,,religions ,,( ,,anci5t ,,*9a  by      
,h]b]t ,a4 ,giles     ,pr(essor ( ,*9ese
 at ! ,univ]sity ( ,cambridge1 ,au?or ( 
,hi/oric ,*9a1 ,a ,hi/ory ( ,*9ese      
,lit]ature1 ,*9a & ! ,*9ese1 etc41 etc4 
,fir/ ,publi%$ #aijf by ,con/able &     
,company ,ltd41 ,london4                
,,prep>]',s ,,note       ,?is book 0    
publi%$ z "p ( ! s]ies ,religions3      
,anci5t      & ,mod]n4       ,!         
,psy*ological ,orig9 & ,nature (        
,religion1 by ,j4 ,h4 ,leuba4           
,judaism1 by ,israel ,abraham4          
,celtic ,religion1 by ,pr(essor ,e4     
,anwye4      ,%9to3 ,! ,anci5t ,religion
 ( ,japan1 by ,w4 ,g4 ,a/on1 ,c4,m4,g4  
,! ,religion ( ,anci5t ,rome1 by ,cyril 
,bailey1 ,m4,a4      ,h9duism1 by ,dr4  
,l4 ,d4 ,b>nett4      ,! ,religion (    
,anci5t ,pale/9e1 by ,/anley ,a4 ,cook4 
,animism1 by ,edw>d ,clodd4             
,sc&9avian ,religion1 by ,william ,a4   
,craigie4      ,e>ly ,buddhism1 by ,pr(4
 ,t4 ,w4 ,rhys ,davids1 ,,ll4,d4      ,!
 ,religions ( ,anci5t ,*9a1 by ,pr(4    

,giles1 ,,ll4,d4      ,magic &          
,feti%ism1 by ,dr4 ,a4 ,c4 ,haddon1     
,f4,r4,s4      ,! ,religion ( ,anci5t   
,greece1 by ,jane ,h>rison4      ,!     
,religion ( ,anci5t ,egypt1 by ,w4 ,m4  
,fl9d]s ,petrie1 ,f4,r4,s4              
,pan!ism1 by ,james ,allanson ,picton4  
,! ,religion ( ,babylonia & ,assyria1 by
 ,!ophilus ,g4 ,p9*es4      ,e>ly       
,*ri/ianity 7,paul to ,orig571 by ,s4   
,b4 ,slack4      ,! ,my?ologies (       
,anci5t ,mexico & ,p]u1 by ,lewis       
,sp5ce1 ,m4,a4      ,! ,my?ology (      
,anci5t ,brita9 & ,isl&1 by ,*>les      
,squire4      ,islam1 by ,ame] ,ali1    
,sy$1 ,m4,a41 ,c4,i4,e4      ,mi?raism1 
by ,w4 ,g4 ,py?ian-,adams4       ,!     
publi%]s 73 ,con/able & ,company ,ltd1  
,london2 ,op5 ,c\rt      ,company1      
,*icago4 ,! #aiah edition 0 pr9t$ 9     
,great ,brita9 by      ,butl]  ,tann]1  
,frome & ,london4     ,,religions ,,(   
,,anci5t ,,*9a    ,,*apt] ,i -- ,,!     
,,anci5t ,,fai?  ,philosophical ,!ory ( 
! ,univ]se4--,! problem ( ! univ]se has 

nev] (f]$ ! slighte/ difficulty to      
,*9ese philosoph]s4 ,be=e ! beg9n+ ( all
 ?+s1 !re 0 ,no?+4 ,9 ! lapse ( ages    
,no?+ coalesc$ into ,unity1 ! ,great    
,monad4 ,aft] m ages1 ! ,great ,monad   
sep>at$ into ,duality1 ! ,male & ,female
 ,pr9ciples 9 nature2 & !n1 by a process
 ( biog5esis1 ! visible univ]se 0       
produc$4  ,popul> ,cosmog5y4--,an       
addition1 h[ev]1 to ?is simple sy/em _h 
to be made1 9 def]5ce to1 & on a plane  
)1 ! intellig5ce ( ! masses4 ,accord+ to
 ?is1 ! ,male & ,female ,pr9ciples 7 ea*
 subdivid$ into ,great] & ,less]1 & !n f
 ! int]action ( ^! f\r ag5cies a be+1   
nam$ ,p'an ,ku1 came into exi/5ce4 ,he  
seems to h come into life end[$ ) p]fect
 k1 & 8 function 0 to set ! economy ( ! 
univ]se 9 ord]4 ,he is (t5 depict$ z    
wield+ a huge adze1 & engag$ 9 con/ruct+
 ! _w4 ,) 8 dea? ! details ( creation   
began4 ,8 brea? became ! w9d2 8 voice1 !
 ?und]2 8 left eye1 ! sun2 8 "r eye1 !  
moon2 8 blood fl[$ 9 riv]s2 8 hair grew 
into trees & plants2 8 fle% became !    

