produced from images produced by ,core ,historical ,literature in ,agriculture 7,,chla71 ,cornell ,university7 ,transcriber's ,note3 ,minor typographical errors have been corrected without note4 ,dialect spellings1 contractions and discrepancies have been retained4 ,,crops ,,and ,,methods ,,for ,,soil ,,improvement ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company ,,new ,,york 4 ,,boston 4 ,,chicago ,,dallas 4 ,,san ,,francisco ,,macmillan ,,co41 ,limited ,,london 4 ,,bombay 4 ,,calcutta ,,melbourne ,,the ,,macmillan ,,co4 ,,of ,,canada1 ,ltd4 ,,toronto ,illustration3 ,alfalfa and ,corn in ,indiana4 ,,crops ,,and ,,methods ,,for ,,soil ,,improvement ,by ,,alva ,,agee1 ,m4,s4 ,,head ,,of ,,department ,,of ,,agricultural ,,extension ,,acting ,,dean ,,and ,,director ,,of ,,the ,,school ,,of ,,agriculture ,,and ,,experiment ,,station ,,of ,,the ,,pennsylvania ,,state ,,college ,,illustrated ,new ,york ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company #aiab ,all rights reserved ,copyright1 #aiab1 ,by ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company4 ,set up and electrotyped4 ,published ,november1 #aiab4 ,norwood ,press ,j4 ,s4 ,cushing ,co4--,berwick ,smith ,co4 ,norwood1 ,mass41 ,u4,s4,a4 ,,contents ,,chapter ,i ,,pages ,,introduction #a-aa ,in lieu of preface #a ,natural strength of land #b ,plant constituents #b ,organic matter #d ,drainage #f ,lime #g ,crop-rotation #h ,fertilizers #i ,tillage #aj ,control of soil moisture #aa ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,need ,,of ,,lime #ab-bb ,the unproductive farm #ab ,soil acidity #ac ,the rational use of lime #ad ,where clover is not wanted #af ,determining lime requirement #ag ,the litmus-paper test #ai ,a practical test #bj ,duration of effect #ba ,,chapter ,,iii ,,applying ,,lime #bc-ce ,forms of lime #bc ,definitions #bd ,the kind to apply #bf ,the fineness of limestone #bg ,hydrated lime #bg ,stone-lime #bh ,ashes #cj ,marl #ca ,magnesian lime #ca ,amount per acre #cb ,time of application #cd ,,chapter ,,iv ,,organic ,,matter #cf-de ,office of organic matter #cf ,the legumes #ch ,storing nitrogen #ci ,the right bacteria #da ,soil inoculation #db ,method of inoculation #dc ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,clovers #df-eh ,red clover #df ,clover and acid soils #dg ,methods of seeding #dh ,fertility value #di ,taking the crops off the land #ea ,physical benefit of the roots #eb ,used as a green manure #eb ,when to turn down #ec ,mammoth clover #ed ,alsike clover #ee ,crimson clover #ef ,,chapter ,,vi ,,alfalfa #ei-gj ,adaptation to eastern needs #ei ,fertility and feeding value #fj ,climate and soil #fa ,free use of lime #fb ,inoculation #fb ,fertilization #fc ,a clean seed-bed #fd ,varieties #fe ,clean seed #fe ,the seeding #ff ,seeding in ,august #fg ,subsequent treatment #fh ,,chapter ,,vii ,,grass ,,sods #ga-gi ,value of sods #ga ,prejudice against timothy #gb ,object of sods #gd ,seeding with small grain #ge ,seeding in rye #gf ,good soil conditions #gg ,,chapter ,,viii ,,grass ,,sods 7,continued7 #hj-hi ,seeding in late summer #hj ,crops that may precede #ha ,preparation #hc ,the weed seed #hd ,summer grasses #he ,sowing the seed #he ,deep covering #hf ,seed-mixtures #hh ,,chapter ,,ix ,,sods ,,for ,,pastures #ij-ig ,permanent pastures #ij ,seed-mixtures #ia ,blue-grass #ia ,timothy #ib ,red-top #ib ,orchard grass #ic ,other seeds #ic ,yields and composition of grasses #ic ,suggested mixtures for pastures #id ,renewal of permanent pastures #if ,destroying bushes #if ,close grazing #ig ,,chapter ,x ,,the ,,cowpea #ih-ajg ,a southern legume #ih ,characteristics #ii ,varieties #ii ,fertilizing value #ajj ,affecting physical condition #aja ,planting #aja ,inoculation #ajc ,fertilizers #ajc ,harvesting with livestock #ajd ,the cowpea for hay #ajd ,as a catch crop #ajf ,,chapter ,,xi ,,other ,,legumes ,,and ,,cereal ,,catch ,,crops #ajh-aai ,the soybean #ajh ,fertility value #aji ,feeding value #aji ,varieties #aaj ,the planting #aaa ,harvesting #aab ,the ,canada pea #aac ,vetch #aac ,sweet clover #aae ,rye as a cover crop #aaf ,when to plow down #aag ,buckwheat #aah ,oats #aai ,,chapter ,,xii ,,stable ,,manure #abj-abh ,livestock farming #abj ,the place for cattle #aba ,sales off the farm #abb ,the value of manure #abd ,the content of manure #abe ,relative values #abf ,amount of manure #abg ,analysis of manure #abh ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,care ,,of ,,stable ,,manure #abi-ach ,common source of losses #abi ,caring for liquid manure #acj ,use of preservatives #aca ,spreading as made #acb ,the covered yard #acc ,harmless fermentation #ace ,rotted manure #ace ,composts #acf ,poultry manure #acg ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,stable ,,manure #aci-adh ,controlling factors #aci ,direct use for corn #adj ,effect upon moisture #ada ,manure on grass #adb ,manure on potatoes #adc ,when to plow down #add ,heavy applications #add ,reenforcement with minerals #ade ,durability of manure #adg ,,chapter ,,xv ,,crop-,,rotations #adi-aeh ,the farm scheme #adi ,value of rotation #aej ,selection of crops #aea ,an old succession of crops #aeb ,corn two years #aec ,the oat crop #aed ,two crops of wheat #aed ,the clover and timothy #aed ,two legumes in the rotation #aee ,potatoes after corn #aef ,a three-years' rotation #aeg ,grain and clover #aeh ,potatoes and crimson clover #aeh ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,the ,,need ,,of ,,commercial ,,fertilizers #aei-agj ,loss of plant-food #aei ,prejudice against commercial fertilizers #afj ,are fertilizers stimulants8 #afa ,soil analysis #afb ,physical analysis #afc ,the use of nitrogen #afd ,phosphoric-acid requirements #afe ,the need of potash #aff ,fertilizer tests #afg ,variation in soil #afh ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,commercial ,,sources ,,of ,,plant-,,food #aga-ahg ,acquaintance with terms #aga ,nitrate of soda #aga ,sulphate of ammonia #agh ,dried blood #agc ,tankage #agd ,fish #age ,animal bone #age ,raw bone #agg ,steamed bone #agh ,rock-phosphate #agh ,acid phosphate #ahj ,basic slag #ahc ,muriate of potash #ahd ,sulphate of potash #ahe ,kainit #ahe ,wood-ashes #ahe ,other fertilizers #ahf ,salt #ahf ,coal-ashes #ahg ,muck #ahg ,sawdust #ahg ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,purchasing ,,plant-,,food #ahh-aig ,necessity of purchase #ahh ,fertilizer control #ahi ,brand names #aia ,statement of analysis #aia ,valuation of fertilizers #aic ,a bit of arithmetic #aid ,high-grade fertilizers #aif ,,chapter ,,xix ,,home-,,mixing ,,of ,,fertilizers #aih-bjh ,the practice of home-mixing #aih ,effectiveness of home-mixing #aih ,criticisms of home-mixing #aii ,the filler #bjb ,ingredients in the mixture #bjc ,materials that should not be combined #bjg ,making a good mixture #bjg ,buying unmixed materials #bjh ,,chapter ,,xx ,,mixtures ,,for ,,crops #bji-bai ,composition of plant not a guide #bji ,the multiplication of formulas #bji ,a few combinations are safest #baj ,amount of application #baa ,similarity of requirements #bac ,maintaining fertility #bae ,fertilizer for grass #baf ,all the nitrogen from clover #bah ,method of applying fertilizers #bah ,an excess of nitrogen #bai ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,tillage #bbj-bbi ,desirable physical condition of the soil #bbj ,the breaking-plow #bba ,types of plows #bba ,subsoiling #bbc ,time of plowing #bbc ,method of plowing #bbd ,the disk harrow #bbe ,cultivation of plants #bbg ,controlling root-growth #bbg ,elimination of competition #bbh ,length of cultivation #bbi ,,chapter ,,xxii ,,control ,,of ,,soil ,,moisture #bcj-bcf ,value of water in the soil #bcj ,the soil a reservoir #bca ,the land-roller #bcb ,the plank-drag #bcc ,the mulch #bcc ,mulches of foreign material #bcd ,plowing straw down #bce ,the summer-fallow #bce ,the modern fallow #bcf ,,chapter ,,xxiii ,,drainage #bcg-bdf ,underdrainage #bcg ,counting the cost #bch ,where returns are largest #bci ,material for the drains #bci ,the outlet #bdj ,locating main and branches #bdj ,the laterals #bda ,size of tile #bda ,kind of tile #bdb ,the grade #bdc ,establishing a grade #bdc ,cutting the trenches #bdd ,depth of trenches #bde ,connections #bde ,permanency desired #bdf ,,illustrations ,alfalfa and ,corn in ,indiana ,frontispiece ,facing ,page ,a ,good ,crop for a ,poor ,soil #d ,red ,clover on ,limed and ,unlimed ,land #bj ,turning down ,organic ,matter with a ,gang ,plow #cf ,red ,clover on the ,farm of ,p4 ,s4 ,lewis ,son1 ,pt4 ,pleasant1 ,w4 ,va4 #ea ,alfalfa on the ,ohio ,state ,university ,farm #fa ,curing ,alfalfa at the ,pennsylvania ,experiment ,station #fh ,a ,heavy ,grass ,sod in ,new ,york #gc ,good ,pasture ,land in ,chester ,county1 ,pa4 #ij ,sheep on a ,new ,york ,farm #if ,the ,cowpea ,seeded at the ,last ,cultivation of ,corn in the ,great ,kanawha ,valley1 ,w4 ,va4 #ajf ,texas ,calves on an ,ohio ,farm #aba ,in the ,fertile ,miami ,valley1 ,ohio #abf ,concrete ,stable ,floors #aca ,corn in the ,ohio ,valley #adj ,penn's ,valley1 ,pennsylvania #aea ,in the ,shenandoah ,valley #aee ,plat ,experiments #afg ,in the ,lebanon ,valley1 ,pennsylvania #ahi ,on the ,productive ,farm of ,dr4 ,w4 ,i4 ,chamberlain in ,northwestern ,ohio #baj ,deep ,tillage #bbb ,making an ,earth ,mulch in a ,new ,york ,orchard #bcc ,drain ,tile #bci ,the ,lure of the ,country #bdf ,,crops ,,and ,,methods ,,for ,,soil ,,improvement ,,chapter ,i ,,introduction ,in ,lieu of ,preface4--,this book is not a technical treatise and is designed only to point out the plain1 every-day facts in the natural scheme of making and keeping soils productive4 ,it is concerned with the crops1 methods1 and fertilizers that favor the soil4 ,the viewpoint1 all the time1 is that of the practical man who wants cash compensation for the intelligent care he gives to his land4 ,the farming that leads into debt1 and not in the opposite direction1 is poor farming1 no matter how well the soil may prosper under such treatment4 ,the maintenance and increase of soil fertility go hand in hand with permanent income for the owner when the science that relates to farming is rightly used4 ,experiment stations and practical farmers have developed a dependable science within recent years1 and there is no jarring of observed facts when we get hold of the simple philosophy of it all4 ,natural ,strength of ,land4--,nearly all profitable farming in this country is based upon the fundamental fact that our lands are storehouses of fertility1 and that this reserve of power is essential to a successful agriculture4 ,most soils1 no matter how unproductive their condition to-day1 have natural strength that we take into account1 either consciously or unconsciously4 ,some good farm methods came into use thousands of years ago4 ,experience led to their acceptance4 ,they were adequate only because there was natural strength in the land4 ,nature stored plant-food in more or less inert form and1 as availability has been gained1 plants have grown4 ,our dependence continues4 ,plant ,constituents4--,there are a few technical terms whose use cannot be evaded in the few chapters on the use of lime and fertilizers4 ,a plant will not come to maturity unless it can obtain for its use combinations of ten chemical elements4 ,agricultural land and the air provide all these elements4 ,if they were in abundance in available forms1 there would be no serious soil fertility problem4 ,some of their names may not interest us4 ,six or seven of these elements are in such abundance that we do not consider them4 ,a farmer may say that when a dairy cow has luxuriant blue-grass in ,june1 and an abundance of pure water1 her wants are fully met4 ,he omits mention of the air because it is never lacking in the field4 ,in the same way the land-owner may forget the necessity of any kind of plant-food in the soil except nitrogen1 phosphoric acid1 potash1 and lime4 ,probably the lime is very rarely deficient as a food for plants1 and will be considered later only as a means of making soils friendly to plant life4 ,nitrogen1 phosphoric acid1 and potash are the three substances that may not be in available form in sufficient amount for a growing crop4 ,the lack may be in all three1 or in any two1 or in any one1 of these plant constituents4 ,the natural strength of the soil includes the small percentage of these materials that may be available1 and the relatively large stores that nature has placed in the land in inert form as a provision against waste4 ,the thin covering of the earth that is known as the soil is disintegrated rock1 combined with organic matter4 ,the original rock weathered1 undergoing physical and chemical change4 ,a long period of time was required for this work1 and for the mixing and shifting from place to place that have occurred4 ,organic matter has been a factor in the making of soils1 and is in high degree a controlling one in their production of food4 ,organic ,matter4--,nature is resourceful and is constantly alert to repair the wastes and mistakes of man4 ,we may gain fundamental truth about soil fertility through observance of her methods in restoring land to a fertile condition4 ,our best success comes only when we work with her4 ,when a soil has been robbed by man1 and has been abandoned on account of inability to produce a profitable crop1 the first thing nature does is to produce a growth of weeds1 bushes1 briers1 or aught else of which the soil chances to have the seeds4 ,it is nature's effort to restore some organic matter--some humus-making material--to the nearly helpless land4 ,vegetable matter1 rotting on and in the soil1 is the life-giving principle4 ,it unlocks a bit of the great store of inert mineral plant-food during its growth and its decay4 ,it is a solvent4 ,the mulch it provides favors the holding of moisture in the soil1 and it promotes friendly bacterial action4 ,the productive power of most farming land is proportionate to the amount of organic matter in it4 ,the casual observer1 passing by farms1 notes the presence or absence of humus-making material by the color and structure of the soil1 and safely infers corresponding fertility or poverty4 ,organic matter is the life of the soil4 ,illustration3 ,a good crop for a poor soil4 ,a great percentage of the food consumed by ,europe and the ,americas continues to come out of nature's own stores in the soil1 organic and inorganic1 without any assistance by man except in respect to selection of seeds1 planting1 and tillage4 ,the percentage grows less as the store of original supplies grows less and population increases4 ,our science has broadened as the need has grown greater4 ,we have relatively few acres remaining in the ,united ,states that do not require intelligent treatment to insure an adequate supply of available plant-food4 ,the total area that has fallen below the line of profitable productiveness is large4 ,other areas that never were highly productive must supplement the lands originally fertile in order that human needs may be met4 ,when soils have been robbed through the greed of man1 nature is handicapped in her effort to restore fertility by the absence of the best seeds4 ,man's intelligent assistance is a necessity4 ,successful farming involves such assistance of nature that the percentage of vegetable matter in the soil shall be made high and kept high4 ,there must be such selection of plants for this purpose that the organic matter will be rich in fertility1 and at the same time their growth must fit into a scheme of crop production that can yield profit to the farmer4 ,soils produce plants primarily for their own needs4 ,it is a provision of nature to maintain and increase their productive power4 ,the land's share of its products is that part which is necessary to this purpose4 ,skill in farming provides for this demand of the soil while permitting the removal of a large amount of animal food within the crop-rotation4 ,lack of skill is responsible for the depleted condition of soils on a majority of our farms4 ,the land's share of the vegetation it has produced has been taken from it in large measure1 and no other organic matter has been given it in return4 ,its mineral store is left inert1 and the moisture supply is left uncontrolled4 ,helplessness results4 ,drainage4--,productive soils are in a condition to admit air freely4 ,the presence of air in the soil is as necessary to the changes producing availability of plant-food as it is to the changes essential to life in the human body4 ,a water-logged soil is a worthless one in respect to the production of most valuable plants4 ,the well-being of soil and plants requires that the level of dead water be a considerable distance below the surface4 ,when a soil has recently grown trees1 the rotting stump roots leave cavities in the subsoil that permit the removal of some surplus water1 and the rotted wood and leaves that give distinctive character to new land are absorbents of such water4 ,as land becomes older1 losing natural means of drainage and the excellent physical condition due to vegetable matter in it1 the need of drainage grows greater4 ,the tramping of horses in the bottoms of furrows made by breaking-plows often makes matters worse4 ,the prompt removal of excessive moisture by drains1 and preferably by underdrains1 is essential to profitable farming in the case of most wet lands4 ,the only exception is the land on which may be grown the grasses that thrive fairly well under moist conditions4 ,lime4--,the stores of lime in the soil are not stable4 ,the tendency of lime in most of the states between the ,missouri ,river and the ,atlantic seaboard is to get out of the soil4 ,there is no evidence that lime is not in sufficient quantity in most soils to feed crops adequately1 but within recent years we have learned that vast areas do not contain enough lime in available form to keep the soil from becoming acid4 ,some soils never were rich in lime1 and these are the first to show evidence of acidity4 ,in our limestone areas1 however1 acid soil conditions are developing year by year1 limiting the growth of clover and affecting the yields of other crops4 ,the situation is a serious one just in so far as men refuse to recognize the facts as they exist1 and permit the limiting of crop yields1 and consequently of incomes1 through the presence of harmful acids4 ,the natural corrective is lime1 which combines with the acid and leaves the soil friendly to all plant life and especially to the clovers and other legumes that are necessary to profitable farming4 ,nature is largely dependent upon man's assistance in the correction of soil acidity4 ,crop-rotation4--,a good crop-rotation favors high productiveness4 ,one kind of crop paves the way nicely for some other one4 ,the land can be occupied by living plants without any long intermissions4 ,organic matter can be supplied without the use of an undue portion of the time4 ,the stores of plant-food throughout all the soil are more surely reached by a variety of plants1 differing in their habits of root-growth4 ,the injury from disease and insects is kept down to a minimum4 ,there is better distribution of the labor required by the farm1 and neglect of crops at critical times is escaped4 ,the maintenance of fertility is dependent much upon the use of a legume that will furnish nitrogen from the air4 ,a permanently successful agriculture in our country must be based upon the use of legumes1 and crop-rotations would be demanded for this reason alone if none other existed4 ,fertilizers4--,when a crop is fed to livestock1 and all the manure is returned to the land that produced the crop without loss by leaching or fermentation1 there is a return to the land of four fifths of the fertility1 and a good form of organic matter is supplied4 ,a portion of the crops cannot be fed upon the farm1 or otherwise the human race would have only animal products for food4 ,the welfare of the people demands that a vast amount of the soil's crops be sold from the farms producing them4 ,this brings about a dependence upon the natural stores of plant-food in the soil1 which become available slowly1 and upon commercial fertilizers4 ,there has been a disposition on the part of many farmers to regard fertilizers only as stimulants1 due to the irrational use of certain materials1 but a good commercial fertilizer is a carrier of some or all of the necessary elements that we find in stable manures4 ,they may carry nitrogen1 phosphoric acid1 or potash1--any one or two or the three1--and the three are the constituents that usually are lacking in available forms in our soils4 ,examples of the best modern skill in farming may be found in the rational selection and use of commercial fertilizers4 ,tillage4--,man's ability to assist nature in the work of production finds a notable illustration in the matter of tillage4 ,its purpose is to provide right physical condition of the soil for the particular class of plants that should be produced1 while destroying the competition of other plants that are for the time only weeds4 ,most soils become too compact when left unstirred4 ,the air cannot enter freely1 plant-roots cannot extend in every direction for food1 the water from rains cannot enter easily1 there is escape of the moisture in the ground1 and weathering of the soil proceeds too slowly4 ,the methods used in plowing1 harrowing1 and later cultivations fix the productive power of a soil for the season in large measure4 ,control of ,soil ,moisture4--,the water in the soil is a consideration that has priority over plant-food in the case of agricultural land4 ,the natural strength of the soil is sufficient to give some return to the farmer in crops if the moisture content is right throughout the season4 ,the plant cannot feed unless water is present2 the process of growth ceases in the absence of moisture4 ,one purpose of plowing is to separate the particles of soil to a good depth so that water-holding capacity may be increased4 ,when the soil is compact1 it will absorb and hold only a very limited amount of moisture4 ,we harrow deeply to complete the work of the plow1 and the roller is used to destroy all cavities of undue size that would admit air too freely and thus rob the land of its water4 ,later cultivations may be given to continue the effect of the plow in preventing the soil from becoming too compact1 but usually should be required only to make a loose mulch that will hold moisture in the ground1 and to destroy the weeds that would compete with the planted crop for water1 food1 and sunshine4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,need ,,of ,,lime ,the ,unproductive ,farm4--,when a soil expert visits an unproductive farm to determine its needs1 he gives his chief attention to four possible factors in his problem3 lack of drainage1 of lime1 of organic matter1 and of available plant-food4 ,his first concern regards drainage4 ,if the water from rains is held in the surface by an impervious stratum beneath1 it is idle to spend money in other amendments until the difficulty respecting drainage has been overcome4 ,a water-logged soil is helpless4 ,it cannot provide available plant-food1 air1 and warmth to plants4 ,under-drainage is urgently demanded when the level of dead water in the soil is near the surface4 ,the area needing drainage is larger than most land-owners believe1 and it increases as soils become older4 ,on the other hand1 the requirements of lime1 organic matter1 and available plant-food are so nearly universal1 in the case of unproductive land in the eastern half of the ,united ,states1 that they are here given prior consideration1 and drainage is discussed in another place when methods of controlling soil moisture are described4 ,the production of organic matter is so important to depleted soils1 and is so dependent upon the absence of soil acidity1 that the right use of lime on land claims our first interest4 ,soil ,acidity4--,lime performs various offices in the soil1 but farmers should be concerned chiefly about only one1 and that is the destruction of acids and poisons that make the soil unfriendly to most forms of plant life1 including the clovers1 alfalfa1 and other legumes4 ,lime was put into all soils by nature4 ,large areas were originally very rich in lime1 while other areas of the eastern half of the ,united ,states never were well supplied4 ,within the last ten years it has been definitely determined that a large part of this vast territory has an actual lime deficiency1 as measured by its inability to remain alkaline or sweet4 ,many of the noted limestone valleys show marked soil acidity4 ,there has been exhaustion of the lime that was in a state available for union with the acids that constantly form in various ways4 ,the area of soil thus deficient grows greater year by year1 and it can be only a matter of time when nearly all of the eastern half of this country will have production limited by this deficiency unless applications of lime in some form are made4 ,when owners of soil that remains rich in lime do not accept this statement1 no harm results1 as their land does not need lime4 ,on the other hand are tens of thousands of land-owners who do not recognize the need of lime that now exists in their soils1 and suffer a loss of income which they would attribute to other causes4 ,irrational ,use of ,lime4--,some refusal to accept the facts respecting soil acidity and its means of correction is due to a prejudice that was created by an unwise use of lime in the past4 ,owners of stiff limestone soils learned in an early day that a heavy application of caustic lime would increase crop production4 ,it caused such flocculation of the fine particles in their stiff soils that physical condition was improved1 and it made the organic matter in the soil quickly available as plant-food4 ,the immediate result was greater crop-producing power in the soil1 and dependence upon lime as a fertilizer resulted4 ,the vegetable matter was used up1 some of the more available mineral plant-food was changed into soluble forms1 and in the course of years partial soil exhaustion resulted4 ,the heavy applications of lime1 unattended by additions of organic matter in the form of clover sods and stable manure1 produced a natural result1 but one that was not anticipated by the farmers4 ,the prejudice against the use of lime on land was based on the effects of this irrational practice4 ,there are land-owners who are not concerned with present-day knowledge regarding soil acidity because they cannot believe that it has any bearing upon the state of their soils4 ,they know that clover sods were easily produced on their land within their remembrance1 and that their soils are of limestone origin4 ,as the clovers demand lime1 these two facts appear to them final4 ,the failures of the clovers in the last ten or twenty years they incline to attribute to adverse seasons1 poor seed1 or the prevalence of weed pests4 ,they do not realize that much land passes out of the alkaline class into the acid one every year4 ,the loss of lime is continuous4 ,exhaustion of the supply capable of combining with the harmful acids finally results1 and with the accumulation of acid comes partial clover failure1 a deficiency in rich organic matter1 a limiting of all crop yields1 and an inability to remain in a state of profitable production4 ,lime deficiency and its resulting ills would not exist as generally as is now the case if the application of lime to land were not expensive and disagreeable4 ,these are deterrent features of wide influence4 ,there continues hope that the clover will grow successfully1 as occasionally occurs in a favorable season1 despite the presence of some acid4 ,the limitation of yields of other staple crops is not attributed to the lack of lime1 and the proper soil amendment is not given to the land4 ,where ,clover is not ,wanted4--,the ability to grow heavy red clover is a practical assurance that the soil's content of lime is sufficiently high4 ,when clover fails on account of a lime deficiency1 the work of applying lime may not be escaped by a shift in the farm scheme that permits the elimination of clover4 ,the clover failure is an index of a condition that limits the yields of all staple crops4 ,the lack of lime checks the activity of bacteria whose office it is to prepare plant-food for use4 ,the stable manure or sods decompose less readily and give smaller results4 ,soil poisons accumulate4 ,mineral plant-food in the soils becomes available more slowly4 ,physical condition grows worse4 ,the limitations of the value of manure and commercial fertilizers applied to land that has a lime deficiency have illustration in an experiment reported by the ,cornell station3 ,the soil was once a fertile loam that had become very poor4 ,a part was given an application of lime1 and similar land at its side was left unlimed4 ,the land without lime and fertilizer of any kind made a yield of #ahbd pounds of clover hay per acre4 ,a complete fertilizer on the unlimed land made the yield #bbce pounds1 and #ae tons of manure on the unlimed land made the yield #bjia pounds4 ,where lime had been applied1 the unfertilized land yielded #cheb pounds per acre1 the fertilized1 #djhe pounds1 and the manured1 #digf pounds4 ,the manure and fertilizer were nearly inactive in the acid soil4 ,the lime enabled the plants to obtain benefit from the plant-food4 ,determining ,lime ,requirement4--,it is wasteful to apply lime on land that does not need it4 ,as has been said1 the man who can grow heavy clover sods has assurance that the lime content of his soil is satisfactory4 ,this is a test that has as much practical value as the analysis of a skillful chemist4 ,the owner of such land may dismiss the matter of liming from his attention so far as acidity is concerned1 though it is a reasonable expectation that a deficiency will appear at some time in the future4 ,experience is the basis of such a forecast4 ,just as coal was stored for the benefit of human beings1 so was lime placed in store as a supply for soils when their unstable content would be gone4 ,the only ones that need be concerned with the question of lime for soils are those who cannot secure good growths of the clovers and other legumes4 ,putting aside past experience1 they should learn whether their soils are now acid4 ,practical farmers may judge by the character of the vegetation and not fail to be right nine times out of ten4 ,where land has drainage1 and a fairly good amount of available fertility1 as evidenced by growths of grass1 a failure of red clover leads immediately to a strong suspicion that lime is lacking4 ,if alsike clover grows more readily than the red clover1 the probability of acidity grows stronger because the alsike can thrive under more acid soil conditions than can the red4 ,acid soils favor red-top grass rather than timothy4 ,sorrel is a weed that thrives in both alkaline and acid soils1 and its presence would not be an index if it could stand competition with clover in an alkaline soil4 ,the clover can crowd it out if the ground is not too badly infested with seed1 and even then the sorrel must finally give way4 ,where sorrel and plantain cover the ground that has been seeded to clover and grass1 the evidence is strong that the soil conditions are unfriendly to the better plants on account of a lime deficiency4 ,the experienced farmer who notes the inclination of his soil to favor alsike clover1 red-top1 sorrel1 and plantain should infer that lime is lacking4 ,if doubt continues1 he should make a test4 ,the ,litmus-paper ,test4--,a test of fair reliability may be made with litmus paper4 ,a package of blue litmus paper can be bought for a few cents at any drug store4 ,this paper will turn pink when brought into contact with an acid1 and will return to a blue if placed in lime-water4 ,a drop of vinegar on a sheet of the paper will bring an immediate change to pink4 ,if the pink sheet be placed in lime-water1 the effect of the lime in correcting the acidity will be evidenced by the return in color to blue4 ,to test the soil1 a sample of it may be put into a basin and moistened with rain-water4 ,several sheets of the blue litmus paper should be buried in the mud1 care being used that the hands are clean and dry4 ,when one sheet is removed within a few seconds and rinsed with rain-water1 if any pink shows1 there is free acid present4 ,another sheet should be taken out in five minutes4 ,the rapidity with which the color changes1 and the intensity of the color1 are indicative of the degree of acidity1 and aid the judgment in determining how much lime should be used4 ,if a sheet of the paper retains its blue color in the soil for twenty minutes1 there probably is no lime deficiency4 ,the test should be made with samples of soil from various parts of the field1 and they should be taken beneath the surface4 ,one just criticism of this test is that while no acidity may be shown1 the lime content may be too low for safety4 ,illustration3 ,red clover on limed and unlimed land4 ,a ,practical ,test4--,the importance of alkalinity in soils is so great1 and the prevalence of acidity has such wide-spread influence to-day1 limiting the value of the clovers on a majority of our farms1 that a simple and more convincing test is suggested here4 ,every owner of land that is not satisfactorily productive may learn the state of his soil respecting lime requirement at small expense4 ,when a field is being prepared for seeding to the grain crop with which clover will be sown1 a plat containing four square rods should be measured off1 and preferably this should be away from the border to insure even soil conditions4 ,a bushel of lump-lime1 weighing eighty pounds1 should be slaked and evenly distributed over the surface of the plat of ground4 ,it can be broadcasted by hand if a spreader is not available1 and mixed with the surface soil while in a powdered state4 ,the plat of ground should be left as firm as the remainder of the field1 so that all conditions may be even for the test4 ,the appearance of the clover the following year will determine whether lime was needed or not4 ,there is no reason why any one should remain in doubt regarding the lime requirement of his fields4 ,if income is limited by such a cause1 the fact should be known as soon as possible4 ,duration of ,effect4--,soil acidity is not permanently corrected by a lime application4 ,the original supply failed to prove lasting1 and the relatively small amount given the land in an application will become exhausted4 ,the duration depends upon the degree of acidity1 the nature of the soil and its crops1 and the size of the application4 ,experiments at the ,pennsylvania experiment station have shown that an application only in sufficient amount to correct the existing acidity at the time of application will not maintain an alkaline condition in the soil1 even for a few months4 ,there must be some excess at hand to unite with acids as formed later in the crop-rotation1 or limings must be given at short intervals of time to maintain alkaline conditions4 ,experience causes us to assume that enough lime should be applied at one time to meet all requirements for a single crop-rotation of four1 five1 or six years1 and1 wherever lime is cheap1 the unpleasant character of the labor inclines one to make the application in sufficient amount to last through two such rotations4 ,it is a reasonable assumption1 however1 that more waste results from the heavier applications at long intervals than from light applications at short intervals4 ,in any event need will return1 and soil acidity will again limit income if applications do not continue to be made4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,applying ,,lime ,forms of ,lime4--,there is unnecessary confusion in the mind of the public regarding the forms of lime that should be used4 ,if amounts greatly in excess of needs were being applied1 the form would be a matter of concern4 ,there would arise the question of soil injury that might result from the use of the lime in caustic form4 ,again1 if pulverized limestone were used1 a very heavy application would bring up the question of coarseness in order that waste by leaching might be escaped4 ,most farms needing lime do not have cheap supplies1 and the consideration is to secure soil alkalinity at a cost that will not be excessive4 ,freight rates and the cost of hauling to the fields1 added to first cost of the lime1 limit applications on most farms to the necessities of a single crop-rotation which includes clover1 or1 at the most1 to two crop-rotations4 ,under these circumstances it is best to let cost of correction of soil acidity determine the form of lime to be used4 ,the material that will render the soil friendly to clover for the least money is the right one to select4 ,we need to be concerned only with the relative efficiencies of the various forms of lime1 as measured in terms of money4 ,that which will most cheaply restore heavy clover growths to the land is the form of lime to be desired4 ,the contentions of salesmen may well be disregarded as they produce confusion and delay a work that is important to the farmer4 ,definitions4--,the use of the various forms of lime will become general1 and the terms employed to designate them should be understood4 ,they vary in their content of acid-correcting material1 and their correct names should be used with accuracy4 ,stone-lime1 often called lump-lime or unslaked lime1 or calcium oxide or ,ca,o1 is a form widely known1 and may be taken as a standard4 ,it is the ordinary lime of commerce1 and is obtained by the burning of limestone4 ,one hundred pounds of pure limestone will produce #ef pounds of stone-lime 7,ca,o74 ,pulverized lime1 often called ground lime1 is stone-lime after being pulverized to permit even distribution4 ,when it is fully exposed to the air or moisture1 it slakes and doubles in volume4 ,hydrated lime1 often called slaked lime1 is a combination of stone-lime and water4 ,the water causes an increase in weight of #cb per cent1 #ef pounds of stone-lime becoming #gd pounds of the hydrate4 ,pulverized limestone1 often called carbonate of lime1 is the unburned limestone made fine so that good distribution may be possible4 ,air-slaked lime1 often called carbonate of lime1 is stone-lime or hydrated lime combined with carbonic acid from the air1 and thereby increased in weight4 ,fifty-six pounds of stone-lime1 or #gd pounds of hydrated lime1 become #ajj pounds of air-slaked lime4 ,agricultural lime1 or