,hi/orical ,lit]ature 9 ,agriculture 7,,*la71 ,cornell ,univ]sity7 ,transcrib]'s ,note3 ,! spell+ 9 ?is text has be5 pres]v$ z 9 ! orig9al4 ,obvi\s pr9t]'s errors h be5 correct$4 ,y c f9d a li/ ( ! corrections made at ! end ( ?is e-text4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,f>m ,,dra9age4 ,,! ,,pr9ciples1 ,,processes1 ,,& ,,effects ,,( ,,dra9+ ,,l& ,,) ,,/ones1 ,,wood1 ,,pl[s1 ,,& ,,op5 ,,dit*es1 ,,& ,,especially ,,) ,,tiles2 ,,includ+ ,,tables ,,( ,,ra9-,,fall1 ,,evaporation1 ,,filtration1 ,,excavation1 ,,capacity ,,( ,,pipes2 ,,co/ ,,& ,,numb] ,,to ,,! ,,acre1 ,,( ,,tiles1 ,c41 ,c41 ,,& ,,m ,,?an #ajj ,,illu/rations4 ,,by ,,h5ry ,f4 ,,fr5*4 ,,read1 n to contradict & to confute1 nor to believe & take = grant$1 b to weigh & consid]4--,,bacon4 ,! fir/ ,f>m] 0 ! fir/ man1 & all nobility re/s on ! possession & use ( l&4--,,em]son4 ,,new ,,york3 ,c4 ,m4 ,,saxton1 ,,b>k] ,,co41 ,,agricultural ,,book ,,publi%]s1 ,no4 #be ,,p>k ,,r[ #ahfj4 ,,ent]$1 accord+ to ,act ( ,congress1 9 ! ye> #ahei1 ,,by ,,h5ry ,f4 ,,fr5*1 ,9 ! ,cl]k's ,(fice ( ! ,di/rict ,c\rt ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 & = ! ,s\!rn ,di/rict ( ,new ,york4 ,,to ,! ,honorable ,simon ,br[n1 ( ,,massa*usetts1 ,a ,,lov] ,,( ,,agriculture1 ,,& ,a ,,progressive ,,f>m]1 ,,^: ,,words ,,& ,,works ,,are ,,s ,,well ,,devot$ ,,to ,,improve ,,! ,,condition ,,( ,,^? ,,:o ,,cultivate ,,! ,,e>?1 ,,?is ,,book ,,is ,,inscrib$1 ,,z ,a ,,te/imonial ,,( ,,respect ,,& ,,p]sonal ,,e/eem1 ,,by ,,8 ,,fri5d ,,& ,,bro!r1 ,,! ,,au?or4 ,,preface4 ,! ,agriculture ( ,am]ica has seem$ to me to dem& "s light ^u ! subject ( ,dra9age2 "s "w1 :i*1 ) an exposition ( ! v>i\s !ories1 %\ld give ! simple/ details ( ! practice1 ( dra9+ l&4 ,?is treatise is an attempt to answ] t dem&1 & to give to ! f>m]s ( our c\ntry1 at ! same "t1 en\gh ( sci5tific pr9ciples to satisfy intellig5t inquiry1 & pla9 & full directions = execut+ "w 9 ! field1 accord+ to ! be/ kn[n rules4 ,x has be5 my endeavor to %[ :at l&s 9 ,am]ica require dra9age1 & h[ to dra9 !m be/1 at lea/ exp5se2 to expla9 h[ ! !ories & ! practice ( ! ,old ,_w require modification = ! *eap] l&s1 ! de>] labor1 & ! v>i\s climate ( ! ,new2 &1 f9ally1 to sugge/ h[1 ?r\gh improv$ implem5ts & processes1 ! inv5tive g5ius ( our c\ntry may make ! bra9 assi/ & relieve ! labor ( ! h&4 ,) "s hope t my humble labors1 9 a field s broad1 may n h entirely fail$ ( _! object1 ?is "w is (f]$ to ! att5tion ( ,am]ican f>m]s4 ,h4 ,f4 ,f4 ,,! ,,p9es1 ,,exet]1 ,n4 ,h41 ,m>*1 #ahei4 ,,li/ ,,( ,,engrav+s4 ,,page4 ,elk+ton's ,mode #cb1 #cc ,dit* & ,bore-hole #ce ,key?orpe ,sy/em #db ,!ory ( ,spr+s #hj-hd ,plug ,dra9age #ajf1 #ajg ,mole ,pl[ #ajh ,w$ge ,dra9s #aaa ,%\ld] ,dra9s #aaa ,l>* ,tube #aab ,pole ,dra9 #aac ,peat ,tiles & ,tool #aac ,/one ,dra9s #aae-aag ,dra9+ ,bricks #aba ,r\nd ,pipes #abb ,horse-%oe ,tile #abd ,sole-,tile #abe ,pipes & ,coll> #abf ,flat-bottom$ ,pipe-,tile #abi ,dra9s across ,slope #aej ,dra9+ ,irregul> ,/rata #afb ,relief ,dra9s #afb ,small ,outlet #agh ,l>ge ,outlet #agi1 #ahj ,outlet1 ) ,flap #aha ,well1 ) ,silt ,bas9 #ahf ,peep-hole #ahh ,spr+ 9 ,dra9$ ,field #ahi ,ma9 ( ,two ,tiles #aid ,ma9 ( ,sev]al ,tiles #aid ,plan ( ,dra9$ ,field #aie ,junction ( ,dra9s #aif ,bran* ,pipe #aig ,da9es' ,tile ,ma*9e #bji ,pratt's ,tile ,ma*9e #baj ,tiles1 laid well & ill #bbi ,squ>e & ,plumb-,level #bbi ,_s ,level #bcj ,/aff & ,t>get #bca ,span1 or ,a ,level #bcb ,grad+ ,tr5*es by ,l9es #bcc ,*allon]'s ,level #bce ,dra9 ,spades #bce ,spade ) ,spur #bcf ,common ,%ovel & ,spade #bcf ,long-h&l$ ,r\nd ,%ovel #bcg ,%ovel ,scoop #bcg ,iri% ,spade #bch ,birm+ham ,spades #bdj ,n>r[ ,spades #bdb ,engli% ,bottom+ ,tools #bdc ,draw+ & ,pu%+ ,scoops #bdd ,pipe-,lay] #bdd ,pipe-,lay+ #bde ,pick-axes #bde ,dra9 ,gauge #bdf ,elk+ton's ,aug] #bdf ,f[l]'s ,dra9 ,pl[ #bdg ,pratt's ,dit*] #bdi ,paul's ,dit*] #bej ,g]m9ation #bgg1 #bgh ,l& be=e ,dra9age & ,aft] #bhf ,heat 9 ,wet ,l& #bhh ,crack+ ( ,clays #cbe ,dra9age ( ,cell> #cee ,dra9age ( ,b>n ,cell> #cei ,plan ( ,r&'s ,dra9age #cgb ,h4 ,f4 ,fr5*'s ,dra9age #cgf ,,cont5ts4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,introductory4 ,:y ?is ,treatise does n conta9 all ,k4--,att5tion ( ,sci5tific ,m5 attract$ to ,dra9age4--,lieut5ant ,maury's ,sugge/ions4--,ralph ,waldo ,em]son's ,views4--,op9ions ( ,j4 ,h4 ,klipp>t1 ,esq42 ( ,pr(essor ,mapes2 ,b4 ,p4 ,johnson1 ,esq42 ,gov]nor ,wright1 ,mr4 ,cu/is1 c4--,prejudice aga9/ :at is ,engli%4--,ackn[l$gem5ts to our ,fri5ds at ,home & ,abroad4--,! ,wants ( our ,f>m]s4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,! ,,art ,,( ,,dra9+4 ,dra9+ z old z ! ,deluge4--,roman ,au?ors4--,walt] ,bligh 9 #afej4--,no ?or\gh dra9age till ,smi?1 ( ,dean/on4--,no m5tion ( ,tiles 9 ! ,compleat ,body ( ,husb&ry1 #ageh4--,tiles f\nd #ajj ye>s old4--,elk+ton's ,sy/em4--,john/one's ,puns & ,p]ipatetics4--,dra9+ ,spr+s4--,bletonism1 or ! ,faculty ( ,p]ceiv+ ,subt]ranean ,wat]4--,dean/on ,sy/em4--,views ( ,mr4 ,p>kes4--,key?orpe ,sy/em4--,:>ncliffe ,sy/em4--,introduction ( ,tiles into ,am]ica4--,john ,john/on1 & ,mr4 ,delafield1 ( ,new ,york4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,ra91 ,,evaporation ,,& ,,filtration4 ,f]tiliz+ ,sub/ances 9 ,ra9 ,wat]4--,am\nt ( ,ra9 ,fall 9 ,unit$ ,/ates2 9 ,engl&4--,tables ( ,ra9 ,fall4--,numb] ( ,ra9y ,days1 & ,quantity ( ,ra9 ea* ,mon?4--,sn[1 h[ ,comput$ z ,wat]4--,proportion ( ,ra9 ,evaporat$4--,:at ,quantity ( ,wat] ,dry ,soil w ,hold4--,dew ,po9t4--,h[ ,evaporation ,cools ,bodies4--,artificial ,heat ,und]gr\nd4--,tables ( ,filtration & ,evaporation4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,dra9age ,,( ,,high ,,l&s--,,:at ,,l&s ,,require ,,dra9age4 ,:at is ,high ,l&8--,accid5ts to ,crops f ,wat]4--,d ,l&s ne$ ,dra9age 9 ,am]ica8--,spr+s4--,!ory ( ,moi/ure1 ) ,illu/rations4--,wat] ( ,pressure4--,legal ,rights z to ,dra9+ our ,neighbor's ,wells & ,l&4--,:at ,l&s require ,dra9age8--,horace ,greeley's ,op9ion4--,dra9age m ,necess>y 9 ,am]ica ?an 9 ,engl&2 ,indications ( too mu* ,moi/ure4--,w ,dra9age ,pay8 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,v>i\s ,,me?ods ,,( ,,dra9age4 ,op5 ,dit*es4--,slope ( ,banks4--,bru% ,dra9s4--,ridge & ,furr[4--,plug-,dra9+4--,mole-,dra9+4--, mole-,pl[4--,w$ge & ,%\ld] ,dra9s4--,l>* ,tubes4--,dra9s ( ,f5ce ,rails1 & ,poles4--,peat ,tiles4--,/one ,dra9s ,injur$ by ,moles4--,d[n+'s ,giraffes4--,illu/rations ( ,v>i\s ,k9ds ( ,/one ,dra9s4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,dra9age ,,) ,,tiles4 ,:at are ,dra9-,tiles8--,=ms ( ,tiles4--,pipes4--,horse-%oe ,tiles4--,sole-,tiles4--,=m ( ,wat]-,passage4--,coll>s & _! ,use4--,size ( ,pipes4--,velocity4--,friction4--,dis*>g e ( ,wat] ?r\gh ,pipes4--,tables ( ,capacity4--,h[ ,wat] ent]s ,tiles4--,deep ,dra9s run soone/ & longe/4--,pressure ( ,wat] on ,pipes4--,durability ( ,tile ,dra9s4--,dra9-,bricks #ajj ye>s old4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,direction1 ,,di/ance ,,& ,,dep? ,,( ,,dra9s4 ,,direction ,,( ,,dra9s4--,:5ce comes ! ,wat]8--,incl9ation ( ,/rata4--,dra9s across ! ,slope let ,wat] out z well z ,receive x4--,def5ce aga9/ ,wat] f ,high] ,l&4--,op5 ,dit*es4--,head]s4--,silt-bas9s4 ,,di/ance ,,( ,,dra9s4--,dep5ds on ,soil1 ,dep?1 ,climate1 ,prices1 ,sy/em4--,conclusions z to ,di/ance4 ,,dep? ,,( ,,dra9s4--,greatly ,increases ,co/4--,%all[ ,dra9s fir/ tri$ 9 ,engl&4--#aj1jjj ,miles ( ,%all[ ,dra9s laid 9 ,scotl& by way ( ,education4--,dra9s mu/ be bel[ ,subsoil pl[1 & ,fro/4--,effect ( ,fro/ on ,tiles & ,aqu$ucts4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,arrangem5t ,,( ,,dra9s4 ,necessity ( ,sy/em4--,:at ,fall is ,necess>y4--,am]ican ,examples4--,outlets4--,wells & ,relief-,pipes4--,peep-holes4--,h[ to secure ,outlets4--,gate to ,exclude ,back-,wat]4--,grat+s & ,scre5s to keep out ,frogs1 ,snakes1 ,moles1 c4--,ma9s1 ,subma9s1 & ,m9ors1 h[ plac$4--,capacity ( ,pipes4--,ma9s ( ,two ,tiles4--,junction ( ,dra9s4--,effect ( ,curves & ,angles on ,curr5ts4--,bran* ,pipes4--,dra9+ into ,wells or ,swall[ ,holes4--,lett] f ,mr4 ,d5ton4 ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,! ,,co/ ,,( ,,tiles--,,tile ,,ma*9es4 ,prices f> too high2 ,albany prices4--,l5g? ( ,tiles4--,co/ 9 ,suffolk ,co41 ,engl&4--,wall]'s ,ma*9e4--,williams' ,ma*9e4--,co/ ( ,tiles comp>$ ) ,bricks4--,mr4 ,d5ton's ,e/imate ( ,co/4--,o!r ,e/imates4--,two-in* ,tiles c be ,made z ,*eaply z ,bricks4--,process ( ,roll+ ,tiles4--,tile ,ma*9es4--,descriptions ( ,da9es'4--,pratt ,bro4's4 ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,! ,,co/ ,,( ,,dra9age4 ,dra9+ no m exp5sive ?an ,f5c+4--,eng9e]+4--,guess+ n accurate en\gh4--,slight ,fall suffici5t4--,in/ances4--,two ,in*es to ,"o-,?\s& ,feet4--,co/ ( ,excavation & ,fill+4--,n>r[ ,tools requir$4--,tables ( ,cubic cont5ts ( ,dra9s4--,co/ ( ,dra9s on our own ,f>m4--,co/ ( ,tiles4--,weight & ,freight ( ,tiles4--,co/ ( ,outlets4--,co/ ( ,coll>s4--,small] ,tiles us$ ) ,coll>s4--,numb] ( ,tiles to ! ,acre1 ) ,tables4--,l5g? ( ,tiles v>ies4--,numb] ( ,rods to ! ,acre at diff]5t ,di/ances4--,f9al ,e/imate ( ,co/4--,comp>ative ,co/ ( ,tile-,dra9s & ,/one-,dra9s4 ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,,dra9+ ,,implem5ts4 ,unreasonable ,expectations ab\t ,dra9+ ,tools4--,levell+ ,in/rum5ts4--,guess+ n ,accurate4--,level by a ,squ>e4--,_s ,level4--,span1 or ,a ,level4--,grad+ by ,l9es4--,bon+-rod4--,*allon]'s ,dra9 ,level4--,spades & ,%ovels4--,long-h&l$ ,%ovel4--,iri% ,spade1 description & cut4--,bottom+ ,tools4--,n>r[ ,spades4--,engli% ,bottom+ ,tools4--,pipe-lay]4--,pipe-lay+ ,illu/rat$4--,pick-axes4--,dra9 ,gauge4--,dra9 ,pl[s1 & ,dit*-,digg]s4--,f[l]'s ,dra9 ,pl[4--,pratt's ,dit*-,digg]4--,mc,ewan's ,dra9 ,pl[4--,r\tt's ,dra9 ,pl[4 ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,,practical ,,directions ,,= ,,op5+ ,,dra9s ,,& ,,lay+ ,,tiles4 ,beg9 at ! ,outlet4--,use ( ,pl[s4--,level+ ! ,bottom4--,:]e to beg9 to lay ,pipes4--,mode ( ,proc$ure4--,cov]+ ,pipes4--,secur+ ,jo9ts4--,fill+4--,secur+ ,outlets4--,plans4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,,effects ,,( ,,dra9age ,,^u ,,! ,,condition ,,( ,,! ,,soil4 ,dra9age deep5s ! ,soil1 & gives ! roots a l>g] pa/ure4--,cobbett's ,luc]ne #cj feet deep4--,me*i's ,p>snips #ac feet long6--,dra9age promotes ,pulv]ization4--,prev5ts ,surface-,wa%+4--,l5g!ns ! ,season4--,prev5ts ,freez+ out4--,disp5ses ) ,op5 ,dit*es4--,saves #be p] c5t4 ( ,labor4--,promotes absorption ( ,f]tiliz+ ,sub/ances f ! ,air4--,supplies ,air to ! ,roots4--,dra9s run be=e ,ra92 s d "s ,spr+s4--,dra9age w>ms ! ,soil4--,corn spr\ts at #ee deg42 ,rye on ,ice4--,cold f ,evaporation4--,heat w n pass d[nw>d 9 ,wat]4--,c\nt ,rum=d's ,exp]im5ts ) ,hot ,wat] on ,ice4--,a]ation ( ,soil by ,dra9s4 ,,*apt] ,,xiv4 ,,dra9age ,,adapts ,,! ,,soil ,,to ,,g]m9ation ,,& ,,vegetation4 ,process ( ,g]m9ation4--,two ,classes ( ,pores 9 ,soils1 illu/rat$ by cuts4--,too mu* ,wat] excludes ,air1 r$uces ,temp]ature4--,h[ mu* ,air ! ,soil ,conta9s4--,dra9age ,improves ! ,quality ( ,crops4--,dra9age prev5ts ,dr\ght4--,dra9$ ,soils hold mo/ ,wat]4--,all[ ,roots to g ,deep4--,v>i\s ,facts4 ,,*apt] ,,xv4 ,,temp]ature ,,z ,,affect$ ,,by ,,dra9age4 ,dra9age ,w>ms ! ,soil 9 ,spr+4--,heat _c g d[n 9 ,wet ,l&4--,dra9age causes great] ,deposit ( ,dew 9 ,summ]4--,dew w>ms ,plants 9 ,night1 ,cools !m 9 ! ,morn+ ,sun4--,dra9age v>ies ,temp]ature by ,less5+ ,evaporation4--,:at is ,evaporation4--,h[ x produces ,cold4--,dra9$ ,l& ,freezes ,deepe/1 b ,?aws ,soone/1 & ! ,reasons4 ,,*apt] ,,xvi4 ,,p[] ,,( ,,soils ,,to ,,absorb ,,& ,,reta9 ,,moi/ure4 ,:y does n ,dra9age make ! ,l& too ,dry8--,adhesive ,attraction4--,! ,f9e/ ,soils ex]t mo/ ,attraction4--,h[ mu* ,wat] diff]5t ,soils hold by ,attraction4--,capill>y ,attraction1 illu/rat$4--,p[] to ,imbibe ,moi/ure f ! ,air4--,weight ,absorb$ by #a1jjj lbs4 9 #ab ,h\rs4--,dew1 ,cause (4--,dew ,po9t4--,cause ( ,fro/4--,:y ,cov]+ ,plants ,protects f ,fro/4--,dew ,imp>ts ,w>m?4--,idea t ! ,moon ,promotes ,putrefaction4--,quantity ( ,dew4 ,,*apt] ,,xvii4 ,,injury ,,( ,,l& ,,by ,,dra9age4 ,mo/ ,l& _c be ,ov]-dra9$4--,nature a ,deep dra9]4--,ov]-dra9+ ( ,peaty ,soils4--,l9coln%ire ,f5s4 ,visit to !m 9 #aheg4--ef ,bu%els ( ,:eat to ! ,acre4--,wet ,mead[s ,subside by ,dra9age4--,conclusions4 ,,*apt] ,,xviii4 ,,ob/ruction ,,( ,,dra9s4 ,tiles w fill up1 unless well laid4--,ob/ruction by ,s& or ,silt4--,ob/ructions at ! ,outlet f ,frogs1 ,moles1 ,action ( ,fro/1 & ,cattle4--,ob/ruction by ,roots4--,will[1 ,a%1 c41 ,trees caprici\s4--,roots ent] ,p]5nial ,/reams4--,ob/ruction by ,mangold ,wurtzel4--,ob/ruction by ,p]-,oxide ( ,iron4--,h[ ,prev5t$4--,ob/ructions by ! ,jo9ts ,fill+4--,no ,dang] ) ,two-,in* ,pipes4--,wat] ?r\gh ! ,pores4--,coll>s4--,h[ to ,detect ,ob/ructions4 ,,*apt] ,,xix4 ,,dra9age ,,( ,,/iff ,,clays4 ,clay n imp]vi\s1 or x c\ld n be wet & dri$4--,puddl+1 :at is4--,wat] w /& ov] ,dra9s on ,puddl$ ,soil4--,crack+ ( ,clays by ,dry+4--,dra9$ ,clays improve by "t4--,passage ( ,wat] ?r\gh ,clay makes x p]meable4--,exp]im5t by ,mr4 ,pettibone1 ( ,v]mont4--,pressure ( ,wat] 9 ,saturat$ ,soil4 ,,*apt] ,,xx4 ,,effects ,,( ,,dra9age ,,on ,,/reams ,,& ,,riv]s4 ,dra9age ,ha/5s ! ,supply to ! ,/reams1 & ?us creates ,fre%ets4--,effect ( ,dra9age on ,mead[s bel[2 on ,wat] ,privileges4--,conflict ( ,manufactur+ & ,agricultural ,int]e/s4--,engli% ,op9ions & ,facts4--,uses ( ,dra9age ,wat]4--,irrigation4--,dra9age ,wat] = ,/ock4--,h[ us$ by ,mr4 ,me*i4 ,,*apt] ,,xxi4 ,,legislation--,,dra9age ,,companies4 ,engl& protects h] ,f>m]s4--,mead[s ru9$ by ,corporation dams4--,old ,mills (t5 ,nuisances4--,factory ,res]voirs4--,fl[age ext5ds above level ( ,dam4--,rye & ,d]w5t ,dra9age4--,give ,/eam = ,wat]-,p[]4--,"r to ,dra9 ?r\gh l& ( o!rs4--,"r to natural fl[ ( ,wat]4--,laws ( ,mass4--,"r to ,fl[2 :y n to ,dra98--,l&-dra9age ,companies 9 ,engl&4--,l9coln%ire ,f5s4--,gov]nm5t ,loans = ,dra9age4 ,,*apt] ,,xxii4 ,,dra9age ,,( ,,cell>s4 ,wet ,cell>s ,unheal?ful4--,importance ( ,cell>s 9 ,new ,engl&4--,a ,glance at ! ,g>ret1 by way ( ,contra/4--,necessity ( ,dra9s4--,sket* ( an ,inundat$ ,cell>4--,tiles be/ = ,dra9s4--,be/ ,plan ( ,cell> ,dra92 ,illu/ration4--,cem5t+ w n d4--,dra9age ( ,b>n ,cell>s4--,uses ( !m4--,actual ,dra9age ( a v ,bad ,cell> describ$4--,dra9s ,outside & ,inside2 ,illu/ration4 ,,*apt] ,,xxiii4 ,,dra9age ,,( ,,swamps4 ,va/ ,ext5t ( ,swamp ,l&s 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4--,_! ,soil4--,s\rces ( _! ,moi/ure4--,h[ to ,dra9 !m4--,! ,soil ,subsides by ,dra9+4--,cat*-wat] ,dra9s4--,spr+s4--,mr4 ,ruff9's ,dra9age 9 ,virg9ia4--,is !re ,dang] ( ,ov]-dra9+8 ,,*apt] ,,xxiv4 ,,am]ican ,,exp]im5ts ,,9 ,,dra9age--,,dra9age ,,9 ,,irel&4 ,/atem5t ( ,b4 ,f4 ,n\rse1 ( ,ma9e4--,/atem5t ( ,%$d & ,edson1 ( ,mass4--,/atem5t ( ,h4 ,f4 ,fr5*1 ( ,new ,hamp%ire4--,lett] ( ,wm4 ,boyle1 ,alb]t ,model ,f>m1 ,glasnev91 ,irel&4 ,,index4 ,,f>m ,,dra9age4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,introductory4 ,:y ?is ,treatise does n conta9 all ,k4--,att5tion ( ,sci5tific ,m5 attract$ to ,dra9age4--,lieut5ant ,maury's ,sugge/ions4--,ralph ,waldo ,em]son's ,views4--,op9ions ( ,j4 ,h4 ,klipp>t1 ,esq42 ( ,pr(essor ,mapes2 ,b4 ,p4 ,john/on1 ,esq42 ,gov]nor ,wright1 ,mr4 ,cu/is1 c4--,prejudice aga9/ :at is ,engli%4--,ackn[l$gem5ts to our ,fri5ds at ,home & ,abroad4--,! ,wants ( our ,f>m]s4 ,a ,book ^u ,f>m ,dra9age6 ,:at c a p]son f9d on su* a subject to write a book ab\t8 ,a fri5d sugge/s1 t 9 ord] to treat any "o subject fully1 x is necess>y to "k ev]y?+ & speak ( ev]y?+1 because all k is 9 "s measure connect$4 ,) an e>ne/ endeavor to clip ! w+s ( imag9ation1 & to keep n only on ! e>?1 b to burr[1 l a mole or a sub-soil]1 9 x1 ) a pa9ful appreh5sion le/ "s te*nical t]m 9 ,*emi/ry or ,philosophy %\ld falsely indicate t we make pret5sions to ! "* ( a sci5tific f>m]1 or "s old phrase ( law-,lat9 %\ld betray t we "k some?+ besides agriculture1 & s1 are n wor?y ( ! confid5ce ( practical m51 we h1 nev]!less1 by "s means1 got toge!r m ?an a bookfull ( matt] ^u our subject4 ,our publi%] says our book mu/ be s l>ge1 & no l>g]--& we all "k t an au?or is b z a gras%opp] 9 ! h&s ( 8 publi%]1 & ought to be v ?ankful to be all[$ to publi% 8 book at all4 ,s we h only to say1 t if !re is any *apt] 9 ?is book n suffici5tly elaborate1 or any subject ak9 to t ( dra9age1 t ought to h be5 embrac$ 9 our plan & is n1 x is because we h n space = fur!r expansion4 ,! read] has our he>tfelt sympa?y1 if x %\ld happ5 t ! v topic :i* mo/ int]e/s him1 is entirely omitt$1 or imp]fectly treat$2 & we c only advise him to write a book himself1 by way ( %[+ prop] res5tm5t1 & put into x ev]y?+ t ev]ybody desires mo/ to "k4 ,a book t %all conta9 all t we d n "k on ! subject ( dra9age1 w\ld be a valuable acquisition to agricultural lit]ature1 & we bespeak an e>ly copy ( x :5 publi%$4 ,,irrigation is a subject closely connect$ ) dra9age1 &1 al?\gh x w\ld require a volume ( equal size ) ?is to lay x prop]ly be=e ! ,am]ican public1 :o "k s little ( wat]-mead[s & liquid-manur+1 & ev5 ( ! artificial application ( wat] to l& 9 any way1 we feel call$ ^u = an apology = its omission4 ,lieut5ant ,maury1 ^: "n does honor to 8 nation ov] all ! civiliz$ _w1 & on :om ! bless+s ( e navigator ^u ! great wat]s1 are con/antly %[]$1 9 a lett] :i* we _h ! honor rec5tly to receive f him1 ?us speaks ( ?is subject3 ,i 0 writ+ to a fri5d "s mon?s ago ^u ! subject ( dra9age 9 ?is c\ntry1 & ,i am pleas$ to inf] f y\r lett]1 t our op9ions are some:at simil>4 ,! climate ( ,engl& is mu* m moi/ ?an ?is1 ?\gh ! am\nt ( ra9 9 _m p>ts ( ?is c\ntry1 is mu* great] ?an ! am\nt ( ra9 !re4 ,x drizzles !re m ?an x does "h4 ,ow+ to ! high dew po9t 9 ,engl&1 b a small portion only--t is1 comp>atively small--( ! ra9 t falls c be evaporat$ aga92 consequ5tly1 x rema9s 9 ! soil until x is dra9$ (f4 ,"h1 on ! o!r h&1 ! cl\ds p\r x d[n1 & ! sun sucks x up "r away1 s t ! p]fection ( dra9age = ?is c\ntry w\ld be ! v rev]se1 almo/1 ( ! dra9age 9 ,engl&4 ,if1 in/ead ( lead+ ! wat] (f into ! wat]-ve9s & /reams ( ! c\ntry1 z is !re done1 we c\ld collect x 9 pools on ! f>m1 s z to be us$ 9 "t ( dr\ght = irrigation1 !n y\r sy/em ( dra9age w\ld be wor? untold weal?4 ,( c\rse1 9 l[ gr\nds1 & all places :]e ! atmosph]e does n af=d suffici5t dra9age by evaporation1 ! ,engli% plan w d v well1 & mu* good may be done by a treatise :i* %all enable own]s to reclaim or improve su* places4 ,inde$1 ! importance ( ?is subject ( dra9age1 seems all at once to h f\nd univ]sal ackn[l$gem5t ?r\gh\t our c\ntry1 n only f agriculturi/s1 b f philosoph]s & m5 ( g5]al sci5ce4 ,em]son1 ^: eagle glance1 pi]c+ beyond ! sight ( o!r m51 recognizes 9 s-call$ accid5tal h]oes ! ,repres5tative m5 ( ! ages1 & 9 :at to o!rs seem b caprices & conv5tionalisms1 ! ,traits ( a nation1 yet nev] ov]looks ! practical & e-day wants ( man1 9 a rec5t address at ,concord1 ,mass41 ! place ( 8 resid5ce1 ?us *>act]i/ically alludes to our subject3 ,concord is "o ( ! olde/ t[ns 9 ! c\ntry--f> on n[ 9 its ?ird c5tury4 ,! ,select-m5 h once 9 five ye>s p]ambulat$ its b\nds1 & yet1 9 ?is ye>1 a v l>ge quantity ( l& has be5 discov]$ & add$ to ! agricultural l&1 & )\t a murmur ( compla9t f any neighbor4 ,by dra9age1 we h gone to ! subsoil1 & we h a ,concord "u ,concord1 a ,middlesex "u ,middlesex1 & a basem5t-/ory ( ,massa*usetts m valuable ?an all ! sup]/ructure4 ,tiles are political economi/s4 ,!y are s _m ,"y-,am]icans ann\nc+ a bett] era1 & a day ( fat ?+s4 ,john ,h4 ,klipp>t1 ,esq41 ! le>n$ ,secret>y ( ! ,ohio ,bo>d ( ,agriculture1 expresses 8 op9ion ^u ! importance ( our subject 9 8 own ,/ate1 9 ?is emphatic language3 ,! agriculture ( ,ohio c make no f>!r m>k$ progress until a good sy/em ( "u-dra9age has be5 adopt$4 ,a writ] 9 ! ,c\ntry ,g5tleman1 f ,a%tabula ,c\nty1 ,ohio1 says3--,"o ( two ?+s mu/ be done by u "h4 ,clay pr$om9ates 9 our soil1 & we mu/ "u-dra9 our l&1 or sell & move we/4 ,pr(essor ,mapes1 ( ,new ,york1 "u date ( ,janu>y #ag1 #ahei1 says ( "u-dra9+3 ,i d n believe t f>m+ c be pursu$ ) full pr(it )\t x4 ,x w\ld seem to be no long] a "q4 ,! exp]i5ce ( ,engl&1 9 ! abs5ce ( all o!r pro(1 w\ld be suffici5t to %[ t capital may be inve/$ m safely 9 "u-dra9+1 ?an 9 any o!r way2 =1 aft] ! exp5diture ( _m millions by ,engli% f>m]s 9 ?is way1 x has be5 cle>ly prov$ t _! increas$ pr(it1 aris+ f ?is cause alone1 is suffici5t to pay ! total exp5se 9 full1 ) int]e/1 )9 tw5ty ye>s1 ?us leav+ _! f>ms increas$ p]man5tly to ! am\nt ( ! total co/1 :ile ! income is augm5t$ 9 a /ill great] ratio4 ,x is q d\btful :e!r ,engl& c\ld at ?is "t su/a9 h] increas$ population1 if x 7 n = h] sy/em ( ?or\gh-dra9age4 ,9 my own practice1 ! result has be5 su* z to conv9ce me ( its advantages1 & ,i %\ld be unwill+ to ent] into any new cultivation )\t ?or\gh dra9age4 ,b4 ,p4 ,johnson1 ,secret>y ( ! ,new ,york ,bo>d ( ,agriculture1 9 answ] to "s inquiries ^u ! subject ( dra9age ) tiles1 writes u1 "u date ( ,decemb]1 #aheh1 z foll[s3 ,i h giv5 mu* "t & att5tion to ! subject ( dra9age1 hav+ deem$ x all-important to ! improvem5t ( ! f>ms ( our ,/ate4 ,i am well satisfi$1 f a c>eful exam9ation 9 ,engl&1 z well z f my obs]vation 9 ?is c\ntry1 t tiles are f> pref]able to any o!r mat]ial t ,i "k ( = dra9s1 & ?is is ! op9ion ( all ^? :o h engag$ ext5sively 9 ! "w 9 ?is ,/ate1 s f> z ,i h in=mation4 ,x is gratify+ to be assur$1 t dur+ ! ye> pa/1 !re has be5 probably m l&-dra9+ ?an dur+ any previ\s ye>1 %[+ ! deep int]e/ :i* is tak5 9 ?is all-important "w1 s indisp5sable to ! success ( ! f>m]4 ,x is asc]ta9$1 by inquiry at ! ,l& ,(fice1 t m ?an #eb1jjj1jjj acres ( swamp & ov]fl[$ l&s h be5 select$ "u ! ,acts ( ,m>* #b;d1 #ahdi1 & ,septemb] #bh?1 #ahej1 f ! dates ( ^? grants to ,septemb]1 #ahef2 & x is e/imat$ t1 :5 ! grants %all h be5 entirely adju/$1 !y w am\nt to #fj1jjj1jjj acres4 ,grants ( ^! l&s h be5 made by ,congress1 f ! public doma91 gratuit\sly1 to ! ,/ates 9 :i* !y lie1 ^u ! idea t !y 7 n only wor?less to ! ,gov]nm5t1 b dang]\s to ! heal? ( ! neighbor+ inhabitants1 ) ! hope t ! ,/ate gov]nm5ts might take measures to reclaim !m = cultivation1 or1 at lea/1 r5d] !m h>mless1 by ! removal ( _! surplus wat]4 ,gov]nor ,wright1 ( ,indiana1 9 a public address1 e/imat$ ! m>%y l&s ( t ,/ate at #c1jjj1jjj acres4 ,^! l&s1 he says1 7 g5]ally avoid$ by e>ly settl]s1 z be+ comp>atively wor?less2 b1 :5 dra9$1 !y become em95tly f]tile4 ,he fur!r says3 ,i "k a f>m ( #afj acres1 :i* 0 sold five ye>s ago = #ejj1 t by an exp5diture ( less ?an #bjj1 9 dra9+ & dit*+1 has be5 s improv$1 t ! own] has refus$ = x an (f] ( #c1jjj4 ,at ! meet+ ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,agricultural ,society1 at ,wa%+ton1 9 ,janu>y1 #aheg1 ,mr4 ,g4 ,w4 ,p4 ,cu/is spoke 9 connection ) ! great importance ( ?is subject1 ( ! va/ quantity ( soil--! ri*e/ conceivable--n[ ly+ wa/e1 to ! ext5t ( #ajj1jjj acres1 along ! banks ( ! ,l[] ,potomac1 & :i* he d5om9ates by ! old ,virg9ia title ( pocoson4 ,! f]tility ( ?is reclaimable swamp he reports to be a/oni%+2 & he has corroborat$ ! op9ion by exp]im5ts :i* conf\nd$ e behold]4 ,^! l&s on our "t-honor$ riv]1 he says1 if br\ght into use1 w\ld supply provisions at half ! pres5t co/1 & w\ld 9 o!r respects prove ( ! greate/ advantage4 ,! dra9age ( highways & walks1 0 not$ z a topic k9dr$ to our subject1 al?\gh belong+ m prop]ly p]haps1 to ! dra9age ( t[ns & to l&scape-g>d5+1 ?an to f>m dra9age4 ,?is1 too1 0 f\nd to be beyond ! scope ( our propos$ treatise1 & has be5 left to "s abl] h&4 ,s1 too1 ! :ole subject ( reclaim+ l&s f ! sea1 & f riv]s1 by embankm5t1 & ! dra9age ( lakes & ponds1 :i* at a future day mu/ attract great att5tion 9 ?is c\ntry1 has prov$ q too ext5sive to be treat$ "h4 ,! day w soon come1 :5 on our ,atlantic coa/1 ! ocean waves w be /ay$1 & all along our great riv]s1 ! ,spr+ floods1 & ! ,summ] fre%ets1 w be held )9 artificial b>ri]s1 & ! enclos$ l&s be kept dry by eng9es propell$ by /eam1 or "s m effici5t or economical ag5t4 ,! half million acres ( f5-l& 9 ,l9coln%ire1 produc+ ! heavie/ :eat crops 9 ,engl&2 & ,h>laem ,lake1 9 ,holl&1 ) its #dj1jjj acres ( f]tile l&1 f> bel[ ! tides1 & once cov]$ ) _m feet ( wat]1 are examples ( :at sci5ce & well-direct$ labor may accompli%4 ,b ?is dep>tm5t ( dra9age dem&s ! skill ( sci5tific eng9e]s1 & ! employm5t ( comb9$ capital & ef=t1 beyond ! means ( ,am]ican f>m]s2 & _h we ability to treat x prop]ly1 w\ld af=d matt] r ( pleas+ speculation1 ?an ( practical utility to agricultural read]s4 ,) a reckless exp5diture ( pap] & ink1 we _h already prep>$ *apt]s ^u sev]al topics1 :i*1 ?\gh n ess5tial to f>m-dra9age1 7 z ne> to our subject z ! m9i/] usually is limit$ 9 prea*+1 or ! lawy] 9 argum5t2 b con=mity to ! ,procru/ean b$1 9 ^: %eets we _h 9 advance /ipulat$ to sleep1 co/ u ! amputation ( a few ( our lea/ important heads4 ,don't be too ,engli%1 sugge/s a v wise & politic fri5d4 ,we are fully aw>e ( ! prejudice :i* /ill exi/s 9 _m m9ds 9 our c\ntry1 aga9/ :at is peculi>ly ,engli%4 ,because1 =soo?1 our good ,"m ,engl&1 t[>ds a c5tury ago1 l mo/ fond mo!rs1 ?\ght h] transatlantic daught] q too "y & inexp]i5c$ to set up an e/abli%m5t & manage x = h]self1 & drove h] into wa/eful exp]im5ts ( :olesale tea-mak+ 9 ,bo/on h>bor1 by way ( illu/rat+ h] capacity ( ent]ta9+ company f beyond seas2 & because1 ne> half a c5tury ago1 we _h "s %>p words1 spok5 n ?r\gh ! m\?s ( prophets & sages1 b ?r\gh ! m\?s ( great guns1 t\*+ ! "r ( our v5]at$ p>5t to exam9e ! int]nal economy ( our m]*ant-%ips on ! sea--because ( rem9isc5ces l ^!1 we are to =swe> all t is ,engli%6 ,& s we may claim no k9dr$ 9 lit]ature ) ,%akspe>e & ,milton1 9 jurisprud5ce1 ) ,bacon & ,mansfield1 9 /atesman%ip1 ) ,pitt & ,fox6 ,:5ce came ! _s ( indep5d5ce1 ! fe>less love ( lib]ty ( :i* we boa/1 b f our ,engli% blood8 ,:5ce came our love ( t]ritorial ext5sion1 our national ambition1 exhibit$ "u ! affectionate "n ( annexation8 ,does n ?is velvet paw ) :i* we s(tly play ) our neighbors' heads1 conceal "s long1 crook$ talons1 :i* tell ( ! ance/ral blood ( ! ,briti% ,lion8 ,! legislature ( a ,new ,engl& ,/ate1 n _m ye>s ago1 appo9t$ a committee to revise its /atutes4 ,?is committee _h a pi\s horror ( all dead languages1 & a patriotic fe> ( pay+ too high a complim5t to ,engl&1 & s report$ t all proce$+s 9 c\rts ( law %\ld be 9 ! ,am]ican language6 ,an inquiry by a waggi% memb]1 :e!r ! committee int5d$ to all[ proce$+s to be 9 any "o ( ! ?ree hundr$ ,indian dialects1 re/or$ to ! ,engli% language its appropriate "n4 ,?\gh f "s ( our national traits1 we might possibly be suppos$ to h sprung f ! s[+ ( ! dragon's tee? by ,cadmus1 yet ! uni=m record ( all ,am]ican families :i* goes back to ! ?ree bro!rs :o came ov] f ,engl&1 contradicts ?is !ory1 & connects u by blood & l9eage ) t c\ntry4 ,inde$1 we c h>dly cons5t to sell our bir?right = s poor a mess ( pottage z ?is petty jeal\sy (f]s4 ,a tea*able _s 9 matt]s ( :i* we are ignorant1 is usually z pr(itable & respectable z abundant self-conceit1 & r5d]+ to ,caes> ! ?+s t are ,caes>'s1 q z hone/ z to pocket ! co9 z our own1 not)/&+ ! image & sup]scription4 ,we make frequ5t ref]5ce to ,engli% writ]s & to ,engli% op9ions ^u our subject1 because dra9age is und]/ood & practic$ bett] 9 ,engl& ?an any:]e else 9 ! _w1 & because by p]sonal inspection ( dra9age-works !re1 & p]sonal acqua9tance & correspond5ce ) "s ( ! mo/ successful dra9]s 9 t c\ntry1 we feel "s confid5ce ( ability to apply ,engli% pr9ciples to ,am]ican soil & climate4 ,to ,j4 ,bailey ,d5ton1 ,eng9e] ( ! ,g5]al ,l& ,dra9age ,company1 & "o ( ! mo/ di/+ui%$ practical & sci5tific dra9]s 9 ,engl&1 we wi% publicly to ackn[l$ge our obligations = p]sonal favors %[n u 9 ! prep>ation ( our "w4 ,we claim no great praise ( orig9ality 9 :at is "h (f]$ to ! public4 ,:]ev] we h f\nd a p]son ( :om we c\ld le>n any?+1 9 ?is or o!r c\ntries1 we h endeavor$ to pr(it by 8 tea*+s1 & :5ev] ! language ( ano!r1 9 book or j\rnal1 has be5 f\nd to express =cibly an idea :i* we deem$ wor?y ( adoption1 we h giv5 full cr$it = bo? ?\ght & words4 ,our fri5ds1 ,messrs4 ,%$d & ,edson1 ( ,bo/on1 ^: exp]i5ce z dra9+ eng9e]s entitles !m to a high rank among ,am]ican au?orities1 h be5 9 con/ant communication ) u1 ?r\gh\t our labors4 ,! *apt] ^u ,evaporation1 ,ra9 fall1 c41 :i* we deem ( great value z a contribution to sci5ce 9 g5]al1 w be se5 to be 9 "p cr$it$ to !m1 z are also ! tables %[+ ! dis*>ge ( wat] ?r\gh pipes ( v>i\s capacity4 ,dra9age is a new subject 9 ,am]ica1 n well und]/ood1 & we h no man1 x is believ$1 peculi>ly fitt$ to tea* its !ory & practice2 yet ! f>m]s ev]y:]e are awake to its importance1 & are eag]ly seek+ = in=mation on ! subject4 ,_m are already engag$ 9 ! endeavor to dra9 _! l&s1 consci\s ( _! want ( ! requisite k to effect _! object 9 a pr(itable mann]1 :ile o!rs are go+ resolutely =w>d1 9 violation ( all correct pr9ciples1 wa/+ _! labor1 unconsci\s ev5 ( _! ignorance4 ,9 ,new ,engl&1 we h det]m9$ to dry ! spr+y hill sides1 & s l5g!n our seasons = labor2 we h f\nd1 too1 9 ! valleys & swamps1 ! soil :i* has be5 wa%$ f our m\nta9s1 & int5d to avail ourselves ( its f]tility 9 ! be/ mann] practicable4 ,on ! prairies ( ! great ,we/1 l>ge tracts are f\nd j a little too wet = ! be/ crops ( corn & :eat1 & ! inquiry is anxi\sly made1 h[ c we be rid ( ?is surplus wat]4 ,!re is no treatise1 ,engli% or ,am]ican1 :i* meets ! wants ( our p4 ,9 ,engl&1 x is true1 l& dra9age is already r$uc$ to a sci5ce2 b _! sy/em has gr[n up by degrees1 ! fir/ pr9ciples be+ n[ too famili> to be at all discuss$1 & ! po9ts n[ 9 controv]sy !re1 q beyond ! compreh5sion ( beg9n]s4 ,am]ica wants a treatise :i* %all be elem5t>y1 z well z ?or\gh--t %all tea* ! alphabet1 z well z ! transc5d5talism1 ( dra9+ l&--t %all tell ! man :o nev] saw a dra9-tile :at ?or\gh dra9age is1 & %all also sugge/ to ^? :o h /udi$ ! subject 9 ,engli% books only1 ! diff]5ces 9 climate & soil1 9 ! prices ( labor & ( products1 :i* mu/ modify our op]ations4 ,) "s practical exp]i5ce on 8 own l&1 ) c>eful obs]vation 9 ,europe & 9 ,am]ica ( ! details ( dra9age op]ations1 ) a some:at critical exam9ation ( publi%$ books & pap]s on all topics connect$ ) ! g5]al subject1 ! au?or has endeavor$ to turn ! leisure h\rs ( a labori\s pr(essional life to "s acc\nt = ! f>m]4 ,al?\gh1 z ! lawy]s say1 ! presumptions are1 p]haps1 /rongly aga9/ ! idea1 yet a pr(essional man may und]/& practical f>m+4 ,! pr(ession ( ! law has made "s valuable contributions to agricultural lit]ature4 ,sir ,an?ony ,fitzh]b]t1 au?or ( ! ,boke ( ,husb&rie1 publi%$ 9 #aebc1 0 ,*ief ,ju/ice ( ! ,common ,pleas1 &1 z he says1 an exp]y5c$ f>m] ( m ?an #dj ye>s4 ,! au?or ( t *>m+ little book1 ,talpa1 x is said1 is also a lawy]1 & !re is su* wisdom 9 ! idea1 s well express$ by ,em]son z a fact1 t we comm5d x by way ( consolation to m5 ( all ! le>n$ pr(essions3 ,all ( u keep ! f>m 9 res]ve1 z an asylum :]e to hide our pov]ty & our solitude1 if we d n succe$ 9 society4 ,besides ! prejudice aga9/ :at is =eign1 we meet ev]y:]e ! prejudice aga9/ :at is new1 ?\gh f> less 9 ?is c\ntry ?an 9 ,engl&4 ,no long] ago ?an #ahce1 says ! ,qu>t]ly ,review1 ,sir ,rob]t ,peel pres5t$ a ,f>m]s' ,club1 at ,tamwor?1 ) two iron pl[s ( ! be/ con/ruction4 ,on 8 next visit1 ! old pl[s1 ) ! wood5 m\ld-bo>ds1 7 aga9 at "w4 ',sir1' said a memb] ( ! club1 'we tri$ ! iron1 & we be all ( "o m9d1 t !y make ! we$s gr[6' ,am]ican f>m]s h no su* ignorant prejudice z ?is4 ,!y err r by hav+ too mu* fai? 9 !mselves1 ?an by hav+ too little 9 ! idea ( progress1 & w be m likely to g ahead 9 ! wrong direction1 ?an to rema9 quiet 9 _! old position4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,! ,,art ,,( ,,dra9+4 ,dra9+ z ,old z ! ,deluge4--,roman ,au?ors4--,walt] ,bligh 9 #afej4--,no ?or\gh dra9age till ,smi? ( ,dean/on4--,no m5tion ( tiles 9 ! ,compleat ,body ( ,husb&ry1 #ageh4--,tiles f\nd #ajj ye>s old4--,elk+ton's ,sy/em4--,john/one's ,puns & ,p]ipatetics4--,dra9+ ,spr+s4--,bletonism1 or ! ,faculty ( ,p]ceiv+ ,subt]ranean ,wat]4--,dean/on ,sy/em4--,views ( ,mr4 ,p>kes4--,key?orpe ,sy/em4--,:>ncliffe ,sy/em4--,introduction ( tiles into ,am]ica4--,john ,john/on1 & ,mr4 ,delafield1 ( ,new ,york4 ,! art ( remov+ sup]flu\s wat] f l&1 mu/ be z anci5t z ! art ( cultivation2 & f ! "t :5 ,noah & 8 family anxi\sly wat*$ ! subsid+ ( ! wat]s into _! appropriate *annels1 to ! pres5t1 m5 mu/ h felt ! ill effects ( too mu* wat]1 & adopt$ means m or less effective1 to remove x4 ,! ,roman writ]s ^u agriculture1 ,cato1 ,columella1 & ,pl9y1 all m5tion dra9+1 & "s ( !m give m9ute directions = =m+ dra9s ) /ones1 bran*es ( trees1 & /raw4 ,palladius1 9 8 ,de ,aquae ,ductibus1 m5tions e>!n-w>e tubes1 us$ h[ev] = aqu$ucts1 r = convey+ wat] f place to place1 ?an = dra9+ l&s = agriculture4 ,no?+1 h[ev]1 l ! sy/ematic dra9age ( ! pres5t day1 seems to h be5 conceiv$ ( 9 ,engl&1 until ab\t #afej1 :5 ,capta9 ,walt] ,bligh publi%$ a "w1 :i* is int]e/+1 z embody+ & boldly advocat+ ! !ory ( deep-dra9age z appli$ by him to wat]-mead[s & swamps1 & z applicable to ! dra9age ( all o!r moi/ l&s4 ,we give f ! #g? volume ( ! ,j\rnal ( ! ,royal ,agricultural ,society1 9 ! language ( t em95t advocate ( deep-dra9age1 ,josiah ,p>kes1 an acc\nt ( ?is r>e book1 & ( ! pr9ciples :i* x advocates1 z a fitt+ introduction to ! m mod]n & m p]fect sy/em ( ?or\gh dra9age3 ,! au?or ( ?is "w 0 a ,capta9 ,walt] ,bligh1 sign+ himself1 ',a ,lov] ( ,+5uity4' ,x is qua9tly entitl$1 ',! ,engli% ,improv] ,improv$2 or1 ! ,survey ( ,husb&ry ,survey$2' ) sev]al prefaces1 b specially address$ to ',! ,"r ,honorable ! ,"l ,g5]al ,cromwell1 & ! ,"r ,honorable ! ,"l ,presid5t1 & ! re/ ( ! ,honorable ,society ( ! ,c\ncil ( ,/ate4' ,9 8 in/ructions = =m+ ! flood+ & dra9+ tr5*es ( wat]-mead[s1 ! au?or says ( ! latt]3--',& = ?y drayn+-tr5*1 x mu/ be made s deep1 t x goe to ! bottom ( ! cold spew+ moy/ wat]1 t fe$s ! flagg & ! ru%2 = ! wid5esse ( x1 use ?9e own lib]ty1 b be sure to make x s wide z ?\ maye/ goe to ! bottom ( x1 :i* mu/ be s l[ z any moy/ure lye?1 :i* moy/ure usually lye? "u ! ov] & second sw>? ( ! e>?1 9 "s gravel or s&1 or else1 :]e "s great] /ones are mixt ) clay1 "u :i* ?\ mu/ goe half "o spade's graft deep at lea/4 ,yea1 suppose ?is corruption t fe$s & n\ri%e? ! ru% or flagg1 %\ld lie a y>d or f\r-foot deepe2 to ! bottom ( x ?\ mu/ goe1 if ev] ?\ wilt drayn x to purpose1 or make ! utmo/ advantage ( ei!r float+ or drayn+1 )\t :i* ! wat] _c h its k9dly op]ation2 = ?\gh ! wat] fatt5 naturally1 yet /ill ?is coldnesse & moy/ure lies gnaw+ )91 & n be+ tak5 clean away1 x eates out :at ! wat] fatt5s2 & s ! goodnesse ( ! wat] is1 z x 71 riddl$1 scre5$1 & /ra9$ out into ! l&1 leav+ ! ri*nesse & ! leanesse slid+ away f x4' ,9 ano!r place1 he replies to ! objectors ( float+1 t x w bre$ ! ru%1 ! flagg1 & m>e-blab2 'only make ?y drayn+-tr5*es deep en\gh1 & n too f> (f ?y float+ c\rse1 & ,i'le w>rant x !y drayn away t "u-moy/ure1 fyl?1 & v5om z a=esaid1 t ma9ta9s !m2 & !n believe me1 or d5y ,scripture1 :i* ,i hope ?\ d\/ n1 z ,bildad said unto ,job1 ,c ! ru% gr[ )\t mire1 or ! flagg )\t wat]8 ,job viii4 #ab4 ,t int]rogation pla9ly %[es t ! ru% _c gr[1 ! wat] be+ tak5 f ! root2 = x is n ! moy/nesse ^u ! surface ( ! l&1 = !n e %[] %\ld increase ! ru%1 b x is t :i* lie? at ! root1 :i*1 drayn$ away at ! bottom1 leaves x nak$ & b>r5 ( relief4' ,! au?or frequ5tly returns to ?is *>ge1 expla9+ ov] & ov] aga9 ! necessity ( remov+ :at we call bottom-wat]1 & :i* he well designates z 'fil? & v5om4' ,9 ! c\rse ( my op]ations z a dra9]1 ,i h met )1 or he>d (1 s _m in/ances ( swamp-dra9age1 execut$ precisely accord+ to ! plans ( ?is au?or1 & sometimes 9 a sup]ior mann]--! conduits be+ =m$ ( wall+ /one1 at a p]iod long antec$5t to ! memory ( ! liv+--t ,i am dispos$ to consid] ! practice ( deep dra9age to h orig9at$ ) ,capta9 ,bligh1 & to h be5 pres]v$ by imitators 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! c\ntry2 s9ce a book1 :i* pass$ ?r\gh ?ree editions 9 ! "t ( ! ,commonweal?1 mu/ necess>ily h _h an ext5sive circulation1 & enjoy$ a high r5[n4 ,sev]al complim5t>y autograph v]ses1 writt5 by "s imitators & admir]s ( ! +5i\s ,bligh1 are b\nd up ) ! volume4 ,i f9d also1 n unfrequ5tly1 v anci5t deep dra9s 9 arable fields1 & "s ( !m /ill 9 good condition2 & 9 a case or two1 ,i h met ) sev]al anci5t dra9s six feet deep1 plac$ p>allel ) ea* o!r1 b at s great a di/ance asund]1 z n to h comm&$ a p]fect dra9age ( ! int]m$iate space4 ,! au?or f :om ,i h s l>gely quot$1 is ! e>lie/ kn[n to me1 :o has _h ! sagacity to di/+ui% betwe5 ! transi5t effect ( ra91 & ! con/ant action ( /agnant bottom-wat] 9 ma9ta9+ l& 9 a wet condition4 ,dr4 ,%i]1 editor ( ,davy's ,agricultural ,*emi/ry1 says1 ,! hi/ory ( dra9age 9 ,brita9 may be briefly told4 ,till ! "t ( ,smi?1 ( ,dean/on1 dra9+ 0 g5]ally reg>d$ z ! means ( free+ ! l& f spr+s1 oozes1 & "u-wat]1 & x 0 appli$ only to l&s palpably wet1 & produc+ ru%es & o!r aquatic plants4 ,he !n proce$s to give ! pr9ciples ( ,elk+ton1 ,smi?1 ,p>kes1 & o!r mod]n writ]s1 ( :i* we %all speak m at l>ge4 ,! "w publi%$ 9 ,engl&1 n f> f ,capta9 ,bligh's "t1 "u ! title ,a ,complete ,body ( ,husb&ry1 und]takes to give directions = all sorts ( f>m+ processes4 ,a ,second ,edition1 9 f\r octavo volumes1 ( :i* we h a copy1 0 publi%$ 9 #ageh4 ,x pr(esses to treat ( ,dra9+ 9 ,g5]al1 & !n ( ! dra9+ ( boggy l& & ( f5s1 b gives no intimation t any o!r l&s require dra9age4 ,directions are giv5 = fill+ dra9s ) r\gh /ones1 to be cov]$ ) refuse wood1 & ov] t1 "s ( ! e>? t 0 ?r[n out 9 digg+4 ,by ?is means1 says ! writ]1 a passage w be left free = all ! wat] ! spr+s yield1 & !re w be none ( ^! great op5+s ^u ! surface4 ,he ?us describes a me?od practic$ 9 ,ox=d%ire ( dra9+ ) bu%es3 ,let ! tr5*es be cut deep] ?an o!rwise1 suppose ?ree foot deep1 & two foot ov]4 ,z soon z !y are made1 let ! bottoms ( !m be cov]$ ) fre%-cut black?orn bu%es4 ,^u ^!1 ?r[ 9 a quantity ( l>ge refuse /ones2 ov] ^! let !re be ano!r cov]+ ( /raw1 & ^u ?is1 "s ( ! e>?1 s z to make ! surface level ) ! re/4 ,^! tr5*es w always keep op54 ,no m5tion :atev] is made 9 ?is elaborate treatise ( tiles ( any k9d1 :i* af=ds v /rong evid5ce t !y 7 n 9 use = dra9age at t "t4 ,9 a note1 h[ev]1 to ,/eph5's ,dra9+ & ,irrigation1 we f9d ! foll[+ /atem5t & op9ion3 ,9 dra9+ ! p>k at ,grim/horpe1 ,l9coln%ire1 ab\t ?ree ye>s ago1 "s dra9s1 made ) tiles1 7 f\nd eight feet bel[ ! surface ( ! gr\nd4 ,! tiles 7 simil> to :at are n[ us$1 & 9 z good a /ate ( pres]vation z :5 fir/ laid1 al?\gh !y mu/ h rema9$ !re above "o hundr$ ye>s4 ,,elk+ton',s ,,sy/em ,,( ,,dra9age4 ,x appe>s1 t1 9 #agie1 ! ,briti% ,p>liam5t1 at ! reque/ ( ! ,bo>d ( ,agriculture1 vot$ to ,joseph ,elk+ton a rew>d ( ,l#ajjj1 = 8 valuable discov]ies 9 ! dra9age ( l&4 ,joseph ,elk+ton 0 a ,w>wick%ire f>m]1 & ,mr4 ,gisborne says he 0 a man ( consid]able g5ius1 b he _h ! mis=tune to be illit]ate4 ,8 discov]y _h creat$ su* a s5sation 9 ! agricultural _w1 t x 0 ?\ght important to record its details2 &1 z ,elk+ton's heal? 0 extremely prec>i\s1 ! ,bo>d resolv$ to s5d ,mr4 ,john ,john/one to visit1 9 company ) him1 8 pr9cipal works ( dra9age1 & to transmit to po/]ity ! b5efits ( 8 k4 ,accord+ly1 ,mr4 ,john ,john/one1 hav+ c>efully /udi$ ,elk+ton's sy/em1 "u its au?or1 9 ! p]ipatetic me?od1 und]took1 l ,plato1 to record ! say+s ( 8 ma/] 9 sci5ce1 & produc$ a "w1 entitl$1 ,an ,acc\nt ( ! ,mo/ ,approv$ ,mode ( ,dra9+ ,l&1 ,accord+ to ! ,sy/em ,practis$ by ,mr4 ,joseph ,elk+ton4 ,x 0 publi%$ at ,ed9burgh1 9 #agig4 ,mr4 ,gisborne says1 t ,elk+ton f\nd 9 ,john/one a v ineffici5t expon5t ( 8 op9ions1 & ( ! pr9ciples on :i* he conduct$ 8 works4 ,e "o1 says he1 :o reads ! "w1 :i* is popul>ly call$ ',elk+ton on ,dra9+1' %\ld be aw>e1 t x is n ,joseph :o ?9ks & speaks !re91 b ,john1 :o tells 8 read]s :at1 accord+ to 8 ideas1 ,joseph w\ld h ?\ght & spok54 ,aga9-- ,john/one1 measur$ by g5]al capacity1 is a v %all[ dra9]6 ,he delights 9 exceptional cases1 ( :i* he may h met ) "s1 b ( :i*1 we suspect ! great majority to be products ( 8 own +5uity1 & to be put =w>d1 ) a view to display ! ability ) :i* he c\ld enc\nt] !m4 ,john/one's report seems to h und]gone sev]al revisions1 & to h be5 enl>g$ & reproduc$ 9 o!r =ms ?an ! orig9al1 = we f9d1 t1 9 #ahch1 x 0 publi%$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 at ,pet]sburg1 ,virg9ia1 z a supplem5t to ! ,f>m]'s ,regi/]1 by ,edmund ,ruff91 ,esq41 editor1 a repr9t f ! ?ird ,briti% ,edition1 revis$ & enl>g$1 "u ! foll[+ title3 ,a ,sy/ematic ,treatise on ! ,!ory & ,practice ( ,dra9+ ,l&1 c41 accord+ to ! mo/ approv$ me?ods1 & adapt$ to ! v>i\s situations & soils ( ,engl& & ,scotl&2 also on sea1 riv]1 & lake embankm5ts1 =mation ( ponds & artificial pieces ( wat]1 ) an app5dix1 conta9+ h9ts & directions = ! culture & improvem5t ( bog1 morass1 moor1 & o!r unproductive gr\nd1 aft] be+ dra9$2 ! :ole illu/rat$ by plans & sections applicable to ! v>i\s situations & =ms ( con/ruction4 ,inscrib$ to ! ,highl& & ,agricultural ,society ( ,scotl&1 by ,john ,john/one1 ,l& ,surveyor4 ,mr4 ,ruff9 c]ta9ly des]ves great cr$it = 8 ent]prise 9 republi%+ 9 ,am]ica1 at s e>ly a day1 a "w ( :i* an ,engli% copy c\ld n be pur*as$ = less ?an six doll>s1 z well z = 8 zeal\s labors ev] s9ce 9 ! cause ( agriculture4 ,!re is1 9 ?is "w ( ,john/one1 a qua9tness :i* he1 probably1 did n le>n f ,elk+ton1 & :i* illu/rates ! "* ( 8 m9d z "o n peculi>ly adapt$ to a pla9 & practical hi/ory ( ano!r man's sy/em & labors4 ,= in/ance1 9 speak+ ( ! arrangem5t ( 8 subject into p>ts1 he says1 9 a note1 ,! subject be+ closely connect$ ) cutt+1 section is held z a bett] division ?an *apt]6 ,aga91 he speaks ( embank+1 & says he has "s exp]i5ce on t head4 ,!n he adds ! foll[+ note1 le/ a possible pun %\ld be lo/3 ,an embankm5t is (t5 t]m$ a 'head1' z x makes head1 or resi/ance1 aga9/ ! encroa*m5t ( high tide or riv] floods4 ,!re is "s dang] t a m9d :i* sc5ts a :imsical analogy ( mean+ l ?is1 may entirely lose ! ma9 track ( pursuit2 b ,john/one's special mission 0 to asc]ta9 ,elk+ton's me?od1 & 8 acc\nt ( x is1 !re=e1 ! be/ au?ority we h on ! subject4 ,he gives ! foll[+ /atem5t ( ,elk+ton's discov]y3 ,9 ! ye> #agfc1 ,elk+ton 0 left by 8 fa!r 9 ! possession ( a f>m call$ ,pr9ce-,?orp1 9 ! p>i% ( ,/retton-^u-,dunsmore1 & c\nty ( ,w>wick4 ,! soil ( ?is f>m 0 s poor1 &1 9 _m places1 s extremely wet1 t x 0 ! cause ( rott+ sev]al hundr$s ( 8 %eep1 :i* fir/ induc$ him1 if possible1 to dra9 x4 ,?is he begun to d1 9 #agfd1 9 a field ( wet clay soil1 r5d]$ almo/ a swamp1 or %ak+ bog1 by ! spr+s :i* issu$ f an adjo9+ bank ( gravel & s&1 & ov]fl[$ ! surface ( ! gr\nd bel[4 ,to dra9 ?is field1 :i* 0 ( consid]able ext5t1 he cut a tr5* ab\t f\r or five feet deep1 a little bel[ ! upp] side ( ! bog1 :]e ! wetness began to make its appe>ance2 &1 aft] proce$+ ) x 9 ?is direction & at ?is dep?1 he f\nd x did n rea* ! pr9cipal body ( subjac5t wat] f :i* ! evil arose4 ,on p]ceiv+ ?is1 he 0 at a loss h[ to proce$1 :5 "o ( 8 s]vants came to ! field ) an iron cr[1 or b>1 = ! purpose ( mak+ holes = fix+ %eep hurdles 9 an adjo9+ "p ( ! f>m1 z repres5t$ on ! plan4 ,hav+ a suspicion t 8 dra9 0 n deep en\gh1 & desir\s to "k :at /rata lay "u x1 he took ! iron b>1 & hav+ =c$ x d[n ab\t f\r feet bel[ ! bottom ( ! tr5*1 on pull+ x out1 to 8 a/oni%m5t1 a great quantity ( wat] bur/ up ?r\gh ! hole he _h ?us made1 & ran along ! dra94 ,?is l$ him to ! k1 t wetness may be (t5 produc$ by wat] conf9$ f>!r bel[ ! surface ( ! gr\nd ?an x 0 possible = ! usual dep? ( dra9s to rea*1 & t an aug] w\ld be a useful in/rum5t to apply 9 su* cases4 ,?us1 *ance 0 ! p>5t ( ?is discov]y1 z %e (t5 is ( o!r useful arts2 & =tunate x is = society1 :5 su* accid5ts happ5 to ^? :o h s5se & judgm5t to avail !mselves ( h9ts ?us =tuit\sly giv54 ,9 ?is mann] he soon accompli%$ ! dra9age ( 8 :ole f>m1 & r5d]$ x s p]fectly dry & s\nd1 t none ( 8 flock 0 ev] aft] affect$ ) disease4 ,by ! success ( ?is exp]im5t1 ,mr4 ,elk+ton's fame1 z a dra9]1 0 quickly & widely ext5d$2 &1 aft] hav+ successfully dra9$ sev]al f>ms 9 8 neighborhood1 he 01 at la/1 v g5]ally employ$ = t purpose 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! k+dom1 till ab\t ?irty ye>s ago1 :5 ! c\ntry _h ! melan*oly cause to regret 8 loss4 ,f 8 long practice & exp]i5ce1 he became s successful 9 ! works he und]took1 & s skillful 9 judg+ ( ! int]nal /rata ( ! e>? & ! nature ( spr+s1 t1 ) rem>kable precision1 he c\ld asc]ta9 :]e to f9d wat]1 & trace ! c\rse ( spr+s t made no appe>ance on ! surface ( ! gr\nd4 ,dur+ 8 practice ( m ?an ?irty ye>s1 he dra9$ 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ,engl&1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! midl& c\nties1 _m ?\s& acres ( l&1 :i*1 f be+ orig9ally ( little or no value1 soon became z useful z any 9 ! k+dom1 by produc+ ! mo/ valuable k9ds ( gra9 & fe$+ ! be/ & heal?ie/ species ( /ock4 ,_m h errone\sly ent]ta9$ an idea t ,elk+ton's skill lay solely 9 apply+ ! aug] = ! tapp+ ( spr+s1 )\t atta*+ any m]it to 8 me?od ( conduct+ ! dra9s4 ,! accid5tal circum/ance above /at$ gave him ! fir/ notion ( us+ an aug]1 & direct$ 8 att5tion to ! pr(ession & practice ( dra9+1 9 ! c\rse ( :i* he made v>i\s useful discov]ies1 z w be aft]w>ds expla9$4 ,) reg>d to ! use ( ! aug]1 ?\gh !re is e reason to believe t he 0 l$ to employ t in/rum5t f ! circum/ance already /at$1 & did n d]ive x f any o!r s\rce ( intellig5ce1 yet !re is no d\bt t o!rs might h hit ^u ! same idea )\t be+ indebt$ = x to him4 ,x has happ5$1 t1 9 attempts to discov] m9es by bor+1 spr+s h be5 tapp$1 & gr\nd !reby dra9$1 ei!r by lett+ ! wat] d[n1 or by giv+ x v5t to ! surface2 & t ! aug] has be5 likewise us$ 9 br++ up wat] 9 wells1 to save ! exp5se ( deep] digg+2 b t x _h be5 us$ 9 dra9+ l&1 be=e ,mr4 ,elk+ton made t discov]y1 no "o has v5tur$ to ass]t4 ,begg+ p>don ( ! %ade ( ,john ,john/one = ! lib]ty1 we w copy f ,mr4 ,gisborne1 z be+ m cle>ly express$1 a summ>y explanation ( ,elk+ton's sy/em1 z ,mr4 ,gisborne has d$uc$ x f ,john/one's report1 ) two simple & excell5t plans3 ,a slight modification ( ,john/one's be/ & simple/ plan1 ) a few s5t5ces ( explanation1 w suffici5tly elucidate ,elk+ton's my/]y1 & w compreh5d ! case ( all simple sup]ficial spr+s4 ,p]haps 9 ,agricultural ,brita91 no =mation is m common ?an mod]ate elevations ( p]vi\s mat]ial1 su* z *alk1 gravel1 & imp]fect /one or rock ( v>i\s k9ds1 re/+ ^u m horizontal b$s ( clay1 or o!r mat]ial less p]vi\s ?an !mselves1 & at _! inf]ior edge ov]lapp$ by x4 ,= ?is ov]lap geological reasons are giv51 into :i* we _c n[ ent]4 ,9 ord] to make our explanation simple1 we use ! words1 gravel & clay1 z g5]ic = p]vi\s & imp]vi\s mat]ial4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,our draw+ is an attempt to comb9e plan & section1 :i* w probably be suffici5tly illu/rative4 ,f ,a to ,t is ! ov]lap1 :i* is1 9 fact1 a dam hold+ up ! wat] 9 ! gravel4 ,9 ?is dam !re is a weak place at ,s1 ?r\gh :i* wat] issues p]man5tly 7a sup]ficial spr+71 & runs ov] ! surface f ,s to ,o4 ,?is issue has a t5d5cy to l[] ! wat] 9 ! gravel to ! l9e ,m m4 ,b :5 cont9u$ ra9s ov]p[] ?is issue1 ! wat] 9 ! gravel rises to ! l9e ,a a1 & meet+ ) no imp$im5t at ! po9t ,a1 x fl[s ov] ! surface betwe5 ,a & ,s4 ,9 addition to ^! m decid$ outlets1 ! wat] is probably con/antly squeez+1 9 a sl[ way1 ?r\gh ! :ole dam4 ,elk+ton und]takes to dra9 ! surface f ,a to ,o4 ,he cuts a dra9 f ,o to ,b1 & !n he puts d[n a bore-hole1 an ,artesian well1 f ,b to ,z4 ,8 hole ent]s ! tail ( ! gravel2 ! wat] conta9$ !re9 rises up x3 & ! t5d5cy ( ?is new outlet is to l[] ! wat] to ! l9e ,b b4 ,if s l[]$ t x c no long] ov]fl[ at ,a or at ,s1 & ! surface f ,a to ,o is dra9$1 s f> z ! spr+s are conc]n$1 ?\gh our section c only repres5t "o spr+1 & "o summit-ov]fl[1 x is manife/ t1 h[ev] long ! horizontal l9e ( junction betwe5 ! gravel & clay may be1 h[ev] num]\s ! weak places 7spr+s7 9 ! ov]lap1 or dam1 & ! summit-ov]fl[s1 !y w all be /opp$1 provid$ !y lie at a high] level ?an ! l9e ,b b4 ,if ,elk+ton _h driv5 8 dra9 =w>d f ,b to n1 he w\ld1 at lea/1 equally h atta9$ 8 object2 b ! bore-hole 0 less exp5sive4 ,he escapes ! deepe/ & mo/ co/ly portion ( 8 dra94 ,at x1 he might h bor$ to ! c5tre ( ! e>? )\t ev] realiz+ ! wat] 9 ?is gravel4 ,8 :ole success1 !re=e1 dep5d$ ^u 8 sagacity 9 hitt+ ! po9t ,z4 ,ano!r simple & v common case1 fir/ successfully treat$ by ,elk+ton1 is illu/rat$ by our second draw+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,betwe5 gravel hills lies a di%-%ap$ b$ ( clay1 ! gravel be+ cont9u\s "u ! di%4 ,spr+s ov]fl[ at ,a & ,b1 & wet ! surface f ,a to ,o1 & f ,b to ,o4 ,o ,d is a dra9 f\r or five feet deep1 & hav+ an adequate outlet2 ,d ,z a bore-hole4 ,! wat] 9 ! gravel rises f ,z to ,d1 & is l[]$ to ! level ,d m & ,d n4 ,( c\rse x ceases to fl[ ov] at ,a & ,b4 ,if ,elk+ton's he>t _h fail$ him :5 he rea*$ ,x1 he w\ld h done no good4 ,all 8 success dep5ds on 8 rea*+ ,z1 h[ev] deep x may lie4 ,elk+ton 0 a discov]]4 ,we d n at all believe t 8 discov]ies h+$ on ! accid5t t ! %eph]d walk$ across ! field ) a cr[-b> 9 8 h&4 ,:5 he =c$ d[n t cr[-b>1 he _h m 9 8 head ?an 0 ev] dream$ ( 9 ,john/one's philosophy4 ,su* accid5ts d n happ5 to ord9>y m54 ,elk+ton's subsequ5t use ( 8 discov]y1 9 :i* no "o has yet excell$ him1 w>rants our supposition t ! discov]y 0 n accid5tal4 ,he 0 n "o ( ^? prophets :o are )\t honor 9 _! own c\ntry3 he creat$ an imm5se s5sation1 & receiv$ a p>liam5t>y grant ( "o ?\s& p\nds4 ,"o writ] comp>es 8 aug] to ,moses' rod1 & ,ar?ur ,"y speculates1 :e!r ?\gh wor?y to be rew>d$ by mill]s on "o side ( ! hill = increas+ _! /ream1 he 0 n liable to an action by ^? on ! o!r = dim9i%+ !irs4 ,john/one sums up ?is sy/em z foll[s3 ,dra9+ accord+ to ,elk+ton's pr9ciples dep5ds *iefly ^u ?ree ?+s3 #a4 ,^u discov]+ ! ma9 spr+1 or s\rce ( ! evil4 #b4 ,^u tak+ ! subt]rane\s be>+s3 &1 #c;dly4 ,by mak+ use ( ! aug] to rea* & tap ! spr+s1 :5 ! dep? ( ! dra9 is n suffici5t = t purpose4 ,! fir/ ?+1 !re=e1 to be obs]v$ is1 by exam9+ ! adjo9+ high gr\nds1 to discov] :at /rata !y are compos$ (2 & !n to asc]ta91 z ne>ly z possible1 ! incl9ation ( ^! /rata1 & _! connection ) ! gr\nd to be dra9$1 & !reby to judge at :at place ! level ( ! spr+ comes ne>e/ to :]e ! wat] c be cut (f1 & mo/ readily dis*>g$4 ,! sure/ way ( asc]ta9+ ! lay1 or incl9ation1 ( ! diff]5t /rata1 is1 by exam9+ ! b$ ( ! ne>e/ /reams1 & ! edges ( ! banks t are cut ?r\gh by ! wat]2 & any pits1 wells1 or qu>ries t may be 9 ! neighborhood4 ,aft] ! ma9 spr+ has be5 ?us discov]$1 ! next ?+ is1 to asc]ta9 a l9e on ! same level1 to "o or bo? sides ( x1 9 :i* ! dra9 may be conduct$1 :i* is "o ( ! mo/ important p>ts ( ! op]ation1 & "o on :i* ! art ( dra9+ 9 a sci5tific mann] ess5tially dep5ds4 ,la/ly1 ! use ( ! aug]1 :i*1 9 _m cases1 is ! s9e qua non ( ! bus9ess1 is to rea* & tap ! spr+ :5 ! dep? ( ! dra9 does n rea* x3 :]e ! level ( ! outlet w n admit ( its be+ cut to a great] dep?2 & :]e ! exp5se ( su* cutt+ w\ld be great1 & ! execution ( x difficult4 ,accord+ to ^! pr9ciples1 ?is sy/em ( dra9+ has be5 att5d$ ) extraord9>y consequ5ces1 n only 9 lay+ ! l& dry 9 ! vic9ity ( ! dra91 b also spr+s1 wells1 & wet gr\nd1 at a consid]able di/ance1 ) :i* !re 0 no app>5t connection4 ,,dra9age ,,( ,,spr+s4 ,:]ev]1 f any cause1 wat] bur/s out f a hill's side1 or f bel[1 9 a well def9$ spr+1 9 any consid]able quantity1 ! ,elk+ton me?od ( cutt+ a deep dra9 directly into ! seat ( ! evil1 & s l[]+ ! wat] t x may be c>ri$ away bel[ ! surface1 is obvi\sly ! true & common-s5se rem$y4 ,!re may be cases :]e1 9 addition to ! dra91 x may be exp$i5t to bore ) an aug] 9 ! c\rse ( ! dra94 ,?is1 h[ev]1 w\ld be useful only :]e1 f ! peculi> =mation1 wat] is p5t up ^u a ret5tive subsoil 9 ! mann] already indicat$4 ,elk+ton's me?od ( dra9+ by bor+ is illu/rat$ 9 ! foll[+ cut4 ,9 /udy+ ! hi/ory ( ,elk+ton's discov]y1 & especially ( 8 own application ( x1 x w\ld seem t he mu/ h possess$ "s peculi> faculty ( asc]ta9+ ! subt]ranean curr5ts ( wat]1 n possess$ or ev5 claim$ by mod]n eng9e]s4 ,inde$1 ,mr4 ,d5ton1 :o may rightly claim z mu* skill z a dra9+ eng9e]1 p]haps1 z any man 9 ,engl&1 expressly says1 ,x does n appe> t any p]son n[ w und]take to d :at ,elk+ton did sixty ye>s back4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,9 ! ,pat5t ,(fice ,report = #ahea1 at page #ad1 may be f\nd an article entitl$1 ,well-digg+1 9 :i* x is gravely cont5d$1 & n )\t a fair %[ ( evid5ce1 t c]ta9 p]sons possess ! p[] ( indicat+1 by means ( a sort ( div9+ rod ( hazel or will[1 subt]rane\s curr5ts or spr+s ( wat]4 ,?is p[] has be5 call$ ,bletonism1 :i* is def9$ by ,web/] to be1 ! faculty ( p]ceiv+ & indicat+ subt]rane\s spr+s & curr5ts by s5sation--s call$ f "o ,bleton1 ( ,france1 :o possess$ ?is faculty4 ,"u ! au?ority ( ,web/]1 & ( ,mr4 ,ewbank1 ! ,commission] ( ,pat5ts1 9 ^: report ! article 9 "q 0 publi%$ by ! ,gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 x w n be consid]$1 p]haps1 z putt+ fai? 9 wat]-wit*]y1 to sugge/ t1 possibly1 ,elk+ton did really possess a faculty1 n common to all mank9d1 ( detect+ runn+ wat] or spr+s1 ev5 f> bel[ ! surface4 ,we h ! high au?ority ( ,tam o' ,%ant] = ! op9ion1 t wit*es _c cross a /ream ( wat]2 =1 :5 pursu$ by ! helli% legion f ,kirk-,all[ay1 he put 8 gude m>e ,meg to d h] spe$y utmo/ = ! bridge ( ,doon1 kn[+ t1 ,a runn+ /ream !y d>5a cross4 ,if wit*es are ?us affect$ by fl[+ wat]1 !re is no reason to d\bt t o!rs1 ( peculi> organization1 may possess "s s5sitiv5ess at its pres5ce4 ,x w\ld n1 probably1 be useful to pursue m into detail ! me?od ( ,mr4 ,elk+ton4 ,! g5]al pr9ciples ^u :i* he wr\ght h be5 suffici5tly expla9$4 ,! miracles p]=m$ "u 8 sy/em seem to h ceas$ ) 8 life1 &1 until we receive "s new revelation z to ! mode ( f9d+ ! spr+s hidd5 9 ! e>?1 we mu/ be cont5t ) ! mod]ate results ( a c>eful application ( ord9>y sci5ce1 & n be disc\rag$ 9 our attempts to leave ! e>? ! bett] = our hav+ liv$ on x1 if we d n1 l ,elk+ton1 succe$ 9 dra9+1 by a s+le dit* & a few aug] holes1 sixty /atute acres ( l&4 ,,! ,,dean/on ,,sy/em2 ,,or1 ,,frequ5t ,,dra9age4 ,james ,smi?1 ,esq41 ( ,dean/on1 ,/]l+%ire1 9 ,scotl&1 next aft] ,elk+ton1 9 po9t ( "t1 is ! prom95t lead] ( dra9age op]ations 9 ,great ,brita94 ,8 peculi> views came into g5]al notice ab\t #ahcb1 &1 9 #ahdd1 we f9d publi%$ a sev5? edition ( 8 ,rem>ks on ,?or\gh ,dra9+4 ,smi? 0 a man ( education1 & seems to be1 9 fact1 ! fir/ advocate ( any sy/em wor?y ! "n ( ?or\gh dra9age4 ,in/ead ( ! few v deep dra9s1 cut ) ref]5ce to p>ticul> spr+s or s\rces ( wetness1 adopt$ by ,elk+ton1 ,smi? advocat$ & practic$ a sy/ematic op]ation ov] ! :ole field1 at regul> di/ances & %all[ dep?s4 ,smi? /ates1 t 9 ,scotl&1 mu* m injury arises f ! ret5tion ( ra9 wat]1 ?an f spr+s2 :ile ,elk+ton's att5tion seems to h be5 especially direct$ to spr+s1 z ! s\rce ( ! evil4 ,! *>act]i/ic views ( ,smi?1 ( ,dean/on1 z /at$ by ,mr4 ,d5ton1 73 #a/4 ,frequ5t dra9s at int]vals ( f t5 to tw5ty-f\r feet4 #bnd4 ,%all[ dep?--n exce$+ ?irty in*es--design$ = ! s+le purpose ( free+ t dep? ( soil f /agnant & injuri\s wat]4 #crd4 ',p>allel dra9s at regul> di/ances c>ri$ ?r\gh\t ! :ole field1 )\t ref]5ce to ! wet & dry appe>ance ( portions ( ! field1' 9 ord] 'to provide frequ5t opportunities = ! wat]1 ris+ f bel[ & fall+ on ! surface1 to pass freely & completely (f4 #d?4 ,direction ( ! m9or dra9s 'd[n ! /eep1' & t ( ! ma9s along ! bottom ( ! *ief holl[2 tribut>y ma9s be+ provid$ = ! less] holl[s4 ,! reason assign$ = ! m9or dra9s foll[+ ! l9e ( /eepe/ desc5t1 01 t '! /ratification g5]ally lies 9 %eets at an angle to ! surface4' #e?4 ,z to mat]ial--,/ones pref]r$ to tiles & pipes4 ,mr4 ,smi? some:at modifi$ 8 views dur+ ! la/ ye>s ( 8 life1 especially z to ! dep? ( dra9s1 &1 in/ead ( %all[ dra9s1 recomm5d$ a dep? ( ?ree feet1 & ev5 m 9 "s cases2 b cont9u$1 to ! "t ( 8 dea?1 :i* occurr$ ab\t #ahed1 to oppose any increas$ int]vals betwe5 ! dra9s1 & ! extreme dep? ( f\r feet & m advocat$ by o!rs4 ,! peculi> po9ts insi/$ on by ,smi? 71 t dra9s %\ld be ne> & p>allel4 ,8 own words are3 ,! dra9s %\ld be p>allel ) ea* o!r & at regul> di/ances1 & %\ld be c>ri$ ?r\gh\t ! :ole field1 )\t reg>d to ! wet & dry appe>ance ( portions ( ! field--! pr9ciple ( ?is sy/em be+ ! provid+ ( frequ5t opportunities = ! wat] ris+ f bel[1 or fall+ on ! surface1 to pass freely & completely (f4 ,mr4 ,smi? call$ x ! frequ5t dra9 sy/em1 & ,mr4 ,d5ton says1 t1 = di/9ction sake1 ,i h v5tur$ to *ri/5 ?is ready-made practice1 ! gridiron sy/em1 a "n1 by ! way1 :i* w1 probably1 seem to mo/ read]s m di/9ctive ?an respectful4 ,:atev] may be ! improvem5ts on ! ,dean/on me?od ( dra9+1 ! "n ( ,mr4 ,smi? des]ves1 &1 inde$1 has already obta9$1 a high place among ! improv]s ( agriculture4 ,,views ,,( ,,mr4 ,,p>kes4 ,ab\t ! ye> #ahdf1 :5 ! fir/ ,act ( ! ,briti% ,p>liam5t au?oriz+ ! advance ( public money to promote ! improvem5t ( l& by works ( dra9age 0 pass$1 a c>eful inve/igation ( ! :ole subject 0 made by a ,committee ( ! ,h\se ( ,lords1 & x 0 f\nd t ! be/ record$ op9ions1 if we except ! peculi> views ( ,elk+ton1 7 repres5t$ by1 if n m]g$ into1 ^? ( ,smi?1 ( ,dean/on1 :i* h already be5 /at$1 or ^? ( ,josiah ,p>kes4 ,mr4 ,p>kes is ! au?or ( ,essays on ! ,philosophy & ,art ( ,l& ,dra9age1 & ( _m valuable pap]s on ! same subject1 publi%$ 9 ! j\rnal ( ! ,royal ,agricultural ,society1 ( :i* he 0 consult+ eng9e]4 ,he is spok5 ( by ,mr4 ,d5ton z "o ^: philosophical publications on ! same subject gave a sci5tific be>+ to x1 q irreconcilable ) ! m me*anical rules laid d[n by ,mr4 ,smi?4 ,! *>act]i/ic views ( ,mr4 ,p>kes1 z set =? at t "t1 z comp>$ ) ^? ( ,mr4 ,smi?1 are-- #a/4 ,less frequ5t dra9s1 at int]vals v>y+ f tw5ty-"o to fifty feet1 ) pref]5ce = wide int]vals4 #bnd4 ,deep] dra9s at a m9imum dep? ( f\r feet1 design$ ) ! two-fold object ( n only free+ ! active soil f /agnant & injuri\s wat]1 b ( conv]t+ ! wat] fall+ on ! surface into an ag5t = f]tiliz+2 no dra9age be+ deem$ effici5t t did n bo? remove ! wat] fail+ on ! surface1 & 'keep d[n ! subt]ranean wat] at a dep? exce$+ ! p[] ( capill>y attraction to elevate x to ne> ! surface4' #crd4 ,p>allel arrangem5t ( dra9s1 z advocat$ by ,smi?1 ( ,dean/on4 #d?4 ,! advantage ( increas$ dep?1 z comp5sat+ = increas$ wid? betwe5 ! dra9s4 #e?4 ,pipes ( an in* bore1 ! 'be/ kn[n conduit' = ! p>allel dra9s4 7,see ,evid5ce be=e ,lords' ,committee on ,entail$ ,e/ates1 #ahde1 ,q4 #fg47 #f?4 ,! co/ ( dra9+ uni=m clays %\ld n exce$ ,l#c p] acre4 ,! mo/ mat]ial diff]5ces betwe5 ! views ( ^! two lead]s ( :at h be5 deem$ rival sy/ems ( dra9age1 w be se5 to be ! foll[+4 ,smi? advocates dra9s ( two to ?ree feet 9 dep?1 at f t5 to tw5ty-f\r feet di/ances2 :ile ,p>kes cont5ds = a dep? ( n less ?an f\r feet1 ) a wid? betwe5 ( f tw5ty-"o to fifty feet1 ! dep? 9 "s measure comp5sat+ = ! increas$ di/ance4 ,mr4 ,p>kes advocat$ ! use ( pipes ( "o in* bore1 :i* ,mr4 ,smi? contemptu\sly d5om9at$ p5cil-cases1 & :i* subsequ5t exp]i5ce has %[n to be q too small = prud5t use4 ,! e/imate ( ,mr4 ,p>kes1 bas$1 9 "p1 ^u 8 wide di/ances & small pipes1 t dra9age might be effect$ g5]ally 9 ,engl& at a co/ ( ab\t fifte5 doll>s p] acre1 0 soon f\nd to be f> bel[ ! av]age exp5se1 :i* is n[ e/imat$ at ne>ly d\ble t sum4 ,! ,enclosure ,commission]s1 aft] ! mo/ c>eful inquiry1 adopt$ fully ! views ( ,mr4 ,p>kes z to ! dep? ( dra9s4 ,mr4 ,p>kes himself1 saw occasion to modify 8 ideas1 z to ! co/ ( dra9age1 ^u fur!r inve/igation ( ! subject1 & fix$ 8 e/imates z rang+ f #ae to #cj p] acre1 accord+ to soil & o!r local circum/ances4 ,x has be5 well said by a rec5t ,engli% writ]1 ( ,mr4 ,p>kes3 ,t g5tleman's s]vices 9 ! cause ( dra9age1 h be5 ine/imable1 & 8 high reputation w n be affect$ by any rem>ks :i* exp]i5ce may sugge/ ) ref]5ce to details1 s long z ! philosophical pr9ciples he fir/ advanc$ 9 support ( deep dra9age are ackn[l$g$ by ?9k+ m54 ,mr4 ,p>kes' practice 9 #ahed1 w be f\nd to diff] v consid]ably f 8 anticipations ( #ahde1 b ! influ5ce ( 8 e>li] writ+s & say+s cont9ues to ?is day4 ,,! ,,key?orpe ,,sy/em4 ,"l ,b]n]s hav+ adopt$ a me?od ( dra9age on 8 e/ate at ,key?orpe1 diff]+ some:at f any ( ! regul> & m uni=m modes :i* h be5 consid]$1 a %>p controv]sy z to its m]its has aris51 & /ill cont9ues 9 ,engl&1 :i*1 l mo/ controv]sies1 may be ( m advantage to o!rs ?an to ! p>ties imm$iately conc]n$4 ,! !ory ( ! ,key?orpe sy/em seems to h be5 inv5t$ by ,mr4 ,jo%ua ,trimm]1 a di/+ui%$ geologi/ ( ,engl&1 :o1 ab\t #ahed1 produc$ a pap]1 :i* 0 publi%$ 9 ! j\rnal ( ! ,royal ,agricultural ,society1 on ! ,key?orpe ,sy/em4 ,he /ates t 8 own !ory 0 bas$ entirely on 8 k ( ! geological /ructure ( ! e>?1 :i* w be pres5tly giv5 9 8 own language1 & t he aft]w>ds asc]ta9$ t ,"l ,b]n]s1 :o _h no special !ory to v9dicate1 _h1 by ! t5tative process1 or 9 pla9 ,engli%1 by try+ exp]im5ts1 hit ^u sub/antially ! same sy/em1 & f\nd x to "w admirably4 ,mo/ p 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates h no idea ( :at x is to be patroniz$ by a "l4 ,9 ,engl&1 x is ?\ght by _m to be ! ?+ ne$ful to ! *ance1 ev51 ( success ( any new !ory1 & accord+ly1 ,mr4 ,trimm]1 )\t hesitation1 avail$ himself ( ! privilege ( be+ patroniz$ by ,"l ,b]n]s2 & ! latt]1 be=e he 0 aw>e ( h[ mu* ! agricultural _w 0 indebt$ to him = 8 valuable discov]ies1 sudd5ly f\nd himself at ! head ( ! ,key?orpe ,sy/em ( ,dra9age4 ,8 lord%ip 0 probably z mu* surpris$ to asc]ta9 t he _h be5 work+ out a new sy/em1 z "s man ( :om we h he>d1 01 to le>n t he _h be5 speak+ prose all 8 life6 ,at ! call ( ! public1 h[ev]1 8 lord%ip at once gave to ! _w ! facts 9 8 possession1 mak+ no claim to any great discov]y1 & leav+ ,mr4 ,trimm] to def5d ! new sy/em z be/ he might4 ,! latt]1 9 "o ( 8 pamphlets publi%$ 9 def5ce ( ! ,key?orpe sy/em1 /ates its claims z foll[s3 ,! peculi>ities ( ! ,key?orpe sy/em ( dra9+ consi/ 9 ?is--t ! p>allel dra9s are n equidi/ant1 & t !y cross ! l9e ( ! greate/ desc5t4 ,! usual dep? is ?ree & a half feet1 b "s are z deep z five & six feet4 ,! dep? & wid? ( int]val are det]m9$ by digg+ trial-holes1 9 ord] to asc]ta9 n only ! dep? at :i* ! bottom wat] is rea*$1 b ! height to :i* ! wat] rises 9 ! holes1 & ! di/ance at :i* a dra9 w lay ! hole dry4 ,9 s9k+ ^! holes1 clay-banks are f\nd ) holl[s or furr[s betwe5 !m1 :i* are fill$ ) a m por\s soil1 z repres5t$ 9 ! annex$ sectional diagram4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #d4 a a ,trial-holes4 b ,clay-banks ( lias or ( b\ld]-clay4 c ,a m por\s w>p-drift fill+ furr[s betwe5 ! clay-banks4 ,! next object is to connect ^! furr[s by dra9s laid across !m4 ,! result is1 t z ! furr[s & ridges "h run along ! fall ( ! gr\nd1 :i* ,i h obs]v$ to be ! case g5]ally else:]e1 ! sub-ma9s foll[ ! fall1 & ! p>allel dra9s cross x obliquely4 ,! int]vals betwe5 ! p>allel dra9s are irregul>1 v>y+1 9 ! same field1 f #ad to #ba1 #ca1 & #ei feet4 ,! di/ances are det]m9$ by op5+ ! diagonal dra9s at ! greate/ di/ance f ! trial-holes at :i* exp]i5ce has taught ! practicability ( its dra9+ ! hole4 ,if x does n succe$ 9 accompli%+ ! object1 ano!r dra9 is op5$ 9 ! int]val4 ,x has be5 f\nd1 9 _m cases1 t a dra9 cross+ ! clay-banks & furr[s takes ! wat] f holes ly+ l[] d[n ! hill2 t is to say1 x int]cepts ! wat] fl[+ to !m ?r\gh ^! subt]ranean *annels4 ,! p>allel dra9s1 h[ev]1 are n inv>iably laid across ! fall4 ,! exceptions are on gr\nd :]e ! fall is v slight1 9 :i* case !y are laid along ! l9e ( greate/ desc5t4 ,on su* gr\nds !re are few or no clay-banks & furr[s4 ,x w\ld seem highly probable t ! mode ( dra9age adopt$ at ,key?orpe1 is indebt$ = its success at t place1 to a geological =mation n (t5 met )4 ,at a public discussion 9 ,engl&1 ,mr4 ,t4 ,scott1 a g5tleman ( l>ge exp]i5ce 9 dra9+1 /at$ t he nev]1 9 8 practice1 _h met ) su* a geological =mation z 0 said to exi/ at ,key?orpe1 except 9 su* l>ge areas z to admit ( _! be+ dra9$ 9 ! usual gridiron or p>allel fa%ion4 ,x is claim$ = ?is sy/em by its advocates1 t x is f> *eap] ?an any o!r1 because dra9s are only laid 9 ! places :]e1 by c>eful exam9ation be=eh&1 by op5+ pits1 !y are f\nd to be necess>y2 & t is a great sav+ ( exp5se1 :5 comp>$ ) ! sy/em ( lay+ ! dra9s at equal di/ances & dep?s ov] ! field4 ,aga9/ :at is urg$ z ! ,key?orpe sy/em1 sev]al allegations are br\ght4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 t x is 9 fact no sy/em4 ,mr4 ,d5ton1 hav+ c>efully exam9$ ! ,key?orpe e/ate1 & ! publi%$ /atem5ts ( its own]1 ass]ts1 t ! dra9s !re laid h no uni=mity ( dep?--"p ( ! tiles be+ laid b eighte5 in*es deep1 & o!rs f\r feet & m1 9 ! same field4 ,secondly1 t !re is no uni=mity z to direction--"p ( ! dra9s be+ laid across ! fall1 & "p ) ! fall1 9 ! same fields--) no obvi\s reason = ! diff]5ce ( direction4 ,?irdly1 t !re is no uni=mity z to mat]ials--a "p ( ! dra9s be+ wood1 & a "p tiles1 9 ! same field4 ,f9ally1 x is cont5d$ t !re is no sav+ ( exp5se 9 ! ,key?orpe dra9+1 ov] ! ord9>y mode1 :5 all po9ts are consid]$1 because ! pret5d$ sav+ is made by ! use ( wood1 :]e true economy w\ld require tiles1 & %all[ dra9s are us$ :]e deep] ones w\ld 9 ! end be *eap]4 ,9 speak+ ( ?is controv]sy1 x is due to ,"l ,b]n]s to say1 t he expressly disclaims any inv5tion or novelty 9 8 op]ations at ,key?orpe4 ,on ! :ole1 al?\gh a "w at ! pres5t day :i* %\ld pass ov]1 )\t consid]ation1 ! claims ( ! ,key?orpe sy/em1 w\ld be q incomplete 9 its hi/ory ( ! subject1 yet ! facts elicit$ ) reg>d to x are p]haps *iefly valuable1 z t5d+ to %[ ! dang] ( bas+ a g5]al pr9ciple ^u an isolat$ case4 ,! discussion ( ! claims ( t sy/em--if su* x may be call$--may be valuable 9 ,am]ica1 :]e novelty is sure to attract1 by %[+ t "o m =m ( error has already be5 tri$ & f\nd want+2 & s save u ! tr\ble ( prov+ its inutility by exp]im5t4 ,,! ,,:>ncliffe ,,sy/em4 ,"l ,:>ncliffe1 ) a view to effect adequate dra9age at less exp5se ?an is usual 9 ?or\gh dra9age1 has adopt$ ^u 8 e/ate a sort ( compromise sy/em1 :i* he has br\ght to ! notice ( ! public 9 ! ,j\rnal ( ! ,royal ,agricultural ,society4 ,^u ,font5elle's idea1 t mank9d only settle into ! "r c\rse aft] pass+ ?r\gh & exhau/+ all ! v>ieties ( error1 x is well to advise our read]s ( ?is p>ticul> =m ( error also--to %[ t x has already be5 tri$--s t no pat5t ( inv5tion c be claim$ ^u x by ^? p]v]se p]sons :o are n satisfi$ )\t con/ant *ange1 & :o seem to imag9e t ! t5 comm&m5ts might be improv$ by a new edition4 ,"l ,:>ncliffe /ates 8 pr9ciples z foll[s1 & calls 8 me?od ! comb9$ sy/em ( deep & %all[ dra9age3 ,9 ord] to secure ! full effect ( ?or\gh dra9age 9 clays1 x is necess>y t !re %\ld be n only well-laid conduits = ! wat] :i* rea*es !m1 b also subsidi>y passages op5$ ?r\gh ! sub/ance ( ! close subsoil1 by means ( atmosph]ic heat1 & ! contraction :i* ensues f x4 ,! cracks & fissures :i* result f ?is action1 are reckon$ ^u z a c]ta9 & ess5tial "p ( ! process4 ,to give effici5cy1 !re=e1 to a sy/em ( deep dra9s b5ea? a /iff clay1 ^! natural *annels are requir$4 ,to produce !m1 !re mu/ be a cont9u$ action ( heat & evaporation4 ,if we draw (f effectually & con/antly ! bottom wat] f b5ea? ! clay & f its sub/ance1 z f> z x admits ( p]colation1 & by "s o!r means provide a v5t = ! upp] wat]1 :i* ne$s no m ?an ?is facility to run freely1 !re seems good reason to suppose t ! object may be completely atta9$1 & t we %all remove ! moi/ure f bo? portions z effectually z its quantity & ! sub/ance w p]mit4 ,act+ ^u ?is view1 !n1 aft] due consid]ation1 ,i det]m9$ to comb9e ) ! fundam5tal f\r-feet dra9s a sy/em ( auxili>y ones ( mu* less dep?1 :i* %\ld d _! "w above1 & contribute _! %>e to ! :olesome dis*>ge1 :ile ! "u-curr5t f _! m subt]ranean neighbors %\ld be /eadily p]=m+ _! m difficult duty4 ,i accompli%$ ?is1 by plac+ my f\r-feet dra9s at a di/ance ( f eighte5 to tw5ty y>ds ap>t1 & !n lead+ o!rs into !m1 sunk only to ab\t two feet b5ea? ! surface 7:i* appe>$1 ^u consid]ation1 to be suffici5tly bel[ any conceivable dep? ( cultivation71 & lay+ ^! at a di/ance f ea* o!r ( eight y>ds4 ,^! latt] are laid at an acute angle ) ! ma9-dra9s1 & at _! m\?s are ei!r gradually slop$ d[nw>ds to ! l[] level1 or h a few loose /ones plac$ 9 ! same int]vals betwe5 ! two1 suffici5t to ensure ! p]p5dicul> desc5t ( ! upp] /ream ?r\gh t space1 :i* c nev] exce$1 or1 inde$1 /rictly equal1 ! additional two feet4 ,!re are two reasons :y ?is mode ( dra9age _c be adopt$ 9 ! nor!rn "p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,fir/3 ,! two-foot dra9s w\ld be liable to be froz5 up solid1 e w9t]4 ,secondly3 ,! subsoil pl[1 n[ com+ into use among our be/ cultivators1 runs to s great a dep? z to be likely to entirely de/roy two-foot dra9s at ! fir/ op]ation1 ev5 if x 7 n int5d$ to run ! sub-soil] to a great] g5]al dep? ?an eighte5 in*es4 ,any "o :o has _h exp]i5ce 9 hold+ a subsoil-pl[1 mu/ "k t x is an implem5t some:at unmanageable1 & liable to plunge deep into s(t spots l ! cov]+ ov] dra9s2 s t no skill or c>e c\ld r5d] its use safe ov] two-foot dra9s4 ,! hi/ory ( dra9age 9 ,am]ica1 is soon giv54 ,x beg9s "h1 z x mu/ beg9 ev]y:]e1 :5 practic$ z a g5]al sy/em1 ) ! introduction ( tiles4 ,9 #ahce1 ,mr4 ,john ,john/on1 ( ,s5eca ,c\nty1 ,new ,york1 a ,scot*man by bir?1 import$ f ,scotl& patt]ns ( dra9-tiles1 & caus$ !m to be made by h&-labor1 & set ! example ( _! use on 8 own f>m4 ,! effects ( ,mr4 ,john/on's op]ations 7 s /rik+1 t 9 #ahdh1 ,john ,delafield1 ,esq41 = a long "t ,presid5t ( ! ,s5eca ,c\nty ,agricultural ,society1 import$ f ,engl& "o ( ,scragg's ,pat5t ,tile ma*9es4 ,f t "t1 tile-dra9+ 9 t c\nty1 & 9 ! neighbor+ c\nties1 has be5 dilig5tly & pr(itably pursu$4 ,sev]al int]e/+ /atem5ts ( successful exp]im5ts by ,mr4 ,john/on1 ,mr4 ,delafield1 ,mr4 ,!ron ,g4 ,yeomans ( ,wayne ,c\nty1 & o!rs1 h be5 publi%$1 f "t to "t1 9 ! ,new ,york ,transactions4 ,inde$1 mo/ ( our in=mation ( exp]im5tal dra9+ 9 ?is c\ntry1 has come f t qu>t]4 ,mr4 ,john/on1 = m ?an tw5ty ye>s1 has made himself useful to ! c\ntry1 & at ! same "t ga9$ a wide reputation = himself1 by occasional publications on ! subject ( dra9age4 ,9 addition to ?is1 8 practical k ( agriculture1 & especially ( ! subject ( dra9age1 has ga9$ = him a compet5ce = 8 decl9+ ye>s4 ,9 ?is we rejoice2 & tru/ t 9 ^!1 8 latt] ye>s1 he may be made ev] to feel1 t ev5 !y among u ( ! fri5ds ( agriculture :o h n kn[n him p]sonally1 are n unm9dful ( _! obligations to him z ! lead] ( a mo/ b5efic5t ent]prise4 ,tile-works h s9ce be5 e/abli%$ at v>i\s places 9 ,new ,york1 at sev]al places 9 ,massa*usetts1 ,ohio1 ,mi*igan1 & _m o!r ,/ates4 ,! fir/ dra9-tiles us$ 9 ,new-,hamp%ire1 7 br\ght f ,albany1 9 #ahed1 by ,mr4 ,william ,conn]1 & us$ on 8 f>m 9 ,exet]1 t ye>2 & ! foll[+ ye>1 ! writ] br\ght "s f ,albany1 & laid !m on 8 f>m1 9 ! same t[n4 ,9 #aheg1 tile-works 7 put 9 op]ation at ,exet]2 & "s #dj1jjj tiles 7 made t ye>4 ,! horse-%oe tiles1 we und]/&1 h be5 g5]ally us$ 9 ,new ,york4 ,at ,albany1 & 9 ,massa*usetts1 ! sole-tile has be5 ( late ye>s pref]r$4 ,we _c le>n t cyl9drical pipes h ev] be5 manufactur$ 9 ?is c\ntry until ! ,summ] ( #aheh :5 ! eng9e]s ( ! ,new ,york ,c5tral ,p>k procur$ !m to be made1 & laid !m1 ) coll>s1 9 _! dra9age-works !re4 ,?is is believ$ to be ! fir/ practical introduction into ?is c\ntry ( r\nd pipes & coll>s1 :i* are reg>d$ 9 ,engl& z ! mo/ p]fect means ( dra9age4 ,exp]im5ts all ov] ! c\ntry1 9 reclaim+ bog-mead[s1 & 9 dra9+ wet l&s ) dra9s ( /one & wood1 h be5 attempt$1 ) v>i\s success4 ,^? attempts we reg>d z m]ely ef=ts 9 ! "r direction1 & r z evid5ce ( a g5]al conviction ( ! want1 by ! ,am]ican f>m]1 ( a *eap & effici5t mode ( dra9age1 ?an z an introduction ( a sy/em ( ?or\gh dra9age2 =--z we ?9k w appe> 9 ! c\rse ( ?is "w--no sy/em ( dra9age c be made suffici5tly *eap & effici5t = g5]al adoption1 ) o!r mat]ials ?an dra9-tiles4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,ra91 ,,evaporation1 ,,& ,,filtration4 ,f]tiliz+ ,sub/ances 9 ,ra9 ,wat]4--,am\nt ( ,ra9 ,fall 9 ,unit$ ,/ates--9 ,engl&4--,tables ( ,ra9 ,fall4--,numb] ( ,ra9y ,days1 & ,quantity ( ,ra9 ea* ,mon?4--,sn[1 h[ ,comput$ z ,wat]4--,proportion ( ,ra9 ,evaporat$4--,:at ,quantity ( ,wat] ,dry ,soil w ,hold4--,dew ,po9t4--,h[ ,evaporation ,cools ,bodies4--,artificial ,heat ,und]gr\nd4--,tables ( ,filtration & ,evaporation4 ,al?\gh we usually reg>d dra9age z a means ( r5d]+ l& suffici5tly dry = cultivation1 t is by no means a compreh5sive view ( ! objects ( ! op]ation4 ,ra9 is ! pr9cipal s\rce ( moi/ure1 & a surplus ( moi/ure is ! evil aga9/ :i* we cont5d 9 dra9+4 ,b ra9 is also a pr9cipal s\rce ( f]tility1 n only because x af=ds ! necess>y moi/ure to dissolve ! elem5ts ( f]tility already 9 ! soil1 b also because x conta9s 9 itself1 or br+s ) x f ! atmosph]e1 valuable f]tiliz+ sub/ances4 ,9 a le>n$ article by ,mr4 ,caird1 9 ! ,cyclop$ia ( ,agriculture1 on ! ,rotation ( ,crops1 he says3 ,! surpris+ effects ( a fall[1 ev5 :5 unaid$ by any manure1 has receiv$ "s explanation by ! rec5t discov]y ( ,mr4 ,b>ral1 t ra9-wat] conta9s )9 itself1 & conveys into ! soil1 f]tiliz+ sub/ances ( ! utmo/ importance1 equival5t1 9 a fall ( ra9 ( #bd in*es p] annum1 to ! quantity ( ammonia conta9$ 9 #b cwt4 ( ,p]uvian guano1 ) #aej lbs4 ( nitrog5e\s matt] besides1 all suit$ to ! nutrition ( our crops4 ,ab\t #db in*es ( ra9 may be tak5 z a fair g5]al av]age ( ! ra9-fall 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,if ?is supplies z mu* ammonia to ! soil z #c cwt4 ( ,p]uvian guano to ! acre1 :i* is consid]$ a lib]al manur+1 & :i* is valuable pr9cipally = its ammonia1 we at once see ! importance ( reta9+ ! ra9-wat] long en\gh ^u our fields1 at lea/1 to rob x ( its treasures4 ,b ra9-wat] has a f>!r value ?an has yet be5 sugge/$3 ,ra9-wat] always conta9s 9 solution1 air1 c>bonic acid1 & ammonia4 ,! two fir/ +r$i5ts are among ! mo/ p[]ful dis9tegrators ( a soil4 ,! oxyg5 ( ! air1 & ! c>bonic acid be+ bo? 9 a highly cond5s$ =m1 by be+ dissolv$1 possess v p[]ful aff9ities = ! +r$i5ts ( ! soil4 ,! oxyg5 attacks & oxydizes ! iron2 ! c>bonic acid seiz+ ! lime & pota% & o!r alkal9e +r$i5ts ( ! soil1 produces a fur!r dis9tegration1 & r5d]s available ! lock$-up +r$i5ts ( ?is magaz9e ( nutrim5t4 ,be=e ^! c be us$ by plants1 !y mu/ be r5d]$ soluble2 & ?is is only affect$ by ! free & r5ew$ access ( ra9 & air4 ,! ready passage ( bo? ( ^!1 !re=e1 enables ! soil to yield up its conceal$ nutrim5t4 ,we see1 !n1 t ! ra9s ( heav5 br+ u n only wat]1 b food = our plants1 & t1 :ile we w\ld remove by prop] dra9age ! surplus moi/ure1 we %\ld take c>e to fir/ conduct x ?r\gh ! soil f> en\gh to fulfill its mission ( f]tility4 ,we _c suppose t all ra9-wat] br+s to our fields precisely ! same proportion ( ! elem5ts ( f]tility1 because ! =eign prop]ties ) :i* x is *>g$1 mu/ cont9ually v>y ) ! condition ( ! atmosph]e ?r\gh :i* x falls1 :e!r x be ! ?ick & murky cl\d :i* ov]hangs ! coal-burn+ city1 or ! transp>5t e!r ( ! m\nta9 tops4 ,we may see1 too1 by ! tables1 t ! quantity ( ra9 t falls1 v>ies mu*1 n only ) ! v>y+ seasons ( ! ye>1 & ) ! diff]5t seasons ( diff]5t ye>s1 b ) ! di/ance f ! equator1 ! div]sity ( m\nta9 & riv]1 & lake & wood1 & especially ) locality z to ! ocean4 ,yet ! av]age results ( nature's op]ations ?r\gh a s]ies ( ye>s1 are />tl+ly con/ant & uni=m1 & we may d$uce f tables ( ra9-falls1 z f bills ( mortality & tables ( longevity1 conclusions almo/ z reliable z f ma!matical premises4 ,! quantity ( ra9 is g5]ally increas$ by ! locality ( m\nta9 ranges4 ,?us1 at ! ,ed9burgh ,wat] ,company's works1 on ! ,p5tl& ,hills1 !re fell 9 #ahdi1 ne>ly twice z mu* ra9 z at ,ed9burgh1 al?