soil2 8 sweat desc5d$ z ra92 :ile !     
p>asites :i* infe/$ 8 body 7 ! orig9 ( !
 human race4  ,recognition & ,wor%ip (  
,spirits4--,e>ly ,*9ese writ]s tell u t 
,fu ,hsi1 ,b4,c4 #biec-bhch1 0 ! fir/   
,emp]or to organize sacrifices to1 &    
wor%ip (1 spirits4 ,9 ?is he 0 foll[$ by
 ! ,yell[ ,emp]or1 ,b4,c4 #bfih-beih1 :o
 built a temple = ! wor%ip ( ,god1 9 :i*
 inc5se 0 us$1 & fir/ sacrific$ to !    
,m\nta9s & ,riv]s4 ,he is also said to h
 e/abli%$ ! wor%ip ( ! sun1 moon1 & five
 planets1 & to h elaborat$ ! c]emonial (
 ance/ral wor%ip4  ,god ! ,fa!r1 ,e>? ! 
,"m4--,! ,yell[ ,emp]or 0 foll[$ by !   
,emp]or ,%ao ,hao1 ,b4,c4 #beih-bead1 :o
 in/itut$ ! music ( ! ,great ,abyss 9   
ord] to br+ spirits & m5 into h>mony4   
,!n came ! ,emp]or ,*uan ,hsu1 ,b4,c4   
#bead-bdcf1 ( :om x is said t he appo9t$
 an (fic] to preside ov] ! wor%ip ( ,god
 & ,e>?1 9 ord] to =m a l9k betwe5 !    
spirits & man1 & also caus$ music to be 
play$ = ! enjoym5t ( ,god4 ,music1 by ! 
way1 is said to h be5 introduc$ into    

wor%ip 9 imitation ( ?und]1 & 0 !re=e   
suppos$ to be pleas+ to ! ,almighty4    
,aft] him foll[$ ! ,emp]or ,ti ,k'u1    
,b4,c4 #bdcf-bcff1 :o dabbl$ 9 a/ronomy1
 & came to a k ( spiritual be+s1 :i* he 
respectfully wor%ipp$4 ,! ,emp]or ,yao1 
,b4,c4 #bceg-bbee1 built a temple = !   
wor%ip ( ,god1 & also caus$ dances to be
 p]=m$ = ! enjoym5t ( ,god on occasions 
( special sacrifice & communication ) ! 
spiritual _w4 ,aft] him1 we rea* !      
,emp]or ,%un1 ,b4,c4 #bbee-bbje1 9 ^:   
fav\r ,yao abdicat$4  ,additional       
,deities4--,be=e1 h[ev]1 ,%un v5tur$ to 
m\nt ! ?rone1 he consult$ ! />s1 9 ord] 
to f9d out if ! unse5 ,p[]s 7 fav\rable 
to 8 elevation2 & on receiv+ a          
satisfactory reply1 he proce$$ to       
sacrifice to ,god1 to ! ,six ,hon\r$    
,ones 7unkn[n71 to ! ,m\nta9s & ,riv]s1 
& to ,spirits 9 g5]al4 4 4 4 ,9 ! second
 mon? ( ! ye>1 he made a t\r (          
inspection ea/w>ds1 z f> z ,m\nt ,t'ai  
79 mod]n ,%antung71 :]e he pres5t$ a    
burnt (f]+ to ,god1 & sacrific$ to !    

,m\nta9s & ,riv]s4  ,god puni%es ! wick$
 & rew>ds ! good4--,! ,great ,yu1 :o    
dra9$ ! empire1 & came to ! ?rone 9     
,b4,c4 #bbje z fir/ ,emp]or ( ! ,hsia   
dyna/y1 foll[$ 9 ! l9es ( 8 pi\s        
pr$ecessors4 ,b ! ,emp]or ,k'ung ,*ia1  
,b4,c4 #ahgi-ahdh1 :o at fir/ _h treat$ 
! ,spirits ) all due rev]5ce1 fell into 
evil ways1 & 0 ab&on$ by ,god4 ,?is 0 ! 
beg9n+ ( ! end4 ,9 ,b4,c4 #agff ,t'ang !
 ,complet]1 f\nd] ( ! ,%ang dyna/y1 set 
to "w to ov]?r[ ,*ieh ,kuei1 ! la/ rul] 
( ! ,hsia dyna/y4 ,he began by sacrific+
 to ,almighty ,god1 & ask$ = a bless+ on
 8 und]tak+4 ,& 9 8 subsequ5t           
proclamation to ! empire1 he spoke ( t  
,god z foll[s3 ,god has giv5 to e man a 
consci5ce2 & if all m5 act$ 9 accordance
 ) its dictates1 !y w\ld n /ray f ! "r  
pa?4 4 4 4 ,! way ( ,god is to bless !  
good & puni% ! bad4 ,he has s5t d[n     
calamities on ! ,h\se ( ,hsia1 to make  
manife/ its crimes4  ,god manife/s      
displeasure4--,9 ,b4,c4 #afcg ! ,emp]or 
,t'ai ,m\ succe$$4 ,8 reign 0 m>k$ by ! 

