file which includes the original illustrations4 ,see #bcedf-;h4htm or #bcedf-;h4zip3 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/dirs_/#b_/ c_/e_/d_/bcedf_/bcedf-;h_/#bcedf-;h4htm7 or 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/dirs_/#b_/ c_/e_/d_/bcedf_/bcedf-;h4zip7 ,redway's ,geographical ,readers ,,wealth ,,of ,,the ,,world',s ,,waste ,,places ,,and ,,oceania by ,,jewett ,c4 ,,gilson ,former ,superintendent of ,schools1 ,oakland1 ,california ,illustrated ,illustration3 ,from the ,national ,geographic ,magazine1 copyright #aiaa3 ,the great ,rainbow natural bridge of southern ,utah ,charles ,scribner's ,sons ,new ,york #aiac ,copyright1 #aiac1 by ,jewett ,c4 ,gilson ,,preface ,although the term ,waste ,places carries an implied meaning of worthless1 yet1 interpreted in the light of ,nature's methods1 each region described1 useless as it may apparently seem1 possesses a definite relation to the rest of the world1 and therefore to the well-being of man4 ,the ,sahara is the track of the winds whose moisture fertilizes the flood-plains of the ,nile4 ,the ,himalaya ,mountains condense the rain that gives life to ,india4 ,from the inhospitable polar regions come the winds and currents that temper the heat of the tropics4 ,nature has secreted many of her most useful treasures in most forbidding places4 ,the nitrates which fertilize so much of ,europe are drawn from the fiercest of ,south ,american deserts1 and the gold which measures ,american commerce is mined in the arctic wilds of ,alaska or in the almost inaccessible scarps of the western highlands4 ,the description of these regions and the portrayal of their relation to the rest of the world is the purpose of ,part ,i of this book4 ,part ,,ii of the book deals with ,oceania--more especially with our island possessions in the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,it presents the salient features of the ocean grand division in the light of most recent knowledge4 ,the author wishes to give credit to ,mr4 ,jacques ,w4 ,redway1 ,f4,r4,g4,s41 for suggesting the subject of ,part ,i and for the inspiration he received from the distinguished geographer in developing the subject4 ,j4 ,c4 ,g4 ,oakland1 ,california1 ,december #be1 #aiab4 ,,contents ,,part ,i--,,wealth ,,of ,,the ,,world',s ,,waste ,,places ,,page ,,introduction #a ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,wealth ,,of ,,the ,,arid ,,southwest #d ,,ii4 ,,the ,,grand ,,canyon ,,of ,,the ,,colorado #bg ,,iii4 ,,yellowstone ,,park #ce ,,iv4 ,,two ,,prehistoric ,,cemeteries--,,giant ,,reptiles ,,and ,,giant ,,trees #ea ,v4 ,,death ,,valley #eh ,,vi4 ,,the ,,mineral ,,wealth ,,of ,,the ,,andes #fg ,,vii4 ,,the ,,czar',s ,,greater ,,domain #hb ,,viii4 ,,the ,,mystic ,,highlands ,,of ,,asia #ig ,,ix4 ,,the ,,primal ,,home ,,of ,,the ,,saracen #aje ,x4 ,,the ,,sahara #aae ,,xi4 ,,polar ,,regions--,,the ,,conquest ,,of ,,the ,,arctic #abh ,,xii4 ,,polar ,,regions--,,antarctica #adg ,,xiii4 ,,iceland1 ,,the ,,maid ,,of ,,the ,,north #afj ,,xiv4 ,,greenland #agj ,,xv4 ,,where ,,the ,,two ,,great ,,oceans ,,meet #age ,,xvi4 ,,reclaimable ,,swamp ,,regions #ahc ,,xvii4 ,,strange ,,rock ,,formations--,,natural ,,bridges #aij ,,xviii4 ,,strange ,,rock ,,formations--,,table ,,mountain ,,of ,,california #aie ,,xix4 ,,strange ,,rock ,,formations--,,gibraltar #aii ,,xx4 ,,the ,,baku ,,oil ,,fields #bjf ,,xxi4 ,,the ,,south ,,african ,,diamond ,,fields #baa ,,part ,,ii--,,oceania ,,xxii4 ,,the ,,islands ,,of ,,the ,,pacific #bbf ,,xxiii4 ,,australia #bcc ,,xxiv4 ,,the ,,great ,,barrier ,,reef #bdd ,,xxv4 ,,the ,,gold ,,fields ,,of ,,australia #bej ,,xxvi4 ,,tasmania #beh ,,xxvii4 ,,new ,,zealand #bfb ,,xxviii4 ,,samoa ,,and ,,fiji #bgj ,,xxix4 ,,the ,,hawaiian ,,islands #bgg ,,xxx4 ,,guam #bhe ,,xxxi4 ,,the ,,philippine ,,islands #bhi ,,xxxii4 ,,the ,,dutch ,,east ,,indies--,,java #cja ,,xxxiii4 ,,the ,,dutch ,,east ,,indies--,,sumatra ,,and ,,celebes #caa ,,xxxiv4 ,,borneo ,,and ,,papua #cai ,,illustrations ,the great ,rainbow natural bridge of southern ,utah ,frontispiece ,,page ,map of ,islands of the ,pacific ,facing #a ,mohave ,desert1 ,california4 ,buzzards' ,roost #f ,gila monsters #i ,a giant cactus in ,arizona #ab ,the ,roosevelt ,dam1 ,arizona1 showing south bridge and spillway #ag ,shoshone ,project1 ,wyoming #be ,the ,grand ,canyon of the ,colorado #bi ,grand ,view ,trail #cc ,the ,yellowstone ,national ,park1 ,wyoming1 looking down canyon from ,grand ,point #cg ,the ,yellowstone ,national ,park1 ,wyoming4 ,mammoth ,hot ,springs1 ,summit ,pools #de ,the ,yellowstone ,national ,park1 ,wyoming4 ,beehive ,geyser #dg ,the ,brontosaurus #ec ,the ,allosaurus #ee ,twenty-mule borax team #fa ,the ,oroya ,railroad1 ,peru1 showing four sections of the road #gc ,llamas resting #gg ,silver-smelting works at ,cassapalca1 on the ,oroya ,railroad1 ,peru1 #ac1fjj feet high #gi ,fishing for sturgeon through the ice of the ,ural ,river4 ,catching the material for caviare #hc ,gathering salt at the mouth of the ,ural ,river #hg ,driving over the tundra in winter #ia ,train on the steppes of ,russia #ie ,dunkar ,spiti1 ,himalaya ,mountains1 ,india #ii ,khaibar ,pass1 the gateway to ,india #ajg ,on the sands of the desert #aag ,the yak not only serves as a beast of burden1 but furnishes milk1 butter1 and meat #ajc ,a group of ,arabs with their dromedaries #aaa ,a caravan crossing the desert on the road to ,jaffa #abe ,peary's ship1 the ,roosevelt #acg ,commander ,robert ,e4 ,peary and three of his ,eskimo dogs on the ,roosevelt #ada ,musk ox #add ,an antarctic summer scene #adi ,the penguin defies the cold #aec ,street in ,reykjavik1 ,iceland #afc ,north ,cape1 ,iceland #afg ,stone igloos on the bleak coast of ,greenland #aga ,a large iceberg #agc ,a group of ,eskimos in south ,greenland #agd ,the ,straits of ,magellan4 ,cape ,pilar is the extreme western end #agg ,fuegians #agi ,the ,everglades of ,florida #ahd ,group of ,seminole ,indians in the ,everglades of ,florida #ahg ,the ,devil's ,slide1 ,weber ,canyon1 ,utah #aia ,witch ,rocks1 near ,echo ,canyon1 ,utah #aic ,this strong and impregnable place is the ,rock of ,gibraltar1 and the city nestling at its base1 ,gibraltar #bja ,landing-place for commerce on the ,caspian ,sea #bji ,open workings of the diamond mine1 ,kimberley #bai ,sorting gravel for diamonds in the ,kimberley mine #bbc ,a ,malay girl #bbi ,a ,malay boy #bca ,a giant fig-tree1 #adj feet in circumference #bce ,a mother kangaroo with a young kangaroo in her pocket #bcg ,an ,australian emeu #bci ,homestead and station in ,young district1 ,australia #bdc ,the ,great ,barrier ,reef of ,australia1 the most remarkable animal structure in the world #bdg ,melbourne is the largest city of ,australia and contains nearly half a million people #beg ,maori pa1 or village #bfc ,the ,petrifying ,geyser1 ,new ,zealand #bfe ,native canoe1 ,fiji ,islands #bge ,general view of ,volcano ,house1 ,kilauea1 ,hawaii #bgi ,a lake of white-hot molten lava4 ,the volcano of ,mauna-,loa1 ,hawaii #bha ,native ploughing in rice-field1 ,guam4 ,one may find rice-farms as skilfully cultivated as those of ,japan or ,china #bhg ,the carabao1 harnessed to a dray or wagon1 shuffles along #bia ,the harbor of the city4 ,scene on the ,pasig ,river1 ,manila #bie ,extracting indigo in ,ilocos ,province1 ,philippine ,islands #big ,manila hemp as it is brought in from the country #bii ,a breadfruit tree in ,java #cjc ,coffee-drying in ,java #cji ,natives in the jungle1 ,sumatra #cac ,a jungle1 scene in ,sumatra #caf ,,wealth ,,of ,,the ,,world',s ,,waste ,,places ,,and ,,oceania ,illustration3 ,islands of the ,pacific4 ,,part ,i ,,wealth ,,of ,,the ,,world',s ,,waste ,,places ,,introduction ,there is a great wealth of literature about what we call the world's productive lands--that is1 the densely peopled lands that yield grain1 meat1 sugar1 fruit1 and all the various foodstuffs4 ,in any well-equipped library we may find great numbers of useful books that will tell us all about the places where cotton1 wool1 and silk are grown1 or where coal and iron are mined4 ,all these lands are the dwelling places of many people4 ,networks of railways connect the various cities and villages1 and probably a majority of the people living in them have travelled in and about much of the area of these lands4 ,a large part of the earth's surface is commonly called unproductive4 ,as a rule this is only another way of saying that such parts of the world produce little foodstuffs4 ,we must not take the word unproductive either too literally or too seriously1 however1 for ,dame ,nature has a way of secreting some of her choice treasures in places so forbidding and so desolate that only the most resolute and daring men even search for them4 ,for instance1 the mineral once much used by the makers of carbonated or soda water comes from a part of ,greenland that is so bleak1 cold1 and inhospitable that no human beings can long exist there unless food and fuel are brought them from afar off4 ,the famous nitrates of ,chile are obtained in the fiercest part of the ,andean desert4 ,not only the food but the water consumed must be carried to the miners1 who are but little better than slaves4 ,most of the gold and silver is obtained in regions that are unfit for human habitation4 ,the largest diamond fields in the world are in a region that will not produce even grass without irrigation--a region that would not be inhabited were there no diamonds4 ,from the most inhospitable highlands of ,asia comes a very considerable part of the precious mineral1 jade4 ,death ,valley1 in the southern part of the ,united ,states1 on account of its terrific heat1 is perhaps the most unhabitable region in the world1 but the borax which it produces is used in every civilized country4 ,and so we might name regions by the score that are practically unhabitable1 which nevertheless produce things necessary to civilized man4 ,we call them waste places1 but this is far from true4 ,for the greater part they are quite as necessary as the places we call fertile4 ,of foodstuffs1 for instance1 the greater part of the ,rocky ,mountain highland produces not much more than the ,state of ,new ,york4 ,yet the presence of this great mountain wall diverts the moist warm air from the ,gulf of ,mexico northward1 making the ,mississippi basin one of the foremost granaries of the world4 ,the absence of rain in the west slope of the ,peruvian ,andes makes much of the western part of ,chile and ,peru a desert4 ,but that same absence of rain makes the nitrate beds possible2 for had there been yearly rains1 the nitrates long since would have been leached out4 ,so1 the lands the nitrates now fertilize are far greater in area than that of the region of the nitrates4 ,then1 perhaps1 we turn our eyes oceanward4 ,what6 wealth in these great wastes8 ,most certainly1 and indispensable wealth at that4 ,let us forget for a moment that the oceans produce about as much meatstuffs as the land2 this is really the least important feature about them4 ,the oceans produce one thing that is absolutely necessary for every living thing almost every hour of the day1 and that is fresh water4 ,every drop of fresh water that falls on the land is born of the ocean4 ,even the cold1 polar oceans are indispensable to life1 for their waters are constantly flowing out into the warmer oceans1 thereby tempering the water of the latter and preventing it from being too warm for living things4 ,thus we see that1 after all1 ,dame ,nature is not very unkind to her subjects4 ,compensation is her great law2 if her supplies are short in one direction they are long in another4 ,and when we take the broader view we must conclude that there are no waste places4 ,it is only when we take the extreme and narrow view that we voice the persiflage of the poet ,pope3 ,while man exclaims3 ',see all things for my use'-- ',see man for mine1' replies a pampered goose4 ,now1 these waste places are of various kinds and in pretty nearly every locality4 ,some are deserts pure and simple2 some are very dry and1 to avoid hurting our national feelings1 we politely refer to them as arid regions2 some are so rugged and inaccessible that nothing short of dirigible balloons and aeroplanes could open a general communication with them2 still others are in polar regions and too bleak and desolate to produce foodstuffs or support human life4 ,the purpose of these chapters is to present the characteristics of these waste places4 ,most of them have been conquered by man1 and their resources have been opened wide to the world4 ,possibly others yet remain to be conquered1 but what man has done1 man can do4 ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,wealth ,,of ,,the ,,arid ,,southwest ,years ago the maps of the ,united ,states depicted a vast region west of the ,missouri ,river stippled with dots1 which were supposed to imitate sand1 and marked with the portentous legend1 ,great ,american ,desert4 ,as sturdy pioneers pushed their settlements farther and farther westward1 the great ,american desert began to shrink in size until the roseate descriptions of prospectors and land speculators led one to believe that this whole region needed only a touch of the plough and the harrow to produce the most bountiful crops grown anywhere in the world4 ,nevertheless1 the great domain extending from the twenty-five-hundred-foot level to the crest of the ,sierra ,nevada ,mountains is a region so deficient in rainfall that1 for the greater part1 ordinary foodstuffs will not grow without irrigation2 so farming must be confined mainly to the flood-plains of the rivers4 ,here and there considerable areas have been made fertile by capturing rivers1 damming their streams so as to create great reservoirs1 and then measuring out the waters to the farm lands below4 ,the ,salt ,river dam in ,arizona1 recently completed1 will supply water to two thousand square miles1 or about twenty-five thousand fifty-acre farms4 ,but in spite of all that man has done and can do to make this region fruitful1 not far from half a million square miles will ever remain barren so far as the production of foodstuffs is concerned4 ,now this whole region1 irrigated lands included1 does not produce more wealth than the ,state of ,new ,york alone--possibly it does not produce so much4 ,indirectly1 however1 it is worth more than two thousand million dollars yearly to the rest of the ,united ,states2 for it is a great highland whose rims1 the ,sierra ,nevada and the ,rocky ,mountain ranges1 are about two miles high4 ,now1 these lofty ranges wring almost every drop of moisture from the rain-bearing winds of the ,pacific ,ocean1 leaving them too dry to shed any moisture over the eastern half of the ,united ,states4 ,because of this great mountain barrier1 the winds that bring rain and bountiful crops to the ,mississippi ,valley and the ,atlantic slope1 follow an easier passage1 flowing directly from the ,gulf of ,mexico and the ,caribbean ,sea4 ,and the copious rains are the chief wealth of this midland region4 ,but the arid western highland possesses a great wealth of its own--a wealth whose influence is world-wide1 for it is one of the world's chief storehouses of gold1 silver1 and copper4 ,gold and silver are the mediums of commercial transactions1 and copper is the chief medium for the transmission of electric power4 ,these metals1 therefore1 are quite as necessary as are iron and steel4 ,moreover1 this great waste1 a seeming incubus on the face of the earth1 is each year disclosing more and more of its mineral and agricultural wealth4 ,gold is the most widely disseminated of all metals1 and is said to be where you find it4 ,that this statement is true has been demonstrated many times1 especially during the last few decades4 ,in the north it has been found in the frozen ground of ,alaska and ,siberia1 in the south in the sands on the surf-beaten shores of ,tierra del ,fuego and in the reefs of the ,transvaal1 while it is found in numerous places lying between these extremes4 ,the vast tract of land in the western part of the ,united ,states whence most of these metals are obtained has been the scene of many tragedies4 ,it is an inhospitable region1 scanty in both animal and vegetable life1 where climatic conditions call for heroic daring on the part of those who would search out its hidden mysteries2 it is a land of death-dealing mirages1 yet containing untold wealth for the miner1 and likewise for the husbandman who can irrigate the fallow parched surface4 ,illustration3 ,mohave ,desert1 ,california4 ,buzzards' ,roost ,the bold prospector has unearthed in many places of southern ,nevada gold-bearing rock assaying thousands of dollars to the ton1 the result being the building up of cities and towns and the construction of connecting railroads to meet the demands of the growing commerce4 ,until recently1 silver was the principal metal sought and found in the ,state of ,nevada2 but now gold is king1 and his throne has been shifted from one desert camp to another1 each laying claim to his abundant presence1 while new claimants are ever bringing new treasures into light4 ,the two most valuable deposits of the precious metals now known in ,nevada are at ,tonopah and ,goldfield1 the discovery of the first having been made in #aija and of the latter in the following year4 ,some of the ,goldfield ore has assayed as high as thirty thousand dollars per ton1 and so rich were many of its ores that they were sacked and carefully guarded until landed at the reduction works4 ,in one year and a half from the discovery of gold at ,goldfield the output reached four million dollars4 ,these mines of the ,nevada deserts excel in the richness and abundance of their ores1 while in the future these camps bid fair to outrival in development all other sections of the ,united ,states4 ,a few years ago the southern part of the ,silver ,state was considered utterly worthless and a region to be shunned like a charnel-house1 on account of its barren and dangerous character4 ,now it is the ,mecca of the gold-seeker4 ,these mines have already made many a poor man wealthy and many a wealthy man a millionaire4 ,each hillock1 ledge1 or ravine holds a possible fortune1 and no hardship and peril is too great for the prospector lured by the hope of a rich find4 ,the prosperous desert mining town1 first built of canvas and rough lumber1 is soon replaced by a better class of buildings1 and water is brought through long miles of pipe from the nearest available source4 ,anon1 electric-lighting and other modern conveniences are added1 thereby making life more tolerable in a fierce climate of heat and cold1 of fiercer winds and blinding dust4 ,not only is gold found in these desert wastes1 but borax1 nitre1 sulphur1 silver1 salt1 soda1 opals1 garnets1 turquoises1 onyx1 and marble form a part of its resources4 ,rich gold mines have built the towns of ,randsburg and ,johannesburg in the midst of the ,mohave desert1 while finds of rich ore made elsewhere are of frequent occurrence4 ,it is thought that in the near future sufficient nitre can be obtained from the deserts of ,california and ,nevada to render the ,united ,states independent of ,chile1 from whose desert1 ,atacama1 the world's chief supply of this mineral is now obtained4 ,perhaps there is no part of the ,united ,states more healthy and at the same time more deadly than the southeastern part of ,california1 embraced in those indefinite areas called the ,mohave and ,colorado deserts4 ,that life and death should lay claim to the same regions with equal strength seems somewhat of a riddle1 but a careful investigation of the conditions will make good the claims of both4 ,here are regions rivalling the ,sahara in heat1 lack of water1 and barrenness1 and in many parts as difficult to traverse2 regions full of surprises in deceptive mirages1 peculiar vegetation1 strange animal life1 occasional cloud-bursts1 purity and exhilarating effects of atmosphere1 charm of ever-changing colors reflected from the mountains1 wealth of floral display in early spring1 and marvellous fertility of soil when touched by the magic wand of water4 ,all these and a certain weirdness of beauty difficult to define give these great wastes a peculiar attraction of their own which only those who have spent much time there can understand and appreciate4 ,for the dread white plague in its early stages there is no medicine and no other climate that can equal the pure1 healing atmosphere of these deserts4 ,a new lease of life may be gained by the nerve-racked man or woman who will lay aside all home worries and spend a few months at some congenial home on one or another of these deserts4 ,illustration3 ,gila monsters ,among the animal life found on the desert are the wildcat1 coyote1 rabbit1 deer1 rat1 tortoise1 scorpion1 centipede1 tarantula1 ,gila monster1 chuck-walla1 desert rattlesnake1 side-winder1 humming-bird1 eagle1 quail1 and road-runner4 ,wild horses and wild donkeys1 or burros1 frequent these great wastes1 cropping the vegetation that grows on the oases4 ,one of the most interesting of these animals is the desert-rat1 whose habits1 seemingly intelligent and equally curious1 enable him to maintain a home amid surroundings most unfavorable to his survival4 ,he is a big1 active fellow of a glossy gray color1 and since he always leaves something in place of whatever he may carry off1 he is often called the trade rat4 ,night-time is his busy day4 ,the house that he builds for himself is a veritable fortified castle built in up-to-date desert-rat style1 under a protecting bush or rock1 or beside a cactus--preferably a prickly pear4 ,this stronghold1 from four to five feet long and three feet high1 is made of sticks interwoven with pieces of prickly cactus1 thorny twigs1 and odd bits in general--great care being taken to have most of the thorns project outward4 ,his private quarters consist of a shallow hole burrowed under the centre of this thorn-woven pile4 ,access to the interior is gained by a winding passage4 ,the only enemy that might try to thread the mazy hallway is the rattler1 who by an ingenious device is deterred from even making the attempt4 ,to keep his snakeship from intruding on domestic privacy ,mr4 ,rat takes several strips of spiny cactus and lays them flatways across the passageway leading to his retreat4 ,it is well known that a rattlesnake will not crawl over a prickly substance2 hence a traveller when camping out at night in rattlesnake regions often surrounds his sleeping place with a horsehair rope as a safeguard against such an unwelcome intruder4 ,even the hungry1 prowling coyote1 who would make short work of the rat could he but get at him1 fights shy of lacerating his paws by attempting to tear down the formidable pile4 ,the desert-rat has a morbid desire to carry to his home any small article which he may chance to find lying around1 as many a desert miner has found to his discomfiture1 but he always leaves something in its place1 such as a strip of cactus or a stick4 ,for downright strategy no creature inhabiting the desert surpasses the road-runner1 sometimes called the ground-cuckoo or snake-killer4 ,though omnivorous1 this bird lives chiefly on reptiles and mollusks4 ,it is decked in a gay plumage of coppery green1 with streaks of white on the sides and a topknot of deep blue4 ,in fleetness of foot it is said to equal the horse4 ,many stories are told of its surrounding a coiled sleeping rattlesnake with strips of cactus and then tantalizing its victim until1 baffled in every attempt to get away1 the snake finally inflicts a deadly bite on itself4 ,then the road-runner leisurely proceeds to devour the suicide4 ,the characteristic plants of these deserts are sage1 mesquite1 greasewood1 and a great variety of cacti4 ,of the cactus family1 the most conspicuous is the saguaro1 or giant cactus1 which frequently attains the height of fifty feet4 ,all the cacti are leafless and abundantly supplied with sharp1 needle-like spines which protect them from herbivorous animals4 ,the bark or outer covering has a firm1 close texture that prevents the sap from evaporating during the long1 dry season4 ,in traversing the deserts during ,may and ,june1 one is amazed at the display of beautiful blossoms of white1 yellow1 purple1 pink1 and scarlet issuing from their thorny stalks4 ,the plant most welcome to the thirsty traveller1 and which has saved the lives of many a wandering prospector1 is the well of the desert1 a barrel-shaped cactus thickly studded with sharp spines4 ,when one cuts out the centre of the plant in a bowl-like form1 the cavity soon fills up with a watery liquid that is most refreshing4 ,illustration3 ,a giant cactus in ,arizona ,hot and forbidding as are these terrible wastes1 they are the dwelling places of several tribes of ,indians4 ,the desert cactus furnishes them a large part of their food1 and the fibre is woven into cloth to provide them with clothing4 ,these ,indians have been acclimated to the desert for centuries and are well versed in all of its moods and mysteries4 ,they know of no better abode2 neither can they be induced to leave it for a more congenial climate and fertile soil4 ,travellers and prospectors have told many stories about their experiences in these deserts4 ,but perhaps no story has possessed a greater fascination than that of the lost ,pegleg ,mine4 ,the story of this lost mine has been told and retold with many variations for the past seventy years1 and more than a score of persons have lost their lives in attempting to rediscover it4 ,in #ahcf1 according to the traditional story1 a man named ,smith1 distinguished from the rest of the ,smith family by the possession of a wooden leg1 was journeying with several companions from ,yuma over the ,colorado desert4 ,on account of his wooden stump he was dubbed ,pegleg by his fellow-travellers4 ,after having been out several days and not finding any springs or water holes1 the prospectors became greatly alarmed and hastened toward three small buttes which they saw standing out in the desert1 in the hope of finding water in the dry wash leading from their bases4 ,on arriving at the foot of the hills they were sadly disappointed2 diligent search revealed no signs of water4 ,he of the wooden leg climbed to the top of one of the buttes to get a better view of the country1 and to the northward saw a high mountain2 but before descending1 he observed some black stones under his feet and on picking one up found it heavy and filled with a brassy-colored metal4 ,he then picked up several of the stones and put them into his pockets1 but being desirous of reaching water as soon as possible1 he gave little thought to his find4 ,he told his companions of the mountain seen to the north and advised all possible haste to reach it1 saying that he believed that they would there find water4 ,the next day at nightfall they succeeded in reaching the base of the mountain in an exhausted condition and found a spring of cool1 clear water4 ,they were thus barely saved from a lingering death by thirst4 ,the mountain was named ,smith ,mountain4 ,at ,san ,bernardino1 ,smith showed his ore to an expert1 who pronounced it nearly pure gold4 ,the real importance of the discovery did not seem to dawn on the one-legged man1 however1 until thirteen years afterward2 then1 in #ahdi1 it was heralded to the world that wonderful discoveries of gold had been made in several parts of ,california and that a man could dig out of the ground a fortune in a few days or weeks4 ,smith became enthusiastic and organized an expedition in ,san ,francisco to seek for his desert mine where gold could be had for the picking up4 ,the expedition started out from ,los ,angeles4 ,one night1 just before reaching ,smith ,mountain1 the ,indians who had been taken along to pack the supplies secretly decamped with the provisions1 thus compelling the prospectors to return as speedily as possible to save their lives4 ,smith felt discouraged and left the company at ,san ,bernardino4 ,whether he perished in again trying to find his mine or left the country is not known4 ,at any rate1 he was never heard of afterward4 ,in #ahfj a man named ,mc,guire deposited in one of the ,san ,francisco banks several thousand dollars in gold nuggets which he said he obtained near ,smith ,mountain4 ,he organized a party of six to hunt for the ,pegleg ,mine4 ,what they found1 however1 will never be known1 for they all perished1 and their bleached bones were found on the desert a long time afterward4 ,they were not alone in disaster1 however1 for very many others in trying to find the legacy of ,smith have met the same fate4 ,but the hidden wealth of this great region1 so long known as the ,great ,american ,desert1 is by no means confined to its storehouses of gold1 silver1 and copper4 ,here1 there1 and almost everywhere are areas that lack but one element to make them the most productive regions of the world1 and that one element is water4 ,the conquest of the ,colorado desert is not the first instance of desert land reclamation in the ,united ,states1 but it is certainly one of the marvels of the world's history4 ,a more pronounced and inhospitable desert never existed2 and1 in proportion to the area reclaimed1 it is doubtful if one can find greater productivity than the lands that constitute ,imperial ,valley4 ,let us take a glance at nature's work in this region4 ,long before the ,mississippi was born the ,colorado was an ancient river and it formerly flowed through a fertile valley4 ,during countless ages it has stripped from the plateau and carried into the ,gulf of ,california a deposit of rock waste from the land surface of its basin many feet deep1 and abraded billions of tons of material from its channel4 ,all this silt and detritus have served to fill up the northern part of the gulf1 the result of the deposit being an immense land area4 ,at length a great bar was formed across the northern part of the gulf1 making a sort of inland sea4 ,then the hot climate caused the water to evaporate1 while from time to time the ,colorado overflowed its banks1 spreading a rich sediment over the former sea-bed4 ,various parts of this depression1 which1 like ,palestine1 lie below the sea-level1 are known as ,salton1 ,coahuilla1 and ,imperial ,valleys4 ,the lowest part1 now filled with water1 is usually called the ,salton ,sea4 ,the whole of this region is comprehended under the name of ,colorado ,desert4 ,in #aijj a company was formed to reclaim that part of the desert included in ,imperial ,valley1 by taking water out of the ,colorado ,river a few miles below the boundary between ,california and ,mexico4 ,a main canal1 called the ,imperial ,canal1 one hundred miles long1 seventy feet wide1 and eight feet deep carries water from the ,colorado to ,imperial ,valley1 where it is distributed by hundreds of smaller canals4 ,the irrigation facilities are already sufficient to water more than one hundred thousand acres4 ,this region1 rightly named the hot-house of ,america1 produces marvellous crops of hay1 grain1 and fruits2 it is an ideal place for raising live-stock and poultry as well4 ,some of this land already brings into its owners from three hundred dollars to seven hundred dollars yearly income per acre1 and because of its wonderful fertility it is likened to the valley of the ,nile4 ,in #aijd the ,imperial ,canal was filled with silt for some distance1 thus preventing the flow of the proper amount of water needed for irrigation4 ,to remedy the defect a temporary canal was cut around the head-gate4 ,this expedient had been tried and then the gap had been closed up before high water4 ,at this particular time high water came earlier than usual1 and a great flood tore out the channel of the temporary canal to such an extent that before it could be prevented the whole ,colorado ,river was flowing through the breach1 leaving its own bed perfectly dry to the ,gulf of ,california1 filling up the ,salton ,valley1 burying up the ,salton salt-works1 and making an inland sea such as formerly existed there4 ,after most strenuous efforts1 and at the enormous expense of upward of a million dollars1 the gap was at length repaired and the ,colorado made to flow in its own bed4 ,one should remember that in the development of these deserts the prospector owes a deep debt of gratitude to that patient1 faithful little beast1 the donkey1 or burro1 as it is commonly known2 without the service of this animal many a man would have suffered a lingering death4 ,as a matter of fact1 it is unsafe to venture far out into the desert unaccompanied by this oft-maligned creature--about the only animal fitted to carry supplies4 ,illustration3 ,built by the ,u4 ,s4 ,reclamation ,service ,the ,roosevelt ,dam1 ,arizona1 showing south bridge and spillway ,but the use of dams and canals to conserve and supply water for irrigation prevailed even in most ancient times4 ,extensive irrigation works were built in ,egypt three thousand years ago1 and in ,india1 ,china1 ,persia1 and the countries bordering on the ,euphrates and ,tigris ,rivers irrigation dates back centuries before the ,christian era4 ,the ,romans introduced irrigation into southern ,europe4 ,when ,pizarro conquered the empire of the ,incas he found the people possessed of wonderful systems for irrigation4 ,likewise1 ,cortez found the ,aztecs making extensive canals4 ,remains of great irrigation works are found to-day in ,arizona and ,new ,mexico1 where our modern engineers wisely adopt the canal routes which were established by a race now extinct4 ,at the present time ,india is irrigating twenty-five million acres of land1 the ,united ,states thirteen million1 ,egypt seven million1 and ,italy three million4 ,it is estimated that the ,united ,states has left one hundred and eighty million acres of arid and semi-arid land available for reclamation and four times as much that is incapable of being reclaimed4 ,no other question of to-day is of such vital and far-reaching importance as that of the reclamation of the millions of acres of sleeping arid lands in the western part of our country4 ,mines may be exhausted1 forests slain1 and cities annihilated1 but wastes made fruitful through the potency of water will remain everlasting sources of wealth to the nation4 ,during the last few years our government has been very active in promoting irrigation by building impounding dams and constructing canals and tunnels for the delivery of water4 ,in connection with the various irrigation works the government has already established five hydro-electric plants which furnish water1 motive power1 and light as may be required4 ,from the big ,roosevelt ,dam and the drops of the level in the canal connected therewith1 twenty-six thousand horse-power will be developed incidental to the reclamation of two hundred thousand acres of land4 ,the miracle-working agent1 water1 has already reclaimed thirteen million acres of our domain1 and these areas now produce two hundred and sixty million dollars annually2 moreover1 they furnish homes to more than three hundred thousand people4 ,prosperous rural communities with thousands of happy1 rosy-cheeked children1 blooming orchards1 broad1 fertile fields prolific beyond comparison1 and flourishing cities replace wastes of sand and sage-brush4 ,the ,united ,states ,government alone has spent already sixty millions of dollars under the ,reclamation ,act which went into effect in #aijb1 and the end is not yet1 for as the vista of human achievements in this line broadens still greater works will be inaugurated and successfully consummated4 ,in ,arizona1 ,california1 ,colorado1 ,south ,dakota1 ,montana1 ,new ,mexico1 ,oregon1 ,utah1 ,washington1 and ,wyoming the ,united ,states ,government already is working on or has completed twenty-six important irrigation projects4 ,the most wonderful work combining the highest engineering skill and daring is found in the western part of ,colorado1 where from ,black ,canyon1 an almost inaccessible gorge three thousand feet deep1 the whole ,gunnison ,river has been diverted to the ,uncompahgre ,valley4 ,to take the water out of the river it was necessary to bore a tunnel six miles long through a mountain from the canyon to the valley4 ,to determine the feasibility of diverting the course of the river1 it was first necessary to make an exploration of the canyon4 ,no one before had ever had the hardihood to even make the attempt1 on account of the extreme danger of a journey between the narrow black walls of this gloomy abyss4 ,in #ahec ,captain ,gunnison discovered the river which bears his name4 ,he traced its course to where it plunged into a chasm so deep and dangerous that he feared to follow it farther and named the gorge ,black ,canyon4 ,some twenty years later ,professor ,hayden of the ,united ,states ,geological ,survey1 looking over the brink of the abyss1 declared it inaccessible4 ,the ,state of ,colorado1 desiring to find some way of utilizing the waters of the ,gunnison ,river for irrigating the arid land adjacent1 in #aijj called for volunteers to explore the canyon4 ,five men responded4 ,provided with boats1 life-lines1 and other accessories1 the men started from ,cimarron on their perilous trip4 ,on the third day their provisions gave out1 and later they were obliged to abandon their boats and nearly everything else except their blankets1 which were protected in rubber bags4 ,they knew it was impossible to retrace their steps and that their only salvation lay in going on4 ,at night they rolled themselves up in their blankets and tried to encourage one another4 ,they travelled fourteen miles between granite walls from two thousand to three thousand feet high2 and for sixteen days they were almost without food4 ,then they came to a cleft in their prison walls which seemed to offer a means of escape4 ,at their feet the water plunged over a precipice down to an unknown depth4 ,to go on meant almost instant death4 ,they were dying of starvation4 ,should they go on8 ,they had not accomplished their task4 ,life was sweet and there were loved ones dependent upon them for support4 ,so they decided to attempt escape while they had strength4 ,wearily they climbed the steep and rugged path that led them to freedom4 ,starting early in the morning1 they reached the summit1 two thousand five hundred feet above the raging torrent1 at nine o'clock at night4 ,they were ready to drop in their tracks1 yet hope inspired them to renewed exertions4 ,they struggled on fifteen miles more ere they staggered into a farm-house on the verge of collapse4 ,in the following year1 #aija1 the ,united ,states ,government1 becoming interested in diverting the waters of the ,gunnison1 sent out one of its engineers1 ,professor ,fellows1 to look into the practicability of the project4 ,after looking over the field1 the government engineer succeeded in enlisting in his service ,mr4 ,torrence1 who was a member of the first expedition4 ,they planned to accomplish the feat which the former explorers failed to accomplish1 namely1 to go entirely through ,black ,canyon4 ,profiting by the previous trip1 they provided for themselves a complete equipment1 consisting of a rubber raft1 two long life-lines1 rubber bags for food and clothing1 a camera1 hunting-knives1 and belts4 ,until they reached the water-falls where the previous expedition had left the canyon1 the ,fall of ,sorrow1 the first part of their trip possesses little of interest beyond what had been experienced before4 ,but from this point on unknown dangers menaced them4 ,the roar of the plunging water from below rose upward with a deafening sound as they gazed into the seething current4 ,the rising mists obscured the tree tops on either side far below4 ,should they press on or retreat1 as those before them had done8 ,yes1 they must go forward whatever the hazard4 ,they clasped hands1 bidding each other good-by4 ,torrence threw himself into the water first and ,fellows followed4 ,a few seconds later both clambered upon a bowlder in the pool below4 ,the narrow cleft by which the former company effected their escape was passed and no alternative but to go forward was left to them4 ,they encountered many other perilous adventures in their thirty-mile trip4 ,before they escaped from the canyon their provisions gave out4 ,death by starvation stared them in the face once more4 ,weakened by hunger and about to give up1 they spied at the base of a cliff two mountain sheep4 ,now1 mountain sheep1 which roam among the rugged crags1 are exceedingly difficult to catch4 ,one of the sheep darted into a cleft4 ,with a quick movement born of desperation ,torrence rushed before the opening1 but scarcely had he reached the spot before the frightened sheep1 in attempting to escape1 jumped into his arms4 ,realizing that his life and that of his companion depended upon securing the animal1 he succeeded in killing it with his knife after a fierce struggle4 ,the meat obtained saved their lives and sustained them until they reached a ranch fourteen miles from the place from which they emerged from the end of the canyon4 ,in making the perilous journey they had swum across the river seventy-four times4 ,although their instruments and most of the other articles which they had taken were lost1 yet the valuable data1 sought for and recorded in the engineering book1 were safely brought out and contained enough encouraging information to lead the government to take up the project of diverting the waters of the ,gunnison ,river to the ,uncompahgre ,valley4 ,salt ,river ,valley1 one of the most fertile sections of ,arizona1 has been settled for many years1 but the lack of a sufficient supply of water for extended irrigation has caused a large portion of this rich desert land to remain dormant4 ,to meet the demand for more water in this valley the ,united ,states ,government has just completed one of the greatest water impounding reservoirs in the world1 the construction of which called for the greatest engineering skill and cost nearly nine million dollars4 ,salt ,river enters the valley after a tumultuous passage through a deep and rugged canyon forty miles long4 ,it derives its name from the saltness of its waters1 which results from the discharge of salt springs into the main stream as it courses through the gorge4 ,though unsuited for drinking purposes the water does not contain enough salt to make it detrimental for irrigation1 and the soil1 stimulated by the water1 produces marvellous crops4 ,here extensive farming can be carried on with the greatest success4 ,six crops of alfalfa1 averaging eight tons per acre1 are harvested yearly4 ,the oranges1 dates1 figs1 lemons1 grape fruit1 olives1 and peaches grown upon these lands are of superior quality and flavor and yield abundantly4 ,the climate during eight months of the year is unsurpassed4 ,ostrich farming here is becoming an important industry4 ,there are at the present time in the valley about eight thousand birds1 and the number is rapidly increasing4 ,the value of the feathers plucked yearly from each full-grown bird is from thirty dollars to forty dollars4 ,indications are that in the near future ,arizona will lead the world in ostrich farming and the production of ostrich feathers4 ,the history of this remarkable reservoir is full of human and natural interest4 ,it is located in a land whose civilization was old when ,rome was founded1 a land of lost races1 perpetual sunshine1 forbidding deserts1 and picturesque wonders4 ,strange vegetation and scenes that are novel are reflected in soft1 changing tints from plain and mountain4 ,from dawn to dark they possess an indescribable charm4 ,the government engineers1 in looking over the ground1 found an ideal spot for a reservoir formed by two valleys hedged in among the mountains at the head of the canyon4 ,it was necessary only to build a dam across the narrow cleft where the river enters the gorge in order to impound the water4 ,the place being practically inaccessible1 much preliminary work had to be done before commencing construction on the dam4 ,a road forty miles long was made through the rugged mountains by which to transport provisions1 machinery1 and other supplies4 ,a greater part of the road was cut out of the solid rock2 other portions were constructed of masonry4 ,at places on this wonderful highway1 a stone dropped over the edge of the road will fall almost a thousand feet without stopping4 ,the scenery along the whole route is both beautiful and awe-inspiring4 ,the question of supplying cement for constructing the dam was for a while a difficult one2 the price asked by the manufacturers was nine dollars per barrel delivered4 ,the engineer then summoned to his aid the government geologists1 and they discovered near at hand limestone rock suitable for making good cement4 ,but in order to convert the limestone into cement1 it was necessary to have a mill and motive power to run it4 ,coal mines were five hundred miles away and such fuel would be too costly4 ,the engineer said1 ,why not use as a power electricity generated by the river itself8 ,accordingly a canal extending twenty miles up the river was constructed2 with a two-hundred-and-twenty-foot drop it was capable of delivering water enough to generate four thousand two hundred horse-power4 ,a mill was built and an electric plant installed which ran the mill and machine shops besides furnishing power for laying the heavy stones1 lighting the works and town1 and leaving a large surplus amount for pumping water from numerous wells in the ,salt ,river ,valley fifty miles away4 ,by the economy of self-manufacturing1 the cost of the cement to the government was but two dollars per barrel1 thereby making a saving of nearly half a million dollars4 ,illustration3 ,shoshone ,project1 ,wyoming ,shoshone ,canyon1 looking upstream toward the dam4 ,dam1 #cbh4d feet high2 storage capacity1 #def1jjj acre-feet ,to provide proper accommodations for all of the employees and their families1 a regular town was built on the floor of the reservoir1 to be submerged when the works should be completed and the flood gates closed4 ,the town1 which was christened ,roosevelt1 contained a population of upward of two thousand1 and bore the reputation of being the best behaved in all ,arizona4 ,the dam1 also named after ,colonel ,roosevelt1 then ,president of the ,united ,states1 floods two valleys1 one twelve and the other fifteen miles long and each from one to three miles wide4 ,the reservoir is nearly two hundred feet deep on the average4 ,it is two hundred and eighty feet high1 and the thickness of the dam ranges from one hundred and seventy-five feet at the bottom to twenty feet at the top1 where its length is one thousand and eighty feet4 ,massive iron gates weighing sixty thousand pounds guard the outlet of the flood4 ,to do the preliminary work and construct the dam nearly eight years were required1 and during a part of this time a thousand men were employed both night and day1 several hundred of whom were ,apache ,indians4 ,this region was previously the haunt of ,chief ,geronimo and his murderous band of ,apaches4 ,near by are two groups of cliff dwellings formerly occupied by a race now extinct4 ,the capacity of this immense reservoir exceeds that of the ,nile pent up by the ,assouan dam1 and the water would be sufficient to fill a canal two hundred feet wide and twenty feet deep1 extending entirely across the ,united ,states from the ,atlantic to the ,pacific4 ,when full there is sufficient water to submerge the city of ,washington to the depth of thirty-four feet4 ,among the other many important irrigation works may be mentioned the ,shoshone and ,rio ,grande ,dams4 ,the ,shoshone ,dam in ,wyoming impounds sufficient water to irrigate one hundred and fifty thousand acres in the valley below4 ,this dam was completed ,january #aj1 #aiaj1 and is the highest in the world1 its height being three hundred and eighty-four feet4 ,twelve miles below the dam proper a diversion dam was built across the river which turns the stream into a tunnel connected at the other end with a canal1 which delivers water upon one hundred thousand acres of fertile land4 ,the ,rio ,grande ,dam involving the construction of a storage dam opposite ,eagle1 ,new ,mexico1 across the ,rio ,grande ,river will irrigate one hundred and eighty thousand acres of land in ,new ,mexico1 ,texas1 and ,mexico4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,grand ,,canyon ,,of ,,the ,,colorado ,nowhere else on the face of the globe is one so vividly impressed by the vastness of the work of corrasion as in the northwestern part of ,arizona4 ,here the mutilated breast of ,mother ,earth discloses a chasm from three thousand feet to seven thousand feet deep1 cut through horizontal strata of sandstone1 shale1 limestone1 and granite1 chiefly by the agency of water4 ,this stupendous chasm is the ,grand ,canyon of the ,colorado ,river4 ,it is more than two hundred miles long2 and from rim to rim its walls measure in places twenty miles across4 ,it is not a clean-cut open channel from wall to wall1 but1 on the contrary1 it is filled with castellated peaks1 buttes1 pinnacles1 ridges1 seams1 and lesser canyons4 ,down deep in its lowest part1 hurrying onward with impetuous speed1 is the river itself4 ,geologists tell us that this stream was an ancient river before the ,mississippi was born and that it formerly watered a valley as fertile4 ,ages ago when ,time was young the river found its channel closed by an obstruction--just how1 or where1 or by what1 no one knows4 ,so it spread out into a great lake1 or1 perhaps1 into an inland sea several thousand feet deep4 ,the rock waste carried into its basin hardened into sandstone--red1 pink1 and white of many shades4 ,after this great inland sea had become dry the ,colorado ,river was born--just how1 or when1 or because of what1 one can only guess4 ,but when it was born it began to undo what its predecessor had done4 ,it cut a channel in the surface of the sandstone and then began business in earnest4 ,it loosened little pieces of sharp flint from the sandstone and swept them along with such force that each became a tiny mallet and chisel combined to cut and carry away other rock4 ,and so it kept on until it had carved a passage not only to the original granite bed rock but in places a thousand feet or more into it4 ,a few localities excepted1 the canyon does not form a single gash2 nor has it the usual ,v-shape of canyons in regions of plentiful rainfall4 ,on the contrary1 its cross-section takes the form of a succession of steps and terraces1 as though the river cut the channels successively in decreasing widths4 ,and because the region through which it flows is one of very slight rainfall1 all the landscape outlines are bold and sharply angular4 ,all told1 an area comprising two hundred thousand square miles has been denuded to the depth of six hundred feet1 and the material borne southward by the ,colorado and its tributaries1 while the land through which they flow has been literally drained to death4 ,even the tributaries have formed deep lateral canyons that meet the level of the main stream4 ,it staggers the mind to try to grasp the time expressed in countless eons since the youth of this now senile river4 ,illustration3 ,the ,grand ,canyon of the ,colorado ,as early as #aedj ,spanish explorers made known to the world the fact that a deep and impassable gorge existed in one part of the ,colorado ,river1 and again in #aggf a ,spanish priest revived a knowledge of its existence4 ,then1 for many years afterward1 the canyon claimed but little attention because it was so difficult of access1 and so little was known of its colossal dimensions and the marvellous carvings within its walls4 ,just above the ,grand ,canyon and continuous with it is ,marble ,canyon1 so called because of the immense beds of marble that form a part of its walls4 ,in both canyons the limestone sometimes takes the form of marble1 or gypsum1 or alabaster--crystallized forms of limestone which take a fine polish4 ,this remarkable river with its canyons was first explored by ,major ,powell in #ahfi4 ,with nine men and four boats he started from a landing on ,green ,river in ,utah1 floated down ,green ,river to its junction with the ,grand1 and thence down the ,colorado below the mouth of the ,virgin to the ,grand ,wash4 ,there he landed after having passed through the entire length of the canyon4 ,the time spent in this voyage was ninety-eight days1 and the distance travelled was upward of one thousand miles4 ,four of his men left him when the voyage was but partly finished1 being frightened by the perils that beset them4 ,they were killed by ,indians4 ,the others1 after many accidents and hair-breadth escapes1 succeeded in getting through in safety4 ,in addition to the rapidity of the current the river has many rapids and water-falls with jagged projecting rocks which make boating extremely hazardous4 ,all these perils were conjectured but unknown to ,major ,powell's party1 and every new bend of the river was liable to disclose a cataract more dangerous than any encountered before4 ,then the reverberating sound of the roaring river as it struck the sides of its lofty prison walls together with the deep gloom of the mighty abyss was calculated to terrify the bravest4 ,thus1 facing death at every turn of the stream1 the men were kept constantly in a tense state of excitement4 ,a wealth of adjectives has been expended in attempting properly to describe the immensity of this great handiwork of nature1 and scores of persons have produced fascinating word-paintings of its awe-inspiring grandeur4 ,leading back from the river the canyon walls are made up in part of shelving rocks and terraces4 ,these1 with peaks1 buttes1 and myriads of other structures arising from the great gulf1 show plainly the different strata of rocks of which they are composed4 ,many of these rocks are richly colored2 the tints as a rule result from the salts of iron and other mineral matter disseminated through them4 ,in some instances the coloring material of the upper strata has been washed down by the storms and has stained the rock of the walls below4 ,this is the case in the ,grand ,canyon1 where the limestone wall is colored red by the iron in an overlying stratum4 ,when the gigantic forms partly filling the chasm1 yet standing apart from each other1 are seen near sunrise or sunset with their shifting shadows1 they leave on the mind remembrances that will never fade4 ,to appreciate properly the magnitude and height of these towering masses one should examine them not only by travelling along the brink1 but by descending to the river level in order to examine them from below4 ,then only will the awful grandeur and immensity of this monumental architecture of nature begin to dawn upon the understanding4 ,to the geologist this chasm is an intensely interesting book which reveals much of the history of the past in world-building4 ,some years ago a company was formed in ,new ,york to build a scenic railroad through ,marble and ,grand ,canyons4 ,engineers were sent out not only to make a careful survey of the canyons but also to make a series of photographs which should form a continuous panoramic view of the proposed route4 ,a large sum of money was spent in making the surveys2 then the project was abandoned4 ,possibly at some future time the scheme may be revived and a road be built1 using as its motive power electricity generated by the river itself4 ,the ,grand ,canyon is now easily reached by the ,santa ,fe ,railway system4 ,from the main line at ,williams a branch road extends to ,el ,tovar1 ,grand ,canyon station1 which is located near the edge of the canyon4 ,the descent to the bottom of the canyon can be made by several trails4 ,those noted for easy descent and the best views are ,grand ,view and ,red ,canyon ,trails from ,grand ,view1 ,bright ,angel ,trail from ,el ,tovar1 and ,bass ,trail from ,bass ,camp4 ,each has its own special charms1 and for one limited as to time it is difficult to make a choice4 ,the course of the ,colorado and its tributary1 ,green ,river1 presents some interesting problems4 ,the latter has cut its channel directly across the ,uinta ,mountains1 and the ,colorado has sawed its channel to the base level of a series of plateaus1 sometimes called the ,sierra ,abajo4 ,and the interesting problem is--how was the sawing process accomplished8 ,it needs only a moment's thought to understand that the river could not flow against the base of a mountain range and bore a passage through it1 much less clear out an open passage miles in width4 ,illustration3 ,grand ,view ,trail ,looking toward ,apache ,point from ,mystic ,spring ,plateau4 ,the ,grand ,canyon of the ,colorado ,major ,powell has shown how this mighty work of mountain cutting was accomplished2 the sawing process was begun1 not at the base of the range1 but at its top4 ,it is merely a question of age4 ,the ,colorado and its chief tributaries are older than the mountain uplifts which they have severed4 ,moreover1 the level of their channels is much the same now as it was before the mountains were born4 ,the mountain levels1 however1 have been changing ever since their uplift began4 ,and when the rock layers of which they are composed began to be pushed upward the uplift was so slow that the rivers cut downward just as rapidly4 ,in time the ranges were pushed upward to their present height2 but when the uplift was completed1 in each case it was sawed to the bottom by the river4 ,it is in very much the same manner that a huge log is cut in twain as it is pushed against the saw4 ,the mountain range1 as it is pushed upward1 represents the log2 the river1 which is stationary1 represents the saw4 ,one might look a long way to find the wealth created by this muddy torrent4 ,but the wealth is there1 though it is certainly a long way from the canyon2 moreover1 the rock waste itself is the wealth1 and great wealth it is4 ,the water of the river is very muddy4 ,dip up a bucket filled to the brim and allow it to stand for ten or twelve hours4 ,there is an inch or two of clear water at the top1 while at the bottom there is a thick1 muddy paste of sand1 clay1 and red earth4 ,all this rock waste the current is sweeping along to the ,gulf of ,california4 ,every overflow along the banks of its lower course spreads this rich1 nutritious rock waste over the flood plain4 ,imperial ,valley is filled with it2 and this1 together with the flood plain above and below1 constitutes an area of productive land about as large as the ,state of ,illinois4 ,moreover1 the area is constantly increasing1 because of the enormous amount of rock waste which the river daily bears to the ,gulf of ,california4 ,in time1 a long time as years are measured1 the gulf will be entirely filled--and what a valley of prairie land there will be4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,yellowstone ,,park ,in the northwestern part of ,wyoming1 at the summit of the continent1 is a tract of land containing more than three thousand square miles4 ,it is a region which attracts thousands of sightseers every year2 yet inconceivable as it may now seem1 this marvellous region was unknown to the world until #ahgj4 ,being difficult of access1 because flanked by high mountains on all sides1 and possessing no mineral deposits of value1 there was but little inducement for any one but a hunter or a trapper to penetrate it4 ,john ,coulter1 a frontiersman1 was probably the first white man to set foot within its territory4 ,he was a member of the ,lewis and ,clark ,expedition and1 having observed that there were many beavers in the headwaters of the ,missouri ,river1 desired to try trapping there4 ,having obtained permission to leave the expedition before its return to ,st4 ,louis1 he forthwith set out to hunt and trap in that region4 ,this was in #ahjg4 ,while following his favorite employment he met with many strange and exciting adventures with both ,indians and wild beasts4 ,and during his wanderings he beheld sights so marvellous as to tax the credulity of even his own senses2 among them a glass mountain1 geysers sending up great volumes of water hundreds of feet high into the air1 boiling hot springs1 deep and gorgeously painted canyons1 stupendous water-falls1 curiously colored rock formations1 and a mountain lake filled with the finest of fish4 ,so well versed was he in woodcraft that he could travel through pathless forests and over rugged mountains as unerringly as by well-beaten trails4 ,a love for wild nature and adventure had become his ruling passion4 ,after hunting and trapping for several years he returned to ,st4 ,louis4 ,here he told his friends the marvels that he had seen and his adventures with ,indians and wild beasts2 but his hearers being doubting ,thomases1 listened with incredulity to his astonishing stories4 ,he related his experiences and what he had seen to an editor of a ,st4 ,louis paper1 who1 after listening patiently to the narrative1 informed ,coulter that his wonderful adventures1 glass mountain1 and boiling springs among the snows were falsehoods and could find no place for publication4 ,coulter gave interviews to many other persons1 and stuck so persistently to his statements that the region which he had so minutely described was derisively dubbed ,coulter's ,hell4 ,coulter's experiences certainly were marvellous4 ,on one occasion1 when he and a companion were trapping along the ,madison ,fork of the ,missouri ,river1 they were surprised by a company of ,blackfeet ,indians who killed his friend but spared his life for the time being4 ,after the ,indians had consulted for some time in regard to what should be done with ,coulter1 the chief asked him if he could run fast4 ,coulter replied that he could not4 ,he was in reality the fleetest runner among the western hunters1 but he told the ,indians that he could not run fast1 since he concluded that there was a chance of saving his life by running should he be given the opportunity4 ,illustration3 ,the ,yellowstone ,national ,park1 ,wyoming ,looking down canyon from ,grand ,point ,he was stripped naked and taken several miles away to give the ,indians some sport before killing him4 ,then the chief commanded his followers to remain back while he led the captive some three hundred yards in front of them4 ,at a given signal he told ,coulter to save himself if he could4 ,at once the war whoop resounded and six hundred demons were on the track of the fugitive4 ,coulter strained every nerve to outdistance his murderous pursuers4 ,his great exertions caused the blood to spirt from his nostrils and smear the front of his body4 ,after running a while he heard footsteps1 and turning saw an ,indian with a spear but a few yards behind him4 ,being exhausted1 and fearing that at any moment the spear might be hurled at him1 he concluded to surprise the ,indian4 ,stopping suddenly he wheeled about and presented his bloody body and outstretched arms to the ,indian4 ,the red man1 greatly astonished1 in attempting to stop quickly stumbled and fell1 breaking his spear4 ,before the prostrate runner could recover himself ,coulter seized the head of the shaft and quickly pinioned his foe to the ground4 ,then the fleeing hunter ran at his topmost speed toward the river1 about a mile distant4 ,arriving there a little ahead of his pursuers1 he plunged into the water and swam as fast as he could4 ,observing a raft of drift-wood that had lodged against a small island1 he dived under the debris1 and thrusting his head up between the tree-trunks of the heterogeneous mass succeeded in getting into a position where he could breathe and yet be concealed4 ,no sooner had he hidden himself than the yelling savages appeared on the river's bank4 ,they looked in all directions for their missing captive1 but in vain4 ,they even went on the island and climbed over the drift-wood1 scanning every possible place of concealment4 ,seeing no trace of their white prisoner they reluctantly returned to the mainland4 ,coulter remained under the raft in dreadful suspense until night1 when1 hearing nothing of his foes1 he silently slipped from under the raft and swam down stream a long distance before landing4 ,his situation was now indeed a desperate one2 his feet had become filled with thorns from the prickly pear while running across the prairie2 he was also naked1 hungry1 and without means to kill the wild game for food2 moreover1 the distance to the nearest fort was at least a seven-days' journey4 ,but he was in excellent physical condition and1 being inured to hardships and skilled in traversing the pathless wilderness1 he at length reached the fort1 having subsisted in the meantime chiefly on roots whose nutritious value he had learned from the ,indians4 ,john ,bridger1 a famous hunter1 was familiar with the region now known as ,yellowstone ,park as early as #ahcj1 and he endeavored to have his descriptions of it published1 but he could find no periodical or newspaper willing to print his statements4 ,in ,bridger's case1 however1 there was ground for doubt1 inasmuch as he had a reputation for exaggeration1 and the facts that he related about the wonders of the ,yellowstone were considered mere fabrications4 ,one of his most astounding stories concerned an elk4 ,he claimed that while hunting he espied an elk that seemed to be only a short distance away2 taking a good aim he fired1 but the animal was unmoved by the shot4 ,he again fired with more deliberation1 yet with the same result as before4 ,having fired twice more with no effect he seized his rifle by the barrel and rushed toward the antlered monarch2 but all at once he ran up against what seemed to be a high vertical wall4 ,on investigation the wall proved to be a mountain of perfectly transparent glass4 ,and still the elk kept on grazing quietly6 ,the strangest thing about the mountain he said was that its curved form made it a