvement of familiar institutions4#aca ,regarding ,persia1 the ,american ,w4 ,morgan ,shuster1 whom the ,persian ,revolutionary ,government called in to organize the country's finances1 and who was ousted in less than a year by ,russo-,british pressure1 expresses an optimistic regard for the political capacities of the ,persian people4 ,i believe1 he says1 that there has never been in the history of the world an instance where a people changed suddenly from an absolute monarchy to a constitutional or representative form of government and at once succeeded in displaying a high standard of political wisdom and knowledge of legislative procedure4 ,such a thing is inconceivable and not to be expected by any reasonable person4 ,the members of the first ,medjlis#acb were compelled to fight for their very existence from the day that the ,parliament was constituted4444 ,they had no time for serious legislative work1 and but little hope that any measures which they might enact would be put into effect4 ,the second and last ,medjlis1 practically all of whose members ,i knew personally1 was doubtless incompetent if it were to be judged by the standards of the ,british ,parliament or the ,american ,congress4 ,it would be strange indeed if an absolutely new and untried government in a land filled with the decay of ages should1 from the outset1 be able to conduct its business as well as governments with generations and even centuries of experience behind them4 ,we should make allowances for lack of technical knowledge2 for the important question1 of course1 is that the ,medjlis in the main represented the new and just ideals and aspirations of the ,persian people4 ,its members were men of more than average education2 some displayed remarkable talent1 character1 and courage4444 ,they responded enthusiastically to any patriotic suggestion which was put before them4 ,they themselves lacked any great knowledge of governmental finances1 but they realized the situation and were both willing and anxious to put their full confidence in any foreign advisers who showed themselves capable of resisting political intrigues and bribery and working for the welfare of the ,persian people4 ,no ,parliament can rightly be termed incompetent when it has the support of an entire people1 when it recognizes its own limitations1 and when its members are willing to undergo great sacrifices for their nation's dignity and sovereign rights4444 ,as to the ,persian people themselves1 it is difficult to generalize4 ,the great mass of the population is composed of peasants and tribesmen1 all densely ignorant4 ,on the other hand1 many thousands have been educated abroad1 or have travelled after completing their education at home4 ,they1 or at least certain elements among them which had had the support of the masses1 proved their capacity to assimilate ,western civilization and ideals4 ,they changed despotism into democracy in the face of untold obstacles4 ,opportunities were equalized to such a degree that any man of ability could occupy the highest official posts4 ,as a race they showed during the past five years an unparalleled eagerness for education4 ,hundreds of schools were established during the ,constitutional rgime4 ,a remarkable free press sprang up overnight1 and fearless writers came forward to denounce injustice and tyranny whether from within their country or without4 ,the ,persians were anxious to adopt wholesale the political1 ethical1 and business codes of the most modern and progressive nations4 ,they burned with that same spirit of ,asiatic unrest which pervades ,india1 which produced the ',young-,turk' movement1 and which has more recently manifested itself in the establishment of the ,chinese ,republic4#acc ,mr4 ,shuster concludes3 ,kipling has intimated that you cannot hustle the ,east4 ,this includes a warning and a reflection4 ,western men and ,western ideals can hustle the ,east1 provided the ,orientals realize that they are being carried along lines reasonably beneficial to themselves4 ,as a matter of fact1 the moral appeal and the appeal of race-pride and patriotism1 are as strong in the ,east as in the ,west1 though it does not lie so near the surface1 and naturally the ,oriental displays no great desire to be hustled when it is along lines beneficial only to the ,westerner4#acd ,indeed1 many ,western liberals believe that ,european rule1 however benevolent and efficient1 will never prepare the ,eastern peoples for true self-government2 and that the only way they will learn is by trying it out themselves4 ,this view-point is admirably stated by the well-known ,british publicist ,lionel ,curtis4 ,speaking of ,india1 ,mr4 ,curtis says that education and kindred benefits conferred by ,british rule will not1 of themselves1 avail to prepare ,indians for the task of responsible government4 ,on the contrary1 education will prove a danger and positive mischief1 unless accompanied by a definite instalment of political responsibility4 ,it is in the workshops of actual experience alone that electorates will acquire the art of self-government1 however highly educated they may be4 ,there must1 ,i urge1 be a devolution of definite powers on electorates4 ,the officers of ,government#ace must give every possible help and advice to the new authorities1 for which those authorities may ask4 ,they must act as their foster-mothers1 not as stepmothers4 ,but if the new authorities are to learn the art of responsible government1 they must be free from control from above4 ,not otherwise will they learn to feel themselves responsible to the electorate below4 ,nor will the electorates themselves learn that the remedy for their sufferings rests in their own hands4 ,suffering there will be1 and it is only by suffering1 self-inflicted and perhaps long endured1 that a people will learn the faculty of self-help1 and genuine electorates be brought into being4444 ,i am proud to think that ,england has conferred immeasurable good on ,india by creating order and showing ,indians what orderly government means4 ,but1 this having been done1 ,i do not believe the system can now be continued as it is1 without positive damage to the character of the people4 ,the burden of trusteeship must be transferred1 piece by piece1 from the shoulders of ,englishmen to those of ,indians in some sort able to bear it4 ,their strength and numbers must be developed4 ,but that can be done by the exercise of actual responsibility steadily increased as they can bear it4 ,it cannot be done by any system of school-teaching1 though such teaching is an essential concomitant of the process4 ,the goal now set by the recent announcement of the ,secretary of ,state#acf will only be reached through trouble4 ,yet troublous as the times before us may be1 we have at last reached that stage of our work in ,india which is truly consonant with our own traditions4 ,the task is one worthy of this epoch in our history1 if only because it calls for the effacement of ourselves4#acg ,mr4 ,curtis's concluding words foreshadow a process which is to-day actually going on1 not only in ,india but in other parts of the ,east as well4 ,the ,great ,war has so strengthened ,eastern nationalist aspirations and has so weakened ,european power and prestige that a widespread relaxing of ,europe's hold over the ,orient is taking place4 ,this process may make for good or for ill1 but it is apparently inevitable2 and a generation 7perhaps a decade7 hence may see most of the ,near and ,middle ,east autonomous or even independent4 ,whether the liberated peoples will misuse their opportunities and fall into despotism or anarchy1 or whether they succeed in establishing orderly1 progressive1 constitutional governments1 remains to be seen4 ,we have examined the factors1 pro and con4 ,let us leave the problem in the only way in which to-day it can scientifically be left--on a note of interrogation4 ,,footnotes3 #aaa ,t4 ,morison1 ,imperial ,rule in ,india1 p4 #dc 7,london1 #ahii74 #aab ,quoted from ,arminius ,vambry1 ,western ,culture in ,eastern ,lands1 pp4 #cje-cjf 7,london1 #aijf74 #aac ,a4 ,h4 ,lybyer1 ,the ,turkish ,parliament1 ,proceedings of the ,american ,political ,science ,association1 ,vol4 ,,vii41 p4 #fg 7#aiaj74 #aad ,vambry1 op4 cit41 p4 #cjg4 #aae ,a good account of these liberal movements during the nineteenth century is found in ,vambry1 ,freiheitliche ,bestrebungen im moslimischen ,asien1 ,deutsche ,rundschau1 ,october1 #ahic2 a shorter summary of ,vambry's views is found in his ,western ,culture in ,eastern ,lands1 especially chap4 v4 ,also1 see articles by ,lon ,cahun1 previously noted1 in ,lavisse et ,rambaud1 ,histoire ,gnrale1 ,vols4 ,,xi4 and ,,xii4 #aaf ,vambry1 supra1 p4 #ccb4 #aag ,vambry1 ,la ,turquie d'aujourd'hui et d'avant ,quarante ,ans1 p4 #bb 7,paris1 #ahih74 #aah ,w4 ,morgan ,shuster1 ,the ,strangling of ,persia1 p4 xxi 7,new ,york1 #aiab74 #aai ,cromer1 ,political and ,literary ,essays1 pp4 #be-bh4 #abj ,e4 ,j4 ,dillon1 ,persia not ,ripe for ,self-,government1 ,contemporary ,review1 ,april1 #aiaj4 #aba ,e4 ,mercier1 ,la ,question indigne1 p4 #bbj 7,paris1 #aija74 #abb ,egypt1 ,no4 #a 7#aiad71 p4 #f4 #abc ,rev4 ,j4 ,p4 ,jones1 ,the ,present ,situation in ,india1 ,journal of ,race ,development1 ,july1 #aiaj4 #abd ,dr4 ,t4 ,madavan ,nair1 ,caste and ,democracy1 ,edinburgh ,review1 ,october1 #aiah4 #abe ,bukhsh1 ,essays3 ,indian and ,islamic1 pp4 #bac-bad 7,london1 #aiab74 #abf ,i4 e41 the increase of self-government granted ,india by ,britain as a result of the ,montagu-,chelmsford ,report4 #abg ,e4 ,bevan1 ,the ,reforms in ,india1 ,the ,new ,europe1 ,january #bi1 #aibj4 #abh ,vambry1 ,la ,turquie d'aujourd'hui et d'avant ,quarante ,ans1 p4 #eh4 #abi ,g4 ,w4 ,bury1 ,pan-,islam1 pp4 #bjb-bjc 7,london1 #aiai74 #acj ,the assembly of religious notables4 #aca ,a4 ,h4 ,lybyer1 ,the ,turkish ,parliament1 ,proceedings of the ,american ,political ,science ,association1 ,vol4 ,,vii41 pp4 #ff-fg 7#aiaj74 #acb ,the name of the ,persian ,parliament4 #acc ,shuster1 ,the ,strangling of ,persia1 pp4 #bdj-bdf4 #acd ,ibid41 p4 #ccc4 #ace ,i4 e41 the ,british ,government of ,india4 #acf ,i4 e41 the ,montagu-,chelmsford reforms1 previously noted4 #acg ,lionel ,curtis1 ,letters to the ,people of ,india on ,responsible ,government1 pp4 #aei-afj 7,london1 #aiah74 ,,chapter ,v ,,nationalism ,the spirit of nationality is one of the great dynamics of modern times4 ,in ,europe1 where it first attained self-conscious maturity1 it radically altered the face of things during the nineteenth century1 so that that century is often called the ,age of ,nationalities4 ,but nationalism is not merely a ,european phenomenon4 ,it has spread to the remotest corners of the earth1 and is apparently still destined to effect momentous transformations4 ,given a phenomenon of so vital a character1 the question at once arises3 ,what is nationalism8 ,curiously enough1 this question has been endlessly debated4 ,many theories have been advanced1 seeking variously to identify nationalism with language1 culture1 race1 politics1 geography1 economics1 or religion4 ,now these1 and even other1 matters may be factors predisposing or contributing to the formation of national consciousness4 ,but1 in the last analysis1 nationalism is something over and above all its constituent elements1 which it works into a new and higher synthesis4 ,there is really nothing recondite or mysterious about nationalism1 despite all the arguments that have raged concerning its exact meaning4 ,as a matter of fact1 nationalism is a state of mind4 ,nationalism is a belief1 held by a fairly large number of individuals1 that they constitute a ,nationality2 it is a sense of belonging together as a ,nation4 ,this ,nation1 as visualized in the minds of its believers1 is a people or community associated together and organized under one government1 and dwelling together in a distinct territory4 ,when the nationalist ideal is realized1 we have what is known as a body-politic or ,state4 ,but we must not forget that this ,state is the material manifestation of an ideal1 which may have pre-existed for generations as a mere pious aspiration with no tangible attributes like state sovereignty or physical frontiers4 ,conversely1 we must remember that a state need not be a nation4 ,witness the defunct ,hapsburg ,empire of ,austria-,hungary1 an assemblage of discordant nationalities which flew to pieces under the shock of war4 ,the late war was a liberal education regarding nationalistic phenomena1 especially as applied to ,europe1 and most of the fallacies regarding nationality were vividly disclosed4 ,it is enough to cite ,switzerland--a country whose very existence flagrantly violates tests like language1 culture1 religion1 or geography1 and where nevertheless a lively sense of nationality emerged triumphant from the ordeal of ,armageddon4 ,so familiar are these matters to the general public that only one point need here be stressed3 the difference between nationality and race4 ,unfortunately the two terms have been used very loosely1 if not interchangeably1 and are still much confused in current thinking4 ,as a matter of fact1 they connote utterly different things4 ,nationality is a psychological concept or state of mind4 ,race is a physiological fact1 which may be accurately determined by scientific tests such as skull-measurement1 hair-formation1 and colour of eyes and skin4 ,in other words1 race is what people anthropologically really are2 nationality is what people politically think they are4 ,right here we encounter a most curious paradox4 ,there can be no question that1 as between race and nationality1 race is the more fundamental1 and1 in the long run1 the more important4 ,a man's innate capacity is obviously dependent upon his heredity1 and no matter how stimulating may be his environment1 the potential limits of his reaction to that environment are fixed at his birth4 ,nevertheless1 the fact remains that men pay scant attention to race1 while nationalism stirs them to their very souls4 ,the main reason for this seems to be because it is only about half a century since even savants realized the true nature and importance of race4 ,even after an idea is scientifically established1 it takes a long time for it to be genuinely accepted by the public1 and only after it has been thus accepted will it form the basis of practical conduct4 ,meanwhile the far older idea of nationality has permeated the popular consciousness1 and has thereby been able to produce tangible effects4 ,in fine1 our political life is still dominated by nationalism rather than race1 and practical politics are thus conditioned1 not by what men really are1 but by what they think they are4 ,the late war is a striking case in point4 ,that war is very generally regarded as having been one of race4 ,the idea certainly lent to the struggle much of its bitterness and uncompromising fury4 ,and yet1 from the genuine racial standpoint1 it was nothing of the kind4 ,ethnologists have proved conclusively that1 apart from certain palolithic survivals and a few historically recent ,asiatic intruders1 ,europe is inhabited by only three stocks3 7#a7 ,the blond1 long-headed ,nordic race1 7#b7 the medium-complexioned1 round-headed ,alpine race1 7#c7 the brunet1 long-headed ,mediterranean race4 ,these races are so dispersed and intermingled that every ,european nation is built of at least two of these stocks1 while most are compounded of all three4 ,strictly speaking1 therefore1 the ,european ,war was not a race-war at all1 but a domestic struggle between closely knit blood-relatives4 ,now all this was known to most well-educated ,europeans long before #aiad4 ,and yet it did not make the slightest difference4 ,the reason is that1 in spite of everything1 the vast majority of ,europeans still believe that they fit into an entirely different race-category4 ,they think they belong to the ,teutonic race1 the ,latin race1 the ,slav race1 or the ,anglo-,saxon race4 ,the fact that these so-called races simply do not exist but are really historical differentiations1 based on language and culture1 which cut sublimely across genuine race-lines--all that is quite beside the point4 ,your ,european may apprehend this intellectually1 but so long as it remains an intellectual novelty it will have no appreciable effect upon his conduct4 ,in his heart of hearts he will still believe himself a ,latin1 a ,teuton1 an ,anglo-,saxon1 or a ,slav4 ,for his blood-race he will not stir2 for his thought-race he will die4 ,for the glory of the dolichocephalic ,nordic or the brachycephalic ,alpine he will not prick his finger or wager a groat2 for the triumph of the ,teuton or the ,slav he will give his last farthing and shed his heart's blood4 ,in other words3 ,not what men really are1 but what they think they are4 ,at first it may seem strange that in contemporary ,europe thought-race should be all-powerful while blood-race is impotent4 ,yet there are very good reasons4 ,not only has modern ,europe's great dynamic been nationalism1 but also nationalism has seized upon the nascent racial concept and has perverted it to its own ends4 ,until quite recent times ,nationality was a distinctly intensive concept1 connoting approximate identity of culture1 language1 and historic past4 ,it was the logical product of a relatively narrow ,european outlook4 ,indeed1 it grew out of a still narrower outlook which had contented itself with the regional1 feudal1 and dialectic loyalties of the ,middle ,ages4 ,but the first half of the nineteenth century saw a still further widening of the ,european outlook to a continental or even to a world horizon4 ,at once the early concept of nationality ceased to satisfy4 ,nationalism became extensive4 ,it tended to embrace all those of kindred speech1 culture1 and historic tradition1 however distant such persons might be4 ,obviously a new terminology was required4 ,the keyword was presently discovered--,race4 ,hence we get that whole series of pseudo race phrases--,pan-,germanism1 ,pan-,slavism1 ,pan-,angleism1 ,pan-,latinism1 and the rest4 ,of course these are not racial at all4 ,they merely signify nationalism brought up to date4 ,but the ,european peoples1 with all the fervour of the nationalist faith that is in them1 believe and proclaim them to be racial4 ,hence1 so far as practical politics are concerned1 they are racial and will so continue while the nationalist dynamic endures4 ,this new development of nationalism 7the racial stage1 as we may call it7 was at first confined to the older centres of ,european civilization1 but with the spread of ,western ideas it presently appeared in the most unexpected quarters4 ,its advent in the ,balkans1 for example1 quickly engendered those fanatical propagandas1 ,pan-,hellenism1 ,pan-,serbism1 etc41 which turned that unhappy region first into a bear-garden and latterly into a witches' sabbath4 ,meanwhile1 by the closing decades of the nineteenth century1 the first phase of nationalism had patently passed into ,asia4 ,the ,young-,turk and ,young-,egyptian movements1 and the ,nationalist stirrings in regions so far remote from each other as ,algeria1 ,persia1 and ,india1 were unmistakable signs that ,asia was gripped by the initial throes of nationalist self-consciousness4 ,furthermore1 with the opening years of the twentieth century1 numerous symptoms proclaimed the fact that in ,asia1 as in the ,balkans1 the second or racial stage of nationalism had begun4 ,these years saw the definite emergence of far-flung ,pan- movements3 ,pan-,turanism1 ,pan-,arabism1 and 7most amazing of apparent paradoxes7 ,pan-,islamic ,nationalism4 ,i ,let us now trace the genesis and growth of nationalism in the ,near and ,middle ,east1 devoting the present chapter to nationalist developments in the ,moslem world with the exception of ,india4 ,india requires special treatment1 because there nationalist activity has been mainly the work of the non-,moslem ,hindu element4 ,indian nationalism has followed a course differing distinctly from that of ,islam1 and will therefore be considered in the following chapter4 ,before it received the ,western impact of the nineteenth century1 the ,islamic world was virtually devoid of self-conscious nationalism4 ,there were1 to be sure1 strong local and tribal loyalties4 ,there was intense dynastic sentiment like the ,turks' devotion to their ,padishas1 the ,ottoman sultans4 ,there was also marked pride of race such as the ,arabs' conviction that they were the ,chosen ,people4 ,here1 obviously1 were potential nationalist elements4 ,but these elements were as yet dispersed and unco-ordinated4 ,they were not yet fused into the new synthesis of self-conscious nationalism4 ,the only ,moslem people which could be said to possess anything like true nationalist feeling were the ,persians1 with their traditional devotion to their plateau-land of ,iran4 ,the various peoples of the ,moslem world had thus1 at most1 a rudimentary1 inchoate nationalist consciousness3 a dull1 inert unitary spirit2 capable of development1 perhaps1 but as yet scarcely perceptible even to outsiders and certainly unperceived by themselves4 ,furthermore1 ,islam itself was in many respects hostile to nationalism4 ,islam's insistence upon the brotherhood of all ,true ,believers1 and the ,islamic political ideal of the ,immt1 or universal theocratic democracy1 naturally tended to inhibit the formation of sovereign1 mutually exclusive national units2 just as the nascent nationalities of ,renaissance ,europe conflicted with the medival ideals of universal papacy and ,holy ,roman ,empire4 ,given such an unfavourable environment1 it is not strange to see ,moslem nationalist tendencies germinating obscurely and confusedly throughout the first half of the nineteenth century4 ,not until the second half of the century is there any clear conception of ,nationalism in the ,western sense4 ,there are distinct nationalist tendencies in the teachings of ,djemal-ed-,din el-,afghani 7who is philosophically the connecting link between ,pan-,islamism and ,moslem nationalism71 while the ,turkish reformers of the mid-nineteenth century were patently influenced by nationalism as they were by other ,western ideas4 ,it was1 in fact1 in ,turkey that a true nationalist consciousness first appeared4 ,working upon the ,turks' traditional devotion to their dynasty and pride in themselves as a ruling race lording it over many subject peoples both ,christian and ,moslem1 the ,turkish nationalist movement made rapid progress4 ,precisely as in ,europe1 the nationalist movement in ,turkey began with a revival of historic memories and a purification of the language4 ,half a century ago the ,ottoman ,turks knew almost nothing about their origins or their history4 ,the martial deeds of their ancestors and the stirring annals of their empire were remembered only in a vague1 legendary fashion1 the study of the national history being completely neglected4 ,religious discussions and details of the life of ,mohammed or the early days of ,islam interested men more than the spread of ,ottoman power in three continents4 ,the nationalist pioneers taught their fellow-countrymen their historic glories and awakened both pride of past and confidence in the future4 ,similarly with the ,turkish language2 the early nationalists found it virtually cleft in twain4 ,on the one hand was official ,turkish--a clumsy hotchpotch1 overloaded with flowers of rhetoric and cryptic expressions borrowed from ,arabic and ,persian4 ,this extraordinary jargon1 couched in a bombastic style1 was virtually unintelligible to the masses4 ,the masses1 on the other hand1 spoke popular ,turkish--a primitive1 limited idiom1 divided into many dialects and despised as uncouth and boorish by educated persons4 ,the nationalists changed all this4 ,appreciating the simple1 direct strength of the ,turkish tongue1 nationalist enthusiasts trained in ,european principles of grammar and philology proceeded to build up a real ,turkish language in the ,western sense4 ,so well did they succeed that in less than a generation they produced a simplified1 flexible ,turkish which was used effectively by both journalists and men of letters1 was intelligible to all classes1 and became the unquestioned vehicle for thought and the canon of style4#ach ,of course the chief stimulus to ,turkish nationalism was ,western political pressure4 ,the more men came to love their country and aspire to its future1 the more ,european assaults on ,turkish territorial integrity spurred them to defend their threatened independence4 ,the nationalist ideal was ,ottomanism--the welding of a real nation in which all citizens1 whatever their origin or creed1 should be ,ottomans1 speaking the ,turkish language and inspired by ,ottoman patriotism4 ,this1 however1 conflicted sharply with the rival 7and prior7 nationalisms of the ,christian peoples of the empire1 to say nothing of the new ,arab nationalism which was taking shape at just this same time4 ,turkish nationalism was also frowned on by ,sultan ,abdul ,hamid4 ,abdul ,hamid had an instinctive aversion to all nationalist movements1 both as limitations to his personal absolutism and as conflicting with that universal ,pan-,islamic ideal on which he based his policy4 ,accordingly1 even those ,turkish nationalists who proclaimed complete loyalty were suspect1 while those with liberal tendencies were persecuted and driven into exile4 ,the revolution of #aijh1 however1 brought nationalism to power4 ,whatever their differences on other matters1 the ,young-,turks were all ardent nationalists4 ,in fact1 the very ardour of their nationalism was a prime cause of their subsequent misfortunes4 ,with the rashness of fanatics the ,young-,turks tried to ,ottomanize the whole empire at once4 ,this enraged all the other nationalities1 alienated them from the revolution1 and gave the ,christian ,balkan states their opportunity to attack disorganized ,turkey in #aiab4 ,the truth of the matter was that ,turkish nationalism was evolving in a direction which could only mean heightened antagonism between the ,turkish element on the one side and the non-,turkish elements1 ,christian or ,moslem1 on the other4 ,turkish nationalism had1 in fact1 now reached the second or racial stage4 ,passing the bounds of the limited1 mainly territorial1 idea connoted by the term ,ottomanism1 it had embraced the far-flung and essentially racial concepts known as ,pan-,turkism and ,pan-,turanism4 ,these wider developments we shall consider later on in this chapter4 ,before so doing let us examine the beginnings of nationalism's first stage in other portions of the ,moslem world4 ,shortly after the ,ottoman ,turks showed signs of a nationalistic awakening1 kindred symptoms began to appear among the ,arabs4 ,as in all self-conscious nationalist movements1 it was largely a protest against some other group4 ,in the case of the ,arabs this protest was naturally directed against their ,turkish rulers4 ,we have already seen how ,desert ,arabia 7the ,nejd7 had always maintained its freedom1 and we have also seen how those ,arab lands like ,syria1 ,mesopotamia1 and the ,hedjaz which fell under ,turkish control nevertheless continued to feel an ineradicable repugnance at seeing themselves1 ,islam's ,chosen ,people1 beneath the yoke of a folk which1 in ,arab eyes1 were mere upstart barbarians4 ,despite a thousand years of ,turkish domination the two races never got on well together1 their racial temperaments being too incompatible for really cordial relations4 ,the profound temperamental incompatibility of ,turk and ,arab has been well summarized by a ,french writer4 ,says ,victor ,brard3 ,such are the two languages and such the two peoples3 in the latitude of ,rome and in the latitude of ,algiers1 the ,turk of ,adrianople1 like the ,turk of ,adalia1 remains a man of the north and of the extreme north2 in all climates the ,arab remains a man of the south and of the extreme south4 ,to the ,arab's suppleness1 mobility1 imagination1 artistic feeling1 democratic tendencies1 and anarchic individualism1 the ,turk opposes his slowness1 gravity1 sense of discipline and regularity1 innate militarism4 ,the ,turkish master has always felt disdain for the 'artistic canaille1' whose pose1 gesticulations1 and indiscipline1 shock him profoundly4 ,on their side1 the ,arabs see in the ,turk only a blockhead2 in his placidity and taciturnity only stupidity and ignorance2 in his respect for law only slavishness2 and in his love of material well-being only gross bestiality4 ,especially do the ,arabs jeer at the ,turk's artistic incapacity3 after having gone to school to the ,chinese1 ,persians1 ,arabs1 and ,greeks1 the ,turk remains1 in ,arab eyes1 just a big booby of barrack and barnyard4#aci ,add to this the fact that the ,arabs regard the ,turks as perverters of the ,islamic faith1 and we need not be surprised to find that ,turkey's ,arab subjects have ever displayed symptoms of rebellious unrest4 ,we have seen how the ,wahabi movement was specifically directed against ,turkish control of the holy cities1 and despite the ,wahabi defeat1 ,arab discontent lived on4 ,about #ahbj the ,german explorer ,burckhardt wrote of ,arabia3 ,when ,turkish power in the ,hedjaz declines1 the ,arabs will avenge themselves for their subjection4#adj ,and some twenty years later the ,shereef of ,mecca remarked to a ,french traveller3 ,we1 the direct descendants of the ,prophet1 have to bow our heads before miserable ,pashas1 most of them former ,christian slaves come to power by the most shameful courses4#ada ,throughout the nineteenth century every ,turkish defeat in ,europe was followed by a seditious outburst in its ,arab provinces4 ,down to the middle of the nineteenth century these seditious stirrings remained sporadic1 unco-ordinated outbursts of religious1 regional1 or tribal feeling1 with no genuinely ,nationalistic programme of action or ideal4 ,but in the later sixties a real nationalist agitation appeared4 ,its birthplace was ,syria4 ,that was what might have been expected1 since ,syria was the part of ,turkey's ,arab dominions most open to ,western influences4 ,this first ,arab nationalist movement1 however1 did not amount to much4 ,directed by a small group of noisy agitators devoid of real ability1 the ,turkish ,government suppressed it without much difficulty4 ,the disastrous ,russian war of #ahgg1 however1 blew the scattered embers into a fresh flame4 ,for several years ,turkey's ,arab provinces were in full ferment4 ,the nationalists spoke openly of throwing off the ,turkish yoke and welding the ,arab lands into a loose-knit confederation headed by a religious potentate1 probably the ,shereef of ,mecca4 ,this was obviously an adaptation of ,western nationalism to the traditional ,arab ideal of a theocratic democracy already realized in the ,meccan caliphate and the ,wahabi government of the ,nejd4 ,this second stirring of ,arab nationalism was likewise of short duration4 ,turkey was now ruled by ,sultan ,abdul ,hamid1 and ,abdul ,hamid's ,pan-,islamic policy looked toward good relations with his ,arab subjects4 ,accordingly1 ,arabs were welcomed at ,constantinople1 favours were heaped upon ,arab chiefs and notables1 while efforts were made to promote the contentment of the empire's ,arab populations4 ,at the same time the construction of strategic railways in ,syria and the ,hedjaz gave the ,turkish ,government a stronger grip over its ,arab provinces than ever before1 and conversely rendered successful ,arab revolts a far more remote possibility4 ,furthermore1 ,abdul ,hamid's ,pan-,islamic propaganda was specially directed toward awakening a sense of ,moslem solidarity between ,arabs and ,turks as against the ,christian ,west4 ,these efforts achieved a measure of success4 ,certainly1 every ,european aggression in the ,near ,east was an object-lesson to ,turks and ,arabs to forget1 or at least adjourn1 their domestic quarrels in face of the common foe4 ,despite the partial successes of ,abdul ,hamid's efforts1 a considerable section of his ,arab subjects remained unreconciled1 and toward the close of the nineteenth century a fresh stirring of ,arab nationalist discontent made its appearance4 ,relentlessly persecuted by the ,turkish authorities1 the ,arab nationalist agitators1 mostly ,syrians1 went into exile4 ,gathering in near-by ,egypt 7now of course under ,british governance7 and in western ,europe1 these exiles organized a revolutionary propaganda4 ,their formal organization dates from the year #ahie1 when the ,arabian ,national ,committee was created at ,paris4 ,for a decade their propaganda went on obscurely1 but evidently with effect1 for in #aije the ,arab provinces of ,hedjaz and ,yemen burst into armed insurrection4 ,this insurrection1 despite the best efforts of the ,turkish ,government1 was never wholly suppressed1 but dragged on year after year1 draining ,turkey of troops and treasure1 and contributing materially to her ,tripolitan and ,balkan disasters in #aiaa-ab4 ,the ,arab revolt of #aije focussed the world's attention upon ,the ,arab ,question1 and the nationalist exiles made the most of their opportunity by redoubling their propaganda1 not only at home but in the ,west as well4 ,europe was fully informed of ,young ,arabia's wrongs and aspirations1 notably by an extremely clever book by one of the nationalist leaders1 entitled ,the ,awakening of the ,arab ,nation1#adb which made a distinct sensation4 ,the aims of the ,arab nationalists are clearly set forth in the manifesto of the ,arabian ,national ,committee1 addressed to the ,great ,powers and published early in #aijf4 ,says this manifesto3 ,a great pacific change is on the eve of occurring in ,turkey4 ,the ,arabs1 whom the ,turks tyrannized over only by keeping them divided on insignificant questions of ritual and religion1 have become conscious of their national1 historic1 and racial homogeneity1 and wish to detach themselves from the worm-eaten ,ottoman trunk in order to form themselves into an independent state4 ,this new ,arab ,empire will extend to its natural frontiers1 from the valleys of the ,tigris and ,euphrates to the ,isthmus of ,suez1 and from the ,mediterranean to the ,sea of ,oman4 ,it will be governed by the constitutional and liberal monarchy of an ,arabian sultan4 ,the present ,vilayet of the ,hedjaz1 together with the territory of ,medina1 will form an independent empire whose sovereign will be at the same time the religious ,khalif of all the ,mohammedans4 ,thus1 one great difficulty1 the separation of the civil and the religious powers in ,islam1 will have been solved for the greater good of all4 ,to their fellow ,arabs the committee issued the following proclamation3 ,dear ,compatriots6 ,all of us know how vile and despicable the glorious and illustrious title of ,arabian ,citizen has become in the mouths of all foreigners1 especially ,turks4 ,all of us see to what depths of misery and ignorance we have fallen under the tyranny of these barbarians sprung from ,central ,asia4 ,our land1 the richest and finest on earth1 is to-day an arid waste4 ,when we were free1 we conquered the world in a hundred years2 we spread everywhere sciences1 arts1 and letters2 for centuries we led world-civilization4 ,but1 since the spawn of ,ertogrul#adc usurped the caliphate of ,islam1 they have brutalized us so as to exploit us to such a degree that we have become the poorest people on earth4 ,the proclamation then goes on to declare ,arabia's independence4#add ,of course ,young ,arabia did not then attain its independence4 ,the revolt was kept localized and ,turkey maintained its hold over most of its ,arab dominions4 ,nevertheless1 there was constant unrest4 ,during the remainder of ,abdul ,hamid's reign his ,arab provinces were in a sort of unstable equilibrium1 torn between the forces of nationalist sedition on the one hand and ,pan-,islamic1 anti-,european feeling on the other4 ,the ,young-,turk revolution of #aijh caused a new shift in the situation4 ,the ,arab provinces1 like the other parts of the empire1 rejoiced in the downfall of despotism and hoped great things for the future4 ,in the ,turkish ,parliament the ,arab provinces were well represented1 and their deputies asked for a measure of federal autonomy4 ,this the ,young-,turks1 bent upon ,ottomanization1 curtly refused4 ,the result was profound disillusionment in the ,arab provinces and a revival of separatist agitation4 ,it is interesting to note that the new independence agitation had a much more ambitious programme than that of a few years before4 ,the ,arab nationalists of ,turkey were by this time definitely linking up with the nationalists of ,egypt and ,french ,north ,africa--,arabic-speaking lands where the populations were at least partly ,arab in blood4 ,arab nationalism was beginning to speak aloud what it had previously whispered--the programme of a great ,pan-,arab empire stretching right across ,north ,africa and southern ,asia from the ,atlantic to the ,indian ,oceans4 ,thus1 ,arab nationalism1 like ,turkish nationalism1 was evolving into the second1 or racial1 stage4 ,deferring discussion of this broader development1 let us follow a trifle further the course of the more restricted ,arab nationalism within the ,turkish ,empire4 ,despite the ,pan-,islamic sentiment evoked by the ,european aggressions of #aiaa-ab1 nationalist feeling was continually aroused by the ,ottomanizing measures of the ,young-,turk government1 and the independence agitation was presently in full swing once more4 ,in #aiac an ,arabian nationalist congress convened in ,paris and revolutionary propaganda was inaugurated on an increased scale4 ,when the ,great ,war broke out next year1 ,turkey's ,arab provinces were seething with seditious unrest4#ade ,the ,turkish authorities took stern measures against possible trouble1 imprisoning and executing all prominent nationalists upon whom they could lay their hands1 while the proclamation of the ,holy ,war rallied a certain portion of ,arab public opinion to the ,turkish side1 especially since the conquest of ,egypt was a possibility4 ,but as the war dragged on the forces of discontent once more raised their heads4 ,in #aiaf the revolt of the ,shereef of ,mecca gave the signal for the downfall of ,turkish rule4 ,this revolt1 liberally backed by ,england1 gained the active or passive support of the ,arab elements throughout the ,turkish ,empire4 ,inspired by ,allied promises of national independence of a most alluring character1 the ,arabs fought strenuously against the ,turks and were a prime factor in the dbcle of ,ottoman military power in the autumn of #aiah4adf ,before discussing the momentous events which have occurred in the ,arab provinces of the former ,ottoman ,empire since #aiah1 let us consider nationalist developments in the ,arabized regions of ,north ,africa lying to the westward4 ,of these developments the most important is that of ,egypt4 ,the mass of the ,egyptian people is to-day1 as in ,pharaoh's time1 of the old ,nilotic stock4 ,a slow1 self-contained peasant folk1 the ,egyptian fellaheen have submitted passively to a long series of conquerors1 albeit this passivity has been occasionally broken by outbursts of volcanic fury presently dying away into passivity once more4 ,above the ,nilotic masses stands a relatively small upper class descended chiefly from ,egypt's more recent ,asiatic conquerors--,arabs1 ,kurds1 ,circassians1 ,albanians1 and ,turks4 ,in addition to this upper class1 which until the ,english occupation monopolized all political power1 there are large ,european colonies with extraterritorial rights1 while a further complication is added by the persistence of a considerable native ,christian element1 the ,copts1 who refused to turn ,mohammedan at the ,arab conquest and who to-day number fully one-tenth of the total population4 ,with such a medley of races1 creeds1 and cultures1 and with so prolonged a tradition of foreign domination1 ,egypt might seem a most unlikely milieu for the growth of nationalism4 ,on the other hand1 ,egypt has been more exposed to ,western influences than any other part of the ,near ,east4 ,bonaparte's invasion at the close of the eighteenth century profoundly affected ,egyptian life1 and though the ,french were soon expelled1 ,european influences continued to permeate the valley of the ,nile4 ,mehemet ,ali1 the able ,albanian adventurer who made himself master of ,egypt after the downfall of ,french rule1 realized the superiority of ,european methods and fostered a process of ,europeanization which1 however superficial1 resulted in a wide dissemination of ,western ideas4 ,mehemet ,ali's policy was continued by his successors4 ,that magnificent spendthrift ,khedive ,ismail1 whose reckless contraction of ,european loans was the primary cause of ,european intervention1 prided himself on his ,europeanism and surrounded himself with ,europeans4 ,indeed1 the first stirrings of ,egyptian nationalism took the form of a protest against the noxious1 parasitical ,europeanism of ,khedive ,ismail and his courtiers4 ,sober-minded ,egyptians became increasingly alarmed at the way ,ismail was mortgaging ,egypt's independence by huge ,european loans and sucking its life-blood by merciless taxation4 ,inspired consciously or unconsciously by the ,western concepts of nation and patriotism1 these men desired to stay ,ismail's destructive course and to safeguard ,egypt's future4 ,in fact1 their efforts were directed not merely against the motley crew of ,european adventurers and concessionaires who were luring the ,khedive into fresh extravagances1 but also against the complaisant ,turkish and ,circassian pashas1 and the ,armenian and ,syrian usurers1 who were the instruments of ,ismail's will4 ,the nascent movement was thus basically a patriotic protest against all those1 both foreigners and native-born1 who were endangering the country4 ,this showed clearly in the motto adopted by the agitators--the hitherto unheard-of slogan3 ,egypt for the ,egyptians6 ,into this incipient ferment there was presently injected the dynamic personality of ,djemal-ed-,din4 ,nowhere else did this extraordinary man exert so profound and lasting an influence as in ,egypt4 ,it is not too much to say that he is the father of every shade of ,egyptian nationalism4 ,he influenced not merely violent agitators like ,arabi ,pasha but also conservative reformers like ,sheikh ,mohammed ,abdou1 who realized ,egypt's weakness and were content to labour patiently by evolutionary methods for distant goals4 ,for the moment the apostles of violent action had the stage4 ,in #ahhb a revolutionary agitation broke out headed by ,arabi ,pasha1 an army officer1 who1 significantly enough1 was of fellah origin1 the first man of ,nilotic stock to sway ,egypt's destinies in modern times4 ,raising their slogan1 ,egypt for the ,egyptians1 the revolutionists sought to drive all foreigners1 both ,europeans and ,asiatics1 from the country4 ,their attempt was of course foredoomed to failure4 ,a massacre of ,europeans in the port-city of ,alexandria at once precipitated ,european intervention4 ,an ,english army crushed the revolutionists at the battle of ,tel-el-,kebir1 and after this one battle1 disorganized1 bankrupt ,egypt submitted to ,british rule1 personified by ,evelyn ,baring1 ,lord ,cromer4 ,the khedivial dynasty was1 to be sure1 retained1 and the native forms of government respected1 but all real power centred in the hands of the ,british ,financial ,adviser1 the representative of ,britain's imperial will4 ,for twenty-five years ,lord ,cromer ruled ,egypt1 and the record of this able proconsul will place him for ever in the front rank of the world's great administrators4 ,his strong hand drew ,egypt from hopeless bankruptcy into abounding prosperity4 ,material well-being1 however1 did not kill ,egyptian nationalism4 ,scattered to the winds before the ,british bayonet charges1 the seeds of unrest slowly germinated beneath the fertile ,nilotic soil4 ,almost imperceptible at first under the numbing shock of ,tel-el-,kebir1 nationalist sentiment grew steadily as the years wore on1 and by the closing decade of the nineteenth century it had become distinctly perceptible to keen-sighted ,european observers4 ,passing through ,egypt in #ahie1 the well-known ,african explorer ,schweinfurth was struck with the psychological change which had occurred since his earlier visits to the valley of the ,nile4 ,a true national self-consciousness is slowly beginning to awaken1 he wrote4 ,the ,egyptians are still very far from being a true ,nationality1 but the beginning has been made4#adg ,with the opening years of the twentieth century what had previously been visible only to discerning eyes burst into sudden and startling bloom4 ,this resurgent ,egyptian nationalism had1 to be sure1 its moderate wing1 represented by conservative-minded men like ,mohammed ,abdou1 ,rector of ,el ,azhar ,university and respected friend of ,lord ,cromer1 who sought to teach his fellow-countrymen that the surest road to freedom was along the path of enlightenment and progress4 ,in the main1 however1 the movement was an impatient and violent protest against ,british rule and an intransigeant demand for immediate independence4 ,perhaps the most significant point was that virtually all ,egyptians were nationalists at heart1 conservatives as well as radicals declining to consider ,egypt as a permanent part of the ,british ,empire4 ,the nationalists had a sound legal basis for this attitude1 owing to the fact that ,british rule rested upon insecure diplomatic foundations4 ,england had intervened in ,egypt as a self-constituted ,mandatory of ,european financial interests4 ,its action had roused much opposition in ,europe1 particularly in ,france1 and to allay this opposition the ,british ,government had repeatedly announced that its occupation of ,egypt was of a temporary nature4 ,in fact1 ,egyptian discontent was deliberately fanned by ,france right down to the conclusion of the ,entente ,cordiale in #aijd4 ,this ,french sympathy for ,egyptian aspirations was of capital importance in the development of the nationalist movement4 ,in ,egypt1 ,france's cultural prestige was predominant4 ,in ,egyptian eyes a ,european education was synonymous with a ,french education1 so the rising generation inevitably sat under ,french teachers1 either in ,egypt or in ,france1 and these ,french preceptors1 being usually ,anglophobes1 rarely lost an opportunity for instilling dislike of ,england and aversion to ,british rule4 ,the radical nationalists were headed by a young man named ,mustapha ,kamel4 ,he was a very prince of agitators2 ardent1 magnetic1 enthusiastic1 and possessed of a fiery eloquence which fairly swept away both his hearers and his readers4 ,an indefatigable propagandist1 he edited a whole chain of newspapers and periodicals1 and as fast as one organ was suppressed by the ,british authorities he started another4 ,his uncompromising nationalism may be gauged from the following examples from his writings4 ,taking for his motto the phrase ,the ,egyptians for ,egypt2 ,egypt for the ,egyptians1 he wrote as early as #ahif3 ,egyptian civilization cannot endure in the future unless it is founded by the people itself2 unless the fellah1 the merchant1 the teacher1 the pupil1 in fine1 every single ,egyptian1 knows that man has sacred1 intangible rights2 that he is not created to be a tool1 but to lead an intelligent and worthy life2 that love of country is the most beautiful sentiment which can ennoble a soul2 and that a nation without independence is a nation without existence6 ,it is by patriotism that backward peoples come quickly to civilization1 to greatness1 and to power4 ,it is patriotism that forms the blood which courses in the veins of virile nations1 and it is patriotism that gives life to every living being4 ,the ,english1 of course1 were bitterly denounced4 ,here is a typical editorial from his organ ,el ,lewa3 ,we are the despoiled4 ,the ,english are the despoilers4 ,we demand a sacred right4 ,the ,english are the usurpers of that right4 ,this is why we are sure of success sooner or later4 ,when one is in the right1 it is only a question of time4 ,despite his ardent aspirations1 ,mustapha ,kamel had a sense of realities1 and recognized that1 for the moment at least1 ,british power could not be forcibly overthrown4 ,he did not1 therefore1 attempt any open violence which he knew would merely ruin himself and his followers4 ,early in #aijh he died1 only thirty-four years of age4 ,his mantle fell upon his leading disciple1 ,mohammed ,farid ,bey4 ,this man1 who was not of equal calibre1 tried to make up for his deficiency in true eloquence by the violence of his invective4 ,the difference between the two leaders can be gauged by the editorial columns of ,el ,lewa4 ,here is an editorial of ,september1 #aiji3 ,this land was polluted by the ,english1 putrefied with their atrocities as they suppressed our beloved dustour constitution1 tied our tongues1 burned our people alive and hanged our innocent relatives1 and perpetrated other horrors at which the heavens are about to tremble1 the earth to split1 and the mountains to fall down4 ,let us take a new step4 ,let our lives be cheap while we seek our independence4 ,death is far better than life for you if you remain in your present condition4 ,mohammed ,farid's fanatical impatience of all opposition led him into tactical blunders like alienating the native ,christian ,copts1 whom ,mustapha ,kamel had been careful to conciliate4 ,the following diatribe 7which1 by the way1 reveals a grotesque jumble of ,western and ,eastern ideas7 is an answer to ,coptic protests at the increasing violence of his propaganda3 ,the ,copts should be kicked to death4 ,they still have faces and bodies similar to those of demons and monkeys1 which is a proof that they hide poisonous spirits within their souls4 ,the fact that they exist in the world confirms ,darwin's theory that human beings are generated from monkeys4 ,you sons of adulterous women6 ,you descendants of the bearers of trays6 ,you tails of camels with your monkey faces6 ,you bones of bodies6 ,in this more violent attitude the nationalists were encouraged by several reasons4 ,for one thing1 ,lord ,cromer had laid down his proconsulate in #aijg and had been succeeded by ,sir ,eldon ,gorst4 ,the new ruler represented the ideas of ,british ,liberalism1 now in power1 which wished to appease ,egyptian unrest by conciliation instead of by ,lord ,cromer's autocratic indifference4 ,in the second place1 the ,young-,turk revolution of #aijh gave an enormous impetus to the ,egyptian cry for constitutional self-government4 ,lastly1 ,france's growing intimacy with ,england dashed the nationalist's cherished hope that ,britain would be forced by outside pressure to redeem her diplomatic pledges and evacuate the ,nile valley1 thus driving the nationalists to rely more on their own exertions4 ,given this nationalist temper1 conciliatory attempt was foredoomed to failure4 ,for1 however conciliatory ,sir ,eldon ,gorst might be in details1 he could not promise the one thing which the nationalists supremely desired--independence4 ,this demand ,england refused even to consider4 ,practically all ,englishmen had become convinced that ,egypt with the ,suez ,canal was a vital link between the eastern and western halves of the ,british ,empire1 and that permanent control of ,egypt was thus an absolute necessity4 ,there was thus a fundamental deadlock between ,british imperial and ,egyptian national convictions4 ,accordingly1 the ,british ,liberal policy of conciliation proved a fiasco4 ,even ,sir ,eldon ,gorst admitted in his official reports that concessions were simply regarded as signs of weakness4 ,before long seditious agitation and attendant violence grew to such proportions that the ,british ,government became convinced that only strong measures would save the situation4 ,therefore1 in #aiaa1 ,sir ,eldon ,gorst was replaced by ,lord ,kitchener--a patent warning to the nationalists that sedition would be given short shrift by the iron hand which had crushed the ,khalifa and his ,dervish hordes at ,omdurman4 ,kitchener arrived in ,egypt with the express mandate to restore order1 and this he did with thoroughness and exactitude4 ,the ,egyptians were told plainly that ,england neither intended to evacuate the ,nile valley nor considered its inhabitants fit for self-government within any discernible future4 ,they were admonished to turn their thoughts from politics1 at which they were so bad1 to agriculture1 at which they were so good4 ,as for seditious propaganda1 new legislation enabled ,lord ,kitchener to deal with it in summary fashion4 ,practically all the nationalist papers were suppressed1 while the nationalist leaders were imprisoned1 interned1 or exiled4 ,in fact1 the ,british ,government did its best to distract attention everywhere from ,egypt1 the ,british press co-operating loyally by labelling the subject taboo4 ,the upshot was that ,egypt became quieter than it had been for a generation4 ,however1 it was only a surface calm4 ,driven underground1 ,egyptian unrest even attained new virulence which alarmed close observers4 ,in #aiac the well-known ,english publicist ,sidney ,low1 after a careful investigation of the ,egyptian situation1 wrote3 ,we are not popular in ,egypt4 ,feared we may be by some2 respected ,i doubt not by many others2 but really liked1 ,i am sure1 by very few4#adh ,still more outspoken was an article significantly entitled ,the ,darkness over ,egypt1 which appeared on the eve of the ,great ,war4#adi ,its publication in a semi-scientific periodical for specialists in ,oriental problems rendered it worthy of serious attention4 ,the long-continued absence of practically all discussion or even mention of ,egyptian internal affairs from the ,british press1 asserted this article1 is not indicative of a healthy condition4 ,in ,egypt the superficial quiet is that of suppressed discontent--of a sullen1 hopeless mistrust toward the ,government of the ,occupation4 ,certain recent happenings have strengthened in ,egyptian minds the conviction that the ,government is making preparations for the complete annexation of the country4444 ,we are not concerned to question how far the motives attributed to the ,government are true4 ,the essential fact is that the ,government of the ,occupation has not yet succeeded in endearing1 or even recommending1 itself to the ,egyptian people1 but is1 on the contrary1 an object of suspicion1 an occasion of enmity4 ,the article expresses grave doubt whether ,lord ,kitchener's repressive measures have done more than drive discontent underground1 and shows how strong is the ,nationalist feeling in ,egypt to-day in spite of the determined attempts to stamp out all freedom of political opinion4 ,as might be expected1 this wholesale muzzling of the press has not only reduced the ,mohammedan majority to a condition of internal ferment1 but has seriously alienated the hitherto loyal ,copts4 ,it may be that the ,government can discover no better means of recommending itself to the confidence and good-will of the ,egyptian people2 it may be that only by the instant repression of every outward sign of discontent can it feel secure in its occupation2 but if such be the case1 it is an admission of extreme weakness1 or recognized insecurity of tenure4 ,the article concludes with the following warning as to the problem's wider implications3 ,egypt1 though a subject of profound indifference to the ,english voter1 is being feverishly watched by the ,indian ,mohammedans1 and by the whole of our ,west and ,central ,african subjects--themselves strongly ,moslem in sympathy1 and at the present time jealously suspicious of the political activities of ,christian ,imperialism4 ,such being the state of ,egyptian feeling in #aiad1 the outbreak of the ,great ,war was bound to produce intensified unrest4 ,england's position in ,egypt was1 in truth1 very difficult4 ,although in fact ,england exercised complete control1 in law ,egypt was still a dependency of the ,ottoman ,empire1 ,britain merely exercising a temporary occupation4 ,now it soon became evident that ,turkey was going to join ,england's enemies1 the ,teutonic empires1 while it was equally evident that the ,egyptians sympathized with the ,turks1 even the ,khedive ,abbas ,hilmi making no secret of his pro-,turkish views4 ,during the first months of the ,european ,war1 while ,turkey was still nominally neutral1 the ,egyptian native press1 despite the ,british censorship1 was full of veiled seditious statements1 while the unruly attitude of the ,egyptian populace and the stirrings among the ,egyptian native regiments left no doubt as to how the wind was blowing4 ,england was seriously alarmed4 ,accordingly1 when ,turkey entered the war in ,november1 #aiad1 ,england took the decisive plunge1 deposed ,abbas ,hilmi1 nominated his cousin ,hussein ,kamel ,sultan1 and declared ,egypt a protectorate of the ,british ,empire4 ,this stung the nationalists to fury4 ,anything like formal rebellion was rendered impossible by the heavy masses of ,british and colonial troops which had been poured into the country4 ,nevertheless1 there was a good deal of sporadic violence1 suppressed only by a stern application of the ,state of ,siege4 ,a ,french observer thus vividly describes these critical days3 ,the ,jehadd is rousing the anti-,christian fanaticism which always stirs in the soul of every good ,moslem4 ,since the end of ,october one could read in the eyes of the low-class ,mohammedan natives their hope--the massacre of the ,christians4 ,in the streets of ,cairo they stared insolently at the ,european passers-by4 ,some even danced for joy on learning that the ,sultan had declared the ,holy ,war4 ,denounced to the police for this1 they were incontinently bastinadoed at the nearest police-station4 ,the same state of mind reigned at ,el ,azhar1 and ,i am told that ,europeans who visit the celebrated ,mohammedan ,university have their ears filled with the strongest epithets of the ,arab repertory--that best-furnished language in the world4#aej ,the nationalist exiles vehemently expressed abroad what their fellows could not say at home4 ,their leader1 ,mohammed ,farid ,bey1 issued from ,geneva an official protest against the new illegal rgime proclaimed by ,england the #ahth of last ,december4 ,england1 which pretends to make war on ,germany to defend ,belgium1 ought not to trample underfoot the rights of ,egypt1 nor consider the treaties relative thereto as 'scraps of paper4'#aea ,these exiles threw themselves vehemently into the arms of ,germany1 as may be gauged from the following remarks of ,abd-el-,malek ,hamsa1 secretary of the nationalist party1 in a ,german periodical3 ,there is hardly an ,egyptian who does not pray that ,england may be beaten and her ,empire fall in ruins4 ,during the early days of the war1 while ,i was still in ,egypt1 ,i was a witness of this popular feeling4 ,in cities and villages1 from sage to simple peasant1 all are convinced in the ,kaiser's love for ,islam and friendship for its caliph1 and they are hoping and praying for ,germany's victory4#aeb ,of course1 in face of the overwhelming ,british garrison in ,egypt1 such pronouncements were as idle as the wind4 ,the hoped-for ,turkish attacks were beaten back from the ,suez ,canal1 the ,state of ,siege functioned with stern efficiency1 and ,egypt1 flooded with ,british troops1 lapsed into sullen silence1 not to be broken until the end of the war4 ,turning back at this point to consider nationalist developments in the rest of ,north ,africa1 we do not1 as in ,egypt1 find a well-marked territorial patriotism4 ,anti-,european hatred there is in plenty1 but such patriotic sentiments as exist belong rather to those more diffused types of nationalist feeling known as ,pan-,arabism and ,pan-,islamic ,nationalism1 which we shall presently discuss4 ,the basic reason for this ,north ,african lack of national feeling1 in its restricted sense1 is that nowhere outside of ,egypt is there a land which ever has been1 or which shows distinct signs of becoming1 a true nation4 ,the mass of the populations inhabiting the vast band of territory between the ,mediterranean ,sea and the ,sahara desert are ,berbers--an ancient stock1 racially ,european rather than ,asiatic or negroid1 and closely akin to the ,latin peoples across the ,mediterranean4 ,the ,berbers remind one of the ,balkan ,albanians3 they are extremely tenacious of their language and customs1 and they have an instinctive racial feeling2 but they are inveterate particularists1 having always been split up into many tribes1 sometimes combining into partial confederations but never developing true national patriotism4#aec ,alongside the ,berbers we find everywhere a varying proportion of ,arabs4 ,the ,arabs have colonized ,north ,africa ever since the ,moslem conquest twelve centuries ago4 ,they converted the ,berbers to ,islam and ,arab culture1 but they never made ,north ,africa part of the ,arab world as they did ,syria and ,mesopotamia1 and in somewhat lesser degree ,egypt4 ,the two races have never really fused4 ,despite more than a thousand years of ,arab tutelage1 the ,berbers' manner of life remains distinct4 ,they have largely kept their language1 and there has been comparatively little intermarriage4 ,pure-blooded ,arabs abound1 often in large tribal groups1 but they are still1 in a way1 foreigners4#aed ,with such elements of discord1 ,north ,africa's political life has always been troubled4 ,the most stable region has been ,morocco1 though even there the sultan's authority has never really extended to the mountain tribes4 ,as for the so-called ,barbary ,states 7,algiers1 ,tunis1 and ,tripoli71 they were little more than port-cities along the coast1 the hinterland enjoying practically complete tribal independence4 ,over this confused turmoil spread the tide of ,french conquest1 beginning with ,algiers in #ahcj and ending with ,morocco to-day4#aee ,france brought peace1 order1 and material prosperity1 but here1 as in other ,eastern lands1 these very benefits of ,european tutelage created a new sort of unity among the natives in their common dislike of the ,european conqueror and their common aspiration toward independence4 ,accordingly1 the past generation has witnessed the appearance of ,young ,algerian and ,young ,tunisian political groups1 led by ,french-educated men who have imbibed ,western ideas of self-government and liberty4#aef ,however1 as we have already remarked1 their goal is not so much the erection of distinct ,algerian and ,tunisian ,nations as it is creation of a larger ,north ,african1 perhaps ,pan-,islamic1 unity4 ,it must not be forgotten that they are in close touch with the ,sennussi and kindred influences which we have already examined in the chapter on ,pan-,islamism4 ,so much for first-stage nationalist developments in the ,arab or ,arabized lands4 ,there is1 however1 one more important centre of nationalist sentiment in the ,moslem world to be considered--,persia4 ,persia is1 in fact1 the land where a genuine nationalist movement would have been most logically expected1 because the ,persians have for ages possessed a stronger feeling of country than any other ,near ,eastern people4 ,in the nineteenth century ,persia had sunk into such deep decrepitude that its patent weakness excited the imperialistic appetites of ,czarist ,russia and1 in somewhat lesser degree1 of ,england4 ,persia's decadence and external perils were1 however1 appreciated by thinking ,persians1 and a series of reformist agitations took place1 beginning with the religious movement of the ,bab early in the nineteenth century and culminating with the revolution of #aijh4aeg ,that revolution was largely precipitated by the ,anglo-,russian ,agreement of #aijg by which ,england and ,russia virtually partitioned ,persia2 the country being divided into a ,russian sphere of influence in the north and a ,british sphere of influence in the south1 with a neutral zone between4 ,the revolution was thus in great part a desperate attempt of the ,persian patriots to set their house in order and avert1 at the eleventh hour1 the shadow of ,european domination which was creeping over the land4 ,but the revolution was not merely a protest against ,european aggression4 ,it was also aimed at the alien ,khadjar dynasty which had so long misruled ,persia4 ,these ,khadjar sovereigns were of ,turkoman origin4 ,they had never become really ,persianized1 as shown by the fact that the intimate court language was ,turki1 not ,persian4 ,they occupied a position somewhat analogous to that of the ,manchus before the ,chinese revolution4 ,the ,persian revolution was thus basically an ,iranian patriotic outburst against all alien influences1 whether from ,east or ,west4 ,we have already seen how this patriotic movement was crushed by the forcible intervention of ,european imperialism4#aeh ,by #aiab ,russia and ,england were in full control of the situation1 the patriots were proscribed and persecuted1 and ,persia sank into despairing silence4 ,as a ,british writer then remarked3 ,for such broken spirit and shattered hopes1 as for the 'anarchy' now existing in ,persia1 ,russia and ,great ,britain are directly responsible1 and if there be a ,reckoning1 will one day be held to account4 ,it is idle to talk of any improvement in the situation1 when the only ,government in ,persia consists of a ,cabinet which does not command the confidence of the people1 terrorized by ,russia1 financially starved by both ,russia and ,england1 allowed only miserable doles of money on usurious terms1 and forbidden to employ honest and efficient foreign experts like ,mr4 ,shuster2 when the ,king is a boy1 the ,regent an absentee1 the ,parliament permanently suspended1 and the best1 bravest1 and most honest patriots either killed or driven into exile1 while the wolf-pack of financiers1 concession-hunters and land-grabbers presses ever harder on the exhausted victim1 whose struggles grow fainter and fainter4 ,little less than a miracle can now save ,persia4#aei ,so ends our survey of the main first-stage nationalist movements in the ,moslem world4 ,we should of course remember that a nationalist movement was developing concurrently in ,india1 albeit following an eccentric orbit of its own4 ,we should also remember that1 in addition to the main movements just discussed1 there were minor nationalist stirrings among other ,moslem peoples such as the ,russian ,tartars1 the ,chinese ,mohammedans1 and even the ,javanese of the ,dutch ,indies4 ,lastly1 we should remember that these nationalist movements were more or less interwoven with the non-national movement of ,pan-,islamism1 and with those second-stage1 racial nationalist movements which we shall now consider4 ,,ii ,earlier in this chapter we have already remarked that the opening years of the twentieth century witnessed the appearance in ,asia of nationalism's second or racial stage1 especially among the ,turkish and ,arab peoples4 ,this wider stage of nationalism has attained its highest development among the ,turks2 where1 indeed1 it has gone through two distinct phases1 describable respectively by the terms ,pan-,turkism and ,pan-,turanism4 ,we have described the primary phase of ,turkish nationalism in its restricted ,ottoman sense down to the close of the ,balkan wars of #aiab-ac4 ,it is at that time that the secondary or racial aspects of ,turkish nationalism first come prominently to the fore4 ,by this time the ,ottoman ,turks had begun to realize that they did not stand alone in the world2 that they were1 in fact1 the westernmost branch of a vast band of peoples extending right across eastern ,europe and ,asia1 from the ,baltic to the ,pacific and from the ,mediterranean to the ,arctic ,ocean1 to whom ethnologists have assigned the name of ,uralo-,altaic race1 but who are more generally termed ,turanians4 ,this group embraces the most widely scattered folk--the ,ottoman ,turks of ,constantinople and ,anatolia1 the ,turkomans of ,persia and ,central ,asia1 the ,tartars of ,south ,russia and ,transcaucasia1 the ,magyars of ,hungary1 the ,finns of ,finland and the ,baltic provinces1 the aboriginal tribes of ,siberia1 and even the distant ,mongols and ,manchus4 ,diverse though they are in culture1 tradition1 and even personal appearance1 these people nevertheless possess certain well-marked traits in common4 ,their languages are all similar1 while their physical and mental make-up displays undoubted affinities4 ,they are all noted for great physical vitality combined with unusual toughness of nerve-fibre4 ,though somewhat deficient in imagination and creative artistic sense1 they are richly endowed with patience1 tenacity1 and dogged energy4 ,above all1 they have usually displayed extraordinary military capacity1 together with a no less remarkable aptitude for the masterful handling of subject peoples4 ,the ,turanians have certainly been the greatest conquerors that the world has ever seen4 ,attila and his ,huns1 ,arpad and his ,magyars1 ,isperich and his ,bulgars1 ,alp ,arslan and his ,seljuks1 ,ertogrul and his ,ottomans1 ,jenghiz ,khan and ,tamerlane with their inflexible ,mongol hordes1 ,baber in ,india1 even ,kubilai ,khan and ,nurhachu in far-off ,cathay3 the type is ever the same4 ,the hoof-print of the ,turanian man on horseback is stamped deep all over the palimpsest of history4 ,glorious or sinister according to the point of view1 ,turan's is certainly a stirring past4 ,of course one may query whether these diverse peoples actually do form one genuine race4 ,but1 as we have already seen1 so far as practical politics go1 that makes no difference4 ,possessed of kindred tongues and temperaments1 and dowered with such a wealth of soul-stirring tradition1 it would suffice for them to think themselves racially one to form a nationalist dynamic of truly appalling potency4 ,until about a generation ago1 to be sure1 no signs of such a movement were visible4 ,not only were distant stocks like ,finns and ,manchus quite unaware of any common ,turanian bond1 but even obvious kindred like ,ottoman ,turks and ,central ,asian ,turkomans regarded one another with indifference or contempt4 ,certainly the ,ottoman ,turks were almost as devoid of racial as they were of national feeling4 ,arminius ,vambry tells how1 when he first visited ,constantinople in #ahef1 the word ,turkluk 7i4 e41 ',turk'7 was considered an opprobrious synonym of grossness and savagery1 and when ,i used to call people's attention to the racial importance of the ,turkish stock 7stretching from ,adrianople to the ,pacific7 they answered3 ',but you are surely not classing us with ,kirghiz and with the gross nomads of ,tartary4' 444 ,with a few exceptions1 ,i found no one in ,constantinople who was seriously interested in the questions of ,turkish nationality or language4#afj ,it was1 in fact1 the labours of ,western ethnologists like the ,hungarian ,vambry and the ,frenchman ,lon ,cahun that first cleared away the mists which enshrouded ,turan4 ,these labours disclosed the unexpected vastness of the ,turanian world4 ,and this presently acquired a most unacademic significance4 ,the writings of ,vambry and his colleagues spread far and wide through ,turan and were there devoured by receptive minds already stirring to the obscure promptings of a new time4 ,the normality of the ,turanian movement is shown by its simultaneous appearance at such widely sundered points as ,turkish ,constantinople and the ,tartar centres along the ,russian ,volga4 ,indeed1 if anything1 the leaven began its working on the ,volga sooner than on the ,bosphorus4 ,this ,tartar revival1 though little known1 is one of the most extraordinary phenomena in all nationalist history4 ,the ,tartars1 once masters of ,russia1 though long since fallen from their high estate1 have never vanished in the ,slav ocean4 ,although many of them have been for four centuries under ,russian rule1 they have stubbornly maintained their religious1 racial1 and cultural identity4 ,clustered thickly along the ,volga1 especially at ,kazan and ,astrakhan1 retaining much of the ,crimea1 and forming a considerable minority in ,transcaucasia1 the ,tartars remained distinct enclaves in the ,slav ,empire1 widely scattered but indomitable4 ,the first stirrings of nationalist self-consciousness among the ,russian ,tartars appeared as far back as #ahie1 and from then on the movement grew with astonishing rapidity4 ,the removal of governmental restrictions at the time of the ,russian revolution of #aijd was followed by a regular literary florescence4 ,streams of books and pamphlets1 numerous newspapers1 and a solid periodical press1 all attested the vigour and fecundity of the ,tartar revival4 ,the high economic level of the ,russian ,tartars assured the material sinews of war4 ,the ,tartar oil millionaires of ,baku here played a conspicuous rle1 freely opening their capacious purses for the good of the cause4 ,the ,russian ,tartars also showed distinct political ability and soon gained the confidence of their ,turkoman cousins of ,russian ,central ,asia1 who were also stirring to the breath of nationalism4 ,the first ,russian ,duma contained a large ,mohammedan group so enterprising in spirit and so skilfully led that ,russian public opinion became genuinely uneasy and encouraged the government to diminish ,tartar influence in ,russian parliamentary life by summary curtailments of ,mohammedan representation4#afa ,of course the ,russian ,mohammedans were careful to proclaim their political loyalty to the ,russian ,empire4 ,nevertheless1 many earnest spirits revealed their secret aspirations by seeking a freer and more fruitful field of labour in ,turkish ,stambul1 where the ,russian ,tartars played a prominent part in the ,pan-,turk and ,pan-,turanian movements within the ,ottoman ,empire4 ,in fact1 it was a ,volga ,tartar1 ,yusuf ,bey ,akchura ,oglu1 who was the real founder of the first ,pan-,turanian society at ,constantinople1 and his well-known book1 ,three ,political ,systems1 became the text on which most subsequent ,pan-,turanian writings have been based4#afb ,down to the ,young-,turk revolution of #aijh1 ,pan-,turanism was somewhat under a cloud at ,stambul4 ,sultan ,abdul ,hamid1 as already remarked1 was a ,pan-,islamist and had a rooted aversion to all nationalist movements4 ,accordingly1 the ,pan-,turanians1 while not actually persecuted1 were never in the ,sultan's favour4 ,with the advent of ,young-,turk nationalism to power1 however1 all was changed4 ,the ,ottomanizing leaders of the new government listened eagerly to ,pan-,turanian preaching1 and most of them became affiliated with the movement4 ,it is interesting to note that ,russian ,tartars continued to play a prominent part4 ,the chief ,pan-,turanian propagandist was the able publicist ,ahmed ,bey ,agayeff1 a ,volga ,tartar4 ,his well-edited organ1 ,turk ,yurdu 7,turkish ,home71 penetrated to every corner of the ,turko-,tartar world and exercised great influence on the development of its public opinion4 ,although leaders like ,ahmed ,bey ,agayeff clearly visualized the entire ,turanian world from ,finland to ,manchuria as a potential whole1 and were thus full-fledged ,pan-,turanians1 their practical efforts were at first confined to the closely related ,turko-,tartar segment2 that is1 to the ,ottomans of ,turkey1 the ,tartars of ,russia1 and the ,turkomans of central ,asia and ,persia4 ,since all these peoples were also ,mohammedans1 it follows that this propaganda had a religious as well as a racial complexion1 trending in many respects toward ,pan-,islamism4 ,indeed1 even disregarding the religious factor1 we may say that1 though ,pan-,turanian in theory1 the movement was at that time in practice little more than ,pan-,turkism4 ,it was the ,balkan wars of #aiab-ac which really precipitated full-fledged ,pan-,turanism4 ,those wars not merely expelled the ,turks from the ,balkans and turned their eyes increasingly toward ,asia1 but also roused such hatred of the victorious ,serbs in the breasts of ,hungarians and ,bulgarians that both these peoples proclaimed their ,turanian origins and toyed with ideas of ,pan-,turanian solidarity against the menace of ,serbo-,russian ,pan-,slavism4#afc ,the ,pan-,turanian thinkers were assuredly evolving a body of doctrine grandiose enough to satisfy the most ambitious hopes4 ,emphasizing the great virility and nerve-force everywhere patent in the ,turanian stocks1 these thinkers saw in ,turan the dominant race of the morrow4 ,zealous students of ,western evolutionism and ethnology1 they were evolving their own special theory of race grandeur and decadence4 ,according to ,pan-,turanian teaching1 the historic peoples of southern ,asia--,arabs1 ,persians1 and ,hindus--are hopelessly degenerate4 ,as for the ,europeans1 they have recently passed their apogee1 and1 exhausted by the consuming fires of modern industrialism1 are already entering upon their decline4 ,it is the ,turanians1 with their inherent virility and steady nerves unspoiled by the wear and tear of ,western civilization1 who must be the great dynamic of the future4 ,indeed1 some ,pan-,turanian thinkers go so far as to proclaim that it is the sacred mission of their race to revitalize a whole senescent1 worn-out world by the saving infusion of regenerative ,turanian blood4#afd ,of course the ,pan-,turanians recognized that anything like a realization of their ambitious dreams was dependent upon the virtual destruction of the ,russian ,empire4 ,in fact1 ,russia1 with its ,tartars1 ,turkomans1 ,kirghiz1 ,finns1 and numerous kindred tribes1 was in ,pan-,turanian eyes merely a ,slav alluvium laid with varying thickness over a ,turanian subsoil4 ,this turning of ,russia into a vast ,turania irredenta was certainly an ambitious order4 ,nevertheless1 the ,pan-,turanians counted on powerful ,western backing4 ,they realized that ,germany and ,austria-,hungary were fast drifting toward war with ,russia1 and they felt that such a cataclysm1 however perilous1 would also offer most glorious possibilities4 ,these ,pan-,turanian aspirations undoubtedly had a great deal to do with driving ,turkey into the ,great ,war on the side of the ,central ,empires4 ,certainly1 ,enver ,pasha and most of the other leaders of the governing group had long been more or less affiliated with the ,pan-,turanian movement4 ,of course the ,turkish ,government had more than one string to its bow4 ,it tried to drive ,pan-,turanism and ,pan-,islamism in double harness1 using the ,holy ,war agitation for pious ,moslems everywhere1 while it redoubled ,pan-,turanian propaganda among the ,turko-,tartar peoples4 ,a good statement of ,pan-,turanian ambitions in the early years of the war is that of the publicist ,tekin ,alp in his book1 ,the ,turkish and ,pan-,turkish ,ideal1 published in #aiae4 ,says ,tekin ,alp3 ,with the crushing of ,russian despotism by the brave ,german1 ,austrian1 and ,turkish armies1 #cj1jjj1jjj to #dj1jjj1jjj ,turanians will receive their independence4 ,with the #aj1jjj1jjj ,ottoman ,turks1 this will form a nation of #ej1jjj1jjj1 advancing toward a great civilization which may perhaps be compared with that of ,germany1 in that it will have the strength and energy to rise even higher4 ,in some ways it will be superior to the degenerate ,french and ,english civilizations4 ,with the collapse of ,russia after the ,bolshevik revolution at the end of #aiag1 ,pan-,turanian hopes knew no bounds4 ,so certain were they of triumph that they began to flout even their ,german allies1 thus revealing that hatred of all ,europeans which had always lurked at the back of their minds4 ,a ,german staff-officer thus describes the table-talk of ,halil ,pasha1 the ,turkish commander of the ,mesopotamian front and uncle of ,enver3 ,first of all1 every tribe with a ,turkish mother-tongue must be forged into a single nation4 ,the national principle was supreme2 so it was the design to conquer ,turkestan1 the cradle of ,turkish power and glory4 ,that was the first task4 ,from that base connections must be established with the ,yakutes of ,siberia1 who were considered1 on account of their linguistic kinship1 the remotest outposts of the ,turkish blood to the eastward4 ,the closely related ,tartar tribes of the ,caucasus must naturally join this union4 ,armenians and ,georgians1 who form minority nationalities in that territory1 must either submit voluntarily or be subjugated4444 ,such a great compact ,turkish ,empire1 exercising hegemony over all the ,islamic world1 would exert a powerful attraction upon ,afghanistan and ,persia4444 ,in ,december1 #aiag1 when the ,turkish front in ,mesopotamia threatened to yield1 ,halil ,pasha said to me1 half vexed1 half jokingly3 ',supposing we let the ,english have this cursed desert hole and go to ,turkestan1 where ,i will erect a new empire for my little boy4' ,he had named his youngest son after the great conqueror and destroyer1 ,jenghiz ,khan4#afe ,as a matter of fact1 the summer of #aiah saw ,transcaucasia and northern ,persia overrun by ,turkish armies headed for ,central ,asia4 ,then came the ,german collapse in the ,west and the end of the war1 apparently dooming ,turkey to destruction4 ,for the moment the ,pan-,turanians were stunned4 ,nevertheless1 their hopes were soon destined to revive1 as we shall presently see4 ,before describing the course of events in the ,near ,east since #aiah1 which need to be treated as a unit1 let us go back to consider the earlier developments of the other second-stage nationalist movements in the ,moslem world4 ,we have already seen how1 concurrently with ,turkish nationalism1 ,arab nationalism was likewise evolving into the racial stage1 the ideal being a great ,pan-,arab empire1 embracing not merely the ethnically ,arab peninsula-homeland1 ,syria1 and ,mesopotamia1 but also the ,arabized regions of ,egypt1 ,tripoli1 ,french ,north ,africa1 and the ,sudan4 ,pan-,arabism has not been as intellectually developed as ,pan-,turanism1 though its general trend is so similar that its doctrines need not be discussed in detail4 ,one important difference between the two movements is that ,pan-,arabism is much more religious and ,pan-,islamic in character1 the ,arabs regarding themselves as ,the ,chosen ,people divinely predestined to dominate the whole ,islamic world4 ,pan-,arabism also lacks ,pan-,turanism's unity of direction4 ,there have been two distinct intellectual centres--,syria and ,egypt4 ,in fact1 it is in ,egypt that ,pan-,arab schemes have been most concretely elaborated1 the ,egyptian programme looking toward a reunion of the ,arab-speaking lands under the ,khedive--perhaps at first subject to ,british tutelage1 though ultimately throwing off ,british control by concerted ,pan-,arab action4 ,the late ,khedive ,abbas ,hilmi1 deposed by the ,british in #aiad1 is supposed to have encouraged this movement4#aff ,the ,great ,war undoubtedly stimulated ,pan-,arabism1 especially by its creation of an independent ,arab kingdom in the ,hedjaz with claims on ,syria and ,mesopotamia4 ,however1 the various ,arab peoples are so engrossed with local independence agitations looking toward the elimination of ,british1 ,french1 and ,italian control from specific regions like ,egypt1 ,syria1 ,mesopotamia1 and ,tripoli1 that the larger concept of ,pan-,arabism1 while undoubtedly an underlying factor1 is not to-day in the foreground of ,arab nationalist programmes4 ,furthermore1 as ,i have already said1 ,pan-,arabism is interwoven with the non-racial concepts of ,pan-,islamism and ,pan-,islamic ,nationalism4 ,this latter concept may seem a rather grotesque contradiction of terms4 ,so it may be to us ,westerners4 ,but it is not necessarily so to ,eastern minds4 ,however eagerly the ,east may have seized upon our ideas of nationality and patriotism1 those ideas have entered minds already full of concepts like ,islamic solidarity and the brotherhood of all ,true ,believers4 ,the result has been a subtle coloration of the new by the old1 so that even when ,moslems use our exact words1 nationality1 race1 etc41 their conception of what those words mean is distinctly different from ours4 ,these differences in fact extend to all political concepts4 ,take the word ,state1 for example4 ,the typical ,mohammedan state is not1 like the typical ,western state1 a sharply defined unit1 with fixed boundaries and full sovereignty exercised everywhere within its frontiers4 ,it is more or less an amorphous mass1 with a central nucleus1 the seat of an authority which shades off into ill-defined1 anarchic independence4 ,of course1 in the past half-century1 most ,mohammedan states have tried to remodel themselves on ,western lines1 but the traditional tendency is typified by ,afghanistan1 where the tribes of the ,indian north-west frontier1 though nominally ,afghan1 enjoy practical independence and have frequently conducted private wars of their own against the ,british which the ,ameer has disavowed and for which the ,british have not held him responsible4 ,similarly with the term ,nationality4 ,in ,moslem eyes1 a man need not be born or formally naturalized to be a member of a certain ,moslem ,nationality4 ,every ,moslem is more or less at home in every part of ,islam1 so a man may just happen into a particular country and thereby become at once1 if he wishes1 a national in good standing4 ,for example3 ,egypt for the ,egyptians does not mean precisely what we think4 ,let a ,mohammedan of ,algiers or ,damascus settle in ,cairo4 ,nothing prevents him from acting1 and being considered as1 an ,egyptian ,nationalist in the full sense of the term4 ,this is because ,islam has always had a distinct idea of territorial as well as spiritual unity4 ,all predominantly ,mohammedan lands are believed by ,moslems to constitute ,dar-ul-,islam1#afg which is in a sense the joint possession of all ,moslems and which all ,moslems are jointly obligated to defend4 ,that is the reason why alien encroachments on any ,moslem land are instantly resented by ,moslems at the opposite end of the ,moslem world1 who could have no possible material interest in the matter4 ,we are now better able to understand how many ,moslem thinkers1 combining the ,western concept of nationality with the traditional idea of ,dar-ul-,islam1 have evolved a new synthesis of the two1 expressed by the term ,pan-,islamic ,nationalism4 ,this trend of thought is well set forth by an ,indian ,moslem1 who writes3 ,in the ,west1 the whole science of government rests on the axiom that the essential divisions of humanity are determined by considerations of race and geography2 but for ,orientals these ideas are very far from being axioms4 ,for them1 humanity divides according to religious beliefs4 ,the unity is no longer the nation or the ,state1 but the ',millah4'#afh ,europeans see in this a counterpart to their ,middle ,ages--a stage which ,islam should pass through on its way to modernity in the ,western sense4 ,how badly they understand how religion looks to a ,mohammedan6 ,they forget that ,islam is not only a religion1 but also a social organization1 a form of culture1 and a nationality4444 ,the principle of ,islamic fraternity--of ,pan-,islamism1 if you prefer the word--is analogous to patriotism1 but with this difference3 this ,islamic fraternity1 though resulting in identity of laws and customs1 has not 7like ,western ,nationality7 been brought about by community of race1 country1 or history1 but has been received1 as we believe1 directly from ,god4#afi ,pan-,islamic nationalism is a relatively recent phenomenon and has not been doctrinally worked out4 ,nevertheless it is visible throughout the ,moslem world and is gaining in strength1 particularly in regions like ,north ,africa and ,india1 where strong territorial patriotism has1 for one reason or another1 not developed4 ,as a ,french writer remarks3 ,mohammedan ,nationalism is not an isolated or sporadic agitation4 ,it is a broad tide1 which is flowing over the whole ,islamic world of ,asia1 ,india1 and ,africa4 ,nationalism is a new form of the ,mohammedan faith1 which1 far from being undermined by contact with ,european civilization1 seems to have discovered a surplus of religious fervour1 and which1 in its desire for expansion and proselytism1 tends to realize its unity by rousing the fanaticism of the masses1 by directing the political tendencies of the lites1 and by sowing everywhere the seeds of a dangerous agitation4#agj ,pan-,islamic nationalism may thus1 in the future1 become a major factor which will have to be seriously reckoned with4#aga ,,iii ,so ends our survey of nationalist movements in the ,moslem world4 ,given such a tangled complex of aspirations1 enormously stimulated by ,armageddon1 it was only natural that the close of the ,great ,war should have left the ,orient a veritable welter of unrest4 ,obviously1 anything like a constructive settlement could have been effected only by the exercise of true statesmanship of the highest order4 ,unfortunately1 the ,versailles peace conference was devoid of true statesmanship1 and the resulting settlement not only failed to give peace to ,europe but disclosed an attitude toward the ,east inspired by the pre-war spirit of predatory imperialism and cynical ,realpolitik4 ,apparently oblivious of the mighty psychological changes which the war had wrought1 and of the consequent changes of attitude and policy required1 the victorious ,allies proceeded to treat the ,orient as though ,armageddon were a skirmish and ,asia the sleeping giant of a century ago4 ,in fact1 disregarding both the general pronouncements of liberal principles and the specific promises of self-determination for ,near ,eastern peoples which they had made during the war1 the ,allies now paraded a series of secret treaties 7negotiated between themselves during those same war-years when they had been so unctuously orating71 and these secret treaties clearly divided up the ,ottoman ,empire among the victors1 in absolute disregard of the wishes of the inhabitants4 ,the purposes of the ,allies were further revealed by the way in which the ,versailles conference refused to receive the representatives of ,persia 7theoretically still independent71 but kept them cooling their heels in ,paris while ,british pressure at ,teheran forced the ,shah's government to enter into an agreement that made ,persia a virtual protectorate of the ,british ,empire4 ,as for the ,egyptians1 who had always protested against the protectorate proclaimed by ,england solely on its own initiative in #aiad1 the conference refused to pay any attention to their delegates1 and they were given to understand that the conference regarded the ,british protectorate over ,egypt as a fait accompli4 ,the upshot was that1 as a result of the war1 ,european domination over the ,near and ,middle ,east was riveted rather than relaxed4 ,but the strangest feature of this strange business remains to be told4 ,one might imagine that the ,allied leaders would have realized that they were playing a dangerous game1 which could succeed only by close team-work and quick action4 ,as a matter of fact1 the very reverse was the case4 ,after showing their hand1 and thereby filling the ,east with disillusionment1 despair1 and fury1 the ,allies proceeded to quarrel over the spoils4 ,nearly two years passed before ,england1 ,france1 and ,italy were able to come to an even superficial agreement as to the partition of the ,ottoman ,empire1 and meanwhile they had been bickering and intriguing against each other all over the ,near ,east4 ,this was sheer madness4 ,the destined victims were thereby informed that ,european domination rested not only on disregard of the moral imponderables but on