sup]natural appe>ance 9 ! palace ( two  
mulb]ry-trees1 :i* 9 a s+le night grew  
to su* a size t !y c\ld h>dly be spann$ 
by two h&s4 ,! ,emp]or 0 t]rifi$2       
:]eupon a ,m9i/] said1 ,no prodigy is a 
mat* = virtue4 ,y\r ,maje/y's gov]nm5t  
is no d\bt at fault1 & "s re=m ( conduct
 is necess>y4 ,accord+ly1 ! ,emp]or     
began to act m circumspectly2 aft] :i* !
 mulb]ry-trees soon )]$ & di$4          
,revelation 9 a dream4--,! ,emp]or ,wu  
,t+1 ,b4,c4 #acbd-abfd1 began 8 reign by
 n speak+ = ?ree ye>s1 leav+ all ,/ate  
affairs to be decid$ by 8 ,prime ,m9i/]1
 :ile he himself ga9$ exp]i5ce4 ,lat]   
on1 ! features ( a sage 7 reveal$ to him
 9 a dream2 & on wak+1 he caus$ a       
portrait ( ! app>ition to be prep>$ &   
circulat$ ?r\gh\t ! empire4 ,! sage 0   
f\nd1 & = a long "t aid$ ! ,emp]or 9 !  
"r adm9i/ration ( gov]nm5t4 ,on !       
occasion ( a sacrifice1 a pheasant p]*$ 
^u ! h&le ( ! great sacrificial tripod1 
& cr[$1 at :i* ! ,emp]or 0 mu* al>m$4   
,be n afraid1 cri$ a ,m9i/]2 b beg9 by  

re=m+ y\r gov]nm5t4 ,god looks d[n ^u   
mortals1 & 9 accordance ) _! des]ts     
grants !m _m ye>s or few4 ,god does n   
%ort5 m5's lives2 !y d t !mselves4 ,"s  
are want+ 9 virtue1 & w n ackn[l$ge _!  
transgressions2 only :5 ,god *a/5s !m d 
!y cry1 ,:at are we to d8               
,an?ropomorphism & ,feti%ism4--,"o ( !  
la/ ,emp]ors ( ! ,%ang dyna/y1 ,wu ,i1  
:o reign$ ,b4,c4 #aaih-aaid1 ev5 w5t s  
f> z to make an image 9 human =m1 :i* he
 call$ ,god4 ,) ?is image he us$ to play
 at dice1 caus+ "s "o to ?r[ = ! image2 
& if ',god' lo/1 he w\ld ov]:elm ! image
 ) insult4 ,he also made a bag ( lea!r1 
:i* he fill$ ) blood & hung up4 ,!n he  
w\ld %oot at x1 say+ t he 0 %oot+ ,god4 
,by & by1 :5 he 0 out hunt+1 he 0 /ruck 
d[n by a viol5t ?und]clap1 & kill$4     
,god indignant4--,f9ally1 :5 ! ,%ang    
dyna/y sank into ! l[e/ dep?s ( moral   
abasem5t1 ,k+ ,wu1 :o *>g$ himself ) its
 ov]?r[1 & :o subsequ5tly became ! fir/ 
sov]eign ( ! ,*\ dyna/y1 (f]$ sacrifices
 to ,almighty ,god1 & also to ,"m ,e>?4 

,! ,k+ ( ,%ang1 he said 9 8 address to !
 high (fic]s :o collect$ ar\nd him1 does
 n rev]5ce ,god above1 & inflicts       
calamities on ! p bel[4 ,almighty ,god  
is mov$ ) indignation4 ,on ! day ( !    
f9al battle he decl>$ t he 0 act+ 9 !   
matt] ( puni%m5t m]ely z ! in/rum5t (   
,god2 & aft] 8 great victory & !        
e/abli%m5t ( 8 own l9e1 x 0 to ,god t he
 r5d]$ ?anks4  ,no ,devil1 ,no          
,hell4--,9 ?is primitive mono!ism1 ( :i*
 only scanty1 b no d\bt g5u9e1 records  
rema91 no place 0 f\nd = any be+ su* z !
 ,buddhi/ ,m>a or ! ,devil ( ! ,old &   
,new ,te/am5ts4 ,god inflict$ ,8 own    
puni%m5ts by visit+ calamities on       
mank9d1 j z ,he be/[$ ,8 own rew>ds by  
s5d+ b\nte\s h>ve/s 9 due season4 ,evil 
spirits 7 a lat] inv5tion1 & _!         
op]ations 7 ev5 !n conf9$ *iefly to te>+
 p's he>ts out1 & s =?1 = _! own        
p>ticul> pleasure2 we c]ta9ly meet no   
cases ( evil spirits wi%+ to und]m9e    
man's allegiance to ,god1 or desir+ to  
make p wick$ 9 ord] to secure _! ev]la/+