perfect telescopic lens of great power4 ,on going around to the other side of the mountain he caught sight of the elk1 which he judged must have been at least twenty-five miles away when he first saw it by the powerful glass-lens mountain6 ,in #ahfj-fa gold was discovered in ,montana1 and prospectors began to extend their search for the precious metal into adjoining territory4 ,the ,indians were troublesome2 nevertheless many prospectors ventured into the region of the ,upper ,yellowstone during the years succeeding1 and reported seeing wonderful volcanic agencies at work4 ,to settle the many flying accounts about volcanic wonders in the ,yellowstone section1 two expeditions headed by prominent citizens of ,montana were formed to ascertain the truth concerning these statements4 ,the expeditions set out during the consecutive years #ahfi and #ahgj4 ,on their return excellent descriptions of what they had seen were published in the ,montana papers1 and these accounts were copied by the leading papers of the country4 ,the second1 or ,washburn-,doane1 expedition of #ahgj was the most successful in its explorations1 since it was provided with a military escort4 ,one of the members of this expedition wrote up a series of excellent articles which were published in ,scribner's ,magazine1 thus giving further authenticity and wide publicity to the discovery4 ,in #ahga interest awakened by the last expedition caused the ,united ,states ,government to send out a special expedition of geological and engineering men to collect exact data1 take photographs1 and make a survey of the ,yellowstone region4 ,the geological section was under the direction of ,dr4 ,p4 ,v4 ,hayden4 ,mainly through ,hayden's influence and foresight ,congress withdrew the tract now comprising ,yellowstone ,national ,park from occupancy or sale1 and dedicated and set it apart as a public park or pleasure ground for the benefit and enjoyment of the people4 ,the bill was signed by the president ,march #a1 #ahgb4 ,in #ahgb two ,united ,states geological surveying parties were sent out and detailed explorations were made during the next ten years4 ,the park is now under the management of a military commander as acting superintendent1 aided by a detachment of ,united ,states troops1 who maintain order1 prevent acts of vandalism1 and see that the rules and regulations of the park are obeyed4 ,no one except the troops is allowed to bring firearms into the park1 and the wild animals1 now carefully protected by law1 have greatly multiplied4 ,through subsequent acts of ,congress two forest reserves have been added to the park proper1 the ,madison ,forest ,reserve in #aijb and the ,yellowstone ,forest ,reserve in #aijc4 ,these additions make the total area reserved from settlement about seventeen thousand six hundred square miles4 ,the only living beings that are permitted to fell as many trees as they wish are the beavers1 which use them in constructing their dams4 ,the grizzly and the black bear flourish in the park and have become quite tame4 ,in the neighborhood of the camps and hotels they have become an intolerable nuisance because of their propensity to break into tents and buildings in search of food4 ,the lordly elk nourishes here and numbers of them may be seen at almost any time of day4 ,a herd of buffaloes is jealously protected1 and food and shelter are provided for them during the winter when necessary4 ,these animals are increasing in numbers4 ,many antelope1 deer1 and mountain sheep are seen in the park4 ,the mountain lion and the coyote are two animals that the authorities of the park feel justified in killing in order to preserve the other game1 but the wild ruggedness of the territory1 which affords these pests ample opportunity to multiply unmolested1 prevents their extinction4 ,during the fall of the year wild geese and ducks frequent the park in great numbers2 some of the latter remain all winter long in places where the hot springs keep the water of the streams from freezing4 ,the ,united ,states ,fish ,commission has taken special care in stocking the fishless streams with trout1 and now the ,yellowstone ,park furnishes the finest trout-fishing in the whole world4 ,visitors to the park are granted full license to fish1 but they must use only hook and line4 ,about one-fifth of the reservation consists of tracts suited for grazing1 but for agricultural purposes the park is worthless1 since frosts occur every month of the year4 ,the forests consist of a variety of trees1 but only one kind1 the ,douglas spruce1 is suitable for good lumber4 ,the quaking aspen is the only deciduous tree that is abundant4 ,elk and deer browse about these trees and keep them trimmed at a uniform distance from the ground4 ,during the long rainless season the distant hills and mountains are bathed in an atmosphere of soft purple and blue in ever-varying intensity1 while later in the season ,jack ,frost with his magic brush paints the mountain-sides with the most varied and gorgeous colors1 and the aspen changes to rich autumnal tints4 ,at the proper season ,yellowstone ,park is a vast garden of wild flowers which are dense and rich in colors even up to the snow line4 ,several varieties of the lupine and the larkspur clothe the hillsides with every shade of color1 while the modest violet seeks secluded spots in which to bloom4 ,forget-me-nots1 geraniums1 harebells1 primroses1 asters1 sunflowers1 anemones1 roses1 and many other plants are abundant4 ,the climate puts new life and energy into the visitor4 ,contrary to the general opinion1 the climatic conditions in the park are not extreme1 notwithstanding its high elevation4 ,the average temperature at the ,mammoth ,hot ,springs in ,january1 the coldest month1 is #ah deg4 ,f41 and in ,july1 the hottest month1 #fa deg4 ,in the plateau regions1 averaging fifteen hundred feet higher1 the temperature is #h deg4 in ,january and #ea deg4 in ,july4 ,good roads have been constructed throughout the park connecting all points of interest1 and in many instances these roads have been built at an enormous expense4 ,the ,united ,states ,government has already expended upward of one million dollars in road-making and bridge-building4 ,there are now over sixty bridges and five hundred culverts to supplement the five hundred miles of roads within the park proper and the forest reserves4 ,we enter the park from the north and then proceed to visit a few of the most interesting places4 ,our tour embraces ,mammoth ,hot ,springs1 ,norris ,geyser ,basin1 ,firehole ,geyser ,basins1 ,yellowstone ,lake1 and the ,grand ,canyon of ,yellowstone ,river4 ,leaving the ,northern ,pacific train at ,gardiner1 the entrance station to the park1 we take a coach for ,mammoth ,hot ,springs1 five miles distant1 and ride along the foaming1 dashing ,gardiner ,river through a canyon bearing the same name4 ,portions of the way unfold bold1 picturesque scenery1 giving a fitting introduction to the marvels and greater scenic beauty that are in store for us4 ,we cross the river four times on steel bridges within one mile4 ,just after crossing the last bridge we see an immense stream of hot water issuing from an opening in the rocks and discharging directly into the ,gardiner ,river4 ,this stream1 the ,boiling ,river1 we are told1 comes through subterranean channels from the famous ,mammoth ,hot ,springs a mile and a half away4 ,arriving at the springs1 we find here a large1 well-equipped hotel1 where are also the administration head-quarters of the park4 ,after resting a short time1 we visit the world-renowned ,hot ,springs4 ,the ,mammoth ,hot ,springs rise from the summit of a hill of limestone formation three hundred feet high1 built by the deposit of mineral matter held in solution by the hot water that issues from them4 ,the terraces1 containing upward of two hundred acres1 are delicately tinted in beautiful shades of red1 yellow1 orange1 brown1 and purple4 ,those over which the water is still flowing present the most attractive appearance1 the colors being fresh and rich2 the others have dull1 ashen colors4 ,calcareous deposits are rapidly building up these terraces in various beautiful forms1 the edges of many being supported by delicate columns1 some of which resemble organ pipes4 ,different names are given to the terraces according to form or fancy1 as ,pulpit ,terrace1 ,jupiter ,terrace1 ,narrow ,gauge ,terrace1 ,minerva ,terrace1 etc4 ,the overhanging bowls built up by these deposits are exquisite specimens of ,nature's work and are filled with water of wonderful transparency2 while the variety of forms of these receptacles and their charming colors fascinate the beholder4 ,scattered over the formation in all directions are numberless curiosities1 such as the ,devil's ,kitchen1 ,cupid's ,cave1 and the ,stygian ,cave4 ,in many of these caves there is an accumulation of carbonic-acid gas sufficient to destroy animal life4 ,this is especially true of the latter cave4 ,we now journey by coach to ,norris ,geyser ,basin4 ,on the route we pass by ,obsidian ,cliff1 sometimes called ,obsidian ,mountain1 which is an immense mass of black volcanic glass4 ,this mineral was used by the ,indians for making arrow-heads and spear-heads4 ,in constructing a road around the base of the cliff1 great difficulty was encountered on account of the hardness of the obsidian4 ,the superintendent in charge of the work hit upon a happy device by which to quarry it4 ,log fires were built along the base1 and when the volcanic glass was hot cold water was thrown upon it4 ,this method cracked the material into fragments which were easily removed4 ,illustration3 ,the ,yellowstone ,national ,park1 ,wyoming ,mammoth ,hot ,springs4 ,summit ,pools ,opposite the base of ,obsidian ,cliff is ,beaver ,lake1 the home of numerous beavers and a great resort for waterfowl during a part of the year4 ,after passing ,obsidian ,cliff1 hot springs become more numerous until we reach ,norris ,geyser ,basin4 ,in this locality the odor of sulphur is strong and unpleasant4 ,a little farther on a loud roar startles us1 and a few moments later we see the cause of the explosion2 it is a powerful steam jet issuing from the summit of ,roaring ,mountain4 ,when ,dame ,nature turns on steam there is no nonsense about it4 ,norris ,basin seems to be of more recent volcanic development1 since some of the steam vents in other basins have ceased action during the past few years2 moreover1 several new ones have opened1 one of which rivals ,roaring ,mountain4 ,constant and ,minute-,man ,geysers1 though small1 are frequent and vigorous in action4 ,in passing through this section the road-bed is hot for some distance1 showing that the subterranean rocks which heat the water cannot be very deep down in the earth4 ,in going to the ,firehole ,basins we follow ,gibbon ,river to within four miles of its mouth1 then1 crossing a point of land to the ,firehole1 we ascend the right bank of the stream to ,lower ,basin4 ,on the road we pass many springs2 the most conspicuous of which1 ,beryl ,spring1 lies close to the road4 ,it discharges a large volume of boiling water and the rising steam frequently obscures the road4 ,in one locality outside the beaten track of tourists there is a veritable ,hades on earth4 ,here1 as we walk over ground that is very hot1 we are nearly suffocated by the fumes of sulphur4 ,all around us are hundreds of seething1 boiling vats of water1 and the whole area is cracked and filled with holes from which noxious vapors rise4 ,soon after we leave this infernal region we hear a constant roar like that coming from a large steamer about to leave its moorings4 ,we follow in the direction from which the sound proceeds and at length discover the cause4 ,on approaching the source of the sound we see a large volume of steam rushing with immense velocity from an opening in the ground1 while the rock around the orifice is black as jet4 ,the guide tells us that this huge steam vent is called the ,black ,growler1 and that it continues vigorously active summer and winter1 year in and year out4 ,its roar can be heard four miles away4 ,illustration3 ,the ,yellowstone ,national ,park1 ,wyoming ,beehive ,geyser ,the chief wonder of ,lower ,firehole ,basin is the ,great ,fountain ,geyser4 ,its formation is unique4 ,at first sight one is led to believe that the broad circular structure which he sees is artificial4 ,on close inspection numerous pools1 moulded and nicely ornamented1 are seen sunk in this stone table1 while in the centre there is a large and deep pool filled with hot water1 but looking like a beautiful spring4 ,at the time of eruption this central pool of water is shot up to the height of one hundred feet or more4 ,near the ,great ,fountain ,geyser is a small valley in the upper part of which is a large hot spring called the ,firehole4 ,when this spring is visited on a windless day1 a light-colored flame seems to be constantly issuing from the bottom1 flickering back and forth like a torch1 and the visitor feels sure he is gazing at the hidden fires beneath that heat the water4 ,it is the illusion caused by superheated steam escaping through a fissure in the rock and dividing the water4 ,the reflection from the surface thus formed and a black background formed by the sides and bottom of the pool account for the phenomenon4 ,surprise ,pool is found near the ,great ,fountain2 it will make good its name should you throw into it a handful of dirt4 ,excelsior ,geyser1 not far away1 is really a winter volcano1 its crater being a seething caldron near the ,firehole ,river1 into which it sends six million gallons of water each day1 even when not in eruption4 ,at times it sends up a column of water1 fifty feet in diameter1 to the height of two hundred and fifty feet4 ,the eruptions take place at long intervals--seven to ten years4 ,on account of the great depth and extent of this geyser it has sometimes been denominated ,hell's ,half-,acre4 ,following along ,firehole ,river we pass into the ,upper ,basin1 a section the most popular with the majority of tourists4 ,among the geysers in this basin we shall find ,grotto1 ,castle1 ,giant1 ,giantess1 ,bee ,hive1 ,splendid1 ,grand1 and ,old ,faithful4 ,each of them has an interest peculiarly its own1 but ,old ,faithful is always true to its name and is perhaps best appreciated by visitors4 ,the opening through which ,old ,faithful disgorges its water is at the summit of a mound built up by its own exertions4 ,the wrinkles on its face tell of long-continued service4 ,every seventy minutes this faithful worker sends up a column of water to the height of one hundred and eighty feet1 and at each eruption more than one million gallons of water are thrown out4 ,we now pass through a section noted for its wild and picturesque scenery and considered the pleasantest on the trip4 ,in leaving the ,upper ,basin we follow along ,firehole ,river to the mouth of ,spring ,creek1 then along this creek to the ,continental ,divide4 ,from there1 travelling a few miles along the ,pacific slope1 we cross the ,divide and descend the mountains into the valley of the ,yellowstone4 ,near the central part of the park1 encircled by a forest and elevated nearly eight thousand feet above the sea-level1 lies a remarkable body of water supplied by ice-cold streams formed by the melting snow on the surrounding mountains4 ,this body of water1 of which the ,yellowstone ,river is the outlet1 is the famous ,yellowstone ,lake1 thirty miles long and twenty miles wide2 it is filled with trout4 ,here the fisherman can catch hundreds of trout in a short time1 but unfortunately most of them are afflicted with a parasitic disease1 rendering them unfit for food4 ,researches have been made seeking the cause of the disease in order1 if possible1 to apply a remedy1 but so far to no purpose4 ,it is conjectured that the superabundance of fish together with a dearth of suitable food lowers their vitality1 thus rendering them liable to disease4 ,yellowstone stands next to ,lake ,titicaca as the highest large body of water in the world4 ,the sunrise and sunset effects on the lake are most beautiful4 ,a steamer plies on the lake carrying mail and passengers4 ,the bird life on this body of water and its shores is represented by swans1 geese1 ducks1 cranes1 pelicans1 curlews1 herons1 plovers1 and snipe4 ,for beauty and grandeur the lower falls and canyon of the ,yellowstone ,river are unsurpassed4 ,a body of water seventy feet wide rushes forward with impetuous speed and joyously takes a leap of more than three hundred feet to the rocks below1 where1 breaking into millions of particles1 it forms a great cloud of spray4 ,the water then dashes on with renewed vitality between the walls of a canyon fourteen hundred feet deep1 and most gorgeously painted by nature in such a variety and lavishness of tints that they defy the most skilful artist to reproduce them4 ,as one gazes from the edge of the chasm into and along the depths below1 he attempts in vain to measure the fulness and beauty of this handiwork of nature4 ,he is too amazed for utterance and remains spellbound1 communing only with himself and nature regarding the unfathomable significance of such marvels4 ,when the famous painter1 ,thomas ,moran1 desired to reproduce in colors on canvas this masterpiece of nature1 he gathered his inspiration from ,artist ,point1 and after he had finished the celebrated painting which now adorns the ,capitol at ,washington1 he acknowledged that the beautiful tints of the canyon were beyond the reach of human art4 ,the ,grand ,canyon of the ,yellowstone has no equal on the face of the globe4 ,with a breadth equal to its depth1 this richly decorated canyon stands out unique among the world's wonders4 ,its beautiful panorama of stained walls1 down which trickle streams of water which brighten the tints in some places and soften them in others1 extends for a distance of three miles4 ,the entire canyon is fifteen miles in length4 ,a most interesting place to visit1 but outside the itinerary of most tourists1 is the ,fossil1 or ,petrified1 ,forest4 ,this section1 especially attractive to the scientist1 lies in the northeastern part of the park just north of ,amethyst ,mountain4 ,to one who can read ,nature's books1 a wondrous volume is open1 disclosing in its strata the hidden secrets of many by-gone geological ages4 ,here on the north flank of the mountain are two thousand feet of stratifications4 ,on the ledges1 tier above tier and story above story1 are seen the opal and agate stumps and trunks of twenty ancient forests1 some of the trunks being ten feet in diameter4 ,what wonderful stories do they tell of life and death1 of flood and volcanic fire1 ranging through the eons of the past6 ,so perfect are these petrifactions that the annual rings can be easily counted and even the grain of the wood is plainly visible4 ,as one traverses this wonderland he is impressed by the evidence of the stupendous forces that lie smouldering beneath the crust of the earth4 ,it is not improbable that at some future time1 by the further wrinkling or sinking of the surface of this part of the ,american continent1 the slumbering volcanic fires may be awakened to new life and activity4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,two ,,prehistoric ,,cemeteries--,,giant ,,reptiles ,,and ,,giant ,,trees ,although reptiles appeared first in the period known as the ,carboniferous ,age1 or age of plant life1 they did not attain their greatest development until ,jurassic and ,cretaceous times1 when many were of prodigious size and ruled the world4 ,the gigantic ichthyosaurs1 mesosaurs1 and dinosaurs held dominion over the sea and land1 and the monster flying reptile1 the pterodactyl1 over the air4 ,ages ago a great inland sea embracing ,wyoming and the surrounding region occupied the area east of the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,for many years students of geology had found this section a fertile field for the study of rock formations and the collection of fossils2 but not until #ahih was the geological wonderland of central-south ,wyoming discovered4 ,this discovery proved to be a graveyard of prehistoric monsters dating back probably several millions of years ago4 ,entombed in the rocks of the ,jurassic and ,cretaceous periods1 many lizard-like animals of gigantic size called saurians were found4 ,several fossil skeletons of these animals have been chiselled out of the solid rocks and mounted in museums1 the work entailing a vast amount of labor and expense4 ,the discovery was made by ,mr4 ,walter ,granger1 who had been sent out by the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history1 of ,new ,york1 to hunt for fossils4 ,in the desert section near ,medicine ,bow ,river1 ,wyoming1 he found what seemed to be a number of dark-brown bowlders4 ,on a critical examination they proved to be ponderous fossils that had been washed out of a great bed of reptilian remains4 ,the fossil graveyard in question was found to be two hundred and seventy-five feet in thickness4 ,near by was a ,mexican sheep-herder's cabin1 the foundations of which were constructed of huge fossils4 ,the vicinity was christened ,bone ,cabin ,quarry4 ,ten miles south of the ,bone ,cabin ,quarry1 in the ,como ,bluffs1 another bed containing the remains of huge dinosaurs was discovered4 ,from these remarkable cemeteries many fossils have been obtained4 ,the term saurian means lizard1 and it has many prefixes to indicate the different genera and species4 ,the prefixes generally express to a certain extent the characteristic appearance or habits of the different kinds of saurians4 ,some were flesh-eaters2 others were herbivorous4 ,some lived on land2 others1 in the shallow waters and lagoons1 fed on succulent aquatic plants2 still others frequented the deeper waters and lived on fish4 ,illustration3 ,property of the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history ,the ,brontosaurus 7herbivorous dinosaur7 ,the name dinosaur1 meaning terrible lizard1 represents an order of fossil reptiles4 ,they are allied to the crocodile1 but1 like the kangaroo1 their hind legs were much longer than their front ones4 ,the neck and tail were very long and the body short but of immense size4 ,these monsters were from twenty to eighty feet in length and weighed from thirty to one hundred tons4 ,the long1 slender neck supported a small head that contained a correspondingly small brain1 from which it is thought that the creature possessed a low order of intelligence4 ,the tail was much thicker than the neck and in some species was flattened4 ,when rising on its hind legs and resting on its tail it could look into the window of a four-story building4 ,some of these strange animals had bills like those of a duck2 some possessed teeth for grinding and others sharp teeth for tearing4 ,these were by far the largest land animals that ever lived4 ,the different species often waged titanic battles with one another for the supremacy of the earth4 ,it is conjectured that their disappearance was due to violent upheavals of the earth1 to the draining of the water1 to changes of climate1 and to deprivation of suitable food4 ,the mounted brontosaur in the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history1 ,new ,york1 will enable one better to appreciate the size of these giants of the ancient world4 ,this typical specimen1 though not the largest found1 is sixty-seven feet long and stands fifteen and one-half feet high4 ,its neck measures thirty feet in length and its tail eighteen4 ,the body weighed about ninety tons4 ,this huge fossil1 enclosed in its stone matrix1 was sent from the quarry to the museum4 ,after it had been received two men were employed constantly for nearly two and one-half years in removing the matrix1 repairing1 and mounting the fossil4 ,let us turn now to the burying ground of a giant forest4 ,long1 long years ago1 before man appeared on the earth1 an inland sea occupied what is now the northeastern part of ,arizona4 ,it was a sea bordered with sandstone and surrounded by coniferous forests1 where stately trees nodded in the breezes4 ,at length there came a great change4 ,the rim of the basin gave way1 and the great volume of water1 freed from restraint1 overwhelmed the forest with earthy material1 prostrating and burying it deep beneath the flood of sand4 ,in time the woody structure disappeared1 and was replaced by beautifully stained opal and agate4 ,again1 in the lapse of time the old forest bed was once more lifted above its former level1 forming a mesa1 or plateau1 of considerable extent4 ,during subsequent ages1 the elements scarred and furrowed the plateau1 forming canyons1 gulches1 valleys1 and buttes1 thus revealing in part this ancient forest4 ,could these dead trees but talk1 how interesting would be their story6 ,we can read their history but imperfectly by examining the mutilated breast of ,mother ,earth1 in and on which lie these mute stone trees1 dead yet made more beautiful through their transformation4 ,illustration3 ,property of the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history ,the ,allosaurus 7carnivorous dinosaur7 ,this region is called the ,petrified ,forest1 or ,chalcedony ,park4 ,it is about one hundred square miles in extent1 and is visited annually by thousands of people from all parts of the world4 ,on account of its strange geological character it is of special interest to the scientist4 ,let us make a brief trip to this wonderful stone forest4 ,we take light hand-baggage and board a ,santa ,fe train4 ,the railway passes near the most interesting part of the forest1 and we change cars before entering ,arizona in order to take this line4 ,the railway officials have made a station at ,adamana1 six miles from the edge of the forest1 in order to accommodate the travelling public4 ,we leave the train here and procure a team to carry us to the forest4 ,unless informed of what is to be seen one is apt to be greatly disappointed4 ,one's idea of a forest is usually that of a timber-covered area in which the trees stand erect1 with outspreading branches2 but we look in vain for a standing tree1 or even a stump that is erect4 ,all are branchless trunks1 prostrate on the ground1 many wholly or partly buried2 moreover1 they are lying in all sorts of positions1 some entire and others broken into sections2 some are massed closely together2 others lie apart2 and millions of pieces of all sizes are scattered around4 ,at places we can travel a long distance by stepping from one log to another4 ,but what is that pile of variegated disk-like objects looking like the primitive ,mexican ox-cart wheels8 ,they are cross-sections of stone logs1 some large and some small1 seemingly thrown together carelessly4 ,it is a characteristic of petrified trunks to break into cross-sections or blocks1 varying from a few inches to several feet in length2 and this tendency prevails here4 ,we are told that the trees of this forest antedate those of the ,yellowstone ,park by a long period of time4 ,how the loftiest flights of the imagination are piqued as we contemplate the marvellous changes since this primeval forest depended on the soil and sun for their life-giving elements6 ,as we wander through this wonderful forest our feet seem to be treading on the rarest gems4 ,and well may it seem so1 because when polished these pieces display a beauty of coloring and a lustre that rivals the glint of precious stones4 ,there is no other petrified forest in the world in which the mineralized wood assumes so many varied and interesting forms and colors4 ,many years ago a firm at ,sioux ,falls undertook to manufacture table tops1 mantels1 pedestals1 and various decorative articles out of sections of this agatized wood by cutting them into the desired forms and polishing them4 ,tiffany and ,company1 the famous jewellers1 also used this material for the base of the beautiful silver testimonial presented to the ,french sculptor1 ,bartholdi4 ,at a later date1 an abrasive company of ,denver conceived the plan of grinding up these trunks to make emery because of their extreme hardness2 in fact1 a plant was shipped to ,adamana station for that purpose4 ,fortunately for the public1 however1 it was not put into operation because the company learned that a ,canadian firm had put on the market an article at such a reduced price that to grind up these beautiful logs would be unprofitable4 ,fragments1 branches1 and trunks of all sorts and sizes are found lying around1 many of them richly colored1 forming chalcedony1 opal1 and agate2 some approach the condition of jasper and onyx4 ,before the ,petrified ,forest was set aside as a national park by ,congress1 many acts of vandalism were committed1 to say nothing about the quantities of mineral carried away by manufacturing firms and curiosity-hunters4 ,keepers now have charge of the park1 and no one is permitted to take away specimens for commercial use4 ,previously many of the finest logs were destroyed by blasting in order to procure the beautiful crystals which are found in the centre of many of them4 ,one object of special interest in the park is the ,national ,bridge1 a petrified trunk which spans a chasm thirty feet wide and twenty feet deep4 ,the part of the trunk crossing the gulch lies diagonally and is forty-four feet long4 ,the length of the trunk exposed by erosion is one hundred and eleven feet2 a fraction still remains embedded in the sandstone4 ,the ruins of several ancient ,indian pueblos are scattered about the park1 nearly all of them built of logs of this richly colored1 agatized wood4 ,the forest was a storehouse for ages1 whence primitive men obtained material from which to make agate hammers1 arrow-heads1 and knives1 as is shown by implements found hundreds of miles distant from these quarries4 ,,chapter ,v ,,death ,,valley ,death ,valley1 or the ,arroyo del ,muerte1 as the ,spanish called it1 is in the western part of southern ,california1 near the oblique boundary of ,nevada1 a little way north of ,nevada's vanishing point4 ,nowadays one may ride almost into the valley in a ,pullman coach4 ,from ,daggett1 a forsaken station of the ,santa ,fe ,railroad1 a jerkwater road1 as it is called1 extends northward to ,goldfield and ,tonopah1 and this road takes one almost as the crow flies to the edge of the valley of the ominous name4 ,even in a ,pullman coach the trip is trying to both body and soul4 ,but forty years ago8--well1 that is a different story4 ,then there was no ,santa ,fe ,railway1 and no ,daggett--just a wide stretch of desert dotted with yucca and ,spanish bayonet4 ,prospectors and pack-trains had left trails here and there4 ,one of these1 now a wagon-road1 lay southward to ,san ,bernardino2 northward it lost itself in the desert toward ,candelaria4 ,the region possesses some names that are a trifle paradoxical4 ,for instances1 there are the ,black ,mountains1 the grayish red color of which belies their name4 ,then there is ,funeral ,range1 which1 far from being sombre in aspect1 is most brilliantly colored4 ,to the southward is ,paradise ,valley1 a plain desert strewn with greasewood and chamiso2 and down in the floor of ,death ,valley is1 or rather was1 ,greenland4 ,but ,greenland is not a waste of icebound coldness2 on the contrary1 it is averred by the laborers in the borax fields to be several degrees hotter than any other place on earth4 ,the surplus water of the spring is employed to produce verdure there1 and it is apparently equal to the task1 for the forty or more acres so irrigated produce wonderful crops2 hence it is ,greenland4 ,even twenty years ago the trip to ,death ,valley was a trying one to the experienced desert traveller in summer2 to the tenderfoot without a guide it was almost certain death4 ,the best equipment for the trip was a pair of mules1 or else cayuse ponies1 and a light buckboard with broad tires--tires so wide that they would not sink in the loose1 wind-blown rock waste4 ,the equipment might possibly be found in ,daggett2 more likely it must be purchased in ,san ,bernardino4 ,at all events1 ,daggett was the real starting point1 and the first trick in the journey was the crossing of ,mohave ,river4 ,the river was pretty sure to be deep--not with water but with sand4 ,whoever saw water in the channel1 or wash1 of the ,mohave8 ,perhaps the oldest settler may have seen it2 at any rate he will so claim1 for the oldest settler is always boastful2 indeed1 fairy-story telling is his inherent1 bounden right4 ,to make good his assertion he points to the bridge1 and certainly the bridge is there2 but as for the river1 it may be on hand one day--perhaps an hour or so--in ten1 twenty1 or thirty years6 ,beyond the river a wide expanse of desert is before us1 and then a beautiful lake comes into view4 ,real water1 is it8--no2 just the desert mirage1 but it seems real enough to quench a genuine thirst4 ,but the illusion is lessened by the surroundings1 for we are approaching a dry sink--an old lake-bed that was filled with brackish water once when a cloud-burst that occurred in ,calico ,mountains had its busy day4 ,back of us are ,calico ,mountains1 a picturesque clump of buttes1 and the glimpse of them we get from the north explains why they were so named4 ,and such colors6 ,their brilliant hues change like kaleidoscopic patterns with the sun's motion4 ,on our right a trail diverges to ,coyote ,holes1 made grewsome by one of many tragedies that have occurred in the region4 ,this time it was a hold-up4 ,a desert waif out of luck and ready cash waylaid the paymaster of ,calico mines and relieved him of the money intended for the miners4 ,the robber was soon trailed and he quickly discovered that his only safety lay in hiding4 ,but where could he hide in that desolate flat8 ,at ,coyote ,holes there is a spring and a small marsh4 ,the robber buried himself in the mud till all but his face was covered and lay there while the posse searched4 ,but the keen vision of an ,indian scout did not fail4 ,when the robber saw that he was surrounded1 he put up a brave fight and went down1 riddled with rifle-balls4 ,the money was recovered4 ,a little farther on is ,garlic ,springs4 ,it is a common camping-place and like other camps is plentifully strewn with the evidence of the prospector's outfit--hundreds and hundreds of empty tin cans4 ,in time we camp at ,cave ,springs in a little cove of the ,avawatz ,buttes4 ,once there came along a man who all said was half-witted4 ,perhaps he was1 but his intelligence was keen enough to prompt him to claim the springs4 ,by selling the water for quenching thirst at the rate of four bits a head for stock and two bits apiece for men1 his spring proved the best gold mine in the district4 ,there is no water ahead until we reach ,saratoga ,springs1 a dozen miles beyond1 and it is well that we take a small supply along1 as the water there is unfit for either man or beast4 ,there is a difference between ,saratoga ,springs1 ,new ,york1 and the springs bearing this high-sounding name in the ,amargosa sink4 ,illustration3 ,twenty-mule borax team ,boiling ,springs are a night's ride--perhaps twenty miles--beyond4 ,we give our team three hours of rest and start therefor1 stopping in the mean time for a midnight feed1 where most unexpectedly we find some excellent grazing for our horses4 ,by daylight we are at the ,springs and in a locality much like the ,bad ,lands of ,south ,dakota4 ,but the boiling industry apparently is taking a vacation1 for the water is not too warm for one's hands and face--and certainly it is refreshing4 ,we are in a sink1 or the dry bed of a lake1 and the cliffs of clay have been sculptured into existence by the ,amargosa ,river4 ,sometimes1 when a dissipated cloud tumbles its contents into the region1 the ,amargosa is filled bank full with water2 but few prospectors have seen more than a trickling stream flowing in its bed4 ,we turn our way out of the wagon-trail toward ,funeral ,range to find the canyon of ,furnace ,creek1 and in time we are clambering up a narrow gulch between the multicolored strata of clay buttes4 ,not a vestige of life1 not even the horned-toad or the trail of the kangaroo-rat is to be seen4 ,half a dozen graves marked each by a wooden cross or a rock monument are in sight4 ,who are they8 ,ask the simoom that sweeps like a cruel furnace blast over this forsaken region4 ,to be lost in this desert means horrible suffering1 phantom-seeing1 and then death4 ,the bodies of these unfortunates were merely found and buried--lost6--dead6 ,we cross the mesa which forms part of the ,funeral ,range4 ,telescope and ,sentinel ,peaks beyond ,death ,valley in the ,panamint ,mountains loom above the horizon2 we descend the canyon of ,furnace ,creek and are in ,death ,valley4 ,we are in a strange and weird depression of the earth's crust about fifty miles long and ten wide1 the deepest part of which is more than two hundred and fifty feet below sea level4 ,once upon a time1 it is thought1 the ,gulf of ,california reached so far inland that it included this gash4 ,then the never-ceasing winds bridged it with loose rock waste4 ,thus1 ,death ,valley was born4 ,in time it became a salt lake1 a marsh1 and then a dry sink4 ,it is here that the deadly side-winder travels by night instead of day to avoid the excessive heat1 and rivers flow with their bottoms up as if to hide from the burning rays of the sun2 where ,death by name and by nature gives forth no warning note1 and even a mountain range on the east side of the valley signifies the service held to commemorate the last resting-place of the unfortunates who have perished here4 ,the valley is hemmed in on the east by the precipitous side of the gorgeous-colored ,funeral ,range1 and on the west by the ,panamint ,mountains1 which rise to the height of ten thousand feet4 ,the climate is cool and salubrious in winter1 but is a fiery furnace in summer1 when the mercury in the thermometer sometimes climbs to one hundred and forty degrees in the shade4 ,death ,valley gained its name from a terrible tragedy that occurred during the early days of the gold excitement in ,california4 ,emigrants bound for ,california overland were wont to follow the same general route as far as ,salt ,lake ,city4 ,from here there were two routes1 one westerly along the route over which the ,central ,pacific ,railway was afterward built1 the other southerly into southern ,california4 ,late in the season of #ahdi one of the emigrant parties reached ,salt ,lake ,city4 ,rather than winter there1 however1 they determined to push forward at all hazards by the southern route4 ,after travelling through ,utah and some distance in ,nevada1 they left the regular trail and decided to turn southwesterly and cross a fairly level mesa4 ,the region was unknown to them1 but they believed that by thus changing the route they would be able to reach their destination more quickly4 ,they also thought that they would find better grazing for their stock4 ,after they had crossed the mesa1 the route became more rugged and more precipitous1 so1 in order to lighten the wagon-loads1 one by one many articles of furniture were left behind4 ,when the company reached the head of ,amargosa ,valley they began to separate4 ,at length one party found looming up before it the streaked and many-colored ,funeral ,range of mountains4 ,nothing daunted1 they laboriously toiled up to the crest with their teams4 ,on looking down their hearts sank within them as they beheld a precipitous descent to a long1 deep1 and narrow valley almost destitute of vegetation4 ,this depression was to be christened ,death ,valley4 ,it was now too late to turn back2 so1 unyoking the oxen1 they proceeded to lower the wagons down into the valley by hand1 using chains and ropes4 ,by the time they had finished the task darkness had shut down and1 gathering sufficient greasewood brush to make a fire1 they cooked their evening meal with a scanty supply of water and vainly searched for more4 ,the food was eaten in gloomy silence1 for they were lost and knew not where they were nor how to reach the nearest settlement4 ,it was apparent to all1 however1 that they must hasten to leave this kiln-dried desert valley as soon as possible4 ,abandoning their wagons and nearly all of the surviving oxen to their fate1 after incredible hardships from lack of both food and water1 about one-half of the company of thirty souls that crossed the ,funeral ,range reached the settlements alive4 ,succumbing to their sufferings1 the others dropped1 one by one1 by the wayside unknelled and uncoffined4 ,the skeletons of several of these unfortunate emigrants were found years afterward by exploring parties and prospectors4 ,among those who escaped was a man named ,bennett1 who1 on reaching the nearest town1 reported that he had found a ledge of pure silver4 ,the reputed discovery occurred in this way4 ,as he was wending his course along one of the canyons he came across a spring1 and1 being both thirsty and tired1 after taking a drink sat down to rest4 ,while sitting there he carelessly broke off a piece of a rock jutting out near him1 and perceiving that it was very heavy and thinking it might be of some value1 placed a small part of it in his pocket4 ,after he had reached ,san ,bernardino he happened to purchase a gun lacking a front sight4 ,bennett therefore sought a gunsmith1 whom he requested to make a sight out of the metallic rock which he had found that he might have a souvenir which would not be easily lost4 ,to the astonishment of all who learned the facts1 the metal proved to be pure silver4 ,this circumstance gave rise to the celebrated ,gunsight ,lead1 a phantom that was chased in every direction from ,death ,valley2 but1 like the mirage of the desert1 the lead was never found4 ,in summer the valley is said to be the hottest place on the face of the earth1 and persons deprived of water even for an hour become insane4 ,men who have attempted to cross it at mid-day have been known to fall dead1 and birds flying across have been killed by the fierce heat4 ,cloud-bursts occur occasionally on the adjoining mountains1 when torrents pour down the declivities1 filling the canyons with streams of water sometimes many feet deep1 which sweep everything before them4 ,a cloud-burst may change the whole face of the mountain4 ,cloud-bursts come usually in the hottest weather and almost with the suddenness of an explosion4 ,a swiftly moving black cloud tipped with fiery streaks and growing rapidly appears above the crest of the mountains4 ,then it sinks like a monster balloon turned sidewise until it strikes a ridge or peak2 the flood is then let loose and destruction follows4 ,many stories are told of persons barely escaping with their lives by hastily climbing up the side of the canyons1 beyond the reach of the roaring waters1 and of others being overwhelmed and drowned4 ,such a flood1 caused by a cloud-burst1 may have buried the alleged ,gunsight ,lead and have changed the conformation of the canyon beyond recognition4 ,no one without experience in travelling over deserts in the summer season can realize the hardships attending travel in the region of ,death ,valley nor the sombre sameness of the arid stretches of sand4 ,when the sun has set and the full moon rising makes the silhouettes of the mountains look darker1 a vague1 indescribable sensation comes over one--an awe-inspiring feeling of insignificance and helplessness amidst scenes of majestic desolation4 ,if religiously inclined1 one is prone to utter the words of the wandering ,arab of the ,sahara1 ,nothing exists here but ,allah6 ,allah hu ,akbar6--,god is greater than all his created witnesses4 ,in summer1 the air being almost entirely destitute of moisture1 evaporation is exceedingly rapid1 and so hot is the sun at this season that metal objects lying out-of-doors burn the hand if touched4 ,many years ago valuable borax deposits were discovered in the ,death ,valley and thousands of tons of borax have been freighted out by huge wagons drawn by mules2 indeed1 twenty-mule-team borax has become almost a household term4 ,borax is still mined here1 but not so extensively as formerly1 more accessible borax deposits having been found in ,nevada and elsewhere--and the twenty-mule team is now a motor-truck6 ,nearly one-third of all of the borax of the world comes from the deserts of ,california and ,nevada4 ,when borax was first discovered in ,california the wholesale price in ,new ,york was about fifty cents a pound2 now it is about six cents4 ,the various applications of borax to industrial and domestic uses have kept pace with its enormous production during the last twenty-five years1 until now it is used for more than fifty different purposes4 ,the meat-packers of the ,united ,states alone use several million pounds as a preservative4 ,it is also used with excellent results as an antiseptic in dressing wounds and sores4 ,furnace ,creek enters the valley on the eastern side of ,death ,valley1 but its waters soon sink out of sight4 ,the creek is used to irrigate a tract of alfalfa1 a small garden1 and a few trees2 and the small ranch1 a veritable oasis in a desert1 is rightly called ,greenland4 ,a few men are kept employed here by the borax company4 ,now and then1 however1 the whole crowd1 tiring of the extreme heat1 desert in a body4 ,this region is now robbed of some of its terrors by the completion of the ,tonopah and ,tidewater ,railroad1 which touches ,death ,valley at the old ,amargosa ,borax ,works4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,mineral ,,wealth ,,of ,,the ,,andes ,at this period of the world's progress1 when so many marvellous inventions are taking place1 one can scarcely realize the intense interest that was awakened by the first discoveries made in the ,new ,world4 ,so great was the excitement that the most improbable stories were readily believed4 ,there were fountains of perpetual youth1 ,amazonian warriors1 mighty giants1 and rivers whose beds sparkled with gems and golden pebbles4 ,the reports of every returning adventurer1 whatever had been his luck1 were tinged with the marvellous4 ,in fact1 a world of romance was now open to all and the opportunities to achieve fame and fortune were numberless4 ,the first in the field stood the best chance to win the choicest prizes4 ,stories that outrivalled the ,arabian ,nights clouded the realm of reason4 ,so extraordinary were the accounts that many of the cities of ,spain were depleted of their most energetic men4 ,every craft that could sail the seas was called into use1 and the building of new vessels was hastened to completion in order to provide for the needs of adventurous prospectors and would-be explorers4 ,the conquest of the ,aztec ,empire1 with its millions of treasure1 by ,cortez had already proved the valiancy of ,spanish cavaliers4 ,to add to this1 the conquest of the ,incas by ,pizarro and his followers was regarded a miracle of divine interposition4 ,as a result1 ,spanish galleons laden with treasure from the conquered countries ploughed the seas1 and untold wealth poured into private and royal coffers4 ,spanish ambition and greed for gold knew no bounds4 ,cunning and cruelty were employed by the ,spaniards to secure their ends4 ,no trials1 no hardships were too great for them to endure4 ,no perils daunted them4 ,western ,south ,america1 ruled by viceroys for nearly three centuries1 brought to ,spain its greatest wealth4 ,one-fifth of all the wealth and treasure acquired was reserved for the crown4 ,when ,pizarro first visited the interior of ,peru he found an empire well advanced in the arts of civilization4 ,its temples within and without were richly decorated with gold4 ,there were thousands of miles of excellent roads1 of which two were used for military purposes4 ,one of these extended along the lowlands2 the other traversed the grand plateau4 ,these roads crossed ravines bridged with solid masonry and were pierced by tunnels cut through solid rock4 ,the construction of these great roads was a more wonderful achievement than the building of the ,egyptian pyramids4 ,the government was systematically organized and to a certain extent it was both paternal and communal4 ,agriculture was skilfully carried on by means of fertilization and irrigation4 ,the sun was the chief deity and object of worship of its people4 ,their most beautifully adorned and renowned sanctuary was the ,temple of the ,sun at ,cuzco4 ,besides this sacred edifice there were several hundred inferior temples and places of worship scattered through the empire1 all plentifully ornamented with gold and silver4 ,every ,inca ruler was regarded as a descendant of the sun and therefore a sacred person4 ,according to the popular belief1 gold consisted of tears wept by the sun and was therefore a sacred metal suitable for beautifying the palaces of the ,incas and temples of worship4 ,not only were the edifices themselves richly adorned with this precious metal1 but the sacred vessels and many of the articles of furniture were made of the same material4 ,silver1 also1 was much used1 but was not considered sacred4 ,so great was the amount of the precious metals used that each royal palace and temple was a veritable mine4 ,from #aebj to #aebe reports of a rich empire at the south were circulated among the adventurers congregated at ,panama4 ,at length they were confirmed in a great measure by travellers who had voyaged southward along the coast4 ,francisco ,pizarro1 a restless spirit who had been associated with ,balboa and others in discovery and exploration1 determining to test the truth of these reports1 made several voyages south4 ,finally1 he landed on the shores of ,peru with an army of followers who numbered less than two hundred4 ,he met with but little opposition from the natives while marching toward the interior1 and although he plundered some of the places through which he passed1 the people received him with marks of friendship4 ,in some instances towns of several thousand population were deserted on the approach of the ,spaniards1 so great was the terror inspired by the white men1 especially by those on horseback4 ,at first it was the policy of the invaders to treat the natives with kindness in order to accomplish their purpose1 namely1 to conquer the ,peruvian ,empire in the same manner that ,cortez had conquered the ,aztecs4 ,they were accompanied by two of the natives who previously had been taken to ,spain and taught the ,spanish language4 ,by this means the ,spaniards were able to communicate with the people4 ,learning that the ,inca ruler1 ,atahuallpa1 was encamped with his army among the mountains1 ,pizarro sent an embassy to request a meeting with him4 ,it was agreed that they meet at ,caxamalca1 a strongly fortified city among the sierras4 ,on arriving at the city1 the ,spaniards found it evacuated4 ,soon after taking up their quarters there1 ,atahuallpa arrived and established his camp a short distance outside the city4 ,pizarro at once sent word to ,atahuallpa to come into the city and sup with him1 but asked that1 in order to show his faith in the white men and his own good intentions1 he should leave all weapons behind4 ,after much persuasion ,atahuallpa accepted the invitation and entered the city1 with several thousand of his followers1 unarmed4 ,when fairly within the enclosure1 a priest approaching the ,inca ruler made a harangue about ,christianity and demanded that he should submit to the authority of the ,spanish king4 ,by what authority do you demand such submission8 replied the monarch with flashing eye4 ,by this holy book which ,i hold in my hand1 answered the priest4 ,then snatching the volume from the hand of the priest1 ,atahuallpa scornfully threw it on the ground1 saying1 ,what right have you in my country8 ,i will call you and your companions to an account for the indignities heaped upon me4 ,picking up the book1 the priest forthwith went to ,pizarro and reported the conduct of the ,inca1 saying1 ,it is useless to talk to this dog4 ,at them at once2 ,i absolve you4 ,immediately ,pizarro raised his handkerchief for the preconcerted signal1 the firing of a gun4 ,thereupon his soldiers1 infantry and cavalry1 rushed from their places of concealment upon the defenceless ,indians1 slaughtering them unmercifully right and left4 ,the discharge of the arquebuses and cannon1 with their smoke1 and the charge of the cavalry paralyzed the unsuspecting natives1 and the attack became a horrible massacre4 ,not until thousands of the ,indians had been killed and the ,inca ruler had been captured did darkness cause the ,spaniards to desist from their bloody work4 ,so sudden and terrible had been the onslaught that the haughty monarch himself seemed stunned by the effect4 ,realizing the irresistible power of the white men with their wonderful weapons and horses1 the natives gave up for a time all thoughts of resistance4 ,in fact1 they regarded the ,spaniards as superior beings endowed with preternatural gifts4 ,when the ruler had been kept a prisoner several months1 he desired to regain his freedom4 ,by this time he realized the ,spaniards' thirst for gold1 and therefore promised to fill the room in which he was confined with it as high as he could reach1 and twice to fill an adjoining room with silver1 if they would release him4 ,pizarro agreed to this proposal2 ,atahuallpa thereupon sent out messengers to all parts of his empire requesting that the metals in the shape of utensils and ornaments be collected from the royal palaces1 temples1 and elsewhere and brought to ,caxamalca4 ,on account of the difficulty of transportation1 since all the treasure had to be carried on the backs of the natives1 many months elapsed before the collections could be made4 ,when fifteen and one-half million dollars' worth of gold and a large amount of silver had been delivered at ,caxamalca1 ,pizarro excused the imprisoned ruler from further contributions4 ,at this juncture of affairs ,almagro1 a co-partner in the ,peruvian expedition1 arrived on the scene with a strong reinforcement4 ,on learning of the immense amount of gold and silver collected1 the followers of both leaders loudly clamored for its distribution among them1 and1 taking out the royal fifth part1 the remainder was divided according to the rank and service rendered4 ,then came rumors of an uprising among the natives and of the collection of an army to drive out the invaders1 but on investigation these reports were found to be false4 ,the question then uppermost in the minds of the ,spanish leaders was the disposition of the royal prisoner4 ,it was thought that1 were he released according to promise1 the natives might rally around him and demand the expulsion of the intruders4 ,so it was decided to make charges against him and to have at least the form of a trial in order to give an appearance of justice to the proceedings4 ,twelve charges were made against ,atahuallpa1 nearly all of which were far-fetched and absolutely false4 ,he was found guilty and condemned to death by burning2 but at the last moment1 when he was chained to a stake and the torch was ready to be applied1 the priest in attendance promised that the sentence should be commuted to the easier death by the garrote if he would renounce his idolatry and embrace ,christianity4 ,he assented to the proposal1 and immediately the modified sentence was carried out4 ,it is not necessary to add that the execution of the ,peruvian monarch was the darkest stain on the pages of ,spanish colonial history4 ,from this time on the conduct of the ,spanish invaders was marked by a most inhuman cruelty toward the natives4 ,illustration3 ,the ,oroya ,railroad1 ,peru1 showing four sections of the road ,thinking that he could more easily govern the empire through a native ruler subservient to himself1 ,pizarro placed ,manco1 the true heir1 on the ,peruvian throne4 ,in the meantime1 however1 parts of the empire rebelled against the new ruler and the ,spanish usurpers4 ,then1 when the rebellious tribes had been brought back to their former allegiance1 the ,spanish leaders quarrelled and fought among themselves4 ,it was not long before the arrogant and cruel conduct of the ,spaniards alienated all friendship on the part of both ruler and his subjects4 ,manco broke from his masters and1 aided by his people1 raised the standard of rebellion1 determining to make a last supreme effort to rid his subjects of the incubus that was sapping the life of the country4 ,after many bloody encounters in which both sides sustained severe losses1 ,manco was killed and the ,spanish yoke was firmly fixed on the neck of the people1 who for the greater part were consigned to a most inhuman slavery4 ,thousands perished by the brutal treatment inflicted upon them in the silver mines4 ,in the course of time ,indian slavery was abolished in a great measure by royal proclamation2 nevertheless1 ,spain continued to rule this land for three hundred years before the oppressive yoke was cast off by a successful uprising4 ,it is a pleasure to know that many of the ,spanish leaders who were guilty of this heartless cruelty suffered violent deaths in quarrels among themselves or in rebellion against the crown of ,spain4 ,during the period of ,spanish rule an immense revenue accrued from working the rich silver mines4 ,those that filled the ,spanish treasure ships so eagerly sought by buccaneers were the mines of ,potosi4 ,these silver lodes1 extensively worked through ,indian slave labor by ,hernando and ,gonzalo ,pizarro1 brothers of ,francisco ,pizarro1 were discovered in #aedf4 ,so rich did the lodes prove to be that the city of ,potosi sprang up near them and was supported by them1 although the site was far from being desirable4 ,its altitude is about thirteen thousand feet1 and it is1 therefore1 the highest city in the world4 ,it is situated on the bleak side of the ,andes1 from whose snow-clad peaks cold1 piercing winds sweep down over the city4 ,towering above it is a mountain1 honeycombed with shafts1 tunnels1 and drifts1 from which has been taken silver to the value of two billion dollars4 ,at first it was thought that a location so high above sea level would be unhabitable1 but the immense wealth of the silver lodes required many workmen for their development1 and these laborers had to be housed and fed4 ,at the zenith of its prosperity ,potosi possessed one hundred seventy thousand inhabitants1 and had the distinction of being the largest city in the ,new ,world during the first two centuries of its existence4 ,a mint built in #aefb1 at the expense of over a million dollars1 is long since unused4 ,a splendid granite cathedral ornamented with beautiful statuary still attests to the former grandeur of the city4 ,some of the richest veins of silver ore in the ,potosi mines have been worked out and many mines have been allowed to become filled with water4 ,these conditions1 coupled with the low price of silver for many years1 have caused the population of the city to dwindle until now there are scarcely more than ten thousand inhabitants and very many of the buildings are in ruins4 ,these mines have produced twenty-seven thousand tons of silver since their discovery1 and at the present day many of them are yielding large returns4 ,the ,bolivian plateau is one vast mineral bed abounding in rich mines of copper1 tin1 silver1 and gold4 ,in ,bolivia alone there are upward of two thousand silver mines2 while some of the richest tin mines in the world are found here4 ,lodes of pure tin several feet in width have been followed down six hundred feet4 ,tin mines were recently discovered among the mountains thirteen thousand five hundred feet above the level of the sea1 near the shores of ,lake ,titicaca4 ,two railroads now reach this high plateau1 one from the seaport town of ,antofagasta1 ,chile1 to ,oruro1 ,bolivia2 the other from ,molendo1 ,peru1 to ,puno1 on ,lake ,titicaca4 ,the most wonderful railroad in the world and the most costly in its construction1 the ,oroya ,railroad is about one hundred fifty miles long4 ,it begins at ,callao1 ,peru1 and ends at ,oroya4 ,the highest point reached by it in crossing the ,andes is fifteen thousand six hundred and sixty-five feet4 ,it is said that seven thousand lives were lost in its construction4 ,much of the road-bed was blasted through solid rock on the sides of the mountains4 ,the cost of construction was about three hundred thousand dollars per mile4 ,it has seventy-eight tunnels1 the longest being the ,gallera tunnel1 which pierces ,mount ,meiggs at the altitude of fifteen thousand six hundred and sixty-five feet4 ,this is the highest place in the world where steam is used as a motive power4 ,ultimately the road is to be extended to the celebrated mines of ,cerro de ,pasco1 fifty-one miles beyond its present terminus1 ,oroya4 ,the chief business of these railroads extending into the ,andes is carrying ore1 bullion1 and wool4 ,their construction marks the acme of engineering skill2 the scenery along them surpasses that of all other regions in its wild ruggedness1 grandeur1 and sublimity4 ,in ascending to such great heights quickly one not accustomed to high elevations is apt to experience dizziness1 headache1 and nausea4 ,at first even the effort to talk on reaching these lofty places by train is laborious4 ,dogs taken from the lowlands to these elevations are unable to run with speed for a long time1 but those which are born and reared in this region easily pursue wild animals4 ,when the ,new ,world was discovered the llama was the only animal used there as a beast of burden4 ,thousands of these diminutive creatures are still used for transporting ore and bullion in the ,andes4 ,each animal can carry a load of seventy-five pounds or more4 ,this sure-footed animal can travel with its load about fourteen miles a day4 ,illustration3 ,llamas resting ,lake ,titicaca is one of the famous lakes of the world4 ,its name means tin-stone and was doubtless derived from the tin ore found in the vicinity4 ,the lake has an elevation of twelve thousand five hundred and fifty feet1 and although nine streams run into it1 only one1 the ,desaguadero1 flows out1 carrying its waters to ,lake ,poopo1 a small body of salt water nearly three hundred miles south4 ,lake ,titicaca has the same surface level both summer and winter4 ,the outflow never reaches the sea2 it is lost by evaporation mainly in ,lake ,poopo1 but the latter frequently overflows into the salt marshes lying to the southward4 ,though thin ice may be found in the quiet bays and inlets nearly every morning during the year1 the expanse of the lake is never frozen even in the severest weather4 ,a peculiarity about the lake is that not only will iron not rust when left in its waters1 but that which was before rusted soon loses its scales of rust after being immersed a few days4 ,several steamers ply on the lake carrying chiefly ore and wool4 ,some of the islands in the lake are inhabited by ,indians who eke out a precarious living4 ,a civilization antedating that of the ,incas formerly occupied the region about the lake1 as is proved by the remarkable ruins along the shores concerning which the natives told the early ,spaniards that they had no record4 ,three square miles are covered by these ruins1 whose walls were made of immense blocks of stone most accurately fitted together1 thus giving evidence of the great skill in stone-cutting possessed by the pre-,inca people4 ,the ,inca rulers had beautiful palaces and other edifices on some of the islands4 ,titicaca ,island was regarded as sacred1 and at the time of the ,spanish conquest was the site of a large temple richly ornamented with gold and silver4 ,prospecting in the ,andes is attended with great hardships4 ,few wild animals can be found to furnish food4 ,food and utensils must be carried on the backs of men1 and the greatest difficulty is experienced in traversing the almost inaccessible steeps and deep ravines4 ,coal of inferior quality has been found near the shores of ,lake ,titicaca and is used by the steamers sailing on its waters4 ,many rich mineral lodes yet remain undiscovered1 and a vast number of valuable mines languish for lack of capital to develop them4 ,frequent revolutions and the insecurity of private property prevent the investment of foreign capital4 ,the ,andes will continue to be a great storehouse of minerals for many years to come4 ,illustration3 ,silver-smelting works at ,cassapalca1 on the ,oroya ,railroad1 ,peru1 #ac1fjj feet high ,muffling the feet of the ,peruvian ,andes is a long narrow strip--drifting dunes of rock waste--known as the ,atacama ,desert4 ,in comparison with this awful desert1 the ,sahara is said to be a botanical garden4 ,here during a part of the year a fierce1 relentless sun pours down its burning rays on the shifting sands1 keeping the air at a scorching heat both day and night4 ,formerly the region belonged to ,bolivia1 but it was annexed to ,chile as a result of the war of #ahha4 ,for miles and miles not a blade of grass1 not a tree1 not a shrub is to be seen4 ,all around is a bleak1 barren waste destitute of water4 ,yet underneath these sands lie concealed immense deposits of nitrates of untold wealth4 ,although small quantities of the nitrates had been sent to ,europe for chemical purposes--chiefly the manufacture of gunpowder--no considerable amount was exported until a fortuitous discovery was made by a ,scotchman named ,george ,smith4 ,after wandering over the world for some time ,smith settled down in a little village near ,iquique1 where he had a small garden containing fruit-trees and flowers4 ,in one part of his garden he noticed that the plants grew best where the soil contained a white substance4 ,he then proceeded to gather a quantity of the material and to experiment with it4 ,to his surprise he found that a mere handful of it greatly stimulated the growth of plants4 ,he told a member of his family in ,scotland who was engaged in fruit-growing