\gh ! di/ance betwe5 ! two places is only sev5 miles4 ,al?\gh a mu* great] quantity ( ra9 falls 9 m\nta9\s di/ricts 7)9 c]ta9 limits ( elevation7 ?an 9 ! pla9s1 yet a great] quantity ( ra9 falls at ! surface ( ! gr\nd ?an at an elevation ( a few hundr$ feet4 ,?us1 f exp]im5ts :i* 7 c>efully made at ,york1 x 0 asc]ta9$ t !re fell eight & a half in*es m ra9 at ! surface ( ! gr\nd1 9 ! c\rse ( twelve mon?s1 ?an at ! top ( ! ,m9/]1 :i* is #bab feet high4 ,simil> results h be5 obta9$ 9 _m o!r places4 ,"s obs]vations ^u ?is po9t may also be f\nd 9 ! ,report ( ! ,smi?sonian ,in/itution = #ahee1 at p4 #baj1 giv5 by ,pr(essor ,c4 ,w4 ,morris1 ( ,new ,york4 ,aga91 ! evaporation f ! surface ( wat] be+ mu* great] ?an f ! l&1 cl\ds t are waft$ by ! w9ds f ! sea to ! l&1 cond5se _! vapor ^u ! cold] hills & m\nta9 sides1 & yield ra91 s t high l&s ne> ! sea or o!r l>ge bodies ( wat]1 f :i* ! w9ds g5]ally bl[1 h a great] proportion ( ra9y days & a great] fall ( ra9 ?an l&s m remote f wat]4 ,! annual ra9-fall 9 ! lake di/ricts 9 ,cumb]l& ,c\nty1 9 ,engl&1 sometimes am\nts to m ?an #aej in*es4 ,) a desire to contribute z mu* z possible to ! /ock ( accurate k on ?is subject1 we avail$ ourselves ( ! k9dly (f]$ s]vices ( our fri5ds1 ,%$d & ,edson1 9 prep>+ a c>efully consid]$ article ^u a "p ( our g5]al subject1 :i* has mu* engag$ _! att5tion4 ,nei!r ! article itself1 nor ! obs]vations ( ,dr4 ,hobbs1 :i* =m a "p ( its basis1 has ev] be=e be5 publi%$1 & we believe our pages _c be bett] occupi$ ?an by giv+ !m 9 ! language ( our fri5ds3 ,all vegetables1 9 ! v>i\s /ages ( gr[?1 require w>m?1 air1 & moi/ure1 to support life & heal?4 ,bel[ ! surface ( ! gr\nd !re is a body ( /agnant wat]1 sometimes at a great dep?1 b 9 ret5tive soils usually )9 a foot or two ( ! surface4 ,?is /agnant wat] n only excludes ! air1 b r5d]s ! soil mu* cold]1 &1 be+ 9 itself ( no b5efit1 )\t w>m? & air1 its removal to a great] dep? is v desirable4 ,a k ( ! dep? to :i* ?is wat]-table %\ld be remov$1 & ( ! means ( remov+ x1 con/itutes ! sci5ce ( dra9+1 & 9 its discussion1 a k ( ! ra9-fall1 humidity ( ! atmosph]e1 & am\nt ( evaporation1 is v important4 ,! am\nt ( ra9-fall1 z %[n by ! hyetal1 or ra9-*>t1 ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 by ,lor9 ,blodget1 is ?irty in*es v]tical dep? 9 ! bas9 ( ! great lakes2 ?irty-two in*es on ,lake ,erie & ,lake ,*ampla92 ?irty-six in*es 9 ! valley ( ! ,hudson1 on ! head wat]s ( ! ,ohio1 ?r\gh ! middle portions ( ,p5nsylvania & ,virg9ia1 & we/]n portion ( ,nor? ,c>ol9a2 =ty in*es 9 ! extreme ea/]n & ! nor!rn portion ( ,ma9e1 nor!rn portions ( ,new ,hamp%ire & ,v]mont1 s\?-ea/]n c\nties ( ,massa*usetts1 ,c5tral ,new ,york1 nor?-ea/ portion ( ,p5nsylvania1 s\?-ea/ portion ( ,new ,j]sey & ,delaw>e2 also1 on a n>r[ belt runn+ d[n f ! we/]n portion ( ,m>yl&1 ?r\gh ,virg9ia & ,nor? ,c>ol9a1 to ! nor?-we/]n portion ( ,s\? ,c>ol9a2 !nce1 up ?r\gh ! we/]n portion ( ,virg9ia1 nor?-ea/ portion ( ,ohio1 ,nor!rn ,indiana & ,ill9ois1 to ,prairie du ,*i52 =ty-two in*es on ! ea/ coa/ ( ,ma9e1 ,ea/]n ,massa*usetts1 ,rhode ,isl&1 & ,connecticut1 & middle portion ( ,m>yl&2 !nce1 on a n>r[ belt to ,s\? ,c>ol9a2 !nce1 up ?r\gh ,ea/]n ,t5nessee1 ?r\gh ,c5tral ,ohio1 ,indiana1 & ,ill9ois1 to ,i[a2 !nce1 d[n ?r\gh ,we/]n ,miss\ri & ,texas to ! ,gulf ( ,mexico2 =ty-five in*es f ,concord1 ,new ,hamp%ire1 ?r\gh ,worce/]1 ,mass41 ,we/]n ,connecticut1 & ! ,city ( ,new ,york1 to ! ,susquehanna ,riv]1 j nor? ( ,m>yl&2 also1 at ,ri*mond1 ,va41 ,raleigh1 ,n4 ,c41 ,augu/a1 ,geo41 ,knoxville1 ,t5n41 ,indianopolis1 ,ind41 ,spr+field1 ,ill41 ,/4 ,l\is1 ,mo42 !nce1 ?r\gh ,we/]n ,arkansas1 across ,r$ ,riv] to ! ,gulf ( ,mexico4 ,f ! belt j describ$1 ! ra9-fall increases inl& & s\?w>d1 until at ,mobile1 ,ala41 ! ra9-fall is sixty-?ree in*es4 ,! same am\nt also falls 9 ! extreme s\!rn portion ( ,florida4 ,9 ,engl&1 ! av]age ra9-fall 9 ! ea/]n portion is repres5t$ at tw5ty in*es2 9 ! middle portion1 tw5ty-two in*es2 9 ! s\!rn & we/]n1 ?irty in*es2 9 ! extreme s\?-we/]n1 =ty-five in*es2 & 9 ,wales1 fifty in*es4 ,9 ! ea/]n portion ( ,irel&1 x is tw5ty-five in*es2 & 9 ! we/]n1 =ty in*es4 ,obs]vations at ,london = =ty ye>s1 by ,dalton1 gave av]age fall ( #bj4fi in*es4 ,obs]vations at ,new ,b$=d1 ,mass41 = =ty-?ree ye>s1 by ,s4 ,rodman1 gave av]age fall ( #da4jc in*es--ab\t d\ble ! am\nt 9 ,london4 ,! mean quantity = ea* mon?1 at bo? places1 is z foll[s3 ,new ,b$=d4 ,london4 ,janu>y #c4cf #a4df ,febru>y #c4cb #a4be ,m>* #c4dd #a4ag ,april #c4fj #a4bh ,may #c4fc #a4fd ,june #b4ga #a4gd ,july #b4hf #b4de ,augu/ #c4fa #a4ha ,septemb] #c4cc #a4hd ,octob] #c4df #b4ji ,novemb] #c4ig #b4bb ,decemb] #c4gd #a4gd ----- ---- ,spr+ #aj4fg #d4ji ,summ] #i4ah #f4jj ,autumn #aj4gf #f4ae ,w9t] #aj4db #d4de ----- ----- ,ye> #da4jc #bj4fi ,ano!r v /rik+ diff]5ce betwe5 ! two c\ntries is %[n by a comp>ison ( ! quantity ( wat] fall+ 9 s+le days4 ,! foll[+ table1 giv5 9 ! ,radcliffe ,obs]vatory ,reports1 ,ox=d1 ,engl&1 #ae? volume1 %[s ! proportion ( v light ra9s !re4 ,! obs]vation 0 9 ! ye> #ahed4 ,ra9 fell on #aef days3 #gc days gave less ?an 4#je in*4 #cj betwe5 t & 4#aj #bg betwe5 4#aj 4#bj #i 4#bj 4#cj #i 4#cj 4#dj #d 4#dj 4#ej #a gave 4#fj #b 4#hj #a #a4jj ,ne>ly half ! numb] gave less fall ?an five-hundr$?s ( an in*1 & m ?an f\r-fif?s ! numb] gave less ?an "o-fif? ( an in*1 & none gave ov] an in*4 ,!re is m ra9 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 by a l>ge measure1 ?an !re2 b ! am\nt falls 9 less "t1 & ! av]age ( saturation is c]ta9ly mu* less "h4 ,f manuscript records1 furni%$ u by ,dr4 ,hobbs1 ( ,wal?am1 ,mass41 we f9d1 t ! quantity fall+ 9 ! ye> #ahed1 0 equal to ! av]age quantity = ?irty ye>s1 & t ra9 fell on fifty-f\r days1 9 ! proportion z foll[s3 ,numb] ( ra9y days1 #ed2 total ra9-fall1 #da4bi4 #j days gave less ?an 4#je in*4 #b betwe5 t & 4#aj #h betwe5 4#aj 4#bj #g 4#bj 4#cj #e 4#cj 4#dj #d 4#dj 4#ej #b 4#ej 4#fj #d 4#fj 4#gj #d 4#gj 4#hj #c 4#hj 4#ij #j 4#ij #a4jj #j #a4jj #a4aj #b #a4aj #a4bj #a #a4bj #a4cj #a #a4cj #a4dj #c #a4dj #a4ej #b #a4ej #a4fj #a #a4fj #a4gj #b #a4hj #a4ij #a #b4cj #b4dj #a #b4ej #b4fj #a #c4bj #c4cj ,no ra9-fall gave less ?an five-hundr$?s ( an in*2 & m ?an "o-f\r? ! numb] ( days gave m ?an "o in*4 ,9 #ahej1 f\r ye>s e>li]1 ! ra9-fall = ! ye>1 9 ,wal?am1 0 #fb4ac in*es1 ! greate/ record$ by obs]vations kept s9ce #ahbd4 ,x fell z %[n 9 ! table3 ,numb] ( ra9y days1 #eh2 total ra9-fall1 #fb4ac4 #c days gave betwe5 4#je & 4#aj in*es4 #d 4#aj 4#bj #f 4#bj 4#cj #c 4#cj 4#dj #e 4#dj 4#ej #c 4#ej 4#fj #c 4#fj 4#gj #c 4#gj 4#hj #b 4#hj 4#ij #a 4#ij #a4jj #c #a4jj #a4aj #g #a4bj #a4cj #b #a4hj #a4ij #b #a4ij #b4jj #c #b4jj #b4aj #b #b4aj #b4bj #a #b4cj #b4dj #a #b4ej #b4fj #a #b4fj #b4gj #a #b4hj #b4ij #a #c4fj #c4gj #a #d4ej #d4fj ,sept4 #g? & #h?1 9 #bd h\rs1 #f4hh in*es ( ra9 fell1 ! greate/ quantity record$ 9 "o day4 ,9 #ahdf--/ill e>li] by f\r ye>s--! ra9-fall 9 ,wal?am 0 #bf4ij in*es--! lea/ record$ by ! same obs]vations4 ,x fell1 z %[n 9 ! table3 ,numb] ( ra9y days1 #di2 total ra9-fall1 #bf4ij4 #c days gave betwe5 4#je & 4#aj in*es4 #g 4#aj 4#bj #aj 4#bj 4#cj #f 4#cj 4#dj #d 4#dj 4#ej #c 4#ej 4#fj #b 4#gj 4#hj #c 4#hj 4#ij #a 4#ij #a4jj #c #a4jj #a4aj #b #a4aj #a4bj #a #a4bj #a4cj #b #a4dj #a4ej #a #a4ej #a4fj #a #b4dj #b4ej ,! ra9-fall 9 #aheb 0 v ne> ! av]age = ?irty ye>s2 & ! quantity fall+ 9 s+le /orms1 on sixty-?ree diff]5t occasions1 z regi/]$ by ,dr4 ,hobbs1 0 z foll[s3 ,numb] ( /orms1 #fc2 total ra9-fall1 #db4bd4 #g /orms gave less ?an 4#aj in*es4 #aa betwe5 4#aj & 4#bj #i 4#bj 4#cj #e 4#cj 4#dj #f 4#dj 4#ej #e 4#ej 4#fj #a 4#fj 4#gj #a 4#gj 4#hj #c 4#hj 4#ij #a 4#ij #a4jj #e #a4jj #a4aj #a #a4aj #a4bj #a #a4bj #a4cj #a #a4dj #a4ej #c #a4fj #a4gj #a 9 #e days #c4af #a #d #d4ch #a #f #e4ce ,^! tables are suffici5t to %[ t provision mu/ be made to c>ry (f mu* great] quantities ( wat] f l&s 9 ?is c\ntry ?an 9 ,engl&4 ,we add a table ( ! greate/ fall ( ra9 9 any "o day1 = ea* mon?1 & = ! ye>1 f ,april1 #ahbd1 to #a/ ,janu>y1 #ahei4 ,x also 0 ab/ract$ f ! manuscript ( obs]vations by ,dr4 ,hobbs1 & w be1 we ?9k1 q useful3 ,,ye>s ,m>* ,june ,septemb] ,decemb] ,greate/ ,febru>y ,may ,augu/ ,novemb] ,fall 9 ! ,janu>y ,april ,july ,octob] ,ye> ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #ahbd #j4gfj4fgj4ecj4dda4ijb4edj4haj4gfa4hj #b4ed #ahbeb4af #b4faj4bga4bca4cgj4iab4eaj4hia4cbj4gab4d j #b4fa #ahbfa4hjj4efa4fgj4hij4cia4ghj4hga4hja4e ga4cga4bba4da #a4hg #ahbg #c4haa4eeb4dbj4ffa4cfc4afd4icb4bbc4hea4c i #d4ic #ahbhj4fja4dha4hbb4jfb4jaa4dda4ebj4ada4h ba4eba4ijj4bi #b4jf #ahbic4hfa4ihd4abb4cea4aej4iga4ibj4iga4c ia4jja4bea4eh #d4ab #ahcja4ca #a4agb4fhb4bhj4gha4hdb4deb4dja4bjb4fdb4d d #b4fh #ahcaj4fda4dhb4cbb4aba4gia4hgb4bga4jja4j jb4hba4bdj4ae #b4hb #ahcbb4fha4eib4jjd4dhb4eba4bd #b4acj4hja4ejb4fja4cd #d4dh #ahccj4hc #b4egj4ihb4jca4dbj4fdb4geb4cbc4aba4bg #c4ab #ahcd #j4fda4caj4idb4cea4hgb4abj4gca4bea4hib4d bj4ib #b4db #ahcea4ddj4hhb4dhb4dha4aha4ebd4gba4cba4e gc4bhj4gdb4cb #d4gb #ahcfb4gbc4jdb4bfa4hfa4bib4bda4jdj4gbj4c fb4jda4eja4fh #c4jd #ahcgc4fba4eja4ada4fha4dfa4cjj4gbj4ghj4f fa4dfj4haa4fh #c4fb #ahcha4fdj4gej4gfa4cba4dja4fgj4hba4djc4h da4ajb4dfa4jj #c4hd #ahcij4gjj4hjj4ehd4jfb4ihj4ida4jhc4edj4g ja4fjj4hja4ib #d4jf #ahdja4fhb4bja4edb4aba4afa4jha4djb4gba4b ha4jdc4gba4ab #c4gb #ahdaa4dda4aba4cba4fdj4ijj4gej4fdb4hbb4g hb4ffa4jea4gj #b4hb #ahdbj4eda4bba4afj4fdj4dgb4ajj4fha4ddj4i fj4cda4ajb4jb #b4aj #ahdca4fja4fdb4eja4cdj4cda4jda4ihb4ehj4e ba4ida4bh #b4eh #ahddd4ad #b4jfj4bdj4ehj4ghj4hfa4cda4gfb4cja4hfa4b h #d4ad #ahdeb4dba4gja4adj4gja4jba4jca4bja4ffj4h ha4afc4cba4df #c4cb #ahdfa4ed #b4dfa4afa4ahj4hba4dfj4dij4efj4eej4eda4j b #b4df #ahdga4ahb4gda4ffa4abj4hda4bhj4efa4hfb4a fj4fdb4gdc4jb #c4jb #ahdha4dda4efb4fhj4fhb4bha4jjj4gba4bda4d hb4ifj4hha4jj #b4if #ahdia4cfj4djb4cjj4iba4bhj4gba4ebb4jha4a bb4fjb4dha4gf #b4fj #ahejb4efa4iba4hdb4fhb4hja4bja4bjc4fhf4h ha4jdb4afa4ib #f4hh #aheaj4hja4hdj4efc4fja4iba4abj4ifj4cba4a ea4dgb4bej4hi #c4fj #aheba4jfj4hha4aed4cha4dga4fij4ffd4afa4a ia4faa4eij4hi #d4ch #ahecj4iba4cca4jca4abb4cij4dba4jcb4cfb4a da4iea4fga4ce #b4ci #ahedj4hca4fja4bea4hhb4ega4eja4ehj4dhb4c ca4hbc4bea4dc #c4be #aheec4cgc4jhj4hja4ccj4cia4bca4icj4gej4g ja4ggb4bba4bd #c4cg #ahef #a4cjj4fca4igb4icj4ffa4cjd4bcb4dbj4hgj4h ha4bj #d4bc #ahega4ejj4eda4eec4fha4bhj4ifb4dcb4jjj4h gc4edj4fga4bh #c4fh #aheha4aba4ahj4cea4bha4jjc4hfa4ceb4baa4f da4bba4cfa4dj #c4hf ,! foll[+ table %[s ! record ( ra9-fall1 z kept = "o ye>2 x 0 select$ z a repres5tative ye>1 ! total quantity fall+ be+ equal to ! av]age4 ,= ! ye> #ahdj3 ,numb] ( ra9y days1 #ej2 total ra9-fall1 #db4jj4 ,,days ,m>* ,june ,septemb] ,decemb] ,febru>y ,may ,augu/ ,novemb] ,janu>y #ahdj ,april ,july ,octob] ---------------------------------------- ------------------ #a #j4eej4ad #b4gb #j4fd #b #j4jh #j4je #c #j4cb #d #a4jhj4aj #e #a4af #j4fc #f #j4ej #g #h #j4bj #i #j4be #c4gb #aj #b4bj #a4bh #aa #j4aj #ab #b4ab #j4ed #ac #j4ad #a4ab #ad #j4eh #j4gj #ae #j4cf #af #ag #ah #ai #j4hbj4bd #j4fh #a4jd #bj #a4ed #j4dd #ba #j4ih #a4jd #bb #j4eb #b4bj #bc #a4fh #j4if #j4ah #bd #a4dj #be #j4af #j4ce #bf #j4ah #bg #j4ag #j4cj #bh #bi #a4hj #j4aj #a4dj #cj #a4db #j4jh #a4jd #ca ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,total#a4fhb4ghc4bhe4agb4bhb4dab4jie4bbb 4hic4feg4cec4bj ,! av]age quantity ( ra9 :i* has fall5 9 ,wal?am1 dur+ ! important mon?s ( vegetation1 f #ahbd to #aheh inclusive--a p]iod ( ?irty-five ye>s--is =-- ,april4 ,may4 ,june4 ,july4 ,aug4 ,sept4 #c4if #c4ga #c4ah #c4ch #d4ej #c4eb ,av]age = ! six mon?s1 #bb4be4 ,x w be notic$1 t ! av]age = ! mon? ( ,augu/ is ab\t #cc p] c5t4 l>g] ?an = ,june & ,july4 ,! quantity ( ra9 fall+ 9 ea* mon?1 z regi/]$ at ! ,cambridge ,obs]vatory1 is z foll[s3 ,,mean ,,( ,,obs]vations ,,= ,,twelve ,,ye>s4 ,jan4 ,feb4 ,m>4 ,apr4 ,may4 ,june4 #b4ci #c4ai #c4dg #c4fd #c4gd #c4ac ,july4 ,aug4 ,sept4 ,oct4 ,nov4 ,dec4 #b4eg #e4dg #d4bg #c4gc #d4eg #d4ca ,spr+4 ,summ]4 ,autumn4 ,w9t]4 #aj4he #aa4ag #ab4eg #i4hi ,av]age quantity p] ye>1 #dd4dh4 ,! quantity fall+ f ,janu>y to ,july1 is mu* less ?an falls f ,july to ,janu>y4 ,! great quantity ( sn[ :i* falls 9 ,new ,engl& dur+ ! ,w9t] mon?s1 & is c>ri$ (f ma9ly 9 ! ,spr+1 usually floods ! l[ l&s1 & %\ld be tak5 into acc\nt 9 e/abli%+ ! size ( pipe to be us$ 9 a sy/em ( dra9age4 ,! foll[+ obs]vations ( ! av]age dep? ( sn[1 h be5 made at ! places cit$1 & are copi$1 by ,blodget1 f v>i\s publi%$ notices3 ,ox=d ,co41 ,me4 #ab ye>s #ij in*es p] ye>4 ,dov]1 ,n4 ,h4 #aj #fh4f ,montreal #aj #fg ,burl+ton1 ,vt4 #aj #he ,worce/]1 ,mass4 #ab #ee ,amh]/1 #g #ed ,h>t=d1 ,conn4 #bd #dc ,lamb]tville1 ,n4 ,j4 #h #be4e ,c9c9nati #af #ai ,burl+ton1 ,i[a #d #ae4e ,beloit1 ,wiscons9 #c #be ,"o-t5? ! dep? ( sn[ is tak5 z its equival5t 9 wat]1 = g5]al purposes1 ?\gh x gives too small a quantity ( wat] 9 s\!rn latitudes1 & 9 extreme latitudes too great a quantity4 ,! rule ( r$uction ( sn[ to wat]1 9 cold climates1 is "o in* ( wat] to twelve ( sn[4 ,! proportion ( ! annual d[nfall ( ra9 :i* is collectable into res]voirs--or1 9 o!r words1 ! p]-c5tage ( ! ra9-fall :i* dra9s (f--is well %[n 9 a table us$ by ,ellwood ,morris1 ,esq41 ,c4 ,e41 9 an article on ,! ,propos$ ,improvem5t ( ! ,ohio ,riv] 7,j\r4 ,frank4 ,in/41 ,jan41 #aheh71 9 :i* we f9d1 t1 9 eighte5 s]ies ( obs]vations 9 ,great ,brita91 ! ratio1 or p] c5t4 ( ! ra9-fall :i* dra9s (f is #fe-a_/b1 or ne>ly two-?irds ! ra9-fall4 ,sev5 s]ies ( obs]vations 9 ,am]ica are cit$ z foll[s3 ,"n ,annual ,dra9age,ratio1 or ( ra9-fall1fl[+ p] ct4 ( ,no4,dra9age ,area4 9 in*es4away1 9! ra9 ,au?orities4 in*es4 :i* dra9s (f4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- #a ,s*uylkill ,navigation ,res]voirs #cf #ah #ej ,morris & ,smi?4 #b ,eaton ,brook #cd #bc #ff #c ,madison ,brook #ce #ah #ej ,mc,alpine4 #d ,patroon's ,brook #df #be #ee #e #db #ah #db #f ,long ,pond #dj #ah #dd ,bo/on ,wat] ,com'rs4 #g ,we/ ,=k ,res]voir #cf #ad #dj ,w4 ,milnor ,rob]ts4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,totals #bfi #acd #cdg ,av]ages #ch #ai #ej ,^! examples %[ an av]age ra9-fall ( ?irty-eight v]tical in*es1 & an annual am\nt1 collectable 9 res]voirs1 ( n9ete5 in*es1 or fifty p] c5t4 ,! p]-c5tage ( wat] ( dra9age f l& "u-dra9$ ) tile1 w\ld be great] ?an t :i* is collectable 9 res]voirs f ord9>y ga!r+-gr\nds4 ,if a soil 7 p]fectly saturat$ ) wat]1 t is1 held z mu* wat] 9 susp5sion z possible to hold )\t dra9+ (f1 & dra9s 7 laid at a prop] dep? f ! surface1 & 9 suffici5t numb] to take (f all surplus wat]1 !n ! entire ra9-fall ^u ! surface w\ld be wat] ( dra9age--presum+1 ( c\rse1 ! l& to be level1 & ! air at saturation1 s z to prev5t evaporation4 ,! wat] com+ ^u ! surface1 w\ld =ce out an equal quantity ( wat] at ! bottom1 ?r\gh ! dra9s--! "t occupi$ by ! process1 v>y+ accord+ to ! por\s or ret5tive nature ( ! soil2 b 9 ord9>y circum/ances1 x w\ld be1 p]haps1 ab\t =ty-eight h\rs4 ,dra9s usually run mu* long] ?an ?is aft] a heavy ra91 &1 9 fact1 _m run con/antly ?r\gh ! ye>1 b !y are suppli$ f l&s at a high] level1 ei!r ne> by or at a di/ance4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 ! soil 7 p]fectly dry1 hold+ no wat] 9 susp5sion1 !n !re w\ld be no wat] ( dra9age until ! soil _h become saturat$4 ,evaporation is con/antly c>ry+ (f great quantities ( wat] dur+ ! w>m mon?s1 s t "u-dra9$ soil is seldom 9 ! condition ( saturation1 &1 on acc\nt ( ! supply by capill>y attraction & by dew1 is nev] ?or\ghly dry2 b ! same soil w1 at diff]5t times1 be at v>i\s po9ts betwe5 saturation & dryness1 & ! wat] ( dra9age w be consequ5tly a great] or less p] c5tage ( ! ra9-fall4 ,an exp]im5t made by ! writ]1 to asc]ta9 :at quantity ( wat] a dry soil w\ld hold 9 susp5sion1 result$ z foll[s3 ,a soil 0 select$ ( ab\t av]age porosity1 s t ! result might be1 z ne>ly z possible1 a mean = ! v>i\s k9ds ( soil1 & dri$ by sev]al days' bak+4 ,! quantity ( soil !n be+ c>efully measur$1 a measur$ quantity ( wat] 0 suppli$ sl[ly1 until x began to escape at ! bottom4 ,! quantity dra9+ away 0 measur$ & d$uct$ f ! total quantity suppli$4 ,x 0 ?us asc]ta9$ t "o cubic foot ( e>? held #j4dhbf cubic feet ( wat]1 :i* is a little m ?an ?ree & "o-half gallons4 ,a dry soil1 f\r feet deep1 w\ld hold a body ( wat] equal to a ra9-fall ( #bc4ag in*es1 v]tical dep?1 :i* is m ?an w\ld fall 9 six mon?s4 ,! quantity :i* is n dra9$ away is us$ = vegetation or evaporat$2 & ! fact1 t ! wat] ( dra9age is s mu* great] 9 proportion to ! ra9-fall 9 ,engl& ?an 9 ?is c\ntry1 is ow+ to ! humidity ( t climate1 9 :i* ! evaporation is only ab\t half :at x is 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,! evaporation f a res]voir surface at ,baltimore1 dur+ ! ,summ] mon?s1 0 assum$ by ,colonel ,ab]t to be to ! quantity ( ra9 z two to "o4 ,dr4 ,holyoke assigns ! annual quantity evaporat$ at ,salem1 ,mass41 at fifty-six in*es2 & ,colonel ,ab]t quotes sev]al au?orities at ,cambridge1 ,mass41 /at+ ! quantity at fifty-six in*es4 ,^! facts are giv5 by ,mr4 ,blodget1 & also ! table bel[4 ,,quantity ,,( ,,wat] ,,evaporat$1 ,,9 ,,in*es1 ,,v]tical ,,dep?4 ,:itehav51 ,engl&1 ,ogd5sburg1 ,syracuse1 mean ( ,n4 ,y41 ,n4 ,y41 #f ye>s #a yr4 #a ye> ---------------------------------------- ------ ,jan4 #j4hh #a4fe #j4fg ,feb4 #a4jd #j4hb #a4dh ,m>4 #a4gg #b4jg #b4bd ,apr4 #b4ed #a4fc #c4db ,may4 #d4ae #g4aj #g4ca ,june4 #d4ed #f4gd #g4fj ,july4 #d4bj #g4gi #i4jh ,aug4 #c4dj #e4da #f4he ,sept4 #c4ab #g4dj #e4cc ,oct4 #a4ic #c4ie #c4jb ,nov4 #a4cb #c4ff #a4cc ,dec4 #a4ji #a4ae #a4hf ---------------------------------------- ------ ,ye>4 #cj4jc #di4cg #ej4bj ,! quantity = ,:itehav51 ,engl&1 is report$ by ,j4 ,f4 ,mill]4 ,x 0 v c>efully obs]v$1 f #ahdc to #ahdh--! evaporation be+ f a copp] vessel1 protect$ f ra94 ,! di/rict is "o ( ! wette/ ( ,engl&--! mean quantity ( ra91 = ! same "t1 hav+ be5 #de4be in*es4 ,?is %[s a great diff]5ce 9 ! capacity ( ! air to absorb moi/ure 9 ,engl& & ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 & z evaporation is a cool+ process1 !re is great] necessity = "u-dra9+ 9 ?is c\ntry ?an 9 ,engl&1 suppos+ circum/ances 9 o!r respects to be simil>4 ,evaporation takes place at any po9t ( temp]ature f #cb deg41 or l[]1 to #bab deg4--at :i* wat] boils4 ,x is increas$ by heat1 b is n caus$ solely by x--= a nor?-we/ w9d 9 ,new-,engl& evaporates wat]1 & dries ! e>? m rapidly ?an ! heat alone ( a ,summ]'s day2 & :51 "u ord9>y circum/ances1 evaporation f a wat]-surface is sl[1 x becomes q active :5 br\ght 9 close proximity to sulphuric acid1 or o!r vapor-absorb+ bodies4 ,! cold :i* foll[s evaporation is caus$ by a loss ( ! heat :i* is requir$ = evaporation1 & :i* passes (f ) ! vapor1 z a solution1 9 ! atmosph]e2 & z heat leaves ! body to aid evaporation1 x is evid5t t t body _c be cool$ by ! process1 bel[ ! dew-po9t at :i* evaporation ceases4 ,! popul> notion t a body may be cool$ almo/ to ! freez+-po9t1 9 a hot ,summ] day1 by ! action ( heat alone1 is1 !n1 errone\s4 ,b /ill1 ! am\nt ( heat :i* is us$ up 9 evaporat+ /agnant wat] f undra9$ l&1 t might o!rwise g t[>ds w>m+ ! l& & ! roots ( crops1 is a v s]i\s loss4 ,! diff]5ce 9 ! temp]ature ( a body1 result+ f evaporation1 may rea* #be deg4 9 ! des]t int]ior ( ! ,am]ican cont95t2 b1 9 ! ,ea/]n ,/ates1 x is n (t5 m ?an #ae deg44 ,! temp]ature ( evaporation is ! read+ ( a wet-bulb-!rmomet] 7! bulb be+ cov]$ ) moi/5$ gauze7 expos$ to ! natural evaporation2 & ! diff]5ce betwe5 t read+ & ! read+ ( a dry-!rmomet]1 is ! expression ( ! cold result+ f evaporation4 ,:5 ! air is ne>ly saturat$1 ! temp]ature ( ! air r>ely goes above #gd deg42 b1 if s1 ! moi/ure 9 ! air prev5ts ! pass+ away ( ins5sible p]spiration1 & ! jo9t action ( heat & humidity exhau/s ! vital p[]s1 caus+ sun-/roke1 z x is call$4 ,at ,new ,york city1 ,augu/ #ab? to #ad?1 #ahec1 ! wet-!rmomet] /ood at #hj deg4 to #hd deg42 ! air1 at #ij deg4 to #id deg44 ,! mortality1 f ?is jo9t effect1 0 v great--ov] two hundr$ p]sons los+ _! lives 9 ! two days1 9 t city4 ,f v c>eful obs]vations1 made by ,lor9 ,blodget1 9 #ahec1 at ,wa%+ton1 x 0 f\nd t ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! wet & dry !rmomet] 0 #ah-a_/b deg4 at #d ,p4 ,m41 ,june #cj?1 & #af deg4 at #b ,p4 ,m4 on ,july #a/--! temp]ature ( ! air be+ #ih deg4 on ! fir/ day1 & #ie deg4 on ! second2 b su* excesses are unusual4 ,! foll[+ table has be5 compil$ f ,mr4 ,blodget's notice ( ! peculi>ities ( ! ,summ] ( #ahec3 ,! dates are su* z 7 select$ to illu/rate ! extreme temp]atures ( ! mon?1 & ! degrees repres5t ! diff]5ces betwe5 ! wet & dry !rmomet]4 ,! obs]vations 7 made at #c ,p4 ,m43 ,locality4 ,dates4 ,diff]5ces4 ,,june1 #ahec4 ,burl+ton1 ,vt4 #ad? to #cj? rang$ f #h deg4 to #ag deg4 ,montreal #ad? to #cj? #f to #ag ,p\ltney1 ,i[a #aj? to #cj? #i to #af ,wa%+ton #bj? to #cj? #h4e to #af ,baltimore #ac? to #cj? #g4d to #bj4b ,savannah #ac? to #cj? #e4b to #ag4c ,au/91 ,texas #aj? to #cj? #d to #bd ,cl>kesville1 ,t5n4 #d? to #cj? #aj4c to #bj4e ,,augu/4 ,bloomfield1 ,n4 ,j4 #i? to #ad? #e to #ae ,au/91 ,texas #f? to #ab? #j to #ai ,philadelphia #aj? to #ae? #h to #ad ,jacksonville1 ,fla4 #aj? to #ae? #f to #h ,obs]vations by ,lieut4 ,gillis1 at ,wa%+ton1 give mean diff]5ces betwe5 wet & dry !rmomet]s1 f ,m>*1 #ahda1 to ,june1 #ahdb1 z foll[s3 ,obs]vations at #c ,p4 ,m43 ,jan4 ,feb4 ,m>4 ,apr4 ,may4 ,june4 #c deg44#jh #d deg44#dj #f deg44#dg #e deg44#cg #g deg44#je #h deg44#jc ,july4 ,aug4 ,sept4 ,oct4 ,nov4 ,dec4 #h deg44#hi #e deg44#bi #e deg44#fc #d deg44#fa #d deg44#gg #b deg44#jc ,a mean ( obs]vations = tw5ty-five ye>s at ! ,radcliffe ,obs]vatory1 ,ox=d1 ,engl&1 gives a diff]5ce betwe5 ! wet & dry !rmomet] equal to ab\t two-?irds ! diff]5ce1 z obs]v$ by ,lieut5ant ,gillis1 at ,wa%+ton4 ,on ! #ab? day ( ,augu/1 #ahec1 9 ,au/91 ,texas1 ! air 0 p]fectly saturat$ at a temp]ature ( #gf deg41 :i* 0 ! dew-po9t1 or po9t ( ! !rmomet] at :i* dew began to =m4 ,! dew-po9t v>ies accord+ to ! temp]ature & ! humidity ( ! atmosph]e2 x is usually a few degrees l[] ?an ! temp]ature ( evaporation--nev] high]4 ,f obs]vations made at ,gir>d ,college1 by ,pr(4 ,a4 ,d4 ,ba*e1 9 ! ye>s #ahdj to #ahde1 we f9d1 t = ,april1 #ahdd1 ! dew-po9t rang$ f #d deg4 to #af deg4 l[] ?an ! temp]ature ( ! air2 9 ,may1 f #d deg4 to #ad deg4 l[]2 9 ,june1 f #f deg4 to #bj deg4 l[]2 9 ,july1 f #d deg4 to #ag deg42 9 ,augu/1 f #f deg4 to #ae deg4 l[]2 & 9 ,septemb]1 f #f deg4 to #ba deg4 l[]4 ,! dew-po9t is1 !n1 dur+ ! important mon?s ( vegetation1 )9 ab\t #bj deg4 ( ! temp]ature ( ! air4 ,! temp]ature ( ! dew-po9t1 z obs]v$ by ,pr(4 ,ba*e1 0 highe/ 9 ,augu/1 #ahdc1 be+ #ff deg41 & l[e/ 9 ,janu>y1 #ahdd1 be+ #ah deg42 9 ,july1 #ahdd1 x 0 #fd deg41 & 9 ,febru>y1 #ahde1 x 0 #be deg44 ,its h\rly *anges dur+ ea* day are q m>k$1 & foll[1 ) "s degree ( regul>ity1 ! *anges 9 ! temp]ature ( ! air2 _! greate/ dep>ture f ea* o!r be+ at ! hotte/ h\r ( ! day1 :i* is two or ?ree h\rs aft] noon1 & ! lea/ at ! colde/ h\r :i* is f\r or five h\rs aft] midnight4 ,! av]age temp]ature ( ! dew-po9t 9 ,april1 ,may1 & ,june1 #ahdd1 01 at midnight1 #ej-a_/b deg41 air1 #eg deg42 five h\rs aft] midnight1 dew-po9t1 #di deg41 air #ed deg42 ?ree h\rs aft] noon1 dew-po9t1 #ed deg41 air1 #fc-a_/b deg44 ,! av]age temp]ature = ,july1 ,augu/ & ,septemb]1 01 at midnight1 dew-po9t1 #eh-a_/b deg41 air1 #fe deg42 five h\rs aft] midnight1 dew-po9t1 #eh deg41 air1 #fb deg42 ?ree h\rs aft] noon1 dew-po9t1 #fj-a_/b deg41 air1 #gh deg44 ,! av]age temp]ature = ! ye> 01 at midnight1 dew-po9t1 #db deg41 air1 #dh deg42 five h\rs aft] midnight1 dew-po9t1 #da deg41 air1 #df deg42 ?ree h\rs aft] noon1 dew-po9t1 #dd-a_/b deg41 air1 #ei deg44 ,! relative humidity ( ! atmosph]e1 or ! am\nt ( vapor held 9 susp5sion 9 ! air1 9 proportion to ! am\nt :i* x might hold1 01 9 ! ye> #aheh1 z giv5 9 ! j\rnal ( ! ,frankl9 ,in/itute1 = ,philadelphia4 ,som]set ,co4 ,april #di p] c5t4 -- #b ,p4 ,m4 ,may #ei #gb ,june #ee #fc ,july #ej #fa ,augu/ #ee #eh ,septemb] #ej #eg ,! saturation (t5 falls to #cj p] c5t41 b ) great v>iability4 ,evaporation goes on mo/ rapidly :5 ! p] c5tage ( saturation is l[e/2 &1 z be=e obs]v$1 ! cause ( ! excess ( evaporation 9 ?is c\ntry ov] t ( ,engl& is ! excessive humidity ( t climate & ! dryness ( ?is4 ,x has also be5 said t !re is great] ne$ = dra9age 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates on ?is acc\nt2 &1 z ! w>m? induc$ by dra9+ is some:at1 9 its effect1 a m]*antable product1 x may be well to consid] x = a mom5t 9 t light4 ,fir/3 ,! dra9$ l& comes into condition = work+1 a week or t5 days e>li] 9 ! ,spr+ ?an o!r l&s4 ,secondly3 ,! gr[? ( ! crops is quick5$ all ?r\gh ! ,summ] by an increase ( sev]al degrees 9 ! temp]ature ( ! soil4 ,?irdly3 ,! injuri\s effects ( fro/ are kept (f sev]al days lat] 9 ! ,fall4 ,( ! value ( ^! conditions1 ! f>m]1 :o has lo/ 8 crops = lack ( a few m w>m days1 may make 8 own e/imates4 ,9 ,roxbury1 ,mr4 ,i4 ,p4 ,r& heats up a portion ( 8 l&1 = ! purpose ( rais+ e>ly plants = ! m>ket1 by means ( hot wat] c>ri$ by iron pipes "u ! surface ( ! gr\nd4 ,9 ?is mann] he heats an area equal to #ajj feet by #ab feet1 by burn+ ab\t "o ton ( coal a mon?4 ,! increase ( temp]ature :i*1 9 ?is case1 is caus$ by t am\nt ( coal1 c1 9 ! abs5ce ( direct measurem5t1 only be e/imat$2 b x1 probably1 w av]age ab\t #cj deg41 day & night1 ?r\gh\t ! mon?4 ,9 an acre ! area is #cf4d times z great z t heat$ by "o ton ( coal2 ! co/ be+ 9 direct proportion to ! area1 #cf4d tons ( coal w\ld be requir$ to heat an acre2 :i*1 at #f p] ton1 w\ld co/ #bag4dj4 ,to heat an acre ?r\gh #aj deg41 w\ld co/1 !n1 #gb4dg4 ,x may be ( int]e/ to consid] h[ mu* coal w\ld be requir$ to evaporate f an undra9$ field t am\nt ( wat] :i* might be c>ri$ (f by "u-dra9s1 b :i*1 )\t !m1 is evaporat$ f ! surface4 ,x may be tak5 z an approximate e/imate1 t ! evaporation f ! surface ( an undra9$ ret5tive field1 is equal to two in*es v]tical dep? ( wat] = ea* ( ! mon?s ( ,may1 ,june1 ,july1 & ,augu/2 :i* is equal to fifty-f\r ?\s& ?ree hundr$ & five gallons1 or eight hundr$ & sixty-two hog%eads p] acre = ea* mon?4 ,if ?is quantity ( wat] 7 evaporat$ by means ( a coal fire1 ab\t #bb-b_/c tons ( coal w\ld be consum$1 :i*1 at #f a ton1 w\ld co/ #acf4 ,! co/ ( evaporat+ ! am\nt ( wat] :i* w\ld pass (f 9 "o day f an acre w\ld be ab\t #d4ec4 ,x is probable t ab\t half z mu* wat] w\ld be evaporat$ f ?or\gh-dra9$ l&1 ?\gh1 by "s exp]im5ts1 ! proportion has be5 made great]--9 :i* case ! loss ( heat result+ f an excess ( moi/ure evaporat$ f undra9$ ret5tive l&1 ov] t :i* w\ld be evaporat$ f dra9$ l&1 w\ld be equal to t ga9$ by #aa-a_/c tons ( coal1 :i* w\ld co/ #fh2 & ?is = ea* acre1 9 ea* ( ! ?ree mon?s4 ,at :atev] temp]ature a liquid vaporizes1 x absorbs ! same total quantity ( heat4 ,! lat5t heat ( wat]y vapor at #bab deg4 is #igb deg42 t is1 :5 wat] at #bab deg4 is conv]t$ into vapor at ! same temp]ature1 ! am\nt ( heat exp5d$ 9 ! process is #igb deg44 ,?is heat becomes lat5t1 or ins5sible to ! !rmomet]4 ,! heat r5d]$ lat5t by conv]t+ ice into wat] is ab\t #adj deg44 ,!re are #g4dhje gallons 9 a cubic foot ( wat] :i* weighs #fb4ch lbs4 ,we h se5 t a sea ( wat]1 m ?an ?ree feet deep ov] ! :ole face ( ! l&1 falls annually f ! cl\ds1 equal to #d1jjj tons 9 weight to e acre4 ,we w\ld use en\gh ( ?is wat] to dissolve ! elem5ts ( f]tility 9 ! soil1 & fit !m = ! food ( plants4 ,we w\ld reta9 x all 9 our fields1 long en\gh to take f x its /ores ( f]tiliz+ sub/ances1 br\ght f reek+ m>%es & /eam+ cities on cl\d-w+s to our f>ms4 ,we w\ld1 aft] tak+ en\gh ( its moi/ure to cool ! p>*$ e>?1 & to fit ! soil = g]m9ation & vegetable gr[?1 dis*>ge ! surplus1 :i* mu/ o!rwise /agnate 9 ! subsoil1 by rapid dra9age into ! natural /reams & riv]s4 ,evaporation proce$s m rapidly f a surface ( wat]1 ?an f a surface ( l&1 unless x be a saturat$ surface4 ,x proce$s m rapidly 9 ! sun ?an 9 ! %ade1 & x proce$s aga9 m rapidly 9 w>m ?an 9 cold wea!r4 ,x v>ies mu* ) ! culture ( ! field1 :e!r 9 grass1 or tillage1 or fall[1 & ) its condition1 z to be+ dry or wet1 & ) its =mation1 :e!r level or hilly4 ,yet1 ) all ^! v>iations1 v great reliance may be plac$ ^u ! asc]ta9$ results ( ! obs]vations already at our comm&4 ,we h se5 t evaporation f a wat] surface is1 9 g5]al1 great] ?an f l&1 & "h we may obs]ve "o ( ^? gr& comp5sat+ designs ( ,provid5ce :i* exi/ ?r\gh all nature4 ,if ! same quantity ( wat] fell ^u ! sea & ! l&1 & ! evaporation 7 ! same f bo?1 !n all ! riv]s runn+ into ! sea w\ld soon convey to x all ! wat]1 & ! sea w\ld be full4 ,b ?\gh ne>ly z mu* wat] falls on ! sea z on ! l&1 yet evaporation is mu* great] f ! wat] ?an f l&4 ,ab\t ?ree feet ( ra9 falls ^u ! wat]1 :ile ! evaporation f a wat] surface f> exce$s t am\nt4 ,9 ! neighborhood ( ,bo/on1 evaporation f wat] surface is said to be #ef in*es 9 ! ye>1 & 9 ! ,/ate ( ,new ,york1 ab\t #ej in*es2 :ile1 9 ,engl&1 x is put by ,mr4 ,dalton at #dd4dc in*es1 &1 by o!rs1 mu* l[]4 ,aga91 ab\t ?ree feet ( wat] annually falls ^u ! l&1 :ile ! evaporation f ! l& is b little m ?an #bj in*es4 ,if ?is wat] fell ^u a flat surface ( soil1 ) an imp]vi\s subsoil ( rock or clay1 we %\ld h "s sixte5 in*es ( wat] 9 ! c\rse ( ! ye> m ?an evaporates f ! l&4 ,if a giv5 field be di%-%ap$1 s z to reta9 x all1 x mu/ become a pond1 & s rema91 except 9 ,summ]1 :5 great] evaporation f a wat] surface may r$uce x to a swamp or m>%4 ,) #af or #ah in*es m wat] fall+ annually on all our cultivat$ fields ?an goes (f by evaporation1 is x n wise to inquire by :at process ( ,nature or art ?is va/ surplus %all escape8 ,exp]im5ts h be5 made ) a view to det]m9e ! proportion ( evaporation & filtration1 ^u well-dra9$ l&1 9 diff]5t mon?s4 ,f an able article 9 ! ,n4 ,y4 ,agricultural ,society = #ahed1 by ,george ,g$des1 we copy ! foll[+ /atem5t ( valuable obs]vations ^u ^! po9ts4 ,x w be obs]v$ t1 9 ! diff]5t obs]vations collect$ 9 ?is *apt]1 results are some:at v>i\s4 ,!y h be5 br\ght toge!r = comp>ison1 & w be f\nd suffici5tly uni=m = all practical purposes 9 ! matt] ( dra9age4 ,! exp]im5ts ^u evaporation & dra9age1 made on ,mr4 ,dalton's plan1 7 9 vessels ?ree feet deep1 fill$ ) soil j 9 ! condition to secure p]fect fre$om f excess ( wat]1 & ! dra9age 0 det]m9$ by ! am\nt ( wat] t pass$ out ( ! tube at ! bottom4 ,^! exp]im5ts h be5 mo/ p]fectly made 9 ,engl& by ,mr4 ,john ,dick9son4 ,! foll[+ table exhibits ! mean ( eight ye>s3 ,,ye>4 ,octob] to ,m>*4 ,april to ,septemb]4 ,total ea* ye>4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,ra94,filtra- ,ra94,filtra- ,ra94,filtra- tion4 tion4 tion4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- #ahcf #ah4hj #ae4ee #hb4g #ab4bj #b4aj #ag4c #ca4jj #ag4fe #ef4i #ahcg #aa4cj #f4he #fj4f #i4hj #j4aj #a4j #ba4aj #f4ie #cb4i #ahch #ab4cb #h4de #fh4h #aj4ha #j4ab #a4b #bc4ac #h4eg #cg4j #ahci #ac4hg #ab4ca #hh4b #ag4da #b4fj #ae4j #ca4bh #ad4ia #dg4f #ahdj #aa4gf #h4ai #fi4f #i4fh #j4jj #j4j #ba4dd #h4ai #ch4b #ahda #af4hd #ad4ai #hd4b #ae4bf #j4jj #j4j #cb4aj #ad4ai #dd4b #ahdb #ad4bh #aj4df #gc4b #ab4ae #a4cj #aj4g #bf4dc #aa4gf #dd4d #ahdc #ab4dc #g4aa #eg4b #ad4jd #j4ii #g4a #bf4dg #h4aj #cf4j ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,mean #ac4ie #aj4ci #gd4e #ab4fg #j4ij #g4a #bf4fa #aa4bi #db4d ,leg5d3 ,p] c5t filt]$4 ,a soil t holds no wat] = ! use ( plants bel[ six in*es1 w suff] f dr\? 9 t5 days 9 ,june1 ,july1 or ,augu/4 ,if ! soil is 9 suitable condition to hold wat] to ! dep? ( ?ree feet1 x w\ld supply suffici5t moi/ure = ! :ole mon?s ( ,june1 ,july1 & ,augu/4 ,m4 de la ,hire has %[n t1 at ,p>is1 a vessel1 sixte5 in*es deep1 fill$ ) s& & loam1 dis*>g$ wat] ?r\gh ! pipe at ! bottom until ! 'h]bs' 7 some:at gr[n1 :5 ! dis*>ge ceas$1 & ! ra9s 7 insuffici5t1 & x 0 necess>y to wat] !m4 ,! fall ( wat] at ,p>is is /at$1 9 ?is acc\nt1 at tw5ty in*es 9 ! ye>1 :i* is less ?an ! av]age1 & ! exp]im5t mu/ h be5 made 9 a v dry season2 b ! important po9t prov$ by x is1 t ! plants1 :5 gr[n up1 draw l>gely f ! gr\nd1 & !reby mu* increase ! evaporation f a giv5 surface ( e>?4 ,! result ( ! exp]im5t is entirely 9 accordance ) :at w\ld h be5 expect$ by a p]son conv]sant ) ! laws ( vegetation4 ,! mean ( ea* mon? = ! eight ye>s is3 ,p] c5t ,,mon?s4 ,ra94 ,filtration4 filt]$4 ---------------------------------------- --- ,in*es4 ,in*es4 ,janu>y #a4hd #a4cj #gj4g ,febru>y #a4gi #a4ed #gh4d ,m>* #a4fa #a4jh #ff4f ,april #a4de #j4cj #ba4j ,may #a4he #j4aa #e4h ,june #b4ba #j4jd #a4g ,july #b4bh #j4jd #a4h ,augu/ #b4db #j4jc #a4d ,septemb] #b4fd #j4cg #ac4i ,octob] #b4hb #a4dj #di4e ,novemb] #c4hc #c4bf #hd4i ,decemb] #a4fd #a4hj #aaj4j ,! filtration f ,april to ,septemb] is v small--practically no?+2 b dur+ ^? mon?s we h #ab4fg in*es ( ra9--t is1 we h two in*es a mon? = evaporation besides ! quantity 9 ! e>? on ! fir/ day ( ,april4 ,f ,octob] to ,m>* we h #aj4ci in*es filt]$ out ( #ac4ie in*es1 ! :ole fall4 ',( ?is ,w9t] portion ( #aj4ci1 we mu/ all[ at lea/ six in*es = floods runn+ away at ! "t ( ! ra91 & !n we h only #d4ci in*es left = ! supply ( riv]s & wells4' 7,breadmore1 p4 #cd47 ,x is calculat$ 9 ,engl& t ! ord9>y ,summ] run ( /reams does n exce$ t5 cubic feet p] m9ute p] squ>e mile1 & t ! av]age = ! :ole ye>1 due to spr+s & ord9>y ra9s1 is tw5ty feet p] m9ute p] squ>e mile1 exclusive ( floods--& assum+ no v wet or high m\nta9 di/ricts 7,breadmore1 p4 #cd7--:i* is equal to ab\t f\r in*es ov] ! :ole surface4 ,if we add to ?is ! six in*es t are suppos$ to run (f 9 fre%ets1 we h t5 in*es dis*>g$ 9 ! c\rse ( ! ye> by ! /reams4 ,! :ole filtration 0 #aa4bi in*es--#aj4ci 9 ! ,w9t]1 & 4#ij 9 ! ,summ]4 ,! rema9d]1 #a4bi in*es1 is suppos$ to be consum$ by wells & excessive evaporation f m>%es & pools1 f :i* ! dis*>ge is ob/ruct$1 by animals1 & 9 v>i\s o!r ways4 ,^! calculations 7 made f exp]im5ts runn+ ?r\gh eight ye>s1 9 :i* ! av]age fall ( wat] 0 only #bf4fa in*es p] annum4 ,:5 ! results d]iv$ f !m are appli$ to our av]age fall ( #ce4bh in*es1 we h = ! wat] t con/itutes ! ,summ] fl[ ( our /reams #ac4be cubic feet p] m9ute p] mile ( ! c\ntry dra9$1 & = ! av]age annual fl[1 exclusive ( fre%ets1 #bf4ej cubic feet p] mile p] m9ute4 ,t is to say1 ( ! #ce4bh in*es ( wat] t fall 9 ! c\rse ( ! ye>1 #e4cj run away 9 ! /reams z ! av]age annual fl[1 #g4ie run away 9 ! fre%ets1 & #bj4dg evaporate f ! e>?'s surface1 leav+ #a4ef = consumption 9 v>i\s ways4 ,9 ! :ole ye> ! dra9age is ne>ly equal to "o cubic foot p] second p] squ>e mile 74#igf71 no all[ance be+ made = ! #a4ef in*es :i* is lo/ z be=e /at$4 ,^! calculations are bas$ ^u ,engli% exp]im5ts4 ,mr4 ,mc,alpine1 late ,/ate eng9e] & surveyor1 9 mak+ 8 calculations = supply+ ! city ( ,albany ) wat] 7page #bb ( 8 ,report to ! ,wat] ,commission]s71 takes #de p] c5t ( ! fall z available = ! use ( ! city4 ,mr4 ,h5ry ,tracy1 9 8 ,report to ! ,canal ,bo>d ( #ahdi 7page #ag71 gives ! results ( ! inve/igations 9 ! valleys ( ,madison ,brook1 9 ,madison ,c\nty1 & ( ,long ,pond1 ne> ,bo/on1 ,mass41 z foll[s3 ,"n ,fall ( ra9 ,wat] ran (f ,evaporation ,ratio ,,ye>4 ( & sn[ 9 f surface ( valley4 9 valley4 in*es4 ( gr\nd4 dra9age4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ #ahce ,madison ,brook #ce4bf #ae4hc #ai4dc #j4ddi ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- #ahcg ,long ,pond #bf4fe #aa4gj #ad4ie #j4dci ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- #ahch ,d #ch4aa #af4fb #ba4di #j4dcf ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,mean #j4dda ,madison ,brook dra9s #f1jjj acres1 & ,long ,pond #aa1djj acres4 ,mr4 ,tracy makes ! foll[+ comm5t on ?is table3 ',x appe>s t ! evaporation f ! surface ( ! gr\nd 9 ! valley ( ,long ,pond 0 ab\t #dd p] c5t m 9 #ahch ?an x 0 9 #ahcg1 :ile ! ratio ( ! dra9age diff]$ less ?an "o p] c5t ! same ye>s4' ,dr4 ,hale /ates ! evaporation f wat]-surface at ,bo/on to be #ef in*es 9 a ye>4 7,s5ate ,doc41 ,no4 #gj1 = #ahec47 ,! foll[+ table conta9s ! results arriv$ at by ,mr4 ,c(f91 at ,ogd5sburgh1 & ,mr4 ,conkey1 at ,syracuse1 9 reg>d to ! evaporation f wat]-surface3 ,,c(f91 at ,ogd5sburgh1 ,,conkey1 at ,syracuse1 9 #ahch4 9 #aheb4 ,,mon?s4 ---------------------------------------- ----- ,ra94 ,evaporation4 ,ra94 ,evaporation4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,janu>y #b4cf #a4feb #c4fgc #j4ffe ,febru>y #j4ig #j4hag #a4cjg #a4dhi ,m>* #a4ah #b4jfg #c4bcd #b4bci ,april #j4dj #a4fbe #c4ebd #c4dba ,may #d4ha #g4ajj #d4dia #g4cji ,june #c4eg #f4gde #c4ggc #g4fjj ,july #a4hh #g4ghh #b4hhg #i4jgi ,augu/ #b4ee #e4dae #b4gbd #f4hed ,septemb] #a4ja #g4djj #b4ggd #e4ccd ,octob] #b4gc #c4idh #d4fbj #c4jbb ,novemb] #b4jg #c4fei #d4ced #a4cbe ,decemb] #a4jh #a4adf #d4aab #a4hfc ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,,total #bd4fa #di4cfb #da4dgc #ej4bjj ,! annual fall ( wat] 9 ,engl&1 is /at$1 by ,mr4 ,dalton1 to be #cb in*es4 ,9 ?is ,/ate1 x is #ce4bh in*es4 ,! evaporation f wat]-surface 9 ,engl&1 is put1 by ,mr4 ,dalton1 at #dd4dc in*es4 ,! fall is less1 & ! evaporation is less1 9 ,engl& ?an "h2 & ! fall1 9 ea* case1 be>s ! same proportion to ! evaporation1 v ne>ly2 & x appe>s t ! exp]im5ts made on ! two sides ( ! ocean1 result 9 giv+ v ne>ly ! same p] c5tage ( dra9age4 ,9 ,engl&1 x is #db4d p] c5t42 9 ?is ,/ate1 x is #dd4a4 ,9 ,engl&1 ! exp]im5ts 7 made on a limit$ scale comp>$ ) ours2 b ! results agree s well1 t great confid5ce may safely be plac$ 9 !m4 ,9 review+ ! :ole subject ( ra91 & ( evaporation & filtration1 we seem to h evid5ce to ju/ify ! op9ion1 t ) consid]able m ra9 9 ?is c\ntry ?an 9 ,engl&1 & ) a great] evaporation1 because ( a cle>] sky & great] heat1 we h a l>g] quantity ( surplus wat] to be dispos$ ( by dra9age4 ,! occasion = ?or\gh-dra9age1 h[ev]1 is great] 9 ! ,nor!rn "p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ?an 9 ,engl&1 ^u l& ( ! same "*2 because1 z we h already se51 ra9 falls f> m regul>ly !re ?an "h1 & nev] 9 su* quantities 9 a s+le day2 & because !re ! l& is op5 to be work$ by ! pl\gh ne>ly e day 9 ! ye>1 :ile "h = sev]al mon?s our fields are lock$ up 9 fro/1 & our labor = ! ,spr+ cr[d$ into a few days4 ,!re1 ! wat] :i* falls 9 ,w9t] passes into ! soil1 & is dra9$ (f z x falls2 :ile "h1 ! sn[ accumulates to a great dep?1 & 9 ?aw+ floods ! l& at once4 ,bo? "h & 9 ,engl&1 mu* ( ! l& requires no "u-dra9+1 z x has already a subsoil por\s en\gh to all[ free passage = all ! surplus wat]2 & x is no small "p ( ! utility ( und]/&+ ! pr9ciples ( dra9age1 t x w enable f>m]s to discrim9ate--at a "t :5 dra9+ is some:at ( a fa%ionable op]ation ) amateurs--betwe5 l& t does & l& t does n require s exp5sive an op]ation4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,dra9age ,,( ,,high ,,l&s--,,:at ,,l&s ,,require ,,dra9age4 ,:at is ,high ,l&8--,accid5ts to ,crops f ,wat]4--,d ,l&s ne$ ,dra9age 9 ,am]ica8--,spr+s4--,!ory ( ,moi/ure1 ) ,illu/rations4--,wat] ( ,pressure4--,legal ,rights z to ,dra9+ our ,neighbor's ,wells & ,l&4--,:at ,l&s require ,dra9age8--,horace ,greeley's ,op9ion4--,dra9age m ,necess>y 9 ,am]ica ?an 9 ,engl&2 ,indications ( too mu* ,moi/ure4--,w ,dra9age ,pay8 ,by high l&1 is meant l&1 ! surface ( :i* is n ov]fl[$1 z di/+ui%$ f swamps1 m>%es1 & ! l l[ l&s4 ,h[ great a proportion ( su* l&s w\ld be b5efitt$ by dra9+1 x is impossible to e/imate4 ,! ,committee on ,dra9+1 9 _! ,report to ! ,/ate ,agricultural ,society ( ,new ,york1 9 #ahdh1 ass]t t1 ,!re is n "o f>m out ( e sev5ty-five 9 ?is ,/ate1 b ne$s dra9+--yes1 mu* dra9+--to br+ x into high cultivation4 ,nay1 we may v5ture to say1 t e :eat-field w\ld produce a l>g] & f9] crop if prop]ly dra9$4 ,! committee fur!r say3 ,x w be conc$$1 t no f>m] ev] rais$ a good crop ( gra9 on wet gr\nd1 or on a field :]e pools ( wat] become masses ( ice 9 ! ,w9t]4 ,9 su* cases1 ! gra9 plants are g5]ally froz5 out & p]i%2 or1 if any survive1 !y nev] arrive at maturity1 nor produce a well-develop$ se$4 ,9 fact1 e obs]v+ f>m] kn[s t /agnant wat]1 :e!r on ! surface ( 8 soil1 or )9 rea* ( ! roots ( 8 plants1 always does !m injury4 ,! late ,mr4 ,delafield1 "o ( ! mo/ di/+ui%$ agriculturi/s ( ,new ,york1 said 9 a public address3 ,we all well "k t :eat & o!r gra9s1 z well z grasses1 are nev] fully develop$1 & nev] produce good se$1 :5 ! roots are soak$ 9 moi/ure4 ,no man ev] rais$ good :eat f a wet or moi/ subsoil4 ,n[1 ! f>ms ( ?is c\ntry1 ?\gh at times dur+ ! ,summ] !y appe> dry1 & crack op5 on ! surface1 are n1 9 fact1 dry f>ms1 = reasons already nam$4 ,on ! contr>y1 = n9e mon?s out ( twelve1 !y are moi/ or wet2 & we ne$ no bett] evid5ce ( ! fact1 ?an ! annual freez+ out ( ! plants1 & consequ5t pov]ty ( _m crops4 ,if we li/5 to ! answ]s ( f>m]s1 :5 ask$ z to ! success ( _! labors1 we %all be surpris$1 p]haps1 to obs]ve h[ mu* ( _! want ( success is attribut$ to accid5ts1 & h[ uni=mly ^! accid5ts result f causes :i* ?or\gh dra9+ w\ld remove4 ,! :eat-crop ( "o w\ld h be5 abundant1 _h x n be5 badly froz5 out 9 ! ,fall2 :ile ano!r has lo/ ne>ly ! :ole ( 81 by a season too wet = 8 l&4 ,a f>m] at ! ,we/ has plant$ 8 corn e>ly1 & late ra9s h rott$ ! se$ 9 ! gr\nd2 :ile "o at ! ,ea/ has be5 compell$1 by ! same ra9s1 to wait s long be=e plant+1 t ! season has be5 too %ort4 ,ano!r has work$ 8 clayey f>m s wet1 because he _h n "t to wait = x to dry1 t x c\ld n be prop]ly till$4 ,& s _! crops h :olly or p>tially fail$1 & all because ( too mu* cold wat] 9 ! soil4 ,x w\ld seem1 by ! rem>ks ( ^? :o till ! e>?1 z if !re 7 nev] a season j "r--z if ,provid5ce _h bidd5 u labor = bread1 & yet s5t d[n ! ra9s ( heav5 s pl5tifully z always to blight our h>ve/s4 ,x is r>e t we d n h a mo/ rem>kable season1 ) respect to moi/ure1 especially4 ,our potatoes are rott$ by ! ,summ] %[]s1 or cut (f by a ,summ] dr\ght2 & :51 z 9 ! season ( #ahef1 9 ,new ,engl&1 !y are nei!r s]i\sly diseas$ nor dri$ up1 we f9d at h>ve/-"t t ! promise has beli$ ! fulfillm5t2 t1 aft] all ! f9e %[ above gr\nd1 ! season has be5 too wet1 & ! crop is light4 ,we frequ5tly he> compla9t t ! season 0 too cold = ,indian corn1 & t ! e>s did n fill2 or t a %>p dr\ght1 foll[+ a wet ,spr+1 has cut %ort ! crop4 ,we he> no man say1 t he lack$ skill to cultivate 8 crop4 ,seldom does a f>m] attribute 8 failure to ! pov]ty ( 8 soil4 ,he has plant$ & cultivat$ 9 su* a way1 t1 9 a favorable season1 he w\ld h reap$ a fair rew>d = 8 toil2 b ! season has be5 too wet or too dry2 &1 ) full fai? t f>m+ w pay 9 ! long run1 he resolves to plant ! same l& 9 ! same mann]1 hop+ 9 future = bett] luck4 ,too mu* cold wat] is at ! bottom ( mo/ ( ^! compla9ts ( unpropiti\s seasons1 z well z ( mo/ ( our soils2 & x is 9 our p[] to remove ! cause ( ^! compla9ts & ( our want ( success4 ,! fault1 de> ,brutus1 is n 9 our />s1 ,b 9 ourselves4 ,we mu/ und]dra9 all ! l& we cultivate1 t ,nature has n already und]dra9$1 & we %all cease compla9ts ( ! seasons4 ,! advice ( ,cromwell to 8 soldi]s3 ,tru/ ,god1 & keep y\r p[d] dry1 af=ds a good lesson ( fai? & works to ! f>m]4 ,we %all seldom h a season1 ^u prop]ly dra9$ l&1 t is too wet1 or too cold1 or ev5 too dry2 = ?or\gh dra9+ is almo/ z sure a rem$y = a dr\ght1 z = a flood4 ,d l&s ne$ "u dra9+ 9 ,am]ica8 ,x is a common error to suppose t1 because ! sun %9es m brightly ^u ?is c\ntry ?an ^u ,engl&1 & because almo/ e ,summ] br+s su* a dr\ght "h z is unkn[n !re1 h] sy/em ( ?or\gh dra9age c h no place 9 agriculture on ?is side ( ! ,atlantic4 ,x is true t we h a cle>] sky & a dri] climate ?an are exp]i5c$ 9 ,engl&2 b x is also true t1 al?\gh we h a f> less numb] ( %[]s & ( ra9y days1 we h a great] quantity ( ra9 9 ! ye>4 ,! necessity ( dra9age1 h[ev]1 does n dep5d s mu* ^u ! quantity ( wat] :i* falls or fl[s ^u l&1 nor ^u ! p[] ( ! sun to c>ry x (f by evaporation1 z ^u ! "* ( ! subsoil4 ,! va/ quantity ( wat] :i* ,nature p\rs ^u e acre ( soil annually1 7 x all to be remov$ by evaporation alone1 w\ld r5d] ! :ole c\ntry b>r52 b ,nature h]self has k9dly done ! "w ( dra9+ ^u a l>ge proportion ( our l&1 s t only a heal?ful proportion ( ! wat] :i* falls on ! e>?1 passes (f at ! surface by ! influ5ce ( ! sun4 ,if ! subsoil is ( s& or gravel1 or ( o!r por\s e>?1 t portion ( ! wat] n evaporat$1 passes (f bel[ by natural dra9age4 ,if ! subsoil be ( clay1 rock1 or o!r imp]vi\s sub/ances1 ! d[nw>d c\rse ( ! wat] is *eck$1 & x rema9s /agnant1 or bur/s out ^u ! surface 9 ! =m ( spr+s4 ,z ! prim>y object ( dra9age is to remove surplus wat]1 x may be well to consid] ) "s c>e ,,! ,,s\rces ,,( ,,moi/ure4 ,spr+s4--,^! are1 z has be5 sugge/$1 m]ely ! wat] ( ra9 & sn[1 imp$$ 9 its d[nw>d p]colation1 & collect$ & p\r$ =? 9 a p]5nial fl[ at a l[] level4 ,! wat] :i* falls 9 ! =m ( ra9 & sn[ ^u ! soil ( ! :ole t]ritory ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ea/ ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s1 ea* ye>1 is suffici5t to cov] x to ! dep? ( m ?an #c feet4 ,x comes ^u ! e>?1 n daily 9 g5tle dews to wat] ! plants1 b at long1 unequal int]vals1 (t5 9 /orms1 tempe/s1 & %[]s1 p\r+ out1 sometimes1 9 a s+le day1 m ?an usually falls 9 a :ole mon?4 ,:at becomes ( all ?is moi/ure1 is an inquiry especially int]e/+ to ! agriculturi/1 ^u ^: fruitful fields ?is flood ( wat] annually desc5ds1 & ^: labor 9 se$-"t w\ld be de/roy$ by a s+le ,summ] %[]1 7 n ,nature m ?\ghtful ?an he1 ( 8 welf>e4 ,( ! wat] :i* ?us falls ^u cultivat$ fields1 a "p runs away into ! /reams1 ei!r ^u ! surface1 or by p]colation ?r\gh ! soil2 a "p is tak5 up into ! air by evaporation1 :ile a v small proportion ent]s into ! con/itution ( vegetation4 ,! proportion :i* passes (f by p]colation v>ies accord+ to ! nature ( ! soil 9 ! locality :]e x falls4 ,usually1 we f9d ! cru/ ( ! e>? 9 our cultivat$ fields1 9 /rata1 or lay]s3 fir/1 a surface-soil ( a few in*es ( a loamy nature1 9 :i* clay or s& pr$om9ates2 & !n1 x may be1 a lay] ( s& or gravel1 freely admitt+ ! passage ( wat]2 &1 p]haps1 next1 & )9 two or ?ree feet ( ! surface1 a /ratum ( clay1 or ( s& or gravel cem5t$ ) "s oxyd ( iron1 ?r\gh :i* wat] passes v sl[ly1 or n at all4 ,^! /rata are sometimes regul>1 ext5d+ at an equal dep? ov] l>ge tracts1 & hav+ a uni=m dip1 or incl9ation4 ,(t5]1 h[ev]1 9 hilly regions especially1 !y are q irregul>--! imp]vi\s /ratum frequ5tly hav+ depressions ( great] or less ext5t1 & hold+ wat]1 l a b[l4 ,n unfrequ5tly1 z we cut a dit* ^u a declivity1 we f9d t ! dip ( ! /rata bel[ has no correspond5ce ) ! visible surface ( ! field1 b t ! diff]5t /rata lie ne>ly level1 or are mu* brok51 :ile ! surface has a regul> incl9ation4 ,und]ly+ all soils1 at great] or less dep?1 is f\nd "s b$ ( rock1 or clay1 imp]vi\s to wat]1 usually at b few feet bel[ ! surface--! desc5d+ wat] meet+ ) ob/acles to its regul> desc5t4 ,! t5d5cy ( ! ra9-wat] :i* falls ^u ! e>?1 is to s9k directly d[nw>d by gravitation4 ,turn$ aside1 h[ev]1 by ! _m ob/acles ref]r$ to1 x (t5 passes obliquely1 or almo/ horizontally1 ?r\gh ! soil4 ,! drop :i* falls ^u ! hill-top s9ks1 p]haps1 a few in*es1 meets ) a b$ ( clay1 glides along ^u x = _m days1 & is at la/ borne out to be drunk up by ! sun on "s f>-(f slope2 ano!r1 fall+ ^u ! s&-pla91 s9ks at once to ! wat]-l9e1 or l9e ( level wat]1 :i* re/s on clay b5ea?1 &1 sl[ly creep+ along1 helps to =m a swamp or bog 9 ! valley4 ,sometimes1 ! ra9 :i* falls ^u ! high l& is collect$ toge!r by fissures 9 ! rocks1 or by seams or ruptures 9 ! imp]vi\s /rata bel[ ! surface1 & f9ds v5t 9 a gu%+ spr+ on ! hill-side4 ,we feel confid5t t no bett] illu/ration ( ! !ory ( spr+s1 z connect$ ) our subject1 c be f\nd1 ?an t ( ,mr4 ,girdwood1 9 ! ,cyclop$ia ( ,agriculture--a "w f :i* we quote ! m lib]ally1 because x is v exp5sive & r>e 9 ,am]ica3 ,:5 ra9 falls on a tract ( c\ntry1 "p ( x fl[s ov] ! surface1 & makes its escape by ! num]\s natural & artificial c\rses :i* may exi/1 :ile ano!r portion is absorb$ by ! soil & ! por\s /rata :i* lie "u x4 ,let ! foll[+ diagram repres5t su* a tract ( c\ntry1 & let ! d>k portions repres5t clay or o!r imp]vi\s /rata1 :ile ! light] portions repres5t lay]s ( gravel1 s&1 or *alk1 p]mitt+ a free passage to wat]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,:5 ra9 falls 9 su* a di/rict1 aft] s9k+ ?r\gh ! surface-lay] 7repres5t$ 9 ! diagram by a n>r[ b&71 x rea*es ! /ratifi$ lay]s b5ea?4 ,?r\gh ^! x /ill fur!r s9ks1 if !y are por\s1 until x rea*es "s imp]vi\s /ratum1 :i* arre/s its directly-d[nw>d c\rse1 & compels x to f9d its way along its upp] surface4 ,?us1 ! ra9 :i* falls on ! space repres5t$ betwe5 ,b & ,d1 is compell$1 by ! imp]vi\s /rata1 to fl[ t[>ds ,c4 ,"h x is at once absorb$1 b is aga9 imm$iately arre/$ by ! imp]vi\s lay] ,e2 x is1 !re=e1 compell$ to pass ?r\gh ! por\s /ratum ,c1 along ! surface ( ,e to ,a1 :]e x p\rs =? 9 a f\nta91 or =ms a morass or swamp1 proportionate 9 size or ext5t to ! tract ( c\ntry betwe5 ,b & ,d1 or ! quantity ( ra9 :i* falls ^u x4 ,9 su* a case z is "h repres5t$1 x w be obvi\s t ! spr+ may (t5 be at a great di/ance f ! di/rict f :i* x d]ives its supplies2 & ?is acc\nts = ! fact1 t dra9age-works on a l>ge scale sometimes mat]ially less5 ! supply ( wat] at places remote f ! sc5e ( op]ations4 ,9 ! in/ance giv5 above1 ! wat] =m+ ! spr+ is repres5t$ z ga9+ access to ! por\s /ratum1 at a po9t :]e x crops out f b5ea? an imp]vi\s "o1 & z pass+ along to its po9t ( dis*>ge at a consid]able dep?1 & "u sev]al lay]s ( v>i\s *>act]s4 ,sometimes1 9 an undulat+ c\ntry1 l>ge tracts may re/ imm$iately ^u "s highly-por\s /ratum--z f ,b to ,c1 9 ! foll[+ diagram--r5d]+ ! necessity = dra9+ less app>5t2 :ile ! c\ntry f ,a to ,b1 & f ,c to ,d1 may be full ( spr+s & m>%es--aris+1 p>tly1 f ! ra9 itself1 :i* falls 9 ^! latt] di/ricts1 be+ unable to f9d a way ( escape1 & p>tly f ! natural dra9age ( ! m por\s soils adjo9+ be+ dis*>g$ ^u x4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,aga93 ! rocks ly+ "u ! surface are sometimes s full ( fissures1 t1 al?\gh !y !mselves are imp]vi\s to wat]1 yet1 s completely d ^! fissures c>ry (f ra91 t1 9 "s p>ts ( ! c\nty ( ,durham1 !y r5d] ! s9k+ ( wells useless1 & make x necess>y = ! f>m]s to drive _! cattle _m miles = wat]4 ,x sometimes happ5s t ^! fissures1 or cracks1 p5etrate to enorm\s dep?s1 & are ( great wid?1 & fill$ ) s& or clay4 ,^! are t]m$ faults by m9]s2 & "s1 :i* we lately exam9$1 at di/ances ( f ?ree to f\r hundr$ y>ds f ! surface1 7 f five to fifte5 y>ds 9 wid?4 ,^! faults1 :5 ( clay1 are g5]ally ! cause ( spr+s appe>+ at ! surface3 !y arre/ ! progress ( ! wat] 9 "s ( ! por\s /rata1 & compel x to f9d an exit1 by pass+ to ! surface betwe5 ! clay & ! faces ( ! ruptur$ /rata4 ,:5 ! fault is ( s& or gravel1 ! opposite effect takes place1 if x communicates ) any por\s /ratum2 & wat]1 :i* may h be5 fl[+ ov] ! surface1 on rea*+ x1 is at once absorb$4 ,9 ! foll[+ diagram1 let u suppose t ,b repres5ts su* a clay-fault z has be5 describ$1 & t ,a repres5ts a s&y "o1 & t ,c & ,d repres5t por\s /rata *>g$ ) wat]4 ,on ! wat] rea*+ ! fault at ,b1 x w be compell$ to f9d its way to ! surface--!re =m+ a spr+1 & r5d]+ ! ret5tive soil1 f ,b to ,a1 wet2 b1 z soon z x rea*es ! s&y-fault at ,a1 x is imm$iately absorb$1 & aga9 rea*es ! por\s /rata1 along :i* x _h travel$ be=e be+ =c$ to ! surface at ,b4 ,x w be obs]v$1 t ! /rata at ! po9ts ( dislocation are n repres5t$ z 9 a l9e ) ! portions f :i* !y h be5 dissev]$4 ,?is is t]m$ ! up?r[ ( ! fault1 z at ,b2 & ! d[n?r[1 z at ,a4 ,= ! sake ( ! illu/ration1 ! displacem5t is "h %[n z v slight2 b1 9 "s cases1 ^! elevations & depressions ( ! /rata ext5d to _m hundr$s ( feet--z1 = in/ance1 at ! m9es ( ! ,briti% ,iron ,company1 at ,cefn-,mawre1 9 ,nor? ,wales1 :]e ! d[n?r[ ( ! fault is #cfj feet4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,sometimes ! /rata are dispos$ 9 ! =m ( a bas94 ,9 ?is case1 ! wat] p]colat+ ?r\gh ! m elevat$ gr\nd--ne> :at may be call$ ! rim--collects 9 ! l[] p>ts ( ! /rata t[>ds ! c5tre1 !re =c+ its way to ! surface1 if ! upp] imp]vi\s b$s be ?92 or1 if o!rwise1 rema9+ a conceal$ res]voir1 ready to yield its supplies to ! %aft or bor+-rod ( ! well-s9k]1 & sometimes =m+ a liv+ f\nta9 capable ( ris+ _m feet above ! surface4 ,x is 9 ?is way t :at are call$ ,artesian wells are =m$4 ,! foll[+ diagram repres5ts su* a disposition ( ! /rata z has j be5 ref]r$ to4 ,! ra9 :i* falls on ! tracts ( c\ntry at ,a & ,b1 gradually p]colates t[>ds ! c5tre ( ! bas91 :]e x may be made to give rise to an ,artesian well1 z at ,c1 by bor+ ?r\gh ! sup]9cumb5t mass ( clay2 or x may =ce itself to ! surface ?r\gh ! ?9n] "p ( ! lay] ( clay1 z at ,d--!re =m+ a spr+1 or swamp4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,aga93 ! high] p>ts ( hilly gr\nd are sometimes compos$ ( v por\s & absorb5t /rata1 :ile ! l[] portions are m imp]vi\s--! soil & subsoil be+ ( a v /iff & ret5tive description4 ,9 ?is case1 ! wat] collect$ by ! por\s lay]s is prev5t$ f f9d+ a ready exit1 :5 x rea*es ! imp]vi\s lay]s1 by ! /iff surface-soil4 ,! wat] is by ?is means damm$ up 9 "s measure1 & acquires a consid]able degree ( pressure2 &1 =c+ itself to ! day at v>i\s places1 x =ms ^? ext5sive weep+-banks :i* h su* an injuri\s effect ^u _m ( our m\nta9-pa/ures4 ,?is 0 ! =m ( spr+1 or swamp1 to ! removal ( :i* ,elk+ton pr9cipally turn$ 8 att5tion2 & ! foll[+ diagram1 tak5 f a description ( 8 sy/em ( dra9+1 w expla9 ! /ratification & spr+s ref]r$ to1 m cle>ly4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,9 "s di/ricts1 :]e clay =ms ! /aple ( ! soil1 a b$ ( s& or gravel1 completely saturat$ ) wat]1 occurs at ! dep? ( a few feet f ! surface1 foll[+ all ! undulations ( ! c\ntry1 & ma9ta9+ its position1 9 relation to ! surface1 ov] consid]able tracts1 "h & !re p\r+ =? its wat]s 9 a spr+1 or d5ot+ its proximity1 by ! subaquatic nature ( ! h]bage4 ,su* a configuration is repres5t$ 9 ! foll[+ diagram1 :]e ,a repres5ts ! surface-soil2 ,b1 ! imp]vi\s subsoil ( clay2 ,c1 ! b$ ( s&y-clay or gravel2 & ,d1 ! l[] b$ ( clay1 re/+ ^u ! rocky /rata b5ea?4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aj4 ,spr+s sometimes communicate ) lakes or pools1 at high] levels4 ,9 su* cases1 ! quantity ( wat] dis*>g$ is g5]ally s great1 z to =m at once a brook or /ream ( "s magnitude4 ,^!1 !re=e1 h>dly come "u ! ord9>y cognizance ( ! l&-dra9]1 & are1 !re=e1 "h m]ely ref]r$ to4 ,,! ,,wat] ,,( ,,pressure4 ,wat] t issues f ! l&1 ei!r con/antly1 p]iodically1 or ev5 int]mitt5tly1 may1 p]haps1 be prop]ly t]m$ a spr+4 ,b !re is (t5 mu* wat] 9 ! soil :i* did n fall 9 ra9 ^u t p>ticul> field1 & :i* does n issue f x 9 any def9$ /ream1 b :i* is sl[ly pass+ ?r\gh x by p]colation f a high] s\rce1 to ooze out into "s /ream1 or to pass (f by evaporation2 or1 p]haps1 f>!r on1 to fall into crevices 9 ! soil1 & ev5tually =m spr+s4 ,z we f9d x 9 our field1 x is nei!r ra9-wat]1 :i* has !re fall51 nor spr+-wat]1 9 any s5se4 ,x has be5 appropriately t]m$ ! wat] ( pressure1 to di/+ui% x f bo? ra9 & spr+-wat]2 & ! recognition ( ?is t]m w c]ta9ly be f\nd conv5i5t to all :o are engag$ 9 ! discussion ( dra9age4 ,! di/9ction is important 9 a legal po9t ( view1 z relat+ to ! "r ( ! l&-own] to div]t ! s\rces ( supply to mill-/reams1 or to adjac5t l[] l&s4 ,x (t5 happ5s t an own] ( l& on a slope may desire to dra9 8 field1 :ile ! adjac5t own] bel[1 may n only refuse to jo9 9 ! dra9age1 b may believe t he d]ives an advantage f ! surface-wa%+ or ! p]colation f 8 high] neighbor4 ,he may believe t1 by deep dra9age above1 8 l& w be dri$ up & r5d]$ wor?less2 or1 he may desire to collect ! wat] :i* ?us p]colates1 into 8 l&1 & use x = irrigation1 or = a wat]-ram1 or = ! supply ( 8 b>n-y>d4 ,may ! upp] own] legally proce$ ) ! dra9age ( 8 own l&1 if he ?us int]f]e ) ! int]e/s ( ! man bel[8 ,aga93 :]ev] dra9s h be5 op5$1 we already he> compla9ts ( _! effects ^u wells4 ,9 our good t[n ( ,exet]1 !re seems to be a g5]al impression on "o /reet1 t ! dra9age ( a swamp1 =m]ly own$ by ! au?or1 has drawn d[n ! wells on t /reet1 situat$ _m rods di/ant f ! dra9s4 ,^? wells are ^u a s&y pla91 ) und]ly+ clay1 & ! dra9s are cut d[n ^u ! clay1 & into x1 & may possibly draw (f ! wat] a foot or two l[] ?r\gh ! :ole village--if we c reg>d ! wat] l9e runn+ ?r\gh x z ! surface ( a pond1 & ! swamp z a dam across its outlet4 ,! rights ( l&-own]s1 z to runn+ wat] ov] _! premises1 h be5 fruitful ( litigation1 b are n[ well def9$4 ,9 g5]al1 9 ! language ( ,judge ,/ory1 ,e proprietor ^u ea* bank ( a riv]1 is entitl$ to ! l& cov]$ ) wat] 9 front ( 8 bank to ! middle ?read ( ! /ream1 c4 ,9 virtue ( ?is own]%ip1 he has a "r to ! use ( ! wat] fl[+ ov] x 9 its natural curr5t1 )\t dim9ution or ob/ruction4 ,! consequ5ce ( ?is pr9ciple is1 t no proprietor has a "r to use ! wat] to ! prejudice ( ano!r4 ,x is :olly immat]ial :e!r ! p>ty be a proprietor above or bel[1 9 ! c\rse ( ! riv]1 ! "r be+ common to all ! proprietors on ! riv]4 ,no "o has a "r to dim9i% ! quantity :i* w1 accord+ to ! natural curr5t1 fl[ to ! proprietor bel[1 or to ?r[ x back ^u a proprietor above4 ,*ief ,ju/ice ,ri*>dson1 ( ,new ,hamp%ire1 ?us briefly /ates ! same position3 ,9 g5]al1 e man has a "r to ! use ( ! wat] fl[+ 9 a /ream ?r\gh 8 l&1 & if any "o div]t ! wat] f its natural *annel1 or ?r[ x back1 s z to deprive him ( ! use ( x1 ! law w give him r$ress4 ,b "o man may acquire1 by grant1 a "r to ?r[ ! wat] back ^u ! l& ( ano!r1 & long usage may be evid5ce ( su* a grant4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 well settl$ t a man acquires no su* "r by m]ely be+ ! fir/ to make use ( ! wat]4 ,we are n aw>e t x has ev] be5 held by any c\rt ( law1 or ev5 ass]t$1 t a l&-own] may n int]cept ! p]colat+ wat] 9 8 soil = any purpose & at 8 pleasure2 nor h we 9 m9d any case 9 :i* ! dra9+ out ( wat] f a well1 by dra9age = agricultural purposes1 has subject$ ! own] ( ! l& to comp5sation4 ,x is believ$ t a l&-own] has ! "r to foll[ ! rules ( good husb&ry 9 ! dra9age ( 8 l&1 s f> z ! wat] ( pressure is conc]n$1 )\t responsibility = remote consequ5ces to adjac5t own]s1 to ! own]s ( di/ant wells or spr+s t may be affect$1 or to mill-own]s4 ,9 consid]+ ! effect ( dra9age on /reams & riv]s1 x appe>s t ! results ( su* op]ations1 s f> z !y c be appreciat$1 are1 to less5 ! value ( wat] p[]s1 by increas+ ! fl[ ( wat] 9 times ( fre%ets1 & less5+ x 9 times ( dr\ght4 ,x is suppos$ 9 ?is c\ntry1 t cle>+ ! l& ( timb] has s5sibly affect$ ! value ( mill privileges1 by increas+ evaporation1 & dim9i%+ ! /reams4 ,no mill-own] has be5 h>dy en\gh to cont5d t a l&-own] may n legally cut d[n 8 own timb]1 :atev] ! effect on ! /reams4 ,s1 we tru/1 no c\rt w ev] be f\nd1 :i* w re/rict ! l&-own] 9 ! highe/ culture ( 8 soil1 because 8 dra9age may affect ! capacity ( a mill-/ream to turn ! wat]-:eels4 ,to return f our digression4 ,x is necess>y1 9 ord] to a correct appreh5sion ( ! "w :i* our dra9s h to p]=m1 to =m a correct op9ion z to h[ mu* ( ! surplus moi/ure 9 our field is due to ea* ( ! ?ree causes to :i* we h ref]r$--to wit1 ra9-wat]1 :i* falls ^u x2 spr+s1 :i* bur/ up f bel[2 & wat] ( pressure1 /agnant 91 or sl[ly p]colat+ ?r\gh x4 ,! ra9-tables w give u in=mation z to ! fir/2 b z to ! o!rs1 we mu/ =m our op9ion f ! /ructure ( ! e>? ar\nd u1 & obs]vation ^u ! field itself1 by its natural ph5om5a & by op5+ te/-holes & exp]im5tal dit*es4 ,hav+ ga9$ accurate k ( ! s\rces ( moi/ure1 we may !n be able to =m a correct op9ion :e!r our l& requires dra9age1 & ( ! aid :i* ,nature requires to c>ry (f ! surplus wat]4 ,,:at ,,l&s ,,require ,,dra9age8 ,! m "o /udies ! subject ( dra9age1 ! less incl9$ w he be to deal 9 g5]al /atem5ts4 ,d y ?9k x is pr(itable to und]dra9 l&8 is a "q a ?\s& times ask$1 & yet is a "q t admits ( no direct g5]al answ]4 ,is x pr(itable to f5ce l&8 is x pr(itable to pl[ l&8 are que/ions ( mu* ! same "*4 ,! answ]s to !m all dep5d ^u circum/ances4 ,!re is l& t may be pr(itably dra9$1 & f5c$1 & pl[$1 & !re is a great deal t _h bett] be let alone4 ,:e!r dra9+ is pr(itable or n1 dep5ds on ! value & "* ( ! l& 9 "q1 z well z on its condition z to wat]4 ,:]e good l& is wor? "o hundr$ doll>s an acre1 x might be pr(itably dra9$2 :51 if ! same l& 7 wor? b ! ,gov]nm5t price ( #a4be an acre1 x might be bett] to make a new pur*ase 9 ! neighborhood1 ?an to exp5d t5 times its value on a tract t _c be wor? ! co/ ( ! op]ation4 ,dra9age is an exp5sive op]ation1 requir+ mu* labor & capital1 & n to be ?\ght ( 9 a pione] settlem5t by individual emigrants4 ,x comes aft] cle>+1 aft] ! build+ ( log-h\ses & mills1 & s*oolh\ses1 & *ur*es1 & roads1 :5 capital & labor are abundant1 & :5 ! good l&s1 nature-dra9$1 h be5 all tak5 up4 ,&1 aga91 :e!r dra9age is pr(itable1 dep5ds n only on ! value1 b on ! "* ( ! soil z to productiv5ess :5 dra9$4 ,!re is mu* l& t w\ld be improv$ by dra9age1 t _c be pr(itably dra9$4 ,x w\ld improve almo/ any l& 9 ,new ,engl& to apply to x a hundr$ loads ( /able manure to ! acre2 b :e!r su* application w\ld be pr(itable1 mu/ dep5d ^u ! returns to be d]iv$ f x4 ,horace ,greeley1 :o has 8 p]ceptions ( common affairs1 & especially ( all t relates to progress1 wide awake1 said1 9 an address at ,peekskill1 ,n4 ,y43 ,my delib]ate judgm5t is1 t all l&s :i* are wor? pl[+1 :i* is n ! case ) all l&s t are pl[$1 w\ld be improv$ by dra9+2 b ,i "k t our f>m]s are nei!r able nor ready to dra9 to t ext5t1 nor d ,i insi/ t x w\ld pay :ile l& is s *eap1 & labor & tile s de> z at pres5t4 ,ultimately1 ,i believe1 we %all tile-dra9 ne>ly all our level1 or mod]ately slop+ l&s1 t are wor? cultivation4 ,:e!r l& w\ld be improv$ by dra9age1 is "o "q1 & :e!r ! op]ation w pay1 is q ano!r4 ,! "q :e!r x w pay1 dep5ds on ! value ( ! l& be=e dra9age1 ! co/ ( ! op]ation1 & ! value ( ! l& :5 complet$4 ,& ! co/ ( ! op]ation includes always1 n only ! money & labor exp5d$ 9 x1 b also ! loss to o!r l& ( ! own]1 by div]t+ f x ! capital :i* w\ld o!rwise be appli$ to x4 ,:]e labor & capital are limit$ s closely z !y are 9 all our new ,/ates1 x is a "q n only h[ c !y be pr(itably appli$1 b h[ c !y be mo/ pr(itably appli$4 ,a proprietor1 :o has money to loan at six p] c5t4 int]e/1 may well inve/ x 9 dra9+ 8 l&2 :5 a work+ man1 :o is pay+ twelve p] c5t4 int]e/ = all ! capital he employs1 might ru9 himself by mak+ ! same improvem5t4 ,,d ,,all ,,l&s ,,require ,,dra9age8 ,our op9ion is1 t a great deal ( l& does n 9 any s5se require dra9age1 & we %\ld diff] ) ,mr4 ,greeley1 9 ! op9ion t all l&s wor? pl\gh+1 w\ld be improv$ by dra9age4 ,nature has h]self ?or\ghly dra9$ a l>ge proportion ( ! soil4 ,!re is a great deal ( f9ely-cultivat$ l& 9 ,engl&1 r5t+ at f five to t5 doll>s p] acre1 t is ?\ght !re to require no dra9age4 ,9 a publi%$ table ( e/imates by ,mr4 ,d5ton1 made 9 #ahee1 x is suppos$ t ,great ,brita91 includ+ ,engl&1 ,scotl&1 & ,wales1 conta9 #dc1ieh1jjj acres ( l&1 cultivat$ & capable ( cultivation2 ( :i* he sets d[n z wet l&1 or l& requir+ dra9age1 #bb1hij1jjd acres1 or ab\t "o half ! :ole quantity4 ,8 e/imate is1 t only ab\t #a1cfe1jjj acres _h !n be5 p]man5tly dra9$1 & t x w\ld co/ ab\t #ajg millions ( p\nds to complete ! op]ation1 e/imat+ ! co/ at ab\t tw5ty %ill+s1 or five doll>s p] acre4 ,^! e/imates are valuable 9 v>i\s views ( our subject4 ,!y answ] ) "s def9it5ess ! "q s (t5 ask$1 :e!r all l&s require dra9age1 & !y t5d to correct ! impression1 :i* is preval5t 9 ?is c\ntry1 t !re is some?+ 9 ! climate ( ,great ,brita9 t makes dra9age !re ess5tial to good cultivation on any l&4 ,! fact is n s4 ,!re1 z 9 ,am]ica1 x dep5ds ^u ! condition & "* ( ! soil1 m ?an ^u ! quantity ( ra91 or any condition ( climate1 :e!r dra9age is requir$ or n4 ,g5]ally1 x w be f\nd on inve/igation1 t s f> z climate1 includ+ ( c\rse ! quantity & regul>ity ( ! ra9-fall1 is conc]n$1 dra9age is m necess>y 9 ,am]ica ?an 9 ,great ,brita9--! quantity ( ra9 be+ 9 g5]al great] 9 ,am]ica1 & f> less regul> 9 its fall4 ,?is subject1 h[ev]1 w receive a m c>eful consid]ation 9 ano!r place4 ,if 9 ,am]ica1 z 9 ,great ,brita91 "o half ! cultivable l& require dra9age1 or ev5 if b a t5? ( t half require x1 ! subject is ( va/ importance1 & x is no less important = u to appreh5d cle>ly :at "p ( our l& does n require ?is exp5diture1 ?an to le>n h[ to treat prop]ly t :i* does require x4 ,to resume ! inquiry1 :at l&s require dra9age8 x may be answ]$-- ,,all ,,l&s ,,ov]fl[$ ,,9 ,,summ] ,,require ,,dra9age4 ,l&s ov]fl[$ by ! regul> tides ( ! ocean require dra9age1 :e!r !y lie ^u ! sea-%ore1 or ^u riv]s or bays4 ,b ?is dra9age involves embankm5ts1 & a peculi> mode ( proc$ure1 ( :i* x is n n[ propos$ to treat4 ,aga91 all l&s ov]fl[$ by ,summ] fre%ets1 z ^u riv]s & small] /reams1 require dra9age4 ,^!1 too1 usually require embankm5ts1 & excavations ( *annels or outlets1 n )9 ! usual scope ( :at is t]m$ ?or\gh dra9age4 ,= a fur!r answ] to ! "q--:at l&s require dra9age8 ! read] is ref]r$ to ! *apt]s :i* treat ( ! effect ( dra9age ^u ! soil4 ,,swamps ,,& ,,bogs ,,require ,,dra9age4 ,no argum5t is necess>y to conv9ce rational m5 t ! v ext5sive tracts ( l&1 :i* are usually kn[n z swamps & bogs1 mu/1 9 "s way1 be reliev$ ( _! surplus wat]1 be=e !y c be r5d]$ fit = cultivation4 ,! treatm5t ( ?is class ( wet l&s is s diff]5t f t appli$ to :at we t]m upl&1 t x w be f\nd m conv5i5t to pass ! subject by ) ?is allusion1 at pres5t1 & consid] x m sy/ematically "u a sep>ate head4 ,,all ,,high ,,l&s ,,t ,,conta9 ,,too ,,mu* ,,wat] ,,at ,,any ,,season1 ,,require ,,dra9age4 ,dra9+ has be5 def9$1 ,! art ( r5d]+ l& n only s free ( moi/ure z t no sup]flu\s wat] %all rema9 9 x1 b t no wat] %all rema9 9 x s long z to injure1 or ev5 ret>d ! heal?y gr[? ( plants requir$ = ! use ( man & bea/4 ,"s plants gr[ 9 wat]4 ,"s ev5 spr+ f ! bottom ( ponds1 & h no o!r life ?an su* a position af=ds4 ,b mo/ plants1 useful to man1 are dr[n$ by be+ ov]fl[$ ev5 = a %ort "t1 & are injur$ by any /agnant wat] ab\t _! roots4 ,:y ?is is s1 x is n easy to expla94 ,mo/ ( our k on ^! po9ts1 is d]iv$ f obs]vation4 ,we "k t fi%es live 9 wat]1 & if we w\ld propagate !m1 we prep>e ponds & /reams = ! purpose4 ,our dome/ic animals live on l&1 & we d n put !m into fi%-ponds to pa/ure4 ,!re are useful plants :i* ?rive be/ 9 wat]4 ,su* is ! cranb]ry1 not)/&+ all t has be5 said ( its cultivation on upl&4 ,& !re are dome/ic f[ls1 su* z ducks & geese1 t require pools ( wat]2 b we d n h5ce inf] t our h5s & *ick5s w\ld be bett] = daily imm]sion4 ,all l&s1 !n1 require dra9age1 t conta9 too mu* wat]1 at any season = ! int5d$ crops4 ,?is w be f\nd to be an important elem5t 9 our rule4 ,l& may require dra9age = ,indian corn1 t may n require x = grass4 ,mo/ ( ! cultivat$ grasses are improv$ 9 quality1 & n less5$ 9 quantity1 by ! removal ( /agnant wat] 9 ,summ]2 b !re are reasons = dra9age = ho$ crops1 :i* d n apply to our m[+ fields4 ,9 ,new ,engl&1 we h = a few weeks a p]fect race ) ,nature1 to get our se$s into ! gr\nd be=e x is too late4 ,dra9$ l& may be pl[$ & plant$ sev]al weeks e>li] ?an l& undra9$1 & ?is additional "t = prep>ation is ( great value to ! f>m]4 ,mu* ( ?is same l& w\ld be1 by ! fir/ ( ,june1 by ! "t ! ord9>y plant+ season is pa/1 suffici5tly dra9$ by ,nature1 & a grass crop ^u x w\ld be1 p]haps1 n at all b5efitt$ by ?or\gh-dra9age2 s t x is (t5 an important consid]ation ) ref]5ce to ?is op]ation1 :e!r a giv5 portion ( our f>m may n be mo/ pr(itably kept 9 p]man5t grass1 & ma9ta9$ 9 f]tility by top-dress+1 or by occasional pl[+ & rese$+ 9 ,autumn4 ,x is c]ta9ly conv5i5t to h all our fields adapt$ to our usual rotation1 & x is = ea* man to balance = himself ?is conv5i5ce aga9/ ! co/ ( dra9age 9 ea* p>ticul> case4 ,:at p>ticul> crops are mo/ injur$ by /agnant wat] 9 ! soil1 or by ! too t>dy p]colation ( ra9-wat]1 may be det]m9$ by obs]vation4 ,h[ /agnant wat] injures plants1 is n1 z has be5 sugge/$1 easily und]/ood 9 all its relations4 ,x d\btless ret>ds ! decomposition ( ! sub/ances :i* supply _! nutrim5t1 & x r$uces ! temp]ature ( ! soil4 ,x has be5 sugge/$1 t x prev5ts or *ecks p]spiration & introsusception1 & x excludes ! air :i* is ess5tial to ! vegetation ( mo/ plants4 ,:atev] ! !ory1 ! fact is ackn[l$g$1 t /agnant wat] 9 z well z on ! soil1 imp$es ! gr[? ( all our valuable crops1 & t dra9age soon cures ! evil1 by remov+ ! effect ) its cause4 ,& ! rem$y seems to be almo/ in/antane\s2 =1 on mo/ upl&1 x is f\nd t by ! removal ( /agnant wat]1 ! soil is 9 a s+le season r5d]$ fit = ! gr[? ( cultivat$ crops4 ,9 l[ mead[s1 compos$ ( peat & swamp mud1 9 _m cases1 exposure to ! air = a ye> or two aft] dra9age1 is (t5 f\nd to enhance ! f]tility ( ! soil1 :i* conta9s1 frequ5tly1 acids :i* ne$ correction4 ,,indications ,,( ,,too ,,mu* ,,moi/ure4 ,x has already be5 sugge/$1 t motives ( conv5i5ce may induce u to dra9 our l&s--t we may h a long] season 9 :i* to "w !m2 & t !re may be cases :]e ! crop w\ld fl\ri% if plant$ at precisely ! "r "t1 :]e yet we _c well1 )\t dra9age1 seasonably prep>e = ! crop4 ,g5]ally1 h[ev]1 l&s too wet seasonably to plant1 w give indications1 ?r\gh\t ! season1 ( hidd5 wat] produc+ its ill effects4 ,if ! l& be 9 grass1 we f9d t aquatic plants1 l ru%es or wat] grasses1 spr+ up ) ! se$s we h s[n1 &1 9 a few ye>s1 h possession ( ! field1 & we are soon compell$ to pl[ up ! sod1 & lay x aga9 to grass4 ,if x be 9 :eat or o!r gra91 we see ! field spott$ & unev52 "h a portion on "s slight elevation1 tall & d>k color$1 & heal?y2 & !re a little depression1 sp>sely cov]$ ) a l[ & sickly gr[?4 ,an ,am]ican travel+ 9 ,engl& 9 ! gr[+ season1 w always be /ruck ) ! p]fect ev5ness ( ! fields ( gra9 ^u ! well-dra9$ soil4 ,j\rney+ ?r\gh a consid]able portion ( ,engl& & ,wales ) intellig5t ,engli% f>m]s1 we 7 /ruck ) _! nice p]ception on ?is po9t4 ,! slighte/ v>iation 9 ! color ( ! :eat 9 ! same or diff]5t fields1 attract$ _! in/ant att5tion4 ,t field is n well-dra9$2 ! corn is too light-color$4 ,!re is cold wat] at ! bottom !re2 ! corn _c gr[2 7 ! con/ant criticisms1 z we pass$ across ! c\ntry4 ,inequalities t1 9 our m c>eless cultivation1 we %\ld pass by )\t obs]vation1 7 at once expla9$ by ref]5ce to ! condition ( ! l&1 z to wat]4 ,! drill-s[+ ( :eat1 & ! c>eful we$+ x ) ! horse-hoe & by h&1 are additional reasons :y ! ,engli% fields %\ld pres5t a uni=m appe>ance1 & :y any inequalities %\ld be fairly ref]able to ! condition ( ! soil4 ,^u a crop ( ,indian corn1 ! cold wat] lurk+ bel[ soon places its unmi/akable m>k4 ,! blade comes up yell[ & feeble4 ,x takes c\rage 9 a few days ( bright sun%9e 9 ,june1 & tries to look hopeful1 b a %[] or an ea/ w9d aga9 *ecks x4 ,x _h already m tr\ble ?an x c\ld be>1 & turns pale aga94 ,tropical ,july & ,augu/ induce x to ?r[ up a feeble /alk1 & to attempt to sp9dle & silk1 l o!r corn4 ,x goes ?r\gh all ! =ms ( vegetation1 & yields at la/ a s+le nubb9 = ! pig4 ,indian corn mu/ h l& t is dry 9 ,summ]1 or x _c repay ! labor ( cultivation4 ,c>eful att5tion to ! subject w soon tea* any f>m] :at p>ts ( 8 l& are injur$ by too mu* wat]2 & hav+ det]m9$ t1 ! next "q %\ld be1 :e!r ! improvem5t ( x by dra9age w ju/ify ! co/ ( ! op]ation4 ,,w ,,x ,,pay8 ,dra9age is a p]man5t inve/m5t4 ,x is n an op]ation l ! application ( manure1 :i* we %\ld expect to see return$ 9 ! =m ( salable crops 9 "o or two ye>s1 or t5 at mo/1 nor l ! labor appli$ 9 cultivat+ an annual crop4 ,! "q is n :e!r dra9age w pay 9 "o or two ye>s1 b w x pay 9 ! long run8 ,w x1 :5 complet$1 return to ! f>m] a fair rate ( int]e/ = ! money exp5d$8 ,w x be m pr(itable1 on ! :ole1 ?an an inve/m5t 9 bank or railway %>es1 or ! pur*ase ( ,we/]n l&s8 ,or1 to put ! "q 9 ! =m 9 :i* an ,engli% l&-own] w\ld put x1 w ! r5t ( ! l& improv$ by dra9age1 be p]man5tly increas$ en\gh to pay a fair int]e/ on ! co/ ( ! improvem5t8 ,let u br+ out ?is idea cle>ly to ! ,am]ican f>m] by a famili> illu/ration4 ,y\r field is wor? to y n[ "o hundr$ doll>s an acre4 ,x pays y1 9 a s]ies ( ye>s1 ?r\gh a rotation ( plant+1 s[+1 & grass1 a nett pr(it ( six doll>s an acre1 above all exp5ses ( cultivation & c>e4 ,suppose1 n[1 x w co/ "o-?ird ( a hundr$ doll>s an acre to dra9 x1 & y exp5d on ea* ?ree acres "o hundr$ doll>s1 :at mu/ ! increase ( y\r crops be1 to make ?is a fair inve/m5t8 ,_h y exp5d$ ! hundr$ doll>s 9 labor1 to produce a crop ( cabbages1 y ought to get y\r money all back1 ) a fair pr(it1 ! fir/ ye>4 ,_h y exp5d$ x 9 guano or o!r special manures1 ^: b5eficial prop]ties are exhau/$ 9 "s two or ?ree ye>s1 y\r exp5diture %\ld be return$ )9 t p]iod4 ,b ! improvem5t by dra9age is p]man5t2 x is done = all "t to come4 ,if1 !re=e1 y\r dra9$ l& %all pay y a fair rate ( int]e/ on ! co/ ( dra9age1 x is a good inve/m5t4 ,six p] c5t4 is ! mo/ common rate ( int]e/1 & if1 !re=e1 ea* ?ree acres ( y\r dra9$ l& %all pay y an increas$ annual income ( six doll>s1 y\r money is fairly inve/$4 ,?is is at ! rate ( two doll>s an acre4 ,h[ mu* increase ( crop w pay ?is two doll>s8 ,9 ! common rotation ( ,indian corn1 potatoes1 oats1 :eat1 or b>ley1 & grass1 two or ?ree bu%els ( corn1 five or six bu%els ( potatoes1 z _m bu%els ( oats1 a bu%el or two ( :eat1 two or ?ree bu%els ( b>ley1 w pay ! two doll>s4 ,:o1 t has be5 kept back 9 8 ,spr+'s "w by ! wetness ( 8 l&1 or has be5 compell$ to re-plant because 8 se$ has rott$ 9 ! gr\nd1 or has exp]i5c$ any ( ! tr\bles incid5t to cold wet seasons1 w n admit at once1 t any l& :i* ,nature has n h]self ?or\ghly dra9$1 w1 9 ?is view1 pay = su* improvem5t8 ,b f> m ?an ?is is claim$ = dra9age4 ,9 ,engl&1 :]e su* op]ations h be5 r$uc$ to a sy/em1 c>eful e/imates h be5 made1 n only ( ! co/ ( dra9age1 b ( ! increase ( crops by reason ( ! op]ation4 ,9 answ] to que/ions propos$ by a ,bo>d ( ,commission]s1 9 #ahdh1 to p]sons ( ! highe/ reputation = k on ?is po9t1 ! increase ( crops by dra9age 0 v>i\sly /at$1 b 9 no case at less ?an a pay+ rate4 ,"o g5tleman says3 ,a six? ( increase 9 produce ( gra9 crops may be tak5 z ! v l[e/ e/imate1 &1 9 actual result1 x is seldom less ?an "o-f\r?4 ,9 v _m cases1 aft] "s foll[+ cultivation1 ! produce is d\bl$1 :il/ ! exp5se ( work+ ! l& is mu* less5$4 ,ano!r says3 ,9 _m in/ances1 a return ( fully #be p] c5t4 on ! exp5diture is realiz$1 & 9 "s ev5 m4 ,a ?ird rem>ks1 ,my exp]i5ce & obs]vation h *iefly be5 9 heavy clay soils1 :]e ! result ( dra9age is em95tly b5eficial1 & :]e ,i %\ld e/imate ! increas$ crop at six to t5 bu%els 7:eat7 p] /atute acre4 ,^! are e/imates made ^u l&s t _h already be5 "u cultivation4 ,9 addition to su* l&s z are m]ely r5d]$ less productive by surplus wat]1 we h1 ev5 on our h>d ,new ,engl& f>ms--on side hills1 :]e spr+s bur/ out1 or at ! foot ( declivities1 :]e ! l& is flat1 or 9 runs1 :i* receive ! natural dra9age ( high] l&s--_m places :i* are absolutely unfit = cultivation1 & worse ?an useless1 because !y sep>ate ^? p>ts ( ! f>m :i* c be cultivat$4 ,if1 ( ^! wet portions1 we make by dra9+1 good1 w>m1 arable l&1 x is n a m]e "q ( p] c5tage or pr(it2 x is simply ! "q :e!r ! l&1 :5 dra9$1 is wor? m ?an ! co/ ( dra9age4 ,if x be1 h[ mu* m satisfactory1 & h[ mu* m pr(itable x is1 to exp5d money 9 ?us reclaim+ ! wa/e places ( our f>ms1 & s unit+ ! deta*$ fields into a compact1 sy/ematic :ole1 ?an to foll[ ! natural b5t ( ,am]ican m9ds1 & annex our neighbor's fields by pur*as+4 ,any numb] ( in/ances c\ld be giv5 ( ! increas$ value ( l&s 9 ,engl& by dra9age1 b !y are ( little practical value4 ,! facts1 t ! ,gov]nm5t has made l>ge loans 9 aid ( ! process1 t private dra9age companies are execut+ ext5sive works all ov] ! k+dom1 & t l>ge l&-hold]s are dra9+ at _! own co/1 are conclusive evid5ce to any rational m9d1 t dra9age 9 ,great ,brita91 at lea/1 well repays ! co/ ( ! op]ation4 ,9 ano!r *apt] may be f\nd accurate /atem5ts ( ,am]ican f>m]s ( _! dra9age op]ations1 9 diff]5t ,/ates1 f :i* ! read] w be able to =m a correct op9ion1 :e!r dra9+ 9 ?is c\ntry is likely to prove a pr(itable op]ation4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,v>i\s ,,me?ods ,,( ,,dra9age4 ,op5 ,dit*es4--,slope ( ,banks4--,bru% ,dra9s4--,ridge & ,furr[4--,plug-,dra9+4--,mole-,dra9+4--, mole-,pl[4--,w$ge & ,%\ld] ,dra9s4--,l>* ,tubes4--,dra9s ( ,f5ce ,rails1 & ,poles4--,peat ,tiles4--,/one ,dra9s ,injur$ by ,moles4--,d[n+'s ,giraffes4--,illu/rations ( ,v>i\s ,k9ds ( ,/one ,dra9s4 ,,op5 ,,dit*es4 ,! mo/ obvi\s mode ( gett+ rid ( surface-wat] is1 to cut a dit* on ! surface to a l[] place1 & let x run4 ,s1 if ! only object 7 to dra9 a piece ( l& m]ely = a tempor>y purpose--z1 :]e l& is too wet to dit* prop]ly 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 & x is necess>y to draw (f "p ( ! surplus wat] be=e sy/ematic op]ations are comm5c$--an op5 dit* is1 p]haps1 ! *eape/ me?od to be adopt$4 ,aga93 :]e l& to be dra9$ is "p ( a l>ge slop+ tract1 & wat] runs d[n1 at c]ta9 seasons1 9 l>ge quantities ^u ! surface1 an op5 cat*-wat]-dit* may be absolutely necess>y4 ,?is condition ( circum/ances is v common 9 m\nta9\s di/ricts1 :]e ! ra9 :i* falls on ! hills fl[s d[n1 ei!r on ! visible surface or on ! rock-=mation "u ! soil1 & breaks out at ! foot1 caus+ swamps1 (t5 high up on ! hill-sides4 ,(t51 too1 9 clay di/ricts1 :]e s& or loam two or ?ree feet deep re/s on t\gh clay1 we see broad slop+ tracts1 :i* =m our be/ grass-fields4 ,if we are attempt+ to dra9 ! l[] "p ( su* a slope1 we %all f9d t ! wat] f ! upp] "p fl[s d[n 9 l>ge quantities ^u u1 & an op5 dit* may be mo/ economical z a head]1 to cut (f ! d[n-fl[+ wat]2 ?