,historical ,literature in ,agriculture 7,,chla71 ,cornell ,university7 ,transcriber's ,note3 ,the spelling in this text has been preserved as in the original4 ,obvious printer's errors have been corrected4 ,you can find a list of the corrections made at the end of this e-text4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,farm ,,drainage4 ,,the ,,principles1 ,,processes1 ,,and ,,effects ,,of ,,draining ,,land ,,with ,,stones1 ,,wood1 ,,plows1 ,,and ,,open ,,ditches1 ,,and ,,especially ,,with ,,tiles2 ,,including ,,tables ,,of ,,rain-,,fall1 ,,evaporation1 ,,filtration1 ,,excavation1 ,,capacity ,,of ,,pipes2 ,,cost ,,and ,,number ,,to ,,the ,,acre1 ,,of ,,tiles1 ,c41 ,c41 ,,and ,,more ,,than #ajj ,,illustrations4 ,,by ,,henry ,f4 ,,french4 ,,read1 not to contradict and to confute1 nor to believe and take for granted1 but to weigh and consider4--,,bacon4 ,the first ,farmer was the first man1 and all nobility rests on the possession and use of land4--,,emerson4 ,,new ,,york3 ,c4 ,m4 ,,saxton1 ,,barker ,,co41 ,,agricultural ,,book ,,publishers1 ,no4 #be ,,park ,,row #ahfj4 ,,entered1 according to ,act of ,congress1 in the year #ahei1 ,,by ,,henry ,f4 ,,french1 ,in the ,clerk's ,office of the ,district ,court of the ,united ,states in and for the ,southern ,district of ,new ,york4 ,,to ,the ,honorable ,simon ,brown1 of ,,massachusetts1 ,a ,,lover ,,of ,,agriculture1 ,,and ,a ,,progressive ,,farmer1 ,,whose ,,words ,,and ,,works ,,are ,,so ,,well ,,devoted ,,to ,,improve ,,the ,,condition ,,of ,,those ,,who ,,cultivate ,,the ,,earth1 ,,this ,,book ,,is ,,inscribed1 ,,as ,a ,,testimonial ,,of ,,respect ,,and ,,personal ,,esteem1 ,,by ,,his ,,friend ,,and ,,brother1 ,,the ,,author4 ,,preface4 ,the ,agriculture of ,america has seemed to me to demand some light upon the subject of ,drainage2 some work1 which1 with an exposition of the various theories1 should give the simplest details of the practice1 of draining land4 ,this treatise is an attempt to answer that demand1 and to give to the farmers of our country1 at the same time1 enough of scientific principles to satisfy intelligent inquiry1 and plain and full directions for executing work in the field1 according to the best known rules4 ,it has been my endeavor to show what lands in ,america require drainage1 and how to drain them best1 at least expense2 to explain how the theories and the practice of the ,old ,world require modification for the cheaper lands1 the dearer labor1 and the various climate of the ,new2 and1 finally1 to suggest how1 through improved implements and processes1 the inventive genius of our country may make the brain assist and relieve the labor of the hand4 ,with some hope that my humble labors1 in a field so broad1 may not have entirely failed of their object1 this work is offered to the attention of ,american farmers4 ,h4 ,f4 ,f4 ,,the ,,pines1 ,,exeter1 ,n4 ,h41 ,march1 #ahei4 ,,list ,,of ,,engravings4 ,,page4 ,elkington's ,mode #cb1 #cc ,ditch and ,bore-hole #ce ,keythorpe ,system #db ,theory of ,springs #hj-hd ,plug ,drainage #ajf1 #ajg ,mole ,plow #ajh ,wedge ,drains #aaa ,shoulder ,drains #aaa ,larch ,tube #aab ,pole ,drain #aac ,peat ,tiles and ,tool #aac ,stone ,drains #aae-aag ,draining ,bricks #aba ,round ,pipes #abb ,horse-shoe ,tile #abd ,sole-,tile #abe ,pipes and ,collar #abf ,flat-bottomed ,pipe-,tile #abi ,drains across ,slope #aej ,draining ,irregular ,strata #afb ,relief ,drains #afb ,small ,outlet #agh ,large ,outlet #agi1 #ahj ,outlet1 with ,flap #aha ,well1 with ,silt ,basin #ahf ,peep-hole #ahh ,spring in ,drained ,field #ahi ,main of ,two ,tiles #aid ,main of ,several ,tiles #aid ,plan of ,drained ,field #aie ,junction of ,drains #aif ,branch ,pipe #aig ,daines' ,tile ,machine #bji ,pratt's ,tile ,machine #baj ,tiles1 laid well and ill #bbi ,square and ,plumb-,level #bbi ,spirit ,level #bcj ,staff and ,target #bca ,span1 or ,a ,level #bcb ,grading ,trenches by ,lines #bcc ,challoner's ,level #bce ,drain ,spades #bce ,spade with ,spur #bcf ,common ,shovel and ,spade #bcf ,long-handled ,round ,shovel #bcg ,shovel ,scoop #bcg ,irish ,spade #bch ,birmingham ,spades #bdj ,narrow ,spades #bdb ,english ,bottoming ,tools #bdc ,drawing and ,pushing ,scoops #bdd ,pipe-,layer #bdd ,pipe-,laying #bde ,pick-axes #bde ,drain ,gauge #bdf ,elkington's ,auger #bdf ,fowler's ,drain ,plow #bdg ,pratt's ,ditcher #bdi ,paul's ,ditcher #bej ,germination #bgg1 #bgh ,land before ,drainage and ,after #bhf ,heat in ,wet ,land #bhh ,cracking of ,clays #cbe ,drainage of ,cellar #cee ,drainage of ,barn ,cellar #cei ,plan of ,rand's ,drainage #cgb ,h4 ,f4 ,french's ,drainage #cgf ,,contents4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,introductory4 ,why this ,treatise does not contain all ,knowledge4--,attention of ,scientific ,men attracted to ,drainage4--,lieutenant ,maury's ,suggestions4--,ralph ,waldo ,emerson's ,views4--,opinions of ,j4 ,h4 ,klippart1 ,esq42 of ,professor ,mapes2 ,b4 ,p4 ,johnson1 ,esq42 ,governor ,wright1 ,mr4 ,custis1 c4--,prejudice against what is ,english4--,acknowledgements to our ,friends at ,home and ,abroad4--,the ,wants of our ,farmers4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,draining4 ,draining as old as the ,deluge4--,roman ,authors4--,walter ,bligh in #afej4--,no thorough drainage till ,smith1 of ,deanston4--,no mention of ,tiles in the ,compleat ,body of ,husbandry1 #ageh4--,tiles found #ajj years old4--,elkington's ,system4--,johnstone's ,puns and ,peripatetics4--,draining ,springs4--,bletonism1 or the ,faculty of ,perceiving ,subterranean ,water4--,deanston ,system4--,views of ,mr4 ,parkes4--,keythorpe ,system4--,wharncliffe ,system4--,introduction of ,tiles into ,america4--,john ,johnston1 and ,mr4 ,delafield1 of ,new ,york4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,rain1 ,,evaporation ,,and ,,filtration4 ,fertilizing ,substances in ,rain ,water4--,amount of ,rain ,fall in ,united ,states2 in ,england4--,tables of ,rain ,fall4--,number of ,rainy ,days1 and ,quantity of ,rain each ,month4--,snow1 how ,computed as ,water4--,proportion of ,rain ,evaporated4--,what ,quantity of ,water ,dry ,soil will ,hold4--,dew ,point4--,how ,evaporation ,cools ,bodies4--,artificial ,heat ,underground4--,tables of ,filtration and ,evaporation4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,drainage ,,of ,,high ,,lands--,,what ,,lands ,,require ,,drainage4 ,what is ,high ,land8--,accidents to ,crops from ,water4--,do ,lands need ,drainage in ,america8--,springs4--,theory of ,moisture1 with ,illustrations4--,water of ,pressure4--,legal ,rights as to ,draining our ,neighbor's ,wells and ,land4--,what ,lands require ,drainage8--,horace ,greeley's ,opinion4--,drainage more ,necessary in ,america than in ,england2 ,indications of too much ,moisture4--,will ,drainage ,pay8 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,various ,,methods ,,of ,,drainage4 ,open ,ditches4--,slope of ,banks4--,brush ,drains4--,ridge and ,furrow4--,plug-,draining4--,mole-,drain ing4--,mole-,plow4--,wedge and ,shoulder ,drains4--,larch ,tubes4--,drains of ,fence ,rails1 and ,poles4--,peat ,tiles4--,stone ,drains ,injured by ,moles4--,downing's ,giraffes4--,illustrations of ,various ,kinds of ,stone ,drains4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,drainage ,,with ,,tiles4 ,what are ,drain-,tiles8--,forms of ,tiles4--,pipes4--,horse-shoe ,tiles4--,sole-,tiles4--,form of ,water-,passage4--,collars and their ,use4--,size of ,pipes4--,velocity4--,friction4--,discha rge of ,water through ,pipes4--,tables of ,capacity4--,how ,water enters ,tiles4--,deep ,drains run soonest and longest4--,pressure of ,water on ,pipes4--,durability of ,tile ,drains4--,drain-,bricks #ajj years old4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,direction1 ,,distance ,,and ,,depth ,,of ,,drains4 ,,direction ,,of ,,drains4--,whence comes the ,water8--,inclination of ,strata4--,drains across the ,slope let ,water out as well as ,receive it4--,defence against ,water from ,higher ,land4--,open ,ditches4--,headers4--,silt-basins4 ,,distance ,,of ,,drains4--,depends on ,soil1 ,depth1 ,climate1 ,prices1 ,system4--,conclusions as to ,distance4 ,,depth ,,of ,,drains4--,greatly ,increases ,cost4--,shallow ,drains first tried in ,england4--#aj1jjj ,miles of ,shallow ,drains laid in ,scotland by way of ,education4--,drains must be below ,subsoil plow1 and ,frost4--,effect of ,frost on ,tiles and ,aqueducts4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,arrangement ,,of ,,drains4 ,necessity of ,system4--,what ,fall is ,necessary4--,american ,examples4--,outlets4--,wells and ,relief-,pipes4--,peep-holes4--,how to secure ,outlets4--,gate to ,exclude ,back-,water4--,gratings and ,screens to keep out ,frogs1 ,snakes1 ,moles1 c4--,mains1 ,submains1 and ,minors1 how placed4--,capacity of ,pipes4--,mains of ,two ,tiles4--,junction of ,drains4--,effect of ,curves and ,angles on ,currents4--,branch ,pipes4--,draining into ,wells or ,swallow ,holes4--,letter from ,mr4 ,denton4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,the ,,cost ,,of ,,tiles--,,tile ,,machines4 ,prices far too high2 ,albany prices4--,length of ,tiles4--,cost in ,suffolk ,co41 ,england4--,waller's ,machine4--,williams' ,machine4--,cost of ,tiles compared with ,bricks4--,mr4 ,denton's ,estimate of ,cost4--,other ,estimates4--,two-inch ,tiles can be ,made as ,cheaply as ,bricks4--,process of ,rolling ,tiles4--,tile ,machines4--,descriptions of ,daines'4--,pratt ,bro4's4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,the ,,cost ,,of ,,drainage4 ,draining no more expensive than ,fencing4--,engineering4--,guessing not accurate enough4--,slight ,fall sufficient4--,instances4--,two ,inches to ,one-,thousand ,feet4--,cost of ,excavation and ,filling4--,narrow ,tools required4--,tables of ,cubic contents of ,drains4--,cost of ,drains on our own ,farm4--,cost of ,tiles4--,weight and ,freight of ,tiles4--,cost of ,outlets4--,cost of ,collars4--,smaller ,tiles used with ,collars4--,number of ,tiles to the ,acre1 with ,tables4--,length of ,tiles varies4--,number of ,rods to the ,acre at different ,distances4--,final ,estimate of ,cost4--,comparative ,cost of ,tile-,drains and ,stone-,drains4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,draining ,,implements4 ,unreasonable ,expectations about ,draining ,tools4--,levelling ,instruments4--,guessing not ,accurate4--,level by a ,square4--,spirit ,level4--,span1 or ,a ,level4--,grading by ,lines4--,boning-rod4--,challoner's ,drain ,level4--,spades and ,shovels4--,long-handled ,shovel4--,irish ,spade1 description and cut4--,bottoming ,tools4--,narrow ,spades4--,english ,bottoming ,tools4--,pipe-layer4--,pipe-laying ,illustrated4--,pick-axes4--,drain ,gauge4--,drain ,plows1 and ,ditch-,diggers4--,fowler's ,drain ,plow4--,pratt's ,ditch-,digger4--,mc,ewan's ,drain ,plow4--,routt's ,drain ,plow4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,practical ,,directions ,,for ,,opening ,,drains ,,and ,,laying ,,tiles4 ,begin at the ,outlet4--,use of ,plows4--,leveling the ,bottom4--,where to begin to lay ,pipes4--,mode of ,procedure4--,covering ,pipes4--,securing ,joints4--,filling4--,securing ,outlets4--,plans4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,effects ,,of ,,drainage ,,upon ,,the ,,condition ,,of ,,the ,,soil4 ,drainage deepens the ,soil1 and gives the roots a larger pasture4--,cobbett's ,lucerne #cj feet deep4--,mechi's ,parsnips #ac feet long6--,drainage promotes ,pulverization4--,prevents ,surface-,washing4--,lengthens the ,season4--,prevents ,freezing out4--,dispenses with ,open ,ditches4--,saves #be per cent4 of ,labor4--,promotes absorption of ,fertilizing ,substances from the ,air4--,supplies ,air to the ,roots4--,drains run before ,rain2 so do some ,springs4--,drainage warms the ,soil4--,corn sprouts at #ee deg42 ,rye on ,ice4--,cold from ,evaporation4--,heat will not pass downward in ,water4--,count ,rumford's ,experiments with ,hot ,water on ,ice4--,aeration of ,soil by ,drains4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,drainage ,,adapts ,,the ,,soil ,,to ,,germination ,,and ,,vegetation4 ,process of ,germination4--,two ,classes of ,pores in ,soils1 illustrated by cuts4--,too much ,water excludes ,air1 reduces ,temperature4--,how much ,air the ,soil ,contains4--,drainage ,improves the ,quality of ,crops4--,drainage prevents ,drought4--,drained ,soils hold most ,water4--,allow ,roots to go ,deep4--,various ,facts4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,temperature ,,as ,,affected ,,by ,,drainage4 ,drainage ,warms the ,soil in ,spring4--,heat cannot go down in ,wet ,land4--,drainage causes greater ,deposit of ,dew in ,summer4--,dew warms ,plants in ,night1 ,cools them in the ,morning ,sun4--,drainage varies ,temperature by ,lessening ,evaporation4--,what is ,evaporation4--,how it produces ,cold4--,drained ,land ,freezes ,deepest1 but ,thaws ,soonest1 and the ,reasons4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,power ,,of ,,soils ,,to ,,absorb ,,and ,,retain ,,moisture4 ,why does not ,drainage make the ,land too ,dry8--,adhesive ,attraction4--,the ,finest ,soils exert most ,attraction4--,how much ,water different ,soils hold by ,attraction4--,capillary ,attraction1 illustrated4--,power to ,imbibe ,moisture from the ,air4--,weight ,absorbed by #a1jjj lbs4 in #ab ,hours4--,dew1 ,cause of4--,dew ,point4--,cause of ,frost4--,why ,covering ,plants ,protects from ,frost4--,dew ,imparts ,warmth4--,idea that the ,moon ,promotes ,putrefaction4--,quantity of ,dew4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,injury ,,of ,,land ,,by ,,drainage4 ,most ,land cannot be ,over-drained4--,nature a ,deep drainer4--,over-draining of ,peaty ,soils4--,lincolnshire ,fens4 ,visit to them in #aheg4--ef ,bushels of ,wheat to the ,acre4--,wet ,meadows ,subside by ,drainage4--,conclusions4 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,obstruction ,,of ,,drains4 ,tiles will fill up1 unless well laid4--,obstruction by ,sand or ,silt4--,obstructions at the ,outlet from ,frogs1 ,moles1 ,action of ,frost1 and ,cattle4--,obstruction by ,roots4--,willow1 ,ash1 c41 ,trees capricious4--,roots enter ,perennial ,streams4--,obstruction by ,mangold ,wurtzel4--,obstruction by ,per-,oxide of ,iron4--,how ,prevented4--,obstructions by the ,joints ,filling4--,no ,danger with ,two-,inch ,pipes4--,water through the ,pores4--,collars4--,how to ,detect ,obstructions4 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,drainage ,,of ,,stiff ,,clays4 ,clay not impervious1 or it could not be wet and dried4--,puddling1 what is4--,water will stand over ,drains on ,puddled ,soil4--,cracking of ,clays by ,drying4--,drained ,clays improve by time4--,passage of ,water through ,clay makes it permeable4--,experiment by ,mr4 ,pettibone1 of ,vermont4--,pressure of ,water in ,saturated ,soil4 ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,effects ,,of ,,drainage ,,on ,,streams ,,and ,,rivers4 ,drainage ,hastens the ,supply to the ,streams1 and thus creates ,freshets4--,effect of ,drainage on ,meadows below2 on ,water ,privileges4--,conflict of ,manufacturing and ,agricultural ,interests4--,english ,opinions and ,facts4--,uses of ,drainage ,water4--,irrigation4--,drainage ,water for ,stock4--,how used by ,mr4 ,mechi4 ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,legislation--,,drainage ,,companies4 ,england protects her ,farmers4--,meadows ruined by ,corporation dams4--,old ,mills often ,nuisances4--,factory ,reservoirs4--,flowage extends above level of ,dam4--,rye and ,derwent ,drainage4--,give ,steam for ,water-,power4--,right to ,drain through land of others4--,right to natural flow of ,water4--,laws of ,mass4--,right to ,flow2 why not to ,drain8--,land-drainage ,companies in ,england4--,lincolnshire ,fens4--,government ,loans for ,drainage4 ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,,drainage ,,of ,,cellars4 ,wet ,cellars ,unhealthful4--,importance of ,cellars in ,new ,england4--,a ,glance at the ,garret1 by way of ,contrast4--,necessity of ,drains4--,sketch of an ,inundated ,cellar4--,tiles best for ,drains4--,best ,plan of ,cellar ,drain2 ,illustration4--,cementing will not do4--,drainage of ,barn ,cellars4--,uses of them4--,actual ,drainage of a very ,bad ,cellar described4--,drains ,outside and ,inside2 ,illustration4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,,drainage ,,of ,,swamps4 ,vast ,extent of ,swamp ,lands in the ,united ,states4--,their ,soil4--,sources of their ,moisture4--,how to ,drain them4--,the ,soil ,subsides by ,draining4--,catch-water ,drains4--,springs4--,mr4 ,ruffin's ,drainage in ,virginia4--,is there ,danger of ,over-draining8 ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,,american ,,experiments ,,in ,,drainage--,,drainage ,,in ,,ireland4 ,statement of ,b4 ,f4 ,nourse1 of ,maine4--,statement of ,shedd and ,edson1 of ,mass4--,statement of ,h4 ,f4 ,french1 of ,new ,hampshire4--,letter of ,wm4 ,boyle1 ,albert ,model ,farm1 ,glasnevin1 ,ireland4 ,,index4 ,,farm ,,drainage4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,introductory4 ,why this ,treatise does not contain all ,knowledge4--,attention of ,scientific ,men attracted to ,drainage4--,lieutenant ,maury's ,suggestions4--,ralph ,waldo ,emerson's ,views4--,opinions of ,j4 ,h4 ,klippart1 ,esq42 of ,professor ,mapes2 ,b4 ,p4 ,johnston1 ,esq42 ,governor ,wright1 ,mr4 ,custis1 c4--,prejudice against what is ,english4--,acknowledgements to our ,friends at ,home and ,abroad4--,the ,wants of our ,farmers4 ,a ,book upon ,farm ,drainage6 ,what can a person find on such a subject to write a book about8 ,a friend suggests1 that in order to treat any one subject fully1 it is necessary to know everything and speak of everything1 because all knowledge is in some measure connected4 ,with an earnest endeavor to clip the wings of imagination1 and to keep not only on the earth1 but to burrow1 like a mole or a sub-soiler1 in it1 with a painful apprehension lest some technical term in ,chemistry or ,philosophy should falsely indicate that we make pretensions to the character of a scientific farmer1 or some old phrase of law-,latin should betray that we know something besides agriculture1 and so1 are not worthy of the confidence of practical men1 we have1 nevertheless1 by some means1 got together more than a bookfull of matter upon our subject4 ,our publisher says our book must be so large1 and no larger--and we all know that an author is but as a grasshopper in the hands of his publisher1 and ought to be very thankful to be allowed to publish his book at all4 ,so we have only to say1 that if there is any chapter in this book not sufficiently elaborate1 or any subject akin to that of drainage1 that ought to have been embraced in our plan and is not1 it is because we have not space for further expansion4 ,the reader has our heartfelt sympathy1 if it should happen that the very topic which most interests him1 is entirely omitted1 or imperfectly treated2 and we can only advise him to write a book himself1 by way of showing proper resentment1 and put into it everything that everybody desires most to know4 ,a book that shall contain all that we do not know on the subject of drainage1 would be a valuable acquisition to agricultural literature1 and we bespeak an early copy of it when published4 ,,irrigation is a subject closely connected with drainage1 and1 although it would require a volume of equal size with this to lay it properly before the ,american public1 who know so little of water-meadows and liquid-manuring1 and even of the artificial application of water to land in any way1 we feel called upon for an apology for its omission4 ,lieutenant ,maury1 whose name does honor to his nation over all the civilized world1 and on whom the blessings of every navigator upon the great waters1 are constantly showered1 in a letter which we had the honor recently to receive from him1 thus speaks of this subject3 ,i was writing to a friend some months ago upon the subject of drainage in this country1 and ,i am pleased to infer from your letter1 that our opinions are somewhat similar4 ,the climate of ,england is much more moist than this1 though the amount of rain in many parts of this country1 is much greater than the amount of rain there4 ,it drizzles there more than it does here4 ,owing to the high dew point in ,england1 but a small portion only--that is1 comparatively small--of the rain that falls can be evaporated again2 consequently1 it remains in the soil until it is drained off4 ,here1 on the other hand1 the clouds pour it down1 and the sun sucks it up right away1 so that the perfection of drainage for this country would be the very reverse1 almost1 of the drainage in ,england4 ,if1 instead of leading the water off into the water-veins and streams of the country1 as is there done1 we could collect it in pools on the farm1 so as to be used in time of drought for irrigation1 then your system of drainage would be worth untold wealth4 ,of course1 in low grounds1 and all places where the atmosphere does not afford sufficient drainage by evaporation1 the ,english plan will do very well1 and much good may be done by a treatise which shall enable owners to reclaim or improve such places4 ,indeed1 the importance of this subject of drainage1 seems all at once to have found universal acknowledgement throughout our country1 not only from agriculturists1 but from philosophers and men of general science4 ,emerson1 whose eagle glance1 piercing beyond the sight of other men1 recognizes in so-called accidental heroes the ,representative men of the ages1 and in what to others seem but caprices and conventionalisms1 the ,traits of a nation1 yet never overlooks the practical and every-day wants of man1 in a recent address at ,concord1 ,mass41 the place of his residence1 thus characteristically alludes to our subject3 ,concord is one of the oldest towns in the country--far on now in its third century4 ,the ,select-men have once in five years perambulated its bounds1 and yet1 in this year1 a very large quantity of land has been discovered and added to the agricultural land1 and without a murmur of complaint from any neighbor4 ,by drainage1 we have gone to the subsoil1 and we have a ,concord under ,concord1 a ,middlesex under ,middlesex1 and a basement-story of ,massachusetts more valuable than all the superstructure4 ,tiles are political economists4 ,they are so many ,young-,americans announcing a better era1 and a day of fat things4 ,john ,h4 ,klippart1 ,esq41 the learned ,secretary of the ,ohio ,board of ,agriculture1 expresses his opinion upon the importance of our subject in his own ,state1 in this emphatic language3 ,the agriculture of ,ohio can make no farther marked progress until a good system of under-drainage has been adopted4 ,a writer in the ,country ,gentleman1 from ,ashtabula ,county1 ,ohio1 says3--,one of two things must be done by us here4 ,clay predominates in our soil1 and we must under-drain our land1 or sell and move west4 ,professor ,mapes1 of ,new ,york1 under date of ,january #ag1 #ahei1 says of under-draining3 ,i do not believe that farming can be pursued with full profit without it4 ,it would seem to be no longer a question4 ,the experience of ,england1 in the absence of all other proof1 would be sufficient to show that capital may be invested more safely in under-draining1 than in any other way2 for1 after the expenditure of many millions by ,english farmers in this way1 it has been clearly proved that their increased profit1 arising from this cause alone1 is sufficient to pay the total expense in full1 with interest1 within twenty years1 thus leaving their farms increased permanently to the amount of the total cost1 while the income is augmented in a still greater ratio4 ,it is quite doubtful whether ,england could at this time sustain her increased population1 if it were not for her system of thorough-drainage4 ,in my own practice1 the result has been such as to convince me of its advantages1 and ,i should be unwilling to enter into any new cultivation without thorough drainage4 ,b4 ,p4 ,johnson1 ,secretary of the ,new ,york ,board of ,agriculture1 in answer to some inquiries upon the subject of drainage with tiles1 writes us1 under date of ,december1 #aheh1 as follows3 ,i have given much time and attention to the subject of drainage1 having deemed it all-important to the improvement of the farms of our ,state4 ,i am well satisfied1 from a careful examination in ,england1 as well as from my observation in this country1 that tiles are far preferable to any other material that ,i know of for drains1 and this is the opinion of all those who have engaged extensively in the work in this ,state1 so far as ,i have information4 ,it is gratifying to be assured1 that during the year past1 there has been probably more land-draining than during any previous year1 showing the deep interest which is taken in this all-important work1 so indispensable to the success of the farmer4 ,it is ascertained1 by inquiry at the ,land ,office1 that more than #eb1jjj1jjj acres of swamp and overflowed lands have been selected under the ,acts of ,march #b;d1 #ahdi1 and ,september #bhth1 #ahej1 from the dates of those grants to ,september1 #ahef2 and it is estimated that1 when the grants shall have been entirely adjusted1 they will amount to #fj1jjj1jjj acres4 ,grants of these lands have been made by ,congress1 from the public domain1 gratuitously1 to the ,states in which they lie1 upon the idea that they were not only worthless to the ,government1 but dangerous to the health of the neighboring inhabitants1 with the hope that the ,state governments might take measures to reclaim them for cultivation1 or1 at least1 render them harmless1 by the removal of their surplus water4 ,governor ,wright1 of ,indiana1 in a public address1 estimated the marshy lands of that ,state at #c1jjj1jjj acres4 ,these lands1 he says1 were generally avoided by early settlers1 as being comparatively worthless2 but1 when drained1 they become eminently fertile4 ,he further says3 ,i know a farm of #afj acres1 which was sold five years ago for #ejj1 that by an expenditure of less than #bjj1 in draining and ditching1 has been so improved1 that the owner has refused for it an offer of #c1jjj4 ,at the meeting of the ,united ,states ,agricultural ,society1 at ,washington1 in ,january1 #aheg1 ,mr4 ,g4 ,w4 ,p4 ,custis spoke in connection with the great importance of this subject1 of the vast quantity of soil--the richest conceivable--now lying waste1 to the extent of #ajj1jjj acres1 along the banks of the ,lower ,potomac1 and which he denominates by the old ,virginia title of pocoson4 ,the fertility of this reclaimable swamp he reports to be astonishing2 and he has corroborated the opinion by experiments which confounded every beholder4 ,these lands on our time-honored river1 he says1 if brought into use1 would supply provisions at half the present cost1 and would in other respects prove of the greatest advantage4 ,the drainage of highways and walks1 was noted as a topic kindred to our subject1 although belonging more properly perhaps1 to the drainage of towns and to landscape-gardening1 than to farm drainage4 ,this1 too1 was found to be beyond the scope of our proposed treatise1 and has been left to some abler hand4 ,so1 too1 the whole subject of reclaiming lands from the sea1 and from rivers1 by embankment1 and the drainage of lakes and ponds1 which at a future day must attract great attention in this country1 has proved quite too extensive to be treated here4 ,the day will soon come1 when on our ,atlantic coast1 the ocean waves will be stayed1 and all along our great rivers1 the ,spring floods1 and the ,summer freshets1 will be held within artificial barriers1 and the enclosed lands be kept dry by engines propelled by steam1 or some more efficient or economical agent4 ,the half million acres of fen-land in ,lincolnshire1 producing the heaviest wheat crops in ,england2 and ,harlaem ,lake1 in ,holland1 with its #dj1jjj acres of fertile land1 far below the tides1 and once covered with many feet of water1 are examples of what science and well-directed labor may accomplish4 ,but this department of drainage demands the skill of scientific engineers1 and the employment of combined capital and effort1 beyond the means of ,american farmers2 and had we ability to treat it properly1 would afford matter rather of pleasing speculation1 than of practical utility to agricultural readers4 ,with a reckless expenditure of paper and ink1 we had already prepared chapters upon several topics1 which1 though not essential to farm-drainage1 were as near to our subject as the minister usually is limited in preaching1 or the lawyer in argument2 but conformity to the ,procrustean bed1 in whose sheets we had in advance stipulated to sleep1 cost us the amputation of a few of our least important heads4 ,don't be too ,english1 suggests a very wise and politic friend4 ,we are fully aware of the prejudice which still exists in many minds in our country1 against what is peculiarly ,english4 ,because1 forsooth1 our good ,mother ,england1 towards a century ago1 like most fond mothers1 thought her transatlantic daughter quite too young and inexperienced to set up an establishment and manage it for herself1 and drove her into wasteful experiments of wholesale tea-making in ,boston harbor1 by way of illustrating her capacity of entertaining company from beyond seas2 and because1 near half a century ago1 we had some sharp words1 spoken not through the mouths of prophets and sages1 but through the mouths of great guns1 touching the right of our venerated parent to examine the internal economy of our merchant-ships on the sea--because of reminiscences like these1 we are to forswear all that is ,english6 ,and so we may claim no kindred in literature with ,shakspeare and ,milton1 in jurisprudence1 with ,bacon and ,mansfield1 in statesmanship1 with ,pitt and ,fox6 ,whence came the spirit of independence1 the fearless love of liberty of which we boast1 but from our ,english blood8 ,whence came our love of territorial extension1 our national ambition1 exhibited under the affectionate name of annexation8 ,does not this velvet paw with which we softly play with our neighbors' heads1 conceal some long1 crooked talons1 which tell of the ancestral blood of the ,british ,lion8 ,the legislature of a ,new ,england ,state1 not many years ago1 appointed a committee to revise its statutes4 ,this committee had a pious horror of all dead languages1 and a patriotic fear of paying too high a compliment to ,england1 and so reported that all proceedings in courts of law should be in the ,american language6 ,an inquiry by a waggish member1 whether the committee intended to allow proceedings to be in any one of the three hundred ,indian dialects1 restored to the ,english language its appropriate name4 ,though from some of our national traits1 we might possibly be supposed to have sprung from the sowing of the dragon's teeth by ,cadmus1 yet the uniform record of all ,american families which goes back to the three brothers who came over from ,england1 contradicts this theory1 and connects us by blood and lineage with that country4 ,indeed1 we can hardly consent to sell our birthright for so poor a mess of pottage as this petty jealousy offers4 ,a teachable spirit in matters of which we are ignorant1 is usually as profitable and respectable as abundant self-conceit1 and rendering to ,caesar the things that are ,caesar's1 quite as honest as to pocket the coin as our own1 notwithstanding the image and superscription4 ,we make frequent reference to ,english writers and to ,english opinions upon our subject1 because drainage is understood and practiced better in ,england than anywhere else in the world1 and because by personal inspection of drainage-works there1 and personal acquaintance and correspondence with some of the most successful drainers in that country1 we feel some confidence of ability to apply ,english principles to ,american soil and climate4 ,to ,j4 ,bailey ,denton1 ,engineer of the ,general ,land ,drainage ,company1 and one of the most distinguished practical and scientific drainers in ,england1 we wish publicly to acknowledge our obligations for personal favors shown us in the preparation of our work4 ,we claim no great praise of originality in what is here offered to the public4 ,wherever we have found a person of whom we could learn anything1 in this or other countries1 we have endeavored to profit by his teachings1 and whenever the language of another1 in book or journal1 has been found to express forcibly an idea which we deemed worthy of adoption1 we have given full credit for both thought and words4 ,our friends1 ,messrs4 ,shedd and ,edson1 of ,boston1 whose experience as draining engineers entitles them to a high rank among ,american authorities1 have been in constant communication with us1 throughout our labors4 ,the chapter upon ,evaporation1 ,rain fall1 c41 which we deem of great value as a contribution to science in general1 will be seen to be in part credited to them1 as are also the tables showing the discharge of water through pipes of various capacity4 ,drainage is a new subject in ,america1 not well understood1 and we have no man1 it is believed1 peculiarly fitted to teach its theory and practice2 yet the farmers everywhere are awake to its importance1 and are eagerly seeking for information on the subject4 ,many are already engaged in the endeavor to drain their lands1 conscious of their want of the requisite knowledge to effect their object in a profitable manner1 while others are going resolutely forward1 in violation of all correct principles1 wasting their labor1 unconscious even of their ignorance4 ,in ,new ,england1 we have determined to dry the springy hill sides1 and so lengthen our seasons for labor2 we have found1 too1 in the valleys and swamps1 the soil which has been washed from our mountains1 and intend to avail ourselves of its fertility in the best manner practicable4 ,on the prairies of the great ,west1 large tracts are found just a little too wet for the best crops of corn and wheat1 and the inquiry is anxiously made1 how can we be rid of this surplus water4 ,there is no treatise1 ,english or ,american1 which meets the wants of our people4 ,in ,england1 it is true1 land drainage is already reduced to a science2 but their system has grown up by degrees1 the first principles being now too familiar to be at all discussed1 and the points now in controversy there1 quite beyond the comprehension of beginners4 ,america wants a treatise which shall be elementary1 as well as thorough--that shall teach the alphabet1 as well as the transcendentalism1 of draining land--that shall tell the man who never saw a drain-tile what thorough drainage is1 and shall also suggest to those who have studied the subject in ,english books only1 the differences in climate and soil1 in the prices of labor and of products1 which must modify our operations4 ,with some practical experience on his own land1 with careful observation in ,europe and in ,america of the details of drainage operations1 with a somewhat critical examination of published books and papers on all topics connected with the general subject1 the author has endeavored to turn the leisure hours of a laborious professional life to some account for the farmer4 ,although1 as the lawyers say1 the presumptions are1 perhaps1 strongly against the idea1 yet a professional man may understand practical farming4 ,the profession of the law has made some valuable contributions to agricultural literature4 ,sir ,anthony ,fitzherbert1 author of the ,boke of ,husbandrie1 published in #aebc1 was ,chief ,justice of the ,common ,pleas1 and1 as he says1 an experyenced farmer of more than #dj years4 ,the author of that charming little book1 ,talpa1 it is said1 is also a lawyer1 and there is such wisdom in the idea1 so well expressed by ,emerson as a fact1 that we commend it by way of consolation to men of all the learned professions3 ,all of us keep the farm in reserve1 as an asylum where to hide our poverty and our solitude1 if we do not succeed in society4 ,besides the prejudice against what is foreign1 we meet everywhere the prejudice against what is new1 though far less in this country than in ,england4 ,no longer ago than #ahce1 says the ,quarterly ,review1 ,sir ,robert ,peel presented a ,farmers' ,club1 at ,tamworth1 with two iron plows of the best construction4 ,on his next visit1 the old plows1 with the wooden mould-boards1 were again at work4 ',sir1' said a member of the club1 'we tried the iron1 and we be all of one mind1 that they make the weeds grow6' ,american farmers have no such ignorant prejudice as this4 ,they err rather by having too much faith in themselves1 than by having too little in the idea of progress1 and will be more likely to go ahead in the wrong direction1 than to remain quiet in their old position4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,draining4 ,draining as ,old as the ,deluge4--,roman ,authors4--,walter ,bligh in #afej4--,no thorough drainage till ,smith of ,deanston4--,no mention of tiles in the ,compleat ,body of ,husbandry1 #ageh4--,tiles found #ajj years old4--,elkington's ,system4--,johnstone's ,puns and ,peripatetics4--,draining ,springs4--,bletonism1 or the ,faculty of ,perceiving ,subterranean ,water4--,deanston ,system4--,views of ,mr4 ,parkes4--,keythorpe ,system4--,wharncliffe ,system4--,introduction of tiles into ,america4--,john ,johnston1 and ,mr4 ,delafield1 of ,new ,york4 ,the art of removing superfluous water from land1 must be as ancient as the art of cultivation2 and from the time when ,noah and his family anxiously watched the subsiding of the waters into their appropriate channels1 to the present1 men must have felt the ill effects of too much water1 and adopted means more or less effective1 to remove it4 ,the ,roman writers upon agriculture1 ,cato1 ,columella1 and ,pliny1 all mention draining1 and some of them give minute directions for forming drains with stones1 branches of trees1 and straw4 ,palladius1 in his ,de ,aquae ,ductibus1 mentions earthen-ware tubes1 used however for aqueducts1 rather for conveying water from place to place1 than for draining lands for agriculture4 ,nothing1 however1 like the systematic drainage of the present day1 seems to have been conceived of in ,england1 until about #afej1 when ,captain ,walter ,bligh published a work1 which is interesting1 as embodying and boldly advocating the theory of deep-drainage as applied by him to water-meadows and swamps1 and as applicable to the drainage of all other moist lands4 ,we give from the #gth volume of the ,journal of the ,royal ,agricultural ,society1 in the language of that eminent advocate of deep-drainage1 ,josiah ,parkes1 an account of this rare book1 and of the principles which it advocates1 as a fitting introduction to the more modern and more perfect system of thorough drainage3 ,the author of this work was a ,captain ,walter ,bligh1 signing himself1 ',a ,lover of ,ingenuity4' ,it is quaintly entitled1 ',the ,english ,improver ,improved2 or1 the ,survey of ,husbandry ,surveyed2' with several prefaces1 but specially addressed to ',the ,right ,honorable the ,lord ,general ,cromwell1 and the ,right ,honorable the ,lord ,president1 and the rest of the ,honorable ,society of the ,council of ,state4' ,in his instructions for forming the flooding and draining trenches of water-meadows1 the author says of the latter3--',and for thy drayning-trench1 it must be made so deep1 that it goe to the bottom of the cold spewing moyst water1 that feeds the flagg and the rush2 for the widenesse of it1 use thine own liberty1 but be sure to make it so wide as thou mayest goe to the bottom of it1 which must be so low as any moysture lyeth1 which moysture usually lyeth under the over and second swarth of the earth1 in some gravel or sand1 or else1 where some greater stones are mixt with clay1 under which thou must goe half one spade's graft deep at least4 ,yea1 suppose this corruption that feeds and nourisheth the rush or flagg1 should lie a yard or four-foot deepe2 to the bottom of it thou must goe1 if ever thou wilt drayn it to purpose1 or make the utmost advantage of either floating or drayning1 without which the water cannot have its kindly operation2 for though the water fatten naturally1 yet still this coldnesse and moysture lies gnawing within1 and not being taken clean away1 it eates out what the water fattens2 and so the goodnesse of the water is1 as it were1 riddled1 screened1 and strained out into the land1 leaving the richnesse and the leanesse sliding away from it4' ,in another place1 he replies to the objectors of floating1 that it will breed the rush1 the flagg1 and mare-blab2 'only make thy drayning-trenches deep enough1 and not too far off thy floating course1 and ,i'le warrant it they drayn away that under-moysture1 fylth1 and venom as aforesaid1 that maintains them2 and then believe me1 or deny ,scripture1 which ,i hope thou doust not1 as ,bildad said unto ,job1 ,can the rush grow without mire1 or the flagg without water8 ,job viii4 #ab4 ,that interrogation plainly showes that the rush cannot grow1 the water being taken from the root2 for it is not the moystnesse upon the surface of the land1 for then every shower should increase the rush1 but it is that which lieth at the root1 which1 drayned away at the bottom1 leaves it naked and barren of relief4' ,the author frequently returns to this charge1 explaining over and over again the necessity of removing what we call bottom-water1 and which he well designates as 'filth and venom4' ,in the course of my operations as a drainer1 ,i have met with1 or heard of1 so many instances of swamp-drainage1 executed precisely according to the plans of this author1 and sometimes in a superior manner--the conduits being formed of walling stone1 at a period long antecedent to the memory of the living--that ,i am disposed to consider the practice of deep drainage to have originated with ,captain ,bligh1 and to have been preserved by imitators in various parts of the country2 since a book1 which passed through three editions in the time of the ,commonwealth1 must necessarily have had an extensive circulation1 and enjoyed a high renown4 ,several complimentary autograph verses1 written by some imitators and admirers of the ingenious ,bligh1 are bound up with the volume4 ,i find also1 not unfrequently1 very ancient deep drains in arable fields1 and some of them still in good condition2 and in a case or two1 ,i have met with several ancient drains six feet deep1 placed parallel with each other1 but at so great a distance asunder1 as not to have commanded a perfect drainage of the intermediate space4 ,the author from whom ,i have so largely quoted1 is the earliest known to me1 who has had the sagacity to distinguish between the transient effect of rain1 and the constant action of stagnant bottom-water in maintaining land in a wet condition4 ,dr4 ,shier1 editor of ,davy's ,agricultural ,chemistry1 says1 ,the history of drainage in ,britain may be briefly told4 ,till the time of ,smith1 of ,deanston1 draining was generally regarded as the means of freeing the land from springs1 oozes1 and under-water1 and it was applied only to lands palpably wet1 and producing rushes and other aquatic plants4 ,he then proceeds to give the principles of ,elkington1 ,smith1 ,parkes1 and other modern writers1 of which we shall speak more at large4 ,the work published in ,england1 not far from ,captain ,bligh's time1 under the title ,a ,complete ,body of ,husbandry1 undertakes to give directions for all sorts of farming processes4 ,a ,second ,edition1 in four octavo volumes1 of which we have a copy1 was published in #ageh4 ,it professes to treat of ,draining in ,general1 and then of the draining of boggy land and of fens1 but gives no intimation that any other lands require drainage4 ,directions are given for filling drains with rough stones1 to be covered with refuse wood1 and over that1 some of the earth that was thrown out in digging4 ,by this means1 says the writer1 a passage will be left free for all the water the springs yield1 and there will be none of these great openings upon the surface4 ,he thus describes a method practiced in ,oxfordshire of draining with bushes3 ,let the trenches be cut deeper than otherwise1 suppose three foot deep1 and two foot over4 ,as soon as they are made1 let the bottoms of them be covered with fresh-cut blackthorn bushes4 ,upon these1 throw in a quantity of large refuse stones2 over these let there be another covering of straw1 and upon this1 some of the earth1 so as to make the surface level with the rest4 ,these trenches will always keep open4 ,no mention whatever is made in this elaborate treatise of tiles of any kind1 which affords very strong evidence that they were not in use for drainage at that time4 ,in a note1 however1 to ,stephen's ,draining and ,irrigation1 we find the following statement and opinion3 ,in draining the park at ,grimsthorpe1 ,lincolnshire1 about three years ago1 some drains1 made with tiles1 were found eight feet below the surface of the ground4 ,the tiles were similar to what are now used1 and in as good a state of preservation as when first laid1 although they must have remained there above one hundred years4 ,,elkington',s ,,system ,,of ,,drainage4 ,it appears1 that1 in #agie1 the ,british ,parliament1 at the request of the ,board of ,agriculture1 voted to ,joseph ,elkington a reward of ,l#ajjj1 for his valuable discoveries in the drainage of land4 ,joseph ,elkington was a ,warwickshire farmer1 and ,mr4 ,gisborne says he was a man of considerable genius1 but he had the misfortune to be illiterate4 ,his discovery had created such a sensation in the agricultural world1 that it was thought important to record its details2 and1 as ,elkington's health was extremely precarious1 the ,board resolved to send ,mr4 ,john ,johnstone to visit1 in company with him1 his principal works of drainage1 and to transmit to posterity the benefits of his knowledge4 ,accordingly1 ,mr4 ,john ,johnstone1 having carefully studied ,elkington's system1 under its author1 in the peripatetic method1 undertook1 like ,plato1 to record the sayings of his master in science1 and produced a work1 entitled1 ,an ,account of the ,most ,approved ,mode of ,draining ,land1 ,according to the ,system ,practised by ,mr4 ,joseph ,elkington4 ,it was published at ,edinburgh1 in #agig4 ,mr4 ,gisborne says1 that ,elkington found in ,johnstone a very inefficient exponent of his opinions1 and of the principles on which he conducted his works4 ,every one1 says he1 who reads the work1 which is popularly called ',elkington on ,draining1' should be aware1 that it is not ,joseph who thinks and speaks therein1 but ,john1 who tells his readers what1 according to his ideas1 ,joseph would have thought and spoken4 ,again-- ,johnstone1 measured by general capacity1 is a very shallow drainer6 ,he delights in exceptional cases1 of which he may have met with some1 but of which1 we suspect the great majority to be products of his own ingenuity1 and to be put forward1 with a view to display the ability with which he could encounter them4 ,johnstone's report seems to have undergone several revisions1 and to have been enlarged and reproduced in other forms than the original1 for we find1 that1 in #ahch1 it was published in the ,united ,states1 at ,petersburg1 ,virginia1 as a supplement to the ,farmer's ,register1 by ,edmund ,ruffin1 ,esq41 editor1 a reprint from the third ,british ,edition1 revised and enlarged1 under the following title3 ,a ,systematic ,treatise on the ,theory and ,practice of ,draining ,land1 c41 according to the most approved methods1 and adapted to the various situations and soils of ,england and ,scotland2 also on sea1 river1 and lake embankments1 formation of ponds and artificial pieces of water1 with an appendix1 containing hints and directions for the culture and improvement of bog1 morass1 moor1 and other unproductive ground1 after being drained2 the whole illustrated by plans and sections applicable to the various situations and forms of construction4 ,inscribed to the ,highland and ,agricultural ,society of ,scotland1 by ,john ,johnstone1 ,land ,surveyor4 ,mr4 ,ruffin certainly deserves great credit for his enterprise in republishing in ,america1 at so early a day1 a work of which an ,english copy could not be purchased for less than six dollars1 as well as for his zealous labors ever since in the cause of agriculture4 ,there is1 in this work of ,johnstone1 a quaintness which he1 probably1 did not learn from ,elkington1 and which illustrates the character of his mind as one not peculiarly adapted to a plain and practical history of another man's system and labors4 ,for instance1 in speaking of the arrangement of his subject into parts1 he says1 in a note1 ,the subject being closely connected with cutting1 section is held as a better division than chapter6 ,again1 he speaks of embanking1 and says he has some experience on that head4 ,then he adds the following note1 lest a possible pun should be lost3 ,an embankment is often termed a 'head1' as it makes head1 or resistance1 against the encroachment of high tide or river floods4 ,there is some danger that a mind which scents a whimsical analogy of meaning like this1 may entirely lose the main track of pursuit2 but ,johnstone's special mission was to ascertain ,elkington's method1 and his account of it is1 therefore1 the best authority we have on the subject4 ,he gives the following statement of ,elkington's discovery3 ,in the year #agfc1 ,elkington was left by his father in the possession of a farm called ,prince-,thorp1 in the parish of ,stretton-upon-,dunsmore1 and county of ,warwick4 ,the soil of this farm was so poor1 and1 in many places1 so extremely wet1 that it was the cause of rotting several hundreds of his sheep1 which first induced him1 if possible1 to drain it4 ,this he begun to do1 in #agfd1 in a field of wet clay soil1 rendered almost a swamp1 or shaking bog1 by the springs which issued from an adjoining bank of gravel and sand1 and overflowed the surface of the ground below4 ,to drain this field1 which was of considerable extent1 he cut a trench about four or five feet deep1 a little below the upper side of the bog1 where the wetness began to make its appearance2 and1 after proceeding with it in this direction and at this depth1 he found it did not reach the principal body of subjacent water from which the evil arose4 ,on perceiving this1 he was at a loss how to proceed1 when one of his servants came to the field with an iron crow1 or bar1 for the purpose of making holes for fixing sheep hurdles in an adjoining part of the farm1 as represented on the plan4 ,having a suspicion that his drain was not deep enough1 and desirous to know what strata lay under it1 he took the iron bar1 and having forced it down about four feet below the bottom of the trench1 on pulling it out1 to his astonishment1 a great quantity of water burst up through the hole he had thus made1 and ran along the drain4 ,this led him to the knowledge1 that wetness may be often produced by water confined farther below the surface of the ground than it was possible for the usual depth of drains to reach1 and that an auger would be a useful instrument to apply in such cases4 ,thus1 chance was the parent of this discovery1 as she often is of other useful arts2 and fortunate it is for society1 when such accidents happen to those who have sense and judgment to avail themselves of hints thus fortuitously given4 ,in this manner he soon accomplished the drainage of his whole farm1 and rendered it so perfectly dry and sound1 that none of his flock was ever after affected with disease4 ,by the success of this experiment1 ,mr4 ,elkington's fame1 as a drainer1 was quickly and widely extended2 and1 after having successfully drained several farms in his neighborhood1 he was1 at last1 very generally employed for that purpose in various parts of the kingdom1 till about thirty years ago1 when the country had the melancholy cause to regret his loss4 ,from his long practice and experience1 he became so successful in the works he undertook1 and so skillful in judging of the internal strata of the earth and the nature of springs1 that1 with remarkable precision1 he could ascertain where to find water1 and trace the course of springs that made no appearance on the surface of the ground4 ,during his practice of more than thirty years1 he drained in various parts of ,england1 particularly in the midland counties1 many thousand acres of land1 which1 from being originally of little or no value1 soon became as useful as any in the kingdom1 by producing the most valuable kinds of grain and feeding the best and healthiest species of stock4 ,many have erroneously entertained an idea that ,elkington's skill lay solely in applying the auger for the tapping of springs1 without attaching any merit to his method of conducting the drains4 ,the accidental circumstance above stated gave him the first notion of using an auger1 and directed his attention to the profession and practice of draining1 in the course of which he made various useful discoveries1 as will be afterwards explained4 ,with regard to the use of the auger1 though there is every reason to believe that he was led to employ that instrument from the circumstance already stated1 and did not derive it from any other source of intelligence1 yet there is no doubt that others might have hit upon the same idea without being indebted for it to him4 ,it has happened1 that1 in attempts to discover mines by boring1 springs have been tapped1 and ground thereby drained1 either by letting the water down1 or by giving it vent to the surface2 and that the auger has been likewise used in bringing up water in wells1 to save the expense of deeper digging2 but that it had been used in draining land1 before ,mr4 ,elkington made that discovery1 no one has ventured to assert4 ,begging pardon of the shade of ,john ,johnstone for the liberty1 we will copy from ,mr4 ,gisborne1 as being more clearly expressed1 a summary explanation of ,elkington's system1 as ,mr4 ,gisborne has deduced it from ,johnstone's report1 with two simple and excellent plans3 ,a slight modification of ,johnstone's best and simplest plan1 with a few sentences of explanation1 will sufficiently elucidate ,elkington's mystery1 and will comprehend the case of all simple superficial springs4 ,perhaps in ,agricultural ,britain1 no formation is more common than moderate elevations of pervious material1 such as chalk1 gravel1 and imperfect stone or rock of various kinds1 resting upon more horizontal beds of clay1 or other material less pervious than themselves1 and at their inferior edge overlapped by it4 ,for this overlap geological reasons are given1 into which we cannot now enter4 ,in order to make our explanation simple1 we use the words1 gravel and clay1 as generic for pervious and impervious material4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,our drawing is an attempt to combine plan and section1 which will probably be sufficiently illustrative4 ,from ,a to ,t is the overlap1 which is1 in fact1 a dam holding up the water in the gravel4 ,in this dam there is a weak place at ,s1 through which water issues permanently 7a superficial spring71 and runs over the surface from ,s to ,o4 ,this issue has a tendency to lower the water in the gravel to the line ,m m4 ,but when continued rains overpower this issue1 the water in the gravel rises to the line ,a a1 and meeting with no impediment at the point ,a1 it flows over the surface between ,a and ,s4 ,in addition to these more decided outlets1 the water is probably constantly squeezing1 in a slow way1 through the whole dam4 ,elkington undertakes to drain the surface from ,a to ,o4 ,he cuts a drain from ,o to ,b1 and then he puts down a bore-hole1 an ,artesian well1 from ,b to ,z4 ,his hole enters the tail of the gravel2 the water contained therein rises up it3 and the tendency of this new outlet is to lower the water to the line ,b b4 ,if so lowered that it can no longer overflow at ,a or at ,s1 and the surface from ,a to ,o is drained1 so far as the springs are concerned1 though our section can only represent one spring1 and one summit-overflow1 it is manifest that1 however long the horizontal line of junction between the gravel and clay may be1 however numerous the weak places 7springs7 in the overlap1 or dam1 and the summit-overflows1 they will all be stopped1 provided they lie at a higher level than the line ,b b4 ,if ,elkington had driven his drain forward from ,b to n1 he would1 at least1 equally have attained his object2 but the bore-hole was less expensive4 ,he escapes the deepest and most costly portion of his drain4 ,at x1 he might have bored to the centre of the earth without ever realizing the water in this gravel4 ,his whole success1 therefore1 depended upon his sagacity in hitting the point ,z4 ,another simple and very common case1 first successfully treated by ,elkington1 is illustrated by our second drawing4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,between gravel hills lies a dish-shaped bed of clay1 the gravel being continuous under the dish4 ,springs overflow at ,a and ,b1 and wet the surface from ,a to ,o1 and from ,b to ,o4 ,o ,d is a drain four or five feet deep1 and having an adequate outlet2 ,d ,z a bore-hole4 ,the water in the gravel rises from ,z to ,d1 and is lowered to the level ,d m and ,d n4 ,of course it ceases to flow over at ,a and ,b4 ,if ,elkington's heart had failed him when he reached ,x1 he would have done no good4 ,all his success depends on his reaching ,z1 however deep it may lie4 ,elkington was a discoverer4 ,we do not at all believe that his discoveries hinged on the accident that the shepherd walked across the field with a crow-bar in his hand4 ,when he forced down that crow-bar1 he had more in his head than was ever dreamed of in ,johnstone's philosophy4 ,such accidents do not happen to ordinary men4 ,elkington's subsequent use of his discovery1 in which no one has yet excelled him1 warrants our supposition that the discovery was not accidental4 ,he was not one of those prophets who are without honor in their own country3 he created an immense sensation1 and received a parliamentary grant of one thousand pounds4 ,one writer compares his auger to ,moses' rod1 and ,arthur ,young speculates1 whether though worthy to be rewarded by millers on one side of the hill for increasing their stream1 he was not liable to an action by those on the other for diminishing theirs4 ,johnstone sums up this system as follows3 ,draining according to ,elkington's principles depends chiefly upon three things3 #a4 ,upon discovering the main spring1 or source of the evil4 #b4 ,upon taking the subterraneous bearings3 and1 #c;dly4 ,by making use of the auger to reach and tap the springs1 when the depth of the drain is not sufficient for that purpose4 ,the first thing1 therefore1 to be observed is1 by examining the adjoining high grounds1 to discover what strata they are composed of2 and then to ascertain1 as nearly as possible1 the inclination of these strata1 and their connection with the ground to be drained1 and thereby to judge at what place the level of the spring comes nearest to where the water can be cut off1 and most readily discharged4 ,the surest way of ascertaining the lay1 or inclination1 of the different strata1 is1 by examining the bed of the nearest streams1 and the edges of the banks that are cut through by the water2 and any pits1 wells1 or quarries that may be in the neighborhood4 ,after the main spring has been thus discovered1 the next thing is1 to ascertain a line on the same level1 to one or both sides of it1 in which the drain may be conducted1 which is one of the most important parts of the operation1 and one on which the art of draining in a scientific manner essentially depends4 ,lastly1 the use of the auger1 which1 in many cases1 is the sine qua non of the business1 is to reach and tap the spring when the depth of the drain does not reach it3 where the level of the outlet will not admit of its being cut to a greater depth2 and where the expense of such cutting would be great1 and the execution of it difficult4 ,according to these principles1 this system of draining has been attended with extraordinary consequences1 not only in laying the land dry in the vicinity of the drain1 but also springs1 wells1 and wet ground1 at a considerable distance1 with which there was no apparent connection4 ,,drainage ,,of ,,springs4 ,wherever1 from any cause1 water bursts out from a hill's side1 or from below1 in a well defined spring1 in any considerable quantity1 the ,elkington method of cutting a deep drain directly into the seat of the evil1 and so lowering the water that it may be carried away below the surface1 is obviously the true and common-sense remedy4 ,there may be cases where1 in addition to the drain1 it may be expedient to bore with an auger in the course of the drain4 ,this1 however1 would be useful only where1 from the peculiar formation1 water is pent up upon a retentive subsoil in the manner already indicated4 ,elkington's method of draining by boring is illustrated in the following cut4 ,in studying the history of ,elkington's discovery1 and especially of his own application of it1 it would seem that he must have possessed some peculiar faculty of ascertaining the subterranean currents of water1 not possessed or even claimed by modern engineers4 ,indeed1 ,mr4 ,denton1 who may rightly claim as much skill as a draining engineer1 perhaps1 as any man in ,england1 expressly says1 ,it does not appear that any person now will undertake to do what ,elkington did sixty years back4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,in the ,patent ,office ,report for #ahea1 at page #ad1 may be found an article entitled1 ,well-digging1 in which it is gravely contended1 and not without a fair show of evidence1 that certain persons possess the power of indicating1 by means of a sort of divining rod of hazel or willow1 subterraneous currents or springs of water4 ,this power has been called ,bletonism1 which is defined by ,webster to be1 the faculty of perceiving and indicating subterraneous springs and currents by sensation--so called from one ,bleton1 of ,france1 who possessed this faculty4 ,under the authority of ,webster1 and of ,mr4 ,ewbank1 the ,commissioner of ,patents1 in whose report the article in question was published by the ,government of the ,united ,states1 it will not be considered1 perhaps1 as putting faith in water-witchery1 to suggest that1 possibly1 ,elkington did really possess a faculty1 not common to all mankind1 of detecting running water or springs1 even far below the surface4 ,we have the high authority of ,tam o' ,shanter for the opinion1 that witches cannot cross a stream of water2 for1 when pursued by the hellish legion from ,kirk-,alloway1 he put his gude mare ,meg to do her speedy utmost for the bridge of ,doon1 knowing that1 ,a running stream they darena cross4 ,if witches are thus affected by flowing water1 there is no reason to doubt that others1 of peculiar organization1 may possess some sensitiveness at its presence4 ,it would not1 probably1 be useful to pursue more into detail the method of ,mr4 ,elkington4 ,the general principles upon which he wrought have been sufficiently explained4 ,the miracles performed under his system seem to have ceased with his life1 and1 until we receive some new revelation as to the mode of finding the springs hidden in the earth1 we must be content with the moderate results of a careful application of ordinary science1 and not be discouraged in our attempts to leave the earth the better for our having lived on it1 if we do not1 like ,elkington1 succeed in draining1 by a single ditch and a few auger holes1 sixty statute acres of land4 ,,the ,,deanston ,,system2 ,,or1 ,,frequent ,,drainage4 ,james ,smith1 ,esq41 of ,deanston1 ,sterlingshire1 in ,scotland1 next after ,elkington1 in point of time1 is the prominent leader of drainage operations in ,great ,britain4 ,his peculiar views came into general notice about #ahcb1 and1 in #ahdd1 we find published a seventh edition of his ,remarks on ,thorough ,draining4 ,smith was a man of education1 and seems to be1 in fact1 the first advocate of any system worthy the name of thorough drainage4 ,instead of the few very deep drains1 cut with reference to particular springs or sources of wetness1 adopted by ,elkington1 ,smith advocated and practiced a systematic operation over the whole field1 at regular distances and shallow depths4 ,smith states1 that in ,scotland1 much more injury arises from the retention of rain water1 than from springs2 while ,elkington's attention seems to have been especially directed to springs1 as the source of the evil4 ,the characteristic views of ,smith1 of ,deanston1 as stated by ,mr4 ,denton1 were3 #ast4 ,frequent drains at intervals of from ten to twenty-four feet4 #bnd4 ,shallow depth--not exceeding thirty inches--designed for the single purpose of freeing that depth of soil from stagnant and injurious water4 #crd4 ',parallel drains at regular distances carried throughout the whole field1 without reference to the wet and dry appearance of portions of the field1' in order 'to provide frequent opportunities for the water1 rising from below and falling on the surface1 to pass freely and completely off4 #dth4 ,direction of the minor drains 'down the steep1' and that of the mains along the bottom of the chief hollow2 tributary mains being provided for the lesser hollows4 ,the reason assigned for the minor drains following the line of steepest descent1 was1 that 'the stratification generally lies in sheets at an angle to the surface4' #eth4 ,as to material--,stones preferred to tiles and pipes4 ,mr4 ,smith somewhat modified his views during the last years of his life1 especially as to the depth of drains1 and1 instead of shallow drains1 recommended a depth of three feet1 and even more in some cases2 but continued1 to the time of his death1 which occurred about #ahed1 to oppose any increased intervals between the drains1 and the extreme depth of four feet and more advocated by others4 ,the peculiar points insisted on by ,smith were1 that drains should be near and parallel4 ,his own words are3 ,the drains should be parallel with each other and at regular distances1 and should be carried throughout the whole field1 without regard to the wet and dry appearance of portions of the field--the principle of this system being the providing of frequent opportunities for the water rising from below1 or falling on the surface1 to pass freely and completely off4 ,mr4 ,smith called it the frequent drain system1 and ,mr4 ,denton says1 that1 for distinction sake1 ,i have ventured to christen this ready-made practice1 the gridiron system1 a name1 by the way1 which will1 probably1 seem to most readers more distinctive than respectful4 ,whatever may be the improvements on the ,deanston method of draining1 the name of ,mr4 ,smith deserves1 and1 indeed1 has already obtained1 a high place among the improvers of agriculture4 ,,views ,,of ,,mr4 ,,parkes4 ,about the year #ahdf1 when the first ,act of the ,british ,parliament authorizing the advance of public money to promote the improvement of land by works of drainage was passed1 a careful investigation of the whole subject was made by a ,committee of the ,house of ,lords1 and it was found that the best recorded opinions1 if we except the peculiar views of ,elkington1 were represented by1 if not merged into1 those of ,smith1 of ,deanston1 which have already been stated1 or those of ,josiah ,parkes4 ,mr4 ,parkes is the author of ,essays on the ,philosophy and ,art of ,land ,drainage1 and of many valuable papers on the same subject1 published in the journal of the ,royal ,agricultural ,society1 of which he was consulting engineer4 ,he is spoken of by ,mr4 ,denton as one whose philosophical publications on the same subject gave a scientific bearing to it1 quite irreconcilable with the more mechanical rules laid down by ,mr4 ,smith4 ,the characteristic views of ,mr4 ,parkes1 as set forth at that time1 as compared with those of ,mr4 ,smith1 are-- #ast4 ,less frequent drains1 at intervals varying from twenty-one to fifty feet1 with preference for wide intervals4 #bnd4 ,deeper drains at a minimum depth of four feet1 designed with the two-fold object of not only freeing the active soil from stagnant and injurious water1 but of converting the water falling on the surface into an agent for fertilizing2 no drainage being deemed efficient that did not both remove the water failing on the surface1 and 'keep down the subterranean water at a depth exceeding the power of capillary attraction to elevate it to near the surface4' #crd4 ,parallel arrangement of drains1 as advocated by ,smith1 of ,deanston4 #dth4 ,the advantage of increased depth1 as compensating for increased width between the drains4 #eth4 ,pipes of an inch bore1 the 'best known conduit' for the parallel drains4 7,see ,evidence before ,lords' ,committee on ,entailed ,estates1 #ahde1 ,q4 #fg47 #fth4 ,the cost of draining uniform clays should not exceed ,l#c per acre4 ,the most material differences between the views of these two leaders of what have been deemed rival systems of drainage1 will be seen to be the following4 ,smith advocates drains of two to three feet in depth1 at from ten to twenty-four feet distances2 while ,parkes contends for a depth of not less than four feet1 with a width between of from twenty-one to fifty feet1 the depth in some measure compensating for the increased distance4 ,mr4 ,parkes advocated the use of pipes of one inch bore1 which ,mr4 ,smith contemptuously denominated pencil-cases1 and which subsequent experience has shown to be quite too small for prudent use4 ,the estimate of ,mr4 ,parkes1 based1 in part1 upon his wide distances and small pipes1 that drainage might be effected generally in ,england at a cost of about fifteen dollars per acre1 was soon found to be far below the average expense1 which is now estimated at nearly double that sum4 ,the ,enclosure ,commissioners1 after the most careful inquiry1 adopted fully the views of ,mr4 ,parkes as to the depth of drains4 ,mr4 ,parkes himself1 saw occasion to modify his ideas1 as to the cost of drainage1 upon further investigation of the subject1 and fixed his estimates as ranging from #ae to #cj per acre1 according to soil and other local circumstances4 ,it has been well said by a recent ,english writer1 of ,mr4 ,parkes3 ,that gentleman's services in the cause of drainage1 have been inestimable1 and his high reputation will not be affected by any remarks which experience may suggest with reference to details1 so long as the philosophical principles he first advanced in support of deep drainage are acknowledged by thinking men4 ,mr4 ,parkes' practice in #ahed1 will be found to differ very considerably from his anticipations of #ahde1 but the influence of his earlier writings and sayings continues to this day4 ,,the ,,keythorpe ,,system4 ,lord ,berners having adopted a method of drainage on his estate at ,keythorpe1 differing somewhat from any of the regular and more uniform modes which have been considered1 a sharp controversy as to its merits has arisen1 and still continues in ,england1 which1 like most controversies1 may be of more advantage to others than to the parties immediately concerned4 ,the theory of the ,keythorpe system seems to have been invented by ,mr4 ,joshua ,trimmer1 a distinguished geologist of ,england1 who1 about #ahed1 produced a paper1 which was published in the journal of the ,royal ,agricultural ,society1 on the ,keythorpe ,system4 ,he states that his own theory was based entirely on his knowledge of the geological structure of the earth1 which will be presently given in his own language1 and that he afterwards ascertained that ,lord ,berners1 who had no special theory to vindicate1 had1 by the tentative process1 or in plain ,english1 by trying experiments1 hit upon substantially the same system1 and found it to work admirably4 ,most people in the ,united ,states have no idea of what it is to be patronized by a lord4 ,in ,england1 it is thought by many to be the thing needful to the chance1 even1 of success of any new theory1 and accordingly1 ,mr4 ,trimmer1 without hesitation1 availed himself of the privilege of being patronized by ,lord ,berners2 and the latter1 before he was aware of how much the agricultural world was indebted to him for his valuable discoveries1 suddenly found himself at the head of the ,keythorpe ,system of ,drainage4 ,his lordship was probably as much surprised to ascertain that he had been working out a new system1 as some man of whom we have heard1 was1 to learn that he had been speaking prose all his life6 ,at the call of the public1 however1 his lordship at once gave to the world the facts in his possession1 making no claim to any great discovery1 and leaving ,mr4 ,trimmer to defend the new system as best he might4 ,the latter1 in one of his pamphlets published in defence of the ,keythorpe system1 states its claims as follows3 ,the peculiarities of the ,keythorpe system of draining consist in this--that the parallel drains are not equidistant1 and that they cross the line of the greatest descent4 ,the usual depth is three and a half feet1 but some are as deep as five and six feet4 ,the depth and width of interval are determined by digging trial-holes1 in order to ascertain not only the depth at which the bottom water is reached1 but the height to which the water rises in the holes1 and the distance at which a drain will lay the hole dry4 ,in sinking these holes1 clay-banks are found with hollows or furrows between them1 which are filled with a more porous soil1 as represented in the annexed sectional diagram4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4 a a ,trial-holes4 b ,clay-banks of lias or of boulder-clay4 c ,a more porous warp-drift filling furrows between the clay-banks4 ,the next object is to connect these furrows by drains laid across them4 ,the result is1 that as the furrows and ridges here run along the fall of the ground1 which ,i have observed to be the case generally elsewhere1 the sub-mains follow the fall1 and the parallel drains cross it obliquely4 ,the intervals between the parallel drains are irregular1 varying1 in the same field1 from #ad to #ba1 #ca1 and #ei feet4 ,the distances are determined by opening the diagonal drains at the greatest distance from the trial-holes at which experience has taught the practicability of its draining the hole4 ,if it does not succeed in accomplishing the object1 another drain is opened in the interval4 ,it has been found1 in many cases1 that a drain crossing the clay-banks and furrows takes the water from holes lying lower down the hill2 that is to say1 it intercepts the water flowing to them through these subterranean channels4 ,the parallel drains1 however1 are not invariably laid across the fall4 ,the exceptions are on ground where the fall is very slight1 in which case they are laid along the line of greatest descent4 ,on such grounds there are few or no clay-banks and furrows4 ,it would seem highly probable that the mode of drainage adopted at ,keythorpe1 is indebted for its success at that place1 to a geological formation not often met with4 ,at a public discussion in ,england1 ,mr4 ,t4 ,scott1 a gentleman of large experience in draining1 stated that he never1 in his practice1 had met with such a geological formation as was said to exist at ,keythorpe1 except in such large areas as to admit of their being drained in the usual gridiron or parallel fashion4 ,it is claimed for this system by its advocates1 that it is far cheaper than any other1 because drains are only laid in the places where1 by careful examination beforehand1 by opening pits1 they are found to be necessary2 and that is a great saving of expense1 when compared with the system of laying the drains at equal distances and depths over the field4 ,against what is urged as the ,keythorpe system1 several allegations are brought4 ,in the first place1 that it is in fact no system4 ,mr4 ,denton1 having carefully examined the ,keythorpe estate1 and the published statements of its owner1 asserts1 that the drains there laid have no uniformity of depth--part of the tiles being laid but eighteen inches deep1 and others four feet and more1 in the same field4 ,secondly1 that there is no uniformity as to direction--part of the drains being laid across the fall1 and part with the fall1 in the same fields--with no obvious reason for the difference of direction4 ,thirdly1 that there is no uniformity as to materials--a part of the drains being wood1 and a part tiles1 in the same field4 ,finally1 it is contended that there is no saving of expense in the ,keythorpe draining1 over the ordinary mode1 when all points are considered1 because the pretended saving is made by the use of wood1 where true economy would require tiles1 and shallow drains are used where deeper ones would in the end be cheaper4 ,in speaking of this controversy1 it is due to ,lord ,berners to say1 that he expressly disclaims any invention or novelty in his operations at ,keythorpe4 ,on the whole1 although a work at the present day which should pass over1 without consideration1 the claims of the ,keythorpe system1 would be quite incomplete in its history of the subject1 yet the facts elicited with regard to it are perhaps chiefly valuable1 as tending to show the danger of basing a general principle upon an isolated case4 ,the discussion of the claims of that system--if such it may be called--may be valuable in ,america1 where novelty is sure to attract1 by showing that one more form of error has already been tried and found wanting2 and so save us the trouble of proving its inutility by experiment4 ,,the ,,wharncliffe ,,system4 ,lord ,wharncliffe1 with a view to effect adequate drainage at less expense than is usual in thorough drainage1 has adopted upon his estate a sort of compromise system1 which he has brought to the notice of the public in the ,journal of the ,royal ,agricultural ,society4 ,upon ,fontenelle's idea1 that mankind only settle into the right course after passing through and exhausting all the varieties of error1 it is well to advise our readers of this particular form of error also--to show that it has already been tried--so that no patent of invention can be claimed upon it by those perverse persons who are not satisfied without constant change1 and who seem to imagine that the ten commandments might be improved by a new edition4 ,lord ,wharncliffe states his principles as follows1 and calls his method the combined system of deep and shallow drainage3 ,in order to secure the full effect of thorough drainage in clays1 it is necessary that there should be not only well-laid conduits for the water which reaches them1 but also subsidiary passages opened through the substance of the close subsoil1 by means of atmospheric heat1 and the contraction which ensues from it4 ,the cracks and fissures which result from this action1 are reckoned upon as a certain and essential part of the process4 ,to give efficiency1 therefore1 to a system of deep drains beneath a stiff clay1 these natural channels are required4 ,to produce them1 there must be a continued action of heat and evaporation4 ,if we draw off effectually and constantly the bottom water from beneath the clay and from its substance1 as far as it admits of percolation1 and by some other means provide a vent for the upper water1 which needs no more than this facility to run freely1 there seems good reason to suppose that the object may be completely attained1 and that we shall remove the moisture from both portions as effectually as its quantity and the substance will permit4 ,acting upon this view1 then1 after due consideration1 ,i determined to combine with the fundamental four-feet drains a system of auxiliary ones of much less depth1 which should do their work above1 and contribute their share to the wholesome discharge1 while the under-current from their more subterranean neighbors should be steadily performing their more difficult duty4 ,i accomplished this1 by placing my four-feet drains at a distance of from eighteen to twenty yards apart1 and then leading others into them1 sunk only to about two feet beneath the surface 7which appeared1 upon consideration1 to be sufficiently below any conceivable depth of cultivation71 and laying these at a distance from each other of eight yards4 ,these latter are laid at an acute angle with the main-drains1 and at their mouths are either gradually sloped downwards to the lower level1 or have a few loose stones placed in the same intervals between the two1 sufficient to ensure the perpendicular descent of the upper stream through that space1 which can never exceed1 or1 indeed1 strictly equal1 the additional two feet4 ,there are two reasons why this mode of drainage cannot be adopted in the northern part of the ,united ,states4 ,first3 ,the two-foot drains would be liable to be frozen up solid1 every winter4 ,secondly3 ,the subsoil plow1 now coming into use among our best cultivators1 runs to so great a depth as to be likely to entirely destroy two-foot drains at the first operation1 even if it were not intended to run the sub-soiler to a greater general depth than eighteen inches4 ,any one who has had experience in holding a subsoil-plow1 must know that it is an implement somewhat unmanageable1 and liable to plunge deep into soft spots like the covering over drains2 so that no skill or care could render its use safe over two-foot drains4 ,the history of drainage in ,america1 is soon given4 ,it begins here1 as it must begin everywhere1 when practiced as a general system1 with the introduction of tiles4 ,in #ahce1 ,mr4 ,john ,johnston1 of ,seneca ,county1 ,new ,york1 a ,scotchman by birth1 imported from ,scotland patterns of drain-tiles1 and caused them to be made by hand-labor1 and set the example of their use on his own farm4 ,the effects of ,mr4 ,johnston's operations were so striking1 that in #ahdh1 ,john ,delafield1 ,esq41 for a long time ,president of the ,seneca ,county ,agricultural ,society1 imported from ,england one of ,scragg's ,patent ,tile machines4 ,from that time1 tile-draining in that county1 and in the neighboring counties1 has been diligently and profitably pursued4 ,several interesting statements of successful experiments by ,mr4 ,johnston1 ,mr4 ,delafield1 ,mr4 ,theron ,g4 ,yeomans of ,wayne ,county1 and others1 have been published1 from time to time1 in the ,new ,york ,transactions4 ,indeed1 most of our information of experimental draining in this country1 has come from that quarter4 ,mr4 ,johnston1 for more than twenty years1 has made himself useful to the country1 and at the same time gained a wide reputation for himself1 by occasional publications on the subject of drainage4 ,in addition to this1 his practical knowledge of agriculture1 and especially of the subject of drainage1 has gained for him a competence for his declining years4 ,in this we rejoice2 and trust that in these1 his latter years1 he may be made ever to feel1 that even they among us of the friends of agriculture who have not known him personally1 are not unmindful of their obligations to him as the leader of a most beneficent enterprise4 ,tile-works have since been established at various places in ,new ,york1 at several places in ,massachusetts1 ,ohio1 ,michigan1 and many other ,states4 ,the first drain-tiles used in ,new-,hampshire1 were brought from ,albany1 in #ahed1 by ,mr4 ,william ,conner1 and used on his farm in ,exeter1 that year2 and the following year1 the writer brought some from ,albany1 and laid them on his farm1 in the same town4 ,in #aheg1 tile-works were put in operation at ,exeter2 and some #dj1jjj tiles were made that year4 ,the horse-shoe tiles1 we understand1 have been generally used in ,new ,york4 ,at ,albany1 and in ,massachusetts1 the sole-tile has been of late years preferred4 ,we cannot learn that cylindrical pipes have ever been manufactured in this country until the ,summer of #aheh when the engineers of the ,new ,york ,central ,park procured them to be made1 and laid them1 with collars1 in their drainage-works there4 ,this is believed to be the first practical introduction into this country of round pipes and collars1 which are regarded in ,england as the most perfect means of drainage4 ,experiments all over the country1 in reclaiming bog-meadows1 and in draining wet lands with drains of stone and wood1 have been attempted1 with various success4 ,those attempts we regard as merely efforts in the right direction1 and rather as evidence of a general conviction of the want1 by the ,american farmer1 of a cheap and efficient mode of drainage1 than as an introduction of a system of thorough drainage2 for--as we think will appear in the course of this work--no system of drainage can be made sufficiently cheap and efficient for general adoption1 with other materials than drain-tiles4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,rain1 ,,evaporation1 ,,and ,,filtration4 ,fertilizing ,substances in ,rain ,water4--,amount of ,rain ,fall in ,united ,states--in ,england4--,tables of ,rain ,fall4--,number of ,rainy ,days1 and ,quantity of ,rain each ,month4--,snow1 how ,computed as ,water4--,proportion of ,rain ,evaporated4--,what ,quantity of ,water ,dry ,soil will ,hold4--,dew ,point4--,how ,evaporation ,cools ,bodies4--,artificial ,heat ,underground4--,tables of ,filtration and ,evaporation4 ,although we usually regard drainage as a means of rendering land sufficiently dry for cultivation1 that is by no means a comprehensive view of the objects of the operation4 ,rain is the principal source of moisture1 and a surplus of moisture is the evil against which we contend in draining4 ,but rain is also a principal source of fertility1 not only because it affords the necessary moisture to dissolve the elements of fertility already in the soil1 but also because it contains in itself1 or brings with it from the atmosphere1 valuable fertilizing substances4 ,in a learned article by ,mr4 ,caird1 in the ,cyclopedia of ,agriculture1 on the ,rotation of ,crops1 he says3 ,the surprising effects of a fallow1 even when unaided by any manure1 has received some explanation by the recent discovery of ,mr4 ,barral1 that rain-water contains within itself1 and conveys into the soil1 fertilizing substances of the utmost importance1 equivalent1 in a fall of rain of #bd inches per annum1 to the quantity of ammonia contained in #b cwt4 of ,peruvian guano1 with #aej lbs4 of nitrogeneous matter besides1 all suited to the nutrition of our crops4 ,about #db inches of rain may be taken as a fair general average of the rain-fall in the ,united ,states4 ,if this supplies as much ammonia to the soil as #c cwt4 of ,peruvian guano to the acre1 which is considered a liberal manuring1 and which is valuable principally for its ammonia1 we at once see the importance of retaining the rain-water long enough upon our fields1 at least1 to rob it of its treasures4 ,but rain-water has a farther value than has yet been suggested3 ,rain-water always contains in solution1 air1 carbonic acid1 and ammonia4 ,the two first ingredients are among the most powerful disintegrators of a soil4 ,the oxygen of the air1 and the carbonic acid being both in a highly condensed form1 by being dissolved1 possess very powerful affinities for the ingredients of the soil4 ,the oxygen attacks and oxydizes the iron2 the carbonic acid seizing the lime and potash and other alkaline ingredients of the soil1 produces a further disintegration1 and renders available the locked-up ingredients of this magazine of nutriment4 ,before these can be used by plants1 they must be rendered soluble2 and this is only affected by the free and renewed access of rain and air4 ,the ready passage of both of these1 therefore1 enables the soil to yield up its concealed nutriment4 ,we see1 then1 that the rains of heaven bring us not only water1 but food for our plants1 and that1 while we would remove by proper drainage the surplus moisture1 we should take care to first conduct it through the soil far enough to fulfill its mission of fertility4 ,we cannot suppose that all rain-water brings to our fields precisely the same proportion of the elements of fertility1 because the foreign properties with which it is charged1 must continually vary with the condition of the atmosphere through which it falls1 whether it be the thick and murky cloud which overhangs the coal-burning city1 or the transparent ether of the mountain tops4 ,we may see1 too1 by the tables1 that the quantity of rain that falls1 varies much1 not only with the varying seasons of the year1 and with the different seasons of different years1 but with the distance from the equator1 the diversity of mountain and river1 and lake and wood1 and especially with locality as to the