about the wonderful effects of the material as a fertilizer4 ,as a result several bags of nitrates were distributed among ,scottish farmers and fruit-growers4 ,so satisfactory did the fertilizer prove that an immediate call was made for more of it4 ,thus began a business which now yields the owners of the beds one hundred million dollars yearly4 ,it was soon found out that the nitrate in its raw state contained properties that were injurious to plants and that these should be first eliminated4 ,forthwith reduction works were established to extract the deleterious substances4 ,these substances were mainly iodine and bromine1 two chemical elements that are of greater value than the nitrates themselves4 ,within a few years railroads were built to transport the nitrates from the beds to the various ports where the reduction factories were erected4 ,many men who had large interests in the nitrate beds became immensely wealthy in a short time4 ,the great value of the deposits caused towns and cities to spring up along the coast in the most inhospitable places1 to some of which water was piped a distance of more than two hundred miles and at the cost of many millions of dollars4 ,the principal nitrate beds are in a shallow valley1 four or five thousand feet above sea level1 lying between a long range of hills and the base of the ,andes4 ,just how these mineral deposits were formed it is difficult to explain1 the most plausible theory being that this desert was once the bottom of an inland sea having vast quantities of seaweed covered with sand4 ,in the gradual decay of this substance the nitrate of soda1 or ,chile saltpetre1 was formed4 ,to obtain the nitrates it is necessary first to remove the top layer of sand and then a layer of clay4 ,underneath this is found a layer of soft1 whitish material called nitrate4 ,the crude nitrate is sent to the nitrate ports to be crushed and boiled in sea-water4 ,after boiling1 the solution is drawn off into shallow vessels and exposed to the heat of the sun to evaporate4 ,when nearly all has been evaporated and the remaining liquid drawn off1 the bottom and sides of the vessels are found to be covered with sparkling white crystals4 ,this is the saltpetre of commerce1 the highest grade of which is used in the manufacture of gunpowder1 the second grade for chemical purposes1 and the third grade1 the great bulk1 for fertilizing the exhausted soils of ,europe4 ,the liquid drawn off is crystallized by chemical treatment and further evaporation1 and from it is obtained iodine1 an ounce of which is worth as much as one hundred pounds of saltpetre4 ,from eighty to one hundred million dollars' worth of these nitrates are dug out and sold each year4 ,great ,britain takes about one-third of the entire product and ,germany one-fifth4 ,iquique has the largest shipping trade4 ,from this port about fifty million dollars' worth of nitrates and three million dollars' worth of iodine are exported yearly4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,the ,,czar',s ,,greater ,,domain ,no other parts of the globe have been subject to so many kaleidoscopic changes by migrations during the past eight centuries as northern ,asia and eastern ,europe4 ,in comparison both ,india and ,china have remained stable for many centuries4 ,before the ,christian era1 ,mongol tribes of northeastern ,asia began their westward march1 tarrying a few centuries along the way in the most fertile places and gathering force by multiplication until the thirteenth century4 ,then like a mighty flood they poured into eastern ,europe1 carrying everywhere in their pathway subjugation1 devastation1 and slaughter4 ,during the early part of these migrations1 the great ,roman ,empire trembled as she beheld the irresistible moving hosts1 and her downfall was hastened by the ponderous blows dealt her by these barbarians4 ,in the early part of the thirteenth century1 after the ,mongol ruler ,genghis ,khan had overrun southern ,russia1 he turned northward and captured the cities of ,moscow1 ,vladimir1 and ,ryazan1 putting to death many of the inhabitants by the most fiendish methods of torture4 ,thousands were slaughtered merely to wreak vengeance for the strong resistance offered by the besieged before surrendering4 ,hundreds of thousands of the ,russians both high and low were made slaves4 ,wives of the nobles who had been richly clad and adorned with jewels became servants of their conquerors4 ,illustration3 ,fishing for sturgeon through the ice of the ,ural ,river4 ,catching the material for caviare ,in #abgb most of the ,tartars became ,muhammadans and henceforth became more intolerant of the ,christians1 thousands of whom they burned alive or tortured4 ,this oppressive yoke was borne for nearly three hundred years4 ,then ,ivan ,,iii succeeded in breaking the ,tartar rule forever4 ,mongol tribes1 however1 remained a disturbing element on the border for two hundred years thereafter4 ,in the early part of the fourteenth century ,othman1 a ,mongol1 founded the ,ottoman empire1 which then consisted of only the western part of ,asia ,minor4 ,his son and successor conquered ,gallipoli in #aced1 thereby gaining a foothold in ,europe1 and during the next two centuries successive ,turkish rulers made large additions to the empire until it embraced vast areas in ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,africa4 ,for a time1 indeed1 it threatened to absorb all ,christendom4 ,adrianople was conquered in #acfa and made the capital of the ,turkish ,empire4 ,then1 in #adec1 after a memorable siege1 ,constantinople was captured by the ,muhammadans1 and made the capital of the empire4 ,orkhan was the first to exact as tribute the strongest and healthiest male children of all ,christian peoples whom he conquered4 ,these youths1 reared as ,muhammadans and trained under strict military discipline1 became that efficient body of troops called the ,janizaries4 ,for a long time they were the bulwark of the empire1 but at length they became so dictatorial and powerful that the sultan began to fear them more than he feared his foreign enemies4 ,in #ahbe1 when the army was reorganized on the ,european plan1 the ,janizaries broke out in open revolt4 ,then the reigning sultan unfurled the flag of the ,prophet and called upon the faithful to suppress the rebellious corps4 ,in the contest that ensued it is estimated that twenty-five thousand of the rebels were put to death1 twenty thousand were banished1 and the others disbanded4 ,this was the end of an epoch of blood-shedding and the beginning of an era of commerce4 ,the ,russians have always been noted for their love of furs2 as a result a small1 fur-bearing animal1 the sable1 led to the conquest of that vast realm now known as ,siberia4 ,about the middle of the sixteenth century a rich ,russian merchant named ,strogonoff1 residing at ,kazan1 established salt works on the banks of the ,kama1 a tributary of the ,volga ,river1 and began trading with the natives4 ,one day1 having noticed some strangely dressed travellers and learning that they came from a country beyond the ,ural ,mountains1 called ,sibir1 he despatched some of his agents into that land4 ,on returning1 the employees brought with them the finest sable skins that the merchant had ever seen4 ,they had been secured for a trifling sum4 ,strogonoff began at once to extend the area of his trafficking1 and informed the government of the lucrative commerce that he had opened up4 ,valuable concessions were then granted him4 ,a few years afterward a ,cossack officer named ,yermak1 who had been declared an outlaw by ,ivan the ,terrible1 gathered together a force of less than one thousand men4 ,the band was composed of adventurers1 freebooters1 and criminals1 and the expedition was armed and provisioned by ,strogonoff1 who expected to profit by opening up the new region4 ,permission having been obtained from the government1 in #aegi ,yermak set forth with his followers for the unknown country4 ,so great were the impediments which the pathless swamps and forest offered1 together with the severity of the climate and hostility of the natives1 that his force was reduced by death1 sickness1 and desertion to the number of five hundred when he lined up his men before the large army of the powerful ,kutchum ,khan4 ,like ,cortez and ,pizarro1 ,yermak had unbounded confidence in his ability to cope with his enemies1 who were rudely armed with bows and arrows1 regardless of their numbers2 for his own men were supplied with matchlocks1 and with these--in the language of the natives--they could manufacture thunder and lightning4 ,a terrible battle ensued1 and for some time success seemed evenly balanced4 ,at length the fierce attacks of the ,cossacks forced the barbarous hordes to give way and the retreat became a stampede4 ,kutchum ,khan's camp and all its treasures fell into the hands of the conquerors4 ,yermak at once sent part of his force to occupy the ,tartar capital1 which was found to be evacuated1 so great was the terror inspired by the ,russians4 ,the success achieved by the handful of ,cossacks led several neighboring tribes to offer voluntarily an annual tribute of sable skins4 ,when ,yermak had collected several thousand of these skins1 he sent a special envoy to ,moscow to present them along with the conquered country to the czar4 ,so greatly pleased was ,ivan with the offerings that he forgave ,yermak for his past ill deeds and made him governor and commander-in-chief of all the countries which he might conquer4 ,then1 knowing that it would be difficult for the ,cossacks to hold the conquered territory very long with their diminished numbers1 the czar forthwith sent reinforcements4 ,soon after the arrival of the additional troops1 ,yermak audaciously started out to make further conquests4 ,one dark and rainy night he encamped with his force on a small island in the ,irtish ,river4 ,relying on the terror which his name had inspired1 and the stormy weather1 he deemed it unnecessary to post sentinels4 ,wearied with their long march1 soon all of the ,russians were buried in slumber4 ,but ,kutchum1 smarting under his humiliating defeat1 had spies constantly watching his foes1 intending1 if possible1 to take them by surprise4 ,when the spies reported to him the lack of vigilance on the part of the enemy1 he stealthily crossed to the island with his force and fell upon the sleeping camp4 ,all the ,russians but two were killed1 and these1 escaping1 reported the disaster at ,sibir4 ,when ,yermak saw the annihilation of his troops1 he cut his way through the ,tartars and attempted to swim the stream1 but was dragged to the bottom by his heavy armor and drowned4 ,when news of the crushing disaster reached ,sibir the ,russians1 losing heart at the death of their leader1 evacuated the place and returned home4 ,the czar1 nevertheless1 had no idea of permitting a land so promising to slip from his grasp4 ,it was not long before he sent a larger army across the ,ural ,mountains1 which not only reconquered the lost territory but also the rest of western ,siberia4 ,illustration3 ,gathering salt at the mouth of the ,ural ,river ,gradually the ,cossacks moved eastward1 conquering tribe after tribe4 ,as they advanced they built strong wooden forts by which to hold their vantage ground4 ,tomsk was founded in #afjd2 by #afcj the tide of conquest had reached the banks of the ,lena2 and within eighty years from their first conquest the ,russians had reached the ,pacific4 ,years afterward a suitable monument was erected to ,yermak in the city of ,tobolsk1 which was built on the battle-field where he gained his first decisive victory over the ,tartar ruler4 ,his real monument is all ,siberia1 whose conquest he inaugurated4 ,in #ahdg the ,amur ,river section was annexed by ,russia regardless of the protests of the ,chinese ,government4 ,quarrels ensued over the boundaries and1 finding resistance hopeless1 the ,chinese ceded to ,russia all the land on the left bank of the ,amur as far as the mouth of the ,ussuri and on both its banks below that river4 ,the sable gradually led the ,russian hunters to ,kamtchatka1 while the more valuable sea-otter beckoned them across the sea to the ,aleutian ,islands and that part of the ,american continent now ,alaska ,territory4 ,the chief incentive in all of these conquests was the securing of valuable furs4 ,the sable is even yet found along the streams in both open and forested sections from the ,ural ,mountains to the ,pacific2 but so relentless has been the pursuit of this valuable fur-bearing animal that it is now nearly exterminated4 ,besides the sable and the sea-otter1 there are found in ,siberia the ermine1 bear1 arctic fox1 common fox1 deer1 wolf1 antelope1 elk1 hare1 and squirrel4 ,to avoid entering into conflict with the more powerful people at the south1 the ,russians chose to advance eastward along higher latitudes toward the ,pacific4 ,but within a few years after the ,muscovite empire had acquired central and northern ,siberia1 there were loud complaints that the tribes on the south were making raids on them1 robbing them of their property and carrying their people into slavery4 ,so1 from time to time1 ,cossack forces were sent to chastise the offenders2 and in many instances they were punished and their territories were annexed to ,siberia4 ,in these raids the ,turkomans were the most active4 ,during the forty years previous to #ahgh it is estimated that eighty thousand ,russian subjects and two hundred thousand ,persians were made captives and sold into slavery4 ,in #ahgc the ,russians captured ,khiva and liberated thirty thousand ,persian slaves4 ,notwithstanding these lessons1 some of the ,turkoman tribes still went on marauding expeditions1 robbing1 killing1 and enslaving their neighbors4 ,so1 in #ahgh1 another strong force of the ,cossacks was sent against the pillaging tribes1 who were made to release all slaves and abolish slavery4 ,little by little all ,turkistan became ,russian territory4 ,bokhara and ,khiva alone keep their old forms of government1 but they are practically ,russian states and pay ,russia annually a stipulated tribute4 ,it is thought that once upon a time ,siberia had a much larger population than it has now and the peoples who lived there dwelt farther north4 ,the first colonists lived in the stone age and were contemporaneous with the mammoth1 whose remains are found scattered all over the northern part of ,siberia and the adjacent islands4 ,in the interior these remains are found imbedded in thick strata of pure blue ice1 which is covered by the river gravels of streams that do not now exist4 ,so thick are these layers of ice that they may be likened to the rocks found in lower latitudes4 ,several of these animals have been found imbedded in the ice in an almost perfect state of preservation1 and quantities of their tusks are obtained annually along the northern rivers where the spring freshets have worn away the banks of the streams4 ,whenever the ivory-tusk hunter sees the end of a tusk sticking out of the river bank1 he is soon able to remove it from its resting place with pick and shovel4 ,great quantities of this fossil ivory are also obtained from the islands to the north of the mainland4 ,as in arctic ,america1 the ground of northern ,siberia is frozen solid to the depth of many feet1 and even during the hottest summer it thaws down only a few inches4 ,the climate is continental in character1 being marked by fierce winds and great extremes both in temperature and moisture4 ,in midsummer the temperature may reach one hundred and ten degrees1 while in midwinter it has been known to reach ninety degrees below zero4 ,roughly speaking1 ,siberia may be divided into three longitudinal belts3 first1 the tundra1 which borders the ,arctic ,ocean and extends several hundred miles south of it2 second1 the forest belt1 several hundred miles wide1 which extends across the continent2 third1 the southern part1 consisting of desert steppes1 swamps1 grassy plains1 and a few broken forests4 ,the tundra is a vast lowland plain which in winter is a desolate1 frozen waste1 and in summer a vast swamp of lichens and arctic moss4 ,here nature is embalmed in eternal frost1 and life is a terror-inspiring struggle with cold and hunger4 ,in spring1 when the snow is gone and the ground begins to thaw1 thousands of geese1 ducks1 swans1 and other feathered creatures appear1 enlivening the monotonous scene for a few months2 then1 when the sharp ,september frosts announce the approach of winter1 with their tundra-reared progeny they wing their way southward1 leaving the icy plains to the wandering fox and the arctic owl4 ,one writer speaks of the tundra as the very grave of nature1 the sepulchre of the primeval world1 because it is the tomb of so many animals whose remains have been protected from putrefaction for thousands of years4 ,how interesting would it be could these animals be brought to life and be endowed with sufficient intelligence to relate the history of their age and generation6 ,the reindeer in the valley of the ,lena spend the winter near the forests1 but as the spring advances they migrate to the thousands of islands in the delta to escape the heat and mosquitoes farther south4 ,to reach their destination they are obliged to swim across broad channels of water4 ,the animals have special places for crossing1 and on their return south the natives station themselves at these places and slaughter them in large numbers4 ,all the swamps and marshes throughout ,siberia are the breeding places of innumerable mosquitoes1 which in summer fly over the country in such dense clouds as to render life in certain sections almost unbearable4 ,just north of ,mongolia where the ,yenisei ,river enters ,russian territory is the wonderfully interesting fertile prairie region of ,minusinsk4 ,being well watered and sheltered on all sides by mountains1 it is one of the most fertile spots in all ,siberia4 ,here the disintegration of gold-bearing rocks has formed large mining fields which are profitably worked4 ,in the vicinity are also valuable iron mines1 which were opened early in the prehistoric period1 and which are still worked4 ,illustration3 ,driving over the tundra in winter ,because of its delightful climate and special attractions for the archaeologist1 this charming section is called the ,italy of ,siberia4 ,there have been obtained from the mounds found in this section many thousand relics relating to prehistoric man which exemplify his progress from the stone age through the bronze to the iron age4 ,this fine collection of upward of sixty thousand different articles is housed in an imposing and substantial museum erected in the town of ,minusinsk4 ,this building contains the richest collection of implements representing the bronze age in the world4 ,the forest belt is so immense that the wooded plains of the ,amazon shrink into comparative insignificance4 ,for the most part these great forests are composed of evergreen trees1 the fir1 pine1 larch1 and pitch-pine predominating4 ,in many localities there are hundreds of square miles of perfectly straight pine trees of great height1 where neither man nor beast could find the way out4 ,even experienced trappers dare not enter these forests without blazing trees along their pathway1 so that they may be able to extricate themselves by retracing their steps4 ,in these huge evergreen solitudes there is an inexhaustible supply of the finest timber in the world4 ,in every sense of the word they are solitudes2 for one may travel scores of miles without meeting or hearing either bird or beast4 ,at the conclusion of the war between ,japan and ,russia it was stipulated that ,russia should cede to ,japan the southern part of ,sakhalin ,island4 ,the cession was made in #aije4 ,during the following two years a large number of ,russians and ,japanese were employed in marking the boundary1 by cutting through the forest from east to west a strip one hundred miles long and twelve miles wide4 ,the fir forests of the ,japanese portion1 covering more than three million acres1 are alone estimated to be worth forty-five million dollars1 to say nothing about the extensive coal deposits and the large areas of land available for tillage4 ,of the native peoples of northern ,siberia the ,yakuts are the most numerous4 ,they resemble both the ,eskimos and the ,lapps4 ,they occupy several valleys1 including that of the ,lena ,river and a strip along the ,arctic ,ocean to the west4 ,so inured to cold are these people1 that where the temperature ranges from ninety degrees below zero to ninety-three degrees above1 the adults wear light clothing in the depth of winter and the children sport naked in the snow4 ,the desert zone includes a vast region east of the ,caspian ,sea and extends to the ,tian ,shan ,mountains1 which separate it from the desert of ,gobi4 ,here1 as in the ,mohave ,desert1 are found the leafless1 thickly spined forms of the cactus family4 ,a product peculiar to ,siberia and highly appreciated by the inhabitants on account of its edible qualities is the cedar nut found in all of the northern forest region4 ,so great is the demand for these nuts that in ,tomsk alone thousands of tons are sold each year4 ,they resemble pine nuts4 ,a gum called larch-tree sulphur1 chewed by both natives and settlers1 is also obtained from these forests4 ,bee-keeping1 especially in eastern ,siberia1 is an important industry which has been followed from remotest ages4 ,the annual yield of honey is estimated to be upward of three million pounds4 ,the camel is usually associated with the hot desert regions of the ,sahara and ,arabia1 yet in ,siberia immense numbers of camels are used4 ,it is not an uncommon sight to see them in midwinter hauling sledges along frozen roads and ice-covered rivers4 ,the richest gold fields are in the swamp and forest sections of central ,siberia and in the ,ural and ,altai ,mountains1 although the metal is widely scattered all the way from the ,ural ,mountains to the ,pacific4 ,the word ,altai means gold4 ,the world's supply of platinum virtually comes from the gold-mines of ,siberia as a by-product4 ,in many parts of the mining region1 as in ,alaska1 the frozen ground must be thawed by fires before it can be worked4 ,the building of the ,trans-,siberian ,railroad has wrought a wonderful transformation in ,siberia by giving a great impetus to agriculture and other kinds of business4 ,this great achievement1 begun in #ahia1 was practically completed in eleven years1 at a cost of one hundred and seventy-five million dollars4 ,subsequent work1 together with equipment1 double tracking1 and the building of additional lines1 has doubled the first cost4 ,the eastern terminus of the main line is ,vladivostock2 a branch line across ,manchuria reaches ,port ,arthur and ,dalny1 or ,tairen1 as it is now called4 ,the continuous railway route from ,st4 ,petersburg to ,port ,arthur is five thousand six hundred and twenty miles1 four thousand five hundred miles of which is in ,siberia4 ,the first rails used1 proving too light for the tremendous traffic1 were replaced with heavier ones1 and the road-bed itself has been widened and strengthened4 ,the fare on the road is very reasonable4 ,for long distances it ranges from about a cent per mile to less than half that rate1 accordingly as one travels first1 second1 third1 or fourth class4 ,riding first class one can secure sleeping accommodations equal to the best that one finds on the roads of the ,united ,states1 and in addition one may have the luxury of a bath4 ,since the completion of the road the government has done everything possible to attract ,russian emigration from ,europe in order to settle and develop the country4 ,the consumer in ,russia becomes a producer in ,siberia4 ,the number of ,russian emigrants who have settled along the line during the past five years will average one hundred and fifty thousand annually4 ,to start the ,russian farmers in these new regions the government gives each man of family a certain amount of money or an equivalent in stock and tools2 and in addition loans him small amounts at a low rate of interest1 to be repaid in five years1 with a proviso that if there be bad crops the time will be extended4 ,for the year #aijh1 nine million five hundred thousand dollars was set aside to assist the peasant farmers4 ,following in the wake of the completion of the ,trans-,siberian ,railroad1 additional steamers have been placed on all the large rivers to meet the growing demands of commerce4 ,hundreds of steamers ply upon the rivers during the open season1 but no vessels attempt the route by way of the ,arctic ,ocean on account of the long distance and frequent ice obstructions4 ,illustration3 ,train on the steppes of ,russia ,dairying1 now a most important industry of ,siberia1 was unknown before the advent of the great railway4 ,to promote this industry1 the government has already expended more than a million dollars4 ,at all the principal places schools have been established in which the best methods of dairy-farming are taught4 ,fortunately1 cattle diseases are practically unknown4 ,the fine quality of the grasses1 together with the improved methods of manufacturing brought about by the creameries1 causes ,siberian butter to rank with the best products found in the ,european markets4 ,the dairy products are shipped by rail to various parts of ,europe1 large quantities going to ,england and to ,denmark1 the home of dairying4 ,sometimes three hundred tons of butter per week are shipped to ,copenhagen and one thousand tons to ,london4 ,upward of eighty million pounds are annually exported1 and it is said that by a little exertion fifteen times the amount could be easily produced4 ,the industry is still only in its infancy4 ,in the ,tobol and ,ishim plains of western ,siberia are the fertile black-earth regions covering twenty-five million acres4 ,as yet1 they are sparsely settled1 but they are capable of supporting half the population of ,russia4 ,two-thirds of the inhabitants of ,siberia are ,russians1 and in timbered regions probably one-half live in log houses1 for these are capable of being made the most comfortable dwellings in the world4 ,many exaggerated statements have appeared1 both in ,england and ,america1 concerning the exile system4 ,this1 happily1 is now abolished1 as also have been the cruelties practised by those in charge4 ,that there have been great abuses no one denies1 but the conditions of the prisons can be paralleled both in ,england and the ,united ,states4 ,no more common criminals are sent to ,siberia4 ,transportation is now limited chiefly to escaped convicts and to political and religious criminals1 most of whom are sent to the island of ,sakhalin4 ,capital punishment1 except in cases of attacks on the royal family and condemnation by courts-martial1 was abolished many years ago4 ,lake ,baikal is one of the most remarkable lakes in the world4 ,it is four hundred miles long and from twenty to sixty miles wide4 ,the lake is very deep1 and1 although situated in the temperate zone1 is the home of a species of arctic seal and tropical coral4 ,this species of seal is found nowhere in ,asian waters outside of the ,arctic ,ocean1 except in this lake and the ,caspian ,sea4 ,immense quantities of salmon of different species abound in the lake1 and give rise to important fishing industries4 ,in winter the lake is covered with ice seven feet thick4 ,crossing is made by huge ice-breaking ferryboats capable of carrying thirty cars and one thousand men1 yet only during a part of the winter is the boat able to navigate1 so persistent is the extreme cold4 ,the railway now extends around the southern part of the lake1 and crossing by ferryboats is not attempted when the ice is thick4 ,asiatic ,russia includes ,transcaucasia1 which was permanently annexed to the ,russian ,empire in #ahja4 ,this great ,asiatic domain contains more than six million square miles1 or about twice the size of the ,united ,states1 including ,alaska4 ,notwithstanding the millions of square miles of arid deserts1 irredeemable swamps1 frozen tundra1 and impenetrable forests1 the agricultural and mineral resources of ,siberia are almost beyond computation4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,the ,,mystic ,,highlands ,,of ,,asia ,the statement that one half the world does not know how the other half lives1 nor how it is influenced1 applies with double force to the peoples living on the high plateau of ,tibet beyond the titanic ,himalayas4 ,here is a vast region only one-twentieth of which is covered with vegetation4 ,chains of mountains with snow-capped peaks encircle it1 and spurs from the main ranges1 together with lesser ridges and isolated elevations1 diversify its surface4 ,amidst these desolate wastes are fertile valleys which are capable of producing excellent crops2 in many other sections good crops are produced by very primitive methods of irrigation4 ,as a whole the plateau may be classed among the infertile regions of the earth4 ,on account of its great elevation1 ,tibet is often called the roof of the world4 ,starting from its borders several large rivers break through its rocky ramparts1 among them the ,indus1 ,brahmaputra1 ,irawadi1 and ,hoang4 ,some of the plains of the great plateau range from fifteen to eighteen thousand feet above sea level4 ,scattered over these are single lakes and chains of lakes1 many of which are salt4 ,these vast areas1 storm-swept in winter and baked by heat in summer1 are frequented by bandits and nomads4 ,they live in tents made of the almost black hair of the yak1 and move from place to place with their flocks and herds to seek food for their animals4 ,the stable population resides chiefly in the few cities and villages4 ,for nearly a thousand years a veil of religious mystery has shrouded this section of the world2 and the sacred city of ,lasa with its holy places has been doubly guarded against the visits of foreigners4 ,this mysterious land has been able to maintain its position of isolated seclusion because of the high mountain barriers that are massed in a series of gigantic walls on all sides4 ,it is approachable only through narrow passes that are constantly guarded4 ,our knowledge of the forbidden land1 as it is called1 has been obtained chiefly from adventurers who have travelled through it in disguise1 and from a few others who took more desperate chances by forcing their way in4 ,among these may be mentioned ,bower1 ,thorald1 the ,littledales1 ,rockhill1 ,captain ,deasy1 ,sven ,hedin1 and ,walter ,savage ,landor4 ,landor was taken prisoner by the ,tibetans and suffered at their hands horrible tortures1 from the effects of which he will never recover4 ,illustration3 ,dunkar ,spiti1 ,himalaya ,mountains1 ,india ,because the ,tibetans for many years had insulted the government of ,india and had seized territory claimed by it1 ,english troops under ,colonel ,younghusband were sent against the invaders in #aijc1 and after several severe battles reached the forbidden city of ,lasa1 where a forced treaty was negotiated and signed4 ,but on the withdrawal of the ,english troops the policy of exclusion was immediately resumed4 ,russia to-day has much greater influence in ,tibet than has ,england4 ,the present condition of ,tibet resembles in many respects that of ,europe during the ,middle ,ages4 ,the country is under the suzerainty of ,china1 which has a representative called an amaban and several thousand troops at ,lasa to maintain its claim4 ,though an extremely trying climate prevails on these highlands1 the hermit-like1 priest-ridden people know no better home and are contented with their lot4 ,of its three and one-half million inhabitants1 one in seven belongs to the priestly class called lamas4 ,at the head of this priesthood1 as well as at the head of the state1 are two leaders1 the chief one1 the ,dalai ,lama1 or ocean of learning1 and the other the ,bogodo ,lama1 or precious teacher4 ,with their subordinates1 these two are supposed to have power not only over life and death1 but over the reincarnation of the soul and entrance to the regions beyond rebirth4 ,this isolated table-land is the seat of a former ,buddhism better known by the name of ,lamaism4 ,a deep but crude religious feeling tainted with the grossest superstitions pervades the whole people1 whose ignorance of other learning is appalling4 ,when a person dies a lama must be present to see that the soul is properly separated from the body and to direct the spirit on its journey to paradise2 the lama must also influence its rebirth in a happy existence and provide for its entrance upon ,nirvana1 or eternal rest4 ,many a mountain contains hollowed-out cells in which hermit monks spend their lives in silent meditation4 ,on an island in one of the lakes1 where they can be reached only when the lake freezes1 reside twenty monks4 ,in the midst of this wild and majestic scenery each rock and stream has its deity and saint1 together with its appropriate legend4 ,although the ,buddhist monks do not believe in ,god as a creator1 their religion demands audible and written prayers2 indeed1 prayer-wheels are frequently used to facilitate the repetition of prayers4 ,prayers numbering hundreds and even thousands are carefully written and placed1 rolled up1 in drum-wheels1 which are revolved by wind1 water1 or hand power4 ,each revolution of a wheel is supposed to say all the prayers enclosed in it4 ,many prayer-wheels1 each with appropriate prayers1 are mounted on axles and placed convenient to frequented paths so that they may be whirled around by those who pass by4 ,others provided with suitable fans are placed where they may be revolved by the wind4 ,sometimes water power is made to turn the wheels1 but most of them are made of a size convenient to be carried about and operated by hand4 ,the capital of ,tibet and seat of the ,dalai ,lama is ,lasa1 situated in a plain nearly twelve thousand feet above sea level4 ,the city is surrounded by a marsh and is reached by a causeway raised above the morass4 ,it has wide and regular streets1 the principal buildings being made of stone1 but the majority of the structures are adobe and sun-dried brick4 ,this interesting city contains forty-five thousand inhabitants1 two-thirds of whom are monks4 ,streams formed by the melting snow course down the surrounding mountains1 flooding the plain4 ,at a distance the city presents an imposing appearance with the adjacent ,potala as the crowning glory4 ,in the centre of the city stands a cathedral1 called the ,jo-,kang1 which contains one of the most renowned statues of ,buddha4 ,this image1 of life size1 is an object of the greatest reverence and adoration4 ,it is made of a composition of metals1 gold and silver predominating4 ,priests are always in attendance and lamps are constantly burning before it4 ,the roof of the temple is gilded and the interior is richly furnished4 ,situated in the suburbs1 on a rocky elevation above the plain which overlooks the city1 is a wonderful group of buildings forming the ,potala1 or palace of the ,dalai ,lama4 ,this huge1 conglomerate structure of granite rising story above story to an immense height fascinates the beholder1 who marvels at the skill and patience of the builders4 ,as though to heighten its beauty1 the ,potala is separated from the city by a park of grass and trees about a mile wide1 making the stately edifice look like a huge diamond encircled with emeralds4 ,nothing but a blind religious zeal could have brought to completion such a series of connected edifices with their miles of halls1 courts1 corridors1 and labyrinthine passageways4 ,scattered throughout ,tibet are upward of three thousand monasteries1 or lamaseries4 ,some of them are built in remote and inaccessible places and contain as many as seven thousand monks4 ,each lamasery has set apart for its use the best land in that vicinity1 the cultivation of which is done by the common people1 who are little better than serfs1 or peons4 ,it is a notable fact that in this strange land there are many more men than women1 although the reverse would be expected4 ,the support of the hordes of lazy monks is a great incubus and retards the development of the country4 ,illustration3 ,the yak not only serves as a beast of burden1 but furnishes milk1 butter1 and meat ,the use of water for cleansing purposes seems to be no part of the religion of the people2 they never bathe their bodies and seldom wash the face and hands4 ,to protect themselves from the biting cold they smear their faces with rancid butter1 which1 catching the smoke and dust1 adds to the effectiveness as well as the strength of the odor4 ,their homes and places of worship reek with dirt and filth2 small-pox1 ailments of the eyes1 and other contagious diseases are prevalent4 ,harelip1 in a great measure due to lack of proper nutrition1 is a very common ailment4 ,in leather and inlaid work the ,tibetans show great skill1 much of the decorative work on the handles of their swords and daggers being very artistic4 ,the common people live in constant terror of evil spirits in this world and of terrible punishments in the hereafter2 the educated classes believe they can drive off or propitiate all evil influences in this world1 but fear they may be changed in a future rebirth to some vile form of being4 ,in general1 the people are treacherous and cowardly4 ,for weapons of defence they use matchlocks2 in firing them1 the weapon is held directly in front of the nose4 ,of domestic animals the yak is one of the most useful1 since it not only serves as a beast of burden but furnishes rich milk1 butter1 and meat4 ,the long hair of the animal is used for making ropes1 tents1 and cloth4 ,the yak resembles the ox in body1 head1 and legs2 but it is covered with long1 silky hair which hangs like the fleece of an ,angora goat4 ,the long1 flowing hair of the tail reaches nearly to the ground4 ,thousands of these tails find their way to ,india where they are used for various household purposes4 ,wild yaks are found in considerable numbers near the limits of perpetual snow1 but at the approach of winter they descend to the wooded valleys just below the snow line4 ,during the summer they pasture on the higher elevations4 ,in their wild state yaks are fierce and dangerous4 ,being accustomed to high elevations1 they fall sick and die when removed to the lowlands4 ,milk is obtained not only from the yaks but from the sheep and goats4 ,the sheep1 being of large size1 are frequently used to bear small loads4 ,many horses are raised1 but they are used chiefly for riding4 ,tibet is rich in gold1 and for thousands of years the precious metal has been washed out of its surface by the crudest of methods4 ,in fact1 gold is washed from every river which has its sources in the ,tibetan plateau4 ,most of it in time finds its way to ,china4 ,silver1 copper1 iron1 lead1 and mercury abound in the southeastern part and considerable quantities are mined4 ,traffic is carried on by means of caravans1 the most common pack animal being the yak4 ,almost all the commerce is controlled by ,chinese merchants1 and the chief article of trade is tea1 which is received in exchange for wool1 hides1 musk1 amber1 and gold4 ,the tea is an inferior kind known as brick tea1 being composed of the refuse1 stems1 and leaves of the plants cemented with rice water and pressed into hard bricks4 ,this kind of tea is preferred by the ,tibetans1 who brew it with butter and other ingredients and consume the entire concoction4 ,the tea trade amounts to several million pounds annually4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,the ,,primal ,,home ,,of ,,the ,,saracen ,who has not had the youthful imagination fired by the ,arabian ,nights8 ,the simplicity and lifelike reality of these interesting stories1 made even more fascinating by their ,oriental color1 appeal both to young and old4 ,so great has been their popularity that few works have been translated into so many different languages1 while their influence on the literature of the present day is felt in a marked degree4 ,they are more than the luxurious fancies of the ,arab's mind1 for they vividly set forth the love and hate1 the craft and hypocrisy1 the courage and revenge of his race4 ,moreover1 they portray in a truly dramatic manner the innermost life and thought of the ,moslem1 while they captivate the senses by a magnificent panorama of exquisite banquets1 lovely characters1 charming gardens1 and beautiful palaces4 ,the country and the descendants of the race that created these masterly storiettes are surely worthy of careful consideration4 ,a region that is the birthplace of a religion claiming nearly two hundred million converts scattered all over the world must possess a special interest4 ,we are apt to look askance at everything ,arabic as bordering on ignorance and savagery2 but if we study the past of this alert race we shall find a profusion of historical side lights that are valuable2 we shall also find in ,arabic literature much to admire4 ,the ,arab is poetic and delights in imagery4 ,there are ,arabic poems dating back one thousand years before the ,christian era that for beauty of thought1 vigor1 and polish are equal to those produced by any nation and in any age4 ,in the ,middle ,ages the ,arabs led the world in commerce1 exploration1 art1 science1 and literature4 ,the secret of their successful conquests was not in the number of their soldiers but in the courage inspired by the ,muhammadan religion4 ,death has no terrors for the fanatical ,moslem1 for to him it is the vestibule of paradise where the pleasures of earth await those who fight in the holy cause4 ,by nature the ,arab is active1 vivacious1 and keen-witted4 ,he is proud of his lineage1 earnest1 and hospitable4 ,the mother not only takes care of the home but educates the children2 and1 strange as it may seem to the outside world1 illiteracy is practically unknown to ,arabia4 ,to the ,arabic race we are indebted for our knowledge of arithmetic1 and many of the principles of algebra and geometry4 ,the pendulum1 the mariner's compass1 and the manufacture of silk and cotton textiles were introduced into ,europe by the ,arabs4 ,they claim to have used gunpowder as far back as the eleventh century4 ,in the year #gjf paper was made at ,mecca and from there its manufacture spread all over the western world4 ,to them we owe many of the useful arts and practical inventions which were later brought to perfection by other nations4 ,illustration3 ,khaibar ,pass1 the gateway to ,india ,now1 no one is quite certain about the ,saracens as a people because the name has been very loosely used4 ,it was applied by ,roman soldiers to several wandering tribes of ,arabs who were much accustomed to mistaking other people's flocks of sheep and herds of cattle for their own4 ,most likely there never was a ,saracenic ,empire4 ,but there certainly was a time when ,arabians controlled not only the ,arabian peninsula1 but also ,syria and the fertile plains of the ,tigris and ,euphrates ,rivers as well2 and that great region became known as the ,land of the ,saracens4 ,from ,damascus to ,bagdad1 and from the ,bab-el-,mandeb to the ,gulf of ,oman1 the ,moslem was all-powerful4 ,let us glance at the country itself4 ,in the first place1 ,arabia is not a nation but a country made up of petty states--some independent1 some controlled by the sultan of ,turkey2 two or three are included in the ,british ,empire4 ,but the country itself is very far removed from the rest of the world so far as accessibility is concerned2 and although its coast is scarcely a gunshot from the greatest trade route of the ,east1 ,arabia is to-day one of the least-known countries in the world4 ,in general1 the country is a moderately high table-land bordered by low coast plains4 ,much of it is an out-and-out desert2 all of it is arid4 ,long ago it was divided into ,arabia ,petraea1 ,arabia ,deserta1 and ,arabia ,felix--that is1 the rocky1 the desert1 and the happy4 ,it is needless to say that ,arabia the happy was the part receiving enough rainfall to produce foodstuffs4 ,the coast-line of this great peninsula is nearly as great as that of the ,atlantic and ,gulf coast of the ,united ,states2 but in its entire extent1 not far from four thousand miles1 there is scarcely a harbor in which a good-sized fishing schooner could find safe anchorage4 ,even at ,aden a steamship cannot approach within a quarter of a mile of the shore4 ,so one will not be far out of the way in designating ,arabia as an impassable country with an impossible coast4 ,it is estimated that about seven millions of people live in the entire peninsula4 ,to say that these belong to the ,semitic race is merely to say that they are dark-skinned and black-haired4 ,the ,arab1 whether a merchant dwelling in a city along the coast1 or a ,bedouin wandering with flocks and herds1 is a product of the desert and of the teachings of ,islam4 ,his black eyes twinkle with shrewdness and he is a past master of craftiness4 ,as a trader he is unsurpassed1 and ,arab traders control the interior commerce of western ,asia and northern ,africa just as the ,chinese control the trade of southeastern ,asia4 ,as a ,bedouin of the desert the ,arab is supreme in his way4 ,savage and blood-thirsty by nature1 if there is no caravan to rob or common enemy to fight1 neighboring tribes easily find cause for fighting one another4 ,usually a quarrel over pasture lands in the same locality furnishes an excuse for a feud that results in the extermination of one tribe or the other4 ,a hatred of those who are not followers of the prophet is a heritage of all ,arabs4 ,the merchant class1 who are wealthy and usually educated1 may have trained themselves to conceal it1 but they possess it4 ,even to the most liberal ,arab1 one who is not of the faith of ,islam is a dog of an unbeliever4 ,among ,bedouins1 not to rob the caravan containing the belongings of a ,christian would be a sin4 ,there is one exception1 however2 if a ,bedouin sheik agrees to convoy a party of unbelievers1 together with their valuables1 over a robber-infested route1 he will carry out his bargain faithfully4 ,family ties among the ,bedouin ,arabs are much the same to-day as they were two thousand years ago4 ,the great-grandfather1 grandfather1 or father1 as the case may be1 is the head of the family1 and his will is law4 ,the tribe is governed by a sheik1 who is simply a boss4 ,he does not inherit his office1 nor is he elected to it by popular vote2 he elects himself because he is the best man1 and he holds over for the same reason4 ,the family mansion of the ,bedouin is a tent made of goat-hair cloth4 ,some tents occupy as much ground as is covered by a small cottage4 ,the tent of a sheik may be richly furnished with rugs and silk portieres2 ordinarily1 a coarse hearth-rug and a divan cover are about the only furnishings4 ,the cooking utensils are primitive--one or two kettles to a family2 and of tableware there is practically nothing more than one or two platters4 ,meat is freely eaten and coffee is commonly a part of each meal4 ,in the place of bread1 flour about as coarse as oatmeal is mixed to a paste1 rolled or beaten into thin cakes1 and cooked in hot butter4 ,dates are almost always a part of the food supply4 ,the camel has first place in the wealth of the ,bedouin1 but sheep and goats in many instances form a part of his herds4 ,the tents of a family are pitched where the grazing is good and the families move about as they will4 ,all disputes are settled by the sheik1 and he is apt to emphasize his decisions by the free use of his lance shaft4 ,whenever it becomes necessary because of poor grazing1 the whole clan or tribe may move to a distant place4 ,all household goods are wrapped in packs or put into saddle bags4 ,two or three camels will readily carry the tent and luggage of a family4 ,the women are carried in litters2 the men ride camels4 ,horses are rarely ridden at such times4 ,if a caravan is to be plundered1 however1 the best horses are used1 and in addition to his lance the raider carries a heavy knife4 ,perhaps a few firearms may be carried1 but they are generally either flintlocks or the older matchlocks4 ,it is only within a few years that the modern rifle with metal cartridge has found favor with the ,bedouin4 ,illustration3 ,a group of ,arabs with their dromedaries ,the great ,arabian peninsula1 seemingly so far out of the world1 produces many things1 some of which the world cannot do well without4 ,first of all1 it is the home of the camel4 ,perhaps a more awkward and ungainly animal has not been domesticated1 but certainly none is more useful4 ,we are told by students of natural history that the camel is the descendant of the llama kind which seems to have originated in the ,south ,american ,andes4 ,just how or when the descent from the ,new ,world1 which is really the ,old ,world1 to the ,old ,world1 which is really the ,new ,world1 was made we are not informed2 nevertheless1 it looks as though the natural history student has the right end of the argument4 ,after the animal got to ,arabia it developed4 ,and while the result may not have been very artistic1 no one will deny that it was good workmanship2 for the world has never produced a more useful helper to mankind4 ,practically all the riding animals are of the one-hump or ,arabian species4 ,they are much larger and stronger than the two-hump animals4 ,one variety is slim and comparatively light in weight4 ,these animals1 as a rule1 are trained to a swift gait1 and are used solely as riding animals4 ,they are called dromedaries1 a word that means swift-runner4 ,most of the other species are reared for the same purpose as domestic cattle4 ,some are valuable as beasts of burden1 others are shorn for their coating1 still others are kept for their milk and flesh4 ,a well-trained dromedary will sell for three hundred dollars and upward2 a pack animal rarely brings more than one-fourth as much4 ,the milk of the camel is equal to that of the best domestic cows and is greatly prized4 ,the hair of several species surpasses sheep's wool in texture and is used in the finer kinds of cloth1 and it is the most precious textile in high-priced ,oriental rugs and shawls4 ,ordinarily1 however1 camel's hair is coarse and is used for the cheapest textiles4 ,arabia is the source from which a large proportion of the camels used in the caravan trade of ,asia and ,africa is obtained4 ,fermented camel's milk is much used all over western ,asia4 ,the ,arabian horse has been famous in literature and in song for more than two thousand years4 ,the district of ,nejd has been the chief breeding locality for these horses for many centuries4 ,contrary to tradition1 however1 even the finest animals are neither so large nor so swift as ,american thoroughbred horses4 ,the qualities that have made the ,arabian horse famous are its beautiful proportions1 endurance1 and intelligence4 ,young colts mingle freely with their owners and attendants1 and they need1 therefore1 only the training to make them saddle-wise2 they require no breaking4 ,brought up with the family and treated with the greatest kindness from its birth the colt learns to regard his master as his best friend4 ,ordinarily but little water is given them1 and they are so well trained that a good animal will go a whole day in summer and two days in winter without drink4 ,the pure1 full-blood ,arabian is never sold4 ,it may be acquired only by gift1 by capture in war1 or by legacy4 ,animals of mixed breed1 however1 are freely sold1 most of them going to ,turkey and to ,india4 ,mocha coffee is another product for which ,arabia is renowned4 ,the coffee berry bearing this name is of the peaberry variety--that is1 only one of the two seeds within the husk comes to maturity4 ,most of the coffee is grown in ,yemen and the adjoining vilayets1 and it received its name because it was formerly marketed at the port of ,mocha4 ,of late years it has been shipped from ,hodeida4 ,the business is in the hands of ,arab merchants1 and the coffee is carried to ,hodeida by caravans4 ,on its way it is carefully sorted by hand into three or more grades4 ,the finest grade is sold to wealthy ,turkish customers at from three to five dollars per pound2 the inferior grades command prices varying from thirty cents to twice or three times as much4 ,very little of the product ever passes outside of ,turkey4 ,all the ,mocha coffee grown in ,yemen would not much more than supply ,new ,york ,city4 ,the pearl fisheries along the ,arabian coast of the ,persian ,gulf are also controlled by ,arab traders4 ,from there are obtained some of the finest pearls to be found1 and also many tons of mother-of-pearl shells4 ,the yearly product of the fisheries is thought to exceed more than two millions of dollars in value4 ,the pearls are found in a species of oyster1 and to obtain them the divers must go to the bottom in from thirty to ninety feet of water4 ,expert divers can remain under water as long as two minutes4 ,the oysters are taken ashore to be opened1 and ,turkish inspectors are on hand to levy a tax on the product4 ,a few pearls may escape him1 especially if he is temporarily blinded by the glare of several piasters2 but the pearl industry is taxed for about all that it is worth4 ,mecca1 the birthplace of the ,prophet ,muhammad1 is the city to which every disciple of ,islam is supposed to make a pilgrimage at least once in his lifetime4 ,the chief income of the inhabitants of ,mecca is obtained by renting rooms and entertaining the visiting pilgrims who flock thither4 ,in the centre of the city is the so-called ,sacred ,mosque1 or area1 which is entirely enclosed by a covered structure of colonnades having minarets and cupolas4 ,within the centre of this enclosed space is a cube-shaped building called the ,kaaba1 which contains the famous sacred ,black ,stone4 ,this stone1 probably of meteoric origin1 gives to the building its sanctity1 and is an object of the greatest veneration to every pious ,moslem1 who kisses it repeatedly4 ,there is also within the enclosure a building containing the holy well1 ,zemzem1 the only well in ,mecca4 ,no unbeliever is permitted to enter the sacred enclosure1 much less to pollute the ,holy ,kaaba by his presence4 ,a few infidels disguised as pilgrims1 at the risk of their lives1 have visited this sacred place4 ,the preparations for pilgrimage are unique4 ,the pilgrims assemble near ,mecca during the holy month and begin the sacred rites by bathing and assuming the sacred garb4 ,this suit consists of two woollen wrappers1 one worn around the middle of the body and the other around the shoulders4 ,with bare head and slippers covering neither heel nor instep the pilgrim sets forth on his holy journey4 ,while wearing this dress he is admonished to bring his thoughts into harmony with the sanctity of the territory he now traverses4 ,he is not to shave1 anoint his head1 pare his nails1 or bathe until the end of the pilgrimage4 ,among the various rites to be performed after reaching ,mecca is walking seven times around the ,kaaba1 first slowly1 then quickly4 ,before leaving the city the pilgrim drinks water from the holy well1 ,zemzem4 ,many pious pilgrims visit ,medina1 now the terminus of a railway1 before going on to ,mecca4 ,this is another of the sacred cities of ,islam1 since it is the scene of ,muhammad's labors after his hegira from ,mecca2 it also contains his tomb4 ,formerly no unbeliever was permitted to traverse the streets of ,medina or look upon the tomb of the great prophet1 but tourists are now allowed within the gates4 ,the city is enclosed by a wall forty feet high which is flanked with thirty towers4 ,two of its four gates are massive structures with double towers4 ,like ,mecca1 ,medina is supported chiefly by pilgrims4 ,,chapter ,x ,,the ,,sahara ,an expanse of land as large as the main body of the ,united ,states stretches across the northern part of ,africa4 ,from the ,atlantic ,ocean to the ,red ,sea1 and from the foot of the ,atlas ,mountains to the ,sudan1 it is a weird panorama of rock waste--level1 rugged1 shingly1 and mountainous1 according to locality4 ,in places only it is penetrated by large and permanently flowing streams4 ,on the eastern borderland the ,nile pours a mighty flood1 winding a sinuous passage along its self-made flood-plain1 the ,egypt of history4 ,in the west the ,niger has forced its way into the confines of the desert and then1 as if rebuffed1 turns its course southward4 ,this great domain of the simoom has every diversity of surface4 ,the higher summits of the ,tarso ,mountains are eight thousand feet above sea level2 the ,shott1 a chain of salt lakes south of the ,atlas ,mountains1 are about one hundred feet below sea level4 ,the depression in which these lakes is situated probably was once the head of the ,gulf of ,sidra2 but the never-ceasing winds have partly filled the depression1 cutting off the head of the gulf in the same manner that wind-blown sands severed what is now ,imperial ,valley from the ,gulf of ,california4 ,around the briny lakes are marshes of quicksands1 and woe betide the luckless traveller who strays to the one side or the other of the beaten trails4 ,unless help is at hand1 life will have neither joys nor troubles for him after a few brief minutes of struggle4 ,the ,sahara proper begins at the south slope of the ,atlas ,mountains4 ,where there are no ,atlas ,mountains1 it begins almost at the ,mediterranean's edge4 ,in the valleys of the ,atlas and along the ,mediterranean coast there is a strip of fertile land1 wide here1 narrow there1 that produces grain and fruit4 ,the ,arabs call it the ,tell4 ,beyond the ,tell is ,sah-ra1 or the ,sahara4 ,this is the name which the ,arabs apply to the archipelago of fertile spots1 or oases4 ,beyond the zone of oases is the desert4 ,one becomes instantly and painfully aware that it is a desert on leaving the last oasis4 ,go a thousand miles southward1 eastward1 or westward from ,tripoli1 and one encounters but a single thing--an ocean of orange-colored rock waste1 the ,guebla of the ,arabs4 ,illustration3 ,on the sands of the desert ,the desert is a desert for want of water only4 ,there is no lack of nutrition in the soil1 nor is there anything in surface or temperature that makes a desert unproductive4 ,temperature and winds reach great extremes in fierceness1 however4 ,the temperature of the air in the noonday sun will often exceed one hundred and forty-five degrees2 it may reach one hundred and fifty-five degrees4 ,in the shade it frequently climbs to one hundred and thirty degrees in the vicinity of the tropics4 ,unless one is at a considerable altitude there is not much relief at night1 though the thermometer may drop to ninety degrees4 ,farther north1 however1 and at an altitude of five thousand feet or more1 the temperature of the night is even more cruel than that of the day4 ,immediately after sunset a sharp chill becomes perceptible4 ,at first it is a welcome relief from the intolerable heat4 ,by nine o'clock it begins to cut like a stiletto1 and at midnight the water suspended in shallow dishes clinks into ice4 ,the drivers burrow deep into the sand and wrap woollen baracans about them2 the camels shiver and even blubber like whipped bullies4 ,the air is so dry1 however1 that the extreme heat of day is by no means insupportable4 ,sunstroke is almost unknown1 and even the tragedy of perishing for want of water is very rare2 for the caravan drivers know just where to find water1 and there are many hidden watering places that are known to the crafty ,tuaregs and ,bedouins4 ,many of the watering places are wells that have been sunk in various localities along the caravan trails4 ,the intense heat1 great depth of rock waste1 and dry air are not favorable to the above-ground flow of rivers4 ,but nearly every river has an underground flow that is pretty likely to exist all the year round4 ,one may follow a stream of considerable volume down the southern slope of the ,atlas ,mountains4 ,the volume of water grows less and less until at last it apparently disappears4 ,not all is lost by evaporation1 however2 possibly the greater part sinks into the porous rock waste4 ,and the rock waste8--perhaps it may be twenty1 fifty1 or one hundred and fifty feet deep4 ,at all events1 the water sinks until it reaches bed rock or clay through which it cannot pass4 ,then it flows along what may once have been an above-ground channel until fierce winds and cloud-bursts buried it deep4 ,but the half-savage dwellers of the desert know just where to tap these underground reservoirs and streams2 even the dumb animals know instinctively where to look for water4 ,it is merely a question of instinct coupled with experience1 and the animal's judgment is about as good as the man's4 ,when one finds the spot1 it is necessary only to dig4 ,the water may be two feet below the surface or it may be ten feet4 ,when the moist sand is reached the task is half over4 ,a foot or two more and the hole begins to fill4 ,the water is hot1 brackish1 and repulsive to the taste1 but it is water--and in the desert1 water is water6 ,the simoom is also an institution of the desert4 ,the simoom is unmistakably a wind1 and surely no one who has not had the experience can appreciate it4 ,even the ,west ,india hurricanes or the typhoons of the ,china ,sea are more kindly4 ,they have plenty of destructive energy1 it is true1 but the simoom has all this and much else besides4 ,it comes not without warning1 but the warning and the wind are not far apart4 ,the approach of the simoom is a dense black cloud of whirling and seething fine dust4 ,as it strikes one1 the choking1 suffocating blast of hot air and dust overcomes everything that has life4 ,the caravan men and the animals as well turn their backs to the wind and lie down with faces close to the ground4 ,in a minute or two the full strength of the blast is on and the simoom is picking up not only the fine rock waste1 but the coarser fragments as well1 and is hurling them along at ,empire ,state ,express velocity4 ,one might as well try to face a hail of leaden bullets4 ,it is a cruel blast that neither animal nor human being can withstand4 ,the camels crouch with their heads pointing away from the wind and nostrils close to the ground2 their drivers lie prone with faces in little hollows scooped in the sand4 ,perhaps the full blast of the simoom may last an hour--perhaps two or even three hours4 ,in lighter strain it may continue a whole day4 ,when1 finally1 it ceases the air is thick with fine dust2 one can see scarcely a rod away4 ,sun and sky are hidden1 and the blackness of a tornado or of a ,london fog prevails4 ,the fine dust floating in the air may not settle for several days4 ,perhaps a week afterward there may be a haze that partly obscures the sun4 ,the dust1 finer than the finest flour1 pervades everything in the desert4 ,one's clothing is full of it2 one's hair becomes harsh and matted2 the skin becomes rough1 cracks and peels2 the eyes are inflamed2 mouth1 lips1 and nostrils are swollen4 ,but the great bodily discomfort resulting from the simoom does not last forever2 it gives place to bodily irritation of some other sort1 which is indeed a grateful change merely because it is a change4 ,the sand dunes of the ,sahara are interesting to those who are not compelled to travel among them1 but to the unfortunates who traverse them they are almost heart-breaking4 ,imagine oneself standing on an elevation a few hundred feet higher than the surrounding country4 ,there is but one landscape--waves upon waves of the loose rock waste1 for convenience called sand1 as far as the eye can reach4 ,sometimes the waves are in long windrows1 but oftener they are short and choppy like the surface waves of midocean4 ,unlike the ocean waves1 in which only the form moves forward1 while the water composing it moves up and down only1 the sand dune and the material of which it is composed are both moving in the direction of the wind4 ,a breeze even of five or six miles an hour will keep the lighter surface dust moving freely1 while a twelve-mile wind will not only sweep along much larger particles but it also carries more of them4 ,and just as the surface1 or skin1 friction forms waves at the surface of water1 it also piles the desert sand in wave-like dunes4 ,the loose bits of rock waste are carried along1 up the windward slope of the dune until they roll over its crest1 where1 no longer impelled by the wind1 they come to rest4 ,thus1 the crest1 built forward by new material constantly added1 is advancing4 ,valleys are filled2 old stream channels are obliterated2 and the inequalities of the surface are levelled off until the whole landscape is one of shifting1 drifting sand4 ,notwithstanding all these drawbacks1 the ,sahara and the arid lands southward to the ,sudan are by no means destitute of life and wealth4 ,it is an almost universal custom to speak of the barren condition of the desert4 ,the contrary is the truth2 there is no soil elsewhere so fertile and productive4 ,it is vastly superior even to the soil of the lands reclaimed from the bottom of the ,north ,sea4 ,water is the magic wand that makes the sands of the ,sahara bring forth crops that are marvellous both in quantity and quality4 ,no fruit grown elsewhere in the world can compare with that grown on desert lands1 and the ,french engineers are planning the means whereby water may be obtained4 ,surface water that is available to irrigate the wastes of the ,sahara does not exist4 ,the level of the ,nile is so far below the surface on both sides of its own flood-plain that its waters cannot be used for the reclamation of any part of the ,libyan ,desert1 and the same is practically true of the ,niger1 which barely more than touches the borders of the ,sahara4 ,the few wadys1 or dry washes1 are