\gh1 9 mo/ cases1 a cov]$ dra9 may be z effici5t4 ,at ! outlets1 too1 ( our tile or /one dra9s1 :5 we come d[n ne>ly to ! level ( ! /ream :i* receives our dra9age-wat]1 we f9d x conv5i5t1 (t51 & inde$ necess>y1 to use op5 dit*es--p]haps only a foot or two deep--to c>ry (f ! wat] dis*>g$4 ,^! dit*es are ( great importance1 & %\ld be f9i%$ ) c>e1 because1 if !y become ob/ruct$1 !y cause back-wat] 9 ! dra9s1 & may ru9 ! :ole "w4 ,op5 dra9s are ?us ess5tial auxili>ies to ! be/ plans ( ?or\gh dra9age2 &1 :atev] op9ion may be ent]ta9$ ( _! economy1 _m f>m]s are s situat$ t !y feel oblig$ to resort to !m = ! pres5t1 or ab&on all idea ( dra9+ _! wet l&s4 ,we w1 !re=e1 give "s h9ts z to ! be/ mann] ( con/ruct+ op5 dra9s2 & !n sugge/1 9 ! =m ( objections to !m1 su* consid]ations z %all lead ! proprietor :o adopts ?is mode to consid] c>efully 8 plan ( op]ations 9 ! outset1 ) a view to obviate1 z mu* z possible1 ! manife/ emb>rassm5ts occasion$ by !m4 ,z to ! location ( dra9s 9 swamps & peculi>ly wet places1 directions may be f\nd 9 ano!r *apt]4 ,we "h propose only to treat ( ! mode ( =m+ op5 dra9s1 aft] _! location is fix$4 ,! wor/ ( all dra9s is an op5 dit*1 ( equal wid? f top to bottom4 ,x _c /& a s+le season1 9 any climate or soil1 )\t be+ s]i\sly impair$ by ! fro/s or ! heavy ra9s4 ,all op5 dra9s %\ld be slop+2 & x is asc]ta9$1 by exp]im5t1 :at is ! be/1 or1 z x is sometimes express$1 ! natural slope1 on diff]5t k9ds ( soil4 ,if e>? be tipp$ f a c>t d[n a bank1 & be left expos$ to ! action ( ! wea!r1 x w re/1 & f9ally rema91 at a regul> angle or incl9ation1 v>y+ f #ba deg4 to #ee deg4 ) ! horizon1 accord+ to ! nature ( ! soil4 ,! natural slope ( common e>? is f\nd to be ab\t #cc deg4 #db'2 & ?is is ! incl9ation usually adopt$ by railroad eng9e]s = _! embankm5ts4 ,if ! banks ( ! op5 dit* are ?us slop$1 !y w h ! lea/ possible t5d5cy to wa% away1 or break d[n by fro/4 ,aga93 :]e op5 dit*es are adopt$ 9 m[+ fields1 !y may1 if n v deep1 be slop$ /ill l[] ?an ! natural slope1 & se$$ d[n to ! bottom2 s t no l& w be lo/1 & s t teams may pass across !m4 ,?is am\nts1 9 fact1 to ! old ridge & furr[ sy/em1 :i* 0 almo/ univ]sal 9 ,engl& be=e tiles 7 us$1 & is sometimes se5 practic$ 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,! l&1 by t sy/em1 is back-furr[$ 9 n>r[ l&s1 till x is laid up into b$s1 slop+ f ! tops1 or backs1 to ! furr[s :i* con/itute ! dra9s4 ,?is mode ( culture is v anci5t1 & is probably ref]r$ to 9 ! language ( ! ,psalmi/1 9 ! ,scriptures3 ,?\ wat]e/ ! ridges !re( abundantly1 ?\ settle/ ! furr[s !re(1 ?\ make/ x s(t ) %[]s4 ,! objections to op5 dit*es1 z comp>$ ) "u-dra9s1 may be briefly /at$ ?us3 #a4 ,!y are exp5sive4 ,! excavation ( a slop+ dra9 is mu* great] ?an t ( an upright dra94 ,an op5 dra9 mu/ h a wid? ( "o or two feet at ! bottom1 to receive ! e>? t always mu/1 to "s ext5t1 wa% into x4 ,an op5 dra9 requires to be clean$ out once a ye>1 to keep x 9 good ord]4 ,!re is a l>ge quantity ( e>? f an op5 dra9 to be dispos$ (1 ei!r by spread+ or haul+ away4 ,?us1 a dra9 ( ?is k9d is co/ly at ! outset1 & requires con/ant labor & c>e to pres]ve x 9 work+ condition4 #b4 ,!y are n p]man5t4 ,a prop]ly laid und]dra9 w la/ half a c5tury or m1 b an op5 dra91 especially if deep1 has a con/ant t5d5cy to fill up4 ,besides1 ! action ( fro/ & wat] & vegetation has a cont9ual op]ation to ob/ruct op5 dit*es4 ,ru%es & wat]-grasses spr+ up luxuriantly 9 ! wet & slimy bottom1 & (t51 9 a s+le season1 ret>d ! fl[ ( wat]1 s t x w /& _m in*es deep :]e ! fall is slight4 ,! slighte/ accid5t1 z ! tread+ ( cattle1 ! track ( a load$ c>t1 ! burr[+ ( animals1 dams up ! wat] & less5s ! effect ( ! dra94 ,h5ce1 we s (t5 see mead[s :i* h be5 dra9$ 9 ?is way go+ back1 9 a few ye>s1 into wild grass & ru%es4 #c4 ,!y ob/ruct good husb&ry4 ,9 ! *apt] ^u ! effects ( dra9age on ! condition ( ! soil1 we sugge/1 9 detail1 ! h9drances :i* op5 dit*es pres5t to ! conv5i5t cultivation ( ! l&1 &1 especially1 h[ !y ob/ruct ! f>m] 9 8 pl[+1 8 m[+1 8 rak+1 & ! g5]al lay+ out ( 8 l& = conv5i5t culture4 #d4 ,!y occupy too mu* l&4 ,if a dit* h an upright bank1 x is s s(t t cattle w n /ep )9 sev]al feet ( x 9 pl[+1 & ?us a /rip is lo/ = culture1 or mu/ be brok5 up by h&4 ,if1 inde$1 we c get ! pl[ ne> x1 !re be+ no l& to re/ aga9/1 ! la/ furr[ _c be turn$ f ! dit*1 & if x be turn$ into x1 mu/ be ?r[n out by h&4 ,if ! banks be slop$ to ! bottom1 & ! l& be ?us laid into b$s or ridges1 ! appe>ance ( ! field may1 inde$1 be improv$1 b !re is /ill a loss ( soil2 = ! soil is all remov$ f ! furr[1 :i* w always produce ru%es & wat]-grass1 & c>ri$ to ! ridge1 :]e x d\bles ! dep? ( ! natural soil4 ,?us1 in/ead ( a field ( uni=m condition1 z to moi/ure & temp]ature & f]tility1 we h /rips ( wet1 cold1 & poor soil1 alt]nat+ ) dry1 w>m1 & ri* soil1 e/abli%+ a sort ( gridiron sy/em1 nei!r beautiful1 conv5i5t1 nor pr(itable4 #e4 ,! manure wa%es (f & is lo/4 ,! ?ree or f\r feet ( wat] :i* ! cl\ds annually give u 9 ra9 & sn[1 mu/ ei!r g (f by evaporation1 or by filtration1 or run (f ^u ! surface4 ,"u ! title ( ,ra9 & ,evaporation1 x w be se5 t n mu* m ?an half ?is quantity goes (f by evaporation1 leav+ a va/ quantity to pass (f ?r\gh or ^u ! soil4 ,if l&s are ridg$ up1 ! manure & f9] portions ( ! soil are1 to a great ext5t1 wa%$ away into ! op5 dit*es & lo/4 ,( ! wat] :i* filt]s d[nw>ds1 a l>ge portion ent]s op5 dit*es ne> ! surface1 be=e ! f]tiliz+ elem5ts h be5 /ra9$ out2 :]eas1 9 cov]$ dra9s ( prop] dep?1 ! wat] is filt]$ ?r\gh a mass ( soil suffici5tly deep to take f x ! f]tiliz+ sub/ances1 & dis*>ge x1 comp>atively pure1 f ! field4 ,9 a pap] by ,pr(4 ,way 7#aa? ,j\r4 ,roy4 ,ag4 ,soc471 on ,! ,p[] ( ,soils to reta9 ,manure1 w be f\nd int]e/+ illu/rations ( ! filt]+ qualities ( diff]5t k9ds ( soil4 ,9 addition to ! above reasons = pref]r+ cov]$ dra9s1 x has be5 ass]t$ by "o ( ! mo/ skillful dra9]s 9 ! _w 7,mr4 ,p>kes71 t a prop] cov]$ dra9 ( ! same dep? z an op5 dit*1 w dra9 a great] bread? ( l& ?an ! dit* c effect4 ,! sides ( ! dit*1 he says1 become dri$ & pla/]$1 & cov]$ ) vegetation2 & ev5 :ile !y are free f vegetation1 _! absorptive p[] is inf]ior to ! cov]$ dra94 ,( ! dep?1 direction1 & di/ance ( dra9s1 our views w be f\nd "u ! appropriate heads4 ,!y apply alike to op5 & cov]$ dra9s4 ,,bru% ,,dra9s4 ,hav+ a f>m de/itute ( /ones1 be=e tiles 7 kn[n among u1 we made sev]al exp]im5ts ) cov]$ dra9s fill$ ) bru%4 ,"s ( ^? dra9s op]at$ well = eight or t5 ye>s2 o!rs cav$ 9 & became useless 9 ?ree or f\r ye>s1 accord+ to ! condition ( ! soil4 ,9 a wet swamp a bru% dra9 endures mu* long] ?an 9 s&y l&1 :i* is dry a "p ( ! ye>1 because ! bru% decays 9 dry l&1 b w prove ne>ly imp]i%able 9 l& con/antly wet4 ,9 a peat or muck swamp1 we %\ld expect t su* dra9s1 if c>efully con/ruct$1 might la/ tw5ty ye>s1 b t 9 a s&y loam !y w\ld be q unreliable = a s+le ye>4 ,our failure on upl& ) bru% dra9s1 has result$1 n f ! decay ( ! wood1 b f ! entrance ( s&1 :i* ob/ruct$ ! *annel4 ,moles & field-mice f9d ^! dra9s ! v day !y are laid1 & occupy !m z p]man5t homes ev] aft]4 ,^? little animals live p>tly ^u e>?-worms1 :i* !y f9d by burr[+ aft] !m 9 ! gr\nd1 & p>tly ^u insects1 & vegetation above gr\nd4 ,!y h a great deal ( bus9ess1 :i* requires conv5i5t passages lead+ f _! burr[s to ! day-light1 & dra9s 9 :i* !y live w always be f\nd p]=at$ ) holes f ! surface4 ,9 ! ,spr+1 or 9 heavy %[]s1 ! wat] runs 9 /reams into ^! holes1 breaks d[n ! s(t soil z x goes1 & f9ally ! top beg9s to fall 91 & ! *annel is *ok$ up1 & ! "w ru9$4 ,we h tri$ _m precautions aga9/ ?is k9d ( accid5t1 b none t 0 effectual on light l&4 ,! g5]al mode ( con/ruction is ?is3 ,op5 ! tr5* to ! dep? requir$1 & ab\t #ab in*es wide at ! bottom4 ,lay into ?is poles ( f\r or five in*es diamet] at ! butt1 leav+ an op5 passage betwe54 ,!n lay 9 bru% ( any size1 ! co>se/ at ! bottom1 fill+ ! dra9 to )9 a foot ( ! surface1 & cov]+ ) p9e1 or hemlock1 or spruce b\ghs4 ,^u ^! lay turf1 c>efully cut1 z close z possible4 ,! bru% %\ld be laid b-end up /ream1 z x ob/ructs ! wat] less 9 ?is way4 ,fill up ) soil a foot above ! surface1 & tread x 9 z h>d z possible4 ,! weight ( e>? w compress ! bru%1 & ! surface w settle v mu*4 ,we h tri$ plac+ bo>ds at ! sides1 & ^u ! top ( ! bra%1 to prev5t ! cav+ 91 b ) no great success4 ,al?\gh our dra9s ?us laid1 h g5]ally cont9u$ to dis*>ge "s wat]1 yet !y h1 ^u upl&1 be5 dang]\s traps & pitfalls = our horses & cattle1 & h co/ mu* labor to fill up ! holes1 :]e !y h fall5 ?r\gh by wa%+ away bel[4 ,9 clay1 bru% dra9s might be m durable4 ,9 ! ,engli% books1 we h descriptions ( dra9s fill$ ) ?orn cutt+s f h$ges & ) gorse4 ,:5 well laid 9 clay1 !y are said to la/ ab\t #ae ye>s4 ,:5 ! ?orns decay1 ! clay w /ill reta9 its =m1 & leave a passage = ! wat]4 ,a writ] 9 ! ,cyclop$ia sums up ! matt] z to ?is k9d ( dra9s1 ?us3 ,al?\gh 9 "s di/ricts !y are /ill employ$1 !y c only be look$ ^u z a clumsy1 & sup]ficial plan ( do+ t :i* c be execut$ 9 a p]man5t & satisfactory mann]1 at a v small additional exp5se1 n[ t dra9+-tiles are s *eap & pl5tiful4 ,dra9+-tiles are n yet ei!r *eap or pl5tiful 9 ?is c\ntry2 b we h full fai? t !y w become s v soon4 ,9 ! mean "t x may be pr(itable = u to use su* ( ! sub/itutes = !m z may lie )9 our rea*1 select+ "o or ano!r accord+ z mat]ial is conv5i5t4 ,,plug-,,dra9+ has nev] be51 t we are aw>e1 practic$ 9 ,am]ica4 ,our k ( x is limit$ to :at we le>n f ,engli% books4 ,we1 !re=e1 cont5t ourselves ) giv+ f ,morton's ,cyclop$ia ! foll[+ description & illu/rations4 ,plug-dra9+1 l mole-dra9+1 does n require ! use ( any =eign mat]ial--! *annel = ! wat] be+ :olly =m$ ( clay1 to :i* ?is k9d ( dra91 l t la/ m5tion$ is alone suit$4 ,?is me?od ( dra9+ requires a p>ticul> set ( tools = its execution1 consi/+ (1 fir/1 a common spade1 by means ( :i* ! fir/ spit is remov$1 & laid on "o side2 second1 a small]-siz$ spade1 by means ( :i* ! second spit is tak5 out1 & laid on ! opposite side ( ! tr5* ?us =m$2 ?ird1 a peculi> in/rum5t call$ a bitt+ iron 7,fig4 #aa71 consi/+ ( a n>r[ spade1 ?ree & a half feet 9 l5g?1 & "o & a half in*es wide at ! m\? & %>p5$ l a *isel2 ! m\?1 or blade1 be+ half an in* 9 ?ickness 9 ord] to give ! necess>y /r5g? to s sl5d] an implem5t4 ,f ! m\?1 a1 on ! "r-h& side1 a r+ ( /eel1 b1 six in*es long & two & a half broad1 projects at "r angles2 & on ! left1 at f\rte5 in*es f ! m\?1 a tread1 c1 ?ree in*es long1 is fitt$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aa4 ,a numb] ( blocks ( wood1 ea* "o foot long1 six in*es high1 & two in*es ?ick at ! bottom1 & two & a half at ! top1 are next requir$4 ,f f\r to six ( ^! are jo9$ toge!r by pieces ( hoop-iron let into _! sides by a saw-draught1 a small space be+ left betwe5 _! ends1 s t :5 complet$1 ! :ole =ms a some:at flexible b>1 z %[n 9 ! cut1 to "o end ( :i* a /\t *a9 is atta*$4 ,^! blocks are wett$1 & plac$ ) ! n>r[ end und]mo/1 9 ! bottom ( ! tr5*1 :i* %\ld be cut s z to fit !m closely2 ! clay :i* has be5 dug out is !n to be return$1 by degrees1 ^u ! blocks1 & ramm$ d[n ) a wood5 ramm] ?ree in*es wide4 ,z soon z ! portion ( ! tr5* above ! blocks1 or plugs1 has be5 fill$1 !y are drawn =w>d1 by means ( a lev] ?ru/ ?r\gh a l9k ( ! *a91 & into ! bottom ( ! dra9 = a fulcrum1 until !y are all aga9 expos$1 except ! la/ "o4 ,! fur!r portion ( ! tr5*1 above ! blocks1 is n[ fill$ 9 & ramm$1 & s on ! op]ations proce$ until ! :ole dra9 is f9i%$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ab4--,,plug ,,dra9age4 ,,mole ,,dra9+4 ,we he> ( an implem5t1 9 use 9 ,ill9ois & o!r ,we/]n ,/ates1 call$ ! ,goph] ,pl[1 work$ by a cap/an1 :i* dra9s wet l& by m]ely draw+ ?r\gh x an iron %oe1 at ab\t two & a half feet 9 dep?1 )\t ! use ( any =eign sub/ance4 ,we he> reports ( a mole pl[1 9 use 9 ! same ,/ate1 kn[n by ! "n ( ,m>cus & ,em]son's ,pat5t ,subsoil]1 ) :i*1 an in=mant says1 dra9s are made also 9 ! mann] above nam$4 ,?is ma*9e is work$ by a w9dlass p[]1 by a horse or yoke ( ox51 & ! price *>g$ is tw5ty-eight c5ts a rod = ! "w4 ,^! ma*9es are1 f description1 modifications ( ! ,engli% ,mole ,pl[1 an implem5t long ago kn[n & us$ 9 ,great ,brita94 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ac4--,,mole ,,pl[4 ,! foll[+ description is f ,morton's ,cyclop$ia3 ,mole-,dra9s are ! simple/ ( all ! =ms ( ! cov]$ dra9s4 ,!y are =m$ by means ( a ma*9e call$ ! mole pl[4 ,?is ma*9e consi/s ( a long wood5 beam & /ilts1 some:at 9 ! =m ( ! subsoil pl[2 b in/ead ( ! app>atus = break+ up ! subsoil 9 ! latt]1 a %ort cyl9drical & po9t$ b> ( iron is atta*$1 horizontally1 to ! l[] end ( ! broad c\lt]1 :i* c be rais$ or l[]$ by means ( a slot 9 ! beam4 ,! beam itself is %ea!d ) iron on ! "u side1 & moves close to ! gr\nd2 ?us keep+ ! b> at ! end ( ! c\lt] at "o uni=m dep?4 ,?is ma*9e is dragg$ ?r\gh ! s(t clay1 :i* is ! only k9d ( l& on :i* x c be us$ ) propriety1 by means ( a *a9 & cap/an1 work$ by horses1 & produces a holl[ *annel v simil> to a mole-run1 f :i* x d]ives its "n4 ,a correspond5t ( ! ,new ,york ,tribune ?us describes ! op]ation & utility ( a mole pl[1 :i* he saw on ! f>m ( ,major ,a4 ,b4 ,dick9son1 ( ,hornby1 ,/eub5 ,c\nty1 ,new ,york3 ,i believe !re is n a rod ( tile laid on ?is f>m1 & n a doz5 rods ( cov]$ /one dra94 ,b ! major has a home-made1 or1 at lea/1 home-devis$1 'bull pl[1' consi/+ ( a %>p-po9t$ iron w$ge1 or roll]1 surm\nt$ by a broad1 %>p %ank ne>ly f\r feet high1 ) a /ill %>p] cutt] 9 front1 & ) a beam & h&les above all4 ,) five yoke ( ox5 atta*$1 ?is pl[ is put d[n ?r\gh ! soil & subsoil to an av]age dep? ( ?ree feet--9 ! c\rse :i* ! sup]flu\s wat] is expect$ & desir$ to take--& ! field ?us pl[$ ?r\gh & ?r\gh1 at int]vals ( two rods1 d[n to ?ree feet1 z ! gr\nd is m or less spr+y & saturat$ ) wat]4 ,! cut made by ! %ank closes aft] ! pl[ & is soon oblit]at$1 :ile t made by ! roll]1 or w$ge1 at ! bottom1 becomes ! *annel ( a /ream ( wat] :5ev] !re is any excess ( moi/ure above its level1 :i* /ream t5ds to cle> itself & r enl>ge its *annel4 ,f t5 to tw5ty acres a day are ?us dra9$1 & ,major ,d4 has su* dra9s ( fifte5 to tw5ty ye>s' /&+1 :i* /ill d good s]vice4 ,9 rocky soils1 ?is mode ( dra9+ is impracticable3 9 s&y tracts x w\ld n endure2 b "h x does v well1 &1 ev5 ?\gh x %\ld hold good 9 ! av]age b t5 ye>s1 x w\ld _m times repay its co/4 ,major ,dick9son himself 9 a rec5t address1 ?us speaks ( :at he calls 8 ,,%anghae ,,pl[4 ,i w take ! poore/ acre ( /ubble gr\nd1 & if too wet = corn 9 ! fir/ place1 ,i w ?or\ghly dra9 x ) a ,%anghae pl[ & f\r yoke ( ox5 9 ?ree h\rs4 ,i w suppose ! acre to be tw5ty rods long & eight rods wide4 ,to ?or\ghly dra9 ! wor/ ( y\r clay subsoil1 x may require a dra9 once 9 eight feet1 & !y c be made s *eaply t ,i c af=d to make !m at t di/ance4 ,to d s1 w require ! team to travel sixte5 times ov] ! tw5ty rods l5g?wise1 or "o mile 9 ?ree h\rs2 two m5 to drive1 "o to hold ! pl[1 "o to ride ! beam1 & "o to c>ry ! cr[-b>1 pick up any l>ge /ones ?r[n out by go+ to ! "r or left1 & to help to c>ry ar\nd ! pl[1 :i* is too heavy = ! o!r two to d quickly4 ,! pl[ is q simple 9 its con/ruction1 consi/+ ( a r\nd piece ( iron ?ree & a half or f\r in*es 9 diamet]1 drawn d[n to a po9t1 ) a furr[ cut 9 ! top "o & a half in*es deep2 a plate1 eighte5 in*es wide & ?ree feet long1 ) "o end weld$ into ! furr[ ( ! r\nd b>1 :ile ! o!r is fa/5$ to ! beam4 ,! c\lt] is six in*es 9 wid?1 & is fa/5$ to ! beam at "o end1 & at ! o!r to ! po9t ( ! r\nd b>4 ,! c\lt] & plate are ea* ?ree-f\r?s ( an in* ?ick1 :i* is ! entire wid? ( ! pl[ above ! r\nd iron at ! bottom4 ,x w\ld require mu* m team to draw ?is pl[ on "s soils ?an on y\rs4 ,! /r5g? ( team dep5ds entirely on ! "* ( ! subsoil4 ,ca/-iron1 ) ! exception ( ! c\lt]1 = an easy soil w\ld be equally good2 & f eighte5 to tw5ty-f\r in*es is suffici5tly deep to run ! pl[4 ,i c z ?or\ghly dra9 an acre ( gr\nd 9 ?is way z any t c be f\nd 9 ,s5eca ,c\nty4 ,f ! be/ in=mation we c ga!r1 x w\ld seem1 t on c]ta9 soils ) a clay subsoil1 ! mole pl[1 z a sort ( pione] implem5t1 may be v useful4 ,! above acc\nt c]ta9ly indicates t on ! f>m 9 "q x is v *eap1 rapid1 & effectual 9 its op]ation4 ,/eph5s gives a m9ute description ( ! mole pl[ figur$ above1 9 8 ,book ( ! ,f>m4 ,its g5]al /ructure & pr9ciple ( op]ation may be easily und]/ood by :at has be5 already said1 & any p]son desir\s ( con/ruct+ "o may f9d 9 t "w exact directions4 ,,w$ge ,,& ,,%\ld] ,,dra9s4 ,^!1 l ! la/-m5tion$ k9d ( dra9s1 are m]e *annels =m$ 9 ! subsoil4 ,!y h1 !re=e1 ! same fault ( want ( durability1 & are totally unfitt$ = l& "u ! pl[4 ,9 =m+ w$ge-dra9s1 ! fir/ spit1 ) ! turf atta*$1 is laid on "o side1 & ! e>? remov$ f ! rema9d] ( ! tr5* is laid on ! o!r4 ,! la/ spade us$ is v n>r[1 & tap]s rapidly1 s z to =m a n>r[ w$ge-%ap$ cavity = ! bottom ( ! tr5*4 ,! turf fir/ remov$ is !n cut into a w$ge1 s mu* l>g] ?an ! size ( ! l[] "p ( ! dra91 t :5 ramm$ into x ) ! grassy side und]mo/1 x leaves a vacant space 9 ! bottom six or eight in*es 9 dep?1 z 9 ,fig4 #ad4 ,! %\ld]-dra9 does n diff] v mat]ially f ! w$ge-dra94 ,in/ead ( ! :ole tr5* =m+ a gradually tap]+ w$ge1 ! upp] portion ( ! %\ld]-dra9 has ! sides ( ! tr5* ne>ly p]p5dicul>1 & ( consid]able wid?1 ! la/ spit only be+ tak5 out ) a n>r[1 tap]+ spade1 by :i* means a %\ld] is left on ei!r side1 f :i* x takes its "n4 ,aft] ! tr5* has be5 f9i%$1 ! fir/ spit1 hav+ ! grassy side und]mo/ z 9 ! =m] case1 is plac$ 9 ! tr5*1 & pu%$ d[n till x re/s ^u ! %\ld]s already m5tion$2 s t a n>r[ w$ge-%ap$ *annel is aga9 left = ! wat]1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #ae4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ad4--,,w$ge-,,dra94 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ae4--,,%\ld]-,,dra94 ,^! dra9s may be =m$ 9 almo/ any k9d ( l& :i* is n a loose gravel or s&4 ,!y are a v *eap k9d ( dra92 = nei!r ! co/ ( cutt+ nor fill+ 91 mu* exce$s t ( ! ord9>y tile dra91 :ile ! exp5se ( tiles or o!r mat]ials is altoge!r sav$4 ,/ill1 su* dra9s _c be recomm5d$1 = !y are v liable to injury1 &1 ev5 "u ! mo/ favorable circum/ances1 c only la/ a v limit$ "t4 ,,l>* ,,tubes4 ,^! h be5 us$ 9 ,scotl&1 9 mossy or swampy soils1 x is said1 ) economy & good results4 ,! tube repres5t$ bel[ pres5ts a squ>e ( #d in*es outside1 ) a cle> wat]-way ( #b in*es4 ,any o!r durable wood w1 ( c\rse1 answ] ! same purpose4 ,! tube is pi]c$ ) holes to admit ! wat]4 ,9 wet mead[s1 ^! tubes laid deep w\ld be durable & effici5t1 & f> m reliable ?an bru% or ev5 /ones1 because !y may be bett] protect$ f ! admission ( s& & ! ru9\s work+ ( v]m94 ,_! economy dep5ds ^u ! price ( ! wood & ! co/ ( tiles--:i* are f> bett] if !y c be reasonably obta9$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #af4--,,l>* ,,tube-,,dra94 ,ne> ,wa%+ton1 ,d4 ,c41 we "k ( dra9age tol]ably well p]=m$ by ! use ( common f5ce-rails4 ,a tr5* is op5$ ab\t ?ree in*es wid] at bottom ?an two rails4 ,two rails are !n laid 9 ! bottom1 leav+ a space ( two or ?ree in*es betwe5 !m4 ,a ?ird rail is !n laid on = a cov]1 & ! :ole c>efully cov]$ ) turf or /raw1 & !n fill$ up ) e>?4 ,poles ( any k9d may be us$ in/ead ( rails1 if m conv5i5t4 ,9 clay1 ^! dra9s w\ld be effici5t & durable2 9 s&1 !y w\ld be likely to be fill$ up & become useless4 ,?is is an extravagant wa/e ( timb]1 except 9 ! new di/ricts :]e x is ( no value4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,f4 ,&]son1 ( ,w9dham1 ,ma9e1 has adopt$ a mode ( dra9+ ) poles1 :i*1 9 regions :]e wood is *eap & tiles are de>1 may be adopt$ ) advantage4 ,two poles1 ( f #c to #f in*es diamet]1 are laid at ! bottom ( ! dit*1 ) a wat]-way ( half _! diamet] betwe5 !m4 ,^u ^!1 a ?ird pole is laid1 ?us =m+ a duct ( ! desir$ dim5sions4 ,! security ( ?is dra9 w dep5d ^u ! c>e ) :i* x is protect$ by a cov]+ ( turf & ! l1 to prev5t ! admission ( e>?1 & its p]man5cy w dep5d mu* ^u its be+ plac$ l[ en\gh to be con/antly wet1 z su* mat]ials are %ort-liv$ :5 frequ5tly wet & dri$1 & ne>ly imp]i%able if con/antly wet4 ,x is unnecess>y to place bru% or /ones ov] su* dra9s to make !m draw1 z x is call$4 ,! wat] w f9d admission fa/ en\gh to de/roy ! "w1 unless great c>e is us$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ag4--,,pole-,,dra94 ,9 ,irel&1 & 9 "s p>ts ( ,engl& & ,scotl&1 peat-tiles are sometimes us$ 9 dra9+ bogs4 ,!y are *eap & v durable 9 su* localities1 b1 probably1 w n be us$ 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,!y are =m$ some:at l pipes1 ( two pieces ( peat4 ,two halves are =m$ ) a peculi> tool1 ) a half circle 9 ea*4 ,:5 well dri$1 !y are plac$ toge!r1 ?us mak+ a r\nd op5+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ah4--,,tool ,,= ,,peat-,,tiles4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ai4--,,peat-,,tiles4 ,9 dra9+1 ! object be+ m]ely to =m a durable op5+ 9 ! soil1 at suitable dep?1 :i* w receive & conduct away ! wat] :i* filt]s ?r\gh ! soil1 x is obvi\s t a ?\s& exp$i5ts may be resort$ to1 to suit ! peculi> circum/ances ( p]sons4 ,9 g5]al1 ! dang] to be appreh5d$ is f ob/ruction ( ! wat]-way4 ,no?+1 except a tight tube ( metal or wood1 w be likely to prev5t ! admission ( wat]4 ,economy & durability are1 p]haps1 ! ma9 consid]ations4 ,tiles1 at fair prices1 comb9e ^! qualities bett] ?an any?+ else4 ,/ones1 h[ev]1 are bo? *eap & durable1 s f> z ! mat]ial is conc]n$2 b ! durability ( ! mat]ial1 & ! durability ( ! dra9s1 are q diff]5t matt]s4 ,,dra9s ,,( ,,/ones4 ,provid5ce has s lib]ally suppli$ ! great] "p ( ,new ,engl& ) /ones1 t x seems to mo/ inexp]i5c$ p]sons to be a "w ( sup]]ogation1 almo/1 to manufacture tiles or any o!r dra9+ mat]ial = our f>ms4 ,we w\ld by no means disc\rage ! use ( /ones1 :]e tiles _c be us$ ) great] economy4 ,/one dra9s are1 d\btless1 z effici5t z any1 s long z ! wat]-way c be kept op54 ,! mat]ial is (t5 close at h&1 ly+ on ! field & to be remov$ z a nuisance1 if n us$ 9 dra9age4 ,9 su* cases1 true economy may dictate ! use ( !m1 ev5 :]e tiles c be procur$2 ?\gh1 we believe1 tiles w be f\nd g5]ally *eap]1 all ?+s consid]$1 :]e made 9 ! neighborhood4 ,9 treat+ ( ! co/ ( dra9age1 we h und]tak5 to give fair e/imates ( ! comp>ative co/ ( diff]5t mat]ials4 ,e f>m] is capable ( mak+ e/imates = himself1 & ( te/+ ^? made by u1 & s ( det]m9+ :at is true economy 9 8 p>ticul> case4 ,! v>i\s modes ( con/ruct+ dra9s ( /ones1 may be readily %[n by simple illu/rations3 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bj4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ba4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bb4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bc4 ,if /one-dra9s are decid$ ^u1 ! mode ( con/ruct+ !m w dep5d ^u ! k9d ( /one at h&4 ,9 "s localities1 r\nd pebble-/ones are f\nd scatt]$ ov] ! surface1 or pil$ 9 heaps ^u our f>ms2 9 o!rs1 flat1 slaty /ones ab\nd1 & 9 o!rs1 brok5 /ones f qu>ries may be m conv5i5t4 ,( ^!1 probably1 ! lea/ reliable is ! dra9 fill$ ) pebble-/ones1 or brok5 /ones ( small size4 ,!y are peculi>ly liable to be ob/ruct$1 because !re is no regul> wat]-way1 & ! fl[ ( ! wat] mu/1 ( c\rse1 be v sl[1 imp$$ z x is by friction at all po9ts ) ! irregul> surfaces4 ,s&1 & o!r ob/ruct+ sub/ances1 :i* f9d _! way1 m or less1 into all dra9s1 are deposit$ among ! /ones--! wat] hav+ no =ce ( curr5t suffici5t to c>ry !m =w>d--& ! dra9 is soon fill$ up at "s po9t1 & ru9$4 ,miles ( su* dra9s h be5 laid on _m ,new ,engl& f>ms1 at %oal dep?s1 ( two or two & a half feet1 & h 9 a few ye>s fail$4 ,= a "t1 _! effect1 to ^? unaccu/om$ to "u-dra9age1 seems almo/ miracul\s4 ,! wet field becomes dry1 ! wild grass gives place to clov] & h]ds-grass1 & ! exp]im5t is pron\nc$ successful4 ,aft] a few ye>s1 h[ev]1 ! wild grass re-appe>s1 ! wat] aga9 /&s on ! surface1 & x is asc]ta9$1 on exam9ation1 t ! dra9 is 9 "s place pack$ solid ) e>?1 & is fill$ ) /agnant wat]4 ,! fault is by no means :olly 9 ! mat]ial4 ,9 clay or h>d pan1 su* a dra9 may be made durable1 ) prop] c>e1 b x mu/ be laid deep en\gh to be beyond ! effect ( ! tread+ ( cattle & ( load$ teams1 & ! common action ( fro/4 ,!y c h>dly be laid l[ en\gh to be beyond ! rea* ( our great enemy1 ! mole1 :i* foll[s rel5tlessly all our op]ations4 ,we recollect ! rem>ks ( ,mr4 ,d[n+ ab\t ! compla9ts 9 ,new ,engl&1 ( injury to fruit-trees by ! gnaw+ ( field-mice4 ,he said he %\ld z soon ?9k ( dang] f injury by giraffes z field-mice1 9 8 own neighborhood1 ?\gh he _h no d\bt ( _! depr$ations else:]e6 ,x may seem to _m1 t we lay too mu* /ress on ?is po9t1 ( dang] f moles & mice4 ,we "k :]e( we d te/ify 9 ?is matt]4 ,we v]ily believe t we nev] f9i%$ a dra9 ( bru% or /ones1 on our f>m1 t5 rods long1 t !re 0 n a colony ( ^! v>m9t 9 ! "o end ( x1 be=e we _h f9i%$ ! o!r4 ,if ^! dra9s1 h[ev]1 are made ?ree or f\r feet deep1 & ! solid e>? ramm$ h>d ov] ! turf1 :i* cov]s ! /ones1 !y w be comp>atively safe4 ,! figures #bd & #be bel[1 repres5t a mode ( lay+ /one dra9s1 practic$ 9 ,irel&1 :i* w be f\nd probably m conv5i5t & secure ?an any o!r me?od1 = common small dra9s4 ,a flat /one is set upright aga9/ "o side ( ! dit*1 :i* %\ld be ne> ! bottom1 p]p5dicul>4 ,ano!r /one is set lean+ aga9/ ! fir/1 ) its foot re/+ aga9/ ! opposite bank4 ,if ! soil be s(t clay1 a flat /one may be plac$ fir/ on ! bottom ( ! dit*1 = ! wat] to fl[ ^u2 b ?is w be f\nd a great addition to ! labor1 unless flat /ones ( peculi>ly uni=m %ape & ?ickness are at h&4 ,a bo>d laid at ! bottom w be usually f> *eap]1 & less liable to cause ob/ructions4 ,illu/ration3 ,figs4 #bd1 #be4--,,/one ,,dra9s4 ,figure #be repres5ts ! dit* )\t ! small /ones above ! duct4 ,^! small /ones are1 9 n9e cases 9 t51 worse ?an useless1 = !y are n only unnecess>y to admit ! wat]1 b furni% a h>bor = mice & o!r v]m94 ,draw+s1 repres5t+ a fill+ ( small /ones above ! duct1 h be5 copi$ f "o "w to ano!r = g5]ations1 & x seems nev] to h occurr$1 ev5 to mod]n writ]s1 t ! small /ones might be omitt$4 ,any "o1 :o kn[s any?+ ( ! pres5t sy/em ( dra9+ ) tiles1 mu/ p]ceive at once t1 if we h ! op5 triangul> duct or ! squ>e culv]t1 ! wat] _c be kept f f9d+ x1 by any fill+ ov] x ) su* e>? z is usually f\nd 9 dit*+4 ,=m]ly1 :5 tiles 7 us$1 ! dit* 0 fill$ above ! tiles1 to ! height ( a foot or m1 ) brok5 /ones2 b ?is practice has be5 ev]y:]e ab&on$ z exp5sive & useless4 ,an op5+ ( any =m1 equal to a circle ( two or ?ree in*es diamet]1 w be suffici5t 9 mo/ cases1 ?\gh ! necess>y size ( ! duct mu/1 ( c\rse1 dep5d on ! quantity ( wat] :i* may be expect$ to fl[ 9 x at ! "t ( ! greate/ flood4 ,:atev] ! =m ( ! /one dra91 c>e %\ld be tak5 to make ! jo9ts z close z possible1 & turf1 %av+s1 /raw1 tan1 or "s o!r mat]ial1 %\ld be c>efully plac$ ov] ! jo9ts1 to prev5t ! wa%+ 9 ( s&1 :i* is ! wor/ enemy ( all dra9s4 ,x is n deem$ necess>y to rem>k p>ticul>ly ^u ! mode ( lay+ l>ge dra9s = wat]-c\rses1 ) abutm5ts & cov]+ /ones1 =m+ a squ>e duct1 because x is ! mode univ]sally kn[n & practic$4 ,= small dra9s1 9 ?or\gh-dra9+ l&s1 x may1 h[ev]1 be rem>k$1 t ?is is1 p]haps1 ! mo/ exp5sive ( all modes1 because a mu* great] wid? ( excavation is necess>y 9 ord] to place 9 position ! two side /ones & leave ! requisite space betwe5 !m4 ,t mode ( dra9age :i* requires ! lea/ excavation & ! lea/ c>riage ( mat]ials1 & consequ5tly ! lea/ fill+ up & levell+1 is usually ! *eape/4 ,our conclusion z to /one dra9s is1 t1 at pres5t1 !y may be1 9 _m cases1 f\nd useful & economical2 & ev5 :]e tiles are to be procur$ at pres5t prices /ones may well be us$1 :]e mat]ials are at h&1 = ! l>ge/ dra9s4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,dra9age ,,) ,,tiles4 ,:at are ,dra9-,tiles8--,=ms ( ,tiles4--,pipes4--,horse-%oe ,tiles4--,sole-,tiles--,=m ( ,wat]-,passage4--,coll>s & _! ,use4--,size ( ,pipes4--,velocity4--,friction4--,dis*>g e ( ,wat] ?r\gh ,pipes4--,tables ( ,capacity4--,h[ ,wat] ent]s ,tiles4--,deep ,dra9s run soone/ & longe/4--,pressure ( ,wat] on ,pipes4--,durability ( ,tile ,dra9s4--,dra9-,bricks #ajj ye>s old4 ,,:at ,,are ,,dra9-,,tiles8 ,?is w\ld be an absurd "q to place at ! head ( a division 9 a "w int5d$ = ! ,engli% public1 = tiles are z common 9 ,engl& z bricks1 & _! =ms & uses z famili> to all4 ,b 9 ,am]ica1 ?\gh tiles are us$ to a consid]able ext5t 9 "s localities1 probably n "o f>m] 9 "o hundr$ 9 ! :ole c\ntry ev] saw "o4 ,! au?or has rec5tly receiv$ lett]s ( inquiry ab\t ! use & co/ ( tiles1 f :i* x is manife/ t ! writ]s h 9 _! m9d z tiles1 ! squ>e bricks ) :i* our gr&fa!rs us$ to lay _! he>?s4 ,9 ,john/one's ,report to ! ,bo>d ( ,agriculture on ,elk+ton's ,sy/em ( ,dra9+1 publi%$ 9 ,engl& 9 #agig1 ! only k9d ( tiles or clay conduits describ$ or allud$ to by him1 are :at he calls dra9+-bricks1 ( :i* he gives draw+s1 :i* we transf] to our pages precisely z f\nd 9 ! ,am]ican edition4 ,x w be se5 to be z clumsy a contrivance z c\ld well be devis$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bf4--;,,dra9+-,,bricks4 ,s lately z #ahef1 tiles 7 br\ght f ,albany1 ,n4 ,y41 to ,exet]1 ,n4 ,h41 ne>ly #cjj miles1 by railway1 at a co/1 includ+ freight1 ( #be a ?\s& = two-in* pipes1 & x is believ$ t no tiles 7 ev] made 9 ,new ,hamp%ire till ! ye> #aheg4 ,^! facts w soon become curiosities 9 agricultural lit]ature1 & s are wor? pres]v+4 ,!y furni% excuse1 too1 = :at may appe> to le>n$ agriculturi/s an unnecess>y p>ticul>ity 9 :at might seem ! well-kn[n facts relative to tile-dra9age4 ,dra9-tiles are made ( clay ( almo/ any quality t w make bricks1 m\ld$ by a ma*9e into tubes1 or into half-tube or horse-%oe =ms1 usually f\rte5 in*es long be=e dry+1 & burnt 9 a furnace or kiln to be ab\t z h>d z :at are call$ h>d-burnt bricks4 ,!y are usually m\ld$ ab\t half an in* 9 ?ickness1 v>y+ ) ! size & =m ( ! tile4 ,! sizes v>y f "o in* to six in*es1 & sometimes l>g]1 9 ! diamet] ( ! bore4 ,! =ms are also v v>i\s2 & z ?is is "o ( ! mo/ ess5tial matt]s1 z affect+ ! effici5cy1 ! co/1 & ! durability ( tile-dra9age1 x w be well to give x critical att5tion4 ,,! ,,=ms ,,( ,,tiles4 ,! simple/1 *eape/1 & be/ =m ( dra9-tile is ! cyl9d]1 or m]ely a tube1 r\nd outside & ) a r\nd bore4 ,illu/ration3 ,figs4 #bg1 #bh1 #bi4--,,r\nd ,,pipes4 ,tiles ( ?is =m1 & all o!rs :i* are tubul>1 are call$ pipes1 9 di/9ction f ^? ) op5 bottoms1 l ^? ( horse-%oe =m4 ,ab\t =ty ye>s ago1 z ,mr4 ,gisborne in=ms u1 small pipes = l&-dra9age 7 us$1 concurr5tly1 by p]sons resid+ 9 ! c\nties ( ,l9coln1 ,ox=d1 & ,k5t1 :o _h1 probably1 no k ( ea* o!r's op]ations4 ,mo/ ( ^? pipes 7 made ) eyelet-holes1 to admit ! wat]4 ,pipes = ?or\gh-dra9+ excit$ no g5]al att5tion till !y 7 exhibit$ by ,john ,read at ! %[ at ,d]by1 9 ! ye> #ahdc4 ,a m$al 0 aw>d$ to ! exhibitor4 ,mr4 ,p>kes 0 "o ( ! judges1 & br\ght ! pipes to ! special notice ( ! c\ncil4 ,f ?is "t1 inv5tions & improvem5ts 7 rapid1 & soon1 coll>s 7 introduc$1 & ! use ( improv$ ma*9es to m\ld ! pipes2 & dra9age1 "u ! fo/]+ influ5ce ( ! ,royal ,agricultural ,society1 became a subject ( g5]al att5tion ?r\gh\t ! k+dom4 ,! r\nd pipe1 or ! pipe1 z x seems1 p> excell5ce1 to be t]m$ by ,engli% dra9]s1 ?\gh "o ( ! late/1 if n ! la/ =m ( tiles introduc$ 9 ,engl&1 has become altoge!r ! mo/ popul> among sci5tific m51 & is g5]ally us$ 9 all works conduct$ "u ! *>ge ( ! ,l& ,dra9age ,companies4 ,?is ought to settle ! "q = u1 :5 we consid] t ! imm5se sum ( tw5ty millions ( doll>s ( public funds has be5 exp5d$ by !m1 9 addition to va/ am\nts ( private funds1 & t ! highe/ practical tal5t ( ! nation is engag$ 9 ! "w4 ,aft] giv+ "s idea ( ! v>i\s =ms ( tiles 9 use1 x is1 h[ev]1 propos$ to exam9e ! "q ^u its m]its1 s t ea* may judge = himself :i* is be/4 ,! e>lie/ =m ( tiles introduc$ = ! purpose ( ?or\gh-dra9age1 0 ! horse-%oe tile1 s call$ f its %ape4 ,! horse-%oe tile has be5 sometimes us$ )\t any sole to =m ! bottom ( ! dra91 ?us leav+ ! wat] to run on ! gr\nd4 ,!re c h>dly be a "q ( ! false economy ( ?is mode1 = ! h>de/ & mo/ imp]vi\s soil s(t5s "u ! con/ant action ( runn+ wat]1 & !n ! edges ( ! tiles mu/ s9k1 or ! bottom ( ! dra9 rise1 & ?us de/roy ! "w4 ,v>i\s devices h be5 tri$ to save ! exp5se ( soles1 su* z provid+ ! edges ( ! tiles ) flanges or us+ pieces ( soles on :i* to re/ ! ends ( ! tiles4 ,!y all leave ! bottom ( ! dra9 unprotect$ aga9/ ! we>+ action ( ! wat]4 ,,horse-,,%oe ,,tiles1 or tops & bottoms z !y are call$ 9 "s c\nties1 are /ill mu* us$ 9 ,engl&2 & 9 p]sonal conv]sation ) f>m]s !re1 ! writ] f\nd a /rong op9ion express$ 9 _! favor4 ,! advantages claim$ = ! tops & bottoms are1 t !y lie firmly 9 place1 & t !y admit ! wat] m freely ?an o!rs4 ,! objections to !m are1 t !y are m exp5sive ?an r\nd pipes1 & are n s /rong1 & are n s easily laid1 & t !y d n dis*>ge wat] s well z tiles ) a r\nd bore4 ,9 lay+ !m1 !y %\ld be made to re/ p>tly ^u two adjo9+ soles1 or to break bond1 z x is call$4 ,! soles are made sep>ate f ! tiles1 & are m]ely flat pieces1 ( suffici5t wid? to support firmly bo? edges ( ! tiles4 ,! soles are usually an in* wid] ?an ! tiles4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cj--;,,horse-,,%oe ,,tiles ,,& ,,soles4 ,! above figure repres5ts ! horse-%oe tiles & soles prop]ly plac$4 ,z ?is =m ( tile has be5 g5]ally us$ by ! mo/ successful dra9]s 9 ,new ,york1 x may be well to cite ! high au?ority ( ,mr4 ,gisborne = ! objections :i* h be5 sugge/$4 ,x %\ld be recollect$ 9 ?is connection1 t ! dra9age 9 ?is c\ntry has be5 :at 9 ,engl& w\ld be call$ %all[1 & t x is too rec5t to h borne ! te/ ( "t4 ,mr4 ,gisborne says3 ,we %all %ock & surprise _m ( our read]s1 :5 we /ate confid5tly t1 9 av]age soils1 & /ill m 9 ^? :i* are incl9$ to be t5d]1 horse-%oe tiles =m ! weake/ & mo/ fail+ conduit :i* has ev] be5 us$ = a deep dra94 ,x is s1 h[ev]2 & a little ?\ght1 ev5 if we _h no exp]i5ce1 w tell u t x mu/ be s4 ,a horse-%oe tile1 :i* may be a tol]ably secure conduit 9 a dra9 ( #b feet1 9 "o ( #d feet becomes an almo/ c]ta9 failure4 ,z to ! longitud9al fracture1 n only is ! tile subject to be brok5 by "o ( ^? slips :i* are s tr\blesome 9 deep dra9+1 & to :i* ! lightly-fill$ mat]ial1 ev5 :5 ! dra9 is complet$1 (f]s an imp]fect resi/ance1 b ! con/ant pressure toge!r ( ! sides1 ev5 :5 x does n produce a fracture ( ! soil1 cat*es hold ( ! feet ( ! tile1 & breaks x ?r\gh ! cr[n4 ,:5 ! ,reg5t's ,p>k 0 fir/ dra9$1 l>ge conduits 7 9 fa%ion1 & !y 7 made circul> by plac+ "o horse-%oe tile ^u ano!r4 ,x w\ld be difficult to inv5t a weak] conduit4 ,on re-dra9age1 innum]able in/ances 7 f\nd 9 :i* ! upp] tile 0 brok5 ?r\gh ! cr[n & _h dropp$ into ! l[]4 ,ano!r =m ( tiles1 call$ sole-tiles1 or sole-pipes1 is mu* us$ 9 ,am]ica1 m inde$ ?an any o!r1 except p]haps ! horse-%oe tile2 probably1 because ! fir/ manufactur]s fanci$ !m ! be/1 & (f]$ no o!rs 9 ! m>ket4 ,9 ?is =m1 ! sole is solid ) ! tile4 ,! bottom is flat1 b ! bore is r\nd1 or oval1 or egg-%ap$1 ) ! small end ( ! orifice d[nw>d4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ca--,,sole-,,tile4 ,! sole-pipe has consid]able advantages !oretically4 ,! op5+ or bore is ( ! "r %ape1 ! bottom lies fair & firm 9 place1 & ! dra91 inde$1 is p]fect1 if c>efully & prop]ly laid4 ,! objections to ! sole-pipes are1 t !y are some:at m exp5sive ?an r\nd pipes1 & t !y require great c>e 9 plac+ !m1 s z to make ! passage ev5 f "o pipe to ano!r4 ,a slight depression ( "o side ( a pipe ( ?is k9d1 especially if ! bore be oval or egg-%ap$1 ?r[s ! wat] passage out ( l9e4 ,9 lay+ !m1 ! au?or has tak5 ! precaution to place "u ea* jo9t a ?9 piece ( wood1 su* z our hone/ %oe manufactur]s use = /iff5+ 9 %oes1 to keep ! bottoms ( ! pipes ev51 at lea/ until ! gr\nd has settl$ compactly1 & z mu* long] z !y may escape decay's effac+ f+]4 ,,coll>s = tiles are us$ :]ev] a sudd5 desc5t occurs 9 ! c\rse ( a dra91 or :]e !re is a loose s& or a boggy place1 & by _m p]sons !y are us$ 9 all dra9s ?r\gh s&y or gravelly l&4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cb4--,,pipes ,,& ,,coll>4 ,! above figure repres5ts pipe-tiles fitt$ ) coll>s4 ,coll>s are m]ely %ort sections ( pipes ( su* size z to fit ^u ! small] ones loosely1 cov]+ ! jo9t1 & hold+ ! ends 9 place1 s t !y _c slip pa/ ea* o!r4 ,9 v bad places1 small pipes may be entirely %ea!d 9 l>g] ones2 & ?is is advisable 9 /eep desc5ts or fl[+ s&s4 ,a great advantage 9 r\nd pipes is1 t !re is no wrong-side-up to !m1 & !y are1 !re=e1 m readily plac$ 9 position ?an tiles ( any o!r =m4 ,aga93 all tiles are m or less w>p$ 9 dry+ & burn+2 &1 :]e x is desir$ to make p]fect "w1 r\nd pipes may be turn$ s z to make bett] jo9ts & a /raight] run = ! wat]--:i* is v important4 ,if coll>s are us$1 !re is /ill less difficulty 9 adju/+ ! pipes s z to make ! l9es /raight1 & f> less dang] ( ob/ruction by s& or roots4 ,inde$1 x is believ$ t no dra9 c be made m p]fect ?an ) r\nd pipes & coll>s4 ,z x is believ$ t few coll>s h ev] yet be5 us$ 9 ?is c\ntry1 & ! be/ dra9]s 9 ,engl& are n agre$ z to ! necessity ( us+ !m1 we give ! op9ions ( two or ?ree di/+ui%$ g5tlem51 9 _! own language4 ,mr4 ,gisborne says3 ,we 7 a/\nd$ to f9d1 at ! conclusion ( ,mr4 ,p>kes' ,newca/le ,lecture1 ?is s5t5ce3 ',x may be advisable = me to say1 t 9 clays1 & o!r clean-cutt+ & firm-bottom$ soils1 ,i d n f9d ! coll>s to be indisp5sably necess>y1 al?\gh ,i always pref] _! use4' ,?is is a b>efac$ trea*]y to pipes1 an ab&onm5t ( ! /ronge/ po9t 9 _! case--! assur$ cont9uity ( ! conduit4 ,e "o may see h[ v small a di/urbance at _! po9t ( junction w\ld dissociate two pipes ( "o in* diamet]4 ,"o f9ds a s(t place 9 ! bottom ( ! dra9 & dips 8 nose into x "o in* deep1 & cocks up 8 o!r end4 ,by ?is simple op]ation1 ! cont9uity ( ! conduit is twice brok54 ,an in* ( lat]al motion produces ! same effect4 ,pipes ( a l>g] diamet] ?an two in*es are g5]ally laid )\t coll>s4 ,?is is a practice on :i* we d n look ) mu* complac5cy2 x is ! compromise betwe5 co/ & security1 to :i* ! affairs ( m5 are s (t5 compell$4 ,no d\bt1 a conduit f ?ree to six in*es 9 diamet] is mu* less subject to a brea* 9 its cont9uity ?an "o :i* is small]2 b1 :5 no coll>s are us$1 ! pipes %\ld be laid ) extreme c>e1 & ! b$ :i* is prep>$ = !m at ! bottom ( ! dra9 %\ld be work$ to _! size & %ape ) great accuracy4 ,to "o advantage :i* is d]iv$ f ! use ( coll>s we h n yet adv]t$--! increas$ facility ) :i* free wat] exi/+ 9 ! soil c f9d entrance into ! conduit4 ,! coll> = a "o & a half in* pipe has a circumf]5ce ( n9e in*es4 ,! :ole space betwe5 ! coll> & ! pipe1 on ea* side ( ! coll>1 is op51 & af=ds no resi/ance to ! entrance ( wat]3 :ile1 at ! same "t1 ! sup]9cumb5t ar* ( ! coll> protects ! junction ( two pipes f ! intrusion ( p>ticles ( soil4 ,we confess to "s orig9al misgiv+s1 t a pipe re/+ only on an in* at ea* end1 & ly+ holl[1 might prove weak1 & liable to fracture by weight press+ on x f above2 b ! fe> 0 illusory4 ,small p>ticles ( soil trickle d[n ! sides ( e dra91 & ! fir/ fl[ ( wat] w deposit !m 9 ! vacant space betwe5 ! two coll>s4 ,! bottom1 if at all s(t1 w also swell up into any vacancy4 ,practically1 if y re-op5 a dra9 well laid ) pipes & coll>s1 y w f9d !m repos+ 9 a beautiful nidus1 :i*1 :5 !y are c>efully remov$1 looks exactly z if x _h be5 m\ld$ = !m4 ,z to ! dang] ( break+ ! pipes1 :i* might well be appreh5d$1 we f\nd by actual exp]im5t1 at ! ,new ,york ,c5tral ,p>k1 t a "o-in* ,albany pipe re/+ on coll>s ^u a floor1 ) a be>+ at ea* end ( b "o in*1 w\ld support ! weight ( a man weigh+ #afj p\nds1 /&+ on "o foot on ! middle ( ! pipe4 ,mr4 ,p>kes sums up 8 op9ion ^u ! subject ( coll>s1 9 ^! words3 ,x may be advisable = me to say1 t 9 clays1 & o!r clean-cutt+ & firm-bottom$ soils1 ,i d n f9d coll>s to be at all necess>y2 b t !y are ess5tial 9 all s&y1 loose1 & s(t /rata4 ,9 dra9+ 9 ! neighborhood ( trees1 coll>s are also suppos$ to be ( great use 9 prev5t+ ! intrusion ( roots into ! pipes1 al?\gh x may be impossible1 ev5 9 ?is way1 to exclude ! roots ( wat]-lov+ trees4 ,f ! mo/ c>eful inquiry t ! writ] 0 able to make1 z to ! practice 9 ,engl&1 he is satisfi$ t coll>s are n g5]ally us$ !re 9 ! dra9age ( clays1 b t ! pipes are laid 9 op5+s %ap$ = !m at ! bottom ( ! dra9s1 ) a tool :i* =ms a groove into :i* ! pipes fall readily into l9e1 & v little seems to be said ( coll>s 9 ! publi%$ e/imates ( ! co/ ( dra9age4 ,on ?is subject1 we h ! op9ion ( ,mr4 ,d5ton1 ?us express$3 ,! use ( coll>s is by no means g5]al1 al?\gh ^? :o h us$ !m speak highly ( _! advantages4 ,except 9 s&y soils1 & 9 ^? t are subject to sudd5 alt]ation ( "*1 9 "s ( ! deposits ( r$ s&-/ones1 & 9 ! clayey subsoils ( ! ,bag%ot s& di/rict1 = in/ance1 coll>s are n f\nd to be ess5tial to good dra9age4 ,9 ! nor? ( ,engl& !y are us$ b seldom1 &1 9 my op9ion1 mu* less ?an !y ought to be2 b ?is op9ion1 x is "r to /ate1 is oppos$1 9 num]\s in/ances ( successful dra9age1 by m5 ( ext5sive practice2 & z e cause ( increas$ outlay is to be avoid$1 ! value ( coll>s1 z g5]al appliances1 rema9s an op5 "q4 ,9 all ! m por\s subsoils 9 :i* coll>s h n be5 us$1 ! m successful dra9]s increase ! size ( ! pipes 9 ! m9or dra9s to a m9imum size ( two in*es bore4 ,! =m ( ! bore1 or wat] passage1 9 tiles1 is a po9t ( m importance ?an at fir/ appe>s4 ,at "o ( our colleges1 c]ta9 plank sew]s1 9 ! ord9>y squ>e =m1 7 (t5 ob/ruct$ by ! s$im5t f ! dirty wat]4 ,turn !m corn]wise1 sugge/$ ! pr(essor ( ,natural ,philosophy4 ,x 0 done1 & ev] aft] !y kept 9 ord]4 ,! pressure ( wat] dep5ds on its height1 or head4 ,ev]ybody kn[s t six feet ( wat] c>ries a mill-:eel bett] ?an "o foot4 ,! same pr9ciple op]ates on a small scale4 ,an in* head ( wat] presses h>d] ?an a half in*4 ,! velocity ( wat]1 aga91 dep5ds mu* on its height4 ,:e!r !re be mu* or little wat] pass+ ?r\gh a dra91 x has manife/ly a great] p[] to make its way1 to drive be=e x s& or o!r ob/ructions1 :5 x is heap$ up 9 a r\nd passage1 ?an :5 w&]+ ov] ! flat surface ( a tile sole4 ,any "o :o has obs]v$ ! dis*>ge ( wat] f flat-bottom$ & r\nd tiles1 w be satisfi$ t ! quantity ( wat] :i* is suffici5t to run 9 a rapid /ream ( a half or qu>t] in* diamet] f a r\nd tile1 w lazily creep along ! flat bottom ( a sole tile1 ) h>dly =ce suffici5t to turn aside a gra9 ( s&1 or to br+ back to light an ent]pris+ cricket t may h ent]$ on an exploration4 ,on ! :ole1 solid tiles1 ) flat-bottom$ passages1 may be set d[n among ! inv5tions ( ! adv]s>y4 ,!y h n ! claims ev5 ( ! horse-%oe =m to respect1 because !y d n admit wat] bett] ?an r\nd pipes1 & are n unit$ by a sole on :i* ! ends ( ! adjo9+ tiles re/4 ,!y comb9e ! faults ( all o!r =ms1 ) ! peculi> virtues ( none4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cc--;,,flat-,,bottom$ ,,pipe-,,tile4 ,f an ,engli% report on ! dra9age ( t[ns1 ! foll[+1 :i* illu/rates ?is po9t1 is tak53 ,x 0 f\nd t a l>ge proportion ( sew]s 7 con/ruct$ ) flat bottoms1 :i*1 :5 !re 0 a small dis*>ge1 spread ! wat]1 increas$ ! friction1 ret>d$ ! fl[1 & accumulat$ deposit4 ,x 0 asc]ta9$1 t by ! sub/itution ( circul> sew]s ( ! same wid?1 ) ! same incl9ation & ! same run ( wat]1 ! am\nt ( deposit 0 r$uc$ m ?an "o-half4 ,,! ,,size ,,( ,,tiles4 ,is a matt] ( mu* importance1 :e!r we reg>d ! effici5cy & durability ( our "w1 or economy 9 complet+ x4 ,! co/ ( tiles1 & ! freight ( !m1 increase rapidly ) _! size1 & x is1 !re=e1 well to use ! smalle/ t w effect ! object 9 view4 ,tiles %\ld be l>ge en\gh1 z a fir/ proposition1 to c>ry (f1 9 a reasonable "t1 all ! surplus wat] t may fall ^u ! l&4 ,"h1 ! ,engli% rules w n be safe = u2 =1 al?\gh ,engl& has _m m ra9y days ?an we h1 yet we h1 9 g5]al1 a great] fall ( ra9--m in*es ( wat] f ! cl\ds 9 ! ye>4 ,in/ead ( _! et]nal drizzle1 we h ?und] %[]s 9 ,summ]1 & 9 ,spr+ & ,autumn nor?-ea/ /orms1 :5 ! w9d[s ( heav5 are op5$1 & a deluge1 except 9 duration1 bur/s ^u u4 ,!n1 at ! ,nor?1 ! ,w9t] sn[s cov] ! fields until ,april1 :5 !y sudd5ly dissolve1 (t5 "u heavy %[]s ( ra91 & plant+ "t is at once ^u u4 ,x is desirable t all ! sn[ & ra9-wat] %\ld pass ?r\gh ! soil into ! dra9s1 in/ead ( ov]fl[+ ! surface1 s z to save ! elem5ts ( f]tility ) :i* su* wat] ab\nds1 & also to prev5t ! wa%+ ( ! soil4 ,we require1 !n1 a great] capacity ( dra9age1 l>g] tiles1 ?an d ! ,engli%1 = our dra9s mu/ d a great] "w ?an !irs1 & 9 less "t4 ,!re are sev]al o!r g5]al consid]ations t %\ld be notic$1 be=e we attempt to def9e ! p>ticul> size = any location4 ,sev]al small dra9s are usually dis*>g$ into "o ma9 dra94 ,?is ma9 %\ld h suffici5t capacity to conduct all ! wat] t may be expect$ to ent] x1 & no m4 ,if ! small dra9s ov]fl[ x1 ! ma9 w be liable to be bur/1 or ! l& ab\t x fill$ ) wat]1 gu%+ f x at ! jo9ts2 especially1 if ! small dra9s come d[n a hill side1 s z to give a great pressure1 or head ( wat]4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if ! ma9 be l>g] ?an is necess>y1 !re is ! useless exp5se ( l>g] tiles ?an 7 requir$4 ,! capacity ( pipes to convey wat]1 dep5ds1 o!r ?+s be+ equal1 ^u _! size2 b "h ! ^w size has a mean+ :i* %\ld be kept cle>ly 9 m9d4 ,! capacity ( r\nd wat]-pipes is 9 proportion to ! squ>es ( _! diamet]s4 ,a "o-in* pipe c>ries "o in* 7circul>1 n squ>e7 ( wat]1 b a two-in* pipe c>ries n two in*es only1 b twice two1 or f\r in*es ( wat]2 a ?ree-in* pipe c>ries ?ree times ?ree1 or n9e in*es2 & a f\r-in* pipe1 sixte5 in*es4 ,?us we see1 t "u ! same conditions z to fall1 directness1 smoo?ness1 & ! l1 a f\r-in* pipe c>ries j f\r times z mu* wat] z a two-in* pipe4 ,9 fact1 x w c>ry m ?an ?is proportion1 because friction1 :i* is an important elem5t 9 all su* calculations1 is great] 9 proportion to ! small] size ( ! pipe4 ,,velocity is ano!r ess5tial elem5t to be notic$ 9 det]m9+ ! am\nt ( wat] :i* may be dis*>g$ ?r\gh a pipe ( giv5 diamet]4 ,velocity1 aga91 dep5ds on sev]al conditions4 ,wat] runs fa/] d[n a /eep hill ?an d[n a g5tle declivity4 ,?is is due to ! weight ( ! wat]1 or1 9 o!r words1 to gravitation1 & op]ates :e!r ! wat] be at l>ge on ! gr\nd1 or conf9$ 9 a pipe1 & x op]ates alike :e!r ! wat] 9 a pipe fill its bore or n4 ,b1 aga91 ! velocity ( wat] 9 a pipe dep5ds on ! pressure1 or head ( wat]1 beh9d x1 & !re is1 p]haps1 no def9ite limit to ! quantity ( wat] t may be =c$ ?r\gh a giv5 orifice4 ,m wat]1 = in/ance1 is (t5 =c$ ?r\gh ! pipe ( a fire-eng9e 9 full play1 9 t5 m9utes1 ?an w\ld run ?r\gh a pipe ( ! same diamet]1 ly+ ne>ly level 9 ! gr\nd1 9 t5 h\rs4 ,9 ord9>y aqu$ucts1 = supply+ wat]1 & n = dra9age1 x is desirable to h a high pressure ^u ! pipes to ensure a rapid fl[2 b 9 dra9age1 a c>eful di/9ction mu/ be made betwe5 velocity induc$ by gravitation1 & velocity induc$ by pressure4 ,if induc$ by ! =m] m]ely1 ! pipe ?r\gh :i* ! wat] is swiftly runn+1 if n q full1 may /ill receive wat] at e jo9t1 :ile1 if ! velocity be induc$ by pressure1 ! pipe mu/ be already full4 ,x c !n receive no m1 & mu/ lose wat] at ! jo9ts1 & wet ! l& ?r\gh :i* x passes1 in/ead ( dra9+ x4 ,s t al?\gh we %\ld f9d t ! ma9s might c>ry a va/ quantity ( wat] admitt$ by m9or dra9s f high elevations1 yet we %\ld be> 9 m9d1 t dra9s :5 full c p]=m no ord9>y (fice ( dra9age4 ,if !re is m ?an ! pressure ( f\r feet head ( wat] beh9d2 ! pipes1 if !y pass$ ?r\gh a pond ( wat]1 at f\r feet deep1 mu/ lose & n receive wat] at ! jo9ts4 ,! capacity ( a pipe to convey wat] dep5ds1 !n1 n only on its size1 b on its incl9ation or fall--a pipe runn+ d[n a consid]able desc5t hav+ mu* great] capacity ?an "o ( ! same size ly+ ne>ly level4 ,?is fact %\ld be borne 9 m9d ev5 9 lay+ s+le dra9s2 = x is obvi\s t if ! dra9 lie along a s&y pla91 = in/ance1 ext5d+ d[n a spr+y hill-side1 & !n1 z is usually ! case1 along a l[] pla9 aga91 to its outlet at "s /ream1 x may collect z mu* wat] z w fill x be=e x rea*es ! l[] level4 ,its /ream ru%es swiftly d[n ! desc5t1 & :5 x rea*es ! pla91 !re is n suffici5t fall to c>ry x away by its natural gravitation4 ,x w /ill ru% onw>d to its outlet1 urg$ by ! pressure f beh9d2 b1 ) su* pressure1 x w1 z we h se51 in/ead ( dra9+ ! l&1 suffuse x ) wat]4 ,,friction1 z has already be5 sugge/$1 is an elem5t t mu* int]f]es ) exact calculations z to ! relative capacity ( wat]-pipes ( v>i\s dim5sions1 & ?is dep5ds ^u sev]al circum/ances1 su* z smoo?ness1 & exactness ( =m1 & directness4 ,! smoo!r1 ! m regul> 9 =m1 & ! /raight] ! dra91 ! m wat] w x convey4 ,?us1 9 "s rec5t ,engli% exp]im5ts1 x 0 f\nd t1 ) pipes ( ! same diamet]1 exactitude ( =m 0 ( m importance ?an smoo?ness ( surface2 t glass pipes1 :i* _h a wavy surface1 dis*>g$ less wat]1 at ! same incl9ations1 ?an ,/af=d%ire /one-w>e clay pipes1 :i* 7 ( p]fectly exact con/ruction4 ,by pass+ pipes ( ! same clay--! common r$ clay--"u a second pressure1 obta9$ by a ma*9e at an extra exp5se ( ab\t eighte5 p5ce p] ?\s&1 :il/ ! pipe 0 half dry1 v sup]ior exactitude ( =m 0 obta9$1 & by means ( ?is exactitude1 & ) ne>ly ! same diamet]s1 an increas$ dis*>ge ( wat] ( "o-f\r? 0 effect$ )9 ! same "t4 ,s all sudd5 turns or angles increase friction & ret>d velocity1 & ?us less5 ! capacity ( ! dra9--a topic :i* may be m prop]ly consid]$ "u ! head ( ! junction ( dra9s4 ,on a l>ge scale1 x 0 f\nd t :5 equal quantities ( wat] 7 runn+ direct1 at a rate ( #ij seconds1 ) a turn at "r-angles1 ! dis*>ge 0 only effect$ 9 #adj seconds2 :il/1 ) a turn or junction ) a g5tle curve1 ! dis*>ge 0 effect$ 9 #ajj seconds4 ,we are indebt$ to ,messrs4 ,%$d ,edson = ! foll[+ valuable tables %[+ ! capacity ( wat]-pipes1 ) ! accompany+ sugge/ions3 ,,dis*>ge ,,( ,,wat] ,,?r\gh ,,pipes4 ,! foll[+ tables ( dis*>ge are f\nd$ on ! exp]im5ts made by ,mr4 ,smeaton1 & h be5 comp>$ ) ^? by ,h5ry ,law1 & ) ! rules ( ,weisba* & ,d',aubuisson4 ,! conditions "u :i* su* exp]im5ts are made may be s ess5tially diff]5t 9 ea* case1 t few exp]im5ts give results co9cid5t ) ea* o!r1 or ) ! d$uctions ( !ory3 & 9 apply+ ^! tables to practice1 x is q likely t ! dis*>ge ( a pipe ( a c]ta9 area1 at a c]ta9 incl9ation1 may be q unlike ! dis*>ge f\nd to be due to ^? conditions by ?is table1 & t diff]5ce may be ow+ p>tly to great] or less r\ghness on ! inside ( ! pipe1 unequal fl[ ( wat] ?r\gh ! jo9ts into ! pipe1 crook$ness ( ! pipes1 want ( accuracy 9 _! be+ plac$1 s t ! fall may n be uni=m ?r\gh\t1 or ! ends ( ! pipes may be %ov$ a little to "o side1 s t ! cont9uity ( ! *annel is p>tially brok52 &1 inde$1 f v>i\s o!r causes1 all ( :i* may occur 9 any practical case1 unless great c>e is tak5 to avoid x1 & "s ( :i* may occur 9 almo/ any case4 ,we h endeavor$ to s con/ruct ! tables t1 9 ! ord9>y practice ( dra9+1 ! dis*>ge giv5 may approximate to ! tru? = a well laid dra91 subject ev5 to consid]able friction4 ,! exp]im5ts ( ,mr4 ,smeaton1 :i* we h adopt$ z ! basis ( ^! tables1 gave a less quantity dis*>g$1 "u c]ta9 conditions1 ?an giv5 "u simil> conditions by o!r tables4 ,?is result is probably due to a great] am\nt ( friction 9 ! pipes us$ by ,smeaton4 ,! curves ( friction resemble1 v ne>ly1 p>abolic curves1 b are n q s %>p ne> ! orig94 ,we propose1 dur+ ! com+ season1 to in/itute "s c>eful exp]im5ts1 to asc]ta9 ! friction due to our own dra9-pipe4 ,wat] c get into ! dra9-pipe v freely at ! jo9ts1 z may be se5 by a simple calculation4 ,x is impossible to place ! ends s closely toge!r1 9 lay+1 z to make a tight jo9t on acc\nt ( r\ghness 9 ! clay1 twi/+ 9 burn+1 c42 & ! op5+ ?us made w usually av]age ab\t "o-t5? ( an in* on ! :ole circumf]5ce1 :i* is1 on ! inside ( a two-in* pipe1 six in*es--mak+ six-t5?s ( a squ>e in* op5+ = ! entrance ( wat] at ea* jo9t4 ,9 a lat]al dra9 #bjj feet long1 ! pipes be+ ?irte5 in*es long1 !re w be #ahd jo9ts1 ea* jo9t hav+ an op5+ ( six-t5? squ>e in* area2 9 #ahd jo9ts !re is an aggregate area ( #aaj squ>e in*es2 ! area ( ! op5+ at ! end ( a two-in* pipe is ab\t ?ree in*es2 #aaj squ>e in*es inlet to ?ree in*es outlet2 ?irty-sev5 times z mu* wat] c fl[ 9 z c fl[ out4 ,!re is1 !n1 no ne$ = ! wat] to g ?r\gh ! pores ( ! pipe2 & ! fact is1 we ?9k1 q =tunate1 = ! passage ( wat] ?r\gh ! pores w\ld 9 no case be suffici5t to b5efit ! l& to mu* ext5t4 ,we tri$ an exp]im5t1 by /opp+ "o end ( an ord9>y dra9-pipe & fill+ x ) wat]4 ,at ! end ( sixty-five h\rs1 wat] /ill /ood 9 ! pipe ?ree-f\r?s ( an in* deep4 ,ab\t half ! wat] fir/ put into ! pipe _h run out at ! end ( tw5ty-f\r h\rs4 ,if ! pipe 0 /opp$ at bo? ends & plung$ f\r feet deep 9 wat]1 x w\ld und\bt$ly fill 9 a %ort "t2 b su* a te/ is an unfair "o1 = no dra9 c\ld be do+ s]vice1 ov] :i* wat] c\ld collect to ! dep? ( f\r feet4 #a-a_/b-;,,in* ,,dra9-,,pipe4 ,area3 #a4gfgji in*es4 ,,fall ,,velocity ,,dis*>ge ,,fall ,,velocity ,,dis*>ge 9 p] second 9 gallons 9 p] second 9 gallons #ajj feet4 9 feet4 9 #bd h\rs4#ajj feet4 9 feet4 9 #bd h\rs4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ft4 94 ft4 94 #j4c #j4ga #efcj4hg #e4c #c4ge #bigjd4ea #j4f #a4jd #hbdh4jc #e4f #c4hd #cjded4bh #j4i #a4bi #ajbcj4gc #e4i #c4ic #caafh4jf #a4j #a4eb #abjed4ha #f4j #d4jj #cagbc4ba #a4c #a4gd #acgii4ei #f4c #d4aj #cbeaf4cf #a4f #a4ia #aeadg4hc #f4f #d4ah #ccaej4gf #a4i #b4aj #affed4fh #f4i #d4be #ccgje4ia #b4j #b4bf #agibc4fa #g4j #d4cc #cdcdj4ch #b4c #b4da #aiaac4bc #g4c #d4da #cdigd4he #b4f #b4ef #bjcjb4hf #g4f #d4di #cefji4cj #b4i #b4fi #baccc4hf #g4i #d4ef #cfaed4de #c4j #b4hc #bbddd4ag #h4j #d4fe #cfhgh4bc #c4c #b4id #bcaej4ga #h4c #d4ga #cgced4jh #c4f #c4jf #bdbfh4be #h4f #d4gi #cgihh4ee #c4i #c4af #bejfa4cd #h4i #d4he #chdfd4dj #d4j #c4bh #bfjac4jc #i4j #d4ia #chidj4be #d4c #c4ch #bfhjf4aa #i4c #d4ih #cidie4ci #d4f #c4df #bgddj4eh #i4f #e4jd #ciiga4bd #d4i #c4ef #bhbcc4ff #i4i #e4aj #djddg4aj #e4j #c4fe #bhidg4dc #aj4j #e4af #djibb4ic #b-;,,in* ,,dra9-,,pipe4 #c-;,,in* ,,dra9-,,pipe4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,,fall ,,velocity ,,dis*>ge ,,fall ,,velocity ,,dis*>ge 9 p] second 9 gallons 9 p] second 9 gallons #ajj feet4 9 feet4 9 #bd h\rs4#ajj feet4 9 feet4 9 #bd h\rs4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ft4 94 ft4 94 #j4c #j4gi #ajege4d #j4c #j4ij #bdfhg4b #j4f #a4af #aeebh4d #j4f #a4cc #cfdhb4b #j4i #a4ej #bjjgi4i #j4i #a4ff #deecd4b #a4j #a4ga #bbhia4a #a4j #a4id #ecbad4g #a4c #a4id #beigj4j #a4c #b4ai #fjjgb4b #a4f #b4af #bhiae4a #a4f #b4dc #fffee4e #a4i #b4ce #cadeh4e #a4i #b4fc #gbada4e #b4j #b4ec #cchfh4a #b4j #b4hc #ggfbg4f #b4c #b4fi #cfjji4i #b4c #c4jj #hbbij4g #b4f #b4hc #cghhd4j #b4f #c4af #hffgi4f #b4i #b4ig #cigeh4b #b4i #c4ca #ijgid4a #c4j #c4aa #dafcb4d #c4j #c4dg #ieahb4i #c4c #c4bd #dccgb4f #c4c #c4fj #ihgdh4i #c4f #c4cf #ddigi4j #c4f #c4gd #ajbehi4a #c4i #c4dh #dfehe4d #c4i #c4hg #ajfaee4j #d4j #c4ei #dhjeg4i #d4j #c4ii #ajiddf4g #d4c #c4gj #diecj4e #d4c #d4aa #aabgch4c #d4f #c4hj #ejhfi4a #d4f #d4bc #aafjbi4i #d4i #c4ia #ebcda4f #d4i #d4cd #aaijdg4c #e4j #d4jb #echad4a #e4j #d4df #abbcch4i #e4c #d4aa #eejah4i #e4c #d4eg #abecef4b #e4f #d4bb #efdia4e #e4f #d4fh #abhcgc4e #e4i #d4ca #egfif4c #e4i #d4gh #acaaaf4f #f4j #d4dj #ehija4a #f4j #d4hi #acdacc4i #f4c #d4di #fjaje4i #f4c #d4ih #acffjb4f #f4f #d4eh #facji4g #f4f #e4jh #acicde4f #f4i #d4ff #fbcha4f #f4i #e4ah #adbjhh4g #g4j #d4gd #fcdeb4e #g4j #e4bg #addeeg4d #g4c #d4hc #fdffg4c #g4c #e4cg #adgcjf4d #g4f #d4ia #fegbh4c #g4f #e4df #aejjfi4a #g4i #d4ii #ffgii4b #g4i #e4ee #aebbcg4h #h4j #e4jg #fghgj4a #h4j #e4fd #aedgjf4f #h4c #e4ae #fhida4j #h4c #e4gc #aegage4c #h4f #e4bc #gjjaa4i #h4f #e4hb #aeifdd4j #h4i #e4ca #gajhb4h #h4i #e4ia #afbaab4g #i4j #e4ch #gbjai4i #i4j #e4ii #afdcac4b #i4c #e4df #gcjij4i #i4c #f4jg #affeja4f #i4f #e4ec #gdjbg4i #i4f #f4af #afhigj4c #i4i #e4fj #gdife4j #i4i #f4bd #agaafd4g #aj4j #e4fg #geijb4j #aj4j #f4cb #agccei4a #d-;,,in* ,,dra9-,,pipe4 #e-;,,in* ,,dra9-,,pipe4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,,fall ,,velocity ,,dis*>ge ,,fall ,,velocity ,,dis*>ge 9 p] second9 gallons 9 p] second 9 gallons #ajj feet4 9 feet4 9 #bd h\rs4#ajj feet4 9 feet4 9 #bd h\rs4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ft4 94 ft4 94 #j4c #a4jh #dcfig4f #j4c #a4ac #iiehd4b #j4f #a4ej #fjfia4b #j4f #a4eg #achcfb4d #j4i #a4hc #gdjdc4b #j4i #a4ij #afgddb4f #a4j #b4ac #hfaha4d #a4j #b4bj #aichha4j #a4c #b4ch #ifbif4f #a4c #b4de #baeiab4i #a4f #b4fa #ajefjb4f #a4f #b4gj #bcgidd4i #a4i #b4ha #aacfid4h #a4i #b4ij #beeefi4e #b4j #c4jj #abachb4c #b4j #c4aj #bgcaie4i #b4c #c4ai #abijhi4i #b4c #c4bi #bhiidj4a #b4f #c4cf #aceidh4b #b4f #c4df #cjdiba4i #b4i #c4ec #adbhbf4e #b4i #c4fd #cbjghd4i #c4j #c4fh #adhhie4g #c4j #c4hj #ccdhhe4d #c4c #c4hb #aedefj4b #c4c #c4if #cdhigd4h #c4f #c4if #afjbbd4g #c4f #d4aa #cfbbjd4i #c4i #d4aj #afehhi4b #c4i #d4bf #cgedbd4a #d4j #d4bd #agaeec4g #d4j #d4dj #chggfb4a #d4c #d4cg #agfhac4f #d4c #d4eb #cihccg4e #d4f #d4ej #ahbjgc4e #d4f #d4ff #dajfge4c #d4i #d4fb #ahfibh4c #d4i #d4gh #dbabej4f #e4j #d4ge #aibahh4g #e4j #d4ij #dcjhbe4j #e4c #d4hf #aiffci4d #e4c #e4jb #ddbdja4c #e4f #d4ig #bjajij4a #e4f #e4ad #debigf4f #e4i #e4ji #bjeide4c #e4i #e4be #dfbfgj4f #f4j #e4bj #bajcif4j #f4j #e4cg #dgcbdf4j #f4c #e4cj #badddb4a #f4c #e4di #dhchbj4d #f4f #e4da #bahhib4h #f4f #e4fj #dicead4f #f4i #e4ea #bbbich4h #f4i #e4gj #ejbcbg4d #g4j #e4fa #bbfihd4i #g4j #e4hj #eaaadj4b #g4c #e4ga #bcajca4j #g4c #e4ij #ebjjeb4j #g4f #e4ha #bcejgg4a #g4f #f4jj #ebhgff4e #g4i #e4ia #bciabc4b #g4i #f4aj #ecgegh4g #h4j #f4ja #bdcafi4b #h4j #f4bj #edfcia4e #h4c #f4aj #bdfhaj4g #h4c #f4cj #eeebjd4e #h4f #f4ai #bejdeb4b #h4f #f4dj #efdjag4j #h4i #f4bh #beedic4g #h4i #f4di #egaidh4j #i4j #f4cg #beggce4b #i4j #f4eh #egihhj4j #i4c #f4de #bfjiga4i #i4c #f4ff #ehficj4b #i4f #f4ed #bfdfjc4a #i4f #f4ge #eidhfa4d #i4i #f4fc #bfhbed4i #i4i #f4hd #fjbgic4b #aj4j #f4ga #bgadia4h #aj4j #f4ic #fajgbc4h #h-;,,in* ,,dra9-,,pipe4 ,area3 #ej4bfdj in*es4 ,,fall ,,velocity ,,dis*>ge ,,fall ,,velocity ,,dis*>ge 9 p] second9 gallons 9 p] second 9 gallons #ajj feet4 9 feet4 9 #bd h\rs4#ajj feet4 9 feet4 9 #bd h\rs4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ft4 94 ft4 94 #j4c #a4bc #bggdhg4g #e4c #e4ce #abjfiei4c #j4f #a4fe #cgbbci4g #e4f #e4dg #abcdjca4c #j4i #b4ja #decdee4g #e4i #e4ei #abfaajc4c #a4j #b4cc #ebefdg4g #f4j #e4ga #abhhage4c #a4c #b4fj #ehfeei4g #f4c #e4hc #acaebdg4c #a4f #b4he #fdbiei4f #f4f #e4ie #acdchch4i #a4i #c4jh #fidhdg4f #f4i #f4jg #acficia4c #b4j #c4cj #gdddgi4g #g4j #f4ag #aciaiea4b #b4c #c4ej #ghieii4f #g4c #f4bg #adadeca4a #b4f #c4gj #hddgai4g #g4f #f4ci #addaehc4b #b4i #c4hi #hggehc4e #g4i #f4ej #adffcii4c #c4j #d4je #iacfgi4e #h4j #f4fj #adhhiei4b #c4c #d4ba #idigge4f #h4c #f4gj #aeaaeci4a #c4f #d4cg #igafeh4g #h4f #f4hj #aecdjii4j #c4i #d4ec #ibjddg4d #h4i #f4ij #aeeffeh4i #d4j #d4fg #ajeeeea4d #i4j #g4jj #aegiaii4c #d4c #d4ha #ajhface4d #i4c #g4aj #afjagei4b #d4f #d4ie #aaafgah4g #i4f #g4bj #afbdcai4a #d4i #e4jh #aadfjdg4d #i4i #g4bi #afddfbb4a #e4j #e4bb #aaggfca4c #aj4j #g4ch #affdibg4a ,,h[ ,,wat] ,,ent]s ,,! ,,tiles4 ,h[ wat] ent]s ! tiles1 is a "q :i* all p]sons unaccu/om$ to ! op]ation ( tile-dra9+ usually ask at ! outset4 ,9 brief1 x may be answ]$1 t x ent]s bo? at ! jo9ts & ?r\gh ! pores ( ! burnt clay1 b mo/ly at ! jo9ts4 ,mr4 ,p>kes expresses ! op9ion1 bas$ ^u c>eful obs]vation1 t five hundr$ times z mu* wat] ent]s at ! crevices z ?r\gh ! pores ( ! tiles6 ,if ?is be s1 we may z well1 = all practical purposes1 reg>d ! wat] z all ent]+ at ! jo9ts4 ,9 sev]al exp]im5ts :i* we h attempt$1 we h f\nd ! quantity ( wat] t ent]s ?r\gh ! pores to be q too small to be ( mu* practical acc\nt4 ,tiles diff] s mu* 9 porosity1 t x is difficult to make exp]im5ts t c be satisfactory--s(t-burnt tiles be+1 l pale bricks1 q p]vi\s1 & h>d-burnt tiles be+ ne>ly or q imp]vi\s4 ,! am\nt ( pressure ^u ! clay 9 m\ld+ also affects ! d5sity & porosity ( tiles4 ,wat] %\ld ent] at ! bottom ( ! tiles1 & n at ! top4 ,x is a well-kn[n fact 9 dra9+1 t ! deepe/ dra9 fl[s fir/ & longe/4 ,a famili> illu/ration w make ?is po9t evid5t4 ,if a cask or deep box be fill$ ) s&1 ) "o hole ne> ! bottom & ano!r half way to ! top1 ^! holes w repres5t ! tiles 9 a dra94 ,if wat] be p\r$ into ! s&1 x w pass d[nw>d to ! bottom ( ! vessel1 & w n fl[ out ( ei!r hole till ! s& be saturat$ up to ! l[] hole1 & !n x w fl[ out !re4 ,if1 n[1 wat] be p\r$ 9 fa/] ?an ! l[] hole c dis*>ge x1 ! vessel w be fill$ high]1 till x w run out at bo? holes4 ,x is manife/1 h[ev]1 t x w fir/ cease to fl[ f ! upp] orifice4 ,!re is 9 ! soil a l9e ( wat]1 call$ ! wat]-l9e1 or wat]-table2 & ?is1 9 dra9$ l&1 is at ab\t ! level ( ! bottom ( ! tiles4 ,z ! ra9 falls x desc5ds1 z 9 ! vessel2 & z ! wat] rises1 x ent]s ! tiles at ! bottom1 & nev] at ! top1 unless !re is m ?an c pass out ( ! soil by ! l[] op5+s 7! crevices & pores7 into ! tiles4 ,x is well always to int]rupt ! direct desc5t ( wat] by p]colation f ! surface to ! top ( ! tiles1 because1 9 pass+ s %ort a di/ance 9 ! soil1 ! wat] is n suffici5tly filt]$1 especially 9 soil s rec5tly di/urb$1 b is likely to c>ry ) x n only valuable elem5ts ( f]tility1 b also p>ticles ( s&1 :i* may ob/ruct ! dra94 ,?is is prev5t$ by plac+ above ! tiles 7aft] !y are cov]$ a few in*es ) gravel1 s&1 or o!r por\s soil7 compact clay1 if conv5i5t4 ,if n1 a furr[ ea* side ( ! dra91 or a heap+-up ( ! soil ov] ! dra91 :5 f9i%$1 w turn aside ! surface-wat]1 & prev5t su* injury4 ,9 ! e/imates z to ! area ( ! op5+s betwe5 pipes1 x %\ld be consid]$ t ! spaces betwe5 ! pipes are n1 9 fact1 clean op5+s ( "o-t5? ( an in*1 b are p>tially clos$ by e>?y p>ticles1 & t wat] ent]s !m by no means z rapidly z x w\ld ent] ! clean pipes be=e !y are cov]$4 ,al?\gh ! ra9-fall 9 ,engl& is mu* less 9 quantity & mu* m regul> ?an 9 ?is c\ntry1 yet x is believ$ t ! use ( two-in* pipes w be f\nd abundantly suffici5t = ! admission & conveyance ( any quantity ( wat] t x may be necess>y to c>ry (f by dra9age 9 common soils4 ,9 extraord9>y cases1 z :]e ! l& dra9$ is a swamp1 or res]voir = wat] :i* falls on ! hills ar\nd1 l>g] pipes mu/ be us$4 ,9 _m places 9 ,engl& tops & bottoms1 or horse-%oe tiles1 are /ill pref]r$ by f>m]s1 ^u ! idea t !y admit ! wat] m readily2 b _! use is cont9u$ only by ^? :o h nev] made trial ( pipes4 ,no sci5tific dra9] uses any b pipes 9 ,engl&1 & ! million ( acres well dra9$ ) !m1 is pretty good evid5ce ( _! suffici5cy4 ,9 ?is c\ntry1 horse-%oe tiles h be5 mu* us$ 9 ,we/]n ,new ,york1 & h be5 f\nd to answ] a good purpose2 & s x may be said ( ! sole-pipes4 ,inde$1 x is believ$ t no in/ance is to be f\nd on record 9 ,am]ica ( ! failure ( tile dra9s1 f ! inability ( ! wat] to ga9 admission at ! jo9ts4 ,x may be int]e/+ 9 ?is connection to /ate1 t wat] is #hae times heavi] ?an air4 ,"h is a dra9 at f\r feet dep? 9 ! gr\nd1 fill$ only ) air1 & op5 at ! end s t ! air c g out4 ,above ?is op5 space is f\r feet ( e>? saturat$ ) wat]4 ,:at is ! pressure ( ! wat] ^u ! tiles8 ,mr4 ,?omas ,arkell1 9 a communication to ! ,society ( ,arts1 9 ,engl&1 says-- ,! pressure due to a head ( wat] f\r or five feet1 may be imag9$ f ! =ce ) :i* wat] w come ?r\gh ! crevices ( a hat* ) t dep? ( wat] above x4 ,n[1 !re is ! same pressure ( wat] to ent] ! vacuum 9 ! pipe-dra9 z !re is aga9/ ! hat*es1 suppos+ ! l& to be full ( wat] to ! surface4 ,x is difficult to demon/rate ! tru? ( ?is !ory2 b ! same op9ion has be5 express$ to ! writ] by p]sons ( le>n+ & ( practical skill1 bas$ ^u obs]vations z to ! entrance ( wat] into gas pipes1 f :i* x is almo/1 if n q1 impossible to exclude x by ! mo/ p]fect jo9ts 9 iron pipes4 ,:atev] be ! !ory z to pressure1 or ! difficulties z to ! wat] p]colat+ ?r\gh compact soils to ! tiles1 !re w be no d\bt left on ! m9d ( any "o1 aft] "o exp]im5t tri$ 9 ! field1 t1 9 common cases1 all ! surplus wat] t rea*es ! tiles is freely admitt$4 ,a g5tleman1 :o has comm5c$ dra9+ 8 f>m1 rec5tly1 9 ,new ,hamp%ire1 express$ to ! au?or 8 op9ion1 t tiles 9 8 l& admitt$ ! wat] z freely z a hole ( a simil> size to ! bore ( ! tile w\ld admit x1 if x c\ld be kept op5 ?r\gh ! soil )\t ! tile4 ,,durability ,,( ,,tile ,,dra9s4 ,h[ long w !y la/8 ,?is is ! fir/ & mo/ important "q4 ,m51 :o h comm5c$ ) op5 dit*es1 &1 hav+ become disgu/$ ) ! de=mity1 ! inconv5i5ce1 & ! ineffici5cy ( !m1 h !n tri$ bu%es1 & bo>ds1 & turf1 & f\nd !m1 too1 p]i%able2 & aga9 h us$ /ones1 & aft] a "t se5 !m fail1 ?r\gh ob/ructions caus$ by moles or fro/--^! m5 h ! "r to a well-consid]$ answ] to ?is "q4 ,! fooli% fell[ 9 ! ,greek ,read]1 :o1 hav+ he>d t a cr[ w\ld live a hundr$ ye>s1 pur*as$ "o to v]ify ! say+1 probably did n live long en\gh to asc]ta9 t x 0 true4 ,h[ long a prop]ly laid tile-dra9 ( h>d-burnt tiles w endure1 has n be5 def9itely asc]ta9$1 b x is believ$ t x w outla/ ! life ( him :o lays x4 ,no tiles h be5 long en\gh laid 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates to te/ ?is "q by exp]i5ce1 & 9 ,engl& no fur!r result seems to h be5 arriv$ at1 ?an t ! "w is a p]man5t improvem5t4 ,9 ano!r "p ( ?is treatise1 may be f\nd "s acc\nt ( ,l& ,dra9age ,companies1 & ( ,gov]nm5t loans 9 aid ( improvem5ts by dra9age 9 ,great ,brita94 ,"o ( ^! acts provides = a *>ge on ! l& = su* improvem5ts1 to be paid 9 full 9 fifty ye>s4 ,t is to say1 ! exp5se ( ! dra9age is an incumbrance l a mortgage on ! l&1 at a c]ta9 rate ( int]e/1 & ! t5ant or occupant ( ! l&1 ea* ye> pays ! int]e/ & en\gh m to dis*>ge ! debt 9 j fifty ye>s4 ,?us1 x is assum$ by ! ,gov]nm5t1 t ! improvem5t w la/ fifty ye>s 9 its full op]ation1 because ! la/ ye> ( ! fifty pays precisely ! same z e o!r ye>4 ,x may !re=e be consid]$ z ! settl$ conviction ( all bran*es ( ! ,briti% gov]nm5t1 & ( all ! be/-in=m$1 practical l&-dra9]s 9 t c\ntry1 t ,,tile-,,dra9age ,,w ,,endure ,,fifty ,,ye>s ,,at ,,lea/1 if prop]ly execut$4 ,?is is long en\gh to satisfy any ,am]ican2 = ! migratory habits ( our citiz5s1 & ! con/ant *anges ( cultivat$ fields into village & city lots1 prev5t our imag9ation ev5 conceiv+ ! idea t we or our po/]ity c rema9 = half a c5tury ^u ! same f>m4 ,x is mu* easi]1 h[ev]1 to lay tile-dra9s s t !y w n be ( use half ( fifty ye>s1 ?an to make !m p]man5t 9 _! effect4 ,tile-dra9age1 x _c be too mu* en=c$1 is an op]ation requir+ great c>e & consid]able skill--altoge!r m c>e & skill ?an our common labor]s1 or ev5 mo/ ( our f>m]s1 are accu/om$ to ex]cise 9 _! f>m op]ations4 ,a blund] 9 dra9+1 l ! blund] ( a physician1 may be soon conceal$ by ! grass t gr[s ov] x1 b c nev] be correct$4 ,dra9age is a new art 9 ?is c\ntry1 & tile-mak+ is a new art4 ,)\t good1 h>d-burnt tiles1 no c>e or skill c make p]man5t "w4 ,tile-dra9age w endure s long z ! tiles la/1 if ! "w be prop]ly done4 ,!re is no reason :y a tile %\ld n la/ 9 ! gr\nd z long z a brick w la/4 ,bricks w fall to pieces 9 ! gr\nd 9 a v %ort "t if n h>d-burnt1 :ile h>d-burnt bricks ( good clay w la/ z long z granite4 ,tiles mu/ be h>d-burnt 9 ord] to endure4 ,b ?is is n all4 ,dra9s fail f v>i\s o!r causes ?an ! crumbl+ ( ! tiles4 ,!y are frequ5tly ob/ruct$ by mice1 moles1 frogs1 & v]m9 ( all k9ds1 if n protect$ at ! outlet4 ,!y are (t5 de/roy$ by ! tread+ ( cattle1 & by ! deposit ( mud at ! outlet1 ?r\gh insuffici5t c>e4 ,!y are liable to be fill$ ) s&1 ?r\gh want ( c>e 9 protect+ ! jo9ts 9 lay+1 & ?r\gh want ( coll>s1 & o!r means ( keep+ !m 9 l9e4 ,!y are liable1 too1 to fill up by deposits ( s& & ! l1 by be+ laid l[] 9 "s places ?an ! p>ts ne>] ! outlet1 s t ! slack places cat* & reta9 :atev] is br\ght d[n1 till ! pipe is fill$4 ,,fro/ is an enemy :i* 9 ?is c\ntry we h to cont5d )1 m ?an 9 any o!r1 :]e tile-dra9age has be5 mu* practic$4 ,^u all ^! po9ts1 rem>ks w be f\nd "u ! appropriate heads2 & ^! sugge/ions are repeat$ "h1 because we "k t ha/e & want ( skill are likely to d mu* injury to ! cause :i* we advocate4 ,any "w t requires only en]gy & progress1 is safe 9 ,am]ican h&s2 b cauti\s & sl[ op]ations are by no means to _! ta/e4 ,dick5s says1 t on railways & coa*es1 :]ev] 9 ,engl& !y say1 ,all "r1 ! ,am]icans use1 in/ead1 ! phrase1 ,g ahead4 ,9 tile-dra9age1 ! motto1 ,all "r1 w be f\nd f> m safe ?an ! motto1 ,g ahead4 ,in/ances are giv5 9 ,engl& ( dra9s laid ) h&made tiles1 :i* h op]at$ well = ?irty ye>s1 & h n yet fail$4 ,mr4 ,p>kes in=ms u3 ,t1 ab\t #ahjd1 pipe-tiles made tap]+1 ) "o end ent]+ ! o!r1 & two in*es 9 ! smalle/ po9t1 7 laid d[n 9 ! p>k n[ possess$ by ,sir ,?omas ,:i*cote1 ,asw>by1 ,l9coln%ire1 & t !y /ill act well4 ,/eph5s gives ! foll[+ in/ance ( ! durability ( bricks us$ 9 dra9+3 ,( ! durability ( common brick1 :5 us$ 9 dra9s1 !re is a rem>kable in/ance m5tion$ by ,mr4 ,george ,gu?rie1 factor to ! ,e>l ( ,/air or ,calh\n1 ,wigton%ire4 ,9 ! execution ( mod]n dra9+ on t e/ate1 "s brick-dra9s1 on be+ int]sect$1 emitt$ wat] v freely4 ,accord+ to docum5ts :i* ref] to ^! dra9s1 x appe>s t !y _h be5 =m$ by ! celebrat$ ,m>%al1 ,e>l ,/air1 upw>ds ( a hundr$ ye>s ago4 ,!y 7 f\nd betwe5 ! vegetable m\ld & ! clay ^u :i* x re/$1 betwe5 ! 'wet & ! dry1' z ! c\ntry phrase has x1 & ab\t ?irty-"o in*es bel[ ! surface4 ,!y pres5t$ two =ms--"o consi/+ ( two bricks set asund] on edge1 & ! o!r two laid l5g?ways across !m1 leav+ betwe5 !m an op5+ ( f\r in*es squ>e = wat]1 b hav+ no soles4 ,! bricks _h n sunk 9 ! lea/ ?r\gh ! s&y clay bottom ^u :i* !y re/$1 z !y 7 ?ree in*es broad4 ,! o!r =m 0 ( two bricks laid side by side1 z a sole1 ) two o!rs built or laid on ea* o!r1 at bo? sides1 ^u ! solid gr\nd1 & cov]$ ) flat /ones1 ! build+ be+ pack$ on ea* side ( ! dra9 ) brok5 bricks4 ,9 our *apt] ^u ! ,ob/ruction ( ,dra9s1 ! v>i\s causes :i* op]ate aga9/ ! p]man5cy ( dra9s1 are m fully consid]$4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,direction1 ,,di/ance1 ,,& ,,dep? ,,( ,,dra9s4 ,,direction ,,( ,,dra9s4--,:5ce comes ! ,wat]8--,incl9ation ( ,/rata4--,dra9s across ! ,slope let ,wat] out z well z ,receive x4--,def5ce aga9/ ,wat] f ,high] ,l&4--,op5 ,dit*es4--,head]s4--,silt-bas9s4 ,,di/ance ,,( ,,dra9s4--,dep5ds on ,soil1 ,dep?1 ,climate1 ,prices1 ,sy/em4--,conclusions z to ,di/ance4 ,,dep? ,,( ,,dra9s4--,greatly ,increases ,co/4--,%all[ ,dra9s fir/ tri$ 9 ,engl&4--#aj1jjj ,miles ( ,%all[ ,dra9s laid 9 ,scotl& by way ( ,education4--,dra9s mu/ be bel[ ,subsoil pl[1 & ,fro/4--,effect ( ,fro/ on ,tiles & ,aqu$ucts4 ,,direction ,,( ,,dra9s4 ,:e!r dra9s %\ld run up & d[n ! slope ( ! hill1 or directly across x1 or 9 a diagonal l9e z a compromise betwe5 ! fir/ two1 are que/ions :i* beg9n]s 9 ! art & my/]y ( dra9age usually discuss ) great zeal4 ,x seems s pla9 to "o man1 at ! fir/ glance1 t1 9 ord] to cat* ! wat] t is runn+ d[n "u ! soil ^u ! subsoil1 f ! top ( ! hill to ! bottom1 y mu/ cut a dit* across ! curr5t1 t he sees no occasion to exam9e ! "q f>!r4 ,ano!r1 ^: idea is1 to cat* ! wat] 9 8 dra9 be=e x rises to ! surface1 z x is pass+ up f bel[ or runn+ along on ! subsoil1 & keep x f ris+ high] ?an ! bottom ( 8 dit*1 ?9ks x q z obvi\s t ! dra9s %\ld run up & d[n ! slope1 t ! wat]1 once ent]+1 may rema9 9 ! dra91 go+ directly d[n hill to ! outlet4 ,a ?ird hits on ! ,key?orpe sy/em1 & reg>d+ ! wat] z fl[+ d[n ! slope1 "u ! soil1 9 c]ta9 natural *annels 9 ! subsoil1 fancies !y may be/ be cut (f by dra9s1 9 ! nature ( ma9s1 runn+ diagonally across ! slope4 ,^! diff]5t ideas ( m51 if exam9$1 w be f\nd to result ma9ly f _! diff]5t notions ( ! und]gr\nd circulation ( wat]4 ,9 consid]+ ! ,!ory ( ,moi/ure1 an attempt 0 made to sugge/ ! diff]5t causes ( ! wetness ( l&4 ,to dra9 l& effectually1 we mu/ h a correct idea ( ! s\rces ( ! wat] t makes ! p>ticul> field too wet2 :e!r x falls f ! cl\ds directly ^u x2 or :e!r x falls on l& situat$ above x & slop+ t[>ds x1 s t ! wat] runs d[n1 z ^u a ro(1 f o!r fields or slopes to our own2 or :e!r x gu%es up 9 spr+s :i* f9d v5t 9 p>ticul> spots1 & s is diffus$ ?r\gh ! soil4 ,if we h only to take c>e ( ! wat] t falls on our own field1 f ! cl\ds1 t is q a diff]5t matt] f dra9+ ! :ole adjo9+ region1 & requires a diff]5t mode ( op]ation4 ,if y\r field is 9 ! middle1 or at ! foot1 ( an undra9$ slope1 f :i* ! wat] runs on ! surface ov] y\r l&1 or soaks ?r\gh x t[>d "s /ream or swamp bel[1 provision mu/ be made n only = dra9age ( y\r own field1 b also = p>tial dra9age ( y\r neighbor's above1 or at lea/ = def5ce aga9/ 8 surplus ( wat]4 ,! fir/1 & lead+ idea to be kept 9 m9d1 z gov]n+ ?is "q ( ! direction ( dra9s1 is ! simple fact t wat] runs d[n hill2 or1 to express ! fact m sci5tifically1 wat] con/antly seeks a l[] level by ! =ce ( gravitation1 & ! :ole object ( dra9s is to op5 l[] & /ill l[] passages1 into :i* ! wat] may fall l[] & l[] until x is dis*>g$ f our field at a safe dep?4 ,wat] goes d[n1 !n1 by its own weight1 unless !re is some?