 puni%m5t4 ,! vision ( ,purgatory1 ) all
 its horrid tortures1 0 introduc$ into  
,*9a by ,buddhism1 & 0 subsequ5tly      
annex$ by ! ,taoi/s1 "s "t betwe5 ! ?ird
 & six? c5turies ,a4,d4  ,*9ese ,t]ms = 
,god4--,be=e pass+ to ! firm] gr\nd1    
hi/orically speak+1 ( ! ,*\ dyna/y1 x   
may be z well to /ate "h t !re are two  
t]ms 9 anci5t ,*9ese lit]ature :i* seem 
to be us$ indiscrim9ately = ,god4 ,"o is
 ,t'i51 :i* has come to include !       
mat]ial heav5s1 ! sky2 & ! o!r is ,%ang 
,ti1 :i* has come to include ! spirits (
 deceas$ ,emp]ors4 ,^! two t]ms appe>   
simultane\sly1 s to speak1 9 ! e>lie/   
docum5ts :i* h come d[n to u1 dat+ back 
to some?+ l ! tw5tie? c5tury be=e ,*ri/4
 ,priority1 h[ev]1 belongs beyond all   
d\bt to ,t'i51 :i* x w\ld h be5 m       
natural to f9d mean+1 fir/ ! visible    
heav5s1 & secondly ! ,deity1 ^: exi/5ce 
beyond ! sky w\ld be inf]r$ f su*       
ph5om5a z lightn+1 ?und]1 w9d1 & ra94 ,b
 ! process appe>s to h be5 ! o!r way1 s 
f> at any rate z ! writt5 language is   

conc]n$4 ,! ,*9ese script1 :5 x fir/    
came into exi/5ce1 0 purely pictorial1 &
 conf9$ to visible objects :i* 7        
comp>atively easy to depict4 ,!re does n
 seem to h be5 any attempt to draw a    
picture ( ! sky4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! "*     
,t'i5 0 j su* a repres5tation ( a human 
be+ z w\ld be expect$ f ! h& ( a        
prehi/oric arti/2 & "u ?is unmi/akable  
%ape ! "* appe>s on bells & tripods1 z  
se5 9 collections ( inscriptions1 s late
 z ! six? & sev5? c5turies ,b4,c41 aft] 
:i* ! head is flatt]$ to a l9e1 & ! arms
 are rais$ until !y =m ano!r l9e p>allel
 to t ( ! head4  ,di/9ction betwe5 ,t'i5
 & ,%ang ,ti4--,! t]m ,%ang ,ti means   
lit]ally ,supreme ,rul]4 ,x is n q s    
vague z ,t'i51 :i* seems to be m ( an   
ab/raction1 :ile ,%ang ,ti is a g5u9ely 
p]sonal ,god4 ,ref]5ce to ,t'i5 is      
usually associat$ ) fate or de/9y1      
calamities1 bless+s1 pray]s = help1 etc4
 ,! comm&m5ts ( ,t'i5 are h>d to obey2  
,he is compassionate1 to be fe>$1 unju/1
 & cruel4 ,%ang ,ti lives 9 heav51      

walks1 leaves tracks on ! gr\nd1 enjoys 
! sweet sav\r ( sacrifice1 approves or  
disapproves ( conduct1 deals ) rew>ds & 
puni%m5ts 9 a m p>ticul> way1 & comes m 
actually into t\* ) ! human race4  ,?us 
,%ang ,ti w\ld be ! ,god :o walk$ 9 !   
g>d5 9 ! cool ( ! day1 ! ,god :o smell$ 
! sweet sav\r ( ,noah's sacrifice1 & !  
,god :o all[$ ,moses to see ,8 back4    
,t'i5 w\ld be ! ,god ( ,gods ( !        
,psalms1 ^: m]cy endure? = ev]2 !       
ev]la/+ ,god ( ,isaiah1 :o fa9te? n1    
nei!r is we>y4  ,roman ,ca?olic         
,diss5sions4--,^! two1 9 fact1 7 ! v    
t]ms fav\r$ by ! e>ly ,jesuit           
mission>ies to ,*9a1 ?\gh n ) !         
limitations above sugge/$1 z fit ! prop]
 r5d]+s = ,god2 & ( ! two t]ms ! great  
,man*u ,emp]or ,k'ang ,hsi *ose ,t'i54  
,x has be5 ?\ght t ! conv]sion ( ,*9a to
 ,*ri/ianity "u ! guid+ influ5ce ( !    
,jesuits w\ld soon h become an          
accompli%$ fact1 b = ! ignorant         
opposition to ! use ( ^! t]ms by !      
,franciscans & ,dom9icans1 :o ref]r$ ?is