land-lime1 may embrace anything that the manufacturer of lime chooses to market4 ,it may be reasonably pure unslaked lime1 or it may have less value than a finely pulverized pure limestone4 ,there is a custom of grinding the core1 or partially burned limestone of the kiln1 together with impurities removed from builders' lime1 and with this may be put some air-slaked lime4 ,some manufacturers market under this name a lime of excellent value4 ,there is no standard1 and one should not pay more than a finely pulverized pure limestone would cost unless he knows that the content of fresh burned lime is high4 ,the element with which we are concerned in any of these forms of lime is calcium4 ,it is the base whose union with the acids destroys the latter4 ,it should be obvious that the addition of water to stone-lime1 which adds weight and causes #ef pounds of the stone-lime to become #gd pounds of hydrated lime1 adds no calcium4 ,likewise the change to the air-slaked condition adds no calcium1 but again adds weight4 ,the ,kind to ,apply4--,if a soil contains free acid1 the amount of calcium needed is definite4 ,the form of lime that can supply the need in that particular field at least expenditure of money and trouble is the one to be selected4 ,a ton of stone-lime1 or pulverized lime1 can correct as much acid as #bfdj pounds of hydrated lime or #cegj pounds of pulverized limestone1 if all the original material was pure4 ,in other words1 if the value of a given weight of pulverized limestone is placed at #ajj1 the value of the same weight of hydrated lime would be #acb and the value of stone-lime would be #ahj1 when each was finely divided and distributed throughout the surface soil4 ,the ,fineness of ,limestone4--,experiments at the ,pennsylvania experiment station have shown that limestone has practically immediate availability in an acid soil if all of it has ability to pass through a screen having #fj meshes to the linear inch4 ,much of the limestone meeting this test doubtless is fine enough to pass through an #ajj-mesh screen4 ,the requirement that a #fj-mesh screen be used in testing is a satisfactory one to the buyer that wants immediate results in the field4 ,a coarser product must be used in larger amount per acre1 as only the fine particles are available at once1 and the object of the application is to correct all the acidity4 ,where a coarse product1 containing some fine particles1 can be used at such a low price per ton that the application may consist of a large number of tons per acre1 the practice may be commended1 but the essential thing is immediate results1 and only finely divided limestone can give them4 ,any long railway or wagon haul makes a heavy application of coarsely pulverized limestone inexpedient4 ,hydrated ,lime4--,many salesmen are too enthusiastic in their claims for hydrated lime4 ,it has advantages over pulverized limestone1 stone-lime1 and pulverized lime1 and there are disadvantages4 ,the buyer of pulverized limestone pays for the haul on #ajj pounds of material to get the #ef pounds of lime carried1 while #gd pounds of the hydrate furnish the same amount of actual lime1 if all of it is a hydrate4 ,while the hydrate contains less strength than the stone-lime1 it is in good physical condition for distribution1 and the stone-lime must be slaked4 ,the buyer will bear in mind1 moreover1 that much of the stone-lime which is burned on farms comes from limestone that is not very pure1 and all impurity is waste4 ,most manufacturers of the hydrate locate their costly plants where the limestone is relatively pure4 ,prudent business reasons dictate such a course4 ,a careful manufacturer of hydrated lime takes out imperfectly burned and other faulty material with screens4 ,these advantages have some weight1 but the fact remains that a ton of pure stone-lime has considerably more acid-correcting power than a ton of the hydrate4 ,stone-lime4--,stone or lump-lime is composed of the #ef per cent of a pure limestone that gives value to the limestone4 ,forty-four pounds of waste material were driven off in the burning4 ,where railway or wagon hauls are costly1 the purchase of stone-lime is indicated4 ,there is advantage in getting this lime in pulverized form1 provided it can be distributed in the soil before moisture from the air induces slaking and consequent bursting of the packages4 ,the necessity of rapid handling has limited the popularity of pulverized unslaked lime1 but no other form is equal to it when it is wholly unslaked4 ,some manufacturers grind the partially burned limestone often found in kilns1 and furnish goods little better than pulverized limestone4 ,the slaking of stone-lime should be done in a large pile1 and the distribution may be made with lime-spreaders4 ,when the application is fairly heavy1 a manure-spreader does satisfactory work4 ,a good lime-spreader is to be desired1 but care must be used to remove any stones or similar impurities in the slaked lime when filling it4 ,such spreaders are on the market4 ,the practice of slaking lime in small piles in the field is wasteful4 ,it is difficult to reduce all the lime to a fine powder and to make even distribution over the surface4 ,any excess of water from rains puddles some of the lime1 destroying practically all its immediate effectiveness4 ,distribution with shovels is necessarily imperfect4 ,the labor of slaking stone-lime and the difficulty in distribution are two factors to be considered when selecting the form of lime to be used4 ,they may counter-balance in some instances the higher percentage of actual lime when comparison is made with the hydrate4 ,that is a question to be decided by the buyer4 ,he must be willing to use methods that will secure even distribution4 ,the prevailing practice1 however1 of marketing the hydrate at a much higher price per ton than the stone-lime should prevent sales to farmers4 ,the price paid for ease of handling is too great when purchase of the hydrate is made under such circumstances4 ,it is better to do the slaking at home1 furnishing the added weight of #cb per cent in water on the farm4 ,ashes4--,hard-wood ashes have ceased to have much importance as a source of lime for land1 but their use is held in high esteem even by those who regard fertilizers as mere stimulants and doubt the efficiency of lime4 ,hard-wood ashes1 unleached1 clean and dry1 are valuable for acid soils4 ,their content of potash1 which is variable and averages about #d per cent1 formerly was given all the credit for the soil improvement and increased clover growth that resulted from their use4 ,tests with other carriers of potash have shown that the potash probably produced only a small part of the effect noted1 and the benefit is attributable to the lime in the ashes which exists in an effective form4 ,the content of lime is variable1 and largely so on account of the percentage of moisture and dirt that may be found in most ashes1 and when no analysis has been made1 the estimate of value should not be based on more than #cj to #dj per cent of carbonate of lime4 ,the price of ashes runs so high1 as a result of prejudice in favor of this well-known kind of soil amendment1 that it rarely is advisable to buy them4 ,pure lime is a cheaper means of correcting the soil acidity1 and the sulphate or the muriate of potash is by far the cheaper source of potash4 ,marl4--,marls vary widely in composition4 ,when quite pure1 they contain #ij or more per cent of carbonate of lime1 and have a value per ton about equal to finely pulverized limestone1 and near half the value per ton of stone-lime4 ,there are marls that are carriers of potash and phosphoric acid1 and are to be valued accordingly as fertilizers4 ,magnesian ,lime4--,some limestone is a nearly pure calcium compound1 and yields a pure lime1 while much limestone contains a high percentage of magnesia4 ,the latter is preferred by manufacturers who furnish pulverized lime because it does not slake readily1 and is less liable to burst the packages before required for use4 ,a pound of magnesian lime will correct a little more acid than a pound of pure lime1 and no preference may be shown the latter on that score4 ,there are soils in which the proportion of magnesia to pure lime is too great for best results with some plants1 as plant biologists assure us1 but there is too little definite information respecting these soils to justify one in paying more for a high calcium lime than for a magnesian lime when it is to be used on acid land4 ,the day may come when more will be known1 but the rational selection to-day is the material that will do the required work in the soil for the least money4 ,amount per ,acre4--,the amount of lime that should be applied to an acre of land depends upon the degree of its acidity1 the nature of the soil1 the cheapness of the lime1 and the character of the crops to be grown4 ,the actual requirement for the moment could be determined by a chemical test1 but the application should carry to the soil an amount in excess of immediate requirement4 ,when clover has ceased to grow within recent years1 it is a fair inference that the deficiency1 if it exists1 has not become great4 ,when sorrel and plantain have gained a strong foothold1 indicating that good grasses are unable to replace clover1 the degree of acidity probably is higher4 ,the results of tests at experiment stations and on farms show that #ajjj pounds of pulverized lime1 or one ton of pulverized limestone1 evenly distributed throughout the surface soil1 can restore clover to the crop-rotation on much land4 ,this is an application so light that a state of alkalinity cannot be long retained4 ,it is better to apply the equivalent of a ton of stone-lime in the case of all heavy soils that have shown any acidity4 ,where lime is low in price1 #cjjj pounds of stone-lime1 or its equivalent in any other form of lime1 is advised1 the belief being that such an application will maintain good soil conditions through two crop-rotations1 or eight to ten years4 ,this amount can be applied quite successfully with a manure-spreader1 and meets the convenience of the man who burns his own lime and does not want to screen it for use in a lime-spreader4 ,the man who must buy his lime1 and pay a freight charge upon it1 will find it better to use only a ton per acre4 ,this advice applies to heavy soils4 ,a light1 sandy soil should be given only a small application1 as otherwise physical condition may be injured4 ,the lime1 used in excess1 has an undue binding effect upon the sand4 ,an application of #ajjj pounds of stone-lime per acre can be made with safety4 ,time of ,application4--,the use of lime on land should be associated in the land-owner's thoughts with the growing of clover4 ,it does help soil conditions so that more grain can be produced1 but if it is permitted to displace the use of fertilizers1 and does not lead to the growth of organic matter1 harm will result in the end4 ,lime should be applied to secure clover1 and therefore it should be mixed with the soil before the clover is sown4 ,the application may be made when fitting the seed-bed for the grain with which clover usually is seeded1 or may be given a year or two years previous to that time4 ,the important point is to have the soil friendly to plant life when a sod is to be made4 ,lime should be put on ground always after the plowing1 and it should be well mixed with the surface soil4 ,even distribution is just as important in its case as in that of fertilizers4 ,a good practice is to break a sod for corn1 harrowing and rolling once1 and then to put on the lime4 ,a cut-away or disk harrow should be used to mix the lime with the soil before any moisture causes it to cake4 ,when large crumbs form1 immediate efficiency is lost4 ,if the application is light1 and may barely be equal to immediate demand1 it is better practice to put on the lime when preparing the seed-bed for the wheat or other small grain in which the clover will be sown4 ,it should never be mixed with the fertilizer nor applied with the seed4 ,the lime should go into the soil a few days1 or more1 prior to the seeding4 ,the soil having been put into a condition favorable to plant life1 the seeding and the use of commercial fertilizers should proceed as usual4 ,lime should never be mixed with manure in the open air1 but it is good practice to plow manure down1 and then to use lime as indicated above1 if needed4 ,if manure and lime must be used after the land has been plowed1 the lime should be disked well into the soil before the manure is applied1 and it is advisable that the interval between the two applications be made as long as possible4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,organic ,,matter ,office of ,organic ,matter4--,the restoration of an impoverished soil to a productive state usually is a simple matter so far as method is concerned4 ,it may be a difficult problem for the individual owner on account of expense or time involved1 but he has only a few factors in his problem4 ,assuming that there is good drainage1 and that the lime requirement has been met1 the most important consideration is organic matter4 ,a profitable agriculture is dependent upon a high percentage of humus in the soil4 ,average yields of crops are low in this country chiefly because the humus-content has been greatly reduced by bad farming methods4 ,illustration3 ,turning down organic matter with a gang plow4 ,nature uses organic matter in the following ways3 #a4 ,to give good physical condition to the soil4 ,the practical farmer appreciates the importance of this quality in a soil4 ,clayey soils are composed of fine particles that adhere to each other4 ,they are compact1 excluding air and failing to absorb the water that should be held in them4 ,the excess of water finally is lost by evaporation1 and the sticky mass becomes dry and hard4 ,the incorporation of organic matter with clay or silt changes the character of such land1 breaking up the mass1 and giving it the porous condition so essential to productiveness4 ,improved physical condition is likewise given to a sandy soil1 the humus binding the particles together4 #b4 ,to make the soil retentive of moisture4 ,yields of crops are limited more by lack of a constant and adequate supply of moisture throughout the growing season than by any other one factor4 ,decayed organic matter has great capacity for holding moisture1 and in some measure should supply the water needed during periods of light rainfall4 #c4 ,to serve1 directly and indirectly1 as a solvent of the inert plant-food in the soil that is known as the natural strength of the land4 ,its acids do this work directly1 and by its presence it makes possible the work of the friendly bacteria that are man's chief allies in maintaining soil fertility4 #d4 ,to furnish plant-food directly to growing plants4 ,even when it has been produced from the soil supplies alone1 there is great gain because the growing crop must have immediately available supplies4 ,many of the plants used in providing humus for the soil are better foragers for fertility than other plants that follow1 sending their roots deeper into the subsoil or using more inert forms of fertility4 ,the ,legumes4--,any plant that grows and rots in the soil adds to the productive power of the land if lime is present1 but plants differ in value as makers of humus4 ,there are only ten essential constituents of plant-food1 and the soil contains only four that concern us because the others are always present in abundance4 ,if lime has been applied to give to the soil a condition friendly to plant life1 we are concerned with three constituents only1 viz4 nitrogen1 phosphoric acid1 and potash4 ,the last two are minerals and cannot come from the air4 ,they must be drawn from original stores in the soil or be obtained from outside sources in the form of fertilizers4 ,the nitrogen is in the air in abundance1 but plants cannot draw directly from this store in any appreciable amount4 ,the soil supply is usually light because nitrogen is unstable in character and has escaped from all agricultural land in vast amounts during past ages4 ,profitable farming is based upon the great fact that we have one class of plants which can use bacteria to work over the nitrogen of the air into a form available for their use1 and the store of nitrogen thus gained can be added to the soil's supply for future crops4 ,these plants1 known as legumes1 embrace the clovers1 alfalfa1 the vetches1 peas1 beans1 and many others of less value4 ,they provide not only the organic matter so much needed by all thin soils1 but at the same time they are the means of adding to the soil large amounts of the one element of plant-food that is most costly1 most unstable1 and most deficient in poor soils4 ,their ability to secure nitrogen for their own growth in poor land also is a prime consideration in their selection for soil improvement1 assuring a supply of organic matter where otherwise partial failure would occur4 ,storing ,nitrogen4--,man needs protection from his own greed1 and nature's checks are his salvation4 ,an illustration is afforded in the case of legumes grown for the maintenance of soil fertility4 ,the clovers and some other legumes are seeded primarily for the benefit of the soil4 ,the need of organic matter is recognized1 and a cheap supply of nitrogen is wanted for other crops in the rotation4 ,the purpose of the seeding is praiseworthy1 but if all of the product were available for use off the land1 observation teaches that the soil producing the crop probably would fare badly4 ,the crops grown prior to the season devoted to legumes proclaim their need of better soil conditions1 more organic matter1 and more nitrogen1 but the legumes1 appropriating nitrogen for themselves1 give to the land a more prosperous appearance1 and the disposition to harvest everything that is in sight prevails4 ,there is the excusing intention to return to the soil the residue from feeding1 which should be nearly as valuable as the original material1 while the fact usually is that faulty handling of the manure results in heavy loss1 and the distribution of the remainder is imperfect4 ,there is no happier provision of nature for the guarding of the soil's interests than the unavailability for man's direct use of a considerable part of most plants1 thus saving to the land a portion of its share of its products4 ,the humus obtained from plant-roots1 stubble1 and fallen leaves forms a large percentage of all the humus obtained by land whose fertility is not well guarded by owners4 ,this proportion is large in some legumes1 amounting to #cj or #dj per cent in the case of red and mammoth clover4 ,the ,right ,bacteria4--,the word bacteria has had a grudging admission to the vocabulary of practical farmers1 and the reason is easily stated4 ,the knowledge of bacteria and their work is recent and limited4 ,they are many in kind1 and scientists are only in the midst of their discoveries4 ,the practical farmer does well to let bacteriologists monopolize interest in the whole subject except in so far as he can provide some conditions that have been demonstrated to be profitable4 ,the work of bacteria must come more and more into consideration by the farmer because nature uses them to produce a vast amount of the change that is going on around us4 ,in consideration of the value of legumes we must take into account the bacteria which they have associated with them1 and through which they obtain the atmospheric nitrogen4 ,this would be a negligible matter1 it may be1 if all legumes made use of the same kind of bacteria4 ,it is true that the bacteria must have favorable soil conditions1 but they are the same favorable conditions that our plants require4 ,a fact of importance to the farmer is that the bacteria which thrive on the roots of some legumes will not serve other legumes4 ,this is a reason for many failures of alfalfa1 crimson clover1 the soybean1 the cowpea1 hairy vetch1 and other legumes new to the region4 ,soil ,inoculation4--,the belief that the right kind of bacteria may be absent from the soil when a new legume is seeded1 and that they should be supplied directly to the soil1 has failed in ready acceptance because examples of success without such inoculation are not uncommon4 ,even if the explanation of such success is not easy1 the fact remains that legumes new to a region usually fail to find and develop a supply of bacteria adequate for a full yield1 and some of these legumes1 of which alfalfa is an example1 make a nearly total failure when seeded for the first time without soil inoculation4 ,experiment stations and thousands of practical farmers have learned by field tests that the difference between success and failure under otherwise similar conditions often has been due to the introduction of the right bacteria into the soil before the seeding was made4 ,explanations offered for any phenomenon may later become embarrassing in the light of new knowledge4 ,we do not really need to know why an occasional soil is supplied with the bacteria of a legume new to it4 ,we have learned that the bacteria of sweet clover serve alfalfa1 and this accounts for the inoculation of some regions in the east4 ,we believe that some bacteria are carried in the dust on the seed1 and produce partial inoculation4 ,other causes are more obscure4 ,the cowpea trails on the ground1 and carries its bacteria more successfully than the soybean4 ,most legumes require a soil artificially inoculated when brought into a new region1 failing otherwise in some degree to make full growth4 ,method of ,inoculation4--,the bacteria can be transferred to a new field by spreading soil taken from a field that has been growing the legume successfully4 ,the surface soil is removed to a depth of three inches1 and the next layer of soil is taken1 as it contains the highest percentage of bacteria4 ,they develop in the nodules found on the feeding roots of the plants4 ,the soil is pulverized and applied at the rate of #bjj pounds per acre broadcast4 ,if the inoculated soil is near at hand and inexpensive1 #ejj pounds should be used in order that the chance of quick inoculation may be increased4 ,the soil should be spread when the sun's rays are not hot1 and covered at once with a harrow1 as drying injures vitality4 ,the soil may be broadcasted by hand or applied with a fertilizer distributer4 ,the work may be done at any time while preparing the seed-bed4 ,the bacteria will quickly begin to develop on the roots of the young plants1 and nodules may be seen in some instances before the plants are four weeks old4 ,pure cultures may be used for inoculation4 ,some commercial concerns made failures and brought the use of pure cultures into disrepute a few years ago1 but methods now are more nearly perfect1 and it is possible to buy the cultures of all the legumes and to use them with success4 ,prices continue too high to make the pure cultures attractive to those who can obtain inoculated soil with ease4 ,if land has been producing vigorous plants1 and if it contains no weeds or disease new to the land to be seeded1 its soil offers the most desirable means of transferring the bacteria4 ,the claim is made by some producers of pure cultures that their bacteria are selected for virility1 and should be used to displace those found in the farmer's fields4 ,the chances are that1 if soil conditions are good1 the bacteria present in the soil are virile1 and if the conditions are bad1 the pure cultures will not thrive4 ,all eastern land is supplied with red clover bacteria1 just as some western land possesses alfalfa bacteria1 and partial clover failure has causes wholly apart from the character of its bacteria4 ,we do not have definite knowledge concerning duration of inoculation nor the manner in which it is maintained when legumes are not growing1 but we do know that when a legume has once made vigorous growth in a field1 the soil will remain inoculated for a long term of years4 ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,clovers ,red ,clover4--,wherever red clover thrives there is no more valuable plant than this legume for making and keeping soils productive under ordinary crop-rotations4 ,the tyro in farming finds his neighbors conservative in thought and method1 and may rightly see room for improvement4 ,he naturally turns to new crops that are receiving much exploitation1 but should bear in mind that the world nowhere has found a superior to red clover as a combined fertilizing and forage crop for use in short rotations4 ,farmers turn aside from it because it turns aside from them4 ,there has been increasing clover failure in our older states for a long term of years4 ,it has become the rule to seed to timothy with the clover in the short crop-rotations as well as in the longer ones1 and chiefly for the reason that clover seeding has become no longer dependable4 ,in many regions the proportion of timothy seed used per acre has been made large because the clover would not surely grow4 ,in the winter-wheat belt1 where the custom has been to make such seedings with wheat1 timothy being sown in the fall and clover the next spring1 this increase in the timothy has made matters worse for the clover1 but it has helped to insure a sod and a hay crop4 ,clover sickness1 supposedly resulting from close clover rotations1 and the prevalence of plantain and other weeds1 have been assigned as a partial cause of clover failure4 ,it is only within recent years that the true cause of much failure has been recognized4 ,clover and ,acid ,soils4--,there are limited areas in which some clover disease has flourished1 and in some years insect attacks are serious4 ,barring these factors which have relatively small importance when the entire clover area is taken into account1 the causes of clover failure are under the farmer's control4 ,the need of drainage increases1 and the deficiency in organic matter becomes more marked4 ,the sale of hay and straw1 and especially the loss of liquid manures in stables1 have robbed many farms4 ,these are adverse influences upon clover seedings1 but the most important handicap to clover is soil acidity4 ,there is sad waste when high-priced clover seed is put into land so sour that clover bacteria cannot thrive1 and there is ten-fold more waste in letting land fail to obtain the organic matter and nitrogen clover should supply4 ,when land-owners refuse to let their soils remain deficient in lime1 clover will come into a prominence in our agriculture that it never previously has known4 ,methods of ,seeding4--,it is a common practice to sow clover in the spring1 either with spring grain or with wheat or rye previously seeded in the fall4 ,this method has much to commend it4 ,the cost of making the seed-bed is transferred to the grain crop1 and there is little outlay other than the cost of seed4 ,wheat and rye offer better chances to the young clover plants than do the oat crop which shades the soil densely and ripens later in the summer4 ,the amount of seed that should be used depends upon the soil1 the length of time the sod will stand1 and the purpose in growing the clover4 ,when soil fertility is the one consideration1 #ab to #ae pounds of bright1 plump medium red clover seed per acre should be sown4 ,a fuller discussion of the principles involved in making a sod and of seed mixtures is given in ,chapters ,,vii and ,,viii4 ,fertility ,value4--,attempts have been made to express the actual value of a good clover crop to the soil in terms of money4 ,the number of pounds of matter in the roots and stubble has been determined1 and analyses show the percentage of nitrogen1 phosphoric acid1 and potash contained4 ,the two crops harvested in the second year of its growth likewise have their content of plant-food determined4 ,if the total amounts of nitrogen1 phosphoric acid1 and potash have their values fixed by multiplying the number of pounds of each ingredient of plant-food by their respective market values1 as is the practice in the case of commercial fertilizers1 a total valuation may be placed upon the clover1 roots and top1 as a fertilizer4 ,such valuation is so misleading that it affords no true guidance to the farmer4 ,in the first place1 the phosphoric acid and potash were taken out of the soil1 and while some part of these materials may have been without immediate value to another crop until used by the clover1 no one knows how much value was given to them by the action of the clover4 ,again1 no one knows what percentage of the nitrogen in the clover came from the air1 and how much was drawn from the soil's stores4 ,the proportion varies with the fertility of the land1 the percentage of nitrogen taken from the air being greater in the case of badly depleted soils4 ,a big factor of error is found in the valuations of the ingredients found in the crop4 ,all plant-food is worth to the farmer only what he can get out of it4 ,he may be able to use #ej pounds of nitrogen per acre in the form of nitrate of soda1 at #ah cents a pound1 when growing a certain crop1 but could not afford to buy1 at market price of organic nitrogen1 all the nitrogen found in the clover crop1 and therefore it does not have that value to him4 ,on the other hand1 these estimates do not embrace the great benefit to the physical condition of the soil that results from the incorporation of a large amount of vegetable matter4 ,discussion has been given to this phase of the question in the interest of accuracy4 ,values are only relative4 ,the practical farmer can determine the estimate he should put upon clover only by noting its effect upon yields in the crop-rotation upon his own farm4 ,it is our best means of getting nitrogen from the air1 it provides a large amount of organic matter1 it feeds in subsoil as well as in top soil1 bringing up fertility and filling all the soil with roots that affect physical condition favorably1 and it provides a feed for livestock that gives a rich manure4 ,illustration3 ,red clover on the farm of ,p4 ,s4 ,lewis and ,sons1 ,point ,pleasant1 ,w4 ,va4 ,taking the ,crops off the ,land4--,the feeding value of clover hay is so great that the livestock farmer cannot afford to leave a crop of clover on the ground as a fertilizer4 ,the second crop of red clover produces the seed1 and1 if the yield is good1 is very profitable at the prices for seed prevailing within recent years4 ,the amount of plant-food taken off in the hay and seed crops would have relatively small importance if manure and haulm were returned without unnecessary waste4 ,van ,slyke states that about one third of the entire plant-food value is contained in the roots1 while #ce to #dj per cent of the nitrogen is found in the roots and stubble4 ,hall instances one experiment at ,rothamstead in which the removal of #aea pounds of nitrogen in the clover hay in one year left the soil enough richer than land by its side to produce #ej per cent more grain the next year4 ,he cites another experiment in which the removal of three tons of clover hay left the soil so well supplied with nitrogen that its crop of ,swede turnips two years later was over one third better than that of land which had not grown clover1 the application of phosphoric acid and potash being the same4 ,when two tons of well-cured clover hay are harvested in ,june1 removing about #hj pounds of nitrogen1 #de to #ej pounds are left for the soil4 ,the amounts of potash are about the same1 while phosphoric acid is much less in amount4 ,physical ,benefit of the ,roots4--,while the roots and stubble contain less than two fifths of the total plant-food in a clover crop1 one may not safely infer that the removal of the crop for hay reduces the beneficial effect of the clover to the soil fully #fj per cent1 or more4 ,the roots break up the soil in a way not possible to a mass of tops plowed down4 ,they improve the physical condition of the subsoil as well as the top soil4 ,the amount of the benefit depends in part upon the nature of the land4 ,its value cannot be surely determined1 but the facts are called to mind as an aid to judgment in deciding upon the method of handling the clover crop4 ,used as a ,green ,manure4--,where dependence must be placed upon clover as a fertilizer1 little or no manure being returned to the land1 at least one of the two clover crops within the year should be left on the land4 ,the maximum benefit from clover1 when left on the land1 can be obtained by clipping it before it is sufficiently heavy to smother the plants1 leaving it as a mulch4 ,when the cutter-bar of the mower is tilted upward1 the danger of smothering is reduced4 ,truckers1 remote from supplies of manure1 have found it profitable to make two such clippings just prior to blossoming stage1 securing a third heavy growth4 ,the amount of humus thus obtained is large1 and the benefit of the mulch is an important item4 ,some growers clip the first crop for a mulch1 and later secure a seed crop4 ,the early clipping and the mulch cause increase in yield of seed4 ,a common practice is to take one crop off for hay1 and to leave the second for plowing down the following spring4 ,early harvesting of the clover for hay favors the second crop4 ,when to turn ,down4--,when the maximum benefit is desired for the soil from a crop of clover1 the first growth should not be plowed down4 ,its office should be that of a mulch4 ,in its decay all the mineral plant-food and most of the nitrogen go into the soil4 ,the second crop should come to maturity1 or near it4 ,as a rule1 there is gain1 and not loss1 by letting the second crop lie on the ground until spring if a spring-planted crop is to follow4 ,some fall growth1 and the protection from leaching1 should equal any advantage arising from rotting the bulky growth in the soil4 ,in some regions it is not good practice to plow down a heavy green crop on account of the excessive amount of acid produced4 ,when this has been done1 the only corrective is a liberal application of lime4 ,mammoth ,clover4--,when clover is grown with timothy for hay1 some farmers prefer to use mammoth clover in place of the medium red4 ,it may be known as sapling clover1 and is accounted a perennial1 though it is little more so than the red4 ,it is a strong grower and makes a coarse stalk but1 when grown with timothy1 it has the advantage over the red in that the period of ripening is more nearly that of the timothy4 ,it inclines to lodge badly1 and should be seeded thinly with timothy when wanted for hay4 ,the roots run deep into the soil1 and this variety of clover compares favorably with the medium red in point of fertilizing power1 the total root-growth being heavier4 ,while its yield of hay1 when seeded alone1 is greater than the first crop of the red1 its inclination to lodge and its coarseness are offsets4 ,it produces its seed in the first crop1 and the after-growth is small1 while red clover may make a heavy second crop4 ,its use should become more general on thin soils1 its strong root-growth enabling it to thrive better than the red1 and the lack of fertility preventing the stalks from becoming unduly coarse for hay4 ,the amount of seed used per acre1 when grown by itself1 should be the same as that of red clover4 ,alsike ,clover4--,a variety of clover that may have gained more popularity than its merit warrants is alsike clover4 ,it is more nearly perennial than the mammoth4 ,the roots do not go deep into the subsoil like those of the red or the mammoth1 and therefore it is better adapted to wet land4 ,it remains several years in the ground when grazed1 and is usually found in seed mixtures for pastures4 ,it is decumbent1 and difficult to harvest for hay when seeded alone4 ,it is credited with higher yields than the red by most authorities1 but this is not in accord with observation in some regions1 and it is markedly inferior to the red in the organic matter and the nitrogen supplied the soil in the roots4 ,the popularity of this clover is due to its ability to withstand some soil acidity and bad physical conditions4 ,in regions where red clover is declining on account of lack of lime1 one may see some alsike4 ,the rule is to mix alsike with the red at the rate of one or two bushels of the former to six bushels of the latter4 ,as the seed of the alsike is hardly half as large as that of the red1 the proportion in the mixture is greater than some farmers realize4 ,the practice is an excellent one where the red will not grow1 and the alsike adds fertility1 but when the soil has been made alkaline1 the red clover should have nearly all the room4 ,alsike is a heavy producer of seed4 ,crimson ,clover4--,wherever crimson clover is sufficiently hardy to withstand the winter1 as in ,delaware and ,new ,jersey1 it is a valuable aid in maintaining and increasing soil fertility4 ,it is a winter annual1 like winter wheat1 and should be seeded in the latter half of summer1 according to latitude4 ,it comes into bloom in late spring4 ,the plant has a tap-root of good length1 but in total weight of roots is much inferior to the red4 ,this clover1 however1 compares favorably with red clover in the total amount of nitrogen added to the soil by the entire plant when grown under favorable conditions4 ,it is peculiarly fitted for a cover crop in orchards and wherever spring crops are removed as early as ,august1 or a seeding can be made in them1 as is the case with corn4 ,even when winter kills the plants1 a successful fall growth is highly profitable1 adding more nitrogen before winter than red clover seeded at the same time4 ,where the plants do not winter-kill1 they are plowed down for green manure when in bloom in ,may1 or earlier in the spring to save soil moisture and permit early planting1 although a good hay for livestock can be made1 and the yield is about the same as that of the first crop of red clover4 ,in the northern states a large amount of money has been wasted in experimental seedings with crimson clover1 and it is only in exceptional cases that it continues to be grown4 ,there is reason to believe that many of these failures were due to lack of soil inoculation4 ,the ,pennsylvania experiment station is located in a mountain valley where winters are severe4 ,crimson clover is under test with other cover crops for an experimental orchard1 and success with it has increased as the soil has become fully inoculated4 ,this view is supported by the experience of various growers in the ,north1 and while crimson clover can never make the success in a cold climate that it does in ,delaware1 there is a much wider field of usefulness