+ ?r\gh :i* x _c readily pass1 to br+ x out at ! surface4 ,x w g into ! dra9s1 only because !y are l[] ?an ! l& dra9$4 ,x w nev] g upw>d to f9d a dra91 & x w g t[>d a dra9 ! m readily1 9 proportion z ! desc5t is m /eep t[>d x4 ,to decide prop]ly :at direction a dra9 %\ld h1 x is necess>y1 !n1 to h a def9ite & a correct idea z to :at (fice ! dra9 is to p]=m1 :at wat] is to fall into x1 :at l& x is to dra94 ,suppose ! g5]al plan to be1 to lay dra9s =ty feet ap>t1 & f\r feet deep ov] ! field1 & ! "q n[ to be det]m9$1 z to ! direction1 :e!r across1 or up & d[n ! slope1 !re be+ fall en\gh to r5d] ei!r c\rse practicable4 ,! fir/ po9t ( inquiry is1 :at is expect$ ( ea* dra98 ,h[ mu* & :at l& %\ld x dra98 ,! g5]al answ] mu/ be1 =ty feet bread?1 ei!r up & d[n ! slope1 or across x2 accord+ to ! direction4 ,b we mu/ be m def9ite 9 our inquiry ?an ev5 ?is4 ,f :at =ty feet ( l& w ! wat] fall into ! dra98 ,obvi\sly1 f "s l& 9 :i* ! wat] is high] ?an ! bottom ( ! dra94 ,if1 !n1 ! dra9 run directly across ! slope1 mo/ ( ! wat] t c fall into x1 mu/ come f ! =ty feet bread? ( l& betwe5 ! dra9 9 "q1 & ! dra9 next above x4 ,if ! wat] 7 fall+ on an imp]vi\s surface1 x w\ld all run accord+ to ! slope ( ! surface1 9 :i* case1 by ! way1 no dra9s b ^? across1 c\ld cat* any ( x except :at fell ^u ! dra9s4 ,b ! :ole !ory ( dra9age is o!rwise1 & is bas$ on ! idea t we *ange ! c\rse ( ! und]gr\nd fl[1 by draw+ out ! wat] at giv5 po9ts by our dra9s2 or1 9 o!r words1 t ! wat] seeks ! l[e/ level 9 all directions4 ,^u ! be/ view ! writ] has be5 able to take ( ! two sy/ems z to ! direction ( dra9s1 !re is b a v small advantage 9 !ory 9 favor ( ei!r ov] ! o!r1 9 soil :i* is homog5e\s4 ,b x mu/ be borne 9 m9d t homog5e\s soil is r ! exception 9 nature ?an ! rule4 ,)\t und]tak+ to advance or def5d any peculi> geological views ( ! /ructure ( ! e>?1 or ( ! depositions or =mations t compose its surface1 x may be said1 t v (t5 ! fir/ f\r feet ( subsoil is compos$ ( /rata1 or lay]s ( e>? ( v>y+ porosity4 ,b5ea? s& w be f\nd a /ratum ( clay1 or ( compact or cem5t$ gravel1 & frequ5tly ^! /rata are num]\s & ?94 ,inde$1 if !re be n "s /ratum bel[ ! soil1 :i* imp$es ! passage ( wat]1 x w\ld pass d[nw>d1 & ! l& w\ld ne$ no artificial dra9age4 ,q (t5 x w be f\nd t ! dip or incl9ation ( ! v>i\s /rata bel[ ! soil is diff]5t f t ( ! surface4 ,! surface may h a consid]able slope1 :ile ! l[] /rata lie ne>ly level1 z if !y _h be5 cut ?r\gh by artificial grad+4 ,! foll[+ figure f ! ,cyclop$ia ( ,agriculture1 ) ! explanation1 fully illu/rates ?is idea4 ,9 _m subsoils !re are ?9 p>t+s1 or lay]s1 ( por\s mat]ials1 int]sp]s$ betwe5 ! /rata1 :i*1 al?\gh n ( suffici5t capacity to give rise to actual spr+s1 yet exude suffici5t wat] to indicate _! pres5ce4 ,^! p>t+s occasionally crop out1 & give rise to ^? damp spots1 :i* are to be se5 div]sify+ ! surface ( fields1 :5 ! dry+ breezes ( ,spr+ h begun to act ^u !m4 ,9 ! foll[+ cut1 ! light l9es repres5t su* p>t+s4 ,n[1 x w be evid5t1 9 dra9+ su* l&1 t if ! dra9s be dispos$ 9 a direction transv]se or oblique to ! slope1 x w (t5 happ5 t ! dra9s1 no matt] h[ skillfully plann$1 w n rea* ^! p>t+s at all1 z at ,a4 ,9 ?is case1 ! wat] w cont9ue to fl[ on 9 its accu/om$ *annel1 & dis*>ge its wat]s at ,b4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cd--;,,dra9s ,,across ,,! ,,slope4 ,b aga91 ev5 ?\gh x does rea* ^! p>t+s1 z at ,c1 a consid]able portion ( wat] w escape f ! dra9 itself1 & fl[ to ! l[] level ( its old po9t ( dis*>ge at ,d4 ,:]eas1 a dra9 cut 9 ! l9e ( ! slope1 z f ,d to ,e1 int]sects all ^! p>t+s1 & furni%es an outlet to !m at a l[] level ?an _! old ones4 ,^! reasons are1 x is true1 applicable only to l& ( peculi> /ructure2 b !re are reasons = select+ ! l9e ( greate/ fall = ! direction ( dra9s :i* are applicable to all l&s alike4 ,! l9e ( ! greate/ fall is ! only l9e 9 :i* a dra9 is relatively l[] ?an ! l& on ei!r side ( x4 ,:e!r we reg>d ! surplus wat] z hav+ rec5tly fall5 ^u ! field1 & z be+ /opp$ ne> ! surface by an imp]vi\s /ratum1 or z br\ght d[n on ^! /rata f above1 we h x to be dispos$ ( z x re/s ^u ?is /ratum1 & is borne out by x to ! surface4 ,if !re is a decid$ dip1 or incl9ation1 ( ?is /ratum outw>d d[n ! slope1 x is manife/ t ! wat] _c pass backw>d to a cross dra9 high] up ! slope4 ,! c\rse ( ! wat] mu/ be d[nw>d ^u ! /ratum on :i* x lies1 & s all betwe5 two cross dra9s mu/ pass to ! l[] "o4 ,! upp] dra9 c\ld take v little1 if any1 & ! great] ! incl9ation ( ?is /ratum1 ! less c\ld fl[ backw>d4 ,b 9 su* case a dra9 d[n ! slope gives to ! wat] borne up by ^! /rata1 an outlet ( ! dep? ( ! dra94 ,if ! dra9 be f\r feet deep1 x cuts ! wat]-be>+ /rata ea* at t dep?1 & takes (f ! wat]4 ,9 ^! cases1 ! diff]5t lay]s ( clay or o!r imp]vi\s p>t+s1 are l ! /eps ( a huge /airway1 ) ! soil fill+ !m up to a regul> grade4 ,! dit* cuts ?r\gh ^! /eps1 lett+ ! wat] t re/s on !m fall (f at ! ends1 in/ead ( runn+ ov] ! edges4 ,dra9s across ! slope h be5 significantly t]m$ m]e cat*-wat]s4 ,if we wi% to use wat] to irrigate l&s1 we c>efully conduct x along ! surface across ! slope1 all[+ x to fl[ ov] & to soak ?r\gh ! soil4 ,if we desire to c>ry ! same wat] (f ! field z spe$ily z possible1 we %\ld c>ry our surface dit* directly d[n ! slope4 ,n[1 look+ at ! op]ation ( dra9s across ! slope1 & suppos+ t ea* dra9 is dra9+ ! bread? next above x1 we w suppose ! dra9 to be runn+ full ( wat]4 ,:at is !re to prev5t ! wat] f pass+ out ( t dra9 9 its progress1 at e po9t ( ! tiles1 & s saturat+ ! bread? bel[ x8 ,dra9pipes af=d ! same facility = wat] to soak out at ! l[] side1 z to ent] on ! upp]1 & !re is ! same law ( gravitation to op]ate 9 ea* case4 ,mr4 ,d5ton gives in/ances 9 :i* he has obs]v$1 :]e dra9s 7 c>ri$ across ! slope1 9 ,w>wick%ire1 l9es ( moi/ure at a regul> di/ance bel[ ! dra9s4 ,he c\ld asc]ta91 he says1 ! dep? ( ! dra9 itself1 by tak+ ! diff]5ce ( height betwe5 ! l9e ( ! dra9 at ! surface1 & t ( ! l9e ( moi/ure b5ea? x4 ,he says aga93 ,i rec5tly _h an opportunity1 9 ,scotl&1 ( gaug+ ! quantity ( wat] travel+ along an important dra9 c>ri$ obliquely across ! fall1 :5 ,i asc]ta9$ ) c]ta9ty1 t1 al?\gh ! l& ?r\gh :i* x pass$ 0 comp>atively full ( wat]1 ! dra9 actually lo/ m ?an x ga9$ 9 a passage ( sev]al *a9s ?r\gh x4 ,s f> z au?ority goes1 !re seems1 ) ! exception ( "s advocates ( ! ,key?orpe sy/em1 ( :i* an acc\nt has be5 giv51 to be v little diff]5ce ( op9ion4 ,mr4 ,d5ton says3 ,) respect to ! direction ( dra9s1 ,i believe v little diff]5ce ( op9ion exi/s4 ,all ! mo/ successful dra9]s concur 9 ! l9e ( ! /eepe/ desc5t1 z ess5tial to effective & economical dra9age4 ,c]ta9 exceptions are recogniz$ 9 ! ,we/ ( ,engl&1 b ,i believe x w be f\nd1 z practice ext5ds 9 t qu>t]1 t ! exceptions h be5 all[$ 9 error4 ,9 ano!r place1 he says3 ,! v g5]al concurr5ce 9 ! adoption ( ! l9e ( greate/ desc5t1 z ! prop] c\rse = ! m9or dra9s 9 soils free f rock1 w\ld almo/ lead me to decl>e ?is z an incontrov]tible pr9ciple4 ,allusion has be5 made to cases :]e we may h to def5d ourselves f ! fl[ ( wat] f high] undra9$ l&s ( our neighbor4 ,to arre/ ! fl[ ( m]e surface wat]1 an op5 dit*1 or cat*-wat]1 is ! mo/ effectual1 z well z ! mo/ obvi\s mode4 ,!re are _m in/ances 9 ,new ,engl&1 :]e l&s ^u ! l[e/ slopes ( hills are ov]fl[$ by wat] :i* fell high up ^u ! hill1 &1 aft] pass+ d[nw>d till arre/$ by rock =mation1 is borne out aga9 to ! surface1 9 su* quantity z to produce1 j at ! foot ( ! hill1 almo/ a swamp4 ,?is l& is usually ri* f ! wa% ( ! hills1 b full ( cold wat]4 ,to effect p]fect dra9age ( a portion ( ?is l&1 :i* we w suppose to be a g5tle slope1 ! fir/ object mu/ be to cut (f ! fl[ ( wat] ^u or ne> ! surface4 ,an op5 dit* across ! top w\ld mo/ c]ta9ly effect ?is object1 & x may be d\btful :e!r any o!r dra9 w\ld be suffici5t4 ,?is w\ld dep5d ^u ! quantity ( wat] fl[+ d[n4 ,if ! quantity be v great at times1 a "p ( x w\ld be likely to fl[ across ! top ( an "u-dra91 f n hav+ "t to p]colate d[nw>d into x4 ,9 all cases1 x is advis$1 :]e our "w /ops ^u a slope1 to introduce a cross-dra91 connect+ ! tops ( all ! m9or-dra9s4 ,?is cross-dra9 is call$ a head]4 ,! object ( x is to cut (f ! wat] t may be pass+ along 9 ! subsoil d[n ! slope1 & :i* w\ld o!rwise be likely to pass d[nw>d betwe5 ! sy/em ( dra9s to a consid]able di/ance be=e f9d+ !m4 ,if we suppose ! gr\nd saturat$ ) wat]1 & our dra9s runn+ up ! slope & /opp+ at #d feet dep?1 ) no head] connect+ !m1 !y1 9 effect1 /op aga9/ #d feet head ( wat]1 & 9 ord] to dra9 ! l& z f> up z !y g1 mu/ n only take _! fair proportion ( wat] :i* lies betwe5 !m1 b mu/ draw d[n ?is #d feet head beyond !m4 ,?is !y _c d1 because ! wat] f a high] s\rce1 ) ! aid ( capill>y attraction1 & ! friction or resi/ance met ) 9 p]colation1 w keep up ?is head ( wat] f> above ! dra9$ level4 ,9 railway cutt+s1 & ! l1 we (t5 see a slope ( ?is k9d cut ?r\gh1 )\t dry+ ! l& above ! cutt+2 & if ! slope be dispos$ 9 alt]nate lay]s ( s& or gravel1 & clay1 ! wat] w cont9ue to fl[ out high up on ! p]p5dicul> bank4 ,ev5 9 por\s soils ( homog5e\s "*1 x w be f\nd t ! head ( wat]1 if we may use ! expression1 is affect$ b a %ort di/ance by a dra9 across its fl[4 ,inde$1 ! :ole !ory z to ! di/ance ( dra9s ap>t1 re/s ^u ! idea1 t ! limit to :i* dra9s may be expect$ effectually to op]ate1 is at mo/ b two or ?ree rods4 ,:e!r1 9 a p>ticul> case1 a head] alone w be suffici5t to cut (f ! fl[ ( wat] f ! high] l&1 or :e!r1 9 addition to ! head]1 an op5 cat*-wat] may be requir$1 mu/ dep5d ^u ! quantity ( wat] likely to fl[ ?r\gh or ^u ! l&4 ,an "u-dra9 might be expect$ to absorb any mod]ate quantity ( :at may be t]m$ dra9age-wat]1 b x _c /op a riv] or mill-/ream2 & if ! e>? above ! tiles be compact1 ev5 wat] fl[+ ?r\gh ! soil ) rapidity1 might pass across x4 ,if !re is reason to appreh5d ?is1 an op5 dit* might be add$ to ! head]2 or1 if ?is is n consid]$ suffici5tly sci5tific or 9 good ta/e1 a tile-dra9 ( suffici5t capacity may be laid1 ) ! dit* above x c>efully pack$ ) small /ones to ! top ( ! gr\nd4 ,su* a dra9 w\ld be likely to receive s& & o!r ob/ruct+ sub/ances1 z well z a l>ge am\nt ( wat]1 & %\ld1 = bo? reasons1 be c>ri$ (f indep5d5tly ( ! small dra9s1 :i* w\ld ?us be left to dis*>ge _! legitimate s]vice4 ,:]e x is ?\ght be/ to connect an op51 or surface dra91 ) a cov]$ dra91 x w add mu* to its security aga9/ silt & o!r ob/ructions1 to int]pose a trap or silt-bas9 at ! junction1 & ?us all[ ! wat] to pass (f comp>atively clean4 ,:]e1 h[ev]1 !re is a l>ge fl[ ( wat] into a bas91 x w be kept s mu* 9 motion z to c>ry along ) x a l>ge am\nt ( e>?1 & ?us endang] ! dra9 bel[1 unless x be v l>ge4 ,,di/ances ,,ap>t1 ,,or ,,frequ5cy ,,( ,,dra9s4 ,! read]1 :o has /udi$ c>efully ! rival sy/ems ( deep dra9age & ?or\gh dra9age1 has se5 t ! di/ance ( dra9s ap>t1 is closely connect$ ) t controv]sy4 ,! greate/ v>iety ( op9ion is express$ by diff]5t writ]s z to ! prop] di/ances1 rang+ all ! way f t5 feet ap>t to sev5ty1 or ev5 m4 ,_m ,engli% writ]s h rang$ !mselves on "o side or ! o!r ( "s %>p controv]sy z to ! m]its ( "s peculi> sy/em4 ,"s di/+ui%$ geologi/ has discov]$1 or ?9ks he has1 "s new law ( creation by :i* he c trace ! und]gr\nd curr5ts ( wat]2 or "s noble noble "l has patroniz$ into notice "s caprice ( an aspir+ eng9e]1 & /raight-way ! k+dom is convuls$ ) conte/s to set up or ca/ d[n ^! idols4 ,by c>eful obs]vation1 x is said1 we may f9d s]mons 9 /ones1 & good 9 ev]y?+2 &1 /&+ alo( f all excit+ controv]sies1 we may (t5 pr(it1 n only by ! sci5ce & wisdom ( our bre?r51 b also by _! errors & excesses4 ,if1 by ! help ( ! successes & failures ( our ,engli% neighbors1 we %all succe$ 9 atta9+ to _! pres5t /&>d ( p]fection 9 agriculture1 we %all c]ta9ly make great advances ^u our pres5t position4 ,z ! di/ances ( dra9s ap>t1 dep5d manife/ly on _m circum/ances1 :i* may widely v>y 9 ! div]sity ( soil1 climate1 & co/ ( labor & mat]ials to be f\nd 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 x w be conv5i5t to arrange our rem>ks on ! subject "u appropriate heads4 ,,di/ances ,,dep5d ,,^u ,,! ,,nature ,,( ,,! ,,soil4 ,wat] runs readily ?r\gh s& or gravel4 ,9 su* soils x easily seeks & f9ds its level4 ,if x be drawn out at "o po9t1 x t5ds t[>ds t po9t f all directions4 ,9 a free1 op5 s&1 y may draw out all ! wat] at "o op5+1 almo/ z readily z f an op5 pond4 ,yet1 ev5 su* s&s may require dra9+4 ,a body ( s&y soil frequ5tly lies n only ^u clay1 b 9 a bas92 s t1 if ! s& 7 remov$1 a pond w\ld rema94 ,9 su* a case1 a few deep dra9s1 rightly plac$1 might be suffici5t4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is a case n (t5 met )1 ?\gh op51 s&y soil ^u clay is a common =mation4 ,!n !re is ! o!r extreme ( compact clay1 ?r\gh :i* wat] seems sc>cely to p]colate at all4 ,yet x has wat] 9 x1 t may probably soak out by ! same process by :i* x soak$ 94 ,v few soils1 ( ev5 su* z are call$ clay1 are imp]vi\s to wat]1 especially 9 ! condition 9 :i* !y are f\nd 9 nature4 ,to r5d] !m imp]vi\s1 x is necess>y to wet & /ir !m up1 or1 z x is t]m$1 puddle !m4 ,any soil1 s f> z x has be5 wea!r$--t is1 expos$ to air1 wat] & fro/--is p]meable to wat] to a great] or less degree2 s t we may feel confid5t t ! upp] /ratum ( any soil1 n con/antly "u wat]1 w readily all[ ! wat] to pass ?r\gh4 ,& 9 consid]+ ! ,dra9age ( ,/iff ,clays1 we %all see t ! mo/ ob/9ate clays are usually s affect$ by ! op]ation ( dra9age1 t !y crack1 & s op5 passages = ! wat] to ! dra9s4 ,all gravels1 black mud ( swamps1 & loamy soils ( any k9d1 are readily dra9$4 ,occasionally1 h[ev]--ev5 9 tracts ( easy dra9age1 z a :ole--deposits are f\nd ( "s comb9ations ) iron1 s firmly cem5t$ toge!r1 z to be almo/ imp5etrable ) ! pick-axe1 & app>5tly imp]vi\s to wat]4 ,exceptional cases ( ?is nature mu/ be c>efully s\ght = by ! dra9]4 ,:5ev] a wet spot is obs]v$1 seek = ! cause1 & be satisfi$ :e!r x is wet because a spr+ bur/s up f ! bottom2 or because ! subsoil is imp]vi\s1 & w n all[ ! surface-wat] to pass d[nw>d4 ,asc]ta9 c>efully ! cause ( ! evil1 & !n skillfully doctor ! disease1 & n ! symptoms m]ely4 ,a c>eful att5tion to ! !ory ( moi/ure1 w g f> to enable u prop]ly to det]m9e ! requisite frequ5cy ( dra9s4 ,,di/ances ,,dep5d ,,^u ,,! ,,dep? ,,( ,,! ,,dra9s4 ,! relations ( ! dep? & di/ance ( dra9s w be m fully consid]$1 9 treat+ ( ! dep? ( dra9s4 ,! idea t dep? w comp5sate = frequ5cy1 9 all cases1 seems n[ to be ab&on$4 ,x is conc$$ t clay-soils1 :i* readily absorb moi/ure1 & yet are /rongly ret5tive1 _c be dra9$ ) suffici5t rapidity1 or ev5 ?or\ghness1 by dra9s at any dep?1 unless !y are also )9 c]ta9 di/ances4 ,9 a por\s soil1 z a g5]al rule1 ! deep] ! dra91 ! fur!r x w draw4 ,! t5d5cy ( wat] is to lie level 9 ! soil2 b capill>y attraction & me*anical ob/ructions (f] con/ant resi/ance to ?is t5d5cy4 ,! f>!r wat] has to pass 9 ! soil1 ! long] "t1 o!r ?+s be+ equal1 w be requir$ = ! passage4 ,!re=e1 al?\gh a s+le deep dra9 might1 9 t5 days l[] ! wat]-l9e z mu* z two dra9s ( ! same dep?1 or1 9 o!r words1 might draw ! wat] all d[n to its own level1 yet1 x is q evid5t t ! two dra9s might d ! "w 9 less "t--possibly1 9 five days4 ,we h se5 already ! necessity ( lay+ dra9s deep en\gh to be bel[ ! rea* ( ! subsoil pl[ & bel[ fro/1 s t1 9 ! ,nor!rn ,/ates1 ! "q ( %all[ dra9age seems h>dly debatable4 ,yet1 if we adopt ! conclusion t f\r feet is ! lea/ all[able dep?1 :]e an outfall c be f\nd1 !re may be ! "q /ill1 :e!r1 9 v op5 soils1 a /ill great] dep? may n be exp$i5t1 to be comp5sat$ by increas$ di/ance4 ,,di/ances ,,dep5d ,,^u ,,climate4 ,climate includes ! conditions ( temp]ature & moi/ure1 & s1 necess>ily1 ! seasons4 ,9 ! *apt] :i* treats ( ,ra91 x w be se5 t ! quantity ( ra9 :i* falls 9 ! ye> is s+ul>ly v>i\s 9 diff]5t places4 ,ev51 9 ,engl&1 ! annual av]age ra9-fall ( ! wette/ place 9 ,cumb]l& is /at$ to be #ada in*es1 :ile #ai-a_/b in*es may be tak5 z ! av]age fall 9 ,essex4 ,9 ,cumb]l&1 !re are #baj days 9 ! ye> 9 :i* ra9 falls1 & 9 ,*iswick1 ne> ,london1 b #abd4 ,a ref]5ce to ! tables 9 ano!r place1 w %[ u an inf9ite v>iety 9 ! ra9-fall at diff]5t po9ts ( our own c\ntry4 ,if we expect1 !re=e1 to furni% passage = b two feet ( wat] 9 ! ye>1 our dra9s ne$ n be s num]\s z w\ld be necess>y to accommodate twice t quantity1 unless1 inde$1 ! "t = its passage may be diff]5t2 & ?is leads u to ano!r po9t :i* %\ld ev] be kept 9 m9d 9 ,new ,engl&--! necessity ( quick dra9age4 ,! m viol5t /orms & %[]s ( our c\ntry1 z comp>$ ) ,engl&1 h be5 spok5 ( :5 consid]+ ,! ,size ( ,tiles4 ,! sudd5 transition f ,w9t] to ,summ]1 f ! break+ up ( deep sn[s ) ! heavy falls ( ra91 to our brief & ha/y plant+ "t1 requires t our sy/em ( dra9age %\ld be effici5t1 n only to take (f l>ge quantities ( wat]1 b to take !m (f 9 a v %ort "t4 ,h[ rapidly wat] may be expect$ to pass (f by dra9age1 is n made cle> by writ]s on ! subject4 ,"o in* 9 dep?1 says an ,engli% writ]1 is a v heavy fall ( ra9 9 a day1 & x g5]ally takes two days = ! wat] to dra9 fully f deep dra9$ l&4 ,"o in* ( wat] ov] an acre is calculat$ to be some?+ m ?an "o hundr$ tons4 ,?is seems1 9 gross1 to be a l>ge am\nt1 b we %\ld expect t an in*1 or ev5 two in*es ( wat]1 spread ev5ly ov] a field1 w\ld soon disappe> f ! surface2 & if n prev5t$ by "s imp]vi\s ob/ruction1 x mu/ cont9ue d[nw>d4 ,x is said1 on good au?ority1 t1 9 ,engl&1 ! smalle/ siz$ pipes1 if ! fall be good1 w be suffici5tly l>ge1 at ord9>y di/ances1 to c>ry (f all ! surplus wat]4 ,9 ! au?or's own fields1 :]e two-in* tiles are laid at f\r feet dep? & fifty feet ap>t1 9 an op5 soil1 !y seem amply suffici5t to relieve ! gr\nd ( all surplus wat] f ra91 9 a v few days4 ,mo/ ( !m h nev] ceas$ to run e day 9 ! ye>1 b z !y are c>ri$ up into an undra9$ pla91 !y probably convey mu* m wat] ?an falls ^u ! l& 9 :i* !y lie4 ,s f> z our own obs]vation goes1 _! fl[ increases almo/ z soon z ra9 beg9s to fall1 & subsides1 aft] x ceases1 ab\t z soon z ! wat] 9 ! little riv] into :i* !y lead1 s9ks back into its ord9>y *annel1 ! fre%et 9 ! dra9s & 9 ! /ream be+ ne>ly simultane\s4 ,probably1 two-in* pipes1 at fifty feet di/ances1 w c>ry (f1 ) all desirable rapidity1 any quantity ( wat] t w ev] fall1 if ! soil be su* t ! wat] c pass ?r\gh x to ! di/ance necess>y to f9d ! dra9s2 b x is equally probable t1 9 a compact clay soil1 fifty feet di/ance is q too great = suffici5tly rapid dra9age1 because ! wat] _c get to ! dra9s ) suffici5t rapidity4 ,,di/ances ,,dep5d ,,^u ,,! ,,comp>ative ,,prices ,,( ,,labor ,,& ,,tiles4 ,! fact1 t ! la/ foot ( a f\r-foot dra9 co/s z mu* labor z ! fir/ ?ree feet1 is %[n 9 ano!r *apt]1 & ! deep] we g1 ! great] ! comp>ative co/ ( ! labor4 ,) tiles at #aj p] ?\s&1 ! co/ ( op5+ & fill+ a f\r-foot dit* is1 91 r\nd numb]s1 by ! rod1 equal to twice ! co/ ( ! tiles4 ,9 por\s soils1 !re=e1 :]e dep? may be made to comp5sate = great] di/ance1 x is always a matt] = c>eful e/imate1 :e!r we %all practice true economy by lay+ ! tiles at great dep?s1 or at ! smalle/ dep? at :i* !y w be safe f fro/ & ! subsoil pl[1 & at %ort] di/ances4 ,! rule is manife/ t1 :]e labor is *eap & tiles are de>1 x is true economy to dig deep & lay few tiles2 &1 :]e tiles are *eap & labor is de>1 x is economy to make ! numb] ( dra9s1 if possible1 comp5sate = less dep?4 ,,di/ances ,,dep5d ,,^u ,,sy/em4 ,:ile we w\ld n lay d[n an arbitr>y arrangem5t = any f>m1 except ^u a p>ticul> exam9ation1 & :ile we w\ld by no means advocate :at has be5 call$ ! gridiron sy/em--( dra9s ev]y:]e at equal dep?s & di/ances--yet "s sy/em is absolutely ess5tial1 9 any op]ation t approa*es to ?or\gh dra9age4 ,if x be only desir$ to cut (f "s p>ticul> spr+s1 or to assi/ ,nature 9 "s rav9e or bas91 a deep dra9 "h & !re may be exp$i5t2 b :5 any consid]able surface is to be dra9$1 !re c be no good "w )\t a connect$ plan ( op]ations4 ,ma9s mu/ be laid f ! outfall1 ?r\gh ! l[e/ p>ts2 & into ! ma9s ! small] dra9s mu/ be conduct$1 ^u su* a sy/em z t !re may be ! prop] fall or incl9ation ?r\gh\t1 & t ! :ole field %all be embrac$4 ,aga91 a p]fect plan ( ! complet$ "w1 accurately drawn on pap]1 %\ld always be pres]v$ = future ref]5ce4 ,n[ x is manife/1 t x is impossible to lay out a giv5 field1 ) prop] ma9s & small dra9s1 divid+ ! fall z equally z practicable betwe5 ! diff]5t p>ts ( an undulat+ field1 pres]v+ a sy/em ?r\gh\t1 by :i*1 ) ! aid ( a plan1 any dra9 may at any "t be trac$1 )\t mak+ di/ances con=m some:at to ! sy/em ( ! :ole4 ,x is easily demon/rable1 too1 t dra9s at "r angles ) ! ma9s1 & s p>allel ) ea* o!r1 are ! %orte/ possible dra9s 9 l& t ne$s uni=m dra9age4 ,!y take ea* a m uni=m %>e ( ! wat]1 & s]ve a great] bread? ( soil ?an :5 laid at acute angles4 ,:ile1 !re=e1 x may be suppos$ t 9 p>ticul> p>ts ( ! field1 di/ances some:at great] or less might be advisable1 consid]$ indep5d5tly1 yet 9 practice1 x w be f\nd be/1 usually1 to pay becom+ def]5ce to ord]1 ,heav5's fir/ law1 & sacrifice some?+ ( ! individual good1 to ! lead+ idea ( ! g5]al welf>e4 ,9 ! lett] ( ,mr4 ,d5ton1 9 ano!r *apt]1 "s rem>ks w be f\nd ^u ! subject ( :i* we are treat+4 ,! same g5tleman has1 9 a publi%$ pap]1 illu/rat$ ! impossibility ( /rict adh]5ce to any arbitr>y rule 9 ! di/ances or arrangem5t ( dra9s1 z foll[s3 ,! wetness ( l&1 :i* = di/9ction's sake1 ,i h call$ '! wat] ( pressure1' l ! wat] ( spr+s1 to :i* x is ne>ly alli$1 c be effectually & *eaply remov$ only by dra9s devis$ =1 & devot$ to ! object4 ,appropriate deep dra9s at ,b ,b ,b1 = in/ance1 z indicat$ 9 ! d>k v]tical l9es1 are f\nd to d ! s]vice ( _m p>allel dra9s1 :i* z frequ5tly miss1 z !y hit1 ^? furr[s1 or 'lips1' 9 ! horizontal out-crop ( wat]-be>+ /rata :i* cont9ue to exude wetness aft] ! high] portions are dry4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ce4--,! v]tical dott$ l9es %[ ! position ( p>allel dra9s4 ,a consid]ation1 too1 ( ! v>y+ incl9ations ( surface1 ( :i* in/ances w frequ5tly occur 9 ! same field1 necessitates a dep>ture f uni=mity1 n 9 direction only1 b 9 int]vals betwe5 dra9s4 ,take1 = in/ance1 ! ord9>y case ( a field1 9 :i* a comp>atively flat space w int]v5e betwe5 quickly ris+ gr\nd & ! outfall dit*4 ,x is cle> t ! soak ( ! hill w p]vade ! soil ( ! l[] gr\nd1 let ! sy/em ( dra9age adopt$ be :at x may2 &1 !re=e1 suppos+ ! soil ( ! hill & flat to be precisely alike1 ! exi/5ce ( bottom wat] 9 a great] quantity 9 ! l[] l&s ?an 9 ! high]1 w call = a great] numb] ( dra9s4 ,x is f\nd1 too1 t an indep5d5t dis*>ge or relief ( ! wat] com+ f ! hill1 at ,b1 %\ld always be provid$1 9 ord] to avoid any imp$im5t by ! sl[] fl[ ( ! flatt] dra9s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cf4 ,exp]i5ce %[s t1 ) few exceptions1 holl[s1 or 'slacks1' obs]vable on ! surface1 z at ,b ,b1 h a correspond+ undulation ( subsoil & t any sy/em :i* does n provide a direct release = wat]1 :i* w\ld o!rwise collect 9 & draw t[>ds ^! spots1 is imp]fect & unsatisfactory4 ,x is f\nd to be mu* m safe to dep5d on relief dra9s1 ?an on ! cutt+ ( dra9s suffici5tly deep ?r\gh ! banks1 at ,a ,a1 to ga9 a fall at a regul> incl9ation4 ,/ill1 9 spite ( exp]i5ce1 we (t5 obs]ve a disreg>d ( ^! facts1 ev5 9 works :i* are o!rwise well execut$ to a dep? ( f\r feet1 b fett]$ by me?odical rules1 & ,i feel compell$ to rem>k1 t x has (t5 occurr$ to me1 :5 ,i h obs]v$ ) :at dilig5t exam9ation ! rules ( dep? & di/ance h be5 te/$1 t if m att5tion _h be5 paid to ! s\rce ( injury1 & to ! mode ( secur+ an effective & p]man5t dis*>ge ( ! injuri\s wat]1 mu* great] s]vice w\ld be done4 ,9 conclusion1 z to di/ances1 we %\ld advise great caution on ! "p ( beg9n]s 9 lay+ out _! dra9s4 ,dra9+ is too exp5sive a "w to be c>elessly or unskillfully done4 ,a mi/ake 9 locat+ dra9s too f> ap>t1 br+s a failure to accompli% ! end 9 view4 ,a mi/ake 9 plac+ !m too ne>1 involves a great loss ( labor & money4 ,consult1 !n1 ^? ^: exp]i5ce has giv5 !m k1 & pay to a pr(essional eng9e]1 or "s o!r skillful p]son1 a small am\nt = aid1 :i* w probably save t5 times z mu* 9 ! end4 ,we h plac$ our own dra9s 9 por\s1 ?\gh v wet soil1 at fifty feet di/ances1 :i*1 9 mo/ soils1 might be consid]$ extremely wide4 ,we are fully satisfi$ t !y w\ld h dra9$ ! l& z well at sixty feet1 except 9 a few l[ places1 :]e !y c\ld n be sunk f\r feet = want ( fall4 ,9 mo/ ,new ,engl& l&s t require dra9age1 we believe t f #dj to #ej feet di/ances1 ) f\r feet dep?1 w prove suffici5t4 ,^u /iff clays1 we h no exp]i5ce ( our own ( any value1 al?\gh we h a field ( ! /iffe/ clay1 dra9$ la/ season at #dj feet di/ances & f\r feet dep?4 ,9 ,engl&1 ?is w\ld1 probably1 prove insuffici5t1 &1 p]haps1 x w prove s "h4 ,"o ?+ is c]ta91 t1 at pres5t1 !re is little l& 9 ?is c\ntry t w pay = dra9age by h& labor1 at ! ,engli% di/ances 9 clay1 ( #af or #bj feet4 ,if our p[]ful ,summ]'s sun w n someh[ comp5sate 9 "p = di/ance1 we mu/1 ^u our clays1 await ! com+ ( dra9+ pl[s & /eam4 ,,dep? ,,( ,,dra9s4 ,*eap & tempor>y exp$i5ts 9 agriculture are ! *>act]i/ics ( u ,am]icans1 :o h abundance ( l&1 a :ole cont95t to cultivate1 & comp>atively few h&s & small capital ) :i* to d ! "w4 ,we erect tempor>y h\ses & b>ns & f5ces1 hop+ to f9d "t & means at a future day1 to recon/ruct !m 9 a m ?or\gh mann]4 ,we half cultivate our new l&s1 because l& is *eap] ?an labor2 & x pays be/ = ! pres5t1 r to rob our "m e>?1 ?an to give h] labor = bread4 ,! easy & *eap process 9 dra9+1 is t into :i* we naturally fall4 ,x is f> easi] & *eap] to dig %all[ ?an deep dra9s1 &1 !re=e1 we %all n dig deep unless we see good reason to d s4 ,if1 h[ev]1 we c>efully /udy ! subject1 x w be manife/ t sup]ficial dra9age is1 9 g5]al1 ! result ( sup]ficial k ( ! subject4 ,?or\gh-dra9age does n belong to pione] f>m+1 nor to a *eap & tempor>y sy/em4 ,x involves capital & labor1 & dem&s skill & sy/em4 ,x _c be pat*$ up1 l a bru% f5ce1 to answ] ! purpose1 f ye> to ye>1 b e tile mu/ be plac$ :]e x w be/ p]=m its (fice = a g5]ation4 ,9 ,engl&1 ! rule & ! habit 9 all ?+s1 is ?or\ghness & p]man5cy2 yet ! fir/ & greate/ mi/ake !re 9 dra9age 0 %all[ness1 & x has requir$ ye>s ( exp]im5ts1 & millions ( money1 to correct t mi/ake4 ,if we commit ! same folly1 z we are v likely to d1 we _c claim ev5 ! orig9ality ( ! blund]1 & %all be guilty ( ! folly ( pursu+ ! crook$ pa?s ( _! exploration1 in/ead ( ! /raight highway :i* !y h n[ e/abli%$4 ,to be sure1 ! controv]sy z to ! dep? ( dra9s has by no means ceas$ 9 ,engl&1 b ! "q is r$uc$ to ?is1 :e!r ! lea/ dep? %all be ?ree feet or f\r2 "o p>ty cont5d+ t = c]ta9 k9ds ( clay1 a ?ree-foot dra9 is z effectual z a f\r-foot dra91 & t ! lea/ effectual dep? %\ld be us$1 because x is ! *eape/2 :ile ! g5]al op9ion ( ! be/ sci5tific & practical m5 9 ! k+dom1 has settl$ d[n ^u f\r feet z ! m9imum dep?1 :]e ! fall & o!r circum/ances r5d] x practicable4 ,at ! same "t1 all admit t1 9 _m cases1 a great] dep? ?an f\r feet is requir$ by true economy4 ,x may seem1 at fir/1 t a controv]sy1 z to "o additional foot 9 a sy/em ( dra9age1 dep5ds ^u a v small po9t2 b a little reflection w %[ x to be wor?y ( c>eful consid]ation4 ,)\t go+ "h into a nice calculation1 x may be /at$ g5]ally z an e/abli%$ fact1 t ! excavation ( a dit* f\r feet deep1 co/s twice z mu* z t ( a dit* ?ree feet deep4 ,al?\gh ?is may n seem cr$ible to "o :o has n consid]$ ! po9t1 yet x w become m probable on exam9ation1 & v cle>1 :5 ! actual digg+ is attempt$4 ,dit*es = tiles are always op5$ wide/ at top1 ) a gradual n>r[+ to ne> ! bottom1 :]e !y %\ld b>ely admit ! tile4 ,n[1 ! addition ( a foot to ! dep?1 is n1 z x w\ld p]haps at fir/ appe>1 m]ely ! addition ( ! l[e/ & n>r[e/ foot1 b r ( ! topmo/ & wide/ foot4 ,9 o!r words1 a f\r-foot dit* is precisely a ?ree-foot dit* 9 size & =m1 ) an additional foot on ! top ( x1 & n a ?ree-foot dit* deep5$ an additional foot4 ,! l[e/ foot ( a f\r-foot dit* is rais$ "o foot high]1 to get x ^u ! surface1 ?an if ! dit* 7 b ?ree feet deep4 ,9 clays1 & mo/ o!r soils1 ! e>? gr[s h>d] z we g deep]1 & ?is consid]ation1 9 practice1 w be f\nd important4 ,aga93 ! small am\nt ( e>? f a ?ree-foot dit*1 may lie conv5i5tly on "o bank ne> its edge1 :ile ! additional mass f a deep] "o mu/ be ?r[n fur!r2 & !n is to be add$ ! labor ( replac+ ! additional quantity 9 fill+ up4 ,on ! :ole1 ! po9t may be conc$$1 t ! labor ( op5+ & f9i%+ a f\r-foot dra9 is d\ble t ( a ?ree-foot dra94 ,)\t /opp+ "h to e/imate c>efully ! co/ ( excavation & ! co/ ( tiles1 x may be rem>k$1 t1 ^u almo/ any e/imate1 ! co/ ( labor1 ev5 9 a ?ree-foot dra9 9 ?is c\ntry1 yet f> exce$s ! co/ ( tiles3 b1 if we call !m equal1 !n1 if ! additional foot ( dep? co/s z mu* z ! fir/ ?ree feet1 we h ! co/ ( a f\r-foot tile-dra9 fifty p] c5t4 m ?an t ( a ?ree-foot dra94 ,9 o!r words1 #bjj rods ( f\r-foot dra9 w co/ j z mu* z #cjj rods ( ?ree-foot dra94 ,?is is1 probably1 z ne>ly accurate z any g5]al e/imate t c be made at pres5t4 ,! pr9ciples ^u :i* ! calculations dep5d1 hav+ be5 ?us sugge/$1 x w n be difficult to v>y !m s z to apply !m to ! v>y+ prices ( labor & tiles1 & to ! use ( ! pl[ or o!r implem5ts propell$ by animals or /eam1 :5 appli$ to dra9age 9 our c\ntry4 ,! e>lie/ exp]im5ts 9 ?or\gh-dra9age1 9 ,engl&1 7 at v small dep?s1 two feet be+1 = a "t1 consid]$ v deep1 & l>ge tracts 7 und]laid ) tiles at a dep? ( eighte51 & ev5 twelve in*es4 ,x is said1 t #aj1jjj miles ( dra9s1 two feet deep & less1 7 laid 9 ,scotl& be=e x 0 f\nd t ?is dep? 0 n suffici5t4 ,( c\rse1 ! l& ?us treat$ 0 reliev$ ( mu* wat]1 & exp]im5t]s 7 (t5 mu* gratifi$ ) _! success2 b x may be safely said n[1 t !re is no advocate kn[n to ! public1 9 ,engl&1 = a sy/em ( dra9age ( less ?an ?ree feet dep?1 & no "o advocates a sy/em ( dra9age ( less ?an f\r feet deep1 except ^u "s peculi> clays4 ,! g5]al pr9ciple seems well e/abli%$1 t dep? w comp5sate = wid?2 or1 9 o!r words1 t ! deep] ! dra91 ! f>!r x w draw4 ,?is pr9ciple1 g5]ally correct1 is que/ion$ :5 appli$ to peculi> clays only4 ,z to !m1 all t is claim$ is1 t x is m economical to make ! dra9s b ?ree feet1 because !y mu/1 ev5 if deep1 be ne> toge!r--nobody d\bt+1 t if f\r feet deep or m1 & ne> en\gh1 !y w dra9 ! l&4 ,9 speak+ ( clay soil1 x %\ld always be borne 9 m9d1 t clay is m]ely a relative t]m 9 agriculture4 ,a clay 9 ,scotl&1 says ,mr4 ,pusey1 w\ld be a loam 9 ! ,s\? ( ,engl&4 ,pr(essor ,mapes1 ( our own c\ntry1 9 ! ,work+ ,f>m]1 says1 ,we are conv9c$1 t1 ) ?or\gh subsoil pl[+1 no clay soil exi/s 9 ?is c\ntry :i* might n be und]dra9$ to a dep? ( f\r feet ) advantage4 ,!re c be no d\bt1 t1 ) f\r-foot dra9s at prop] di/ances1 all soils1 except "s peculi> clays1 may be dra9$1 ev5 )\t ref]5ce to ! *anges produc$ 9 ! me*anical /ructure ( soil by ! op]ation4 ,!re is no d\bt1 h[ev]1 t all soils are1 by ! admission ( air1 :i* mu/ always take ! place ( ! wat] drawn out1 & by ! p]colation ( wat] ?r\gh !m1 r5d]$ gradually m por\s4 ,add$ to ?is1 ! subsoil pl[1 :i* w be ! foll[] ( dra9age1 w break up ! soil to consid]able dep?1 & ?us make x m p]meable to moi/ure4 ,b !re is /ill ano!r & m effective aid :i* ,nature af=ds to ! l&-dra9]1 ^u :at might be o!rwise impracticable clays4 ,?is topic des]ves a c>eful & di/9ct consid]ation1 :i* x w receive "u ! title ( ,dra9age ( ,/iff ,clays4 ,9 discuss+ ! subject ( ! dep? ( dra9s1 we are n unm9dful ( ! fact t1 9 ?is c\ntry1 ! lead]s 9 ! dra9age movem5t1 especially ,messrs4 ,delafield1 ,yeomans1 & ,john/on1 ( ,new ,york1 h a*iev$ _! truly /rik+ results1 by ! use ( tiles laid at f two & a half to ?ree feet dep?4 ,on ! ,premium ,f>m ( ,r4 ,j4 ,swan1 ( ,rose ,hill1 ne> ,g5eva1 x is /at$ t !re are sixty-"o miles ( "u-dra9s1 laid f two & a half to ?ree feet deep4 ,t ^! l&s ?us dra9$ h be5 *ang$ 9 _! "*1 f cold1 wet1 & unproductive wa/es1 9 _m cases1 to f]tile & productive fields ( corn & :eat1 suffici5tly appe>s4 ,inde$1 we all "k ( fields dra9$ only ) /one dra9s two feet deep1 t h be5 reclaim$ f wild grasses & ru%es into excell5t m[+ fields4 ,9 ,engl& & 9 ,scotl&1 z we h se51 ?\s&s ( miles ( %all[ dra9s 7 laid1 & 7 = ye>s q satisfactory4 ,^! facts speak l\dly 9 favor ( dra9age 9 g5]al4 ,! fact t %oal dra9s produce results s /rik+1 is a /umbl+-block 9 ! progress ( a m ?or\gh sy/em4 ,x may seem l presumption to say to ^? to :om we are s mu* indebt$ = _! public _s1 z well z private ent]prise1 t !y h n dra9$ deep en\gh = ! greate/ advantage 9 ! end4 ,x w\ld seem t !y %\ld "k _! own f>ms & _! own results bett] ?an o!rs4 ,we propose to /ate1 ) all fairness1 ! results ( _! exp]im5ts1 & to detract no?+ f ! cr$it :i* is due to ! pione]s 9 a great "w4 ,we _c1 h[ev]1 aga9/ ! ov]:elm+ weight ( au?ority1 & aga9/ ! reasons = deep] dra9age1 :i*1 to u1 seem s satisfactory1 conclude1 t ev5 ?ree feet is1 9 g5]al1 deep en\gh = "u-dra9s4 ,?ree-foot dra9s w produce /rik+ results on almo/ any wet l&s1 b f\r-foot dra9s w be m secure & durable1 w give wid] fe$+-gr\nds to ! roots1 bett] filt] ! p]colat+ wat]1 w>m & dry ! l& e>li] 9 ,spr+1 furni% a l>g] res]voir = heavy ra9s1 &1 inde$1 m effectually p]=m e (fice ( dra9s4 ,9 review+ our some:at m9ute discussion ( ?is ess5tial po9t--! prop] dep? ( dra9s--c]ta9 propositions may be laid d[n ) consid]able assurance4 ,,tiles ,,mu/ ,,be ,,laid ,,bel[ ,,! ,,rea* ,,( ,,! ,,subsoil ,,pl[4 ,let no man imag9e t he %all nev] use ! subsoil pl[2 = s surely z he has become already s mu* alive to improvem5t1 z to ?or\gh-dra91 s surely w he next complete ! "w ?us begun1 by subsoil+ 8 l&4 ,! subsoil pl[ foll[s 9 ! furr[ ( ano!r pl[1 & if ! =w>d pl[ turn a furr[ "o foot deep1 ! subsoil may be run two feet m1 mak+ ?ree feet 9 all4 ,ord9>ily1 ! subsoil pl[ is run only to ! dep? ( #ah or #bj in*es2 b if ! int5tion 7 to run x no deep] ?an t1 x w\ld be liable to dip mu* deep] occasionally1 z x came sudd5ly ^u ! s(t places above ! dra9s4 ,! tiles %\ld lie f> en\gh bel[ ! deepe/ pa? ( ! subsoil pl[1 n to be at all di/urb$ by its pressure 9 pass+ ov] ! dra9s4 ,x is by no means improbable t fields t h already be5 dra9$ 9 ?is c\ntry1 may be1 9 ! lifetime ( _! pres5t occupants1 pl[$ & subsoil$ by means ( /eam-p[]1 & /irr$ to z great a dep? z %all be f\nd at all desirable4 ,b1 9 ! pres5t mode ( us+ ! subsoil pl[ on l& free f /ones1 a dep? less ?an ?ree & a half or f\r feet w\ld h>dly be safe = ! dep? ( tile-dra9s4 ,,tiles ,,mu/ ,,be ,,laid ,,bel[ ,,fro/4 ,?is is a po9t ^u :i* we mu/ decide = our selves4 ,!re is no c\ntry :]e dra9age is practic$1 :]e ! !rmomet] s9ks1 z 9 almo/ e ,w9t] x does 9 ,new ,engl&1 to #bj deg4 bel[ z]o 7,fahr5heit74 ,all writ]s seem to assume t tile-dra9s mu/ be injur$ by fro/4 ,:at ! effect ( fro/ ^u !m is suppos$ to be1 does n seem v cle>4 ,if fill$ ) wat]1 & froz51 !y mu/1 ( c\rse1 bur/ by ! expansion ( ! wat] 9 freez+2 b x w\ld probably r>ely happ51 t dra9age-wat]1 runn+ 9 cold wea!r1 c\ld come f o!r ?an deep s\rces1 & x mu/ !n be consid]ably above ! freez+ po9t4 ,/ill2 we "k t aqu$uct pipes d freeze at consid]able dep?s1 ?\gh suppli$ f deep spr+s4 ,nei!r ^! nor gas-pipes are1 9 our ,new ,engl& t[ns1 safe bel[ fro/1 unless laid f\r feet bel[ ! surface2 & in/ances occur :]e !y freeze at a mu* great] dep?1 usually1 h[ev]1 "u ! beat5 pa?s ( /reets1 or 9 expos$ positions1 :]e ! sn[ is bl[n away4 ,9 su* places1 ! e>? sometimes freezes solid to ! dep? ( ev5 six feet4 ,x w be sugge/$ at once t our fields1 & especially our wet l&s1 d n freeze s deep1 & ?is is true2 b x mu/ be borne 9 m9d1 t ! v reason :y our wet l&s d n freeze deep]1 may be1 t !y are fill$ ) ! v spr+-wat] :i* makes !m cold 9 ,summ]1 inde$1 b is w>m] ?an ! air 9 ,w9t]1 & s keeps out ! fro/4 ,dra9$ l&s w freeze deep] ?an undra9$ l&s1 & ! f>m] mu/ be vigilant ^u ?is po9t1 or he may h 8 "w ru9$ 9 a s+le ,w9t]4 ,we are aw>e1 t ^u ?is1 z e o!r po9t1 asc]ta9$ facts may seem /rangely to conflict4 ,9 ! t[n ( ,lanca/]1 among ! m\nta9s 9 ! colde/ "p ( ,new ,hamp%ire1 _m ( ! h\ses & b>ns ( ! village are suppli$ ) wat] br\ght 9 aqu$ucts f ! hills4 ,we obs]v$ t ! logs :i* =m ! conduit are1 9 _m places1 expos$ to view on ! surface ( ! gr\nd1 sometimes p>tly cov]$ ) e>?1 b g5]ally v little protect$4 ,!re has n be5 a ,w9t]1 p]haps 9 a half c5tury1 :5 ! !rmomet] has n at times be5 #aj deg4 bel[ ,z]o1 & (t5 x is ev5 l[] ?an t4 ,^u p>ticul> inquiry1 we asc]ta9$ t v little inconv5i5ce is exp]i5c$ !re f ! freez+ ( ! pipes4 ,! wat] is drawn f deep spr+s 9 ! m\nta9s1 & fills ! pipes ( f "o to two-in* bore1 pass+ usually n m ?an "o or two hundr$ rods be=e x is dis*>g$1 & its w>m? is suffici5t1 ) ! help ( its usual sn[ cov]+1 to protect x f ! fro/4 ,we h ^u our own premises an aqu$uct1 :i* supplies a cattle-y>d1 :i* has nev] be5 cov]$ m ?an two feet deep1 & has nev] froz5 9 ! n9e ye>s ( its use4 ,we %\ld n1 !re=e1 appreh5d mu* dang] f ! freez+ ( pipes1 ev5 at %all[ dep?s1 if !y c>ry all ! ,w9t] a consid]able /ream ( spr+-wat]2 b 9 pipes :i* take m]ely ! surface wat] t passes into !m by p]colation1 we %\ld expect little or no aid f ! wat] 9 prev5t+ fro/4 ,! wat] filt]+ d[nw>d 9 ,w9t] mu/ be ne>ly at ! freez+ po9t2 & ! pipes may be fill$ ) solid ice1 by ! freez+ ( a v small quantity z x ent]s !m4 ,nei!r h>d-burnt bricks nor h>d-burnt tiles w crumble by m]e exposure to ! ,w9t] wea!r above gr\nd1 ?\gh s(t bricks or tiles w sc>cely endure a s+le h>d fro/4 ,too mu* /ress _c be laid ^u ! importance ( us+ h>d-burnt tiles only1 z ! failure ( a s+le tile may "w ext5sive mis*ief4 ,writ]s seem to assume1 t ! freez+ ( ! gr\nd ab\t ! dra9s w displace ! tiles1 & s de/roy _! cont9uity1 & ?is may be s2 ?\gh we f9d no evid5ce1 p]haps1 t at ?ree or f\r feet1 !re is any di/urbance ( ! soil by freez+4 ,we dig into clay1 or into our /rong subsoils1 & f9d ! e>?1 at ?ree feet deep1 z solid & undi/urb$ z at twice t dep?1 & no indication t ! fro/ has t\*$ x1 ?\gh x has felt ! grip ( 8 icy f+]s e ye> s9ce ! ,flood4 ,) ^! sugge/ions = w>n+ & = enc\ragem5t1 ! subject mu/ be left to ! s\nd judgm5t ( ! f>m] or eng9e] ^u ea* f>m1 to make ! matt] s safe1 t ! own] ne$ n h an anxi\s ?\ght1 z he wakes 9 a h[l+ ,w9t] night1 le/ 8 dra9s %\ld be freez+4 ,f9ally1 9 view ( ! v>i\s consid]ations t h be51 sugge/$1 z well z ( ! almo/ uni=m au?ority ( ! able/ writ]s & practical m51 x is safe to conclude1 t1 9 g5]al1 9 ?is c\ntry1 :]ev] suffici5t outfall c be _h1 f\r feet above ! top ( ! tiles %\ld be ! m9imum dep? ( dra9s4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,arrangem5t ,,( ,,dra9s4 ,necessity ( ,sy/em4--,:at ,fall is ,necess>y4--,am]ican ,examples4--,outlets4--,wells & ,relief-,pipes4--,peep holes4--,h[ to secure ,outlets4--,gate to ,exclude ,back-,wat]4--,grat+s & ,scre5s to keep out ,frogs1 ,snakes1 ,moles1 c4--,ma9s1 ,subma9s1 & ,m9ors1 h[ plac$4--,capacity ( ,pipes4--,ma9s ( ,two ,tiles4--,junction ( ,dra9s4--,effect ( ,curves & ,angles on ,curr5ts4--,bran* ,pipes4--,dra9+ into ,wells or ,swall[ ,holes4--,lett] f ,mr4 ,d5ton4 ,z e act is1 or %\ld be1 a "p ( a great plan ( life1 s e /ake t is set1 & e l9e laid 9 ! field1 %\ld h relation n only to g5]al pr9ciples1 b also to "s compreh5sive plan ( op]ations4 ,assum+1 !n1 t ! pr9ciples advocat$ 9 ?is treatise are adopt$ z to ! details1 t ! dep? pref]r$ is n less ?an f\r feet--t ! direction pref]r$ is up & d[n ! slope--t ! di/ance ap>t may range f fifte5 to sixty feet1 & m 9 "s cases1 accord+ to ! dep? ( dra9s & ! nature ( ! soil--t no tiles small] ?an "o & a half in* bore w be us$1 & none less ?an two in*es except = ! fir/ "o hundr$ y>ds1 !re /ill rema9s ! application ( all ^! pr9ciples to ! p>ticul> "w 9 h&4 ,) ! hope ( assi/+ ! delib]ations ( ! f>m] on ?is po9t1 "s additional sugge/ions w be made "u appropriate heads4 ,,arrangem5t ,,mu/ ,,h ,,ref]5ce ,,to ,,sy/em4 ,! absolute necessity ( "s regul>ity ( plan 9 our "w1 mu/ be manife/4 ,)\t sy/em1 we c nev]1 9 ! outset1 e/imate ! co/ ( our op]ation2 we c nev] proportion our tiles to ! quantity ( wat] t w pass ?r\gh !m2 we c nev] f9d ! dra9s aft]w>ds1 or =m a correct op9ion ( ! cause ( any failure t may await u4 ,we pref]1 9 g5]al1 :]e practicable1 p>allel l9es = our m9or dra9s1 at "r angles ) ! ma9s1 because ?is is ! simple/ & mo/ sy/ematic arrangem5t2 b ! natural rav9es or wat]-c\rses 9 fields1 seldom run p>allel ) ea* o!r1 or at "r angles ) ! slope ( ! hills1 s t regul> "w l ?is1 c r>ely be accompli%$4 ,if ! e>? 7 con/ruct$ ( regul> slopes1 or pla9s ( uni=m "*1 we c\ld easily apply to x all our rules2 b1 brok5 z x is into hills & valleys1 fill$ ) /ones "h1 ) a bank ( clay !re1 & a s&-pit close by1 we are oblig$ to sacrifice to g5]al conv5i5ce1 (t51 "s special ab/ract rule4 ,we pref] to run dra9s up & d[n ! slope2 b if ! field be fill$ ) undulations1 or hills ) v>i\s slopes1 we may (t5 f9d x exp$i5t1 = ! sake ( sy/em1 to v>y ?is c\rse4 ,if ! "q 7 only z to "o s+le dra91 we c\ld adju/ x s z to con=m to our p]fect ideal2 b z ea* dra9 is1 z x 71 an art]y 9 a complicat$ sy/em1 :i* mu/ run ?r\gh & affect e "p ( x1 all mu/ be locat$ ) ref]5ce to e o!r1 & to ! g5]al effect4 ,keep+ 9 m9d1 !n1 ! importance ( "s regul> sy/em t %all include ! :ole field ( op]ation1 ! "w %\ld be laid out1 ) z ne> a con=mity to e/abli%$ pr9ciples z circum/ances w p]mit4 ,,arrangem5t ,,mu/ ,,h ,,ref]5ce ,,to ,,! ,,fall4 ,9 consid]+ :at fall is necess>y1 & :at is desirable1 we h se51 t al?\gh a v slight incl9ation may c>ry (f wat]1 yet a proportionably l>g] dra9 is necess>y z ! fall decreases1 because ! wat] runs sl[]4 ,x is surpris+1 says ,/eph5s1 :at a small desc5t is requir$ = ! fl[ ( wat] 9 a well-con/ruct$ duct4 ,p frequ5tly compla9 t !y _c f9d suffici5t fall to c>ry (f ! wat] f ! dra9s4 ,!re are few situations :]e a suffici5t fall _c be f\nd if due pa9s are ex]cis$4 ,x has be5 f\nd 9 practice1 t a wat]-c\rse ?irty feet wide & six feet deep1 giv+ a transv]se sectional area ( "o hundr$ & eighty squ>e feet1 w dis*>ge ?ree hundr$ cubic y>ds ( wat] p] m9ute1 & w fl[ at ! rate ( "o mile p] h\r1 ) a fall ( no m ?an six in*es p] mile4 ,messrs4 ,%$d & ,edson1 ( ,bo/on1 h sup]9t5d$ "s dra9age works 9 ,milton1 ,mass41 :]e1 aft] obta9+ p]mission to dra9 ?r\gh ! l& ( an adjac5t own]1 n int]e/$ 9 ! op]ation1 !y c\ld obta9 b ?ree in*es fall 9 "o hundr$ feet1 or a half in* to ! rod1 = ?ree qu>t]s ( a mile1 & ?is only by bla/+ ! l$ges at ! outlet4 ,?is fall1 h[ev]1 proves suffici5t = p]fect dra9age1 & by _! skill1 a v unheal?ful swamp has be5 r5d]$ fit = g>d5s & build+-lots4 ,9 ano!r in/ance1 9 ,dor*e/]1 ,mass41 ,mr4 ,%$d in=ms u t 9 "o ?\s& feet1 !y c\ld obta9 only a fall ( two in*es = _! ma91 & ?is1 by nice adju/m5t1 he expects to make suffici5t4 ,9 ano!r in/ance1 he has f\nd a fall ( two & a half in*es 9 "o hundr$ feet1 9 an op5 pav$ dra9 to be effectual4 ,x is c]ta9ly advisable always to divide ! fall z ev5 z possible ?r\gh\t ! dra9s1 yet ?is w be f\nd a difficult rule to foll[4 ,v (t5 we h a space ( ne>ly level gr\nd to pass ?r\gh to our outfall2 &1 usually1 ! ma9s1 9 ord] t ! m9or dra9s may be c>ri$ into !m f bo? sides1 mu/ foll[ up ! natural valleys 9 ! field1 ?us controll+1 9 a great measure1 our *oice z to ! fall4 ,we are1 9 fact1 (t5 compell$ to use ! natural fall ne>ly z we f9d x4 ,x is ?\ght advisable to h ! ma9s f ?ree to six in*es l[] ?an ! dra9s dis*>g+ into !m1 s t !re may be no ob/ruction 9 ! m9or dra9s by ! back+ up ( wat]1 & ! consequ5t deposition ( s& or o!r ob/ruct+ sub/ances4 ,:]ev] "o /ream fl[s into ano!r1 !re mu/ be m or less int]ruption ( ! c\rse ( ea*4 ,if ! wat] f ! m9ors ent]s ! ma9 ) a quick fall1 ! dang] ( ob/ruction 9 ! m9or1 at lea/1 is mu* less5$4 ,a frequ5t cause ( p>tial failure ( dra9s1 is _! n hav+ be5 laid ) a regul> incl9ation4 ,if1 in/ead ( a gradual & uni=m fall1 !re %\ld be a slight ris+ 9 ! b$ ( a dra91 ! desc5d+ wat] w be int]rupt$ !re till x accumulate s high z to be above ! level ( ! ris+4 ,at ?is po9t1 !re=e1 ! wat] mu/ h a t5d5cy to press out ( ! dra9s1 & w deposit :atev] p>ticles ( s& or o!r e>?y matt] x may br+ d[n4 ,dra9s mu/1 !re=e1 be s arrang$1 t 9 cutt+ !m1 _! b$s may be z ne>ly z possible1 /raight1 or1 at lea/1 h a con/ant1 if n a regul> & equal fall4 ,,arrangem5t ,,mu/ ,,h ,,ref]5ce ,,to ,,! ,,outlet4 ,all agree t x is be/ to h b few g5]al outlets4 ,9 ! :ole process ( dra9+1 says an eng9e] ( exp]i5ce1 !re is no?+ s desirable z p]man5t & sub/antial "w at ! po9t ( dis*>ge4 ,! outlet is ! place1 ( all o!rs1 :]e ob/ruction is mo/ likely to occur4 ,ev]y:]e else ! "w is protect$ by ! e>? above x1 b "h x is expos$ to ! action ( fro/1 to cattle1 to mis*iev\s boys1 to reptiles1 z well z to ! ob/ruct+ deposits :i* are dis*>g$ f ! dra9s !mselves4 ,9 regul> "w1 "u ! direction ( eng9e]s1 iron pipes1 ) sw+ grat+s set 9 masonry1 are us$1 to protect p]man5tly ?is important "p ( ! sy/em ( dra9age4 ,x may (t5 be conv5i5t to run p>allel dra9s d[n a slope1 br++ ea* out into an op5 dit*1 or at ! bottom ( "s bank1 ?us mak+ a sep>ate outlet = ea*4 ,?is practice1 h[ev]1 is /rongly deprecat$4 ,^! num]\s outlets _c be well protect$ )\t great co/2 !y w be =gott51 or1 at lea/1 neglect$1 & ! "w w fail4 ,reg>d+ ?is po9t1 ( few & well-secur$ outlets1 z ( great importance1 ! arrangem5t ( all ! dra9s mu/ h ref]5ce to x4 ,:5 dra9s are br\ght d[n a slope1 z j sugge/$1 let !m1 in/ead ( dis*>g+ sep>ately1 be cross$1 ne> ! foot ( ! slope1 by a sub-ma9 runn+ a little diagonally s z to secure suffici5t fall1 & s c>ri$ into a ma91 or dis*>g$ at a s+le outlet4 ,x may be object$1 t by ?us unit+ ! :ole sy/em1 & dis*>g+ ! wat] at "o po9t1 !re may be difficulty 9 asc]ta9+ by inspection1 :e!r any ( ! dra9s are ob/ruct$1 or :e!r all are p]=m+ _! appropriate "w4 ,!re is prud5ce & good s5se 9 ?is sugge/ion1 & ! objection may be obviat$ by plac+ wells1 or peep-holes1 at prop] int]vals1 9 :i* ! fl[ ( ! wat] at v>i\s po9ts may be obs]v$4 ,on ! subject ( wells & peep-holes1 ! read] w f9d 9 ano!r *apt] a m p>ticul> description ( _! con/ruction & usefulness4 ,! position ( ! outlet mu/1 evid5tly1 be at a po9t suffici5tly l[ to receive all ! wat] ( ! field2 or1 9 o!r words1 x mu/ be ! l[e/ po9t ( ! "w4 ,x w be =tunate1 too1 if ! outlet c be at ! same "t high en\gh to be at all times above ! back-wat] ( ! /ream1 or pond1 or m>%1 into :i* x empties2 & high en\gh1 too1 to be protect$ by solid e>? ab\t x4 ,9 any case1 great c>e %\ld be tak5 to make ! outlet secure & p]man5t4 ,! process ( ?or\gh-dra9age is exp5sive1 & w only repay co/1 ^u ! idea t x is p]man5t--t once well done1 x is done =ev]4 ,! tiles may be expect$ to op]ate well1 = a lifetime2 & ! outlet1 ! only expos$ portion ( ! "w1 %\ld be con/ruct$ to endure z long z ! re/4 ,x is true t ?is portion ( ! "w may be rea*$ & repair$ m conv5i5tly ?an ! tiles !mselves2 b x mu/ be rememb]$ t ! decay ( ! outlet ob/ructs ! fl[ ( ! wat]1 produces a g5]al /agnation ?r\gh\t ! dra9s1 & s may cause _! p]man5t ob/ruction at v>i\s po9ts1 h>d to be asc]ta9$1 & difficult to be rea*$4 ,consid]+ our liability to neglect su* ?+s z p]i% by a gradual decay1 z well z ! _m accid5tal injuries to :i* ! outlet is expos$1 !re is no security b 9 a solid & p]man5t /ructure at ! fir/4 ,to illu/rate ! importance atta*$ to ?is po9t 9 ,engl&1 z well z to indicate ! be/ mode ( secur+ ! outlet1 ! draw+s bel[ h be5 tak5 f a pamphlet by ,mr4 ,d5ton4 ,fig4 #cg repres5ts ! mode ( con/ruct+ ! common small outlets ( field dra9age4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cg4--,,small ,,outlet4 ,! di/+ui%$ eng9e]1 ( ^: labors we h s freely avail$ ourselves1 rem>ks z foll[s ^u ! subject3 ,too _m outlets are objectionable1 on acc\nt ( ! labor ( _! ma9t5ance3 too few are objectionable1 because !y c only exi/ :]e !re are ma9s ( excessive l5g?4 ,a limit ( tw5ty acres to an outlet1 result+ 9 an av]age (1 p]haps1 f\rte5 acres1 w appe>1 by ! practices ( ! be/ dra9]s1 to be ab\t ! prop] ?+4 ,if a %ill+ an acre is res]v$ = fix+ ! outlets1 :i* %\ld be iron pipes1 ) sw+ grat+s1 9 masonry1 v sub/antial "w may be done4 ,figures #ch & #ci repres5t ! elevation & section ( l>g] outlets1 us$ 9 m ext5sive works4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ch4--,,l>ge ,,outlet4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ci4--,,l>ge ,,outlet4 ,x is almo/ ess5tial to ! effici5cy ( dra9s1 t !re be fall en\gh beyond ! outlet to all[ ( ! quick fl[ ( ! wat] dis*>g$4 ,at ! outlet1 mu/ be deposit$ :atev] e>? is br\ght d[n by ! dra9s2 &1 9 _m cases1 ! outlet mu/ be at a swamp or pond4 ,if no decid$ fall c be obta9$ at ! outlet1 !re mu/ be c>e to provide & keep an op5 dit* or passage1 s t ! dra9age-wat] may n be damm$ back 9 ! dra9s4 ,x is advis$1 ev51 to foll[ d[n ! bank ( a /ream or riv]1 s z to obta9 suffici5t fall1 r ?an to h ! outlet flood$1 or back-wat] 9 ! dra9s4 ,/ill1 !re may be cases :]e x w be impossible to h an outlet t %all be always above ! level ( ! riv] or pond :i* may receive ! dra9age wat]4 ,if ! outlet mu/ be s situat$ z to be at times ov]fl[$1 great c>e %\ld be tak5 to excavate a place at ! outlet1 into :i* any deposits br\ght d[n by ! dra91 may fall4 ,if ! outlet be level ) ! gr\nd beyond x1 ! smalle/ quantity ( e>? w op]ate z a dam to keep back ! wat]4 ,!re=e1 at ! outlet1 9 su* cases1 a small well ( brick or /onework %\ld be con/ruct$1 into :i* ! wat] %\ld p\r4 ,!re1 ev5 if ! wat] /& above ! outlet1 w be deposit$ ! e>? br\ght along 9 ! dra94 ,?is well mu/ at times1 :5 ! wat] is l[1 be cle>$ ( its cont5ts1 & kept ready = its "w4 ,! effect ( back-wat] 9 dra9s _c ord9>ily be injuri\s1 except z x raises ! wat] high] 9 ! l&1 & occasions deposits ( e>?y matt]1 & s ob/ructs ! dra9s4 ,we h 9 m9d n[1 ! common case ( wat] tempor>ily rais$1 by ,w9t] fl[age or by ,summ] fre%ets4 ,x %\ld be rememb]$ t ev5 :5 ! outlet is "u wat]1 if !re is any curr5t 9 ! /ream into :i* ! dra9 empties1 !re mu/ be "s curr5t 9 ! dra9 also2 & ev5 if ! dra9 dis*>ge into a /ill pond1 !re mu/ be a curr5t great] or less1 z wat] f a level high] ?an ! surface ( ! pond1 presses into ! dra9s4 ,g5]ally1 !n1 "u ! mo/ unfavorable circum/ances1 we may expect to h "s fl[ ( wat] ?r\gh ! pipes1 & r>ely an utt] /agnation4 ,if1 !n1 ! tiles be c>efully laid1 s z to admit only well-filt]$ wat]1 !re c be b little deposit 9 ! dra92 & a tempor>y /agnation1 ev51 w n injure !m1 & a trifl+ fl[ w keep !m clean4 ,mu* w dep5d1 z to ! ob/ruction ( dra9s1 9 ?is1 & inde$ 9 all cases1 ^u ! int]nal smoo?ness1 & ^u ! nice adju/m5t ( ! pipes4 ,9 case ( ! dra9age ( m>%es1 & o!r l&s subject to sudd5 flood1 a flap1 or gate1 is us$ to exclude ! wat] ( fl[age1 until c\nt]balanc$ by ! dra9age-wat] 9 ! pipes4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dj4--,,outlet ,,pipe ,,) ,,flap ,,to ,,exclude ,,flood-,,wat]4 ,we are q sure t x is n 9 u a "w ( sup]]ogation to urge ^u our f>m]s ! importance ( c>eful att5tion to ?is matt] ( outlets4 ,?is is "o ( t class ( ?+s :i* w nev] be att5d$ to1 if left to be daily wat*$4 ,we ,am]icans h s mu* "w to d1 t we h no "t to be c>eful & wat*ful4 ,if a *ild fall into ! fire1 we take "t to snat* him out4 ,if a %eep or ox get mir$ 9 a dit*1 we leave our o!r bus9ess1 & fly to ! rescue4 ,ev5 if ! c[s break into ! corn1 all h&s ( u1 m5 & boys & dogs1 leave hoe+ or hay+1 & drive !m out4 ,&1 by ! way1 ! frequ5cy ) :i* mo/ ( u h _h occasion to leave important labors to drive back unruly cattle1 r5d]$ lawless by neglect ( our f5ces1 well illu/rates a national *>act]i/ic4 ,we are e>ne/1 indu/ri\s1 & int5t on do+4 ,we c look =w>d to accompli% any labor1 h[ev] difficult1 b lack ! cons]vatism :i* pres]ves ! fruit ( our labors--! old fogyism :i* puts on its spectacles ) mo/ c>eful adju/m5t1 aft] wip+ ! glasses = a cle> sight1 & at /at$ p]iods1 revises its affairs to see if "s screw has n work$ loose4 ,a /ew>d on a l>ge e/ate1 or a corporation ag5t1 paid = inspect+ & sup]9t5d+1 may be reli$ ^u to exam9e 8 dra9age works1 & ma9ta9 !m 9 repair2 b no f>m] 9 ?is c\ntry1 :o labors ) 8 own h&s1 has "t ev5 = ?is mo/ ess5tial duty4 ,8 policy is1 to d 8 "w n[1 :ile he is int5t ^u x1 & n tru/ to future wat*fulness4 ,we speak f p]sonal exp]i5ce 9 ?is matt] ( outfalls4 ,our fir/ dra9s ran d[n into a swamp1 & ! fall 0 s slight1 t ! ma9s 7 laid z l[ z possible1 s t at e fre%et !y are ov]fl[$4 ,we h _m times1 ea* season1 be5 compell$ to g d[n1 ) spade & hoe1 & cle> away ! mud :i* has be5 trodd5 up by cattle ar\nd ! outlet4 ,al?\gh a small riv] fl[s ?r\gh ! pa/ure1 ! c[s f9d amusem5t1 or bett] wat]1 ab\t ^! dra9s1 & keep u 9 con/ant appreh5sion ( a total ob/ruction ( our works4 ,we propose to relieve ourself ( ?is c>e1 by connect+ ! dra9s toge!r1 & build+ "o or m reliable outlets4 ,,grat+s ,,or ,,scre5s ,,at ,,! ,,outlet4 ,!re are _m species ( v]m91 bo? creep+ ?+s & slimy ?+s1 t crawl ) legs1 :i* seem to imag9e t dra9s are con/ruct$ = _! especial accommodations4 ,9 dry times1 x is a favorite amusem5t ( moles & mice & snakes1 to explore ! devi\s passages ?us fitt$ up = !m1 & ent]+ at ! capaci\s op5 front door1 !y nev] suspect t ! spaci\s corridors lead to no ap>tm5ts1 t _! accommodations1 z !y progress1 gr[ f9e by degrees & beautifully less1 & t ^! are h\ses ) no back doors1 or ev5 conv5i5t places = turn+ ab\t = a retreat4 ,unlike ! road to ,hades1 ! desc5t to :i* is easy1 "h ! asc5t is invit+2 ?\gh1 alike 9 bo? cases1 revoc>e gradum1 hoc opus hic labor e/4 ,!y p]sev]e upw>d & onw>d till !y come1 9 m s5ses ?an "o1 to an untimely end4 ,p]haps /uck fa/ 9 a small pipe tile1 !y die a nightm>e dea?2 or1 p]haps ov]tak5 by a %[]1 ( ! effect ( :i*1 9 _! ignorance ( ! sci5tific pr9ciples ( dra9age1 !y _h no conception1 !y are dr[n$ be=e !y h "t = deliv]ance f ! /raight 9 :i* !y f9d !mselves1 & s are left1 z ! poet /rik+ly expresses x1 to lie 9 cold ob/ruction & to rot4 ,9 cold wea!r1 wat] f ! dra9s is w>m] ?an ! op5 dit*1 & ! poor frogs1 reluctant to submit to ! law ( ,nature :i* requires !m to seek refuge 9 mud & oblivi\s sleep1 9 ,w9t]1 ga!r r\nd ! outfalls1 z !y d ab\t spr+s1 to bask 9 ! w>m? ( ! runn+ wat]4 ,if ! fl[ is small1 !y leap up into ! pipe1 & foll[ its c\rse upw>d4 ,9 ,summ]1 ! dra9s furni% = !m a cool & %ady retreat f ! mid-day sun1 & !y may be se5 9 s+le file by scores1 at ! approa* ( an intrud+ foot/ep1 scrambl+ up ! pipe4 ,dy+ 9 ?is way1 affects ^! creatures1 z sigh+ & grief did ,fal/aff1 bl[s !m up l a bladd]2 &1 l ,sampson1 !y d m mis*ief 9 _! dea?1 ?an 9 all _! life toge!r4 ,!y swell up1 & /op ! wat] entirely1 or p>tially dam x1 s t ! effect ( ! "w is impair$4 ,to prev5t injuries f ?is s\rce1 !re %\ld be1 at e outlet1 a grat+ or scre5 ( ca/ iron1 or ( copp] wire1 to prev5t ! intrusion ( v]m94 ,! scre5 %\ld be movable1 s t any accumulation 9 ! pipe may be remov$4 ,an arrangem5t ( ?is k9d is %[n 9 ,fig4 #dj1 z us$ 9 ,engl&4 ,we "k ( no?+ ( ! k9d us$ 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,= ourself1 we h made ( co>se wire-nett+1 a scre51 :i* is atta*$ to ! pipe by h+es ( wire4 ,holes may be bor$ ) a bit ?r\gh ev5 a h>d tile1 or a ,no4 #i wire may be twi/$ firmly r\nd ! end ( x1 & ! scre5 ?us secur$4 ,?is has ?us f>1 be5 our own poor & unsatisfactory mode ( protect+ our dra9s4 ,x is only bett] ?an none1 b x is n p]man5t1 & we hope to see "s successful inv5tion t may supply ?is want4 ,s f> z we h obs]v$1 no su* precaution is us$ 9 ?is c\ntry2 & 9 ,engl&1 f>m]s & o!rs :o take *>ge ( _! own dra9age works1 (t5 run _! pipes into ! mud 9 an op5 dit*1 & tru/ ! wat] to =ce its own passage4 ,,( ,,wells ,,& ,,relief ,,pipes4 ,9 dra9+ l>ge tracts ( l& ( uni=m surface1 x is (t5 conv5i5t to h s+le ma9s1 or ev5 m9ors1 ( great l5g?4 ,ob/ructions are liable to occur f v>i\s causes3 &1 moreov]1 !re is great satisfaction 9 be+ c]ta9 t all is go+ "r1 & 9 wat*+ ! op]ation ( our subt]ranean works4 ,x is a common practice1 & to be comm5d$1 to s con/ruct our dra9s1 t !y may be inspect$ at suspici\s po9ts1 & t s we may "k _! real condition4 ,= ?is purpose1 wells1 or traps1 are introduc$ at suitable po9ts1 into :i* ! dra9s dis*>ge1 & f :i* ! wat] proce$s aga9 along its c\rse4 ,^! are made ( iron1 or ( /one or brick "w1 ( any size t may be ?\ght conv5i5t1 secur$ by cov]s t may be remov$ at pleasure4 ,:]e !re is dang] ( ob/ruction bel[ ! wells1 relief pipes may be introduc$1 or ! wells may ov]fl[1 & s dis*>ge tempor>ily1 ! dra9age wat]4 ,^! wells1 sometimes call$ silt bas9s1 or traps1 are frequ5tly us$ 9 road dra9age1 or 9 sew]s :]e l>ge deposits are made by ! dra9age wat]4 ,! s$im5t is c>ri$ along & deposit$ 9 ! traps1 :ile ! wat] fl[s pa/4 ,^! traps are l>ge en\gh = a man to ent]1 & are occasionally cle>$ ( _! cont5ts4 ,:5 good /one1 or common brick1 are at h&1 occasional wells may be easily con/ruct$4 ,plank or timb] might be us$2 & we h ev5 se5 an oil cask made to s]ve ! purpose tempor>ily4 ,9 mo/ p>ts ( ,new ,engl&1 solid iron ca/+s w\ld n be exp5sive4 ,! wat] ( ?or\gh-dra9age is usually z pure z spr+-wat]1 & su* wells may (t5 be conv5i5tly us$ z places = procur+ wat] = bo? man & bea/1 a consid]ation well wor? a place 9 arrangem5ts s p]man5t z ^? = dra9age4 ,! foll[+ figures repres5t v p]fect arrangem5ts ( ?is k9d1 9 actual use4 ,illu/ration3 ,figs4 #da #db4--,,well ,,) ,,silt ,,bas91 ,,or ,,trap1 ,,& ,,cov]4 ,! flap atta*$ to a *a9 at ,a1 is design$ to close ! incom+ dra91 s z to keep back ! wat]1 & ?us flu% ! dra91 z x is t]m$1 by fill+ x ) wat]1 & !n sudd5ly releas+ x4 ,x is f\nd t by ?is process1 ob/ructions by s&1 & by p]-oxide ( iron1 may be br\ght d[n f ! dra9s1 :5 ! fl[ is usually feeble4 ,,small ,,wells1 ,,or ,,peep-,,holes4 ,by ! significant1 ?\gh n v elegant "n ( peep-holes1 are meant op5+s at junctions1 or o!r conv5i5t po9ts1 = wat*+ ! pulsations ( our subt]ranean art]ies4 ,9 addition to ! l>ge /ructures ( wells & traps1 su* z h be5 repres5t$1 we ne$ small & *eap arrangem5ts1 by :i* we may satisfy ourselves & our que/ion+ fri5ds & neighbors1 t e "p ( our buri$ treasure1 is /eadily e>n+ its usury4 ,x is really gratify+ to be able to all[ ^? :o don't see h[ wat] c get into ! tiles1 & :o inquire s di/ru/fully :e!r y don't ?9k t l& on ! hill w\ld be j z dry )\t ! dra9s1 to satisfy !mselves1 by actually see+1 t !re is a lib]al fl[ ?r\gh all ! pipes1 ev5 9 ! n[ dry soil4 ,& !n1 aga91 ,! be/ laid s*emes o' mice an' m5 ,gang aft agley4 & dra9s w get ob/ruct$1 by "o or o!r ( ! v>i\s means sugge/$ 9 ano!r place4 ,x is !n conv5i5t to be able to asc]ta9 ) c]ta9ty1 & at once1 ! locality ( ! difficulty1 & ?is may be done by means ( peep-holes4 ,^! may be =m$ ( ca/ iron1 or ( well-burnt clay1 or :at is call$ /one-w>e1 ( #d1 #f1 or #aj in*es int]nal diamet]1 & long en\gh to rea* f ! bottom ( ! dra9 to ! surface1 or a little above x4 ,! dra9 or dra9s1 com+ into ?is little well1 %\ld ent] a few in*es above ! pipe :i* c>ries (f ! wat]1 s t ! incom+ /ream may be pla9ly se54 ,a /rong cov] %\ld be fitt$ to ! top1 & secur$ s z n to cause injury to cattle at "w or fe$+ on ! l&4 ,! arrangem5t w be at once se5 by a sket* giv5 on ! foll[+ page4 ,illu/ration3 ,figs4 #dc #dd4--,,small ,,well1 ,,or ,,peep-,,hole1 ,,& ,,cov]4 ,9 our own fields1 we h adopt$ sev]al exp$i5ts to atta9 ?is object ( conv5i5t inspection4 ,9 "o case1 :]e we h a sub-ma91 :i* receives ! small dra9s ( an acre ( or*>d1 laid at ne>ly five feet dep?1 we sunk two #dj-;gallon oil casks1 "o ^u ! o!r1 at ! junction ( ?is sub-ma9 ) ano!r1 & fitt$ ^u ! top a /rong wood5 cov]4 ,! objections to ?is contrivance are1 t x is tempor>y2 t x occupies too mu* room2 & t x is m exp5sive ?an a well ( ca/ iron or /one-w>e ( prop] size4 ,9 ano!r "p ( ! same field1 we _h a spr+ ( excell5t wat]1 :]e1 f ! "t :]e( ! memory ( man runne? n to ! contr>y1 p _h fanci$ !y f\nd bett] wat] to dr9k1 ?an any:]e else4 ,x is ne> a rav9e1 ?r\gh :i* a ma9 dra9 is locat$1 & :i* is n[ grad$ up into conv5i5t pl[ l&4 ,to pres]ve ?is spr+ = use 9 ! ,summ] "t1 we procur$ a t9-work] to make a well1 ( galvaniz$ iron1 five feet long & t5 in*es diamet]1 into :i* are conduct$ ! dra9 & ! spr+4 ,a fri5dly h& has sket*$ x = u v accurately2 ?us3 ,illu/ration3 ,figs4 #de #df4--;,,h[ ,,to ,,pres]ve ,a ,,spr+ ,,9 ,a ,,dra9$ ,,field4 ,! spr+ is br\ght 9 at a by a few tiles laid into ! bank :]e ! wat] naturally bur/s out4 ,! pipe b br+s 9 ! dra91 :i* always fl[s l>gely1 & ! pipe c c>ries away ! wat]4 ,! small dipp]1 m>k$ d1 hangs inside ! well1 & is us$ by e man1 woman1 & boy1 :o passes t way4 ,! spr+ ent]s six in*es above ! dra91 = conv5i5ce 9 cat*+ its wat] to dr9k4 ,by c>eful obs]vation ! pres5t ,w9t] ( #aheh-i1 ! impression t !re is "s peculi> quality 9 ?is wat] is confirm$1 = x is asc]ta9$ t x is six degrees w>m] 9 cold wea!r ?an any o!r wat] ^u ! f>m4 ,! spr+ pres]ves a temp]ature ( ab\t #dg deg41 :ile ! dra9 runn+ ?r\gh ! same well1 & ! o!r dra9s 9 ! field1 & ! well at ! h\se1 v>y f #ci deg4 to #db deg44 ,we confess to ! weakness ( tak+ great satisfaction 9 sipp+ ?is wat]1 cool 9 ,summ] & w>m 9 ,w9t]1 & 9 wat*+ ! m+l$ /reams ( spr+ & dra9age wat]1 & li/5+ z we pass by1 to _! t9kl+ s\nd1 :i*1 l ! fai?ful wat*man ( ! night1 proclaims t all is well4 ,,position ,,& ,,size ,,( ,,! ,,ma9s4 ,hav+ fix$ on ! prop] position ( ! outlet1 = ! :ole1 or any portion ( our "w1 ! next consid]ation is ! location ( ! dra9s t %all dis*>ge at t po9t4 ,x is conv5i5t to speak ( ! diff]5t dra9s z ma9s1 sub-ma9s1 & m9ors4 ,by ma9s1 are und]/ood ! pr9cipal dra9s1 ( :atev] mat]ial1 ! (fice ( :i* is1 to receive & c>ry away wat] collect$ by o!r dra9s f ! soil4 ,by m9ors1 are int5d$ ! small dra9s :i* receive ! surplus wat] directly f ! soil4 ,by sub-ma9s1 are meant su* int]m$iate dra9s z are frequ5tly 9 l>ge fields1 int]pos$ across ! l9e ( ! m9ors1 to receive _! dis*>ge1 & conduct _! wat] to ! ma9s4 ,!y are pr9cipally us$1 :]e !re is a great] l5g? ( small dra9s 9 "o direction ?an x is ?\ght exp$i5t to use2 or :]e1 f ! unequal surface1 x is necess>y to lay out subord9ate sy/ems ( dra9s1 to rea* p>ticul> localities4 ,:e!r aft] ! outlet is locat$1 ! ma9s or m9ors %\ld next be laid out1 is n p]haps v important4 ,! natural c\rse w\ld seem to be1 to lay out ! ma9s accord+ to ! surface =mation ( ! l&1 ?r\gh ! pr9cipal holl[s ( ! field1 al?\gh we h high au?ority = comm5c+ ) ! m9ors1 & all[+ _! appropriate direction to det]m9e ! location ( ! ma9s4 ,?is is1 h[ev]1 r a "q ( prec$5ce & etiquette1 ?an ( practical importance4 ,! only safe mode ( execut+ s important a "w z dra9age1 is by c>eful surveys by p]sons ( suffici5t skill1 to lay out ! :ole field ( op]ations1 be=e ! gr\nd is brok52 to take all ! levels2 to comp>e all ! diff]5t slopes2 consid] all ! circum/ances1 & arrange ! "w z a sy/ematic :ole4 ,g5]ally1 !re w be no conflict ( circum/ances1 z to :]e ! ma9s %all be locat$4 ,!y mu/ be l[] ?an ! m9ors1 because !y receive _! wat]4 ,!y mu/ ord9>ily run across ! direction ( ! m9ors1 ei!r at "r angles or diagonally1 because o!rwise !y _c receive _! dis*>ge4 ,if1 !n1 9 g5]al1 ! m9ors1 z we assume1 run d[n ! slope1 ! ma9s mu/ run at ! foot ( ! slope & across x4 ,x w be f\nd 9 practice1 t all ! circum/ances allud$ to1 w comb9e to locate ! ma9s across ! foot ( regul> slopes2 & :e!r 9 /raight or curv$ l9es1 along ?r\gh ! natural valleys ( ! field4 ,9 locat+ ! ma9s1 reg>d mu/ always be _h to ! quantity ( wat] & to ! fall4 ,:]e a field is ( regul> slope1 & ! desc5t v slight1 x w be necess>y1 9 ord] to ga9 = ! ma9 ! requisite fall1 to run x diagonally across ! bottom ( ! slope1 ?us tak+ into x a portion ( ! fall ( ! slope4 ,if ! fall requires to be /ill m increas$1 (t5 ! ma9 may be deep5$ t[>ds ! outlet1 s z to ga9 fall suffici5t1 ev5 on level gr\nd4 ,if ! fall is v slight1 ! size ( ! ma9 may be made to comp5sate 9 "p = want ( fall1 = x w n be =gott51 t ! capacity ( a pipe to convey wat] dep5ds mu* on ! velocity ( ! curr5t1 & ! velocity increases 9 proportion to ! fall4 ,if ! fall & consequ5t velocity be small1 ! wat] w require a l>g] dra9 to c>ry x freely along4 ,! size ( ! ma9s %\ld be suffici5t to convey1 ) su* fall z is atta9able1 ! greate/ quantity ( wat] t may ev] be expect$ to rea* !m4 ,beyond ?is1 an increase ( size is r a disadvantage ?an o!rwise1 because a small fl[ ( wat] runs ) m velocity :5 compress$ 9 a n>r[ *annel1 ?an :5 broadly spread1 & s has m p[] to =ce its way1 & c>ry be=e x ob/ruct+ sub/ances4 ,we h se51 9 consid]+ ! size ( tiles1 t 9 lay+ ! m9or dra9s1 _! capacity to c>ry all ! wat] t may rea* !m is n ! only limit ( _! size4 ,a "o-in* tile might 9 _m cases be suffici5t to conduct ! wat]2 b ! be/ dra9]s1 aft] mu* controv]sy on ! po9t1 n[ all agree t ?is is a size too small = prud5t use1 because s small an op5+ is liable to be ob/ruct$ by a v slight deposit f ! wat]1 or by a slight displacem5t1 & because ! jo9ts furni% small space = ! admission ( wat]4 ,ma9s1 h[ev]1 be+ design$ m]ely to c>ry (f su* wat] z !y may receive f o!r dra9s1 may 9 g5]al be limit$ to ! size suffici5t to convey su* wat]1 at ! greate/ fl[4 ,x might seem a natural c\rse1 to proportion ! capacity ( ! ma9 to ! capacity ( ! small] dra9s t fall into x2 & ?is w\ld be ! true rule1 7 ! small dra9s expect$ to run full4 ,if our smalle/ dra91 h[ev]1 be ( two-in*1 or ev5 "o & a half in* bore1 x c h>dly be expect$ to fill at any "t1 unless ( great l5g?1 or 9 "s peculi>ly wet place4 ,consid]+1 !n1 :at quantity ( wat] w be likely to be conduct$ into ! ma91 proportion ! ma9 n to ! capacity ( all ! small] dra9s lead+ into x1 b to ! probable maximum fl[--n to :at !y might br+ into x1 b to :at !y w br+4 ,if ! ma9s be ( ?ree-in* pipes1 o!r ?+s be+ equal1 _! capacity is n9e times t ( a "o-in* pipe1 & two & a qu>t] times ! capacity ( a two-in* pipe4 ,a ?ree-in* ma9 may1 !n1 ) equal fall & directness1 be safely reli$ on to c>ry n9e /reams ( wat] equal ea* to "o in* diamet]1 or two & a qu>t] /reams1 equal to a two-in* /ream4 ,! ?ree-in* ma9 w1 9 fact1 f ! less am\nt ( friction1 c>ry mu* m ?an ?is proportion4 ,! all[ance to be made = a less fall 9 ! ma9s1 has already be5 adv]t$ to1 & mu/ n be ov]look$4 ,x is believ$ t ! capacity ( a ?ree or f\r-in* pipe to convey wat]1 is 9 g5]al likely to be mu* "u-e/imat$4 ,x is a common error1 to imag9e t "s l>ge /one wat]-c\rse mu/ be necess>y to c>ry (f s l>ge a fl[ z w be collect$ by a sy/em ov] a t5 or tw5ty-acre field4 ,any "o1 h[ev]1 :o has wat*$ ! full fl[ ( ev5 a ?ree-in* pipe1 & obs]v$ ! wat] aft] x has fall5 into a ne>ly level dit*1 w be aw>e1 t :at seems 9 ! dit* a l>ge /ream1 imp$$ z x is by a r\gh1 unev5 bottom1 may pass ?r\gh a ?ree in* op5+ ( smoo?1 well-jo9t$ pipes4 ,:5 we consid] t a f\r-in* pipe is f\r times z capaci\s z a two-in* pipe1 & sixte5 times z l>ge z a "o-in* pipe1 we may see t we may accommodate any quantity ( wat] t may be likely any:]e to be collect$ by dra9age1 )\t rec\rse to o!r mat]ials ?an tiles4 ,:5 "o ?ree or f\r-in* pipe is n suffici5t to convey ! wat]1 ma9s may conv5i5tly be =m$ ( two or m tiles ( any =m4 ,a ma9 dra9 is sometimes =m$ by comb9+ two horse-%oe tiles1 ) a tile sole or slate betwe5 !m1 to prev5t slipp+1 z 9 fig4 #dg4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dg4 ,fig4 #dh4 ,ma9 ,dra9 ( two or m ,horse-%oe ,tiles4 ,! comb9ations repres5t$ 9 ! above figures1 w furni% suffici5t sugge/ions to enable any "o to select or arrange su* =ms z may be deem$ be/ suit$ to ! case 9 h&4 ,:]e ! l>ge/ obta9able tile is n l>ge en\gh1 two or m l9es ( pipes may be laid abrea/4 ,,position ,,( ,,! ,,m9or ,,dra9s4 ,assum+ t x is desirable to run ! small dra9s1 z f> z practicable1 up & d[n ! slope1 ! foll[+ directions1 f ! ,cyclop$ia ( ,agriculture1 are giv53 ,!re is a v simple mode ( lay+ out ^! 7! m9or dra9s71 :i* w apply to mo/ cases1 or1 inde$1 to all1 al?\gh 9 "s its application may be m difficult4 ,! surface ( ea* field mu/ be reg>d$ z be+ made up ( "o or m planes1 z ! case may be1 = ea* ( :i* ! dra9s %\ld be laid out sep>ately4 ,level l9es are to be set out1 a little bel[ ! upp] edge ( ea* ( ^! planes1 & ! dra9s mu/ be !n made to cross ^! l9es at "r angles4 ,by ?is means1 ! dra9s w run 9 ! l9e ( ! greate/ slope1 no matt] h[ di/ort$ ! surface ( ! field may be4 ,mu* is said1 9 ! ,engli% books1 ab\t furr[s1 & ! direction ( ! furr[s1 9 connection ) ! lay+ out ( dra9s4 ,mu* ( ! l& 9 ,engl&1 especially 9 moi/ places1 0 =m]ly laid up by repeat$ pl[+s1 into ridges v>y+ 9 bread? f t5 to tw5ty feet1 s z to ?r[ (f1 readily1 ! wat] f ! surface4 ,illu/ration3 ,,"p ,,( ,,field ,?or\ghly ,dra9$ ,,by ,b ,f4 ,,n\rse ,,orr+ton1 ,,me4 ,^! ridges 7 sometimes s high1 t two boys 9 opposite furr[s1 betwe5 ! ridges1 c\ld n see ea* o!r4 ,9 dra9+ l&s ?us ridg$1 x is f\nd f> m easy to cut ! dit*es 9 ! furr[s1 r ?an across or ^u ! ridges4 ,aft] ?or\gh-dra9age1 9 mo/ localities1 ^! ridges & furr[s are disp5s$ )4 ,! fact is1 probably1 only important "h1 z expla9+ ! con/ant ref]5ce by ,engli% writ]s to ?is mode ( work+ ! l&4 ,:e!r we %all dra9 d[n ! furr[s1 or across ! ridges1 is n likely to be inquir$ (1 by ,am]icans4 ,! accompany+ diagram repres5ts a field ( ab\t ?irty acres1 z dra9$ by ! own]1 ,b4 ,f4 ,n\rse1 ,esq41 ( ,orr+ton1 ,me41 a p>ticul> description ( :i* w be f\nd 9 ano!r place4 ,! curves ( ! ends ( ! m9ors1 at _! junction ) ! ma9s1 w indicate _! c\rse--! m9ors curv+ always s z to m ne>ly co9cide1 9 c\rse1 ) ! curr5t ( wat] 9 ! ma9s4 ,,! ,,junction ,,( ,,dra9s4 ,mu* difficulty arises 9 practice1 z to connect+1 9 a secure & satisfactory mann]1 ! small] ) ! l>g] dra9s4 ,x has already be5 sugge/$1 t ! /reams %\ld n meet at "r angles1 b t a b5d %\ld be made 9 ! small] dra91 a few feet be=e x ent]s ! ma91 s z to introduce ! wat] ( ! small dra9 9 ! direction ( ! curr5t 9 ! ma94 ,9 ano!r place1 an in/ance is giv5 :]e x 0 f\nd t a quantity ( wat] 0 dis*>g$ ) a turn1 or junction ) a g5tle curve1 9 #ajj seconds1 t requir$ #adj seconds ) a turn at "r angles2 & t :ile runn+ direct1 t is1 )\t any turn1 x 0 dis*>g$ 9 #ij seconds4 ,?is is giv5 z a m]e illu/ration ( ! pr9ciple1 :i* is obvi\s en\gh4 ,diff]5t exp]im5ts w\ld v>y ) ! velocity1 quantity ( wat]1 & smoo?ness ( ! pipe2 b no?+ is m c]ta91 ?an t e *ange ( direction imp$es velocity4 ,?us we see t if we _h b a s+le dra91 ! necess>y turns %\ld be curv$1 to af=d ! lea/ ob/ruction4 ,:]e ! dra9 ent]s into ano!r curr5t1 !re is yet a fur!r ob/ruction1 by ! meet+ ( ! two /reams4 ,two equal /reams1 ( simil> velocity & size1 ?us meet+ at "r angles1 w\ld h a t5d5cy to move (f diagonally1 if n conf9$ by ! pipe2 &1 conf9$ z !y are1 mu/ bo? be mat]ially ret>d$ 9 _! fl[4 ,9 :atev] mann] unit$1 !re mu/ be mu* ob/ruction1 if ! ma9 is ne>ly full1 at ! po9t ( junction4 ,! common mode ( connect+ horse-%oe tile-dra9s is %[n ?us3 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ej4--;,,junction ,,( ,,dra9s4 ,hav+ no tiles made = ! purpose1 we1 at fir/1 =m$ ! union by means ( common h>d bricks4 ,curv+ d[n ! small dra9 t[>d ! direction ( ! ma91 we left a space betwe5 two tiles ( ! ma91 ( two or ?ree in*es1 & br\ght d[n ! la/ tile ( ! small dra9 to ?is op5+1 plac+ "u ! :ole a flat /one1 slate1 or bricks1 or a plank1 to keep all firm at ! bottom4 ,!n we set bricks on edge on all sides1 & cov]$ ! space at ! top ) "o or m1 z necess>y1 & secur$ c>efully aga9/ s& & ! l4 ,we h s9ce procur$ bran*-pipes to be made at ! tile-works1 su* z are 9 use 9 ,engl&1 & f9d !m mu* m satisfactory4 ,! bran*es may be made to jo9 ! ma9s at any angle1 & x might be advisable to make ?is "p ( bo? dra9s l>g] ?an ! re/1 to all[ room = ! ob/ruct$ wat]s to unite peacefully4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ea4 ,,bran* ,,pipes4 ,! ma9s %\ld be f ?ree to six in*es deep] ?an ! m9ors4 ,! fall f "o to ! o!r may usually be made mo/ conv5i5tly1 by a gradual desc5t ( ?ree or f\r feet to ! po9t ( junction2 b ) bran*-pipes1 ! fall may be ne>ly v]tical1 if desir$1 by turn+ ! bran* upw>d1 to meet ! small pipe4 ,x w be necess>y1 9 procur+ bran*es = sole-tiles1 to be> 9 m9d t !y are rights & lefts1 & mu/ be select$ accord+ly1 z ! bran* comes 9 ^u ! "o or o!r side ( ! ma94 ,! bran* %\ld ent] ! l>g] pipe n level ) ! bottom1 b z high z possible1 to give an in* fall to ! wat] pass+ out ( ! bran* into ! ma91 to prev5t possible ob/ruction at ! junction4 ,,dra9age ,,into ,,wells1 ,,or ,,swall[ ,,holes4 ,9 v>i\s p>ts ( our c\ntry1 !re are l&s ly+ too flat = conv5i5t dra9age 9 ! ord9>y me?ods1 or too remote f any good outlet1 or p]haps enclos$ by l&s ( o!rs :o w n cons5t to an outfall ?r\gh _! doma91 :]e ! dra9age wat] may be dis*>g$ into wells4 ,9 ! city ( ,wa%+ton1 on ,capitol ,hill1 x is a common practice to dra9 cell>s into :at are t]m$ dry wells4 ,! surface =mation is a close r$ clay1 ( a few feet ?ickness1 & !n comes a /ratum ( co>se gravel2 & ! wells = wat] are sunk (t5 z deep z sixty feet1 indicat+ t ! wat]-table lies v l[4 ,! heavy /orms & %[]s fill ! surface soil beyond saturation1 & ! wat] gu%es out1 lit]ally1 into ! cell>s & o!r l[ places4 ,a dry well1 sunk ?r\gh ! clay1 conducts ?is wat] into ! gravel b$1 & ?is c>ries x away4 ,?is idea is (t5 appli$ to l& dra9age4 ,x is believ$ t !re are imm5se tracts ( f]tile l& at ! ,we/1 ^u lime/one1 :]e ! surface might readily be reliev$ ( surplus wat]1 by conduct+ ! ma9s into wells dug = ! purpose4 ,9 "s places1 !re are op5+s call$ s9k-holes1 caus$ by ! s9k+ ( masses ( e>?1 z 9 ! neighborhood ( ! city ( ,/4 ,l\is1 :i* w\ld af=d outlets = all ! wat] t c\ld be p\r$ into !m4 ,9 ! ,report ( ! ,tioga ,c\nty ,agricultural ,society = #aheg1 x is said 9 ! ,c\ntry ,g5tleman1 t in/ances are giv51 :]e swamps 7 dra9$ ?r\gh ! clay bottom into ! und]ly+ gravelly soil1 by digg+ wells & fill+ !m ) /ones4 ,9 ,fig4 #g1 at page #hb1 is %[n a fault 9 ! /ratification ( ! e>?2 :i* faults1 x is said1 s completely c>ry (f wat]1 t wells _c be sunk s z to rea* x4 ,mr4 ,d5ton says t 9 sev]al p>ts ( ,engl&1 advantage is tak5 ( ! natural dra9age exi/+ b5ea? wet clay soils1 by conc5trat+ ! dra9s to holes1 call$ swall[-holes4 ,he says ?is practice is op5 to ! objection t ^? holes d n always absorb ! wat] ) suffici5t rapidity1 & s r5d] ! dra9age = a "t1 inop]ative4 ,^! wells are liable1 too1 to be ob/ruct$ 9 _! op]ation by _! bottoms be+ puddl$ ) ! clay c>ri$ into !m by ! wat]1 & s becom+ imp]vi\s4 ,?is po9t w\ld require occasional att5tion1 & ! removal ( su* deposits4 ,?is pr9ciple ( dra9age 0 allud$ to at ! ,am]ican ,in/itute1 ,febru>y #ad1 #ahei1 by ,pr(essor ,na%4 ,he /ates1 t !re are l>ge tracts ( l& hav+ clay soil1 ) s& or gravel b5ea? ! clay1 :i* yet ne$ dra9age1 & sugge/s t ?is may be effect$ by m]ely bor+ frequ5t holes1 & fill+ !m ) pebbles1 )\t dit*es4 ,9 all su* soils1 if ! mode sugge/$ prove insuffici5t1 l>ge wells ( prop] dep?1 /on$ up1 or o!rwise protect$1 might obvi\sly s]ve z *eap & conv5i5t outlets = a regul> sy/em ( pipe or /one dra9s4 ,mr4 ,b]g51 at ! same meet+1 /at$ t su* clayey soil1 bas$ on gravel1 0 ! "* ( mu* ( ! l& on ,long ,isl&2 & we _c d\bt t on ! prairies ( ! ,we/1 :]e ! wells are frequ5tly ( great dep? to obta9 wat] = use1 wells or swall[-holes to receive x1 may (t5 be f\nd useful4 ,:5ev] ! wat]-l9e is tw5ty or ?irty feet bel[ ! surface1 x is c]ta9 t x w require a l>ge am\nt ( wat] p\r$ 9 at ! surface ( a well to keep x fill$ = any consid]able l5g? ( "t4 ,! same pr9ciple t =ces wat] into wells1 t is1 pressure f a high] s\rce1 w all[ its passage out :5 admitt$ at ! top4 ,we close ?is *apt] ) a lett] f ,mr4 ,d5ton4 ,! extract ref]r$ to1 has be5 "h omitt$1 because we h already1 9 ! *apt] prec$+ ?is1 giv5 ,mr4 ,d5ton's views1 express$ m fully ^u ! same subject1 ) 8 own illu/rations4 ,x %\ld be /at$ t ! lett] 0 9 reply to inquiries ^u p>ticul> po9ts1 :i*1 al?