file which includes the original illustrations4 ,see #bdjgg-;h4htm or #bdjgg-;h4zip3 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/dirs_/#b_/ d_/j_/g_/bdjgg_/bdjgg-;h_/#bdjgg-;h4htm7 or 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/dirs_/#b_/ d_/j_/g_/bdjgg_/bdjgg-;h4zip7 ,transcriber's note3 ,text enclosed by equal signs was in bold face in the original 7bold74 ,additional notes will be found at the end of the book4 ,,textiles ,for ,commercial1 ,industrial1 and ,domestic ,arts ,schools2 ,also ,adapted to ,those ,engaged in ,wholesale and ,retail ,dry ,goods1 ,wool1 ,cotton1 and ,dressmaker's ,trades by ,,william ,h4 ,,dooley ,principal ,lowell ,industrial ,school ,lowell1 ,mass4 ,revised ,edition ,with ,experiments ,d4 ,c4 ,heath ,company ,boston ,new ,york ,chicago ,copyright1 #aiaj1 #aiab1 and #aiad1 by ,d4 ,c4 ,heath and ,company ,illustration3 ,,cotton ,,plant ,,preface ,the author established and since its inception has been in charge of the first industrial school for boys and girls in ,massachusetts4 ,at an early date he recognized the need of special text-books to meet the demand of young people who are attending vocational schools4 ,there are plenty of books written on textiles for technical school students and advanced workers4 ,but the author has failed to find a book explaining the manufacture and testing of textiles for commercial1 industrial1 domestic arts1 and continuation schools1 and for those who have just entered the textile or allied trades4 ,this book is written to meet this educational need4 ,others may find the book of interest1 particularly the chapters describing cotton1 woolen1 worsted1 and silk fabrics4 ,the author is under obligations to ,mr4 ,franklin ,w4 ,hobbs1 treasurer of the ,arlington ,mills1 for permission to use illustrations and information from literature published by the ,arlington ,mills2 to ,mr4 ,s4 ,h4 ,ditchett1 editor of ,dry ,goods ,economist1 for permission to use information from his publication1 ,dry ,goods ,encyclopedia2 to the editor of the ,textile ,mercury2 to ,frank ,p4 ,bennett1 of the ,american ,wool and ,cotton ,reporter1 for permission to use information from ,cotton ,fabrics ,glossary2 and to the instructors of the ,lawrence ,industrial ,school for valuable information4 ,in addition1 information has been obtained from the great body of textile literature1 which the author desires to acknowledge4 ,,contents ,,chapter ,i ,,fibers ,,page ,animal ,fibers--,wool1 ,silk1 ,mohair4 ,vegetable--,cotton1 ,flax1 ,jute1 ,hemp4 ,mineral--,asbestos1 ,tinsel1 ,metallic4 ,remanufactured ,material--,noils1 ,mungo1 ,shoddy1 ,extract1 and ,flocks4 ,artificial ,fibers--,spun ,glass1 ,artificial ,silk1 ,slag ,wool4 ,structure of ,wool4 ,characteristics of ,wool4 ,classification of ,wool4 ,carpet and ,knitting ,wools4 ,sheep ,shearing4 ,variation in ,weight of ,fleeces4 ,shipping the ,fleeces4 ,value of ,wool ,business4 ,saxony and ,silesian ,wool1 ,australian ,wool1 ,port ,philip ,wool1 ,sydney ,wool1 ,adelaide ,wool1 ,van ,wool from ,tasmania1 ,new ,zealand ,wool1 ,cape ,wools1 ,wools from ,south ,america1 ,russian ,wool1 ,great ,britain ,wools1 ,lincoln1 ,leicester1 ,southdown1 ,shropshire2 ,cashmere ,wools1 ,norfolkdown and ,suffolkdown ,wools1 ,cheviot ,wool1 ,welsh ,wools1 ,shetland ,wools1 ,irish ,wools1 ,mohair1 ,alpaca ,wool4 ,how ,wool is ,marketed #a ,,chapter ,,ii ,,wool ,,sorting ,sorting4 ,classing ,grades of ,wool4 ,merino ,wool4 ,difference between ,lamb's and ,sheep's ,wool4 ,pulled ,wool4 ,delaine ,wool4 ,wool ,sorter4 ,wool ,washing1 ,wool ,drying1 ,oiling4 ,burring and ,carbonizing4 ,bur ,picker1 ,blending #af ,,chapter ,,iii ,,wool ,,substitutes ,,and ,,waste ,,products ,wool ,substitutes and ,waste ,remanufactured--,noils1 ,shoddy1 and ,mungo4 ,methods of ,producing ,shoddy and ,mungo--,dusting1 ,sorting1 ,seaming1 ,oiling1 ,grinding4 ,extract ,wool4 ,flocks #cb ,,chapter ,,iv ,,worsted ,,yarn ,carding1 ,combing4 ,worsted ,tops--,gill ,boxes4 ,different methods of ,spinning--,bradford or ,english ,system1 ,french ,system4 ,structure of ,worsted ,yarn4 ,uses of ,worsted ,yarn4 ,counts of ,worsted ,yarn #ci ,,chapter ,v ,,woolen ,,yarn ,operations in ,producing ,woolen ,yarn--,washing1 ,carding1 ,spinning1 ,mule ,spinning4 ,counts of ,woolen ,yarn4 ,uses of ,woolen ,yarn #ej ,,chapter ,,vi ,,weaving ,preparatory to ,weaving--,warp4 ,weaving--,weaving ,processes1 ,classes of ,weave--,plain or ,homespun ,weave1 ,twill1 ,satin ,weaves1 ,figure ,weaving 7,jacquard apparatus71 ,double ,cloth1 ,pile ,weaving1 ,gauze ,weaving1 ,lappet ,weaving #ec ,,chapter ,,vii ,,dyeing ,,and ,,finishing ,dyeing4 ,wool ,dyeing1 ,piece ,dyed1 ,cross ,dyed1 ,yarn ,dyed4 ,style--,designing1 ,finishing1 ,perching1 ,burling1 ,mending1 ,fulling1 ,crabbing1 ,tentering1 ,napping1 ,pressing4 ,theories of ,coloring in ,textile ,design4 ,various ,methods of ,employing ,fancy ,shades4 ,adulteration #fe ,,chapter ,,viii ,,woolen ,,and ,,worsted ,,fabrics ,albatross1 ,alpaca1 ,corded ,alpaca1 ,angora1 ,astrakhan1 ,bandanna1 ,beaver 7,fur ,beaver71 ,bedford ,cord1 ,beige1 ,bindings1 ,bombazine1 ,bottany1 ,boucle1 ,broadcloth1 ,bunting1 ,caniche1 ,cashmere1 ,cashmere ,double1 ,cassimere1 ,castor1 ,challis1 ,cheviot 7,diagonal or ,chevron71 ,chinchilla1 ,chudah1 ,corduroy1 ,cte ,cheval1 ,coupure1 ,covert1 ,delaine1 ,doeskin1 ,drap d't1 ,empress ,cloth1 pingline1 ,etamine1 ,felt1 ,flannel1 ,dress ,flannel1 ,french ,flannel1 ,shaker ,flannel1 ,indigo ,blue1 ,mackinaw1 ,navy ,twilled ,flannel1 ,silk ,warp1 ,baby ,flannel4 ,florentine1 ,foule1 ,frieze1 ,gloria1 ,granada1 ,grenadine1 ,henrietta ,cloth1 ,homespun1 ,hop ,sacking1 ,jeans1 ,kersey1 ,kerseymere1 ,linsey ,woolsey1 ,melrose1 ,melton1 ,meltonette1 ,merino1 ,mohair ,brilliantine1 ,montagnac1 ,orleans1 ,panama ,cloth1 ,prunella1 ,sacking1 ,sanglier1 ,sebastopol1 ,serge1 ,shoddy1 ,sicilian1 ,sultane1 ,tamise1 ,tartans1 ,thibet1 ,tricot1 ,tweed1 ,veiling1 ,venetian1 ,vigogne 7,vicua71 ,vigoureux1 ,voiles1 ,whipcord1 ,worsted ,diagonals1 ,zephyr1 ,zibeline #hc ,,chapter ,,ix ,,cotton ,rough ,peruvian1 ,east ,indian1 ,egyptian1 ,sea ,island4 ,american ,crop--,planting1 ,picking1 ,ginning--,roller ,gins1 ,saw ,gins4 ,cotton ,gin4 ,information on the ,leading ,growths of ,cotton4 ,grades--,full ,grades1 ,half ,grades1 ,quarter ,grades4 ,varieties--,sea ,island 7selected71 ,sea ,island 7ordinary71 ,florida ,sea ,island1 ,georgia1 ,egyptian1 ,peeler1 ,orleans or ,gulf ,upland1 ,texas #aje ,,chapter ,x ,,manufacture ,,of ,,cotton ,,yarn ,picker ,room1 ,carding ,machine1 ,combing1 ,drawing4 ,flyer ,frames--,intermediate ,frame1 ,roving ,frame1 ,fine or ,jack ,frame ,spinning--,mule ,spinning1 ,ring ,spinning #abe ,,chapter ,,xi ,,thread ,,and ,,cotton ,,finishing ,manufacturing ,processes4 ,thread ,numbers4 ,sizing4 ,cotton ,finishing--,bleaching1 ,starching1 ,calendering1 ,mercerizing4 ,characteristics of fine ,cotton ,cloth #aci ,,chapter ,,xii ,,knitting ,knitting ,machines4 ,stripe ,knitting1 ,knitting ,cotton1 ,knitting ,silk1 ,hosiery ,manufacture1 ,finishing ,process #aec ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,lace ,needlepoint ,lace4 ,pillow ,lace4 ,lace ,terms ,defined #afd ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,cotton ,,fabrics ,albatross1 ,awning1 ,batiste1 ,bourrette1 ,bedford ,cord1 ,buckram1 ,calico1 ,cambric1 ,canvas1 ,chambray1 ,cheesecloth1 ,chin1 ,chintz1 ,cotton ,flannel1 ,crash1 ,crpe1 ,crepon1 ,cretonne1 ,crinoline1 ,damask1 ,denim1 ,diaper1 ,dimity1 ,domet1 ,duck1 ,drill1 ,eolienne1 ,etamine1 ,flannelette1 ,fustian1 ,galatea ,cloth1 ,gauze1 ,gingham1 ,italian ,cloth1 ,jaconet1 ,khaki1 ,lawn1 ,lingerie1 ,linon1 ,long ,cloth1 ,madras1 ,moreen1 ,mull1 ,mummy1 ,muslin1 ,nainsook1 ,organdie1 ,osnaburg1 ,percale1 ,percaline1 ,piqu1 ,poplin1 ,plumetis1 ,rep1 ,sateen1 ,scrim1 ,silesia1 ,souffle1 ,swiss1 ,tape1 ,tarletan1 ,terry ,cloth1 ,zephyr ,gingham #agc ,,chapter ,,xv ,,flax ,physical ,structure4 ,uses4 ,mechanical ,processes--,crushing or ,beating1 ,breaking1 ,scutching1 ,hackling1 ,bleaching4 ,characteristics of ,good ,linen1 ,notes on ,table ,linen #aic ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,hemp ,bast ,fibers1 ,sisal ,hemp1 ,manila ,hemp1 ,ramie1 ,jute #aii ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,silk ,cocoons4 ,raw ,silk4 ,silk-producing ,countries--,china1 ,japan1 ,italy1 ,southern ,france1 ,greece1 ,turkey1 ,western ,asia4 ,throwing4 ,thrown ,silk--,tram1 ,crpe ,yarn4 ,embroidery ,silk4 ,sewing ,silk4 ,silk ,waste1 ,spun ,silk1 ,floss ,silk4 ,ribbons1 ,silk ,thread1 ,silk ,cord4 ,dyeing ,yarns4 ,silk ,dyeing4 ,logwood ,black ,silk ,dyeing--7#a7 ,boiling ,off1 7#b7 ,mordanting1 7#c7 ,blue ,bottoming1 7#d7 ,weighting ,bath1 7#e7 ,mordanting1 7#f7 ,dyeing4 ,colored ,silks4 ,mixed ,silk ,fabrics4 ,ribbons1 ,velvets1 ,printing1 ,finishing1 ,waterproofing #bjc ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,principal ,,silk ,,fabrics ,alma1 ,barge1 ,bengaline1 ,berber1 ,brocade1 ,brocatel1 ,bombazine1 ,chenille1 ,chiffon1 ,china ,silk1 ,crpe1 ,crpe de ,chine1 ,eolienne1 ,foulard1 ,glac1 ,india ,silk1 ,japanese ,silk1 ,jersey ,cloth1 ,meteor1 ,moire1 ,mozambique1 ,organzine1 ,panne1 ,peau de ,soie1 ,plush1 ,pongee1 ,popeline1 ,poplin1 ,figured ,poplin1 ,terry ,poplin1 ,sarsenet1 ,satin1 ,soleil1 ,taffeta1 ,tulle1 ,velour1 ,velvet1 ,velveteen1 ,tabby ,velvet1 ,voile #bai ,,chapter ,,xix ,,artificial ,,silk ,silk ,cotton1 ,artificial ,silk1 ,tests #bcj ,,chapter ,,xx ,,substitutes ,,for ,,cotton ,wool ,pulp1 ,ramie1 ,pineapple ,fibers1 ,spun ,glass1 ,metallic ,threads1 ,slag ,wool1 ,asbestos #bcb ,,appendix ,determining ,style of ,weave4 ,tests for ,strength and ,elasticity4 ,determining ,count of ,warp and ,filling1 ,shrinkage1 ,weight4 ,tests for ,constituents of ,warp and ,filling1 for ,vegetable and ,animal ,fibers4 ,acid ,test4 ,cotton ,distinguished from ,linen1 ,silk from ,wool1 ,artificial ,silk from ,silk4 ,test for ,shoddy4 ,determination of ,dressing4 ,test for ,permanence of ,dyes #bce ,history of ,textiles4 ,history of the ,organization of ,textile ,industries4 ,history of ,manufacturing4 ,history of ,lace #bde ,,experiments ,experiments #a to #fb #bfg ,sources of ,supply #cai ,index #cbc ,,textiles ,,chapter ,i ,,fibers ,all the materials used in the manufacture of clothing are called textiles and are made of either long or short fibers4 ,these fibers can be made into a continuous thread4 ,when two different sets of threads are interlaced1 the resulting product is called cloth4 ,the value of any fiber for textile purposes depends entirely upon the possession of such qualities as firmness1 length1 curl1 softness1 elasticity1 etc41 which adapt it for spinning4 ,the number of fibers that possess these qualities is small1 and may be classified as follows3 ,animal ,fibers3 ,wool1 ,silk1 ,mohair4 ,vegetable ,fibers3 ,cotton1 ,flax1 ,jute1 ,hemp1 etc4 ,mineral ,fibers3 ,asbestos1 ,tinsel1 and other metallic fibers4 ,remanufactured ,material3 ,noils1 ,mungo1 ,shoddy1 ,extract1 and ,flocks4 ,artificial ,fibers3 ,spun ,glass1 ,artificial ,silk1 and ,slag ,wool4 ,the ,structure of ,wool4 ,a large part of the people of the world have always used wool for their clothing4 ,wool is the soft1 curly covering which forms the fleecy coat of the sheep and similar animals1 such as the goat and alpaca4 ,wool fiber when viewed under the microscope is seen to consist roughly of three parts3 #ast4 ,epidermis1 or outer surface1 which is a series of scales lying one upon the other4 #b;d4 ,cortex1 or intermediate substance1 consisting of angular1 elongated cells1 which give strength to the wool4 #c;d4 ,medulla1 or pith of the fiber4 ,illustration3 ,,wool ,,fiber ,highly magnified ,difference between ,wool and ,hair4 ,not all animal fibers are alike4 ,they vary in fineness1 softness1 length1 and strength1 from the finest ,merino wool to the rigid bristles of the wild boar4 ,at just what point it can be said that the animal fiber ceases to be wool and becomes hair1 is difficult to determine1 because there is a gradual and imperceptible gradation from wool to hair4#a ,the distinction between wool and hair lies chiefly in the great fineness1 softness1 and wavy delicacy of the woolen fiber1 combined with its highly serrated surface--upon which the luster of the wool depends4 ,characteristics of ,wool4 ,the chief characteristic of wool is its felting or shrinking power4 ,this felting property from which wool derives much of its value1 and which is its special distinction from hair1 depends in part upon the kinks in the fiber1 but mainly upon the scales with which the fiber is covered4 ,these scales or points are exceedingly minute1 ranging from about #a1ajj to the inch to nearly #c1jjj4 ,the stem of the fiber itself is extremely slender1 being less than one thousandth of an inch in diameter4 ,in good felting wools the scales are more perfect and numerous1 while inferior wools generally possess fewer serrations1 and are less perfect in structure4 ,in the process of felting the fibers become entangled with one another1 and the little projecting scales hook into one another and hold the fibers closely interlocked4 ,the deeper these scales fit into one another the closer becomes the structure of the thread4 ,classification of ,wool4 ,the various kinds of wool used in commerce are named either from the breed of the sheep or from the country or locality in which the sheep are reared4 ,thus we get ,merino wool from ,merino sheep1 while ,english1 ,american1 and ,australian wools are named from the respective countries4 ,as the result of cross breeding of different sheep in different parts of the world1 under different climatic conditions1 physical surroundings1 and soil1 there exist a great many varieties of wool4 ,the wool of commerce is divided into three great classes3 7#a7 ,short wool or clothing wool 7also called carding wool71 seldom exceeding a length of two to four inches2 7#b7 long wool or combing wool1 varying from four to ten inches2 7#c7 carpet and knitting wools1 which are long1 strong1 and very coarse4 ,the distinction between clothing or carding wools on the one hand1 and combing wools on the other1 is an old one4 ,combing wools are so called because they are prepared for spinning#b into yarn by the process of combing--that is1 the fibers are made to lie parallel with one another preparatory to being spun into thread4 ,carding wools--made to cross and interlace and interlock with one another--are shorter than combing wools1 and in addition they possess to a much greater degree the power of felting--that is1 of matting together in a close compact mass4 ,combing wools1 on the other hand1 are not only longer than the carding wools1 but they are also harder1 more wiry1 and less inclined to be spiral or kinky4 ,it must be understood1 however1 that under the present methods of manufacture1 short wools may be combed and spun by the ,french method of spinning just as the long wools are combed and spun by the ,bradford or ,english system4 ,carpet and knitting wools are the cheapest1 coarsest1 and harshest sorts of wools4 ,they come principally from ,russia1 ,turkey1 ,china1 ,greece1 ,peru1 ,chili1 etc41 and from the mountain districts of ,england and ,scotland4 ,carpet wools approach more nearly to hair than other wools4 ,the only staple of this class produced in the ,united ,states is grown on the original ,mexican sheep of the great ,southwest4 ,few of these ,mexican sheep are left1 for they have been improved by cross breeding1 but they constitute the foundation stock of most of our ,western flocks1 which now produce superior clothing and combing wool4 ,sheep ,shearing4 ,in order to get an idea of the importance of the sheep industry in the ,united ,states1 one must take a glance at its condition in the big states of the ,west4 ,wyoming has more than #d1fjj1jjj sheep within its borders4 ,montana1 which held the record until #aiji1 has #d1ejj1jjj sheep4 ,then comes ,idaho with #b1ejj1jjj1 ,oregon with #b1jjj1jjj1 and so on down the list until the nation's total reaches #dj1jjj1jjj sheep1 four-fifths of which are west of the ,missouri river4 ,illustration3 ,,sheep ,,shearing ,to harvest the wool from such an enormous number of backs is a task that calls for expert shearers1 men who can handle the big shears of the machine clippers with a skill that comes from long practise4 ,the shearing must be done at the right time of the year4 ,if the wool is clipped too early1 the sheep suffer from the cold2 if the shearing comes too late1 the sheep suffer from intense heat1 and in either case are bound to lose weight and value4 ,to meet the exacting conditions a class of men has risen expert in the sheep-shearing business4 ,these shearers begin work in southern and middle ,california1 ,utah1 etc4 ,another month finds them busy in the great sheep states of ,wyoming1 ,montana1 ,idaho1 and ,oregon1 where they find steady employment until ,july1 when they go to the ranges of ,canada4 ,in this way the shearers keep busy nearly all the year1 and at high wages4 ,the ,mexicans are particularly expert with the hand shears1 though this form of clipping is being done away with1 owing to the installation of power plants for machine shearing4 ,these plants are installed at various points on the great sheep ranges4 ,long sheds are erected and shafting extends down both sides of the shearing place4 ,twenty or more shearers will be lined up in one of these sheds1 each man operating a clipping machine connected with the shafting4 ,the sheep are brought in from the range in bands of #b1ejj or more1 and are put in the corrals adjoining the shearing sheds4 ,then they are driven down chutes to the shearers4 ,a shearer reaches into a small corral behind him and pulls out a sheep4 ,with a dexterous fling the animal is put in a sitting posture between the shearer's knees1 and then the steel clippers begin clipping off the wool4 ,the machine-shearing saves much wool1 as it gets closer to the skin of the sheep and shears more evenly4 ,in fact1 some sheep owners say that the increased weight of their fleeces at each shearing is enough to pay the extra expense of running a power plant4 ,as fast as the sheep are turned out by the shearers they are run along a narrow chute and each one is branded4 ,the branding mark is usually a letter painted on the back of the sheep so that it can be plainly seen when they are coming through a chute4 ,the mark remains on the fleece and is always easily distinguished4 ,fleece4 ,there is a great variation in the weight of fleeces4 ,some sheep1 such as those on the best ranges in ,oregon1 ,montana1 and ,wyoming1 will average an eight-pound fleece full of natural oil1 while sheep from the more sterile alkaline ranges of ,new ,mexico will not average much more than five pounds of wool4 ,the shearing season on the plains is much like the threshing season in agricultural communities4 ,with a crew of first-class shearers working in a shearing shed1 it is not long until the floor is a sea of wool4 ,boys are kept busy picking up the fleeces1 tying them into compact bundles1 and throwing them to the men who have been assigned to the task of filling the wool sacks4 ,these sacks1 which hold about #djj pounds1 are suspended from a wooden framework1 and as fast as the fleeces are thrown in1 they are tramped down until the sacks will not hold a pound more4 ,most of the sacks are shipped to warehouses in such wool centers as ,casper1 ,wyoming1 or ,billings1 ,montana1 the latter place being the greatest wool shipping center in the world4 ,here they are sold to ,eastern buyers1 who examine the clips at their leisure and make their bids4 ,value of ,wool ,business4 ,some idea of the fortunes at stake in the wool business can be gathered from the fact that the total wool product of the country in #aiji was valued at #gh1bfc1afe4 ,it is expected that the returns from the wool clip in a fairly good year will pay all a sheepman's running expenses1 such as hire of herders1 cost of shearing1 etc4 ,he then has the sale of his lambs as clear profit4 ,enormous fortunes are being made in the sheep business in the west1 owing to the high price of wool and mutton4 ,saxony and ,silesian ,wool4 ,among wools of all classes the ,saxony and ,silesian take the first place1 and for general good qualities1 fineness1 and regularity of fiber1 they are unequalled4 ,the fiber is short in staple1 possesses good felting properties1 and is strong and elastic4 ,this wool is used chiefly in the manufacture of cloths where much milling#c is required1 such as superfines and dress-faced fabrics4 ,australian ,wools4 ,australia furnishes wools of a superior character1 and some of the choicest clips rival the ,saxony and ,silesian wools4 ,they are used both for worsted#d and woolen yarns4 ,they are generally strong and of an elastic character1 possess numerous serrations1 and are of good color1 with good felting properties4 ,the principal ,australian wools are ,port ,philip1 ,sydney1 and ,adelaide wools4 ,these are the best brands imported from that country4 ,port ,philip ,wool4 ,port ,philip wool is suitable for either worsted or woolen yarns4 ,the fiber is not quite as fine as ,saxony1 but it makes a good thread1 is fairly sound in staple1 and is of good length and color4 ,it is very wavy and serrated4 ,the longest and best of this wool is used for the very finest worsted yarns1 and will spin up to #acj's counts4#e ,the sheep are descendants of the original ,spanish ,merino4 ,cross bred ,port ,philip wool is from the same ,merino sheep crossed with ,leicesters1 which yield a medium quality fleece of sound fiber and good quality for spinning counts from #dj's to #ef's4 ,the yarn has a bright1 clear appearance4 ,sydney ,wools4 ,sydney wools are moderately fine in fiber and of medium length4 ,they are rather deficient in strength1 uneven in color1 and often contain yellow locks which make them undesirable when required for dyeing light shades4 ,they are used for nearly the same purpose as ,port ,philip wools1 but do not spin quite as far in worsted yarns1 nor are they equal in milling qualities4 ,adelaide ,wool4 ,adelaide wool has a reputation for sound ,merinos1 the average quality being a little lower than for the ,port ,philip and ,sydney wools4 ,its fiber is moderately fine1 but not of uniform length2 its color is not so good1 and it contains a large amount of yolk4#f ,adelaide wool is used for worsted dress goods1 weft 7filling7#g yarn up to #fj's1 and certain worsted warps4#g ,it is used for medium fancy woolens4 ,van ,wool from ,tasmania4 ,the climate of this island is well suited to the growing of wool1 and produces excellent qualities1 fine in fiber1 of good length1 and strong in the staple1 which will spin as high counts as #gj's and #hj's worsted4 ,this wool is useful for mixing with other good wools4 ,its color is very white1 which makes it a useful wool for dyeing light shades4 ,its milling properties are good1 and the shorter sorts are suitable for woolens4 ,new ,zealand ,wools are very supple1 which make them valuable to the spinner4 ,these wools are suitable for almost all classes of ,merino and crossbred yarns4 ,they are of good length1 sound staple1 have good felting properties1 and are of good color4 ,they are useful for blending with mungo and shoddy1 to give to these remanufactured materials that springy1 bulky character which they lack4 ,cape ,wools4 ,cape ,colony and ,natal produce merino wool that is somewhat short in staple1 rather tender1 and less wavy than some other wools4 ,the sheep are not so well cared for1 and are fed on the leaves of a small shrub4 ,the absence of grass leaves the ground very sandy1 and this makes the fleece heavy and dirty4 ,its color is fair1 but it lacks elasticity4 ,it is used chiefly to cheapen blends#h of #fj's top4#i ,the short wool is combed for thick counts for weft and hosiery1 and is also used for shawls and cloths where felting is not an essential feature4 ,illustration3 ,,merino ,,sheep ,wools from ,south ,america4 ,these wools are of the same standard of excellence as the ,australian wools1 but they are generally deficient in strength and elasticity4 ,buenos ,ayres and ,montevideo wools are fairly fine in fiber1 but lack strength and elasticity1 and are deficient in milling properties2 they are also burry4 ,the climate suits the sheep well1 and the feed is good1 but the careless methods of classing and packing have earned for these wools a poor reputation that is well deserved4 ,the best #fj's wool is combed in oil1 but a large portion of the shorter is combed and used in thick counts1--#bj's to #cf's worsted for the hosiery trade4 ,russian ,wool4 ,the staple of this is generally strong1 and the fibers are of a medium thickness2 the color is milky white4 ,it is useful to blend with ,australian or other good wools4 ,it produces a good yarn1 and is very often used in the fancy woolen trade and in fabrics that require to be finished in the natural color4 ,great ,britain ,wools4 ,these may be divided into three groups3 7#a7 long wools1 of which the ,lincoln and ,leicester are typical examples2 7#b7 short wools1 which include ,southdown1 ,shropshire1 ,suffolk1 and others2 and 7#c7 wool from the mountain or hilly breeds of sheep1 such as the ,cheviot1 ,scotch ,blackface1 ,shetland1 ,irish1 and ,welsh4 ,lincoln ,wool is a typical wool obtained from the long wool sheep1 and noted for its long1 lustrous fiber1 which is silky and strong4 ,the staple varies from ten to eighteen inches in length1 and the average fleece will yield from ten to fourteen pounds in weight4 ,leicester ,wool has a somewhat finer fiber than ,lincoln4 ,it is a valuable wool1 of good color1 uniform and sound in staple1 curly1 with good1 bright luster and no dark hairs4 ,while luster wools are grown extensively in ,england1 they also grow in ,indiana and ,kentucky1 and are commonly known in the trade as braid wool4 ,southdown is one of the most valuable of short staple wools4 ,it possesses a fine hair1 is close and wavy1 and fairly sound in staple1 but rather deficient in milling qualities4 ,the shorter varieties are carded and made into flannels and other light fabrics1 while the longer qualities are used in the production of worsted goods4 ,the weight of a ,southdown fleece averages from four to five pounds4 ,illustration3 ,,wool ,,market ,,at ,,buenos ,,ayres ,shropshiredown wool is of good quality1 with strong1 fine1 lustrous fiber1 of good length4 ,it resembles ,southdown1 but is not as lustrous as mohair1 the natural colors being either white1 black1 brown1 or fawn4 ,it is used chiefly in the manufacture of dress goods4 ,cashmere ,wool is the fine1 woolly1 extremely soft1 white or gray fur of the ,cashmere goat which is bred in ,thibet4 ,there are two kinds of fiber obtained3 one1 which is really the outer covering1 consists of long tufts of hair2 underneath this is the ,cashmere wool of commerce1 a soft1 downy wool of a brownish-gray tint1 with a fine1 silky fiber4 ,it is used for making the costly oriental 7,indian7 shawls and the finest wraps4 ,the ,norfolkdown and ,suffolkdown ,wools are fairly fine in fiber and soft1 but slightly deficient in strength and elasticity4 ,cheviot ,wool may be taken as representative of the hilly breeds of sheep4 ,it is an average wool1 with staple of medium length1 soft1 and with strong and regular fiber2 it is of a good1 bright color1 and possesses desirable milling properties1 being used for both woolen and worsted1 but chiefly in the fancy woolen trade4 ,the average weight of the fleece is about #d-a_/b pounds4 ,the black-faced or ,highland breed yields a medium wool1 coarser and more shaggy than the ,cheviot1 and varying much in quality4 ,it is almost all used in the production of rugs1 carpets1 and blankets4 ,welsh ,wools lack waviness and fineness of fiber4 ,they are chiefly used for flannels4 ,shetland ,wools are similar in character to ,welsh wools1 but slightly finer in fiber and softer4 ,they are used in the manufacture of knitted goods1 such as shawls and wraps4 ,they lack felting properties4 ,irish ,wools possess a strong1 thick hair of moderate length and fine color4 ,they are similar in many respects to the ,welsh wools1 and are often classed with them4 ,they are used in the production of low and medium tweeds--fancy woolen cloths not requiring small yarns or milling qualities4 ,mohair is a lustrous wool obtained from the ,angora goat1 which derives its name from the district of ,asia ,minor from which it comes4 ,these animals have also been successfully bred in ,spain and ,france4 ,the hair is pure white1 fine1 wavy1 and of good length1 and possesses a high luster4 ,it is used in making plushes1 velvets1 astrakhans1 and curled fabrics1 also half silk goods and fine wraps4 ,alpaca ,wool is the fleece of the ,peruvian sheep1 which is a species of llama4 ,the staple is of good length and soft1 but is not quite as lustrous as mohair1 the natural colors being either white1 black1 brown1 or fawn4 ,it is used chiefly in the manufacture of dress goods4 ,how ,wool is ,marketed4 ,the bulk of the wool of commerce comes into the market in the form of fleece wool1 the product of a single year's growth1 and cut from the body of the animal usually in ,april or ,may4 ,the first and finest clip1 called lamb's wool1 may be taken from the young sheep at the age of eight to twelve months4 ,all subsequently cut fleeces are known as wether wool and possess relatively somewhat less value than the first clip4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,hair is straight and glossy1 stronger and smoother than wool1 and grows sometimes as long as twenty inches4 #b ,spinning is a process by which long or short fibers are twisted into a continuous thread4 #c ,a process of finishing cloth by condensing the fibers so as to make the cloth stronger and firmer4 #d ,see footnote1 page #ci4 #e ,the size of yarn is technically called the counts and is based on the number of #efj yard lengths required to weigh one pound4 ,in this case #acj's count #acj #efj1 or #gb1hjj yards of yarn to a pound4 #f ,an encrusting compound of dirt and grease formed on the fleece4 #g ,see page #ed4 #h ,mixtures4 #i ,after wool fibers are combed they are called top4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,wool ,,sorting ,fleece wool as it comes to the mill is rolled up in bundles and must be sorted4 ,this process consists in sorting and classifying the fibers of the fleece4 ,not only do the various species of sheep furnish widely different qualities of wool1 but different qualities are obtained from the same animal1 according to the part of the body from which the wool is taken4 ,this variation in some instances is very marked1 and sometimes is greater than that which separates the wools of the different breeds of sheep4 ,hence the sorting and classing of wool become necessary for the production of good1 sound yarn of even quality4 ,an attempt to utilize the fleece as a whole would result in the spinning of uneven1 faulty1 and unsatisfactory yarns4 ,as many as twelve or fourteen sorts may be obtained from one fleece 7by very fine sorting71 but generally not more than five or seven are made4 ,the following table shows the relative qualities of wools from the various parts of a ,merino sheep3 #a and #b4 ,head 7top and sides73 ,the wools grown on these parts are remarkable for length of staple1 softness1 and uniformity of character4 ,they are usually the choicest wools in the fleece4 #c4 ,upper part of the back3 ,this also is a wool of good1 sound quality1 resembling in staples ,nos4 #a and #b1 but not as soft or as fine of fiber4 #d4 ,loin and back3 ,the staple here is comparatively short1 not as fine1 but generally of unvarying character1 sometimes rather tender4 ,illustration3 ,,sorting ,,room #e4 ,upper parts of legs3 ,this wool is medium in length but coarse of fiber1 and has a tendency to hang in loose1 open locks4 ,it is generally sound1 but likely to contain vegetable matter4 #f4 ,upper portion of the neck3 ,the staple clipped from this part of the neck is of an inferior quality1 frequently faulty and irregular in growth1 and contains twigs1 thorns1 etc4 #g4 ,central part of the neck3 ,this wool is similar to ,no4 #f but rather tender in staple4 #h4 ,belly3 ,this wool is from under the sheep1 between the fore and hind legs4 ,it is short and dirty1 poor in quality1 and generally tender4 #i4 ,root of tail3 ,in this wool the fibers are coarse1 short1 and glossy4 #aj4 ,lower parts of the legs3 ,this wool is generally dirty and greasy1 the staple having no wave and lacking fineness4 ,it is generally burry and contains much vegetable matter4 #aa4 ,front of ,head2 #ab4 ,throat2 #ac4 ,chest3 ,the wools from these parts are sometimes classed together1 all having the same characteristics4 ,the fiber is stiff1 straight1 coarse1 and covered with fodder4 #ad4 ,shins3 ,this is another short1 thick1 straight wool of glossy fiber1 commonly known as shanks4 ,classing4 ,classing is a grading of the fleeces1 and is usually1 but not always1 a process preliminary to sorting4 ,it is an important part of sorting1 and when well done greatly facilitates the making of good1 uniform matchings4 ,grades of ,wool4 ,in the grading of wool no set standard of quality exists4 ,the same classification may be applied in different years1 or in different localities1 to qualities of wool showing much variation1 the best grade obtainable usually setting the standard for the lower grades4 ,the highest quality of wool in the ,united ,states is found on full-blooded ,merino sheep4 ,merino ,wool4 ,the ,merino sheep was bred for wool and not mutton4 ,the fleece of this breed is fine1 strong1 elastic1 and of good color2 it also possesses a high felting power4 ,though naturally short1 it is now grown to good length and the fleece is dense4 ,the ,merino sheep is a native of ,spain1 and ,spain was for a long period the chief country of its production4 ,it was also in past centuries extensively bred in ,england and ,english wool owes much to the ,merino for the improvement it has effected in the fleeces of other breeds of ,english sheep4 ,it was also introduced into ,saxony and was highly bred there1 and ,saxony soon came to surpass ,spanish wool in fineness1 softness1 and felting properties4 ,the ,merino was introduced into the ,united ,states at the beginning of the nineteenth century4 ,by #ahaj1 #e1jjj ,merino sheep had been imported and these #e1jjj sheep formed the basis of most of the fine wool-producing flocks of our country to-day4 ,the terms half blood1 three-eighths blood1 and quarter blood refer to the full-blooded ,merino standard4 ,as the scale descends the wool becomes coarser1 the wool of a quarter blood usually being a comparatively coarse fiber4 ,the general classifications of fine1 medium1 coarse1 and low1 refer to the relative fineness of ,merino combing wools4 ,these distinctions naturally overlap according to the opinion of the parties in transactions4 ,picklock ,,xxx and ,,xx represent the highest grades of clothing wool1 the grade next lower being ,x1 and then ,nos4 #a and #b4 ,these again are used in connection with the locality from which the wool is grown1 as ,ohio ,,xx1 ,michigan ,x1 ,new ,york ,no4 #a1 etc4 ,difference ,between ,lamb's and ,sheep's ,wool4 ,one of the first points to be understood in wool sorting is the difference between the wool of lambs and one-year-old sheep1 and that of sheep two or more years old4 ,lamb's wool is naturally pointed at the end1 because it has never been clipped4 ,it is termed hog or hoggett wool1 and is more valuable when longer1 of about fourteen months' growth4 ,it is finer in quality and possesses more waviness1 which is a help in the process of spinning4 ,the wool of sheep two or more years old is known as wether4 ,the ends of the fiber from such sheep are thick and blunted1 on account of having been previously cut4 ,it is necessary to be able to tell at once a hog fleece from a wether1 and this can be done in two ways3 by examining the ends of the fiber to see if they are pointed2 or by pulling a staple out of the fleece4 ,if it is wether1 the staple will come out clean1 without interfering to any extent with those around it2 but if hog1 some of the fibers will adhere to the one that is being pulled4 ,hog wool is generally more full of dirt1 moss1 straw1 and other vegetable matter4 ,dead ,wool is wool obtained from the pelts of sheep that have died4 ,pulled ,wool4 ,pulled wool is wool from the pelts#aj as they come from the slaughter-houses of large packing plants4 ,these pelts are thrown into vats of water and left to soak for twenty-four hours to loosen the dirt which has become matted into the wool4 ,from these vats the pelts are taken to scrubbing machines from which the wool issues perfectly clean and white4 ,the pelts are next freed from any particles of flesh or fat which may have adhered to them1 and are then taken to the painting room4 ,here they are laid flesh side up and carefully painted with a preparation for loosening the roots of the wool4 ,this preparation is allowed to remain on the pelts for twenty-four hours1 when it is cleaned off and the pelts taken to the pulling room4 ,each wool puller stands before a small wooden framework over which the pelt is thrown1 and the wool1 being all thoroughly loosened by the paint preparation1 is easily and quickly pulled out by the handful4 ,as it is pulled it is thrown into barrels conveniently arranged according to grade and length4 ,when a barrel is filled1 it is transferred to a large room across which are several rows of wire netting1 raised about three feet from the floor4 ,each sheet of netting is about six feet wide4 ,here the wool is piled on the netting to a depth of several inches and hot air is forced underneath it by means of a blower4 ,meanwhile it is worked over by men with rakes1 and soon dries4 ,when thoroughly dry1 it is raked up and taken to the storeroom1 where it is dumped into bins4 ,here it usually remains open for inspection and sampling till it is sold1 when it is bagged4 ,the bags of wool ultimately find their way to the woolen mill or sampling house4 ,sometimes the fleece will retain its fleece form1 but usually it breaks up4 ,the wool contains lime and has to be specially treated by a scouring process to prevent lime from absorbing the cleansing substances used for scouring the wool4 ,delaine ,wool is a variety of fine1 long combing wool4 ,cotty ,wool1 or cotts1 is wool from sheep that have been exposed to severe weather and lack of nourishment1 and for these reasons have failed to throw off the yolk necessary to feed the wool4 ,as a result it becomes matted or felted together1 and is hard and brittle and almost worthless4 ,wool ,sorter4 ,the sorter begins by placing the fleece upon his board or table1 always arranging it so that he faces the north1 as this gives the most constant light and no glare of the sun4 ,the fleece thus spread out shows a definite dividing line through the center4 ,the sorter parts the two halves and proceeds to analyze their different qualities4 ,the number of sorts is determined by the requirements of the manufacturer who1 in purchasing his wool1 buys those grades that will produce the greatest bulk of the qualities for present use1 and that leave in stock the smallest number of sorts and least weight for which he has no immediate use4 ,the sorter then removes all extraneous matter adhering to the fleece1 such as straw1 twigs1 and seeds1 and cuts off the hard lumps of earth1 tar1 or paint1 which1 if not removed at this time1 will dissolve in the scouring process and stain the wool4 ,with these preliminaries finished1 he proceeds to cast out the locks1 according to quality1 into baskets or skeps provided for that purpose4 ,after skirting or taking off the outside edges of the fleece1 usually known as brokes1 and the legs and tail1 known as breech1 he separates the other portions from the better qualities4 ,illustration3 ,,sorted ,,wool ,,in ,,piles ,,ready ,,to ,,be ,,transported ,,to ,,the ,,degreasing ,,plant ,picklock1 prime1 choice1 super1 head1 downrights1 seconds1 breech1 etc41 are some of the terms used4 ,picklock comprises the choicest qualities2 prime is similar to picklock1 but slightly inferior2 choice is true staple1 but not as fine in fiber2 super is similar to choice1 but as a rule not as valuable2 head includes the inferior sorts from this part of the sheep2 downrights come from the lower parts of the sides2 seconds consist of the best wool clipped from the throat and breast2 breech1 the short1 coarse fibers obtained from the skirting and edgings of the fleece4 ,in the worsted trade different names are used4 ,the terms generally adopted are3 blue1 from the neck2 fine1 from the shoulders2 neat1 from the middle of the sides and back2 brown-drawings1 from the haunches2 breech1 from the tail and hind legs2 cowtail1 when the breech is very strong2 brokes1 from the lower part of the front legs and belly1 which are classed as super1 middle1 and common4 ,fine1 short wools are sorted according to the number of counts of yarn they are expected to spin1 as #dh's1 #fj's1 #gj's1 and so on4 ,thus we see there are different methods of indicating qualities in different districts1 and also of indicating differences of qualities between the woolen and worsted branches of the trade4 ,it may be noted that the quality of the wool varies in the same way as the quality of the flesh4 ,the shoulder is finest in grain and most delicate1 so the wool is finer in fiber4 ,there is more wear and tear for the sheep at its haunches than at its shoulders1 hence the wool is longer and stronger2 about the neck the wool is short1 to prevent the sheep from being weighted down while eating1 etc42 the wool on the back becomes rough and thin1 being most exposed to the rain4 ,from the foregoing it will be readily seen that there is necessity for careful sorting1 in order to insure obtaining an even running yarn1 and subsequently a uniform quality of fabrics4 ,wool ,washing4 ,fleece wool as it comes into the market is either in the grease1 that is1 unwashed and with all the dirt which gathers on the surface of the greasy wool2 or it is received as washed wool1 the washing being done as a preliminary step to the sheep shearing4 ,wool1 unlike cotton1 cannot be worked into yarn without being thoroughly cleansed of its impurities4 ,these impurities consist of greasy and sweaty secretions1 of the nature of a lubricant to the fiber4 ,combined with dirt1 sand1 etc41 which adhere to the wool1 these secretions form an encrusting compound1 known as yolk1 which acts as a natural preservative to the wool1 keeping it soft and supple4 ,this compound1 with other extraneous matter1 must be removed before the wool is in a workable condition4 ,the amount of yolk varies1 the greatest amount being found in fine1 short wools from the warm climates4 ,in long-staple wool the amount of yolk is comparatively small4 ,illustration3 ,,washing ,,room ,various methods of removing these impurities have been tried2 one is the use of absorbent substances1 such as fossil meal1 alumina1 etc41 to withdraw the greasy matter1 so that the remaining impurities can be easily removed by washing4 ,in other methods1 naphtha or similar solvent liquids are used to dissolve the wool fats4 ,this is followed by washing in tepid water to dissolve the potash salts1 leaving the dirt to fall away when the other substances are no longer present4 ,to work this method with safety requires a costly and intricate plant with skilled supervision4 ,the method which is practically in universal use is washing the wool in alkaline solutions1 properties of which combine with and reduce the impurities to a lathery emulsion which is easily washed off from the wool4 ,great stress is laid upon the necessity of care in the washing process1 as the luster may be destroyed and a brownish-yellow tint given to the wool1 the spinning properties very seriously injured1 the softness destroyed1 or the fiber dissolved4 ,some wools are easy to wash1 requiring little soap and a reasonable temperature2 other wools are cleansed with great difficulty4 ,a note1 therefore1 should be made of any particular brand or class of wool requiring special attention1 to serve as a guide in the treatment of future lots4 ,the danger lies in using unsuitable agents1--hard water1 excessive temperatures1 strong reagents1 etc4 ,caustic alkalies have a most destructive effect on wool as they eat into it and destroy its vitality4 ,carbonate alkalies are less severe4 ,whatever cleansing substances are used1 it is essential that they should be free from anything that is likely to injure the wool--that they remove the impurities and still preserve all the qualities in the wool4 ,if the washing is properly performed the alkaline portion of the yolk is removed1 leaving only the colorless animal oil in the fiber4 ,if the work is not thoroughly done the wool passes as unmerchantable washed4 ,tub washed is the term applied to fleeces which are broken up and washed more or less by hand4 ,scoured wool is tub washed with warm water and soap1 and then thoroughly rinsed in cold water until nothing remains but the clean fiber4 ,illustration3 ,,degreasing ,,plant--,,removing ,,grease ,,from ,,wool ,an improved method of washing wool by hand is to have a series of tanks with pressing rollers attached to each tank3 the wool is agitated by means of forks1 and then passed to the pressing rollers and into each tank in succession4 ,the tanks are usually five in number1 and so arranged that the liquor can be run from the upper to the lower tank4 ,upon leaving the pressing rollers the excess of water is driven off in a hydro extractor#aa and the wool is beaten into a light1 fluffy condition by means of a wooden fan or beater4 ,wool ,drying4 ,the process of drying wool is not intended to be carried to such an extent that the wool will be in an absolutely dry state1 for in such a condition it would be lusterless1 brittle1 and discolored4 ,it is the nature of wool to retain a certain amount of moisture since it is hygroscopic1 and to remove it entirely would result in partial disintegration of the fibers4 ,buyers and sellers have a recognized standard of moisture1 #af per cent4 ,if1 on the other hand1 it is left too wet1 the fibers will not stand the pulling strain in the succeeding operations1 and if not broken1 they are so unduly stretched that they have lost their elasticity4 ,the theory which underlies the drying process is that dry air is capable of absorbing moisture1 hence by circulating currents of dry air in and around wet wool1 the absorbing power of the air draws off the moisture4 ,for continuous drying free circulation is a necessity1 as otherwise the air would soon become saturated and incapable of taking up more moisture4 ,warming the air increases its capacity to absorb moisture2 thus a higher temperature is capable of drying the wool much quicker than the same volume of air would at a low temperature4 ,a free circulation of air at #ge to #ajj degrees ,f41 evenly distributed1 and with ample provision for the escape of the saturated air1 is essential for good work4 ,oiling4 ,after being scoured wool generally has to be oiled before it is ready for the processes of spinning1 blending1 etc4 ,as delivered from the drying apparatus1 the wool is bright and clean1 but somewhat harsh and wiry to the touch1 owing to the removal of the yolk which is its natural lubricant4 ,to render it soft and elastic1 and to improve its spinning qualities1 the fiber is sprinkled with lard oil or olive oil4 ,as the oil is a costly item1 it is of consequence that it be equally distributed and used economically4 ,to attain this end various forms of oiling apparatus have been invented1 which sprinkle the oil in a fine spray over the wool1 which is carried under the sprinkler by an endless cloth4 ,burring and ,carbonizing4 ,after wool has been washed and scoured it frequently happens that it cannot be advanced to the succeeding operations of manufacture because it is mixed with burs1 seeds1 leaves1 slivers1 etc41 which are picked up by the sheep in the pasture4 ,these vegetable impurities injure the spinning qualities of the stock1 for if a bur or other foreign substance becomes fastened in the strand of yarn while it is being spun1 it either causes the thread to break or renders it bunchy and uneven4 ,for removing burs1 etc41 from the wool two methods are pursued3 the one purely mechanical1 the other chemical1 and known respectively as burring and carbonizing4 ,bur ,picker4 ,for the mechanical removing of burs a machine called the bur picker is employed4 ,in this machine the wool is first spread out into a thin lap or sheet2 then light wooden blades1 rotating rapidly1 beat upon every part of the sheet and break the burs into pieces4 ,the pieces fall down into the dust box or upon a grating beneath the machine1 and are ejected together with a good deal of the wool adhering to them4 ,often the machine fails to beat out fine pieces and these are scattered through the stock4 ,process of ,carbonizing4 ,for the complete removal of all foreign vegetable substances from wool the most effective process is carbonizing1 in which the burs1 etc41 are burned out by means of acid and a high degree of heat4 ,the method of procedure is as follows3 ,the wool to be treated is immersed in a solution of sulphuric or hydrochloric acid for about twelve hours1 the acid bath being placed in cement cisterns or in large lead-lined tubs and not made strong enough to injure the fiber of the wool4 ,during the immersion the stock is frequently stirred4 ,next1 the wool is dried and then placed in an enclosed chamber and subjected to a high temperature 7#ge degrees ,c474 ,the result of this process is that all the vegetable matter contained in the wool is carbonized or burned to a crisp1 and on being slightly beaten or shaken readily turns to dust4 ,this dust is removed from the wool by various simple processes4 ,the carbonizing process was first introduced in #ahge1 though it made but slight headway against the old burring method until after #ahhj4 ,blending4 ,pure wool of but one quality is not often used in the production of woven fabrics1 so1 before the raw material is ready for spinning into yarn1 or for other processes by which it is worked into useful forms1 it is blended4 ,wools are blended for many reasons 7among which cheapness figures prominently71 the added materials consisting usually of shoddy1 mungo1 or extract fibers4 ,ordinarily1 however1 blending has for its object the securing of a desired quality or weight of cloth4 ,the question of color1 as well as quality1 also determines blending operations1 natural colored wools being frequently intermixed to obtain particular shades for dress goods1 tweeds1 knitting yarns1 etc4 ,stock dyed wools are also blended for the production of mixed colors1 as browns1 grays1 ,oxfords1 etc4 ,there is practically no limit to the variety of shades and tints obtainable by mixing two or more colors of wool together4 ,the various quantities of wool to be blended are spread out in due proportion in the form of thin layers1 one on top of the other1 and then passed through a machine called the teaser4 ,the teaser consists of a combination of large and small rollers1 thickly studded with small pins1 which open the wool1 pull it apart1 and thoroughly intermix it4 ,a blast of air constantly plays upon the wool in the teaser and aids the spikes and pins in opening out the fibers4 ,the material is subjected to this operation several times and is finally delivered in a soft1 fleecy condition1 ready to be spun into yarn4 ,,footnotes3 #aj ,skins4 #aa ,a wire cage enclosed in a metallic shell which revolves at a high speed causing sixty or seventy per cent of the moisture to be removed4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,wool ,,substitutes ,,and ,,waste ,,products ,remanufactured wool substitutes are extensively used in the manufacture of woolen and worsted goods4 ,there is no need for the prejudice that is sometimes met regarding these reclaimed materials1 for by their use millions of people are warmly and cheaply clothed4 ,if the immense quantity of these materials were wasted1 countless persons would be unable to afford proper clothing1 as it is difficult to estimate what the price of wool would be2 and it is also doubtful if a sufficient quantity could be produced to supply the need4 ,in almost all instances the use of wool substitutes is for the special purpose of producing cloths at a much lower price4 ,the cloths made from waste products1 such as noils1 are not much inferior in quality to those produced from the wool from which the noils are obtained2 but the great majority of cloths made from other waste products are much inferior4 ,the following are the most important substitutes3 noils1 shoddy1 mungo1 extract-wool1 and flocks4 ,noils are the rejected fibers from the process of combing the different wools and hairs2 thus1 wool noils are from the sheep1 mohair noils from the ,angora goat1 and alpaca noils from the ,peruvian sheep4 ,noils are divided into classes1 namely1 long-wool noils1 short or fine-wool noils1 mohair noils1 and alpaca noils4 ,they are all obtained in the process of combing1 that is1 the process which separates the long from the short fibers2 the former are known as the top1 and are used in worsted and in the production of mohair and alpaca yarns2 while the latter are used to advantage in the production of many different kinds of woolen fabrics4 ,with the exception of length1 noils are practically of the same quality as the tops from which they are taken4 ,long-wool noils are from the combings of such wools as ,leicester and similar wools4 ,these noils1 like the wool from which they are obtained1 are much coarser in quality and fiber than the short-wool noils4 ,occasionally1 when strength is required in the fabric1 these noils are used1 and they are also mixed with short-wool noils4 ,many of the cheviot fabrics are made exclusively of these noils4 ,they are also mixed with shoddy and cotton in the production of dark-colored fabrics1 and in medium and low-priced goods requiring a fibrous appearance they are extremely useful4 ,short or fine-wool noils are the most valuable1 and are obtained from combing ,australian and other fine wools4 ,the number and variety of uses to which they are put are innumerable4 ,they are used to advantage in the plain and fancy woolen trade1 in the manufacture of shawls and plain woolens of a soft nature1 and are also suitable for mixing with cotton in the production of twist threads4 ,mohair and alpaca noils are obtained by the combing of these materials4 ,they are lacking in felting properties1 but are lustrous and possess strength1 and are most valuable in the manufacture of fabrics where strength and luster are required4 ,these noils are used in the production of yarns for ,kidderminster carpets1 as yarns for these carpets must possess strength1 brightness1 and thickness of fiber4 ,they are also used in combination with shoddy and cotton to produce weft or filling yarns for a lower quality of goods4 ,shoddy and ,mungo are in reality wool products1 or wool fiber which has previously passed through the processes of manufacture whereby its physical structure has been considerably mutilated4 ,these were first produced about sixty years ago4 ,shoddy is higher in value than mungo4 ,the value and quality of the waste or rags from which it is made determine the quality or value of the material4 ,shoddy is derived from waste or rags of pure unmilled woolens1 such as flannels1 wraps1 stockings1 and all kinds of soft goods4 ,mungo is made from rags of hard or milled character and is much shorter in fiber than shoddy4 ,its length1 varying from one-quarter to three-quarters of an inch1 can be regulated by the treatment the rags receive1 and by the proper setting of the rollers in the grinding machine4 ,both shoddy and mungo may be divided into classes4 ,mungo is divided into two classes1 namely1 new and old mungo4 ,new mungo is made from rags chiefly composed of tailor's clippings1 unused pattern-room clippings1 etc4 ,old mungo is made from cast-off garments1 etc4 ,by a careful selection of the rags previous to grinding1 it is possible to make a large number of qualities1 and a great variety of colors and shades without dyeing4 ,owing to their cheapness shoddy and mungo are used in cloths of low and medium qualities4 ,shoddies are utilized in fabrics of the cheviot class and in the production of backing yarns4 ,mungoes of the best quality are used in the low fancy tweed trade1 in both warp and weft1 but chiefly in union and backed fabrics4 ,method of ,producing ,shoddy and ,mungo4 ,before the fibrous mungo is obtained1 the rags have to pass through the following necessary preliminary operations3 ,a4 ,dusting4 ,this is carried on in a shaking machine1 which consists of a cylinder possessing long and strong spikes1 which are enclosed1 having underneath a grating to allow the dust to pass through4 ,the dust is then driven by a fan into a receptacle provided for that purpose4 ,b4 ,sorting4 ,all rags1 both old and new1 must be sorted1 and considerable care must be exercised in this operation1 as on this work alone depends the obtaining of different qualities and shades1 as well as the securing of the production of a regular and uniform product4 ,c4 ,seaming4 ,this is only necessary with the rags procured from garments4 ,it is simply removing the cotton threads from the seams1 and any metallic or hard substances from the rags4 ,d4 ,oiling4 ,the rags are oiled to soften them and make them more pliable1 and thus to facilitate the grinding4 ,e4 ,grinding4 ,this is the principal operation1 and the rags are made fibrous in this process4 ,the machine by which this is effected is made up of the following parts3 feed apron1 fluted rollers1 swift1 and a funnel for conveying the material out of the machine4 ,the principal features of the machine are the swift and its speed4 ,the swift is enclosed in a framework1 and is about forty-two inches in diameter and eighteen inches wide1 thus possessing a surface area of #b1cgf square inches1 containing from #ab1jjj to #ad1jjj fine strong iron spikes4 ,the speed of the swift may be from #fjj to #hjj revolutions per minute4 ,the rags are fed by placing them on the traveling feed apron1 and are thus conveyed to the fluted rollers4 ,as they emerge from the rollers they are presented to the swift1 and by strong iron teeth1 moving with exceedingly high surface velocity1 they are torn thread from thread and fiber from fiber4 ,the fluted rollers run very slowly1 and the rags are held while the swift carries out this operation4 ,by means of the strong current of air created by the high speed of the swift1 the mungo is expelled from the machine through the funnel into a specially arranged receptacle4 ,if by any chance the machine should be overcharged1 that is1 if too many rags are passing through the rollers1 the top fluted roller is raised up1 and the rags are simply carried1 or thrown by the swift1 over into a box on the opposite side of the machine without being subjected to the tearing process4 ,the top roller is weighted by levers with weights attached to keep it in position1 thus bringing downward pressure to bear upon it1 as it is driven simply by friction4 ,by the adjustment of the feed rollers in relation to the swift1 the length of the fiber may be varied to a small degree4 ,extract ,wool4 ,this is obtained from union cloths1 that is1 from cloths having a wool weft and warp of cotton1 etc41 also from cloths having the same material for warp1 but possessing a woolen or mungo warp or filling1 etc4 ,it is the wool fiber that is required4 ,therefore the vegetable matter 7cotton7 must be extracted from it by the process of carbonizing4 ,to effect this1 the tissue or rags are steeped in a solution of sulphuric acid and water and then subjected to heat in an enclosed room4 ,the water is evaporated1 leaving the acid in a concentrated form1 which acts upon the cotton1 converting it into powder4 ,the powder readily becomes separated1 and thus the cotton is eliminated4 ,the material that is left is well washed to remove all acid1 dried1 and then passed through a miniature carder1 to impart to it the appearance of a woolly and a softer fabric4 ,flocks4 ,these are of three kinds1 and are waste products of the milling1 cropping1 and raising operations4 ,the most valuable are those derived from the fulling mill1 being clean and of a bright color4 ,they are chiefly used by sail spinners1 and in the manufacture of low grade cloths of a cheviot class4 ,white flocks are suitable for blending with wool1 and as a rule command a fair price4 ,raising flocks are those obtained from the dressing or raising gigs1 and are applied to purposes similar to those for which fulling flocks are used4 ,cutting or cropping flocks are the short fibers which are removed from the cloths in this operation4 ,they are practically of no value to the textile manufacturer1 being unfit for yarn production1 but are used chiefly by wall-paper manufacturers in producing flock-papers1 which are papers with raised figures resembling cloth1 made of poor wool1 and attached with a gluey varnish4 ,illustration3 ,,card ,,room #a4 ,automatic ,feed4 #b4 ,bur ,guards4 #c4 ,bur ,tray4 #d4 #ast ,top ,divider4 #e4 #b;d ,top ,divider4 #f4 ,workers4 #g4 ,strippers4 #h4 ,doffer ,cylinder4 #i4 ,main ,cylinders4 #aj4 ,main ,card ,drive on #b;d ,main ,cylinder ,shaft4 #aa4 #ast ,lickerin4 #ab4 #b;d ,lickerin4 #ac4 #c;d ,lickerin4 #ad4 #dth ,lickerin4 #ae4 ,fancy ,hood4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,worsted ,,yarns ,carding4 ,after the wool is washed it undergoes a number of operations before it is finished into worsted or woolen yarn4#ab ,the first step in the manufacturing of worsted yarn is to pass the washed wool through a worsted card which consists of a number of cylinders covered with fine wire teeth mounted on a frame4 ,the effect of these cylinders on the wool is to disengage the wool fibers1 make them straight1 and form a sliver or strand4 ,it is now ready for the combing machine4 ,combing4 ,the process of combing consists of subjecting the card sliver to the operations of the automatic wool comber1 which straightens the fibers and removes all short and tufted pieces of wool4 ,combing is a guarantee that every fiber of the wool lies perfectly straight1 and that all fibers follow one after the other in regular order4 ,comb4 ,a comb is a complicated machine4 ,the principal feature is a large metal ring with rows of fine steel pins 7pin circles71 which is made to revolve horizontally within the machine4 ,by various devices the wool is fed into the teeth of the ring in the form of tufts4 ,the fibers of the tufts by an intricate process are separated into long and short lengths1 and a set of rollers draws each out separately and winds it into a continuous strand called tops4 ,on leaving the comber1 the wool is free from short fibers1 specks1 and foreign substances1 and presents a fine1 flowing1 and lustrous appearance4 ,the short combed-out wool is called noils1 and is used in making carpet yarns1 ground up into shoddy stock1 or utilized in spinning fancy yarns4 ,worsted ,tops4 ,american textile manufacturers are finding it advantageous to have their combing done by those who make the work a specialty rather than to do it themselves4 ,in the manufacture of tops all varieties of combing wools are used3 ,australian1 ,merino1 and ,crossbred wools1 ,south ,american ,merino and ,crossbred wools1 ,cape ,merino wools1 ,merino and ,crossbred wools grown in the ,united ,states1 the lustrous wools of pure ,english blood1 ,mohair from ,asiatic ,turkey1 and ,alpaca from the ,andes4 ,tops are sold to worsted spinneries4#ac ,many mills or worsted spinneries send their wools1 either sorted or unsorted as they may desire1 to a combing mill1 where the wool is put into top at a lower price than that at which most spinneries can do their own combing4 ,by means of the naphtha process a larger amount of top from a given amount of wool can be secured than by any other process1 and in addition1 a top in better condition for drawing and spinning4 ,illustration3 ,,comb ,,room #a4 ,driving pulley on horizontal shaft 7#b74 #c4 ,boxes containing bevel gears4 #d4 ,pillars4 #e4 ,driving pulley for dabbing motion4 #f4 ,boxes containing dabbing-brush mechanism4 #g4 ,dabbing brushes4 #h4 ,star or stroker wheels4 #i4 ,large circle containing rows of pins4 #aj4 ,drawing-off apron and rollers for large circle4 #aa4 ,brass boxes or conductors4 #ab4 ,guides for comb ball ends4 #ac4 ,comb balls 7#d ends each74 #ad4 ,fluted wooden rollers on which comb balls rest4 #ae4 ,comb leg 7#d in number74 #af4 ,foundation plate4 ,in a strand of combed wool1 called top1 no single fiber lies across the strand2 all lie in the direction of the length4 ,this order is preserved until the fibers have been converted into yarn1 which is accomplished by passing through gill boxes4 ,these gill boxes are machines with bars of iron having upon their surface two rows of minute steel pins1 by this means kept perfectly straight4 ,the bars on which they are placed are worked on screws between two sets of rollers4 ,the wool enters between the first set of rollers1 and1 as it passes through1 is caught by one of these gills that is raised up for the purpose1 being succeeded by others as the rollers revolve4 ,these gills are moved forward on screws in the direction of the other set of rollers1 and the pins in the gills always keep the fiber perfectly straight4 ,the second set of rollers is termed the draught rollers1 since by them the wool1 after passing through the front rollers1 is drawn out and reduced in thickness4 ,this is accomplished because the second rollers revolve at a higher rate of speed than the first rollers1 the speed being regulated according to the length of the wool1 and the thickness of the yarn to be produced4 ,these gills are used in the production of worsted yarn until the size of the rope of wool has been so reduced and twisted that there is no chance of any fiber getting crossed or out of the order of straightness4 ,a worsted yarn is1 consequently1 a straight yarn1 or a yarn produced from perfectly straight fibers4 ,illustration3 ,,gilling #a4 ,cans containing ,comb ,ends or ,sliver4 #b4 ,balling ,head4 #c4 ,stock from ,balling ,head ,no4 #b4 #d4 ,screws for applying pressure to ,back ,rollers4 #e4 ,screws for applying pressure to ,front ,rollers4 #f4 ,faller ,screws situated between ,no4 #d and ,no4 #e4 #g4 ,guard for covering gears which drive ,back ,rollers4 #h4 ,guard covering gears which drive ,balling ,head4 #i4 ,balling ,head4 ,the combing of wool may be dispensed with in some cases1 although such a yarn is not in common use4 ,when combing is dispensed with1 the gills1 in connection with the draught of the rollers1 make the fibers straight1 and produce a worsted yarn1 although such a yarn has a tendency to be uneven and knotty4 ,before the wool can be spun it must be made into roving of a suitable thickness4 ,this is done by passing it1 after being combed1 through a series of operations termed drawing1 whose functions are to produce a gradual reduction in thickness at each stage4 ,although the number of machines varies according to the kind of wool to be treated1 still the same principle applies to all4 ,spinning4 ,the process of spinning is the last in the formation of yarn or thread1 the subsequent operations having for their object the strengthening of the yarn by combining two or more strands and afterward arranging them for weaving or for the purpose for which the yarn is required4 ,it is also the last time that the fibers are mechanically drawn over each other or drafted1 and this is invariably done from a single roving4 ,the humidity and temperature of the spinning room must be adjusted to conditions4 ,each spinner is provided with a wet and dry thermometer so that the best temperature can be ascertained4 ,the most suitable heat and humidity can only be obtained by comparison and observation4 ,a dry and warm atmosphere causes the wool to become charged with electricity and then the fibers repel each other4 ,illustration3 ,,worsted ,,spinning4 ,,bradford ,,system #a4 ,bobbins containing ,worsted ,yarn4 #b4 ,conical shape caps placed on top of spindles4 #c4 ,tin ,wings fastened to ,eyeboard4 #d4 ,eyeboard containing pot eyes1 through which yarn passes to the bobbin4 #e4 ,scratch fluted front rollers4 #f4 ,leather covered ,pressing ,rollers for ,no4 #e ,rollers4 #g4 ,smooth metal ,pressing ,rollers for ,back ,rollers4 #h4 ,large ,front ,roller ,gear4 #i4 ,pulley for driving ,twist gear4 #aj4 ,spools of ,roving held by a series of pegs4 #aa4 ,spindle bands4 #ab4 ,sifter plate or rail4 ,worsted yarn is spun by two different methods known respectively as the ,bradford or ,english system and the ,french system4 ,the difference in these systems of spinning worsteds lies principally in the drawing and spinning processes1 a radically different class of machinery being used for each4 ,the combing process is practically the same in both cases1 but the wool is combed dry for the ,french system1 and by the ,english method the stock is thoroughly oiled before being combed4 ,the result of the ,english method is the production of a smooth level yarn in which the fibers lie nearly parallel to each other4 ,the yarn made according to the ,french system is somewhat fuzzier and more woolly4 ,on account of the absence of oil1 the shrinkage of ,french spun worsted is considerably less than that made by the ,bradford system4 ,characteristics of ,worsted ,yarn4 ,the unique structure of worsted yarn makes it invaluable in the production of textile fabrics in which luster and uniformity of surface are the chief characteristics4 ,the methods by which worsted is formed render it capable of sustaining more tension in proportion to its size than the pure woolen yarn4 ,this feature1 combined with its lustrous quality1 gives it a pre-eminent position in the manufacture of fine coatings1 dress goods1 etc4 ,the method of arranging the fibers in the formation of a woolen yarn is such as to produce a strand with a somewhat indefinite and fibrous surface1 which destroys to a large degree the clearness of the pattern effect in the woven piece4 ,in the construction of worsted yarn the fibers are arranged in a parallel relationship to each other1 resulting in the production of a smooth1 hard yarn having a well-defined surface2 hence weave-ornamentation of a decided or marked type is possible by its use4 ,there is1 in a word1 more scope for pattern effects1 since the level and regular structure of the yarn imparts a distinction to every part of a woven design4 ,from this peculiarity arises the great variety of effects seen in the worsted dress fabrics1 coatings1 trouserings1 etc41 both in colored patterns and in fabrics of one shade throughout4 ,illustration3 ,,spool ,,room #a4 ,jack ,spooler frame4 #b4 ,drum upon which ,jack ,spool rests4 #c4 ,jack ,spool4 #d4 ,guides for spool ends4 #e4 ,spools containing yarn4 #f4 ,pressers which rest on spools to prevent slack ends4 #g4 ,spool creel4 ,illustration3 ,,french ,,spinning #a4 ,balling heads4 #b4 ,bobbins upon which stock is wound4 #c4 ,rub or condenser aprons4 #d4 ,gearing for driving rub motion4 #e4 ,shipper rod and handles4 #f4 ,bobbins held in place in creel by skewers4 #g4 ,weights with system of levers for applying pressure to rollers4 ,worsted yarn can be made of pure wool2 and as a rule1 the wool used in the ,english system is of fairly good length and uniform staple1 for if otherwise it is only with difficulty that the yarn can be spun straight4 ,shorter wool can be combed and spun under the ,french system1 and this is the reason why the ,french system of spinning is being introduced4 ,on the other hand1 in the spinning of woolen yarns great length of staple is not essential1 for the machinery employed will work the small fibers4 ,uses of ,worsted ,yarn4 ,worsted yarn may be used in any of the following fabrics3 #a4 ,combed wool yarn for ornamental needlework and knitting1 as ,berlin1 ,zephyr1 and ,saxony wools4 #b4 ,cloth made from combed wool not classified according to material4 a4 ,fabrics of all wool--serge1 bunting1 rep1 dress goods1 with weave effects4 b4 ,wool and ,cotton--union goods1 serge linings1 lathing4 c4 ,wool and ,silk--rich poplin1 pongee1 henrietta1 bombazine4 d4 ,alpaca and ,mohair--alpaca1 mohair dress goods1 lusters1 braids1 laces4 ,counts4 ,yarn is measured by a system of counts--the number of yards of yarn to the pound4 ,the counts of worsted yarn are based on the number of hanks in one pound1 each hank containing #efj yards4 ,thus ,no4 #cj worsted yarn consists of #cj hanks of #efj yards each1 or #af1hjj yards to the pound4 ,,footnotes3 #ab ,the distinct difference between worsted and woolen yarns is that worsted yarn is made of fibers that are parallel1 while the fibers of woolen yarn run in all directions4 ,the worsted yarn is stronger4 #ac ,mills that manufacture worsted yarn4 ,,chapter ,v ,,woolen ,,yarn ,in manufacturing worsted yarn every necessary operation is performed to arrange the wool fibers so that they will lie smoothly and parallel to each other4 ,in the case of woolen yarn every operation is performed so as to have the fibers lie in every direction and to cross and overlap each other4 ,to produce yarn of the woolen type a set of machinery entirely different from that used in worsted manufacture is necessary4 ,the wool is carded1 but no attempt is made to get the fibers parallel4 ,the reduction in thickness of the sliver is not brought about upon the so-called drawing frame1 but by a mule frame where the drawing and twisting are done at the same operation4 ,as neither combs nor gills are employed1 there is not the same smooth1 level yarn1 but one which possesses a fringe-like covering or fuzzy appearance that makes the woolen yarn so valuable4 ,the operation is as follows3 ,carding4 ,after washing the material for woolen yarn1 it is passed through three carding processes1 and from the last of them is taken direct to the spinning frame to be made into yarn4 ,the object of woolen carding is different from carding in any other textile manufacture4 ,in most processes of carding the fibers are subjected to a combing principle1 and the aim is to lay the fibers parallel4 ,woolen carding aims to open the raw wool fiber1 and put it in a perfectly loose condition1 without leaning toward any definite arrangement4 ,the carding machines are called1 respectively1 first1 second1 and third breaker4 ,each machine consists of a complicated series of card-covered cylinders of different sizes1 running at different rates of speed--sometimes in the same and sometimes in an opposite direction4 ,these rollers take the wool from one another in regular order until it is finally delivered from the third breaker in a soft1 fluffy rope or roll called a sliver4 ,this sliver is wound on a bobbin1 and taken from the card to the mule spinning frame4 ,the sliver on the bobbins from the card is taken to the mule spinning frame where it is passed through rolls1 and the sliver attenuated by means of a traveling carriage4 ,count4 ,in the case of woolen yarn there are numerous systems for denoting the count1 varying with the locality in which it is spun and the character of the product4 ,in the ,united ,states there are two systems employed1 but the one in most general use is known as ,american run counts4 ,this is based on the number of runs1 each containing #a1fjj yards to the pound4 ,thus1 a yarn running #h1jjj yards to the pound is called a #e run yarn1 a yarn with #e1bjj yards to the pound is equal to a #c-a_/d run4 ,in the vicinity of ,philadelphia woolen yarn is based on the cut1 each cut consisting of #cjj yards1 and the count is the number of cuts in a pound4 ,thus1 ,no4 #cj cut yarn consists of #i1jjj yards to the pound4 ,no4 #ae contains #d1ejj yards to the pound4 ,woolen yarn is suitable for cloths in which the colorings are blended and the fibers napped1 as exemplified in tweed1 cheviot1 doeskin1 broadcloth1 beaver1 frieze1 chinchilla1 blanket1 and flannel4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,weaving ,preparatory to ,weaving4 ,yarn is wound on bobbins on the ring or mule spinning frame4 ,these bobbins are transferred to a machine called a spooler where the yarn is re-wound on a spool preparatory to making the warp4 ,a warp is formed by obtaining a definite number of threads 7called ends71 usually in a precisely designed order of given length1 and allowing the ends to wind over a cylinder called a beam4 ,in order to do this it is necessary to have spools placed in a definite position in a frame called a creel4 ,before the warp can be placed in the loom so as to weave or interlace it with filling it must be sized4 ,this is necessary for all single twist warp yarns4 ,its primary object is to increase the strength and smoothness of the thread1 thus enabling it to withstand the strain and friction due to the weaving operation4 ,other objects of sizing are the increase of weight and bulk of the thread and the improvement and feel of the cloth4 ,the warp is usually sized by passing it over a roller and through a bath of a starch mixture4 ,the machine for sizing is called a slasher4 ,the warp is now ready to have the ends drawn in and placed in the loom4 ,weaving4 ,every woven piece of cloth is made up of two distinct systems of threads1 known as the warp and filling 7weft71 which are interlaced with each other to form a fabric4 ,the warp threads run lengthways of the piece of cloth1 and the filling runs across from side to side4 ,the manner in which the warp and filling threads interlace with each other is known as the weave4 ,when the word end is used in connection with weaving it always signifies the warp thread1 while each filling thread is called a pick4 ,the fineness of the cloth is always expressed as so many picks and ends to the inch4 ,the fabrics produced by weaving are named by the manufacturers or merchants who introduce them4 ,old fabrics are constantly appearing under new names1 usually with some slight modification to suit the public taste4 ,weaving ,processes4 ,in order to understand the different kinds of weaves it is necessary to know1 or at least to understand1 the process of forming cloth1 called weaving4 ,this is done in a machine called a loom4 ,the principal parts of a loom are the frame1 the warp-beam1 the cloth-roll1 the heddles1 and their mounting1 the reed4 ,the warp-beam is a wooden cylinder back of the loom on which the warp is wound4 ,the threads of the warp extend in parallel order from the warp-beam to the front of the loom1 and are attached to the cloth-roll4 ,each thread or group of threads of the warp passes through an opening 7eye7 of a heddle4 ,the warp threads are separated by the heddles into two or more groups1 each controlled and automatically drawn up and down by the motion of the heddles4 ,in the case of small patterns the movement of the heddles is controlled by cams which move up the heddles by means of a frame called a harness2 in larger patterns the heddles are controlled by harness cords attached to a ,jacquard machine4 ,every time the harness 7the heddles7 moves up or down1 an opening 7shed7 is made between the threads of warp1 through which the shuttle is thrown4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,simple ,,hand-,,loom ,showing frame1 warp beam1 cloth-roll1 heddles1 and reed ,the filling thread is wound on a bobbin which is fastened in the shuttle and which permits the yarn to unwind as it passes to and fro4 ,as fast as each filling thread is interlaced with warp it is pressed close to the previous one by means of a reed which advances toward and recedes from the cloth after each passage of the shuttle4 ,this is done to make the cloth firm4 ,there are various movements on the loom for controlling the tension of the warp1 for drawing forward or taking up the cloth as it is produced1 and for stopping the loom in the case of breakage of the warp thread or the running out of the filling thread4 ,weaving may be performed by hand in hand-looms or by steam-power in power-looms1 but the arrangements for both are to a certain extent the same4 ,a great number of different kinds of power-looms are manufactured for producing the various classes of textiles in use at the present time4 ,these looms are distinguished by the name of the material which they are designed to weave1 as the ribbon-loom1 blanket-loom1 burlaps- and sacking-loom1 plush-loom1 double-cloth loom1 rug-loom1 fancy cotton-loom1 silk-loom1 worsted-loom1 etc4 ,weaving is distinct from knitting1 netting1 looping1 and braiding1 which are operations depending on the interlacing of a single thread1 or single set of threads1 while weaving is done with two distinct and separate sets of threads4 ,illustration3 ,,main ,,weave ,,room #a4 ,warp beam containing warp4 #b4 ,lease ,rods4 #c4 ,harnesses4 #d4 ,dobby ,head motion to lift harnesses4 #e4 ,jacquard ,head motion4 #f4 ,cards containing design--working in connection with ,jacquard ,head motion4 #g4 ,whip ,roll4 ,classes of ,weave4 ,the character of the weave offers the best basis for classification of woven goods4 ,nearly all the varieties of cloth may be classified from the following weaves3 7#a7 ,plain-weaving1 7#b7 ,twill-weaving1 7#c7 ,satin-weaving1 7#d7 ,figure-weaving1 7#e7 ,double-cloth-weaving1 7#f7 ,pile-weaving1 7#g7 ,gauze-weaving1 7#h7 ,lappet-weaving4 ,plain or ,homespun ,weave4 ,plain cloth is the simplest cloth that can be woven4 ,in this weave one series of threads 7filling7 crosses another series 7warp7 at right angles1 passing over one and under one in regular order1 thus forming a simple interlacement of the threads4 ,this combination makes a strong and firm cloth1 but does not give a close or a heavy fabric1 as the threads do not lie as close and compact as they do in other weaves4 ,in plain cloth1 if not fulled or shrunk in the finish1 the result is a fabric perforated with large or small openings according to the size or twist of yarn used4 ,if heavy or coarse threads are used the perforations will be large2 if finer threads1 the perforations will be smaller4 ,this weave is used in the production of sheeting1 muslin1 lawn1 gingham1 broadcloth1 taffeta1 etc4 ,in plain weaving it is possible to produce stripes by the use of bands of colored warp1 and checks where both warp and weft are parti-colored4 ,this weave is commonly used when the cloth is intended to be ornamented with printed patterns4 ,in weaving cloth of only one color but one shuttle is used1 while for the production of checks1 plaids1 etc41 two or more shuttles are required4 ,illustration3 ,,girl ,,drawing ,,each ,,thread ,,of ,,warp ,,through ,,the ,,reed ,,and ,,harness ,,ready ,,to ,,be ,,placed ,,on ,,loom ,a1 warp beam4 ,b1 warp4 ,c1 harness frame ,twill ,weave4 ,a twill weave has diagonal lines across the cloth4 ,in this class of weaves the filling yarn or threads pass over #a and under #b1 or over #a and under #c1 #d1 #e1 or #f1 or over #b or #c and under #a1 #b1 #c1 or #d1 or over #d and under #d1 #c1 #f1 etc4 ,each filling thread does not pass under and over the same set of warp threads1 as this would not give the desired interlacings4 ,instead the order of interlacing moves one thread to the right or left with each filling thread that is woven4 ,if there are the same number of threads to an inch in warp and filling1 twill lines will form an angle of #de degrees2 if the warps are closer together than the filling1 the angle will be steeper2 if the filling threads are closer together the lines will approach more nearly the horizontal4 ,different effects are obtained in patterns by variation in the sizes of the yarn and twist1 by the use of heavy threads to form cords1 ribs1 etc41 and by the mixture of vari-colored materials in the yarn4 ,often one form of twill-weave is combined with another to produce a fancy twill-weave4 ,the object of the twill-weaving is to increase the bulk and strength of a fabric1 or to ornament it4 ,the disposition of the threads permits the introduction of more material into the cloth1 and hence renders it heavier1 and of closer construction than in the case of plain-weaving4 ,satin ,weaves4 ,the object of a satin weave is to distribute the interlacings of the warp and filling in such a manner that no trace of the diagonal 7twill7 line will be seen on the face of the cloth4 ,in weaving a satin design the filling thread is made to pass under #a and over #d1 #g1 #i1 #aa1 or more if a larger plush satin is required4 ,the raising of the warp end to allow the filling to pass under is done in such a way as to prevent twill lines from showing in the cloth4 ,the result is that practically all of the filling is on the face of the cloth4 ,this is called a filling-face satin weave4 ,a warp-face satin weave may be produced by reversing the order2 in this case practically all of the warp is brought to the face of the cloth4 ,in this way a worsted warp and a cotton filling might be woven so that practically all of the warp would show on the cloth1 and give it the appearance of a worsted fabric4 ,a number of classes of silk goods are made in this way1 with a silk filling covering a cotton warp4 ,this weave produces an even1 close1 smooth surface1 capable of reflecting the light to the best advantage1 and having a lustrous appearance which makes it resemble satin cloth4 ,satin cloth is made of silk using a satin weave4 ,satin weaves are used very largely in producing different styles of cotton and silk fabrics1 and are also frequently found in woolen goods4 ,they are more extensively used in the manufacture of damask and table-covers than for any other class of goods4 ,satin stripes are frequent in madras1 shirtings1 and fancy dress goods in connection with plain and figured weaves4 ,figure ,weaving4 ,to produce complicated and irregular patterns in the loom a large number of different openings 7sheds7 must be made in the warp1 and to secure such a large number an attachment is placed on top of the loom called a ,jacquard apparatus4 ,the ,jacquard is merely an apparatus for automatically selecting warp threads1 by which each separate one can be made to move independently of any of the others4 ,it is provided with weighted strings attached to each of the warp threads4 ,the weighted strings are controlled by wire needles which are in turn controlled by perforated cards4 ,each motion of the loom changes their position and allows some needles to go through the holes in the cards1 thus drawing up the warp1 while others strike the card and leave the warp down4 ,in this way the perforations of the cards determine the figure of the patterns4 ,the ,jacquard is chiefly used to produce patterns of great width in which all or most of the threads in the pattern move independently4 ,for the weaving of elaborate effects and flowing lines it is practically indispensable4 ,all elaborate designs are classed under the name of ,jacquards4 ,double ,cloth4 ,double cloth is a descriptive term applied in weaving to fabrics produced by combining two single cloths into one4 ,each one of these single cloths is constructed with its own systems of warp and filling1 the combination being effected in the loom by interlacing some of the warp or filling threads of one cloth into the other cloth at certain intervals1 thus fastening them securely together4 ,the reasons for making double-cloths are many4 ,sometimes it is done to reduce the cost of heavy weight fabrics by using cheaper materials for the cloth forming the back2 again it may be to produce double-face fabric2 it allows great freedom for the formation of colored patterns which may or may not correspond in pattern on both sides2 it is the basis of tubular weaving such as is practised for making pillow cases1 pockets1 seamless grain bags1 etc42 more frequently1 the object is to increase the bulk or strength of certain kinds of fabrics1 such as heavy overcoatings1 cloakings1 pile-fabrics1 golf-cloth1 rich silk1 etc4 ,pile ,weave4 ,a pile weave is a general term under which are classed numerous varieties of cloth woven with a pile surface1 as plush1 velvet1 velveteen1 and carpeting of various kinds4 ,turkish towels are an excellent illustration of pile weaving4 ,a pile surface is a closely set1 elastic face covering various kinds of woolen1 silk1 and cotton fabrics1 and consists of threads standing close together1 either in the form of loops or as erect thread-ends sheared off smooth so as to form a uniform and even surface4 ,in the production of a pile fabric a third thread is introduced into the weaving and formed into loops usually by carrying it over the wires laid across the breadth of the cloth4 ,the wires are afterward drawn out1 leaving the loops standing2 the loops may then be cut so as to form a cut pile1 as in velvet and plush1 or they may be left in their original form as in ,brussels carpet and ,turkish towels4 ,gauze ,weaving4 ,in gauze weaving all the warp threads are not parallel to each other1 but are made to intertwist more or less among themselves1 thereby favoring the production of light1 open fabrics1 in which many ornamental lace-like combinations can be obtained4 ,two sets of warp threads are used1 one being the ground warp and the other the douping1 the latter performing the entwining process4 ,gauze is especially characterized by its openness and yields the lightest and strongest fabric with the least material4 ,when gauze is combined with plain weaving it is styled leno4 ,gauze fabrics are designed for women's summer gowns1 flounces1 window-curtains1 etc4 ,lappet ,weaving4 ,lappet weaving1 really a form of embroidery1 is used for producing small designs on cloth by means of needles placed in a sliding-frame1 the figures being stitched into the warp4 ,elaborate figures are beyond the range of lappet weaving1 but there are many small effects that can be economically produced in this manner1 such as the detached spots in dotted swiss1 and narrow and continuous figures running more or less into stripes4 ,this form of weaving imitates embroidery and is used mainly on plain and gauze fabrics4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,dyeing ,,and ,,finishing ,dyeing4 ,when a fabric or fiber is impregnated with a uniform color over its whole surface1 it is said to be simply dyed4 ,on the other hand1 if distinct patterns or designs in one or more colors have been impressed upon a fabric1 it is called printing4 ,vegetable dyes were formerly used1 but since the coal tar dyes have been discovered the latter are used entirely4 ,over fourteen thousand colors have been produced from coal tar4 ,different fibers and fabrics attract dyestuffs with varying degrees of force4 ,wool and silk attract better than cotton and linen4 ,wool ,dyeing4 ,the methods of dyeing wool differ considerably from those employed for cotton and other vegetable fibers4 ,they may be divided into three parts3 piece dyed1 cross dyed1 and yarn dyed4 ,piece goods are those woven with yarns in their gray or natural state1 and then cleansed and dyed in the piece to such colors as are required4 ,they are woven in plain weaves and in a great variety of twills--in fact1 in all styles of weaves--and are also made on the ,jacquard loom4 ,the principal fabrics in this classification are all wool serges1 cheviots1 hopsackings1 suitings1 satines1 prunellas1 whipcords1 melroses1 ,venetian broadcloths1 zibelines1 rainproof cloths2 nun's veiling1 canvases1 grenadines1 albatrosses1 crpes1 and ,french flannels2 silk warp ,henriettas1 voiles1 and sublimes4 ,whenever it is possible1 it is better to dye textile fabrics in the form of woven pieces than in the yarn4 ,during the process of weaving it is impossible to avoid getting yarn dirty and somewhat greasy1 and the scouring necessary to remove this dirt impairs the color used in weaving4 ,piece dyeing is the cheapest method of applying color to textiles4 ,the chief fault of piece dyeing is the danger of cloud spots1 stains1 etc41 which do not appear in the other two methods4 ,then again in the case of thick1 closely woven goods the dyestuff does not penetrate into the fabric1 and the interior remains nearly white4 ,the cloth is dyed by means of passing over a roller into a dye vat4 ,small pieces or swatches are taken from the ends of the fabric1 and compared with the pattern4 ,for it must be remembered that no two lots of crude dyes are of equal strength1 and the wools and cottons of different growths and seasons vary greatly1 so that the use of a fixed quantity of dye to a given amount of goods will not always give the exact shade4 ,in comparing a sample with the pattern the two are placed side by side below the eyes 7reflected light71 and then held up to the light and the eye directed along the surface4 ,a judgment must be formed quickly1 as a prolonged gaze fatigues the eye and renders it unable to perceive fine shades of difference4 ,illustration3 ,,dye ,,room #a4 ,dye tub or vat containing dyestuffs4 #b4 ,rolls or cylinders upon which cloth is wound4 #c4 ,cloth leaving dye tub--being wound upon ,no4 #b cylinder4 ,cross ,dyed4 ,cross-dyed goods may be described as fabrics woven with black or colored cotton warps and wool or worsted filling and afterwards dyed in the piece4 ,since cotton has not the same attraction for dyestuffs as wool it is a difficult task to dye a fabric woven with cotton and wool so that both fibers will be identical in depth of color1 tone1 and brightness4 ,in some cases it is possible to dye a mixed fabric at a single operation1 but the usual process is to dye the wool in yarn state and then dye the warp a color as near the color of the wool as possible4 ,in the weaving operation the wool is thrown to the surface4 ,in another method the warp is dyed and woven with a white wool or worsted filling1 and dyed in the piece with a dyestuff that will not affect the cotton4 ,in this way the cotton does not take the wool dye1 but retains its original color4 ,this class of work is generally used in mohair1 alpaca1 and luster fabrics1 because the natural brilliancy of the luster wool1 alpaca1 or mohair in the filling is not impaired as would be the case if the cotton in the goods were subjected to a cotton-dye bath after being woven4 ,the principal cloths in this classification are cotton1 warp figured melroses1 ,florentines1 glacs1 brilliantines1 lusters1 alpacas1 and mohairs2 rainproof cloths1 and fancy waistings1 and in these may be found the same great variety of weaves and patterns that is to be found in the piece-dyed goods already described4 ,yarn ,dyed4 ,yarn-dyed goods differ from those previously described in that they are made of yarns that are dyed before being woven1 or yarns spun from dyed wool4 ,wool may be dyed in the raw state 7fleece71 slubbing1 or yarn4 ,fleece dyeing is preferable for goods intended to stand friction1 and that in spite of wear and tear must preserve their color4 ,it is preferred for dark colored goods where much friction is to be encountered1 but is seldom used for light colors1 since these would be soiled during subsequent processes of manufacture4 ,in this case every fiber is colored uniformly all over4 ,the yarn from this wool and the cloth woven from it are dyed through and through and do not become grayish or whitish by wear and tear4 ,slubbing dyeing is preferred to yarn dyeing1 for the dyestuff penetrates the loosely twisted roving1 and if unevenly dyed1 the subsequent operations equalize most thoroughly the irregularities in color4 ,yarn dyeing is especially applicable to checks1 plaids1 and suitings1 and in their manufacture the drop box loom 7a loom with two or more shuttles7 is used4 ,goods manufactured under this classification include cotton warp checks and mixtures2 all wool homespuns1 mixture coatings and suitings1 storm skirtings1 rainproof cloths4 ,these goods are made in a great variety of weaves1 the effect in each being secured by the color and the weave4 ,piece-dyed fabrics may be distinguished from yarn-dyed fabrics by unraveling threads of each kind4 ,in the case of yarn-dyed fabrics the dyestuff has penetrated through the yarn1 while in the case of piece-dyed fabrics the dyestuff has no chance to penetrate as completely as the yarn-dyed fabric4 ,textile ,printing4 ,printed fabrics such as print cloths can generally be distinguished by observing the back side of the cloth4 ,if the figure or pattern on the face of the cloth does not penetrate through to the back but only shows the outline1 the fabric has been printed4 ,fabrics are printed by coming into contact with rotating rollers on which the pattern is engraved4 ,the attraction of cotton for coloring is generally feebler than that of wool or silk4 ,few of the natural dyestuffs attach themselves permanently without use of a mordant4 ,a mordant is a substance which has an affinity for1 or which can penetrate1 the fiber to be colored1 and which possesses the power of combining with the dyestuff and thus forming an insoluble compound upon the fiber4 ,cotton is dyed in an unspun state1 and also as yarn or spun thread1 either in the hank or skein4 ,silk is dyed in unspun skeins1 although to a considerable extent it is also dyed in the piece4 ,styles4 ,since styles and designs are constantly changing it is necessary for the mills to meet this demand by producing new styles4 ,some of the patterns which are at this time considered to be in the best style would have appeared much out of date two or three years ago1 while perhaps a few years hence1 the patterns which are now almost obsolete will1 with some changes1 become the most popular sellers of the season4 ,as the mill officials or designers are not out among the trade1 they are not in a position to judge what lines or patterns would most likely appeal to the market4 ,this information is obtained by the styler of the selling house4 ,the styler receives all the latest foreign samples and fashion papers from abroad1 and often goes or sends his representative to ,europe to ascertain what goods1 designs1 and colors are taking well over there4 ,the selling agent or styler then supplies the designing department of the mill with all the samples1 information1 and suggestions necessary in getting out the samples4 ,construction of ,cloth4 ,in reproducing a sample of cloth in the mill it is necessary that the construction of the cloth be first known1 that is1 there must be ascertained the width1 warp ends1 and picks per inch1 the number or size of the yarn used for the warp1 the number that is used for the filling1 and the number of ounces per yard or yards per pound4 ,then the interlacings of the threads in the sample must be picked out in order to get the design or weave on the design paper1 from which the data are obtained for regulating the movement of the harness or heddles4 ,design paper is paper ruled by lines into a number of squares4 ,an imitation of the cloth can be produced on this paper by showing the interlacings of the warp and filling4 ,this is done by filling in certain squares with paint1 or pencil marks1 while the others are left empty4 ,in practical work it is the general custom to make a cross with a pencil to indicate the squares that are to be filled in1 thus showing that the warp thread is over the filling thread at this point4 ,when a square is left blank it shows that the warp thread is under the filling at this point4 ,when a warp thread is up on a certain pick1 the harness which controls this thread must be raised on this pick4 ,finishing4 ,the fabric as it comes from the loom is in an imperfect condition for use4 ,when worsted fabrics leave the loom they require but few and simple finishing operations1 and in this respect differ much from woolen cloths1 which require elaborate finishing operations4 ,the finishing processes of woolen and worsted cloths are similar4 ,the following description of processes and machines gives a clear idea of the necessary finishing processes for a standard woolen or worsted cloth2 for particular styles of finish the processes must be varied in accordance with the particular requirements of the style of fabric in hand4 ,perching4 ,the fabric as it comes from the loom receives a perching and measuring inspection at the weave room before leaving for the finishing room4 ,this examination is to detect quickly such imperfections as require prompt attention at the loom4 ,burling4 ,every knot that has been tied in the threads during winding1 dressing1 beaming1 and weaving1 must be looked for and felt for during burling1 carefully drawn to the surface of the cloth1 and then clipped off with the scissors1 leaving the ends long enough so that no space without a thread will occur4 ,threads which are found loose on the face or back of cloth1 caused by the weaver having tied in a broken end1 should be cut off and not pulled off4 ,all places where threads are not woven in are marked so that the sewing-in girl 7mender7 can adjust such places4 ,the cloth is subjected to perching again4 ,it is examined for imperfections1 and when these are found1 they are marked with chalk to call the attention of the menders to such places4 ,mending4 ,the object of darning or mending is to make all repairs in the structure of the cloth before the process of fulling4 ,the mender must have a good eye for colors necessary to produce various effects and for the interlacing of the threads4 ,more exact work is required for threadbare fabrics that require little if any finishing afterward1 than in dealing with a face finish fabric1 where the nap is to be raised and will cover many imperfections so that they will never be noticed in the finished cloth4 ,fulling4 ,the object of fulling is to render woolen and worsted goods stronger and firmer in body4 ,fulling is similar to felting1 the principal object of each being to condense the fibers1 thereby increasing the firmness4 ,certain varieties of woolens are fulled nearly one-half their original width and length4 ,the process of fulling includes three steps3 cleansing1 scouring1 and condensing the fibers of the cloth4 ,the object of scouring is to get rid of oil used preparatory to spinning1 and to remove from the cloth stains and the sizing used in dressing the warp4 ,the cloth is first saturated with hot water and soap1 and is then scoured and rubbed between the slow-revolving rollers of the machine from two to eighteen hours1 according to the character of goods and the amount of shrinkage desired4 ,the more prolonged the operation1 the more the material shrinks4 ,when sufficiently fulled1 the length of cloth is scoured to free it from soap4 ,this is done with water1 warmed at first1 but gradually cooled1 until at the end the cloth is worked in cold water4 ,next the cloth is stretched uniformly in all directions1 so that it may dry evenly without wrinkles or curls4 ,sometimes the cloth is placed in a hot-air chamber to hasten the drying4 ,the fulling or shrinking is effected by the application of moisture1 heat1 and pressure4 ,every one is familiar with the fact that woolen blankets1 flannels1 and hosiery tend to contract with frequent washings1 gaining in thickness and solidity what they lose in elasticity4 ,such shrinkage is greatly hastened when they are rubbed vigorously in hot water and then allowed to cool suddenly4 ,this change is due to the physical properties of the wool fiber4 ,such goods as beavers1 kerseys1 meltons1 and fancy cassimeres are seldom fulled more than one-sixth of their woven width1 while worsted goods are shrunk but a small fraction of their woven width4 ,the amount of fulling received is the distinguishing feature of many varieties of cloth4 ,in the treatment of broadcloth1 doeskin1 and all nap finished woolens1 the fulling is carried to a point where the fibers become densely matted1 obliterating all traces of the weave and giving the cloth the appearance of felt4 ,crabbing4 ,after the cloth has been dried in the hydro extractor1 where it throws off superfluous moisture1 it must be stretched full width for the future finishing processes1 and set at this width4 ,crabbing consists of two operations1 first the loosening process1 then the setting process4 ,goods are run on a cylinder1 then passed over several rolls1 and are kept tight so as to avoid wrinkles4 ,the cylinders are immersed in hot water and the goods are allowed to rotate in this water for about twenty minutes1 after which they are taken out for one or two hours4 ,they are then returned to the machine for about twenty-five minutes and are subjected to boiling and also to additional pressure4 ,the boiling water sets the fabric and the additional pressure gives the desired finish4 ,tentering4 ,the object of tentering#ad is to straighten and level the fabric4 ,after the cloth leaves the tentering machine it has lost its natural moisture1 and is not at all fitted1 as far as fiber condition is concerned1 for the napping4 ,to bring it into a fit state for this operation it is passed through a trough containing a brush which gives it the desired moisture4 ,it is then ready for napping4 ,napping4 ,most cloths at this stage of finishing are more or less unsightly on account of long and irregular fibers on the surface4 ,a nap may be raised on the surface of a fabric for various reasons3 in order to render the material warmer1 softer1 or more pleasant to the touch1 as in the case of blankets and flannels intended to be worn next to the body2 or for the purposes of increasing the durability of the fabric1 as in the case of melton1 kersey1 broadcloth1 and similar goods2 or a nap may be raised with a view to removing all the fiber from the underlying structure in order to leave the pattern of the cloth well defined and free from hairiness4 ,the covering of nap over the surface of the fabric tends to conceal many defects caused by imperfect yarns and faulty weaving4 ,coarse1 inferior yarns at best produce an unsightly fabric1 but when the cloth constructed of such threads is finished with a fine1 delicate nap the surface takes on a softer and richer appearance4 ,not only are the defects in the structure concealed1 but the material is rendered more sightly and desirable and appears to be more expensive than it really is4 ,the operation of napping is performed by passing the cloth in a tightly stretched condition over a revolving cylinder covered with teasels or steel hooks4 ,these thousands of little hooks scratch the entire surface of the cloth1 opening up the short fibers and covering the whole with a nap4 ,since the fibers are of different lengths it is necessary to brush the fabric vigorously and then pass it through the shearing machine in order to make an even and uniform length4 ,the shearing machine acts on the principle of the lawn mower and either cuts the nap completely or leaves a pile surface4 ,the cloth is cleaned by passing through a brushing machine4 ,pressing ,machine4 ,the fabric now requires consolidating and lustering1 or smarting up in appearance--practically pressing--before it is forwarded to the warehouse4 ,this is done by passing the cloth over a pressing roll heated to a high temperature4 ,having obtained a satisfactory luster1 it is necessary to fix this by winding the cloth on rollers and allowing dry steam to pass through the piece4 ,this fixes a permanent luster and finish on the piece and sets it so as to prevent shrinkage4 ,the cloth is now packed and sent to the jobbers or tailors to be cut up into suits4 ,theories of ,coloring in ,textile ,design4 ,the three primary elements of textile design are weave1 combination of form1 and blend of colors4 ,they enter either separately or in connection with each other into every species of loom effect4 ,weave relates specifically to the build or structure of the cloth and is an indispensable factor in any type of cloth4 ,schemes of weaves will produce in one operation an even and firm cloth1 decorated with a type of pattern that usually consists of minute parts but which is pronounced and decided in combination4 ,combination of forms is a surface decoration obtained by uniting straight and curved lines4 ,color brightens and improves the qualities of the design4 ,in fact1 the discarding of color shades would diminish the elegance of the design and impoverish its appearance and would practically destroy the woolen industry4 ,whether the pattern be stripe1 check1 figure1 or intermingled effect1 it obtains its outline and detail from methods of coloring adopted4 ,in worsted there is a larger diversity of weave design than in woolen2 but still colors are very extensively employed to develop effects due to weave and form1 and also to impart a cheerful and lustrous appearance to cloth4 ,patterns in dress fabrics1 shirtings1 and other articles made entirely of cotton are frequently mere combinations of fancy shades1 while fabrics composed of silk and jute materials1 including silk ties1 handkerchiefs1 etc4--in fact the cloths in which fancy shades are used--show that coloring and its combinations in all woven product embellished with design1 are elements which give tone and character to the styles4 ,though the cloth may be soft to the touch1 substantially made1 of uniform structure1 and skilfully finished1 yet a lack of brightness and elegance in coloring so powerfully detracts from the appearance of the pattern that these qualities alone are not sufficient4 ,on subjecting cotton1 silk1 wool1 and worsted goods to inspection1 color is found to have a different tone or cast in each fabric4 ,fancy colors in cotton1 while decidedly firm and clear in effect1 are non-lustrous1 raw1 and dull in toning4 ,silk colorings1 on the contrary1 possess both compactness and brilliancy2 woolen colorings have a unique depth and saturation of hue characteristic of the material employed in the manufacture of woolen goods2 while worsted colorings are bright1 definite1 and smart in appearance4 ,these differences are due to the physical properties of the several fibers4 ,thus a filament of silk is transparent and shines like smooth glass when light falls upon it2 that of wool is solid and opaque in the center1 but its exterior consists of a multitude of semi-transparent scales which1 when of large dimensions and uniformly arranged--as in the best qualities of wool--reflect light with a small amount of dispersion and impart to the woven material a lustrous aspect4 ,cotton has no such partially transparent sheath4 ,what light is reflected is so broken up that the color is poor4 ,compare three plain woven crimson textures made of silk1 wool1 and cotton respectively4 ,the first literally shines2 luster1 brilliance1 and richness are the elements of its coloring4 ,though bright1 it lacks that fulness and depth of color which belongs to the wool product1 whose millions of filaments1 closely compounded1 all tinted alike1 possess a peculiar bloom and weight of color not to be found either in the silk or cotton article4 ,lastly1 take the crimson calico4 ,how deficient in warmth and richness it seems to be1 after examining the woolen and silk texture6 ,it is dull and has a raw and deficient character4 ,the various methods of employing fancy shades in patterns obtained in the loom may be briefly summarized3 ,i4 ,in mixture cloths1 for suitings1 coatings1 etc4 a4 ,by combining or blending various colors of materials4 b4 ,by combining several classes of twist threads4 ,,ii4 ,in plain1 twilled1 mat1 and fancy weave designs for trouserings1 coatings1 suitings1 jackets1 dresses1 costumes1 flannels1 shirtings1 etc4 a4 ,by introducing colors into the warp1 forming stripes4 b4 ,by introducing colors into the filling1 producing spotted patterns4 c4 ,by introducing colors into both warp and filling1 giving checks1 broken styles1 etc4 ,,iii4 ,in figured designs for dresses1 vestings1 etc4 a4 ,by using one or several series of extra warp yarn4 b4 ,by using one or several series of extra filling4 ,dress goods fall naturally into two distinct classes when regarded from the standpoint of fashion--staples and fancies4 ,staples are those fabrics which are made of the same construction year in and year out4 ,they vary only in coloring to meet the changes of fashion4 ,the ,staples are3 ,brilliantines1 ,sicilians1 ,mohairs1 ,imperial ,serges1 ,storm ,serge1 ,cheviots1 ,panamas1 ,batistes1 ,taffetas1 ,voile1 ,nun's ,veiling1 ,cashmere1 ,shepherd ,checks4 ,the ,fancies are3 ,produced through ,variation of weave1 ,variation of color1 ,variation of color and weave3 ,brocades1 ,cuspettes1 ,meliores1 ,hopsacking1 etc4 ,coloring includes3 ,stripes1 ,checks1 ,plaids1 ,malenges1 ,mixtures4 ,prior to the factory era our fathers and mothers made homespun clothes and wore them till they had passed their period of usefulness4 ,the average consumption of wool at that time averaged not more than three pounds per capita4 ,as wealth increased the home loom and spinning-wheel were slowly supplanted by the mill and factory4 ,the different textile manufacturers at length found that competition was so keen that it was necessary to adulterate1 particularly any fabric that was popular4 ,the classes of goods that are most adulterated are the expensive fabrics1 those of wool and silk4 ,there are such changes of fashion in dress at the present day that garments composed of materials formerly considered good enough are often thrown aside as old-fashioned when only half worn4 ,manufacturers cater to the whims and fancies of people and import to this country foreign styles4 ,the rapidly changing styles cause people to throw upon the market a great amount of cast-off clothing only partially worn4 ,illustration3 ,,sales ,,department ,,of ,,the ,,selling ,,agent ,,of ,a ,,large ,,mill ,the result is that there is not wool enough to provide the public with clothing made of new wool4 ,the requirement per capita has risen to six pounds4 ,the immense amount of fiber in cast-off clothing does not find its way into the paper mills1 but rather into the shoddy mill1 where it is remanufactured into cloth again1 or where part of the fiber is mixed with good wool to make pure wool cloth4 ,in other words1 the rapidly changing styles of to-day and the limited supply of wool are responsible for the wholesale adulteration which is being practised in modern cloth manufacture4 ,this adulteration furthermore is becoming more and more difficult to detect by reason of the rapid improvements made in the finishing processes of cloth manufacture4 ,hence the necessity for people to know how and why adulteration occurs1 how it affects prices1 and what are the means of detecting it4 ,shoddy is considered a legitimate adulteration in woolen and worsted goods4 ,the following adulterations are not legitimate unless sold as such3 #a4 ,cotton combed with wool4 #b4 ,thin cotton threads twisted in with worsted during the process of drawing4 #c4 ,cotton threads of the same color as the wool or worsted used as filling or warp4 #d4 ,cotton veneered with wool4 #e4 ,cotton threads of the same color as wool used in weaving4 ,,footnote3 #ad ,tentering is carried on in the ,english mills4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,woolen ,,and ,,worsted ,,fabrics#ae ,albatross4 ,a dress fabric of worsted warp and worsted filling2 of open texture and fancy weaves4 ,alpaca4 ,a thin fabric of close texture made from the fibers of an animal of the llama species2 mixed with silk or with cotton4 ,it is usually woven with cotton warp and mohair filling4 ,imitations of all cotton are manufactured and sold under this name4 ,corded ,alpaca4 ,corded weave1 lengthwise of the piece1 cotton warp alpaca filling2 one of the first products of the ,american loom4 ,angora4 ,the fiber of this goat is commercially known as mohair4 ,the skins are largely used in the making of children's muffs1 for the scalps of dolls1 and for trimming coats and capes4 ,carriage robes also claim a good share of the skins2 the hair1 being nearly one foot in length1 makes them beautiful and serviceable4 ,the fiber enters largely into that class of goods known as ,astrakhan1 ,crepons1 ,plushes1 ,brilliantines1 ,zibelines1 fine ,cashmeres1 and many other fabrics usually sold as all wool or worsted1 according to the mode of preparing the stock before spinning into yarn4 ,it is found in the finest of silk and worsted fabrics for ladies' wear1 also in linings1 mittens1 and fine cloaking and overcoating4 ,it is noted especially for its water repelling qualities1 its beauty1 and high luster2 and not so much for its warmth-retaining properties1 for which wool stands unequalled4 ,astrakhan4 ,a fabric manufactured from ,astrakhan fiber2 of a curly1 wavy surface applied to a curly faced cloth resembling ,astrakhan fleece4 ,bandanna4 ,from the ,indian bandanna1 to bind or tie4 ,in dyeing1 the cloth is tied in knots when dipped1 and thus has a clouded effect4 ,beaver4 ,a heavy cloth manufactured of fine wool1 with a finish on the surface to resemble the fur of the animal by that name4 ,fur ,beaver4 ,similar in many respects to ,beaver1 but having on its surface a long1 dense nap1 in imitation of the fur of the ,beaver4 ,used for overcoats1 cloaks1 and capes4 ,bedford ,cord4 ,a fine woolen fabric1 with fine recesses running with the piece1 and extensively used for ladies' dress goods4 ,an all wool cloth of close texture for gentlemen's clothing4 ,the recesses may also be made with fine cotton yarn hidden in the wool filling4 ,beige4 ,cloth of undyed or natural wool4 ,the name is the ,french word for natural4 ,bindings4 ,a species of narrow fabric of silk1 worsted or cotton1 for binding the edges of garments1 the bottom of dress skirts1 etc4 ,bombazine4 ,a twilled fabric of which the warp is silk and the filling is worsted4 ,bottany4 ,a term applied to worsted yarns made from bottany wool4 ,it is considered the finest of all worsted yarns1 and is used for fine fabrics of close texture4 ,boucle4 ,curled hair or wool woven in any cloth in such a way as to show the curl makes boucle4 ,the word is ,french for curl4 ,broadcloth4 ,broadcloth is a soft1 closely woven material with a satin finish4 ,the best qualities are called satin broadcloth4 ,the origin of broadcloth dates back to early times1 the first historical mention of it being made in #afda4 ,in ,america1 among the first products manufactured by the colonial woolen mills were black and colored broadcloths1 and these 7with satinets7 formed the distinctive character of ,american woolen fabrics at that time4 ,they were honestly made of pure1 fine-fibered ,saxony wool1 and sold as high as #f4ej per yard4 ,the warp and filling are made of carded wool so that the web 7cloth7 will shrink or full evenly4 ,the stock is generally dyed in the raw state when used for men's wear4 ,when taken from the loom it does not have the smooth1 lustrous appearance which is its distinctive feature4 ,it is rough and dull colored1 with the threads showing plainly4 ,to improve its appearance it is first subjected to the action of the fulling mill1 with the result that the fibers of the warp and weft become entangled to such an extent that the cloth never unravels4 ,then the cloth is slightly napped and sheared down close1 in order to produce a smooth1 even surface4 ,next it is successively wetted1 steamed1 calendered1 and hot pressed for the purpose of bringing out the luster4 ,it is commonly twill woven1 but is sometimes plain1 finished with a slightly napped and lustrous face4 ,it must have a bright1 beaver finish1 and be close and felty in the weave4 ,the broadcloth used for women's clothing is of a lighter weight and is generally piece dyed4 ,it is used for ladies' suits1 coats1 and gentlemen's evening dress suits1 frock coats1 and tuxedos4 ,it is expensive2 prices range from #a4ge to #c4ej per yard in ladies' broadcloth1 and higher for men4 ,the price depends on the quality of wool used1 and uniformity of the nap and perfection of the finish4 ,bunting4 ,a plain even thread weave of mohair1 wool1 or worsted1 used mostly for making flags4 ,the name is from ,german1 bunt1 meaning variegated or gay colored4 ,caniche4 ,a name given to curled wool fabric showing the effect of the coat of the caniche1 a ,french dog4 ,cashmere4 ,a cloth made from the hair of the ,cashmere goat4 ,the face of the fabric is twilled1 the twills being uneven and irregular because of the unevenness of the yarn4 ,cashmere yarn was first hand spun4 ,the goats are grown for their wool in the vale of ,cashmere in the ,himalaya ,mountains4 ,all ,wool ,cashmere4 ,as no material by this name exists there can be no definition4 ,when the term is used in defining a fabric1 it is a delusion and a snare4 ,cashmere ,double4 ,a cloth having ,cashmere twill on one side or face and poplin cord on the reverse4 ,cassimere4 ,the name is a variation of ,cashmere4 ,cassimere1 when properly made1 is of ,cashmere wool4 ,usually a twill weave4 ,castor4 ,same as beaver1 of a light weight4 ,challis4 7,also spelled challie47 ,a name given to a superior dress fabric of silk and wool first manufactured at ,norwich1 ,england1 in #ahcb4 ,in texture the original material was soft1 thin1 fine1 and finished without gloss4 ,when first introduced it ranked among the best and most elegant silk and wool textures manufactured4 ,it was composed of fine materials1 and instead of giving it a glossy surface1 such as is usually produced from silk and fine wool1 the object was to make it without luster4 ,the name is now applied to an extremely light weight summer dress fabric1 composed of either cotton or wool1 or a mixture of these fabrics4 ,in structure it is both plain woven and figured1 the ornamental patterns being produced either in the loom or yarn1 dyed or printed4 ,it is not sized4 ,all wool challis does not differ essentially from the old-fashioned muslin delaine4 ,most challis patterns are copied from the ,french silks1 and this accounts in part for their tasteful designs and artistic effects4 ,french challis is a material similar to the above1 though usually characterized by a more glossy finish4 ,cheviot4 ,a descriptive term of somewhat loose application1 being used indiscriminately of late years to denote almost any sort of stout woolen cloth finished with a rough and shaggy surface4 ,originally the fabric known as cheviot was woven in ,england1 from the strong1 coarse wool of the ,cheviot sheep1 whence the name4 ,it is at present a worsted or woolen fabric made of cheviot or pulled wool1 slightly felted1 with a short even nap on the surface and a supple feel4 ,worsted cheviots1 in plain colorings or of fancy effects1 are manufactured from combed yarn4 ,woolen cheviots are made from carded yarn4 ,the greater portion of this class of goods in carded yarns contains little or no new wool in its make-up4 ,shoddy1 mungo1 and a liberal mixture of cotton to hold it together1 blended