 "q1 among o!rs1 to ! ,pope4 ,9 #agjd   
,clem5t ,,xi publi%$ a bull decl>+ t !  
,*9ese equival5t = ,god 0 ,t'i5 ,*u,"l (
 ,heav52 & su* x has cont9u$ to be ev]  
s9ce1 s f> z ! ,roman ,ca?olic *ur* is  
conc]n$1 9 spite ( ! fact t ,t'i5 ,*u 0 
a "n giv5 at ! close ( ! ?ird c5tury    
,b4,c4 to "o ( ! ,eight ,spirits4  ,!   
two ,t]ms are ,"o4--,t ! two t]ms ref] 9
 ,*9ese ?\ght to "o & ! same ,be+1 ?\gh 
possibly ) diff]+ attributes1 ev5 d[n to
 mod]n times1 may be se5 f ! acc\nt ( a 
dream by ! ,emp]or ,yung ,lo1 ,a4,d4    
#adjc-adbe1 9 :i* ,8 ,maje/y relates t  
an angel appe>$ to him1 ) a message f   
,%ang ,ti2 ^u :i* ! ,emp]or rem>k$1 ,is 
n ?is a comm& f ,t'i58 ,a comp>ison     
might p]haps be in/itut$ ) ! use ( ,god 
& ,jehovah 9 ! ,bible4 ,at ! same "t x  
mu/ be not$ t ?is view 0 n sugge/$ by ! 
,emp]or ,k'ang ,hsi1 :o fix$ ^u ,t'i5 z 
! appropriate t]m4 ,x is probable t1    
vigor\s ,confuciani/ z he 01 he 0 anxi\s
 to appe> on ! side r ( an ab/ract ?an (
 a p]sonal ,deity1 & t he 0 repell$ by !

 ov]wr\ght an?ropomorphism ( ! ,*ri/ian 
,god4 ,8 conv]sion 0 said to h be5 v ne>
 at times2 we read1 h[ev]1 t1 :5 h>d    
press$ by ! mission>ies to accept       
baptism1 he always excus$ himself by    
say+ t he wor%ipp$ ! same ,god z !      
,*ri/ians4  ,god 9 ! ,odes4--,! ,*\     
dyna/y la/$ f ,b4,c4 #aabb to ,b4,c4    
#bee4 ,x 0 ,*9a's feudal age1 :5 !      
empire1 !n includ$ betwe5 latitude      
#cd-dj & longitude #aji-aah1 0 split up 
into a numb] ( vassal ,/ates1 :i* own$  
allegiance to a suz]a9 ,/ate4 ,& x is to
 ! e>li] c5turies ( ! ,*\ dyna/y t mu/  
be attribut$ ! composition ( a l>ge     
numb] ( ballads ( v>i\s k9ds1 ultimately
 collect$ & edit$ by ,confucius1 & n[   
kn[n z ! ,odes4 ,f ^! ,odes x is        
abundantly cle> t ! ,*9ese p cont9u$ to 
hold1 m cle>ly & m firmly ?an ev]1 a    
deep-seat$ belief 9 ! exi/5ce ( an      
an?ropomorphic & p]sonal ,god1 ^: "o c>e
 0 ! welf>e ( ! human race3--       ,!re
 is ,almighty ,god2      ,does ,he hate 
any "o8  ,he reigns 9 glory4--,! s\l (  