\gh disconnect$1 are all ( int]e/1 :5 t\*$ ^u by "o ^: op9ions are s valuable4 ,,london1 #eb ,p>liam5t ,/reet1 ,we/m9/]1 ,s4 ,w4 ,,my ,,de> ,,sir3--,i h receiv$ y\r lett] ( ! #ag? ,augu/1 & ha/5 to reply to x4 ,i am gratifi$ at ! t]ms 9 :i* y speak ( my r\ghly-writt5 ',essays on ,l& ,dra9age4' ,if y h n se5 my publi%$ lett] to ,"l ,b]n]s1 & my rec5t essay ',on ! ,advantages ( a ,daily ,record ( ,ra9-fall1' ,i %\ld mu* l y to look ov] !m1 = my object 9 bo? has be5 to *eck ! uni=mity ( treatm5t :i* too mu* prevails ) ^? :o are (ficially call$ ^u to direct dra9+1 & :o /ill treat mix$ soils & irregul> surfaces pretty mu* 9 ! same way z homog5e\s clays & ev5 surfaces1 ! only diff]5ce be+1 t ! di/ance betwe5 ! dra9s is increas$4 ,we h n[1 )\t d\bt1 arriv$ at t po9t 9 ! practice ( dra9+ 9 ?is c\ntry1 :i* necessitates a revision ( all ! pr9ciples & rules :i* h be5 call$ into =ce by ! ,dra9age ,acts1 & ! in/itution ( ! ,dra9age ,commission1 ^: duty x is to adm9i/] ^? ,acts1 & to protect ! int]e/s ( ,rev]sion]s4 ,?is protection is1 9 a great measure1 p]=m$ by ! int]v5tion ( ',inspectors ( ,dra9age1' ^: subord9ate duty x is to see t ! improvem5ts provisionally sanction$ are c>ri$ out accord+ to c]ta9 impli$1 if n fix$1 rules4 ,?is is done by measur+ dep? & di/ance1 :i* t5ds to a p>allel sy/em 7#d feet deep7 9 all soils1 :i* 0 ,smi? ( ,dean/on's notion1 only 8 dra9s 7 %all[]1 i4e41 f #b to #c feet deep4 ,"s rules 7 und\bt$ly necess>y :5 ! ,commission]s fir/ comm5c$ disp5s+ ! public money1 & ,i d n express my objection to ! absurd position to :i* ^! rules are br++ u1 f any disrespect to !m1 nor ) an idea t any bett] c\rse c\ld h be5 foll[$ by ! ,gov]nm5t1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 ?an ! adoption ( ! ',p>kes--,smi? frequ5t dra9 sy/em4' ,?is sy/em 0 correctly appli$1 & cont9ues to be correctly appli$1 to absorb5t & ret5tive soils requir+ ! a]ation ( frequ5t dra9s to c\nt]act _! ret5tive nature2 b x is altoge!r misappli$ :5 adopt$ 9 ! outcropp+ surfaces ( ! free wat]-be>+ /rata1 :i*1 ?\gh equally wet1 are frequ5tly dra9$ by a comp>atively few dra9s1 at less ?an half ! co/4 ,! only circum/ance t c excuse ! indiscrim9ate adoption ( a p>allel sy/em1 is ! fact1 t all dra9s d "s good1 & ! *ances ( a cure be+ great] 9 proportion to ! numb] ( dra9s1 x 0 n necess>y to insi/ ^u t judgm5t :i* t5 ye>s' exp]i5ce %\ld n[ give4 ,my views on ?is po9t w p]haps be be/ und]/ood by ! foll[+ extract f an address ,i rec5tly deliv]$4 ,extract omitt$1 see p4 #afa4 99 99 99 ,i use "o & a half in* pipes = ! upp] end ( dra9s 7?\gh ,i pref] two-in*71 "o half be+ usually "o & a half & ! o!r half two-in*4 ,?is = m9or dra9s2 ! ma9s run up to #i or #aj in*es1 & ev5 #ah in*es 9 size1 accord+ to _! s]vice4 ,!re is no d\bt suffici5t capacity 9 "o-in* pipes = m9or dra9s2 b1 inasmu* z agricultural labor]s are n ma!matical s*ol>s1 & are apt to lay ! pipes )\t precise junctions1 x is be/ to h ! pipes s l>ge z to c\nt]act t degree ( c>elessness :i* _c be prev5t$4 ,! ord9>y price ( pipes 9 ?is c\ntry w run ?us3 mean+ above1 &-bel[1 ! prices nam$3 #a-a_/b in* #aes4 #b #bjs4 - #c #cjs4 #d #djs4 #e #ejs4 #f #fjs4 ,! price ( cutt+ clays #d feet deep1 w v>y f #a;d4 to #a-a_/b;d4 p] y>d1 accord+ to d5sity & mixture ) /one2 & ! price ( cutt+ 9 mix$ soils w v>y f #a-a_/b;d4 to #f;d41 accord+ to ! quantity ( pick-"w & rock1 & ) respect1 also1 to ! price ( agricultural labor4 7,see my tabul> table ( co/ 9 ,l& ,dra9age & ,dra9age ,sy/ems47 ,i %\ld h ?\ght x w\ld h be5 q wor? ! :ile ( ! ,am]ican ,gov]nm5t to h _h a f>m ( ab\t #ejj acres1 dra9$ by ,engli% h&s1 "u an exp]i5c$ eng9e]1 z a practical sample ( ,engli% "w1 = ! /udy ( ,am]ican agriculturi/s1 ) e dra9 laid d[n on a plan1 ) ! sizes ( ! pipes1 & all details ( soil1 & prices ( labor & mat]ial1 set =?4 ,i am1 de> ,sir1 ,y\rs v fai?fully1 ,! ,,hon4 ,h4 ,f4 ,,fr5*1 ,exet]4 ,j4 ,,bailey ,,d5ton4 ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,! ,,co/ ,,( ,,tiles--,,tile ,,ma*9es4 ,prices f> too high2 ,albany ,prices4--,l5g? ( ,tiles4--,co/ 9 ,suffolk ,co41 ,engl&4--,wall]'s ,ma*9e4--,williams' ,ma*9e4--,co/ ( ,tiles comp>$ ) ,bricks4--,mr4 ,d5ton's ,e/imate ( ,co/4--,o!r ,e/imates4--,two-in* ,tiles c be ,made z ,*eaply z ,bricks4--,process ( ,roll+ ,tiles4--,tile ,ma*9es4--,descriptions ( ,da9es'4--,pratt ,bro4's4 ,! prices at :i* tiles are sold is only1 z ! lawy]s say1 prima facie evid5ce ( _! co/4 ,x seems to u1 t ! prices at :i* tiles h ?us f> be5 sold 9 ?is c\ntry1 are v f> above ^? at :i* !y may be pr(itably manufactur$1 :5 ! bus9ess is well und]/ood1 & pursu$ ^u a scale l>ge en\gh to ju/ify ! use ( ! be/ ma*9]y4 ,! foll[+ is a copy ( ! publi%$ prices ( tiles at ! ,albany ,tile ,works1 & ! same prices prevail ?r\gh\t ,new ,engl&1 s f> z kn[n3 ,horse-%oe ,tile--,pieces4 #b-a_/b in*es rise #ab p] #ajjj4 #c-a_/b #ae #d-a_/b #ah #e-a_/b #dj #f-a_/b #fj #g-a_/b #ge ,sole-,tile--,pieces4 #b in*es rise #ab p] #ajjj4 #c #ah #d #dj #e #fj #f #hj #h #abe ,few r\nd pipe-tiles h yet be5 us$ 9 ?is c\ntry1 al?\gh !y are ! k9d g5]ally pref]r$ by eng9e]s 9 ,engl&4 ,! prices ( r\nd tiles w\ld v>y little f ^? ( sole-tiles4 ,tiles are usually cut f\rte5 in*es long1 & %ort51 9 dry+ & burn+1 to ab\t twelve & a half in*es1 s t1 ) break+ & o!r casualties1 !y may be calculat$ to lay ab\t "o foot ea*2 t is to say1 #a1jjj tiles may be expect$ to lay #a1jjj feet ( dra9s4 ,to assi/ ^? :o desire to manufacture tiles = sale1 or = private use1 x is propos$ to give su* in=mation z has be5 ga!r$ f v>i\s s\rces z to ! co/ ( mak+1 & ! sell+ prices ( tiles1 9 ,engl&4 ,! foll[+ is a memor&um made at ! resid5ce ( ,mr4 ,?omas ,crisp1 at ,butley ,abbey1 9 ,suffolk ,co41 ,eng41 f in=mation giv5 ! au?or on ! #h? ( ,july1 #aheg3 ,mr4 ,crisp makes 8 own tiles1 & also supplies 8 neighbors :o ne$ !m4 ,he sells "o & a half in* pipes at #abs4 7#c7 p] #a1jjj4 ,he pays #es4 7#a4be7 p] #a1jjj = hav+ !m made & burnt4 ,8 ma*9e is ,wall]'s pat5t1 ,no4 #bb1 made by ,g>rett & ,son1 ,lei/on1 ,saxemundham1 ,suffolk4 ,x works by a lev]1 makes five "o & a half in* pipes at once1 or ?ree sole-tiles ab\t two-in*4 ,! man at "w said1 t he1 ) a man to c>ry away1 c41 c\ld make #d1jjj "o & a half in* pipes p] day4 ,!y us$ no scre51 b cut ! clay ) a wire4 ,! ma*9e co/ ,l#be 7ab\t #abe74 ,at ! kiln1 :i* is p]man5t1 ! tiles are set on end1 & bricks ) !m 9 ! same kiln4 ,!y require less heat ?an bricks1 & co/ ab\t half z mu* z bricks "h1 :i* are m\ld$ t5 in*es by five4 ,two girls 7 load+ bricks into a horse-c>t1 & two wom5 receiv+ !m1 & sett+ !m 9 ! kiln4 ,!y made ro(-tiles ) ! same ma*9e1 & also m\ld$ l>ge ones by h&4 ,! wages ( ! wom5 are ab\t #h;d4 7sixte5 c5ts7 p] day4 ,at ! exhibition ( ! ,royal ,agricultural ,society1 9 ,engl&1 ! au?or saw ,williams' ,tile ,ma*9e 9 op]ation1 & 0 !re in=m$ by ! exhibitor1 :o said he 0 a tile-mak]1 t x requires five-sev5?s z mu* coal to burn #a1jjj two-in* tiles1 z #a1jjj bricks--! size ( bricks be+ #aj by #e2 & he decl>$1 t he1 ) "o boy1 c\ld make ) ! ma*9e1 #g1jjj two-in* tiles p] day1 aft] ! clay is prep>$4 ,( c\rse1 "o o!r p]son1 at lea/1 mu/ be employ$ to c>ry (f ! tiles4 ,mr4 ,d5ton gives 8 e/imates ( ! prices at :i* pipe-tiles may be procur$ 9 ,engl&1 z foll[s--! prices1 :i* he gives 9 ,engli% curr5cy1 be+ translat$ into our own3 ,:5 ord9>y agricultural labor is wor? #b #ej p] week1 pipes half "o & a half in*1 & half two-in*1 maybe tak5 at an av]age co/ ( #d #ch p] #a1jjj4 ,:5 labor is #c #jj p] week1 ! pipes w av]age #e #jj p] #a1jjj1 & :5 labor is #c #ej1 !y w rise to #e #fb4 ,he adds3 ,9 giv+ ! above av]age co/ ( mat]ials1 ^? di/ricts are exclud$ f consid]ation1 :]e clay suitable = pipes1 exi/s 9 ! imm$iate vic9ity ( coal-pits1 :i* mu/ necess>ily r$uce ! co/ ( produc+ !m v consid]ably4 ,tak+ ! av]ages ( sev]al c>eful e/imates ( ! co/ ( tiles & bricks1 f ! ,cyclopa$ia ( ,agriculture1 we h ! price ( tiles 9 ,engl& ab\t #e p] #a1jjj1 & ! price ( bricks #g4hg1 f :i* ! duty ( #es4 #f;d4 %\ld be d$uct$1 leav+ ! av]age price ( bricks #f4ej4 ,^u tiles !re is no su* duty4 ,bricks 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates are made ( diff]5t sizes1 v>y+ f #h x #d 94 to ! ,engli% /&>d #aj x #e 94 ,p]haps a fair av]age price = bricks ( ! latt] size1 w\ld be n f> f #e p] #a1jjj2 c]ta9ly bel[ #f4ej p] #a1jjj4 ,!re is no reason :y tiles may n be manufactur$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 z *eaply1 comp>$ ) ! prices ( bricks1 z 9 ,engl&2 & x is q cle> t tiles ( ! sizes nam$1 are f> *eap] !re ?an common bricks4 ,:at is want$ 9 ?is c\ntry is1 fir/1 a dem& suffici5t to au?orize ! e/abli%m5t ( works ext5sive en\gh to make tiles at ! be/ advantage2 next1 compet5t skill to direct & p]=m ! labor2 &1 f9ally1 ! be/ ma*9]y & fixtures = ! purpose4 ,x is confid5tly pr$ict$1 t1 :5ev] ! bus9ess ( tile-mak+ becomes prop]ly e/abli%$1 ! +5uity ( ,am]ican ma*9i/s w r5d] x easy to manufacture tiles at ,engli% prices1 not)/&+ ! l[] price ( labor !re2 & t we %all be suppli$ ) small tiles 9 all p>ts ( ! c\ntry at ab\t ! curr5t prices ( bricks1 or at ab\t "o half ! pres5t ,albany prices ( tiles1 z giv5 at ! head ( ?is *apt]4 ,x %\ld be m5tion$ "h1 p]haps1 t1 9 ,engl&1 x is common to burn tiles & bricks toge!r 9 ! same kiln1 plac+ ! tiles away f ! hotte/ p>ts ( ! furnace2 z1 be+ b ab\t half an in* 9 ?ickness1 !y require less heat to burn !m ?an bricks4 ,9 ! e/imates ( labor 9 mak+ tiles 9 ,engl&1 a small item is usually includ$ = roll+4 ,r\nd pipes are *iefly us$ 9 ,engl&4 ,:5 p>tly dri$1 !y are tak5 up on a r\nd /ick1 & roll$ ^u a small table1 to pres]ve _! exact =m4 ,tiles usually flatt5 some:at 9 dry+1 :i* is n ( importance 9 any b r\nd pipes1 b ^? ought to be uni=m4 ,by ?is process ( roll+1 great exactness ( %ape1 & a great degree ( smoo?ness inside1 are pres]v$4 ,,tile ,,ma*9es4 ,dra9age ) tiles is a new bran* ( husb&ry 9 ,am]ica4 ,! co/ ( tiles is n[ a great ob/acle 9 prosecut+ mu* "w ( ?is k9d :i* l&-own]s desire to accompli%4 ,! co/ ( tiles1 & s ! co/ ( dra9age1 dep5ds v mu*--x may be said1 *iefly--^u ! p]fection ( ! ma*9]y = tile-mak+2 & "h1 z almo/ ev]y:]e else1 agriculture & ! me*anic arts g h& 9 h&4 ,labor is mu* de>] 9 ,am]ica ?an 9 ,europe1 & !re is1 !re=e1 m occasion "h ?an !re1 = apply+ me*anical p[] to agriculture4 ,we c h no *eap dra9age until we h *eap tiles2 & we c h *eap tiles only by hav+ !m made ) ! mo/ p]fect ma*9]y1 & at ! l[e/ prices at :i* compet+ manufactur]s1 :o und]/& _! bus9ess1 c af=d !m4 ,9 ! prec$+ rem>ks on ! co/ ( tiles1 may be f\nd e/imates1 :i* w satisfy any ?9k+ man t tiles h n yet be5 sold 9 ,am]ica at reasonably l[ prices4 ,to give ^? :o may desire to e/abli% til]ies1 ei!r = public or private supply1 in=mation1 :i* _c readily be obta9$ )\t great exp5se ( ,engli% books1 z to ! prices ( tile ma*9es1 x is n[ propos$ to give "s acc\nt ( ! be/ ,engli% ma*9es1 & ( su* ,am]ican inv5tions z h be5 br\ght to notice4 ,x is ( importance t ,am]ican ma*9i/s & inv5tors %\ld be appris$ ( ! progress t has be5 made abroad 9 p]fect+ tile ma*9es2 because1 z ! subject attracts att5tion1 ! +5uity ( ! univ]sal ,yankee nation w soon be direct$ t[>d ! discov]y ( improvem5ts 9 all ! processes ( tile-mak+4 ,tiles 7 made by h& long be=e tile ma*9es 7 inv5t$4 ,a ,mr4 ,read1 9 ! ,royal ,agricultural ,j\rnal1 claims to h us$ pipe tiles z e>ly z #agie1 made by h&1 & =m$ on a r\nd /ick4 ,no ma*9e = mak+ tiles is describ$1 be=e t ( ,mr4 ,be>t's1 9 #ahdj1 by :i* common tile & sole 7n pipes or tubes7 7 made4 ,?is ma*9e1 h[ev]1 0 ( simple /ructure1 & n adapt$ to ! v>ieties ( tiles n[ us$4 ,all tile ma*9es seem to op]ate on ! same g5]al pr9ciple--t ( =c+ wet clay1 ( ! consi/5cy ( t us$ 9 brick-mak+1 ?r\gh ap]tures ( ! desir$ %ape & size4 ,to make ! mass ?us =c$ ?r\gh ! ap]ture1 holl[1 ! hole mu/ h a piece ( metal 9 ! c5tre ( x1 ar\nd :i* ! clay =ms1 z x is pu%$ along4 ,?is c5tre piece is kept 9 position by "o or two ?9 pieces ( iron1 :i* ( c\rse divide ! clay :i* passes ov] !m1 b x unites aga9 z x is =c$ ?r\gh ! die1 & comes out s\nd1 & is !n cut (f1 usually by h&1 by means ( a small wire1 ( ! requir$ l5g?1 ab\t f\rte5 in*es4 ,tile ma*9es "w ei!r v]tically or horizontally4 ,! mo/ primitive ma*9e :i* came to ! au?or's notice abroad1 0 "o :i* we saw on our way f ,london to ,mr4 ,me*i's place4 ,x 0 a m]e upright cyl9d]1 ( "s two feet height1 & p]haps eight in*es diamet]1 9 :i* work$ a pi/on4 ,! clay 0 ?r[n into ! cyl9d]1 & ! pi/on br\ght d[n by means ( a brake1 l an old-fa%ion$ pump1 & a s+le r\nd pipe-tile =c$ out at ! bottom4 ,! =ce employ$ 0 "o man & two boys4 ,"o boy scre5$ ! clay1 by pass+ ?r\gh x a wire 9 v>i\s directions1 hold+ ! wire by ! ends1 & cutt+ ?r\gh ! mass till he _h f\nd all ! small /ones conta9$ 9 x4 ,! man ?rew ! masses ?us prep>$1 into ! cyl9d]1 & put on ! brake1 & ! o!r boy receiv$ ! tiles ^u a r\nd /ick1 z !y came d[n ?r\gh ! die at ! bottom1 & laid !m away4 ,! cyl9d] held clay en\gh to make sev]al1 p]haps tw5ty1 two-in* pipes4 ,! "w 0 go+ on 9 a %$ )\t a floor1 & ^u a lib]al e/imate1 ! :ole e/abli%m5t1 includ+ %$ & ma*9e1 c\ld n co/ m ?an fifty doll>s4 ,yet1 on ?is simple plan1 tiles 7 m\ld$ mu* m rapidly ?an bricks 7 made 9 ! same y>d1 :]e !y 7 m\ld$ s+ly1 z !y usually are 9 ,engl&4 ,x 0 said t ?is =ce c\ld ?us m\ld ab\t #a1hjj small tiles p] day4 ,?is little ma*9e seems to be ! same describ$ by ,mr4 ,p>kes z 9 g5]al use 9 #ahdc1 9 ,k5t & ,suffolk ,c\nties4 ,mo/ ( ! tile ma*9es n[ 9 use 9 ,engl& & ,am]ica1 are s con/ruct$1 z to =ce out ! tiles ^u a horizontal frame-"w1 ab\t five two-in*1 or ?ree ?ree-in* pipes abrea/4 ,! box to conta9 ! clay may be upright or horizontal1 & ! p[] may be appli$ to a :eel1 by a crank turn$ by a man1 or by horse1 /eam1 or wat] p[]1 accord+ to ! ext5t ( ! works4 ,we saw at ! ,exhibition ( ! ,royal ,agricultural ,society1 at ,salisbury1 9 ,engl&1 9 ,july1 #aheg1 ! pipe & tile ma*9e1 ( ,w4 ,williams1 ( ,b$=d4 ,x 0 9 op]ation1 = exhibition1 & 0 work$ by "o man1 :o said he 0 a tile mak]1 & t he & "o boy c\ld make ) ! ma*9e #g1jjj two-in* tiles p] day1 aft] ! clay 0 prep>$ 9 ! pug mill4 ,f\r tiles 7 =m$ at once1 by clay pass$ ?r\gh f\r dies1 & ! box holds clay en\gh = ?irty-two two-in* tiles1 s t ?irty-two are =m$ z quickly z !y c be remov$1 & z _m m1 z soon z ! box c be refill$4 ,! size1 ,no4 #c1 ( ?is ma*9e1 su* z we !n saw 9 op]ation1 & :i* is suitable = common use1 co/s at ,b$=d #hh4ej1 ) "o set ( dies2 & ! extra dies1 = mak+ ?ree1 f\r1 & six-in* pipes1 & o!r =ms1 if desir$1 ) ! horses1 z !y are call$1 = remov+ ! tiles1 co/ ab\t five doll>s ea*4 ,?is1 l mo/ o!r tile ma*9es1 is adapt$ to mak+ tiles = ro(s1 mu* us$ 9 ,engl& in/ead ( %+les or slates1 z well z = dra9+ purposes4 ,!re are sev]al ma*9es n[ 9 use 9 ,engl& namely3 ,e!ridge's1 ,clayton's1 ,scragg's1 ,:itehead's1 & ,g>rett's--ei!r ( :i* w\ld be satisfactory1 accord+ to ! am\nt ( "w desir$4 ,we h 9 ,am]ica sev]al pat5t$ ma*9es = mak+ tiles1 ( ! comp>ative m]its ( :i* we are unable to give a satisfactory judgm5t4 ,we w1 h[ev]1 allude to two or ?ree1 advis+ ^? :o are desir\s to pur*ase1 to make p]sonal exam9ation = !mselves4 ,we are oblig$ to rely *iefly on ! /atem5ts ( ! manufactur]s = our op9ions4 ,illu/ration3 ,,da9es' ,,dra9 ,,tile ,,mak] ,da9es' ,am]ican ,dra9 ,tile ,ma*9e is manufactur$ at ,birm+ham1 ,mi*igan1 by ,john ,da9es4 ,?is ma*9e is 9 use 9 ,exet]1 ,n4 ,h41 close by ! au?or's resid5ce1 & ?us f> proves satisfactory4 ,! price ( x is ab\t #ajj1 & ! weight1 ab\t five hundr$ p\nds4 ,x occupies no m space ?an a common ?ree-&-a-half foot table1 & is work$ by a man at a crank4 ,x is capable ( turn+ out1 by man p[]1 ab\t two hundr$ & fifty two-in* tiles 9 an h\r1 aft] ! clay is prep>$ 9 a pug mill4 ,horse or wat] p[] c be readily atta*$ to x4 ,we give a draw+ ( x1 n because we are sure x is ! be/1 b because we are sure x is a good ma*9e1 & to illu/rate ! pr9ciple ^u :i* all ^! ma*9es are con/ruct$4 ,pratt's ,tile ,ma*9e is manufactur$ at ,can&aigua1 ,new ,york1 by ,pratt ,bro!rs1 & is 9 use 9 v>i\s places 9 t ,/ate z well z else:]e4 ,?is ma*9e diff]s f ,da9es' 9 ?is ess5tial matt]1 t "h ! clay is pugg$1 or temp]$1 & =m$ into tiles at "o op]ation1 :ile ) ,da9es' ma*9e1 ! clay is fir/ pass$ ?r\gh a pug mill1 z x is = mak+ bricks 9 ! common process4 ,pratt's ma*9e is work$ by "o or two horses1 or by /eam or wat] p[]1 z is conv5i5t4 ,! price ( ! small] size1 work$ by "o horse1 is #aej1 & ! price ( ! l>g] size1 work$ by two horses1 #bjj4 ,pr(essor ,mapes says he saw ?is ma*9e 9 op]ation & consid]s x p]fect 9 all its p>ts4 ,! pat5tees claim t !y c make1 ) ! "o-horse ma*9e1 #e1jjj l>ge tiles a day4 ,!y /ate also t two horses w make tiles ab\t z *eap z bricks are usually made1 & z fa/1 ) ! l>ge-siz$ ma*9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ec4--,,pratt',s ,,tile ,,ma*9e4 ,^! some:at indef9ite /atem5ts are all t we c give1 at pres5t1 ( ! capacity ( ! ma*9es4 ,we %\ld h no hesitation 9 ord]+ a ,pratt ma*9e 7 we desir\s ( ent]+ into an ext5sive bus9ess ( ,tile-mak+1 & we %\ld feel q safe ) a ,da9es' ma*9e = a m limit$ manufacture4 ,,salisbury',s ,,tile ,,ma*9e4 ,s4 ,c4 ,salisbury1 at ! ,novelty ,works1 9 ! city ( ,new ,york1 is manufactur+ a ma*9e = mak+ tiles & bricks1 :i* exhibits "s new & peculi> features1 wor?y ( att5tion by ^? :o propose to pur*ase tile ma*9es4 ,pr(4 ,mapes expresses ! confid5t op9ion t ?is ma*9e excels all o!rs1 9 its capacity to =m tiles ) rapidity & economy4 ,we h exam9$ only a work+ model4 ,x is claim$ t ! l>ge size1 ) horse-p[]1 w make #bj1jjj two-in* tiles p] day1 & ! h&-p[] ma*9e #c1jjj p] day4 ,we advise tile mak]s to exam9e all ^! ma*9es 9 op]ation1 be=e pur*as+ ei!r4 ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,! ,,co/ ,,( ,,dra9age4 ,dra9+ no m exp5sive ?an ,f5c+4--,eng9e]+4--,guess+ n accurate en\gh4--,slight ,fall suffici5t4--,in/ances4--,two ,in*es to ,"o ,?\s& ,feet4--,co/ ( ,excavation & ,fill+4--,n>r[ ,tools requir$4--,tables ( ,cubic cont5ts ( ,dra9s4--,co/ ( ,dra9s on our own ,f>m4--,co/ ( ,tiles4--,weight & ,freight ( ,tiles4--,co/ ( ,outlets4--,co/ ( ,coll>s4--,small] ,tiles us$ ) ,coll>s4--,numb] ( ,tiles to ! ,acre1 ) ,tables4--,l5g? ( ,tiles v>ies4--,numb] ( ,rods to ! ,acre at diff]5t ,di/ances4--,f9al ,e/imate ( ,co/4--,comp>ative ,co/ ( ,tile-,dra9s & ,/one-,dra9s4 ,a prud5t man1 int5d+ to execute a "w1 :e!r x be to build a t[]1 or dra9 a field1 sitte? d[n fir/ & c\nte? ! co/1 :e!r he ha? suffici5t to f9i% x4 ,!re is good s5se & discretion 9 ! inquisitiv5ess :i* sugge/s s (t5 ! inquiry1 ,h[ mu* does x co/ to dra9 an acre8 or1 ,h[ mu* does x co/ a rod to lay dra9s8 ,^! que/ions _c be answ]$ s briefly z !y are ask$2 yet mu* in=mation c be giv51 :i* w aid "o :o w inve/igate ! subject4 ,! process ( dra9age is exp5sive1 z comp>$ ) ! price ( l& 9 our new settlem5ts2 b its co/ w n al>m ^? :o h be5 accu/om$ to see ! improvem5ts made 9 ,new ,engl& ^u well cultivat$ f>ms4 ,comp>$ ) ! labor & co/ ( build+ & ma9ta9+ ,,f5ces ^u ! highways1 & 9 ! subdivisions ( lots1 common 9 ! ,ea/]n ,/ates1 ! dra9age ( l& is a small matt]4 ,we see 9 _m places long /ret*es ( fac$ walls1 on ! l9e ( our roads ne> t[ns & villages1 :i* co/ f two to five doll>s p] rod4 ,our common /one walls 9 ^! ,/ates co/ ab\t "o doll> p] rod to build orig9ally2 & almo/ any k9d ( wood5 f5ce co/s z mu*4 ,^u f5ces1 !re is occasion = annual repairs1 :ile dra9s prop]ly laid1 are p]man5t4 ,^! sugge/ions are ?r[n out1 t f>m]s may n be al>m$ )\t cause1 at ! high ca% e/imates ( ! co/ ( dra9age op]ations4 ,money comes sl[ly to f>m]s1 & a ca% e/imate looks l>g] to !m ?an an e/imate 9 labor4 ,! co/ ( f5c+ seems no great burd52 ?\gh1 e/imat$ 9 ca%1 x w\ld seem1 z 9 fact x is1 a sev]e *>ge4 ,dra9age c be p]=m$ pr9cipally by ! same k9d ( labor z f5c+1 ! co/ ( ! tiles be+ a small item 9 ! :ole exp5se4 ,! e/imates ( labor w be made at "o doll> p] day1 9 inve/igat+ ?is matt]4 ,?is w\ld be ! fair ca% value ( "w by ! day1 p]haps2 b x is f> m ?an f>m]s1 :o h "w 9 h& on _! own f>ms1 :i* may be execut$ 9 ! leisure season aft] hay+1 & ev5 into ! ,w9t]1 :5 conv5i5t1 w really exp5d = su* labor4 ,few f>m op]ations w\ld pay exp5ses1 if e h\r ( sup]9t5d5ce1 & e h\r ( labor by man & boy & bea/1 7 set d[n at ?is high rate4 ,! co/ ( ! tiles w1 ord9>ily1 be a ca% item1 & ! labor may be p]=m$ l t ( plant+1 hoe+1 hay+1 & h>ve/+1 by su* help hir$ by ! m\? or day1 or r5d]$ by ! family1 z may be f\nd conv5i5t4 ,! co/ ( dra9age may be consid]$ conv5i5tly1 to borr[ a cl]ical phrase1 "u ! foll[+ heads4 #a4 ,lay+ out1 or ,eng9e]+4--,9 arrang+ our ,spr+'s "w1 we devote "t & att5tion to lay+ x out1 ?\gh ?is h>dly =ms an item 9 ! exp5se ( ! crop4 ,mo/ f>m]s may ?9k !mselves compet5t to lay out _! dra9age-works1 )\t pay+ = ! sci5tific skill ( an eng9e]1 or ev5 ( a surveyor4 ,x is believ$1 h[ev]1 t g5]ally1 x w be f\nd true economy1 to procure ! aid ( an exp]i5c$ eng9e]1 if conv5i5t1 to lay out ! "w at ! outset4 ,c]ta9ly1 9 mo/ cases1 "s skill 9 ! use ( levell+ in/rum5ts1 at lea/1 is absolutely ess5tial to sy/ematic "w4 ,no man1 h[ev] exp]i5c$1 c1 by ! eye1 =m any safe op9ion ( ! fall ( a giv5 tract ( l&4 ,fields :i* appe> p]fectly level to ! eye1 w be f\nd frequ5tly to give fall en\gh = ! deepe/ dra9age4 ,! writ] rec5tly _h occasion to note ?is fact on 8 own l&4 ,a l[ wet spot _h _m times be5 look$ at1 z a place :i* %\ld be dra9$1 bo? to improve its soil1 & ! appe>ance ( ! l& ab\t x2 b to ! eye1 x seem$ d\btful :e!r x 0 n ab\t z l[ z ! /ream "s =ty rods (f1 into :i* x mu/ be dra9$4 ,^u te/+ ! matt] c>efully ) levell+ in/rum5ts1 x 0 f\nd t f ! l[e/ spot 9 ?is little swamp1 !re 0 a fall ( sev5 & a half feet to ! riv]1 at its ord9>y height6 ,aga91 !re are cases :]e x w be f\nd ^u accurate surveys1 t ! fall is v slight1 s t great c>e w be requisite1 to lay ! dra9s 9 su* a way t ! desc5t may be cont9u\s & uni=m4 ,)\t compet5t skill 9 lay+ out ! "w1 l&-own]s w be liable n only to errors 9 ! fall ( ! dra9s1 b to v exp5sive mi/akes 9 ! location ( !m4 ,a v few rods ( dra9s1 m ?an are necess>y1 w\ld co/ m ?an any *>ge ( a compet5t p]son = lay+ !m out prop]ly4 ,aga91 exp]i5ce gives great facility 9 judg+ ( ! und]gr\nd fl[ ( wat]1 ( ! p]meability ( soil1 ( ! probability ( f9d+ l$ges or o!r rock =mation1 & _m o!r p>ticul>s :i* might n sugge/ !mselves to a novice 9 ! bus9ess4 ,! lay+ out ( dra9s is important1 n only ) ref]5ce to ! "w 9 h&1 b to additional "w to be execut$ 9 future on adjo9+ l&1 s t ! :ole may be ev5tually br\ght into "o *eap & effici5t sy/em ) ! smalle/ effective numb] ( dra9s1 bo? m9ors & ma9s1 & ! fewe/ outlets possible2 ) su* wells1 or o!r facilities = inspection1 z may be necess>y4 ,9 ! ,engli% tables ( ! co/ ( dra9age by ! ,dra9age ,companies1 an e/imate ( #a4be p] acre is usually put d[n = sup]9t5d5ce1 :i* includes ! eng9e]+ & ! sup]vision ( ! :ole process ( op5+1 lay+ & fill+1 secur+ outfalls1 & e o!r process till ! "w is complet$4 ,! g5]al e/imate ( ! co/ ( dra9age is ab\t #be4jj p] acre1 & ?is item ( #a4be is b a small p] c5tage on t am\nt4 ,! po9t has be5 dwelt ^u "h1 m = ! purpose ( impress+ ^u l&-own]s1 ! importance ( employ+ compet5t skill 9 ! lay+ out ( _! dra9age works1 ?an because ! exp5se ?us incurr$1 =ms any consid]able item ( ! co/ ( ! :ole "w4 #b4 ,excavation & ,fill+4 ,! pr9cipal exp5se ( dra9age is incurr$ 9 ! excavation ( ! dit*1 :e!r x be = tiles or = /ones4 ,! labor ( excavation dep5ds mu* ^u ! nature ( ! soil to be mov$4 ,dra9+ on a s\nd clay1 says ! writ] ( a prize essay1 free f /ones1 may be execut$ at a *eap] rate p] rod1 9 l5g?1 ?an on almo/ any o!r k9d ( soil1 z1 f ! firmness ( ! clay1 ! "w may be done ) n>r[ spades1 & b a small quantity ( soil requires to be remov$4 ,! dra9+ ( wet s&s or gr\nds1 or clays 9 :i* ve9s ( s& ab\nd1 is m exp5sive ?an on s\nd clays1 because a broad] spade has to be us$1 & consequ5tly a l>g] am\nt ( soil remov$2 & dra9+ /ony or rocky soils is /ill m exp5sive1 because ! pick has to be us$4 ,?is adds consid]ably to ! exp5se4 ,great /ress is laid1 by all exp]i5c$ p]sons1 ^u us+ n>r[ spades1 & op5+ dit*es z n>r[ z possible4 ,x is some:at m conv5i5t = unskillful labor]s to "w 9 a wide dit* ?an 9 a n>r[ "o1 & al?\gh ! labor]s frequ5tly prote/ t !y _c "w s rapidly 9 n>r[ dit*es1 yet x is f\nd t1 9 contract "w1 by ! rod1 !y usually op5 ! dit*es v n>r[4 ,inde$1 x w be f\nd t1 g5]ally1 ! co/ ( excavation be>s a pretty con/ant proportion to ! numb] ( cubic feet ( e>? ?r[n out4 ,x w surprise ^? unaccu/om$ to ^! e/imates1 to obs]ve h[ rapidly ! quantity excavat$1 increases ) ! increas$ wid? ( ! dit*4 ,to enable ! read] accurately to compute ! measurem5t ( dra9s ( any dim5sions likely to be adopt$1 a table & explanations1 f\nd 9 ! ,report ( ! ,bo>d ( ,heal?1 already quot$1 are giv5 bel[4 ,! dim5sions1 or cont5ts ( any dra91 are f\nd by multiply+ toge!r ! l5g?1 dep?1 & mean wid? ( ! dra94 ,?us1 if a dra9 is #cjj y>ds long1 & ! cutt+ #c feet deep1 #bj in*es wide at ! top1 & #d in*es wide at ! bottom1 ! mean wid? w\ld be #ab in*es 7or ! half ( ! sum ( #bj & #d71 & if we multiply #cjj1 ! l5g?1 by #a1 ! dep? 9 y>ds1 & by #a_/c1 ! mean wid? 9 y>ds1 & ! product w\ld be #ajj cubic y>ds4 ,! foll[+ table w s]ve to facilitate su* calculations4 ,table %[+ ! numb] ( ,cubic ,y>ds ( ,e>? 9 ea* ,rod 7#e-a_/b ,y>ds 9 l5g?71 9 ,dra9s or ,dit*es ( v>i\s ,dim5sions4 ,,dep?4 ,,mean ,,wid?4 ---------------------------------------- --- ,in*es4#g ,94 #h ,94 #i ,94 #aj ,94#aa ,94#ab ,94 ---------------------------------------- --- #cj #j4hi #a4jb #a4adf #a4bg #a4dj #a4ec #cc #j4ih #a4ab #a4bf #a4dj #a4ed #a4fh #cf #a4jg #a4bb #a4cge #a4ec #a4fh #a4hc #ci #a4af #a4cbd #a4di #a4fee #a4hb #a4ihf #db #a4be #a4dbf #a4fjd #a4gh #a4if #b4ad #de #a4cd #a4ec #a4gb #a4ia #b4aj #b4bi #dh #a4dbf #a4fc #a4hcc #b4jd #b4bd #b4ddd #ea #a4eae #a4gc #a4ie #b4afd #b4ch #b4fj #ed #a4fjd #a4hc #b4jf #b4bi #b4eb #b4ge #eg #a4fi #a4ice #b4ah #b4db #b4ff #b4ij #fj #a4gh #b4jcf #b4bi #b4edf #b4hj #c4jef ,,dep?4 ,,mean ,,wid?4 ---------------------------------------- --- ,in*es4#ac ,94#ad ,94#ae ,94#af ,94#ag ,94#ah ,94 ---------------------------------------- --- #cj #a4fee #a4gh #a4ia #b4jd #b4afd #b4bi #cc #a4hb #a4if #b4aj #b4bd #b4ch #b4eb #cf #a4ihf #b4ad #b4bi #b4bdd #b4fj #b4ge #ci #b4ae #b4cb #b4dh #b4fe #b4ha #b4ih #db #b4cb #b4die #b4fgd #b4he #c4jc #c4ba #de #b4dh #b4fg #b4hfe #c4jee #c4bdf #c4dch #dh #b4fe #b4he #c4jef #c4bf #c4df #c4ffg #ea #b4ha #c4jc #c4be #c4df #c4fh #c4hif #ed #b4ih #c4bj #c4dd #c4fff #c4hie #d4abe #eg #c4ad #c4ch #c4fc #c4hg #d4aa #d4ced #fj #c4ca #c4efd #c4hb #d4jgd #d4cc #d4ehd ,along ! top ( ! table is plac$ ! mean wid?s 9 in*es1 & on ! left-h& side ! dep?s ( ! dra9s1 ext5d+ f #cj in*es to #e feet4 ,! numb]s 9 ! body ( ! table express cubic y>ds1 & decimals ( a y>d4 ,9 mak+ use ( ! table1 x is necess>y fir/ to f9d ! mean wid? ( ! dra91 f ! wid?s at ! top & bottom4 ,?us1 if a dra9 #c feet deep 7 #af in*es wide at ! top1 & #d in*es at ! bottom1 ! mean wid? w\ld be half ( #af add$ to #d1 or #aj2 !n1 by look+ 9 ! table = ! column "u #aj 7wid?71 & opposite #cf 7in*es ( dep?71 we f9d ! numb] ( cubic y>ds 9 ea* rod ( su* a dra9 to be #a4ec1 or some:at m ?an "o & a half4 ,if we comp>e ?is ) ano!r dra9 #bj in*es wide at ! top1 #d in*es at ! bottom1 & #d-a_/b feet deep1 we h ! mean wid? #ab1 & look+ at ! table "u #ab & opposite #ed1 we f9d #b4ge cubic y>ds1 or two & ?ree-qu>t]s to ! rod4 ,9 ?is case1 ! quantity ( e>? to be remov$ is ne>ly twice z mu* z 9 ! o!r1 & h5ce1 z f> z reg>ds ! digg+1 ! co/ ( ! labor w be ne>ly d\ble4 ,b 9 ! case ( deep dra9s1 ! co/ increases slightly = ano!r reason1 namely1 ! increas$ labor ( lift+ ! e>? to ! surface f a great] dep?4 ,"u ! title ( ! ,dep? ( ,dra9s1 o!r reasons are sugge/$ :y %all[ dra9s are m easily wr\ght ?an deep] dra9s4 ,! wid?s giv5 9 ,engli% treatises1 & f\nd p]fectly practicable !re1 ) prop] dra9age-tools1 w seem to u exce$+ly n>r[4 ,mr4 ,p>kes gives ! wid? ( ! top ( a f\r-foot dra9 #ah in*es1 ( a ?ree-&-a-half foot dra9 #af in*es1 & ( a ?ree-foot dra9 #ab in*es4 ,he gives ! wid? ( dra9s = tiles1 ?ree in*es at bottom1 & ^? = /ones1 eight in*es4 ,( ! co/ ( excavat+ a giv5 numb] ( cubic y>ds ( e>? f dra9s1 x is difficult to give reliable e/imates4 ,9 ! writ]'s own field1 :]e a pick 0 us$ to loos5 ! l[] two feet ( e>?1 ! labor ( op5+ & fill+ dra9s #d feet deep1 & ( ! mean wid? ( #ad in*es1 all by h& labor1 has be51 9 a mile ( dra9s1 be+ our fir/ exp]im5ts1 ab\t "o day's labor to ?ree rods 9 l5g?4 ,! excavat$ e>? ( su* a dra91 measures n q ?ree cubic y>ds4 7,exactly1 #b4he47 ,9 "w subsequ5tly execut$1 we h op5$ our dra9s ( #d foot dep?1 b #bj in*es at top1 & #d in*es at bottom1 giv+ a mean wid? ( #ab in*es4 ,9 "o in/ance1 9 ! ,summ] ( #aheh1 two m5 op5$ #ad rods ( su* dra9 9 "o day4 ,9 six days1 ! same two m5 op5$1 laid1 & fill$ #idg feet1 or ab\t #eg-a_/b rods ( su* dra94 ,_! labor 0 wor? #ab4jj1 or #ba c5ts p] rod4 ,! actual co/ ( ?is job 0 z foll[s3 #hdg two-in* tiles1 at #ac p] #a1jjj #aa4ja #ajj ?ree-in* = ma9 #b4ej #gj bu%els ( tan1 to protect ! jo9ts 4#gj ,horse to haul tiles & tan 4#ej ,labor1 #ab days1 at #a #ab4jj ------- ,total #bf4ga ,?is is #df-a_/b c5ts p] rod1 besides our own "t & skill 9 lay+ out & sup]9t5d+ ! "w4 ,! "w 0 pr9cipally done ) ,iri% spades1 & 0 9 a s&y soil4 ,9 ! same season1 ! same m5 op5$1 laid1 & fill$ #gj rods ( f\r-foot dra91 ( ! same mean wid? ( #ab in*es1 9 ! wor/ k9d ( clay soil1 :]e ! pick 0 con/antly us$4 ,x co/ #ce days' labor to complete ! job1 be+ #ej c5ts p] rod = ! labor alone4 ,! lea/ co/ ( ! labor ( dra9+ #d feet deep1 on our own l&1 is ?us %[n to be #ba c5ts p] rod1 & ! greate/ co/ #ej c5ts p] rod1 all ! labor be+ by h&4 ,"o-half ^! am\nts w\ld h complet$ ! dra9s at #c feet dep?1 z has be5 already %[n4 ,b ! excavation "h is mu* great] ?an is usual 9 ,engl&1 ,mr4 ,p>kes giv+ ! mean wid? ( a f\r-foot dra9 b #aj-a_/b in*es1 in/ead ( #ad or #ab1 z j giv54 ,mr4 ,d5ton gives e/imates ( ! co/1 9 ,engl&1 ( cutt+ & fill+ f\r-foot dra9s1 :i* v>y f #ab c5ts p] rod upw>ds1 accord+ to ! prices ( labor1 & o!r circum/ances4 ,9 ,new ,engl&1 :]e labor may be fairly rat$ at "o doll> p] day1 ! co/ ( excavat+ & fill+ f\r-foot dra9s by h& labor1 mu/ v>y f #bj to #ej c5ts p] rod1 accord+ to ! soil1 & half ^? am\nts = dra9s ( ?ree-foot dep?4 ,( ! aid :i* may be d]iv$ f ! use ( dra9+ pl[s1 or ( ! common pl[1 or subsoil pl[1 our views may be f\nd express$ "u ! appropriate heads4 ,t dra9s w long cont9ue to be op5$ 9 ?is va/ c\ntry by h& labor1 is n to be suppos$1 b we give our e/imates ( ! exp5ses1 at ?is fir/ /age ( our education 9 dra9age4 #c4 ,co/ ( ! ,tiles4 ,"u ! title ( ,! ,co/ ( ,tiles1 we h giv5 su* in=mation z c be at pres5t procur$1 t\*+ t matt]4 ,x w be assum$1 9 ^! e/imates1 t no tiles ( less ?an #a-a_/b in* bore w be us$ = any purpose1 & = ma9s1 usually ^? ( ?ree-in* bore are suffici5t4 ,! proportion ( l5g? ( ma9s to t ( m9ors is small1 &1 consid]+ ! probable r$uction ( prices1 we w1 = ! pres5t1 assume #aj p] #a1jjj z ! prices ( su* mix$ sizes z may be us$4 ,add to ?is1 ! freight ( !m to a reasonable di/ance1 & we h ! co/ ( ! tiles on ! field4 ,! weight ( two-in* tiles is usually rat$ at ab\t #c lbs4 ea*1 ?\gh !y fall %ort ( ?is weight until wet4 #d4 ,outlets4 ,a small p]-c5tage %\ld be add$ to ! items already notic$1 = ! co/ ( ! g5]al outfall1 :i* %\ld be secur$ ) great c>e2 al?\gh1 f su* exam9ation z ! writ] has made 9 ?is c\ntry1 & 9 ,engl& also1 9 ! l>ge majority ( cases1 dra9s are dis*>g$ ) v little precaution to protect ! outlets4 ,works complet$ "u ! *>ge ( regul> eng9e]s1 =m an exception to ?is rem>k2 & an item ( #cg c5ts p] acre1 = iron outlets & masonry1 is usually includ$ 9 ! e/imat$ co/ p] acre ( dra9age4 #e4 ,coll>s4 ,x is n kn[n to ! au?or t coll>s h be5 at all us$ 9 ,am]ica1 except at ! ,new ,york ,c5tral ,p>k1 9 #aheh2 r\nd pipes1 ^u :i* !y are commonly us$ abroad1 :5 us$ on any1 n be+ yet mu* 9 use "h4 ,9 ! e/imates ( ,mr4 ,d5ton1 9 8 tables1 coll>s are set d[n at ab\t half ! co/ ( ! mix$ tiles4 ,! bore ( !m be+ l>ge en\gh to receive ! end ( ! tile1 increases ! price 9 proportion to ! increase 9 size4 ,x is believ$1 h[ev]1 t a small] size ( tiles may prud5tly be us$ ) coll>s ?an )\t1 because ! coll>s keep ! tiles p]fectly 9 l9e1 & freely admit wat]1 :ile !y exclude roots1 s&1 & o!r ob/ructions4 ,a dra9 laid ) "o & a half in* tiles ) coll>s is1 no d\bt1 bett] 9 any soil ?an two-in* tiles )\t coll>s4 ,"s comp5sation = ! co/ ( coll>s may ?us be f\nd 9 ! less price ( ! small] tiles4 #f4 ,lay+4 ,! co/ ( lay+ tiles is s trifl+ z h>dly to be wor? e/imat+1 except to %[ its insignificance4 ,! e/imate1 by ,engli% eng9e]s1 is two c5ts p] rod = pipe lay+ & f9i%+4 ,:at is includ$ 9 f9i%+1 does n appe>4 ,f ! p]sonal obs]vations ( ! writ]1 x is believ$ t an active man may lay f #fj to #ajj rods ( tiles p] day1 9 dit*es well prep>$4 ,inde$1 we h se5 our man ,james1 lay twelve rods ( two-in* tiles1 9 a f\r-foot dit*1 9 =ty-five m9utes1 :5 he 0 n aw>e t he 0 work+ aga9/ "t4 ,?is is at ! rate ( sixte5 rods an h\r1 :i* w\ld give j #afj rods1 or a half-mile1 9 a day ( t5 h\rs4 #g4 ,numb] ( ,tiles to ! ,acre4 ,! numb] ( tiles us$ dep5ds1 ( c\rse1 ^u ! di/ances ap>t ( ! dra9s1 & ^u ! l5g? ( ! tiles us$4 ,! foll[+ table gives ! numb] ( tiles ( v>i\s l5g?1 p] acre1 requir$ at diff]5t int]vals3 ,int]vals betwe5 ,twelve in*,?irte5 in*,f\rte5 in*,fifte5 in* ! ,dra9s1 ,pipe4 ,pipe4 ,pipe4 ,pipe4 9 feet4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- #ae #bijd #bfhj #bdhi #bcbc #ah #bdbj #bbcd #bjgd #aicf #ba #bjgd #aiae #aggh #afei #bd #ahae #afgf #aeee #adeb #bg #afac #adhi #achc #abij #cj #adeb #acdj #abdd #aafa #cc #acbj #abai #aaca #ajef #cf #abaj #aaag #ajcg #ifh #ci #aaag #ajca #ieg #hic #db #ajcg #ieh #hhh #hbi ,! foll[+ table gives ! numb] ( rods p] acre ( dra9s at diff]5t di/ances3 ,int]vals betwe5 ! ,dra9s1 9 feet4 ,rods p] acre4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- #ae #agf #ah #adf-b_/c #ba #abe-e_/g #bd #aaj #bg #ig-g_/i #cj #hh #cc #hj #cf #gc-a_/c #ci #fg-i_/ac #db #fb-f_/g ,x may be rem>k$ "h1 t tiles1 m\ld$ ( ! same l5g?1 v>y ne>ly two in*es :5 burn$1 accord+ to ! sev]ity ( ! heat4 ,x may be sugge/$1 too1 t ! l5g? ( ! tile1 9 ! use ( any ma*9e1 is entirely at ! option ( ! mak]4 ,x is n1 p]haps1 an insult to our common humanity1 to sugge/ to buy]s ! propriety ( measur+ ! l5g? z well z calibre ( tiles be=e pur*as+4 ,9 ! e/imates :i* w be made 9 ?is detail1 x w be assum$ t tiles w lay "o foot ea*1 ) all[ance = imp]fections & breakage4 ,?is is z ne> z possible to accuracy1 accord+ to our be/ obs]vation2 &1 besides1 !re is conv5i5ce 9 ?is simple e/imate ( "o tile to "o foot1 :i* is important 9 practice4 ,we h n[ ! data f :i* we may make "s tol]ably safe e/imates ( ! co/ ( dra9age4 ,) labor at "o doll> p] day1 & tiles at #aj p] #a1jjj1 or "o c5t ea*1 or "o c5t a foot1 & dit*es f\r feet deep1 op5$ & fill$ at "o-?ird ( a day's labor to ! rod1 we may set d[n ! pr9cipal items ( ! co/ ( dra9age by ! rod1 z foll[s3 ,cutt+ & fill+ p] rod #cc-a_/c cts4 ,tiles #af-b_/c ---- #ej ,?is is putt+ ! tiles at "o c5t a foot1 & ! labor at two c5ts a foot1 or j twice z mu* z ! co/ ( tiles1 & x br+s a total ( half a doll> a rod1 all ( !m numb]s easily rememb]$1 & conv5i5t = calculation4 ,by ref]5ce to ! table giv+ ! numb] ( rods to ! acre1 ! co/ ( labor & tiles p] acre may be at once f\nd1 by tak+ half ! numb] ( rods 9 doll>s4 ,at #db feet di/ance1 ! co/ w be #ca4db p] acre2 at #cj feet di/ance1 #dd2 & at #fj feet1 half t am\nt1 or #bb p] acre4 ,our views z to ! frequ5cy ( dra9s1 may be f\nd "u ! appropriate head4 ,our e/imate ?us f>1 is ( f\r-foot dra9s4 ,we h %[n1 "u ! head ( ! ,dep? ( ,dra9s1 t ! co/ ( cutt+ & fill+ a f\r-foot dra9 is d\ble t ( cutt+ & fill+ a ?ree-foot dra94 ,!re is no d\bt1 t1 aft] all ! good advice we h giv5 on ?is subject1 _m1 :o gr[ wis] ?an _! tea*]s are1 w set aside ! tea*+s ( ! be/ dra9+ eng9e]s 9 ! _w1 & insi/ t ?ree feet deep is en\gh1 & p]si/ 9 s lay+ _! tiles4 ,?is %all[ness w r$uce ! co/ ( labor ab\t "o half1 s t we %all h ! co/ ( labor & tiles equal--"o c5t a foot1 mak+ #cc8 c5ts p] rod1 or "o-?ird ( a doll>1 in/ead ( "o-half a doll> p] rod4 ,to ! co/ ( labor & tiles1 we %\ld add a fair e/imate ( ! co/ ( ! o!r items ( eng9e]+ & outlets4 ,^! are trifl+ matt]s1 :i* ,engli% tables1 z has be5 %[n1 e/imate toge!r1 at ab\t #a4fg p] acre4 ,briefly to recapitulate ! elem5ts ( computation ( ! co/ ( dra9age1 we f9d !m to be ^!3 ! price ( labor1 ! price ( tiles1 & freight ( !m2 ! "* ( ! soil1 ! dep? ( ! dra9s1 & _! di/ance ap>t1 ) ! incid5tal exp5se ( eng9e]+ & ( outfalls1 & ! l>ge additional co/ ( coll>s1 :]e !y are deem$ necess>y4 ,,comp>ative ,,co/ ,,( ,,tile ,,& ,,/one ,,dra9s4 ,x is n possible to answ]1 ) precision1 ! "q s (t5 ask$1 z to ! comp>ative co/ ( dra9age ) tiles & /ones4 ,! e/imates giv5 ( ! co/ ( tile dra9s1 are bas$ ^u ! writ]'s own exp]i5ce1 ^u 8 own f>m ma9ly2 & ! mean wid? ( f\r-foot tile dra9s1 may be assum$ to be #ad in*es1 in/ead ( #aj-a_/b in*es1 z actually practic$ 9 ,engl&4 ,= a /one dra9 ( almo/ any =m1 c]ta9ly = any regul> wat]-c\rse laid ) /ones1 our dit* mu/ be at lea/ #ba in*es wide f top to bottom4 ,?is is j #ej p] c5t1 m ?an our own e/imate1 & #ajj p] c5t41 or d\ble ! ,engli% e/imate = tile dra9s4 ,x w require at lea/ two ox-c>t loads ( /ones to ! rod1 to con/ruct any sort ( a /one dra91 co/+1 p]haps1 #be c5ts a load = pick+ up & haul+4 ,9 mo/ cases1 :]e ! /ones are n on ! f>m1 x w co/ twice t sum4 ,we w say #be c5ts p] rod = lay+ ! /ones1 ?\gh ?is is a l[ e/imate4 ,we h1 !n1 = cutt+ & fill+ ! dit*1 #ej c5ts p] rod1 #ej c5ts = haul+ /one1 & = lay+1 #be c5ts p] rod1 mak+ #a4be a rod = a /one dra91 aga9/ #ej c5ts p] rod = tile dra9s4 ,!n we h a l>ge surplus ( e>?1 two c>tloads to ! rod1 displac$ by ! two loads ( /one1 to be dispos$ (2 & 9 case ( ! tiles1 we h j e>? en\gh4 ,!re are _m o!r consid]ations 9 favor ( tiles3 su* z ! cutt+ up ( ! gr\nd by team+ heavy loads ( /ones2 ! great] p]man5cy ( tiles2 & ! fact t !y furni% no h>bor = mice & o!r v]m91 z ! ,engli% call su* small bea/s4 ,9 favor ( /ones1 is ! fact1 t (t5 !y are on ! l&1 & mu/ be mov$1 & x is conv5i5t to dispose ( !m 9 ! dit*es4 ,aga91 !re are _m p>ts ( ! c\ntry :]e tiles are n to be procur$1 )\t great co/ ( freight1 & :]e labor is abundant at c]ta9 seasons1 & money sc>ce at all seasons1 s t ! "q is really betwe5 /one dra9s & no dra9s4 ,/one dra9s1 if laid v deep1 are f> m secure ?an :5 %all[2 because1 if %all[1 !y are usually ru9$ by ! break+ 9 ( wat] at ! top1 9 ! ,spr+ "t1 by ! action ( fro/1 & by ! m9+ ( mice & moles4 ,if laid f\r feet deep1 & ! e>? ramm$ h>d above ! /ones1 & r\nd$ on ! surface to ?r[ (f surface wat]1 !y may be f\nd effici5t & p]man5t4 ,! conclusion1 h[ev]1 is1 t :]e x c be procur$1 at any reasonable co/1 dra9age ) tiles w g5]ally co/ less ?an "o-half ! exp5se ( dra9age ) /ones1 & be incomp>ably m satisfactory 9 ! end4 ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,,dra9+ ,,implem5ts4 ,unreasonable ,expectations ab\t ,dra9+ ,tools4--,levell+ ,in/rum5ts2 ,guess+ n ,accurate4--,level by a ,squ>e4--,_s ,level4--,span1 or ,a ,level4--,grad+ by ,l9es4--,bon+-rod4--,*allon]'s ,dra9 ,level4--,spades & ,%ovels4--,long-h&l$ ,%ovel4--,iri% ,spade1 ,description & ,cut4--,bottom+ ,tools4--,n>r[ ,spades4--,engli% ,bottom+ ,tools4--,pipe-lay]4--,pipe-lay+ ,illu/rat$4--,pick-axes4--,dra9 ,gauge4--,dra9 ,pl[s1 & ,dit*-,digg]s4--,f[l]'s ,dra9 ,pl[4--,pratt's ,dit*-,digg]4--,mc,ewan's ,dra9 ,pl[4--,r\tt's ,dra9 ,pl[4 ,x seems to be a *>act]i/ic ( ,am]icans1 to be dissatisfi$ ) e rec5t improvem5t 9 art or sci5ce1 & ! great] ! /ep 9 advance ( =m] times1 ! m capti\s & critical d we become4 ,!re is _m a good lady1 :o _c tol]ate a sew+-ma*9e1 al?\gh %e kn[s x w d ! "w ( t5 seam/resses1 because x w n sew on buttons & "w buttonholes6 ,mo/ ( u are v mu* out ( temp] ) ! magnetic telegraph1 j n[1 because x does n br+ u ! ,c\rt news f ,engl& e morn+ be=e breakfa/1 ?\gh we h h\rly dispat*es f ,wa%+ton1 ,new ,orleans1 & ,/4 ,l\is2 &1 return+ to our m\tons1 ev]ybody is f9d+ fault ) u j n[1 because we _c tell !m ( "s univ]sal1 all-p5etrat+1 *eap1 /rong1 simple1 endur+ little implem5t1 by means ( :i* any k9d ( a labor]1 ,scot*1 ,iri%1 or ,yankee1 may conv5i5tly op5 all k9ds ( dra9s 9 all k9ds ( l&1 :e!r s&1 h>d-pan1 gravel1 or clay4 ,hav+ p]sonally inquir$ & exam9$1 t\*+ dra9+ tools 9 ,engl&1 & hav+ be5 solicit$ by an ext5sive agricultural implem5t h\se 9 ,bo/on1 to furni% !m a li/ & description ( a complete set ( dra9+ tools1 & feel+ ! obligation :i* seem$ to be impos$ on u1 to "k all ab\t ?is matt]1 we wrote to ,mr4 ,d5ton1 "o ( ! fir/ dra9+ eng9e]s 9 ! _w1 to s5d u a li/1 ) draw+s & descriptions ( su* implem5ts z he f9ds mo/ useful1 or1 if m conv5i5t ! implem5ts !mselves4 ,mr4 ,d5ton k9dly repli$ to our inquiry1 & 8 answ] may be tak5 z ! be/ evid5ce ^u ?is po9t4 ,he says3 ,z to tools1 x is ! same ) !m z x is ) ! art ( dra9+ itself--too mu* rule & too mu* draw+ ^u pap]2 all v "r to beg9 )1 b v prejudicial to progress4 ,i employ1 z eng9e] to ! ,g5]al ,l& ,dra9age ,company1 & on my private acc\nt1 dur+ ! dra9age season1 z _m z #b1jjj m51 & x is an actual fact1 t n "o ( !m uses ! set ( tools figur$ 9 pr9t4 ,i h frequ5tly pur*as$ a numb] ( sets ( ! ,birm+ham tools1 & s5t !m d[n on ext5sive works4 ,! labor]s w\ld pur*ase a few ( ! small] tools1 su* z ,nos4 #bij1 #bia1 & #cja1 figur$ 9 ,morton's excell5t ,cyclopa$ia ( ,agriculture1 & w\ld try !m1 & !n ord] o!rs ( ! c\ntry blacksmi?1 diff]+ 9 sev]al respects2 less weighty & mu* less co/ly1 &1 moreov]1 mu* bett] z work+ tools4 ,all ,i require ( ! cutt]s1 is1 t ! bottom ( ! dra9 %\ld be ev5ly cut1 to fit ! size ( ! pipe4 ,! re/ ( ! "w takes c>e ( itself2 = a good workman w economize 8 labor = 8 own sake1 by mov+ z little e>? z practicable2 ?us1 = in/ance1 a fir/-class cutt]1 9 clays1 w get d[n f\r feet ) a twelve-in* op5+1 ord9>ily2 if he wi%es to %[ (f1 he w sacrifice 8 own com=t to appe>ance1 & w d x ) a t5-in* op5+4 ,hav+ ?us fre$ our m9d by way ( prelim9>y1 we propose to take up our subject1 & pursue x z practically & quietly z possible to ! end4 ,x may be well1 p]haps1 fir/ to sugge/ by way ( explanation ( ,mr4 ,d5ton's lett]1 above quot$1 t dra9s are usually op5$ 9 ,engl& by ! y>d1 or rod1 ! labor] f9d+ 8 own tools4 ,z has be5 intimat$1 ! implem5ts conv5i5t = dra9+1 dep5d on _m circum/ances4 ,!y dep5d ^u ! "* ( ! e>? to be mov$4 ,a %>p1 light spade1 :i* may "w rapidly & well 9 a light loam or s&1 may be entirely unfit to drive into a /iff clay2 & ! fancy bottom+ tools :i* may cut out a s(t clay or s& 9 nicely-measur$ slices1 w be f\nd q too delicate = a h>d-pan or gravel1 :]e ! pick-axe alone c op5 a passage4 ,! implem5ts aga9 mu/ be suit$ to ! workman :o h&les x4 ,h5ry ,w>d ,bee*]1 9 speak+ ( cre$s1 :i* he1 on ano!r occasion1 _h said 7 ! sk9s ( religion set up & /uff$1 rem>k$1 t x 0 ( m importance t a man %\ld "k h[ to make a practical use ( 8 fai?1 ?an t he %\ld subscribe to _m articles2 =1 said he1 ,i h se5 _m a man :o c\ld d m at c>p5t]'s "w ) "o old jack-knife1 ?an ano!r c\ld d ) a :ole *e/ ( tools6 ,:at c an ,iri%man d ) a *opp+ ax1 & :at _c a ,yankee d ) x8 ,:o ev] saw a ,scot*man or an ,iri%man :o c\ld n cut a /raight dit* ) a spade1 & :o ev] saw a ,yankee :o c\ld or w\ld cut a dit* /raight ) any tool8 ,"o man works be/ ) a long-h&l$ spade1 ano!r pref]s a %ort h&le2 "o drives x into ! e>? ) 8 "r foot1 ano!r ) 8 left4 ,a labor+ man1 9 g5]al1 works mo/ easily ) su* tools z he is accu/om$ to h&le2 :ile !oriz+ implem5t-mak]s1 work+ out _! patt]n by ! light ( reason1 may produce su* a tool z a man ought to "w )1 )\t adapt+ x at all to ! capacity or ta/e ( ! labor]4 ,a man %\ld be measur$ = 8 tools1 z mu* z = 8 g>m5t1 & n be expect$ to fit himself to ano!r's notions m ?an to ano!r's coat4 ,if ! l&-own] proposes to act z 8 own eng9e]1 ! fir/ in/rum5t he w want to use is a ,,_s ,,level1 or "s o!r contrivance by :i* he may asc]ta9 ! v>iations ( ! surface ( 8 field4 ,! natural way = a ,yankee to get at ! grades is to guess at !m1 & ?is1 practically1 is :at is usually done4 ,dit*es are op5$ :]e !re appe>s to be a desc5t1 & if !re is wat] runn+1 ! rise is e/imat$ by its curr5t2 & if !re is no wat] ris+ 9 ! dra91 a bucketfull is occasionally p\r$ 9 to guide ! labor] 9 8 "w4 ,no "o :o has n te/$ ! accuracy1 or1 r1 inaccuracy1 ( 8 judgm5t1 z to ! levels ( fields1 c at all appreciate ! deceitfulness ( appe>ances on ?is po9t4 ,! human eye w see /raight2 b x w n see level )\t a guide4 ,x =ms conclusions by comp>ison2 & ! l9es ( upl&1 ( =e/ tops & ( di/ant hills1 all conspire to confuse ! judgm5t1 s t x is q common = a brook to appe> to ! eye to run up hill1 ev5 :5 x has a quick curr5t4 ,a few trials ) a _s-level w cure any man ( 8 conceit on ?is subject4 ,& s x is z to ! regul> incl9ation ( ! bottom ( dra9s4 ,x is desirable n only to h an incl9ation all ! way1 b a regul> incl9ation1 z ne>ly z possible1 especially if ! desc5t be small4 ,workm5 are v apt to "w at a uni=m dep? f ! surface1 & s give ! bottom ( ! dra9 ! same v>iations z ! surface l9e2 & ?us at "o po9t !re may be a fall ( "o in* 9 a rod2 at ano!r1 twice t fall2 & at ano!r1 a dead level1 or ev5 a holl[4 ,on our own f>m1 we h f\nd1 9 twelve rods1 a v>iation ( a foot 9 ! bottom l9e ( a dra9 op5$ by skillful workm5 on a ne>ly level field1 :]e !y _h no wat] to guide !m1 & :]e !y _h suppos$ _! fall 0 regul> ?r\gh\t4 ,! foll[+ sket* %[s ! diff]5ce betwe5 l9es ( tiles laid ) & )\t in/rum5ts4 ,next to guess+ at ! fall 9 our field1 may be plac$ a little contrivance1 ( :i* we h made use suffici5tly to become satisfi$ ( its want ( practical accuracy4 ,x is ?us figur$ & describ$ 9 ! excell5t treatise ( ,?omas1 on ,f>m ,implem5ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ed4 ,a is a common squ>e1 plac$ 9 a slit 9 ! top ( ! /ake ,b4 ,by means ( a plumb-l9e ! squ>e is br\ght to a level1 :5 a ?umbscrew1 at ,c1 fixes x fa/4 ,if ! squ>e is two feet long1 & is s c>efully adju/$ z n to v>y m ?an ! tw5tie? ( an in* f a true level1 :i* is easily accompli%$1 !n a tw5tie? ( an in* 9 two feet w be "o in* 9 =ty feet--a suffici5t degree ( accuracy = _m cases4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ee4--,,squ>e ,,& ,,plumb-,,level4 ,we d n s mu* object to ! pr9ciple ( ! above level1 z to its practical work+4 ,we f9d x difficult1 )\t cross sights1 to take an accurate level ) any in/rum5t4 ,h[ev]1 ^? :o are us$ to rifle-%oot+ may hit tol]ably ne> ! m>k ) ! squ>e4 ,mr4 ,?omas only claims t x is accurate en\gh = _m cases4 ,a prop] _s-level1 su* z is us$ by eng9e]s ( railroads & canals1 atta*$ to a telescope1 is ! be/ ( all in/rum5ts4 ,s great is ! p]fection ( ?is in/rum5t1 says ! writ] j quot$1 t sep>ate l9es ( levels h be5 run ) x1 = sixty miles1 )\t v>y+ two-?irds ( an in* = ! :ole di/ance4 ,a *eap & conv5i5t _s-level1 = our purpose1 is ?us con/ruct$4 ,x is furni%$ ) eye sights1 a b1 &1 :5 9 use1 is plac$ into a fram+ ( brass :i* op]ates z a spr+ to adju/ x to ! level position1 d1 by ! action ( ! l>ge-head$ brass screw1 c4 ,a /ud is affix$ to ! fram+1 & pu%$ firmly into a gimlet-hole 9 ! top ( ! %ort rod1 :i* is pu%$ or driv5 into ! gr\nd at ! spot f :5ce ! level is desir$ to be asc]ta9$4 ,x ne$ sc>cely be m5tion$1 t ! height ( ! eye sight1 f ! gu>d1 is to be d$uct$ f ! height ( obs]vation1 :i* quantity is easily obta9$ by hav+ ! rod m>k$ (f 9 in*es & feet2 b x may be m5tion$1 t ?is in/rum5t %\ld be us$ 9 all cases ( dra9+ on level gr\nd1 ev5 :5 "o is confid5t t he kn[s ! fall ( ! gr\nd2 = ! eye is a v deceitful monitor = in=m+ y ( ! levelness ( gr\nd4 ,x is s light z to admit ( be+ c>ri$ 9 ! pocket1 :il/ its rod may be us$ z a /aff or cane4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ef4--,,_s ,,level4 ,a /aff ( t5 feet 9 l5g?1 graduat$ 9 feet & in*es1 & held by an att5dant at ! v>i\s po9ts ( obs]vation1 is necess>y 9 ! use ( ! _s-level 9 ! field4 ,a pa9t$ t>get1 arrang$ ) a slide to be mov$ up & d[n on ?is /aff1 & held by a ?umbscrew1 w be f\nd useful4 ,we h made = our own use a level l ! above1 & f9d x suffici5tly accurate = dra9age purposes4 ,small _s-levels set 9 iron c be _h at ! h>dw>e %ops = tw5ty c5ts ea*1 & c be readily atta*$ to wood by a screw1 9 con/ruct+ our implem5t2 or a _s-level set 9 mahogany1 ( suitable size1 may be procur$ = a half doll>1 & any p]son1 h&y ) tools1 c d ! re/4 ,! sights %\ld be arrang$ bo? ways1 ) a slit cut ) a *isel ?r\gh ! brass or t91 & an oblong op5+ at ea* end4 ,! eye is plac$ at ! slit1 & sight is tak5 by a hair or f9e ?read1 drawn across ! op5+ at ! o!r end4 ,!n1 by *ang+ ends1 & sight+ ?r\gh ! o!r end at a giv5 object1 any error 9 ! in/rum5t may be detect$4 ,! hair or ?read may be held 9 place by a little wax1 & mov$ up or d[n till x is c>efully adju/$4 ,! in/rum5t %\ld turn ^u ! /aff 9 all directions1 s t ! level ( a :ole field1 s f> z x is )9 range1 may be tak5 f "o position4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eg4 ,,/aff ,,& ,,t>get4 ,to ma9ta9 a uni=m grade 9 ! bottom ( a dra9 s z to economize ! fall1 & di/ribute x equally ?r\gh ! :ole l5g?1 sev]al diff]5t in/rum5ts & means may be adopt$4 ,! fir/ :i* we w figure1 is :at is call$ ! ,span1 or ,a ,level4 ,su* a level may be easily con/ruct$ ( common in*-bo>d4 ,if x be desir$ to note ! fall 9 feet1 ! span may conv5i5tly be t5 feet4 ,if a notation 9 rods be pref]r$1 ! span %\ld be a rod1 or half rod long4 ,! two feet be+ plac$ on a floor1 & asc]ta9$ to be p]fectly level by a _s-level1 ! plumb-l9e w hang 9 ! c5tre1 :]e a di/9ct m>k %\ld be made on ! cross-b>4 ,!n place a block ( wood1 exactly an in* ?ick1 "u "o leg1 & m>k ! place :]e ! l9e crosses ! b>4 ,put ano!r block an in* ?ick "u ! same leg1 & aga9 m>k :]e ! l9e crosses ! b>1 & s on z f> z is ?\ght necess>y4 ,!n put ! blocks "u ! o!r leg 9 ! same mann]1 & m>k ! cross-b>4 ,if ! span be t5 feet1 ! plumb-l9e w indicate ^u ! b>1 by ! m>k :i* x crosses1 ! rise or fall 9 in*es1 9 t5 feet4 ,if ! span be a rod1 ! l9e w indicate ! numb] ( in*es p] rod ( ! rise or fall4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eh4--,,span1 ,,or ,a ,,level4 ,?is in/rum5t is us$ ?us3 ,! fall ( ! dit* f end to end be+ asc]ta9$ by ! _s-level1 & ! l5g? also1 ! fall p] rod1 or p] "o hundr$ feet1 may be comput$4 ,! span is !n plac$ 9 ! bottom ( ! dra91 f "t to "t1 to guide ! workman1 or = accurate inspection ( ! f9i%$ cut4 ,we h con/ruct$ & us$ ?is level1 & f\nd x v conv5i5t to te/ ! accuracy ( ! workm51 :o _h op5$ dra9s 9 our abs5ce4 ,a t5-foot span w be f\nd z l>ge z c be conv5i5tly c>ri$ ab\t ! f>m4 ,= ! accurate grad+ ( ! bottom ( dra9s1 z ! "w proce$s1 we h 9 practice f\nd no?+ s conv5i5t & accurate z ! arrangem5t :i* we are ab\t to illu/rate4 ,! object is simply to draw a l9e p>allel ) ! propos$ bottom ( ! dra91 = ! labor]s to "w "u1 s t !y1 z !y proce$1 may measure d[n f x1 z a guide to dep?4 ,hav+ ) ! _s-level1 asc]ta9$ ! fall f end to end ( ! dra91 a %ort /ake is set at ea* end1 & a l9e is drawn f "o to ! o!r at ! requisite height1 & support$ by ! cross-pieces1 at suitable di/ances1 to prev5t ! sagg+ ( ! l9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ei4--;,,grad+ ,,tr5*es ,,by ,,l9es4 ,suppose ! dra9 to be t5 rods long1 & t x is int5d$ to cut x f\r feet deep1 ! natural fall be+1 f end to end1 suffici5t4 ,we drive a /ake at ea* end ( ! dra91 high en\gh to atta* to x a l9e ?ree feet above ! surface1 :i* w be sev5 feet above ! bottom ( ! f9i%$ dra9--high en\gh to be above ! heads ( ! cutt]s1 :5 /&+ ne> ! bottom4 ,be=e draw+ ! l9e1 ! dra9 may be ne>ly complet$4 ,!n drive ! int]m$iate /akes1 ) ! project+ arms1 :i* we w call squ>es1 on "o side ( ! dra91 c>efully sight+ f "o end ( ! /ake to ! o!r1 at ! po9t fix$ = ! l9e1 & driv+ ! squ>es till !y are exactly ev54 ,!n atta* a /rong small cord1 n l>g] ?an a *alk l9e1 to "o ( ! /akes1 & draw x z tight z x w be>1 & secure x at ! o!r /ake4 ,! l9e is n[ directly ov] ! middle ( ! dra91 sev5 feet f ! bottom4 ,give ! cutt]s1 !n1 a rod sev5 feet long1 & let !m cut j deep en\gh = ! rod to /& on ! bottom & t\* ! l9e4 ,practically1 ?is has be5 f\nd by ! au?or1 ! mo/ accurate & satisfactory me?od ( br++ dra9s to a regul> grade4 ,in/ead ( a l9e1 aft] ! end /akes h be5 plac$1 a bon+ rod1 z x is call$1 may be us$ ?us3 ,a /aff is us$1 ) a cross-piece at ! top1 & long en\gh1 :5 re/+ on ! prop] bottom ( ! dra91 to rea* to ! level ( ! m>ks on ! /akes1 ?ree feet above ! surface4 ,cross-pieces nail$ to ! /akes are ! mo/ conspicu\s m>ks4 ,a p]son /&s at "o /ake sight+ along to ! o!r2 a second p]son !n holds ! rod upright 9 ! dit*1 j t\*+ ! bottom1 & c>ries x ?us along4 ,if1 :ile x is mov$ along1 its top is always 9 a l9e ) ! cross-b>s on ! end /akes1 ! fall is uni=m2 if x rise above1 ! bottom ( ! dra9 mu/ be l[]$2 if x fall bel[1 ! bottom ( ! dra9 mu/ be rais$4 ,?is may be conv5i5t en\gh = m]e inspection ( works1 b x requires two p]sons besides ! cutt]s1 to f9i% ! dra9 by ?is mode2 :]eas1 ) ! l9es & squ>es1 any labor] c complete ! "w ) exactness4 ,ano!r mode ( levell+1 by means ( a mammo? mason's level1 ) an improvem5t1 0 inv5t$ by ,colonel ,*allon]1 & publi%$ 9 ! ,j\rnal ( ! ,royal ,agricultural ,society4 ,x may appe> to "s p]sons m simple ?an ! span level4 ,we give ! cut & explanation4 ,i fir/ asc]ta9 :at am\nt ( fall ,i c obta91 f ! head ( e dra9 to my outfall4 ,suppose ! l5g? ( ! dra9 to be #if y>ds1 & ,i f9d ,i h a fall ( two feet1 t gives me a fall ( a qu>t] ( an in* 9 e y>d4 ,i take a common bricklay]'s level #ab feet long1 to ! bottom ( :i* ,i atta*1 ) screws1 a piece ( wood ! :ole l5g?1 "o in* wid] at "o end ?an at ! o!r1 !reby ?r[+ ! level "o in* out ( ! true horizontal l9e4 ,:5 ! dra9 has got to its prop] dep? at ! outfall1 ,i apply ! broade/ end ( ! level to ! m\?2 & :5 ! plumb-bob indicates ! level to be correct1 ! "o-in* fall has be5 ga9$ 9 ! f\r y>ds1 & s on4 ,i keep te/+ ! dra9 z x is dug1 q up to ! head1 :5 an unbrok51 ev51 & cont9u\s fall ( two feet 9 ! :ole #if y>ds has be5 obta9$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fj4--;,,*allon]',s ,,level4 ,,spades ,,& ,,%ovels4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fa1 #fb1 #fc4--;,,dra9 ,,spades4 ,no peculi> tool is ess5tial 9 op5+ t "p ( ! dra9 :i* is m ?an a foot 9 wid?4 ,%ovels & spades1 ( ! =ms usually f\nd ^u well-furni%$ f>ms1 & adapt$ to its soil1 w be f\nd suffici5t4 ,a ,bo/on agricultural h\se1 a ye> or two s9ce1 s5t out an ord] to ,london = a complete set ( dra9+ tools4 ,9 due season1 !y receiv$1 9 compliance ) _! ord]1 ?ree spades ( diff]5t wid?1 l ^? repres5t$ 9 ! cut4 ,^! are und]/ood to be ! tools 9 common use 9 ,engl& & ,scotl&1 = sod-dra9+1 & = any o!r dra9s1 inde$1 except tiles4 ,! wide/ is #ab in*es wide1 & is us$ to remove ! fir/ spit1 ( ab\t "o foot dep?4 ,! second is #ab in*es wide at top1 & #h at ! po9t1 & ! ?ird1 eight at top1 & f\r at ! po9t4 ,! n>r[e/ spade is usually made ) a spur 9 front1 or :at ! ,iri% call a tread]1 on :i* to place ! foot 9 driv+ x into ! e>?4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fd4 ,,spade ,,) ,,spur4 ,= w$ge dra9s1 ^! spades are made n>r[] ?an ^? above repres5t$1 ! f9i%+ spade be+ b two & a half in*es wide at ! po9t4 ,x w be recollect$ t ?is k9d ( dra9age is only adapt$ to clay l&4 ,! %ovels & spades :i* h be5 h]et(ore 9 mo/ common use 9 ,new ,engl& are made ) %ort h&les1 ?us-- ,illu/ration3 ,figs4 #fe1 #ff4--;,,common ,,%ovel ,,& ,,spade4 ,!y are ( ca/-/eel1 & comb9e great /r5g? & lightness4 ,long-h&l$ %ovels & spades are mu* pref]r$1 usually1 by ,iri% labor]s1 ^: fancy is wor? consult+ 9 matt]s ) :i* !y h s mu* to d4 ,we believe _! notion is correct1 t ! long-h&l$ tool is ! easi] to "w )1 at almo/ any job4 ,9 our own dra9+1 we f9d ! common spade1 ) long or %ort h&le1 to be be/ 9 m>k+ out ! l9es 9 turf2 & ei!r ! spade or common %ovel1 accord+ to ! nature ( ! soil1 mo/ conv5i5t 9 remov+ ! fir/ foot ( e>?4 ,aft] ?is1 if ! pick is us$1 a long-h&l$ r\nd-po9t$ %ovel1 n[ 9 common use on our f>ms1 is f\nd conv5i5t1 until ! dit* is too n>r[ = its use4 ,!n ! same %ovel1 turn$ up at ! sides s z to =m a n>r[ scoop1 w be f\nd bett] ?an any tool we yet h to remove ?is loos5$ e>?4 ,illu/ration3 ,figs4 #fg1 #fh4--,,long-,,h&l$ ,,r\nd ,,%ovel4 ,,scoop ,,%ovel4 ,( all ! tools t we h ev] se5 9 ! h&s ( an ,iri%man1 9 dit*+1 no?+ approximates to ! true ,iri% spade4 ,x is a v clumsy1 unga9ly-look+ implem5t us$ 9 ! old c\ntry bo? = dit*+1 & = ridg+ = potatoes1 be+ v>i$ some:at 9 wid?1 accord+ to ! int5d$ use4 ,= /ony soil1 x is made n>r[] & /rong]1 :ile = ! bog x is broad] & light]4 ,! ,iri% blacksmi?s 9 ?is c\ntry usually "k h[ to make !m1 & we h got up a patt]n ( !m1 :i* are manufactur$ by ,laighton & ,lufk91 edge-tool mak]s1 ( ,auburn1 ,n4 ,h41 :i* h be5 te/$1 & f\nd to suit ! ideas ( ! ,iri% workm54 ,?is is a correct portrait ( an ,iri% spade ( our own patt]n1 :i* has done m 9 op5+ two miles ( dra9s on our own f>m1 ?an any o!r implem5t4 ,! spade ( ! ,laighton & ,lufk9 patt]n weighs #e lbs41 )\t ! h&le1 & is eighte5 in*es long4 ,x is ( iron1 except ab\t eight in*es ( ! blade1 :i* is ( ca/ /eel1 temp]$ & poli%$ l a *opp+ axe4 ,x is consid]ably curv$1 & ! workm5 suit _! own ta/e z to ! degree ( curvature1 by putt+ ! tool "u a log or rock1 & b5d+ x to suit !mselves4 ,x is a p[]ful1 /rong implem5t1 & w cut (f a root ( an in* or two diamet] z readily z an axe4 ,! h&le is ( t\gh a%1 & held 9 place by a w$ge driv5 at ! side ( x1 & c be knock$ out readily :5 ! spade ne$s new /eel1 or any repair4 ,! l5g? ( ! h&le is ?ree feet eight in*es1 & ! diamet] ab\t "o & "o-f\r? in*es4 ,! w$ge projects1 & =ms a tread]1 broad & firm1 on :i* ! foot comes d[n1 to drive ! spade into ! gr\nd4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fi4--;,,iri% ,,spade4 ,we h endeavor$ to h ! m>ket suppli$ ) ! ,iri% spades1 because1 9 ! h&s ( su* ,iri%m5 z h us$ !m at home1 we f9d !m a mo/ effective tool4 ,we are met ) all sorts ( reasonable !oretical objections on ! "p ( implem5t sell]s1 & ( f>m]s1 :o nev] saw an ,iri% spade 9 use4 ,w\ld n ! tool be bett] if x 7 wid] & light]1 asks "o4 ,i ?9k x w\ld be bett] if ! spur1 or tread]1 7 movable & ( iron1 s z to be put on ! o!r side or 9 front1 sugge/s ano!r4 ,x seems z if x w\ld "w bett]1 if x 7 /raight1 adds a ?ird4 ,w\ld x n hold ! dirt bett] if x 7 a little holl[+ on ! front1 qu]ies a f\r?4 ,no d\bt1 we reply1 !re might be a v good implem5t made1 wid] & light]1 )\t a wood5 tread]1 & turn$ up at ! sides1 to hold ! e>? bett]1 b x w\ld n be an ,iri% spade :5 f9i%$4 ,y\r !ories may be all correct & demon/rable by ! pure/ ma!matics1 b ! "q is1 ) :at tool w ,patrick d ! mo/ "w8 ,if he recognizes ! ,iri% spade z an in/itution ( 8 c\ntry1 z a "p ( 'home1' y might z well attempt to reason him out ( 8 fai? 9 ! ,pope1 z conv9ce him t 8 spade is n p]fect4 ,our man1 ,james1 believes 9 ! infallibility ( bo?4 ,!re is no digg+ on ! f>m t 8 spade is n adapt$ to4 ,to m>k out a dra9 9 ! turf by a l9e1 he m\nts 8 spade ) "o foot1 & hops backw>d on ! o!r1 ) a cel]ity surpris+ to behold4 ,!n he cuts ! sod 9 squ>es1 &1 ) a sleight ( h&1 :i* does n come by nature1 z ,dogb]ry says read+ & writ+ come1 ?r[s out ! fir/ spit4 ,:5 he comes on to ! gravel or h>d clay1 :]e ano!r man w\ld use a pick-axe1 8 heavy boot comes d[n ^u ! tread]1 & drives ! spade a foot or m deep2 & if a root is enc\nt]$1 a bl[ or two easily sev]s x4 ,! la/ foot at ! bottom ( ! f\r-foot dra91 is cut out = ! sole-tile only f\r & a half in*es wide1 & ! sides ( ! dit* are kept trimm$1 ev5 & /raight1 ) ! %>p /eel edge4 ,& x is pleasant to he> ,james express 8 satisfaction ) 8 national implem5t4 ,&1 sure1 we c\ld d no?+ at ?is job1 sir1 )\t ! ,iri% spade6 ,&1 sure1 ,i %\ld l to see a man t w spade ?is h>d clay ) any?+ else1 sir6 ,on ! :ole1 ?\gh ! ,iri% spade does wond]s on our f>m1 we recomm5d x only = ,iri%m51 :o "k h[ to h&le x4 ,9 our own h&s1 x is z awkw>d a ?+ z we ev] took hold (1 & we nev] saw any man b an ,iri%man1 :o c\ld use x gracefully & effectively4 ,bottom+ ,tools4--,! only tools :i* are want$ ( peculi> =m 9 dra9+1 are su* z are us$ 9 =m+ ! n>r[ "p ( ! tr5*es at ! bottom4 ,we c get d[n two feet1 or ev5 ?ree1 ) ! common spade & pick-axe1 & 9 mo/ k9ds ( dra9age1 except ) tiles1 x is necess>y to h ! bottom z wide1 at lea/1 z a spade4 ,9 tile-dra9+1 ! n>r[] ! tr5* ! bett]1 & 9 lay+ cyl9drical pipes )\t coll>s1 ! bottom ( ! dra9 %\ld exactly fit ! pipes1 to hold !m 9 l9e4 ,al?\gh r\nd pipes are g5]ally us$ 9 ,engl&1 we h kn[n none us$ 9 ,am]ica until ! pa/ season--! sole-pipe tak+ _! place4 ,z ! sole-pipe has a flat bottom1 a diff]5t tool is requir$ to f9i% its re/+-place1 f t adapt$ to ! r\nd pipe4 ,z we h n1 h[ev]1 arriv$ q at ! bottom1 we w return to ! tools = remov+ ! la/ foot ( e>?4 ,& fir/1 we give f ,morton1 ! ,birm+ham spades ref]r$ to by ,mr4 ,d5ton1 9 8 lett]1 quot$ 9 ?is *apt]4 ,!y are ! !oretically p]fect tools = remov+ ! la/ eighte5 or tw5ty in*es ( soil 9 a f\r or five-foot dra94 ,mr4 ,gisborne says ( ! dra9 prop]ly =m$3 ,x is wr\ght 9 ! %ape ( a w$ge1 br\ght 9 ! bottom to ! n>r[e/ limit :i* w admit ! coll>1 by tools admirably adapt$ to t purpose4 ,! foot ( ! op]ator is nev] )9 tw5ty in*es ( ! floor ( ! dra92 8 tools are made ( iron1 plat$ on /eel1 & nev] lose _! %>pness1 ev5 :5 worn to ! /umps2 because1 z ! s(t] mat]ial1 ! iron1 we>s away1 ! %>p /eel edge is always prom95t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gj4 ,fig4 #ga4 ,fig4 #gb4 ,,birm+ham ,,spades4 ,?is poetical view ( digg+ dra9s1 meets u at e turn1 & we are beset ) inquiries = ^! wond]ful implem5ts4 ,we d n intimate t ,mr4 ,gisborne1 & ^? :o s (t5 quote ! above language1 are n reliable4 ,mr4 ,gisborne is an honorable man1 s are !y all honorable m52 b we mu/ re=m our tiles1 & our l& too1 mo/ ( x1 we fe>1 be=e we c op5 f\r-foot tr5*es1 & lay pipes 9 !m1 )\t putt+ a foot )9 tw5ty in*es ( ! floor ( ! dra94 ,9 ! fir/ place1 we h great d\bt :e!r pipes c be laid close en\gh to make ! jo9ts secure )\t coll>s1 unless c>efully laid by h&1 or unless !y are r\nd pipes1 roll$ 9 ! mak+1 :5 half dri$1 & s made /raight & ev5 at ! ends4 ,9 lay+ su* sole-pipes z we h laid1 x requires "s c>e to adju/ !m1 s z to make ! jo9ts close4 ,mo/ ( !m are w>p$ 9 dry+ or burn+1 s t spaces ( half an in* w (t5 be left at ! top or side1 :]e two are laid end to end4 ,n[1 if ! foot nev] goes to ! bottom ( ! dra91 ! pipes mu/ be laid ) a hook or pipe-lay]1 su* z w be pres5tly describ$1 :i* may d well = pipes & coll>s1 because ! coll> cov]s ! jo9t1 s t x is ( no importance if x be some:at op54 ,aga91 we "k ( no me?od ( work+ ) a pick-axe1 except by /&+ z l[ z ! bottom ( ! "w4 ,no man c pick tw5ty in*es1 or inde$ any in*es1 l[] ?an he /&s1 because he mu/ move =w>d 9 ?is "w1 & n backw>d4 ,ea* l&-own] may judge = himself1 :e!r 8 l& requires ! pick 9 its excavation4 ,9 s(t clays1 no d\bt1 ) suitable tools1 ! tr5* may be cut a foot1 or m1 l[] ?an ! feet ( ! workman4 ,we h se5 x done 9 our l&1 9 a s&y soil1 ) ! ,iri% spade1 ?\gh1 z we us$ sole-pipes1 our pipe-lay] 0 a live ,iri%man1 :o walk$ 9 ! tr5* backw>ds1 putt+ d[n ! pipes ) 8 h&4 ,we are satisfi$1 t ! in/ances 9 :i* tr5*es may be op5$ a foot or two bel[ ! feet ( ! workm51 are ! exceptions1 & n ! rule1 & t 9 lay+ sole-tiles1 ! h& ( a c>eful workman mu/ adju/ ea* tile 9 its position4 ,we h f\nd a n>r[ spade1 f\r in*es wide1 ) a long h&le1 a conv5i5t tool = f9i%+ dra9s = sole-tiles4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gc4 ,fig4 #gd4 ,,n>r[ ,,spades ,,= ,,tiles4 ,we h ?or\ghly te/$ ! matt]2 & 9 all k9ds ( soil1 give a decid$ pref]5ce to spades z broad at ! po9t z at ! heel4 ,we h us$ common long-h&l$ spades1 cut d[n ) %e>s at a ma*9e-%op1 into ^! %apes4 ,! spade ( equal wid?1 works mu* m easily 9 ! bottom ( a tr5*1 because its corn]s d n cat*1 z d ^? ( ! o!r4 ,! po9t$ spade is app>5tly ne>] ! %ape ( ! slop+ dit*1 b su* tools _c be us$ v]tically1 & :5 ! heel ( ! po9t$ spade is l[]$1 x cat*es 9 ! side ( ! tr5*1 be=e ! po9t rea*es ! bottom4 ,v /rong spades1 ( v>i\s wid?1 f ?ree to eight in*es1 & ?ick at ! heel1 to op]ate z a w$ge1 w be f\nd mo/ suitable = common use4 ,! n>r[e/ spades %\ld h ! spur1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #fd1 because !re is n room = ! foot by ! side ( ! h&le4 ,! v>i\s tools = f9i%+ ! bottoms ( dra9s1 z figur$ 9 ,morton1 are ! foll[+3 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ge4 ,fig4 #gf4 ,fig4 #gg4 ,fig4 #gh4 ,fig4 #gi4 ,,engli% ,,bottom+ ,,tools4 ,! la/ implem5t1 :i* is a scoop = ! bottom ( tr5*es = r\nd pipes1 is "o ( ! tools m5tion$ 9 ,mr4 ,d5ton's lett]1 z n be+ f\nd to ! ta/e ( 8 workm54 ,= scoop+ out our flat-bottom$ tr5*es1 we use a tool l ,fig4 #gg4 ,= boggy l&1 s(t clay1 or1 inde$1 any l& :]e wat] is runn+ at ! "t ( ! excavation1 scoops l ! foll[+ w be f\nd conv5i5t = flat bottoms4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hj4 ,fig4 #ha4 ,fig4 #hb4 ,,draw+ ,,& ,,pu%+ ,,scoop1 ,,& ,,pipe-,,lay]4 ,! pu%+ scoop 7,fig4 #ha71 z x is call$1 may be made ( a common long-h&l$ %ovel1 turn$ up at ! sides by a blacksmi?1 leav+ x ( ! desir$ wid?4 ,! pipe-lay]1 ( :i* m5tion has s (t5 be5 made1 is a little implem5t inv5t$ by ,mr4 ,p>kes1 = plac+ r\nd pipes & coll>s 9 n>r[ tr5*es1 )\t /epp+ into !m4 ,! foll[+ sket*1 by our fri5d ,mr4 ,%$d1 %[s ! pipe-lay] 9 use4 ,! cross section ( ! l&1 %[n 9 front1 repres5ts x z hav+ _h ! advantage ( dra9+1 by :i* ! wat]-table is br\ght to a level ) ! bottom ( ! dra91 z %[n by ! heavy %ad+4 ,an ,iri% spade & a pipe-lay] are %[n ly+ on ! gr\nd4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hc4--,,pipe-,,lay+4 ,! pick-axes commonly us$ 9 excavation ( tr5*es1 are 9 ! foll[+ =ms3 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hd1 #he4--,,pick-,,axes4 ,pick-axes may be light or heavy1 accord+ to ! nature ( ! soil4 ,a *isel at "o end1 & po9t at ! o!r1 is f\nd be/ 9 mo/ cases4 ,a ,dra9-gauge is usually m5tion$ 9 a li/ ( dra9+ tools4 ,x is us$ :5 dit*es are design$ = /one or o!r mat]ial ?an tiles1 & :]e ! wid? is important4 ,9 tile-dra9+ ! wid? is entirely immat]ial4 ,if op5$ by ! rod1 x is only important t !y be ( prop] dep? & incl9ation1 ) ! bottom wide en\gh = ! tile4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hf4--;,,dra9-,,gauge4 ,! above figure %[s ! usual =m ( ! dra9-gauge4 ,bel[1 we give f ,morton1 draw+s1 & a description ( ,elk+ton's aug]s = bor+ 9 ! bottoms ( dit*es4 ,! cut annex$ repres5ts ! aug] employ$ by ,elk+ton1 :]e a b & c are diff]5t =ms ( ! tool2 d1 a portion ( ! %aft3 e1 ) ! w$ges1 h h1 ! cross h&le2 & f & g additional pieces = grasp+ ! %aft1 & s enabl+ m ?an "o p]son to "w at x4 ,! aug]-hole ought to be a little at "o side ( ! dra91 z 9 ,fig4 #c1 at page #ce1 s t ! wat] may n rise at "r angles to ! fl[ ( wat] 9 x1 & ob/ruct its curr5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hg4--;,,elk+ton',s ,,dra9+ ,,aug]4 ,illu/ration3 a4 ,! plug1 or po9t "u gr\nd1 to :i* ! /r+ ( pipes is atta*$4 bb4 ,! c\lt] f ! po9t up ?r\gh ! beam1 regulat$ by :eel & screw midway4 c4 ,! beam connect+ ! two pairs ( :eels4 e4 ,dra9 op5$ by h& :]e pipes ent] ! gr\nd4 a to e4 ,pipes "u gr\nd4 e to f4 ,pipes above gr\nd4 g4 ,w9dlass or cap/an1 work$ by horses4 h4 ,wire rope atta*$ to pl[1 & w\nd r\nd ! w9dlass4 i4 ,pulley r\nd :i* ! rope runs to keep ! pl[ 9 ! l9e ( ! dit*4 ,,dra9+-,,pl[s ,,& ,,dit*-,,digg]s4 ,! man :o c inv5t & con/ruct a ma*9e t %all be capable ( cutt+ f\r-foot dit*es = pipe-dra9s1 ) facility1 w des]ve well ( 8 c\ntry4 ,x is n ess5tial t ! dra9 be cut to its full dep? at "o op]ation4 ,if work$ by ox5 or horses1 x may g sev]al times ov] ! "w1 tak+ out a few in*es at ea* "t4 ,if mov$ by a cap/an1 or o!r sl[ly-op]at+ p[]1 x mu/ "w m ?or\ghly1 s z n to consume too mu* "t4 ,) a lev]1 su* z is us$ 9 ,willis's ,/ump ,pull]1 suffici5t p[] = any purpose may be appli$4 ,an implem5t l a subsoil pl[1 con/ruct$ to run f\r feet deep1 & m]ely do+ ! "w ( ! pick1 w\ld be ( great assi/ance4 ,pr(4 ,mapes says he has made use ( su* an implem5t ) great advantage4 ,= tile-dra9s1 ! n>r[] ! dit* ! bett]1 if x be only wide en\gh to receive ! tiles4 ,a m]e slit1 f\r in*es wide1 if /raight & ( ev5 incl9ation at ! bottom1 w\ld be ! be/ k9d ( dit*1 ! pipes be+ laid 9 ) a pipe-lay]4 ,b if ! dit* is to be f9i%$ by ! ma*9e1 x is ess5tial t x be s contriv$ t x w grade ! bottom1 & n leave x undulat+ l ! surface4 ,f[l]'s ,dra9 ,pl[ is said to be s arrang$1 by improvem5ts s9ce its fir/ trials1 z to atta9 ?is object4 ,hav+ ?us briefly sugge/$ "s ( ! po9ts to be kept 9 m9d by inv5tors1 we w proce$ to give "s acc\nt ( su* ma*9es z come ne>e/ to ! wants ( ! community4 ,f[l]'s ,dra9+-,pl[ w\ld meet ! l>ge/ wants ( ! public1 7 x *eap en\gh1 & really reliable to p]=m :at x is said to p]=m4 ,! au?or saw ?is implem5t 9 ,engl&1 b n 9 op]ation1 & x seems impossible1 f inspection ( x1 z well z f ! !ory ( its op]ation1 t x c succe$1 if at all1 9 any b s(t homog5e\s clay4 ,! idea is1 h[ev]1 s bold1 & s mu* is claim$ = ! implem5t1 t "s description ( x seems indisp5sable 9 a "w l ?is4 ,! pipes1 ( common dra9 tiles1 are /rung on a rope1 & ?is rope1 ) ! pipes1 is drawn ?r\gh ! gr\nd1 foll[+ a plug l ! foot ( a subsoil pl[1 leav+ ! pipes p]fectly laid1 & ! dra9 complet$ at a s+le op]ation4 7,see ,fig4 #hh47 ,! "w is comm5c$ by op5+ a %ort piece ( dit* by h&1 & /r+s ( pipes1 ea* ab\t #ej feet long1 are add$ z ! "w proce$s2 & :5 ! dit* is complet$1 ! rope is )drawn4 ,:5 ! surface is unev51 ! uni=m slope is pres]v$ by means ( a :eel & screw1 :i* gov]ns ! plug1 or c\lt]1 rais+ or l[]+ x at pleasure4 ,a man ^u ! frame-"w controls ?is :eel1 guid$ by a sight on ! frame1 & a cross-/aff at ! end ( ! field4 ,dra9s1 #dj rods long1 are f9i%$ at "o op]ation4 ,?is pl[ has be5 c>efully te/$ 9 ,engl&4 ,its "w has be5 uncov]$ :5 complet$1 & f\nd p]fect 9 e respect4 ,! great exp5se ( ! ma*9e1 & ! fact t x is only adapt$ to clay l& free f ob/ructions1 has prev5t$ its g5]al use4 ,we _c help believ+ t1 by ! aid ( /eam1 on our prairies1 at lea/1 "s su* ma*9e may be f\nd practicable & economical4 ,,pratt',s ,,dit* ,,digg]1 ,pat5t$ by ,pratt ,bro41 ( ,can&aigua1 is attract+ mu* att5tion4 ,we h n se5 x 9 op]ation1 nor h we se5 /atem5ts :i* satisfy u t x is j :at is dem&$4 ,x is /at$1 9 ! ,c\ntry ,g5tleman1 to be incapable ( cutt+ a dit* m ?an two & a half feet deep4 ,a ma*9e t w d s mu* is n to be despis$2 b m ?an "o half ! digg+ rema9s ( a f\r-foot dit*1 aft] two & a half feet are op5$1 & we want an implem5t to d ! l[e/ & wor/ half4 ,x is /at$ t1 9 "o in/ance1 a dit*1 #fj rods long1 ab\t two feet deep1 9 h>d clay1 0 cut ) ?is ma*9e1 work$ by two horses1 9 five h\rs4 ,we tru/ t ! ent]pris+ inv5tors w p]fect _! implem5t1 s t x w op5 dra9s f\r feet deep1 & ?us meet ! great want ( ! public4 ,x is n to be expect$ t any su* implem5t c be made to op]ate 9 gr\nd full ( /ones & roots2 & inv5tors %\ld n be disc\rag$ by ! cont9ual croak+s ( ^? s9i/] birds1 :i* see no?+ b ob/acles1 & prophecy only failure4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hi4--,,pratt',s ,,dit* ,,digg]4 ,! dra9 pl[ 0 fir/ introduc$ into ,scotl& by ,m',ewan4 ,! soil 9 8 di/rict 0 mo/ly a /rong unctu\s clay1 free f /ones4 ,he con/ruct$ an imm5se pl[1 work$ by #ab or #af horses1 by means ( :i* a furr[-slice1 #af in*es 9 dep?1 0 turn$ out2 &1 by a modification ( ! pl[1 a second slice 0 remov$1 to ! dep?1 9 all1 ( two feet4 ,?is pl[ is exp5sive & heavy1 & incapable ( work+ to suffici5t dep?4 ,mr4 ,paul1 ( ,norfolk ,co41 ,engl&1 has lately inv5t$ an +5i\s ma*9e = cutt+ dra9s1 ( :i* we give an elevation4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ij4--,,paul',s ,,dit*+ ,,ma*9e4 ,x is work$ by a *a9 & cap/an1 by horses1 &1 ( c\rse1 may be op]at$ by /eam or lev] p[]4 ,x is drawn =w>d1 &1 z x moves1 x acts z a slott+ ma*9e on ! l&1 ! tools on ! circumf]5ce ( ! act+-:eel tak+ successive bites ( ! soil1 ea* lift+ a portion f ! full dep? to :i* x is desir$ t ! tr5* %\ld be cut1 & lay+ ! e>? ?us remov$ on ! surface at ei!r side4 ,!re is a lift+ app>atus at ! end ( ! ma*9e1 by :i* ! cutt+-:eel may be rais$ or l[]$1 accord+ to ! unev5ness ( ! surface1 9 ord] to secure a uni=m fall 9 ! bottom ( ! dra94 ,! :ole process is c>ri$ on at ! rate ( ab\t f\r feet p] m9ute1 & x results1 on suitable soils1 9 cutt+ a dra9 f ?ree to five feet deep1 leav+ x 9 a f9i%$ /ate1 ) a level bottom = ! tiles to re/ ^u4 ,we give ! cut & /atem5t f ! ,cyclopa$ia ( ,agriculture1 & if ! ma*9e %all prove :at x is repres5t$ to be1 we see b little m to be desir$ 9 a dit*+ ma*9e4 ,! pr9ciple ( ?is implem5t appe>s to u to be ! correct "o1 & we see no reason to d\bt ! /atem5t ( its p]=mance4 ,r\tt's dra9 pl[ is design$ = surface-dra9+ m]ely4 ,we give1 f ! ,new ,engl& ,f>m]1 a /atem5t ( its m]its1 z detail$ by a correspond5t :o saw x at ! exhibition ( ! ,u4 ,s4 ,agricultural ,society at ,ri*mond1 9 #aheh3 ,"o ( ! mo/ attractive implem5ts on ! ,fair gr\nd1 to ! f>m]1 0 ,a4 ,p4 ,r\tt's pat5t dra9 pl[4 ,?is implem5t makes a furr[ a foot deep1 two feet & a half wide at ! top1 & f\r in*es wide at ! bottom1 ! sides slop+ at su* an angle z to insure ! dra9 f fall+ 9 by ! fro/1 ! :ole be+ p]fectly complet$ at "o op]ation by ?is pl[1 or tool4 ,^? :o h tri$ x say x is ! v ?+ = surface-dra9+1 :i*1 on wet l&s1 is c]ta9ly v b5eficial :]e "u-dra9+ has n be5 done4 ,! manufactur] resides 9 ,som]set1 ,orange ,c\nty1 ,va4 ,! pl[ is s made t x op5s a deep furr[1 turn+ bo? to ! "r & left1 & is foll[$ by a heavy iron roll] t h>d5s ! e>?1 bo? on ! sides & ! bottom ( ! surface-dra91 ?us do+ v h&some "w4 ,! price1 z h]et(ore /at$1 is #be1 & ) x1 a man c1 ) a good pair ( team horses1 surface-dra9 #fj acres ( l& a day4 ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,,practical ,,directions ,,= ,,op5+ ,,dra9s ,,& ,,lay+ ,,tiles4 ,beg9 at ! ,outlet4--,use ( ,pl[s4--,levell+ ! ,bottom4--,:]e to beg9 to lay ,pipes4--,mode ( ,proc$ure4--,cov]+ ,pipes4--,secur+ ,jo9ts4--,fill+4--,secur+ ,outlets4--,plans4 ,9 =m] *apt]s1 we h spok5 m9utely ( ! arrangem5t1 dep?1 di/ance1 & wid? ( dra9s2 & 9 treat+ ( tools = dra9age1 we h suffici5tly describ$ ! use ( levell+ in/rum5ts & ( ! v>i\s digg+ tools4 ,we assume "h1 t ! eng9e]+ has be5 already done1 & t ! :ole sy/em has be5 c>efully /ak$ out1 s t e ma91 sub-ma91 & m9or is di/9ctly locat$1 & ! fall accurately asc]ta9$4 ,until s mu* has be5 accompli%$1 we are unprep>$ to put ! fir/ spade into ! gr\nd4 ,we propose to give our own exp]i5ce z to ! conv5i5t me?od ( proc$ure1 ) su* sugge/ions z occur to u1 = ^? :o are diff]5tly situat$ f ourselves4 ,! "w ( excavation mu/ beg9 at ! outlet1 s t :atev] wat] is met )1 may pass readily away2 & ! outlet mu/ be kept always l[ en\gh = ?is purpose4 ,if !re is consid]able fall1 x may n be be/ to deep5 ! l[] end ( ! ma9 to its full ext5t1 at fir/1 because ! ma91 ?