diplomatic bankruptcy as well4 ,the obvious reflection was that a domination resting on such rotten foundations might well be overthrown4 ,that1 at any rate1 is the way multitudes of ,orientals read the situation1 and their rebellious feelings were stimulated not merely by consciousness of their own strength and ,western disunion1 but also by the active encouragement of a new ally--,bolshevik ,russia4 ,russian ,bolshevism had thrown down the gauntlet to ,western civilization1 and in the desperate struggle which was now on1 the ,bolshevik leaders saw with terrible glee the golden opportunities vouchsafed them in the ,east4 ,the details of ,bolshevik activity in the ,orient will be considered in the chapter on ,social ,unrest4 ,suffice it to remember here that ,bolshevik propaganda is an important element in that profound ferment which extends over the whole ,near and ,middle ,east2 a ferment which has reduced some regions to the verge of chaos and which threatens to increase rather than diminish in the immediate future4 ,to relate all the details of contemporary ,eastern unrest would fill a book in itself4 ,let us here content ourselves with considering the chief centres of this unrest1 remembering always that it exists throughout the ,moslem world from ,french ,north ,africa to ,central ,asia and the ,dutch ,indies4 ,the centres to be here surveyed will be ,egypt1 ,persia1 and the ,turkish and ,arab regions of the former ,ottoman ,empire4 ,a fifth main centre of unrest--,india--will be discussed in the next chapter4 ,the gathering storm first broke in ,egypt4 ,during the war ,egypt1 flooded with ,british troops and subjected to the most stringent martial law1 had remained quiet1 but it was the quiet of repression1 not of passivity4 ,we have seen how1 with the opening years of the twentieth century1 virtually all educated ,egyptians had become more or less impregnated with nationalist ideas1 albeit a large proportion of them believed in evolutionary rather than revolutionary methods4 ,the chief hope of the moderates had been the provisional character of ,english rule4 ,so long as ,england declared herself merely in temporary occupation of ,egypt1 anything was possible4 ,but the proclamation of the protectorate in #aiad1 which declared ,egypt part of the ,british ,empire1 entirely changed the situation4 ,even the most moderate nationalists felt that the future was definitely prejudged against them and that the door had been irrevocably closed upon their ultimate aspirations4 ,the result was that the moderates were driven over to the extremists and were ready to join the latter in violent action as soon as opportunity might offer4 ,the extreme nationalists had of course protested bitterly against the protectorate from the first1 and the close of the war saw a delegation composed of both nationalist wings proceed to ,paris to lay their claims before the ,versailles conference4 ,rebuffed by the conference1 which recognized the ,british protectorate over ,egypt as part of the peace settlement1 the ,egyptian delegation issued a formal protest warning of trouble4 ,this protest read3 ,we have knocked at door after door1 but have received no answer4 ,in spite of the definite pledges given by the statesmen at the head of the nations which won the war1 to the effect that their victory would mean the triumph of ,right over ,might and the establishment of the principle of self-determination for small nations1 the ,british protectorate over ,egypt was written into the treaties of ,versailles and ,saint ,germain without the people of ,egypt being consulted as to their political status4 ,this crime against our nation1 a breach of good faith on the part of the ,powers who have declared that they are forming in the same ,treaty a ,society of ,nations1 will not be consummated without a solemn warning that the people of ,egypt consider the decision taken at ,paris null and void4444 ,if our voice is not heard1 it will be only because the blood already shed has not been enough to overthrow the old world-order and give birth to a new world-order4#agb ,before these lines had appeared in type1 trouble in ,egypt had begun4 ,simultaneously with the arrival of the ,egyptian delegation at ,paris1 the nationalists in ,egypt laid their demands before the ,british authorities4 ,the nationalist programme demanded complete self-government for ,egypt1 leaving ,england only a right of supervision over the public debt and the ,suez ,canal4 ,the nationalists' strength was shown by the fact that these proposals were indorsed by the ,egyptian cabinet recently appointed by the ,khedive at ,british suggestion4 ,in fact1 the ,egyptian ,premier1 ,roushdi ,pasha1 asked to be allowed to go to ,london with some of his colleagues for a hearing4 ,this placed the ,british authorities in ,egypt in a distinctly trying position4 ,however1 they determined to stand firm1 and accordingly answered that ,england could not abandon its responsibility for the continuance of order and good government in ,egypt1 now a ,british protectorate and an integral part of the empire1 and that no useful purpose would be served by allowing the ,egyptian leaders to go to ,london and there advance immoderate demands which could not possibly be entertained4 ,the ,english attitude was firm4 ,the ,egyptian attitude was no less firm4 ,the cabinet at once resigned1 no new cabinet could be formed1 and the ,british ,high ,commissioner1 ,general ,allenby1 was forced to assume unveiled control4 ,meanwhile the nationalists announced that they were going to hold a plebiscite to determine the attitude of the ,egyptian people4 ,forbidden by the ,british authorities1 the plebiscite was nevertheless illegally held1 and resulted1 according to the nationalists1 in an overwhelming popular indorsement of their demands4 ,this defiant attitude determined the ,british on strong action4 ,accordingly1 in the spring of #aiai1 most of the nationalist leaders were seized and deported to ,malta4 ,egypt's answer was an explosion4 ,from one end of the country to the other1 ,egypt flamed into rebellion4 ,everywhere it was the same story4 ,railways and telegraph lines were systematically cut4 ,trains were stalled and looted4 ,isolated ,british officers and soldiers were murdered4 ,in ,cairo alone1 thousands of houses were sacked by the mob4 ,soon the danger was rendered more acute by the irruption out of the desert of swarms of ,bedouin ,arabs bent on plunder4 ,for a few days ,egypt trembled on the verge of anarchy1 and the ,british ,government admitted in ,parliament that all ,egypt was in a state of insurrection4 ,the ,british authorities met the crisis with vigour and determination4 ,the number of ,british troops in ,egypt was large1 trusty black regiments were hurried up from the ,sudan1 and the well-disciplined ,egyptian native police generally obeyed orders4 ,after several weeks of sharp fighting and heavy loss of life1 ,egypt was again gotten under control4 ,order was restored1 but the outlook was ominous in the extreme4 ,only the presence of massed ,british and ,sudanese troops enabled order to be maintained4 ,even the application of stern martial law could not prevent continuous nationalist demonstrations1 sometimes ending in riots1 fighting1 and heavy loss of life4 ,the most serious aspect of the situation was that not only were the upper classes solidly nationalist1 but they had behind them the hitherto passive fellah millions4 ,the war-years had borne hard on the fellaheen4 ,military exigencies had compelled ,britain to conscript fully a million of them for forced labour in the ,near ,east and even in ,europe1 while there had also been wholesale requisitions of grain1 fodder1 and other supplies4 ,these things had caused profound discontent and had roused among the fellaheen not merely passive dislike but active hatred of ,british rule4 ,authoritative ,english experts on ,egypt were seriously alarmed4 ,shortly after the riots ,sir ,william ,willcocks1 the noted engineer1 said in a public statement3 ,the keystone of the ,british occupation of ,egypt was the fact that the fellaheen were for it4 ,the ,sheikhs1 ,omdehs1 governing classes1 and high religious heads might or might not be hostile1 but nothing counted for much while the millions of fellaheen were solid for the occupation4 ,the ,british have undoubtedly to-day lost the friendship and confidence of the fellaheen4 ,and ,sir ,valentine ,chirol stated in the ,london ,times3 ,we are now admittedly face to face with the ominous fact that for the first time since the ,british occupation large numbers of the ,egyptian fellaheen1 who owe far more to us than does any other class of ,egyptians1 have been worked up into a fever of bitter discontent and hatred4 ,very few people at home1 even in responsible quarters1 have1 ,i think1 the slightest conception of the very dangerous degree of tension which has now been reached out here4 ,all foreign observers were impressed by the nationalist feeling which united all creeds and classes4 ,regarding the monster demonstrations held during the summer of #aiai1 an ,italian publicist wrote3 ,for the first time in history1 the banners flown showed the ,crescent interwoven with the ,cross4 ,until a short time ago the two elements were as distinct from each other as each of them was from the ,jews4 ,to-day1 precisely as has happened in ,india among the ,mussulmans and the ,hindus1 every trace of religious division has departed4 ,all ,egyptians are enrolled under a single banner4 ,every one behind his mask of silence is burning with the same faith1 and confident that his cause will ultimately triumph4#agc ,and a ,frenchwoman1 a lifelong resident of ,egypt1 wrote3 ,we have seen surprising things in this country1 so often divided by party and religious struggles3 ,coptic priests preaching in mosques1 ulemas preaching in ,christian churches2 ,syrian1 ,maronite1 or ,mohammedan students2 women1 whether of ,turkish or ,egyptian blood1 united in the same fervour1 the same ardent desire to see break over their ancient land the radiant dawn of independence4 ,for those who1 like myself1 have known the ,egypt of ,tewfik1 the attitude of the women these last few years is the most surprising transformation that has happened in the valley of the ,nile4 ,one should have seen the nonchalant life1 the almost complete indifference to anything savouring of politics1 to appreciate the enormous steps taken in the last few months4 ,for example3 last summer a procession of women demonstrators was surrounded by ,british soldiers with fixed bayonets4 ,one of the women1 threatened by a soldier1 turned on him1 baring her breast1 and cried3 ',kill me1 then1 so that there may be another ,miss ,cavell4'#agd ,faced by this unprecedented nationalist fervour1 ,englishmen on the spot were of two opinions4 ,some1 like ,sir ,william ,willcocks and ,sir ,valentine ,chirol1 stated that extensive concessions must be made4#age ,other qualified observers asserted that concessions would be weakness and would spell disaster4 ,said ,sir ,m4 ,mc,ilwraith3 ,five years of a ,nationalist rgime would lead to hopeless chaos and disorder4444 ,if ,egypt is not to fall back into the morass of bankruptcy and anarchy from which we rescued her in #ahhb1 with the still greater horrors of ,bolshevism1 of which there are already sinister indications1 superadded1 ,britain must not loosen her control4#agf ,in ,england the ,egyptian situation caused grave disquietude1 and in the summer of #aiai the ,british ,government announced the appointment of a commission of inquiry headed by ,lord ,milner to investigate fully into ,egyptian affairs4 ,the appointment was a wise one4 ,lord ,milner was one of the ablest figures in ,british political life1 a man of long experience with imperial problems1 including that of ,egypt1 and possessed of a temperament equally remote from the doctrinaire liberal or the hidebound conservative4 ,in short1 ,lord ,milner was a realist1 in the true sense of the word1 as his action soon proved4 ,arriving in ,egypt at the beginning of #aibj1 ,lord ,milner and his colleagues found themselves confronted with a most difficult situation4 ,in ,egypt the word had gone forth to boycott the commission1 and not merely nationalist politicians but also religious leaders like the ,grand ,mufti refused even to discuss matters unless the commissioners would first agree to ,egyptian independence4 ,this looked like a deadlock4 ,nevertheless1 by infinite tact and patience1 ,lord ,milner finally got into free and frank discussion with ,zagloul ,pasha and the other responsible nationalist leaders4 ,his efforts were undoubtedly helped by certain developments within ,egypt itself4 ,in ,egypt1 as elsewhere in the ,east1 there were appearing symptoms not merely of political but also of social unrest4 ,new types of agitators were springing up1 preaching to the populace the most extreme revolutionary doctrines4 ,these youthful agitators disquieted the regular nationalist leaders1 who felt themselves threatened both as party chiefs and as men of social standing and property4 ,the upshot was that1 by the autumn of #aibj1 ,lord ,milner and ,zagloul ,pasha had agreed upon the basis of what looked like a genuine compromise4 ,according to the intimations then given out to the press1 and later confirmed by the nature of ,lord ,milner's official report1 the lines of the tentative agreement ran as follows3 ,england was to withdraw her protectorate and was to declare ,egypt independent4 ,this independence was qualified to about the same extent that ,cuba's is toward the ,united ,states4 ,egypt was to have complete self-government1 both the ,british garrison and ,british civilian officials being withdrawn4 ,egypt was1 however1 to make a perpetual treaty of alliance with ,great ,britain1 was to agree not to make treaties with other ,powers save with ,britain's consent1 and was to grant ,britain a military and naval station for the protection of the ,suez ,canal and of ,egypt itself in case of sudden attack by foreign enemies4 ,the vexed question of the ,sudan was left temporarily open4 ,these proposals bore the earmarks of genuinely constructive compromise4 ,unfortunately1 they were not at once acted upon4#agg ,both in ,england and in ,egypt they roused strong opposition4 ,in ,england adverse official influences held up the commission's report till ,february1 #aiba4 ,in ,egypt the extreme nationalists denounced ,zagloul ,pasha as a traitor1 though moderate opinion seemed substantially satisfied4 ,the commission's report1 as finally published1 declared that the grant of self-government to ,egypt could not be safely postponed2 that the nationalist spirit could not be extinguished2 that an attempt to govern ,egypt in the teeth of a hostile people would be a difficult and disgraceful task2 and that it would be a great misfortune if the present opportunity for a settlement were lost4 ,however1 the report was not indorsed by the ,british ,government in its entirety1 and ,lord ,milner forthwith resigned4 ,as for ,zagloul ,pasha1 he still maintains his position as nationalist leader1 but his authority has been gravely shaken4 ,such is the situation of ,egypt at this present writing3 a situation frankly not so encouraging as it was last year4 ,meanwhile the storm which had begun in ,egypt had long since spread to other parts of the ,near ,east4 ,in fact1 by the opening months of #aibj1 the storm-centre had shifted to the ,ottoman ,empire4 ,for this the ,allies themselves were largely to blame4 ,of course a constructive settlement of these troubled regions would have been very difficult4 ,still1 it might not have proved impossible if ,allied policy had been fair and above-board4 ,the close of the war found the various peoples of the ,ottoman ,empire hopeful that the liberal war-aims professed by the ,allied spokesmen would be redeemed4 ,the ,arab elements were notably hopeful1 because they had been given a whole series of ,allied promises 7shortly to be repudiated1 as we shall presently see71 while even the beaten ,turks were not entirely bereft of hope in the future4 ,besides the general pronouncements of liberal treatment as formulated in the ,fourteen ,points programme of ,president ,wilson and indorsed by the ,allies1 the ,turks had pledges of a more specific character1 notably by ,premier ,lloyd ,george1 who1 on ,january #e1 #aiah1 had said3 ,nor are we fighting to deprive ,turkey of its capital or of the rich and renowned lands of ,asia ,minor and ,thrace1 which are predominantly ,turkish in race4 ,in other words1 the ,turks were given unequivocally to understand that1 while their rule over non-,turkish regions like the ,arab provinces must cease1 the ,turkish regions of the empire were not to pass under alien rule1 but were to form a ,turkish national state4 ,the ,turks did not know about a series of secret treaties between the ,allies1 begun in #aiae1 which partitioned practically the whole of ,asia ,minor between the ,allied ,powers4 ,these were to come out a little later4 ,for the moment the ,turks might hope4 ,in the case of the ,arabs there were far brighter grounds for nationalist hopes--and far darker depths of ,allied duplicity4 ,we have already mentioned the ,arab revolt of #aiaf1 which1 beginning in the ,hedjaz under the leadership of the ,shereef of ,mecca1 presently spread through all the ,arab provinces of the ,ottoman ,empire and contributed so largely to the collapse of ,turkish resistance4 ,this revolt was1 however1 not a sudden1 unpremeditated thing4 ,it had been carefully planned1 and was due largely to ,allied backing--and ,allied promises4 ,from the very beginning of the war ,arab nationalist malcontents had been in touch with the ,british authorities in ,egypt4 ,they were warmly welcomed and encouraged in their separatist schemes1 because an ,arab rebellion would obviously be of invaluable assistance to the ,british in safeguarding ,egypt and the ,suez ,canal1 to say nothing of an advance into ,turkish territory4 ,the ,arabs1 however1 asked not merely material aid but also definite promises that their rebellion should be rewarded by the formation of an ,arab state embracing the ,arab provinces of the ,ottoman ,empire4 ,unfortunately for ,arab nationalist aspirations1 the ,british and ,french ,governments had their own ideas as to the future of ,turkey's ,arab provinces4 ,both ,england and ,france had long possessed spheres of influence in those regions4 ,the ,english sphere was in southern ,mesopotamia at the head of the ,persian ,gulf4 ,the ,french sphere was the ,lebanon1 a mountainous district in northern ,syria just inland from the ,mediterranean coast1 where the population1 known as ,maronites1 were ,roman ,catholics1 over whom ,france had long extended her diplomatic protection4 ,of course both these districts were legally ,turkish territory4 ,also1 both were small in area4 ,but spheres of influence are elastic things4 ,under favourable circumstances they are capable of sudden expansion to an extraordinary degree4 ,such a circumstance was the ,great ,war4 ,accordingly the ,british and ,french ,foreign ,offices put their heads together and on ,march #e1 #aiae1 the two governments signed a secret treaty by the terms of which ,france was given a predominant position in ,syria and ,britain a predominant position in ,mesopotamia4 ,no definite boundaries were then assigned1 but the intent was to stake out claims which would partition ,turkey's ,arab provinces between ,england and ,france4 ,naturally the existence of this secret treaty was an embarrassment to the ,british officials in ,egypt in their negotiations with the ,arabs4 ,however1 an ,arab rebellion was too valuable an asset to be lost1 and the ,british negotiators finally evolved a formula which satisfied the ,arab leaders4 ,on ,october #be1 #aiae1 the ,shereef of ,mecca's representative at ,cairo was given a document by the ,governor-,general of ,egypt1 ,sir ,henry ,mc,mahon1 in which ,great ,britain undertook1 conditional upon an ,arab revolt1 to recognize the independence of the ,arabs of the ,ottoman ,empire except in southern ,mesopotamia1 where ,british interests required special measures of administrative control1 and also except areas where ,great ,britain was not free to act without detriment to the interests of ,france4 ,this last clause was of course a joker4 ,however1 it achieved its purpose4 ,the ,arabs1 knowing nothing about the secret treaty1 supposed it referred merely to the restricted district of the ,lebanon4 ,they went home jubilant1 to prepare the revolt which broke out next year4 ,the revolt began in ,november1 #aiaf4 ,it might not have begun at all had the ,arabs known what had happened the preceding ,may4 ,in that month ,england and ,france signed another secret treaty1 the celebrated ,sykes-,picot ,agreement4 ,this agreement definitely partitioned ,turkey's ,arab provinces along the lines suggested in the initial secret treaty of the year before4 ,by the ,sykes-,picot ,agreement most of ,mesopotamia was to be definitely ,british1 while the ,syrian coast from ,tyre to ,alexandretta was to be definitely ,french1 together with extensive ,armenian and ,asia ,minor regions to the northward4 ,palestine was to be international1 albeit its chief seaport1 ,haifa1 was to be ,british1 and the implication was that ,palestine fell within the ,english sphere4 ,as to the great hinterland lying between ,mesopotamia and the ,syrian coast1 it was to be independent ,arab under two spheres of influence1 ,british and ,french2 the ,french sphere embracing all the rest of ,syria from ,aleppo to ,damascus1 the ,english sphere embracing all the rest of ,mesopotamia--the region about ,mosul4 ,in other words1 the independence promised the ,arabs by ,sir ,henry ,mc,mahon had vanished into thin air4 ,this little shift behind the scenes was of course not communicated to the ,arabs4 ,on the contrary1 the ,british did everything possible to stimulate ,arab nationalist hopes--this being the best way to extract their fighting zeal against the ,turks4 ,the ,british ,government sent the ,arabs a number of picked intelligence officers1 notably a certain ,colonel ,lawrence1 an extraordinary young man who soon gained unbounded influence over the ,arab chiefs and became known as ,the ,soul of the ,arabian ,revolution4#agh ,these men1 chosen for their knowledge of1 and sympathy for1 the ,arabs1 were not informed about the secret treaties1 so that their encouragement of ,arab zeal might not be marred by any lack of sincerity4 ,similarly1 the ,british generals were prodigal of promises in their proclamations4#agi ,the climax of this blessed comedy occurred at the very close of the war1 when the ,british and ,french ,governments issued the following joint declaration which was posted throughout the ,arab provinces3 ,the aim which ,france and ,great ,britain have in view in waging in the ,east the war let loose upon the world by ,german ambition1 is to insure the complete and final emancipation of all those peoples1 so long oppressed by ,turks1 and to establish national governments and administrations which shall derive their authority from the initiative and free will of the people themselves4 ,this climax was1 however1 followed by a swift dnouement4 ,the war was over1 the enemy was beaten1 the comedy was ended1 the curtain was rung down1 and on that curtain the ,arabs read--the inner truth of things4 ,french troops appeared to occupy the ,syrian coast1 the secret treaties came out1 and the ,arabs learned how they had been tricked4 ,black and bitter was their wrath4 ,probably they would have exploded at once had it not been for their cool-headed chiefs1 especially ,prince ,feisal1 the son of the ,shereef of ,mecca1 who had proved himself a real leader of men during the war and who had now attained a position of unquestioned authority4 ,feisal knew the ,allies' military strength and realized how hazardous war would be1 especially at that time4 ,feeling the moral strength of the ,arab position1 he besought his countrymen to let him plead ,arabia's cause before the impending peace conference1 and he had his way4 ,during the year #aiai the ,arab lands were quiet1 though it was the quiet of suspense4 ,prince ,feisal pleaded his case before the peace conference with eloquence and dignity4 ,but ,feisal failed4 ,the covenant of the ,league of ,nations might contain the benevolent statement that certain communities formerly belonging to the ,turkish ,empire have reached a stage of development where their existence as independent nations can be provisionally recognized subject to the rendering of administrative advice and assistance by a mandatory until such time as they are able to stand alone4#ahj ,the ,arabs knew what mandatories meant4 ,lloyd ,george might utter felicitous phrases such as ,arab forces have redeemed the pledges given to ,great ,britain1 and we should redeem our pledges4#aha ,the ,arabs had read the secret treaties4 ,in vain is the net spread in the sight of any bird4 ,the game no longer worked4 ,the ,arabs knew that they must rely on their own efforts1 either in diplomacy or war4 ,feisal still counselled peace4 ,he was probably influenced to this not merely by the risks of armed resistance but also by the fact that the ,allies were now quarrelling among themselves4 ,these quarrels of course extended all over the ,near ,east1 but there was none more bitter than the quarrel which had broken out between ,england and ,france over the division of the ,arab spoils4 ,this dispute originated in ,french dissatisfaction with the secret treaties4 ,no sooner had the ,sykes-,picot ,agreement been published than large and influential sections of ,french opinion began shouting that they had been duped4 ,for generations ,french imperialists had had their eye on ,syria1#ahb and since the beginning of the war the imperialist press had been conducting an ardent propaganda for wholesale annexations in the ,near ,east4 ,la ,syrie intgrale6 ,all ,syria6 was the cry4 ,and this all included not merely the coast-strip assigned ,france by the ,sykes-,picot ,agreement1 but also ,palestine and the vast ,aleppo-,damascus hinterland right across to the rich oil-fields of ,mosul4 ,to this entire region1 often termed in ,french expansionist circles ,la ,france du ,levant1 the imperialists asserted that ,france had imprescriptible historic rights running back to the ,crusades and even to ,charlemagne4 ,syria was a second ,alsace1 which held out its arms to ,france and would not be denied4 ,it was also the indispensable fulcrum of ,french world-policy4 ,these imperialist aspirations had powerful backing in ,french ,government circles4 ,for example1 early in #aiae1 ,m4 ,leygues had said in the ,chamber of ,deputies3 ,the axis of ,french policy is in the ,mediterranean4 ,one of its poles is in the ,west1 at ,algiers1 ,tunis1 and ,morocco4 ,the other must lie in the ,east1 with ,syria1 ,lebanon1 ,palestine4#ahc ,after such high hopes1 the effect of the ,sykes-,picot ,agreement on ,french imperialists can be imagined4 ,their anger turned naturally upon the ,english1 who were roundly denounced and blamed for everything that was happening in the ,east1 ,arab nationalist aspirations being stigmatized as nothing but ,british propaganda4 ,cried one ,french writer3 ,some psychiatrist ought to write a study of these ,british colonial officials1 implacable imperialists1 megalomaniacs1 who1 night and day1 work for their country without even asking counsel from ,london1 and whose constant care is to annihilate in ,syria1 as they once annihilated in ,egypt1 the supremacy of ,france4#ahd ,in answer to such fulminations1 ,english writers scored ,french greed and folly which was compromising ,england's prestige and threatening to set the whole ,east on fire4#ahe ,in fine1 there was a very pretty row on between people who1 less than a year before1 had been pledging their sacred union for all eternity4 ,the ,arabs were certainly much edified1 and the other ,eastern peoples as well4 ,largely owing to these bickerings1 ,allied action in the ,near ,east was delayed through #aiai4 ,but by the spring of #aibj the ,allies came to a measure of agreement4 ,the meeting of the ,allied ,premiers at ,san ,remo elaborated the terms of the treaty to be imposed on ,turkey1 dividing ,asia ,minor into spheres of influence and exploitation1 while the ,arab provinces were assigned ,england and ,france according to the terms of the ,sykes-,picot ,agreement--properly camouflaged1 of course1 as mandates of the ,league of ,nations4 ,england1 ,france1 and their satellite1 ,greece1 prepared for action4 ,british reinforcements were sent to ,mesopotamia and ,palestine2 ,french reinforcements were sent to ,syria2 an ,anglo-,franco-,greek force prepared to occupy ,constantinople1 and ,premier ,venizelos promised a ,greek army for ,asia ,minor contingencies4 ,the one rift in the lute was ,italy4 ,italy saw big trouble brewing and determined not to be directly involved4 ,said ,premier ,nitti to an ,english journalist after the ,san ,remo conference3 ,you will have war in ,asia ,minor1 and ,italy will not send a single soldier nor pay a single lira4 ,you have taken from the ,turks their sacred city of ,adrianople2 you have placed their capital city under foreign control2 you have taken from them every port and the larger part of their territory2 and the five ,turkish delegates whom you will select will sign a treaty which will not have the sanction of the ,turkish people or the ,turkish ,parliament4 ,premier ,nitti was a true prophet4 ,for months past the ,turkish nationalists1 knowing what was in store for them1 had been building up a centre of resistance in the interior of ,asia ,minor4 ,of course the former nationalist leaders such as ,enver ,pasha had long since fled to distant havens like ,transcaucasia or ,bolshevik ,russia1 but new leaders appeared1 notably a young officer of marked military talent1 ,mustapha ,kemal ,pasha4 ,with great energy ,mustapha ,kemal built up a really creditable army1 and from his capital1 the city of ,angora in the heart of ,asia ,minor1 he now defied the ,allies1 emphasizing his defiance by attacking the ,french garrisons in ,cilicia 7a coast district in ,asia ,minor just north of ,syria71 inflicting heavy losses4 ,the ,arabs also were preparing for action4 ,in ,march a ,pan-,syrian ,congress met at ,damascus1 unanimously declared the independence of ,syria1 and elected ,feisal king4 ,this announcement electrified all the ,arab provinces4 ,in the ,french-occupied coastal zone riots broke out against the ,french2 in ,palestine there were pogroms against the ,jews1 whom the ,arabs1 both ,moslem and ,christian1 hated for their ,zionist plans2 while in ,mesopotamia there were sporadic uprisings of tribesmen4 ,faced by this ominous situation1 the mandatories took military counter-measures4 ,the ,french took especially vigorous action4 ,france now had nearly #ajj1jjj men in ,syria and ,cilicia1 headed by ,general ,gouraud1 a veteran of many colonial wars and a believer in strong-arm methods4 ,on ,july #ae ,gouraud sent ,feisal an ultimatum requiring complete submission4 ,feisal1 diplomatic to the last1 actually accepted the ultimatum1 but ,gouraud ignored this acceptance on a technicality and struck for ,damascus with #fj1jjj men4 ,feisal attempted no real resistance1 fighting only a rearguard action and withdrawing into the desert4 ,on ,july #be the ,french entered ,damascus1 the ,arab capital1 deposed ,feisal1 and set up thoroughgoing ,french rule4 ,opposition was punished with the greatest severity4 ,damascus was mulcted of a war-contribution of #aj1jjj1jjj francs1 after the ,german fashion in ,belgium1 many nationalist leaders were imprisoned or shot1 while ,gouraud announced that the death of one ,french subject or one ,christian would be followed by wholesale most terrible reprisals by bombing aeroplanes4#ahf ,before this ,napoleonic thunder-stroke ,syria bent for the moment1 apparently terrorized4 ,in ,mesopotamia1 however1 the ,british were not so fortunate4 ,for some months trouble had patently been brewing1 and in ,march the ,british commander had expressed himself as much struck with the volcanic possibilities of the country4 ,in ,july all ,mesopotamia flamed into insurrection1 and though ,britain had fully #ajj1jjj troops in the province1 they were hard put to it to stem the rebellion4 ,meanwhile1 the ,allies had occupied ,constantinople1 to force acceptance of the draft treaty of peace4 ,naturally1 there was no resistance1 ,constantinople being entirely at the mercy of the ,allied fleet4 ,but the silence of the vast throngs gathered to watch the incoming troops filled some ,allied observers with disquietude4 ,a ,french journalist wrote3 ,the silence of the multitude was more impressive than boisterous protests4 ,their eyes glowed with sullen hatred4 ,scattered through this throng of mute1 prostrated1 hopeless people circulated watchful and sinuous emissaries1 who were to carry word of this misfortune to the remotest confines of ,islam4 ,in a few hours they would be in ,anatolia4 ,a couple of days later the news would have spread to ,konia1 ,angora1 and ,sivas4 ,in a brief space of time it would be heralded throughout the regions of ,bolshevist influence1 extending to the ,caucasus and beyond4 ,in a few weeks all these centres of agitation will be preparing their counter-attack4 ,asia and ,africa will again cement their union of faith4 ,intelligent agents will record in the retentive minds of people who do not read1 the history of our blunders4 ,these missionaries of insurrection and fanaticism come from every race and class of society4 ,educated and refined men disguise themselves as beggars and outcasts1 in order to spread the news apace and to prepare for bitter vengeance4#ahg ,events in ,turkey now proceeded precisely as the ,italian ,premier ,nitti had foretold4 ,the ,allied masters of ,constantinople compelled the ,sultan to appoint a friendly cabinet which solemnly denounced ,mustapha ,kemal and his rebels1 and sent a hand-picked delegation to ,svres1 ,france1 where they dutifully signed on the dotted line the treaty that the ,allies had prepared4 ,the ,allies had thus imposed their will--on paper4 ,for every sensible man knew that the whole business was a roaring farce2 knew that the friendly government1 from ,sultan to meanest clerk1 was as nationalist as ,mustapha ,kemal himself2 knew that the real ,turkish capital was not ,constantinople but ,angora1 and that the ,allies' power was measured by the range of their guns4 ,as for ,mustapha ,kemal1 his comment on the ,svres ,treaty was3 ,i will fight to the end of the world4 ,the ,allies were thus in a decidedly embarrassing situation1 especially since ,the ,allies now meant only ,england and ,france4 ,italy was out of the game4 ,as ,nitti had warned at ,san ,remo1 she would not send a single soldier nor pay a single lira4 ,with #bjj1jjj soldiers holding down the ,arabs1 and plenty of trouble elsewhere1 neither ,france nor ,britain had the troops to crush ,mustapha ,kemal--a job which the ,french staff estimated would take #cjj1jjj men4 ,one weapon1 however1 they still possessed--,greece4 ,in return for large territorial concessions1 ,premier ,venizelos offered to bring the ,turks to reason4 ,his offer was accepted1 and #ajj1jjj ,greek troops landed at ,smyrna4 ,but the ,greek campaign was not a success4 ,even #ajj1jjj men soon wore thin when spread out over the vast ,asia ,minor plateau4 ,mustapha ,kemal avoided decisive battle1 harassing the ,greeks by guerilla warfare just as he was harassing the ,french in ,cilicia at the other end of the line4 ,the ,greeks dug in1 and a deadlock ensued which threatened to continue indefinitely4 ,this soon caused a new complication4 ,venizelos might be willing to carry on as the ,allies' submandatory1 but the ,greek people were not4 ,kept virtually on a war-footing since #aiab1 the ,greeks kicked over the traces4 ,in the ,november elections they repudiated ,venizelos by a vote of #iij1jjj to #aj1jjj1 and recalled ,king ,constantine1 who had been deposed by the ,allies three years before4 ,this meant that ,greece1 like ,italy1 was out of the game4 ,to be sure1 ,king ,constantine presently started hostilities with the ,turks on his own account4 ,this was1 however1 something very different from ,greece's attitude under the ,venizelist rgime4 ,the ,allies' weapon had thus broken in their hands4 ,meanwhile ,mustapha ,kemal was not merely consolidating his authority in ,asia ,minor but was gaining allies of his own4 ,in the first place1 he was establishing close relations with the ,arabs4 ,it may appear strange to find such bitter foes become friends2 nevertheless1 ,franco-,british policy had achieved even this seeming miracle4 ,the reason was clearly explained by no less a person than ,lawrence 7,the ,soul of the ,arab ,revolution71 who had returned to civil life and was thus free to speak his mind on the ,eastern situation1 which he did in no uncertain fashion4 ,in one of several statements given to the ,british press1 ,lawrence said3 ,the ,arabs rebelled against the ,turks during the war1 not because the ,turkish ,government was notably bad1 but because they wanted independence4 ,they did not risk their lives in battle to change masters1 to become ,british subjects or ,french citizens1 but to win a ,state of their own4 ,the matter was put even more pointedly by an ,arab nationalist leader in the columns of a ,french radical paper opposed to the ,syrian adventure4 ,said this leader3 ,both the ,french and the ,english should know once for all that the ,arabs are joined by a common religion with the ,turks1 and have been politically identified with them for centuries1 and therefore do not wish to separate themselves from their fellow believers and brothers-in-arms merely to submit to the domination of a ,european nation1 no matter what form the latter's suzerainty may assume4444 ,it is no use for ,m4 ,millerand to say3 ',we have never thought of trespassing in any respect upon the independence of these people4' ,no one is deceived by such statements as that4 ,the armistice was signed in accordance with the conditions proclaimed by ,mr4 ,wilson1 but as soon as ,germany and its allies were helpless1 the promises of the armistice were trodden underfoot1 as well as the ,fourteen ,points4 ,such a violation of the promises of complete independence1 so prodigally made to the ,arabs on so many occasions1 has resulted in re-uniting closer than ever the ,arabs and the ,turks4 ,it has taken but a few months to restore that intimacy4444 ,it is probable that ,france1 by maintaining an army of #aej1jjj men in ,syria1 and by spending billions of francs1 will be able to subdue the ,syrian ,arabs4 ,but that will not finish the task4 ,the interior of that country borders upon other lands inhabited by ,arabs1 ,kurds1 and ,turks1 and by the immense desert4 ,in starting a conflict with #d1jjj1jjj ,syrians1 ,france will be making enemies of #ae1jjj1jjj ,arabs in the ,levant1 most of whom are armed tribes1 without including the other ,mohammedan peoples1 who are speedily acquiring solidarity and organization under the blows that are being dealt them by the ,entente4 ,if you believe ,i am exaggerating1 all you have to do is to investigate the facts yourself4 ,but what good will it do to confirm the truth too late1 and after floods of blood have flowed8#ahh ,in fact1 signs of ,turco-,arab co-operation became everywhere apparent4 ,to be sure1 this co-operation was not openly avowed either by ,mustapha ,kemal or by the deposed ,king ,feisal who1 fleeing to ,italy1 continued his diplomatic manoeuvres4 ,but ,arabs fought beside ,turks against the ,french in ,cilicia2 ,turks and ,kurds joined the ,syrian ,arabs in their continual local risings2 while ,kemal's hand was clearly apparent in the rebellion against the ,british in ,mesopotamia4 ,this ,arab entente was not the whole of ,mustapha ,kemal's foreign policy4 ,he was also reaching out north-eastward to the ,tartars of ,transcaucasia and the ,turkomans of ,persian ,azerbaidjan4 ,the ,caucasus was by this time the scene of a highly complicated struggle between ,moslem ,tartars and ,turkomans1 ,christian ,armenians and ,georgians1 and various ,russian factions1 which was fast reducing that unhappy region to chaos4 ,among the ,tartar-,turkomans1 long leavened by ,pan-,turanian propaganda1 ,mustapha ,kemal found enthusiastic adherents2 and his efforts were supported by a third ally--,bolshevik ,russia4 ,bolshevik policy1 which1 as we have already stated1 was seeking to stir up trouble against the ,western ,powers throughout the ,east1 had watched ,kemal's rise with great satisfaction4 ,at first the ,bolsheviki could do very little for the ,turkish nationalists because they were not in direct touch1 but the collapse of ,wrangel's ,white army in ,november1 #aibj1 and the consequent overrunning of all south ,russia by the ,red armies1 opened a direct line from ,moscow to ,angora via the ,caucasus1 and henceforth ,mustapha ,kemal was supplied with money1 arms1 and a few men4 ,furthermore1 ,kemal and the ,bolsheviki were starting trouble in ,persia4 ,that country was in a most deplorable condition4 ,during the war ,persia1 despite her technical neutrality1 had been a battle-ground between the ,anglo-,russians on the one hand and the ,turco-,germans on the other4 ,russia's collapse in #aiag had led to her military withdrawal from ,persia1 and ,england1 profiting by the situation1 had made herself supreme1 legalizing her position by the famous ,agreement negotiated with the ,shah's government in ,august1 #aiai4ahi ,this treaty1 though signed and sealed in due form1 was bitterly resented by the ,persian people4 ,here was obviously another ripe field for ,bolshevik propaganda4 ,accordingly1 the ,bolshevik government renounced all rights in ,persia acquired by the ,czarist rgime and proclaimed themselves the friends of the ,persian people against ,western imperialism4 ,naturally the game worked1 and ,persia soon became honeycombed with militant unrest4 ,in the early summer of #aibj a ,bolshevist force actually crossed the ,caspian ,sea and landed on the ,persian shore4 ,they did not penetrate far into the country4 ,they did not need to1 for the country simply effervesced in a way which made the ,british position increasingly untenable4 ,for many months a confused situation ensued4 ,in fact1 at this writing the situation is still obscure4 ,but there can be no doubt that ,britain's hold on ,persia is gravely shaken1 and she may soon be compelled to evacuate the country1 with the possible exception of the extreme south4 ,turning back to the autumn of #aibj3 the position of ,england and ,france in the ,near ,east had become far from bright4 ,deserted by ,italy and ,greece1 defied by the ,turks1 harried by the ,arabs1 worried by the ,egyptians and ,persians1 and everywhere menaced by the subtle workings of ,bolshevism1 the situation was not a happy one4 ,the burden of empire was proving heavy4 ,in ,mesopotamia alone the bill was already #ajj1jjj1jjj sterling1 with no relief in sight4 ,under these circumstances1 it is not surprising that in both ,england and ,france ,near ,eastern policies were subjected to a growing flood of criticism4 ,in ,england especially the tide ran very strong4 ,the ,mesopotamian imbroglio was denounced as both a crime and a blunder4 ,for example1 ,colonel ,lawrence stated3 ,we are to-day not far from disaster4 ,our government is worse than the old ,turkish system4 ,they kept #ad1jjj local conscripts in the ranks and killed yearly an average of #bjj ,arabs in maintaining peace4 ,we keep #ij1jjj men1 with aeroplanes1 armoured cars1 gunboats1 and armoured trains4 ,we have killed about #aj1jjj ,arabs in the rising this summer4#aij ,influenced by such criticisms and by the general trend of events1 the ,british ,government modified its attitude1 sending out ,sir ,percy ,cox to negotiate with the ,arabs4 ,sir ,percy ,cox was a man of the ,milner type1 with a firm grip on realities and an intimate experience with ,eastern affairs4 ,authorized to discuss large concessions1 he met the nationalist leaders frankly and made a good impression upon them4 ,at this writing matters have not been definitely settled1 but it looks as though ,england was planning to limit her direct control to the extreme south of ,mesopotamia at the head of the ,persian ,gulf--practically her old sphere of influence before #aiad4 ,meanwhile1 in ,syria1 ,france has thus far succeeded in maintaining relative order by strong-arm methods4 ,but the situation is highly unstable4 ,all classes of the population have been alienated4 ,even the ,catholic ,maronites1 traditionally pro-,french1 have begun agitating4 ,general ,gouraud promptly squelched the agitation by deporting the leaders to ,corsica2 nevertheless1 the fact remains that ,france's only real friends in ,syria are dissatisfied4 ,up to the present these things have not changed ,france's attitude4 ,a short time ago ex-,premier ,leygues remarked of ,syria1 ,france will occupy all of it1 and always2 while still more recently ,general ,gouraud stated3 ,france must remain in ,syria1 both for political and economic reasons4 ,the political consequences of our abandonment of the country would be disastrous4 ,our prestige and influence in the ,levant and the ,mediterranean would be doomed4 ,the economic interests of ,france also compel us to remain there4 ,when fully developed1 ,syria and ,cilicia will have an economic value fully equal to that of ,egypt4 ,however1 despite the ,french ,government's firmness1 there is an increasing public criticism of the ,syrian adventure1 not merely from radical anti-imperialist quarters1 but from unimpeachably conservative circles as well4 ,the editor of one of the most conservative ,french political periodicals has stated3 ,jealous of its autonomy1 the ,arab