in the many colorings1 help to cover the deception4 ,prices range from #ej cents to #c4jj4 ,the material is plain or twill woven1 and has many of the qualities of serge4 ,the distinguishing feature of cheviot1 whatever the grade of cloth1 is the finish1 of which there are two kinds4 ,one is known as the rough finish1 and the other as the close finish4 ,real cheviot is a rough-finished fabric1 composed of a strong1 coarse wool and fulled to a considerable degree4 ,the process of finishing cheviot is simple1 and practically the same methods are followed for both the rough and the close styles4 ,on leaving the loom the cloth is first washed in soap and water to remove any dirt or other foreign matter it may contain4 ,it is then fulled1 which consists in shrinking the cloth both in length and breadth1 thus rendering the texture heavier and denser4 ,next it is gigged or napped4 ,this is accomplished by passing the face of the matted cloth against a cylinder covered with sharp pointed teasels which draw out the fibers from the yarn4 ,this operation is continued until a nap more or less dense is raised over the entire surface4 ,from the gig the cloth is taken to the shearing machine1 the revolving blades of which cut the long1 irregular nap down to a uniform level4 ,sometimes the style of finish called for is that approaching a threadbare cassimere1 and in this case great care is necessary to prevent the blades from cutting the yarn4 ,in the rough finish the nap1 although sparingly raised1 is comparatively long4 ,having been napped and sheared1 the cloth is pressed and carefully examined for defects1 then brushed1 pressed1 and highly steamed4 ,when measured1 rolled1 and steamed1 it is ready for market1 and is used mostly for ladies' and gentlemen's suitings4 ,the pattern and design are light stripes and checks of small dimensions4 ,cheviot is a name given to many materials used for suiting4 ,chinchilla4 ,heavy coating with rough wavy face4 ,the name is ,spanish for a fur-bearing animal of the mink species4 ,chudah4 ,applied to billiard cloth2 relates to color4 ,chudah is the ,hindoo name of a bright green cloth4 ,corduroy4 ,heavy corded cotton material used for servants' livery4 ,the name is from the ,french ,corde du ,roi--king's cords4 ,cte ,cheval4 ,in ,france corded cloth for riding costumes1 such as ,bedford cord1 is called cte cheval1 the application being through cheval1 horse2 cte1 ribbed or lined4 ,coupure4 ,coupure is ,french for cut through4 ,coupure or cut cashmere is a cashmere weave showing lines cut through the twills lengthwise of the piece4 ,covert4 ,heavy twilled cloth in natural undyed shades1 used in ,england for men's overcoats worn while riding to covert in fox hunting4 ,delaine4 ,from the ,french of wool2 applies to the most primitive weave of plain wool yarn4 ,thirty years ago delaine was the staple dress goods stock4 ,it was made in solid colors4 ,diagonal ,cheviot4 ,same as cheviot1 only in the weaving the pattern is marked by zigzag lines or stripes4 ,doeskin4 ,of the broadcloth range1 made with shiny napped face1 soft finish1 as the pelt of a doe4 ,drap d't4 ,a heavy cashmere or double warp merino1 with the back teasled or scratched1 used mostly for clergymen's clothing and in lighter weights for women's dresses4 ,the name is ,french for cloth of summer4 ,empress ,cloth4 ,similar to poplin2 made of hard twisted worsted filling and cotton warp4 ,was made a success in the early seventies of the last century by the ,empress ,eugenie of ,france4 ,empress cloth was a staple in all well-regulated dress goods lines4 pingline4 ,a fine corded fabric of wool or silk1 showing the cords woven close together and appearing as if lined with a pin point4 ,this application is from pingle1 ,french for pin4 ,etamine4 ,french name for bolting or sifting cloth1 made of silk for sifting flour2 applied to mesh or net weaves in ,america4 ,felt4 ,fabric made by rolling or pressing a pulpy mass or mixture of wool into a flat mat4 ,the name is from the process4 ,to felt is to mix and press into shape4 ,flannel4 ,wales appears to have been the original home of flannel1 and history informs us that this was the only textile produced in that country for hundreds of years4 ,it is constructed either of cotton or wool1 or of an intermixture of these fibers1 and is a coarse-threaded1 loosely woven1 light-weight fabric1 more or less spongy and elastic1 with an unfinished1 lusterless surface4 ,generally speaking all grades of plain colored flannel are piece dyed1 the soft open texture of the goods permitting the fibers to absorb the dye as readily in the web as in the yarn4 ,flannels are subjected to several finishing operations1 such as fulling1 teaseling1 pressing1 and stretching4 ,flannels do not require a great deal of fulling4 ,all that is necessary is enough to give a degree of stability and body to the goods4 ,dress ,flannel4 ,all wool fabric used chiefly for women's winter dresses2 also called flannel suiting4 ,it has a diversity of qualities1 colors1 and styles of finish4 ,it is commonly put up in double fold1 width from twenty-six to fifty inches4 ,french ,flannel4 ,a fine1 soft twill1 woven variety dyed in solid shades1 and also printed with patterns after the manner of calico2 used for morning gowns1 dressing sacques1 waists1 etc4 ,shaker ,flannel4 ,a variety of white flannel finished with considerable nap1 composed of cotton warp and woolen weft4 ,indigo ,blue4 ,a superior all wool grade used in the manufacture of men's suits and particularly for the uniform of members of the ,g4 ,a4 ,r4 ,mackinaw4 ,the name applied to an extra heavy blanket-like material used in cold climates by miners and lumbermen for shirts and underwear4 ,navy ,twilled ,flannel4 ,a heavy all wool variety commonly dyed indigo blue1 commonly used in the manufacture of overshirts for out-door laborers1 firemen1 sailors1 and miners4 ,silk ,warp ,flannel4 ,a high grade1 pure variety of flannel woven with a silk warp and a fine woolen weft4 ,it is a very soft1 light-weight1 loosely woven flannel and runs only in narrow widths1 twenty-seven inches4 ,if the finishing process is carried beyond fulling the texture is rendered hard and firm1 the cloth thus losing its softness and elasticity4 ,in the teaseling process it is necessary for the nap to be raised only slightly1 and this is commonly done in the direction of the grain or twist of the warp4 ,the perfection of a flannel finish lies not in the smooth appearance of the cloth1 but in its full1 rich softness4 ,sometimes the nap is sheared1 but more often it is pressed down flat upon the face of the cloth4 ,after a thorough drying1 and careful examination for defects1 the goods are rolled on boards1 and are ready for market4 ,it is used for infants' wear and shawls1 for undergarments1 bed coverings1 and also to some extent for outer garments in weights and styles adapted for that purpose4 ,baby ,flannel4 ,a very light-weight variety woven of fine1 soft wool1 smooth finish1 bleached pure white4 ,florentine4 ,a heavy twilled mohair fabric for men's wear which is sold largely to ,italy and ,spain4 ,the name is from ,florence1 ,italy4 ,foule4 ,a twilled1 unsheared cloth2 that is1 the face appears to be unsinged1 and shows the woolly roughness in a slight degree4 ,the cloth when woven in the gray is fulled or shrunken in width by soaking in soapsuds and passing it while wet through holes of different sizes in a steel plate4 ,the name is from fouler1 ,french1 to full or shrink4 ,frieze4 ,frieze is a coarse1 heavy cloth with a curly surface and made at first of lamb's wool4 ,it is now made from coarse grades of wool4 ,it is thick and heavily napped1 and is used in the manufacture of warm outer garments1 particularly for men's wear4 ,it was named after the people of ,friesland in ,holland in the #acth century1 and is famous to-day as an ,irish fabric4 ,irish frieze has extraordinary durability1 and the fibers are the longest and strongest made4 ,the weave is plain1 small twill1 or herring bone4 ,when not of a solid color it is usually a mixture1 the colors being mixed in the raw state4 ,the wool is dyed in the raw state in mass1 then doubled after spinning4 ,gloria4 ,plain weave of silk and wool1 and silk and cotton2 first made for umbrella covering4 ,name means bright4 ,granada4 ,popular weave of mohair1 made in coating weight for ,spanish trade4 ,granada is a city in ,spain4 ,grenadine4 ,originally a plain1 openwork1 net-like fabric of silk1 mohair1 cotton1 or wool4 ,we have grenadines in ,jacquards and in set patterns4 ,the name is an adaptation of ,granada4 ,henrietta ,cloth4 ,a twilled cashmere of light weight and high finish1 originally made with silk warp and wool filling in ,yorkshire1 ,england4 ,the name was given in honor of ,henrietta ,maria of ,england1 ,queen of ,charles ,i4 ,the silk warp1 hand-woven fabric was first produced about the year #affj4 ,homespun4 ,a rough1 loosely woven material made from coarse yarn4 ,it is soft but rather clumsy4 ,a general term used to designate cloth spun or wrought at home4 ,the homespun of the present day is a woolen fabric in imitation of those fabrics made by hand before the introduction of textile machinery4 ,it is made of a coarse1 rough1 and uneven thread2 usually of plain weave and no felting4 ,it was woven by the early settlers of the ,eastern and ,southern ,states4 ,it is now used as woolen suiting for men's wear and in various kinds of coarse1 spongy1 shaggy cloth for women's gowns4 ,hop ,sacking4 ,a coarse bagging made commonly of a combination of hemp and jute1 used for holding hops during transportation4 ,the name hop sacking is also applied to a variety of woolen dress goods made from different classes of yarn4 ,it is made of carded woolen fabric of the plainest kind4 ,the cloth is characterized by an open weave1 and a square check-like mesh1 the structure being designed to imitate that of the coarse jute bagging4 ,it has very little finish1 is usually dyed in solid colors1 and is used for women's and children's dresses4 ,jeans4 ,cotton or woolen coarse twilled fabric4 ,in cotton used for linings1 in wool for men's cheap clothing4 ,the name is from a ,genoese coin1 relating to the price of the cloth2 so much for one jean4 ,kersey4 ,a very heavy1 felted1 satin finish woolen cloth made with the cotton weave or cross twill for face1 and cotton weave or four harness satin for back4 ,it was originally made with fine ,merino lamb's wool for face1 and somewhat coarser grade for back4 ,the cheaper grades are manufactured from a fine-fibered wool and shoddy1 with low grades of shoddy and mungo for back4 ,it is named from an ,english town1 ,kersey1 where from the eleventh to the fifteenth century a large woolen trade was carried on4 ,the ,kersey of early history was a coarse cloth1 known under different names1 and before knitting was used for stockings4 ,in the construction of ,kersey the cloth is woven a few inches wider in the loom 7and correspondingly longer7 than it is to appear in the finished state4 ,this is done in order that the meshes may be closed up in the fulling mill to insure a covering of threads4 ,previous to fulling1 however1 the face of the cloth is gigged to produce a good covering for the threads by forming a light nap1 which is fitted in4 ,in the fulling operation1 which comes next1 the cloth is shrunk to its proper width and density1 usually to a degree rendering it difficult to see the individual warp and filling threads1 so closely are they matted together4 ,fulling is followed by gigging1 and in this process a nap more or less heavy is raised on the face of the goods by means of teasels4 ,the cloth is run through the gig several times and then sheared in order to render the fibers forming the nap short1 even1 and of uniform length4 ,great care is exercised in the shearing1 as the nap must be cropped quite close and yet not expose the threads or cut the face4 ,the next operation is scouring or steaming1 in which live steam is forced through every part of the goods for the purpose of developing the natural luster of the wool4 ,in case the goods are to be piece dyed1 the dyeing follows scouring4 ,after steaming1 the cloth is thoroughly matted and gigged again1 care being taken to avoid stirring up the ground nap4 ,it is then dried and the nap briskly brushed in a steam brusher and laid evenly in one direction4 ,again the cloth is slightly steamed and primed1 face up4 ,the result of this treatment is the production of a texture firm1 yet pliable1 with a highly lustrous face and one not liable to wear rough or threadbare4 ,kersey is used for overcoats4 ,kerseymere4 ,light weight twilled worsted2 same derivative of name as ,kersey4 ,linsey ,woolsey4 ,coarse cloth of linen and wool used as skirtings by the ,british peasantry4 ,the name is from the components of the cloth4 ,melrose4 ,double twilled silk and wool fabric2 named for ,melrose1 a town on the ,tweed1 in ,scotland4 ,melton4 ,a thick1 heavy woolen fabric with short nap1 feeling somewhat rough4 ,meltons are made firm in the loom4 ,the weaves for single cloth meltons are usually plain1 and three or four harness twill4 ,for double cloths the plain weave is used1 or a weave with a plain face and a one-third weave on the back4 ,all trace of the weave is destroyed in the finishing4 ,the colors usually black or dark blue4 ,meltonette4 ,a cloth of the same general appearance as melton1 of light weight1 for women's wear4 ,merino4 ,a fabric woven of the wool of the ,merino sheep1 twilled on both sides1 the twill being uneven4 ,merino resembles cashmere4 ,mohair ,brilliantine4 ,a dress fabric resembling alpaca1 of superior quality1 and sometimes finished on both sides4 ,the name is from the ,arabic mukayyan1 cloth of goat's hair4 ,it is made from the long1 silky hair of the ,angora goat of ,asia ,minor1 a species which is being introduced into the ,united ,states4 ,the fabric has a hard1 wiry feel1 and if made from the pure material has a high luster4 ,it has cotton warp and luster worsted filling4 ,the weave is plain ground1 or with a small ,jacquard figure1 and when a very lustrous fabric is wanted1 the warp yarn is of finer counts than the filling yarn4 ,the warp and filling yarns are dyed previous to weaving4 ,they may be of the same color or different colors4 ,the contrast of colors in connection with the weave gives the fabric a pretty effect4 ,fabrics made with dyed yarns are usually given a dry finish1 that is1 simply run through the press and cylinder heated1 after which they are rolled and then packed4 ,those made with undyed filling are first scoured1 then dyed1 after which they are run through a rotary press with fifty or sixty pounds of steam heat4 ,mohair brilliantine is used for dress goods4 ,montagnac is heavy overcoating4 ,the ,french montagne1 for mountain1 is the origin of the name1 being for mountain wear4 ,orleans4 ,cloth of cotton warp and bright wool fulling1 made in ,orleans1 ,france4 ,many of the so-called alpacas and mohairs of to-day are ,orleans4 ,these fabrics are mostly cross-dyed1 that is1 fabrics with warp and filling of different shades4 ,after weaving they are cross-dyed or redyed to give solid colors and glac effects4 ,panama ,cloth is a plain weave worsted fabric of no uniform construction or finish4 ,fabrics sold under this name vary considerably4 ,they are of solid colors1 usually piece dyed1 and are used for suitings4 ,prunella4 ,from the ,french prunelle1 which means plum1 a stout worsted material named from its color1 which is a purplish shade similar to that of a ripe plum4 ,the name was originally applied to a kind of lasting of which clergymen's gowns were made4 ,it is now used to denote a variety of rich1 satin-faced worsted cloth employed for women's dresses4 ,the fibers are worsted4 ,prunella is dyed either in piece or yarn state and is hand finished4 ,sacking4 ,plain solid color flannel in special shades for women's dressing sacks1 also applied to a fabric made of hemp for grain sacks4 ,sanglier4 ,a plain fabric of wiry worsted or mohair yarn1 closely woven1 with a rough finished surface4 ,sanglier is ,french for wild boar1 the hairy1 wiry cloth resembling the coat of the animal4 ,sebastopol4 ,a twill-faced cloth named from ,sebastopol1 the ,russian fortified town captured by the ,english and ,french in #ahee4 ,serge4 ,under this name are classed a large number of fabrics of twill construction4 ,in weight and texture a modern serge resembles flannel1 except that it is twill woven and composed of fine yarn finished with a smoother surface4 ,serge comes from the ,italian word sergea1 meaning cloth of wool mixed with silk4 ,serges are woven of worsted1 of silk1 or of cotton yarn1 and variously dyed1 finished1 and ornamented1 as silk serge1 serge suiting1 storm serge1 mohair serge1 etc4 ,worsted serges of various kinds and degrees have been known since the twelfth century4 ,worsted serge appears to have come into general use as a material for men's wear in the sixteenth century4 ,modern serges vary but little from those made two centuries ago4 ,they are dyed in a great variety of colors4 ,on leaving the loom the cloth is washed and scoured with soap and water to remove the dirt and oil 7if these remain the cloth will not take the dye properly74 ,after dyeing1 it is passed through a pair of metal rollers under pressure1 which renders the surface more regular and even and of a better luster4 ,this process accomplishes more than is required1 for it produces a bloom on the surface which will show rain specks when in the garment1 if it is allowed to remain4 ,this is ordinary serge4 ,in order to make storm serge it is necessary to remove part of the bloom1 and to accomplish this the cloth is steamed sufficiently to neutralize the effect of pressing4 ,steaming deadens the bloom and prevents the effects of rain showing on the cloth4 ,the wearing qualities of serge are good1 but it gets a shine easily4 ,it is used for dress goods and suitings4 ,serge suiting used for men's clothing is a variety of light1 wiry1 worsted yarn woven with a flat twill1 and dyed black or in shades of blue1 fifty-four inches in width4 ,mohair serge is woven with a cotton warp and a mohair filling1 thirty-two inches in width4 ,this is dyed in a variety of colors and largely used as lining material for women's clothes1 men's coats1 and overcoats4 ,storm serge1 designed to withstand exposure to stormy weather1 is a coarse variety of worsted dress goods produced in a wide range of colors and qualities4 ,the twill is wider1 the texture stouter1 and the surface rougher and cleaner than that of ordinary serge4 ,iridescent serge is a variety of worsted dress goods woven with warp and filling of different colors1 causing a shimmering or iridescent effect4 ,cravenette serge is a fine twilled variety having a firm1 closely woven texture1 dyed black and in colors1 and is used for women's gowns1 men's summer suits1 etc4 ,serge de ,barry is a high-grade dress goods of fine texture1 with fine twill1 and wiry feel4 ,shoddy is made from old woolen stockings or rags1 shredded or picked by hand or machine1 to render the yarn suitable for spinning a second time1 or to give a fiber that can be woven or felted with a wool or cotton warp4 ,the name has come to mean cheap1 make-believe4 ,sicilian4 ,heavy weight cotton warp1 mohair filled cloth4 ,sicilienne1 the proper name1 was made in the ,island of ,sicily as a heavy ribbed1 all silk fabric4 ,sultane4 ,twilled cloth of silk and wool2 finished in the rough1 not singed or sheared4 ,the name is from ,sultana1 the first wife of the ,sultan4 ,tamise4 ,similar to etamine1 with a very close mesh1 made first of silk and wool4 ,tamis is ,french for sieve4 ,tartans4 ,plaids of the ,scottish clans worn by men in the ,highlands of ,scotland as a diagonal scarf1 fastened on one shoulder and crossing the body4 ,each clan had a distinctive tartan or plaid4 ,the name was adapted from the ,french tiretaine1 a thin woolen checked cloth4 ,thibet4 ,heavy1 coarse weave of goat's hair1 made by the ,thibetans in ,asia for men's wear4 ,tricot4 ,a heavy1 compound fabric characterized by a line effect running warp way or filling way of the piece1 usually produced with either woolen or worsted yarn4 ,tricot was originally a name given to fabrics made of woolen yarn or thread by hand knitting1 and is the ,french word meaning knitting4 ,the term was later applied to materials made on a knitting frame and now known as jersey cloth4 ,since #ahdj the name tricot has been applied to finely woven woolen cloth1 the weave of which is intended to imitate the face effect of a knitted fabric4 ,the fabric is composed of woolen and worsted fibers1 sometimes with cotton warp woven so as to hide the cotton in finishing4 ,the tricot line is similar to the rib line in a ribbed cloth except that it is not so pronounced4 ,all tricots are constructed with two sets of warp thread and are characterized by a texture which1 while dense1 is singularly elastic1 in this respect being somewhat similar to heavy jersey cloth4 ,tricots are commonly dyed in plain colors1 and are finished clear so as to show the filling4 ,when intended for trousers they are ornamented with small1 neat patterns4 ,tweed4 ,a rough unfinished fabric of soft1 open1 and flexible texture1 of wool or cotton and wool1 usually of yarn of two or more shades2 originally the product of the weavers on the bank of the river ,tweed in ,scotland4 ,the face of the cloth presents an unfinished appearance rather than a sharp and clearly defined pattern4 ,veiling includes light weight1 usually plain weave fabrics of various constructions2 generally made with singed or polished yarns4 ,they are in solid colors4 ,the use is designated by the name4 ,venetian4 ,venetian cloth has a worsted or cotton warp and worsted filling2 named from ,venetia1 a country around ,venice4 ,the warp yarns are firmly twisted1 the twist being in the opposite direction to the twist in the filling yarn4 ,venetian is a trade term of wide application1 in use since early times as a descriptive title for various fabrics1 textures1 and garments4 ,one of the many varieties is a species of twill weaving in which the lines or twills are of a rounded form and arranged in a more or less upright position1 hence a closely woven worsted cloth4 ,the name is also applied to other fabrics1 as a twilled lining fabric woven with a cotton warp and a worsted filling known as ,italian cloth4 ,it is dyed in plain colors and is piece or yarn dyed for men4 ,for women's wear it has light weight and plain colors with mixed effects and closely sheared nap4 ,it is finished smooth so as to show the yarns prominently4 ,venetian cloth has not so much felting as broadcloth2 it shows the weave more1 but has the same lustrous finish4 ,vigogne or ,vicua4 ,a soft wool cloth of the cheviot order1 with teasled face1 made from the wool of the vicua1 a ,south ,american animal4 ,vigogne is the ,french name for the animal4 ,vigoureux4 ,a name applied to a plain or twill mixture1 woven of undyed natural wool yarns4 ,the ,french spinners found that the strongest yarns were those of the undyed wool4 ,sometimes two or more shades or tones are spun into one thread4 ,the name is ,french for strong4 ,voiles4 ,voiles are plain weave worsted fabrics made with hard twisted yarns4 ,as clear a face as possible is secured in finishing1 the cloth being singed or sheared closely if the yarns are not made comparatively free from loose fibers before being woven4 ,voiles are dyed in solid colors1 and are used principally for dress goods4 ,whipcord4 ,hard twisted worsted twills1 either solid or mixed colors4 ,the name is from the hard twisted lash of a whip4 ,worsted ,diagonals are characterized by prominent weave effects running diagonally across the cloth4 ,the goods are usually of a solid color1 and are given a finish which brings the weave into prominence4 ,diagonals are used for suitings4 ,unfinished worsted is a fabric woven with yarn with very little twist in it1 and finished so as to make it appear covered with loose fibers1 concealing the twill effect4 ,after leaving the loom the cloth is placed in a fulling machine which condenses the fibers1 thus increasing the density4 ,it is then passed over hot presses after a slight shearing4 ,finished ,worsted is woven with yarn with a considerable twist1 and finished in such a way as to show the construction of the cloth clearly4 ,the finishing consists simply of scouring the cloth and not fulling it and then passing it through hot water baths between heavy rolls to remove all the soap4 ,it is then sheared and pressed4 ,zephyr4 ,light worsted yarn1 also light weight cotton gingham4 ,zephyr is ,greek for the light west wind4 ,zibeline4 ,a cloth manufactured with ,merino lamb's wool for warp1 and a light wool mixed with camel's hair for filling2 or1 worsted warp and camel's hair for filling2 or either of the foregoing warps and a mixture of wool1 camel's hair1 and fine cashmere for filling4 ,the long cashmere hair spreads over the surface4 ,used for ladies' tailor-made coats or suits1 according to weight4 ,the name is derived from the ,latin word sabellum1 meaning sable1 and was applied originally to a variety of long-haired fur generally thought to be the same as sable4 ,zibeline has long hairs on its right side1 some grades being almost like fur4 ,,footnote3 #ae ,,suggestions ,,to ,,teachers4 ,in connection with the study of fabrics the author has found it advisable to have the pupils insert in a blank book a sample of the fabric they are studying4 ,in this way the pupil can examine both the filling 7weft7 and warp threads4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,cotton ,cotton4 ,cotton is the most important vegetable fiber used in spinning4 ,the cotton fiber is a soft1 downy substance which grows around the cotton seed4 ,when examined under the microscope it appears as a long twisted cell4 ,owing to the fact that the cotton-plant yields so readily to the varying conditions of soil and climate1 there is a large variety of cottons1 each having some peculiarity which is considered enough to place it in a distinct class4 ,an idea of the number of species of the cotton-plant can be obtained from the fact that the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture has recorded about one hundred and thirty varieties4 ,the most important varieties are3 ,gossypium herbaceum1 ,g4 arboreum1 ,g4 hirsutum1 ,g4 barbadense1 and ,g4 peruvianum4 ,the botanical name of a plant is divided into two parts3 first the family name1 followed by the species name4 ,the ,gossypium herbaceum grows from four to six feet in height and bears a yellow flower4 ,the seeds are covered with a short gray down4 ,the fiber it bears is classed as short4 ,it is found in ,egypt1 ,asia ,minor1 ,arabia1 ,india1 and ,china4 ,the short-stapled variety of ,egyptian cotton is from this species4 ,the ,g4 arboreum when full grown attains a height from fifteen to twenty feet4 ,the seed is covered with a greenish fur and is enveloped in a fine1 silky down1 yellowish white in color4 ,it is found in ,egypt1 ,arabia1 and ,china4 ,the ,g4 hirsutum is a shrubby plant1 its maximum height being about six feet4 ,the young pods are hairy1 and the seeds are numerous and covered with a firmly adhering green down4 ,it is probable that this is the original of the green-seeded cotton which is now cultivated so extensively in the ,southern ,states of ,america1 and which forms the bulk of the supply from that source4 ,the ,g4 peruvianum is similar to the ,g4 barbadense4 ,the ,brazilian and ,peru cottons are from this species4 ,the ,g4 barbadense grows from six to fifteen feet high2 its flowers are yellow and its seeds black and smooth1 being quite destitute of the hair that distinguishes other members of the species4 ,it is a native of ,barbadoes or has been cultivated there for a long time4 ,cottons of the finest texture belong to this species--,sea ,island and ,florida cottons--from which our finest yarns are spun1 and it is used chiefly in the manufacture of fine lace4 ,the long-stapled ,egyptian and several other varieties are said to be from this stock4 ,cotton ,growing ,countries4 ,the most suitable situation for growing cotton is between #ce degrees north and #dj degrees south of the equator4 ,the chief cotton growing countries of the world in order of importance are3 ,united ,states1 ,india1 ,egypt1 and ,brazil4 ,cotton is also grown in the following countries1 but in no quantity or quality comparable with the four named above--,west ,indies1 west coast of ,africa1 ,asia ,minor1 ,china1 and ,queensland4 ,the best soil for growing cotton is a light loam or sandy soil1 which receives and retains the heat1 and at the same time preserves a good supply of moisture4 ,cold1 damp days are not suitable for its growth1 while deep rich soils develop too much leaf and stalk4 ,the best climate for the cultivation of cotton is where frost and snow are of short duration1 dews are heavy1 and the sun bright1 warm1 and regular4 ,new soils generally produce the best cotton4 ,the character of the cotton fiber is dependent upon three things1 the species of the plant1 the nature of the soil1 and the locality in which it is grown4 ,rough ,peruvian4 ,the nature of this cotton is harsh and wiry and resembles wool so nearly that it is almost exclusively used to mix with woolen fabrics4 ,the staple is rough and generally strong1 and is of a springy tendency1 i4e41 it does not lie close like ,american4 ,east ,indian4 ,india depends upon the monsoon for its moisture1 and the success or failure of the crop is decided by that phenomenon of nature4 ,indian cottons as a rule are coarser and shorter than ,american cottons4 ,the land is prepared before the breaking of the monsoon1 and the planting begins after it4 ,there is not the same care bestowed upon the cultivation of the ,indian cotton1 nor are such improved methods practised as in ,america4 ,the ancient routine of past generations still persists1 and as a consequence the yield per acre is less than one-half that of ,america4 ,moreover the acreage planted is only about two-thirds that of ,america4 ,the better growths of ,east ,indian cotton were once largely used in this country for filling1 owing to their good color and cleanliness2 but of late years the consumption has steadily decreased1 owing chiefly to the increased takings by the ,indian mills1 also to the exports to ,china and ,japan1 and to the preference shown by ,english spinners for ,american cotton4 ,egyptian ,cotton4 ,egyptian cotton1 on account of its long staple and silky gloss1 is imported in considerable quantities4 ,egyptian is largely used in the manufacture of hosiery1 and also for mixing with worsted yarn4 ,owing to its gloss it is used for mixing with silk1 and on account of its strength it is made into the finer sewing threads4 ,egyptian cotton is sometimes so charged with grease that it has a greasy smell2 and to make it workable it is necessary to sprinkle it with whitening4 ,it has been observed that velvets woven 7or piled7 with ,egyptian filling do not finish as well as when picked with yarns made from ,american cotton1 the reason for this being that the greasy nature of the ,egyptian cotton fiber often varies in strength1 causing different shades in the finished goods4 ,this greasy nature is said to be due to two things3 7#a7 the fertility of the soil2 7#b7 the extent to which the cell walls of the fibers are developed4 ,in addition to cotton1 other crops are grown in ,egypt--rice1 sugar1 beans1 barley1 onions1 etc4--and the acreage devoted to cotton is regulated to some extent by the prospects as to which crops are likely to pay best4 ,it is calculated that not more than one-third of the area is usually devoted to cotton4 ,sea ,island ,cotton4 ,this is the finest growth of cotton1 and it commands the highest price4 ,the staple1 which is long and silky1 varies in length from one and a half to two and a half inches4 ,it is used for making fine muslins1 laces1 spool cotton1 and other fabrics1 and is also largely mixed with silk4 ,it is said that this cotton was first introduced into ,america in #aghf from the ,bahama ,islands1 whither it had been brought from the ,west ,indies4 ,it was first cultivated in ,georgia1 where it was found that the small islands running along the coast were best adapted for its growth1 hence the name ,sea ,island4 ,it was also grown on the uplands of ,georgia1 but although remaining good1 the quality deteriorated4 ,counts as high as four hundred are occasionally spun in ,sea ,island cotton4 ,other ,varieties4 ,cotton grown in the ,southern ,states under widely varying conditions of the soil1 climate1 and care in cultivation1 naturally varies in length1 strength1 and other qualities of staple4 ,cotton known as ,uplands or ,boweds varies in length from three-fourths to one and one-sixteenth inches and is used for filling2 this is grown in ,north and ,south ,carolina1 ,georgia1 ,florida1 ,alabama1 and ,tennessee4 ,cotton used for twist is grown in ,texas1 ,louisiana1 ,mississippi1 and ,arkansas1 and the length of the staple varies from one to one and three-sixteenths inches4 ,in the swampy and bottom lands in some of the states 7notably ,alabama1 ,louisiana1 ,mississippi1 and ,arkansas71 cotton is grown with staple ranging from one and one-eighth to one and one-fourth inches4 ,in addition to these1 there are especially long stapled growths1 known as ,extras1 ,allen ,seed1 and ,peelers1 which measure one and three-eighths to one and five-eighths inches4 ,of late there has been an extensive demand for long-stapled ,american cotton 7one and three-sixteenths to one and one-half inches71 owing to the development of fine spinning4 ,cotton ,raising4 ,cotton is planted with a machine1 which puts it under the ground about one and one-half to two inches4 ,it is not planted as corn is1 that is1 dropped so far apart1 but is planted in a continuous stream4 ,after the cotton comes up out of the ground1 when it is about three inches high1 it is hoed by ordinary labor with a hoe1 and is cut out or1 rather1 thinned4 ,this is called chopping out and is for the purpose of removing the inferior or weak plants until only one strong plant is left4 ,the distance between the plants depends on the nature of the plant1 frequently about twelve inches being left between them4 ,the ,american ,crop4 ,the first step taken is the preparation of the ground for planting4 ,this begins in the southern part of ,texas as early as the middle of ,january1 in ,florida about the third week2 in ,alabama1 ,georgia1 ,mississippi1 and ,louisiana1 about the beginning of ,february2 in ,arkansas1 ,tennessee1 and ,south ,carolina from about the middle of ,february to the beginning of ,march4 ,actual planting begins according to latitude1 principally from the middle of ,march to the middle of ,april1 and ends in the first half of ,may4 ,these dates1 however1 are dependent upon the state of the weather4 ,when the weather is unusually wet the start is late4 ,the plant suffers from the rank growth of grass and weeds1 and extra labor is required to keep the fields clean4 ,in abnormally hot weather1 especially after rains1 the plant sheds its leaves1 thus exposing the bolls1 which fall off1 whereupon replanting becomes necessary4 ,in addition to injuries by the weather the cotton-plant is subject to depredations by insects4 ,of late years the greatest pest has been the ,mexican boll weevil4 ,the cotton-plant blooms ten or eleven weeks after planting4 ,an early bloom is taken as a sign of good crops4 ,when the crop is an early one1 picking may commence in the districts in which it ripens first in the latter half of ,july2 but the usual date is the beginning of ,august1 following on in the various districts in succession until the early part of ,september4 ,the plant goes on fruiting as long as the weather is mild and open4 ,it finishes in the early regions about the beginning of ,december1 the others following through ,december and closing in the later regions about the middle of ,january4 ,frosts play an important part in the ultimate yield4 ,an early killing frost over the entire belt would curtail the size of the crop by #ejj1jjj bales in a season1 as was the case in #aiji when about #cb1jjj1jjj acres were planted4 ,light frosts and late frosts do little harm to the cotton-plant2 in fact it is contended that the late frosts do much good under certain conditions of the crop1 by opening the bolls that otherwise would not open1 and thus adding to the quantity of the late pickings4 ,the effect of frost upon the lint so picked is to produce tinged and stained cotton4 ,early killing frosts occur in some seasons in the early part of ,november1 when much of the yield may be curtailed4 ,when killing frosts occur late in the season1 when the fruiting is practically over1 it has little or no effect upon the yield except as regards the color4 ,the ripening of the crop proceeds in three stages1 the bolls nearest the ground maturing first1 then those around the middle of the plant1 and lastly the top crop4 ,pods half ripe are often forced open and the fiber sent on with good cotton4 ,east ,indian is more highly charged with unripe cotton than ,american4 ,the work of picking is not heavy1 but becomes tedious from its sameness4 ,each hand as he goes to the field is supplied with a large basket and a bag4 ,the basket is left at the head of the cotton row1 the bag being suspended from the picker's shoulder by a strap1 and used to hold the cotton as it is plucked from the boll4 ,when the bag is full it is emptied into the basket1 and this routine continued throughout the day4 ,each hand picks from #adj to #ahj pounds of cotton per day4 ,the average yield in the ,south varies from #ejj to #fjj pounds per acre4 ,every boll of cotton contains seeds resembling unground coffee2 when these have been removed by the gin1 there remains about one-third the weight of the boll in clean cotton4 ,illustration3 ,,picking ,,cotton ,ginning4 ,the next operation to which cotton is subjected is that of ginning1 or separating the seeds from the fiber4 ,this work was formerly accomplished by hand1 and so great was the quantity of seeds that frequently an entire day was occupied by a workman in separating them from one pound of cotton4 ,at the present day the devices for separating the lint from the seed are of two classes3 roller gins and saw gins4 ,the former device is the more ancient1 having been used from the earliest times by the ,hindoos4 ,in its simplest form it consists of two rollers made of metal or hard wood1 fixed in rude frames1 through which the cotton is drawn and the seeds forced out in the process4 ,an improved form of the roller gin is at present used for cleaning the long-staple ,sea ,island cotton4 ,the saw gin1 which works on an entirely different principle1 is the machine which1 with its improvements and modifications1 has separated the seed from fiber almost exclusively for one hundred years of ,american cotton growing4 ,in this machine the seed cotton is fed into a box1 one side of which is formed of a grating of metal strips set close together1 leaving a narrow opening from one-eighth to a quarter of an inch wide4 ,into these openings a row or gang of thin circular saws project mounted upon a revolving mandrel4 ,the long1 protruding teeth of the saws1 whirling rapidly1 catch the fibers1 and pull them away from the seeds4 ,the latter1 being too large to pass through the openings of the grating1 roll downward and out of the machine4 ,the lint1 removed from the row of saws by a revolving brush1 passes between rollers and is delivered from the machine in the form of a lap or bat4 ,this machine is responsible for much of the nep 7or knots7 found in ,american cotton1 which is caused when the machine is overcharged4 ,the ,whitney gin will turn through more cotton than any other type of machine1 and will clean from #bjj to #cjj pounds per hour4 ,when the machine is running at high speed the tendency is to string and knot the cotton4 ,illustration3 ,,cotton ,,gin ,the upper figure shows ,whitney's invention4 ,the lower figure shows a later form4 ,the working of the ordinary gin is as follows3 ,the wagon loaded with cotton is driven under a galvanized spout called the sucker1 through which there is a suction of air which draws the cotton into the gins4 ,in each of the gins there are seventy circular saws revolving on one shaft4 ,these saws are about one inch apart1 and the teeth go through the gin breast1 much as if one were to put the teeth of one comb into the teeth of another comb4 ,this process takes the lint cotton off the seed1 and by the use of brushes the cotton goes into the lint flute1 into the condenser1 and into the box1 where it is revolved and made into a bale4 ,while the lint is going through this process1 the seeds1 being heavier and smaller1 draw to the bottom of the gins1 fall into an auger which is operated by a belt1 and then are dropped into a conveyor and carried to the seed pile or houses4 ,the lint goes in one direction and the seed in another4 ,when the seed is taken from the cotton at the gin1 it is covered with a lint of cotton4 ,in order to remove this the seeds are put through a delinter1 which takes off the small1 short fiber from the seeds1 leaving them clean4 ,this seed is then put through a huller which takes off the outside hull or thick skin4 ,the kernel is then put through a hydraulic press1 which squeezes the cotton-seed oil from it and leaves the meal4 ,cotton-seed oil is used for many purposes1 such as making olive oil1 butter or oleomargarine1 lard1 etc4 ,of late an experiment has been made with the meal for use in the place of flour1 and has been pronounced a success4 ,seed crushing has now become an important industry1 with the cotton crop each year amounting to between #ab1jjj1jjj and #ac1jjj1jjj bales of #dej pounds each4 ,the ,cotton ,gin4 ,the cotton gin was invented in #agib by ,eli ,whitney1 a citizen of ,georgia1 but a native of ,massachusetts4 ,the importance of this invention to the cotton industry of the world cannot be overestimated4 ,it was the one thing needed to insure a sufficient supply of raw material to meet the requirements of newly invented machinery for spinning and weaving4 ,the result of ,whitney's invention was the rapid extension of the culture of cotton in the ,united ,states1 and its permanent establishment as one of the leading staples of the country4 ,cotton ,bales4 ,after the cotton is ginned and baled it is shipped to the mill4 ,the standard size of a cotton bale in the ,united ,states is #ed #bg #bg inches1 and contains nearly #ejj pounds4 ,to produce this bale over #a1fjj pounds of seed cotton are required4 ,the bales are wrapped in jute bagging and strapped with sheet-iron bands1 this covering adding about twenty-five pounds to the weight of the bale4 ,the ,bessonette cylindrical bale is turned out by a self-feeding press1 which receives the lap of lint from the gin between two heavy rollers4 ,the fiber is rolled upon a long wooden spool so tightly as to press out nearly all the air1 and forms a package of uniform shape and size throughout1 having a diameter of fourteen to sixteen inches4 ,the bales are covered with cotton cloth1 held in place by small wire hoops4 ,it is claimed that the cotton is rolled so tightly by this process that the bales are practically fireproof and waterproof4 ,egyptian bales are compressed into a shape similar to the ,american bale1 but the average weight is over #gjj pounds4 ,the ,indian bales1 which are more closely compressed than the ,american1 usually weigh #djj pounds4 ,cotton is purchased by the mill authorities in the shape of a bale4 ,the method is to purchase from cotton brokers1 samples being furnished to the buyer from which to make selection4 ,illustration3 ,,storehouses ,the commercial value of cotton is determined by its length1 fineness1 strength1 pliability1 smoothness1 regularity1 color1 and cleanliness4 ,as a rule1 the cotton that is the longest is also the finest1 but by no means the strongest4 ,thus1 ,sea ,island cotton has the longest staple with the least diameter1 and ,hinganghat 7an ,indian cotton7 is much inferior to it in both respects4 ,the strength of the latter1 however1 is #ej per cent greater than the strength of ,sea ,island cotton4 ,in every other respect ,sea ,island cotton is in advance over ,hinganghat cotton4 ,it is the most valuable1 especially for the production of fine yarns4 ,the most regular cotton is ,orleans1 in which the length of the staple varies only a small fraction of an inch4 ,in consequence of this there is less loss in working ,orleans than is the case with the other cottons1 owing to the fact that their fibers vary in length4 ,the ,leading ,growths of ,cotton4 ,in order to purchase the raw material of the cotton manufacture1 to arrange the mixing or have much to do with the raw material in any other capacity1 one should know as much as possible of its characteristics2 for ignorance may cause much trouble and no little loss to those who have to spin the cotton4 ,each crop differs from the previous one to a greater or less degree1 as it depends entirely upon the weather4 ,thus1 in a very dry season there is a droughty crop which1 while it may be 7and generally is7 clean and well up in class1 will be weak1 short1 and of irregular fiber4 ,in order to obtain the desired length and strength of staple the buyer will have to pay a relatively higher price than in what may be termed a normal season4 ,illustration3 ,,fancy ,,cotton ,,loom ,again1 in a crop that is poor in class1 a defect that may have been caused by too much rain in the early or middle stages of its growth1 or by unfavorable weather for the production of cotton of good grade1 the staple will probably be all that could be desired1 leafy and small1 but the buyer will have to pay more to obtain his usual grade1 especially if he requires it for good filling4 ,then there are seasons when the crop turns out fairly well in class and staple1 but the cotton is wasty1 dirty1 or abnormally leafy2 and in this case the buyer has to exercise great care and judgment in calculating the extra loss that will ensue4 ,the terms of purchase of cotton include an allowance of #d per cent for tares4 ,that is1 a bale of cotton weighing #djj pounds would be paid for as #chd pounds1 or should the buyer have reason to believe that the tares are unusually heavy1 he has the option of claiming the actual tare4 ,this is ascertained by stripping ten bales and weighing the covering and the hoops1 which means considerable work1 and although it is at the option of the buyer1 it is an exception rather than the rule4 ,as a result of these causes we find cotton divided into the following grades3 ,full ,grades of ,cotton4 ,egyptian cotton is graded as follows3 extra fine1 fine1 good1 fully good fair1 good fair1 fair1 middling fair1 middling4 ,indian cotton is graded as follows3 superfine1 fine1 fully good1 good1 fully good fair1 good fair1 fully fair4 ,brazilian cotton may be classed3 fine1 good1 good fair1 fair1 middling fair1 middling4 ,american cotton has seven grades3 fair1 middling fair1 good middling1 middling1 low middling1 good ordinary1 and ordinary4 ,in addition to the full grades there are half and quarter grades4 ,the ,american cottons are graded as follows3 ,full ,grades4 ,half ,grades4 ,quarter ,grades4 ,fair1 ,strict middling fair1 ,barely fair1 ,middling fair1 ,strict good middling1 ,fully middling fair1 ,good middling1 ,strict middling1 ,barely middling fair1 ,middling1 ,strict low middling1 ,fully good middling1 ,low middling1 ,strict good ordinary1 ,barely good middling1 ,good ordinary1 ,strict ordinary4 ,fully middling1 ,ordinary4 ,barely middling1 ,fully low middling1 ,barely low middling1 ,fully good ordinary1 ,barely good ordinary4 ,the following are a few of the leading varieties of cotton1 with the numbers of yarn they will make3 ,cotton4 ,length4 ,warp4 ,filling4 ,sea ,island 7selected7 #a-c_/d to #b-a_/d up to #bjj #bej to #cjj ,sea ,island 7ordinary7 #a-c_/d to #b #aej #bbj ,florida ,sea ,island #a-c_/d to #b #aej #bbj ,georgia #a-a_/b to #a-g_/h #abj #ahj ,egyptian #a-a_/d to #a-a_/b #gj #abj ,peeler #a-a_/d to #a-c_/h #ej #gj ,orleans or ,gulf #a-a_/af to #a-a_/d #dj #fj ,upland #a to #a-a_/h #cj #de ,texas #g_/h to #a-a_/af #be #ce ,during the last few years considerable discussion has taken place among mill men1 both in this country and abroad1 bearing upon the subject of moisture contained in baled cotton4 ,of course the natural moisture in the cotton fiber varies1 as might be expected1 from year to year1 according to the character of the season during the picking4 ,the standard of moisture is based upon what is known as regain1 that is1 if #ajj parts of absolutely dry cotton are exposed to the air1 they will absorb about #h-a_/b per cent of moisture1 although a much higher per cent is sometimes found4 ,in some of the small ,southern mills located in the cotton raising section1 the cotton is delivered by team direct from the gin1 without going through the compress4 ,in this way they save the greater part of transportation expense4 ,they also save in the strength of the cotton fiber itself1 since the process of compression injures the fiber4 ,they get better cotton1 being nearer the source of supply and having better opportunities for selection4 ,when the cotton arrives in the shape of a bale1 it is necessary to cut ties and loosen up the cotton before use4 ,this may be done in two ways4 ,one method being to pull the bale apart by hand1 and the other to pass it through a bale breaker or similar machine1 which loosens up the cotton by means of beaters4 ,it now starts on a continuous journey through successive machines until it is made into yarn4 ,the yarn is made into a warp1 and the warp interlaced with the filling yarn to make cloth1 and the cloth finished for the market4 ,not every country is adapted for making cotton yarn1 for certain conditions are necessary to manufacture good yarn4 ,if the atmosphere is too warm or too dry1 the fibers will become brittle and will not twist well2 if too wet they collapse and stick4 ,lancashire ,county1 ,england1 seems to have been fitted by nature for cotton spinning4 ,it has just the right climate1 a moist temperature1 and copious water supply4 ,there are hills on the east of the valley1 forming a water shed1 and the town lies in a basin covered with a bed of stiff clay1 that holds the water1 allowing it to evaporate just fast enough to keep the air in the moist condition needed to fit the fibers for weaving4 ,countries that have not these conditions are obliged to produce them by artificial means--humidifying1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,,picker ,,room #a4 ,hopper where the cotton from the bale is fed into ,picker4 #b4 ,lap showing how the cotton is prepared for the card4 #c4 ,picker ,machine 7complete74 ,,chapter ,x ,,manufacture ,,of ,,cotton ,,yarn ,illustration3 ,,picker ,,room--,,showing ,,end ,,view ,,of ,,picker #a4 ,lap of ,cotton4 ,picker ,room4 ,the first step in the conversion of the bale of cotton into yarn consists in giving the cotton fibers a thorough cleaning4 ,this is accomplished by feeding the cotton to a series of picker machines called in order1 bale breaker1 cotton opener and automatic feeder1 breaker picker1 intermediate picker1 and finisher picker4 ,these machines pull to shreds the matted locks and wads of cotton 7as we find them in the bale71 beat out the dirt1 stones1 and seeds1 and finally leave the cotton in the form of batting upon the cylinders2 this batting passes from one machine to another until it issues from the finisher picker as a downy roll or lap4 7,sometimes the bale breaker is not used in the mill47 ,illustration3 ,,card ,,room #a4 ,roving ,can--receptacle to hold the sliver4 ,after it is filled it is transferred to either ribbon lap machine or drawing frame4 #b4 ,cylinder of the card4 ,the cotton is on this cylinder in the form of a web4 ,carding ,machine4 ,when the lap of cotton leaves the picker it goes to the carding machine1 where it is combed into parallel fibers by means of a revolving cylinder covered with wire teeth called card clothing4 ,as the cotton is fed to the card in the form of a sheet or lap from the picker1 it is supposed to have been freed from a considerable quantity of sand1 seed1 etc41 but there still remain nep1 fine leaf1 and short fibers1 which are removed during carding4 ,on leaving the card cylinder the lap has become a gossamer-like web thirty-nine inches broad4 ,this web next passes through small eyes1 which condense it into a narrow band about an inch in width1 known as card sliver4 ,when a lap is delivered from the finisher picker1 it should weigh a given number of ounces per yard4 ,the method of ascertaining the weight is to make each lap a standard number of yards in length and weigh each lap4 ,the machine can be regulated so as to give the desired weight per yard4 ,combing4 ,when an extremely fine and strong yarn is required1 in addition to carding1 the fibers are also subjected to the process of combing4 ,this may be said to be merely a continuation of the carding process to a more perfect degree4 ,the chief object is to extract all fibers below a certain required length1 and cast them aside as waste4 ,this is done in order to secure the very best fibers calculated to give the strongest and best results in the spun yarn4 ,the process of combing follows carding4 ,the card delivers the cotton in the form of a sliver or strand1 while the combing machine requires the fibers to be delivered to it in the form of sheets1 nine to twelve inches wide4 ,this is done by taking a number of card slivers and forming a lap of them by passing the sliver through a sliver lap machine4 ,the laps are passed through the comber4 ,this machine consists essentially of a series of rollers1 nippers1 and rows of metal teeth4 ,by the action of these1 the short fibers are separated and combed out1 and the long ones arranged in parallel order in the form of a thin1 silky strand1 in which condition it is sent to the drawing frames to be drawn out4 ,of course it must be understood that a combing machine is used by only a small percentage of cotton spinners4 ,for ordinary purposes a sufficiently good quality can be made without a comber4 ,as there is from #ae to #ce per cent waste to this operation it may be readily seen that it is costly1 and limited entirely to the production of the very best and finest yarns1 such as those intended for sewing or machine thread1 fine hosiery1 lace curtains1 underwear1 imitation silks1 and fine grades of white goods4 ,there are combing machines that comb short staple cotton4 ,drawing4 ,the cans containing the slivers are taken from the card or combing machine 7as the case may be7 to the drawing frame4 ,the object of this machine is mainly to equalize the slivers1 combining a number of them together so as to distribute the fibers uniformly4 ,the condition of the fibers on leaving the card or comb is such that a slight pull will lay them perfectly straight or parallel1 and this pull is given by the drawing frame rollers4 ,of course the fibers coming from the comb are parallel1 but it is necessary to alternate them by the drawing4 ,the drawing frame is a machine consisting of a number of sets of rollers1 the front roller having a greater speed than the rear ones4 ,illustration3 ,,cotton ,,comb ,,room #a4 ,the cotton in the form of a lap ready to pass through the comb4 ,the slivers1 which are as nearly as possible the same weight per yard1 are combined together in the drawing and emerge from the pair of front rollers as one sliver weighing the same number of grains per yard as a single sliver fed up at the back4 ,this process is repeated two or three times1 according to requirements1 the material then being referred to as having passed through so many heads of drawing4 ,it is not unusual to pass ,indian and ,american cotton through three deliveries4 ,the object of all the processes thus far described has been that of cleaning 7in the picker71 arranging the fibers in a parallel position to each other1 making uniform1 and drawing out the stock4 ,in every case the stock delivered from a machine is lighter than when fed into it1 and contains just twist enough to hold it together and prevent its being stretched or strained when unwound from the bobbin1 and fed into the next machine4 ,the minimum amount of twist in roving is desirable for the reason that it permits the stock to be drawn out more easily and uniformly1 the little twist that is put in the roving by the slubber being practically eliminated when it is passed through the rolls of the intermediate4 ,the same applies in the case of the roving passing from the roving to the spinning frame4 ,fly ,frames4 ,the process in the manufacture of yarn after the cotton has passed through the drawing frame consists of further attenuation of the sliver1 but as the cotton sliver has been drawn out as much as is possible without breakage1 a small amount of twist is introduced to allow of the continued drawing out of the sliver4 ,from the drawing frame1 the drawing passes through two1 three1 or four fly frames1 according to the number of yarn to be made4 ,all these machines are identical in principle and construction1 and differ only in the size of some of the working parts4 ,they are the slubber1 intermediate1 roving1--and fine or jack frame-fine1 and the function of each is to draw and twist4 ,illustration3 ,,roving ,,department #a4 ,slubber machine1 showing sliver of cotton passing through the rolls and then given a twist while it is wound on the bobbin4 ,intermediate ,frame4 ,the function of the intermediate frame is to receive the slightly twisted rove from the slubber and add thereto a little more twist and draft4 ,the rove is taken from two bobbins to one spindle in the machine1 an arrangement which tends to insure strength and uniformity4 ,the principle of the machine is in other respects the same as that of the slubbing frame4 ,roving ,frame4 ,the function of the roving frame is to receive the twisted rove from the intermediate and add more twist and draft1 thereby further attenuating the rove4 ,as in the intermediate frame the rove is generally taken from two bobbins for one spindle4 ,fine or ,jack ,frame4 ,this machine is used when fine yarns have to be made4 ,it is built on the same principle as the preceding frames1 the only difference being that a finer rove is made from which finer numbers of yarn can be spun4 ,as in the slubber1 intermediate1 and roving frames1 the rove is taken from two bobbins for one spindle4 ,spinning4 ,in the manufacture of single ply yarn the final process is that of spinning1 which consists in drawing out the cotton roving to the required size1 and giving it the proper amount of twist necessary to make the yarn of the required strength4 ,while the spinning frame is built on entirely different principles from the roving1 intermediate1 or slubber frame1 the object of each machine is the same as that of the spinning frame4 ,the principal point of difference is the amount of twist imparted to the cotton roving4 ,illustration3 ,,roving ,,room #a4 ,a drawing frame showing the sliver of cotton passing through the machine4 #b4 ,a slubber showing the sliver passing through and wound on bobbins4 #c4 ,roving machine showing the cotton passing from one bobbin through the roller to another4 ,the objects of the spinning process are3 #a4 ,completion of the drawing out of the cotton roving to the required size4 #b4 ,insertion of the proper amount of twist to give the thread produced strength4 ,excessive speed causes defects in the yarn and undue wear and tear on the machine4 ,there are two methods of spinning3 ring spinning and mule spinning4 ,the mule spinning is the older form4 ,there are but few mule frames in operation in this country4 ,mule ,spinning4 ,the function of mule spinning is to spin on the bare spindle1 or upon the short paper tubes1 when such are required to form a base for the cop bottom4 ,the mule will spin any counts of yarn required1 and is especially adapted for yarn in which elasticity and cover are essentials4 ,hosiery yarns are produced on the ordinary cotton mule and are very soft spun4 ,the bobbins of roving are placed in a creel at the back of the machine1 the stands of roving being passed through the rolls and drawn out in the same manner as at the roving frame4 ,the spindles are mounted on a carriage which moves backward and forward in its relation to the rolls1 the distance roved being about five feet4 ,when the spindles are moving away from the frame the stock is being delivered by the rolls1 the speed at which the spindles move away from the rolls being just enough to keep the ends at a slight tension4 ,the twist is put in the yarn at the same time4 ,illustration3 ,,spinning ,,room4 ,,cotton ,,department #a4 ,humidifier--an apparatus to give off moisture4 #b4 ,spinning frames--showing the cotton as it comes from the roving frame and passes through the spinning frame4 ,when the spindles reach their greatest distance from the rolls1 the latter are automatically stopped and the direction of the motion of the spindle carriage reversed4 ,the yarn is wound on the spindle while the carriage is being moved back toward the rolls1 the motion of the rolls being stopped in the meanwhile1 the spindles revolving only fast enough to wind up