\gh fir/ op5$1 mu/ be ! la/ 9 :i* ! pipes are laid1 & may cave 91 if unnecess>ily deep at fir/4 ,9 _m cases !re is fall en\gh1 s t ! upp] m9ors may be laid & f9d suffici5t fall1 be=e ! l[] end ( ! ma9 is half op5$4 ,) a g>d5 l9e drawn /raight1 m>k out ! dra91 ) a %>p spade1 on bo? sides1 & remove ! turf4 ,if x is desir$ to use ! turf = cov]+ ! pipes1 or to replace x ov] ! dra9s1 :5 f9i%$1 x %\ld at fir/ be plac$ 9 heaps outside ! l9e ( ! e>? to be ?r[n out4 ,a pl[ is us$ sometimes to turn out ! sod & soil2 b we h few pl[m5 :o c g /raight en\gh2 & 9 pl[+1 ! soil is left too ne> to ! dit* = conv5i5ce1 & ! turf is torn 9 pieces & buri$1 s z n to be fit = use4 ,usually1 x w be f\nd conv5i5t to remove ! turf1 if !re be any1 ) a spade1 by a l9e4 ,!n1 a pl[ may be us$ = turn+ out ! next spit1 & ! dra9 may be kept /raight1 :i* is indisp5sable to good "w4 ,a good dit*+-ma*9e is1 ( c\rse1 ! ?+ ne$ful2 b we are endeavor+ 9 ^! directions to d our be/ )\t x4 ,we h op5$ our own tr5*es entirely by h& labor1 f9d+ labor]s m conv5i5t ?an ox5 or horses1 & no m exp5sive4 ,_m h us$ ! pl[ 9 ! fir/ foot or two ( ! cutt+1 b x is n "h ! fir/ /ep :i* co/s1 b ! lat] /eps4 ,aft] ! fir/ foot is remov$1 if ! gr\nd be h>d1 a pick or subsoil pl[ mu/ be us$4 ,a subsoil pl[1 prop]ly con/ruct$1 may be made v useful 9 break+ up ! subsoil1 ?\gh !re is a difficulty 9 work+ cattle a/ride ( a deep dit*1 encumb]$ ) banks ( e>?4 ,a fri5d ( ours us$1 9 op5+ dra9s1 a l>ge bull 9 s+le h>ness1 tra9$ to walk 9 ! dit*2 b ! wid? ( a big bull is a some:at l>g] patt]n = a dra91 ?an w be f\nd economical4 ,! +5uity ( f>m]s 9 ! use ( a pair ( heavy :eels1 ) a *a9 atta*$ to ! axle1 s t ! cattle may bo? walk on "o side ( ! dit*1 or by ! use ( long d\ble-trees1 s t horses may g outside ! banks ( e>?1 w g5]ally be f\nd suffici5t to make ! mo/ ( _! means4 ,x w be f\nd conv5i5t to place ! soil at "o side1 & ! subsoil at ! o!r1 = conv5i5ce 9 return+ bo? "r side up to _! places4 ,hav+ work$ d[n to ! dep? ( two feet or m1 ! dit* %\ld be too n>r[ = ! use ( common spades1 & ! n>r[ tools already describ$ w be f\nd useful4 ,! ,iri% spade1 on our own fields1 is 9 use f ! fir/ to ! la/ ( ! excavation2 & at ?ree feet dep?1 we h our tr5* b ab\t six in*es 9 wid?1 & at ! bottom1 at f\r feet dep?1 x is b f\r in*es--j wide en\gh = ! labor] to /& 9 x1 ) "o foot be=e ! o!r4 ,hav+ excavat$ to ne>ly our dep?1 we use ! l9es1 z describ$ 9 ano!r place1 = levell+1 & ! m5 work+ "u !m1 grade ! bottom z accurately z possible4 ,if flat-bottom$ tiles are us$1 ! dit* is ready = !m4 ,if r\nd pipes are us$1 a r\nd bottom+ tool mu/ be us$ to =m a semi-circul> groove 9 :i* ! pipes are to lie4 ,we h n =gott5 t ,engli% dra9]s tell u ( tools & _! use1 :]eby dra9s may be op5 tw5ty in*es l[] ?an ! feet ( ! workman2 b we h nev] *anc$ to see t op]ation1 & are skeptical z to ! fact t "w c ?us be p]=m$ economically1 except 9 v peculi> soils4 ,t su* a crack may be ?us op5$1 is n d\bt$2 b we conceive ( no means by :i* e>?1 t requires ! pick1 c be mov$ to advantage1 )\t ! workman /&+ z l[ z 8 "w4 ,hav+ op5$ ! ma91 & f9i%$1 z we h describ$1 ! m9or :i* ent]s ! ma9 at its highe/ po9t1 we are ready to lay ! tiles4 ,by fir/ lay+ ! upp] dra91 x w be se5 t we may f9i% & secure our "w to ! junction ( ! fir/ m9or ) its ma94 ,convey ! pipes by wagon or o!rwise1 z is conv5i5t1 to ! side ( ! dit* :]e ! soil lies1 & :]e !re is lea/ e>?1 & lay !m close to ! edge ( ! dit*1 end to end ! :ole way1 disc>d+ all imp]fect pieces4 ,if x is design$ to use gravel1 turf1 or o!r cov]+ = ! pipes1 lay x also 9 heaps along ! tr5*4 ,!n place ! fir/ pipe at ! upp] end ( ! dit*1 ) a brick or /one aga9/ its upp] end1 to exclude e>?4 ,we h h]et(ore us$ sole-tiles1 ) flat bottoms1 & h f\nd t a ?9 *ip ( wood1 n an eigh? ( an in* ?ick1 & f\r by two in*es 9 size1 su* z may be f\nd at %oe %ops 9 ,new ,engl&1 assi/s v mu* 9 secur+ an ev5 be>+ = ! tiles4 ,x is plac$ s t ! ends ( two tiles re/ on x1 & s]ves to keep !m 9 l9e till secur$ by ! e>?4 ,a man walk+ backw>d 9 ! dit*1 takes ! tiles f ! bank1 c>efully adju/+ !m 9 l9e & s z to make good jo9ts1 & he c lay half a mile or m 9 a day1 if ! bottom is well grad$4 ,ano!r %\ld foll[ on ! bank1 ?r[+ 9 a %ovel full ( gravel or tan1 if ei!r is us$1 ^u ! jo9t4 ,if turf is to be us$ to secure ! jo9t1 pieces %\ld be cut ?9 & n>r[1 & laid along ! bank1 & ! man 9 ! dit* mu/ secure ea* jo9t z he proce$s4 ,x w be f\nd to co/ twice ! labor1 at lea/1 to use turf1 z x is to use gravel or tan1 if !y are at h&4 ,if ! soil be clay1 we d n believe x is be/ to return x directly ^u ! tiles1 because x is liable to puddle & /op ! jo9t1 & !n to crack & admit silt at ! jo9t1 :ile gravel is n ?us affect$4 ,we pref] to place ! top soil ( clay l&1 next ! pipes1 r ?an ! clay 9 ! condition 9 :i* x is usually f\nd4 ,z to small /ones above ! pipes1 we %\ld decid$ly object to !m4 ,!y are unnecess>y to ! op]ation ( ! dra91 & !y all[ ! wat] to come 91 9 curr5ts1 on to ! top ( ! pipes1 9 heavy /orms or %[]s1 & s endang] _! security4 ,! practice ( plac+ /ones above ! tiles is ab&on$ by all sci5tific dra9]s4 ,we h1 9 ,engl&1 se5 /raw plac$ ov] ! jo9ts ( pipes1 b x seems an inconv5i5t & insecure practice4 ,long /raw _c be well plac$ 9 su* n>r[ op5+s1 & x is likely to su/a9 ! e>? en\gh1 s t :5 ?r[n 91 x w n settle equally ar\nd ! pipes2 :]eas a %ovelfull ( gravel or o!r e>? sift$ 9 c>efully1 w at once fa/5 !m 9 place4 ,hav+ laid & p>tially cov]$ ! fir/ or upp] dra91 proce$ ) ! next 9 ! same way1 lay+ & secur+ ! ma9 or sub-ma91 at ! same "t1 to ea* int]section1 ?us c>ry+ ! "w f ! highe/ po9t d[n t[>ds ! outlet4 ,aft] suffici5t e>? has be5 ?r[n 9 to make ! "w safe aga9/ accid5ts by ra91 or cav+ 9 ( e>?1 ! fill+ may be complet$ at leisure4 ,mr4 ,john/on1 ( ,g5eva1 uses = ?is purpose a pl[1 hav+ a d\ble-tree n9e & a half feet long1 to enable a horse to g on ea* side ( ! dit*4 ,we sugge/ t a side-hill pl[ might well en\gh be us$ ) horses t&em1 or ) ox5 & c>t :eels & draughts4 ,! fill+1 h[ev]1 w be f\nd a small matt]1 comp>$ ) ! digg+4 ,9 lay+ pipes 9 n>r[ tr5*es1 a tool call$ a pipe-lay] is sometimes us$1 a cut ( :i*1 %[+ its mode ( use1 may be f\nd 9 ano!r place4 ,9 fill+ dra9s :]e ! soil is p>tly clay1 & p>tly s& or gravel1 we recomm5d t ! clay be plac$ 9 ! upp] "p ( ! dra91 s z to prev5t wat] f pass+ directly d[n ^u ! pipes1 by :i* !y are frequ5tly displac$ z soon z laid4 ,if ! "w is complet$ 9 ,autumn1 x is well to turn two or ?ree furr[s f ea* side on to ! dra9s1 s z to raise ! surface !re1 & prev5t wat] f cutt+ out ! dit*1 or /&+ above x4 ,if ! l& is pl[$ 9 ,autumn1 x is be/ to back-furr[ on to ! dra9s1 leav+ dead furr[s half way betwe5 !m1 ! fir/ season4 ,z to ! importance ( secur+ ! outlets1 & ! mann] ( do+ x1 we h spok5 p>ticul>ly else:]e4 ,& "h1 aga91 we w rem9d ! beg9n]1 ( ! necessity ( mak+ & pres]v+ accurate plans ( ! "w1 s t e dra9 may be at any "t f\nd by measurem5t4 ,aft] a s+le rotation1 x is frequ5tly utt]ly impossible to p]ceive ^u ! surface any indication ( ! l9e ( ! dra9s4 ,9 ?is connection1 x may be well p]haps to rem9d ! read]1 t :atev] arrangem5ts are made z to silt-bas9s1 or peep-holes1 mu/ be includ$ 9 ! g5]al plan1 & execut$ z ! "w proce$s4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,,effects ,,( ,,dra9age ,,^u ,,! ,,condition ,,( ,,! ,,soil4 ,dra9age deep5s ! ,soil1 & gives ! roots a l>g] pa/ure4--,cobbett's ,luc]ne #cj feet deep4--,me*i's ,p>snips #ac feet long6--,dra9age promotes ,pulv]ization4--,prev5ts ,surface-,wa%+4--,l5g!ns ! ,season4--,prev5ts ,freez+ out4--,disp5ses ) ,op5 ,dit*es4--,saves #be p] c5t4 ( ,labor4--,promotes absorption ( ,f]tiliz+ ,sub/ances f ! ,air4--,supplies ,air to ! ,roots4--,dra9s run be=e ,ra92 s d "s ,spr+s4--,dra9age w>ms ! ,soil4--,corn spr\ts at #ee deg42 ,rye on ,ice4--,cold f ,evaporation4--,heat w n pass d[nw>d 9 ,wat]4--,c\nt ,rum=d's ,exp]im5ts ) ,hot ,wat] on ,ice4--,a]ation ( ,soil by ,dra9s4 ,! b5efits :i* high-l&s1 z we ord9>ily call !m1 9 di/9ction f swamp or fl[$ l&s1 d]ive f dra9age1 may be arrang$ 9 two classes1 me*anical & *emical2 ?\gh x is n easy1 nor1 inde$1 is x important1 to ma9ta9 ?is di/9ction 9 all po9ts4 ,among ^? :i* p>take r ( ! nature ( me*anical *anges1 are ! foll[+3 ,dra9age deep5s ! soil4 ,e "o :o has attempt$ to raise deep-root$ vegetables ^u half-dra9$ swamp-l&1 has obs]v$ ! utt] impossibility ( induc+ !m to ext5d d[nw>d _! usual l5g?4 ,p>snips & c>rots1 on su* l&1 frequ5tly gr[ l>ge at ! top1 b divide into num]\s small fibres j bel[ ! surface1 & spread 9 all directions4 ,no root1 except ^? ( aquatic plants1 w gr[ 9 /agnant wat]4 ,if1 !re=e1 x is ( any advantage to h a deep1 r ?an a %all[ soil1 x is manife/ly necess>y1 f ?is consid]ation alone1 to l[] ! l9e ( /&+ wat]1 at lea/1 to ! ext5t to :i* ! roots ( our cultivat$ crops desc5d4 ,a deep soil is bett] ?an a %all[ "o1 because x furni%es a m ext5sive fe$+-gr\nd = ! roots4 ,! elem5ts ( nutrition1 :i* ! plant f9ds 9 ! soil1 are n all ^u ! surface4 ,_m ( !m are wa%$ d[n by ! ra9s into ! subsoil1 & "s are f\nd 9 ! decompos+ rocks !mselves4 ,^!1 ! plants1 by a sort ( in/9ct1 se>* out & f9d1 z well 9 ! dep?s ( ! e>? z at its surface1 if no ob/acle opposes4 ,by /rik+ deep roots aga91 ! plants /& m firmly 9 ! e>?1 s t !y are n s readily drawn out1 or %ak5 by ! w9ds4 ,inde$1 e "o kn[s t a soil two feet deep is bett] ?an "o a foot deep2 & m>ket-g>d5]s & nurs]y-m5 %[1 by _! practice1 t !y "k1 if o!rs d n1 t a tr5*$ soil ?ree feet deep is bett] ?an "o ( any less dep?4 ,we all "k t ,indian corn1 9 a dry soil1 s5ds d[n its rootlets two feet or m1 z well z mo/ ( ! grasses4 ,cobbett says3 ,! luc]ne w s5d its roots ?irty feet into a dry bottom6 ,! ,*9ese yam1 rec5tly introduc$1 gr[s d[nw>d two or ?ree feet4 ,! digg+ ( an acre ( su* a crop1 by ! way1 on ,new ,engl& soil g5]ally1 w\ld require a corps ( sapp]s & m9]s1 especially :5 we consid] t ! yam gr[s l>ge/ end d[nw>d4 ,h[ev]1 ! yam may prove a valuable acquisition to ! c\ntry4 ,e in* ( additional soil gives #ajj tons ( active soil p] acre4 ,says ,mr4 ,d5ton3 ,i h evid5ce n[ be=e me1 t ! roots ( ! :eat plant1 ! mangold wurzel1 ! cabbage1 & ! :ite turnip1 frequ5tly desc5d into ! soil to ! dep? ( ?ree feet4 ,i h myself trac$ ! roots ( :eat n9e feet deep4 ,i h discov]$ ! roots ( p]5nial grasses 9 dra9s f\r feet deep2 & ,i may ref] to ,mr4 ,m]c]1 ( ,newton1 9 ,lanca%ire1 :o has trac$ ! roots ( rye grass runn+ = _m feet along a small pipe-dra91 aft] desc5d+ f\r feet ?r\gh ! soil4 ,mr4 ,hetley1 ( ,orton1 assures me t he discov]$ ! roots ( ! mangolds1 9 a rec5tly made dra91 five feet deep2 & ! late ,sir ,john ,conroy _h _m newly-made dra9s1 f\r feet deep1 /opp$ by ! roots ( ! same plants4 ,mr4 ,%]iff ,me*i's p>snips1 h[ev]1 di/ance any?+ 9 ! way ( deep root+ t has yet be5 record$4 ,! ,%]iff is a v deep dra9]1 & an en?usia/ 9 agriculture1 & ,nature seems to delight to humor 8 ta/es1 by p]=m+ a great _m exp]im5ts at 8 fam\s place call$ ,tiptree ,hall4 ,he /at$1 at a public meet+1 t1 9 8 neighborhood1 :]e a crop ( p>snips 0 gr[+ on ! edge ( a clay pit1 ! roots 7 obs]v$ to desc5d #ac feet #f in*es2 9 fact1 ! :ole dep? to :i* ?is pit _h once be5 fill$ up6 ,dra9age assi/s pulv]ization4 ,x 0 ,tull's !ory t1 by ! comm9ution1 or m9ute division1 ( soils alone1 )\t ! application ( any manures1 _! f]tility might be p]man5tly ma9ta9$2 & he s f> support$ ?is !ory z1 by repeat$ pl[+s1 to produce twelve successive crops ( :eat on ! same l&1 )\t manure4 ,! !ory has receiv$ support f ! kn[n fact1 t mo/ soils are b5efitt$ by ,summ] fall[+4 ,! exp]im5ts in/itut$ = ! purpose ( e/abli%+ ?is !ory1 al?\gh !y disprov$ x1 %[$ ! great value ( ?or\gh pulv]ization4 ,x is manife/ t a wet soil c nev] be pulv]iz$4 ,pl[+ clayey1 or ev5 loamy soil1 :5 wet1 t5ds r to press x toge!r1 & r5d] x less p]vi\s to air & wat]4 ,! fir/ effect ( "u-dra9+ is to dry ! surface-soil1 to draw out all ! wat] t w run out ( x1 s t1 9 e>ly ,spr+1 or 9 ,autumn1 x may be work$ ) ! pl[ z advantage\sly z undra9$ l&s 9 mid-,summ]4 ,/rik+ illu/rations ( ! b5efits ( ?or\gh pulv]ization w be f\nd 9 ! excell5t rem>ks ( ,dr4 ,madd51 giv5 9 a subsequ5t *apt]4 ,dra9age prev5ts surface-wa%+4 ,all l& :i* is n level1 & is n 9 grass1 is liable to great loss by heavy ra9s 9 ,spr+ & ,autumn4 ,if ! l& is already fill$ ) wat]1 or has n suffici5t dra9age1 ! ra9 _c pass directly d[nw>d1 b runs away ^u ! surface1 c>ry+ ) x mu* ( ! soil1 & wa%+ out ( :at rema9s1 ( ! valuable elem5ts ( f]tility :i* h be5 appli$ ) su* exp5se4 ,if ! l& be prop]ly dra9$1 ! wat] fall+ f ! cl\ds is at once absorb$1 & passes d[nw>ds1 saturat+ ! soil 9 its desc5t1 & c>ry+ ! soluble sub/ances ) x to ! roots1 & ! surplus wat] runs away 9 ! artificial *annels provid$ by ! dra9+ process4 ,s great is ! absorb5t p[] ( dra9$ l&1 t1 aft] a protract$ dr\ght1 all ! wat] ( a heavy ra9/orm w be drunk up & held by ! soil1 s t1 = a day or two1 none w f9d its way to ! dra9s1 nor w x run ^u ! surface4 ,dra9age l5g!ns ! season = labor & vegetation4 ,9 ! cold] latitudes ( our c\ntry1 :]e a long ,w9t] is succe$$ by a torrid ,summ]1 ) v little c]emony by way ( an int]v5+ ,spr+1 f>m]s h ne$ ( all _! en]gy to get _! se$ seasonably into ! gr\nd4 ,sn[ (t5 cov]s ! fields 9 ,new ,engl& into ,april2 & ! gr\nd is s saturat$ ) wat]1 t ! l& design$ = corn & potatoes1 frequ5tly _c be pl[$ till late 9 ,may4 ,! manure is to be haul$ f ! cell> or y>d1 ov] l& lift$ & s(t5$ by fro/1 & all ! processes ( prep>+ & plant+1 are necess>ily hurri$ & imp]fect4 ,9 ! ,annual ,report ( ! ,secret>y ( ! ,bo>d ( ,agriculture1 ( ! ,/ate ( ,ma9e1 = #ahef1 a good illu/ration ( ?is idea is giv53 ,mr4 ,b4 ,f4 ,n\rse1 ( ,orr+ton1 pl[$ & plant$ ) corn a piece ( 8 dra9$ & subsoil$ l&1 9 a drizzl+ ra91 aft] a /orm ( two days4 ,! corn came up & grew well2 yet ?is 0 a clayey loam1 =m]ly z wet z ! adjo9+ grass-field1 ^u :i* ox5 & c>ts c\ld n pass1 on ! day ( ?is plant+1 )\t cutt+ ?r\gh ! turf & mir+ deeply4 ,! ne>e/ neighbor said1 if he _h plant$ t day1 x mu/ h be5 f a raft4 ,probably two weeks w\ld be ga9$ 9 ,new ,engl&1 9 ,spr+1 9 :i* to prep>e = plant+1 by ?or\gh-dra9age1 a ga91 :i* no "o c appreciate b a ,new ,engl& man1 :o has be5 oblig$ (t5 to pl[ 8 l& :5 too wet1 to cut x up & ov]work 8 team1 9 haul+ on 8 manure ov] s(t gr\nd1 & f9ally to plant z late z ! #f? ( ,june1 or leave 8 manure to wa/e1 & lose ! use ( 8 field till ano!r season2 & all because ( a surplus ( cold wat]4 ,mr4 ,yeomans1 ( ,new ,york1 9 a publi%$ /atem5t ( 8 exp]i5ce 9 dra9+1 says1 t on 8 dra9$ l&s1 ! gr\nd becomes almo/ z dry 9 two or ?ree days aft] ! fro/ comes out 9 ,spr+1 or aft] a heavy ra91 z x w\ld d 9 z _m weeks1 be=e dra9+4 ,b ! ga9 ( "t = labor is n all4 ,we ga9 "t also = vegetation1 by ?or\gh-dra9age4 ,t5 days1 frequ5tly1 9 ,new ,engl&1 may be ! security ( our corn-crop aga9/ fro/4 ,9 less ?an t "t1 a :ole field passes f ! milky /age1 :5 a slight fro/ w\ld ru9 x1 to ! glaz$ /age1 :5 x is safe f cold2 & twice t5 days ( w>m season are add$ by ?is removal ( surplus wat]4 ,dra9age prev5ts freez+ out4 ,mr4 ,john ,john/on1 ( ,s5eca ,c\nty1 ,new ,york1 9 #ahea1 _h already made sixte5 miles ( tile dra9s4 ,he _h be5 exp]im5t+ ) tiles f #ahce1 & _h1 on f\r acres ( 8 dra9$ clayey l&1 rais$ ! l>ge/ crop ( ,indian corn ev] produc$ 9 t c\nty--eighty-?ree bu%els ( %ell$ corn to ! acre4 ,he /ates1 t on ?is clayey soil1 :5 laid d[n to grass1 n "o squ>e foot ( ! clov] froze out4 ,aga9 he says1 ,h]et(ore1 _m acres ( :eat 7 lo/ on ! upl& by freez+ out1 & none w\ld gr[ on ! l[l&s4 ,n[ !re is no loss f t cause4 ,! gr[+ ( ,w9t] :eat has be5 entirely ab&on$ 9 "s localities on acc\nt ( freez+ out1 or ,w9t]-kill+2 & "o ( ! wor/ ob/acles 9 ! way ( gett+ our l&s into grass1 & keep+ !m s1 is ?is v difficulty ( freez+ out4 ,! op]ation seems to be m]ely ?is3 ,! soil is pulv]iz$ only to ! dep? ( ! pl[1 "s six or eight in*es4 ,bel[ ?is is a /ratum ( clay1 ne>ly imp]vi\s to wat]4 ,! ,autumn ra9s saturate ! surface soil1 :i* absorbs wat] l a sponge4 ,! gr\nd is sudd5ly froz52 ! wat] conta9$ 9 x cry/allizes into ice2 & ! soil is ?r[n up into spicules1 or honey-combs2 & ! poor clov] roots1 or :eat plants1 are drawn f _! b$s1 &1 by a few repetitions ( ! process1 left dead on ! field 9 ,spr+4 ,dra9+1 foll[$ by subsoil+1 lets d[n ! fall+ wat] at once ?r\gh ! soil1 leav+ ! root b$ ( ! plants s free f moi/ure1 t ! e>? is n heav$1 z ! t]m is1 & ! plants reta9 _! natural position1 & awak5 refre%$ 9 ! ,spr+ by _! ,w9t]'s repose4 ,!re are no op5 dit*es on "u-dra9$ l&4 ,an op5 dit* 9 a tillage or m[+-field1 is an abom9ation4 ,x compels u1 9 pl[+1 to /op1 p]haps midway 9 our field2 to make %ort l&s2 to leave headl&s inconv5i5t to cultivate2 & s to wa/e our "t & /r5g? 9 turn+ ! team1 & tread+ up ! gr\nd1 in/ead ( pr(itably employ+ x 9 draw+ a long & h&some furr[ ! :ole l5g? ( ! field1 z we might d 7 !re no dit*4 ,op5 dit*es1 z usually made1 ob/ruct ! movem5t ( our teams z mu* z f5ces1 & a f>m cut into squ>es by dit*es1 is ne>ly z objectionable z a f>m f5c$ (f into half or qu>t]-acre fields4 ,9 hay+1 we h ! same inconv5i5ce4 ,we mu/ turn ! m[+-ma*9e & horse-rake at ! dit*1 & f9i% by h&-labor1 ! "w on its banks2 we mu/ con/ruct bridges at frequ5t int]vals1 & !n g out ( our way to cross !m ) loads1 cutt+ up ! smoo? fields ) :eels & ! feet ( animals4 ,or1 :at is a famili> sc5e1 :5 a %[] is com+ up1 & ! load is ready1 ,patrick concludes to drive /raight to ! b>n1 across ! dit*1 & gets 8 team mir$1 upsets 8 load1 & p]haps breaks ! leg ( an animal1 besides swe>+ m ?an half a mile ( h>d dit*+ w expiate4 ,su* accid5ts are a great temptation to pr(anity1 & "u-dra9+ might prop]ly be reckon$ a moral ag5t1 to c\nt]act su* traps & pitfalls ( ! great adv]s>y4 ,a mom5t's ?\ght w satisfy any f>m] :o has ! means1 t true economy dictates a lib]al exp5diture ( labor1 at once1 to obviate ^! difficulties1 r ?an be subject = a lifetime to ! con/ant petty annoyances :i* h be5 nam$4 ,op5 dit*es1 ev5 :5 =m$ s skillfully t !y may be conv5i5tly cross$1 or wat]-furr[s :i* rema9 :]e l& is laid into ridges by back-furr[+1 z mu* ( our flat l& mu/ be1 if n "u-dra9$1 are s]i\s ob/ructions1 at ! be/4 ,!y r5d] ! soil unequal 9 dep?1 tak+ x f "o po9t :]e x is want$1 & heap+ x ^u ano!r :]e x is n want$1 ?us giv+ ! crops an unev5 gr[?4 ,!y r5d] ! soil also unequal 9 respect to moi/ure1 because ! back or top ( ! ridge mu/ always be dri] ?an ! furr[4 ,?or\gh-dra9$ l& may be laid p]fectly flat1 giv+ u1 ?us1 ! control ( ! :ole field1 to divide & cultivate accord+ to conv5i5ce1 & mak+ x ( uni=m texture & temp]ature4 ,attempts h be5 made1 to e/imate ! sav+ 9 ! numb] ( horses & m5 by dra9age1 & x is ?\ght to be a reasonable calculation to fix x at "o 9 f\r1 or tw5ty-five p] c5t4 ,x probably w /rike any f>m] z a fair e/imate1 t1 on l& :i* ne$s dra9age1 x w require f\r horses & f\r m5 to p]=m ! same am\nt ( cultivation1 t ?ree m5 & ?ree horses may p]=m on ! same l& well dra9$4 ,dra9$ l& w n require re-plant+4 ,!re is h>dly a f>m] 9 ,new ,engl&1 :o does n1 ea* ,spr+1 f9d himself compell$ to re-plant "s portion ( 8 crop4 ,he is oblig$ to hurry 8 se$ into ! gr\nd1 at ! e>lie/ day1 because our season = plant+ is %ort at ! be/4 ,if1 aft] ?is1 a long cold /orm comes1 on wet l&1 ! se$ rots 9 ! gr\nd1 & he mu/ plant aga91 (t5 too late1 incurr+ ?us ! loss ( ! se$1 ! labor ( twice do+ ! same "w1 ! int]ruption ( 8 regul> plan ( bus9ess1 & (t5 ! p>tial failure ( 8 crop4 ,^u ?or\gh-dra9$ l&1 ?is co/ & labor c\ld r>ely be exp]i5c$1 because no?+ %ort ( a small deluge c\ld saturate well dra9$ l&1 s z to cause ! se$ to fail1 if s[$ or plant$ ) ord9>y c>e & prud5ce1 z to ! season4 ,dra9$ l& is light] to "w4 ,x is (t5 difficult to f9d a day 9 ! ye>1 :5 a wet piece ( l& is 9 suitable condition to pl[4 ,usually1 su* tracts are unequal1 "s p>ts be+ mu* wett] ?an o!rs1 because ! wat] settles into ! l[ places4 ,9 su* fields1 we n[ drive our team knee deep into s(t mud1 & f9d a /ream ( wat] foll[+ u 9 ! furr[1 & n[ we rise ^u a knoll1 bak$ h>d1 & sun-crack$2 & "o half ! surface :5 f9i%$ is %9+ ) ! pla/]$ mud1 ready to dry into ! consi/5cy ( bricks1 :ile ! o!r is already 9 h>d dry lumps1 l pav+ /ones1 & ab\t z easily pulv]iz$4 ,?is is h>d "w = ! team & m51 h>d 9 ! pl[+1 & h>d ?r\gh ! :ole rotation4 ,! same field1 well dra9$1 is friable & por\s1 & uni=m 9 texture4 ,x may be well pl[$ & readily pulv]iz$1 if tak5 9 h& at any reasonable season4 ,l& :i* has be5 puddl$ by ! tread ( cattle1 or by :eels1 acquires a peculi> consi/5cy1 & a s+ul> capacity to hold wat]4 ,c]ta9 clays are wet & beat5 up into ?is consi/5cy1 to =m ! bottoms ( ponds1 & to tight5 dams & res]voirs4 ,a soil ?us puddl$1 requires c>eful treatm5t to aga9 r5d] x p]meable to wat]1 & fit = cultivation4 ,?is puddl+ process is con/antly go+ on1 "u ! feet ( cattle1 "u ! pl[ & ! c>t-:eels1 :]ev] l& conta9+ clay is work$ ^u 9 a wet /ate4 ,?us1 by p]=m+ a day's "w on wet l&1 we (t5 r5d] necess>y z mu* additional labor z we p]=m1 to cure ! evil we h done4 ,we may haul loads )\t injury on dra9$ l&4 ,on _m f>ms1 x is difficult to select a season = haul+ out manure1 or c>t+ /ones f place to place1 :5 great injury is n done to "s "p ( ! l& by ! op]ation4 ,_m f>m]s haul out _! manure 9 ,w9t]1 to avoid cutt+ up _! f>ms2 admitt+ t ! manure is wa/$ some:at by ! exposure1 b1 on ! :ole1 *oos+ ?is loss z ! less] evil4 ,9 spread+ manure 9 ,spr+1 we are (t5 oblig$ to c>ry half loads1 because ! l& is s(t1 n only to sp>e our bea/s1 b also to sp>e our l& ! injury by tread+ x4 ,dra9$ l& is comp>atively solid1 especially 9 ,spr+1 & w be> up heavy loads ) little injury4 ,dra9$ l& is lea/ injur$ by cattle 9 fe$+4 ,:e!r x is good husb&ry to fe$ our m[+ fields at any "t1 is a "q ^u :i* f>m]s h a "r to diff]4 ,)\t discuss+ ! "q1 x is en\gh = our purpose1 t mo/ f>m]s fe$ _! fields late 9 ! ,autumn4 ,:e!r we approve x1 or n1 :5 ! pa/ures are b>e & burnt up1 & ! second crop 9 ! home-field is s ri* & tempt+1 & ! wom5 are compla9+ t ! c[s give no milk1 we usually b[ to ! necessity ( ! "t1 & turn 9 ! c[s4 ,! great injury ( ,fall-fe$+ is n usually s mu* ! loss ( ! grass-cov]+ f ! field1 z ! poa*+ ( ! soil & de/ruction ( ! roots by tread+4 ,a h>d upl& field is mu* less injur$ by fe$+1 ?an a l[ mead[1 & ! latt] less 9 a dry ?an a wet season4 ,by dra9age1 ! surplus wat] is tak5 f ! field4 ,none c /& ^u its surface = a day aft] ! ra9 ceases4 ,! soil is compact1 & ! ho(s ( cattle make little impression ^u x1 & ! second or ?ird crop may be f$ (f1 ) comp>atively little damage4 ,we$s are easily de/roy$ on dra9$ l&4 ,if a we$ be dug or pull$ up f l& t is wet & /icky1 x is likely to /rike root & gr[ aga91 because e>? adh]es to its roots2 :]eas1 a /roke ( ! hoe entirely sep>ates ! we$s 9 friable soil f ! e>?1 & !y die at once4 ,e f>m] kn[s ! diff]5t effect ( hoe+1 or ( cultivat+ ) ! horse-hoe or h>r[1 9 a ra9 /orm & 9 dry wea!r4 ,9 "o case1 ! we$s are r refre%$ by ! /irr+1 &1 9 ! o!r1 !y are de/roy$4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! surface ( dra9$ l& & wat]-soak$ l& is mu* ! same z t betwe5 l& 9 dry wea!r "u good cultivation1 & l& j saturat$ by ra94 ,aga91 !re are _m noxi\s we$s1 su* z wild grasses1 :i* ?rive only on wet l&1 & :i* are difficult to ext]m9ate1 & :i* give u no tr\ble aft] ! l& is light5$ & sweet5$ by dra9age4 ,among ! effects ( dra9age1 ma9ly ( a *emical nature1 on ! soil1 are ! foll[+3 ,dra9age promotes absorption ( f]tiliz+ sub/ances f ! air4 ,! atmosph]e be>s ^u its bosom1 n only ! oxyg5 ess5tial to ! vitality ( plants1 n only wat] 9 ! =m ( vapor1 to qu5* _! ?ir/ 9 ,summ] dr\ghts1 b also v>i\s sub/ances1 :i* rise 9 exhalations f ! sea1 f decompos+ animals & vegetables1 f ! brea?+ ( all liv+ creatures1 f combu/ion1 & a ?\s& o!r causes4 ,^! w\ld be suffici5t to corrupt ! v air1 & r5d] x unfit = respiration1 did n ,nature1 ) h] wondr\s laws ( comp5sation1 provide = its purification4 ,x has already be5 /at$1 h[ ! atmosph]e returns to ! hills1 9 cl\ds & vapor1 cond5s$ at la/ to ra91 all ! wat] :i* ! riv]s c>ry to ! sea2 & h[ ! well-dra9$ soil d]ives moi/ure1 9 sev]e/ "t ( ne$1 f its contact ) ! vapor-load$ air4 ,b ! ra9 & dew return n _! wat]s to ! e>? )\t treasures ( f]tility4 ,ammonia1 :i* is "o ( ! mo/ valuable sub/ances f\nd 9 f>m-y>d manures1 & :i* is a con/ant result ( decomposition1 is absorb$ 9 almo/ incr$ible quantities by wat]4 ,ab\t #ghj times its own bulk ( ammonia is readily absorb$ by wat] at ! common temp]ature & pressure ( ! atmosph]e2 &1 freight$ ?us ) treasures = ! fields1 ! moi/ure ( ! atmosph]e desc5ds ^u ! e>?4 ,! ra9 cleanses ! air ( its impurities1 & conveys !m to ! plants4 ,! vapors ( ! m>%es1 & ( ! expos$ manure heaps ( ! ?riftless f>m]1 are g5tly waft$ to ! well-dra9$ fields ( 8 neighbor1 & !re1 amid/ ! roots ( ! well-till$ crops1 deposit1 at ! same "t1 _! moi/ure & f]tiliz+ weal?4 ,( ! wond]ful p[] ( ! soil to absorb moi/ure1 bo? f ! heav5s above & ! e>? b5ea?--by ! deposition ( dew1 z well z by attraction--we %all treat m fully 9 ano!r *apt]4 ,x w be f\nd to be intimately connect$ ) ! pres5t topic4 ,?or\gh dra9age supplies air to ! roots4 ,plants1 if !y d n brea! l animals1 require = _! life almo/ ! same con/ant supply ( air4 ,all plants1 says ,liebig1 die 9 soils & wat] de/itute ( oxyg52 abs5ce ( air acts exactly 9 ! same mann] z an excess ( c>bonic acid4 ,/agnant wat] on a m>%y soil excludes air1 b a r5ewal ( wat] has ! same effect z a r5ewal ( air1 because wat] conta9s x 9 solution4 ,:5 ! wat] is )drawn f a m>%1 free access is giv5 to ! air1 & ! m>% is *ang$ into a fruitful mead[4 ,animal & vegetable matt] d n decay1 or decompose1 s z to furni% food = plants1 unless freely suppli$ ) oxyg51 :i* !y mu/ obta9 f air4 ,a slight quantity ( air1 h[ev]1 is suffici5t = putrefaction1 :i* is a p[]ful deoxydiz+ process t extracts oxyg5 ev5 f ! roots ( plants4 ,we are accu/om$ to ?9k ( ! e>? z a compact body ( matt]1 va/ & in]t2 subject1 inde$1 to be upheav$ & r5t by volcanoes & e>?quakes1 b z q ins5sible to slight influ5ces :i* op]ate ^u liv+ be+s & ^u vegetation4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is a great mi/ake2 & x may be int]e/+ to ref] to "o or two facts1 :i* illu/rate ! wond]ful effect ( *anges ( ! atmosph]e ^u ! soil1 & ^u ! subt]ranean curr5ts ( ! e>?4 ,! foll[+ is f rem>ks by ,mr4 ,d5ton1 9 a public address3 ,b1 z a pro( ( ! s5sibility ( a soil dra9$ f\r feet deep1 to atmosph]ic *anges1 ,i may m5tion1 t my att5tion has be51 on m ?an "o occasion1 call$ to ! circum/ance t dra9s h be5 obs]v$ to run1 aft] a discont9uance ( t duty1 )\t any fall ( ra9 on ! surface ( ! dra9$ l&2 &1 ^u ref]5ce to ! b>omet]1 x has be5 f\nd t ! quicksilv] has fall5 :5ev] ?is has occurr$4 ,mr4 ,george ,beaumont1 jun41 :o fir/ af=d$ tangible evid5ce ( ?is extraord9>y circum/ance1 has p]mitt$ me to read ! foll[+ extracts ( 8 lett]3 ',i c v]ify ! case ( ! dra9s runn+ )\t ra91 dur+ a fall+ b>omet]1 beyond all d\bt4 ',! case ,i nam$ to y la/ ye> ( ! b>omet] fall+ f\r days consecutively1 & ) rapidity1 0 a peculi>ly favorable "t = notic+ x1 z x occurr$ 9 a dry "t1 & ! dra9s c\ld be se5 di/9ctly4 ,my man1 on be+ que/ion$ & caution$ by me n to exagg]ate1 has decl>$ ! actual /ream ( wat] issu+ f "o p>ticul> dra9 to be z ?ick z a ?ree-eigh?-in* wire4 ,all ! dra9s ran--!y did m ?an drop--& dit*es1 :i* 7 previ\sly dry1 became q wet1 ) a p]ceptible /ream ( wat]2 ?is gradually ceas$ ) ! *ange 9 ! d5sity ( ! atmosph]e1 z %[n by ! b>omet]4 ',dur+ la/ h>ve/1 #ahee1 ! m5 7 cutt+ :eat1 & on gett+ ne> to a dra9 outlet1 ! dit* f ! outlet d[nw>ds 0 obs]v$ to be wet1 & ! dra9 0 dripp+4 ,no ra9 fell 9 suffici5t quantity to ent] ! gr\nd4 ,! m5 drank ( ! wat] :ile !y 7 cutt+ ! :eat4 ,a few days aft]1 x 0 dry aga94 ,i h se5 & notic$ ?is ph5om5on myself4' ,a correspond5t ( ! ,agricultural ,gazette has /at$1 t ,pr(essor ,brocklesby1 ( ,h>t=d1 9 ,am]ica1 _h obs]v$ ! same ph5om5a1 9 ! case ( two spr+s 9 t c\ntry2 & expla9$1 t ! cause 0 '! dim9i%$ atmosph]ic pressure :i* exi/s be=e a ra94' ,dr4 ,l>dn] /ates _m facts :i* support ! ideas above sugge/$4 ,9 8 lectures on sci5ce1 he says3 ,:5 /orms are break+ 9 ! heav5s1 & sometimes long be=e _! comm5cem5t1 & :5 _! approa* has n yet be5 manife/$ by any appe>ances 9 ! firmam5t1 ph5om5a are obs]v$1 app>5tly sympa!tic1 proce$+ f ! deep recesses ( ! e>?1 & exhibit$ "u v v>i\s =ms at its surface4 ,dr4 ,l>dn] cites _m in/ances ( f\nta9s :i*1 :5 a /orm is approa*+1 bur/ =? ) a viol5t fl[ ( wat]1 be=e any ra9 has fall54 ,! cases nam$ by ,pr(4 ,brocklesby1 ref]r$ to by ,mr4 ,d5ton1 are ^? ( a spr+ 9 ,rutl&1 ,v]mont1 & a brook 9 ,concord1 ,massa*usetts4 ,pr(4 ,brocklesby /ates1 z ! result ( 8 p]sonal obs]vation1 t ! spr+ ref]r$ to1 supplies an aqu$uct2 t1 9 sev]al in/ances1 :5 ! spr+ _h become s l[1 9 a "t ( dr\ght1 t no wat] ran 9 ! aqu$uct1 x sudd5ly rose s z to fill ! pipes1 & furni% a supply ( wat]1 be=e any ra9 _h fall5 9 ! neighborhood4 ,?is occurr5ce1 he says1 0 famili> to ! occupants ( ! premises1 & !y expect$ ra9 9 a few days aft] ?is my/]i\s fl[ ( wat]2 :i* expectations 7 usually1 if n always1 realiz$4 ,! o!r in/ance is t ( a brook 9 ,concord1 ,mass41 call$ ,dodge's brook1 :i* ,pr(4 ,b4 says1 he 0 in=m$1 comm5c$ frequ5tly to rise v p]ceptibly be=e a drop ( ra9 _h fall54 ,we h inquir$ ( our fri5ds 9 ,concord ab\t ?is matt]1 & f9d t ?is op9ion is ent]ta9$ by _m ( ! p :o live ne> ?is brook1 & x is probably well f\nd$1 ?\gh we _c asc]ta9 t accurate obs]vations h be5 made1 s z to af=d any def9ite results4 ,?or\gh dra9age w>ms ! soil4 ,x has be5 /at$1 on high au?ority1 t dra9age raises ! temp]ature ( ! soil1 (t5 z mu* z #ae deg4 ,f4 ,indian corn vegetates at ab\t #ee deg44 ,at #de deg41 ! se$ w\ld rot 9 ! gr\nd1 )\t vegetat+4 ,! writ]1 h[ev]1 has se5 rye spr\t$ ^u ice 9 an ice-h\se1 ) roots two in*es long1 s gr[n to ! ice t !y c\ld only be sep>at$ by ?aw+4 ,w9t] rye1 no d\bt1 makes consid]able gr[? "u sn[4 ,cultivat$ plants1 9 g5]al1 h[ev]1 d n gr[ at all1 unless ! soil be rais$ above #de deg44 ,! sun has great p[] to w>m dry soils1 &1 x is said1 w (t5 raise _! temp]ature to #ij deg4 or #ajj deg41 :5 ! air 9 ! %ade is only #fj deg4 or #gj deg44 ,b ! sun has no su* p[] to w>m a wet soil1 & = sev]al reasons1 :i* are z foll[s3 #a4 ,! soil is r5d]$ cold by evaporation4 ,if wat] _c pass ?r\gh ! l& by dra9age1 ei!r natural or artificial1 x mu/ escape1 if at all1 at ! surface1 by evaporation4 ,n[1 x is a fact well kn[n1 t ! heat disappe>s1 or becomes lat5t1 by ! conv]sion ( wat] into vapor4 ,e *ild kn[s ?is1 practically1 at lea/1 :o1 9 ,w9t]1 has wa%$ 8 h&s & gone out )\t dry+ !m4 ,! same evaporation :i* ?us affects ! h&s1 r5d]s ! l& cold1 :5 fill$ ) wat]1 e gallon ( :i* ?us c>ri$ (f requires1 & actually c>ries (f1 z mu* heat z w\ld raise five & a half gallons ( wat] f ! freez+ to ! boil+ po9t4 ,morton1 9 8 ,encyclopa$ia ( ,agriculture1 e/imates t x w\ld require an exp5diture ( ne>ly #a1bjj p\nds ( coal p] day1 to evaporate artificially "o half ! ra9 :i* falls on an acre dur+ ! ye>4 ,9 o!r words1 ab\t #bai tons ( coals annually1 w\ld be requir$ = e acre ( undra9$ l&1 s z to all[ ! free use ( ! sun's rays = ! legitimate purpose ( gr[+ & matur+ ! crops cultivat$ ^u x4 ,x w n !n be surpris+ t undra9$ soils are1 9 ! language ( ! f>m]1 cold4 #b4 ,heat w n pass d[nw>d 9 wat]4 ,if1 !re=e1 y\r soil be saturat$ ) wat]1 ! heat ( ! sun1 9 ,spr+1 _c w>m x1 & y\r pl[+ & plant+ mu/ be late1 & y\r crop a failure4 ,c\nt ,rum=d tri$ _m exp]im5ts to illu/rate ! mode ( ! propagation ( heat 9 fluids1 & 8 conclusion1 x is presum$1 is n[ held to be ! true !ory1 t heat is transmitt$ 9 wat] only by ! motion ( ! p>ticles ( wat]2 s t1 if y c\ld /op ! heat$ p>ticles f ris+1 wat] c\ld n be w>m$ except :]e x t\*es ! vessel conta9+ x4 ,heat appli$ to ! bottom ( a vessel ( wat] w>ms ! p>ticles 9 contact ) ! vessel1 & cold] p>ticles desc5d1 & s ! :ole is w>m$4 ,heat1 appli$ to ! surface ( ! wat]1 c nev] w>m x1 except s f> z x is conduct$ d[nw>d by "s o!r m$ium ?an ! wat] itself4 ,c\nt ,rum=d conf9$ cakes ( ice 9 ! bottom ( glass j>s1 &1 cov]+ x ) "o ?ickness ( pap]1 p\r$ boil+-hot wat] on ! top ( x1 & !re x rema9$ = h\rs )\t melt+ ! ice4 ,! pap] 0 plac$ ov] ! ice1 s t ! hot wat] c\ld n be p\r$ on x1 :i* w\ld h ?aw$ x at once4 ,e man :o has p\r$ hot wat] into a froz5 pump1 hop+ to ?aw out ! ice by ?is means1 has arriv$ at ! fact1 if n at ! !ory1 t ice w n melt by hot wat] on ! top ( x4 ,if1 h[ev]1 a piece ( lead pipe be plac$ 9 ! pump1 re/+ on ! ice1 & hot wat] be p\r$ ?r\gh x1 ! ice w melt at once4 ,9 ! fir/ in/ance1 ! hot wat] 9 contact ) ! ice becomes cold2 & !re x rema9s1 because cold wat] is heavi] ?an w>m1 & !re x w rema91 ?\gh ! top be boil+4 ,b :5 hot wat] is p\r$ ?r\gh ! pipe1 ! d[nw>d curr5t drives away ! cold wat]1 & br+s heat$ p>ticles 9 succession to ! ice4 ,heat is propagat$ 9 wat]1 !n1 only by circulation2 t is1 by ! upw>d movem5t ( ! heat$ p>ticles1 & ! d[nw>d movem5t ( ! cold] ones to take _! place4 ,any?+ :i* ob/ructs circulation1 prev5ts ! passage ( heat4 ,*ocolate reta9s heat long] ?an tea1 because x is ?ick]1 & ! hot p>ticles _c s readily rise to be cool$ at ! surface4 ,c\nt ,rum=d illu/rat$ ?is fact satisfactorily1 by putt+ eid]-d[n into wat]1 :i* 0 f\nd to ob/ruct ! circulation1 & to prev5t ! rapid heat+ & cool+ ( x4 ,! same is true ( all visc\s sub/ances1 z />* & glue2 & s ( oil4 ,!y reta9 heat mu* long] ?an wat] or spirits4 ,9 a soil saturat$ ) wat]1 or ev5 9 wat] ?ick5$ ) mud1 !re c\ld !n be b little circulation ( ! p>ticles1 ev5 7 ! heat appli$ at ! bottom in/ead ( ! top4 ,probably ! soil1 ?\gh saturat$ ) wat]1 does1 to "s ext5t1 transmit heat f "o p>ticle ( e>? to ano!r1 b x mu/ be b v sl[ly4 ,9 ! *apt] ^u ,temp]ature z affect$ by ,dra9age1 f>!r illu/rations ( ?is po9t may be f\nd4 ,,a]ation ,,by ,,dra9s4 ,among ! advantages ( ?or\gh-dra9age1 is reckon$ by all1 ! circulation ( air ?r\gh ! soil4 ,no drop ( wat] c run f ! soil into a dra9 )\t its place be+ suppli$ by air1 unless !re is m wat] to supply x2 s t dra9age1 9 ?is way1 manife/ly promotes ! p]meation ( air ?r\gh ! soil4 ,b x is claim$ t dra9s may be made to promote circulation ( air 9 ano!r way1 & 9 dry times1 :5 no wat] is fl[+ ?r\gh !m1 by connect+ !m toge!r by means ( a head] at ! upp] ends1 & leav+ an op5+ s t ! air may pass freely ?r\gh ! :ole sy/em4 ,our fri5d1 ,pr(4 ,mapes1 is an advocate = ?is practice1 & c]ta9ly ! !ory seems well support$4 ,x is said t 9 dry1 hot wea!r1 :5 ! air is mo/ highly *>g$ ) moi/ure1 curr5ts ?us pass+ con/antly ?r\gh ! e>?1 mu/1 by contact ) ! cool] subsoil1 "p ) l>ge quantities ( moi/ure1 & t5d to moi/5 ! soil f ! dra9s to ! surface1 giv+ (f also ) ! moi/ure :atev] ( f]tiliz+ elem5ts ! air may be> ) x4 ,?is po9t has n escap$ ! notice ( ,engli% dra9]s4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,h4 ,*>nock1 an assi/ant commission] "u ! ,dra9age act1 9 #ahdc1 read a pap] 9 favor ( ?is practice1 b 9 #ahdi he publi%$ a second article 9 :i* he sugge/s d\bts ( ! advantages ( su* arrangem5ts1 & says he has discont9u$ _! application4 ,he says !y add to ! co/ ( ! "w1 & t5d to ! decay ( ! pipes1 & to promote ! gr[? into ! pipes1 ( any roots t may approa* !m4 ,mr4 ,p>kes1 9 a publi%$ article 9 #ahdf1 speaks ( ?is idea1 b passes x by z ( v little importance4 ,mr4 ,d5ton quotes ! au?ority ( "s ( 8 correspond5ts /rongly 9 favor ( ?is !ory4 ,aft] try+ "s exp]im5ts himself ^u clay soil1 he admits ! advantages ( su* an arrangem5t = su* soil1 9 ! foll[+ n v en?usia/ic t]ms3 ,x w be readily und]/ood t z clay w always contract rapidly "u ! influ5ce ( a draught ( air1 9 consequ5ce ( ! rapid evaporation ( moi/ure f its surface1 "o ( ! b5efits ( dra9+ is ?us v *eaply acquir$2 & = ! d5s] clays x may possibly be a desirable ?+ to d1 b 9 ! por\s soils x w\ld appe> t no advantage is ga9$ by x4 ,yet1 not)/&+ ?is summ>y disposition ( ! "q 9 ,engl&1 x is by no means cle>1 t 9 ! tropical heat ( ,am]ican summ]s1 :5 ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! temp]ature ( ! air & ! subsoil is s mu* great] ?an x c ev] be 9 ,engl&1 & :5 we suff] f sev]] dr\ghts ?an are common !re1 we may n f9d sub/antial practical advantage f ! passage ( ^! air curr5ts ?r\gh ! soil4 ,we are n aw>e ( exp]im5ts 9 ,am]ica1 accurate en\gh to be quot$ z au?ority on ! subject4 ,,*apt] ,,xiv4 ,,dra9age ,,adapts ,,! ,,soil ,,to ,,g]m9ation ,,& ,,vegetation4 ,process ( ,g]m9ation4--,two ,classes ( ,pores 9 ,soils1 illu/rat$ by ,cuts4--,too mu* ,wat] excludes ,air1 r$uces ,temp]ature4--,h[ mu* ,air ! ,soil ,conta9s4--,dra9age ,improves ! ,quality ( ,crops4--,dra9age prev5ts ,dr\ght4--,dra9$ ,soils hold mo/ ,wat]4--,all[ ,roots to g ,deep4--,v>i\s ,facts4 ,no apology w be necess>y = ! long extract :i* we are ab\t to give1 to any p]son :o w read x ) att5tion4 ,x is f a lecture on ,agricultural ,sci5ce1 by ,dr4 ,madd51 & we confess ourselves incompet5t to cond5se or improve ! language ( ! le>n$ au?or4 ,we ?9k we are safe 9 say+ t x has nev] be5 be=e publi%$ 9 ,am]ica3 ,! fir/ ?+ :i* occurs aft] ! s[+ ( ! se$ is1 ( c\rse1 g]m9ation2 & be=e we exam9e h[ ?is process may be influ5c$ by ! condition ( ! soil1 we mu/ necess>ily obta9 "s correct idea ( ! process itself4 ,! mo/ c>eful exam9ation has prov$ t ! process ( g]m9ation consi/s ess5tially ( v>i\s *emical *anges1 :i* require = _! developm5t ! pres5ce ( air1 moi/ure1 & a c]ta9 degree ( w>m?4 ,n[ x is obvi\sly unnecess>y = our pres5t purpose t we %\ld h ! lea/ idea ( ! nature ( ^! processes3 all we require to d1 is to asc]ta9 ! conditions "u :i* !y take place2 hav+ detect$ ^!1 we "k at once :at is requir$ to make a se$ gr[4 ,^!1 we h se51 are air1 moi/ure1 & a c]ta9 degree ( w>m?2 & x consequ5tly results1 t :]ev] a se$ is plac$ 9 ^! circum/ances1 g]m9ation w take place4 ,view+ matt]s 9 ?is light1 x appe>s t soil does n act *emically 9 ! process ( g]m9ation2 t its sole action is conf9$ to its be+ ! vehicle1 by means ( :i* a supply ( air & moi/ure & w>m? c be cont9ually kept up4 ,) ?is simple /atem5t 9 view1 we are q prep>$ to consid] ! v>i\s conditions ( soil1 = ! purpose ( det]m9+ h[ f> ^! w influ5ce ! future prospects ( ! crop1 & we %all accord+ly at once proce$ to exam9e c>efully into ! me*anical relations ( ! soil4 ,?is we propose do+ by ! aid ( figures4 ,soil exam9$ me*anically1 is f\nd to consi/ entirely ( p>ticles ( all %apes & sizes1 f /ones & pebbles1 d[n to ! f9e/ p[d]2 &1 on acc\nt ( _! extreme irregul>ity ( %ape1 !y _c lie s close to "o ano!r z to prev5t !re be+ passages betwe5 !m1 ow+ to :i* circum/ance soil 9 ! mass is always m or less por\s4 ,if1 h[ev]1 we proce$ to exam9e "o ( ! smalle/ p>ticles ( :i* soil is made up1 we %all f9d t ev5 ?is is n always solid1 b is mu* m frequ5tly por\s1 l soil 9 ! mass4 ,a consid]able proportion ( ?is f9ely-divid$ "p ( soil1 ! impalpable matt] z x is g5]ally call$1 is f\nd1 by ! aid ( ! microscope1 to consi/ ( brok5-d[n vegetable tissue1 s t :5 a small portion ( ! f9e/ du/ f a g>d5 or field is plac$ "u ! microscope1 we h exhibit$ to u p>ticles ( e v>iety ( %ape & /ructure1 ( :i* a c]ta9 "p is evid5tly ( vegetable orig94 ,9 ^! figures ,i h giv5 a v rude repres5tation ( ^! p>ticles2 & ,i mu/ beg y p>ticul>ly to rememb] t !y are n meant to repres5t by any means accurately :at ! microscope exhibits1 b are only design$ to s]ve z a plan by :i* to illu/rate ! me*anical prop]ties ( ! soil4 ,on ref]r+ to ,fig4 #ia1 we p]ceive t !re are two di/9ct classes ( pores2 fir/1 ! l>ge ones1 :i* exi/ betwe5 ! p>ticles ( soil1 & second1 ! v m9ute ones1 :i* occur 9 ! p>ticles !mselves2 & y w at ! same "t notice1 t :]eas all ! l>g] pores--^? betwe5 ! p>ticles ( soil--communicate mo/ freely ) ea* o!r1 s t !y =m canals1 ! small pores1 h[ev] freely !y may communicate ) "o ano!r 9 ! int]ior ( ! p>ticle 9 :i* !y occur1 h no direct connection ) ! pores ( ! surr\nd+ p>ticles4 ,let u n[1 !re=e1 trace ! effect ( ?is arrangem5t4 ,9 ,fig4 #ia1 we p]ceive t ^! canals & pores are all empty1 ! soil be+ p]fectly dry2 & ! canals communicat+ freely at ! surface ) ! surr\nd+ atmosph]e1 ! :ole w ( c\rse be fill$ ) air4 ,if 9 ?is condition1 a se$ be plac$ 9 ! soil1 z at a1 y at once p]ceive t x is freely suppli$ ) air1 b !re is no moi/ure2 !re=e1 :5 soil is p]fectly dry1 a se$ _c gr[4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ia4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ib4 ,let u turn our att5tion n[ to ,fig4 #ib4 ,"h we p]ceive t bo? ! pores & canals are no long] repres5t$ :ite1 b black1 ?is color be+ us$ to indicate wat]2 9 ?is in/ance1 !re=e1 wat] has tak5 ! place ( air1 or1 9 o!r words1 ! soil is v wet4 ,if we obs]ve our se$ a n[1 we f9d x abundantly suppli$ ) wat]1 b no air4 ,"h aga91 !re=e1 g]m9ation _c take place4 ,x may be well to /ate "h1 t ?is c nev] occur exactly 9 nature1 because wat] hav+ ! p[] ( dissolv+ air to a c]ta9 ext5t1 ! se$ a 9 ,fig4 #ib is1 9 fact1 suppli$ ) a c]ta9 am\nt ( ?is necess>y sub/ance2 &1 ow+ to ?is1 g]m9ation does take place1 al?\gh by no means "u su* advantage\s circum/ances z x w\ld 7 ! soil 9 a bett] condition4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ic4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #id4 ,we pass on n[ to ,fig4 #ic4 ,"h we f9d a diff]5t /ate ( matt]s4 ,! canals are op5 & freely suppli$ ) air1 :ile ! pores are fill$ ) wat]2 & consequ5tly y p]ceive t1 :ile ! se$ a has q en\gh ( air f ! canals1 x c nev] be )\t moi/ure1 z e p>ticle ( soil :i* t\*es x1 is well suppli$ ) ?is necess>y +r$i5t4 ,?is1 !n1 is ! prop] condition ( soil = g]m9ation1 & 9 fact = e p]iod ( ! plant's developm5t2 & ?is condition occurs :5 soil is moi/ b n wet--t is to say1 :5 x has ! color & appe>ance ( be+ well wat]$1 b :5 x is /ill capable ( be+ crumbl$ to pieces by ! h&s1 )\t any ( its p>ticles adh]+ toge!r 9 ! famili> =m ( mud4 ,turn+ our eyes to ,fig4 #id1 we obs]ve /ill ano!r condition ( soil4 ,9 ?is in/ance1 z f> z wat] is conc]n$1 ! soil is 9 its heal?y condition--x is moi/1 b n wet1 ! pores alone be+ fill$ ) wat]4 ,b :]e are ! canals8 ,we see !m 9 a few places1 b 9 by f> ! great] "p ( ! soil none are to be p]ceiv$2 ?is is ow+ to ! p>ticles ( soil hav+ adh]$ toge!r1 & ?us s f> oblit]at$ ! int]/itial canals1 t !y appe> only l pores4 ,?is is ! /ate ( matt]s 9 e clod ( e>?1 b2 & y w at once p]ceive1 on comp>+ x ) c1 :i* repres5ts a /one1 t ^! two diff] only 9 possess+ a few pores1 :i* latt]1 :ile !y may =m a res]voir = moi/ure1 c nev] act z vehicles = ! food ( plants1 z ! roots are n capable ( ext5d+ _! fibres into ! int]ior ( a clod1 b are at all times conf9$ to ! int]/itial canals4 ,) ^! f\r conditions be=e u1 let u endeavor to apply !m practically to asc]ta9 :5 !y occur 9 our fields1 & h[ ^? :i* are injuri\s may be obviat$4 ,! fir/ ( !m1 we p]ceive1 is a /ate ( too great dryness1 a v r>e condition1 9 ?is climate at lea/2 9 fact1 ! only case 9 :i* x is likely to occur is 9 v co>se s&s1 :]e ! soil1 be+ *iefly made up ( pure s& & p>ticles ( fl9ty matt]1 conta9s comp>atively mu* few] pores2 &1 f ! l>ge size ( ! individual p>ticles1 assi/$ by _! irregul>ity1 ! canals are wid]1 ! circulation ( air fre]1 &1 consequ5tly1 ! :ole is mu* m easily dri$4 ,:5 ?is /ate ( matt]s exi/s1 ! be/ treatm5t is to leave all ! /ones :i* occur on ! surface ( ! field1 z !y ca/ %ades1 & !reby prev5t or ret>d ! evaporation ( wat]4 ,we w n1 h[ev]1 make any fur!r obs]vations on ?is v r>e case1 b w r proce$ to ,fig4 #ib1 a mu* m frequ5t1 &1 9 e respect1 m important condition ( soil3 ,i ref] to an excess ( wat]4 ,:5 wat] is add$ to p]fectly dry soil1 x1 ( c\rse1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 fills ! int]/itial canals1 & f ^! ent]s ! pores ( ea* p>ticle2 & if ! supply ( wat] be n too great1 ! canals spe$ily become empty1 s t ! :ole ( ! fluid is tak5 up by ! pores3 ?is1 we h already se51 is ! heal?y condition ( ! soil4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! supply ( wat] be too great1 z is ! case :5 a spr+ ga9s admission into ! soil1 or :5 ! s9k+ ( ! fluid ?r\gh ! canals to a suffici5t dep? bel[ ! surface is prev5t$1 x is cle> t ^! also mu/ get fill$ ) wat] s soon z ! pores h become saturat$4 ,?is1 !n1 is ! condition ( undra9$ soil4 ,n only are ! pores fill$1 b ! int]/itial canals are likewise full2 & ! consequ5ce is1 t ! :ole process ( ! g]m9ation & gr[? ( vegetables is mat]ially int]f]$ )4 ,we %all "h1 !re=e briefly /ate ! injuri\s effects ( an excess ( wat]1 = ! purpose ( impress+ m /rongly on y\r m9ds ! necessity ( ?or\gh-dra9+1 z ! fir/ & mo/ ess5tial /ep t[>ds ! improvem5t ( y\r soil4 ,! fir/ great effect ( an excess ( wat] is1 t x produces a correspond+ dim9ution ( ! am\nt ( air b5ea? ! surface1 :i* air is ( ! greate/ possible consequ5ce 9 ! nutrition ( plants2 9 fact1 if entirely exclud$1 g]m9ation c\ld n take place1 & ! se$ s[n w\ld1 ( c\rse1 ei!r decay or lie dormant4 ,secondly1 an excess ( wat] is mo/ hurtful1 by r$uc+ consid]ably ! temp]ature ( ! soil3 ?is ,i f9d1 by c>eful exp]im5t1 to be to ! ext5t ( six & a-half degrees ,fahr5heit 9 ,summ]1 :i* am\nt is equival5t to an elevation above ! level ( ! sea ( #a1iej feet4 ,^! are ! two *ief injuries ( an excess ( wat] 9 soil :i* affect ! soil itself4 ,!re are v _m o!rs affect+ ! climate1 c42 b ^! n s connect$ ) ! subject 9 h& z to call = an explanation "h4 ,( c\rse1 all ^! injuri\s effects are at once ov]come by ?or\gh-dra9+1 ! result ( :i* is1 to e/abli% a direct communication betwe5 ! int]/itial canals & ! dra9s1 by :i* means x foll[s1 t no wat] c rema9 any l5g? ( "t 9 ^! canals )\t1 by its gravitation1 f9d+ its way into ! dra9s4 ,! #d? ,fig4 indicates badly-cultivat$ soil1 or soil 9 :i* l>ge unbrok5 clods exi/2 :i* clods1 z we h already se51 are v little bett] ?an /ones1 on acc\nt ( _! imp]meability to air & ! roots ( plants4 ,too mu* _c be said 9 favor ( pulv]iz+ ! soil2 ev5 ?or\gh-dra9+ itself w n sup]s$e ! necessity ( p]=m+ ?is mo/ necess>y op]ation4 ,! :ole valuable effects ( pl[+1 h>r[+1 grubb+1 c41 may be r$uc$ to ?is3 & almo/ ! :ole sup]iority ( g>d5 ov] field produce is ref]able to ! great] p]fection to :i* ?is pulv]iz+ ( ! soil c be c>ri$4 ,! :ole success ( ! drill husb&ry is ow+1 9 a great measure1 to its enabl+ y to /ir up ! soil well dur+ ! progress ( y\r crop2 :i* /irr+ up is ( no value beyond its effects 9 m m9utely pulv]iz+ ! soil1 increas+1 z f> z possible1 ! size & numb] ( ! int]/itial canals4 ,le/ any "o %\ld suppose t ! cont5ts ( ^! int]/itial canals mu/ be s m9ute t _! :ole am\nt c be ( b little consequ5ce1 ,i may "h notice ! fact1 t1 9 mod]ately well pulv]iz$ soil1 !y am\nt to no less ?an "o-f\r? ( ! :ole bulk ( ! soil itself2 = example1 #ajj cubic in*es ( moi/ soil 7t is1 ( soil 9 :i* ! pores are fill$ ) wat] :ile ! canals are fill$ ) air71 conta9 no less ?an #be cubic in*es ( air4 ,accord+ to ?is calculation1 9 a field pulv]iz$ to ! dep? ( eight in*es1 a dep? p]fectly atta9able on mo/ soils by c>eful tillage1 e imp]ial acre w reta9 b5ea? its surface no less ?an #ab1ede1bhj cubic in*es ( air4 ,&1 to take "o m elem5t into ! calculation1 suppos+ ! soil 7 n prop]ly dra9$1 ! suffici5t pulv]iz+ ( an additional in* 9 dep? w\ld increase ! escape ( wat] f ! surface by upw>ds ( "o hundr$ gallons a day4 ,dra9age improves ! quality ( crops4 ,9 a dry season1 we frequ5tly he> ! f>m] boa/ ( ! quality ( 8 products4 ,8 hay-crop1 he says1 is light1 b w sp5d mu* bett] ?an ! crop ( a wet season2 8 potatoes are n l>ge1 b !y are s\nd & mealy4 ,inde$1 ?is topic ne$ n be enl>g$ ^u4 ,e f>m] kn[s t 8 :eat & corn are heavi] & m s\nd :5 gr[n ^u l& suffici5tly dra9$4 ,dra9age prev5ts dr\ght4 ,?is proposition is some:at />tl+ at fir/ view4 ,h[ c dra9+ l& make x m moi/8 ,"o w\ld z soon ?9k ( wat]+ l& to make x dry4 ,a dr\ght is ! enemy we all dread4 ,pr(essor ,espy has a plan = produc+ ra91 by light+ ext5sive artificial fires4 ,a great objection to 8 !ory is1 t he _c limit 8 %[]s to 8 own l&1 & all ! public w\ld nev] be ready = a %[] on ! same day4 ,if we c really protect our l& f dr\ght1 by "u-dra9+ x1 ev]ybody may at once engage 9 ! "w )\t (f5ce to 8 neighbor4 ,if we take up a h&full ( ri* soil ( almo/ any k9d1 aft] a heavy ra91 we c squeeze x h>d en\gh ) ! h& to press out drops ( wat]4 ,if we %\ld take ( ! same soil a l>ge quantity1 aft] x 0 s dry t n a drop ( wat] c\ld be press$ out by h&1 & subject x to ! pressure ( ma*9]y1 we %\ld =ce f x m wat]4 ,any boy1 :o has wat*$ ! process ( mak+ cid] ) ! old-fa%ion$ press1 has se5 ! pomace1 aft] x _h be5 once press$ app>5tly dry & cut d[n1 & ! screw appli$ anew to ! *eese1 give out quantities ( juice4 ,^! facts illu/rate1 fir/1 h[ mu* wat] may be held 9 ! soil by attraction4 ,!y %[1 aga91 t m wat] is held by a pulv]iz$ & op5 soil1 ?an by a compact & close "o4 ,wat] is held 9 ! soil betwe5 ! m9ute p>ticles ( e>?4 ,if ^! p>ticles be press$ toge!r compactly1 !re is no space left betwe5 !m = wat]4 ,! same is true ( soil naturally compact4 ,?is compactness exi/s m or less 9 mo/ subsoils1 c]ta9ly 9 all ?r\gh :i* wat] does n readily pass4 ,h5ce1 all ^! subsoils are r5d]$ m p]meable to wat] by be+ brok5 up & divid$2 & m ret5tive by hav+ ! p>ticles ( :i* !y are compos$ sep>at$1 "o f ano!r--9 a ^w1 by pulv]ization4 ,?is increas$ capacity to conta9 moi/ure by attraction1 is ! greate/ security aga9/ dr\ght4 ,! plants1 9 a dry "t s5d _! rootlets ?r\gh\t ! soil1 & fl\ri% 9 ! moi/ure ?us /or$ up = _! "t ( ne$4 ,! pulv]ization ( dra9$ l& may be produc$1 p>tly by deep1 or subsoil pl[+1 :i* is always necess>y to p]fect ! object ( ?or\gh-dra9+2 b x is mu* aid$1 9 /iff clays1 also1 by ! %r9kage ( ! soil by dry+4 ,dra9age resi/s dr\ght1 aga91 by ! v deep5+ ( ! soil ( :i* we h already spok54 ,! roots ( plants1 we h se51 w n ext5d into /agnant wat]4 ,if1 !n1 z is frequ5tly ! case1 ev5 on s&y pla9s1 ! wat]-l9e be1 9 e>ly ,spr+1 v ne> ! surface1 ! se$ may be plant$1 may vegetate1 & ?r[ up a goodly %[ ( leaves & /alks1 :i* may fl\ri% z long z ! e>ly ra9s cont9ue2 b1 sudd5ly1 ! ra9s cease2 ! sun comes out 9 8 ,june brightness2 ! wat]-l9e l[]s at once 9 ! soil2 ! roots h no dep? to draw moi/ure f bel[1 & ! :ole field ( clov]1 or ( corn1 9 a s+le week1 is pa/ recov]y4 ,n[1 if ?is light1 s&y soil be dra9$1 s t1 at ! fir/ />t ( ! crop1 !re is a deep se$-b$ free f wat]1 ! roots /rike d[nw>d1 at once1 & ?us prep>e = a dr\ght4 ,! writ] has se5 ^u deep-tr5*$ l& 9 8 own g>d51 p>snips1 :i*1 be=e midsumm]1 _h ext5d$ d[nw>d ?ree feet1 be=e !y 7 z l>ge z a common :ipla%2 & yet1 ?r\gh ! ,summ] dr\ght1 cont9u$ to ?rive till !y atta9$ 9 ,autumn a l5g?1 includ+ tops1 ( ab\t sev5 feet1 & an extraord9>y size4 ,a mom5t's reflection w satisfy any "o t1 ! dry] ! soil 9 ,spr+1 ! deep] w ! roots /rike1 & ! bett] able w be ! plant to endure ! ,summ]'s dr\ght4 ,aga91 dra9age & consequ5t pulv]ization & deep5+ ( ! soils increase _! capacity to absorb moi/ure f ! atmosph]e1 & ?us af=d protection aga9/ dr\ght4 ,wat]y vapor is con/antly1 9 all dry wea!r1 ris+ f ! surface ( ! e>?2 & plants1 9 ! day-"t1 are also1 f _! leaves & b>k1 giv+ (f moi/ure :i* !y draw f ! soil4 ,b ,nature has provid$ a wond]ful law ( comp5sation = ?is wa/e1 :i* w\ld1 )\t su* provision1 p>* ! e>? to b>r5ness 9 a s+le ra9less mon?4 ,! capacity ( ! atmosph]e to take up & convey wat]1 furni%es "o ( ! gr&e/ illu/rations ( ! p]fect "w ( ! ,au?or ( ! ,univ]se4 ,all ! riv]s run into ! sea1 yet ! sea is n full2 & ! sea is n full1 because ! num]\s great riv]s & _! millions ( tribut>ies1 ev] fl[+ f age to age1 convey to ! ocean only z mu* wat] z ! atmosph]e c>ries back 9 vapor1 & dis*>ges ^u ! hills4 ,! w>m] ! atmosph]e1 ! great] its capacity to hold moi/ure4 ,! heat$1 ?ir/y air ( ! tropics dr9ks up ! wat] ( ! ocean1 & be>s x away to ! cold] regions1 :]e1 ?r\gh cond5sation by cold1 x becomes visible z a cl\d2 & z a huge sponge press$ by an invisible h&1 ! cl\d1 cond5s$ /ill fur!r by cold1 s5ds d[n its wat] to ! e>? 9 ra94 ,! heat$ air ov] our fields & /reams1 9 ,summ]1 is load$ ) moi/ure z ! sun decl9es4 ,! e>? has be5 cool$ by radiation ( its heat1 & by con/ant evaporation ?r\gh ! day4 ,by contact ) ! cool] soil1 ! air1 borne by its ?\s& curr5ts g5tly along its surface1 is cond5s$1 & yields its moi/ure to ! ?ir/y e>? aga91 9 ! =m ( dew4 ,at a ,legislative ,agricultural ,meet+1 held 9 ,albany1 ,new ,york1 ,janu>y #be?1 #ahee1 ! great dr\ght ( #ahed be+ ! subject1 ! secret>y /at$ t ! exp]i5ce ( ! pa/ season has abundantly prov$ t ?or\gh-dra9age ^u soils requir+ x1 has prov$ a v great relief to ! f>m]2 t ! crops ^u su* l&s h be5 f> bett]1 g5]ally1 ?an ^? ^u undra9$ l&s1 9 ! same locality2 & t1 9 _m in/ances1 ! increas$ crop has be5 suffici5t to defray ! exp5ses ( ! improvem5t 9 a s+le ye>4 ,mr4 ,joseph ,h>ris1 at ! same meet+1 said3 ,an und]dra9$ soil w be f\nd damp] 9 dry wea!r1 ?an an undra9$ "o1 & ! !rmomet] %[s a dra9$ soil w>m] 9 cold wea!r1 & cool] 9 hot wea!r1 ?an "o :i* is undra9$4 ,! secret>y ( ! ,new ,york ,/ate ,agricultural ,society1 9 8 ,report = #ahee1 says3 ,! te/imony ( f>m]s1 9 diff]5t sections ( ! ,/ate1 is almo/ unanim\s1 t dra9$ l&s h suff]$ f> less f dr\ght ?an undra9$4 ,alleghany c\nty reports t dra9$ l&s h be5 less affect$ by ! dr\ght ?an undra9$2 ,*atauque c\nty1 t ! dra9$ l&s h /ood ! dr\ght bett] ?an ! undra9$4 ,! report f ,cl9ton c\nty says3 ,dra9$ l&s h be5 less affect$ by ! dr\ght ?an undra9$4 ,montgom]y c\nty reports3 ,we f9d t dra9$ l&s h a bett] crop 9 ei!r wet or dry seasons ?an undra9$4 ,b4 ,f4 ,n\rse1 ( ,orr+ton1 ,ma9e1 /ates t1 on 8 dra9$ l&1 9 t ,/ate1 dur+ ! dr\ght ( #ahed1 !re 0 at all times suffici5t dampness app>5t on scrap+ ! surface ( ! gr\nd ) 8 foot 9 pass+1 & a crop ( beans 0 plant$1 gr[n & ga!r$ !refrom1 )\t z mu* ra9 z w usually fall 9 a %[] ( fifte5 m9utes' duration1 :ile vegetation on ! next field 0 p>*+ = lack ( moi/ure4 ,a committee ( ! ,new ,york ,f>m]s' ,club1 :i* visit$ ! f>m ( ,pr(4 ,mapes1 9 ,new ,j]sey1 9 ! "t ( a sev]e dr\ght1 9 #ahee1 report$ t ! ,pr(essor's f5ces 7 ! b\nd>ies ( ! dr\ght1 all ! l&s outside be+ affect$ by x1 :ile 8 rema9$ free f injury4 ,?is 0 attribut$1 bo? by ! committee & by ,pr(4 ,mapes himself1 to ?or\gh-dra9age & deep tillage ) ! subsoil pl[4 ,mr4 ,%$d1 9 ! ,n4 ,e4 ,f>m]1 says3 ,a simple illu/ration w %[ ! effect :i* /agnant wat]1 )9 a foot or two ( ! surface1 has on ! roots ( plants4 ,p]haps x w aid ! read]1 :o d\bts ! b5efit ( ?or\gh-dra9+ 9 case ( dr\ght1 to see :y x is b5eficial4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ie4 ,section ( l& be=e x is dra9$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #if4 ,section ( l& aft] x is dra9$4 ,9 ! fir/ figure1 #a repres5ts ! surface soil1 ?r\gh :i* evaporation takes place1 us+ up ! heat :i* might o!rwise g to ! roots ( plants2 #b1 repres5ts ! wat] table1 or surface ( /agnant wat] bel[ :i* roots seldom g2 #c1 wat] ( evaporation2 #d1 wat] ( capill>y attraction2 #e1 wat] ( dra9age1 or /agnant wat]4 ,9 ! second figure1 #a repres5ts ! surface-soil w>m$ by ! sun & ,summ] ra9s2 #b1 ! wat]-table ne>ly f\r feet bel[ ! surface--roots ( ! :eat plant h be5 trac$ to a dep? ( m ?an f\r feet 9 a free mold2 #c1 wat] ( capill>y attraction2 #d1 wat] ( dra9age1 or /agnant wat]4 ,,*apt] ,,xv4 ,,temp]ature ,,z ,,affect$ ,,by ,,dra9age4 ,dra9age ,w>ms ! ,soil 9 ,spr+4--,heat _c g d[n 9 ,wet ,l&4--,dra9age causes great] ,deposit ( ,dew 9 ,summ]4--,dew w>ms ,plants 9 ,night1 ,cools !m 9 ! ,morn+ ,sun4--,dra9age v>ies ,temp]ature by ,less5+ ,evaporation4--,:at is ,evaporation4--,h[ x produces ,cold4--,dra9$ ,l& ,freezes ,deepe/1 b ,?aws ,soone/1 & ! ,reasons4 ,dra9age raises ! temp]ature ( ! soil1 by all[+ ! ra9 to pass d[nw>ds4 ,9 ! gr[+ season1 especially 9 ! ,spr+1 ! ra9 is consid]ably w>m] ?an ! soil4 ,if ! soil be saturat$ ) ! cold sn[-wat]1 ! wat] :i* falls mu/1 ( c\rse1 run away ^u ! surface4 ,if ! soil be dra9$1 ! ra9-wat] f9ds ready admission into x1 c>ry+ & imp>t+ to x a portion ( its heat4 ,! exp]im5ts ( ,c\nt ,rum=d1 %[+ t heat is n propagat$ d[nw>d 9 fluids1 may be f\nd at page #bgc4 ,?is is a pr9ciple too important to be ov]look$1 especially 9 ,new ,engl&1 :]e we ne$ e aid f ,nature & ,art1 to cont5d successfully aga9/ ! brevity ( ! plant+ season4 ,soil saturat$ ) cold wat]1 _c be w>m$ by any am\nt ( heat appli$ to ! surface4 ,w>m wat] is light] ?an cold wat]1 & /ays at ! surface4 ,9 boil+ wat] 9 a kettle1 we apply fire at ! bottom1 & no am\nt ( heat at ! surface ( ! vessel w\ld produce ! desir$ effect4 ,s rapid is ! passage ( heat upw>d 9 wat]1 t ! h& may )\t injury be held ^u ! bottom ( a kettle ( boil+ wat] "o m9ute aft] x has be5 remov$ f ! fire4 ,! foll[+ exp]im5ts & illu/rations1 f ! ,horticulturi/ ( ,nov4 #ahef1 beautifully illu/rate ?is po9t3 ,,rationale ,,( ,,dra9+ ,,l& ,,expla9$4 ,! reason :y dra9$ l& ga9s heat1 & wat]-logg$ l& is always cold1 consi/s 9 ! well-kn[n fact t heat _c be transmitt$ d[nw>ds ?r\gh wat]4 ,?is may readily be se5 by ! foll[+ exp]im5ts3 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ig4 ,exp]im5t ,no4 #a4--;,a squ>e box 0 made1 ( ! =m repres5t$ by ! annex$ diagram1 eighte5 in*es deep1 elev5 in*es wide at top1 & six in*es wide at bottom4 ,x 0 fill$ ) peat1 saturat$ ) wat] to c1 =m+ to t dep? 7twelve & a half in*es7 a sort ( artificial bog4 ,! box 0 !n fill$ ) wat] to d4 ,a !rmomet] a1 0 plung$1 s t its bulb 0 )9 "o in* & a half ( ! bottom4 ,! temp]ature ( ! :ole mass ( peat & wat] 0 f\nd to be #ci-a_/b deg4 ,fahr4 ,a gallon ( boil+ wat] 0 !n add$2 x rais$ ! surface ( ! wat] to e4 ,9 five m9utes1 ! !rmomet]1 a1 rose to #dd deg41 ow+ to ! conduction ( heat by ! !rmomet] & its gu>d tube2 at t5 m9utes f ! introduction ( ! hot wat]1 ! !rmomet]1 a1 rose to #df deg41 & x subsequ5tly rose no high]4 ,ano!r !rmomet]1 b1 dipp+ "u ! surface ( ! wat] at e1 0 !n introduc$1 & ! foll[+ are ! indications ( ! two !rmomet]s at ! respective int]vals1 reckon+ f ! "t ! hot wat] 0 suppli$3 ,!rmomet] b4 ,!rmomet] a4 #bj m9utes #aej deg4 #df deg4 #a h\r #cj #aja deg4 #de deg4 #b h\rs #cj #hj-a_/b deg4 #db deg4 #ab #dj #de deg4 #dj deg4 ,! mean temp]ature ( ! ext]nal air to :i* ! box 0 expos$ dur+ ! above p]iod1 0 #db deg41 ! maximum be+ #dg deg41 & ! m9imum #cg deg44 ,exp]im5t ,no4 #b4--,) ! same arrangem5t z 9 ! prec$+ case1 a gallon ( boil+ wat] 0 introduc$ above ! peat & wat]1 :5 ! !rmomet] a1 0 at #cf deg42 9 t5 m9utes x rose to #dj deg44 ,! cock 0 !n turn$ = ! purpose ( dra9age1 :i* 0 b sl[ly effect$2 &1 at ! end ( tw5ty m9utes1 ! !rmomet] a1 indicat$ #dj deg42 at tw5ty-five m9utes1 #db deg41 :il/ ! !rmomet] b1 0 #adb deg44 ,at ?irty m9utes1 ! cock 0 )drawn f ! box1 & m free egress ( wat] be+ ?us af=d$1 at ?irty-five m9utes ! fl[ 0 no long] cont9u\s1 & ! !rmomet] b1 indicat$ #dh deg44 ,! mass 0 dra9$1 & p]meable to a fre% supply ( wat]4 ,accord+ly1 ano!r gallon ( boil+ wat] 0 p\r$ ov] x2 &1 9 #c m9utes1 ! !rmomet] a1 rose to #gg deg44 #e fell to #gf-a_/b deg44 #ae #gj-a_/b deg44 #bj rema9$ at #ga deg44 #a h\r #ej #gj-a_/b deg44 ,9 ^! two exp]im5ts1 ! !rmomet] at ! bottom ( ! box sudd5ly rose a few degrees imm$iately aft] ! hot wat] 0 add$2 & x might be inf]r$ t ! heat 0 c>ri$ d[nw>ds by ! wat]4 ,b1 9 reality1 ! rise 0 ow+ to ! action ( ! hot wat] on ! !rmomet]1 & n to its action ^u ! cold wat]4 ,to prove ?is1 ! p]p5dicul> !rmomet]s 7 remov$4 ,! box 0 fill$ ) peat & wat] to )9 ?ree in*es ( ! top1 a horizontal !rmomet]1 a f1 hav+ be5 previ\sly secur$ ?r\gh a hole made 9 ! side ( ! box1 by means ( a tight-fitt+ cork1 9 :i* ! nak$ /em ( ! !rmomet] 0 groov$4 ,a gallon ( boil+ wat] 0 !n add$4 ,! !rmomet]1 a v delicate "o1 0 n 9 ! lea/ affect$ by ! boil+ wat] 9 ! top ( ! box4 ,9 ?is exp]im5t1 ! wood5 box may be suppos$ to be a field2 ! peat & cold wat] repres5t ! wat]-logg$ portion2 ra9 falls on ! surface1 & becomes w>m$ by contact ) ! soil1 &1 ?us heat$1 desc5ds4 ,b x is /opp$ by ! cold wat]1 & ! heat w g no fur!r4 ,b1 if ! soil is dra9$1 & n wat]-logg$1 ! w>m ra9 trickles ?r\gh ! crevices ( ! e>?1 c>ry+ to ! dra9-level ! high temp]ature x _h ga9$ on ! surface1 p>ts ) x to ! soil z x passes d[n1 & ?us produces t bottom heat :i* is s ess5tial to plants1 al?\gh s few suspect its exi/5ce4 ,wat]1 al?\gh x w n conduct heat d[nw>ds1 is a ready vehicle ( cold f ! surface t[>ds ! bottom4 ,wat] becomes heavi] by cool+ till x is r$uc$ to ab\t #ci deg41 at :i* po9t x atta9s its greate/ d5sity1 & has a t5d5cy to g to ! bottom until ! :ole mass is r$uc$ to ?is l[ temp]ature4 ,?us1 ! circulation ( wat] 9 ! saturat$ soil1 9 "s conditions ( ! temp]ature ( ! surface & subsoil1 may h a *ill+ effect :i* c\ld n be produc$ on dra9$ soil4 ,aft] wat] is r$uc$ to ab\t #ci deg41 in/ead ( obey+ ! common law ( becom+ heavi] by cool+1 x =ms a rem>kable exception to x1 & becomes light] until x freezes4 ,7 x n = ?is admirable provision ( ,nature1 all our ponds & riv]s w\ld1 9 ! ,w9t]1 become solid ice f ! surface to ! bottom4 ,n[ z ! surface wat] is *ill$ x goes to ! bottom1 & is replac$ by w>m] wat]1 :i* rises1 until ! :ole is r$uc$ to ! po9t ( greate/ d5sity4 ,!n ! circulation ceases1 & ! wat] cold] ?an #ci deg4 rema9s at ! surface1 is conv]t$ into ice :i* becomes /ill light]1 by cry/allization1 & floats ^u ! surface4 ,no exp]im5ts1 %[+ ! temp]ature ( undra9$ soils at v>i\s dep?s1 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 h come to our k4 ,mr4 ,gisborne says3 ,_m exp]im5ts h %[n t1 9 ret5tive soils1 ! temp]ature1 at two or ?ree feet bel[ ! surface ( ! wat]-table1 is1 at no p]iod ( ! ye>1 high] ?an f #df deg4 to #dh deg4 9 agricultural ,brita94 ,pr(4 ,h5ry /ates 9 ! ,pat5t ,(fice ,report = #aheg1 t 9 ! cell>s ( ! obs]vatory1 at ,p>is1 at ! dep? ( sixty-sev5 & a half feet1 9 fifty ye>s1 ! temp]ature has nev] v>i$ a t5? ( a degree f #ec deg4 #bh'1 9 all t p]iod1 ,summ] or ,w9t]4 ,mr4 ,p>kes gives ! results ( a valuable s]ies ( exp]im5ts1 9 :i* he comp>$ ! temp]ature ( dra9$ & undra9$ portions ( a bog4 ,he f\nd ! temp]ature ( ! undra9$ portion to rema9 /eadily at #df deg41 at all dep?s1 f "o to ?irty feet2 & at sev5 in*es f ! surface1 ! temp]ature rema9$ at #dg deg4 dur+ ! exp]im5ts4 ,dur+ ! same p]iod1 ! temp]ature ( ! dra9$ portion 0 #dh-a_/d deg4 at two feet sev5 in*es bel[ ! surface1 & at sev5 in*es1 rea*$ z high z #ff deg4 dur+ a ?und]-/orm2 :ile1 on a mean ( ?irty-five obs]vations1 ! temp]ature at ! latt] dep? 0 #aj deg4 high] ?an at ! same dep? 9 ! undra9$ portion ( ! bog4 ,we f9d 9 ! ,agriculture ( ,new ,york1 ! results ( obs]vations made at ,albany & at ,scott1 9 t ,/ate1 9 ! ye> #ahdh1 ^u temp]ature at diff]5t dep?s4 ,! condition ( ! soil is n describ$1 b x is presum$ t x 0 soil naturally dra9$ 9 bo? cases4 ,a few ( ! results may give ! read] "s idea ( ! range ( und]gr\nd temp]ature1 z comp>$ ) t ( ! air4 ,temp]ature at ,albany at two feet dep?4 highe/ ,augu/ #ag & #ah1 #gj deg4 l[e/ ,febru>y #bh1 #cb-c_/d deg4 ---- ,range1 #cg-a_/d deg4 ---- at f\r feet dep?4 highe/ ,july #bi1 #fd-a_/b deg4 l[e/ ,febru>y #be1 #ce-a_/b deg4 ---- ,range1 #bi deg4 ---- ( ! air1 ,febru>y #ab1 -#c deg4 ,augu/1 #c1 ,p4 ,m41 #ij deg4 ---- ,range1 #ic deg4 ,temp]ature at ,scott at two feet dep?4 highe/1 ,augu/ #ag & #ah1 #fd deg4 at f\r ft4 dep?1 #ag days 9 ,aug4 #fj deg4 ( ! air1 at #c1 ,p4 ,m41 highe/ #ij deg4 ,! temp]ature ( fall+ ra91 h[ev]1 9 ! hot season1 is _m degrees cool] ?an ! l[] /ratum ( ! atmosph]e1 & ! surface ( ! e>? ^u :i* x falls4 ,! effects ( ra9 on dra9$ soil1 9 ! heat ( ,summ]1 are1 !n1 two-fold2 to cool ! burn+ surface1 :i* is1 z we h se51 mu* w>m] ?an ! ra91 &1 at ! same "t1 to w>m ! subsoil :i* is cool] ?an ! ra9 itself1 z x falls1 & v mu* cool] ?an ! ra9-wat]1 z x is w>m$ by its passage ?r\gh ! hot surface soil4 ,^! are beautiful provisions ( ,nature1 by :i* ! excesses ( heat & cold are mitigat$1 & ! temp]ature ( ! soil r5d]$ m uni=m1 ^u l& adapt$1 by dra9age1 to h] g5ial influ5ces4 ,^u ! saturat$ & wat]-logg$ bog1 z we h se51 ! effect ( ! greate/ heat is insuffici5t to raise ! temp]ature ( ! subsoil a s+le degree1 :ile ! surface may be burn$ up & %rivell$ l a p>*$ scroll4 ,dra9age also raises ! temp]ature ( ! soil by ! admission ( w>m air4 ,?is proposition is closely connect$ ) t j discuss$4 ,:5 ! air is w>m] ?an ! soil1 z x always is 9 ! ,spr+-"t1 ! wat] f ! melt+ sn[1 or f ra91 ^u dra9$ l&1 passes d[nw>d1 & runs (f by its gravitation4 ,z ,nature abhors a vacuum1 ! little spaces 9 ! soil1 f :i* ! wat] passes1 mu/ be fill$ ) air1 & ?is air c only be suppli$ f ! surface1 &1 be+ w>m] ?an ! gr\nd1 t5ds to raise its temp]ature4 ,no su* effect c be produc$ 9 l& n dra9$1 because no wat] runs out ( x1 & !re are1 consequ5tly1 no su* spaces op5$ = ! w>m air to ent]4 ,dra9age equalizes ! temp]ature ( ! soil 9 ,summ] by increas+ ! deposit ( dew4 ,( ?is we %all speak fur!r1 9 a future *apt]4 ,dra9age raises ! temp]ature 9 ,spr+ by dim9i%+ evaporation4 ,evaporation may be def9$ to be ! conv]sion ( liquid & solid bodies into ela/ic fluids1 by ! influ5ce ( caloric4 ,by heat+ wat] ov] a fire1 bubbles rise f ! bottom ( ! vessel1 adh]e a:ile to ! sides ( x1 & !n asc5d to ! surface1 & bur/ & g (f 9 visible vapor1 or1 9 o!r words1 by evaporation4 ,wat] is evaporat$ by ! heat ( ! sun m]ely1 & ev5 )\t ?is heat1 9 ! op5 air4 ,x is evaporat$ at v l[ temp]atures1 :5 fully expos$ to ! air4 ,ev5 ice evaporates 9 ! op5 air4 ,we (t5 obs]ve 9 ,w9t]1 t a ?9 cov]+ ( ice or sn[ disappe>s f our roads1 al?\gh !re has be5 no ?aw+ wea!r4 ,9 ano!r *apt]1 we h consid]$ ! subject ( ,evaporation & ,filtration1 & endeavor$ to give "s g5]al idea ( ! proportion ( ! ra9 :i* escapes by evaporation4 ,we h se51 t evaporation proce$s mu* m rapidly f a surface ( wat]1 z a pond or riv]1 ?an f a l& surface1 unless x be fully saturat$1 & t evaporation f ! wat] exce$s ! :ole am\nt ( ra91 ab\t z mu* z evaporation f ! l& falls %ort ( ! am\nt ( ra94 ,?us1 by ?is simple ag5cy ( evaporation1 ! va/ quantities ( wat] t are con/antly fl[+1 9 all ! riv]s ( ! e>?1 into ! sea1 are br\ght back aga9 to ! l&1 & s ! great sy/em ( circulation is ma9ta9$ ?r\gh\t ! ages4 ,z evaporation is greate/ f a wat]-surface1 s x is great]1 o!r ?+s be+ equal1 accord+ to ! wetness ( ! surface ( any giv5 field4 ,if ! field be cov]$ ) wat]1 x becomes a wat]-surface = ! "t1 & ! evaporation is l t f a pond4 ,if1 z is (t5 ! case1 ! wat] /&s on x 9 spots1 ov] half its surface1 & ! re/ is saturat$1 ! evaporation is sc>cely less1 & has be5 said to be ev5 m2 :ile1 if ! surface be comp>atively dry1 ! evaporation is v little4 ,b :at h>m does evaporation d8 & :at has all ?is sci5tific talk to d ) dra9age8 ,^!1 my fri5d1 are v practical que/ions1 & j ! ones :i* x is propos$ to answ]2 b we mu/ be> 9 m9d t1 z ,nature conducts h] gr& affairs by sy/ematic laws1 ! small portion ( h] doma9 :i* = a brief space ( "t we occupy1 is n exempt$ f _! op]ation4 ,"s ( ^! laws we may compreh5d1 & turn our k ( !m to practical acc\nt4 ,( o!rs1 we may note ! results1 )\t appreh5d+ ! reasons ( !m2 = x is true-- ,!re are m ?+s 9 ,heav5 & e>?1 ,horatio1 ,?an are dreamt ( 9 y\r philosophy4 ,discussions ( ?is k9d may seem dry1 ?\gh ! subject itself be moi/ure4 ,!y belong1 c]ta9ly1 to ! topic "u consid]ation4 ,evaporation does h>m 9 ! ,spr+-"t1 because x produces cold1 j :5 we mo/ want heat4 ,h[ x produces cold1 is n s readily expla9$4 ,! fact may be made z evid5t z ! exi/5ce ( s9 9 ! _w1 &1 possibly1 ! reason ( x may be z unsatisfactory4 ,! books say1 t heat always disappe>s :5 a solid body becomes a liquid2 & s x is1 t ! air always rema9s cool :ile ! sn[ & ice are melt+ 9 ,spr+4 ,aga91 x is said t heat always disappe>s1 :5 a fluid becomes vapor4 ,^! are said to be laws or pr9ciples ( nature1 & are said to expla9 o!r ph5om5a4 ,to a practical m9d1 x is p]haps j z satisfactory to say t evaporation produces cold1 z to /ate ! pr9ciple or law 9 ! language ( sci5ce4 ,t ! fact is s1 may be prov$ by _m illu/rations4 ,/ockh>dt gives ! foll[+ exp]im5t1 :i* is /rik+ly appropriate3 ,fill a tube half full ( wat]1 & fa/5 securely r\nd ! bulb ( x1 a piece ( clo?4 ,saturate ! clo? ) cold wat]1 & !n twirl ! tube rapidly betwe5 ! h&s2 pres5tly ! wat] 9 ! tube w become s5sibly cold]1 & ! degree ( cold may be accurately det]m9$ by ! !rmomet]4 ,moi/5 ! clo? ) e!r1 a v volatile liquid1 & twirl x aga9 9 ! same mann] z be=e2 by :i* means1 its cont5ts1 ev5 9 ,summ]1 may be conv]t$ into ice4 ,x is v =tunate = u1 t our ,spr+ %[]s are n ( e!r2 = !n1 in/ead ( ?aw+1 our l& w\ld freeze ! h>d]6 ,! heat ( ! blood is ab\t #ih deg42 yet man c endure a heat ( _m degrees m1 & ev5 labor "u a ,summ] sun1 :i* w\ld raise ! !rmomet] to #acj deg41 )\t ! temp]ature ( 8 blood be+ mat]ially affect$1 & x is because ( p]spiration1 :i* absorbs ! surplus heat1 or1 9 o!r words1 creates cold4 ,x is said1 too1 t on ! same pr9ciple1 if two sauc]s1 "o fill$ ) wat] w>m en\gh to give (f visible vapor1 ! o!r fill$ ) wat] j f ! well1 are expos$ 9 a %>p fro/y morn+1 t fill$ ) ! w>m wat] w exhibit ice soone/4 ,w9e is cool$ by evaporation1 by wrapp+ ! bottle 9 wet flannel1 & expos+ x to ! air4 ,if1 aft] all ?is1 any "o d\bts ! fact t evaporation t5ds to produce cold1 let him c\nt5ance 8 skepticism1 by wett+ 8 face ) w>m wat]1 & go+ into ! air 9 a ,w9t]'s day1 & 8 fai? w be greatly /r5g!n$4 ,we h1 9 ! nor!rn "p ( ,am]ica1 mo/ wat] 9 ! soil 9 ! ,spr+ ( ! ye>1 j at ! "t :5 we mo/ ne$ a g5ial w>m? to promote g]m9ation4 ,if l& is well dra9$1 ?is wat] s9ks d[nw>d1 & runs away 9 ! dra9s1 in/ead ( pass+ upw>d by evaporation4 ,dra9age1 !re=e1 dim9i%es evaporation simply by remov+ ! surplus sn[ & ra9-wat] by filtration4 ,x ?us raises ! temp]ature ( ! soil 9 t "p ( ! season1 :5 wat] is fl[+ f ! dra9s2 b1 9 ! heat ( ,summ]1 ! influ5ce ( ! %[]s :i* refre% )\t saturat+ ! soil1 & are reta9$ 9 x by attraction1 is n less5$4 ,z a good soil reta9s by attraction ab\t "o-half its weight ( wat] t _c be dra9$ out1 !re c be no reasonable appreh5sion t ! g5tle ,summ] %[]s w be wa/$ by filtration1 ev5 ^u ?or\gh-dra9$ l&1 :ile an av5ue is op51 by ! dra9s1 = ! escape ( dr[n+ floods4 ,to %[ ! g5]al effect ( dra9age1 9 rais+ ! temp]ature ( wet l&s 9 ,summ]1 ! foll[+ /atem5t ( ,mr4 ,p>kes is valuable4 ,an elevation ( ! temp]ature ( ! subsoil t5 degrees1 w be se5 to be v mat]ial1 :5 we consid] t ,indian corn w n vegetate at all at #ec deg41 b w />t at once at #fc deg41 #ee deg4 be+ its l[e/ po9t ( g]m9ation3 ,z reg>ds ! temp]ature ( ! wat] d]iv$ f dra9age at diff]5t seasons ( ! ye>1 ,i am unacqua9t$ ) any publi%$ facts4 ,?is is a subject ( ! highe/ import1 z !rmometric obs]vations may be r5d]$ demon/rative1 9 ! true/ mann]1 ( ! effect ( dra9age on ! climate ( ! soil4 ,at pres5t1 ,i mu/ limit myself to say+1 t ,i h nev] kn[n ! wat] ( dra9age issue f l& dra9$ at ,midsumm]1 to dep?s ( f\r & five feet1 at a high] temp]ature ?an #eb deg4 or #ec deg4 ,fahr5heit3 :]eas1 9 ! foll[+ ye> & subsequ5t ye>s1 ! wat] dis*>g$ f ! same dra9s1 at ! same p]iod1 w issue at a temp]ature ( #fj deg41 & ev5 s high z #fc deg41 ?us exhibit+ ! increase ( heat conf]r$ dur+ ! ,summ] mon?s on ! t]re/rial climate by dra9age4 ,?is is ! all-important fact connect$ ) ! art & sci5ce ( l&-dra9age4 ,besides affect+ favorably ! temp]ature ( ! p>ticul> field :i* is dra9$1 ! g5]al effect ( ! dra9age ( wet l&s ^u ! climate ( ! neighborhood has (t5 be5 notic$4 ,9 ! pap] already cit$1 emanat+ f ! ,bo>d ( ,heal?1 we f9d ! foll[+ rem>ks1 :i* are 9 accordance ) all obs]vation 9 di/ricts :]e "u-dra9age has be5 g5]ally practic$3 ,e "o mu/ h rem>k$1 on pass+ f a di/rict ) a ret5tive soil to "o ( an op5 por\s nature--respectively *>act]iz$ z cold & w>m soils--t1 (t51 :il/ ! air on ! ret5tive soil is cold & raw1 t on ! dri] soil is comp>atively w>m & g5ial4 ,! same effect :i* is "h caus$ naturally1 may be produc$ artificially1 by provid+ = ! p]fect escape ( sup]flu\s wat] by dra9age1 s z to leave less to cool d[n ! air by evaporation4 ,! reason ( ?is diff]5ce is two-fold4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 mu* heat is sav$1 z mu* heat be+ requir$ = ! vaporization ( wat]1 z w\ld elevate ! temp]ature ( m ?an ?ree million times its bulk ( air "o degree4 ,x foll[s1 !re=e1 t = e in* 9 dep? ( wat] c>ri$ (f by dra9s1 :i* mu/ o!rwise evaporate1 z mu* heat is sav$ p] acre z w\ld elevate elev5 ?\s& million cubic feet ( air "o degree 9 temp]ature4 ,b t is n all4 ,n only is ! temp]ature ( ! air r$uc$1 b its dew po9t is rais$1 by wat] be+ evaporat$ :i* might be dra9$ (f2 consequ5tly1 ! want ( dra9age r5d]s ! air bo? cold] & m liable to ! =mation ( dew & mi/s1 & its dampness affects com=t ev5 m ?an its temp]ature4 ,x is easy1 !n1 to und]/& h[ local climate is s mu* affect$ by surplus moi/ure1 & s rem>kably improv$ by dra9age4 ,a f>m] be+ ask$ ! effect on temp]ature ( "s new dra9age works2 repli$1 t all he knew 01 t be=e ! dra9age he c\ld nev] g out at night )\t a great coat1 & t n[ he c\ld1 s t he consid]$ x made ! diff]5ce ( a great coat to him4 ,dra9age increases ! coldness ( ! subsoil 9 ,w9t]4 ,:e!r ?is is a ga9 or loss to ! agriculturi/1 is n = u to det]m9e4 ,! object ( our labor is1 to lay ! :ole subject fairly be=e ! read]1 & n to extol dra9age z ! gr& panacea ( bad husb&ry4 ,al?\gh wat] w n conduct heat d[nw>ds1 yet x d\btless prev5ts ! deep freez+ ( ! gr\nd4 ,x has already be5 se51 t ! temp]ature ( ! e>?1 a few feet bel[ ! surface1 is above ! freez+ po9t1 at all times4 ,! fact t ! gr\nd does n freeze1 usually1 ev5 9 ,new ,engl&1 :]e e ,w9t] br+s wea!r bel[ ,z]o1 m ?an f\r or five feet deep1 9 ! mo/ expos$ situations1 %[s conclusively ! comp>atively ev5 temp]ature ( ! subsoil4 ,! wat] :i* fl[s und]gr\nd is ( ?is subsoil temp]ature1 &1 9 ,w9t]1 w>ms ! gr\nd ?r\gh :i* x fl[s4 ,9 l& ?or\ghly dra9$1 ?is w>m wat] _c rise above ! dra9s1 & s _c def5d ! soil f fro/4 ,dra9$ l& w1 und\bt$ly1 freeze deep] ?an undra9$ l&1 & ?is is a fact to be impress$ ^u all :o lay tiles 9 a cold climate4 ,x is a /rong argum5t = deep dra9age4 ,dra9 deep1 or dra9 n1 is a conv5i5t p>aphrase ( a famili> quotation4 ,h[ (t5 d we he> x said1 ,my mead[ nev] freezes m ?an a foot deep2 !re w nev] be any tr\ble f fro/ 9 t place1 if ! tiles are no m ?an two feet deep4 ,be assur$1 bro!r f>m]1 t ! fro/ w foll[ ! wat]-table d[nw>d1 &1 unless ! w>m wat] move 9 suffici5t quantity ?r\gh y\r pipes to protect !m 9 ,w9t]1 y\r "w may be ru9$ by fro/4 ,s long z mu* wat] is fl[+ 9 pipes1 especially if x be f deep spr+s1 !y w be safe f fro/1 ev5 at a slight dep?4 ,dr4 ,madd5 says1 t x has be5 prov$ t "o great s\rce ( heal? & vigor 9 vegetation1 is ! great diff]5ce :i* exi/s betwe5 ! temp]ature ( ,summ] & ,w9t]1 :i*1 he says1 9 dry soils1 (t5 am\nts to betwe5 #cj deg4 & #dj deg42 :ile1 9 v wet soils1 x seldom exce$s #aj deg44 ,?is idea may h value 9 a mild climate2 b1 probably1 9 ,new ,engl&1 we get cold en\gh = our good1 )\t artificial aids4 ,9 ano!r view1 dra9age is kn[n to be ess5tial1 ev5 9 ,w9t]4 ,fruit trees are almo/ z surely de/roy$ by /&+ ) _! feet 9 cold wat] all ,w9t]1 z any ( u unfea!r$ bip$s w\ld be2 :ile ! solid freez+ ( ! e>? ar\nd _! roots does n h>m !m4 ,p]haps ! same is true ( mo/ o!r vegetation4 ,! deep freez+ ( ! gr\nd is (t5 m5tion$ z a mode ( pulv]ization--z a sort ( natural subsoil+ ?r[n 9 by a k9d ,provid5ce1 by way ( comp5sation = "s ( ! evils ( a cold climate4 ,mo/ ( ^?1 h[ev]1 :o h wield$ ! pick-axe 9 lay+ f\r-foot dra9s1 9 clay or h>d-pan1 w h d\bts :e!r ,jack ,fro/1 ?