for it than is now occupied4 ,experiments should be made with it under favorable conditions respecting moisture and soil tilth4 ,fifteen pounds of seed should be used1 and the seed should be well covered1 as is the case with all seeds sown in mid-summer4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,alfalfa ,adaptation to ,eastern ,needs4--,the introduction of alfalfa into the eastern half of the ,united ,states will prove a boon to its depleted soils1 encouraging the feeding of livestock and adding to the value of manures4 ,it will affect soils directly1 as does red clover1 when farmers appreciate the fact that its rightful place on their farms is in rotation with grain4 ,under western conditions1 where no other crop can compete with it in value1 as is the case in semi-arid belts1 its ability to produce crops for a long term of years adds much to its value1 but in eastern agriculture this characteristic is not needed4 ,on most soils of the east it will not remain productive for more than four to six years1 and that fact detracts little from its value4 ,it should fit into crop-rotations1 adding fertility for grain crops4 ,when grown in a six-years rotation with corn and oats or other small grain1 it furnishes a rich sod for the corn1 and the manure made from the hay helps to solve the farmer's fertility problem4 ,fertility and ,feeding ,value4--,vivian says that the problem of the profitable maintenance of fertility is largely a question of an economic method of supplying plants with nitrogen4 ,the greatest value of alfalfa to eastern farming lies in its ability to convert atmospheric nitrogen into organic nitrogen4 ,it has no equal in this respect for relatively long crop-rotations1 storing in its roots and successive growths of top far more nitrogen within three or four years than is possible to any other of our legumes4 ,a good stand of alfalfa1 producing nine crops of hay in the three years following the season of seeding1 will produce from nine to twelve tons of hay4 ,good fields1 under the best conditions1 have produced far more1 but the amounts named are within reach of most growers on land adapted to the plant4 ,a ton of hay1 on the average1 contains as much nitrogen as five or six tons of fresh stable manure4 ,thus there comes to the farm a great amount of plant-food1 to be given the land in the manure1 and in addition the roots and stubble have stored in the ground enough nitrogen to feed a successive corn crop1 and a small grain crop which may follow the corn4 ,moreover1 the roots have filled the soil with organic matter1 improving the physical condition of the soil and subsoil4 ,illustration3 ,alfalfa on the ,ohio ,state ,university ,farm4 ,another gain is found in the content of phosphoric acid and potash in the manure1 much of which was drawn from soil supplies out of reach of the other farm crops4 ,the profit from introduction of alfalfa into a region's agriculture is very great4 ,alfalfa makes a nutritious and palatable feed for livestock4 ,a ton contains as much digestible protein as #afjj pounds of wheat bran4 ,climate and ,soil4--,the experimentation with alfalfa by farmers has been wide-spread1 and the percentage of failure has been so large that many have believed this legume was unfitted to the climate and soil of the country east of the ,missouri ,river4 ,successful experience has shown that it can be made to take a considerable place in eastern crop-schemes4 ,the climate is not unfavorable1 as is evidenced by large areas of good alfalfa sods on thousands of farms4 ,the abundant rainfall brings various weeds and grasses into competition with it1 and that will remain a serious drawback until growers learn to clean their surface soils by good tillage before seeding4 ,any land that is sufficiently well drained to produce a good corn crop in a wet summer can grow alfalfa if the seed-bed is rightly made4 ,the loose soils are more difficult to seed successfully than is the land having enough clay to give itself body1 although most experimenters select their most porous soils4 ,all farms having good tilth can bring alfalfa into their crop-rotations4 ,free ,use of ,lime4--,the conditions requisite to success in alfalfa-growing are not numerous1 but none can be neglected4 ,alfalfa should be given a calcareous soil when possible1 but an acid soil can be made favorable to alfalfa by the free use of lime4 ,there must remain a liberal amount after the soil deficiency has been met1 and when the use of lime is on a liberal scale1 the pulverized limestone makes the safest carrier4 ,however1 #ej bushels of stone-lime per acre can be used safely on any land that is not distinctly sandy1 and that amount is adequate in most instances4 ,inoculation4--,the necessity of inoculation has been discussed in ,chapter ,,iv4 ,eastern land would become inoculated for alfalfa if farmers would adopt the practice of mixing a little alfalfa with red clover whenever making seedings4 ,some alfalfa plants usually make growth1 securing the bacteria in the dust of the seed1 presumably4 ,the addition of one pound of alfalfa seed per acre would assist materially in securing a good stand when the day came that an alfalfa seeding was desired4 ,fertilization4--,the ability of alfalfa to add fertility to the farm1 and directly to the field producing it when all the crops are removed as hay1 does not preclude the necessity of having the soil fertile when the seeding is made4 ,the plants find competition with grass and other weeds keen under eastern skies where moisture favors plant-life4 ,in their first season this is markedly true4 ,there should be plenty of available plant-food for the young plants4 ,stable manure that is free from the seeds of pernicious weeds makes an excellent dressing4 ,it is good practice to plow down a heavy coat of manure for corn and then to replow the land for alfalfa the next season4 ,a top-dressing of manure is good1 affording excellent physical condition of the surface for starting the plants4 ,eight tons per acre make a good dressing4 ,if land is not naturally fertile1 mineral fertilizers should be applied4 ,a mixture of #cej pounds of #ad per cent acid phosphate and #ej pounds of muriate of potash is excellent for an acre of manured land4 ,in the absence of manure1 #ajj pounds of nitrate of soda and #ej pounds of muriate of potash should be added to the mixture4 ,if the materials are wet1 a drier must be used4 ,the fertilizer should be drilled into the ground prior to the seeding4 ,a ,clean ,seed-bed4--,much failure with alfalfa is due to summer grasses and other weeds4 ,the moisture in our eastern states favors plant-life1 and most soils are thoroughly stocked with the seeds of a large number of weeds4 ,the value of blue-grass and timothy would be comparatively small if they were not capable of monopolizing the ground when well started and given fertility4 ,alfalfa plants are less capable of crowding out other plants1 and especially in their first season4 ,their habit of growth is unlike that of grass4 ,rational treatment of alfalfa demands that the surface soil be made fairly clean of weed seed1 and this applies with peculiar force to annual grasses1 like fox-tail4 ,if attention were paid to this point1 failures would be far less numerous4 ,old grass land should not be seeded until a cultivated crop has followed the plowing4 ,the land should be in good tilth1 and capable of producing a good crop of any sort4 ,alfalfa is not a plant for poor land1 although it does add organic matter and nitrogen4 ,varieties4--,there is only one variety of alfalfa in common use in this country1 and the western-grown seed sold upon the market is known simply as alfalfa4 ,bound up in this one so-called variety are many strains differing in habit of growth1 and their differentiation will occur1 just as it has in the case of wheat1 and is now proceeding slowly with timothy4 ,the eastern grower at present should use the variety of the west that is furnishing nearly all the seed produced in this country4 ,there is a variety known as ,sand ,lucerne that has shown value for the light1 sandy soils of ,michigan4 ,the ,turkestan variety was introduced for dry1 cold regions1 but does not produce much seed4 ,clean ,seed4--,care should be exercised to secure seed free from impurities4 ,if one is not a competent judge1 he should send a sample to his state experiment station for examination4 ,the practice of adulteration is decreasing1 but the seed may have been taken from land infested with pernicious weeds4 ,the impurity most to be feared is dodder4 ,there are several varieties1 the seeds varying in size and color4 ,the same pest may be found in clover fields1 but the injury is less because the clover stands only two years4 ,the dodder seed germinates in the soil1 and the plant attaches itself to the alfalfa1 losing its connection with the soil and forming a mass of very fine vines that reach out to other alfalfa plants4 ,in this way it spreads1 feeding on the sap of the host plants and killing them4 ,when the infestation is in only a few spots in the field1 the remedy is to cover with straw1 soak with kerosene oil1 and burn4 ,all the infestation at the edges of these spots must be destroyed4 ,when the dodder is too widely distributed throughout the field to permit of this treatment1 the only course is to plow the field at once1 and to grow cultivated crops for two or three years4 ,it is believed that no variety of dodder produces seed freely in the eastern states1 and that the hay made from the first crop of alfalfa or red clover will not contain any seed of this pernicious plant4 ,the ,seeding4--,when alfalfa has become established on eastern farms1 the difficulties in making new seedings will be smaller4 ,the experience of growers will save from mistakes in selection of soils and preparation of the ground1 and the thorough inoculation with the right bacteria that can come only with time will do much to insure success4 ,the unwisdom of making seedings in ground filled with grass and other weed seeds will be appreciated4 ,it is quite probable that much successful seeding will be made in wheat and oats1 where the alfalfa is to stand only one or two years4 ,these practices are not for the beginner4 ,his land is not thoroughly supplied with bacteria1 and every chance should be given the alfalfa4 ,if there are no annual grasses1 such as appear so freely in some regions in mid-summer1 spring seeding is excellent4 ,a cover crop is then desirable1 and nothing is better for this purpose than barley at the rate of #d pecks of seed per acre4 ,in all experimental work #be pounds of bright1 plump alfalfa seed per acre should be sown4 ,the seeding should be made as soon as spring comes1 the barley being drilled in1 and the seed-spouts of the drill thrown forward so that the alfalfa will fall ahead of the hoes and be covered by them4 ,seeding in ,august4--,much land is infested with annual grasses and other weeds1 and in such case seedings should be made in ,august1 as described in ,chapter ,,viii4 ,subsequent ,treatment4--,if the alfalfa plants find the bacteria at hand1 they will begin to profit from them within the first month of their lives4 ,a large percentage of the plants may fail to obtain this aid in land which has not previously grown alfalfa1 and within a few months they indicate the failure by their light color1 while the plants liberally supplied with nitrogen through bacteria become dark green4 ,where there are no bacteria1 the plants turn yellow and die4 ,there are diseases that attack alfalfa1 causing the leaves to turn yellow1 and when they appear1 the only known treatment of value is to clip the plants with a mower without delay4 ,the next growth may not show any mark of the diseases4 ,illustration3 ,curing alfalfa at the ,pennsylvania ,experiment ,station4 ,when alfalfa is seeded in the spring on rich land1 a hay crop may be taken off the same season4 ,if the plants do not make a strong growth1 they should be clipped1 and the tops should be left as a mulch4 ,the clipping and all future harvestings are made when the stalks start buds from their sides near the ground4 ,this ordinarily occurs about the time some flowers show1 and is the warning that the old top should be cut off1 no matter how small and unprofitable for harvesting it may be4 ,the exception to this rule is found only in the fall4 ,an ,august seeding may make such growth in a warm and late autumn that flowering will occur1 and lateral buds start1 but the growth should not be clipped unless there remains time to secure a new growth large enough to afford winter protection4 ,this is likewise true of a late growth in an old alfalfa field4 ,owners of soils that are not well adapted to the alfalfa plant will find top-dressing with manure helpful to alfalfa fields when made in the fall4 ,the severity of winters in a moist climate is responsible for some failures4 ,if the soil is not porous1 heaving will occur4 ,a dressing of manure1 given late in the fall1 and preferably during the first hard freeze1 will prevent alternate thawings and freezings in some degree4 ,the manure should have been made from feed containing no seeds of annual grasses or other weed pests4 ,rolling in the spring does not serve to settle heaved alfalfa plants4 ,the tap-roots are long1 and when they have been lifted by action of frost1 they cannot be driven back into place4 ,it is believed that the permanence of an alfalfa seeding may be increased by the use of mineral fertilizers in the early spring4 ,in the case of one alfalfa field of fifteen years' standing in the east1 the fertilizers were applied immediately after the first hay crop of the year was removed4 ,three hundred and fifty pounds of acid phosphate and #ej pounds of muriate of potash per acre is the mixture recommended4 ,when old alfalfa plants do not stand thickly enough on the ground1 grasses and other weeds come in readily4 ,they can be kept under partial control by use of a spring-tooth harrow1 the points being made narrow so that no ridging will occur4 ,the harrow should be used immediately after the harvest1 and will not injure the alfalfa4 ,it does not pay to use alfalfa for pasturage in our eastern states because the practice shortens the life of the seeding4 ,alfalfa makes a seed crop in profitable amount only in our semi-arid regions4 ,no attempt to produce a seed crop in the east should be made4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,grass ,,sods ,value of ,sods4--,the character of the sods is a faithful index of the condition of the soil in any region adapted to grass4 ,the value of heavy sods to a soil cannot be overestimated4 ,they not only give to a farm a prosperous appearance1 but our country's agriculture would be on a much safer basis if heavy coverings of grass were more universal4 ,we do not hold the legumes in too high esteem1 but the emphasis placed upon their ability to appropriate nitrogen from the air has caused some land-owners to fail in appreciation of the aid to soil fertility that may be rendered by the grasses4 ,one often hears the statement that they can add nothing to the soil1 and this is serious error4 ,they add all that may be given in the clovers1 excepting nitrogen only1 and that is only one element of plant-food1 important though it be4 ,a great part of the value of clover lies in its ability to supply organic matter to the soil and to improve physical condition by its net-work of roots4 ,heavy grass sods furnish a vast amount of organic matter which not only supplies available plant-food to succeeding crops1 but in its decay affects the availability of some part of the stores of potential fertility in the land4 ,illustration3 ,a ,heavy ,grass ,sod in ,new ,york4 ,prejudice against ,timothy4--,timothy1 among the grasses1 is especially in disrepute as a soil-builder1 and yet its value is great4 ,the belief that timothy is hard on land is based upon observation of bad treatment of this grass4 ,there is a common custom of seeding land down to timothy when it ceases to have sufficient available plant-food for a profitable tilled crop1 and usually this is the third year after a sod has been broken4 ,the seeding is made with a grain crop that needs all the commercial fertilizer that may chance to be used4 ,clover may be seeded also1 and on a majority of farms it fails to thrive when sown4 ,if clover does grow1 the succeeding crop of timothy may be heavy4 ,if clover does not grow1 the timothy is not so heavy4 ,the seeding to grass is made partly because a tilled crop would not pay1 and partly because a hay crop is needed4 ,it comes in where other crops cannot come with profit1 and it produces fairly well1 or very well1 the first year it occupies the ground by itself4 ,with little or no aid from manure or commercial fertilizer1 it adds much to the supply of organic matter in the soil1 and it produces a hay crop that may be made into manure or converted into cash4 ,if the sod were broken the following spring1 giving to the soil all the after-math and the mass of roots1 its reputation with us would be far better than it is4 ,this would be true even if it had received little fertilizer when seeded or during its existence as a sod1 not taking into account any manure spread upon it during the winter previous to its breaking for corn4 ,but the rule is not to break a grass sod when it is fairly heavy4 ,the years of mowing are arranged in the crop-rotation to provide for as many harvests as promise immediate profit4 ,on some land this is two years1 and not infrequently it is three4 ,where farms are difficult of tillage1 it is a common practice to let timothy stand until the sod is so thin that the yield of hay is hardly worth the cost of harvesting4 ,then the thin remnant of sod is broken for corn or other grain1 and the poor physical condition of the soil and the low state of available fertility lead to the assertion that timothy is hard on the soil4 ,this is a fair statement of the treatment of this plant on most farms4 ,object of ,sods4--,the land's share of its products cannot be disregarded without loss4 ,the legumes and grasses come into the crop-rotation primarily to raise the percentage of organic matter that the land may appropriate to itself within the rotation4 ,some of the crops usually are for sale from the farm4 ,most of the crops require tillage1 and that is exhaustive of the store of humus4 ,a portion of the time within the rotation belongs to a crop that increases the supply of vegetable matter1 unless manure is brought from an outside source4 ,sods lend themselves well to this purpose because they afford some income1 in pasturage or hay1 while filling the soil with vegetation4 ,the tendency is to forget the primary purpose of sods in the scheme1 and to ignore the requirement of land respecting a due share of what it produces4 ,attention centers upon the product that may be removed4 ,the portion of the farm reduced in productive power for the moment goes to grass1 while the labor and fertilizers are concentrated upon the fields that are broken for grain and vegetables4 ,the removal of all the crop at harvest1 and probably the pasturing of after-math1 are the only matters of interest that the fields1 depleted by cultivation and seeded down to grass1 have for the owner until the poor hay yield and the need of a sod for corn draw attention again to them4 ,seeding with ,small ,grain4--,the usual custom is to sow grasses with small grain1 and there is much to commend it4 ,the cost of preparing the seed-bed rests upon the grain crop1 and the conditions are favorable to fall growth and winter protection1 if the seeding is made in the fall4 ,wheat and rye are good crops with which to seed4 ,in the case of fertile land there is the danger that the timothy will establish itself too well in a warm1 moist autumn to permit clover to get a foothold the following spring1 and clover should always be seeded for the sake of fertility4 ,in northern latitudes clover cannot be seeded successfully as late in the season as wheat should be sown1 as it fails to become well rooted for winter4 ,the overcrowding of clover by timothy is met in part by reduction in amount of timothy seed sown with the wheat4 ,the oat crop is less satisfactory for seedings to grass and clover4 ,the leaves near the ground are too thick1 shading the young plants unduly1 and the late harvest exposes the grass and clover when the season is hot1 and usually dry4 ,some reduction in the amount of seed oats used per acre helps to save from injury4 ,seeding in ,rye4--,when thin land is desired for pasture1 and available fertility cannot well be applied1 a sod may be formed more surely by seeding with rye1 using the rye for pasture and a mulch1 than1 probably1 in any other way4 ,the ground should have good tillage and then be seeded to rye in ,september at the rate of six pecks of seed per acre4 ,timothy and red-top should be seeded with it1 and in the spring red and alsike clover should be added4 ,whenever the ground is dry enough in the spring to permit the tramping of cattle without injury1 the rye should be pastured1 and preferably by a sufficient number of animals to hold the rye well in check4 ,when the usual time for heading comes1 all stock should be removed1 and when heads do appear1 the growth should be clipped with a mower and left as a mulch on the surface4 ,a second clipping will be required later1 with cutter-bar tilted well upward4 ,when the usual summer drouth is past1 livestock can again be turned into the field4 ,this method is suggested only for thin fields that have failed to make catches of grass1 and that for some reason cannot well be given the fertility that all thin soils need4 ,the application of lime before seeding to the rye is an expense that usually must be met in the case of such fields1 and fertilizers should be used4 ,good ,soil ,conditions4--,when the grasses and clovers desired for a sod are sown with small grain1 there is competition between them and the grain crop for fertility1 moisture1 and light4 ,the grain crop is the one that will produce the income the following summer1 and naturally is given right of way4 ,the amount of seed is used that experience teaches is best for a maximum yield of grain4 ,usually this gives a thicker stand of plants than is best for the tiny grass and clover plants that often are struggling for existence down under the taller grain4 ,if the farmer could see his way clear to cut down the quantity of seed wheat or oats used on a fertile soil1 the catch of grass would be better1 but the small-grain crop is not very profitable at the best1 and the owner does not like deliberately to limit it4 ,a greater amount of failure is due to an inadequate supply of fertility4 ,the grass does not suffer so much from over-shading as it does from starvation1 both during the growth of the grain and after harvest4 ,the stronger grain plants appropriate the scanty stock of available fertility1 and leave the grass and clover nearly helpless4 ,this condition is especially noticeable in dry seasons when there is less opportunity to obtain food in solution4 ,plants which are expected in another season to fill the ground with vegetable matter are starved in the beginning and die4 ,plant-food is needed1 and should be mixed with the soil when the seeding is made4 ,the fertilizer needs are discussed in another chapter4 ,when manure is available1 it should be spread on the plowed ground and mixed with the surface soil4 ,if a soil is thin1 or heavy1 or light1 the use of a ton of manure in this way can bring greater returns than under any other circumstances in general farming4 ,it supplies some fertility1 and it puts the surface soil into good physical condition for young plants4 ,land deficient in humus forms a crust after a rain1 and a tiny plant suffers4 ,a light dressing of manure1 well mixed with the soil1 tends to prevent this hardening of the surface and loss of water4 ,there is no other form of fertility that can fully replace manure1 for either compact or leachy land4 ,the probable need of lime has been discussed in other chapters4 ,clovers and the grasses want an alkaline soil1 and there is waste of money and time in seeding acid land4 ,the lime and the manure must not be mixed together in the air1 but both can be used when fitting land for seeding1 and both should be used if the need exists4 ,one should be applied early and be well disked into the soil1 and then the other application may be made and covered with the harrow4 ,the soil is an absorbent1 and the contact of manure and lime within the soil only leads to immediate availability1 which is desirable in giving the grass a start4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,grass ,,sods--7,continued7 ,seeding in ,late ,summer4--,the natural time of beginning life1 in the case of timothy1 blue-grass1 red-top1 red clover1 and alfalfa is in the summer or autumn4 ,the best conditions of growth are given where no stronger plants take the plant-food and moisture4 ,wherever there is any difficulty in getting heavy grass and clover sods after the lime deficiency has been met1 and wherever a hay crop has more value than a small-grain crop1 the method of seeding alone in ,august should be employed4 ,in warmer latitudes the date may be a little later1 but in the northern states it should be in the first half of ,august for best results4 ,seeding alone offers opportunity to make conditions right for the seeds which are to be used1 and in view of the importance of heavy sods to our agriculture1 this reason alone is sufficient4 ,in some regions the ability to substitute a good hay crop for a cereal that brings small net income is an item of value1 adding to the proportion of feeding-stuff produced in the rotation and to the resulting supply of manure4 ,the practice of making seedings to grass and clover alone is growing1 and it is based on sound reasoning4 ,crops that may ,precede4--,farms that are under common crop-rotations may adopt the practice of ,august seeding4 ,the winter wheat comes off in time for preparation1 and this is true of an early variety of oats1 and of rye and barley4 ,early crops of vegetables get out of the way nicely4 ,there is a vast total area of thin soil that may be brought up to a productive stage rapidly by the growth of a green-manuring crop to precede the grass and clover4 ,rye may be sown in the fall and plowed down in ,may1 and cowpeas planted to be disked into the soil4 ,oats and ,canada peas add organic matter with nitrogen when plowed down4 ,the summer fallow1 which deservedly has fallen into general disuse1 may well be employed when a soil is in an inert state1 provided grass and clover be permitted to appropriate the plant-food made soluble by the fallowing4 ,the catch crops add organic matter while cleansing the land of weeds2 the fallowing releases plant-food and is peculiarly efficient in killing out weeds4 ,care must be exercised about preserving moisture in the ground1 and therefore a green crop should not be plowed under immediately before seeding time4 ,when a soil is thin1 there may be no better preparatory crop than the cowpea1 which will not make too rank a growth in the north to prevent its handling with a weighted disk harrow4 ,by this means the soil below is left firm1 and the rich vines are mixed with the surface soil1 where most needed4 ,it is always a mistake to bury fertility in the bottom of the furrow when a soil is thin and small seeds are to be sown4 ,the infertile ground lying next the subsoil is not what is needed at the surface when preparing for a sod4 ,it is a good practice to use the early summer in making conditions better for an ,august seeding1 if the land has fallen below a profitable state of productiveness4 ,a growth may be plowed down in time for firming the seed-bed1 or it may be cut into the surface soil with a harrow1 or the time may be used in freeing inert plant-food and destroying weed seed4 ,on better soils1 and in warm latitudes1 a crop for hay may be removed1 especially in the case of the cowpea in the south1 and the stubble prepared for seeding by use of the cutaway or disk harrow4 ,preparation4--,a seed-bed for small seeds planted in mid-summer must be able to retain moisture4 ,nothing robs a soil of water more surely than a breaking-plow4 ,its use is a necessity in farming1 but this effect of plowing must be borne in mind when a seeding is planned for the driest period of the year4 ,it goes without saying that sods should not be formed on land that is too solid for admission of air4 ,a thorough plowing is needed by most soils prior to making a sod that will prevent further stirring of the ground for a long period of time4 ,it is best when this plowing can be given in the preceding spring4 ,this enables the ground to become firm enough to hold moisture4 ,if there is time for a tilled crop1 the cultivation is helpful4 ,when the land must be broken in the summer1 the plowing should be done several weeks before the seeding to grass must be made4 ,the roller should follow the plow closely to destroy the spaces that lie open to the hot air1 permitting the land to dry out4 ,all deep harrowings should be given soon after the plowing1 stirring and mixing the ground1 and then leaving it to settle so that moisture can be held4 ,it is bad practice to continue deep harrowing until the seeding time of any small grain or grass planted in a dry part of the year4 ,firmness is wanted in the soil4 ,the ,weed ,seed4--,the seeds of tilled crops are planted in ground containing much weed seed1 and no harm may result4 ,the cultivation needed to keep the soil loose1 or to prevent evaporation1 destroys the weeds4 ,grass1 clover1 alfalfa1 and like seeds are put into the ground to occupy it to the exclusion of other plants for several years1 as a rule1 and no tillage can be given4 ,the rule is to sow such seeds after tilled crops have been grown1 and some weed seed has been destroyed1 but there is evidence on every hand that the weed seed remains in abundance4 ,summer preparation for grass gives opportunity to destroy a great part of the seeds in the surface of the ground1 and it is only when they are near the surface that the seeds of most weeds will germinate4 ,deep harrowings1 continued up to time of planting1 not only rob land of water1 but they bring to the surface new lots of seed that had been safely buried1 and become a part of the actual seeding when the grass1 clover1 or alfalfa is sown4 ,the obviously right method of preparing for planting is to use only a surface harrow for a few weeks previous to seeding time1 stirring the ground after every rain to the depth of three inches1 or near that1 and destroying the plants soon after germination of the seed4 ,the process which is right for holding moisture is right for cleansing the ground4 ,summer ,grasses4--,one of the worst pests is the annual grasses1 springing up in ,june1 ,july1 and ,august4 ,they are responsible for many failures to obtain stands of alfalfa1 clover1 and the valuable grasses4 ,the delay in seeding until ,august is due largely to this pest4 ,when seedings are made in the spring1 or in ,june1 failure is invited where these grasses have a fast hold4 ,the only effective way of combating them is to make the ground firm enough to encourage germination1 and to stir the surface whenever a growth starts4 ,the late seeding is the one means of escape1 and if there is fertility and moisture1 the newly seeded crop becomes well rooted by winter and takes the ground so completely that there is little room for weeds to start the next year4 ,sowing the ,seed4--,partial failure with ,august seeding is due to faulty methods4 ,we are accustomed to broadcasting clover seed on top of the wheat fields and obtaining a stand of plants4 ,a majority of the seeds do not become buried in the soil1 or only very slightly1 and yet germinate4 ,moisture is necessary1 but in the spring1 when this method is used1 there is moisture at the surface of the ground under the wheat plants much of the time4 ,the conditions respecting moisture are not unfavorable in most springs1 and we come to think that a small seed should not be buried much if any4 ,in the autumn1 again1 we sow timothy with the wheat1 and while more prompt germination is secured by covering the timothy seed with the hoes of the drill1 we often have seen a successful seeding made without any covering being given4 ,the work is done at a time when fall rains may continue for days and1 when the sun's heat does not continue long1 the covering given by settling the seed into the loose earth is sufficient4 ,moisture does not leave rapidly because the air is not hot4 ,deep ,covering4--,in ,august the air is hot1 and the surface of the ground is dry nearly all the time4 ,a shower may be followed by hot sunshine1 and the water at the surface evaporates quickly1 leaving the ground covered with a dry crust4 ,there are two essential things to bear in mind3 the seeding should be made only when there is enough moisture in the ground to insure quick germination1 and preferably as soon as feasible after a rain1 and the seed should be put down where moisture can be retained4 ,it is poor practice to sow any kind of small seeds before a rain that seems imminent4 ,if it forms a crust1 or causes weed-seed germination along with that of the grass seeds1 only harm results4 ,when seeds are put into a dry soil1 and a light shower comes1 there may be germination without sufficient moisture to continue life in the plants4 ,the seeds should be well buried3 the soil and air conditions are different from those of the spring4 ,it is best to wait for moisture1 and to save the seed if it does not come1 but when enough water has fallen to make the firm soil moist1 the danger of failure is very small if the seeds are buried one to two inches deep4 ,a surface harrow will stir the surface1 and then the seeds should be sifted down into the soil by another harrowing4 ,a light plank float1 mashing the little clods and pressing the soil slightly together1 finishes the work4 ,the plants will appear above ground within a few days1 the only danger being in a beating shower that may puddle the surface before the plants are up4 ,seed-mixtures4--,when grass is wanted for hay as well as fertility1 the clovers and timothy compose the greater part of a desirable mixture wherever the clovers and timothy thrive4 ,probably this condition always will continue4 ,the clovers are needed to supply nitrogen to the soil and to put protein into the hay for livestock4 ,they give way1 in large part1 or entirely1 the second year4 ,alsike is more nearly perennial than the red which practically lasts only through its second season1 when its seed crop has been made1 and its function performed4 ,the sod is chiefly timothy in the second season4 ,a little red-top is desirable1 and the percentage should be heaviest for quite wet land or very dry land4 ,when fertility is the first consideration1 and the sod is left only two or three years1 the following mixture is good1 and is for one acre3 ,red clover #aj pounds ,alsike #b pounds ,timothy #h pounds ,red-top #b pounds ,when a mixed hay is wanted the first year1 the following mixture may be found better for the purpose3 ,red clover #f pounds ,alsike #b pounds ,timothy #ab pounds ,red-top #b pounds ,mammoth clover seed may be substituted for the red without change in number of pounds4 ,the amount of timothy and red-top in the second mixture suggested calls for a liberal supply of plant-food1 and this is true of any heavy grass mixture4 ,if fertility is not present1 the seeding of grass should be lighter1 but the clover should not be less in amount for a thin soil than for a good one4 ,the question of fertilizers is discussed in ,chapter ,,xx4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,sods ,,for ,,pastures ,permanent ,pastures4--,there is a large total area of land that can be brought into profitable production of food only by means of pasture grasses4 ,a small part is too low and moist for tillage1 but a larger part is too rough or too infertile4 ,it can be made to yield profit in grasses that are harvested without expense by animals4 ,the grasses afford feed and at the same time protect the soil from waste4 ,the efficiency of much pasture land is kept low by poor stands of grass1 the encroachment of weeds1 bushes1 and briers1 close grazing1 and the failure to supply fertility4 ,when making a sod for mowing1 the aim is to select varieties of plants that mature near the same time4 ,pastures need varieties maturing at different times1 and this is a matter under control when temporary pastures are used4 ,permanent pasture land soon becomes occupied by the grasses best fitted to soil conditions or most able to crowd other plants4 ,illustration3 ,good ,pasture ,land in ,chester ,county1 ,pa4 ,seed-mixtures4--,several varieties of grasses should be used when making a sod for grazing4 ,they occupy all the surface more quickly and surely than a single variety1 and the pasturage is better4 ,the character of the soil determines the character of the mixture in large measure4 ,when land can be well fitted1 a heavy seeding is best1 but the cost is nearly prohibitive for thin1 rough lands4 ,a brief description of the leading pasture grasses east of the semi-arid region1 and north of the gulf states1 is given3 ,blue-grass4--,no other pasture grass equals ,kentucky blue-grass wherever it thrives4 ,it makes a close sod1 preventing the growth of weeds and withstanding tramping1 and contains a high percentage of protein4 ,while it is best adapted to limestone soils1 it is grown with success on clay land outside of limestone areas4 ,it is slow in making a heavy sod1 as a rule1 and partly because the seeding is too light on account of low germination4 ,the rule is to seed with timothy and other grasses which furnish the greater part of the pasturage for two or three years4 ,when seeded alone1 #bj to #cj pounds of seed per acre should be used4 ,it may be seeded in the spring or fall1 and preferably in ,august or ,september4 ,timothy4--,in a mixture of pasture grasses timothy has a place wherever it thrives4 ,it is not naturally a pasture grass1 standing grazing rather poorly1 but it makes a large amount of feed quickly4 ,the grass is one of the poorest in protein1 and the pasturage gains much in quality when the timothy gives way to blue-grass1 as it will in two or three years if the latter has favoring soil conditions4 ,in most mixtures it is given a leading place4 ,it may be sown in the spring1 but preferably