the thread that has been spun during the outward move of the carriage4 ,the mule is a much more complicated machine than the ring frame1 its floor space is much greater1 and more skilled help is required for its operation4 ,under ordinary conditions it is not practical to spin finer yarn than ,no4 #fjs on a ring1 while as high as ,no4 #ejjs is said to have been spun on a mule4 ,the same number of yarn can be spun on a mule with less twist than on the ring4 ,this is important in hosiery yarn4 ,ring spinning is used for coarse numbers1 and has greater production and requires less labor than mule spinning4 ,ring-spinning yarn is used for warp purposes4 ,ring ,spinning4 ,the function of ring spinning is to draw out the rove and spin it into yarn on a continuous system4 ,the yarn made is spun upon bobbins4 ,the ring spinning differs from mule spinning in having the carriage replaced by a ring1 from which the machine takes its name4 ,the ring is from one and one-half to three inches in diameter1 grooved inside and out1 and is connected with a flat steel wire shaped like the letter ,d1 called the traveller4 ,its office is to constitute a drag upon the yarn1 by means of which the latter is wound upon a bobbin4 ,its size and weight depend on the counts of yarns to be spun2 coarse yarns demand the largest ring and heaviest traveller4 ,illustration3 ,,mule ,,room #a4 ,stocks from ,finisher ready to be spun upon the mule4 #b4 ,front ,rollers with weight levers4 #c4 ,clearers for ,front ,rollers4 #d4 ,faller shafts containing ,sickles4 #e4 ,spindles4 #f4 ,spun ,yarn wound on cops4 #g4 ,covers for carriage4 #h4 ,body of carriage4 #i4 ,drawing out band4 #aj4 ,one of the wheels for the carriage4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,thread ,,and ,,cotton ,,finishing ,thread4 ,in general a twisted strand of cotton1 flax1 wool1 silk1 etc41 spun out to considerable length1 is called thread4 ,in a specific sense1 thread is a compound cord consisting of two or more yarns firmly united by twisting4 ,thread is used in some kinds of weaving1 but its principal use is for sewing1 for which purpose it is composed of either silk1 cotton1 or flax4 ,thread made of silk is technically known as sewing silk2 that made of flax is known as linen thread2 while cotton thread intended for sewing is commonly called spool cotton4 ,these distinctions1 while generally observed by trade1 are not always maintained by the public4 ,the spool cotton of to-day is of a different grade from that made before the sewing machine came into general use4 ,the early thread was but three cord1 and contained such a large number of knots1 thin places1 etc41 that it could not be worked satisfactorily on the machines1 so manufacturers were called upon to produce a thread that would be of the same thickness in every twist4 ,this was effected by making the thread of six cords instead of three1 thereby producing a smoother and more uniform strand4 ,manufacturing ,processes4 ,the raw cotton for the manufacture of thread must be of long staple4 ,if the fiber is short the thread made of it will be weak1 and hence unsuited for the purposes required of it4 ,ordinary cotton is not adapted to the manufacture of the better grades of spool cotton on account of the shortness of its fiber4 ,egyptian and ,sea ,island cotton are used because they have a much longer fiber and are softer in texture4 ,the raw cotton comes to the factory packed in great bales1 and is usually stored away for some months before it is used4 ,the first step in the conversion of the bale of cotton into thread consists in giving the fiber a thorough cleaning4 ,this is accomplished by feeding it to a series of pickers which pull the matted locks and wads to shreds1 beat out the dirt and seeds1 and roll the cotton in the form of batting upon cylinders until it issues from the finisher lap machines as a downy roll or lap4 ,the lap of cotton then goes to the carding rooms1 where it is combed into parallel fibers by means of a revolving cylinder covered with fine wire teeth1 sometimes #ij1jjj of them to the square foot4 ,on leaving the carding machines the lap has become a gossamer-like web thirty-nine inches broad4 ,this web is next passed through a small eye which condenses it into a narrow band about an inch in width1 known as the sliver4 ,by this time the fiber has been so drawn out that one yard of the original lap has become #cfj yards of the sliver4 ,the sliver now looks almost perfect1 but if it were spun it would not make good thread4 ,it is necessary to lay every fiber as nearly parallel as possible1 so that there will be an equal number of fibers in the strand per inch4 ,besides this1 the remaining dirt and short fibers must be removed and the knots and kinks in the fibers straightened out4 ,to accomplish these objects the cotton must be combed4 ,first1 the slivers are passed through several sets of rollers1 each set moving faster than the preceding1 so that the strands are drawn out fine and thin4 ,in this condition the cotton passes to a doubling frame1 and from thence to the lapping frame1 a device combining six laps into one and drawing the whole out into one fine1 delicate1 ropy lap4 ,illustration3 ,,warp ,,room #a4 ,beam on which the warp is wound4 #b4 ,warp4 #c4 ,creel4 #d4 ,spools in the creel4 ,the comber now takes the lap and combs out all the impurities and short fibers1 at a sacrifice of about one-fifth of the material2 next1 it combines six of these fluffy combed rolls of fiber into one4 ,a number of these rolls are then drawn out by another machine twelve times as long as they were before and twisted together on a slubbing frame4 ,this last drawing reduces the roll to about the thickness of zephyr yarn4 ,after being further doubled and twisted1 the yarn1 or roll1 is ready for the mule spinner1 which accomplishes by means of hundreds of spindles and wheels what the housewife once did with her spinning wheel4 ,the mule1 however1 does the work of more than #a1jjj hand spinners and takes up much less space4 ,on this machine #ijj spindles take the yarn from #a1hjj bobbins1 and by means of accelerating rollers and a carriage draw out and twist it to the proper fineness for the size of thread wanted4 ,having passed through the complex processes of cleansing1 combing1 drawing1 and spinning1 the cotton is now in the form of yarn of various sizes1 and the real work of thread making1 which is a distinct art from yarn making1 begins4 ,the thread-making process is briefly as follows3 ,the yarn is doubled and twisted2 then three of such yarns are twisted together1 which give the six-fold combination for six-cord thread4 ,for a three-cord thread three yarns are twisted together4 ,after the twisting is completed the thread is reeled into skeins having a continuous length of #d1jjj to #ab1jjj yards1 according to the size1 and is then sent to the examining department where it is rigidly inspected4 ,every strand is looked over1 and any found to be defective are laid aside1 so that when the thread is put on the market it shall be as perfect as care and skill can make it4 ,at this stage of the work the skeins of thread are of the pale cream color common to all unbleached cotton goods1 and are technically known as in the gray4 ,they therefore have to be bleached pure white or dyed in fast colors4 ,the skeins1 whether intended for white or colored thread1 are first placed in large1 steam-tight iron tanks and boiled4 ,here the thread remains subjected to a furious boiling for six or seven hours2 when removed it is perfectly clean1 but still retains the brownish gray color of unbleached cotton4 ,it then goes into a bath of chloride of lime and is bleached as white as snow4 ,the skeins are next drawn through an acid solution to neutralize the chloride4 ,another boiling1 another bleaching1 a bath of soapsuds1 and the final rinsing1 complete the cleansing and whitening process4 ,those skeins intended for colored threads are taken to the dyeing room and placed in tanks filled with suitably prepared dyeing solutions4 ,illustration3 ,,twisting ,,room #a4 ,humidifier4 #b4 ,twister machine4 #c4 ,boxes containing spools of cotton1 ready to be put in creel and form warp4 ,from the bleaching and dyeing departments the skeins of thread go back to the mill to be wound on the bobbins1 and from the bobbins finally on the small wooden spools4 ,the automatic winding machines can be regulated to wind any given number of yards4 ,the small spools are fastened on pivots1 the thread from the bobbins fastened on the spools1 and the machines set in motion4 ,at the required number of yards the spools stop revolving4 ,the ordinary spool of cotton thread contains #bjj yards1 and when this has been wound on1 the thread is cut with a knife by an attendant1 who also cuts the little nick in the rim of the spool and fastens therein the end of the thread4 ,thread mills commonly print their own labels1 and these are affixed to the spools by special machinery with remarkable rapidity4 ,from the labeling machine the spools go to an inspector1 who examines each one for imperfections1 and any that are found faulty are discarded4 ,when packed in pasteboard boxes or in cabinets the thread is ready for market4 ,thread ,numbers4 ,spool cotton for ordinary use is made in sizes ranging from ,no4 #h coarse to ,no4 #bjj fine4 ,in cotton yarn numbering1 the fineness of the spun strand is denoted by the number of hanks1 each containing #hdj yards1 which are required to weigh one pound1 as illustrated in the following table3 ,when #a hank of cotton yarn 7 #hdj yds47 weigh #a lb4 it is ,no4 #a #aj 7 #h1djj yds47 #aj #af 7#ac1ddj yds47 #af #cj 7#be1bjj yds47 #cj #ej 7#db1jjj yds47 #ej #ajj 7#hd1jjj yds47 #ajj ,the early manufactured thread was three cord1 and took its number from the size of the yarn from which it was made4 ,no4 #fj yarn made ,no4 #fj thread1 though in point of fact the actual caliber of ,no4 #fj thread would equal ,no4 #bj yarn1 being three ,no4 #fj strands combined together4 ,when the sewing machine came into the market as the great consumer of thread1 spool cotton had to be made a smoother and more even product than had previously been necessary for hand needles4 ,this was accomplished by using six strands instead of three1 the yarns being twice as fine4 ,as thread numbers were already established1 they were not altered for the new article1 and consequently at the present time ,no4 #fj six-cord1 for example1 and ,no4 #fj three-cord are identical in size1 though in reality ,no4 #fj six-cord is formed of ,no4 #abj yarns4 ,it is relatively smoother1 more even1 and stronger than the three-cord grade4 ,all sizes of six-cord threads are made of six strands1 each of the latter being twice as fine as the number of the thread as designated by the label4 ,three-cord spool cotton is made of three strands of yarn1 each of the same number as the thread4 ,sizing4 ,in textile manufacturing1 sizing is the process of strengthening warp yarns by coating them with a preparation of starch1 flour1 etc41 in order that they may withstand the weaving process without chafing or breaking4 ,the operation of sizing is also often resorted to in finishing certain classes of cotton and linen fabrics1 which are sized or dressed with various mixtures in order to create an appearance of weight and strength where these qualities do not exist1 or1 if present1 only in a small degree4 ,the object in sizing warp yarn before weaving is to enable that process to be performed with the minimum of threads breaking4 ,judicious sizing adds to the strength of the yarn by filling up the spaces between the fibers1 and by binding the loose ends on the outside of the thread to the main part4 ,in order to accomplish this a number of ingredients are used in the size preparation1 as no single material used alone gives satisfactory results4 ,the filling up of the minute spaces in the yarns and the adhesion of the fibers produce a smooth thread with sufficient hardness to resist the continual chafing of the shuttles1 reeds1 and harnesses during the process of weaving4 ,flour and starch in a liquid state are used for this purpose1 but owing to the liability to mildew1 flour is not so much used as starch4 ,both of these materials1 however1 make the yarn brittle1 and other ingredients are combined with them to overcome the brittleness4 ,for a softener on heavy weight goods nothing has been found superior to good beef tallow4 ,on light-weight goods the softener giving the most general satisfaction is paraffin4 ,when properly made the size preparation is a smooth mass of uniform consistence1 free from lumps of any kind1 and from all sediment and odor4 ,starch--the principal material which gives body to any size--requires the most careful treatment4 ,it is first mixed with cold water into a smooth1 creamy milk1 which is slowly poured into the necessary quantity of boiling water until a clear1 uniform paste is formed4 ,then the softeners are added1 such as soaps1 oils1 and animal fats2 next a small amount of gelatine or glue is stirred in and some form of preservative1 usually chloride of zinc or salicylic acid4 ,the mass is then thoroughly stirred in tilted jacketed kettles with mechanical stirrers4 ,the size may be applied to the yarn either hot or cold4 ,when applied hot it penetrates into the interior1 filling up every space between the fibers1 binding all together1 and forming a hard coating on the surface of the thread4 ,a thorough washing or steaming serves to remove all the size from the woven fabric4 ,illustration3 ,,finishing ,,room ,cotton ,finishing4 ,cotton fabrics1 like other textiles1 after leaving the loom must be subjected to various finishing processes so as to bring them into commercial condition4 ,on piece-dyed goods part of the finishing is done before and part after the dyeing process4 ,each class of fabrics has definite finishing processes4 ,in some cases weighting materials are added to the fabric so as to hide more or less its actual construction4 ,cotton fabrics just from the loom present a soft and open structure1 more so than other textiles4 ,therefore it is necessary to use proper finishing materials and processes which will fill up the openings or interstices as produced in the fabric by the interlacing of warp and filling1 and at the same time give to the fabric a certain amount of stiffness4 ,of course this finish will disappear during wear or washing1 it having been imparted to the fabric to bring the latter into a salable condition4 ,cotton fabrics after weaving may be subjected to the following sub-processes of finishing3 ,inspecting1 ,burling and ,trimming1 ,bleaching1 ,washing1 ,scutching1 ,drying4 ,after the cloth leaves the loom it is brushed2 then it passes over to the inspection table in an upward receding direction1 so that the eye of the operator can readily detect imperfections4 ,the ends of two or more pieces as coming from the loom are sewed into a string for convenient handling in the bleaching4 ,bleaching4 ,the object of bleaching is to free the cotton from its natural color4 ,the ancient method of bleaching by exposure to the action of the sun's rays and frequent wetting has been superseded by a more complicated process involving the use of various chemicals4 ,pieces of cloth are tacked together 7sewed7 to form one continuous piece of from three to one thousand yards in length4 ,the cloth is next passed over hot cylinders or a row of small gas jets to remove all the fine1 loose down from the surface4 ,the goods are then washed and allowed to remain in a wet condition for a few hours1 after which they are passed through milk of lime under heavy pressure1 followed by rinsing in clear water4 ,the goods are next scoured in water acidulated with hydrochloric acid1 and boiled in a solution of soda1 then washed as before in clear water4 ,next they are chlorined by being laid in a stone cistern containing a solution of chloride of lime and allowed to remain a few hours4 ,this operation requires great care in the preparation of the chloride of lime1 for if the smallest particle of undissolved bleaching powder is allowed to come in contact with and remain upon the cloth it is liable to produce holes4 ,the goods are then boiled for four or five hours in a solution of carbonate of soda1 after which they are washed4 ,they are again chlorined as before and washed4 ,the long strips are finally scoured in hydrochloric acid1 washed1 and well squeezed between metal rollers covered with cloth4 ,after squeezing and drying1 the cloth1 if required for printing1 needs no further operation1 but if intended to be marketed in a white state1 it must be finished1 that is1 starched or calendered4 ,starching4 ,the starch is applied to the cloth by means of rollers which dip into a vat containing the solution1 while other rollers remove the excess4 ,sometimes the cloth is artificially weighted with fine clay or gypsum1 the object being to render the cloth solid in appearance4 ,calendering4 ,the cloth is now put through the calendering machine1 the object of which is to give a perfectly smooth and even surface1 and sometimes a superficial glaze2 the common domestic smoothing iron may be regarded as a form of a calendering utensil4 ,the cloth is first passed between the cylinders of a machine two1 three1 or four times1 according to the finish desired4 ,the calender finishes may be classed as dull1 luster1 glazed1 watered or moire1 and embossed4 ,the calender always flattens and imparts a luster to the cloth passed through it4 ,with considerable pressure between smooth rollers a soft1 silky luster is given by equal flattening of all the threads4 ,by passing two folds of the cloth at the same time between the rollers the threads of one make an impression upon the other1 and give a wiry appearance4 ,the iron rollers are sometimes made hollow for the purpose of admitting steam or gas in order to give a glaze finish4 ,embossing is produced by passing the cloth under heated metal rollers upon which are engraved suitable patterns1 the effect of which is the reproduction of the pattern upon the surface of the cloth4 ,mercerizing4 ,this is a process of treating cotton yarn or fabrics with caustic soda and sulphuric acid whereby they are made stronger and heavier1 and given a silky luster and feel4 ,the luster produced upon cotton is due to two causes1 the change in the structure of the fiber1 and the removing of the outer skin of the fiber4 ,the swelling of the fiber makes it rounder1 so that the rays of light as they fall upon the surface are reflected instead of being absorbed4 ,the quality and degree of luster of mercerized cotton fabrics depends largely upon the grade of cotton used4 ,the long-staple ,egyptian and ,sea ,island cotton1 so twisted as to leave the fibers as nearly loose and parallel as possible1 show the best results4 ,if the yarn is singed the result is a further improvement4 ,yarns and fabrics constructed of the ordinary grades of cotton cannot be mercerized to advantage4 ,the cost of producing high-grade mercerized yarn is about three times that of an unmercerized yarn of the same count1 spun from the commoner qualities of cotton4 ,mercerized yarn is employed in almost every conceivable manner1 not only in the manufacture of half-silk and half-wool fabrics1 and in lustrous all-cotton tissues1 but also in the production of figures and stripes of cotton goods having non-lustrous grounds4 ,mercerized yarn used in connection with silk is difficult to detect except by an expert eye4 ,characteristics of a good piece of ,cotton ,cloth4 ,a perfect cotton fiber has little convolutions in it which give the strong twist and spring to a good thread4 ,in this respect the ,sea ,island cotton is the best4 ,there are five things requisite for cotton cloth to be good1 viz43 #a4 ,the cloth must be made of good fiber1 that is ripe and long4 #b4 ,the fiber must be carefully prepared4 ,all the processes must be well performed--for the very fine thread fiber must be combed to remove poor fiber4 ,the combing1 however1 is not always done4 #c4 ,the warp and woof threads must be in good proportion4 #d4 ,the cloth must be soft1 so that it will not crease easily4 #e4 ,it must be carefully bleached--the chemicals used must not be strong4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,knitting ,the art and process of forming fabrics by looping a single thread1 either by hand with slender wires or by means of a machine provided with hooked needles1 is called knitting4 ,crocheting is an analogous art1 but differs from knitting in the fact that the separate loops are thrown off and finished by hand successively1 whereas in knitting the whole series of loops which go to form one length or round are retained on one or more needles1 while a new series is being formed on a separate needle4 ,netting is performed by knotting threads into meshes that cannot be unraveled1 while knitting can be unraveled and the same thread applied to any other use4 ,knitting is really carried on without making knots2 thus1 the destruction of one loop threatens the destruction of the whole web1 unless the meshes are reunited4 ,the principle of knitting is quite distinct from that of weaving4 ,in the weaving of cloth the yarns of one system cross those of another system at right angles1 thus producing a solid1 firm texture4 ,the great elasticity of any kind of texture produced by knitting is the chief feature that distinguishes hosiery from woven stuffs4 ,the nature of the loop formed by the knitting needle favors elongation and contraction without marring in the least the general structure of the goods4 ,builders of weavers' looms have at times endeavored to secure this elastic effect by certain manipulations of the mechanism of the loom1 but as yet nothing approaching the product of the knitter has been made4 ,the elastic feature of a knitted texture renders it peculiarly adapted for all classes and kinds of undergarments1 for it not only fits the body snugly1 but expands more readily than any other fabric of similar weight4 ,knitting ,machines4 ,there are various machines for knitting4 ,the circular knitting machine produces a circular web of various degrees of fineness1 and in sizes ranging from a child's stocking to a man's ,no4 #ej undershirt4 ,the circular fabric made in this manner has to be cut up and joined together by some method to make a complete garment4 ,the knitting frame for producing fashioned goods makes a flat strip1 narrowing and widening it at certain places so as to conform to the shape of the foot1 leg1 or body4 ,these strips then have to be joined by sewing or knitting to form a garment4 ,fashioning machines are indispensable for knitting the ,niantic and ,french foot1 and also for the production of stripes1 fancy openwork1 and lace hosiery4 ,illustration3 ,,knitting ,,machine ,,for ,,hosiery ,all plain machines of any class produce only plain knitted fabrics1 while ribbed machines make only ribbed fabrics4 ,still1 many garments in their make-up include both kinds of knitting2 therefore1 many machines produce only certain parts of particular garments4 ,in the case of half-hose there is frequently a ribbed top1 or in underwear a ribbed cuff1 and these may be made either of circular web or full fashioned4 ,in each case the ribbed portion is first knit and then transferred to a plain machine1 and being placed upon the needles is worked on to the rest of the garment4 ,in some instances the heel is made by the machine working the leg1 though there are numerous knitters specially designed for turning out only this particular part4 ,among other knitting machines in modern use are the drawers machine2 machines for hose and half-hose with apparatus for making the instep1 finishing off the toe1 splicing or thickening the heels1 etc42 machines for producing the bottoms or soles of hose separately1 and also the instep separately2 circular stocking machines for producing a tubular web afterwards cut into suitable lengths for all varieties of hose2 circular sleeve machines1 circular body machines1 as well as circular web machines for making both body and sleeves of undershirts1 jerseys1 sweaters1 etc4 ,special machines are also made for knitting both plain and ribbed plaited goods1 that is1 with both sides wool while the center is of cotton1 or with a silk or worsted face on one side and the back of an inferior yarn4 ,in the form of auxiliary appliances are produced many kinds of stitching machines2 circular latch-needle machines for plain ribbed1 mock seam1 and striped goods2 steam presses2 hose rolling machines2 hose cutting and welting machines1 and many other accessories to hosiery manufacture4 ,illustration3 ,,knitting ,,machine ,,for ,,underwear ,at present fully one-third of the knit underwear used in this country is of the ribbed description4 ,it is made in all the materials that the older flat goods are composed of1 including silk1 silk mixtures1 linen1 wool1 lisle1 and cotton4 ,rib work is ordinarily stronger and more lasting than plain4 ,it is also invaluable for many purposes on account of its tendency to contract and expand in the direction of the circumference without altering its length4 ,this feature makes it indispensable for tops to socks and wrist work for shirts1 mittens1 gloves1 etc41 and for the production of heavy garments such as cardigans and sweaters4 ,the expense of knitting rib work is higher than plain knitting1 owing to the fact that the machines cannot turn out so great a quantity within a given time4 ,the formation of the rib in knitted goods is unique in its principle4 ,the effect is produced by reversing the stitch4 ,in place of making the stitch work appear entirely upon one side of the fabric1 as in plain work1 the needles are so arranged that every alternate row1 or two rows alternately1 are reversed1 thus making both sides alike4 ,plain work is done with a single bank of needles1 while rib work requires two banks1 the function of the second one being to pull and loop the yarn in an opposite direction1 thus producing a thicker and more elastic web4 ,double work in knitting consists merely in running two threads where one is commonly used4 ,the work is done readily and with but little extra cost for labor4 ,coarser and heavier needles are required1 also a wider gauge for the needle cylinder4 ,fancy effects in double work are produced by running two colors instead of one4 ,the tendency is for one thread to twine about the other1 thus making attractive double-and-twist work4 ,lumbermen's socks and like goods are often knitted on this plan1 though for the most part double work is for the heels1 toes1 and soles of ordinary hose4 ,stripe ,knitting4 ,the process of striping knitted fabrics is accomplished automatically by a system of changing the yarns when delivered by the feeds4 ,circular machines knitting a tubular web cannot be utilized for this purpose1 hence the work is done on fashioning or stocking frames4 ,it has only been within recent years that makers of knitting machinery have been able to offer machines on which more than one kind of yarn could be knit at one time4 ,there are now in use1 however1 machines that will readily knit several colors of yarn at the same time4 ,knitting ,cotton4 ,a variety of loosely twisted1 four-ply cotton yarn1 dyed in various plain and mixed colors1 employed for knitting hosiery1 tidies1 mats1 etc41 by hand4 ,it is numbered from #h1 coarse1 to #bj1 fine1 and commonly put up sixteen balls in a box1 each box containing two pounds1 manufacturer's weight4 ,knitting ,silk4 ,a loosely twisted silk thread of domestic manufacture employed for knitting mittens1 stockings1 and other articles by hand4 ,it is also much used for crochet work4 ,knitting silk is put up in the form of balls1 each containing one-half ounce of thread4 ,it is made in but two sizes1 ,no4 #cjj1 coarse1 and ,no4 #ejj1 fine2 each ball of the former number contains #aej yards of silk2 of the latter #bej yards4 ,no4 #ejj is manufactured only in white1 cream1 and black2 the ,no4 #cjj is fast dyed in a great variety of colors4 ,hosiery ,manufacture4 ,according to the particular method by which socks and stockings are made1 of whatever kind1 quality1 or material1 they are classed as cut goods1 seamless1 or full fashioned4 ,of the three methods of manufacturing the first named is the least expensive4 ,cut goods are made of round webbing knitted on what is called a circular knitting machine4 ,the web has the appearance of a long roll of cloth about the width of a sock or stocking when pressed flat4 ,the first operation consists in cutting off pieces the length of the stocking desired1 these lengths1 of course1 being the same 7unshaped7 from end to end4 ,the shaping of the leg is effected either by cutting out enough of the stocking from the calf to the heel to allow part to be sewn up and shaped to fit the ankle1 or by shrinking4 ,in the heeling room where the pieces next go1 the cutters are furnished with gauges or patterns that indicate just where to make a slit for the insertion of the heel1 generally of a different color4 ,when the heel is sewn in1 the stocking begins to assume its rightful shape4 ,the toe is now put on and the stocking is practically finished4 ,in the case of socks the final operation consists in attaching the ribbed top1 which tends to draw the upper part of the leg together1 thus causing it to assume a better shape4 ,the final work includes scouring1 dyeing1 and shaping4 ,the cost of making cut goods is less by a few cents per dozen than when knit seamless4 ,while some very creditable hose are produced in this way1 yet the existence of the heavy seam is an objection which confines them to the poorest class of trade4 ,cut goods are made in all sizes and kinds for men1 women1 and children4 ,seamless hose are made on a specially constructed machine which produces the entire stocking1 but leaves the toe piece to be joined together by a looping attachment4 ,on half-hose the leg is made the same size down to the ankle1 but on ladies' hose the stocking is shaped somewhat in the machine4 ,seamless hose are not1 strictly speaking1 entirely seamless1 inasmuch as all stockings made on a circular knitting machine must have a seam somewhere4 ,there must be a beginning and an ending4 ,in the case of the stocking the ending is at the toe1 and the opening left can only be closed with a seam4 ,in some mills this opening is automatically stitched together on special machines2 in others1 girls do it by hand with needle and thread4 ,neither by machine nor handwork can the opening be closed with exactly the same stitch as that made by the needles of the power knitter4 ,however1 the seam is of small proportions1 and when the goods are scoured1 pressed1 and finished the presence of the seam is a minor item1 as it neither incommodes the wearer nor mars the appearance of the stocking4 ,seamless goods are made in a great variety of qualities1 ranging from cotton half-hose at fifty cents per dozen to the fine worsted stockings at #f4jj per dozen4 ,a notable and very commendable feature of seamless hose is the socket-like shape of the heel1 which fits that portion of the foot as though really fitted to it4 ,as far as comfort and fit are concerned1 the manufacture of seamless hosiery has now reached such a degree of perfection as to bring it second only to the full-fashioned variety4 ,full-fashioned hose are produced by means of complicated and expensive knitting frames1 which automatically drop the requisite number of stitches at the ankle so as gradually to narrow the web down and give the stocking the natural shape of the leg4 ,the toe is produced in the same way1 and the shaping of heel and gusset is brought about in like manner4 ,hence1 the goods are called full-fashioned1 because so fashioned as to conform to the proportions of the leg and foot4 ,hose and underwear made by this method are knit in flat strips and then seamed either by hand or machine4 ,generally special machines are used1 which take up and complete the selvedges1 thus avoiding objectionable seams with raw edges4 ,the knitting frames used for making full-fashioned goods are large1 intricate1 expensive1 and slow in operation2 they are difficult to keep in order and require skilful operators4 ,the largest ones knit from fourteen to eighteen stockings at once1 using as many as four threads of different colors in the production of patterns4 ,the first operation consists in knitting the leg down to the foot2 then the legs are transferred by expert workmen to another frame which knits the foot4 ,next they go to another department where1 with the aid of a special looping machine1 the heels and toes are stitched together4 ,then the stockings or socks are handed over to expert women operators1 who seam up the legs on a machine especially adapted for the purpose4 ,after being sorted they are taken to be dyed1 boarded1 stitched1 dried1 and finally subjected to heat and pressure to give them a finished appearance4 ,it usually requires two weeks from the time the manufacturing operations begin1 for a stocking to emerge from the factory in a finished form4 ,full-fashioned hose are made in all shades and grades of silk and cotton1 in lisle thread1 and in all kinds of cashmere1 merino1 and woolen goods4 ,they are likewise knitted plain1 ribbed1 and with fancy stripes and embroidery effects4 ,in the ,united ,states there are numerous important plants engaged in the production of full-fashioned goods1 while large quantities are annually imported from ,germany and ,france4 ,finishing ,process4 ,when socks and stockings are taken off of the knitting machines they present an unfinished appearance1 being loose1 puckered1 dirty1 and generally shapeless4 ,scouring1 dyeing1 shaping1 and pressing serve to improve their looks1 and these finishing operations constitute a distinct branch of the industry4 ,while still in a moist state the hose are shaped4 ,this is effected by the use of forming-boards made of wood and about one-half of an inch in thickness4 ,the sock or stocking is carefully stretched over the form while damp1 and then placed in a heated chamber and allowed to dry4 ,the goods assume the shape of the wooden form1 and will always hold it if the work has been carefully and thoroughly done4 ,after they have been taken from the drying chamber and the boards removed the hose are pressed between heavy metal plates or rollers1 looked over for defects1 and when boxed or bundled are ready for market4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,lace ,lace4 ,lace is the name applied to an ornamental open work of threads of flax1 cotton1 silk1 gold1 or silver1 and occasionally of mohair or aloe fiber4 ,the latter are used by the peasants of ,italy and ,spain4 ,lace consists of two parts1 the ground and the flower4 ,the threads may be looped1 plaited1 or twisted in one of three ways4 ,first1 with a needle1 when the work is known as needlepoint lace4 ,second1 when bobbins1 pins1 and a pillow or cushion are used2 this is called pillow lace4 ,third1 by machinery1 when imitations of both point and pillow lace patterns are produced4 ,special patterns for these laces date from the beginning of the sixteenth century4 ,the early productions of the art had some analogy to weaving2 the patterns were stiff and geometrical1 sometimes cut out of linen or separately sewed and applied to the meshed surface1 but more frequently they were darned in1 the stitches being counted in1 as in tapestry4 ,this kind was known as darned netting4 ,with the development of the renaissance of art1 free flowing patterns and figure subjects were introduced and worked in4 ,whether of needlepoint or pillow make1 both the ornament and the ground are produced by the lace maker4 ,needlepoint is made by first stitching the net with thread along the outline of a pattern drawn on paper or parchment1 thus producing a skeleton thread pattern4 ,this threadwork serves as a foundation for the different figures which are formed in the lace4 ,bobbin or pillow lace more nearly resembles weaving4 ,the threads are fixed upon a circular or square pillow1 placed variously to suit the methods of manufacture in vogue in different countries4 ,the object of using the pillow is to prevent too much handling of the lace4 ,one end of each thread is fastened to the cushion with a pin1 the main supply of thread being twined around a small bobbin of wood1 bone1 or ivory4 ,the threads are twisted and plaited together by the lace maker1 who throws the bobbins over and under each other4 ,the operation is fairly simple1 since children of eight or nine years of age can be trained to it successfully4 ,it demands1 however1 considerable dexterity with the fingers4 ,the design for pillow lace must of course be adapted to the technical requirements of the process1 and cannot therefore be the same as one for needlepoint1 which has a better appearance and greater strength than pillow lace4 ,for this reason it was in former times generally preferred for wear on occasions of state4 ,on the other hand1 pillow lace has the quality of charming suppleness1 and for use in mantillas1 veils1 and fichus it is better than needlepoint1 lending itself with delicate softness and graceful flexibility as a covering to the head and shoulders of women4 ,,lace ,,terms ,,defined ,alenon 7,point d'74--,fine needlepoint lace with the ground of double-twist thread in a semi-net effect4 ,is usually worked with horsehair on the edges to give firmness to the cordonnet4 ,called after the city in ,france where it is made4 ,allover4--,name for all wide laces used for flouncing1 yokes1 and entire waists4 ,usually the lace is over eighteen inches in width4 ,american ,laces4--,a general term formerly used to distinguish lace made in this country1 the development of the industry having now rendered the term nearly obsolete4 ,angleterre 7,point d'74--,fine ,brussels pillow lace1 distinguished by a rib of raised and plaited threads worked in the lace4 ,shown in floral1 ornithological1 and geometrical designs4 ,antique4--,hand-made pillow lace of heavy linen thread in a large1 open1 rectangular knotted mesh4 ,used for curtains1 bed sets1 draperies4 ,antwerp4--,bobbin lace1 resembling early ,alenon4 ,shows a pot--that is1 a vase or basket effect--in the design4 ,appliqu4--,any lace in which the body and the design are made separately4 ,the body is usually silk and the design cotton or linen4 ,appliqu ,brussels4--,name sometimes given to ,brussels appliqu laces4 ,arabe 7,point d'74--,coarse bobbin lace made in ,belgium and ,france as well as ,arabia4 ,shows a large1 bold pattern1 cable edged1 and is almost invariably in a deep cru tone4 ,used for curtains and draperies4 ,arabian4--,same as above4 ,argentine4--,similar to ,alenon1 the mesh being a trifle larger4 ,arras4--,very strong1 inexpensive1 white bobbin lace1 of simple pattern1 somewhat resembling ,mechlin4 ,distinguished by its light1 single thread ground4 ,named after the city in ,france where it is made4 ,aurillac4--,somewhat resembles ,angleterre4 ,bobbin lace made in ,aurillac1 ,france4 ,auvergne4--,any kind of bobbin lace made in ,auvergne1 ,france4 ,different makes and patterns4 ,ave ,maria4--,a narrow edging lace4 ,baby ,lace4--,light and simple edging lace made in ,england4 ,battenberg4--,same as ,renaissance4 ,designs confined to flower patterns4 ,bayeux4--,bobbin lace1 usually an imitation of ,spanish point4 ,also a black1 rich lace made in large pieces for shawls1 head scarfs1 etc4 ,binche4--,fine pillow lace1 without cordonnet4 ,ground resembles a spider-web with small dots4 ,made in ,binche1 ,belgium4 ,bisette4--,coarse1 narrow ,french peasant lace in simple designs4 ,name often applied to cheap bordering laces4 ,blonde4--,so called1 being originally a bobbin lace made of unbleached silk1 though now shown in black1 white1 and colors4 ,made with two different sizes of thread2 fine thread for the ground1 coarse for the design4 ,usually takes some floral form4 ,very lustrous4 ,bobbin ,lace4--,imitation of pillow lace4 ,made in ,england and ,france4 ,bobbinet4--,the same4 ,bone ,lace4--,an obsolete term once given to ,honiton bobbin lace4 ,bone ,point ,lace4--,applied to laces having no regular ground or mesh1 such as ,renaissance4 ,border ,lace4--,practically synonymous with edging4 ,bourdon4--,a machine lace made of both silk and cotton4 ,show scroll-like patterns cable-edged on a regular mesh4 ,usually dyed black1 but sometimes bleached4 ,the outline is of a heavy lustrous thread4 ,used chiefly for dress trimming and millinery4 ,brettone4--,cheap narrow edging4 ,bride ,lace4--,lace with the pattern connected with brides4 ,same as bone point lace4 ,brides4--,slender threads connecting different parts of a pattern4 ,brussels ,net4--,plain net made originally in ,brussels1 but now produced in all lace manufacturing countries4 ,brussels ,pillow4--,fine pillow lace with the patterns joined together by little loops on their edges4 ,brussels ,point4--,shows an open pattern1 made partly in open1 partly in closed1 stitch1 giving the appearance of shading4 ,carrickmacross4--,tiny ,irish cambric drawn work1 appliqu on net4 ,cartisane4--,guipure or passementerie made with thin silk or gilt-covered strips of parchment4 ,chantilly4--,pillow lace very similar to blonde4 ,comes from ,chantilly1 ,france4 ,made in both silk and cotton and usually seen in black4 ,non-lustrous1 and looks as if made from black linen thread4 ,chiffon ,lace4--,chiffon embroidered in twist silk4 ,cluny4--,coarse-thread bobbin lace1 made in both linen and cotton4 ,shows a close-stitch pattern darned on an open ground4 ,used for dress trimmings and the manufacture of curtains4 ,cork ,lace4--,a sweeping term used to designate all laces of ,irish make4 ,cotton ,lace4--,all lace made of cotton4 ,craponne4--,cheap1 stout thread furniture guipure4 ,crochet ,lace4--,any point lace made with the crochet hook4 ,darned ,lace4--,a comprehensive term taking in all net effects with the pattern applied in needlework4 ,devonshire ,lace4--,lace made in this part of ,england1 and especially ,honiton imitation4 ,dieppe4--,fine needlepoint lace made in ,dieppe1 ,france4 ,resembles ,valenciennes4 ,made with a regular ground of squares of small meshes alternating with open squares upon which the pattern is applied in close stitch4 ,duchesse4--,pillow lace with fine net ground with the patterns in raised work1 volants1 and the like4 ,dutch ,lace4--,practically a coarse ,valenciennes4 ,english ,point4--,see ,angleterre4 ,escurial4--,heavy silk lace made in imitation of ,rose point4 ,patterns outlined with cable edge4 ,esprit 7,point d'74--,dotted bobbinet with the dots either singly or in clusters4 ,filet ,lace4--,any lace made with a square mesh net4 ,flemish ,point4--,needlepoint lace made in ,flanders4 ,footing4--,simple insertion of ,brussels net from one to three inches in width4 ,galloon4--,irregular band with a fancy edge4 ,entire piece often in zigzag or scallop form4 ,gaze 7,point de74--,flemish point lace resembling point d',alenon1 though much softer1 being without horsehair4 ,gne 7,point de74--,openwork embroidery made on a wool ground which is afterwards eaten away by acid4 ,genoa4--,heavy lace made of aloe fiber4 ,another name for macram4 ,gimp4--,see ,guipure4 ,gold ,lace4--,gimp or braid covered with gold or imitation gold thread4 ,grammont4--,white pillow lace used for shawls and the like4 ,black silk lace nearly resembling blonde4 ,guipure4--,fancy trimming of wire cord whipped round with silk or cotton threads1 and the small patterns stitched together4 ,guipure d',art4--,linen net upon which raised intersecting patterns are worked4 ,guipure de ,flanders4--,a pillow lace made separately1 having flowers connected by bars and brides4 ,hand ,embroidered4--,heavy point lace1 usually of ,plauen manufacture1 with fancy floral or other figures embroidered on the design4 ,honiton4--,english bobbin lace1 famed for the beauty of its designs4 ,named for the city where it was first manufactured4 ,now made in ,belgium1 ,holland1 and ,france4 ,sprays sometimes made separately1 and then worked on a net--,honiton appliqu4 ,honiton ,braid4--,narrow machine-made braid of ornamental oval figures connected by narrow bars4 ,used for collars1 handkerchiefs1 and tidies4 ,honiton ,guipure4--,large flower-pattern lace on very open ground1 the sprays held together with brides or bars4 ,imitation ,lace4--,a term used to designate any machine-made lace in contrast with hand-made4 ,insertion4--,any narrow lace with a plain edge on either side that admits of its being inserted in a fabric4 ,irish ,crochet4--,heavy hand-made lace1 remarkable for the beauty and distinctness of its patterns1 and the startling whiteness of the linen thread used in its manufacture4 ,irish ,lace4--,a general term used to designate all lace made by the ,irish peasantry4 ,irish ,point4--,hybrid combination of appliqu1 cut work1 and embroidery on net with elaborate needle stitching in the higher grades4 ,irish ,trimming4--,simple1 woven lace1 used on white wear4 ,knotted ,lace4--,frequently referred to as knotting4 ,a fancy weave of twisted and knotted threads in close imitation of some old hand laces4 ,lille 7,also ,lile74--,french lace named after the town where it is made4 ,somewhat resembles ,mechlin4 ,shows a very clear1 light ground and is the most beautiful of all simple thread laces4 ,limerick ,lace4--,a form of embroidery on net or muslin4 ,luxeuil4--,a general term for hand-made laces of ,luxeuil1 ,france4 ,more specifically those of a stout1 heavy nature4 ,used for tidies1 curtains1 draperies4 ,macram4--,knotted hand-made lace1 made of a very heavy cord4 ,shown principally in geometrical designs4 ,very popular in deep cru4 ,maline4--,fine silk net4 ,sometimes also applied to ,mechlin lace with a diamond mesh4 ,maltese4--,coarse machine-made cotton lace1 resembling torchon4 ,has no regular ground1 the patterns being usually connected with heavy stitch work4 ,mechlin4--,light pillow lace with the pattern outlined by a fine but very distinct thread or cord4 ,real ,mechlin generally has the ground pattern woven together1 the latter running largely to flowers1 buds1 etc4 ,medallion4--,single1 detached pattern4 ,medici4--,special kind of torchon edging1 with one edge scalloped4 ,mlange4--,hand-made silk pillow lace1 showing a combination of conventional ,chantilly with ,spanish designs4 ,mignonette4--,light bobbin lace1 made in narrow strips4 ,resembles tulle4 ,miracourt4--,sprig effects of bobbin-lace applied on net ground4 ,mexican ,drawnwork4--,little round medallions either single or in strips1 the threads drawn to form a cartwheel4 ,mexican and ,teneriffe drawnwork are practically the same4 ,machine imitations made in ,nottingham1 ,calais1 and ,st4 ,gall4 ,motif4--,see ,medallion4 ,nanduly4--,south ,american fiber-lace1 made by needle in small squares1 which are afterward joined together4 ,design very beautiful and of remarkable durability4 ,needlepoint ,lace4--,see ,point ,lace4 ,normandy ,lace4--,see ,valenciennes4 ,nottingham4--,a general term including all the machine-made laces turned out in that great lace-producing center of ,england4 ,oriental ,lace4--,really an embroidery1 being produced on the ,schiffli machine1 the pattern being then either cut or eaten out4 ,also applied to point d',arabe and certain filet effects4 ,oyah ,lace4--,a crocheted guipure shown in ornate patterns4 ,passementerie4--,a decorative edging or trimming1 especially gimp or braid4 ,picots4--,infinitesimal loops on brides and other strands4 ,pillow ,lace 7,bobbin ,lace74--,made on a pillow with bobbins and pins4 ,machine-made imitations retain the name4 ,plauen4--,applied to all laces emanating from that section of ,saxony and including imitations of nearly all point laces1 which are embroidered on a wool ground1 this being afterward dissolved in acid and the cotton or silk design left intact4 ,point de ,gaze4--,fine gauze-like needle-lace4 ,point d',irelande4--,coarse machine lace1 made in imitation of real ,venetian point4 ,point de ,milan4--,a variety of guipure1 having a ground of small meshes1 and a pattern consisting of bold1 flowing scroll devices4 ,point de ,paris4--,a variety of cheap machine lace1 cotton1 of simple design4 ,point ,kant4--,flemish pillow lace1 with a net ground and the design running largely to pot effects--pot lace4 ,point ,lace4--,lace made by hand with needle and single thread4 ,needlepoint the same4 ,point d',alenon1 point de ,venise1 etc41 are all variations of point lace and will be found classified under their initials4 ,point ,plat4--,point lace without raised design4 ,renaissance4--,modern lace1 made of narrow tape or braid formed into patterns1 held together by brides1 the brides forming subsidiary designs4 ,battenberg is the same thing4 ,repouss4--,applied to the design1 being a pattern that has the effect of being stamped in4 ,rococo4--,italian lace1 bearing the rococo design4 ,rose ,point4--,see ,venetian point4 ,seaming ,lace4--,narrow1 openwork insertion4 ,seville4--,variety of torchon4 ,spanish ,lace4--,a comprehensive term4 ,convent-made1 needlepoint lace4 ,cut drawnwork effects1 also convent-made4 ,needlepoint lace in large squares4 ,black silk lace in floral designs4 ,spanish ,point4--,ancient embroidery of gold1 silver1 and silk passementerie4 ,swiss ,lace4--,swiss embroidered net in imitation of ,brussels4 ,tambour4--,variety of ,limerick4 ,tape ,lace4--,hand-made needle lace1 similar to ,renaissance4 ,thread ,lace4--,made of linen thread1 as distinguished from cotton and silk laces4 ,torchon4--,coarse1 open bobbin lace of stout but loosely twisted thread in very simple patterns4 ,much seen in imitations1 usually in narrow widths4 ,van ,dyke ,points4--,applied to laces with a border made in large points4 ,valenciennes4--,commonly called ,val4 ,bobbin lace1 seen mostly in cheap insertions and in the form of narrow edgings4 ,venetian ,point4--,point de ,venise4 ,needlepoint lace in floral pattern with the designs very close together and connected by brides ornamented with picots4 ,wood ,fiber4--,applied to all laces made of wood silk4 ,yak4--,machine-made worsted lace4 ,used for trimming for shawls1 petticoats1 and undergarments4 ,youghal4--,needlepoint lace of coarse thread1 made exclusively in ,ireland4 ,ypres4--,bobbin lace1 somewhat coarser than ,val4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,cotton ,,fabrics#af ,albatross4 ,cotton albatross cloth is a fabric made in imitation of a worsted fabric of the same name4 ,it has a fleecy surface4 ,the name is taken from the bird whose downy breast the finish of the fabric resembles4 ,the warp is usually #bhs cotton1 the filling #cfs cotton4 ,it is a plain weave4 ,filling and warp count #dh picks per inch4 ,the goods are finished by being burled1 sheared1 washed1 singed1 dyed1 rinsed1 dried1 and pressed1 care being taken not to press too hard4 ,sometimes singeing is omitted4 ,albatross cloth is generally in white1 black1 or solid colors4 ,it is not often printed4 ,it is light in weight1 and is used for dress goods4 ,awning4 ,a cotton cloth used as a cover to shelter from sun rays4 ,batiste4 ,batiste is of ,french origin1 and is a light1 transparent cloth1 made from a fine quality of combed cotton yarn4 ,there is a gradual variation in quality ranging from a comparatively coarse to a very fine fabric4 ,the variety of qualities will suggest some idea of the utility of the fabric4 ,its uses are even more varied than are the qualities4 ,the finer grades are used for dress goods and all kinds of lingerie for summer wear1 etc41 while the cheaper grades are used for linings in washable and unwashable shirt waists4 ,batiste is woven in the gray1 that is1 with yarn direct from the spinning frame1 with the exception that the warp yarn is well sized1 in order to stand better the strain to which it is subjected during the weaving process4 ,bourrette4 ,a light weight1 single cloth fabric1 with two-ply cotton warp and wool or a combination of cotton and shoddy filling1 made with the plain weave and in appearance a semi-rough-faced woolen fabric with fancy effects in twist scattered about it4 ,it is used principally for ladies' fall suitings4 ,bedford ,cord4 ,this is one of the most popular types of fabrics1 the distinguishing effect being a line or cord running lengthwise of the cloth1 the cord being more or less prominent4 ,the cloth is made of cotton1 or sometimes of worsted4 ,the face effect of the ,bedford cord is generally plain4 ,occasionally twill-faced cords are used4 ,the cords vary in width from about one twentieth to one quarter of an inch4 ,to get extra weight without altering the appearance of the face1 extra warp yarns1 termed wadding ends1 are inserted between the face weave and the filling1 floating at the back of the rib4 ,when these wadding ends are coarse1 they give a pronounced rounded appearance to the cord4 ,they run from #hh to #aef picks to an inch4 ,buckram4 ,buckram is derived from ,bokhara4 ,it may be described as a coarse1 glue-sized fabric1 and is made of cotton1 hemp1 linen1 or cotton and hair 7coarse7 yarns1 usually from #ajs to #bes4 ,made of a double cloth warp1 #bbs cotton1 #cd picks to the inch1 for the face or top fabric #a_/ab's#ag2 weight from loom #b4bb ozs4 per yard4 ,bottom fabric #a_/ab's cotton2 filling #a_/af's cotton2 #ab picks to the inch4 ,weight per yard1 #a4h ounces4 ,these fabrics depend a great deal on the finishing4 ,the men's wear requires less sizing on account of the hair it contains4 ,the goods are piece dyed4 ,buckram is used principally for stiffening garments1 and to give them shape or form4 ,it is placed between the lining and the surface cloth of the garment in particular parts1 such as the lapels1 etc4 ,it is used in the millinery trade1 and is made into hats4 ,millinery buckram is sized two or three times4 ,calico takes its name from ,calicut1 a city in ,india1 where cloth was first printed4 ,the majority of inexpensive cotton fabrics are constructed on the one up1 one down system1 or plain weave4 ,calico is no exception to this rule4 ,the printed designs on calicoes may be somewhat elaborate or they may be simple geometrical figures4 ,in order1 however1 to comply with the true principles of art1 such fabrics as calicoes should have but simple geometrical figures for their ornamental features4 ,new styles and combinations of colors are produced every month and faster and lighter color printed each season4 ,most of the designs for calicoes and cotton cloth printing are made in ,paris4 ,at present the steam styles are most prominent2 they are the fastest and lightest to be obtained4 ,calico is a printed cloth1 the printing being done by a printing machine which has a rotating impression cylinder on which the design has been stamped or cut out4 ,the cloth in passing through the machine comes in contact with the impression cylinder4 ,the cylinder revolving in a color trough takes up the color and leaves the impression of the design on the cloth4 ,calicoes may be seen in almost any color4 ,the printing machine is capable of printing several colors in one design4 ,calicoes1 however1 are usually in two colors1 that is1 one color for ground and the other for figure4 ,the ground color in most cases is effected by dyeing the cloth in some solid color4 ,after the cloth is dyed the design is printed on it4 ,the cloth1 after it comes from the loom1 is singed and bleached1 then sheared and brushed to take away all the lint1 and then sent to the dye house4 ,the first process there is to boil it1 after which it is immersed in the dye tub4 ,calicoes are usually given what may be termed a cheap cotton dye4 ,by cheap cotton dye is meant that the colors are not fast1 but will run or fade when subjected to water4 ,after the fabric is dyed1 it is given to the printer1 who ornaments the face of the cloth with some geometrical design2 then it is practically ready for the merchant4 ,after printing1 the cloth is dried and steamed to fix the color1 afterwards soaped1 washed1 finished1 and folded4 ,the printing machine turns out about #djj to #hjj fifty-yard pieces a day4 ,calico is used for inexpensive dresses1 shirtwaists1 wrappers1 etc4 ,cambric4 ,cambric is a heavy1 glazed cotton fabric with a smooth finish4 ,it was first made in ,cambrai1 ,france4 ,it has a plain weave and a width of thirty-six inches4 ,cambrics are dyed in a jig machine4 ,after dyeing they are run through a mangle containing the sizing substance1 then dried1 dampened1 and run through a calender machine4 ,the glossy effect is obtained in this last finishing process4 ,cambric is used for shirtwaists1 dress goods1 etc4 ,the finer grades are made from hard twisted cotton of good quality4 ,canvas4 ,this is a term applied to heavy1 plain weave cloths made with ply cotton yarn4 ,they are used for mail bags1 covering for boats1 etc4 ,chambray4 ,chambray is a staple fabric of many years standing1 being next in rank among cotton goods after the better grade of gingham4 ,chambray is a light-weight single cloth fabric that is always woven with a plain weave1 and always has a white selvedge4 ,in effect it is a cloth having but one color in the warp1 and woven with a white filling1 this combination producing a solid color effect1 the white filling reducing any harshness of warp color in the cloth4 ,it is composed of one warp and one filling1 either all cotton1 cotton and silk1 or all silk4 ,it is twenty-seven to thirty inches in width and single #cjs cotton warp to single #fjs silk1 the count of yarn being governed by the weight per yard desired4 ,the weight per finished yard is two to three and one-half ounces4 ,good colors for the warp are navy blue1 dark brown1 lavender1 black1 nile green1 etc4 ,when made of cotton warp and filling the fabric receives a regular gingham finish4 ,the loom width can be restored by tentering or running the goods over a machine fitted underneath with a series of coils of steam pipe4 ,the top of this machine is fitted with an endless chain with a row of steel needles standing erect upon its face4 ,chains are adjusted to the width desired1 and as the machine runs1 both selvedges are caught by the needles and the cloth stretched to the required width4 ,cheese ,cloth4 ,this is a thin cotton fabric of light weight and low counts of yarn1 which ranks among the cheapest in cotton goods4 ,it is used for innumerable purposes4 ,the bleached fabric is used for wrapping cheese and butter after they are pressed4 ,it is also much in demand for bunting for festival occasions1 light curtains1 masquerade dresses1 etc4 ,when used for bunting1 draperies1 and the like it is usually in colors1 red1 blue1 cream1 and yellow seeming to have the greatest demand4 ,the weave is one and one or plain weave4 ,chin4 ,sometimes applied to glac silk1 or cotton two-toned effects4 ,the name is ,french1 meaning woven so as to have a mottled effect4 ,chintz4 ,printed cotton cloth1 with large1 many-colored designs1 used for furniture covering4 ,the ,hindoo wears it as a body covering4 ,chintz is the ,hindoo word meaning variegated4 ,cotton ,flannel4 ,napped cotton flannel4 ,made first for trade in ,canton1 ,china4 ,crash4 ,a plain fabric for outing suits1 towels1 etc4 ,crpe4 ,a fine1 thin fabric of open texture made of cotton4 ,crepon4 ,large designs in figured crpe4 ,the name applies to the crispiness of the finish and is from the ,french word crper1 to make crisp4 ,cretonne4 ,heavy cotton cloth printed in large designs1 for drapery and furniture use4 ,cretonne was a ,frenchman who first made the cloth4 ,crinoline4 ,crinoline is a fabric composed of cotton warp1 horsehair filling1 or all cotton yarns4 ,it is sold in varying widths1 and is used by tailors and dress-makers in stiffening clothing4 ,it is a cheap cloth of low texture and simple construction1 the distinguishing feature being the stiff finish with either a dull or highly glazed face on the cloth4 ,damask4 ,a cloth of silk and cotton1 silk and linen1 silk and wool1 or all linen in flowered or geometrical designs for drapery or table covering4 ,the weaves used are mostly twills and sateens4 ,it takes its name from ,damascus1 where it was first made4 ,denim4 ,this is a strong fabric usually made with a two up and one down twill4 ,it is used for overalls1 furniture covering1 and floor covering4 ,diaper4 ,a figured cotton or linen fabric1 which gets its name from the ,greek diapron1 meaning figured4 ,it is generally of good quality as it is subject to excessive washing4 ,dimity4 ,a light-weight cotton fabric1 the distinguishing feature of which is the cords or ribs running warpwise through the cloth1 and produced by doubling the warp threads in either heddle or reed in sufficient quantity to form the rib desired4 ,the name is from a ,greek word meaning two-threaded4 ,dimity is a ladies' summer dress fabric1 and is made of regular cotton yarn1 from #a_/fj's to the finest counts in both warp and filling4 ,it is made in both white and colors1 solid white being used in the most expensive grades4 ,colors are often printed upon the face of the fabric after it has been woven in the white4 ,domet4 ,this cloth is napped similar to a cotton flannel4 ,it is used for shirts1 pajamas1 etc41 and made with bright colored stripes and check patterns4 ,the name is from domestic1 home made4 ,duck4 ,duck is a heavy single cloth fabric made of coarse two-ply yarn and of a plain weave4 ,it derives its name from its resemblance to a duck's skin4 ,it is of a