ocean4 ,yet the average results of nature's operations through a series of years1 are startlingly constant and uniform1 and we may deduce from tables of rain-falls1 as from bills of mortality and tables of longevity1 conclusions almost as reliable as from mathematical premises4 ,the quantity of rain is generally increased by the locality of mountain ranges4 ,thus1 at the ,edinburgh ,water ,company's works1 on the ,pentland ,hills1 there fell in #ahdi1 nearly twice as much rain as at ,edinburgh1 although the distance between the two places is only seven miles4 ,although a much greater quantity of rain falls in mountainous districts 7within certain limits of elevation7 than in the plains1 yet a greater quantity of rain falls at the surface of the ground than at an elevation of a few hundred feet4 ,thus1 from experiments which were carefully made at ,york1 it was ascertained that there fell eight and a half inches more rain at the surface of the ground1 in the course of twelve months1 than at the top of the ,minster1 which is #bab feet high4 ,similar results have been obtained in many other places4 ,some observations upon this point may also be found in the ,report of the ,smithsonian ,institution for #ahee1 at p4 #baj1 given by ,professor ,c4 ,w4 ,morris1 of ,new ,york4 ,again1 the evaporation from the surface of water being much greater than from the land1 clouds that are wafted by the winds from the sea to the land1 condense their vapor upon the colder hills and mountain sides1 and yield rain1 so that high lands near the sea or other large bodies of water1 from which the winds generally blow1 have a greater proportion of rainy days and a greater fall of rain than lands more remote from water4 ,the annual rain-fall in the lake districts in ,cumberland ,county1 in ,england1 sometimes amounts to more than #aej inches4 ,with a desire to contribute as much as possible to the stock of accurate knowledge on this subject1 we availed ourselves of the kindly offered services of our friends1 ,shedd and ,edson1 in preparing a carefully considered article upon a part of our general subject1 which has much engaged their attention4 ,neither the article itself1 nor the observations of ,dr4 ,hobbs1 which form a part of its basis1 has ever before been published1 and we believe our pages cannot be better occupied than by giving them in the language of our friends3 ,all vegetables1 in the various stages of growth1 require warmth1 air1 and moisture1 to support life and health4 ,below the surface of the ground there is a body of stagnant water1 sometimes at a great depth1 but in retentive soils usually within a foot or two of the surface4 ,this stagnant water not only excludes the air1 but renders the soil much colder1 and1 being in itself of no benefit1 without warmth and air1 its removal to a greater depth is very desirable4 ,a knowledge of the depth to which this water-table should be removed1 and of the means of removing it1 constitutes the science of draining1 and in its discussion1 a knowledge of the rain-fall1 humidity of the atmosphere1 and amount of evaporation1 is very important4 ,the amount of rain-fall1 as shown by the hyetal1 or rain-chart1 of ,north ,america1 by ,lorin ,blodget1 is thirty inches vertical depth in the basin of the great lakes2 thirty-two inches on ,lake ,erie and ,lake ,champlain2 thirty-six inches in the valley of the ,hudson1 on the head waters of the ,ohio1 through the middle portions of ,pennsylvania and ,virginia1 and western portion of ,north ,carolina2 forty inches in the extreme eastern and the northern portion of ,maine1 northern portions of ,new ,hampshire and ,vermont1 south-eastern counties of ,massachusetts1 ,central ,new ,york1 north-east portion of ,pennsylvania1 south-east portion of ,new ,jersey and ,delaware2 also1 on a narrow belt running down from the western portion of ,maryland1 through ,virginia and ,north ,carolina1 to the north-western portion of ,south ,carolina2 thence1 up through the western portion of ,virginia1 north-east portion of ,ohio1 ,northern ,indiana and ,illinois1 to ,prairie du ,chien2 forty-two inches on the east coast of ,maine1 ,eastern ,massachusetts1 ,rhode ,island1 and ,connecticut1 and middle portion of ,maryland2 thence1 on a narrow belt to ,south ,carolina2 thence1 up through ,eastern ,tennessee1 through ,central ,ohio1 ,indiana1 and ,illinois1 to ,iowa2 thence1 down through ,western ,missouri and ,texas to the ,gulf of ,mexico2 forty-five inches from ,concord1 ,new ,hampshire1 through ,worcester1 ,mass41 ,western ,connecticut1 and the ,city of ,new ,york1 to the ,susquehanna ,river1 just north of ,maryland2 also1 at ,richmond1 ,va41 ,raleigh1 ,n4 ,c41 ,augusta1 ,geo41 ,knoxville1 ,tenn41 ,indianopolis1 ,ind41 ,springfield1 ,ill41 ,st4 ,louis1 ,mo42 thence1 through ,western ,arkansas1 across ,red ,river to the ,gulf of ,mexico4 ,from the belt just described1 the rain-fall increases inland and southward1 until at ,mobile1 ,ala41 the rain-fall is sixty-three inches4 ,the same amount also falls in the extreme southern portion of ,florida4 ,in ,england1 the average rain-fall in the eastern portion is represented at twenty inches2 in the middle portion1 twenty-two inches2 in the southern and western1 thirty inches2 in the extreme south-western1 forty-five inches2 and in ,wales1 fifty inches4 ,in the eastern portion of ,ireland1 it is twenty-five inches2 and in the western1 forty inches4 ,observations at ,london for forty years1 by ,dalton1 gave average fall of #bj4fi inches4 ,observations at ,new ,bedford1 ,mass41 for forty-three years1 by ,s4 ,rodman1 gave average fall of #da4jc inches--about double the amount in ,london4 ,the mean quantity for each month1 at both places1 is as follows3 ,new ,bedford4 ,london4 ,january #c4cf #a4df ,february #c4cb #a4be ,march #c4dd #a4ag ,april #c4fj #a4bh ,may #c4fc #a4fd ,june #b4ga #a4gd ,july #b4hf #b4de ,august #c4fa #a4ha ,september #c4cc #a4hd ,october #c4df #b4ji ,november #c4ig #b4bb ,december #c4gd #a4gd ----- ---- ,spring #aj4fg #d4ji ,summer #i4ah #f4jj ,autumn #aj4gf #f4ae ,winter #aj4db #d4de ----- ----- ,year #da4jc #bj4fi ,another very striking difference between the two countries is shown by a comparison of the quantity of water falling in single days4 ,the following table1 given in the ,radcliffe ,observatory ,reports1 ,oxford1 ,england1 #aeth volume1 shows the proportion of very light rains there4 ,the observation was in the year #ahed4 ,rain fell on #aef days3 #gc days gave less than 4#je inch4 #cj between that and 4#aj #bg between 4#aj 4#bj #i 4#bj 4#cj #i 4#cj 4#dj #d 4#dj 4#ej #a gave 4#fj #b 4#hj #a #a4jj ,nearly half the number gave less fall than five-hundredths of an inch1 and more than four-fifths the number gave less than one-fifth of an inch1 and none gave over an inch4 ,there is more rain in the ,united ,states1 by a large measure1 than there2 but the amount falls in less time1 and the average of saturation is certainly much less here4 ,from manuscript records1 furnished us by ,dr4 ,hobbs1 of ,waltham1 ,mass41 we find1 that the quantity falling in the year #ahed1 was equal to the average quantity for thirty years1 and that rain fell on fifty-four days1 in the proportion as follows3 ,number of rainy days1 #ed2 total rain-fall1 #da4bi4 #j days gave less than 4#je inch4 #b between that and 4#aj #h between 4#aj 4#bj #g 4#bj 4#cj #e 4#cj 4#dj #d 4#dj 4#ej #b 4#ej 4#fj #d 4#fj 4#gj #d 4#gj 4#hj #c 4#hj 4#ij #j 4#ij #a4jj #j #a4jj #a4aj #b #a4aj #a4bj #a #a4bj #a4cj #a #a4cj #a4dj #c #a4dj #a4ej #b #a4ej #a4fj #a #a4fj #a4gj #b #a4hj #a4ij #a #b4cj #b4dj #a #b4ej #b4fj #a #c4bj #c4cj ,no rain-fall gave less than five-hundredths of an inch2 and more than one-fourth the number of days gave more than one inch4 ,in #ahej1 four years earlier1 the rain-fall for the year1 in ,waltham1 was #fb4ac inches1 the greatest recorded by observations kept since #ahbd4 ,it fell as shown in the table3 ,number of rainy days1 #eh2 total rain-fall1 #fb4ac4 #c days gave between 4#je and 4#aj inches4 #d 4#aj 4#bj #f 4#bj 4#cj #c 4#cj 4#dj #e 4#dj 4#ej #c 4#ej 4#fj #c 4#fj 4#gj #c 4#gj 4#hj #b 4#hj 4#ij #a 4#ij #a4jj #c #a4jj #a4aj #g #a4bj #a4cj #b #a4hj #a4ij #b #a4ij #b4jj #c #b4jj #b4aj #b #b4aj #b4bj #a #b4cj #b4dj #a #b4ej #b4fj #a #b4fj #b4gj #a #b4hj #b4ij #a #c4fj #c4gj #a #d4ej #d4fj ,sept4 #gth and #hth1 in #bd hours1 #f4hh inches of rain fell1 the greatest quantity recorded in one day4 ,in #ahdf--still earlier by four years--the rain-fall in ,waltham was #bf4ij inches--the least recorded by the same observations4 ,it fell1 as shown in the table3 ,number of rainy days1 #di2 total rain-fall1 #bf4ij4 #c days gave between 4#je and 4#aj inches4 #g 4#aj 4#bj #aj 4#bj 4#cj #f 4#cj 4#dj #d 4#dj 4#ej #c 4#ej 4#fj #b 4#gj 4#hj #c 4#hj 4#ij #a 4#ij #a4jj #c #a4jj #a4aj #b #a4aj #a4bj #a #a4bj #a4cj #b #a4dj #a4ej #a #a4ej #a4fj #a #b4dj #b4ej ,the rain-fall in #aheb was very near the average for thirty years2 and the quantity falling in single storms1 on sixty-three different occasions1 as registered by ,dr4 ,hobbs1 was as follows3 ,number of storms1 #fc2 total rain-fall1 #db4bd4 #g storms gave less than 4#aj inches4 #aa between 4#aj and 4#bj #i 4#bj 4#cj #e 4#cj 4#dj #f 4#dj 4#ej #e 4#ej 4#fj #a 4#fj 4#gj #a 4#gj 4#hj #c 4#hj 4#ij #a 4#ij #a4jj #e #a4jj #a4aj #a #a4aj #a4bj #a #a4bj #a4cj #a #a4dj #a4ej #c #a4fj #a4gj #a in #e days #c4af #a #d #d4ch #a #f #e4ce ,these tables are sufficient to show that provision must be made to carry off much greater quantities of water from lands in this country than in ,england4 ,we add a table of the greatest fall of rain in any one day1 for each month1 and for the year1 from ,april1 #ahbd1 to #ast ,january1 #ahei4 ,it also was abstracted from the manuscript of observations by ,dr4 ,hobbs1 and will be1 we think1 quite useful3 ,,years ,march ,june ,september ,december ,greatest ,february ,may ,august ,november ,fall in the ,january ,april ,july ,october ,year ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #ahbd #j4gfj4fgj4ecj4dda4ijb4edj4haj4gfa4hj #b4ed #ahbeb4af #b4faj4bga4bca4cgj4iab4eaj4hia4cbj4gab4d j #b4fa #ahbfa4hjj4efa4fgj4hij4cia4ghj4hga4hja4e ga4cga4bba4da #a4hg #ahbg #c4haa4eeb4dbj4ffa4cfc4afd4icb4bbc4hea4c i #d4ic #ahbhj4fja4dha4hbb4jfb4jaa4dda4ebj4ada4h ba4eba4ijj4bi #b4jf #ahbic4hfa4ihd4abb4cea4aej4iga4ibj4iga4c ia4jja4bea4eh #d4ab #ahcja4ca #a4agb4fhb4bhj4gha4hdb4deb4dja4bjb4fdb4d d #b4fh #ahcaj4fda4dhb4cbb4aba4gia4hgb4bga4jja4j jb4hba4bdj4ae #b4hb #ahcbb4fha4eib4jjd4dhb4eba4bd #b4acj4hja4ejb4fja4cd #d4dh #ahccj4hc #b4egj4ihb4jca4dbj4fdb4geb4cbc4aba4bg #c4ab #ahcd #j4fda4caj4idb4cea4hgb4abj4gca4bea4hib4d bj4ib #b4db #ahcea4ddj4hhb4dhb4dha4aha4ebd4gba4cba4e gc4bhj4gdb4cb #d4gb #ahcfb4gbc4jdb4bfa4hfa4bib4bda4jdj4gbj4c fb4jda4eja4fh #c4jd #ahcgc4fba4eja4ada4fha4dfa4cjj4gbj4ghj4f fa4dfj4haa4fh #c4fb #ahcha4fdj4gej4gfa4cba4dja4fgj4hba4djc4h da4ajb4dfa4jj #c4hd #ahcij4gjj4hjj4ehd4jfb4ihj4ida4jhc4edj4g ja4fjj4hja4ib #d4jf #ahdja4fhb4bja4edb4aba4afa4jha4djb4gba4b ha4jdc4gba4ab #c4gb #ahdaa4dda4aba4cba4fdj4ijj4gej4fdb4hbb4g hb4ffa4jea4gj #b4hb #ahdbj4eda4bba4afj4fdj4dgb4ajj4fha4ddj4i fj4cda4ajb4jb #b4aj #ahdca4fja4fdb4eja4cdj4cda4jda4ihb4ehj4e ba4ida4bh #b4eh #ahddd4ad #b4jfj4bdj4ehj4ghj4hfa4cda4gfb4cja4hfa4b h #d4ad #ahdeb4dba4gja4adj4gja4jba4jca4bja4ffj4h ha4afc4cba4df #c4cb #ahdfa4ed #b4dfa4afa4ahj4hba4dfj4dij4efj4eej4eda4j b #b4df #ahdga4ahb4gda4ffa4abj4hda4bhj4efa4hfb4a fj4fdb4gdc4jb #c4jb #ahdha4dda4efb4fhj4fhb4bha4jjj4gba4bda4d hb4ifj4hha4jj #b4if #ahdia4cfj4djb4cjj4iba4bhj4gba4ebb4jha4a bb4fjb4dha4gf #b4fj #ahejb4efa4iba4hdb4fhb4hja4bja4bjc4fhf4h ha4jdb4afa4ib #f4hh #aheaj4hja4hdj4efc4fja4iba4abj4ifj4cba4a ea4dgb4bej4hi #c4fj #aheba4jfj4hha4aed4cha4dga4fij4ffd4afa4a ia4faa4eij4hi #d4ch #ahecj4iba4cca4jca4abb4cij4dba4jcb4cfb4a da4iea4fga4ce #b4ci #ahedj4hca4fja4bea4hhb4ega4eja4ehj4dhb4c ca4hbc4bea4dc #c4be #aheec4cgc4jhj4hja4ccj4cia4bca4icj4gej4g ja4ggb4bba4bd #c4cg #ahef #a4cjj4fca4igb4icj4ffa4cjd4bcb4dbj4hgj4h ha4bj #d4bc #ahega4ejj4eda4eec4fha4bhj4ifb4dcb4jjj4h gc4edj4fga4bh #c4fh #aheha4aba4ahj4cea4bha4jjc4hfa4ceb4baa4f da4bba4cfa4dj #c4hf ,the following table shows the record of rain-fall1 as kept for one year2 it was selected as a representative year1 the total quantity falling being equal to the average4 ,for the year #ahdj3 ,number of rainy days1 #ej2 total rain-fall1 #db4jj4 ,,days ,march ,june ,september ,december ,february ,may ,august ,november ,january #ahdj ,april ,july ,october ---------------------------------------- ------------------ #a #j4eej4ad #b4gb #j4fd #b #j4jh #j4je #c #j4cb #d #a4jhj4aj #e #a4af #j4fc #f #j4ej #g #h #j4bj #i #j4be #c4gb #aj #b4bj #a4bh #aa #j4aj #ab #b4ab #j4ed #ac #j4ad #a4ab #ad #j4eh #j4gj #ae #j4cf #af #ag #ah #ai #j4hbj4bd #j4fh #a4jd #bj #a4ed #j4dd #ba #j4ih #a4jd #bb #j4eb #b4bj #bc #a4fh #j4if #j4ah #bd #a4dj #be #j4af #j4ce #bf #j4ah #bg #j4ag #j4cj #bh #bi #a4hj #j4aj #a4dj #cj #a4db #j4jh #a4jd #ca ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,total#a4fhb4ghc4bhe4agb4bhb4dab4jie4bbb 4hic4feg4cec4bj ,the average quantity of rain which has fallen in ,waltham1 during the important months of vegetation1 from #ahbd to #aheh inclusive--a period of thirty-five years--is for-- ,april4 ,may4 ,june4 ,july4 ,aug4 ,sept4 #c4if #c4ga #c4ah #c4ch #d4ej #c4eb ,average for the six months1 #bb4be4 ,it will be noticed1 that the average for the month of ,august is about #cc per cent4 larger than for ,june and ,july4 ,the quantity of rain falling in each month1 as registered at the ,cambridge ,observatory1 is as follows3 ,,mean ,,of ,,observations ,,for ,,twelve ,,years4 ,jan4 ,feb4 ,mar4 ,apr4 ,may4 ,june4 #b4ci #c4ai #c4dg #c4fd #c4gd #c4ac ,july4 ,aug4 ,sept4 ,oct4 ,nov4 ,dec4 #b4eg #e4dg #d4bg #c4gc #d4eg #d4ca ,spring4 ,summer4 ,autumn4 ,winter4 #aj4he #aa4ag #ab4eg #i4hi ,average quantity per year1 #dd4dh4 ,the quantity falling from ,january to ,july1 is much less than falls from ,july to ,january4 ,the great quantity of snow which falls in ,new ,england during the ,winter months1 and is carried off mainly in the ,spring1 usually floods the low lands1 and should be taken into account in establishing the size of pipe to be used in a system of drainage4 ,the following observations of the average depth of snow1 have been made at the places cited1 and are copied1 by ,blodget1 from various published notices3 ,oxford ,co41 ,me4 #ab years #ij inches per year4 ,dover1 ,n4 ,h4 #aj #fh4f ,montreal #aj #fg ,burlington1 ,vt4 #aj #he ,worcester1 ,mass4 #ab #ee ,amherst1 #g #ed ,hartford1 ,conn4 #bd #dc ,lambertville1 ,n4 ,j4 #h #be4e ,cincinnati #af #ai ,burlington1 ,iowa #d #ae4e ,beloit1 ,wisconsin #c #be ,one-tenth the depth of snow is taken as its equivalent in water1 for general purposes1 though it gives too small a quantity of water in southern latitudes1 and in extreme latitudes too great a quantity4 ,the rule of reduction of snow to water1 in cold climates1 is one inch of water to twelve of snow4 ,the proportion of the annual downfall of rain which is collectable into reservoirs--or1 in other words1 the per-centage of the rain-fall which drains off--is well shown in a table used by ,ellwood ,morris1 ,esq41 ,c4 ,e41 in an article on ,the ,proposed ,improvement of the ,ohio ,river 7,jour4 ,frank4 ,inst41 ,jan41 #aheh71 in which we find1 that1 in eighteen series of observations in ,great ,britain1 the ratio1 or per cent4 of the rain-fall which drains off is #fe-a_/b1 or nearly two-thirds the rain-fall4 ,seven series of observations in ,america are cited as follows3 ,name ,annual ,drainage,ratio1 or of rain-fall1flowing per ct4 of ,no4,drainage ,area4 in inches4away1 inthe rain ,authorities4 inches4 which drains off4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- #a ,schuylkill ,navigation ,reservoirs #cf #ah #ej ,morris and ,smith4 #b ,eaton ,brook #cd #bc #ff #c ,madison ,brook #ce #ah #ej ,mc,alpine4 #d ,patroon's ,brook #df #be #ee #e #db #ah #db #f ,long ,pond #dj #ah #dd ,boston ,water ,com'rs4 #g ,west ,fork ,reservoir #cf #ad #dj ,w4 ,milnor ,roberts4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,totals #bfi #acd #cdg ,averages #ch #ai #ej ,these examples show an average rain-fall of thirty-eight vertical inches1 and an annual amount1 collectable in reservoirs1 of nineteen inches1 or fifty per cent4 ,the per-centage of water of drainage from land under-drained with tile1 would be greater than that which is collectable in reservoirs from ordinary gathering-grounds4 ,if a soil were perfectly saturated with water1 that is1 held as much water in suspension as possible to hold without draining off1 and drains were laid at a proper depth from the surface1 and in sufficient number to take off all surplus water1 then the entire rain-fall upon the surface would be water of drainage--presuming1 of course1 the land to be level1 and the air at saturation1 so as to prevent evaporation4 ,the water coming upon the surface1 would force out an equal quantity of water at the bottom1 through the drains--the time occupied by the process1 varying according to the porous or retentive nature of the soil2 but in ordinary circumstances1 it would be1 perhaps1 about forty-eight hours4 ,drains usually run much longer than this after a heavy rain1 and1 in fact1 many run constantly through the year1 but they are supplied from lands at a higher level1 either near by or at a distance4 ,if1 on the other hand1 the soil were perfectly dry1 holding no water in suspension1 then there would be no water of drainage until the soil had become saturated4 ,evaporation is constantly carrying off great quantities of water during the warm months1 so that under-drained soil is seldom in the condition of saturation1 and1 on account of the supply by capillary attraction and by dew1 is never thoroughly dry2 but the same soil will1 at different times1 be at various points between saturation and dryness1 and the water of drainage will be consequently a greater or less per centage of the rain-fall4 ,an experiment made by the writer1 to ascertain what quantity of water a dry soil would hold in suspension1 resulted as follows3 ,a soil was selected of about average porosity1 so that the result might be1 as nearly as possible1 a mean for the various kinds of soil1 and dried by several days' baking4 ,the quantity of soil then being carefully measured1 a measured quantity of water was supplied slowly1 until it began to escape at the bottom4 ,the quantity draining away was measured and deducted from the total quantity supplied4 ,it was thus ascertained that one cubic foot of earth held #j4dhbf cubic feet of water1 which is a little more than three and one-half gallons4 ,a dry soil1 four feet deep1 would hold a body of water equal to a rain-fall of #bc4ag inches1 vertical depth1 which is more than would fall in six months4 ,the quantity which is not drained away is used for vegetation or evaporated2 and the fact1 that the water of drainage is so much greater in proportion to the rain-fall in ,england than in this country1 is owing to the humidity of that climate1 in which the evaporation is only about half what it is in this country4 ,the evaporation from a reservoir surface at ,baltimore1 during the ,summer months1 was assumed by ,colonel ,abert to be to the quantity of rain as two to one4 ,dr4 ,holyoke assigns the annual quantity evaporated at ,salem1 ,mass41 at fifty-six inches2 and ,colonel ,abert quotes several authorities at ,cambridge1 ,mass41 stating the quantity at fifty-six inches4 ,these facts are given by ,mr4 ,blodget1 and also the table below4 ,,quantity ,,of ,,water ,,evaporated1 ,,in ,,inches1 ,,vertical ,,depth4 ,whitehaven1 ,england1 ,ogdensburg1 ,syracuse1 mean of ,n4 ,y41 ,n4 ,y41 #f years #a yr4 #a year ---------------------------------------- ------ ,jan4 #j4hh #a4fe #j4fg ,feb4 #a4jd #j4hb #a4dh ,mar4 #a4gg #b4jg #b4bd ,apr4 #b4ed #a4fc #c4db ,may4 #d4ae #g4aj #g4ca ,june4 #d4ed #f4gd #g4fj ,july4 #d4bj #g4gi #i4jh ,aug4 #c4dj #e4da #f4he ,sept4 #c4ab #g4dj #e4cc ,oct4 #a4ic #c4ie #c4jb ,nov4 #a4cb #c4ff #a4cc ,dec4 #a4ji #a4ae #a4hf ---------------------------------------- ------ ,year4 #cj4jc #di4cg #ej4bj ,the quantity for ,whitehaven1 ,england1 is reported by ,j4 ,f4 ,miller4 ,it was very carefully observed1 from #ahdc to #ahdh--the evaporation being from a copper vessel1 protected from rain4 ,the district is one of the wettest of ,england--the mean quantity of rain1 for the same time1 having been #de4be inches4 ,this shows a great difference in the capacity of the air to absorb moisture in ,england and the ,united ,states2 and as evaporation is a cooling process1 there is greater necessity for under-draining in this country than in ,england1 supposing circumstances in other respects to be similar4 ,evaporation takes place at any point of temperature from #cb deg41 or lower1 to #bab deg4--at which water boils4 ,it is increased by heat1 but is not caused solely by it--for a north-west wind in ,new-,england evaporates water1 and dries the earth more rapidly than the heat alone of a ,summer's day2 and when1 under ordinary circumstances1 evaporation from a water-surface is slow1 it becomes quite active when brought in close proximity to sulphuric acid1 or other vapor-absorbing bodies4 ,the cold which follows evaporation is caused by a loss of the heat which is required for evaporation1 and which passes off with the vapor1 as a solution1 in the atmosphere2 and as heat leaves the body to aid evaporation1 it is evident that that body cannot be cooled by the process1 below the dew-point at which evaporation ceases4 ,the popular notion that a body may be cooled almost to the freezing-point1 in a hot ,summer day1 by the action of heat alone1 is1 then1 erroneous4 ,but still1 the amount of heat which is used up in evaporating stagnant water from undrained land1 that might otherwise go towards warming the land and the roots of crops1 is a very serious loss4 ,the difference in the temperature of a body1 resulting from evaporation1 may reach #be deg4 in the desert interior of the ,american continent2 but1 in the ,eastern ,states1 it is not often more than #ae deg44 ,the temperature of evaporation is the reading of a wet-bulb-thermometer 7the bulb being covered with moistened gauze7 exposed to the natural evaporation2 and the difference between that reading and the reading of a dry-thermometer1 is the expression of the cold resulting from evaporation4 ,when the air is nearly saturated1 the temperature of the air rarely goes above #gd deg42 but1 if so1 the moisture in the air prevents the passing away of insensible perspiration1 and the joint action of heat and humidity exhausts the vital powers1 causing sun-stroke1 as it is called4 ,at ,new ,york city1 ,august #abth to #adth1 #ahec1 the wet-thermometer stood at #hj deg4 to #hd deg42 the air1 at #ij deg4 to #id deg44 ,the mortality1 from this joint effect1 was very great--over two hundred persons losing their lives in the two days1 in that city4 ,from very careful observations1 made by ,lorin ,blodget1 in #ahec1 at ,washington1 it was found that the difference between the wet and dry thermometer was #ah-a_/b deg4 at #d ,p4 ,m41 ,june #cjth1 and #af deg4 at #b ,p4 ,m4 on ,july #ast--the temperature of the air being #ih deg4 on the first day1 and #ie deg4 on the second2 but such excesses are unusual4 ,the following table has been compiled from ,mr4 ,blodget's notice of the peculiarities of the ,summer of #ahec3 ,the dates are such as were selected to illustrate the extreme temperatures of the month1 and the degrees represent the differences between the wet and dry thermometer4 ,the observations were made at #c ,p4 ,m43 ,locality4 ,dates4 ,differences4 ,,june1 #ahec4 ,burlington1 ,vt4 #adth to #cjth ranged from #h deg4 to #ag deg4 ,montreal #adth to #cjth #f to #ag ,poultney1 ,iowa #ajth to #cjth #i to #af ,washington #bjth to #cjth #h4e to #af ,baltimore #acth to #cjth #g4d to #bj4b ,savannah #acth to #cjth #e4b to #ag4c ,austin1 ,texas #ajth to #cjth #d to #bd ,clarkesville1 ,tenn4 #dth to #cjth #aj4c to #bj4e ,,august4 ,bloomfield1 ,n4 ,j4 #ith to #adth #e to #ae ,austin1 ,texas #fth to #abth #j to #ai ,philadelphia #ajth to #aeth #h to #ad ,jacksonville1 ,fla4 #ajth to #aeth #f to #h ,observations by ,lieut4 ,gillis1 at ,washington1 give mean differences between wet and dry thermometers1 from ,march1 #ahda1 to ,june1 #ahdb1 as follows3 ,observations at #c ,p4 ,m43 ,jan4 ,feb4 ,mar4 ,apr4 ,may4 ,june4 #c deg44#jh #d deg44#dj #f deg44#dg #e deg44#cg #g deg44#je #h deg44#jc ,july4 ,aug4 ,sept4 ,oct4 ,nov4 ,dec4 #h deg44#hi #e deg44#bi #e deg44#fc #d deg44#fa #d deg44#gg #b deg44#jc ,a mean of observations for twenty-five years at the ,radcliffe ,observatory1 ,oxford1 ,england1 gives a difference between the wet and dry thermometer equal to about two-thirds the difference1 as observed by ,lieutenant ,gillis1 at ,washington4 ,on the #abth day of ,august1 #ahec1 in ,austin1 ,texas1 the air was perfectly saturated at a temperature of #gf deg41 which was the dew-point1 or point of the thermometer at which dew began to form4 ,the dew-point varies according to the temperature and the humidity of the atmosphere2 it is usually a few degrees lower than the temperature of evaporation--never higher4 ,from observations made at ,girard ,college1 by ,prof4 ,a4 ,d4 ,bache1 in the years #ahdj to #ahde1 we find1 that for ,april1 #ahdd1 the dew-point ranged from #d deg4 to #af deg4 lower than the temperature of the air2 in ,may1 from #d deg4 to #ad deg4 lower2 in ,june1 from #f deg4 to #bj deg4 lower2 in ,july1 from #d deg4 to #ag deg42 in ,august1 from #f deg4 to #ae deg4 lower2 and in ,september1 from #f deg4 to #ba deg4 lower4 ,the dew-point is1 then1 during the important months of vegetation1 within about #bj deg4 of the temperature of the air4 ,the temperature of the dew-point1 as observed by ,prof4 ,bache1 was highest in ,august1 #ahdc1 being #ff deg41 and lowest in ,january1 #ahdd1 being #ah deg42 in ,july1 #ahdd1 it was #fd deg41 and in ,february1 #ahde1 it was #be deg44 ,its hourly changes during each day are quite marked1 and follow1 with some degree of regularity1 the changes in the temperature of the air2 their greatest departure from each other being at the hottest hour of the day1 which is two or three hours after noon1 and the least at the coldest hour which is four or five hours after midnight4 ,the average temperature of the dew-point in ,april1 ,may1 and ,june1 #ahdd1 was1 at midnight1 #ej-a_/b deg41 air1 #eg deg42 five hours after midnight1 dew-point1 #di deg41 air #ed deg42 three hours after noon1 dew-point1 #ed deg41 air1 #fc-a_/b deg44 ,the average temperature for ,july1 ,august and ,september1 was1 at midnight1 dew-point1 #eh-a_/b deg41 air1 #fe deg42 five hours after midnight1 dew-point1 #eh deg41 air1 #fb deg42 three hours after noon1 dew-point1 #fj-a_/b deg41 air1 #gh deg44 ,the average temperature for the year was1 at midnight1 dew-point1 #db deg41 air1 #dh deg42 five hours after midnight1 dew-point1 #da deg41 air1 #df deg42 three hours after noon1 dew-point1 #dd-a_/b deg41 air1 #ei deg44 ,the relative humidity of the atmosphere1 or the amount of vapor held in suspension in the air1 in proportion to the amount which it might hold1 was1 in the year #aheh1 as given in the journal of the ,franklin ,institute1 for ,philadelphia4 ,somerset ,co4 ,april #di per cent4 -- #b ,p4 ,m4 ,may #ei #gb ,june #ee #fc ,july #ej #fa ,august #ee #eh ,september #ej #eg ,the saturation often falls to #cj per cent41 but with great variability4 ,evaporation goes on most rapidly when the per centage of saturation is lowest2 and1 as before observed1 the cause of the excess of evaporation in this country over that of ,england is the excessive humidity of that climate and the dryness of this4 ,it has also been said that there is greater need for drainage in the ,united ,states on this account2 and1 as the warmth induced by draining is somewhat1 in its effect1 a merchantable product1 it may be well to consider it for a moment in that light4 ,first3 ,the drained land comes into condition for working1 a week or ten days earlier in the ,spring than other lands4 ,secondly3 ,the growth of the crops is quickened all through the ,summer by an increase of several degrees in the temperature of the soil4 ,thirdly3 ,the injurious effects of frost are kept off several days later in the ,fall4 ,of the value of these conditions1 the farmer1 who has lost his crops for lack of a few more warm days1 may make his own estimates4 ,in ,roxbury1 ,mr4 ,i4 ,p4 ,rand heats up a portion of his land1 for the purpose of raising early plants for the market1 by means of hot water carried by iron pipes under the surface of the ground4 ,in this manner he heats an area equal to #ajj feet by #ab feet1 by burning about one ton of coal a month4 ,the increase of temperature which1 in this case1 is caused by that amount of coal1 can1 in the absence of direct measurement1 only be estimated2 but it1 probably1 will average about #cj deg41 day and night1 throughout the month4 ,in an acre the area is #cf4d times as great as that heated by one ton of coal2 the cost being in direct proportion to the area1 #cf4d tons of coal would be required to heat an acre2 which1 at #f per ton1 would cost #bag4dj4 ,to heat an acre through #aj deg41 would cost1 then1 #gb4dg4 ,it may be of interest to consider how much coal would be required to evaporate from an undrained field that amount of water which might be carried off by under-drains1 but which1 without them1 is evaporated from the surface4 ,it may be taken as an approximate estimate1 that the evaporation from the surface of an undrained retentive field1 is equal to two inches vertical depth of water for each of the months of ,may1 ,june1 ,july1 and ,august2 which is equal to fifty-four thousand three hundred and five gallons1 or eight hundred and sixty-two hogsheads per acre for each month4 ,if this quantity of water were evaporated by means of a coal fire1 about #bb-b_/c tons of coal would be consumed1 which1 at #f a ton1 would cost #acf4 ,the cost of evaporating the amount of water which would pass off in one day from an acre would be about #d4ec4 ,it is probable that about half as much water would be evaporated from thorough-drained land1 though1 by some experiments1 the proportion has been made greater--in which case the loss of heat resulting from an excess of moisture evaporated from undrained retentive land1 over that which would be evaporated from drained land1 would be equal to that gained by #aa-a_/c tons of coal1 which would cost #fh2 and this for each acre1 in each of the three months4 ,at whatever temperature a liquid vaporizes1 it absorbs the same total quantity of heat4 ,the latent heat of watery vapor at #bab deg4 is #igb deg42 that is1 when water at #bab deg4 is converted into vapor at the same temperature1 the amount of heat expended in the process is #igb deg44 ,this heat becomes latent1 or insensible to the thermometer4 ,the heat rendered latent by converting ice into water is about #adj deg44 ,there are #g4dhje gallons in a cubic foot of water which weighs #fb4ch lbs4 ,we have seen that a sea of water1 more than three feet deep over the whole face of the land1 falls annually from the clouds1 equal to #d1jjj tons in weight to every acre4 ,we would use enough of this water to dissolve the elements of fertility in the soil1 and fit them for the food of plants4 ,we would retain it all in our fields1 long enough to take from it its stores of fertilizing substances1 brought from reeking marshes and steaming cities on cloud-wings to our farms4 ,we would1 after taking enough of its moisture to cool the parched earth1 and to fit the soil for germination and vegetable growth1 discharge the surplus1 which must otherwise stagnate in the subsoil1 by rapid drainage into the natural streams and rivers4 ,evaporation proceeds more rapidly from a surface of water1 than from a surface of land1 unless it be a saturated surface4 ,it proceeds more rapidly in the sun than in the shade1 and it proceeds again more rapidly in warm than in cold weather4 ,it varies much with the culture of the field1 whether in grass1 or tillage1 or fallow1 and with its condition1 as to being dry or wet1 and with its formation1 whether level or hilly4 ,yet1 with all these variations1 very great reliance may be placed upon the ascertained results of the observations already at our command4 ,we have seen that evaporation from a water surface is1 in general1 greater than from land1 and here we may observe one of those grand compensating designs of ,providence which exist through all nature4 ,if the same quantity of water fell upon the sea and the land1 and the evaporation were the same from both1 then all the rivers running into the sea would soon convey to it all the water1 and the sea would be full4 ,but though nearly as much water falls on the sea as on the land1 yet evaporation is much greater from the water than from land4 ,about three feet of rain falls upon the water1 while the evaporation from a water surface far exceeds that amount4 ,in the neighborhood of ,boston1 evaporation from water surface is said to be #ef inches in the year1 and in the ,state of ,new ,york1 about #ej inches2 while1 in ,england1 it is put by ,mr4 ,dalton at #dd4dc inches1 and1 by others1 much lower4 ,again1 about three feet of water annually falls upon the land1 while the evaporation from the land is but little more than #bj inches4 ,if this water fell upon a flat surface of soil1 with an impervious subsoil of rock or clay1 we should have some sixteen inches of water in the course of the year more than evaporates from the land4 ,if a given field be dish-shaped1 so as to retain it all1 it must become a pond1 and so remain1 except in ,summer1 when greater evaporation from a water surface may reduce it to a swamp or marsh4 ,with #af or #ah inches more water falling annually on all our cultivated fields than goes off by evaporation1 is it not wise to inquire by what process of ,nature or art this vast surplus shall escape8 ,experiments have been made with a view to determine the proportion of evaporation and filtration1 upon well-drained land1 in different months4 ,from an able article in the ,n4 ,y4 ,agricultural ,society for #ahed1 by ,george ,geddes1 we copy the following statement of valuable observations upon these points4 ,it will be observed that1 in the different observations collected in this chapter1 results are somewhat various4 ,they have been brought together for comparison1 and will be found sufficiently uniform for all practical purposes in the matter of drainage4 ,the experiments upon evaporation and drainage1 made on ,mr4 ,dalton's plan1 were in vessels three feet deep1 filled with soil just in the condition to secure perfect freedom from excess of water1 and the drainage was determined by the amount of water that passed out of the tube at the bottom4 ,these experiments have been most perfectly made in ,england by ,mr4 ,john ,dickinson4 ,the following table exhibits the mean of eight years3 ,,year4 ,october to ,march4 ,april to ,september4 ,total each year4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,rain4,filtra- ,rain4,filtra- ,rain4,filtra- tion4 tion4 tion4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- #ahcf #ah4hj #ae4ee #hb4g #ab4bj #b4aj #ag4c #ca4jj #ag4fe #ef4i #ahcg #aa4cj #f4he #fj4f #i4hj #j4aj #a4j #ba4aj #f4ie #cb4i #ahch #ab4cb #h4de #fh4h #aj4ha #j4ab #a4b #bc4ac #h4eg #cg4j #ahci #ac4hg #ab4ca #hh4b #ag4da #b4fj #ae4j #ca4bh #ad4ia #dg4f #ahdj #aa4gf #h4ai #fi4f #i4fh #j4jj #j4j #ba4dd #h4ai #ch4b #ahda #af4hd #ad4ai #hd4b #ae4bf #j4jj #j4j #cb4aj #ad4ai #dd4b #ahdb #ad4bh #aj4df #gc4b #ab4ae #a4cj #aj4g #bf4dc #aa4gf #dd4d #ahdc #ab4dc #g4aa #eg4b #ad4jd #j4ii #g4a #bf4dg #h4aj #cf4j ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,mean #ac4ie #aj4ci #gd4e #ab4fg #j4ij #g4a #bf4fa #aa4bi #db4d ,legend3 ,per cent filtered4 ,a soil that holds no water for the use of plants below six inches1 will suffer from drouth in ten days in ,june1 ,july1 or ,august4 ,if the soil is in suitable condition to hold water to the depth of three feet1 it would supply sufficient moisture for the whole months of ,june1 ,july1 and ,august4 ,m4 de la ,hire has shown that1 at ,paris1 a vessel1 sixteen inches deep1 filled with sand and loam1 discharged water through the pipe at the bottom until the 'herbs' were somewhat grown1 when the discharge ceased1 and the rains were insufficient1 and it was necessary to water them4 ,the fall of water at ,paris is stated1 in this account1 at twenty inches in the year1 which is less than the average1 and the experiment must have been made in a very dry season2 but the important point proved by it is1 that the plants1 when grown up1 draw largely from the ground1 and thereby much increase the evaporation from a given surface of earth4 ,the result of the experiment is entirely in accordance with what would have been expected by a person conversant with the laws of vegetation4 ,the mean of each month for the eight years is3 ,per cent ,,months4 ,rain4 ,filtration4 filtered4 ---------------------------------------- --- ,inches4 ,inches4 ,january #a4hd #a4cj #gj4g ,february #a4gi #a4ed #gh4d ,march #a4fa #a4jh #ff4f ,april #a4de #j4cj #ba4j ,may #a4he #j4aa #e4h ,june #b4ba #j4jd #a4g ,july #b4bh #j4jd #a4h ,august #b4db #j4jc #a4d ,september #b4fd #j4cg #ac4i ,october #b4hb #a4dj #di4e ,november #c4hc #c4bf #hd4i ,december #a4fd #a4hj #aaj4j ,the filtration from ,april to ,september is very small--practically nothing2 but during those months we have #ab4fg inches of rain--that is1 we have two inches a month for evaporation besides the quantity in the earth on the first day of ,april4 ,from ,october to ,march we have #aj4ci inches filtered out of #ac4ie inches1 the whole fall4 ',of this ,winter portion of #aj4ci1 we must allow at least six inches for floods running away at the time of the rain1 and then we have only #d4ci inches left for the supply of rivers and wells4' 7,breadmore1 p4 #cd47 ,it is calculated in ,england that the ordinary ,summer run of streams does not exceed ten cubic feet per minute per square mile1 and that the average for the whole year1 due to springs and ordinary rains1 is twenty feet per minute per square mile1 exclusive of floods--and assuming no very wet or high mountain districts 7,breadmore1 p4 #cd7--which is equal to about four inches over the whole surface4 ,if we add to this the six inches that are supposed to run off in freshets1 we have ten inches discharged in the course of the year by the streams4 ,the whole filtration was #aa4bi inches--#aj4ci in the ,winter1 and 4#ij in the ,summer4 ,the remainder1 #a4bi inches1 is supposed to be consumed by wells and excessive evaporation from marshes and pools1 from which the discharge is obstructed1 by animals1 and in various other ways4 ,these calculations were made from experiments running through eight years1 in which the average fall of water was only #bf4fa inches per annum4 ,when the results derived from them are applied to our average fall of #ce4bh inches1 we have for the water that constitutes the ,summer flow of our streams #ac4be cubic feet per minute per mile of the country drained1 and for the average annual flow1 exclusive of freshets1 #bf4ej cubic feet per mile per minute4 ,that is to say1 of the #ce4bh inches of water that fall in the course of the year1 #e4cj run away in the streams as the average annual flow1 #g4ie run away in the freshets1 and #bj4dg evaporate from the earth's surface1 leaving #a4ef for consumption in various ways4 ,in the whole year the drainage is nearly equal to one cubic foot per second per square mile 74#igf71 no allowance being made for the #a4ef inches which is lost as before stated4 ,these calculations are based upon ,english experiments4 ,mr4 ,mc,alpine1 late ,state engineer and surveyor1 in making his calculations for supplying the city of ,albany with water 7page #bb of his ,report to the ,water ,commissioners71 takes #de per cent of the fall as available for the use of the city4 ,mr4 ,henry ,tracy1 in his ,report to the ,canal ,board of #ahdi 7page #ag71 gives the results of the investigations in the valleys of ,madison ,brook1 in ,madison ,county1 and of ,long ,pond1 near ,boston1 ,mass41 as follows3 ,name ,fall of rain ,water ran off ,evaporation ,ratio ,,year4 of and snow in from surface of valley4 in valley4 inches4 of ground4 drainage4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ #ahce ,madison ,brook #ce4bf #ae4hc #ai4dc #j4ddi ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- #ahcg ,long ,pond #bf4fe #aa4gj #ad4ie #j4dci ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- #ahch ,do #ch4aa #af4fb #ba4di #j4dcf ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,mean #j4dda ,madison ,brook drains #f1jjj acres1 and ,long ,pond #aa1djj acres4 ,mr4 ,tracy makes the following comment on this table3 ',it appears that the evaporation from the surface of the ground in the valley of ,long ,pond was about #dd per cent more in #ahch than it was in #ahcg1 while the ratio of the drainage differed less than one per cent the same years4' ,dr4 ,hale states the evaporation from water-surface at ,boston to be #ef inches in a year4 7,senate ,doc41 ,no4 #gj1 for #ahec47 ,the following table contains the results arrived at by ,mr4 ,coffin1 at ,ogdensburgh1 and ,mr4 ,conkey1 at ,syracuse1 in regard to the evaporation from water-surface3 ,,coffin1 at ,ogdensburgh1 ,,conkey1 at ,syracuse1 in #ahch4 in #aheb4 ,,months4 ---------------------------------------- ----- ,rain4 ,evaporation4 ,rain4 ,evaporation4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,january #b4cf #a4feb #c4fgc #j4ffe ,february #j4ig #j4hag #a4cjg #a4dhi ,march #a4ah #b4jfg #c4bcd #b4bci ,april #j4dj #a4fbe #c4ebd #c4dba ,may #d4ha #g4ajj #d4dia #g4cji ,june #c4eg #f4gde #c4ggc #g4fjj ,july #a4hh #g4ghh #b4hhg #i4jgi ,august #b4ee #e4dae #b4gbd #f4hed ,september #a4ja #g4djj #b4ggd #e4ccd ,october #b4gc #c4idh #d4fbj #c4jbb ,november #b4jg #c4fei #d4ced #a4cbe ,december #a4jh #a4adf #d4aab #a4hfc ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,,total #bd4fa #di4cfb #da4dgc #ej4bjj ,the annual fall of water in ,england1 is stated1 by ,mr4 ,dalton1 to be #cb inches4 ,in this ,state1 it is #ce4bh inches4 ,the evaporation from water-surface in ,england1 is put1 by ,mr4 ,dalton1 at #dd4dc inches4 ,the fall is less1 and the evaporation is less1 in ,england than here2 and the fall1 in each case1 bears the same proportion to the evaporation1 very nearly2 and it appears that the experiments made on the two sides of the ocean1 result in giving very nearly the same per centage of drainage4 ,in ,england1 it is #db4d per cent42 in this ,state1 it is #dd4a4 ,in ,england1 the experiments were made on a limited scale compared with ours2 but the results agree so well1 that great confidence may safely be placed in them4 ,in reviewing the whole subject of rain1 and of evaporation and filtration1 we seem to have evidence to justify the opinion1 that with considerable more rain in this country than in ,england1 and with a greater evaporation1 because of a clearer sky and greater heat1 we have a larger quantity of surplus water to be disposed of by drainage4 ,the occasion for thorough-drainage1 however1 is greater in the ,northern part of the ,united ,states than in ,england1 upon land of the same character2 because1 as we have already seen1 rain falls far more regularly there than here1 and never in such quantities in a single day2 and because there the land is open to be worked by the plough nearly every day in the year1 while here for several months our fields are locked up in frost1 and our labor for the ,spring crowded into a few days4 ,there1 the water which falls in ,winter passes into the soil1 and is drained off as it falls2 while here1 the snow accumulates to a great depth1 and in thawing floods the land at once4 ,both here and in ,england1 much of the land requires no under-draining1 as it has already a subsoil porous enough to allow free passage for all the surplus water2 and it is no small part of the utility of understanding the principles of drainage1 that it will enable farmers to discriminate--at a time when draining is somewhat of a fashionable operation with amateurs--between land that does and land that does not require so expensive an operation4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,drainage ,,of ,,high ,,lands--,,what ,,lands ,,require ,,drainage4 ,what is ,high ,land8--,accidents to ,crops from ,water4--,do ,lands need ,drainage in ,america8--,springs4--,theory of ,moisture1 with ,illustrations4--,water of ,pressure4--,legal ,rights as to ,draining our ,neighbor's ,wells and ,land4--,what ,lands require ,drainage8--,horace ,greeley's ,opinion4--,drainage more ,necessary in ,america than in ,england2 ,indications of too much ,moisture4--,will ,drainage ,pay8 ,by high land1 is meant land1 the surface of which is not overflowed1 as distinguished from swamps1 marshes1 and the like low lands4 ,how great a proportion of such lands would be benefitted by draining1 it is impossible to estimate4 ,the ,committee on ,draining1 in their ,report to the ,state ,agricultural ,society of ,new ,york1 in #ahdh1 assert that1 ,there is not one farm out of every seventy-five in this ,state1 but needs draining--yes1 much draining--to bring it into high cultivation4 ,nay1 we may venture to say1 that every wheat-field would produce a larger and finer crop if properly drained4 ,the committee further say3 ,it will be conceded1 that no farmer ever raised a good crop of grain on wet ground1 or on a field where pools of water become masses of ice in the ,winter4 ,in such cases1 the grain plants are generally frozen out and perish2 or1 if any survive1 they never arrive at maturity1 nor produce a well-developed seed4 ,in fact1 every observing farmer knows that stagnant water1 whether on the surface of his soil1 or within reach of the roots of his plants1 always does them injury4 ,the late ,mr4 ,delafield1 one of the most distinguished agriculturists of ,new ,york1 said in a public address3 ,we all well know that wheat and other grains1 as well as grasses1 are never fully developed1 and never produce good seed1 when the roots are soaked in moisture4 ,no man ever raised good wheat from a wet or moist subsoil4 ,now1 the farms of this country1 though at times during the ,summer they appear dry1 and crack open on the surface1 are not1 in fact1 dry farms1 for reasons already named4 ,on the contrary1 for nine months out of twelve1 they are moist or wet2 and we need no better evidence of the fact1 than the annual freezing out of the plants1 and consequent poverty of many crops4 ,if we listen to the answers of farmers1 when asked as to the success of their labors1 we shall be surprised1 perhaps1 to observe how much of their want of success is attributed to accidents1 and how uniformly these accidents result from causes which thorough draining would remove4 ,the wheat-crop of one would have been abundant1 had it not been badly frozen out in the ,fall2 while another has lost nearly the whole of his1 by a season too wet for his land4 ,a farmer at the ,west has planted his corn early1 and late rains have rotted the seed in the ground2 while one at the ,east has been compelled1 by the same rains1 to wait so long before planting1 that the season has been too short4 ,another has worked his clayey farm so wet1 because he had not time to wait for it to dry1 that it could not be properly tilled4 ,and so their crops have wholly or partially failed1 and all because of too much cold water in the soil4 ,it would seem1 by the remarks of those who till the earth1 as if there were never a season just right--as if ,providence had bidden us labor for bread1 and yet sent down the rains of heaven so plentifully as always to blight our harvests4 ,it is rare that we do not have a most remarkable season1 with respect to moisture1 especially4 ,our potatoes are rotted by the ,summer showers1 or cut off by a ,summer drought2 and when1 as in the season of #ahef1 in ,new ,england1 they are neither seriously diseased nor dried up1 we find at harvest-time that the promise has belied the fulfillment2 that1 after all the fine show above ground1 the season has been too wet1 and the crop is light4 ,we frequently hear complaint that the season was too cold for ,indian corn1 and that the ears did not fill2 or that a sharp drought1 following a wet ,spring1 has cut short the crop4 ,we hear no man say1 that he lacked skill to cultivate his crop4 ,seldom does a farmer attribute his failure to the poverty of his soil4 ,he has planted and cultivated in such a way1 that1 in a favorable season1 he would have reaped a fair reward for his toil2 but the season has been too wet or too dry2 and1 with full faith that farming will pay in the long run1 he resolves to plant the same land in the same manner1 hoping in future for better luck4 ,too much cold water is at the bottom of most of these complaints of unpropitious seasons1 as well as of most of our soils2 and it is in our power to remove the cause of these complaints and of our want of success4 ,the fault1 dear ,brutus1 is not in our stars1 ,but in ourselves4 ,we must underdrain all the land we cultivate1 that ,nature has not already underdrained1 and we shall cease complaints of the seasons4 ,the advice of ,cromwell to his soldiers3 ,trust ,god1 and keep your powder dry1 affords a good lesson of faith and works to the farmer4 ,we shall seldom have a season1 upon properly drained land1 that is too wet1 or too cold1 or even too dry2 for thorough draining is almost as sure a remedy for a drought1 as for a flood4 ,do lands need under draining in ,america8 ,it is a common error to suppose that1 because the sun shines more brightly upon this country than upon ,england1 and because almost every ,summer brings such a drought here as is unknown there1 her system of thorough drainage can have no place in agriculture on this side of the ,atlantic4 ,it is true that we have a clearer sky and a drier climate than are experienced in ,england2 but it is also true that1 although we have a far less number of showers and of rainy days1 we have a greater quantity of rain in the year4 ,the necessity of drainage1 however1 does not depend so much upon the quantity of water which falls or flows upon land1 nor upon the power of the sun to carry it off by evaporation1 as upon the character of the subsoil4 ,the vast quantity of water which ,nature pours upon every acre of soil annually1 were it all to be removed by evaporation alone1 would render the whole country barren2 but ,nature herself has kindly done the work of draining upon a large proportion of our land1 so that only a healthful proportion of the water which falls on the earth1 passes off at the surface by the influence of the sun4 ,if the subsoil is of sand or gravel1 or of other porous earth1 that portion of the water not evaporated1 passes off below by natural drainage4 ,if the subsoil be of clay1 rock1 or other impervious substances1 the downward course of the water is checked1 and it remains stagnant1 or bursts out upon the surface in the form of springs4 ,as the primary object of drainage is to remove surplus water1 it may be well to consider with some care ,,the ,,sources ,,of ,,moisture4 ,springs4--,these are1 as has been suggested1 merely the water of rain and snow1 impeded in its downward percolation1 and collected and poured forth in a perennial flow at a lower level4 ,the water which falls in the form of rain and snow upon the soil of the whole territory of the ,united ,states1 east of the ,rocky ,mountains1 each year1 is sufficient to cover it to the depth of more than #c feet4 ,it comes upon the earth1 not daily in gentle dews to water the plants1 but at long1 unequal intervals1 often in storms1 tempests1 and showers1 pouring out1 sometimes1 in a single day1 more than usually falls in a whole month4 ,what becomes of all this moisture1 is an inquiry especially interesting to the agriculturist1 upon whose fruitful fields this flood of water annually descends1 and whose labor in seed-time would be destroyed by a single ,summer shower1 were not ,nature more thoughtful than he1 of his welfare4 ,of the water which thus falls upon cultivated fields1 a part runs away into the streams1 either upon the surface1 or by percolation through the soil2 a part is taken up into the air by evaporation1 while a very small proportion enters into the constitution of vegetation4 ,the proportion which passes off by percolation varies according to the nature of the soil in the locality where it falls4 ,usually1 we find the crust of the earth in our cultivated fields1 in strata1 or layers3 first1 a surface-soil of a few inches of a loamy nature1 in which clay or sand predominates2 and then1 it may be1 a layer of sand or gravel1 freely admitting the passage of water2 and1 perhaps1 next1 and within two or three feet of the surface1 a stratum of clay1 or of sand or gravel cemented with some oxyd of iron1 through which water passes very slowly1 or not at all4 ,these strata are sometimes regular1 extending at an equal depth over large tracts1 and having a uniform dip1 or inclination4 ,oftener1 however1 in hilly regions especially1 they are quite irregular--the impervious stratum frequently having depressions of greater or less extent1 and holding water1 like a bowl4 ,not unfrequently1 as we cut a ditch upon a declivity1 we find that the dip of the strata below has no correspondence with the visible surface of the field1 but that the different strata lie nearly level1 or are much broken1 while the surface has a regular inclination4 ,underlying all soils1 at greater or less depth1 is found some bed of rock1 or clay1 impervious to water1 usually at but few feet below the surface--the descending water meeting with obstacles to its regular descent4 ,the tendency of the rain-water which falls upon the earth1 is to sink directly downward by gravitation4 ,turned aside1 however1 by the many obstacles referred to1 it often passes obliquely1 or almost horizontally1 through the soil4 ,the drop which falls upon the hill-top sinks1 perhaps1 a few inches1 meets with a bed of clay1 glides along upon it for many days1 and is at last borne out to be drunk up by the sun on some far-off slope2 another1 falling upon the sand-plain1 sinks at once to the water-line1 or line of level water1 which rests on clay beneath1 and1 slowly creeping along1 helps to form a swamp or bog in the valley4 ,sometimes1 the rain which falls upon the high land is collected together by fissures in the rocks1 or by seams or ruptures in the impervious strata below the surface1 and finds vent in a gushing spring on the hill-side4 ,we feel confident that no better illustration of the theory of springs1 as connected with our subject1 can be found1 than that of ,mr4 ,girdwood1 in the ,cyclopedia of ,agriculture--a work from which we quote the more liberally1 because it is very expensive and rare in ,america3 ,when rain falls on a tract of country1 part of it flows over the surface1 and makes its escape by the numerous natural and artificial courses which may exist1 while another portion is absorbed by the soil and the porous strata which lie under it4 ,let the following diagram represent such a tract of country1 and let the dark portions represent clay or other impervious strata1 while the lighter portions represent layers of gravel1 sand1 or chalk1 permitting a free passage to water4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,when rain falls in such a district1 after sinking through the surface-layer 7represented in the diagram by a narrow band71 it reaches the stratified layers beneath4 ,through these it still further sinks1 if they are porous1 until it reaches some impervious stratum1 which arrests its directly-downward course1 and compels it to find its way along its upper surface4 ,thus1 the rain which falls on the space represented between ,b and ,d1 is compelled1 by the impervious strata1 to flow towards ,c4 ,here it is at once absorbed1 but is again immediately arrested by the impervious layer ,e2 it is1 therefore1 compelled to pass through the porous stratum ,c1 along the surface of ,e to ,a1 where it pours forth in a fountain1 or forms a morass or swamp1 proportionate in size or extent to the tract of country between ,b and ,d1 or the quantity of rain which falls upon it4 ,in such a case as is here represented1 it will be obvious that the spring may often be at a great distance from the district from which it derives its supplies2 and this accounts for the fact1 that drainage-works on a large scale sometimes materially lessen the supply of water at places remote from the scene of operations4 ,in the instance given above1 the water forming the spring is represented as gaining access to the porous stratum1 at a point where it crops out from beneath an impervious one1 and as passing along to its point of discharge at a considerable depth1 and under several layers of various characters4 ,sometimes1 in an undulating country1 large tracts may rest immediately upon some highly-porous stratum--as from ,b to ,c1 in the following diagram--rendering the necessity for draining less apparent2 while the country from ,a to ,b1 and from ,c to ,d1 may be full of springs and marshes--arising1 partly1 from the rain itself1 which falls in these latter districts1 being unable to find a way of escape1 and partly from the natural drainage of the more porous soils adjoining being discharged upon it4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,again3 the rocks lying under the surface are sometimes so full of fissures1 that1 although they themselves are impervious to water1 yet1 so completely do these fissures carry off rain1 that1 in some parts of the county of ,durham1 they render the sinking of wells useless1 and make it necessary for the farmers to drive their cattle many miles for water4 ,it sometimes happens that these fissures1 or cracks1 penetrate to enormous depths1 and are of great width1 and filled with sand or clay4 ,these are termed faults by miners2 and some1 which we lately examined1 at distances of from three to four hundred yards from the surface1 were from five to fifteen yards in width4 ,these faults1 when of clay1 are generally the cause of springs appearing at the surface3 they arrest the progress of the water in some of the porous strata1 and compel it to find an exit1 by passing to the surface between the clay and the faces of the ruptured strata4 ,when the fault is of sand or gravel1 the opposite effect takes place1 if it communicates with any porous stratum2 and water1 which may have been flowing over the surface1 on reaching it1 is at once absorbed4 ,in the following diagram1 let us suppose that ,b represents such a clay-fault as has been described1 and that ,a represents a sandy one1 and that ,c and ,d represent porous strata charged with water4 ,on the water reaching the fault at ,b1 it will be compelled to find its way to the surface--there forming a spring1 and rendering the retentive soil1 from ,b to ,a1 wet2 but1 as soon as it reaches the sandy-fault at ,a1 it is immediately absorbed1 and again reaches the porous strata1 along which it had traveled before being forced to the surface at ,b4 ,it will be observed1 that the strata at the points of dislocation are not represented as in a line with the portions from which they have been dissevered4 ,this is termed the upthrow of the fault1 as at ,b2 and the downthrow1 as at ,a4 ,for the sake of the illustration1 the displacement is here shown as very slight2 but1 in some cases1 these elevations and depressions of the strata extend to many hundreds of feet--as1 for instance1 at the mines of the ,british ,iron ,company1 at ,cefn-,mawre1 in ,north ,wales1 where the downthrow of the fault is #cfj feet4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,sometimes the strata are disposed in the form of a basin4 ,in this case1 the water percolating through the more elevated ground--near what may be called the rim--collects in the lower parts of the strata towards the centre1 there forcing its way to the surface1 if the upper impervious beds be thin2 or1 if otherwise1 remaining a concealed reservoir1 ready to yield its supplies to the shaft or boring-rod of the well-sinker1 and sometimes forming a living fountain capable of rising many feet above the surface4 ,it is in this way that what are called ,artesian wells are formed4 ,the following diagram represents such a disposition of the strata as has just been referred to4 ,the rain which falls on the tracts of country at ,a and ,b1 gradually percolates towards the centre of the basin1 where it may be made to give rise to an ,artesian well1 as at ,c1 by boring through the superincumbent mass of clay2 or it may force itself to the surface through the thinner part of the layer of clay1 as at ,d--there forming a spring1 or swamp4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,again3 the higher parts of hilly ground are sometimes composed of very porous and absorbent strata1 while the lower portions are more impervious--the soil and subsoil being of a very stiff and retentive description4 ,in this case1 the water collected by the porous layers is prevented from finding a ready exit1 when it reaches the impervious layers1 by the stiff surface-soil4 ,the water is by this means dammed up in some measure1 and acquires a considerable degree of pressure2 and1 forcing itself to the day at various places1 it forms those extensive weeping-banks which have such an injurious effect upon many of our mountain-pastures4 ,this was the form of spring1 or swamp1 to the removal of which ,elkington principally turned his attention2 and the following diagram1 taken from a description of his system of draining1 will explain the stratification and springs referred to1 more clearly4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,in some districts1 where clay forms the staple of the soil1 a bed of sand or gravel1 completely saturated with water1 occurs at the depth of a few feet from the surface1 following all the undulations of the country1 and maintaining its position1 in relation to the surface1 over considerable tracts1 here and there pouring forth its waters in a spring1 or denoting its proximity1 by the subaquatic nature of the herbage4 ,such a configuration is represented in the following diagram1 where ,a represents the surface-soil2 ,b1 the impervious subsoil of clay2 ,c1 the bed of sandy-clay or gravel2 and ,d1 the lower bed of clay1 resting upon the rocky strata beneath4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4 ,springs sometimes communicate with lakes or pools1 at higher levels4 ,in such cases1 the quantity of water discharged is generally so great1 as to form at once a brook or stream of some magnitude4 ,these1 therefore1 hardly come under the ordinary cognizance of the land-drainer1 and are1 therefore1 here merely referred to4 ,,the ,,water ,,of ,,pressure4 ,water that issues from the land1 either constantly1 periodically1 or even intermittently1 may1 perhaps1 be properly termed a spring4 ,but there is often much water in the soil which did not fall in rain upon that particular field1 and which does not issue from it in any defined stream1 but which is slowly passing through it by percolation from a higher source1 to ooze out into some stream1 or to pass off by evaporation2 or1 perhaps1 farther on1 to fall into crevices in the soil1 and eventually form springs4 ,as we find it in our field1 it is neither rain-water1 which has there fallen1 nor spring-water1 in any sense4 ,it has been appropriately termed the water of pressure1 to distinguish it from both rain and spring-water2 and the recognition of this term will certainly be found convenient to all who are engaged in the discussion of drainage4 ,the distinction is important in a legal point of view1 as relating to the right of the land-owner to divert the sources of supply to mill-streams1 or to adjacent lower lands4 ,it often happens that an owner of land on a slope may desire to drain his field1 while the adjacent owner below1 may not only refuse to join in the drainage1 but may believe that he derives an advantage from the surface-washing or the percolation from his higher neighbor4 ,he may believe that1 by deep drainage above1 his land will be dried up and rendered worthless2 or1 he may desire to collect the water which thus percolates1 into his land1 and use it for irrigation1 or for a water-ram1 or for the supply of his barn-yard4 ,may the upper owner legally proceed with the drainage of his own land1 if he thus interfere with the interests of the man below8 ,again3 wherever drains have been opened1 we already hear complaints of their effects upon wells4 ,in our good town of ,exeter1 there seems to be a general impression on one street1 that the drainage of a swamp1 formerly owned by the author1 has drawn down the wells on that street1 situated many rods distant from the drains4 ,those wells are upon a sandy plain1 with underlying clay1 and the drains are cut down upon the clay1 and into it1 and may possibly draw off the water a foot or two lower through the whole village--if we can regard the water line running through it as the surface of a pond1 and the swamp as a dam across its outlet4 ,the rights of land-owners1 as to running water over their premises1 have been fruitful of litigation1 but are now well defined4 ,in general1 in the language of ,judge ,story1 ,every proprietor upon each bank of a river1 is entitled to the land covered with water in front of his bank to the middle thread of the stream1 c4 ,in virtue of this ownership1 he has a right to the use of the water flowing over it in its natural current1 without diminution or obstruction4 ,the consequence of this principle is1 that no proprietor has a right to use the water to the prejudice of another4 ,it is wholly immaterial whether the party be a proprietor above or below1 in the course of the river1 the right being common to all the proprietors on the river4 ,no one has a right to diminish the quantity which will1 according to the natural current1 flow to the proprietor below1 or to throw it back upon a proprietor above4 ,chief ,justice ,richardson1 of ,new ,hampshire1 thus briefly states the same position3 ,in general1 every man has a right to the use of the water flowing in a stream through his land1 and if any one divert the water from its natural channel1 or throw it back1 so as to deprive him of the use of it1 the law will give him redress4 ,but one man may acquire1 by grant1 a right to throw the water back upon the land of another1 and long usage may be evidence of such a grant4 ,it is1 however1 well settled that a man acquires no such right by merely being the first to make use of the water4 ,we are not aware that it has ever been held by any court of law1 or even asserted1 that a land-owner may not intercept the percolating water in his soil for any purpose and at his pleasure2 nor have we in mind any case in which the draining out of water from a well1 by drainage for agricultural purposes1 has subjected the owner of the land to compensation4 ,it is believed that a land-owner has the right to follow the rules of good husbandry in the drainage of his land1 so far as the water of pressure is concerned1 without responsibility for remote consequences to adjacent owners1 to the owners of distant wells or springs that may be affected1 or to mill-owners4 ,in considering the effect of drainage on streams and rivers1 it appears that the results of such operations1 so far as they can be appreciated1 are1 to lessen the value of water powers1 by increasing the flow of water in times of freshets1 and lessening it in times of drought4 ,it is supposed in this country1 that clearing the land of timber has sensibly affected the value of mill privileges1 by increasing evaporation1 and diminishing the streams4 ,no mill-owner has been hardy enough to contend that a land-owner may not legally cut down his own timber1 whatever the effect on the streams4 ,so1 we trust1 no court will ever be found1 which will restrict the land-owner in the highest culture of his soil1 because his drainage may affect the capacity of a mill-stream to turn the water-wheels4 ,to return from our digression4 ,it is necessary1 in order to a correct apprehension of the work which our drains have to perform1 to form a correct opinion as to how much of the surplus moisture in our field is due to each of the three causes to which we have referred--to wit1 rain-water1 which falls upon it2 springs1 which burst up from below2 and water of pressure1 stagnant in1 or slowly percolating through it4 ,the rain-tables will give us information as to the first2 but as to the others1 we must form our opinion from the structure of the earth around us1 and observation upon the field itself1 by its natural phenomena and by opening test-holes and experimental ditches4 ,having gained accurate knowledge of the sources of moisture1 we may then be able to form a correct opinion whether our land requires drainage1 and of the aid which ,nature requires to carry off the surplus water4 ,,what ,,lands ,,require ,,drainage8 ,the more one studies the subject of drainage1 the less inclined will he be to deal in general statements4 ,do you think it is profitable to underdrain land8 is a question a thousand times asked1 and yet is a question that admits of no direct general answer4 ,is it profitable to fence land8 is it profitable to plow land8 are questions of much the same character4 ,the answers to them all depend upon circumstances4 ,there is land that may be profitably drained1 and fenced1 and plowed1 and there is a great deal that had better be let alone4 ,whether draining is profitable or not1 depends on the value and character of the land in question1 as well as on its condition as to water4 ,where good land is worth one hundred dollars an acre1 it might be profitably drained2 when1 if the same land were worth but the ,government price of #a4be an acre1 it might be better to make a new purchase in the neighborhood1 than to expend ten times its value on a tract that cannot be worth the cost of the operation4 ,drainage is an expensive operation1 requiring much labor and capital1 and not to be thought of in a pioneer settlement by individual emigrants4 ,it comes after clearing1 after the building of log-houses and mills1 and schoolhouses1 and churches1 and roads1 when capital and labor are abundant1 and when the good lands1 nature-drained1 have been all taken up4 ,and1 again1 whether drainage is profitable1 depends not only on the value1 but on the character of the soil as to productiveness when drained4 ,there is much land that would be improved by drainage1 that cannot be profitably drained4 ,it would improve almost any land in ,new ,england to apply to it a hundred loads of stable manure to the acre2 but whether such application would be profitable1 must depend upon the returns to be derived from it4 ,horace ,greeley1 who has his perceptions of common affairs1 and especially of all that relates to progress1 wide awake1 said1 in an address at ,peekskill1 ,n4 ,y43 ,my deliberate judgment is1 that all lands which are worth plowing1 which is not the case with all lands that are plowed1 would be improved by draining2 but ,i know that our farmers are neither able nor ready to drain to that extent1 nor do ,i insist that it would pay while land is so cheap1 and labor and tile so dear as at present4 ,ultimately1 ,i believe1 we shall tile-drain nearly all our level1 or moderately sloping lands1 that are worth cultivation4 ,whether land would be improved by drainage1 is one question1 and whether the operation will pay1 is quite another4 ,the question whether it will pay1 depends on the value of the land before drainage1 the cost of the operation1 and the value of the land when completed4 ,and the cost of the operation includes always1 not only the money and labor expended in it1 but also the loss to other land of the owner1 by diverting from it the capital which would otherwise be applied to it4 ,where labor and capital are limited so closely as they are in all our new ,states1 it is a question not only how can they be profitably applied1 but how can they be most profitably applied4 ,a proprietor1 who has money to loan at six per cent4 interest1 may well invest it in draining his land2 when a working man1 who is paying twelve per cent4 interest for all the capital he employs1 might ruin himself by making the same improvement4 ,,do ,,all ,,lands ,,require ,,drainage8 ,our opinion is1 that a great deal of land does not in any sense require drainage1 and we should differ with ,mr4 ,greeley1 in the opinion that all lands worth ploughing1 would be improved by drainage4 ,nature has herself thoroughly drained a large proportion of the soil4 ,there is a great deal of finely-cultivated land in ,england1 renting at from five to ten dollars per acre1 that is thought there to require no drainage4 ,in a published table of estimates by ,mr4 ,denton1 made in #ahee1 it is supposed that ,great ,britain1 including ,england1 ,scotland1 and ,wales1 contain #dc1ieh1jjj acres of land1 cultivated and capable of cultivation2 of which he sets down as wet land1 or land requiring drainage1 #bb1hij1jjd acres1 or about one half the whole quantity4 ,his estimate is1 that only about #a1cfe1jjj acres had then been permanently drained1 and that it would cost about #ajg millions of pounds to complete the operation1 estimating the cost at about twenty shillings1 or five dollars per acre4 ,these estimates are valuable in various views of our subject4 ,they answer with some definiteness the question so often asked1 whether all lands require drainage1 and they tend to correct the impression1 which is prevalent in this country1 that there is something in the climate of ,great ,britain that makes drainage there essential to good cultivation on any land4 ,the fact is not so4 ,there1 as in ,america1 it depends upon the condition and character of the soil1 more than upon the quantity of rain1 or any condition of climate1 whether drainage is required or not4 ,generally1 it will be found on investigation1 that so far as climate1 including of course the quantity and regularity of the rain-fall1 is concerned1 drainage is more necessary in ,america than in ,great ,britain--the quantity of rain being in general greater in ,america1 and far less regular in its fall4 ,this subject1 however1 will receive a more careful consideration in another place4 ,if in ,america1 as in ,great ,britain1 one half the cultivable land require drainage1 or even if but a tenth of that half require it1 the subject is of vast importance1 and it is no less important for us to apprehend clearly what part of our land does not require this expenditure1 than to learn how to treat properly that which does require it4 ,to resume the inquiry1 what lands require drainage8 it may be answered-- ,,all ,,lands ,,overflowed ,,in ,,summer ,,require ,,drainage4 ,lands overflowed by the regular tides of the ocean require drainage1 whether they lie upon the sea-shore1 or upon rivers or bays4 ,but this drainage involves embankments1 and a peculiar mode of procedure1 of which it is not now proposed to treat4 ,again1 all lands overflowed by ,summer freshets1 as upon rivers and smaller streams1 require drainage4 ,these1 too1 usually require embankments1 and excavations of channels or outlets1 not within the usual scope of what is termed thorough drainage4 ,for a further answer to the question--what lands require drainage8 the reader is referred to the chapters which treat of the effect of drainage upon the soil4 ,,swamps ,,and ,,bogs ,,require ,,drainage4 ,no argument is necessary to convince rational men that the very extensive tracts of land1 which are usually known as swamps and bogs1 must1 in some way1 be relieved of their surplus water1 before they can be rendered fit for cultivation4 ,the treatment of this class of wet lands is so different from that applied to what we term upland1 that it will be found more convenient to pass the subject by with this allusion1 at present1 and consider it more systematically under a separate head4 ,,all ,,high ,,lands ,,that ,,contain ,,too ,,much ,,water ,,at ,,any ,,season1 ,,require ,,drainage4 ,draining has been defined1 ,the art of rendering land not only so free of moisture as that no superfluous water shall remain in it1 but that no water shall remain in it so long as to injure1 or even retard the healthy growth of plants required for the use of man and beast4 ,some plants grow in water4 ,some even spring from the bottom of ponds1 and have no other life than such a position affords4 ,but most plants1 useful to man1 are drowned by being overflowed even for a short time1 and are injured by any stagnant water about their roots4 ,why this is so1 it is not easy to explain4 ,most of our knowledge on these points1 is derived from observation4 ,we know that fishes live in water1 and if we would propagate them1 we prepare ponds and streams for the purpose4 ,our domestic animals live on land1 and we do not put them into fish-ponds to pasture4 ,there are useful plants which thrive best in water4 ,such is the cranberry1 notwithstanding all that has been said of its cultivation on upland4 ,and there are domestic fowls1 such as ducks and geese1 that require pools of water2 but we do not hence infer that our hens and chickens would be better for daily immersion4 ,all lands1 then1 require drainage1 that contain too much water1 at any season for the intended crops4 ,this will be found to be an important element in our rule4 ,land may require drainage for ,indian corn1 that may not require it for grass4 ,most of the cultivated grasses are improved in quality1 and not lessened in quantity1 by the removal of stagnant water in ,summer2 but there are reasons for drainage for hoed crops1 which do not apply to our mowing fields4 ,in ,new ,england1 we have for a few weeks a perfect race with ,nature1 to get our seeds into the ground before it is too late4 ,drained land may be plowed and planted several weeks earlier than land undrained1 and this additional time for preparation is of great value to the farmer4 ,much of this same land would be1 by the first of ,june1 by the time the ordinary planting season is past1 sufficiently drained by ,nature1 and a grass crop upon it would be1 perhaps1 not at all benefitted by thorough-drainage2 so that it is often an important consideration with reference to this operation1 whether a given portion of our farm may not be most profitably kept in permanent grass1 and maintained in fertility by top-dressing1 or by occasional plowing and reseeding in ,autumn4 ,it is certainly convenient to have all our fields adapted to our usual rotation1 and it is for each man to balance for himself this convenience against the cost of drainage in each particular case4 ,what particular crops are most injured by stagnant water in the soil1 or by the too tardy percolation of rain-water1 may be determined by observation4 ,how stagnant water injures plants1 is not1 as has been suggested1 easily understood in all its relations4 ,it doubtless retards the decomposition of the substances which supply their nutriment1 and it reduces the temperature of the soil4 ,it has been suggested1 that it prevents or checks perspiration and introsusception1 and it excludes the air which is essential to the vegetation of most plants4 ,whatever the theory1 the fact is acknowledged1 that stagnant water in as well as on the soil1 impedes the growth of all our valuable crops1 and that drainage soon cures the evil1 by removing the effect with its cause4 ,and the remedy seems to be almost instantaneous2 for1 on most upland1 it is found that by the removal of stagnant water1 the soil is in a single season rendered fit for the growth of cultivated crops4 ,in low meadows1 composed of peat and swamp mud1 in many cases1 exposure to the air for a year or two after drainage1 is often found to enhance the fertility of the soil1 which contains1 frequently1 acids which need correction4 ,,indications ,,of ,,too ,,much ,,moisture4 ,it has already been suggested1 that motives of convenience may induce us to drain our lands--that we may have a longer season in which to work them2 and that there may be cases where the crop would flourish if planted at precisely the right time1 where yet we cannot well1 without drainage1 seasonably prepare for the crop4 ,generally1 however1 lands too wet seasonably to plant1 will give indications1 throughout the season1 of hidden water producing its ill effects4 ,if the land be in grass1 we find that aquatic plants1 like rushes or water grasses1 spring up with the seeds we have sown1 and1 in a few years1 have possession of the field1 and we are soon compelled to plow up the sod1 and lay it again to grass4 ,if it be in wheat or other grain1 we see the field spotted and uneven2 here a portion on some slight elevation1 tall and dark colored1 and healthy2 and there a little depression1 sparsely covered with a low and sickly growth4 ,an ,american traveling in ,england in the growing season1 will always be struck with the perfect evenness of the fields of grain upon the well-drained soil4 ,journeying through a considerable portion of ,england and ,wales with intelligent ,english farmers1 we were struck with their nice perception on this point4 ,the slightest variation in the color of the wheat in the same or different fields1 attracted their instant attention4 ,that field is not well-drained2 the corn is too light-colored4 ,there is cold water at the bottom there2 the corn cannot grow2 were the constant criticisms1 as we passed across the country4 ,inequalities that1 in our more careless cultivation1 we should pass by without observation1 were at once explained by reference to the condition of the land1 as to water4 ,the drill-sowing of wheat1 and the careful weeding it with the horse-hoe and by hand1 are additional reasons why the ,english fields should present a uniform appearance1 and why any inequalities should be fairly referable to the condition of the soil4 ,upon a crop of ,indian corn1 the cold water lurking below soon places its unmistakable mark4 ,the blade comes up yellow and feeble4 ,it takes courage in a few days of bright sunshine in ,june1 and tries to look hopeful1 but a shower or an east wind again checks it4 ,it had already more trouble than it could bear1 and turns pale again4 ,tropical ,july and ,august induce it to throw up a feeble stalk1 and to attempt to spindle and silk1 like other corn4 ,it goes through all the forms of vegetation1 and yields at last a single nubbin for the pig4 ,indian corn must have land that is dry in ,summer1 or it cannot repay the labor of cultivation4 ,careful attention to the subject will soon teach any farmer what parts of his land are injured by too much water2 and having determined that1 the next question should be1 whether the improvement of it by drainage will justify the cost of the operation4 ,,will ,,it ,,pay8 ,drainage is a permanent investment4 ,it is not an operation like the application of manure1 which we should expect to see returned in the form of salable crops in one or two years1 or ten at most1 nor like the labor applied in cultivating an annual crop4 ,the question is not whether drainage will pay in one or two years1 but will it pay in the long run8 ,will it1 when completed1 return to the farmer a fair rate of interest for the money expended8 ,will it be more profitable1 on the whole1 than an investment in bank or railway shares1 or the purchase of ,western lands8 ,or1 to put the question in the form in which an ,english land-owner would put it1 will the rent of the land improved by drainage1 be permanently increased enough to pay a fair interest on the cost of the improvement8 ,let us bring out this idea clearly to the ,american farmer by a familiar illustration4 ,your field is worth to you now one hundred dollars an acre4 ,it pays you1 in a series of years1 through a rotation of planting1 sowing1 and grass1 a nett profit of six dollars an acre1 above all expenses of cultivation and care4 ,suppose1 now1 it will cost one-third of a hundred dollars an acre to drain it1 and you expend on each three acres one hundred dollars1 what must the increase of your crops be1 to make this a fair investment8 ,had you expended the hundred dollars in labor1 to produce a crop of cabbages1 you ought to get your money all back1 with a fair profit1 the first year4 ,had you expended it in guano or other special manures1 whose beneficial properties are exhausted in some two or three years1 your expenditure should be returned within that period4 ,but the improvement by drainage is permanent2 it is done for all time to come4 ,if1 therefore1 your drained land shall pay you a fair rate of interest on the cost of drainage1 it is a good investment4 ,six per cent4 is the most common rate of interest1 and if1 therefore1 each three acres of your drained land shall pay you an increased annual income of six dollars1 your money is fairly invested4 ,this is at the rate of two dollars an acre4 ,how much increase of crop will pay this two dollars8 ,in the common rotation of ,indian corn1 potatoes1 oats1 wheat1 or barley1 and grass1 two or three bushels of corn1 five or six bushels of potatoes1 as many bushels of oats1 a bushel or two of wheat1 two or three bushels of barley1 will pay the two dollars4 ,who1 that has been kept back in his ,spring's work by the wetness of his land1 or has been compelled to re-plant because his seed has rotted in the ground1 or has experienced any of the troubles incident to cold wet seasons1 will not admit at once1 that any land which ,nature has not herself thoroughly drained1 will1 in this view1 pay for such improvement8 ,but far more than this is claimed for drainage4 ,in ,england1 where such operations have been reduced to a system1 careful estimates have been made1 not only of the cost of drainage1 but of the increase of crops by reason of the operation4 ,in answer to questions proposed by a ,board of ,commissioners1 in #ahdh1 to persons of the highest reputation for knowledge on this point1 the increase of crops by drainage was variously stated1 but in no case at less than a paying rate4 ,one gentleman says3 ,a sixth of increase in produce of grain crops may be taken as the very lowest estimate1 and1 in actual result1 it is seldom less than one-fourth4 ,in very many cases1 after some following cultivation1 the produce is doubled1 whilst the expense of working the land is much lessened4 ,another says3 ,in many instances1 a return of fully #be per cent4 on the expenditure is realized1 and in some even more4 ,a third remarks1 ,my experience and observation have chiefly been in heavy clay soils1 where the result of drainage is eminently beneficial1 and where ,i should estimate the increased crop at six to ten bushels 7wheat7 per statute acre4 ,these are estimates made upon lands that had already been under cultivation4 ,in addition to such lands as are merely rendered less productive by surplus water1 we have1 even on our hard ,new ,england farms--on side hills1 where springs burst out1 or at the foot of declivities1 where the land is flat1 or in runs1 which receive the natural drainage of higher lands--many places which are absolutely unfit for cultivation1 and worse than useless1 because they separate those parts of the farm which can be cultivated4 ,if1 of these wet portions1 we make by draining1 good1 warm1 arable land1 it is not a mere question of per centage or profit2 it is simply the question whether the land1 when drained1 is worth more than the cost of drainage4 ,if it be1 how much more satisfactory1 and how much more profitable it is1 to expend money in thus reclaiming the waste places of our farms1 and so uniting the detached fields into a compact1 systematic whole1 than to follow the natural bent of ,american minds1 and annex our neighbor's fields by purchasing4 ,any number of instances could be given of the increased value of lands in ,england by drainage1 but they are of little practical value4 ,the facts1 that the ,government has made large loans in aid of the process1 that private drainage companies are executing extensive works all over the kingdom1 and that large land-holders are draining at their own cost1 are conclusive evidence to any rational mind1 that drainage in ,great ,britain1 at least1 well repays the cost of the operation4 ,in another chapter may be found accurate statements of ,american farmers of their drainage operations1 in different ,states1 from which the reader will be able to form a correct opinion1 whether draining in this country is likely to prove a profitable operation4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,various ,,methods ,,of ,,drainage4 ,open ,ditches4--,slope of ,banks4--,brush ,drains4--,ridge and ,furrow4--,plug-,draining4--,mole-,drain ing4--,mole-,plow4--,wedge and ,shoulder ,drains4--,larch ,tubes4--,drains of ,fence ,rails1 and ,poles4--,peat ,tiles4--,stone ,drains ,injured by ,moles4--,downing's ,giraffes4--,illustrations of ,various ,kinds of ,stone ,drains4 ,,open ,,ditches4 ,the most obvious mode of getting rid of surface-water is1 to cut a ditch on the surface to a lower place1 and let it run4 ,so1 if the only object were to drain a piece of land merely for a temporary purpose--as1 where land is too wet to ditch properly in the first instance1 and it is necessary to draw off part of the surplus water before systematic operations are commenced--an open ditch is1 perhaps1 the cheapest method to be adopted4 ,again3 where land to be drained is part of a large sloping tract1 and water runs down1 at certain seasons1 in large quantities upon the surface1 an open catch-water-ditch may be absolutely necessary4 ,this condition of circumstances is very common in mountainous districts1 where the rain which falls on the hills flows down1 either on the visible surface or on the rock-formation under the soil1 and breaks out at the foot1 causing swamps1 often high up on the hill-sides4 ,often1 too1 in clay districts1 where sand or loam two or three feet deep rests on tough clay1 we see broad sloping tracts1 which form our best grass-fields4 ,if we are attempting to drain the lower part of such a slope1 we shall find that the water from the upper part flows down in large quantities upon us1 and an open ditch may be most economical as a header1 to cut off the down-flowing water2 though1 in most cases1 a covered drain may be as efficient4 ,at the outlets1 too1 of our tile or stone drains1 when we come down nearly to the level of the stream which receives our drainage-water1 we find it convenient1 often1 and indeed necessary1 to use open ditches--perhaps only a foot or two deep--to carry off the water discharged4 ,these ditches are of great importance1 and should be finished with care1 because1 if they become obstructed1 they cause back-water in the drains1 and may ruin the whole work4 ,open drains are thus essential auxiliaries to the best plans of thorough drainage2 and1 whatever opinion may be entertained of their economy1 many farmers are so situated that they feel obliged to resort to them for the present1 or abandon all idea of draining their wet lands4 ,we will1 therefore1 give some hints as to the best manner of constructing open drains2 and then suggest1 in the form of objections to them1 such considerations as shall lead the proprietor who adopts this mode to consider carefully his plan of operations in the outset1 with a view to obviate1 as much as possible1 the manifest embarrassments occasioned by them4 ,as to the location of drains in swamps and peculiarly wet places1 directions may be found in another chapter4 ,we here propose only to treat of the mode of forming open drains1 after their location is fixed4 ,the worst of all drains is an open ditch1 of equal width from top to bottom4 ,it cannot stand a single season1 in any climate or soil1 without being seriously impaired by the frosts or the heavy rains4 ,all open drains should be sloping2 and it is ascertained1 by experiment1 what is the best1 or1 as it is sometimes expressed1 the natural slope1 on different kinds of soil4 ,if earth be tipped from a cart down a bank1 and be left exposed to the action of the weather1 it will rest1 and finally remain1 at a regular angle or inclination1 varying from #ba deg4 to #ee deg4 with the horizon1 according to the nature of the soil4 ,the natural slope of common earth is found to be about #cc deg4 #db'2 and this is the inclination usually adopted by railroad engineers for their embankments4 ,if the banks of the open ditch are thus sloped1 they will have the least possible tendency to wash away1 or break down by frost4 ,again3 where open ditches are adopted in mowing fields1 they may1 if not very deep1 be sloped still lower than the natural slope1 and seeded down to the bottom2 so that no land will be lost1 and so that teams may pass across them4 ,this amounts1 in fact1 to the old ridge and furrow system1 which was almost universal in ,england before tiles were used1 and is sometimes seen practiced in this country4 ,the land1 by that system1 is back-furrowed in narrow lands1 till it is laid up into beds1 sloping from the tops1 or backs1 to the furrows which constitute the drains4 ,this mode of culture is very ancient1 and is probably referred to in the language of the ,psalmist1 in the ,scriptures3 ,thou waterest the ridges thereof abundantly1 thou settlest the furrows thereof1 thou makest it soft with showers4 ,the objections to open ditches1 as compared with under-drains1 may be briefly stated thus3 #a4 ,they are expensive4 ,the excavation of a sloping drain is much greater than that of an upright drain4 ,an open drain must have a width of one or two feet at the bottom1 to receive the earth that always must1 to some extent1 wash into it4 ,an open drain requires to be cleaned out once a year1 to keep it in good order4 ,there is a large quantity of earth from an open drain to be disposed of1 either by spreading or hauling away4 ,thus1 a drain of this kind is costly at the outset1 and requires constant labor and care to preserve it in working condition4 #b4 ,they are not permanent4 ,a properly laid underdrain will last half a century or more1 but an open drain1 especially if deep1 has a constant tendency to fill up4 ,besides1 the action of frost and water and vegetation has a continual operation to obstruct open ditches4 ,rushes and water-grasses spring up luxuriantly in the wet and slimy bottom1 and often1 in a single season1 retard the flow of water1 so that it will stand many inches deep where the fall is slight4 ,the slightest accident1 as the treading of cattle1 the track of a loaded cart1 the burrowing of animals1 dams up the water and lessens the effect of the drain4 ,hence1 we so often see meadows which have been drained in this way going back1 in a few years1 into wild grass and rushes4 #c4 ,they obstruct good husbandry4 ,in the chapter upon the effects of drainage on the condition of the soil1 we suggest1 in detail1 the hindrances which open ditches present to the convenient cultivation of the land1 and1 especially1 how they obstruct the farmer in his plowing1 his mowing1 his raking1 and the general laying out of his land for convenient culture4 #d4 ,they occupy too much land4 ,if a ditch have an upright bank1 it is so soft that cattle will not step within several feet of it in plowing1 and thus a strip is lost for culture1 or must be broken up by hand4 ,if1 indeed1 we can get the plow near it1 there being no land to rest against1 the last furrow cannot be turned from the ditch1 and if it be turned into it1 must be thrown out by hand4 ,if the banks be sloped to the bottom1 and the land be thus laid into beds or ridges1 the appearance of the field may1 indeed1 be improved1 but there is still a loss of soil2 for the soil is all removed from the furrow1 which will always produce rushes and water-grass1 and carried to the ridge1 where it doubles the depth of the natural soil4 ,thus1 instead of a field of uniform condition1 as to moisture and temperature and fertility1 we have strips of wet1 cold1 and poor soil1 alternating with dry1 warm1 and rich soil1 establishing a sort of gridiron system1 neither beautiful1 convenient1 nor profitable4 #e4 ,the manure washes off and is lost4 ,the three or four feet of water which the clouds annually give us in rain and snow1 must either go off by evaporation1 or by filtration1 or run off upon the surface4 ,under the title of ,rain and ,evaporation1 it will be seen that not much more than half this quantity goes off by evaporation1 leaving a vast quantity to pass off through or upon the soil4 ,if lands are ridged up1 the manure and finer portions of the soil are1 to a great extent1 washed away into the open ditches and lost4 ,of the water which filters downwards1 a large portion enters open ditches near the surface1 before the fertilizing elements have been strained out2 whereas1 in covered drains of proper depth1 the water is filtered through a mass of soil sufficiently deep to take from it the fertilizing substances1 and discharge it1 comparatively pure1 from the field4 ,in a paper by ,prof4 ,way 7#aath ,jour4 ,roy4 ,ag4 ,soc471 on ,the ,power of ,soils to retain ,manure1 will be found interesting illustrations of the filtering qualities of different kinds of soil4 ,in addition to the above reasons for preferring covered drains1 it has been asserted by one of the most skillful drainers in the world 7,mr4 ,parkes71 that a proper covered drain of the same depth as an open ditch1 will drain a greater breadth of land than the ditch can effect4 ,the sides of the ditch1 he says1 become dried and plastered1 and covered with vegetation2 and even while they are free from vegetation1 their absorptive power is inferior to the covered drain4 ,of the depth1 direction1 and distance of drains1 our views will be found under the appropriate heads4 ,they apply alike to open and covered drains4 ,,brush ,,drains4 ,having a farm destitute of stones1 before tiles were known among us1 we made several experiments with covered drains filled with brush4 ,some of those drains operated well for eight or ten years2 others caved in and became useless in three or four years1 according to the condition of the soil4 ,in a wet swamp a brush drain endures much longer than in sandy land1 which is dry a part of the year1 because the brush decays in dry land1 but will prove nearly imperishable in land constantly wet4 ,in a peat or muck swamp1 we should expect that such drains1 if carefully constructed1 might last twenty years1 but that in a sandy loam they would be quite unreliable for a single year4 ,our failure on upland with brush drains1 has resulted1 not from the decay of the wood1 but from the entrance of sand1 which obstructed the channel4 ,moles and field-mice find these drains the very day they are laid1 and occupy them as permanent homes ever after4 ,those little animals live partly upon earth-worms1 which they find by burrowing after them in the ground1 and partly upon insects1 and vegetation above ground4 ,they have a great deal of business1 which requires convenient passages leading from their burrows to the day-light1 and drains in which they live will always be found perforated with holes from the surface4 ,in the ,spring1 or in heavy showers1 the water runs in streams into these holes1 breaks down the soft soil as it goes1 and finally the top begins to fall in1 and the channel is choked up1 and the work ruined4 ,we have tried many precautions against this kind of accident1 but none that was effectual on light land4 ,the general mode of construction is this3 ,open the trench to the depth required1 and about #ab inches wide at the bottom4 ,lay into this poles of four or five inches diameter at the butt1 leaving an open passage between4 ,then lay in brush of any size1 the coarsest at the bottom1 filling the drain to within a foot of the surface1 and covering with pine1 or hemlock1 or spruce boughs4 ,upon these lay turf1 carefully cut1 as close as possible4 ,the brush should be laid but-end up stream1 as it obstructs the water less in this way4 ,fill up with soil a foot above the surface1 and tread it in as hard as possible4 ,the weight of earth will compress the brush1 and the surface will settle very much4 ,we have tried placing boards at the sides1 and upon the top of the brash1 to prevent the caving in1 but with no great success4 ,although our drains thus laid1 have generally continued to discharge some water1 yet they have1 upon upland1 been dangerous traps and pitfalls for our horses and cattle1 and have cost much labor to fill up the holes1 where they have fallen through by washing away below4 ,in clay1 brush drains might be more durable4 ,in the ,english books1 we have descriptions of drains filled with thorn cuttings from hedges and with gorse4 ,when well laid in clay1 they are said to last about #ae years4 ,when the thorns decay1 the clay will still retain its form1 and leave a passage for the water4 ,a writer in the ,cyclopedia sums up the matter as to this kind of drains1 thus3 ,although in some districts they are still employed1 they can only be looked upon as a clumsy1 and superficial plan of doing that which can be executed in a permanent and satisfactory manner1 at a very small additional expense1 now that draining-tiles are so cheap and plentiful4 ,draining-tiles are not yet either cheap or plentiful in this country2 but we have full faith that they will become so very soon4 ,in the mean time it may be profitable for us to use such of the substitutes for them as may lie within our reach1 selecting one or another according as material is convenient4 ,,plug-,,draining has never been1 that we are aware1 practiced in ,america4 ,our knowledge of it is limited to what we learn from ,english books4 ,we1 therefore1 content ourselves with giving from ,morton's ,cyclopedia the following description and illustrations4 ,plug-draining1 like mole-draining1 does not require the use of any foreign material--the channel for the water being wholly formed of clay1 to which this kind of drain1 like that last mentioned is alone suited4 ,this method of draining requires a particular set of tools for its execution1 consisting of1 first1 a common spade1 by means of which the first spit is removed1 and laid on one side2 second1 a smaller-sized spade1 by means of which the second spit is taken out1 and laid on the opposite side of the trench thus formed2 third1 a peculiar instrument called a bitting iron 7,fig4 #aa71 consisting of a narrow spade1 three and a half feet in length1 and one and a half inches wide at the mouth and sharpened like a chisel2 the mouth1 or blade1 being half an inch in thickness in order to give the necessary strength to so slender an implement4 ,from the mouth1 a1 on the right-hand side1 a ring of steel1 b1 six inches long and two and a half broad1 projects at right angles2 and on the left1 at fourteen inches from the mouth1 a tread1 c1 three inches long1 is fitted4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4 ,a number of blocks of wood1 each one foot long1 six inches high1 and two inches thick at the bottom1 and two and a half at the top1 are next required4 ,from four to six of these are joined together by pieces of hoop-iron let into their sides by a saw-draught1 a small space being left between their ends1 so that when completed1 the whole forms a somewhat flexible bar1 as shown in the cut1 to one end of which a stout chain is attached4 ,these blocks are wetted1 and placed with the narrow end undermost1 in the bottom of the trench1 which should be cut so as to fit them closely2 the clay which has been dug out is then to be returned1 by degrees1 upon the blocks1 and rammed down with a wooden rammer three inches wide4 ,as soon as the portion of the trench above the blocks1 or plugs1 has been filled1 they are drawn forward1 by means of a lever thrust through a link of the chain1 and into the bottom of the drain for a fulcrum1 until they are all again exposed1 except the last one4 ,the further portion of the trench1 above the blocks1 is now filled in and rammed1 and so on the operations proceed until the whole drain is finished4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4--,,plug ,,drainage4 ,,mole ,,draining4 ,we hear of an implement1 in use in ,illinois and other ,western ,states1 called the ,gopher ,plow1 worked by a capstan1 which drains wet land by merely drawing through it an iron shoe1 at about two and a half feet in depth1 without the use of any foreign substance4 ,we hear reports of a mole plow1 in use in the same ,state1 known by the name of ,marcus and ,emerson's ,patent ,subsoiler1 with which1 an informant says1 drains are made also in the manner above named4 ,this machine is worked by a windlass power1 by a horse or yoke of oxen1 and the price charged is twenty-eight cents a rod for the work4 ,these machines are1 from description1 modifications of the ,english ,mole ,plow1 an implement long ago known and used in ,great ,britain4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4--,,mole ,,plow4 ,the following description is from ,morton's ,cyclopedia3 ,mole-,drains are the simplest of all the forms of the covered drains4 ,they are formed by means of a machine called the mole plow4 ,this machine consists of a long wooden beam and stilts1 somewhat in the form of the subsoil plow2 but instead of the apparatus for breaking up the subsoil in the latter1 a short cylindrical and pointed bar of iron is attached1 horizontally1 to the lower end of the broad coulter1 which can be raised or lowered by means of a slot in the beam4 ,the beam itself is sheathed with iron on the under side1 and moves close to the ground2 thus keeping the bar at the end of the coulter at one uniform depth4 ,this machine is dragged through the soft clay1 which is the only kind of land on which it can be used with propriety1 by means of a chain and capstan1 worked by horses1 and produces a hollow channel very similar to a mole-run1 from which it derives its name4 ,a correspondent of the ,new ,york ,tribune thus describes the operation and utility of a mole plow1 which he saw on the farm of ,major ,a4 ,b4 ,dickinson1 of ,hornby1 ,steuben ,county1 ,new ,york3 ,i believe there is not a rod of tile laid on this farm1 and not a dozen rods of covered stone drain4 ,but the major has a home-made1 or1 at least1 home-devised1 'bull plow1' consisting of a sharp-pointed iron wedge1 or roller1 surmounted by a broad1 sharp shank nearly four feet high1 with a still sharper cutter in front1 and with a beam and handles above all4 ,with five yoke of oxen attached1 this plow is put down through the soil and subsoil to an average depth of three feet--in the course which the superfluous water is expected and desired to take--and the field thus plowed through and through1 at intervals of two rods1 down to three feet1 as the ground is more or less springy and saturated with water4 ,the cut made by the shank closes after the plow and is soon obliterated1 while that made by the roller1 or wedge1 at the bottom1 becomes the channel of a stream of water whenever there is any excess of moisture above its level1 which stream tends to clear itself and rather enlarge its channel4 ,from ten to twenty acres a day are thus drained1 and ,major ,d4 has such drains of fifteen to twenty years' standing1 which still do good service4 ,in rocky soils1 this mode of draining is impracticable3 in sandy tracts it would not endure2 but here it does very well1 and1 even though it should hold good in the average but ten years1 it would many times repay its cost4 ,major ,dickinson himself in a recent address1 thus speaks of what he calls his ,,shanghae ,,plow4 ,i will take the poorest acre of stubble ground1 and if too wet for corn in the first place1 ,i will thoroughly drain it with a ,shanghae plow and four yoke of oxen in three hours4 ,i will suppose the acre to be twenty rods long and eight rods wide4 ,to thoroughly drain the worst of your clay subsoil1 it may require a drain once in eight feet1 and they can be made so cheaply that ,i can afford to make them at that distance4 ,to do so1 will require the team to travel sixteen times over the twenty rods lengthwise1 or one mile in three hours2 two men to drive1 one to hold the plow1 one to ride the beam1 and one to carry the crow-bar1 pick up any large stones thrown out by going to the right or left1 and to help to carry around the plow1 which is too heavy for the other two to do quickly4 ,the plow is quite simple in its construction1 consisting of a round piece of iron three and a half or four inches in diameter1 drawn down to a point1 with a furrow cut in the top one and a half inches deep2 a plate1 eighteen inches wide and three feet long1 with one end welded into the furrow of the round bar1 while the other is fastened to the beam4 ,the coulter is six inches in width1 and is fastened to the beam at one end1 and at the other to the point of the round bar4 ,the coulter and plate are each three-fourths of an inch thick1 which is the entire width of the plow above the round iron at the bottom4 ,it would require much more team to draw this plow on some soils than on yours4 ,the strength of team depends entirely on the character of the subsoil4 ,cast-iron1 with the exception of the coulter1 for an easy soil would be equally good2 and from eighteen to twenty-four inches is sufficiently deep to run the plow4 ,i can as thoroughly drain an acre of ground in this way as any that can be found in ,seneca ,county4 ,from the best information we can gather1 it would seem1 that on certain soils with a clay subsoil1 the mole plow1 as a sort of pioneer implement1 may be very useful4 ,the above account certainly indicates that on the farm in question it is very cheap1 rapid1 and effectual in its operation4 ,stephens gives a minute description of the mole plow figured above1 in his ,book of the ,farm4 ,its general structure and principle of operation may be easily understood by what has been already said1 and any person desirous of constructing one may find in that work exact directions4 ,,wedge ,,and ,,shoulder ,,drains4 ,these1 like the last-mentioned kind of drains1 are mere channels formed in the subsoil4 ,they have1 therefore1 the same fault of want of durability1 and are totally unfitted for land under the plow4 ,in forming wedge-drains1 the first spit1 with the turf attached1 is laid on one side1 and the earth removed from the remainder of the trench is laid on the other4 ,the last spade used is very narrow1 and tapers rapidly1 so as to form a narrow wedge-shaped cavity for the bottom of the trench4 ,the turf first removed is then cut into a wedge1 so much larger than the size of the lower part of the drain1 that when rammed into it with the grassy side undermost1 it leaves a vacant space in the bottom six or eight inches in depth1 as in ,fig4 #ad4 ,the shoulder-drain does not differ very materially from the wedge-drain4 ,instead of the whole trench forming a gradually tapering wedge1 the upper portion of the shoulder-drain has the sides of the trench nearly perpendicular1 and of considerable width1 the last spit only being taken out with a narrow1 tapering spade1 by which means a shoulder is left on either side1 from which it takes its name4 ,after the trench has been finished1 the first spit1 having the grassy side undermost as in the former case1 is placed in the trench1 and pushed down till it rests upon the shoulders already mentioned2 so that a narrow wedge-shaped channel is again left for the water1 as shown in ,fig4 #ae4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4--,,wedge-,,drain4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4--,,shoulder-,,drain4 ,these drains may be formed in almost any kind of land which is not a loose gravel or sand4 ,they are a very cheap kind of drain2 for neither the cost of cutting nor filling in1 much exceeds that of the ordinary tile drain1 while the expense of tiles or other materials is altogether saved4 ,still1 such drains cannot be recommended1 for they are very liable to injury1 and1 even under the most favorable circumstances1 can only last a very limited time4 ,,larch ,,tubes4 ,these have been used in ,scotland1 in mossy or swampy soils1 it is said1 with economy and good results4 ,the tube represented below presents a square of #d inches outside1 with a clear water-way of #b inches4 ,any other durable wood will1 of course1 answer the same purpose4 ,the tube is pierced with holes to admit the water4 ,in wet meadows1 these tubes laid deep would be durable and efficient1 and far more reliable than brush or even stones1 because they may be better protected from the admission of sand and the ruinous working of vermin4 ,their economy depends upon the price of the wood and the cost of tiles--which are far better if they can be reasonably obtained4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af4--,,larch ,,tube-,,drain4 ,near ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 we know of drainage tolerably well performed by the use of common fence-rails4 ,a trench is opened about three inches wider at bottom than two rails4 ,two rails are then laid in the bottom1 leaving a space of two or three inches between them4 ,a third rail is then laid on for a cover1 and the whole carefully covered with turf or straw1 and then filled up with earth4 ,poles of any kind may be used instead of rails1 if more convenient4 ,in clay1 these drains would be efficient and durable2 in sand1 they would be likely to be filled up and become useless4 ,this is an extravagant waste of timber1 except in the new districts where it is of no value4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,f4 ,anderson1 of ,windham1 ,maine1 has adopted a mode of draining with poles1 which1 in regions where wood is cheap and tiles are dear1 may be adopted with advantage4 ,two poles1 of from #c to #f inches diameter1 are laid at the bottom of the ditch1 with a water-way of half their diameter between them4 ,upon these1 a third pole is laid1 thus forming a duct of the desired dimensions4 ,the security of this drain will depend upon the care with which it is protected by a covering of turf and the like1 to prevent the admission of earth1 and its permanency will depend much upon its being placed low enough to be constantly wet1 as such materials are short-lived when frequently wet and dried1 and nearly imperishable if constantly wet4 ,it is unnecessary to place brush or stones over such drains to make them draw1 as it is called4 ,the water will find admission fast enough to destroy the work1 unless great care is used4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag4--,,pole-,,drain4 ,in ,ireland1 and in some parts of ,england and ,scotland1 peat-tiles are sometimes used in draining bogs4 ,they are cheap and very durable in such localities1 but1 probably1 will not be used in this country4 ,they are formed somewhat like pipes1 of two pieces of peat4 ,two halves are formed with a peculiar tool1 with a half circle in each4 ,when well dried1 they are placed together1 thus making a round opening4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah4--,,tool ,,for ,,peat-,,tiles4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai4--,,peat-,,tiles4 ,in draining1 the object being merely to form a durable opening in the soil1 at suitable depth1 which will receive and conduct away the water which filters through the soil1 it is obvious that a thousand expedients may be resorted to1 to suit the peculiar circumstances of persons4 ,in general1 the danger to be apprehended is from obstruction of the water-way4 ,nothing1 except a tight tube of metal or wood1 will be likely to prevent the admission of water4 ,economy and durability are1 perhaps1 the main considerations4 ,tiles1 at fair prices1 combine these qualities better than anything else4 ,stones1 however1 are both cheap and durable1 so far as the material is concerned2 but the durability of the material1 and the durability of the drains1 are quite different matters4 ,,drains ,,of ,,stones4 ,providence has so liberally supplied the greater part of ,new ,england with stones1 that it seems to most inexperienced persons to be a work of supererogation1 almost1 to manufacture tiles or any other draining material for our farms4 ,we would by no means discourage the use of stones1 where tiles cannot be used with greater economy4 ,stone drains are1 doubtless1 as efficient as any1 so long as the water-way can be kept open4 ,the material is often close at hand1 lying on the field and to be removed as a nuisance1 if not used in drainage4 ,in such cases1 true economy may dictate the use of them1 even where tiles can be procured2 though1 we believe1 tiles will be found generally cheaper1 all things considered1 where made in the neighborhood4 ,in treating of the cost of drainage1 we have undertaken to give fair estimates of the comparative cost of different materials4 ,every farmer is capable of making estimates for himself1 and of testing those made by us1 and so of determining what is true economy in his particular case4 ,the various modes of constructing drains of stones1 may be readily shown by simple illustrations3 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc4 ,if stone-drains are decided upon1 the mode of constructing them will depend upon the kind of stone at hand4 ,in some localities1 round pebble-stones are found scattered over the surface1 or piled in heaps upon our farms2 in others1 flat1 slaty stones abound1 and in others1 broken stones from quarries may be more convenient4 ,of these1 probably1 the least reliable is the drain filled with pebble-stones1 or broken stones of small size4 ,they are peculiarly liable to be obstructed1 because there is no regular water-way1 and the flow of the water must1 of course1 be very slow1 impeded as it is by friction at all points with the irregular surfaces4 ,sand1 and other obstructing substances1 which find their way1 more or less1 into all drains1 are deposited among the stones--the water having no force of current sufficient to carry them forward--and the drain is soon filled up at some point1 and ruined4 ,miles of such drains have been laid on many ,new ,england farms1 at shoal depths1 of two or two and a half feet1 and have in a few years failed4 ,for a time1 their effect1 to those unaccustomed to under-drainage1 seems almost miraculous4 ,the wet field becomes dry1 the wild grass gives place to clover and herds-grass1 and the experiment is pronounced successful4 ,after a few years1 however1 the wild grass re-appears1 the water again stands on the surface1 and it is ascertained1 on examination1 that the drain is in some place packed solid with earth1 and is filled with stagnant water4 ,the fault is by no means wholly in the material4 ,in clay or hard pan1 such a drain may be made durable1 with proper care1 but it must be laid deep enough to be beyond the effect of the treading of cattle and of loaded teams1 and the common action of frost4 ,they can hardly be laid low enough to be beyond the reach of our great enemy1 the mole1 which follows relentlessly all our operations4 ,we recollect the remarks of ,mr4 ,downing about the complaints in ,new ,england1 of injury to fruit-trees by the gnawing of field-mice4 ,he said he should as soon think of danger from injury by giraffes as field-mice1 in his own neighborhood1 though he had no doubt of their depredations elsewhere6 ,it may seem to many1 that we lay too much stress on this point1 of danger from moles and mice4 ,we know whereof we do testify in this matter4 ,we verily believe that we never finished a drain of brush or stones1 on our farm1 ten rods long1 that there was not a colony of these varmint in the one end of it1 before we had finished the other4 ,if these drains1 however1 are made three or four feet deep1 and the solid earth rammed hard over the turf1 which covers the stones1 they will be comparatively safe4 ,the figures #bd and #be below1 represent a mode of laying stone drains1 practiced in ,ireland1 which will be found probably more convenient and secure than any other method1 for common small drains4 ,a flat stone is set upright against one side of the ditch1 which should be near the bottom1 perpendicular4 ,another stone is set leaning against the first1 with its foot resting against the opposite bank4 ,if the soil be soft clay1 a flat stone may be placed first on the bottom of the ditch1 for the water to flow upon2 but this will be found a great addition to the labor1 unless flat stones of peculiarly uniform shape and thickness are at hand4 ,a board laid at the bottom will be usually far cheaper1 and less liable to cause obstructions4 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #bd1 #be4--,,stone ,,drains4 ,figure #be represents the ditch without the small stones above the duct4 ,these small stones are1 in nine cases in ten1 worse than useless1 for they are not only unnecessary to admit the water1 but furnish a harbor for mice and other vermin4 ,drawings1 representing a filling of small stones above the duct1 have been copied from one work to another for generations1 and it seems never to have occurred1 even to modern writers1 that the small stones might be omitted4 ,any one1 who knows anything of the present system of draining with tiles1 must perceive at once that1 if we have the open triangular duct or the square culvert1 the water cannot be kept from finding it1 by any filling over it with such earth as is usually found in ditching4 ,formerly1 when tiles were used1 the ditch was filled above the tiles1 to the height of a foot or more1 with broken stones2 but this practice has been everywhere abandoned as expensive and useless4 ,an opening of any form1 equal to a circle of two or three inches diameter1 will be sufficient in most cases1 though the necessary size of the duct must1 of course1 depend on the quantity of water which may be expected to flow in it at the time of the greatest flood4 ,whatever the form of the stone drain1 care should be taken to make the joints as close as possible1 and turf1 shavings1 straw1 tan1 or some other material1 should be carefully placed over the joints1 to prevent the washing in of sand1 which is the worst enemy of all drains4 ,it is not deemed necessary to remark particularly upon the mode of laying large drains for water-courses1 with abutments and covering stones1 forming a square duct1 because it is the mode universally known and practiced4 ,for small drains1 in thorough-draining lands1 it may1 however1 be remarked1 that this is1 perhaps1 the most expensive of all modes1 because a much greater width of excavation is necessary in order to place in position the two side stones and leave the requisite space between them4 ,that mode of drainage which requires the least excavation and the least carriage of materials1 and consequently the least filling up and levelling1 is usually the cheapest4 ,our conclusion as to stone drains is1 that1 at present1 they may be1 in many cases1 found useful and economical2 and even where tiles are to be procured at present prices stones may well be used1 where materials are at hand1 for the largest drains4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,drainage ,,with ,,tiles4 ,what are ,drain-,tiles8--,forms of ,tiles4--,pipes4--,horse-shoe ,tiles4--,sole-,tiles--,form of ,water-,passage4--,collars and their ,use4--,size of ,pipes4--,velocity4--,friction4--,discha rge of ,water through ,pipes4--,tables of ,capacity4--,how ,water enters ,tiles4--,deep ,drains run soonest and longest4--,pressure of ,water on ,pipes4--,durability of ,tile ,drains4--,drain-,bricks #ajj years old4 ,,what ,,are ,,drain-,,tiles8 ,this would be an absurd question to place at the head of a division in a work intended for the ,english public1 for tiles are as common in ,england as bricks1 and their forms and uses as familiar to all4 ,but in ,america1 though tiles are used to a considerable extent in some localities1 probably not one farmer in one hundred in the whole country ever saw one4 ,the author has recently received letters of inquiry about the use and cost of tiles1 from which it is manifest that the writers have in their mind as tiles1 the square bricks with which our grandfathers used to lay their hearths4 ,in ,johnstone's ,report to the ,board of ,agriculture on ,elkington's ,system of ,draining1 published in ,england in #agig1 the only kind of tiles or clay conduits described or alluded to by him1 are what he calls draining-bricks1 of which he gives drawings1 which we transfer to our pages precisely as found in the ,american edition4 ,it will be seen to be as clumsy a contrivance as could well be devised4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bf4--;,,draining-,,bricks4 ,so lately as #ahef1 tiles were brought from ,albany1 ,n4 ,y41 to ,exeter1 ,n4 ,h41 nearly #cjj miles1 by railway1 at a cost1 including freight1 of #be a thousand for two-inch pipes1 and it is believed that no tiles were ever made in ,new ,hampshire till the year #aheg4 ,these facts will soon become curiosities in agricultural literature1 and so are worth preserving4 ,they furnish excuse1 too1 for what may appear to learned agriculturists an unnecessary particularity in what might seem the well-known facts relative to tile-drainage4 ,drain-tiles are made of clay of almost any quality that will make bricks1 moulded by a machine into tubes1 or into half-tube or horse-shoe forms1 usually fourteen inches long before drying1 and burnt in a furnace or kiln to be about as hard as what are called hard-burnt bricks4 ,they are usually moulded about half an inch in thickness1 varying with the size and form of the tile4 ,the sizes vary from one inch to six inches1 and sometimes larger1 in the diameter of the bore4 ,the forms are also very various2 and as this is one of the most essential matters1 as affecting the efficiency1 the cost1 and the durability of tile-drainage1 it will be well to give it critical attention4 ,,the ,,forms ,,of ,,tiles4 ,the simplest1 cheapest1 and best form of drain-tile is the cylinder1 or merely a tube1 round outside and with a round bore4 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #bg1 #bh1 #bi4--,,round ,,pipes4 ,tiles of this form1 and all others which are tubular1 are called pipes1 in distinction from those with open bottoms1 like those of horse-shoe form4 ,about forty years ago1 as ,mr4 ,gisborne informs us1 small pipes for land-drainage were used1 concurrently1 by persons residing in the counties of ,lincoln1 ,oxford1 and ,kent1 who had1 probably1 no knowledge of each other's operations4 ,most of those pipes were made with eyelet-holes1 to admit the water4 ,pipes for thorough-draining excited no general attention till they were exhibited by ,john ,read at the show at ,derby1 in the year #ahdc4 ,a medal was awarded to the exhibitor4 ,mr4 ,parkes was one of the judges1 and brought the pipes to the special notice of the council4 ,from this time1 inventions and improvements were rapid1 and soon1 collars were introduced1 and the use of improved machines to mould the pipes2 and drainage1 under the fostering influence of the ,royal ,agricultural ,society1 became a subject of general attention throughout the kingdom4 ,the round pipe1 or the pipe1 as it seems1 par excellence1 to be termed by ,english drainers1 though one of the latest1 if not the last form of tiles introduced in ,england1 has become altogether the most popular among scientific men1 and is generally used in all works conducted under the charge of the ,land ,drainage ,companies4 ,this ought to settle the question for us1 when we consider that the immense sum of twenty millions of dollars of public funds has been expended by them1 in addition to vast amounts of private funds1 and that the highest practical talent of the nation is engaged in the work4 ,after giving some idea of the various forms of tiles in use1 it is1 however1 proposed to examine the question upon its merits1 so that each may judge for himself which is best4 ,the earliest form of tiles introduced for the purpose of thorough-drainage1 was the horse-shoe tile1 so called from its shape4 ,the horse-shoe tile has been sometimes used without any sole to form the bottom of the drain1 thus leaving the water to run on the ground4 ,there can hardly be a question of the false economy of this mode1 for the hardest and most impervious soil softens under the constant action of running water1 and then the edges of the tiles must sink1 or the bottom of the drain rise1 and thus destroy the work4 ,various devices have been tried to save the expense of soles1 such as providing the edges of the tiles with flanges or using pieces of soles on which to rest the ends of the tiles4 ,they all leave the bottom of the drain unprotected against the wearing action of the water4 ,,horse-,,shoe ,,tiles1 or tops and bottoms as they are called in some counties1 are still much used in ,england2 and in personal conversation with farmers there1 the writer found a strong opinion expressed in their favor4 ,the advantages claimed for the tops and bottoms are1 that they lie firmly in place1 and that they admit the water more freely than others4 ,the objections to them are1 that they are more expensive than round pipes1 and are not so strong1 and are not so easily laid1 and that they do not discharge water so well as tiles with a round bore4 ,in laying them1 they should be made to rest partly upon two adjoining soles1 or to break bond1 as it is called4 ,the soles are made separate from the tiles1 and are merely flat pieces1 of sufficient width to support firmly both edges of the tiles4 ,the soles are usually an inch wider than the tiles4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cj--;,,horse-,,shoe ,,tiles ,,and ,,soles4 ,the above figure represents the horse-shoe tiles and soles properly placed4 ,as this form of tile has been generally used by the most successful drainers in ,new ,york1 it may be well to cite the high authority of ,mr4 ,gisborne for the objections which have been suggested4 ,it should be recollected in this connection1 that the drainage in this country has been what in ,england would be called shallow1 and that it is too recent to have borne the test of time4 ,mr4 ,gisborne says3 ,we shall shock and surprise many of our readers1 when we state confidently that1 in average soils1 and still more in those which are inclined to be tender1 horse-shoe tiles form the weakest and most failing conduit which has ever been used for a deep drain4 ,it is so1 however2 and a little thought1 even if we had no experience1 will tell us that it must be so4 ,a horse-shoe tile1 which may be a tolerably secure conduit in a drain of #b feet1 in one of #d feet becomes an almost certain failure4 ,as to the longitudinal fracture1 not only is the tile subject to be broken by one of those slips which are so troublesome in deep draining1 and to which the lightly-filled material1 even when the drain is completed1 offers an imperfect resistance1 but the constant pressure together of the sides1 even when it does not produce a fracture of the soil1 catches hold of the feet of the tile1 and breaks it through the crown4 ,when the ,regent's ,park was first drained1 large conduits were in fashion1 and they were made circular by placing one horse-shoe tile upon another4 ,it would be difficult to invent a weaker conduit4 ,on re-drainage1 innumerable instances were found in which the upper tile was broken through the crown and had dropped into the lower4 ,another form of tiles1 called sole-tiles1 or sole-pipes1 is much used in ,america1 more indeed than any other1 except perhaps the horse-shoe tile2 probably1 because the first manufacturers fancied them the best1 and offered no others in the market4 ,in this form1 the sole is solid with the tile4 ,the bottom is flat1 but the bore is round1 or oval1 or egg-shaped1 with the small end of the orifice downward4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ca--,,sole-,,tile4 ,the sole-pipe has considerable advantages theoretically4 ,the opening or bore is of the right shape1 the bottom lies fair and firm in place1 and the drain1 indeed1 is perfect1 if carefully and properly laid4 ,the objections to the sole-pipes are1 that they are somewhat more expensive than round pipes1 and that they require great care in placing them1 so as to make the passage even from one pipe to another4 ,a slight depression of one side of a pipe of this kind1 especially if the bore be oval or egg-shaped1 throws the water passage out of line4 ,in laying them1 the author has taken the precaution to place under each joint a thin piece of wood1 such as our honest shoe manufacturers use for stiffening in shoes1 to keep the bottoms of the pipes even1 at least until the ground has settled compactly1 and as much longer as they may escape decay's effacing finger4 ,,collars for tiles are used wherever a sudden descent occurs in the course of a drain1 or where there is a loose sand or a boggy place1 and by many persons they are used in all drains through sandy or gravelly land4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cb4--,,pipes ,,and ,,collar4 ,the above figure represents pipe-tiles fitted with collars4 ,collars are merely short sections of pipes of such size as to fit upon the smaller ones loosely1 covering the joint1 and holding the ends in place1 so that they cannot slip past each other4 ,in very bad places1 small pipes may be entirely sheathed in larger ones2 and this is advisable in steep descents or flowing sands4 ,a great advantage in round pipes is1 that there is no wrong-side-up to them1 and they are1 therefore1 more readily placed in position than tiles of any other form4 ,again3 all tiles are more or less warped in drying and burning2 and1 where it is desired to make perfect work1 round pipes may be turned so as to make better joints and a straighter run for the water--which is very important4 ,if collars are used1 there is still less difficulty in adjusting the pipes so as to make the lines straight1 and far less danger of obstruction by sand or roots4 ,indeed1 it is believed that no drain can be made more perfect than with round pipes and collars4 ,as it is believed that few collars have ever yet been used in this country1 and the best drainers in ,england are not agreed as to the necessity of using them1 we give the opinions of two or three distinguished gentlemen1 in their own language4 ,mr4 ,gisborne says3 ,we were astounded to find1 at the conclusion of ,mr4 ,parkes' ,newcastle ,lecture1 this sentence3 ',it may be advisable for me to say1 that in clays1 and other clean-cutting and firm-bottomed soils1 ,i do not find the collars to be indispensably necessary1 although ,i always prefer their use4' ,this is a barefaced treachery to pipes1 an abandonment of the strongest point in their case--the assured continuity of the conduit4 ,every one may see how very small a disturbance at their point of junction would dissociate two pipes of one inch diameter4 ,one finds a soft place in the bottom of the drain and dips his nose into it one inch deep1 and cocks up his other end4 ,by this simple operation1 the continuity of the conduit is twice broken4 ,an inch of lateral motion produces the same effect4 ,pipes of a larger diameter than two inches are generally laid without collars4 ,this is a practice on which we do not look with much complacency2 it is the compromise between cost and security1 to which the affairs of men are so often compelled4 ,no doubt1 a conduit from three to six inches in diameter is much less subject to a breach in its continuity than one which is smaller2 but1 when no collars are used1 the pipes should be laid with extreme care1 and the bed which is prepared for them at the bottom of the drain should be worked to their size and shape with great accuracy4 ,to one advantage which is derived from the use of collars we have not yet adverted--the increased facility with which free water existing in the soil can find entrance into the conduit4 ,the collar for a one and a half inch pipe has a circumference of nine inches4 ,the whole space between the collar and the pipe1 on each side of the collar1 is open1 and affords no resistance to the entrance of water3 while1 at the same time1 the superincumbent arch of the collar protects the junction of two pipes from the intrusion of particles of soil4 ,we confess to some original misgivings1 that a pipe resting only on an inch at each end1 and lying hollow1 might prove weak1 and liable to fracture by weight pressing on it from above2 but the fear was illusory4 ,small particles of soil trickle down the sides of every drain1 and the first flow of water will deposit them in the vacant space between the two collars4 ,the bottom1 if at all soft1 will also swell up into any vacancy4 ,practically1 if you re-open a drain well laid with pipes and collars1 you will find them reposing in a beautiful nidus1 which1 when they are carefully removed1 looks exactly as if it had been moulded for them4 ,as to the danger of breaking the pipes1 which might well be apprehended1 we found by actual experiment1 at the ,new ,york ,central ,park1 that a one-inch ,albany pipe resting on collars upon a floor1 with a bearing at each end of but one inch1 would support the weight of a man weighing #afj pounds1 standing on one foot on the middle of the pipe4 ,mr4 ,parkes sums up his opinion upon the subject of collars1 in these words3 ,it may be advisable for me to say1 that in clays1 and other clean-cutting and firm-bottomed soils1 ,i do not find collars to be at all necessary2 but that they are essential in all sandy1 loose1 and soft strata4 ,in draining in the neighborhood of trees1 collars are also supposed to be of great use in preventing the intrusion of roots into the pipes1 although it may be impossible1 even in this way1 to exclude the roots of water-loving trees4 ,from the most careful inquiry that the writer was able to make1 as to the practice in ,england1 he is satisfied that collars are not generally used there in the drainage of clays1 but that the pipes are laid in openings shaped for them at the bottom of the drains1 with a tool which forms a groove into which the pipes fall readily into line1 and very little seems to be said of collars in the published estimates of the cost of drainage4 ,on this subject1 we have the opinion of ,mr4 ,denton1 thus expressed3 ,the use of collars is by no means general1 although those who have used them speak highly of their advantages4 ,except in sandy soils1 and in those that are subject to sudden alteration of character1 in some of the deposits of red sand-stones1 and in the clayey subsoils of the ,bagshot sand district1 for instance1 collars are not found to be essential to good drainage4 ,in the north of ,england they are used but seldom1 and1 in my opinion1 much less than they ought to be2 but this opinion1 it is right to state1 is opposed1 in numerous instances of successful drainage1 by men of extensive practice2 and as every cause of increased outlay is to be avoided1 the value of collars1 as general appliances1 remains an open question4 ,in all the more porous subsoils in which collars have not been used1 the more successful drainers increase the size of the pipes in the minor drains to a minimum size of two inches bore4 ,the form of the bore1 or water passage1 in tiles1 is a point of more importance than at first appears4 ,at one of our colleges1 certain plank sewers1 in the ordinary square form1 were often obstructed by the sediment from the dirty water4 ,turn them cornerwise1 suggested the professor of ,natural ,philosophy4 ,it was done1 and ever after they kept in order4 ,the pressure of water depends on its height1 or head4 ,everybody knows that six feet of water carries a mill-wheel better than one foot4 ,the same principle operates on a small scale4 ,an inch head of water presses harder than a half inch4 ,the velocity of water1 again1 depends much on its height4 ,whether there be much or little water passing through a drain1 it has manifestly a greater power to make its way1 to drive before it sand or other obstructions1 when it is heaped up in a round passage1 than when wandering over the flat surface of a tile sole4 ,any one who has observed the discharge of water from flat-bottomed and round tiles1 will be satisfied that the quantity of water which is sufficient to run in a rapid stream of a half or quarter inch diameter from a round tile1 will lazily creep along the flat bottom of a sole tile1 with hardly force sufficient to turn aside a grain of sand1 or to bring back to light an enterprising cricket that may have entered on an exploration4 ,on the whole1 solid tiles1 with flat-bottomed passages1 may be set down among the inventions of the adversary4 ,they have not the claims even of the horse-shoe form to respect1 because they do not admit water better than round pipes1 and are not united by a sole on which the ends of the adjoining tiles rest4 ,they combine the faults of all other forms1 with the peculiar virtues of none4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cc--;,,flat-,,bottomed ,,pipe-,,tile4 ,from an ,english report on the drainage of towns1 the following1 which illustrates this point1 is taken3 ,it was found that a large proportion of sewers were constructed with flat bottoms1 which1 when there was a small discharge1 spread the water1 increased the friction1 retarded the flow1 and accumulated deposit4 ,it was ascertained1 that by the substitution of circular sewers of the same width1 with the same inclination and the same run of water1 the amount of deposit was reduced more than one-half4 ,,the ,,size ,,of ,,tiles4 ,is a matter of much importance1 whether we regard the efficiency and durability of our work1 or economy in completing it4 ,the cost of tiles1 and the freight of them1 increase rapidly with their size1 and it is1 therefore1 well to use the smallest that will effect the object in view4 ,tiles should be large enough1 as a first proposition1 to carry off1 in a reasonable time1 all the surplus water that may fall upon the land4 ,here1 the ,english rules will not be safe for us2 for1 although ,england has many more rainy days than we have1 yet we have1 in general1 a greater fall of rain--more inches of water from the clouds in the year4 ,instead of their eternal drizzle1 we have thunder showers in ,summer1 and in ,spring and ,autumn north-east storms1 when the windows of heaven are opened1 and a deluge1 except in duration1 bursts upon us4 ,then1 at the ,north1 the ,winter snows cover the fields until ,april1 when they suddenly dissolve1 often under heavy showers of rain1 and planting time is at once upon us4 ,it is desirable that all the snow and rain-water should pass through the soil into the drains1 instead of overflowing the surface1 so as to save the elements of fertility with which such water abounds1 and also to prevent the washing of the soil4 ,we require1 then1 a greater capacity of drainage1 larger tiles1 than do the ,english1 for our drains must do a greater work than theirs1 and in less time4 ,there are several other general considerations that should be noticed1 before we attempt to define the particular size for any location4 ,several small drains are usually discharged into one main drain4 ,this main should have sufficient capacity to conduct all the water that may be expected to enter it1 and no more4 ,if the small drains overflow it1 the main will be liable to be burst1 or the land about it filled with water1 gushing from it at the joints2 especially1 if the small drains come down a hill side1 so as to give a great pressure1 or head of water4 ,on the other hand1 if the main be larger than is necessary1 there is the useless expense of larger tiles than were required4 ,the capacity of pipes to convey water1 depends1 other things being equal1 upon their size2 but here the word size has a meaning which should be kept clearly in mind4 ,the capacity of round water-pipes is in proportion to the squares of their diameters4 ,a one-inch pipe carries one inch 7circular1 not square7 of water1 but a two-inch pipe carries not two inches only1 but twice two1 or four inches of water2 a three-inch pipe carries three times three1 or nine inches2 and a four-inch pipe1 sixteen inches4 ,thus we see1 that under the same conditions as to fall1 directness1 smoothness1 and the like1 a four-inch pipe carries just four times as much water as a two-inch pipe4 ,in fact1 it will carry more than this proportion1 because friction1 which is an important element in all such calculations1 is greater in proportion to the smaller size of the pipe4 ,,velocity is another essential element to be noticed in determining the amount of water which may be discharged through a pipe of given diameter4 ,velocity1 again1 depends on several conditions4 ,water runs faster down a steep hill than down a gentle declivity4 ,this is due to the weight of the water1 or1 in other words1 to gravitation1 and operates whether the water be at large on the ground1 or confined in a pipe1 and it operates alike whether the water in a pipe fill its bore or not4 ,but1 again1 the velocity of water in a pipe depends on the pressure1 or head of water1 behind it1 and there is1 perhaps1 no definite limit to the quantity of water that may be forced through a given orifice4 ,more water1 for instance1 is often forced through the pipe of a fire-engine in full play1 in ten minutes1 than would run through a pipe of the same diameter1 lying nearly level in the ground1 in ten hours4 ,in ordinary aqueducts1 for supplying water1 and not for drainage1 it is desirable to have a high pressure upon the pipes to ensure a rapid flow2 but in drainage1 a careful distinction must be made between velocity induced by gravitation1 and velocity induced by pressure4 ,if induced by the former merely1 the pipe through which the water is swiftly running1 if not quite full1 may still receive water at every joint1 while1 if the velocity be induced by pressure1 the pipe must be already full4 ,it can then receive no more1 and must lose water at the joints1 and wet the land through which it passes1 instead of draining it4 ,so that although we should find that the mains might carry a vast quantity of water admitted by minor drains from high elevations1 yet we should bear in mind1 that drains when full can perform no ordinary office of drainage4 ,if there is more than the pressure of four feet head of water behind2 the pipes1 if they passed through a pond of water1 at four feet deep1 must lose and not receive water at the joints4 ,the capacity of a pipe to convey water depends1 then1 not only on its size1 but on its inclination or fall--a pipe running down a considerable descent having much greater capacity than one of the same size lying nearly level4 ,this fact should be borne in mind even in laying single drains2 for it is obvious that if the drain lie along a sandy plain1 for instance1 extending down a springy hill-side1 and then1 as is usually the case1 along a lower plain again1 to its outlet at some stream1 it may collect as much water as will fill it before it reaches the lower level4 ,its stream rushes swiftly down the descent1 and when it reaches the plain1 there is not sufficient fall to carry it away by its natural gravitation4 ,it will still rush onward to its outlet1 urged by the pressure from behind2 but1 with such pressure1 it will1 as we have seen1 instead of draining the land1 suffuse it with water4 ,,friction1 as has already been suggested1 is an element that much interferes with exact calculations as to the relative capacity of water-pipes of various dimensions1 and this depends upon several circumstances1 such as smoothness1 and exactness of form1 and directness4 ,the smoother1 the more regular in form1 and the straighter the drain1 the more water will it convey4 ,thus1 in some recent ,english experiments1 it was found that1 with pipes of the same diameter1 exactitude of form was of more importance than smoothness of surface2 that glass pipes1 which had a wavy surface1 discharged less water1 at the same inclinations1 than ,staffordshire stone-ware clay pipes1 which were of perfectly exact construction4 ,by passing pipes of the same clay--the common red clay--under a second pressure1 obtained by a machine at an extra expense of about eighteen pence per thousand1 whilst the pipe was half dry1 very superior exactitude of form was obtained1 and by means of this exactitude1 and with nearly the same diameters1 an increased discharge of water of one-fourth was effected within the same time4 ,so all sudden turns or angles increase friction and retard velocity1 and thus lessen the capacity of the drain--a topic which may be more properly considered under the head of the junction of drains4 ,on a large scale1 it was found that when equal quantities of water were running direct1 at a rate of #ij seconds1 with a turn at right-angles1 the discharge was only effected in #adj seconds2 whilst1 with a turn or junction with a gentle curve1 the discharge was effected in #ajj seconds4 ,we are indebted to ,messrs4 ,shedd ,edson for the following valuable tables showing the capacity of water-pipes1 with the accompanying suggestions3 ,,discharge ,,of ,,water ,,through ,,pipes4 ,the following tables of discharge are founded on the experiments made by ,mr4 ,smeaton1 and have been compared with those by ,henry ,law1 and with the rules of ,weisbach and ,d',aubuisson4 ,the conditions under which such experiments are made may be so essentially different in each case1 that few experiments give results coincident with each other1 or with the deductions of theory3 and in applying these tables to practice1 it is quite likely that the discharge of a pipe of a certain area1 at a certain inclination1 may be quite unlike the discharge found to be due to those conditions by this table1 and that difference may be owing partly to greater or less roughness on the inside of the pipe1 unequal flow of water through the joints into the pipe1 crookedness of the pipes1 want of accuracy in their being placed1 so that the fall may not be uniform throughout1 or the ends of the pipes may be shoved a little to one side1 so that the continuity of the channel is partially broken2 and1 indeed1 from various other causes1 all of which may occur in any practical case1 unless great care is taken to avoid it1 and some of which may occur in almost any case4 ,we have endeavored to so construct the tables that1 in the ordinary practice of draining1 the discharge given may approximate to the truth for a well laid drain1 subject even to considerable friction4 ,the experiments of ,mr4 ,smeaton1 which we have adopted as the basis of these tables1 gave a less quantity discharged1 under certain conditions1 than given under similar conditions by other tables4 ,this result is probably due to a greater amount of friction in the pipes used by ,smeaton4 ,the curves of friction resemble1 very nearly1 parabolic curves1 but are not quite so sharp near the origin4 ,we propose1 during the coming season1 to institute some careful experiments1 to ascertain the friction due to our own drain-pipe4 ,water can get into the drain-pipe very freely at the joints1 as may be seen by a simple calculation4 ,it is impossible to place the ends so closely together1 in laying1 as to make a tight joint on account of roughness in the clay1 twisting in burning1 c42 and the opening thus made will usually average about one-tenth of an inch on the whole circumference1 which is1 on the inside of a two-inch pipe1 six inches--making six-tenths of a square inch opening for the entrance of water at each joint4 ,in a lateral drain #bjj feet long1 the pipes being thirteen inches long1 there will be #ahd joints1 each joint having an opening of six-tenth square inch area2 in #ahd joints there is an aggregate area of #aaj square inches2 the area of the opening at the end of a two-inch pipe is about three inches2 #aaj square inches inlet to three inches outlet2 thirty-seven times as much water can flow in as can flow out4 ,there is1 then1 no need for the water to go through the pores of the pipe2 and the fact is1 we think1 quite fortunate1 for the passage of water through the pores would in no case be sufficient to benefit the land to much extent4 ,we tried an experiment1 by stopping one end of an ordinary drain-pipe and filling it with water4 ,at the end of sixty-five hours1 water still stood in the pipe three-fourths of an inch deep4 ,about half the water first put into the pipe had run out at the end of twenty-four hours4 ,if the pipe was stopped at both ends and plunged four feet deep in water1 it would undoubtedly fill in a short time2 but such a test is an unfair one1 for no drain could be doing service1 over which water could collect to the depth of four feet4 #a-a_/b-;,,inch ,,drain-,,pipe4 ,area3 #a4gfgji inches4 ,,fall ,,velocity ,,discharge ,,fall ,,velocity ,,discharge in per second in gallons in per second in gallons #ajj feet4 in feet4 in #bd hours4#ajj feet4 in feet4 in #bd hours4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ft4 in4 ft4 in4 #j4c #j4ga #efcj4hg #e4c #c4ge #bigjd4ea #j4f #a4jd #hbdh4jc #e4f #c4hd #cjded4bh #j4i #a4bi #ajbcj4gc #e4i #c4ic #caafh4jf #a4j #a4eb #abjed4ha #f4j #d4jj #cagbc4ba #a4c #a4gd #acgii4ei #f4c #d4aj #cbeaf4cf #a4f #a4ia #aeadg4hc #f4f #d4ah #ccaej4gf #a4i #b4aj #affed4fh #f4i #d4be #ccgje4ia #b4j #b4bf #agibc4fa #g4j #d4cc #cdcdj4ch #b4c #b4da #aiaac4bc #g4c #d4da #cdigd4he #b4f #b4ef #bjcjb4hf #g4f #d4di #cefji4cj #b4i #b4fi #baccc4hf #g4i #d4ef #cfaed4de #c4j #b4hc #bbddd4ag #h4j #d4fe #cfhgh4bc #c4c #b4id #bcaej4ga #h4c #d4ga #cgced4jh #c4f #c4jf #bdbfh4be #h4f #d4gi #cgihh4ee #c4i #c4af #bejfa4cd #h4i #d4he #chdfd4dj #d4j #c4bh #bfjac4jc #i4j #d4ia #chidj4be #d4c #c4ch #bfhjf4aa #i4c #d4ih #cidie4ci #d4f #c4df #bgddj4eh #i4f #e4jd #ciiga4bd #d4i #c4ef #bhbcc4ff #i4i #e4aj #djddg4aj #e4j #c4fe #bhidg4dc #aj4j #e4af #djibb4ic #b-;,,inch ,,drain-,,pipe4 #c-;,,inch ,,drain-,,pipe4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,,fall ,,velocity ,,discharge ,,fall ,,velocity ,,discharge in per second in gallons in per second in gallons #ajj feet4 in feet4 in #bd hours4#ajj feet4 in feet4 in #bd hours4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ft4 in4 ft4 in4 #j4c #j4gi #ajege4d #j4c #j4ij #bdfhg4b #j4f #a4af #aeebh4d #j4f #a4cc #cfdhb4b #j4i #a4ej #bjjgi4i #j4i #a4ff #deecd4b #a4j #a4ga #bbhia4a #a4j #a4id #ecbad4g #a4c #a4id #beigj4j #a4c #b4ai #fjjgb4b #a4f #b4af #bhiae4a #a4f #b4dc #fffee4e #a4i #b4ce #cadeh4e #a4i #b4fc #gbada4e #b4j #b4ec #cchfh4a #b4j #b4hc #ggfbg4f #b4c #b4fi #cfjji4i #b4c #c4jj #hbbij4g #b4f #b4hc #cghhd4j #b4f #c4af #hffgi4f #b4i #b4ig #cigeh4b #b4i #c4ca #ijgid4a #c4j #c4aa #dafcb4d #c4j #c4dg #ieahb4i #c4c #c4bd #dccgb4f #c4c #c4fj #ihgdh4i #c4f #c4cf #ddigi4j #c4f #c4gd #ajbehi4a #c4i #c4dh #dfehe4d #c4i #c4hg #ajfaee4j #d4j #c4ei #dhjeg4i #d4j #c4ii #ajiddf4g #d4c #c4gj #diecj4e #d4c #d4aa #aabgch4c #d4f #c4hj #ejhfi4a #d4f #d4bc #aafjbi4i #d4i #c4ia #ebcda4f #d4i #d4cd #aaijdg4c #e4j #d4jb #echad4a #e4j #d4df #abbcch4i #e4c #d4aa #eejah4i #e4c #d4eg #abecef4b #e4f #d4bb #efdia4e #e4f #d4fh #abhcgc4e #e4i #d4ca #egfif4c #e4i #d4gh #acaaaf4f #f4j #d4dj #ehija4a #f4j #d4hi #acdacc4i #f4c #d4di #fjaje4i #f4c #d4ih #acffjb4f #f4f #d4eh #facji4g #f4f #e4jh #acicde4f #f4i #d4ff #fbcha4f #f4i #e4ah #adbjhh4g #g4j #d4gd #fcdeb4e #g4j #e4bg #addeeg4d #g4c #d4hc #fdffg4c #g4c #e4cg #adgcjf4d #g4f #d4ia #fegbh4c #g4f #e4df #aejjfi4a #g4i #d4ii #ffgii4b #g4i #e4ee #aebbcg4h #h4j #e4jg #fghgj4a #h4j #e4fd #aedgjf4f #h4c #e4ae #fhida4j #h4c #e4gc #aegage4c #h4f #e4bc #gjjaa4i #h4f #e4hb #aeifdd4j #h4i #e4ca #gajhb4h #h4i #e4ia #afbaab4g #i4j #e4ch #gbjai4i #i4j #e4ii #afdcac4b #i4c #e4df #gcjij4i #i4c #f4jg #affeja4f #i4f #e4ec #gdjbg4i #i4f #f4af #afhigj4c #i4i #e4fj #gdife4j #i4i #f4bd #agaafd4g #aj4j #e4fg #geijb4j #aj4j #f4cb #agccei4a #d-;,,inch ,,drain-,,pipe4 #e-;,,inch ,,drain-,,pipe4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,,fall ,,velocity ,,discharge ,,fall ,,velocity ,,discharge in per secondin gallons in per second in gallons #ajj feet4 in feet4 in #bd hours4#ajj feet4 in feet4 in #bd hours4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ft4 in4 ft4 in4 #j4c #a4jh #dcfig4f #j4c #a4ac #iiehd4b #j4f #a4ej #fjfia4b #j4f #a4eg #achcfb4d #j4i #a4hc #gdjdc4b #j4i #a4ij #afgddb4f #a4j #b4ac #hfaha4d #a4j #b4bj #aichha4j #a4c #b4ch #ifbif4f #a4c #b4de #baeiab4i #a4f #b4fa #ajefjb4f #a4f #b4gj #bcgidd4i #a4i #b4ha #aacfid4h #a4i #b4ij #beeefi4e #b4j #c4jj #abachb4c #b4j #c4aj #bgcaie4i #b4c #c4ai #abijhi4i #b4c #c4bi #bhiidj4a #b4f #c4cf #aceidh4b #b4f #c4df #cjdiba4i #b4i #c4ec #adbhbf4e #b4i #c4fd #cbjghd4i #c4j #c4fh #adhhie4g #c4j #c4hj #ccdhhe4d #c4c #c4hb #aedefj4b #c4c #c4if #cdhigd4h #c4f #c4if #afjbbd4g #c4f #d4aa #cfbbjd4i #c4i #d4aj #afehhi4b #c4i #d4bf #cgedbd4a #d4j #d4bd #agaeec4g #d4j #d4dj #chggfb4a #d4c #d4cg #agfhac4f #d4c #d4eb #cihccg4e #d4f #d4ej #ahbjgc4e #d4f #d4ff #dajfge4c #d4i #d4fb #ahfibh4c #d4i #d4gh #dbabej4f #e4j #d4ge #aibahh4g #e4j #d4ij #dcjhbe4j #e4c #d4hf #aiffci4d #e4c #e4jb #ddbdja4c #e4f #d4ig #bjajij4a #e4f #e4ad #debigf4f #e4i #e4ji #bjeide4c #e4i #e4be #dfbfgj4f #f4j #e4bj #bajcif4j #f4j #e4cg #dgcbdf4j #f4c #e4cj #badddb4a #f4c #e4di #dhchbj4d #f4f #e4da #bahhib4h #f4f #e4fj #dicead4f #f4i #e4ea #bbbich4h #f4i #e4gj #ejbcbg4d #g4j #e4fa #bbfihd4i #g4j #e4hj #eaaadj4b #g4c #e4ga #bcajca4j #g4c #e4ij #ebjjeb4j #g4f #e4ha #bcejgg4a #g4f #f4jj #ebhgff4e #g4i #e4ia #bciabc4b #g4i #f4aj #ecgegh4g #h4j #f4ja #bdcafi4b #h4j #f4bj #edfcia4e #h4c #f4aj #bdfhaj4g #h4c #f4cj #eeebjd4e #h4f #f4ai #bejdeb4b #h4f #f4dj #efdjag4j #h4i #f4bh #beedic4g #h4i #f4di #egaidh4j #i4j #f4cg #beggce4b #i4j #f4eh #egihhj4j #i4c #f4de #bfjiga4i #i4c #f4ff #ehficj4b #i4f #f4ed #bfdfjc4a #i4f #f4ge #eidhfa4d #i4i #f4fc #bfhbed4i #i4i #f4hd #fjbgic4b #aj4j #f4ga #bgadia4h #aj4j #f4ic #fajgbc4h #h-;,,inch ,,drain-,,pipe4 ,area3 #ej4bfdj inches4 ,,fall ,,velocity ,,discharge ,,fall ,,velocity ,,discharge in per secondin gallons in per second in gallons #ajj feet4 in feet4 in #bd hours4#ajj feet4 in feet4 in #bd hours4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ft4 in4 ft4 in4 #j4c #a4bc #bggdhg4g #e4c #e4ce #abjfiei4c #j4f #a4fe #cgbbci4g #e4f #e4dg #abcdjca4c #j4i #b4ja #decdee4g #e4i #e4ei #abfaajc4c #a4j #b4cc #ebefdg4g #f4j #e4ga #abhhage4c #a4c #b4fj #ehfeei4g #f4c #e4hc #acaebdg4c #a4f #b4he #fdbiei4f #f4f #e4ie #acdchch4i #a4i #c4jh #fidhdg4f #f4i #f4jg #acficia4c #b4j #c4cj #gdddgi4g #g4j #f4ag #aciaiea4b #b4c #c4ej #ghieii4f #g4c #f4bg #adadeca4a #b4f #c4gj #hddgai4g #g4f #f4ci #addaehc4b #b4i #c4hi #hggehc4e #g4i #f4ej #adffcii4c #c4j #d4je #iacfgi4e #h4j #f4fj #adhhiei4b #c4c #d4ba #idigge4f #h4c #f4gj #aeaaeci4a #c4f #d4cg #igafeh4g #h4f #f4hj #aecdjii4j #c4i #d4ec #ibjddg4d #h4i #f4ij #aeeffeh4i #d4j #d4fg #ajeeeea4d #i4j #g4jj #aegiaii4c #d4c #d4ha #ajhface4d #i4c #g4aj #afjagei4b #d4f #d4ie #aaafgah4g #i4f #g4bj #afbdcai4a #d4i #e4jh #aadfjdg4d #i4i #g4bi #afddfbb4a #e4j #e4bb #aaggfca4c #aj4j #g4ch #affdibg4a ,,how ,,water ,,enters ,,the ,,tiles4 ,how water enters the tiles1 is a question which all persons unaccustomed to the operation of tile-draining usually ask at the outset4 ,in brief1 it may be answered1 that it enters both at the joints and through the pores of the burnt clay1 but mostly at the joints4 ,mr4 ,parkes expresses the opinion1 based upon careful observation1 that five hundred times as much water enters at the crevices as through the pores of the tiles6 ,if this be so1 we may as well1 for all practical purposes1 regard the water as all entering at the joints4 ,in several experiments which we have attempted1 we have found the quantity of water that enters through the pores to be quite too small to be of much practical account4 ,tiles differ so much in porosity1 that it is difficult to make experiments that can be satisfactory--soft-burnt tiles being1 like pale bricks1 quite pervious1 and hard-burnt tiles being nearly or quite impervious4 ,the amount of pressure upon the clay in moulding also affects the density and porosity of tiles4 ,water should enter at the bottom of the tiles1 and not at the top4 ,it is a well-known fact in draining1 that the deepest drain flows first and longest4 ,a familiar illustration will make this point evident4 ,if a cask or deep box be filled with sand1 with one hole near the bottom and another half way to the top1 these holes will represent the tiles in a drain4 ,if water be poured into the sand1 it will pass downward to the bottom of the vessel1 and will not flow out of either hole till the sand be saturated up to the lower hole1 and then it will flow out there4 ,if1 now1 water be poured in faster than the lower hole can discharge it1 the vessel will be filled higher1 till it will run out at both holes4 ,it is manifest1 however1 that it will first cease to flow from the upper orifice4 ,there is in the soil a line of water1 called the water-line1 or water-table2 and this1 in drained land1 is at about the level of the bottom of the tiles4 ,as the rain falls it descends1 as in the vessel2 and as the water rises1 it enters the tiles at the bottom1 and never at the top1 unless there is more than can pass out of the soil by the lower openings 7the crevices and pores7 into the tiles4 ,it is well always to interrupt the direct descent of water by percolation from the surface to the top of the tiles1 because1 in passing so short a distance in the soil1 the water is not sufficiently filtered1 especially in soil so recently disturbed1 but is likely to carry with it not only valuable elements of fertility1 but also particles of sand1 which may obstruct the drain4 ,this is prevented by placing above the tiles 7after they are covered a few inches with gravel1 sand1 or other porous soil7 compact clay1 if convenient4 ,if not1 a furrow each side of the drain1 or a heaping-up of the soil over the drain1 when finished1 will turn aside the surface-water1 and prevent such injury4 ,in the estimates as to the area of the openings between pipes1 it should be considered that the spaces between the pipes are not1 in fact1 clean openings of one-tenth of an inch1 but are partially closed by earthy particles1 and that water enters them by no means as rapidly as it would enter the clean pipes before they are covered4 ,although the rain-fall in ,england is much less in quantity and much more regular than in this country1 yet it is believed that the use of two-inch pipes will be found abundantly sufficient for the admission and conveyance of any quantity of water that it may be necessary to carry off by drainage in common soils4 ,in extraordinary cases1 as where the land drained is a swamp1 or reservoir for water which falls on the hills around1 larger pipes must be used4 ,in many places in ,england tops and bottoms1 or horse-shoe tiles1 are still preferred by farmers1 upon the idea that they admit the water more readily2 but their use is continued only by those who have never made trial of pipes4 ,no scientific drainer uses any but pipes in ,england1 and the million of acres well drained with them1 is pretty good evidence of their sufficiency4 ,in this country1 horse-shoe tiles have been much used in ,western ,new ,york1 and have been found to answer a good purpose2 and so it may be said of the sole-pipes4 ,indeed1 it is believed that no instance is to be found on record in ,america of the failure of tile drains1 from the inability of the water to gain admission at the joints4 ,it may be interesting in this connection to state1 that water is #hae times heavier than air4 ,here is a drain at four feet depth in the ground1 filled only with air1 and open at the end so that the air can go out4 ,above this open space is four feet of earth saturated with water4 ,what is the pressure of the water upon the tiles8 ,mr4 ,thomas ,arkell1 in a communication to the ,society of ,arts1 in ,england1 says-- ,the pressure due to a head of water four or five feet1 may be imagined from the force with which water will come through the crevices of a hatch with that depth of water above it4 ,now1 there is the same pressure of water to enter the vacuum in the pipe-drain as there is against the hatches1 supposing the land to be full of water to the surface4 ,it is difficult to demonstrate the truth of this theory2 but the same opinion has been expressed to the writer by persons of learning and of practical skill1 based upon observations as to the entrance of water into gas pipes1 from which it is almost1 if not quite1 impossible to exclude it by the most perfect joints in iron pipes4 ,whatever be the theory as to pressure1 or the difficulties as to the water percolating through compact soils to the tiles1 there will be no doubt left on the mind of any one1 after one experiment tried in the field1 that1 in common cases1 all the surplus water that reaches the tiles is freely admitted4 ,a gentleman1 who has commenced draining his farm1 recently1 in ,new ,hampshire1 expressed to the author his opinion1 that tiles in his land admitted the water as freely as a hole of a similar size to the bore of the tile would admit it1 if it could be kept open through the soil without the tile4 ,,durability ,,of ,,tile ,,drains4 ,how long will they last8 ,this is the first and most important question4 ,men1 who have commenced with open ditches1 and1 having become disgusted with the deformity1 the inconvenience1 and the inefficiency of them1 have then tried bushes1 and boards1 and turf1 and found them1 too1 perishable2 and again have used stones1 and after a time seen them fail1 through obstructions caused by moles or frost--these men have the right to a well-considered answer to this question4 ,the foolish fellow in the ,greek ,reader1 who1 having heard that a crow would live a hundred years1 purchased one to verify the saying1 probably did not live long enough to ascertain that it was true4 ,how long a properly laid tile-drain of hard-burnt tiles will endure1 has not been definitely ascertained1 but it is believed that it will outlast the life of him who lays it4 ,no tiles have been long enough laid in the ,united ,states to test this question by experience1 and in ,england no further result seems to have been arrived at1 than that the work is a permanent improvement4 ,in another part of this treatise1 may be found some account of ,land ,drainage ,companies1 and of ,government loans in aid of improvements by drainage in ,great ,britain4 ,one of these acts provides for a charge on the land for such improvements1 to be paid in full in fifty years4 ,that is to say1 the expense of the drainage is an incumbrance like a mortgage on the land1 at a certain rate of interest1 and the tenant or occupant of the land1 each year pays the interest and enough more to discharge the debt in just fifty years4 ,thus1 it is assumed by the ,government1 that the improvement will last fifty years in its full operation1 because the last year of the fifty pays precisely the same as every other year4 ,it may therefore be considered as the settled conviction of all branches of the ,british government1 and of all the best-informed1 practical land-drainers in that country1 that ,,tile-,,drainage ,,will ,,endure ,,fifty ,,years ,,at ,,least1 if properly executed4 ,this is long enough to satisfy any ,american2 for the migratory habits of our citizens1 and the constant changes of cultivated fields into village and city lots1 prevent our imagination even conceiving the idea that we or our posterity can remain for half a century upon the same farm4 ,it is much easier1 however1 to lay tile-drains so that they will not be of use half of fifty years1 than to make them permanent in their effect4 ,tile-drainage1 it cannot be too much enforced1 is an operation requiring great care and considerable skill--altogether more care and skill than our common laborers1 or even most of our farmers1 are accustomed to exercise in their farm operations4 ,a blunder in draining1 like the blunder of a physician1 may be soon concealed by the grass that grows over it1 but can never be corrected4 ,drainage is a new art in this country1 and tile-making is a new art4 ,without good1 hard-burnt tiles1 no care or skill can make permanent work4 ,tile-drainage will endure so long as the tiles last1 if the work be properly done4 ,there is no reason why a tile should not last in the ground as long as a brick will last4 ,bricks will fall to pieces in the ground in a very short time if not hard-burnt1 while hard-burnt bricks of good clay will last as long as granite4 ,tiles must be hard-burnt in order to endure4 ,but this is not all4 ,drains fail from various other causes than the crumbling of the tiles4 ,they are frequently obstructed by mice1 moles1 frogs1 and vermin of all kinds1 if not protected at the outlet4 ,they are often destroyed by the treading of cattle1 and by the deposit of mud at the outlet1 through insufficient care4 ,they are liable to be filled with sand1 through want of care in protecting the joints in laying1 and through want of collars1 and other means of keeping them in line4 ,they are liable1 too1 to fill up by deposits of sand and the like1 by being laid lower in some places than the parts nearer the outlet1 so that the slack places catch and retain whatever is brought down1 till the pipe is filled4 ,,frost is an enemy which in this country we have to contend with1 more than in any other1 where tile-drainage has been much practiced4 ,upon all these points1 remarks will be found under the appropriate heads2 and these suggestions are repeated here1 because we know that haste and want of skill are likely to do much injury to the cause which we advocate4 ,any work that requires only energy and progress1 is safe in ,american hands2 but cautious and slow operations are by no means to their taste4 ,dickens says1 that on railways and coaches1 wherever in ,england they say1 ,all right1 the ,americans use1 instead1 the phrase1 ,go ahead4 ,in tile-drainage1 the motto1 ,all right1 will be found far more safe than the motto1 ,go ahead4 ,instances are given in ,england of drains laid with handmade tiles1 which have operated well for thirty years1 and have not yet failed4 ,mr4 ,parkes informs us3 ,that1 about #ahjd1 pipe-tiles made tapering1 with one end entering the other1 and two inches in the smallest point1 were laid down in the park now possessed by ,sir ,thomas ,whichcote1 ,aswarby1 ,lincolnshire1 and that they still act well4 ,stephens gives the following instance of the durability of bricks used in draining3 ,of the durability of common brick1 when used in drains1 there is a remarkable instance mentioned by ,mr4 ,george ,guthrie1 factor to the ,earl of ,stair or ,calhoun1 ,wigtonshire4 ,in the execution of modern draining on that estate1 some brick-drains1 on being intersected1 emitted water very freely4 ,according to documents which refer to these drains1 it appears that they had been formed by the celebrated ,marshal1 ,earl ,stair1 upwards of a hundred years ago4 ,they were found between the vegetable mould and the clay upon which it rested1 between the 'wet and the dry1' as the country phrase has it1 and about thirty-one inches below the surface4 ,they presented two forms--one consisting of two bricks set asunder on edge1 and the other two laid lengthways across them1 leaving between them an opening of four inches square for water1 but having no soles4 ,the bricks had not sunk in the least through the sandy clay bottom upon which they rested1 as they were three inches broad4 ,the other form was of two bricks laid side by side1 as a sole1 with two others built or laid on each other1 at both sides1 upon the solid ground1 and covered with flat stones1 the building being packed on each side of the drain with broken bricks4 ,in our chapter upon the ,obstruction of ,drains1 the various causes which operate against the permanency of drains1 are more fully considered4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,direction1 ,,distance1 ,,and ,,depth ,,of ,,drains4 ,,direction ,,of ,,drains4--,whence comes the ,water8--,inclination of ,strata4--,drains across the ,slope let ,water out as well as ,receive it4--,defence against ,water from ,higher ,land4--,open ,ditches4--,headers4--,silt-basins4 ,,distance ,,of ,,drains4--,depends on ,soil1 ,depth1 ,climate1 ,prices1 ,system4--,conclusions as to ,distance4 ,,depth ,,of ,,drains4--,greatly ,increases ,cost4--,shallow ,drains first tried in ,england4--#aj1jjj ,miles of ,shallow ,drains laid in ,scotland by way of ,education4--,drains must be below ,subsoil plow1 and ,frost4--,effect of ,frost on ,tiles and ,aqueducts4 ,,direction ,,of ,,drains4 ,whether drains should run up and down the slope of the hill1 or directly across it1 or in a diagonal line as a compromise between the first two1 are questions which beginners in the art and mystery of drainage usually discuss with great zeal4 ,it seems so plain to one man1 at the first glance1 that1 in order to catch the water that is running down under the soil upon the subsoil1 from the top of the hill to the bottom1 you must cut a ditch across the current1 that he sees no occasion to examine the question farther4 ,another1 whose idea is1 to catch the water in his drain before it rises to the surface1 as it is passing up from below or running along on the subsoil1 and keep it from rising higher than the bottom of his ditch1 thinks it quite as obvious that the drains should run up and down the slope1 that the water1 once entering1 may remain in the drain1 going directly down hill to the outlet4 ,a third hits on the ,keythorpe system1 and regarding the water as flowing down the slope1 under the soil1 in certain natural channels in the subsoil1 fancies they may best be cut off by drains1 in the nature of mains1 running diagonally across the slope4 ,these different ideas of men1 if examined1 will be found to result mainly from their different notions of the underground circulation of water4 ,in considering the ,theory of ,moisture1 an attempt was made to suggest the different causes of the wetness of land4 ,to drain land effectually1 we must have a correct idea of the sources of the water that makes the particular field too wet2 whether it falls from the clouds directly upon it2 or whether it falls on land situated above it and sloping towards it1 so that the water runs down1 as upon a roof1 from other fields or slopes to our own2 or whether it gushes up in springs which find vent in particular spots1 and so is diffused through the soil4 ,if we have only to take care of the water that falls on our own field1 from the clouds1 that is quite a different matter from draining the whole adjoining region1 and requires a different mode of operation4 ,if your field is in the middle1 or at the foot1 of an undrained slope1 from which the water runs on the surface over your land1 or soaks through it toward some stream or swamp below1 provision must be made not only for drainage of your own field1 but also for partial drainage of your neighbor's above1 or at least for defence against his surplus of water4 ,the first1 and leading idea to be kept in mind1 as governing this question of the direction of drains1 is the simple fact that water runs down hill2 or1 to express the fact more scientifically1 water constantly seeks a lower level by the force of gravitation1 and the whole object of drains is to open lower and still lower passages1 into which the water may fall lower and lower until it is discharged from our field at a safe depth4 ,water goes down1 then1 by its own weight1 unless there is something through which it cannot readily pass1 to bring it out at the surface4 ,it will go into the drains1 only because they are lower than the land drained4 ,it will never go upward to find a drain1 and it will go toward a drain the more readily1 in proportion as the descent is more steep toward it4 ,to decide properly what direction a drain should have1 it is necessary1 then1 to have a definite and a correct idea as to what office the drain is to perform1 what water is to fall into it1 what land it is to drain4 ,suppose the general plan to be1 to lay drains forty feet apart1 and four feet deep over the field1 and the question now to be determined1 as to the direction1 whether across1 or up and down the slope1 there being fall enough to render either course practicable4 ,the first point of inquiry is1 what is expected of each drain8 ,how much and what land should it drain8 ,the general answer must be1 forty feet breadth1 either up and down the slope1 or across it2 according to the direction4 ,but we must be more definite in our inquiry than even this4 ,from what forty feet of land will the water fall into the drain8 ,obviously1 from some land in which the water is higher than the bottom of the drain4 ,if1 then1 the drain run directly across the slope1 most of the water that can fall into it1 must come from the forty feet breadth of land between the drain in question1 and the drain next above it4 ,if the water were falling on an impervious surface1 it would all run according to the slope of the surface1 in which case1 by the way1 no drains but those across1 could catch any of it except what fell upon the drains4 ,but the whole theory of drainage is otherwise1 and is based on the idea that we change the course of the underground flow1 by drawing out the water at given points by our drains2 or1 in other words1 that the water seeks the lowest level in all directions4 ,upon the best view the writer has been able to take of the two systems as to the direction of drains1 there is but a very small advantage in theory in favor of either over the other1 in soil which is homogeneous4 ,but it must be borne in mind that homogeneous soil is rather the exception in nature than the rule4 ,without undertaking to advance or defend any peculiar geological views of the structure of the earth1 or of the depositions or formations that compose its surface1 it may be said1 that very often the first four feet of subsoil is composed of strata1 or layers