\gh he c pull up our f5ce-po/s1 & ?r[ out our ,w9t] gra91 has mu* s(t5$ ! e>? two feet bel[ its surface4 ,t ! fro/ comes out ( dra9$ l& e>li] ?an undra9$1 9 ,spr+1 we are satisfi$1 bo? by p]sonal obs]vation1 & by ! /atem5ts ( ! few individuals :o h practic$ ?or\gh-dra9age 9 our cold climate4 ,b4 ,f4 ,n\rse1 ,esq41 ^: valuable /atem5t w be f\nd 9 a lat] *apt]1 says1 t1 9 #aheh1 ! fro/ came out a week1 at lea/1 e>li] f 8 dra9$ l&1 9 ,ma9e1 ?an f contigu\s undra9$ l&2 & t1 usually1 ! dra9$ l& is 9 condition to be work$ z soon z ! fro/ is out1 q two weeks e>li] ?an any o!r l& 9 ! vic9ity4 ,our obs]vations on our own l&1 fully corroborate ! op9ion ( ,mr4 ,n\rse4 ,! reasons :y ! fro/ %\ld come out ( dra9$ l& soone/1 are1 t l& t is dry does n freeze s solid z l& t is wet1 & s spaces are left = ! p]meation ( w>m air4 ,aga91 ice1 l wat]1 is almo/ a nonconductor ( heat1 & e>? saturat$ ) wat] & froz51 is l unto x1 s t nei!r ! w>m? ( ! subsoil or surface-soil c be readily imp>t$ to x4 ,dry e>?1 on ! o!r h&1 al?\gh froz51 is /ill a good conductor1 & readily dissolves at ! fir/ w>m brea? ( ,spr+ above1 or ! pulsations ( ! great he>t ( ,nature b5ea?4 ,,*apt] ,,xvi4 ,,p[] ,,( ,,soils ,,to ,,absorb ,,& ,,reta9 ,,moi/ure4 ,:y does n ,dra9age make ! ,l& too ,dry8--,adhesive ,attraction4--,! ,f9e/ ,soils ex]t mo/ ,attraction4--,h[ mu* ,wat] diff]5t ,soils hold by ,attraction4--,capill>y ,attraction1 ,illu/rat$4--,p[] to ,imbibe ,moi/ure f ! ,air4--,weight ,absorb$ by #a1jjj lbs4 9 #ab ,h\rs4--,dew1 ,cause (4--,dew ,po9t4--,cause ( ,fro/4--,:y ,cov]+ ,plants ,protects f ,fro/4--,dew ,imp>ts ,w>m?4--,idea t ! ,moon ,promotes ,putrefaction4--,quantity ( ,dew4 ,! fir/ & mo/ natural objection made1 by ^? n practically famili> ) dra9age op]ations1 to ! :ole sy/em is1 t ! dra9s w draw out s mu* ( ! wat] f ! soil1 z to leave x too dry = ! crops4 ,if a cask be fill$ ) r\nd /ones1 or ) musket balls1 or ) l>ge %ot1 & ) wat] to ! surface1 & !n an op5+ be made at ! bottom ( ! cask1 all ! wat]1 except a ?9 film adh]+ to ! surface ( ! vessel & its cont5ts1 w imm$iately run out4 ,if n[1 ! same cask be fill$ ) ! dri$ soil ( any cultivat$ field1 & ?is soil be saturat$ ) wat]1 a "p only ( ! wat] c be drawn out at ! bottom4 ,! soil 9 ! cask w rema9 moi/1 reta9+ m or less ( ! wat]1 accord+ to ! "* ( ! soil4 ,:y does n ! wat] all run out ( ! soil1 & leave x dry8 ,an answ] may be f\nd 9 ! books1 :i* is1 9 reality1 b a re-/atem5t ( ! fact1 by ref]5ce to a pr9ciple ( nature1 by no means intelligible to f9ite m9ds1 call$ attraction4 ,if two sub/ances are plac$ 9 close contact ) ea* o!r1 !y _c be sep>at$ )\t a c]ta9 am\nt ( =ce4 ,if we wet ! surfaces ( two pieces ( glass1 & place !m 9 contact1 we %all f9d t !y adh]e to ea* o!r1 & t1 indep5d5tly ( ! effect ( ! pressure ( ! air1 !y oppose consid]able resi/ance to any attempt to sep>ate !m4 ,aga91 if we br+ any sub/ance1 z ! blade ( a knife1 9 contact ) wat]1 ! wat] adh]es to ! blade 9 a ?9 film1 & rema9s1 by :at is t]m$ adhesive attraction4 ,?is prop]ty resides 9 ! surface ( bodies1 & is 9 proportion to ! ext5t ( its surface4 ,soils possess ?is prop]ty1 9 common ) all o!r bodies1 & possess x1 9 a great] or less degree1 accord+ to ! aggregate surface :i* ! p>ticles ( a giv5 bulk pres5t4 ,?us1 clay may1 by means ( knead+1 be made to conta9 s l>ge a quantity ( wat]1 z t1 at la/1 x may almo/ be suppos$ to be divid$ into inf9itesimally ?9 lay]s1 hav+ ea* a film ( wat] adh]+ to x on ei!r side4 ,su* soils1 aga91 z s& or *alk1 ! p>ticles ( :i* are co>s] ex]t a less degree ( adhesive attraction = wat]4--,cyc4 ( ,ag41 #fie4 ,pr(essor ,s*uebl]1 ( ,tub+51 gives ! results ( exp]im5ts ^u ?is po9t4 ,by dropp+ wat] ^u dri$ soils ( diff]5t k9ds1 until x began to drop f ! bottom1 he f\nd t #ajj lbs4 ( soil held by attraction1 z foll[s3 ,s& #be lbs4 ( wat]4 ,loamy ,soil #dj ,clay ,loam #ej ,pure ,clay #gj ,mr4 ,%$d1 ( ,bo/on1 gives ! result ( a rec5t exp]im5t ( 8 own on ?is po9t4 ,he writes ?us3 ,i h made an exp]im5t ) a soil ( ord9>y t5acity1 to asc]ta9 h[ mu* wat] x w\ld hold 9 susp5sion1 ) ! foll[+ result3 ,"o cubic foot ( e>? held #j4dhbfdcd cubic feet ( wat]2 ?ree feet ( dry soil ( t "* w receive #a4ddgic ft4 v]tical dep? ( wat] be=e any dra9s (f1 or sev5te5 & ?ree-qu>t] in*es1 equal to ne>ly six mon?'s ra9-fall4 ,"o cubic foot ( e>? held #c4ecgac gallons ( wat]1 or if dra9s are ?ree feet deep1 "o squ>e foot ( surface w\ld receive #aj4fa gallons ( wat]1 be=e saturation4 ,o!r soils w\ld su/a9 a great] or less quantity1 accord+ to _! "*4 ,besides ?is p[] ( reta9+ wat]1 :5 br\ght into contact ) x1 ! soil has1 9 common ) o!r por\s bodies1 ! p[] ( draw+ up moi/ure1 or ( absorb+ x1 indep5d5t ( gravitation1 or ( ! weight ( ! wat] :i* aids to c>ry x d[n into ! soil4 ,?is p[] is call$ capill>y attraction1 f ! hair-l tubes us$ 9 e>ly exp]im5ts4 ,if v m9ute tubes1 op5 at bo? ends1 are plac$ upright1 p>tly imm]s$ 9 a vessel ( wat]1 ! wat] rises 9 ! tubes p]ceptibly high] ?an its g5]al surface 9 ! vessel4 ,a sponge1 f :i* wat] has be5 press$ out1 held ov] a bas9 ( wat]1 s t its l[] "p t\*es ! surface1 draws up ! wat] till x is saturat$4 ,a common fl[]-pot1 ) a p]=at$ bottom1 & fill$ ) dry e>?1 plac$ 9 a sauc] ( wat]1 be/ illu/rates ?is po9t4 ,! wat] rises at once to a common level 9 ! pot & outside4 ,?is repres5ts ! wat]-table 9 ! soil ( our fields4 ,b1 f ?is level1 wat] w cont9ue to rise 9 ! e>? 9 ! pot1 till x is moi/5$ to ! surface1 & ?is1 too1 is by capill>y attraction4 ,! t5d5cy ( wat] to asc5d1 h[ev]1 is n ! same 9 all soils4 ,9 co>se gravelly soils1 ! pr9ciple may n op]ate p]fectly1 because ! int]/ices are too l>ge1 ! weight ( ! wat] ov]com+ ! p[] ( attraction1 z 9 ! cask ( /ones or %ot4 ,9 v f9e clay1 on ! o!r h&1 al?\gh x be absorptive & ret5tive ( wat]1 yet ! p>ticles are s f9e1 & ! spaces betwe5 !m s small1 t ?is attraction1 ?\gh sure1 w\ld be sl[ 9 op]ation4 ,a loamy1 light1 well pulv]iz$ soil1 aga91 w\ld p]haps furni% ! be/ m$ium = ! diffusion ( wat] 9 ?is way4 ,x is impossible to set limits to s unc]ta9 a p[] z ?is ( capill>y attraction4 ,we see t 9 m9ute glass tubes1 x has p[] to raise wat] a small fraction ( an in* only4 ,we see t1 9 ! sponge or fl[]-pot1 x has p[] to raise wat] _m in*es2 & we "k t1 9 ! soil1 moi/ure is ?us attract$ upw>ds sev]al feet4 ,by obs]v+ a saturat$ sponge 9 a sauc]1 we %all see t1 al?\gh moi/ at ! top1 x holds m & m wat] to ! bottom4 ,s1 9 ! saturat$ e>? 9 a fl[]-pot1 ! e>?1 m]ely moi/ at ! surface1 is wet mud j above ! wat]-table4 ,s1 9 dra9$ l&1 ! capill>y =ce :i* reta9$ ! wat] 9 ! soil to ! height ( a few in*es1 is no long] able to su/a9 x1 :5 ! height is increas$ to feet1 & a portion desc5ds into ! dra91 leav+ ! surface comp>atively dry4 ,?us1 x w\ld seem1 t dra9+ may modify ! =ce ( capill>y attraction1 :ile x _c affect t ( adhesive attraction4 ,x may dra9 (f surplus wat]1 b1 unaid$1 c nev] r5d] any arable l& too dry4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! surplus wat] be spe$ily tak5 (f by dra9age1 & ! capill>y attraction be greatly impair$1 s t little wat] is drawn upw>ds by its =ce1 w n ! soil soon become p>*$ by ! heat ( ! sun1 or1 9 o!r words1 by evaporation8 ,)\t /opp+ 9 ?is place1 to speak ( evaporation1 we may answ]1 t1 9 our burn+ ,summ] heat1 ! e>? w\ld be burnt up too dry = any vegetation1 7 x n = a b5efic5t arrangem5t ( ,provid5ce1 :i* c\nt]acts ! effect ( ! sun's rays1 & ( :i* we w n[ make m5tion4 ,p[] to imbibe moi/ure f ! air4--,we h spok51 9 ano!r place1 ( ! absorption1 by dra9$ l&1 ( f]tiliz+ sub/ances f ! atmosph]e4 ,dry soil has1 too1 a wond]ful p[] ( d]iv+ moi/ure f ! same s\rce4 ,:5 a portion ( soil1 says ,john/on1 is dri$ c>efully ov] boil+ wat]1 or 9 an ov51 & is !n spread out ^u a %eet ( pap] 9 ! op5 air1 x w gradually dr9k 9 wat]y vapor f ! atmosph]e1 & w ?us increase 9 weight4 ,9 hot climates & 9 dry seasons1 ?is prop]ty is ( great importance1 re/or+ z x does1 to ! ?ir/y soil1 & br++ )9 ! rea* ( plants1 a portion ( ! moi/ure1 :i*1 dur+ ! day1 !y _h s copi\sly exhal$4 ,diff]5t soils possess ?is p[] 9 unequal degrees4 ,dur+ a night ( #ab h\rs1 & :5 ! air is moi/1 accord+ to ,s*uebl]1 #ajjj lbs4 ( p]fectly dry ,qu>tz s& w ga9 #j lbs4 ,calc>e\s s& #b ,loamy soil #ba ,clay loam #be ,pure agricultural clay #bg ,sir ,humphrey ,davy f\nd1 t ! p[] ( attraction = wat]1 g5]ally prov$ an index to ! agricultural value ( soils4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 b "o means ( judg+ ( _! value4 ,peaty soils & /rong clays are v absorb5t ( wat]1 al?\gh n always ! be/ = cultivation4 ,sir ,h4 ,davy gives ! foll[+ results ( 8 exp]im5ts4 ,:5 made p]fectly dry1 #ajjj lbs4 ( a ,v f]tile soil f ,ea/ ,lo?ian1 ga9$ 9 an h\r #ah lbs4 ,v f]tile soil f ,som]set%ire #af ,soil1 wor? #des41 7r5t7 f ,essex #ac ,s&y soil1 wor? #bhs41 f ,essex #aa ,co>se s&1 wor? #aes4 #h ,soil ( ,bag%ot ,hea? #c ,?is sort ( attraction1 h[ev]1 sugge/s a writ] 9 ! ,cyclop$ia ( ,agriculture1 x may be believ$1 dep5ds ^u o!r causes besides ! attraction ( adhesion4 ,! p[] ( attraction1 :i* c]ta9 sub/ances exhibit = ! vapor ( wat]1 is m ak9 to ! =ce :i* enables c]ta9 por\s bodies to absorb & reta9 _m times _! volume ( ! diff]5t gases2 z *>coal1 ( ammonia1 ( :i* x is said to absorb n9ety times its own bulk4 ,"h aga91 we f9d 9 ! soil1 an inexplicable b b5efic5t p[]1 by :i* x supplies itself ) moi/ure :5 x mo/ ne$s x4 ,w>m air is capable ( hold+ m vapor ?an cool] air1 & ! v heat ( ,summ] supplies x ) moi/ure by evaporation f l& & wat]4 ,z ! air is cool$1 at nightfall1 x mu/ some:]e deposit ! wat]1 :i* ! h& ( ! ,unse5 presses out ( x by cond5sation4 ,! sun-dri$ surface ( f]tile1 well dra9$ soil1 is 9 precisely ! condition be/ adapt$ to receive ! refre%+ draught1 & convey x to ! ?ir/+ plants4 ,we may =m "s e/imate ( ! va/ am\nt absorb$ by an acre ( l& 9 a dry season1 by consid]+ t ! clay loam1 9 ! above /atem5t1 absorb$ 9 #ab h\rs a =tie? "p ( its own weight4 ,,( ,,dew4 ,dew is "o ( ! mo/ ord9>y =ms 9 :i* moi/ure is deposit$ 9 & ^u ! soil1 9 its natural conditions4 ,! absorb5t p[] ( artificially-dri$ soils1 z has be5 se51 seems to dep5d mu* ^u _! *emical con/itution2 & t topic has be5 consid]$1 )\t special ref]5ce to ! comp>ative temp]ature ( ! soil & atmosph]e4 ,! soil1 z we h se51 absorbs moi/ure f ! air1 :5 bo? are ( ! same temp]ature1 ! am\nt absorb$ dep5d+ also ^u ! physical condition ( ! soil1 & ^u ! comp>ative moi/ure ( ! soil & atmosph]e4 ,! deposition ( dew results f a diff]5t law4 ,all bodies ?r[ (f1 at all times1 heat1 by radiation1 z x is t]m$4 ,9 ! day-"t1 ! sun's rays w>m ! e>?1 & ! air is heat$ by x1 & t ne>e/ ! surface is heat$ mo/4 ,evaporation is con/antly go+ on f ! e>? & wat]1 & loads ! air ) vapor1 & ! w>m] ! air1 ! m vapor x w hold4 ,:5 ! sun goes d[n1 ! e>? /ill cont9ues to ?r[ (f heat by radiation1 & soon becomes cool] ?an ! air1 unless ! same am\nt ( heat be return$1 by radiation f o!r surfaces4 ,becom+ cool] ?an ! air1 ! soil or plants cool ! air :i* comes 9 contact ) !m2 & ?us cool$ to a c]ta9 po9t1 ! air _c hold all ! vapor :i* x absorb$ :ile w>m]1 & "p ( x is deposit$ ^u ! soil1 plant1 or o!r cool surface4 ,?is is dew2 & ! temp]ature at :i* ! air is saturat$ ) vapor1 is call$ ! dew-po9t4 ,if saturat$ at a giv5 temp]ature ) vapor1 ! air1 :5 cool$ bel[ ?is po9t1 mu/ "p ) a portion ( ! vapor1 9 "s way2 9 ! =m ( ra9 or mi/1 if 9 ! air2 9 ! =m ( dew1 if on ! surface ( ! e>?4 ,if1 h[ev]1 o!r surfaces1 at night1 radiate z mu* heat back to ! e>? z x ?r[s (f1 ! surface ( ! e>? is n ?us cool$1 & !re is no dew4 ,cl\ds radiate heat to ! e>?1 &1 !re=e1 !re is less dew 9 cl\dy ?an 9 cle> nights4 ,if ! temp]ature ( ! e>? s9ks bel[ ! freez+-po9t1 ! aque\s vapor is froz51 & is !n call$ fro/4 ,to radiate back a portion ( ! heat ?us ?r[n (f by ! soil & plants1 g>d5]s cov] _! t5d] plants & v9es ) mats or bo>ds1 or ev5 ) ?9 clo?1 & ?us protect !m f fro/4 ,if ! cov]+ t\* ! plants1 !y are (t5 froz51 ! heat be+ conduct$ (f1 by contact1 to ! cov]+1 & !nce radiat$4 ,dew !n is an effect1 b n a cause1 ( cold4 ,x imp>ts w>m?1 because x c be deposit$ only on objects cool] ?an itself4 ,x has be5 suppos$ by _m t ! light ( ! moon promotes putrefaction4 ,pl9y & ,plut>* bo? affirm ?is to be true4 ,dew1 by supply+ moi/ure 9 ! w>m season1 aids ?is process ( decay4 ,we h se5 t dew is mo/ abundant 9 cle> nights2 & al?\gh all cle> nights are n moonlight nights1 yet all moonlight nights are cle> nights2 & ?is1 p]haps1 furni%es suffici5t gr\nds = ?is belief1 z to ! influ5ce ( ! moon4 ,! quantity ( dew deposit$ is n easily measur$4 ,x has1 h[ev]1 be5 e/imat$ by ,dr4 ,dalton1 to am\nt1 9 ,engl&1 to five in*es ( wat] 9 a ye>1 or #ejj tons to ! acre1 equal to ab\t "o qu>t] ( our ra9-fall dur+ ! six summ] mon?s6 ,deep & well-pulv]iz$ soils attract mu* m moi/ure1 9 e =m1 f ! atmosph]e1 ?an %all[ & compact soils4 ,!y1 9 fact1 expose a mu* l>g] surface to ! air4 ,?is is ! reason :y /irr+ ! gr\nd1 ev5 9 ! ,summ] dr\ght1 refre%es our fields ( ,indian corn4 ,,*apt] ,,xvii4 ,,injury ,,( ,,l& ,,by ,,dra9age4 ,mo/ ,l& _c be ,ov]-dra9$4--,nature a ,deep dra9]4--,ov]-dra9+ ( ,peaty ,soils4--,l9coln%ire ,f5s2 ,visit to !m 9 #aheg4--ef ,bu%els ( ,:eat to ! ,acre4--,wet ,mead[s subside by ,dra9age4--,conclusions4 ,is !re no dang] ( dra9+ l& too mu*8 ,may n l& be ov]-dra9$8 ,^! are que/ions (t5 & v naturally ask$1 & :i* des]ve c>eful consid]ation4 ,! g5]al answ] w\ld be t !re is no dang] to be appreh5d$ f ov]-dra9+2 t no wat] w run out ( l& t w\ld be ( advantage to our cultivat$ crops by be+ reta9$4 ,9 o!r words1 soils g5]ally hold1 by capill>y attraction1 all ! moi/ure t is ( any advantage to ! crops cultivat$ on !m2 & ! wat] ( dra9age w\ld1 if reta9$ = want ( outlets1 be /agnant1 & produce m evil ?an good4 ,we say ?is is g5]ally true2 b !re are said to be exceptional cases1 :i* x is propos$ to consid]4 ,if we be> 9 m9d ! condition ( mo/ soils 9 ,summ]1 we %all see t ?is appreh5sion ( ov]-dra9+ is gr\ndless4 ,! fe> is1 t crops w suff] 9 "t ( dr\ght1 if ?or\ghly dra9$4 ,n[1 we "k t1 9 almo/ all ,new ,engl&1 ! wat]-table is _m feet bel[ ! surface4 ,our wells indicate pretty accurately :]e ! wat]-table is1 & dra9s1 unless cut z l[ z ! surface ( ! wat] 9 ! wells1 w\ld n run a drop ( wat] 9 ,summ]4 ,our f>m]s dig _! wells tw5ty1 & ev5 fifty1 feet deep1 & expect t1 e ,summ]1 ! wat] w s9k to ne>ly t dep?2 b !y h no appreh5sion t _! crops w become dry1 because ! wat] is n kept up to )9 ?ree feet ( ! surface4 ,! fact is1 t ,nature dra9s ?or\ghly ! great] portion ( all our l&s2 s t artificial dra9age1 ?\gh x may remove surplus wat] f !m m spe$ily 9 ,spr+1 _c make !m m dry 9 ,summ]4 ,& :at ?us happ5s naturally1 on mo/ ( ! l&1 )\t injury1 _c be a dang]\s result to effect by dra9age on l&s ( simil> "*4 ,by ?or\gh-dra9age1 we endeavor to make l&s :i* h an imp]vi\s or v ret5tive subsoil ne> ! surface1 suffici5tly op5 to all[ ! surplus wat] to pass (f1 z x does naturally on our mo/ productive upl&4 ,,ov]-,,dra9+ ,,( ,,peaty ,,soils4 ,no in/ance has yet be5 made public 9 ,am]ica1 ( ! injury ( peat l&s by ov]-dra9age2 b !re is a g5]al impression among ,engli% writ]s1 t peat soils are (t5 injur$ 9 ?is way4 ,! ,l9coln%ire ,f5s are cit$ by !m1 z illu/rations ( ! fact1 t ^! l&s d n require deep dra9age4 ,mr4 ,pusey says1 ,e "o :o is practically acqua9t$ ) moory l&1 kn[s t su* l& may be easily ov]-dra9$1 s t ! soil becomes du/y or husky1 z x is call$--t is1 l a dry sponge--! :ite crops flag1 & ! turnip leaves turn yell[ 9 a long dr\ght4 ,^! ,f5s conta9 an imm5se ext5t ( l&4 ,! ,great ,level ( ! ,f5s1 x is said1 conta9s #fjj1jjj acres4 ,mu* ( ?is 0 =m]ly cov]$ by ! tides1 & all ( x1 z ! "n indicates1 0 ( a m>%y "*4 ,! wat] be+ exclud$ by embankm5ts aga9/ ! sea & riv]s1 & pump$ out by /eam eng9es1 & ! l& "u-dra9$ g5]ally ) tiles1 s t ! height ( ! wat] is "u ! control ( ! proprietors1 grave disputes h aris5 z to ! prop] am\nt ( dra9age4 ,an impression has h]et(ore prevail$1 t ^! l&s w\ld be too dry if ! wat] 7 pump$ out1 s z to r$uce ! wat]-table m ?an a foot or two bel[ ! surface1 b ?is idea is n[ controv]t$4 ,9 ,july #aheg1 9 company ) ?ree ( ! be/ f>m]s 9 ,l9coln%ire1 ! writ] visit$ ! ,f5s1 & c>efully exam9$ ! crops & dra9age4 ,we pass$ a day ) "o ( ! proprietors1 :o gave u "s in=mation ^u ! po9t 9 "q4 ,he /at$1 t 9 g5]al1 ! occupants ( ?is l& ent]ta9 ! op9ion1 t ! crops w\ld be ru9$ by dra9+ to ! dep? ( f\r feet4 ,s /rongly 0 he impress$ ) ! belief t a deep] dra9age 0 desirable1 t he _h enclos$ 8 own e/ate ) sep>ate embankm5ts1 & put up a /eam-eng9e1 & pump$ out ! wat] to ! dep? ( f\r feet1 :ile f ! l& all ar\nd him1 x is pump$ out only a foot & a half bel[ ! surface1 ?\gh 9 ,summ] x may sometimes fall some:at l[]4 ,! crops on ?is l& 7 a/oni%+4 ,our fri5ds e/imat$ t ! :eat !n gr[+ & ne>ly ripe1 w\ld yield fifty-six bu%els to ! acre4 ,al?\gh ?is 0 consid]$ a v dry season1 ! crops on ! l& ( our ho/ 7 fully equal to ! be/ ^u ! ,f5s4 ,! soil ^u t "p ( ! ,f5s is n[ a f9e black loam ( twelve or eighte5 in*es dep?1 re/+ ^u clay4 ,^u o!r portions1 ! soil is ( v>i\s dep? & "*1 re/+ sometimes ^u gravel4 ,att5tion is call$ to ^! facts "h1 to %[ t ! common impression t ^! l&s w n be> deep dra9age1 is controv]t$ among ! occupants !mselves1 & may prove to be "o ( ^? errors :i* becomes traditional1 we h>dly "k h[4 ,mo/ peat mead[s1 9 ,new ,engl&1 :5 fir/ reliev$ ( /agnant wat]1 are v light & spongy4 ,! soil is fill$ ) acids :i* require to be neutraliz$ by an application ( lime1 or :at is *eap] & equally effectual1 by exposure to ! atmosph]e4 ,^! soils1 :5 ! wat] is sudd5ly drawn out ( !m1 reta9 _! bulk = a "t1 & are too por\s & unsub/antial = cultivation4 ,a season or two w cure ?is evil1 9 _m cases4 ,! soil w become m compact1 & w (t5 settle d[n _m in*es4 ,x is necess>y to be> ?is 9 m9d 9 adju/+ ! dra9s1 because a f\r-foot dra91 :5 laid1 may1 by ! m]e subsid5ce ( ! l&1 become a ?ree-foot dra94 ,a ha/y judgm5t1 9 any case1 t ! l& is ov]-dra9$1 %\ld be susp5d$ until ! soil has acquir$ compactness by its own weight1 & by ! ameliorat+ effect ( culture & ! elem5ts4 ,mr4 ,d5ton1 allud+ to ! op9ion ( _m intellig5t m51 t l[ mead[-l& %\ld be treat$ diff]5tly to upl& pa/ure1 & upl& pa/ure diff]5tly to arable l&1 says1 ,my own obs]vations br+ me to ! conclusion1 t x is n possible to lay pa/ure-l& too dry2 = ,i h inv>iably rem>k$1 dur+ ! rec5t dry ,summ] & ,autumn p>ticul>ly1 t bo? 9 l[l& mead[s1 & upl& pa/ures1 ^? l&s :i* h be5 mo/ ?or\ghly dra9$ by deep & frequ5t dra9s1 are ^? t h pres]v$ ! fre%e/ & mo/ pr(itable h]bage4 ,:ile1 !re=e1 we h mu* d\bt :e!r any l&1 high or l[1 c be ov]-dra9$ = g5]al cultivation1 x is probable t a less exp5sive mode ( dra9age may be sometimes exp$i5t = grass alone4 ,:ile we believe t1 9 g5]al1 ev5 peat soils may be safely dra9$ to ! same dep? ) o!r soil1 !re seems to be a well-f\nd$ op9ion t !y may frequ5tly be r5d]$ productive by a less ?or\gh sy/em4 ,! only safety = u1 is 9 c>eful exp]im5t ) our own l&s1 :i* v>y s mu* 9 "* & location1 t no precise rules c be prescrib$ = _! treatm5t4 ,,*apt] ,,xviii4 ,,ob/ruction ,,( ,,dra9s4 ,tiles w fill up1 unless well laid4--,ob/ruction by ,s& or ,silt4--,ob/ructions at ! ,outlet f ,frogs1 ,moles1 ,action ( ,fro/1 & ,cattle4--,ob/ruction by ,roots4--,will[1 ,a%1 c41 ,trees caprici\s4--,roots ent] ,p]5nial ,/reams4--,ob/ruction by ,mangold ,wurtzel4--,ob/ruction by ,p]-,oxide ( ,iron4--,h[ ,prev5t$--,ob/ruction by ! ,jo9ts ,fill+4--,no ,dang] ) ,two-,in* ,pipes4--,wat] ?r\gh ! ,pores4--,coll>s4--,h[ to ,detect ,ob/ructions4 ,b won't ^! tiles get fill$ up & /opp$8 asks almo/ e inquir] on ! subject ( tile dra9+4 ,c]ta9ly1 !y w1 if n laid ) great c>e1 & ) all prop] precautions aga9/ ob/ructions4 ,x _c be too (t5 repeat$1 t tile-dra9age requires sci5ce1 & k1 & skill1 z well z money2 & no man %\ld g into x bl9dfold1 or ) fai? 9 8 innate p]ceptions ( "r4 ,if he does1 8 education w be exp5sive4 ,x is propos$ to m5tion all ! v>i\s modes by :i* tiles h be5 kn[n to be ob/ruct$1 & to sugge/ h[ ! dang] ( failure1 by means ( !m1 may be obviat$4 ,let n ent]pris+ read]s be al>m$ at su* an array ( difficulties1 = ! m conspicu\s !y become1 ! less is ! dang] f !m4 ,ob/ruction by ,s& or ,silt4 ,probably1 m dra9s are r5d]$ wor?less1 by be+ fill$ up ) e>?y matt]1 :i* passes ) wat] ?r\gh ! jo9ts ( ! tiles1 ?an by e o!r cause4 ,f9e s& w pass ?r\gh ! smalle/ ap]ture1 if !re is a curr5t ( wat] suffici5t to move x1 & silt1 or ! f9e deposit ( mud or o!r e>?1 :i* is held almo/ 9 solution 9 runn+ wat]1 is ev5 m ins9uat+ 9 its ways ?an s&4 ,v (t51 dra9s are fill$ up & ru9$ by ^! deposits2 &1 unless ! fall be consid]able1 & ! dra9 be laid ) ev5 desc5t1 if e>? ( any k9d f9d entrance1 x mu/ endang] ! p]man5cy ( ! "w4 ,to gu>d aga9/ ! admission ( ev]y?+ b wat]1 lay dra9s deep en\gh to be beyond ! dang] ( wat] bur/+ 91 9 /reamlets4 ,wat] %\ld ent] ! dra9 at ! bottom1 by ris+ to ! level ( ! tiles1 & n by s9k+ f ! surface directly to !m4 ,if ! l& is s&y1 great c>e mu/ be us$4 ,9 dra9+ ?r\gh fl[+ s&1 especially if !re be a quick desc5t1 ! precaution ( %ea?+ tiles is resort$ to4 ,t is done by putt+ small tiles inside ( l>g] ones1 break+ jo9ts inside1 & ?us lay+ a d\ble dra94 ,?is is only necess>y1 h[ev]1 9 spots ( s& full ( spr+-wat]4 ,next be/ to ?is mode1 is ! use ( coll>s ov] ! jo9ts1 b ^! are n (t5 us$1 ?\gh recomm5d$ = s&y l&4 ,at lea/1 9 all l& n p]fectly s\nd1 be c>eful to secure ! jo9ts 9 "s way4 ,an inv]t$ turf1 c>efully laid ov] ! jo9t1 is (t5e/ us$4 ,good1 clean1 f9e gravel is1 p]haps1 be/ ( all4 ,sp5t tan b>k1 :5 x is to be conv5i5tly procur$1 is excell5t1 because x /ra9s out ! e>?1 :ile x freely admits wat]2 & any p>ticles ( tan t f9d entrance1 are float$ out ^u ! wat]4 ,! same may be said ( sawdu/4 ,to secure ! exit ( e>? t may ent] at ! jo9ts1 !re %\ld be c>e t ! tiles be smoo? inside1 t !y be laid exactly 9 l9e1 & t !re be a cont9u\s desc5t4 ,if !re be any place :]e ! wat] rises 9 ! tiles1 9 t place1 e p>ticle ( s&1 or o!r matt] heavi] ?an wat]1 w be likely to /op1 until a b>ri] is =m$1 & ! dra9 /opp$4 ,9 speak+ ( ! =ms ( tiles1 ! sup]iority ( r\nd$ op5+s ov] ^? ) flat bottom has be5 %[n4 ,! great] head ( wat] 9 a r\nd pipe1 gives x =ce to drive be=e x all ob/ructions1 & s t5ds to keep ! dra9 cle>4 ,ob/ructions at ! ,outlet4 ,! wat] f deep dra9s is usually v cle>1 & cattle f9d ! outlet a conv5i5t place to dr9k at1 & con/antly tread up ! s(t gr\nd !re1 & ob/ruct ! fl[ ( wat]4 ,all e>?y matt]1 & *emical solutions ( iron1 & ! l1 t5d to accumulate by deposit at ! outlet4 ,frogs & mice1 & insects ( _m k9ds1 collect ab\t su* places1 & creep into ! dra9s4 ,! action ( fro/ 9 cold regions displaces ! e>?1 & ev5 masonry1 if n well laid2 & back-wat]1 by fl[+ into ! dra9s1 h9d]s ! free passage ( wat]4 ,all ^! causes t5d to ob/ruct dra9s at ! outlet4 ,if once /opp$ !re1 ! :ole pipe becomes fill$ ) /agnant wat]1 :i* deposits all its e>?y matt]1 & soon becomes ob/ruct$ at o!r po9ts1 & s becomes useless4 ,! outlet mu/ be r5d]$ secure f all ^! dang]s1 at all seasons1 by "s su* means z are sugge/$ 9 ! *apt] on ! ,arrangem5t ( ,dra9s4 ,ob/ruction by roots4 ,on ! au?or's f>m 9 ,exet]1 a wood5 dra91 to c>ry (f wa/e wat] f a wat]+ place1 0 laid1 ) a triangul> op5+ ( ab\t f\r in*es4 ,?is 0 f\nd to be ob/ruct$ ! second ye> aft] x 0 laid2 & ^u tak+ x up1 x prov$ to be entirely fill$ = sev]al feet1 ) will[ roots1 :i* grew l long1 f9e grass1 ?ickly matt$ toge!r1 s z entirely to close ! dra94 ,!re 0 a r[ ( l>ge will[s ab\t ?irty feet di/ant1 & z ! dra9 0 b ab\t two feet deep1 !y f\nd _! way easily to x1 & ent]+ betwe5 ! r\gh jo9ts ( ! bo>ds1 n v c>efully fitt$1 fatt5$ on ! spr+ wat] till !y outgrew _! new h\se4 ,a neighbor says1 he nev] wants a tree )9 t5 rods ( any l& he desires to pl[2 & x w\ld be unsafe to und]take to set limits to ! ext5t ( ! roots ( trees4 ,no crevice1 h[ev] small1 says a writ]1 is pro( aga9/ ! entrance ( ! roots ( wat]-lov+ trees4 ,! behavior ( roots is1 h[ev]1 v caprici\s 9 ?is matt]2 =1 :ile occasional in/ances occur ( dra9s be+ ob/ruct$ by !m1 x is a v common ?+ = dra9s to op]ate p]fectly = indef9ite p]iods1 :]e !y run ?r\gh =e/s & or*>ds = long di/ances4 ,!y1 h[ev]1 :o lay dra9s ne> to will[s & a%es1 & ! l cold-wat] dr9k]s1 mu/ d x at ! p]il ( :i* !y are w>n$4 ,lay+ ! tiles deep & ) coll>s w af=d ! be/ security f all dang] ( ?is k9d4 ,?os4 ,gisborne1 ,esq41 9 a note to ! edition ( 8 ,essay on ,dra9age publi%$ 9 #aheb1 says3 ,my own exp]i5ce z to roots1 9 connection ) deep pipe dra9+1 is z foll[s3--,i h nev] kn[n roots to ob/ruct a pipe ?r\gh :i* !re 0 n a p]5nial /ream4 ,! fl[ ( wat] 9 ,summ] & e>ly ,autumn appe>s to furni% ! attraction4 ,i h nev] discov]$ t ! roots ( any escul5t vegetable h ob/ruct$ a pipe4 ,! trees :i*1 by my own p]sonal obs]vation1 ,i h f\nd to be mo/ dang]\s1 h be5 r$ will[1 black ,italian popl>1 ald]1 a%1 & broad-leav$ elm4 ,i h _m ald]s 9 close contiguity ) important dra9s2 &1 ?\gh ,i h nev] convict$ "o1 ,i c n d\bt t !y are dang]\s4 ,oak1 & black & :ite ?orns1 ,i h n detect$1 nor d ,i suspect !m4 ,! guilty trees h1 9 e in/ance1 be5 "y & free gr[+2 ,i h nev] convict$ an adult4 ,mangold-wurzel1 x is said by sev]al writ]s1 w sometimes gr[ d[n into tile dra9s1 ev5 to ! dep? ( f\r feet1 & entirely ob/ruct !m2 b ^? are cases ( v r>e occurr5ce4 ,9 ?\s&s ( in/ances1 mangolds h be5 cultivat$ on dra9$ l&1 ev5 :]e tiles 7 b #b-a_/b feet deep1 )\t caus+ any ob/ruction ( ! dra9s4 ,any read] :o is curi\s 9 su* matt]s1 may f9d 9 ! app5dix to ! #aj? ,vol4 ( ! ,j\rnal ( ! ,royal ,ag4 ,soc41 a s+ul> in/ance ( ob/ruction ( dra9s by ! roots ( ! mangold1 z well z in/ances ( ob/ructions by ! roots ( trees4 ,ob/ruction by ,p]-oxide ( ,iron4 ,9 ! au?or's b>n-cell> is a wat]+ place1 suppli$ by a half-in* lead pipe1 f a spr+ "s eight rods di/ant4 ,?is pipe sev]al times 9 a ye>1 sometimes once a week1 9 cold wea!r1 is entirely /opp$4 ,! /ream ( wat] is nev] mu* l>g] ?an a lead p5cil4 ,we usually />t x ) a sort ( syr+e1 by =c+ into ! outlet a quantity ( wat]4 ,x !n runs v ?ick1 & ( ! color ( iron ru/1 sometimes sev]al pails full1 & w !n run cle> = weeks or mon?s1 p]haps4 ,9 ! tub :i* receives ! wat]1 !re is always a l>ge deposit ( ?is same color$ sub/ance2 & along ! /reet ne> by1 :]e ! wat] oozes out ( ! bank1 !re is ?is same appe>ance ( iron4 ,?is deposit is1 9 common language1 call$ p]-oxide ( iron1 ?\gh ?is t]m is n1 by *emi/s ( ! pres5t day1 deem$ suffici5tly accurate1 & ! ^w sesqui-oxide is pref]r$ 9 sci5tific works4 ,iron exi/s 9 all animal & vegetable matt]1 & 9 all soils1 to "s ext5t4 ,x exi/s z protoxide ( iron1 9 :i* "o atom ( iron always comb9es ) "o atom ( oxyg51 & x exi/s z sesqui-oxide ( iron1 f ! ,lat9 sesqui1 :i* means "o & a half1 9 :i* "o & a half atoms ( oxyg5 comb9e ) "o atom ( iron4 ,! less accurate t]m1 p]-oxide1 has be5 adopt$ "h1 because x is f\nd 9 g5]al use by writ]s on dra9age4 ,! !ory is t ! iron exi/s 9 ! soil1 & is held 9 solution 9 wat] z a protoxide1 & is conv]t$ into p]-oxide by contact ) ! air1 ei!r 9 ! dra9s or at _! outlets1 & is !n deposit$ at ! bottom ( ! wat]4 ,9 a pipe runn+ full !re w\ld be1 ^u ?is !ory1 no exposure to ! air1 :i* %\ld =m ! p]-oxide4 ,9 ! case /at$1 x is probable t ! p]-oxide is =m$ at ! expos$ surface ( a l>ge cask1 at ! spr+1 & is c>ri$ into ! pipe1 z x is precipitat$4 ,common dra9 pipes w\ld be full ( air1 :i* might1 p]haps1 9 a feeble curr5t1 be suffici5t to cause ?is deposit4 ,occasionally1 cases h occurr$ ( ob/ruction f ?is cause1 & :5ev] ! signs ( ?is deposit are visible ab\t ! field to be dra9$1 c>e mu/ be us$ to gu>d aga9/ x 9 dra9+4 ,to gu>d aga9/ ob/ruction f p]-oxide ( iron1 tiles %\ld be laid deep1 closely jo9t$ or coll>$1 ) great c>e t ! fall be cont9u\s1 & especially t !re be a quick fall at ! junctions ( m9or dra9s ) ma9s1 & a cle> outlet4 ,mr4 ,beattie1 ( ,ab]de51 says3 ,be=e adopt+ #d feet dra9s1 ,i _h mu* difficulty 9 deal+ ) ! iron ore :i* g5]ally appe>$ at two to ?ree feet f ! surface1 b by ! extra dep? ! wat] filt]s (f to ! pipes free ( ore4 ,occasionally1 iron ore is f\nd at a great] dep?1 b ! float+ sub/ance is !n 9 mo/ cases light]1 & does n adh]e to ! pipes 9 ! same way z t f\nd ne> ! surface4 ,arrangem5ts %\ld also be made = exam9+ ! dra9s by means ( wells1 & = flu%+ !m by hold+ back ! wat] until ! dra9s are fill$1 & !n lett+ x sudd5ly (f1 or1 by occasionally admitt+ a /ream ( wat] at ! upp] end1 :5 practicable1 & ?us wa%+ out ! pipes4 ,mr4 ,d5ton says3 ,x is f\nd t ! use ( ?is contrivance = flu%+1 w get rid ( ! p]-oxide ( iron1 ab\t :i* s mu* compla9t is made4 ,ob/ruction by ,fill+ at ! ,jo9ts4 ,"o w\ld suppose t tiles might frequ5tly be prev5t$ f receiv+ wat]1 by ! fill+ up ( ! crevices betwe5 !m4 ,if wat] p\r$ on to tiles 9 a /ream1 x w\ld be likely to c>ry into ^! op5+s en\gh e>?y matt] to fill !m2 b ! :ole !ory ( ?or\gh-dra9age re/s ^u ! idea ( sl[ p]colation--( ! passage ( wat] 9 ! =m ( f9e dew1 z x 7--?r\gh ! motionless p>ticles :i* compose ! soil2 &1 if dra9s are prop]ly laid1 !re c be no motion ( p>ticles ( e>?1 ei!r into or t[>ds ! tiles4 ,! wat] %\ld soak ?r\gh ! gr\nd precisely z x does ?r\gh a wet clo?4 ,9 an article 9 ! ,j\rnal ( ! ,society ( ,arts1 publi%$ 9 #ahee1 ,mr4 ,?omas ,arkell /ates t 9 #ahdf he _h dra9$ a few acres ) #a-a_/d in* pipes1 ab\t ?ree feet deep1 & #ba to #be feet ap>t4 ,! dra9s act$ well1 & ! l& 0 tol]ably dry & heal?y = ! fir/ few ye>s2 b aft]w>ds1 9 wet seasons1 x 0 v wet1 & appe>$ full ( wat]1 l undra9$ l&1 al?\gh at ! "t all ! dra9s 7 runn+1 b v sl[ly4 ,8 conclusion 0 t mud _h ent]$ ! crevices1 & /opp$ ! wat] out4 ,he says he has kn[n o!r p]sons1 :o _h us$ small pipes1 :o _h suff]$ 9 ! same way4 ,!re are _m p]sons /ill 9 ,engl&1 :o are s appreh5sive on ?is po9t1 t !y cont9ue to use horse-%oe tiles1 or1 z !y are sometimes call$1 tops & bottoms1 :i* admit wat] m freely along ! jo9ts4 ,! mo/ skillful eng9e]s1 h[ev]1 decid$ly pref] r\nd pipes1 b recomm5d t none small] ?an "o-&-a-half-in* be us$1 & pref] two-in* to any small] size4 ,! circumf]5ce ( a two-in* pipe is n f> f n9e in*es1 :ile t ( a "o-in* pipe1 ( common ?ickness1 is ab\t half t1 s t ! op5+ is twice z ext5sive 9 ! two-in*1 pipes z 9 ! "o-in* pipe4 ,! asc]ta9$ in/ances ( ! ob/ruction ( pipes1 by exclud+ ! wat] f ! jo9ts1 are v few4 ,no d\bt t clay1 puddl$ 9 ^u ! tiles :5 laid1 might h ?is effect2 b !y :o h exp]i5ce 9 tile-dra9age1 w be> witness t !re is f> m difficulty 9 exclud+ s& & mud1 ?an !re is 9 admitt+ wat]4 ,x is ?\ght1 by "s p]sons1 t suffici5t wat] to dra9 l& may be admitt$ ?r\gh ! pores ( ! tiles4 ,we h no su* fai?4 ,! op9ion ( ,mr4 ,p>kes1 t ab\t #ejj times z mu* wat] ent]s at ! crevices betwe5 ea* pair ( tiles1 z is absorb$ ?r\gh ! tiles !mselves1 we ?9k to be f> ne>] ! tru?4 ,coll>s h a great t5d5cy to prev5t ! clos+ up ( ! crevices betwe5 tiles2 b injuries to dra9s laid at prop] dep?s1 ) two-in* pipes1 ev5 )\t coll>s1 mu/ be v r>e4 ,inde$1 no s+le case ( a dra9 ob/ruct$ 9 ?is way1 :5 laid f\r feet deep1 has yet come )9 our read+ or obs]vation1 & x is r z a possible1 ?an ev5 a probable1 cause ( failure1 t x has be5 m5tion$4 ,,h[ ,,to ,,detect ,,ob/ructions ,,9 ,,dra9s4 ,:5 a dra9 is entirely ob/ruct$1 if !re is a consid]able fl[ ( wat]1 & ! gr\nd is mu* desc5d+1 ! wat] w at once press ?r\gh ! jo9ts ( ! pipes1 & %[ itself at ! surface4 ,by ?ru/+ d[n a b> along ! c\rse ( ! dra91 ! place ( ! ob/ruction w be readily det]m9$2 = ! wat] w1 at ! po9t ( greate/ pressure1 bur/ up 9 ! hole made by ! b>1 l a spr+1 :ile bel[ ! po9t ( ob/ruction1 !re w be no upw>d pressure ( ! wat]1 & above x1 ! pressure w be less ! f>!r we g4 ,! po9t be+ det]m9$1 x is ! "w ( b few m9utes to dig d[n ^u ! dra91 remove c>efully a few pipes1 & take out ! frog1 or m\se1 or ! brok5 tile1 if su* be ! cause ( ! difficulty4 ,if silt or e>? has caus$ ! ob/ruction1 x is probably because ( a depression 9 ! l9e ( ! dra91 or a defect 9 "s junction ) o!r dra9s1 & ?is may require ! tak+ up ( m or less ( ! pipes4 ,if !re be b little fall 9 ! dra9s1 ! ob/ruction w n be s readily f\nd2 b ! effect ( ! wat] w soon be obs]v$ at ! surface1 bo? 9 keep+ ! soil wet1 & 9 *ill+ ! vegetation ^u x4 ,if prop] peep-holes h be5 provid$1 ! place ( any ob/ruction may readily be det]m9$1 at a glance into !m4 ,^u our own l&1 we h _h two or ?ree in/ances ( ob/ruction by s&1 v soon aft] ! tiles 7 laid1 & always at ! junction ( dra9s imp]fectly secur$ ) bricks1 be=e we _h procur$ prop] bran*-pipes = ! purpose4 ,a little exp]i5ce w enable ! proprietor at once to detect any failure ( 8 dra9s1 & to apply ! prop] rem$y4 ,ob/ructions f silt & s& are mu* m likely to occur dur+ ! fir/ season aft] ! dra9s are laid1 ?an aft]w>ds1 because ! e>? is loose ab\t ! pipes1 & m liable to be wa%$ into ! jo9ts1 ?an aft] x has become compact4 ,on ! :ole1 we believe ! dang] to tile-dra9s1 ( ob/ruction1 is v little1 provid$ good tiles are us$1 & prop] c>e is ex]cis$ 9 lay+ !m4 ,,*apt] ,,xix4 ,,dra9age ,,( ,,/iff ,,clays4 ,clay n imp]vi\s1 or x c\ld n be wet & dri$4--,puddl+1 :at is4--,wat] w /& ov] ,dra9s on ,puddl$ ,soil4--,crack+ ( ,clays by ,dry+4--,dra9$ ,clays improve by "t4--,passage ( ,wat] ?r\gh ,clay makes x p]meable4--,exp]im5t by ,mr4 ,pettibone1 ( ,v]mont4--,pressure ( ,wat] 9 saturat$ ,soil4 ,x is a common impression t clay is imp]vi\s to wat]1 & t1 !re=e1 a clay soil _c be dra9$1 especially by deep "u-dra9s4 ,a mom5t's reflection w satisfy any "o t su* l& is n absolutely imp]vi\s4 ,we f9d su* l& is wet 9 ,spr+1 at any dep?2 &1 9 ! latt] "p ( ,summ]1 we f9d x comp>atively dry4 ,h[ comes x wet1 at any "t1 if wat] does n g into x8 ,& h[ comes x dry1 at any "t1 if wat] does n come out ( x8 ,9 treat+ ( ! p[] ( ! soil to absorb moi/ure1 we h %[n t a clay soil w absorb m ?an half its weight & bulk ( wat]1 & t x holds m wat] ?an any o!r soil1 )1 p]haps1 ! s+le exception ( peat4 ,! facts1 h[ev]1 t clay may be wet1 & may be dri$1 & t x readily absorbs l>ge quantities ( wat]1 ?\gh !y prove conclusively t x is n imp]vi\s to wat]1 yet d n prove t wat] w pass ?r\gh x ) suffici5t rapidity to answ] ! practical purposes ( dra9age = agriculture4 ,?is po9t c only be satisfactorily det]m9$ by exp]im5t4 ,x is n necess>y1 h[ev]1 t ea* f>m] %\ld try ! exp]im5t = himself2 because1 al?\gh we are v apt to ?9k our own case an exception to all g5]al rules1 x is n really probable t any new k9d ( clay w be discov]$ h]eaft]1 t is s diff]5t f all o!r clay t is kn[n1 t e/abli%$ pr9ciples w n apply to x4 ,s f> z our own obs]vation ext5ds1 own]s ( clay f>ms always ov]-e/imate ! difficulty ( dra9+ _! l&4 ,!re are c]ta9 notori\s facts ) reg>d to clay1 :i* mislead ! judgm5t ( m5 on ?is po9t4 ,"o ( ^! facts is1 t clay is us$ = /opp+ wat]1 by ! process call$ puddl+4 ,puddl$ clay is us$ = ! bottom ( ponds1 & ( canals1 & ( res]voirs1 &1 = su* purposes1 is reg>d$ z ne>ly1 or q imp]vi\s4 ,we see t1 on our clay fields1 wat] /&s ^u ! surface1 especially 9 ! ruts ( :eels1 & on headl&s mu* trodd51 late 9 ! season1 & :51 9 o!r places1 x has disappe>$4 ,?is is due1 also1 to puddl+4 ,puddl+ is m]ely ! work+ ( wet clay1 or o!r soil1 by beat+1 or tread+1 or /irr+1 until its p>ticles are s f9ely divid$ t wat] has an exce$+ly sl[ passage betwe5 !m1 ) ord9>y pressure4 ,we see ! effect ( ?is op]ation on common highways1 :]e wat] (t5 /&s = _m days 9 puddles1 because ! surface has be5 gr\nd s f9e1 & r5d]$ s compact1 by :eels & horses1 t ! wat] _c f9d passage4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is n ! natural condition ( any clay2 nor c any clay be kept 9 ?is condition1 except by be+ con/antly wet4 ,if once dri$1 or subject$ to ! action ( fro/1 ! soil resumes its natural condition ( porosity1 z w be pres5tly expla9$4 ,!y :o object to deep dra9age1 or to ! possibility ( dra9+ /iff clays1 po9t to ! fact t wat] may be se5 /&+ directly ov] ! dra9s1 on ?or\gh-dra9$ fields4 ,we h se5 ?is on our own fields4 ,9 "o in/ance1 we _h1 aft] lay+ tiles ?r\gh a field1 at #ej feet int]vals1 9 ! same ,autumn1 :5 ! l& 0 wet1 team$ across x a l>ge quantity ( soil = compo/1 ) a heavy ox-team4 ,! next ,spr+1 ! wat] /ood = _m days 9 t track :i* pass$ across tile-dra9s1 aft] x _h disappe>$ else:]e 9 ! field4 ,a f9e crop ( ,indian corn grew on ! field t ye>1 b ! effect ( ! puddl+ 0 visible ! :ole season4 ,"o in* ( wet & work$ clay1 says a sci5tific writ]1 w prev5t wat] f pass+ ?r\gh1 s long z x is kept wet1 z effectually z a y>d w d4 ,if1 says ,gisborne1 y eat (f turnips ) %eep1 if y pl[ ! l&1 or c>t on x1 or 9 any way puddle x1 :5 x is wet1 ( c\rse ! wat] w lie on ! surface1 & w n g to y\r dra9s4 ,a f\r-foot dra9 may g v ne> a pit1 or a wat]-c\rse1 )\t attract+ wat] f ei!r1 because wat]-c\rses almo/ inv>iably puddle _! b$s2 & ! same effect is produc$ 9 pits by ! tread+ ( cattle1 & ev5 by ! motion ( ! wat] produc$ by w9d4 ,a v ?9 film ( puddle1 always wet on "o side1 is imp]vi\s1 because x _c crack4 ,9 ^? f\r words1 we f9d an allusion to ! :ole my/]y ( ! dra9age ( clays--a key :i* unlocks ! secret by :i* ! t\ghe/ ( ^! soils may be conv]t$1 z by a fairy *>m1 to fields ( wav+ gra94 ,,crack+ ,,( ,,clays ,,by ,,dry+4 ,9 dry+ "u ! influ5ce ( ! sun1 says ,pr(4 ,john/on1 soils %r9k 91 & ?us dim9i% 9 bulk1 9 proportion to ! quantity ( clay1 or ( peaty matt]1 !y conta94 ,s& sc>cely dim9i%es at all 9 bulk by dry+2 b peat %r9ks "o-fif? 9 bulk1 & /rong agricultural clay ne>ly z mu*4 ,by lay+ dra9s 9 l&1 we take f x t portion ( ! wat] t w run out at ! bottom4 ,! sun1 by evaporation1 !n takes out a portion at ! top4 ,! soil is ?us contract$1 &1 z ! ends ( ! field _c approa* ea* o!r1 bo? soil & subsoil are torn ap>t1 & divid$ by a network ( cracks & fissures4 ,e "o :o is famili> ) clay l&1 or :o has obs]v$ ! bottom ( a dit* or frog pond by ! roadside1 mu/ h obs]v$ ^! cracks1 ?us caus$ by ! contraction ( ! soil 9 dry+4 ,! same contraction occurs 9 dri] l&1 by cold1 9 ,w9t]2 by :i*1 9 cold regions1 deep r5ts are made 9 ! e>?1 & reports1 l ^? ( cannon1 are (t5 he>d4 ,! crack+ by dry+1 h[ev]1 is m quiet 9 its effects1 m]ely divid+ ! gr\nd1 noiselessly1 into small] & small] masses1 z ! process proce$s4 ,7 x n = ?is process1 x may well be d\bt$ :e!r clay l&s c\ld be effectually dra9$ at all4 ,nature1 h[ev]1 seems to second our ef=ts "h1 = we h se5 t ! /iff] ! clay1 ! great] ! contraction1 & ! m ! soil is split up & r5d]$ p]meable by ?is op]ation4 ,^! cracks are f\nd1 by obs]vation1 to comm5ce at ! dra9s1 & ext5d fur!r & fur!r1 9 almo/ /raight l9es1 into ! subsoil1 =m+ s _m m9or dra9s1 or fe$]s1 all lead+ to ! tiles4 ,^! ma9 fissures h num]\s small] ones div]g+ f !m1 s t ! :ole mass is divid$ & subdivid$ into ! mo/ m9ute portions4 ,! ma9 fissures gradually enl>ge1 z ! dryness increases1 &1 at ! same "t1 l5g!n out2 s t1 9 a v dry season1 !y may be trac$ ! :ole way betwe5 ! dra9s4 ,! foll[+ cut w give "s idea ( ^! cracks1 or fissures1 z !y exi/ 9 a dry "t3 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ih4--;,crack+ ( ,clays by ,dra9age4 ,mr4 ,gisborne says3 ,clay l&s always %r9k & crack ) dr\ght2 & ! /iff] ! clay1 ! great] ! %r9k+1 z brick-mak]s well "k4 ,9 ! great dr\ght ?irty-six ye>s ago1 we saw1 9 a v ret5tive soil 9 ! ,vale ( ,belvoir1 cracks :i* x 0 n v pleasant to ride among4 ,?is v ,summ]1 on l&1 :i*1 ) ref]5ce to ?is v subject1 ! own] /at$ to be imp]vi\s1 we put a walk+-/ick ?ree feet into a sun-crack )\t f9d+ a bottom1 & ! :ole surface 0 a network ( cracks4 ,9 ! dra9$ soil1 ! roots foll[ ! ?reads ( vegetable m\ld :i* h be5 wa%$ into ! cracks1 & get an abid+ t5ure4 ,e>?-worms foll[ ei!r ! roots or ! m\ld4 ,p]man5t s*isms are e/abli%$ 9 ! clay1 & its :ole "* is *ang$4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ! supply ( ra9 is f> less uni=m ?an 9 ,engl&1 & mu* sev]] dr\ghts are exp]i5c$4 ,?us ! contraction1 & consequ5t crack+ ( ! soil1 mu/ be great] "h ?an 9 t c\ntry4 ,9 lay+ dra9s m ?an f\r feet deep1 9 ! /iffe/ clay :i* ! au?or has se51 9 a neighborhood furni%+ abundance ( brick & pott]'s clay1 ^! cracks 7 se5 to ext5d to ! v bottoms ( ! dra9s1 n 9 s+le fissures f top to bottom1 b 9 innum]able seams runn+ 9 all directions1 s t ! e>?1 mov$ ) ! pick-axe1 came up 9 little cubes & flakes1 & c\ld be sep>at$ into pieces ( an in* or less diamet]4 ,?is 0 on a ridge :i* receiv$ no wat] except f ! cl\ds1 hav+ no spr+s 9 or ^u x1 yet s ne>ly imp]vi\s to wat]1 t x rema9$ s(t & muddy till late 9 ,june4 ,9 ,midsumm]1 h[ev]1 "u our burn+ sun1 x _h1 by evaporation1 be5 s mu* dri$ z to produce ! effect describ$4 ,9 ,engl&1 we le>n1 t ^! cracks ext5d to ! dep? ( f\r feet or m4 ,mr4 ,hewitt ,davis /at$ 9 a public discussion1 ) ref]5ce to dra9+ /rong soils1 t1 he gave f\r feet z ! m9imum dep? ( ! dra9s 9 ^! soils1 because he _h always f\nd t ! cracks & fissures =m$ by ! dr\ght & *anges ( temp]ature1 on ! /ronge/ clay1 & :i* made ^! soils p]meable1 ext5d$ bel[ ?is dep?1 & ! wat] f ! surface might be made to rea* ! dra9s at ?is di/ance4 ,9 clay t has nev] be5 dri$1 z = in/ance1 t f\nd "u wet mead[s f :i* ! wat] has b rec5tly be5 drawn1 we %\ld n1 ( c\rse1 expect to f9d ^! cracks4 ,accord+ly1 we f9d sometimes 9 clay pits1 excavat$ bel[ ! p]man5t wat]-l9e1 & 9 wells1 t ! clay is 9 a compact mass1 & te>s ap>t )\t exhibit+ any?+ l ^! divisions4 ,we %\ld n expect t1 on su* a clay1 ! full effect ( dra9age w\ld be at once app>5t4 ,! wat] fall+ on ! surface w\ld v sl[ly f9d its way d[nw>d1 at fir/4 ,b aft] ! heat ( ,summ]1 aid$ by ! dra9s und]nea?1 _h contract$ & crack$ ! soil1 passages = ! wat] w\ld soon be f\nd1 &1 aft] a few ye>s1 ! :ole mass1 to ! dep? ( ! dra9s1 w\ld become op5 & p]meable4 ,z an old ,engli% f>m] said ( 8 dra9s1 ,!y d bett] ye> by ye>2 ! wat] gets a habit ( com+ to !m4 ,al?\gh ?is be n philosophical language1 yet ! fact is correctly /at$4 ,wat] t5ds t[>ds ! l[e/ op5+s4 ,a deep well (t5 div]ts ! und]gr\nd /ream f a %all[] well1 & lays x dry4 ,a s+le railroad cut sometimes draws (f ! supply ( wat] f a :ole neighborhood4 ,passages ?us =m$ are enl>g$ by ! pressure ( ! wat]1 & new ones are op5$ by ! causes already sugge/$1 till ! dra9age becomes p]fect = all practical purposes4 ,s mu* is ?is crack+ process reli$ on to facilitate dra9age1 t skillful dra9]s frequ5tly leave _! dit*es p>tly op51 aft] lay+ ! tiles1 t ! heat may produce ! m effect dur+ ! fir/ season4 ,z to ! dep? ( dra9s 9 /iff clays1 en\gh has already be5 said1 "u ! appropriate title4 ,9 ,engl&1 ! weight ( au?ority is 9 favor ( f\r-foot dra9s4 ,9 ?is c\ntry1 a less dep? has ?us f>1 9 g5]al1 be5 adopt$ 9 practice1 b x is believ$ t ?is has be5 because a great] dep? has n be5 tri$4 ,x is und]/ood1 t ! mo/ successful dra9]s 9 ! ,/ate ( ,new ,york1 h be5 satisfi$ ) ?ree-foot dra9s1 n1 z x is believ$1 because !re is any in/ance on record1 9 ?is c\ntry1 ( ! failure ( f\r-foot dra9s1 b because ! effect ( m %all[ dra9s has be5 s satisfactory1 t x has be5 ?\ght a useless exp5se to g deep]4 ,to ,mr4 ,john/on & to ,mr4 ,delafield1 ( ,s5eca ,c\nty1 ! c\ntry is greatly indebt$ = _! ent]prise & lead]%ip 9 ! matt] ( dra9age4 ,mr4 ,john/on gives x z 8 op9ion1 t ?ree feet is deep en\gh1 if ! bottom is h>d en\gh to lay tiles on2 if n1 g deep]4 ,)\t intimat+ t any diff]5t mode ( dra9age ?an t adopt$1 w\ld h be5 bett] on ,mr4 ,john/on's f>m1 we %\ld be unwill+ to surr5d]1 ev5 to ! op9ion ( ,mr4 ,john/on & 8 fri5ds1 our conviction t1 9 g5]al1 ?ree-foot dra9s are too %all[4 ,mr4 ,john/on expressly disclaims any exp]i5ce 9 dra9+ a prop] clay soil4 ,9 ! ,c\ntry ,g5tleman1 ( ,june #aj?1 #ahdh1 he says3 ,9 a subsoil t is imp]vi\s to wat]1 ei!r by be+ a r$ clay1 blue clay1 or h>d-pan1 )9 a foot ( ! surface1 ,i w\ld recomm5d f>m]s to feel _! way v cauti\sly 9 dra9+4 ,if tiles & labor 7 z l[ "h z 9 ,great ,brita91 we c\ld af=d to make dra9s sixte5 feet ap>t 9 su* l&1 & !n1 by loos5+ ! soil1 say tw5ty in*es deep1 by ! subsoil pl[1 ,i ?9k su* l& might be made p]fectly dry2 b ,i don't ?9k ! "t is yet come1 consid]+ ! co/ ( tiles & labor1 to und]take su* an outlay2 b /ill x might pay 9 ! end4 ,i h f\nd only a little ( r$ clay subsoil 9 dra9+ my f>m4 ,i nev] _h any blue clay on my f>m1 or h>d-pan1 to tr\ble me2 b ,i c readily p]ceive t x mu/ be equally bad to dra9 z ! t5aci\s r$ clay4 ,if ,i 7 go+ to pur*ase ano!r f>m1 ,i w\ld look a great deal m to ! subsoil ?an ! surface soil4 ,if ! subsoil is "r1 ! surface soil1 ,i ?9k1 _c be wrong4 ,9 ! same pap]1 "u date ( ,july #h?1 ,mr4 ,john/on says1 ,! only exp]i5ce ,i h _h 9 digg+ into soils1 to judge ( dra9+ out ( ?is c\nty 7,s5eca71 0 9 ,niag>a4 ,he /ates ! result ( 8 obs]vations ?us3 ,a few in*es bel[ ! surface ,i f\nd a /iff blue clay = ab\t t5 in*es deep1 & z imp]vi\s to wat] z s mu* iron4 ,und]nea? t blue clay1 ,i f\nd a r$ clay1 app>5tly imp]vi\s to wat]2 b1 z wat] c\ld n get ?r\gh ! blue1 ,i c\ld only guess at t2 &1 aft] sp5d+ ! great] "p ( ! day1 ) five m5 digg+ holes f f\r to five feet deep1 ,i f\nd ,i knew no m h[ su* l& c\ld be dra9$1 ?an a man :o _h nev] se5 a dra9 dug4 ,i advis$ ! g5tleman to try a few exp]im5ts1 by digg+ a few dit*es1 z ,i laid !m out1 & pl[+ z deep z possible ) a subsoil pl[1 b to get no tile until he saw if he c\ld get a run ( wat]4 ,he paid my travel+ exp5ses1 treat$ me v k9dly & ,i h he>d no?+ f him s9ce4 ,n[1 if y\r correspond5t's soil & subsoil is simil> to t soil ,i w\ld advise him to feel 8 way cauti\sly 9 dra9+4 ,c]ta9ly1 no man w\ld be fool en\gh to dig dit*es & lay tile1 if !re is no wat] to c>ry (f4 ,9 ! ,c\ntry ,g5tleman ( ,nov4 #ah?1 #aheh1 we f9d an int]e/+ /atem5t1 by ,john ,s4 ,pettibone1 ( ,man*e/]1 ,v]mont1 p>tly 9 reply to ! /atem5t ( ,mr4 ,john/on4 ,! exp]im5t by ,mr4 ,pettibone1 %[+ ! increas$ p]meability ( clay1 m]ely by ! passage ( wat] ?r\gh x1 is v int]e/+4 ,he says1 9 8 lett] to ! editor3 ,:5 s exp]i5c$ a dra9] z ,mr4 ,john/on expresses an op9ion t "s soils _c be dra9$1 x is important we %\ld "k :at ! soil is :i* _c be dra9$4 ,he uses ! ^w /iff blue clay1 z descriptive ( ! soil :i* _c be dra9$4 99 99 99 ,i _h tak5 a specim5 ( :at ,i ?\ght to be /iff blue clay4 ,t clay1 :5 wet1 z tak5 out1 w\ld hold wat] ab\t z well z iron3 yet1 f exp]im5ts ,i h made1 ,i am confid5t t su* clay soil c be dra9$1 & at mu* less exp5se ?an a h>d-pan soil4 ,wat] w pass ?r\gh su* clay1 & ! clay become dry2 & aft] x becomes once dry1 wat] w1 ,i am conv9c$1 readily pass d[n ?r\gh su* /iff blue clay4 ,! specim5 0 tak5 ab\t ?ree feet bel[ ! surface1 & on a level ) a brook :i* runs ?r\gh ?is clay soil4 ,i fill$ a "o hundr$-p\nd nail-keg ) clay tak5 f ! same place4 ,x 0 s wet1 t by %ak+1 x came to a level1 & wat] rose to ! top ( ! clay4 ,i _h made holes 9 ! bottom ( ! keg1 & set x up on blocks4 ,aft] tw5ty-f\r h\rs ,i came almo/ to ! conclusion ,mr4 ,john/on did1 t wat] w\ld n pass ?r\gh ?is clay4 ,?is trial 0 dur+ ! hot1 dry wea!r la/ ,summ]4 ,aft] "s t5 or twelve days ! clay appe>$ to be dry4 ,i !n made a bas9-l excavation 9 ! top ( ! clay1 & put wat] 91 & ! wat] disappe>$ r sl[ly4 ,i fill$ ! bas9 ) wat] frequ5tly1 & ! (t5] ,i fill$ x1 ! m readily x pass$ (f4 ,i left x = m ?an a week1 :5 we _h a heavy %[]4 ,aft] ! %[] ,i exam9$ ! keg1 & n a drop ( wat] 0 to be se54 ,i !n took a *isel & cut a hole six in*es d[n4 ,i took out a piece l ! "o ,i dri$ 9 ! h\se1 & laid t up till x 0 p]fectly dry4 ,!re 0 a pla9 diff]5ce betwe5 ! appe>ance ( ! two pieces4 ,! texture1 ,i %\ld say1 0 q diff]5t4 ,t ?r\gh :i* ! wat] _h pass$1 aft] x _h be5 dri$1 0 m op5 & por\s4 ,x did n possess s mu* ( ! blue ca/4 ,9 less ?an "o h\r aft] ! ra9 fell1 ! clay tak5 six in*es f ! top ( ! keg w\ld crumble by rubb+ 9 ! h&4 ,:5 we obs]ve ! effect ( heat 9 op5+ clays to wat] by crack+1 & ! effect ( ! wat] itself1 aid$1 z x d\btless is1 by ! action ( ! air1 9 r5d]+ ! soil p]meable1 we h>dly ne$ feel disc\rag$ if ! "q re/$ entirely on ?is evid5ce2 b :5 we consid] t ?\s&s ^u ?\s&s ( acres ( ! /iffe/ clays h be51 9 ,engl& & ,scotl&1 rescu$ f utt] b>r5ness by dra9age1 & made to yield ! l>ge/ crops1 we %\ld reg>d ! "q ( practicability z settl$4 ,! only "q left = decision is :e!r1 "u all ! circum/ances ( ea* p>ticul> case1 ! op]ation ( dra9+ our clay l&s w be exp$i5t--:e!r _! increas$ value w pay ! exp5se4 ,x is (t5 object$ to deep dra9s 9 clays1 t x is s f> d[n to ! dra9s t ! wat] _c readily pass ?r\gh s l>ge a mass4 ,if we ?9k m]ely ( a drop ( ra9 fall+ on ! surface1 & oblig$ to f9d its devi\s way ?r\gh ! mazes ( cracks & p>ticles till x ga9s an outlet at ! bottom ( f\r feet ( clay1 x does seem a disc\rag+ j\rney = ! poor little solit>y ?+2 b !re is a m correct view ( ! matt]1 :i* some:at relieves ! difficulty4 ,all ! wat] t w run out ( ! soil has dep>t$2 b ! soil holds a va/ am\nt /ill1 by attraction4 ,! ra9 beg9s to fall2 & :5 ! soil is saturat$1 a portion passes into ! dra92 b x is1 by no means1 ! wat] :i* la/ fell ^u ! surface1 b t :i* 0 next ! dra9 be=e ! ra9 fell4 ,if y p\r wat] into a tube t is ne>ly full1 ! wat] :i* w fir/ run f ! o!r end is manife/ly n t :i* y p\r 94 ,s ! gr\nd is full ( little tubes1 op5 at bo? ends1 9 :i* ! wat] is held by attraction4 ,a drop ^u ! surface drives out a drop at ! l[] end1 into to ! dra91 & s ! process goes on--! dra9s beg9n+ to run z soon z ! ra9 comm5ces1 & ceas+ to fl[ only :5 ! pr9ciple ( attraction balances ! p[] ( gravitation4 ,,pressure ,,( ,,wat] ,,9 ,,! ,,soil4 ,9 connection ) ! passage ( wat] ?r\gh clay soil1 x may be appropriate to adv]t to ! "q sometimes moot$1 :e!r 9 a soil fill$ ) wat]1 at f\r feet dep?1 !re is ! same pressure z !re w\ld be1 at ! same dep?1 9 a riv] or pond4 ,! pressure ( fluids on a giv5 area1 is1 ord9>ily1 9 proportion to _! v]tical height2 & ! pressure ( a column ( wat]1 f\r feet high1 w\ld be suffici5t to drive ! l[] p>ticles into an op5+ l a dra91 ) consid]able =ce1 & ! upp] "p ( su* a column w\ld ess5tially aid ! l[] "p 9 its d[nw>d passage4 ,does ?is pressure exi/8 ,mr4 ,gisborne speaks und\bt+ly on ?is po9t1 ?us3 ,we w assume ! dra9 to be f\r feet deep1 & ! wat]-table to be at "o foot bel[ ! surface ( ! e>?4 ,e p>ticle ( wat] :i* lies at ?ree feet bel[ ! wat]-table1 has on x ! pressure ( a column ( wat] ?ree feet high4 ,?is pressure w drive ! p>ticle 9 any direction 9 :i* x f9ds no resi/ance1 ) a rapidity v>y+ inv]sely to ! friction ( ! m$ium ?r\gh :i* ! column acts4 ,! bottom ( our dra9s w (f] no resi/ance1 & into x p>ticles ( wat] w be pu%$1 9 con=mity ) ! rule we h /at$2 rapidly1 if ! m$ium opposes little friction2 sl[ly1 if x opposes mu*4 ,! wat] s pu%$ 9 runs (f by ! dra91 ! column ( pressure be+ dim9i%$ 9 proportion to ! wat] :i* runs (f4 ,mr4 ,?omas ,arkell1 9 a pap] read be=e ! ,society ( ,arts1 9 #ahee1 says1 on ?is po9t3 ,! pressure due to a head ( wat] ( f\r or five feet1 may be imag9$ f ! =ce ) :i* wat] w come ?r\gh ! crevices ( a hat*1 ) t dep? ( wat] above x4 ,n[1 !re is ! same pressure ( wat] to ent] ! vacuum 9 ! pipe-dra91 z !re is aga9/ ! hat*es1 suppos+ ! l& to be full to ! surface4 ,we d n f9d any intimation t !re is any error 9 ! view advanc$ by ! le>n$ g5tleman quot$2 & if !re is none1 we h an explanation ( ! faculty :i* wat] seems to h1 ( f9d+ its way into dra9pipes4 ,yet1 we feel b\nd to confess1 t1 aside f au?ority1 we %\ld h suppos$ t ! pressure due to a column ( pure wat]1 w\ld be ess5tially less5$1 by ! int]position ( solid matt] betwe5 its p>ticles4 ,,*apt] ,,xx4 ,,effect ,,( ,,dra9age ,,on ,,/reams ,,& ,,riv]s4 ,dra9age ,ha/5s ! ,supply to ! ,/reams1 & ?us ,creates ,fre%ets4--,effect ( ,dra9age on ,mead[s bel[2 on ,wat] ,privileges4--,conflict ( ,manufactur+ & ,agricultural ,int]e/s4--,engli% ,op9ions & ,facts4--,uses ( ,dra9age ,wat]4--,irrigation4--,dra9age ,wat] = ,/ock4--,h[ us$ by ,mr4 ,me*i4 ,! effect ( dra9age ^u /reams & riv]s1 has1 p]haps1 little to int]e/ m]ely practical m51 9 ?is c\ntry1 at pres5t2 b ! "t w soon arrive1 :5 mill-own]s & l&-own]s w be compell$ to inve/igate ! subject4 ,m5 unaccu/om$ to m9ute inve/igation1 are sl[ to appreciate ! great effects produc$ by app>5tly small causes2 & x may seem to _m1 t ! op]ations ( dra9age = agriculture1 are too insignificant 9 _! details1 p]ceptibly to affect ! fl[ ( mill-/reams & riv]s4 ,a mom5t's ?\ght w conv9ce ! mo/ skeptical1 t ! ?or\gh-dra9age ( ! wet l&s1 ev5 ( a ,new ,engl& t[n%ip1 mu/ produce s5sible effects ^u ! /reams :i* convey its surplus wat] t[>d ! sea4 ,9 mak+ inve/igations to asc]ta9 :at quantity ( wat] may be reli$ ^u to supply a res]voir1 :e!r natural or artificial1 = ! use ( a t[n or city1 a survey is fir/ tak5 ( ! di/rict ( t]ritory :i* naturally is dra9$ into ! res]voir1 & ?us ! numb] ( squ>e miles ( surface is asc]ta9$4 ,!n ! ra9-tables are consult$1 & ! fall ( ra9 ^u ! survey$ di/rict is comput$4 ,! asc]ta9$ proportion ( ra9-fall1 :i* usually goes (f by evaporation1 is !n d$uct$1 :i* leaves ) suffici5t accuracy1 ! am\nt ( wat] :i* fl[s bo? ^u ! surface1 & ?r\gh ! soil1 to ! res]voir4 ,) prop] d$uctions = wa/e by fre%ets1 :5 ! wat] w ov]fl[ ! res]voir1 & = o!r kn[n losses1 a reliable e/imate is readily made1 9 advance1 ( ! quantity ( wat] suppli$ to ! res]voir4 ,n[1 ^! res]voirs ,nature has plac$ 9 all our valleys1 9 ! =m ( lakes & ponds1 & ! dra9age into !m is by natural spr+s & /reams2 & ! annual am\nt ( ! wat] ?us naturally fl[+ into !m may be readily comput$1 if ! area )9 _! head-wat]s be kn[n4 ,if ! e>?'s surface 71 l iron1 imp]vi\s to wat]1 ! ra9-wat] w\ld come 9 torr5ts d[n ! hill-sides1 & along ! g5tle declivities1 into ! /reams1 creat+ fre%ets & inundations 9 a few h\rs4 ,b in/ead ( t1 ! s(t %[]s fall1 (t5 on ! op51 ?ir/y soil1 & s are gradually absorb$4 ,a "p ( ! ra9-wat] is !re held1 until x returns by evaporation1 to ! cl\ds1 :ile a "p sl[ly p]colates d[nw>d1 f9d+ its way into swamps & spr+y pla9s1 & f9ally1 aft] days or weeks ( w&]+1 sl[ly1 b surely1 f9ds its outlet 9 ! /ream or pond4 ,if n[1 ?is surplus ( wat]1 ?is "p :i* _c be evaporat$1 & mu/ !re=e1 soon] or lat]1 ent] ! /ream or pond1 be1 by artificial *annels1 c>ri$ directly to its de/9ation1 )\t ! delay ( filtration ?r\gh swamps & clay-banks2 ! effect ( ra9 to raise ! /reams & ponds1 mu/ be m sudd5 & imm$iate4 ,agricultural dra9s furni% ^? artificial *annels4 ,! flat & mossy swamp1 :i* be=e reta9$ ! wat] until ! ,midsumm] dr\ght1 & !n sl[ly p>t$ ) x1 by evaporation or gradual filtration1 n[1 by ?or\gh-dra9age1 9 two or ?ree days at mo/1 s5ds all its surplus wat] onw>d to ! natural /ream4 ,! /agnant clay-b$s1 :i* =m]ly1 by sl[ degrees1 all[$ ! wat] to filt] ?r\gh !m to ! wayside dit*1 & !n to ! riv]1 n[1 by dra9age1 contribute _! proportion1 9 a few h\rs1 to swell ! /ream4 ,?us1 evaporation is less5$1 & ! am\nt ( wat] :i* ent]s ! natural *annels l>gely increas$2 &1 :at is ( m importance1 ! wat] :i* fl[s f ! l& is s5t at once1 aft] its fall f ! heav5s1 into ! /reams4 ,?is produces ^u ! mill-/reams a two-fold effect2 fir/1 to raise sudd5 fre%ets to ov]fl[ ! dams1 & sweep away ! mills2 &1 secondly1 to dry up _! supply 9 dry seasons1 & to dim9i% _! wat]-p[]4 ,^u ! l[ mead[s :i* bord] ! /reams1 ! effects ( ! dra9age ( l&s above !m are v>i\s1 accord+ to _! position4 ,9 _m cases1 x mu/ subject !m to inundation by ,summ] fre%ets1 & mu/ require = _! protection1 cat*-wat]s & embankm5ts1 & l>ge facilities = dra9age4 ,! effect ( dra9age ^u wat] privileges1 mu/ inevitably be1 to less5 _! value1 by giv+ !m a sudd5 surplus1 foll[$ by dr\ght1 in/ead ( a regul> supply ( wat]4 ,wat]-p[] companies & mill-own]s are nev] c>eless ( _! int]e/s4 ,?r\gh ! patriotic desire to fo/] home-manufactures1 our ,/ate legislatures h grant$ _m peculi> privileges to manufactur+ corporations4 ,inde$1 all ! /reams & riv]s ( ,new ,engl& are *a9$ to labor at _! :eels4 ,agriculture has ?us f> tak5 c>e ( h]self1 b is de/9$ soon to come 9 collision ) ! *>t]$ privileges ( manufactures4 ,_m que/ions1 t\*+ ! "r ( l&-own]s to *ange ! natural fl[ ( ! wat]1 to ! injury ( mill-own]s2 _m que/ions t\*+ ! "r ( mill-own]s to ob/ruct ! natural c\rse ( /reams1 to ! injury ( ! f>m]1 w inevitably arise 9 our ,c\rts4 ,sl[ly1 & /ep by /ep1 mu/ ! less] int]e/ ( manufactures1 rec$e be=e ! advance ( ! great fundam5tal int]e/ ( agriculture1 until1 9 process ( "t1 /eam1 or "s yet undiscov]$ giant p[]1 %all put its h& to ! great :eel ( ! factory & ! mill1 & ! p5t-up wat]s %all subside to _! natural banks4 ,t ^! are n m]e speculations ( our own1 may be se5 f extracts :i* w be giv5 f answ]s return$ by di/+ui%$ obs]v]s ( ^! matt]s 9 ,engl& & ,scotl&1 to a "q propos$ to !m z to ! actual effects produc$ by ext5sive dra9age4 ,"s div]sity ( op9ion is obs]vable 9 ! diff]5t replies1 :i* 7 made1 indep5d5tly 9 writ+1 & s are m valuable4 ,mr4 ,smi?4--,dur+ dry p]iods1 m p>ticul>ly 9 ,summ]1 ! wat] 9 ! /reams is greatly less5$ by ?or\gh-dra9+2 = !re is s great a mass ( comp>atively dry & absorb5t soil to receive ! ra91 t ,summ] %[]s1 unless v heavy & cont9u\s1 w be entirely absorb$4 ,mr4 ,p>kes4--,! int5tion & effect ( a complete & sy/ematic "u-dra9age is ! lib]ation ( ! wat] ( ra9 m quickly f ! l& ?an if x 7 n dra9$2 & !re=e ! natural v5ts1 or riv]s1 v g5]ally require enl>gem5t or deep5+1 9 ord] to pass (f ! dra9age wat] 9 suffici5tly quick "t1 & s z to avoid flood+ l[] l&s4 ,! sluggi% riv]s ( ! midl& & s\!rn c\nties ( ,engl& especially1 oppose great ob/acles to l&-dra9age1 be+ usually full to ! banks1 or ne>ly s1 & conv]t$ into a s]ies ( ponds1 by mill-dams erect$ at a few miles di/ance bel[ ea* o!r2 s t1 frequ5tly1 no effectual dra9age ( ! ri*e/ alluvial soil compos+ ! mead[s1 c be made1 )\t =m+ embankm5ts1 or by pump+1 or by resort to o!r artificial & exp5sive means4 ,! great] numb] ( ! corn & o!r wat]-mills ?r\gh\t ,engl& ought to be demoli%$1 = ! advantage ( agriculture1 & /eam-p[] %\ld to be provid$ = ! mill]s4 ,i believe t su* an arrangem5t w\ld1 9 mo/ cases1 prove to be economical bo? to ! l&hold] & ! mill]4 ,e old au?ority1 & all mod]n writ]s on l& dra9age 9 ,engl&1 h condemn$ wat]-mills & mill-dams3 & if all ! riv]s ( ,engl& 7 survey$ f ! sea to _! s\rce1 ! mills ^u !m valu$1 ! ext5t ( l& injur$ or b5efitt$ by su* mill-dams asc]ta9$1 & ! :ole "q ( advantage or injury done to ! l&-own] appreciat$ & apprais$1 ,i h little d\bt b t ! injury done1 w\ld be f\nd s greatly to exce$ ! r5tal ( ! mills1 d$uction be+ made ( ! co/ ( ma9ta9+ !m1 t x w\ld be a measure ( national economy1 to buy up ! mills1 & give ! mill]s /eam-p[]4 ,mr4 ,spoon]4--,! effect :i* ext5sive dra9age produces on ! ma9 wat]-c\rses ( di/ricts1 is t ( increas+ ! height ( _! rise at flood times1 & r5d]+ ! fl[ & subsid5ce m rapid ?an be=e4 ,i h repeat$ly he>d ! ,riv] ,twe$ adduc$ z a /rik+ in/ance ( ?is fact1 & t ! *ange has tak5 place )9 ! obs]vation ( ! pres5t g5]ation4 ,mr4 ,maccaw4--,x has be5 obs]v$ t1 aft] ext5sive surface-dra9age on ! %eepwalks 9 ! high] p>ts ( ! c\ntry1 & :5 ! l[] l&s 7 enclos$ by dit*es1 & p>tially dra9$ = ! purposes ( cultivation1 all riv]s fl[+ !refrom1 rise m rapidly aft] heavy ra9s or falls ( sn[1 & dis*>ge _! surplus wat]s m quickly1 ?an "u =m] circum/ances4 ,mr4 ,beattie4--,x r5d]s !m m spe$ily flood$1 & to a great] height1 & !y fall soon]4 ,riv]s are l[] 9 ,summ] & high] 9 ,w9t]4 ,mr4 ,nielson4--,! imm$iate effect ( ! dra9age ( high] l&s has (t5 be5 to inundate ! l[] levels4 ,9 a prize essay ( ,john ,alg]non ,cl>ke1 speak+ ( ! effect ( dra9age along ! c\rse ( ! ,riv] ,n5e1 9 ,engl&1 he says3 ,! upl& f>ms are deliv]+ _! dra9-wat] 9 mu* l>g] quantities1 & m imm$iately aft] ! d[nfall1 ?an =m]ly1 & swell+ to ! dep? ( ?ree to six feet ov] ! #bj1jjj acres ( op5 gr\nd1 :i* =m "o va/ res]voir = x above & bel[ ,pet]bor\gh4 ,! ,n5e us$ to ov]fl[ its banks1 to ! extreme height1 ab\t ! ?ird day aft] ra93 ! floods n[ rea* ! same height 9 ab\t half t "t4 ,twelve h\rs' ra9 w g5]ally cause an ov]fl[ ( ! l&1 :i* all lies unembank$ f ! /ream2 & :]e x is already saturat$1 ?is takes place 9 six or ev5 9 two h\rs4 ,su* a quick rise w cause "o body ( flood-wat] to ext5d = =ty or fifty miles 9 succession1 ) a wid? v>y+ f a qu>t] ( a mile to a mile2 b x /ays sometimes = six weeks1 or ev5 two mon?s1 ^u ! gr\nd4 ,& ^? floods come d[n ) an al>m+ p[] & velocity--bridges :i* h /ood = a c5tury are wa%$ away1 & di/ricts :]e floods 7 previ\sly unkn[n h became liable to _! sudd5 p]iodical inundations4 ,! l& be+ :olly 9 mead[1 suff]s v heavily f ! de/ruction ( its hay4 ,s sudd5 are ! inundations1 t x frequ5tly happ5s t hay made 9 ! day has1 9 ! night be5 f\nd swimm+ & gone4 ,a public-h\se sign at ,wans=d commemorates ! locally-fam$ circum/ance ( a man :o1 hav+ fall5 asleep on a hay-cock1 0 c>ri$ d[n ! /ream by a sudd5 flood3 awak5+ j "u ! bridge ( t t[n1 & be+ in=m$ :]e he 01 he dem&$1 9 a/oni%m5t1 if ?is 7 ',wans=d 9 ,engl&4' ,! fact t ! floods 9 t neighborhood n[ rea* _! height 9 half _! =m] "t1 9 consequ5ce ( ! dra9age ( ! upl& f>ms1 is v significant4 ,mr4 ,d5ton ?us speaks ^u ! same po9t1 ?\gh 8 imm$iate subject 0 t ( compulsory outfalls4 ,al?\gh ! quantity ( l& dra9$ 0 small1 9 comp>ison to t :i* rema9$ to be dra9$1 ! wat] :i* 0 dis*>g$ by ! dra9age already effect$ f\nd its way s rapidly to ! outfalls1 t ! consequ5ces 7 becom+ m & m injuri\s e day4 ,! mill]s 7 n[ suff]+ f two causes4 ,at times ( excess1 aft] a consid]able fall ( ra91 & :5 ! mill] 0 injuri\sly ov]load$1 ! excess 0 increas$ by ! rapidity ) :i* ! "u-dra9s dis*>g$ !mselves2 & z ! quantity ( wat] ?us dis*>g$1 mu/ necess>ily less5 ! subsequ5t supply1 ! p]iod ( dr\ght 0 advanc$ 9 a correspond+ degree4 ,z ! mill]s already saw ?is1 & 7 anticipat+ increas+ losses1 !y w\ld jo9 9 f9d+ a sub/itute = wat]-p[] ^u fair t]ms4 ,x is n suppos$1 t any consid]able practical effects ( dra9age1 ^u ! /reams ( ?is c\ntry1 h be5 obs]v$4 ,a treatise1 h[ev]1 ^u ! g5]al subject ( ,dra9age1 :i* %\ld omit a po9t l ?is1 :i* mu/1 be=e _m ye>s1 attract s]i\s att5tion1 w\ld be q incomplete4 ,:e!r ! effect ( a sy/em ( ?or\gh-dra9age make = or aga9/ ! int]e/ ( mill & mead[ own]s on ! l[] p>ts ( /reams1 %\ld h no influ5ce ov] ^? :o design only to pres5t ! tru?1 9 all its v>i$ aspects4 ,z "s comp5sation = ! evils :i* may fall ^u l&s at a l[] level1 by dra9age ( upl&s1 x may be int]e/+ to notice briefly 9 ?is place1 "s ( ! uses to :i* dra9age-wat] has be5 appli$1 = ! advantage ( l[] l&s4 ,9 _m cases1 9 ,great ,brita91 ! wat] ( dra9age has be5 pres]v$ 9 res]voirs1 or artificial ponds1 & appli$ = ! irrigation ( wat] mead[s2 & z is sugge/$ by ,lieut4 ,maury1 9 a lett] quot$ 9 our introductory *apt]1 ! same may1 9 _m localities1 be done 9 ?is c\ntry1 & ?us our crops ( grass be (t5 tripl$1 on our l[ mead[s4 ,9 _m cases1 wat] f deep dra9s1 w furni% ! mo/ conv5i5t supply = b>n y>ds & pa/ures4 ,x is usually suffici5tly pure & cool 9 ,summ]1 & is pref]r$ by cattle to ! wat] ( runn+ /reams4 ,on ,mr4 ,me*i's f>m at ,tiptree ,hall1 9 ,engl&1 we obs]v$ a l>ge ci/]n1 9 :i* all ! manure necess>y = ! highe/ culture ( #agj acres ( l&1 is liquifi$1 & f :i* x is pump$ out by a /eam eng9e1 ov] ! f>m4 ,all ! wat]1 :i* supplies ! ci/]n1 is collect$ f tile dra9s on ! f>m1 :]e !re _h be=e be5 no runn+ wat]4 ,,*apt] ,,xxi4 ,,legislation--,,dra9age ,,companies4 ,engl& protects h] ,f>m]s4--,mead[s ru9$ by ,corporation dams4--,old ,mills (t5 ,nuisances4--,factory ,res]voirs4--,fl[age ext5ds above level ( ,dam4--,rye & ,d]w5t ,dra9age4--,give ,/eam = ,wat]-,p[]4--,"r to ,dra9 ?r\gh l& ( o!rs4--,"r to natural fl[ ( ,wat]4--,laws ( ,mass4--,"r to ,fl[2 :y n to ,dra98--,l&-dra9age ,companies 9 ,engl&4--,l9coln%ire ,f5s4--,gov]nm5t ,loans = ,dra9age4 ,no?+ m cle>ly %[s ! univ]sal int]e/ & confid5ce ( ! p ( ,great ,brita91 9 ! op]ation ( l&-dra9age1 ?an ! acts ( ,p>liam5t 9 relation to ! subject4 ,! cons]vatism ( ,engl&1 9 ! view ( an ,am]ican1 is /rik+4 ,%e nev] takes a /ep till %e is sure %e is "r4 ,ju/ly pr\d ( h] position among ! nations1 %e deems *ange an unsafe exp]im5t1 & :at has be51 mu* saf] ?an :at might be4 ,ve/$ rights are sacr$ 9 ,engl&1 & especially rights 9 l&s1 :i* are emphatically real e/ate !re4 ,su* are ! s5tim5ts ( ! p1 & su* ! s5tim5ts ( _! repres5tatives & expon5ts1 ! ,lords & ,commons4 ,yet ,engl& has be5 s impress$ ) ! importance ( improv+ ! condition ( ! p1 ( increas+ ! weal? ( ! nation1 ( enri*+ bo? t5ant & l&lord1 by dra9+ ! l&1 t ! hi/ory ( h] legislation1 9 aid ( su* op]ations1 af=ds a lesson ( progress ev5 to fa/ ,"y ,am]ica4 ,p[]s h be5 grant$1 by :i* encumb]$ e/ates may be *>g$ ) ! exp5ses ( dra9age1 s t rema9d]-m5 & rev]sion]s1 )\t _! cons5t1 %all be compell$ to contribute to pres5t improvem5ts2 s t c>eless or ob/9ate adjac5t proprietors %all be compell$ to keep op5 _! dit*es = outfalls to _! neighbor's dra9s2 s t mill-dams1 & o!r ob/ructions to ! natural fl[ ( ! wat]1 may be remov$ = ! b5efit ( agriculture2 &1 f9ally1 ! ,gov]nm5t has itself furni%$ funds1 by way ( loans1 ( millions ( p\nds1 9 aid ( improvem5ts ( ?is "*4 ,9 ,am]ica1 :]e private individual "r is usually compell$ to yield to ! good ( ! :ole1 & :]e selfi%ness & ob/9acy d n long /& 9 ! pa?way ( progress1 ob/ruct+ manife/ improvem5t 9 ! condition ( ! p2 we are yet f> beh9d ,engl& 9 legal facilities = promot+ ! improvem5t ( l& culture4 ,?is is because ! att5tion ( ! public has n be5 p>ticul>ly call$ to ! subject4 ,manufactur+ corporations are creat$ by special acts ( legislation4 ,9 _m ,/ates1 rights to fl[1 & ru91 by inundation1 mo/ valuable l&s along ! c\rse ( riv]s1 & by ! banks ( ponds & lakes1 to aid ! wat]-p[] ( mills1 are grant$ to companies1 & ! l&-own] is compell$ to "p ) 8 mead[s = su* comp5sation z a committee or jury %all assess4 ,9 almo/ e t[n 9 ,new ,engl& !re are hundr$s1 & (t5 ?\s&s1 ( acres ( l&s1 t might be mo/ productive to ! f>m]2 ov]fl[$ half ! ye> ) wat]1 to drive "s old saw-mill1 or gri/-mill1 or cotton-mill1 :i* has n made a divid5d1 or paid exp5ses1 = a qu>t] ( a c5tury4 ,! :ole wat]-p[]1 :i*1 p]haps1 ru9s = cultivation a ?\s& acres ( f]tile l&1 & divides & breaks up f>ms1 by creat+ little creeks & swamps ?r\gh\t all ! neighbor+ valleys1 is n wor?1 & w\ld n be assess$1 by imp>tial m51 at "o ?\s& doll>s4 ,yet1 ?\gh !re is p[] to take ! f>m]'s l& = ! b5efit ( manufactur]s1 !re is no p[] to take d[n ! company's dam = ! b5efit ( agriculture4 ,an old saw-mill1 :i* c only run a few days 9 a ,spr+ fre%et1 (t5 swamps a half-t[n%ip ( l&1 because somebody's great-gr&fa!r _h a prescriptive "r to fl[1 :5 l&s 7 ( no value1 & saw-mills 7 a public bless+4 ,!re are num]\s cases1 )9 our own k1 :]e ! v l& ov]fl[$ & ru9$ by "s incorporat$ company1 w\ld1 if all[$ to produce its natural gr[? ( timb] & wood1 furni% t5 times ! fuel necess>y to supply /eam-eng9es1 to propel ! ma*9]y c>ri$ by ! wat]-p[]4 ,n satisfi$ ) ob/ruct+ ! /reams 9 _! c\rse1 ! l>g] companies are1 ( late1 mak+ use ( ! int]ior lakes1 fifty or a hundr$ miles inl&1 z res]voirs1 to keep back wat] = ! use ( ! mills 9 ! summ] dr\ghts4 ,?us are ?\s&s ( acres ( l& dr[n$1 & r5d]$ worse ?an useless2 = ! wat] is kept up till ,midsumm]1 & drawn (f :5 a dog-day climate is j ready to conv]t ! ri* & slimy s$im5t ( ! pond into pe/il5tial vapors4 ,^! wat]s1 too1 controll$ by ! mill-own]s1 are ?us let d[n 9 floods1 9 ,midsumm]1 to ov]fl[ ! mead[s & corn-fields ( ! f>m]1 or ! int]vals & bottom-l&s bel[4 ,n[1 :ile we w\ld nev] advocate any attack ^u ! rights ( mill-own]s1 or ask !m to sacrifice _! int]e/s to ^? ( agriculture1 x surely is prop] to call att5tion to ! injury :i* ! productive capacity ( ! soil is suff]+1 by ! flood+ ( our be/ tracts1 9 sections ( c\ntry :]e l& is mo/ valuable4 ,c\ld n mill-own]s1 9 _m in/ances1 adopt /eam in/ead ( wat]-p[]1 & becom+ l&-dra9+ companies1 in/ead ( l&-dr[n+ companies2 at lea/1 let ,nature h free c\rse ) h] g5tly-fl[+ riv]s1 & all[ ! promise to be fulfill$1 t ! e>? %all be no m curs$ ) a flood4 ,we w\ld ask = ! l&-own]1 simply equality ( rights ) ! mill-own]4 ,if a legislature may grant ! "r to fl[ l&s1 aga9/ ! w ( ! own]1 to promote manufactures1 ! same legislature may surely grant ! "r1 ^u prop] occasion1 to remove dams1 & o!r ob/ructions to our /reams1 to promote agriculture4 ,! rights ( mill-own]s are no m sacr$ ?an ^? ( l&-own]s2 & ! int]e/s ( manufactures are1 surely1 no m important ?an ^? ( agriculture4 ,we w\ld n advocate mu* int]f]5ce ) private rights4 ,9 "s ( ! ,/ates1 no special privileges h be5 conf]r$ ^u wat]-p[] companies4 ,!y h be5 left to procure _! rights ( fl[age1 by private contract ) ! l&-own]s2 & 9 su* ,/ates1 probably1 ! legislatures w\ld be z sl[ to int]f]e ) rights ( fl[age1 z ) o!r rights4 ,yet1 !re are cases :]e1 = ! pres]vation ( ! heal? ( ! community1 & = ! g5]al conv5i5ce1 gov]nm5ts h ev]y:]e ex]cis$ ! p[] ( int]f]+ ) private prop]ty1 & limit+ ! control ( ! own]s4 ,to pres]ve ! public heal?1 we abate z nuisances1 by process ( law1 slaught]-h\ses1 & o!r e/abli%m5ts (f5sive to heal? & com=t1 & we provide1 by compulsory assessm5ts ^u l&-own]s1 = sew]age1 = side-walks1 & ! l1 9 our cities4 ,ev]y:]e1 = ! public good1 we take private prop]ty = highways1 ^u j comp5sation1 & ! prop]ty ( corporations is ?us tak51 l t ( individuals4 ,aga91 we compel adjac5t own]s to f5ce _! l&s1 & ma9ta9 _! proportion ( division f5ces ( ! legal height1 & we elect f5ce view]s1 ) p[] to adju/ equitably1 ! exp5ses ( su* f5ces4 ,we assess ba*elors & maid5s1 9 mo/ ,/ates1 = ! con/ruction ( s*oolh\ses1 & ! education ( ! *ildr5 ( o!rs1 &1 9 v>i\s ways1 compel ea* memb] ( society to contribute to ! common welf>e4 ,h[ f> x may be compet5t1 = a ,/ate legislature to provide =1 or assi/ 91 ! dra9age ( ext5sive & unheal?y m>%es2 or h[ f> individual own]s %\ld be compell$ to contribute to a common improvem5t ( _! l&s2 or h[ f>1 & 9 :at cases1 "o l&-own] %\ld be au?oriz$ to ent] ^u l& ( ano!r1 to secure or ma9ta9 ! be/ use ( 8 own l&--^! are que/ions :i* x is unnecess>y = u to attempt to det]m9e4 ,x is well t !y %\ld be sugge/$1 because !y w1 at no di/ant day1 engage mu* att5tion4 ,x is well1 too1 t ! /eps :i* cons]vative ,engl& has ?\ght x prop] to take 9 ?is direction1 %\ld be und]/ood1 t we may ! bett] det]m9e :e!r any1 & if any1 :at c\rse our ,/ates may safely take1 to aid ! great & lead+ int]e/ ( our c\ntry4 ,! swamps & /agnant mead[s along our small /reams & our riv]s1 :i* are tak5 f ! f>m]1 by fl[age1 = ! b5efit ( mills1 are (t51 9 ,new ,engl&1 ! mo/ f]tile "p ( ! t[n%ips--equal to ! bottom l&s ( ! ,we/2 & !y are "r by ! doors ( "y m51 :o leave _! homes ) regret1 because ! ri* l& ( f>-(f new ,/ates (f]s temptations1 :i* _! native soil _c pres5t4 ,x is c]ta9ly ( great importance to ! old ,/ates1 to inquire into ^! matt]s1 & set prop] b\nds to ! use ( /reams = wat]-p[]s4 ,! associat$ weal? & influ5ce ( manufactur]s1 is always m p[]ful ?an ! individual ef=ts ( ! l&-own]s4 ,res]voirs are always gr[+ l>g]1 & dams cont9ually gr[ high] & tight]4 ,! wat]1 by little & little1 creeps insidi\sly on to1 & into1 ! mead[s f> above ! ob/ruction1 & ! l&-own] mu/ (t5 elect betwe5 submission to ?is aggression1 & a t$i\s law-suit ) a p[]ful adv]s>y4 ,! evil ( ob/ructions to /reams & riv]s1 is by no means limit$ to ! l& visibly fl[$1 nor to l& at ! level ( ! dam4 ,runn+ wat] is nev] level1 or x c\ld n fl[2 & 9 crook$ /reams1 :i* fl[ ?r\gh mead[s1 ob/ruct$ by grass & bu%es1 ! wat] rais$ by a dam1 (t5 /&s _m feet high]1 at a mile or two back1 ?an at ! dam4 ,x is extremely difficult to set limits to ! effect ( su* a fl[age4 ,wat] is fl[$ into ! subsoil1 or r is prev5t$ f runn+ out2 ! natural dra9age ( ! c\ntry is prev5t$2 & l& :i* might well be dra9$ artificially1 7 ! /ream n ob/ruct$1 is f\nd to lie s ne> ! level1 z to be depriv$ ( ! requisite fall by back wat]1 or ! sluggi% curr5t occasion$ by ! dam4 ,^! ob/ructions to dra9age h become subjects ( mu* att5tion1 & ( legislative int]v5tion 9 v>i\s =ms 9 ,engl&1 & "s ( ! facts elicit$ 9 _! inve/igations are v in/ructive4 ,9 a discussion be=e ! ,society ( ,arts1 9 #ahee1 9 :i* _m g5tlem51 exp]i5c$ 9 dra9age1 took a "p1 ?is subject ( ob/ruction by mill-dams came up4 ,mr4 ,g4 ,donaldson said he _h be5 mu* engag$ 9 works ( l&-dra9age1 & t1 9 _m in/ances1 great difficulties 7 exp]i5c$ 9 obta9+ outfalls1 ow+ to ! wat] rights1 on ! c\rse ( riv]s = mill-p[]1 c4 ,mr4 ,r4 ,gran?am spoke ( ! necessity ( fur!r legislation1 s z to give p[] to l[] bridges & culv]ts1 "u public roads1 & /raight5 & deep5 riv]s & /reams4 ,b1 he said1 au?ority 0 want+1 above all1 = ! removal ( mills1 dams1 & o!r ob/ructions 9 riv]s1 :i*1 9 _m cases1 did incalculable injury1 _m times exce$+ ! value ( ! mills1 by keep+ up ! level ( riv]s1 & r5d]+ x totally impossible to dra9 ! adjo9+ l&s4 ,mr4 ,r4 ,f4 ,davis said1 ,if !y 7 to g into ! midl& di/ricts1 !y w\ld see great injury done1 f damm+ ! wat] = mills4 ,9 ,scotl&1 ! same difficulty has aris54 ,9 _m p>ts ( ?is c\ntry1 says a ,scotti% writ]1 small lo*s 7lakes7 & dams are kept up1 = ! sake ( mills1 "u old t5ures1 :i*1 if dra9$1 ! l& ga9$ by t op]ation1 w\ld1 9 _m in/ances1 be wor? t5 times ! r5t ( su* mills4 ,9 ! case ( ! ,rye & ,d]w5t ,dra9age1 an acc\nt ( :i* is f\nd 9 ! #ad? ,vol4 ( ! ,j\rnal ( ! ,royal ,agricultural ,society1 a plan ( comp5sation 0 adopt$1 :]e x became necess>y to remove dams & o!r ob/ructions1 :i* is wor?y ( att5tion4 ,! ,commission]s "u ! ,act ( #ahdf1 remov$ ! mill-:eels1 & sub/itut$ /eam-eng9es correspond+ to ! p[] actually us$ by ! mills1 comp5sat+1 also1 ! proprietors = inconv5i5ce1 & ! future additional exp5siv5ess ( ! new p[]4 ,! claims ( a %ort canal navigation1 two fi%]ies1 & t5ants' damages ?r\gh d]angem5t ( bus9ess dur+ ! alt]ations1 7 dispos$ ( )\t mu* outlay2 & ! pecuni>y advantages ( ! "w are app>5t f ! fact1 t a s+le flood1 su* z frequ5tly ov]fl[$ ! l&1 has be5 kn[n to d m damage1 if fairly valu$ 9 money1 ?an ! :ole sum exp5d$ "u ! act4 ,"u ?is act1 x became necess>y = ! ,commission]s to e/imate ! comp>ative co/ ( /eam & wat]-p[]1 9 ord] to c>ry out _! idea ( giv+ to ! mill-own]s a /eam-p[] equival5t to _! wat]-p[]4 ,z ! great] "p ( _! wat]-p[] 0 employ$ on corn & fl\r-mills1 ^u ^! ! calculations 7 *iefly bas$4 ,x 0 g5]ally admitt$ to be v ne> ! tru?1 t to turn a pair ( fl\r-mill /ones prop]ly1 requires a p[] equal to t ( two-&-a-half horses1 or on an av]age1 tw5ty horses' p[]1 to turn & "w a mill ( eight-pairs ( /ones1 & t ! total co/ ( a tw5ty-horse /eam-eng9e1 ) all its appliances1 w\ld be #e1jjj1 or #bej p] horse p[]4 ,calculations = ! ma9t5ance ( ! /eam-p[] are also giv52 b ?is dep5ds s mu* on local circum/ances1 t ,engli% e/imates w\ld be ( little value to u4 ,! arrangem5ts 9 ?is case ) ! mill-own]s1 7 made by contract1 & n by =ce ( any arbitr>y p[]1 & ! success ( ! ent]prise1 9 ! dra9age ( ! l&s1 ! prev5tion ( damage by floods1 especially 9 hay & h>ve/-"t1 & 9 ! improvem5t ( ! heal? ( vegetation1 z well z ( man & animals1 is said to be /rik+ly manife/4 ,?is act provides = a wat]-bailiff1 ^: duty x is to inspect ! riv]s1 /reams1 wat]-c\rses1 c41 & en=ce ! due ma9t5ance ( ! banks1 & ! un9t]rupt$ dis*>ge ( ! wat]s at all times4 ,,compulsory ,,outfalls4 ,x (t5 happ5s1 especially 9 ,new ,engl&1 :]e f>ms are small1 & ! c\ntry is brok51 t an own] ( valuable l&s ov]*>g$ ) wat]1 p]haps a swamp or l[ mead[1 or p]haps a field ( upl&1 ly+ ne>ly level1 desires to dra9 8 tract1 b _c f9d suffici5t fall1 )\t go+ ^u ! l& ( own]s bel[4 ,^! adjac5t own]s may n appreciate ! advantages ( dra9age2 or _! l&s may n require x2 or1 :at is n unusual1 !y may f v>i\s motives1 good & evil1 refuse to all[ _! l&s to be m$dl$ )4 ,n[1 )\t desir+ to be und]/ood z speak+ judicially1 we "k ( no au?ority ( law by :i* a l&-own] may ent] ^u ! t]ritory ( 8 neighbor = ! purpose ( dra9+ 8 own l&1 & p]haps no su* p[] %\ld ev] be conf]r$4 ,all own]s ^u /reams1 great & small1 h h[ev]1 ! "r to ! natural fl[ ( ! wat]1 bo? above & bel[4 ,_! neighbors bel[ _c ob/ruct a /ream s z to fl[ back ! wat] ^u1 or into1 ! l& above2 & :]e artificial wat]-c\rses1 z dit*es & dra9s h long be5 op5$1 ! presumption w\ld be t all p]sons b5efitt$ by !m1 h ! "r to h !m kept op54 ,p>liam5t is held to be omnipot5t1 & 9 ! act ( #ahdg1 kn[n z ,"l ,l9coln's ,act1 its p[] is well illu/rat$1 z is also ! det]m9ation ( ! ,briti% nation t no trifl+ imp$im5ts %all h9d] ! progress ( ! great "w ( dra9+ l&s = agriculture4 ,! act1 9 effect1 au?orizes any p]son int]e/$ 9 dra9+ 8 l&s1 to cle> a passage ?r\gh all ob/ructions1 :]ev] x w\ld be wor? ! exp5se ( works & comp5sation4 ,its g5]al provisions may be f\nd 9 ! #ae? ,vol4 ( ! ,j\rnal ( ! ,royal ,agricultural ,society4 ,x is n ! prov9ce ( ! au?or1 to decide :at may prop]ly be done )9 ! au?ority ( diff]5t ,/ates1 9 aid ( public or private dra9age ent]prises4 ,! ,/ate ,legislatures are n1 l ,p>liam5t1 omnipot5t4 ,!y are limit$ by _! writt5 con/itutions4 ,p]haps no bett] crit]ion ( p[]1 ) respect to compell+ contribution1 by p]sons b5efitt$1 to ! co/ ( dra9age1 & ) int]f]+ ) individual rights1 = public or private advantage1 c be f\nd1 ?an ! ex]cise ( p[] 9 ! cases ( f5ces & ( fl[age4 ,if we may lawfully compel a p]son to f5ce 8 l&1 to exclude ! cattle ( o!r p]sons1 or1 if he neglect to f5ce1 subject him to _! depr$ations1 )\t indemnity1 z is done 9 _m ,/ates2 or if we may compel him to contribute to ! erection ( division f5ces1 ( a giv5 height1 ?