destitute of water except when a cloud-burst may fill them2 but this happens at intervals of years only4 ,the engineer takes into his confidence a caravan driver--perhaps an ,arab1 possibly a ,berber1 but quite as likely a slave4 ,and the long experience has taught the caravan man where to find the precious water4 ,the engineer then brings his science into play and drives an artesian well4 ,the well thus driven may be a gusher1 but for most of them pumps are required to raise the water to the surface4 ,the best well1 however1 furnishes water enough to irrigate but a very small area4 ,indeed1 all the lands of the ,sahara together irrigated by artesian wells would make an area scarcely larger than the ,state of ,delaware1 and all the water thus obtained would not supply ,new ,york ,city6 ,nevertheless1 the water obtained by artesian wells has proved a great blessing to the dwellers of the desert4 ,if the water is found along one or another of the numerous caravan routes1 an increase in caravan commerce is apt to result1 for along many routes the volume of caravan commerce depends very largely on the number of wells4 ,the location of artesian wells has also led to the opening of trade along new routes as well1 for wherever water can be found there will be camels to drink it4 ,the date palm is essentially a plant of the desert1 or1 rather1 of the oasis4 ,nowhere else does it grow in such profusion as in northern ,africa4 ,the number of productive trees there is estimated to be anywhere from ten million to twenty million1 though the estimate is but little better than a guess4 ,at its full growth the date palm is a most beautiful object4 ,usually the feathered tops of the trees are the only foliage to relieve the harsh landscape4 ,like the bamboo1 every part of the tree is used4 ,the leaves may be made into fans1 or shredded and woven into mats4 ,the wood is used in making the framework of buildings1 and the waste material is very handy as fuel4 ,a refreshing fermented drink and a most vile liquor are prepared from the juice4 ,but the fruit1 when properly prepared1 is the chief food of many thousands of men and beasts4 ,even the stones1 or pits1 of the dried fruit are useful2 those which are not sent to ,italy to be used for adulterating coffee are made into an oil-meal for fodder4 ,esparto grass1 called alfa or halfa by the ,arabs1 is another unique product of the ,sahara4 ,in spite of its name1 it is not a grass but a flowering plant whose stalk has a tough fibre useful in making cordage and paper4 ,when the plant turns brown and has become dry to the root1 the esparto picker gets busy4 ,by four o'clock in the morning he is at work1 his heavy woollen baracan1 or blanket1 wrapped tightly about him1 for the air is not only chilly but almost freezing cold4 ,by sunrise the chill begins to disappear1 and a few brief moments is the only interval between piercing chill and midsummer heat4 ,the baracan is quickly shed and the fez1 if the picker is rich enough to possess one1 is discarded for an esparto hat with rim of mammoth proportions4 ,esparto grass sandals protect his feet4 ,almost all the animal life of the ,sahara is deadly1 and the esparto grass picker is constantly facing danger4 ,the clump of esparto1 into the bottom of which he must reach to cut the mature stalks1 is quite likely to be the lair of a poisonous viper2 and if the reptile sinks its fangs into the flesh of the unfortunate picker1 long weeks of suffering and disability--perhaps death--are in store for him4 ,between the bite of a rattler and that of an esparto viper there is little to choose4 ,the scorpion is another peril to the esparto picker4 ,the great rock-scorpion of the ,sahara is about as ugly as the centipede of ,arizona and ,mexico2 in size it is also about as large--from six to ten inches in length4 ,its sting1 too1 is about as dangerous as the fangs of the rattler4 ,but the esparto picker has a method of heroic treatment for both the bite of the viper and the sting of the scorpion4 ,he squats calmly upon the sand while a brother picker cuts out the flesh that has been pierced4 ,if he survives the twenty-four hours following1 he is pretty likely to pull through4 ,if not--well1 the vultures know when and where to look4 ,the esparto grass is delivered to the nearest local market compressed in bales of five or six hundred weight1 held together by a coarse netting of esparto weave1 and shipped to ,europe4 ,nearly all of it goes to ,great ,britain4 ,there it is shredded and made into cordage1 coarse cloth1 or paper4 ,but the esparto has a rival so far as its use in making paper is concerned4 ,the wood pulp of ,norway and the ,united ,states is slowly displacing it1 and in time esparto will be but little used except for making cordage or gunny cloth4 ,already the ,french ,government is having troubles of its own in providing employment for the esparto pickers1 but it is not likely that such a useful plant will be discarded2 on the contrary1 its use is likely to increase in the future4 ,the camel is the institution upon which the commerce of the desert depends4 ,a more awkward1 ungainly beast can hardly be imagined--a shambling collection of humps1 bumps1 knobs1 protruding joints1 and sprawling legs seemingly attached to a head and neck in the near foreground4 ,but that shambling gait will carry a load three times as heavy as the stoutest pack mule can bear1 and it will carry it twice as far in a day4 ,a horse or a mule must be fed twice a day1 but a camel will worry along for a week at a time with nothing more substantial than its cud4 ,horses and mules cannot traverse regions where the watering places are more than twelve hours apart1 unless water be carried in storage2 but the camel is its own storage reservoir1 and can carry a supply sufficient to last for ten days4 ,at the end of his week of fasting the hump of the camel has shrunken to a fraction of its former size4 ,when the animal has a few days of feeding the hump grows to its former proportions again4 ,indeed1 the hump is merely a mass of nutrition ready to be formed into flesh and blood4 ,illustration3 ,a caravan crossing the desert on the road to ,jaffa ,within the paunch of the animal and surrounding its stomach are great numbers of cells capable of holding seven or eight gallons of water4 ,when the camel drinks copiously these cells become filled and afterward slowly give up the water as the stomach requires4 ,it may be truly said that the camel is a camel because of the desert and not in spite of it4 ,the sparse population of the ,sahara--,arabs1 ,berbers1 and negroes--are dependent upon the camel1 for until the railway shall traverse the ,sahara the camel will be practically the only means of transportation4 ,the camel's flesh furnishes about the only meat consumed by the dwellers of the desert1 for ordinary cattle can live only in a few localities along the desert border lands4 ,the native people of the desert are mainly of the race to which the ,arabs also belong1 although there are many ,arabs and negroes4 ,the ,tuaregs and ,bedouin ,arabs are the best known4 ,the ,tuaregs are thought to be the descendants of the ,berbers and of the same race as the ,carthaginians1 whom the ,romans many times defeated but never conquered4 ,they have whiter skins than the ,arabs and in appearance are perhaps the finest peoples of ,africa4 ,they are also the most ferocious and blood-thirsty villains on the face of the earth4 ,many of them live in the white-walled cities such as ,ghadames1 ,kand1 and ,timbuktu--all large centres of population4 ,their government is well organized4 ,each of the larger tribes is governed by a sultan1 and in each there are several castes--a sort of nobility of unmixed ,tuareg blood being at the head and negro slaves at the lower end of the social ladder4 ,the families of the highest caste are usually well-to-do1 and both the men and the women are taught to read and write4 ,the garments usually worn by a ,tuareg man consist of white trousers1 a gray tunic with white sleeves1 sandals of ornamented leather1 and a white turban4 ,when away from home the ,tuareg covers the lower half of the face by a cloth mask4 ,the usual occupation of the ,tuaregs is twofold--to guard caravans or to rob them4 ,the average ,tuareg is perfectly indifferent as to which he does4 ,a caravan from the ,sudan enters1 we will say1 ,kano4 ,the garfla sheik pack master1 or superintendent1 goes at once to the financial agent of the sultan and pays the usual liken1 or tariff charges4 ,then he goes to the sultan himself and incidentally leaves in his possession a generous money present4 ,then1 if he desires1 he may hire half a dozen or more guards4 ,the hiring of these will insure the caravan against theft or robbery on the part of the predatory bands living at ,kano4 ,the guards will also faithfully defend the caravan in case of attack by ,bedouin ,arabs4 ,on the other hand1 should the garfla sheik forget the present to the sultan1 or neglect to hire guards1 those same ,tuaregs would be the first to attack and loot the caravan4 ,the ,bedouin ,arab is the chief trial of the caravans4 ,he is always a foe to them2 and although he ostensibly herds camels and horses1 his real occupation is robbery and pillage4 ,for days nomadic ,arabs will follow a caravan1 keeping always out of sight4 ,most likely a band of a dozen or more mounted on swift horses will survey the caravan from a distance at which they are not likely to be discovered4 ,then they make their way ahead of it to some point where a dune or a gully will conceal them4 ,then1 just as the end of the caravan drags by1 there is a sudden sortie and a rattling musket fire4 ,and before the guards can gather to the defence half a dozen camels are cut out of the train1 a driver or two is shot down or pierced with assegais1 and both the robbers and their loot are beyond the reach of the guards4 ,but perhaps the greatest value of the desert is its effect upon the climate of ,europe4 ,hot winds blow from the ,sahara in all directions2 the northerly winds1 crossing the ,mediterranean1 are not only tempered thereby1 but the desert blasts tempered and filled with moisture finally reach the southern slopes of ,europe1 where they convert the nutrition of the soil into bountiful crops of corn1 wine1 and oil4 ,the conquest of the great ,african desert is already in sight1 and the railway will be its master4 ,the ,cape to ,cairo line is no longer a vision of the future2 the ends of its two parts are rapidly shortening the interval that separates them and they are almost in sight of each other4 ,when the lines that are projected from the ,mediterranean coast shall have traversed the stronghold of the ,tuaregs to penetrate the wealth of the ,sudan and the ,kongo1 the ,sahara will have become merely an incident4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,polar ,,regions--,,the ,,conquest ,,of ,,the ,,arctic ,excepting the arctic and the antarctic regions1 with their fortifications of eternal ice and snow1 intrepid explorers have made known nearly every part of the world4 ,there ,giant ,frost guards his frozen secrets and defies man to wrest them from him4 ,many a hero has perished in endeavoring to solve the ,sphinx-like riddle of northern lands and seas4 ,many a gallant ship has found its grave in northern ice-clad waters4 ,yet there has never been a lack of adventurous spirits to continue the work4 ,but one after another the strongholds of nature have gradually yielded to persistent attacks4 ,especially is this true of the arctic regions1 of which not more than two million square miles of sea and land remain to be explored4 ,buffeted by adverse winds and floating ice-fields1 venturous explorers have drawn nearer and nearer to the north pole4 ,again and again1 the attack has been renewed1 until1 after half a lifetime1 ,robert ,e4 ,peary1 an officer of the ,united ,states navy1 made a brilliant dash and planted the national ensign at the pole4 ,the story of arctic exploration and discovery is filled with interest4 ,it is pathetic1 tragical1 and calculated to awaken the deepest emotions4 ,nevertheless1 it is enlivened by brilliant exploits1 deeds of daring1 and acts of heroism4 ,for many years the search for a northern passage to ,india in the furtherance of commerce was the chief incentive to arctic exploration4 ,even more than a century before ,columbus discovered ,america1 two ,venetian brothers named ,zeno sought a northwest passage to the ,orient1 believing that the difficulties in navigating it would be offset by the shortening of the route4 ,the success achieved by ,spain during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries in discovery1 conquest1 and colonization incited ,england to find a northwest passage1 in the hope that such a route1 by shortening the distance to the ,east ,indies1 would extend her commerce4 ,after the discovery of the mainland of ,north ,america1 ,sebastian ,cabot1 under the patronage of ,henry ,,vii1 planned a voyage to the north pole1 thinking that would be the best route to ancient ,cathay4 ,he proceeded only as far as ,davis ,strait2 then1 becoming discouraged by the immense fields of ice1 he turned the prow of his vessel homeward4 ,soon afterward the ,muscovy ,company of ,london sent out an exploring expedition with instructions to find a northwest passage4 ,this expedition1 taking a different route from its predecessors1 reached ,nova ,zembla4 ,but the ice-fields forced the vessel back to the shores of ,lapland1 and the ship was never spoken of again4 ,years afterward the ship's company were found frozen in death4 ,next in importance came the renowned ,frobisher1 a strong advocate of a northwest route4 ,he made three voyages to the ,arctic ,ocean1 the last two being under the patronage of ,queen ,elizabeth4 ,frobisher believed that fabulously rich fields of gold existed in the north1 and his expedition was organized for the purpose of discovering them4 ,his search for precious metals was fruitless1 but he added much to the world's knowledge of polar regions1 and he has been remembered in the strait that bears his name4 ,the ,muscovy ,company again sent out an exploring vessel1 this time under the able navigator ,henry ,hudson1 with orders to go direct to the north pole4 ,he did his best to carry out his instructions and1 sailing along the northern shore of ,spitzbergen1 reached latitude #ha deg4 #cj' north4 ,finding the route utterly impracticable1 he returned home4 ,in all1 ,hudson sailed on four voyages of discovery1 twice in the employ of ,english companies and twice in the employ of the ,dutch ,east ,india ,company4 ,in one of his voyages under the ,dutch1 after advancing as far north as he deemed prudent1 he turned southward and cruised along the ,atlantic coast4 ,entering ,new ,york ,bay1 he proceeded up the broad river that now bears his name1 believing at first that he had found the coveted short route to ,india4 ,soon he was undeceived1 for as he went farther up he found the seeming passage to be merely a large river4 ,he gave his employers such a glowing account of the valley of the ,hudson ,river that the merchants of ,holland sent out ships to establish trading posts along the river and to trade with the ,indians4 ,on his fourth voyage1 while seeking a passage northwest1 he discovered the strait and the bay both of which bear his name4 ,desiring to continue his explorations the next year1 he sailed westward on the bay and wintered on the island of ,southampton4 ,in the spring he again tried to find the long-wished-for passage4 ,the long1 cold winter and lack of suitable food told heavily on his men4 ,they became badly demoralized and declared that they would not remain longer in such an inhospitable region4 ,when ,hudson insisted1 the men mutinied4 ,seizing their commander1 they placed him with his son and five sailors in an open boat and sailed away4 ,after this cruel act of the mutineers1 no trace of ,hudson or those who were with him was ever found4 ,but ,hudson's fame will never die4 ,historians will ever laud his achievements1 and his name is indelibly inscribed on the map of the world4 ,the ringleader of the mutineers with five of his companions was afterward killed by the natives1 and several of the others starved to death4 ,the rest of the crew succeeded in getting the ship back to ,england2 there they were tried1 found guilty of mutiny1 and sent to prison4 ,in #afaf the intrepid ,william ,baffin took up the search4 ,he penetrated the bay bearing his name and explored the passages of water westward to the mouth of ,lancaster ,sound4 ,later the ,russians became interested in exploration4 ,among the explorers ,captain ,veit ,bering of the ,russian navy was the most eminent4 ,in the early part of the eighteenth century ,bering was commanded by ,peter the ,great to take up the search for the long-sought passage4 ,he explored the northeastern coast of ,asia as far north as sixty-seven degrees latitude1 discovering a fact hitherto unknown1 that ,north ,america is separated from ,asia by a narrow passage of water containing small islands4 ,the passage received the name ,bering ,strait from its discoverer1 and the same name was bestowed upon the sea leading to it4 ,about ten years afterward ,bering determined to explore the northwest coast of ,north ,america4 ,he landed twice upon the coast1 but1 being driven back by violent storms1 was at length wrecked on an island1 where he died4 ,his crew1 though suffering terrible hardships1 lived through the winter4 ,with the coming of spring1 however1 they rigged a craft from the stranded vessel in which a few survivors reached the coast of ,asia4 ,in #agdc the ,british ,government offered a reward of twenty thousand pounds for the discovery of a northwest passage by the way of ,hudson ,bay4 ,thirty-three years afterward a like reward was offered for the actual discovery of the north pole and the same amount for the exploration of any navigable passage4 ,the sum of five thousand pounds was also offered to any one who should approach within one degree of the north pole4 ,these standing rewards greatly stimulated arctic exploration4 ,of the many voyages of exploration that followed1 ,sir ,john ,franklin's last expedition was the most tragical4 ,this expedition was fitted out by the ,british ,government with the necessary supplies and scientific instruments for a three years' cruise4 ,two stanch vessels1 the ,erebus and the ,terror1 both of which had been previously employed in antarctic exploration1 were selected to stem the ice-fields of the north1 and a tender with extra supplies accompanied them as far as ,davis ,strait4 ,the vessels were last seen in ,lancaster ,sound moored to an iceberg1 where they were spoken to by a whaling ship homeward bound4 ,three years having passed and no tidings having been received from the expedition1 all ,england became extremely anxious concerning the safety of the explorers4 ,the ,british ,government then sent out two vessels to seek ,franklin1 but no trace of the missing commander or his men was found4 ,the government then redoubled its exertions1 supplemented by private parties1 and in #ahej no less than twelve vessels were vigorously searching the arctic lands and waters for their lost brothers4 ,lady ,franklin spent her fortune in endeavoring to find trace of her noble husband4 ,the heart of humanity was touched with the deepest sympathy and moved by the noblest motives4 ,the ,united ,states ,government1 aided also by private citizens1 fitted out vessels to continue the search4 ,at one time ten of the searching vessels met in the ,arctic4 ,the results of these expeditions were meagre in securing trace of the lost ones1 but they greatly enriched our knowledge of northern lands and seas4 ,not until five years after the ,erebus and ,terror left ,england was trace of the explorers found4 ,near the head of ,franklin ,strait1 off the shore of ,king ,william ,land1 evidence of an encampment of some of the men was discovered1 and at ,beechey ,island1 near by1 carpenters' tools1 empty meat cans1 and the graves of three of the men threw more light on the mystery of the ill-starred expedition4 ,a few years later1 at ,victory ,point1 ,lieutenant ,hobson found a record of the death of ,franklin1 the date being ,july #aa1 #ahdg4 ,charles ,f4 ,hall1 a native of ,new ,hampshire1 but long a resident of ,ohio1 who had been a reader of arctic literature1 became deeply interested in the search for ,sir ,john ,franklin4 ,obtaining financial aid from different sources1 he made four voyages to the arctic1 the first being devoted to searching for ,franklin's men and in solving the mystery of their disappearance4 ,his third voyage was the most fruitful one in securing results4 ,hall believed that the ,eskimos knew more about the lost explorers than they were willing to tell1 and that if he could but gain their confidence he could extract from them the story4 ,in furtherance of his plan1 he resolved on his third voyage to live with them several years4 ,in #ahfd he started on this voyage north4 ,on his arrival in the arctic he sought out the natives and made himself one of them1 adopting their mode of life and food4 ,he spent five years living and travelling with them4 ,having won them over1 he obtained the story of the ill-fated explorers4 ,he learned that one of ,franklin's vessels had actually made the northwest passage to ,o',reily ,island1 southwest of ,king ,william ,land4 ,five men remained on board alive1 but the vessel was abandoned by the crew4 ,the next spring the ,eskimos found it in good condition frozen fast in the ice4 ,the skeletons of ,franklin's men were found scattered over ,king ,william ,land1 where they had perished one after another from starvation and cold4 ,some had engaged in conflict with the natives in endeavoring to secure food1 but being weak from hunger were unsuccessful4 ,of the one hundred and five men who accompanied ,franklin not one was ever found alive4 ,during the year #ahej the problem of the northwest passage was solved by ,captains ,m',clure1 ,collinson1 and ,killet4 ,south of ,melville ,island1 ,m',clure1 who had sailed through ,bering ,strait1 met the ship of ,killet which had come through ,lancaster ,sound4 ,m',clure1 having wintered near the connecting waters1 had really established the existence of the passage by observation before the meeting4 ,twenty days later ,collinson came up in his ship4 ,finding the problem of the northwest passage solved1 he turned to the southeast and completed the passage in another direction4 ,it thus became evident that so far as commercial purposes were concerned a northwest passage was impracticable and that further northern exploration must be considered in the light of scientific and geographic value only4 ,hall's labors did not cease with his discovery of the ,franklin expedition4 ,he became an enthusiast concerning the arctic and seemed to enjoy its weird icy scenery and attendant perilous excitement4 ,believing that he could reach the north pole if he had a properly equipped expedition1 he planned a fourth voyage and appealed to ,congress for assistance4 ,a generous appropriation was made by ,congress1 and on ,july #c1 #ahga1 the expedition set sail from ,new ,london1 ,conn41 carrying a full crew and several scientists4 ,the vessel1 which was named the ,polaris1 touched at several places on the western coast of ,greenland to secure additional dogs and skins suitable for arctic clothing1 and then steamed north as far as seemed safe1 to establish winter quarters preparatory to making a dash for the pole in the spring4 ,the vessel passed through ,robeson ,channel into the polar ocean1 reaching #hb deg4 #aa'1 then the highest point ever reached by a ship4 ,not finding a good harbor1 ,hall sailed south about fifty miles4 ,he anchored near the ,greenland shore to the lee of a stranded iceberg4 ,building material for a house and part of the stores were removed to the land in case anything happened to the ship4 ,then the ship was banked up with snow and part of the deck was covered with canvas to keep out the cold4 ,the weather being propitious1 ,captain ,hall thought best to take a sledge journey to find the lay of the country4 ,he ordered the dogs to be well fed1 and accompanied by two other sledges advanced northward about fifty miles1 making side trips to take observations4 ,at the end of two weeks he returned seemingly perfectly well1 but in a few hours complained of illness4 ,thirteen days afterward he died4 ,the date of his death was ,november #h1 #ahga1 just a little more than four months from the time he left the port of ,new ,london buoyant with hope4 ,the command of the expedition now devolved on ,captain ,buddington1 a man of dissipated habits and lacking in discipline4 ,during the winter and spring severe storms crashed the ice-pack against the sides of the vessel1 causing it to leak4 ,in the meantime exploring parties were sent out with sledges and boats1 gathering not a little knowledge concerning the west coast of ,greenland4 ,then the vessel began to leak badly1 and ,captain ,buddington ordered all hands on board for return home4 ,great fields of ice still covered the sea1 and it was with extreme difficulty that the vessel made its way through them southward4 ,a severe gale damaged the vessel still more1 and as it seemed certain that it could not float much longer1 preparations to abandon it and to move at once to the ice-floe were made4 ,at the dead of night1 in the face of a fierce gale1 a part of the ship's company and stores were transferred to the ice4 ,then the heaving billows broke the vessel loose from the floe1 separating the men on the ice from those on the vessel4 ,with eighteen companions ,captain ,tyson lived on the ice-floe which moved southward1 breaking off piece after piece1 for a period of six and one-half months1 suffering incredible hardships from cold1 hunger1 and constant fear4 ,finally1 they were sighted off the ,labrador coast by the ship ,tigress and rescued in a starving condition4 ,the story of this ice-floe journey of one thousand three hundred miles is one of the most thrilling in maritime annals4 ,fortunately1 there were two ,eskimos on the ice-floe skilled in the capture of seals1 else the entire company would have starved to death1 since but a small portion of the provisions had been transferred to the floe when the vessel parted from it4 ,the devices for sustaining their lives during the journey form interesting reading4 ,strange to relate1 no one was seriously ill and no deaths occurred during this remarkable ice voyage4 ,after drifting a while the ,polaris was purposely beached on the ,greenland shore and the stores placed on land1 where a house was built in which to spend the second winter4 ,in the spring two boats were constructed in which the company started southward along the coast1 where they were finally picked up by a whaling vessel4 ,the conquest of the northeast passage was not achieved until the latter part of the century4 ,in #ahgh ,baron ,nordenskjold1 a ,swedish explorer commanding the ,vega1 entered the ,arctic and sailed eastward along the ,russian and ,siberian coast4 ,nordenskjold was the first navigator to double ,cape ,chelyuskin1 the northern cape of ,asia4 ,the ,vega reached ,bering ,strait where she was nipped by the ice-pack4 ,in the following spring she reached ,japan in safety4 ,in #ahgi-hj ,lieutenant ,frederick ,schwatka set out on an overland expedition northwestward for ,hudson ,bay1 to gather knowledge concerning the great ,arctic ,plain of ,north ,america4 ,schwatka's was probably the longest sledge journey ever made up to that time4 ,with a small party of men1 his dog sledges covered a distance of three thousand miles4 ,schwatka found the skeletons of several members of ,sir ,john ,franklin's party4 ,these he buried on ,king ,william ,land4 ,illustration3 ,peary's ship1 the ,roosevelt ,in #ahha the ,de ,long expedition1 in the steam cruiser ,jeannette1 met disaster off the ,siberian coast4 ,the ,jeannette was sunk and her officers and crew in three boats abandoned her4 ,one boat was never heard of afterward4 ,de ,long and his party starved in the delta swamps of the ,lena ,river4 ,chief ,engineer ,melville and his party were rescued in the ,lena ,river4 ,in #ahha also the ,international ,polar ,conference attempted to establish a chain of stations around the pole as far north as possible4 ,the ,united ,states and several of the ,european nations were represented in the organization4 ,two expeditions were sent out by the ,united ,states2 one at ,point ,barrow1 under ,lieutenant ,ray1 the other at ,lady ,franklin ,bay1 opposite the ,greenland coast1 in latitude #ha deg4 #dj'4 ,the latter was in charge of ,lieutenant1 now ,general ,greely4 ,in a sledge journey along the north coast of ,greenland1 ,lockwood and ,brainard reached the latitude of #hc deg4 #bd'4 ,the observations of ,greely and ,ray added not a little knowledge concerning the meteorology and tides of the arctic regions4 ,the sledge journey of ,lockwood and ,brainard practically established the fact that ,greenland is an island4 ,of all attempts to reach the pole1 the most daring was that adopted by ,s4 ,a4 ,andree1 a ,swedish explorer4 ,andree had been to the polar regions before1 and being something of an aeronaut1 believed that he could reach or pass over the pole in a balloon4 ,in carrying out his plan he had constructed a monster balloon capable of floating in the air thirty days1 due allowance being made for the daily escape of gas by permeation through the envelope4 ,this balloon1 with necessary accessories1 was shipped to ,danes ,island1 one of the ,spitzbergen group4 ,everything being ready ,july #aa1 #ahig1 ,andree set forth on his perilous trip accompanied by two companions4 ,the balloon carried a load of about five tons1 including food1 clothing1 ballast1 scientific instruments1 and men4 ,on being let loose the balloon arose six hundred feet1 and then descended to the surface of the sea owing to the entanglement of the guide ropes and ballast lines4 ,three heavy guide ropes nine hundred feet long were used1 to which were attached eight ballast lines two hundred and fifty feet long4 ,the ropes were cut and ballast was thrown out1 when the balloon again rose and the wind bore it away over a mountainous island one thousand five hundred feet high4 ,in an hour it had passed below the northeastern horizon4 ,three message buoys were dropped on the day of ,andree's departure1 reporting fine weather1 all well1 and altitude eight hundred and twenty feet2 from that time on no traces of the daring unfortunates have ever been found4 ,fridtjof ,nansen1 who had spent some time in the exploration of ,greenland1 had also reached the conclusion that a polar current sweeps across the ,arctic ,ocean from ,bering ,sea to the north coast of ,greenland4 ,he therefore set out with a picked crew in a small steamship1 the ,fram1#ahic1 entering the ,arctic at ,bering ,strait4 ,after the ,fram had been caught in the ice-pack1 ,nansen and his companion1 ,johansen1 started toward the north pole with dog sledges4 ,they reached latitude #hf deg4 #ad'2 finding that the ice was drifting southward1 they made for ,franz ,josef ,land1 where they spent the winter1 and then started for ,spitzbergen4 ,on their way they were found by members of the ,jackson-,harmsworth expedition1 by whom they were rescued4 ,the ,fram also returned safely4 ,the existence of the polar current was not established4 ,in #aijj ,captain ,cagui1 a member of the ,abruzzi ,polar ,expedition1 starting from ,franz ,josef ,land1 made a dash across the ice toward the pole4 ,he succeeded in reaching latitude #hf deg4 #cd'1 the nearest approach to the pole up to that time4 ,only a few years afterward1 #aije-f1 ,amundsen1 in the steamer ,gjoa1 found a more southerly northwest passage from ,king ,william ,land than that followed by ,collinson4 ,it was comparatively free from ice4 ,amundsen was the first to penetrate the northwest passage in a continuous voyage4 ,the result showed plainly that as a commercial route the northwest passage was out of the question4 ,the man who finally succeeded in reaching the pole is the intrepid arctic explorer1 ,robert ,e4 ,peary1 of the ,united ,states navy4 ,in the first record-breaking trip ,peary started in ,july1 #aije4 ,sailing through ,davis ,strait1 ,baffin ,bay1 ,smith ,sound1 and ,robeson ,channel to ,grant ,island1 which lies west of the northern part of ,greenland1 he went into winter quarters at ,cape ,sheridan4 ,in the early spring1 when the daylight was an hour long1 ,peary set out for the north pole over the ice-clad ocean with sledges drawn by dogs4 ,delayed by storms and open water in some places1 he succeeded after incredible hardships and suffering in reaching #hg deg4 #f'1 the highest point up to that time reached by man1 a distance only two hundred miles from the north pole4 ,in previous trips ,peary had crossed the northern part of ,greenland twice at the risk of his life1 each time bringing much knowledge of the north coast of ,greenland4 ,during one of his voyages ,peary brought home three meteorites4 ,the largest1 weighing more than thirty-six tons1 is now in the ,museum of ,natural ,history of ,new ,york ,city4 ,these are among the largest meteorites ever found1 and it is an interesting fact that so many were found in ,greenland4#a ,peary's last and successful trip began when the steamship ,roosevelt1 commanded by ,captain ,bartlett1 sailed out of ,new ,york harbor1 ,july #f1 #aijh4 ,the vessel traversed ,baffin ,bay and reached ,cape ,york ,august #a4 ,at ,etah1 an ,eskimo settlement1 three weeks were consumed in storing supplies and selecting ,eskimo guides and purchasing dog-trains4 ,the ,roosevelt then proceeded northward through the narrow strait that separates ,greenland from ,grant ,land4 ,the party went into winter quarters near ,cape ,sheridan at the head of the strait4 ,the winter was spent in exploration and in preparation for the sledge journey4 ,the necessary supplies for the journey were carried to ,cape ,columbia1 the northerly point of ,grant ,land4 ,the sledge party started northward from ,cape ,columbia ,february #bh--seven members of the expedition1 seventeen ,eskimos1 and nineteen sledges4 ,illustration3 ,commander ,robert ,e4 ,peary and three of his ,eskimo dogs on the ,roosevelt ,when the expedition reached latitude eighty-eight degrees1 ,captain ,bartlett and ,professor ,marvin1 with most of the ,eskimo guides1 were ordered back2 ,peary with his companion1 ,hensen1 and several ,eskimos started on the final dash4 ,fortunately the ice was smooth1 and but few breaks1 or leads1 were encountered4 ,it was not difficult to make twenty-five miles or more a day during several days of the journey4 ,at last a temporary break in the clouds gave ,peary an opportunity for observation1 which showed his latitude to be #hi deg4 #eg'4 ,ten miles more were made1 and another observation showed that the party had actually gone several miles beyond the pole4 ,a cairn of ice blocks and snow bearing the ,american flag was erected approximately at the pole1 ,april #g1 #aiji1 and the party started on the return trip4 ,there being a plain trail and smooth ice1 the return trip was made in about half the time required for the outward trip4 ,the reserve party was joined at ,cape ,columbia1 and all hands returned to the ,roosevelt1 which was at anchor near ,cape ,sheridan4 ,the only fatality of the expedition was the death of ,professor ,marvin1 who was accidentally drowned while on his return to ,cape ,columbia4 ,the open polar sea which had been observed by ,kane and several other explorers was closed by ice at the time of ,peary's dash2 indeed1 the entire route lay over ice and snow that apparently was several years old4 ,after leaving ,cape ,columbia no land sky was seen anywhere about the horizon4 ,a single sounding was made about five miles from the pole1 but no bottom was found at fifteen hundred feet1 the length of the sounding wire4 ,for his services ,peary received the medal of the ,royal ,geographical ,society1 and an admiral's commission from the ,united ,states ,government4 ,in spite of the desolation that pervades polar regions1 the resources are considerable and have attracted much commercial activity4 ,for many years whale oil was about the only illuminating oil used by most of the world1 and the chief supply was obtained from the whales slaughtered in north polar regions4 ,holland sent whaling ships to the arctic as early as #afac1 and for two centuries whaling fleets of different nations frequented these seas4 ,during the early part of the seventeenth century--the most profitable period--upward of three hundred ,dutch ships and fifteen thousand men annually visited ,spitzbergen4 ,it is estimated that in two centuries ,america1 ,england1 and ,holland obtained from the arctic regions products amounting to one thousand million dollars1 the greatest items by far being whale oil and whalebone4 ,great quantities of fossil ivory have been obtained from the ,new ,siberian ,island1 the very soil of which seems in great part to be made up of the bones and tusks of the extinct mammoth4 ,much valuable scientific information has been gained by meteorological and magnetic observations4 ,the north magnetic pole1 toward which the north-seeking end of the compass needle points1 has been located on the west side of ,boothia ,peninsula4 ,at this place the dipping needle stands vertical4 ,it must be borne in mind that the north pole of the earth and the north magnetic pole are two entirely different points4 ,as a matter of fact1 if the mariner be in the arctic waters north of ,boothia ,peninsula his compass points south4 ,the arctic currents have been carefully studied with valuable results1 and it has been found that the drift of the polar ice-floe is constantly to the eastward4 ,snow-white arctic reindeer in considerable numbers have been recently found2 and ,peary found seals within two hundred miles of the north pole4 ,the ,greenland seal seems to enjoy seas filled with ice1 spending part of the time in the water and part on the ice-floe4 ,illustration3 ,musk ox ,it is now known that ,greenland is an ice-capped island very sparsely inhabited along the coast by ,eskimos4 ,a few hundred of these hardy people live along the ,greenland coast from ,cape ,york up to latitude seventy-eight degrees1 cut off by the surrounding ice-cap from the rest of the world4 ,they are the most northern known inhabitants4 ,peary found the northern coast of ,greenland well stocked with both animal and vegetable life4 ,bears1 wolves1 hares1 and musk oxen were seen in considerable numbers4 ,a most important fact discovered by ,hall was that the most northerly part of ,greenland is comparatively free from ice1 the largest known area of bare ground of that continent4 ,this fact accounts for the profusion of animal and vegetable life existing there4 ,one of the most interesting of land animals found in the north is the musk ox4 ,when fully grown and in good condition this animal weighs five hundred pounds and upward4 ,when the musk oxen are attacked by wolves or dogs they form themselves into a circle with their heads on the outside and conceal their calves under their bodies4 ,their hair1 being long1 reaches nearly to the ground and forms a curtain which completely conceals the calves from view4 ,their food is moss and lichens which grow on the rocks4 ,this they obtain by scraping away the snow with their sharp hoofs4 ,the flesh of the musk ox1 though musk-like in flavor1 is not repulsive to the taste1 and several explorers have been saved from starving by using the flesh for food4 ,the chief obstacles to arctic exploration are the long winter night1 during which all must remain idle1 and the necessity for carrying all provisions4 ,no one who has not wintered beyond the arctic circle can have a realization of the influence on the nerves of continual darkness for months1 an influence that has driven many men insane4 ,combine the darkness with the weird scenery and the fierce storms that prevail during the long winter1 and it requires a strong will and abiding faith not to be seriously influenced4 ,the extreme cold is not hard to endure if one clothes himself in the manner of the ,eskimos4 ,provisions and supplies must be carried by dog sledges1 and the management of the dog teams is very difficult for those who have not been trained to the work4 ,shetland ponies have been tried as draught animals4 ,captain ,evelyn ,baldwin was the first to use them in polar exploration2 others have used them1 but less successfully4 ,good coal is found in abundance on many of the islands of the arctic4 ,its outcroppings are found on ,disco ,island1 west of ,greenland1 and excellent coal is found in many places in ,spitzbergen1 where at the present time two companies are mining it1 one ,american and the other ,english4 ,spitzbergen is sometimes called ,no ,man's ,land1 since ,norway and ,sweden have not been able to agree in regard to its possession4 ,lately the islands of this archipelago have become favorite resorts for summer excursionists who can here have the arctic scenery and experiences with but very few discomforts4 ,ptarmigan1 geese1 ducks1 and many other kinds of birds are found on these islands4 ,large quantities of eider-down have been obtained annually from this section1 but the rapid destruction of the ducks by hunters has lessened the industry and will probably annihilate it4 ,there being no law to regulate hunting1 sportsmen wantonly kill the wild animals1 especially the reindeer and bears1 in great numbers4 ,we owe much to dogs in arctic explorations4 ,it would have been impossible to penetrate to the interior of arctic lands or to traverse the frozen seas but for the services of the faithful dogs trained to draw sledges4 ,many of these animals have suffered from overwork and have perished from starvation2 others have been sacrificed for food in dire extremities to preserve the lives of their masters4 ,surely arctic service has proved as destructive to the poor dogs as to men4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #a3 ,isolated masses of native iron are usually of meteoric origin1 but to determine whether or not the native iron fell from the sky a portion of the surface is ground off and polished2 then the polished surface is etched with acid4 ,if crystalline lines are plainly brought out1 there can be no doubt of its being of meteoric origin4 ,the following excerpt from the ,american ,museum ,meteoric ,guide will make the matter clear3 ,the iron of meteorites is always alloyed with from six to twenty per cent of nickel4 ,this 'nickel-iron1' as it is commonly called1 is usually crystalline in texture1 and when it is cut1 polished1 and 'etched' a beautiful net-work of lines is brought out1 indicating plates which lie in positions determined by the crystalline character of the mass4 ,this net-work of lines constitutes what are called the ,widmannstattian figures1 from the name of their discoverer4 ,when these figures are strongly developed the meteoric origin of the iron cannot be questioned1 but their absence does not necessarily disprove such an origin4 ,native iron of terrestrial origin is extremely rare4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,polar ,,regions--,,antarctica ,a continent twice the size of the ,united ,states lies sleeping beneath a mantle of snow and ice at the south pole4 ,no vegetation save a few mosses and lichens exists anywhere on this vast expanse4 ,no four-footed animals rove over it2 no human beings inhabit it4 ,hundreds of thousands of square miles of pack-ice1 glaciers1 and ice-walls jealously guard it on all sides4 ,on one side1 for a distance of five hundred miles1 extends a great ice barrier whose perpendicular ice-wall is from thirty to three hundred feet in height4 ,behind this wall are vast ice-fields1 and beyond these immense plateaus of ice having an elevation of six thousand to twelve thousand feet where fierce winds and a biting cold prevail4 ,on these elevated plains the thermometer stands in the middle of summer sometimes as low as forty degrees below zero4 ,great fields of ice and huge icebergs cover the sea in all directions and in winter extend far beyond the antarctic circle4 ,in these regions the ice forming on the surface of the ocean attains a thickness varying from five to seventeen feet4 ,long ranges of snow-clad and ice-mailed mountains are found with ermined peaks towering from ten thousand to fifteen thousand feet in height4 ,a long winter night1 with its intense darkness relieved at times by the light of the moon and brilliant chromatic displays of the aurora australis1 succeeds a day of perpetual sunshine4 ,all these are on such a scale of sublimity that no pen can adequately describe nor brush portray them4 ,nowhere else on the face of the globe does there exist such a wide expanse of utter desolation4 ,yet an undefined attraction lures bold men to fathom the mysteries of these forbidding regions4 ,dating from #aggb1 many exploring expeditions have visited the south polar regions in the interests of science4 ,the compass is the mariner's guide across the trackless ocean1 and it is essential to find out everything possible about that mysterious agent1 magnetism1 which directs the compass needle by its attractive force4 ,the earth itself is a huge magnet with positive and negative poles4 ,the poised needle of the compass maintains its relative position because of the magnetic poles of the earth1 one located in the north polar regions1 on the western side of the peninsula of ,boothia1 and the other in the south polar regions1 on ,victoria ,land4 ,except in a few localities the compass needle does not point due north and south--that is1 toward the real poles of the earth1 but toward the magnetic poles4 ,and these magnetic poles are ever shifting1 as is shown by the changing direction of the compass needle1 which year by year increases or decreases its deviation from true north and south4 ,it is necessary to chart the variations of the magnetic needle for the use of the navigator4 ,to observe the deviations and to locate the south magnetic pole have been the chief objects of south polar expeditions for several years1 geographical information being of secondary importance4 ,the marine life of the south polar regions is abundant4 ,in the latter part of the eighteenth century ships sailing in the regions north of the antarctic circle discovered whales and fur-bearing seals4 ,soon sealers and whalers of different nations began to frequent the prolific new regions4 ,then various ,european nations and the ,united ,states sent out exploring expeditions to the south polar regions to gather scientific and geographical information as well as to assist the charting of coasts and the determination of magnetic variations4 ,on account of their uninhabitability1 their difficulty of access1 and their unknown commercial value1 the antarctic lands have claimed far less attention than the north polar regions4 ,the famous explorer1 ,captain ,james ,cook of the royal navy1 was commissioned by the ,british ,government to undertake various exploring expeditions1 and in carrying out his instructions he made several voyages to the antarctic4 ,in #aggc1 with his two vessels1 ,resolution and ,adventure1 he crossed the antarctic circle--so far as is known1 the first time that it had been crossed by a human being4 ,he continued farther southward1 but finding an alarming increase of pack-ice and icebergs1 he soon retreated north4 ,in ,january of the following year he succeeded after a third trial in reaching latitude #ga deg4 #aj' south1 the farthest south attained during the century4 ,illustration3 ,an antarctic summer scene ,in #ahci an expedition was sent out by the ,united ,states ,government under ,captain ,charles ,wilkes4 ,the exploring squadron consisted of five ships and more than four hundred officers and men1 scientists1 and crews4 ,wilkes was the first to discover the so-called mainland of the antarctic continent1 in ,january1 #ahdj4 ,he then followed along this unknown coast-line amid icebergs1 fogs1 and storms for over fifteen hundred miles1 taking such observations as were possible4 ,for his polar achievements in discovery and exploration he was awarded a gold medal by the ,royal ,geographical ,society4 ,considering that he was supplied with improperly equipped ships1 he certainly accomplished wonders4 ,the ,british ,government1 realizing the necessity for better magnetic charts of the south polar regions1 and urged by the scientific societies of ,england1 sent out a second expedition to the antarctic under the command of ,sir ,james ,ross4 ,the expedition sailed from ,england in the fall of #ahci in the ,erebus and ,terror1 both of which were subsequently lost in the unfortunate ,franklin expedition4#b ,on this voyage ,ross made many discoveries1 the most important of which was ,victoria ,land4 ,on this land is the south magnetic pole toward which the south-seeking end of the needle always points4 ,ross greatly desired to plant at the south magnetic pole the flag that had been displayed at the north magnetic pole in #ahca1 but he was unfortunately caught in the pack-ice and compelled to abandon the attempt4 ,two volcanic mountains were discovered on an island near ,victoria ,land4 ,these mountains ,ross named ,erebus and ,terror from the two ships in which he sailed4 ,the former1 thirteen thousand feet in height1 was in violent eruption1 and the latter1 ten thousand feet high1 was quiescent4 ,an expedition which has accomplished very great results in antarctic research was sent out under ,captain ,robert ,f4 ,scott of the ,british navy in the vessel ,discovery4 ,through the influence of the ,royal ,geographical ,society this expedition was admirably financed1 the ,english ,government and private parties contributing four hundred and fifty thousand dollars toward its equipment4 ,the ,discovery left ,cowes1 ,england1 in the summer of #aija1 and1 after making a series of magnetic observations south of ,australia1 steered for the south polar regions4 ,pack-ice was met almost at the antarctic circle1 but ,scott gradually worked the vessel through the pack and reached the base of ,mount ,terror where he landed a party4 ,then with the remainder of his men he coasted eastward along the great ice barrier for five hundred miles4 ,it was found that the barrier had receded thirty miles since its front was examined by ,ross in #ahda and that its front is wearing away at the rate of one-half mile a year4 ,a captive balloon was used in making investigations of the ice front4 ,if the unfortunate case of ,andree be excepted1 it was the first time that the balloon was used in polar research4 ,the vessel remained in a safe harbor near ,mounts ,terror and ,erebus1 where it lay frozen in for two winters4 ,every precaution was taken to insure the safety of the land party in case the ice should break up and force the ship out of the harbor4 ,suitable huts were erected on shore and a portion of the provisions was landed4 ,magnetic observations and other scientific work were carried on daily4 ,during the warmer season of the year many journeys were made into the interior4 ,in order to be able to advance as far as possible1 sledge journeys were made along a selected route to establish provision depots4 ,this being done1 ,captain ,scott with two companions and nineteen sledge dogs started for a protracted journey into the interior4 ,they travelled three hundred and fifty miles inland over the great ice-field but did not even then reach the end of it4 ,then1 having lost most of the dogs1 and the provisions being low1 the party set out on their return to the ship4 ,the few remaining dogs being disabled1 the men were obliged to haul the sledges4 ,having suffered great hardships1 the party reached the vessel after an absence of three months4 ,on this journey a long range of mountains with many high peaks was discovered4 ,the highest peak1 fifteen thousand one hundred feet1 was named ,mount ,markham4 ,the latitude reached was #hb deg4 #ag' south1 being the farthest distance south attained4 ,on a subsequent journey a plateau of nine thousand feet elevation was reached1 where the evenness of the ice surface for miles seemed scarcely broken4 ,the length of this journey was three hundred miles4 ,at the end of the second winter two relief ships appeared at the edge of the ice with orders that ,captain ,scott should return home at once4 ,the ,discovery was still sealed up in the harbor with solid ice from twelve to seventeen feet thick1 and it was a problem how to free the vessel4 ,the solid ice extended out more than six miles from the harbor4 ,the crews set resolutely to work making holes in the ice in a direct line from the imprisoned vessel to the open water4 ,in these holes powerful explosives were placed which cracked the ice4 ,this labor consumed some nine days4 ,then the great ocean swells broke up the ice1 freeing the vessel4 ,the ,discovery forthwith sailed for ,england by way of ,cape ,horn1 arriving home in ,september1 having gathered much valuable information during her sojourn in the south polar regions4 ,although practically no vegetable life has been found in these regions1 an abundance of animal life exists in or contiguous to the sea1 dependent on shrimps1 fish1 and such other life as the sea affords4 ,seals1 penguins1 petrels1 cormorants1 and gulls are found in considerable numbers4 ,in fact1 no persons tarrying in these regions need starve for lack of food1 such as it is4 ,illustration3 ,the penguin defies the cold ,during the two years spent by the ,discovery in the south polar ice1 seals and penguins formed staple articles of the diet of the men4 ,though the flesh of both of these creatures has a strong and peculiar flavor1 it was found to be an agreeable change from pemican and other preserved material4 ,so vigorous were the men's appetites1 stimulated by the excessive cold1 that when they labored hard sometimes seven meals were served daily4 ,because of the thick layer of fat covering their bodies1 penguins were used as fuel when the coal began to give out4 ,penguins are strange1 interesting sea fowls having an inquisitive and fearless nature4 ,at one of the rocky shore rookeries millions of these grotesque birds were seen4 ,the type of penguin found here is a very handsome bird1 decked out in rather gay colors1 having a jet black head1 bluish-gray back and wings1 a yellow breast and bright spot of orange on the neck1 and an orange-colored lower bill4 ,as though proud of his multicolored dress he walks with slow and majestic step4 ,his height is about four feet and his average weight eighty-five pounds4 ,he makes free use of his voice which is loud and shrill4 ,whenever a group of penguins see an object that excites their curiosity they will stand around it in a circle and gaze at it intently4 ,lieutenant ,shackleton had a graphophone as a part of his equipment1 and whenever it was used1 during the season when penguins were about1 they used to gather around the instrument by the hundreds1 seeming to be quite as much interested as his human listeners4 ,when all other birds flee at the approach of the antarctic winter the eccentric penguin defies the cold and hatches its single egg in the dead of winter1 with the thermometer ranging from eighteen to seventy degrees below zero4 ,it does this by carrying the egg between its legs1 resting it on the back of the foot while a fold of heavily feathered loose skin completely covers it up4 ,after the chick is hatched it takes the place of the egg and is carried around in this queer receptacle4 ,when the chick wants food it utters a cry4 ,thereupon the parent bends its neck down1 and the little one thrusts its head into the parental mouth to help itself to regurgitated food4 ,the adult fowls of both sexes are fond of nursing the chickens and frequently quarrel over the possession of the little ones1 often with fatal results to the younglings4 ,over half of the chicks die or are killed by kindness4 ,the expedition to the antarctic commanded by ,lieutenant ,ernest ,shackleton must always be considered one of the most important among those fitted out for the work of polar research4 ,shackleton had been a member of the ,scott expedition and therefore was well acquainted with the character of the work4 ,the members of the staff1 about twenty-five in number1 were selected with great care1 and the results of the expedition demonstrated ,lieutenant ,shackleton's wisdom4 ,the ,nimrod1 a wooden steamship built for seal hunting1 was purchased and equipped for the expedition4 ,she was a small vessel1 scarcely more than one hundred feet in length4 ,her foremast carried square sails2 her main and mizzen masts were schooner-rigged4 ,under steam her speed did not exceed six knots4 ,the equipment included a generous outfit of scientific instruments1 a supply of dogs and sledges1 ten ,manchurian or ,shetland ponies1 and a gasoline motor-car4 ,the vessel was equipped at ,cowes1 ,england1 but made her final start from ,lyttleton1 ,new ,zealand1 ,new ,year's ,day1 #aijh4 ,in order to save her supply of coal for future use she was towed to the antarctic circle4 ,the following winter months1 ,may to ,september1 were spent on ,ross ,island1 near the winter quarters of the ,discovery1 in ,mc,murdo ,bay1 about thirty degrees south of ,new ,zealand4 ,this bay1 or sound1 forms a curve in the shore line of ,victoria ,land1 the coast of which is the best known part of the antarctic regions4 ,up to the present time it is the most accessible entrance to south circumpolar regions known2 it is also the most convenient location for winter quarters1 being only two thousand miles from ,new ,zealand4 ,in the following ,march a party of six--,david1 ,mawson1 ,mackay1 ,adams1 ,marshall1 and ,brocklehurst--prepared for the ascent of ,mount ,erebus1 the volcano1 then active1 discovered by ,ross and named after one of his ships4 ,the crater rim was only a few miles distant1 and during the first three days the party could be seen from the camp by means of a powerful telescope--tiny black specks struggling up the ice-clad slopes4 ,three craters were discovered1 the youngest and highest of which was found to be thirteen thousand three hundred and fifty feet above sea level4#c ,during the ascent the party nearly perished in a gale which blew their tents into tatters4 ,the crater rampart was finally reached1 however1 and a number of excellent photographs were made4 ,during the entire stay at ,ross ,island the steam column from the crater furnished the means whereby the direction of the upper currents of air might be instantly noted1 and the condition of activity did not differ materially from that observed in ,stromboli4 ,when the barometer was low the steam column was heavier and denser2 the glow of light was also brighter4 ,with a high barometer1 on the contrary1 the conditions were reversed1 the steam column was insignificant and the glow was scarcely visible4 ,as a rule1 the ascending column of steam was projected three thousand feet or more before it was caught by the upper air current4 ,measurements showed the principal crater to be half a mile in diameter and nine hundred feet deep4 ,great deposits of sulphur and pumice were observed4 ,in the last week of ,october a party composed of ,shackleton1 ,adams1 ,marshall1 and ,wild started on the trip to discover the south pole4 ,the journey to the point farthest south occupied seventy-three days4 ,after a few days out from the winter quarters no bare rock was seen--the landscape being one of ice and snow4 ,shackleton's journal of ,january #h notes the fierce gales blowing at the rate of seventy or eighty miles an hour1 while the temperature had dropped to seventy-two degrees of frost4 ,we are short of fuel1 he writes1 and at this high altitude1 eleven thousand six hundred feet1 it is hard to keep any warmth in our bodies between the scanty meals4 ,we have nothing to read now1 having left behind our little books to save weight1 and it is dreary work lying in the tent with nothing to read1 and too cold to write much in the diary4 ,it 7,january #i1 #aiji7 is our last day outward4 ,we have shot our bolt and the tale of latitude is #hh deg4 #bc' south4 ,we hoisted her majesty's flag1 and the other ,union ,jack afterward1 and took possession of the plateau in the name of his majesty4 ,while the ,union ,jack blew out stiffly in the icy gale that cut us to the bone we looked south with powerful glasses1 but could see nothing but the dead white snow-plain4 ,there was no break in the plateau as it extended toward the pole1 and we felt sure that the goal we have failed to reach lies on this plain4 ,we stayed only a few minutes1 and then taking the queen's flag1 and eating our scanty meal as we went1 hurried back and reached our camp about #c ,p4 ,m4 ,whatever regrets may be1 we have done our best4 ,on their return journey the party killed the two surviving ponies for food4 ,early in ,october1 #aijh1 a party consisting of ,david1 ,mawson1 and ,mackay started on their journey to locate the south magnetic pole4 ,like the journey of the southern party1 it was a trip of hardship1 intense cold1 and physical suffering4 ,on ,january #af1 #aiji1 partly by experiment and partly by calculation1 the point of vertical position of the needle was found in latitude #gb deg4 #be' south1 longitude #aee deg4 #af' east4 ,the position found by ,professor ,david was very close to that obtained by ,scott of the ,discovery expedition and about forty miles from that which ,ross calculated in #ahda4 ,in the interval of nearly seventy years1 it is safe to assume that the position of the south magnetic pole has shifted forty miles4 ,in spite of the knowledge obtained in other directions1 ,shackleton frankly admits that the secret of the great ice barrier cannot be learned until the structure and trend of the mountain ranges which seem to form its edge are traced4 ,the investigations showed1 however1 that it is composed of densely packed snow4 ,it was found that at least one part of the ice barrier is receding1 and that ,balloon ,bight1 noted by ,captain ,scott1 had disappeared in consequence of the recession4 ,not the least important part of the exploration was the discovery of forty-five miles of coast4 ,shackleton also was able to strengthen the opinion that ,emerald1 ,nimrod1 and ,dougherty ,islands do not exist4 ,the hardy ,shetland and ,manchurian ponies1 first used by ,evelyn ,baldwin1 proved a valuable equipment in polar research4 ,shackleton's gasoline motor-car and ,scott's captive balloon were of considerable but limited use4 ,during #aiaj and #aiaa three different nations--,england1 ,norway1 and ,japan--were represented by expeditions in south polar regions4 ,the ,norwegian expedition under ,captain ,roald ,amundsen was especially equipped for quick travel1 having eight sledges and more than one hundred trained dogs4 ,the expedition made its way to the head of ,ross ,sea1 a large bay of the ,antarctic plateau1 nearly due south of ,new ,zealand4 ,the camp there was made the base of supplies4 ,depots for provisions were first established in latitudes #hj deg41 #ha deg41 and #hb deg4 ,a start for the pole was made ,september #h with eight men1 seven sledges1 and ninety dogs4 ,the weather was too severe for the dogs1 however1 and the party returned to camp4 ,by the middle of ,october summer weather had set in1 and on the #bjth of the month five men1 four sledges1 and fifty-two dogs started on the poleward trip4 ,three days later they reached and passed the first depot2 on the #cast the second depot was reached2 and on ,november #e the sledges reached the third depot in latitude #hb deg4 ,additional supplies were thereafter cached1 in depots about one degree apart1 to be used on the return trip4 ,snow cairns were built at frequent intervals to mark the trail4 ,the last cache of supplies was left at latitude #he deg4 ,from this point the way was a steep and difficult climbing over the range1 or barrier1 that had proved so difficult for ,shackleton4 ,peaks in height from ten thousand to fifteen thousand feet loomed up on every side1 and glacier surfaces proved to be the easiest paths4 ,when a height of nine thousand feet had been reached the rugged upraise opened out into a nearly level plateau4 ,on ,december #aj observations showed latitude #hi deg41 and on the #adth of the month the party reached latitude #ij deg4 and achieved the conquest of the ,south ,pole4 ,the ,norwegian flag was planted1 and after three days spent in checking observations the party returned in safety4 ,the expedition returned by way of ,tasmania4 ,the vessel employed was the ,fram1 the small steamship used by ,nansen4 ,captain ,scott1 who commanded the ,discovery in the expedition of #aija1 went with the men in his command to ,ross ,sea and made his head-quarters near the head of that body of water4 ,he at once sent out exploring parties1 one of which started for the pole4 ,according to reports made in ,april1 #aiab1 he had accomplished a great deal of work in surveys and geological research1 probably more than all that of his predecessors4 ,the same reports brought also word that the ,japanese expedition under ,lieutenant ,shirase had surveyed a considerable extent of the ,antarctic coast4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #b3 ,in ,april1 #ahca1 ,ross had the honor of fixing the location of the north magnetic pole on the ,boothia ,peninsula in latitude #gj deg4 #e' north and longitude #if deg4 #df' west4 ,footnote #c3 ,according to the observations of ,ross its altitude was twelve thousand three hundred and sixty-seven feet4 ,inasmuch as a change in altitude results from each eruption1 both determinations may be correct4 ,the admiralty charts give twelve thousand nine hundred and twenty-two feet1 the determination of