of earth of varying porosity4 ,beneath sand will be found a stratum of clay1 or of compact or cemented gravel1 and frequently these strata are numerous and thin4 ,indeed1 if there be not some stratum below the soil1 which impedes the passage of water1 it would pass downward1 and the land would need no artificial drainage4 ,quite often it will be found that the dip or inclination of the various strata below the soil is different from that of the surface4 ,the surface may have a considerable slope1 while the lower strata lie nearly level1 as if they had been cut through by artificial grading4 ,the following figure from the ,cyclopedia of ,agriculture1 with the explanation1 fully illustrates this idea4 ,in many subsoils there are thin partings1 or layers1 of porous materials1 interspersed between the strata1 which1 although not of sufficient capacity to give rise to actual springs1 yet exude sufficient water to indicate their presence4 ,these partings occasionally crop out1 and give rise to those damp spots1 which are to be seen diversifying the surface of fields1 when the drying breezes of ,spring have begun to act upon them4 ,in the following cut1 the light lines represent such partings4 ,now1 it will be evident1 in draining such land1 that if the drains be disposed in a direction transverse or oblique to the slope1 it will often happen that the drains1 no matter how skillfully planned1 will not reach these partings at all1 as at ,a4 ,in this case1 the water will continue to flow on in its accustomed channel1 and discharge its waters at ,b4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cd--;,,drains ,,across ,,the ,,slope4 ,but again1 even though it does reach these partings1 as at ,c1 a considerable portion of water will escape from the drain itself1 and flow to the lower level of its old point of discharge at ,d4 ,whereas1 a drain cut in the line of the slope1 as from ,d to ,e1 intersects all these partings1 and furnishes an outlet to them at a lower level than their old ones4 ,these reasons are1 it is true1 applicable only to land of peculiar structure2 but there are reasons for selecting the line of greatest fall for the direction of drains which are applicable to all lands alike4 ,the line of the greatest fall is the only line in which a drain is relatively lower than the land on either side of it4 ,whether we regard the surplus water as having recently fallen upon the field1 and as being stopped near the surface by an impervious stratum1 or as brought down on these strata from above1 we have it to be disposed of as it rests upon this stratum1 and is borne out by it to the surface4 ,if there is a decided dip1 or inclination1 of this stratum outward down the slope1 it is manifest that the water cannot pass backward to a cross drain higher up the slope4 ,the course of the water must be downward upon the stratum on which it lies1 and so all between two cross drains must pass to the lower one4 ,the upper drain could take very little1 if any1 and the greater the inclination of this stratum1 the less could flow backward4 ,but in such case a drain down the slope gives to the water borne up by these strata1 an outlet of the depth of the drain4 ,if the drain be four feet deep1 it cuts the water-bearing strata each at that depth1 and takes off the water4 ,in these cases1 the different layers of clay or other impervious partings1 are like the steps of a huge stairway1 with the soil filling them up to a regular grade4 ,the ditch cuts through these steps1 letting the water that rests on them fall off at the ends1 instead of running over the edges4 ,drains across the slope have been significantly termed mere catch-waters4 ,if we wish to use water to irrigate lands1 we carefully conduct it along the surface across the slope1 allowing it to flow over and to soak through the soil4 ,if we desire to carry the same water off the field as speedily as possible1 we should carry our surface ditch directly down the slope4 ,now1 looking at the operation of drains across the slope1 and supposing that each drain is draining the breadth next above it1 we will suppose the drain to be running full of water4 ,what is there to prevent the water from passing out of that drain in its progress1 at every point of the tiles1 and so saturating the breadth below it8 ,drainpipes afford the same facility for water to soak out at the lower side1 as to enter on the upper1 and there is the same law of gravitation to operate in each case4 ,mr4 ,denton gives instances in which he has observed1 where drains were carried across the slope1 in ,warwickshire1 lines of moisture at a regular distance below the drains4 ,he could ascertain1 he says1 the depth of the drain itself1 by taking the difference of height between the line of the drain at the surface1 and that of the line of moisture beneath it4 ,he says again3 ,i recently had an opportunity1 in ,scotland1 of gauging the quantity of water traveling along an important drain carried obliquely across the fall1 when ,i ascertained with certainty1 that1 although the land through which it passed was comparatively full of water1 the drain actually lost more than it gained in a passage of several chains through it4 ,so far as authority goes1 there seems1 with the exception of some advocates of the ,keythorpe system1 of which an account has been given1 to be very little difference of opinion4 ,mr4 ,denton says3 ,with respect to the direction of drains1 ,i believe very little difference of opinion exists4 ,all the most successful drainers concur in the line of the steepest descent1 as essential to effective and economical drainage4 ,certain exceptions are recognized in the ,west of ,england1 but ,i believe it will be found1 as practice extends in that quarter1 that the exceptions have been allowed in error4 ,in another place1 he says3 ,the very general concurrence in the adoption of the line of greatest descent1 as the proper course for the minor drains in soils free from rock1 would almost lead me to declare this as an incontrovertible principle4 ,allusion has been made to cases where we may have to defend ourselves from the flow of water from higher undrained lands of our neighbor4 ,to arrest the flow of mere surface water1 an open ditch1 or catch-water1 is the most effectual1 as well as the most obvious mode4 ,there are many instances in ,new ,england1 where lands upon the lowest slopes of hills are overflowed by water which fell high up upon the hill1 and1 after passing downward till arrested by rock formation1 is borne out again to the surface1 in such quantity as to produce1 just at the foot of the hill1 almost a swamp4 ,this land is usually rich from the wash of the hills1 but full of cold water4 ,to effect perfect drainage of a portion of this land1 which we will suppose to be a gentle slope1 the first object must be to cut off the flow of water upon or near the surface4 ,an open ditch across the top would most certainly effect this object1 and it may be doubtful whether any other drain would be sufficient4 ,this would depend upon the quantity of water flowing down4 ,if the quantity be very great at times1 a part of it would be likely to flow across the top of an under-drain1 from not having time to percolate downward into it4 ,in all cases1 it is advised1 where our work stops upon a slope1 to introduce a cross-drain1 connecting the tops of all the minor-drains4 ,this cross-drain is called a header4 ,the object of it is to cut off the water that may be passing along in the subsoil down the slope1 and which would otherwise be likely to pass downward between the system of drains to a considerable distance before finding them4 ,if we suppose the ground saturated with water1 and our drains running up the slope and stopping at #d feet depth1 with no header connecting them1 they1 in effect1 stop against #d feet head of water1 and in order to drain the land as far up as they go1 must not only take their fair proportion of water which lies between them1 but must draw down this #d feet head beyond them4 ,this they cannot do1 because the water from a higher source1 with the aid of capillary attraction1 and the friction or resistance met with in percolation1 will keep up this head of water far above the drained level4 ,in railway cuttings1 and the like1 we often see a slope of this kind cut through1 without drying the land above the cutting2 and if the slope be disposed in alternate layers of sand or gravel1 and clay1 the water will continue to flow out high up on the perpendicular bank4 ,even in porous soils of homogeneous character1 it will be found that the head of water1 if we may use the expression1 is affected but a short distance by a drain across its flow4 ,indeed1 the whole theory as to the distance of drains apart1 rests upon the idea1 that the limit to which drains may be expected effectually to operate1 is at most but two or three rods4 ,whether1 in a particular case1 a header alone will be sufficient to cut off the flow of water from the higher land1 or whether1 in addition to the header1 an open catch-water may be required1 must depend upon the quantity of water likely to flow through or upon the land4 ,an under-drain might be expected to absorb any moderate quantity of what may be termed drainage-water1 but it cannot stop a river or mill-stream2 and if the earth above the tiles be compact1 even water flowing through the soil with rapidity1 might pass across it4 ,if there is reason to apprehend this1 an open ditch might be added to the header2 or1 if this is not considered sufficiently scientific or in good taste1 a tile-drain of sufficient capacity may be laid1 with the ditch above it carefully packed with small stones to the top of the ground4 ,such a drain would be likely to receive sand and other obstructing substances1 as well as a large amount of water1 and should1 for both reasons1 be carried off independently of the small drains1 which would thus be left to discharge their legitimate service4 ,where it is thought best to connect an open1 or surface drain1 with a covered drain1 it will add much to its security against silt and other obstructions1 to interpose a trap or silt-basin at the junction1 and thus allow the water to pass off comparatively clean4 ,where1 however1 there is a large flow of water into a basin1 it will be kept so much in motion as to carry along with it a large amount of earth1 and thus endanger the drain below1 unless it be very large4 ,,distances ,,apart1 ,,or ,,frequency ,,of ,,drains4 ,the reader1 who has studied carefully the rival systems of deep drainage and thorough drainage1 has seen that the distance of drains apart1 is closely connected with that controversy4 ,the greatest variety of opinion is expressed by different writers as to the proper distances1 ranging all the way from ten feet apart to seventy1 or even more4 ,many ,english writers have ranged themselves on one side or the other of some sharp controversy as to the merits of some peculiar system4 ,some distinguished geologist has discovered1 or thinks he has1 some new law of creation by which he can trace the underground currents of water2 or some noble noble lord has patronized into notice some caprice of an aspiring engineer1 and straight-way the kingdom is convulsed with contests to set up or cast down these idols4 ,by careful observation1 it is said1 we may find sermons in stones1 and good in everything2 and1 standing aloof from all exciting controversies1 we may often profit1 not only by the science and wisdom of our brethren1 but also by their errors and excesses4 ,if1 by the help of the successes and failures of our ,english neighbors1 we shall succeed in attaining to their present standard of perfection in agriculture1 we shall certainly make great advances upon our present position4 ,as the distances of drains apart1 depend manifestly on many circumstances1 which may widely vary in the diversity of soil1 climate1 and cost of labor and materials to be found in the ,united ,states1 it will be convenient to arrange our remarks on the subject under appropriate heads4 ,,distances ,,depend ,,upon ,,the ,,nature ,,of ,,the ,,soil4 ,water runs readily through sand or gravel4 ,in such soils it easily seeks and finds its level4 ,if it be drawn out at one point1 it tends towards that point from all directions4 ,in a free1 open sand1 you may draw out all the water at one opening1 almost as readily as from an open pond4 ,yet1 even such sands may require draining4 ,a body of sandy soil frequently lies not only upon clay1 but in a basin2 so that1 if the sand were removed1 a pond would remain4 ,in such a case1 a few deep drains1 rightly placed1 might be sufficient4 ,this1 however1 is a case not often met with1 though open1 sandy soil upon clay is a common formation4 ,then there is the other extreme of compact clay1 through which water seems scarcely to percolate at all4 ,yet it has water in it1 that may probably soak out by the same process by which it soaked in4 ,very few soils1 of even such as are called clay1 are impervious to water1 especially in the condition in which they are found in nature4 ,to render them impervious1 it is necessary to wet and stir them up1 or1 as it is termed1 puddle them4 ,any soil1 so far as it has been weathered--that is1 exposed to air1 water and frost--is permeable to water to a greater or less degree2 so that we may feel confident that the upper stratum of any soil1 not constantly under water1 will readily allow the water to pass through4 ,and in considering the ,drainage of ,stiff ,clays1 we shall see that the most obstinate clays are usually so affected by the operation of drainage1 that they crack1 and so open passages for the water to the drains4 ,all gravels1 black mud of swamps1 and loamy soils of any kind1 are readily drained4 ,occasionally1 however--even in tracts of easy drainage1 as a whole--deposits are found of some combinations with iron1 so firmly cemented together1 as to be almost impenetrable with the pick-axe1 and apparently impervious to water4 ,exceptional cases of this nature must be carefully sought for by the drainer4 ,whenever a wet spot is observed1 seek for the cause1 and be satisfied whether it is wet because a spring bursts up from the bottom2 or because the subsoil is impervious1 and will not allow the surface-water to pass downward4 ,ascertain carefully the cause of the evil1 and then skillfully doctor the disease1 and not the symptoms merely4 ,a careful attention to the theory of moisture1 will go far to enable us properly to determine the requisite frequency of drains4 ,,distances ,,depend ,,upon ,,the ,,depth ,,of ,,the ,,drains4 ,the relations of the depth and distance of drains will be more fully considered1 in treating of the depth of drains4 ,the idea that depth will compensate for frequency1 in all cases1 seems now to be abandoned4 ,it is conceded that clay-soils1 which readily absorb moisture1 and yet are strongly retentive1 cannot be drained with sufficient rapidity1 or even thoroughness1 by drains at any depth1 unless they are also within certain distances4 ,in a porous soil1 as a general rule1 the deeper the drain1 the further it will draw4 ,the tendency of water is to lie level in the soil2 but capillary attraction and mechanical obstructions offer constant resistance to this tendency4 ,the farther water has to pass in the soil1 the longer time1 other things being equal1 will be required for the passage4 ,therefore1 although a single deep drain might1 in ten days lower the water-line as much as two drains of the same depth1 or1 in other words1 might draw the water all down to its own level1 yet1 it is quite evident that the two drains might do the work in less time--possibly1 in five days4 ,we have seen already the necessity of laying drains deep enough to be below the reach of the subsoil plow and below frost1 so that1 in the ,northern ,states1 the question of shallow drainage seems hardly debatable4 ,yet1 if we adopt the conclusion that four feet is the least allowable depth1 where an outfall can be found1 there may be the question still1 whether1 in very open soils1 a still greater depth may not be expedient1 to be compensated by increased distance4 ,,distances ,,depend ,,upon ,,climate4 ,climate includes the conditions of temperature and moisture1 and so1 necessarily1 the seasons4 ,in the chapter which treats of ,rain1 it will be seen that the quantity of rain which falls in the year is singularly various in different places4 ,even1 in ,england1 the annual average rain-fall of the wettest place in ,cumberland is stated to be #ada inches1 while #ai-a_/b inches may be taken as the average fall in ,essex4 ,in ,cumberland1 there are #baj days in the year in which rain falls1 and in ,chiswick1 near ,london1 but #abd4 ,a reference to the tables in another place1 will show us an infinite variety in the rain-fall at different points of our own country4 ,if we expect1 therefore1 to furnish passage for but two feet of water in the year1 our drains need not be so numerous as would be necessary to accommodate twice that quantity1 unless1 indeed1 the time for its passage may be different2 and this leads us to another point which should ever be kept in mind in ,new ,england--the necessity of quick drainage4 ,the more violent storms and showers of our country1 as compared with ,england1 have been spoken of when considering ,the ,size of ,tiles4 ,the sudden transition from ,winter to ,summer1 from the breaking up of deep snows with the heavy falls of rain1 to our brief and hasty planting time1 requires that our system of drainage should be efficient1 not only to take off large quantities of water1 but to take them off in a very short time4 ,how rapidly water may be expected to pass off by drainage1 is not made clear by writers on the subject4 ,one inch in depth1 says an ,english writer1 is a very heavy fall of rain in a day1 and it generally takes two days for the water to drain fully from deep drained land4 ,one inch of water over an acre is calculated to be something more than one hundred tons4 ,this seems1 in gross1 to be a large amount1 but we should expect that an inch1 or even two inches of water1 spread evenly over a field1 would soon disappear from the surface2 and if not prevented by some impervious obstruction1 it must continue downward4 ,it is said1 on good authority1 that1 in ,england1 the smallest sized pipes1 if the fall be good1 will be sufficiently large1 at ordinary distances1 to carry off all the surplus water4 ,in the author's own fields1 where two-inch tiles are laid at four feet depth and fifty feet apart1 in an open soil1 they seem amply sufficient to relieve the ground of all surplus water from rain1 in a very few days4 ,most of them have never ceased to run every day in the year1 but as they are carried up into an undrained plain1 they probably convey much more water than falls upon the land in which they lie4 ,so far as our own observation goes1 their flow increases almost as soon as rain begins to fall1 and subsides1 after it ceases1 about as soon as the water in the little river into which they lead1 sinks back into its ordinary channel1 the freshet in the drains and in the stream being nearly simultaneous4 ,probably1 two-inch pipes1 at fifty feet distances1 will carry off1 with all desirable rapidity1 any quantity of water that will ever fall1 if the soil be such that the water can pass through it to the distance necessary to find the drains2 but it is equally probable that1 in a compact clay soil1 fifty feet distance is quite too great for sufficiently rapid drainage1 because the water cannot get to the drains with sufficient rapidity4 ,,distances ,,depend ,,upon ,,the ,,comparative ,,prices ,,of ,,labor ,,and ,,tiles4 ,the fact1 that the last foot of a four-foot drain costs as much labor as the first three feet1 is shown in another chapter1 and the deeper we go1 the greater the comparative cost of the labor4 ,with tiles at #aj per thousand1 the cost of opening and filling a four-foot ditch is1 in1 round numbers1 by the rod1 equal to twice the cost of the tiles4 ,in porous soils1 therefore1 where depth may be made to compensate for greater distance1 it is always a matter for careful estimate1 whether we shall practice true economy by laying the tiles at great depths1 or at the smallest depth at which they will be safe from frost and the subsoil plow1 and at shorter distances4 ,the rule is manifest that1 where labor is cheap and tiles are dear1 it is true economy to dig deep and lay few tiles2 and1 where tiles are cheap and labor is dear1 it is economy to make the number of drains1 if possible1 compensate for less depth4 ,,distances ,,depend ,,upon ,,system4 ,while we would not lay down an arbitrary arrangement for any farm1 except upon a particular examination1 and while we would by no means advocate what has been called the gridiron system--of drains everywhere at equal depths and distances--yet some system is absolutely essential1 in any operation that approaches to thorough drainage4 ,if it be only desired to cut off some particular springs1 or to assist ,nature in some ravine or basin1 a deep drain here and there may be expedient2 but when any considerable surface is to be drained1 there can be no good work without a connected plan of operations4 ,mains must be laid from the outfall1 through the lowest parts2 and into the mains the smaller drains must be conducted1 upon such a system as that there may be the proper fall or inclination throughout1 and that the whole field shall be embraced4 ,again1 a perfect plan of the completed work1 accurately drawn on paper1 should always be preserved for future reference4 ,now it is manifest1 that it is impossible to lay out a given field1 with proper mains and small drains1 dividing the fall as equally as practicable between the different parts of an undulating field1 preserving a system throughout1 by which1 with the aid of a plan1 any drain may at any time be traced1 without making distances conform somewhat to the system of the whole4 ,it is easily demonstrable1 too1 that drains at right angles with the mains1 and so parallel with each other1 are the shortest possible drains in land that needs uniform drainage4 ,they take each a more uniform share of the water1 and serve a greater breadth of soil than when laid at acute angles4 ,while1 therefore1 it may be supposed that in particular parts of the field1 distances somewhat greater or less might be advisable1 considered independently1 yet in practice1 it will be found best1 usually1 to pay becoming deference to order1 ,heaven's first law1 and sacrifice something of the individual good1 to the leading idea of the general welfare4 ,in the letter of ,mr4 ,denton1 in another chapter1 some remarks will be found upon the subject of which we are treating4 ,the same gentleman has1 in a published paper1 illustrated the impossibility of strict adherence to any arbitrary rule in the distances or arrangement of drains1 as follows3 ,the wetness of land1 which for distinction's sake1 ,i have called 'the water of pressure1' like the water of springs1 to which it is nearly allied1 can be effectually and cheaply removed only by drains devised for1 and devoted to the object4 ,appropriate deep drains at ,b ,b ,b1 for instance1 as indicated in the dark vertical lines1 are found to do the service of many parallel drains1 which as frequently miss1 as they hit1 those furrows1 or 'lips1' in the horizontal out-crop of water-bearing strata which continue to exude wetness after the higher portions are dry4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ce4--,the vertical dotted lines show the position of parallel drains4 ,a consideration1 too1 of the varying inclinations of surface1 of which instances will frequently occur in the same field1 necessitates a departure from uniformity1 not in direction only1 but in intervals between drains4 ,take1 for instance1 the ordinary case of a field1 in which a comparatively flat space will intervene between quickly rising ground and the outfall ditch4 ,it is clear that the soak of the hill will pervade the soil of the lower ground1 let the system of drainage adopted be what it may2 and1 therefore1 supposing the soil of the hill and flat to be precisely alike1 the existence of bottom water in a greater quantity in the lower lands than in the higher1 will call for a greater number of drains4 ,it is found1 too1 that an independent discharge or relief of the water coming from the hill1 at ,b1 should always be provided1 in order to avoid any impediment by the slower flow of the flatter drains4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cf4 ,experience shows that1 with few exceptions1 hollows1 or 'slacks1' observable on the surface1 as at ,b ,b1 have a corresponding undulation of subsoil and that any system which does not provide a direct release for water1 which would otherwise collect in and draw towards these spots1 is imperfect and unsatisfactory4 ,it is found to be much more safe to depend on relief drains1 than on the cutting of drains sufficiently deep through the banks1 at ,a ,a1 to gain a fall at a regular inclination4 ,still1 in spite of experience1 we often observe a disregard of these facts1 even in works which are otherwise well executed to a depth of four feet1 but fettered by methodical rules1 and ,i feel compelled to remark1 that it has often occurred to me1 when ,i have observed with what diligent examination the rules of depth and distance have been tested1 that if more attention had been paid to the source of injury1 and to the mode of securing an effective and permanent discharge of the injurious water1 much greater service would be done4 ,in conclusion1 as to distances1 we should advise great caution on the part of beginners in laying out their drains4 ,draining is too expensive a work to be carelessly or unskillfully done4 ,a mistake in locating drains too far apart1 brings a failure to accomplish the end in view4 ,a mistake in placing them too near1 involves a great loss of labor and money4 ,consult1 then1 those whose experience has given them knowledge1 and pay to a professional engineer1 or some other skillful person1 a small amount for aid1 which will probably save ten times as much in the end4 ,we have placed our own drains in porous1 though very wet soil1 at fifty feet distances1 which1 in most soils1 might be considered extremely wide4 ,we are fully satisfied that they would have drained the land as well at sixty feet1 except in a few low places1 where they could not be sunk four feet for want of fall4 ,in most ,new ,england lands that require drainage1 we believe that from #dj to #ej feet distances1 with four feet depth1 will prove sufficient4 ,upon stiff clays1 we have no experience of our own of any value1 although we have a field of the stiffest clay1 drained last season at #dj feet distances and four feet depth4 ,in ,england1 this would1 probably1 prove insufficient1 and1 perhaps1 it will prove so here4 ,one thing is certain1 that1 at present1 there is little land in this country that will pay for drainage by hand labor1 at the ,english distances in clay1 of #af or #bj feet4 ,if our powerful ,summer's sun will not somehow compensate in part for distance1 we must1 upon our clays1 await the coming of draining plows and steam4 ,,depth ,,of ,,drains4 ,cheap and temporary expedients in agriculture are the characteristics of us ,americans1 who have abundance of land1 a whole continent to cultivate1 and comparatively few hands and small capital with which to do the work4 ,we erect temporary houses and barns and fences1 hoping to find time and means at a future day1 to reconstruct them in a more thorough manner4 ,we half cultivate our new lands1 because land is cheaper than labor2 and it pays best for the present1 rather to rob our mother earth1 than to give her labor for bread4 ,the easy and cheap process in draining1 is that into which we naturally fall4 ,it is far easier and cheaper to dig shallow than deep drains1 and1 therefore1 we shall not dig deep unless we see good reason to do so4 ,if1 however1 we carefully study the subject1 it will be manifest that superficial drainage is1 in general1 the result of superficial knowledge of the subject4 ,thorough-drainage does not belong to pioneer farming1 nor to a cheap and temporary system4 ,it involves capital and labor1 and demands skill and system4 ,it cannot be patched up1 like a brush fence1 to answer the purpose1 from year to year1 but every tile must be placed where it will best perform its office for a generation4 ,in ,england1 the rule and the habit in all things1 is thoroughness and permanency2 yet the first and greatest mistake there in drainage was shallowness1 and it has required years of experiments1 and millions of money1 to correct that mistake4 ,if we commit the same folly1 as we are very likely to do1 we cannot claim even the originality of the blunder1 and shall be guilty of the folly of pursuing the crooked paths of their exploration1 instead of the straight highway which they have now established4 ,to be sure1 the controversy as to the depth of drains has by no means ceased in ,england1 but the question is reduced to this1 whether the least depth shall be three feet or four2 one party contending that for certain kinds of clay1 a three-foot drain is as effectual as a four-foot drain1 and that the least effectual depth should be used1 because it is the cheapest2 while the general opinion of the best scientific and practical men in the kingdom1 has settled down upon four feet as the minimum depth1 where the fall and other circumstances render it practicable4 ,at the same time1 all admit that1 in many cases1 a greater depth than four feet is required by true economy4 ,it may seem1 at first1 that a controversy1 as to one additional foot in a system of drainage1 depends upon a very small point2 but a little reflection will show it to be worthy of careful consideration4 ,without going here into a nice calculation1 it may be stated generally as an established fact1 that the excavation of a ditch four feet deep1 costs twice as much as that of a ditch three feet deep4 ,although this may not seem credible to one who has not considered the point1 yet it will become more probable on examination1 and very clear1 when the actual digging is attempted4 ,ditches for tiles are always opened widest at top1 with a gradual narrowing to near the bottom1 where they should barely admit the tile4 ,now1 the addition of a foot to the depth1 is not1 as it would perhaps at first appear1 merely the addition of the lowest and narrowest foot1 but rather of the topmost and widest foot4 ,in other words1 a four-foot ditch is precisely a three-foot ditch in size and form1 with an additional foot on the top of it1 and not a three-foot ditch deepened an additional foot4 ,the lowest foot of a four-foot ditch is raised one foot higher1 to get it upon the surface1 than if the ditch were but three feet deep4 ,in clays1 and most other soils1 the earth grows harder as we go deeper1 and this consideration1 in practice1 will be found important4 ,again3 the small amount of earth from a three-foot ditch1 may lie conveniently on one bank near its edge1 while the additional mass from a deeper one must be thrown further2 and then is to be added the labor of replacing the additional quantity in filling up4 ,on the whole1 the point may be conceded1 that the labor of opening and finishing a four-foot drain is double that of a three-foot drain4 ,without stopping here to estimate carefully the cost of excavation and the cost of tiles1 it may be remarked1 that1 upon almost any estimate1 the cost of labor1 even in a three-foot drain in this country1 yet far exceeds the cost of tiles3 but1 if we call them equal1 then1 if the additional foot of depth costs as much as the first three feet1 we have the cost of a four-foot tile-drain fifty per cent4 more than that of a three-foot drain4 ,in other words1 #bjj rods of four-foot drain will cost just as much as #cjj rods of three-foot drain4 ,this is1 probably1 as nearly accurate as any general estimate that can be made at present4 ,the principles upon which the calculations depend1 having been thus suggested1 it will not be difficult to vary them so as to apply them to the varying prices of labor and tiles1 and to the use of the plow or other implements propelled by animals or steam1 when applied to drainage in our country4 ,the earliest experiments in thorough-drainage1 in ,england1 were at very small depths1 two feet being1 for a time1 considered very deep1 and large tracts were underlaid with tiles at a depth of eighteen1 and even twelve inches4 ,it is said1 that #aj1jjj miles of drains1 two feet deep and less1 were laid in ,scotland before it was found that this depth was not sufficient4 ,of course1 the land thus treated was relieved of much water1 and experimenters were often much gratified with their success2 but it may be safely said now1 that there is no advocate known to the public1 in ,england1 for a system of drainage of less than three feet depth1 and no one advocates a system of drainage of less than four feet deep1 except upon some peculiar clays4 ,the general principle seems well established1 that depth will compensate for width2 or1 in other words1 that the deeper the drain1 the farther it will draw4 ,this principle1 generally correct1 is questioned when applied to peculiar clays only4 ,as to them1 all that is claimed is1 that it is more economical to make the drains but three feet1 because they must1 even if deep1 be near together--nobody doubting1 that if four feet deep or more1 and near enough1 they will drain the land4 ,in speaking of clay soil1 it should always be borne in mind1 that clay is merely a relative term in agriculture4 ,a clay in ,scotland1 says ,mr4 ,pusey1 would be a loam in the ,south of ,england4 ,professor ,mapes1 of our own country1 in the ,working ,farmer1 says1 ,we are convinced1 that1 with thorough subsoil plowing1 no clay soil exists in this country which might not be underdrained to a depth of four feet with advantage4 ,there can be no doubt1 that1 with four-foot drains at proper distances1 all soils1 except some peculiar clays1 may be drained1 even without reference to the changes produced in the mechanical structure of soil by the operation4 ,there is no doubt1 however1 that all soils are1 by the admission of air1 which must always take the place of the water drawn out1 and by the percolation of water through them1 rendered gradually more porous4 ,added to this1 the subsoil plow1 which will be the follower of drainage1 will break up the soil to considerable depth1 and thus make it more permeable to moisture4 ,but there is still another and more effective aid which ,nature affords to the land-drainer1 upon what might be otherwise impracticable clays4 ,this topic deserves a careful and distinct consideration1 which it will receive under the title of ,drainage of ,stiff ,clays4 ,in discussing the subject of the depth of drains1 we are not unmindful of the fact that1 in this country1 the leaders in the drainage movement1 especially ,messrs4 ,delafield1 ,yeomans1 and ,johnston1 of ,new ,york1 have achieved their truly striking results1 by the use of tiles laid at from two and a half to three feet depth4 ,on the ,premium ,farm of ,r4 ,j4 ,swan1 of ,rose ,hill1 near ,geneva1 it is stated that there are sixty-one miles of under-drains1 laid from two and a half to three feet deep4 ,that these lands thus drained have been changed in their character1 from cold1 wet1 and unproductive wastes1 in many cases1 to fertile and productive fields of corn and wheat1 sufficiently appears4 ,indeed1 we all know of fields drained only with stone drains two feet deep1 that have been reclaimed from wild grasses and rushes into excellent mowing fields4 ,in ,england and in ,scotland1 as we have seen1 thousands of miles of shallow drains were laid1 and were for years quite satisfactory4 ,these facts speak loudly in favor of drainage in general4 ,the fact that shoal drains produce results so striking1 is a stumbling-block in the progress of a more thorough system4 ,it may seem like presumption to say to those to whom we are so much indebted for their public spirit1 as well as private enterprise1 that they have not drained deep enough for the greatest advantage in the end4 ,it would seem that they should know their own farms and their own results better than others4 ,we propose to state1 with all fairness1 the results of their experiments1 and to detract nothing from the credit which is due to the pioneers in a great work4 ,we cannot1 however1 against the overwhelming weight of authority1 and against the reasons for deeper drainage1 which1 to us1 seem so satisfactory1 conclude1 that even three feet is1 in general1 deep enough for under-drains4 ,three-foot drains will produce striking results on almost any wet lands1 but four-foot drains will be more secure and durable1 will give wider feeding-grounds to the roots1 better filter the percolating water1 warm and dry the land earlier in ,spring1 furnish a larger reservoir for heavy rains1 and1 indeed1 more effectually perform every office of drains4 ,in reviewing our somewhat minute discussion of this essential point--the proper depth of drains--certain propositions may be laid down with considerable assurance4 ,,tiles ,,must ,,be ,,laid ,,below ,,the ,,reach ,,of ,,the ,,subsoil ,,plow4 ,let no man imagine that he shall never use the subsoil plow2 for so surely as he has become already so much alive to improvement1 as to thorough-drain1 so surely will he next complete the work thus begun1 by subsoiling his land4 ,the subsoil plow follows in the furrow of another plow1 and if the forward plow turn a furrow one foot deep1 the subsoil may be run two feet more1 making three feet in all4 ,ordinarily1 the subsoil plow is run only to the depth of #ah or #bj inches2 but if the intention were to run it no deeper than that1 it would be liable to dip much deeper occasionally1 as it came suddenly upon the soft places above the drains4 ,the tiles should lie far enough below the deepest path of the subsoil plow1 not to be at all disturbed by its pressure in passing over the drains4 ,it is by no means improbable that fields that have already been drained in this country1 may be1 in the lifetime of their present occupants1 plowed and subsoiled by means of steam-power1 and stirred to as great a depth as shall be found at all desirable4 ,but1 in the present mode of using the subsoil plow on land free from stones1 a depth less than three and a half or four feet would hardly be safe for the depth of tile-drains4 ,,tiles ,,must ,,be ,,laid ,,below ,,frost4 ,this is a point upon which we must decide for our selves4 ,there is no country where drainage is practiced1 where the thermometer sinks1 as in almost every ,winter it does in ,new ,england1 to #bj deg4 below zero 7,fahrenheit74 ,all writers seem to assume that tile-drains must be injured by frost4 ,what the effect of frost upon them is supposed to be1 does not seem very clear4 ,if filled with water1 and frozen1 they must1 of course1 burst by the expansion of the water in freezing2 but it would probably rarely happen1 that drainage-water1 running in cold weather1 could come from other than deep sources1 and it must then be considerably above the freezing point4 ,still2 we know that aqueduct pipes do freeze at considerable depths1 though supplied from deep springs4 ,neither these nor gas-pipes are1 in our ,new ,england towns1 safe below frost1 unless laid four feet below the surface2 and instances occur where they freeze at a much greater depth1 usually1 however1 under the beaten paths of streets1 or in exposed positions1 where the snow is blown away4 ,in such places1 the earth sometimes freezes solid to the depth of even six feet4 ,it will be suggested at once that our fields1 and especially our wet lands1 do not freeze so deep1 and this is true2 but it must be borne in mind1 that the very reason why our wet lands do not freeze deeper1 may be1 that they are filled with the very spring-water which makes them cold in ,summer1 indeed1 but is warmer than the air in ,winter1 and so keeps out the frost4 ,drained lands will freeze deeper than undrained lands1 and the farmer must be vigilant upon this point1 or he may have his work ruined in a single ,winter4 ,we are aware1 that upon this1 as every other point1 ascertained facts may seem strangely to conflict4 ,in the town of ,lancaster1 among the mountains in the coldest part of ,new ,hampshire1 many of the houses and barns of the village are supplied with water brought in aqueducts from the hills4 ,we observed that the logs which form the conduit are1 in many places1 exposed to view on the surface of the ground1 sometimes partly covered with earth1 but generally very little protected4 ,there has not been a ,winter1 perhaps in a half century1 when the thermometer has not at times been #aj deg4 below ,zero1 and often it is even lower than that4 ,upon particular inquiry1 we ascertained that very little inconvenience is experienced there from the freezing of the pipes4 ,the water is drawn from deep springs in the mountains1 and fills the pipes of from one to two-inch bore1 passing usually not more than one or two hundred rods before it is discharged1 and its warmth is sufficient1 with the help of its usual snow covering1 to protect it from the frost4 ,we have upon our own premises an aqueduct1 which supplies a cattle-yard1 which has never been covered more than two feet deep1 and has never frozen in the nine years of its use4 ,we should not1 therefore1 apprehend much danger from the freezing of pipes1 even at shallow depths1 if they carry all the ,winter a considerable stream of spring-water2 but in pipes which take merely the surface water that passes into them by percolation1 we should expect little or no aid from the water in preventing frost4 ,the water filtering downward in ,winter must be nearly at the freezing point2 and the pipes may be filled with solid ice1 by the freezing of a very small quantity as it enters them4 ,neither hard-burnt bricks nor hard-burnt tiles will crumble by mere exposure to the ,winter weather above ground1 though soft bricks or tiles will scarcely endure a single hard frost4 ,too much stress cannot be laid upon the importance of using hard-burnt tiles only1 as the failure of a single tile may work extensive mischief4 ,writers seem to assume1 that the freezing of the ground about the drains will displace the tiles1 and so destroy their continuity1 and this may be so2 though we find no evidence1 perhaps1 that at three or four feet1 there is any disturbance of the soil by freezing4 ,we dig into clay1 or into our strong subsoils1 and find the earth1 at three feet deep1 as solid and undisturbed as at twice that depth1 and no indication that the frost has touched it1 though it has felt the grip of his icy fingers every year since the ,flood4 ,with these suggestions for warning and for encouragement1 the subject must be left to the sound judgment of the farmer or engineer upon each farm1 to make the matter so safe1 that the owner need not have an anxious thought1 as he wakes in a howling ,winter night1 lest his drains should be freezing4 ,finally1 in view of the various considerations that have been1 suggested1 as well as of the almost uniform authority of the ablest writers and practical men1 it is safe to conclude1 that1 in general1 in this country1 wherever sufficient outfall can be had1 four feet above the top of the tiles should be the minimum depth of drains4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,arrangement ,,of ,,drains4 ,necessity of ,system4--,what ,fall is ,necessary4--,american ,examples4--,outlets4--,wells and ,relief-,pipes4--,peep holes4--,how to secure ,outlets4--,gate to ,exclude ,back-,water4--,gratings and ,screens to keep out ,frogs1 ,snakes1 ,moles1 c4--,mains1 ,submains1 and ,minors1 how placed4--,capacity of ,pipes4--,mains of ,two ,tiles4--,junction of ,drains4--,effect of ,curves and ,angles on ,currents4--,branch ,pipes4--,draining into ,wells or ,swallow ,holes4--,letter from ,mr4 ,denton4 ,as every act is1 or should be1 a part of a great plan of life1 so every stake that is set1 and every line laid in the field1 should have relation not only to general principles1 but also to some comprehensive plan of operations4 ,assuming1 then1 that the principles advocated in this treatise are adopted as to the details1 that the depth preferred is not less than four feet--that the direction preferred is up and down the slope--that the distance apart may range from fifteen to sixty feet1 and more in some cases1 according to the depth of drains and the nature of the soil--that no tiles smaller than one and a half inch bore will be used1 and none less than two inches except for the first one hundred yards1 there still remains the application of all these principles to the particular work in hand4 ,with the hope of assisting the deliberations of the farmer on this point1 some additional suggestions will be made under appropriate heads4 ,,arrangement ,,must ,,have ,,reference ,,to ,,system4 ,the absolute necessity of some regularity of plan in our work1 must be manifest4 ,without system1 we can never1 in the outset1 estimate the cost of our operation2 we can never proportion our tiles to the quantity of water that will pass through them2 we can never find the drains afterwards1 or form a correct opinion of the cause of any failure that may await us4 ,we prefer1 in general1 where practicable1 parallel lines for our minor drains1 at right angles with the mains1 because this is the simplest and most systematic arrangement2 but the natural ravines or water-courses in fields1 seldom run parallel with each other1 or at right angles with the slope of the hills1 so that regular work like this1 can rarely be accomplished4 ,if the earth were constructed of regular slopes1 or plains of uniform character1 we could easily apply to it all our rules2 but1 broken as it is into hills and valleys1 filled with stones here1 with a bank of clay there1 and a sand-pit close by1 we are obliged to sacrifice to general convenience1 often1 some special abstract rule4 ,we prefer to run drains up and down the slope2 but if the field be filled with undulations1 or hills with various slopes1 we may often find it expedient1 for the sake of system1 to vary this course4 ,if the question were only as to one single drain1 we could adjust it so as to conform to our perfect ideal2 but as each drain is1 as it were1 an artery in a complicated system1 which must run through and affect every part of it1 all must be located with reference to every other1 and to the general effect4 ,keeping in mind1 then1 the importance of some regular system that shall include the whole field of operation1 the work should be laid out1 with as near a conformity to established principles as circumstances will permit4 ,,arrangement ,,must ,,have ,,reference ,,to ,,the ,,fall4 ,in considering what fall is necessary1 and what is desirable1 we have seen1 that although a very slight inclination may carry off water1 yet a proportionably larger drain is necessary as the fall decreases1 because the water runs slower4 ,it is surprising1 says ,stephens1 what a small descent is required for the flow of water in a well-constructed duct4 ,people frequently complain that they cannot find sufficient fall to carry off the water from the drains4 ,there are few situations where a sufficient fall cannot be found if due pains are exercised4 ,it has been found in practice1 that a water-course thirty feet wide and six feet deep1 giving a transverse sectional area of one hundred and eighty square feet1 will discharge three hundred cubic yards of water per minute1 and will flow at the rate of one mile per hour1 with a fall of no more than six inches per mile4 ,messrs4 ,shedd and ,edson1 of ,boston1 have superintended some drainage works in ,milton1 ,mass41 where1 after obtaining permission to drain through the land of an adjacent owner1 not interested in the operation1 they could obtain but three inches fall in one hundred feet1 or a half inch to the rod1 for three quarters of a mile1 and this only by blasting the ledges at the outlet4 ,this fall1 however1 proves sufficient for perfect drainage1 and by their skill1 a very unhealthful swamp has been rendered fit for gardens and building-lots4 ,in another instance1 in ,dorchester1 ,mass41 ,mr4 ,shedd informs us that in one thousand feet1 they could obtain only a fall of two inches for their main1 and this1 by nice adjustment1 he expects to make sufficient4 ,in another instance1 he has found a fall of two and a half inches in one hundred feet1 in an open paved drain to be effectual4 ,it is certainly advisable always to divide the fall as even as possible throughout the drains1 yet this will be found a difficult rule to follow4 ,very often we have a space of nearly level ground to pass through to our outfall2 and1 usually1 the mains1 in order that the minor drains may be carried into them from both sides1 must follow up the natural valleys in the field1 thus controlling1 in a great measure1 our choice as to the fall4 ,we are1 in fact1 often compelled to use the natural fall nearly as we find it4 ,it is thought advisable to have the mains from three to six inches lower than the drains discharging into them1 so that there may be no obstruction in the minor drains by the backing up of water1 and the consequent deposition of sand or other obstructing substances4 ,wherever one stream flows into another1 there must be more or less interruption of the course of each4 ,if the water from the minors enters the main with a quick fall1 the danger of obstruction in the minor1 at least1 is much lessened4 ,a frequent cause of partial failure of drains1 is their not having been laid with a regular inclination4 ,if1 instead of a gradual and uniform fall1 there should be a slight rising in the bed of a drain1 the descending water will be interrupted there till it accumulate so high as to be above the level of the rising4 ,at this point1 therefore1 the water must have a tendency to press out of the drains1 and will deposit whatever particles of sand or other earthy matter it may bring down4 ,drains must1 therefore1 be so arranged1 that in cutting them1 their beds may be as nearly as possible1 straight1 or1 at least1 have a constant1 if not a regular and equal fall4 ,,arrangement ,,must ,,have ,,reference ,,to ,,the ,,outlet4 ,all agree that it is best to have but few general outlets4 ,in the whole process of draining1 says an engineer of experience1 there is nothing so desirable as permanent and substantial work at the point of discharge4 ,the outlet is the place1 of all others1 where obstruction is most likely to occur4 ,everywhere else the work is protected by the earth above it1 but here it is exposed to the action of frost1 to cattle1 to mischievous boys1 to reptiles1 as well as to the obstructing deposits which are discharged from the drains themselves4 ,in regular work1 under the direction of engineers1 iron pipes1 with swing gratings set in masonry1 are used1 to protect permanently this important part of the system of drainage4 ,it may often be convenient to run parallel drains down a slope1 bringing each out into an open ditch1 or at the bottom of some bank1 thus making a separate outlet for each4 ,this practice1 however1 is strongly deprecated4 ,these numerous outlets cannot be well protected without great cost2 they will be forgotten1 or1 at least1 neglected1 and the work will fail4 ,regarding this point1 of few and well-secured outlets1 as of great importance1 the arrangement of all the drains must have reference to it4 ,when drains are brought down a slope1 as just suggested1 let them1 instead of discharging separately1 be crossed1 near the foot of the slope1 by a sub-main running a little diagonally so as to secure sufficient fall1 and so carried into a main1 or discharged at a single outlet4 ,it may be objected1 that by thus uniting the whole system1 and discharging the water at one point1 there may be difficulty in ascertaining by inspection1 whether any of the drains are obstructed1 or whether all are performing their appropriate work4 ,there is prudence and good sense in this suggestion1 and the objection may be obviated by placing wells1 or peep-holes1 at proper intervals1 in which the flow of the water at various points may be observed4 ,on the subject of wells and peep-holes1 the reader will find in another chapter a more particular description of their construction and usefulness4 ,the position of the outlet must1 evidently1 be at a point sufficiently low to receive all the water of the field2 or1 in other words1 it must be the lowest point of the work4 ,it will be fortunate1 too1 if the outlet can be at the same time high enough to be at all times above the back-water of the stream1 or pond1 or marsh1 into which it empties2 and high enough1 too1 to be protected by solid earth about it4 ,in any case1 great care should be taken to make the outlet secure and permanent4 ,the process of thorough-drainage is expensive1 and will only repay cost1 upon the idea that it is permanent--that once well done1 it is done forever4 ,the tiles may be expected to operate well1 for a lifetime2 and the outlet1 the only exposed portion of the work1 should be constructed to endure as long as the rest4 ,it is true that this portion of the work may be reached and repaired more conveniently than the tiles themselves2 but it must be remembered that the decay of the outlet obstructs the flow of the water1 produces a general stagnation throughout the drains1 and so may cause their permanent obstruction at various points1 hard to be ascertained1 and difficult to be reached4 ,considering our liability to neglect such things as perish by a gradual decay1 as well as the many accidental injuries to which the outlet is exposed1 there is no security but in a solid and permanent structure at the first4 ,to illustrate the importance attached to this point in ,england1 as well as to indicate the best mode of securing the outlet1 the drawings below have been taken from a pamphlet by ,mr4 ,denton4 ,fig4 #cg represents the mode of constructing the common small outlets of field drainage4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cg4--,,small ,,outlet4 ,the distinguished engineer1 of whose labors we have so freely availed ourselves1 remarks as follows upon the subject3 ,too many outlets are objectionable1 on account of the labor of their maintenance3 too few are objectionable1 because they can only exist where there are mains of excessive length4 ,a limit of twenty acres to an outlet1 resulting in an average of1 perhaps1 fourteen acres1 will appear1 by the practices of the best drainers1 to be about the proper thing4 ,if a shilling an acre is reserved for fixing the outlets1 which should be iron pipes1 with swing gratings1 in masonry1 very substantial work may be done4 ,figures #ch and #ci represent the elevation and section of larger outlets1 used in more extensive works4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ch4--,,large ,,outlet4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ci4--,,large ,,outlet4 ,it is almost essential to the efficiency of drains1 that there be fall enough beyond the outlet to allow of the quick flow of the water discharged4 ,at the outlet1 must be deposited whatever earth is brought down by the drains2 and1 in many cases1 the outlet must be at a swamp or pond4 ,if no decided fall can be obtained at the outlet1 there must be care to provide and keep an open ditch or passage1 so that the drainage-water may not be dammed back in the drains4 ,it is advised1 even1 to follow down the bank of a stream or river1 so as to obtain sufficient fall1 rather than to have the outlet flooded1 or back-water in the drains4 ,still1 there may be cases where it will be impossible to have an outlet that shall be always above the level of the river or pond which may receive the drainage water4 ,if the outlet must be so situated as to be at times overflowed1 great care should be taken to excavate a place at the outlet1 into which any deposits brought down by the drain1 may fall4 ,if the outlet be level with the ground beyond it1 the smallest quantity of earth will operate as a dam to keep back the water4 ,therefore1 at the outlet1 in such cases1 a small well of brick or stonework should be constructed1 into which the water should pour4 ,there1 even if the water stand above the outlet1 will be deposited the earth brought along in the drain4 ,this well must at times1 when the water is low1 be cleared of its contents1 and kept ready for its work4 ,the effect of back-water in drains cannot ordinarily be injurious1 except as it raises the water higher in the land1 and occasions deposits of earthy matter1 and so obstructs the drains4 ,we have in mind now1 the common case of water temporarily raised1 by ,winter flowage or by ,summer freshets4 ,it should be remembered that even when the outlet is under water1 if there is any current in the stream into which the drain empties1 there must be some current in the drain also2 and even if the drain discharge into a still pond1 there must be a current greater or less1 as water from a level higher than the surface of the pond1 presses into the drains4 ,generally1 then1 under the most unfavorable circumstances1 we may expect to have some flow of water through the pipes1 and rarely an utter stagnation4 ,if1 then1 the tiles be carefully laid1 so as to admit only well-filtered water1 there can be but little deposit in the drain2 and a temporary stagnation1 even1 will not injure them1 and a trifling flow will keep them clean4 ,much will depend1 as to the obstruction of drains1 in this1 and indeed in all cases1 upon the internal smoothness1 and upon the nice adjustment of the pipes4 ,in case of the drainage of marshes1 and other lands subject to sudden flood1 a flap1 or gate1 is used to exclude the water of flowage1 until counterbalanced by the drainage-water in the pipes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dj4--,,outlet ,,pipe ,,with ,,flap ,,to ,,exclude ,,flood-,,water4 ,we are quite sure that it is not in us a work of supererogation to urge upon our farmers the importance of careful attention to this matter of outlets4 ,this is one of that class of things which will never be attended to1 if left to be daily watched4 ,we ,americans have so much work to do1 that we have no time to be careful and watchful4 ,if a child fall into the fire1 we take time to snatch him out4 ,if a sheep or ox get mired in a ditch1 we leave our other business1 and fly to the rescue4 ,even if the cows break into the corn1 all hands of us1 men and boys and dogs1 leave hoeing or haying1 and drive them out4 ,and1 by the way1 the frequency with which most of us have had occasion to leave important labors to drive back unruly cattle1 rendered lawless by neglect of our fences1 well illustrates a national characteristic4 ,we are earnest1 industrious1 and intent on doing4 ,we can look forward to accomplish any labor1 however difficult1 but lack the conservatism which preserves the fruit of our labors--the old fogyism which puts on its spectacles with most careful adjustment1 after wiping the glasses for a clear sight1 and at stated periods1 revises its affairs to see if some screw has not worked loose4 ,a steward on a large estate1 or a corporation agent1 paid for inspecting and superintending1 may be relied upon to examine his drainage works1 and maintain them in repair2 but no farmer in this country1 who labors with his own hands1 has time even for this most essential duty4 ,his policy is1 to do his work now1 while he is intent upon it1 and not trust to future watchfulness4 ,we speak from personal experience in this matter of outfalls4 ,our first drains ran down into a swamp1 and the fall was so slight1 that the mains were laid as low as possible1 so that at every freshet they are overflowed4 ,we have many times1 each season1 been compelled to go down1 with spade and hoe1 and clear away the mud which has been trodden up by cattle around the outlet4 ,although a small river flows through the pasture1 the cows find amusement1 or better water1 about these drains1 and keep us in constant apprehension of a total obstruction of our works4 ,we propose to relieve ourself of this care1 by connecting the drains together1 and building one or more reliable outlets4 ,,gratings ,,or ,,screens ,,at ,,the ,,outlet4 ,there are many species of vermin1 both creeping things and slimy things1 that crawl with legs1 which seem to imagine that drains are constructed for their especial accommodations4 ,in dry times1 it is a favorite amusement of moles and mice and snakes1 to explore the devious passages thus fitted up for them1 and entering at the capacious open front door1 they never suspect that the spacious corridors lead to no apartments1 that their accommodations1 as they progress1 grow fine by degrees and beautifully less1 and that these are houses with no back doors1 or even convenient places for turning about for a retreat4 ,unlike the road to ,hades1 the descent to which is easy1 here the ascent is inviting2 though1 alike in both cases1 revocare gradum1 hoc opus hic labor est4 ,they persevere upward and onward till they come1 in more senses than one1 to an untimely end4 ,perhaps stuck fast in a small pipe tile1 they die a nightmare death2 or1 perhaps overtaken by a shower1 of the effect of which1 in their ignorance of the scientific principles of drainage1 they had no conception1 they are drowned before they have time for deliverance from the straight in which they find themselves1 and so are left1 as the poet strikingly expresses it1 to lie in cold obstruction and to rot4 ,in cold weather1 water from the drains is warmer than the open ditch1 and the poor frogs1 reluctant to submit to the law of ,nature which requires them to seek refuge in mud and oblivious sleep1 in ,winter1 gather round the outfalls1 as they do about springs1 to bask in the warmth of the running water4 ,if the flow is small1 they leap up into the pipe1 and follow its course upward4 ,in ,summer1 the drains furnish for them a cool and shady retreat from the mid-day sun1 and they may be seen in single file by scores1 at the approach of an intruding footstep1 scrambling up the pipe4 ,dying in this way1 affects these creatures1 as sighing and grief did ,falstaff1 blows them up like a bladder2 and1 like ,sampson1 they do more mischief in their death1 than in all their life together4 ,they swell up1 and stop the water entirely1 or partially dam it1 so that the effect of the work is impaired4 ,to prevent injuries from this source1 there should be1 at every outlet1 a grating or screen of cast iron1 or of copper wire1 to prevent the intrusion of vermin4 ,the screen should be movable1 so that any accumulation in the pipe may be removed4 ,an arrangement of this kind is shown in ,fig4 #dj1 as used in ,england4 ,we know of nothing of the kind used in this country4 ,for ourself1 we have made of coarse wire-netting1 a screen1 which is attached to the pipe by hinges of wire4 ,holes may be bored with a bit through even a hard tile1 or a ,no4 #i wire may be twisted firmly round the end of it1 and the screen thus secured4 ,this has thus far1 been our own poor and unsatisfactory mode of protecting our drains4 ,it is only better than none1 but it is not permanent1 and we hope to see some successful invention that may supply this want4 ,so far as we have observed1 no such precaution is used in this country2 and in ,england1 farmers and others who take charge of their own drainage works1 often run their pipes into the mud in an open ditch1 and trust the water to force its own passage4 ,,of ,,wells ,,and ,,relief ,,pipes4 ,in draining large tracts of land of uniform surface1 it is often convenient to have single mains1 or even minors1 of great length4 ,obstructions are liable to occur from various causes3 and1 moreover1 there is great satisfaction in being certain that all is going right1 and in watching the operation of our subterranean works4 ,it is a common practice1 and to be commended1 to so construct our drains1 that they may be inspected at suspicious points1 and that so we may know their real condition4 ,for this purpose1 wells1 or traps1 are introduced at suitable points1 into which the drains discharge1 and from which the water proceeds again along its course4 ,these are made of iron1 or of stone or brick work1 of any size that may be thought convenient1 secured by covers that may be removed at pleasure4 ,where there is danger of obstruction below the wells1 relief pipes may be introduced1 or the wells may overflow1 and so discharge temporarily1 the drainage water4 ,these wells1 sometimes called silt basins1 or traps1 are frequently used in road drainage1 or in sewers where large deposits are made by the drainage water4 ,the sediment is carried along and deposited in the traps1 while the water flows past4 ,these traps are large enough for a man to enter1 and are occasionally cleared of their contents4 ,when good stone1 or common brick1 are at hand1 occasional wells may be easily constructed4 ,plank or timber might be used2 and we have even seen an oil cask made to serve the purpose temporarily4 ,in most parts of ,new ,england1 solid iron castings would not be expensive4 ,the water of thorough-drainage is usually as pure as spring-water1 and such wells may often be conveniently used as places for procuring water for both man and beast1 a consideration well worth a place in arrangements so permanent as those for drainage4 ,the following figures represent very perfect arrangements of this kind1 in actual use4 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #da #db4--,,well ,,with ,,silt ,,basin1 ,,or ,,trap1 ,,and ,,cover4 ,the flap attached to a chain at ,a1 is designed to close the incoming drain1 so as to keep back the water1 and thus flush the drain1 as it is termed1 by filling it with water1 and then suddenly releasing it4 ,it is found that by this process1 obstructions by sand1 and by per-oxide of iron1 may be brought down from the drains1 when the flow is usually feeble4 ,,small ,,wells1 ,,or ,,peep-,,holes4 ,by the significant1 though not very elegant name of peep-holes1 are meant openings at junctions1 or other convenient points1 for watching the pulsations of our subterranean arteries4 ,in addition to the large structures of wells and traps1 such as have been represented1 we need small and cheap arrangements1 by which we may satisfy ourselves and our questioning friends and neighbors1 that every part of our buried treasure1 is steadily earning its usury4 ,it is really gratifying to be able to allow those who don't see how water can get into the tiles1 and who inquire so distrustfully whether you don't think that land on the hill would be just as dry without the drains1 to satisfy themselves1 by actually seeing1 that there is a liberal flow through all the pipes1 even in the now dry soil4 ,and then1 again1 ,the best laid schemes o' mice an' men ,gang aft agley4 and drains will get obstructed1 by one or other of the various means suggested in another place4 ,it is then convenient to be able to ascertain with certainty1 and at once1 the locality of the difficulty1 and this may be done by means of peep-holes4 ,these may be formed of cast iron1 or of well-burnt clay1 or what is called stone-ware1 of #d1 #f1 or #aj inches internal diameter1 and long enough to reach from the bottom of the drain to the surface1 or a little above it4 ,the drain or drains1 coming into this little well1 should enter a few inches above the pipe which carries off the water1 so that the incoming stream may be plainly seen4 ,a strong cover should be fitted to the top1 and secured so as not to cause injury to cattle at work or feeding on the land4 ,the arrangement will be at once seen by a sketch given on the following page4 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #dc #dd4--,,small ,,well1 ,,or ,,peep-,,hole1 ,,and ,,cover4 ,in our own fields1 we have adopted several expedients to attain this object of convenient inspection4 ,in one case1 where we have a sub-main1 which receives the small drains of an acre of orchard1 laid at nearly five feet depth1 we sunk two #dj-;gallon oil casks1 one upon the other1 at the junction of this sub-main with another1 and fitted upon the top a strong wooden cover4 ,the objections to this contrivance are1 that it is temporary2 that it occupies too much room2 and that it is more expensive than a well of cast iron or stone-ware of proper size4 ,in another part of the same field1 we had a spring of excellent water1 where1 from the time whereof the memory of man runneth not to the contrary1 people had fancied they found better water to drink1 than anywhere else4 ,it is near a ravine1 through which a main drain is located1 and which is now graded up into convenient plow land4 ,to preserve this spring for use in the ,summer time1 we procured a tin-worker to make a well1 of galvanized iron1 five feet long and ten inches diameter1 into which are conducted the drain and the spring4 ,a friendly hand has sketched it for us very accurately2 thus3 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #de #df4--;,,how ,,to ,,preserve ,a ,,spring ,,in ,a ,,drained ,,field4 ,the spring is brought in at a by a few tiles laid into the bank where the water naturally bursts out4 ,the pipe b brings in the drain1 which always flows largely1 and the pipe c carries away the water4 ,the small dipper1 marked d1 hangs inside the well1 and is used by every man1 woman1 and boy1 who passes that way4 ,the spring enters six inches above the drain1 for convenience in catching its water to drink4 ,by careful observation the present ,winter of #aheh-i1 the impression that there is some peculiar quality in this water is confirmed1 for it is ascertained that it is six degrees warmer in cold weather than any other water upon the farm4 ,the spring preserves a temperature of about #dg deg41 while the drain running through the same well1 and the other drains in the field1 and the well at the house1 vary from #ci deg4 to #db deg44 ,we confess to the weakness of taking great satisfaction in sipping this water1 cool in ,summer and warm in ,winter1 and in watching the mingled streams of spring and drainage water1 and listening as we pass by1 to their tinkling sound1 which1 like the faithful watchman of the night1 proclaims that all is well4 ,,position ,,and ,,size ,,of ,,the ,,mains4 ,having fixed on the proper position of the outlet1 for the whole1 or any portion of our work1 the next consideration is the location of the drains that shall discharge at that point4 ,it is convenient to speak of the different drains as mains1 sub-mains1 and minors4 ,by mains1 are understood the principal drains1 of whatever material1 the office of which is1 to receive and carry away water collected by other drains from the soil4 ,by minors1 are intended the small drains which receive the surplus water directly from the soil4 ,by sub-mains1 are meant such intermediate drains as are frequently in large fields1 interposed across the line of the minors1 to receive their discharge1 and conduct their water to the mains4 ,they are principally used1 where there is a greater length of small drains in one direction than it is thought expedient to use2 or where1 from the unequal surface1 it is necessary to lay out subordinate systems of drains1 to reach particular localities4 ,whether after the outlet is located1 the mains or minors should next be laid out1 is not perhaps very important4 ,the natural course would seem to be1 to lay out the mains according to the surface formation of the land1 through the principal hollows of the field1 although we have high authority for commencing with the minors1 and allowing their appropriate direction to determine the location of the mains4 ,this is1 however1 rather a question of precedence and etiquette1 than of practical importance4 ,the only safe mode of executing so important a work as drainage1 is by careful surveys by persons of sufficient skill1 to lay out the whole field of operations1 before the ground is broken2 to take all the levels2 to compare all the different slopes2 consider all the circumstances1 and arrange the work as a systematic whole4 ,generally1 there will be no conflict of circumstances1 as to where the mains shall be located4 ,they must be lower than the minors1 because they receive their water4 ,they must ordinarily run across the direction of the minors1 either at right angles or diagonally1 because otherwise they cannot receive their discharge4 ,if1 then1 in general1 the minors1 as we assume1 run down the slope1 the mains must run at the foot of the slope and across it4 ,it will be found in practice1 that all the circumstances alluded to1 will combine to locate the mains across the foot of regular slopes2 and whether in straight or curved lines1 along through the natural valleys of the field4 ,in locating the mains1 regard must always be had to the quantity of water and to the fall4 ,where a field is of regular slope1 and the descent very slight1 it will be necessary1 in order to gain for the main the requisite fall1 to run it diagonally across the bottom of the slope1 thus taking into it a portion of the fall of the slope4 ,if the fall requires to be still more increased1 often the main may be deepened towards the outlet1 so as to gain fall sufficient1 even on level ground4 ,if the fall is very slight1 the size of the main may be made to compensate in part for want of fall1 for it will not be forgotten1 that the capacity of a pipe to convey water depends much on the velocity of the current1 and the velocity increases in proportion to the fall4 ,if the fall and consequent velocity be small1 the water will require a larger drain to carry it freely along4 ,the size of the mains should be sufficient to convey1 with such fall as is attainable1 the greatest quantity of water that may ever be expected to reach them4 ,beyond this1 an increase of size is rather a disadvantage than otherwise1 because a small flow of water runs with more velocity when compressed in a narrow channel1 than when broadly spread1 and so has more power to force its way1 and carry before it obstructing substances4 ,we have seen1 in considering the size of tiles1 that in laying the minor drains1 their capacity to carry all the water that may reach them is not the only limit of their size4 ,a one-inch tile might in many cases be sufficient to conduct the water2 but the best drainers1 after much controversy on the point1 now all agree that this is a size too small for prudent use1 because so small an opening is liable to be obstructed by a very slight deposit from the water1 or by a slight displacement1 and because the joints furnish small space for the admission of water4 ,mains1 however1 being designed merely to carry off such water as they may receive from other drains1 may in general be limited to the size sufficient to convey such water1 at the greatest flow4 ,it might seem a natural course1 to proportion the capacity of the main to the capacity of the smaller drains that fall into it2 and this would be the true rule1 were the small drains expected to run full4 ,if our smallest drain1 however1 be of two-inch1 or even one and a half inch bore1 it can hardly be expected to fill at any time1 unless of great length1 or in some peculiarly wet place4 ,considering1 then1 what quantity of water will be likely to be conducted into the main1 proportion the main not to the capacity of all the smaller drains leading into it1 but to the probable maximum flow--not to what they might bring into it1 but to what they will bring4 ,if the mains be of three-inch pipes1 other things being equal1 their capacity is nine times that of a one-inch pipe1 and two and a quarter times the capacity of a two-inch pipe4 ,a three-inch main may1 then1 with equal fall and directness1 be safely relied on to carry nine streams of water equal each to one inch diameter1 or two and a quarter streams1 equal to a two-inch stream4 ,the three-inch main will1 in fact1 from the less amount of friction1 carry much more than this proportion4 ,the allowance to be made for a less fall in the mains1 has already been adverted to1 and must not be overlooked4 ,it is believed that the capacity of a three or four-inch pipe to convey water1 is in general likely to be much under-estimated4 ,it is a common error1 to imagine that some large stone water-course must be necessary to carry off so large a flow as will be collected by a system over a ten or twenty-acre field4 ,any one1 however1 who has watched the full flow of even a three-inch pipe1 and observed the water after it has fallen into a nearly level ditch1 will be aware1 that what seems in the ditch a large stream1 impeded as it is by a rough1 uneven bottom1 may pass through a three inch opening of smooth1 well-jointed pipes4 ,when we consider that a four-inch pipe is four times as capacious as a two-inch pipe1 and sixteen times as large as a one-inch pipe1 we may see that we may accommodate any quantity of water that may be likely anywhere to be collected by drainage1 without recourse to other materials than tiles4 ,when one three or four-inch pipe is not sufficient to convey the water1 mains may conveniently be formed of two or more tiles of any form4 ,a main drain is sometimes formed by combining two horse-shoe tiles1 with a tile sole or slate between them1 to prevent slipping1 as in fig4 #dg4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dg4 ,fig4 #dh4 ,main ,drain of two or more ,horse-shoe ,tiles4 ,the combinations represented in the above figures1 will furnish sufficient suggestions to enable any one to select or arrange such forms as may be deemed best suited to the case in hand4 ,where the largest obtainable tile is not large enough1 two or more lines of pipes may be laid abreast4 ,,position ,,of ,,the ,,minor ,,drains4 ,assuming that it is desirable to run the small drains1 as far as practicable1 up and down the slope1 the following directions1 from the ,cyclopedia of ,agriculture1 are given3 ,there is a very simple mode of laying out these 7the minor drains71 which will apply to most cases1 or1 indeed1 to all1 although in some its application may be more difficult4 ,the surface of each field must be regarded as being made up of one or more planes1 as the case may be1 for each of which the drains should be laid out separately4 ,level lines are to be set out1 a little below the upper edge of each of these planes1 and the drains must be then made to cross these lines at right angles4 ,by this means1 the drains will run in the line of the greatest slope1 no matter how distorted the surface of the field may be4 ,much is said1 in the ,english books1 about furrows1 and the direction of the furrows1 in connection with the laying out of drains4 ,much of the land in ,england1 especially in moist places1 was formerly laid up by repeated plowings1 into ridges varying in breadth from ten to twenty feet1 so as to throw off1 readily1 the water from the surface4 ,illustration3 ,,part ,,of ,,field ,thoroughly ,drained ,,by ,b ,f4 ,,nourse ,,orrington1 ,,me4 ,these ridges were sometimes so high1 that two boys in opposite furrows1 between the ridges1 could not see each other4 ,in draining lands thus ridged1 it is found far more easy to cut the ditches in the furrows1 rather than across or upon the ridges4 ,after thorough-drainage1 in most localities1 these ridges and furrows are dispensed with4 ,the fact is1 probably1 only important here1 as explaining the constant reference by ,english writers to this mode of working the land4 ,whether we shall drain down the furrows1 or across the ridges1 is not likely to be inquired of1 by ,americans4 ,the accompanying diagram represents a field of about thirty acres1 as drained by the owner1 ,b4 ,f4 ,nourse1 ,esq41 of ,orrington1 ,me41 a particular description of which will be found in another place4 ,the curves of the ends of the minors1 at their junction with the mains1 will indicate their course--the minors curving always so as to more nearly coincide1 in course1 with the current of water in the mains4 ,,the ,,junction ,,of ,,drains4 ,much difficulty arises in practice1 as to connecting1 in a secure and satisfactory manner1 the smaller with the larger drains4 ,it has already been suggested1 that the streams should not meet at right angles1 but that a bend should be made in the smaller drain1 a few feet before it enters the main1 so as to introduce the water of the small drain in the direction of the current in the main4 ,in another place1 an instance is given where it was found that a quantity of water was discharged with a turn1 or junction with a gentle curve1 in #ajj seconds1 that required #adj seconds with a turn at right angles2 and that while running direct1 that is1 without any turn1 it was discharged in #ij seconds4 ,this is given as a mere illustration of the principle1 which is obvious enough4 ,different experiments would vary with the velocity1 quantity of water1 and smoothness of the pipe2 but nothing is more certain1 than that every change of direction impedes velocity4 ,thus we see that if we had but a single drain1 the necessary turns should be curved1 to afford the least obstruction4 ,where the drain enters into another current1 there is yet a further obstruction1 by the meeting of the two streams4 ,two equal streams1 of similar velocity and size1 thus meeting at right angles1 would have a tendency to move off diagonally1 if not confined by the pipe2 and1 confined as they are1 must both be materially retarded in their flow4 ,in whatever manner united1 there must be much obstruction1 if the main is nearly full1 at the point of junction4 ,the common mode of connecting horse-shoe tile-drains is shown thus3 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ej4--;,,junction ,,of ,,drains4 ,having no tiles made for the purpose1 we1 at first1 formed the union by means of common hard bricks4 ,curving down the small drain toward the direction of the main1 we left a space between two tiles of the main1 of two or three inches1 and brought down the last tile of the small drain to this opening1 placing under the whole a flat stone1 slate1 or bricks1 or a plank1 to keep all firm at the bottom4 ,then we set bricks on edge on all sides1 and covered the space at the top with one or more1 as necessary1 and secured carefully against sand and the like4 ,we have since procured branch-pipes to be made at the tile-works1 such as are in use in ,england1 and find them much more satisfactory4 ,the branches may be made to join the mains at any angle1 and it might be advisable to make this part of both drains larger than the rest1 to allow room for the obstructed waters to unite peacefully4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ea4 ,,branch ,,pipes4 ,the mains should be from three to six inches deeper than the minors4 ,the fall from one to the other may usually be made most conveniently1 by a gradual descent of three or four feet to the point of junction2 but with branch-pipes1 the fall may be nearly vertical1 if desired1 by turning the branch upward1 to meet the small pipe4 ,it will be necessary1 in procuring branches for sole-tiles1 to bear in mind that they are rights and lefts1 and must be selected accordingly1 as the branch comes in upon the one or other side of the main4 ,the branch should enter the larger pipe not level with the bottom1 but as high as possible1 to give an inch fall to the water passing out of the branch into the main1 to prevent possible obstruction at the junction4 ,,drainage ,,into ,,wells1 ,,or ,,swallow ,,holes4 ,in various parts of our country1 there are lands lying too flat for convenient drainage in the ordinary methods1 or too remote from any good outlet1 or perhaps enclosed by lands of others who will not consent to an outfall through their domain1 where the drainage water may be discharged into wells4 ,in the city of ,washington1 on ,capitol ,hill1 it is a common practice to drain cellars into what are termed dry wells4 ,the surface formation is a close red clay1 of a few feet thickness1 and then comes a stratum of coarse gravel2 and the wells for water are sunk often as deep as sixty feet1 indicating that the water-table lies very low4 ,the heavy storms and showers fill the surface soil beyond saturation1 and the water gushes out1 literally1 into the cellars and other low places4 ,a dry well1 sunk through the clay1 conducts this water into the gravel bed1 and this carries it away4 ,this idea is often applied to land drainage4 ,it is believed that there are immense tracts of fertile land at the ,west1 upon limestone1 where the surface might readily be relieved of surplus water1 by conducting the mains into wells dug for the purpose4 ,in some places1 there are openings called sink-holes1 caused by the sinking of masses of earth1 as in the neighborhood of the city of ,st4 ,louis1 which would afford outlets for all the water that could be poured into them4 ,in the ,report of the ,tioga ,county ,agricultural ,society for #aheg1 it is said in the ,country ,gentleman1 that instances are given1 where swamps were drained through the clay bottom into the underlying gravelly soil1 by digging wells and filling them with stones4 ,in ,fig4 #g1 at page #hb1 is shown a fault in the stratification of the earth2 which faults1 it is said1 so completely carry off water1 that wells cannot be sunk so as to reach it4 ,mr4 ,denton says that in several parts of ,england1 advantage is taken of the natural drainage existing beneath wet clay soils1 by concentrating the drains to holes1 called swallow-holes4 ,he says this practice is open to the objection that those holes do not always absorb the water with sufficient rapidity1 and so render the drainage for a time1 inoperative4 ,these wells are liable1 too1 to be obstructed in their operation by their bottoms being puddled with the clay carried into them by the water1 and so becoming impervious4 ,this point would require occasional attention1 and the removal of such deposits4 ,this principle of drainage was alluded to at the ,american ,institute1 ,february #ad1 #ahei1 by ,professor ,nash4 ,he states1 that there are large tracts of land having clay soil1 with sand or gravel beneath the clay1 which yet need drainage1 and suggests that this may be effected by merely boring frequent holes1 and filling them with pebbles1 without ditches4 ,in all such soils1 if the mode suggested prove insufficient1 large wells of proper depth1 stoned up1 or otherwise protected1 might obviously serve as cheap and convenient outlets for a regular system of pipe or stone drains4 ,mr4 ,bergen1 at the same meeting1 stated that such clayey soil1 based on gravel1 was the character of much of the land on ,long ,island2 and we cannot doubt that on the prairies of the ,west1 where the wells are frequently of great depth to obtain water for use1 wells or swallow-holes to receive it1 may often be found useful4 ,whenever the water-line is twenty or thirty feet below the surface1 it is certain that it will require a large amount of water poured in at the surface of a well to keep it filled for any considerable length of time4 ,the same principle that forces water into wells1 that is1 pressure from a higher source1 will allow its passage out when admitted at the top4 ,we close this chapter with a letter from ,mr4 ,denton4 ,the extract referred to1 has been here omitted1 because we have already1 in the chapter preceding this1 given ,mr4 ,denton's views1 expressed more fully upon the same subject1 with his own illustrations4 ,it should be stated that the letter was in reply to inquiries upon particular points1 which1 although disconnected1 are all of interest1 when touched upon by one whose opinions are so valuable4 ,,london1 #eb ,parliament ,street1 ,westminster1 ,s4 ,w4 ,,my ,,dear ,,sir3--,i have received your letter of the #agth ,august1 and hasten to reply to it4 ,i am gratified at the terms in which you speak of my roughly-written ',essays on ,land ,drainage4' ,if you have not seen my published letter to ,lord ,berners1 and my recent essay ',on the ,advantages of a ,daily ,record of ,rain-fall1' ,i should much like you to look over them1 for my object in both has been to check the uniformity of treatment which too much prevails with those who are officially called upon to direct draining1 and who still treat mixed soils and irregular surfaces pretty much in the same way as homogeneous clays and even surfaces1 the only difference being1 that the distance between the drains is increased4 ,we have now1 without doubt1 arrived at that point in the practice of draining in this country1 which necessitates a revision of all the principles and rules which have been called into force by the ,drainage ,acts1 and the institution of the ,drainage ,commission1 whose duty it is to administer those ,acts1 and to protect the interests of ,reversioners4 ,this protection is1 