in the fall1 and #ae pounds of seed will be found satisfactory1 when seeded alone4 ,red-top4--,if red-top were as palatable to livestock as blue-grass1 it would have one of the most prominent places among our pasture grasses4 ,it is valuable anyway1 thriving where land is too acid for blue-grass or timothy1 or too thin4 ,it is adapted to wet land1 and yet is one of our surest grasses for dry and poor land4 ,it makes a sod that lasts well1 and yields better than most other grasses4 ,notwithstanding its lack in palatability1 it should be in all pasture mixtures for soils not in the best tilth4 ,when used alone1 #ae pounds of seed per acre should be sown4 ,the seeding may be made in spring or fall4 ,orchard ,grass4--,in most mixtures recommended for pasture orchard grass has a place1 but it should be a minor one4 ,it makes early growth in the spring1 which is a point in its favor4 ,it stands shade and also drouth better than some other grasses1 but is not at home in a poor or wet soil4 ,it grows in bunches1 and becomes unpalatable if not promptly grazed4 ,it needs crowding with other grasses when grown for pasturage4 ,when seeded alone for hay1 #cj pounds of seed per acre may be used4 ,other ,seeds4--,there are other grasses often recommended1 but they have no wide acceptance4 ,meadow fescue is a palatable grass that would be used more often in pasture mixtures if the seed were not high in price4 ,all land seeded for grazing should have some clover sown for sake of soil fertility4 ,the alsike remains longer than the red or mammoth1 and is better for undrained1 thin1 and acid soils4 ,yields and ,composition of ,grasses4--,the ,ohio station has compared the yields of various grasses and their composition4 ,the following table is arranged from its data1 as given in ,bulletin #bbe3 ---------------------------------------- ------ ,name ,average ,pounds ,pounds ,tons ,hay ,protein ,protein per ,acre per per ,acre ,hundred ---------------------------------------- ------ ,timothy #c4di #f4ch #bbc ,blue-grass #b4ah #aj4ab #bba ,red-top #b4ha #h4ec #bdj ,orchard grass #b4ai #g4ha #aga ,meadow fescue #b4aj #h4ig #ahh ---------------------------------------- ------ ,suggested ,mixtures for ,pastures4--,for ordinary conditions1 ,williams suggests the following mixture for an acre of land3 ,blue-grass #aj pounds ,timothy #f pounds ,red-top #f pounds ,orchard grass #d pounds ,red clover #d pounds ,alsike clover #b pounds ,for use on rather wet lands1 and especially off the limestone1 he suggests3 ,red-top #ab pounds ,blue-grass #h pounds ,timothy #d pounds ,alsike clover #d pounds ,hunt recommends the following as a basis1 to be modified to suit varying conditions3 ,timothy #ae pounds ,kentucky blue-grass #aj pounds ,meadow fescue #b pounds ,red clover #d pounds ,alsike clover #c pounds ,white clover #b pounds ,the ,cornell station recommends the following for good land3 ,timothy #h to #ab pounds ,kentucky blue-grass #d pounds ,meadow fescue #a to #d pounds ,orchard grass #a to #d pounds ,red clover #f pounds ,alsike clover #c pounds ,white clover #a to #b pounds ,for poor lands it recommends this mixture3 ,timothy #h to #ab pounds ,red-top #d pounds ,canadian blue-grass #d pounds ,red clover #f pounds ,alsike clover #c pounds ,white clover #a pound ,zinn1 of ,west ,virginia1 recommends the following mixture for permanent pasture3 ,timothy #d pounds ,red-top #d pounds ,orchard grass #d pounds ,kentucky blue-grass #g pounds ,red clover #b pounds ,alsike clover #b pounds ,white clover #a pound ,renewal of ,permanent ,pastures4--,there is much pasture land that could not be broken with profit for reseeding4 ,there is neither time1 nor money1 nor opportunity at the owner's hand for this purpose1 and often the loss of soil resulting from washing would be a bar if the labor would cost nothing4 ,the renewal of such grass lands can be made with profit if pernicious weeds are not in the way4 ,plant-food1 lime1 and grass seed are wanted4 ,a disk or sharp spike-tooth harrow1 used in early spring or after an ,august rain1 will give some fresh earth for covering the seeds4 ,a complete fertilizer always is needed4 ,the clovers should go into the seed-mixture used4 ,illustration3 ,sheep on a ,new ,york farm4 ,destroying ,bushes4--,the absence of sheep is evident in the appearance of the greater area of permanent pasture in the mountainous regions of the eastern states4 ,bushes1 briers1 and other weeds must be destroyed if pasture land would be kept in a profitable state1 and only the sheep or the goat is the fully efficient aid of man in caring for such land4 ,the presence of dogs makes the tariff on wool1 or lack of it1 a minor matter4 ,the cost to the country1 in indirect effect upon pastures only1 due to unrestrained dogs1 is incalculable4 ,the maintenance of good sods without sheep is a problem without solution in some regions4 ,close ,grazing4--,much harm results from turning livestock on pastures too early in the spring4 ,the ground is kept soft by spring rains1 and the hoofs cut the turf4 ,the grass needs its first leaves to enable it to make rapid growth1 and the first grass of spring is not nutritious4 ,close grazing is harmful1 exposing the soil to the sun and robbing it of moisture4 ,when winter comes1 there should be sufficient grass to serve as a mulch to the roots4 ,it acts like a coat of manure1 giving new life to the plants the next spring4 ,good sods are not easily or quickly made1 and when they have been secured on land unfit for the plow1 their value measures the value of the land itself4 ,,chapter ,x ,,the ,,cowpea ,a ,southern ,legume4--,the soils of the cold north are protected from leaching during the winter by the action of frost4 ,the plant-food is locked up safely for another year when nature ceases her work of production for the year4 ,farther south1 in the center of the corn belt1 there are leaching periods in fall and spring and oftentimes during the winter1 but winter wheat thrives and1 in ordinary crop-rotations1 covers much of the land that might otherwise lose plant-food4 ,as we pass from the northern to the southern states1 the preservation of soil fertility grows more difficult and at the same time the restoration of humus becomes easier4 ,the heat makes easy the change of organic matter to soluble forms1 and the rains cause waste1 but the climate favors plants that replace rapidly what is lost4 ,in the work of supplying land with fertility1 directly and indirectly1 the southern cowpea has an important place4 ,it is to the south what red clover is to the north1 and it overlaps part of the red-clover belt1 having a rightful place as far north as the ,ohio ,valley1 and portions of ,pennsylvania4 ,characteristics4--,the cowpea is closely related to the bean1 and is very unlike the ,canada pea1 which is a true pea1 thriving only in a cool climate4 ,the cowpea has been grown in the southern states over one hundred years1 and the acreage is large1 but it never has come into the full use it deserves4 ,being a legume1 it stores up nitrogen taken from the air1 and unlike red clover it makes its full growth within a short period of time4 ,it can grow on land too infertile for most kinds of valuable plants1 and on better land4 ,the vines can crowd out nearly all varieties of weeds4 ,the roots go to a good depth and are thickly covered with the nodules of nitrogen-gathering bacteria4 ,varieties4--,there are many varieties of the cowpea1 and confusion of names prevails1 although some stations have done good service in identification of individuals carrying a number of names4 ,the very quick-maturing varieties adapted to northern conditions do not make as much foliage as the rank-growing ones that require a relatively long season1 but some of them are heavy producers of seed4 ,there are varieties requiring six months of southern heat to bring them to maturity1 and some failures attending the introduction of the cowpea into more northern latitudes have been due to bad selection4 ,a few varieties reach maturity within two months of hot weather4 ,the trailing habit is affected by the soil1 the bunch varieties tending to trail when grown on fertile land4 ,when the crop is wanted for seed1 the peas that do not trail heavily will prove more satisfactory4 ,the selection of variety is a matter of latitude and purpose1 exactly as it is with corn4 ,fertilizing ,value4--,a heavy growth of the cowpea is worth as much to the soil as a good crop of red clover4 ,when the equivalent of two tons of hay is produced1 the roots and vines contain nearly as much plant-food as the roots and first crop of medium red clover that makes two tons of hay4 ,some analyses show a higher percentage of protein in cowpea hay than in clover hay1 and the experience of many stockmen indicates that such is the case4 ,the roots and stubble have somewhat less fertilizing power than in the case of the clover1 and all thin soils should have the entire plant1 or the manure from the hay1 saved without loss4 ,comparison is made on the basis of equal adaptability of soil and climate to clover and the cowpea4 ,going southward1 the cowpea has the advantage1 and northward the clover gains4 ,it is in the overlapping belt that both should be freely used4 ,the cowpea has distinct advantage over the clover in its ability to supply nitrogen and organic matter within a few months1 and in its adaptation to very poor soils where clover would not make much growth4 ,as a catch crop it has great value4 ,affecting ,physical ,condition4--,the cowpea has marked influence upon the physical condition of heavy soils1 even when the vines are not plowed down4 ,this is due in some degree to the roots1 and probably more to the mulching effect of the vines during their growth4 ,heavy soils are made much more mellow by the cowpea1 and when the crop is removed for hay1 the stubble-land is easily prepared for a seeding to grass or small grain4 ,when the growth is plowed down1 the soil may be made too loose for seeding to small grain1 but is put into prime condition for a tilled crop4 ,planting4--,the land should be fitted as it is for corn4 ,light1 sandy soils require little preparation1 and too often the seeding is made in a woefully careless manner1 the chief dependence being placed upon sufficiently deep covering to insure germination4 ,the ground should be fitted as well as it is for a cash crop1 being made fine and smooth4 ,a grain drill makes the seeding in a satisfactory manner1 and the seed may be drilled solid or in rows for cultivation4 ,when the crop is grown as a fertilizer or for hay1 solid drilling is good1 and about five pecks of seed gives a good stand of plants if peas are sound4 ,much cowpea seed is low in germination power1 and the buyer should exercise caution4 ,when a seed crop is wanted1 two to three pecks of seed per acre1 placed in drills #bh to #cb inches apart1 make an excellent seeding1 as cultivation can be given4 ,the amount of seed varies with the variety4 ,in northern latitudes a warm soil is to be desired1 and cultivation gives better results when a seeding to wheat will be made on the pea-stubble4 ,there is evidence that the cowpea can make a heavy growth in soils too deficient in lime for red clover1 and it gained its first prominence in southern ,ohio on land that was failing to grow clover4 ,it is the plant of adversity as well as prosperity1 adding rich organic matter to thin soils1 but making its full returns under better conditions4 ,lime applications on acid soils give increase in yields4 ,its one absolute requirement is heat1 and in a cold summer its northern limit is markedly depressed4 ,inoculation4--,the inoculation of the soil with cowpea bacteria is necessary to best results in most regions new to the plant4 ,self-inoculation is quicker in the cowpea than in alfalfa because the vines carry some soil on them1 and thus the dust in the seed crop may be rich in bacteria4 ,however1 most new seedings of the cowpea do not show a large number of nodules on the plant roots1 and inoculation pays4 ,in some cases it makes the difference between failure and success4 ,two hundred pounds of soil from an old field should be well harrowed into each acre of land when preparing for a cowpea seeding in a new region4 ,the soils of the southern states contain the bacteria just as the states in the clover belt are supplied with clover bacteria4 ,fertilizers4--,the light soils of ,maryland1 ,new ,jersey1 and the southern states are not naturally rich in phosphoric acid or potash4 ,the cowpea can draw its nitrogen from the air1 but on all thin land it pays to use #bjj to #cjj pounds of acid phosphate and #ej pounds of muriate of potash per acre for this crop which should have a luxuriant growth for the soil's benefit4 ,such use of fertilizers is more profitable than their use on the crop which follows4 ,harvesting with ,livestock4--,when the cowpea is made into hay1 there is always danger that the most of the plant-food contained in it never will get back to the soil on account of a careless handling of the manure4 ,the practice of pasturing with cows and hogs is excellent4 ,the feed is rich1 and the manure is left on the ground4 ,there is a saving of labor4 ,if the full fertilizing value is wanted for the soil1 the crop should be plowed down4 ,the trailing varieties form a tangled mass that cannot be handled by an ordinary breaking-plow1 but a stalk-cutter1 run in the direction the plow will follow1 makes plowing possible4 ,pasturing with cattle and hogs sufficiently to reduce the growth so that a plow can be used is good practice4 ,the ,cowpea for ,hay4--,the hay is one of our most palatable feeding-stuffs4 ,livestock may reject it the first time it is put into the manger1 but a taste for it is quickly acquired1 and soon it is eaten greedily4 ,the high content of protein makes it exceptionally valuable for young animals and milk cows1 and the manure contains a high percentage of nitrogen4 ,the difficulty in making the hay is a drawback1 but this is over-rated4 ,while rain discolors the vines and makes them unattractive in appearance1 the hay remains more palatable and nutritious than good timothy1 if the leaves are not lost in curing4 ,when the first pods turn yellow1 the crop should be harvested4 ,the vines can be left in the swath until the top leaves begin to burn and then be put into windrows with a sulky hay-rake4 ,the windrows should be small1 the rake merely serving to invert half the vines upon the other half1 bringing new surface to the sun4 ,after another day of curing1 the windrows should be broken up into bunches no larger than can be pitched upon the wagon by a workman1 thus saving the trouble of disentangling the vines4 ,if rain comes1 the bunches should be inverted the following day4 ,in dry1 hot weather the curing proceeds rapidly1 while in cooler latitudes or cloudy weather the curing may require a week4 ,the chief point is to prevent undue exposure of the leaves to the sun1 and this is accomplished by the turning4 ,the hay will mold in the mow if not thoroughly well cured1 unless placed in a large body in a deep1 close mow that excludes the air4 ,some farmers use the latter method successfully1 but the experimenter with the cowpea usually will fail1 and should prefer thorough field curing1 at the risk of some damage from rain and sun4 ,the leaves are the most nutritious part of the plant1 excepting the seed4 ,as a ,catch ,crop4--,a leading use of the cowpea is that of a catch crop1 either between other crops or in a growing crop1 such as corn4 ,early maturing varieties can be brought in between main crops of the rotation in warm latitudes4 ,the growth prevents the leaching of plant-food1 shades the ground1 adds nitrogen to the soil1 smothers weeds1 and produces material that is valuable as feed for livestock or an addition of organic matter to the soil4 ,when the time that can be devoted to the crop is short1 an early variety should be selected because its vines are far more valuable to the soil than an equal volume of a rank-growing variety that is not near maturity4 ,illustration3 ,the cowpea seeded at the last cultivation of corn in the ,great ,kanawha ,valley1 ,w4 ,va4 ,if this legume were used whenever opportunity afforded along the southern border of our northern states1 and throughout the south1 the faded color of soils1 resulting from leaching rains1 would be replaced by the darker colors that mark the presence of rich organic matter4 ,it is one of nature's best allies in the maintenance of soil fertility4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,other ,,legumes ,,and ,,cereal ,,catch ,,crops ,the ,soybean4--,the soybean is gaining a place among the valuable legumes of the ,united ,states1 and the acreage is increasing as its merits become known to all4 ,its northern limits of profitable production are much farther north than those of the cowpea1 and approach those of corn4 ,in the south it is gaining friends4 ,some of the advantages of the soybean over the cowpea1 as found by the ,tennessee station1 may be stated as follows3 #a4 ,greater seed production in case of fertile soils4 #b4 ,less sensitiveness to cold in spring and fall4 #c4 ,greater feeding value of the seed4 ,on the other hand1 a stand of cowpea plants is surer in the case of soils that crust1 and germination runs higher4 ,its climbing habit makes it better suited for growing with corn for forage4 ,a less amount of leaves is lost in curing4 ,fertility ,value4--,there are so many varieties of the soybean and the cowpea1 and adaptation to soil and climate varies so widely1 that a fair comparison is difficult to make4 ,in cool latitudes the soybean is recognized as distinctly more profitable1 making larger yields of vines and of seed4 ,where adaptation is equal1 the cowpea makes a slightly larger growth of vines for hay1 but the soybean gives a much richer lot of seed for use as grain4 ,when soil fertility is the chief consideration1 the adaptation of climate and soil should decide our choice between these two legumes4 ,there is no serious difference where conditions for each are equally good4 ,in cool latitudes the soybean should be chosen4 ,in the ,ohio ,valley it is usually to be preferred4 ,the greater part of the organic matter and the plant-food is stored in the vines and seed4 ,feeding ,value4--,the soybean makes a rich hay1 surpassing clover1 but it is coarse1 and its unattractive appearance has caused many farmers to condemn it without trial4 ,livestock eat it greedily1 and it is one of our richest coarse feeds4 ,the curing is more difficult than in the case of the cowpea because the leaves drop early1 and the plants must be harvested before they approach maturity4 ,probably the large yield of rich seed is the most important feature of the soybean crop4 ,a ton of the seed contains as much protein as a ton of old-process oil meal1 and three fourths as much as a ton of cottonseed meal4 ,a good crop of the soybean will yield #ah to #bj bushels of seed1 and as the nitrogen may be obtained chiefly from the air1 the protein from this crop will come to be a leading substitute for purchased protein feeds4 ,varieties4--,there are many varieties of the soybean1 and their characteristics are modified by climatic conditions4 ,each region will find the varieties best suited to its purposes by tests4 ,when hay is wanted1 the variety should have fine stems and a leafy habit of growth4 ,it may not be a good producer of seed1 or able to hold the seed unshattered4 ,the harvesting should be done when some lower leaves turn brown and before the pods are half filled4 ,this stage of maturity should be reached early enough in the fall to insure some hot days for making the hay1 and to permit harvesting in time for seeding to wheat4 ,the preparation for wheat is made with the harrow and roller or plank drag4 ,when the soybean is grown for seed1 the variety should hold the peas without undue shattering1 and an erect grower is more easily handled without loss of the crop4 ,varieties for regions will vary1 as do varieties of corn1 according to climate4 ,the ,planting4--,early varieties of the soybean in the south can be planted as late as mid-summer1 but farther north a profitable crop requires nearly all of the summer heat4 ,the planting may be made soon after the usual time of planting corn1 or whenever the ground has become warm4 ,the preparation of the soil should be more thorough than that often given the cowpea4 ,solid drilling of five pecks of seed per acre is satisfactory when the crop is for fertilizing purposes only1 and gives an excellent hay on land free of weeds4 ,when the crop is wanted for hay1 however1 wheat usually will follow1 and it is much better to plant in rows and to give two or three cultivations so that the ground may be easily prepared for the wheat4 ,a seed crop should be grown in rows4 ,three pecks of seed in rows #bh inches apart is the usual amount4 ,the soybean does not come up through a crusted surface as well as most other plants1 and planting should not be made immediately before a rain4 ,the plants are tender and easily injured by use of a weeder4 ,the fertilizer requirement is like that of the cowpea4 ,an application of #bjj pounds of acid phosphate per acre should be given1 and the addition of #ej pounds of muriate of potash often pays4 ,harvesting4--,the soybean is not an easy crop to handle without loss4 ,when grown for seed1 the tendency of the pods to split and to drop the seed compels early cutting1 and that makes curing more difficult4 ,the mower is the only practical harvester on most farms1 and the swath must be turned out of the way of the horses to save tramping4 ,a side-delivery attachment can do the work4 ,this is the best practice when cut for hay4 ,when used for mixing with corn in a silo1 the self-binder is satisfactory4 ,the hay and seed crop must have thorough field-curing in windrow and bunches1 and the harvest comes in a season when cold rains may prevail4 ,this disadvantage of one of our most valuable crops is to be taken into account1 but it will not prevent rapid increase in acreage as the merit of the soybean becomes known4 ,the ,canada ,pea4--,among field peas there are many varieties1 but the one chiefly grown in the ,united ,states under the general name of the ,canada pea is the ,golden ,vine4 ,it makes a green forage or hay that is rich in protein4 ,usually it is grown with oats1 giving a hay nearly as nutritious as that of clover4 ,the crop is adapted to cold latitudes1 and the planting should be made as early in the spring as possible4 ,fall-plowing of the land is to be advised on this account4 ,a good method of seeding is to drill in six pecks of the pea seed to a depth of four inches1 and then to drill in six pecks of oats4 ,the crop should be cut for hay when the oats are in the milk stage4 ,at this time the peas are forming pods4 ,the hay is not easily made1 but is specially valuable for dairy cows4 ,there is no profitable place for the ,canada pea in crop-rotations farther south than the true oat-crop belt1 except as a green-forage crop4 ,the soybean and red clover have greater usefulness in the center of the corn belt4 ,vetch4--,a variety of vetch known as winter1 sand1 or hairy vetch is coming into great usefulness as a catch crop4 ,it is a winter annual1 and being a legume1 it has special value as a fertilizing crop4 ,it is more hardy than crimson clover1 and is grown as far north as winter wheat4 ,the seeding is made in ,august in the north1 and when grown for hay or seed1 it needs rye or wheat to hold it up4 ,rye and vetch make a rich and early green forage crop1 and the proportion in which they are seeded varies widely in practice4 ,six pecks of rye and #ae pounds of vetch make an excellent seeding per acre4 ,when grown for seed1 one to two pecks of rye and #bj to #cj pounds of vetch may be used4 ,the rye can be fairly well separated from the vetch by use of a fanning-mill or an endless belt of felt so inclined that the round vetch seed will roll down1 while the rye sticks to the felt and is carried over4 ,vetch is excellent as a fertilizing crop1 adding a great amount of nitrogen to the soil when plowed down in ,may4 ,if the seed were cheap1 its use would become much more common4 ,thirty pounds should be used when seeding alone after summer crops or in corn4 ,farmers should produce the seed for their farms1 and use it freely4 ,when sown for seed1 ,september first is a good date for the north4 ,the seed matures in ,june4 ,as vetch matures with wheat1 it may easily become a weed on farms devoted largely to small grain1 but it is not to be feared where tilled crops and sods are the chief consideration4 ,inoculation is needed for best results1 as in the case with other legumes new to a region4 ,sweet ,clover4--,much interest has been aroused within recent years in sweet clover1 a legume that formerly was regarded as a more or less pernicious weed4 ,its friends regard it as a promising forage crop1 but too little is definitely known to permit its advocacy here except as a soil-builder in the case of poor land that is not too deficient in lime to permit good growth4 ,experiments have shown that a taste for this bitter plant can be acquired by livestock1 and it is nearly as nutritious as alfalfa when cut before it becomes coarse and woody4 ,it is a strong grower1 sending its roots well down into the subsoil1 and its great ability to secure nitrogen from the air enables it to make a very heavy growth of top4 ,the yield in forage usually exceeds that of the clovers4 ,its most peculiar characteristic is its ability to thrive in a poor1 compact soil that contains little humus4 ,it may be seen in thrifty condition on roadsides and in waste places that seemingly would not support other plants4 ,laying aside all consideration of its possibilities as a forage crop1 it will come into greater popularity as a soil-builder on thin land4 ,it is found usually on land of limestone formation1 and shares with other legumes a liking for lime1 but it has been grown successfully in regions that are known to have a lime deficiency4 ,there are two biennial varieties and one annual4 ,the biennial having white blossoms is the one most commonly seen1 but the smaller variety with yellow blossoms is more leafy and palatable4 ,the larger variety is the better fertilizer4 ,the seed does not germinate readily1 and #bj to #cj pounds is used per acre4 ,the soil should be compact1 and the seeding can be made in the spring with a cover crop1 or in ,august by itself4 ,inoculation is necessary if the right bacteria are not present4 ,soil from an alfalfa field will serve for inoculation4 ,an effort should be made to grow sweet clover on all infertile hillsides that are lying bare4 ,it stops washing and paves the way for a sod of nutritious grasses4 ,rye as a ,cover ,crop4--,as has been stated elsewhere1 the plant that stores nitrogen in its organic matter is most desirable1 but the greater part of the soil's stock of humus did not come through legumes4 ,among the good cover crops is rye1 both on account of its ability to grow under adverse conditions and because it produces a large amount of material for the soil4 ,when seeded in the early fall1 its roots fill the soil the following spring1 and the tops furnish all the material that can be plowed down with safety4 ,in northern latitudes it is the most dependable of all winter cover crops1 making some growth in poorly prepared seed-beds and on thin land4 ,the most value is obtained from early seedings1 thus securing a good fall growth4 ,two bushels of seed are sufficient in good ground seeded ten weeks before winter begins1 but two or three pecks should be added to this amount if the rye can be given only a few weeks of growth before frost locks up the soil4 ,rye can grow in warm spells of winter1 and starts early in the spring4 ,it uses up some available fertility that might otherwise be lost1 and releases it when it rots in the ground4 ,when to plow ,down4--,if rye has made a good growth before spring1 the roots run deeper than the plow goes1 and holds the soil much like a grass sod4 ,in such a case the plowing may be made early in the spring without regard to the rye1 though organic matter increases rapidly day by day if the rye is permitted to grow4 ,as a rule1 it is safest to plow down before the plants are eighteen inches high4 ,they dry land out rapidly1 and any mass of matter in the bottom of the furrow interferes with the rise of water from the subsoil4 ,when the land is wanted for oats or corn1 a jointer should be used on the plow to insure burying all the crop4 ,buckwheat4--,an excellent crop for green-manuring is buckwheat4 ,it has such unusual ability to grow in a poor soil that the farmer who makes free use of it as a grain crop never boasts of acreage planted1 assuming that his land will not be highly regarded if known to be devoted chiefly to buckwheat4 ,it does not withstand heat well1 especially from period of blossoming to maturity1 and therefore is restricted to cool latitudes4 ,when grown for grain1 it usually is not planted until ,july1 and matures a crop in a shorter period than any other grain4 ,it is sensitive to frost1 but may be planted as soon as the ground is warm1 and will give a good body of matter for plowing down within eight weeks4 ,the root growth is not extensive1 but the crop leaves naturally heavy soils more mellow1 and it is an excellent cleansing crop for weed-infested fields4 ,it makes a less heavy growth than rye1 but can be used at a time of the year that rye would fail4 ,there is time in a single season to grow two crops of buckwheat for green-manuring1 turning the first crop down when the blossoms appear4 ,oats4--,when a fall growth is wanted for the soil1 and it is preferred that the plants be dead in the spring1 oats make a good catch crop4 ,thin land which is wanted for seeding to wheat and grass in the fall1 or for timothy and clover seeding in ,august1 may use oats as a spring cover crop4 ,a large amount of humus-making material may be gained by this means4 ,the only danger lies in the effect upon soil moisture4 ,the oat crop uses up the water freely in its growth1 and when permitted to form heads before being plowed down1 the mass of material in the bottom of the furrow does not rot quickly enough to induce the rise of water from the subsoil4 ,the land should be plowed early enough to permit a solid seed-bed to be made4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,stable ,,manure ,livestock ,farming4--,the fertility of the soil is most safely guarded in regions devoted to livestock farming4 ,selling everything off the farm is a practice associated in the public mind with soil poverty4 ,it is a rule with few exceptions that the absence of livestock on the farm is an index of gradual reduction in the productive power of the land4 ,generally speaking1 the farmers who feed the most of their crops on the farm are maintaining fertility1 and those who do not feed their crops on the farm have been making drafts upon the soil's stores of available plant-food that are evidenced in a reduction of yields4 ,these statements will have the assent of all careful observers4 ,the inference has been that the maintenance of fertility requires the return to the land of all the manure that would result from feeding its crops on the farm4 ,we know that by such feeding we can return to the fields at least four fifths of all the plant-food taken out by the crops1 and we loosely reason that such a scheme is demanded by nature4 ,the maintenance of fertility involves good arithmetic1 and a plant must have certain weights of mineral elements at command before it can grow1 but it is not true that the productive power of land is chiefly dependent upon the return to it in manure of all the fertility removed by its crops4 ,if this were true1 meat and other animal products would be the sole food supply of the world's markets4 ,illustration3 ,texas calves on an ,ohio farm4 ,the ,place for ,cattle4--,there are general trends in human practice that cannot be changed by man4 ,a change in human diet that makes the percentage of meat lower will not come through propaganda1 but there are forces at work that will restrict the consumption of meat by the individual4 ,the increase in population makes heavier demand for food4 ,armsby has shown that the fattening steer returns to man for food only #c per cent of the energy value of the corn consumed by it1 and in pork-production this percentage scarcely rises to #af4 ,this is the reason meat-making animals give way before increase in population in congested countries4 ,their office becomes1 more and more1 the conversion of products inedible to man to edible products4 ,in our country their number will increase1 doubtless1 for a long period of time1 finding their places more surely on eastern farms rather than on western ranches4 ,they must find the cheaper land1 and that is no longer confined to the west4 ,they must be where coarse materials1 inedible to man1 are found1 and that is on eastern as well as on western farms4 ,their office will not be the conversion of crops into manure1 but the conversion of coarse materials into human food in the form of meat or milk4 ,this is the trend1 and while the consummation may happily be far in the future1 its consideration helps us to an appreciation of the facts regarding nature's provision for maintaining the productiveness of the soil4 ,sales off the ,farm4--,the day is now here when the major portion of human food must be provided in grain and vegetables and fruit1 and the demand for hay and grain for animals off the farm is very large4 ,fiber products likewise must be supplied4 ,the draft upon the soil is heavy1 but it must be good farm practice to supply bread and vegetables and fruit to the #gj per cent of our population that is not on farms4 ,the great majority of farmers do not feed all their crops to livestock1 and the amount of food-stuffs1 for human beings and animals1 that is now going off the farms is none too great4 ,many farmers who incline to believe that they are safely guarding fertility by feeding the most of their crops are not returning to the fields one third of the plant-food that their crops remove4 ,there is no virtue in feeding when the manure is permitted to waste away4 ,the losses in stable and barnyard1 the wastes from bad distribution by animals1 and the sales from the farm of some crops1 animals1 and milk1 lead to the estimate that one half of the farms on which livestock is kept do not give to the fields in the form of manure over #cj per cent of the fertility taken out of them by crops4 ,this estimate1 for which no accurate data is possible1 probably is too high4 ,the sales of food for man and animal are a necessity1 and the scheme of farming involving such sales is right1 provided the farmer makes use of other supplies of fertility4 ,the area devoted to such sales will grow greater because human needs are imperative4 ,livestock will become more and more a means of working over the material that man cannot eat--the grass1 hay1 stalks1 by-products in manufacture1 and coarse grains4 ,the demand for meat and milk will lead to careful conversion of material into this form of food1 and the animals on eastern farms will increase in number for a time1 while sales of grain and vegetables grow greater4 ,the draft upon soil fertility through sales must increase because every pound of material sold from the farm carries plant-food in it4 ,the ,value of ,manure4--,it is not possible to put a commercial valuation upon farm manures that may be a sure guide to any farmer4 ,the value depends upon what the individual can get out of it in crops and improved soil conditions4 ,it is rather idle to say that the annual product of a horse in the form of manure is #cj1 or more or less1 even when an analysis shows that the nitrogen1 phosphoric acid1 and potash contained in it are worth that sum when valued at the market prices of those plant constituents4 ,if the total amount of fertility found in the voidings of all the animals of the farm were provided in a pile of commercial fertilizer containing the same amount of each plant constituent1 its worth to the farmer would depend upon his ability to convert all that fertility into crops at a profit4 ,there are farmers so situated in respect to soils1 crops1 and markets that they can make a good profit from an investment of #cj in the total liquid and solid voidings of a horse for a year4 ,on the other hand1 there are many who would fail4 ,the values usually given are relative and suggestive4 ,they are aids in forming judgment4 ,actual value on the farm depends much on the man4 ,the ,content of ,manure4--,when the crops of a farm are fed1 the manure contains nearly all the plant-food that went originally into the crops4 ,in the case of idle work-horses on a maintenance ration1 the manure contains practically all the plant-food4 ,cows giving milk remove some fertility1 and a growing calf or colt may take out #cj per cent4 ,there is some waste beyond control1 but when manure is made on tight floors with good bedding1 and is drawn to the field fast as made1 on the average it carries back to the soil fully four fifths of the plant-food that existed in the feed4 ,disregarding all cash valuations for the moment1 here is an index of value that should be sufficient in itself to encourage the feeding of crops on the farm and the careful saving of the manure4 ,when one can market his crops to animals on the farm at their cash value1 and at the same time retain for his fields four fifths of all the fertility1 he is like a manufacturer who can use much of his raw material over and over again4 ,the value is in the manure1 and full appreciation is lacking only because a majority of farms do not provide for careful saving of its valuable constituents4 ,relative ,values4--,the plant-food content of manure is determined chiefly by the feed4 ,the animals add nothing3 they subtract4 ,the kind of animals consuming the feed does not affect materially the value of the manure made from it1 if the animals are mature and not giving milk4 ,the manures from the various kinds of animals differ in value per ton because the feeds differ in character and the manure varies in percentage of water4 ,on an average1 however1 the total annual product of manure from farm animals1 per #ajjj pounds of live weight1 does not vary widely in value4 ,the rich protein feeds given the cow1 and the heavy feeding1 more than make amends for the fertility that goes into the milk1 and her annual product1 per #ajjj pounds of live weight1 may exceed in value that of the horse by #be per cent4 ,this is likewise true of the pig1 figured on the #ajjj-pound basis1 while in the case of the sheep the value1 per #ajjj pounds of live weight1 is near that of the horse4 ,illustration3 ,in the fertile ,miami ,valley1 ,ohio4 ,these variations are not wide enough to have great importance to the livestock farmer4 ,the manure represents to him four fifths of all the fertility that was contained by the feed he gave the various animals4 ,they added no plant-food1 and they took away only a fraction that was not large4 ,they converted the crops into a form of plant-food that either is available or can become so quickly enough1 and in addition to the nitrogen1 phosphoric acid1 and potash that would have a high valuation in a commercial fertilizer1 there is a body of organic matter that affects the physical condition of the soil favorably4 ,the manure also promotes the multiplication of friendly soil bacteria4 ,its possibilities are so great that the inference of many farmers that no successful agriculture can be maintained without it is very natural4 ,amount of ,manure4--,vivian states that the amount of manure that may be made from feed can be determined by multiplying the total weight of dry matter in the feed by #c4 ,this assumes that bedding will be used in sufficient amount to absorb the urine1 and that will require material containing one fourth as much dry matter as there is in the feed4 ,when the amount of hay and grain is known1 and the dry matter in all succulent feed is estimated1 the total product of manure in tons can be arrived at with fair accuracy4 ,analysis of ,manure4--,as has been stated1 the content of the manure must depend chiefly upon the character of the feed4 ,we are accustomed to combine feeding stuffs in differing proportions for horses1 cows1 pigs1 and sheep4 ,van ,slyke names the following approximate percentages of plant-food constituents in fresh excrements of farm animals1 the solid and liquid being mixed3 ---------------------------------------- -- ,animal ,per ,cent ,per ,cent ,per ,cent ,nitrogen ,phosphoric ,potash ,acid ---------------------------------------- -- ,horse #j4gj #j4be #j4ee ,cow #j4fj #j4ae #j4de ,pig #j4ej #j4ce #j4dj ,sheep #j4ie #j4ce #a4jj ,hen #a4jj #j4hj #j4dj ---------------------------------------- -- ,he estimates that one ton of average mixed stable manure1 inclusive of absorbents1 contains approximately #aj pounds of nitrogen1 #e pounds of phosphoric acid1 and #aj pounds of potash4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,care ,,of ,,stable ,,manure ,common ,source of ,losses4--,when we bear in mind that four fifths of all the fertility removed from the land in the grains and coarse stuffs fed on the farm may be recovered from the animals and returned to the soil1 we can appreciate the consideration that the care of manure should have on every farm4 ,the careless methods that prevail in most sections of the country are an inheritance from the day when soils were new and full of fertility4 ,these methods continue partly through a lack of confidence in the statements that the liquid portion of animal excrements1 in average mixed stable manure1 has nearly as great value as the solid portion4 ,if this fact were accepted1 many of the losses would be stopped4 ,another reason for continuance of careless methods is failure to appreciate that the soluble portion of manure is the highly valuable part1 and that leaching in the barnyard carries away value more rapidly than decrease in volume of manure indicates4 ,the widely demonstrated facts do not have effective acceptance1 and enormous loss continues4 ,thorne found that manure placed in flat piles in the barnyard in ,january1 and allowed to lie until ,april1 lost one third of its value4 ,under the conditions prevailing on many farms the loss suffered by exposure of manure is far greater4 ,illustration3 ,concrete stable floors4 ,caring for ,liquid ,manure4--,if all manure were in solids1 one great difficulty in caring for it would not exist4 ,the nitrogen is the most valuable element in manure1 and two fifths of all of it in horse manure is found in the liquid4 ,in the case of cow manure1 over one half of the nitrogen is found in the liquid4 ,more than this1 a pound of nitrogen in the liquid has greater value than a pound in the solid because of its nearly immediate availability4 ,there is only one good way of caring for the liquids1 and that is by use of absorbents on tight floors or in tight gutters4 ,american farmers find cisterns and similar devices nuisances4 ,the first consideration is to make the floor water-tight1 and clay will not do this4 ,the virtues of puddled clay have had many advocates1 but examination of clay floors after use will show that valuable constituents of the manure have been escaping4 ,the soils of the country cannot afford the loss1 and careful farm management requires acceptance of the truth that a tight floor is as necessary to the stable as to the granary4 ,the difficulty in supplying a sufficient amount of absorbents on tight floors only emphasizes the loss where floors are not water-tight4 ,use of ,preservatives4--,the use of land-plaster in stables helps to prevent loss of the nitrogen-content through fermentation4 ,its value does not lie chiefly in physical action as an absorbent1 but the beneficial results come through chemical action4 ,the volatile part of the manure is changed into a more stable form4 ,in recent years this preservative has fallen somewhat into disuse1 as acid phosphate contains like material and also supplies phosphoric acid to the manure4 ,the phosphoric acid content of stable manure is too low for all soils1 and the reenforcement by means of acid phosphate would be good practice even if there were no preservative effect4 ,the use of fifty pounds of acid phosphate to each ton of manure will assist materially in preserving the nitrogen1 and the gain in phosphoric acid will repay all the cost4 ,it should be used daily on the moist manure1 as made in the stable1 and preferably just before bedding is added1 so that the phosphate will not come into direct contact with the feet of the animals4 ,some stockmen prefer the use of acid phosphate and kainit mixed half-and-half4 ,the latter is a carrier of potash1 and is a preservative of nitrogen4 ,the use of ground rock-phosphate in stables is coming into use in some localities1 chiefly through the recommendation that it be mixed with manure to secure availability of its own plant-food4 ,it is not a preservative except in so far as it acts physically as an absorbent4 ,it should not displace acid phosphate in stables1 the preservation of nitrogen in the manure being the vital matter4 ,spreading as ,made4--,when farm conditions make it feasible to draw and spread manure fast as made1 the danger of heavy loss in storing is escaped4 ,there is evidence that no appreciable escape of fertility occurs when manure is spread on land that is not covered with ice4 ,the phosphoric acid and potash are minerals1 and leach into the soil4 ,the nitrogen does not change into a gas in any appreciable amount when spread over the surface1 and it likewise leaches into the soil4 ,there are soils in which the decay of the organic matter would have a more beneficial effect than the rotting upon the surface1 it may be1 but the mulching effect of the manure is valuable4 ,there should be no doubt that the loss from manure is kept to a minimum when it goes directly to the soil4 ,in some latitudes the snow and ice oftentimes prevent spreading1 or make it inadvisable1 and in many farm schemes it is desirable to hold manure for special fields and crops4 ,some means of storing manure must be provided in these instances4 ,the ,covered ,yard4--,if the possible value of manure were realized1 provision for its care would be made as promptly and surely as provision for the care of a harvested crop4 ,there are only three conditions that must be provided in order that manure may be preserved without much loss4 ,the manure must be protected from leaching rains1 it must be kept moist1 and air must be excluded4 ,the exposure of stable manure to the processes of fermentation and leaching1 produces a waste that is believed to amount to several hundreds of millions of dollars in the ,united ,states annually4 ,the day will come when no farmer will be willing to share heavily in a loss from this source1 but will either spread manure fast as made or provide a roof for the stored manure4 ,an absolutely tight floor is not so great a necessity as it is in the stable1 because the amount of moisture is under control1 but many farmers prefer to make concrete floors for the manure-shed and thus to guard against any loss from leaching4 ,the chief cost may be confined to the roof4 ,a better plan is to inclose three sides1 making them so tight that all drafts will be prevented1 and to use the shed as a place of exercise for cows or other livestock4 ,we have learned within recent years that such an inclosure is more healthful and comfortable for cattle than stalls in an inclosed building1 no matter how cold the weather may be4 ,the fresh air without any drafts1 and the liberty of movement1 are needed4 ,this shed should be connected with the stable1 and on its floor the manure from the stables may be spread daily4 ,it should be scattered evenly over the surface1 and the mass can be kept firm by the tramping of the animals4 ,it may be necessary to add some water at intervals to keep the mass sufficiently moist4 ,the water excludes air and assists in holding harmful fermentation in check4 ,harmless ,fermentation4--,there is a kind of fermentation in manure that goes on in the absence of air4 ,it is due to bacteria that break up the organic matter1 producing rotted manure4 ,this is not attended by much loss1 and proceeds beneath the surface of the moist and packed mass4 ,manure properly controlled under a roof goes into prime condition for spreading later in the season4 ,the only danger is neglect1 and especially when the livestock is removed to the pasture fields in the spring4 ,if no water is added from time to time1 hot fermentation replaces the harmless kind because air can penetrate through the bed of manure4 ,compactness and moisture can save the plant-food with small loss throughout the summer1 and a body of good manure is available when needed for top-dressing land in the summer4 ,rotted ,manure4--,mixed stable manure contains in a ton as many pounds of potash as it does of nitrogen1 and yet we speak of it as a highly nitrogenous fertilizer4 ,when fresh manure has suffered no loss of the liquid part1 much of its nitrogen is almost immediately available4 ,the nitrogen in the urine is in soluble forms1 and fermentation quickly occurs4 ,when manure is used on grass1 it cannot be too fresh1 as the immediate action of the nitrogen is desirable4 ,vegetable growers often prefer a slower and more continuous action1 and the rotting of manure under right conditions changes the liquid nitrogen into compounds that act more slowly4 ,the solid material in horse manure contains less water than that of the cow1 and this absence of water permits quick fermentation when air is present4 ,the use of large quantities of such manure per acre is not liked by vegetable-growers4 ,rotting under control in a covered barnyard has a beneficial effect for this reason when a hot manure is not wanted4 ,the covered shed costs some money1 and there is a loss estimated at #aj per cent under the best conditions1 but when manure cannot be drawn fast as made1 there is compensation in improved condition for certain soils and crops4 ,composts4--,the compost1 involving the handling of manure and soil1 has no rightful place on the average farm4 ,the gardener or trucker using great quantities of manure per acre must let some of the fermentation occur before he incorporates it with the soil1 or harm will result4 ,he wants reduction in volume1 and such change in character that it will add to the retentive character of the soil respecting moisture instead of drying the soil out4 ,he can afford all the labor of piling the manure with layers of sods or other material1 and the turning to secure mixing4 ,it is his business to watch it so that loss will not occur4 ,the farmer uses manure in smaller quantities per acre4 ,probably all his fields need the full action of the organic matter in its rotting4 ,the percentage of humus-making material is low4 ,the place for fresh manure is on the land1 when this is feasible4 ,the covered shed is a device for holding manure with least possible loss when spreading cannot be done1 or a supply must be carried over for land in the summer4 ,the gain in condition is only incidental1 and an advantage chiefly to vegetables4 ,the composting of manure by gardeners is not a practice to be copied on most farms4 ,poultry ,manure4--,the value of poultry manure often is overestimated4 ,its content of plant-food is one half greater than that of horse manure1 ton for ton4 ,the availability of the nitrogen is so great that returns from applications are immediate1 and give the impression of greater strength than is possessed4 ,its availability makes it excellent for plants that need forcing4 ,for such use it needs reenforcing only with acid phosphate1 but as a general manure it should have the addition of potash4 ,acid phosphate should be used in the poultry-house to prevent loss of nitrogen1 which escapes quickly on account of rapid fermentation1 and to supply phosphoric acid4 ,thirty pounds of acid phosphate to each #ajj pounds of the manure gives a mixture containing one pound of nitrogen1 three pounds of phosphoric acid1 and two fifths of a pound of potash4 ,the addition of four pounds of muriate of potash makes the mixture a well-balanced and effective fertilizer when used at the rate of #ejj to #ajjj pounds per acre4 ,dry muck or loam should be mixed with it to serve as an absorbent and to give good physical condition4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,stable ,,manure ,controlling ,factors4--,the farm supply of stable manure is a carrier of plant-food1 returning to the soil four fifths of all the fertility removed in the crops fed1 but it is much more than this4 ,land which receives only plant-food1 as may be the case when fertility is supplied in commercial fertilizers1 loses good physical condition4 ,organic matter is needed for maintenance of physical condition1 the retention of soil moisture1 the freeing of inert minerals in the land1 and the promotion of bacterial life in the soil4 ,no small share of the value of a ton of manure is due to its organic matter4 ,this is a factor in the problem when deciding what disposition of the manure will pay best4 ,one field may be in condition to respond fully to the use of commercial fertilizers1 while another is too deficient in humus for best results4 ,some crops are more insistent upon supplies of organic matter than others4 ,again1 the disposition of the manure depends upon the supply4 ,if most crops are fed on the farm1 the manure is a leading source of fertility for all fields and crops1 and may be used once or twice in the crop-rotation on every field4 ,if the manure is in small amount1 due to a scheme of farming involving the growing of crops for market1 the function of the manure may be only to encourage the starting of sods1 in which legumes are a leading factor4 ,direct ,use for ,corn4--,the practice of spreading manure on grass land for corn is based upon much good experience4 ,the custom is nearly universal in regions where corn is an important part of a four1 five1 or six years' rotation1 and all of the corn and hay is fed on the farm4 ,this disposition of the manure permits the handling at times when other work does not rush4 ,the supply carried over from the spring is put on in late summer1 and the manure made in the early part of the winter can be drawn to the field fast as made4 ,manure spread immediately before the sod is broken is less effective1 as no leaching of soluble elements into the surface soil occurs before the coarse material is buried in the bottom of the furrow4 ,illustration3 ,corn in the ,ohio ,valley4 ,the use of fresh manures for corn is rational1 because corn is a gross feeder and requires much nitrogen4 ,all plants having heavy foliage can use nitrogen in large amounts4 ,it is possible to apply manure in excessive amount for this cereal1 the growth of stalk becoming out of proportion to the ear1 but the instances are relatively few4 ,ordinarily corn suffers from lack of nitrogen4 ,when the farm manure is in large amount1 its direct use for corn is good practice4 ,effect upon ,moisture4--,coarse manures should not be plowed down late in the spring1 as they increase the ill effects of drouth4 ,decayed vegetation1 well mixed with the soil1 increases the soil's water-holding capacity1 but undecayed material in the bottom of the furrow is harmful4 ,fresh1 strawy manure1 made immediately before the time for breaking a sod1 is preferably carried over in a covered shed until a later season of the year4 ,when manure has been spread upon a sod in the fall or early winter1 it decays quickly after the plowing1 and aids in resistance to drouth4 ,when it is plowed down1 the ground is kept more porous1 and the presence of plant-food and moisture at or near the depth of plowing encourages deeper rooting of plants1 and thus indirectly assists them to withstand dry weather4 ,if the plowing is good in character1 leaving the furrow-slice partly on edge1 and permitting the harrow to mix part of the turf and the manure with the remainder of the soil1 the best conditions respecting moisture are secured4 ,manure on ,grass4--,when the crop-rotation embraces two or more years of grass1 or one of clover followed by only one of grass1 it is better practice to use the manure to thicken the sod4 ,the object in view is the largest possible amount of crops1 and the maximum amount of organic matter for the soil4 ,grass is a heavy feeder1 like corn1 and makes good use of nitrogen4 ,its roots fill the soil so that no loss attends the use of manure4 ,when the supply is given the grass1 after the harvest of the second crop of clover and during the winter1 the timothy can make a rank growth4 ,the part of the plant above ground has corresponding development below ground4 ,not only does a large increase in the hay crop result1 but the heavy mass of grass roots1 the aftermath1 and the remains of the manure provide a great amount of fertility for the corn which follows4 ,the increase in hay permits a corresponding increase in the manure supply the next year1 if it is fed1 and if it is sold on account of a market price greater than its value for feed and manure1 it adds to income materially--and that is one reason for farming4 ,manure on ,potatoes4--,there are excellent cash crops that may get more than their fair share of the farm supply of fertility1 and against the interest of fields in the farm not adapted to cash crops4 ,the justification is found in the farm ledger4 ,in some regions potatoes are the best crop in point of net income per acre1 where the acreage is kept restricted so that there may be plenty of organic matter to help in conserving moisture4 ,it is not good practice to use fresh manure1 and especially that from horse-stables1 for potatoes4 ,a heavy application makes an excessive growth of vine1 and the yield of tubers suffers4 ,a stronger deterrent is the effect that fresh manure has on the development of the spores that produce the disease known as potato-scab4 ,rotted manure is less dangerous1 and few crops repay its use in higher degree than the potato4 ,some growers prefer to make heavy application of fresh manure to grass for corn1 and follow with potatoes so that they can profit by the rotted organic matter that remains4 ,in this way the physical condition is made excellent1 moisture is well held in a dry season1 and commercial fertilizers can supplement the plant-food left in the manure4 ,when to plow ,down4--,excellent farmers differ regarding the relative efficiencies of manure plowed down and that mixed with the top soil4 ,both classes may be right for their individual instances4 ,the plowing down of manure helps to deepen the soil1 and that always is desirable4 ,it causes plants to root deeply1 and that is a distinct benefit in a drouthy season1 and always desirable4 ,when a soil is in such tilth that the breaking-plow always brings fertile soil to the surface1 the plowing down of manure gives excellent results1 though it should be permitted to leach at the surface for a few weeks before being turned under4 ,when land is being prepared for a seeding to grass or clover1 the supply of manure should not be plowed down wherever the breaking-plow brings soil to the surface that is deficient in humus4 ,in the latter case the manure always should be used as a top-dressing1 and should be evenly spread and well mixed with the surface soil4 ,it is needed there far more than it can be needed farther down4 ,the surface soil always should have a high content of organic matter4 ,heavy ,applications4--,when the farm supply of manure is small1 applications should be light4 ,the manure should not be the dependence for plant-food on a part of a field1 or a single field of the farm1 under such circumstances4 ,it is more profitable to give a light dressing to a larger area4 ,the manure is needed to make a fertilizing crop grow1 and a very few tons per acre can assist greatly1 when rightly used4 ,the manure is needed to furnish bacteria to the soil1 and a small amount per acre is useful for this purpose4 ,always there is temptation to use all the manure on a field convenient to the barn1 and to concentrate it on a sufficiently small area to make a good yield sure4 ,the loss to the farm in this method is heavy4 ,the thin spots and the thin fields have first right to the manure as a top-dressing1 and six tons per acre will bring larger returns per ton than twelve tons per acre4 ,at the ,pennsylvania experiment station the land receiving ten tons of manure per acre in the common four years' rotation of corn1 oats1 wheat1 and mixed clover and grass gives added returns of #a4fc a ton1 while an application of eight tons pays #a4he a ton1 and a six-ton application brings the value per ton up to #b4da4 ,these applications are made twice in the four years4 ,reenforcement with ,minerals4--,a ton of mixed manure in the stable contains about ten pounds of nitrogen1 five pounds of phosphoric acid1 and ten pounds of potash4 ,this makes the percentage of nitrogen and potash the same1 while the percentage of phosphoric acid is only half as high4 ,a commercial fertilizer of such percentages would be esteemed a badly balanced one4 ,certainly the phosphoric acid should be relatively high1 as this constituent of plant-food runs low in the soil4 ,if #ej pounds of #ad per cent acid phosphate were added to each ton of manure while it is being made in the stable1 seven pounds of phosphoric acid would be added1 making the percentage in the manure a little higher than that of the nitrogen and the potash4 ,a better balance is given to the fertility4 ,there cannot be any loss in this purchased plant-food1 if the stable floor is tight4 ,fermentation cannot drive it off1 and when applied to the soil it is tightly held4 ,practically no phosphoric acid is found in drainage waters4 ,eight tons of manure thus reenforced would contain the same amount of plant-food as a ton of fertilizer having #d per cent nitrogen1 #e per cent phosphoric acid1 and #d per cent potash4 ,the addition of the #ej pounds of acid phosphate per ton does not bring the phosphoric acid content up as high relatively as in most commercial fertilizers1 but it helps4 ,the total amount in the eight tons manure may be sufficient1 and the greater part of the total has sufficiently immediate availability1 while the manure must undergo decomposition1 and some of the nitrogen and potash does not become available within the year4 ,durability of ,manure4--,tests of the durability of manure in the soil involve some uncertain factors1 but we are interested only in the effects of applications4 ,these effects may continue for a long term of years1 and an example will illustrate4 ,land may be too infertile to make a good clover sod4 ,if a good dressing of manure be given half the land1 affording proper conditions for making a sod1 the result will be a heavy growth of clover1 while the seeding on the unmanured half will be nearly a failure4 ,if no manure or fertilizer be used in the crop-rotation1 the probability is the manured portion of the field will again make a fairly good sod4 ,how much this success may be due to the remains of the manure1 and how much is attributable to the effect of the clover and to better bacterial life introduced and favored by the manure1 no one knows4 ,probably the greater part of the benefit comes only indirectly from the manure applied three or four years previously4 ,half of the field may thus be lifted out of a helpless state and remain out of it for a long term of years1 while the other half grows only poorer4 ,a probable illustration of this lasting indirect effect may be seen in one of the plats in the soil fertility experiments on the ,pennsylvania experiment station farm4 ,experiments at the ,rothamstead station1 ,england1 show some lasting results from applications of manure4 ,director ,hall cites the case of one plat of grass land which was highly manured each year from #ahef to #ahfc1 and has since been left unmanured4 ,in #ahfd this plat gave double the yield of an adjoining plat which had been left unmanured during the eight years4 ,in #ahfe the plat1 last manured in #ahfc1 gave over double the yield of the unmanured4 ,in the following ten years its yield was a half more than that of the unmanured4 ,in the next ten years the yield was a quarter more4 ,in the next ten years it fell to #f per cent more than the plat that had received no manure in the beginning of the experiment4 ,in the following ten years it rose to #ae per cent4 ,here is a lasting effect of manure for over forty years where grass was grown continuously4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,crop-,,rotations ,the ,farm ,scheme4--,notwithstanding some of the theorizing that does not commend itself to the practical man1 farm management is taking on the form of a science4 ,it involves the organization of a farm for best results1 and in the scheme that should be worked out for any particular farm the most important feature is the crop-rotation4 ,the selection of crops is controlled by so many local considerations1 including the personal likes and dislikes of the farmer1 that very rightly the kinds of rotation are innumerable4 ,the order in which crops may be grown with most profit is less variable1 and yet even here local conditions may quickly derange the scheme of a theorist4 ,there is1 however1 such right relation of facts to each other that we are getting a working philosophy1 and the individual farmer can bend practice to his own liking in considerable degree1 and yet not compel plants to do their part at a disadvantage4 ,he has much liberty in the order of their growing1 without endangering profits materially4 ,theoretically1 this is not true1 and the factors of production on any farm are such that the largest return is obtainable in only one scheme of farming4 ,practically there is rather wide liberty4 ,value of ,rotation4--,experience has shown the benefit of variety in crops grown on land4 ,among the advantages of crop-rotation are the following3 #a4 ,it enables the farmer to maintain the supply of organic matter in his soil4 ,the roots and stubble of a grain crop are insufficient for this purpose1 and the introduction of a sod or cover crop is helpful4 #b4 ,it permits the use of legumes to secure cheap supplies of nitrogen4 #c4 ,some plants feed near the surface of the ground1 and the use of other plants which send roots deeper adds to the production4 #d4 ,some crops leave the soil in bad physical condition1 and the use of other crops in the rotation serves as a corrective4 #e4 ,the keeping of livestock is made more feasible and profitable1 and this leads to increase in farm manures4 #f4 ,in a proper succession of crops the soil is covered with living plants nearly all the time1 and thus is prevented from washing or leaching4 #g4 ,in addition to these influences upon soil fertility1 crop-rotation assists in control of insect and fungous foes and of weeds2 it permits such distribution of labor on the farm that the largest total production may be secured by its employment2 and it saves the farmer from sole dependence upon a single crop4 ,illustration3 ,penn's ,valley1 ,pennsylvania4 ,selection of ,crops4--,the natural inclination of the farmer is a consideration that cannot be ignored4 ,if a man does not like certain kinds of animals or crops1 his farm or market must possess an unusual advantage to counter-balance4 ,illustration of this truth may be seen in every farming community4 ,as a rule1 the crops should be those that are well adapted to the particular soils upon which they are grown4 ,it is up-hill work to compete with producers whose soils have far better adaptation1 unless the local markets equalize conditions4 ,the crops should follow each other in such succession that each crop naturally paves the way for the next one in the succession1 or at least does not place its successor at a disadvantage4 ,when it is feasible1 a rather large proportion of the entire produce of the rotation should be feeding-stuff for livestock1 as soil fertility is most easily guarded by livestock farming4 ,this is desirable when consistent with profit1 but1 as we have seen1 it is not an absolute essential4 ,an ,old ,succession of ,crops4--,in the corn belt of the northern states some time-honored crop-rotations have been formed by corn1 oats1 wheat1 clover1 and timothy4 ,the number of years devoted to the grain and to the sod has varied with the soil and the desire of its owner4 ,a common succession is corn one year1 oats one year1 wheat one year1 clover and timothy one year1 timothy one year--a five years' rotation that has much substantial success behind it4 ,such a rotation is wholly reasonable and in accord with the nature of things4 ,every year furnishes some organic matter for the soil in roots and stubble1 and all the produce of four years out of the five may be fed on the farm4 ,there is one cash crop1 or two if the price of the clear timothy hay justifies sale4 ,the manure may be hauled upon the sod when other work does not press1 and it goes where the crop is one that prefers fresh manure1 be that the grass or the corn4 ,there is plenty of time after the corn to prepare for oats1 and after the oats to prepare for wheat4 ,the preparation for the wheat is sufficient for the clover and timothy4 ,the seedings come only in the spring and the fall1 when rainfall is more abundant and effective than in mid-summer4 ,the danger of failure in case of this rotation is relatively small4 ,corn ,two ,years4--,hunt says that the prosperity of the east1 as a whole1 would be greatly increased if the rotations of crops were so modified as to increase the corn acreage4 ,he suggests the four rotations given in the table below1 which is taken from ,bulletin #aaf of the ,pennsylvania experiment station4 ,the fertilizers recommended should maintain fertility4 ,,corn ,,in ,,crop-,,rotations ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- #c ,yr4 #d ,yr4 #e ,yr4 #g ,yr4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ #a ,corn3 #f to #aj loads of manure and #be pounds of phosphoric acid4 #a #a #a #b ,corn3 #f to #aj loads of manure and #be pounds of phosphoric acid4 #b #b #c ,oats3 no fertilizer4 #b #c #c #d ,wheat3 #ej pounds each of phosphoric acid and potash4 #c #d #d #e ,clover and timothy3 no fertilizer4 #e #f ,timothy3 #be pounds each of nitrogen1 phosphoric acid1 and potash4 #g ,timothy3 #be pounds each of nitrogen1 phosphoric acid1 and potash4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,the ,oat ,crop4--,in the northern part of the corn belt the oat crop is profitable4 ,in the southern half of ,ohio and regions of like temperature the oat crop rarely pays4 ,the heat1 when the oat is in the milk stage1 usually is too great4 ,the tendency there is to eliminate this crop4 ,where silage is wanted1 the stubble-land can be seeded directly to wheat with good results4 ,a common practice is to seed to wheat between the shocked corn1 and the wheat does poorly unless the soil is quite fertile4 ,two ,crops of ,wheat4--,a common practice has been to grow two crops of wheat1 seeding first in the corn stubble-land1 and plowing the ground for the second wheat crop1 making a smooth surface for mowing4 ,this method ceased to pay well when wheat became low in price4 ,it has the advantage of giving two cash crops to the rotation4 ,where winter wheat does not thrive in the north1 it is dropped out1 and the seeding to clover and grass is with the oat crop4 ,there is the compensation of a large oat yield where the climate is too cold for a good crop of wheat4 ,illustration3 ,in the ,shenandoah ,valley4 ,the ,clover and ,timothy4--,the timothy and clover sod is made inexpensively so far as labor is concerned4 ,the first crop of hay is chiefly clover1 and the soil is enriched by the roots and stubble1 while the hay is converted into manure4 ,the second year the hay is nearly clear timothy4 ,the sod should not be left until it becomes thin1 but should be turned under while heavy1 no matter if this must be after one season's harvest1 or two4 ,a sod stands three or four years for harvest on some farms1 and without heavy fertilization there is decrease in fertility4 ,two ,legumes in the ,rotation4--,if all the crops of this five years' rotation1 excepting wheat1 were fed on the farm1 and if all the manure were saved and rightly applied1 there would be little or no difficulty in maintaining fertility1 provided the soil were friendly to clover4 ,the fact is that much such land has grown poorer1 and it is known that another legume is needed in the rotation4 ,the substitution of the soybean or cowpea for the oat crop gives excellent results4 ,it makes a large supply of rich hay1 and it fits the soil nicely for winter grain4 ,the use of the breaking-plow is escaped4 ,the surface of the land is in good tilth1 especially if the legume was planted in rows so that cultivation could be given4 ,a cutaway harrow1 run shallow1 and a roller make the seed-bed4 ,near the southern edge of the oat belt this substitution gives more value in the crop following corn1 and at the same time conserves soil fertility4 ,where land is thin1 a four years' rotation of corn1 soybeans or cowpeas1 wheat1 and clover is one of the best1 because it contains two leguminous crops1 and because one of them favors the wheat which follows and the clover seeded in the wheat4 ,potatoes after ,corn4--,when potatoes are grown in the corn belt1 a five years' rotation of corn1 potatoes1 oats1 wheat1 and clover1 or corn1 potatoes1 wheat1 clover1 and timothy1 is one of the best4 ,when a late potato crop is grown1 there is not time for seeding to wheat in cool latitudes1 and the oat crop1 or the soybean1 fits in best4 ,farther south1 where the oat crop is less profitable1 there usually is time to go directly to wheat4 ,the advantage in this rotation is that the fresh manure can be used on the sod for the corn1 and the potato thrives in the rotted remains of the sod and manure4 ,corn leaves the soil in good physical condition for the potato4 ,commercial fertilizer is used freely for the potato1 which repays fertilization in higher degree than most other staple crops4 ,the land can be prepared for seeding to wheat and grass with a minimum amount of labor4 ,the rotation is excellent where there is enough fertility for the potato1 which usually can be by far the most profitable crop in the entire rotation4 ,a ,three ,years' ,rotation4--,farm conditions may require that certain fields in the farm go under a crop-rotation covering three years4 ,in the winter wheat belt this may be clover1 corn1 and wheat1 or clover1 potatoes1 and wheat4 ,it is an excellent rotation when early planted potatoes or silage corn follows the sod1 favoring the wheat in which the clover again is seeded4 ,the ground is plowed only once in three years4 ,the clover furnishes hay for the farm1 and organic matter with nitrogen for the land4 ,there are two cash crops in the rotation when potatoes are grown1 and that makes a heavy draft upon fertility4 ,experience has demonstrated that commercial fertilizers or manure become necessary as a supplement to clover in a three years' rotation embracing potatoes4 ,this rotation gives good control of most weeds and insect enemies4 ,where wheat is unprofitable1 the oat crop is used in its stead4 ,if mixed hay is wanted1 timothy is sown with the clover4 ,this is poor practice from the standpoint of soil fertility because the draft upon humus is heavy in a close rotation embracing a tilled crop and small grain4 ,the sod should be chiefly clover1 or manure should be used in connection with commercial fertilizer4 ,grain and ,clover4--,in the case of some soils it is possible to grow a wheat or corn crop each year1 clover being grown as a catch crop4 ,in the long run1 this practice will fail because the clover will cease to make a thrifty growth when grown so nearly continuously4 ,it succeeds best on fertile land4 ,potatoes and ,crimson ,clover4--,in some potato-producing sections in warm latitudes it is a not uncommon practice to grow potatoes year after year on the same land1 seeding to crimson clover after the removal of the crop in ,august1 and plowing the clover down early in the spring4 ,rye has been similarly used farther north4 ,in each instance available plant-food must be freely supplied4 ,the practice is a temporary expedient of value1 but probably cannot be pursued indefinitely with profit4 ,this is likewise true of similar close rotations4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,the ,,need ,,of ,,commercial ,,fertilizers ,loss of ,plant-food4--,the soil is composed chiefly of material that never will enter into the structure of plants1 but that serves us by affording a congenial place for plant-roots4 ,it anchors the plants1 holds moisture for them1 and offers opportunity for all the processes necessary to the preparation of plant-food and to its use4 ,in