the expedition of #aija4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,iceland1 ,,the ,,maid ,,of ,,the ,,north ,several thousand years ago a mighty conflict occurred between the sea and the subterranean forces in the north ,atlantic five hundred miles northwest of ,scotland4 ,a violent earthquake rent the rocks of the ocean bed1 and through the broken floor there issued tremendous floods of molten lava4 ,the great conflict manifested itself in explosions of steam1 gigantic streams of red-hot lava1 frothy pumice1 and volcanic ashes4 ,for miles around the water of the sea was seething and boiling4 ,after awhile the turbulence of the fiery mass was subdued and it stood congealed in the varied forms of rugged peaks1 contorted ridges1 and deep valleys1 subsequently to be seamed and further distorted by earthquakes and piled higher by further volcanic outbursts4 ,a new island had been born4 ,ages rolled on2 vegetation appeared as the volcanic rock disintegrated2 crystal lakes were formed and rivers1 fed by frequent rains and melting snows1 flowed to the sea4 ,this comparatively new island is ,iceland4 ,the book of nature here is open2 the print is clear2 and the language is so plain that he who can read may learn the story4 ,the internal fires of the earth seem to have taken their final great stand in this far-off northern land and have waged a titanic battle to the death1 as may be seen in many places4 ,in the northern part of the island one may find acres of burning sulphur beds1 small geysers1 and mud caldrons1 all of which attest to the slowly dying volcanic forces beneath4 ,although a comparative calm now exists1 an exciting cause may at any time awaken the slumbering volcanoes and again renew the work of destruction4 ,fossilized forests are found1 but of trees different from those now existing4 ,climate and vegetation materially changed as century succeeded century4 ,the written history of ,iceland begins about the year #hfj1 when a viking living on the ,faroe ,islands who was on his way home from ,norway1 being driven far northward of his course1 came to an unknown coast4 ,climbing a high rock and looking around1 he beheld no signs of life2 before he could return to his ship1 however1 a sudden storm came on1 covering the ground with a mantle of snow4 ,from the latter circumstance he named the country ,snowland4 ,four years after a ,swedish master-mariner was driven by stress of storm to this same land1 and1 building a house1 spent the winter there4 ,during the following summer he sailed around the land1 demonstrating that it was an island1 and called it after his own name1 ,gardar's ,island4 ,on his return home he gave such a favorable account of the island that a famous ,norwegian viking named ,floki determined to seek it and to take possession4 ,having gathered his family and followers1 and taking on board some live stock1 he set sail for the unknown land by way of the ,faroe ,islands4 ,the compass had not then been invented1 but knowing that ravens by instinct seek the nearest land when freed on the ocean1 he provided himself with three of these birds to serve as guides4 ,he remained awhile at the ,faroe ,islands and then boldly sailed northward4 ,when he was several days out he uncaged one of the ravens1 which immediately took its flight back to the ,faroe ,islands4 ,later1 he set free a second bird4 ,this one1 after hovering high in the air for some time1 seemed bewildered and returned to the ship4 ,still later1 the third raven was set free1 which at once flew northward4 ,by pursuing the course taken by the last bird1 ,floki soon reached the desired land4 ,the winter that followed was very severe4 ,deep snows covered hill1 rock1 and valley1 and ice blockaded the fiord4 ,floki had neglected to harvest the wild grass1 and as a result his cattle died4 ,disheartened by his losses1 he returned to his native land1 naming the island which he abandoned ,iceland4 ,a few years later another ,norse rover1 who had slain an enemy and was threatened with vengeance by the relatives of the victim1 took refuge on the island where he spent a year4 ,he liked the country so well that he returned home and induced his retainers to accompany him back to his safe retreat4 ,approaching the land1 he threw into the sea the sacred columns which his vessel bore1 so that he might learn the will of the gods where to land and found a colony4 ,a violent storm arising1 the pillars drifted out of sight1 so he sought the nearest harbor and there he established a temporary camp4 ,three years afterward the pillars were found on the desolate shore of a lava stream on the west side of the island4 ,near by was a rivulet from whose bed a spring gushed forth emitting clouds of steam4 ,thither the colony removed and the present capital1 ,reykjavik1 was founded4 ,the name ,reykjavik means smoking bay4 ,other vikings followed and selected such parts of the island as they considered best4 ,harold1 the king of ,norway at this time1 determined to curb the rebellious spirit of the chiefs under him4 ,so1 many of the sturdy ,norsemen1 chafing under his arbitrary rule1 collected such of their property as they could carry and1 putting it on board their stanch vessels1 sailed away to the land of refuge4 ,at this period of history nearly all nations considered that might made right2 but no class of plunderers excelled the ,norsemen1 who were wont to make periodical raids on the various seaport cities and towns of ,europe4 ,they swooped upon them1 pillaging and killing the inhabitants1 and then fled in their swift vessels with booty and captives before they could be intercepted4 ,the audacity of the ,norse vikings knew no bounds4 ,they pillaged ,paris1 ,bordeaux1 ,orleans1 and nearly every other city of ,france accessible by water4 ,their hands fell heavily on the coasts of ,spain and the ,british ,isles4 ,illustration3 ,street in ,reykjavik1 ,iceland ,at one time a band of these fearless sea-robbers made their lairs in the ,shetland and ,orkney ,islands and even plundered the coast of ,norway1 the abode of their kinsmen4 ,their conduct so exasperated ,harold that he determined to destroy the freebooters of the ,orkneys root and branch4 ,gathering a large fleet1 he relentlessly pursued the raiders up every bay and inlet4 ,leaving the ships1 he chased them among the rocky islands and the sinuous fiords4 ,when they were overtaken the pursuers showed them no mercy4 ,a few escaped1 and1 stealing away under the cover of darkness1 the hunted sea-robbers fled in their ships to ,iceland4 ,all the while the tide of immigration was augmented by the migrations of disaffected nobles from ,norway4 ,this naked volcanic island had more attraction for them than their own country where freedom was denied them4 ,sixty years after the first settlement fifty thousand people had made their homes in ,iceland4 ,the inhabited parts were along the coast1 in the river valleys1 and in the vicinity of the fiords1 rarely extending farther than fifty miles inland4 ,in order to better maintain rights and settle disputes1 in #icj the chiefs or nobles established an aristocratic republic and adopted a constitution4 ,the republic existed four hundred years4 ,many just laws were enacted1 some of which ,england was glad to borrow4 ,the legislative meetings were held in ,thingvalla1 a picturesque valley thirty-five miles east of ,reykjavik4 ,this valley was formed by the sinking of a lava area of fifty square miles4 ,in the middle of the valley1 flanked by two huge jagged walls of lava1 is a triangular floor of lava like a large flatiron having separating chasms meeting at the apex4 ,here the ,althing1 or general assembly1 met annually to make laws and settle disputes4 ,toward the south the valley slopes gently to ,thingvalla ,vatn1 a beautiful sheet of water of crystal clearness ten miles long and five miles wide1 having in some places a depth of a thousand feet4 ,the scenery here is one of rugged beauty and surpassing grandeur4 ,hard by1 a river comes tumbling over its rocky bed1 then calmly pours its icy water into the placid lake4 ,no spot is better suited to inspire freedom of thought and lofty imagination than this primitive meeting-place of a legislative assembly4 ,eventually1 ,iceland became subject to ,norway and afterward a colony of ,denmark1 which it remains to-day4 ,self-government and the re-establishment of the old ,parliament at ,reykjavik was granted by ,denmark in #ahgd4 ,iceland is not only out of debt but has the snug sum of one million crowns in its exchequer4 ,it is an ideal place for the woman's rights advocates1 since women here have the right to vote and do not change their names when they marry4 ,although the island contains forty thousand square miles1 five-sixths of it is uninhabitable4 ,the present population is eight thousand4 ,it may with truth be called naked because it is only partly clothed with vegetation2 moreover1 such vegetation as exists is scanty and confined chiefly to the river valleys and their slopes4 ,in the interior are large desert areas covered with lava and shifting sand4 ,this desolate expanse is frequently diversified by extensive jokulls1 or elevated ice-fields1 one of which occupies four thousand square miles4 ,strange as it may seem1 the winters in the inhabited sections are not so severe as those of ,new ,england1 owing to the modifying influence of the warm southwesterly wind and the mild temperature of the surrounding waters4 ,the summers are cool1 owing to the nearness of the arctic ice-fields4 ,in the interior on the table-land one is apt to encounter snowstorms even in ,august4 ,the only wild animal is the fox1 of which there are two varieties1 the white and the blue4 ,these animals probably drifted on the ice from ,greenland4 ,they are hunted not only for their skins but also because they attack the sheep4 ,the domestic animals are horses1 cattle1 sheep1 dogs1 and cats4 ,the horses and cattle are small4 ,the ewes1 instead of the cows1 are milked4 ,iceland ponies are famous for their hardiness and are sure-footed4 ,large numbers of them are exported to ,england for service in the coal-mines4 ,there they are condemned to hard labor for life in the dark galleries4 ,iceland ranks second among the geyser regions of the world1 ,yellowstone ,park being first4 ,the boiling springs and geysers are not confined to one locality but are scattered widely over the island4 ,the most prominent are east of ,reykjavik4 ,according to its area probably no other part of the world except the island of ,java has so many volcanoes4 ,more than one hundred craters and cinder cones have been counted1 many of which have been active within the historical period of the island4 ,the most destructive volcanic eruption took place in ,june1 #aghc4 ,the spring had opened auspiciously2 the cattle1 sheep1 and horses were cropping the juicy young grass2 and the air was balmier than usual4 ,in the latter part of ,may a bluish smoke accompanied by earthquakes began to spread over the land4 ,as time passed the earthquake shocks increased in violence4 ,the surface of the earth heaved like the ground swell of the ocean after a storm2 the atmosphere became filled with choking vapors and blinding smoke2 the sun was darkened and the low rumbling sounds became heavy peals of thunder4 ,presently two mighty streams of lava1 one of which was fifteen miles wide and one hundred feet deep1 came pouring down the sides of ,skaptar ,jokull4 ,the lava floods filled up the valleys1 quenched rivers1 and spread destruction over the adjacent country4 ,the intense heat blasted the vegetation far and wide4 ,nine thousand people and fifty thousand head of live stock were the result of the death harvest4 ,illustration3 ,north ,cape1 ,iceland ,iceland is well watered1 having many streams1 all of which are rapid1 for the greater part flowing over beds of lava and quicksand4 ,in some of the wider fords stakes have been set so that the traveller may not get lost in crossing them on horseback during a dense fog4 ,in the summer the frequent rains make travelling very unpleasant unless one is suitably equipped with water-proof garments4 ,in the ,hvita1 or ,white ,river1 is the celebrated ,gullfoss--literally1 goldfall--a fall that rivals ,niagara in the height of its two cataracts4 ,a few garden vegetables excepted1 little or no agriculture is attempted2 the chief dependence of the people is the rearing of sheep1 cattle1 and horses1 fishing1 and the collecting of eider-down4 ,the streams are filled with excellent fish1 including the salmon2 off the coast are codfishing grounds equal to1 if not surpassing1 those of ,newfoundland4 ,the most valuable mineral is sulphur1 the supply of which appears to be inexhaustible4 ,the chief exports are wool1 oil1 fish1 horses1 eider-down1 knit goods1 sulphur1 and ,iceland moss4 ,transparent calcite1 a mineral commonly called ,iceland spar1 is found1 one mine of which furnishes an excellent quality4 ,it is highly prized by mineralogists on account of its double refractive qualities4 ,if a piece of this mineral be placed over a word1 the letters forming it will appear double4 ,iceland spar is used chiefly in the optical instrument known as the polariscope4 ,eider-down consists of the soft1 fine feathers growing on the breast of the eider-duck1 great numbers of which frequent the coast and lakes of ,iceland4 ,this duck is wild except at the nesting season2 then it is as tame as the domestic fowl and makes its nest not only around and on top of the buildings but frequently inside them4 ,a heavy fine is imposed on any one killing a duck at this season4 ,when about to lay1 the duck carefully lines her nest with down plucked from her breast4 ,then people remove it from the nest and the duck pulls more down from her breast to replace that taken4 ,this process is repeated several times4 ,when the duck has stripped her own breast the drake comes to the rescue and furnishes down from his4 ,a certain number of the eggs are also taken4 ,these1 though inferior to those of the swan1 are esteemed a great delicacy4 ,swans also are killed on many of the lakes4 ,iceland is the resort of the fishing fleets of several nations2 the value of the annual catch averages about ten million dollars4 ,much of the catch consists of food fish1 but many are caught for the oil4 ,the only trees found growing on the island are birch and ash1 and they seldom exceed ten feet in height4 ,a few juniper bushes and willows are found here and there4 ,in the remote and isolated sections most of the dwellings are built of blocks of lava laid one upon another1 making a wall six feet thick4 ,upon these are placed rafters made from ribs of whales1 drift-wood1 or anything else that will answer the purpose4 ,the roof is then covered with grass and turf4 ,in the hamlets many of the houses are constructed of imported lumber1 there being no trees of sufficient size on the island for building purposes4 ,the inhabitants are very hospitable and every house is open to the traveller4 ,they live in a simple manner1 drink sour whey and milk1 eat rancid butter1 fish1 mutton1 and occasionally the lichens called ,iceland moss4 ,when well cooked1 the last named is quite palatable4 ,it is also a sovereign remedy for bronchial ailments4 ,notwithstanding their many privations1 the people are loyal to their country and lovingly call it ,the ,maid of the ,north4 ,they lead pastoral lives and their customs are much like those of the ,homeric age4 ,story-telling is much appreciated by all classes4 ,there are wandering minstrels who gain their livelihood by going from house to house to recite the stories in prose and poetry which they have learned by heart4 ,spindle and distaff are used in spinning the wool into yarn1 which is then knit or woven into cloth on a hand loom4 ,education is universal1 and no child of twelve years can be found who is unable to read or write4 ,the families are so isolated that there are few schools outside of the capital2 but the parents diligently teach their children whatever they themselves have learned4 ,during the long winter evenings one member of the family reads aloud while the others are busily at work1 the men making nets and ropes1 or removing the wool from the sheepskins1 the women embroidering1 sewing1 or using spindle and distaff4 ,in no other country of ,europe are so many books and papers published in proportion to the population as in ,iceland4 ,on the average one hundred books are issued annually from ,icelandic presses4 ,several excellent newspapers and periodicals are also published4 ,every ,icelander to-day knows perfectly the sagas1 the legendary stories that commemorate heroes and heroic deeds and which are so dear to his heart4 ,it is not uncommon to find an ,icelander who is well versed in the ancient classics or one who can speak several languages4 ,they are well acquainted with the writings of ,milton and ,shakespeare1 which have been translated into their own language4 ,during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries ,iceland produced a literature equal to that of any other nation in ,europe within the same period4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,greenland ,the history of ,greenland really begins about the year #ihf ,a4 ,d41 when ,eric the ,red1 a chieftain who had been banished from ,iceland1 landed on the island with some of his followers and made it his permanent residence4 ,at different times these hardy and daring seamen made expeditions to the eastern coast of ,north ,america1 and sailed as far south as ,chesapeake ,bay4 ,they attempted to found a colony on the east coast at a point thought to be on the coast of ,new ,jersey but1 after contending with the savages for some time1 deemed it best to abandon the project and to return to their ,greenland home4 ,the location at which they attempted their colony is by no means certain4 ,illustration3 ,stone igloos on the bleak coast of ,greenland ,all this island1 a half million square miles in area1 except a small part of the southern coast line and a larger area in the north1 is covered by an immense glacier4 ,and this field of ice1 like a huge piece of plastic wax1 is constantly moving from the interior down toward the sea4 ,as it approaches the ocean it divides into branches which flow down the numerous fiords and valleys into the sea4 ,as the fronts of the branch glaciers are pushed out into the water their ends are broken off by the buoyancy of the water4 ,these glacial-born masses then float away as icebergs1 carrying with them on their southward journeys the rock waste--moraine detritus it is called--gathered by the parent glaciers4 ,when these floating leviathans are off the coast of ,newfoundland1 they encounter the waters of the ,gulf ,stream1 melt1 and scatter their debris of stony matter over a large area of the ocean bed4 ,this process1 having gone on for thousands of years1 has shoaled the ocean in certain parts1 forming the so-called ,banks of ,newfoundland4 ,a gelatinous slime filled with minute animal life forms on the bottom of the ocean in the arctic2 the cold currents flowing south carry some of it along with them1 and much of it is lodged on the stony bottoms of these banks4 ,fish1 especially the cod1 are fond of this gelatinous substance1 and throng thither at certain seasons of the year in countless numbers to feed upon it4 ,one ignorant of the currents of the ocean might be puzzled at times in observing that an iceberg floats southward at the same time that pieces of wood are floating northward1 both apparently acted upon by the same current4 ,this may be explained by recalling that warm water is lighter than cold and hence is found as the upper layer when a cold and a warm current are flowing in different directions1 one upon the other4 ,it should be borne in mind that seven-eighths of the floating iceberg is under water1 leaving but one-eighth above the surface4 ,the ,gulf ,stream drift spreads out as it travels northward1 and1 being much shallower than the arctic currents1 carries floating objects northward on the surface1 while the deeper and more powerful arctic currents force the huge masses of ice southward4 ,when the warm air over the ,gulf ,stream comes in contact with the floating ice it is chilled1 and the moisture which it holds is condensed into fog4 ,the fogs in turn1 which are off the ,newfoundland coast1 being in the line of steamship communication between ,europe and ,america1 are a constant menace to navigation4 ,the near presence of ice is usually detected by a greater chilliness in the air4 ,in order to avoid collisions with one another1 and also with icebergs1 a ship constantly sounds its sirens and fog horns as warnings while in the fog belt4 ,the signal of another steamship is a warning of the one2 the answering echo announces the nearness of the other4 ,illustration3 ,a large iceberg ,the high interior of ,greenland1 about ten thousand feet in altitude1 is thought to result largely from the accumulation of ages of snow and ice1 only a part of which melts or moves oceanward to form glaciers4 ,no other part of the world is such an absolute desert as the greater part of this island4 ,animal and vegetable life are wholly absent4 ,the colony which was planted in ,greenland by ,eric the ,red1 and subsequently augmented by other ,norsemen1 continued to prosper for four hundred years4 ,at the end of that period there were about two hundred villages1 twelve parishes1 and two monasteries4 ,these1 however1 disappeared4 ,the hostility of the ,eskimos in part accounts for their extinction1 but an encroachment of ice from the north1 which encompassed the southern part of the island1 is thought to have been also a factor4 ,the fact that foreign trade with ,greenland was forbidden by the mother country may account in part for the gradual disappearance of the colony4 ,at all events1 intercourse with ,europe seems to have been cut off4 ,this condition continued for upward of two centuries1 and when intercourse with the mother country was again possible there was no ,greenland colony4 ,perhaps the finding of white ,eskimo in ,victoria ,land may explain this disappearance4 ,illustration3 ,a group of ,eskimos in south ,greenland ,subsequently the island was again colonized1 but concerning the disappearance of the former inhabitants history is silent4 ,the mute testimony of a few ruined buildings and relics is all that has been found to give the least shadow of information as to the final struggle of the wretched colonists4 ,we only know that they mysteriously disappeared4 ,but the great glacial cap is slowly receding and ages hence more ground will be laid bare4 ,the present inhabitants number about ten thousand1 most of whom are ,eskimos4 ,they are lacking in thrift and live chiefly by hunting and fishing4 ,among the wild animals living here are the arctic fox1 the arctic hare1 the musk ox1 the seal1 the polar bear1 the ermine1 and the walrus4 ,the principal resources of the island are sealskins1 eider-down1 oil1 and cryolite4 ,cryolite is a mineral from which common soda is easily extracted1 and also from which the light silver-like aluminum was formerly prepared4 ,the mines near the village of ,ivigtut furnish practically the world's supply of this mineral4 ,formerly it was carried to ,philadelphia1 but in recent years not much is used4 ,the fisheries are a monopoly of ,denmark1 and each station is visited from one to three or four times a year4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,where ,,the ,,two ,,great ,,oceans ,,meet ,perhaps there is no section of the globe about which most well-informed persons know so little as the southern part of ,south ,america4 ,judged by the reports of early discoverers and explorers1 this region until recently has been considered a desolate stretch of snow mountains1 barren plains1 and extensive morasses1 sparsely inhabited by a few thousand human beings of the lowest type and worthless to civilized man4 ,such a picture is but partly true4 ,many of the highest mountains are snow-capped throughout the year and are scored by immense glaciers which are constantly moving down their grooved sides2 but there are also heavily forested slopes flanked by valleys and plains covered with rich grasses1 making most excellent pasturage4 ,the best land1 comprising a large area1 is now occupied as grazing grounds principally by sheep farmers4 ,in the early part of the sixteenth century it was rumored that a water passage traversed the southern part of ,south ,america4 ,this rumor was proved true in #aebj1 when ,ferdinand ,magellan1 a ,portuguese navigator in the service of ,charles ,v of ,spain1 sailed through the strait which now bears his name4 ,he called the passage ,todos los ,santos--literally1 ,all ,saints--but later the name was changed to commemorate the bold captain who discovered the route4 ,magellan was the first not only to sail through the strait1 but to cross the broad ,pacific ,ocean1 which was so named by him on account of the quietness of its waters4 ,because he saw the fires built by the natives blazing on the islands along the south side of the channel1 he called them ,tierra del ,fuego1 meaning ,land of ,fire4 ,the ,strait of ,magellan varies from three to seventy miles in width4 ,the scenery along its shores1 low and treeless in the eastern part1 elsewhere is mountainous and heavily wooded--mainly with beech4 ,in various places lofty precipices rise abruptly from the water's edge2 throughout most of its extent the shore line is rock-bound and studded with islets4 ,a more picturesque route1 and one abounding in the grandest and most stupendous scenery in the world1 is that from the ,pacific by way of ,smyth ,channel1 the entrance to which is four hundred miles north of the entrance to ,magellan ,strait4 ,by this route one follows a series of channels and reaches the strait proper near ,desolation ,island4 ,on account of the dangers besetting this course1 underwriters refuse to insure vessels taking it4 ,illustration3 ,copyright1 ,underwood ,underwood1 ,new ,york ,the ,straits of ,magellan4 ,cape ,pilar is the extreme western end ,it remained for a ,hollander named ,schouten to discover ,cape ,horn1 in #afaf1 and thus find a safer way for sailing vessels going from the one great ocean to the other4 ,schouten named the cape ,hoorn1 from his native city in ,holland4 ,afterward the name was shortened to ,horn1 which is applied both to the cape and to the island from which it projects4 ,since the western entrance to the strait is subject to rough1 tempestuous weather and strong currents1 very few modern sailing vessels take the shorter course1 preferring to double the cape4 ,though doubling the cape is the safer route1 yet this passage itself is beset by dangerous storms and tempestuous seas4 ,fortunate is the sailing master who rounds the ,horn with pleasant weather4 ,some of the smaller islands of the archipelago are densely wooded and practically unexplored4 ,gold has been found on the beaches of several of the islands in paying quantities1 and these placers have been worked successfully for several years4 ,on the islands are found wild strawberries of great size and fine flavor1 wild raspberries1 gooseberries1 grapes1 and celery2 in the spring the pastures are covered with a variety of wild flowers4 ,a profusion of ferns is seen almost everywhere4 ,wild geese and swans are found on the lagoons and lakes in large numbers4 ,once upon a time ,patagonia1 as the southern part of the continent is popularly called1 was regarded as a waste2 now it is recognized as a wonderfully fertile region1 and is being rapidly settled4 ,european colonies have been established there1 and they are highly prosperous4 ,the native ,indians are disappearing1 hurried to extinction chiefly by ,king ,alcohol1 which1 once tasted1 seems to conquer them4 ,traders know the weakness of these savages1 and exploit it for all they are worth4 ,the articles which the ,indians chiefly barter are skins1 pelts1 and ostrich feathers4 ,the ,indians are well supplied with horses1 the descendants of those brought to ,south ,america by ,spanish explorers4 ,they are wonderful riders and excel in the use of a peculiar lasso called the bolas4 ,it consists usually of three balls of stone or metal covered with rawhide and attached to one another by twisted thongs of the same material4 ,in fighting as well as in capturing wild animals1 this instrument is indispensable4 ,the operator1 holding one of the balls1 swings the others over his head and when sufficient momentum has been obtained lets them go4 ,if well aimed1 the connected balls circle around the legs of the animal to be caught1 entangling and throwing it down4 ,the ,indians of the mainland are strong and tall4 ,unlike most ,south ,american ,indians1 they go about well clothed4 ,occasionally they kill their horses for food1 but their chief reliance for both food and clothing is the guanaco4 ,although the ,indians have inhabited this part of ,south ,america for centuries1 they follow well-beaten trails4 ,they live in a superstitious dread of evil spirits1 who they believe dwell in the densely wooded mountain slopes of the ,cordillera4 ,illustration3 ,fuegians ,the ,indians of ,tierra del ,fuego archipelago are much inferior to those of the mainland4 ,they go almost or entirely naked and subsist on fish4 ,the canoe ,indians1 as those in the western part are called1 build boats of bark sewn together with sinews4 ,the boats are about fifteen feet long1 and in the centre a quantity of earth is carried1 upon which a fire is built4 ,the canoe ,indians have neither chief nor tribal relations2 each family is a law unto itself4 ,they spend most of their time during the day in rowing among the different channels where fish may be obtained4 ,at night they generally go on shore to sleep4 ,a hole scooped out of the ground or a sheltered rock with a few boughs bent down suffices for a house where all can huddle close together for warmth4 ,seldom do they sleep more than one night in a place1 fearing that if they do not move on an evil spirit will catch them4 ,in the eastern part of ,tierra del ,fuego and on some of the other larger islands two tribes of ,indians are found whose subsistence consists of sea food1 guanacos1 and such sheep as they can steal4 ,these tribes are continually at enmity with the white settlers and will kill them whenever possible4 ,in spite of cloudy weather and cold winds1 which are common a part of the year1 the climate of ,patagonia is milder than that of places much farther north1 and the sheep require no feeding during the winter season4 ,in the matter of sheep farms this section rivals ,australia1 since there is no fear of drought4 ,the grass continues green the year around1 and the sheep easily fatten upon it4 ,the drawbacks to successful sheep-growing are many and the business requires constant vigilance4 ,vultures1 foxes1 wild dogs1 pumas1 and ,indians make serious inroads on the flocks4 ,the wild dogs live in the surrounding forests and from time to time rush out in packs of from ten to thirty and attack the sheep4 ,notwithstanding all these troubles1 however1 the profits of sheep-growing are large4 ,russians1 ,germans1 ,french1 ,australians1 ,english1 and ,scotch1 many of whom have amassed large fortunes in a few years1 are engaged in this lucrative business4 ,as in all other sheep-raising countries1 the collie is an invaluable aid to the shepherds4 ,not only are the principal islands chiefly devoted to sheep-raising1 but a considerable part of the southern mainland is also devoted to this industry4 ,on the island of ,tierra del ,fuego alone there are upward of a million sheep4 ,most of the land is leased from the government for a long term of years4 ,many of the proprietors have enclosed their holdings with wire fences1 thereby lessening the expense of caring for their flocks4 ,some of the holdings range from twenty-five thousand to more than two million acres4 ,southern ,patagonia has immense numbers of guanacos1 or wild llamas4 ,these animals frequent the ,andean slopes and the adjacent pampas4 ,during the winter season they come down to the lowlands to drink in the unfrozen lakes and feed upon the herbage4 ,during severe winters sometimes hundreds are found dead from starvation in the valleys near the frozen lakes4 ,thousands of wild cattle are found on the eastern slopes of the ,andes1 but they are difficult to capture2 they are exceedingly wary and can scent a man far off4 ,in agility in climbing the steep1 rough places they equal the goat4 ,if one of their number is killed the whole herd deserts the locality at night4 ,when wounded they are fierce fighters1 if forced into close quarters4 ,punta ,arenas1 or ,sandy ,point1 is on the north side of the ,strait of ,magellan and is ,chilean territory4 ,it is a new town cut out of the woods1 and even yet many of the streets are diversified by the stumps of big beech trees4 ,the place is an important coaling and provision station and1 next to ,honolulu1 the most important ocean post-office in the world4 ,it has a population of twelve thousand1 and is the capital and centre of the great wool industry of the ,territory of ,magellan1 which comprises a majority of the islands south of the mainland1 together with the southern part of ,patagonia4 ,a few years ago1 in order to encourage the building up of ,punta ,arenas1 the government offered a lot free to any one who would erect a building on it4 ,many accepted the offer1 and to-day some of the lots in the business part of the town are very valuable4 ,although most of the buildings are constructed with regard to economy rather than beauty1 yet some of the business blocks will compare favorably with those of the new cities in the ,united ,states4 ,like several ,australian cities1 ,punta ,arenas was a convict colony4 ,it was founded as such in #ahdc1 and so remained until the ,european steamships began to thread the strait instead of doubling the ,horn4 ,then it became a coaling station1 a supply store1 a half-way town1 and an ocean post-office4 ,all this business was previously carried on at the ,falkland ,islands1 but the route through the strait settled the business for both places4 ,the ,falkland station was abandoned2 ,punta ,arenas became a thriving town4 ,a ticket-of-leave was given to each convict who consented to join the ,chilean army4 ,the town forthwith blossomed into a typical frontier settlement--banks and gambling dens1 churches and saloons1 schools and bullfights4 ,every race of people and almost every industry is represented there4 ,the ,spanish see to it that the ,sunday bullfights are correct2 the ,french insure the proper social functions2 the ,germans manage the banks2 and the ,americans take the profits of the railways1 telegraph lines1 and flour-mills4 ,as to latitude1 ,punta ,arenas is cold and inhospitable2 but for business and social affairs1 it is very1 very warm1 especially in the matter of social affairs4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,reclaimable ,,swamp ,,regions ,if only ,dame ,nature had distributed the rainfall of the ,united ,states a bit more evenly1 land enough to feed about fifty millions of people would not have required an expenditure of half a century of time and several hundred millions of good1 hard dollars4 ,one must bear in mind1 however1 that if ,dame ,nature had done otherwise1 it is just as likely that the same time and the same amount of money would have been required elsewhere for those same fifty millions of people4 ,the reclaimable swamp lands of the ,united ,states east of the ,rocky ,mountains aggregate about one hundred and twenty thousand square miles in extent--an area nearly equal to that of ,ohio1 ,indiana1 and ,illinois combined4 ,of this1 ,louisiana has about fifteen thousand square miles1 a tract about as large as ,massachusetts1 ,rhode ,island1 and ,connecticut combined1 and ,florida has about half her entire area in swamp land4 ,west of the ,rocky ,mountains1 ,california takes the lead1 with enough swamp land to make a state of respectable size4 ,in the case of ,california1 if the forty-niners could have waited about a thousand years they would have found the precious swamp lands all properly filled in for them and ready for use2 for the ,sacramento and ,san ,joaquin ,rivers long since have been working at the task of filling up the big hollow between the mountain ranges4 ,but the rivers are a trifle slow1 and ,californians are always in a steaming hurry4 ,so ,uncle ,sam's engineers are driving their reclamation schemes with railroad speed4 ,a few years ago these lands were worth nothing2 drain them and they are worth one hundred dollars per acre2 improve them according to modern farming science and they are worth ten times as much4 ,illustration3 ,the ,everglades of ,florida ,in many instances even the quick methods of the reclamation authorities are too slow for the ,california farmer1 and so he takes matters into his own hands4 ,first he acquires his land2 then he mortgages all his worldly possessions to surround the land with a ditch deep enough and wide enough to make a dike high enough to keep out flood waters4 ,his land after draining is full of the stuff for which he otherwise would pay thousands and thousands of dollars4 ,phosphates and lime form the coverings of minute swamp life and nitrogen compounds are a part of their bodies4 ,the polders of ,holland are not richer than this swamp land2 indeed1 they are not so rich4 ,one or two crops will pretty nearly extinguish the mortgage and three or four more will put the owner on ,easy ,street4 ,in the bottom-lands of the ,sacramento ,river is an island that for fifty years went a-begging4 ,then a company with a shrewd head bought it1 diked it1 and drained it4 ,now the island has immense celery beds and the largest asparagus farm in the world4 ,the celery and canned asparagus are shipped to the produce markets of ,new ,york ,city4 ,another great swamp area covers a large part of ,louisiana1 ,mississippi1 and ,arkansas4 ,this swamp was made when the head of the ,gulf of ,mexico reached half-way up to ,st4 ,louis1 for the delta of the ,mississippi ,river has been travelling leisurely southward for several thousand years--so leisurely1 in fact1 that ,iberville and ,bienville opened the region to settlement fifteen hundred years or more too soon4 ,but ,uncle ,sam is taking a hand here likewise1 and in another fifty years a population half as large as that of ,new ,york may not only live comfortably but get rich on the reclaimed lands of this and adjacent coast swamps4 ,the ,carolinas1 ,georgia1 and ,virginia all have large areas of coast marshes--pocosons they call them--only a small part of which has been reclaimed4 ,formerly these were the property of the general government2 then they were given to the ,states with the understanding that they were to be reclaimed4 ,large tracts were sold to speculators for a few cents an acre1 and there you are6 ,few ,states are rich enough to handle extensive reclamation enterprises1 and so the general government stepped in again and assumed the responsibility4 ,that means that the work of reclamation will be skilfully and honestly done4 ,uncle ,sam may play some questionable politics1 but he never mixes politics and government business4 ,of all the swamp lands of the ,united ,states1 the region in ,florida known as the ,everglades is the most interesting and the most romantic4 ,ponce de ,leon1 an aged ,spanish governor of ,porto ,rico1 who was seeking the ,fountain of ,perpetual ,youth1 discovered--not the long-sought fountain1 but a peninsula decked with such a profusion of flowers that he named the country ,florida4 ,from that time until years after it was ceded to the ,united ,states ,florida was repeatedly baptized in blood4 ,from the first there were encounters between the ,spanish and ,indians in which no quarter was given on either side4 ,later1 an exterminating warfare broke out between the ,french and ,spanish when a ,huguenot colony was massacred and not a man1 woman1 or child spared4 ,in #aehf ,st4 ,augustine was burned by ,sir ,francis ,drake1 and a century later it was plundered by ,english buccaneers4 ,still later1 frequent contests were waged between the ,english colonies and the ,spanish in ,florida4 ,previous to the acquisition of ,florida by the ,united ,states hostile ,indians1 together with fugitive whites and renegade negroes who had joined them1 made many raids upon the settlements in ,georgia1 robbing and burning plantations1 murdering the whites1 and carrying off the slaves4 ,retaliation to a certain extent was meted out to the blood-thirsty savages until ,spain was glad to cede the peninsula to the ,united ,states in #ahai for five million dollars4 ,thereby she ridded herself of her troublesome proteges4 ,the ,indian raids still continued after the acquisition1 and the ,united ,states ,government therefore sent troops into ,florida to punish the treacherous savages1 who gradually retreated southward until they reached the ,everglades4 ,there they made their final stand4 ,in these almost inaccessible sinuous water passages and the dense island vegetation for a long time the ,indians baffled our ablest military officers4 ,a seven years' contest followed which cost the ,united ,states fifteen hundred men and nearly twenty million dollars4 ,illustration3 ,group of ,seminole ,indians in the ,everglades of ,florida ,after much negotiation and no end of trouble the ,indians--they were the ,seminoles--ceded their lands to the ,united ,states on the promise of an annuity of twenty-five thousand dollars and suitable lands in the ,indian ,territory4 ,about four thousand of the ,seminoles were then removed to their new homes2 a small remnant refusing to emigrate were left behind4 ,the name ,everglades is applied to a vast swamp containing a multitude of shallow lakes studded with numerous islands4 ,the region embraces most of the southern part of ,florida4 ,the water of the lakes1 of which ,lake ,okechobee is the largest1 varies in depth from a few inches to ten feet4 ,the region itself has an area six times that of the ,state of ,rhode ,island1 and on account of the difficulty in traversing it is but imperfectly known4 ,countless winding intricate water channels extend in every direction4 ,many of these are filled with tall sawgrass which1 growing from the bottom1 greatly impedes the passage even of small boats4 ,the average elevation of the ,everglades above sea level is scarcely twenty feet4 ,the water is both clear and wholesome1 but the surface is so nearly a dead level that the current is imperceptible2 it can be distinguished only by noting the position of the grass4 ,the islands are covered with a dense growth of oak1 pine1 cypress1 and palmetto trees1 together with a jungle of luxuriant tropical vines and shrubs4 ,they range in size from one to one hundred acres and are but slightly elevated above the surrounding waters4 ,about three hundred ,seminole ,indians inhabit the interior and live by hunting and fishing4 ,deer1 bears1 otters1 panthers1 wild cats1 and snakes frequent the land2 alligators1 crocodiles1 fish of various kinds1 and waterfowl dwell in the water4 ,in the western part of the ,everglades is ,big ,cypress ,swamp and in the extreme southern part ,mangrove ,swamp1 where myriads of mosquitoes are hatched out4 ,extending along the eastern side of the ,everglades is a long1 narrow belt of dry1 fertile land which is utilized for farming purposes4 ,a far-reaching project to reclaim the ,everglades has been proposed4 ,unlike the ,western projects1 the problem is to get rid of water and not to supply it4 ,the plans for reclamation include the construction of drainage canals and the clearing of the jungle growths4 ,it is purposed to use the land thus reclaimed for sugar growing4 ,at the present time the ,united ,states is importing annually over two hundred million dollars' worth of sugar2 it is estimated that by draining only a part of this vast area and planting it to sugar cane the local demands could not only be supplied but a large surplus for export would result4 ,the possibilities of this region1 when properly drained and cleared of its superfluous vegetation1 are almost beyond computation4 ,it has a rich soil1 abundant moisture1 and almost tropical climate4 ,reclaimed land of this character is suitable for raising not only sugar cane and subtropical fruits1 but a great variety of other crops4 ,it is estimated that the cost of reclaiming the ,everglades1 so that the land may be made productive1 need not exceed one dollar per acre4 ,a great impetus has been given to southern ,florida by that wonderful achievement of engineering1 ,mr4 ,henry ,flagler's ,florida ,east ,coast ,railway4 ,this railway stretches in a direct line along the coast from ,jacksonville to the southern part of the ,state1 and has been extended along the ,florida ,keys to ,key ,west4 ,when all arrangements are completed1 the trains will be ferried across ,florida ,strait between ,havana and ,key ,west1 and freight will be sent from points in ,cuba to ,new ,york and ,chicago without reloading4 ,the building of the ,florida ,east ,coast ,railway is one of the great engineering feats of the world4 ,in its construction from key to key thousands of tons of rock and cement were dumped into the water on which massive viaducts in fifty-foot spans have been built to carry the road-bed4 ,these solid archways1 rising from twenty to thirty feet above the water1 defy tides and storm waves4 ,this railway has become one of the chief factors in developing the resources of southern ,florida and hastening the reclamation of the ,everglades4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,strange ,,rock ,,formations--,,natural ,,bridges ,almost any unusual form in nature is apt to attract the eye and interest the beholder2 and when such natural objects resemble artificial ones or bear a fanciful resemblance to animals the similarity intensifies the interest and almost always leads one to apply fanciful names to them4 ,in wandering along a rocky shore one instinctively searches for the curious formations carved out by the unceasing action of the waves2 and in journeying through rugged sections of mountain country each unusual rock formation rivets the attention at once4 ,caves especially have a peculiar attraction of awe and curiosity combined4 ,such natural objects as ,mammoth ,cave in ,kentucky1 ,luray ,cave in ,virginia1 ,calaveras ,cave in ,california1 the ,garden of the ,gods in ,colorado1 the ,giant's ,causeway on the north coast of ,ireland1 and ,fingal's ,cave on the island of ,staffa are visited annually by many thousands of people4 ,and no wonder that all mankind1 from the savage to the most civilized1 is charmed with natural arches spanning great chasms4 ,no cyclopaedia of natural wonders fails to give at least a brief description of the ,natural ,bridge of ,virginia which spans a small stream that flows into the ,james ,river4 ,so great a wonder was the structure regarded to be even in colonial times that it then claimed marked attention4 ,thomas ,jefferson became so much interested in this natural wonder that he applied to ,george ,,iii for a reservation of land that should include the bridge1 and in #aggd his request was granted4 ,to accommodate distinguished strangers who might visit the bridge1 ,jefferson built near by a log cabin of two rooms4 ,concerning it he said3 ,the bridge will draw the attention of the world4 ,illustration3 ,the ,devil's ,slide1 ,weber ,canyon1 ,utah ,chief-,justice ,marshall described it as ,god's greatest miracle in stone4 ,and ,henry ,clay said it was the bridge not made with hands1 that spans a river1 carries a highway1 and makes two mountains one4 ,on the rocky abutments are found carved the names of many persons4 ,among them is that of ,washington4 ,in his youth1 laboriously cutting places for his hands and feet1 he climbed up the face of one of the steep abutments and cut his name above all others1 where for seventy years it stood unsurpassed in height4 ,in #ahah a daring college student climbed from the foot to the top of the rock1 thus outranking all others4 ,the ,natural ,bridge is composed of blue limestone2 it is two hundred and fifteen feet high1 ninety feet wide1 and spans a chasm eighty-five feet across4 ,a public highway lined with trees passes over the top4 ,the bridge itself is all that remains of the roof of what once was a limestone cavern4 ,the southeastern part of ,utah is overlaid with strata of red and yellow sandstone hundreds of feet deep4 ,ages ago this whole region was elevated and thereby was distorted by the internal forces which pushed it upward4 ,subsequently wonderful transformations were wrought4 ,the flowing streams gradually bored through portions of the soft1 uplifted sandstone1 forming arches and digging deep canyons1 while the air and rain rounded off the rugged parts into graceful shapes4 ,wonderful as is the famous ,natural ,bridge of ,virginia1 the natural bridges of ,utah are still more wonderful4 ,in ,white ,canyon of southeastern ,utah are ,edwin1 ,carolyn1 and ,augusta ,bridges--magnificent structures of pink sandstone carved in lines of classic symmetry and possessing gigantic proportions4 ,at least half a dozen natural bridges in ,utah surpass that of ,virginia1 not only in beauty and grandeur1 but also in dimensions4 ,they were discovered by cattlemen in #ahie1 but they did not become known to the outside world until #aiji1 when the region was explored by the ,utah ,archaeological ,expedition4 ,illustration3 ,witch ,rocks1 near ,echo ,canyon1 ,utah ,of these bridges the ,edwin easily ranks first in graceful symmetry2 its span is one hundred and ninety-four feet1 its elevation one hundred and eight feet1 its width thirty-five feet4 ,combining grace and massiveness1 the ,augusta stands pre-eminent4 ,it rises in majestic proportions to the height of two hundred and twenty-two feet and has a span between abutments of two hundred and sixteen feet4 ,the width of the road-bed is twenty-eight feet and the thickness of the arch at the keystone is forty-five feet4 ,the height of the ,carolyn ,bridge is two hundred and five feet and the span one hundred and eighty-six feet4 ,all these bridges span canyons whose depths correspond to the height of the arched structures4 ,in ,white ,canyon1 a few miles below ,edwin ,bridge1 under its overhanging rock walls1 are the ruins of numerous cliff-dwellings4 ,the largest natural bridge in the world yet discovered is the ,nonnezoshi4 ,it is in ,nonnezoshiboko ,canyon1 ,utah1 not far from the place where the ,san ,juan ,river enters the ,colorado4 ,this mammoth arch is more of a flying buttress spanning the canyon than a real bridge4 ,its height is three hundred and eight feet and its span two hundred and eighty-five feet4 ,to visit these bridges from the nearest railway station requires stage and horseback riding for upward of one hundred and twenty-five miles4 ,the latter part of the journey is made over a faint trail through a rugged country2 but the scenery amply repays one for the hardships endured4 ,the climatic changes during the ages have been such that this region is now almost inaccessible on account of the lack of water1 except in the early spring when melting snows yield a temporary supply4 ,even the cattlemen pasturing their herds in that section keep them there but a few weeks during the year1 so scarce is both water and vegetation4 ,in the main1 natural bridges are the result of one or another of several causes4 ,a limestone cavern may be partly destroyed by streams of water1 leaving a portion of the cavern with its roof still in place2 the part of the roof thus remaining becomes the arch of the bridge4 ,a branch of the ,southern ,railway threads a natural tunnel near ,anniston1 ,ala41 and the tunnel is the remnant of an old limestone cavern4 ,in other cases a natural bridge is formed when bowlders1 or a mass of rock1 tumbling into a deep crevice is wedged and held in place4 ,in still other instances a layer of hard or slowly weathering rock may rest upon a layer of rock which weathers rapidly4 ,in such cases1 if the rock layers form the face of a cliff1 natural bridges1 caverns1 and overhangs are apt to result4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,strange ,,rock ,,formations--,,table ,,mountain ,,of ,,california ,there are many table mountains in different parts of the world1 but the one which ,i am about to describe is interesting both from geological and financial stand-points4 ,the so-called ,table ,mountain of ,california is a massive natural railway embankment or colossal ,chinese wall1 extending through several counties1 but best studied in ,tuolumne ,county4 ,the mountain is forty miles long1 from five hundred to eight hundred feet high1 and a quarter of a mile wide at the top4 ,for the most part the top is bare of vegetation and quite level1 though slanting slightly toward the south4 ,in places at the base of its precipitous sides1 and sometimes extending part way up1 pine and other trees are found growing4 ,this gigantic wall1 broken through in several places by flowing rivers1 is nothing more nor less than a mighty stream of congealed basaltic lava called latite1 which in prehistoric times1 rushing down the western flank of the high ,sierras1 usurped the bed of an ancient river channel1 drinking up the waters and piling up its molten mass bank high4 ,the bed of the stream being filled with lava1 its waters not flowing through the gravel1 were forced to find other channels4 ,the action of the elements during subsequent ages has worn away in great part the banks of the pliocene river and eroded in places the solid slate rocks to the depth of two thousand feet1 leaving this sinuous wall as a mute witness of the mighty forces of nature4 ,on account of the excessive hardness and durability of this kind of basalt1 this monumental fortress will endure long after the corroding tooth of time shall have crumbled to dust the royal pyramids and their very memory shall have been lost in oblivion4 ,some geologists think there were two volcanic streams of lava1 one succeeding the other by an interval of thousands of years1 the first covering the auriferous gravel and the second quenching the waters of a subsequent river which had forced a passageway through the first flow of lava4 ,scores of tunnels have been run into the mountain to get at the gravel of this ,pactolian river4 ,millions of dollars of gold have been extracted from its bed1 and millions more await the tunnel1 upraise1 and drift of the adventurous miner4 ,beginning at the top of the mountain and working downward1 we find the order of materials as follows3 ,a cap of basalt from sixty to three hundred feet thick1 a bed of breccia of varying thickness1 two hundred feet of conglomerate andesitic sand 7volcanic ash of the miners71 a bed of pipe-clay1 and then auriferous gravel resting on a bedrock of slate4 ,in tapping the ancient river-bed considerable water is encountered flowing through the gravel4 ,to get rid of this water has been a problem of expense and annoyance to the miner4 ,to measure the time that has passed since this buried river rolled over golden sands staggers the intellect4 ,it is estimated that from one hundred and fifty thousand to four hundred thousand years must have elapsed4 ,this curiously formed mountain has been likened to a monolithian serpent4 ,where the ,stanislaus ,river breaks abruptly through the mountain the eye gazes in wonder from the crest down two thousand feet to a seemingly tiny crowded stream below1 rushing madly on its way to the sea4 ,many interesting remains of animals have been found in the gravels under this mountain4 ,in running a tunnel under ,table ,mountain some years ago1 the miners came across a large mass of tallow weighing about one hundred and fifty pounds1 and in proximity were the bones and tusks of a huge animal4 ,many bones and tusks of the mammoth and mastodon1 not to mention the remains of other animals1 have been found in the ancient river-bed4 ,probably some of these elephantine animals were sporting in the water and dashing it over themselves when the stream of lava1 sweeping down1 overwhelmed them1 trying out the tallow and preserving their skeletons for the wonderment of civilized man4 ,at one place in the mountain the deep roar of a waterfall is heard4 ,at another1 where there is a deep break1 is a series of passageways and caves where the outlaw ,murietta had his hiding-place4 ,in several places on the top of the mountain1 by striking the foot down hard1 a hollow1 reverberating sound is heard4 ,we give in his own words the account of an explorer's visit to the so-called ,boston tunnel which runs beneath ,table ,mountain3 ,hearing of a celebrated petrified tree in the ,boston tunnel1 which runs under ,table ,mountain1 ,i determined if possible to see it and procure some specimens4 ,after considerable inquiry ,i found a miner who said he knew where the tree was2 that the tunnel in which it was located had been abandoned many years ago2 that no persons had entered it for years2 that rocks were constantly falling1 making it exceedingly dangerous to enter1 and that very likely it was so clogged up with rocks that no one could get to the tree4 ,when ,i had expressed my great desire to see this tree1 and coaxed him1 at length he promised to take me to the tunnel to see its condition1 but said he would not promise to guide me into it4 ,having dressed ourselves in overalls and jumpers1 with candles and geological hammers in hand we set out for our destination4 ,on approaching the tunnel my guide at once began to throw stones into the bushes on either side of the entrance4 ,when asked why he threw the stones1 he replied that about the mouth of old tunnels rattlesnakes are wont to resort to get out of the burning sun4 ,not finding any rattlers1 we proceeded down the incline to the mouth of the tunnel4 ,finding the mouth not obstructed1 and lighting our candles1 we entered4 ,sometimes crawling on our hands and knees over fallen rock with scarcely a foot of extra room above our heads1 then stooping low1 then walking upright1 again crawling between huge masses of rock and earth1 and crowding between slanting monoliths1 we made our way through the mud and water dripping on us from the roof above4 ,when part way in1 the guide hesitated and declared that we were taking our lives in our hands if we went farther2 that the five-ton rock lying in front of our path had very recently fallen from the roof1 probably a week before1 possibly a day or only an hour before4 ,pointing to the roof with his candle he said3 ',do you see that piece of rock partly detached and ready to fall at any moment8' ,acknowledging the threatening conditions1 ,i urged3 ',if not too dangerous1 ,i do wish that we might go on until we find the tree4' ,said he3 ',if you promise not to strike any of these rocks with your hammer1 we will venture a little farther4' ,you may be assured that ,i not only promised1 but obeyed4 ,at this juncture1 ,i must confess1 a peculiar sensation came over me when ,i thought of the possibility of being buried alive or crushed to death in this subterranean cavern1 yet pride kept me from showing the white feather4 ,the guide1 going ahead and examining the walls and roof1 called back to me in a low voice1 saying1 ',we are now safer4' ,having traversed the main tunnel for a distance of upward of eight hundred feet1 and carefully avoiding its branches1 we finally came to the object of our search4 ,this tree1 four feet in diameter1 of opalized wood1 stands upright on the left side of the tunnel4 ,the lava had burned off the bark and partly carbonized the outside part1 and then the whole had subsequently taken the form of opal silica4 ,there is a space of about four inches between the tree and the surrounding lava4 ,by raising the candles above our heads we could look up the body of the tree some thirty feet4 ,when we had broken off some choice specimens from the body of the tree with the hammer we left this subterranean world4 ,on emerging from the tunnel the guide said3 ',thank ,god1 we again see the sunlight4' ,to which ,i replied3 ',amen4' ,,chapter ,,xix ,,strange ,,rock ,,formations--,,gibraltar ,a huge projecting limestone rock1 in form like a reclining lion1 guards the entrance to the narrow water passage which separates ,europe from ,africa4 ,this wonderful feature1 the ,rock of ,gibraltar1 extends directly southward from the mainland of ,spain with which it is connected by a low1 sandy isthmus4 ,it is about three miles in length and in breadth varies from one-fourth to three-fourths of a mile4 ,two depressions divide it into three summits1 the highest of which is about fourteen hundred feet4 ,let us visit the small city lying at its western base and then carefully examine this leviathan sentinel that seems to stand guard over the narrow strait4 ,the special permission of the military commander to examine it or even to remain in the city must first be obtained2 we are especially warned that cameras are forbidden and all negatives will be confiscated4 ,the north face we find to have an almost perpendicular height of twelve hundred feet2 its east and west sides also display tremendous precipices4 ,the south face is much lower and slopes toward the sea4 ,fortifications of massive walls and the best of modern guns protect the lower parts and also the seaward side of the city4 ,but what are those holes high up on the faces of the rock8 ,they are portholes cut through the rock from interior chambers out of which cannon can be thrust and discharged at an invading enemy4 ,we are curious to learn more about this interesting place1 and on questioning our guide are told many remarkable stories4 ,the ,rock of ,gibraltar is honeycombed with caves1 passageways1 and chambers1 some of which are natural and others artificial4 ,we enter the largest of these natural caves1 ,st4 ,michael's1 and as we stand in the main hall1 a spacious chamber two hundred feet in length and seventy feet in height1 we are amazed at its beauty and grandeur4 ,colossal columns of stalactites seem to support its ornamental roof and all around are fantastic figures--foliage of many forms1 beautiful statuettes1 pillars1 pendants1 and shapes of picturesque beauty rivalling those of ,mammoth ,cave4 ,st4 ,michael's ,cave is eleven hundred feet above sea level and is connected by winding passages with four other caves of a similar character4 ,illustration3 ,this strong and impregnable place is the ,rock of ,gibraltar1 and the city nestling at its base1 ,gibraltar ,to six of the caves distinct names have been given4 ,one of the caves is three hundred feet below sea level4 ,about three miles of passageways1 exclusive of many storage chambers1 have been hewn so as to connect the different caves and natural passages1 and so large have they been made that a wagon can be drawn through them4 ,within this rock are stored supplies of ammunition and sufficient provisions to last several years4 ,in clambering about the rock we find cannon carefully concealed in scores of different places ready for use when needed4 ,in places the rock is overlaid with thin soil which produces a variety of vegetation4 ,there are grassy glens1 with trees1 and luxuriant gardens surrounding pretty ,english cottages4 ,during the rainy season wild flowers in great profusion spring up in all directions1 but in the summer the rock presents a dry1 barren aspect4 ,this strong and impregnable place is the ,rock of ,gibraltar and the city nestling at its base1 ,gibraltar4 ,the city has a population of twenty-five thousand1 of whom several thousand are soldiers forming the garrison4 ,the garrison with their artillery1 two pieces of which weigh one hundred tons each1 reinforced with the strongest of fortifications1 are thought to be capable of withstanding the combined hosts of ,christendom4 ,early in the eighth century the ,moors1 perceiving the strategic importance of the promontory1 took possession of it and erected fortifications4 ,during the succeeding nine hundred years the fortress was besieged no less than twelve times1 and on several occasions was captured by invaders4 ,at length it became a possession of ,spain1 and so strongly was it fortified by the ,spanish that it was thought to be impregnable4 ,during the ,war of the ,spanish ,succession1 however1 the combined forces of ,england and ,holland laid siege to it1 and after a stubborn resistance the garrison was forced to surrender4 ,forthwith the ,english took possession in the name of ,queen ,anne and1 strengthening the fortifications1 have held the fortress ever since4 ,spain was greatly mortified by the loss of this stronghold which she deemed rightly belonged to her4 ,several times during the ensuing seventy-five years1 single-handed1 she laid siege to the citadel in the endeavor to win it back1 but each time she signally failed4 ,a seemingly auspicious time arrived in #aggi when she secured the co-operation of ,france4 ,for the succeeding four years a relentless siege was laid to the fortress by the combined land and naval forces of ,spain and ,france4 ,both nations summoned to their aid their ablest generals and admirals1 using every conceivable device and strategy to capture the fortress1 but all in vain4 ,during the first years of this siege the supreme command of both land and naval forces rested with the ,spanish1 but1 having met with failure after failure1 they were ready at length to give way to the ,french1 who promised to capture the stronghold by constructing a powerful fleet of battering-ships1 enabling them to fight at close range1 so that gun to gun and man to man should decide the contest4 ,the ,french engineer who prepared the armament cut down the huge bulwarks of the sides of ten of the ,spanish battle-ships and proceeded to reconstruct them within and without4 ,the reconstructed ships were much