in a great measure1 performed by the intervention of ',inspectors of ,drainage1' whose subordinate duty it is to see that the improvements provisionally sanctioned are carried out according to certain implied1 if not fixed1 rules4 ,this is done by measuring depth and distance1 which tends to a parallel system 7#d feet deep7 in all soils1 which was ,smith of ,deanston's notion1 only his drains were shallower1 i4e41 from #b to #c feet deep4 ,some rules were undoubtedly necessary when the ,commissioners first commenced dispensing the public money1 and ,i do not express my objection to the absurd position to which these rules are bringing us1 from any disrespect to them1 nor with an idea that any better course could have been followed by the ,government1 in the first instance1 than the adoption of the ',parkes--,smith frequent drain system4' ,this system was correctly applied1 and continues to be correctly applied1 to absorbent and retentive soils requiring the aeration of frequent drains to counteract their retentive nature2 but it is altogether misapplied when adopted in the outcropping surfaces of the free water-bearing strata1 which1 though equally wet1 are frequently drained by a comparatively few drains1 at less than half the cost4 ,the only circumstance that can excuse the indiscriminate adoption of a parallel system1 is the fact1 that all drains do some good1 and the chances of a cure being greater in proportion to the number of drains1 it was not necessary to insist upon that judgment which ten years' experience should now give4 ,my views on this point will perhaps be best understood by the following extract from an address ,i recently delivered4 ,extract omitted1 see p4 #afa4 99 99 99 ,i use one and a half inch pipes for the upper end of drains 7though ,i prefer two-inch71 one half being usually one and a half and the other half two-inch4 ,this for minor drains2 the mains run up to #i or #aj inches1 and even #ah inches in size1 according to their service4 ,there is no doubt sufficient capacity in one-inch pipes for minor drains2 but1 inasmuch as agricultural laborers are not mathematical scholars1 and are apt to lay the pipes without precise junctions1 it is best to have the pipes so large as to counteract that degree of carelessness which cannot be prevented4 ,the ordinary price of pipes in this country will run thus3 meaning above1 and-below1 the prices named3 #a-a_/b inch #aes4 #b #bjs4 - #c #cjs4 #d #djs4 #e #ejs4 #f #fjs4 ,the price of cutting clays #d feet deep1 will vary from #a;d4 to #a-a_/b;d4 per yard1 according to density and mixture with stone2 and the price of cutting in mixed soils will vary from #a-a_/b;d4 to #f;d41 according to the quantity of pick-work and rock1 and with respect1 also1 to the price of agricultural labor4 7,see my tabular table of cost in ,land ,drainage and ,drainage ,systems47 ,i should have thought it would have been quite worth the while of the ,american ,government to have had a farm of about #ejj acres1 drained by ,english hands1 under an experienced engineer1 as a practical sample of ,english work1 for the study of ,american agriculturists1 with every drain laid down on a plan1 with the sizes of the pipes1 and all details of soil1 and prices of labor and material1 set forth4 ,i am1 dear ,sir1 ,yours very faithfully1 ,the ,,hon4 ,h4 ,f4 ,,french1 ,exeter4 ,j4 ,,bailey ,,denton4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,the ,,cost ,,of ,,tiles--,,tile ,,machines4 ,prices far too high2 ,albany ,prices4--,length of ,tiles4--,cost in ,suffolk ,co41 ,england4--,waller's ,machine4--,williams' ,machine4--,cost of ,tiles compared with ,bricks4--,mr4 ,denton's ,estimate of ,cost4--,other ,estimates4--,two-inch ,tiles can be ,made as ,cheaply as ,bricks4--,process of ,rolling ,tiles4--,tile ,machines4--,descriptions of ,daines'4--,pratt ,bro4's4 ,the prices at which tiles are sold is only1 as the lawyers say1 prima facie evidence of their cost4 ,it seems to us1 that the prices at which tiles have thus far been sold in this country1 are very far above those at which they may be profitably manufactured1 when the business is well understood1 and pursued upon a scale large enough to justify the use of the best machinery4 ,the following is a copy of the published prices of tiles at the ,albany ,tile ,works1 and the same prices prevail throughout ,new ,england1 so far as known3 ,horse-shoe ,tile--,pieces4 #b-a_/b inches rise #ab per #ajjj4 #c-a_/b #ae #d-a_/b #ah #e-a_/b #dj #f-a_/b #fj #g-a_/b #ge ,sole-,tile--,pieces4 #b inches rise #ab per #ajjj4 #c #ah #d #dj #e #fj #f #hj #h #abe ,few round pipe-tiles have yet been used in this country1 although they are the kind generally preferred by engineers in ,england4 ,the prices of round tiles would vary little from those of sole-tiles4 ,tiles are usually cut fourteen inches long1 and shorten1 in drying and burning1 to about twelve and a half inches1 so that1 with breaking and other casualties1 they may be calculated to lay about one foot each2 that is to say1 #a1jjj tiles may be expected to lay #a1jjj feet of drains4 ,to assist those who desire to manufacture tiles for sale1 or for private use1 it is proposed to give such information as has been gathered from various sources as to the cost of making1 and the selling prices of tiles1 in ,england4 ,the following is a memorandum made at the residence of ,mr4 ,thomas ,crisp1 at ,butley ,abbey1 in ,suffolk ,co41 ,eng41 from information given the author on the #hth of ,july1 #aheg3 ,mr4 ,crisp makes his own tiles1 and also supplies his neighbors who need them4 ,he sells one and a half inch pipes at #abs4 7#c7 per #a1jjj4 ,he pays #es4 7#a4be7 per #a1jjj for having them made and burnt4 ,his machine is ,waller's patent1 ,no4 #bb1 made by ,garrett and ,son1 ,leiston1 ,saxemundham1 ,suffolk4 ,it works by a lever1 makes five one and a half inch pipes at once1 or three sole-tiles about two-inch4 ,the man at work said1 that he1 with a man to carry away1 c41 could make #d1jjj one and a half inch pipes per day4 ,they used no screen1 but cut the clay with a wire4 ,the machine cost ,l#be 7about #abe74 ,at the kiln1 which is permanent1 the tiles are set on end1 and bricks with them in the same kiln4 ,they require less heat than bricks1 and cost about half as much as bricks here1 which are moulded ten inches by five4 ,two girls were loading bricks into a horse-cart1 and two women receiving them1 and setting them in the kiln4 ,they made roof-tiles with the same machine1 and also moulded large ones by hand4 ,the wages of the women are about #h;d4 7sixteen cents7 per day4 ,at the exhibition of the ,royal ,agricultural ,society1 in ,england1 the author saw ,williams' ,tile ,machine in operation1 and was there informed by the exhibitor1 who said he was a tile-maker1 that it requires five-sevenths as much coal to burn #a1jjj two-inch tiles1 as #a1jjj bricks--the size of bricks being #aj by #e2 and he declared1 that he1 with one boy1 could make with the machine1 #g1jjj two-inch tiles per day1 after the clay is prepared4 ,of course1 one other person1 at least1 must be employed to carry off the tiles4 ,mr4 ,denton gives his estimates of the prices at which pipe-tiles may be procured in ,england1 as follows--the prices1 which he gives in ,english currency1 being translated into our own3 ,when ordinary agricultural labor is worth #b #ej per week1 pipes half one and a half inch1 and half two-inch1 maybe taken at an average cost of #d #ch per #a1jjj4 ,when labor is #c #jj per week1 the pipes will average #e #jj per #a1jjj1 and when labor is #c #ej1 they will rise to #e #fb4 ,he adds3 ,in giving the above average cost of materials1 those districts are excluded from consideration1 where clay suitable for pipes1 exists in the immediate vicinity of coal-pits1 which must necessarily reduce the cost of producing them very considerably4 ,taking the averages of several careful estimates of the cost of tiles and bricks1 from the ,cyclopaedia of ,agriculture1 we have the price of tiles in ,england about #e per #a1jjj1 and the price of bricks #g4hg1 from which the duty of #es4 #f;d4 should be deducted1 leaving the average price of bricks #f4ej4 ,upon tiles there is no such duty4 ,bricks in the ,united ,states are made of different sizes1 varying from #h x #d in4 to the ,english standard #aj x #e in4 ,perhaps a fair average price for bricks of the latter size1 would be not far from #e per #a1jjj2 certainly below #f4ej per #a1jjj4 ,there is no reason why tiles may not be manufactured in the ,united ,states1 as cheaply1 compared with the prices of bricks1 as in ,england2 and it is quite clear that tiles of the sizes named1 are far cheaper there than common bricks4 ,what is wanted in this country is1 first1 a demand sufficient to authorize the establishment of works extensive enough to make tiles at the best advantage2 next1 competent skill to direct and perform the labor2 and1 finally1 the best machinery and fixtures for the purpose4 ,it is confidently predicted1 that1 whenever the business of tile-making becomes properly established1 the ingenuity of ,american machinists will render it easy to manufacture tiles at ,english prices1 notwithstanding the lower price of labor there2 and that we shall be supplied with small tiles in all parts of the country at about the current prices of bricks1 or at about one half the present ,albany prices of tiles1 as given at the head of this chapter4 ,it should be mentioned here1 perhaps1 that1 in ,england1 it is common to burn tiles and bricks together in the same kiln1 placing the tiles away from the hottest parts of the furnace2 as1 being but about half an inch in thickness1 they require less heat to burn them than bricks4 ,in the estimates of labor in making tiles in ,england1 a small item is usually included for rolling4 ,round pipes are chiefly used in ,england4 ,when partly dried1 they are taken up on a round stick1 and rolled upon a small table1 to preserve their exact form4 ,tiles usually flatten somewhat in drying1 which is not of importance in any but round pipes1 but those ought to be uniform4 ,by this process of rolling1 great exactness of shape1 and a great degree of smoothness inside1 are preserved4 ,,tile ,,machines4 ,drainage with tiles is a new branch of husbandry in ,america4 ,the cost of tiles is now a great obstacle in prosecuting much work of this kind which land-owners desire to accomplish4 ,the cost of tiles1 and so the cost of drainage1 depends very much--it may be said1 chiefly--upon the perfection of the machinery for tile-making2 and here1 as almost everywhere else1 agriculture and the mechanic arts go hand in hand4 ,labor is much dearer in ,america than in ,europe1 and there is1 therefore1 more occasion here than there1 for applying mechanical power to agriculture4 ,we can have no cheap drainage until we have cheap tiles2 and we can have cheap tiles only by having them made with the most perfect machinery1 and at the lowest prices at which competing manufacturers1 who understand their business1 can afford them4 ,in the preceding remarks on the cost of tiles1 may be found estimates1 which will satisfy any thinking man that tiles have not yet been sold in ,america at reasonably low prices4 ,to give those who may desire to establish tileries1 either for public or private supply1 information1 which cannot readily be obtained without great expense of ,english books1 as to the prices of tile machines1 it is now proposed to give some account of the best ,english machines1 and of such ,american inventions as have been brought to notice4 ,it is of importance that ,american machinists and inventors should be apprised of the progress that has been made abroad in perfecting tile machines2 because1 as the subject attracts attention1 the ingenuity of the universal ,yankee nation will soon be directed toward the discovery of improvements in all the processes of tile-making4 ,tiles were made by hand long before tile machines were invented4 ,a ,mr4 ,read1 in the ,royal ,agricultural ,journal1 claims to have used pipe tiles as early as #agie1 made by hand1 and formed on a round stick4 ,no machine for making tiles is described1 before that of ,mr4 ,beart's1 in #ahdj1 by which common tile and sole 7not pipes or tubes7 were made4 ,this machine1 however1 was of simple structure1 and not adapted to the varieties of tiles now used4 ,all tile machines seem to operate on the same general principle--that of forcing wet clay1 of the consistency of that used in brick-making1 through apertures of the desired shape and size4 ,to make the mass thus forced through the aperture1 hollow1 the hole must have a piece of metal in the centre of it1 around which the clay forms1 as it is pushed along4 ,this centre piece is kept in position by one or two thin pieces of iron1 which of course divide the clay which passes over them1 but it unites again as it is forced through the die1 and comes out sound1 and is then cut off1 usually by hand1 by means of a small wire1 of the required length1 about fourteen inches4 ,tile machines work either vertically or horizontally4 ,the most primitive machine which came to the author's notice abroad1 was one which we saw on our way from ,london to ,mr4 ,mechi's place4 ,it was a mere upright cylinder1 of some two feet height1 and perhaps eight inches diameter1 in which worked a piston4 ,the clay was thrown into the cylinder1 and the piston brought down by means of a brake1 like an old-fashioned pump1 and a single round pipe-tile forced out at the bottom4 ,the force employed was one man and two boys4 ,one boy screened the clay1 by passing through it a wire in various directions1 holding the wire by the ends1 and cutting through the mass till he had found all the small stones contained in it4 ,the man threw the masses thus prepared1 into the cylinder1 and put on the brake1 and the other boy received the tiles upon a round stick1 as they came down through the die at the bottom1 and laid them away4 ,the cylinder held clay enough to make several1 perhaps twenty1 two-inch pipes4 ,the work was going on in a shed without a floor1 and upon a liberal estimate1 the whole establishment1 including shed and machine1 could not cost more than fifty dollars4 ,yet1 on this simple plan1 tiles were moulded much more rapidly than bricks were made in the same yard1 where they were moulded singly1 as they usually are in ,england4 ,it was said that this force could thus mould about #a1hjj small tiles per day4 ,this little machine seems to be the same described by ,mr4 ,parkes as in general use in #ahdc1 in ,kent and ,suffolk ,counties4 ,most of the tile machines now in use in ,england and ,america1 are so constructed1 as to force out the tiles upon a horizontal frame-work1 about five two-inch1 or three three-inch pipes abreast4 ,the box to contain the clay may be upright or horizontal1 and the power may be applied to a wheel1 by a crank turned by a man1 or by horse1 steam1 or water power1 according to the extent of the works4 ,we saw at the ,exhibition of the ,royal ,agricultural ,society1 at ,salisbury1 in ,england1 in ,july1 #aheg1 the pipe and tile machine1 of ,w4 ,williams1 of ,bedford4 ,it was in operation1 for exhibition1 and was worked by one man1 who said he was a tile maker1 and that he and one boy could make with the machine #g1jjj two-inch tiles per day1 after the clay was prepared in the pug mill4 ,four tiles were formed at once1 by clay passed through four dies1 and the box holds clay enough for thirty-two two-inch tiles1 so that thirty-two are formed as quickly as they can be removed1 and as many more1 as soon as the box can be refilled4 ,the size1 ,no4 #c1 of this machine1 such as we then saw in operation1 and which is suitable for common use1 costs at ,bedford #hh4ej1 with one set of dies2 and the extra dies1 for making three1 four1 and six-inch pipes1 and other forms1 if desired1 with the horses1 as they are called1 for removing the tiles1 cost about five dollars each4 ,this1 like most other tile machines1 is adapted to making tiles for roofs1 much used in ,england instead of shingles or slates1 as well as for draining purposes4 ,there are several machines now in use in ,england namely3 ,etheridge's1 ,clayton's1 ,scragg's1 ,whitehead's1 and ,garrett's--either of which would be satisfactory1 according to the amount of work desired4 ,we have in ,america several patented machines for making tiles1 of the comparative merits of which we are unable to give a satisfactory judgment4 ,we will1 however1 allude to two or three1 advising those who are desirous to purchase1 to make personal examination for themselves4 ,we are obliged to rely chiefly on the statements of the manufacturers for our opinions4 ,illustration3 ,,daines' ,,drain ,,tile ,,maker ,daines' ,american ,drain ,tile ,machine is manufactured at ,birmingham1 ,michigan1 by ,john ,daines4 ,this machine is in use in ,exeter1 ,n4 ,h41 close by the author's residence1 and thus far proves satisfactory4 ,the price of it is about #ajj1 and the weight1 about five hundred pounds4 ,it occupies no more space than a common three-and-a-half foot table1 and is worked by a man at a crank4 ,it is capable of turning out1 by man power1 about two hundred and fifty two-inch tiles in an hour1 after the clay is prepared in a pug mill4 ,horse or water power can be readily attached to it4 ,we give a drawing of it1 not because we are sure it is the best1 but because we are sure it is a good machine1 and to illustrate the principle upon which all these machines are constructed4 ,pratt's ,tile ,machine is manufactured at ,canandaigua1 ,new ,york1 by ,pratt ,brothers1 and is in use in various places in that ,state as well as elsewhere4 ,this machine differs from ,daines' in this essential matter1 that here the clay is pugged1 or tempered1 and formed into tiles at one operation1 while with ,daines' machine1 the clay is first passed through a pug mill1 as it is for making bricks in the common process4 ,pratt's machine is worked by one or two horses1 or by steam or water power1 as is convenient4 ,the price of the smaller size1 worked by one horse1 is #aej1 and the price of the larger size1 worked by two horses1 #bjj4 ,professor ,mapes says he saw this machine in operation and considers it perfect in all its parts4 ,the patentees claim that they can make1 with the one-horse machine1 #e1jjj large tiles a day4 ,they state also that two horses will make tiles about as cheap as bricks are usually made1 and as fast1 with the large-sized machine4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ec4--,,pratt',s ,,tile ,,machine4 ,these somewhat indefinite statements are all that we can give1 at present1 of the capacity of the machines4 ,we should have no hesitation in ordering a ,pratt machine were we desirous of entering into an extensive business of ,tile-making1 and we should feel quite safe with a ,daines' machine for a more limited manufacture4 ,,salisbury',s ,,tile ,,machine4 ,s4 ,c4 ,salisbury1 at the ,novelty ,works1 in the city of ,new ,york1 is manufacturing a machine for making tiles and bricks1 which exhibits some new and peculiar features1 worthy of attention by those who propose to purchase tile machines4 ,prof4 ,mapes expresses the confident opinion that this machine excels all others1 in its capacity to form tiles with rapidity and economy4 ,we have examined only a working model4 ,it is claimed that the large size1 with horse-power1 will make #bj1jjj two-inch tiles per day1 and the hand-power machine #c1jjj per day4 ,we advise tile makers to examine all these machines in operation1 before purchasing either4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,the ,,cost ,,of ,,drainage4 ,draining no more expensive than ,fencing4--,engineering4--,guessing not accurate enough4--,slight ,fall sufficient4--,instances4--,two ,inches to ,one ,thousand ,feet4--,cost of ,excavation and ,filling4--,narrow ,tools required4--,tables of ,cubic contents of ,drains4--,cost of ,drains on our own ,farm4--,cost of ,tiles4--,weight and ,freight of ,tiles4--,cost of ,outlets4--,cost of ,collars4--,smaller ,tiles used with ,collars4--,number of ,tiles to the ,acre1 with ,tables4--,length of ,tiles varies4--,number of ,rods to the ,acre at different ,distances4--,final ,estimate of ,cost4--,comparative ,cost of ,tile-,drains and ,stone-,drains4 ,a prudent man1 intending to execute a work1 whether it be to build a tower1 or drain a field1 sitteth down first and counteth the cost1 whether he hath sufficient to finish it4 ,there is good sense and discretion in the inquisitiveness which suggests so often the inquiry1 ,how much does it cost to drain an acre8 or1 ,how much does it cost a rod to lay drains8 ,these questions cannot be answered so briefly as they are asked2 yet much information can be given1 which will aid one who will investigate the subject4 ,the process of drainage is expensive1 as compared with the price of land in our new settlements2 but its cost will not alarm those who have been accustomed to see the improvements made in ,new ,england upon well cultivated farms4 ,compared with the labor and cost of building and maintaining ,,fences upon the highways1 and in the subdivisions of lots1 common in the ,eastern ,states1 the drainage of land is a small matter4 ,we see in many places long stretches of faced walls1 on the line of our roads near towns and villages1 which cost from two to five dollars per rod4 ,our common stone walls in these ,states cost about one dollar per rod to build originally2 and almost any kind of wooden fence costs as much4 ,upon fences1 there is occasion for annual repairs1 while drains properly laid1 are permanent4 ,these suggestions are thrown out1 that farmers may not be alarmed without cause1 at the high cash estimates of the cost of drainage operations4 ,money comes slowly to farmers1 and a cash estimate looks larger to them than an estimate in labor4 ,the cost of fencing seems no great burden2 though1 estimated in cash1 it would seem1 as in fact it is1 a severe charge4 ,drainage can be performed principally by the same kind of labor as fencing1 the cost of the tiles being a small item in the whole expense4 ,the estimates of labor will be made at one dollar per day1 in investigating this matter4 ,this would be the fair cash value of work by the day1 perhaps2 but it is far more than farmers1 who have work in hand on their own farms1 which may be executed in the leisure season after haying1 and even into the ,winter1 when convenient1 will really expend for such labor4 ,few farm operations would pay expenses1 if every hour of superintendence1 and every hour of labor by man and boy and beast1 were set down at this high rate4 ,the cost of the tiles will1 ordinarily1 be a cash item1 and the labor may be performed like that of planting1 hoeing1 haying1 and harvesting1 by such help hired by the mouth or day1 or rendered by the family1 as may be found convenient4 ,the cost of drainage may be considered conveniently1 to borrow a clerical phrase1 under the following heads4 #a4 ,laying out1 or ,engineering4--,in arranging our ,spring's work1 we devote time and attention to laying it out1 though this hardly forms an item in the expense of the crop4 ,most farmers may think themselves competent to lay out their drainage-works1 without paying for the scientific skill of an engineer1 or even of a surveyor4 ,it is believed1 however1 that generally1 it will be found true economy1 to procure the aid of an experienced engineer1 if convenient1 to lay out the work at the outset4 ,certainly1 in most cases1 some skill in the use of levelling instruments1 at least1 is absolutely essential to systematic work4 ,no man1 however experienced1 can1 by the eye1 form any safe opinion of the fall of a given tract of land4 ,fields which appear perfectly level to the eye1 will be found frequently to give fall enough for the deepest drainage4 ,the writer recently had occasion to note this fact on his own land4 ,a low wet spot had many times been looked at1 as a place which should be drained1 both to improve its soil1 and the appearance of the land about it2 but to the eye1 it seemed doubtful whether it was not about as low as the stream some forty rods off1 into which it must be drained4 ,upon testing the matter carefully with levelling instruments1 it was found that from the lowest spot in this little swamp1 there was a fall of seven and a half feet to the river1 at its ordinary height6 ,again1 there are cases where it will be found upon accurate surveys1 that the fall is very slight1 so that great care will be requisite1 to lay the drains in such a way that the descent may be continuous and uniform4 ,without competent skill in laying out the work1 land-owners will be liable not only to errors in the fall of the drains1 but to very expensive mistakes in the location of them4 ,a very few rods of drains1 more than are necessary1 would cost more than any charge of a competent person for laying them out properly4 ,again1 experience gives great facility in judging of the underground flow of water1 of the permeability of soil1 of the probability of finding ledges or other rock formation1 and many other particulars which might not suggest themselves to a novice in the business4 ,the laying out of drains is important1 not only with reference to the work in hand1 but to additional work to be executed in future on adjoining land1 so that the whole may be eventually brought into one cheap and efficient system with the smallest effective number of drains1 both minors and mains1 and the fewest outlets possible2 with such wells1 or other facilities for inspection1 as may be necessary4 ,in the ,english tables of the cost of drainage by the ,drainage ,companies1 an estimate of #a4be per acre is usually put down for superintendence1 which includes the engineering and the supervision of the whole process of opening1 laying and filling1 securing outfalls1 and every other process till the work is completed4 ,the general estimate of the cost of drainage is about #be4jj per acre1 and this item of #a4be is but a small per centage on that amount4 ,the point has been dwelt upon here1 more for the purpose of impressing upon land-owners1 the importance of employing competent skill in the laying out of their drainage works1 than because the expense thus incurred1 forms any considerable item of the cost of the whole work4 #b4 ,excavation and ,filling4 ,the principal expense of drainage is incurred in the excavation of the ditch1 whether it be for tiles or for stones4 ,the labor of excavation depends much upon the nature of the soil to be moved4 ,draining on a sound clay1 says the writer of a prize essay1 free from stones1 may be executed at a cheaper rate per rod1 in length1 than on almost any other kind of soil1 as1 from the firmness of the clay1 the work may be done with narrow spades1 and but a small quantity of soil requires to be removed4 ,the draining of wet sands or grounds1 or clays in which veins of sand abound1 is more expensive than on sound clays1 because a broader spade has to be used1 and consequently a larger amount of soil removed2 and draining stony or rocky soils is still more expensive1 because the pick has to be used4 ,this adds considerably to the expense4 ,great stress is laid1 by all experienced persons1 upon using narrow spades1 and opening ditches as narrow as possible4 ,it is somewhat more convenient for unskillful laborers to work in a wide ditch than in a narrow one1 and although the laborers frequently protest that they cannot work so rapidly in narrow ditches1 yet it is found that1 in contract work1 by the rod1 they usually open the ditches very narrow4 ,indeed1 it will be found that1 generally1 the cost of excavation bears a pretty constant proportion to the number of cubic feet of earth thrown out4 ,it will surprise those unaccustomed to these estimates1 to observe how rapidly the quantity excavated1 increases with the increased width of the ditch4 ,to enable the reader accurately to compute the measurement of drains of any dimensions likely to be adopted1 a table and explanations1 found in the ,report of the ,board of ,health1 already quoted1 are given below4 ,the dimensions1 or contents of any drain1 are found by multiplying together the length1 depth1 and mean width of the drain4 ,thus1 if a drain is #cjj yards long1 and the cutting #c feet deep1 #bj inches wide at the top1 and #d inches wide at the bottom1 the mean width would be #ab inches 7or the half of the sum of #bj and #d71 and if we multiply #cjj1 the length1 by #a1 the depth in yards1 and by #a_/c1 the mean width in yards1 and the product would be #ajj cubic yards4 ,the following table will serve to facilitate such calculations4 ,table showing the number of ,cubic ,yards of ,earth in each ,rod 7#e-a_/b ,yards in length71 in ,drains or ,ditches of various ,dimensions4 ,,depth4 ,,mean ,,width4 ---------------------------------------- --- ,inches4#g ,in4 #h ,in4 #i ,in4 #aj ,in4#aa ,in4#ab ,in4 ---------------------------------------- --- #cj #j4hi #a4jb #a4adf #a4bg #a4dj #a4ec #cc #j4ih #a4ab #a4bf #a4dj #a4ed #a4fh #cf #a4jg #a4bb #a4cge #a4ec #a4fh #a4hc #ci #a4af #a4cbd #a4di #a4fee #a4hb #a4ihf #db #a4be #a4dbf #a4fjd #a4gh #a4if #b4ad #de #a4cd #a4ec #a4gb #a4ia #b4aj #b4bi #dh #a4dbf #a4fc #a4hcc #b4jd #b4bd #b4ddd #ea #a4eae #a4gc #a4ie #b4afd #b4ch #b4fj #ed #a4fjd #a4hc #b4jf #b4bi #b4eb #b4ge #eg #a4fi #a4ice #b4ah #b4db #b4ff #b4ij #fj #a4gh #b4jcf #b4bi #b4edf #b4hj #c4jef ,,depth4 ,,mean ,,width4 ---------------------------------------- --- ,inches4#ac ,in4#ad ,in4#ae ,in4#af ,in4#ag ,in4#ah ,in4 ---------------------------------------- --- #cj #a4fee #a4gh #a4ia #b4jd #b4afd #b4bi #cc #a4hb #a4if #b4aj #b4bd #b4ch #b4eb #cf #a4ihf #b4ad #b4bi #b4bdd #b4fj #b4ge #ci #b4ae #b4cb #b4dh #b4fe #b4ha #b4ih #db #b4cb #b4die #b4fgd #b4he #c4jc #c4ba #de #b4dh #b4fg #b4hfe #c4jee #c4bdf #c4dch #dh #b4fe #b4he #c4jef #c4bf #c4df #c4ffg #ea #b4ha #c4jc #c4be #c4df #c4fh #c4hif #ed #b4ih #c4bj #c4dd #c4fff #c4hie #d4abe #eg #c4ad #c4ch #c4fc #c4hg #d4aa #d4ced #fj #c4ca #c4efd #c4hb #d4jgd #d4cc #d4ehd ,along the top of the table is placed the mean widths in inches1 and on the left-hand side the depths of the drains1 extending from #cj inches to #e feet4 ,the numbers in the body of the table express cubic yards1 and decimals of a yard4 ,in making use of the table1 it is necessary first to find the mean width of the drain1 from the widths at the top and bottom4 ,thus1 if a drain #c feet deep were #af inches wide at the top1 and #d inches at the bottom1 the mean width would be half of #af added to #d1 or #aj2 then1 by looking in the table for the column under #aj 7width71 and opposite #cf 7inches of depth71 we find the number of cubic yards in each rod of such a drain to be #a4ec1 or somewhat more than one and a half4 ,if we compare this with another drain #bj inches wide at the top1 #d inches at the bottom1 and #d-a_/b feet deep1 we have the mean width #ab1 and looking at the table under #ab and opposite #ed1 we find #b4ge cubic yards1 or two and three-quarters to the rod4 ,in this case1 the quantity of earth to be removed is nearly twice as much as in the other1 and hence1 as far as regards the digging1 the cost of the labor will be nearly double4 ,but in the case of deep drains1 the cost increases slightly for another reason1 namely1 the increased labor of lifting the earth to the surface from a greater depth4 ,under the title of the ,depth of ,drains1 other reasons are suggested why shallow drains are more easily wrought than deeper drains4 ,the widths given in ,english treatises1 and found perfectly practicable there1 with proper drainage-tools1 will seem to us exceedingly narrow4 ,mr4 ,parkes gives the width of the top of a four-foot drain #ah inches1 of a three-and-a-half foot drain #af inches1 and of a three-foot drain #ab inches4 ,he gives the width of drains for tiles1 three inches at bottom1 and those for stones1 eight inches4 ,of the cost of excavating a given number of cubic yards of earth from drains1 it is difficult to give reliable estimates4 ,in the writer's own field1 where a pick was used to loosen the lower two feet of earth1 the labor of opening and filling drains #d feet deep1 and of the mean width of #ad inches1 all by hand labor1 has been1 in a mile of drains1 being our first experiments1 about one day's labor to three rods in length4 ,the excavated earth of such a drain1 measures not quite three cubic yards4 7,exactly1 #b4he47 ,in work subsequently executed1 we have opened our drains of #d foot depth1 but #bj inches at top1 and #d inches at bottom1 giving a mean width of #ab inches4 ,in one instance1 in the ,summer of #aheh1 two men opened #ad rods of such drain in one day4 ,in six days1 the same two men opened1 laid1 and filled #idg feet1 or about #eg-a_/b rods of such drain4 ,their labor was worth #ab4jj1 or #ba cents per rod4 ,the actual cost of this job was as follows3 #hdg two-inch tiles1 at #ac per #a1jjj #aa4ja #ajj three-inch for main #b4ej #gj bushels of tan1 to protect the joints 4#gj ,horse to haul tiles and tan 4#ej ,labor1 #ab days1 at #a #ab4jj ------- ,total #bf4ga ,this is #df-a_/b cents per rod1 besides our own time and skill in laying out and superintending the work4 ,the work was principally done with ,irish spades1 and was in a sandy soil4 ,in the same season1 the same men opened1 laid1 and filled #gj rods of four-foot drain1 of the same mean width of #ab inches1 in the worst kind of clay soil1 where the pick was constantly used4 ,it cost #ce days' labor to complete the job1 being #ej cents per rod for the labor alone4 ,the least cost of the labor of draining #d feet deep1 on our own land1 is thus shown to be #ba cents per rod1 and the greatest cost #ej cents per rod1 all the labor being by hand4 ,one-half these amounts would have completed the drains at #c feet depth1 as has been already shown4 ,but the excavation here is much greater than is usual in ,england1 ,mr4 ,parkes giving the mean width of a four-foot drain but #aj-a_/b inches1 instead of #ad or #ab1 as just given4 ,mr4 ,denton gives estimates of the cost1 in ,england1 of cutting and filling four-foot drains1 which vary from #ab cents per rod upwards1 according to the prices of labor1 and other circumstances4 ,in ,new ,england1 where labor may be fairly rated at one dollar per day1 the cost of excavating and filling four-foot drains by hand labor1 must vary from #bj to #ej cents per rod1 according to the soil1 and half those amounts for drains of three-foot depth4 ,of the aid which may be derived from the use of draining plows1 or of the common plow1 or subsoil plow1 our views may be found expressed under the appropriate heads4 ,that drains will long continue to be opened in this vast country by hand labor1 is not to be supposed1 but we give our estimates of the expenses1 at this first stage of our education in drainage4 #c4 ,cost of the ,tiles4 ,under the title of ,the ,cost of ,tiles1 we have given such information as can be at present procured1 touching that matter4 ,it will be assumed1 in these estimates1 that no tiles of less than #a-a_/b inch bore will be used for any purpose1 and for mains1 usually those of three-inch bore are sufficient4 ,the proportion of length of mains to that of minors is small1 and1 considering the probable reduction of prices1 we will1 for the present1 assume #aj per #a1jjj as the prices of such mixed sizes as may be used4 ,add to this1 the freight of them to a reasonable distance1 and we have the cost of the tiles on the field4 ,the weight of two-inch tiles is usually rated at about #c lbs4 each1 though they fall short of this weight until wet4 #d4 ,outlets4 ,a small per-centage should be added to the items already noticed1 for the cost of the general outfall1 which should be secured with great care2 although1 from such examination as the writer has made in this country1 and in ,england also1 in the large majority of cases1 drains are discharged with very little precaution to protect the outlets4 ,works completed under the charge of regular engineers1 form an exception to this remark2 and an item of #cg cents per acre1 for iron outlets and masonry1 is usually included in the estimated cost per acre of drainage4 #e4 ,collars4 ,it is not known to the author that collars have been at all used in ,america1 except at the ,new ,york ,central ,park1 in #aheh2 round pipes1 upon which they are commonly used abroad1 when used on any1 not being yet much in use here4 ,in the estimates of ,mr4 ,denton1 in his tables1 collars are set down at about half the cost of the mixed tiles4 ,the bore of them being large enough to receive the end of the tile1 increases the price in proportion to the increase in size4 ,it is believed1 however1 that a smaller size of tiles may prudently be used with collars than without1 because the collars keep the tiles perfectly in line1 and freely admit water1 while they exclude roots1 sand1 and other obstructions4 ,a drain laid with one and a half inch tiles with collars is1 no doubt1 better in any soil than two-inch tiles without collars4 ,some compensation for the cost of collars may thus be found in the less price of the smaller tiles4 #f4 ,laying4 ,the cost of laying tiles is so trifling as hardly to be worth estimating1 except to show its insignificance4 ,the estimate1 by ,english engineers1 is two cents per rod for pipe laying and finishing4 ,what is included in finishing1 does not appear4 ,from the personal observations of the writer1 it is believed that an active man may lay from #fj to #ajj rods of tiles per day1 in ditches well prepared4 ,indeed1 we have seen our man ,james1 lay twelve rods of two-inch tiles1 in a four-foot ditch1 in forty-five minutes1 when he was not aware that he was working against time4 ,this is at the rate of sixteen rods an hour1 which would give just #afj rods1 or a half-mile1 in a day of ten hours4 #g4 ,number of ,tiles to the ,acre4 ,the number of tiles used depends1 of course1 upon the distances apart of the drains1 and upon the length of the tiles used4 ,the following table gives the number of tiles of various length1 per acre1 required at different intervals3 ,intervals between ,twelve inch,thirteen inch,fourteen inch,fifteen inch the ,drains1 ,pipe4 ,pipe4 ,pipe4 ,pipe4 in feet4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- #ae #bijd #bfhj #bdhi #bcbc #ah #bdbj #bbcd #bjgd #aicf #ba #bjgd #aiae #aggh #afei #bd #ahae #afgf #aeee #adeb #bg #afac #adhi #achc #abij #cj #adeb #acdj #abdd #aafa #cc #acbj #abai #aaca #ajef #cf #abaj #aaag #ajcg #ifh #ci #aaag #ajca #ieg #hic #db #ajcg #ieh #hhh #hbi ,the following table gives the number of rods per acre of drains at different distances3 ,intervals between the ,drains1 in feet4 ,rods per acre4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- #ae #agf #ah #adf-b_/c #ba #abe-e_/g #bd #aaj #bg #ig-g_/i #cj #hh #cc #hj #cf #gc-a_/c #ci #fg-i_/ac #db #fb-f_/g ,it may be remarked here1 that tiles1 moulded of the same length1 vary nearly two inches when burned1 according to the severity of the heat4 ,it may be suggested1 too1 that the length of the tile1 in the use of any machine1 is entirely at the option of the maker4 ,it is not1 perhaps1 an insult to our common humanity1 to suggest to buyers the propriety of measuring the length as well as calibre of tiles before purchasing4 ,in the estimates which will be made in this detail1 it will be assumed that tiles will lay one foot each1 with allowance for imperfections and breakage4 ,this is as near as possible to accuracy1 according to our best observation2 and1 besides1 there is convenience in this simple estimate of one tile to one foot1 which is important in practice4 ,we have now the data from which we may make some tolerably safe estimates of the cost of drainage4 ,with labor at one dollar per day1 and tiles at #aj per #a1jjj1 or one cent each1 or one cent a foot1 and ditches four feet deep1 opened and filled at one-third of a day's labor to the rod1 we may set down the principal items of the cost of drainage by the rod1 as follows3 ,cutting and filling per rod #cc-a_/c cts4 ,tiles #af-b_/c ---- #ej ,this is putting the tiles at one cent a foot1 and the labor at two cents a foot1 or just twice as much as the cost of tiles1 and it brings a total of half a dollar a rod1 all of them numbers easily remembered1 and convenient for calculation4 ,by reference to the table giving the number of rods to the acre1 the cost of labor and tiles per acre may be at once found1 by taking half the number of rods in dollars4 ,at #db feet distance1 the cost will be #ca4db per acre2 at #cj feet distance1 #dd2 and at #fj feet1 half that amount1 or #bb per acre4 ,our views as to the frequency of drains1 may be found under the appropriate head4 ,our estimate thus far1 is of four-foot drains4 ,we have shown1 under the head of the ,depth of ,drains1 that the cost of cutting and filling a four-foot drain is double that of cutting and filling a three-foot drain4 ,there is no doubt1 that1 after all the good advice we have given on this subject1 many1 who grow wiser than their teachers are1 will set aside the teachings of the best draining engineers in the world1 and insist that three feet deep is enough1 and persist in so laying their tiles4 ,this shallowness will reduce the cost of labor about one half1 so that we shall have the cost of labor and tiles equal--one cent a foot1 making #cc8 cents per rod1 or one-third of a dollar1 instead of one-half a dollar per rod4 ,to the cost of labor and tiles1 we should add a fair estimate of the cost of the other items of engineering and outlets4 ,these are trifling matters1 which ,english tables1 as has been shown1 estimate together1 at about #a4fg per acre4 ,briefly to recapitulate the elements of computation of the cost of drainage1 we find them to be these3 the price of labor1 the price of tiles1 and freight of them2 the character of the soil1 the depth of the drains1 and their distance apart1 with the incidental expense of engineering and of outfalls1 and the large additional cost of collars1 where they are deemed necessary4 ,,comparative ,,cost ,,of ,,tile ,,and ,,stone ,,drains4 ,it is not possible to answer1 with precision1 the question so often asked1 as to the comparative cost of drainage with tiles and stones4 ,the estimates given of the cost of tile drains1 are based upon the writer's own experience1 upon his own farm mainly2 and the mean width of four-foot tile drains1 may be assumed to be #ad inches1 instead of #aj-a_/b inches1 as actually practiced in ,england4 ,for a stone drain of almost any form1 certainly for any regular water-course laid with stones1 our ditch must be at least #ba inches wide from top to bottom4 ,this is just #ej per cent1 more than our own estimate1 and #ajj per cent41 or double the ,english estimate for tile drains4 ,it will require at least two ox-cart loads of stones to the rod1 to construct any sort of a stone drain1 costing1 perhaps1 #be cents a load for picking up and hauling4 ,in most cases1 where the stones are not on the farm1 it will cost twice that sum4 ,we will say #be cents per rod for laying the stones1 though this is a low estimate4 ,we have1 then1 for cutting and filling the ditch1 #ej cents per rod1 #ej cents for hauling stone1 and for laying1 #be cents per rod1 making #a4be a rod for a stone drain1 against #ej cents per rod for tile drains4 ,then we have a large surplus of earth1 two cartloads to the rod1 displaced by the two loads of stone1 to be disposed of2 and in case of the tiles1 we have just earth enough4 ,there are many other considerations in favor of tiles3 such as the cutting up of the ground by teaming heavy loads of stones2 the greater permanency of tiles2 and the fact that they furnish no harbor for mice and other vermin1 as the ,english call such small beasts4 ,in favor of stones1 is the fact1 that often they are on the land1 and must be moved1 and it is convenient to dispose of them in the ditches4 ,again1 there are many parts of the country where tiles are not to be procured1 without great cost of freight1 and where labor is abundant at certain seasons1 and money scarce at all seasons1 so that the question is really between stone drains and no drains4 ,stone drains1 if laid very deep1 are far more secure than when shallow2 because1 if shallow1 they are usually ruined by the breaking in of water at the top1 in the ,spring time1 by the action of frost1 and by the mining of mice and moles4 ,if laid four feet deep1 and the earth rammed hard above the stones1 and rounded on the surface to throw off surface water1 they may be found efficient and permanent4 ,the conclusion1 however1 is1 that where it can be procured1 at any reasonable cost1 drainage with tiles will generally cost less than one-half the expense of drainage with stones1 and be incomparably more satisfactory in the end4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,draining ,,implements4 ,unreasonable ,expectations about ,draining ,tools4--,levelling ,instruments2 ,guessing not ,accurate4--,level by a ,square4--,spirit ,level4--,span1 or ,a ,level4--,grading by ,lines4--,boning-rod4--,challoner's ,drain ,level4--,spades and ,shovels4--,long-handled ,shovel4--,irish ,spade1 ,description and ,cut4--,bottoming ,tools4--,narrow ,spades4--,english ,bottoming ,tools4--,pipe-layer4--,pipe-laying ,illustrated4--,pick-axes4--,drain ,gauge4--,drain ,plows1 and ,ditch-,diggers4--,fowler's ,drain ,plow4--,pratt's ,ditch-,digger4--,mc,ewan's ,drain ,plow4--,routt's ,drain ,plow4 ,it seems to be a characteristic of ,americans1 to be dissatisfied with every recent improvement in art or science1 and the greater the step in advance of former times1 the more captious and critical do we become4 ,there is many a good lady1 who cannot tolerate a sewing-machine1 although she knows it will do the work of ten seamstresses1 because it will not sew on buttons and work buttonholes6 ,most of us are very much out of temper with the magnetic telegraph1 just now1 because it does not bring us the ,court news from ,england every morning before breakfast1 though we have hourly dispatches from ,washington1 ,new ,orleans1 and ,st4 ,louis2 and1 returning to our moutons1 everybody is finding fault with us just now1 because we cannot tell them of some universal1 all-penetrating1 cheap1 strong1 simple1 enduring little implement1 by means of which any kind of a laborer1 ,scotch1 ,irish1 or ,yankee1 may conveniently open all kinds of drains in all kinds of land1 whether sand1 hard-pan1 gravel1 or clay4 ,having personally inquired and examined1 touching draining tools in ,england1 and having been solicited by an extensive agricultural implement house in ,boston1 to furnish them a list and description of a complete set of draining tools1 and feeling the obligation which seemed to be imposed on us1 to know all about this matter1 we wrote to ,mr4 ,denton1 one of the first draining engineers in the world1 to send us a list1 with drawings and descriptions of such implements as he finds most useful1 or1 if more convenient the implements themselves4 ,mr4 ,denton kindly replied to our inquiry1 and his answer may be taken as the best evidence upon this point4 ,he says3 ,as to tools1 it is the same with them as it is with the art of draining itself--too much rule and too much drawing upon paper2 all very right to begin with1 but very prejudicial to progress4 ,i employ1 as engineer to the ,general ,land ,drainage ,company1 and on my private account1 during the drainage season1 as many as #b1jjj men1 and it is an actual fact1 that not one of them uses the set of tools figured in print4 ,i have frequently purchased a number of sets of the ,birmingham tools1 and sent them down on extensive works4 ,the laborers would purchase a few of the smaller tools1 such as ,nos4 #bij1 #bia1 and #cja1 figured in ,morton's excellent ,cyclopaedia of ,agriculture1 and would try them1 and then order others of the country blacksmith1 differing in several respects2 less weighty and much less costly1 and1 moreover1 much better as working tools4 ,all ,i require of the cutters1 is1 that the bottom of the drain should be evenly cut1 to fit the size of the pipe4 ,the rest of the work takes care of itself2 for a good workman will economize his labor for his own sake1 by moving as little earth as practicable2 thus1 for instance1 a first-class cutter1 in clays1 will get down four feet with a twelve-inch opening1 ordinarily2 if he wishes to show off1 he will sacrifice his own comfort to appearance1 and will do it with a ten-inch opening4 ,having thus freed our mind by way of preliminary1 we propose to take up our subject1 and pursue it as practically and quietly as possible to the end4 ,it may be well1 perhaps1 first to suggest by way of explanation of ,mr4 ,denton's letter1 above quoted1 that drains are usually opened in ,england by the yard1 or rod1 the laborer finding his own tools4 ,as has been intimated1 the implements convenient for draining1 depend on many circumstances4 ,they depend upon the character of the earth to be moved4 ,a sharp1 light spade1 which may work rapidly and well in a light loam or sand1 may be entirely unfit to drive into a stiff clay2 and the fancy bottoming tools which may cut out a soft clay or sand in nicely-measured slices1 will be found quite too delicate for a hard-pan or gravel1 where the pick-axe alone can open a passage4 ,the implements again must be suited to the workman who handles it4 ,henry ,ward ,beecher1 in speaking of creeds1 which he1 on another occasion1 had said were the skins of religion set up and stuffed1 remarked1 that it was of more importance that a man should know how to make a practical use of his faith1 than that he should subscribe to many articles2 for1 said he1 ,i have seen many a man who could do more at carpenter's work with one old jack-knife1 than another could do with a whole chest of tools6 ,what can an ,irishman do with a chopping ax1 and what cannot a ,yankee do with it8 ,who ever saw a ,scotchman or an ,irishman who could not cut a straight ditch with a spade1 and who ever saw a ,yankee who could or would cut a ditch straight with any tool8 ,one man works best with a long-handled spade1 another prefers a short handle2 one drives it into the earth with his right foot1 another with his left4 ,a laboring man1 in general1 works most easily with such tools as he is accustomed to handle2 while theorizing implement-makers1 working out their pattern by the light of reason1 may produce such a tool as a man ought to work with1 without adapting it at all to the capacity or taste of the laborer4 ,a man should be measured for his tools1 as much as for his garment1 and not be expected to fit himself to another's notions more than to another's coat4 ,if the land-owner proposes to act as his own engineer1 the first instrument he will want to use is a ,,spirit ,,level1 or some other contrivance by which he may ascertain the variations of the surface of his field4 ,the natural way for a ,yankee to get at the grades is to guess at them1 and this1 practically1 is what is usually done4 ,ditches are opened where there appears to be a descent1 and if there is water running1 the rise is estimated by its current2 and if there is no water rising in the drain1 a bucketfull is occasionally poured in to guide the laborer in his work4 ,no one who has not tested the accuracy1 or1 rather1 inaccuracy1 of his judgment1 as to the levels of fields1 can at all appreciate the deceitfulness of appearances on this point4 ,the human eye will see straight2 but it will not see level without a guide4 ,it forms conclusions by comparison2 and the lines of upland1 of forest tops and of distant hills1 all conspire to confuse the judgment1 so that it is quite common for a brook to appear to the eye to run up hill1 even when it has a quick current4 ,a few trials with a spirit-level will cure any man of his conceit on this subject4 ,and so it is as to the regular inclination of the bottom of drains4 ,it is desirable not only to have an inclination all the way1 but a regular inclination1 as nearly as possible1 especially if the descent be small4 ,workmen are very apt to work at a uniform depth from the surface1 and so give the bottom of the drain the same variations as the surface line2 and thus at one point there may be a fall of one inch in a rod2 at another1 twice that fall2 and at another1 a dead level1 or even a hollow4 ,on our own farm1 we have found1 in twelve rods1 a variation of a foot in the bottom line of a drain opened by skillful workmen on a nearly level field1 where they had no water to guide them1 and where they had supposed their fall was regular throughout4 ,the following sketch shows the difference between lines of tiles laid with and without instruments4 ,next to guessing at the fall in our field1 may be placed a little contrivance1 of which we have made use sufficiently to become satisfied of its want of practical accuracy4 ,it is thus figured and described in the excellent treatise of ,thomas1 on ,farm ,implements4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ed4 ,a is a common square1 placed in a slit in the top of the stake ,b4 ,by means of a plumb-line the square is brought to a level1 when a thumbscrew1 at ,c1 fixes it fast4 ,if the square is two feet long1 and is so carefully adjusted as not to vary more than the twentieth of an inch from a true level1 which is easily accomplished1 then a twentieth of an inch in two feet will be one inch in forty feet--a sufficient degree of accuracy for many cases4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ee4--,,square ,,and ,,plumb-,,level4 ,we do not so much object to the principle of the above level1 as to its practical working4 ,we find it difficult1 without cross sights1 to take an accurate level with any instrument4 ,however1 those who are used to rifle-shooting may hit tolerably near the mark with the square4 ,mr4 ,thomas only claims that it is accurate enough for many cases4 ,a proper spirit-level1 such as is used by engineers of railroads and canals1 attached to a telescope1 is the best of all instruments4 ,so great is the perfection of this instrument1 says the writer just quoted1 that separate lines of levels have been run with it1 for sixty miles1 without varying two-thirds of an inch for the whole distance4 ,a cheap and convenient spirit-level1 for our purpose1 is thus constructed4 ,it is furnished with eye sights1 a b1 and1 when in use1 is placed into a framing of brass which operates as a spring to adjust it to the level position1 d1 by the action of the large-headed brass screw1 c4 ,a stud is affixed to the framing1 and pushed firmly into a gimlet-hole in the top of the short rod1 which is pushed or driven into the ground at the spot from whence the level is desired to be ascertained4 ,it need scarcely be mentioned1 that the height of the eye sight1 from the guard1 is to be deducted from the height of observation1 which quantity is easily obtained by having the rod marked off in inches and feet2 but it may be mentioned1 that this instrument should be used in all cases of draining on level ground1 even when one is confident that he knows the fall of the ground2 for the eye is a very deceitful monitor for informing you of the levelness of ground4 ,it is so light as to admit of being carried in the pocket1 whilst its rod may be used as a staff or cane4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ef4--,,spirit ,,level4 ,a staff of ten feet in length1 graduated in feet and inches1 and held by an attendant at the various points of observation1 is necessary in the use of the spirit-level in the field4 ,a painted target1 arranged with a slide to be moved up and down on this staff1 and held by a thumbscrew1 will be found useful4 ,we have made for our own use a level like the above1 and find it sufficiently accurate for drainage purposes4 ,small spirit-levels set in iron can be had at the hardware shops for twenty cents each1 and can be readily attached to wood by a screw1 in constructing our implement2 or a spirit-level set in mahogany1 of suitable size1 may be procured for a half dollar1 and any person1 handy with tools1 can do the rest4 ,the sights should be arranged both ways1 with a slit cut with a chisel through the brass or tin1 and an oblong opening at each end4 ,the eye is placed at the slit1 and sight is taken by a hair or fine thread1 drawn across the opening at the other end4 ,then1 by changing ends1 and sighting through the other end at a given object1 any error in the instrument may be detected4 ,the hair or thread may be held in place by a little wax1 and moved up or down till it is carefully adjusted4 ,the instrument should turn upon the staff in all directions1 so that the level of a whole field1 so far as it is within range1 may be taken from one position4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eg4 ,,staff ,,and ,,target4 ,to maintain a uniform grade in the bottom of a drain so as to economize the fall1 and distribute it equally through the whole length1 several different instruments and means may be adopted4 ,the first which we will figure1 is what is called the ,span1 or ,a ,level4 ,such a level may be easily constructed of common inch-board4 ,if it be desired to note the fall in feet1 the span may conveniently be ten feet4 ,if a notation in rods be preferred1 the span should be a rod1 or half rod long4 ,the two feet being placed on a floor1 and ascertained to be perfectly level by a spirit-level1 the plumb-line will hang in the centre1 where a distinct mark should be made on the cross-bar4 ,then place a block of wood1 exactly an inch thick1 under one leg1 and mark the place where the line crosses the bar4 ,put another block an inch thick under the same leg1 and again mark where the line crosses the bar1 and so on as far as is thought necessary4 ,then put the blocks under the other leg in the same manner1 and mark the cross-bar4 ,if the span be ten feet1 the plumb-line will indicate upon the bar1 by the mark which it crosses1 the rise or fall in inches1 in ten feet4 ,if the span be a rod1 the line will indicate the number of inches per rod of the rise or fall4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eh4--,,span1 ,,or ,a ,,level4 ,this instrument is used thus3 ,the fall of the ditch from end to end being ascertained by the spirit-level1 and the length also1 the fall per rod1 or per one hundred feet1 may be computed4 ,the span is then placed in the bottom of the drain1 from time to time1 to guide the workman1 or for accurate inspection of the finished cut4 ,we have constructed and used this level1 and found it very convenient to test the accuracy of the workmen1 who had opened drains in our absence4 ,a ten-foot span will be found as large as can be conveniently carried about the farm4 ,for the accurate grading of the bottom of drains1 as the work proceeds1 we have in practice found nothing so convenient and accurate as the arrangement which we are about to illustrate4 ,the object is simply to draw a line parallel with the proposed bottom of the drain1 for the laborers to work under1 so that they1 as they proceed1 may measure down from it1 as a guide to depth4 ,having with the spirit-level1 ascertained the fall from end to end of the drain1 a short stake is set at each end1 and a line is drawn from one to the other at the requisite height1 and supported by the cross-pieces1 at suitable distances1 to prevent the sagging of the line4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ei4--;,,grading ,,trenches ,,by ,,lines4 ,suppose the drain to be ten rods long1 and that it is intended to cut it four feet deep1 the natural fall being1 from end to end1 sufficient4 ,we drive a stake at each end of the drain1 high enough to attach to it a line three feet above the surface1 which will be seven feet above the bottom of the finished drain--high enough to be above the heads of the cutters1 when standing near the bottom4 ,before drawing the line1 the drain may be nearly completed4 ,then drive the intermediate stakes1 with the projecting arms1 which we will call squares1 on one side of the drain1 carefully sighting from one end of the stake to the other1 at the point fixed for the line1 and driving the squares till they are exactly even4 ,then attach a strong small cord1 not larger than a chalk line1 to one of the stakes1 and draw it as tight as it will bear1 and secure it at the other stake4 ,the line is now directly over the middle of the drain1 seven feet from the bottom4 ,give the cutters1 then1 a rod seven feet long1 and let them cut just deep enough for the rod to stand on the bottom and touch the line4 ,practically1 this has been found by the author1 the most accurate and satisfactory method of bringing drains to a regular grade4 ,instead of a line1 after the end stakes have been placed1 a boning rod1 as it is called1 may be used thus3 ,a staff is used1 with a cross-piece at the top1 and long enough1 when resting on the proper bottom of the drain1 to reach to the level of the marks on the stakes1 three feet above the surface4 ,cross-pieces nailed to the stakes are the most conspicuous marks4 ,a person stands at one stake sighting along to the other2 a second person then holds the rod upright in the ditch1 just touching the bottom1 and carries it thus along4 ,if1 while it is moved along1 its top is always in a line with the cross-bars on the end stakes1 the fall is uniform2 if it rise above1 the bottom of the drain must be lowered2 if it fall below1 the bottom of the drain must be raised4 ,this may be convenient enough for mere inspection of works1 but it requires two persons besides the cutters1 to finish the drain by this mode2 whereas1 with the lines and squares1 any laborer can complete the work with exactness4 ,another mode of levelling1 by means of a mammoth mason's level1 with an improvement1 was invented by ,colonel ,challoner1 and published in the ,journal of the ,royal ,agricultural ,society4 ,it may appear to some persons more simple than the span level4 ,we give the cut and explanation4 ,i first ascertain what amount of fall ,i can obtain1 from the head of every drain to my outfall4 ,suppose the length of the drain to be #if yards1 and ,i find ,i have a fall of two feet1 that gives me a fall of a quarter of an inch in every yard4 ,i take a common bricklayer's level #ab feet long1 to the bottom of which ,i attach1 with screws1 a piece of wood the whole length1 one inch wider at one end than at the other1 thereby throwing the level one inch out of the true horizontal line4 ,when the drain has got to its proper depth at the outfall1 ,i apply the broadest end of the level to the mouth2 and when the plumb-bob indicates the level to be correct1 the one-inch fall has been gained in the four yards1 and so on4 ,i keep testing the drain as it is dug1 quite up to the head1 when an unbroken1 even1 and continuous fall of two feet in the whole #if yards has been obtained4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fj4--;,,challoner',s ,,level4 ,,spades ,,and ,,shovels4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fa1 #fb1 #fc4--;,,drain ,,spades4 ,no peculiar tool is essential in opening that part of the drain which is more than a foot in width4 ,shovels and spades1 of the forms usually found upon well-furnished farms1 and adapted to its soil1 will be found sufficient4 ,a ,boston agricultural house1 a year or two since1 sent out an order to ,london for a complete set of draining tools4 ,in due season1 they received1 in compliance with their order1 three spades of different width1 like those represented in the cut4 ,these are understood to be the tools in common use in ,england and ,scotland1 for sod-draining1 and for any other drains1 indeed1 except tiles4 ,the widest is #ab inches wide1 and is used to remove the first spit1 of about one foot depth4 ,the second is #ab inches wide at top1 and #h at the point1 and the third1 eight at top1 and four at the point4 ,the narrowest spade is usually made with a spur in front1 or what the ,irish call a treader1 on which to place the foot in driving it into the earth4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fd4 ,,spade ,,with ,,spur4 ,for wedge drains1 these spades are made narrower than those above represented1 the finishing spade being but two and a half inches wide at the point4 ,it will be recollected that this kind of drainage is only adapted to clay land4 ,the shovels and spades which have been heretofore in most common use in ,new ,england are made with short handles1 thus-- ,illustration3 ,figs4 #fe1 #ff4--;,,common ,,shovel ,,and ,,spade4 ,they are of cast-steel1 and combine great strength and lightness4 ,long-handled shovels and spades are much preferred1 usually1 by ,irish laborers1 whose fancy is worth consulting in matters with which they have so much to do4 ,we believe their notion is correct1 that the long-handled tool is the easier to work with1 at almost any job4 ,in our own draining1 we find the common spade1 with long or short handle1 to be best in marking out the lines in turf2 and either the spade or common shovel1 according to the nature of the soil1 most convenient in removing the first foot of earth4 ,after this1 if the pick is used1 a long-handled round-pointed shovel1 now in common use on our farms1 is found convenient1 until the ditch is too narrow for its use4 ,then the same shovel1 turned up at the sides so as to form a narrow scoop1 will be found better than any tool we yet have to remove this loosened earth4 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #fg1 #fh4--,,long-,,handled ,,round ,,shovel4 ,,scoop ,,shovel4 ,of all the tools that we have ever seen in the hands of an ,irishman1 in ditching1 nothing approximates to the true ,irish spade4 ,it is a very clumsy1 ungainly-looking implement used in the old country both for ditching1 and for ridging for potatoes1 being varied somewhat in width1 according to the intended use4 ,for stony soil1 it is made narrower and stronger1 while for the bog it is broader and lighter4 ,the ,irish blacksmiths in this country usually know how to make them1 and we have got up a pattern of them1 which are manufactured by ,laighton and ,lufkin1 edge-tool makers1 of ,auburn1 ,n4 ,h41 which have been tested1 and found to suit the ideas of the ,irish workmen4 ,this is a correct portrait of an ,irish spade of our own pattern1 which has done more in opening two miles of drains on our own farm1 than any other implement4 ,the spade of the ,laighton and ,lufkin pattern weighs #e lbs41 without the handle1 and is eighteen inches long4 ,it is of iron1 except about eight inches of the blade1 which is of cast steel1 tempered and polished like a chopping axe4 ,it is considerably curved1 and the workmen suit their own taste as to the degree of curvature1 by putting the tool under a log or rock1 and bending it to suit themselves4 ,it is a powerful1 strong implement1 and will cut off a root of an inch or two diameter as readily as an axe4 ,the handle is of tough ash1 and held in place by a wedge driven at the side of it1 and can be knocked out readily when the spade needs new steel1 or any repair4 ,the length of the handle is three feet eight inches1 and the diameter about one and one-fourth inches4 ,the wedge projects1 and forms a treader1 broad and firm1 on which the foot comes down1 to drive the spade into the ground4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fi4--;,,irish ,,spade4 ,we have endeavored to have the market supplied with the ,irish spades1 because1 in the hands of such ,irishmen as have used them at home1 we find them a most effective tool4 ,we are met with all sorts of reasonable theoretical objections on the part of implement sellers1 and of farmers1 who never saw an ,irish spade in use4 ,would not the tool be better if it were wider and lighter1 asks one4 ,i think it would be better if the spur1 or treader1 were movable and of iron1 so as to be put on the other side or in front1 suggests another4 ,it seems as if it would work better1 if it were straight1 adds a third4 ,would it not hold the dirt better if it were a little hollowing on the front1 queries a fourth4 ,no doubt1 we reply1 there might be a very good implement made1 wider and lighter1 without a wooden treader1 and turned up at the sides1 to hold the earth better1 but it would not be an ,irish spade when finished4 ,your theories may be all correct and demonstrable by the purest mathematics1 but the question is1 with what tool will ,patrick do the most work8 ,if he recognizes the ,irish spade as an institution of his country1 as a part of 'home1' you might as well attempt to reason him out of his faith in the ,pope1 as convince him that his spade is not perfect4 ,our man1 ,james1 believes in the infallibility of both4 ,there is no digging on the farm that his spade is not adapted to4 ,to mark out a drain in the turf by a line1 he mounts his spade with one foot1 and hops backward on the other1 with a celerity surprising to behold4 ,then he cuts the sod in squares1 and1 with a sleight of hand1 which does not come by nature1 as ,dogberry says reading and writing come1 throws out the first spit4 ,when he comes on to the gravel or hard clay1 where another man would use a pick-axe1 his heavy boot comes down upon the treader1 and drives the spade a foot or more deep2 and if a root is encountered1 a blow or two easily severs it4 ,the last foot at the bottom of the four-foot drain1 is cut out for the sole-tile only four and a half inches wide1 and the sides of the ditch are kept trimmed1 even and straight1 with the sharp steel edge4 ,and it is pleasant to hear ,james express his satisfaction with his national implement4 ,and1 sure1 we could do nothing at this job1 sir1 without the ,irish spade6 ,and1 sure1 ,i should like to see a man that will spade this hard clay with anything else1 sir6 ,on the whole1 though the ,irish spade does wonders on our farm1 we recommend it only for ,irishmen1 who know how to handle it4 ,in our own hands1 it is as awkward a thing as we ever took hold of1 and we never saw any man but an ,irishman1 who could use it gracefully and effectively4 ,bottoming ,tools4--,the only tools which are wanted of peculiar form in draining1 are such as are used in forming the narrow part of the trenches at the bottom4 ,we can get down two feet1 or even three1 with the common spade and pick-axe1 and in most kinds of drainage1 except with tiles1 it is necessary to have the bottom as wide1 at least1 as a spade4 ,in tile-draining1 the narrower the trench the better1 and in laying cylindrical pipes without collars1 the bottom of the drain should exactly fit the pipes1 to hold them in line4 ,although round pipes are generally used in ,england1 we have known none used in ,america until the past season--the sole-pipe taking their place4 ,as the sole-pipe has a flat bottom1 a different tool is required to finish its resting-place1 from that adapted to the round pipe4 ,as we have not1 however1 arrived quite at the bottom1 we will return to the tools for removing the last foot of earth4 ,and first1 we give from ,morton1 the ,birmingham spades referred to by ,mr4 ,denton1 in his letter1 quoted in this chapter4 ,they are the theoretically perfect tools for removing the last eighteen or twenty inches of soil in a four or five-foot drain4 ,mr4 ,gisborne says of the drain properly formed3 ,it is wrought in the shape of a wedge1 brought in the bottom to the narrowest limit which will admit the collar1 by tools admirably adapted to that purpose4 ,the foot of the operator is never within twenty inches of the floor of the drain2 his tools are made of iron1 plated on steel1 and never lose their sharpness1 even when worn to the stumps2 because1 as the softer material1 the iron1 wears away1 the sharp steel edge is always prominent4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gj4 ,fig4 #ga4 ,fig4 #gb4 ,,birmingham ,,spades4 ,this poetical view of digging drains1 meets us at every turn1 and we are beset with inquiries for these wonderful implements4 ,we do not intimate that ,mr4 ,gisborne1 and those who so often quote the above language1 are not reliable4 ,mr4 ,gisborne is an honorable man1 so are they all honorable men2 but we must reform our tiles1 and our land too1 most of it1 we fear1 before we can open four-foot trenches1 and lay pipes in them1 without putting a foot within twenty inches of the floor of the drain4 ,in the first place1 we have great doubt whether pipes can be laid close enough to make the joints secure without collars1 unless carefully laid by hand1 or unless they are round pipes1 rolled in the making1 when half dried1 and so made straight and even at the ends4 ,in laying such sole-pipes as we have laid1 it requires some care to adjust them1 so as to make the joints close4 ,most of them are warped in drying or burning1 so that spaces of half an inch will often be left at the top or side1 where two are laid end to end4 ,now1 if the foot never goes to the bottom of the drain1 the pipes must be laid with a hook or pipe-layer1 such as will be presently described1 which may do well for pipes and collars1 because the collar covers the joint1 so that it is of no importance if it be somewhat open4 ,again1 we know of no method of working with a pick-axe1 except by standing as low as the bottom of the work4 ,no man can pick twenty inches1 or indeed any inches1 lower than he stands1 because he must move forward in this work1 and not backward4 ,each land-owner may judge for himself1 whether his land requires the pick in its excavation4 ,in soft clays1 no doubt1 with suitable tools1 the trench may be cut a foot1 or more1 lower than the feet of the workman4 ,we have seen it done in our land1 in a sandy soil1 with the ,irish spade1 though1 as we used sole-pipes1 our pipe-layer was a live ,irishman1 who walked in the trench backwards1 putting down the pipes with his hand4 ,we are satisfied1 that the instances in which trenches may be opened a foot or two below the feet of the workmen1 are the exceptions1 and not the rule1 and that in laying sole-tiles1 the hand of a careful workman must adjust each tile in its position4 ,we have found a narrow spade1 four inches wide1 with a long handle1 a convenient tool for finishing drains for sole-tiles4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gc4 ,fig4 #gd4 ,,narrow ,,spades ,,for ,,tiles4 ,we have thoroughly tested the matter2 and in all kinds of soil1 give a decided preference to spades as broad at the point as at the heel4 ,we have used common long-handled spades1 cut down with shears at a machine-shop1 into these shapes4 ,the spade of equal width1 works much more easily in the bottom of a trench1 because its corners do not catch1 as do those of the other4 ,the pointed spade is apparently nearer the shape of the sloping ditch1 but such tools cannot be used vertically1 and when the heel of the pointed spade is lowered1 it catches in the side of the trench1 before the point reaches the bottom4 ,very strong spades1 of various width1 from three to eight inches1 and thick at the heel1 to operate as a wedge1 will be found most suitable for common use4 ,the narrowest spades should have the spur1 as shown in ,fig4 #fd1 because there is not room for the foot by the side of the handle4 ,the various tools for finishing the bottoms of drains1 as figured in ,morton1 are the following3 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ge4 ,fig4 #gf4 ,fig4 #gg4 ,fig4 #gh4 ,fig4 #gi4 ,,english ,,bottoming ,,tools4 ,the last implement1 which is a scoop for the bottom of trenches for round pipes1 is one of the tools mentioned in ,mr4 ,denton's letter1 as not being found to the taste of his workmen4 ,for scooping out our flat-bottomed trenches1 we use a tool like ,fig4 #gg4 ,for boggy land1 soft clay1 or1 indeed1 any land where water is running at the time of the excavation1 scoops like the following will be found convenient for flat bottoms4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hj4 ,fig4 #ha4 ,fig4 #hb4 ,,drawing ,,and ,,pushing ,,scoop1 ,,and ,,pipe-,,layer4 ,the pushing scoop 7,fig4 #ha71 as it is called1 may be made of a common long-handled shovel1 turned up at the sides by a blacksmith1 leaving it of the desired width4 ,the pipe-layer1 of which mention has so often been made1 is a little implement invented by ,mr4 ,parkes1 for placing round pipes and collars in narrow trenches1 without stepping into them4 ,the following sketch1 by our friend ,mr4 ,shedd1 shows the pipe-layer in use4 ,the cross section of the land1 shown in front1 represents it as having had the advantage of draining1 by which the water-table is brought to a level with the bottom of the drain1 as shown by the heavy shading4 ,an ,irish spade and a pipe-layer are shown lying on the ground4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hc4--,,pipe-,,laying4 ,the pick-axes commonly used in excavation of trenches1 are in the following forms3 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hd1 #he4--,,pick-,,axes4 ,pick-axes may be light or heavy1 according to the nature of the soil4 ,a chisel at one end1 and point at the other1 is found best in most cases4 ,a ,drain-gauge is usually mentioned in a list of draining tools4 ,it is used when ditches are designed for stone or other material than tiles1 and where the width is important4 ,in tile-draining the width is entirely immaterial4 ,if opened by the rod1 it is only important that they be of proper depth and inclination1 with the bottom wide enough for the tile4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hf4--;,,drain-,,gauge4 ,the above figure shows the usual form of the drain-gauge4 ,below1 we give from ,morton1 drawings1 and a description of ,elkington's augers for boring in the bottoms of ditches4 ,the cut annexed represents the auger employed by ,elkington1 where a b and c are different forms of the tool2 d1 a portion of the shaft3 e1 with the wedges1 h h1 the cross handle2 and f and g additional pieces for grasping the shaft1 and so enabling more than one person to work at it4 ,the auger-hole ought to be a little at one side of the drain1 as in ,fig4 #c1 at page #ce1 so that the water may not rise at right angles to the flow of water in it1 and obstruct its current4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hg4--;,,elkington',s ,,draining ,,auger4 ,illustration3 a4 ,the plug1 or point under ground1 to which the string of pipes is attached4 bb4 ,the coulter from the point up through the beam1 regulated by wheel and screw midway4 c4 ,the beam connecting the two pairs of wheels4 e4 ,drain opened by hand where pipes enter the ground4 a to e4 ,pipes under ground4 e to f4 ,pipes above ground4 g4 ,windlass or capstan1 worked by horses4 h4 ,wire rope attached to plow1 and wound round the windlass4 i4 ,pulley round which the rope runs to keep the plow in the line of the ditch4 ,,draining-,,plows ,,and ,,ditch-,,diggers4 ,the man who can invent and construct a machine that shall be capable of cutting four-foot ditches for pipe-drains1 with facility1 will deserve well of his country4 ,it is not essential that the drain be cut to its full depth at one operation4 ,if worked by oxen or horses1 it may go several times over the work1 taking out a few inches at each time4 ,if moved by a capstan1 or other slowly-operating power1 it must work more thoroughly1 so as not to consume too much time4 ,with a lever1 such as is used in ,willis's ,stump ,puller1 sufficient power for any purpose may be applied4 ,an implement like a subsoil plow1 constructed to run four feet deep1 and merely doing the work of the pick1 would be of great assistance4 ,prof4 ,mapes says he has made use of such an implement with great advantage4 ,for tile-drains1 the narrower the ditch the better1 if it be only wide enough to receive the tiles4 ,a mere slit1 four inches wide1 if straight and of even inclination at the bottom1 would be the best kind of ditch1 the pipes being laid in with a pipe-layer4 ,but if the ditch is to be finished by the machine1 it is essential that it be so contrived that it will grade the bottom1 and not leave it undulating like the surface4 ,fowler's ,drain ,plow is said to be so arranged1 by improvements since its first trials1 as to attain this object4 ,having thus briefly suggested some of the points to be kept in mind by inventors1 we will proceed to give some account of such machines as come nearest to the wants of the community4 ,fowler's ,draining-,plow would meet the largest wants of the public1 were it cheap enough1 and really reliable to perform what it is said to perform4 ,the author saw this implement in ,england1 but not in operation1 and it seems impossible1 from inspection of it1 as well as from the theory of its operation1 that it can succeed1 if at all1 in any but soft homogeneous clay4 ,the idea is1 however1 so bold1 and so much is claimed for the implement1 that some description of it seems indispensable in a work like this4 ,the pipes1 of common drain tiles1 are strung on a rope1 and this rope1 with the pipes1 is drawn through the ground1 following a plug like the foot of a subsoil plow1 leaving the pipes perfectly laid1 and the drain completed at a single operation4 7,see ,fig4 #hh47 ,the work is commenced by opening a short piece of ditch by hand1 and strings of pipes1 each about #ej feet long1 are added as the work proceeds2 and when the ditch is completed1 the rope is withdrawn4 ,when the surface is uneven1 the uniform slope is preserved by means of a wheel and screw1 which governs the plug1 or coulter1 raising or lowering it at pleasure4 ,a man upon the frame-work controls this wheel1 guided by a sight on the frame1 and a cross-staff at the end of the field4 ,drains1 #dj rods long1 are finished at one operation4 ,this plow has been carefully tested in ,england4 ,its work has been uncovered when completed1 and found perfect in every respect4 ,the great expense of the machine1 and the fact that it is only adapted to clay land free from obstructions1 has prevented its general use4 ,we cannot help believing that1 by the aid of steam1 on our prairies1 at least1 some such machine may be found practicable and economical4 ,,pratt',s ,,ditch ,,digger1 ,patented by ,pratt ,bro41 of ,canandaigua1 is attracting much attention4 ,we have not seen it in operation1 nor have we seen statements which satisfy us that it is just what is demanded4 ,it is stated1 in the ,country ,gentleman1 to be incapable of cutting a ditch more than two and a half feet deep4 ,a machine that will do so much is not to be despised2 but more than one half the digging remains of a four-foot ditch1 after two and a half feet are opened1 and we want an implement to do the lowest and worst half4 ,it is stated that1 in one instance1 a ditch1 #fj rods long1 about two feet deep1 in hard clay1 was cut with this machine1 worked by two horses1 in five hours4 ,we trust that the enterprising inventors will perfect their implement1 so that it will open drains four feet deep1 and thus meet the great want of the public4 ,it is not to be expected that any such implement can be made to operate in ground full of stones and roots2 and inventors should not be discouraged by the continual croakings of those sinister birds1 which see nothing but obstacles1 and prophecy only failure4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hi4--,,pratt',s ,,ditch ,,digger4 ,the drain plow was first introduced into ,scotland by ,m',ewan4 ,the soil in his district was mostly a strong unctuous clay1 free from stones4 ,he constructed an immense plow1 worked by #ab or #af horses1 by means of which a furrow-slice1 #af inches in depth1 was turned out2 and1 by a modification of the plow1 a second slice was removed1 to the depth1 in all1 of two feet4 ,this plow is expensive and heavy1 and incapable of working to sufficient depth4 ,mr4 ,paul1 of ,norfolk ,co41 ,england1 has lately invented an ingenious machine for cutting drains1 of which we give an elevation4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ij4--,,paul',s ,,ditching ,,machine4 ,it is worked by a chain and capstan1 by horses1 and1 of course1 may be operated by steam or lever power4 ,it is drawn forward1 and1 as it moves1 it acts as a slotting machine on the land1 the tools on the circumference of the acting-wheel taking successive bites of the soil1 each lifting a portion from the full depth to which it is desired that the trench should be cut1 and laying the earth thus removed on the surface at either side4 ,there is a lifting apparatus at the end of the machine1 by which the cutting-wheel may be raised or lowered1 according to the unevenness of the surface1 in order to secure a uniform fall in the bottom of the drain4 ,the whole process is carried on at the rate of about four feet per minute1 and it results1 on suitable soils1 in cutting a drain from three to five feet deep1 leaving it in a finished state1 with a level bottom for the tiles to rest upon4 ,we give the cut and statement from the ,cyclopaedia of ,agriculture1 and if the machine shall prove what it is represented to be1 we see but little more to be desired in a ditching machine4 ,the principle of this implement appears to us to be the correct one1 and we see no reason to doubt the statement of its performance4 ,routt's drain plow is designed for surface-draining merely4 ,we give1 from the ,new ,england ,farmer1 a statement of its merits1 as detailed by a correspondent who saw it at the exhibition of the ,u4 ,s4 ,agricultural ,society at ,richmond1 in #aheh3 ,one of the most attractive implements on the ,fair ground1 to the farmer1 was ,a4 ,p4 ,routt's patent drain plow4 ,this implement makes a furrow a foot deep1 two feet and a half wide at the top1 and four inches wide at the bottom1 the sides sloping at such an angle as to insure the drain from falling in by the frost1 the whole being perfectly completed at one operation by this plow1 or tool4 ,those who have tried it say it is the very thing for surface-draining1 which1 on wet lands1 is certainly very beneficial where under-draining has not been done4 ,the manufacturer resides in ,somerset1 ,orange ,county1 ,va4 ,the plow is so made that it opens a deep furrow1 turning both to the right and left1 and is followed by a heavy iron roller that hardens the earth1 both on the sides and the bottom of the surface-drain1 thus doing very handsome work4 ,the price1 as heretofore stated1 is #be1 and with it1 a man can1 with a good pair of team horses1 surface-drain #fj acres of land a day4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,practical ,,directions ,,for ,,opening ,,drains ,,and ,,laying ,,tiles4 ,begin at the ,outlet4--,use of ,plows4--,levelling the ,bottom4--,where to begin to lay ,pipes4--,mode of ,procedure4--,covering ,pipes4--,securing ,joints4--,filling4--,securing ,outlets4--,plans4 ,in former chapters1 we have spoken minutely of the arrangement1 depth1 distance1 and width of drains2 and in treating of tools for drainage1 we have sufficiently described the use of levelling instruments and of the various digging tools4 ,we assume here1 that the engineering has been already done1 and that the whole system has been carefully staked out1 so that every main1 sub-main1 and minor is distinctly located1 and the fall accurately ascertained4 ,until so much has been accomplished1 we are unprepared to put the first spade into the ground4 ,we propose to give our own experience as to the convenient method of procedure1 with such suggestions as occur to us1 for those who are differently situated from ourselves4 ,the work of excavation must begin at the outlet1 so that whatever water is met with1 may pass readily away2 and the outlet must be kept always low enough for this purpose4 ,if there is considerable fall1 it may not be best to deepen the lower end of the main to its full extent1 at first1 because the main1 though first opened1 must be the last in which the pipes are laid1 and may cave in1 if unnecessarily deep at first4 ,in many cases there is fall enough1 so that the upper minors may be laid and find sufficient fall1 before the lower end of the main is half opened4 ,with a garden line drawn straight1 mark out the drain1 with a sharp spade1 on both sides1 and remove the turf4 ,if it is desired to use the turf for covering the pipes1 or to replace it over the drains1 when finished1 it should at first be placed in heaps outside the line of the earth to be thrown out4 ,a plow is used sometimes to turn out the sod and soil2 but we have few plowmen who can go straight enough2 and in plowing1 the soil is left too near to the ditch for convenience1 and the turf is torn in pieces and buried1 so as not to be fit for use4 ,usually1 it will be found convenient to remove the turf1 if there be any1 with a spade1 by a line4 ,then1 a plow may be used for turning out the next spit1 and the drain may be kept straight1 which is indispensable to good work4 ,a good ditching-machine is1 of course1 the thing needful2 but we are endeavoring in these directions to do our best without it4 ,we have opened our own trenches entirely by hand labor1 finding laborers more convenient than