people1 liberated from the ,ottoman yoke1 do not desire a new foreign domination4 ,to say that ,syria demands our protection is a lie4 ,syria wishes to be entirely independent4#aia ,and recently ,senator ,victor ,brard1 one of ,france's recognized authorities on ,eastern affairs made a speech in the ,french ,senate strongly criticising the ,government's ,syrian policy from the very start and declaring that a free ,syria was a question of both interest and honour4 ,certainly1 the ,french ,government1 still so unyielding toward the ,arabs1 has reversed its attitude toward the ,turks4 ,side-stepping the ,svres ,treaty1 it has lately agreed on provisional peace terms with the ,turkish nationalists1 actually agreeing to evacuate ,cilicia4 ,in fact1 both ,france and ,england know that the ,svres ,treaty is unworkable1 and that ,turkish possession of virtually the whole of ,asia ,minor will have to be recognized4 ,in negotiating with ,mustapha ,kemal1 ,france undoubtedly hopes to get him to throw over the ,arabs4 ,but this is scarcely thinkable4 ,the whole trend of events betokens an increasing solidarity of the ,near ,eastern peoples against ,western political control4 ,a most remarkable portent in this direction is the ,pan-,islamic conference held at ,sivas early in #aiba4 ,this conference1 called to draw up a definite scheme for effective ,moslem co-operation the world over1 was attended not merely by the high orthodox ,moslem dignitaries and political leaders1 but also by heterodox chiefs like the ,shiah ,emir of ,kerbela1 the ,imam ,yahya1 and the ,zaidite ,emir of ,yemen--leaders of heretical sects between whom and the orthodox ,sunnis co-operation had previously been impossible4 ,most notable of all1 the press reports state that the conference was presided over by no less a personage than ,el ,sennussi4 ,this may well be so1 for we have already seen how the ,sennussi have always worked for a close union of all ,islam against ,western domination4 ,such is the situation in the ,near ,east--a situation very grave and full of trouble4 ,the most hopeful portent is the apparent awakening of the ,british ,government to the growing perils of the hour1 and its consequent modifications of attitude4 ,the labours of men like ,lord ,milner and ,sir ,percy ,cox1 however hampered by purblind influences1 can scarcely be wholly barren of results4 ,such men are the diplomatic descendants of ,chatham and of ,durham2 the upholders of that great political tradition which has steered the ,british ,empire safely through crises that appeared hopeless4 ,on the other hand1 the darkest portent in the ,near ,east is the continued intransigeance of ,france4 ,steeped in its old traditions1 ,french policy apparently refuses to face realities4 ,if an explosion comes1 as come it must unless ,france modifies her attitude2 if1 some dark day1 thirty or forty ,french battalions are caught in a simoom of ,arab fury blowing out of the desert and are annihilated in a new ,adowa2 the regretful verdict of many versed in ,eastern affairs can only be3 ,french policy has deserved it4 ,leaving the ,near ,eastern problem at this critical juncture to the inscrutable solution of the future1 let us now turn to the great political problem of the ,middle ,east--the nationalist movement in ,india4 ,,footnotes3 #ach ,for these early stages of the ,turkish nationalist movement1 see ,vambry1 ,la ,turquie d'aujourd'hui et d'avant ,quarante ,ans2 and his ,western ,culture in ,eastern ,lands4 ,also the articles by ,lon ,cahun in ,lavisse et ,rambaud1 previously cited2 and ,l4 ,rousseau1 ,l',effort ,ottoman 7,paris1 #aijg74 #aci ,brard1 ,le ,sultan1 l',islam et les ,puissances1 p4 #af 7,paris1 #aijg74 #adj ,cited by ,brard1 p4 #ai4 #ada ,cited by ,brard1 p4 #bj4 #adb ,le ,revil de la ,nation arabe1 by ,negib ,azoury 7,paris1 #aije74 #adc ,the semi-legendary founder of the ,ottoman ,empire4 #add ,the texts of both the above documents can be most conveniently found in ,e4 ,jung1 ,les ,puissances devant la ,rvolte arabe3 ,la ,crise mondiale de ,demain1 pp4 #bc-be 7,paris1 #aijf74 #ade ,a good analysis of ,arab affairs on the eve of the ,great ,war is that of the ,moslem publicist ,x1 ,les ,courants politiques dans le ,monde arabe1 ,revue du ,monde musulman1 ,december1 #aiac4 ,also see ,g4 ,w4 ,bury1 ,arabia ,infelix1 or the ,turks in ,yemen 7,london1 #aiae74 #adf ,for ,arab affairs during the ,great ,war1 see ,e4 ,jung1 ,l',indpendance arabe et la ,rvolte actuelle1 ,la ,revue1 #a ,august1 #aiaf2 ,i4 ,d4 ,levine1 ,arabs versus ,turks1 ,american ,review of ,reviews1 ,november1 #aiaf2 ,a4 ,musil1 ,zur ,zeitgeschichte von ,arabien 7,leipzig1 #aiah72 ,g4 ,w4 ,bury1 ,pan-,islam 7,london1 #aiai72 ,s4 ,mylrea1 ,the ,politico-,religious ,situation in ,arabia1 ,the ,moslem ,world1 ,july1 #aiai2 ,l4 ,thomas1 ,lawrence3 ,the ,soul of the ,arabian ,revolution1 ,asia1 ,april1 ,may1 ,june1 #aibj4 #adg ,georg ,schweinfurth1 ,die ,wiedergeburt gyptens im ,lichte eines aufgeklrten ,islam 7,berlin1 #ahie74 #adh ,low1 ,egypt in ,transition1 p4 #bfj 7,london1 #aiad74 #adi ,the ,asiatic ,review1 ,april1 #aiad4 #aej ,l'gypte et les ,dbuts du ,protectorat1 ,revue des ,sciences ,politiques1 #ae ,june1 #aiae4 #aea ,mohammed ,farid ,bey1 ,l'gypte et la ,guerre1 ,revue ,politique ,internationale1 ,may1 #aiae4 #aeb ,abd-el-,malek ,hamsa1 ,die gyptische ,frage1 ,asien1 ,november1 #aiaf4 #aec ,a good summary of ,berber history is ,h4 ,weisgerber1 ,les ,blancs d',afrique 7,paris1 #aiaj74 #aed ,for analyses of differences between ,arabs and ,berbers1 see ,caix de ,saint-,aymour1 ,arabes et ,kabyles 7,paris1 #ahia72 ,a4 ,bel1 ,coup d',oeil sur l',islam en ,berbrie 7,paris1 #aiag74 #aee ,for short historical summary1 see ,a4 ,c4 ,coolidge1 ,the ,european ,reconquest of ,north ,africa1 ,american ,historical ,review1 ,july1 #aiab4 #aef ,for these nationalist movements in ,french ,north ,africa1 see ,a4 ,servier1 ,le ,nationalisme musulman 7,constantine1 ,algeria1 #aiac72 ,p4 ,lapie1 ,les ,civilisations tunisiennes 7,paris1 #ahih72 ,p4 ,millet1 ,les ,jeunes-,algriens1 ,revue de ,paris1 #a ,november1 #aiac4 #aeg ,a good analysis of the pre-revolutionary reformist movements is found in ,x1 ,la ,situation politique de la ,perse1 ,revue du ,monde musulman1 ,june1 #aiad4 ,see also ,vambry1 ,western ,culture in ,eastern ,lands2 ,general ,sir ,t4 ,e4 ,gordon1 ,the ,reform ,movement in ,persia1 ,proceedings of the ,central ,asian ,society1 #ac ,march1 #aijg4 #aeh ,see ,w4 ,morgan ,shuster1 ,the ,strangling of ,persia 7,new ,york1 #aiab74 ,also1 for earlier phase of the revolution1 see ,e4 ,g4 ,browne1 ,the ,revolution in ,persia 7,london1 #aiaj74 #aei ,e4 ,g4 ,browne1 ,the ,present ,situation in ,persia1 ,contemporary ,review1 ,november1 #aiab4 #afj ,vambry1 ,la ,turquie d'aujourd'hui et d'avant ,quarante ,ans1 pp4 #aa-ab4 #afa ,for the ,tartar revival1 see ,s4 ,brobovnikov1 ,moslems in ,russia1 ,the ,moslem ,world1 ,january1 #aiaa2 ,fvret1 ,les ,tatars de ,crime1 ,revue du ,monde musulman1 ,august1 #aijg2 ,a4 ,le ,chatelier1 ,les ,musulmans russes1 ,revue du ,monde musulman1 ,december1 #aijf2 ,fr4 von ,mackay1 ,die ,erweckung ,russlands asiatischen ,vlkerschaften1 ,deutsche ,rundschau1 ,march1 #aiah2 ,arminius ,vambry1 ,western ,culture in ,eastern ,lands2 ,h4 ,williams1 ,the ,russian ,mohammedans1 ,russian ,review1 ,february1 #aiad2 ,x1 ,le ,pan-,islamisme et le ,pan-,turquisme1 ,revue du ,monde musulman1 ,march1 #aiac4 #afb ,for these activities1 see article by ,x1 quoted above2 also ,ahmed ,emin1 ,the ,development of ,modern ,turkey as ,measured by its ,press 7,new ,york1 #aiad74 #afc ,for these ,pan-,turanian tendencies in ,hungary and ,bulgaria1 see my article ,pan-,turanism1 ,american ,political ,science ,review1 ,february1 #aiag4 #afd ,see article by ,x1 quoted above2 also his article ,les ,courants politiques dans la ,turquie contemporaine1 ,revue du ,monde musulman1 ,december1 #aiab4 #afe ,ex-,chief of ,general ,staff 7,ottoman7 ,ernst ,paraquin1 in the ,berliner ,tageblatt1 ,january #bd1 #aibj4 ,for ,turkish nationalist activities and attitudes during the war1 see further ,i4 ,d4 #aaii--;,a ,manual on the ,turanians and ,pan-,turanianism4 ,compiled by the ,geographical ,section of the ,naval ,intelligence ,division1 ,naval ,staff1 ,admiralty 7,london1 #aiai72 ,e4 ,f4 ,benson1 ,crescent and ,iron ,cross 7,london1 #aiah72 ,m4 ,a4 ,czaplicka1 ,the ,turks of ,central ,asia3 ,an ,inquiry into the ,pan-,turanian ,problem 7,oxford1 #aiah72 ,h4 ,morgenthau1 ,ambassador ,morgenthau's ,story 7,new ,york1 #aiah72 ,dr4 ,harry ,strmer1 ,two ,war-,years in ,constantinople 7,new ,york1 #aiag72 ,a4 ,mandelstam1 ,the ,turkish ,spirit1 ,new ,europe1 ,april #bb1 #aibj4 #aff ,for ,pan-,arab developments1 see ,a4 ,musil1 ,zur ,zeitgeschichte von ,arabien 7,leipzig1 #aiah72 ,m4 ,pickthall1 ,turkey1 ,england1 and the ,present ,crisis1 ,asiatic ,review1 ,october #a1 #aiad2 ,a4 ,servier1 ,le ,nationalisme musulman2 ,sheick ,abd-el-,aziz ,schauisch1 ,das ,machtgebiet der arabischen ,sprache1 ,preussische ,jahrbcher1 ,september1 #aiaf4 #afg ,literally ,house of ,islam4 ,all non-,moslem lands are collectively known as ,dar-ul-,harb or ,house of ,war4 #afh ,i4 e41 the organized group of followers of a particular religion4 #afi ,mohammed ,ali1 ,le ,mouvement musulman dans l',inde1 ,revue ,politique ,internationale1 ,january1 #aiad4 ,he headed the so-called ,khilafat ,delegation sent by the ,indian ,moslems to ,england in #aiai to protest against the partition of the ,ottoman ,empire by the peace treaties4 #agj ,a4 ,servier1 ,le ,nationalisme musulman1 p4 #aha4 #aga ,for ,pan-,islamic nationalism1 besides ,servier and ,mohammed ,ali1 quoted above1 see ,a4 ,le ,chatelier1 ,l',islam au dix-neuvime ,sicle 7,paris1 #ahhh72 same author1 ,politique musulmane1 ,revue du ,monde ,musulman1 ,september1 #aiaj2 ,sir ,t4 ,morison1 ,england and ,islam1 ,nineteenth ,century and ,after1 ,july1 #aiai2 ,g4 ,dmorgny1 ,la ,question ,persane1 pp4 #bc-ca 7,paris1 #aiaf72 ,w4 ,e4 ,d4 ,allen1 ,transcaucasia1 ,past and ,present1 ,quarterly ,review1 ,october1 #aibj4 #agb ,egyptian ,white ,book3 ,collection of ,official ,correspondence of the ,egyptian ,delegation to the ,peace ,conference 7,paris1 #aiai74 #agc ,g4 ,civimini1 in the ,corriere della ,sera1 ,december #cj1 #aiai4 #agd ,madame ,jehan d',ivray1 ,en gypte1 ,revue de ,paris1 ,september #ae1 #aibj4 ,madame d',ivray cites other picturesque incidents of a like character4 ,see also ,annexes to ,egyptian ,white ,book1 previously quoted4 ,these ,annexes contain numerous depositions1 often accompanied by photographs1 alleging severities and atrocities by the ,british troops4 #age ,contained in the press statements previously mentioned4 #agf ,sir ,m4 ,mc,ilwraith1 ,egyptian ,nationalism1 ,edinburgh ,review1 ,july1 #aiai4 ,see also ,hon4 ,w4 ,ormsby-,gore1 ,the ,future in ,egypt1 ,new ,europe1 ,november #f1 #aiai4 #agg ,for unfortunate aspects of this delay1 see ,sir ,valentine ,chirol1 ,conflicting ,policies in the ,east1 ,new ,europe1 ,july #a1 #aibj4 #agh ,for a good account of ,lawrence and his work1 see series of articles by ,l4 ,thomas1 ,lawrence3 ,the ,soul of the ,arabian ,revolution1 ,asia1 ,april1 ,may1 ,june1 ,july1 #aibj4 #agi ,a notable example is ,general ,maude's proclamation to the ,mesopotamian ,arabs in ,march1 #aiag4 #ahj ,article xxii4 #aha ,from a speech delivered ,september #ai1 #aiai4 #ahb ,for examples of this pre-war imperialist propaganda1 see ,g4 ,poignant1 ,les ,intrts franais en ,syrie1 ,questions diplomatiques et coloniales1 ,march #a-af1 #aiac4 ,among other interesting facts1 the author cites ,premier ,poincar's declaration before the ,chamber of ,deputies1 ,december #ba1 #aiab3 ,i need not remark that in the ,lebanon and ,syria particularly we have traditional interests and that we intend to make them respected4 ,see also ,j4 ,atalla1 ,les ,trois ,solutions de la ,question syrienne1 ,questions diplomatiques et coloniales1 ,october #af1 #aiac2 ,l4 ,le ,fur1 ,le ,protectorat de la ,france sur les ,catholiques d',orient 7,paris1 #aiad74 #ahc ,quoted by ,senator ,e4 ,flandrin in his article ,nos ,droits en ,syrie et en ,palestine1 ,revue ,hebdomadaire1 ,june #e1 #aiae4 ,for other examples of ,french imperialist propaganda1 see1 besides above article1 ,c4 ,g4 ,bassim1 ,la ,question du ,liban 7,paris1 #aiae72 ,h4 ,baudouin1 ,la ,syrie3 ,champ de ,bataille politique1 ,la ,revue ,mondiale1 ,february #a-ae1 #aibj2 ,comte ,cressaty1 ,la ,syrie franaise 7,paris1 #aiaf72 ,f4 ,laudet1 ,la ,france du ,levant1 ,revue ,hebdomadaire1 ,march #a1 #aiai4 #ahd ,baudouin1 supra4 ,for other violent anti-,british comment1 see ,laudet1 supra4 #ahe ,for sharp ,british criticisms of the ,french attitude in ,syria1 see ,beckles ,wilson1 ,our ,amazing ,syrian ,adventure1 ,national ,review1 ,september1 #aibj2 ,w4 ,urinowski1 ,the ,arab ,cause1 ,balkan ,review1 ,september1 #aibj4 ,both of these writers were officers in the ,british forces in the ,arab area4 ,see also strong articles by ,taira in the ,balkan ,review1 ,august and ,october1 #aibj4 #ahf ,for accounts of ,french severities1 see articles just quoted4 #ahg ,b4 ,g4 ,gaulis in ,l',opinion1 ,april #bd1 #aibj4 #ahh ,le ,populaire1 ,february #af1 #aibj4 #ahi ,for the details of these events1 see my article on ,persia in ,the ,century1 ,january1 #aibj4 #aij ,statement given to the press in ,august1 #aibj4 #aia ,henri de ,chambon1 editor of ,la ,revue ,parlementaire4 ,quoted by ,beckles ,wilson1 ,our ,amazing ,syrian ,adventure1 ,national ,review1 ,september1 #aibj4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,nationalism ,,in ,,india ,india is a land of paradox4 ,possessing a fundamental geographical unity1 ,india has never known real political union save that recently imposed externally by the ,british ,raj4 ,full of warlike stocks1 ,india has never been able to repel invaders4 ,occupied by many races1 these races have never really fused1 but have remained distinct and mutually hostile1 sundered by barriers of blood1 speech1 culture1 and creed4 ,thus ,india1 large and populous as ,europe or ,china1 has neither1 like ,china1 evolved a generalized national unity2 nor1 like ,europe1 has developed a specialized national diversity2 but has remained an amorphous1 unstable indeterminate1 with tendencies in both directions which were never carried to their logical conclusion4 ,india's history has been influenced mainly by three great invasions3 the ,aryan invasion1 commencing about #aejj ,b4,c42 the ,mohammedan invasion1 extending roughly from ,a4,d4 #ajjj to #agjj1 and the ,english invasion1 beginning about ,a4,d4 #agej and culminating a century later in a complete conquest which has lasted to the present day4 ,the ,aryans were a fair-skinned people1 unquestionably of the same general stock as ourselves4 ,pressing down from ,central ,asia through those north-western passes where alone land-access is possible to ,india1 elsewhere impregnably guarded by the mountain wall of the ,himalayas1 the ,aryans subdued the dark-skinned ,dravidian aborigines1 and settled down as masters4 ,this conquest was1 however1 superficial and partial4 ,the bulk of the ,aryans remained in the north-west1 the more adventurous spirits scattering thinly over the rest of the vast peninsula4 ,even in the north large areas of hill-country and jungle remained in the exclusive possession of the aborigines1 while very few ,aryans ever penetrated the south4 ,over most of ,india1 therefore1 the ,aryans were merely a small ruling class superimposed upon a much more numerous subject population4 ,fearing to be swallowed up in the ,dravidian ocean1 the ,aryans attempted to preserve their political ascendancy and racial purity by the institution of caste1 which has ever since remained the basis of ,indian social life4 ,caste was originally a colour line4 ,but it was enforced not so much by civil law as by religion4 ,society was divided into three castes3 ,brahmins1 or priests2 ,kshatriyas1 or warriors2 and ,sudras1 or workers4 ,the ,aryans monopolized the two upper castes1 the ,sudras being the ,dravidian subject population4 ,these castes were kept apart by a rigorous series of religious taboos4 ,intermarriage1 partaking of food and drink1 even physical propinquity1 entailed ceremonial defilement sometimes inexpiable4 ,disobedience to these taboos was punished with the terrible penalty of outcasting1 whereby the offender did not merely fall to a lower rank in the caste hierarchy but sank even below the ,sudra and became a ,pariah1 or man of no-caste1 condemned to the most menial and revolting occupations1 and with no rights which even the ,sudra was bound to respect4 ,thus ,indian society was governed1 not by civil1 but by ceremonially religious law2 while1 conversely1 the nascent ,indian religion 7,brahminism7 became not ethical but social in character4 ,these things produced the most momentous consequences4 ,as a colour line1 caste worked very imperfectly4 ,despite its prohibitions1 even the ,brahmins became more or less impregnated with ,dravidian blood4#aib ,but as a social system caste continued to function in ways peculiar to itself4 ,the three original castes gradually subdivided into hundreds and even thousands of sub-castes4 ,these sub-castes had little or nothing of the original racial significance4 ,but they were all just as exclusive as the primal trio1 and the outcome was a shattering of ,indian society into a chaos of rigid social atoms1 between which co-operation or even understanding was impossible4 ,the results upon ,indian history are obvious4 ,says a ,british authority3 ,the effect of this permanent maintenance of human types is that the population is heterogeneous to the last degree4 ,it is no question of rich and poor1 of town and country1 of employer and employed3 the differences lie far deeper4 ,the population of a district or a town is a collection of different nationalities--almost different species--of mankind that will not eat or drink or intermarry with one another1 and that are governed in the more important affairs of life by committees of their own4 ,it is hardly too much to say that by the caste system the inhabitants of ,india are differentiated into over two thousand species1 which1 in the intimate physical relations of life1 have as little in common as the inmates of a zoological garden4#aic ,obviously1 a land socially atomized and politically split into many principalities was destined to fall before the first strong invader4 ,this invader was ,islam4 ,the ,mohammedans attacked ,india soon after their conquest of ,persia1 but these early attacks were mere border raids without lasting significance4 ,the first real ,mohammedan invasion was that of ,mahmud of ,ghazni1 an ,afghan prince1 in ,a4,d4 #ajja4 ,following the road taken by the ,aryans ages before1 ,mahmud conquered north-western ,india1 the region known as the ,punjab4 ,islam had thus obtained a firm foothold in ,india1 and subsequent ,moslem leaders spread gradually eastward until most of northern ,india was under ,moslem rule4 ,the invaders had two notable advantages3 they were fanatically united against the despised ,idolaters1 and they drew many converts from the native population4 ,the very antithesis of ,brahminism1 ,islam1 with its doctrine that all ,believers are brothers1 could not fail to attract multitudes of low-castes and out-castes1 who by conversion might rise to the status of the conquerors4 ,this is the main reason why the ,mohammedans in ,india to-day number more than #gj1jjj1jjj--over one-fifth of the total population4 ,these ,indian ,moslems are descended1 not merely from ,afghan1 ,turkish1 ,arab1 and ,persian invaders1 but even more from the millions of ,hindu converts who embraced ,islam4 ,for many generations the ,moslem hold on ,india was confined to the north4 ,then1 early in the sixteenth century1 the great ,turko-,mongol leader ,baber entered ,india and founded the ,mogul ,empire4 ,baber and his successors overran even the south1 and united ,india politically as it had never been united before4 ,but even this conquest was superficial4 ,the ,brahmins1 threatened with destruction1 preached a ,hindu revival2 the ,mogul dynasty petered out2 and at the beginning of the eighteenth century the ,mogul ,empire collapsed1 leaving ,india a welter of warring principalities1 ,mohammedan and ,hindu1 fighting each other for religion1 for politics1 or for sheer lust of plunder4 ,out of this anarchy the ,british rose to power4 ,the ,british were at first merely one of several other ,european elements--,portuguese1 ,dutch1 and ,french--who established small settlements along the ,indian coasts4 ,the ,europeans never dreamed of conquering ,india while the ,mogul power endured4 ,in fact1 the ,british connection with ,india began as a purely trading venture--the ,east ,india ,company4 ,but when ,india collapsed into anarchy the ,europeans were first obliged to acquire local authority to protect their factories1 and later were lured into more ambitious schemes by the impotence of petty rulers4 ,gradually the ,british ousted their ,european rivals and established a solid political foothold in ,india4 ,the one stable element in a seething chaos1 the ,british inevitably extended their authority4 ,at first they did so reluctantly4 ,the ,east ,india ,company long remained primarily a trading venture1 aiming at dividends rather than dominion4 ,however1 it later evolved into a real government with an ambitious policy of annexation4 ,this in turn awakened the fears of many ,indians and brought on the ,mutiny of #aheg4 ,the mutiny was quelled1 the ,east ,india ,company abolished1 and ,india came directly under the ,british ,crown1 ,queen ,victoria being later proclaimed ,empress of ,india4 ,these events in turn resulted not only in a strengthening of ,british political authority but also in an increased penetration of ,western influences of every description4 ,roads1 railways1 and canals opened up and unified ,india as never before2 the piercing of the ,isthmus of ,suez facilitated communication with ,europe2 while education on ,european lines spread ,western ideas4 ,over this rapidly changing ,india stood the ,british ,raj--a system of government unique in the world's history4 ,it was the government of a few hundred highly skilled administrative experts backed by a small professional army1 ruling a vast agglomeration of subject peoples4 ,it was frankly an absolute paternalism1 governing as it saw fit1 with no more responsibility to the governed than the native despots whom it had displaced4 ,but it governed well4 ,in efficiency1 honesty1 and sense of duty1 the government of ,india is probably the best example of benevolent absolutism that the world has ever seen4 ,it gave ,india profound peace4 ,it played no favourites1 holding the scales even between rival races1 creeds1 and castes4 ,lastly1 it made ,india a real political entity--something which ,india had never been before4 ,for the first time in its history1 ,india was firmly united under one rule--the rule of the ,pax ,britannica4 ,yet the very virtues of ,british rule sowed the seeds of future trouble4 ,generations grew up1 peacefully united in unprecedented acquaintanceship1 forgetful of past ills1 seeing only ,european shortcomings1 and1 above all1 familiar with ,western ideas of self-government1 liberty1 and nationality4 ,in ,india1 as elsewhere in the ,east1 there was bound to arise a growing movement of discontent against ,western rule--a discontent varying from moderate demands for increasing autonomy to radical demands for immediate independence4 ,down to the last quarter of the nineteenth century1 organized political agitation against the ,british ,raj was virtually unknown4 ,here and there isolated individuals uttered half-audible protests1 but these voices found no popular echo4 ,the ,indian masses1 pre-occupied with the ever-present problem of getting a living1 accepted passively a government no more absolute1 and infinitely more efficient1 than its predecessors4 ,of anything like self-conscious ,indian ,nationalism there was virtually no trace4 ,the first symptom of organized discontent was the formation of the ,indian ,national ,congress in the year #ahhe4 ,the very name showed that the ,british ,raj1 covering all ,india1 was itself evoking among ,india's diverse elements a certain common point of view and aspiration4 ,however1 the early congresses were very far from representing ,indian public opinion1 in the general sense of the term4 ,on the contrary1 these congresses represented merely a small class of professional men1 journalists1 and politicians1 all of them trained in ,western ideas4 ,the ,european methods of education which the ,british had introduced had turned out an ,indian intelligentsia1 conversant with the ,english language and saturated with ,westernism4 ,this new intelligentsia1 convinced as it was of the value of ,western ideals and achievements1 could not fail to be dissatisfied with many aspects of ,indian life4 ,in fact1 its first efforts were directed1 not so much to politics1 as to social and economic reforms like the suppression of child-marriage1 the remarriage of widows1 and wider education4 ,but1 as time passed1 matters of political reform came steadily to the fore4 ,saturated with ,english history and political philosophy as they were1 the ,indian intellectuals felt more and more keenly their total lack of self-government1 and aspired to endow ,india with those blessings of liberty so highly prized by their ,english rulers4 ,soon a vigorous native press developed1 preaching the new gospel1 welding the intellectuals into a self-conscious unity1 and moulding a genuine public opinion4 ,by the close of the nineteenth century the ,indian intelligentsia was frankly agitating for sweeping political innovations like representative councils1 increasing control over taxation and the executive1 and the opening of the public services to ,indians all the way up the scale4 ,down to the closing years of the nineteenth century ,indian discontent was1 as already said1 confined to a small class of more or less ,europeanized intellectuals who1 despite their assumption of the title1 could hardly be termed ,nationalists in the ordinary sense of the word4 ,with a few exceptions1 their goal was neither independence nor the elimination of effective ,british oversight1 but rather the reforming of ,indian life along ,western lines1 including a growing degree of self-government under ,british paramount authority4 ,but by the close of the nineteenth century there came a change in the situation4 ,india1 like the rest of the ,orient1 was stirring to a new spirit of political and racial self-consciousness4 ,true nationalist symptoms began to appear4 ,indian scholars delved into their musty chronicles and sacred texts1 and proclaimed the glories of ,india's historic past4 ,reformed ,hindu sects like the ,arya ,somaj lent religious sanctions4 ,the little band of ,europeanized intellectuals was joined by other elements1 thinking1 not in terms of piecemeal reforms on ,western models1 but of a new ,india1 rejuvenated from its own vital forces1 and free to work out its own destiny in its own way4 ,from the nationalist ranks now arose the challenging slogan3 ,bandemataram6 7,hail1 ,motherland67#aid ,the outstanding feature about this early ,indian nationalism was that it was a distinctively ,hindu movement4 ,the ,mohammedans regarded it with suspicion or hostility4 ,and for this they had good reasons4 ,the ideal of the new nationalists was ,aryan ,india1 the ,india of the ,golden ,age4 ,back to the ,vedas6 was a nationalist watchword1 and this implied a veneration for the past1 including a revival of aggressive ,brahminism4 ,an extraordinary change came over the intelligentsia4 ,men who1 a few years before1 had proclaimed the superiority of ,western ideas and had openly flouted superstitions like idol-worship1 now denounced everything ,western and reverently sacrificed to the ,hindu gods4 ,the sacred soil of ,india must be purged of the foreigner4#aie ,but the foreigner1 as these nationalists conceived him1 was not merely the ,englishman2 he was the ,mohammedan as well4 ,this was stirring up the past with a vengeance4 ,for centuries the great ,hindu-,mohammedan division had run like a chasm athwart ,india4 ,it had never been closed1 but it had been somewhat veiled by the neutral overlordship of the ,british ,raj4 ,now the veil was torn aside1 and the ,mohammedans saw themselves menaced by a recrudescence of militant ,hinduism like that which had shattered the ,mogul ,empire after the death of the ,emperor ,aurangzeb two hundred years before4 ,the ,mohammedans were not merely alarmed2 they were infuriated as well4 ,remembering the glories of the ,mogul ,empire just as the ,hindus did the glories of ,aryan ,india1 they considered themselves the rightful lords of the land1 and had no mind to fall under the sway of despised ,idolaters4 ,the ,mohammedans had no love for the ,british1 but they hated the ,hindus1 and they saw in the ,british ,raj a bulwark against the potential menace of hereditary enemies who outnumbered them nearly five to one4 ,thus the ,mohammedans denounced ,hindu nationalism and proclaimed their loyalty to the ,raj4 ,to be sure1 the ,indian ,moslems were also affected by the general spirit of unrest which was sweeping over the ,east4 ,they too felt a quickened sense of self-consciousness4 ,but1 being a minority in ,india1 their feelings took the form1 not of territorial patriotism1 but of those more diffused sentiments1 ,pan-,islamism and ,pan-,islamic nationalism1 which we have already discussed4#aif ,early ,indian nationalism was not merely ,hindu in character2 it was distinctly ,brahminical as well4 ,more and more the ,brahmins became the driving-power of the movement1 seeking to perpetuate their supremacy in the ,india of the morrow as they had enjoyed it in the ,india of the past4 ,but this aroused apprehension in certain sections of ,hindu society4 ,many low-castes and ,pariahs began to fear that an independent or even autonomous ,india might be ruled by a tyrannical ,brahmin oligarchy which would deny them the benefits they now enjoyed under ,british rule4#aig ,also1 many of the ,hindu princes disliked the thought of a theocratic rgime which might reduce them to shadows4#aih ,thus the nationalist movement stood out as an alliance between the ,brahmins and the ,western-educated intelligentsia1 who had pooled their ambitions in a programme for jointly ruling ,india4 ,quickened by this ambition and fired by religious zeal1 the nationalist movement rapidly acquired a fanatical temper characterized by a mystical abhorrence of everything ,western and a ferocious hatred of all ,europeans4 ,the ,russo-,japanese ,war greatly inflamed this spirit1 and the very next year 7#aije7 an act of the ,indian ,government precipitated the gathering storm4 ,this act was the famous ,partition of ,bengal4 ,the partition was a mere administrative measure1 with no political intent4 ,but the nationalists made it a vital issue1 and about this grievance they started an intense propaganda that soon filled ,india with seditious unrest4 ,the leading spirit in this agitation was ,bal ,gangadhar ,tilak1 who has been called the father of ,indian unrest4 ,tilak typified the nationalist movement4 ,a ,brahmin with an excellent ,western education1 he was the sworn foe of ,english rule and ,western civilization4 ,an able propagandist1 his speeches roused his hearers to frenzy1 while his newspaper1 the ,yugantar1 of ,calcutta1 preached a campaign of hate1 assassination1 and rebellion4 ,tilak's incitements soon produced tangible results1 numerous riots1 dacoities1 and murders of ,englishmen taking place4 ,and of course the ,yugantar was merely one of a large number of nationalist organs1 some printed in the vernacular and others in ,english1 which vied with one another in seditious invective4 ,the violence of the nationalist press may be judged by a few quotations4 ,revolution1 asserted the ,yugantar1 is the only way in which a slavish society can save itself4 ,if you cannot prove yourself a man in life1 play the man in death4 ,foreigners have come and decided how you are to live4 ,but how you are to die depends entirely upon yourself4 ,let preparations be made for a general revolution in every household6 ,the handful of police and soldiers will never be able to withstand this ocean of revolutionists4 ,revolutionists may be made prisoners and may die1 but thousands of others will spring into their places4 ,do not be afraid6 ,with the blood of heroes the soil of ,hindustan is ever fertile4 ,do not be downhearted4 ,there is no dearth of heroes4 ,there is no dearth of money2 glory awaits you6 ,a single frown 7a few bombs7 from your eyes has struck terror into the heart of the foe6 ,the uproar of panic has filled the sky4 ,swim with renewed energy in the ocean of bloodshed6 ,the assassination note was vehemently stressed4 ,said ,s4 ,krishnavarma in ,the ,indian ,sociologist3 ,political assassination is not murder1 and the rightful employment of physical force connotes 'force used defensively against force used aggressively4' ,the only subscription required1 stated the ,yugantar1 is that every reader shall bring the head of a ,european4 ,not even women and children were spared4 ,commenting on the murder of an ,english lady and her daughter1 the ,yugantar exclaimed exultantly3 ,many a female demon must be killed in course of time1 in order to extirpate the race of ,asuras from the breast of the earth4 ,the fanaticism of the men 7usually very young men7 who committed these assassinations may be judged by the statement of the murderer of a high ,english official1 ,sir ,curzon-,wyllie1 made shortly before his execution3 ,i believe that a nation held down by foreign bayonets is in a perpetual state of war4 ,since open battle is rendered impossible to a disarmed race1 ,i attacked by surprise2 since guns were denied to me1 ,i drew my pistol and fired4 ,as a ,hindu ,i feel that wrong to my country is an insult to the gods4 ,her cause is the cause of ,shri ,ram2 her service is the service of ,shri ,krishna4 ,poor in wealth and intellect1 a son like myself has nothing else to offer the ,mother but his own blood1 and so ,i have sacrificed the same on ,her altar4 ,the only lesson required in ,india at present is to learn how to die1 and the only way to teach it is to die ourselves2 therefore ,i die and glory in my martyrdom4 ,this war will continue between ,england and ,india so long as the ,hindee and ,english races last1 if the present unnatural relation does not cease4#aii ,the government's answer to this campaign of sedition and assassination was of course stern repression4 ,the native press was muzzled1 the agitators imprisoned or executed1 and the hands of the authorities were strengthened by punitive legislation4 ,in fact1 so infuriated was the ,european community by the murders and outrages committed by the nationalists that many ,englishmen urged the withdrawal of such political privileges as did exist1 the limiting of ,western education1 and the establishment of extreme autocratic rule4 ,these angry counsels were at once caught up by the nationalists1 resulted in fresh outrages1 and were answered by more punishment and fresh menaces4 ,thus the extremists on both sides lashed each other to hotter fury and worsened the situation4 ,for several years ,india seethed with an unrest which jailings1 hangings1 and deportations did little to allay4 ,presently1 however1 things took at least a temporary turn for the better4 ,the extremists were1 after all1 a small minority1 and cool heads1 both ,british and ,indian1 were seeking a way out of the impasse4 ,conservative ,indian leaders like ,mr4 ,gokhale condemned terrorism1 and besought their countrymen to seek the realization of their aspirations by peaceful means4 ,on the other hand1 liberal-minded ,englishmen1 while refusing to be stampeded1 sought a programme of conciliation4 ,indian affairs were then in the hands of the eminent ,liberal statesman ,john ,morley1 and the fruit of his labours was the ,indian ,councils ,act of #aiji4 ,the act was a distinct departure from the hitherto almost unlimited absolutism of ,british rule in ,india4 ,it gave the ,indian opposition greatly increased opportunities for advice1 criticism1 and debate1 and it initiated a restricted scheme of elections to the legislative bodies which it established4 ,the salutary effect of these concessions was soon apparent4 ,the moderate nationalist elements1 while not wholly satisfied1 accepted the act as an earnest of subsequent concessions and as a proof of ,british good-will4 ,the terrorism and seditious plottings of the extremists1 while not stamped out1 were held in check and driven underground4 ,king ,george's visit to ,india in #aiaa evoked a wave of loyal enthusiasm which swept the peninsula and augured well for the future4 ,the year #aiaa was the high-water mark of this era of appeasement following the storms of #aije-i4 ,the years after #aiaa witnessed a gradual recrudescence of discontent as the first effect of the ,councils ,act wore off and the sense of unfulfilled aspiration sharpened the appetite for more4 ,in fact1 during these years1 ,indian nationalism was steadily broadening its base4 ,in one sense this made for stability1 for the nationalist movement ceased to be a small minority of extremists and came more under the influence of moderate leaders like ,mr4 ,gokhale1 who were content to work for distant goals by evolutionary methods4 ,it did1 however1 mean an increasing pressure on the government for fresh devolutions of authority4 ,the most noteworthy symptom of nationalist growth was the rallying of a certain section of ,mohammedan opinion to the nationalist cause4 ,the ,mohammedans had by this time formed their own organization1 the ,all-,india ,moslem ,league4 ,the league was the reverse of nationalist in complexion1 having been formed primarily to protect ,moslem interests against possible ,hindu ascendancy4 ,nevertheless1 as time passed1 some ,mohammedans1 reassured by the friendly attitude and promises of the ,hindu moderates1 abandoned the league's anti-,hindu attitude and joined the moderate nationalists1 though refraining from seditious agitation4 ,indeed1 the nationalists presently split into two distinct groups1 moderates and extremists4 ,the extremists1 condemned by their fellows1 kept up a desultory campaign of violence1 largely directed by exiled leaders who from the shelter of foreign countries incited their followers at home to seditious agitation and violent action4 ,such was the situation in ,india on the outbreak of the ,great ,war2 a situation by no means free from difficulty1 yet far less troubled than it had been a few years before4 ,of course1 the war produced an increase of unrest and a certain amount of terrorism4 ,yet ,india1 as a whole1 remained quiet4 ,throughout the war ,india contributed men and money unstintedly to the imperial cause1 and ,indian troops figured notably on ,european1 ,asiatic1 and ,african battlefields4 ,however1 though the war-years passed without any serious outbreak of revolutionary violence1 it must not be thought that the far more widespread movement for increasing self-government had been either quenched or stilled4 ,on the contrary1 the war gave this movement fresh impetus4 ,louder and louder swelled the cry for not merely good government but government acceptable to ,indian patriots because responsible to them4 ,the very fact that ,india had proved her loyalty to the ,empire and had given generously of her blood and treasure were so many fresh arguments adduced for the grant of a larger measure of self-direction4 ,numerous were the memoranda presented to the ,british authorities by various sections of ,indian public opinion4 ,these memoranda were an accurate reflection of the different shades of ,indian nationalism4 ,the ultimate goal of all was emancipation from ,british tutelage1 but they differed widely among themselves as to how and when this emancipation was to be attained4 ,the most conservative contented themselves with asking for modified self-government under ,british guidance1 while the more ambitious asked for the full status of a dominion of the ,british ,empire like ,australia and ,canada4 ,the revolutionary element naturally held aloof1 recognizing that only violence could serve their aim--immediate and unqualified independence4 ,of course even the more moderate nationalist demands implied great changes in the existing governmental system and a diminution of ,british control such as the ,government of ,india was not prepared at present to concede4 ,nevertheless1 the government met these demands by a conciliatory attitude foreshadowing fresh concessions in the near future4 ,in #aiaf the ,viceroy1 ,lord ,harding1 said3 ,i do not for a moment wish to discountenance self-government for ,india as a national ideal4 ,it is a perfectly legitimate aspiration and has the sympathy of all moderate men1 but in the present position of ,india it is not idealism that is needed but practical politics4 ,we should do our utmost to grapple with realities1 and lightly to raise extravagant hopes and encourage unrealizable demands can only tend to delay and will not accelerate political progress4 ,i know this is the sentiment of wise and thoughtful ,indians4 ,nobody is more anxious than ,i am to see the early realization of the legitimate aspirations of ,india1 but ,i am equally desirous of avoiding all danger of reaction from the birth of institutions which experience might prove to be premature4 ,as a matter of fact1 toward the close of #aiag1 ,mr4 ,montagu1 ,secretary of ,state for ,india1 came out from ,england with the object of thoroughly canvassing ,indian public opinion on the question of constitutional reform4 ,for months the problem was carefully weighed1 conferences being held with the representatives of all races1 classes1 and creeds4 ,the result of these researches was a monumental report signed by ,mr4 ,montagu and by the ,viceroy1 ,lord ,chelmsford1 and published in ,july1 #aiah4 ,the report recommended concessions far beyond any which ,great ,britain had hitherto made4 ,it frankly envisaged the gift of home rule for ,india as soon as possible1 and went on to state that the gift was to be conferred not because of ,indian agitation1 but because of the faith that is in us4 ,there followed these memorable words3 ,we believe profoundly that the time has come when the sheltered existence which we have given ,india cannot be prolonged without damage to her national life2 that we have a richer gift for her people than any that we have yet bestowed on them2 that nationhood within the ,empire represents something better than anything ,india has hitherto attained2 that the placid1 pathetic contentment of the masses is not the soil on which such ,indian nationhood will grow1 and that in deliberately disturbing it we are working for her highest good4 ,the essence of the report was its recommendation of the principle of diarchy1 or division of governmental responsibility between councillors nominated by the ,british executive and ministers chosen from elective legislative bodies4 ,this diarchy was to hold for both the central and provincial governments4 ,the legislatures were to be elected by a much more extensive franchise than had previously prevailed and were to have greatly enlarged powers4 ,previously they had been little more than advisory bodies2 now they were to become legislatures in the ,western sense1 though their powers were still limited1 many powers1 particularly that of the purse1 being still reserved to the executive4 ,the ,british executive thus retained ultimate control and had the last word2 thus no true balance of power was to exist1 the scales being frankly weighted in favour of the ,british ,raj4 ,but the report went on to state that this scheme of government was not intended to be permanent2 that it was frankly a transitional measure1 a school in which the ,indian people was to serve its apprenticeship1 and that when these first lessons in self-government had been learned1 ,india would be given a thoroughly representative government which would not only initiate and legislate1 but which would also control the executive officials4 ,the ,montagu-,chelmsford ,report was exhaustively discussed both in ,india and in ,england1 and from these frank discussions an excellent idea of the ,indian problem in all its challenging complexity can be obtained4 ,the nationalists split sharply on the issue1 the moderates welcoming the report and agreeing to give the proposed scheme of government their loyal co-operation1 the extremists condemning the proposals as a snare and a sham4 ,the moderate attitude was stated in a manifesto signed by their leaders1 headed by the eminent ,indian economist ,sir ,dinshaw ,wacha1 which stated3 ,the proposed scheme forms a complicated structure capable of improvement in some particulars1 especially at the top1 but is nevertheless a progressive measure4 ,the reforms are calculated to make the provinces of ,india reach the goal of complete responsible government4 ,on the whole1 the proposals are evolved with great foresight and conceived in a spirit of genuine sympathy with ,indian political aspirations1 for which the distinguished authors are entitled to the country's gratitude4 ,the condemnation of the radicals was voiced by leaders like ,mr4 ,tilak1 who urged standing fast by the ,indian ,national ,congress ideal1 and ,mr4 ,bepin ,chander ,pal1 who asserted3 ,it is my deliberate opinion that if the scheme is accepted1 the ,government will be more powerful and more autocratic than it is to-day4 ,extremely interesting was the protest of the anti-nationalist groups1 particularly the ,mohammedans and the low-caste ,hindus4 ,for it is a fact significant of the complexity of the ,indian problem