like the ,merrimac1 that did such destructive work in our ,civil ,war1 except that they were not armored with iron4 ,triple beams of heavy oak with layers of sand and cork between them were used for encasing these huge hulks4 ,for protecting the crews heavy timbers covered with rope and hides were used4 ,on ,september #ab1 #aghb1 fifty line-of-battle ships flying flags1 together with a fleet of smaller vessels1 lined up before the town4 ,this formidable fleet was supported on land by an army of forty thousand men reinforced with batteries of the heaviest ordnance stretched along the shore4 ,to oppose these the ,english commander1 ,general ,eliott1 had ninety-six pieces of artillery and seven thousand men4 ,so confident was the enemy of success that the triple-armored battering-ships moved boldly up to within half-gunshot range4 ,at a signal the ,english opened fire1 which was instantly answered by the floating batteries and the whole shore line2 four hundred guns were then playing on the beleaguered town4 ,soon death and destruction were made evident on both sides4 ,there seemed to be but one thing for the ,english to do to save themselves1 and that was to set fire to the enemy's ships4 ,accordingly1 furnaces were placed beside the batteries in which heavy cannon balls were made white-hot4 ,the guns1 shotted with these glowing balls1 were then turned on the ships4 ,the enemy attempted to guard against the hot shot by continually pumping water into the layer of sand between the wooden sheathing of the ships1 and for a time succeeded in extinguishing the fires4 ,it was not long though before the admiral's ship caught fire1 and as night drew on1 the flames1 indicating the position of the ,spanish line1 furnished a mark for the ,english guns4 ,at midnight ten of the besieging ships were on fire4 ,rockets were thrown up and distress signals hoisted to summon aid from their consorts4 ,the flames mounted higher and higher1 illuminating sky1 sea1 and rock4 ,the shrieks of the wounded and dying filled the midnight air4 ,when it was found that the ships could not be saved1 all discipline was lost and a panic ensued4 ,hundreds perished miserably1 while hundreds of others threw themselves into the sea4 ,seeing the terrible destruction wrought by firing hot balls1 ,general ,eliott ordered his men to man the boats in order to save their foes from drowning and burning4 ,with the greatest heroism they scoured the sea1 and1 mounting the burning vessels1 dragged from the decks men deserted by their own people4 ,while performing these humanitarian acts several of the ,english perished by explosions4 ,three hundred and fifty-seven of the enemy were saved from a horrible death4 ,the following morning disclosed a sea covered with wrecks4 ,a few days more of feeble bombardment ensued2 then a treaty of peace was signed4 ,from a strategic stand-point1 the ,rock of ,gibraltar is easily ,great ,britain's most important stronghold1 because it guards the trade route to her most important possession--,british ,india4 ,practically all her commerce with her ,indian colonies passes through the ,mediterranean ,sea and the ,suez ,canal4 ,with either one in the possession of an enemy1 ,british commerce would not only suffer heavy losses1 but it might be destroyed altogether4 ,so necessary is the command of the ,strait of ,gibraltar to ,great ,britain1 that to lose the ,rock might also mean the loss of ,british ,india4 ,at the present time ,great ,britain is continually adding to the defences by building new fortifications and replacing the older guns with the latest patterns4 ,in ancient times the name ,calpe was applied to the rock of ,gibraltar and ,abyla to the eminence in ,africa on the opposite side of the strait1 and both of these eminences formed the renowned ,pillars of ,hercules4 ,for centuries no ships navigating the ,mediterranean dared sail beyond these pillars4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,,the ,,baku ,,oil ,,fields ,crossing the ,black ,sea1 we leave the steamer at ,batum and take the train for ,baku1 the commercial centre of the greatest oil field in the world--a region where the supply of petroleum and natural gas seems almost inexhaustible4 ,immense subterranean oil reservoirs underlie this entire region and extend eastward under the ,caspian ,sea and beyond to the ,balkan hills4 ,not only do oil and gas exude from the ground1 but1 as in the ,california fields1 they come up through the sea-bottom2 the oil floats on the surface of the water and the gas1 pure as that used in our cities1 passes off into the air4 ,in several places gas which bubbles up through the sea-water may be ignited2 then for a long distance the sea seems to be aflame4 ,in many places on the land a fire for lighting or heating purposes is made by thrusting a pipe down into the ground and igniting the gas which rises in the tube4 ,the waters of the ,caspian ,sea along the ,baku shore are usually fine for bathing1 but if the wind blows inland for a while the oil floating on its surface accumulates1 forming a black scum on the top1 putting an end to the bathers' sport until an offshore wind sets in4 ,ten miles from ,baku1 once upon a time1 there was a temple over a cleft in the rocks from which gas arises4 ,the gas was kept burning1 tended by ,parsee priests1 for more than two thousand years and until the advent of the modern oil well4 ,this flame was a special object of adoration by the fire-worshippers who were the followers of ,zoroaster1 and many went there to pay homage to it4 ,in this region one may travel for miles and miles without seeing a tree1 shrub1 or blade of grass4 ,the landscape consists of a rolling surface of rocks and sand4 ,it is barren1 dry1 and destitute of all objects of interest4 ,sometimes for six months or more not a drop of rain falls to lay the dust4 ,if we go into the section where oil-wells are sunk1 a slight relief to the view is afforded by the mounds of sand marking the sites of oil wells1 derricks1 the inky petroleum lakes1 and the huge iron reservoirs4 ,but all around is dry and dusty save where the oil has mingled with the earth2 there the surroundings are not only unpleasant to sight and smell but ruinous to peace of mind as well4 ,for twenty-five centuries this region has been famous for its petroleum1 and for upward of a thousand years the surrounding peoples have had recourse to these springs to obtain supplies of oil for medicinal and domestic purposes4 ,herodotus has given an interesting description of them4 ,even in the early part of the twelfth century petroleum was an important article of export from ,baku4 ,crude petroleum was used to anoint camels for mange4 ,in the first part of the eighteenth century ,peter the ,great annexed ,baku to ,russia4 ,after his death it was ceded back to ,persia2 but in #ahja it was again annexed to ,russia4 ,to-day ,baku is one of the important commercial cities of the ,russian ,empire4 ,its shipping is immense and to further its commerce there are magnificent docks4 ,the city is built on the shores of a large bay1 sheltered from adverse winds by an island that acts as a breakwater4 ,the water-front has an anchorage for thousands of vessels4 ,one may walk along the strand for eight miles and find ships lined up in front of the city the entire distance4 ,the ,caspian is filled with various kinds of fish1 and while bathing one might reasonably have the impression that he was swimming in an aquarium4 ,in fact1 this place is an ideal one for an ,izaak ,walton4 ,on the islands beyond the peninsula1 projecting out from the ,baku section1 petroleum gas has flamed for centuries1 lighting the heavens at night with a lurid glare that is visible far out at sea4 ,in ,baku ,bay1 between two peninsulas1 there was a spot1 now commercialized into a producing oil well1 where the gas came to the surface with sufficient force to upset small boats4 ,many of the oil wells are spouters for a long time after they are first bored1 and when they cease to spout they can frequently be made to renew their activity by deeper boring4 ,wells have been pumped for years without the level of the oil being lowered in the slightest4 ,some of the wells which have caught fire accidentally have burned for years1 sending up their pillars of fire to a great height4 ,in a few instances the richest wells have made the owners practically bankrupt by overwhelming the buildings on adjoining property with sand and petroleum1 spreading ruin far and wide before the flow could be checked4 ,a majority of the great oil wells are about ten miles from ,baku1 and a dozen pipe-lines convey the petroleum from them to ,black ,town1 a suburb of ,baku1 where it is stored and refined4 ,from one well alone the escaping oil would have brought more than five million dollars had it been saved4 ,seemingly the crust of the earth for hundreds of miles around acts like a huge gasometer pressing down on the pent-up gases with its weight4 ,since the ,caspian ,sea is eighty feet below sea level1 it is probable that the land bordering the sea has sunk since the gases and oil were formed4 ,and this would1 in part at least1 account for the enormous pressure4 ,the spouting oil wells are called fountains4 ,some of them have yielded two million gallons each day for months1 sending up jets three or four hundred feet high with a roar that could be heard several miles away4 ,great difficulty was found at first in stopping the flow when necessary by capping or gagging the wells1 but after a time a sliding valve-cap was invented1 capable of checking the flow of the most violent well4 ,in order to prevent the enormous pressure from bursting the pipe and tearing up the ground1 as soon as the pipe has been sunk part way the earth is excavated around it and the excavation is filled with cement4 ,illustration3 ,landing-place for commerce on the ,caspian ,sea ,it is said that one of these gushers threw up in a day more oil than is produced by all the wells in the ,united ,states4 ,one well spouted oil for months before it could be gagged1 and in the meantime flooded the surrounding country4 ,millions of gallons were burned to get rid of it and millions more were diverted into the ,caspian ,sea4 ,two wells are reported to have thrown up in less than a month thirty million gallons each4 ,at first sand is thrown out with the oil1 and frequently it is ejected with such force that a plate of iron three inches thick struck by the stream is worn through in less than a day by this liquid sand blast4 ,when the wells cease spouting and it is not deemed advisable to bore deeper1 pumping is employed4 ,generally the oil coming from the wells is conducted into large1 carefully tamped excavations in the ground forming ponds or lakes4 ,in these huge reservoirs the sand and heavier parts soon sink1 making the bottom impervious4 ,after the settling the petroleum is either pumped into large iron tanks or sent directly to the refinery by pipe-lines4 ,since petroleum is vastly cheaper than coal1 the steamers plying on the ,caspian ,sea and the locomotives of many of the ,russian railroads use oil for fuel4 ,at one time so great was the accumulation of petroleum that it sold at the wells for a few cents a ton4 ,a fleet of tank-steamers conveys the oil products to the interior of ,russia by the ,caspian ,sea and ,volga ,river route4 ,the crude petroleum of ,baku yields a lower percentage of kerosene than the ,american wells1 but it contains more lubricating oil4 ,millions of gallons of lubricating oil are shipped from ,baku each year to all parts of ,europe4 ,on the opposite side of the ,caspian there are great cliffs of mineral wax such as is obtained from petroleum and used extensively in the manufacture of paraffin candles4 ,more than two hundred different products are made from petroleum1 among the chief of which are kerosene1 lubricating oil1 benzine1 gasoline1 vaseline1 and paraffin4 ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,the ,,south ,,african ,,diamond ,,fields ,many of the great treasure fields of the world have been discovered by chance rather than careful search4 ,the diamonds of the ,deccan1 ,india1 were trodden under foot for ages before they were recognized as diamonds4 ,in ,brazil the gold placer miners threw away the glassy pebbles as worthless and the black slaves used them as counters in their card games4 ,a visitor who was acquainted with the diamond fields of ,india happened one day to notice the shining stones which two men were using in a card game at a public-house4 ,the brilliancy of the pebbles piqued his curiosity4 ,having secured some1 he tested them and found them to be diamonds of the first water4 ,yet so great was the prejudice against the ,brazilian diamonds at first that for years many were secretly shipped to ,india and thence sent to the diamond market as ,indian diamonds4 ,a trivial circumstance often leads to a marvellous change in the conditions of men1 communities1 and nations4 ,the playful act of a ,boer lad picking up a shining pebble on the banks of the ,orange ,river served as a beacon to lure persons to search for the most precious and hardest of gems1 the diamond1 and thereby transformed ,south ,africa4 ,it was the beginning of an industry that has already added more than four hundred million dollars' worth of wealth to the world and which now yields annually twenty million dollars' worth of diamonds4 ,the history of the ,south ,african diamond mines is a fascinating story from start to finish4 ,a ,boer farmer named ,jacobs had made his home on the banks of the ,orange ,river not far from ,hopetown4 ,here1 living in a squalid hovel1 he eked out a precarious existence by hunting and grazing4 ,his chief income was from the flocks of sheep and goats that grazed on the scanty herbage of the veld4 ,black servants were the shepherds1 and the children1 having no work to employ their time1 were free to roam over karoo1 and veld1 and along the river4 ,what children are not attracted by pebbly streams8 ,wading in the water and skating flat stones on its surface was a joyous pastime for them4 ,the banks of the river were strewn with stones of various colors and sizes such as would naturally attract the eyes of children4 ,there were rich red garnets1 variegated jaspers1 chalcedonies and agates of many hues mingled with rock-crystals4 ,the children would fill their pockets with these colored pebbles and carry them home to use in play4 ,one day the farmer's wife noticed an unusually brilliant pebble among the other stones that were being tossed about by the children4 ,soon after she told one of her neighbors that the children had found a curious glassy stone that sparkled brilliantly in the sunlight4 ,on his expressing a desire to see the stone1 it was brought to him covered with dirt4 ,he was attracted by its brilliance and1 probably surmising that it was more valuable than common quartz crystal1 offered to purchase it4 ,the good-wife scorned the idea of taking money for a smooth stone1 and told him laughingly that he was welcome to it4 ,the stone was sent by post to ,grahamtown to ascertain whether or not it was of value4 ,to the astonishment of all concerned it was pronounced a genuine diamond and was sold for twenty-five hundred dollars4 ,a search was forthwith made in the locality for other stones1 but none was found4 ,ten months later a second diamond was found thirty miles away on the bank of the same river4 ,then quite a number of fine diamonds were found by prospectors along the ,vaal ,river4 ,in #ahfi a black shepherd boy found a magnificent white diamond which was purchased for five hundred sheep1 ten oxen1 and a horse4 ,the purchaser sold the gem for fifty-five thousand dollars1 and it was subsequently resold for one hundred thousand dollars4 ,this superb gem became famous as the star of ,south ,africa4 ,although a few skeptics said these stones might have been brought from the far interior in the crops of ostriches1 yet this last great find served to attract public notice1 and soon thousands of prospectors came to seek the coveted gems4 ,even the stolid ,boer caught the excitement1 and trekked long distances with wife and children to reach the captivating fields4 ,it was a motley throng1 like a mighty stream1 which poured into the valley of the ,vaal4 ,men came hurrying in all sorts of ways1 afoot1 on horseback1 and in heavy1 creaking ox-wagons4 ,for miles and miles men were quickly at work sinking holes into the ground2 camp-fires were flaming2 teamsters were inspanning and outspanning their oxen1 and wagons were creaking4 ,these1 with raucous voices shouting in a babel of languages1 made a pandemonium exciting enough for the most adventurous4 ,as far as the eye could reach along the banks of the ,vaal were seen hives of busy1 hopeful men who believed that untold riches were almost within their grasp4 ,the hardest of work was but a pastime1 for if they did not find diamonds to-day1 would they not to-morrow8 ,did not their neighbors find them8 ,the next shovelful of earth might contain a precious gem4 ,they could hardly afford time to eat or sleep4 ,flashing eyes and elastic steps marked the success of some1 while others repressed their feelings and kept their own counsel regarding the extent of their finds4 ,so great did the crowd become that it was necessary to limit claims1 and at an informal meeting of the prospectors1 a digging committee was formed to make regulations controlling the working of the digging4 ,thirty feet square was thought to be a reasonable claim for one person4 ,some sought the river's banks to prospect1 others the kopjes or hills4 ,some pinned their faith to light-colored ground1 others to dark4 ,fancy rather than reason dictated the choice4 ,the manner of working a claim was simple4 ,the earth was thrown into a cradle having a bottom of perforated zinc or of wire mesh4 ,the cradle was then rapidly rocked to and fro as water was poured in upon the earth4 ,the finer part was washed through the mesh and the worthless stones were thrown out by hand4 ,the residue was then removed to a suitable place and carefully examined4 ,each person most vigilantly scrutinized his hoard1 fearing that in an unguarded moment a fortune might slip through his hands and be lost4 ,even the stranger passing along was hardly given a glance1 so eager was each individual in searching for the precious pebble4 ,there is an entrancing interest in diamond mining far exceeding that of gold1 for at any moment one is likely to come across a princely fortune4 ,the miner is ever hopeful4 ,communing with himself1 he says3 ,to-morrow ,i may be made independent by a lucky find4 ,and for a time it was merely luck1 for so irregularly distributed were the diamonds that no knowledge was gained as to where they were most likely to be found4 ,while miners were strenuously working along the rivers1 far more wonderful diamond regions were soon to be unfolded2 regions rich beyond the loftiest nights of the imagination and equal to the fabled valley of ,sindbad the ,sailor4 ,a thrifty ,dutch vrau owned a farm1 on a volcanic plateau extending for miles into the rocky kopjes4 ,her overseer1 learning that garnets are often found associated with diamonds1 and noticing some garnets in one of the small streams that coursed through the valley1 concluded to do a little prospecting on his own account4 ,sinking a hole a few feet in depth and sifting the sand and gravel through a common sieve1 he came across a diamond weighing fifty carats--nearly half an ounce4 ,this find caused a rush to the farm to secure claims1 and the widow1 with an eye to business1 charged a monthly license of ten dollars4 ,soon this discovery was eclipsed by a more remarkable one at ,dutoitspan#d in #ahgj4 ,although a fair supply of diamonds was found near the surface1 these diggings seemed to give out as they reached hard limestone4 ,when nearly all of the prospectors had left the field1 having become discouraged1 one more sanguine than the others determined to find out what was beneath this limestone covering4 ,sinking a shaft1 he found that the limestone grew so soft and friable that it could be easily dug out with a pick4 ,when he had penetrated the limestone covering he came in contact with a hard layer somewhat of the nature of clay4 ,this he proceeded to break up and sift4 ,during the sifting process he observed many sparkling gems4 ,the problem had been partly solved at least4 ,diamonds were to be found in greater abundance below than above the limestone covering4 ,on learning of the changed condition of affairs the deserting miners hastened back to the diggings in double-quick time4 ,early in #ahga diamonds were found at ,bultfontein#e and on the ,de ,beers farm1 two miles from ,dutoitspan4 ,five months later another bed of diamonds was found on the same farm1 lying on a sloping kopje1 one mile from the first location4 ,this kopje1 named ,colesberg ,kopje1 became afterward the famous ,kimberley mine4 ,the district was immediately divided into claims and taken by prospectors4 ,the climate of this section is exceedingly trying4 ,a blazing sun1 clouds of suffocating dust1 and a scanty supply of muddy water are the conditions of the region2 it therefore required remarkable physical endurance and an indomitable will to achieve results4 ,sometimes terrific thunder-storms with torrents of rain would sweep through the valley4 ,at other times great hail-storms would drive both man and beast to the nearest shelter4 ,wind-storms frequently drove blinding clouds of dust that penetrated everything4 ,very quickly a city of tents sprang up at ,kimberley to be superseded later by substantial buildings of wood1 of brick and iron1 and well-constructed streets4 ,water was pumped from the ,vaal ,river through a main sixteen miles in length4 ,it was then raised in three lifts by powerful engines to a large reservoir five hundred feet above the river4 ,the introduction of an abundant supply of good water wrought a wonderful transformation4 ,outside the business section the desert was made to blossom with flowers in gardens surrounding the hitherto bleak homes4 ,lawns were laid out and vines and trees planted about the houses1 making the dusty1 wind-swept expanse a thing of beauty and comfort4 ,at length prospectors learned that the diamond-bearing earth was confined chiefly to several oval-shaped funnels1 ranging in area from ten to twenty acres1 and that outside these few diamonds were to be found4 ,now these huge funnels1 or pipes1 are nothing more or less than extinct volcanic craters4 ,the walls1 or casings1 of these pipes are chiefly of shale and basalt filled with hard earth1 yellow near the surface and bluish deeper down4 ,the latter is called blue-stuff and is very prolific in diamonds4 ,the diamonds found outside the rim wall must have been washed out of the craters or perhaps were thrown out by the eruption4 ,at first it was customary to pulverize the blue-stuff at once1 but experience showed that a more satisfactory way to work it was to expose it for several months to the action of the weather4 ,by this process it readily crumbled4 ,various devices were used by the different miners to raise the earth out of their claims4 ,some used windlasses2 others carried the earth up in buckets and tubs1 some even by climbing ladders4 ,surrounding the funnels were carts1 wheelbarrows1 etc41 for carrying away the material to the depositing grounds1 where it was dried1 pulverized1 and sifted4 ,many of the miners found it desirable to employ the native ,kafirs to work in the pits1 since neither the scorching sun nor clouds of dust seemed to trouble them4 ,the deeper the pits were sunk the greater the difficulty became in raising the blue-stuff4 ,to add to the difficulties the rim wall of shale and basalt began to fall in1 and the rain made the claims muddy and slippery or filled them with water4 ,at a still greater depth water began to seep through the shale wall1 and great masses of the rim occasionally fell in endangering life and almost precluding further mining unless concerted action were taken4 ,so1 in order to effect more economical methods of working1 a consolidation of claims began to take place4 ,at the ,kimberley mine a double platform with staging was built around the pit1 and a series of wires running from the different claims served as trackways on which buckets of the blue-stuff were drawn up by means of ropes and windlasses located on these platforms4 ,when still greater depth had been reached and much of the rim wall had been precipitated into the pit and rain and seepage water had made the pits mud holes1 two remarkable persons who were interested in the mines took a leading part in solving the difficulties4 ,these persons were ,cecil ,john ,rhodes and ,barnett ,isaacs1 better known as ,barney ,barnato4 ,rhodes owned stock in the ,de ,beers and ,barnato in the ,kimberley mine4 ,at first they were sharp rivals in gaining control1 but later they got together and consolidated interests4 ,cecil ,rhodes was an ,english college student4 ,he had lost his health and had come to ,south ,africa at the invitation of his brother1 who was interested in the diamond mines4 ,roughly dressed1 his clothes covered with dust1 this shy1 pale student1 week in and week out1 might be seen looking after the ,kafirs who worked his brother's claim4 ,barney ,barnato1 a young ,hebrew of keen foresight1 likewise had a brother in ,south ,africa4 ,the latter1 who was engaged in diamond buying1 urged ,barney to come at once to this famous region1 setting forth the wonderful opportunities offered for business4 ,barnato forthwith packed his few belongings and took the next steamer for ,cape ,town4 ,he was only twenty years old and was bubbling over with good-natured energy2 but he was quick to perceive and quick to act4 ,although he had but a few dollars with which to start in business1 yet by indomitable energy and shrewd management he soon acquired sufficient money to buy a few small claims in the famous ,kimberley mine4 ,to these claims he constantly added others until he became one of the leading stockholders in the mine4 ,when the rival mines began to undersell each other and diamonds were being sold for but little more than the cost of production1 ,rhodes conceived the plan of consolidating all the mines1 thereby forming a monopoly to keep up the prices4 ,by masterly skill he brought this about1 purchasing some shares outright1 and giving shares in the new company as payment for others4 ,to make the purchases he negotiated a loan of several million dollars through the ,rothschilds1 the famous bankers of ,london4 ,illustration3 ,open workings of the diamond mine1 ,kimberley ,thus1 after many years of struggle through difficulties that were seemingly superhuman1 the four great mines1 the ,de ,beers1 ,kimberley1 ,dutoitspan1 and ,bultfontein1 were merged into one great corporation4 ,afterward some others were added1 but all bear the name ,de ,beers ,consolidated ,mines1 ,limited1 a corporation which to-day controls the diamond market of the world4 ,during the eleven years ending #ahii they yielded nearly six tons of diamonds4 ,both ,rhodes and ,barnato acquired immense wealth by their investments1 but it is doubtful if either gained much happiness from his acquisitions4 ,poor ,barnato6 ,he had gained riches and stood among the foremost financiers of the world1 but at how fearful a cost6 ,his overtaxed brain began to give way1 and on his way back to ,england he suddenly leaped overboard and was drowned4 ,cecil ,rhodes was instrumental in enlarging ,british influence and territory in ,south ,africa1 and to him ,england owes a deep debt of gratitude4 ,he died in #aijb leaving a portion of his immense fortune for scholarships in ,oxford1 ,england's great university4 ,rhodes earnestly advocated the building of a railroad from ,cape ,town to ,cairo4 ,already this line has been constructed northward from ,cape ,town several hundred miles beyond ,victoria ,falls1 directly below which it crosses the ,zambezi ,river4 ,diamonds of various colors are found in the ,african mines--brown1 yellow1 pale blue1 clear1 and black4 ,the black diamonds1 called bort1 are used mainly for arming diamond drills and for polishing other diamonds4 ,green1 pink1 and mauve diamonds are found occasionally4 ,the ,de ,beers mines have produced some notable stones4 ,from the ,premier mine a diamond weighing more than three thousand carats--one and thirty-seven hundredths pounds avoirdupois--was obtained4 ,this stone1 more than twice the size of any heretofore found and estimated to be worth five million dollars1 was insured for two million five hundred thousand dollars4 ,it was named the ,cullinan1 from one ,tom ,cullinan1 who purchased the farm on which the ,premier mine is located4 ,captain ,wells1 the manager of the ,premier1 one evening1 after a burning hot day1 when work had been suspended1 strolled over to the mine1 and1 while partly walking and partly sliding down into the pit1 noticed a gleam from a stone half-embedded in the earth4 ,in a moment he had the stone in his hand and his practised eye told him this was the greatest diamond the world ever saw4 ,at first the possession of it seemed more like a dream than a reality1 and he began to doubt his own sanity4 ,when held up to the blazing ,southern ,cross1 it sparkled like the purest crystal1 and he knew that its value must be reckoned in hundreds of thousands of dollars4 ,he immediately took the priceless treasure to the company's office where it was critically examined4 ,it was then sent for safe-keeping to the ,standard ,bank at ,johannesburg1 and afterward was forwarded to ,london4 ,for some time it was deposited in a ,london bank1 the name of which was kept secret for fear that its great value might tempt criminals4 ,two years after its discovery it was purchased by the ,transvaal ,government1 at the suggestion of ,general ,botha1 and presented to ,king ,edward ,,vii as a crown jewel4 ,the ,de ,beers ,company employs upward of eleven thousand ,african natives--,kafirs1 they are called--working above and below ground4 ,they come not only from the surrounding districts but from regions hundreds of miles away4 ,all native laborers are kept in large walled enclosures1 or compounds1 which are covered with wire netting to prevent the laborers from throwing diamonds over the walls to confederates outside4 ,twelve such enclosures are owned by the ,de ,beers ,company1 the largest of which occupies four acres and contains ample space for housing three thousand natives4 ,on entering the service of the company each applicant must sign a contract to live in the compound and work faithfully at least three months4 ,at the expiration of his contract he may leave or make another contract1 as he wills4 ,constant vigilance is maintained in order to prevent stealing diamonds1 and yet1 notwithstanding this watchfulness1 it is estimated that hundreds of thousands of dollars' worth of diamonds are stolen each year4 ,everything necessary for the sustenance and comfort of the men is brought into the compounds1 and no one is permitted to leave until the expiration of his contract except by permission of the overseer1 which is seldom given4 ,the men go out of the compounds to their work through tunnels and return the same way4 ,besides the native ,kafirs already mentioned1 about two thousand white laborers are employed1 the greater number being engaged in the offices and workshops and on the depositing floors4 ,electric lights are used throughout the mines1 and underground work is carried on both day and night by three shifts4 ,every known scientific device is pressed into service4 ,in all of the deep mines the laborers are taken up and down the shafts in cages4 ,the method of mining and working the diamond-bearing earth at present employed is far more economical than in former years4 ,after the blue material has been brought up it is carried to the depositing floors where it is allowed to remain several months4 ,in the meanwhile it is harrowed several times to break the lumps4 ,the part that resists this treatment is carried to a mill to be crushed4 ,the disintegrated and pulverized material is then carried to the washing machines4 ,the coarser fragments of the concentrates from the washing machines are picked out by hand2 the finer are sent to the pulsators4 ,each shaking-table of the pulsators is made of corrugated iron plates in several sections with a drop of about an inch from one division to another4 ,a sufficient quantity of thick grease is spread over the plates to cover them to the top of the corrugations4 ,the concentrates are continuously spread over the upper portion of the table automatically while running water washes them down4 ,strange as it may seem1 the diamonds stick fast to the grease2 the other material is washed away4 ,it has been found by trial that grease will cling to the precious stones but to nothing else4 ,after a few hours the grease with the diamonds is scraped off the tables and steamed in perforated vessels to separate them4 ,illustration3 ,sorting gravel for diamonds in the ,kimberley mine ,one of the ,de ,beers mines has been worked to a depth of about two thousand feet with no diminution in the quantity or quality of the diamonds4 ,the pipe or plug of blue-stuff shows no signs of giving out4 ,nature1 in her underground laboratory1 works in a mysterious way1 baffling the astutest students of science to find the process by which she is able to manufacture such beautiful gems as the diamond4 ,many theories have been propounded to explain the genesis of the diamond1 the most plausible one being that the crystallization of the carbon is due to a very high temperature and tremendous pressure acting on the carbon in a liquid form deep down beneath the earth's surface4 ,the crystals1 intermingled with much foreign matter1 are afterward projected upward1 filling these great volcanic pipes4 ,in order to produce the most beautiful effect1 diamonds are usually cut into one or another of three different forms1 namely1 rose1 table1 and brilliant1 the shape and size of the stone determining which form is best4 ,the double-cut brilliant is the most common form at the present day4 ,the general form of rough1 crystallized diamonds is that of two square pyramids joined at their bases4 ,the crystals are oftenest found octahedral and dodecahedral--that is1 eight and twelve sided1 and the diamond-cutter takes advantage of these forms in shaping the diamond4 ,the modern lapidary must have a perfect knowledge of optics and be a skilful stone-cutter4 ,the numerous planes or faces which he cuts on the surface of the diamond are called facets4 ,in the treatment three distinct processes are utilized--cleaving1 cutting1 and polishing4 ,the lapidary must study the individual character of each stone and determine whether to cleave or grind off the superfluous matter so as to correct flaws and imperfections4 ,all this calls for the judgment which comes only with long experience1 for if the cutter errs he may ruin a priceless gem4 ,the grinding and polishing are done by diamond dust mixed with oil spread on the upper surface of a grooved flat steel wheel revolving horizontally4 ,the diamond1 having been set in fusible solder1 is firmly pressed against the surface of the wheel by a small projecting arm and clamp4 ,when one facet has been finished1 the diamond is removed from the solder and reset for grinding another facet4 ,thus the workman continues until the grinding and polishing are completed4 ,infinite patience and steadiness of nerve1 as well as steadiness of hand1 are required for such delicate and exact work4 ,sometimes two uncut stones are cemented into the ends of two sticks4 ,then the operator1 using these sticks as handles1 presses the stones against each other with a rubbing motion1 the surface of the stones being coated over with diamond dust and oil to accelerate the process4 ,the last cutting of the celebrated ,kohinoor diamond cost forty thousand dollars4 ,one may understand1 therefore1 that the expense of cutting a large diamond adds materially to its cost4 ,the diamond-cutting industry is confined chiefly to ,amsterdam1 where the work employs several thousand persons1 mostly ,hebrews1 the craft having been handed down from father to son through several generations4 ,much fine cutting is now done in ,new ,york also4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #d3 ,the term pan is a name applied to a basin or pool in which water collects during the rainy season4 ,footnote #e3 ,fontein is a word of ,dutch origin meaning fountain or spring4 ,in this hot and semi-arid country a pan or fontein was a necessity to the ,boer farmer1 whose chief dependence was on his sheep and cattle4 ,hence he was wont to settle near where water could be easily obtained4 ,,part ,,ii ,,oceania ,,chapter ,,xxii ,,the ,,islands ,,of ,,the ,,pacific ,not until four hundred years ago did the body of water now named the ,pacific ,ocean become known to the people of ,europe4 ,a vague knowledge of a sea that washed the eastern shores of ,cathay1 or ,china1 was gained from the reports of the famous ,venetian traveller1 ,marco ,polo4 ,after spending several years in the ,orient1 ,polo returned home in #abie1 giving such marvellous accounts of the countries visited and things seen that his stories were but half believed4 ,in #aeca1 ,balboa1 a ,spanish explorer stationed at ,darien1 now ,colon1 hearing rumors that a great ocean lay to the opposite side1 determined to test the truth of the report4 ,taking with him about three hundred men1 he laboriously worked his way through the jungles of the isthmus2 and on reaching the top of the divide beheld for the first time the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,he then hastened forward1 and as he reached the shore he waded into the water and took possession of it in the name of his sovereign4 ,he named it the ,south ,sea4 ,but the vast extent of this sheet of water did not become well known until fifty years later1 when brave ,ferdinand ,magellan circumnavigated the globe4 ,two and one-half centuries more elapsed before the memorable voyages and discoveries of ,captain ,cook disclosed the fact that the new ocean world was studded with countless islands1 and that most of them were densely inhabited by savages4 ,just how or when all these islands became inhabited is not definitely known4 ,since the ,polynesian languages in general are similar1 it is conjectured that the inhabitants of the islands have a common origin and that many of the more northerly groups were peopled by emigrants from the south4 ,in a general way the name ,oceania is applied to all of the islands in the ,pacific1 but in a more limited sense only to those lying between the ,american continent and ,australasia4 ,the chief divisions of ,oceania are ,australasia1 ,melanesia1 ,micronesia1 and ,polynesia4 ,australia1 the largest body of land1 is usually regarded as a continent4 ,nearly all the smaller islands are of coral or of volcanic origin2 in many instances both agencies have contributed to their formation4 ,the coral and volcanic islands seem to be the tops of mountain ranges that1 little by little1 have sunk1 until only their higher summits are now above sea level4 ,the central part of the ,pacific ,ocean is pre-eminently the home of the reef-building coral4 ,countless islands and reefs1 wholly or partly built up by these tiny creatures1 are found widely scattered over an immense area limited to one thousand eight hundred miles on each side of the equator4 ,all these formations are composed of the compact limestone remains of coral polyps4 ,these polyps have the power of extracting carbonate of lime from the sea-water and building it into massive formations which1 for the most part1 are nearly or completely submerged4 ,the reef-building coral differs very materially in form and appearance from the precious or red coral2 the former is confined to comparatively shallow water1 while the latter is found most commonly at a depth of six hundred feet or more1 and it occurs chiefly in the ,mediterranean ,sea4 ,the common or reef-building coral has but little use except as a source of lime1 and no intrinsic value except as an object of curiosity4 ,coral reefs may be arranged under three classes2 namely1 fringing reefs1 barrier reefs1 and atolls4 ,the first class embraces the shallow-water reefs found close to land1 either surrounding islands or skirting the shores of continents4 ,the reefs of the second class likewise skirt islands or continents1 but at such distances as to leave a deep channel between them and the shore4 ,the third class are called atolls2 each is irregularly ring-shaped and almost entirely encloses a sheet of water1 called a lagoon4 ,the ring-shaped reef1 or atoll1 is broken in one or more places1 generally on the leeward side1 and built up higher on the windward side4 ,the reason for such omissions and buildings is obvious when we remember that the coral animal cannot move from its fixed position to seek food1 but must depend upon the waves to bring it within reach4 ,the water dashing up against the reef on the windward side brings an abundance of food1 while the slight movement of the waves on the leeward side brings but little food4 ,after many years the dead coral is broken off and piled up on the reef4 ,in this condition it is cemented by the lime in the sea-water1 thereby forming a nucleus for land4 ,then1 perchance1 a cocoanut drifts upon the formation and1 finding sufficient nutriment1 sends down a root and begins its growth4 ,other cocoanuts are drifted to the newly disintegrated coral soil until the tropical vegetation becomes capable of sustaining animal life4 ,or1 perhaps1 a portion of the ocean bed in that particular region is uplifted by the volcanic forces1 thus greatly enlarging the land area4 ,attracted by the new land1 people from near-by islands emigrate and take possession of the unoccupied area4 ,thus the upbuilding of islands and their occupancy goes on through the centuries4 ,from the fact that these formations exist at a depth of several thousand feet1 while coral polyps themselves can live only near the surface1 it is thought that either the sea bottom must have been sinking for a long period of time or else that the cinder cones around which the reefs are built must have shrunk away until their tops are below sea level4 ,at all events they seem to be due to volcanic movement4 ,illustration3 ,a ,malay girl ,differences in environment produce marked differences on people in various parts of the continental world4 ,likewise1 differences in the geological structure of the islands of the ,pacific have produced a marked influence on the inhabitants of the islands of the ,pacific4 ,those living on large and mountainous islands1 where the productions are varied and abundant1 are greatly superior mentally and physically to those inhabiting the small low-lying coral islands4 ,in the small islands1 where there are few objects of interest and the circle of life is necessarily circumscribed and food and building material scanty1 the inhabitants are dwarfed in intellect and their languages limited in vocabulary4 ,the inhabitants of the extensive ,paumoto group of islands give a striking example of the dreary monotony of life on small coral islands4 ,indeed1 coral atolls are lacking in pretty nearly all the features that are necessary for a high degree of civilization2 nature1 therefore1 reacts1 with the result that the human life of this region is in a condition of savagery4 ,many of the natives are cannibals4 ,the natives of ,australia are a race that seems to be separate and distinct in itself4 ,wherever they are found their speech and customs are so nearly alike that little or no doubt of their common origin exists4 ,they are so small in stature that by some scholars they are classed with pygmy peoples4 ,they are repulsive in appearance in their native state1 but when the children are trained by ,english families they become attractive4 ,they are regarded as a very low type of intellect2 yet at the missionary schools the children seem to learn about as quickly as do ,european children4 ,the children learn to figure readily1 but the older natives have no names for numbers greater than three or four4 ,in ,new ,guinea and the adjacent islands is found a race of black peoples usually called ,negritos1 or ,negroids4 ,they are black and1 like the ,african negroes1 have black1 kinky hair4 ,they are far superior to the native ,australians4 ,many of the tribes are good farmers1 and cultivate crops of sago1 maize1 and tobacco4 ,on the coasts there are good boat-builders and sailors4 ,the greater part of the ,melanesian tribes is hostile and blood-thirsty2 head-hunting is a common practice4 ,in many tribes the people live in communal houses like those of the ,pueblo ,indians of ,america4 ,a large part of the population of ,oceania is of ,malay origin4 ,as a rule the ,malaysians are intelligent and take readily to western civilization4 ,they are confined chiefly to the larger islands south and west of the ,asian continent4 ,in such parts of ,malaysia as have become ,european possessions1 they are farm laborers1 and in this employment they have no superiors4 ,illustration3 ,a ,malay boy ,of all the native peoples of ,oceania1 the ,polynesians are perhaps the most interesting4 ,in physical appearance they are tall1 well-formed1 dark of complexion1 and black-haired4 ,in the northern island groups--,tonga1 ,hawaii1 ,samoa1 ,tahiti1 and others--which are colonized by ,european and ,american peoples1 the natives have gradually acquired western civilization4 ,the number of natives has decreased1 however1 and only about one-third of the population of fifty years ago remains to-day4 ,the animal and vegetable life is peculiar4 ,that of ,australia resembles the life forms of a geological age long since past2 that of the islands near tropical ,asia is ,asian in character4 ,now there are many large islands at a considerable distance from the continent in which many of the life forms on the slopes facing ,australia are ,australian1 while on the northerly and westerly slopes they are ,asian4 ,one cannot be certain1 however1 that these islands were ever a part of the ,australian continent1 or that they were ever joined to ,asia4 ,on the contrary it is more probable that the life in question was carried by winds and currents of the sea4 ,the life forms of the coral atolls are very few in number4 ,so far as vegetation is concerned1 the cocoa-palm and breadfruit are about the only kinds of plant life of importance4 ,a few species of fish and migratory birds are the only animals that may be used as food4 ,the names given to the various divisions of ,oceania are more or less fanciful4 ,australasia means ,southern ,asia2 ,malaysia1 ,malayan ,asia2 ,melanesia1 the islands of the blacks2 ,micronesia1 small islands2 and ,polynesia1 many islands4 ,during the latter half of the nineteenth century practically all of ,oceania has been divided among ,european powers4 ,australia1 ,tasmania1 and ,new ,zealand are peopled by colonists from ,england2 but they possess the character of a great nation rather than that of colonies4 ,a few of the larger islands have become producers of sugar1 cotton1 and fruit4 ,the long distance from the markets for their products is offset by the low cost of native labor4 ,the coral islands are almost valueless for commercial products2 but a few of them are used as coaling stations1 telegraphic cable stations1 or as positions of naval advantage4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii ,,australia ,early in the sixteenth century the island of ,australia became known to the ,portuguese2 later the ,dutch1 who had valuable possessions in the ,east ,indies1 sent exploring expeditions to spy out the new land1 and named it ,new ,holland4 ,but not until after ,captain ,cook1 of the ,english navy1 had explored the eastern part did any one think the country to be more than a barren waste sparsely inhabited by savages4 ,indeed1 various ,european nations who were even then seeking lands for colonization thought it too worthless to claim4 ,in ,april1 #aggj1 ,captain ,cook made his first landing on the east coast and1 finding at one place a profusion of beautiful flowers1 named the indentation ,botany ,bay4 ,he spent a considerable time in exploring the eastern coast and also the ,great ,barrier ,reef4 ,in going through one of the passages across the ,barrier ,reef his vessel ran aground1 and in order to lighten it he was obliged to throw overboard six of his heaviest cannon4 ,in late years efforts have been made to secure these cannon as souvenirs1 but the search for them has proved unavailing4 ,one may easily imagine that they have been long since entombed in thick growths of coral4 ,on his return home1 ,cook gave such a glowing account of the great island that the ,english ,government forthwith sent out a body of soldiers to take possession of the country and to make settlements4 ,because it is well watered1 the southeastern part was selected as best adapted for colonization4 ,for a long time this part of ,australia was utilized chiefly as a penal colony1 but the fruitful land and salubrious climate quickly attracted free emigrants from ,england4 ,then gold was discovered1 and thousands of people rushed to the new ,eldorado1 not only from ,great ,britain but from all parts of the world4 ,almost in a twinkling it changed from our remotest colony to a great country producing annually millions of wealth4 ,so far as its surface features are concerned1 one may regard ,australia as a continent not quite so large as the ,united ,states4 ,the eastern part is diversified by low ranges of mountains fantastically scored and carved by rivers which are swift and impassable torrents during the season of rains1 and trickling streams1 or dry washes1 the rest of the year4 ,this is the region that has produced a wealth of gold and wool and a stock of hardy people that for intelligence and strength of character can scarcely be matched elsewhere4 ,the central part of the continent is a dish-shaped table-land4 ,its surface is sandy here1 stony there1 but intensely hot and desolate everywhere--desolate of everything that adds to the comfort of man1 but full of about everything that contributes to his misery4 ,the bush which covers so much of this region is chiefly acacia1 and the acacia is chiefly thorns4 ,the rivers that flow into the interior from the coast highlands seem at first sight to be formidable streams so far as appearance goes4 ,one1 the ,murray1 is more than a thousand miles in length4 ,but even the ,murray will match the description which an ,english traveller gave to ,platte ,river--,a mile wide1 an inch deep1 and bottom on top6 ,the few lakes of the interior are great sinks1 or marshes1 much like ,humboldt ,sink1 in ,nevada4 ,they are shallow1 reed-grown1 and briny1 and they are bordered by mud flats and quicksands between which there is little to choose4 ,an unfortunate victim will sink in the one quite as quickly as in the other4 ,but even the lakes are gradually going the way of all lakes4 ,in this case1 however1 their disappearance is due largely to the dust storms that little by little are burying them4 ,only a very small part of the central region can be reclaimed2 for where there is so little rain there can be but little either of surface or of ground waters4 ,during the intensely hot summer season the smaller streams disappear entirely and the larger ones become a succession of stagnant pools along the dry washes4 ,illustration3 ,a giant fig-tree1 #adj feet in circumference ,the eastern part of the continent1 on account of its greater extent of coast1 is far richer in resources than the central section4 ,it contains not only a greater proportion of land fit for grazing and cultivation1 but also very rich mines4 ,perhaps these have not a greater wealth of minerals than the mines of the central section1 but they are so situated that they can be more easily worked4 ,the great island of ,tasmania ought also to be included in the ,australian continent2 for it is separated from it by a narrow and not very deep strait4 ,in its general features ,tasmania resembles eastern ,australia2 and1 indeed1 it is one of the most productive and delightful parts of the world4 ,of the whole ,australian continent scarcely one part in fourteen is fit for human habitation1 not because the soil is lacking in elements of fertility but because there is not enough rainfall4 ,as a matter of fact1 the rain-bearing winds bring rain only to the eastern and southeastern part of the continent4 ,any map will show that nearly all the cities1 towns1 herding-grounds1 and settlements are in that part of the continent1 and they are there because the rainfall is there4 ,the rest of ,australia is like the ,sahara in one respect2 it is a desert4 ,beyond that fact the resemblance between the two ceases2 indeed1 they could scarcely be more unlike2 for1 while the ,sahara is much like any other desert1 ,australia is unlike any other part of the world4 ,not very much is known about the interior because but few explorers have been able to penetrate the continent4 ,many have tried to explore its fastnesses1 it is true1 and many bones are bleaching in its furnace-like desert4 ,even a century after the eastern part had become dotted with settlements the interior was so little known that the government of ,south ,australia offered a reward of ten thousand pounds to any one who would start from ,adelaide and cross the island due north4 ,now1 ten thousand pounds1 or fifty thousand dollars1 is a large sum of money1 and there were many efforts to obtain it4 ,in #ahfj an explorer named ,stuart1 whose name is remembered in a high peak which he discovered1 traversed more than half the distance4 ,it was a record trip1 but illness forced ,stuart to turn back4 ,another expedition1 headed by four plucky men1 ,burke1 ,wills1 ,grery1 and ,king1 were more lucky on their outward trip4 ,they reached tide-water near the head of the ,gulf of ,carpenteria1 thereby accomplishing the task4 ,the return trip was tragic4 ,when they had reached the relief depot at which they had planned to have supplies awaiting them1 they found nothing4 ,they wandered about until all but ,king died from exposure and starvation4 ,a year or two later ,stuart made a third attempt and found what is now an overland route1 for a telegraph line has been built along it from ,adelaide to the north coast1 and this connects with an ocean cable to ,london4 ,illustration3 ,a mother kangaroo with a young kangaroo in her pocket ,the plant and animal life of ,australia forms one of its most remarkable features4 ,both plants and animals are of the kind that lived many ages ago4 ,one of the curiosities of forest life is the gum1 or eucalyptus1 a belt of which almost surrounds the continent4 ,in its native home the blue gum is a most beautiful tree that sometimes grows to a height of three hundred feet4 ,when the tree begins its growth the stem is nearly square in shape and the leaves are almost circular4 ,after a short time1 however1 the branches and trunk become circular and the leaves long and lance-shaped4 ,they hang with their edges instead of their flat surfaces to the light1 which also is true of many other ,australian trees4 ,the eucalyptus sheds--not its leaves every year1 but its bark instead4 ,many plants which in other continents are small shrubs in ,australia are trees4 ,the tulip1 the fern1 the honeysuckle1 and the lily are examples4 ,they all grow in tree form and are of considerable size4 ,there is no turf grass except that which is cultivated4 ,the wild grasses are of the bunch or clump species1 and some of these have blades so sharp that they cut cruelly4 ,one species1 the porcupine grass1 bears a name that does not belie its character4 ,much of the coast lands are covered with a growth of thorny scrub that has made cultivation both difficult and costly4 ,the interior is the bush region4 ,the animal life of the continent is even more singular than the plant life4 ,most of the animals resemble the opossum of ,north ,american fauna in one respect1 the mother carries her young in a pouch or fold of the skin under her body4 ,but the opossum itself is not confined to ,north ,america alone2 there are several species in ,australia and ,tasmania4 ,the kangaroos are among the most remarkable animals1 not only because of the great length and strength of their hind legs1 but also because of the variety in the sizes of the different species4 ,some of the smaller species are no larger than a small rat2 the large-sized species are six feet tall when sitting on their haunches4 ,there are no monkeys and no animals that chew the cud1 but there is a wonderful variety of birds4 ,among them is the emeu1 a kind of ostrich that practically is wingless4 ,another1 the platypus1 or duck-bill1 has the bill and webbed feet of a duck and the body and tail of a beaver4 ,stranger still1 the female duck-bill lays eggs1 but nurses her young after the eggs are hatched6 ,the duck-bill carries a hinged spur on the hind legs1 which also is a sting that injects a violent poison into whatever it strikes4 ,ordinarily the spur is folded against the leg of the animal1 but when used as a weapon it stands out like the gaff of a fighting cock4 ,the duck-bill may well boast of its sting1 because the honey-bee of ,australia has none4 ,illustration3 ,an ,australian emeu ,the dingo1 or wild dog1 may not be an especially interesting animal to the student of natural history1 but it is a very interesting one to the herdsman4 ,for of all animals in ,australia the dingo is the most intolerable nuisance on account of its fondness for mutton4 ,hunting the coyote on the plains of the ,united ,states is a pastime1 but hunting the ,australian dingo is a serious and monotonous business4 ,indeed1 the sheep and the dingo cannot both remain in ,australia unless the former has been eaten by the latter4 ,in a single night a dingo will kill a score of sheep1 and a pack of them will make way with several hundred4 ,in one instance two of these pests killed and maimed more than four hundred sheep before retribution overtook them4 ,in addition to the troubles of native origin1 three very serious pests have been imported4 ,one of these1 the species of cactus known as the prickly pear1 the ,queenslander has pretty nearly all to himself4 ,just how the prickly pear was introduced into ,australia seems to be a matter of uncertainty4 ,but it is there and it is spreading rapidly4 ,each plant produces scores of pears and each pear contains not far from one hundred seeds4 ,when the fruit ripens the seeds are quickly sent broadcast4 ,perhaps the wind is the chief agent in scattering them1 but wild birds1 especially the emeu and the turkey1 are a good second4 ,queenslanders fear that this pernicious plant will spread not only over the great interior desert sections1 but to the valuable land elsewhere1 since it is tenacious of life and thrives on arid land amidst a burning heat where other plants wither up and perish4 ,in clearing the land of the cactus three methods are utilized1 viz41 burning1 pitting1 and poisoning4 ,where wood is near at hand1 the first method is the preferable one4 ,a platform is made by rolling logs together1 and after the plants have been uprooted and hacked to pieces they are hauled in drays to the platforms4 ,there they are stacked up high1 sometimes a hundred tons being piled on a single platform1 and the platforms are set afire4 ,pitting is done by digging large1 deep pits1 filling them full of the chopped plants1 and covering them with dirt4 ,destruction by poisoning is accomplished by inoculating the thick leaves with arsenic or bluestone1 which is sprayed upon them after the plants have been hacked so that the poison may be absorbed by the sap1 which distributes the deadly substance4 ,years ago some of the colonists thought that it would be desirable to have ,english rabbits in ,australia and sent to ,england for a few pairs4 ,when the rabbits arrived a great feast was held1 and amidst speeches and mutual congratulations the timid creatures were let loose4 ,in a short time rabbits seemed quite plentiful and the hunters had rare sport2 but ere long the animals began to eat up the vegetables in the gardens4 ,now1 rabbits are very prolific1 and within a very few years they had spread so extensively that the sheepmen began to complain of their serious inroads on herbage and grass where the sheep fed4 ,at this stage of affairs legislation was invoked in behalf of the suffering farmers4 ,laws were passed and means taken to reduce the number of rabbits4 ,poisoned grain and other food was used1 but still the rabbits greatly increased4 ,the dingo was tamed and used for hunting them1 and then the mongoose was imported from ,india to kill them off4 ,but the rabbits seemed to have increased a thousand-fold4 ,in despair1 rabbit commissioners were appointed in each colony to enforce the building of high rabbit-proof wire fences1 and now thousands of miles of wire fences have been built so as to enclose ranges and farms4 ,by means of the fences and by the use of various methods of destroying the pests1 they are now kept in check after causing millions of dollars of damage1 and at an enormous annual expense to the colonists4 ,in the meantime it was discovered that the flesh of the rabbit was excellent food1 and the slaughter of millions to be preserved has been a noticeable check to their increase4 ,unlike the ,american ,indians1 the aboriginal peoples of ,australia were never troublesome to the ,european settlers1 and although apt to be thievish they were not inclined to warlike acts when the ,european settlements were new4 ,the bushrangers1 as they are called1 somewhat resemble the negro peoples1 and are thought to be a part of the black race that is found in the island near ,new ,guinea4 ,they are classed as ,negroids1 or ,negritos1 and they bear a considerable resemblance to the ,african pygmies1 with whom at least one authority classes them4 ,they are materially larger and taller than the pygmies1 however1 though below the average stature of ,europeans4 ,at all events they are among the lowest type of human beings4 ,the bushrangers have no fixed habitation2 they do not build houses nor live in villages2 they have no domestic animals except the dingo1 and they do not cultivate the soil4 ,they live nominally by hunting and fishing1 but their food consists of about anything that requires no weapons beyond the fish-net and the boomerang4 ,they rarely molest larger game1 though some of the tribes employ a net in which to entrap the kangaroo4 ,of all the weapons used by savage tribes the boomerang is the most interesting4 ,in shape it is a flat strip of hardwood having an angle1 or else slightly curved in the middle4 ,the interesting feature about it is the fact that when skilfully thrown it will return to the thrower unless intercepted4 ,a bushranger may be skilful enough to throw the boomerang ahead of him so that in its return it will kill a small animal back of him4 ,the bushrangers were only too ready to adopt the vices of ,europeans1 but they have not been able to withstand the changes wrought by civilization4 ,their numbers have steadily diminished4 ,in #ahhj they were thought to be about eighty thousand in number1 but at the close of the century there were scarcely one-fourth as many4 ,those who remain are for the greater part herdsmen and farm laborers4 ,illustration3 ,homestead and station in ,young district1 ,australia ,one may not be very far from right in saying that the climate of the habitable part of the continent is the foremost asset of ,australia4 ,certain it is that for healthfulness and the stimulation that creates activity1 the climate of ,australia is unsurpassed elsewhere in the world4 ,and because of its life-growing and invigorating character it has placed the ,australian high in the rank of the world's foremost people4 ,climate and soil1 too1 have made ,australia one of the foremost wool-producing countries of the world4 ,not far from one hundred million dollars' worth of wool and mutton are exported yearly1 and much of the wool clip is a fine grade of merino4 ,gold is another product of ,australia4 ,at the close of the century the mines had produced a total of more than one billion dollars' worth of the metal4 ,in round figures1 the great ,thirst ,land1 with a population of about four millions1 scattered along the edge of a great desert continent1 produces enough wealth to sell yearly about three hundred millions of dollars' worth of its products6 ,the foregoing picture of ,australia presents1 perhaps1 the unpleasant side of ,australian life4 ,but this great ,thirst ,land1 so far from being an inhospitable desert1 is one of the world's greatest storehouses of wealth4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv ,,the ,,great ,,barrier ,,reef ,within the tropical parts of the great ,south ,sea are submarine gardens that in the beauty of their floral forms and their richness of coloring rival the most elaborate flowerbeds made by man2 in color and variety they are fairy regions of exquisite living animal flowers4 ,one of the greatest and most attractive of these sea gardens lies off the coast of ,australia4 ,of all the wonderful animal structures in the world the ,great ,barrier ,reef of ,australia is the most remarkable4 ,it consists of a chain of coral islands and reefs parallel to the east coast of ,queensland4 ,this great reef is about twelve hundred miles long1 and the distance from the mainland to its outer border is from ten to more than one hundred miles4 ,it is far enough off the coast to leave a wide channel between the reef and the shore4 ,since it is well charted this channel is the route taken by many vessels4 ,it is admirably furnished with lighthouses and light-ships1 