this material are the abundant supplies of such plant-food as silica1 but1 as has been previously stated1 their very abundance leads us rightly to disregard them in our thinking4 ,our interest is only in the very small percentage of material that is composed of the four constituents which may be lacking in available form in the soil3 nitrogen1 phosphoric acid1 potash1 and lime4 ,we believe that the only consideration that now need be given lime is as a soil-corrective and1 when there is no acidity1 we may assume that there is plenty of lime present4 ,when yields of crops tend to decrease1 the only plant-foods with which we are concerned are nitrogen1 phosphoric acid1 and potash4 ,the materials were stored in all agricultural land1 and much of the supply is in inert forms4 ,they help to make what we call the natural strength of the land4 ,the rotting of organic matter1 tillage1 and many other agencies bring about some availability4 ,the removal of crops1 leaching1 etc41 reduce the supply4 ,the right use of commercial fertilizers involves the addition of some plant-food when the available supply in a particular soil is inadequate4 ,prejudice against ,commercial ,fertilizers4--,the owner of land that was made very fertile by nature1 and that has not been cropped long enough to reduce the supply of available fertility to the danger-point1 rarely fails to entertain a prejudice against commercial fertilizers4 ,it is the rule that he refuses to consider their use until the decrease in crop yields becomes so serious that necessity drives4 ,if his land is not contributing its fair share of grain1 vegetables1 etc41 to the markets1 but has all its products converted into meat or milk1 the supply of available plant-food may remain sufficient for so long a time that the matter cannot have any interest for him4 ,if the land is producing some crops for market1 there is reduction in its mineral store4 ,it is the rule that the boundary of profitable use of commercial fertilizers pushes westward from the older and naturally poorer seaboard states about one generation after need shows in the crop yields4 ,lack of knowledge1 the association of the use of commercial fertilizers with poor land1 and some observation of the unwise use of fertilizers1 combine to create a lively prejudice4 ,they are viewed as stimulants only1 and costly ones at that4 ,are ,fertilizers ,stimulants8--,some words carry with them their own popular condemnation4 ,we are accustomed to draw a sharp line between foods and stimulants1 and to condemn the latter4 ,to stimulate is to rouse to activity4 ,tillage does not add one pound of plant-food to the soil1 and its office is to enable plants to draw material out of the soil4 ,it makes activities possible that convert soil material into crops4 ,fertilizers add plant-food directly to the soil1 and it is also to their credit that their judicious use favors increased availability in some of the compounds already in the soil4 ,the greater part of the labor put on land is designed to make plant-food available1 either by providing moisture1 or ease of penetration of plant-roots1 or activity of bacteria1 or other means that will permit plants to remove what they need for growth4 ,fertilizers supply fertility directly and indirectly1 but it is their direct service in meeting a deficiency in plant-food that affords all needed justification for their use by practical farmers4 ,referring to the thirty years' soil fertility experiments of the ,pennsylvania station1 ,hunt says that they show that there is nothing injurious about commercial fertilizers4 ,for thirty years certain plats in this experiment have received no stable manures4 ,no organic matter has been added to the soil except that which was furnished by the roots and stubble of plants grown4 ,these plats are not only as fertile as they were thirty years ago1 but they have yielded1 and continue to yield1 as good crops as adjacent plats which have received yard manure every two years in place of commercial fertilizer4 ,soil ,analysis4--,there is wide misconception regarding the value of chemical analysis of the soil as an aid in making choice of a fertilizer4 ,analysis has shown that some soil types are relatively richer in plant-constituents than are others1 and it has shown abnormal deficiency in some types of limited area4 ,it has given us more knowledge of soils1 but as a guide to fertilization in particular instances it usually has no value4 ,the samples used by an analyst are so small that the inaccuracy in his determination may easily be greater than the total amount of plant-food in a very heavy application of commercial fertilizer4 ,a field that has been reduced to temporarily low productive power by heavy cropping or bad farming methods may show a greater content of plant-food than another field that is in a highly productive condition4 ,this is a fact difficult of acceptance by some who want the aid of science1 but such are the present limitations4 ,the weight of a fertilizer application is so small in comparison with the weight of the surface part of an acre of land that the use of a ton of fertilizer may not be detected in the analyst's determinations1 and moreover his determinations of actual availability in the soil's supplies are not serviceable in the selection of a fertilizer for any particular field and crop4 ,physical ,analysis4--,chemical analysis is costly and unsatisfactory as a guide to fertilization4 ,physical analysis by a competent man may have distinct value1 and especially to one lacking experience with his soil4 ,the mapping of soils by national and state authorities has given pretty accurate knowledge of hundreds of soil types1 their location and characteristics1 and when a soil expert obtains a sample of soil and the history of its past treatment1 he can assign it to its type and give to its owner dependable advice regarding its crop-adaptation and probable fertilizer requirements4 ,the ,use of ,nitrogen4--,there is no fully satisfactory way of determining the kind and amount of fertilizer that should be used at any particular time for any one crop4 ,perfection in this respect is no easier in attainment than in other matters4 ,there are1 however1 means of arriving at conclusions that are a valuable guide4 ,in a general way1 nitrogen is in scant supply in all worn soils4 ,wherever the cropping has been hard1 and manure has not gone back to the land1 the growth in stalk and leaves of the plant is deficient4 ,the color is light4 ,inability of a soil to produce a strong growth of corn1 a large amount of straw1 or a heavy hay crop1 is indicative of lack of nitrogen in nearly every instance4 ,the legumes1 such as clover1 and the stable manures are rich in nitrogen1 and when the scheme of farming involves their use on all the land of the farm1 no need of purchased nitrogen may arise in the production of staple crops4 ,in the black corn soils the nitrogen content originally was high4 ,lands that naturally are not very fertile rarely have enough available nitrogen4 ,where timothy is a leading crop1 the demand for nitrogen is heavy4 ,a cold spring or summer1 checking nature's processes in the soil1 may cause a temporary deficiency in available nitrogen in land that usually has a sufficient supply4 ,associating a rank growth of stalk and leaf with an abundance of nitrogen1 the experienced man can form a pretty safe opinion regarding the probable profitableness of an investment in this element4 ,it costs nearly four times as much per pound as either of the two other constituents of a fertilizer1 and so far as is feasible it should be obtained through the legumes and stable manure4 ,phosphoric-acid ,requirements4--,soil analyses show that the content of phosphoric acid in most soils of this country is relatively small4 ,the results of experiments with the various constituents of fertilizers are in accord with this fact4 ,fertilizer experiments at the various stations and on farms are nearly a unit in showing that if any need in plant-food exists1 phosphoric acid is deficient4 ,when crop-producing power decreases1 and the farmer begins to seek a commercial fertilizer to repair the loss1 he finds that bone-dust or acid phosphate is serviceable4 ,the resulting increase in yield often leads to such sole dependence upon this fertilizer that clover and manure are disregarded1 the percentage of humus is allowed to drop1 and finally the fertilizer is brought into disrepute4 ,the need of phosphoric acid is so common that it is the sole plant-food in much fertilizer1 and the dominant element in practically all the remainder on the market4 ,illustration3 ,plat experiments4 ,the ,need of ,potash4--,land which is deficient in organic matter ordinarily is lacking in available potash1 and responds with profit to applications1 provided the nitrogen and phosphoric-acid requirements have been met4 ,clay soils contain far more potash than sandy soils1 and in a farming scheme for them that permits the use of manure and clover1 it may not become necessary to buy much potash4 ,the liberal use of straw in the stables1 and the saving of all the liquid manure1 are helps4 ,farms from which the hay and straw have been sold for a long period of time develop an urgent need of potash4 ,much muck land is very deficient in this constituent4 ,fertilizer ,tests4--,every farmer should conduct some fertilizer tests for himself4 ,it is only the soil itself that can make an adequate reply to a question regarding its needs4 ,the test should be made under conditions furnishing evenness in the soil1 and it should be continued for years4 ,there is pleasure to an intelligent farmer in such questioning of his soil1 and only in this way can assurance be obtained that the investment in fertilizers is the wisest that can be planned for the farm4 ,there are only three plant constituents to be tested1 but they must be used in combination as well as singly4 ,a soil that is deficient in the three may not give any return from potash alone1 and usually does not1 although it may give a marked increase from use of phosphoric acid alone4 ,the plats may be eight rods long and one rod wide1 containing each one twentieth of an acre1 and having strips two feet wide separating them4 ,the following chart suggests quantities of fertilizers to be used on the one-twentieth acre plats1 #aj in number3 --------------------------------------- ,nothing4 --------------------------------------- #e pounds nitrate of soda4 --------------------------------------- #ah pounds #ad per cent acid phosphate4 --------------------------------------- #d pounds muriate of potash4 --------------------------------------- ,nothing4 --------------------------------------- #e pounds nitrate of soda4 #ah pounds #ad per cent acid phosphate4 --------------------------------------- #e pounds nitrate of soda4 #d pounds muriate of potash4 --------------------------------------- #ah pounds #ad per cent acid phosphate4 #d pounds muriate of potash4 --------------------------------------- #e pounds nitrate of soda4 #ah pounds #ad per cent acid phosphate4 #d pounds muriate of potash4 --------------------------------------- ,nothing4 --------------------------------------- ,variation in ,soil4--,the difficulty in determining the character of fertilizer for a field1 due to variation in the soil1 is overestimated4 ,very often a land-owner says1 ,i have a dozen kinds of soil in every field4 ,this is true in a way1 it may be1 but if all the field has had the same treatment in the past1 the probability is that the fertilizer which is best for one part of the field will be quite good for the other parts4 ,the likeness in characteristics that permits the land to be cropped as one field gives some assurance of likeness in plant-food needs1 even where the proportion of clay and sand varies and the color is not the same4 ,there may be wide variation in the productive power of the fields of a farm1 due to the treatments they have received4 ,the land that grows heavy clover in a close rotation1 or receives all the stable manure1 may need neither nitrogen nor potash1 while another field1 hard-run by timothy and corn1 may need a complete fertilizer4 ,when a careful fertilizer test on land of only average productive power has been made1 the owner has some definite knowledge of his soil that enables him to give more intelligent treatment to all his fields than was possible before the test had been made4 ,he observes the appearance and yield of plants where the plant-food requirement was fully met1 and makes allowance in other fields for gains or losses in the soil due to different treatment4 ,it is out of the question to become discouraged before a beginning has been made4 ,if yields are limited by absence of plant-food1 fertilizers must be used4 ,if money must be expended for fertilizers1 it is only good business to know that the money is expended to the best advantage4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,commercial ,,sources ,,of ,,plant-,,food ,acquaintance with ,terms4--,the hesitation of many users of commercial fertilizer to master the few technical terms used in analyses of the goods1 for which over one hundred million dollars annually are expended in this country1 is to be deplored4 ,the number of the materials available for any large use as sources of plant-food in a commercial fertilizer is small1 and something of their characteristics should be known4 ,every farmer should have a working knowledge of these materials--their sources1 the percentage of plant-food carried by them1 and their probable availability4 ,he should know in a general way their advantages and disadvantages in comparison with each other4 ,nitrate of ,soda4--,one of the best carriers of nitrogen is nitrate of soda1 which is imported from ,chili1 ,south ,america1 where great beds exist4 ,the most of the impurities are removed1 and the nitrate of soda comes to us in bags holding #bjj pounds1 and looks much like discolored salt4 ,it is easily soluble in water1 and usually contains a little over #ae per cent of nitrogen1 which is in a very available form4 ,its immediate availability brings it into use by gardeners and truckers1 and it is an excellent source of nitrogen for grass fertilizers to be used in the early spring4 ,it was formerly advised that nitrate of soda should not form part of a fertilizer for use before plant-roots had filled the ground1 its high availability being supposed to lead to heavy loss by leaching4 ,the ,pennsylvania experiment station uses it as its sole source of nitrogen in fertilizers for staple crops on its #ijj acres of farm land4 ,it is effective in fertilizers for corn1 wheat1 potatoes1 and grass1 as well as for special crops4 ,the warnings regarding loss by leaching should not be disregarded1 however4 ,if the price of nitrogen in an organic form were as low as it has been in nitrate of soda1 and if the soils of the ,pennsylvania station farms were sandy1 the use of nitrate of soda as the sole carrier of nitrogen would be inadvisable4 ,the only fact of consequence is that the danger of loss has been over-stated1 turning some farmers away from the use of a good and relatively cheap carrier of nitrogen4 ,sulphate of ,ammonia4--,this is a by-product in the manufacture of coke and also of illuminating gas4 ,hunt estimates that the amount of nitrogen lost annually in ,pennsylvania's coke industry would be sufficient1 if recovered by proper type of ovens1 to furnish every acre of land under cultivation in the state with four fifths of all the nitrogen needed to keep it in a maximum state of fertility4 ,sulphate of ammonia contains about #bj per cent of nitrogen1 which is in a quite available form4 ,it has a tendency to exhaust the lime in the soil1 producing an acid condition4 ,some plats in the fertilizer experiment at the ,pennsylvania station have received their nitrogen in the form of sulphate of ammonia for #cj years1 and are now in such acid condition that no crops thrive upon them4 ,the corrective1 of course1 is lime1 and if ammonium sulphate were somewhat lower in price1 its use would be profitable1 justifying cost of correction of acidity if it should occur4 ,it is used by manufacturers of commercial fertilizers1 and is well adapted to mixtures on account of its physical condition4 ,dried ,blood4--,there is no more satisfactory source of organic nitrogen than dried blood of high grade4 ,the best blood1 red in color1 contains nearly as much nitrogen as nitrate of soda1 running from #ac to #ae per cent4 ,the nitrogen is not as quickly available as that in the nitrate1 but is more so than that in any other form of organic nitrogen4 ,one would rarely go amiss in the purchase of dried blood as a carrier of nitrogen if the price were relatively as low as in the case of nitrate of soda1 but he should not let any prejudice in favor of animal origin of fertilizers lead him to pay an excessive price per pound for the nitrogen contained in it4 ,such a prejudice has caused the nitrogen in a good red blood to sell for one half more per pound than in nitrate of soda1 and it is not a good purchase on that basis4 ,the lower grades of dried blood on the market contain as low as #f per cent of nitrogen1 and the animal refuse put into it gives it a content of a few per cent of phosphoric acid4 ,this black blood is very variable in composition1 and should always be accompanied by a guaranteed analysis4 ,tankage4--,the waste from the slaughter of animals goes into a product called tankage4 ,the refuse is cooked for removal of the fat1 and then ground4 ,it may run high in nitrogen on account of the amount of meat in the mixture1 and it may be low in nitrogen and very high in phosphoric acid by reason of the large amount of bone in the mixture4 ,only a guarantee of analysis affords safety to the buyer4 ,it is a relatively slow and good fertilizer1 and is used usually in connection with forms of plant-food that are more quickly available4 ,fish4--,near the ,atlantic coast a large quantity of ground fish1 after the extraction of oil1 is used as a fertilizer1 but the cost of the nitrogen and phosphoric acid in this carrier is relatively too high to justify its free use4 ,like dried blood1 its organic character gains for it a popularity that does not have full justification in fact4 ,animal ,bone4--,the original source of phosphoric acid as a fertilizer was animal bone1 just as hard-wood1 unleached ashes were the source of potash4 ,the organic character of the animal bone made it appear more truly a manure than could any rock or other inorganic substance4 ,there is no more satisfactory source of phosphoric acid than animal bone1 and if it were in full supply for the needs of soils1 there would be little occasion to discuss the merits of rock-phosphate and other similar materials4 ,the supply is a small fraction of the need4 ,if all animal bone were carefully saved and returned to the land that produced all of our animals1 it would return to the soil only what those animals carried away in their bones1 and that is indeed a small fraction of all the draft our crops make upon the soil's supply of this one substance4 ,some of the best animal bone goes into the manufacture of articles that never contribute anything to the soil1 and there are other sources of loss4 ,the supply of phosphoric acid from bone is too small1 when compared with the land's need1 to deserve more than a small fraction of the consideration it receives by users of commercial fertilizers4 ,the peculiar situation respecting animal bone has come about through a form of deceit4 ,the demand for bone existed1 and there was no legal restraint in the matter of branding phosphatic rock as bone1 bone-phosphate1 etc4 ,in the past1 nearly all forms of rock-phosphates have carried the word bone on the bag to quiet the apprehension of those who entertained a prejudice against anything other than animal bone4 ,nearly all the phosphoric acid has come from rock1 and its use has been necessary and profitable1 but the misrepresentation fostered the old-time prejudice4 ,within recent years some manufacturers have tired of the seeming deceit that served no purpose with many customers1 and have placed acid phosphate and mixed goods upon the market without the intimation that the phosphoric acid was derived from animal bone4 ,the demand for bone makes prices high for the very limited amount upon the market1 when availability is taken into account1 and the advice that such goods be used would be valueless if it had any general acceptance4 ,prices would go higher1 and the amount in the world would remain wholly inadequate4 ,raw ,bone4--,stable manure lasts several years in the soil because decay is slow4 ,raw bone has appealed to many because its action is likewise necessarily slow4 ,the fat in it prevents fine grinding and protects the coarse particles from decay4 ,it is known as bone-meal or coarse ground-bone4 ,a good quality of raw bone may contain #d per cent of nitrogen1 while the phosphoric-acid content is #bj to #be per cent4 ,the bones of old animals is less rich in nitrogen4 ,the age of the animals1 and the sorting for manufactures of various kinds1 cause variation in quality1 and the purchase of raw bone should be made on guaranteed analysis just as surely as the purchase of bone that has been treated in any way for removal of various substances in it4 ,steamed ,bone4--,when animal bone is boiled or steamed under pressure for removal of the fat and the cartilage1 the content of nitrogen is reduced1 and the percentage of phosphoric acid is increased by this removal of fat and nitrogenous substance4 ,the nitrogen in steamed bone may run as low as #a per cent1 and the phosphoric acid may go up to #cj per cent4 ,the composition of steamed bone is so widely variable that the name means little1 and purchase should be made only on guaranteed analysis4 ,some grades run very low both in nitrogen and phosphoric acid1 due probably to adulteration4 ,the boiling or steaming of bone makes fine grinding possible1 and the fineness and absence of fat permit quick decay in the soil4 ,steamed bone is an excellent source of phosphoric acid4 ,the availability is less immediate than that of acid phosphate1 but much greater than that of raw bone4 ,rock-phosphate4--,while the greater part of our soils contain relatively scant stores of phosphoric acid1 the deposits of this plant constituent in combination with lime are immense4 ,the rock now chiefly used in this country is found in ,south ,carolina1 ,tennessee1 and ,florida4 ,it varies greatly in content of phosphoric acid4 ,when pulverized for direct use on land1 without treatment with sulphuric acid to make the plant-food available1 a grade running #bh per cent phosphoric acid1 or less1 usually is selected1 the higher grades being reserved for treatment with acid or for export4 ,this untreated rock1 pulverized exceedingly fine1 often is known as floats4 ,the value of a pound of phosphoric acid in floats1 as compared with that of a pound in the treated rock1 known as acid phosphate1 is a matter upon which scientists differ widely4 ,only a small percentage of the plant-food is immediately available1 and the question of wise use hinges upon the degree of availability gained later1 and the time required4 ,the large amount of experimental work that has been done affords data that causes the following opinion to be stated here3 ,rock-phosphate1 known as floats1 is not a profitable source of plant-food for soils deficient in organic matter1 when compared with acid phosphate4 ,it is more nearly profitable in an acid soil than in one that has no lime deficiency4 ,it gives more satisfactory results when mixed intimately with stable manure than when used upon land that remains deficient in organic matter4 ,applications should be in large amount per acre--#ejj to #ajjj pounds--in order that the amount of readily available phosphoric acid may meet the immediate need of plants4 ,dependence should be placed upon the readily available acid phosphate in all instances until experiment on the farm shows that the rock-phosphate is a cheaper source of plant-food than the acid phosphate4 ,acid ,phosphate4--,when animal bone is treated with sulphuric acid1 the result is an acid phosphate1 but treated animal bone is so rare on the market that it may be ignored4 ,the acid phosphate on the market is rock-phosphate treated with sulphuric acid to render its plant-food available4 ,the content of phosphoric acid varies because the original rock-phosphate varies1 but the most common grade on the market is guaranteed to contain #ad per cent available phosphoric acid1 and #a to #b per cent insoluble4 ,some acid phosphate is guaranteed to contain #af per cent available phosphoric acid1 and some runs down to #aj per cent available4 ,an acid phosphate contains quickly available plant-food4 ,a prejudice exists against it on account of its source1 and it has been a common practice to label the bags bone-phosphate1 or dissolved bone1 or such other designation as would imply an organic source1 but the acid phosphate is made out of rock-phosphate1 regardless of the name given4 ,the prejudice against the rock as a source of plant-food is giving way4 ,it is our chief and cheapest source of supply4 ,the combination of sulphuric acid with rock-phosphate in the production of acid phosphate produces sulphate of lime1 known as gypsum or land-plaster4 ,the amount of gypsum in a ton of acid phosphate varies1 but may be roughly estimated by the buyer as two thirds of the total weight of the acid phosphate4 ,the tendency of gypsum is1 in the long run1 to make a soil acid1 and its use necessarily hastens rather than retards the day when a lime deficiency will occur4 ,the influence in this direction is not great enough to be a very material factor in deciding upon a carrier of phosphoric acid4 ,if a soil has little lime in it1 a state of acidity soon will come anyway1 and the increase in amount of required lime will be small4 ,the cheapness of acid phosphate1 as compared with animal bone1 is the decisive factor4 ,the ill-effects usually attributed to acid phosphate are not due in any great degree directly to the sulphuric acid used in its making1 but to the bad farming methods that so often attend its use4 ,when the need of commercial fertilizers is first recognized1 acid phosphate seems to meet the need4 ,the soil's store of available phosphoric acid gives out first1 and this fertilizer brings a new supply4 ,if the available potash is in scant amount1 the acid phosphate helps in this direction by freeing some potash4 ,the phosphoric acid has peculiar ability in giving impetus to the growth of a young plant1 and that enables it to send its roots out and obtain more nitrogen than it otherwise would do4 ,the farmer thus may come to regard it as a means of securing a crop1 and there is neglect of manure and clover4 ,if a field is thin and fails to make a sod1 there is no immediate compulsion to use manure or to grow a catch crop to get organic matter1 but the field is cropped again with grain4 ,soon the supply of humus is exhausted1 the soil lies lifeless1 and the stores of available nitrogen and potash are in a worse depleted state than formerly4 ,the fault lies with the method4 ,the phosphoric acid in the acid phosphate was needed4 ,profit from its use was legitimate1 but the necessity of supplying organic matter became even greater than it would have been otherwise4 ,tens of thousands of our most successful farmers use heavy applications of acid phosphate1 but they keep their soils in good physical condition by the use of manure or clover1 and they apply potash and nitrogen when needed4 ,the clover is assured by using lime wherever it is in too limited supply1 and that is the case in most instances1 regardless of the use of any kind of commercial fertilizer4 ,basic ,slag4--,when iron ores contain much phosphorus1 its extraction by use of lime gives a by-product in the making of steel that has agricultural value4 ,the ores of the ,united ,states usually do not give a slag sufficiently rich in phosphorus to be valuable4 ,nearly all the basic slag used as a fertilizer is imported from ,germany1 and usually contains #ag to #ah per cent of phosphoric acid4 ,the availability of the plant-food in this fertilizer has been the subject of much discussion4 ,the chemist's test which is fair for acid phosphate is admittedly not fair when used for basic slag4 ,field tests1 at experiment stations and on farms1 are our best sources of knowledge4 ,when the soil is slightly acid1 each #a per cent of phosphoric acid in the slag appears to be about as valuable as each #a per cent of the available phosphoric acid in an acid phosphate4 ,some of the effectiveness may be due to the lime1 although very little of it is in forms regarded as valuable for the correction of soil acidity4 ,there is evidence that basic slag favors clover4 ,it has not been found feasible to ship this material many hundreds of miles inland from the seaboard to compete with acid phosphate1 but it is an excellent source of phosphoric acid for soils that are not rich in lime4 ,muriate of ,potash4--,the mines of ,stassfurt1 ,germany1 contain an inexhaustible supply of potash in various compounds4 ,muriate of potash is prepared from the crude salts1 and the commercial product on our markets has the appearance of a coarse and discolored salt4 ,it is handled in large bags1 and inclines to become moist by absorption of water from the air4 ,it contains some common salt4 ,the content of actual potash is about #ej per cent4 ,the potash is readily available1 but the loss from leaching out of the soil is very small4 ,muriate of potash is our cheapest source of potash1 and should be used for all staple crops except tobacco1 sugar beets1 and1 possibly1 the potato4 ,tests even on heavy soils fail to show any injury to the quality of the potato1 and on light soil the muriate may always be used4 ,sulphate of ,potash4--,some sulphate of potash is imported into this country4 ,its content of potash may vary #a or #b per cent below or above #ej4 ,its physical condition favors mixing more than does the muriate4 ,it usually costs several dollars a ton more than the muriate1 and the fact that it is known to favor quality in tobacco1 and is popularly supposed to do so in the potato1 creates demand at the higher price4 ,it is soluble in water1 and quickly available4 ,as a rule1 it has no higher agricultural value than the muriate4 ,kainit4--,unlike muriate and sulphate of potash1 kainit is a crude product of the ,german mines1 having received no treatment to remove impurities4 ,it contains #ab to #ac per cent of potash1 and is rated as a sulphate1 but one third of it is common salt1 and in effect upon quality it should be classed with muriate and not sulphate4 ,its low content of plant-food should confine its use to regions relatively near the seaboard4 ,when shipped far inland1 the price becomes too high to give a reasonably cheap pound of potash4 ,wood-ashes4--,wood-ashes contain lime and potash1 with a small percentage of phosphoric acid4 ,the market price is above agricultural value1 and any needed potash should be obtained from the ,german potash salts4 ,other ,fertilizers4--,manufacturers of commercial fertilizer make use of other materials1 some of which1 like manufactured nitrogen1 are excellent1 and others are low in quality and slow in action4 ,the sources of plant-food that have been described form the great bulk of all fertilizers on the market1 and from them may be selected all the materials a farmer needs to use on his land1 either singly or home-mixed4 ,in most instances the selection will embrace only four or five of these fertilizing materials4 ,salt4--,salt is not a direct fertilizer1 and its use is not to be advised unless it can be secured at a very low price per ton4 ,some soils have been made more productive by the application of #bjj to #cjj pounds per acre1 and chiefly in case the salt was mixed well with the soil when the seed-bed was made4 ,the practice of using salt as a top-dressing on wheat in the spring gives less effectiveness it is believed4 ,salt frees potash in the soil1 and may have some practical effect upon soil moisture4 ,as a soil amendment1 salt has had more reputation than its performance justifies4 ,if land is infertile1 it is better1 as a rule1 to apply actual plant-food4 ,coal-ashes4--,there is no plant-food of value in coal-ashes4 ,the physical condition of heavy soils is improved by an application1 and their use may be quite profitable in this way if cost of application is small4 ,when used as a mulch1 ashes conserve moisture4 ,muck4--,the use of muck pays in stables1 as it is a good absorbent and contains some nitrogen which gains in availability by mixture with manure4 ,its direct application to land as a fertilizer does not pay the labor bill under ordinary circumstances4 ,sawdust4--,as a fertilizer1 sawdust does not have much value1 but serves as an excellent absorbent in stables4 ,its presence in manure need not cause fear of injury to the soil4 ,when fresh sawdust is applied in large quantity to a sandy soil1 the effect upon physical condition is bad1 increasing drouthiness4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,purchasing ,,plant-,,food ,necessity of ,purchase4--,the necessity of buying plant-food in the form of commercial fertilizers is a mooted question in any naturally fertile agricultural region just so long as crop yields do not drop to a serious extent4 ,the natural strength of the land and the skill that enters into the farming are important factors in determining the profitableness of recourse to purchased plant-food4 ,the free use of organic matter to maintain the supply of humus defers the time when commercial fertilizers should be used4 ,good tillage frees the potential plant-food of the soil1 and delays the day of necessary purchase4 ,the farm so situated that it can have all its products fed upon it is longer independent of outside help4 ,the profitable use of feeding-stuffs from other farms is a safe way of escaping the direct purchase of fertilizers1 although it is a transfer of fertility to the farm as surely as the employment of fertilizers1 and is not a method that may have general adoption4 ,illustration3 ,in the ,lebanon ,valley1 ,pennsylvania4 ,the organic sources of fertility1 such as slaughter-house refuse1 are containers of plant-food as surely as is stable manure4 ,the inorganic sources1 such as acid phosphate and muriate of potash1 are containers of plant-food as surely as is animal bone or blood4 ,there is no line that may be drawn to debar any substance that supplies plant-food profitably and contains no compound harmful to the soil4 ,the purchase of plant-food should begin whenever profit is offered by it1 and in connection with its use there should be good tillage1 organic matter1 and healthful plant conditions in every respect4 ,the use of a fertilizer pays best when the conditions are such that the plants can avail themselves of it in the fullest degree4 ,good farming and the heavy use of commercial fertilizers go consistently hand-in-hand4 ,fertilizer ,control4--,the dreams of the patent-medicine vender never pictured more favoring conditions for his activity than were found by fertilizer manufacturers and agents before state laws provided for inspection and control4 ,men who wanted to do a legitimate business welcomed protection from the unscrupulous competition that dishonest men employed4 ,the memory of some of the frauds perpetrated lingers1 and causes a questioning to-day that is unnecessary4 ,all fertilizer-control laws afford a good degree of legal protection to the buyer1 although in most states they do not demand a clearness and fullness in statements of analyses that would be helpful to many1 and they fail to require that sources of plant-food be given4 ,some fertilizers are sold for more than they are worth1 and some are bought for soils and crops that need other kinds of plant-food1 but this is due to lack of knowledge on the part of the buyer that he can acquire4 ,the law does its part in the work of protection better than many buyers do their part4 ,it has driven fraudulent brands off the market1 compelled carefulness in factory-mixing1 and given to the intelligent buyer a knowledge of the kinds and amounts of plant-food in the bag or ton4 ,the sampling is done by disinterested men1 and the analyses are made by competent chemists4 ,there need be little distrust of the analysis as printed on the bag1 unless a failure of the manufacturer to keep his goods up to the standard has been made public in the state's fertilizer bulletin4 ,brand ,names4--,notwithstanding all that has been done by the state to acquaint the buying public with the composition of fertilizers1 many purchasers are guided in selection by the brand name1 and that usually is fanciful in character1 no matter whether it be ,farmers' ,friend or ,jones' ,potato ,fertilizer4 ,in either case it may be far from friendly to soil or pocket-book1 and widely at variance with the needs of the soil for which it is purchased4 ,the pretense of making a fertilizer peculiarly adapted to the potato1 or to wheat1 or to corn would not attract a single buyer if the public would compare the analyses of these special crop fertilizers offered by manufacturers and note their dissimilarity of composition4 ,any kind of a mixture may be given any kind of a name4 ,it is the composition that counts4 ,the farmer is in the market for nitrogen and phosphoric acid and potash1 singly or combined1 for a certain soil1 and all he wants is to know the number of pounds he is getting1 its availability1 and its price per pound4 ,any added detail not required by law is an impertinence4 ,statement of ,analysis4--,it would be well if the law refused to the manufacturer the privilege of printing unnecessary detail in the statement of analysis that must be placed upon the fertilizer bag4 ,it is added to confuse the buyer and mislead him regarding actual value4 ,the following statement is an example of this practice3 ,,analysis ,per ,cent ,nitrogen #j4hb to #a4jj ,equal to ammonia #a4jj to #b4jj ,soluble phosphoric acid #f4jj to #g4jj ,reverted #b4jj to #c4jj ,available #h4jj to #aj4jj ,insoluble #a4jj to #b4jj ,total #i4jj to #ab4jj ,potash 7actual7 #a4jj to #b4jj ,equal to sulphate of potash #b4jj to #c4jj ,as the row of larger figures is not guaranteed percentages1 it has no value4 ,the buyer is not concerned regarding the amount of ammonia to which the nitrogen is equal1 and so the