that many millions of ,indians fear the nationalist movement and look upon the autocracy of the ,british ,raj as a shield against nationalist oppression and discrimination4 ,the ,mohammedans of ,india are1 on the question of self-government for ,india1 sharply divided among themselves4 ,the majority still dislike and fear the nationalist movement1 owing to its ,hindu character4 ,a minority1 however1 as already stated1 have rallied to the nationalist cause4 ,this minority grew greatly in numbers during the war-years1 their increased friendliness being due not merely to desire for self-government but also to anger at the ,allies' policy of dismemberment of the ,ottoman ,empire and kindred policies in the ,near and ,middle ,east4#bjj ,the ,hindu nationalists were quick to sympathize with the ,mohammedans on these external matters1 and the result was a cordiality between the two elements never known before4 ,the predominance of high-caste ,brahmins in the nationalist movement explains the opposition of many low-caste ,hindus to ,indian home rule4 ,so great is the low-caste fear of losing their present protection under the ,british ,raj and of being subjected to the domination of a high-caste ,brahmin oligarchy that in recent years they have formed an association known as the ,namasudra1 led by well-known persons like ,doctor ,nair4#bja ,the ,namasudra points out what might happen by citing the ,brahminic pressure which occurs even in such political activity as already exists4 ,for example3 in many elections the ,brahmins have terrorized low-caste voters by threatening to out-caste all who should not vote the ,brahmin ticket1 thus making them ,pariahs--untouchables1 with no rights in ,hindu society4 ,such protests against home rule from large sections of the ,indian population gave pause even to many ,english students of the problem who had become convinced of home rule's theoretical desirability4 ,and of course they greatly strengthened the arguments of those numerous ,englishmen1 particularly ,anglo-,indians1 who asserted that ,india was as yet unfit for self-government4 ,said one of these objectors in ,the ,round ,table3 ,the masses care not one whit for politics2 ,home ,rule they do not understand4 ,they prefer the ,english ,district ,magistrate4 ,they only ask to remain in eternal and bovine quiescence4 ,they feel confidence in the ,englishman because he has always shown himself the ',protector of the ,poor1' and because he is neither ,hindu nor ,mussulman1 and has a reputation for honesty4 ,and ,lord ,sydenham1 in a detailed criticism of the ,montagu-,chelmsford proposals1 stated3 ,there are many defects in our system of government in ,india4 ,reforms are needed2 but they must be based solely upon considerations of the welfare of the masses of ,india as a whole4 ,if the policy of 'deliberately' disturbing their 'contentment' which the ,viceroy and the ,secretary of ,state have announced is carried out2 if1 through the 'whispering galleries of the ,east1' the word is passed that the only authority that can maintain law and order and secure the gradual building-up of an ,indian nation is weakening2 if1 as is proposed1 the great public services are emasculated2 then the fierce old animosities will break out afresh1 and1 assisted by a recrudescence of the reactionary forces of ,brahminism1 they will within a few years bring to nought the noblest work which the ,british race has ever accomplished4#bjb ,yet other ,english authorities on ,indian affairs asserted that the ,montagu-,chelmsford proposals were sound and must be enacted into law if the gravest perils were to be averted4 ,such were the opinions of men like ,lionel ,curtis#bjc and ,sir ,valentine ,chirol1 who stated3 ,it is of the utmost importance that there should be no unnecessary delay4 ,we have had object-lessons enough as to the danger of procrastination1 and in ,india as elsewhere time is on the side of the troublemakers4444 ,we cannot hope to reconcile ,indian ,extremism4 ,what we can hope to do is to free from its insidious influence all that is best in ,indian public life by opening up a larger field of useful activity4#bjd ,as a matter of fact1 the ,montagu-,chelmsford ,report was accepted as the basis of discussion by the ,british ,parliament1 and at the close of the year #aiai its recommendations were formally embodied in law4 ,unfortunately1 during the eighteen months which elapsed between the publication of the report and its legal enactment1 the situation in ,india had darkened4 ,militant unrest had again raised its head1 and ,india was more disturbed than it had been since #aiji4 ,for this there were several reasons4 ,in the first place1 all those nationalist elements who were dissatisfied with the report began coquetting with the revolutionary irreconcilables and encouraging them to fresh terrorism1 perhaps in the hope of stampeding the ,british ,parliament into wider concessions than the report had contemplated4 ,but there were other causes of a more general nature4 ,the year #aiah was a black one for ,india4 ,the world-wide influenza epidemic hit ,india particularly hard1 millions of persons being carried off by the grim plague4 ,furthermore1 ,india was cursed with drought1 the crops failed1 and the spectre of famine stalked through the land4 ,the year #aiai saw an even worse drought1 involving an almost record famine4 ,by the late summer it was estimated that millions of persons had died of hunger1 with millions more on the verge of starvation4 ,and on top of all came an ,afghan war1 throwing the north-west border into tumult and further unsettling the already restless ,mohammedan element4 ,the upshot was a wave of unrest revealing itself in an epidemic of riots1 terrorism1 and seditious activity which gave the ,british authorities serious concern4 ,so critical appeared the situation that a special commission was appointed to investigate conditions1 and the report handed in by its chairman1 ,justice ,rowlatt1 painted a depressing picture of the strength of revolutionary unrest4 ,the report stated that not only had a considerable number of young men of the educated upper classes become involved in the promotion of anarchical movements1 but that the ranks were filled with men belonging to other social orders1 including the military1 and that there was clear evidence of successful tampering with the loyalty of the native troops4 ,to combat this growing disaffection1 the ,rowlatt committee recommended fresh repressive legislation4 ,impressed with the gravity of the committee's report1 the ,government of ,india formulated a project of law officially known as the ,anarchical and ,revolutionary ,crimes ,act1 though generally known as the ,rowlatt ,bill4 ,by its provisions the authorities were endowed with greatly increased powers1 such as the right to search premises and arrest persons on mere suspicion of seditious activity1 without definite evidence of the same4 ,the ,rowlatt ,bill at once aroused bitter nationalist opposition4 ,not merely extremists1 but many moderates1 condemned it as a backward step and as a provoker of fresh trouble4 ,when the bill came up for debate in the ,indian legislative body1 the ,imperial ,legislative ,council1 all the native members save one opposed it1 and the bill was finally passed on strictly racial lines by the votes of the appointed ,english majority4 ,however1 the government considered the bill an absolute pre-requisite to the successful maintenance of order1 and it was passed into law in the spring of #aiai4 ,this brought matters to a head4 ,the nationalists1 stigmatizing the ,rowlatt law as the ,black ,cobra ,act1 were unmeasured in their condemnation4 ,the extremists engineered a campaign of militant protest and decreed the date of the bill's enactment1 ,april #f1 #aiai1 as a national ,humiliation ,day4 ,on that day monster mass-meetings were held1 at which nationalist orators made seditious speeches and inflamed the passions of the multitude4 ,humiliation ,day was in fact the beginning of the worst wave of unrest since the mutiny4 ,for the next three months a veritable epidemic of rioting and terrorism swept ,india1 particularly the northern provinces4 ,officials were assassinated1 ,english civilians were murdered1 and there was wholesale destruction of property4 ,at some moments it looked as though ,india were on the verge of revolution and anarchy4 ,however1 the government stood firm4 ,violence was countered with stern repression4 ,riotous mobs were mowed down wholesale by rifle and machine-gun fire or were scattered by bombs dropped from low-flying aeroplanes4 ,the most noted of these occurrences was the so-called ,amritsar ,massacre1 where ,british troops fired into a seditious mass-meeting1 killing #ejj and wounding #aejj persons4 ,in the end the government mastered the situation4 ,order was restored1 the seditious leaders were swept into custody1 and the revolutionary agitation was once more driven underground4 ,the enactment of the ,montagu-,chelmsford reform bill by the ,british ,parliament toward the close of the year did much to relax the tension and assuage discontent1 though the situation of ,india was still far from normal4 ,the deplorable events of the earlier part of #aiai had roused animosities which were by no means allayed4 ,the revolutionary elements1 though driven underground1 were more bitter and uncompromising than ever1 while opponents of home rule were confirmed in their conviction that ,india could not be trusted and that any relaxation of autocracy must spell anarchy4 ,this was obviously not the best mental atmosphere in which to apply the compromises of the ,montagu-,chelmsford reforms4 ,in fact1 the extremists were determined that they should not be given a fair trial1 regarding the reforms as a snare which must be avoided at all costs4 ,recognizing that armed rebellion was still impossible1 at least for the present1 the extremists evolved the idea known as non-co-operation4 ,this was1 in fact1 a gigantic boycott of everything ,british4 ,not merely were the new voters urged to stay away from the polls and thus elect no members to the proposed legislative bodies1 but lawyers and litigants were to avoid the courts1 taxpayers refuse to pay imposts1 workmen to go on strike1 shopkeepers to refuse to buy or sell ,british-made goods1 and even pupils to leave the schools and colleges4 ,this wholesale out-casting of everything ,british would make the ,english in ,india a new sort of ,pariah--untouchables2 the ,british ,government and the ,british community in ,india would be left in absolute isolation1 and the ,raj1 rendered unworkable1 would have to capitulate to the extremist demands for complete self-government4 ,such was the non-co-operation idea4 ,and the idea soon found an able exponent3 a certain ,m4 ,k4 ,gandhi1 who had long possessed a reputation for personal sanctity and thus inspired the ,hindu masses with that peculiar religious fervour which certain types of ,indian ascetics have always known how to arouse4 ,gandhi's propaganda can be judged by the following extract from one of his speeches3 ,it is as amazing as it is humiliating that less than #ajj1jjj white men should be able to rule #cae1jjj1jjj ,indians4 ,they do so somewhat1 undoubtedly1 by force1 but more by securing our co-operation in a thousand ways and making us more and more helpless and dependent on them1 as time goes forward4 ,let us not mistake reformed councils 7legislatures71 more law-courts1 and even governorships for real freedom or power4 ,they are but subtler methods of emasculation4 ,the ,british cannot rule us by mere force4 ,and so they resort to all means1 honourable and dishonourable1 in order to retain their hold on ,india4 ,they want ,india's billions and they want ,india's man-power for their imperialistic greed4 ,if we refuse to supply them with men and money1 we achieve our goal3 namely1 ,swaraj1#bje equality1 manliness4 ,the extreme hopes of the non-co-operation movement have not been realized4 ,the ,montagu-,chelmsford reforms have been put in operation1 and the first elections under them were held at the beginning of #aiba4 ,but the outlook is far from bright4 ,the very light vote cast at the elections revealed the effect of the non-co-operation movement1 which showed itself in countless other ways1 from strikes in factories to strikes of school-children4 ,india to-day is in a turmoil of unrest4 ,and this unrest is not merely political2 it is social as well4 ,the vast economic changes which have been going on in ,india for the past half-century have profoundly disorganized ,indian society4 ,these changes will be discussed in later chapters4 ,the point to be here noted is that the extremist leaders are capitalizing social discontent and are unquestionably in touch with ,bolshevik ,russia4 ,meanwhile the older factors of disturbance are by no means eliminated4 ,the recent atrocious massacre of dissident ,sikh pilgrims by orthodox ,sikh fanatics1 and the three-cornered riots between ,hindus1 ,mohammedans1 and native ,christians which broke out about the same time in southern ,india1 reveal the hidden fires of religious and racial fanaticism that smoulder beneath the surface of ,indian life4 ,the truth of the matter is that ,india is to-day a battle-ground between the forces of evolutionary and revolutionary change4 ,it is an anxious and a troubled time4 ,the old order is obviously passing1 and the new order is not yet fairly in sight4 ,the hour is big with possibilities of both good and evil1 and no one can confidently predict the outcome4 ,,footnotes3 #aib ,according to some historians1 this race-mixture occurred almost at once4 ,the theory is that the ,aryan conquerors1 who outside the north-western region had very few of their own women with them1 took ,dravidian women as wives or concubines1 and legitimatized their half-breed children1 the offspring of the conquerors1 both pure-bloods and mixed-bloods1 coalescing into a closed caste4 ,further infiltration of ,dravidian blood was thus prevented1 but ,aryan race-purity had been destroyed4 #aic ,sir ,bampfylde ,fuller1 ,studies of ,indian ,life and ,sentiment1 p4 #dj 7,london1 #aiaj74 ,for other discussions of caste and its effects1 see ,w4 ,archer1 ,india and the ,future 7,london1 #aiah72 ,sir ,v4 ,chirol1 ,indian ,unrest 7,london1 #aiaj72 ,rev4 ,j4 ,morrison1 ,new ,ideas in ,india3 ,a ,study of ,social1 ,political and ,religious ,developments 7,edinburgh1 #aijf72 ,sir ,h4 ,risley1 ,the ,people of ,india 7,london1 #aijh72 also writings of the ,namasudra leader1 ,dr4 ,nair1 previously quoted1 and ,s4 ,nihal ,singh1 ,india's ,untouchables1 ,contemporary ,review1 ,march1 #aiac4 #aid ,for the nationalist movement1 see ,archer1 ,chirol1 and ,morrison1 supra4 ,also ,sir ,h4 ,j4 ,s4 ,cotton1 ,india in ,transition 7,london1 #aijd72 ,j4 ,n4 ,farquhar1 ,modern ,religious ,movements in ,india 7,new ,york1 #aiae72 ,sir ,w4 ,w4 ,hunter1 ,the ,india of the ,queen and ,other ,essays 7,london1 #aijc72 ,w4 ,s4 ,lilly1 ,india and ,its ,problems 7,london1 #aijb72 ,sir ,v4 ,lovett1 ,a ,history of the ,indian ,nationalist ,movement 7,london1 #aibj72 ,j4 ,ramsay ,macdonald1 ,the ,government of ,india 7,london1 #aibj72 ,sir ,t4 ,morison1 ,imperial ,rule in ,india 7,london1 #ahii72 ,j4 ,d4 ,rees1 ,the ,real ,india 7,london1 #aijh72 ,sir ,j4 ,strachey1 ,india3 ,its ,administration and ,progress 7,fourth ,edition--,london1 #aiaa72 ,k4 ,vyasa ,rao1 ,the ,future ,government of ,india 7,london1 #aiah74 #aie ,i have already discussed this ,golden ,age tendency in ,chapter ,,iii4 ,for more or less ,extremist ,indian view-points1 see ,a4 ,coomaraswamy1 ,the ,dance of ,siva 7,new ,york1 #aiah72 ,h4 ,maitra1 ,hinduism3 ,the ,world-,ideal 7,london1 #aiaf72 ,bipin ,chandra ,pal1 ,the ,forces ,behind the ,unrest in ,india1 ,contemporary ,review1 ,february1 #aiaj2 also various writings of ,lajpat ,rai1 especially ,the ,arya ,samaj 7,london1 #aiae7 and ,young ,india 7,new ,york1 #aiaf74 #aif ,for ,indian ,mohammedan points of view1 mostly anti-,hindu1 see ,h4 ,h4 ,the ,aga ,khan1 ,india in ,transition 7,london1 #aiah72 ,s4 ,khuda ,bukhsh1 ,essays3 ,indian and ,islamic 7,london1 #aiab72 ,sir ,syed ,ahmed1 ,the ,present ,state of ,indian ,politics 7,allahabad1 #ahhh72 ,syed ,sirdar ,ali ,khan1 ,the ,unrest in ,india 7,bombay1 #aijg72 also his ,india of ,to-day 7,bombay1 #aijh74 #aig ,this attitude of the ,depressed ,classes1 especially as revealed in the ,namasudra ,association1 has already been discussed in ,chapter ,,iii1 and will be further touched upon later in this present chapter4 #aih ,regarding the ,indian native princes1 see ,archer and ,chirol1 supra4 ,also ,j4 ,pollen1 ,native ,states and ,indian ,home ,rule1 ,asiatic ,review1 ,january #a1 #aiag2 ,the ,maharajah of ,bobbili1 ,advice to the ,indian ,aristocracy 7,madras1 #aije72 articles by ,sir ,d4 ,barr and ,sir ,f4 ,younghusband in ,the ,empire and the ,century 7,london1 #aije74 #aii ,a good symposium of extremist comment is contained in ,chirol1 supra4 ,also see ,j4 ,d4 ,rees1 ,the ,real ,india 7,london1 #aijh72 series of extremist articles in ,the ,open ,court1 ,march1 #aiag4 ,a good sample of extremist literature is the fairly well-known pamphlet ,india's ,loyalty to ,england 7#aiae74 #bjj ,discussed in the preceding chapter4 #bja ,quoted in ,chapter ,,iv4 #bjb ,lord ,sydenham1 ,india1 ,contemporary ,review1 ,november1 #aiah4 ,for similar criticisms of the ,montagu-,chelmsford proposals1 see ,g4 ,m4 ,chesney1 ,india under ,experiment 7,london1 #aiah72 ,the ,first ,stage towards ,indian ,anarchy1 ,spectator1 ,december #bj1 #aiai4 #bjc ,lionel ,curtis1 ,letters to the ,people of ,india on ,responsible ,government1 already quoted at the end of ,chapter ,,iv4 #bjd ,sir ,v4 ,chirol1 ,india in ,travail1 ,edinburgh ,review1 ,july1 #aiah4 #bje ,i4 e41 self-government1 in the extremist sense--practically independence4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,economic ,,change ,one of the most interesting phenomena of modern world-history is the twofold conquest of the ,east by the ,west4 ,the word conquest is usually employed in a political sense1 and calls up visions of embattled armies subduing foreign lands and lording it over distant peoples4 ,such political conquests in the ,orient did of course occur1 and we have already seen how1 during the past century1 the decrepit states of the ,near and ,middle ,east fell an easy prey to the armed might of the ,european ,powers4 ,but what is not so generally realized is the fact that this political conquest was paralleled by an economic conquest perhaps even more complete and probably destined to produce changes of an even more profound and enduring character4 ,the root-cause of this economic conquest was the ,industrial ,revolution4 ,just as the voyages of ,columbus and ,da ,gama gave ,europe the strategic mastery of the ocean and thereby the political mastery of the world1 so the technical inventions of the later eighteenth century which inaugurated the ,industrial ,revolution gave ,europe the economic mastery of the world4 ,these inventions in fact heralded a new ,age of ,discovery1 this time into the realms of science4 ,the results were1 if possible1 more momentous even than those of the age of geographical discovery three centuries before4 ,they gave our race such increased mastery over the resources of nature that the ensuing transformation of economic life swiftly and utterly transformed the face of things4 ,this transformation was1 indeed1 unprecedented in the world's history4 ,hitherto man's material progress had been a gradual evolution4 ,with the exception of gunpowder1 he had tapped no new sources of material energy since very ancient times4 ,the horse-drawn mail-coach of our great-grandfathers was merely a logical elaboration of the horse-drawn ,egyptian chariot2 the wind-driven clipper-ship traced its line unbroken to ,ulysses's lateen bark before ,troy2 while industry still relied on the brawn of man and beast or upon the simple action of wind and waterfall4 ,suddenly all was changed4 ,steam1 electricity1 petrol1 the ,hertzian wave1 harnessed nature's hidden powers1 conquered distance1 and shrunk the terrestrial globe to the measure of human hands4 ,man entered a new material world1 differing not merely in degree but in kind from that of previous generations4 ,when ,i say ,man1 ,i mean1 so far as the nineteenth century was concerned1 the white man of ,europe and its racial settlements overseas4 ,it was the white man's brain which had conceived all this1 and it was the white man alone who at first reaped the benefits4 ,the two outstanding features of the new order were the rise of machine-industry with its incalculable acceleration of mass-production1 and the correlative development of cheap and rapid transportation4 ,both these factors favoured a prodigious increase in economic power and wealth in ,europe1 since ,europe became the workshop of the world4 ,in fact1 during the nineteenth century1 ,europe was transformed from a semi-rural continent into a swarming hive of industry1 gorged with goods1 capital1 and men1 pouring forth its wares to the remotest corners of the earth1 and drawing thence fresh stores of raw material for new fabrication and exchange4 ,such was the industrially revolutionized ,west which confronted an ,east as backward and stagnant in economics as it was in politics and the art of war4 ,in fact1 the ,east was virtually devoid of either industry or business1 as we understand these terms to-day4 ,economically1 the ,east was on an agricultural basis1 the economic unit being the self-supporting1 semi-isolated village4 ,oriental industries were handicrafts1 carried on by relatively small numbers of artisans1 usually working by and for themselves4 ,their products1 while often exquisite in quality1 were largely luxuries1 and were always produced by such slow1 antiquated methods that their quantity was limited and their market price relatively high4 ,despite very low wages1 therefore1 ,asiatic products not only could not compete in the world-market with ,european and ,american machine-made1 mass-produced articles1 but were hard hit in their home-markets as well4 ,this ,oriental inability to compete with ,western industry arose not merely from methods of production but also from other factors such as the mentality of the workers and the scarcity of capital4 ,throughout the ,near and ,middle ,east economic life rested on the principle of status4 ,the ,western economic principles of contract and competition were virtually unknown4 ,agriculturalists and artisans followed blindly in the footsteps of their fathers4 ,there was no competition1 no stimulus for improvement1 no change in customary wages1 no desire for a better and more comfortable living4 ,the industries were stereotyped2 the apprentice merely imitated his master1 and rarely thought of introducing new implements or new methods of manufacture4 ,instead of working for profit and advancement1 men followed an hereditary calling1 usually hallowed by religious sanctions1 handed down from father to son through many generations1 each calling possessing its own unchanging ideals1 its zealously guarded craft-secrets4 ,the few bolder1 more enterprising spirits who might have ventured to break the iron bands of custom and tradition were estopped by lack of capital4 ,fluid investment capital1 easily mobilized and ready to pour into an enterprise of demonstrable utility and profit1 simply did not exist4 ,to the ,oriental1 whether prince or peasant1 money was regarded1 not as a source of profit or a medium of exchange1 but as a store of value1 to be hoarded intact against a rainy day4 ,the ,east has been known for ages as a sink of the precious metals4 ,in ,india alone1 the value of the gold1 silver1 and jewels hidden in strong-boxes1 buried in the earth1 or hanging about the necks of women must run into billions4 ,says a recent writer on ,india3 ,i had the privilege of being taken through the treasure-vaults of one of the wealthiest ,maharajahs4 ,i could have plunged my arm to the shoulder in great silver caskets filled with diamonds1 pearls1 emeralds1 rubies4 ,the walls were studded with hooks and on each pair of hooks rested gold bars three to four feet long and two inches across4 ,i stood by a great cask of diamonds1 and picking up a handful let them drop slowly from between my fingers1 sparkling and glistening like drops of water in sunlight4 ,there are some seven hundred native states1 and the rulers of every one has his treasure-vaults on a more or less elaborate scale4 ,besides these1 every zamindar and every ,indian of high or low degree who can save anything1 wants to have it by him in actual metal2 he distrusts this new-fangled paper currency that they try to pass off on him4 ,sometimes he beats his coins into bangles for his wives1 and sometimes he hides money behind a loose brick or under a flat stone in the bottom of the oven1 or he goes out and digs a little hole and buries it4#bjf ,remember that this description is of present-day ,india1 after more than a century of ,british rule and notwithstanding a permeation of ,western ideas which1 as we shall presently see1 has produced momentous modifications in the native point of view4 ,remember also that this hoarding propensity is not peculiar to ,india but is shared by the entire ,orient4 ,we can then realize the utter lack of capital for investment purposes in the ,east of a hundred years ago1 especially when we remember that political insecurity and religious prohibitions of the lending of money at interest stood in the way of such far-sighted individuals as might have been inclined to employ their hoarded wealth for productive purposes4 ,there was1 indeed1 one outlet for financial activity--usury1 and therein virtually all the scant fluid capital of the old ,orient was employed4 ,but such capital1 lent not for productive enterprise1 but for luxury1 profligacy1 or incompetence1 was a destructive rather than a creative force and merely intensified the prejudice against capital of any kind4 ,such was the economic life of the ,orient a hundred years ago4 ,it is obvious that this archaic order was utterly unable to face the tremendous competition of the industrialized ,west4 ,everywhere the flood of cheap ,western machine-made1 mass-produced goods began invading ,eastern lands1 driving the native wares before them4 ,the way in which an ancient ,oriental handicraft like the ,indian textiles was literally annihilated by the destructive competition of ,lancashire cottons is only one of many similar instances4 ,to be sure1 some ,oriental writers contend that this triumph of ,western manufactures was due to political rather than economic reasons1 and ,indian nationalists cite ,british governmental activity in favour of the ,lancashire cottons above mentioned as the sole cause for the destruction of the ,indian textile handicrafts4 ,but such arguments appear to be fallacious4 ,british official action may have hastened the triumph of ,british industry in ,india1 but that triumph was inevitable in the long run4 ,the best proof is the way in which the textile crafts of independent ,oriental countries like ,turkey and ,persia were similarly ruined by ,western competition4 ,a further proof is the undoubted fact that ,oriental peoples1 taken as a whole1 have bought ,western-manufactured products in preference to their own hand-made wares4 ,to many ,westerners this has been a mystery4 ,such persons cannot understand how the ,orientals could buy the cheap1 shoddy products of the ,west1 manufactured especially for the ,eastern market1 in preference to their native wares of better quality and vastly greater beauty4 ,the answer1 however1 is that the average ,oriental is not an art connoisseur but a poor man living perilously close to the margin of starvation4 ,he not only wants but must buy things cheap1 and the wide price-margin is the deciding factor4 ,of course there is also the element of novelty4 ,besides goods which merely replace articles he has always used1 the ,west has introduced many new articles whose utility or charm are irresistible4 ,i have already mentioned the way in which the sewing-machine and the kerosene-lamp have swept the ,orient from end to end1 and there are many other instances of a similar nature4 ,the permeation of ,western industry has1 in fact1 profoundly modified every phase of ,oriental economic life4 ,new economic wants have been created2 standards of living have been raised2 canons of taste have been altered4 ,says a lifelong ,american student of the ,orient3 ,the knowledge of modern inventions and of other foods and articles has created new wants4 ,the ,chinese peasant is no longer content to burn bean-oil2 he wants kerosene4 ,the desire of the ,asiatic to possess foreign lamps is equalled only by his passion for foreign clocks4 ,the ambitious ,syrian scorns the mud roof of his ancestors1 and will be satisfied only with the bright red tiles imported from ,france4 ,everywhere articles of foreign manufacture are in demand4444 ,knowledge increases wants1 and the ,oriental is acquiring knowledge4 ,he demands a hundred things to-day that his grandfather never heard of4#bjg ,everywhere it is the same story4 ,an ,indian economic writer1 though a bitter enemy of ,western industrialism1 bemoans the fact that the artisans are losing their occupations and are turning to agriculture4 ,the cheap kerosene-oil from ,baku or ,new ,york threatens the oilman's#bjh existence4 ,brass and copper which have been used for vessels from time immemorial are threatened by cheap enamelled ironware imported from ,europe4444 ,there is also1 pari passu1 a transformation of the tastes of the consumers4 ,they abandon gur for crystal sugar4 ,home-woven cloths are now replaced by manufactured cloths for being too coarse4 ,all local industries are attacked and many have been destroyed4 ,villages that for centuries followed customary practices are brought into contact with the world's markets all on a sudden4 ,for steamships and railways which have established the connection have been built in so short an interval as hardly to allow breathing-time to the village which slumbered so long under the dominion of custom4 ,thus the sudden introduction of competition into an economic unit which had from time immemorial followed custom has wrought a mighty change4#bji ,this mighty change was due not merely to the influx of ,western goods but also to an equally momentous influx of ,western capital4 ,the opportunities for profitable investment were so numerous that ,western capital soon poured in streams into ,eastern lands4 ,virtually devoid of fluid capital of its own1 the ,orient was bound to have recourse to ,western capital for the initiation of all economic activity in the modern sense4 ,railways1 mines1 large-scale agriculture of the plantation type1 and many other undertakings thus came into being4 ,most notable of all was the founding of numerous manufacturing establishments from ,north ,africa to ,china and the consequent growth of genuine factory towns where the whir of machinery and the smoke of tall chimneys proclaimed that the ,east was adopting the industrial life of the ,west4 ,the momentous social consequences of this industrialization of the ,orient will be treated in subsequent chapters4 ,in the present chapter we will confine ourselves to a consideration of its economic side4 ,furthermore1 this book1 limited as it is to the ,near and ,middle ,east1 cannot deal with industrial developments in ,china and ,japan4 ,the reader should1 however1 always bear in mind ,far ,eastern developments1 which1 in the main1 run parallel to those which we shall here discuss4 ,these industrial innovations were at first pure ,western transplantings set in ,eastern soil4 ,initiated by ,western capital1 they were wholly controlled and managed by ,western brains4 ,western capital could not venture to entrust itself to ,orientals1 with their lack of the modern industrial spirit1 their habits of squeeze and nepotism1 their lust for quick returns1 and their incapacity for sustained business team-play4 ,as time passed1 however1 the success of ,western undertakings so impressed ,orientals that the more forward-looking among them were ready to risk their money and to acquire the technique necessary for success4 ,at the close of ,chapter ,,ii1 ,i described the development of modern business types in the ,moslem world1 and the same is true of the non-,moslem populations of ,india4 ,in ,india there were several elements such as the ,parsis and the ,hindu banyas1 or money-lenders1 whose previous activities in commerce or usury predisposed them to financial and industrial activity in the modern sense4 ,from their ranks have chiefly sprung the present-day native business communities of ,india1 exemplified by the jute and textile factories of ,calcutta and ,bombay1 and the great ,tata iron-works of ,bengal--undertakings financed by native capital and wholly under native control4 ,of course1 beside these successes there have been many lamentable failures4 ,nevertheless1 there seems to be no doubt that ,western industrialism is ceasing to be an exotic and is rooting itself firmly in ,eastern soil4#baj ,the combined result of ,western and ,eastern enterprise has been1 as already stated1 the rise of important industrial centres at various points in the ,orient4 ,in ,egypt a ,french writer remarks3 ,both banks of the ,nile are lined with factories1 sugar-refineries and cotton-mills1 whose belching chimneys tower above the mud huts of the fellahs4#baa ,and ,sir ,theodore ,morison says of ,india3 ,in the city of ,bombay the industrial revolution has already been accomplished4 ,bombay is a modern manufacturing city1 where both the dark and the bright side of modern industrialism strike the eye4 ,bombay has insanitary slums where overcrowding is as great an evil as in any ,european city2 she has a proletariat which works long hours amid the din and whir of machinery2 she also has her millionaires1 whose princely charities have adorned her streets with beautiful buildings4 ,signs of lavish wealth and1 let me add1 culture and taste in ,bombay astonish the visitor from the inland districts4 ,the brown villages and never-ending fields with which he has hitherto been familiar are the ,india which is passing away2 ,bombay is the presage of the future4#bab ,the juxtaposition of vast natural resources and a limitless supply of cheap labour has encouraged the most ambitious hopes in ,oriental minds4 ,some ,orientals look to a combination of ,western money and ,eastern man-power1 expressed by an ,indian economic writer in the formula3 ,english money and ,indian labour are the two cheapest things in the world4#bac ,others more ambitiously dream of industrializing the ,east entirely by native effort1 to the exclusion and even to the detriment of the ,west4 ,this view was well set forth some years ago by a ,hindu1 who wrote in a leading ,indian periodical3#bad ,in one sense the ,orient is really menacing the ,west1 and so earnest and open-minded is ,asia that no pretence or apology whatever is made about it4 ,the ,easterner has thrown down the industrial gauntlet1 and from now on ,asia is destined to witness a progressively intense trade warfare1 the ,occidental scrambling to retain his hold on the markets of the ,east1 and the ,oriental endeavouring to beat him in a battle in which heretofore he has been an easy victor4444 ,in competing with the ,occidental commercialists1 the ,oriental has awakened to a dynamic realization of the futility of pitting unimproved machinery and methods against modern methods and appliances4 ,casting aside his former sense of self-complacency1 he is studying the sciences and arts that have given the ,west its material prosperity4 ,he is putting the results of his investigations to practical use1 as a rule1 recasting the ,occidental methods to suit his peculiar needs1 and in some instances improving upon them4 ,this statement of the spirit of the ,orient's industrial awakening is confirmed by many white observers4 ,at the very moment when the above article was penned1 an ,american economic writer was making a study tour of the ,orient1 of which he reported3 ,the real cause of ,asia's poverty lies in just two things3 the failure of ,asiatic governments to educate their people1 and the failure of the people to increase their productive capacity by the use of machinery4 ,ignorance and lack of machinery are responsible for ,asia's poverty2 knowledge and modern tools are responsible for ,america's prosperity4 ,but1 continues this writer1 we must watch out4 ,asia now realizes these facts and is doing much to remedy the situation4 ,hence1 we must face in ever-increasing degree the rivalry of awakening peoples who are strong with the strength that comes from struggle with poverty and hardship1 and who have set themselves to master and apply all our secrets in the coming world-struggle for industrial supremacy and for racial readjustment4#bae ,another ,american observer of ,asiatic economic conditions reports3 ,all ,asia is being permeated with modern industry and present-day mechanical progress4#baf ,and ,sir ,theodore ,morison concludes regarding ,india's economic future3 ,india's industrial transformation is near at hand2 the obstacles which have hitherto prevented the adoption of modern methods of manufacture have been removed2 means of transport have been spread over the face of the whole country1 capital for the purchase of machinery and erection of factories may now be borrowed on easy terms2 mechanics1 engineers1 and business managers may be hired from ,europe to train the future captains of ,indian industry2 in ,english a common language has been found in which to transact business with all the provinces of ,india and with a great part of the ,western world2 security from foreign invasion and internal commotion justifies the inception of large enterprises4 ,all the conditions are favourable for a great reorganization of industry which1 when successfully accomplished1 will bring about an increase hitherto undreamed of in ,india's annual output of wealth4#bag ,the factor usually relied upon to overcome the ,orient's handicaps of inexperience and inexpertness in industrialism is its cheap labour4 ,to ,western observers the low wages and long hours of ,eastern industry are literally astounding4 ,take ,egypt and ,india as examples of industrial conditions in the ,near and ,middle ,east4 ,writing of ,egypt in #aijh1 the ,english economist ,h4 ,n4 ,brailsford says3 ,there was then no ,factory ,act in ,egypt4 ,there are all over the country ginning-mills1 which employ casual labour to prepare raw cotton for export during four or five months of the year4 ,the wages were low1 from #g-a_/b;d4 to #aj;d4 7#ae to #bj cents7 a day for an adult1 and #f;d4 7#ab cents7 for a child4 ,children and adults alike worked sometimes for twelve1 usually for fifteen1 and on occasion even for sixteen or eighteen hours a day4 ,in the height of the season even the children were put on night shifts of twelve hours4#bah ,in ,india conditions are about the same4 ,the first thorough investigation of ,indian industry was made in #aijg by a factory labour commission1 and the following are some of the data published in its report3 ,in the cotton-mills of ,bombay the hours regularly worked ran from thirteen to fourteen hours4 ,in the jute-mills of ,calcutta the operatives usually worked fifteen hours4 ,cotton-ginning factories required their employees to work seventeen and eighteen hours a day1 rice and flour mills twenty to twenty-two hours1 and an extreme case was found in a printing works where the men had to work twenty-two hours a day for seven consecutive days4 ,as to wages1 an adult male operative1 working from thirteen to fifteen hours a day1 received from #ae to #bj rupees a month 7#e to #f4ce74 ,child labour was very prevalent1 children six and seven years old working half-time--in many cases eight hours a day4 ,as a result of this report legislation was passed by the ,indian ,government bettering working conditions somewhat1 especially for women and children4 ,but in #aiad the ,french economist ,albert ,mtin1 after a careful study1 reported factory conditions not greatly changed1 the ,factory ,acts systematically evaded1 hours very long1 and wages extremely low4 ,in ,bombay men were earning from #aj cents to #bj cents per day1 the highest wages being #cj cents4 ,for women and children the maximum was #aj cents per day4#bai ,with such extraordinarily low wages and long hours of labour it might at first sight seem as though1 given adequate capital and up-to-date machinery1 the ,orient could not only drive ,occidental products from ,eastern markets but might invade ,western markets as well4 ,this1 indeed1 has been the fear of many ,western writers4 ,nearly three-quarters of a century ago ,gobineau prophesied an industrial invasion of ,europe from ,asia1#bbj and of late years economists like ,h4 ,n4 ,brailsford have warned against an emigration of ,western capital to the tempting lure of factory conditions in ,eastern lands4#bba ,nevertheless1 so far as the ,near and ,middle ,east is concerned1 nothing like this has as yet materialized4 ,china1 to be sure1 may yet have unpleasant surprises in store for the ,west1#bbb but neither the ,moslem world nor ,india have developed factory labour with the skill1 stamina1 and assiduity sufficient to undercut the industrial workers of ,europe and ,america4 ,in ,india1 for example1 despite a swarming and poverty-stricken population1 the factories are unable to recruit an adequate or dependable labour-supply4 ,says ,m4 ,mtin3 ,with such long hours and low wages it might be thought that ,indian industry would be a formidable competitor of the ,west4 ,this is not so4 ,the reason is the bad quality of the work4 ,the poorly paid coolies are so badly fed and so weak that it takes at least three of them to do the work of one ,european4 ,also1 the ,indian workers lack not only strength but also skill1 attention1 and liking for their work4444 ,an ,indian of the people will do anything else in preference to becoming a factory operative4 ,the factories thus get only the dregs of the working class4 ,the workers come to the factories and mines as a last resort2 they leave as soon as they can return to their prior occupations or find a more remunerative employment4 ,thus the factories can never count on a regular labour-supply4 ,would higher wages remedy this8 ,many employers say no--as soon as the workers got a little ahead they would quit1 either temporarily till their money was spent1 or permanently for some more congenial calling4#bbc ,these statements are fully confirmed by an ,indian economic writer1 who says3 ,one of the greatest drawbacks to the establishment of large industries in ,india is the scarcity and inefficiency of labour4 ,cheap labour1 where there is no physical stamina1 mental discipline1 and skill behind it1 tends to be costly in the end4 ,the ,indian labourer is mostly uneducated4 ,he is not in touch with his employers or with his work4 ,the labouring population of the towns is a flitting1 dilettante population4#bbd ,thus ,indian industry1 despite its very considerable growth1 has not come up to early expectations4 ,as the official ,year-,book very frankly states3 ,india1 in short1 is a country rich in raw materials and in industrial possibilities1 but poor in manufacturing accomplishments4#bbe ,in fact1 to some observers1 ,india's industrial future seems far from bright4 ,as a competent ,english student of ,indian conditions recently wrote3 ,some years ago it seemed possible that ,india might1 by a rapid assimilation of ,western knowledge and technical skill1 adapt for her own conditions the methods of modern industry1 and so reach an approximate economic level4 ,some even now threaten the ,western world with a vision of the vast populations of ,china and ,india rising up with skilled organization1 vast resources1 and comparatively cheap labour to impoverish the ,west4 ,to the present writer this is a mere bogey4 ,the peril is of a very different kind4 ,instead of a growing approximation1 he sees a growing disparity4 ,for every step ,india takes toward mechanical efficiency1 the ,west takes two4 ,when ,india is beginning to use bicycles and motor-cars 7not to make them71 the ,west is perfecting the aeroplane4 ,that is merely symbolic4 ,the war1 as we know1 has speeded up mechanical invention and produced a population of mechanics2 but ,india has stood comparatively still4 ,it is1 up to now1 overwhelmingly medival1 a country of domestic industry and handicrafts4 ,mechanical power1 even of the simplest1 has not yet been applied to its chief industry--agriculture4 ,yet the period of age-long isolation is over1 and ,india can never go back to it2 nevertheless1 the gap between ,east and ,west is widening4 ,what is to be the outcome for her #cjj millions8 ,we are in danger in the ,east of seeing the worst evils of commercialism developed on an enormous scale1 with the vast population of ,india the victims--of seeing the ,east become a world slum4#bbf ,whether or not this pessimistic outlook is justified1 certain it is that not merely ,india but the entire ,orient is in a stage of profound transition2 and transition periods are always painful times4 ,we have been considering the new industrial proletariat of the towns4 ,but the older social classes are affected in very similar fashion4 ,the old-type handicraftsman and small merchant are obviously menaced by modern industrial and business methods1 and the peasant masses are in little better shape4 ,it is not merely a change in technique but a fundamental difference in outlook on life that is involved4 ,the life of the old ,orient1 while there was much want and hardship1 was an easygoing life1 with virtually no thought of such matters as time1 efficiency1 