,k+ ,w51 fa!r ( ! ,k+ ,wu bel[1 &       
po/hum\sly rais$ by 8 son to royal rank1
 is repres5t$ z enjoy+ happ9ess 9 a /ate
 beyond ! grave3--       ,k+ ,w5 is on  
high1      ,9 glory 9 heav54      ,8    
com+s & 8 go+s      ,are to & f !       
pres5ce ( ,god4  ,he is a               
,_s4--,sometimes 9 ! ,odes !re is a h9t 
t ,god1 9 spite ( ,8 an?ropomorphic     
semblance1 is a _s3--       ,! do+s (   
,god      ,h nei!r s\nd nor smell4      
,spiritual ,be+s4--,spirits 7 c]ta9ly   
suppos$ to move freely among mortals3-- 
,d n say1 ,?is place is n public2       
,no "o c see me "h4      ,! approa*es ( 
spiritual ,be+s      ,_c be calculat$   
be=eh&2      ,b on no acc\nt %\ld !y be 
ignor$4  ,! ,god ( ,battle4--,9 ! h\r ( 
battle ! ,god ( anci5t ,*9a 0 z mu* a   
p>ticipator 9 ! fight z ! ,god ( ,israel
 9 ! ,old ,te/am5t3--       ,god is on  
y\r side6  0 ! cry :i* /imulat$ ,k+ ,wu 
to break d[n ! oppos+ ranks ( ,%ang4 ,to
 ,k+ ,wu's fa!r1 & o!rs1 direct         
communications _h previ\sly be5 made f  

heav51 ) a view to ! reg5]ation ( !     
empire3--       ,! dyna/ies ( ,hsia &   
,%ang      ,_h n satisfi$ ,god ) _!     
gov]nm5t2      ,s ?r\gh\t ! v>i\s ,/ates
      ,he s\ght & consid]$      ,= a    
,/ate on :i* ,he might conf] ! rule4    
,god said to ,k+ ,w51      ,i am pleas$ 
) y\r conspicu\s virtue1      ,)\t noise
 & )\t display1      ,)\t heat & )\t    
*ange1      ,)\t consci\sness ( ef=t1   
,foll[+ ! patt]n ( ,god4       ,god said
 to ,k+ ,w51      ,take measures aga9/  
ho/ile ,/ates1      ,along ) y\r bre?r51
      ,get ready y\r grappl+-irons1     
,& y\r eng9es ( assault1      ,to attack
 ! walls ( ,ts'ung4  ,god s5ds          
,fam9e4--,! ,ode f :i* ! foll[+ extract 
is tak5 c>ries u back to ! n9? c5tury   
,b4,c41 at ! "t ( a prolong$ & disa/r\s 
dr\ght3--       ,glori\s 0 ! ,milky     
,way1      ,revolv+ brightly 9 ! sky1   
,:5 ! k+ said1 ,alas6      ,:at crime h 
my p committ$ n[1      ,t ,god s5ds d[n 
dea? & disord]1      ,& fam9e comes ^u u
 aga98      ,!re is no _s to :om ,i h n 

sacrific$2      ,!re is no victim t ,i h
 grudg$2      ,our sacrificial symbols  
are all us$ up2--      ,h[ is x t ,i am 
n he>d8  ,! ,confucian ,crit]ion4--,!   
key/one ( ! ,confucian philosophy1 t man
 is born good1 w be f\nd 9 ! foll[+     
l9es3--       ,h[ mighty is ,god6       
,h[ clo!d 9 maje/y is ,god1      ,& h[  
unse>*able are ,8 judgm5ts6      ,god   
gives bir? to ! p1      ,b _! natures   
are n con/ant2      ,all h ! same       
beg9n+1      ,b few h ! same end4  ,god1
 h[ev]1 is n held responsible = !       
suff]+s ( mank9d4 ,k+ ,w51 9 an address 
to ! la/ tyrant ( ! ,h\se ( ,%ang1 says 
pla9ly1       ,x is n ,god :o has caus$ 
?is evil "t1      ,b x is y :o h /ray$ f
 ! old pa?s4  ,! ,associate (           
,god4--,wor%ipp$ on c]ta9 occasions z ! 
,associate ( ,god1 & (t5 summon$ to aid 
9 h\rs ( di/ress or dang]1 0 a p]sonage 
kn[n z ,h\ ,*i1 said to h be5 ! orig9al 
ance/or ( ! ,h\se ( ,*\4 ,8 /ory1       
suffici5tly told 9 ! ,odes1 is curi\s = 
sev]al reasons1 & especially = an       

in/ance 9 ,*9ese lit]ature1 :i*1 9 !    
abs5ce ( any kn[n husb&1 comes ne>      
sugge/+ ! mu*-vex$ "q ( p>!nog5esis3--  
,%e :o fir/ gave bir? to our p      ,0 !
 lady ,*iang ,yuan4      ,h[ did %e give
 bir? to !m8      ,%e (f]$ up a         
sacrifice      ,t %e might n be         
*ildless2      ,!n %e trod 9 a footpr9t 
( ,god's1 & conceiv$1      ,! great &   
bless$ "o1      ,pregnant ) a new bir?  
to be1      ,& br\ght =? & n\ri%$       
,him :o 0 ,h\ ,*i4       ,:5 %e _h      
fulfill$ h] mon?s1      ,h] fir/born    
came =? l a lamb4      ,!re 0 no bur/+1 
no r5d+1      ,no injury1 no hurt1      
,9 ord] to emphasise 8 div9ity4         
,did n ,god give h] com=t8      ,_h ,he 
n accept$ h] sacrifice1      ,s t ?us   
easily %e br\ght =? h] son8       ,he 0 
expos$ 9 a n>r[ lane1      ,b %eep & ox5
 protect$ & suckl$ him2      ,he 0      
expos$ 9 a wide =e/1      ,b woodcutt]s 
f\nd him2      ,he 0 expos$ on cold ice1
      ,b birds cov]$ him ) _! w+s4      
,apo!osis ( ,h\ ,*i4--,& s he grew to   