second line is a needless repetition4 ,the fifth line gives the sum of the third and fourth1 the available being the total of the soluble and reverted4 ,therefore the third and fourth lines may be ignored4 ,the sixth line gives the percentage of unavailable phosphoric acid in the rock1 and should be ignored by the purchaser who wants available plant-food4 ,the seventh gives the sum of the available and insoluble1 and should be ignored4 ,the ninth is a restatement of the eighth line4 ,there then remains the following guaranty3 ,per ,cent ,nitrogen #j4hb ,available phosphoric acid #h4jj ,potash #a4jj ,this is a low-grade fertilizer whose cheap character becomes apparent when the unnecessary statements and restatements are erased4 ,a ton of it contains only #af pounds of nitrogen1 #afj pounds of phosphoric acid1 and #bj pounds of potash4 ,valuation of ,fertilizers4--,the manufacturer of a mixed fertilizer must make use of the unmixed materials he finds upon the market4 ,the prices of the various plant constituents in the different unmixed materials can be determined by averaging quotations in leading markets for a given length of time4 ,the fair retail price is obtained by adding about #bj per cent to the wholesale cash price4 ,the retail cash price per pound of the plant constituents in leading markets is thus determined for their various forms and carriers4 ,a pound of nitrogen in dried blood may have its valuation fixed at a figure #ej per cent higher than that of a pound of nitrogen in nitrate of soda simply because the dried blood sells at a price per ton that makes that difference4 ,it is true commercial value that is sought1 and that may be very different from agricultural value4 ,the mixed fertilizer of the manufacturer has its content of plant-food known by analysis4 ,its number of pounds of the various constituents in a ton is known1 and the retail price per pound of these substances has been fixed4 ,the commercial value per ton can then be determined1 provided proper allowance is made for cost of mixing and bagging4 ,the individual must pay in addition the freight1 and usually a considerable sum for unnecessarily costly methods of distribution and collection4 ,a ,bit of ,arithmetic4--,this paragraph is intended to serve the man who is willing to be reasonably near right if he cannot be wholly so3 ,a ton is #bjjj pounds1 and one per cent is #bj pounds4 ,in dealing with fertilizers it is the practice to call #bj pounds1 or one per cent of a ton1 a unit1 and to base the price of the nitrogen1 and phosphoric acid1 and potash1 on the unit4 ,this is done for convenience4 ,if five cents is a fair price for a pound of available phosphoric acid in one's locality1 as it would be if a ton of #ad per cent acid phosphate cost #ad1 a unit of #bj pounds is worth #a4 ,each one per cent guaranteed is thus worth a dollar1 and the phosphoric acid in the fertilizer is easily valued4 ,if a pound of potash in a ton of muriate is worth five cents in one's locality1 as it would be if a ton of muriate cost #ej1 the muriate being one half actual potash1 a unit of #bj pounds of potash is worth #a4 ,each one per cent of guaranteed potash is thus worth one dollar1 and the entire content of potash is easily valued4 ,if a pound of nitrogen in nitrate of soda is worth seventeen and one half cents a pound in one's locality1 as it would be if a ton of nitrate of soda cost #ed1 a unit1 or one per cent1 is worth #c4ej1 and the content of nitrogen is easily valued4 ,the prices named would seem high to good cash buyers near the seaboard1 and they are too low for some other regions where freights are very high4 ,they are only illustrative4 ,the consumer can get his own basis for an estimate by obtaining the best possible cash quotations from city dealers4 ,some interested critic may point out that nitrate of soda should not be the sole source of nitrogen in a fertilizer on account of its immediate availability4 ,manufacturers use some sulphate of ammonia1 and a pound of nitrogen in it has had practically the same market price as that in nitrate of soda4 ,tankage may be used in part1 and in it the nitrogen costs very little more per pound4 ,it may be said that the potash in the fertilizer is in form of sulphate4 ,usually that profits the user nothing1 and often the claim is baseless1 but if it is a sulphate1 the cost of the potash should have only #bj per cent added to the valuation of the potash1 which usually will not add one dollar to the total cost of the ton of mixed fertilizer4 ,basing the valuations of the pounds of plant-food in the mixed fertilizer on the value per pound in unmixed materials delivered to one's own locality1 there must be taken into account the added expense of mixing4 ,high-grade ,fertilizers4--,a high-grade fertilizer is not necessarily a high-priced one4 ,what we want in a fertilizer is a high content of the plant-food needed1 together with desirable availability4 ,if only phosphoric acid is wanted1 a #ad per cent1 or #af per cent1 acid phosphate is high-grade because it contains as many pounds of available phosphoric acid in a ton as the public can buy in a large way4 ,a #aj per cent acid phosphate is low-grade4 ,the effort is to escape paying freight1 and other cost of handling1 on waste material as far as possible4 ,generally speaking1 the higher the percentages of plant-food in a fertilizer1 the cheaper per pound is the plant-food4 ,a low-grade fertilizer rarely fails to be an expensive one because the expense of handling adds unduly to the price per pound of the small content of plant-food4 ,,chapter ,,xix ,,home-,,mixing ,,of ,,fertilizers ,the ,practice of ,home-mixing4--,the business of compounding fertilizers has been involved in a great deal of unnecessary mystery4 ,many of our best station scientists have labored to show that the home-mixing of fertilizers is a simple and profitable piece of work1 and the heaviest users of fertilizers in the east now buy unmixed materials1 but a majority of farmers use the factory-mixed4 ,manufacturers are right in their contention that many people do not know what materials are best for their own fields1 or what proportions are best1 but the purchase of mixed materials does not solve their problem and it does not help them to a solution as quickly as home-mixing4 ,the source of the plant-food in the factory-mixed goods is not known1 while it is known in the home-mixed4 ,effectiveness of ,home-mixing4--,van ,slyke says 7,fertilizers and ,crops1 p4 #dgg73 ,manufacturers of fertilizers and their agents have persistently sought to discourage the practice of home-mixing1 but their statements cannot be accepted as the evidence of disinterested parties4 ,it has been represented to farmers that peculiar and mysterious virtues are imparted to the plant-food constituents by proper mixing1 and that really proper mixing can be accomplished only by means not at the command of farmers4 ,such statements are misrepresentations1 based either upon the ignorance of the person who makes them or upon his determination to sell commercial mixed goods4 ,criticisms of ,home-mixing4--,the manufacturer's advocate formerly laid much stress upon the danger attending the treatment of bones and rock with sulphuric acid4 ,that is a business of itself1 and the home-mixer has nothing to do with it4 ,he buys on the market the acidulated bone or rock1 just as a manufacturer makes his purchase4 ,it is claimed that the manufacturer renders a great public service by using supplies of plant-food that the home-mixer would not use1 and thus conserves the world's total supply4 ,let us see the measure of truth in the statement4 ,the manufacturer gets his supply of phosphoric acid from rock1 bone1 or tankage exactly as does the home-mixer4 ,his potash he buys from the syndicate owning the ,german beds1 and the farmer does the same4 ,these sources must contribute all the phosphoric acid and potash used on land1 if we except trifling supplies of ashes1 marl1 etc41 and the only difference in the transaction is that in one case the manufacturer buys the materials and mixes them1 and in the other case the farmer buys them direct and mixes them4 ,the remaining constituent is the nitrogen4 ,if the manufacturer uses nitrate of soda1 sulphate of ammonia1 bones1 tankage1 or manufactured nitrogen1 he does what the home-mixer may do4 ,most nitrogen must come from these sources4 ,if all came from these sources1 the increased demand would not affect the price4 ,the beds of nitrate of soda will last for hundreds of years1 the present waste in ammonia from coal is immense1 and the supply of manufactured nitrogen can be without limit4 ,the saving in use of inert and low-grade forms of nitrogen is more profitable to the manufacturer than to the farmer who buys and pays freight on low-grade materials4 ,the rather remarkable argument is advanced that fertilizer manufacturers do not make a large per cent on their investment1 despite the perfection of their equipment1 and therefore the farmer cannot find it profitable to mix his materials at home4 ,by the same reasoning1 assuming for the moment that the profit in manufacturing does not pay a heavy dividend on all the stock issued1 if a great hotel does not find its dining-room a source of profit1 as many hotels do not1 no private home should hope to prepare meals for its own members in competition with hotels4 ,as has been stated1 every user of commercial fertilizer should learn what a pound of plant-food in unmixed material would cost him1 selecting the common materials that are the only chief sources4 ,if he can buy a pound of nitrogen in nitrate of soda or sulphate of ammonia1 a pound of phosphoric acid in acid phosphate or steamed bone1 and a pound of potash in muriate or sulphate of potash for less than they would cost in the factory-mixed goods offered him1 allowing to himself a dollar or so a ton for the labor of mixing1 it is only good business to buy the unmixed materials4 ,the saving usually is from five to ten dollars a ton1 excepting only interest on money1 as he would pay cash for the unmixed material4 ,the cost of bags always is mentioned4 ,that is not to be considered by the farmer1 as he uses the bags in which the unmixed materials come to him4 ,the ,filler4--,there has been much misleading use of the word filler1 as applied to fertilizers4 ,we have seen that a pure grade of dried blood contains about #ac per cent of nitrogen4 ,the buyer of a ton of dried blood thus gets about #bfj pounds of plant-food4 ,the remaining #agdj pounds constitute what may be called nature's filler4 ,the blood is a good fertilizer4 ,we do not buy nitrogen in a pure state4 ,we buy a ton of material to get the needed #bfj pounds of nitrogen4 ,thus it is with nitrate of soda1 sulphate of ammonia1 acid phosphate1 muriate and sulphate of potash1 and all other fertilizer materials4 ,as freight must be paid upon the entire ton1 it usually pays best to select materials that run high in percentage of plant-food4 ,it is possible to get very low-grade fertilizers that have not had any foreign material added by the manufacturer4 ,an acid phosphate may be poor in phosphoric acid because low-grade rock was used in its manufacture4 ,kainit is a low-grade potash because the impurities have not been taken out4 ,filler may be used1 however1 for two reasons1 and one is legitimate4 ,when limestone or similar material is used merely to add weight1 reducing the value per ton1 the practice is reprehensible4 ,the extent of this practice is less than many suppose1 preference being given to the use of low-grade materials in making very low-priced fertilizers4 ,a legitimate use of filler is to give good physical condition to a fertilizer4 ,some materials1 such as nitrate of soda and muriate of potash1 take up moisture and then become hard4 ,the addition of peat or limestone or other absorbent is necessary to keep the mass in condition for drilling4 ,the use of some steamed animal bone or high-grade tankage in the mixture helps to prevent caking4 ,the home-mixer can use a drier without loss1 as he does not pay freight upon it4 ,dry road dust will serve his purpose4 ,his need of a drier may be greater than that of the manufacturer1 as he probably will use only high-grade unmixed materials4 ,if the use of the home-mixture is immediate1 no drier to prevent caking is needed1 but its presence facilitates drilling4 ,storage of unmixed materials in a dry place is an aid in maintaining good condition4 ,ingredients in the ,mixture4--,the matters of interest to the farmer are the determination of the amounts of nitrogen1 phosphoric acid1 and potash that he should apply to a particular field1 their availability1 and their cost4 ,let us assume that he has found #cjj pounds of a fertilizer containing #c per cent nitrogen1 #aj per cent phosphoric acid1 and #f per cent potash to be an excellent application for wheat on a thin soil that is to be seeded to clover and timothy4 ,this fertilizer contains #c pounds of nitrogen to each #ajj pounds4 ,he applies #cjj pounds of the fertilizer per acre1 or #i pounds of nitrogen4 ,the fertilizer contains #aj pounds of phosphoric acid to the #ajj pounds4 ,he thus applies #cj pounds of phosphoric acid per acre4 ,the fertilizer contains #f pounds of potash per #ajj pounds1 and he therefore applies #ah pounds per acre4 ,what he has really learned1 then1 is that an acre of this land1 when seeded to wheat1 needs #i pounds of nitrogen1 #cj pounds of phosphoric acid1 and #ah pounds of potash4 ,it is in these terms he should do his thinking1 and the matter of fertilization becomes simple4 ,in the general farming of the ,pennsylvania experiment station1 it is the practice to depend upon nitrate of soda as the source of a fertilizer for wheat4 ,manufacturers claim that sulphate of ammonia and tankage would be better4 ,the farmer soon will learn what he prefers for his soil1 provided he practices home-mixing4 ,let us assume that he uses nitrate of soda1 which never varies much from #ae per cent in its content of nitrogen4 ,if #ajj pounds of nitrate contain #ae pounds of nitrogen1 the #i pounds wanted for an acre will be found in #i_/ae of #ajj pounds or #fj pounds4 ,thirty pounds of phosphoric acid are wanted for an acre4 ,if the acid phosphate contains #ad per cent of phosphoric acid1 or #ad pounds to the #ajj1 the required amount will be #cj_/ad of #ajj1 or #bad pounds4 ,eighteen pounds of potash are wanted for an acre4 ,the muriate of potash on our markets never varies much from #ej per cent in its content of potash4 ,if #ajj pounds of muriate contain #ej pounds of potash to the #ajj1 the required amount wanted will be #ah_/ej of #ajj1 or #cf pounds4 ,adding the #fj1 #bad1 and #cf pounds1 we have #caj pounds for the acre of land4 ,if the field contains #bj acres1 the order will call for #bj times the #fj pounds of nitrate of soda1 #bj times the #bad pounds of acid phosphate1 and #bj times the #cf pounds of potash4 ,if the farmer prefers to use sulphate of ammonia1 which varies little from #bj per cent of nitrogen1 or #bj pounds in the #ajj1 he will get his #i pounds of nitrogen for an acre by buying #i_/bj of #ajj pounds1 or #de pounds1 and the substitution of the #de pounds of sulphate of ammonia for the #fj pounds of nitrate of soda will reduce the total application of fertilizer per acre from #caj pounds to #bie pounds4 ,the important fact is that in either case there is the required amount of nitrogen4 ,let us assume that the field contains enough nitrogen1 but other needs remain the same4 ,in such case1 the nitrogen is dropped out1 and the application becomes #bej pounds per acre4 ,the home-mixer may substitute tankage of guaranteed analysis for part of the nitrogen and phosphoric acid4 ,let us assume that the tankage runs #i per cent nitrogen and #bj per cent phosphoric acid4 ,if half the required nitrogen per acre1 or #d-a_/b pounds1 is wanted in tankage1 #ej pounds of the tankage will supply it4 ,at the same time the #ej pounds of tankage supplies #aj pounds of phosphoric acid1 replacing one third of the #bad pounds of acid phosphate4 ,we thus have for the acre #cj pounds of nitrate of soda1 #ej pounds of tankage1 #adc pounds of acid phosphate1 and #cf pounds of potash1 or #bei pounds4 ,the content of plant-food remains the same1 but one half of the nitrogen is only slowly available4 ,the farmer who buys unmixed materials will incline to use only a few kinds1 and at first he will confine himself chiefly to materials whose composition varies little4 ,in this way he quickly sees in a ton of the material1 not the whole bulk1 but the definite number of pounds of nitrogen and other constituents of plant-food contained in it1 and the calculations in home-mixing become simple4 ,materials that should not be ,combined4--,the advocate of factory-mixed goods warns the farmer against the danger of making combinations of materials that will cause loss by chemical action4 ,the danger is wholly imaginary if no form of lime1 wood-ashes1 or basic slag is used in the home-mixtures4 ,as has been said1 some materials will harden1 if permitted to absorb moisture1 and if the mixture must stand1 a few hundred pounds of muck or dry road dust should be added to each ton as a drier1 and a correspondingly larger amount per acre should be applied4 ,making a ,good ,mixture4--,the process of mixing is simple1 and careful station tests have shown that it is fully as effective as factory-mixing4 ,the unmixed materials should be kept in a dry place until the mixing is done4 ,if there are any coarse lumps1 a wooden tamper can crush them on the barn floor1 and the material should be passed through a sand-screen4 ,the material of largest bulk should be spread on the floor1 and the other materials should be put on in layers4 ,three careful turnings with a shovel will secure good mixing4 ,scales should be used to secure accuracy in desired amounts of the materials4 ,buying ,unmixed ,materials4--,acid phosphate1 animal bone1 and tankage can be bought of any fertilizer agent1 but when one pays cash1 he does well to get quotations from various leading manufacturers4 ,the names of dealers in nitrate of soda can be secured from the ,new ,york agency which keeps its address before the public in agricultural papers4 ,this is likewise true in the case of the syndicate controlling all the potash4 ,when the addresses of leading distributors of all needed materials have been secured1 quotations should be obtained on a cash basis4 ,the best terms are obtained by groups of men combining their orders4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,,mixtures ,,for ,,crops ,composition of ,plant not a ,guide4--,it has been pointed out that a chemical analysis of a soil is not a dependable guide in the selection of a fertilizer4 ,years ago the theory was advanced that the analysis of the crops desired should be a guide1 but it has proved nearly worthless4 ,this theory does not take into account the soil's supply of plant-food4 ,moreover1 a certain crop may demand a large supply of an element at a time of the year when the soil's supply is inactive4 ,the need of nitrogen for grass in the early spring1 before nitrification in the soil is active1 is an illustration4 ,let the causes be what they may1 the fertilizer formulas that call for plant-food in a fertilizer in the same proportions that it is found in plants are disappointing in their results4 ,the analysis of the plant is not a dependable index4 ,the ,multiplication of ,formulas4--,fertilizer manufacturers have made all possible combinations of fertilizer materials1 using them in various quantities4 ,each manufacturer has given a mixture a brand of his own1 and confusion reigns4 ,there is no formula for a soil or crop that will remain absolutely the best1 even for one particular field4 ,it represents one's judgment of the present need1 and is employed subject to change1 just as is the prescription of a physician4 ,it is usually only an approach toward the most profitable amount and kind of plant-food that may be supplied4 ,the one important consideration is that no manufacturer can know the need nearly so well as the intelligent farmer who knows the history of his field and constantly tests its ability4 ,illustration3 ,on the productive farm of ,dr4 ,w4 ,i4 ,chamberlain1 in ,northern ,ohio4 ,a ,few ,combinations are ,safest4--,it is the best judgment of scientists to-day that greater results would be obtained from the use of commercial fertilizers if the number of formulas could be reduced to ten1 or even a less number4 ,the satisfactory fertilizers fall into three classes3 #a4 ,the phosphatic fertilizer1 carrying phosphoric acid to land that gets its nitrogen from clover or stable manure1 and that continues to supply its own potash4 ,such a fertilizer should have a high content of phosphoric acid in order that the freight charge1 per pound of plant-food1 may be as low as possible4 ,acid phosphate1 basic slag1 and bone are chief in this group4 #b4 ,the combination of phosphoric acid and potash that is needed by soils obtaining all required nitrogen from clover or manure4 ,in most instances the phosphoric acid should run higher than the potash1 but the percentage of potash should never run lower than #d4 ,a lower percentage of potash is not as profitable as a higher one1 provided any potash is needed4 ,the potash content should be greater than that of the phosphoric acid in case of some sandy soils and of some crops of heavy leaf growth1 including various garden crops4 #c4 ,the so-called complete fertilizer that supplies some nitrogen with the two other plant-constituents4 ,such fertilizer should furnish1 with few exceptions1 #c per cent of nitrogen1 if no more4 ,amount of ,application4--,in common practice fertilizers are not applied freely enough when they are used at all4 ,the exception to this rule may be found in the case of small applications to cold and inert soils to force growth in the first few weeks of a plant's life4 ,it is difficult to see how #hj or #ajj pounds of fertilizer can affect an acre of land one way or the other1 but experience teaches that such an amount can do so in respect to young plants4 ,phosphoric acid has peculiar power in forcing some development of roots in a small plant1 and a small application in the drill or row may help the plants to gain ability to forage for themselves4 ,in early spring a small application of nitrate of soda has marked effect1 tiding the plants over a period of need until the soil is ready to give up a part of its store4 ,if a soil is not fertile1 and fertilizers are needed as an important source of plant-food throughout the season1 the application should be liberal4 ,if it is necessary to plant a field that is deficient in fertility1 expending labor and money for tillage and seed1 the only rational course is to furnish all needed plant-food for a good yield4 ,there may be little net profit from the one crop1 but there will be more than could be obtained without the liberal fertilization1 and the soil will be better equipped for another crop4 ,this applies1 in a notable degree1 to fertilization of a wheat crop with which timothy and clover will be seeded4 ,the difference in cost of #cej pounds of a high-grade fertilizer and #aej pounds of a low-grade one1 when applied to a poor soil under these circumstances1 may be recovered in the grain crop1 and at the same time a good sod will be made possible for the permanent improvement of the land4 ,it is a safe business rule that land should be left uncultivated unless enough plant-food can be provided in some way for a good yield4 ,the man who cannot incur a heavy fertilizer bill1 when necessary1 should restrict acreage for his own sake4 ,similarity of ,requirements4--,many of our staple crops are very similar in their fertilizer requirements1 and this simplifies fertilization4 ,setting aside the impression gained from the dissimilarity in the so-called corn1 potato1 wheat1 and grass fertilizers on the market1 the farmer knows that the soil which is in a good state of fertility is best for any of them1 and if the soil is hard-run1 it should have its plant-food supply supplemented4 ,the hard-run soil usually is lacking in available supplies of all three plant-food constituents4 ,if a fertilizer containing #c per cent of nitrogen1 #aj per cent of phosphoric acid1 and #f per cent of potash serves the wheat well1 it will serve the timothy that starts in the wheat4 ,likewise it will serve the corn1 although a heavier application will be needed because corn is a heavy feeder4 ,experience has taught that it will serve the potato similarly1 and that the potato will repay the cost of free use of fertilizer4 ,if the soil is sandy and deficient in potash1 the percentage of phosphoric acid may be cut to #h1 and the percentage of potash raised to #aj1 and all these crops will profit thereby4 ,if the nitrogen content in the soil is high1 none of these crops may need nitrogen in the fertilizer4 ,this is a general principle1 and safe for guidance1 though the best profit will demand some modification that readily occurs to the farmer as he studies his crops and their rotation4 ,to illustrate3 ,the corn is given the clover sod or the manure partly because it requires more plant-food than the wheat4 ,it gets the best of the nitrogen1 and may need only a rock-and-potash fertilizer1 while the wheat that follows may need some available nitrogen to force growth in the fall4 ,there is no fixed formula for any field or crop1 and the point to be made here only is that the requirements of many standard crops do not have the dissimilarity usually supposed1 except in respect to quantity4 ,a marked exception is found in the oat crop1 which does not bear the application of much nitrogen1 and often fares well on the remains of the manure that fed the corn1 if some phosphoric acid is added4 ,maintaining ,fertility4--,a heavy clover sod gives assurance that a good crop of corn or potatoes can be grown4 ,if the amount of plant-food in the sod is not excessive1 a heavy crop of wheat can be produced4 ,the condition of the soil favors many crops4 ,the clover has placed it upon a productive basis for the time being4 ,the object that should be kept in view1 when a scheme of soil fertilization is worked out1 is the maintenance of such a state of fertility that the land can be depended upon for whatever crop comes round in the rotation4 ,when a #c-aj-f fertilizer1 or a #c-h-aj fertilizer1 is used1 the effect upon a thin soil is to restore it temporarily to this good-cropping power1 the size of the application varying with the crop4 ,a richer soil may want the phosphoric acid and potash without the nitrogen4 ,a manured soil may need only the phosphoric acid4 ,the purpose of the fertilizer in any case is maintenance or increase of fertility1 and when this object has been secured1 the crop may be whatever the rotation calls for4 ,it is this rational scheme that gives success to the ,pennsylvania station's methods on some of its test plats4 ,a given amount of plant-food is put upon the land1 which is under a four-years' rotation4 ,one half of it is applied every second year4 ,the corn gets one half because it can use it to advantage4 ,the oat crop that follows finds enough fertility because the soil is good4 ,next in the rotation is the wheat1 and the wheat and timothy and clover plants can use fertilizer with profit4 ,there is no change in its character because it is the soil that is getting the assistance1 and not primarily just one crop in a rotation4 ,the land in this experiment that is well fertilized is more productive than it was thirty years ago1 although no manure has been applied1 and it is the general productive condition that assures good yields1 and not chiefly any one application of fertilizer4 ,fertilizer for ,grass4--,a fertile soil will make a good sod4 ,a thinner soil should have a liberal dressing of complete fertilizer at seeding time1 and the formula that has been suggested is excellent for this purpose4 ,if a succession of timothy hay crops is desired1 the problem of maintaining fertility is wholly changed4 ,the nitrogen supplied by the clover is soon exhausted1 and the timothy sod must be kept thick and heavy until broken1 or the soil will not have its supply of organic matter maintained4 ,nitrogen must be supplied freely1 and phosphoric acid and potash must likewise be given the soil4 ,the draft upon the soil is heavy1 and at the same time the effort should be to have a sod to be broken for corn that will produce a big crop without the use of any fertilizer4 ,the grass is the natural crop to receive the plant-food because its roots fill the ground1 and the corn should get its food from the rotting sod1 when broken4 ,station tests have shown that a sod can be caused to increase in productiveness for several years by means of annual applications of the right combinations of plant-food in the early spring4 ,a mixture of #aej pounds of nitrate of soda1 #aej pounds of acid phosphate1 and #ej pounds of muriate of potash is excellent4 ,this gives nearly the same quantity each of nitrogen1 phosphoric acid1 and potash1 and is near a #g-g-g fertilizer4 ,the only material change in relative amounts of plant-food constituents1 when compared with a #c-aj-f and #c-h-aj fertilizer1 is in the increase of nitrogen1 due to the heavy drafts made by continuous mowings of timothy4 ,this fertilizer should be used as soon as any green appears in the grass field in the spring after the year of clover harvest4 ,the large amount of nitrogen makes this an unprofitable fertilizer for clover1 and its use is not advised until the spring of the year in which timothy will be harvested4 ,all the ,nitrogen from ,clover4--,the ,pennsylvania station has shown in a test of thirty years that when good clover is grown in a four-years' rotation of corn1 oats1 wheat1 and clover1 the fertility of the naturally good clay loam soil may be maintained1 and even slightly increased1 without the use of any manure or purchased nitrogen4 ,phosphoric acid and potash have been applied1 and the clover hay crop has been taken off the land4 ,this result has been possible only by means of good clover sods4 ,if there had been no applications of phosphoric acid and potash1 the clover would have failed to maintain fertility1 as is proved by other plats in this experiment4 ,no one should continue to depend upon such a scheme of keeping land fertile whenever he finds that the clover is not thriving4 ,method of applying ,fertilizers4--,if a fertilizer is used in small amount with the purpose of merely giving the plants a start1 it should be near the seed4 ,if the application is heavy1 and the roots of the plants spread upon all sides1 the fertilizer1 as a rule1 should be applied to all the ground1 and should be mixed with the surface soil4 ,this puts the plant-food where needed1 and saves from danger of injury to the seed through contact4 ,a seeming exception may be found in the case of the potato1 but usually some close tillage confines its roots to the row for a time4 ,experience indicates that when a potato fertilizer does not exceed #ejj pounds per acre1 it may well be put into the row1 but a heavier application should be divided1 one half being broadcasted or drilled into the surface1 and the other half of the application being made in the row4 ,an ,excess of ,nitrogen4--,too much nitrogen1 due to heavy manuring or other cause1 produces an excessive growth of stalk or straw1 at the expense of grain production1 in the case of corn1 wheat1 and other cereals4 ,it produces a rank growth of potato vines and partial failure of the crop of tubers4 ,it produces a tender growth of straw or vine that invites injury from fungous diseases4 ,it is the rule that soils have a deficiency in nitrogen1 but when there is an excess1 the best cure comes through use of such crops as timothy1 cabbage1 and ensilage corn4 ,heavy applications of rock-and-potash fertilizers assist in recovery of right conditions1 but are not wholly effective until exhaustive crops have removed some of the nitrogen4 ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,tillage ,desirable ,physical ,condition of the ,soil4--,successful cropping of land is dependent upon favoring soil conditions4 ,the plants to be grown must have ease in root extension1 so that their food may be found4 ,there must be moisture to hold the food in solution4 ,there must be air4 ,there must be destruction of plants that would be competitors of the ones desired4 ,a soil rarely is in prime condition for the planting and growth of any crop without some change in its structure by means of tillage1 and it does not remain in the best condition for any long period of time4 ,if the number of plants required per acre for a crop is relatively small1 tillage of the soil is continued after planting4 ,if the necessary number makes tillage impossible1 there is some loss in conditions most favorable to the plant4 ,the particles of soil settle together1 and there is loss of water at the surface4 ,most plants want a mellow soil1 and tillage is in large part an effort to make and to keep the condition of the soil friendly to plant life in this respect4 ,the wide variation in methods of tillage are due to the great differences in the texture and structure of soils1 and to the habits of plants1 and skill in selection of methods is a measure of the intelligence used in farming4 ,the ,breaking-plow4--,land containing enough clay to give it an excellent soil inclines to become firm4 ,during the growth of a crop1 when plant roots fill the soil and prevent deep stirring1 the particles pack closely together1 limiting the power of the land to make fertility available4 ,the presence of organic matter counteracts1 in part1 this packing tendency1 but there are few soils that remain permanently mellow4 ,the breaking-plow is used to loosen the soil1 and to undo the firming that has been taking place while plant roots prevented deep tillage4 ,at the same time the plow may be used to bury organic matter below the surface1 affording a clean seed-bed4 ,in some soils it has value in bringing inert soil to the surface1 and in mixing the soil constituents4 ,types of ,plows4--,the kind and condition of the soil1 and the character of the crop1 determine the type of plow to be used4 ,a plow with a short and quite straight moldboard does not bury manure and turf in the bottom of the furrow so completely as is the case with a long1 curved moldboard4 ,the organic matter should be distributed throughout all the soil4 ,on the other hand1 it is essential to some plants that they have a fine seed-bed1 and one whose surface is free from tufts of grass4 ,the long moldboard is preferred in breaking a sod for corn4 ,its use in plowing for all crops is more general than it should be1 the gain in pulverization of the furrow-slice1 due to the curve1 and the neatness in appearance of the plowed land1 inducing its use4 ,the disk plow has been used chiefly in soils not requiring deep plowing4 ,it pulverizes better than a moldboard plow1 and buries trash more easily4 ,illustration3 ,deep tillage4 ,the device for using two disks to turn a single furrow-slice rests upon a sound principle4 ,this plow may be set to run deeper than moldboard plows go1 and it mixes well all the soil that it turns4 ,the disks are so hung that the mixing of all the soil to a depth of twelve or fifteen inches is admirable4 ,the deep-tilling plow does not bury the organic matter in the bottom of the furrow1 and thereby permits the deepening of the soil without bringing an undue amount of subsoil to the surface4 ,subsoiling4--,the theory of subsoiling always has been captivating4 ,most soils are too shallow1 inviting injury from drouth4 ,enthusiasm regarding subsoiling comes to large numbers of farmers at some time in their experience1 and a great number of subsoil plows have been bought4 ,the check to enthusiasm is the fact that few men ever have seen such a plow worn out4 ,some reasons are as follow3 7a7 ,the subsoil at time of spring-plowing rarely is dry enough for good results1 and there is danger of puddling2 7b7 the subsoil often is too dry and hard in late summer1 when rains permit easy breaking of the top soil for fall grain2 7c7 the work doubles the labor and time of plowing1 and 7d7 the subsoil soon settles together because it contains little organic matter4 ,subsoiling is generally approved and little practiced4 ,land at plow-depth becomes packed by the tramping of horses upon it and the pressure of the plow1 when the plowing is done at the same depth year after year1 and in some soils subsoiling has been found distinctly valuable4 ,time of ,plowing4--,in great measure the time of plowing is determined by the effect upon soil moisture1 and is discussed in the next chapter4 ,method of ,plowing4--,the depth of plowing should be fixed largely by the amount of organic matter in the soil4 ,it is essential that a good percentage of this material should be mixed throughout the soil1 and when it is in scant supply1 the depth of plowing usually should not be great4 ,fertile soils should be plowed deep for their own good1 and thin soils should be deepened gradually1 as sods and manures afford a supply of humus-making material4 ,even when manure is used liberally in a single application on a poor soil1 a large amount of inert subsoil should not be thrown upon the surface4 ,the manure goes out of reach of the greatest need1 which is in the surface soil where plant-life starts4 ,a gradual process of deepening the soil is to be preferred1 but such deepening should not be neglected4 ,the subsoil is a store of inert fertility that should not remain dormant4 ,it may not do to say that the success of the best farmers is due to thoroughness in plowing1 but it is true that the more successful ones are insistent that the plowing be absolutely thorough4 ,every inch of the soil should be stirred to a certain depth1 and that requires a plow so set that it does not turn a furrow-slice much wider than the point can cut4 ,evenness in depth and width of furrow is seen in good plowing4 ,the ,disk ,harrow4--,the purpose of the plow is to break up the soil so that it will be crumbly and mellow4 ,the frequency with which land should be thoroughly stirred to full plow-depth depends upon the condition of the soil and the character of the crops4 ,oftentimes a disk or cutaway harrow may replace the plow4 ,its action is the same as that of the plow1 loosening and turning the soil over4 ,when land has had a good plowing within the year1 and has not become