and is protected from the huge rolling billows of the ocean by the reef itself4 ,there are several breaks in the reef through which vessels can pass out into the open ocean4 ,this mighty barrier1 the work of coral polyps1 is of special interest not only on account of the curious shapes and varied kinds of sea life it presents1 but because of the commercial value of its products4 ,the beche-de-mer1 pearl1 oyster1 and sponge fisheries yield an annual revenue of upward of half a million dollars1 and when all of the resources of the reef are properly exploited the returns will be more than doubled4 ,the habitat of the reef-building coral is in clear tropical waters4 ,the polyps thrive best near the surface2 they cannot live at a depth exceeding one hundred and twenty-five feet4 ,the reef-building coral must not be confounded with the precious1 or red1 coral1 which flourishes in a muddy sea-bottom and is found chiefly in the ,mediterranean ,sea4 ,when alive and in the water1 coral polyps present a variety of beautiful forms and colors4 ,living polyps are composed of limestone skeletons covering and permeating a soft gelatinous substance which corresponds to the flesh of animals4 ,when the polyps are removed from the water this soon decomposes and disappears2 in certain species a part of it flows off as a thick liquid4 ,fish fantastically striped and of brilliantly variegated colors are seen swimming among the coral4 ,in tropical waters many of them have fascinating colors and patterns4 ,by simulating the colors of the coral polyps they escape the species that prey upon them4 ,the different kinds of coral are generally designated by common names according to the different objects which they resemble4 ,thus1 by similarity of form we have brain coral1 organ-pipe coral1 mushroom coral1 staghorn coral1 etc4 ,some of the islands and reefs are the homes of sea fowl and at the nesting season are literally covered with their eggs4 ,these fishers of the sea have marvellously well-developed faculties for location1 since each bird goes directly to her nest when returning to the islands4 ,as night approaches1 when all the birds seek the land1 their wild cries are deafening4 ,some of the islands are turned to profitable account by the export of guano4 ,on ,raine ,island1 so extensive are the deposits of guano that a railroad has been built to facilitate handling the product4 ,beche-de-mer1 or trepang1 is a name applied to the flesh of certain sea slugs or sea worms found in the ,indian seas4 ,of this substance great quantities are gathered annually4 ,in the water the animals resemble huge cucumbers1 and they are therefore sometimes called sea-cucumbers4 ,they are found clinging to the rocks below low-water mark1 and are from one to four feet in length4 ,their food consists of microscopic shell-fish which live upon the coral rocks4 ,illustration3 ,the ,great ,barrier ,reef of ,australia1 the most remarkable animal structure in the world ,the trepang exported from this section requires considerable care in preparation4 ,after being gathered from the rocks they are cleaned1 boiled1 and partly dried in the air2 then they are smoked with mangrove wood until dry and hard4 ,the best class of trepang is packed in tin cases to keep it perfectly dry1 as moisture ruins it4 ,the product is marketed chiefly at ,hongkong1 where it is used in making the gelatinous soups for which the ,chinese are so famous4 ,the pearl-shell fisheries yield products of considerable value4 ,the average depth from which the mother-of-pearl shell is gathered is seven or eight fathoms4 ,twenty fathoms represents the greatest depth in which divers1 even in their diving suits1 can work1 so great is the pressure of the water upon them4 ,the fishery is carried on chiefly for securing the shells1 the finding of pearls being of secondary importance1 since only about one shell in a thousand contains a pearl of much value4 ,the shells themselves bring in the market from three hundred to eight hundred dollars per ton according to quality and size1 and are used chiefly for making buttons and small ornaments4 ,the ,cairn ,cross ,islands1 a little coral group midway between ,cape ,grenville and ,cape ,york1 are especially interesting as the home and nesting-place of the ,torres ,strait pigeons4 ,these large white pigeons are highly esteemed for the table4 ,they gather at the islands during the month of ,october and remain until the end of ,march4 ,the nests are usually built in the forked branches of the mangrove trees that form extensive thickets along the coast4 ,each nest contains two white eggs4 ,the ,australian jungle-fowl or scrub-hen also frequents these islands as well as the mainland4 ,the nests of these birds are large and unique4 ,they consist of huge mounds of dead leaves1 grass1 sticks1 and soft earth piled together by the adult birds in shaded and sequestered places4 ,the mounds are about twenty feet in diameter and from ten to fifteen feet high4 ,several pairs of birds generally unite in their construction4 ,when the mounds are completed the birds burrow holes in the centre and deposit their eggs1 which are left to be hatched by the moist heat engendered by the decaying vegetation4 ,forty or fifty brick-red colored eggs as large as those of a turkey are sometimes found in a single nest4 ,both the eggs and the parent birds are excellent eating4 ,the ,australian bee-eater1 a bird of attractive plumage1 is found all over the northern islets of the ,barrier ,reef4 ,it has a long1 sharp curved bill and two long1 narrow feathers in its tail4 ,its beautiful green plumage1 varied with rich brown and black1 and vivid blue on the throat1 makes it an attractive bird4 ,the sea-anemones of the ,great ,barrier ,reef are remarkable for both beauty of color and structure2 some of them measure four or five inches across the expanded disk4 ,in ,torres ,strait are seen brilliant sea-anemones around the border of whose disks are jewel-like clusters4 ,these beautiful sea animals present the appearance of delicately tinted flowers adorned with the most exquisite gems4 ,starfish and sea-urchins of all descriptions are found in immense numbers4 ,the five-rayed varieties of starfish are universally condemned as insatiable foes of the oyster family1 and the oyster cultivators destroy all they can find4 ,to dismember the body of the starfish by pulling off the finger-like rays does not kill the animal1 for not only does each fish produce new rays but each ray will produce a new starfish4 ,the predatory starfish fastens itself to both valves of the oyster1 forces them open1 and consumes the fleshy part4 ,it is destructive not only to oysters but to clams1 mussels1 barnacles1 snails1 worms1 and small crustacea as well4 ,the variety of sea life about the great reef is legion4 ,among the bivalves the most remarkable for the size and weight of the shells are the tridachna and hippopus4 ,in some localities they are so numerous that their shells have been burned to make lime4 ,a pair of tridachna valves often weighs several hundred pounds4 ,to the naturalist the ,great ,barrier ,reef is an object of special attraction4 ,,chapter ,,xxv ,,the ,,gold ,,fields ,,of ,,australia ,the name ,australia1 like that of ,california1 conjures up in the mind visions of gold2 and the story of the gold excitement in both is very similar4 ,january #bd1 #ahdh1 was the red-letter day in ,california's history1 and the news that transpired that day electrified the world4 ,while constructing a saw-mill at ,coloma ,creek1 a branch of the ,american ,river1 ,john ,marshall picked up a handful of gold nuggets in the mill-race4 ,at once the gold fever seized all far and near4 ,during the ensuing year fifty thousand persons came by sea and by land from the ,states east of the ,rocky ,mountains1 and forty thousand more from other parts of the world2 all bent upon digging for gold in the new ,el ,dorado4 ,from far-off ,australia came vessels crowded with passengers4 ,among these was ,edward ,h4 ,hargraves1 who had lived for twenty years in ,new ,south ,wales1 where fortune had not smiled on him4 ,hargraves was a keen observer and something of a geologist as well4 ,he diligently scoured the gullies and canyons in the gold regions of ,california1 and when he quit he possessed a good sum of money as a return for his labor4 ,during his stay in ,california he became convinced that gold existed in ,australia1 since many of the formations and strata were similar to those of the gold-bearing fields of ,california4 ,after working for nearly two years1 he planned to return to his old home1 implicitly believing that he could win riches and fame by discoveries of the precious metal in ,new ,south ,wales2 and as soon as he had landed at ,sydney he made ready to test his theories4 ,when he explained to his friends what he purposed to do and his reasons they considered him half crazy4 ,moreover1 rumors that convict shepherds had sold gold nuggets to traders in ,sydney strengthened his belief that gold in paying quantities could be obtained by seeking for it4 ,there were rumors also that a gold nugget had been picked up on ,fish ,river4 ,procuring a team he set forth on his journey for the ,blue ,mountains lying back of ,sydney4 ,on the fourth day out1 stopping at an inn kept by a widow1 he confided to her his mission and enlisted her co-operation4 ,he requested a black boy for a guide2 but instead she sent her son1 who was well acquainted with every inch of the region for miles around4 ,taking horses1 ,hargraves and the young man started out from the inn4 ,it was a crisp autumn morning succeeding a dry summer4 ,a careful search was made up and down canyons and gulches4 ,at length1 during the latter part of the day1 they reached the bank of a dry creek which disclosed strata similar to the auriferous gravels of ,california4 ,looking about1 ,hargraves found a spot in the bed of the creek from which1 after scooping off the top1 he scraped from the bedrock a panful of earth4 ,hastening to the water hole with the loaded pan1 he proceeded to wash away the soil and lo1 in the bottom of the pan were bright-yellow particles6 ,i shall be made a baronet and both of us will be rich1 exclaimed the excited ,hargraves4 ,he seemed to be walking upon air and could scarcely believe his own senses4 ,nevertheless1 he prudently kept his own counsel until he had taken out sixty thousand dollars4 ,then he hastened to ,sydney to lay the matter before the government4 ,the government gave him a reward of fifty thousand dollars for his discoveries and made him commissioner of the gold fields4 ,hargraves's unexpected find stimulated other persons to search elsewhere for the attractive metal1 and soon other and far richer fields were found4 ,from one locality alone seven tons of gold were obtained in a single month4 ,the whole country now went gold mad4 ,doctors left their patients1 lawyers their offices1 bakers and butchers their shops1 clerks the stores1 and sailors deserted their ships as soon as they touched the wharves--everybody hastened to the diggings eager to get rich4 ,when confirmation of the wonderful gold deposits in ,australia reached the outside world1 a grand rush1 like that to ,california1 took place4 ,new towns and cities sprang up as by magic1 and from the increase of business the older places rapidly became more populous4 ,since the time of ,hargraves's discovery1 ,victoria has produced the most gold1 some of the largest nuggets in the world having been found in this colony4 ,the following story of the gold fields is related in ,lang's ,australia3 ,while the ship ,dudbrook was docked at ,sydney1 where she was receiving her cargo1 a sailor boy named ,bob heard of the great quantities of gold that had been dug out of the mountains4 ,he longed to try his luck at mining1 but hardly knew how he could get away from the ship without being caught4 ,in the meantime1 while the ship was receiving her cargo1 all the old crew except ,bob had deserted4 ,he hesitated about leaving and seemed to find no good opportunity to escape unnoticed4 ,the day of departure arrived4 ,the sails were being shaken out by the new crew1 which had been pressed into service4 ,the little tug that was to tow the big ship out of the harbor was beginning to straighten the cable and churn the water into foam1 but the hawser still held the vessel fast to the wharf4 ,the captain shouted ,bob1 ,bob1 get ashore and cast off the hawser4 ,bob now saw the long-waited-for opportunity and with alacrity sprang to the wharf1 but not to release the hawser4 ,he ran along1 hidden by the jetty1 until he reached the shore and then dodged into a house where he had friends4 ,the skipper could not stop to hunt up the runaway1 so the vessel was towed out through the ,heads and sailed for ,newcastle to pick up a cargo for ,india4 ,the next day ,bob started on foot for the mines and1 while on his way1 picked up one of his old shipmates with whom he formed a partnership4 ,on arriving at the diggings1 the two staked out a claim and began sinking a shaft2 but after reaching the bottom no metal greeted their longing eyes4 ,another shaft was sunk and this time they struck it rich4 ,within two months each had saved up one hundred twenty pounds of gold4 ,like some of his companions1 ,bob now concluded to take a short rest and go to ,sydney for a few days of pleasure4 ,therefore he changed his gold into pound notes1 and1 stuffing the big rolls into his trousers' pockets1 started for the city4 ,being of an economical turn of mind1 he concluded to walk1 and taking an early start1 by the middle of the afternoon he had measured off twenty-five miles4 ,the day was hot and the roads dusty2 and seeing a shady nook1 near a creek not far from the roadside1 he betook himself thither and sat down to wait for a bullock wagon which he had passed two hours before4 ,the water in the stream looked cool and inviting1 so he undressed to take a swim4 ,in taking off his clothes he pulled out of his pockets the two bundles of pound notes and laid them beside his boots4 ,after being in the water for some time1 he came out2 and looking where he had laid the notes1 could see them nowhere4 ,who could have taken them8 ,he saw no one around when he undressed1 and he had seen no one about while he was bathing4 ,possibly the thief was hiding behind some of the trees near by4 ,without waiting to dress1 he searched here and there behind trees and logs1 but there was no sign of the thief4 ,he was greatly disheartened at his loss1 but1 putting on his clothes1 he came across a ten-pound note which he had concealed in a side pocket4 ,this find cheered him up and he resolved to go down to the city notwithstanding his loss4 ,the bullock team soon came along and ,bob told the driver what had happened4 ,they both searched the ground over to solve the disappearance of the money1 but in vain4 ,when ,bob reached ,sydney1 like other sailors1 he visited several barrooms where he told the story of his strange loss4 ,in one of the places1 in a corner1 sat an old ,scotch crone1 smoking her pipe and quietly listening to the conversation4 ,at midnight when ,bob was about to leave1 the old woman said1 ,what will ye gie me if ,i find yer money for ye8 ,what will ,i give ye1 mother8 cried ,bob4 ,why1 ,i'll give ye a silk dress and a ten-pound note4 ,it's a bargain6 she cried2 and then she told him what to do4 ,he was to be ready at four the next morning with a horse and trap which he could obtain from the landlord4 ,if he would take along an axe1 a roll of string1 and a newspaper1 she would find his money for him1 she said4 ,though much in doubt about the power of such articles to find his money1 ,bob did as old ,maggie had directed1 and sharply at four in the morning the two started back to his bathing place4 ,it took but a short time to drive back ten miles to the creek and the hollow log on which ,bob sat when he pulled off his boots4 ,now1 show me the place where ye put the money down1 said ,maggie4 ,after carefully looking around she seemed to be satisfied with the conditions4 ,now1 gie me the paper and the twine1 she said4 ,taking a portion of the paper and tying it with a long piece of twine she laid it down just where the notes had been placed4 ,then ,maggie said1 ,let us seek a shady place a short distance away and ,i'll play ye at cribbage4 ,bob took little stock in these seemingly foolish arrangements2 nevertheless he determined to be game to the end4 ,she led the way to a cool place on the creek bank a hundred yards distant where they sat down4 ,she then drew out of her pocket a dirty pack of cards and a bar of soap punched with holes to be used as a cribbage board4 ,two games were leisurely played1 both of which ,maggie won4 ,now1 said she1 ,come wi' me4 ,she hobbled back to where the paper tied with a string had been left4 ,no paper was in sight1 but hanging out of the hollow log where ,bob had removed his boots was the end of the string4 ,maggie chuckled1 and pointing to the log1 cried1 ,now rip it up wi' the axe4 ,bob set to work with a will and soon had a big hole chopped out of the hollow log1 and behold6 there were the bank-notes and the newspaper1 forming a cozy nest for some little speckled native cats calling for their breakfast1 while farther in were seen two bright balls of fire1 the mother cat's eyes4 ,the mother cat had run off with ,bob's money to make a nest for her young ones4 ,maggie accepted the ten-pound note but refused the silk dress1 telling the lad that she had no use for such finery4 ,soon after the ,english settled in ,australia they introduced merino sheep1 and during the last quarter of a century the breed has been constantly improved4 ,it is estimated that now there are not less than seventy-five million sheep in ,australia4 ,the two great drawbacks to this thriving industry are drought and disease4 ,some years1 owing to the scanty rainfall1 millions of sheep have starved for lack of food4 ,two seasons prevail1 the dry and the rainy1 the climatic conditions being similar to those of ,california4 ,the eastern section of this continental island is the only part that is adapted both to grazing and to agriculture4 ,new ,south ,wales outranks all the other ,australian colonies in sheep raising1 and ,queensland in cattle raising4 ,almost the entire eastern shore section is well adapted to the production of lemons1 oranges1 and figs1 while in the southeastern part all kinds of temperate-zone fruits flourish4 ,the production of wheat also deserves important attention4 ,the development of cold-storage transportation has given a great impetus to the exportation of frozen mutton and beef to ,england4 ,melbourne1 the capital of ,victoria1 situated on ,port ,philip ,bay1 near the mouth of the ,yarra ,river1 is the largest city of ,australia and contains nearly half a million people4 ,it is built chiefly upon two hills and the intervening valley4 ,the streets are broad and cross each other at right angles4 ,many of the squares are devoted to public parks and gardens4 ,there are splendid public and private buildings1 including an excellent library and an art gallery1 both of which are free to all4 ,although less than sixty years old1 this young city will compare favorably in regard to its buildings and general management with the largest cities in both ,europe and ,america4 ,the oldest city in ,australia1 ,sydney1 is the capital of ,new ,south ,wales and has a population of four hundred thousand4 ,it is situated on ,port ,jackson and is said to have the finest harbor in the world4 ,this is a completely landlocked sheet of deep water which can be entered only through a narrow passage1 thus affording protection to the shipping1 even during the most violent storms1 and so large that it could accommodate all of the fleets that sail the ocean and have room to spare4 ,illustration3 ,melbourne is the largest city of ,australia and contains nearly half a million people ,of ,australia's thirteen thousand miles of railways all but five hundred miles belong to the colonial government1 and are administered in the interests of the people4 ,so low are the freight and passenger rates that often a tax has to be levied to meet the deficits4 ,more than half of the public debt is due to government ownership of the railroads4 ,among other prominent places may be mentioned ,brisbane1 the capital of ,queensland2 ,adelaide1 the capital of ,south ,australia2 and ,perth1 the capital of ,western ,australia4 ,,chapter ,,xxvi ,,tasmania ,in #afdb a ,dutch navigator named ,abel ,janszoon ,tasman discovered the island which now bears his name4 ,tasman did not know that he had discovered an island1 but thought that he had discovered a part of the mainland of ,australia2 so he named it ,van ,diemen's ,land1 in honor of his patron1 ,anthony ,van ,diemen1 ,governor of the ,dutch ,east ,indies4 ,tasmania was once one vast plateau1 but in time nature worked away on its broad surface2 mountains and valleys were chiselled in its face1 making it a picturesque and diversified island4 ,it is well watered2 streams abound in every part1 and many large lakes are found in the interior4 ,the ,derwent in the south is the largest river1 and vessels may go almost to the head of its estuary4 ,on account of its beautiful mountain scenery1 ,tasmania is called the ,switzerland of ,australia4 ,deep winding valleys1 clothed with groves of ferns1 give added charm to its scenery4 ,in recent years it has become a famous summer resort for ,australians1 many of whom pass a portion of the hot season in its wonderful forest solitudes and secluded fern-tree vales4 ,no attempt to colonize ,tasmania was made until #ahjc4 ,in that year four hundred convicts were brought there and the vessel containing the prisoners sailed up ,derwent ,river and landed them where the city of ,hobart now stands4 ,when the convicts landed1 they found a very dark-skinned race of natives in possession of the land4 ,the natives were low of stature1 with ugly broad faces1 flat noses1 and frizzly hair4 ,their habits were repulsive1 but they were inoffensive4 ,they lived chiefly on shell-fish and what they could obtain from the sea4 ,occasionally they hunted the kangaroo1 and unfortunately a kangaroo hunt led to their undoing4 ,one morning a newly-arrived commander of the convict colony saw a large number of natives making toward the camp4 ,he did not know their customs and mistook a chase after a kangaroo for an attack on the camp4 ,so he ordered the soldiers to fire on the crowd1 and1 as a result1 fifty or more were killed4 ,this was bad enough1 but worse was to come2 for escaped convicts began to rob and murder the natives whenever they could do so4 ,so in time there began a bush warfare that almost exterminated the poor natives4 ,finally1 the remnant1 about two hundred1 were put on a transport and carried to ,flinder ,island1 where they gradually decreased in number4 ,the last native died in #ahgd4 ,in #ahec1 the ,english government ceased to send convicts to the island1 and within a few years afterward the blackest plague spot in the world became one of the most beautiful colonies on the face of the earth4 ,tasmania is far enough south of the tropics to have a much greater rainfall than most of ,australia1 but it is not far enough to have a cold climate4 ,the generous rainfall covers the whole surface with green4 ,there are forests of eucalyptus1 or gum tree1 tree ferns1 beech1 and acacia--just about the same kinds that one finds in ,australia4 ,the animals1 too1 are much the same as in ,australia1 and some species of them are pouched1 like the opossum4 ,many of them are now rarely to be found near the settlements1 but one kind is pretty certain to be found at all times and seasons--the ,tasmanian devil4 ,this ugly beast is a terror to any neighborhood4 ,an ,english hunter described it by saying that it was more bear than wildcat1 and more wildcat than bear--and bear-cat it is frequently called4 ,the tiger-wolf is another pest that makes great havoc among herds and flocks4 ,still another pest1 also called devil1 has bands of black and white on its neck and shoulders1 a thick heavy tail1 and a bulldog mouth4 ,it is a cowardly little night prowler with a fondness for young lambs4 ,as was the case in ,australia1 the success of sheep-growing and the finding of rich gold-mines put an end to the convict colony4 ,even before the mines became profitable the ranchmen were trying to stop the sending of convicts to the island2 but when the gold fields were found1 it was stopped in short order4 ,very shortly gold-mining became the leading industry4 ,then tin ore was found at ,mount ,bischoff4 ,tasmania now produces more tin than all the rest of ,australasia4 ,in addition to the tin and precious metals1 there are great beds of excellent coal--enough for all the smelteries and manufactories in the island4 ,next to the mines the sheep and cattle ranches bring the chief profits to ,tasmania4 ,but another industry is growing and bids fair to become more profitable than either mining or cattle-growing4 ,the fruit of ,tasmania is of the very finest quality4 ,moreover1 when the fruit is ripening in an ,australasian spring and summer1 all ,england is shivering in midwinter storms4 ,what better business could there be than to ship apples and pears fresh from the ,tasmanian orchards8 ,those same apples can be shipped half-way round the world and sold in ,england for a lower price than the apples shipped from ,buffalo to ,new ,york ,city6 ,then there are the peaches1 cherries1 and strawberries4 ,they find a ready market in ,australia1 a matter of only a few miles away4 ,so in time ,tasmania is bound to be one of the great fruit-growing countries in the world4 ,where once the first convict colony made its camp the beautiful city of ,hobart stands4 ,it is every bit an ,english town4 ,the business part of the city consists of fine1 substantial buildings2 most of the residences are low-built and half hidden in gardens of roses4 ,the school-houses are as good as those in any ,american city of the same size1 and the schools themselves are equal to the best anywhere4 ,kindergarten1 grammar school1 high school1 and university are within the reach of all who desire4 ,it is said that an enterprising man can go to ,tasmania1 make his fortune in fifteen years1 and return to ,england rich1 to spend the rest of his days4 ,but why should any one desire to leave such a beautiful island to spend the rest of his life in ,london smoke and fog8 ,,chapter ,,xxvii ,,new ,,zealand ,by digging at ,london right through the centre of the earth one would emerge about a day's ride1 in an automobile car1 from the capital of ,new ,zealand--if only the automobile could ride on the water4 ,that is to say1 ,england and ,new ,zealand are almost exactly opposite each other on the earth4 ,that is the short way1 however1 and the trip would be eight thousand miles4 ,as a matter of fact1 the trip by the only available route is not far from sixteen thousand miles2 for1 go either east or west as one may choose1 the route from ,london to ,new ,zealand is a very roundabout way1 and ,new ,zealand is ,great ,britain's most remote colony4 ,when ,tasman was cruising about the ,pacific1 or ,south ,sea1 he skirted the coast of the islands4 ,that was in #afdb4 ,about one hundred and forty years afterward ,captain ,cook called at the islands and annexed them as an ,english possession1 but the ,english government refused to take them4 ,early in the nineteenth century missionaries brought the ,bible to the native ,maoris1 and at the same time lawless traders carried liquor and firearms to those same natives4 ,what was still worse1 they kept on supplying them with liquor and firearms until there were but a few thousand natives left4 ,the ,maoris are the most remarkable native peoples of the ,pacific4 ,they were not the original people of ,new ,zealand1 however1 for they drove away the black race--probably like that of ,new ,guinea--which they found there4 ,like the ,hawaiians and ,fijians1 the ,maoris came from ,samoa about five centuries ago4 ,their traditions about their journey are clear and exact2 even the names of the canoes1 or barges1 in which they made the journey are preserved in ,maori history4 ,first they went to ,rarotonga1 an island of the ,cook group2 then they went to ,new ,zealand4 ,illustration3 ,maori pa1 or village ,long before white men had settled in ,new ,zealand1 the ,maoris had made great advances toward civilization4 ,they had become wonderful carvers in wood2 they were also expert builders1 weavers1 and dyers4 ,no better seamen could be found in the ,pacific4 ,war was their chief employment1 however1 and tribal wars were always going on in some parts or other of the islands4 ,one may compare them in progress to the tribes of ,new ,york just before the ,iroquois confederacy was formed4 ,two large and a small island make up the greater part of ,new ,zealand4 ,north ,island is a little smaller than ,new ,york ,state2 ,south ,island is a little larger2 ,stewart ,island is half the size of ,rhode ,island4 ,aside from these1 the ,chatham1 ,auckland1 and part of the ,cook group--in fact1 pretty nearly every outlying group that can be used for cattle and sheep growing--are included in the ,new ,zealand colony4 ,this industry is the reason for the existence of ,new ,zealand2 it is the great meat-producing market of ,great ,britain4 ,the two largest islands of ,new ,zealand form a great plateau4 ,mountain ranges border the edges1 and fertile1 well-watered lowlands are between the ranges4 ,the ranges and valleys1 together with hundreds of lakes1 are beautiful to the eye2 they could not be better for a great grazing industry4 ,cook ,strait1 which separates the two islands1 is about sixteen miles wide at its narrowest crossing4 ,north ,island has several active volcanoes1 and likewise one of the three famous geyser regions in the world4 ,there used to be the ,pink-and-,white ,terraces also--terraces of brilliant coloring1 like those of ,yellowstone ,park4 ,but a few years ago ,volcano ,tarawera had a bad fit of eruption1 and when the eruption was over1 ,pink-and-,white ,terraces were covered many feet deep with lava and ash4 ,many of the higher ranges are snow-clad the year round4 ,the ,new ,zealanders do not need to go half-way round the world to spend the summer in ,switzerland2 they have a fine ,switzerland at home4 ,indeed1 the ,alps of ,europe are not surpassed by those of ,new ,zealand2 and as for glaciers1 the great ,tasman ,glacier cannot be surpassed--twenty miles long1 a mile wide1 and no one knows how deep4 ,in ,south ,island some of the glaciers reach almost to the sea4 ,illustration3 ,the ,petrifying ,geyser1 ,new ,zealand ,there is some wonderful vegetation in ,new ,zealand and nowhere else will one find a greater variety of ferns4 ,some of them grow in the form of trees2 some are huge vines2 and still others are as fine and delicate as the maidenhair fern4 ,some kinds have fine wiry tendrils that are much used for mattresses and cushions4 ,another plant looks so much like a palm that no one ignorant of plants would suspect that it was not a palm-tree2 but as a matter of fact it is a lily4 ,so many of the forest trees are evergreens1 and so abundant is the grass that at all times of the year the islands are green from the mountain summits to the sea4 ,of all the forest trees the kauri pine has been one of the most valuable--has been1 because not many trees are left4 ,the wood itself is about as easily worked as white pine or ,california redwood4 ,what is still better1 it is very tough and durable4 ,but the wood itself is only a part of the wealth of the kauri forests4 ,the bark is full of gum which1 when hard1 is much like amber4 ,it makes a very hard and glossy varnish that commands a high price because of its good qualities4 ,in places where old kauri forests have existed1 digging kauri gum is a profitable employment4 ,kauri-gum mining does not require much capital4 ,a sharp iron rod and a pick are about the only tools required4 ,the gatherer goes about thrusting his rod into the earth at intervals of a few inches4 ,when he feels a piece of gum with his rod he needs only to use his pick to capture it4 ,for many years about a million dollars' worth of kauri gum was thus obtained each year4 ,the lumps vary in size from that of a hen's egg to masses weighing several pounds4 ,there are also some strange animals in ,new ,zealand4 ,one curious creature is a bird without wings--the kiwi4 ,the species is one of many similar kinds that lived in ,australia and ,new ,zealand ages ago4 ,their remains are found in abundance1 but the kiwi is the last species now living4 ,it has a long1 sharp bill and hair-like feathers4 ,a full-grown bird is about the size of a bantam fowl4 ,one of the more beautiful birds is a dull green parrot1 the kea4 ,but the kea is also a wretched pest1 for it has learned how to kill sheep since the sheep-herders came to ,new ,zealand4 ,the kea darts out of the air1 fastens its talons in the side of the sheep1 and quickly makes a gaping hole into the animal's vitals4 ,thousands of sheep are thus killed every year4 ,there are about one million people in ,new ,zealand1 and most of them live on the east side of ,south ,island4 ,that is where the grassy lands are2 and that is why the cattle and sheep are there also4 ,and the people are there because of the sheep and cattle4 ,new ,zealand is one of the greatest grazing regions in the world1 and most of the various industries in the islands have something or other to do with the grazing4 ,in ,australia the sheep are grown almost wholly for wool4 ,that is because climate and grasses are just right for the growth of wool4 ,in ,new ,zealand the climate and grasses are not very good for wool1 but they are just right for meat1 both mutton and beef4 ,so the commerce of beef and mutton is the chief business of ,new ,zealand4 ,the meat must go a long way before it reaches the people who consume it2 they live in ,great ,britain and western ,europe4 ,in any case1 too1 it must have a long summer trip2 for one cannot go from ,new ,zealand to ,europe without crossing the ,torrid ,zone4 ,even if the meat were sent from ,new ,zealand in midwinter it not only has a long trip in the ,torrid ,zone1 but it gets to ,europe in midsummer4 ,now1 it is very plain that meat cannot be carried for a month or six weeks on a steamship without preparation4 ,the preparation is very simple2 the meat1 after dressing1 is frozen and it is kept frozen until it reaches the people who eat it4 ,there are refrigerating-rooms at the slaughter-houses1 refrigerator cars to the nearest port1 and refrigerator ships to ,london4 ,wool is also one of the important products of ,new ,zealand1 but it has a much coarser and harsher fibre than the fine merino wool of ,australia4 ,as a rule1 sheep that are grown for their wool feed on grass2 those that are for mutton get their final feeding on turnips2 and all ,england has said that turnip-fed mutton is good4 ,christchurch1 a city of about seventy thousand people1 is one of the great centres of the wool and mutton industry4 ,the city is there because the great ,canterbury ,plain is one of the finest grazing regions in the world4 ,christchurch is not very old--it was made a city in #ahfb--;but it has grown pretty vigorously4 ,its handsome buildings--churches1 college1 museum1 and school-houses--are as fine as those of any city of the same size anywhere4 ,the streets are wide and beautifully kept1 and electric railways extend to half a dozen suburbs4 ,out in the suburbs are the large meat-freezing establishments4 ,in the season for export about fifteen thousand sheep are dressed and frozen daily in the great plants in and around ,christchurch4 ,the freezing-rooms are kept at a temperature of a cold winter night4 ,in a single plant there may be as many as ten or fifteen thousand carcasses hanging from great frames1 and the walls of the rooms are covered with a thick coat of ice and frost4 ,in three days from the time the meat is put into the freezing-room it will be ready for its long journey4 ,wellington is the capital of ,new ,zealand2 it is likewise the windy port of the ,pacific1 for it is in the eye of the roaring forties1 the strong west wind of the ,south ,temperate ,zone4 ,but ,wellington has the harbor1 and the harbor has the shipping2 and because of this ,wellington is a very rich and prosperous municipality4 ,on the whole1 the ,new ,zealanders have not much cause to envy the people of other lands4 ,every man and every self-supporting woman can become the owner of a homestead2 and about one person in every ten has become a landholder4 ,the government lets them have the land on very easy terms of payment4 ,women have the same political rights as are possessed by men4 ,they can vote1 hold public office1 and hold property in their own names4 ,the government has established postal savings banks at which any one may deposit money2 what is equally good1 the money is loaned at a small rate of interest to farmers while they are waiting for their crops4 ,what is still better1 the bank never fails1 leaving the depositors to whistle for their money4 ,the government owns and operates most of the railways1 telegraph lines1 and telephone system4 ,there is good service at a low cost4 ,the government manages and supports all public schools4 ,attendance is compulsory and practically everything is free from the kindergarten to the university4 ,there are old-age pensions for deserving poor people of good character2 there are likewise prisons for those of criminal character--and the two are pretty apt to get together4 ,bad trusts and monopolies have not got the upper hand anywhere in ,new ,zealand and the government sees to it that they do not4 ,great ,britain appoints a governor of the colony1 but the people elect a legislative council and a house of representatives4 ,new ,zealand has also something more than productive lands2 the colony has plenty of coal fields1 gold-mines1 silver-mines1 iron ore1 and copper ore4 ,even if all the rest of the world were closed against this far-away colony1 the ,new ,zealanders could worry along quite well1 for they easily rank among the most prosperous and well-governed people in the world4 ,,chapter ,,xxviii ,,samoa ,,and ,,fiji ,the ,samoa1 or ,navigator's1 ,islands1 discovered by a ,dutch navigator in #agbb1 attracted but little attention until the introduction of ,christianity in #ahcj4 ,only a few of the group are inhabited2 the others are chiefly barren rocks4 ,the islands are of volcanic origin1 and earthquakes are frequent1 but not severe4 ,fringing coral reefs form barriers that in a great measure protect the islands from heavy seas4 ,the group lie on the steamship route between ,australia and the ,pacific coast of ,north ,america2 hence they are important to the ,united ,states4 ,the larger islands are mountainous and well forested4 ,some of the mountains attain the height of five thousand feet4 ,early in the '#hj's there were three rival chiefs1 each of whom wanted to be king4 ,as a result1 they were at war most of the time1 and the property of ,americans and ,europeans suffered greatly4 ,so1 in #ahhi1 ,great ,britain1 ,germany1 and the ,united ,states formed a joint protectorate over them4 ,ten years later another outbreak was stirred up by foreign adventurers2 so the islands were annexed to ,germany and the ,united ,states for the sake of peace4 ,the two largest1 ,savii and ,upolu1 were ceded to ,germany2 ,tutuila and the ,manua group were taken by the ,united ,states4 ,on condition of having a free hand in the ,cook group1 ,great ,britain gave up all claims4 ,a rich soil1 tropical temperature1 and a generous rainfall make the islands productive4 ,americans who live there claim that in no other part of the world can the necessaries of life be obtained so easily as in ,samoa4 ,savii1 the largest island1 has a smaller area of cultivable land than the others4 ,once upon a time1 however1 it was the most densely peopled and the richest island of all ,samoa4 ,then a volcanic eruption covered much of its surface with ash and lava4 ,perhaps in time the lava fields may become good soil1 as they have in ,hawaii4 ,tutuila is one of the four islands belonging to the ,united ,states2 the other three1 ,tau1 ,ofu1 and ,olosenga1 belong to the ,manua group4 ,all of them together are not half the size of ,rhode ,island4 ,tutuila is perhaps the most important island of ,samoa1 because of its fine harbor1 ,pago ,pago--,pango ,pango1 the ,samoans pronounce it4 ,pago ,pago is certainly a fine harbor4 ,the entrance is so narrow that it can be closed easily2 then it widens out into a bay two miles long and nearly half a mile wide4 ,when the ,panama ,canal is completed1 ,pago ,pago will be right in the track of steamships from ,europe and the ,united ,states bound for ,australia4 ,apia1 on the island of ,upolu1 is the port of the ,germans4 ,the harbor is larger1 but it is not so well protected4 ,in #ahhi1 when a typhoon struck ,apia 7both the town and the shipping71 very few buildings escaped damage or destruction4 ,and the shipping8--well1 there was not much left4 ,there were six warships and a lot of sailing-vessels in the ,v-shaped harbor4 ,when the storm raged hardest it seemed to grow a bit more furious4 ,some of the vessels dragged their anchors and were piled up as wrecks on the beach4 ,others foundered and went to the bottom with all aboard4 ,three or four managed to get out of the bay into the open sea1 where they were fairly safe4 ,but ,pago ,pago harbor is large and deep4 ,what is still better1 it is surrounded by bluffs and mountains that will shelter a big fleet against even the fury of a typhoon4 ,most of the islands are covered with a dense vegetation1 tropical and richly colored4 ,there is an abundance of hardwood trees1 but the breadfruit1 banana1 and cocoa-palm are the most useful4 ,the breadfruit-tree grows wild1 but it is also cultivated4 ,the fruit is about the size of an ordinary cantaloupe4 ,in some species the fruit is filled with seeds nearly as large as chestnuts and these are sometimes eaten4 ,the best fruit1 however1 is filled with starchy matter4 ,it is cooked in many ways1 but it is greatly relished when baked in hot ashes covered with live coals4 ,after it is thus cooked1 it is cut open and the rich juicy pulp scooped out4 ,when cooked with meat and gravy it is superior to the finest mushrooms4 ,the cocoa-palm is a source of not a little profit4 ,the thick husk yields a fibre that is much used in making coarse mats2 the dried meat of the nut is the copra of commerce4 ,large quantities are exported to the ,united ,states and ,europe in order to obtain the oil2 and the oil is used chiefly to make soap4 ,the native ,samoans are lighter colored than most ,polynesians1 and are the finest native peoples of the ,south ,pacific ,ocean4 ,many years ago missionaries and teachers settled in ,samoa and they found the natives to be pretty apt scholars4 ,by nature they were dignified and polite2 they also learned quickly the arts of civilized life4 ,nowadays nearly every native village has its church and school-house4 ,the ,samoans are fond of music and one may hear ,american hymns and melodies in nearly every native house4 ,the native houses are larger than most of the houses one finds among the ,pacific islands4 ,two or more long posts support the ridge pole and a great number of shorter posts hold the lower edges of the roof4 ,the roof itself consists of closely fitted mats of brush thickly thatched with the leaves of wild sugar cane4 ,a well-made roof lasts a dozen years or more4 ,mats of sugar-cane closely woven are loosely fastened to the outer rows of posts so that they can be easily put up or taken down4 ,they form the side walls of the house4 ,the floor is made of clay1 paved with pebbles4 ,usually there is a floor covering of mats4 ,in the centre of the floor is a fire pit which serves for the purpose of cooking during the day and to drive out the mosquitoes at night4 ,the beds and chairs are mats and the pillows are made of bamboo4 ,the ,samoans know how to live well4 ,with each house there is pretty certain to be a garden in which yams1 taro1 sweet potatoes1 bananas1 fruit1 and chickens are grown4 ,then1 there are fish and shrimps that can be caught in abundance4 ,but the chief and most highly prized dish is called poi4 ,taro and kalo are names--or a name1 rather2 for they are different forms of the same word--given to several plants that grow from starchy bulbs4 ,one kind of taro looks much like a lily that grows higher than a tall man4 ,the bulb1 or root1 is first baked and then ground to a paste with water4 ,when thus prepared1 it is set aside until it begins to ferment2 then it is ready to be eaten4 ,a great dish or pot of poi is placed on a mat and the family gather around1 one after another dipping it out with their hands4 ,to foreigners poi has a most unpleasant1 disagreeable taste4 ,when made into cakes and baked1 however1 it is much relished by foreigners4 ,kava is the national drink4 ,it is made from the roots of a shrub belonging to the pepper family4 ,the root is ground between stones and then soaked in water4 ,after a while it is pounded and rubbed until all the milky juice is squeezed out of it4 ,when extra-fine kava is wanted1 young girls chew the root until it has become pulpy4 ,after standing a day or two it is strained and is then ready to be drunk4 ,it is a cooling and refreshing drink1 but if taken too freely is apt to tangle one's legs uncomfortably4 ,on account of its delightful climate and beautiful scenery1 ,samoa is one of the most attractive places in the world in which to live4 ,back in the mountains1 a few miles from ,apia1 ,robert ,louis ,stevenson spent the last few years of his life1 and his body is buried on the top of the mountain near by4 ,stevenson was greatly beloved by the natives1 and after his death he was mourned by them as one of their very best friends4 ,of all the islands in the ,south ,pacific ,ocean1 the ,fiji group is the most important4 ,all told there are more than two hundred islands1 but scarcely one-third of them are inhabited1 or even habitable4 ,two of them are large4 ,one1 ,viti ,levu1 is about the size of ,connecticut2 the other1 ,vanua ,levu1 is about two-thirds the size of that ,state4 ,the famous ,dutch sailor ,abel ,janszoon ,tasman1 whose name is remembered in ,tasmania1 saw the larger islands in #afdc4 ,about one hundred and thirty years later ,captain ,cook called at ,viti ,levu and found himself in the midst of a great cannibal feast4 ,in #ahdj1 ,captain ,charles ,wilkes1 in charge of a ,united ,states expedition1 explored them2 shortly afterward they became a possession of ,great ,britain4 ,the larger islands are great domes of lava built up by volcanic eruptions2 many of the smaller ones are coral formations1 and all are fringed with coral reefs4 ,dense forests of tropical vegetation cover the larger islands4 ,cocoanut and other palms are everywhere to be found4 ,a species of pine1 much like the kauri pine of ,new ,zealand1 grows on the larger islands4 ,among the forest trees are also several kinds of tree-ferns and a tree-nettle4 ,when the pointed leaves of the latter prick the skin they sting the flesh as badly as does a wasp4 ,the ,english have done well by both the islands and the islanders4 ,they have made the islands yield a good yearly profit to the government itself1 but they have also made the natives industrious and contented4 ,when the first ,british settlements were made in ,fiji1 the islanders were in a most degraded condition4 ,they did no work except to grow a few yams1 bananas1 and breadfruit4 ,their chief employment was war1 and this was carried on1 not for conquest1 but to capture as many as possible4 ,a few captives were held as slaves1 but most of them were fattened--to be killed and eaten at the royal feasts4 ,illustration3 ,native canoe1 ,fiji ,islands ,notwithstanding all this there was the making of a very superior people in them2 for when the missionaries and the teachers got among them the natives proved very apt pupils4 ,now there are more than twelve hundred church buildings--and a school-house or two for every church4 ,some of the ministers and teachers are ,english1 but there are about four thousand native teachers and ministers1 nearly all of whom were trained for their work in the island schools4 ,they are fine farmers1 probably the best in the islands of the ,pacific4 ,they grow bananas1 pineapples1 peanuts1 and lemons for the ,australians1 copra and tobacco for the ,british1 and rice1 taro1 and garden vegetables for themselves4 ,they have learned to irrigate their farms1 using open ditches and bamboo mains4 ,they make the finest canoes to be found in the ,pacific4 ,some of the canoes are barges nearly one hundred feet in length2 and not even the ,hawaiians are more expert in using them4 ,not a little profit to the islanders comes from the sea4 ,they are expert divers and gather large quantities of pearl shells1 which find a ready market with the button-makers of ,europe4 ,fish are caught1 dried1 and sold in ,china4 ,one sea product1 the beche-de-mer1 a marine animal commonly called sea-cucumber1 is highly prized by the ,chinese1 who use large quantities2 most of it is gathered by the ,fijians4 ,sugar1 however1 is the chief product of the islands1 and the sugar plantations are owned by great companies that have invested millions of pounds sterling in the business4 ,the plantations altogether produce more than three million dollars' worth of sugar yearly4 ,the native islanders will not work in the sugar fields2 so coolies from ,india were brought to the islands to work on the plantations4 ,suva 7,viti ,levu71 and ,leonka 7,ovalu71 the two largest towns1 are much like ,european cities1 except that the houses are low and have large yards filled with shade trees and flowers4 ,in the native villages the dwellings are much like those in ,samoa1 though a trifle better1 perhaps4 ,the side walls are covered with plaited reeds1 and the roof is thatched with palm leaves securely fastened4 ,in the lowlands it is customary to build a platform of rock upon which the house stands and into which the foundation poles are set4 ,this is done for two reasons3 when a typhoon sweeps over the islands1 the lowland coast is sometimes flooded2 moreover1 the wind blows with such terrific force that none but the most strongly built house will withstand it4 ,in the centre of the floor is a pit1 or fireplace1 much like the cooking-place one sees in ,samoa or in ,hawaii4 ,chickens and pieces of meat to be roasted are hung from a frame over the pit4 ,yams and other vegetables are boiled in earthen vessels which the native potters make4 ,the floors are covered with closely woven mats2 and in order to keep them clean an earthen vessel filled with water is kept outside so that whoever enters the house may bathe his feet4 ,inasmuch as the natives go barefoot one may see the usefulness of this custom4 ,great ,britain has many islands in this part of the ,pacific2 ,gilbert1 ,ellice1 ,tonga1 ,cook1 and some of the ,solomon group all fly the ,union ,jack4 ,there is an ,english governor1 or ,high ,commissioner1 as he is styled1 who looks after ,british affairs in the islands4 ,in ,fiji he is the real governor1 but in many of the islands native chiefs and kings govern their peoples about as they please1 provided they do not interfere with ,british interests4 ,,chapter ,,xxix ,,the ,,hawaiian ,,islands ,almost midway between the ,united ,states and ,china a mountain chain more than three thousand miles long crosses the tropic of ,cancer4 ,only the highest peaks1 however1 reach above sea level2 most of the range is fathoms deep in the waters of the ,pacific4 ,the eastern end of this great chain constitutes the ,hawaiian group of islands1 or the ,territory of ,hawaii4 ,altogether they are pretty nearly as large as the ,state of ,new ,jersey1 or five times the size of ,rhode ,island4 ,all the islands are very rugged in surface--steep and high cliffs1 deep valleys and canyons1 and stupendous craters that have vomited great floods of lava4 ,a little way from shore the ,pacific has some of its deepest beds4 ,if the sea could be removed the island of ,hawaii would be a great dome five miles high4 ,the coral polyps have added their mite to the building of these islands1 and coral reefs are the foundation of the coast plain that surrounds a considerable part of the girth of each4 ,an equable climate throughout the year1 a soft and balmy air1 brilliant coloring on bush and tree1 magnificent pictures of sea and sky1 and of mountain and plain1 make the islands a veritable paradise4 ,it is thought that these islands were peopled by ,samoan natives about the year #fjj1 and that subsequently their number was augmented by emigrants from the ,fiji and other southern islands4 ,at first there was plenty of land for all1 but as their number increased1 quarrels arose4 ,each island had its king or chief and some of the larger islands had two or more4 ,the result was a condition very much like the feudal system2 each king had petty chiefs1 and these1 in turn1 their retainers1 who were little better than slaves4 ,priests1 who ranked equal to the petty chiefs1 directed their pagan worship and occasionally made human sacrifices4 ,the kings were pretty apt to be at war with one another most of the time1 but1 about forty years before the ,american ,revolution1 there came a great soldier and leader1 ,kamehameha ,i4 ,by the aid of ,european weapons and the counsel of foreign friends1 he overcame his rivals and brought all the islands under his sway4 ,the ,hawaiian ,islands were made known to the rest of the world when that plucky ,english sailor1 ,captain ,james ,cook1 was making his third and last great voyage of discovery1 in which he had set out to find the famous and tragic northwest passage4 ,on a roundabout way to ,bering ,strait1 he called at the islands which seemed very attractive to him4 ,perhaps it is not quite right to say that he discovered them1 for it seems very probable that the ,spanish explorer ,gaetano discovered them in #aeee4 ,illustration3 ,general view of ,volcano ,house1 ,kilauea1 ,hawaii ,it was #aghi when ,cook first visited the islands1 and after he had continued his voyage through ,bering ,strait1 and had failed to find the northwest passage1 he turned about and sailed for the islands4 ,while ashore with a part of his crew at a landing that is now the village of ,kealakekua1 one of the ship's boats was stolen by natives4 ,now ,cook had learned to manage ,south ,sea islanders in a very practical1 though not the most tactful1 way4 ,when trouble occurred he used to send out a strong landing party1 seize the king or chief and take him aboard the vessel--a proceeding which usually brought the natives to terms4 ,but at this particular time the landing party was driven to the boats and ,cook was killed4 ,the group of islands was first named after ,lord ,sandwich1 a patron and friend of ,cook4 ,at the time of ,cook's discovery of the long-forgotten islands it was estimated that their population was not far from four hundred thousand4 ,missionaries went to the islands early in the nineteenth century and their reports brought many ,americans and ,europeans who settled there permanently4 ,then the chief business of the islands was the ordinary trade with the many whaling vessels that were in the ,pacific4 ,for a time the islands were under the protection of ,great ,britain2 then they became an independent kingdom4 ,when it was found that the lava fields made the best sugar-growing soil in the world1 ,american capital came in millions of dollars to be invested in great plantations of sugar cane4 ,trouble between the queen and ,american business interests became so serious in time that the queen was dethroned and the ,republic of ,hawaii was established4 ,the republic was short-lived1 however2 for when the ,spanish-,american war occurred1 it was seen that ,hawaii is the key to the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,the ,hawaiians1 foreigners and natives1 had long wished to become a part of the ,united ,states4 ,so the islands were annexed and shortly became the ,territory of ,hawaii4 ,there are six large islands--,hawaii1 ,maui1 ,oahu1 ,kauai1 ,molokai1 and ,lanai4 ,there are many small outlying islets1 most of which are not inhabited4 ,wireless telegraph stations connect the principal islands2 an ocean cable ties the ,territory to ,san ,francisco2 and steamship lines carry on commerce with ,british1 ,japanese1 and ,american ports4 ,even the railway-builder has not forgotten ,hawaii1 for there are not far from two hundred miles of railroad1 about half of which carry the products of the sugar and coffee plantations to the near-by ports4 ,hawaii1 the largest island1 is famous for its great volcanoes1 ,kea1 ,loa1 and ,kilauea4 ,from the village or city of ,hilo comfortable coaches take visitors over a fine road clear to the crater of ,kilauea4 ,at times one may stand on the edge of ,kilauea's rampart and look down on a lake of white-hot1 molten lava three miles long and half as wide4 ,every now and then bubbles of gas or steam come to the surface and exploding send long threads of viscous lava into the air4 ,some of the glassy threads are fine as the finest silk and a blast of air carries them off to the cliff2 ,pele's hair1 they call it1 and the sea-gulls gather it to make their nests4 ,illustration3 ,a lake of white-hot molten lava4 ,the volcano of ,mauna-,loa1 ,hawaii ,the highest points of ,hawaii island are nearly fourteen thousand feet above sea level4 ,below the line of about ten thousand feet easterly winds bring an abundance of rain2 above that line westerly winds bring occasional showers and snow squalls4 ,as a result one may find places only a few miles apart1 one of which has almost daily rains while the other gets none at all along the lowland coasts4 ,oahu is the best-known island because of ,honolulu1 the capital of the ,territory4 ,a most beautiful city it is2 indeed1 there is nothing elsewhere to surpass it in attractiveness--wide streets1 beautiful parks1 flower gardens of wonderful plants1 fine dwellings1 electric street cars1 good government1 and schools that are famous4 ,all these things make ,honolulu one of the most desirable and attractive cities of homes anywhere in the world4 ,just back of ,honolulu is a volcanic peak with its great crater--the ,punch ,bowl1 they call it1 because of its shape4 ,as one looks down from the rim of the ,punch ,bowl the city is half hidden among its palms and algeroba trees4 ,above the trees are the domes and turrets of the ,national ,palace1 the government building1 and the school-houses4 ,in the distance here and there are the great plantations--sugar1 rice1 and banana4 ,in the city streets one will see the people of many lands--,germans1 ,english1 ,americans1 native ,hawaiians1 ,chinese1 ,japanese1 ,koreans1 ,malays1 and ,hindoos4 ,many of the native ,hawaiians are rich and prosperous2 some are in business1 and others are in professional life4 ,many of the ,chinese are well-to-do merchants4 ,the ,hindoos1 ,malays1 and ,japanese were brought to ,hawaii to work in the great plantations4 ,in the native villages one will frequently find a little church building and almost always the district school4 ,perhaps there may also be a ,chinese store4 ,black-eyed children are running about dressed in long gowns1 and some of them carry little bundles of school-books1 each tied with stout cord or a leather strap4 ,the ,hawaiians will not work in the sugar and the rice fields1 and not many will stand the easier labor on the coffee plantations4 ,in cultivating their little patches of bananas1 breadfruit1 cassava1 and taro1 however1 they are pretty industrious4 ,when the time of the royal feast comes1 the natives1 or ,kanakas1 as they call themselves1 get busy4 ,the feast certainly is a royal one4 ,roast pig and roast chicken are smoking in a dozen dirt ovens4 ,there are steaming yams and sweet potatoes by the bushel1 great piles of all sorts of fruit--and poi4 ,all the rest of the food is commonplace2 poi is the dish4 ,it is one-finger poi1 two-finger poi1 or three-finger poi1 according as it is thick enough to be lifted out of the pot sticking to one finger1 or so thin as to require a dextrous swish of two or three4 ,waikiki is the great resort of ,honolulu4 ,there is the finest of bathing the year round2 and what is more interesting1 the native surf swimmers4 ,with a piece of plank just large enough to support his weight in the water1 the bather swims out to the reef in still water4 ,then he1 or she--for young girls are most expert swimmers--makes for open water1 where the combers are forming4 ,then1 lying flat1 bather and plank are borne along on the swift rolling surf until both are tossed high on the beach4 ,the aquarium is famous for its unique collection of fish and marine animals2 it is one of the finest in the world4 ,near by is the race course and amphitheatre4 ,what is still better is the winding road through ferns and flowers that leads to the crater rampart1 ,diamond ,hill4 ,half a dozen miles west of ,honolulu one goes by rail around the shore of ,pearl ,lochs1 or ,harbor4 ,pearl ,harbor is large enough and deep enough to float all the warships ,uncle ,sam will ever own1 and the possession of this magnificent site for a naval station was a very strong inducement to annex ,hawaii4 ,less than one hundred miles away1 at ,kalaupapa1 on the island of ,molokai1 is the leper settlement4 ,years ago ,chinese settlers brought the disease to ,hawaii2 then the natives began to be stricken1 and when it was found that leprosy was spreading1 the lepers were sent to ,molokai4 ,for many years they had but little care2 the government fed and clothed the poor victims and that was about all4 ,in #ahgc ,father ,damien1 a plucky ,catholic priest1 went to ,molokai and thereby made himself practically a prisoner for life4 ,father ,damien procured physicians1 trained nurses1 and the best possible care for the lepers1 and they could at least die in comfort if they could not live4 ,then ,father ,damien himself was stricken and died4 ,by this time1 however1 the government took the matter in hand4 ,a fine hospital was built and a laboratory for the study of the disease was established4 ,those who are able to work can partly support themselves1 and they are far better off when busy than when idle4 ,in #ahdh the ,great ,division took place2 that is1 the lands for the king1 for the public domain1 and for the people were set aside1 so that the people who so desired could own their farms and dwellings4 ,at that time the islands were important only as a calling place for whaling vessels4 ,at the present time ,dame ,nature is made to yield annually not far from one hundred million dollars' worth of products--sugar1 rice1 coffee1 fruit1 and cattle4 ,a few years hence1 tobacco1 rubber1 cotton1 and honey will be added to the list of exported products4 ,americans own the sugar plantations1 which are mainly on the lava fields of ,hawaii1 ,oahu1 and ,maui ,islands4 ,the ,chinese and ,japanese cultivate the rice along the coast lowlands of ,oahu and ,kauai4 ,sheep and cattle are grown on ,lanai and ,niihau4 ,uncle ,sam has brought some very valuable additions to his public domain1 but no investment has paid better than ,hawaii1 the ,paradise of the ,pacific4 ,,chapter ,,xxx ,,guam ,while cruising in the ,pacific ,ocean ,magellan discovered a chain of islands about fifteen hundred miles east of the ,philippine group4 ,while he lay at anchor1 predatory natives stole some of his belongings2 thereupon ,magellan gave them a bad name1 and to this day the islands bear the name ,ladrones1 or thieves islands4 ,guam1 the largest island in the group1 became more or less important just after the ,spanish-,american ,war1 inasmuch as it was required as one of our chain of naval and coaling stations that pretty nearly encircles the earth4 ,as islands go1 ,guam is of fair size1 about thirty miles long and from three to ten miles in width4 ,it is mountainous and the surface is jungle-covered except where the natives have made trails and clearings4 ,fringing coral reefs1 broken here and there1 encircle the island4 ,one of these breaks is opposite a bight in the coast1 ,san ,luis d',apra1 or ,apra1 as it is now called2 and the bay and channel together form a harbor so well guarded that no transport laden with hostile troops would ever attempt landing4 ,in #affh a mission was established4 ,at this time the population numbered about one hundred thousand4 ,the country was so well cultivated that the whole island seemed like a beautiful garden1 for the people were pretty good farmers4 ,rice and tropical fruits were cultivated in abundance4 ,the natives were also skilful in the making of pottery and they had a well-regulated calendar4 ,for a time they were well disposed toward their intruders2 but at length1 as they began to learn that conversion to the ,christian faith meant also slavery to the ,spanish1 they rebelled against a system which was so one-sided1 and their opposition led to constant strife and bloodshed4 ,in the course of time the severe treatment of the ,spaniards1 together with contagious diseases introduced1 so completely wiped out the native population that1 at the end of seventy years1 scarcely two thousand were left4 ,perhaps no peoples in all the ,south ,sea ,islands have suffered more keenly from contact with ,europeans than these aborigines4 ,frightened at the terrible mortality they had caused1 the conquerors turned to the ,philippines to replenish the depopulated island4 ,tagals were brought over to occupy the place of the fast-disappearing natives1 and with these many of the natives intermarried4 ,the half-castes are inferior to the original inhabitants1 but they have increased in population1 and now number