man's e/ate1 & taught ! p husb&ry1 ) a  
success t has nev] be5 rivall$4         
,consequ5tly1 he 0 deifi$1 & dur+ sev]al
 c5turies ( ! ,*\ dyna/y 0 unit$ 9      
wor%ip ) ,god3--       ,o wise ,h\ ,*i1 
,fit ,associate ( our ,god1      ,f\nd] 
( our race1      ,!re is none great] ?an
 ?\6      ,?\ gave/ u :eat & b>ley1     
,:i* ,god appo9t$ = our n\ri%m5t1       
,& )\t di/9ction ( t]ritory1      ,did/ 
inculcate ! virtues ov] our va/         
dom9ions4  ,o!r ,deities4--,dur+ ! long 
p]iod cov]$ by ! ,*\ dyna/y1 v>i\s o!r  
deities1 ( m or less importance1 7 call$
 into exi/5ce4  ,! patri>*al ,emp]or ,%5
 ,nung1 ,b4,c4 #bhch-bfih1 :o _h taught 
8 p to till ! gr\nd & eat ( ! fruits (  
_! lab\r1 0 deifi$ z ! tutel>y g5ius (  
agriculture3--       ,t my fields are 9 
su* good condition      ,is matt] ( joy 
to my husb&m54      ,) lutes1 & ) drums 
beat+1      ,we w invoke ! ,fa!r (      
,husb&ry1      ,& pray = sweet ra91     
,to increase ! produce ( our millet     
fields1      ,& to bless my m5 & _!     

wives4  ,!re 7 also sacrifices to !     
,fa!r ( ,w>1 :oev] he may h be52 to !   
,spirits ( ,w9d1 ,ra91 & ,fire2 & ev5 to
 a deity :o wat*$ ov] ! welf>e (        
silkworms4 ,s9ce ^? days1 ! numb] (     
spiritual be+s :o receive wor%ip f !    
,*9ese1 "s 9 "o "p ( ! empire1 "s 9     
ano!r1 has increas$ enorm\sly4 ,a s+le  
"w1 publi%$ 9 #afdj1 gives notices ( no 
few] ?an eight hundr$ div9ities4        
,sup]/itions4--,dur+ ! p]iod "u         
consid]ation1 all k9ds ( sup]/ition     
prevail$2 among o!rs1 t ( ref]r+ to !   
ra9b[4 ,! ra9b[ 0 believ$ by ! vulg> to 
be an emanation f an enorm\s oy/] away 9
 ! great ocean :i* surr\nd$ ! _w1 i4e4  
,*9a4 ,philosoph]s held x to be ! result
 ( undue proportions 9 ! mixture ( ! two
 cosmogonical pr9ciples :i* :5 prop]ly  
bl5d$ produce ! h>mony ( nature4 ,by bo?
 p>ties x 0 consid]$ to be an           
inauspici\s manife/ation1 & m]ely to    
po9t at x w\ld produce a sore on ! h&4  
,sup]natural ,manife/ations4--,sev]al   
ev5ts ( a sup]natural "* are record$ z  

hav+ tak5 place "u ! ,*\ dyna/y4 ,9     
,b4,c4 #gef1 "o ( ! feudal ,dukes saw a 
vision ( a yell[ s]p5t :i* desc5d$ f    
heav5 & laid its head on ! slope ( a    
m\nta94 ,! ,duke spoke ( ?is to 8       
a/rolog]1 :o said1 ,x is a manife/ation 
( ,god2 sacrifice to x4  ,9 ,b4,c4 #gdg1
 ano!r ,duke f\nd on a m\nta9 a be+ 9 ! 
semblance ( a /one4 ,sacrifices 7 at    
once (f]$1 & ! /one 0 deifi$1 & receiv$ 
regul> wor%ip f t "t =w>d4  ,9 ,b4,c4   
#fei1 a ?ird ,duke 0 9 a trance = five  
days1 :5 he saw a vision ( ,god1 &      
receiv$ f ,him in/ructions z to matt]s  
!n press+4 ,= _m g5]ations aft]w>ds !   
/ory ran t ! ,duke _h be5 up to ,heav54 
,?is became a fav\rite !me = romanc]s4  
,x is /at$ 9 ! biography ( a c]ta9 ,f5g 
,po t "o night he saw ! gate ( heav5    
op51 & beheld exce$+ glory )91 :i* %one 
into 8 c\rty>d4  ,! foll[+ /ory is told 
by ,huai-nan ,tzu 7d4 ,b4,c4            
#abb73--,once :5 ! ,duke ( ,lu-yang 0 at
 w> ) ! ,han ,/ate1 & sunset drew ne>   
:ile a battle 0 /ill fi]cely rag+1 !    