lighter weight than canvas4 ,in finishing duck is taken from the loom and washed and sized1 then dried and pressed4 ,if a fancy solid color is desired the goods are dyed in the piece after the first washing4 ,duck is used in the manufacture of sails1 tents1 car curtains1 and for any purpose requiring a good water-tight fabric1 which will withstand rough usage4 ,duck has a stiff hard feel1 and excellent wearing qualities4 ,the lighter weights are used for ladies' shirtwaist suits1 men's white trousers1 etc4 ,drill4 ,a cotton fabric of medium weight generally made with the two up and one down twill4 ,it is extensively used for shoe linings4 ,eolienne is the name applied to a fine dress fabric characterized by having the filling of a much coarser count than the warp1 thus producing a corded effect across the breadth of the goods4 ,this class of goods is made up of a raw silk warp and either cotton or worsted filling1 with the warp ends per inch greatly in excess of picks per inch4 ,the goods are made up in gray1 then dyed in the piece in any color the trade desires4 ,the darker shades find most favor for fall and winter use1 while the lighter shades are preferred for summer wear4 ,the width is from twenty-seven to fifty inches1 and the price per yard varies from #he cents to #a4be4 ,etamine4 ,an etamine is a thin1 glossy fabric used principally for women's dress goods4 ,being a common and popular material for summer wear1 it is usually made as a piece-dyed fabric4 ,a good reason for making it piece-dyed is that this method is much cheaper than if the yarn is dyed previous to the weaving4 ,etamines were originally made with worsted yarns1 which of course are more expensive2 however1 if a good quality of cotton is used1 there is little difference in appearance between worsted and cotton etamine4 ,the difference is chiefly in the wearing quality1 worsted being more durable4 ,the principal characteristic of an etamine is a crisp1 glossy1 and open structure4 ,flannelette is a narrow1 light-weight fabric composed of all cotton yarn1 the filling being soft spun to permit of the raising of a very slight nap on the back of the goods4 ,the cloth is woven with bleached yarn 7warp and filling71 the color effects being afterwards printed upon the face of the goods by the printing machine4 ,flannelette is made with simple one or two colored stripe patterns1 either black and white or indigo blue and white1 and in imitation of a ,jacquard pattern4 ,the finished fabrics are sold by the retailer at from eight cents to twelve and one-half cents per yard1 are twenty-seven inches wide1 and are used very extensively in the manufacture of ladies' wrappers1 kimonos1 etc41 for house wear4 ,fustian4 ,a corded fabric made on the order of corduroy and used in ,england for trouserings1 etc4 ,first made at ,fustat1 a town on the ,nile1 near ,cairo4 ,velveteen and cordings in the lower1 coarser grades were sometimes called ,fustian4 ,galatea ,cloth4 ,galatea cloth has been somewhat in demand in recent years by women requiring serviceable and neat-appearing cotton fabrics at a medium price4 ,it is usually finished twenty-seven inches wide and retails at fourteen cents to twenty cents per yard4 ,it is shown in plain colors as well as in figures1 and in dotted and striped designs on white and colored grounds4 ,the patterns are obtained by printing4 ,some manufacturers have found that they can take a standard type of fabric and extend its use by varying the process of finishing4 ,the base of the cloth--that is1 the fabric previous to dyeing or printing or bleaching--is nothing more than an ordinary #e-;end warp sateen of fair quality4 ,gauze4 ,a veiling net1 made in ,gaza in ,palestine4 ,gingham4 ,gingham is a single cloth composed entirely of cotton1 and always woven with a plain weave4 ,it is yarn-dyed in stripes or checks and was originally of ,indian make4 ,it is the most widely known fabric on the market and is made in various grades1 having from fifty to seventy-six ends per inch in the reed1 and of #a_/bf's to #a_/dj's cotton yarns in both warp and filling4 ,it is a wash fabric1 made in both check and plaid patterns into which an almost unlimited variety of color combinations are introduced4 ,ginghams are made with from two colors1 warp and filling1 to eight colors in warp and six in filling4 ,ginghams are used most commonly in the manufacture of ladies' and children's summer dresses and aprons4 ,italian ,cloth is a light1 glossy fabric made from cotton and worsted1 cotton and wool1 cotton and mohair1 and all cotton4 ,it is used for linings for the heavier styles of ladies' dresses1 also for underskirts1 fancy pillow backs1 etc4 ,the cloth is woven in the gray undyed yarns4 ,in the finer grades the warp is sized so as to facilitate the weaving process4 ,jaconet4 ,a thin cotton fabric1 heavier than cambric4 ,if properly made one side is glazed4 ,derived from the ,french word jaconas4 ,khaki4 ,twilled cotton cloth of a brown dust color1 first used for men's clothing in ,india4 ,the word khaki is ,indian for earth1 or dust-colored4 ,lawn4 ,lawn is a light-weight single cloth wash fabric1 weighing from one and one fourth to two and one fourth ounces per yard1 and in widths from thirty-six to forty inches finished4 ,it is composed of all cotton yarns 7bleached7 from #a_/dj's to #a_/ajj's1 and is always woven with a plain weave1 one up1 one down4 ,the name is from ,laon1 a place near ,rheims1 ,france1 where lawn was extensively made4 ,plain lawn is made of solid white or bleached yarn in both warp and filling4 ,the fancier grades1 or those having color effects1 are produced by printing vines1 floral stripes1 small flowers1 etc41 in bright colors in scattered effects on the face of the goods4 ,the patterns are always printed1 never woven4 ,lawn1 when finished1 should have a soft1 smooth feel4 ,therefore the finishing process includes brushing1 very light starching or sizing1 then calendering or pressing4 ,lawns have to be handled carefully in the bleaching process1 starched with an ordinary starch mangle 7the sizing containing a little blueing71 finished on the ,stenter machine1 and dried with hot air4 ,lawns are often tinted light shades of blue1 pink1 cream1 pearl1 green1 and other light tints1 with the direct colors added to the starch4 ,it is used principally in the manufacture of ladies' and children's summer dresses1 sash curtains1 etc4 ,lingerie4 ,this relates to all sorts of ladies' and children's undergarments1 such as skirts1 underskirts1 infants' short dresses1 chemises1 night robes1 drawers1 corset covers1 etc4 ,linon is a fine1 closely woven plain fabric1 well known for its excellent wearing and washing qualities4 ,it is made from combed cotton yarns of long-stapled stocks to resemble as closely as possible fine linen fabrics4 ,the cloth structure is firmly made in the loom4 ,long ,cloth is a fine cotton fabric of superior quality1 made with a fine grade of cotton yarn of medium twist4 ,originally the fabric was manufactured in ,england1 and subsequently imitated in the ,united ,states4 ,the fabric is used for infants' long dresses1 from which it derives its name1 and for lingerie4 ,long cloth to some extent resembles batiste1 fine muslins1 ,india linen1 and cambric4 ,it is distinguished from these fabrics by the closeness of its weave1 and when finished the fabric possesses a whiter appearance1 due to the closeness of the weave and the soft twist of the yarn4 ,it is not used as a dress fabric1 chiefly because of its finished appearance1 which is similar in all respects to fabrics which we have been accustomed to see used solely for lingerie1 nightgowns1 etc4 ,madras is a light-weight single cloth fabric1 composed of all cotton or cotton and silk1 and has excellent wearing qualities4 ,it was at first a light-colored checked or striped plain-faced cotton-silk fabric1 made in ,madras1 ,india1 for sailors' head-dress4 ,it is twenty-seven inches wide1 and is made of varying grades1 weighing from two to three ounces per yard1 and is used at all seasons of the year4 ,it is used by ladies for summer skirts1 shirtwaists1 suits1 etc41 and by men in shirts4 ,it is known by the white and colored narrow-stripe warp effects1 and is made of cotton yarns ranging from #a_/bf to #a_/hj warp and filling1 and from #ej to #ajj or more ends per inch4 ,the utility of madras for nearly all classes of people permits the greatest scope in creating both harmonious and contrasting color and weave combinations4 ,the colors most in demand in this fabric are rich and delicate shades of blue1 rose1 green1 linen1 tan1 lavender1 and bright red2 for prominent hair-line effects black1 navy blue1 dark green1 royal blue1 and cherry red4 ,good fast color is necessary as it is a wash fabric4 ,if inferior colors are used1 they will surely spread during the finishing processes1 and will cause a clouded stripe where a distinct one was intended4 ,moreen4 ,heavy mohair1 cotton1 or silk and cotton cloth1 with worsted or moire face4 ,the making of moreen is interesting4 ,the undyed cloth is placed in a trough in as many layers as will take the finish4 ,this finish is imparted to the cloth by placing between the layers sheets of manila paper2 the contents of the trough are then saturated with water2 a heavy weighted roller is then passed over the wetted paper and cloth1 the movement of the roller giving the cloth a watered face4 ,it can then be dyed and refinished4 ,the design or marking of moreen is different on every piece4 ,moreen was at first made for upholstery and drapery use4 ,it was found to give a rustling sound similar to silk1 so was taken up for underskirts4 ,the name is from the ,french moire1 meaning watering4 ,mull4 ,a soft cotton muslin of fine quality1 made first in ,india1 later in ,switzerland4 ,the name in ,hindoo is mal1 meaning soft1 pliable4 ,mummy4 ,a plain weave of flax or linen yarn4 ,originally the winding cloth of the ,egyptian mummified dead4 ,muslin4 ,a fine cotton cloth of plain weave originally made in ,mosul1 a city on the banks of the ,tigris1 in ,asia4 ,nainsook4 ,nainsook is a light cotton fabric utilized for various purposes1 such as infants' clothes1 women's dress goods1 lingerie1 half curtains1 etc4 ,the striped and plaid nainsook are used for the same purposes4 ,when the fabric is required for lingerie and infants' clothes the ,english fabric is selected because of its softness4 ,when intended for dress or curtain fabric1 the ,french-finished fabric is chosen4 ,the latter finish consists of slightly stiffening and calendering the cloth4 ,the fabric may be distinguished from fine lawns1 fine batiste1 and fine cambric by the fact that it has not as firm construction or as much body1 and the finish is not as smooth or as stiff1 but inclines to softness1 as the fabric has not the body to retain the finishing material4 ,organdie4 ,an organdie may be defined as a fine1 translucent muslin used exclusively for dress goods4 ,the fabric is made in a variety of qualities as regards the counts of yarn used1 and in a variety of widths ranging from eighteen to sixty inches4 ,the plain organdie is popular in pure white1 although considerable quantities are dyed in the solid colors1 pale blue1 pink1 etc41 while the figured organdies are usually bleached pure white1 then printed with small floral designs4 ,the printed design is in from two to four colors1 and in delicate shades in conformity with the material4 ,organdie considered in relation to cost as wearing material is rather expensive4 ,the reason for this is that it has a finish peculiar to itself1 so that when washed it does not have the same appearance as before4 ,it loses its crisp feeling altogether4 ,osnaburg4 ,a coarse cloth of flax and tow1 made in ,america of cotton1 in checks or plaids1 and used for furniture covering and mattress making4 ,the town of ,osnaburg1 in ,germany1 made the fabric first4 ,percale4 ,percale is a closely woven fabric made with a good quality of cotton yarn4 ,the finer qualities are used for handkerchiefs1 aprons1 etc41 and when used for these purposes are not printed1 but bleached after the fabric comes from the loom4 ,percale is chiefly used for dress fabrics1 and when used for this purpose is generally printed on one side with geometrical figures1 generally black1 although other colors may be seen4 ,the fabric is bleached before it is subjected to the printing operations4 ,percaline4 ,percaline is a highly finished and dressed percale4 ,the first process to which the cloth is subjected is to boil it off1 that is1 to soak it in boiling water so as to relieve it from foreign matter that it may have gathered during the weaving1 and at the same time to prepare it for dyeing4 ,after dyeing it is sized to stiffen it1 and also to increase the gloss on the cloth4 ,after sizing it is ready for the calender4 ,in order to give it the highest gloss the cloth is doubled lengthwise or the pieces are put together back to back1 and as it passes through the rolls it is wet by steam1 the rolls being well heated and tightly set together4 ,percaline is used chiefly for feminine wearing apparel1 principally for linings1 petticoats1 etc4 ,these purposes require that the cloth shall be solid color1 the darker colors being preferred1 as blue1 green1 and black4 ,sometimes it is seen in lighter shades of brown and tan4 ,the most attention is given to the finishing process4 ,piqu4 ,piqu is a heavy cotton material woven in corded or figured effects4 ,the goods are used for such purposes as ladies' tailor-made suits1 vestings1 shirt fronts1 cravats1 bedspreads1 and the like4 ,it was originally woven in diamond-shaped designs to imitate quilting4 ,the name is ,french for quilting4 ,the plainest and most common fabrics of piqu are those in which the pattern consists of straight cords extending across the cloth in the direction of the weft4 ,in the construction of these fabrics1 both a face and back warp are required1 and the cords are produced by all the back warp threads being raised at intervals of six1 eight1 or more picks over two or more picks of the face cloth1 which has a tendency to draw down on the surface of the fabric4 ,the goods are always woven white and no colors are ever used4 ,the face warp threads are generally finer than the back warp threads1 and are in the proportion of two threads for the face and one thread for the back4 ,on the heavier and better grades of piqu coarse picks called wadding are used to increase the weight1 and also to give more prominence to the cord effect4 ,they are introduced between the face and back cloths4 ,in the lightest and cheapest grades neither any wadding nor back picks are used4 ,in this case the back warp threads float on the back of the fabric except when raising over the face picks to form the cord4 ,in the figured piqu the binding of the back warp threads into the face cloth is not done in straight lines as in plain piqu1 but the binding points are introduced so as to form figures4 ,these fabrics are woven in the white1 and the figures are purely the result of binding the face and back cloths together4 ,poplin4 ,poplin or popeline is a name given to a class of goods distinguished by a rib or cord effect running width way of the piece4 ,it referred originally to a fabric having a silk warp and a figure of wool filling heavier than the warp4 ,at the present time it refers more to a ribbed fabric than to one made from any particular combination of materials4 ,cotton poplin is usually made with a plain weave1 the rep effect being obtained either by using a fine warp as compared with the filling1 or a large number of ends as compared with picks per inch on both4 ,irish poplin is a light-weight variety of poplin1 sometimes called single poplin1 and is celebrated for its uniformly fine and excellent wearing qualities4 ,it is principally made in ,dublin4 ,plumetis4 ,sheer cotton or woolen cloth having raised dots or figures in relief on plain ground4 ,the design shows a feathery effect1 as in embroidery tambour4 ,the name is ,french for this kind of embroidery1 and is derived from plume1 ,french for feather4 ,rep4 ,a fabric having a surface of a cord-like appearance4 ,the name is probably corrupted from rib4 ,it is used in making shirtwaists and skirts4 ,sateen4 ,twilled cotton cloth of light weight1 finished to imitate silk satin4 ,there are two kinds1 viz41 warp sateen and filling sateen4 ,scrim4 ,open mesh weave of cotton or linen for curtains and linings4 ,the name is from scrimp1 referring to economy in weaving4 ,silesia is a light-weight single cloth fabric1 having a rather high texture1 and weighing about three ounces per yard4 ,it is composed of all cotton yarn1 and is used principally as a lining for ladies' and men's clothing4 ,silesia is woven of yarn in the gray state1 and is dyed in the piece in such colors as black1 dark blue1 brown1 drab1 slate1 steel1 etc4 ,an important feature is the highly glazed or polished face of the goods1 which is due to the action of the heated roller in the calendering machine upon the sizing4 ,souffle4 ,the largest designs of crepon show a raised or puffed appearance4 ,souffle is from the ,french and means puffed4 ,swiss4 ,from ,switzerland1 where the plain ,swiss net and figured cambric is a specialty in the ,st4 ,gall district4 ,tape4 ,tape is a narrow fabric composed either of cotton or linen yarns in warp and filling1 and usually made with a point or broken twill weave1 the break in the weave occurring in the center of the tape1 and the twill lines running in a right- and left-hand direction4 ,it is used as a trimming in the manufacture of clothing1 also as a binding in innumerable cases1 and is sold by the roll1 each roll containing a certain number of yards4 ,it is made of all bleached and of regular yarns about #a_/bf's to #a_/cj's and #a_/dj's cotton4 ,tarletan4 ,an open mesh of coarse cotton1 used mostly in fruit packing1 sometimes for dress and drapery4 ,the name is from tarlantanna1 ,milanese for coarse weave of linen and wool4 ,terry ,cloth or ,turkish ,toweling is a cotton pile fabric4 ,it is woven in such a way as to permit the forming of a series of loops on each side of the cloth in regular order4 ,after leaving the loom each piece is laid separately in the bleaching kier4 ,then the goods are dried on a tenter frame1 given a light starching to add weight1 run through a rubber rolled mangle and again dried on a tenter frame4 ,this cloth is used in the manufacture of towels1 ,turkish bath robes1 etc4 ,turkish toweling is the original terry4 ,the name is from the ,french tirer1 to draw or pull4 ,zephyr ,gingham is the finest grade of gingham made and is a light-weight cotton fabric1 composed of #a_/dj's to #a_/fj's cotton warp and filling yarns4 ,it is woven with either the plain weave or a small all-over dobby effect4 ,it is made in attractive patterns by using good fast colors in warp and filling1 and as a cloth has excellent wearing qualities4 ,,footnotes3 #af ,this information is from the leading authority1 ,the ,cotton ,fabrics ,glossary1 published by the ,american ,wool and ,cotton ,reporter1 ,boston1 ,mass41 and is reprinted here through the kindness of ,mr4 ,frank ,p4 ,bennett4 #ag #a_/ab's cotton signifies single cotton yarn of #ab's4 #b_/ab's cotton signifies two sets of single cotton yarn of #ab's twisted together4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,flax ,flax4 ,flax or linen occupies the first position in the group of stem fibers1#ah being not only the oldest1 but next to cotton the most important vegetable spinning material known4 ,its value is increased by the fact that the flax plant readily adapts itself to various conditions of soil and climate1 and in consequence has gained access to northerly districts and cool highlands4 ,although flax has lost some of its importance from the successful competition of cotton1 nevertheless it still forms one of the chief articles of an industry which merits all the care bestowed on its cultivation and proves highly profitable4 ,the ,physical ,structure of ,flax4 ,flax1 when seen under the microscope1 looks like a long1 cylindrical tube of uniform thickness1 with lumina so small as to be visible only as straight black lines lengthwise of the fiber1 and frequently exhibits small transverse cracks4 ,it is never twisted like cotton fiber4 ,its color varies from pale yellow to steel gray or greenish tints4 ,the difference in color is due chiefly to the process of retting4 ,its average length is about twenty inches1 and its tensile strength is superior to that of cotton4 ,it will absorb moisture1 #ab per cent being the standard allowance made4 ,flax is used for making linen thread and cloth1 yarn1 twist1 string fabric1 and lace4 ,in its composition it is almost purely an unlignified cellulose1 and its specific gravity is #a4e4 ,flax is a better conductor of heat than cotton1 hence linen goods always feel colder than cotton goods4 ,russia produces more than one-half the world's supply of flax1 but that from ,belgium and ,ireland is of the best quality4 ,italy1 ,france1 ,holland1 and ,egypt are other important producers4 ,the plant is an annual1 of delicate structure1 and is gathered just before it is ripe1 the proper time being indicated by the changing of the color from green to brown4 ,at the time of gathering the whole plant is uprooted1 dried on the ground1 and finally rippled with iron combs1 to separate the stalks from the leaves1 lateral shoots1 and seeds4 ,the best fiber amounts to about #ge per cent of the stalk4 ,to separate this valuable commercial product from the woody matter the stalks are first subjected to a process termed retting1 which is steeping them in water until they are quite soft4 ,then follow the mechanical processes to further the production of the fiber and free it from all useless matter4 ,these are as follows3 #a4 ,crushing or ,beating4 ,this consists of breaking the woody matter with the aid of mallets or in stamping mills4 #b4 ,breaking4 ,this is passing the stalks through a series of horizontal rollers to break further the woody matter and at the same time separate the greater part of it from the fiber4 #c4 ,scutching4 ,the object of this process is to remove completely the woody matter1 and it is done by means of rapidly revolving wooden arms or blades1 which beat the firmly held flax until it is sufficiently cleaned and separated4 #d4 ,hackling4 ,the scutched flax is drawn through iron combs which still further open the fiber4 ,fineness of fiber depends upon the number of times it is hackled1 each time with a finer and finer instrument1 which secures the different degrees of subdivision4 ,then the fibers are sorted and classified as to length and quality and laid in parallel forms ready for spinning and manufacture into linen4 ,illustration3 ,,pulling ,,flax ,,in ,,minnesota ,bleaching4 ,linen is bleached in the form of yarn1 thread1 and cloth4 ,this is a difficult and long process owing to the large amount of natural impurities present in flax fiber1 and the difficulty of removing or dissolving them4 ,bleaching is now done as a rule by chemical processes1 and when chemicals are used great care must be taken about their strength and about the time the cloth is allowed to remain in them4 ,in olden times sour buttermilk was applied to linen and rubbed in1 and then bleaching was finished out of doors by sun and rain4 ,unbleached linen is treated in the same way as bleached1 only the process is not carried to such an extent4 ,in ,ireland1 famous for its bleaching1 chemicals are used in the earlier stages of this process1 and then fine linens are spread out on the grass to improve their color1 and to purge them completely of any chemicals used4 ,after bleaching1 linen is washed1 dried1 starched1 and put through heavy machines to give it a glossy finish1 and it is then made up in pieces for sale4 ,characteristics of ,good ,linen4 ,linen is noted for its smoothness of texture1 its brilliancy--which laundering increases--its wearing qualities1 and its exquisite freshness4 ,the celebrated ,irish linen is the most valuable staple in the market1 and on account of its fineness and strength1 and particularly its bright color1 it attains an unapproachable excellence because the best processes are used throughout the entire manufacture4 ,linen is less elastic and pliable than cotton and bleaches and dyes readily4 ,flax from all countries is woven into table linen1 though very fine linen must have carefully prepared fiber4 ,linen should be soft1 yielding1 and elastic1 with almost a leathery feel4 ,fineness of linen does not always determine good wearing qualities4 ,good linen ranges in price from #ge cents to #c4jj4 ,irish linen has a good bleach4 ,french and ,belgian linens1 while fine in thread1 are not as serviceable as ,irish linen4 ,germany makes a good wearing linen1 but not a large variety of patterns4 ,scotch linens are now used more than other kinds4 ,illustration3 ,,stacks ,,of ,,flax ,,in ,,belgium ,copyright by ,underwood ,underwood1 ,n4 ,y4 ,sources of ,flax ,russia1 ,holland1 ,belgium1 ,germany1 ,ireland1 ,canada1 ,u4 ,s4 7for seed only74 ,sources of ,manufactured ,linens ,scotland1 ,ireland1 ,germany1 ,austria1 ,belgium1 ,france1 ,russia1 ,united ,states4 ,,manufactured ,,linens ,damasks and ,napkins ,scotland1 ,ireland1 ,germany1 ,belgium4 ,towelings ,scotland1 ,ireland1 ,germany1 ,united ,states1 ,russia4 ,glass ,checks ,ireland4 ,canvas ,scotland1 ,ireland4 ,handkerchief ,lawns1 ,cambrics1 and ,laces ,ireland1 ,germany1 ,france4 ,towels ,germany1 ,scotland1 ,ireland1 ,austria1 ,u4 ,s4 7union74 ,linen ,sheetings ,ireland1 ,belgium1 ,france1 ,scotland4 ,blouse or ,dress ,linens ,ireland1 ,scotland4 ,bleached ,waist ,linens ,ireland1 ,france1 ,belgium4 ,fancy ,linens1 ,doylies1 etc4 ,germany1 ,france1 ,japan1 ,madeira ,islands1 ,island of ,teneriffe4 ,,footnote3 #ah ,the stem fibers such as flax1 jute1 ramie are called bast fibers1 and before any of them can be utilized industrially1 steps have to be taken to render them free from gum4 ,when the stems of these plants are severed1 the juice tends to oxidize through contact with the air and forms a gum of a peculiarly tenacious character4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,hemp ,illustration3 ,,loading ,,hemp ,,in ,,manila ,hemp is a fiber that is obtained from the hemp plant4 ,it grows principally in ,russia1 ,poland1 ,france1 ,italy1 ,asia1 ,india1 the ,philippines1 ,japan1 and some parts of the ,united ,states--,kentucky1 ,missouri1 ,tennessee1 ,ohio1 ,indiana1 and ,new ,york4 ,the original country of the hemp plant was doubtless ,asia1 probably that part near the ,caspian ,sea4 ,the preparatory treatment is similar to that for the flax plant1 except that most of the work is done by machinery4 ,considered chemically1 in addition to cellulose1 hemp fiber contains a considerable amount of woody matter1 differing in this respect from cotton4 ,its properties are color 7pearl gray1 with green or yellow tints71 fineness 7which depends upon the quality of the hemp2 it is usually bought as fine as flax71 and tensile strength 7which is considerable and greater than that of flax74 ,its best qualities are its slight luster and its ability to resist to a great extent the tendency to rot under water4 ,owing to the fact that it is difficult to bleach1 it is used chiefly in making string1 cord1 ropes1 etc4 ,sisal ,hemp4 ,sisal hemp is a variety that grows extensively in ,central ,america and the ,west ,indies4 ,the plant1 the agava rigida1 is similar to what is known in this country as the century plant4 ,the fiber is found in the leaves which closely surround the stalks4 ,the common hemp on the other hand is found closely surrounding the woody part of the stem4 ,the fiber of ,sisal hemp is obtained by scraping away the fleshy part of the leaves with large wooden knives or by machines4 ,manila ,hemp4 ,manila hemp is obtained in the ,philippines4 ,the plant belongs to the banana family and grows as large as a small tree4 ,the hemp is obtained from the leaf stalks which appear to form the trunk of the tree4 ,the fiber is larger1 not so stiff1 but stronger than ,sisal hemp4 ,the fiber of ,russian hemp is the strongest2 that of ,italian hemp the finest4 ,illustration3 ,,field ,,of ,,sisal ,,hemp ,jute4 ,jute is the name given to the fibers found in certain plants which grow principally in ,india1 and the ,east ,indian ,islands4 ,the common jute comes principally from the province of ,bengal1 ,india1 where it was first known to science in #agbe4 ,the term jute was first applied to the fiber by ,dr4 ,rosburgh in #agie4 ,the plant is cut just about the time when it appears in full flower4 ,the stalks are then bundled and retted by steeping in pools of stagnant water4 ,jute occupies third position in importance of vegetable fibers in the manufacturing scale1 being inferior to cotton and flax4 ,hemp is stronger than jute4 ,jute becomes weak when exposed to dampness4 ,it is extensively used for mixing with silk1 cotton1 flax1 hemp1 and woolen fabrics4 ,the coarse varieties are made into coarse fabrics--sacks1 packing cloth1 etc41 while the finer varieties1 in which the undesirable quality of growing darker with age is less apparent1 are used for making carpets1 curtains1 and heavy plushes1 for which they are very suitable4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,silk ,silk4 ,the silk of commerce is obtained from the cocoons of several species of insects4 ,these insects resemble strongly the ordinary caterpillars4 ,at a certain period of its existence the silkworm gives off a secretion of jelly-like substance4 ,this hardens on exposure to the air as the worm forces it out and winds it about its body4 ,illustration3 ,,moth1 ,,silkworm1 ,,and ,,cocoons ,it takes about three days for the worm to form the cocoon4 ,after the cocoon has been formed the silkworm passes from the form of a caterpillar into a moth which cuts an opening through the cocoon and flies away4 ,it is very important that the moth should not be allowed to escape from the cocoon2 the mere breaking of the cocoon greatly decreases the value of the thread4 ,the cocoon is preserved by killing the chrysalis by heat4 ,there are a great many varieties of caterpillars1 but few of them secrete a sufficient quantity of silk to render them of commercial value4 ,the principal species is the mulberry silkworm which produces most of the silk in commerce4 ,it is cultivated and fed on mulberry leaves4 ,there are other varieties of silkworms that are not capable of being cultivated and are called wild silkworms4 ,the silk produced by the wild worms of ,china and ,india is called tussah 7or tussur74 ,the silk is inferior to that produced by the cultivated worms and is used for making pile fabrics1 such as velvet1 plush1 etc4 ,the color of the cocoons varies greatly4 ,most of the ,european cocoons are bright yellow1 though some are white4 ,the ,eastern cocoons1 on the other hand1 are mostly white1 while a few are yellow4 ,the wild silks are for the most part cru color1 though some are pale green4 ,the color1 except in the wild silks1 is derived from the gum which is secreted by the worm1 and with which the fibers are stuck together4 ,this gum comprises from #ae to #cj per cent of the weight and is removed by boiling in soap and water before the silk is dyed4 ,all silks except the wild silks1 after the gum is removed1 are from white to cream in color4 ,the tussah1 or wild silks1 remain an cru color4 ,illustration3 ,,reeling ,,raw ,,silk ,the greatest care has to be exercised throughout in the care of the moths1 eggs1 worms1 and cocoons--this being the succession of changes4 ,that is1 the moth lays eggs which are collected and kept cool till the proper season for incubation4 ,they are then kept warm during the time occupied in hatching1 sometimes about the person of the raiser4 ,after a time these eggs hatch out worms1 tiny things hardly larger than the head of a pin4 ,after the worms are hatched they require constant care and feeding with chopped mulberry leaves till they reach maturity4 ,they are then about three inches in length1 and spin their cocoons from a fiber and gum which they secrete4 ,when the cocoons are spun the worms become chrysalises inside of them4 ,the cocoons are then collected and the chrysalises killed1 generally by heat1 before they can again become moths4 ,raw ,silk4 ,the cocoons are next sent to the reelers or filatures4 ,a number of cocoons1 greater or less1 according to the size of thread desired1 are placed in a basin of hot water1 which softens the gum4 ,after the outside fibers are removed so that the ends run free1 the ends are collected through a guide and are wound upon a reel4 ,as the silk cools and dries1 the gum hardens1 sticking the fibers from the different cocoons together in one smooth thread varying in size according to the number of cocoons used4 ,after the silk has been reeled and dried it is twisted into hanks and sent to ,america and other countries as raw silk4 ,most of the raw silk of commerce is produced in ,china1 ,japan1 and ,italy4 ,it is also produced to a large extent in ,italy1 ,turkey1 and ,greece1 also ,france and ,portugal4 ,the cultivation of silk is not only carried on by private firms1 but is encouraged by the government to the extent of granting money to the manufacturers4 ,various attempts have been made to raise silkworms in the ,united ,states4 ,all have failed on account of the high price of labor necessary to feed the worms4 ,throwing4 ,the manufacture in the ,united ,states begins with raw silk4 ,we import our raw silk chiefly from ,italy1 ,china1 and ,japan4 ,it is handled here first by the throwster1 who winds it from the skein and makes various kinds of thread for different purposes4 ,raw silk wound on spools in a single thread1 and called singles is often used to make warps 7that is1 the threads running lengthwise of a piece of cloth7 for piece-dyed goods1 or cloth which is woven with the gum in the silk1 and afterward boiled out and dyed4 ,singles are also sometimes used for filling 7that is1 cross threads7 in very thin fabrics4 ,silk yarn that is used for weaving is divided into two kinds1 tram and organzine4 ,tram silk is made by twisting two or more loosely twisted threads4 ,it is heavier than organzine and is used for filling4 ,organzine silk is produced by uniting a number of strongly twisted threads4 ,it is used for warp4 ,crpe yarn is used in making crpe1 chiffon1 and for other purposes4 ,it is very hard twisted thread1 generally tram1 from forty to eighty turns per inch4 ,embroidery silk is made by winding the raw silk1 putting a large number of ends together1 giving them a slack twist1 then doubling and twisting in the reverse direction with a slack twist4 ,sewing silk is made by winding and doubling the raw product1 then twisting into tram1 giving it a slack twist1 doubling and twisting in the reverse direction under tension4 ,machine twist is similar1 but three ply4 ,the principal fabrics made of silk are3 silk1 satin1 plush1 chenille1 crpe1 crepon1 gauze1 damask1 brocade1 pongee1 and ribbons4 ,silk thread and cord are also extensively used4 ,the ,united ,states is among the leaders in the manufacture of silk fabrics4 ,silk ,waste4 ,when the cocoons are softened for reeling a certain portion of the silk is found to consist of waste and broken threads4 ,the tangled silk on the outside of the cocoon is called floss4 ,the residue after reeling1 and other wastes in reeling1 are known as frisonnets4 ,floss silk is not used for weaving4 ,it is a slack twisted tram1 generally composed of a large number of threads of singles4 ,spun ,silk4 ,there is another class of threads made from waste silk by spinning and known as spun silk4 ,waste silks include the pierced cocoons1 that is1 those from which the moth has come out by making the hole and breaking the fibers in one end of the cocoon2 the waste made in the filatures in producing raw or reeled silk1 chiefly the outside fiber of the cocoon and the inside next the chrysalis2 and also the waste made in manufacture4 ,the waste silk is ungummed2 that is1 the gum is removed from the fibers by boiling with soap1 by macerating or retting1 or by chemical reagents4 ,after the gum is removed from the cocoons1 they are opened and combed1 most of the chrysalis shell being removed4 ,the remainder1 with other foreign matter1 is picked out by hand from the combed silk4 ,the silk is put through a number of drawing frames to get the fibers even on the roving frames1 where it first takes the form of thread1 then on the spinning frames1 where it is twisted4 ,if it is to be used as singles1 the manufacture ends here4 ,in two- or three-ply yarns1 the singles are doubled1 twisted again1 singed by running through a gas flame1 cleaned by friction1 controlled1 that is1 the knots and lumps taken out1 and then reeled into skeins for dyeing or put on spools4 ,spun ,numbers4 ,there are two methods in general use for numbering spun silk4 ,in the ,french system1 the number is based on the singles1 by the meters per kilogram2 two and three cord yarns have one-half1 one-third1 etc41 the length the numbers indicate4 ,thus-- ,no4 #ajj singles has #ajj1jjj meters per kilogram4 ,no4 #b-ajj has #ej1jjj meters per kilogram4 ,no4 #c-ajj has #cc1ccc meters per kilogram4 ,the other system which is more generally used in this country1 is the ,english system4 ,the hank is #hdj yards1 and the number of hanks in one pound avoirdupois is the count of the yarn4 ,it is based on the finished yarn1 and singles1 two or three cord yarns of the same number all have the same yards per pound4 ,thus-- ,no4 #ej singles has #db1jjj yards per pound4 ,no4 #ej-b has #db1jjj yards per pound4 ,no4 #ej-c has #db1jjj yards per pound4 ,dyeing ,yarns4 ,generally speaking there are two large classes into which silk goods may be divided1 those in which the threads are colored before weaving and called yarn-dyed goods1 and those dyed or printed after weaving and called piece-dyed or printed goods4 ,in dyeing yarns1 the silk is first ungummed and cleaned by boiling in soap and water1 then washed in cold water4 ,if the thread is to be weighted1 as is frequently done1 tin salts1 iron1 or other heavy material is deposited on the fiber4 ,if carried far1 this is injurious1 making the silk tender and weak4 ,sometimes there is more weighting than silk4 ,yarns are usually dyed in hot liquors1 aniline colors being the ones in most common use to-day1 though other dyes are used for special purposes4 ,some yarns are dyed in the gum1 and some with a part of the gum left in4 ,after dyeing1 they are washed in cold water1 dried1 and wound on spools4 ,silk ,dyeing4 ,silk occupies in several respects an intermediate position between the animal and vegetable fibers4 ,like wool1 it is a highly nitrogenous body1 but contains no sulphur4 ,it readily takes up many of the colors which can be worked upon vegetable fiber by the aid of the mordants4 ,this is particularly the case with reference to a large number of aniline colors1 which require merely to be dissolved and mixed with perfectly clear water in the dye vessel4 ,the great attraction of silk for these colors simplifies silk dyeing exceedingly4 ,the sad colors1 on the other hand1 and especially black1 are in many cases exceedingly complex1 the main object of the dyer being not so much to color the silk as to increase its weight4 ,dyeing black on silk is unquestionably the most important branch of silk dyeing1 and it has probably received more attention than any other branch1 in consequence of which it has been brought to a high degree of perfection4 ,blacks on silks are produced both from natural and artificial coloring matters1 the former having1 so far1 retained their pre-eminence despite the recent discoveries of chemists4 ,for various reasons coal-tar colors have never proved successful in dyeing black on silk4 ,since the discovery of ,america1 logwood blacks have formed the staple of the black-silk dyer1 who has carried their production to a high degree of excellence4 ,but unfortunately1 besides aiming at a high state of perfection in the actual dyeing operation1 the black-silk dyer has also aimed at increasing the weight of the dyed silk1 so that nowadays it is possible for him to receive ten pounds of raw silk and to send out fifty pounds of black silk1 the extra forty pounds being additions made in the process of dyeing4 ,illustration3 ,,winding ,,silk ,,on ,,swifts ,logwood black-silk dyeing consists essentially of alternate dippings in separate baths with the mordant and dyestuffs suitable for producing the required color and weight4 ,the number of dippings and the length of time taken in each operation depend on the intensity of the black wanted and the amount of weighting which is desired4 ,the chief substances used for weighting are lead salts1 catechu1 iron1 and nut-galls1 with soap and oil to soften in some degree the harshness of the fabric which these minerals cause4 ,as the details of the operations are practically the same for all kinds of logwood blacks 7raven1 jet1 crape1 dead black1 etc471 the method for producing one will suffice for all4 ,the process involves several distinct operations1 as follows3 #a4 ,the ,boiling ,off4 ,this is the removal of the gum and natural coloring matter in the silk4 ,it is accomplished by boiling the skeins of silk in water and good olive oil soap for about one hour4 ,this dissolves the gum and leaves the fiber clean and glossy4 #b4 ,mordanting4 ,this is done in a bath of nitrate of iron1 in which the skeins of silk are allowed to remain one hour4 ,the silk gains some in weight in this operation by absorbing a quantity of the iron in the bath4 ,after having been dipped in the first bath three or four times1 it is ready for the soap and iron bath1 in which it is repeatedly immersed1 the operation causing a deposit of iron-soap on the fiber which adds to its weight1 but at the same time does not lessen its flexibility and softness4 ,eight dippings in the iron and soap bath increase the weight of the silk about #ajj per cent4 #c4 ,blue ,bottoming4 ,the next operation is to dye the silk blue1 which is done by immersing it in a solution of potash4 ,in this it is worked for half an hour1 when it acquires a deep blue color4 ,it is then taken out1 and after rinsing is ready for the weighting operations4 #d4 ,weighting ,bath4 ,a catechu bath is now prepared1 in which the silk is entered and worked for an hour1 and then allowed to steep over night4 ,the result is that the blue on the silk is decomposed1 and the goods by absorbing the tannin in the catechu increase in weight from #ce to #dj per cent4 ,this bath is the most important one in the dyeing of weighted black silks1 as the dyer can regulate the strength of the bath by the addition of tin crystals so as to increase the weight of the silk to an astonishing degree4 ,the proportion of tin crystals used is regulated by the number of iron baths that have previously been given the silk2 if two baths of iron have been given1 #e per cent of tin crystals are used2 if four baths1 #aj per cent1 and so on4 ,the action of these chemicals is somewhat complex4 ,all that is known is that by reason of some peculiar quality possessed by silk it is enabled to combine with iron and tin1 and that exposure to the air after the baths fixes these chemicals permanently upon the fibers1 thus increasing their weight to almost any desired extent4 ,silk1 according to its quality and weight1 will take up of these substances from #ej to #bjj per cent without creating much suspicion4 ,instances have been known in which silk has been increased nine times its own weight4 ,all the operations thus far have had for their object the weighting of the silk1 although the blueing and the catechu baths have some influence on the finished result4 ,after these come the dyeing operations proper1 two in number1 mordanting and dyeing4 #e4 ,mordanting4 ,a bath of iron liquor heated to #acj degrees ,f4 is provided4 ,the silk is entered1 worked well for one hour1 then wrung out and hung up to age for two hours1 after which it is ready for the logwood dye4 #f4 ,dyeing4 ,a bath of logwood liquor is prepared to which is added #aj per cent of fustic1 and the solution is brought to a temperature of #aej degrees ,f4 ,in this the silk is entered and worked for an hour1 then taken out and wrung dry4 ,sometimes the black does not come up full enough1 and in such cases the bath is repeated4 #g4 ,the final operation has for its object the restoration of the luster and suppleness of the silk1 which has to some extent deteriorated from the many operations through which it has passed4 ,the brightening and softening of the fiber are effected by immersing the silk in a bath of olive oil in the form of an emulsion4 ,in this the silk is worked until it is thoroughly impregnated with the oil1 when it is taken out and wrung dry1 after which it is ready for the loom4 ,practically the same process is followed in piece dyeing1 though only inferior grades of silk are dyed in the web4 ,colored ,silks4 ,this class of silks is generally purer than black and sad-colored silks4 ,it is not nearly so easy to weight the former as the latter1 for the reason that there are but few substances capable of giving weight which do not interfere with the effect of light colored dyes4 ,the weighting agents most generally used are sugar and acetate of lead4 ,the weighting by sugar is done after the silk is dyed4 ,a solution is made of pure lump sugar by placing it in a large copper pan with water and heating until dissolved4 ,in this bath the silk is thoroughly saturated1 and then dried and finished2 or1 the dipping process may be repeated several times if desired4 ,one dipping will weight the silk about #ab per cent1 two about #bj per cent1 and three about #cj per cent4 ,in a solution of acetate of lead1 each dipping will weight the silk about #h per cent1 and these may be repeated as often as it is wished4 ,in this case the weighting is generally done on the undyed1 boiled-off silk1 although it may be done on the dyed silk if the color is such as will stand the acid4 ,mixed ,silk ,fabrics4 ,until lately silk was invariably dyed in the state of yarn4 ,when the silk was to be woven into mixed fabrics1 such as satin1 gloria1 etc41 it was impossible to dye both fibers exactly the same shade4 ,formerly such fabrics were woven with the cotton and silk yarns dyed separately1 care being taken to match them as closely as possible4 ,the weaving of dyed yarns of different fibers is open to the objection that when the fabric comes to be finished there is a wide difference in the color1 no matter how closely they may have matched in the beginning4 ,ribbons4 ,ribbons are woven several pieces in one loom1 with a separate shuttle for each piece4 ,the shuttle is carried through the shed or warp by a rack and pinion1 instead of being thrown through as in broad goods2 otherwise the weaving is the same4 ,velvets4 ,velvets and other pile fabrics are woven in two pieces1 one over the other1 with the pile threads woven back and forth between them4 ,a knife travels between the two pieces cutting the pile threads so as to leave the ends standing up straight4 ,velvets used to be woven over wires and cut by hand1 but this method is practically obsolete4 ,piece ,dyeing4 ,if the goods are woven with the gum still in the silk1 it must be taken out afterward1 and the goods either dyed in the piece or prepared for printing4 ,printing4 ,the most primitive method of printing is by the use of stencils4 ,it is the method employed by the ,japanese and ,chinese4 ,next came block printing1 which is still extensively used in ,europe4 ,the pattern is raised in felt on wooden blocks1 the color taken up from pads1 one block for each color4 ,the results are good1 but the work is very slow4 ,most silk goods are to-day machine printed4 ,the design is engraved or etched on copper cylinders1 one cylinder for each color2 the color thickened with gum is supplied by rolls running against the cylinders1 and the surplus is scraped off by a knife blade1 leaving only that in the engraving which is taken up by the cloth4 ,after printing1 the cloth is steamed to set the colors1 and then washed in order to remove the gum used to thicken the colors for printing4 ,illustration3 ,,jacquard ,,silk ,,loom ,finishing4 ,all silk goods1 whether yarn dyed or piece dyed or printed1 are given some kind of finish2 sometimes it is no more than is necessary to smooth out the wrinkles4 ,there are many finishing processes by which goods may be treated4 ,they are run through gas flames to singe off loose fiber1 and over steam cylinders to dry and straighten them1 over a great variety of sizing machines to stiffen them with starch or glue4 ,there are calenders or heavy rolls to smooth and iron them1 steam presses of great power to press them out1 breaking and rubbing machines to soften them1 and tentering machines to stretch them to uniform width4 ,there are also moireing or watering1 embossing1 and various other machines for special purposes4 ,waterproofing4 ,one of the worst difficulties with which the manufacturer of piece-dyed and printed silk goods has to contend is the ease with which they become spotted with water1 and for a number of years many people have tried to prevent this by various processes4 ,there are no less than two hundred such processes patented4 ,none of them have met with much success1 as they injured the feel or strength of the goods4 ,after goods are finished they are carefully inspected for imperfections1 measured1 and wrapped in paper and packed in cases for shipment4 ,the complexity and number of processes for treating silk goods may be realized when we know that a piece-dyed or printed fabric is handled its entire length between fifty and one hundred times after it comes from the loom1 sometimes even more4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,principal ,,silk ,,fabrics ,alma4 ,cloth1 double twilled from left to right diagonally1 first made in black only as a mourning fabric4 ,the name is from the ,egyptian1 as applied to a mourner or a singer at a funeral4 ,barge4 ,sheer stuff of silk and wool for veiling1 named from the town of ,barges1 in ,france4 ,bengaline4 ,an imitation of an old silk fabric made for many centuries in ,bengal1 ,india1 whence the name4 ,the weave is similar to that of ordinary rep or poplin1 being a simple round-corded effect4 ,the cord is produced by using a heavy soft-spun woolen weft which is so closely covered by the silk warp threads that it is not exposed when examined from the wrong side4 ,the same weave is also found in all-silk goods1 under the designation of all-silk bengaline4 ,when cheapened by the use of a cotton weft in place of wool the fabric is known as cotton bengaline1 although the cotton is in the filling only4 ,berber4 ,satin-faced fabric of light-weight cloth4 ,it came into favor about the time of the defeat of the ,berbers by ,general ,gordon in his campaign against the ,mahdi in ,north ,africa4 ,brocade4 ,raised figures on a plain ground4 ,brocatel4 ,a kind of brocade used for draperies and upholstery2 usually raised wool figures on a silk ground4 ,bombazine4 ,silk warp1 wool weft1 fine twilled cloth2 originally made in black only for mourning4 ,it is used largely for mourning hat bands4 ,the root of the name is bombyx1 the ,latin for silkworm4 ,chenille4 ,cloth of a fuzzy or fluffy face2 woven of cotton1 silk1 or wool2 used sometimes for dress goods2 more generally for curtains and table covers4 ,chenille is the ,french word for caterpillar1 which the single thread of the cloth resembles4 ,chiffon4 ,a thin1 transparent silk muslin4 ,although one of the thinnest and gauziest of modern silk fabrics1 it is relatively strong considering its lightness4 ,to convey an idea of the fineness of the thread used in its manufacture1 it is stated that one pound of it will extend a distance of eight miles4 ,in the process of finishing the fabric receives a dressing of pure size4 ,there are two styles of finish1 called respectively the demi- or half size and the full size4 ,chiffon finished by full sizing is comparatively stiff2 while the demi-finish produces a softer and lighter texture4 ,it is dyed in a great variety of colors1 and sometimes is printed in delicate patterns4 ,it is especially adapted for home and evening wear1 and is used for neck and sleeve trimming1 drapery over silk foundations1 fancy work1 and millinery4 ,china ,silk4 ,a term applied to plain woven silks manufactured in ,china4 ,the term ,china silk has been adopted in the ,united ,states in recent years for a class of machine-woven silks made in imitation of the hand-loom product4 ,these imitations are narrow in width and lack the soft1 lustrous quality of ,eastern fabrics1 and are also free from the uneven threads4 ,china silks are distinguished by their irregular threads1 caused by some of the threads being heavier than others1 and their extreme softness4 ,the warp and filling are identical in size and color1 and being woven evenly produce a beautiful natural luster4 ,it is generally plain color1 although the figured goods are printed in much the same manner as calico4 ,it is used for gowns1 waists1 underclothing1 etc4 ,it launders as well as white cotton4 ,crpe4 ,a thin1 gauzy fabric1 woven in loose even threads of silk1 heavily sized or gummed1 crimped or crped in the dyeing4 ,crpe was first used in black only as a badge of mourning4 ,it is now an accepted dress fabric1 made in colors and white and of many materials4 ,the name signifies to crimp or crpe with a hot iron4 ,crpe de ,chine4 ,a soft1 lustrous silk crpe1 the surface of which is smoother than that of the ordinary varieties4 ,it is woven as a plain weave with part of the warp threads right twisted and the rest left twisted4 ,it is dyed almost any color and figured or printed4 ,eolienne4 ,sheer cloth of silk1 silk and wool1 or silk and cotton1 woven in fine card effect4 ,the name comes from the ,greek olus1 god of the winds4 ,foulard4 ,plain silk cloth1 sold as dress goods2 originally made for handkerchiefs only4 ,the name is ,french for silk handkerchief4 ,glac4 ,plain1 lustrous silk1 yarn dyed1 with warp of one color1 and weft of another4 ,the name is applied to all fabrics having two tones4 ,glac is ,french for icy1 having an icy appearance4 ,india ,silk4 ,a name applied to the plain woven silks manufactured in ,india on the primitive hand looms4 ,the warp and weft are woven evenly and produce a beautiful natural luster4 ,it is similar to ,china and ,japanese silk4 ,in fact most of these fabrics come from ,china and ,japan1 ,india silk being almost unknown in this country as so little of it is exported4 ,the durability of these silks is about the same1 and there is little difference in the prices4 ,japanese ,silk4 ,a term applied to the plain woven silk manufactured in ,japan4 ,the warp and filling of this fabric are identical in size and color1 and being woven evenly produce a beautiful natural luster4 ,the weave is smooth and soft in quality4 ,it is dyed in plain colors4 ,the figured goods are printed in much the same way as calico4 ,it is used for waists1 gowns1 and fancy underwear4 ,jersey ,cloth4 ,silk jersey cloth is popular at present4 ,it is a knitted silk fabric1 not woven1 and is generally dyed in plain colors4 ,it is expensive and is used for women's dresses1 wraps1 and silk gloves4 ,meteor4 ,crpe de meteor was originally a trade name for crpe de chine1 but now applied to a fabric which is distinguishable from crpe de chine4 ,moire4 ,moire is a waved or watered effect produced upon the surface of various kinds of textile fabrics1 especially on grosgrain silk and woolen moreen4 ,this watered effect is produced by the use of engraved rollers and high pressure on carded material4 ,the object of developing upon woven textiles the effect known as moire is the production of a peculiar luster resulting from the divergent reflection of the light rays on the material1 a divergence brought about by compressing and flattening the warp and filling threads in places1 and so producing a surface the different parts of which reflect the light differently4 ,the moire effect may be obtained on silk1 worsted1 or cotton fabrics1 though it is impossible to develop it on other than a grained or fine corded weave4 ,the pressure applied to the material being uneven1 the grained surface is flattened in the parts desired4 ,in the ,middle ,ages moire was held in high esteem1 and continues to enjoy that distinction down to the present day4 ,it is used for women's dresses1 capes1 and for facings1 trimmings1 etc4 ,mozambique4 ,grenadines1 with large colored flower designs in relief4 ,organzine4 ,silk fabric1 made with warp and filling of the same size4 ,organzine is the name given the twisted silk thread in ,italy1 where it is made4 ,panne4 ,this name is applied to a range of satin-faced velvet or silk fabrics which show a high luster produced by pressure4 ,the word panne is the ,french for plush4 ,peau de ,soie4 ,literally1 skin of silk4 ,a variety of heavy1 soft-finished1 plain-colored dress silk1 woven with a pattern of fine close ribs extending weftwise of the fabric4 ,an eight-shaft satin with one point added to the original spots on the right or left1 imparting to the fabric a somewhat grainy appearance4 ,the best grades of peau de soie present the same appearance on both sides1 being reversible4 ,the lower grades are finished on one side only4 ,plush4 ,long piled fabric of the velvet order4 ,peluch1 the origin of the name1 is ,french for shaggy4 ,pongee4 ,said to be a corruption of ,chinese punchi1 signifying home made or home woven4 ,another suggestion is that the word is a corruption of pun-shih1 a native or wild silk4 ,a soft1 unbleached1 washable silk1 woven from the cocoons of the wild silkworm1 which feeds on the leaves of the scrub oak4 ,immense quantities in a raw state are annually shipped from ,china to this country and ,europe1 where they are bleached1 dyed1 and ornamented with various styles of designs4 ,the name is also applied to a variety of dress goods woven with a wild silk warp and a fine worsted weft4 ,popeline4 ,a ,french name4 ,the ,french fabric is said to have been first introduced during the early part of the sixteenth century at ,avignon1 then a papal diocese1 and to have been so called in compliment to the reigning pope4 ,a fabric constructed with a silk warp and a filling of wool heavier than the silk which gives it a corded surface4 ,poplin manufacture was introduced into ,ireland in #afic by a colony of fugitive ,french ,huguenots4 ,the industry concentrated at ,dublin1 where it has since remained4 ,the ,irish product has been celebrated for its uniformly fine quality4 ,it is always woven on hand looms1 which accounts for the high price it commands in ,english and ,american markets4 ,the wool used is a fine grade of ,cape or ,australian1 which is the most suitable in texture and length of fiber4 ,the silk is unweighted ,chinese organzine4 ,the result is a rich1 handsome fabric resembling whole silk goods in appearance1 but inferior to them in durability and produced at a much less cost4 ,it is used for ladies' waists1 wraps1 and gowns4 ,figured ,poplin4 ,a stout variety1 ornamented in the loom with figures4 ,the ground is composed of clear1 sharp cords extending across the web4 ,it is sometimes woven entirely of silk1 but oftener of silk and wool4 ,used for high-class upholstery purposes1 and for curtains and hangings4 ,terry ,poplin4 ,a silk and wool dress fabric in the construction of which the alternate warps are thrown upon the surface in the form of minute loops4 ,sarsenet4 ,a thin1 soft-finished silk fabric of a veiling kind1 now used as millinery lining4 ,the name comes from the ,arab ,saracens1 who wore it in their head-dress4 ,satin4 ,when satin first appeared in trade in ,southern ,europe it was called aceytuin4 ,the term slipped through early ,italian lips into zetain1 and coming westward the i was dropped1 and smoothed itself into satin4 ,there is evidence that the material was known as early as the fourteenth century in ,england1 and probably in ,france and ,spain previous to that time1 though under other names4 ,in the weaving of most silk fabrics the warp and filling intersect each other every alternate time 7as in plain weaving71 or every third or fourth time 7as in ordinary twill weaving7 in regular order2 but in weaving satin the fine silk warp only appears upon the surface1 the filling being effectually covered up and hidden4 ,instead of making the warp pass under and over the filling every alternate time1 or over two or three filling threads in regular order1 it is made to pass over eight1 ten1 twelve or more filling threads2 then under one and over eight more1 and so on4 ,in passing over the filling1 however1 the warps do not interweave at regular intervals1 which would produce a twill1 but at irregular intervals1 thus producing an even1 close1 smooth surface1 and one capable of reflecting the light to the best advantage4 ,the filling of low grade satin is generally cotton1 while in the better goods it is silk4 ,common satin is what is technically known as an eight-leaf twill1 the order in which the filling thread rises being once in eight times4 ,rich satins may consist of sixteen-leaf to twenty-leaf twills4 ,the cheap qualities of cotton-back satin1 particularly those that sell at wholesale for fifty cents and under1 