oxen or horses1 and no more expensive4 ,many have used the plow in the first foot or two of the cutting1 but it is not here the first step which costs1 but the later steps4 ,after the first foot is removed1 if the ground be hard1 a pick or subsoil plow must be used4 ,a subsoil plow1 properly constructed1 may be made very useful in breaking up the subsoil1 though there is a difficulty in working cattle astride of a deep ditch1 encumbered with banks of earth4 ,a friend of ours used1 in opening drains1 a large bull in single harness1 trained to walk in the ditch2 but the width of a big bull is a somewhat larger pattern for a drain1 than will be found economical4 ,the ingenuity of farmers in the use of a pair of heavy wheels1 with a chain attached to the axle1 so that the cattle may both walk on one side of the ditch1 or by the use of long double-trees1 so that horses may go outside the banks of earth1 will generally be found sufficient to make the most of their means4 ,it will be found convenient to place the soil at one side1 and the subsoil at the other1 for convenience in returning both right side up to their places4 ,having worked down to the depth of two feet or more1 the ditch should be too narrow for the use of common spades1 and the narrow tools already described will be found useful4 ,the ,irish spade1 on our own fields1 is in use from the first to the last of the excavation2 and at three feet depth1 we have our trench but about six inches in width1 and at the bottom1 at four feet depth1 it is but four inches--just wide enough for the laborer to stand in it1 with one foot before the other4 ,having excavated to nearly our depth1 we use the lines1 as described in another place1 for levelling1 and the men working under them1 grade the bottom as accurately as possible4 ,if flat-bottomed tiles are used1 the ditch is ready for them4 ,if round pipes are used1 a round bottoming tool must be used to form a semi-circular groove in which the pipes are to lie4 ,we have not forgotten that ,english drainers tell us of tools and their use1 whereby drains may be open twenty inches lower than the feet of the workman2 but we have never chanced to see that operation1 and are skeptical as to the fact that work can thus be performed economically1 except in very peculiar soils4 ,that such a crack may be thus opened1 is not doubted2 but we conceive of no means by which earth1 that requires the pick1 can be moved to advantage1 without the workman standing as low as his work4 ,having opened the main1 and finished1 as we have described1 the minor which enters the main at its highest point1 we are ready to lay the tiles4 ,by first laying the upper drain1 it will be seen that we may finish and secure our work to the junction of the first minor with its main4 ,convey the pipes by wagon or otherwise1 as is convenient1 to the side of the ditch where the soil lies1 and where there is least earth1 and lay them close to the edge of the ditch1 end to end the whole way1 discarding all imperfect pieces4 ,if it is designed to use gravel1 turf1 or other covering for the pipes1 lay it also in heaps along the trench4 ,then place the first pipe at the upper end of the ditch1 with a brick or stone against its upper end1 to exclude earth4 ,we have heretofore used sole-tiles1 with flat bottoms1 and have found that a thin chip of wood1 not an eighth of an inch thick1 and four by two inches in size1 such as may be found at shoe shops in ,new ,england1 assists very much in securing an even bearing for the tiles4 ,it is placed so that the ends of two tiles rest on it1 and serves to keep them in line till secured by the earth4 ,a man walking backward in the ditch1 takes the tiles from the bank1 carefully adjusting them in line and so as to make good joints1 and he can lay half a mile or more in a day1 if the bottom is well graded4 ,another should follow on the bank1 throwing in a shovel full of gravel or tan1 if either is used1 upon the joint4 ,if turf is to be used to secure the joint1 pieces should be cut thin and narrow1 and laid along the bank1 and the man in the ditch must secure each joint as he proceeds4 ,it will be found to cost twice the labor1 at least1 to use turf1 as it is to use gravel or tan1 if they are at hand4 ,if the soil be clay1 we do not believe it is best to return it directly upon the tiles1 because it is liable to puddle and stop the joint1 and then to crack and admit silt at the joint1 while gravel is not thus affected4 ,we prefer to place the top soil of clay land1 next the pipes1 rather than the clay in the condition in which it is usually found4 ,as to small stones above the pipes1 we should decidedly object to them4 ,they are unnecessary to the operation of the drain1 and they allow the water to come in1 in currents1 on to the top of the pipes1 in heavy storms or showers1 and so endanger their security4 ,the practice of placing stones above the tiles is abandoned by all scientific drainers4 ,we have1 in ,england1 seen straw placed over the joints of pipes1 but it seems an inconvenient and insecure practice4 ,long straw cannot be well placed in such narrow openings1 and it is likely to sustain the earth enough1 so that when thrown in1 it will not settle equally around the pipes2 whereas a shovelfull of gravel or other earth sifted in carefully1 will at once fasten them in place4 ,having laid and partially covered the first or upper drain1 proceed with the next in the same way1 laying and securing the main or sub-main1 at the same time1 to each intersection1 thus carrying the work from the highest point down towards the outlet4 ,after sufficient earth has been thrown in to make the work safe against accidents by rain1 or caving in of earth1 the filling may be completed at leisure4 ,mr4 ,johnston1 of ,geneva1 uses for this purpose a plow1 having a double-tree nine and a half feet long1 to enable a horse to go on each side of the ditch4 ,we suggest that a side-hill plow might well enough be used with horses tandem1 or with oxen and cart wheels and draughts4 ,the filling1 however1 will be found a small matter1 compared with the digging4 ,in laying pipes in narrow trenches1 a tool called a pipe-layer is sometimes used1 a cut of which1 showing its mode of use1 may be found in another place4 ,in filling drains where the soil is partly clay1 and partly sand or gravel1 we recommend that the clay be placed in the upper part of the drain1 so as to prevent water from passing directly down upon the pipes1 by which they are frequently displaced as soon as laid4 ,if the work is completed in ,autumn1 it is well to turn two or three furrows from each side on to the drains1 so as to raise the surface there1 and prevent water from cutting out the ditch1 or standing above it4 ,if the land is plowed in ,autumn1 it is best to back-furrow on to the drains1 leaving dead furrows half way between them1 the first season4 ,as to the importance of securing the outlets1 and the manner of doing it1 we have spoken particularly elsewhere4 ,and here1 again1 we will remind the beginner1 of the necessity of making and preserving accurate plans of the work1 so that every drain may be at any time found by measurement4 ,after a single rotation1 it is frequently utterly impossible to perceive upon the surface any indication of the line of the drains4 ,in this connection1 it may be well perhaps to remind the reader1 that whatever arrangements are made as to silt-basins1 or peep-holes1 must be included in the general plan1 and executed as the work proceeds4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,effects ,,of ,,drainage ,,upon ,,the ,,condition ,,of ,,the ,,soil4 ,drainage deepens the ,soil1 and gives the roots a larger pasture4--,cobbett's ,lucerne #cj feet deep4--,mechi's ,parsnips #ac feet long6--,drainage promotes ,pulverization4--,prevents ,surface-,washing4--,lengthens the ,season4--,prevents ,freezing out4--,dispenses with ,open ,ditches4--,saves #be per cent4 of ,labor4--,promotes absorption of ,fertilizing ,substances from the ,air4--,supplies ,air to the ,roots4--,drains run before ,rain2 so do some ,springs4--,drainage warms the ,soil4--,corn sprouts at #ee deg42 ,rye on ,ice4--,cold from ,evaporation4--,heat will not pass downward in ,water4--,count ,rumford's ,experiments with ,hot ,water on ,ice4--,aeration of ,soil by ,drains4 ,the benefits which high-lands1 as we ordinarily call them1 in distinction from swamp or flowed lands1 derive from drainage1 may be arranged in two classes1 mechanical and chemical2 though it is not easy1 nor1 indeed1 is it important1 to maintain this distinction in all points4 ,among those which partake rather of the nature of mechanical changes1 are the following3 ,drainage deepens the soil4 ,every one who has attempted to raise deep-rooted vegetables upon half-drained swamp-land1 has observed the utter impossibility of inducing them to extend downward their usual length4 ,parsnips and carrots1 on such land1 frequently grow large at the top1 but divide into numerous small fibres just below the surface1 and spread in all directions4 ,no root1 except those of aquatic plants1 will grow in stagnant water4 ,if1 therefore1 it is of any advantage to have a deep1 rather than a shallow soil1 it is manifestly necessary1 from this consideration alone1 to lower the line of standing water1 at least1 to the extent to which the roots of our cultivated crops descend4 ,a deep soil is better than a shallow one1 because it furnishes a more extensive feeding-ground for the roots4 ,the elements of nutrition1 which the plant finds in the soil1 are not all upon the surface4 ,many of them are washed down by the rains into the subsoil1 and some are found in the decomposing rocks themselves4 ,these1 the plants1 by a sort of instinct1 search out and find1 as well in the depths of the earth as at its surface1 if no obstacle opposes4 ,by striking deep roots again1 the plants stand more firmly in the earth1 so that they are not so readily drawn out1 or shaken by the winds4 ,indeed1 every one knows that a soil two feet deep is better than one a foot deep2 and market-gardeners and nursery-men show1 by their practice1 that they know1 if others do not1 that a trenched soil three feet deep is better than one of any less depth4 ,we all know that ,indian corn1 in a dry soil1 sends down its rootlets two feet or more1 as well as most of the grasses4 ,cobbett says3 ,the lucerne will send its roots thirty feet into a dry bottom6 ,the ,chinese yam1 recently introduced1 grows downward two or three feet4 ,the digging of an acre of such a crop1 by the way1 on ,new ,england soil generally1 would require a corps of sappers and miners1 especially when we consider that the yam grows largest end downward4 ,however1 the yam may prove a valuable acquisition to the country4 ,every inch of additional soil gives #ajj tons of active soil per acre4 ,says ,mr4 ,denton3 ,i have evidence now before me1 that the roots of the wheat plant1 the mangold wurzel1 the cabbage1 and the white turnip1 frequently descend into the soil to the depth of three feet4 ,i have myself traced the roots of wheat nine feet deep4 ,i have discovered the roots of perennial grasses in drains four feet deep2 and ,i may refer to ,mr4 ,mercer1 of ,newton1 in ,lancashire1 who has traced the roots of rye grass running for many feet along a small pipe-drain1 after descending four feet through the soil4 ,mr4 ,hetley1 of ,orton1 assures me that he discovered the roots of the mangolds1 in a recently made drain1 five feet deep2 and the late ,sir ,john ,conroy had many newly-made drains1 four feet deep1 stopped by the roots of the same plants4 ,mr4 ,sheriff ,mechi's parsnips1 however1 distance anything in the way of deep rooting that has yet been recorded4 ,the ,sheriff is a very deep drainer1 and an enthusiast in agriculture1 and ,nature seems to delight to humor his tastes1 by performing a great many experiments at his famous place called ,tiptree ,hall4 ,he stated1 at a public meeting1 that1 in his neighborhood1 where a crop of parsnips was growing on the edge of a clay pit1 the roots were observed to descend #ac feet #f inches2 in fact1 the whole depth to which this pit had once been filled up6 ,drainage assists pulverization4 ,it was ,tull's theory that1 by the comminution1 or minute division1 of soils alone1 without the application of any manures1 their fertility might be permanently maintained2 and he so far supported this theory as1 by repeated plowings1 to produce twelve successive crops of wheat on the same land1 without manure4 ,the theory has received support from the known fact1 that most soils are benefitted by ,summer fallowing4 ,the experiments instituted for the purpose of establishing this theory1 although they disproved it1 showed the great value of thorough pulverization4 ,it is manifest that a wet soil can never be pulverized4 ,plowing clayey1 or even loamy soil1 when wet1 tends rather to press it together1 and render it less pervious to air and water4 ,the first effect of under-draining is to dry the surface-soil1 to draw out all the water that will run out of it1 so that1 in early ,spring1 or in ,autumn1 it may be worked with the plow as advantageously as undrained lands in mid-,summer4 ,striking illustrations of the benefits of thorough pulverization will be found in the excellent remarks of ,dr4 ,madden1 given in a subsequent chapter4 ,drainage prevents surface-washing4 ,all land which is not level1 and is not in grass1 is liable to great loss by heavy rains in ,spring and ,autumn4 ,if the land is already filled with water1 or has not sufficient drainage1 the rain cannot pass directly downward1 but runs away upon the surface1 carrying with it much of the soil1 and washing out of what remains1 of the valuable elements of fertility which have been applied with such expense4 ,if the land be properly drained1 the water falling from the clouds is at once absorbed1 and passes downwards1 saturating the soil in its descent1 and carrying the soluble substances with it to the roots1 and the surplus water runs away in the artificial channels provided by the draining process4 ,so great is the absorbent power of drained land1 that1 after a protracted drought1 all the water of a heavy rainstorm will be drunk up and held by the soil1 so that1 for a day or two1 none will find its way to the drains1 nor will it run upon the surface4 ,drainage lengthens the season for labor and vegetation4 ,in the colder latitudes of our country1 where a long ,winter is succeeded by a torrid ,summer1 with very little ceremony by way of an intervening ,spring1 farmers have need of all their energy to get their seed seasonably into the ground4 ,snow often covers the fields in ,new ,england into ,april2 and the ground is so saturated with water1 that the land designed for corn and potatoes1 frequently cannot be plowed till late in ,may4 ,the manure is to be hauled from the cellar or yard1 over land lifted and softened by frost1 and all the processes of preparing and planting1 are necessarily hurried and imperfect4 ,in the ,annual ,report of the ,secretary of the ,board of ,agriculture1 of the ,state of ,maine1 for #ahef1 a good illustration of this idea is given3 ,mr4 ,b4 ,f4 ,nourse1 of ,orrington1 plowed and planted with corn a piece of his drained and subsoiled land1 in a drizzling rain1 after a storm of two days4 ,the corn came up and grew well2 yet this was a clayey loam1 formerly as wet as the adjoining grass-field1 upon which oxen and carts could not pass1 on the day of this planting1 without cutting through the turf and miring deeply4 ,the nearest neighbor said1 if he had planted that day1 it must have been from a raft4 ,probably two weeks would be gained in ,new ,england1 in ,spring1 in which to prepare for planting1 by thorough-drainage1 a gain1 which no one can appreciate but a ,new ,england man1 who has been obliged often to plow his land when too wet1 to cut it up and overwork his team1 in hauling on his manure over soft ground1 and finally to plant as late as the #fth of ,june1 or leave his manure to waste1 and lose the use of his field till another season2 and all because of a surplus of cold water4 ,mr4 ,yeomans1 of ,new ,york1 in a published statement of his experience in draining1 says1 that on his drained lands1 the ground becomes almost as dry in two or three days after the frost comes out in ,spring1 or after a heavy rain1 as it would do in as many weeks1 before draining4 ,but the gain of time for labor is not all4 ,we gain time also for vegetation1 by thorough-drainage4 ,ten days1 frequently1 in ,new ,england1 may be the security of our corn-crop against frost4 ,in less than that time1 a whole field passes from the milky stage1 when a slight frost would ruin it1 to the glazed stage1 when it is safe from cold2 and twice ten days of warm season are added by this removal of surplus water4 ,drainage prevents freezing out4 ,mr4 ,john ,johnston1 of ,seneca ,county1 ,new ,york1 in #ahea1 had already made sixteen miles of tile drains4 ,he had been experimenting with tiles from #ahce1 and had1 on four acres of his drained clayey land1 raised the largest crop of ,indian corn ever produced in that county--eighty-three bushels of shelled corn to the acre4 ,he states1 that on this clayey soil1 when laid down to grass1 not one square foot of the clover froze out4 ,again he says1 ,heretofore1 many acres of wheat were lost on the upland by freezing out1 and none would grow on the lowlands4 ,now there is no loss from that cause4 ,the growing of ,winter wheat has been entirely abandoned in some localities on account of freezing out1 or ,winter-killing2 and one of the worst obstacles in the way of getting our lands into grass1 and keeping them so1 is this very difficulty of freezing out4 ,the operation seems to be merely this3 ,the soil is pulverized only to the depth of the plow1 some six or eight inches4 ,below this is a stratum of clay1 nearly impervious to water4 ,the ,autumn rains saturate the surface soil1 which absorbs water like a sponge4 ,the ground is suddenly frozen2 the water contained in it crystallizes into ice2 and the soil is thrown up into spicules1 or honey-combs2 and the poor clover roots1 or wheat plants1 are drawn from their beds1 and1 by a few repetitions of the process1 left dead on the field in ,spring4 ,draining1 followed by subsoiling1 lets down the falling water at once through the soil1 leaving the root bed of the plants so free from moisture1 that the earth is not heaved1 as the term is1 and the plants retain their natural position1 and awaken refreshed in the ,spring by their ,winter's repose4 ,there are no open ditches on under-drained land4 ,an open ditch in a tillage or mowing-field1 is an abomination4 ,it compels us1 in plowing1 to stop1 perhaps midway in our field2 to make short lands2 to leave headlands inconvenient to cultivate2 and so to waste our time and strength in turning the team1 and treading up the ground1 instead of profitably employing it in drawing a long and handsome furrow the whole length of the field1 as we might do were there no ditch4 ,open ditches1 as usually made1 obstruct the movement of our teams as much as fences1 and a farm cut into squares by ditches1 is nearly as objectionable as a farm fenced off into half or quarter-acre fields4 ,in haying1 we have the same inconvenience4 ,we must turn the mowing-machine and horse-rake at the ditch1 and finish by hand-labor1 the work on its banks2 we must construct bridges at frequent intervals1 and then go out of our way to cross them with loads1 cutting up the smooth fields with wheels and the feet of animals4 ,or1 what is a familiar scene1 when a shower is coming up1 and the load is ready1 ,patrick concludes to drive straight to the barn1 across the ditch1 and gets his team mired1 upsets his load1 and perhaps breaks the leg of an animal1 besides swearing more than half a mile of hard ditching will expiate4 ,such accidents are a great temptation to profanity1 and under-draining might properly be reckoned a moral agent1 to counteract such traps and pitfalls of the great adversary4 ,a moment's thought will satisfy any farmer who has the means1 that true economy dictates a liberal expenditure of labor1 at once1 to obviate these difficulties1 rather than be subject for a lifetime to the constant petty annoyances which have been named4 ,open ditches1 even when formed so skillfully that they may be conveniently crossed1 or water-furrows which remain where land is laid into ridges by back-furrowing1 as much of our flat land must be1 if not under-drained1 are serious obstructions1 at the best4 ,they render the soil unequal in depth1 taking it from one point where it is wanted1 and heaping it upon another where it is not wanted1 thus giving the crops an uneven growth4 ,they render the soil also unequal in respect to moisture1 because the back or top of the ridge must always be drier than the furrow4 ,thorough-drained land may be laid perfectly flat1 giving us1 thus1 the control of the whole field1 to divide and cultivate according to convenience1 and making it of uniform texture and temperature4 ,attempts have been made1 to estimate the saving in the number of horses and men by drainage1 and it is thought to be a reasonable calculation to fix it at one in four1 or twenty-five per cent4 ,it probably will strike any farmer as a fair estimate1 that1 on land which needs drainage1 it will require four horses and four men to perform the same amount of cultivation1 that three men and three horses may perform on the same land well drained4 ,drained land will not require re-planting4 ,there is hardly a farmer in ,new ,england1 who does not1 each ,spring1 find himself compelled to re-plant some portion of his crop4 ,he is obliged to hurry his seed into the ground1 at the earliest day1 because our season for planting is short at the best4 ,if1 after this1 a long cold storm comes1 on wet land1 the seed rots in the ground1 and he must plant again1 often too late1 incurring thus the loss of the seed1 the labor of twice doing the same work1 the interruption of his regular plan of business1 and often the partial failure of his crop4 ,upon thorough-drained land1 this cost and labor could rarely be experienced1 because nothing short of a small deluge could saturate well drained land1 so as to cause the seed to fail1 if sowed or planted with ordinary care and prudence1 as to the season4 ,drained land is lighter to work4 ,it is often difficult to find a day in the year1 when a wet piece of land is in suitable condition to plow4 ,usually1 such tracts are unequal1 some parts being much wetter than others1 because the water settles into the low places4 ,in such fields1 we now drive our team knee deep into soft mud1 and find a stream of water following us in the furrow1 and now we rise upon a knoll1 baked hard1 and sun-cracked2 and one half the surface when finished is shining with the plastered mud1 ready to dry into the consistency of bricks1 while the other is already in hard dry lumps1 like paving stones1 and about as easily pulverized4 ,this is hard work for the team and men1 hard in the plowing1 and hard through the whole rotation4 ,the same field1 well drained1 is friable and porous1 and uniform in texture4 ,it may be well plowed and readily pulverized1 if taken in hand at any reasonable season4 ,land which has been puddled by the tread of cattle1 or by wheels1 acquires a peculiar consistency1 and a singular capacity to hold water4 ,certain clays are wet and beaten up into this consistency1 to form the bottoms of ponds1 and to tighten dams and reservoirs4 ,a soil thus puddled1 requires careful treatment to again render it permeable to water1 and fit for cultivation4 ,this puddling process is constantly going on1 under the feet of cattle1 under the plow and the cart-wheels1 wherever land containing clay is worked upon in a wet state4 ,thus1 by performing a day's work on wet land1 we often render necessary as much additional labor as we perform1 to cure the evil we have done4 ,we may haul loads without injury on drained land4 ,on many farms1 it is difficult to select a season for hauling out manure1 or carting stones from place to place1 when great injury is not done to some part of the land by the operation4 ,many farmers haul out their manure in ,winter1 to avoid cutting up their farms2 admitting that the manure is wasted somewhat by the exposure1 but1 on the whole1 choosing this loss as the lesser evil4 ,in spreading manure in ,spring1 we are often obliged to carry half loads1 because the land is soft1 not only to spare our beasts1 but also to spare our land the injury by treading it4 ,drained land is comparatively solid1 especially in ,spring1 and will bear up heavy loads with little injury4 ,drained land is least injured by cattle in feeding4 ,whether it is good husbandry to feed our mowing fields at any time1 is a question upon which farmers have a right to differ4 ,without discussing the question1 it is enough for our purpose1 that most farmers feed their fields late in the ,autumn4 ,whether we approve it1 or not1 when the pastures are bare and burnt up1 and the second crop in the home-field is so rich and tempting1 and the women are complaining that the cows give no milk1 we usually bow to the necessity of the time1 and turn in the cows4 ,the great injury of ,fall-feeding is not usually so much the loss of the grass-covering from the field1 as the poaching of the soil and destruction of the roots by treading4 ,a hard upland field is much less injured by feeding1 than a low meadow1 and the latter less in a dry than a wet season4 ,by drainage1 the surplus water is taken from the field4 ,none can stand upon its surface for a day after the rain ceases4 ,the soil is compact1 and the hoofs of cattle make little impression upon it1 and the second or third crop may be fed off1 with comparatively little damage4 ,weeds are easily destroyed on drained land4 ,if a weed be dug or pulled up from land that is wet and sticky1 it is likely to strike root and grow again1 because earth adheres to its roots2 whereas1 a stroke of the hoe entirely separates the weeds in friable soil from the earth1 and they die at once4 ,every farmer knows the different effect of hoeing1 or of cultivating with the horse-hoe or harrow1 in a rain storm and in dry weather4 ,in one case1 the weeds are rather refreshed by the stirring1 and1 in the other1 they are destroyed4 ,the difference between the surface of drained land and water-soaked land is much the same as that between land in dry weather under good cultivation1 and land just saturated by rain4 ,again1 there are many noxious weeds1 such as wild grasses1 which thrive only on wet land1 and which are difficult to exterminate1 and which give us no trouble after the land is lightened and sweetened by drainage4 ,among the effects of drainage1 mainly of a chemical nature1 on the soil1 are the following3 ,drainage promotes absorption of fertilizing substances from the air4 ,the atmosphere bears upon its bosom1 not only the oxygen essential to the vitality of plants1 not only water in the form of vapor1 to quench their thirst in ,summer droughts1 but also various substances1 which rise in exhalations from the sea1 from decomposing animals and vegetables1 from the breathing of all living creatures1 from combustion1 and a thousand other causes4 ,these would be sufficient to corrupt the very air1 and render it unfit for respiration1 did not ,nature1 with her wondrous laws of compensation1 provide for its purification4 ,it has already been stated1 how the atmosphere returns to the hills1 in clouds and vapor1 condensed at last to rain1 all the water which the rivers carry to the sea2 and how the well-drained soil derives moisture1 in severest time of need1 from its contact with the vapor-loaded air4 ,but the rain and dew return not their waters to the earth without treasures of fertility4 ,ammonia1 which is one of the most valuable substances found in farm-yard manures1 and which is a constant result of decomposition1 is absorbed in almost incredible quantities by water4 ,about #ghj times its own bulk of ammonia is readily absorbed by water at the common temperature and pressure of the atmosphere2 and1 freighted thus with treasures for the fields1 the moisture of the atmosphere descends upon the earth4 ,the rain cleanses the air of its impurities1 and conveys them to the plants4 ,the vapors of the marshes1 and of the exposed manure heaps of the thriftless farmer1 are gently wafted to the well-drained fields of his neighbor1 and there1 amidst the roots of the well-tilled crops1 deposit1 at the same time1 their moisture and fertilizing wealth4 ,of the wonderful power of the soil to absorb moisture1 both from the heavens above and the earth beneath--by the deposition of dew1 as well as by attraction--we shall treat more fully in another chapter4 ,it will be found to be intimately connected with the present topic4 ,thorough drainage supplies air to the roots4 ,plants1 if they do not breathe like animals1 require for their life almost the same constant supply of air4 ,all plants1 says ,liebig1 die in soils and water destitute of oxygen2 absence of air acts exactly in the same manner as an excess of carbonic acid4 ,stagnant water on a marshy soil excludes air1 but a renewal of water has the same effect as a renewal of air1 because water contains it in solution4 ,when the water is withdrawn from a marsh1 free access is given to the air1 and the marsh is changed into a fruitful meadow4 ,animal and vegetable matter do not decay1 or decompose1 so as to furnish food for plants1 unless freely supplied with oxygen1 which they must obtain from air4 ,a slight quantity of air1 however1 is sufficient for putrefaction1 which is a powerful deoxydizing process that extracts oxygen even from the roots of plants4 ,we are accustomed to think of the earth as a compact body of matter1 vast and inert2 subject1 indeed1 to be upheaved and rent by volcanoes and earthquakes1 but as quite insensible to slight influences which operate upon living beings and upon vegetation4 ,this1 however1 is a great mistake2 and it may be interesting to refer to one or two facts1 which illustrate the wonderful effect of changes of the atmosphere upon the soil1 and upon the subterranean currents of the earth4 ,the following is from remarks by ,mr4 ,denton1 in a public address3 ,but1 as a proof of the sensibility of a soil drained four feet deep1 to atmospheric changes1 ,i may mention1 that my attention has been1 on more than one occasion1 called to the circumstance that drains have been observed to run1 after a discontinuance of that duty1 without any fall of rain on the surface of the drained land2 and1 upon reference to the barometer1 it has been found that the quicksilver has fallen whenever this has occurred4 ,mr4 ,george ,beaumont1 jun41 who first afforded tangible evidence of this extraordinary circumstance1 has permitted me to read the following extracts of his letter3 ',i can verify the case of the drains running without rain1 during a falling barometer1 beyond all doubt4 ',the case ,i named to you last year of the barometer falling four days consecutively1 and with rapidity1 was a peculiarly favorable time for noticing it1 as it occurred in a dry time1 and the drains could be seen distinctly4 ,my man1 on being questioned and cautioned by me not to exaggerate1 has declared the actual stream of water issuing from one particular drain to be as thick as a three-eighth-inch wire4 ,all the drains ran--they did more than drop--and ditches1 which were previously dry1 became quite wet1 with a perceptible stream of water2 this gradually ceased with the change in the density of the atmosphere1 as shown by the barometer4 ',during last harvest1 #ahee1 the men were cutting wheat1 and on getting near to a drain outlet1 the ditch from the outlet downwards was observed to be wet1 and the drain was dripping4 ,no rain fell in sufficient quantity to enter the ground4 ,the men drank of the water while they were cutting the wheat4 ,a few days after1 it was dry again4 ,i have seen and noticed this phenomenon myself4' ,a correspondent of the ,agricultural ,gazette has stated1 that ,professor ,brocklesby1 of ,hartford1 in ,america1 had observed the same phenomena1 in the case of two springs in that country2 and explained1 that the cause was 'the diminished atmospheric pressure which exists before a rain4' ,dr4 ,lardner states many facts which support the ideas above suggested4 ,in his lectures on science1 he says3 ,when storms are breaking in the heavens1 and sometimes long before their commencement1 and when their approach has not yet been manifested by any appearances in the firmament1 phenomena are observed1 apparently sympathetic1 proceeding from the deep recesses of the earth1 and exhibited under very various forms at its surface4 ,dr4 ,lardner cites many instances of fountains which1 when a storm is approaching1 burst forth with a violent flow of water1 before any rain has fallen4 ,the cases named by ,prof4 ,brocklesby1 referred to by ,mr4 ,denton1 are those of a spring in ,rutland1 ,vermont1 and a brook in ,concord1 ,massachusetts4 ,prof4 ,brocklesby states1 as the result of his personal observation1 that the spring referred to1 supplies an aqueduct2 that1 in several instances1 when the spring had become so low1 in a time of drought1 that no water ran in the aqueduct1 it suddenly rose so as to fill the pipes1 and furnish a supply of water1 before any rain had fallen in the neighborhood4 ,this occurrence1 he says1 was familiar to the occupants of the premises1 and they expected rain in a few days after this mysterious flow of water2 which expectations were usually1 if not always1 realized4 ,the other instance is that of a brook in ,concord1 ,mass41 called ,dodge's brook1 which ,prof4 ,b4 says1 he was informed1 commenced frequently to rise very perceptibly before a drop of rain had fallen4 ,we have inquired of our friends in ,concord about this matter1 and find that this opinion is entertained by many of the people who live near this brook1 and it is probably well founded1 though we cannot ascertain that accurate observations have been made1 so as to afford any definite results4 ,thorough drainage warms the soil4 ,it has been stated1 on high authority1 that drainage raises the temperature of the soil1 often as much as #ae deg4 ,f4 ,indian corn vegetates at about #ee deg44 ,at #de deg41 the seed would rot in the ground1 without vegetating4 ,the writer1 however1 has seen rye sprouted upon ice in an ice-house1 with roots two inches long1 so grown to the ice that they could only be separated by thawing4 ,winter rye1 no doubt1 makes considerable growth under snow4 ,cultivated plants1 in general1 however1 do not grow at all1 unless the soil be raised above #de deg44 ,the sun has great power to warm dry soils1 and1 it is said1 will often raise their temperature to #ij deg4 or #ajj deg41 when the air in the shade is only #fj deg4 or #gj deg44 ,but the sun has no such power to warm a wet soil1 and for several reasons1 which are as follows3 #a4 ,the soil is rendered cold by evaporation4 ,if water cannot pass through the land by drainage1 either natural or artificial1 it must escape1 if at all1 at the surface1 by evaporation4 ,now1 it is a fact well known1 that the heat disappears1 or becomes latent1 by the conversion of water into vapor4 ,every child knows this1 practically1 at least1 who1 in ,winter1 has washed his hands and gone out without drying them4 ,the same evaporation which thus affects the hands1 renders the land cold1 when filled with water1 every gallon of which thus carried off requires1 and actually carries off1 as much heat as would raise five and a half gallons of water from the freezing to the boiling point4 ,morton1 in his ,encyclopaedia of ,agriculture1 estimates that it would require an expenditure of nearly #a1bjj pounds of coal per day1 to evaporate artificially one half the rain which falls on an acre during the year4 ,in other words1 about #bai tons of coals annually1 would be required for every acre of undrained land1 so as to allow the free use of the sun's rays for the legitimate purpose of growing and maturing the crops cultivated upon it4 ,it will not then be surprising that undrained soils are1 in the language of the farmer1 cold4 #b4 ,heat will not pass downward in water4 ,if1 therefore1 your soil be saturated with water1 the heat of the sun1 in ,spring1 cannot warm it1 and your plowing and planting must be late1 and your crop a failure4 ,count ,rumford tried many experiments to illustrate the mode of the propagation of heat in fluids1 and his conclusion1 it is presumed1 is now held to be the true theory1 that heat is transmitted in water only by the motion of the particles of water2 so that1 if you could stop the heated particles from rising1 water could not be warmed except where it touches the vessel containing it4 ,heat applied to the bottom of a vessel of water warms the particles in contact with the vessel1 and colder particles descend1 and so the whole is warmed4 ,heat1 applied to the surface of the water1 can never warm it1 except so far as it is conducted downward by some other medium than the water itself4 ,count ,rumford confined cakes of ice in the bottom of glass jars1 and1 covering it with one thickness of paper1 poured boiling-hot water on the top of it1 and there it remained for hours without melting the ice4 ,the paper was placed over the ice1 so that the hot water could not be poured on it1 which would have thawed it at once4 ,every man who has poured hot water into a frozen pump1 hoping to thaw out the ice by this means1 has arrived at the fact1 if not at the theory1 that ice will not melt by hot water on the top of it4 ,if1 however1 a piece of lead pipe be placed in the pump1 resting on the ice1 and hot water be poured through it1 the ice will melt at once4 ,in the first instance1 the hot water in contact with the ice becomes cold2 and there it remains1 because cold water is heavier than warm1 and there it will remain1 though the top be boiling4 ,but when hot water is poured through the pipe1 the downward current drives away the cold water1 and brings heated particles in succession to the ice4 ,heat is propagated in water1 then1 only by circulation2 that is1 by the upward movement of the heated particles1 and the downward movement of the colder ones to take their place4 ,anything which obstructs circulation1 prevents the passage of heat4 ,chocolate retains heat longer than tea1 because it is thicker1 and the hot particles cannot so readily rise to be cooled at the surface4 ,count ,rumford illustrated this fact satisfactorily1 by putting eider-down into water1 which was found to obstruct the circulation1 and to prevent the rapid heating and cooling of it4 ,the same is true of all viscous substances1 as starch and glue2 and so of oil4 ,they retain heat much longer than water or spirits4 ,in a soil saturated with water1 or even in water thickened with mud1 there could then be but little circulation of the particles1 even were the heat applied at the bottom instead of the top4 ,probably the soil1 though saturated with water1 does1 to some extent1 transmit heat from one particle of earth to another1 but it must be but very slowly4 ,in the chapter upon ,temperature as affected by ,drainage1 farther illustrations of this point may be found4 ,,aeration ,,by ,,drains4 ,among the advantages of thorough-drainage1 is reckoned by all1 the circulation of air through the soil4 ,no drop of water can run from the soil into a drain without its place being supplied by air1 unless there is more water to supply it2 so that drainage1 in this way1 manifestly promotes the permeation of air through the soil4 ,but it is claimed that drains may be made to promote circulation of air in another way1 and in dry times1 when no water is flowing through them1 by connecting them together by means of a header at the upper ends1 and leaving an opening so that the air may pass freely through the whole system4 ,our friend1 ,prof4 ,mapes1 is an advocate for this practice1 and certainly the theory seems well supported4 ,it is said that in dry1 hot weather1 when the air is most highly charged with moisture1 currents thus passing constantly through the earth1 must1 by contact with the cooler subsoil1 part with large quantities of moisture1 and tend to moisten the soil from the drains to the surface1 giving off also with the moisture whatever of fertilizing elements the air may bear with it4 ,this point has not escaped the notice of ,english drainers4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,h4 ,charnock1 an assistant commissioner under the ,drainage act1 in #ahdc1 read a paper in favor of this practice1 but in #ahdi he published a second article in which he suggests doubts of the advantages of such arrangements1 and says he has discontinued their application4 ,he says they add to the cost of the work1 and tend to the decay of the pipes1 and to promote the growth into the pipes1 of any roots that may approach them4 ,mr4 ,parkes1 in a published article in #ahdf1 speaks of this idea1 but passes it by as of very little importance4 ,mr4 ,denton quotes the authority of some of his correspondents strongly in favor of this theory4 ,after trying some experiments himself upon clay soil1 he admits the advantages of such an arrangement for such soil1 in the following not very enthusiastic terms3 ,it will be readily understood that as clay will always contract rapidly under the influence of a draught of air1 in consequence of the rapid evaporation of moisture from its surface1 one of the benefits of draining is thus very cheaply acquired2 and for the denser clays it may possibly be a desirable thing to do1 but in the porous soils it would appear that no advantage is gained by it4 ,yet1 notwithstanding this summary disposition of the question in ,england1 it is by no means clear1 that in the tropical heat of ,american summers1 when the difference between the temperature of the air and the subsoil is so much greater than it can ever be in ,england1 and when we suffer from severer droughts than are common there1 we may not find substantial practical advantage from the passage of these air currents through the soil4 ,we are not aware of experiments in ,america1 accurate enough to be quoted as authority on the subject4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,drainage ,,adapts ,,the ,,soil ,,to ,,germination ,,and ,,vegetation4 ,process of ,germination4--,two ,classes of ,pores in ,soils1 illustrated by ,cuts4--,too much ,water excludes ,air1 reduces ,temperature4--,how much ,air the ,soil ,contains4--,drainage ,improves the ,quality of ,crops4--,drainage prevents ,drought4--,drained ,soils hold most ,water4--,allow ,roots to go ,deep4--,various ,facts4 ,no apology will be necessary for the long extract which we are about to give1 to any person who will read it with attention4 ,it is from a lecture on ,agricultural ,science1 by ,dr4 ,madden1 and we confess ourselves incompetent to condense or improve the language of the learned author4 ,we think we are safe in saying that it has never been before published in ,america3 ,the first thing which occurs after the sowing of the seed is1 of course1 germination2 and before we examine how this process may be influenced by the condition of the soil1 we must necessarily obtain some correct idea of the process itself4 ,the most careful examination has proved that the process of germination consists essentially of various chemical changes1 which require for their development the presence of air1 moisture1 and a certain degree of warmth4 ,now it is obviously unnecessary for our present purpose that we should have the least idea of the nature of these processes3 all we require to do1 is to ascertain the conditions under which they take place2 having detected these1 we know at once what is required to make a seed grow4 ,these1 we have seen1 are air1 moisture1 and a certain degree of warmth2 and it consequently results1 that wherever a seed is placed in these circumstances1 germination will take place4 ,viewing matters in this light1 it appears that soil does not act chemically in the process of germination2 that its sole action is confined to its being the vehicle1 by means of which a supply of air and moisture and warmth can be continually kept up4 ,with this simple statement in view1 we are quite prepared to consider the various conditions of soil1 for the purpose of determining how far these will influence the future prospects of the crop1 and we shall accordingly at once proceed to examine carefully into the mechanical relations of the soil4 ,this we propose doing by the aid of figures4 ,soil examined mechanically1 is found to consist entirely of particles of all shapes and sizes1 from stones and pebbles1 down to the finest powder2 and1 on account of their extreme irregularity of shape1 they cannot lie so close to one another as to prevent there being passages between them1 owing to which circumstance soil in the mass is always more or less porous4 ,if1 however1 we proceed to examine one of the smallest particles of which soil is made up1 we shall find that even this is not always solid1 but is much more frequently porous1 like soil in the mass4 ,a considerable proportion of this finely-divided part of soil1 the impalpable matter as it is generally called1 is found1 by the aid of the microscope1 to consist of broken-down vegetable tissue1 so that when a small portion of the finest dust from a garden or field is placed under the microscope1 we have exhibited to us particles of every variety of shape and structure1 of which a certain part is evidently of vegetable origin4 ,in these figures ,i have given a very rude representation of these particles2 and ,i must beg you particularly to remember that they are not meant to represent by any means accurately what the microscope exhibits1 but are only designed to serve as a plan by which to illustrate the mechanical properties of the soil4 ,on referring to ,fig4 #ia1 we perceive that there are two distinct classes of pores2 first1 the large ones1 which exist between the particles of soil1 and second1 the very minute ones1 which occur in the particles themselves2 and you will at the same time notice1 that whereas all the larger pores--those between the particles of soil--communicate most freely with each other1 so that they form canals1 the small pores1 however freely they may communicate with one another in the interior of the particle in which they occur1 have no direct connection with the pores of the surrounding particles4 ,let us now1 therefore1 trace the effect of this arrangement4 ,in ,fig4 #ia1 we perceive that these canals and pores are all empty1 the soil being perfectly dry2 and the canals communicating freely at the surface with the surrounding atmosphere1 the whole will of course be filled with air4 ,if in this condition1 a seed be placed in the soil1 as at a1 you at once perceive that it is freely supplied with air1 but there is no moisture2 therefore1 when soil is perfectly dry1 a seed cannot grow4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ia4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ib4 ,let us turn our attention now to ,fig4 #ib4 ,here we perceive that both the pores and canals are no longer represented white1 but black1 this color being used to indicate water2 in this instance1 therefore1 water has taken the place of air1 or1 in other words1 the soil is very wet4 ,if we observe our seed a now1 we find it abundantly supplied with water1 but no air4 ,here again1 therefore1 germination cannot take place4 ,it may be well to state here1 that this can never occur exactly in nature1 because water having the power of dissolving air to a certain extent1 the seed a in ,fig4 #ib is1 in fact1 supplied with a certain amount of this necessary substance2 and1 owing to this1 germination does take place1 although by no means under such advantageous circumstances as it would were the soil in a better condition4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ic4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #id4 ,we pass on now to ,fig4 #ic4 ,here we find a different state of matters4 ,the canals are open and freely supplied with air1 while the pores are filled with water2 and consequently you perceive that1 while the seed a has quite enough of air from the canals1 it can never be without moisture1 as every particle of soil which touches it1 is well supplied with this necessary ingredient4 ,this1 then1 is the proper condition of soil for germination1 and in fact for every period of the plant's development2 and this condition occurs when soil is moist but not wet--that is to say1 when it has the color and appearance of being well watered1 but when it is still capable of being crumbled to pieces by the hands1 without any of its particles adhering together in the familiar form of mud4 ,turning our eyes to ,fig4 #id1 we observe still another condition of soil4 ,in this instance1 as far as water is concerned1 the soil is in its healthy condition--it is moist1 but not wet1 the pores alone being filled with water4 ,but where are the canals8 ,we see them in a few places1 but in by far the greater part of the soil none are to be perceived2 this is owing to the particles of soil having adhered together1 and thus so far obliterated the interstitial canals1 that they appear only like pores4 ,this is the state of matters in every clod of earth1 b2 and you will at once perceive1 on comparing it with c1 which represents a stone1 that these two differ only in possessing a few pores1 which latter1 while they may form a reservoir for moisture1 can never act as vehicles for the food of plants1 as the roots are not capable of extending their fibres into the interior of a clod1 but are at all times confined to the interstitial canals4 ,with these four conditions before us1 let us endeavor to apply them practically to ascertain when they occur in our fields1 and how those which are injurious may be obviated4 ,the first of them1 we perceive1 is a state of too great dryness1 a very rare condition1 in this climate at least2 in fact1 the only case in which it is likely to occur is in very coarse sands1 where the soil1 being chiefly made up of pure sand and particles of flinty matter1 contains comparatively much fewer pores2 and1 from the large size of the individual particles1 assisted by their irregularity1 the canals are wider1 the circulation of air freer1 and1 consequently1 the whole is much more easily dried4 ,when this state of matters exists1 the best treatment is to leave all the stones which occur on the surface of the field1 as they cast shades1 and thereby prevent or retard the evaporation of water4 ,we will not1 however1 make any further observations on this very rare case1 but will rather proceed to ,fig4 #ib1 a much more frequent1 and1 in every respect1 more important condition of soil3 ,i refer to an excess of water4 ,when water is added to perfectly dry soil1 it1 of course1 in the first instance1 fills the interstitial canals1 and from these enters the pores of each particle2 and if the supply of water be not too great1 the canals speedily become empty1 so that the whole of the fluid is taken up by the pores3 this1 we have already seen1 is the healthy condition of the soil4 ,if1 however1 the supply of water be too great1 as is the case when a spring gains admission into the soil1 or when the sinking of the fluid through the canals to a sufficient depth below the surface is prevented1 it is clear that these also must get filled with water so soon as the pores have become saturated4 ,this1 then1 is the condition of undrained soil4 ,not only are the pores filled1 but the interstitial canals are likewise full2 and the consequence is1 that the whole process of the germination and growth of vegetables is materially interfered with4 ,we shall here1 therefore briefly state the injurious effects of an excess of water1 for the purpose of impressing more strongly on your minds the necessity of thorough-draining1 as the first and most essential step towards the improvement of your soil4 ,the first great effect of an excess of water is1 that it produces a corresponding diminution of the amount of air beneath the surface1 which air is of the greatest possible consequence in the nutrition of plants2 in fact1 if entirely excluded1 germination could not take place1 and the seed sown would1 of course1 either decay or lie dormant4 ,secondly1 an excess of water is most hurtful1 by reducing considerably the temperature of the soil3 this ,i find1 by careful experiment1 to be to the extent of six and a-half degrees ,fahrenheit in ,summer1 which amount is equivalent to an elevation above the level of the sea of #a1iej feet4 ,these are the two chief injuries of an excess of water in soil which affect the soil itself4 ,there are very many others affecting the climate1 c42 but these not so connected with the subject in hand as to call for an explanation here4 ,of course1 all these injurious effects are at once overcome by thorough-draining1 the result of which is1 to establish a direct communication between the interstitial canals and the drains1 by which means it follows1 that no water can remain any length of time in these canals without1 by its gravitation1 finding its way into the drains4 ,the #dth ,fig4 indicates badly-cultivated soil1 or soil in which large unbroken clods exist2 which clods1 as we have already seen1 are very little better than stones1 on account of their impermeability to air and the roots of plants4 ,too much cannot be said in favor of pulverizing the soil2 even thorough-draining itself will not supersede the necessity of performing this most necessary operation4 ,the whole valuable effects of plowing1 harrowing1 grubbing1 c41 may be reduced to this3 and almost the whole superiority of garden over field produce is referable to the greater perfection to which this pulverizing of the soil can be carried4 ,the whole success of the drill husbandry is owing1 in a great measure1 to its enabling you to stir up the soil well during the progress of your crop2 which stirring up is of no value beyond its effects in more minutely pulverizing the soil1 increasing1 as far as possible1 the size and number of the interstitial canals4 ,lest any one should suppose that the contents of these interstitial canals must be so minute that their whole amount can be of but little consequence1 ,i may here notice the fact1 that1 in moderately well pulverized soil1 they amount to no less than one-fourth of the whole bulk of the soil itself2 for example1 #ajj cubic inches of moist soil 7that is1 of soil in which the pores are filled with water while the canals are filled with air71 contain no less than #be cubic inches of air4 ,according to this calculation1 in a field pulverized to the depth of eight inches1 a depth perfectly attainable on most soils by careful tillage1 every imperial acre will retain beneath its surface no less than #ab1ede1bhj cubic inches of air4 ,and1 to take one more element into the calculation1 supposing the soil were not properly drained1 the sufficient pulverizing of an additional inch in depth would increase the escape of water from the surface by upwards of one hundred gallons a day4 ,drainage improves the quality of crops4 ,in a dry season1 we frequently hear the farmer boast of the quality of his products4 ,his hay-crop1 he says1 is light1 but will spend much better than the crop of a wet season2 his potatoes are not large1 but they are sound and mealy4 ,indeed1 this topic need not be enlarged upon4 ,every farmer knows that his wheat and corn are heavier and more sound when grown upon land sufficiently drained4 ,drainage prevents drought4 ,this proposition is somewhat startling at first view4 ,how can draining land make it more moist8 ,one would as soon think of watering land to make it dry4 ,a drought is the enemy we all dread4 ,professor ,espy has a plan for producing rain1 by lighting extensive artificial fires4 ,a great objection to his theory is1 that he cannot limit his showers to his own land1 and all the public would never be ready for a shower on the same day4 ,if we can really protect our land from drought1 by under-draining it1 everybody may at once engage in the work without offence to his neighbor4 ,if we take up a handfull of rich soil of almost any kind1 after a heavy rain1 we can squeeze it hard enough with the hand to press out drops of water4 ,if we should take of the same soil a large quantity1 after it was so dry that not a drop of water could be pressed out by hand1 and subject it to the pressure of machinery1 we should force from it more water4 ,any boy1 who has watched the process of making cider with the old-fashioned press1 has seen the pomace1 after it had been once pressed apparently dry and cut down1 and the screw applied anew to the cheese1 give out quantities of juice4 ,these facts illustrate1 first1 how much water may be held in the soil by attraction4 ,they show1 again1 that more water is held by a pulverized and open soil1 than by a compact and close one4 ,water is held in the soil between the minute particles of earth4 ,if these particles be pressed together compactly1 there is no space left between them for water4 ,the same is true of soil naturally compact4 ,this compactness exists more or less in most subsoils1 certainly in all through which water does not readily pass4 ,hence1 all these subsoils are rendered more permeable to water by being broken up and divided2 and more retentive by having the particles of which they are composed separated1 one from another--in a word1 by pulverization4 ,this increased capacity to contain moisture by attraction1 is the greatest security against drought4 ,the plants1 in a dry time send their rootlets throughout the soil1 and flourish in the moisture thus stored up for their time of need4 ,the pulverization of drained land may be produced1 partly by deep1 or subsoil plowing1 which is always necessary to perfect the object of thorough-draining2 but it is much aided1 in stiff clays1 also1 by the shrinkage of the soil by drying4 ,drainage resists drought1 again1 by the very deepening of the soil of which we have already spoken4 ,the roots of plants1 we have seen1 will not extend into stagnant water4 ,if1 then1 as is frequently the case1 even on sandy plains1 the water-line be1 in early ,spring1 very near the surface1 the seed may be planted1 may vegetate1 and throw up a goodly show of leaves and stalks1 which may flourish as long as the early rains continue2 but1 suddenly1 the rains cease2 the sun comes out in his ,june brightness2 the water-line lowers at once in the soil2 the roots have no depth to draw moisture from below1 and the whole field of clover1 or of corn1 in a single week1 is past recovery4 ,now1 if this light1 sandy soil be drained1 so that1 at the first start of the crop1 there is a deep seed-bed free from water1 the roots strike downward1 at once1 and thus prepare for a drought4 ,the writer has seen upon deep-trenched land in his own garden1 parsnips1 which1 before midsummer1 had extended downward three feet1 before they were as large as a common whiplash2 and yet1 through the ,summer drought1 continued to thrive till they attained in ,autumn a length1 including tops1 of about seven feet1 and an extraordinary size4 ,a moment's reflection will satisfy any one that1 the dryer the soil in ,spring1 the deeper will the roots strike1 and the better able will be the plant to endure the ,summer's drought4 ,again1 drainage and consequent pulverization and deepening of the soils increase their capacity to absorb moisture from the atmosphere1 and thus afford protection against drought4 ,watery vapor is constantly1 in all dry weather1 rising from the surface of the earth2 and plants1 in the day-time1 are also1 from their leaves and bark1 giving off moisture which they draw from the soil4 ,but ,nature has provided a wonderful law of compensation for this waste1 which would1 without such provision1 parch the earth to barrenness in a single rainless month4 ,the capacity of the atmosphere to take up and convey water1 furnishes one of the grandest illustrations of the perfect work of the ,author of the ,universe4 ,all the rivers run into the sea1 yet the sea is not full2 and the sea is not full1 because the numerous great rivers and their millions of tributaries1 ever flowing from age to age1 convey to the ocean only as much water as the atmosphere carries back in vapor1 and discharges upon the hills4 ,the warmer the atmosphere1 the greater its capacity to hold moisture4 ,the heated1 thirsty air of the tropics drinks up the water of the ocean1 and bears it away to the colder regions1 where1 through condensation by cold1 it becomes visible as a cloud2 and as a huge sponge pressed by an invisible hand1 the cloud1 condensed still further by cold1 sends down its water to the earth in rain4 ,the heated air over our fields and streams1 in ,summer1 is loaded with moisture as the sun declines4 ,the earth has been cooled by radiation of its heat1 and by constant evaporation through the day4 ,by contact with the cooler soil1 the air1 borne by its thousand currents gently along its surface1 is condensed1 and yields its moisture to the thirsty earth again1 in the form of dew4 ,at a ,legislative ,agricultural ,meeting1 held in ,albany1 ,new ,york1 ,january #beth1 #ahee1 the great drought of #ahed being the subject1 the secretary stated that the experience of the past season has abundantly proved that thorough-drainage upon soils requiring it1 has proved a very great relief to the farmer2 that the crops upon such lands have been far better1 generally1 than those upon undrained lands1 in the same locality2 and that1 in many instances1 the increased crop has been sufficient to defray the expenses of the improvement in a single year4 ,mr4 ,joseph ,harris1 at the same meeting1 said3 ,an underdrained soil will be found damper in dry weather1 than an undrained one1 and the thermometer shows a drained soil warmer in cold weather1 and cooler in hot weather1 than one which is undrained4 ,the secretary of the ,new ,york ,state ,agricultural ,society1 in his ,report for #ahee1 says3 ,the testimony of farmers1 in different sections of the ,state1 is almost unanimous1 that drained lands have suffered far less from drought than undrained4 ,alleghany county reports that drained lands have been less affected by the drought than undrained2 ,chatauque county1 that the drained lands have stood the drought better than the undrained4 ,the report from ,clinton county says3 ,drained lands have been less affected by the drought than undrained4 ,montgomery county reports3 ,we find that drained lands have a better crop in either wet or dry seasons than undrained4 ,b4 ,f4 ,nourse1 of ,orrington1 ,maine1 states that1 on his drained land1 in that ,state1 during the drought of #ahed1 there was at all times sufficient dampness apparent on scraping the surface of the ground with his foot in passing1 and a crop of beans was planted1 grown and gathered therefrom1 without as much rain as will usually fall in a shower of fifteen minutes' duration1 while vegetation on the next field was parching for lack of moisture4 ,a committee of the ,new ,york ,farmers' ,club1 which visited the farm of ,prof4 ,mapes1 in ,new ,jersey1 in the time of a severe drought1 in #ahee1 reported that the ,professor's fences were the boundaries of the drought1 all the lands outside being affected by it1 while his remained free from injury4 ,this was attributed1 both by the committee and by ,prof4 ,mapes himself1 to thorough-drainage and deep tillage with the subsoil plow4 ,mr4 ,shedd1 in the ,n4 ,e4 ,farmer1 says3 ,a simple illustration will show the effect which stagnant water1 within a foot or two of the surface1 has on the roots of plants4 ,perhaps it will aid the reader1 who doubts the benefit of thorough-draining in case of drought1 to see why it is beneficial4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ie4 ,section of land before it is drained4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #if4 ,section of land after it is drained4 ,in the first figure1 #a represents the surface soil1 through which evaporation takes place1 using up the heat which might otherwise go to the roots of plants2 #b1 represents the water table1 or surface of stagnant water below which roots seldom go2 #c1 water of evaporation2 #d1 water of capillary attraction2 #e1 water of drainage1 or stagnant water4 ,in the second figure1 #a represents the surface-soil warmed by the sun and ,summer rains2 #b1 the water-table nearly four feet below the surface--roots of the wheat plant have been traced to a depth of more than four feet in a free mold2 #c1 water of capillary attraction2 #d1 water of drainage1 or stagnant water4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,temperature ,,as ,,affected ,,by ,,drainage4 ,drainage ,warms the ,soil in ,spring4--,heat cannot go down in ,wet ,land4--,drainage causes greater ,deposit of ,dew in ,summer4--,dew warms ,plants in ,night1 ,cools them in the ,morning ,sun4--,drainage varies ,temperature by ,lessening ,evaporation4--,what is ,evaporation4--,how it produces ,cold4--,drained ,land ,freezes ,deepest1 but ,thaws ,soonest1 and the ,reasons4 ,drainage raises the temperature of the soil1 by allowing the rain to pass downwards4 ,in the growing season1 especially in the ,spring1 the rain is considerably warmer than the soil4 ,if the soil be saturated with the cold snow-water1 the water which falls must1 of course1 run away upon the surface4 ,if the soil be drained1 the rain-water finds ready admission into it1 carrying and imparting to it a portion of its heat4 ,the experiments of ,count ,rumford1 showing that heat is not propagated downward in fluids1 may be found at page #bgc4 ,this is a principle too important to be overlooked1 especially in ,new ,england1 where we need every aid from ,nature and ,art1 to contend successfully against the brevity of the planting season4 ,soil saturated with cold water1 cannot be warmed by any amount of heat applied to the surface4 ,warm water is lighter than cold water1 and stays at the surface4 ,in boiling water in a kettle1 we apply fire at the bottom1 and no amount of heat at the surface of the vessel would produce the desired effect4 ,so rapid is the passage of heat upward in water1 that the hand may without injury be held upon the bottom of a kettle of boiling water one minute after it has been removed from the fire4 ,the following experiments and illustrations1 from the ,horticulturist of ,nov4 #ahef1 beautifully illustrate this point3 ,,rationale ,,of ,,draining ,,land ,,explained4 ,the reason why drained land gains heat1 and water-logged land is always cold1 consists in the well-known fact that heat cannot be transmitted downwards through water4 ,this may readily be seen by the following experiments3 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ig4 ,experiment ,no4 #a4--;,a square box was made1 of the form represented by the annexed diagram1 eighteen inches deep1 eleven inches wide at top1 and six inches wide at bottom4 ,it was filled with peat1 saturated with water to c1 forming to that depth 7twelve and a half inches7 a sort of artificial bog4 ,the box was then filled with water to d4 ,a thermometer a1 was plunged1 so that its bulb was within one inch and a half of the bottom4 ,the temperature of the whole mass of peat and water was found to be #ci-a_/b deg4 ,fahr4 ,a gallon of boiling water was then added2 it raised the surface of the water to e4 ,in five minutes1 the thermometer1 a1 rose to #dd deg41 owing to the conduction of heat by the thermometer and its guard tube2 at ten minutes from the introduction of the hot water1 the thermometer1 a1 rose to #df deg41 and it subsequently rose no higher4 ,another thermometer1 b1 dipping under the surface of the water at e1 was then introduced1 and the following are the indications of the two thermometers at the respective intervals1 reckoning from the time the hot water was supplied3 ,thermometer b4 ,thermometer a4 #bj minutes #aej deg4 #df deg4 #a hour #cj #aja deg4 #de deg4 #b hours #cj #hj-a_/b deg4 #db deg4 #ab #dj #de deg4 #dj deg4 ,the mean temperature of the external air to which the box was exposed during the above period1 was #db deg41 the maximum being #dg deg41 and the minimum #cg deg44 ,experiment ,no4 #b4--,with the same arrangement as in the preceding case1 a gallon of boiling water was introduced above the peat and water1 when the thermometer a1 was at #cf deg42 in ten minutes it rose to #dj deg44 ,the cock was then turned for the purpose of drainage1 which was but slowly effected2 and1 at the end of twenty minutes1 the thermometer a1 indicated #dj deg42 at twenty-five minutes1 #db deg41 whilst the thermometer b1 was #adb deg44 ,at thirty minutes1 the cock was withdrawn from the box1 and more free egress of water being thus afforded1 at thirty-five minutes the flow was no longer continuous1 and the thermometer b1 indicated #dh deg44 ,the mass was drained1 and permeable to a fresh supply of water4 ,accordingly1 another gallon of boiling water was poured over it2 and1 in #c minutes1 the thermometer a1 rose to #gg deg44 #e fell to #gf-a_/b deg44 #ae #gj-a_/b deg44 #bj remained at #ga deg44 #a hour #ej #gj-a_/b deg44 ,in these two experiments1 the thermometer at the bottom of the box suddenly rose a few degrees immediately after the hot water was added2 and it might be inferred that the heat was carried downwards by the water4 ,but1 in reality1 the rise was owing to the action of the hot water on the thermometer1 and not to its action upon the cold water4 ,to prove this1 the perpendicular thermometers were removed4 ,the box was filled with peat and water to within three inches of the top1 a horizontal thermometer1 a f1 having been previously secured through a hole made in the side of the box1 by means of a tight-fitting cork1 in which the naked stem of the thermometer was grooved4 ,a gallon of boiling water was then added4 ,the thermometer1 a very delicate one1 was not in the least affected by the boiling water in the top of the box4 ,in this experiment1 the wooden box may be supposed to be a field2 the peat and cold water represent the water-logged portion2 rain falls on the surface1 and becomes warmed by contact with the soil1 and1 thus heated1 descends4 ,but it is stopped by the cold water1 and the heat will go no further4 ,but1 if the soil is drained1 and not water-logged1 the warm rain trickles through the crevices of the earth1 carrying to the drain-level the high temperature it had gained on the surface1 parts with it to the soil as it passes down1 and thus produces that bottom heat which is so essential to plants1 although so few suspect its existence4 ,water1 although it will not conduct heat downwards1 is a ready vehicle of cold from the surface towards the bottom4 ,water becomes heavier by cooling till it is reduced to about #ci deg41 at which point it attains its greatest density1 and has a tendency to go to the bottom until the whole mass is reduced to this low temperature4 ,thus1 the circulation of water in the saturated soil1 in some conditions of the temperature of the surface and subsoil1 may have a chilling effect which could not be produced on drained soil4 ,after water is reduced to about #ci deg41 instead of obeying the common law of becoming heavier by cooling1 it forms a remarkable exception to it1 and becomes lighter until it freezes4 ,were it not for this admirable provision of ,nature1 all our ponds and rivers would1 in the ,winter1 become solid ice from the surface to the bottom4 ,now as the surface water is chilled it goes to the bottom1 and is replaced by warmer water1 which rises1 until the whole is reduced to the point of greatest density4 ,then the circulation ceases1 and the water colder than #ci deg4 remains at the surface1 is converted into ice which becomes still lighter1 by crystallization1 and floats upon the surface4 ,no experiments1 showing the temperature of undrained soils at various depths1 in the ,united ,states1 have come to our knowledge4 ,mr4 ,gisborne says3 ,many experiments have shown that1 in retentive soils1 the temperature1 at two or three feet below the surface of the water-table1 is1 at no period of the year1 higher than from #df deg4 to #dh deg4 in agricultural ,britain4 ,prof4 ,henry states in the ,patent ,office ,report for #aheg1 that in the cellars of the observatory1 at ,paris1 at the depth of sixty-seven and a half feet1 in fifty years1 the temperature has never varied a tenth of a degree from #ec deg4 #bh'1 in all that period1 ,summer or ,winter4 ,mr4 ,parkes gives the results of a valuable series of experiments1 in which he compared the temperature of drained and undrained portions of a bog4 ,he found the temperature of the undrained portion to remain steadily at #df deg41 at all depths1 from one to thirty feet2 and at seven inches from the surface1 the temperature remained at #dg deg4 during the experiments4 ,during the same period1 the temperature of the drained portion was #dh-a_/d deg4 at two feet seven inches below the surface1 and at seven inches1 reached as high as #ff deg4 during a thunder-storm2 while1 on a mean of thirty-five observations1 the temperature at the latter depth was #aj deg4 higher than at the same depth in the undrained portion of the bog4 ,we find in the ,agriculture of ,new ,york1 the results of observations made at ,albany and at ,scott1 in that ,state1 in the year #ahdh1 upon temperature at different depths4 ,the condition of the soil is not described1 but it is presumed that it was soil naturally drained in both cases4 ,a few of the results may give the reader some idea of the range of underground temperature1 as compared with that of the air4 ,temperature at ,albany at two feet depth4 highest ,august #ag and #ah1 #gj deg4 lowest ,february #bh1 #cb-c_/d deg4 ---- ,range1 #cg-a_/d deg4 ---- at four feet depth4 highest ,july #bi1 #fd-a_/b deg4 lowest ,february #be1 #ce-a_/b deg4 ---- ,range1 #bi deg4 ---- of the air1 ,february #ab1 -#c deg4 ,august1 #c1 ,p4 ,m41 #ij deg4 ---- ,range1 #ic deg4 ,temperature at ,scott at two feet depth4 highest1 ,august #ag and #ah1 #fd deg4 at four ft4 depth1 #ag days in ,aug4 #fj deg4 of the air1 at #c1 ,p4 ,m41 highest #ij deg4 ,the temperature of falling rain1 however1 in the hot season1 is many degrees cooler than the lower stratum of the atmosphere1 and the surface of the earth upon which it falls4 ,the effects of rain on drained soil1 in the heat of ,summer1 are1 then1 two-fold2 to cool the burning surface1 which is1 as we have seen1 much warmer than the rain1 and1 at the same time1 to warm the subsoil which is cooler than the rain itself1 as it falls1 and very much cooler than the rain-water1 as it is warmed by its passage through the hot surface soil4 ,these are beautiful provisions of ,nature1 by which the excesses of heat and cold are mitigated1 and the temperature of the soil rendered more uniform1 upon land adapted1 by drainage1 to her genial influences4 ,upon the saturated and water-logged bog1 as we have seen1 the effect of the greatest heat is insufficient to raise the temperature of the subsoil a single degree1 while the surface may be burned up and shrivelled like a parched scroll4 ,drainage also raises the temperature of the soil by the admission of warm air4 ,this proposition is closely connected with that just discussed4 ,when the air is warmer than the soil1 as it always is in the ,spring-time1 the water from the melting snow1 or from rain1 upon drained land1 passes downward1 and runs off by its gravitation4 ,as ,nature abhors a vacuum1 the little spaces in the soil1 from which the water passes1 must be filled with air1 and this air can only be supplied from the surface1 and1 being warmer than the ground1 tends to raise its temperature4 ,no such effect can be produced in land not drained1 because no water runs out of it1 and there are1 consequently1 no such spaces opened for the warm air to enter4 ,drainage equalizes the temperature of the soil in ,summer by increasing the deposit of dew4 ,of this we shall speak further1 in a future chapter4 ,drainage raises the temperature in ,spring by diminishing evaporation4 ,evaporation may be defined to be the conversion of liquid and solid bodies into elastic fluids1 by the influence of caloric4 ,by heating water over a fire1 bubbles rise from the bottom of the vessel1 adhere awhile to the sides of it1 and then ascend to the surface1 and burst and go off in visible vapor1 or1 in other words1 by evaporation4 ,water is evaporated by the heat of the sun merely1 and even without this heat1 in the open air4 ,it is evaporated at very low temperatures1 when fully exposed to the air4 ,even ice evaporates in the open air4 ,we often observe in ,winter1 that a thin covering of ice or snow disappears from our roads1 although there has been no thawing weather4 ,in another chapter1 we have considered the subject of ,evaporation and ,filtration1 and endeavored to give some general idea of the proportion of the rain which escapes by evaporation4 ,we have seen1 that evaporation proceeds much more rapidly from a surface of water1 as a pond or river1 than from a land surface1 unless it be fully saturated1 and that evaporation from the water exceeds the whole amount of rain1 about as much as evaporation from the land falls short of the amount of rain4 ,thus1 by this simple agency of evaporation1 the vast quantities of water that are constantly flowing1 in all the rivers of the earth1 into the sea1 are brought back again to the land1 and so the great system of circulation is maintained throughout the ages4 ,as evaporation is greatest from a water-surface1 so it is greater1 other things being equal1 according to the wetness of the surface of any given field4 ,if the field be covered with water1 it becomes a water-surface for the time1 and the evaporation is like that from a pond4 ,if1 as is often the case1 the water stands on it in spots1 over half its surface1 and the rest is saturated1 the evaporation is scarcely less1 and has been said to be even more2 while1 if the surface be comparatively dry1 the evaporation is very little4 ,but what harm does evaporation do8 and what has all this scientific talk to do with drainage8 ,these1 my friend1 are very practical questions1 and just the ones which it is proposed to answer2 but we must bear in mind that1 as ,nature conducts her grand affairs by systematic laws1 the small portion of her domain which for a brief space of time we occupy1 is not exempted from their operation4 ,some of these laws we may comprehend1 and turn our knowledge of them to practical account4 ,of others1 we may note the results1 without apprehending the reasons of them2 for it is true-- ,there are more things in ,heaven and earth1 ,horatio1 ,than are dreamt of in your philosophy4 ,discussions of this kind may seem dry1 though the subject itself be moisture4 ,they belong1 certainly1 to the topic under consideration4 ,evaporation does harm in the ,spring-time1 because it produces cold1 just when we most want heat4 ,how it produces cold1 is not so readily explained4 ,the fact may be made as evident as the existence of sin in the world1 and1 possibly1 the reason of it may be as unsatisfactory4 ,the books say1 that heat always disappears when a solid body becomes a liquid2 and so it is1 that the air always remains cool while the snow and ice are melting in ,spring4 ,again1 it is said that heat always disappears1 when a fluid becomes vapor4 ,these are said to be laws or principles of nature1 and are said to explain other phenomena4 ,to a practical mind1 it is perhaps just as satisfactory to say that evaporation produces cold1 as to state the principle or law in the language of science4 ,that the fact is so1 may be proved by many illustrations4 ,stockhardt gives the following experiment1 which is strikingly appropriate3 ,fill a tube half full of water1 and fasten securely round the bulb of it1 a piece of cloth4 ,saturate the cloth with cold water1 and then twirl the tube rapidly between the hands2 presently the water in the tube will become sensibly colder1 and the degree of cold may be accurately determined by the thermometer4 ,moisten the cloth with ether1 a very volatile liquid1 and twirl it again in the same manner as before2 by which means1 its contents1 even in ,summer1 may be converted into ice4 ,it is very fortunate for us1 that our ,spring showers are not of ether2 for then1 instead of thawing1 our land would freeze the harder6 ,the heat of the blood is about #ih deg42 yet man can endure a heat of many degrees more1 and even labor under a ,summer sun1 which would raise the thermometer to #acj deg41 without the temperature of his blood being materially affected1 and it is because of perspiration1 which absorbs the surplus heat1 or1 in other words1 creates cold4 ,it is said1 too1 that on the same principle1 if two saucers1 one filled with water warm enough to give off visible vapor1 the other filled with water just from the well1 are exposed in a sharp frosty morning1 that filled with the warm water will exhibit ice soonest4 ,wine is cooled by evaporation1 by wrapping the bottle in wet flannel1 and exposing it to the air4 ,if1 after all this1 any one doubts the fact that evaporation tends to produce cold1 let him countenance his skepticism1 by wetting his face with warm water1 and going into the air in a ,winter's day1 and his faith will be greatly strengthened4 ,we have1 in the northern part of ,america1 most water in the soil in the ,spring of the year1 just at the time when we most need a genial warmth to promote germination4 ,if land is well drained1 this water sinks downward1 and runs away in the drains1 instead of passing upward by evaporation4 ,drainage1 therefore1 diminishes evaporation simply by removing the surplus snow and rain-water by filtration4 ,it thus raises the temperature of the soil in that part of the season1 when water is flowing from the drains2 but1 in the heat of ,summer1 the influence of the showers which refresh without saturating the soil1 and are retained in it by attraction1 is not lessened4 ,as a good soil retains by attraction about one-half its weight of water that cannot be drained out1 there can be no reasonable apprehension that the gentle ,summer showers will be wasted by filtration1 even upon thorough-drained land1 while an avenue is open1 by the drains1 for the escape of drowning floods4 ,to show the general effect of drainage1 in raising the temperature of wet lands in ,summer1 the following statement of ,mr4 ,parkes is valuable4 ,an elevation of the temperature of the subsoil ten degrees1 will be seen to be very material1 when we consider that ,indian corn will not vegetate at all at #ec deg41 but will start at once at #fc deg41 #ee deg4 being its lowest point of germination3 ,as regards the temperature of the water derived from drainage at different seasons of the year1 ,i am unacquainted with any published facts4 ,this is a subject of the highest import1 as thermometric observations may be rendered demonstrative1 in the truest manner1 of the effect of drainage on the climate of the soil4 ,at present1 ,i must limit myself to saying1 that ,i have never known the water of drainage issue from land drained at ,midsummer1 to depths of four and five feet1 at a higher temperature than #eb deg4 or #ec deg4 ,fahrenheit3 whereas1 in the following year and subsequent years1 the water discharged from the same drains1 at the same period1 will issue at a temperature of #fj deg41 and even so high as #fc deg41 thus exhibiting the increase of heat conferred during the ,summer months on the terrestrial climate by drainage4 ,this is the all-important fact connected with the art and science of land-drainage4 ,besides affecting favorably the temperature of the particular field which is drained1 the general effect of the drainage of wet lands upon the climate of the neighborhood has often been noticed4 ,in the paper already cited1 emanating from the ,board of ,health1 we find the following remarks1 which are in accordance with all observation in districts where under-drainage has been generally practiced3 ,every one must have remarked1 on passing from a district with a retentive soil to one of an open porous nature--respectively characterized as cold and warm soils--that1 often1 whilst the air on the retentive soil is cold and raw1 that on the drier soil is comparatively warm and genial4 ,the same effect which is here caused naturally1 may be produced artificially1 by providing for the perfect escape of superfluous water by drainage1 so as to leave less to cool down the air by evaporation4 ,the reason of this difference is two-fold4 ,in the first place1 much heat is saved1 as much heat being required for the vaporization of water1 as would elevate the temperature of more than three million times its bulk of air one degree4 ,it follows1 therefore1 that for every inch in depth of water carried off by drains1 which must otherwise evaporate1 as much heat is saved per acre as would elevate eleven thousand million cubic feet of air one degree in temperature4 ,but that is not all4 ,not only is the temperature of the air reduced1 but its dew point is raised1 by water being evaporated which might be drained off2 consequently1 the want of drainage renders the air both colder and more liable to the formation of dew and mists1 and its dampness affects comfort even more than its temperature4 ,it is easy1 then1 to understand how local climate is so much affected by surplus moisture1 and so remarkably improved by drainage4 ,a farmer being asked the effect on temperature of some new drainage works2 replied1 that all he knew was1 that before the drainage he could never go out at night without a great coat1 and that now he could1 so that he considered it made the difference of a great coat to him4 ,drainage increases the coldness of the subsoil in ,winter4 ,whether this is a gain or loss to the agriculturist1 is not for us to determine4 ,the object of our labor is1 to lay the whole subject fairly before the reader1 and not to extol drainage as the grand panacea of bad husbandry4 ,although water will not conduct heat downwards1 yet it doubtless prevents the deep freezing of the ground4 ,it has already been seen1 that the temperature of the earth1 a few feet below the surface1 is above the freezing point1 at all times4 ,the fact that the ground does not freeze1 usually1 even in ,new ,england1 where every ,winter brings weather below ,zero1 more than four or five feet deep1 in the most exposed situations1 shows conclusively the comparatively even temperature of the subsoil4 ,the water which flows underground is of this subsoil temperature1 and1 in ,winter1 warms the ground through which it flows4 ,in land thoroughly drained1 this warm water cannot rise above the drains1 and so cannot defend the soil from frost4 ,drained land will1 undoubtedly1 freeze deeper than undrained land1 and this is a fact to be impressed upon all who lay tiles in a cold climate4 ,it is a strong argument for deep drainage4 ,drain deep1 or drain not1 is a convenient paraphrase of a familiar quotation4 ,how often do we hear it said1 ,my meadow never freezes more than a foot deep2 there will never be any trouble from frost in that place1 if the tiles are no more than two feet deep4 ,be assured1 brother farmer1 that the frost will follow the water-table downward1 and1 unless the warm water move in sufficient quantity through your pipes to protect them in ,winter1 your work may be ruined by frost4 ,so long as much water is flowing in pipes1 especially if it be from deep springs1 they will be safe from frost1 even at a slight depth4 ,dr4 ,madden says1 that it has been proved that one great source of health and vigor in vegetation1 is the great difference which exists between the temperature of ,summer and ,winter1 which1 he says1 in dry soils1 often amounts to between #cj deg4 and #dj deg42 while1 in very wet soils1 it seldom exceeds #aj deg44 ,this idea may have value in a mild climate2 but1 probably1 in ,new ,england1 we get cold enough for our good1 without artificial aids4 ,in another view1 drainage is known to be essential1 even in ,winter4 ,fruit trees are almost as surely destroyed by standing with their feet in cold water all ,winter1 as any of us unfeathered bipeds would be2 while the solid freezing of the earth around their roots does not harm them4 ,perhaps the same is true of most other vegetation4 ,the deep freezing of the ground is often mentioned as a mode of pulverization--as a sort of natural subsoiling thrown in by a kind ,providence1 by way of compensation for some of the evils of a cold climate4 ,most of those1 however1 who have wielded the pick-axe in laying four-foot drains1 in clay or hard-pan1 will have doubts whether ,jack ,frost1 though he can pull up our fence-posts1 and throw out our ,winter grain1 has much softened the earth two feet below its surface4 ,that the frost comes out of drained land earlier than undrained1 in ,spring1 we are satisfied1 both by personal observation1 and by the statements of the few individuals who have practiced thorough-drainage in our cold climate4 ,b4 ,f4 ,nourse1 ,esq41 whose valuable statement will be found in a later chapter1 says1 that1 in #aheh1 the frost came out a week1 at least1 earlier from his drained land1 in ,maine1 than from contiguous undrained land2 and that1 usually1 the drained land is in condition to be worked as soon as the frost is out1 quite two weeks earlier than any other land in the vicinity4 ,our observations on our own land1 fully corroborate the opinion of ,mr4 ,nourse4 ,the reasons why the frost should come out of drained land soonest1 are1 that land that is dry does not freeze so solid as land that is wet1 and so spaces are left for the permeation of warm air4 ,again1 ice1 like water1 is almost a nonconductor of heat1 and earth saturated with water and frozen1 is like unto it1 so that neither the warmth of the subsoil or surface-soil can be readily imparted to it4 ,dry earth1 on the other hand1 although frozen1 is still a good conductor1 and readily dissolves at the first warm breath of ,spring above1 or the pulsations of the great heart of ,nature beneath4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,power ,,of ,,soils ,,to ,,absorb ,,and ,,retain ,,moisture4 ,why does not ,drainage make the ,land too ,dry8--,adhesive ,attraction4--,the ,finest ,soils exert most ,attraction4--,how much ,water different ,soils hold by ,attraction4--,capillary ,attraction1 ,illustrated4--,power to ,imbibe ,moisture from the ,air4--,weight ,absorbed by #a1jjj lbs4 in #ab ,hours4--,dew1 ,cause of4--,dew ,point4--,cause of ,frost4--,why ,covering ,plants ,protects from ,frost4--,dew ,imparts ,warmth4--,idea that the ,moon ,promotes ,putrefaction4--,quantity of ,dew4 ,the first and most natural objection made1 by those not practically familiar with drainage operations1 to the whole system is1 that the drains will draw out so much of the water from the soil1 as to leave it too dry for the crops4 ,if a cask be filled with round stones1 or with musket balls1 or with large shot1 and with water to the surface1 and then an opening be made at the bottom of the cask1 all the water1 except a thin film adhering to the surface of the vessel and its contents1 will immediately run out4 ,if now1 the same cask be filled with the dried soil of any cultivated field1 and this soil be saturated with water1 a part only of the water can be drawn out at the bottom4 ,the soil in the cask will remain moist1 retaining more or less of the water1 according to the character of the soil4 ,why does not the water all run out of the soil1 and leave it dry8 ,an answer may be found in the books1 which is1 in reality1 but a re-statement of the fact1 by reference to a principle of nature1 by no means intelligible to finite minds1 called attraction4 ,if two substances are placed in close contact with each other1 they cannot be separated without a certain amount of force4 ,if we wet the surfaces of two pieces of glass1 and place them in contact1 we shall find that they adhere to each other1 and that1 independently of the effect of the pressure of the air1 they oppose considerable resistance to any attempt to separate them4 ,again1 if we bring any substance1 as the blade of a knife1 in contact with water1 the water adheres to the blade in a thin film1 and remains1 by what is termed adhesive attraction4 ,this property resides in the surface of bodies1 and is in proportion to the extent of its surface4 ,soils possess this property1 in common with all other bodies1 and possess it1 in a greater or less degree1 according to the aggregate surface which the particles of a given bulk present4 ,thus1 clay may1 by means of kneading1 be made to contain so large a quantity of water1 as that1 at last1 it may almost be supposed to be divided into infinitesimally thin layers1 having each a film of water adhering to it on either side4 ,such soils1 again1 as sand or chalk1 the particles of which are coarser exert a less degree of adhesive attraction for water4--,cyc4 of ,ag41 #fie4 ,professor ,schuebler1 of ,tubingen1 gives the results of experiments upon this point4 ,by dropping water upon dried soils of different kinds1 until it began to drop from the bottom1 he found that #ajj lbs4 of soil held by attraction1 as follows3 ,sand #be lbs4 of water4 ,loamy ,soil #dj ,clay ,loam #ej ,pure ,clay #gj ,mr4 ,shedd1 of ,boston1 gives the result of a recent experiment of his own on this point4 ,he writes thus3 ,i have made an experiment with a soil of ordinary tenacity1 to ascertain how much water it would hold in suspension1 with the following result3 ,one cubic foot of earth held #j4dhbfdcd cubic feet of water2 three feet of dry soil of that character will receive #a4ddgic ft4 vertical depth of water before any drains off1 or seventeen and three-quarter inches1 equal to nearly six month's rain-fall4 ,one cubic foot of earth held #c4ecgac gallons of water1 or if drains are three feet deep1 one square foot of surface would receive #aj4fa gallons of water1 before saturation4 ,other soils would sustain a greater or less quantity1 according to their character4 ,besides this power of retaining water1 when brought into contact with it1 the soil has1 in common with other porous bodies1 the power of drawing up moisture1 or of absorbing it1 independent of gravitation1 or of the weight of the water which aids to carry it down into the soil4 ,this power is called capillary attraction1 from the hair-like tubes used in early experiments4 ,if very minute tubes1 open at both ends1 are placed upright1 partly immersed in a vessel of water1 the water rises in the tubes perceptibly higher than its general surface in the vessel4 ,a sponge1 from which water has been pressed out1 held over a basin of water1 so that its lower part touches the surface1 draws up the water till it is saturated4 ,a common flower-pot1 with a perforated bottom1 and filled with dry earth1 placed in a saucer of water1 best illustrates this point4 ,the water rises at once to a common level in the pot and outside4 ,this represents the water-table in the soil of our fields4 ,but1 from this level1 water will continue to rise in the earth in the pot1 till it is moistened to the surface1 and this1 too1 is by capillary attraction4 ,the tendency of water to ascend1 however1 is not the same in all soils4 ,in coarse gravelly soils1 the principle may not operate perfectly1 because the interstices are too large1 the weight of the water overcoming the power of attraction1 as in the cask of stones or shot4 ,in very fine clay1 on the other hand1 although it be absorptive and retentive of water1 yet the particles are so fine1 and the spaces between them so small1 that this attraction1 though sure1 would be slow in operation4 ,a loamy1 light1 well pulverized soil1 again1 would perhaps furnish the best medium for the diffusion of water in this way4 ,it is impossible to set limits to so uncertain a power as this of capillary attraction4 ,we see that in minute glass tubes1 it has power to raise water a small fraction of an inch only4 ,we see that1 in the sponge or flower-pot1 it has power to raise water many inches2 and we know that1 in the soil1 moisture is thus attracted upwards several feet4 ,by observing a saturated sponge in a saucer1 we shall see that1 although moist at the top1 it holds more and more water to the bottom4 ,so1 in the saturated earth in a flower-pot1 the earth1 merely moist at the surface1 is wet mud just above the water-table4 ,so1 in drained land1 the capillary force which retained the water in the soil to the height of a few inches1 is no longer able to sustain it1 when the height is increased to feet1 and a portion descends into the drain1 leaving the surface comparatively dry4 ,thus1 it would seem1 that draining may modify the force of capillary attraction1 while it cannot affect that of adhesive attraction4 ,it may drain off surplus water1 but1 unaided1 can never render any arable land too dry4 ,if1 however1 the surplus water be speedily taken off by drainage1 and the capillary attraction be greatly impaired1 so that little water is drawn upwards by its force1 will not the soil soon become parched by the heat of the sun1 or1 in other words1 by evaporation8 ,without stopping in this place1 to speak of evaporation1 we may answer1 that1 in our burning ,summer heat1 the earth would be burnt up too dry for any vegetation1 were it not for a beneficent arrangement of ,providence1 which counteracts the effect of the sun's rays1 and of which we will now make mention4 ,power to imbibe moisture from the air4--,we have spoken1 in another place1 of the absorption1 by drained land1 of fertilizing substances from the atmosphere4 ,dry soil has1 too1 a wonderful power of deriving moisture from the same source4 ,when a portion of soil1 says ,johnston1 is dried carefully over boiling water1 or in an oven1 and is then spread out upon a sheet of paper in the open air1 it will gradually drink in watery vapor from the atmosphere1 and will thus increase in weight4 ,in hot climates and in dry seasons1 this property is of great importance1 restoring as it does1 to the thirsty soil1 and bringing within the reach of plants1 a portion of the moisture1 which1 during the day1 they had so copiously exhaled4 ,different soils possess this power in unequal degrees4 ,during a night of #ab hours1 and when the air is moist1 according to ,schuebler1 #ajjj lbs4 of perfectly dry ,quartz sand will gain #j lbs4 ,calcareous sand #b ,loamy soil #ba ,clay loam #be ,pure agricultural clay #bg ,sir ,humphrey ,davy found1 that the power of attraction for water1 generally proved an index to the agricultural value of soils4 ,it is1 however1 but one means of judging of their value4 ,peaty soils and strong clays are very absorbent of water1 although not always the best for cultivation4 ,sir ,h4 ,davy gives the following results of his experiments4 ,when made perfectly dry1 #ajjj lbs4 of a ,very fertile soil from ,east ,lothian1 gained in an hour #ah lbs4 ,very fertile soil from ,somersetshire #af ,soil1 worth #des41 7rent7 from ,essex #ac ,sandy soil1 worth #bhs41 from ,essex #aa ,coarse sand1 worth #aes4 #h ,soil of ,bagshot ,heath #c ,this sort of attraction1 however1 suggests a writer in the ,cyclopedia of ,agriculture1 it may be believed1 depends upon other causes besides the attraction of adhesion4 ,the power of attraction1 which certain substances exhibit for the vapor of water1 is more akin to the force which enables certain porous bodies to absorb and retain many times their volume of the different gases2 as charcoal1 of ammonia1 of which it is said to absorb ninety times its own bulk4 ,here again1 we find in the soil1 an inexplicable but beneficent power1 by which it supplies itself with moisture when it most needs it4 ,warm air is capable of holding more vapor than cooler air1 and the very heat of ,summer supplies it with moisture by evaporation from land and water4 ,as the air is cooled1 at nightfall1 it must somewhere deposit the water1 which the hand of the ,unseen presses out of it by condensation4 ,the sun-dried surface of fertile1 well drained soil1 is in precisely the condition best adapted to receive the refreshing draught1 and convey it to the thirsting plants4 ,we may form some estimate of the vast amount absorbed by an acre of land in a dry season1 by considering that the clay loam1 in the above statement1 absorbed in #ab hours a fortieth part of its own weight4 ,,of ,,dew4 ,dew is one of the most ordinary forms in which moisture is deposited in and upon the soil1 in its natural conditions4 ,the absorbent power of artificially-dried soils1 as has been seen1 seems to depend much upon their chemical constitution2 and that topic has been considered1 without special reference to the comparative temperature of the soil and atmosphere4 ,the soil1 as we have seen1 absorbs moisture from the air1 when both are of the same temperature1 the amount absorbed depending also upon the physical condition of the soil1 and upon the comparative moisture of the soil and atmosphere4 ,the deposition of dew results from a different law4 ,all bodies throw off1 at all times1 heat1 by radiation1 as it is termed4 ,in the day-time1 the sun's rays warm the earth1 and the air is heated by it1 and that nearest the surface is heated most4 ,evaporation is constantly going on from the earth and water1 and loads the air with vapor1 and the warmer the air1 the more vapor it will hold4 ,when the sun goes down1 the earth still continues to throw off heat by radiation1 and soon becomes cooler than the air1 unless the same amount of heat be returned1 by radiation from other surfaces4 ,becoming cooler than the air1 the soil or plants cool the air which comes in contact with them2 and thus cooled to a certain point1 the air cannot hold all the vapor which it absorbed while warmer1 and part of it is deposited upon the soil1 plant1 or other cool surface4 ,this is dew2 and the temperature at which the air is saturated with vapor1 is called the dew-point4 ,if saturated at a given temperature with vapor1 the air1 when cooled below this point1 must part with a portion of the vapor1 in some way2 in the form of rain or mist1 if in the air2 in the form of dew1 if on the surface of the earth4 ,if1 however1 other surfaces1 at night1 radiate as much heat back to the earth as it throws off1 the surface of the earth is not thus cooled1 and there is no dew4 ,clouds radiate heat to the earth1 and1 therefore1 there is less dew in cloudy than in clear nights4 ,if the temperature of the earth sinks below the freezing-point1 the aqueous vapor is frozen1 and is then called frost4 ,to radiate back a portion of the heat thus thrown off by the soil and plants1 gardeners cover their tender plants and vines with mats or boards1 or even with thin cloth1 and thus protect them from frost4 ,if the covering touch the plants1 they are often frozen1 the heat being conducted off1 by contact1 to the covering1 and thence radiated4 ,dew then is an effect1 but not a cause1 of cold4 ,it imparts warmth1 because it can be deposited only on objects cooler than itself4 ,it has been supposed by many that the light of the moon promotes putrefaction4 ,pliny and ,plutarch both affirm this to be true4 ,dew1 by supplying moisture in the warm season1 aids this process of decay4 ,we have seen that dew is most abundant in clear nights2 and although all clear nights are not moonlight nights1 yet all moonlight nights are clear nights2 and this1 perhaps1 furnishes sufficient grounds for this belief1 as to the influence of the moon4 ,the quantity of dew deposited is not easily measured4 ,it has1 however1 been estimated by ,dr4 ,dalton1 to amount1 in ,england1 to five inches of water in a year1 or #ejj tons to the acre1 equal to about one quarter of our rain-fall during the six summer months6 ,deep and well-pulverized soils attract much more moisture1 in every form1 from the atmosphere1 than shallow and compact soils4 ,they1 in fact1 expose a much larger surface to the air4 ,this is the reason why stirring the ground1 even in the ,summer drought1 refreshes our fields of ,indian corn4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,injury ,,of ,,land ,,by ,,drainage4 ,most ,land cannot be ,over-drained4--,nature a ,deep drainer4--,over-draining of ,peaty ,soils4--,lincolnshire ,fens2 ,visit to them in #aheg4--ef ,bushels of ,wheat to the ,acre4--,wet ,meadows subside by ,drainage4--,conclusions4 ,is there no danger of draining land too much8 ,may not land be over-drained8 ,these are questions often and very naturally asked1 and which deserve careful consideration4 ,the general answer would be that there is no danger to be apprehended from over-draining2 that no water will run out of land that would be of advantage to our cultivated crops by being retained4 ,in other words1 soils generally hold1 by capillary attraction1 all the moisture that is of any advantage to the crops cultivated on them2 and the water of drainage would1 if retained for want of outlets1 be stagnant1 and produce more evil than good4 ,we say this is generally true2 but there are said to be exceptional cases1 which it is proposed to consider4 ,if we bear in mind the condition of most soils in ,summer1 we shall see that this apprehension of over-draining is groundless4 ,the fear is1 that crops will suffer in time of drought1 if thoroughly drained4 ,now1 we know that1 in almost all ,new ,england1 the water-table is many feet below the surface4 ,our wells indicate pretty accurately where the water-table is1 and drains1 unless cut as low as the surface of the water in the wells1 would not run a drop of water in ,summer4 ,our farmers dig their wells twenty1 and even fifty1 feet deep1 and expect that1 every ,summer1 the water will sink to nearly that depth2 but they have no apprehension that their crops will become dry1 because the water is not kept up to within three feet of the surface4 ,the fact is1 that ,nature drains thoroughly the greater portion of all our lands2 so that artificial drainage1 though it may remove surplus water from them more speedily in ,spring1 cannot make them more dry in ,summer4 ,and what thus happens naturally1 on most of the land1 without injury1 cannot be a dangerous result to effect by drainage on lands of similar character4 ,by thorough-drainage1 we endeavor to make lands which have an impervious or very retentive subsoil near the surface1 sufficiently open to allow the surplus water to pass off1 as it does naturally on our most productive upland4 ,,over-,,draining ,,of ,,peaty ,,soils4 ,no instance has yet been made public in ,america1 of the injury of peat lands by over-drainage2 but there is a general impression among ,english writers1 that peat soils are often injured in this way4 ,the ,lincolnshire ,fens are cited by them1 as illustrations of the fact1 that these lands do not require deep drainage4 ,mr4 ,pusey says1 ,every one who is practically acquainted with moory land1 knows that such land may be easily over-drained1 so that the soil becomes dusty or husky1 as it is called--that is1 like a dry sponge--the white crops flag1 and the turnip leaves turn yellow in a long drought4 ,these ,fens contain an immense extent of land4 ,the ,great ,level of the ,fens1 it is said1 contains #fjj1jjj acres4 ,much of this was formerly covered by the tides1 and all of it1 as the name indicates1 was of a marshy character4 ,the water being excluded by embankments against the sea and rivers1 and pumped out by steam engines1 and the land under-drained generally with tiles1 so that the height of the water is under the control of the proprietors1 grave disputes have arisen as to the proper amount of drainage4 ,an impression has heretofore prevailed1 that these lands would be too dry if the water were pumped out1 so as to reduce the water-table more than a foot or two below the surface1 but this idea is now controverted4 ,in ,july #aheg1 in company with three of the best farmers in ,lincolnshire1 the writer visited the ,fens1 and carefully examined the crops and drainage4 ,we passed a day with one of the proprietors1 who gave us some information upon the point in question4 ,he stated1 that in general1 the occupants of this land entertain the opinion1 that the crops would be ruined by draining to the depth of four feet4 ,so strongly was he impressed with the belief that a deeper drainage was desirable1 that he had enclosed his own estate with separate embankments1 and put up a steam-engine1 and pumped out the water to the depth of four feet1 while from the land all around him1 it is pumped out only a foot and a half below the surface1 though in ,summer it may sometimes fall somewhat lower4 ,the crops on this land were astonishing4 ,our friends estimated that the wheat then growing and nearly ripe1 would yield fifty-six bushels to the acre4 ,although this was considered a very dry season1 the crops on the land of our host were fully equal to the best upon the ,fens4 ,the soil upon that part of the ,fens is now a fine black loam of twelve or eighteen inches depth1 resting upon clay4 ,upon other portions1 the soil is of various depth and character1 resting sometimes upon gravel4 ,attention is called to these facts here1 to show that the common impression that these lands will not bear deep drainage1 is controverted among the occupants themselves1 and may prove to be one of those errors which becomes traditional1 we hardly know how4 ,most peat meadows1 in ,new ,england1 when first relieved of stagnant water1 are very light and spongy4 ,the soil is filled with acids which require to be neutralized by an application of lime1 or what is cheaper and equally effectual1 by exposure to the atmosphere4 ,these soils1 when the water is suddenly drawn out of them1 retain their bulk for a time1 and are too porous and unsubstantial for cultivation4 ,a season or two will cure this evil1 in many cases4 ,the soil will become more compact1 and will often settle down many inches4 ,it is necessary to bear this in mind in adjusting the drains1 because a four-foot drain1 when laid1 may1 by the mere subsidence of the land1 become a three-foot drain4 ,a hasty judgment1 in any case1 that the land is over-drained1 should be suspended until the soil has acquired compactness by its own weight1 and by the ameliorating effect of culture and the elements4 ,mr4 ,denton1 alluding to the opinion of many intelligent men1 that low meadow-land should be treated differently to upland pasture1 and upland pasture differently to arable land1 says1 ,my own observations bring me to the conclusion1 that it is not possible to lay pasture-land too dry2 for ,i have invariably remarked1 during the recent dry ,summer and ,autumn particularly1 that both in lowland meadows1 and upland pastures1 those lands which have been most thoroughly drained by deep and frequent drains1 are those that have preserved the freshest and most profitable herbage4 ,while1 therefore1 we have much doubt whether any land1 high or low1 can be over-drained for general cultivation1 it is probable that a less expensive mode of drainage may be sometimes expedient for grass alone4 ,while we believe that1 in general1 even peat soils may be safely drained to the same depth with other soil1 there seems to be a well-founded opinion that they may frequently be rendered productive by a less thorough system4 ,the only safety for us1 is in careful experiment with our own lands1 which vary so much in character and location1 that no precise rules can be prescribed for their treatment4 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,obstruction ,,of ,,drains4 ,tiles will fill up1 unless well laid4--,obstruction by ,sand or ,silt4--,obstructions at the ,outlet from ,frogs1 ,moles1 ,action of ,frost1 and ,cattle4--,obstruction by ,roots4--,willow1 ,ash1 c41 ,trees capricious4--,roots enter ,perennial ,streams4--,obstruction by ,mangold ,wurtzel4--,obstruction by ,per-,oxide of ,iron4--,how ,prevented--,obstruction by the ,joints ,filling4--,no ,danger with ,two-,inch ,pipes4--,water through the ,pores4--,collars4--,how to ,detect ,obstructions4 ,but won't these tiles get filled up and stopped8 asks almost every inquirer on the subject of tile draining4 ,certainly1 they will1 if not laid with great care1 and with all proper precautions against obstructions4 ,it cannot be too often repeated1 that tile-drainage requires science1 and knowledge1 and skill1 as well as money2 and no man should go into it blindfold1 or with faith in his innate perceptions of right4 ,if he does1 his education will be expensive4 ,it is proposed to mention all the various modes by which tiles have been known to be obstructed1 and to suggest how the danger of failure1 by means of them1 may be obviated4 ,let not enterprising readers be alarmed at such an array of difficulties1 for the more conspicuous they become1 the less is the danger from them4 ,obstruction by ,sand or ,silt4 ,probably1 more drains are rendered worthless1 by being filled up with earthy matter1 which passes with water through the joints of the tiles1 than by every other cause4 ,fine sand will pass through the smallest aperture1 if there is a current of water sufficient to move it1 and silt1 or the fine deposit of mud or other earth1 which is held almost in solution in running water1 is even more insinuating in its ways than sand4 ,very often1 drains are filled up and ruined by these deposits2 and1 unless the fall be considerable1 and the drain be laid with even descent1 if earth of any kind find entrance1 it must endanger the permanency of the work4 ,to guard against the admission of everything but water1 lay drains deep enough to be beyond the danger of water bursting in1 in streamlets4 ,water should enter the drain at the bottom1 by rising to the level of the tiles1 and not by sinking from the surface directly to them4 ,if the land is sandy1 great care must be used4 ,in draining through flowing sand1 especially if there be a quick descent1 the precaution of sheathing tiles is resorted to4 ,that is done by putting small tiles inside of larger ones1 breaking joints inside1 and thus laying a double drain4 ,this is only necessary1 however1 in spots of sand full of spring-water4 ,next best to this mode1 is the use of collars over the joints1 but these are not often used1 though recommended for sandy land4 ,at least1 in all land not perfectly sound1 be careful to secure the joints in some way4 ,an inverted turf1 carefully laid over the joint1 is oftenest used4 ,good1 clean1 fine gravel is1 perhaps1 best of all4 ,spent tan bark1 when it is to be conveniently procured1 is excellent1 because it strains out the earth1 while it freely admits water2 and any particles of tan that find entrance1 are floated out upon the water4 ,the same may be said of sawdust4 ,to secure the exit of earth that may enter at the joints1 there should be care that the tiles be smooth inside1 that they be laid exactly in line1 and that there be a continuous descent4 ,if there be any place where the water rises in the tiles1 in that place1 every particle of sand1 or other matter heavier than water1 will be likely to stop1 until a barrier is formed1 and the drain stopped4 ,in speaking of the forms of tiles1 the superiority of rounded openings over those with flat bottom has been shown4 ,the greater head of water in a round pipe1 gives it force to drive before it all obstructions1 and so tends to keep the drain clear4 ,obstructions at the ,outlet4 ,the water from deep drains is usually very clear1 and cattle find the outlet a convenient place to drink at1 and constantly tread up the soft ground there1 and obstruct the flow of water4 ,all earthy matter1 and chemical solutions of iron1 and the like1 tend to accumulate by deposit at the outlet4 ,frogs and mice1 and insects of many kinds1 collect about such places1 and creep into the drains4 ,the action of frost in cold regions displaces the earth1 and even masonry1 if not well laid2 and back-water1 by flowing into the drains1 hinders the free passage of water4 ,all these causes tend to obstruct drains at the outlet4 ,if once stopped there1 the whole pipe becomes filled with stagnant water1 which deposits all its earthy matter1 and soon becomes obstructed at other points1 and so becomes useless4 ,the outlet must be rendered secure from all these dangers1 at all seasons1 by some such means as are suggested in the chapter on the ,arrangement of ,drains4 ,obstruction by roots4 ,on the author's farm in ,exeter1 a wooden drain1 to carry off waste water from a watering place1 was laid1 with a triangular opening of about four inches4 ,this was found to be obstructed the second year after it was laid2 and upon taking it up1 it proved to be entirely filled for several feet1 with willow roots1 which grew like long1 fine grass1 thickly matted together1 so as entirely to close the drain4 ,there was a row of large willows about thirty feet distant1 and as the drain was but about two feet deep1 they found their way easily to it1 and entering between the rough joints of the boards1 not very carefully fitted1 fattened on the spring water till they outgrew their new house4 ,a neighbor says1 he never wants a tree within ten rods of any land he desires to plow2 and it would be unsafe to undertake to set limits to the extent of the roots of trees4 ,no crevice1 however small1 says a writer1 is proof against the entrance of the roots of water-loving trees4 ,the behavior of roots is1 however1 very capricious in this matter2 for1 while occasional instances occur of drains being obstructed by them1 it is a very common thing for drains to operate perfectly for indefinite periods1 where they run through forests and orchards for long distances4 ,they1 however1 who lay drains near to willows and ashes1 and the like cold-water drinkers1 must do it at the peril of which they are warned4 ,laying the tiles deep and with collars will afford the best security from all danger of this kind4 ,thos4 ,gisborne1 ,esq41 in a note to the edition of his ,essay on ,drainage published in #aheb1 says3 ,my own experience as to roots1 in connection with deep pipe draining1 is as follows3--,i have never known roots to obstruct a pipe through which there was not a perennial stream4 ,the flow of water in ,summer and early ,autumn appears to furnish the attraction4 ,i have never discovered that the roots of any esculent vegetable have obstructed a pipe4 ,the trees which1 by my own personal observation1 ,i have found to be most dangerous1 have been red willow1 black ,italian poplar1 alder1 ash1 and broad-leaved elm4 ,i have many alders in close contiguity with important drains2 and1 though ,i have never convicted one1 ,i can not doubt that they are dangerous4 ,oak1 and black and white thorns1 ,i have not detected1 nor do ,i suspect them4 ,the guilty trees have1 in every instance1 been young and free growing2 ,i have never convicted an adult4 ,mangold-wurzel1 it is said by several writers1 will sometimes grow down into tile drains1 even to the depth of four feet1 and entirely obstruct them2 but those are cases of very rare occurrence4 ,in thousands of instances1 mangolds have been cultivated on drained land1 even where tiles were but #b-a_/b feet deep1 without causing any obstruction of the drains4 ,any reader who is curious in such matters1 may find in the appendix to the #ajth ,vol4 of the ,journal of the ,royal ,ag4 ,soc41 a singular instance of obstruction of drains by the roots of the mangold1 as well as instances of obstructions by the roots of trees4 ,obstruction by ,per-oxide of ,iron4 ,in the author's barn-cellar is a watering place1 supplied by a half-inch lead pipe1 from a spring some eight rods distant4 ,this pipe several times in a year1 sometimes once a week1 in cold weather1 is entirely stopped4 ,the stream of water is never much larger than a lead pencil4 ,we usually start it with a sort of syringe1 by forcing into the outlet a quantity of water4 ,it then runs very thick1 and of the color of iron rust1 sometimes several pails full1 and will then run clear for weeks or months1 perhaps4 ,in the tub which receives the water1 there is always a large deposit of this same colored substance2 and along the street near by1 where the water oozes out of the bank1 there is this same appearance of iron4 ,this deposit is1 in common language1 called per-oxide of iron1 though this term is not1 by chemists of the present day1 deemed sufficiently accurate1 and the word sesqui-oxide is preferred in scientific works4 ,iron exists in all animal and vegetable matter1 and in all soils1 to some extent4 ,it exists as protoxide of iron1 in which one atom of iron always combines with one atom of oxygen1 and it exists as sesqui-oxide of iron1 from the ,latin sesqui1 which means one and a half1 in which one and a half atoms of oxygen combine with one atom of iron4 ,the less accurate term1 per-oxide1 has been adopted here1 because it is found in general use by writers on drainage4 ,the theory is that the iron exists in the soil1 and is held in solution in water as a protoxide1 and is converted into per-oxide by contact with the air1 either in the drains or at their outlets1 and is then deposited at the bottom of the water4 ,in a pipe running full there would be1 upon this theory1 no exposure to the air1 which should form the per-oxide4 ,in the case stated1 it is probable that the per-oxide is formed at the exposed surface of a large cask1 at the spring1 and is carried into the pipe1 as it is precipitated4 ,common drain pipes would be full of air1 which might1 perhaps1 in a feeble current1 be sufficient to cause this deposit4 ,occasionally1 cases have occurred of obstruction from this cause1 and whenever the signs of this deposit are visible about the field to be drained1 care must be used to guard against it in draining4 ,to guard against obstruction from per-oxide of iron1 tiles should be laid deep1 closely jointed or collared1 with great care that the fall be continuous1 and especially that there be a quick fall at the junctions of minor drains with mains1 and a clear outlet4 ,mr4 ,beattie1 of ,aberdeen1 says3 ,before adopting #d feet drains1 ,i had much difficulty in dealing with the iron ore which generally appeared at two to three feet from the surface1 but by the extra depth the water filters off to the pipes free of ore4 ,occasionally1 iron ore is found at a greater depth1 but the floating substance is then in most cases lighter1 and does not adhere to the pipes in the same way as that found near the surface4 ,arrangements should also be made for examining the drains by means of wells1 and for flushing them by holding back the water until the drains are filled1 and then letting it suddenly off1 or1 by occasionally admitting a stream of water at the upper end1 when practicable1 and thus washing out the pipes4 ,mr4 ,denton says3 ,it is found that the use of this contrivance for flushing1 will get rid of the per-oxide of iron1 about which so much complaint is made4 ,obstruction by ,filling at the ,joints4 ,one would suppose that tiles might frequently be prevented from receiving water1 by the filling up of the crevices between them4 ,if water poured on to tiles in a stream1 it would be likely to carry into these openings enough earthy matter to fill them2 but the whole theory of thorough-drainage rests upon the idea of slow percolation--of the passage of water in the form of fine dew1 as it were--through the motionless particles which compose the soil2 and1 if drains are properly laid1 there can be no motion of particles of earth1 either into or towards the tiles4 ,the water should soak through the ground precisely as it does through a wet cloth4 ,in an article in the ,journal of the ,society of ,arts1 published in #ahee1 ,mr4 ,thomas ,arkell states that in #ahdf he had drained a few acres with #a-a_/d inch pipes1 about three feet deep1 and #ba to #be feet apart4 ,the drains acted well1 and the land was tolerably dry and healthy for the first few years2 but afterwards1 in wet seasons1 it was very wet1 and appeared full of water1 like undrained land1 although at the time all the drains were running1 but very slowly4 ,his conclusion was that mud had entered the crevices1 and stopped the water out4 ,he says he has known other persons1 who had used small pipes1 who had suffered in the same way4 ,there are many persons still in ,england1 who are so apprehensive on this point1 that they continue to use horse-shoe tiles1 or1 as they are sometimes called1 tops and bottoms1 which admit water more freely along the joints4 ,the most skillful engineers1 however1 decidedly prefer round pipes1 but recommend that none smaller than one-and-a-half-inch be used1 and prefer two-inch to any smaller size4 ,the circumference of a two-inch pipe is not far from nine inches1 while that of a one-inch pipe1 of common thickness1 is about half that1 so that the opening is twice as extensive in the two-inch1 pipes as in the one-inch pipe4 ,the ascertained instances of the obstruction of pipes1 by excluding the water from the joints1 are very few4 ,no doubt that clay1 puddled in upon the tiles when laid1 might have this effect2 but they who have experience in tile-drainage1 will bear witness that there is far more difficulty in excluding sand and mud1 than there is in admitting water4 ,it is thought1 by some persons1 that sufficient water to drain land may be admitted through the pores of the tiles4 ,we have no such faith4 ,the opinion of ,mr4 ,parkes1 that about #ejj times as much water enters at the crevices between each pair of tiles1 as is absorbed through the tiles themselves1 we think to be far nearer the truth4 ,collars have a great tendency to prevent the closing up of the crevices between tiles2 but injuries to drains laid at proper depths1 with two-inch pipes1 even without collars1 must be very rare4 ,indeed1 no single case of a drain obstructed in this way1 when laid four feet deep1 has yet come within our reading or observation1 and it is rather as a possible1 than even a probable1 cause of failure1 that it has been mentioned4 ,,how ,,to ,,detect ,,obstructions ,,in ,,drains4 ,when a drain is entirely obstructed1 if there is a considerable flow of water1 and the ground is much descending1 the water will at once press through the joints of the pipes1 and show itself at the surface4 ,by thrusting down a bar along the course of the drain1 the place of the obstruction will be readily determined2 for the water will1 at the point of greatest pressure1 burst up in the hole made by the bar1 like a spring1 while below the point of obstruction1 there will be no upward pressure of the water1 and above it1 the pressure will be less the farther we go4 ,the point being determined1 it is the work of but few minutes to dig down upon the drain1 remove carefully a few pipes1 and take out the frog1 or mouse1 or the broken tile1 if such be the cause of the difficulty4 ,if silt or earth has caused the obstruction1 it is probably because of a depression in the line of the drain1 or a defect in some junction with other drains1 and this may require the taking up of more or less of the pipes4 ,if there be but little fall in the drains1 the obstruction will not be so readily found2 but the effect of the water will soon be observed at the surface1 both in keeping the soil wet1 and in chilling the vegetation upon it4 ,if proper peep-holes have been provided1 the place of any obstruction may readily be determined1 at a glance into them4 ,upon our own land1 we have had two or three instances of obstruction by sand1 very soon after the tiles were laid1 and always at the junction of drains imperfectly secured with bricks1 before we had procured proper branch-pipes for the purpose4 ,a little experience will enable the proprietor at once to detect any failure of his drains1 and to apply the proper remedy4 ,obstructions from silt and sand are much more likely to occur during the first season after the drains are laid1 than afterwards1 because the earth is loose about the pipes1 and more liable to be washed into the joints1 than after it has become compact4 ,on the whole1 we believe the danger to tile-drains1 of obstruction1 is very little1 provided good tiles are used1 and proper care is exercised in laying them4 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,drainage ,,of ,,stiff ,,clays4 ,clay not impervious1 or it could not be wet and dried4--,puddling1 what is4--,water will stand over ,drains on ,puddled ,soil4--,cracking of ,clays by ,drying4--,drained ,clays improve by time4--,passage of ,water through ,clay makes it permeable4--,experiment by ,mr4 ,pettibone1 of ,vermont4--,pressure of ,water in saturated ,soil4 ,it is a common impression that clay is impervious to water1 and that1 therefore1 a clay soil cannot be drained1 especially by deep under-drains4 ,a moment's reflection will satisfy any one that such land is not absolutely impervious4 ,we find such land is wet in ,spring1 at any depth2 and1 in the latter part of ,summer1 we find it comparatively dry4 ,how comes it wet1 at any time1 if water does not go into it8 ,and how comes it dry1 at any time1 if water does not come out of it8 ,in treating of the power of the soil to absorb moisture1 we have shown that a clay soil will absorb more than half its weight and bulk of water1 and that it holds more water than any other soil1 with1 perhaps1 the single exception of peat4 ,the facts1 however1 that clay may be wet1 and may be dried1 and that it readily absorbs large quantities of water1 though they prove conclusively that it is not impervious to water1 yet do not prove that water will pass through it with sufficient rapidity to answer the practical purposes of drainage for agriculture4 ,this point can only be satisfactorily determined by experiment4 ,it is not necessary1 however1 that each farmer should try the experiment for himself2 because1 although we are very apt to think our own case an exception to all general rules1 it is not really probable that any new kind of clay will be discovered hereafter1 that is so different from all other clay that is known1 that established principles will not apply to it4 ,so far as our own observation extends1 owners of clay farms always over-estimate the difficulty of draining their land4 ,there are certain notorious facts with regard to clay1 which mislead the judgment of men on this point4 ,one of these facts is1 that clay is used for stopping water1 by the process called puddling4 ,puddled clay is used for the bottom of ponds1 and of canals1 and of reservoirs1 and1 for such purposes1 is regarded as nearly1 or quite impervious4 ,we see that1 on our clay fields1 water stands upon the surface1 especially in the ruts of wheels1 and on headlands much trodden1 late in the season1 and when1 in other places1 it has disappeared4 ,this is due1 also1 to puddling4 ,puddling is merely the working of wet clay1 or other soil1 by beating1 or treading1 or stirring1 until its particles are so finely divided that water has an exceedingly slow passage between them1 with ordinary pressure4 ,we see the effect of this operation on common highways1 where water often stands for many days in puddles1 because the surface has been ground so fine1 and rendered so compact1 by wheels and horses1 that the water cannot find passage4 ,this1 however1 is not the natural condition of any clay2 nor can any clay be kept in this condition1 except by being constantly wet4 ,if once dried1 or subjected to the action of frost1 the soil resumes its natural condition of porosity1 as will be presently explained4 ,they who object to deep drainage1 or to the possibility of draining stiff clays1 point to the fact that water may be seen standing directly over the drains1 on thorough-drained fields4 ,we have seen this on our own fields4 ,in one instance1 we had1 after laying tiles through a field1 at #ej feet intervals1 in the same ,autumn1 when the land was wet1 teamed across it a large quantity of soil for compost1 with a heavy ox-team4 ,the next ,spring1 the water stood for many days in that track which passed across tile-drains1 after it had disappeared elsewhere in the field4 ,a fine crop of ,indian corn grew on the field that year1 but the effect of the puddling was visible the whole season4 ,one inch of wet and worked clay1 says a scientific writer1 will prevent water from passing through1 so long as it is kept wet1 as effectually as a yard will do4 ,if1 says ,gisborne1 you eat off turnips with sheep1 if you plow the land1 or cart on it1 or in any way puddle it1 when it is wet1 of course the water will lie on the surface1 and will not go to your drains4 ,a four-foot drain may go very near a pit1 or a water-course1 without attracting water from either1 because water-courses almost invariably puddle their beds2 and the same effect is produced in pits by the treading of cattle1 and even by the motion of the water produced by wind4 ,a very thin film of puddle1 always wet on one side1 is impervious1 because it cannot crack4 ,in those four words1 we find an allusion to the whole mystery of the drainage of clays--a key which unlocks the secret by which the toughest of these soils may be converted1 as by a fairy charm1 to fields of waving grain4 ,,cracking ,,of ,,clays ,,by ,,drying4 ,in drying under the influence of the sun1 says ,prof4 ,johnston1 soils shrink in1 and thus diminish in bulk1 in proportion to the quantity of clay1 or of peaty matter1 they contain4 ,sand scarcely diminishes at all in bulk by drying2 but peat shrinks one-fifth in bulk1 and strong agricultural clay nearly as much4 ,by laying drains in land1 we take from it that portion of the water that will run out at the bottom4 ,the sun1 by evaporation1 then takes out a portion at the top4 ,the soil is thus contracted1 and1 as the ends of the field cannot approach each other1 both soil and subsoil are torn apart1 and divided by a network of cracks and fissures4 ,every one who is familiar with clay land1 or who has observed the bottom of a ditch or frog pond by the roadside1 must have observed these cracks1 thus caused by the contraction of the soil in drying4 ,the same contraction occurs in drier land1 by cold1 in ,winter2 by which1 in cold regions1 deep rents are made in the earth1 and reports1 like those of cannon1 are often heard4 ,the cracking by drying1 however1 is more quiet in its effects1 merely dividing the ground1 noiselessly1 into smaller and smaller masses1 as the process proceeds4 ,were it not for this process1 it may well be doubted whether clay lands could be effectually drained at all4 ,nature1 however1 seems to second our efforts here1 for we have seen that the stiffer the clay1 the greater the contraction1 and the more the soil is split up and rendered permeable by this operation4 ,these cracks are found1 by observation1 to commence at the drains1 and extend further and further1 in almost straight lines1 into the subsoil1 forming so many minor drains1 or feeders1 all leading to the tiles4 ,these main fissures have numerous smaller ones diverging from them1 so that the whole mass is divided and subdivided into the most minute portions4 ,the main fissures gradually enlarge1 as the dryness increases1 and1 at the same time1 lengthen out2 so that1 in a very dry season1 they may be traced the whole way between the drains4 ,the following cut will give some idea of these cracks1 or fissures1 as they exist in a dry time3 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ih4--;,cracking of ,clays by ,drainage4 ,mr4 ,gisborne says3 ,clay lands always shrink and crack with drought2 and the stiffer the clay1 the greater the shrinking1 as brick-makers well know4 ,in the great drought thirty-six years ago1 we saw1 in a very retentive soil in the ,vale of ,belvoir1 cracks which it was not very pleasant to ride among4 ,this very ,summer1 on land1 which1 with reference to this very subject1 the owner stated to be impervious1 we put a walking-stick three feet into a sun-crack without finding a bottom1 and the whole surface was a network of cracks4 ,in the drained soil1 the roots follow the threads of vegetable mould which have been washed into the cracks1 and get an abiding tenure4 ,earth-worms follow either the roots or the mould4 ,permanent schisms are established in the clay1 and its whole character is changed4 ,in the ,united ,states1 the supply of rain is far less uniform than in ,england1 and much severer droughts are experienced4 ,thus the contraction1 and consequent cracking of the soil1 must be greater here than in that country4 ,in laying drains more than four feet deep1 in the stiffest clay which the author has seen1 in a neighborhood furnishing abundance of brick and potter's clay1 these cracks were seen to extend to the very bottoms of the drains1 not in single fissures from top to bottom1 but in innumerable seams running in all directions1 so that the earth1 moved with the pick-axe1 came up in little cubes and flakes1 and could be separated into pieces of an inch or less diameter4 ,this was on a ridge which received no water except from the clouds1 having no springs in or upon it1 yet so nearly impervious to water1 that it remained soft and muddy till late in ,june4 ,in ,midsummer1 however1 under our burning sun1 it had1 by evaporation1 been so much dried as to produce the effect described4 ,in ,england1 we learn1 that these cracks extend to the depth of four feet or more4 ,mr4 ,hewitt ,davis stated in a public discussion1 with reference to draining strong soils1 that1 he gave four feet as the minimum depth of the drains in these soils1 because he had always found that the cracks and fissures formed by the drought and changes of temperature1 on the strongest clay1 and which made these soils permeable1 extended below this depth1 and the water from the surface might be made to reach the drains at this distance4 ,in clay that has never been dried1 as for instance1 that found under wet meadows from which the water has but recently been drawn1 we should not1 of course1 expect to find these cracks4 ,accordingly1 we find sometimes in clay pits1 excavated below the permanent water-line1 and in wells1 that the clay is in a compact mass1 and tears apart without exhibiting anything like these divisions4 ,we should not expect that1 on such a clay1 the full effect of drainage would be at once apparent4 ,the water falling on the surface would very slowly find its way downward1 at first4 ,but after the heat of ,summer1 aided by the drains underneath1 had contracted and cracked the soil1 passages for the water would soon be found1 and1 after a few years1 the whole mass1 to the depth of the drains1 would become open and permeable4 ,as an old ,english farmer said of his drains1 ,they do better year by year2 the water gets a habit of coming to them4 ,although this be not philosophical language1 yet the fact is correctly stated4 ,water tends towards the lowest openings4 ,a deep well often diverts the underground stream from a shallower well1 and lays it dry4 ,a single railroad cut sometimes draws off the supply of water from a whole neighborhood4 ,passages thus formed are enlarged by the pressure of the water1 and new ones are opened by the causes already suggested1 till the drainage becomes perfect for all practical purposes4 ,so much is this cracking process relied on to facilitate drainage1 that skillful drainers frequently leave their ditches partly open1 after laying the tiles1 that the heat may produce the more effect during the first season4 ,as to the depth of drains in stiff clays1 enough has already been said1 under the appropriate title4 ,in ,england1 the weight of authority is in favor of four-foot drains4 ,in this country1 a less depth has thus far1 in general1 been adopted in practice1 but it is believed that this has been because a greater depth has not been tried4 ,it is understood1 that the most successful drainers in the ,state of ,new ,york1 have been satisfied with three-foot drains1 not1 as it is believed1 because there is any instance on record1 in this country1 of the failure of four-foot drains1 but because the effect of more shallow drains has been so satisfactory1 that it has been thought a useless expense to go deeper4 ,to ,mr4 ,johnston and to ,mr4 ,delafield1 of ,seneca ,county1 the country is greatly indebted for their enterprise and leadership in the matter of drainage4 ,mr4 ,johnston gives it as his opinion1 that three feet is deep enough1 if the bottom is hard enough to lay tiles on2 if not1 go deeper4 ,without intimating that any different mode of drainage than that adopted1 would have been better on ,mr4 ,johnston's farm1 we should be unwilling to surrender1 even to the opinion of ,mr4 ,johnston and his friends1 our conviction that1 in general1 three-foot drains are too shallow4 ,mr4 ,johnston expressly disclaims any experience in draining a proper clay soil4 ,in the ,country ,gentleman1 of ,june #ajth1 #ahdh1 he says3 ,in a subsoil that is impervious to water1 either by being a red clay1 blue clay1 or hard-pan1 within a foot of the surface1 ,i would recommend farmers to feel their way very cautiously in draining4 ,if tiles and labor were as low here as in ,great ,britain1 we could afford to make drains sixteen feet apart in such land1 and then1 by loosening the soil1 say twenty inches deep1 by the subsoil plow1 ,i think such land might be made perfectly dry2 but ,i don't think the time is yet come1 considering the cost of tiles and labor1 to undertake such an outlay2 but still it might pay in the end4 ,i have found only a little of red clay subsoil in draining my farm4 ,i never had any blue clay on my farm1 or hard-pan1 to trouble me2 but ,i can readily perceive that it must be equally bad to drain as the tenacious red clay4 ,if ,i were going to purchase another farm1 ,i would look a great deal more to the subsoil than the surface soil4 ,if the subsoil is right1 the surface soil1 ,i think1 cannot be wrong4 ,in the same paper1 under date of ,july #hth1 ,mr4 ,johnston says1 ,the only experience ,i have had in digging into soils1 to judge of draining out of this county 7,seneca71 was in ,niagara4 ,he states the result of his observations thus3 ,a few inches below the surface ,i found a stiff blue clay for about ten inches deep1 and as impervious to water as so much iron4 ,underneath that blue clay1 ,i found a red clay1 apparently impervious to water2 but1 as water could not get through the blue1 ,i could only guess at that2 and1 after spending the greater part of the day1 with five men digging holes from four to five feet deep1 ,i found ,i knew no more how such land could be drained1 than a man who had never seen a drain dug4 ,i advised the gentleman to try a few experiments1 by digging a few ditches1 as ,i laid them out1 and plowing as deep as possible with a subsoil plow1 but to get no tile until he saw if he could get a run of water4 ,he paid my traveling expenses1 treated me very kindly and ,i have heard nothing from him since4 ,now1 if your correspondent's soil and subsoil is similar to that soil ,i would advise him to feel his way cautiously in draining4 ,certainly1 no man would be fool enough to dig ditches and lay tile1 if there is no water to carry off4 ,in the ,country ,gentleman of ,nov4 #ahth1 #aheh1 we find an interesting statement1 by ,john ,s4 ,pettibone1 of ,manchester1 ,vermont1 partly in reply to the statement of ,mr4 ,johnston4 ,the experiment by ,mr4 ,pettibone1 showing the increased permeability of clay1 merely by the passage of water through it1 is very interesting4 ,he says1 in his letter to the editor3 ,when so experienced a drainer as ,mr4 ,johnston expresses an opinion that some soils cannot be drained1 it is important we should know what the soil is which cannot be drained4 ,he uses the word stiff blue clay1 as descriptive of the soil which cannot be drained4 99 99 99 ,i had taken a specimen of what ,i thought to be stiff blue clay4 ,that clay1 when wet1 as taken out1 would hold water about as well as iron3 yet1 from experiments ,i have made1 ,i am confident that such clay soil can be drained1 and at much less expense than a hard-pan soil4 ,water will pass through such clay1 and the clay become dry2 and after it becomes once dry1 water will1 ,i am convinced1 readily pass down through such stiff blue clay4 ,the specimen was taken about three feet below the surface1 and on a level with a brook which runs through this clay soil4 ,i filled a one hundred-pound nail-keg with clay taken from the same place4 ,it was so wet1 that by shaking1 it came to a level1 and water rose to the top of the clay4 ,i had made holes in the bottom of the keg1 and set it up on blocks4 ,after twenty-four hours ,i came almost to the conclusion ,mr4 ,johnston did1 that water would not pass through this clay4 ,this trial was during the hot1 dry weather last ,summer4 ,after some ten or twelve days the clay appeared to be dry4 ,i then made a basin-like excavation in the top of the clay1 and put water in1 and the water disappeared rather slowly4 ,i filled the basin with water frequently1 and the oftener ,i filled it1 the more readily it passed off4 ,i left it for more than a week1 when we had a heavy shower4 ,after the shower ,i examined the keg1 and not a drop of water was to be seen4 ,i then took a chisel and cut a hole six inches down4 ,i took out a piece like the one ,i dried in the house1 and laid that up till it was perfectly dry4 ,there was a plain difference between the appearance of the two pieces4 ,the texture1 ,i should say1 was quite different4 ,that through which the water had passed1 after it had been dried1 was more open and porous4 ,it did not possess so much of the blue cast4 ,in less than one hour after the rain fell1 the clay taken six inches from the top of the keg would crumble by rubbing in the hand4 ,when we observe the effect of heat in opening clays to water by cracking1 and the effect of the water itself1 aided1 as it doubtless is1 by the action of the air1 in rendering the soil permeable1 we hardly need feel discouraged if the question rested entirely on this evidence2 but when we consider that thousands upon thousands of acres of the stiffest clays have been1 in ,england and ,scotland1 rescued from utter barrenness by drainage1 and made to yield the largest crops1 we should regard the question of practicability as settled4 ,the only question left for decision is whether1 under all the circumstances of each particular case1 the operation of draining our clay lands will be expedient--whether their increased value will pay the expense4 ,it is often objected to deep drains in clays1 that it is so far down to the drains that the water cannot readily pass through so large a mass4 ,if we think merely of a drop of rain falling on the surface1 and obliged to find its devious way through the mazes of cracks and particles till it gains an outlet at the bottom of four feet of clay1 it does seem a discouraging journey for the poor little solitary thing2 but there is a more correct view of the matter1 which somewhat relieves the difficulty4 ,all the water that will run out of the soil has departed2 but the soil holds a vast amount still1 by attraction4 ,the rain begins to fall2 and when the soil is saturated1 a portion passes into the drain2 but it is1 by no means1 the water which last fell upon the surface1 but that which was next the drain before the rain fell4 ,if you pour water into a tube that is nearly full1 the water which will first run from the other end is manifestly not that which you pour in4 ,so the ground is full of little tubes1 open at both ends1 in which the water is held by attraction4 ,a drop upon the surface drives out a drop at the lower end1 into to the drain1 and so the process goes on--the drains beginning to run as soon as the rain commences1 and ceasing to flow only when the principle of attraction balances the power of gravitation4 ,,pressure ,,of ,,water ,,in ,,the ,,soil4 ,in connection with the passage of water through clay soil1 it may be appropriate to advert to the question sometimes mooted1 whether in a soil filled with water1 at four feet depth1 there is the same pressure as there would be1 at the same depth1 in a river or pond4 ,the pressure of fluids on a given area1 is1 ordinarily1 in proportion to their vertical height2 and the pressure of a column of water1 four feet high1 would be sufficient to drive the lower particles into an opening like a drain1 with considerable force1 and the upper part of such a column would essentially aid the lower part in its downward passage4 ,does this pressure exist8 ,mr4 ,gisborne speaks undoubtingly on this point1 thus3 ,we will assume the drain to be four feet deep1 and the water-table to be at one foot below the surface of the earth4 ,every particle of water which lies at three feet below the water-table1 has on it the pressure of a column of water three feet high4 ,this pressure will drive the particle in any direction in which it finds no resistance1 with a rapidity varying inversely to the friction of the medium through which the column acts4 ,the bottom of our drains will offer no resistance1 and into it particles of water will be pushed1 in conformity with the rule we have stated2 rapidly1 if the medium opposes little friction2 slowly1 if it opposes much4 ,the water so pushed in runs off by the drain1 the column of pressure being diminished in proportion to the water which runs off4 ,mr4 ,thomas ,arkell1 in a paper read before the ,society of ,arts1 in #ahee1 says1 on this point3 ,the pressure due to a head of water of four or five feet1 may be imagined from the force with which water will come through the crevices of a hatch1 with that depth of water above it4 ,now1 there is the same pressure of water to enter the vacuum in the pipe-drain1 as there is against the hatches1 supposing the land to be full to the surface4 ,we do not find any intimation that there is any error in the view advanced by the learned gentleman quoted2 and if there is none1 we have an explanation of the faculty which water seems to have1 of finding its way into drainpipes4 ,yet1 we feel bound to confess1 that1 aside from authority1 we should have supposed that the pressure due to a column of pure water1 would be essentially lessened1 by the interposition of solid matter between its particles4 ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,effect ,,of ,,drainage ,,on ,,streams ,,and ,,rivers4 ,drainage ,hastens the ,supply to the ,streams1 and thus ,creates ,freshets4--,effect of ,drainage on ,meadows below2 on ,water ,privileges4--,conflict of ,manufacturing and ,agricultural ,interests4--,english ,opinions and ,facts4--,uses of ,drainage ,water4--,irrigation4--,drainage ,water for ,stock4--,how used by ,mr4 ,mechi4 ,the effect of drainage upon streams and rivers1 has1 perhaps1 little to interest merely practical men1 in this country1 at present2 but the time will soon arrive1 when mill-owners and land-owners will be compelled to investigate the subject4 ,men unaccustomed to minute investigation1 are slow to appreciate the great effects produced by apparently small causes2 and it may seem to many1 that the operations of drainage for agriculture1 are too insignificant in their details1 perceptibly to affect the flow of mill-streams and rivers4 ,a moment's thought will convince the most skeptical1 that the thorough-drainage of the wet lands1 even of a ,new ,england township1 must produce sensible effects upon the streams which convey its surplus water toward the sea4 ,in making investigations to ascertain what quantity of water may be relied upon to supply a reservoir1 whether natural or artificial1 for the use of a town or city1 a survey is first taken of the district of territory which naturally is drained into the reservoir1 and thus the number of square miles of surface is ascertained4 ,then the rain-tables are consulted1 and the fall of rain upon the surveyed district is computed4 ,the ascertained proportion of rain-fall1 which usually goes off by evaporation1 is then deducted1 which leaves with sufficient accuracy1 the amount of water which flows both upon the surface1 and through the soil1 to the reservoir4 ,with proper deductions for waste by freshets1 when the water will overflow the reservoir1 and for other known losses1 a reliable estimate is readily made1 in advance1 of the quantity of water supplied to the reservoir4 ,now1 these reservoirs ,nature has placed in all our valleys1 in the form of lakes and ponds1 and the drainage into them is by natural springs and streams2 and the annual amount of the water thus naturally flowing into them may be readily computed1 if the area within their head-waters be known4 ,if the earth's surface were1 like iron1 impervious to water1 the rain-water would come in torrents down the hill-sides1 and along the gentle declivities1 into the streams1 creating freshets and inundations in a few hours4 ,but instead of that1 the soft showers fall1 often on the open1 thirsty soil1 and so are gradually absorbed4 ,a part of the rain-water is there held1 until it returns by evaporation1 to the clouds1 while a part slowly percolates downward1 finding its way into swamps and springy plains1 and finally1 after days or weeks of wandering1 slowly1 but surely1 finds its outlet in the stream or pond4 ,if now1 this surplus of water1 this part which cannot be evaporated1 and must therefore1 sooner or later1 enter the stream or pond1 be1 by artificial channels1 carried directly to its destination1 without the delay of filtration through swamps and clay-banks2 the effect of rain to raise the streams and ponds1 must be more sudden and immediate4 ,agricultural drains furnish those artificial channels4 ,the flat and mossy swamp1 which before retained the water until the ,midsummer drought1 and then slowly parted with it1 by evaporation or gradual filtration1 now1 by thorough-drainage1 in two or three days at most1 sends all its surplus water onward to the natural stream4 ,the stagnant clay-beds1 which formerly1 by slow degrees1 allowed the water to filter through them to the wayside ditch1 and then to the river1 now1 by drainage1 contribute their proportion1 in a few hours1 to swell the stream4 ,thus1 evaporation is lessened1 and the amount of water which enters the natural channels largely increased2 and1 what is of more importance1 the water which flows from the land is sent at once1 after its fall from the heavens1 into the streams4 ,this produces upon the mill-streams a two-fold effect2 first1 to raise sudden freshets to overflow the dams1 and sweep away the mills2 and1 secondly1 to dry up their supply in dry seasons1 and to diminish their water-power4 ,upon the low meadows which border the streams1 the effects of the drainage of lands above them are various1 according to their position4 ,in many cases1 it must subject them to inundation by ,summer freshets1 and must require for their protection1 catch-waters and embankments1 and large facilities for drainage4 ,the effect of drainage upon water privileges1 must inevitably be1 to lessen their value1 by giving them a sudden surplus1 followed by drought1 instead of a regular supply of water4 ,water-power companies and mill-owners are never careless of their interests4 ,through the patriotic desire to foster home-manufactures1 our ,state legislatures have granted many peculiar privileges to manufacturing corporations4 ,indeed1 all the streams and rivers of ,new ,england are chained to labor at their wheels4 ,agriculture has thus far taken care of herself1 but is destined soon to come in collision with the chartered privileges of manufactures4 ,many questions1 touching the right of land-owners to change the natural flow of the water1 to the injury of mill-owners2 many questions touching the right of mill-owners to obstruct the natural course of streams1 to the injury of the farmer1 will inevitably arise in our ,courts4 ,slowly1 and step by step1 must the lesser interest of manufactures1 recede before the advance of the great fundamental interest of agriculture1 until1 in process of time1 steam1 or some yet undiscovered giant power1 shall put its hand to the great wheel of the factory and the mill1 and the pent-up waters shall subside to their natural banks4 ,that these are not mere speculations of our own1 may be seen from extracts which will be given from answers returned by distinguished observers of these matters in ,england and ,scotland1 to a question proposed to them as to the actual effects produced by extensive drainage4 ,some diversity of opinion is observable in the different replies1 which were made1 independently in writing1 and so are more valuable4 ,mr4 ,smith4--,during dry periods1 more particularly in ,summer1 the water in the streams is greatly lessened by thorough-draining2 for there is so great a mass of comparatively dry and absorbent soil to receive the rain1 that ,summer showers1 unless very heavy and continuous1 will be entirely absorbed4 ,mr4 ,parkes4--,the intention and effect of a complete and systematic under-drainage is the liberation of the water of rain more quickly from the land than if it were not drained2 and therefore the natural vents1 or rivers1 very generally require enlargement or deepening1 in order to pass off the drainage water in sufficiently quick time1 and so as to avoid flooding lower lands4 ,the sluggish rivers of the midland and southern counties of ,england especially1 oppose great obstacles to land-drainage1 being usually full to the banks1 or nearly so1 and converted into a series of ponds1 by mill-dams erected at a few miles distance below each other2 so that1 frequently1 no effectual drainage of the richest alluvial soil composing the meadows1 can be made1 without forming embankments1 or by pumping1 or by resort to other artificial and expensive means4 ,the greater number of the corn and other water-mills throughout ,england ought to be demolished1 for the advantage of agriculture1 and steam-power should to be provided for the millers4 ,i believe that such an arrangement would1 in most cases1 prove to be economical both to the landholder and the miller4 ,every old authority1 and all modern writers on land drainage in ,england1 have condemned water-mills and mill-dams3 and if all the rivers of ,england were surveyed from the sea to their source1 the mills upon them valued1 the extent of land injured or benefitted by such mill-dams ascertained1 and the whole question of advantage or injury done to the land-owner appreciated and appraised1 ,i have little doubt but that the injury done1 would be found so greatly to exceed the rental of the mills1 deduction being made of the cost of maintaining them1 that it would be a measure of national economy1 to buy up the mills1 and give the millers steam-power4 ,mr4 ,spooner4--,the effect which extensive drainage produces on the main water-courses of districts1 is that of increasing the height of their rise at flood times1 and rendering the flow and subsidence more rapid than before4 ,i have repeatedly heard the ,river ,tweed adduced as a striking instance of this fact1 and that the change has taken place within the observation of the present generation4 ,mr4 ,maccaw4--,it has been observed that1 after extensive surface-drainage on the sheepwalks in the higher parts of the country1 and when the lower lands were enclosed by ditches1 and partially drained for the purposes of cultivation1 all rivers flowing therefrom1 rise more rapidly after heavy rains or falls of snow1 and discharge their surplus waters more quickly1 than under former circumstances4 ,mr4 ,beattie4--,it renders them more speedily flooded1 and to a greater height1 and they fall sooner4 ,rivers are lower in ,summer and higher in ,winter4 ,mr4 ,nielson4--,the immediate effect of the drainage of higher lands has often been to inundate the lower levels4 ,in a prize essay of ,john ,algernon ,clarke1 speaking of the effect of drainage along the course of the ,river ,nene1 in ,england1 he says3 ,the upland farms are delivering their drain-water in much larger quantities1 and more immediately after the downfall1 than formerly1 and swelling to the depth of three to six feet over the #bj1jjj acres of open ground1 which form one vast reservoir for it above and below ,peterborough4 ,the ,nene used to overflow its banks1 to the extreme height1 about the third day after rain3 the floods now reach the same height in about half that time4 ,twelve hours' rain will generally cause an overflow of the land1 which all lies unembanked from the stream2 and where it is already saturated1 this takes place in six or even in two hours4 ,such a quick rise will cause one body of flood-water to extend for forty or fifty miles in succession1 with a width varying from a quarter of a mile to a mile2 but it stays sometimes for six weeks1 or even two months1 upon the ground4 ,and those floods come down with an alarming power and velocity--bridges which have stood for a century are washed away1 and districts where floods were previously unknown have became liable to their sudden periodical inundations4 ,the land being wholly in meadow1 suffers very heavily from the destruction of its hay4 ,so sudden are the inundations1 that it frequently happens that hay made in the day has1 in the night been found swimming and gone4 ,a public-house sign at ,wansford commemorates the locally-famed circumstance of a man who1 having fallen asleep on a hay-cock1 was carried down the stream by a sudden flood3 awakening just under the bridge of that town1 and being informed where he was1 he demanded1 in astonishment1 if this were ',wansford in ,england4' ,the fact that the floods in that neighborhood now reach their height in half their former time1 in consequence of the drainage of the upland farms1 is very significant4 ,mr4 ,denton thus speaks upon the same point1 though his immediate subject was that of compulsory outfalls4 ,although the quantity of land drained was small1 in comparison to that which remained to be drained1 the water which was discharged by the drainage already effected found its way so rapidly to the outfalls1 that the consequences were becoming more and more injurious every day4 ,the millers were now suffering from two causes4 ,at times of excess1 after a considerable fall of rain1 and when the miller was injuriously overloaded1 the excess was increased by the rapidity with which the under-drains discharged themselves2 and as the quantity of water thus discharged1 must necessarily lessen the subsequent supply1 the period of drought was advanced in a corresponding degree4 ,as the millers already saw this1 and were anticipating increasing losses1 they would join in finding a substitute for water-power upon fair terms4 ,it is not supposed1 that any considerable practical effects of drainage1 upon the streams of this country1 have been observed4 ,a treatise1 however1 upon the general subject of ,drainage1 which should omit a point like this1 which must1 before many years1 attract serious attention1 would be quite incomplete4 ,whether the effect of a system of thorough-drainage make for or against the interest of mill and meadow owners on the lower parts of streams1 should have no influence over those who design only to present the truth1 in all its varied aspects4 ,as some compensation for the evils which may fall upon lands at a lower level1 by drainage of uplands1 it may be interesting to notice briefly in this place1 some of the uses to which drainage-water has been applied1 for the advantage of lower lands4 ,in many cases1 in ,great ,britain1 the water of drainage has been preserved in reservoirs1 or artificial ponds1 and applied for the irrigation of water meadows2 and as is suggested by ,lieut4 ,maury1 in a letter quoted in our introductory chapter1 the same may1 in many localities1 be done in this country1 and thus our crops of grass be often tripled1 on our low meadows4 ,in many cases1 water from deep drains1 will furnish the most convenient supply for barn yards and pastures4 ,it is usually sufficiently pure and cool in ,summer1 and is preferred by cattle to the water of running streams4 ,on ,mr4 ,mechi's farm at ,tiptree ,hall1 in ,england1 we observed a large cistern1 in which all the manure necessary for the highest culture of #agj acres of land1 is liquified1 and from which it is pumped out by a steam engine1 over the farm4 ,all the water1 which supplies the cistern1 is collected from tile drains on the farm1 where there had before been no running water4 ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,legislation--,,drainage ,,companies4 ,england protects her ,farmers4--,meadows ruined by ,corporation dams4--,old ,mills often ,nuisances4--,factory ,reservoirs4--,flowage extends above level of ,dam4--,rye and ,derwent ,drainage4--,give ,steam for ,water-,power4--,right to ,drain through land of others4--,right to natural flow of ,water4--,laws of ,mass4--,right to ,flow2 why not to ,drain8--,land-drainage ,companies in ,england4--,lincolnshire ,fens4--,government ,loans for ,drainage4 ,nothing more clearly shows the universal interest and confidence of the people of ,great ,britain1 in the operation of land-drainage1 than the acts of ,parliament in relation to the subject4 ,the conservatism of ,england1 in the view of an ,american1 is striking4 ,she never takes a step till she is sure she is right4 ,justly proud of her position among the nations1 she deems change an unsafe experiment1 and what has been1 much safer than what might be4 ,vested rights are sacred in ,england1 and especially rights in lands1 which are emphatically real estate there4 ,such are the sentiments of the people1 and such the sentiments of their representatives and exponents1 the ,lords and ,commons4 ,yet ,england has been so impressed with the importance of improving the condition of the people1 of increasing the wealth of the nation1 of enriching both tenant and landlord1 by draining the land1 that the history of her legislation1 in aid of such operations1 affords a lesson of progress even to fast ,young ,america4 ,powers have been granted1 by which encumbered estates may be charged with the expenses of drainage1 so that remainder-men and reversioners1 without their consent1 shall be compelled to contribute to present improvements2 so that careless or obstinate adjacent proprietors shall be compelled to keep open their ditches for outfalls to their neighbor's drains2 so that mill-dams1 and other obstructions to the natural flow of the water1 may be removed for the benefit of agriculture2 and1 finally1 the ,government has itself furnished funds1 by way of loans1 of millions of pounds1 in aid of improvements of this character4 ,in ,america1 where private individual right is usually compelled to yield to the good of the whole1 and where selfishness and obstinacy do not long stand in the pathway of progress1 obstructing manifest improvement in the condition of the people2 we are yet far behind ,england in legal facilities for promoting the improvement of land culture4 ,this is because the attention of the public has not been particularly called to the subject4 ,manufacturing corporations are created by special acts of legislation4 ,in many ,states1 rights to flow1 and ruin1 by inundation1 most valuable lands along the course of rivers1 and by the banks of ponds and lakes1 to aid the water-power of mills1 are granted to companies1 and the land-owner is compelled to part with his meadows for such compensation as a committee or jury shall assess4 ,in almost every town in ,new ,england there are hundreds1 and often thousands1 of acres of lands1 that might be most productive to the farmer2 overflowed half the year with water1 to drive some old saw-mill1 or grist-mill1 or cotton-mill1 which has not made a dividend1 or paid expenses1 for a quarter of a century4 ,the whole water-power1 which1 perhaps1 ruins for cultivation a thousand acres of fertile land1 and divides and breaks up farms1 by creating little creeks and swamps throughout all the neighboring valleys1 is not worth1 and would not be assessed1 by impartial men1 at one thousand dollars4 ,yet1 though there is power to take the farmer's land for the benefit of manufacturers1 there is no power to take down the company's dam for the benefit of agriculture4 ,an old saw-mill1 which can only run a few days in a ,spring freshet1 often swamps a half-township of land1 because somebody's great-grandfather had a prescriptive right to flow1 when lands were of no value1 and saw-mills were a public blessing4 ,there are numerous cases1 within our own knowledge1 where the very land overflowed and ruined by some incorporated company1 would1 if allowed to produce its natural growth of timber and wood1 furnish ten times the fuel necessary to supply steam-engines1 to propel the machinery carried by the water-power4 ,not satisfied with obstructing the streams in their course1 the larger companies are1 of late1 making use of the interior lakes1 fifty or a hundred miles inland1 as reservoirs1 to keep back water for the use of the mills in the summer droughts4 ,thus are thousands of acres of land drowned1 and rendered worse than useless2 for the water is kept up till ,midsummer1 and drawn off when a dog-day climate is just ready to convert the rich and slimy sediment of the pond into pestilential vapors4 ,these waters1 too1 controlled by the mill-owners1 are thus let down in floods1 in ,midsummer1 to overflow the meadows and corn-fields of the farmer1 or the intervals and bottom-lands below4 ,now1 while we would never advocate any attack upon the rights of mill-owners1 or ask them to sacrifice their interests to those of agriculture1 it surely is proper to call attention to the injury which the productive capacity of the soil is suffering1 by the flooding of our best tracts1 in sections of country where land is most valuable4 ,could not mill-owners1 in many instances1 adopt steam instead of water-power1 and becoming land-draining companies1 instead of land-drowning companies2 at least1 let ,nature have free course with her gently-flowing rivers1 and allow the promise to be fulfilled1 that the earth shall be no more cursed with a flood4 ,we would ask for the land-owner1 simply equality of rights with the mill-owner4 ,if a legislature may grant the right to flow lands1 against the will of the owner1 to promote manufactures1 the same legislature may surely grant the right1 upon proper occasion1 to remove dams1 and other obstructions to our streams1 to promote agriculture4 ,the rights of mill-owners are no more sacred than those of land-owners2 and the interests of manufactures are1 surely1 no more important than those of agriculture4 ,we would not advocate much interference with private rights4 ,in some of the ,states1 no special privileges have been conferred upon water-power companies4 ,they have been left to procure their rights of flowage1 by private contract with the land-owners2 and in such ,states1 probably1 the legislatures would be as slow to interfere with rights of flowage1 as with other rights4 ,yet1 there are cases where1 for the preservation of the health of the community1 and for the general convenience1 governments have everywhere exercised the power of interfering with private property1 and limiting the control of the owners4 ,to preserve the public health1 we abate as nuisances1 by process of law1 slaughter-houses1 and other establishments offensive to health and comfort1 and we provide1 by compulsory assessments upon land-owners1 for sewerage1 for side-walks1 and the like1 in our cities4 ,everywhere1 for the public good1 we take private property for highways1 upon just compensation1 and the property of corporations is thus taken1 like that of individuals4 ,again1 we compel adjacent owners to fence their lands1 and maintain their proportion of division fences of the legal height1 and we elect fence viewers1 with power to adjust equitably1 the expenses of such fences4 ,we assess bachelors and maidens1 in most ,states1 for the construction of schoolhouses1 and the education of the children of others1 and1 in various ways1 compel each member of society to contribute to the common welfare4 ,how far it may be competent1 for a ,state legislature to provide for1 or assist in1 the drainage of extensive and unhealthy marshes2 or how far individual owners should be compelled to contribute to a common improvement of their lands2 or how far1 and in what cases1 one land-owner should be authorized to enter upon land of another1 to secure or maintain the best use of his own land--these are questions which it is unnecessary for us to attempt to determine4 ,it is well that they should be suggested1 because they will1 at no distant day1 engage much attention4 ,it is well1 too1 that the steps which conservative ,england has thought it proper to take in this direction1 should be understood1 that we may the better determine whether any1 and if any1 what course our ,states may safely take1 to aid the great and leading interest of our country4 ,the swamps and stagnant meadows along our small streams and our rivers1 which are taken from the farmer1 by flowage1 for the benefit of mills1 are often1 in ,new ,england1 the most fertile part of the townships--equal to the bottom lands of the ,west2 and they are right by the doors of young men1 who leave their homes with regret1 because the rich land of far-off new ,states offers temptations1 which their native soil cannot present4 ,it is certainly of great importance to the old ,states1 to inquire into these matters1 and set proper bounds to the use of streams for water-powers4 ,the associated wealth and influence of manufacturers1 is always more powerful than the individual efforts of the land-owners4 ,reservoirs are always growing larger1 and dams continually grow higher and tighter4 ,the water1 by little and little1 creeps insidiously on to1 and into1 the meadows far above the obstruction1 and the land-owner must often elect between submission to this aggression1 and a tedious law-suit with a powerful adversary4 ,the evil of obstructions to streams and rivers1 is by no means limited to the land visibly flowed1 nor to land at the level of the dam4 ,running water is never level1 or it could not flow2 and in crooked streams1 which flow through meadows1 obstructed by grass and bushes1 the water raised by a dam1 often stands many feet higher1 at a mile or two back1 than at the dam4 ,it is extremely difficult to set limits to the effect of such a flowage4 ,water is flowed into the subsoil1 or rather is prevented from running out2 the natural drainage of the country is prevented2 and land which might well be drained artificially1 were the stream not obstructed1 is found to lie so near the level1 as to be deprived of the requisite fall by back water1 or the sluggish current occasioned by the dam4 ,these obstructions to drainage have become subjects of much attention1 and of legislative intervention in various forms in ,england1 and some of the facts elicited in their investigations are very instructive4 ,in a discussion before the ,society of ,arts1 in #ahee1 in which many gentlemen1 experienced in drainage1 took a part1 this subject of obstruction by mill-dams came up4 ,mr4 ,g4 ,donaldson said he had been much engaged in works of land-drainage1 and that1 in many instances1 great difficulties were experienced in obtaining outfalls1 owing to the water rights1 on the course of rivers for mill-power1 c4 ,mr4 ,r4 ,grantham spoke of the necessity of further legislation1 so as to give power to lower bridges and culverts1 under public roads1 and straighten and deepen rivers and streams4 ,but1 he said1 authority was wanting1 above all1 for the removal of mills1 dams1 and other obstructions in rivers1 which1 in many cases1 did incalculable injury1 many times exceeding the value of the mills1 by keeping up the level of rivers1 and rendering it totally impossible to drain the adjoining lands4 ,mr4 ,r4 ,f4 ,davis said1 ,if they were to go into the midland districts1 they would see great injury done1 from damming the water for mills4 ,in ,scotland1 the same difficulty has arisen4 ,in many parts of this country1 says a ,scottish writer1 small lochs 7lakes7 and dams are kept up1 for the sake of mills1 under old tenures1 which1 if drained1 the land gained by that operation1 would1 in many instances1 be worth ten times the rent of such mills4 ,in the case of the ,rye and ,derwent ,drainage1 an account of which is found in the #adth ,vol4 of the ,journal of the ,royal ,agricultural ,society1 a plan of compensation was adopted1 where it became necessary to remove dams and other obstructions1 which is worthy of attention4 ,the ,commissioners under the ,act of #ahdf1 removed the mill-wheels1 and substituted steam-engines corresponding to the power actually used by the mills1 compensating1 also1 the proprietors for inconvenience1 and the future additional expensiveness of the new power4 ,the claims of a short canal navigation1 two fisheries1 and tenants' damages through derangement of business during the alterations1 were disposed of without much outlay2 and the pecuniary advantages of the work are apparent from the fact1 that a single flood1 such as frequently overflowed the land1 has been known to do more damage1 if fairly valued in money1 than the whole sum expended under the act4 ,under this act1 it became necessary for the ,commissioners to estimate the comparative cost of steam and water-power1 in order to carry out their idea of giving to the mill-owners a steam-power equivalent to their water-power4 ,as the greater part of their water-power was employed on corn and flour-mills1 upon these the calculations were chiefly based4 ,it was generally admitted to be very near the truth1 that to turn a pair of flour-mill stones properly1 requires a power equal to that of two-and-a-half horses1 or on an average1 twenty horses' power1 to turn and work a mill of eight-pairs of stones1 and that the total cost of a twenty-horse steam-engine1 with all its appliances1 would be #e1jjj1 or #bej per horse power4 ,calculations for the maintenance of the steam-power are also given2 but this depends so much on local circumstances1 that ,english estimates would be of little value to us4 ,the arrangements in this case with the mill-owners1 were made by contract1 and not by force of any arbitrary power1 and the success of the enterprise1 in the drainage of the lands1 the prevention of damage by floods1 especially in hay and harvest-time1 and in the improvement of the health of vegetation1 as well as of man and animals1 is said to be strikingly manifest4 ,this act provides for a water-bailiff1 whose duty it is to inspect the rivers1 streams1 water-courses1 c41 and enforce the due maintenance of the banks1 and the uninterrupted discharge of the waters at all times4 ,,compulsory ,,outfalls4 ,it often happens1 especially in ,new ,england1 where farms are small1 and the country is broken1 that an owner of valuable lands overcharged with water1 perhaps a swamp or low meadow1 or perhaps a field of upland1 lying nearly level1 desires to drain his tract1 but cannot find sufficient fall1 without going upon the land of owners below4 ,these adjacent owners may not appreciate the advantages of drainage2 or their lands may not require it2 or1 what is not unusual1 they may from various motives1 good and evil1 refuse to allow their lands to be meddled with4 ,now1 without desiring to be understood as speaking judicially1 we know of no authority of law by which a land-owner may enter upon the territory of his neighbor for the purpose of draining his own land1 and perhaps no such power should ever be conferred4 ,all owners upon streams1 great and small1 have however1 the right to the natural flow of the water1 both above and below4 ,their neighbors below cannot obstruct a stream so as to flow back the water upon1 or into1 the land above2 and where artificial water-courses1 as ditches and drains have long been opened1 the presumption would be that all persons benefitted by them1 have the right to have them kept open4 ,parliament is held to be omnipotent1 and in the act of #ahdg1 known as ,lord ,lincoln's ,act1 its power is well illustrated1 as is also the determination of the ,british nation that no trifling impediments shall hinder the progress of the great work of draining lands for agriculture4 ,the act1 in effect1 authorizes any person interested in draining his lands1 to clear a passage through all obstructions1 wherever it would be worth the expense of works and compensation4 ,its general provisions may be found in the #aeth ,vol4 of the ,journal of the ,royal ,agricultural ,society4 ,it is not the province of the author1 to decide what may properly be done within the authority of different ,states1 in aid of public or private drainage enterprises4 ,the ,state ,legislatures are not1 like ,parliament1 omnipotent4 ,they are limited by their written constitutions4 ,perhaps no better criterion of power1 with respect to compelling contribution1 by persons benefitted1 to the cost of drainage1 and with interfering with individual rights1 for public or private advantage1 can be found1 than the exercise of power in the cases of fences and of flowage4 ,if we may lawfully compel a person to fence his land1 to exclude the cattle of other persons1 or1 if he neglect to fence1 subject him to their depredations1 without indemnity1 as is done in many ,states2 or if we may compel him to contribute to the erection of division fences1 of a given height1 though he has no animal in the world to be shut in or out of his field1 there would seem to be equal reason1 in compelling him to dig half a division ditch for the benefit of himself and neighbor4 ,if1 again1 as we have already hinted1 the ,legislature may authorize a corporation to flow and inundate the land of an unwilling citizen1 to raise a water-power for a cotton-mill1 it must be a nice discrimination of powers1 that prohibits the same ,legislature from authorizing the entry into lands of a protesting mill-owner1 or of an unknown or cross-grained proprietor1 to open an outlet for a valuable1 health-giving system of drainage4 ,in the valuable treatise of ,dr4 ,warder1 of ,cincinnati1 recently published in ,new ,york1 upon ,hedges and ,evergreens1 an abstract is given of the statutes of most of our ,states1 upon the subject of fences1 and we know of no other book1 in which so good an idea of the legislation on this subject1 can be so readily obtained4 ,by the statutes of ,massachusetts1 any person may erect and maintain a water-mill1 and dam to raise water for working it1 upon and across any stream that is not navigable1 provided he does not interfere with existing mills4 ,any person whose land is overflowed1 may1 on complaint1 have a trial and a verdict of a jury2 which may fix the height of the dam1 decide whether it shall be left open any part of the year1 and fix compensation1 either annual or in gross1 for the injury4 ,all other remedies for such flowage are taken away1 and thus the land of the owner may be converted into a mill-pond against his consent4 ,we find nothing in the ,massachusetts statutes which gives to land-owners1 desirous of improving their wet lands1 any power to interfere in any way with the rights of mill-owners1 for the drainage of lands4 ,the statutes of the ,commonwealth1 however1 make liberal and stringent provisions1 for compelling unwilling owners to contribute to the drainage of wet lands4 ,for the convenience of those who may be desirous of procuring legislation on this subject1 we will give a brief abstract of the leading statute of ,massachusetts regulating this matter4 ,it may be found in ,chapter #aae of the ,revised ,statutes1 of #ahcf4 ,the first ,section explains the general object4 ,when any meadow1 swamp1 marsh1 beach1 or other low land1 shall be held by several proprietors1 and it shall be necessary or useful to drain or flow the same1 or to remove obstructions in rivers or streams leading therefrom1 such improvements may be effected1 under the direction of ,commissioners1 in the manner provided in this chapter4 ,the statute provides that the proprietors1 or a greater part of them in interest1 may apply1 by petition1 to the ,court of ,common ,pleas1 setting forth the proposed improvements1 and for notice to the proprietors who do not join in the petition1 and for a hearing4 ,the court may then appoint three1 five1 or seven commissioners to cause the improvements to be effected4 ,the commissioners are authorized to cause dams or dikes to be erected on the premises1 at such places1 and in such manner as they shall direct2 and may order the land to be flowed thereby1 for such periods of each year as they shall think most beneficial1 and also cause ditches to be opened on the premises1 and obstructions in any rivers or streams leading therefrom to be removed4 ,provision is made for assessment of the expenses of the improvements1 upon all the proprietors1 according to the benefit each will derive from it1 and for the collection of the amount assessed4 ,when the commissioners shall find it necessary or expedient to reduce or raise the waters1 for the purpose of obtaining a view of the premises1 or for the more convenient or expeditious removal of obstructions therein1 they may open the flood-gates of any mill1 or make other needful passages through or round the dam thereof or erect a temporary dam on the land of any person1 who is not a party to the proceedings1 and may maintain such dam1 or such passages for the water1 as long as shall be necessary for the purposes aforesaid4 ,provision is made for previous notice to persons who are not parties1 and for compensation to them for injuries occasioned by the interference1 and for appeal to the courts4 ,this statute gives1 by no means1 the powers necessary to compel contribution to all necessary drainage1 because1 first1 it is limited in its application to meadow1 swamp1 marsh1 beach1 or other low land4 ,the word meadow1 in ,new ,england1 is used in its original sense of flat and wet land4 ,secondly1 the statute seems to give no authority to open permanent ditches on the land of others than the owners of such low land1 although it provides for temporary passages for the purposes of obtaining a view of the premises1 or for the more convenient or expeditious removal of obstructions therein--the word therein referring to the premises under improvement1 so that there is no provision for outfalls1 under this statute1 except through natural streams4 ,by a statute of ,march #bh1 #ahee1 the ,legislature of ,massachusetts has exercised a power as extensive as is desirable for all purposes of drainage1 although the provisions of the act referred to are not1 perhaps1 so broad as may be found necessary1 in order to open outfalls and remove all obstructions to drainage4 ,as this act is believed to be peculiar1 we give its substance3 ,an ,act to authorize the making of ,roads and ,drains in certain cases4 ,,sect4 #a4 ,any town or city1 person or persons1 company or body corporate1 having the ownership of low lands1 lakes1 swamps1 quarries1 mines1 or mineral deposits1 that1 by means of adjacent lands belonging to other persons1 or occupied as a highway1 cannot be approached1 worked1 drained1 or used in the ordinary manner without crossing said lands or highway1 may be authorized to establish roads1 drains1 ditches1 tunnels1 and railways to said places in the manner herein provided4 ,,sect4 #b4 ,the party desiring to make such improvements shall file a petition therefor with the commissioners of the county in which the premises are situated1 setting forth the names of the persons interested1 if known to the petitioner1 and also1 in detail1 the nature of the proposed improvement1 and the situation of the adjoining lands4 ,,sect4 #c provides for notice to owners and town authorities4 ,,sect4 #d provides for a hearing1 and laying out the improvement1 and assessment of damages upon the respective parties1 having strict regard to the benefits which they will receive4 ,,sect4 #e provides for repairs by a majority of those benefitted2 and ,sect4 #f for appeals1 as in the case of highways4 ,by an act of #aheg1 this act was so far amended as to authorize the application for the desired improvement1 to be made to the ,select-men of the town1 or the ,mayor and ,aldermen of the city1 in case the lands over which the improvement is desired are all situated in one town or city4 ,it is manifest certainly1 that the ,state assumes power sufficient to authorize any interference with private property that may be necessary for the most extended and thorough drainage operations4 ,the power which may compel a man to improve his portion of a swamp1 may apply as well to his wet hill-sides2 and the power which may open temporary passages through lands or dams1 without consent of the owner1 may keep them open permanently1 if expedient4 ,,land ,,drainage ,,companies4 ,besides the charters which have at various times1 for many centuries1 been granted to companies1 for the drainage of fens and marshes1 and other lowlands1 in modern times1 great encouragement has been given by the ,british ,government for the drainage and other improvement of high-lands4 ,not only have extensive powers been granted to companies1 to proceed with their own means1 to effect the objects in view1 but the ,government itself has advanced money1 by way of loan1 in aid of drainage and like improvements4 ,by the provisions of two acts of ,parliament1 no less than #bj1jjj1jjj have been loaned in aid of such improvements4 ,these acts are generally known as ,,public ,,moneys ,,drainage ,,acts4 ,there are already four chartered companies for the same general objects1 doing an immense amount of business1 on private funds4 ,it will be sufficient1 perhaps1 to state1 in general terms1 the mode of operation under these several acts4 ,most lands in ,england are held under incumbrances of some kind4 ,many are entailed1 as it is termed3 that is to say1 vested for life in certain persons1 and then to go to others1 the tenant for life having no power to sell the property4 ,often1 the life estate is owned by one person1 and the remainder by a stranger1 or remote branch of the family1 whom the life-tenant has no desire to benefit4 ,in such cases1 the tenant1 or occupant1 would be unwilling to make expensive improvements at his own cost1 which might benefit himself but a few years1 and then go into other hands4 ,on the other hand1 the remainder-man would have no right to meddle with the property while the tenant-for-life was in possession2 and it would be rare1 that all those interested could agree to unite in efforts to increase the general value of the estate1 by such improvements4 ,the great object in view was1 then1 to devise means1 by which such estates1 suffering for want of systematic1 and often expensive1 drainage operations1 might be improved1 and the cost of improvement be charged on the estate1 so as to do no injustice to any party interested4 ,the plan finally adopted1 is1 to allow the tenant or occupant to have the improvement made1 either by expending his private funds1 or by borrowing of the ,government or the private companies1 and having the amount expended1 made a charge on the land1 to be paid1 in annual payments1 by the person who shall be in occupation each year4 ,under one of these acts1 the term of payment is fixed at #bb years1 and under a later act1 at #ej years4 ,thus1 if ,a own a life-estate in lands1 and ,b the remainder1 and the estate needs draining1 ,a may take such steps as to have the improvement made1 by borrowing the money1 and repaying it by yearly payments1 in such sums as will pay the whole expenditure1 with interest1 in twenty-two or fifty years3 and if ,a die before the expiration of the term1 the succeeding occupants continue the payments until the whole is paid4 ,a borrows1 for instance1 #a1jjj1 and expends it in draining the lands4 ,it is made a charge1 like a mortgage1 on the land1 to be paid in equal annual payments for fifty years4 ,at six per cent41 the annual payment will be but about #fc4cc1 to pay the whole amount of debt and the interest1 in fifty years4 ,a pays this sum annually as long as he lives1 and ,b then takes possession1 and pays the annual installment4 ,if the tenant expend his own money1 and die before the whole term expire1 he may leave the unpaid balance as a legacy1 or part of his own estate1 to his heirs4 ,the whole proceeding is based upon the idea1 that the rent or income of the property is sufficiently increased1 to make the operation advantageous to all parties4 ,it is assumed1 that the operation of drainage1 under one of these statutes1 will be effectual to increase the rent of the land1 to the amount of this annual payment1 for at least fifty years4 ,the fact1 that the ,british ,government1 after the most thorough investigation1 has thus pronounced the opinion1 that drainage works1 properly conducted1 will thus increase the rent of land1 and remain in full operation a half century at least1 affords the best evidence possible1 both of the utility and the durability of tile drainage4 ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,,drainage ,,of ,,cellars4 ,wet ,cellars ,unhealthful4--,importance of ,cellars in ,new ,england4--,a ,glance at the ,garret1 by way of ,contrast4--,necessity of ,drains4--,sketch of an ,inundated ,cellar4--,tiles best for ,drains4--,best ,plan of ,cellar ,drain2 ,illustration4--,cementing will not do4--,drainage of ,barn ,cellars4--,uses of them4--,actual ,drainage of a very ,bad ,cellar described4--,drains ,outside and ,inside2 ,illustration4 ,no person needs to be informed that it is unhealthful1 as well as inconvenient1 to have water1 at any time of the year1 in the cellar4 ,in ,new ,england1 the cellar is an essential part of the house4 ,all sorts of vegetables1 roots1 and fruit1 that can be injured by frost1 are stored in cellars2 and milk1 and wine1 and cider1 and a thousand vessels of honor1 like tubs and buckets1 churns and washing-machines1 that are liable to injury from heat or cold1 or other vicissitude of climate1 find a safe retreat in the cellar4 ,excepting the garret1 which is1 as ,ariosto represents the moon to be1 the receptacle of all things useless on earth1 the cellar is the greatest curiosity shop of the establishment4 ,the poet finds in the moon1 ,whate'er was wasted in our earthly state1 ,here safely treasured--each neglected good1 ,time squandered1 and occasion ill-bestowed2 ,there sparkling chains he found1 and knots of gold1 ,the specious ties that ill-paired lovers hold2 ,each toil1 each loss1 each chance that men sustain1 ,save ,folly1 which alone pervades them all1 ,for ,folly never quits this earthly ball4 ,in the garret1 are the old spinning wheel1 the clock reel1 the linen wheel with its distaff1 your grandfather's knapsack and cartridge-box and ,continental coat1 your great-aunt's ,leghorn bonnet and side-saddle1 or pillion1 great files of the village newspapers--the ,morning ,cry and ,midnight ,yell1 besides worn out trunks and boxes without number4 ,in the cellar1 are the substantiate--barrels of beef1 and pork1 and apples1 taters and turnips2 in short1 the ,winter stores of the family4 ,many1 perhaps most1 of the cellars in ,new ,england are in some way drained1 usually by a stone culvert1 laid a little lower than the bottom of the cellar1 into which the water is conducted1 in the ,spring1 when it bursts through the walls1 or rises at the bottom1 by means of little ditches scooped out in the surface4 ,in some districts1 people seem to have little idea of drains1 even for cellars2 and on flat land1 endeavor to set their houses high enough to have their cellars above ground4 ,this1 besides being extremely inconvenient for passage out of1 and into the house1 often fails to make a dry cellar1 for the water from the roof runs in1 and causes a flood4 ,and such accidents1 as they are mildly termed by the improvident builders1 often occur by the failure of drains imperfectly laid4 ,no child1 who ever saw a cellar afloat1 during one of these inundations1 will ever outgrow the impression4 ,you stand on the cellar stairs1 and below is a dark waste of waters1 of illimitable extent4 ,by the dim glimmer of the dip-candle1 a scene is presented which furnishes a tolerable picture of chaos and old night1 but defies all description4 ,empty dry casks1 with cider barrels1 wash-tubs1 and boxes1 ride triumphantly on the surface1 while half filled vinegar and molasses kegs1 like water-logged ships1 roll heavily below4 ,broken boards and planks1 old hoops1 and staves1 and barrel-heads innumerable1 are buoyant with this change of the elements2 while floating turnips and apples1 with1 here and there1 a brilliant cabbage head1 gleam in this subterranean firmament1 like twinkling stars1 dimmed by the effulgence of the moon at her full4 ,magnificent among the lesser vessels of the fleet1 like some tall admiral1 rides the enormous mash-tub1 while the astonished rats and mice are splashing about at its base in the dark waters1 like sailors just washed1 at midnight1 from the deck1 by a heavy sea4 ,the lookers-on are filled with various emotions4 ,the farmer sees his thousand bushels of potatoes submerged1 and devoted to speedy decay2 the good wife mourns for her diluted pickles1 and apple sauce1 and her drowned firkins of butter2 while the boys are anxious to embark on a raft or in the tubs1 on an excursion of pleasure and discovery4 ,to avoid such scenes as the above1 every cellar which is not upon a dry sandbank1 should be provided with a drain of some kind1 which will be at all times1 secure4 ,for a main drain from the cellar1 four or six-inch tiles are abundantly sufficient1 and where they can be reasonably obtained1 much cheaper than stone4 ,the expense of excavation1 of hauling stone1 and of laying them1 will make the expense of a stone drain far exceed that of a tile drain1 with tiles at fair prices4 ,the tiles1 if well secured at the inlet and outlet of the drain1 will entirely exclude rats and mice1 which always infest stone drains to cellars4 ,care must be taken1 if the water is conducted on the surface of the cellar into the drain1 that nothing but pure water be admitted4 ,this may be effected by a fine strainer of wire or plate2 or by a cess-pool1 which is better1 because it will also prevent any draft of air through the drain4 ,the very best method of draining a cellar is that adopted by the writer1 on his own premises4 ,it is1 in fact1 a mere application of the ordinary principles of field drainage4 ,the cellar was dug in sand1 which rests on clay1 a foot or two below the usual water-line in winter1 and a drain of chestnut plank laid from the cellar to low land1 some #bj rods off4 ,tiles were not then in use in the neighborhood1 and were not thought of1 when the house was built4 ,in the ,spring1 water came up in the bottom of the cellar1 and ran out in little hollows made for the purpose1 on the surface4 ,not liking this inconvenient wetness1 we next dug trenches a few inches deep1 put boards at the sides to exclude the sand1 and packed the trenches with small stones4 ,this operated better1 but the mice found pleasant accommodations among the stones1 and sand got in and choked the passage4 ,lastly1 tiles came to our relief1 and a perfect preventive of all inconvenient moisture was found1 by adopting the following plan3 ,the drain from the cellar was taken up1 and relaid #ah inches below the cellar-bottom1 at the outlet4 ,then a trench was cut in the cellar-bottom1 two feet from the wall1 a foot deep at the farthest corner from the outlet1 and deepening towards it1 round the whole cellar1 following the course of the walls4 ,in this trench1 two-inch pipe tiles were laid1 and carefully covered with tan-bark1 and the trenches filled with the earth4 ,this tile drain was connected with the outlet drain #ah inches under ground1 and the earth levelled over the whole4 ,this was done two years ago1 and no drop of water has ever been visible in the cellar since it was completed4 ,the water is caught by the drain before it rises to the surface1 and conducted away4 ,vegetables of all kinds are now laid in heaps on the cellar-bottom1 which is just damp enough to pack solid1 and preserves vegetables better1 in a dry cellar1 than casks1 or bins with floors4 ,a little sketch of this mode of draining cellars1 representing the cellar referred to1 will1 perhaps1 present the matter more clearly4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ii--;,,drainage ,,of ,,cellar4 ,many persons have attempted to exclude water from their cellars by cementing them on the bottom1 and part way up on the sides4 ,this might succeed1 if the cellar wall were laid very close1 and in cement1 and a heavy coating of cement applied to the bottom4 ,a moment's attention to the subject will show that it is not likely to succeed1 as experience shows that it seldom1 if ever1 does4 ,the water which enters cellars1 frequently runs from the surface behind the cellar wall1 where rats always keep open passages1 and fills the ground and these passages2 especially when the earth is frozen1 to the surface1 thus giving a column of water behind the wall six or eight feet in height4 ,the pressure of water is always in proportion to its height or head1 without reference to the extent of surface4 ,the pressure1 then1 of the water against the cemented wall1 would be equal to the pressure of a full mill-pond against its perpendicular dam of six or eight feet height6 ,no sane man would think of tightening a dam1 with seven feet head of water1 by plastering a little cement on the down-stream side of it1 which might as well be done1 as to exclude water from a cellar by the process1 and under the conditions1 stated4 ,,drainage ,,of ,,barn ,,cellars4 ,most barns in ,new ,england are constructed with good substantial cellars1 from six to nine feet deep1 with solid walls of stone4 ,they serve a three-fold purpose2 of keeping manure1 thrown down from the cattle and horse stalls above2 of preserving turnips1 mangolds1 and other vegetables for the stock2 and of storing carts1 wagons1 and other farm implements4 ,usually1 the cellar is divided by stone1 brick1 or wood partitions1 into apartments1 devoted to each of the purposes named4 ,the cellar for manure should not be wet enough to have water flow away from it1 nor dry enough to have it leach4 ,for the other purposes1 a dry cellar is desirable4 ,perhaps the details of the drainage of a barn cellar on our own premises1 may give our views of the best mode of drainage1 both for a manure cellar1 and for a root and implement cellar4 ,the barn was built in #ahdi1 on a site sloping slightly to the south4 ,in excavating for the wall1 at about seven feet below the height fixed for the sills1 we came upon a soft1 blue clay1 so nearly fluid that a ten-foot pole was easily thrust down out of sight1 perpendicularly1 into it6 ,here was a dilemma6 ,how could a heavy wall and building stand on that foundation8 ,a skillful engineer was consulted1 who had seen heavy brick blocks built in just such places1 and who pronounced this a very simple case to manage4 ,if1 said he1 the mud cannot get up1 the wall resting on it cannot settle down4 ,upon this idea1 by his advice1 we laid our wall1 on thick plank1 on the clay1 so as to get an even bearing1 and drove down1 against the face of the wall1 edge to edge1 two-inch plank to the depth of about three feet1 leaving them a foot above the bottom of the wall4 ,against this1 we rammed coarse gravel very hard1 and left the bottom of the cellar one foot above the bottom of the wall1 so that the weight might counterbalance the pressure of the wall and building4 ,the building has been in constant use1 and appears not to have settled a single inch4 ,the cellar was first used only for manure1 and for keeping swine4 ,it was quite wet1 and grew more and more so every year1 as the water found passages into it1 till it was found that its use must be abandoned1 or an amphibious race of pigs procured4 ,it was known1 that the most of the water entered at the north corner of the building1 borne up by the clay which comes to within three feet of the natural surface2 and1 as it would be ruinous to the manure to leach it1 by drawing a large quantity of water through it into drains1 in the usual mode of draining1 it was concluded to cut off the water on the outside of the building1 and before it reached the cellar4 ,accordingly1 a drain was started at the river1 some twenty rods below1 and carried up to the barn1 and then eight feet deep around two sides of it1 by the north corner1 where most water came in4 ,we cut through the sand1 and four or five feet into the clay1 and laid one course only of two-inch pipe-tiles at the bottom4 ,as this was designed for a catch-water1 and not merely to take in water at the bottom1 in the usual way1 we filled the trench1 after covering the tiles with tan1 with coarse sand above the level of the clay1 and put clay upon the top4 ,we believe no water has ever crossed this drain1 which operates as perfectly as an open ditch1 to catch all that flows upon it4 ,the manure cellar was then dry enough1 but the other cellar was wanted for roots and implements1 and the water was constantly working up through the soft clay bottom1 keeping it of the consistency of mortar1 and making it difficult to haul out the manure1 and everyway disagreeable4 ,one more effort was made to dry this part4 ,a drain was opened from the highway1 which passes the barn1 to the south corner2 and about two and a half feet below the bottom of the cellar1 along inside the wall1 at about three feet distance from it1 on two of the sides2 and another in the same way1 across the middle of the cellar4 ,these1 laid with two-inch tiles1 and filled with gravel1 were connected together1 and led off to the wayside4 ,the waste water of two watering places1 one in the cellar1 and another outside1 supplied by an aqueduct1 was conducted into the tiles1 and thus quietly disposed of4 ,the reason why the drains are filled with gravel is1 that as the soft clay1 in which the tiles were laid1 could never have the heat of the direct rays of the sun on its surface1 there might be no cracking of it1 sufficient to afford passage for the water1 and so this was made a catch-water to stop any water that might attempt to cross it4 ,the work was finished last ,autumn1 and we have had but the experience of a single season with it2 but we are satisfied that the object is attained4 ,the surface of the implement cellar1 which before1 had been always soft and muddy1 has ever since been as dry and solid as a highway in ,summer2 and the root cellar1 which has a cemented bottom1 is as dry as the barn floor4 ,the manure can now be teamed out1 without leaving a rut1 and we are free to confess1 that the effect is greater than we had deemed possible4 ,the following cut will show at a glance1 how all the drains are laid1 the dotted lines representing the tile drains3 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajj4 ,the drain outside the barn1 on the right1 leads from a spring1 some two hundred feet off1 into the cellar and into the yard1 and supplies water to the cattle1 at the points indicated4 ,the waste water is then conducted into the drains1 and passes off4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,,drainage ,,of ,,swamps4 ,vast ,extent of ,swamp ,lands in the ,united ,states4--,their ,soil4--,sources of their ,moisture4--,how to ,drain them4--,the ,soil ,subsides by ,draining4--,catch-water ,drains4--,springs4--,mr4 ,ruffin's ,drainage in ,virginia4--,is there ,danger of ,over-draining8 ,in almost1 if not quite every ,state1 extensive tracts of swamp lands are found1 not only unfit1 in their natural condition1 for cultivation1 but1 in many instances1 by reason of obnoxious effluvia1 arising from stagnant water1 dangerous to health4 ,of the vast extent of such lands1 some idea may be formed1 by adverting to the fact1 that under the grants by ,congress1 of the public lands given away to the ,states in which they lie1 as of no value to the ,government and as nuisances to their neighborhood1 in their natural condition2 sixty millions of acres1 it is estimated1 will be included4 ,these are only the public lands1 and in the new ,states4 ,in every township in ,new ,england1 there are hundreds of acres of swamp land1 just beginning to be brought to the notice of their owners1 as of sufficient value to authorize the expense of drainage4 ,to say that these swamps are the most fertile and the most valuable lands in ,new ,england1 is but to repeat the assertion of all who have successfully tried the experiment of reclaiming them4 ,in their natural state1 these swamps are usually covered with a heavy growth of timber2 but the greater portion of them have been partially cleared1 and many of them are mowed1 producing a coarse1 wild1 and nearly worthless grass4 ,the soil of these tracts is usually a black mud or peat1 partly the product of vegetable growth and decay on the spot1 and partly the deposit of the lighter portion of the upland soil1 brought down by the washing of showers1 and by spring freshets4 ,the leaves of the surrounding forest1 too1 are naturally dropped by the ,autumn winds into the lowest places1 and these swamps have received them1 for ages4 ,usually1 these lands lie in basins among the hills1 sometimes along the banks of streams and rivers1 always at the lowest level of the country1 and not1 like ,irish bogs1 upon hill-tops1 as well as elsewhere4 ,their surface is1 usually1 level and even1 as compared with other lands in the old ,states4 ,their soil1 or deposit1 is of various depth1 from one foot to twenty1 and is often almost afloat with water1 so as to shake under the feet1 in walking over it4 ,the subsoil corresponds1 in general1 with that of the surrounding country1 but is oftener of sand than clay1 and not unfrequently1 is of various thin strata1 indicating an alluvial formation4 ,frogs and snakes find in these swamps an agreeable residence1 and wild beasts a safe retreat from their common foe4 ,notoriously1 such lands are unhealthful1 producing fevers and agues in their neighborhood1 often traceable to tracts no larger than a very few acres4 ,in considering how to drain such tracts1 the first inquiry is as to the source of the water4 ,what makes the land too wet8 ,is it the direct fall of rain upon it2 the influx of water by visible streams1 which have no sufficient outlet2 the downflow of rain and snow water from the neighboring hills2 or the bursting up of springs from below8 ,examine and decide1 which and how many1 of these four sources of moisture1 contribute to flood the tract in question4 ,we assume1 that the swamp is in a basin1 or1 at least1 is the lowest land of the neighborhood4 ,the three or four feet of rain water annually falling upon it1 unless it have an outlet1 must make it a swamp1 for there can usually be no natural drainage downward1 because the swamp itself is the lowest spot1 and no adjacent land can draw off water from its bottom4 ,of course1 there is lower land towards the natural outlet1 but usually this is narrow1 and quite insufficient to allow of drainage by lateral percolation4 ,then1 always1 more or less water must run upon the surface1 or just below it1 from the hills1 and usually1 a stream is found in the swamp1 if none pours into it from above4 ,the first step is a survey1 to ascertain the fall over the whole1 and the next1 to provide a deep and sufficient outlet4 ,here1 we must bear in mind a peculiarity of such lands4 ,all land subsides1 more or less1 by drainage1 but the soils of which we are speaking1 far more than any other4 ,marsh and swamp lands often subside1 or settle1 one or two feet1 or even more4 ,their soil1 of fibrous roots1 decayed leaves1 and the like1 almost floats2 or1 at least1 expands like a sponge2 and when it is compacted1 by removing the water1 it occupies far less space than before4 ,this fact must be kept in mind in all the process4 ,the outlet must be made low enough1 and the drains must be made deep enough1 to draw the water1 after the subsidence of the soil to its lowest point4 ,if a natural stream flow through1 or from1 the tract1 it will usually indicate the lowest level2 and the straightening and clearing out of this natural drain1 may usually be the first operation1 after opening a proper outlet4 ,then a catch-water open drain1 just at the junction of the high and low land1 entirely round the swamp1 will be necessary to intercept the water flowing into the swamp4 ,this water will usually be found to flow in1 both on the surface1 and beneath it1 and in greater or less quantities1 according to the formation of the adjacent land4 ,this catch-water is essential to success4 ,the wettest spot in a swamp is frequently1 just at its edge1 because there the surface-water is received1 and because there too1 the water that has come down on an impervious subsoil stratum1 finds vent4 ,it is in vain to attempt to lay dry a swamp1 by drains1 however deep1 through its centre4 ,the water has done its mischief1 before it reaches the centre4 ,it should be intercepted1 before it has entered the tract1 to be reclaimed4 ,this drain must be deep1 and therefore1 must be wide and sloping1 so that it may be kept open2 and it should be curved round1 following the line of the upland to the outlet4 ,often it has been found1 in ,england1 that a single drain1 six or eight feet deep1 has completely drained a tract of twenty or thirty acres1 by cutting off all the sources of the supply of water1 except that from the clouds4 ,this kind of land is very porous and permeable1 and readily parts with its water1 and is easily drained2 so that the frequent drains necessary on uplands1 are often quite unnecessary4 ,many instances are given1 of the effect of single deep drains through such tracts1 in lowering the water in wells1 or entirely drying them1 at considerable distances from the field of operation4 ,when the surface-water and shallow springs have thus been cut off1 the drainer will soon be able to determine1 whether he has effected a cure of his dropsical patient4 ,often it will be found1 that deep seated springs burst up in the middle of these low tracts1 furnishing good and pure water for use4 ,these1 being supplied by high and distant fountains1 run under our deepest drains1 and find vent through some fracture of the subsoil4 ,they diffuse their ice-cold water through the soil1 and prevent the growth of all valuable vegetation4 ,to these1 we must apply ,elkington's system1 and hit them right in the eye6 by running a deep drain from some side or central drain1 straight to them1 and drawing off the water low enough beneath the surface to prevent injury4 ,a small covered drain with two-inch pipes1 will usually be sufficient to afford an outlet to any such spring4 ,when we have thus disposed of the water from the surface-flow1 the shallow springs and the deep springs1 and given vent to the water accumulated and ponded in the low places1 we have then accomplished all that is peculiar to this kind of drainage4 ,we have still the water from the clouds1 which is twice as much as will evaporate from a land-surface1 to provide for4 ,we assume that this cannot pass directly down by percolation1 because the subsoil is already saturated2 and therefore1 even if all the other sources of wetness are cut off1 we shall still have a tract of land too wet for wheat and corn4 ,if the swamp be very small1 these main ditches may sufficiently drain it2 but if it be extensive1 they probably will not4 ,we have seen that we have some eighteen or twenty inches of water to be disposed of by drainage2 so much that evaporation cannot remove consistently with good cultivation2 and1 although this amount might1 in a very deep peaty soil1 percolate to a great distance laterally1 to find a drain1 yet in shallow soil resting on a retentive subsoil1 drains might be necessary at distances similar to those adopted on wet upland fields4 ,to this part of the operation1 we should1 therefore1 apply the ordinary principles of drainage1 putting in covered drains with tiles1 if possible1 at four feet depth or more1 ordinarily1 and at distances of from forty to sixty feet1 although four-foot drains at even one hundred feet distance1 in peat and black mud1 might often be found sufficient4 ,through the kindness of ,edmund ,ruffin1 ,esq41 of ,virginia1 we have been furnished with three elaborate and valuable essays1 on the drainage and treatment of flat and wet lands in lower ,virginia and ,north ,carolina1 published in the ,transactions of the ,virginia ,state ,agricultural ,society1 for #aheg4 ,the principal feature of his system is based upon his correct knowledge of the geological formation of that district2 of the fact in particular1 that1 underlying the whole of that low country1 there is a bed of pure sand lying nearly level1 and filled with water1 which may be drawn down by a few large deep drains1 thus relieving the surface-soil of surplus water1 by comprehensive but simple means4 ,we have before referred to ,mr4 ,ruffin as the publisher1 more than twenty years ago1 of ,elkington's ,theory and ,practice of ,draining1 c41 by ,johnstone2 and we find in his recent essays1 evidence of how thoroughly practical he has made the system of ,elkington in his own ,state4 ,indeed1 we know of no other ,american writer who records any instance of marked success in the use of ,elkington's peculiar idea of releasing pent up waters by boring4 ,mr4 ,ruffin1 however1 has applied1 with great success1 this principle of operation1 to the saturated sand-beds which underlie the tracts of low land in his district of country4 ,these water-beds in the sand lie at depths varying usually from four to eight feet below the surface4 ,this surface stratum is comparatively compact1 and very slowly pervious to water before it is drained4 ,the water from below1 is constantly pressing slowly up through it1 of course preventing any downward percolation of the rain-water4 ,by running deep drains at wide intervals1 and boring down through this surface stratum with an auger1 the pent up water below finds vent and gushes up in copious springs through the holes1 and flows off without coming nearer to the surface than the bottom of the drains2 thus relieving the pressure upward1 and lowering the water-line in proportion to the depth of the drains4 ,mr4 ,ruffin gives an instance of the drying up of a well half a mile distant1 by cutting a deep drain into this sand-bed1 and thus lowering its water-line4 ,no doubt in many localities in our country1 a competent geological knowledge may detect formations where this principle of drainage may be applied with perfect success1 and with great economy4 ,is there danger of over-draining swamp lands8 ,in speaking of the injury by drainage1 we have treated of this question4 ,our conclusions may be briefly stated here4 ,there is an impression among ,english writers1 that light peaty soils may be too much drained2 but many distinguished drainers doubt the proposition4 ,no doubt there are soils too porous and light to be productive1 when first drained4 ,they may require a season or two to become compact1 and may require sand1 or clay1 or gravel1 to give them the requisite density2 but these soils would1 we believe1 be usually unproductive if shallow drained4 ,in short1 our idea is1 that1 in general1 a soil so constituted as to be productive under any circumstances1 will retain1 by attraction1 moisture enough for the crops1 though intersected by four-foot drains at usual distances2 and that cold water pumped up to the roots from a stagnant pool at the bottom1 is not1 either in nature or art1 a successful method of irrigation4 ,still we believe that peaty soils may be usually drained at greater distances1 or by shallower drains1 than most uplands1 because of their more porous nature2 and we should advise inexperienced persons not to proceed with a lavish expenditure of labor to put in parallel drains at short distances1 till they have watched1 for a season1 the operation of a cheaper system4 ,they may thus attain the desired object1 with the smallest expense4 ,if the first drains are judiciously placed1 and are found insufficient1 others may be laid between the first1 until the drainage is complete4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,,american ,,experiments ,,in ,,drainage--,,drainage ,,in ,,ireland4 ,statement of ,b4 ,f4 ,nourse1 of ,maine4--,statement of ,shedd and ,edson1 of ,mass4--,statement of ,h4 ,f4 ,french1 of ,new ,hampshire4--,letter of ,wm4 ,boyle1 ,albert ,model ,farm1 ,glasnevin1 ,ireland4 ,it was part of the original plan of this work1 to give a large number of statements from ,american farmers of their success in drainage2 but1 although the instances are abundant1 want of space limits us to a few4 ,these are given with such diagrams as will not only make them intelligible1 but1 it is hoped1 will also furnish good examples of the arrangement and modes of executing drains1 and of laying them down upon plans for future reference4 ,the mode adopted by ,shedd and ,edson1 of indicating the size of the pipes used1 by the number of dots in the lines of drains1 is original and convenient4 ,it will be seen by close attention1 that a two-inch pipe is denoted by dots in pairs1 a three-inch pipe by dots in threes1 and so on4 ,it is believed that ,mr4 ,nourse's experiment is one of the most thorough and successful works of drainage yet executed in ,america4 ,his plan is upon page #aie4 ,,statement ,,of ,b4 ,f4 ,,nourse1 ,,esq4 ,,goodales ,,corner1 ,,orrington1 ,,me41 ,sept4 #ast1 #aheh4 ,,my ,,dear ,,sir3--,so much depends upon the preliminary surveys and levels for conducting works of thorough-draining and irrigation cheaply1 yet to obtain the most beneficial results1 that a competent person1 such as an engineer or practiced land-drainer1 should be employed to make them1 if one can be obtained4 ,unfortunately for me1 when ,i began this operation1 some years ago1 there were no such skilled persons in the country1 or ,i could learn of none professionally such1 and was forced to do my own engineering4 ,having thus practically acquired some knowledge of it1 ,i use and enjoy a ,summer vacation from other pursuits1 in the prosecution of this2 and this employment1 for the last few weeks1 has delayed my answer to your inquiries4 ,nor could ,i sooner arrive at the figures of cost1 extent1 c41 of this season's work4 ,this is expected to be completed in ten days1 and then ,i shall have laid1 of ,stone drains1 including mains #gjb rods ,tile drains 7two inches1 or larger7 #ajdc ---- ,in all #agde or1 about five and one-half miles1 laying dry1 satisfactorily1 about thirty-five acres4 ,the character and extent of the work will better appear by reference to the plan of the farm which ,i send with this for your inspection4 ,the earlier portion was fairly described by the ,committee of the ,bangor ,hort4 ,soc4--7,see ,report1 for #ahef1 of the ,maine ,board of ,agriculture47 ,it was far too costly1 as usual in works of a novel character conducted without practical knowledge4 ,no part of my draining1 even that of this season1 has been done so cheaply as it ought to be done in ,maine1 and will be done when tiles can be bought at fair prices near at hand4 ,i call your attention particularly to this1 because the magnitude of the cost1 as ,i represent it1 ought not to be taken as a necessary average1 or standard outlay per acre1 by any one contemplating similar improvement1 when almost any farmer can accomplish it equally well at far less cost4 ,my unnecessary expenditures will not have been in vain1 if they serve as a finger-post to point others in a profitable way4 ,my land had upon its surface1 and mingled in its super soil1 a large quantity of stones1 various in size1 from the huge boulders1 requiring several blasts of powder to reduce them to movable size1 to the rubble stones which were shoveled from the cart into the drains4 ,to make clean fields all these had to be removed1 besides the many heaps which had been accumulated by the industry of my predecessors4 ,a tile-drain needs no addition of stone above the pipe2 indeed1 the stone may be a positive injury1 as harboring field vermin1 or1 if allowed to come within two feet of the surface1 as obstructing deep tillage1 and favoring the access of particles of soil upon or into the tile with the rapid access of water which they promote4 ,carefully placed to the depth of six or eight inches in a four-foot drain1 quite small stones are1 perhaps1 useful1 and they certainly facilitate the drawing of water from the surface4 ,such was1 and still is1 with many1 the prescribed method of best drainage in ,scotland1 and some parts of ,england4 ,the increased cost of adding the stone above the tile is obvious2 and when the width of that drain is enlarged to receive them1 the cost is materially enhanced4 ,yet such has been my practice1 at first1 under the impression of its necessity1 and all the time from a desire to put to use1 and out of sight1 the small stones with which ,i was favored in such abundance4 ,the entire cost of moving1 and bringing more than #b1ejj heavy loads of stone1 is included in the cost of drains1 as set down for the #a1gde rods4 ,including this part of expense1 which is never necessary with tile1 and cannot be incurred in plain clay soils1 or clay loams free of stones1 the last #gjj rods cost an average of #ig cents per rod completed4 ,this includes the largest mains2 of which1 one of #gc rods was opened four feet wide at bottom of the trench1 of which the channel capacity is #ah x #ah #cbd square inches1 and others #aaj rods of three and one-half and three feet width at bottom1 all these mains being laid entirely with stone4 ,the remainder of the #gjj rods was laid with two-inch tile1 which cost at the farm eighteen dollars per #a1jjj4 ,these last were opened four rods apart1 and lay dry about seventeen acres1 at a cost1 including the mains1 of #fgh1 or #dj per acre4 ,in this is included every day's labor of man and beast1 and all the incidental expenses1 nothing being contributed by the farm1 which is under lease4 ,i infer that an intelligent farmer1 beginning aright1 and availing himself of the use of team and farm labor1 when they can best be spared from other work--as in the dry season1 after haying--or paying fair prices for digging his ditches only1 and doing the rest of the work from the farm1 can drain thoroughly at a cost of #bj per acre1 drains four rods apart1 and four feet deep2 or at #be per acre1 forty feet apart1 and three feet nine inches deep4 ,my subsoil is very hard1 requiring constant use of the pick1 and sharpening of the picks every day1 so that the labor of loosening the earth was one-third or one-half more than the throwing out with a shovel4 ,the price paid per rod1 for opening only1 to the depth of three and a half feet 7or1 perhaps1 three and three-quarters average17 of a width for laying tile1 was #be cents per rod4 ,at this price1 the industrious men1 skillful with tools1 earned #a4ab to #a4be per day1 besides board2 and they threw out one-third more earth than was really necessary1 for room to work as they said4 ,but they labored hard1 #ad hours per day4 ,the same men1 working in a soil free from stones1 and an easier subsoil1 would1 in the same time1 open from #ej to #ajj per cent4 more length of ditch4 ,the greater part of these drains were laid four rods apart4 ,when first trying this distance upon a field1 of which the soil was called springy and cold1 and was always too wet in the ,spring and early ,summer for plowing1 a partial1 rather than thorough drainage was attempted1 with the design1 at some future day1 to lay intermediate drains4 ,the execution of that design may yet appear expedient1 although the condition of soil already obtained1 is satisfactory beyond expectation4 ,owing to the excess of water that saturated the soil in ,spring and ,fall1 the former proprietors of the farm had not attempted the cultivation of the field alluded to1 for many years4 ,originally producing heavy crops of hay1 it had been mowed for thirty years or more1 and was a good specimen of exhausted land1 yielding one-half or three-fourths of a ton of hay per acre4 ,this field is designated in the plan1 as the barley field1 #aheh1 lies south-west of the dwelling-house1 and contains nearly six acres4 ,its northerly half1 being the lower end of the field1 was drained in #ahee1 having been ,summer-plowed1 and sowed with buckwheat1 which was turned under1 when in flower1 as a fallow crop4 ,the other half was drained in #ahef2 plowed and subsoiled the same ,fall4 ,in #aheg1 nearly the whole field was planted with roots--potatoes1 rutabagas1 mangolds1 carrots1 ,english turnips1 c4--and one acre in corn4 ,for these crops1 fair dressings of manure were applied--say ten or twelve cartloads of barn-manure plowed in1 and one hundred pounds of either guano or bone-dust harrowed in1 or strewed in the drill1 for each acre2 about fifteen loads per acre of seasoned muck or peat were also plowed in4 ,there was a good yield of all the roots2 for the corn1 the season was unfavorable4 ,last ,spring1 a light dressing of manure1 but all that we could afford1 was applied1 the whole well ploughed1 harrowed1 seeded to grass with barley1 harrowed1 and rolled4 ,the barley was taken off last week2 and1 from the five and three-quarter acres1 seventeen heavy loads were hauled into the barn1 each estimated to exceed a ton in weight4 ,the grain from a measured acre was put apart to be separately threshed1 and ,i will advise of its yield when ascertained4,a ,this was said1 by the many farmers who saw it1 including some from the ,western ,states1 to be the handsomest field of grain they had ever seen4 ,the young grass looks well2 and ,i hope1 next ,summer1 to report a good cut of hay from drained land4 ,footnote ,a3 ,this was threshed about the middle of ,november1 and yielded #ea bushels1 round measure4 ,the entire field averaged #de bushels per acre4 ,last ,winter1 there were no snows to cover the ground for sleighing until ,march2 and1 lying uncovered1 our fields were all frozen to an unusual depth4 ,but1 our drains did not cease to run through the ,winter4 ,and ,mr4 ,o4 ,w4 ,straw1 who works the farm1 and was requested to note the facts accurately1 wrote to me this ,spring1 the frost came out of the drained land about one week first 7that is1 earlier than from the undrained land adjacent72 and1 in regard to working condition1 the drained land was in advance of the undrained1 ten days1 at least4 ,the absence of snow permitting this unusual depth of frost1 had caused a rare equality of condition the last ,spring1 because1 until the frost was out1 the drains would not draw surface-water4 ,usually1 when early snows have fallen to protect the ground1 and it remains covered through the ,winter1 the frost goes off with the snow1 or earlier1 and1 within a few days1 the land becomes in good condition for plowing--quite two weeks earlier than the driest of my undrained fields1 or any others in the vicinity4 ,these remarks apply to land in which the drains are four rods apart4 ,the farm lies with an inclination northerly and easterly1 the fall varying from #a in #cc to #a in #h2 that in most of the drains laid four rods apart1 being about #a in #be4 ,the drains in the barley field fall #a in #bg1 average1 all affording a rapid run of water1 which1 from the mode of construction1 and subsequent subsoiling1 finds ready access to the drain-channels4 ,hence1 we never observe running water upon the surface of any of our drained lands1 either during the heaviest rains1 or when snows are melting1 and the wasteful washing from the surface that formerly injured our plowed grounds1 has ceased4 ,it is fair to suppose that it is the considerable descent which renders the drains so effectual at four rods apart2 and that where there is but slight fall1 other circumstances being the same1 it would be necessary to lay drains much nearer1 for equal service4 ,the results of one man's experiments1 or practice1 whether of success or failure1 should not be conclusive to another1 unless all the circumstances are identical4 ,these are ever varying from one farm to another2 and only a right understanding of the natural laws or principles brought into use1 can determine what is best in each case4 ,therefore1 a description of the methods ,i have used1 or any detailed suggestions ,i may give1 as the result of experience1 would not be worth much1 unless tested by the well-ascertained rules applicable to them1 which men of science and skill have adopted and proved1 by the immensely extended draining operations in ,great ,britain1 and those begun in this country4 ,these are now given in elaborate treatises1 and quoted in agricultural journals4 ,but they should be made familiar to every farmer1 in all their practical details1 and with methods suited to our country1 where labor is dear and land cheap1 as contrasted with the reversed conditions in ,england1 where the practice of thorough-draining has so generally obtained1 and has so largely improved the conditions of both landlord and tenant4 ,your book will do this1 and thus do a great good2 for draining will greatly enlarge the productive capacity of our land1 and1 consequently1 its value1 while it will render labor more effective and more remunerative to the employer and the employed4 ,the fact of increased production from a given quantity of land1 by draining1 being ascertained beyond question1 and the measure of that increase1 at its minimum1 being more than the interest at six per cent4 upon the sum required to effect it--even at #ej per acre--the question of expediency is answered4 ,to the owner of tillage lands there is no other such safe1 sure1 and profitable investment for his money4 ,he lodges it in a bank that will never suspend payments1 and from which better than six per cent4 dividend can be received annually4 ,very truly1 yours1 ,b4 ,f4 ,,nourse4 ,hon4 ,h4 ,f4 ,,french1 ,exeter1 ,n4 ,h4 ,,statement ,,of ,,shedd ,,and ,,edson4 ,,boston1 ,february #a1 #ahei4 ,,dear ,,sir3--,the plan for a system of thorough drainage1 a copy of which we send you herewith1 was executed for ,mr4 ,i4 ,p4 ,rand1 of ,roxbury4 ,an outfall was obtained1 at the expense of considerable labor1 by deepening the ,roxbury and ,dorchester ,brook for a distance of nearly a quarter of a mile1 about four hundred feet of which was through a rocky bottom1 which required some blasting4 ,the fall thus obtained was only about two inches in the whole distance4 ,the fall which can be obtained for the main drain is less than two inches per hundred feet1 but the lateral drains entering into the main1 will have a fall varying from two inches to a foot per hundred4 ,the contour lines1 or lines traced along the ground1 intersecting points on an equal level1 are drawn on this plan1 showing a fall of four-tenths of a foot1 each line being in every part four-tenths of a foot lower than the line above it4 ,where the lines are near together1 the fall is greater1 as a less horizontal distance is passed over before reaching a point which is four-tenths lower than the line above4 ,illustration3 ,thorough ,drainage ,,by ,,shedd ,,edson4 ,,agr',l ,,eng',s ,,boston1 #ahei ,it will be seen by the plan1 that the fall in the line occupied by the main drain is very slight1 while the side drains have a fall much greater4 ,the lateral drains are run in the line of steepest descent1 which is1 of course1 at right angles to the general direction of the contour lines4 ,the water from the entire system is collected1 and escapes at one outlet into the brook4 ,a peep hole is placed at the intersection of the sub-main drain with the main1 which commands about one-half the entire area--the other1 half is commanded by the outlet4 ,two-inch tile will be laid in the lateral drains1 and three1 four1 and five-inch in the sub-main and main4 ,it is quite indispensable1 to the successful execution of a plan of drainage on land so level as this1 that careful measurements be made on the ground with an engineer's level1 and such a representation of its surface projected as will show to the eye at a glance what all the natural inclinations are4 ,the work can then be laid out with ease in the best position1 and executed in a systematic manner4 ,the time and labor which is devoted to such an examination of the ground is well spent1 and1 with the knowledge gained by it1 the work can be carried on with such economy as to save the original cost of the examination many times over4 ,very truly1 yours1 ,,shedd ,,edson ,hon4 ,h4 ,f4 ,,french1 ,exeter1 ,n4 ,h4 ,,statement ,,of ,,henry ,f4 ,,french1 ,,of ,,exeter1 ,n4 ,h4 ,the drained field represented in the plan 7,fig4 #ajb71 contains about eight acres4 ,i purchased it in #ahdf4 ,the upper part of it is sand1 with underlying clay at depths of from four to ten feet4 ,the field slopes towards the river1 and1 on the slope1 the clay strata coming out to the surface1 naturally bring out the water1 so that the side hill was so wet as to produce cranberries--quite too wet for any hoed crop4 ,at the foot of the hill the soil is a stiff clay1 with veins of sand and gravel4 ,through the centre was a wet ravine1 which served as a natural outlet for the springs1 and which was so full of black alders as to make an excellent cover for woodcock4 ,until the land was drained1 this ravine was impassable in the hay season even1 except by a bridge which ,i built across it4 ,now it may be crossed at any season and at any point4 ,i first attempted to drain the wettest parts with brush drains1 running them into the wet places merely1 and succeeded in drying the land sufficiently to afford good crops of hay4 ,i laid one brush-drain across the brow of the hill1 five feet deep1 hoping to cut off all the water1 which ,i supposed ran along upon the surface of the clay4 ,this dried the land for a few rods1 but the water still ruined the lower parts of the field1 and the drain produced very little effect upon the land above it4 ,in #ahef1 finding my brush drains quite insufficient1 ,i thorough-drained the side-hill on the lower part of the plan at the reader's left hand1 at fifty feet distances1 up and down the slope1 at an average of about four feet depth1 going five feet deep on the brow of the hill1 to cut through the brush-drain4 ,i used two-inch sole-tiles for minors1 and three-inch for the main4 ,the effect was instantaneous4 ,the land which1 in the ,spring of #ahef1 had been so wet that it could not1 even though partially drained with brush-drains1 be planted till the #eth of ,june1 was1 in #aheg1 ready to work as soon as the snow was off4 ,my farm journal says1 under date of ,april #fth1 plowed drained land with double plow two days after a heavy storm--dry enough4 ,i spent that ,summer in ,europe4 ,the land was planted with corn1 which produced a heavy crop4 ,i find an entry in my journal1 on my return1 ,my drained land has been in good condition--neither too wet nor too dry--all ,summer4 ,in the ,fall of #aheg1 ,i laid about #agj rods in other parts of the field1 at similar depths and distances1 and in #aheh completed the upper part1 on which is an orchard of apple trees4 ,a part of this orchard was originally so wet as to kill the trees the first year1 but by brush-drains ,i dried it enough to keep the next set alive4 ,there was no water visible at the surface1 and the land was dry enough for corn and potatoes2 still the trees looked badly1 and many were winter-killed4 ,i had learned the formation of the earth about my premises1 of which ,i had at first no adequate conception1 and was satisfied that no fruit tree could flourish with its feet in cold water1 even in ,winter4 ,all nursery-men and fruit-growers agree1 that land must be well drained for fruit4 ,i therefore laid four-foot tile drains between the rows of trees1 in this apparently dry sand4 ,we found abundance of water1 in the driest season1 at four feet1 and it has never ceased to flow copiously4 ,i measured accurately the discharge of water from the main which receives the drainage of about one and a half acres of the orchard1 at a time when it gave1 what seemed to me an average quantity for the ,winter months1 when the earth was frozen solid1 and found it to be about #dhj barrels per day6 ,the estimate was made by holding a bucket1 which contained ten quarts1 under the outlet1 when it was found that it would fill in fifteen seconds1 equal to ten gallons per minute2 and six hundred gallons1 or twenty barrels per hour1 and four hundred and eighty barrels per day4 ,i have seen the same drain discharge at least four times that quantity1 at some times6 ,the peep-holes give opportunity for inspection1 and ,i find the result to be1 that the water-table is kept down four feet below the surface at all times1 except for a day or two after severe rain-storms4 ,there is an apparent want of system in this plan1 partly to be attributed to my desire to conform somewhat to the line of the fences1 and partly to the conformation of the land1 which is quite uneven4 ,at several points near the ravine1 springs broke out1 apparently from deep fountains1 and short drains were run into them1 to keep them below the surface4 ,the general result has been1 to convert wet land into early warm soil1 fit for a garden1 to render my place more dry and healthful1 and to illustrate for the good of the community the entire efficiency of tile-drainage4 ,the cost of this work throughout1 ,i estimate at fifty cents per rod1 reckoning labor at #a per day1 and tiles at #ab per thousand1 and all the work by hand-tools4 ,i think in a few years1 we may do the same work at one-half this cost4 ,further views on this point are given in the chapter on the ,cost of ,drainage4 ,after our work was in press1 we received from ,mr4 ,william ,boyle1 ,farmer at the ,albert ,model ,farm in ,ireland1 the paper which is given below1 kindly sent in reply to a series of questions proposed by the author4 ,the ,albert ,model ,farm is one of the ,government institutions for the promotion of agriculture1 by the education of young men in the science and the practice of farming2 and from what was apparent1 by a single day's examination of the establishment in our visit to it in ,august1 #aheg1 we are satisfied of its entire success4 ,the crops then growing were equal1 if not superior1 to any we have seen in any country4 ,much of the land covered by those crops is drained land2 and having confidence that the true principles of drainage for that country must be taught and practiced at this institution1 we thought it might be instructive1 as well as interesting to the farmers of ,america1 to give them the means of comparison between the system there approved1 and those others which we have described4 ,had the paper been sooner received1 we should have referred to it earlier in our book2 yet coming as it does1 after our work was mostly in type1 we confess to some feeling of satisfaction1 at the substantial coincidence of views entertained at the ,albert ,model ,farm1 with our own humble teachings4 ,with many thanks to ,mr4 ,boyle for his valuable letter1 which we commend to our readers as a reliable exposition of the most approved principles of land-draining for ,ireland1 we give the paper entire3 ,,albert ,,model ,,farm1 ,glasnevin1 ,dublin1 ,january #ca1 #ahei4 ,to the ,hon4 ,,henry ,f4 ,,french1 ,exeter1 ,n4 ,h43 ,,sir3--,your queries on land-drainage have been too long unanswered4 ,i have now great pleasure in sending you1 herewith1 my views on the points noted4 99 99 99 ,pray excuse me for the delay in writing4 ,i am1 sir1 ,your obliged and obedient servant1 ,,william ,,boyle4 ,,land ,,drainage--,,replies ,,to ,,queries1 ,,etc4 ,introductory observations4 ,ireland contains close on to twenty-one millions of acres1 thirteen and a half millions of which were returned as arable land1 in #ahda4 ,by ,arterial and thorough-drainage1 c41 effected through loans granted by government1 the extent of arable land has been increased to fifteen and a half millions of acres4 ,the ,board of ,works has the management of the funds granted for drainage and land improvements generally1 and competent inspectors are appointed to see that the works are properly executed4 ,the proprietor1 or farmer1 who obtains a loan may1 if competent1 claim and obtain the appointment of overseer on his own property1 and thus have an opportunity of economically expending the sum which he will have to repay 7principal and interest7 by twenty-two installments4 ,the average cost of thorough-drainage1 under the ,board of ,works1 has been about ,l#e per statute acre4 ,in #ahdg1 when government granted the first loan for land-drainage1 tiles were not so easily obtained as at present1 nor was tile-drainage well understood in this country2 and the greater part of the drains then made--and for some years after--were either sewered with stones1 formed into a conduit of various dimensions1 and covered over with finely-broken stones1 or the latter were filled into the bottom of the drain1 to about one foot in depth1 as recommended by ,smith1 of ,deanston4 ,the dimensions for minor drains1 sewered with stones1 were1 usually1 three and a half feet deep1 fifteen inches wide at top1 and three to four inches wide at bottom 7distance apart being twenty-one feet72 and the overseer carried about with him a wooden gauge1 of a size to correspond1 so that the workmen could see at a glance what they had to do4 ,these drains are reported to have given general satisfaction2 and they were cheaply made1 as the stones were to be had in great abundance in almost every field4 ,on new land1 trenching was sometimes carried on simultaneously with the drainage2 and it very often happened that the removal of the stones thus brought to the surface1 was very expensive2 but they were turned to profitable account in sewering drains and building substantial fences4 ,in almost every case the drains were made in the direction of the greatest inclination1 or fall of the land2 and this is the practice followed throughout the country4 ,some exceptions occur on hill-sides1 where ,i have seen the drains laid off at an acute angle with the line of inclination4 ,it is not necessary that ,i should explain the scientific reasons for draining in the direction of the fall of the land1 as that point has been fully treated of1 and well illustrated1 in your article already referred to4 ,i shall now pass on to the ,queries4 ,illustration3 ,thorough ,drainage ,,by ,,henry ,f4 ,,french4 ,,exeter ,n4,h4 ,depth of drains1 and distance apart4 ,there is still a great diversity of opinion on these points1 and particularly in reference to the drainage of stiff clay soils2 some of the most intelligent and practical farmers in this country hold to the opinion that1 on such soils1 the maximum depth should not exceed three feet1 and the distance apart sixteen to twenty feet4 ,on clay loams1 having a subsoil more or less free1 the general practice is1 to make the drains three and a half to four feet deep1 and at twenty-one to thirty feet apart4 ,on lighter soils1 having a free subsoil1 four feet deep and forty feet apart are the usual limitations4 ,this farm may be taken as a fair average of the land in ,ireland1 as a test for drainage2 the soil is a deep clay loam2 the subsoil a compact mixture of strong clay and calcareous gravel1 almost free from stones4 ,thirty miles of drains have been made on the farm1 the least distance apart being twenty-one feet1 and the greatest distance thirty feet2 the depth in every case1 three and a half to four feet for minor drains4 ,this drainage has given the greatest satisfaction2 for although the greatest part of the work was performed by the ,agricultural pupils1 in training here1 we have not had occasion to re-make a single drain1 except in one instance1 where the tiles got choked1 and which ,i shall explain hereafter4 ,tiles3 ,size1 ,shape1 ,draining1 ,capacity1 c4 ,we use circular pipe tiles1 of inch and a half bore1 for all parallel drains whose length does not exceed one hundred yards1 and two-inch pipes for any additional length up to one hundred and fifty yards1 the greatest length1 in my opinion1 a parallel drain should reach before discharging into a main or sub-main drain4 ,we do not find it necessary to use collars on this farm1 as we have firm ground to place the tiles on1 and we can cut the drain to fit the tiles exactly4 ,as regards the size of tiles for main and sub-main drains1 that can only be regulated by the person in charge of the drainage at any particular place1 after seeing the land opened up and the minor drains discharging4 ,as a general rule1 a circular pipe of three inches internal diameter will discharge the ordinary drainage of five or six statute acres1 and give sufficient space for the circulation of air4 ,it should be observed1 however1 that this applies to a district where the annual rain-fall is from twenty-six to thirty inches1 that of all ,ireland being about thirty-five inches2 besides1 we have not the immense falls of rain in a few hours that occur in other countries4 ,all these points should be carefully considered in estimating the water-way for drainage4 ,i have said that collars are not used with the tiles on this farm1 as the bottom of the drains is quite firm and even2 but1 where the bed for the tile is soft1 and the subsoil is of a shifting nature1 then collars should be used in every case4 ,collars cost about half the price of tiles1 which they are made to connect1 so that the use of them adds one-third to the expense of the sewering material2 and1 as ,i have already pointed out1 ,i think it quite unnecessary to use them where the subsoil is firm1 and where the drain can be bottomed to fit the tile4 ,where large pipes are not to be had conveniently for sewering main or sub-drains1 ,i find a proportional number of pipes of lesser diameter to answer perfectly4 ,it is very desirable to provide branch pipes for connecting the minor with the main drains4 ,the branch should be socketed to receive the end of the last tile in the minor drain1 and the point of attachment to the main pipe may be on the top or on the side of the latter4 ,if the branch be made to lead the water into the side of the main pipe1 then it should join the latter at an acute angle1 that both streams may meet with the least possible opposition of forces4 ,fall necessary in ,tile ,drainage4 ,i consider one foot in one hundred yards the least fall to work upon with safety4 ,securing ,outlets4 ,all the outlets from main-drains should be well secured against the intrusion of vermin1 by a wrought-iron grating1 built in mason-work4 ,the water may flow into a stone trough provided with an overflow-pipe1 by which the quantity discharged may be ascertained at any time1 so as to compare the drainage before and after rain1 c4 ,traps1 or ,silt ,ponds4 ,where extensive drainage is carried on in low-lying districts1 and the principal outlet at a considerable distance1 it may be found necessary to have traps at several points where the silt from the tiles will be kept4 ,these traps may be of cast-iron1 or mason-work1 cemented2 and provision should be made1 by which they can be cleaned out and examined regularly--the drainage at these periods also undergoing inspection at the different traps4 ,plow-,draining4 ,we have no draining-plows in use in ,ireland1 that ,i know of2 the common plow is sometimes used for marking off the drains1 cutting the sides1 and throwing out the earth to a considerable depth1 thereby lessening the manual labor considerably4 ,efforts have been made in ,england to produce an efficient implement of this description2 but it would appear there is ample room for an inventive ,jonathan to walk in for a profitable patent in this department1 and thus add another to the many valuable ones brought out in your great country4 ,case of ,obstruction in ,tiles4 ,some years since1 one of the principal main-drains on this farm was observed not discharging the water freely1 as it hitherto had done1 after a heavy fall of rain2 and the land adjoining it showed unmistakable signs of wetness4 ,the drain was opened1 and traced to the point of obstruction1 which was found to be convenient to a small poplar tree1 the rootlets of which made their way into the tiles1 at the depth of five and a half feet1 and completely filled them1 in the direction of the stream1 for several yards4 ,we have some of the tiles 7horse-shoe7 in our museum here1 as they were then lifted from the drain1 showing clearly the formidable nature of the obstruction4 ,another serious case of obstruction has come to my knowledge1 occasioned by frogs or toads getting into the tiles of the main-drain in large numbers1 on account of the outlet being insufficiently protected4 ,in this case1 a large expenditure had to be incurred1 to repair the damage done4 ,i have not observed any case of obstruction from the roots of our cultivated plants4 ,it has been said by some that the rootlets of mangold will reach the drains under them2 and1 particularly1 where the drains contain most water in rapid motion4 ,i took up the tiles from a drain on this farm1 in '#ed1 which had been laid down 7by a former occupier71 about the year '#dd1 at a depth not exceeding two-and-a-half feet1 and not one of these was obstructed in the least degree1 although parsnips1 carrots1 cabbages1 mangolds1 c41 had been grown on this field4 ,obstructions may occur through the agency of mineral springs2 but very few cases of this nature are met with1 at least in this country4 ,i would anticipate this class of obstruction1 if from the nature of the land there was reason to expect it1 by increasing the fall in the drains and having traps more frequent1 where the main outlets are at a distance to render them necessary4 ,in my opinion1 the roots of trees are the great intruders to be guarded against1 and more particularly the soft-wooded sorts1 such as poplars1 willows1 alders1 c4 ,the distance of a drain from a tree ought always to be equal to the height of the latter4 ,tiles flattening in the drying process4 ,with this subject1 ,i am not practically familiar4 ,in most tile-works1 the tiles1 after passing through the moulding-machine1 are placed horizontally on shelves1 which rise one above another to any convenient height1 on which the tiles are dried by means of heated flues which traverse the sheds where the work is carried on2 or they are allowed to dry without artificial heat4 ,i prefer the tiles prepared by the latter method1 as1 if sufficient time be given them to be well dried1 they will burn more equally1 and be more durable4 ,the tiles will flatten more or less for the first day or two on the shelves1 after which they are rolled4 ,this is done by boys 7who are provided with pieces of wood of a diameter equal to the bore of the tile when made71 who very soon learn to get over a large number daily4 ,the roller should have a shouldered handle attached1 the whole thickness of which should not be greater than that of the tile4 ,the shoulder is necessary to make the ends of the tiles even1 that there may be no very open joints when they are placed in a drain4 ,once rolled1 the tiles are not likely to flatten again1 if the operation be performed at the proper time4 ,as good tiles as ,i ever saw were dried in a different way1 and not rolled at all4 ,as they were taken from the machine--six at a time--each carrier passed off with his tray1 and placed them on end carefully1 upon an even floor4 ,when five or six rows of tiles were thus placed1 the whole length of the drying-house1 a board was set on edge to keep them from falling to one side2 then followed five or six other rows of tiles1 and so on1 till the drying-ground was filled4 ,this was the plan adopted in a tilery near ,dublin1 some years ago4 ,it is only a few days since ,i examined some of the tiles made at these works1 which had been taken from a drain1 where they had been in use for nine years2 and the clear ringing sound produced by striking them against each other1 showed what little effect that length of time produced upon them1 and how well they had been manufactured4 ,cost of ,tiles4 ,we have recently paid at the works-- ,for #a-a_/b inch pipes #ags4 #f;d4 per thousand4 #b #bes4 #c #des4 ,each tile one foot in length1 and the one and one-half-inch pipes weighing #af cwt4 per thousand4 ,one of the great difficulties in connection with tile-making is1 in many districts1 to procure clay sufficiently free from lime4 ,tiles are very often sold by sample1 sent a considerable distance1 and it becomes necessary to test them1 which we do 7for lime7 by placing them in water for a night2 and1 if lime is present in the tile1 it will1 of course1 swell out1 and break the latter1 or leave it in a riddled state4 ,i have now endeavored to answer the queries in your postscript1 and ,i have carefully avoided enlarging on some points in them with which your readers are already familiar4 ,if ,i shall have thrown a single ray of additional light on this subject across the ,atlantic1 ,i shall be amply repaid for any attention ,i have given to thorough-drainage during the past twelve years4 ,i should here observe that ,i mislaid amongst my papers the portion of your letter containing the queries 7it was a separate sheet71 and it has not as yet turned up1 so that ,i had to depend on a rather treacherous memory to keep the queries in my mind's eye4 ,it is highly probable1 therefore1 that ,i have overlooked some of them4 ,this circumstance was the chief cause of the delay in writing4 ,you are quite at liberty to make any use you please of this communication4 ,,william ,,boyle4 ,,index4 ,absorption of moisture2 #cjc1 #cjd1 #cbb ,fertilizing substances2 #bfh ,aeration2 #bfi1 #bgf ,albert ,model ,farm2 #cge ,american experiments2 #cfg ,anderson1 ,j4 ,f42 #aab ,arrangement of drains2 #agc ,artesian ,wells2 #hc ,attraction1 adhesive2 #cja capillary2 #cjb of soils for vapor2 #cjd ,auger1 ,elkington's2 #ce1 #bdf ,bache1 ,prof42 #fe ,back water2 #aha ,barn cellar2 #cef-cei ,bergen1 ,mr42 #aii ,birmingham spades2 #bdj ,bletonism2 #cf ,blodgett1 ,lorin2 #ea1 #ei ,bligh1 ,captain2 #bd1 #bg ,bogs2 #ia ,boning-rod2 #bcd ,bore1 form of2 #abi ,boring2 #ce1 #cfe ,boring tools2 #ce1 #cdf ,boyle1 ,wm42 #cge ,branch pipes2 #aif1 #cgh ,bricks1 draining2 #aba1 #add cost of2 #bjd ,brush drains2 #ajd1 #aje ,capacity of pipes2 #aca1 #acb1 #acd1 #bja ,capillary attraction2 #cjb ,cellars1 drainage of2 #cea-cei ,challoner's ,level2 #bce ,clay soil2 #afg1 #cbi ,clays1 drainage of2 #cbb-ccb ,clays1 cracking of2 #bge1 #cbd-cca ,collars2 #dg1 #abf1 #abg1 #abh1 #bai1 #caf1 #cbj1 #cgh ,cold from evaporation2 #fc1 #bgb ,cost of drainage2 #baa-bbd1 #cji1 #cgf tiles2 #bja-bje1 #cha ,count ,rumford2 #bgb1 #bgc1 #bhg ,country ,gentleman2 #af1 #aih1 #cbi ,crisp1 ,thomas2 #bjc ,custis1 ,g4 ,w4 ,p42 #ah ,dams2 #ccc1 #cdg ,deanston system2 #cg ,delafield2 #df1 #gf1 #afh ,denton1 ,j4 ,bailey2 #ba1 #afa ,letter from2 #bjj ,depth of drains2 #afd-agc1 #cbf1 #cbh1 #cgg ,directions how to lay drains2 #beb-beh ,dew1 cause of2 #cje increased by drainage2 #bhd1 #cjf imparts warmth2 #cjg ,dew-point2 #fe1 #ff1 #cjf ,dickinson1 ,a4 ,b42 #ajh ,direction of drains2 #adf-aee ,distance 2 #aee-afd1 #cgg ,ditch diggers2 #bdg-bea ,drainage acts2 #cdi companies2 #ccc effects of2 #beh-bgf methods of2 #ii-abj water of2 #fj1 #fa1 #cci ,drainage1 will it pay8 #ie ,drain bricks2 #aba1 #add ,drains of brush2 #ajd larch tubes2 #aaa plug2 #ajf of poles2 #aac rails2 #aab stones2 #aad-aai wedge2 #aaj run before rain2 #bfi1 #bgj ,drought1 drains prevent2 #bha-bhf1 #cjj ,dry ,wells2 #aig1 #aih ,durability of drains2 #ada-ade ,elkington's system2 #bg1 #cc1 #bdj1 #cfe ,embankment2 #ah ,emerson1 ,r4 ,w42 #ae1 #bc ,engineering2 #afc1 #bac ,england2 #ai1 #cdj wet land in2 #hi ,english tools2 #bdc ,evaporation2 #dh1 #fa1 #fb1 #bic-big cold from2 #fc1 #bgb1 #bic-big from land2 #fb1 #fi1 #gb water2 #fb1 #fi1 #gc ,excavation2 #afe cost of2 #afe1 #bja1 #bad table of2 #baf ,experiments1 ,american2 #cfg1 #cgf ,factory reservoirs2 #cda-cdc ,fall in drains2 #agd1 #cgh ,fences2 #baa1 #cdf ,filtration2 #da1 #fj1 #fa ,filtration tables of2 #gj1 #ga ,fitzherbert2 #bc ,flat-bottomed tiles2 #abi ,flowage1 effects of2 #ccc1 #cda1 #cdc1 #cdf ,flushing drains2 #ahf ,freezing out2 #ge1 #bfb of pipes2 #aga ,french's plan2 #cgc ,friction of water2 #aca1 #acc ,frost2 #fg1 #adc1 #agj1 #agb1 #big1 #bii ,fruit trees2 #bih1 #cgd ,furrows2 #aie ,gauge2 #bdf ,germination2 #bgf-bha ,gillis1 ,lieut42 #fe ,gisborne2 #abb1 #abf ,gravitation2 #aca ,grading drains2 #bcc ,gratings at outlets2 #ahc ,great ,britain2 #hi wet lands in2 #hi ,greeley1 ,horace2 #hh ,haarlaem1 ,lake2 #ai ,headers2 #aec1 #aed ,heat in wet land2 #bhh-bij water2 #bgb1 #bgc ,hobbs1 ,doctor2 #ea1 #ed1 #ef ,holyoke1 ,doctor2 #fb ,horse-shoe tiles2 #abd ,implements2 #bbe1 #beb ,indications of moisture2 #ic ,injury by drainage2 #cjh1 #cac ,ireland1 drainage in2 #cgf ,irrigation2 #ad ,irish spade2 #bch ,johnson1 ,b4 ,p42 #ag ,johnston1 ,john2 #df1 #afh1 #bef1 #bfb1 #cbh1 #cbi ,johnstone2 #bh1 #ca1 #abj ,joints1 how covered2 #bee spaces at2 #acd1 #adj ,junction of drains2 #aie1 #aif ,keythorpe system2 #dj ,klippart1 ,j4 ,h42 #af ,land ,drainage ,companies2 #cdi ,larch tubes2 #aaa ,lardner1 ,dr42 #bgj ,laying out drains2 #bac1 #bec ,laying tiles2 #bai1 #beb-beh ,legal rights to water2 #he1 #hf1 #cdf ,legislation2 #cdj ,levelling instruments2 #bbi-bce ,lincolnshire fens2 #ai1 #caj ,lines1 use of2 #bcc1 #bec ,lord ,lincoln's ,act2 #cdg ,madden1 ,doctor2 #bgf ,mains1 position and size of2 #aij-aid ,mangolds1 obstruction by2 #caf1 #cag1 #cgi ,mapes1 ,prof42 #af1 #afg ,massachusetts1 laws2 #cdg ,mechi1 ,sheriff2 #bfj1 #cci ,methods of drainage2 #ii ,mice2 #ajd1 #aaf1 #cae ,mill dams2 #cdj-cdd ,mill streams2 #hi1 #ccc ,minors2 #aid ,moisture1 sources of2 #gh ,moles2 #ajd1 #aaf ,mole drains2 #ajg ,mole ,plow2 #ajh ,moon1 influence of2 #cjf ,morris1 ,edward2 #fj ,nash1 ,prof42 #aii ,nene ,river2 #ccg ,new ,york ,park2 #dg1 #bai ,nourse1 ,b4 ,f42 #bhe1 #bii1 #cfg statement and plan of2 #aie1 #cfg1 #cgb ,obstruction of drains2 #cac-cbj by sand2 #cac1 #cba by frogs1 c42 #ahc1 #cae1 #cgi per-oxide of iron2 #cag roots2 #cae1 #caf1 #cgi filling at joints2 #cai ,open ditches2 #ii1 #bfc objections to2 #aja1 #ajb ,opening ditches2 #beb ,outfalls2 #cde ,outlets2 #agf-ahc1 #bai1 #beb1 #beg1 #cae1 #cgh ,over-draining peats2 #cji1 #cff ,parkes1 ,josiah2 #be1 #ch1 #dj1 #abh ,paul's ditcher2 #bej ,peat tiles2 #aac ,peats1 over-draining of2 #cji1 #cff ,peep-holes2 #ahg1 #ahh1 #cba1 #cgc ,per-oxide of iron2 #cag ,pettibone1 ,j4 ,s42 #cbi ,picks2 #bde ,pipes2 #dg1 #abb1 #abc1 #add capacity of2 #aca-ach1 #aei1 #aia1 #aic cost in ,england2 #bja1 #bjd ,united ,states2 #bjb-bje1 #bah position of2 #aij-aid ,pipe layer2 #bdd1 #bde ,plans of drains2 #aie1 #cgb1 #cgg importance of2 #afa ,plow1 use of2 #bec1 #cgi ,plow1 ,fowler's drain2 #bdg1 #bdh ,shanghae2 #aji ,paul's ditcher2 #bej ,routt's2 #bea ,plug drains2 #ajg ,pole drain2 #aac ,pratt's ,ditch digger2 #bdh1 #bdi ,pressure of water2 #aca1 #acb1 #cca1 #ccb1 #cef water of2 #hd ,process of draining2 #beb-beh ,puddling2 #aih1 #bff1 #cbc ,pulverization2 #bfj1 #bhb1 #bii ,rain2 #dh1 #aeh1 #aei1 #bhd ,rain-fall2 #ej1 #aeh1 #cgh ,rain-fall1 tables of2 #ec-fj1 #gj-gc ,relief pipes2 #ahd1 #ahf ,reservoirs2 #cda1 #cdc ,ridge and furrow2 #aie ,rolling pipes2 #bje1 #chj ,roots1 length of2 #beh1 #bei1 #bhc obstruction by2 #cae1 #caf1 #cgi ,round pipes2 #dg1 #abb ,rumford1 ,count2 #bgb1 #bgc1 #bhg ,ruffin1 ,edmund1 ,esq42 #bi1 #cfd ,rye and ,derwent2 #cdd ,saturation2 #ff ,scoops2 #bdd ,screens at outlets2 #ahc ,season lengthened2 #bfa ,shallow drains2 #afh ,shanghae plow2 #aji ,shedd and ,edson2 #ba1 #ea1 #cgb ,shoulder drain2 #aaj ,shovels2 #bcf1 #bcg ,silt basin2 #ahf1 #cgi ,sinkholes2 #aih ,size of tiles2 #aij1 #bja1 #cgg ,smith1 of ,deanston2 #bf1 #cg ,snow1 fall of2 #ei ,sole-tile2 #abe ,spades2 #bce1 #bcf1 #bdj-bdb ,spirit level2 #bcj ,springs2 #gh-hc drainage of2 #cd run before rain2 #bgj-bga how to preserve2 #ahi ,staff and target2 #bca ,stagnant water2 #ic ,stone drains2 #aad-aai1 #cgg cost of2 #aad1 #bbb ,stones above tiles2 #aah ,streams affected by drainage2 #ccc-cdj ,subsoil plow2 #afi ,subsoiler1 ,marcus and ,co4's2 #ajg ,surface washing prevented2 #bfa ,swallow-holes2 #aig1 #aih ,swamps2 #ia1 #cfj drainage of2 #cfj-cfc ,swamp-lands2 #ag ,swan1 ,r4 ,j42 #afh ,system1 importance of2 #afj1 #agc ,tables of evaporation2 #gb1 #gc excavation2 #baf filtration2 #gj1 #ga rain-fall2 #ec-ei1 #ga-gc of tiles to acre2 #bbj number of rods2 #bbj capacity of pipes2 #ace-ach ,talpa2 #bc ,temperature2 #fg1 #ahi1 #bhj1 #bhg-cjj underground2 #ahg1 #bhh1 #bia for vegetation2 #bga ,thermometer1 wet and dry2 #fd1 #fe ,thomas1 ,j4 ,j42 #bbi ,tile-drainage2 #abj ,tiles1 cost in ,england2 #bja1 #bab ,united ,states2 #bja-bje forms of2 #abb-acj length of2 #bba size of2 #acj-ach weight of2 #bai number to the acre2 #bbj ,tile machines2 #df1 #bjb-baj ,tile-works2 #dg1 #aba ,tools2 #bbe-bdf ,tops and bottoms2 #adj1 #cai1 #cgi ,traps2 #ahe1 #ahf1 #cgi1 #chj ,velocity of water2 #aca ,vermin2 #ajd ,virginia2 #ah1 #cfd ,warder1 ,doctor2 #cdf ,water1 how it enters2 #ach1 #cad1 #cbj stagnant2 #ic of drainage1 uses of2 #ahi1 #cci velocity of2 #aca ,water passage2 #abi ,water-line2 #ea1 #aci ,water-powers2 #ccc1 #cce1 #cda-cde ,water of pressure2 #hd1 #afa ,water1 pressure of2 #hd1 #adj1 #ada rights in2 #he1 #hf ,wedge drain2 #aaj1 #bcf ,weight of tiles2 #bai1 #cha ,wells1 drainage into2 #aig-aii dried by drains2 #he1 #cff ,well and relief-pipe2 #ahd-ahf ,well with silt trap2 #ahf ,wharncliffe system2 #dd ,width of ditches2 #bae-bah1 #bbf ,wright1 ,gov42 #ag ,yeomans1 ,t4 ,g42 #df1 #ajh 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber's ,note3 ,summarized here are the corrections applied to the text4 ,list of ,engravings3 ,drain ,gauge ,gauge was printed as ,guage ,h4 ,f4 ,french's ,drainage #cgf the page number was printed as #cgd unmindful of their obligations to him unmindful was printed as unmindul of gauging the quantity of water traveling along an important drain gauging was printed as guaging were removed1 a pond would remain would was unreadable in the ,original knowledge of the subject knowledge was printed as knowlege ,that drains will long continue to be opened in this vast country by hand labor vast was printed as fast the greater permanency of tiles permanency was printed as permanancy have come to our knowledge knowledge was printed as knowlege lay drains deep enough to be beyond the danger of water bursting in bursting was printed as brusting people of ,great ,britain ,britain was printed as ,britian ,the farmer sees his thousand bushels of potatoes submerged potatoes was printed as potatos the temperature at the latter depth the was printed twice representing the cellar referred to cellar was printed as celler and another outside another was printed as auother becomes necessary to test them to was printed twice