ten thousand4 ,spain ceded ,guam to the ,united ,states in #ahih4 ,since the acquisition our government has established both day and evening schools for the natives1 and they are making rapid progress in education4 ,it is a long journey to ,guam--thirty-five hundred miles almost from ,honolulu and not quite half as far from ,manila4 ,and how to get there8 ,well1 it is not an easy matter4 ,if you go to ,apia1 or to ,manila1 and remain long enough--perhaps six weeks1 maybe six months--a ,german trading schooner will come along and take you aboard4 ,you get there in time2 for the trading schooner is likely to make a very circuitous trip1 calling at a dozen islands to get copra in exchange for cloth1 knives1 and cheap jewelry4 ,but if one happens to have the right sort of pull1 one can get a pass on an army transport4 ,that means a most delightful trip from ,san ,francisco to ,honolulu1 and thence to ,guam4 ,uncle ,sam does the square thing by his soldiers1 and the army transports that carry them to the distant stations are fitted so as to be as comfortable as the best liners4 ,there are a big exercise deck and a reading-room with plenty of books4 ,not the least important part of the equipment is a self-playing piano and a good assortment of music4 ,illustration3 ,native ploughing in rice-field1 ,guam4 ,one may find rice-farms as skilfully cultivated as those of ,japan or ,china ,there is not very much to see after one reaches ,guam4 ,one village is just about the same as all the others4 ,perhaps half a dozen huts are built of mud1 or possibly of coral limestone2 the rest are made of bamboo frames covered with palm--all in one room in which the family and the pig live4 ,agana1 however1 is a village of six or seven thousand people4 ,it is laid out in streets which are fairly regular4 ,they are deep with dust during the dry season1 and with mud the rest of the year4 ,there are several government buildings which are neat and trim1 two or three churches1 several school buildings1 and a few stores4 ,most of the people one meets on the street speak ,spanish2 a few speak ,english4 ,english is the coming language1 however2 for the schools are there to stay and every one of the fifteen hundred youngsters who attend school carries away a little ,english4 ,a fine road bordered with palms connects ,agana with ,apra1 seven miles south4 ,there is not much to see in ,guam4 ,the scenery is much like that of every island in that part of the ,pacific4 ,about the only diversion of the soldiers stationed there is hunting1 which is pretty good if one is content to hunt deer and wild hogs4 ,artistic sportsmen might prefer the deer1 but all the real fun is the share of the hog-hunters4 ,the hogs are savage beasts when cornered2 they likewise are full of animal cunning4 ,along the coast lowlands one may find rice-farms as skilfully cultivated as those of ,japan or of ,china4 ,most of the rice is consumed on the island2 however1 copra1 or dried cocoanut1 is an export1 and its sale brings enough money to the natives to purchase the cloth and other goods needed4 ,since ,american occupation the cacao tree has been cultivated1 and cocoa bids fair to be the chief export in the near future4 ,the government of ,guam is better under ,american rule than at any time in the previous history of the island4 ,when the late ,admiral ,schroeder was governor of ,guam he consulted his log-book and discovered that he was altogether too far away from ,washington to be tied to rules and regulations1 or to be tangled up in official red tape4 ,so he cut the tape and used good common sense instead4 ,perhaps the government was a bit patriarchal1 but it was good1 clean1 and wholesome--and every one profited by it4 ,,chapter ,,xxxi ,,the ,,philippine ,,islands ,our newest possession1 the ,philippine ,archipelago1 in a way1 is also our oldest1 for the islands were discovered by ,ferdinand ,magellan in #aeba1 about twenty-nine years after the great discovery of ,columbus4 ,magellan called at several islands1 among them ,mindanao and ,cebu4 ,he anchored in the harbor on which the city of ,cebu now stands4 ,he seems to have been treated in a very friendly manner by the natives of ,cebu1 but when he crossed to a near-by island he was attacked and killed4 ,the friendship of the ,king of ,cebu was not very steadfast1 for after ,magellan's death several of his officers were put to death by the king's order4 ,for two hundred and forty years the islands were a possession of ,spain2 then they were captured by a ,british fleet4 ,they were soon restored to ,spain1 however1 and remained a ,spanish possession until #ahih1 when they were ceded to us after the ,spanish-,american ,war4 ,there are more than three thousand islands in the archipelago1 and they are the partly covered tops of a mountainous and rugged plateau4 ,many volcanoes testify to the volcanic origin of the plateau2 indeed1 the surface of the plateau seems to be a thin crust over--well1 over trouble2 for the dozen or more volcanoes are never quiet long enough to be forgotten4 ,perhaps it was proper to name the islands after ,philip ,,ii of ,spain1 for he1 too1 had his full measure of trouble4 ,the archipelago is of pretty good size4 ,the whole plateau1 land and water1 is about as large as that part of the ,united ,states east of ,chicago2 and the islands themselves are pretty nearly as large as the ,state of ,texas4 ,luzon1 the largest island1 is about as large as ,pennsylvania1 and ,mindanao is a bit smaller4 ,then there are ,samar1 ,panay1 ,palawan1 and ,cebu--every one large enough to make a ,state of fair size1 and every one with enough people to make a ,state4 ,there are about seven million people all told1 most of whom are of the ,malay race4 ,as a rule1 they are pretty well along toward civilization2 some of them are educated4 ,there are also tribes of the black race--,negritos1 they are called--who are just plain savages4 ,they are the original inhabitants of the islands1 and it is most likely that they are the descendants of people from ,new ,guinea4 ,in the southwest is the ,sulu group1 inhabited by ,malays1 called ,moros4 ,they are ,muhammadans in religion and are the last of the ,malays who came to the islands4 ,of all the ,malay peoples1 the ,tagalogs of ,luzon have been the foremost to learn the arts of western civilization4 ,they have surpassed their near relatives1 the ,visayans1 who live in the central part of the islands4 ,perhaps it is the closer contact with the ,spanish that has given the ,tagalogs their great progress4 ,at all events they have become well to do and prosperous as measured by other ,malay peoples4 ,the ,moros1 who live mainly in the southern part1 have scarcely reached civilization4 ,in the ,sulu islands they have their own government1 at the head of which is a native sultan4 ,in many parts of the islands there are tribes governed by chiefs called dattos4 ,some of the natives are prosperous farmers1 but many of them are savages4 ,a great deal has been said about the misrule and cruelty of the ,spanish governors and officials4 ,being soldiers and task-masters it is likely that they did many things that will not stand the searchlight of civilization4 ,but the work of the priests will always leave a pleasant flavor4 ,for three hundred years they braved every danger and suffered every hardship in their work4 ,for every one that fell a victim to disease1 or to the bolo1 there was another ready to fill his place4 ,they not only converted the natives to ,christianity1 but they also taught them to be thrifty farmers and prosperous business men4 ,as a result the ,filipinos are the only ,asian people of considerable numbers that have yet become ,christians4 ,illustration3 ,the carabao1 harnessed to a dray or wagon1 shuffles along ,when the ,philippine ,islands became a possession of the ,united ,states1 one of the first things done was to establish several thousand schools4 ,a thousand ,american teachers were at first employed4 ,training schools for teachers were established1 and in the course of a few years more than five thousand ,filipino teachers were conducting native schools4 ,english is taught in all the schools1 and there are special schools in which agriculture1 mechanical trades1 and commerce are taught4 ,there is good reason for all this1 for the islands have wonderful resources4 ,gold1 silver1 copper1 and iron are abundant4 ,the forests have an abundance of hard woods that sooner or later will find a market both in ,europe and ,america4 ,the rice-fields will easily produce enough grain for the whole population1 and a considerable amount to sell in addition1 when all the rice-lands are cultivated4 ,for want of good wagon roads and railways only a small part of the rice-lands are cultivated4 ,there is an abundance of good grazing land that will produce meat for twice the present population4 ,most of the cattle now grown in the islands are of the kind found in ,india4 ,the most common beast of burden1 however1 is the carabao1 or water-buffalo4 ,what an ugly looking beast it is6 ,it is as clumsy as a hippopotamus1 as ugly as a rhinoceros1 and as kind and gentle as an old muley cow4 ,harnessed to a dray or a wagon1 it shuffles along1 its big1 flat feet seeming to walk all over the road4 ,but those same big feet are the animal's chief stock in trade4 ,they enable him to walk through both sand and deep mud--mud so soft and deep that a horse or a mule would sink to its body4 ,nothing but the carabao's flatboat-like feet could drag ploughs through the soft mud of the rice-fields4 ,carabaos are easily trained to farm work1 and even children can drive them--or ride on their backs in going to school4 ,the milk of a carabao is as good and wholesome as that of an ordinary cow2 the meat is pretty tough1 but it is not unwholesome4 ,one thing1 however1 the carabao must have1 and that is a bath several times a day4 ,deprived of its bath1 the animal at first becomes restless2 then it breaks away in a half-crazed condition for the nearest water1 where it buries itself1 all but its head4 ,native drivers know just how to manage their animals and drive them to the nearest water several times a day4 ,there are horses in the islands1 but not many4 ,most of them are very much like the mustang4 ,the ,spanish brought ,andalusian ponies to the islands many years ago1 but they did not prove very useful4 ,within a few years ,american horses were introduced1 but they could not live on ,philippine grasses4 ,mexican mustangs and ,mongolian ponies were much better1 however1 but they are used chiefly as riding animals4 ,of all the beasts of burden in the ,philippine ,islands1 none is in the same class with ,john ,chinaman4 ,everywhere his bland smile is seen2 his patience has no end--and1 apparently1 his work has none4 ,the ,filipino farmer works merely to keep body and soul together2 ,john ,chinaman works to save hard cash1 and he saves it4 ,wherever there is any money to be made1 ,john is pretty certain to be near by4 ,he is the cook and maid-of-all-work in the house of the foreign resident1 the stevedore on the dock1 the clerk in the forwarding house1 the boss in the rice plantation1 the handy man in the tobacco factory1 and the store-keeper in the remote ,filipino village4 ,sixteen hours of hard work every day and ,sunday seem to make him grow fat2 the rest of the time he just works for fun--and hard cash4 ,long before the ,chinese coolie came to the ,united ,states the ,spanish raised the cry ,the ,chinese must go4 ,the ,spanish made short work of them1 killing them by thousands and tens of thousands4 ,but in a year or two ,john was on hand again1 smiling and working sixteen hours a day--strictly for cash4 ,and he is in the ,philippine ,islands to stay4 ,as a rule the ,filipinos rarely live isolated as do the ,american farmers4 ,almost always they cluster in villages of one or two hundred people4 ,the ,filipino is not likely to cultivate a big farm4 ,two or three acres will supply the family with all the food required1 and the ,chinese merchant will buy enough of his produce to provide a few dollars in cash and the cloth for the family wearing apparel4 ,in the smaller villages there is an open place that answers for a street1 but the houses are apt to be scattered about without much regularity of arrangement4 ,the houses1 like those of the ,pacific islands generally1 are built of bamboo frames--heavy pieces for the framework itself and woven bamboo splints for the side sheathing4 ,the roof is carefully thatched with the leaves of the nipa-palm and these are sewn into a thick mat with ratan4 ,in places where the ground is likely to be overflowed1 each house is set on posts so that the floors are several feet from the ground4 ,in this case the pig does not live in the parlor2 the pigs and chickens occupy the ground floor4 ,all told1 the ,filipino village mansion may not be very ornate1 but it is extremely comfortable4 ,the larger villages and cities are built much alike4 ,there is a plaza or public square4 ,around the four sides1 and facing the plaza1 are the church1 government buildings1 and stores4 ,the more pretentious residences are near by4 ,further away these give place to the ,filipino1 or nipa houses1 as they are called4 ,the street surrounding the plaza is broad and well kept2 elsewhere the streets are quagmires in the rainy1 and dust holes in the dry season4 ,pretty nearly always there is a ,chinese quarter that is crowded and dirty2 quite likely1 too1 the best stores in the town are kept by ,chinese merchants4 ,that is the way the ,spaniards laid out their cities and towns in ,spain2 they did not change the plan in the ,philippines4 ,the houses built for them in the islands are much like those in ,spanish towns--adobe walls plastered with stucco1 and roofed with tiles4 ,illustration3 ,the harbor of the city4 ,scene on the ,pasig ,river1 ,manila ,manila is the capital and commercial centre of the islands4 ,it is a city about as large as ,seattle1 and is situated at the head of a landlocked body of water1 ,manila ,bay4 ,corregidor ,island1 a little dark-green islet1 guards the entrance to the bay2 and one cannot see the wicked guns that are ready to pour a raking fire into a hostile fleet until one is within a few hundred yards of the island4 ,the only thing visible at a distance is a flag flying from a high mast2 but it is the ,stars and ,stripes that bends to the east wind4 ,the bay is a good-sized bit of water1 too4 ,in the middle of it one can just barely see the gray1 misty hills that surround it4 ,then the shore line begins to take shape and the mouth of ,pasig ,river seems to open in front of the incoming steamship4 ,in a few minutes the harbor of the city is in sight4 ,steamships1 with their painted stacks and funnels1 and sailing vessels1 with every sort of mast and rigging1 crowd the harbor4 ,row-boats by the hundred are moving in every direction1 and little steam-launches and motor-boats are spitting viciously as they go back and forth4 ,the lower part of the city is almost like ,amsterdam2 it is traversed by canals1 great and small1 in which are fishing-smacks waiting to have the catch taken to market4 ,puffy1 wheezy tugs are making fast to huge cascoes1 or lighters2 for the cargoes must be taken from the docks to the steamships and sailing-vessels out in the harbor4 ,the ,pasig is only ten or twelve miles in length4 ,it flows from a near-by lake1 and both sides of the river are lined with villages1 and market-gardens1 and duck-hatcheries4 ,the business streets are crowded with carts and drays4 ,here and there are smart-looking carriages carrying well-groomed men1 who talk little and look rich4 ,there could not be more style and ceremony about them if they were in ,new ,york1 ,london1 or ,paris4 ,trim-looking soldiers in khaki uniforms1 native ,filipinos in white suits1 ,chinese in silk gowns and long sleeves1 native women wearing red skirts and black shawls1 native coolies in loose blouses and short pantaloons--all go to make up the throng of the streets4 ,most of the houses are two stories in height with arcades or awnings that shelter the sidewalks4 ,and such narrow sidewalks6--they are hardly wide enough for more than three people to walk abreast4 ,but even the business houses are built for comfort4 ,the roof has a broad overhang1 and quite likely there is a covered veranda4 ,many of the ,filipinos of ,manila are educated and prosperous4 ,their houses are said to be furnished in ,european style1 and likewise their clothing4 ,sure enough everything bears a made in ,germany mark1 but everything looks distinctly ,filipino4 ,the head of the family wears a suit of spotless white duck1 but it has a military cut--and perhaps he goes about the house barefoot2 if so1 he knows what real comfort is4 ,illustration3 ,extracting indigo in ,ilocos ,province1 ,philippine ,islands ,mother and daughters wear skirts of beautiful brocaded silk1 very wide and full2 above the skirt is a loose garment much like a shirt-waist cut low at the neck1 and over this a lace cape with a wide1 flowing collar4 ,possibly they wear heelless slippers1 but just as likely they1 too1 are barefoot--when no visitors are present4 ,perhaps such suits are not quite so becoming as the trim1 tailor-made suits in ,new ,york1 but they are a lot more comfortable4 ,a short distance from the ,escolta1 or chief business street1 is one of the many markets of ,manila4 ,the whole space is laid off with rows of bamboo booths4 ,pretty nearly everything to eat1 to wear1 or to furnish the house is on hand--or rather in loose piles--fish1 duck's eggs1 meat1 rice1 pinole1 fruit of forty kinds1 straw hats1 straw sandals1 straw raincoats1 tin ware from ,america1 wooden ware from ,holland1 and clay stoves made in ,manila4 ,every alley has its own wares1 and ,john ,chinaman with his baskets balanced on a long pole puts a finishing touch to the market4 ,a ,filipino cannot be emphatic in an ordinary tone of voice4 ,buyer and seller work themselves up to high ,c pitch until it seems as though nothing short of a fit would overtake both4 ,bedlam is turned loose in every part of the market4 ,usually a man and his wife are required to conduct the business at a booth4 ,their bare feet sticking out from the skirts bob up and down1 beating time to the clatter of their voices4 ,here comes a man whose sole stock in trade consists of a single article1 namely1 a python4 ,his goods are twined about a pole with a cross piece for a perch1 but the snake's tail has a loving twist around the owner's neck4 ,what for8--well1 the python has a sweet tooth for rats and mice and the sweet tooth of this particular snake is on edge for a square meal4 ,years ago foreign ships brought rats from various countries4 ,in the course of time rats and mice became so numerous that it became a question whether ,manila should exterminate the rats or the rats exterminate ,manila4 ,now1 those same ships ought to have brought some cats along1 too4 ,but it is just as well that they did not1 for one python is worth half a dozen cats or rat terriers when business is on hand4 ,the only drawback occurs when the python insists on getting into bed with his owner to keep warm4 ,when in ,manila1 go to ,duck-town by all means4 ,it is only a short distance from the near-by market4 ,the feeding grounds and hatcheries extend for two miles along the river4 ,hundreds of thousands of ducks are reared at the hatcheries1 some for eggs1 and others for food4 ,the ducks are fed on shell-fish1 and foreigners imagine that both the meat and the eggs have a fishy flavor4 ,eggs and edible bird's nests are also brought from neighboring sea-cliffs to the ,manila markets2 and both are considered great delicacies4 ,illustration3 ,manila hemp as it is brought in from the country ,manila is the largest city of the ,philippines1 but there are also several other cities of good lusty growth4 ,bauan1 ,lipa1 ,laoag1 and ,batangas--all in ,luzon--and ,ilo-ilo in ,panay are growing in population and business as the resources of the islands develop4 ,since the ,american occupation1 ,uncle ,sam has done a great deal to make these ports centres of business2 harbors have been deepened2 railways have been extended2 good roads have been built2 and rivers have been made navigable4 ,there are several exports that will always tend to make the ,philippines rich4 ,tobacco is an important crop and the ,manila leaf1 as it is called1 is of very fine quality4 ,there are those who whisper it about that much of the leaf is shipped to ,cuba to be made into ,havana cigars4 ,sugar is also a great export crop1 and when the railways now under way are completed sugar will become one of the foremost exports4 ,the export of copra1 or dried cocoanut1 is a leading industry1 and the ,philippine ,islands produce a large part of the world's product4 ,one ,philippine product1 however1 connects the islands with almost all the rest of the world1 namely1 ,manila hemp4 ,that is1 it is called hemp1 but it is not hemp at all2 the fibre is obtained from a plant very closely related to the banana4 ,white leaves or husks grow closely around the stalk of the plant1 forming a tightly fitting case4 ,this envelope is composed of thousands of long1 strong fibres that1 when cleaned and dried1 are the hemp that makes the strongest and best rope in the world4 ,after the pulpy leaves are stripped from the stalk1 the pulp is squeezed out of them and the fibres are left in the sun to dry4 ,the best fibre is as soft and fine as silk4 ,some of it is used in making a fine cloth2 the coarser fibre is used for rope and hawsers4 ,more than fifteen million dollars worth of ,manila hemp is sold yearly4 ,in the treaty with ,spain1 by which ,uncle ,sam acquired the islands1 twenty million dollars was paid to ,spain4 ,but the exports from the ,philippines have averaged nearly thirty million dollars a year ever since4 ,,chapter ,,xxxii ,,the ,,dutch ,,east ,,indies--,,java ,the ,east ,india ,islands is a name which embraces nearly all the islands of the ,malay ,archipelago1 together with the ,philippines4 ,the largest of these are ,new ,guinea1 ,borneo1 ,sumatra1 ,celebes1 and ,java4 ,nearly all of them1 except the ,philippines and parts of ,new ,guinea and ,borneo1 are controlled by the ,dutch4 ,these fertile islands are a source of great revenue to the ,netherlands2 to the rest of the world they are the chief source of sugar1 spices1 and coffee4 ,of all the ,dutch ,east ,indies1 ,java is by far the most beautiful and productive2 it is a garden of the choicest fruits and flowers4 ,there are two seasons1 a wet and a dry4 ,during the wet season the torrential rains are accompanied by thunder and lightning4 ,in some parts of the island more than a hundred thunder-storms occur yearly4 ,the average rainfall is from sixty to one hundred and eighty-five inches1 most of the rain falling on the windward side4 ,many of the streams are perennial1 and their waters are conducted away to be used in irrigation1 thus bringing under cultivation nearly every part of the island4 ,moreover1 the streams themselves hold fertilizing material much of which has been thrown out by volcanoes4 ,the irrigating water itself furnishes sufficient enrichment for the soil1 and but very little fertilizing is required4 ,the heat1 moisture1 and fertile soil1 coupled with skilful farming1 produce bountiful harvests and make the whole island a smiling field of verdure and plenty4 ,the hills and mountains in many places are terraced1 so that at a distance they look like gigantic staircases carpeted with bright green4 ,so fertile is the soil that in some places two or three crops are raised each year4 ,about one-fourth of the surface is covered with forest4 ,among the most valuable trees is the teak-wood1 which is extensively used in ship-building4 ,it is a more durable timber than oak1 since it resists decay for a long time1 even when wholly or partly submerged in sea water4 ,there are vessels afloat to-day which were built of teak one hundred years ago4 ,the inhabitants1 about thirty million in number1 are of the ,malay race and belong to three nations1 speaking closely related but different languages--the ,sundanese1 ,javanese1 and ,mandurese4 ,the island was wealthy1 populous1 and had a high degree of civilization long before it was known to ,europeans4 ,long years ago--twelve hundred or more--the ,hindoos invaded the country1 and in the fifteenth century ,muhammadans came4 ,they were followed later by the ,dutch who first gained trading concessions and then gradually got possession of the whole island1 much in the same way as ,england secured ,india4 ,each conquest left its impress on the people2 the ,muhammadans converted the natives to their religion4 ,buddhism preceded the religion of the great prophet1 and some of the teachings of ,buddha have been retained1 together with many pagan customs4 ,the ,dutch wisely made no effort to ,christianize the natives and1 until recently1 they have discouraged all such attempts1 believing that they could control the people better without disturbing the prevailing religious conditions4 ,indeed1 they manage affairs with the natives wonderfully well4 ,the island is divided into residences1 in each of which the laws are administered by a native governor4 ,a ,dutch resident is employed by the colonial government to assist the native governor--really to see that he manages his people justly and fairly1 for strict justice has always been observed in dealings with the natives4 ,illustration3 ,a breadfruit tree in ,java ,the ,dutch residents are called elder brothers4 ,each resident watches his residency with great care to see that the taxes are collected and paid to the government1 and that the natives are treated with justice4 ,he is usually the judge who settles all family quarrels and disputes between neighbors4 ,he is just in his judgments and his decisions are not questioned4 ,affairs are managed in much the same way as the ,school ,city or the ,george ,settlement in the ,united ,states4 ,at the same time the ,dutch are very careful to impress their authority on the natives4 ,they require the natives to pay great respect to all officers of the colony4 ,a native who comes into the presence of an official must have his head turbaned and his attire in proper form4 ,under no circumstances is he permitted to smoke1 chew betel-nut1 or behave carelessly4 ,the daily work of the natives is very carefully supervised4 ,they are taught where to plant1 what to plant1 and how to plant their crops4 ,the elder brothers also see that the crops are cultivated with care and properly harvested4 ,java is ruled by a ,governor-,general and a council appointed by himself4 ,the officers are selected because of their fitness1 and most of the subordinates must pass a civil service examination4 ,once in the ,east ,india service an official is fixed for life1 and when he has served his time he retires on a pension4 ,most of the pensioners prefer to remain in the island the rest of their lives4 ,the officials and1 indeed1 all ,european residents live well4 ,stone houses with marble or tile floors1 wide verandas1 and large gardens are the rule4 ,breakfast at one o'clock is the substantial meal of the day4 ,it marks not the beginning but the end of the day's work4 ,from one to five the intense heat keeps every one indoors4 ,at five1 official ,java and all other ,europeans bathe1 dress1 and get ready for dinner4 ,after dinner1 driving1 calling1 and gossiping at the clubs is the proper thing1 and nowhere are people more ceremonious4 ,the natives have but little ambition and no desire to do anything for themselves4 ,now and then there are exceptions1 however2 and a native may be found pegging away at the studies that will enable him to pass the examinations and hold an official position4 ,as a whole1 the native is gentle and polite and yields ready obedience to those in authority4 ,he is fond of amusement1 feasts1 and gambling2 he1 moreover1 celebrates every possible event--his marriage1 the birth of his children1 the building of his home1 the rice harvest1 a return from a journey1 a recovery from illness1 and even the filing of his teeth4 ,if he1 perchance1 has not sufficient money to hold the celebration1 he can join with a neighbor1 then both will share mutually the expense4 ,on all occasions his deportment is quiet1 and whether moved by joy or anger1 no loud language or boisterous laughter is ever heard4 ,the marriageable age of girls is from twelve to fourteen years1 and that of boys sixteen4 ,the night preceding the wedding must be spent by the couple in watching1 in order to avert subsequent unhappiness1 and the next day they repair to a mosque and are married according to ,muhammadan rites and customs4 ,to symbolize her total submission to her husband1 the wife washes his feet4 ,unfortunately1 a divorce can be obtained by the husband for a trivial cause by the payment of a small fee4 ,a native1 on being asked why he got a divorce from his wife1 replied1 ,she ate too much and ,i could not afford to keep her4 ,early in the morning the highways are thronged with people on their way to and from the markets4 ,and the markets8--well1 one is certain to find ,john ,chinaman in charge4 ,as a matter of fact1 there are more than half a million ,chinese in the island1 and they have the control of the trade with the natives4 ,but the native ,javanese trudges along1 balancing two baskets on a long bamboo pole4 ,women and girls help to make up the throng1 and they1 too1 are laden4 ,at the market pandemonium seems to be loose1 and both buyer and seller are shrieking at the top of their voices over a bargain price4 ,there is no question as to which wins2 the ,chinese merchant is there for business4 ,when the native receives the pay for his produce quite as likely as not he makes for the nearest gambling-house and in half an hour loses the savings of a month4 ,to the natives the greatest terrors are lightning and tigers1 both of which claim hundreds of victims each year4 ,they often refrain from killing the tigers1 since the tigers kill the wild pigs which destroy their crops4 ,the tiger is killed usually by capturing him in a sort of box-trap1 and then the trap is taken to the nearest stream1 where it is submerged and the animal drowned1 to avoid injury to the skin1 which brings a good price4 ,the claws and whiskers are carefully removed and sold as fetiches1 since they are considered to be very efficacious4 ,notwithstanding their hard lot1 the people seem happy and there is no starvation poverty4 ,they and their ancestors from time immemorial have always worked hard under task-masters and they know of no better condition4 ,since their scanty clothing costs but little1 if they can have enough to eat and a little amusement occasionally1 they are content4 ,when they have money they spend it recklessly1 regardless of the future4 ,if the needs of the present are supplied1 that is sufficient4 ,when misfortune or disaster overtakes them they merely say3 ,it is the will of ,god4 ,the temples built centuries ago are among the most wonderful structures in the world4 ,they vie in size and grandeur with those of ,india4 ,thousands of these ruined temples are found scattered everywhere over central and eastern ,java1 and many of them are built on the slopes and summits of mountains4 ,these ruins give evidence of the wonderful skill in sculpture and building attained by the people in by-gone ages1 a skill not excelled even in modern times1 but lost to the present inhabitants4 ,the ruins of the great temple of ,boro-,bodor1 situated in the south-central part of ,java1 are among the largest and most striking in the world4 ,this temple is square and was built in six terraces or steps on the summit of a hill4 ,the first terrace measures about five hundred feet on each side1 while each of the five decreases in size toward the top4 ,the last one is crowned by a cupola fifty-two feet in diameter1 surrounded by sixteen smaller ones4 ,here in this great temple of the dead past may be seen scores of statues1 showing on their countenances the peace of ,nirvana4 ,on both inside and outside of the structure are hundreds of images of ,buddha and carvings of scenes connected with his life4 ,it is estimated that all of the sculptures occupy an extent of wall at least three miles in length4 ,all the figures are carved from large blocks of lava4 ,this wonderful temple is built of lava blocks without lime or mortar1 the huge stones being jointed most accurately by tenons1 mortises1 and dovetails which bind them solidly together4 ,many of the temples erected by the ,buddhists and ,brahmanists were destroyed by the ,moslem invaders1 and others abandoned4 ,all of these edifices became1 during the succeeding centuries1 overgrown with the luxuriant tropical vegetation and partly buried4 ,some of them1 like that of ,boro-,bodor1 have been uncovered1 displaying hundreds of statues and long lines of bas-relief4 ,java is one of the most productive regions of the world1 otherwise thirty millions of people could not live there4 ,the greater part of the islands consists of government plantations1 but there are more than twenty thousand private plantations4 ,the ,dutch government has built fine wagon roads and miles of railways1 otherwise the great crops of rice1 sugar1 coffee1 and tea could not be moved to the great trade centres and seaports4 ,rice is the chief crop1 but so much is consumed that only a little is left for export4 ,the export rice is sold in ,borneo4 ,most of it is grown on the low coast plains1 and these are watered by a net-work of canals4 ,coffee is the crop that has made ,java famous1 and ,java coffee is regarded the best produced4 ,a few years ago it was the custom to sort the coffee with great care and then to store it several years in order to improve the flavor4 ,the coffee thus seasoned was known as old government coffee4 ,much of the crop is now grown by private owners and is known as private plantations coffee4 ,sugar has become the foremost export crop4 ,most of it goes to ,europe2 a small part of it is sent to the refineries of the ,united ,states4 ,the great sugar plantations are likewise on the lowlands4 ,most of the plantations are owned by wealthy ,hollanders1 or by ,dutch companies4 ,the cane grows taller than that of the ,cuban plantations2 usually it is twice the height of the native laborers and grows so thickly as to make the field like a jungle4 ,it requires a great sum of money to carry on a sugar plantation1 for thousands of dollars must be spent in preparing the land4 ,but when one sees the great mills with their ponderous machinery1 the thousands of native workmen1 and the train loads of sugar which seem to be swallowed by the great steamships1 one cannot help thinking that the sugar-planters make a lot of money in their business4 ,their homes1 many of them1 are beautiful palaces--as costly as can be found anywhere in ,europe4 ,indigo is another famous product of ,java4 ,the indigo plant would look like a rank bunch of weeds were it not planted in rows4 ,the leaves1 which contain the coloring matter1 are picked two or three times a year and soaked in water4 ,when they begin to rot1 the coloring matter leaves the plant and mixes with the water1 from which it is afterward separated by boiling4 ,the coloring matter itself is called indigo2 it is a beautiful blue used for dyeing yarns and cloth4 ,the blue cotton cloth so much worn by the ,dutch peasants is colored with indigo1 and both the cloth and the dye find a market in pretty nearly every country in the world4 ,illustration3 ,coffee-drying in ,java ,years ago an enterprising ,dutch botanist brought to ,java some cinchona trees from ,south ,america4 ,the experiment was successful and so many trees were afterward planted that ,java now furnishes about half the world's supply of quinine1 which is extracted from the bark of the tree4 ,tobacco is extensively grown in ,java1 but one does not hear much about it1 because a great deal of it is sold as ,sumatra leaf4 ,tea-growing has become a great industry in ,java and the tea in quality is as fine as that grown in ,china4 ,women and girls are the pickers4 ,they work with head and arms bare1 each wearing a loose gown resembling a ,japanese kimona without sleeves4 ,as fast as they are picked the leaves are piled on squares of white cloth4 ,when the cloth contains enough to make a bundle of good size the picker carries it on her head to the factory1 where the leaves are first wilted1 rolled into compact form and then dried on great stone floors that are shielded from the sun4 ,the hundreds of pickers with their brightly colored gowns and white bundles1 form a wonderful kaleidoscope picture4 ,in recent years petroleum1 long known to the natives1 has added much to the wealth of ,java4 ,the thrifty ,hollander studied well-drilling in ,pennsylvania and ,california2 then he put his training to work on the ,javanese oil-fields4 ,as a result ,java is beginning to supply not only the ,east ,indies1 but also ,japan with coal-oil4 ,years ago travellers used to tell marvellous stories about a certain poison valley of ,java in the centre of which stood an upas-tree4 ,the tree itself was famed for the deadly effects of its poisonous exhalations1 which killed man1 beast1 or bird that came near it4 ,these stories proved to be mere fabrications4 ,they grew out of the fact that near by was a valley from which arose at times carbonic-acid gas in sufficient quantity to kill small animals running over certain low places4 ,but the upas played no part1 though the juice of the tree is poisonous4 ,batavia is the capital of the ,dutch ,east ,indies4 ,it is on low1 flat land1 half a dozen miles from the artificial harbor which has not long been finished2 for the old port had but little protection from stormy seas and high winds4 ,the swampy land on which the city is built has been drained by canals4 ,excepting the business streets1 the city is almost hidden by the gardens with their profusion of plants4 ,it is the ,amsterdam of the ,old ,world2 and one will find as good wares in ,batavia as in ,holland4 ,during the eruption of ,krakatoa1 ,batavia was buried deep in dust and ragged cinders of lava4 ,more than twenty thousand dead were under the heaps of ash4 ,surabaya is larger than ,batavia and has a population of more than one hundred and fifty thousand4 ,but ,surabaya has not much trade with ,europe2 its commerce is mainly with the ports of ,asia4 ,the harbor is good and it has become the chief naval station of the ,dutch ,east ,indies4 ,the ,dutch authorities do not encourage visitors to ,java4 ,all visitors must have passports or permits2 and if one goes to the interior1 officials question him at every turn and demand his permit at every district4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiii ,,the ,,dutch ,,east ,,indies--,,sumatra ,,and ,,celebes ,two lofty mountain ranges with a deep valley between them lie at the eastern side of the ,indian ,ocean4 ,the ,malay ,peninsula is one range2 the island of ,sumatra is the other4 ,the floor of the valley between them is covered by the sea and forms the ,strait of ,malacca4 ,as islands go1 ,sumatra is of goodly size--larger than ,new ,york1 ,pennsylvania1 and the ,new ,england ,states together4 ,from end to end its length is about the distance between ,boston and ,chicago4 ,greenland1 ,borneo1 ,new ,guinea1 and ,madagascar are each larger4 ,the equator crosses ,sumatra at its central part4 ,sumatra is also a possession of the ,dutch ,east ,indies1 but it is not very important as compared with ,java4 ,although it is three times as large as ,java1 it has scarcely one-tenth the population4 ,there is a pretty good reason for this4 ,in the first place1 the mountainous region is very rugged and much of it is covered with jungle2 therefore1 it is neither habitable nor productive for mankind4 ,in the second place1 the broad plain on the east side of the island is not well adapted to cultivation2 it is cut by deep river valleys in the higher parts1 swampy in the middle part1 and covered with water next the coast during a part of the year4 ,rather singularly the lakes--and there are many--are not in the low1 swampy lands2 most of them are high in the mountains4 ,what is still more singular1 these lakes are the craters of inactive volcanoes4 ,but ,sumatra1 like ,java1 has many active volcanoes4 ,one of these1 ,dempo1 is almost constantly active4 ,every now and then it discharges great quantities of sulphur gases2 these are caught by the rain and1 falling on the cultivated lands1 kill pretty nearly everything touched4 ,in the jungles nature has been very lavish with life4 ,the forests contain more than four hundred kinds of trees--among them teak1 ebony1 camphor1 and even good pine4 ,sumatra is also the home of several trees and plants from which gutta-percha is obtained4 ,railroads to connect the forest belts to the coast are the one thing needed to make ,sumatra a lumber-producing country4 ,for some reason or other many of the wild animals that crossed the shallow water between the ,malay ,peninsula and ,sumatra did not cross the ,sunda ,strait to ,java4 ,there are many more kinds of animals in ,sumatra than in ,java2 indeed1 nearly all the larger species of wild animals of southern ,asia are found in ,sumatra1 and only a few are in ,java4 ,there are many elephants in the uplands2 the rhinoceros lives in the lowlands2 the tiger lives in the jungle1 as in ,india4 ,the flying fox is one of the curiosities of ,sumatra4 ,so much for a name1 however1 for the animal is not a fox but a very large bat4 ,its wings are membranes that connect the limbs corresponding to one's fingers4 ,like other bats1 it hangs from the limb of a tree1 head down1 in the daytime1 and goes to business at night4 ,its body is not much larger than that of a hare1 but when in flight it is four or five feet from tip to tip4 ,illustration3 ,natives in the jungle1 ,sumatra ,the flying cat is likewise a misnamed animal that bears no relationship to pussy1 but is a kind of lemur4 ,the wild dog1 however1 is very much dog and nuisance at the same time--as much of a nuisance as the coyote of the western ,united ,states1 and far more numerous4 ,the coffee rat is likewise a great nuisance wherever found2 unfortunately it is found almost everywhere4 ,monkeys are also numerous4 ,the natives of ,sumatra1 like those of ,java1 are ,malays4 ,unlike them1 however1 they are difficult to govern2 some of the interior tribes are fierce and warlike4 ,near the coast1 and in places controlled by the ,dutch1 the native ruler is subject to an elder brother or ,dutch commissioner4 ,most of the tribes of the interior are ,muhammadans2 they believe that they will be blessed if they are killed in war1 and1 therefore1 they take every opportunity to make war4 ,the natives of ,acheen1 a province in the northwestern part of the island1 have always given the ,dutch a great deal of trouble1 and they are not fully conquered1 even after a hundred years of warfare4 ,one of the interior tribes1 it is thought1 came from ,india several hundred years ago1 for their religion and customs are much the same as those of the ,hindus4 ,although they are surrounded by savage tribes1 and far removed from the civilization1 both of ,india and ,europe1 they have reached a remarkable condition of civilization of their own4 ,they are excellent farmers and stockmen2 they also make firearms1 cloth1 and jewelry which they sell to the ,malay peoples about them4 ,throughout the island the houses are much like those of ,malay peoples elsewhere1 with timber frames and thatched roofs4 ,as in the other islands1 they are set on posts wherever floods are likely to occur4 ,the larger timbers of many houses are beautifully carved1 although many of the designs are grotesque and even hideous4 ,all the houses are clustered in villages4 ,this is done partly for protection against man-eating tigers1 and partly because the people are inclined to social life4 ,the club-house is usually to be found in the villages4 ,it is the town hall1 bazaar1 market1 lounging place1 and social club combined4 ,perhaps a wedding and a funeral may be going on there at the same time4 ,men gamble1 and women gossip and chew betel-nut2 the peddler likewise shows his bargain-counter wares at the club-house4 ,the great plantations of sugar1 coffee1 and tobacco are managed much the same as in ,java4 ,the rice-fields are cultivated usually by the ,chinese1 and they have much of the trade in the rice4 ,sumatra is famous for its tobacco4 ,the plants grow larger and higher than those cultivated in the ,united ,states4 ,the leaves are large and the best of them are used as wrappers1 or outer coverings for fine cigars4 ,sumatra leaf commands a high price1 and a considerable amount of the best tobacco is shipped to ,cuba and the ,united ,states4 ,the coffee crop is also of excellent quality4 ,some of it reaches the market as ,java coffee2 and1 indeed1 it is equal to the best coffee grown in ,java4 ,the beans are large1 light in color1 and of fine flavor4 ,carefully sorted ,palembang coffee commands a high price4 ,sumatra is famous for its pepper1 and not far from one-half the world's product of pepper comes from this island4 ,the plant producing pepper is not the pepper-tree so commonly grown for its beautiful foliage and bright red berries in ,california and ,mexico2 it is a vine or climbing bush4 ,it is commonly planted near to a sapling1 around which it twines2 but in many plantations the plants are pruned and trimmed so that they grow unsupported4 ,the pepper of commerce consists of the dried berries or fruit of the vine4 ,it is the custom to pick the berries as they turn red4 ,the berries shrivel and turn black as they dry4 ,these1 when ground1 are the black pepper of commerce4 ,when fully ripe the color of the berry turns to a pale yellow and the outer skin is easily removed4 ,the husked berries are used for making the white pepper of commerce4 ,sago is also an important product of ,sumatra4 ,it is the starchy pith of a kind of palm-tree--the sago-palm4 ,the pith is dried1 ground to a powder and washed in order to remove the stringy fibre4 ,in the process of washing1 the starchy granules sink to the bottom1 while the woody fibre floats off4 ,illustration3 ,a jungle1 scene in ,sumatra ,there are several large towns in ,sumatra--,siboga1 ,padang1 ,benkulen1 ,telok ,belong1 and ,palembang--but their names are rarely seen in print or spoken4 ,the reason is not hard to find2 ,singapore1 just across the ,strait of ,malacca1 is a free port1 with a fine harbor4 ,vessels from every part of the world call at ,singapore1 and it is much more convenient to have the ,sumatra products marketed there than to send them from ,sumatra ports4 ,a few miles to the east of ,sumatra are the islands of ,banka and ,billiton1 famous for their tin mines4 ,these mines produce about two-thirds the world's supply of tin4 ,it is interesting to know that the silver-white metal1 with which so many of our kitchen utensils are coated1 has travelled more than half-way around the world to be used1 but this is probably the case4 ,sunda ,strait separates ,sumatra from ,java4 ,in this narrow strait is situated the island of ,krakatoa1 remarkable for one of the most destructive volcanic eruptions that have ever occurred4 ,the great eruption was preceded by low rumblings and slight explosions for three months before the volcano burst out in all its fury1 on the night of ,august #bf1 #ahhc4 ,the explosions were heard at a distance of many hundred miles and over an area equal to one-thirteenth of the earth's surface4 ,the entire southern part of the island was blown away and the earth was shaken for thousands of miles1 the shock being recorded as far as ,south ,america4 ,the upheaval caused a tidal wave one hundred and twenty feet high which1 with the lava clots and ash ejected1 destroyed all of the towns and plantations bordering on both sides of the straits4 ,in this disaster more than forty thousand persons perished and every vestige of animal and vegetable life in the surrounding region disappeared4 ,the only person left to look out upon the scene of destruction was the keeper of the light-house1 a structure one hundred and thirty feet high1 whose light the gigantic waves merely succeeded in extinguishing4 ,a cubic mile of material is said to have been thrown out in the form of lapilli and dust by the successive explosions4 ,the dust1 estimated to have reached the height of several miles1 was disseminated by the upper currents of air and caused the brilliant sunsets seen for months in nearly every part of the civilized world4 ,celebes is the most curiously shaped island in the world4 ,it has a central body from which project four large arms1 making it look like a huge starfish4 ,these radiating peninsulas are mountain ranges1 here and there peaked with volcano cinder cones4 ,there are no low-lying marshes2 the position and high surface render this one of the healthiest islands in the ,malay ,archipelago4 ,the ,dutch have had settlements here for more than two centuries2 and their wise and just treatment of the natives has made the island famous for peace and prosperity4 ,except a few tribes of the interior1 all the islanders are at least partly civilized4 ,the natives who live in the coast regions are intelligent and industrious4 ,paganism and corrupted ,muhammadanism are the prevailing religions1 but ,christianity has secured a firm hold in a few places4 ,a written language and literature have prevailed for centuries4 ,all able-bodied men are compelled to work and each year to give a few days' labor to keep the excellent roads in good repair2 but they reap the reward of their industry and are happy and contented4 ,the best coffee land in the ,east ,indies is to be found on this island4 ,the most favorable soil for coffee is the rich1 black volcanic ash that covers the mountain slopes in many parts of north ,celebes4 ,the ,menado coffee is said to be the finest the world produces4 ,the coffee-trees are allowed to grow to the height of six feet1 when the tops are cut off1 so as to strengthen the growth of the lateral branches which bear the fruit4 ,besides a fungus disease1 coffee has many other enemies4 ,both rats and mice are fond of the juicy stalks of the berries when they are nearly ripe1 and they nibble at them until the berries fall4 ,the long-haired black rat is the greatest of these pests4 ,cats are kept on each plantation to prey upon the animal pests2 but1 unfortunately1 the natives are very fond of cats--not as pets1 but as articles of food4 ,this feline appetite on the part of the workmen causes the owner to keep a vigilant watch over his cat family1 and to severely punish any offender4 ,perhaps in time they will learn to employ the python as a rat-catcher1 for the python is not surpassed for this purpose4 ,the forest trees are much like those of the adjacent islands4 ,there are no very large animals1 those peculiar to ,celebes being the tailless baboon and the pig-deer1 which has tusks and curving horns4 ,parts of the interior of ,celebes still remain unexplored and are said to be inhabited by cannibals and head-hunters4 ,macassar is the capital and chief city4 ,it is situated in the southern part of the southwestern peninsula1 and in commerce ranks next to the largest cities of ,java4 ,its trade totals upward of three million dollars annually4 ,the principal exports of the island are coffee1 rice1 nutmegs1 cloves1 dammer1 copal1 rattan1 copra1 tobacco1 trepang1 and tortoise-shell2 coffee greatly outranking all the other products4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiv ,,borneo ,,and ,,papua ,hot1 damp1 and swampy along the coast lowlands2 rugged and fairly pleasant in the high plateau lands--that is ,borneo1 an island as large as the ,state of ,texas4 ,borneo has a great future1 however1 when a race of civilized people can be found who can inhabit it1 for it is even more unhealthful than ,sumatra4 ,but the wealth is there--diamonds that are rather poor in color1 gold1 copper1 iron1 coal1 and petroleum4 ,that is a good list1 and it remains only to find a people who can live there and make the great wealth of the island available to the world4 ,perhaps it may be the ,japanese--less likely the ,chinese1 for they are content to trade with the natives4 ,possibly it may be the ,filipinos--for some of the ,filipinos1 especially the ,moros1 are the descendants of ,borneo peoples4 ,safe it is to say that the native tribes will not accomplish this result1 for they are among the most debased and disgusting savages on the face of the earth4 ,many of these tribes are ,malays governed by chiefs1 or dattoes4 ,some of the tribes near the coast carry on a crude sort of farming1 which is encouraged by the ,chinese merchants who buy their produce4 ,some of the interior tribes just live1 being both lazy and vicious4 ,for food1 there is an abundance of bananas and meat4 ,as to the meat1 it makes little or no difference about the kind2 any animal whose flesh has become putrid is relished4 ,the most interesting natives of ,borneo1 however1 are the ,dyaks1 the people from whom the ,moros of the ,philippine ,islands are descended4 ,they are perhaps the most intelligent1 but certainly the most troublesome peoples4 ,they are best known as the head-hunters of ,borneo4 ,among themselves1 the one who has killed the greatest number of people is the greatest man of the tribe1 and the heads of his victims are the testimony to his greatness4 ,so the head-hunters kill just for the pleasure of killing1 and the heads of their victims are kept as trophies4 ,not all ,dyak tribes are head-hunters1 however4 ,when they are not off on head-hunting expeditions1 the ,dyaks are very industrious farmers4 ,they are fond of ornaments4 ,the men of some of the tribes wear richly embroidered jackets2 the women may wear waists made of fine rattan strung with metal beads and ornaments4 ,they may even wear crowns of burnished metal2 at all events1 they are certain to wear earrings of astonishing size--perhaps three or four inches across and made of solid brass4 ,to hold these pieces of native jewelry the lobes of the ears1 after they have been pierced1 are stretched until they form loops two inches or more in length4 ,the men also are fond of earrings and similar ornaments1 but a real ,dyak swell does not consider himself properly in style until his front teeth are filed away so that they are notched and shut together like the teeth of a steel trap4 ,moreover1 he cannot hope to obtain a wife unless he has at least one head as a trophy4 ,in hunting1 the ,dyak often makes use of the blow-gun4 ,this weapon1 for short distances1 is about as sure and true as a rifle4 ,it is a wooden tube four or five feet in length1 the bore of which is made very straight and smooth4 ,the arrow1 or dart1 fits the bore of the tube4 ,to make sure of the game the tip of the dart is dipped in a most deadly poison2 so that1 if it merely breaks the skin of the animal at which it is shot1 it makes a wound that is quickly fatal4 ,unlike most of the natives of the tropical ,indies1 instead of living in villages1 the ,dyaks frequently live in communal houses4 ,sometimes twenty or more families live in the same house1 which is not unlike the communal houses of the ,american ,indian1 except that it is surrounded by a broad veranda4 ,hunting honey in the forests is one of the native sports4 ,the forests of certain parts of ,borneo seem to be alive with wild bees4 ,as a result1 honey and wax are very abundant4 ,the honey-bear gets a good share of the wild honey1 for his shaggy hide is proof against the stings of the bees4 ,the ,dyak hunter has no shaggy coating to protect him2 so he goes about robbing the bees in a more scientific manner4 ,the bees seem to prefer the mengalis tree1 which has so many angles and hollow places about its trunk that to build the comb is an easy matter4 ,not infrequently there may be fifty or more swarms in a single tree4 ,when a bee-tree is to be robbed1 great piles of a certain plant or weed are collected and put in such a position that the smoke will be carried against the nesting-places of the swarms4 ,the piles are then fired4 ,the smoke neither kills the bees nor does it drive them off2 it merely stupefies them4 ,when the humming of the bees is hushed1 comb and honey are easily removed4 ,a considerable part of the wax is exported1 but thousands of tons are wasted4 ,hunting in the forests of ,borneo has its unpleasant features1 for the leeches are almost as numerous as the leaves of the trees4 ,they are big1 fat1 ugly-looking slugs1 but they can stretch their bodies into a small1 thin form4 ,when waiting for a victim they lengthen and sway their threadlike bodies to and fro1 ready to launch out at the first opportunity4 ,so gently do they commence their work that the pricking sensation is felt only when they are gorged with blood and begin to loosen their hold4 ,the gathering of edible birds' nests1 built by a kind of swallow1 is quite an industry1 and is confined to the rocky-cliff sections of certain parts of the coast where cover abounds4 ,this species of swallow is smaller than the common swallow and builds its nest either in the dark limestone caverns or in the crevices and nooks of the overhanging cliffs4 ,the chief material used in constructing the nest is a glutinous saliva produced by the bird itself4 ,the ,chinese are very fond of the nests1 and ,chinese merchants buy most of them4 ,the roofs of some of the caves frequented by these swallows are several hundred feet above their floors1 and to reach the nests1 scattered over the curved roofs and sides1 it is necessary to construct ladders and stages4 ,these are made out of rattan and bamboo and are fastened by pegs driven into the limestone walls4 ,crawling up on these slender supports with a candle and forked bamboo pole1 the native proceeds to detach the nests1 which he passes to a companion below4 ,when the nests are built in caves and crevices1 near the top of cliffs1 a swinging ladder is dropped from above4 ,there are two kinds of nests1 the clear yellowish-white ones1 and the dark ones4 ,the former bring a price as high as twelve dollars per pound2 the latter only one-tenth as much4 ,the best nests are found in the darkest caves4 ,bird-nest gathering is a perilous calling1 and serious accidents are not infrequent4 ,the nests are gathered two or three times a year4 ,the northern part of ,borneo is ,british territory1 and the ,british also control the ,states of ,sarawak and ,brunei2 the rest of the island is a part of the ,dutch ,east ,indies4 ,the ,british are more interested in the minerals and jungle produce1 such as gutta-percha1 rattan1 rubber1 and birds' nests1 than in the cultivation of plantations4 ,the ,dutch1 on the other hand1 are trying to establish the great plantations there that have made ,java famous4 ,already these are producing great quantities of sago1 tobacco1 and sugar4 ,there are no large cities and only a few ports with good harbors1 but ,german steamships make the rounds of the ports and carry the produce to ,singapore1 the clearing-house of the ,east ,indies4 ,scarcely one hundred and fifty miles north of ,australia lies ,papua1 or ,new ,guinea4 ,next to ,greenland it is the largest island in the world1 and in many ways it is the world's wonderland4 ,it was one of the first large bodies of land discovered after the discovery of ,america1 and one of the last to be settled by ,europeans4 ,most likely dry land at one time connected ,australia and ,new ,guinea1 for the animal and plant life of the two are much the same4 ,even the ,great ,barrier ,reef that skirts the east coast of ,australia extends part-way around ,new ,guinea4 ,of all the islands southeast of ,asia1 ,new ,guinea is the most interesting4 ,it is rich beyond measure with things useful and beautiful4 ,sugar-cane grows wild from sea to mountain2 wild oranges1 lemons1 and limes can be had for the picking2 and land adapted for growing rice1 coffee1 tobacco1 rubber1 cocoanuts1 and cinchona is plentiful4 ,there are mountain summits clad in everlasting snow1 healthful plateaus abounding in delightful scenery1 and dank coast plains in which lurks the deadly jungle fever4 ,dense forests cover most of the island1 but the forest trees of the ,east ,indies are not to be found except here and there in the northwest neck of the island4 ,the famous eucalyptus abounds in the lowland regions2 so also does the nipa-palm4 ,pines1 much like the kauri pine of ,new ,zealand1 grow in the high plateaus4 ,most singular of all1 in the high mountain regions one may find the alpine plants of ,europe1 ,new ,zealand1 the ,antarctic islands1 and the ,andine heights of ,south ,america4 ,still another strange feature is to be found3 while the forest trees are ,australian kinds1 the plants that make the forests a thicket are the rattans and other jungle plants of ,india6 ,new ,guinea is noted for birds of beautiful plumage1 especially birds of paradise1 of which there are many kinds4 ,among the insects is one commonly known as the praying mantis4 ,it is related to the grasshopper and is found also in many other parts of the world4 ,in ,new ,guinea the praying mantis is three or four inches long and at first sight seems to be nothing but a broken twig4 ,in various parts of the world it is known as preacher1 nun1 soothsayer1 and saint4 ,it has received its name from the fact that it rests in a sort of kneeling position1 holding its forelegs in a devotional attitude4 ,its character1 however1 is anything but saintly2 it is a most vicious wretch that may well be called the tiger of the insect world4 ,the devotional attitude is the position in which it can best seize its insect prey2 for when an unsuspecting insect lights on what seems to be a green twig1 snap6--those blade-like forelegs armed with sharp spikes come together like scissors1 and the unlucky victim is cut to pieces in an instant4 ,john ,chinaman has discovered a use for the praying mantis--a very practical use1 too4 ,john and his near-by friends capture a lot of the insects1 carry them to a convenient bungalow1 turn them loose in a cockpit1 and bet on the survivor4 ,when the insects are turned loose there is business on hand1 for they go to work at once1 cutting one another to pieces by the most approved methods of surgical amputation4 ,the owner of the survivor wins4 ,the native ,papuans much resemble the bushrangers of ,australia2 they are ,negritos1 with black skins and woolly hair4 ,there are a few tribes of natives that much resemble the peoples of ,samoa and ,hawaii2 there are also other tribes that resemble the ,malays of southeastern ,asia4 ,the ,papuan tribes of the coast are about as degraded as the bushrangers of ,australia4 ,some of the tribes are cannibals who have a fondness for sailors that have been wrecked on the shores of ,new ,guinea4 ,they are neither better nor worse than most of the other tribes of islanders4 ,like other islanders1 too1 they are tractable and easily governed by the ,europeans who treat them decently4 ,not very much is known about the tribes in the interior1 except that some of them have neither houses nor clothing4 ,they live in the trees1 and wear no clothing4 ,they are hardly better off than the troops of monkeys1 but unlike them eat raw flesh instead of fruit and nuts4 ,missionaries have established schools along the coast settlements1 and the native children trained in these schools make amazing progress4 ,they learn to read and write quickly1 are neat in dress1 and polite in manners4 ,many of the boys who attend the mission schools are trained to skilled labor on the plantations2 some go to the interior as missionary teachers4 ,a few of the ,papuan tribes have reached a condition of barbarism much like that of the ,iroquois ,indians in ,new ,york when the white men found them4 ,they live in houses1 some of them four or five hundred feet in length4 ,perhaps thirty or forty families may occupy a single house4 ,the houses are divided into apartments1 each family living separately4 ,in some of the tribes the men live in a communal house by themselves4 ,the women live in small huts1 two or three together4 ,they cook the food1 which they carry to the communal house2 they also do all the work required in cultivating the gardens of yams1 bananas1 and vegetables4 ,war1 hunting1 and fishing are the only pursuits of the men4 ,three nations1 ,holland1 ,great ,britain1 and ,germany1 have divided ,new ,guinea among them4 ,the ,dutch have the eastern half of the island4 ,the ,british and ,germans possess each about one-quarter1 ,british ,new ,guinea being situated opposite to ,queensland1 ,australia4 ,the ,british own the ,solomon ,islands to the eastward of ,new ,guinea1 also4 ,the ,dutch are laying out plantations and teaching the natives to work them in the same way that they are managed in ,java4 ,the ,british are busy exploring the interior1 looking especially to the rich mines in their possession4 ,they have also established a considerable trade in copra1 sago1 pearl shell1 and cocoa-fibre mats4 ,they are planting rubber-trees1 for there is no better land in the world for rubber4 ,they have one great advantage1 namely1 the ,fly ,river1 which is navigable six hundred miles from its mouth1 and opens a trading route far into the interior4 ,port ,moresby is the trade centre of ,british ,new ,guinea4 ,the ,germans make their share of the island pay expenses by taxing and licensing the traders who go there to do business1 and they manage to get a considerable profit out of it4 ,when they find that a trading company is making too much money they buy the company out and carry on the business themselves2 and this is profitable1 too4 ,although less is known about ,new ,guinea than almost any other part of the earth1 enough is known to make it certain that it is one of the most desirable bodies of land in the world4