are not made to any extent in this country1 our manufacturers being unable to compete with foreign mills in these lines4 ,satins are woven with the face downward1 because in weaving1 say a sixteen-leaf satin1 it would be necessary1 were the surface upward1 to keep fifteen heddles raised and one down1 whereas with the face of the cloth under1 only one heddle has to be raised at a time4 ,when first taken from the loom the face of satin is somewhat flossy and rough1 and hence requires to be dressed4 ,this operation consists of passing the pieces over heated metal cylinders which remove the minute fibrous ends1 and also increase the natural brilliance of the silk4 ,cotton-back satins are used by coffin manufacturers1 fancy box makers1 fan makers1 and by the cutting-up trade4 ,rich satins are used in making ladies' gowns and waists4 ,soleil4 ,satin-faced cloth1 woven with a fine line1 a stripe running lengthwise of the piece4 ,it is usually made in solid colors and piece dyed4 ,soleil is ,french for sun1 and applies to the brightness of the finished cloth4 ,taffeta4 ,derived from ,persian taftah4 ,taffeta is one of the oldest weaves known1 silk under this name having been in constant use since the fourteenth century4 ,during this long period the term has been applied at different times to different materials4 ,it is a thin1 glossy silk of plain texture or woven in lines so fine as to appear plain woven4 ,the weave is capable of many effects in the way of shot and changeable arrangements1 which are produced by threads of different colors rather than by any special disposition of warp and filling4 ,taffeta has the same appearance on both sides4 ,it is piece dyed in numberless plain colors1 and also produced in a great variety of ornamental patterns1 such as fancy plaids1 cords1 and stripes 7both printed and woven74 ,the following considerations contribute chiefly to the perfection of taffetas1 viz43 the silk1 the water1 and the fire4 ,the silk must not only be of the finest kind1 but it must be worked a long time before it is used4 ,the watering1 which is given lightly by any acidulous fluid1 is intended to produce the fine luster1 and lastly1 the fire and pressure which have a particular manner of application4 ,its wearing qualities are not of the best4 ,the cloth cracks or breaks1 especially if plaited4 ,it is used for gowns1 shirtwaists1 linings1 petticoats1 etc4 ,tulle4 ,openwork silk net2 made on the pillow as lace by young women of ,tulle1 ,france4 ,velour4 ,french for velvet4 ,a trade term of somewhat loose application1 being used indiscriminately to describe a great variety of textures so constructed or finished as to present a velvet-like surface4 ,it is usually a velvety fabric made of coarse wool yarn and silk4 ,velour is woven with a coarse stiff pile after the manner of plush2 while at present it is made of jute1 cotton1 and worsted1 it was originally constructed of linen4 ,it is produced in numberless forms1 both plain and in fancy effects4 ,velvet4 ,from the ,italian velluto1 feeling woolly to the touch1 as a woolly pelt or hide4 ,fine velvet is made wholly of silk4 ,velveteen4 ,an imitation velvet1 made of cotton1 usually with plain back1 not twilled1 as silk velvet4 ,tabby ,velvet4 ,the lowest grade of cotton velvet1 used for covering cheap coffin lining cases1 sold by the inch in widths which range from sixteen to thirty-two inches4 ,originally made in ,bagdad for wall covering1 its name being derived from a section of that city4 ,voile4 ,from the ,french voile1 meaning a veil1 a light fabric usually more or less transparent1 intended to conceal the features in whole or in part or to serve as a screen against sunlight1 dust1 insects1 etc41 or to emphasize or preserve the beauty4 ,the custom of wearing veils had its origin in the early ages in the desire of semi-savage man to hide away the woman of his choice1 and is a survival of the ancient custom of hiding women that is found even down to the present day in ,eastern countries4 ,voile is a transparent1 wiry material with a square mesh4 ,,chapter ,,xix ,,artificial ,,silk ,silk ,cotton4 ,on account of the high price of silk various attempts have been made to find satisfactory substitutes for it4 ,there are certain seed coverings of plants that contain very fine hair-like fibers with a luster almost equal to silk1 but the staples are short1 and the texture weak4 ,the ,kapok plant furnishes most of the commercial silk cotton on the market4 ,the fibers of ,kapok are thin and transparent4 ,they are extremely light1 and the length is less than half an inch4 ,silk cotton has a smooth surface and therefore cannot be spun like true cotton which has corded edges4 ,artificial ,silk4 ,since seed hairs are composed1 like all vegetable fibers1 of cellulose1 attempts have been made to prepare an artificial silk product from waste paper--that is1 by treating waste paper or wood or cotton fibers with various chemicals in order to obtain pure cellulose4 ,this artificial silk is perhaps the most interesting of artificial fibers1 but its manufacture is dangerous1 owing to the ease with which it catches fire and explodes4 ,cellulose1 chemically treated1 can be transformed into a fluid solution known as collodion4 ,the collodion is placed in steel cylinders and expelled by pressure through capillary tubes4 ,after drying1 denitration1 and washing1 it may be spun and dyed like natural silk4 ,colored threads may be produced by the addition of certain dyes4 ,artificial silk bears a deceptive resemblance to the natural article1 and has nearly the same luster4 ,it lacks the tensile strength and elasticity1 and is of higher specific gravity than true silk4 ,tests4 ,a simple way of recognizing artificial silk is by testing the threads under moisture1 as follows3 ,first1 unravel a few threads of the suspected fabric1 place them in the mouth and masticate them vigorously4 ,artificial silk readily softens under this operation and breaks up into minute particles1 and when pulled between the fingers shows no thread1 but merely a mass of cellulose or pulp4 ,natural silk1 no matter how thoroughly masticated1 will retain its fibrous strength4 ,the artificial silk offers no resistance to the teeth1 which readily go through it2 whereas natural silk resists the action of the teeth4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,,substitutes ,,for ,,cotton ,on account of the high price of cotton various experiments have been made in an effort to replace it with fiber from wood pulp1 grasses1 leaves1 and other plants4 ,wood ,pulp4 ,a ,frenchman has discovered a process1 la soyeuse1 of making spruce wood pulp into a substitute for cotton4 ,although it is called a substitute1 the samples show that it takes dye1 bleaching1 and finishing more brilliantly than the cotton fiber4 ,it resists boiling in water or caustic potash solution for some minutes1 and does not burn more quickly than cotton4 ,the fiber can be made of any length1 as is also the case with artificial silk4 ,the strength of the yarn apparently exceeds cotton1 and the cost of manufacture is much lower4 ,arrangements are being made in ,europe for the extensive production of this fiber4 ,ramie4 ,ramie or ,china grass is a soft1 silky1 and extremely strong fiber4 ,it grows in southwestern ,asia1 is cultivated commercially in ,china1 ,formosa1 and ,japan1 and is a fiber of increasing importance4 ,ramie is a member of the nettle family and attains a height of from four to eight feet4 ,after the stalks are cleaned of a gummy substance1 insoluble in water1 it is known as ,china grass1 and is used in ,china for summer clothing4 ,in ,europe and ,america by the use of modern machinery and chemical processes the fiber is cleaned effectively and cheaply4 ,after it is bleached and combed it makes a fine silky fiber1 one-half the weight of linen1 and three times stronger than hemp4 ,it is used in ,europe to make fabrics that resemble silk1 and is also used in making underwear and velvets4 ,with other fabrics it is employed as a filling for woolen warps4 ,it will probably be used widely in the ,united ,states as soon as cheaper methods of cleaning are devised4 ,pineapple and ,other ,fibers4 ,other fibers1 of which that from the pineapple is the most important1 are used for textile purposes in ,china1 ,south ,america1 parts of ,africa1 ,mexico1 and ,central ,america4 ,their use has not been extensive on account of high cost of production4 ,the silk from the pineapple is very light and of excellent quality4 ,spun ,glass4 ,when a glass rod is heated in a flame until perfectly soft it can be drawn out in the form of very fine threads which may be used in the production of handsome silky fabrics4 ,spun glass can be produced in colors2 but on account of the low elasticity of these products1 their practical value is small1 though the threads are exceedingly uniform and have beautiful luster4 ,spun glass is used by chemists for filtering strong acid solutions4 ,a kind of glass wool is produced by drawing out to a capillary thread two glass rods of different degrees of hardness4 ,on cooling they curl up1 in consequence of the different construction of the two constituent threads4 ,metallic ,threads4 ,metallic threads have always been used for decorating1 particularly in rich fabrics4 ,fine golden threads1 as well as silver gilt threads1 and silver threads and copper wire1 have been used in many of the so-called ,cyprian gold thread fabrics1 so renowned for their beauty and permanence in the ,middle ,ages4 ,these threads are now produced by covering flax or hemp threads with a gilt of fine texture4 ,slag ,wool4 ,slag wool is obtained by allowing molten slag 7generally from iron7 to run into a pan fitted with a steam injector which blows the slag into fibers4 ,the fibers are cooled by running them through water1 and the finished product is used as a packing material4 ,asbestos4 ,asbestos is a silicate of magnesium and lime1 containing in addition iron and aluminum4 ,it is found in ,savoy1 the ,pyrenees1 ,northern ,italy1 ,canada1 and some parts of the ,united ,states4 ,asbestos usually occurs in white or greenish glassy fibers1 sometimes combined in a compact mass1 and sometimes easily separable1 elastic1 and flexible4 ,canadian asbestos is almost pure white1 and has long fibers4 ,asbestos can be spun into fine thread and woven into rope or yarn1 but as it is difficult to spin these fibers alone1 they are generally mixed with a little cotton1 which is afterwards disposed of by heating the finished fabric to incandescence4 ,because of its incombustible nature asbestos is used where high temperatures are necessary1 as in the packing of steam joints1 steam cylinders1 hot parts of machines1 and for fire curtains in theatres1 hotels1 etc4 ,it is difficult to dye4 ,,appendix ,testing ,textile ,fabrics4 ,this is an age of adulteration1 and next to food there is probably no commodity that is adulterated as much as the clothing we wear4 ,large purchasers of textile fabrics and various administrative bodies1 such as army clothing departments1 railway companies1 etc41 have adopted definite specifications to ensure having good material and workmanship4 ,before the fabrics are accepted they are examined carefully by certain tests to see if they meet the requirements4 ,wholesale and retail merchants insist on various conditions when purchasing fabrics in order to conform to the increasing needs of the public4 ,hence every manufacturer1 buyer1 or dealer in fabrics should be familiar with the tests used to determine the quality of goods he is about to buy4 ,the tests used are as follows3 #a4 ,identification of the style of weaving4 #b4 ,testing the breaking strength and the elasticity by the dynamometer4 #c4 ,determining the count of warp and filling4 #d4 ,determining the shrinkage4 #e4 ,testing the constituents of warp and of filling4 #f4 ,testing the finish and dressing materials4 #g4 ,testing the fastness of the dye4 ,directions for ,determining the ,style of ,weave4 ,in examining a fabric for the weave it is first necessary to determine the direction of the warp and filling threads4 ,this is a very simple matter in a great many fabrics that have a selvedge--the warp must be parallel to the selvedge4 ,in fabrics that have been fulled1 raised1 and cropped1 as buckskin1 flannel1 etc41 the direction of the nap will indicate the direction of the warp1 since the nap runs in this direction4 ,in the case of fabrics with doubled and single threads1 the doubled threads are always found in the warp4 ,in fabrics composed of cotton and woolen threads running in different directions1 the cotton yarn usually forms the warp and the woolen yarn the filling4 ,then again the warp threads of all fabrics are more tightly twisted than the filling threads1 and are separated at more regular intervals4 ,sometimes in stiffened or starched goods threads running in only one direction can be seen4 ,in this case they are the warp threads4 ,if one set of threads appears stiffer and straighter than the other1 the former may be regarded as warp1 while the rough and crooked threads are the filling4 ,the yarn also gives one a hint1 since the better1 longer1 and higher number material constitutes the warp1 while the thicker yarn the filling4 ,the direction of the twist of the thread is conclusive2 if one set has a strong right twist and the other a left twist the first is the warp4 ,after determining the direction of the warp and filling1 the next point is to determine the interlacing of the warp and filling threads--the weave4 ,this may be done by inspection or by means of a pick-glass and needle4 ,the weave may be plotted on design paper 7plotting paper71 the projecting warp threads being indicated by filling up the corresponding square1 and leaving those referring to the filling threads blank4 ,in this way the weaving pattern of the sample is obtained1 and serves as a guide to the weaver in making the fabric1 as well as for the preparation of the pattern cards for the ,jacquard loom4 ,testing the ,strength and ,elasticity of a ,fabric4 ,the old-fashioned plan of testing cloth by tearing it by the hand is unreliable1 because tearing frequently requires only a certain skilled knack whereby the best material can be pulled in two4 ,in this way an experienced man may tell good from bad cloth1 but he cannot determine slight differences in quality1 because he has exerted his strength so often that his capacity to distinguish the actual force has disappeared4 ,the best means of determining the strength of a fabric is by means of a mechanical dynamometer1#ai which expresses the tensile strength of the fabric in terms of weight4 ,the machine is very useful to the manufacturer because it enables him to compare accurately his various products with those of his competitors4 ,the value of these tests is sufficiently proved by the fact that all army clothing departments1 etc41 require their supplies of cloth1 etc41 to pass a definite test for strength4 ,breaking tests also afford the most certain proof to bleachers of cotton and linen goods as to whether the bleaching has burned or weakened the goods4 ,the same test will quickly determine whether a fabric has been improperly treated in the laundry4 ,determining the ,count of ,warp and ,filling ,threads4 ,every fabric must contain a certain count of warp and filling threads--a definite number within a certain space for each strength of yarn employed4 ,a fabric is not up to the standard of density when less than the requisite number of warp or filling threads per inch is found4 ,for example1 if a buyer was told that a fabric is #hj square1 that is1 eighty warp threads and eighty filling threads to the inch1 and on examination found only #gb square1 he would immediately reject the goods4 ,the count of warp and filling is determined by means of a pick-glass--a small mounted magnifying glass--the base of which contains an opening of one-half inch by one quarter inch1 or one quarter inch by one quarter inch4 ,if the pick-glass is placed on the fabric the number of warp and filling threads may be counted1 and the result multiplied by either two or four1 so as to give the number of threads to the inch4 ,for example1 if ,i count twenty picks and twenty threads on a one quarter-inch edge1 there are eighty picks and eighty threads to the inch4 ,a more accurate result can be obtained by using a pick-glass with a one-inch opening4 ,determination of ,shrinkage4 ,a very important factor in the value of a fabric is the shrinkage4 ,the extent of this may be determined by pouring hot water over a sample of about twelve by twenty inches1 and leaving the fabric immersed over night1 then drying it at a moderate temperature without stretching4 ,the difference in length gives the shrinkage1 which is usually expressed in percentage4 ,determination of ,weight4 ,buyers and sellers of dry goods1 when traveling1 are anxious to determine the weight of fabrics they examine4 ,this may be done by means of small pocket balances so constructed as to give the number of ounces to the yard of a fabric4 ,testing the ,constituents of the ,warp and ,filling4 ,take a sample piece of the cloth to be examined--the piece must be large enough to contain specimens of all the different kinds of yarn present in the material--and separate all the filling and warp threads4 ,be sure that all double threads are untwisted4 ,combustion ,test2 ,test for ,vegetable and ,animal ,fibers4 ,burn separately a sample of the untwisted warp and filling threads4 ,if one or both burn quickly without a greasy odor1 they are vegetable fibers1 cotton or linen4 ,if one or both burn slowly and give off a greasy odor1 they are animal fibers1 wool or silk4 ,this test is not conclusive1 and further chemical examination--acid test--must be made to ascertain whether wool is pure or mixed with cotton4 ,acid ,test4 ,the vegetable fibers1 cotton and linen1 are distinguished from those of animal origin by their behavior in the presence of acids and alkalies4 ,the vegetable are insoluble when boiled with a #d per cent sodium hydrate solution1 but readily clear or carbonize when saturated with a #c per cent sulphuric acid solution and allowed to dry at a high temperature in a hot closet4 ,wool on the other hand is not affected by the action of weak sulphuric acid4 ,cotton ,distinguished from ,linen4 ,if the fibers are vegetable1 cotton may be distinguished from linen by staining the fibers with fuchsine4 ,if the fibers turn red1 and this coloration disappears on the addition of ammonia1 they are cotton1 if the red color remains the fibers are linen4 ,whenever cotton yarn is used to adulterate other fabrics1 it wears shabby and loses its brightness4 ,when it is used to adulterate linen1 it becomes fuzzy through wear4 ,one may detect it in linen by rolling the goods between thumb and finger4 ,linen is a heavier fabric1 and wrinkles much more readily than cotton4 ,it wears better1 and has an exquisite freshness that is not noticed in cotton fabrics4 ,silk ,distinguished from ,wool4 ,place the fabric or threads containing animal fibers in cold1 concentrated hydrochloric acid4 ,if silk is present it will dissolve1 while wool merely swells4 ,artificial ,silk from ,silk4 ,on account of the low value of the artificial and the high value of genuine silk1 there is a tendency to offer the artificial instead of the pure article4 ,test3 ,when artificial silk is boiled in #d per cent potassium hydrate solution it produces a yellow solution1 while pure silk gives a colorless solution4 ,a common test is to put the artificial silk in water1 where it will pull apart as though rotten2 or to take out one strand of the silk1 hold it between the finger and thumb of each hand and wet the middle of the strand with the tongue1 when it will pull apart as though rotten4 ,artificial silk is inferior in strength and elasticity to pure silk4 ,then again it is lacking in the crackling feeling noticed in handling the genuine article4 ,test for ,shoddy4 ,it is no easy matter to detect shoddy in woolen fabrics2 the color of the shoddy threads is the best evidence4 ,many parcels of rags are of one single color1 but for the most part they are made of various colored wools2 therefore1 if on examination of a fabric with a magnifying glass a yarn of any particular color is found to contain a number of individual fibers of glaring colors1 the presence of shoddy can be assumed with certainty4 ,woolen goods containing cotton are seldom made from natural wool4 ,shoddy yarns1 especially in winter goods1 are found in the under-filling at the reverse side of the cloth1 as thick1 tightly twisted yarns1 curlier than those from the pure wool4 ,determination of the ,dressing4 ,during the various operations of washing1 bleaching1 etc41 the goods lose in weight1 and to make up this deficit a moderate amount of dressing or loading is employed4 ,dressing is not regarded as an adulteration1 but as an embellishment4 ,various dressing materials are used1 such as starch1 flour1 mineral matters1 to give the goods stiffness and feel on one hand1 and on the other to conceal defects in the cloth1 and to give a solid appearance to goods of open texture4 ,the mineral substances used serve chiefly for filling and weighting1 and necessitate the employment of a certain quantity of starch1 etc4 ,in order that the latter may not render the cloth too stiff and hard1 further additions of some emollient1 such as glycerine1 oils1 etc41 are necessary4 ,when a fabric filled in this manner is placed in water and rubbed between the hands1 the dressing is removed1 and the quantity employed can be easily determined4 ,by holding fabrics before the light dressing will be recognized1 and such goods1 if rubbed between the fingers1 will lose their stiffness4 ,loading is revealed by the production of dust on rubbing1 and by the aid of the magnifying glass it can be easily ascertained whether the covering or dressing is merely superficial or penetrates into the substance of the fabric4 ,the tests of permanence of dyes on fabrics are as follows3 ,washing ,fastness4 ,fabrics should stand mechanical friction as well as the action of soap liquor and the temperature of the washing operation4 ,in order to test the fabric for fastness a piece should be placed in a soap solution similar to that used in the ordinary household1 and heated to #aca degrees ,f4 ,the treatment should be repeated several times4 ,if the color fails to run it is fast to washing4 ,fastness ,under ,friction4 ,stockings1 hosiery yarns1 corset stuffs1 and all fabrics intended to be worn next to the skin must be permanent under friction1 and must not rub off1 stain1 or run1 that is1 the dyed materials must not give off their color when worn next to the human epidermis 7skin71 or in close contact with colored articles of clothing1 as in the case of underwear4 ,the simplest test is to rub the fabric or yarn on white unstarched cotton fabric4 ,in comparing the fastness of two fabrics it is necessary to have the rubbing equal in all cases4 ,resistance to ,perspiration4 ,with fabrics coming in contact with the human skin it is necessary in addition to fastness under friction that they should withstand the excretions of the body4 ,the acids of perspiration 7acetic1 formic1 and butyric7 often become so concentrated that they act on the fiber of the fabric4 ,in order to test the fabric for resistance1 place the sample in a bath of #cj per cent dilute acetic acid 7one teaspoonful to a quart of water7 warmed to the temperature of the body1 #ih4f degrees ,f4 ,the sample should be dipped a number of times1 and then dried without rinsing between parchment paper4 ,fastness against ,rain4 ,silk and woolen materials for umbrella making1 raincoats1 etc41 are expected to be rainproof4 ,these fabrics are tested by plaiting with undyed yarns and left to stand all night in cold water4 ,resistance to ,street ,mud and ,dust4 ,ladies' dress goods are expected to withstand the action of mud and dust4 ,in order to test a fabric for this resistance the sample should be moistened with lime and water 7#aj per cent solution71 dried1 and brushed4 ,or sprinkle with a #aj per cent solution of soda1 drying1 brushing1 and noting any changes in color4 ,fastness to ,weather1 ,light1 and ,air4 ,various people have attempted to set up standard degrees of fastness--for every shade of color is affected by the action of sun1 light1 and air--and as a result fabrics that remain without appreciable alteration for a month of exposure to direct summer sunlight are classified as fast1 and those undergoing slight appreciable change under the same conditions as fairly fast4 ,moderately fast colors are those altering considerably in fourteen days2 and those more or less completely faded in the same time 7fourteen days7 are designated as fleeting4 ,directions for testing fastness of ,color in ,sunlight4 ,cover one end of the sample of cloth with a piece of cardboard4 ,expose the fabric to the sunlight for a number of days and examine the cloth each day in the dark and notice whether the part exposed has changed in color when compared with the part covered4 ,count the number of days it has taken the sunlight to change the color4 ,brown in woolen materials is likely to fade4 ,brown holds its color in all gingham materials4 ,dark blue is an excellent color for woolens and ginghams4 ,light blues on the other hand usually change4 ,black1 gray1 and black with white4 ,these colors are very satisfactory for woolen materials4 ,black is not a color which wears very well with cotton fabrics1 as it shows the starch 7sizing7 and often fades4 ,red is an excellent color for all woolen materials4 ,it looks attractive and wears well4 ,red is a very poor color for cotton4 ,it loses its brilliancy and frequent washing spoils it4 ,a deep pink is an excellent color for all ginghams for it fades evenly and leaves a pretty shade4 ,green is a poor color for both cotton and woolen materials unless it is high priced4 ,lavender fades more than any other color in textiles4 ,,history ,,of ,,textiles ,the three fundamental industries that have developed from necessity are the feeding1 sheltering1 and clothing of the human race4 ,these primary wants were first gratified before such conveniences as transportation and various lines of manufacture were even considered4 ,next to furnishing our food supply1 the industry of supplying clothing is the oldest and the most widely diffused4 ,it is in the manufacture of textiles--including all materials used in the manufacturing of clothing--that human ingenuity is best illustrated4 ,the magnitude of the textile industry in the ,united ,states is evident when we consider that it gives employment to a round million of people1 paying them nearly five hundred million dollars annually in wages and salaries1 producing nearly one and three-quarters billion dollars in gross value each year1 and giving a livelihood to at least three millions of our population4 ,wool1 cotton1 flax1 and silk have been used since early times4 ,even in the earlier days these fibers were woven with great skill4 ,it is not known which fiber was the first to be used in weaving4 ,it is probable1 however1 that the possession of flocks and herds led to the spinning and weaving of wool before cotton1 flax1 or silk fibers were thus used4 ,wool4 ,the date at which prehistoric man discarded the pelt of skins for the woven fabric of wool marks the origin of the textile industry4 ,primitive sheep were covered with hair and the wool which now characterizes them was then a downy under-coat4 ,as time went on and the art of spinning and weaving developed1 the food value of sheep decreased1 while the wool value increased4 ,the hairy flocks were bred out1 and the sheep with true wool1 like the merino1 survived4 ,sheep were bred principally for the wool and not for the mutton4 ,woolen fabrics were worn by the early inhabitants of ,persia and ,palestine4 ,the ,persians were noted for the excellent fabrics they wove from wool4 ,even the ,hebrews of an early date were very skilful in weaving woolens4 ,the early ,romans were a race of shepherds and the women of the higher classes wove the cloth in their own homes4 ,when ,caesar invaded ,england1 he found in the southern part of the island people acquainted with the spinning and weaving of wool and linen4 ,with the downfall of ,rome1 the art of weaving cloth in ,europe was almost lost1 and people again wore furs and skins4 ,by the end of the eleventh century ,english cloth manufacturing had begun to revive4 ,in the northern part of ,italy certain ,italians had flocks of sheep and obtained very fine wool1 and the people of ,flanders continued to develop skill in weaving during the ,dark ,ages4 ,in the twelfth century the woolen manufacturers of ,flanders had grown to be of great importance1 and some of the finest goods were shipped from there to many countries4 ,in ,england1 up to the time of ,edward ,,iii1 in the fourteenth century1 the wool produced was exported to the ,netherlands1 there to be woven into cloth4 ,edward ,,iii invited many of the ,flemish weavers to come to ,england to teach the ,english people how to make their own clothes4 ,edward was called the ,royal ,wool ,merchant and also the ,father of ,english ,commerce4 ,during ,elizabeth's reign in the sixteenth century the chief article of export was woolen cloth4 ,in #afhe the ,huguenots1 who were driven from ,france1 went to ,england to settle4 ,these people were noted for their skill in weaving4 ,patient effort in care and breeding of sheep showed a steady increase in the quantity and quality of wool until #ahaj1 and the proportion of sheep to the population was then greater than at the present time4 ,our own climate is highly favorable for sheep breeding1 and it is certain that the ,american sheep has no superior in any wool growing country1 in constitutional vigor and strength of wool-fiber1 and no wools make more durable or more valuable clothing4 ,the obstacles to sheep husbandry in certain parts of the ,united ,states1 like ,new ,england1 are mainly climatic4 ,the natural home of the only races of sheep which can be herded in large flocks is an elevated tableland1 like the steppes of ,russia and the great plains of ,asia1 ,argentina1 ,montana1 ,wyoming1 and others of our western states where an open air range is possible for nearly twelve months in the year4 ,in these elevated lands there are grasses which are more nutritious in winter than in summer4 ,the climate of ,new ,england does not permit the growth of such grasses4 ,every grass which will grow in ,new ,england becomes in the cold months frozen wood fiber4 ,then again there is the frigid and penetrating atmosphere which necessitates housing the sheep in winter1 and these animals cannot be closely housed without engendering a variety of parasitic diseases4 ,cotton4 ,long before history was written1 cotton was used in making fabrics in ,india and ,china4 ,cotton has been for thousands of years the leading fabric of the ,east4 ,the ,hindoos have for centuries maintained almost unapproachable perfection in their cotton fabrics4 ,it was the ,arabian caravans that brought ,indian calicoes and muslins into ,europe4 ,cotton was first cultivated in ,europe by the ,moors in ,spain in the ninth century4 ,in #adcj it was imported into ,england in large quantities4 ,the section of ,england about ,manchester became in time the seat of the great cotton industry2 this was due to the settlement of spinners and weavers from ,flanders4 ,during the reign of ,elizabeth1 the ,east ,indies ,trading ,company was established4 ,not only was cotton imported1 but also ,india muslins4 ,this caused trouble because of the decrease in the demand for woolen goods manufactured in ,england4 ,a law was passed prohibiting the importing of cotton goods and later the manufacturing of them1 but this law was repealed on account of the great demand for cotton materials4 ,columbus found cotton garments worn by the natives of the ,west ,indies4 ,later ,cortez found that cotton was used in ,mexico2 hence1 cotton is indigenous to ,america4 ,in #aeai ,cortez made the first recorded export of cotton from ,america to ,europe4 ,in #agcd cotton was planted in ,georgia4 ,bales of cotton were sent to ,england1 and the manufacturing of cloth was soon under way4 ,while the colonies were trying to gain independence1 ,england imposed a fine on anyone sending cotton machinery to ,america1 and restrictions were put on manufacturing and imports of any kind4 ,after the ,war of ,independence many of the southern states began to raise cotton in larger quantities4 ,the invention of the cotton-gin by ,eli ,whitney was one of the great inventions of the age4 ,while only two pounds of cotton could be seeded by hand by one person in a day1 the gin made it possible to do several hundred pounds4 ,at the time of the ,civil ,war the greater part of the cotton used by ,english manufacturers was imported from the southern states4 ,the closing of the southern ports during the war affected the cotton industry throughout the world4 ,large mills in ,england were closed1 and thousands of people were out of employment4 ,steps were then taken to encourage people of ,india1 ,egypt1 ,central and ,south ,america to increase their production of cotton1 and from that time on1 cotton from these countries has been found in the general market4 ,cotton is now cultivated in nearly all countries within the limits #de north and #ce south of the equator4 ,at the present time the ,united ,states ranks first in the production and export of cotton4 ,of all the states1 ,texas and ,georgia produce the largest amount4 ,about one-third of the entire crop is used in our own mills2 #bej1jjj1jjj worth of cotton is annually exported1 principally through ,new ,orleans1 ,new ,york1 ,savannah1 and ,galveston4 ,three-fifths of this quantity goes to mills in ,england2 ,germany1 ,france1 and ,switzerland take a large part of the remainder4 ,the value of cotton is shown by the fact that about one-half the people of the earth wear clothing made entirely of cotton1 and the other half 7with the exception of some savage tribes7 use it in part of the dress4 ,linen4 ,linen has always been held in great esteem4 ,the garments of the ,egyptian1 ,hebrew1 ,greek1 and ,roman priests were made of the finest linen4 ,during the ,middle ,ages1 ,italy1 ,spain1 and ,france were celebrated for their linen fabrics4 ,religious intolerance in ,france drove #cjj1jjj of her best textile workers into ,england1 ,ireland1 and ,scotland4 ,irish linen weaving began as early as the eleventh century4 ,linen has never been largely woven in ,america except in the coarser forms of crash and toweling1 although linen weaving was one of the ,puritan domestic industries4 ,the reason ,america has not been able to equal ,europe in its production of fine linens is because the process for separating the fiber from the stalk requires the cheapest form of labor to make it profitable1 hence most of the ,american-grown flax is raised only for seed4 ,silk4 ,silk was used in the ,east as a fabric for the nobility4 ,it was first used in ,china and later in ,india4 ,it was brought into ,europe about the sixth century4 ,up to that time the ,chinese had a monopoly of the industry4 ,by the tenth and eleventh centuries silk fabrics were made in ,spain and ,italy4 ,at the close of the sixteenth century silk was being produced at ,lyons1 ,france4 ,it was afterwards introduced into ,england1 and the ,english silk for a long time replaced the ,french in the ,european market4 ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,organization ,,of ,,textile ,,industries ,the development of the textile industry may be divided into four stages or periods3 first1 the family system2 second1 the guild system2 third1 the domestic system2 and fourth1 the factory system4 ,the ,family ,system4 ,under the family system the work of spinning and weaving was carried on by members of a household for the purpose of supplying the family with clothing4 ,there were no sales of the product4 ,each class in society1 from the peasant class to that of the nobleman1 had its own devices for making clothing4 ,this was the system that existed up to about the tenth century4 ,the ,guild ,system4 ,as communities became larger and cities sprang up1 the textile industry became more than a family concern4 ,there was a demand for better fabrics1 and to meet this demand it became necessary to have a large supply of different parts of looms4 ,the small weaver who owned and constructed his own loom was not able to have all these parts1 so he began to work for a more prosperous weaver4 ,the same conditions applied to spinning1 and as early as #agdj spinning was carried on by a class distinct from the weavers4 ,as a result the small weaver was driven out by the growth of organized capital1 and a more perfect organization1 called the guild system1 arose4 ,by this system the textile industry was carried on by a small group of men called masters1 employing two1 three or more men 7distinguished later as journeymen and apprentices74 ,the masters organized associations called guilds and dominated all the conditions of the manufacture to a far greater extent than is possible under present conditions4 ,it was the family system that existed in the ,american colonies at the beginning of the settlement1 and for many years after4 ,the guild system was not adopted in ,america because it was going out of existence on the ,continent4 ,the ,domestic ,period4 ,by the middle of the eighteenth century the textile industry began to break away from the guilds and spread from cities to the rural districts4 ,the work was still carried on in the master's house1 although he had lost the economic independence that he had under the old guild system where he acted both as merchant and manufacturer4 ,he now received his raw material from the merchant and disposed of the finished goods to a middleman1 who looked after the demands of the market4 ,the ,factory ,system4 ,the domestic period was in turn crowded out of existence by the factory system4 ,a factory is a place where goods are produced by power for commercial use4 ,the factory system first came into prominence after the invention of the steam engine4 ,no record has been found showing its existence prior to this invention4 ,english weavers and spinners became very skilful and invented different mechanical aids for the production of yarn and cloth4 ,these mechanical aids not only enabled one man to do twenty men's work1 but further utilization was made of water and steam power in place of manual labor4 ,then began the organization of the industry on a truly gigantic scale1 combining capital and machinery and resulting in what is known as the factory system4 ,previous to the development of the factory system there was no reason why any industry should be centered in one particular district4 ,upon the utilization of steam power the textile industry became subdivided into a number of industries1 each one becoming to a great extent localized in convenient and suitable portions of the country4 ,thus in ,bradford the wool of ,yorkshire 7,england7 meets the coal of ,yorkshire and makes ,bradford the great woolen and worsted center of the world4 ,the same thing took place in ,manchester1 where the cotton of ,america meets the coal of ,england under satisfactory climatic conditions1 and around ,manchester is the greatest cotton manufacturing of the world4 ,the same is true in ,america4 ,lawrence became a large worsted center on account of the great fall of water and the use of the river to deposit wool washings4 ,lowell1 ,fall ,river1 and ,new ,bedford became large cotton centers for similar reasons4 ,,history ,,of ,,manufacturing ,illustration3 ,,spinning ,,whorl ,one of the earliest devices used for spinning ,spinning4 ,spinning and weaving are two of the earliest arts practised by man4 ,yarn for the making of cloth was spun in the earliest times by the use of the distaff and spindle4 ,the spindle was a round stick of wood a foot or less in length1 tapering at each end4 ,a ring of stone or clay was placed on the spindle to give it steadiness and momentum when it revolved4 ,at the top of the spindle was a slit or notch in which the yarn was caught4 ,the distaff was a larger1 stouter stick1 around one end of which the material to be spun was wound in a loose ball4 ,the spinner fixed the end of the distaff under her left arm so that the coil of material was in a convenient position for drawing out to form the yarn4 ,the end of the yarn1 after being prepared1 was inserted in the notch1 and the spindle was set in motion by rolling it with the right hand against the leg4 ,then the spinner drew from the distaff an additional amount of fiber1 which was formed by the right hand into uniform strands4 ,after the yarn was twisted1 it was released from the notch and wound around the lower part of the spindle4 ,in order to spin yarn by the primitive spinner1 it was necessary for the fiber to have sufficient length to enable it to be manipulated1 drawn over1 and twisted by the fingers4 ,it is noted that the yarns for the gossamer-like ,dacca muslins of ,india were so fine that one pound of cotton was spun into a thread #bec miles long4 ,this was accomplished with the aid of a bamboo spindle not much bigger than a darning needle1 which was lightly weighted with a pellet of clay4 ,since such a slender thread could not support even the weight of so slight a spindle1 the apparatus was rotated upon a piece of hollow shell4 ,it thus appears that the primitive spinners with distaff and spindle had nothing to learn in point of fineness from even the most advanced methods of spinning by machinery4 ,illustration3 ,,hand ,,spinning ,from a ,fourteenth ,century ,,ms4 in the ,british ,museum ,certain rude forms of the spinning wheel seem to have been known from time immemorial4 ,the use of the wheel in ,europe cannot1 however1 be dated back earlier than the fifteenth century4 ,in the primitive wheel the spindle1 having a groove worked in its whorl1 was mounted horizontally in a framework fixed to the end of a bench4 ,a band passed around the whorl and was carried around a large wheel fixed farther back on the bench1 and this wheel1 being turned by the hand of the spinner1 gave a rapid rotation to the spindle4 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,ancient ,,loom ,from an ,egyptian ,monument ,the fibers to be spun were first combed out by means of carding boards--an implement of unknown antiquity1 consisting of two boards with wire teeth set in them at a uniform angle4 ,the fiber to be carded was thinly spread upon one of the boards1 and then the other was pushed backward and forward across it1 the teeth of the two overlapping at opposite angles1 until the fibers were combed out and laid straight in parallel lines4 ,the fibers were then scraped off the boards in rollers or cardings about twelve inches long and three-quarters of an inch in diameter4 ,an end of the carding was then attached to the spindle and the wheel set in motion4 ,the carding itself was held in the hand of the spinner and gradually drawn out and twisted by the rotation of the spindle4 ,as soon as a sufficient length had been attenuated and twisted to the required fineness1 the thread so produced was held at right angles to the spindle and allowed to wind up on it4 ,but for fine spinning two operations of the wheel were generally necessary4 ,by the first spinning the fibers were drawn out and slightly attenuated into what was called a roving1 and by the second spinning the roving itself passed through a similar cycle of operations to bring it to the required degree of attenuation and twist4 ,many improvements in the primitive wheel were introduced from time to time4 ,in its later developments two spindles were employed1 the spinner being thus enabled to manipulate two threads at once1 one in each hand4 ,this was the latest form of the spinning-wheel1 and it survived until it was superseded in the eighteenth century by the great series of inventions which inaugurated the industrial revolution and led in the nineteenth century to the introduction of the factory system4 ,illustration3 ,,earlier ,,spinning ,,and ,,weaving ,from a ,fifteenth ,century ,,ms4 in the ,british ,museum ,weaving4 ,when or where man first began to weave cloth is not known1 nor is it known whether this art sprang from one common center or was invented by many who dwelt in different parts of the world4 ,there is such a sameness in the early devices for spinning and weaving that among some men of science it is thought that the art must have come from a common center4 ,fabrics were made on the farms two or three hundred years ago in the following manner3 the men of the household raised the flocks1 while the women spun the yarn and wove the fabrics4 ,in this way the industry prospered1 giving occupation and income to thousands of the agricultural class4 ,you might say that in ,england fabrics were a by-product of agriculture4 ,as time went on1 farmers of certain sections of ,england became more expert in the art1 and the weaving became separated from the spinning4 ,the weavers became clustered in certain towns on account of the higher skill required for the finer fabrics4 ,the rough work of farming made the hands of the weaver less skilful4 ,this1 coupled with the fact that the looms became more complicated with improvements1 called for a more experienced man4 ,great inventions brought about a more rapid development of the factory4 ,richard ,arkwright1 who has been called the father of the factory system1 built the first cotton mill in the world in ,nottingham in #agfi4 ,the wheels were turned by horses4 ,in #agga ,arkwright erected at ,crawford a new mill which was turned by water power and supplied with machinery to accomplish the whole operation of cotton spinning in one mill1 the first machine receiving the cotton as it came from the bale and the last winding the cotton yarn upon the bobbins4 ,children were employed in this mill1 as they were found to be more dexterous in tying the broken ends4 ,as the result of this great invention1 factories sprang up everywhere in ,england1 changing the country scene into a collection of factories1 with tall chimneys1 brick buildings1 and streets4 ,from #agcj to the middle of the nineteenth century the development of inventions was rapid3 #agcj--;,first cotton yarn spun in ,england by machinery by ,wyatt4 #agcc--;,english patent granted ,john ,kay for the invention of the fly shuttle4 #agch--,patent granted ,lewis ,paul for the spinning machinery supposed to have been invented by ,wyatt4 #agdb--;,first mill for spinning cotton built at ,birmingham2 moved by asses2 but not successful4 #agdh--,patent on a cylinder card as first used by hand1 granted ,lewis ,paul4 #agej--;,fly shuttle in general use in ,england4 #agef--;,cotton velvets and quiltings first made in ,england4 #agfj--,stock cards first used for cotton by ,j4 ,hargreave4 ,drop box invented by ,kay4 #agfb-fg--,spinning-jenny invented by ,hargreave4 #agfi--;,arkwright obtains his first patent on spinning4 #aggd--;,bill passed in ,england to prevent the export of cotton machinery4 #agge--,second patent of ,arkwright on carding1 drawing1 and spinning4 #aggi--,mule spinning invented by ,crompton4 ,peele's patent on carding1 roving1 and spinning4 #aghb--;,date of ,watt's patent for the steam-engine4 #aghc--;,bounty granted in ,england for the export of certain cotton goods4 #aghe--,power loom invented by ,cartwright4 ,cylinder printing invented by ,bell4 ,a warp stop-motion described in ,cartwright's patent4 #aghh--;,first cotton factory built in the ,united ,states1 at ,beverly4 #aghi--,sea ,island cotton first planted in the ,united ,states4 ,samuel ,slater starts cotton machinery in ,new ,york4 #agij--;,first cotton factory built in ,rhode ,island by ,slater4 #agib--;,first ,american loom patent granted to ,kirk and ,leslie4 #agid--;,cotton-gin patented by ,eli ,whitney4 #ahja--;,date given for invention of the ,jacquard machine in ,france4 #ahjc--;,dressing machine and warper invented in ,england by ,radcliffe1 ,ross1 and ,johnson4 #ahjd--;,first cotton mill built in ,new ,hampshire1 at ,new ,ipswich4 #ahje--,power loom successfully introduced in ,england after many failures4 #ahjf--;,first cotton mill built in ,connecticut1 at ,pomfret4 #ahji--;,first cotton mill built in ,maine1 at ,brunswick4 #ahab--;,first cotton mill built at ,fall ,river4 #ahad--;,cotton opener with lap attachment invented in ,england by ,creighton4 #ahae--,power loom introduced into the ,united ,states at ,waltham4 #ahaf--;,first loom temple of ,ira ,draper patented in the ,united ,states4 #ahah--,machinery for preparing sewing cotton invented in ,england by ,holt4 #ahbb--;,first cotton factory erected at ,lowell4 #ahbc--;,differential motion for roving frames patented by ,arnold4 ,first export of raw cotton from ,egypt to ,england4 #ahbd--,tube frame or speeder patented by ,danforth4 #ahbe--,self-acting mule patented in ,england by ,roberts4 #ahbh--,ring spinning patented by ,john ,thorpe4 ,cap spinning patented by ,danforth4 #ahbi--,revolving loom temple improvements patented by ,ira ,draper4 #ahcb--,stop-motion for drawing frames invented by ,bachelder4 #ahcc--,ring spinning frames first built by ,william ,mason4 #ahcd--,weft fork patented in ,england by ,ramsbottom and ,hope4 ,shuttle-changing loom by ,reid and ,johnson4 #ahdj--;,automatic loom led off4 ,important temple improvement4 #ahdi--;,first cotton mill erected in ,lawrence4 ,through this great change from hand to power work1 thousands were thrown out of employment in the great textile centers1 and much suffering occurred1 which led to the smashing of machinery4 ,knitting ,machinery4 ,like many other industries1 the hosiery trade owes its first and most important impetus to the genius of one who was not connected with the business in a practical way4 ,this event took place when the ,rev4 ,william ,lee invented the hand frame4 ,he was married early in life1 and his wife was obliged1 on account of the slender family finances1 to knit continuously at home4 ,struck with the monotony and toil involved in knitting with the hand pins1 ,mr4 ,lee evolved a means of knitting by machinery and brought out the hand stocking-frame1 which to-day preserves its chief features very much as ,lee invented them4 ,when knitting by hand1 one must form each loop separately1 and loop follows loop laboriously until the width of fabric has been worked4 ,lee contrived to make the whole row of loops across the width simultaneously by arranging a needle for each loop and placing in connection with each needle a sinker and other apparatus for completing the formation of the loop4 ,first of all1 the yarn is laid over the needles1 which are arranged horizontally1 and the sinkers come down on the yarn and cause it to form partial loops between the needles4 ,the old loops of the previous course are now brought forward and the new yarn is drawn through them in the same way as is done on the hand pins4 ,thus the new yarn of one course is drawn through the loops of the preceding one1 and so the whole fabric is built up4 ,this frame of ,lee's held its own in the great centers until some thirty years ago4 ,lee's hand frame gave way to what is termed the jack and sinker rotary frame1 which was like the hand frame in its chief features1 but with the advantage that all the motions were brought about by power4 ,the various operations were put under the control of a set of cams#bj and made to perform their movements in exactly the same way as in the case of the hand frame4 ,in the first power machine for knitting1 the machine builder used the cam mechanism1 and in examining the latest machines we find that he has persisted in this course throughout4 ,the cam movement is characterized by great smoothness of working and absence of vibration1 which is very necessary in a machine of the delicate adjustment of the knitting frame4 ,it is usual to connect some of the parts with two of these cams1 one of which controls the up-and-down motion and the other the out-and-in movement4 ,when these two cams work in conjunction1 we obtain all the possible degrees of harmonic motion4 ,from the jack and sinker frame the next really important step was taken when ,william ,cotton brought out his famous ,cotton's patent frame4 ,in his machine the frame was in a sense turned on its back1 for the parts1 such as the needles1 which had been horizontal1 were made vertical and vice versa4 ,he also reduced the number of the moving parts and perfected the cam arrangement4 ,another very important development of the machine was when it was built in a number of divisions so as to work a number of articles side by side at one time4 ,at present there are knitting frames which can make twelve full-sized garments at one and the same time4 ,another important improvement was effected when the fashioning apparatus was supplied to the machine1 by means of which the garments could be shaped according to the human form by increasing or decreasing the width as desired4 ,,history ,,of ,,lace ,lace1 like porcelain1 stained glass1 and other artistic things1 has always been an object of interest to all classes4 ,special patterns of laces date from the sixteenth century4 ,the church and court have always encouraged its production4 ,while the early lace work was similar to weaving1 in that the patterns were stiff and geometrical1 sometimes the patterns were cut out of linen1 but with the development of the renaissance of art1 free flowing patterns and figures were introduced and worked in4 ,the lace industry first took root in ,flanders and ,venice1 where it became an important branch of industry4 ,active intercourse was maintained between the two countries1 so that intense rivalry existed4 ,france and ,england were not behind ,venice and ,flanders in making lace4 ,the king of ,france1 ,henry ,,iii1 encouraged lace work by appointing a ,venetian to be pattern maker for varieties of linen needlework and lace for his court4 ,later1 official aid and patronage were given to this art by ,louis ,v4 ,through the influence of these two men the demand for lace was increased to such an extent that it became very popular4 ,under the impulse of fashion and luxury1 lace has received the stamp of the special style of each country4 ,italy furnishes its ,point of ,venice2 ,belgium its ,brussels and ,mechlin2 ,france its ,valenciennes1 etc4 ,very little is known of the early lace manufacturers of ,holland4 ,the laces of ,holland were overshadowed by the richer products of their ,flemish neighbors4 ,the ,dutch1 however1 had one advantage over other nations in their ,haarlem thread1 once considered the best thread in the world for lace4 ,in ,switzerland1 the center of the lace trade1 the work was carried on to such a degree of perfection as to rival the laces of ,flanders1 not alone in beauty1 but also in quality4 ,attempts have been made at various times1 both during this century and the last1 to assist the peasantry of ,ireland by instruction in lace-making4 ,the finest patterns of old lace were procured1 and the ,irish girls showed great skill in copying them4 ,later a better style of work1 needlepoint1 was modeled after old ,venetian lace--the exquisite productions for which ,americans pay fabulous prices at the present day4 ,the lace manufacturers of ,europe experienced a serious set-back in #ahah when bobbinet was first made in ,france4 ,fashion1 always fleeting1 adopted the new material4 ,manufacturers were forced to lower prices1 but happily a new channel for export was opened in the ,united ,states4 ,the machine-made productions of the ,nottingham looms1 as triumphs of mechanical ingenuity1 deserve great praise4 ,the first idea of the lace-making machine is attributed to a common factory hand1 ,hammond ,lindy1 who1 when examining the lace on his wife's cap1 conceived a plan by which he could copy it on his loom4 ,improvements followed1 and in #ahaj a fairly good net was produced4 ,perhaps the most delicate textile machine known1 in its sensitiveness to heat and cold1 is a lace machine4 ,a machine can be made to run in any climate1 provided it is so installed as to be protected from either extreme of temperature4 ,the various substitutes for hand-made lace are legion2 for what the inventor cannot achieve in one way he can in another4 ,there remains however the fact that the productions of machinery can never possess the charm of the real hand-made work4 ,machine-made lace is stiffer than hand-made lace4 ,,footnotes3 #ai ,the testing apparatus may be obtained from any textile manufacturing company1 such as ,alfred ,suter1 #dhg ,broadway1 ,new ,york4 #bj ,a cam is a device consisting of a special shaped wheel attached to a machine to give a special kind of motion or movement4 ,,experiments ,experiment #a--;,construction of ,cloth ,apparatus3 ,pick glass1 dissecting pin1#ba foot-rule4 ,materials3 #d square inches of burlap4 ,references3 ,textiles4 ,see page #ed1 ,weaving2 page #a1 ,fibers4 ,directions #a4 ,look at the cloth under the pick glass and describe the appearance and structure of its interlacing threads1 called weave4 #b4 ,with a pin separate the interlacing threads of the cloth which are called warp and filling4 ,warp is composed of yarn running in the direction of the length of the cloth4 ,filling is composed of yarn running at right angles to the warp4 a4 ,what are the interlacing threads of cloth called8 b4 ,of what is warp composed and in what direction do the warp threads extend8 filling8 #c4 ,notice the appearance of the individual threads 7called yarn7 of the warp and filling4 ,test the strength of the yarn by trying to break it4 #d4 ,untwist one of the warp threads and one of the filling threads4 ,notice whether the yarn becomes stronger or weaker as it is untwisted4 ,what effect has twist on the yarn8 #e4 ,after untwisting one of the threads what remains8 ,measure the length of several of these ends called fibers4 ,describe the appearance of the fiber as to curl1 feel1 fineness1 etc4 ,questions #a4 ,of what does yarn consist8 #b4 ,what causes the fibers to cling together8 #c4 ,what is the process called by which two sets of threads interlace8 #d4 ,when two sets of threads interlace or are woven what is produced8 ,experiment #b--,plain or ,homespun ,weave ,apparatus3 ,hand loom1#bb two pencils1 scissors4 ,material3 ,yarn of two colors4 ,reference3 ,textiles1 page #eh4 ,directions #a4 ,make a warp on the hand loom with green yarn by having parallel threads running the longest way of the loom to the notches4 #b4 ,a harness is a framework on a loom used for raising certain warp threads4 ,use a pencil as a harness and raise the #ast1 #c;d1 and #eth warp threads4 ,a shed will in this way be formed through which the shuttle carrying the filling thread will pass4 ,use the red yarn for filling and attach it at one end before passing it through the shed4 #c4 ,with a second pencil to act as a second harness raise the #b;d1 #dth1 and #fth warp threads4 ,pass the filling through the shed thus formed4 #d4 ,repeat twice ,directions #b and #c4 #e4 ,tie all ends1 cut the woven sample away from the loom1 and mount in note-book4 ,questions #a4 ,what part of a loom is the harness8 #b4 ,what is meant by a shed8 #c4 ,what carries the filling thread through the shed on a loom8 #d4 ,what is the principle of plain weaving8 #e4 ,name some fabrics produced by plain weaving8 ,see ,textiles1 page #eh4 ,experiment #c--,twill ,weave ,apparatus3 ,hand loom1 four pencils1 scissors4 ,materials3 ,white cotton warp1 colored yarn filling4 ,reference3 ,textiles1 page #eh4 ,directions #a4 ,on the hand loom make a warp by threading four white warp threads to a notch until there are six sets of warp threads4 #b4 ,using a pencil as a harness 7,see ,exp4 #b7 raise the first thread of each set of warp threads and pass the filling thread through the shed thus formed4 #c4 ,with another pencil as a second harness raise the second thread of each set of warp threads and pass the filling4 #d4 ,with a third pencil raise the third thread of each set of warp threads and pass the filling4 #e4 ,with still another pencil to act as a fourth harness raise the fourth thread of each set and again pass the filling4 #f4 ,repeat the above directions 7#b to #e7 several times4 ,notice that the moving of the filling thread1 one warp thread to the left1 each time it is woven is causing a diagonal line or rib to form1 called twill4 #g4 ,cut the woven sample away from the loom and mount4 ,questions #a4 ,why is this weave called a twill weave8 #b4 ,how is the diagonal line or twill formed8 #c4 ,why would this kind of weaving be spoken of as #d-;harness weave8 #d4 ,what popular dress fabric is of twill weave8 ,experiment #d--;,comparison of ,plain and ,twill ,weave ,apparatus3 ,pick glass1 dissecting pin1 foot-rule4 ,material3 #d sq4 in4 of burlap1 #d sq4 in4 of serge4 ,references3 ,textiles1 pages #eh1 #ei1 #fj4 ,directions #a4 ,examine the burlap under the pick glass1 noting the structure and number of threads to the inch in the warp 7called ends7 and the number of threads to the inch in the filling 7called picks74 ,verify with foot-rule4 #b4 ,repeat the above1 using serge4 ,questions #a4 ,what is meant by a number of ends to the inch8 a number of picks to the inch8 #b4 ,how many ends to the inch in the burlap8 ,how many picks to the inch8 #c4 ,how