\gh he has no animal 9 ! _w to be %ut 9 or out ( 8 field1 !re w\ld seem to be equal reason1 9 compell+ him to dig half a division dit* = ! b5efit ( himself & neighbor4 ,if1 aga91 z we h already h9t$1 ! ,legislature may au?orize a corporation to fl[ & inundate ! l& ( an unwill+ citiz51 to raise a wat]-p[] = a cotton-mill1 x mu/ be a nice discrim9ation ( p[]s1 t prohibits ! same ,legislature f au?oriz+ ! entry into l&s ( a prote/+ mill-own]1 or ( an unkn[n or cross-gra9$ proprietor1 to op5 an outlet = a valuable1 heal?-giv+ sy/em ( dra9age4 ,9 ! valuable treatise ( ,dr4 ,w>d]1 ( ,c9c9nati1 rec5tly publi%$ 9 ,new ,york1 ^u ,h$ges & ,ev]gre5s1 an ab/ract is giv5 ( ! /atutes ( mo/ ( our ,/ates1 ^u ! subject ( f5ces1 & we "k ( no o!r book1 9 :i* s good an idea ( ! legislation on ?is subject1 c be s readily obta9$4 ,by ! /atutes ( ,massa*usetts1 any p]son may erect & ma9ta9 a wat]-mill1 & dam to raise wat] = work+ x1 ^u & across any /ream t is n navigable1 provid$ he does n int]f]e ) exi/+ mills4 ,any p]son ^: l& is ov]fl[$1 may1 on compla9t1 h a trial & a v]dict ( a jury2 :i* may fix ! height ( ! dam1 decide :e!r x %all be left op5 any "p ( ! ye>1 & fix comp5sation1 ei!r annual or 9 gross1 = ! injury4 ,all o!r rem$ies = su* fl[age are tak5 away1 & ?us ! l& ( ! own] may be conv]t$ into a mill-pond aga9/ 8 cons5t4 ,we f9d no?+ 9 ! ,massa*usetts /atutes :i* gives to l&-own]s1 desir\s ( improv+ _! wet l&s1 any p[] to int]f]e 9 any way ) ! rights ( mill-own]s1 = ! dra9age ( l&s4 ,! /atutes ( ! ,commonweal?1 h[ev]1 make lib]al & /r+5t provisions1 = compell+ unwill+ own]s to contribute to ! dra9age ( wet l&s4 ,= ! conv5i5ce ( ^? :o may be desir\s ( procur+ legislation on ?is subject1 we w give a brief ab/ract ( ! lead+ /atute ( ,massa*usetts regulat+ ?is matt]4 ,x may be f\nd 9 ,*apt] #aae ( ! ,revis$ ,/atutes1 ( #ahcf4 ,! fir/ ,section expla9s ! g5]al object4 ,:5 any mead[1 swamp1 m>%1 bea*1 or o!r l[ l&1 %all be held by sev]al proprietors1 & x %all be necess>y or useful to dra9 or fl[ ! same1 or to remove ob/ructions 9 riv]s or /reams lead+ !refrom1 su* improvem5ts may be effect$1 "u ! direction ( ,commission]s1 9 ! mann] provid$ 9 ?is *apt]4 ,! /atute provides t ! proprietors1 or a great] "p ( !m 9 int]e/1 may apply1 by petition1 to ! ,c\rt ( ,common ,pleas1 sett+ =? ! propos$ improvem5ts1 & = notice to ! proprietors :o d n jo9 9 ! petition1 & = a he>+4 ,! c\rt may !n appo9t ?ree1 five1 or sev5 commission]s to cause ! improvem5ts to be effect$4 ,! commission]s are au?oriz$ to cause dams or dikes to be erect$ on ! premises1 at su* places1 & 9 su* mann] z !y %all direct2 & may ord] ! l& to be fl[$ !reby1 = su* p]iods ( ea* ye> z !y %all ?9k mo/ b5eficial1 & also cause dit*es to be op5$ on ! premises1 & ob/ructions 9 any riv]s or /reams lead+ !refrom to be remov$4 ,provision is made = assessm5t ( ! exp5ses ( ! improvem5ts1 ^u all ! proprietors1 accord+ to ! b5efit ea* w d]ive f x1 & = ! collection ( ! am\nt assess$4 ,:5 ! commission]s %all f9d x necess>y or exp$i5t to r$uce or raise ! wat]s1 = ! purpose ( obta9+ a view ( ! premises1 or = ! m conv5i5t or exp$iti\s removal ( ob/ructions !re91 !y may op5 ! flood-gates ( any mill1 or make o!r ne$ful passages ?r\gh or r\nd ! dam !re( or erect a tempor>y dam on ! l& ( any p]son1 :o is n a p>ty to ! proce$+s1 & may ma9ta9 su* dam1 or su* passages = ! wat]1 z long z %all be necess>y = ! purposes a=esaid4 ,provision is made = previ\s notice to p]sons :o are n p>ties1 & = comp5sation to !m = injuries occasion$ by ! int]f]5ce1 & = appeal to ! c\rts4 ,?is /atute gives1 by no means1 ! p[]s necess>y to compel contribution to all necess>y dra9age1 because1 fir/1 x is limit$ 9 its application to mead[1 swamp1 m>%1 bea*1 or o!r l[ l&4 ,! ^w mead[1 9 ,new ,engl&1 is us$ 9 its orig9al s5se ( flat & wet l&4 ,secondly1 ! /atute seems to give no au?ority to op5 p]man5t dit*es on ! l& ( o!rs ?an ! own]s ( su* l[ l&1 al?\gh x provides = tempor>y passages = ! purposes ( obta9+ a view ( ! premises1 or = ! m conv5i5t or exp$iti\s removal ( ob/ructions !re9--! ^w !re9 ref]r+ to ! premises "u improvem5t1 s t !re is no provision = outfalls1 "u ?is /atute1 except ?r\gh natural /reams4 ,by a /atute ( ,m>* #bh1 #ahee1 ! ,legislature ( ,massa*usetts has ex]cis$ a p[] z ext5sive z is desirable = all purposes ( dra9age1 al?\gh ! provisions ( ! act ref]r$ to are n1 p]haps1 s broad z may be f\nd necess>y1 9 ord] to op5 outfalls & remove all ob/ructions to dra9age4 ,z ?is act is believ$ to be peculi>1 we give its sub/ance3 ,an ,act to au?orize ! mak+ ( ,roads & ,dra9s 9 c]ta9 cases4 ,,sect4 #a4 ,any t[n or city1 p]son or p]sons1 company or body corporate1 hav+ ! own]%ip ( l[ l&s1 lakes1 swamps1 qu>ries1 m9es1 or m9]al deposits1 t1 by means ( adjac5t l&s belong+ to o!r p]sons1 or occupi$ z a highway1 _c be approa*$1 work$1 dra9$1 or us$ 9 ! ord9>y mann] )\t cross+ said l&s or highway1 may be au?oriz$ to e/abli% roads1 dra9s1 dit*es1 tunnels1 & railways to said places 9 ! mann] h]e9 provid$4 ,,sect4 #b4 ,! p>ty desir+ to make su* improvem5ts %all file a petition !re= ) ! commission]s ( ! c\nty 9 :i* ! premises are situat$1 sett+ =? ! names ( ! p]sons int]e/$1 if kn[n to ! petition]1 & also1 9 detail1 ! nature ( ! propos$ improvem5t1 & ! situation ( ! adjo9+ l&s4 ,,sect4 #c provides = notice to own]s & t[n au?orities4 ,,sect4 #d provides = a he>+1 & lay+ out ! improvem5t1 & assessm5t ( damages ^u ! respective p>ties1 hav+ /rict reg>d to ! b5efits :i* !y w receive4 ,,sect4 #e provides = repairs by a majority ( ^? b5efitt$2 & ,sect4 #f = appeals1 z 9 ! case ( highways4 ,by an act ( #aheg1 ?is act 0 s f> am5d$ z to au?orize ! application = ! desir$ improvem5t1 to be made to ! ,select-m5 ( ! t[n1 or ! ,mayor & ,ald]m5 ( ! city1 9 case ! l&s ov] :i* ! improvem5t is desir$ are all situat$ 9 "o t[n or city4 ,x is manife/ c]ta9ly1 t ! ,/ate assumes p[] suffici5t to au?orize any int]f]5ce ) private prop]ty t may be necess>y = ! mo/ ext5d$ & ?or\gh dra9age op]ations4 ,! p[] :i* may compel a man to improve 8 portion ( a swamp1 may apply z well to 8 wet hill-sides2 & ! p[] :i* may op5 tempor>y passages ?r\gh l&s or dams1 )\t cons5t ( ! own]1 may keep !m op5 p]man5tly1 if exp$i5t4 ,,l& ,,dra9age ,,companies4 ,besides ! *>t]s :i* h at v>i\s times1 = _m c5turies1 be5 grant$ to companies1 = ! dra9age ( f5s & m>%es1 & o!r l[l&s1 9 mod]n times1 great enc\ragem5t has be5 giv5 by ! ,briti% ,gov]nm5t = ! dra9age & o!r improvem5t ( high-l&s4 ,n only h ext5sive p[]s be5 grant$ to companies1 to proce$ ) _! own means1 to effect ! objects 9 view1 b ! ,gov]nm5t itself has advanc$ money1 by way ( loan1 9 aid ( dra9age & l improvem5ts4 ,by ! provisions ( two acts ( ,p>liam5t1 no less ?an #bj1jjj1jjj h be5 loan$ 9 aid ( su* improvem5ts4 ,^! acts are g5]ally kn[n z ,,public ,,moneys ,,dra9age ,,acts4 ,!re are already f\r *>t]$ companies = ! same g5]al objects1 do+ an imm5se am\nt ( bus9ess1 on private funds4 ,x w be suffici5t1 p]haps1 to /ate1 9 g5]al t]ms1 ! mode ( op]ation "u ^! sev]al acts4 ,mo/ l&s 9 ,engl& are held "u incumbrances ( "s k9d4 ,_m are entail$1 z x is t]m$3 t is to say1 ve/$ = life 9 c]ta9 p]sons1 & !n to g to o!rs1 ! t5ant = life hav+ no p[] to sell ! prop]ty4 ,(t51 ! life e/ate is own$ by "o p]son1 & ! rema9d] by a /rang]1 or remote bran* ( ! family1 :om ! life-t5ant has no desire to b5efit4 ,9 su* cases1 ! t5ant1 or occupant1 w\ld be unwill+ to make exp5sive improvem5ts at 8 own co/1 :i* might b5efit himself b a few ye>s1 & !n g into o!r h&s4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! rema9d]-man w\ld h no "r to m$dle ) ! prop]ty :ile ! t5ant-=-life 0 9 possession2 & x w\ld be r>e1 t all ^? int]e/$ c\ld agree to unite 9 ef=ts to increase ! g5]al value ( ! e/ate1 by su* improvem5ts4 ,! great object 9 view 01 !n1 to devise means1 by :i* su* e/ates1 suff]+ = want ( sy/ematic1 & (t5 exp5sive1 dra9age op]ations1 might be improv$1 & ! co/ ( improvem5t be *>g$ on ! e/ate1 s z to d no inju/ice to any p>ty int]e/$4 ,! plan f9ally adopt$1 is1 to all[ ! t5ant or occupant to h ! improvem5t made1 ei!r by exp5d+ 8 private funds1 or by borr[+ ( ! ,gov]nm5t or ! private companies1 & hav+ ! am\nt exp5d$1 made a *>ge on ! l&1 to be paid1 9 annual paym5ts1 by ! p]son :o %all be 9 occupation ea* ye>4 ,"u "o ( ^! acts1 ! t]m ( paym5t is fix$ at #bb ye>s1 & "u a lat] act1 at #ej ye>s4 ,?us1 if ,a own a life-e/ate 9 l&s1 & ,b ! rema9d]1 & ! e/ate ne$s dra9+1 ,a may take su* /eps z to h ! improvem5t made1 by borr[+ ! money1 & repay+ x by ye>ly paym5ts1 9 su* sums z w pay ! :ole exp5diture1 ) int]e/1 9 tw5ty-two or fifty ye>s3 & if ,a die be=e ! expiration ( ! t]m1 ! succe$+ occupants cont9ue ! paym5ts until ! :ole is paid4 ,a borr[s1 = in/ance1 #a1jjj1 & exp5ds x 9 dra9+ ! l&s4 ,x is made a *>ge1 l a mortgage1 on ! l&1 to be paid 9 equal annual paym5ts = fifty ye>s4 ,at six p] c5t41 ! annual paym5t w be b ab\t #fc4cc1 to pay ! :ole am\nt ( debt & ! int]e/1 9 fifty ye>s4 ,a pays ?is sum annually z long z he lives1 & ,b !n takes possession1 & pays ! annual in/allm5t4 ,if ! t5ant exp5d 8 own money1 & die be=e ! :ole t]m expire1 he may leave ! unpaid balance z a legacy1 or "p ( 8 own e/ate1 to 8 heirs4 ,! :ole proce$+ is bas$ ^u ! idea1 t ! r5t or income ( ! prop]ty is suffici5tly increas$1 to make ! op]ation advantage\s to all p>ties4 ,x is assum$1 t ! op]ation ( dra9age1 "u "o ( ^! /atutes1 w be effectual to increase ! r5t ( ! l&1 to ! am\nt ( ?is annual paym5t1 = at lea/ fifty ye>s4 ,! fact1 t ! ,briti% ,gov]nm5t1 aft] ! mo/ ?or\gh inve/igation1 has ?us pron\nc$ ! op9ion1 t dra9age works1 prop]ly conduct$1 w ?us increase ! r5t ( l&1 & rema9 9 full op]ation a half c5tury at lea/1 af=ds ! be/ evid5ce possible1 bo? ( ! utility & ! durability ( tile dra9age4 ,,*apt] ,,xxii4 ,,dra9age ,,( ,,cell>s4 ,wet ,cell>s ,unheal?ful4--,importance ( ,cell>s 9 ,new ,engl&4--,a ,glance at ! ,g>ret1 by way ( ,contra/4--,necessity ( ,dra9s4--,sket* ( an ,inundat$ ,cell>4--,tiles be/ = ,dra9s4--,be/ ,plan ( ,cell> ,dra92 ,illu/ration4--,cem5t+ w n d4--,dra9age ( ,b>n ,cell>s4--,uses ( !m4--,actual ,dra9age ( a v ,bad ,cell> describ$4--,dra9s ,outside & ,inside2 ,illu/ration4 ,no p]son ne$s to be in=m$ t x is unheal?ful1 z well z inconv5i5t1 to h wat]1 at any "t ( ! ye>1 9 ! cell>4 ,9 ,new ,engl&1 ! cell> is an ess5tial "p ( ! h\se4 ,all sorts ( vegetables1 roots1 & fruit1 t c be injur$ by fro/1 are /or$ 9 cell>s2 & milk1 & w9e1 & cid]1 & a ?\s& vessels ( honor1 l tubs & buckets1 *urns & wa%+-ma*9es1 t are liable to injury f heat or cold1 or o!r vicissitude ( climate1 f9d a safe retreat 9 ! cell>4 ,except+ ! g>ret1 :i* is1 z ,ario/o repres5ts ! moon to be1 ! receptacle ( all ?+s useless on e>?1 ! cell> is ! greate/ curiosity %op ( ! e/abli%m5t4 ,! poet f9ds 9 ! moon1 ,:ate'er 0 wa/$ 9 our e>?ly /ate1 ,"h safely treasur$--ea* neglect$ good1 ,"t squ&]$1 & occasion ill-be/[$2 ,!re sp>kl+ *a9s he f\nd1 & knots ( gold1 ,! speci\s ties t ill-pair$ lov]s hold2 ,ea* toil1 ea* loss1 ea* *ance t m5 su/a91 ,save ,folly1 :i* alone p]vades !m all1 ,= ,folly nev] quits ?is e>?ly ball4 ,9 ! g>ret1 are ! old sp9n+ :eel1 ! clock reel1 ! l95 :eel ) its di/aff1 y\r gr&fa!r's knapsack & c>tridge-box & ,cont95tal coat1 y\r great-aunt's ,leghorn bonnet & side-saddle1 or pillion1 great files ( ! village newspap]s--! ,morn+ ,cry & ,midnight ,yell1 besides worn out trunks & boxes )\t numb]4 ,9 ! cell>1 are ! sub/antiate--b>rels ( beef1 & pork1 & apples1 tat]s & turnips2 9 %ort1 ! ,w9t] /ores ( ! family4 ,_m1 p]haps mo/1 ( ! cell>s 9 ,new ,engl& are 9 "s way dra9$1 usually by a /one culv]t1 laid a little l[] ?an ! bottom ( ! cell>1 into :i* ! wat] is conduct$1 9 ! ,spr+1 :5 x bur/s ?r\gh ! walls1 or rises at ! bottom1 by means ( little dit*es scoop$ out 9 ! surface4 ,9 "s di/ricts1 p seem to h little idea ( dra9s1 ev5 = cell>s2 & on flat l&1 endeavor to set _! h\ses high en\gh to h _! cell>s above gr\nd4 ,?is1 besides be+ extremely inconv5i5t = passage out (1 & into ! h\se1 (t5 fails to make a dry cell>1 = ! wat] f ! ro( runs 91 & causes a flood4 ,& su* accid5ts1 z !y are mildly t]m$ by ! improvid5t build]s1 (t5 occur by ! failure ( dra9s imp]fectly laid4 ,no *ild1 :o ev] saw a cell> afloat1 dur+ "o ( ^! inundations1 w ev] outgr[ ! impression4 ,y /& on ! cell> /airs1 & bel[ is a d>k wa/e ( wat]s1 ( illimitable ext5t4 ,by ! dim glimm] ( ! dip-c&le1 a sc5e is pres5t$ :i* furni%es a tol]able picture ( *aos & old night1 b defies all description4 ,empty dry casks1 ) cid] b>rels1 wa%-tubs1 & boxes1 ride triumphantly on ! surface1 :ile half fill$ v9eg> & molasses kegs1 l wat]-logg$ %ips1 roll heavily bel[4 ,brok5 bo>ds & planks1 old hoops1 & /aves1 & b>rel-heads innum]able1 are buoyant ) ?is *ange ( ! elem5ts2 :ile float+ turnips & apples1 )1 "h & !re1 a brilliant cabbage head1 gleam 9 ?is subt]ranean firmam5t1 l tw9kl+ />s1 dimm$ by ! effulg5ce ( ! moon at h] full4 ,magnific5t among ! less] vessels ( ! fleet1 l "s tall admiral1 rides ! enorm\s ma%-tub1 :ile ! a/oni%$ rats & mice are spla%+ ab\t at its base 9 ! d>k wat]s1 l sailors j wa%$1 at midnight1 f ! deck1 by a heavy sea4 ,! look]s-on are fill$ ) v>i\s emotions4 ,! f>m] sees 8 ?\s& bu%els ( potatoes subm]g$1 & devot$ to spe$y decay2 ! good wife m\rns = h] dilut$ pickles1 & apple sauce1 & h] dr[n$ firk9s ( butt]2 :ile ! boys are anxi\s to emb>k on a raft or 9 ! tubs1 on an excursion ( pleasure & discov]y4 ,to avoid su* sc5es z ! above1 e cell> :i* is n ^u a dry s&bank1 %\ld be provid$ ) a dra9 ( "s k9d1 :i* w be at all times1 secure4 ,= a ma9 dra9 f ! cell>1 f\r or six-in* tiles are abundantly suffici5t1 & :]e !y c be reasonably obta9$1 mu* *eap] ?an /one4 ,! exp5se ( excavation1 ( haul+ /one1 & ( lay+ !m1 w make ! exp5se ( a /one dra9 f> exce$ t ( a tile dra91 ) tiles at fair prices4 ,! tiles1 if well secur$ at ! inlet & outlet ( ! dra91 w entirely exclude rats & mice1 :i* always infe/ /one dra9s to cell>s4 ,c>e mu/ be tak51 if ! wat] is conduct$ on ! surface ( ! cell> into ! dra91 t no?+ b pure wat] be admitt$4 ,?is may be effect$ by a f9e /ra9] ( wire or plate2 or by a cess-pool1 :i* is bett]1 because x w also prev5t any draft ( air ?r\gh ! dra94 ,! v be/ me?od ( dra9+ a cell> is t adopt$ by ! writ]1 on 8 own premises4 ,x is1 9 fact1 a m]e application ( ! ord9>y pr9ciples ( field dra9age4 ,! cell> 0 dug 9 s&1 :i* re/s on clay1 a foot or two bel[ ! usual wat]-l9e 9 w9t]1 & a dra9 ( *e/nut plank laid f ! cell> to l[ l&1 "s #bj rods (f4 ,tiles 7 n !n 9 use 9 ! neighborhood1 & 7 n ?\ght (1 :5 ! h\se 0 built4 ,9 ! ,spr+1 wat] came up 9 ! bottom ( ! cell>1 & ran out 9 little holl[s made = ! purpose1 on ! surface4 ,n lik+ ?is inconv5i5t wetness1 we next dug tr5*es a few in*es deep1 put bo>ds at ! sides to exclude ! s&1 & pack$ ! tr5*es ) small /ones4 ,?is op]at$ bett]1 b ! mice f\nd pleasant accommodations among ! /ones1 & s& got 9 & *ok$ ! passage4 ,la/ly1 tiles came to our relief1 & a p]fect prev5tive ( all inconv5i5t moi/ure 0 f\nd1 by adopt+ ! foll[+ plan3 ,! dra9 f ! cell> 0 tak5 up1 & relaid #ah in*es bel[ ! cell>-bottom1 at ! outlet4 ,!n a tr5* 0 cut 9 ! cell>-bottom1 two feet f ! wall1 a foot deep at ! f>!/ corn] f ! outlet1 & deep5+ t[>ds x1 r\nd ! :ole cell>1 foll[+ ! c\rse ( ! walls4 ,9 ?is tr5*1 two-in* pipe tiles 7 laid1 & c>efully cov]$ ) tan-b>k1 & ! tr5*es fill$ ) ! e>?4 ,?is tile dra9 0 connect$ ) ! outlet dra9 #ah in*es "u gr\nd1 & ! e>? levell$ ov] ! :ole4 ,?is 0 done two ye>s ago1 & no drop ( wat] has ev] be5 visible 9 ! cell> s9ce x 0 complet$4 ,! wat] is caught by ! dra9 be=e x rises to ! surface1 & conduct$ away4 ,vegetables ( all k9ds are n[ laid 9 heaps on ! cell>-bottom1 :i* is j damp en\gh to pack solid1 & pres]ves vegetables bett]1 9 a dry cell>1 ?an casks1 or b9s ) floors4 ,a little sket* ( ?is mode ( dra9+ cell>s1 repres5t+ ! cell> ref]r$ to1 w1 p]haps1 pres5t ! matt] m cle>ly4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ii--;,,dra9age ,,( ,,cell>4 ,_m p]sons h attempt$ to exclude wat] f _! cell>s by cem5t+ !m on ! bottom1 & "p way up on ! sides4 ,?is might succe$1 if ! cell> wall 7 laid v close1 & 9 cem5t1 & a heavy coat+ ( cem5t appli$ to ! bottom4 ,a mom5t's att5tion to ! subject w %[ t x is n likely to succe$1 z exp]i5ce %[s t x seldom1 if ev]1 does4 ,! wat] :i* ent]s cell>s1 frequ5tly runs f ! surface beh9d ! cell> wall1 :]e rats always keep op5 passages1 & fills ! gr\nd & ^! passages2 especially :5 ! e>? is froz51 to ! surface1 ?us giv+ a column ( wat] beh9d ! wall six or eight feet 9 height4 ,! pressure ( wat] is always 9 proportion to its height or head1 )\t ref]5ce to ! ext5t ( surface4 ,! pressure1 !n1 ( ! wat] aga9/ ! cem5t$ wall1 w\ld be equal to ! pressure ( a full mill-pond aga9/ its p]p5dicul> dam ( six or eight feet height6 ,no sane man w\ld ?9k ( tight5+ a dam1 ) sev5 feet head ( wat]1 by pla/]+ a little cem5t on ! d[n-/ream side ( x1 :i* might z well be done1 z to exclude wat] f a cell> by ! process1 & "u ! conditions1 /at$4 ,,dra9age ,,( ,,b>n ,,cell>s4 ,mo/ b>ns 9 ,new ,engl& are con/ruct$ ) good sub/antial cell>s1 f six to n9e feet deep1 ) solid walls ( /one4 ,!y s]ve a ?ree-fold purpose2 ( keep+ manure1 ?r[n d[n f ! cattle & horse /alls above2 ( pres]v+ turnips1 mangolds1 & o!r vegetables = ! /ock2 & ( /or+ c>ts1 wagons1 & o!r f>m implem5ts4 ,usually1 ! cell> is divid$ by /one1 brick1 or wood p>titions1 into ap>tm5ts1 devot$ to ea* ( ! purposes nam$4 ,! cell> = manure %\ld n be wet en\gh to h wat] fl[ away f x1 nor dry en\gh to h x lea*4 ,= ! o!r purposes1 a dry cell> is desirable4 ,p]haps ! details ( ! dra9age ( a b>n cell> on our own premises1 may give our views ( ! be/ mode ( dra9age1 bo? = a manure cell>1 & = a root & implem5t cell>4 ,! b>n 0 built 9 #ahdi1 on a site slop+ slightly to ! s\?4 ,9 excavat+ = ! wall1 at ab\t sev5 feet bel[ ! height fix$ = ! sills1 we came ^u a s(t1 blue clay1 s ne>ly fluid t a t5-foot pole 0 easily ?ru/ d[n out ( sight1 p]p5dicul>ly1 into x6 ,"h 0 a dilemma6 ,h[ c\ld a heavy wall & build+ /& on t f\ndation8 ,a skillful eng9e] 0 consult$1 :o _h se5 heavy brick blocks built 9 j su* places1 & :o pron\nc$ ?is a v simple case to manage4 ,if1 said he1 ! mud _c get up1 ! wall re/+ on x _c settle d[n4 ,^u ?is idea1 by 8 advice1 we laid our wall1 on ?ick plank1 on ! clay1 s z to get an ev5 be>+1 & drove d[n1 aga9/ ! face ( ! wall1 edge to edge1 two-in* plank to ! dep? ( ab\t ?ree feet1 leav+ !m a foot above ! bottom ( ! wall4 ,aga9/ ?is1 we ramm$ co>se gravel v h>d1 & left ! bottom ( ! cell> "o foot above ! bottom ( ! wall1 s t ! weight might c\nt]balance ! pressure ( ! wall & build+4 ,! build+ has be5 9 con/ant use1 & appe>s n to h settl$ a s+le in*4 ,! cell> 0 fir/ us$ only = manure1 & = keep+ sw9e4 ,x 0 q wet1 & grew m & m s e ye>1 z ! wat] f\nd passages into x1 till x 0 f\nd t its use mu/ be ab&on$1 or an amphibi\s race ( pigs procur$4 ,x 0 kn[n1 t ! mo/ ( ! wat] ent]$ at ! nor? corn] ( ! build+1 borne up by ! clay :i* comes to )9 ?ree feet ( ! natural surface2 &1 z x w\ld be ru9\s to ! manure to lea* x1 by draw+ a l>ge quantity ( wat] ?r\gh x into dra9s1 9 ! usual mode ( dra9+1 x 0 conclud$ to cut (f ! wat] on ! outside ( ! build+1 & be=e x rea*$ ! cell>4 ,accord+ly1 a dra9 0 />t$ at ! riv]1 "s tw5ty rods bel[1 & c>ri$ up to ! b>n1 & !n eight feet deep ar\nd two sides ( x1 by ! nor? corn]1 :]e mo/ wat] came 94 ,we cut ?r\gh ! s&1 & f\r or five feet into ! clay1 & laid "o c\rse only ( two-in* pipe-tiles at ! bottom4 ,z ?is 0 design$ = a cat*-wat]1 & n m]ely to take 9 wat] at ! bottom1 9 ! usual way1 we fill$ ! tr5*1 aft] cov]+ ! tiles ) tan1 ) co>se s& above ! level ( ! clay1 & put clay ^u ! top4 ,we believe no wat] has ev] cross$ ?is dra91 :i* op]ates z p]fectly z an op5 dit*1 to cat* all t fl[s ^u x4 ,! manure cell> 0 !n dry en\gh1 b ! o!r cell> 0 want$ = roots & implem5ts1 & ! wat] 0 con/antly work+ up ?r\gh ! s(t clay bottom1 keep+ x ( ! consi/5cy ( mort>1 & mak+ x difficult to haul out ! manure1 & ev]yway disagreeable4 ,"o m ef=t 0 made to dry ?is "p4 ,a dra9 0 op5$ f ! highway1 :i* passes ! b>n1 to ! s\? corn]2 & ab\t two & a half feet bel[ ! bottom ( ! cell>1 along inside ! wall1 at ab\t ?ree feet di/ance f x1 on two ( ! sides2 & ano!r 9 ! same way1 across ! middle ( ! cell>4 ,^!1 laid ) two-in* tiles1 & fill$ ) gravel1 7 connect$ toge!r1 & l$ (f to ! wayside4 ,! wa/e wat] ( two wat]+ places1 "o 9 ! cell>1 & ano!r outside1 suppli$ by an aqu$uct1 0 conduct$ into ! tiles1 & ?us quietly dispos$ (4 ,! reason :y ! dra9s are fill$ ) gravel is1 t z ! s(t clay1 9 :i* ! tiles 7 laid1 c\ld nev] h ! heat ( ! direct rays ( ! sun on its surface1 !re might be no crack+ ( x1 suffici5t to af=d passage = ! wat]1 & s ?is 0 made a cat*-wat] to /op any wat] t might attempt to cross x4 ,! "w 0 f9i%$ la/ ,autumn1 & we h _h b ! exp]i5ce ( a s+le season ) x2 b we are satisfi$ t ! object is atta9$4 ,! surface ( ! implem5t cell>1 :i* be=e1 _h be5 always s(t & muddy1 has ev] s9ce be5 z dry & solid z a highway 9 ,summ]2 & ! root cell>1 :i* has a cem5t$ bottom1 is z dry z ! b>n floor4 ,! manure c n[ be team$ out1 )\t leav+ a rut1 & we are free to confess1 t ! effect is great] ?an we _h deem$ possible4 ,! foll[+ cut w %[ at a glance1 h[ all ! dra9s are laid1 ! dott$ l9es repres5t+ ! tile dra9s3 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajj4 ,! dra9 outside ! b>n1 on ! "r1 leads f a spr+1 "s two hundr$ feet (f1 into ! cell> & into ! y>d1 & supplies wat] to ! cattle1 at ! po9ts indicat$4 ,! wa/e wat] is !n conduct$ into ! dra9s1 & passes (f4 ,,*apt] ,,xxiii4 ,,dra9age ,,( ,,swamps4 ,va/ ,ext5t ( ,swamp ,l&s 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4--,_! ,soil4--,s\rces ( _! ,moi/ure4--,h[ to ,dra9 !m4--,! ,soil ,subsides by ,dra9+4--,cat*-wat] ,dra9s4--,spr+s4--,mr4 ,ruff9's ,dra9age 9 ,virg9ia4--,is !re ,dang] ( ,ov]-dra9+8 ,9 almo/1 if n q e ,/ate1 ext5sive tracts ( swamp l&s are f\nd1 n only unfit1 9 _! natural condition1 = cultivation1 b1 9 _m in/ances1 by reason ( obnoxi\s effluvia1 aris+ f /agnant wat]1 dang]\s to heal?4 ,( ! va/ ext5t ( su* l&s1 "s idea may be =m$1 by adv]t+ to ! fact1 t "u ! grants by ,congress1 ( ! public l&s giv5 away to ! ,/ates 9 :i* !y lie1 z ( no value to ! ,gov]nm5t & z nuisances to _! neighborhood1 9 _! natural condition2 sixty millions ( acres1 x is e/imat$1 w be includ$4 ,^! are only ! public l&s1 & 9 ! new ,/ates4 ,9 e t[n%ip 9 ,new ,engl&1 !re are hundr$s ( acres ( swamp l&1 j beg9n+ to be br\ght to ! notice ( _! own]s1 z ( suffici5t value to au?orize ! exp5se ( dra9age4 ,to say t ^! swamps are ! mo/ f]tile & ! mo/ valuable l&s 9 ,new ,engl&1 is b to repeat ! ass]tion ( all :o h successfully tri$ ! exp]im5t ( reclaim+ !m4 ,9 _! natural /ate1 ^! swamps are usually cov]$ ) a heavy gr[? ( timb]2 b ! great] portion ( !m h be5 p>tially cle>$1 & _m ( !m are m[$1 produc+ a co>se1 wild1 & ne>ly wor?less grass4 ,! soil ( ^! tracts is usually a black mud or peat1 p>tly ! product ( vegetable gr[? & decay on ! spot1 & p>tly ! deposit ( ! light] portion ( ! upl& soil1 br\ght d[n by ! wa%+ ( %[]s1 & by spr+ fre%ets4 ,! leaves ( ! surr\nd+ =e/1 too1 are naturally dropp$ by ! ,autumn w9ds into ! l[e/ places1 & ^! swamps h receiv$ !m1 = ages4 ,usually1 ^! l&s lie 9 bas9s among ! hills1 sometimes along ! banks ( /reams & riv]s1 always at ! l[e/ level ( ! c\ntry1 & n1 l ,iri% bogs1 ^u hill-tops1 z well z else:]e4 ,_! surface is1 usually1 level & ev51 z comp>$ ) o!r l&s 9 ! old ,/ates4 ,_! soil1 or deposit1 is ( v>i\s dep?1 f "o foot to tw5ty1 & is (t5 almo/ afloat ) wat]1 s z to %ake "u ! feet1 9 walk+ ov] x4 ,! subsoil corresponds1 9 g5]al1 ) t ( ! surr\nd+ c\ntry1 b is (t5] ( s& ?an clay1 & n unfrequ5tly1 is ( v>i\s ?9 /rata1 indicat+ an alluvial =mation4 ,frogs & snakes f9d 9 ^! swamps an agreeable resid5ce1 & wild bea/s a safe retreat f _! common foe4 ,notori\sly1 su* l&s are unheal?ful1 produc+ fev]s & agues 9 _! neighborhood1 (t5 traceable to tracts no l>g] ?an a v few acres4 ,9 consid]+ h[ to dra9 su* tracts1 ! fir/ inquiry is z to ! s\rce ( ! wat]4 ,:at makes ! l& too wet8 ,is x ! direct fall ( ra9 ^u x2 ! influx ( wat] by visible /reams1 :i* h no suffici5t outlet2 ! d[nfl[ ( ra9 & sn[ wat] f ! neighbor+ hills2 or ! bur/+ up ( spr+s f bel[8 ,exam9e & decide1 :i* & h[ _m1 ( ^! f\r s\rces ( moi/ure1 contribute to flood ! tract 9 "q4 ,we assume1 t ! swamp is 9 a bas91 or1 at lea/1 is ! l[e/ l& ( ! neighborhood4 ,! ?ree or f\r feet ( ra9 wat] annually fall+ ^u x1 unless x h an outlet1 mu/ make x a swamp1 = !re c usually be no natural dra9age d[nw>d1 because ! swamp itself is ! l[e/ spot1 & no adjac5t l& c draw (f wat] f its bottom4 ,( c\rse1 !re is l[] l& t[>ds ! natural outlet1 b usually ?is is n>r[1 & q insuffici5t to all[ ( dra9age by lat]al p]colation4 ,!n1 always1 m or less wat] mu/ run ^u ! surface1 or j bel[ x1 f ! hills1 & usually1 a /ream is f\nd 9 ! swamp1 if none p\rs into x f above4 ,! fir/ /ep is a survey1 to asc]ta9 ! fall ov] ! :ole1 & ! next1 to provide a deep & suffici5t outlet4 ,"h1 we mu/ be> 9 m9d a peculi>ity ( su* l&s4 ,all l& subsides1 m or less1 by dra9age1 b ! soils ( :i* we are speak+1 f> m ?an any o!r4 ,m>% & swamp l&s (t5 subside1 or settle1 "o or two feet1 or ev5 m4 ,_! soil1 ( fibr\s roots1 decay$ leaves1 & ! l1 almo/ floats2 or1 at lea/1 exp&s l a sponge2 & :5 x is compact$1 by remov+ ! wat]1 x occupies f> less space ?an be=e4 ,?is fact mu/ be kept 9 m9d 9 all ! process4 ,! outlet mu/ be made l[ en\gh1 & ! dra9s mu/ be made deep en\gh1 to draw ! wat]1 aft] ! subsid5ce ( ! soil to its l[e/ po9t4 ,if a natural /ream fl[ ?r\gh1 or f1 ! tract1 x w usually indicate ! l[e/ level2 & ! /raight5+ & cle>+ out ( ?is natural dra91 may usually be ! fir/ op]ation1 aft] op5+ a prop] outlet4 ,!n a cat*-wat] op5 dra91 j at ! junction ( ! high & l[ l&1 entirely r\nd ! swamp1 w be necess>y to int]cept ! wat] fl[+ into ! swamp4 ,?is wat] w usually be f\nd to fl[ 91 bo? on ! surface1 & b5ea? x1 & 9 great] or less quantities1 accord+ to ! =mation ( ! adjac5t l&4 ,?is cat*-wat] is ess5tial to success4 ,! wette/ spot 9 a swamp is frequ5tly1 j at its edge1 because !re ! surface-wat] is receiv$1 & because !re too1 ! wat] t has come d[n on an imp]vi\s subsoil /ratum1 f9ds v5t4 ,x is 9 va9 to attempt to lay dry a swamp1 by dra9s1 h[ev] deep1 ?r\gh its c5tre4 ,! wat] has done its mis*ief1 be=e x rea*es ! c5tre4 ,x %\ld be int]cept$1 be=e x has ent]$ ! tract1 to be reclaim$4 ,?is dra9 mu/ be deep1 & !re=e1 mu/ be wide & slop+1 s t x may be kept op52 & x %\ld be curv$ r\nd1 foll[+ ! l9e ( ! upl& to ! outlet4 ,(t5 x has be5 f\nd1 9 ,engl&1 t a s+le dra91 six or eight feet deep1 has completely dra9$ a tract ( tw5ty or ?irty acres1 by cutt+ (f all ! s\rces ( ! supply ( wat]1 except t f ! cl\ds4 ,?is k9d ( l& is v por\s & p]meable1 & readily p>ts ) its wat]1 & is easily dra9$2 s t ! frequ5t dra9s necess>y on upl&s1 are (t5 q unnecess>y4 ,_m in/ances are giv51 ( ! effect ( s+le deep dra9s ?r\gh su* tracts1 9 l[]+ ! wat] 9 wells1 or entirely dry+ !m1 at consid]able di/ances f ! field ( op]ation4 ,:5 ! surface-wat] & %all[ spr+s h ?us be5 cut (f1 ! dra9] w soon be able to det]m9e1 :e!r he has effect$ a cure ( 8 dropsical pati5t4 ,(t5 x w be f\nd1 t deep seat$ spr+s bur/ up 9 ! middle ( ^! l[ tracts1 furni%+ good & pure wat] = use4 ,^!1 be+ suppli$ by high & di/ant f\nta9s1 run "u our deepe/ dra9s1 & f9d v5t ?r\gh "s fracture ( ! subsoil4 ,!y diffuse _! ice-cold wat] ?r\gh ! soil1 & prev5t ! gr[? ( all valuable vegetation4 ,to ^!1 we mu/ apply ,elk+ton's sy/em1 & hit !m "r 9 ! eye6 by runn+ a deep dra9 f "s side or c5tral dra91 /raight to !m1 & draw+ (f ! wat] l[ en\gh b5ea? ! surface to prev5t injury4 ,a small cov]$ dra9 ) two-in* pipes1 w usually be suffici5t to af=d an outlet to any su* spr+4 ,:5 we h ?us dispos$ ( ! wat] f ! surface-fl[1 ! %all[ spr+s & ! deep spr+s1 & giv5 v5t to ! wat] accumulat$ & pond$ 9 ! l[ places1 we h !n accompli%$ all t is peculi> to ?is k9d ( dra9age4 ,we h /ill ! wat] f ! cl\ds1 :i* is twice z mu* z w evaporate f a l&-surface1 to provide =4 ,we assume t ?is _c pass directly d[n by p]colation1 because ! subsoil is already saturat$2 & !re=e1 ev5 if all ! o!r s\rces ( wetness are cut (f1 we %all /ill h a tract ( l& too wet = :eat & corn4 ,if ! swamp be v small1 ^! ma9 dit*es may suffici5tly dra9 x2 b if x be ext5sive1 !y probably w n4 ,we h se5 t we h "s eighte5 or tw5ty in*es ( wat] to be dispos$ ( by dra9age2 s mu* t evaporation _c remove consi/5tly ) good cultivation2 &1 al?\gh ?is am\nt might1 9 a v deep peaty soil1 p]colate to a great di/ance lat]ally1 to f9d a dra91 yet 9 %all[ soil re/+ on a ret5tive subsoil1 dra9s might be necess>y at di/ances simil> to ^? adopt$ on wet upl& fields4 ,to ?is "p ( ! op]ation1 we %\ld1 !re=e1 apply ! ord9>y pr9ciples ( dra9age1 putt+ 9 cov]$ dra9s ) tiles1 if possible1 at f\r feet dep? or m1 ord9>ily1 & at di/ances ( f =ty to sixty feet1 al?\gh f\r-foot dra9s at ev5 "o hundr$ feet di/ance1 9 peat & black mud1 might (t5 be f\nd suffici5t4 ,?r\gh ! k9dness ( ,edmund ,ruff91 ,esq41 ( ,virg9ia1 we h be5 furni%$ ) ?ree elaborate & valuable essays1 on ! dra9age & treatm5t ( flat & wet l&s 9 l[] ,virg9ia & ,nor? ,c>ol9a1 publi%$ 9 ! ,transactions ( ! ,virg9ia ,/ate ,agricultural ,society1 = #aheg4 ,! pr9cipal feature ( 8 sy/em is bas$ ^u 8 correct k ( ! geological =mation ( t di/rict2 ( ! fact 9 p>ticul>1 t1 und]ly+ ! :ole ( t l[ c\ntry1 !re is a b$ ( pure s& ly+ ne>ly level1 & fill$ ) wat]1 :i* may be drawn d[n by a few l>ge deep dra9s1 ?us reliev+ ! surface-soil ( surplus wat]1 by compreh5sive b simple means4 ,we h be=e ref]r$ to ,mr4 ,ruff9 z ! publi%]1 m ?an tw5ty ye>s ago1 ( ,elk+ton's ,!ory & ,practice ( ,dra9+1 c41 by ,john/one2 & we f9d 9 8 rec5t essays1 evid5ce ( h[ ?or\ghly practical he has made ! sy/em ( ,elk+ton 9 8 own ,/ate4 ,inde$1 we "k ( no o!r ,am]ican writ] :o records any in/ance ( m>k$ success 9 ! use ( ,elk+ton's peculi> idea ( releas+ p5t up wat]s by bor+4 ,mr4 ,ruff91 h[ev]1 has appli$1 ) great success1 ?is pr9ciple ( op]ation1 to ! saturat$ s&-b$s :i* und]lie ! tracts ( l[ l& 9 8 di/rict ( c\ntry4 ,^! wat]-b$s 9 ! s& lie at dep?s v>y+ usually f f\r to eight feet bel[ ! surface4 ,?is surface /ratum is comp>atively compact1 & v sl[ly p]vi\s to wat] be=e x is dra9$4 ,! wat] f bel[1 is con/antly press+ sl[ly up ?r\gh x1 ( c\rse prev5t+ any d[nw>d p]colation ( ! ra9-wat]4 ,by runn+ deep dra9s at wide int]vals1 & bor+ d[n ?r\gh ?is surface /ratum ) an aug]1 ! p5t up wat] bel[ f9ds v5t & gu%es up 9 copi\s spr+s ?r\gh ! holes1 & fl[s (f )\t com+ ne>] to ! surface ?an ! bottom ( ! dra9s2 ?us reliev+ ! pressure upw>d1 & l[]+ ! wat]-l9e 9 proportion to ! dep? ( ! dra9s4 ,mr4 ,ruff9 gives an in/ance ( ! dry+ up ( a well half a mile di/ant1 by cutt+ a deep dra9 into ?is s&-b$1 & ?us l[]+ its wat]-l9e4 ,no d\bt 9 _m localities 9 our c\ntry1 a compet5t geological k may detect =mations :]e ?is pr9ciple ( dra9age may be appli$ ) p]fect success1 & ) great economy4 ,is !re dang] ( ov]-dra9+ swamp l&s8 ,9 speak+ ( ! injury by dra9age1 we h treat$ ( ?is "q4 ,our conclusions may be briefly /at$ "h4 ,!re is an impression among ,engli% writ]s1 t light peaty soils may be too mu* dra9$2 b _m di/+ui%$ dra9]s d\bt ! proposition4 ,no d\bt !re are soils too por\s & light to be productive1 :5 fir/ dra9$4 ,!y may require a season or two to become compact1 & may require s&1 or clay1 or gravel1 to give !m ! requisite d5sity2 b ^! soils w\ld1 we believe1 be usually unproductive if %all[ dra9$4 ,9 %ort1 our idea is1 t1 9 g5]al1 a soil s con/itut$ z to be productive "u any circum/ances1 w reta91 by attraction1 moi/ure en\gh = ! crops1 ?\gh int]sect$ by f\r-foot dra9s at usual di/ances2 & t cold wat] pump$ up to ! roots f a /agnant pool at ! bottom1 is n1 ei!r 9 nature or art1 a successful me?od ( irrigation4 ,/ill we believe t peaty soils may be usually dra9$ at great] di/ances1 or by %all[] dra9s1 ?an mo/ upl&s1 because ( _! m por\s nature2 & we %\ld advise inexp]i5c$ p]sons n to proce$ ) a lavi% exp5diture ( labor to put 9 p>allel dra9s at %ort di/ances1 till !y h wat*$1 = a season1 ! op]ation ( a *eap] sy/em4 ,!y may ?us atta9 ! desir$ object1 ) ! smalle/ exp5se4 ,if ! fir/ dra9s are judici\sly plac$1 & are f\nd insuffici5t1 o!rs may be laid betwe5 ! fir/1 until ! dra9age is complete4 ,,*apt] ,,xxiv4 ,,am]ican ,,exp]im5ts ,,9 ,,dra9age--,,dra9age ,,9 ,,irel&4 ,/atem5t ( ,b4 ,f4 ,n\rse1 ( ,ma9e4--,/atem5t ( ,%$d & ,edson1 ( ,mass4--,/atem5t ( ,h4 ,f4 ,fr5*1 ( ,new ,hamp%ire4--,lett] ( ,wm4 ,boyle1 ,alb]t ,model ,f>m1 ,glasnev91 ,irel&4 ,x 0 "p ( ! orig9al plan ( ?is "w1 to give a l>ge numb] ( /atem5ts f ,am]ican f>m]s ( _! success 9 dra9age2 b1 al?\gh ! in/ances are abundant1 want ( space limits u to a few4 ,^! are giv5 ) su* diagrams z w n only make !m intelligible1 b1 x is hop$1 w also furni% good examples ( ! arrangem5t & modes ( execut+ dra9s1 & ( lay+ !m d[n ^u plans = future ref]5ce4 ,! mode adopt$ by ,%$d & ,edson1 ( indicat+ ! size ( ! pipes us$1 by ! numb] ( dots 9 ! l9es ( dra9s1 is orig9al & conv5i5t4 ,x w be se5 by close att5tion1 t a two-in* pipe is d5ot$ by dots 9 pairs1 a ?ree-in* pipe by dots 9 ?rees1 & s on4 ,x is believ$ t ,mr4 ,n\rse's exp]im5t is "o ( ! mo/ ?or\gh & successful works ( dra9age yet execut$ 9 ,am]ica4 ,8 plan is ^u page #aie4 ,,/atem5t ,,( ,b4 ,f4 ,,n\rse1 ,,esq4 ,,goodales ,,corn]1 ,,orr+ton1 ,,me41 ,sept4 #a/1 #aheh4 ,,my ,,de> ,,sir3--,s mu* dep5ds ^u ! prelim9>y surveys & levels = conduct+ works ( ?or\gh-dra9+ & irrigation *eaply1 yet to obta9 ! mo/ b5eficial results1 t a compet5t p]son1 su* z an eng9e] or practic$ l&-dra9]1 %\ld be employ$ to make !m1 if "o c be obta9$4 ,un=tunately = me1 :5 ,i began ?is op]ation1 "s ye>s ago1 !re 7 no su* skill$ p]sons 9 ! c\ntry1 or ,i c\ld le>n ( none pr(essionally su*1 & 0 =c$ to d my own eng9e]+4 ,hav+ ?us practically acquir$ "s k ( x1 ,i use & enjoy a ,summ] vacation f o!r pursuits1 9 ! prosecution ( ?is2 & ?is employm5t1 = ! la/ few weeks1 has delay$ my answ] to y\r inquiries4 ,nor c\ld ,i soon] arrive at ! figures ( co/1 ext5t1 c41 ( ?is season's "w4 ,?is is expect$ to be complet$ 9 t5 days1 & !n ,i %all h laid1 ( ,/one dra9s1 includ+ ma9s #gjb rods ,tile dra9s 7two in*es1 or l>g]7 #ajdc ---- ,9 all #agde or1 ab\t five & "o-half miles1 lay+ dry1 satisfactorily1 ab\t ?irty-five acres4 ,! "* & ext5t ( ! "w w bett] appe> by ref]5ce to ! plan ( ! f>m :i* ,i s5d ) ?is = y\r inspection4 ,! e>li] portion 0 fairly describ$ by ! ,committee ( ! ,bangor ,hort4 ,soc4--7,see ,report1 = #ahef1 ( ! ,ma9e ,bo>d ( ,agriculture47 ,x 0 f> too co/ly1 z usual 9 works ( a novel "* conduct$ )\t practical k4 ,no "p ( my dra9+1 ev5 t ( ?is season1 has be5 done s *eaply z x ought to be done 9 ,ma9e1 & w be done :5 tiles c be b\ght at fair prices ne> at h&4 ,i call y\r att5tion p>ticul>ly to ?is1 because ! magnitude ( ! co/1 z ,i repres5t x1 ought n to be tak5 z a necess>y av]age1 or /&>d outlay p] acre1 by any "o contemplat+ simil> improvem5t1 :5 almo/ any f>m] c accompli% x equally well at f> less co/4 ,my unnecess>y exp5ditures w n h be5 9 va91 if !y s]ve z a f+]-po/ to po9t o!rs 9 a pr(itable way4 ,my l& _h ^u its surface1 & m+l$ 9 its sup] soil1 a l>ge quantity ( /ones1 v>i\s 9 size1 f ! huge b\ld]s1 requir+ sev]al bla/s ( p[d] to r$uce !m to movable size1 to ! rubble /ones :i* 7 %ovel$ f ! c>t into ! dra9s4 ,to make clean fields all ^! _h to be remov$1 besides ! _m heaps :i* _h be5 accumulat$ by ! indu/ry ( my pr$ecessors4 ,a tile-dra9 ne$s no addition ( /one above ! pipe2 inde$1 ! /one may be a positive injury1 z h>bor+ field v]m91 or1 if all[$ to come )9 two feet ( ! surface1 z ob/ruct+ deep tillage1 & favor+ ! access ( p>ticles ( soil ^u or into ! tile ) ! rapid access ( wat] :i* !y promote4 ,c>efully plac$ to ! dep? ( six or eight in*es 9 a f\r-foot dra91 q small /ones are1 p]haps1 useful1 & !y c]ta9ly facilitate ! draw+ ( wat] f ! surface4 ,su* 01 & /ill is1 ) _m1 ! prescrib$ me?od ( be/ dra9age 9 ,scotl&1 & "s p>ts ( ,engl&4 ,! increas$ co/ ( add+ ! /one above ! tile is obvi\s2 & :5 ! wid? ( t dra9 is enl>g$ to receive !m1 ! co/ is mat]ially enhanc$4 ,yet su* has be5 my practice1 at fir/1 "u ! impression ( its necessity1 & all ! "t f a desire to put to use1 & out ( sight1 ! small /ones ) :i* ,i 0 favor$ 9 su* abundance4 ,! entire co/ ( mov+1 & br++ m ?an #b1ejj heavy loads ( /one1 is includ$ 9 ! co/ ( dra9s1 z set d[n = ! #a1gde rods4 ,includ+ ?is "p ( exp5se1 :i* is nev] necess>y ) tile1 & _c be incurr$ 9 pla9 clay soils1 or clay loams free ( /ones1 ! la/ #gjj rods co/ an av]age ( #ig c5ts p] rod complet$4 ,?is includes ! l>ge/ ma9s2 ( :i*1 "o ( #gc rods 0 op5$ f\r feet wide at bottom ( ! tr5*1 ( :i* ! *annel capacity is #ah x #ah #cbd squ>e in*es1 & o!rs #aaj rods ( ?ree & "o-half & ?ree feet wid? at bottom1 all ^! ma9s be+ laid entirely ) /one4 ,! rema9d] ( ! #gjj rods 0 laid ) two-in* tile1 :i* co/ at ! f>m eighte5 doll>s p] #a1jjj4 ,^! la/ 7 op5$ f\r rods ap>t1 & lay dry ab\t sev5te5 acres1 at a co/1 includ+ ! ma9s1 ( #fgh1 or #dj p] acre4 ,9 ?is is includ$ e day's labor ( man & bea/1 & all ! incid5tal exp5ses1 no?+ be+ contribut$ by ! f>m1 :i* is "u lease4 ,i inf] t an intellig5t f>m]1 beg9n+ aright1 & avail+ himself ( ! use ( team & f>m labor1 :5 !y c be/ be sp>$ f o!r "w--z 9 ! dry season1 aft] hay+--or pay+ fair prices = digg+ 8 dit*es only1 & do+ ! re/ ( ! "w f ! f>m1 c dra9 ?or\ghly at a co/ ( #bj p] acre1 dra9s f\r rods ap>t1 & f\r feet deep2 or at #be p] acre1 =ty feet ap>t1 & ?ree feet n9e in*es deep4 ,my subsoil is v h>d1 requir+ con/ant use ( ! pick1 & %>p5+ ( ! picks e day1 s t ! labor ( loos5+ ! e>? 0 "o-?ird or "o-half m ?an ! ?r[+ out ) a %ovel4 ,! price paid p] rod1 = op5+ only1 to ! dep? ( ?ree & a half feet 7or1 p]haps1 ?ree & ?ree-qu>t]s av]age17 ( a wid? = lay+ tile1 0 #be c5ts p] rod4 ,at ?is price1 ! indu/ri\s m51 skillful ) tools1 e>n$ #a4ab to #a4be p] day1 besides bo>d2 & !y ?rew out "o-?ird m e>? ?an 0 really necess>y1 = room to "w z !y said4 ,b !y labor$ h>d1 #ad h\rs p] day4 ,! same m51 work+ 9 a soil free f /ones1 & an easi] subsoil1 w\ld1 9 ! same "t1 op5 f #ej to #ajj p] c5t4 m l5g? ( dit*4 ,! great] "p ( ^! dra9s 7 laid f\r rods ap>t4 ,:5 fir/ try+ ?is di/ance ^u a field1 ( :i* ! soil 0 call$ spr+y & cold1 & 0 always too wet 9 ! ,spr+ & e>ly ,summ] = pl[+1 a p>tial1 r ?an ?or\gh dra9age 0 attempt$1 ) ! design1 at "s future day1 to lay int]m$iate dra9s4 ,! execution ( t design may yet appe> exp$i5t1 al?\gh ! condition ( soil already obta9$1 is satisfactory beyond expectation4 ,ow+ to ! excess ( wat] t saturat$ ! soil 9 ,spr+ & ,fall1 ! =m] proprietors ( ! f>m _h n attempt$ ! cultivation ( ! field allud$ to1 = _m ye>s4 ,orig9ally produc+ heavy crops ( hay1 x _h be5 m[$ = ?irty ye>s or m1 & 0 a good specim5 ( exhau/$ l&1 yield+ "o-half or ?ree-f\r?s ( a ton ( hay p] acre4 ,?is field is designat$ 9 ! plan1 z ! b>ley field1 #aheh1 lies s\?-we/ ( ! dwell+-h\se1 & conta9s ne>ly six acres4 ,its nor!rly half1 be+ ! l[] end ( ! field1 0 dra9$ 9 #ahee1 hav+ be5 ,summ]-pl[$1 & s[$ ) buck:eat1 :i* 0 turn$ "u1 :5 9 fl[]1 z a fall[ crop4 ,! o!r half 0 dra9$ 9 #ahef2 pl[$ & subsoil$ ! same ,fall4 ,9 #aheg1 ne>ly ! :ole field 0 plant$ ) roots--potatoes1 rutabagas1 mangolds1 c>rots1 ,engli% turnips1 c4--& "o acre 9 corn4 ,= ^! crops1 fair dress+s ( manure 7 appli$--say t5 or twelve c>tloads ( b>n-manure pl[$ 91 & "o hundr$ p\nds ( ei!r guano or bone-du/ h>r[$ 91 or /rew$ 9 ! drill1 = ea* acre2 ab\t fifte5 loads p] acre ( season$ muck or peat 7 also pl[$ 94 ,!re 0 a good yield ( all ! roots2 = ! corn1 ! season 0 unfavorable4 ,la/ ,spr+1 a light dress+ ( manure1 b all t we c\ld af=d1 0 appli$1 ! :ole well pl\gh$1 h>r[$1 se$$ to grass ) b>ley1 h>r[$1 & roll$4 ,! b>ley 0 tak5 (f la/ week2 &1 f ! five & ?ree-qu>t] acres1 sev5te5 heavy loads 7 haul$ into ! b>n1 ea* e/imat$ to exce$ a ton 9 weight4 ,! gra9 f a measur$ acre 0 put ap>t to be sep>ately ?re%$1 & ,i w advise ( its yield :5 asc]ta9$4,a ,?is 0 said1 by ! _m f>m]s :o saw x1 includ+ "s f ! ,we/]n ,/ates1 to be ! h&some/ field ( gra9 !y _h ev] se54 ,! "y grass looks well2 & ,i hope1 next ,summ]1 to report a good cut ( hay f dra9$ l&4 ,footnote ,a3 ,?is 0 ?re%$ ab\t ! middle ( ,novemb]1 & yield$ #ea bu%els1 r\nd measure4 ,! entire field av]ag$ #de bu%els p] acre4 ,la/ ,w9t]1 !re 7 no sn[s to cov] ! gr\nd = sleigh+ until ,m>*2 &1 ly+ uncov]$1 our fields 7 all froz5 to an unusual dep?4 ,b1 our dra9s did n cease to run ?r\gh ! ,w9t]4 ,& ,mr4 ,o4 ,w4 ,/raw1 :o works ! f>m1 & 0 reque/$ to note ! facts accurately1 wrote to me ?is ,spr+1 ! fro/ came out ( ! dra9$ l& ab\t "o week fir/ 7t is1 e>li] ?an f ! undra9$ l& adjac5t72 &1 9 reg>d to work+ condition1 ! dra9$ l& 0 9 advance ( ! undra9$1 t5 days1 at lea/4 ,! abs5ce ( sn[ p]mitt+ ?is unusual dep? ( fro/1 _h caus$ a r>e equality ( condition ! la/ ,spr+1 because1 until ! fro/ 0 out1 ! dra9s w\ld n draw surface-wat]4 ,usually1 :5 e>ly sn[s h fall5 to protect ! gr\nd1 & x rema9s cov]$ ?r\gh ! ,w9t]1 ! fro/ goes (f ) ! sn[1 or e>li]1 &1 )9 a few days1 ! l& becomes 9 good condition = pl[+--q two weeks e>li] ?an ! drie/ ( my undra9$ fields1 or any o!rs 9 ! vic9ity4 ,^! rem>ks apply to l& 9 :i* ! dra9s are f\r rods ap>t4 ,! f>m lies ) an incl9ation nor!rly & ea/]ly1 ! fall v>y+ f #a 9 #cc to #a 9 #h2 t 9 mo/ ( ! dra9s laid f\r rods ap>t1 be+ ab\t #a 9 #be4 ,! dra9s 9 ! b>ley field fall #a 9 #bg1 av]age1 all af=d+ a rapid run ( wat]1 :i*1 f ! mode ( con/ruction1 & subsequ5t subsoil+1 f9ds ready access to ! dra9-*annels4 ,h5ce1 we nev] obs]ve runn+ wat] ^u ! surface ( any ( our dra9$ l&s1 ei!r dur+ ! heavie/ ra9s1 or :5 sn[s are melt+1 & ! wa/eful wa%+ f ! surface t =m]ly injur$ our pl[$ gr\nds1 has ceas$4 ,x is fair to suppose t x is ! consid]able desc5t :i* r5d]s ! dra9s s effectual at f\r rods ap>t2 & t :]e !re is b slight fall1 o!r circum/ances be+ ! same1 x w\ld be necess>y to lay dra9s mu* ne>]1 = equal s]vice4 ,! results ( "o man's exp]im5ts1 or practice1 :e!r ( success or failure1 %\ld n be conclusive to ano!r1 unless all ! circum/ances are id5tical4 ,^! are ev] v>y+ f "o f>m to ano!r2 & only a "r und]/&+ ( ! natural laws or pr9ciples br\ght into use1 c det]m9e :at is be/ 9 ea* case4 ,!re=e1 a description ( ! me?ods ,i h us$1 or any detail$ sugge/ions ,i may give1 z ! result ( exp]i5ce1 w\ld n be wor? mu*1 unless te/$ by ! well-asc]ta9$ rules applicable to !m1 :i* m5 ( sci5ce & skill h adopt$ & prov$1 by ! imm5sely ext5d$ dra9+ op]ations 9 ,great ,brita91 & ^? begun 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,^! are n[ giv5 9 elaborate treatises1 & quot$ 9 agricultural j\rnals4 ,b !y %\ld be made famili> to e f>m]1 9 all _! practical details1 & ) me?ods suit$ to our c\ntry1 :]e labor is de> & l& *eap1 z contra/$ ) ! rev]s$ conditions 9 ,engl&1 :]e ! practice ( ?or\gh-dra9+ has s g5]ally obta9$1 & has s l>gely improv$ ! conditions ( bo? l&lord & t5ant4 ,y\r book w d ?is1 & ?us d a great good2 = dra9+ w greatly enl>ge ! productive capacity ( our l&1 &1 consequ5tly1 its value1 :ile x w r5d] labor m effective & m remun]ative to ! employ] & ! employ$4 ,! fact ( increas$ production f a giv5 quantity ( l&1 by dra9+1 be+ asc]ta9$ beyond "q1 & ! measure ( t increase1 at its m9imum1 be+ m ?an ! int]e/ at six p] c5t4 ^u ! sum requir$ to effect x--ev5 at #ej p] acre--! "q ( exp$i5cy is answ]$4 ,to ! own] ( tillage l&s !re is no o!r su* safe1 sure1 & pr(itable inve/m5t = 8 money4 ,he lodges x 9 a bank t w nev] susp5d paym5ts1 & f :i* bett] ?an six p] c5t4 divid5d c be receiv$ annually4 ,v truly1 y\rs1 ,b4 ,f4 ,,n\rse4 ,hon4 ,h4 ,f4 ,,fr5*1 ,exet]1 ,n4 ,h4 ,,/atem5t ,,( ,,%$d ,,& ,,edson4 ,,bo/on1 ,febru>y #a1 #ahei4 ,,de> ,,sir3--,! plan = a sy/em ( ?or\gh dra9age1 a copy ( :i* we s5d y h]e)1 0 execut$ = ,mr4 ,i4 ,p4 ,r&1 ( ,roxbury4 ,an outfall 0 obta9$1 at ! exp5se ( consid]able labor1 by deep5+ ! ,roxbury & ,dor*e/] ,brook = a di/ance ( ne>ly a qu>t] ( a mile1 ab\t f\r hundr$ feet ( :i* 0 ?r\gh a rocky bottom1 :i* requir$ "s bla/+4 ,! fall ?us obta9$ 0 only ab\t two in*es 9 ! :ole di/ance4 ,! fall :i* c be obta9$ = ! ma9 dra9 is less ?an two in*es p] hundr$ feet1 b ! lat]al dra9s ent]+ into ! ma91 w h a fall v>y+ f two in*es to a foot p] hundr$4 ,! cont\r l9es1 or l9es trac$ along ! gr\nd1 int]sect+ po9ts on an equal level1 are drawn on ?is plan1 %[+ a fall ( f\r-t5?s ( a foot1 ea* l9e be+ 9 e "p f\r-t5?s ( a foot l[] ?an ! l9e above x4 ,:]e ! l9es are ne> toge!r1 ! fall is great]1 z a less horizontal di/ance is pass$ ov] be=e rea*+ a po9t :i* is f\r-t5?s l[] ?an ! l9e above4 ,illu/ration3 ,?or\gh ,dra9age ,,by ,,%$d ,,edson4 ,,agr',l ,,eng',s ,,bo/on1 #ahei ,x w be se5 by ! plan1 t ! fall 9 ! l9e occupi$ by ! ma9 dra9 is v slight1 :ile ! side dra9s h a fall mu* great]4 ,! lat]al dra9s are run 9 ! l9e ( /eepe/ desc5t1 :i* is1 ( c\rse1 at "r angles to ! g5]al direction ( ! cont\r l9es4 ,! wat] f ! entire sy/em is collect$1 & escapes at "o outlet into ! brook4 ,a peep hole is plac$ at ! int]section ( ! sub-ma9 dra9 ) ! ma91 :i* comm&s ab\t "o-half ! entire area--! o!r1 half is comm&$ by ! outlet4 ,two-in* tile w be laid 9 ! lat]al dra9s1 & ?ree1 f\r1 & five-in* 9 ! sub-ma9 & ma94 ,x is q indisp5sable1 to ! successful execution ( a plan ( dra9age on l& s level z ?is1 t c>eful measurem5ts be made on ! gr\nd ) an eng9e]'s level1 & su* a repres5tation ( its surface project$ z w %[ to ! eye at a glance :at all ! natural incl9ations are4 ,! "w c !n be laid out ) ease 9 ! be/ position1 & execut$ 9 a sy/ematic mann]4 ,! "t & labor :i* is devot$ to su* an exam9ation ( ! gr\nd is well sp5t1 &1 ) ! k ga9$ by x1 ! "w c be c>ri$ on ) su* economy z to save ! orig9al co/ ( ! exam9ation _m times ov]4 ,v truly1 y\rs1 ,,%$d ,,edson ,hon4 ,h4 ,f4 ,,fr5*1 ,exet]1 ,n4 ,h4 ,,/atem5t ,,( ,,h5ry ,f4 ,,fr5*1 ,,( ,,exet]1 ,n4 ,h4 ,! dra9$ field repres5t$ 9 ! plan 7,fig4 #ajb71 conta9s ab\t eight acres4 ,i pur*as$ x 9 #ahdf4 ,! upp] "p ( x is s&1 ) und]ly+ clay at dep?s ( f f\r to t5 feet4 ,! field slopes t[>ds ! riv]1 &1 on ! slope1 ! clay /rata com+ out to ! surface1 naturally br+ out ! wat]1 s t ! side hill 0 s wet z to produce cranb]ries--q too wet = any ho$ crop4 ,at ! foot ( ! hill ! soil is a /iff clay1 ) ve9s ( s& & gravel4 ,?r\gh ! c5tre 0 a wet rav9e1 :i* s]v$ z a natural outlet = ! spr+s1 & :i* 0 s full ( black ald]s z to make an excell5t cov] = woodcock4 ,until ! l& 0 dra9$1 ?is rav9e 0 impassable 9 ! hay season ev51 except by a bridge :i* ,i built across x4 ,n[ x may be cross$ at any season & at any po9t4 ,i fir/ attempt$ to dra9 ! wette/ p>ts ) bru% dra9s1 runn+ !m into ! wet places m]ely1 & succe$$ 9 dry+ ! l& suffici5tly to af=d good crops ( hay4 ,i laid "o bru%-dra9 across ! br[ ( ! hill1 five feet deep1 hop+ to cut (f all ! wat]1 :i* ,i suppos$ ran along ^u ! surface ( ! clay4 ,?is dri$ ! l& = a few rods1 b ! wat] /ill ru9$ ! l[] p>ts ( ! field1 & ! dra9 produc$ v little effect ^u ! l& above x4 ,9 #ahef1 f9d+ my bru% dra9s q insuffici5t1 ,i ?or\gh-dra9$ ! side-hill on ! l[] "p ( ! plan at ! read]'s left h&1 at fifty feet di/ances1 up & d[n ! slope1 at an av]age ( ab\t f\r feet dep?1 go+ five feet deep on ! br[ ( ! hill1 to cut ?r\gh ! bru%-dra94 ,i us$ two-in* sole-tiles = m9ors1 & ?ree-in* = ! ma94 ,! effect 0 in/antane\s4 ,! l& :i*1 9 ! ,spr+ ( #ahef1 _h be5 s wet t x c\ld n1 ev5 ?\gh p>tially dra9$ ) bru%-dra9s1 be plant$ till ! #e? ( ,june1 01 9 #aheg1 ready to "w z soon z ! sn[ 0 (f4 ,my f>m j\rnal says1 "u date ( ,april #f?1 pl[$ dra9$ l& ) d\ble pl[ two days aft] a heavy /orm--dry en\gh4 ,i sp5t t ,summ] 9 ,europe4 ,! l& 0 plant$ ) corn1 :i* produc$ a heavy crop4 ,i f9d an entry 9 my j\rnal1 on my return1 ,my dra9$ l& has be5 9 good condition--nei!r too wet nor too dry--all ,summ]4 ,9 ! ,fall ( #aheg1 ,i laid ab\t #agj rods 9 o!r p>ts ( ! field1 at simil> dep?s & di/ances1 & 9 #aheh complet$ ! upp] "p1 on :i* is an or*>d ( apple trees4 ,a "p ( ?is or*>d 0 orig9ally s wet z to kill ! trees ! fir/ ye>1 b by bru%-dra9s ,i dri$ x en\gh to keep ! next set alive4 ,!re 0 no wat] visible at ! surface1 & ! l& 0 dry en\gh = corn & potatoes2 /ill ! trees look$ badly1 & _m 7 w9t]-kill$4 ,i _h le>n$ ! =mation ( ! e>? ab\t my premises1 ( :i* ,i _h at fir/ no adequate conception1 & 0 satisfi$ t no fruit tree c\ld fl\ri% ) its feet 9 cold wat]1 ev5 9 ,w9t]4 ,all nurs]y-m5 & fruit-gr[]s agree1 t l& mu/ be well dra9$ = fruit4 ,i !re=e laid f\r-foot tile dra9s betwe5 ! r[s ( trees1 9 ?is app>5tly dry s&4 ,we f\nd abundance ( wat]1 9 ! drie/ season1 at f\r feet1 & x has nev] ceas$ to fl[ copi\sly4 ,i measur$ accurately ! dis*>ge ( wat] f ! ma9 :i* receives ! dra9age ( ab\t "o & a half acres ( ! or*>d1 at a "t :5 x gave1 :at seem$ to me an av]age quantity = ! ,w9t] mon?s1 :5 ! e>? 0 froz5 solid1 & f\nd x to be ab\t #dhj b>rels p] day6 ,! e/imate 0 made by hold+ a bucket1 :i* conta9$ t5 qu>ts1 "u ! outlet1 :5 x 0 f\nd t x w\ld fill 9 fifte5 seconds1 equal to t5 gallons p] m9ute2 & six hundr$ gallons1 or tw5ty b>rels p] h\r1 & f\r hundr$ & eighty b>rels p] day4 ,i h se5 ! same dra9 dis*>ge at lea/ f\r times t quantity1 at "s times6 ,! peep-holes give opportunity = inspection1 & ,i f9d ! result to be1 t ! wat]-table is kept d[n f\r feet bel[ ! surface at all times1 except = a day or two aft] sev]e ra9-/orms4 ,!re is an app>5t want ( sy/em 9 ?is plan1 p>tly to be attribut$ to my desire to con=m some:at to ! l9e ( ! f5ces1 & p>tly to ! con=mation ( ! l&1 :i* is q unev54 ,at sev]al po9ts ne> ! rav9e1 spr+s broke out1 app>5tly f deep f\nta9s1 & %ort dra9s 7 run into !m1 to keep !m bel[ ! surface4 ,! g5]al result has be51 to conv]t wet l& into e>ly w>m soil1 fit = a g>d51 to r5d] my place m dry & heal?ful1 & to illu/rate = ! good ( ! community ! entire effici5cy ( tile-dra9age4 ,! co/ ( ?is "w ?r\gh\t1 ,i e/imate at fifty c5ts p] rod1 reckon+ labor at #a p] day1 & tiles at #ab p] ?\s&1 & all ! "w by h&-tools4 ,i ?9k 9 a few ye>s1 we may d ! same "w at "o-half ?is co/4 ,fur!r views on ?is po9t are giv5 9 ! *apt] on ! ,co/ ( ,dra9age4 ,aft] our "w 0 9 press1 we receiv$ f ,mr4 ,william ,boyle1 ,f>m] at ! ,alb]t ,model ,f>m 9 ,irel&1 ! pap] :i* is giv5 bel[1 k9dly s5t 9 reply to a s]ies ( que/ions propos$ by ! au?or4 ,! ,alb]t ,model ,f>m is "o ( ! ,gov]nm5t in/itutions = ! promotion ( agriculture1 by ! education ( "y m5 9 ! sci5ce & ! practice ( f>m+2 & f :at 0 app>5t1 by a s+le day's exam9ation ( ! e/abli%m5t 9 our visit to x 9 ,augu/1 #aheg1 we are satisfi$ ( its entire success4 ,! crops !n gr[+ 7 equal1 if n sup]ior1 to any we h se5 9 any c\ntry4 ,mu* ( ! l& cov]$ by ^? crops is dra9$ l&2 & hav+ confid5ce t ! true pr9ciples ( dra9age = t c\ntry mu/ be taught & practic$ at ?is in/itution1 we ?\ght x might be in/ructive1 z well z int]e/+ to ! f>m]s ( ,am]ica1 to give !m ! means ( comp>ison betwe5 ! sy/em !re approv$1 & ^? o!rs :i* we h describ$4 ,_h ! pap] be5 soon] receiv$1 we %\ld h ref]r$ to x e>li] 9 our book2 yet com+ z x does1 aft] our "w 0 mo/ly 9 type1 we confess to "s feel+ ( satisfaction1 at ! sub/antial co9cid5ce ( views ent]ta9$ at ! ,alb]t ,model ,f>m1 ) our own humble tea*+s4 ,) _m ?anks to ,mr4 ,boyle = 8 valuable lett]1 :i* we comm5d to our read]s z a reliable exposition ( ! mo/ approv$ pr9ciples ( l&-dra9+ = ,irel&1 we give ! pap] entire3 ,,alb]t ,,model ,,f>m1 ,glasnev91 ,dubl91 ,janu>y #ca1 #ahei4 ,to ! ,hon4 ,,h5ry ,f4 ,,fr5*1 ,exet]1 ,n4 ,h43 ,,sir3--,y\r qu]ies on l&-dra9age h be5 too long unansw]$4 ,i h n[ great pleasure 9 s5d+ y1 h]e)1 my views on ! po9ts not$4 99 99 99 ,pray excuse me = ! delay 9 writ+4 ,i am1 sir1 ,y\r oblig$ & ob$i5t s]vant1 ,,william ,,boyle4 ,,l& ,,dra9age--,,replies ,,to ,,qu]ies1 ,,etc4 ,introductory obs]vations4 ,irel& conta9s close on to tw5ty-"o millions ( acres1 ?irte5 & a half millions ( :i* 7 return$ z arable l&1 9 #ahda4 ,by ,art]ial & ?or\gh-dra9age1 c41 effect$ ?r\gh loans grant$ by gov]nm5t1 ! ext5t ( arable l& has be5 increas$ to fifte5 & a half millions ( acres4 ,! ,bo>d ( ,works has ! managem5t ( ! funds grant$ = dra9age & l& improvem5ts g5]ally1 & compet5t inspectors are appo9t$ to see t ! works are prop]ly execut$4 ,! proprietor1 or f>m]1 :o obta9s a loan may1 if compet5t1 claim & obta9 ! appo9tm5t ( ov]se] on 8 own prop]ty1 & ?us h an opportunity ( economically exp5d+ ! sum :i* he w h to repay 7pr9cipal & int]e/7 by tw5ty-two in/allm5ts4 ,! av]age co/ ( ?or\gh-dra9age1 "u ! ,bo>d ( ,works1 has be5 ab\t ,l#e p] /atute acre4 ,9 #ahdg1 :5 gov]nm5t grant$ ! fir/ loan = l&-dra9age1 tiles 7 n s easily obta9$ z at pres5t1 nor 0 tile-dra9age well und]/ood 9 ?is c\ntry2 & ! great] "p ( ! dra9s !n made--& = "s ye>s aft]--7 ei!r sew]$ ) /ones1 =m$ into a conduit ( v>i\s dim5sions1 & cov]$ ov] ) f9ely-brok5 /ones1 or ! latt] 7 fill$ into ! bottom ( ! dra91 to ab\t "o foot 9 dep?1 z recomm5d$ by ,smi?1 ( ,dean/on4 ,! dim5sions = m9or dra9s1 sew]$ ) /ones1 71 usually1 ?ree & a half feet deep1 fifte5 in*es wide at top1 & ?ree to f\r in*es wide at bottom 7di/ance ap>t be+ tw5ty-"o feet72 & ! ov]se] c>ri$ ab\t ) him a wood5 gauge1 ( a size to correspond1 s t ! workm5 c\ld see at a glance :at !y _h to d4 ,^! dra9s are report$ to h giv5 g5]al satisfaction2 & !y 7 *eaply made1 z ! /ones 7 to be _h 9 great abundance 9 almo/ e field4 ,on new l&1 tr5*+ 0 sometimes c>ri$ on simultane\sly ) ! dra9age2 & x v (t5 happ5$ t ! removal ( ! /ones ?us br\ght to ! surface1 0 v exp5sive2 b !y 7 turn$ to pr(itable acc\nt 9 sew]+ dra9s & build+ sub/antial f5ces4 ,9 almo/ e case ! dra9s 7 made 9 ! direction ( ! greate/ incl9ation1 or fall ( ! l&2 & ?is is ! practice foll[$ ?r\gh\t ! c\ntry4 ,"s exceptions occur on hill-sides1 :]e ,i h se5 ! dra9s laid (f at an acute angle ) ! l9e ( incl9ation4 ,x is n necess>y t ,i %\ld expla9 ! sci5tific reasons = dra9+ 9 ! direction ( ! fall ( ! l&1 z t po9t has be5 fully treat$ (1 & well illu/rat$1 9 y\r article already ref]r$ to4 ,i %all n[ pass on to ! ,qu]ies4 ,illu/ration3 ,?or\gh ,dra9age ,,by ,,h5ry ,f4 ,,fr5*4 ,,exet] ,n4,h4 ,dep? ( dra9s1 & di/ance ap>t4 ,!re is /ill a great div]sity ( op9ion on ^! po9ts1 & p>ticul>ly 9 ref]5ce to ! dra9age ( /iff clay soils2 "s ( ! mo/ intellig5t & practical f>m]s 9 ?is c\ntry hold to ! op9ion t1 on su* soils1 ! maximum dep? %\ld n exce$ ?ree feet1 & ! di/ance ap>t sixte5 to tw5ty feet4 ,on clay loams1 hav+ a subsoil m or less free1 ! g5]al practice is1 to make ! dra9s ?ree & a half to f\r feet deep1 & at tw5ty-"o to ?irty feet ap>t4 ,on light] soils1 hav+ a free subsoil1 f\r feet deep & =ty feet ap>t are ! usual limitations4 ,?is f>m may be tak5 z a fair av]age ( ! l& 9 ,irel&1 z a te/ = dra9age2 ! soil is a deep clay loam2 ! subsoil a compact mixture ( /rong clay & calc>e\s gravel1 almo/ free f /ones4 ,?irty miles ( dra9s h be5 made on ! f>m1 ! lea/ di/ance ap>t be+ tw5ty-"o feet1 & ! greate/ di/ance ?irty feet2 ! dep? 9 e case1 ?ree & a half to f\r feet = m9or dra9s4 ,?is dra9age has giv5 ! greate/ satisfaction2 = al?\gh ! greate/ "p ( ! "w 0 p]=m$ by ! ,agricultural pupils1 9 tra9+ "h1 we h n _h occasion to re-make a s+le dra91 except 9 "o in/ance1 :]e ! tiles got *ok$1 & :i* ,i %all expla9 h]eaft]4 ,tiles3 ,size1 ,%ape1 ,dra9+1 ,capacity1 c4 ,we use circul> pipe tiles1 ( in* & a half bore1 = all p>allel dra9s ^: l5g? does n exce$ "o hundr$ y>ds1 & two-in* pipes = any additional l5g? up to "o hundr$ & fifty y>ds1 ! greate/ l5g?1 9 my op9ion1 a p>allel dra9 %\ld rea* be=e dis*>g+ into a ma9 or sub-ma9 dra94 ,we d n f9d x necess>y to use coll>s on ?is f>m1 z we h firm gr\nd to place ! tiles on1 & we c cut ! dra9 to fit ! tiles exactly4 ,z reg>ds ! size ( tiles = ma9 & sub-ma9 dra9s1 t c only be regulat$ by ! p]son 9 *>ge ( ! dra9age at any p>ticul> place1 aft] see+ ! l& op5$ up & ! m9or dra9s dis*>g+4 ,z a g5]al rule1 a circul> pipe ( ?ree in*es int]nal diamet] w dis*>ge ! ord9>y dra9age ( five or six /atute acres1 & give suffici5t space = ! circulation ( air4 ,x %\ld be obs]v$1 h[ev]1 t ?is applies to a di/rict :]e ! annual ra9-fall is f tw5ty-six to ?irty in*es1 t ( all ,irel& be+ ab\t ?irty-five in*es2 besides1 we h n ! imm5se falls ( ra9 9 a few h\rs t occur 9 o!r c\ntries4 ,all ^! po9ts %\ld be c>efully consid]$ 9 e/imat+ ! wat]-way = dra9age4 ,i h said t coll>s are n us$ ) ! tiles on ?is f>m1 z ! bottom ( ! dra9s is q firm & ev52 b1 :]e ! b$ = ! tile is s(t1 & ! subsoil is ( a %ift+ nature1 !n coll>s %\ld be us$ 9 e case4 ,coll>s co/ ab\t half ! price ( tiles1 :i* !y are made to connect1 s t ! use ( !m adds "o-?ird to ! exp5se ( ! sew]+ mat]ial2 &1 z ,i h already po9t$ out1 ,i ?9k x q unnecess>y to use !m :]e ! subsoil is firm1 & :]e ! dra9 c be bottom$ to fit ! tile4 ,:]e l>ge pipes are n to be _h conv5i5tly = sew]+ ma9 or sub-dra9s1 ,i f9d a proportional numb] ( pipes ( less] diamet] to answ] p]fectly4 ,x is v desirable to provide bran* pipes = connect+ ! m9or ) ! ma9 dra9s4 ,! bran* %\ld be socket$ to receive ! end ( ! la/ tile 9 ! m9or dra91 & ! po9t ( atta*m5t to ! ma9 pipe may be on ! top or on ! side ( ! latt]4 ,if ! bran* be made to lead ! wat] into ! side ( ! ma9 pipe1 !n x %\ld jo9 ! latt] at an acute angle1 t bo? /reams may meet ) ! lea/ possible opposition ( =ces4 ,fall necess>y 9 ,tile ,dra9age4 ,i consid] "o foot 9 "o hundr$ y>ds ! lea/ fall to "w ^u ) safety4 ,secur+ ,outlets4 ,all ! outlets f ma9-dra9s %\ld be well secur$ aga9/ ! intrusion ( v]m91 by a wr\ght-iron grat+1 built 9 mason-"w4 ,! wat] may fl[ into a /one tr\gh provid$ ) an ov]fl[-pipe1 by :i* ! quantity dis*>g$ may be asc]ta9$ at any "t1 s z to comp>e ! dra9age be=e & aft] ra91 c4 ,traps1 or ,silt ,ponds4 ,:]e ext5sive dra9age is c>ri$ on 9 l[-ly+ di/ricts1 & ! pr9cipal outlet at a consid]able di/ance1 x may be f\nd necess>y to h traps at sev]al po9ts :]e ! silt f ! tiles w be kept4 ,^! traps may be ( ca/-iron1 or mason-"w1 cem5t$2 & provision %\ld be made1 by :i* !y c be clean$ out & exam9$ regul>ly--! dra9age at ^! p]iods also und]go+ inspection at ! diff]5t traps4 ,pl[-,dra9+4 ,we h no dra9+-pl[s 9 use 9 ,irel&1 t ,i "k (2 ! common pl[ is sometimes us$ = m>k+ (f ! dra9s1 cutt+ ! sides1 & ?r[+ out ! e>? to a consid]able dep?1 !reby less5+ ! manual labor consid]ably4 ,ef=ts h be5 made 9 ,engl& to produce an effici5t implem5t ( ?is description2 b x w\ld appe> !re is ample room = an inv5tive ,jona?an to walk 9 = a pr(itable pat5t 9 ?is dep>tm5t1 & ?us add ano!r to ! _m valuable ones br\ght out 9 y\r great c\ntry4 ,case ( ,ob/ruction 9 ,tiles4 ,"s ye>s s9ce1 "o ( ! pr9cipal ma9-dra9s on ?is f>m 0 obs]v$ n dis*>g+ ! wat] freely1 z x hi!rto _h done1 aft] a heavy fall ( ra92 & ! l& adjo9+ x %[$ unmi/akable signs ( wetness4 ,! dra9 0 op5$1 & trac$ to ! po9t ( ob/ruction1 :i* 0 f\nd to be conv5i5t to a small popl> tree1 ! rootlets ( :i* made _! way into ! tiles1 at ! dep? ( five & a half feet1 & completely fill$ !m1 9 ! direction ( ! /ream1 = sev]al y>ds4 ,we h "s ( ! tiles 7horse-%oe7 9 our museum "h1 z !y 7 !n lift$ f ! dra91 %[+ cle>ly ! =midable nature ( ! ob/ruction4 ,ano!r s]i\s case ( ob/ruction has come to my k1 occasion$ by frogs or toads gett+ into ! tiles ( ! ma9-dra9 9 l>ge numb]s1 on acc\nt ( ! outlet be+ insuffici5tly protect$4 ,9 ?is case1 a l>ge exp5diture _h to be incurr$1 to repair ! damage done4 ,i h n obs]v$ any case ( ob/ruction f ! roots ( our cultivat$ plants4 ,x has be5 said by "s t ! rootlets ( mangold w rea* ! dra9s "u !m2 &1 p>ticul>ly1 :]e ! dra9s conta9 mo/ wat] 9 rapid motion4 ,i took up ! tiles f a dra9 on ?is f>m1 9 '#ed1 :i* _h be5 laid d[n 7by a =m] occupi]71 ab\t ! ye> '#dd1 at a dep? n exce$+ two-&-a-half feet1 & n "o ( ^! 0 ob/ruct$ 9 ! lea/ degree1 al?\gh p>snips1 c>rots1 cabbages1 mangolds1 c41 _h be5 gr[n on ?is field4 ,ob/ructions may occur ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( m9]al spr+s2 b v few cases ( ?is nature are met )1 at lea/ 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,i w\ld anticipate ?is class ( ob/ruction1 if f ! nature ( ! l& !re 0 reason to expect x1 by increas+ ! fall 9 ! dra9s & hav+ traps m frequ5t1 :]e ! ma9 outlets are at a di/ance to r5d] !m necess>y4 ,9 my op9ion1 ! roots ( trees are ! great intrud]s to be gu>d$ aga9/1 & m p>ticul>ly ! s(t-wood$ sorts1 su* z popl>s1 will[s1 ald]s1 c4 ,! di/ance ( a dra9 f a tree ought always to be equal to ! height ( ! latt]4 ,tiles flatt5+ 9 ! dry+ process4 ,) ?is subject1 ,i am n practically famili>4 ,9 mo/ tile-works1 ! tiles1 aft] pass+ ?r\gh ! m\ld+-ma*9e1 are plac$ horizontally on %elves1 :i* rise "o above ano!r to any conv5i5t height1 on :i* ! tiles are dri$ by means ( heat$ flues :i* trav]se ! %$s :]e ! "w is c>ri$ on2 or !y are all[$ to dry )\t artificial heat4 ,i pref] ! tiles prep>$ by ! latt] me?od1 z1 if suffici5t "t be giv5 !m to be well dri$1 !y w burn m equally1 & be m durable4 ,! tiles w flatt5 m or less = ! fir/ day or two on ! %elves1 aft] :i* !y are roll$4 ,?is is done by boys 7:o are provid$ ) pieces ( wood ( a diamet] equal to ! bore ( ! tile :5 made71 :o v soon le>n to get ov] a l>ge numb] daily4 ,! roll] %\ld h a %\ld]$ h&le atta*$1 ! :ole ?ickness ( :i* %\ld n be great] ?an t ( ! tile4 ,! %\ld] is necess>y to make ! ends ( ! tiles ev51 t !re may be no v op5 jo9ts :5 !y are plac$ 9 a dra94 ,once roll$1 ! tiles are n likely to flatt5 aga91 if ! op]ation be p]=m$ at ! prop] "t4 ,z good tiles z ,i ev] saw 7 dri$ 9 a diff]5t way1 & n roll$ at all4 ,z !y 7 tak5 f ! ma*9e--six at a "t--ea* c>ri] pass$ (f ) 8 tray1 & plac$ !m on end c>efully1 ^u an ev5 floor4 ,:5 five or six r[s ( tiles 7 ?us plac$1 ! :ole l5g? ( ! dry+-h\se1 a bo>d 0 set on edge to keep !m f fall+ to "o side2 !n foll[$ five or six o!r r[s ( tiles1 & s on1 till ! dry+-gr\nd 0 fill$4 ,?is 0 ! plan adopt$ 9 a til]y ne> ,dubl91 "s ye>s ago4 ,x is only a few days s9ce ,i exam9$ "s ( ! tiles made at ^! works1 :i* _h be5 tak5 f a dra91 :]e !y _h be5 9 use = n9e ye>s2 & ! cle> r++ s\nd produc$ by /rik+ !m aga9/ ea* o!r1 %[$ :at little effect t l5g? ( "t produc$ ^u !m1 & h[ well !y _h be5 manufactur$4 ,co/ ( ,tiles4 ,we h rec5tly paid at ! works-- ,= #a-a_/b in* pipes #ags4 #f;d4 p] ?\s&4 #b #bes4 #c #des4 ,ea* tile "o foot 9 l5g?1 & ! "o & "o-half-in* pipes weigh+ #af cwt4 p] ?\s&4 ,"o ( ! great difficulties 9 connection ) tile-mak+ is1 9 _m di/ricts1 to procure clay suffici5tly free f lime4 ,tiles are v (t5 sold by sample1 s5t a consid]able di/ance1 & x becomes necess>y to te/ !m1 :i* we d 7= lime7 by plac+ !m 9 wat] = a night2 &1 if lime is pres5t 9 ! tile1 x w1 ( c\rse1 swell out1 & break ! latt]1 or leave x 9 a riddl$ /ate4 ,i h n[ endeavor$ to answ] ! qu]ies 9 y\r po/script1 & ,i h c>efully avoid$ enl>g+ on "s po9ts 9 !m ) :i* y\r read]s are already famili>4 ,if ,i %all h ?r[n a s+le ray ( additional light on ?is subject across ! ,atlantic1 ,i %all be amply repaid = any att5tion ,i h giv5 to ?or\gh-dra9age dur+ ! pa/ twelve ye>s4 ,i %\ld "h obs]ve t ,i mislaid among/ my pap]s ! portion ( y\r lett] conta9+ ! qu]ies 7x 0 a sep>ate %eet71 & x has n z yet turn$ up1 s t ,i _h to dep5d on a r trea*]\s memory to keep ! qu]ies 9 my m9d's eye4 ,x is highly probable1 !re=e1 t ,i h ov]look$ "s ( !m4 ,?is circum/ance 0 ! *ief cause ( ! delay 9 writ+4 ,y are q at lib]ty to make any use y please ( ?is communication4 ,,william ,,boyle4 ,,index4 ,absorption ( moi/ure2 #cjc1 #cjd1 #cbb ,f]tiliz+ sub/ances2 #bfh ,a]ation2 #bfi1 #bgf ,alb]t ,model ,f>m2 #cge ,am]ican exp]im5ts2 #cfg ,&]son1 ,j4 ,f42 #aab ,arrangem5t ( dra9s2 #agc ,artesian ,wells2 #hc ,attraction1 adhesive2 #cja capill>y2 #cjb ( soils = vapor2 #cjd ,aug]1 ,elk+ton's2 #ce1 #bdf ,ba*e1 ,pr(42 #fe ,back wat]2 #aha ,b>n cell>2 #cef-cei ,b]g51 ,mr42 #aii ,birm+ham spades2 #bdj ,bletonism2 #cf ,blodgett1 ,lor92 #ea1 #ei ,bligh1 ,capta92 #bd1 #bg ,bogs2 #ia ,bon+-rod2 #bcd ,bore1 =m (2 #abi ,bor+2 #ce1 #cfe ,bor+ tools2 #ce1 #cdf ,boyle1 ,wm42 #cge ,bran* pipes2 #aif1 #cgh ,bricks1 dra9+2 #aba1 #add co/ (2 #bjd ,bru% dra9s2 #ajd1 #aje ,capacity ( pipes2 #aca1 #acb1 #acd1 #bja ,capill>y attraction2 #cjb ,cell>s1 dra9age (2 #cea-cei ,*allon]'s ,level2 #bce ,clay soil2 #afg1 #cbi ,clays1 dra9age (2 #cbb-ccb ,clays1 crack+ (2 #bge1 #cbd-cca ,coll>s2 #dg1 #abf1 #abg1 #abh1 #bai1 #caf1 #cbj1 #cgh ,cold f evaporation2 #fc1 #bgb ,co/ ( dra9age2 #baa-bbd1 #cji1 #cgf tiles2 #bja-bje1 #cha ,c\nt ,rum=d2 #bgb1 #bgc1 #bhg ,c\ntry ,g5tleman2 #af1 #aih1 #cbi ,crisp1 ,?omas2 #bjc ,cu/is1 ,g4 ,w4 ,p42 #ah ,dams2 #ccc1 #cdg ,dean/on sy/em2 #cg ,delafield2 #df1 #gf1 #afh ,d5ton1 ,j4 ,bailey2 #ba1 #afa ,lett] f2 #bjj ,dep? ( dra9s2 #afd-agc1 #cbf1 #cbh1 #cgg ,directions h[ to lay dra9s2 #beb-beh ,dew1 cause (2 #cje increas$ by dra9age2 #bhd1 #cjf imp>ts w>m?2 #cjg ,dew-po9t2 #fe1 #ff1 #cjf ,dick9son1 ,a4 ,b42 #ajh ,direction ( dra9s2 #adf-aee ,di/ance 2 #aee-afd1 #cgg ,dit* digg]s2 #bdg-bea ,dra9age acts2 #cdi companies2 #ccc effects (2 #beh-bgf me?ods (2 #ii-abj wat] (2 #fj1 #fa1 #cci ,dra9age1 w x pay8 #ie ,dra9 bricks2 #aba1 #add ,dra9s ( bru%2 #ajd l>* tubes2 #aaa plug2 #ajf ( poles2 #aac rails2 #aab /ones2 #aad-aai w$ge2 #aaj run be=e ra92 #bfi1 #bgj ,dr\ght1 dra9s prev5t2 #bha-bhf1 #cjj ,dry ,wells2 #aig1 #aih ,durability ( dra9s2 #ada-ade ,elk+ton's sy/em2 #bg1 #cc1 #bdj1 #cfe ,embankm5t2 #ah ,em]son1 ,r4 ,w42 #ae1 #bc ,eng9e]+2 #afc1 #bac ,engl&2 #ai1 #cdj wet l& 92 #hi ,engli% tools2 #bdc ,evaporation2 #dh1 #fa1 #fb1 #bic-big cold f2 #fc1 #bgb1 #bic-big f l&2 #fb1 #fi1 #gb wat]2 #fb1 #fi1 #gc ,excavation2 #afe co/ (2 #afe1 #bja1 #bad table (2 #baf ,exp]im5ts1 ,am]ican2 #cfg1 #cgf ,factory res]voirs2 #cda-cdc ,fall 9 dra9s2 #agd1 #cgh ,f5ces2 #baa1 #cdf ,filtration2 #da1 #fj1 #fa ,filtration tables (2 #gj1 #ga ,fitzh]b]t2 #bc ,flat-bottom$ tiles2 #abi ,fl[age1 effects (2 #ccc1 #cda1 #cdc1 #cdf ,flu%+ dra9s2 #ahf ,freez+ out2 #ge1 #bfb ( pipes2 #aga ,fr5*'s plan2 #cgc ,friction ( wat]2 #aca1 #acc ,fro/2 #fg1 #adc1 #agj1 #agb1 #big1 #bii ,fruit trees2 #bih1 #cgd ,furr[s2 #aie ,gauge2 #bdf ,g]m9ation2 #bgf-bha ,gillis1 ,lieut42 #fe ,gisborne2 #abb1 #abf ,gravitation2 #aca ,grad+ dra9s2 #bcc ,grat+s at outlets2 #ahc ,great ,brita92 #hi wet l&s 92 #hi ,greeley1 ,horace2 #hh ,ha>laem1 ,lake2 #ai ,head]s2 #aec1 #aed ,heat 9 wet l&2 #bhh-bij wat]2 #bgb1 #bgc ,hobbs1 ,doctor2 #ea1 #ed1 #ef ,holyoke1 ,doctor2 #fb ,horse-%oe tiles2 #abd ,implem5ts2 #bbe1 #beb ,indications ( moi/ure2 #ic ,injury by dra9age2 #cjh1 #cac ,irel&1 dra9age 92 #cgf ,irrigation2 #ad ,iri% spade2 #bch ,johnson1 ,b4 ,p42 #ag ,john/on1 ,john2 #df1 #afh1 #bef1 #bfb1 #cbh1 #cbi ,john/one2 #bh1 #ca1 #abj ,jo9ts1 h[ cov]$2 #bee spaces at2 #acd1 #adj ,junction ( dra9s2 #aie1 #aif ,key?orpe sy/em2 #dj ,klipp>t1 ,j4 ,h42 #af ,l& ,dra9age ,companies2 #cdi ,l>* tubes2 #aaa ,l>dn]1 ,dr42 #bgj ,lay+ out dra9s2 #bac1 #bec ,lay+ tiles2 #bai1 #beb-beh ,legal rights to wat]2 #he1 #hf1 #cdf ,legislation2 #cdj ,levell+ in/rum5ts2 #bbi-bce ,l9coln%ire f5s2 #ai1 #caj ,l9es1 use (2 #bcc1 #bec ,"l ,l9coln's ,act2 #cdg ,madd51 ,doctor2 #bgf ,ma9s1 position & size (2 #aij-aid ,mangolds1 ob/ruction by2 #caf1 #cag1 #cgi ,mapes1 ,pr(42 #af1 #afg ,massa*usetts1 laws2 #cdg ,me*i1 ,%]iff2 #bfj1 #cci ,me?ods ( dra9age2 #ii ,mice2 #ajd1 #aaf1 #cae ,mill dams2 #cdj-cdd ,mill /reams2 #hi1 #ccc ,m9ors2 #aid ,moi/ure1 s\rces (2 #gh ,moles2 #ajd1 #aaf ,mole dra9s2 #ajg ,mole ,pl[2 #ajh ,moon1 influ5ce (2 #cjf ,morris1 ,edw>d2 #fj ,na%1 ,pr(42 #aii ,n5e ,riv]2 #ccg ,new ,york ,p>k2 #dg1 #bai ,n\rse1 ,b4 ,f42 #bhe1 #bii1 #cfg /atem5t & plan (2 #aie1 #cfg1 #cgb ,ob/ruction ( dra9s2 #cac-cbj by s&2 #cac1 #cba by frogs1 c42 #ahc1 #cae1 #cgi p]-oxide ( iron2 #cag roots2 #cae1 #caf1 #cgi fill+ at jo9ts2 #cai ,op5 dit*es2 #ii1 #bfc objections to2 #aja1 #ajb ,op5+ dit*es2 #beb ,outfalls2 #cde ,outlets2 #agf-ahc1 #bai1 #beb1 #beg1 #cae1 #cgh ,ov]-dra9+ peats2 #cji1 #cff ,p>kes1 ,josiah2 #be1 #ch1 #dj1 #abh ,paul's dit*]2 #bej ,peat tiles2 #aac ,peats1 ov]-dra9+ (2 #cji1 #cff ,peep-holes2 #ahg1 #ahh1 #cba1 #cgc ,p]-oxide ( iron2 #cag ,pettibone1 ,j4 ,s42 #cbi ,picks2 #bde ,pipes2 #dg1 #abb1 #abc1 #add capacity (2 #aca-ach1 #aei1 #aia1 #aic co/ 9 ,engl&2 #bja1 #bjd ,unit$ ,/ates2 #bjb-bje1 #bah position (2 #aij-aid ,pipe lay]2 #bdd1 #bde ,plans ( dra9s2 #aie1 #cgb1 #cgg importance (2 #afa ,pl[1 use (2 #bec1 #cgi ,pl[1 ,f[l]'s dra92 #bdg1 #bdh ,%anghae2 #aji ,paul's dit*]2 #bej ,r\tt's2 #bea ,plug dra9s2 #ajg ,pole dra92 #aac ,pratt's ,dit* digg]2 #bdh1 #bdi ,pressure ( wat]2 #aca1 #acb1 #cca1 #ccb1 #cef wat] (2 #hd ,process ( dra9+2 #beb-beh ,puddl+2 #aih1 #bff1 #cbc ,pulv]ization2 #bfj1 #bhb1 #bii ,ra92 #dh1 #aeh1 #aei1 #bhd ,ra9-fall2 #ej1 #aeh1 #cgh ,ra9-fall1 tables (2 #ec-fj1 #gj-gc ,relief pipes2 #ahd1 #ahf ,res]voirs2 #cda1 #cdc ,ridge & furr[2 #aie ,roll+ pipes2 #bje1 #chj ,roots1 l5g? (2 #beh1 #bei1 #bhc ob/ruction by2 #cae1 #caf1 #cgi ,r\nd pipes2 #dg1 #abb ,rum=d1 ,c\nt2 #bgb1 #bgc1 #bhg ,ruff91 ,edmund1 ,esq42 #bi1 #cfd ,rye & ,d]w5t2 #cdd ,saturation2 #ff ,scoops2 #bdd ,scre5s at outlets2 #ahc ,season l5g!n$2 #bfa ,%all[ dra9s2 #afh ,%anghae pl[2 #aji ,%$d & ,edson2 #ba1 #ea1 #cgb ,%\ld] dra92 #aaj ,%ovels2 #bcf1 #bcg ,silt bas92 #ahf1 #cgi ,s9kholes2 #aih ,size ( tiles2 #aij1 #bja1 #cgg ,smi?1 ( ,dean/on2 #bf1 #cg ,sn[1 fall (2 #ei ,sole-tile2 #abe ,spades2 #bce1 #bcf1 #bdj-bdb ,_s level2 #bcj ,spr+s2 #gh-hc dra9age (2 #cd run be=e ra92 #bgj-bga h[ to pres]ve2 #ahi ,/aff & t>get2 #bca ,/agnant wat]2 #ic ,/one dra9s2 #aad-aai1 #cgg co/ (2 #aad1 #bbb ,/ones above tiles2 #aah ,/reams affect$ by dra9age2 #ccc-cdj ,subsoil pl[2 #afi ,subsoil]1 ,m>cus & ,co4's2 #ajg ,surface wa%+ prev5t$2 #bfa ,swall[-holes2 #aig1 #aih ,swamps2 #ia1 #cfj dra9age (2 #cfj-cfc ,swamp-l&s2 #ag ,swan1 ,r4 ,j42 #afh ,sy/em1 importance (2 #afj1 #agc ,tables ( evaporation2 #gb1 #gc excavation2 #baf filtration2 #gj1 #ga ra9-fall2 #ec-ei1 #ga-gc ( tiles to acre2 #bbj numb] ( rods2 #bbj capacity ( pipes2 #ace-ach ,talpa2 #bc ,temp]ature2 #fg1 #ahi1 #bhj1 #bhg-cjj und]gr\nd2 #ahg1 #bhh1 #bia = vegetation2 #bga ,!rmomet]1 wet & dry2 #fd1 #fe ,?omas1 ,j4 ,j42 #bbi ,tile-dra9age2 #abj ,tiles1 co/ 9 ,engl&2 #bja1 #bab ,unit$ ,/ates2 #bja-bje =ms (2 #abb-acj l5g? (2 #bba size (2 #acj-ach weight (2 #bai numb] to ! acre2 #bbj ,tile ma*9es2 #df1 #bjb-baj ,tile-works2 #dg1 #aba ,tools2 #bbe-bdf ,tops & bottoms2 #adj1 #cai1 #cgi ,traps2 #ahe1 #ahf1 #cgi1 #chj ,velocity ( wat]2 #aca ,v]m92 #ajd ,virg9ia2 #ah1 #cfd ,w>d]1 ,doctor2 #cdf ,wat]1 h[ x ent]s2 #ach1 #cad1 #cbj /agnant2 #ic ( dra9age1 uses (2 #ahi1 #cci velocity (2 #aca ,wat] passage2 #abi ,wat]-l9e2 #ea1 #aci ,wat]-p[]s2 #ccc1 #cce1 #cda-cde ,wat] ( pressure2 #hd1 #afa ,wat]1 pressure (2 #hd1 #adj1 #ada rights 92 #he1 #hf ,w$ge dra92 #aaj1 #bcf ,weight ( tiles2 #bai1 #cha ,wells1 dra9age into2 #aig-aii dri$ by dra9s2 #he1 #cff ,well & relief-pipe2 #ahd-ahf ,well ) silt trap2 #ahf ,:>ncliffe sy/em2 #dd ,wid? ( dit*es2 #bae-bah1 #bbf ,wright1 ,gov42 #ag ,yeomans1 ,t4 ,g42 #df1 #ajh 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcrib]'s ,note3 ,summ>iz$ "h are ! corrections appli$ to ! text4 ,li/ ( ,engrav+s3 ,dra9 ,gauge ,gauge 0 pr9t$ z ,guage ,h4 ,f4 ,fr5*'s ,dra9age #cgf ! page numb] 0 pr9t$ z #cgd unm9dful ( _! obligations to him unm9dful 0 pr9t$ z unm9dul ( gaug+ ! quantity ( wat] travel+ along an important dra9 gaug+ 0 pr9t$ z guag+ 7 remov$1 a pond w\ld rema9 w\ld 0 unreadable 9 ! ,orig9al k ( ! subject k 0 pr9t$ z kn[lege ,t dra9s w long cont9ue to be op5$ 9 ?is va/ c\ntry by h& labor va/ 0 pr9t$ z fa/ ! great] p]man5cy ( tiles p]man5cy 0 pr9t$ z p]manancy h come to our k k 0 pr9t$ z kn[lege lay dra9s deep en\gh to be beyond ! dang] ( wat] bur/+ 9 bur/+ 0 pr9t$ z bru/+ p ( ,great ,brita9 ,brita9 0 pr9t$ z ,britian ,! f>m] sees 8 ?\s& bu%els ( potatoes subm]g$ potatoes 0 pr9t$ z potatos ! temp]ature at ! latt] dep? ! 0 pr9t$ twice repres5t+ ! cell> ref]r$ to cell> 0 pr9t$ z cell] & ano!r outside ano!r 0 pr9t$ z auo!r becomes necess>y to te/ !m to 0 pr9t$ twice