output1 and turnover4 ,the merchant sat cross-legged in his little booth amid his small stock of wares1 passively waiting for trade1 chaffering interminably with his customers1 annoyed rather than pleased if brisk business came his way4 ,the artisan usually worked by and for himself1 keeping his own hours and knocking off whenever he chose4 ,the peasant arose with the dawn1 but around noon he and his animals lay down for a long nap and slept until1 in the cool of afternoon1 they awoke1 stretched themselves1 and1 comfortably and casually1 went to work again4 ,to such people the speed1 system1 and discipline of our economic life are painfully repugnant1 and adaptation can at best be effected only very slowly and under the compulsion of the direst necessity4 ,meanwhile they suffer from the competition of those better equipped in the economic battle4 ,sir ,william ,ramsay paints a striking picture of the way in which the ,turkish population of ,asia ,minor1 from landlords and merchants to simple peasants1 have been going down-hill for the last half-century under the economic pressure not merely of ,westerners but of the native ,christian elements1 ,armenians and ,greeks1 who had partially assimilated ,western business ideas and methods4 ,under the old state of things1 he says1 there was in ,asia ,minor no economic progress and no mercantile development2 things went on in the old fashion1 year after year4 ,such simple business as was carried on was inconsistent with the highly developed ,western business system and ,western civilization2 but it was not oppressive to the people4 ,there were no large fortunes2 there was no opportunity for making a great fortune2 it was impossible for one man to force into his service the minds and the work of a large number of people1 and so to create a great organization out of which he might make big profits4 ,there was a very large number of small men doing business on a small scale4#bbg ,sir ,william ,ramsay then goes on to describe the shattering of this archaic economic life by modern business methods1 to the consequent impoverishment of all classes of the unadaptable ,turkish population4 ,how the agricultural classes1 peasants and landlords alike1 are suffering from changing economic conditions is well exemplified by the recent history of ,india4 ,says the ,french writer ,chailley1 an authoritative student of ,indian problems3 ,for the last half-century large fractions of the agricultural classes are being entirely despoiled of their lands or reduced to onerous tenancies4 ,on the other hand1 new classes are rising and taking their place4444 ,both ryots and zamindars#bbh are involved4 ,the old-type nobility has not advanced with the times4 ,it remains idle and prodigal1 while the peasant proprietors1 burdened by the traditions of many centuries1 are likewise improvident and ignorant4 ,on the other hand1 the economic conditions of ,british ,india are producing capitalists who seek employment for their wealth4 ,a conflict between them and the old landholders was predestined1 and the result was inevitable4 ,wealth goes to the cleverest1 and the land must pass into the hands of new masters1 to the great indignation of the agricultural classes1 a portion of whom will be reduced to the position of farm-labourers4#bbi ,the ,hindu economist ,mukerjee thus depicts the disintegration and decay of the ,indian village3 ,new economic ideas have now begun to influence the minds of the villagers4 ,some are compelled to leave their occupations on account of foreign competition1 but more are leaving their hereditary occupations of their own accord4 ,the ,brahmins go to the cities to seek government posts or professional careers4 ,the middle classes also leave their villages and get scattered all over the country to earn a living4 ,the peasants also leave their ancestral acres and form a class of landless agricultural labourers4 ,the villages1 drained of their best blood1 stagnate and decay4 ,the movement from the village to the city is in fact not only working a complete revolution in the habits and ideals of our people1 but its economic consequences are far more serious than are ordinarily supposed4 ,it has made our middle classes helplessly subservient to employment and service1 and has also killed the independence of our peasant proprietors4 ,it has jeopardized our food-supply1 and is fraught with the gravest peril not only to our handicrafts but also to our national industry--agriculture4#bcj ,happily there are signs that1 in ,indian agriculture at least1 the transition period is working itself out and that conditions may soon be on the mend4 ,both the ,british ,government and the native princes have vied with one another in spreading ,western agricultural ideas and methods1 and since the ,indian peasant has proved much more receptive than has the ,indian artisan1 a more intelligent type of farmer is developing1 better able to keep step with the times4 ,a good instance is the growth of rural co-operative credit societies4 ,first introduced by the ,british ,government in #aijd1 there were in #aiae more than #ag1jjj such associations1 with a total of #hbe1jjj members and a working capital of nearly #cj1jjj1jjj4 ,these agricultural societies make loans for the purchase of stock1 fodder1 seed1 manure1 sinking of wells1 purchase of ,western agricultural machinery1 and1 in emergencies1 personal maintenance4 ,in the districts where they have established themselves they have greatly diminished the plague of usury practised by the banyas1 or village money-lenders1 lowering the rate of interest from its former crushing range of #bj to #ge per cent4 to a range averaging from #i to #ah per cent4 ,of course such phenomena are as yet merely exceptions to a very dreary rule4 ,nevertheless1 they all point toward a brighter morrow4#bca ,but this brighter agricultural morrow is obviously far off1 and in industry it seems to be farther still4 ,meanwhile the changing ,orient is full of suffering and discontent4 ,what wonder that many ,orientals ascribe their troubles1 not to the process of economic transition1 but to the political control of ,european governments and the economic exploitation of ,western capital4 ,the result is agitation for emancipation from ,western economic as well as ,western political control4 ,at the end of ,chapter ,,ii we examined the movement among the ,mohammedan peoples known as ,economic ,pan-,islamism4 ,a similar movement has arisen among the ,hindus of ,india--the so-called ,swadeshi movement4 ,the ,swadeshists declare that ,india's economic ills are almost entirely due to the drain of ,india's wealth to ,england and other ,western lands4 ,they therefore advocate a boycott of ,english goods until ,britain grants ,india self-government1 whereupon they propose to erect protective tariffs for ,indian products1 curb the activities of ,british capital1 replace high-salaried ,english officials by natives1 and thereby keep ,india's wealth at home4#bcb ,an analysis of these ,swadeshist arguments1 however1 reveals them as inadequate to account for ,india's ills1 which are due far more to the general economic trend of the times than to any specific defects of the ,british connection4 ,british governance and ,british capital do cost money1 but their undoubted efficiency in producing peace1 order1 security1 and development must be considered as offsets to the higher costs which native rule and native capital would impose4 ,as ,sir ,theodore ,morison well says3 ,the advantages which the ,british ,navy and ,british credit confer on ,india are a liberal offset to her expenditure on pensions and gratuities to her ,english servants4444 ,india derives a pecuniary advantage from her connection with the ,british ,empire4 ,the answer1 then1 which ,i give to the question ',what economic equivalent does ,india get for foreign payments8' is this3 ,india gets the equipment of modern industry1 and she gets an administration favourable to economic evolution cheaper than she could provide it herself4#bcc ,a comparison with ,japan's much more costly defence budgets1 inferior credit1 and higher interest charges on both public and private loans is enlightening on this point4 ,in fact1 some ,indians themselves admit the fallacy of ,swadeshist arguments4 ,as one of them remarks3 ,the so-called economic 'drain' is nonsense4 ,most of the misery of late years is due to the rising cost of living--a world-wide phenomenon4 ,and in proof of this he cites conditions in other ,oriental countries1 especially ,japan4#bcd ,as warm a friend of the ,indian people as the ,british labour leader1 ,ramsay ,macdonald1 states3 ,one thing is quite evident1 a tariff will not re-establish the old hand-industry of ,india nor help to revive village handicrafts4 ,factory and machine production1 native to ,india itself1 will throttle them as effectively as that of ,lancashire and ,birmingham has done in the past4#bce ,even more trenchant are the criticisms formulated by the ,hindu writer ,pramatha ,nath ,bose4#bcf ,the drain1 says ,mr4 ,bose1 is ruining ,india4 ,but would the ,home ,rule programme1 as envisaged by most ,swadeshists1 cure ,india's economic ills8 ,under ,home ,rule these people would do the following things3 7#a7 ,substitute ,englishmen for ,indians in the ,administration2 7#b7 levy protective duties on ,indian products2 7#c7 grant ,state encouragement to ,indian industries2 7#d7 disseminate technical education4 ,now1 how would these matters work out8 ,the substitution of ,indian for ,british officials would not lessen the drain as much as most ,home ,rulers think4 ,the high-placed ,indian officials who already exist have acquired ,european standards of living1 so the new official corps would cost almost as much as the old4 ,also1 the influence of the example set by the well-to-do ,indian officials would permeate ,indian society more largely than at present1 and the demand for ,western articles would rise in proportion4 ,so commercial exploitation by foreigners would not only continue almost as if they were ,europeans1 but might even increase4 ,as to a protective tariff1 it would attract ,european capital to ,india which would exploit labour and skim the profits4 ,india has shown relatively little capacity for indigenous industrial development4 ,of course1 even at low wages1 many ,indians might benefit1 yet such persons would form only a tithe of the millions now starving--besides the fact that this industrialization would bring in many new social evils4 ,as to ,state encouragement of industries1 this would bring in ,western capital even more than a protective tariff1 with the results already stated4 ,as for technical education1 it is a worthy project1 but1 says ,mr4 ,bose1 ,i am afraid the movement is too late1 now4 ,within the last thirty years the ,westerners and the ,japanese have gone so far ahead of us industrially that it has been yearly becoming more and more difficult to compete with them4 ,in fact1 ,mr4 ,bose goes on to criticize the whole system of ,western education1 as applied to ,india4 ,neither higher nor lower education have proven panaceas4 ,higher education has led to the material prosperity of a small section of our community1 comprising a few thousands of well-to-do lawyers1 doctors1 and ,state servants4 ,but their occupations being of a more or less unproductive or parasitic character1 their well-being does not solve the problem of the improvement of ,india as a whole4 ,on the contrary1 as their taste for imported articles develops in proportion to their prosperity1 they help to swell rather than diminish the economic drain from the country which is one of the chief causes of our impoverishment4 ,neither has elementary education on the whole furthered the well-being of the multitude4 ,it has not enabled the cultivators to 'grow two blades where one grew before4' ,on the contrary1 it has distinctly diminished their efficiency by inculcating in the literate proletariat1 who constitute the cream of their class1 a strong distaste for their hereditary mode of living and their hereditary callings1 and an equally strong taste for shoddy superfluities and brummagem fineries1 and for occupations of a more or less parasitic character4 ,they have1 directly or indirectly1 accelerated rather than retarded the decadence of indigenous industries1 and have thus helped to aggravate their own economic difficulties and those of the entire community4 ,what they want is more food--and ,new ,india vies with the ,government in giving them what is called 'education' that does not increase their food-earning capacity1 but on the contrary fosters in them tastes and habits which make them despise indigenous products and render them fit subjects for the exploitation of scheming capitalists1 mostly foreign4 ,political and economic causes could not have led to the extinction of indigenous industry if they had not been aided by change of taste fostered by the ,western environment of which the so-called 'education' is a powerful factor4 ,from all this ,mr4 ,bose concludes that none of the reforms advocated by the ,home ,rulers would cure ,india's ills4 ,in fact1 the chances are1 she would be more inextricably entangled in the toils of ,western civilization1 without any adequate compensating advantage1 and the grip of the ,west would close on her to crush her more effectively4 ,therefore1 according to ,mr4 ,bose1 the only thing for ,india to do is to turn her back on everything ,western and plunge resolutely into the traditional past4 ,as he expresses it3 ,india's salvation lies1 not in the region of politics1 but outside it2 not in aspiring to be one of the 'great' nations of the present day1 but in retiring to her humble position--a position1 to my mind1 of solitary grandeur and glory2 not in going forward on the path of ,western civilization1 but in going back from it so far as practicable2 not in getting more and more entangled in the silken meshes of its finely knit1 widespread net1 but in escaping from it as far as possible4 ,such are the drastic conclusions of ,mr4 ,bose2 conclusions shared to a certain extent by other ,indian idealists like ,rabindranath ,tagore4 ,but surely such projects1 however idealistic1 are the vainest fantasies4 ,whole peoples cannot arbitrarily cut themselves off from the rest of the world1 like isolated individuals forswearing society and setting up as anchorites in the jungle4 ,the time for hermit nations has passed1 especially for a vast country like ,india1 set at the cross-roads of the ,east1 open to the sea1 and already profoundly penetrated by ,western ideas4 ,nevertheless1 such criticisms1 appealing as they do to the strong strain of asceticism latent in the ,indian nature1 have affected many ,indians who1 while unable to concur in the conclusions1 still try to evolve a middle term1 retaining everything congenial in the old system and grafting on a select set of ,western innovations4 ,accordingly1 these persons have elaborated programmes for a new order built on a blend of ,hindu mysticism1 caste1 ,western industry1 and socialism4#bcg ,now these schemes are highly ingenious4 ,but they are not convincing4 ,their authors should remember the old adage that you cannot eat your cake and have it too4 ,when we realize the abysmal antithesis between the economic systems of the old ,east and the modern ,west1 any attempt to combine the most congenial points of both while eschewing their defects seems an attempt to reconcile irreconcilables and about as profitable as trying to square the circle4 ,as ,lowes ,dickinson wisely observes3 ,civilization is a whole4 ,its art1 its religion1 its way of life1 all hang together with its economic and technical development4 ,i doubt whether a nation can pick and choose2 whether1 for instance1 the ,east can say1 ',we will take from the ,west its battleships1 its factories1 its medical science2 we will not take its social confusion1 its hurry and fatigue1 its ugliness1 its over-emphasis on activity4'444 ,so ,i expect the ,east to follow us1 whether it like it or no1 into all these excesses1 and to go right through1 not round1 all that we have been through on its way to a higher phase of civilization4#bch ,this seems to be substantially true4 ,judged by the overwhelming body of evidence1 the ,east1 in its contemporary process of transformation1 will follow the ,west--avoiding some of our more patent mistakes1 perhaps1 but1 in the main1 proceeding along similar lines4 ,and1 as already stated1 this transformation is modifying every phase of ,eastern life4 ,we have already examined the process at work in the religious1 political1 and economic phases4 ,to the social phase let us now turn4 ,,footnotes3 #bjf ,f4 ,b4 ,fisher1 ,india's ,silent ,revolution1 p4 #ec 7,new ,york1 #aibj74 #bjg ,rev4 ,a4 ,j4 ,brown1 ,economic ,changes in ,asia1 ,the ,century1 ,march1 #aijd4 #bjh ,i4 e4 the purveyor of the native vegetable-oils4 #bji ,r4 ,mukerjee1 ,the ,foundations of ,indian ,economics1 p4 #e 7,london1 #aiaf74 #baj ,on these points1 see ,fisher1 op4 cit42 ,sir ,t4 ,morison1 ,the ,economic ,transition in ,india 7,london1 #aiaa72 ,sir ,valentine ,chirol1 ,indian ,unrest 7,london1 #aiaj72 ,d4 ,h4 ,dodwell1 ,economic ,transition in ,india1 ,economic ,journal1 ,december1 #aiaj2 ,j4 ,p4 ,jones1 ,the ,present ,situation in ,india1 ,journal of ,race ,development1 ,july1 #aiaj4 #baa ,l4 ,bertrand1 ,le ,mirage oriental1 pp4 #bj-ba 7,paris1 #aiaj74 #bab ,sir ,t4 ,morison1 ,the ,economic ,transition in ,india1 p4 #aha4 #bac ,quoted by ,jones1 supra4 #bad ,the ,indian ,review 7,madras71 #aiaj4 #bae ,clarence ,poe1 ,what the ,orient can ,teach ,us1 ,world's ,work1 ,july1 #aiaa4 #baf ,c4 ,s4 ,cooper1 ,the ,modernizing of the ,orient1 p4 #e 7,new ,york1 #aiad74 #bag ,morison1 op4 cit41 p4 #bdb4 #bah ,h4 ,n4 ,brailsford1 ,the ,war of ,steel and ,gold1 p4 #aad 7,london1 #aiae74 #bai ,a4 ,mtin1 ,l',inde d'aujourd'hui3 tude sociale1 p4 #ccf 7,paris1 #aiah74 #bbj ,in his book1 ,trois ,ans en ,perse 7,paris1 #aheh74 #bba ,brailsford1 op4 cit41 pp4 #hc1 #aad-aae4 #bbb ,regarding conditions in ,china1 especially the extraordinary discipline and working ability of the ,chinaman1 see my ,rising ,tide of ,colour against ,white ,world-,supremacy1 pp4 #bh-cj1 #bdc-bea4 #bbc ,mtin1 op4 cit41 p4 #ccg4 #bbd ,a4 ,yusuf ,ali1 ,life and ,labour in ,india1 p4 #ahc 7,london1 #aijg74 #bbe ,india in the ,years #aiag-aiah 7official publication--,calcutta74 #bbf ,young and ,ferrers1 ,india in ,conflict1 pp4 #ae-ag 7,london1 #aibj74 #bbg ,sir ,w4 ,m4 ,ramsay1 ,the ,turkish ,peasantry of ,anatolia1 ,quarterly ,review1 ,january1 #aiah4 #bbh ,i4 e4 peasants and landlords4 #bbi ,j4 ,chailley ,administrative ,problems of ,british ,india1 p4 #cci 7,london1 #aiaj--;,english translation74 #bcj ,mukerjee1 op4 cit41 p4 #i4 #bca ,on the co-operative movement in ,india1 see ,fisher1 ,india's ,silent ,revolution1 pp4 #ed-eh2 ,r4 ,b4 ,ewebank1 ,the ,co-operative ,movement in ,india1 ,quarterly ,review1 ,april1 #aiaf4 ,india's economic problems1 both agricultural and industrial1 have been carefully studied by a large number of ,indian economists1 some of whose writings are extremely interesting4 ,some of the most noteworthy books1 besides those of ,mukerjee and ,yusuf ,ali1 already quoted1 are3 ,dadabhai ,naoroji1 ,poverty and ,un-,british ,rule in ,india 7,london1 #aija72 ,romesh ,dutt1 ,the ,economic ,history of ,india in the ,victorian ,age 7,london1 #aijf72 ,h4 ,h4 ,gosh1 ,the ,advancement of ,industry 7,calcutta1 #aiaj72 ,p4 ,c4 ,ray1 ,the ,poverty ,problem in ,india 7,calcutta1 #ahie72 ,m4 ,g4 ,ranade1 ,essays on ,indian ,economics 7,madras1 #aibj72 ,jadunath ,sarkar1 ,economics of ,british ,india 7,calcutta1 #aiaa74 #bcb ,the best compendium of ,swadeshist opinion is the volume containing pronouncements from all the ,swadeshi leaders1 entitled1 ,the ,swadeshi ,movement3 ,a ,symposium 7,madras1 #aiaj74 ,see also writings of the economists ,gosh1 ,mukerjee1 ,ray1 and ,sarkar1 above quoted1 as well as the various writings of the nationalist agitator ,lajpat ,rai4 ,a good summary interpretation is found in ,m4 ,glotz1 ,le ,mouvement ',swadeshi' dans l',inde1 ,revue du ,mois1 ,july1 #aiac4 #bcc ,sir ,t4 ,morison1 ,the ,economic ,transition in ,india1 pp4 #bdj-bda4 ,also see ,sir ,valentine ,chirol1 ,indian ,unrest1 pp4 #bee-bgi2 ,william ,archer1 ,india and the ,future1 pp4 #aca-aeg4 #bcd ,syed ,sirdar ,ali ,khan1 ,india of ,to-day1 p4 #ai 7,bombay1 #aijh74 #bce ,j4 ,ramsay ,macdonald1 ,the ,government of ,india1 p4 #acc 7,london1 #aibj74 #bcf ,in ,the ,hindustan ,review 7,calcutta71 #aiag4 #bcg ,good examples are found in the writings of ,mukerjee and ,lajpat ,rai1 already quoted4 #bch ,g4 ,lowes ,dickinson1 ,an ,essay on the ,civilizations of ,india1 ,china1 and ,japan1 pp4 #hd-he 7,london1 #aiad74 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,social ,,change ,the momentous nature of the contemporary transformation of the ,orient is nowhere better attested than by the changes effected in the lives of its peoples4 ,that dynamic influence of the ,west which is modifying governmental forms1 political concepts1 religious beliefs1 and economic processes is proving equally potent in the range of social phenomena4 ,in the third chapter of this volume we attempted a general survey of ,western influence along all the above lines4 ,in the present chapter we shall attempt a detailed consideration of the social changes which are to-day taking place4 ,these social changes are very great1 albeit many of them may not be so apparent as the changes in other fields4 ,so firm is the hold of custom and tradition on individual1 family1 and group life in the ,orient that superficial observers of the ,east are prone to assert that these matters are still substantially unaltered1 however pronounced may have been the changes on the external1 material side4 ,yet such is not the opinion of the closest students of the ,orient1 and it is most emphatically not the opinion of ,orientals themselves4 ,these generally stress the profound social changes which are going on4 ,and it is their judgments which seem to be the more correct4 ,to say that the ,east is advancing materially but standing still socially is to ignore the elemental truth that social systems are altered quite as much by material things as by abstract ideas4 ,who that looks below the surface can deny the social1 moral1 and civilizing power of railroads1 post-offices1 and telegraph lines8 ,does it mean nothing socially as well as materially that the ,east is adopting from the ,west a myriad innovations1 weighty and trivial1 important and frivolous1 useful and baneful8 ,does it mean nothing socially as well as materially that the ,prophet's tomb at ,medina is lit by electricity and that picture post-cards are sold outside the ,holy ,kaaba at ,mecca8 ,it may seem mere grotesque piquancy that the muezzin should ride to the mosque in a tram-car1 or that the ,moslem business man should emerge from his harem1 read his morning paper1 motor to an office equipped with a prayer-rug1 and turn from his devotions to dictaphone and telephone4 ,yet why assume that his life is moulded by mosque1 harem1 and prayer-rug1 and yet deny the things of the ,west a commensurate share in the shaping of his social existence8 ,now add to these tangible innovations intangible novelties like scientific education1 ,occidental amusements1 and the partial emancipation of women1 and we begin to get some idea of the depth and scope of the social transformation which is going on4 ,in those parts of the ,orient most open to ,western influences this social transformation has attained notable proportions for more than a generation4 ,when the ,hungarian ,orientalist ,vambry returned to ,constantinople in #ahif after forty years' absence1 he stood amazed at the changes which had taken place1 albeit ,constantinople was then subjected to the worst repression of the ,hamidian rgime4 ,i had1 he writes1 continually to ask myself this question3 ,is it possible that these are my ,turks of #ahef2 and how can all these transformations have taken place8 ,i was astonished at the aspect of the city2 at the stone buildings which had replaced the old wooden ones2 at the animation of the streets1 in which carriages and tram-cars abounded1 whereas forty years before only saddle-animals were used2 and when the strident shriek of the locomotive mingled with the melancholy calls from the minarets1 all that ,i saw and heard seemed to me a living protest against the old adage3 ',la bidaat fil ,islam'--',there is nothing to reform in ,islam4' ,my astonishment became still greater when ,i entered the houses and was able to appreciate the people1 not only by their exteriors but still more by their manner of thought4 ,the effendi class#bci of ,constantinople seemed to me completely transformed in its conduct1 outlook1 and attitude toward foreigners4#bdj ,vambry stresses the inward as well as outward evolution of the ,turkish educated classes1 for he says3 ,not only in his outward aspect1 but also in his home-life1 the present-day ,turk shows a strong inclination to the manners and habits of the ,west1 in such varied matters as furniture1 table-manners1 sex-relations1 and so forth4 ,this is of the very greatest significance4 ,for a people may1 to be sure1 assimilate foreign influences in the intellectual field1 if it be persuaded of their utility and advantage2 but it gives up with more difficulty customs and habits which are in the blood4 ,one cannot over-estimate the numerous sacrifices which1 despite everything1 the ,turks have made in this line4 ,i find all ,turkish society1 even the ,mollahs1#bda penetrated with the necessity of a union with ,western civilization4 ,opinions may differ as to the method of assimilation3 some wish to impress on the foreign civilization a national character2 others1 on the contrary1 are partisans of our intellectual culture1 such as it is1 and reprobate any kind of modification4#bdb ,most significant of all1 ,vambry found even the secluded women of the harems1 those bulwarks of obscurantism1 notably changed4 ,yes1 ,i repeat1 the life of women in ,turkey seems to me to have been radically transformed in the last forty years1 and it cannot be denied that this transformation has been produced by internal conviction as much as by external pressure4 ,noting the spread of female education1 and the increasing share of women in reform movements1 ,vambry remarks3 ,this is of vital importance1 for when women shall begin to act in the family as a factor of modern progress1 real reforms1 in society as well as in the state1 cannot fail to appear4#bdc ,in ,india a similar permeation of social life by ,westernism is depicted by the ,moslem liberal1 ,s4 ,khuda ,bukhsh1 albeit ,mr4 ,bukhsh1 being an insider1 lays greater emphasis upon the painful aspects of the inevitable transition process from old to new4 ,he is not unduly pessimistic1 for he recognizes that the age of transition is necessarily to a certain extent an age of laxity of morals1 indifference to religion1 superficial culture1 and gossiping levity4 ,these are passing ills which time itself will cure4 ,nevertheless1 he does not minimize the critical aspects of the present situation1 which implies nothing less than the breakdown of the old social system4 ,the clearest result of this breakdown of our old system of domestic life and social customs under the assault of ,european ideas1 he says1 is to be found in two directions--in our religious beliefs and in our social life4 ,the old system1 with all its faults1 had many redeeming virtues4 ,to-day this old system1 narrow-minded but ,god-fearing1 has been replaced by a strange independence of thought and action4 ,reverence for age1 respect for our elders1 deference to the opinions of others1 are fast disappearing4444 ,under the older system the head of the family was the sole guide and friend of its members4 ,his word had the force of law4 ,he was1 so to speak1 the custodian of the honour and prestige of the family4 ,from this exalted position he is now dislodged1 and the most junior member now claims equality with him4#bdd ,mr4 ,bukhsh deplores the current wave of extravagance1 due to the wholesale adoption of ,european customs and modes of living4 ,what1 he asks1 has happened here in ,india8 ,we have adopted ,european costume1 ,european ways of living1 even the ,european vices of drinking and gambling1 but none of their virtues4 ,this must be remedied4 ,we must learn at the feet of ,europe1 but not at the sacrifice of our ,eastern individuality4 ,but this is precisely what we have not done4 ,we have dabbled a little in ,english and ,european history1 and we have commenced to despise our religion1 our literature1 our history1 our traditions4 ,we have unlearned the lessons of our history and our civilization1 and in their place we have secured nothing solid and substantial to hold society fast in the midst of endless changes4 ,in fine3 ,destruction has done its work1 but the work of construction has not yet begun4#bde ,like ,vambry1 ,bukhsh lays strong emphasis on the increasing emancipation of women4 ,no longer regarded as mere child-bearing machines1 the ,mohammedan women of ,india are getting educated day by day1 and now assert their rights4 ,though the purdah system#bdf still prevails1 it is no longer that severe1 stringent1 and unreasonable seclusion of women which existed fifty years ago4 ,it is gradually relaxing1 and women are getting1 step by step1 rights and liberties which must in course of time end in the complete emancipation of ,eastern womanhood4 ,forty years ago women meekly submitted to neglect1 indifference1 and even harsh treatment from their husbands1 but such is the case no longer4#bdg ,these two descriptions of social conditions in the ,near and ,middle ,east respectively enable one to get a fair idea of the process of change which is going on4 ,of course it must not be forgotten that both writers deal primarily with the educated upper classes of the large towns4 ,nevertheless1 the leaven is working steadily downward1 and with every decade is affecting wider strata of the native populations4 ,the spread of ,western education in the ,east during the past few decades has been truly astonishing1 because it is the exact antithesis of the ,oriental educational system4 ,the traditional education of the entire ,orient1 from ,morocco to ,china1 was a mere memorizing of sacred texts combined with exercises of religious devotion4 ,the ,mohammedan or ,hindu student spent long years reciting to his master 7a holy man7 interminable passages from books which1 being written in classic ,arabic or ,sanskrit1 were unintelligible to him1 so that he usually did not understand a word of what he was saying4 ,no more deadening system for the intellect could possibly have been devised4 ,every part of the brain except the memory atrophied1 and the wonder is that any intellectual initiative or original thinking ever appeared4 ,even to-day the old system persists1 and millions of young ,orientals are still wasting their time at this mind-petrifying nonsense4 ,but alongside the old there has arisen a new system1 running the whole educational gamut from kindergartens to universities1 where ,oriental youth is being educated along ,western lines4 ,these new-type educational establishments are of every kind4 ,besides schools and universities giving a liberal education and fitting students for government service or the professions1 there are numerous technical schools turning out skilled agriculturists or engineers1 while good normal schools assure a supply of teachers qualified to instruct coming student-generations4 ,both public and private effort furthers ,western education in the ,east4 ,all the ,european governments have favoured ,western education in the lands under their control1 particularly the ,british in ,india and ,egypt1 while various ,christian missionary bodies have covered the ,east with a network of schools and colleges4 ,also many ,oriental governments like ,turkey and the native states of ,india have made sincere efforts to spread ,western education among their peoples4#bdh ,of course1 as in any new development1 the results so far obtained are far from ideal4 ,the vicious traditions of the past handicap or partially pervert the efforts of the present4 ,eastern students are prone to use their memories rather than their intellects1 and seek to cram their way quickly through examinations to coveted posts rather than acquire knowledge and thus really fit themselves for their careers4 ,the result is that many fail1 and these unfortunates1 half-educated and spoiled for any sort of useful occupation1 vegetate miserably1 come to hate that ,westernism which they do not understand1 and give themselves up to anarchistic revolutionary agitation4 ,sir ,alfred ,lyall well describes the dark side of ,western education in the ,east when he says of ,india3 ,ignorance is unquestionably the root of many evils2 and it was natural that in the last century certain philosophers should have assumed education to be a certain cure for human delusions2 and that statesmen like ,macaulay should have declared education to be the best and surest remedy for political discontent and for law-breaking4 ,in any case1 it was the clear and imperative duty of the ,british ,government to attempt the intellectual emancipation of ,india as the best justification of ,british rule4 ,we have since discovered by experience1 that1 although education is a sovereign remedy for many ills--is indeed indispensable to healthy progress--yet an indiscriminate or superficial administration of this potent medicine may engender other disorders4 ,it acts upon the frame of an antique society as a powerful dissolvent1 heating weak brains1 stimulating rash ambitions1 raising inordinate expectations of which the disappointment is bitterly resented4#bdi ,indeed1 some ,western observers of the ,orient1 particularly colonial officials1 have been so much impressed by the political and social dangers arising from the existence of this literate proletariat of semi-educated failures that they are tempted to condemn the whole venture of ,western education in the ,east as a mistake4 ,lord ,cromer1 for example1 was decidedly sceptical of the worth of the ,western-educated ,egyptian1#bej while a prominent ,anglo-,indian official names as the chief cause of ,indian unrest1 the system of education1 which we ourselves introduced--advisedly so far as the limited vision went of those responsible2 blindly in view of the inevitable consequences4#bea ,yet these pessimistic judgments do not seem to make due allowance for the inescapable evils attendant on any transition stage4 ,other observers of the ,orient have made due allowance for this factor4 ,vambry1 for instance1 notes the high percentage of honest and capable native officials in the ,british ,indian and ,french ,north ,african civil service 7the bulk of these officials1 of course1 ,western-educated men71 and concludes3 ,strictly conservative ,orientals1 and also fanatically inclined ,europeans1 think that with the entrance of our culture the primitive virtues of the ,asiatics have been destroyed1 and that the uncivilized ,oriental was more faithful1 more honest1 and more reliable than the ,asiatic educated on ,european principles4 ,this is a gross error4 ,it may be true of the half-educated1 but not of the ,asiatic in whose case the intellectual evolution is founded on the solid basis of a thorough1 systematic education4#beb ,and1 whatever may be the ills attendant upon ,western education in the ,east1 is it not the only practicable course to pursue8 ,the impact of ,westernism upon the ,orient is too ubiquitous to be confined to books4 ,granting1 therefore1 for the sake of argument1 that colonial governments could have prevented ,western education in the formal sense1 would not the ,oriental have learned in other ways8 ,surely it is better that he should learn through good texts under the supervision of qualified teachers1 rather than tortuously in perverted--and more dangerous--fashion4 ,the importance of ,western education in the ,east is nowhere better illustrated than in the effects it is producing in ameliorating the status of women4 ,the depressed condition of women throughout the ,orient is too well known to need elaboration4 ,bad enough in ,mohammedan countries1 it is perhaps at its worst among the ,hindus of ,india1 with child-marriage1 the virtual enslavement of widows 7burned alive till prohibited by ,english law71 and a seclusion more strict even than that of the harem of ,moslem lands4 ,as an ,english writer well puts it3 ',ladies first1' we say in the ,west2 in the ,east it is 'ladies last4' ,that sums up succinctly the difference in the domestic ideas of the two civilizations4#bec ,under these circumstances it might seem as though no breath of the ,west could yet have reached these jealously secluded creatures4 ,yet1 as a matter of fact1 ,western influences have already profoundly affected the women of the upper classes1 and female education1 while far behind that of the males1 has attained considerable proportions4 ,in the more advanced parts of the ,orient like ,constantinople1 ,cairo1 and the cities of ,india1 distinctly modern types of women have appeared1 the self-supporting1 self-respecting--and respected--woman school-teacher being especially in evidence4 ,the social consequences of this rising status of women1 not only to women themselves but also to the community at large1 are very important4 ,in the ,east the harem is1 as ,vambry well says1 the bulwark of obscurantism4#bed ,ignorant and fanatical herself1 the harem woman implants her ignorance and fanaticism in her sons as well as in her daughters4 ,what could be a worse handicap for the ,eastern intellectual than his boyhood years spent behind the veil8 ,no wonder that enlightened ,oriental fathers have been in the habit of sending their boys to school at the earliest possible age in order to get them as soon as possible out of the stultifying atmosphere of harem life4 ,yet even this has proved merely a palliative4 ,childhood impressions are ever the most lasting1 and so long as one-half of the ,orient remained untouched by progressive influences ,oriental progress had to be begun again de novo with every succeeding generation4 ,the increasing number of enlightened ,oriental women is remedying this fatal defect4 ,as a ,western writer well says3 ,give the mothers education and the whole situation is transformed4 ,girls who are learning other things than the unintelligible phrases of the ,koran are certain to impart such knowledge1 as daughters1 sisters1 and mothers1 to their respective households4 ,women who learn housewifery1 methods of modern cooking1 sewing1 and sanitation in the domestic-economy schools1 are bound to cast about the home upon their return the atmosphere of a civilized community4 ,the old-time picture of the ,oriental woman spending her hours upon divans1 eating sweetmeats1 and indulging in petty and degrading gossip with the servants1 or with women as ignorant as herself1 will be changed4 ,the new woman will be a companion rather than a slave or a toy of her husband4 ,marriage will advance from the stage of a paltry trade in bodies to something like a real union1 involving respect towards the woman by both sons and fathers1 while in a new pride of relationship the woman herself will be discovered4#bee ,these men and women of the newer ,orient reflect their changing ideas in their changing standards of living4 ,although this is most evident among the wealthier elements of the towns1 it is perceptible in all classes of the population4 ,rich and poor1 urban and rural1 the ,orientals are altering their living standards towards those of the ,west4 ,and this involves social changes of the most far-reaching character1 because few antitheses could be sharper than the living conditions prevailing respectively in the traditional ,east and in the modern ,western world4 ,this basic difference lies1 not in wealth 7the ,east1 like the ,west1 knows great riches as well as great poverty71 but rather in comfort--using the word in its broad sense4 ,the wealthy ,oriental of the old school spends most of his money on ,oriental luxuries1 like fine raiment1 jewels1 women1 horses1 and a great retinue of attendants1 and then hoards the rest4 ,but of comfort1 in the ,western sense1 he knows virtually nothing1 and it is safe to say that he lives under domestic conditions which a ,western artisan would despise4#bef ,to-day1 however1 the ,oriental is discovering comfort4 ,and1 high or low1 he likes it very well4 ,all the myriad things which make our lives easier and more agreeable--lamps1 electric light1 sewing-machines1 clocks1 whisky1 umbrellas1 sanitary plumbing1 and a thousand others3 all these things1 which to us are more or less matters of course1 are to the ,oriental so many delightful discoveries1 of irresistible appeal4 ,he wants them1 and he gets them in ever-increasing quantities4 ,but this produces some rather serious complications4 ,his private economy is more or less thrown out of gear4 ,this opening of a whole vista of new wants means a portentous rise in his standard of living4 ,and where is he going to find the money to pay for it8 ,if he be poor1 he has to skimp on his bare necessities4 ,if he be rich1 he hates to forgo his traditional luxuries4 ,the upshot is a universal growth of extravagance4 ,and1 in this connection1 it is well to bear in mind that the peoples of the ,near and ,middle ,east1 taken as a whole1 have never been really thrifty4 ,poor the masses may have been1 and thus obliged to live frugally1 but they have always proved themselves good spenders when opportunity offers4 ,the way in which a ,turkish peasant or a ,hindu ryot will squander his savings and run into debt over festivals1 marriages1 funerals1 and other social events is astounding to ,western observers4#beg ,now add to all this the fact that in the ,orient1 as in the rest of the world1 the cost of the basic necessaries of life--food1 clothing1 fuel1 and shelter1 has risen greatly during the past two decades1 and we can realize the gravity of the problem which higher ,oriental living-standards involves4#beh ,certain it is that the struggle for existence is growing keener and that the pressure of poverty is getting more severe4 ,with the basic necessaries rising in price1 and with many things considered necessities which were considered luxuries or entirely unheard of a generation ago1 the ,oriental peasant or town working-man is finding it harder and harder to make both ends meet4 ,as one writer well phrases it3 ,these altered economic conditions have not as yet brought the ability to meet them4 ,the cost of living has increased faster than the resources of the people4#bei ,one of the main 7though not sufficiently recognized7 causes of the economic-social crisis through which the ,orient is to-day passing is over-population4 ,the quick breeding tendencies of ,oriental peoples have always been proverbial1 and have been due not merely to strong sexual appetites but also to economic reasons like the harsh exploitation of women and children1 and perhaps even more to religious doctrines enjoining early marriage and the begetting of numerous sons4 ,as a result1 ,oriental populations have always pressed close upon the limits of subsistence4 ,in the past1 however1 this pressure was automatically lightened by factors like war1 misgovernment1 pestilence1 and famine1 which swept off such multitudes of people that1 despite high birth-rates1 populations remained at substantially a fixed level4 ,but here1 as in every other phase of ,eastern life1 ,western influences have radically altered the situation4 ,the extension of ,european political control over ,eastern lands has meant the putting down of internal strife1 the diminution of governmental abuses1 the decrease of disease1 and the lessening of the blight of famine4 ,in other words1 those natural checks which previously kept down the population have been diminished or abolished1 and in response to the life-saving activities of the ,west1 the enormous death-rate which in the past has kept ,oriental populations from excessive multiplication is falling to proportions comparable with the low death-rate of ,western nations4 ,but to lower the ,orient's prodigious birth-rate is quite another matter4 ,as a matter of fact1 that birth-rate keeps up with undiminished vigour1 and the consequence has been a portentous increase of population in nearly every portion of the ,orient under ,western political control4 ,in fact1 even those ,oriental countries which have maintained their independence have more or less adopted ,western life-conserving methods1 and have experienced in greater or less degree an accelerated increase of population4 ,the phenomena of over-population are best seen in ,india4 ,most of ,india has been under ,british control for the greater part of a century4 ,even a century ago1 ,india was densely populated1 yet in the intervening hundred years the population has increased between two and three fold4#bfj ,of course1 factors like improved agriculture1 irrigation1 railways1 and the introduction of modern industry enable ,india to support a much larger population than it could have done at the time of the ,british ,conquest4 ,nevertheless1 the evidence is clear that excessive multiplication has taken place4 ,nearly all qualified students of the problem concur on this point4 ,forty years ago the ,duke of ,argyll stated3 ,where there is no store1 no accumulation1 no wealth2 where the people live from hand to mouth from season to season on a low diet2 and where1 nevertheless1 they breed and multiply at such a rate2 there we can at least see that this power and force of multiplication is no evidence even of safety1 far less of comfort4 ,towards the close of the last century1 ,sir ,william ,hunter termed population ,india's fundamental problem1 and continued3 ,the result of civilized rule in ,india has been to produce a strain on the food-producing powers of the country such as it had never before to bear4 ,it has become a truism of ,indian statistics that the removal of the old cruel checks on population in an ,asiatic country is by no means an unmixed blessing to an ,asiatic people4#bfa ,lord ,cromer remarks of ,india's poverty3 ,not only cannot it be remedied by mere philanthropy1 but it is absolutely certain--cruel and paradoxical though it may appear to say so--that philanthropy enhances the evil4 ,in the days of ,akhbar or ,shah ,jehan1 cholera1 famine1 and internal strife kept down the population4 ,only the fittest survived4 ,now internal strife is forbidden1 and philanthropy steps in and says that no single life shall be sacrificed if science and ,western energy or skill can save it4 ,hence the growth of a highly congested population1 vast numbers of whom are living on a bare margin of subsistence4 ,the fact that one of the greatest difficulties of governing the teeming masses of the ,east is caused by good and humane government should be recognized4 ,it is too often ignored4#bfb ,william ,archer well states the matter when1 in answer to the query why improved external conditions have not brought ,india prosperity1 he says3 ,the reason1 in my view1 is simple3 namely1 that the benefit of good government is1 in part at any rate1 nullified1 when the people take advantage of it1 not to save and raise their standard of living1 but to breed to the very margin of subsistence4 ,henry ,george used to point out that every mouth that came into the world brought two hands along with it2 but though the physiological fact is undeniable1 the economic deduction suggested will not hold good except in conditions that permit of the profitable employment of the two hands4444 ,if mouths increase in a greater ratio than food1 the tendency must be towards greater poverty4#bfc ,it is one of the most unfortunate aspects of the situation that very few ,oriental thinkers yet realize that over-population is a prime cause of ,oriental poverty4 ,almost without exception they lay the blame to political factors1 especially to ,western political control4 ,in fact1 the only case that ,i know of where an ,eastern thinker has boldly faced the problem and has courageously advocated birth-control is in the book published five years ago by ,p4 ,k4 ,wattal1 a native official of the ,indian ,finance ,department1 entitled1 ,the ,population ,problem of ,india4#bfd ,this pioneer volume is written with such ability and is of such apparent significance as an indication of the awakening of ,orientals to a more rational attitude1 that it merits special attention4 ,mr4 ,wattal begins his book by a plea to his fellow-countrymen to look at the problem rationally and without prejudice4 ,this essay1 he says1 should not be constituted into an attack on the spiritual civilization of our country1 or even indirectly into a glorification of the materialism of the ,west4 ,the object in view is that we should take a somewhat more matter-of-fact view of the main problem of life1 viz41 how to live in this world4 ,we are a poor people2 the fact is indisputable4 ,our poverty is1 perhaps1 due to a great many causes4 ,but ,i put it to every one of us whether he has not at some of the most momentous periods of his life been handicapped by having to support a large family1 and whether this encumbrance has not seriously affected the chances of advancement warranted by early promise and exceptional endowment4 ,this question should be viewed by itself4 ,it is a physical fact1 and has nothing to do with political environment or religious obligation4 ,if we have suffered from the consequences of that mistake1 is it not a duty that we owe to ourselves and to our progeny that its evil effects shall be mitigated as far as possible8 ,there is no greater curse than poverty--,i say this with due respect to our spiritualism4 ,it is not in a spirit of reproach that restraint in married life is urged in these pages4 ,it is solely from a vivid realization of the hardships caused by large families and a profound sympathy with the difficulties under which large numbers of respectable persons struggle through life in this country that ,i have made bold to speak in plain terms what comes to every young man1 but which he does not care to give utterance to in a manner that would prevent the recurrence of the evil4#bfe ,after this appeal to reason in his readers1 ,mr4 ,wattal develops his thesis4 ,the first prime cause of over-population in ,india1 he asserts1 is early marriage4 ,contrary to ,western lands1 where population is kept down by prudential marriages and by birth-control1 for the ,hindus marriage is a sacrament which must be performed1 regardless of the fitness of the parties to bear the responsibilities of a mated existence4 ,a ,hindu male must marry and beget children--sons1 if you please--to perform his funeral rites lest his spirit wander uneasily in the waste places of the earth4 ,the very name of son1 'putra1' means one who saves his father's soul from the hell called ,puta4 ,a ,hindu maiden unmarried at puberty is a source of social obloquy to her family and of damnation to her ancestors4 ,among the ,mohammedans1 who are not handicapped by such penalties1 the married state is equally common1 partly owing to ,hindu example and partly to the general conditions of primitive society1 where a wife is almost a necessity both as a domestic drudge and as a helpmate in field work4#bff ,the worst of the matter is that1 despite the efforts of social reformers child-marriage seems to be increasing4 ,the census of #aiaa showed that during the decade #aija-aj the numbers of married females per #ajjj of ages #j-e years rose from #ac to #ad2 of ages #e-aj from #ajb to #aje2 of #aj-ae from #dbc to #dcj1 and of #ae-bj from #ggj to #hjj4 ,in other words1 in the year #aiaa1 out of every #ajjj ,indian girls1 over one-tenth were married before they were #aj years old1 nearly one-half before they were #ae1 and four-fifths before they were #bj4bfg ,the result of all this is a tremendous birth-rate1 but this is no matter for congratulation4 ,we have heard so often of our high death-rate and the means for combating it1 but can it be seriously believed that with a birth-rate of #cj per #ajjj it is possible to go on as we are doing with the death-rate brought down to the level of ,england or ,scotland8 ,is there room enough in the country for the population to increase so fast as #bj per #ajjj every year8 ,we are paying the inevitable penalty of bringing into this world more persons than can be properly cared for1 and therefore if we wish fewer deaths to occur in this country the births must be reduced to the level of the countries where the death-rate is low4 ,it is1 therefore1 our high birth-rate that is the social danger2 the high death-rate1 however regrettable1 is merely an incident of our high birth-rate4#bfh ,mr4 ,wattal then describes the cruel items in ,india's death-rate2 the tremendous female mortality1 due largely to too early childbirth1 and the equally terrible infant mortality1 nearly #ej per cent4 of infant deaths being due to premature birth or debility at birth4 ,these are the inevitable penalties of early and universal marriage4 ,for1 in ,india1 everybody marries1 fit or unfit1 and is a parent at the earliest possible age permitted by nature4 ,this process is highly disgenic2 it is plainly lowering the quality and sapping the vigour of the race4 ,it is the lower elements of the population1 the negroid aboriginal tribes and the ,pariahs or ,outcastes1 who are gaining the fastest4 ,also the vitality of the whole population seems to be lowering4 ,the census figures show that the number of elderly persons is decreasing1 and that the average statistical expectation of life is falling4 ,the coming generation is severely handicapped at start in life4 ,and the chances of living to a good old age are considerably smaller than they were1 say thirty or forty years ago4 ,have we ever paused to consider what it means to us in the life of the nation as a whole8 ,it means that the people who alone by weight of experience and wisdom are fitted for the posts of command in the various public activities of the country are snatched away by death2 and that the guidance and leadership which belongs to age and mature judgment in the countries of the ,west fall in ,india to younger and consequently to less trustworthy persons4#bfi ,after warning his fellow-countrymen that neither improved methods of agriculture1 the growth of industry1 nor emigration can afford any real relief to the growing pressure of population on means of subsistence1 he notes a few hopeful signs that1 despite the hold of religion and custom1 the people are beginning to realize the situation and that in certain parts of ,india there are foreshadowings of birth-control4 ,for example1 he quotes from the census report for #aija this official explanation of a slight drop in the birth-rate of ,bengal3 ,the postponement of the age of marriage cannot wholly account for the diminished rate of reproduction4 ,the deliberate avoidance of child-bearing must also be partly responsible4444 ,it is a matter of common belief that among the tea-garden coolies of ,assam means are frequently taken to prevent conception1 or to procure abortion4 ,and the report of the ,sanitary ,commissioner of ,assam for #aiac states3 ,an important factor in producing the defective birth-rate appears to be due to voluntary limitation of birth4#bgj ,however1 these beginnings of birth-control are too local and partial to afford any immediate relief to ,india's growing over-population4 ,wider appreciation of the situation and prompt action are needed4 ,the conclusion is irresistible4 ,we can no longer afford to shut our eyes to the social canker in our midst4 ,in the land of the bullock-cart1 the motor has come to stay4 ,the competition is now with the more advanced races of the ,west1 and we cannot tell them what ,diogenes said to ,alexander3 ',stand out of my sunshine4' ,after the close of this gigantic ,world ,war theories of population will perhaps be revised and a reversion in favour of early marriage and larger families may be counted upon4 ,but1 7#a7 that will be no solution to our own population problem1 and 7#b7 this reaction will be only for a time4444 ,the law of population may be arrested in its operation1 but there is no way of escaping it4#bga ,so concludes this striking little book4 ,furthermore1 we must remember that1 although ,india may be the acutest sufferer from over-population1 conditions in the entire ,orient are basically the same1 prudential checks and rational birth-control being everywhere virtually absent4#bgb ,remembering also that1 besides over-population1 there are other economic and social evils previously discussed1 we cannot be surprised to find in all ,eastern lands much acute poverty and social degradation4 ,both the rural and urban masses usually live on the bare margin of subsistence4 ,the ,english economist ,brailsford thus describes the condition of the ,egyptian peasantry3 ,the villages exhibited a poverty such as ,i have never seen even in the mountains of anarchical ,macedonia or among the bogs of ,donegal4444 ,the villages are crowded slums of mud hovels1 without a tree1 a flower1 or a garden4 ,the huts1 often without a window or a levelled floor1 are minute dungeons of baked mud1 usually of two small rooms neither whitewashed nor carpeted4 ,those which ,i entered were bare of any visible property1 save a few cooking utensils1 a mat to serve as a bed1 and a jar which held the staple food of maize4#bgc ,as for the poorer ,indian peasants1 a ,british sanitary official thus depicts their mode of life3 ,one has actually to see the interior of the houses1 in which each family is often compelled to live in a single small cell1 made of mud walls and with a mud floor2 containing small yards littered with rubbish1 often crowded with cattle2 possessing wells permeated by rain soaking through this filthy surface2 and frequently jumbled together in inchoate masses called towns and cities4#bgd ,in the cities1 indeed1 conditions are even worse than in the country1 the slums of the ,orient surpassing the slums of the ,west4 ,the ,french publicist ,louis ,bertrand paints positively nauseating pictures of the poorer quarters of the great ,levantine towns like ,cairo1 ,constantinople1 and ,jerusalem4 ,omitting his more poignant details1 here is his description of a ,cairo tenement3 ,in ,cairo1 as elsewhere in ,egypt1 the wretchedness and grossness of the poorer-class dwellings are perhaps even more shocking than in the other ,eastern lands4 ,two or three dark1 airless rooms usually open on a hall-way not less obscure4 ,the plaster1 peeling off from the ceilings and the worm-eaten laths of the walls1 falls constantly to the filthy floors4 ,the straw mats and bedding are infested by innumerable vermin4#bge ,in ,india it is the same story4 ,says ,fisher3 ,even before the growth of her industries had begun1 the cities of ,india presented a baffling housing problem4 ,into the welter of crooked streets and unsanitary habits of an ,oriental city these great industrial plants are wedging their thousands of employees4 ,working from before dawn until after dark1 men and women are too exhausted to go far from the plant to sleep1 if they can help it4 ,when near-by houses are jammed to suffocation1 they live and sleep in the streets4 ,in ,calcutta1 twenty years ago1#bgf land had reached #bjj1jjj an acre in the overcrowded tenement districts4#bgg ,of ,calcutta1 a ,western writer remarks3 ,calcutta is a shame even in the ,east4 ,in its slums1 mill hands and dock coolies do not live2 they pig4 ,houses choke with unwholesome breath2 drains and compounds fester in filth4 ,wheels compress decaying refuse in the roads2 cows drink from wells soaked with sewage1 and the floors of bakeries are washed in the same pollution4#bgh ,in the other industrial centres of ,india1 conditions are practically the same4 ,a ,bombay native sanitary official stated in a report on the state of the tenement district1 drawn up in #aijd3 ,in such houses--the breeders of germs and bacilli1 the centres of disease and poverty1 vice1 and crime--have people of all kinds1 the diseased1 the dissolute1 the drunken1 the improvident1 been indiscriminately herded and tightly packed in vast hordes to dwell in close association with each other4#bgi ,furthermore1 urban conditions seem to be getting worse rather than better4 ,the problem of congestion1 in particular1 is assuming ever graver proportions4 ,already in the opening years of the present century the congestion in the great industrial centres of ,india like ,calcutta1 ,bombay1 and ,lucknow averaged three or four times the congestion of ,london4 ,and the late war has rendered the housing crisis even more acute4 ,in the ,east1 as in the ,west1 the war caused a rapid drift of population to the cities and at the same time stopped building owing to the prohibitive cost of construction4 ,hence1 a prodigious rise in rents and a plague of landlord profiteering4 ,says ,fisher3 ,rents were raised as much as #cjj per cent41 enforced by eviction4 ,mass-meetings of protest in ,bombay resulted in government action1 fixing maximum rents for some of the tenements occupied by artisans and labourers4 ,setting maximum rental does not1 however1 make more room4#bhj ,and1 of course1 it must not be forgotten that higher rents are only one phase in a general rise in the cost of living that has been going on in the ,east for a generation and which has been particularly pronounced since #aiad4 ,more than a decade ago ,bertrand wrote of the ,near ,east3 ,from one end of the ,levant to the other1 at ,constantinople as at ,smyrna1 ,damascus1 ,beyrout1 and ,cairo1 ,i heard the same complaints about the increasing cost of living2 and these complaints were uttered by ,europeans as well as by the natives4#bha ,to-day the situation is even more difficult4 ,says ,sir ,valentine ,chirol of conditions in ,egypt since the war3 ,the rise in wages1 considerable as it has been1 has ceased to keep pace with the inordinate rise in prices for the very necessities of life4 ,this is particularly the case in the urban centres1 where the lower classes--workmen1 carters1 cab-drivers1 shopkeepers1 and a host off minor employees--are hard put to it nowadays to make both ends meet4#bhb ,as a result of all these hard conditions various phenomena of social degradation such as alcoholism1 vice1 and crime1 are becoming increasingly common4#bhc ,last--but not least--there are growing symptoms of social unrest and revolutionary agitation1 which we will examine in the next chapter4 ,,footnotes3 #bci ,i4 e4 the educated upper class4 #bdj ,vambry1 ,la ,turquie d'aujourd'hui et d'avant ,quarante ,ans1 p4 #ac4 #bda ,i4 e4 the priestly class4 #bdb ,vambry1 ,la ,turquie d'aujourd'hui et d'avant ,quarante ,ans1 p4 #ae4 #bdc ,vambry1 ,la ,turquie d'aujourd'hui et d'avant ,quarante ,ans1 p4 #ea4 #bdd ,bukhsh1 ,essays3 ,indian and ,islamic1 pp4 #bba-bbf4 #bde ,bukhsh1 ,essays3 ,indian and ,islamic1 p4 #bdj4 #bdf ,the purdah is the curtain separating the women's apartments from the rest of the house4 #bdg ,bukhsh1 ,essays3 ,indian and ,islamic1 pp4 #bed-bee4 #bdh ,for progress in ,western education in the ,orient1 under both ,european and native auspices1 see ,l4 ,bertrand1 ,le ,mirage oriental1 pp4 #bia-cib2 ,c4 ,s4 ,cooper1 ,the ,modernizing of the ,orient1 pp4 #c-ac1 #bd-fd4 #bdi ,in his ,introduction to ,sir ,valentine ,chirol's ,indian ,unrest1 p4 xii4 #bej ,cromer1 ,modern ,egypt1 ,vol4 ,,ii41 pp4 #bbh-bdc4 #bea ,j4 ,d4 ,rees1 ,the ,real ,india1 p4 #afb 7,london1 #aijh74 #beb ,vambry1 ,western ,culture in ,eastern ,lands1 pp4 #bjc-bjd4 #bec ,h4 ,e4 ,compton1 ,indian ,life in ,town and ,country1 p4 #ih 7,london1 #aijd74 #bed ,vambry1 ,la ,turquie d'aujourd'hui et d'avant ,quarante ,ans1 p4 #cb4 #bee ,cooper1 op4 cit41 pp4 #dh-di4 #bef ,on this point of comfort v4 luxury1 see especially ,sir ,bampfylde ,fuller1 ,east and ,west3 ,a ,study of ,differences1 ,nineteenth ,century and ,after1 ,november1 #aiaa4 #beg ,l4 ,bertrand1 op4 cit41 #ade-adg2 ,j4 ,chailley1 ,administrative ,problems of ,british ,india1 pp4 #ach-aci4 ,for increased expenditure on ,western products1 see ,a4 ,j4 ,brown1 ,economic ,changes in ,asia1 ,the ,century1 ,march1 #aijd2 ,j4 ,p4 ,jones1 ,the ,present ,situation in ,india1 ,journal of ,race ,development1 ,july1 #aiaj2 ,r4 ,mukerjee1 ,the ,foundations of ,indian ,economics1 p4 #e4 #beh ,for higher cost of living in the ,east1 see ,chirol1 ,indian ,unrest1 pp4 #b-c2 ,fisher1 ,india's ,silent ,revolution1 pp4 #df-fj2 ,jones1 op4 cit42 ,t4 ,t4 ,williams1 ,inquiry into the ,rise of ,prices in ,india1 ,economic ,journal1 ,december1 #aiae4 #bei ,brown1 op4 cit4 #bfj ,at the beginning of the nineteenth century the population of ,india is roughly estimated to have been about #ajj1jjj1jjj4 ,according to the census of #aiaa the population was #cae1jjj1jjj4 #bfa ,sir ,w4 ,w4 ,hunter1 ,the ,india of the ,queen and ,other ,essays1 p4 #db 7,london1 #aijc74 #bfb ,cromer1 ,some ,problems of ,government in ,europe and ,asia1 ,nineteenth ,century and ,after1 ,may1 #aiac4 #bfc ,archer1 ,india and the ,future1 pp4 #aeg1 #afb 7,london71 #aiah4 #bfd ,p4 ,k4 ,wattal1 of the ,indian ,finance ,department1 ,assistant ,accountant-,general4 ,the book was published at ,bombay1 #aiaf4 #bfe ,wattal1 pp4 i-iii4 #bff ,wattal1 p4 #c4 #bfg ,ibid41 p4 #ab4 #bfh ,wattal1 p4 #ad4 #bfi ,ibid41 pp4 #ai-ba4 #bgj ,wattal1 p4 #bh4 #bga ,ibid41 p4 #hb4 #bgb ,for conditions in the ,near ,east1 see ,bertrand1 pp4 #aaj1 #abd1 #abe-abh4 #bgc ,h4 ,n4 ,brailsford1 ,the ,war of ,steel and ,gold1 pp4 #aab-aac4 ,see also ,t4 ,rothstein1 ,egypt's ,ruin1 pp4 #bih-cjj 7,london1 #aiaj71 ,sir ,w4 ,w4 ,ramsay1 ,the ,turkish ,peasantry of ,anatolia1 ,quarterly ,review1 ,january1 #aiah4 #bgd ,dr4 ,d4 ,ross1 ,wretchedness a ,cause of ,political ,unrest1 ,the ,survey1 ,february #ah1 #aiaa4 #bge ,bertrand1 op4 cit41 pp4 #aaa-aab4 #bgf ,i4 e41 in #aijj4 #bgg ,fisher1 ,india's ,silent ,revolution1 p4 #ea4 #bgh ,g4 ,w4 ,stevens1 ,in ,india4 ,quoted by ,fisher1 p4 #ea4 #bgi ,dr4 ,bhalchandra ,krishna4 ,quoted by ,a4 ,yusuf ,ali1 ,life and ,labour in ,india1 p4 #ce 7,london1 #aijg74 #bhj ,fisher1 pp4 #ea-eb4 #bha ,bertrand1 p4 #ada4 #bhb ,sir ,v4 ,chirol1 ,england's ,peril in ,egypt1 from the ,london ,times1 #aiai4 #bhc ,see ,bertrand and ,fisher1 supra4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,social ,,unrest ,,and ,,bolshevism ,unrest is the natural concomitant of change--particularly of sudden change4 ,every break with past1 however normal and inevitable1 implies a necessity for readjustment to altered conditions which causes a temporary sense of restless disharmony until the required adjustment has been made4 ,unrest is not an exceptional phenomenon2 it is always latent in every human society which has not fallen into complete stagnation1 and a slight amount of unrest should be considered a sign of healthy growth rather than a symptom of disease4 ,in fact1 the minimum degrees of unrest are usually not called by that name1 but are considered mere incidents of normal development4 ,under normal circumstances1 indeed1 the social organism functions like the human organism3 it is being incessantly destroyed and as incessantly renewed in conformity with the changing conditions of life4 ,these changes are sometimes very considerable1 but they are so gradual that they are effected almost without being perceived4 ,a healthy organism well attuned to its environment is always plastic4 ,it instinctively senses environmental changes and adapts itself so rapidly that it escapes the injurious consequences of disharmony4 ,far different is the character of unrest's acuter manifestations4 ,these are infallible symptoms of sweeping changes1 sudden breaks with the past1 and profound maladjustments which are not being rapidly rectified4 ,in other words1 acute unrest denotes social ill-health and portends the possibility of one of those violent crises known as revolutions4 ,the history of the ,moslem ,east well exemplifies the above generalizations4 ,the formative period of ,saracenic civilization was characterized by rapid change and an intense idealistic ferment4 ,the great ,motazelite movement embraced many shades of thought1 its radical wing professing religious1 political1 and social doctrines of a violent revolutionary nature4 ,but this changeful period was superficial and brief4 ,arab vigour and the ,islamic spirit proved unable permanently to leaven the vast inertia of the ancient ,east4 ,soon the old traditions reasserted themselves--somewhat modified1 to be sure1 yet basically the same ,saracenic civilization became stereotyped1 ossified1 and with this ossification changeful unrest died away4 ,here and there the radical tradition was preserved and secretly handed down by a few obscure sects like the ,kharidjites of ,inner ,arabia and the ,bettashi dervishes2 but these were mere cryptic episodes1 of no general significance4 ,with the ,mohammedan ,revival at the beginning of the nineteenth century1 however1 symptoms of social unrest appeared once more4 ,wahabism aimed not merely at a reform of religious abuses but was also a general protest against the contemporary decadence of ,moslem society4 ,in many cases it took the form of a popular revolt against established governments4 ,the same was true of the correlative ,babbist movement in ,persia1 which took place about the same time4#bhd ,and of course these nascent stirrings were greatly stimulated by the flood of ,western ideas and methods which1 as the nineteenth century wore on1 increasingly permeated the ,east4 ,what1 indeed1 could be more provocative of unrest of every description than the resulting transformation of the ,orient--a transformation so sudden1 so intense1 and necessitating so concentrated a process of adaptation that it was basically revolutionary rather than evolutionary in its nature8 ,the details of these profound changes--political1 religious1 economic1 social--we have already studied1 together with the equally profound disturbance1 bewilderment1 and suffering afflicting all classes in this eminently transition period4 ,the essentially revolutionary nature of this transition period1 as exemplified by ,india1 is well described by a ,british economist4#bhe ,what1 he asks1 could be more anachronistic than the contrast between rural and urban ,india8 ,rural ,india is primitive or medival2 city ,india is modern4 ,in city ,india you will find every symbol of ,western life1 from banks and factories down to the very sandwichmen that you left in the ,london gutters4 ,now all this co-exists beside rural ,india4 ,and it is surely a fact unique in economic history that they should thus exist side by side4 ,the present condition of ,india does not correspond with any period of ,european economic history4 ,imagine the effect in ,europe of setting down modern and medival men together1 with utterly disparate ideas4 ,that has not happened in ,europe because ,european progress in the economic world has been evolutionary2 a process spread over centuries4 ,in ,india1 on the other hand1 this economic transformation has been revolutionary in character4 ,how unevolutionary is ,india's economic transformation is seen by the condition of rural ,india4 ,rural ,india1 though chiefly characterized by primitive usage1 has been invaded by ideas that are intensely hostile to the old state of things ,it is primitive1 but not consistently primitive4 ,competitive wages are paid side by side with customary wages4 ,prices are sometimes fixed by custom1 but sometimes1 too1 by free economic causes4 ,from the midst of a population deeply rooted in the soil1 men are being carried away by the desire of better wages4 ,in short1 economic motives have suddenly and partially intruded themselves in the realm of primitive morality4 ,and1 if we turn to city ,india1 we see a similar1 though inverted1 state of things4444 ,in neither case has the mixture been harmonious or the fusion complete4 ,indeed1 the two orders are too unrelated1 too far apart1 to coalesce with ease4444 ,india1 then1 is in a state of economic revolution throughout all the classes of an enormous and complex society4 ,the only period in which ,europe offered even faint analogies to modern ,india was the ,industrial ,revolution1 from which even now we have not settled down into comparative stability4 ,we may reckon it as a fortunate circumstance for ,europe that the intellectual movement which culminated in the ,french ,revolution did not coincide with the ,industrial ,revolution4 ,if it had1 it is possible that ,european society might have been hopelessly wrecked4 ,but1 as it was1 even when the ,french ,revolution had spent its force in the conquests of ,napoleon1 the ,industrial ,revolution stirred up enough social and political discontent4 ,when whole classes of people are obliged by economic revolution to change their mode of life1 it is inevitable that many should suffer4 ,discontent is roused4 ,political and destructive movements are certain to ensue4 ,not only the ,revolutions of '#dh1 but also the birth of the ,socialist ,party sprang from the ,industrial ,revolution4 ,but that revolution was not nearly so sweeping as that which is now in operation in ,india4 ,the invention of machinery and steam-power was1 in ,europe1 but the crowning event of a long series of years in which commerce and industry had been constantly expanding1 in which capital had been largely accumulated1 in which economic principles had been gradually spreading4444 ,no1 the ,indian economic revolution is vastly greater and more fundamental than our ,industrial ,revolution1 great as that was4 ,railways have been built through districts where travel was almost impossible1 and even roads are unknown4 ,factories have been built1 and filled by men unused to industrial labour4 ,capital has been poured into the country1 which was unprepared for any such development4 ,and what are the consequences8 ,india's social organization is being dissolved4 ,the ,brahmins are no longer priests4 ,the ryot is no longer bound to the soil4 ,the banya is no longer the sole purveyor of capital4 ,the hand-weaver is threatened with extinction1 and the brass-worker can no longer ply his craft4 ,think of the dislocation which this sudden change has brought about1 of the many who can no longer follow their ancestral vocations1 of the commotion which a less profound change produced in ,europe1 and you will understand what is the chief motive-power of the political unrest4 ,it is small wonder4 ,the wonder is that the unrest has been no greater than it is4 ,had ,india not been an ,asiatic country1 she would have been in fierce revolution long ago4 ,the above lines were of course written in the opening years of the twentieth century1 before the world had been shattered by ,armageddon and aggressive social revolution had established itself in semi-,asiatic ,russia4 ,but even during those pre-war years1 other students of the ,orient were predicting social disturbances of increasing gravity4 ,said the ,hindu nationalist leader1 ,bipin ,chandra ,pal3 ,this so-called unrest is not really political4 ,it is essentially an intellectual and spiritual upheaval1 the forerunner of a mighty social revolution1 with a new organon and a new philosophy of life behind it4#bhf ,and the ,french publicist ,chailley wrote of ,india3 ,there will be a series of economic revolutions1 which must necessarily produce suffering and struggle4#bhg ,during this pre-war period the increased difficulty of living conditions1 together with the adoption of ,western ideas of comfort and kindred higher standards1 seem to have been engendering friction between the different strata of the ,oriental population4 ,in #aiaa a ,british sanitary expert assigned wretchedness as the root-cause of ,india's political unrest4 ,after describing the deplorable living conditions of the ,indian masses1 he wrote3 ,it will of course be said at once that these conditions have existed in ,india from time immemorial1 and are no more likely to cause unrest now than previously2 but in my opinion unrest has always existed there in a subterranean form4 ,moreover1 in the old days1 the populace could make scarcely any comparison between their own condition and that of more fortunate people2 now they can compare their own slums and terrible 'native quarters' with the much better ordered cantonments1 stations1 and houses of the ,british officials and even of their own wealthier brethren4 ,so far as ,i can see1 such misery is always the fundamental cause of all popular unrest4444 ,seditious meetings1 political chatter1 and 'aspirations' of babus and demagogues are only the superficial manifestations of the deeper disturbance4#bhh ,this growing social friction was indubitably heightened by the lack of interest of ,orientals in the sufferings of all persons not bound to them by family1 caste1 or customary ties4 ,throughout the ,east1 social service1 in the ,western sense1 is practically unknown4 ,this fact is noted by a few ,orientals themselves4 ,says an ,indian writer1 speaking of ,indian town life3 ,there is no common measure of social conduct4444 ,hitherto1 social reform in ,india has taken account only of individual or family life4 ,as applied to mankind in the mass1 and especially to those soulless agglomerations of seething humanity which we call cities1 it is a gospel yet to be preached4#bhi ,as an ,american sociologist remarked of the growing slum evil throughout the industrialized ,orient3 ,the greatest danger is due to the fact that ,orientals do not have the high ,western sense of the value of the life of the individual1 and are1 comparatively speaking1 without any restraining influence similar to our own enlightened public opinion1 which has been roused by the struggles of a century of industrial strife4 ,unless these elements can be supplied1 there is danger of suffering and of abuses worse than any the ,west has known4#bij ,all this diffused social unrest was centring about two recently emerged elements3 the ,western-educated intelligentsia and the industrial proletariat of the factory towns4 ,the revolutionary tendencies of the intelligentsia1 particularly of its half-educated failures1 have been already noted1 and these latter have undoubtedly played a leading part in all the revolutionary disturbances of the modern ,orient1 from ,north ,africa to ,china4#bia ,regarding the industrial proletariat1 some writers think that there is little immediate likelihood of their becoming a major revolutionary factor1 because of their traditionalism1 ignorance1 and apathy1 and also because there is no real connection between them and the intelligentsia1 the other centre of social discontent4 ,the ,french economist ,mtin states this view-point very well4 ,speaking primarily of ,india1 he writes3 ,the ,nationalist movement rises from the middle classes and manifests no systematic hostility toward the capitalists and great proprietors2 in economic matters it is on their side4#bib ,as for the proletariat3 ,the coolies do not imagine that their lot can be bettered4 ,like the ryots and the agricultural labourers1 they do not show the least sign of revolt4 ,to whom should they turn8 ,the ranks of traditional society are closed to them4 ,people without caste1 the coolies are despised even by the old-style artisan1 proud of his caste-status1 humble though that be4 ,to fall to the job of a coolie is1 for the ,hindu1 the worst declassment4 ,the factory workers are not yet numerous enough to form a compact and powerful proletariat1 able to exert pressure on the old society4 ,even if they do occasionally strike1 they are as far from the modern ,trade-,union as they are from the traditional working-caste4 ,neither can they look for leadership to the 'intellectual proletariat'2 for the ,nationalist movement has not emerged from the 'bourgeois' phase1 and always leans on the capitalists4444 ,thus ,indian industry is still in its embryonic stages4 ,in truth1 the material evolution which translates itself by the construction of factories1 and the social evolution which creates a proletariat1 have only begun to emerge2 while the intellectual evolution from which arise the programmes of social demands has not even begun4#bic ,other observers of ,indian industrial conditions1 however1 do not share ,m4 ,mtin's opinion4 ,says the ,british ,labour leader1 ,j4 ,ramsay ,macdonald3 ,to imagine the backward ,indian labourers becoming a conscious regiment in the class war1 seems to be one of the vainest dreams in which a ,western mind can indulge4 ,but ,i sometimes wonder if it be so very vain after all4 ,in the first place1 the development of factory industry in ,india has created a landless and homeless proletariat unmatched by the same economic class in any other capitalist community2 and to imagine that this class is to be kept out1 or can be kept out1 of ,indian politics is far more vain than to dream of its developing a politics on ,western lines4 ,further than that1 the wage-earners have shown a willingness to respond to ,trades-,union methods2 they are forming industrial associations and have engaged in strikes2 some of the social reform movements conducted by ,indian intellectuals definitely try to establish ,trades-,unions and preach ideas familiar to us in connection with ,trades-,union propaganda4 ,a capitalist fiscal policy will not only give this movement a great impetus as it did in ,japan1 but in ,india will not be able to suppress the movement1 as was done in ,japan1 by legislation4 ,as yet1 the true proletarian wage-earner1 uprooted from his native village and broken away from the organization of ,indian society1 is but insignificant4 ,it is growing1 however1 and ,i believe that it will organize itself rapidly on the general lines of the proletarian classes of other capitalist countries4 ,so soon as it becomes politically conscious1 there are no other lines upon which it can organize itself4#bid ,turning to the ,near ,east--more than a decade ago a ,french ,socialist writer1 observing the hard living conditions of the ,egyptian masses1 noted signs of social unrest and predicted grave disturbances4 ,a genuine proletariat1 he wrote1 has been created by the multiplication of industries and the sudden1 almost abrupt1 progress which has followed4 ,the cost of living has risen to a scale hitherto unknown in ,egypt1 while wages have risen but slightly4 ,poverty and want abound4 ,some day suffering will provoke the people to complaints1 perhaps to angry outbursts1 throughout this apparently prosperous ,delta4 ,it is true that the influx of foreigners and of money may put off the hour when the city or country labourer of ,egyptian race comes clearly to perceive the wrongs that are being done to him4 ,he may miss the educational influence of ,socialism4 ,yet such an awakening may come sooner than people expect4 ,it is not only among the successful and prosperous ,egyptians that intelligence is to be found4 ,those whose wages are growing gradually smaller and smaller have intelligence of equal keenness1 and it has become a real question as to the hour when for the first time in the land of ,islam the flame of ,mohammedan ,socialism shall burst forth4#bie ,in ,algeria1 likewise1 a ,belgian traveller noted the dawning of a proletarian consciousness among the town working-men just before the ,great ,war4 ,speaking of the rapid spread of ,western ideas1 he wrote3 ,islam tears asunder like rotten cloth on the quays of ,algiers3 the dockers1 coal-passers1 and engine-tenders1 to whatever race they belong1 leave their ,islam and acquire a genuine proletarian morality1 that of the proletarians of ,europe1 and they make common cause with their ,european colleagues on the basis of a strictly economic struggle4 ,if there were many big factories in ,algeria1 orthodox ,islam would soon disappear there1 as old-fashioned ,catholicism has disappeared with us under the shock of great industry4#bif ,whatever may be the prospects as to the rapid emergence of organized labour movements in the ,orient1 one thing seems certain3 the unrest which afflicted so many parts of the ,east in the years preceding the ,great ,war1 though mainly political1 had also its social side4 ,toward the end of #aiac1 a leading ,anglo-,indian journal remarked pessimistically3 ,we have already gone so far on the downward path that leads to destruction that there are districts in what were once regarded as the most settled parts of ,india which are being abandoned by the rich because their property is not safe4 ,so great is the contempt for the law that it is employed by the unscrupulous as a means of offence against the innocent4 ,frontier ,pathans commit outrages almost unbelievable in their daring4 ,mass-meetings are held and agitation spreads in regard to topics quite outside the business of orderly people4 ,there is no matter of domestic or foreign politics in which crowds of irresponsible people do not want to have their passionate way4 ,great grievances are made of little1 far-off things4 ,what ought to be the ordered1 spacious life of the ,district ,officer is intruded upon and disturbed by a hundred distracting influences due to the want of discipline of the people4 ,in the subordinate ranks of the great services themselves1 trades-unions have been formed4 ,military and police officers have to regret that the new class of recruits is less subordinate than the old1 harder to discipline1 more full of complaints4#big ,the ,great ,war of course enormously aggravated ,oriental unrest4 ,in many parts of the ,near ,east1 especially1 acute suffering1 balked ambitions1 and furious hates combined to reduce society to the verge of chaos4 ,into this ominous turmoil there now came the sinister influence of ,russian ,bolshevism1 marshalling all this diffused unrest by systematic methods for definite ends4 ,bolshevism was frankly out for a world-revolution and the destruction of ,western civilization4 ,to attain this objective the ,bolshevist leaders not only launched direct assaults on the ,west1 but also planned flank attacks in ,asia and ,africa4 ,they believed that if the ,east could be set on fire1 not only would ,russian ,bolshevism gain vast additional strength but also the economic repercussion on the ,west1 already shaken by the war1 would be so terrific that industrial collapse would ensue1 thereby throwing ,europe open to revolution4 ,bolshevism's propagandist efforts were nothing short of universal1 both in area and in scope4 ,no part of the world was free from the plottings of its agents2 no possible source of discontent was overlooked4 ,strictly ,red doctrines like the dictatorship of the proletariat were very far from being the only weapons in ,bolshevism's armoury4 ,since what was first wanted was the overthrow of the existing world-order1 any kind of opposition to that order1 no matter how remote doctrinally from ,bolshevism1 was grist to the ,bolshevist mill4 ,accordingly1 in every quarter of the globe1 in ,asia1 ,africa1 ,australia1 and the ,americas1 as in ,europe1 ,bolshevik agitators whispered in the ears of the discontented their gospel of hatred and revenge4 ,every nationalist aspiration1 every political grievance1 every social injustice1 every racial discrimination1 was fuel for ,bolshevism's incitement to violence and war4#bih ,particularly promising fields for ,bolshevist activity were the ,near and ,middle ,east4 ,besides being a prey to profound disturbances of every description1 those regions as traditional objectives of the old ,czarist imperialism1 had long been carefully studied by ,russian agents who had evolved a technique of pacific penetration that might be easily adjusted to ,bolshevist ends4 ,to stir up political1 religious1 and racial passions in ,turkey1 ,persia1 ,afghanistan1 and ,india1 especially against ,england1 required no original planning by ,trotzky or ,lenin4 ,czarism had already done these things for generations1 and full information lay both in the ,petrograd archives and in the brains of surviving ,czarist agents ready to turn their hands as easily to the new work as the old4 ,in all the elaborate network of ,bolshevist propaganda which to-day enmeshes the ,east we must discriminate between ,bolshevism's two objectives3 one immediate--the destruction of ,western political and economic supremacy2 the other ultimate--the bolshevizing of the ,oriental masses and the consequent extirpation of the native upper and middle classes1 precisely as has been done in ,russia and as is planned for the countries of the ,west4 ,in the first stage1 ,bolshevism is quite ready to respect ,oriental faiths and customs and to back ,oriental nationalist movements4 ,in the second stage1 religions like ,islam and nationalists like ,mustapha ,kemal are to be branded as bourgeois and relentlessly destroyed4 ,how ,bolshevik diplomacy endeavours to work these two schemes in double harness1 we shall presently see4 ,russian ,bolshevism's ,oriental policy was formulated soon after its accession to power at the close of #aiag4 ,the year #aiah was a time of busy preparation4 ,an elaborate propaganda organization was built up from various sources4 ,a number of old ,czarist agents and diplomats versed in ,eastern affairs were cajoled or conscripted into the service4 ,the ,russian ,mohammedan populations such as the ,tartars of ,south ,russia and the ,turkomans of ,central ,asia furnished many recruits4 ,even more valuable were the exiles who flocked to ,russia from ,turkey1 ,persia1 ,india1 and elsewhere at the close of the ,great ,war4 ,practically all the leaders of the ,turkish war-government--,enver1 ,djemal1 ,talaat1 and many more1 fled to ,russia for refuge from the vengeance of the victorious ,entente ,powers4 ,the same was true of the ,hindu terrorist leaders who had been in ,german pay during the war and who now sought service under ,lenin4 ,by the end of #aiah ,bolshevism's ,oriental propaganda department was well organized1 divided into three bureaux1 for the ,islamic countries1 ,india1 and the ,far ,east respectively4 ,with ,bolshevism's ,far ,eastern activities this book is not concerned1 though the reader should bear them in mind and should remember the important part played by the ,chinese in recent ,russian history4 ,as for the ,islamic and ,indian bureaux1 they displayed great zeal1 translating tons of ,bolshevik literature into the various ,oriental languages1 training numerous secret agents and propagandists for field-work1 and getting in touch with all disaffected or revolutionary elements4 ,with the opening months of #aiai ,bolshevist activity throughout the ,near and ,middle ,east became increasingly apparent4 ,the wave of rage and despair caused by the ,entente's denial of ,near ,eastern nationalist aspirations#bii played splendidly into the ,bolshevists' hands1 and we have already seen how ,moscow supported ,mustapha ,kemal and other nationalist leaders in ,turkey1 ,persia1 ,egypt1 and elsewhere4 ,in the ,middle ,east1 also1 ,bolshevism gained important successes4 ,not merely was ,moscow's hand visible in the epidemic of rioting and seditious violence which swept northern ,india in the spring of #aiai1cjj but an even shrewder blow was struck at ,britain in ,afghanistan4 ,this land of turbulent mountaineers1 which lay like a perpetual thundercloud on ,india's north-west frontier1 had kept quiet during the ,great ,war1 mainly owing to the ,anglophile attitude of its ruler1 the ,ameer ,habibullah ,khan4 ,but early in #aiai ,habibullah was murdered4 ,whether the ,bolsheviki had a hand in the matter is not known1 but they certainly reaped the benefit1 