many ends to the inch in the serge8 ,how many picks8 #d4 ,note several differences between cloth produced by plain weaving and cloth produced by twill weaving4 ,experiment #e--,pile ,weave ,apparatus3 ,hand loom1 two pencils1 scissors4 ,materials3 ,white cotton warp1 filling yarn of two colors4 ,reference3 ,textiles1 page #fb4 ,directions #a4 ,thread the loom two warp threads to a notch until there are #bj ends 7warp threads74 #b4 ,use a pencil as a harness4 ,raise the #ast1 #c;d1 #eth1 #gth1 and #ith sets of warp threads4 #c4 ,fasten securely the green filling yarn at one end and pass it through the shed formed by carrying out ,direction #b4 ,draw the filling thread tight and wind once or twice around the outside warp end4 #d4 ,use a second pencil as a harness and raise the sets of warp threads that are now down1 forming a new shed4 #e4 ,fasten the red filling yarn at one end and pass it through the shed4 ,wind once or twice about the outside warp end4 #f4 ,raise the red filling to form a loop in each place where it 7the red filling7 has passed over a warp end4 #g4 ,form a shed by raising the first harness and pass through the green filling thread1 drawing it tight to hold the red filling above it in place4 ,wind about the outside warp end4 #h4 ,repeat ,directions #b-g several times1 each time raising the red filling to form loops and each time drawing the green filling tight to hold the red in place4 #i4 ,cut with scissors the loops formed by raising the red filling4 #aj4 ,as well as you can with scissors1 shear the pile 7the soft1 thick covering on the face7 to make a fairly even surface4 #aa4 ,cut the sample away from the loom and mount4 ,questions #a4 ,what are some varieties of cloth that are woven with a pile surface8 #b4 ,sometimes the loops of the pile are cut and sometimes left as loops4 ,what fabrics are examples of cut pile8 uncut pile8 #c4 ,what is meant by the pile of velvet or carpet8 ,experiment #f--,other ,classes of ,weave ,apparatus3 ,pick glass1 dissecting needle4 ,materials3 ,samples of satin1 voile1 lace curtaining1 double cloth1 carpeting4 ,reference3 ,textiles1 pages #eh-fd4 ,satin ,weave #a4 ,examine the sample of satin under the pick glass4 ,notice that the warp and filling interlace in such a way that there is no trace of the diagonal on the face of the cloth4 a4 ,is satin of a close or loose weave8 b4 ,what can you say of the surface of satin8 c4 ,what effect has this smooth surface on light8 d4 ,this is called a satin weave4 ,why8 e4 ,what is the most extensive use of the satin weave8 7,see ,textiles1 page #a47 ,,note4--,sometimes fabrics of other weaves will have a satin stripe4 ,gauze ,weave #b4 ,examine the sample of voile under the pick glass4 ,this is a type of what is known as gauze weave4 a4 ,what is the chief characteristic of the gauze weave8 b4 ,name several gauze fabrics4 ,lappet ,weave #c4 ,examine a piece of lace curtaining under the pick glass4 a4 ,if the fancy figures were not present1 of what weave would this sample be8 ,simple figures are stitched into plainly woven or gauze fabrics by machinery to imitate embroidery4 ,this style of weave is known as lappet weave4 b4 ,on fabrics of what two weaves is lappet weaving used8 c4 ,what is lappet weaving8 ,jacquard ,weave #d4 ,examine a piece of carpet4 ,notice the elaborate designs or patterns and the number of colors used4 ,when the figures are elaborate they cannot be stitched in by simple lappet weaving4 ,a special attachment called the ,jacquard apparatus is placed on top of the loom4 ,this apparatus controls the warp threads so that a great many sheds may be formed and elaborate figures woven into fabrics4 ,this is called ,jacquard weaving4 a4 ,what must be added to a loom for ,jacquard weaving8 b4 ,what is the use of the ,jacquard apparatus8 c4 ,when is the ,jacquard weave used instead of lappet weave8 #e4 ,read ,textiles1 page #fa4 ,double ,cloth ,weave #f4 ,examine the sample of double cloth4 ,notice that there are two single cloths4 ,they are combined into one by here and there lacing the warp and filling of one cloth into the warp and filling of the other4 ,in this way they are fastened together securely4 a4 ,what color is the sample on one side8 the other8 b4 ,of what is double cloth composed8 c4 ,how are the single cloths combined into one8 d4 ,read ,textiles1 page #fb4 ,what are some of the uses of double cloth8 ,classes of ,weave #g4 ,how many classes of weave have been studied8 #h4 ,name the classes of weave4 #i4 ,name a fabric to illustrate each weave4 ,experiment #g--;,fibers ,apparatus3 ,pick glass1 dissecting needle4 ,materials3 ,samples of broadcloth1 mohair1 silk1 cotton cloth1 linen4 ,references3 ,textiles1 pages #a2 #ig1 ,mohair2 #bjc1 ,silk2 #aje1 ,cotton2 #aic1 ,linen2 #aii1 ,hemp2 #bja1 ,jute2 #bcb1 ,ramie2 #bcc1 ,pineapple4 ,directions #a4 ,read ,textiles1 page #a1 paragraph #a4 ,what are textiles8 #b4 ,cloth is composed of yarn4 ,yarn in its turn is composed of many small ends called fibers4 #c4 ,look at the sample of broadcloth4 ,if you did not know this to be broadcloth you would speak of it as woolen goods4 ,detach from the sample a filling thread and separate it into fibers4 ,these are woolen fibers4 #d4 ,examine the sample of mohair and separate a filling thread into fibers4 ,this takes the name mohair from the fibers which compose it4 ,mohair is obtained from the ,angora goat4 #e4 ,examine a sample of silk1 also a detached filling thread4 ,the silk fiber consists of a thread spun by the silk worm4 #f4 ,wool1 mohair1 and silk fibers are obtained from the animals1 the sheep1 goat1 and silk worm1 hence they are called animal fibers4 #g4 ,detach from the sample of cotton cloth a filling thread and separate it into fibers4 ,these are cotton fibers and are obtained from the cotton plant4 #h4 ,examine the sample of linen1 a filling thread and its fibers4 ,linen is composed of fibers obtained from the flax plant4 #i4 ,cotton and linen fibers are obtained from plants1 and are called vegetable fibers4 ,there are other vegetable fibers such as jute1 hemp1 ramie1 pineapple1 etc41 but cotton and linen are the most important4 #aj4 ,name the most valuable fibers for textile use4 ,questions #a4 ,of what is cloth composed8 #b4 ,of what does yarn consist8 #c4 ,how are the fibers made to join in one long thread8 7,see ,experiment #a47 #d4 ,of what fibers are woolen and worsted goods composed8 #e4 ,of what animal is wool the covering8 #f4 ,of what fibers is mohair composed8 #g4 ,from what animal is mohair obtained8 #h4 ,of what does the silk fiber consist8 #i4 ,what are the animal fibers8 #aj4 ,why are they called animal fibers8 #aa4 ,of what fibers is cotton cloth composed8 #ab4 ,from what plant are cotton fibers obtained8 #ac4 ,from what plant is the linen fiber obtained8 #ad4 ,what are the most important vegetable fibers8 #ae4 ,name four other vegetable fibers4 #af4 ,why are these fibers called vegetable fibers8 ,experiment #h--,wool ,fiber ,apparatus3 ,pick glass1 microscope1 #b pine cones1 foot-rule4 ,materials3 ,raw wool1 woolen yarn4 ,reference3 ,textiles1 chapter i4 ,directions #a4 ,separate a strand of woolen yarn into fibers4 ,examine both these fibers and fibers pulled from the raw wool4 ,would you describe these fibers as coarse or fine8 #b4 ,how do the fibers feel to touch8 #c4 ,test the strength of the wool fibers by trying to break them4 #d4 ,measure the length of several fibers4 #e4 ,why was it difficult to straighten the fibers to measure them8 #f4 ,extend the fiber to its full length1 then release4 ,how does this prove the fiber to be elastic8 #g4 ,examine the fibers under the microscope4 ,describe4 ,notice that the wool fiber is cylindrical in shape4 ,notice that it is covered with scales which overlap much as do the tiles of a roof or the spines of a pine cone4 #h4 ,hold one pine cone with the spines pointing upward4 ,with the spines of the other pointing downward press the second cone down on the first4 ,what happens8 ,just so the scales or points of the wool fibers hook into one another and interlock4 ,these scales or serrations give to the wool fiber its chief characteristic which is the power of interlocking known as felting or shrinking4 #i4 ,see ,textiles1 page #b1 the drawing of a magnified wool fiber4 ,make a drawing of a wool fiber4 #aj4 ,examine under the microscope a hair from your head4 ,wool is only a variety of hair4 ,notice that the scales on the hair lie close to the stem and do not project as in the woolen fiber1 hence hair fibers cannot interlock as wool fibers do4 ,the scales lying close to the hair give a smooth surface to the fiber and make luster a characteristic4 #aa4 ,compare the wool fiber with hair1 noting two differences4 ,questions #a4 ,with what is the wool fiber covered8 #b4 ,of what advantage are these scales or points8 #c4 ,what is the chief characteristic of wool8 #d4 ,what is meant by the shrinking or felting power8 #e4 ,name five characteristics of the wool fiber4 ,experiment #i--,mohair ,fiber ,apparatus3 ,microscope1 foot-rule4 ,materials3 ,wool fibers1 mohair fibers1 sample of mohair brilliantine4 ,references3 ,textiles1 pages #a1 #cg1 #ig4 ,directions #a4 ,pull a mohair fiber from the fleece4 ,hold it up to the light4 ,describe the fiber as you see it4 #b4 ,hold a mohair fiber and a wool fiber side by side to the light4 ,note the differences4 #c4 ,measure several mohair fibers4 #d4 ,examine the mohair fiber under the microscope4 ,the fiber is covered with scales1 but they lie close to the fiber and do not project in points as do the scales on the wool fiber1 hence mohair will not felt to any degree4 #e4 ,the ,angora goat of ,asia ,minor furnishes the mohair4 ,this goat is being raised in the western states of the ,united ,states now4 #f4 ,detach from the sample of mohair brilliantine a warp thread2 a filling thread4 ,which is mohair8 ,which is cotton8 #g4 ,what word would describe the feel of mohair brilliantine8 the appearance8 #h4 ,what are the characteristics of the mohair fiber8 #i4 ,what are the uses of mohair8 ,mohair is used in the manufacture of plushes1 dress fabrics1 and imitation furs4 ,questions #a4 ,why will mohair not felt as wool does8 #b4 ,the scales lying close to the stem will have what effect on the surface of the fiber8 #c4 ,what effect will a smooth surface have on light8 #d4 ,what characteristic is given to mohair from the fact that the smooth surface reflects light8 #e4 ,from what animal is mohair obtained in greatest quantity8 #f4 ,where is mohair being grown in the ,united ,states8 ,experiment #aj--;,cotton ,fiber ,apparatus3 ,microscope1 foot-rule4 ,materials3 ,tuft of cotton fibers1 cotton ball1 seeds4 ,reference3 ,textiles1 chapter ix1 page #aje4 ,directions #a4 ,hold a tuft of cotton fibers tightly between the fingers and thumb of each hand and pull apart with a jerk4 ,what is your judgment of the strength of the staple 7fiber78 #b4 ,loosen gently the fibers of one of the tufts you have pulled apart4 ,what is the feel of cotton8 the appearance as you hold it to the light8 #c4 ,detach several fibers one by one4 ,how does the length compare with that of the wool and mohair8 ,measure and record the length of three fibers4 #d4 ,how do cotton fibers compare in fineness with wool fibers8 #e4 ,compare the elasticity of cotton with that of wool4 #f4 ,examine the cotton fibers under the microscope4 ,observe that the enlarged fiber looks like a twisted ribbon4 ,when the fiber was growing it was cylindrical in shape4 ,when ripe the plant drew back its life-giving fluid from the fiber and it collapsed and twisted like a corkscrew4 ,the twist is peculiar to the cotton1 being present in no other fiber4 ,the twist makes the cotton fiber suitable for spinning1 helping to hold the short fibers together4 #g4 ,read of the cotton plant from ,textiles1 chapter ix4 #h4 ,the four chief cotton producing countries are the ,united ,states1 ,egypt1 ,india1 ,brazil4 #i4 ,there are several classifications of cotton4 ,the most common are ,sea ,island 7in the lead72 ,egyptian 7a close second72 ,uplands 7that of the ,united ,states1 southern part72 and ,peruvian4 #aj4 ,uplands is the most common cotton of our ,south4 ,questions #a4 ,what characteristic causes the cotton fiber to be easily recognized under the microscope8 #b4 ,why does the twist render the cotton fiber suitable for spinning8 #c4 ,what are the characteristics of the cotton fiber8 #d4 ,why is cotton known as a vegetable fiber8 #e4 ,name the chief cotton producing countries4 #f4 ,what are the most common classifications of cotton8 #g4 ,what is the finest growth of cotton8 7,sea ,island commands at the present time #a4jj a lb41 while ,middling ,uplands brings #ae cents47 #h4 ,where is cotton known as ,upland ,cotton grown8 ,experiment #aa--,silk ,fiber ,apparatus3 ,tripod1 alcohol lamp1 small pan of water1 lead pencil4 ,material3 ,silk cocoon4 ,reference3 ,textiles1 chapter xvii1 page #bjc4 ,directions #a4 ,place the cocoon in a small pan of water4 ,apply heat to the pan until the water boils4 ,the cocoon is placed in hot water to soften the glue which holds the fibers together4 #b4 ,remove the outside loose fibers which cannot be reeled4 ,this tangled silk on the outside of the cocoon is called floss4 #c4 ,brush the finger over the cocoon to find the loose ends4 ,unwind carefully until you find a continuous end4 ,wind or reel the silk fiber over a lead pencil4 #d4 ,the silk fiber is the most beautiful and perfect of all fibers4 #e4 ,hold the cocoon to the light as you reel4 ,how does the silk fiber compare in fineness with the wool and cotton fibers8 #f4 ,the silk fiber is from #ajjj to #djjj feet long4 ,unlike the other fibers the silk fiber is already a thread4 #g4 ,how does light effect the silk fiber8 ,when the gum is thoroughly washed off the silk takes on its luster which is its chief characteristic4 #h4 ,break the fiber after you have reeled a small quantity4 ,notice how the fiber springs back4 ,extend and release again4 ,what characteristic does this illustrate8 #i4 ,examine the silk fiber under the microscope4 ,notice that it is round and smooth and resembles a glass rod4 ,it shows what appear to be two fibers united by the gum secreted at the same time that the fiber was formed4 ,describe the silk fiber as it appears under the microscope4 #aj4 ,silk is taken from the reel and twisted into a skein of raw silk and thus exported4 #aa4 ,the manufacture in the ,united ,states begins with raw silk4 ,it is handled here first by the throwster who winds it from the skein and makes different varieties of thread4 ,questions #a4 ,why is the silk cocoon first placed in hot water8 #b4 ,what is known as floss8 #c4 ,what is meant by silk reeling8 #d4 ,what can you say of the length of the silk fiber8 #e4 ,in what way does the silk fiber differ from the other fibers8 #f4 ,what is the chief characteristic of the silk fiber8 #g4 ,what are other characteristics of the silk fiber8 #h4 ,in what form is silk exported8 #i4 ,in what countries is most of the raw silk produced8 7,see ,textiles1 page #bjf47 #aj4 ,with what does the silk manufacture in the ,united ,states begin8 #aa4 ,who is the throwster and what is his work8 ,experiment #ab--,linen ,fiber ,apparatus3 ,microscope4 ,material3 ,flax fibers4 ,reference3 ,textiles1 chapter xv1 page #aic4 ,directions #a4 ,the linen fiber is obtained from the flax plant4 ,certain fibers1 such as flax1 jute1 and ramie1 are obtained from the stem of the plant1 hence are known as bast fibers1 and flax is the most important bast fiber4 #b4 ,it is difficult to separate the flax or linen fiber from the woody part of the stem4 ,the process is called retting1 which is really rotting by soaking the stem in water4 #c4 ,before the fibers are entirely free from the woody part of the plant they undergo the processes of beating1 breaking1 scutching1 hackling1 etc4 #d4 ,read the account of each process4 ,see ,textiles1 pages #aid1 #aie4 #e4 ,measure and record the length of two linen fibers4 #f4 ,test the strength by trying to break the fiber4 #g4 ,test for elasticity4 #h4 ,what is the appearance of the linen fiber when held to the light8 #i4 ,what is the color of the fiber8 ,what is the process called by which linen is whitened8 7,bleaching47 #aj4 ,examine the flax fibers under the microscope4 ,observe that the fibers look like long cylindrical tubes4 ,describe the appearance of linen fibers under the microscope4 #aa4 ,the best flax is grown in ,belgium and ,ireland4 ,questions #a4 ,from what part of the plant are bast fibers obtained8 #b4 ,name some bast fibers4 #c4 ,what is the most important bast fiber8 #d4 ,what is retting8 #e4 ,for what purpose is linen subjected to retting8 #f4 ,through what five processes does the flax fiber pass before it is free8 #g4 ,where is the best flax grown8 ,experiment #ac--;,carding ,apparatus3 ,a pair of hand cards4 ,material3 ,small quantity of scoured wool4 ,references3 ,textiles1 pages #ci and #ej4 ,directions #a4 ,examine the hand cards4 ,notice that there is a foundation of several layers of leather4 ,notice that this foundation is covered with staples of steel wire4 ,notice that the staples are shaped like the letter ,u with the points turned one way4 ,the covering of the hand cards is called card clothing4 #b4 ,hold one hand card in the left hand1 face up1 wires pointing to the left4 ,spread the wool over the pointed wires of this card4 #c4 ,hold the other card in the right hand1 face down1 with the wires pointing to the right4 ,bring the pointed wires of this card down on the wool and drag it lightly through the wires of the other card4 ,repeat several times4 #d4 ,you have been carding wool4 ,the sharp points have been tearing the wool apart or disentangling the fibers4 ,carding brushes the fibers out smooth and makes them somewhat parallel4 ,it forms them into a thin sheet4 #e4 ,the wool must be carded many times before it is sufficiently disentangled for drawing and spinning4 ,in order to card again the hand card must be stripped of the wool so that it may be dragged again through the staples4 #f4 ,hold the hand card1 which is in your right hand1 erect4 ,notice that the wires point downward4 ,move the other hand downward over the wires4 ,notice that the surface is smooth4 ,the points do not prick as they will if you try to brush the hand upwards over the wires4 #g4 ,hold the card in the left hand in a similar position4 ,raise and bring the sharp wires of this card down on the smooth surface of the other card and strip it of its wool4 #h4 ,card again1 then strip again4 ,repeat several times until the fibers are thoroughly disentangled4 #i4 ,this carding and stripping1 once done by hand1 is now done in the mill by a power machine called the card4 7,see picture1 ,textiles1 page #ch47 ,notice that instead of cards this machine consists of rollers or cylinders4 ,some are carding cylinders and some are stripping cylinders4 ,the principle is the same as that of the hand cards4 ,the wool is carded and stripped again and again and is finally delivered in a soft1 fluffy rope called a sliver ready for drawing and spinning4 ,questions #a4 ,what is the covering of the hand card called8 #b4 ,describe card clothing4 #c4 ,what does carding do to the wool8 #d4 ,when the sharp wires of one cylinder meet the sharp pointed wires of another cylinder what is the action on the wool8 #e4 ,if the sharp points of one cylinder meet the smooth surface of another cylinder what happens to the wool on that cylinder8 #f4 ,in what form does the wool finally leave the machine8 ,what name is given to this fluffy rope8 #g4 ,how was carding done in the early days8 ,how is it done now8 #h4 ,in what way is the principle of the hand cards the same as that of the card of the mill8 ,experiment #ad--;,drawing and ,spinning ,apparatus3 ,foot-rule1 elastic band4 ,material3 ,small quantity of scoured wool4 ,references3 ,textiles1 pages #d1 #dd1 #acd2 ,sections3 ,spinning3 ,mule ,spinning4 ,directions #a4 ,observe the mass of wool fibers4 ,the wool was clipped from the sheep1 washed1 and oiled to make it smooth and pliable4 #b4 ,with the fingers gently open up or loosen the mass of wool fibers4 ,in the mill this is done by a machine called the card4 7,see picture1 ,textiles1 page #ch47 ,and the process itself is called carding4 #c4 ,gently draw out the mass of fibers until you have drawn it into one long strand4 #d4 ,draw it again and again until to draw it would cause it to break4 #e4 ,this process in the mill is known as drawing4 ,the wool passes through machine after machine1 which gradually reduces the thickness of the strand4 #f4 ,you have now a strand called roving1 but not a thread with which you could weave4 ,what is called the strand8 ,why could you not weave with it as it is8 ,if you pulled the roving apart it would separate into a number of small ends4 ,what name is given to these ends8 #g4 ,it is necessary to hold these fibers together in a thread4 ,hold the roving in the left hand and with the right hand draw the fibers out several inches4 ,as you draw1 twist the roving between the fingers and thumb4 ,the twisting is called spinning4 #h4 ,when you have twisted sufficient yarn to attach to the end of a foot-rule1 do so4 ,give a whirl to the ruler1 which is taking the place of the old-time spindle1 and let it drop4 ,continue to whirl the ruler and notice that as it revolves the yarn is twisting4 ,when well twisted1 wind the yarn on the ruler4 ,there was a hook on the old-time spindle4 ,instead of the hook1 hold the wound yarn in place by an elastic band4 ,draw out several inches again and repeat4 #i4 ,with the spindle a distaff was used4 ,it held the roving which you now hold in your left hand4 7,see picture of distaff and spindle47 #aj4 ,define spinning2 see ,textiles1 page #d1 footnote4 ,the early use of the spindle was the same as its use of to-day4 ,in what two ways is the spindle of use8 #aa4 ,the improvement on the distaff and spindle was the spinning wheel4 ,now the spinning frame in the mill has replaced both4 ,questions #a4 ,after shearing1 through what two processes does wool pass8 #b4 ,why is it necessary to oil wool8 #c4 ,what is the work of the card8 #d4 ,explain the process called drawing4 ,why is it necessary to repeat the operation several times8 #e4 ,what followed the distaff and spindle in the development of spinning8 #f4 ,on what is the spinning done now in the mill8 ,see ,textiles1 picture1 pages #ace1 #acg4 ,experiment #ae--;,gilling and ,combing ,apparatus3 ,coarse comb1 fine comb4 ,material3 ,small quantity of scoured wool4 ,reference3 ,textiles1 pages #ci-dd4 ,directions #a4 ,open up the wool a little with the fingers4 ,do this in place of carding1 as you need but a small quantity4 #b4 ,you comb your hair to make the hairs lie parallel1 side by side1 in place4 ,combs are used on wool for just the same purpose1 but the first process of combing is not known as such4 ,it is called gilling1 and the combs themselves are called fallers4 ,the machines are known as gill boxes4 ,see ,textiles1 page #dc4 #c4 ,hold the carded wool in the left hand in the middle of the strand4 ,with the coarse comb in the right hand1 comb and thus straighten the fibers first at one end then at the other4 ,this is gilling4 ,the principle of gilling is to comb the fibers more and more nearly parallel and to draw them out into more even strands4 #d4 ,the coarse comb causes the hairs to lie parallel4 ,a fine comb will further straighten the hairs1 but it will also remove the snarled1 tangled1 short hairs4 ,again wool is to be treated like hair4 ,hold the strand in the middle as before4 ,comb each end with the fine comb4 ,notice that the fine comb is removing the short fibers and leaving the long fibers between the fingers4 ,this is the second process of combing1 and is called combing4 #e4 ,the long fibers are called tops and the short fibers are known as noils4#bc ,combing is the process which separates the long fibers known as tops from the short fibers known as noils4 #f4 ,the combing machine in the mill is a very complicated one4 ,see picture1 ,textiles1 page #da4 #g4 ,gill and comb several strands of wool4 #h4 ,top is too delicate1 as it comes from the comb1 to be handled4 ,the next process is to combine several strands into one4 ,combine the several strands you have gilled and combed4 ,comb this one end with the coarse comb again to be sure that the fibers are perfectly parallel4 #i4 ,you gilled1 combed1 and gilled again4 ,so it is in the mill4 ,after combing1 the wool is gilled again by machines known as finisher gill boxes1 and wound into a ball called a top4 #aj4 ,a top differs from top4 ,top is the strand of long fibers which comes from the comb4 ,a top is the ball of combed wool as it comes from the finisher gill boxes4 ,it weighs from #g to #ab lbs4 and contains #bjj to #bej yds4 #aa4 ,the wool is now ready for the next processes--those of drawing and spinning4 ,questions #a4 ,why is the hair combed8 ,why is wool combed8 #b4 ,what is the first process of combing called8 ,what name is given to the combs used in gilling8 ,what are the machines called8 #c4 ,what is the principle of gilling8 #d4 ,how does a fine comb act on the hair8 #e4 ,when you combed the wool with the fine comb what happened8 #f4 ,what are the long fibers called8 the short8 ,of which are there more8 #g4 ,what is the second process of combing called8 #h4 ,why is it necessary to combine several strands of top into one end8 #i4 ,why is it necessary to gill again after combing8 #aj4 ,in what form does the wool finally leave the finisher gill boxes8 #aa4 ,what is a top8 #ab4 ,what two processes follow carding8 #ac4 ,for what two processes is wool now ready8 ,experiment #af--,raw ,wool to ,yarn ,apparatus3 ,hand cards1 coarse and fine combs1 pencil4 ,material3 ,scoured wool4 ,reference3 ,the preceding experiments4 ,directions #a4 ,this wool has already been subjected to the three operations of shearing1 scouring1 and oiling4 #b4 ,card the wool4 ,what does carding do to the wool8 #c4 ,strip the cards4 ,rub the sheet of fibers between the palms of the hands into the form of a strand4 ,it is in this form that it leaves the card of the mill1 and it is known as a sliver of wool4 #d4 ,pull about three inches of wool from the sliver and perform upon it the operation of gilling by combing it with the coarse comb4 #e4 ,follow the gilling by the operation of combing1 which you will do by combing again1 this time with a fine comb4 #f4 ,pull about three inches again from the sliver4 ,continue to gill and comb by section until the entire sliver has been gilled and combed4 #g4 ,combine several strands into one and subject the one strand to a second process of gilling to make sure that all fibers are side by side4 #h4 ,gently draw out this strand of combed long fibers known as top4 ,as you draw1 spin4 ,as you spin1 wind on a lead pencil4 ,the fineness of the yarn depends on the amount of drawing and twisting4 #i4 ,what is the source of wool8 ,you began with wool1 covering of the sheep's body1 and after subjecting it to a series of operations you have converted it into yarn which is ready for weaving4 #aj4 ,name the operations in order1 through which raw wool passes before it finally becomes yarn4 ,questions #a4 ,what are the first three processes through which wool passes8 ,what is shearing8 scouring8 #b4 ,why is wool oiled8 #c4 ,what is meant by a sliver of wool8 #d4 ,what does gilling do to the wool8 #e4 ,what does combing do to the wool8 #f4 ,why is there another operation of gilling after combing8 #g4 ,what is meant by drawing8 spinning8 #h4 ,what name is given to the wool wound on the pencil8 #i4 ,on what does the fineness of the yarn depend8 ,experiment #ag--;,difference between ,woolen and ,worsted ,yarn ,apparatus3 ,pick glass4 ,materials3 ,sample of woolen cloth and worsted cloth4 ,references3 ,textiles1 pages #ej and #ea4 ,directions ,take a piece of worsted fabric and separate a piece of yarn from either the warp or filling4 ,do the same with a piece of woolen fabric4 ,notice the appearance of each piece of yarn4 ,which is smoother8 ,what effect would friction have on the worsted yarn8 the woolen yarn8 ,which sample of yarn would shine and reflect the light8 ,experiment #ah--;,burling and ,mending ,apparatus3 ,chalk1 scissors1 dissecting pin1 needle1 pick glass4 ,material3 #d square inches of cloth from the loom4 ,reference3 ,textiles1 page #ga4 ,directions #a4 ,cloth from the loom is far from being a finished product4 ,it must pass through several processes before it is finished4 ,these processes are known as finishing4 #b4 ,what is the feel of this cloth8 #c4 ,hold the cloth to the light and look through it4 ,note the imperfections and chalk them4 ,what defects did you notice8 #d4 ,place the cloth on the desk1 face down4 ,rub the fingers over the back of the cloth4 ,when the fingers locate a knot1 raise it with the dissecting needle to be cut off later4 #e4 ,reverse the cloth4 ,rub the fingers over the face4 ,when a knot is found1 force it through to the back with the dissecting needle4 ,all the knots are on one side now4 ,clip them off with the scissors4 ,this is called burling and is the first process of finishing4 #f4 ,hold the cloth to the light4 ,notice where an entire filling thread is missing4 ,this is known as a full miss pick4 ,when part of a filling thread is missing it is spoken of as a half miss pick4 ,in general what does a miss pick mean8 #g4 ,unravel a filling thread from the lower edge of the cloth4 ,with it thread a needle and replace the missing pick4 ,follow the weave closely1 using a pick glass as an aid4 ,you are performing the second process of finishing1 that of mending4 #h4 ,if a warp end is missing replace it4 ,questions #a4 ,what is meant by finishing8 #b4 ,what is the first process of finishing8 ,what is burling8 #c4 ,what is a full miss pick8 a half miss pick8 #d4 ,what is the second process of finishing8 ,what is mending8 ,of what must the mender be careful8 ,experiment #ai--,removal of ,stains ,material3 ,stained fabrics4 ,textiles are easily stained1 therefore it is necessary to know something about the character of stains and the methods of removal4 ,stains may be roughly divided into the following classes3 a4 ,stains from foods1 such as grease and fruit acids4 b4 ,stains from machinery1 as wheel grease and oils4 c4 ,blood stains4 d4 ,inks4 e4 ,chemicals1 such as acids1 alkalies4 ,food stains are usually due either to grease contained in soup1 meat1 milk1 etc41 or to sugar contained in candies or preserves1 or to fruit acids contained in fresh fruits or sauces4 ,wheel grease and lubricant stains are obtained from various parts of machines1 like elevators1 street cars1 etc4 ,after the cloth leaves the loom it often contains spots of grease1 oil1 or dirt stains due to drippings from the loom or overhead machinery4 ,these are removed by means of liquids called solvents that dissolve the stain4 ,ether is the principal solvent used in the mill to remove small stains4 ,very few people realize that vapors of cooked food and fat1 unless carried out of a house1 will condense and settle on fabrics in the form of a film which collects a great deal of dust4 7,a bad grease spot usually has a neglected grease spot for a foundation47 ,in order to break up this film it is necessary to separate the entangled dust4 ,this is performed by some mechanical means1 such as shaking and brushing4 ,the most effective method of removing a stain is to place a circle of absorbent material#bd around the spot to take up the excess of liquid4 ,a white cloth should be placed under the fabric to absorb the solvent and show when the goods are clean4 ,then apply the solvent with a cloth of the same color and texture 7satin is excellent as it does not grow linty7 and rub from outside the spot to the center to prevent spreading4 ,it is necessary to rub very carefully as excessive rubbing will remove the nap and change the color4 ,one of the great dangers in removing a stain is that you may spoil the fabric4 ,therefore great care must be exercised4 ,the principal solvents are ether1 chloroform1 alcohol1 turpentine1 benzene1 and naphtha4 ,each solvent may be used to best advantage on certain fabrics4 ,the commercial grades of the solvents often contain impurities that leave a brown ring after evaporation4 ,this brown ring is very objectionable4 ,turpentine is used only in removing stains from coarse fabrics4 ,chloroform1 benzene1 and naphtha are used on ordinary silks and linens4 ,ether and chloroform are used to best advantage in removing stains from delicate silk1 as they seldom affect colors and evaporate very quickly4 ,of course it must be borne in mind that when a stain is removed from a fabric that portion that contained the stain loses some coloring matter and feels rougher than the other part4 ,grease ,spots on ,heavy ,goods that cannot be ,laundered ,it is usually desirable to use the following method in removing grease from a heavy fabric1 such as carpets or colored fabrics4 ,in case the grease is fresh1 place over the stain a piece of clean blotting paper or a piece of butcher's brown wrapping paper and underneath absorbent paper or oil cloth1 and then press the spot with a warm iron4 ,as heat often affects the shades of certain colors such as blues1 greens1 and reds1 it is best to hold a hot iron over the fabric and see if the grease is melted4 ,remove a stain from a piece of carpet4 ,removal of ,grease and ,blood ,ordinary ,fabrics 7wash goods74 ,wash the fabric containing grease or blood stain with tepid water and soap4 ,delicate ,fabrics4 ,as strong soap will spoil some colors and textures it is necessary to apply a solvent when a delicate fabric is stained4 ,remove stains from a washable fabric and a delicate fabric4 ,removal of ,wheel ,grease and ,lubricants on ,fine ,fabrics ,wheel grease is a mixture of oils and graphite4 ,apply benzene to the wheel grease spot4 ,this will dissolve the oil1 leaving the coloring matter 7graphite7 on the cloth1 and this may be collected on the white cloth on the other side4 ,remove a wheel grease stain from a dress fabric4 ,removal of ,acids ,fruit acids and all others1 except nitric acid may be removed by putting ammonia on the spot4 ,this will neutralize the acid1 forming a salt which may be either brushed or washed off4 ,in the case of nitric acid the fibers of the cloth are actually destroyed and no amount of ammonia will restore the original condition of the fabric4 ,remove a stain of orange juice from a dress or shirt waist4 ,removal of ,blood ,blood stains may be removed from a fabric by washing with cold or tepid water4 ,never use hot water1 as hot water coagulates the albumen of the blood4 ,after removing the blood soap and warm water may be used4 ,in case the fabric is a thick cloth1 the blood may be removed by applications of moist starch4 ,take different samples of fabrics and soil them with fruit acids1 soup1 wheel grease1 ink1 and blood and remove them4 ,exercise great care so as not to leave a mark or remove the coloring4 ,remove blood from a fabric4 ,questions #a4 ,what is a solvent8 an absorbent8 #b4 ,what is the best solvent to be used in removing stains from silks1 coarse goods1 and linens8 from delicate silks8 #c4 ,why is a brown ring often left after removing a stain8 #d4 ,how may grease and blood stain be removed from wash goods8 #e4 ,what is wheel grease8 ,how may it be removed8 #f4 ,how will ammonia remove acid stains8 #g4 ,does it remove all8 ,why not8 #h4 ,explain the method of removing blood stain from cloth4 ,experiment #bj--;,dyeing ,wool ,apparatus3 ,large porcelain dish or casserole1 filter4 ,materials3 ,undyed piece of woolen and worsted fabric1 undyed yarn1 and undyed raw cloth4 ,reference3 ,textiles1 page #fe4 ,directions #a4 ,prepare a solution of coloring matter by dissolving a half ounce of diamond dye 7green or red7 in a quart of water4 ,filter the solution4 ,place a piece of white woolen cloth in the liquid and boil ten minutes4 ,then wash the dyed fabric and notice whether the dyestuff washes off or not4 #b4 ,repeat the experiment1 using the same weight of undyed woolen yarn4 ,repeat with worsted yarn4 #c4 ,repeat the experiment using the same weight of wool sliver4 #d4 ,notice which has the deeper color4 ,the degree of color depends on the amount of twist in yarn4 ,which sample has absorbed the greatest amount of dyestuff from the liquid8 a4 ,why is a yarn-dyed fabric faster than a piece-dyed8 b4 ,why is a raw stock dyed fabric better than piece or yarn dyed8 ,experiment #ba--;,dyeing ,cotton ,apparatus3 ,porcelain dish1 filter stand1 etc4 ,material3 ,piece of cotton cloth4 ,reference3 ,textiles1 page #fg4 ,directions #a4 ,prepare a solution of coloring matter by dissolving a half ounce of logwood in a quart of water4 ,filter the solution4 ,place a piece of cotton cloth in the liquid and boil ten minutes4 ,then wash the dyed fabric and notice whether the dyestuff washes off or not4 #b4 ,repeat the same experiment and use a piece of cotton cloth that has been previously washed in common alum4#be ,note the effect4 ,which has the greater attraction for dyestuffs1 cotton or wool8 ,why is alum used8 #c4 ,repeat the same experiment1 using first the same weight of cotton yarn and then the same weight of cotton sliver4 ,notice the results4 ,which piece of cotton holds the dye best1 that which was dipped in alum or the one that was simply boiled in the solution8 ,experiment #bb--,weighting ,silk4--,affinity of ,metallic ,salts for ,silk ,apparatus3 ,porcelain dishes4 ,material3 ,silk yarn4 ,reference3 ,textiles1 pages #bab-bad4 ,directions #a4 ,weigh separately two skeins of dry silk and distinguish skein ,no4 #a by looping some cotton thread into it4 ,prepare a tepid bath containing #aj gm4 strong sumach extract in #djj cc4 water4 ,enter the skeins of silk and work for #ae to #bj minutes1 meanwhile slowly raising the temperature to about #aej ,f4 ,remove1 squeeze1 rinse with water1 squeeze1 and dry skein ,no4 #a for weighing4 #b4 ,meanwhile prepare another bath containing #d gm4 of copperas 7ferrous sulphate7 in #djj cc4 cold water4 ,work skein ,no4 #b in bath for #aj minutes cold4 ,remove1 and rinse well2 save the iron bath4 ,repeat the treatment in the sumach and iron baths several times more1 finally wash the sumach iron skein in #a per cent hot soap solution2 rinse1 squeeze1 and dry4 ,weigh each dried and cooled skein and note the increase in weight of each4 ,save sample for ,experiment #bc and note the effect of weighting on the yarn4 ,experiment #bc--;,dyeing ,silk ,apparatus3 ,porcelain dish1 filter stand1 etc4 ,material3 ,piece of silk yarn4 ,reference3 ,textiles1 page #baj4 ,directions #a4 ,prepare a solution of coloring matter by dissolving a half ounce of logwood in a quart of water4 ,filter the solution4 ,place a piece of silk skein1 from ,experiment #bb1 in the liquid and boil ten minutes4 ,then wash the dyed silk and notice whether the dyestuff washes off or not4 #b4 ,repeat the same experiment using the same weight of silk yarn without weighing it4 ,compare the results4 ,experiment #bd--,test to ,distinguish ,piece-,dyed from ,yarn-,dyed ,fabric ,apparatus3 ,pen knife4 ,materials3 ,woolen and cotton fabrics4 ,reference3 ,textiles1 pages #ff-fh4 ,directions ,unravel threads of the suspected sample1 and with a blade of pen knife note whether the dyestuff has penetrated through the yarn as noted by the depth of color in the interior of the yarn4 ,in case there is the same depth of color in the interior as on the surface1 the fabric is yarn-dyed4 ,if on the other hand1 the interior of the yarn is not so highly colored as the exterior1 it is piece-dyed4 ,questions #a4 ,what is meant by yarn-dyed fabric8 #b4 ,what is meant by piece-dyed fabric8 #c4 ,how may the two be distinguished8 ,experiment #be--,test to ,distinguish ,dyed from ,printed ,fabrics ,apparatus3 ,knife-blade4 ,materials3 ,cotton fabrics4 ,reference3 ,textiles1 page #fe4 ,printed fabrics may be distinguished from dyed by observing the back side of the cloth1 and noting whether or not the pattern on the face of the cloth penetrates through to the back1 or only the outline shows4 ,in case the figure or pattern is on both sides of the fabric1 it may be distinguished from the dyed by taking one thread of the suspected sample1 and by the means of a knife-blade attempting to scrape off the coloring on the surface of the thread4 ,if the dyestuff has penetrated into the interior of the thread1 it is not printed4 ,generally speaking1 printed fabrics are known from dyed fabrics by the fact that the former have the design printed on the face of the cloth4 ,this is called direct printing4 ,the best dyed fabrics are obtained by dyeing in what is called a jig1 and the whole fabric is saturated with color4 ,most1 if not all the cloths which you see in the retail dry goods stores which are in plain colors are dyed in the jig4 ,some of the cheaper qualities of dyed fabrics are padded in a mangle1 but there has been a very small quantity of these goods on the market for many years4 ,printed fabrics may be made as fast as dyed fabrics2 it all depends upon the process by which the goods are converted4 ,within the past few years great headway has been made in dyeing with what are termed vat colors4 ,indanthrene is a vat color and a great many mills have used this class of dye successfully in dyeing plain shades4 ,this is what would be termed a fast color in every sense of the word4 ,there are a number of dyestuff makers in ,europe who put vat colors on the market1 but they all call them by different names4 ,vat colors have been used with success in printing during the past year or two1 especially on shirting fabrics1 and these colors are fast to both light and washing4 ,most direct colors used for printing or dyeing are equally fast to light and washing1 but of course they will not stand the test as well as the vat colors mentioned above4 ,the essential qualities of a good printed fabric are its ability to withstand exposure to light and washing4 ,in printing1 of course1 a greater variety of desirable styles can be obtained than by dyeing1 in fact there are certain popular lines of goods now on the market the effect of the designs of which cannot be obtained in any other way than by printing4 ,at the same time1 although the field in designing for dyed fabrics is limited1 some very handsome effects can be obtained4 ,it will not be many years before a large proportion of the printed and dyed fabrics put on the market1 both foreign and domestic1 will be in the vat colors which1 as stated above1 are very fast4 ,even at the present time there are many mills that are using this class of colors entirely1 especially the mills which manufacture woven fabrics4 ,questions #a4 ,in printed fabrics is the pattern clearly discernible on the back of the cloth8 #b4 ,if the fabric is printed on both sides1 how may this fact be proved8 #c4 ,what is the difference between printed and dyed fabrics8 ,experiment #bf--;,bleaching by ,sulphur ,dioxide ,apparatus3 ,a quart bottle4 ,material3 ,sulphur1 worsted or silk fabric4 ,bleaching powder cannot be used in bleaching animal fibers such as woolen and silk fabrics4 ,it injures the fibers and at the same time leaves them yellow4 ,animal fibers are best bleached by immersing in an aqueous solution of sulphurous acid or exposing them to fumes of burning sulphur4 ,wet a piece of dyed worsted or silk fabric and hang it in a quart bottle containing fumes of burning sulphur4#bf ,the fumes of burning sulphur have an affinity for coloring matter--dyestuff4 ,the fumes 7called sulphur dioxide7 do not in most cases destroy the coloring matter as chlorine does1 but simply combine with it to form colorless compounds which can be destroyed4 ,the color can be restored by exposing the bleached fabric to dilute sulphuric acid4 ,questions #a4 ,why is it necessary that the fabric be moist in order to be bleached by sulphur dioxide fumes8 #b4 ,what becomes of the coloring matter8 ,experiment #bg--;,bleaching by ,bleaching ,powder ,apparatus3 ,porcelain dish4 ,material3 ,piece of calico4 ,reference3 ,textiles1 page #adh4 ,directions ,place a quarter of an ounce of bleaching powder in a quart bottle containing a pint of water4#bg ,then place a piece of calico in the water containing the bleaching powder4 ,what is the effect on the calico8 ,then remove cloth to another bottle filled with dilute hydrochloric or dilute sulphuric acid4 ,what is the effect on the color8 ,then wash the whitened cloth thoroughly in water4 ,why is it necessary in practice to pass cotton fabrics through two baths in bleaching8 ,what is contained in the first bath8 in the second bath8 ,experiment #cj--;,determining ,style of ,weave ,apparatus3 ,pick glass4 ,materials3 ,different fabrics4 ,references3 ,textiles1 pages #ef-eh1 etc4 ,examine different samples of cloth and classify them according to the seven standards given on pages #ef-eh1 etc4 ,experiment #ca--;,determining the ,size of ,yarn ,apparatus3 ,yard stick4 ,materials3 ,sample of cotton1 woolen1 and worsted yarns4 ,references3 ,textiles1 pages #di1 #ea1 #eb4 ,as yarns used in the manufacture of fabrics are of all degrees of thickness1 it became necessary to adopt some method of measuring this thickness4 ,for this purpose yarns are numbered1 so that when the number is known an idea of the size of the yarn may be gained4 ,it would seem advisable to number yarns of all kinds according to one fixed standard1 yet unfortunately this is not done4 ,the methods of counting yarns are many and varied4 ,the usual method is to estimate the yarn number by taking the number of hands of a definite length which make up some given weight4 ,thus in the worsted yarn1 ,no4 #a is a yarn that has #efj yards to a pound4 ,no4 #b worsted yarn has two times #efj yards to a pound4 ,how many yards in ,no4 #ab worsted yarn8 ,how many yards in ,no4 #bj cotton yarn8 ,experiment #cb--,test for ,twist in ,yarn ,apparatus3 ,test dial4 ,material3 ,piece of yarn4 ,references3 ,textiles1 pages #aca-acb4 ,as the amount of twist in yarn determines its strength1 it is necessary to know the amount of twist per inch in given yarn4 ,the strength increases up to a certain limit4 ,when this limit is reached1 increased twist does not make the thread any stronger4 ,we may also have twist and strength at the expense of bulk4 ,the test consists in finding out the number of turns per inch1 and this is done by an arrangement where a certain length of yarn is stretched between two points on a twisting machine and the twist taken out4 ,the number of turns required to take the twist completely out are registered on a dial at the side of the apparatus4 ,poor cotton that goes into coarse goods cannot be spun as fine as the finer cotton4 ,the shorter the cotton the more twist is required to spin it1 and the more twist that is put into the yarn1 the less will be the yardage4 ,whereas on the finer and longer cotton there will be less twist put into it1 and the yarn will be much stronger4 ,find the twist in different kinds of yarn4 ,experiment #cc--;,determining the ,direction of ,warp and ,filling ,apparatus3 ,microscope4 ,materials3 ,silk1 cotton1 and woolen fabrics4 ,reference3 ,textiles1 page #bch4 ,when one examines a fabric the first thing to do is to determine the direction of the warp and direction of the filling4 ,fabrics with ,selvedge4--,examine any fabric with a selvedge and notice that the warp threads run in the same direction as the length 7longest side7 of the selvedge4 ,what direction will the filling threads bear to the selvedge8 ,fabrics with a ,nap4--,examine a piece of flannel and notice the direction of the nap4 ,why will the direction of the nap be the same as the direction of the warp8 ,remember the way in which the fabric enters the napping machine4 ,fabrics ,containing ,double ,threads4--,examine a fabric containing double and single threads and notice that the warp contains the double threads4 ,why8 ,fabrics ,containing ,cotton and ,woolen ,yarn4--,examine a fabric containing cotton and woolen threads running in different directions and notice that the cotton threads form the warp4 ,why8 ,another way to tell the warp threads in a fabric is to examine warp and filling threads very closely and notice which set contains the greater twist8 ,why8 ,see if they are separated at more regular intervals4 ,why8 ,stiffened or ,starched ,fabrics4--,examine stiffened or starched goods very closely and notice the threads4 ,if only one set can be seen they are the warp threads4 ,the stiffer and straighter threads are found in the warp4 ,why8 ,the rough and crooked threads are seen in the filling4 ,experiment #cd--;,determining the ,density of a ,fabric ,apparatus3 ,pick glass4 ,materials3 ,samples of cloth4 ,reference3 ,textiles1 page #bch4 ,directions #a4 ,examine different samples of cloth and determine the number of filling threads and warp threads by means of a pick glass4 #b4 ,then examine different priced fabrics of the same kind and see whether the low or high priced fabric has the greater density4 ,experiment #ce--;,determining ,weight ,apparatus3 ,balances1 die4 ,materials3 #d square inches of cloth4 ,reference3 ,textiles1 page #bci4 ,directions #a4 ,fabrics are bought and sold by the yard4 ,in order to express the amount of wool or cotton in a fabric the weight in ounces per yard is usually given4 #b4 ,in order to find the number of ounces per yard a piece of cloth of definite size1 usually about #d sq4 in41 is stamped out by means of a die1 or cut by means of a tin plate exactly #d sq4 in4 7#b in4 on the side74 ,this is then weighed on very accurate balances and expressed in grains4 ,find the weight per yard4 ,remember #gjjj grains equal #a lb42 #af oz4 equal #a lb4 ,experiment #cf--;,determining ,shrinkage ,apparatus3 ,hot water4 ,material3 ,sample of woolen fabric4 ,reference3 ,textiles1 page #bci4 ,directions #a4 ,take a sample of a woolen fabric #ab in4 by #bj in4 and pour hot water over it and leave it immersed over night4 ,then dry it in the morning at a moderate temperature without stretching4 ,then measure its length and divide the difference in lengths by the original length4 ,the quotient multiplied by #ajj will give the per cent of shrinkage4 #b4 ,repeat the same experiment with a worsted fabric1 and with a cotton fabric4 #c4 ,why does the woolen fabric shrink more than the worsted8 ,experiment #cg--,test of ,fastness#bh of ,color under ,washing ,apparatus3 ,porcelain dish1 soap solution4 ,materials3 ,cotton and woolen fabrics4 ,reference3 ,textiles1 page #bdb4 ,directions #a4 ,colored goods and printed fabrics should withstand the action of washing4 ,they require more care than white goods and should be soaked in cold water containing very little soap and no soda4 ,they should be dried in the shade as a very hot sun will fade them4 ,if it is necessary to dry them in the sun be sure that they are dried wrong side out1 as direct sunlight fades them about five times as much as reflected light4 #b4 ,all colored fabrics should stand mechanical friction as well as the action of soap liquor and the temperature of the washing operation4 ,in order to test the fabric for fastness a piece should be placed in a soap solution similar to that used in the ordinary household1 and heated to #aca ,f4 ,the treatment should be repeated several times4 #c4 ,if the color fails to run it is fast to washing4 ,questions #a4 ,why should more care be exercised in washing colored goods than white8 #b4 ,how may colored fabrics be tested to show that they stand the action of soap solution8 #c4 ,does a moderately warm temperature 7#aca ,f47 affect the fastness of colored fabric8 ,experiment #ch--,test of ,fastness of ,color under ,friction ,apparatus3 ,yarn1 white unstarched cotton fabric4 ,materials3 ,fabrics worn near the skin4 ,reference3 ,textiles1 page #bdb4 ,directions ,stockings1 hosiery yarns1 corset stuffs1 and all fabrics intended to be worn next to the skin must be closely knitted to withstand friction and must not rub off1 stain1 or run1 that is1 the dyed materials must not give off their color when worn next to the human epidermis 7skin71 or in close contact with other articles of clothing1 as in the case of underwear4 ,in order to test two fabrics to see which is the better1 it is necessary to rub the fabric or yarn on white unstarched cotton fabric4 ,in comparing the fastness of color of two fabrics it is necessary to have the rubbing equal in all cases4 ,questions #a4 ,what is meant by friction8 #b4 ,what is meant by the expression fastness of color of two fabrics8 #c4 ,how may the fastness of a colored material be tested to withstand friction8 ,experiment #ci--,test of ,fastness of ,color against ,rain ,apparatus3 ,water1 undyed yarn4 ,materials3 ,silk and woolen fabrics4 ,reference3 ,textiles1 page #bdc4 ,directions ,silk and woolen materials for umbrella making1 raincoats1 etc41 are expected to be rainproof4 ,these fabrics are tested by plaiting with undyed yarns and left to stand all night in water4 ,notice whether the color of the fabric has run into the undyed yarns4 ,take a sample of the fabric and shake some drops of water on it4 ,notice whether it loses its luster when the drops have dried4 ,spotting may be prevented by placing a damp cloth on the wrong side of the material2 roll the two together1 and when evenly damp1 unroll and press through the damp cloth with a fairly hot iron4 ,place a piece of the fabric in the sun so that the sun and rain may come in contact with it4 ,notice whether it loses its color and becomes gray and dull4 ,experiment #dj--,test of ,fastness of ,color in ,sunlight ,apparatus3 ,cardboard4 ,materials3 ,silk1 woolen1 and cotton fabrics4 ,reference3 ,textiles1 page #bdd4 ,directions ,cover one end of the sample of cloth with a piece of cardboard4 ,expose the fabric to the sunlight for a number of days and examine the cloth each day and notice whether the part exposed has changed in color when compared with the part covered4 ,count the number of days it has taken the sunlight to change the color4 ,does direct sunlight have any effect upon colored fabrics8 ,which is the most affected by the sun1 silk1 woolen1 or cotton fabrics1 dyed with same dyestuff1 in the same length of time8 ,are fabrics changed any sooner by the sun than by the weather8 ,experiment #da--,test of ,fastness of ,color to ,weather1 ,light1 and ,air ,materials3 ,cotton1 silk1 and woolen fabrics4 ,reference3 ,textiles1 page #bdd4 ,directions ,examine various fabrics for fastness to weather1 light1 and air by placing samples outside of a window so that they will be exposed to the weather1 light1 and air4 ,have duplicate samples of the above away from the weather and light4 ,compare the samples exposed to the weather with those in the house and note the number of days it takes to change4 ,classify the fabrics4 ,which of the fabrics are most easily affected by the weather1 light1 and air8 ,experiment #db--,test of ,fastness of ,color against ,street ,mud and ,dust ,apparatus3 ,porcelain dish1 lime1 and water4 ,materials3 ,cotton1 silk1 and woolen fabrics4 ,reference3 ,textiles1 page #bdc4 ,ladies' dress goods are expected to withstand the action of mud and dust4 ,in order to test a fabric for the resistance1 the sample should be moistened with lime and water 7#aj per cent solution71 dried1 and brushed4 ,or sprinkle with a #aj per cent solution of soda1 drying1 brushing1 and noting any change in the color4 a4 ,is there any change in color after the lime water has been removed from the cloth8 b4 ,with what may the action of the lime water or soda be compared8 ,experiment #dc--,testing ,rubberized ,fabrics ,materials3 ,rubberized fabrics4 ,a great many rubberized fabrics are used for hospitals1 domestic purposes and for clothing4 ,on account of the high price of excellent rubberized fabrics a great many substitutes are placed on the market that are satisfactory to the eye1 but have not the wearing qualities for the service they are intended to render4 ,strength and ,resistance to ,scratching4--,in order to test a rubberized fabric to see if it has the necessary strength to stand everyday use1 see if it is possible to scratch it with the finger nail4 ,then crease it and crumple it between the hands4 ,then spread it out very carefully and notice whether there are any broken places4 ,if there are it should be rejected4 ,waterproof ,qualities4--,a rubberized fabric should be waterproof4 ,a sample may be tested by forming a bag with it and filling it with water4 ,crumple the bag while it is filled with water4 ,notice whether it cracks or leaks4 ,examine various rubberized fabrics and notice whether they are substantial4 ,experiment #dd--,test for ,vegetable and ,animal ,fiber ,apparatus3 ,acid1 fire4 ,materials3 ,warp and filling threads of cotton and woolen fabrics4 ,reference3 ,textiles1 page #bci4 ,directions ,one of the most useful tests is to see whether an article is made of wool1 cotton1 or silk1 and if a composition of two or more materials1 to estimate the percentage of each4 ,practical experience can teach one much in this respect1 and in many cases inspection is quite insufficient4 ,a more reliable test is to burn a piece of material and notice how it burns4 ,take a sample of a woolen and cotton fabric2 separate the warp and filling and untwist one piece of warp and one piece of filling yarn4 ,burn a piece of untwisted yarn and notice whether it burns slowly and curls up into a black crisp cinder leaving a disagreeable smell1 or burns with a flash leaving a light ash behind4 ,questions #a4 ,describe the burning process4 #b4 ,what is the burning test for vegetable fiber8 #c4 ,what is the burning test for animal fiber8 ,repeat the same experiment1 placing the untwisted yarn in sulphuric acid4 ,apply heat and note the effect4 ,what is the acid test for vegetable fiber8 ,what is the acid test for animal fiber8 ,examine different fabrics to see whether they contain vegetable or animal fibers4 ,experiment #de--;,difference between ,cotton and ,linen ,fabrics ,examine a real linen towel and a cotton towel4 ,wet your hands and use both towels to dry them4 ,notice which of the fabrics absorbs the moisture quicker1 or which towel dries the hands better4 ,compare a cotton table-cloth and a linen table-cloth4 ,notice that the linen fabric has a natural gloss1 a cool1 smooth feel1 and launders much better than cotton4 ,the cotton fabric on the other hand gives off a fuzz1 and irons dull and shapeless4#bi ,linen is tough and strong1 cool feeling1 and has a long fiber4 ,linen cannot be given a cotton fabric finish4#cj ,cotton on the other hand has a weak1 short fiber1 dull1 warm1 and non-absorbent4 ,after washing1 cotton resembles a limp rag while linen retains firmness and stiffness4 ,which fabric absorbs the moisture more readily8 ,what is the difference in appearance between the two fabrics8 ,between the fibers of the fabrics8 ,experiment #df--,test to ,distinguish ,artificial ,silk from ,silk ,apparatus3 ,porcelain dish1 potassium hydrate4 ,material3 ,piece of silk fabric4 ,reference3 ,textiles1 page #bdj4 ,since silk fabrics1 particularly hosiery1 are becoming popular1 various attempts have been made to produce substitutes for real silk4 ,to test a silk fabric1 boil the sample in #d per cent potassium hydrate solution and note the effect4 ,if it produces a yellow solution it is artificial silk1 if colorless it is pure silk4 ,another simple way used by some workmen1 although unhygienic1 is to unravel a few threads of the suspected fabric1 place them in the mouth1 and masticate them vigorously4 ,artificial silk will soften under the operation and break up into a mass of pulp4 ,natural silk will retain its fibrous strength4 ,test various samples of cheap silk hosiery4 ,experiment #dg--,test to ,distinguish ,silk from ,wool ,apparatus3 ,porcelain dish1 hydrochloric acid4 ,material3 ,silk or woolen fabric4 ,reference3 ,textiles1 page #bdj4 ,silk may be distinguished from wool by putting the suspected thread or fabric into cold concentrated hydrochloric acid4 ,if silk is present it will dissolve1 while wool merely swells4 ,test various samples of silk and wool4 ,experiment #dh--,test to ,distinguish ,cotton from ,linen ,apparatus3 ,fuchsine1 ammonia4 ,materials3 ,cotton and linen fabrics4 ,reference3 ,textiles1 page #bdj4 ,directions #a4 ,on account of the high price of linen various attempts are made to pass cotton off for linen4 ,while it is possible sometimes to detect cotton by rolling the suspected fabric between the thumb and finger1 the better way is to stain the fabric with fuchsine4 ,if the fibers of the fabric turn red1 and this coloration disappears upon the addition of ammonia1 they are cotton2 if the red color remains1 the fibers are linen4 ,the most reliable test is to examine the fiber under the microscope and note the difference in structure4 #b4 ,test a cheap linen fabric for cotton4 #c4 ,when cotton yarn is used to adulterate linen it becomes fuzzy through wear1 and when used to adulterate other fabrics1 it wears shabby and loses its brightness4 ,linen is a heavier fabric1 and wrinkles much more readily than cotton4 ,it wears better1 and has an exquisite freshness that is not found in cotton fabrics4 #d4 ,describe a chemical test for linen4 #e4 ,what is the difference in appearance and wearing qualities of cotton and linen8 ,experiment #di--,test of ,fabric to ,withstand ,ironing and ,pressing ,apparatus3 ,hot iron4 ,materials3 ,silk1 cotton1 and woolen fabrics4 ,directions ,place the sample over an ironing board and iron it with hot iron 7about #bjj ,f474 ,compare the sample immediately with one not ironed4 ,remember that many colors1 particularly colored silks1 change while they are hot4 ,if the original shade returns when the fabric has cooled1 then the fabric is fast to ironing and pressing4 ,questions #a4 ,what is the object of ironing and pressing clothes8 #b4 ,is it a good plan to press clothes often8 #c4 ,is there any difference in the effect of the hot iron on the three kinds of fabrics8 ,experiment #ej--,test of ,fabric to ,withstand ,perspiration ,apparatus3 ,porcelain dish4 ,materials3 ,silk1 cotton1 and woolen fabrics4 ,reference3 ,textiles1 page #bdc4 ,directions #a4 ,in addition to withstanding the action of coming in contact with the human skin1 fabrics like hosiery1 etc41 should withstand the excretions of the body4 #b4 ,to test a fabric for resistance1 place the sample in a bath of dilute acid made by adding one teaspoonful of acetic acid to a quart of water warmed to the temperature of the body1 #ih4f ,f4 ,the fabric should be dipped a number of times1 and then dried1 without rinsing1 between parchment paper4 ,questions #a4 ,what is the effect of the acid solution upon the fabrics8 #b4 ,would they necessarily withstand the effect of perspiration1 even if they did withstand the acetic acid solution8 ,why8 ,experiment #ea--,test for ,determining ,dressing ,apparatus3 ,magnifying glass1 porcelain dish4 ,materials3 ,various fabrics4 ,reference3 ,textiles1 page #bdb4 ,directions #a4 ,a great many cotton fabrics such as muslin often contain considerable sizing or dressing4 ,in order to examine a fabric and determine whether too much dressing has been used1 take a small sample of the fabric and crush it in the hand and rub it together1 so that the dressing is removed and the quantity employed may be determined4 ,if much dressing has been used1 dust will be produced in rubbing4 ,prick the surface with your finger nail4 ,notice whether the starch comes off4 ,then wet your finger and rub it on the cloth and allow it to dry4 ,does the gloss disappear8 #b4 ,another method is to hold the sample before the light and notice whether you can recognize the dressing4 ,examine the sample with a magnifying glass 7or pick glass7 and notice whether the dressing is superficial or penetrates the substance of the fabric4 #c4 ,would you buy low priced cotton goods with a thick gloss and pasty look8 #d4 ,notice the effect 7lusterless7 of fabrics containing much dressing after washing4 #e4 ,a very simple way for telling the amount of loading or weighting in a cotton fabric is to weigh a given sample1 then boil the fabric out in hot water1--boiling for several hours and then drying it4 ,the difference in weight after drying and before boiling gives the weight of sizing material per sample piece4 #f4 ,if mineral loading has been used to a great extent1 a large residue is left after burning4 ,experiment #eb--,testing the ,strength of ,cloth ,apparatus3 ,dynamometer4 ,materials3 ,various fabrics4 ,reference3 ,textiles1 page #bcg4 ,directions #a4 ,an excellent way to test the strength of a fabric is to place the two thumbs together and press them down on the sample1 holding it tight underneath4 ,then try to break the threads1 first in one direction and then in the other4 ,do they break easily8 ,notice whether one set is very much stronger than the other4 #b4 ,manufacturers usually test yarn and fabrics by means of an instrument called a dynamometer4 ,in this way one can find out whether a yarn or fabric comes up to the necessary strength1 and whether it has the required yield or stretch4 ,both these points are of importance in practical work1 for it is essential that the yarn as shown should at least be strong enough to bear the strain of manufacture4 ,the test is made by stretching a hank of yarn between the two hooks of a cloth testing machine4 ,the handle at the side is now turned1 so that the lower hook descends and puts a strain on the hank4 ,this strain is increased1 and at the same time the pointer moves around the dial1 which indicates in pounds the amount of strain4 ,when the threads of the hank begin to break1 the strain is released1 and the catch at the side keeps the pointer in position until the amount of strain is read on the dial4 ,the distance stretched by the yarn before breakage occurs is shown in inches and fractions of an inch1 in the small indicator arranged near the upper hook4 ,test different fabrics and yarns4 ,experiment #ec--;,characteristics of a ,knitted ,fabric ,apparatus3 ,pick glass4 ,materials3 ,knitted fabric1 woven fabric4 ,reference3 ,textiles1 page #aec4 ,directions #a4 ,examine a piece of knitted fabric under the pick glass and notice the construction4 ,how does it differ from weaving8 ,the single thread is formed into rows of loops which hang upon each other1 thus giving the knitted fabric its characteristic springiness4 ,why is hosiery suitable for underwear8 ,try to obtain the thread of the knitted fabric and reduce the whole to a heap of yarn by cutting it4 ,is the yarn intact8 #b4 ,a knitted fabric may be told from a woven fabric by studying the following sketch4 7,see page #caj47 ,note that the element of stretch or elasticity is wholly lacking in the woven cloth except what lengthwise elasticity may be in the threads themselves4 ,on the other hand1 referring to the printed diagram of the knitted fabric it will just as readily be seen that its very structure implies such a corrugation of its individual loops that if distended by force in any direction its tendency is to return to the normal4 ,the essential characteristics of good hose are3 #a4 ,that they should be without seams4 #b4 ,that they should be so knit as to conform to the foot of the wearer4 #c4 ,that they should be thickened or reinforced where the greatest wear comes4 ,illustration3 ,,ordinary ,,weaving a4 ,weft4 b4 ,warp4 ,illustration3 ,,plain ,,stocking ,,fabric ,the essential characteristics of good underwear are3 #a4 ,it should be made from elastic cloth1 which implies a knitted cloth4 #b4 ,it should be porous in a high degree--whether in winter weight or summer weight4 #c4 ,the seams should be made upon the most modern sewing machines1 with as little bulk as possible4 ,experiment #ed--;,experiment to ,illustrate ,imperfections in ,hosiery ,apparatus3 ,magnifying glass4 ,materials3 ,hosiery 7seconds74 ,reference3 ,textiles1 page #aei4 ,examine a piece of hosiery called a second1 obtained from a hosiery mill1 and notice whether any of the following defects are present3 a4 ,yarn contains thick bits and buns4 b4 ,knots are badly tied4 c4 ,discolored yarn4 d4 ,lacks solidity and firmness1 due to the gauge being too coarse for the yarn4 e4 ,full work-yarn too thick for gauge4 ,experiment #ee--;,characteristics of a ,crochet ,fabric ,apparatus3 ,crochet needle4 ,material3 ,thread4 ,directions #a4 ,crocheting is another method1 like knitting1 of making a fabric4 ,examine the operation of crocheting4 ,notice that only one thread is made use of1 and is formed into loops by means of a large needle with a hook at the end4 ,the chief point is that the loops are not formed in uniform rows1 but one loop at a time1 and with the greatest liberty to choose any part of the article already made to form a new loop4 ,for this reason1 crocheting adapts itself to the production of fancy patterns useful for ornamenting4 #b4 ,a knitted fabric can be told from a crocheted fabric by noting that a knitted fabric is composed of rows or ranks of loops of a single yarn which interlock successively with similar rows or ranks of loops1 while a crocheted fabric consists of a structure the basis of which is a thread crocheted or knitted into a chain which is attached at intervals to itself4 ,experiment #ef--;,characteristics of a ,good ,piece of ,cotton ,cloth ,materials3 ,different samples of cotton fabrics4 ,reference3 ,textiles1 pages #aea-aeb4 ,directions #a4 ,examine different kinds of cotton fabrics4 ,compare the lowest1 medium1 and highest priced varieties of the same fabric4 ,notice how quickly the finish of a low priced cotton fabric with a thick gloss loses its luster after washing4 #b4 ,examine the different grades of the following fabrics3 white lawn1 ,indian ,head cotton suiting1 muslin1 lawn1 and cambric4 ,wash the samples several times4 ,does it pay to buy cheap cotton fabrics for underwear1 etc48 ,what are the characteristics of a good piece of cotton cloth8 ,experiment #eg--;,characteristics of a ,good ,piece of ,woolen ,cloth ,materials3 ,different samples of woolens4 ,reference3 ,textiles1 pages #ga-hb4 ,directions #a4 ,woolens differ from worsteds in having a more or less covered face1 with the result that the weave rarely is noticeable1 and the general color effects are much smoother and softer than those of worsteds4 #b4 ,examine different grades of woolen fabrics1 such as serges4 ,defects4--,if a piece of woolen is not constructed right from the start or if the work is not properly finished1 that is1 enough fulled in width or length1 it is liable to be raggy or slazy4 ,as a great many fabrics are more or less teaseled1 there is a possibility of such pieces becoming too woolly and too hairy4 ,experiment #eh--;,characteristics of a ,good ,piece of ,worsted ,cloth ,materials3 ,different kinds of worsted fabrics4 ,reference3 ,textiles1 pages #ga-hb4 ,directions #a4 ,a good piece of worsted fabric should have a clear outline of the pattern1 perfection of weave lines1 and when the fabric is exposed to light should show a luster without polish4 #b4 ,examine different types of worsted fabrics1 and notice how many conform to the above requirements4 #c4 ,the most essential point of worsted is that it should have a clean and even looking face4 ,by clean is meant well sheared4 ,by even is meant that the individual ends and picks used should be even and not full of knots1 or of any foreign matter4 ,of course1 there are some exceptions1 for instance1 in an unfinished worsted which has more or less nap on the face1 it could not be sheared absolutely clear1 but at the same time1 the face should be very evenly cropped4 ,defects4--,a serious defect would be if the cloth was not well sheared or if it contained many uneven cords and picks1 or ends and picks missing1 or coarse ends and slubs4 ,examine different worsteds and notice any defects4 ,,worsteds4--,speaking generally1 worsteds may be divided into two classes1 distinguishable according to the luster of their surface1 or to the softness of their feel4 ,they are used both for ladies' and men's wear4 ,worsted coatings may also be classed as worsteds4 ,the coatings are woven in both single and double cloths in fancy weave effects for piece dyes1 marketed in variety of finish1 according to fashion4 ,under this heading may be classified staple cloths1 such as serges1 clays1 and fancy weave effects without any illumination4 ,they can be finished in three ways3--,clear1 undressed1 and cheviot1 used for ladies' dress goods or men's wear1 according to weight4 ,the finish of the cloth varies according to the fashion1 but there is always a certain demand for clear and undressed worsteds1 for men's wear4 ,examine a number of worsted fabrics and classify them4 ,,suitings4--,the term suitings covers various manipulations of manufactured goods4 #a4 ,tennis suitings1 composed of all wool1 or all worsted1 white or cream ground1 decorated with solid color1 silk and weave stripe effects4 #b4 ,piece-dyed worsteds1 such as a blue ground with white silk line1 cable cord1 and fancy weave stripe effects1 or any other ground shade color with its complementary decoration applied4 #c4 ,mixture wool or mixture worsted yarns made into fabrics1 decorations applied in color2 cable1 silk1 and weave effects in stripes or overline color checks1 suitable for men's wear1 or decorated suitable for woman's wear4 ,the darker shades for fall and the lighter shades for spring4 ,general weight of fabric for men's wear1 #ab to #ad oz4 per yd41 #ef in42 general weight of fabric for ladies' wear1 #h to #ab oz4 per yd41 #ed in4 #d4 ,as a rule1 when one speaks of a suiting1 you expect to see a fancy effect1 in the form of a fancy stripe1 check1 or a colored mixture1 in loud or quiet tones of decoration4 ,long naps in fancy effects are sometimes fashionable1 and at other times the cloth finish is popular4 ,this class may be subdivided into #a4 ,light weight for spring or fall4 #b4 ,heavy weight for winter4 ,the light weight class generally consists of covert cloths in lighter colors for spring1 and cloths usually of the undressed finish from worsted or woolen stock for fall4 ,the heavy weight class generally consists of heavily fulled goods1 such as meltons1 beavers1 naps1 etc41 which give a heavier and warmer coat for winter use only1 and where an exceptionally heavy coat is required1 double and treble cloths are occasionally employed4 ,examine different kinds of suitings and classify them4 ,,trouserings4--,trouserings are more firmly woven than suitings and are heavier4 ,they invariably have a stripe4 ,the ground shade of the better grade of men's wear fabrics is generally composed of twist warp yarns1 ranging from dark slate gray to light lavender gray4 ,an endless variety of broad and narrow fine line effects is produced by expert manipulation and combination of weave and silk decorations1 producing the pleasing effect required for this class of goods4 ,the filling is nearly always black2 but sometimes a dark slate is used4 ,the cheaper grades are generally made of wool and cotton mixtures and twists1 down to all cotton1 in imitation of the better grades4 ,,overcoatings4--,overcoatings are heavy woolen or worsted fabrics and heavily teaseled or gigged1 giving a rough1 hairy appearance4 ,whether thick or thin1 coarse or fine1 they should always be elastic fabrics1 that is1 as much so as well fulled woolen goods can be4 ,when hard or stiff they never make a graceful garment4 ,the special goods made for overcoats are nearly all soft goods4 ,examine different fabrics and classify them into either suitings1 overcoatings1 trouserings1 etc4 ,experiment #ei--;,characteristics of a ,good ,silk ,fabric ,materials3 ,samples of different cheap silk fabrics4 ,reference3 ,textiles1 pages #bjc-bah4 ,there are cheap and expensive silk fabrics on the market4 ,the consumer is often tempted to buy the cheaper fabric and wonders why there is such a difference in price4 ,the difference in price is due to the cost of raw material and additional cost is due to the care in manufacturing4 ,for example1 raw silk costs from #a4ce to #e a pound according to its nature1 quality1 and the country from which it comes4 ,the cost of throwing silks preparatory to dyeing also varies1 the average being #ee cents a pound for organzine or warp1 and #cc cents a pound for tram and filling4 ,the prices here also vary according to the nature of the twist imparted to the silk1 which is regulated by the kind of cloth it is to enter into4 ,the cost of dyeing varies from #ee cents a pound upwards to perhaps #a4ej a pound1 according to the dye and the treatment which the silk is to receive in the process of dyeing4 ,the cost of winding1 quilling1 and sundry labor items necessary with soft silk prior to its being woven1 will perhaps average about a cent per yard of woven goods for the cheapest cloths and range upwards according to the grade of the fabric4 ,the cost of weaving also varies with the cloth1 and may be #i cents for one fabric and #be cents or more per yard for the more expensive4 ,weavers are paid from #b cents to #fj cents per yard for weaving the different fabrics1 and other operations vary greatly in cost2 for instance1 the cost of printing is entirely dependent upon the work and the number of colors used1 whether it is blotch printing1 discharge work1 or block printing4 ,different processes in finishing have widely varied costs4 ,at the present time moire work is done which costs as high as #be cents per yard4 ,there are also other materials which can be finished for as little as #a_/b cent per yard4 ,some goods have to be finished over and over again in the dyeing and finishing while others are very simply done4 ,many printed goods are handled #aej times after they come from the loom4 ,when it comes to relative values of similar goods produced by different manufacturers there are a few general principles by which good construction can easily be determined4 ,most pure dye fabrics when burned will rather shrivel and boil than burn1 while those which are weighted heavily with metallic salts will simply char and turn white without losing the structure of the fabric4 ,a fabric in which the quantity of warp and filling are of equal weight gives the maximum strength for the amount of material used4 ,for the same weight and material1 that having the most bindings of warp and filling will give the greater service4 ,fabrics with an insufficient number of warp or filling threads slide easily and do not give good service1 though sometimes fashionable4 ,a fabric having a twist in the warp and filling will last longer than one using the same amount of silk and the same binding with less twist4 ,all of these things may be taught to women many times over1 but if the fashion demands an article which breaks all of the above laws and is everything that it should not be1 they will buy it in preference to a serviceable fabric4 ,as a general rule1 the consumer will be safest in buying goods produced by houses of good reputation and whose products are well known4 ,a large part of the retail value of silk goods is their fashion demand and is quite independent of their cost of production4 ,for instance1 at the present time crpe fabrics1 brocades1 and prints are commanding a premium while such goods as plain taffetas could not be sold for the cost of production4 ,the advantages of the better kinds of silks over the cheap ones are pure dye1 long wear1 and more expensive manufacturing4 ,experiment #fj--;,how to ,determine the ,count of ,yarn in ,cloth ,apparatus3 ,scales1 ruler4 ,material3 ,samples of fabrics4 ,reference3 ,textiles1 pages #add-adf4 ,the ,united ,states ,government imposes a tax on certain imported fabrics and yarn4 ,in the case of cotton1 the rates of duty are to be ascertained according to the average number of the yarns in the condition in which it is imported4 ,the length of the yarn is to be counted as equal to the distance covered by it in the cloth1 all clipped threads to be measured as if continuous and all ply yarns to be separated into singles and the count taken of the total singles2 any excessive sizing is to be removed by boiling or other suitable processes4 ,the number of the yarn is the ,english number of #hdj yd4 to a lb4 for a ,no4 #a yarn4 ,the average number of yarn may be found without unraveling the fabric1 and is the quotient of the total thread length1 by the weight in the proportion of #hdj yd4 of yarn equaling #h-a_/c grains1 which is equivalent to a ,no4 #a yarn4 ,the following simple formula may be used3 ,multiply the count of threads per square inch by the number of square inches in the sample used1 this product to be multiplied by #ajj2 then divide the product thus obtained by the weight of the sample in grains multiplied by #dcb4 ,the quotient will give the number of the yarn4 ,for example1 take a sample of cotton cloth #d in4 square1 which equals #af sq4 in41 having #bh warp and #bh woof threads1 a total of #ef threads to the square inch1 and weighing #h4f grains4 ,the formula applied would be as follows3 #ef #af #ajj #h4f #dcb #bd1 the number of the yarn4 ,the formula may be further simplified by weighing a square yard of the cloth and dividing the number of threads per square inch by #a_/cjj of the weight per square yard in grains4 ,find the number of yarn in several cotton fabrics4 ,experiment #fa--,study of ,fabrics ,a great deal of time should be devoted to the study of standard fabrics so that pupils may be able to recognize them by inspection and know how to test them for adulterants4 ,this may be done by having the pupils study the fabrics one by one1 placing a sample of each in a note-book4 ,underneath the sample should be written the use of the fabric1 the width1 the different grades1 with prices1 wearing qualities1 and how the fabric is made4 ,in connection with this work special effort should be made to develop a textile vocabulary so as to be able to discriminate between the different fabrics1 to know the types of weaves1 and the different kinds of finish1 etc4 ,in this way develop the ability to know what materials and colors weave best1 the prices which should be paid for strong materials1 the amount of material necessary1 and the trade names of fabrics which can be depended upon for substantial goods4 ,occasional tests in recognizing fabrics should be given by the teacher by placing before the pupils unlabeled fabrics that they have previously studied and have them give the name1 approximate price or grade1 weave1 qualities1 etc4 ,remnants or small pieces of standard fabrics may be obtained from the leading dry goods stores of the country4 ,teachers should have on exhibition in cabinets a large display of standard fabrics with a card attached giving the name and use of each4 ,experiment #fb--;,how to ,examine a ,fabric ,the first thing a buyer of cloth notices in examining the fabrics is the finish4 ,the finish is tested by feeling and seeing4 ,to illustrate3 broadcloth should have a smooth face and a nap evenly laid4 ,if the finish is in keeping with the character of the cloth1 he next examines the fiber of the yarn to see whether it is composed of pure wool or two or more fibers in combination4 ,then test the strength of the cloth to see if it will meet the requirements4 ,a test should be made to tell whether it is poorly dyed or well dyed4 ,there is no test that can be applied to all colors to ascertain this1 neither is it possible to judge by the eye4 ,the best way is to take a small sample of the goods and submit it to the washing and light test4 ,,footnotes3 #ba ,dissecting pin may be made by placing head of pin or needle in a pen holder4 #bb ,a hand loom consisting of simply a square frame1 may be obtained from ,hammett ,co41 ,devonshire ,street1 ,boston1 ,mass4 #bc ,in the case of linen the short fibers separated by combing are called tow1 and the long fibers line4 #bd ,absorbents are substances that will absorb readily excess of liquids2 they include varieties of chalk1 paste of chalk1 or fullers' earth1 rough surface of a visiting card1 buckwheat flour1 crumbs of bread1 powdered soapstone1 pumice1 whiting4 ,these substances are used to great advantage in assisting to remove stains from delicate fabrics4 ,they absorb the excess of solvent and thus prevent it from spreading4 #be ,alum in this case is called a mordant1 which is a substance that will impregnate the cloth with something which will hold the coloring matter4 ,other mordants are oxides1 hydroxides1 and basic salts of aluminum1 iron1 tin1 and chromium4 #bf ,place a piece of sulphur on a deflagrating spoon and light it by placing it in the flame and allow it to burn4 ,cover the bottle by means of a glass plate4 #bg ,bleaching powder is prepared by passing chlorine gas over layers of slaked lime 7lime to which a slight amount of water has been added74 ,bleaching powder bleaches by having its hypochlorous acid set free1 which in turn gives up oxygen1 being converted into hydrochloric acid4 ,the ,french use solutions containing chloride and hypochlorite of soda4 ,they are called ,labarraque's disinfecting fluid4 ,a similar solution of a mixture of chloride and hypochlorite is called ,eau de ,javelle4 #bh ,a description of shoe and hand clothing may be obtained from ,shoemaking1 published by ,little1 ,brown ,co41 ,boston4 #bi ,in ,ireland the cost of producing a pound of bleached linen cloth #d sq4 yd4 is #af;d4 or #cb cts42 cost of hackling a pound of flax is #a_/b;d4 or #a ct4 per lb42 cost of preparing and spinning a pound of flax is #f;d4 or #ab cts4 per lb42 cost of winding and weaving a pound of flax is #b-a_/b;d4 or #e cts4 per lb42 cost of bleaching and finishing a pound of flax is #g;d4 or #ad cts4 per lb42 #ge is spent in turning #ajj worth of flax into yarn2 #ge is spent in turning #ajj worth of yarn into brown linen2 #ej is spent in turning #ajj worth of brown linen into linen for market4 #cj ,a linen fabric can be best told from cotton by holding it up to the light and examining the evenness of the threads4 ,cotton can be more easily spun level than flax1 therefore threads that present considerable irregularities may be taken to be flax4 ,in a union fabric the nap is usually cotton and the threads more regular than the filling 7flax74 ,the best linen is made from fine and fairly regular threads2 common linen from coarse and irregular tow yarns4 ,linen is no more subject to weak places in weaving than cotton1 although it is harder to bleach and may be weakened in this process4 ,if each operation is not perfect the linen will become yellow in storage4 ,,sources ,,of ,,supply ,the author has found that very nearly all manufacturers are willing to supply schools with samples of their products4 ,but the demand for samples has been so great that it is necessary in most cases to pay a small sum to cover the cost4 ,the following prominent firms dealing in textile supplies are named here to assist the teachers in writing for supplies4 ,the names of the leading textile papers are given so that teachers may obtain them4 ,they contain a large number of names of dealers in textiles so that they may be used as reference books for supplies4 ,catalogues of ,cotton ,machinery ,kitson ,machine ,shop1 ,lowell1 ,mass4--,cotton pickers4 ,howard and ,bullough1 ,pawtucket1 ,r4 ,i4--,cotton machinery4 ,saco-,pettee ,machine ,shop1 ,saco1 ,me4--,cotton machinery4 ,lowell ,machine ,shop1 ,lowell1 ,mass4--,cotton machinery4 ,whitin ,machine ,works1 ,whitinsville1 ,mass4--,cotton machinery4 ,mason ,machine ,works1 ,taunton1 ,mass4--,cotton machinery4 ,draper ,co41 ,hopedale1 ,mass4--,cotton machinery4 ,woonsocket ,machine ,works1 ,woonsocket1 ,r4 ,i4--,cotton machinery4 ,faler ,jencks1 ,pawtucket1 ,r4 ,i4--,cotton machinery4 ,potter ,johnson1 ,pawtucket1 ,r4 ,i4--,cotton machinery4 ,c4 ,e4 ,riley1 #fe ,franklin ,st41 ,boston1 ,mass4--,cotton machinery4 ,cohoes ,iron ,foundry ,co41 ,cohoes1 ,n4 ,y4--,cotton machinery4 ,american ,moistening ,co41 #abj ,franklin ,st41 ,boston1 ,mass4--,humidifiers and textile machinery4 ,standard ,textile ,papers ,american ,wool and ,cotton ,reporter1 ,atlantic ,ave41 ,boston1 ,mass4 ,american ,silk ,journal1 ,east #bhth ,st41 ,new ,york ,city1 ,n4 ,y4 ,textile ,world ,record1 ,congress ,st41 ,boston1 ,mass4 ,technical ,education ,bulletin on ,illustrative and ,laboratory ,supplies1 published by ,teachers ,college1 ,columbia ,university1 ,west #abjth ,st41 ,new ,york4 ,fibre and ,fabric1 #abg ,federal ,st41 ,boston1 ,mass4 ,textile ,manufacturers ,journal1 ,atlantic ,ave41 ,boston1 ,mass4 ,wool1 ,cotton1 and ,silk ,samples ,american ,woolen ,co41 ,boston1 ,mass4--,booklets on ,from ,wool to ,cloth2 samples of fabrics4 ,arlington ,mills1 ,chauncey ,st41 ,boston1 ,mass4--,samples of cotton and wool in different stages of manufacture2 fabrics4 ,s4 ,blaisdell1 ,jr41 ,chicopee1 ,mass4--,egyptian and ,peruvian cotton1 etc4 ,frank ,a4 ,tierney1 #bfj ,broadway1 ,new ,york--,ramie4 ,geo4 ,carter1 #bdf ,broadway1 ,new ,york--,linen yarns and thread4 ,boston ,yarn ,co41 #ej ,state ,st41 ,boston1 ,mass4--,cotton yarn4 ,wonalancit ,co41 ,nashua1 ,n4 ,h4--,samples of cotton4 ,botany ,worsted ,mills1 ,passaic1 ,n4 ,j4--,french spun worsted yarn4 ,c4 ,e4 ,riley1 #fe ,franklin ,st41 ,boston1 ,mass4--,yarns and fabrics4 ,adirondack ,wool ,co41 ,little ,falls1 ,n4 ,y4--,wools and shoddies4 ,sutcliffe1 ,atlantic ,ave41 ,boston1 ,mass4--,foreign wools4 ,francis ,willey ,co41 #eef ,atlantic ,ave41 ,boston1 ,mass4--,top1 foreign wools4 ,john ,l4 ,farrell1 #baj ,summer ,st41 ,boston1 ,mass4--,mohair1 noils1 and carpet wools4 ,the ,j4 ,r4 ,montgomery ,co41 ,windsor ,locks1 ,conn4--,novelty yarns4 ,catlin ,co41 #fg ,chauncey ,st41 ,boston1 ,mass4--,cotton yarns4 ,norfolk ,woolen ,co41 ,franklin1 ,mass4--,shoddies4 ,parker ,wilder ,co41 ,boston1 ,mass4--,samples of fabrics4 ,lawrence ,co41 ,franklin ,st41 ,boston1 ,mass4--,samples of fabrics4 ,joy1 ,langdon1 ,co41 ,boston1 ,mass4--,samples of fabrics4 ,clark ,thread ,co41 ,newark1 ,n4 ,j4--,exhibit4 ,george ,a4 ,clark ,bro41 #djj ,broadway1 ,new ,york--,cabinet and booklet4 ,cheney ,bro41 ,so4 ,manchester1 ,conn4--,silk samples1 silk fabrics4 ,johnson ,johnson1 ,new ,brunswick1 ,n4 ,j4--,wall chart of cotton field4 ,scordill1 #ijb ,canal ,st41 ,new ,orleans1 ,la4--,cotton postal cards4 ,storey ,cotton ,co41 ,the ,bourse1 ,philadelphia1 ,pa4--,booklet1 ,all about ,cotton4 ,white ,oak ,cotton ,mills1 ,greensboro1 ,n4 ,c4--,stereoscopic views4 ,willimantic ,thread ,co41 ,willimantic1 ,conn4 ,flax ,spinning ,co41 ,york ,st41 ,belfast1 ,ireland4--,prints illustrating linen manufacture and samples4 ,jas4 ,mc,cutcheon ,co41 #eth ,ave4 and #cdth ,st41 ,new ,york4--,flax cabinet4 ,the ,linen ,thread ,co41 #if ,franklin ,st41 ,new ,york4--,flax cabinet4 ,belding ,bro4 ,co41 #ebf ,broadway1 ,new ,york4--,school exhibits of silk4 ,brainerd ,armstrong1 #ajj ,union ,st41 ,new ,london1 ,conn4--,book and cabinet of silk4 ,champlain ,silk ,mills1 ,whitehall1 ,n4 ,y4--,spun silk and exhibits4 ,m4 ,heminway ,sons1 ,silk ,co41 ,watertown1 ,conn4--,booklets on silk4 ,nonatuck ,silk ,co41 ,florence1 ,mass4--,sealed cabinets and books on silk4 ,william ,skinner ,sons1 #dg ,east #agth ,st41 ,new ,york ,city4--,silks and satins4 ,s4 ,miller1 #cjd ,second ,ave41 ,new ,york4--,wool fiber4 ,milton1 ,bradley ,co41 ,springfield1 ,mass4--,sheep chart4 ,a4 ,h4 ,post1 ,quaker ,hill1 ,new ,york4--,raw wool by the pound4 ,schermerhorn ,co41 #ab ,west #cc;d ,st41 ,new ,york ,city1 ,n4 ,y4--,wall chart illustration of sheep4 ,l4 ,s4 ,watson ,mfg4 ,co41 ,worcester1 ,mass4--,hand cards4 ,howard ,bros41 ,worcester1 ,mass4--,hand cards4 ,prin4 ,columbus ,industrial ,school1 ,columbus1 ,ga4--,samples of cotton plant or bolls4 ,woolen ,yarns ,horstman ,co41 #eth and ,cherry ,st41 ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 ,lion ,yarn ,co41 #djh ,broadway1 ,new ,york4 ,catalogue of ,woolen and ,worsted ,machinery ,c4 ,g4 ,sargent's ,sons1 ,graniteville1 ,mass4--,wool machinery4 ,davis ,ferber ,co41 ,no4 ,andover1 ,mass4--,woolen and worsted machinery4 ,lowell ,machine ,shop1 ,lowell1 ,mass4--,worsted machinery4 ,crompton ,knowles1 ,worcester1 ,mass4--,worsted silk machinery4 ,speed ,stephenson1 #agj ,summer ,st41 ,boston1 ,mass4--,textile machinery4 ,george ,gerry ,co41 ,athol1 ,mass4--,shoddy machinery4 ,tolhoust ,machine ,works1 ,troy1 ,n4 ,y4--,hydro extractor4 ,parks ,woolson ,machine ,co41 ,springfield1 ,vt4--,machinery4 ,curtis1 ,marble ,co41 ,worcester1 ,mass4--,finishing machinery4 ,general ,electric ,co41 #hd ,state ,st41 ,boston1 ,mass4--,pictures1 showing textile machinery in operation by motors4 ,hopkins ,machine ,works1 ,budgeton1 ,r4 ,i4--,finishing machinery4 ,knitting ,machinery ,scott ,williams1 #hh ,pearl ,st41 ,boston1 ,mass4 ,nye ,tudick ,co41 ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 ,chemicals1 ,dyestuffs1 and ,sizing ,materials ,the ,arabol ,mfg4 ,co41 #ajj ,williams ,st41 ,new ,york4--,sizing materials4 ,cassella ,color ,co41 #ahb ,front ,st41 ,new ,york4--,coal tar products1 dyestuffs1 and literature4 ,arnold ,hoffman ,co41 ,providence1 ,r4 ,i4--,sizing materials4 ,h4 ,a4 ,metz ,co41 #abb ,hudson ,st41 ,new ,york4--,dyestuffs and literature4 ,badische ,co41 #abh ,duane ,st41 ,new ,york4--,dyestuffs and literature4 ,,index ,acid test1 #bci ,adelaide wool1 #aj ,adulterations of wool1 #hj1 #hb ,albatross1 #hc1 #agc ,alma1 #bai ,alpaca1 #a1 #ae1 #cd1 #hc ,american cotton1 #aaj ,american wool1 #c ,angora1 #cb1 #hc ,animal fibers1 #a ,artificial fibers1 #a ,artificial silk1 #a1 #bcj ,asbestos1 #a1 #bcd ,astrakhans1 #ae1 #hd ,australian wool1 #c1 #h1 #i ,awning1 #agc ,baling cotton1 #aag ,bandanna1 #hd ,barge1 #bai ,bast fibers1 #aic ,batiste1 #agc ,beam1 #ec ,beaver cloth1 #eb1 #hd ,bedford cord1 #hd1 #agd ,beige1 #he ,bengaline1 #bai ,berber1 #bai ,bindings1 #hd ,bleaching cotton1 #adh flax1 #aif thread1 #ada ,blending1 #aa1 #ca ,bombazine1 #hd1 #bbj ,bottany1 #hd ,boucle1 #he ,bourrette1 #agd ,bradford system of spinning1 #dd ,branding sheep1 #g ,broadcloth1 #eb1 #he ,brocade1 #bai ,brocatel1 #bbj ,buckram1 #agd ,bunting1 #he ,bur picker1 #cj ,burling1 #gb ,burring1 #bi1 #cj ,calendering1 #adi1 #aej ,calico1 #age ,caniche1 #hf ,canvas1 #agg ,cape wools1 #aj ,carbonizing1 #bi1 #cj ,carding cotton1 #abf wool1 #c1 #d ,carpet wools1 #c1 #d ,cashmere1 #he1 #hf goat1 #ac wool1 #ac1 #hg ,castor1 #hg ,challis1 #hg ,chambray1 #agg ,characteristics of cotton cloth1 #aeb of linen cloth1 #aif of woolen cloth1 #ej of worsted cloth1 #df ,cheese cloth1 #agh ,chenille1 #bbj ,cheviot1 #cc1 #ce1 #eb1 #hg wool1 #ad ,chiffon1 #bbj ,china grass1 #bcb ,china silks1 #bbj ,chinchilla1 #eb1 #ih ,chintz1 #agh ,chudah1 #hi ,cloth-rolls1 #ed ,clothing wool1 #c ,cocoons1 #bjc ,combing cotton1 #abg ,combing wool1 #d1 #ci ,combustion test1 #bci ,construction of cloth1 #gj1 #ga ,corduroy1 #hi ,cte cheval1 #hi ,cotton1 #a1 #aje carding1 #abf combing1 #abg drawing1 #abh finishing1 #adg flannel1 #agh growing countries1 #ajf picker1 #abe substitutes1 #bcb varieties of1 #aje1 #ajf1 #aaa1 #aab yarns1 #abe1 #acd ,cotton-gin1 #aad-aaf ,counts of yarn1 #i1 #di1 #ea ,coupure1 #ij ,covert cloth1 #ij ,crabbing1 #gd ,crash1 #agh ,creel1 #eb ,crpe1 #agi1 #bba ,crpe de ,chine1 #bba ,crepon1 #agi ,cretonne1 #ij ,crinoline1 #agi ,crocheting1 #ef1 #bec ,cross-dyed1 #fe1 #fg1 #fh ,cyprian gold1 #bcd ,damask1 #agi ,dark colored fibers1 #cc ,dead wool1 #bj ,delaine wool1 #bb1 #ij ,denim1 #agi ,diaper cloth1 #agi ,difference between lamb's wool and sheep's wool1 #bj ,difference between wool and hair1 #b ,difference between woolen and worsted yarns1 #ci ,dimity1 #agi ,doeskin1 #eb1 #ij ,domet1 #ahj ,double-cloth1 #eh1 #fb ,drap d't1 #ij ,dress faced fabrics1 #h ,drill1 #ahj ,duck1 #ahj ,dusting operation1 #ce ,dyeing1 #ff black silks1 #baj colored silks1 #baj cotton1 #fg wools1 #fe yarns1 #fh1 #bji ,east ,indian cotton1 #ajg ,egyptian cotton1 #ajh ,elasticity of knitted textures1 #bec ,embroidery silk1 #bjg ,empress cloth1 #ij ,ends1 #ec1 #ed ,english system of spinning1 #d1 #dj ,english wools1 #c ,eolienne1 #aha1 #bba pingline1 #ij ,etamine1 #ia1 #aha ,extract-wool1 #a1 #cb1 #cg ,fancy goods1 #gi ,felt1 #ia ,felting1 #b1 #d ,fibers1 #a ,figure weaving1 #eh1 #fa1 #fb ,figured poplins1 #bbe ,finishing1 #ga1 #aea ,finishing hosiery1 #afc ,flannel1 #eb1 #ia-ic ,flannelette1 #aha ,flax1 #a1 #abc preparation1 #aic-aie sources1 #aid1 #aih ,fleece1 #g ,flocks1 #a1 #cb1 #cg ,florentine1 #ic ,fly frames1 #acj ,foulard1 #bba ,foule1 #ic ,frame1 #ed ,french system of spinning1 #d1 #dd ,frieze1 #eb1 #ic ,full blood1 #ai ,full grade cotton1 #aba ,fulling1 #gc ,fustian1 #ahj ,galatea cloth1 #ahb ,gauge weaving1 #fc ,gauze1 #ahb ,gill boxes1 #db ,gingham1 #ahb ,ginning cotton1 #aad ,glac1 #bbb ,gloria1 #id ,goat1 #a ,grades of wool1 #ah ,granada1 #id ,great ,britain wools1 #ab ,grenadine1 #id ,grinding rags1 #cf ,ground lace1 #afd ,hackling1 #aie ,hair1 #b ,half blood1 #ai ,half-grades of cotton1 #aba1 #abb ,hand-loom1 #ef ,harness1 #ee ,heddles1 #ed ,hemp1 #a1 #aii ,henrietta cloth1 #id ,hoggett wool1 #bj ,homespun1 #eh1 #id ,hop sacking1 #id ,hosiery1 #aei ,hosiery manufacture1 #aei-afc ,humidifying cotton1 #abd ,hydro extractor1 #bh ,india silk1 #bjd1 #bbb ,indigo blue flannel1 #ib ,inspection of cloth1 #abc1 #abd ,intermediate frame1 #acj ,irish wools1 #ad ,italian cloth1 #ahc ,jaconet1 #ahc ,jacquard machine1 #ee ,japanese silk1 #bbb ,jeans1 #ie ,jersey cloth1 #bbb ,jute1 #a uses of1 #bja ,kapok1 #bcj ,kersey1 #ie ,kerseymere1 #if ,khaki1 #ahc ,knitting1 #bec cotton1 #aei finishing1 #afc frames1 #aed rib1 #aeh silk1 #aei stripe1 #aei wool1 #c ,lace1 #afd1 #afe terms1 #aff-agb ,lamb's wool1 #ae1 #bj ,lappet-weaving1 #fc1 #fd ,lawn1 #ahc ,leicester wool1 #ab ,leno weaving1 #fc ,lincoln wool1 #ab ,linen1 #aif ,lingerie1 #ahd ,linon1 #ahd ,linsey woolsey1 #if ,long cloth1 #ahd manufacture of1 #aid1 #aie ,long or clothing wool1 #c ,loom1 #ed ,luster of wool1 #bf ,mackinaw1 #ib ,madras1 #ahe ,manila hemp1 #bjj ,melrose1 #ig ,melton1 #ig ,meltonette1 #ig ,mending1 #gb ,mercerizing1 #aea ,merino1 #b1 #c1 #ah1 #ai1 #ig ,metallic threads1 #a1 #bcd ,meteor1 #bbb ,mexican ,sheep1 #d ,milling1 #h ,mineral fibers1 #a ,mohair1 #a1 #ah1 #cd1 #ig ,moire1 #bbc ,moisture contained in cotton1 #abc ,montagnac1 #ih ,montevideo1 #aa ,mordant1 #fi ,moreen1 #ahf ,mozambique1 #bbc ,mule spinning1 #acd ,mull1 #ahf ,mummery1 #ahf ,mungo1 #a1 #aj1 #cb1 #cd method of making1 #cb ,muslin1 #ahf ,nainsook1 #ahf ,naphtha1 #bf ,napping1 #ge ,navy twill flannel1 #ib ,netting1 #bec ,new ,zealand wool1 #aj ,noils1 #a1 #cb1 #dj ,norfolkdown wool1 #ad ,oiling rags1 #ce ,olive oil1 #bi ,organdie1 #ahf ,organzine1 #bbc ,orleans1 #ih ,osnaburg1 #ahf ,panama cloth1 #ih ,panne velvet1 #bbc ,peau de soie1 #bbc ,pelts1 #bj ,percale1 #ahh ,percaline1 #ahh ,perching1 #gb ,peruvian sheep1 #ae1 #cb ,pick1 #ed ,piece-dyeing1 #fe ,pile-weave1 #fb1 #fc ,pillow-lace1 #afe ,pineapple fiber1 #bcc ,piqu1 #ahh ,plain weave1 #eh ,planting cotton1 #aaj ,plumetis1 #aij ,plushes1 #ae1 #bbd ,pongee1 #bbd ,popeline1 #bbd ,poplin1 #aij ,port ,philip wool1 #i ,pressing machine1 #gf ,printing textiles1 #fe ,prunella1 #ih ,pulled wool1 #bj ,quarter blood1 #ai ,ramie1 #bcb ,raw silk1 #bjf ,reeling silk1 #bje ,remanufactured material1 #a1 #cb ,rep1 #aij ,rib work in knitting1 #aeh ,ribbons1 #bae ,ring spinning1 #acd ,russian hemp1 #aii ,russian wool1 #ab ,sacking1 #ii ,sanglier1 #ii ,sarsenet1 #bbe ,satin1 #bbe weaving1 #eh ,satine1 #aij ,saxony wool1 #h ,scour1 #bg ,scrim1 #aij ,scutching1 #aie ,sea ,island cotton1 #aji ,seaming rags1 #ce ,seamless hosiery1 #afa ,sebastopol1 #ii ,serges1 #ii ,sewing silk1 #bjg ,shaker flannel1 #ic ,shawls1 #cc ,sheep shearing1 #e1 #f1 #g ,shetland wool1 #ad ,shoddy1 #a1 #aj1 #cb1 #cd1 #aja ,short wools1 #c ,shrinking of wool1 #b1 #c ,shropshiredown wool1 #ac ,shuttle1 #ee ,sicilian1 #aja ,silesia1 #aij ,silesian wool1 #h ,silk1 #a cotton1 #bcj dyeing1 #baj finishing1 #bah varieties of1 #bjg warp flannel1 #ib waste1 #bjg ,sisal hemp1 #bjj ,size of yarn1 #i1 #di1 #ea ,sizing1 #ec ,slag wool1 #a1 #bcd ,slasher1 #ec ,sliver1 #ci ,slubber1 #acj1 #aca ,soleil1 #bbg ,souffle1 #aia ,south ,american wool1 #aa ,southdown wools1 #ac ,spinning1 #d1 #dj1 #dd1 #ej1 #acd ,spooler1 #ec ,spun glass1 #bcc fibers1 #bcc ,spun numbers1 #bji ,spun silk1 #bjh ,staple goods1 #gi ,starching cotton1 #adi ,stripe knitting1 #aei ,structure of wool1 #a1 #b ,styles1 #gj ,suffolkdown wool1 #ad ,sultane1 #aja ,superfines1 #h ,swiss muslin1 #aia ,sydney wools1 #i ,tabby velvet1 #bbh ,taffeta1 #bbg ,tamise1 #aja ,tape1 #aia ,tarletan1 #aia ,tartans1 #aja ,teaser1 #ca ,tentering1 #gd ,terry cloth1 #aia ,terry poplin1 #bbe ,test for animal fiber1 #bci artificial silk from silk1 #bca cotton from linen1 #bdj density of a fabric1 #bci dressing1 #bda fastness against rain1 #bdc fastness under friction1 #bdb fastness to weather1 light1 and air1 #bdd linen1 #bdj permanence of dyes1 #bdb resistance to perspiration1 #bdc resistance to street mud and dust1 #bdc shoddy1 #bda silk from wool1 #bdj wasting fastness1 #bdb ,testing constituents of filling1 #bci constituents of warp1 #bci count of warp1 #bch count of warp and filling threads1 #bch elasticity of fabric1 #bcg for shrinkage1 #bci piece-dyed fabric1 #fi strength of fabric1 #bcg style of weave1 #bcf yarn-dyed fabric1 #fi ,textile printing1 #fi1 #gj1 #baf ,theories of coloring in textile designs1 #gf-gi ,thibet1 #aja ,thread1 #ach bleaching1 #adc combing1 #ada dyeing1 #adc numbers1 #add sizing1 #ade ,throwing1 #bjf ,thrown silk1 #bjg ,tinsel1 #a ,top1 #aa1 #cc1 #dj ,tricot1 #aja ,tulle1 #bbh ,tussah silk1 #bjd ,tweed1 #ae1 #ca1 #ce1 #ajb ,twill weaving1 #eh1 #ei ,union cloth1 #cg ,van wool from ,tasmania1 #aj ,vegetable fibers1 #a ,veiling1 #ajb ,velour1 #bbh ,velvet1 #ae1 #baf1 #bbh ,velveteen1 #bbh ,venetian cloth1 #ajb ,vigogne 7,vienna71 #ajc ,vigoureux1 #ajc ,voiles1 #ajc1 #bbi ,warp1 #ec1 #ed ,warp-beam1 #ed ,waterproofing1 #bah ,weaving1 #ec1 #ed1 #ef processes1 #ed-ef ,weft1 #ed ,welsh wool1 #ad ,wether-wool1 #ae1 #bj ,whipcord1 #ajd ,wood-pulp1 #bcb ,wool1 #a1 #b carding1 #ej classing1 #c1 #af1 #ah drying1 #bh dyeing1 #gf fibers1 #b grease in1 #bd marketing1 #g1 #h1 #ae oiling1 #bi sorting1 #af-ah1 #bb-bd varieties of1 #c1 #d washing1 #bd-bh ,woolen yarn1 #cc1 #ej ,worsted carding1 #ci combing1 #ci diagonal1 #ajd ,worsted spinning1 #dd tops1 #dj unfinished1 #ajd yarn1 #cc1 #df ,yarn1 #cc1 #ci1 #df dyed1 #fe1 #fh ,yolk1 #aj1 #be ,zephyr gingham1 #aib wool1 #di ,zibeline1 #ajd ,,advertisements ,elementary ,science4 ,austin's ,observation ,blanks in ,mineralogy4 ,detailed studies of #ce minerals4 #ce cents4 ,bailey's ,grammar ,school ,physics4 ,practical lessons with simple experiments that may be performed in the ordinary schoolroom4 #ej cents4 ,ballard's ,the ,world of ,matter4 ,simple studies in chemistry and mineralogy2 for use as a text-book or as a guide to the teacher in giving object lessons4 #a4jj4 ,brown's ,good ,health for ,girls and ,boys4 ,physiology and hygiene for intermediate grades4 ,illustrated4 #de cents4 ,brown's ,health in the ,home4 ,illustrated4 #ej cents4 ,clark's ,practical ,methods in ,microscopy4 ,gives in detail descriptions of methods that will lead the careful worker to successful results4 ,illus4 #a4jj ,clarke's ,astronomical ,lantern4 ,intended to familiarize students with the constellations by comparing them with facsimiles on the lantern face4 ,with seventeen slides1 giving twenty-two constellations4 #d4ej4 ,clarke's ,how to ,find the ,stars4 ,accompanies the above and helps to an acquaintance with the constellations4 ,paper4 #ae cents4 ,colton's ,elementary ,physiology and ,hygiene4 ,for grammar grades4 #cag pages4 ,illustrated4 #fj cents4 ,eckstorm's ,the ,bird ,book4 ,the natural history of birds1 with directions for observation and suggestions for study4 #cja pages4 ,illustrated4 #fj cents4 ,guides for ,science ,teaching4 ,teachers' aids for instruction in ,natural ,history4 ,i4 ,hyatt's ,about ,pebbles4 #bf pages4 ,paper4 #aj cts4 ,,ii4 ,goodale's ,a ,few ,common ,plants4 #fa pages4 ,paper4 #bj cts4 ,,iii4 ,hyatt's ,commercial and other ,sponges4 ,illustrated4 #dc pages4 ,paper4 #bj cts4 ,,iv4 ,agassiz's ,first ,lesson in ,natural ,history4 ,illus4 #fd pages4 ,paper4 #be cts4 ,v4 ,hyatt's ,corals and ,echinoderms4 ,illustrated4 #cb pages4 ,paper4 #cj cts4 ,,vi4 ,hyatt's ,mollusca4 ,illustrated4 #fe pages4 ,paper4 #cj cts4 ,,vii4 ,hyatt's ,worms and ,crustacea4 ,illustrated4 #fh pages4 ,paper4 #cj cts4 ,,xii4 ,crosby's ,common ,minerals and ,rocks4 ,illustrated4 #bjj pages4 ,paper4 #dj cts4 ,cloth1 #fj cts4 ,,xiii4 ,richards's ,first ,lessons in ,minerals4 #ej pages4 ,paper4 #aj cts4 ,,xiv4 ,bowditch's ,physiology4 #eh pages4 ,paper4 #bj cts4 ,,xv4 ,clapp's #cf ,observation ,lessons in ,minerals4 #hj pages4 ,paper4 #cj cts4 ,,xvi4 ,phenix's ,lessons in ,chemistry4 #bj cts4 ,pupils' ,note-book to accompany ,no4 #ae4 #aj cts4 ,hoag's ,health ,studies4 ,practical hygiene for grammar grades4 ,cloth4 ,illustrated4 #ge cents4 ,rice's ,science ,teaching in the ,school4 ,with a course of instruction in science for the lower grades4 #df pages4 ,paper4 #be cents4 ,ricks's ,natural ,history ,object ,lessons4 ,information on plants and their products1 on animals and their uses1 and gives specimen lessons4 #a4ej4 ,ricks's ,object ,lessons and ,how to ,give ,them4--,vol4 ,,ii4 ,lessons on elementary science for grammar and intermediate grades4 #ij cents4 ,scott's ,nature ,study and the ,child4 ,a manual for teachers with outlines of lessons and courses1 detailed studies of animal and plant life1 and chapters on methods and the relation of nature study to expression4 #a4ej4 ,sever's ,elements of ,agriculture4 ,for grammar grades4 ,illustrated4 #ej cents4 ,shaler's ,first ,book in ,geology4 ,a helpful introduction to the study of modern text-books in geography4 ,illustrated4 ,cloth1 #fj cents4 ,boards1 #de cents4 ,spear's ,leaves and ,flowers4 ,an elementary botany for pupils under twelve4 ,illustrated4 #be cents4 ,weed's ,farm ,friends and ,farm ,foes4 ,an elementary text-book on weeds and insects4 ,cloth4 ,illustrated4 #ij cents4 ,wright's ,seaside and ,wayside ,nature ,reader1 ,no4 #d4 ,elementary lessons in geology1 astronomy1 world life1 etc4 ,illustrated4 #ej cents4 ,see also our list of books in ,science4 ,d4 ,c4 ,,heath ,,co41 ,publishers1 ,boston1 ,new ,york1 ,chicago ,science4 ,barto's ,agriculture4 ,studies in soils and crop production4 #ej cents4 ,baskerville's ,general ,inorganic ,chemistry4 ,for colleges4 #a4ej4 ,baskerville and ,estabrooke's ,chemistry ,problems4 #ij cents4 ,benton's ,guide to ,general ,chemistry4 ,a manual for the laboratory4 #dj cents4 ,boyer's ,laboratory ,manual in ,biology4 ,treats of both animals and plants4 #hj cts4 ,boynton1 ,morse and ,watson's ,laboratory ,manual in ,chemistry4 #ej cents4 ,burrage and ,bailey's ,school ,sanitation and ,decoration4 ,illustrated4 #a4ej4 ,cheston1 ,gibson and ,timmerman's ,physics4 ,theoretical and descriptive4 #a4be4 ,chute's ,physical ,laboratory ,manual4 ,revised edition4 ,illustrated4 #hj cents4 ,chute's ,practical ,physics4 ,for schools and colleges4 #a4ae4 ,clark's ,methods in ,microscopy4 ,detailed descriptions of successful methods1 #a4fj4 ,coit's ,chemical ,arithmetic4 ,with a short system of analysis4 #ej cents4 ,coleman's ,elements of ,physics4 ,for secondary schools4 #a4be4 ,colton's ,physiology3 ,practical and ,descriptive4 ,illustrated4 #a4dj4 ,colton's ,physiology3 ,briefer ,course4 ,for high schools4 ,illustrated4 #ij cents4 ,colton's ,practical ,physiology4 ,a laboratory course4 #fj cents4 ,colton's ,zoology3 ,descriptive and ,experimental4 ,illustrated4 #a4ej4 ,part ,i1 ,descriptive1 #a4jj4 ,part ,,ii1 ,experimental4 #fj cents4 ,ebbinghaus's ,psychology4 ,a resume of modern psychology4 #a4be4 ,fisher and ,patterson's ,elements of ,physics4 #fj cents4 ,hyatt's ,insecta4 ,a practical manual for students and teachers4 ,illustrated4 #a4be4 ,linebarger's ,text-,book of ,physics4 ,with industrial applications4 #a4be4 ,miller's ,progressive ,problems in ,physics4 #fj cents4 ,newell's ,descriptive ,chemistry4 ,illustrated4 #a4bj4 ,part ,i1 ,without experiments4 #a4jj4 ,part ,,ii1 ,experiments4 #dj cents4 ,newell's ,experimental ,chemistry4 ,for high schools and colleges4 #a4aj4 ,newell's ,inorganic ,chemistry for ,colleges4 #b4jj4 ,orndorff's ,laboratory ,manual in ,organic ,chemistry4 ,boards4 #dj cents4 ,palmer's ,questions and ,problems in ,chemistry4 #bj cents4 ,pepoon1 ,mitchell and ,maxwell's ,plant ,life4 ,a laboratory guide4 #ej cents4 ,remsen's ,organic ,chemistry4 ,revised edition4 #a4be4 ,roberts's ,stereo-,chemistry4 ,its development and present aspects1 #c4jj4 ,sanford's ,experimental ,psychology4 ,part ,i4 ,sensation and perception4 #a4ej4 ,shaler's ,first ,book in ,geology4 ,cloth1 #fj cents4 ,boards4 #de cents4 ,shepard's ,inorganic ,chemistry4 ,descriptive and qualitative4 #a4ae4 ,shepard's ,briefer ,course in ,chemistry1 with chapter on ,organic ,chemistry4 #hj cts4 ,shepard's ,laboratory ,note-,book4 ,boards4 #ce cents4 ,spalding's ,botany4 ,practical exercises in the study of plants4 #hj cents4 ,stevens's ,introduction to ,botany4 ,illustrated1 #a4be4 ,key and ,flora1 #dj cents4 ,botany1 with ,key and ,flora4 #a4ej4 ,venable's ,short ,history of ,chemistry4 ,for students and the general reader4 #a4jj4 ,walters's ,physiology and ,hygiene4 ,for secondary schools4 #a4bj4 ,weed's ,farm ,friends and ,farm ,foes4 ,weeds and insects4 #ij cents4 ,weed and ,crossman's ,laboratory ,guide in ,zoology4 ,emphasises essentials4 #fj cts4 ,whiting's ,mathematical and ,physical ,tables4 ,paper4 #ej cents4 ,for elementary works see our list of books in ,elementary ,science4 ,d4 ,c4 ,,heath ,,co41 ,publishers1 ,boston1 ,new ,york1 ,chicago ,mathematics4 ,anthony and ,ashley's ,descriptive ,geometry4 #b4jj4 ,barton's ,plane ,surveying4 ,with complete tables4 #a4ej4 ,barton's ,theory ,of ,equations4 ,a treatise for college classes4 #a4ej4 ,bauer and ,brooke's ,trigonometry4 ,plane and spherical4 #a4ej4 ,bowser's ,college ,algebra4 ,a full treatment of elementary and advanced topics4 #a4ej4 ,bowser's ,elements of ,plane and ,spherical ,trigonometry4 #ij cts42 with tables1 #a4dj4 ,bowser's ,treatise on ,plane and ,spherical ,trigonometry4 #a4ej4 ,bowser's ,five-,place ,logarithmic ,tables4 #ej cts4 ,candy's ,plane and ,solid ,analytic ,geometry4 #a4ej4 ,with supplement1 #b4jj4 ,cohen's ,differential ,equations4 #b4jj4 ,cohen's ,introduction to the ,lie ,theory4 #b4jj4 ,fine's ,number ,system in ,algebra4 ,theoretical and historical4 #a4jj4 ,gilbert's ,algebra ,lessons4 ,three numbers3 ,no4 #a1 to ,fractional ,equations2 ,no4 #b1 through ,quadratic ,equations2 ,no4 #c1 ,higher ,algebra4 ,each number1 per dozen1 #a4dd4 ,hopkins's ,plane ,geometry4 ,follows the inductive method4 #ge cts4 ,lyman's ,geometry ,exercises4 ,supplementary work for drill4 ,per dozen1 #a4fj4 ,mc,curdy's ,exercise ,book in ,algebra4 ,a thorough drill book4 #fj cts4 ,nichols's ,analytic ,geometry4 ,a treatise for college courses4 #a4be4 ,nichols's ,calculus4 ,differential and ,integral4 #b4jj4 ,osborne's ,differential and ,integral ,calculus4 ,revised4 #b4jj4 ,peterson and ,baldwin's ,problems in ,algebra4 ,for texts and reviews4 #cj cts4 ,robbins's ,surveying and ,navigation4 ,a brief and practical treatise4 #ej cts4 ,waldo's ,descriptive ,geometry4 ,contains a large number of problems4 #hj cts4 ,well's ,academic ,arithmetic4 ,with or without answers4 #a4jj4 ,wells and ,hart's ,first ,year ,algebra4 #ij cts4 ,wells's ,algebra for ,secondary ,schools4 #a4bj4 ,wells's ,text-,book in ,algebra4 ,a maximum elementary course4 #a4dj4 ,wells's ,essentials of ,algebra4 ,for secondary schools4 #a4aj4 ,wells's ,academic ,algebra4 ,with or without answers4 #a4jh4 ,wells's ,new ,higher ,algebra4 ,for schools and colleges4 #a4cb4 ,wells's ,university ,algebra4 ,octavo4 #a4ej4 ,wells's ,college ,algebra4 #a4ej4 ,part ,,ii1 beginning with quadratics4 #a4cb4 ,wells's ,advanced ,course in ,algebra4 #a4ej4 ,wells's ,new ,geometry4 #a4be4 ,,plane1 #ge cts4 ,,solid1 #ge cts4 ,wells's ,essentials of ,geometry4 #a4be4 ,,plane1 #ge cts4 ,,solid1 #ge cts4 ,wells's ,new ,plane and ,spherical ,trigonometry4 ,for colleges and technical schools4 #a4jj4 ,with six-place tables1 #a4be4 ,with ,robbins's ,surveying and ,navigation1 #a4ej4 ,wells's ,complete ,trigonometry4 ,plane and ,spherical4 #ij cts4 ,with tables1 #a4jh4 ,,plane1 bound separately1 #ge cts4 ,wells's ,new ,six-,place ,logarithmic ,tables4 #fj cts4 ,wells's ,four-,place ,tables4 #be cts4 ,wright's ,exercises in ,concrete ,geometry4 #ce cts4 ,for ,arithmetics see our list of books in ,elementary ,mathematics4 ,d4 ,c4 ,,heath ,,co41 ,publishers1 ,boston1 ,new ,york1 ,chicago ,drawing and ,manual ,training4 ,thompson's ,new ,short ,course in ,drawing4 ,a practical1 well-balanced system1 based on correct principles4 ,can be taught by the ordinary teacher and learned by the ordinary pupil4 ,books ,i-,,iv1 #f #i inches1 per dozen1 #a4bj4 ,books ,v-,,viii1 #i #ab inches1 per dozen1 #a4ge4 ,manual to ,books ,i-,,iv1 #dj cts4 ,manual to ,books ,v-,,viii1 #dj cts4 ,two-,book ,course3 ,book ,a1 per dozen1 #a4bj2 ,book ,b1 per dozen1 #a4ge2 ,manual1 #dj cts4 ,thompson's sthetic ,series of ,drawing4 ,this series includes the study of ,historical ,ornament and ,decorative ,design4 ,book ,i treats of ,egyptian art2 ,book ,,ii1 ,greek2 ,book ,,iii1 ,roman2 ,book ,,iv1 ,byzantine2 ,book ,v1 ,moorish2 ,book ,,vi1 ,gothic4 ,per dozen1 #a4ej4 ,manual1 #fj cents4 ,thompson's ,educational and ,industrial ,drawing4 ,primary ,free-,hand ,series 7,nos4 #a-d74 ,each ,no41 per doz41 #a4jj4 ,manual1 #dj cts4 ,advanced ,free-,hand ,series 7,nos4 #e-h47 ,each ,no41 per doz41 #a4ej4 ,model and ,object ,series 7,nos4 #a-c74 ,each ,no41 per doz41 #a4ge4 ,manual1 #ce cts4 ,mechanical ,series 7,nos4 #a-f74 ,each ,no41 per doz41 #b4jj4 ,manual1 #ge cts4 ,thompson's ,manual ,training ,no4 #a4 ,clay modeling1 stick laying1 paper folding1 color and construction of geometrical solids4 ,illus4 #ff pp4 #be cts4 ,thompson's ,manual ,training ,no4 #b4 ,mechanical drawing1 clay modeling1 color1 wood carving4 ,illus4 #gj pp4 #be cts4 ,thompson's ,drawing ,tablets4 ,four ,tablets1 with drawing exercises and practice paper1 for use in the earlier grades4 ,each ,no41 per doz41 #a4bj4 ,drawing ,models4 ,individual sets and class sets of models are made to accompany several of the different series in the ,thompson ,drawing ,courses4 ,descriptive circulars free on request4 ,anthony's ,mechanical ,drawing4 #ih pages of text1 and #cb folding plates1 #a4ej4 ,anthony's ,machine ,drawing4 #fe pages of text1 and #ah folding plates4 #a4ej4 ,anthony's ,essentials of ,gearing4 #hd pages of text1 and #ae folding plates1 #a4ej4 ,daniels's ,freehand ,lettering4 #cd pages of text1 and #ac folding plates4 #ge cts4 ,johnson's ,lessons in ,needlework4 ,gives1 with illustrations1 full directions for work during six grades4 #aag pages4 ,square #hvo4 ,cloth1 #a4jj4 ,boards1 #fj cts4 ,lunt's ,brushwork for ,kindergarten and ,primary ,schools4 ,eighteen lesson cards in colors1 with teacher's pamphlet1 in envelope4 #be cts4 ,seidel's ,industrial ,instruction 7,smith74 ,a refutation of all objections raised against industrial instruction4 #agj pages1 #ij cents4 ,waldo's ,descriptive ,geometry4 ,a large number of problems systematically arranged1 with suggestions4 #he pages4 #hj cents4 ,whitaker's ,how to use ,woodworking ,tools4 ,lessons in the uses of the hammer1 knife1 plane1 rule1 square1 gauge1 chisel1 saw and auger4 #ajd pages4 #fj cents4 ,woodward's ,manual ,training ,school4 ,its aims1 methods and results2 with detailed courses of instruction in shop-work4 ,illustrated4 #cgd pages4 ,octavo4 #b4jj4 ,sent postpaid by mail on receipt of price4 ,d4 ,c4 ,,heath ,,co41 ,publishers1 ,boston1 ,new ,york1 ,chicago ,higher ,english4 ,bray's ,history of ,english ,critical ,terms4 ,a vocabulary of #adjj critical terms used in literature and art1 with critical and historical data for their study1 #a4jj4 ,cook's ,judith4 ,with introduction1 translation and glossary4 ,octavo4 #agj pages4 #a4jj4 ,espenshade's ,essentials of ,composition and ,rhetoric4 ,a working text-book for higher schools and colleges4 #a4jj4 ,hall's ,beowulf4 ,a metrical translation of this ancient epic4 ,octavo4 ,cloth1 #ge cents4 ,paper1 #cj cents4 ,kluge and ,lutz's ,english ,etymology4 ,a select glossary for use in the study of historical grammar4 #ge cents4 ,lewis's ,inductive ,rhetoric4 ,for schools and colleges4 #ij cents4 ,mac,ewan's ,the ,essentials of ,argumentation4 ,a systematic discussion of principles1 with illustrative extracts2 full analysis of several masterpieces1 and a list of propositions for debate4 #a4ab4 ,mac,ewan's ,the ,essentials of the ,english ,sentence4 ,presents a review of the essentials of grammar and bridges the transition to rhetoric4 #ge cents4 ,meiklejohn's ,the ,english ,language4 ,part ,i--,english ,grammar2 ,part ,,ii--,composition and ,versification2 ,part ,,iii--,history of the ,english ,language2 ,part ,,iv--,history of ,english ,literature4 #a4be4 ,meiklejohn's ,english ,grammar4 ,contains ,parts ,i and ,,ii of ,meiklejohn's ,the ,english ,language1 with exercises4 #hj cents4 ,o',conor's ,rhetoric and ,oratory4 ,a manual of precepts and principles1 with masterpieces for analysis and study4 #a4ae4 ,pearson's ,the ,principles of ,composition4 ,begins with the composition as a whole4 ,paragraphs1 sentences and words are treated later1 and in this order4 #ej cents4 ,smith's ,the ,writing of the ,short ,story4 ,an analytical study4 #be cents4 ,strang's ,exercises in ,english4 ,examples in ,syntax1 ,accidence1 and ,style1 for criticism and correction4 ,new edition1 revised and enlarged4 #de cents4 ,whitcomb's ,the ,study ,of a ,novel4 ,analytic and synthetic work for college classes4 ,william's ,composition and ,rhetoric4 ,concise1 practical1 and thorough1 with little theory and much practice4 #ij cents4 ,monographs on ,english4 ,bowen's ,historical ,study of the ,o-vowel4 ,cloth4 #aji pp4 #a4be ,genung's ,study of ,rhetoric in the ,college ,course4 ,paper4 #cb pp4 4#be ,hempl's ,chaucer's ,pronunciation4 ,stiff ,paper4 #ci pp4 4#ej ,huffcut's ,english in the ,preparatory ,school4 ,paper4 #bh pp4 4#be ,woodward's ,study of ,english4 ,paper4 #be pp4 4#be ,see also our list of books in ,elementary ,english1 ,english ,literature and ,english ,classics4 ,d4 ,c4 ,,heath ,,co41 ,publishers1 ,boston1 ,new ,york1 ,chicago ,heath's ,english ,classics4 ,addison's ,sir ,roger de ,coverley ,papers4 ,edited by ,w4 ,h4 ,,hudson4 ,cloth4 #bcb pages4 ,nine full-page illustrations and two maps4 #ce cents4 ,burke's ,speech on ,conciliation with ,america4 ,edited by ,a4 ,j4 ,,george1 ,master in the ,newton 7,mass47 ,high ,school4 ,cloth4 #aai pages4 #bj cents4 ,carlyle's ,essay on ,burns4 ,edited1 with introduction and notes1 by ,,andrew ,j4 ,,george4 ,cloth4 #aei pages4 ,illustrated4 #be cents4 ,coleridge's ,rime of the ,ancient ,mariner4 ,edited by ,,andrew ,j4 ,,george4 ,cloth4 #if pages4 ,illustrated4 #bj cents4 ,cooper's ,last of the ,mohicans4 ,edited by ,j4 ,g4 ,,wight1 ,principal ,girls' ,high ,school1 ,new ,york ,city4 ,cloth4 ,illustrated4 #fei pages4 #ej cents4 ,de ,quincey's ,flight of a ,tartar ,tribe4 ,edited by ,g4 ,a4 ,,wauchope1 ,professor in the ,university of ,south ,carolina4 ,cloth4 #aab pages4 #be cents4 ,dryden's ,palamon and ,arcite4 ,edited by ,,william ,h4 ,,crawshaw1 ,professor in ,colgate ,university4 ,cloth4 #aeh pages4 ,illustrated4 #be cents4 ,george ,eliot's ,silas ,marner4 ,edited by ,g4 ,a4 ,,wauchope1 ,professor in the ,university of ,south ,carolina4 ,cloth4 #bhh pages4 ,illustrated4 #ce cents4 ,goldsmith's ,vicar of ,wakefield4 ,with introduction and notes by ,w4 ,h4 ,,hudson4 ,cloth4 #cjj pages4 ,seventeen illustrations by ,c4 ,e4 ,brock4 #ej cents4 ,irving's ,life of ,goldsmith4 ,edited by ,h4 ,e4 ,,coblentz1 ,south ,division ,high ,school1 ,milwaukee4 ,cloth4 #cbh pages4 ,maps and illustrations4 #ce cents4 ,macaulay's ,essay on ,milton4 ,edited by ,,albert ,,perry ,,walker1 ,master in the ,english ,high ,school1 ,boston4 ,cloth4 #adf pages4 ,illustrated4 #be cents4 ,macaulay's ,essay on ,addison4 ,edited by ,,albert ,,perry ,,walker4 ,cloth4 #aib pages4 ,illustrated4 #be cents4 ,macaulay's ,life of ,johnson4 ,edited by ,,albert ,,perry ,,walker4 ,cloth4 #abb pages4 ,illustrated4 #be cents4 ,milton's ,paradise ,lost4 ,books i and ii4 ,edited by ,,albert ,,perry ,,walker4 ,cloth4 #ahh pages4 ,illustrated4 #be cents4 ,milton's ,minor ,poems4 ,edited by ,,albert ,,perry ,,walker4 ,cloth4 #aij pages4 ,illustrated4 #be cents4 ,pope's ,translation ,of the ,iliad4 ,books i1 vi1 xxii1 and xxiv4 ,edited by ,,paul ,,shorey1 ,professor in the ,univ4 of ,chicago4 ,cloth4 #agb pages4 ,illus4 #be cents4 ,scott's ,ivanhoe4 ,edited by ,,porter ,,lander ,,macclintock4 ,cloth4 #eef pages4 ,seventeen full-page illustrations by ,c4 ,e ,brock4 #ej cents4 ,scott's ,lady of the ,lake4 ,edited by ,l4 ,,dupont ,,syle1 ,professor in the ,university of ,california4 ,cloth4 #baf pages4 ,illus4 and map4 #ce cents4 ,shakespeare4 ,see the ,arden ,shakespeare4 ,per vol41 #be cents4 ,tennyson's ,enoch ,arden1 and the two ,locksley ,halls4 ,edited by ,,calvin ,s4 ,,brown1 ,university of ,colorado4 ,cloth4 #afh pages4 #be cents4 ,tennyson's ,idylls of the ,king4 ,four idylls1 edited by ,,arthur ,,beatty1 ,university of ,wisconsin4 ,cloth4 #aij pages4 ,illus4 and map4 #be cents4 ,tennyson's ,the ,princess4 ,with introduction and notes by ,,andrew ,j4 ,,george4 ,cloth4 #adh pages4 ,illustrated4 #be cents4 ,webster's ,first ,bunker ,hill ,oration4 ,with introduction and notes by ,,andrew ,j4 ,,george4 ,cloth4 #ee pages4 #bj cents4 ,d4 ,c4 ,,heath ,,co41 ,boston1 ,new ,york1 ,chicago 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber's ,note ,minor typographic errors and hyphenation and accent inconsistencies have been corrected without note4 ,the footnote marker on page #bfg was originally located next to the ,,experiments heading1 but the footnote itself referred to a dissecting pin4 ,the marker has been moved next to the reference to a dissecting pin in the text4 ,the experiments are consecutively numbered1 and ,experiment ,nos4 #bh and #bi are missing4 ,there do not appear to be any missing pages--the page numbering has no gaps1 and ,experiment ,no4 #bg runs across a page boundary1 and is then followed immediately by ,experiment #cj4 ,it is possible that the two missing experiments were deliberately omitted from this edition by the author4 ,the index entry for ,berber originally read ,beiber4 ,the entry has been corrected1 and moved to the correct place in the index4 ,the page number in the index entry for ,silk1 finishing has been amended from #bag to #bah4 ,the index entry for ,zephyr wool had no printed page number2 from the text content1 the best match appears to be a reference on page #di1 which has been added to the index entry4