compact1 stirring to a depth of four inches may give a better seed-bed for some crops than could be made by use of a plow4 ,this is true of land that has produced a cultivated crop and is being prepared for a fall-seeding4 ,the gain in time of preparing ground for oats in the spring makes the use of the disk or cutaway harrow profitable on mellow corn-stubble land4 ,there is temptation to carry the substitution of the disk harrow for the breaking-plow too far4 ,its use alone would have the same effect as poor plowing1 reducing the depth of the soil4 ,the surface soil1 down to plow-depth1 is the chief feeding-ground for plants because it is kept in good tilth by organic matter and tillage4 ,the depth of this soil affects the amount of available plant-food and water4 ,the duration of time between deep plowings depends upon the soil and the crops4 ,experience shows that when land has been broken for corn or potatoes or beans or similar crop1 the one plowing may be sufficient for a succeeding crop4 ,if grass is not seeded with the succeeding crop1 it is best to give another thorough plowing before seeding to grass in ,august if the soil is heavy1 but in naturally loose soils a disk harrow makes a better seed-bed4 ,two influences favor such undue dependence upon a disk harrow that a soil may become shallow3 the cost of preparing the seed-bed is reduced1 and the saving in moisture may give a better stand of plants when the harrow takes the place of the plow4 ,the immediate productiveness of a crop is not an assurance that the method is right3 consideration for the good of the land must be shown4 ,depth of soil is a requirement of a good agriculture1 and deep plowing is a means to that end4 ,the looseness of the soil and the character of the season may make substitution right in one instance and wrong in another4 ,deep soils1 well filled with organic matter1 will bear shallow preparation of a seed-bed more frequently than thin soils1 and yet it is the latter that may profit most by having its best part kept near the surface at the time a new sod must be made4 ,the disk harrow has some place as a substitute for a plow1 but when its use results in making a soil more shallow1 the harm is a most serious one4 ,cultivation of ,plants4--,if a soil would remain mellow throughout the season1 there usually would be no reason to disturb the roots of plants by any deep stirring1 and all tillage would be only deep enough to make a mulch of earth for the retention of moisture and to destroy all weeds4 ,soils containing enough clay to make them retentive of moisture become too compact when rains beat upon the ground1 as usually happens after the planting of spring crops4 ,a deep and close cultivation of corn and potato plants after they appear in the row helps to restore the condition created by the plow and harrow1 and often is the best practice4 ,there is some sacrifice of roots1 but the gain far exceeds the loss4 ,it may be necessary to give a second such cultivation when a clay soil is deficient in organic matter1 but the root-pruning is a handicap4 ,controlling ,root-growth4--,the exception to the rule that plant-roots should not be pruned by deep cultivation is found in the case of a close soil in a wet season4 ,the plants extend their roots only in the soil at the surface because the ground is soaked with water nearly all the time4 ,they cannot form far enough below the surface to withstand a drouth that may follow the wet weather4 ,good tillage in such a case demands the pruning of the roots and the airing of the soil when the ground is dry enough to permit such stirring1 and the plants then extend their roots in the lower soil where they rightly belong4 ,judgment is required to decide when such tillage is desirable1 but judgment is needed all the time in farming4 ,when a continued period of wet weather affects the position of the plant-roots1 it rarely is advisable not to risk deeper tillage than is given in a normal season4 ,underdrainage helps to prevent such ill-effect of continued rains in the early part of a plant's life-time4 ,elimination of ,competition4--,weeds pump the water out of the soil1 use up available plant-food1 and compete for the sunlight4 ,tillage is given for several reasons1 and one is the destruction of weeds4 ,a weeder which stirs the soil only an inch or two deep is an excellent destroyer of weeds when they are starting1 but after the weeds are well-rooted1 the weeder acts only as a cultivator for the plants that should be destroyed4 ,modern cultivators have fine teeth that let the surface remain nearly level1 and they do their best work when the weeds are small4 ,the use of sweeps should be more general4 ,the blades are so placed that they slip under the surface1 letting the soil fall back so that a mulch is formed4 ,length of ,cultivation4--,most tilled crops grow rapidly until they shade and mulch the soil4 ,tillage should continue1 if possible1 until this occurs4 ,the exception is in the case of orchard trees and other plants that should not have their period of growth extended late in the fall4 ,good tillage tends to increase the lateness of a crop by encouraging growth4 ,the new wood of trees may not become hardy enough to withstand the frost of winter if tillage is continued4 ,early maturity is hastened by exhaustion of soil moisture and plant-food4 ,,chapter ,,xxii ,,control ,,of ,,soil ,,moisture ,value of ,water in the ,soil4--,the amount of water in the soil each day of the growing season determines in large measure the possibility of securing a profitable crop from land4 ,observant farmers have noticed oftentimes that the differences in yields on the farms of a region are less in a wholly favorable season than in one of deficient rainfall4 ,the skill of the farmer in conserving the moisture supply in a wet season is less well repaid because it is less needed4 ,the poverty of a worn soil is less marked in a favorable season4 ,the land is accounted poor because the supply of plant-food is inadequate for a drouthy year in which a considerable percentage of the time produces little growth1 but most agricultural land has enough plant-food for a fairly good crop when water is present all the time to carry daily supplies into the roots4 ,it is the amount of moisture in the soil that is the limiting factor in the case of most land that is not in a high state of productiveness4 ,the ,soil a ,reservoir4--,the rains of the summer rarely are adequate to the needs of growing plants4 ,some water runs off the surface1 some passes down through crevices beyond the effect of capillary attraction1 and much quickly evaporates4 ,the part that becomes available is only a supplement to the store of water made by the rains of the fall1 winter1 and early spring4 ,if the soil were viewed as a medium for the holding of water to meet the daily needs of plants1 and were given rational treatment on this basis1 a long step toward higher productiveness would have been taken4 ,as has been stated1 rotted organic matter gives a soil more capacity for holding water4 ,it is an absorbent in itself1 and it puts clays and sands into better physical condition for the storage of moisture4 ,an unproductive soil may need organic matter for this one reason alone more than it may need actual plant-food4 ,fall-plowing for a spring crop enables land to withstand summer's drouth if it gains in physical condition by full exposure to the winter's frost4 ,it is in condition to take up more water from spring rains than would be the case if it lay compact1 and it does not lose water by the airing in the spring that plowing gives4 ,early spring-plowing leaves land less subject to drouth than does later plowing4 ,as the air becomes heated1 the open spaces left by the plowing serve to hasten the escape of moisture4 ,if a cover crop is plowed down late in the spring1 the material in the bottom of the furrow makes the land less resistant to drouth because the union of the top soil with the subsoil is less perfect1 and capillary attraction is retarded4 ,it is usually good practice to sacrifice some of the growth of a cover crop1 even when organic matter is badly needed1 and to plow fairly early in the spring in order that the moisture supply may be conserved4 ,the ,land-roller4--,the breaking-plow is a robber of soil water when used in warm weather4 ,the air carries the water away rapidly4 ,the air-spaces are large4 ,the corrective of this condition is the land-roller4 ,it presses the soil together1 driving out the excess of air4 ,large crumbs are pressed down into the mass1 and are kept from drying into hard clods4 ,the roller never should be used on land when fresh-plowed in a moist condition1 and it is not needed after fall-plowing1 or early spring-plowing in most instances1 but land broken when the season is advanced should be rolled before much water evaporates4 ,illustration3 ,making an earth mulch in a ,new ,york orchard4 ,the ,plank-drag4--,an excellent implement on a farm is the plank-drag4 ,it is usually made of over-lapping heavy planks1 and when floated over the surface1 it both pulverizes and packs the soil4 ,the effectiveness is controlled by the weight placed upon it1 and oftentimes the drag is to be preferred to the roller4 ,the ,mulch4--,in conserving the supply of water in the soil the mulch plays an important work4 ,the dry air is constantly taking up the water from the surface of land1 and when the surface is drier than the soil below1 the moisture moves upward if there is no break in the structure of the surface soil4 ,the mulch is a covering of material that does not readily permit the escape of water4 ,the only available material for a mulch in most instances is the soil itself4 ,experience has taught that when the top layer of soil1 to a depth of two or three inches1 is made fine and loose1 the water beneath it cannot escape readily4 ,it is partly for this reason that the smoothing-harrow should follow the roller after land has been plowed4 ,the plow is used to break up the soil into crumbs that will permit air to enter4 ,the loosening is excessive when the planting must follow soon1 permitting rapid escape of water4 ,the roller or plank-drag is employed to compress the soil1 and to crush crumbs of soil that are too large for good soil conditions4 ,the harrow follows to make a mulch of fine1 loose soil at the surface to assist in prevention of evaporation4 ,a sandy soil will retain its mulch in effective condition for a longer time than a fine clay1 if no rain falls4 ,when the air is laden with moisture1 clay particles absorb enough water to pack together and form an avenue for the rise of water to the surface1 where the dry air has access to it4 ,mulches of ,foreign ,material4--,the truth that moisture is a leading factor in soil productiveness is evidenced by the value of straw and similar material as a mulch4 ,a covering of straw around trees in an orchard1 or bush fruits1 or such plants as the potato1 may give better results than an application of fertilizer when no effort is made to prevent the escape of water4 ,people so situated that little attention can well be given to the fruit and vegetable garden obtain good results by replacing tillage with a substantial mulch that keeps the soil mellow1 prevents weed growth1 and retains an abundant supply of water4 ,in grain-producing districts where all the straw is not needed as an absorbent in the stables its use as a mulch on thin grass lands1 or wheat-fields seeded to grass1 is more profitable than conversion into manure by rotting in a barnyard4 ,the straw affords protection from the sun1 and aids in the conservation of soil water1 when scattered evenly in no larger amount than two tons per acre1 and a less amount per acre has value4 ,the sod is helped1 and as the straw rots1 its plant-food goes into the soil4 ,plowing ,straw ,down4--,the practice of plowing straw under as a manure is unsafe1 when used in any large quantity per acre4 ,it rots slowly1 and while lying in the bottom of the furrow it cuts off the rise of water from the subsoil which is a reservoir of moisture for use during drouth4 ,the ,summer-fallow4--,bare land loses in total plant-food1 but may make a temporary gain in available fertility4 ,the practice of leaving a field uncropped for an entire season has been abandoned in good farming regions4 ,where moisture is in scant supply1 and a soil is thin1 there continue instances of the summer-fallow4 ,in a crop-rotation containing corn and wheat1 the corn-stubble land is left unbroken until ,may or ,june1 and then plowed4 ,in ,august it is plowed again1 and fitted for seeding to wheat4 ,the practice favors the killing of weeds1 and the soil at seeding time may contain more water than would have been the case if a crop had been produced1 because its mellow condition enables the farmer to hold within it nearly all the moisture that a shower may furnish after the second plowing4 ,the ,modern ,fallow4--,the modern method of making a grass seeding in ,august partakes of the nature of the old-fashioned summer-fallow4 ,the desire is to eradicate weeds1 secure availability in plant-food1 and fit the soil to profit by even a light rainfall4 ,thin soils lend themselves well to this treatment1 which is described in ,chapter ,,viii1 and there is no better method for fertile land4 ,the benefit of the fallow is obtained without serious loss of time4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii ,,drainage ,underdrainage4--,there are great swamps1 and small ones1 whose water should be carried off by open ditches4 ,our present interest is in the wet fields of the farm1--the cold1 wet soil of an entire field1 the swale lying between areas of well-drained land1 the side of a field kept wet by seepage from higher land1--and here the right solution of the troubling problem lies in underdrainage4 ,an excess of water in the soil robs the land-owner of chance of profit4 ,it excludes the air1 sealing up the plant-food so that crops cannot be secured4 ,it keeps the ground cold4 ,it destroys the good physical condition of the soil that may have been secured by much tillage1 causing the soil particles to pack together4 ,it compels plant-roots to form at the surface of the ground4 ,it delays seeding and cultivation4 ,an excess of water is more disheartening than absolute soil poverty4 ,the remedy is only in its removal4 ,the level of dead water in the soil must be below the surface--three feet1 two and one half feet1 four feet1--some reasonable distance that will make possible a friable1 aerated1 warm1 friendly feeding-ground for plant-roots4 ,only under drainage can do this4 ,counting the ,cost4--,thorough underdrainage is costly1 but it is less so than the farming of fields whose productiveness is seriously limited by an excess of water4 ,the work means an added investment4 ,estimates of cost can be made with fair accuracy1 and estimates of resulting profit can be made without any assurance of accuracy4 ,the farmer with some wet land does well to gain experimental knowledge1 and base future work upon such experience4 ,he knows that he cannot afford to cultivate wet land1 and the problem before him is to leave it to produce what grass it can produce1 sell it1 or find profit in drainage4 ,he has the experience of others that investment in drainage is more satisfactory than most other investments1 if land has any natural fertility4 ,he has assurance that debt incurred for drainage is the safest kind of debt an owner of wet land can incur4 ,he has a right to expect profit from the undertaking1 and he can begin the work in a small way1 if an outlet is at hand1 and learn what return may be expected from further investment4 ,almost without fail will he become an earnest advocate of underdrainage4 ,illustration3 ,drain tile4 ,where ,returns are ,largest4--,the total area of land needing drainage is immense4 ,swamps form only a small part of this area4 ,yields of much old farm land are limited by the excess of water during portions of the year4 ,as land becomes older1 the area needing drainage increases4 ,the owner of wet land does well to gain his first experience in a field where a swale or other wet strip not only fails to produce a full crop1 but limits the yield of the remainder of the field by delaying planting and cultivation4 ,this double profit often is sufficient to repay cost in a single year4 ,material for the ,drains4--,doubtless there are places and times when stone1 or boards1 or brush should be used in construction of underdrains1 but they are relatively few in number4 ,such underdrains lack permanency1 as a rule1 though some stone drains are effective for a long time4 ,if drain tile can be obtained at a reasonable price1 it should be used even in fields that have an abundance of stone4 ,its use requires less labor than that of stone1 and when properly laid on a good bottom1 it continues effective4 ,there is no known limit to the durability of a drain made of good tile4 ,the ,outlet4--,the value of any drainage system is dependent upon the outlet4 ,its location is the first thing to be determined4 ,if the land is nearly flat1 a telescope level should be used to determine elevations of all low points in the land to be drained4 ,the outlet should permit a proper fall throughout the length of the system1 and it should not require attention after the work is completed4 ,if it is in the bank of a stream or ditch1 it should be above the normal level of the water in the stream4 ,in times of heavy rainfall water may back up into the main with no injury other than temporary failure to perform its work1 but continuous submersion will lead to deposits of silt that may close the tile4 ,locating ,main and ,branches4--,there are various systems of drainage4 ,wherever a branch or lateral joins the main1 the means of drainage is duplicated within the area that the main can drain1 and the system should call for the least possible waste of this sort4 ,it usually is best that the main take the center line of the low land1 laterals being used to bring the water to the main from both sides1 but there is less duplication of work when the main can be at one side of the wet land4 ,branches of the main may be needed to reach remote parts of the area4 ,the ,laterals4--,small lines of tile are used to bring the water to the main when the wet land extends beyond the influence of the main4 ,the distance between these laterals depends upon their depth and the nature of the land4 ,a tight clay soil will not let water pass laterally more than a rod or #bj feet1 compelling the placing of the drains not over #dj feet apart1 while an open soil may permit a distance of #fj or more feet between laterals4 ,size of ,tile4--,the size of the main depends upon the area that eventually may be drained1 the amount of overflow from higher land1 the nature of the soil1 and the grade of the drain4 ,it is a common mistake to make the main too small because the drainage immediately contemplated is less than that which will be desired when its value is known4 ,in the determination of the size the judgment of an expert is needed1 and if this cannot be had1 the error should be on the side of safety4 ,if the main will not be required to carry overflow from other land1 and has a fall of #c inches to #ajj feet1 one may assume that a #f-;inch main will carry the surplus water from #ab to #bj acres of land1 and an #h-;inch main will carry the water of twice that area4 ,some drainage experts figure larger areas for such mains1 but there is danger of loss of crop when the rainfall is very heavy4 ,the laterals need not be larger than #c inches in diameter when laid on a good bottom4 ,kind of ,tile4--,when clay tile is used1 it should be well burned4 ,some manufacturers offer soft tile for sale1 as the loss from warping and cracking is less in case of insufficient burning4 ,the claim may be made that the efficiency of soft tile is greater than that of the hard tile whose porosity has been destroyed4 ,this is an error1 as the water enters the drain at the joints1 and not through the walls of the tile4 ,underdrainage should be permanent in its character1 and it is essential that every piece of tile be sound and well-burned4 ,vitrified clay tile is good for drainage1 but no better than common clay hard-burned4 ,round or octagonal tile is the most desirable because it can be turned in laying to secure the best joints4 ,collars are not needed in ordinary drainage4 ,cement tile is coming into general use in regions having no good clay4 ,its durability has not been tested1 but there is no apparent reason that it should not be a good substitute for clay4 ,the ,grade4--,the outlet may fix the grade4 ,if it does not1 the main1 branches1 and laterals should have a fall of #c inches1 or more1 to the #ajj feet4 ,this grade insures against deposits of silt and gives good capacity to the drains4 ,if the outlet demands less fall in the system1 the main may be laid on a grade of only a half inch to the #ajj feet with satisfactory results4 ,such a small fall should be accepted only when a lower outlet cannot be secured1 and great care should be used in grading the trench and laying the tile4 ,establishing a ,grade4--,if the grades are light1 they should be established by use of a telescope level4 ,most of the cheap levels are a delusion4 ,a stake driven flush with the surface of the ground at the outlet becomes the starting point1 and by its side should be driven a witness stake4 ,every #ajj feet along the line of the proposed drain and laterals similar stakes should be driven4 ,their levels should then be taken1 and when the fall from the head of the system to the outlet is known1 the required cut at each #ajj-;feet station is easily determined4 ,it may be necessary to reduce or increase the grade at some point to get proper depth in a depression or to save cutting when passing through a ridge4 ,cutting the ,trenches4--,there are ditching-machines that do efficient work4 ,the best are costly4 ,most of the work on farms will continue to be done with ditching-spades4 ,the ground should be moved when wet1 so that labor can be saved4 ,a line should be used to secure a straight side to the trench4 ,the grade should be obtained by means of a system of strings4 ,if two light poles be pushed into the ground at each #ajj-;feet station1 one on either side of the proposed trench1 and a string be drawn across at a point #e-a_/b feet above the bottom of the proposed trench1 these strings will be in line on a grade #e-a_/b feet above the grade the drain will have4 ,as the cut at the station is known1 the height of the string above the top of the stake is easily determined4 ,these strings will reveal any inaccuracy in the survey4 ,the workman can test every part of the bottom of the trench by use of a rod #e-a_/b feet high1 the top end being exactly in line with the strings when the lower end is placed on the correct grade of the trench4 ,this device is better than running water where grades are slight4 ,a drain scoop should be used in bottom of the trench to make a resting place for the tile that will prevent any displacement by the soil when the trench is filled4 ,depth of ,trenches4--,underdrains may be placed too deep in close soils for best results4 ,in an early day it was advised that the drains be put down #d feet deep4 ,we now know that a tight clay soil may give best results from a drain only #bh inches deep1 or even a little less4 ,in a looser soil #c feet is a better depth1 and in porous swamp lands the drain may well go #d feet deep1 thus permitting increase in distance between drains4 ,connections4--,the laterals should enter the branches and mains near the top1 so that the water will be drawn out rapidly4 ,the tile should be laid with close joints at the top1 so that the water may enter more freely from the sides than the top4 ,no covering other than moist soil is needed unless there is very fine sand1 when paper over the joints will serve a good purpose4 ,after some moist soil from the sides of the trench has been tramped upon the tile1 the trench may be filled by use of a breaking-plow or winged scraper4 ,permanency ,desired4--,the expense of underdrainage demands care in every detail of the work4 ,the grade of the trenches should be carefully tested4 ,every piece of tile should be examined4 ,the outlet should be guarded against displacement or entrance by animals4 ,a good plan is to lay the last few pieces of tile in a close-fitting wooden box1 and to protect the end with iron rods placed #b inches apart4 ,if the drain is on a true grade1 so that no silt will collect1 there need be no fear concerning its continued efficiency1 provided water does not run in it all the time4 ,if it carries the water from springs continuously1 plant-roots may fill it1 and tree roots are quite sure to do so when opportunity offers4 ,this is notably true in case of elms and willows1 but protection is afforded in such an instance by closing the joints with cement4 ,illustration3 ,the lure of the country4 ,the following pages contain advertisements of books on kindred subjects ,,new ,,farm ,,and ,,garden ,,books ,injurious ,insects3 ,how to ,recognize and ,control ,them ,by ,w4 ,c4 ,o',,kane ,entomologist of the ,new ,hampshire ,agricultural ,experiment ,station1 and ,professor of ,economic ,entomology in ,new ,hampshire ,college ,illustrated4 ,cloth1 #abmo4 #b4jj net4 ,complete information on the characteristics1 life histories and means of control of the more common injurious insects1 including those infesting field crops1 vegetables1 fruits1 the principal pests of domestic animals1 stored products and the household1 is contained in this book4 ,a distinctive feature of the work is the illustrations with which the text throughout is accompanied4 ,these have been made especially for ,dr4 ,o',kane4 ,with each insect treated he shows in an original photograph the characteristic injurious stage or the typical work of the insect where that is characteristic4 ,by this means the author hopes that the layman will be able to recognize an insect that threatens by the picture aside from any description in the text4 ,principles of ,fruit ,growing ,by ,professor ,l4 ,h4 ,,bailey ,new edition4 ,cloth1 #abmo4 #a4ej net4 ,since the original publication of this book1 in #ahig1 it has gone through many editions4 ,the progress of fruit growing in the meantime has been very marked and it has been necessary to completely rewrite the work4 ,the present issue of it brings the accounts of the new practices and discoveries as they relate to fruit growing up to date4 ,all of the text and practically all of the illustrations are new4 ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company ,,publishers #fd-ff ,fifth ,avenue ,,new ,,york ,,new ,,farm ,,and ,,garden ,,books ,sheep ,farming ,by ,,john ,a4 ,,craig and ,f4 ,r4 ,,marshall ,illustrated4 ,cloth1 #abmo4 #a4ej net4 ,this book deals with sheep husbandry as a phase of intensive farming4 ,recognizing that it is likely to be used by persons unfamiliar with sheep1 the authors have worked from the standpoint of the producer of market stock1 rather than from the standpoint of the professional breeder4 ,the various breeds are discussed in such a way as to enable the reader to select the kind that is most likely to do well under his conditions and to acquaint him with the care it is accustomed to and needs4 ,the management of the flock in the fall1 winter1 spring and summer seasons1 the formation of the flock1 the selection of foundation stock1 and the means of maintaining a high standard of flock efficiency1 are all discussed in subsequent chapters4 ,forage ,crops for the ,south ,by ,s4 ,m4 ,,tracy ,illustrated4 ,cloth1 #abmo4 ,preparing4 ,professor ,tracy has had long experience in ,southern agriculture1 both in application and in teaching4 ,he was formerly ,professor of ,agriculture in the ,mississippi ,agricultural ,college1 and now conducts a branch station or farm for the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture4 ,he is a botanist of note and has traveled extensively in the ,south as a collector4 ,his book is not only authentic1 but practical4 ,in it is contained a discussion of all kinds of plants and crops adapted to the ,southern ,states for fodder1 soiling1 pasturing and hay4 ,the text is abundantly illustrated4 ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company ,,publishers #fd-ff ,fifth ,avenue ,,new ,,york ,,the ,,rural ,,manuals ,edited by ,l4 ,h4 ,,bailey ,manual of ,farm ,animals ,a ,practical ,guide to the ,choosing1 ,breeding and ,keep of ,horses1 ,cattle1 ,sheep and ,swine4 ,by ,,merritt ,w4 ,,harper ,assistant ,professor of ,animal ,husbandry in the ,new ,york ,state ,college of ,agriculture at ,cornell ,university ,illustrated1 decorated cloth1 #abmo1 #ede pages1 index1 #b4jj net2 by mail1 #b4ah ,the work is invaluable as a practical guide in raising farm animals4--,morning ,telegram4 ,a book deserving of close study as well as being handy for reference1 and should be in the possession of every farmer interested in stock4--,rural ,world4 ,manual of ,gardening ,a ,practical ,guide to the ,making of ,home ,grounds and the ,growing of ,flowers1 ,fruits and ,vegetables for ,home ,use4 ,by ,l4 ,h4 ,,bailey ,illustrated1 cloth1 #abmo1 #edd pages1 #b4jj net2 by mail1 #b4ag ,this new work is a combination and revision of the main parts of two other books by the same author1 ,garden ,making and ,practical ,garden ,book1 together with much new material and the result of the experience of ten added years4 ,among the persons who collaborated in the preparation of the other two books1 and whose contributions have been freely used in this one1 are ,c4 ,e4 ,hunn1 a gardener of long experience2 ,professor ,ernest ,walker1 reared as a commercial florist2 ,professor ,l4 ,r4 ,taft1 and ,professor ,f4 ,a4 ,waugh1 well known for their studies and writings on horticultural subjects4 ,a ,,standard ,,work ,,revised ,,and ,,enlarged ,the ,farm and ,garden ,rule ,book ,by ,,liberty ,h4 ,,bailey ,illustrated1 cloth1 #abmo1 #b4jj net ,when ,professor ,bailey's ,horticulturist's ,rule ,book was published nearly twenty-five years ago1 the volume became a standard agricultural work running through sixteen editions4 ,taking this book as a basis the author has now made a wholly new book1 extending it to cover the field of general farming1 stock-raising1 dairying1 poultry-rearing1 horticulture1 gardening1 forestry1 and the like4 ,it is essentially a small cyclopedia ,of ready rules and references packed full from coyer to cover of condensed1 meaty information and precepts on almost every leading subject connected with country life4 ,,in ,,preparation ,manual of ,home-,making4 ,manual of ,cultivated ,plants ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company ,,publishers #fd-ff ,fifth ,avenue ,,new ,,york ,,the ,,rural ,,outlook ,,set ,by ,professor ,l4 ,h4 ,,bailey ,director of the ,new ,york ,state ,college of ,agriculture at ,cornell ,university ,four ,volumes4 ,each1 cloth1 #abmo4 ,uniform binding1 attractively boxed4 #e4jj net per set2 carriage extra4 ,each volume also sold separately4 ,in this set are included three of ,professor ,bailey's most popular books as well as a hitherto unpublished one1--,the ,country-,life ,movement4 ,the long and persistent demand for a uniform edition of these little classics is answered with the publication of this attractive series4 ,the ,country-,life ,movement ,cloth1 #abmo1 #bbj pages1 #a4be net2 by mail1 #a4cd ,this hitherto unpublished volume deals with the present movement for the redirection of rural civilization1 discussing the real country-life problem as distinguished from the city problem1 known as the back-to-the-land movement4 ,the ,outlook to ,nature 7,new and ,revised ,edition7 ,cloth1 #abmo1 #aie pages1 #a4be net2 by mail1 #a4cd ,in this alive and bracing book1 full of suggestion and encouragement1 ,professor ,bailey argues the importance of contact with nature1 a sympathetic attitude toward which means greater efficiency1 hopefulness1 and repose4 ,the ,state and the ,farmer 7,new ,edition7 ,cloth1 #abmo1 #a4be net2 by mail1 #a4cd ,it is the relation of the farmer to the government that ,professor ,bailey here discusses in its varying aspects4 ,he deals specifically with the change in agricultural methods1 in the shifting of the geographical centers of farming in the ,united ,states1 and in the growth of agricultural institutions4 ,the ,nature ,study ,idea 7,new ,edition7 ,cloth1 #abmo1 #a4be net2 by mail1 #a4cd ,it would be well1 the critic of ,the ,tribune ,farmer once wrote1 if ',the ,nature ,study ,idea' were in the hands of every person who favors nature study in the public schools1 of every one who is opposed to it1 and1 most important1 of every one who teaches it or thinks he does4 ,it has been ,professor ,bailey's purpose to interpret the new school movement to put the young into relation and sympathy with nature1--a purpose which he has admirably accomplished4 ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company ,,publishers #fd-ff ,fifth ,avenue ,,new ,,york ,how to ,keep ,hens for ,profit ,by ,c4 ,s4 ,,valentine ,cloth1 illustrated1 #abmo1 #a1ej net2 postpaid1 #a4fc ,the ,plymouth ,rock1 ,java1 ,dominique1 ,wyandotte1 ,rhode ,island ,red1 and ,buckeye breeds are discussed in the first few chapters4 ,considerable attention is given to other breeds later on4 ,eighteen beautiful half-tone engravings adorn the book4 ,from the standpoint of the practical farmer and poultry-grower1 we consider this book as one of the very best of its kind4 ,the author is evidently an experienced poultry-man4 ,it is a book that should be of special help to beginners in poultry1 while at the same time it contains much information for the expert4 --,farmers' ,tribune4 ,the ,beginner in ,poultry ,by ,c4 ,s4 ,,valentine ,decorated ,cloth1 profusely illustrated1 #abmo1 #a4ej net2 postpaid1 #a4fh ,it has been estimated that of the five million people who are raising poultry in this country today half have gone at it blindly4 ,and it is just as impossible to make a success of the poultry business without preparation as it is impossible to succeed in any other business without an acquaintance with the fundamentals4 ,the difficulty which the novice has experienced in going at the raising of chickens systematically in the past has been that he could find no book in which the essentials--only the essentials and all of them--of poultry-raising are given4 ,to write such a book has been ,mr4 ,valentine's purpose ,in ,the ,beginner in ,poultry he discusses the different breeds of fowls1 the types of houses1 feeding and the kinds of food1 raising chickens for the market and for their eggs1 diseases and their cures and everything else which will be of value for the one who is starting out--and much for the seasoned poultry-raiser as well4 ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company ,,publishers #fd-ff ,fifth ,avenue ,,new ,,york ,,rural ,,science ,,series ,edited by ,l4 ,h4 ,,bailey ,on ,selection of ,land1 etc4 ,isaac ,p4 ,roberts' ,the ,farmstead #a #ej ,on ,tillage1 etc4 ,f4 ,h4 ,king's ,the ,soil #a #ej ,isaac ,p4 ,roberts' ,the ,fertility of the ,land #a #ej ,f4 ,h4 ,king's ,irrigation and ,drainage #a #ej ,edward ,b4 ,voorhees' ,fertilizers #a #be ,edward ,b4 ,voorhees' ,forage ,crops #a #ej ,j4 ,a4 ,widtsoe's ,dry ,farming #a #ej ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey's ,principles of ,agriculture #a #be ,on ,plant ,diseases1 etc4 ,e4 ,c4 ,lodeman's ,the ,spraying of ,plants #a #be ,on ,garden-,making ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey's ,garden-,making #a #ej ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey's ,vegetable-,gardening #a #ej ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey's ,forcing ,book #a #be ,on ,fruit-,growing1 etc4 ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey's ,nursery ,book #a #ej ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey's ,fruit-,growing #a #ej ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey's ,the ,pruning ,book #a #ej ,f4 ,w4 ,card's ,bush ,fruits #a #ej ,on the ,care of ,live-stock ,nelson ,s4 ,mayo's ,the ,diseases of ,animals #a #ej ,w4 ,h4 ,jordan's ,the ,feeding of ,animals #a #ej ,i4 ,p4 ,roberts' ,the ,horse #a #be ,m4 ,w4 ,harper's ,breaking and ,training of ,horses #a #ej ,george ,c4 ,watson's ,farm ,poultry #a #be ,on ,dairy ,work1 ,farm ,chemistry1 etc4 ,henry ,h4 ,wing's ,milk and ,its ,products #a #ej ,j4 ,g4 ,lipman's ,bacteria and ,country ,life #a #ej ,on ,economics and ,organization ,i4 ,p4 ,roberts' ,the ,farmer's ,business ,handbook #a #be ,george ,t4 ,fairchild's ,rural ,wealth and ,welfare #a #be ,h4 ,n4 ,ogden's ,rural ,hygiene #a #ej ,j4 ,green's ,law for the ,american ,farmer #a #ej ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company ,,publishers #fd-ff ,fifth ,avenue ,,new ,,york ,cyclopedia of ,american ,agriculture ,edited by ,l4 ,h4 ,,bailey ,director of the ,college of ,agriculture and ,professor of ,rural ,economy1 ,cornell ,university4 ,with #ajj full-page plates and more than #b1jjj illustrations in the text2 four volumes2 the set1 #bj4jj net2 half morocco1 #cb4jj net2 carriage extra ,volume ,i--,farms ,volume ,,ii--,crops ,volume ,,iii--,animals ,volume ,,iv--,the ,farm and the ,community ,indispensable to public and reference libraries 444 readily comprehensible to any person of average education4--,the ,nation4 ,the completest existing thesaurus of up-to-date facts and opinions on modern agricultural methods4 ,it is safe to say that many years must pass before it can be surpassed in comprehensiveness1 accuracy1 practical value1 and mechanical excellence4 ,it ought to be in every library in the country4--,record-,herald1 ,chicago4 ,cyclopedia of ,american ,horticulture ,edited by ,l4 ,h4 ,,bailey ,with over #b1hjj original engravings2 four volumes2 the set1 #bj4jj net2 half morocco1 #cb4jj net2 carriage extra ,this really monumental performance will take rank as a standard in its class4 ,illustrations and text are admirable4444 ,our own conviction is that while the future may bring forth amplified editions of the work1 it will probably never be superseded4 ,recognizing its importance1 the publishers have given it faultless form4 ,the typography leaves nothing to be desired1 the paper is calculated to stand wear and tear1 and the work is at once handsomely and attractively bound4--,new ,york ,daily ,tribune4 ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company ,,publishers #fd-ff ,fifth ,avenue ,,new ,,york