for power passed to one of ,habibullah's sons1 ,amanullah ,khan1 who was an avowed enemy of ,england and who had had dealings with ,turco-,german agents during the late war4 ,amanullah at once got in touch with ,moscow1 and a little later1 just when the ,punjab was seething with unrest1 he declared war on ,england1 and his wild tribesmen1 pouring across the border1 set the ,north-,west ,frontier on fire4 ,after some hard fighting the ,british succeeded in repelling the ,afghan invasion1 and ,amanullah was constrained to make peace4 ,but ,britain obviously dared not press ,amanullah too hard1 for in the peace treaty the ,ameer was released from his previous obligation not to maintain diplomatic relations with other nations than ,british ,india4 ,amanullah promptly aired his independence by maintaining ostentatious relations with ,moscow4 ,as a matter of fact1 the ,bolsheviki had by this time established an important propagandist subcentre in ,russian ,turkestan1 not far from the ,afghan border1 and this bureau's activities of course envisaged not merely ,afghanistan but the wider field of ,india as well4#cja ,during #aibj ,bolshevik activities became still more pronounced throughout the ,near and ,middle ,east4 ,we have already seen how powerfully ,bolshevik ,russia supported the ,turkish and ,persian nationalist movements4 ,in fact1 the reckless short-sightedness of ,entente policy was driving into ,lenin's arms multitudes of nationalists to whom the internationalist theories of ,moscow were personally abhorrent4 ,for example1 the head of the ,afghan mission to ,moscow thus frankly expressed his reasons for friendship with ,soviet ,russia1 in an interview printed by the official ,soviet organ1 ,izvestia3 ,i am neither ,communist nor ,socialist1 but my political programme so far is the expulsion of the ,english from ,asia4 ,i am an irreconcilable enemy of ,european capitalism in ,asia1 the chief representatives of which are the ,english4 ,on this point ,i coincide with the ,communists1 and in this respect we are your natural allies4444 ,afghanistan1 like ,india1 does not represent a capitalist state1 and it is very unlikely that even a parliamentary rgime will take deep root in these countries4 ,it is so far difficult to say how subsequent events will develop4 ,i only know that the renowned address of the ,soviet ,government to all nations1 with its appeal to them to combat capitalists 7and for us a capitalist is synonymous with the word foreigner1 or1 to be more exact1 an ,englishman71 had an enormous effect on us4 ,a still greater effect was produced by ,russia's annulment of all the secret treaties enforced by the imperialistic governments1 and by the proclaiming of the right of all nations1 no matter how small1 to determine their own destiny4 ,this act rallied around ,soviet ,russia all the exploited nationalities of ,asia1 and all parties1 even those very remote from ,socialism4 ,of course1 knowing what we do of ,bolshevik propagandist tactics1 we cannot be sure that the ,afghan diplomat ever said the things which the ,izvestia relates4 ,but1 even if the interview be a fake1 the words put into his mouth express the feelings of vast numbers of ,orientals and explain a prime cause of ,bolshevik propagandist successes in ,eastern lands4 ,so successful1 indeed1 had been the progress of ,bolshevik propaganda that the ,soviet leaders now began to work openly for their ultimate ends4 ,at first ,moscow had posed as the champion of ,oriental peoples against ,western imperialism2 its appeals had been to peoples1 irrespective of class2 and it had promised self-determination1 with full respect for native ideas and institutions4 ,for instance3 a ,bolshevist manifesto to the ,turks signed by ,lenin and issued toward the close of #aiai read3 ,mussulmans of the world1 victims of the capitalists1 awake6 ,russia has abandoned the ,czar's pernicious policy toward you and offers to help you overthrow ,english tyranny4 ,she will allow you freedom of religion and self-government4 ,the frontiers existing before the war will be respected1 no ,turkish territory will be given ,armenia1 the ,dardanelles ,straits will remain yours1 and ,constantinople will remain the capital of the ,mussulman world4 ,the ,mussulmans in ,russia will be given self-government4 ,all we ask in exchange is that you fight the reckless capitalists1 who would exploit your country and make it a colony4 ,even when addressing its own people1 the ,soviet ,government maintained the same general tone4 ,an ,order of the ,day to the ,russian troops stationed on the borders of ,india stated3 ,comrades of the ,pamir division1 you have been given a responsible task4 ,the ,soviet ,republic sends you to garrison the posts on the ,pamir1 on the frontiers of the friendly countries of ,afghanistan and ,india4 ,the ,pamir tableland divides revolutionary ,russia from ,india1 which1 with its #cjj1jjj1jjj inhabitants1 is enslaved by a handful of ,englishmen4 ,on this tableland the signallers of revolution must hoist the red flag of the army of liberation4 ,may the peoples of ,india1 who fight against their ,english oppressors1 soon know that friendly help is not far off4 ,make yourselves at home with the liberty-loving tribes of northern ,india1 promote by word and deed their revolutionary progress1 refute the mass of calumnies spread about ,soviet ,russia by agents of the ,british princes1 lords1 and bankers4 ,long live the alliance of the revolutionary peoples of ,europe and ,asia6 ,such was the nature of first-stage ,bolshevik propaganda4 ,presently1 however1 propaganda of quite a different character began to appear4 ,this second-stage propaganda of course continued to assail ,western capitalist imperialism4 ,but alongside1 or rather intermingled with1 these anti-,western1 fulminations1 there now appeared special appeals to the ,oriental masses1 inciting them against all capitalists and bourgeois1 native as well as foreign1 and promising the proletarians remedies for all their ills4 ,here is a ,bolshevist manifesto to the ,turkish masses1 published in the summer of #aibj4 ,it is very different from the manifestoes of a year before4 ,the men of toil1 says this interesting document1 are now struggling everywhere against the rich people4 ,these people1 with the assistance of the aristocracy and their hirelings1 are now trying to hold ,turkish toilers in their chains4 ,it is the rich people of ,europe who have brought suffering to ,turkey4 ,comrades1 let us make common cause with the world's toilers4 ,if we do not do so we shall never rise again4 ,let the heroes of ,turkey's revolution join ,bolshevism4 ,long live the ,third ,international6 ,praise be to ,allah6 ,and in these new efforts ,moscow was not content with words2 it was passing to deeds as well4 ,the first application of ,bolshevism to an ,eastern people was in ,russian ,turkestan4 ,when the ,bolsheviki first came to power at the end of #aiag they had granted ,turkestan full self-determination1 and the inhabitants had acclaimed their native princes and re-established their old state-units1 subject to a loose federative tie with ,russia4 ,early in #aibj1 however1 the ,soviet ,government considered ,turkestan ripe for the ,social ,revolution4 ,accordingly1 the native princes were deposed1 all political power was transferred to local ,soviets 7controlled by ,russians71 the native upper and middle classes were despoiled of their property1 and sporadic resistance was crushed by mass-executions1 torture1 and other familiar forms of ,bolshevist terrorism4#cjb ,in the ,caucasus1 also1 the social revolution had begun with the ,sovietization of ,azerbaidjan4 ,the ,tartar republic of ,azerbaidjan was one of the fragments of the former ,russian province of ,transcaucasia which had declared its independence on the collapse of the ,czarist ,empire in #aiag4 ,located in eastern ,transcaucasia1 about the ,caspian ,sea1 ,azerbaidjan's capital was the city of ,baku1 famous for its oil-fields4 ,oil had transformed ,baku into an industrial centre on ,western lines1 with a large working population of mixed ,asiatic and ,russian origin4 ,playing upon the nascent class-consciousness of this urban proletariat1 the ,bolshevik agents made a coup d'tat in the spring of #aibj1 overthrew the nationalist government1 and1 with prompt ,russian backing1 made ,azerbaijan a ,soviet republic4 ,the usual accompaniments of the social revolution followed3 despoiling and massacring of the upper and middle classes1 confiscation of property in favour of the town proletarians and agricultural labourers1 and ruthless terrorism4 ,with the opening months of #aibj1 ,bolshevism was thus in actual operation in both the ,near and ,middle ,east4#cjc ,having acquired strong footholds in the ,orient1 ,bolshevism now felt strong enough to throw off the mask4 ,in the autumn of #aibj1 the ,soviet ,government of ,russia held a ,congress of ,eastern ,peoples at ,baku1 the aim of which was not merely the liberation of the ,orient from ,western control but its ,bolshevizing as well4 ,no attempt at concealment of this larger objective was made1 and so striking was the language employed that it may well merit our close attention4 ,in the first place1 the call to the congress1 issued by the ,third 7,moscow7 ,international1 was addressed to the peasants and workers of the ,east4 ,the summons read3 ,peasants and workers of ,persia6 ,the ,teheran ,government of the ,khadjars and its retinue of provincial ,khans have plundered and exploited you through many centuries4 ,the land1 which1 according to the laws of the ,sheriat1 was your common property1 has been taken possession of more and more by the lackeys of the ,teheran ,government2 they trade it away at their pleasure2 they lay what taxes please them upon you2 and when1 through their mismanagement1 they got the country into such a condition that they were unable to squeeze enough juice out of it themselves1 they sold ,persia last year to ,english capitalists for #b1jjj1jjj pounds1 so that the latter will organize an army in ,persia that will oppress you still more than formerly1 and so the latter can collect taxes for the ,khans and the ,teheran ,government4 ,they have sold the oil-wells in ,south ,persia and thus helped plunder the country4 ,peasants of ,mesopotamia6 ,the ,english have declared your country to be independent2 but #hj1jjj ,english soldiers are stationed in your country1 are robbing and plundering1 are killing you and are violating your women4 ,peasants of ,anatolia6 ,the ,english1 ,french1 and ,italian ,governments hold ,constantinople under the mouths of their cannon4 ,they have made the ,sultan their prisoner1 they are obliging him to consent to the dismemberment of what is purely ,turkish territory1 they are forcing him to turn the country's finances over to foreign capitalists in order to make it possible for them better to exploit the ,turkish people1 already reduced to a state of beggary by the six-year war4 ,they have occupied the coal-mines of ,heraclea1 they are holding your ports1 they are sending their troops into your country and are trampling down your fields4 ,peasants and workers of ,armenia6 ,decades ago you became the victims of the intrigues of foreign capital1 which launched heavy verbal attacks against the massacres of the ,armenians by the ,kurds and incited you to fight against the ,sultan in order to obtain through your blood new concessions and fresh profits daily from the bloody ,sultan4 ,during the war they not only promised you independence1 but they incited your merchants1 your teachers1 and your priests to demand the land of the ,turkish peasants in order to keep up an eternal conflict between the ,armenian and ,turkish peoples1 so that they could eternally derive profits out of this conflict1 for as long as strife prevails between you and the ,turks1 just so long will the ,english1 ,french1 and ,american capitalists be able to hold ,turkey in check through the menace of an ,armenian uprising and to use the ,armenians as cannon-fodder through the menace of a pogrom by ,kurds4 ,peasants of ,syria and ,arabia6 ,independence was promised to you by the ,english and the ,french1 and now they hold your country occupied by their armies1 now the ,english and the ,french dictate your laws1 and you1 who have freed yourselves from the ,turkish ,sultan1 from the ,constantinople ,government1 are now slaves of the ,paris and ,london ,governments1 which merely differ from the ,sultan's ,government in being stronger and better able to exploit you4 ,you all understand this yourselves4 ,the ,persian peasants and workers have risen against their traitorous ,teheran ,government4 ,the peasants in ,mesopotamia are in revolt against the ,english troops4 ,you peasants in ,anatolia have rushed to the banner of ,kemal ,pasha in order to fight against the foreign invasion1 but at the same time we hear that you are trying to organize your own party1 a genuine peasants' party that will be willing to fight even if the ,pashas are to make their peace with the ,entente exploiters4 ,syria has no peace1 and you1 ,armenian peasants1 whom the ,entente1 despite its promises1 allows to die from hunger in order to keep you under better control1 you are understanding more and more that it is silly to hope for salvation by the ,entente capitalists4 ,even your bourgeois ,government of the ,dashnakists1 the lackeys of the ,entente1 is compelled to turn to the ,workers' and ,peasants' ,government of ,russia with an appeal for peace and help4 ,peasants and workers of the ,near ,east6 ,if you organize yourselves1 if you form your own ,workers' and ,peasants' ,government1 if you arm yourselves1 if you unite with the ,red ,russian ,workers' and ,peasants' ,army1 then you will be able to defy the ,english1 ,french1 and ,american capitalists1 then you will settle accounts with your own native exploiters1 then you will find it possible1 in a free alliance with the workers' republics of the world1 to look after your own interests2 then you will know how to exploit the resources of your country in your own interest and in the interest of the working people of the whole world1 that will honestly exchange the products of their labour and mutually help each other4 ,we want to talk over all these questions with you at the ,congress in ,baku4 ,spare no effort to appear in ,baku on ,september #a in as large numbers as possible4 ,you march1 year in and year out1 through the deserts to the holy places where you show your respect for your past and for your ,god--now march through deserts1 over mountains1 and across rivers in order to come together to discuss how you can escape from the bonds of slavery1 how you can unite as brothers so as to live as men1 free and equal4 ,from this summons the nature of the ,baku congress can be imagined4 ,it was1 in fact1 a social revolutionist far more than a nationalist assembly4 ,of its #aijj delegates1 nearly #acjj were professed communists4 ,turkey1 ,persia1 ,armenia1 and the ,caucasus countries sent the largest delegations1 though there were also delegations from ,arabia1 ,india1 and even the ,far ,east4 ,the ,russian ,soviet ,government was of course in control and kept a tight hand on the proceedings4 ,the character of these proceedings were well summarized by the address of the noted ,bolshevik leader ,zinoviev1 president of the ,executive ,committee of the ,third 7,moscow7 ,international1 who presided4 ,zinoviev said3 ,we believe this ,congress to be one of the greatest events in history1 for it proves not only that the progressive workers and working peasants of ,europe and ,america are awakened1 but that we have at last seen the day of the awakening1 not of a few1 but of tens of thousands1 of hundreds of thousands1 of millions of the labouring class of the peoples of the ,east4 ,these peoples form the majority of the world's whole population1 and they alone1 therefore1 are able to bring the war between capital and labour to a conclusive decision4444 ,the ,communist ,international said from the very first day of its existence3 ',there are four times as many people living in ,asia as live in ,europe4 ,we will free all peoples1 all who labour4'444 ,we know that the labouring masses of the ,east are in part retrograde1 though not by their own fault2 they cannot read or write1 are ignorant1 are bound in superstition1 believe in the evil spirit1 are unable to read any newspapers1 do not know what is happening in the world1 have not the slightest idea of the most elementary laws of hygiene4 ,comrades1 our ,moscow ,international discussed the question whether a socialist revolution could take place in the countries of the ,east before those countries had passed through the capitalist stage4 ,you know that the view which long prevailed was that every country must first go through the period of capitalism 444 before socialism could become a live question4 ,we now believe that this is no longer true4 ,russia has done this1 and from that moment we are able to say that ,china1 ,india1 ,turkey1 ,persia1 ,armenia also can1 and must1 make a direct fight to get the ,soviet ,system4 ,these countries can1 and must1 prepare themselves to be ,soviet republics4 ,i say that we give patient aid to groups of persons who do not believe in our ideas1 who are even opposed to us on some points4 ,in this way1 the ,soviet ,government supports ,kemal in ,turkey4 ,never for one moment do we forget that the movement headed by ,kemal is not a communist movement4 ,we know it4 ,i have here extracts from the verbatim reports of the first session of the ,turkish people's ,government at ,angora4 ,kemal himself says that 'the ,caliph's person is sacred and inviolable4' ,the movement headed by ,kemal wants to rescue the ,caliph's 'sacred' person from the hands of the foe4 ,that is the ,turkish ,nationalist's point of view4 ,but is it a communist point of view8 ,no4 ,we respect the religious convictions of the masses2 we know how to re-educate the masses4 ,it will be the work of years4 ,we use great caution in approaching the religious convictions of the labouring masses in the ,east and elsewhere4 ,but at this ,congress we are bound to tell you that you must not do what the ,kemal ,government is doing in ,turkey2 you must not support the power of the ,sultan1 not even if religious considerations urge you to do so4 ,you must press on1 and must not allow yourselves to be pulled back4 ,we believe the ,sultan's hour has struck4 ,you must not allow any form of autocratic power to continue2 you must destroy1 you must annihilate1 faith in the ,sultan2 you must struggle to obtain real ,soviet organizations4 ,the ,russian peasants also were strong believers in the ,czar2 but when a true people's revolution broke out there was practically nothing left of this faith in the ,czar4 ,the same thing will happen in ,turkey and all over the ,east as soon as a true peasants' revolution shall burst forth over the surface of the black earth4 ,the people will very soon lose faith in their ,sultan and in their masters4 ,we say once more1 the policy pursued by the present people's ,government in ,turkey is not the policy of the ,communist ,international1 it is not our policy2 nevertheless1 we declare that we are prepared to support any revolutionary fight against the ,english ,government4 ,yes1 we array ourselves against the ,english bourgeoisie2 we seize the ,english imperialist by the throat and tread him underfoot4 ,it is against ,english capitalism that the worst1 the most fatal blow must be dealt4 ,that is so4 ,but at the same time we must educate the labouring masses of the ,east to hatred1 to the will to fight the whole of the rich classes indifferently1 whoever they be4 ,the great significance of the revolution now starting in the ,east does not consist in begging the ,english imperialist to take his feet off the table1 for the purpose of then permitting the wealthy ,turk to place his feet on it all the more comfortably2 no1 we will very politely ask all the rich to remove their dirty feet from the table1 so that there may be no luxuriousness among us1 no boasting1 no contempt of the people1 no idleness1 but that the world may be ruled by the worker's horny hand4 ,the ,baku congress was the opening gun in ,bolshevism's avowed campaign for the immediate ,bolshevizing of the ,east4 ,it was followed by increased ,soviet activity and by substantial ,soviet successes1 especially in the ,caucasus1 where both ,georgia and ,armenia were ,bolshevized in the spring of #aiba4 ,these very successes1 however1 awakened growing uneasiness among ,soviet ,russia's nationalist protgs4 ,the various ,oriental nationalist parties1 which had at first welcomed ,moscow's aid so enthusiastically against the ,entente ,powers1 now began to realize that ,russian ,bolshevism might prove as great a peril as ,western imperialism to their patriotic aspirations4 ,of course the nationalist leaders had always realized ,moscow's ultimate goal1 but hitherto they had felt themselves strong enough to control the situation and to take ,russian aid without paying ,moscow's price4 ,now they no longer felt so sure4 ,the numbers of class-conscious proletarians in the ,east might be very small4 ,the communist philosophy might be virtually unintelligible to the ,oriental masses4 ,nevertheless1 the very existence of ,soviet ,russia was a warning not to be disregarded4 ,in ,russia an infinitesimal communist minority1 numbering1 by its own admission1 not much over #fjj1jjj1 was maintaining an unlimited despotism over #agj1jjj1jjj people4 ,western countries might rely on their popular education and their staunch traditions of ordered liberty2 the ,east possessed no such bulwarks against ,bolshevism4 ,the ,east was1 in fact1 much like ,russia4 ,there was the same dense ignorance of the masses2 the same absence of a large and powerful middle class2 the same tradition of despotism2 the same popular acquiescence in the rule of ruthless minorities4 ,finally1 there were the ominous examples of ,sovietized ,turkestan and ,azerbaidjan4 ,in fine1 ,oriental nationalists bethought them of the old adage that he who sups with the devil needs a long spoon4 ,everywhere it has been the same story4 ,in ,asia ,minor1 ,mustapha ,kemal has arrested ,bolshevist propaganda agents1 while ,turkish and ,russian troops have more than once clashed on the disputed ,caucasus frontiers4 ,in ,egypt we have already seen how an amicable arrangement between ,lord ,milner and the ,egyptian nationalist leaders was facilitated by the latter's fear of the social revolutionary agitators who were inflaming the fellaheen4 ,in ,india1 ,sir ,valentine ,chirol noted as far back as the spring of #aiah how ,russia's collapse into ,bolshevism had had a sobering effect on ,indian public opinion4 ,the more thoughtful ,indians1 he wrote1 now see how helpless even the ,russian intelligentsia 7relatively far more numerous and matured than the ,indian intelligentsia7 has proved to control the great ignorant masses as soon as the whole fabric of government has been hastily shattered4#cjd ,in ,afghanistan1 likewise1 the ,ameer was losing his love for his ,bolshevist allies4 ,the streams of refugees from ,sovietized ,turkestan that flowed across his borders for protection1 headed by his kinsman the ,ameer of ,bokhara1 made ,amanullah ,khan do some hard thinking1 intensified by a serious mutiny of ,afghan troops on the ,russian border1 the mutineers demanding the right to form ,soldiers' ,councils quite on the ,russian pattern4 ,bolshevist agents might tempt him by the loot of ,india1 but the ,ameer could also see that that would do him little good if he himself were to be looted and killed by his own rebellious subjects4#cje ,thus1 as time went on1 ,oriental nationalists and conservatives generally tended to close ranks in dislike and apprehension of ,bolshevism4 ,had there been no other issue involved1 there can be little doubt that ,moscow's advances would have been repelled and ,bolshevist agents given short shrift4 ,unfortunately1 the ,eastern nationalists feel themselves between the ,bolshevist devil and the ,western imperialist deep sea4 ,the upshot has been that they have been trying to play off the one against the other--driven toward ,moscow by every ,entente aggression2 driven toward the ,west by every ,soviet coup of ,lenin4 ,western statesmen should realize this1 and should remember that ,bolshevism's best propagandist agent is1 not ,zinoviev orating at ,baku1 but ,general ,gouraud1 with his ,senegalese battalions and strong-arm methods in ,syria and the ,arab hinterland4 ,certainly1 any extensive spread of ,bolshevism in the ,east would be a terrible misfortune both for the ,orient and for the world at large4 ,if the triumph of ,bolshevism would mean barbarism in the ,west1 in the ,east it would spell downright savagery4 ,the sudden release of the ignorant1 brutal ,oriental masses from their traditional restraints of religion and custom1 and the submergence of the relatively small upper and middle classes by the flood of social revolution would mean the destruction of all ,oriental civilization and culture1 and a plunge into an abyss of anarchy from which the ,east could emerge only after generations1 perhaps centuries4 ,,footnotes3 #bhd ,for these early forms of unrest1 see ,a4 ,le ,chatelier1 ,l',islam au dix-neuvime ,sicle1 pp4 #bb-dd 7,paris1 #ahhh74 #bhe ,d4 ,h4 ,dodwell1 ,economic ,transition in ,india1 ,economic ,journal1 ,december1 #aiaj4 #bhf ,bipin ,chandra ,pal1 ,the ,forces ,behind the ,unrest in ,india1 ,contemporary ,review1 ,february1 #aiaj4 #bhg ,j4 ,chailley1 ,administrative ,problems of ,british ,india1 p4 #cci 7,london1 #aiaj--;,english translation74 #bhh ,dr4 ,ronald ,ross1 ,wretchedness a ,cause of ,political ,unrest1 ,the ,survey1 #ah ,february1 #aiaa4 #bhi ,a4 ,yusuf ,ali1 ,life and ,labour in ,india1 pp4 #c1 #cb 7,london1 #aijg74 #bij ,e4 ,w4 ,capen1 ,a ,sociological ,appraisal of ,western ,influence on the ,orient1 ,american ,journal of ,sociology1 ,may1 #aiaa4 #bia ,p4 ,khorat1 ,psychologie de la ,rvolution chinoise1 ,revue des ,deux ,mondes1 #ae ,march1 #aiab2 ,l4 ,bertrand1 ,le ,mirage orientale1 pp4 #afd-aff2 ,j4 ,d4 ,rees1 ,the ,real ,india1 pp4 #afb-afc4 #bib ,albert ,mtin1 ,l',inde d'aujourd'hui3 tude sociale1 p4 #bgf 7,paris1 #aiah74 #bic ,albert ,mtin1 ,l',inde d'aujourd'hui3 tude sociale1 pp4 #cci-cde4 #bid ,j4 ,ramsay ,macdonald1 ,the ,government of ,india1 pp4 #acc-acd 7,london1 #aibj74 #bie ,georges ,foucart4 ,quoted in ,the ,literary ,digest1 #ag ,august1 #aijg1 pp4 #bbe-bbf4 #bif ,a4 ,van ,gennep1 ,en ,algrie1 p4 #ahb 7,paris1 #aiad74 #big ,the ,englishman 7,calcutta74 ,quoted in ,the ,literary ,digest1 #ba ,february1 #aiad1 p4 #cfi4 #bih ,for these larger world-aspects of ,bolshevik propaganda1 see ,paul ,miliukov1 ,bolshevism3 ,an ,international ,danger 7,london1 #aibj72 also1 my ,rising ,tide of ,colour against ,white ,world-,supremacy1 pp4 #bah-bba1 and my article1 ,bolshevism3 ,the ,heresy of the ,under-,man1 ,the ,century1 ,june1 #aiai4 #bii ,see ,chapter ,v4 #cjj ,see ,chapter ,,vi4 #cja ,for events in ,afghanistan and ,central ,asia1 see ,sir ,t4 ,h4 ,holdich1 ,the ,influence of ,bolshevism in ,afghanistan1 ,new ,europe1 ,december #d1 #aiai2 ,ikbal ,ali ,shah1 ,the ,fall of ,bokhara1 ,the ,near ,east1 ,october #bh1 #aibj1 and his ,the ,central ,asian ,tangle1 ,asiatic ,review1 ,october1 #aibj4 ,for ,bolshevist activity in the ,near and ,middle ,east generally1 see ,miliukov1 op4 cit41 pp4 #bdc-bfj2 #bie-big2 ,major-,general ,sir ,george ,aston1 ,bolshevik ,propaganda in the ,east1 ,fortnightly ,review1 ,august1 #aibj2 ,w4 ,e4 ,d4 ,allen1 ,transcaucasia1 ,past and ,present1 ,quarterly ,review1 ,october1 #aibj2 ,sir ,valentine ,chirol1 ,conflicting ,policies in the ,near ,east1 ,new ,europe1 ,july #a1 #aibj2 ,l4 ,dumont-,wilden1 ,awakening ,asia1 ,the ,living ,age1 ,august #g1 #aibj 7translated from the ,french72 ,major-,general ,lord ,edward ,gleichen1 ,moslems and the ,tangle in the ,middle ,east1 ,national ,review1 ,december1 #aiai2 ,paxton ,hibben1 ,russia at ,peace1 ,the ,nation 7,new ,york71 ,january #bf1 #aiba2 ,h4 von ,hoff1 ,die nationale ,erhebung in der ,trkei1 ,deutsche ,revue1 ,december1 #aiai2 ,r4 ,g4 ,hunter1 ,entente--,oil--,islam1 ,new ,europe1 ,august #bf1 #aibj2 ,taira1 ,the ,story of the ,arab ,revolt1 ,balkan ,review1 ,august1 #aibj2 ,voyageur1 ,lenin's ,attempt to ,capture ,islam1 ,new ,europe1 ,june #aj1 #aibj2 ,hans ,wendt1 ,ex ,oriente ,lux1 ,nord und ,sd1 ,may1 #aibj2 ,george ,young1 ,russian ,foreign ,policy1 ,new ,europe1 ,july #a1 #aibj4 #cjb ,ikbal ,ali ,shah1 op4 cit4 #cjc ,for events in the ,caucasus1 see ,w4 ,e4 ,d4 ,allen1 ,transcaucasia1 ,past and ,present1 ,quarterly ,review1 ,october1 #aibj2 ,c4 ,e4 ,bechhofer1 ,the ,situation in the ,transcaucasus1 ,new ,europe1 ,september #b1 #aibj2 ,d4 ,z4 ,t41 ,l',azerbaidjan3 ,la ,premire ,rpublique musulmane1 ,revue du ,monde musulman1 #aiai2 ,paxton ,hibben1 ,exit ,georgia1 ,the ,nation 7,new ,york71 ,march #cj1 #aiba4 #cjd ,sir ,v4 ,chirol1 ,india in ,travail1 ,edinburgh ,review1 ,july1 #aiah4 ,also see ,h4 ,h4 ,the ,aga ,khan1 ,india in ,transition1 p4 #ag 7,london1 #aiah74 #cje ,ikbal ,ali ,shah1 op4 cit4 ,,conclusion ,our survey of the ,near and ,middle ,east is at an end4 ,what is the outstanding feature of that survey8 ,it is3 ,change4 ,the ,immovable ,east has been moved at last--moved to its very depths4 ,the ,orient is to-day in full transition1 flux1 ferment1 more sudden and profound than any it has hitherto known4 ,the world of ,islam1 mentally and spiritually quiescent for almost a thousand years1 is once more astir1 once more on the march4 ,whither8 ,we do not know4 ,who would be bold enough to prophesy the outcome of this vast ferment--political1 economical1 social1 religious1 and much more besides8 ,all that we may wisely venture is to observe1 describe1 and analyse the various elements in the great transition4 ,yet surely this is much4 ,to view1 however empirically1 the mighty transformation at work2 to group its multitudinous aspects in some sort of relativity2 to follow the red threads of tendency running through the tangled skein1 is to gain at least provisional knowledge and acquire capacity to grasp the significance of future developments as they shall successively arise4 ,to know is to understand--and to hope3 to hope that this present travail1 vast and ill-understood1 may be but the birth-pangs of a truly renascent ,east taking its place in a renascent world4 ,,index ,aali ,pasha1 ,pan-,islam agitation of1 #ed ,abbas ,hilmi1 ,khedive1 pro ,turkish views of1 #aee2 deposition of1 #aef2 ,pan-,arabianism supported by1 #agj ,abd-el-,kader1 ,french resisted by1 #da ,abd-el-,malek ,hamsa1 ,pro-,germanism of1 #aef ,abd-el-,wahab1 ,mohammedan revival begun by1 #ba1 #dj2 birth of1 #ba2 early life of1 #bb ff42 influence of1 #bb2 death of1 #bb ,abdul ,hamid1 despotism of1 #cb2 as caliph1 #ci2 ,sennussi's opposition to1 #ci1 #df2 ,djemal-ed-,din protected by1 #ec ff42 ,pan-,islam policy of1 #ec ff42 character of1 #ed ff42 government of1 #ee2 deposition of1 #ef1 #aai2 tyrannical policy of1 #aaf2 nationalism opposed by1 #aci1 #afe2 ,arabs conciliated by1 #adb ff4 ,abu ,bekr #bb2 policy of1 #aad ff4 ,abyssinian ,church1 ,mohammedan threat against1 #ej ,afghanistan1 religious uprisings in1 #da2 nineteenth-century independence of1 #aah2 ,bolshevism in1 #bhf ff42 rebellion of1 #bhf;ff4 ,africa1 ,mohammedan missionary work in1 #di ff4 ,see also ,north ,africa ,agadir crisis1 #eg ,ahmed ,bey ,agayeff1 ,pan-,turanism aided by1 #afe ,alexandria1 massacre of ,europeans in1 #adi ,algeria1 ,french conquest of1 #dj1 #aeh2 ,kabyle insurrection in1 #da2 compulsory vaccination in1 #ie2 liberal political aspirations in1 #aah ff42 need for ,european government in1 #abb ,allenby1 ,general1 ,egypt in control of1 #agg ,amanullah ,khan1 ,bolshevism of1 #bhf2 war on ,england declared by1 #bhf2 present policy of1 #bih ,anatolia1 ,bolshevist manifesto to1 #bib ,anglo-,russian ,agreement1 terms of1 #aei ff4 ,arabi ,pasha1 ,djemal-ed-,din's influence on1 #adh2 revolution in ,egypt headed by1 #adh ,arabia1 description of natives of1 #ba2 ,turks fought by1 #bc2 defeat of1 #bc2 political freedom of1 #aac2 democracy in1 #abg2 nationalist spirit in1 #adj ff42 ,turkish rulers opposed by1 #adj ff42 suppression of1 #adc2 #aije rebellion of1 #adc2 effect of ,young-,turk revolution on1 #ade ff42 #aiaf revolt of1 #adf2 ,pan-,arabism in1 #ade2 religious character of ,pan-,arab movement in1 #afi ff42 effect of ,great ,war on1 #agj1 #ahc ff42 ,allied encouragement of1 #ahd2 peace terms and1 #ahe2 ,english agreement with1 #ahe ff42 revolt against ,turks of1 #ahe2 secret partition of1 #ahe ff42 ,colonel ,lawrence's influence in1 #ahf2 secret treaties revealed to1 #ahg2 ,france and ,england in1 #ahg ff42 ,mustapha ,kemal aided by #aid1 ff42 ,english negotiations with1 #aih2 ,bolshevist manifesto to1 #bib ,arabian ,national ,committee1 creation of1 #adc ,archer ,william1 on over-population in ,india1 #bfc ,argyll1 ,duke of1 over-population in ,india1 #bfc ,armenia1 ,bolshevist manifesto to1 #bib ,arya ,somaj1 #bjh ,atchin ,war1 #da ,azerbaidjan1 ,bolshevist revolution in1 #bij ff4 ,babbist movement in ,persia1 #bgd ,baber1 ,mogul ,empire founded by1 #bjd ,baku1 ,congress of ,eastern ,peoples at1 #bia1 #big ,balkan ,war1 #eg2 ,mohammedans roused by1 #eh ,barbary ,states1 ,french conquest of1 #aeh ,brard1 ,victor1 on the enmity of ,turks and ,arabs1 #ada ff42 ,france's ,syrian policy criticised by1 #aii ,bertrand1 ,louis1 anti-,western feeling in ,orient described by1 #ie ff42 on social conditions in the ,levant1 #bfi1 #bga ,bevan1 ,edwyn1 nationalist views of1 #abe ff4 ,bin ,saud1 ,ikhwan movement led by1 #gb ,bolshevism1 effects on ,orient of1 #age2 ,mustapha ,kemal aided by1 #aif ff42 the ,east a field for1 #bhc ff42 propaganda of1 #bhd ff41 #bhh ff42 ,oriental policy of1 #bhe2 in ,afghanistan1 #bhf ff42 manifesto to ,mohammedans issued by1 #bhh ff42 manifesto to ,turks issued by1 #bhi ff42 ,congress of ,eastern ,peoples held by1 #bia ff4 ,bombay1 ,english character of1 #ajj2 social conditions in1 #bgj ff4 ,bose1 ,pramatha ,nath1 on economic conditions in ,india1 #bde ff4 ,brahminism1 illiberalism of1 #abj ,brailsford1 ,h4 ,n41 on modern industry in ,egypt1 #bcf ff42 on social conditions in ,egypt1 #bfi ff4 ,british ,east ,india ,company1 #bje ,bukhsh1 ,s4 ,khuda1 reform work of1 #ca ff42 nationalism in ,india opposed by1 #abe ff42 on ,indian social conditions1 #bec ff4 ,caetani1 ,leone1 #fc ,cahun1 ,lon1 ,turanism and1 #afc ,cairo1 revolt in1 #agh2 modern women in1 #beh ,calcutta1 ,english character of1 #ajj2 social conditions in1 #bgj ,caliphate1 ,islam strengthened by1 #ch ff42 history of1 #ci2 ,turkey the head of1 #ci ff4 ,chelmsford1 ,lord1 report of1 #baf ff4 ,china1 ,mohammedan insurrection in1 #da1 #ea ff42 ,mohammedan missionary work in1 #ej2 number of ,mohammedans in1 #ea2 ,mohammedan agitation in1 #fj ,chirol1 ,valentine1 ,western influence in ,orient described by1 #gi ff42 on ,egyptian situation1 #agi ff42 ,montagu-,chelmsford ,report approved by1 #bbj2 on ,egyptian conditions since the war1 #bga ff42 on ,bolshevism in ,india1 #bih ,congress of ,eastern ,peoples1 #bia ff4 ,constantine1 ,king1 recalled1 #aid ,constantinople1 ,allied occupation of1 #aib ff42 changes since #ahif in1 #bea ff42 status of women in1 #beh ,cox1 ,sir ,percy1 ,english-,arabian negotiations made by1 #aih2 influence of1 #bjj ,cromer1 ,lord1 on ,islam1 #bi1 #cb2 ,western influence in ,orient described by1 #hj2 ethics of imperialism formulated by1 #hd1 #ajb1 #abj ff42 ,egyptian administration of1 #adi2 resignation of1 #aeb2 on western-educated ,egypt1 #beg2 on over-population in ,india1 #bfc ,curtis1 ,lionel1 nationalism in ,india supported by1 #acj ff42 ,montagu-,chelmsford ,report approved by1 #bbj ,curzon-,wyllie1 ,sir1 assassination of1 #bab ,damascus1 ,french in1 #aia ff4 ,dar-ul-,islam1 #aga ff4 ,dickinson1 ,g4 ,lowes1 on ,eastern economics1 #bdi ,djemal-ed-,din1 birth of1 #eb2 character of1 #eb2 anti-,european work of1 #eb2 in ,india1 #eb2 in ,egypt1 #ec2 ,abdul ,hamid's protection of1 #ec ff42 death of1 #ec2 teachings of1 #ec ff42 nationalism taught by1 #ach2 ,egypt influenced by1 #adh2 in ,russia1 #bhe ,dutch ,east ,indies1 ,mohammedan uprisings in1 #da2 ,mohammedan missionary work in1 #eb ,egypt1 nationalism in1 #cb1 #aah ff42 ,mahdist insurrection in1 #da2 #aiad insurrection of1 #fa2 exiled ,arabs in1 #adc2 characteristics of people of1 #adg ff42 early ,european influences in1 #adg2 nationalist agitation in1 #adh ff42 influence of ,djemal-ed-,din in1 #adh2 #ahhb revolution in1 #adh ff42 ,lord ,cromer's rule of1 #adi2 ,france's influence in1 #aej ff42 failure of ,english liberal policy in1 #aec ff42 ,lord ,kitchener's rule in1 #aec ff42 effect of outbreak of ,world ,war on1 #aee ff42 made ,english protectorate1 #aef ff42 ,pan-,arabism in1 #afi2 ,versailles conference's treatment of1 #agd2 nationalist demands of1 #agg2 ,allenby in control of1 #agg2 rebellion of1 #agh ff42 martial law in1 #agh2 situation after rebellion in1 #agi ff42 ,english commission of inquiry in1 #aha2 ,english compromise with1 #ahb2 opposition to compromise in1 #ahb ff42 modern factories in1 #bcd1 #bcf2 industrial conditions in1 #bcf ff42 social conditions in1 #bfi2 social revolution in1 #bha ff4 ,el-,gharami1 #cj ,el ,mahdi1 #db ,england1 ,egypt's rebellion against1 #age ff42 ,commission of ,inquiry into ,egyptian affairs appointed by1 #aha2 ,egyptian compromise with1 #ahb2 opposition to compromise in1 #ahb2 ,arabia and1 #ahd ff42 in ,mesopotamia1 #ahe ff42 in ,palestine1 #ahf2 ,french disagreement with1 #ahh ff42 at ,san ,remo conference1 #aij2 ,mesopotamian rebellion against1 #aib ff42 ,svres ,treaty and1 #aic2 ,greek agreement with1 #aic2 ,arabian negotiation with1 #aih2 in ,india1 #bjd ff4 ,enver ,pasha1 ,pan-,turanism and1 #afg2 in ,russia1 #bhe ,feisal1 ,prince1 at peace conference1 #ahg ff42 peace counsels of1 #ahh2 made king of ,syria1 #aia ,fisher1 on social conditions in ,india1 #bgj ff4 ,france1 ,morocco seized by1 #eg2 anti-,british propaganda of1 #aej ff42 ,arabia and1 #ahd2 ,syrian aspirations of1 #ahe ff42 at ,san ,remo conference1 #aij2 ,syrian rebellion and1 #aia ff42 ,svres ,treaty and1 #aic2 ,greek agreement with1 #aic2 present ,syrian situation of1 #aih ff4 ,gandhi1 ,m4 ,k41 boycott of ,england advocated by1 #bbd ,gorst1 ,sir ,eldon1 ,lord ,cromer succeeded by1 #aeb2 failure of policy of1 #aec ff4 ,gouraud1 ,general1 ,feisal subdued by1 #aia2 danger in methods of1 #bii ,greece1 anti-,turk campaign of1 #aic2 ,venizelos repudiated by1 #aid2 ,constantine supported by1 #aid ,habibullah ,khan1 ,ameer1 ,england supported by1 #bhf2 death of1 #bhf ,haifa1 to be ,british1 #ahf ,hajj1 ,islam strengthened by1 #ch ff4 ,halil ,pasha1 ,pan-,turanism and1 #afh ,hanotaux1 ,gabriel1 #eg ,harding1 ,lord1 ,indian nationalist movement supported by1 #bae ,hedjaz1 ,turkish dominion of1 #adj ,hindustan1 ,islam's appeal to #fj2 anti-,western feeling in1 #ii ff42 illiberal tradition of1 #abj ,hunter1 ,sir ,william1 on over-population in ,india1 #bfc ff4 ,hussein ,kamel1 made ,sultan of ,egypt1 #aef ,ikhwan1 beginning of1 #ga2 progress of1 #ga ,imam ,yahya1 #aii ,india1 reform of ,islamism in1 #cj2 ,english mastery of1 #dj2 ,islam's missionary work in1 #eb2 #aiad insurrection in1 #fa2 ,english towns and customs in1 #ajj2 effect of ,russo-,japanese ,war in1 #aje1 #baj ff42 liberal political aspirations in1 #aah ff42 democracy introduced by ,england in1 #abb ff42 opposition to nationalism in1 #abd ff41 #bah ff42 support of nationalism in1 #abi ff41 #acf ff42 history of1 #bja2 ,aryan invasion of1 #bja ff42 beginning of caste system in1 #bjb ff42 ,mohammedan invasion of1 #bjc ff42 ,mogul ,empire founded in1 #bjd2 ,british conquest of1 #bje ff42 beginning of discontent in1 #bjf ff42 ,hindu nationalist movement in1 #bjh ff41 #bab ff42 ,english liberal policy in1 #bac ff42 result of outbreak of war in1 #bad2 ,montagu-,chelmsford ,report in1 #baf ff42 militant unrest in1 #bbj ff42 effect of ,rowlatt ,bill in1 #bbb ff42 ,english boycotted by1 #bbc ff42 present turmoil in1 #bbd2 industries in1 #bcc ff42 industrial conditions in1 #bcg ff42 industrial future of1 #bci ff42 agriculture in1 #bdc ff42 ,swadeshi movement in1 #bdd ff42 social conditions in1 #bec ff42 status of women in1 #bed1 #beh ff42 education in1 #bee ff42 over-population in1 #bfb ff42 condition of peasants in1 #bfi2 city and rural life in1 #bge ff42 economic revolution in1 #bgf ff42 attitude of ,bolshevists toward1 #bhi ff4 ,indian ,councils ,act1 terms of1 #bac2 effect of #bac ,indian ,national ,congress1 #bjf ,islam1 eighteenth-century decadence of1 #bj ff42 revival of1 #ba2 ,christian opinions of1 #bf ff42 present situation of1 #bg ff42 agnosticism in1 #cb ff42 fanatics in1 #cc ff42 solidarity of1 #cg ff42 ,hajj an aid to1 #ch ff42 caliphate an aid to1 #ch ff42 ,western successes against1 #dj2 proselytism of1 #dh ff42 effect of ,balkan ,war on1 #eh ff42 effect of ,russo-,japanese ,war on1 #ei1 #aje ff42 ,western influence on1 #ge ff42 anti-,western reaction of1 #hh ff42 race mixture in1 #ajb ff42 tyranny in1 #aaa ff42 early equality in1 #aac ff42 political reformation in1 #aae ff42 birth of nationalism in1 #acg ff42 ,bolshevist propaganda in1 #bhd ff4 ,see also ,pan-,islam ,ismael1 ,hamet1 on scepticism among ,moslems1 #cb ,ismael1 ,khedive1 tyrannical policy of1 #aaf2 ,egypt ,europeanized by1 #adg ff4 ,italy1 ,tripoli attacked by1 #eg2 ,san ,remo ,treaty opposed by1 #aij1 #aic ,japan1 ,mohammedan missionary work in1 #ei ff4 ,jowf1 ,sennussi stronghold1 #de ,kabyle insurrection1 #da ,khadjar dynasty1 ,persian revolution against1 #afj ,kharadjites1 ,islamic spirit preserved by1 #bgd ,khartum1 capture of1 #da ,kheir-ed-,din1 attempt to regenerate ,tunis made by1 #hi ,kitchener1 ,lord1 ,mahdist insurrection suppressed by1 #da2 anti-nationalist beliefs of1 #abb2 nationalism in ,egypt suppressed by1 #aec ff4 ,krishnavarma1 ,s41 assassination commended by1 #baa ,lawrence1 ,colonel1 influence of1 #ahf2 ,arab-,turk agreement1 views of1 #aid ff42 ,mesopotamia1 views of1 #aig ,lebanon1 ,france's control of1 #ahd ,lenine1 manifesto to ,mohammedans issued by1 #bhh ff4 ,low1 ,sidney1 modern imperialism described by1 #hf ff42 on ,egyptian situation1 #aed ,lyall1 ,sir ,alfred1 on ,western education in ,india1 #bef ff4 ,lybyer1 ,professor ,a4 ,h41 democracy in ,islam described by1 #aad1 #abg ,macdonald1 ,j4 ,ramsay1 on economic conditions in ,india1 #bde2 on social revolution in ,india1 #bhj ff4 ,mc,ilwraith1 ,sir ,m41 on ,egyptian situation1 #ahj ,mc,mahon1 ,sir ,henry1 agreement with ,arabs made by1 #ahe ff4 ,madras1 ,english character of1 #ajj ,mahdism1 definition of1 #db ff4 ,mahdist insurrection1 #db ,mahmud ,,ii1 ,sultan1 liberal policy of1 #aae ,mahmud of ,ghazni1 ,india invaded by1 #bjd ,mecca1 decadence of1 #ba2 ,abd-el-,wahab's pilgrimage to1 #bb2 ,saud's subjugation of1 #bc2 ,turkish reconquest of1 #bc2 aid to strength of ,islam1 #ch ff42 post cards sold at1 #bea ,medina1 decadence of1 #ba2 ,abd-el-,wahab's studies at1 #bb2 ,saud's subjugation of1 #bc2 ,turkish reconquest of1 #bc2 electricity at1 #bea ,mehemet ,ali1 army of1 #bc2 ,turks aided by1 #bc2 ,wahabi defeated by1 #bc2 liberal policy of1 #aae2 ,egypt ,europeanized by1 #adg ,mesopotamia1 ,turkish dominion of1 #adj2 ,england in1 #ahd ff42 rebellion against ,england of #aib ff42 denunciation of ,english policy in1 #aig2 ,bolshevists' manifesto issued to1 #bib ,mtin1 ,albert1 on nationalist movement in ,india1 #bgi ff4 ,midhat ,pasha1 liberal movement aided by1 #cb ,milner1 ,lord1 ,egyptian inquiry commission headed by1 #aha2 character of1 #aha2 compromise agreed on by1 #ahb ff42 resignation of1 #ahb2 influence of1 #bjj ,mogul ,empire1 foundation of1 #bjd ,mohammed ,abdou1 ,sheikh1 liberal movement aided by1 #cb2 ,djemal-ed-,din's influence on1 #adh2 conservative teachings of1 #aej ,mohammed ,ahmed1 ,sennussi's scorn of1 #df ,mohammed ,farid ,bey1 anti-,english policy of1 #aeb2 mistakes of1 #aeb ff42 pro ,german policy of1 #aef ,mohammedan ,revival4 ,see ,pan-,islam ,mollahs1 anti-liberalism of1 #cj ,montagu-,chelmsford ,report1 #bag ff4 ,montagu1 liberal policy of1 #baf ff4 ,morison1 ,sir ,theodore1 on ,moslem situation1 #fg1 #gj ff42 on modern industry in ,india1 #bcd ff41 #bde ,morley1 ,john1 liberal policy of1 #bac ,morocco1 ,french seizure of1 #eg1 #aeh2 in nineteenth century1 #aah ,motazelism1 re-discovery of1 #bf2 influence of1 #cj ,moulvie ,cheragh ,ali1 reform work of1 #ca ,muhammed ,ali1 ,shah1 revolt in ,persia against1 #aai ,muir1 ,ramsay1 ,european imperialism described by1 #hc ,mustapha ,kemal1 character of1 #aej2 beliefs of1 #aea ff42 death of1 #aea2 ,allies defied by1 #aia2 ,turkish denunciation of1 #aic2 ,greek campaign against1 #aic ff42 ,arab aid given to1 #aid ff42 policy of1 #aif2 ,bolshevists allied with1 #aif ff42 ,french negotiations with1 #aii2 ,bolshevist support of1 #bhf1 #bie ,mutiny of #aheg1 #bje ,nair1 ,doctor ,t4 ,madavan1 anti-nationalist opinions of1 #abd1 #bai ,nakechabendiya fraternity1 #da ,namasudra1 anti-nationalist organization1 #abd1 #bai ,nejd1 birth of ,abd-el-,wahab in1 #ba ff42 description of1 #ba ff42 return of ,abd-el-,wahab to1 #bb2 conversion of1 #bb2 consolidation of1 #bc ,nitti1 ,premier1 ,san ,remo ,treaty opposed by1 #aij ff4 ,north ,africa1 ,holy ,men insurrection in1 #da2 lack of nationalism in1 #aeg ff42 races in1 #aeh ff4 ,nyassaland1 ,mohammedanism in1 #di ff4 ,orient1 ,see ,islam ,pal1 ,bepin ,chander1 on ,montagu-,chelmsford ,report1 #bah2 on social revolution in ,india1 #bgg ,palestine1 ,sykes-,picot ,agreement and1 #ahe2 ,england in1 #ahe ,pan-,islam1 fanatics' scheme 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#bei 7originally on page #bfa73 ,full-stop 7period7 added after op 7in op4 cit47 for consistency4 ,page #bij3 ,hyphen added to oil-fields for consistency4