,duke held up 8 spe> & %ook x at ! sun1 
:i* =?) w5t back ?ree zodiacal signs4   
,only ! ,emp]or wor%ips ,god & ,e>?4--,f
 ! records ( ?is p]iod we c also see h[ 
jeal\sly ! wor%ip ( ,god & ,e>? 0 res]v$
 = ! ,emp]or alone4  ,9 ,b4,c4 #fea1    
,duke ,huan ( ! ,*'i ,/ate1 "o ( !      
feudal nobles to be m5tion$ lat] on1    
wi%$ to signalise 8 accession to ! po/ (
 doy5 or lead] ( ! vassal ,/ates by (f]+
 ! great sacrifices to ,god & to ,e>?4  
,he 01 h[ev]1 dissuad$ f ?is by a wise  
,m9i/]1 :o po9t$ out t only ^? c\ld p]=m
 ^! c]emonies :o _h p]sonally receiv$ ! 
,imp]ial m&ate f ,god4  ,?is same ,m9i/]
 is said to be responsible = ! foll[+   
utt]ance3--  ,duke ,huan ask$ ,kuan     
,*ang1 say+1 ,to :at %\ld a pr9ce atta* 
! highe/ importance8 ,to ,god1 repli$ ! 
,m9i/]2 at :i* ,duke ,huan gaz$ upw>ds  
to ! sky4 ,! ,god ,i mean1 cont9u$ ,kuan
 ,*ung1 is n ! illimitable blue above4  
,a true pr9ce makes ! p 8 ,god4         
,sacrifices4--,mu* has be5 record$ by ! 
,*9ese on ! subject ( sacrifice1--m     

inde$ ?an c be easily cond5s$ into a    
small compass4 ,fir/ ( all1 !re 7 !     
great sacrifices to ,god & to ,e>?1 at !
 w9t] & summ] sol/ices respectively1 :i*
 7 res]v$ = ! ,son ( ,heav5 alone4      
,besides :at may be call$ private       
sacrifices1 ! ,emp]or sacrific$ also to 
! f\r qu>t]s1 & to ! m\nta9s & riv]s ( !
 empire2 :ile ! feudal nobles sacrific$ 
ea* to 8 own qu>t]1 & to ! m\nta9s &    
riv]s ( 8 own doma94 ,! victim (f]$ by !
 ,emp]or on a blaz+ pile ( wood 0 an ox 
( "o col\r1 always a "y animal2 a feudal
 noble w\ld use any fatt$ ox2 & a petty 
(ficial a %eep or a pig4 ,:5 sacrific+  
to ! spirits ( ! l& & ( gra91 ! ,son (  
,heav5 us$ a bull1 a ram1 & a bo>2 !    
feudal nobles only a ram & a bo>2 & !   
common p1 scallions & eggs 9 spr+1 :eat 
& fi% 9 summ]1 millet & a suck+-pig 9   
autumn1 & unhull$ rice & a goose 9 w9t]4
 ,if !re 0 any?+ infelicit\s ab\t !     
victim int5d$ = ,god1 x 0 us$ = ,h\ ,*i4
 ,! victim int5d$ = ,god requir$ to be  
kept 9 a clean /all = ?ree mon?s2 t =   

,h\ ,*i simply requir$ to be p]fect 9   
its p>ts4 ,?is 0 ! way 9 :i* !y di/+ui%$
 betwe5 heav5ly & e>?ly spirits4  ,9    
primeval times1 we are told1 sacrifices 
consi/$ ( meat & dr9k1 ! latt] be+ !    
my/]i\s liquid1 wat]1 = :i* w9e 0       
sub/itut$ lat] on4 ,! anci5ts roa/$     
millet & pieces ( pork2 !y made a hole 9
 ! gr\nd & scoop$ ! wat] f x ) _! two   
h&s1 beat+ ^u an e>!n drum ) a clay     
drum/ick4 ,?us !y express$ _! rev]5ce = 
spiritual be+s4  ,sacrifices1 accord+ to
 ! ,book ( ,rites 7,legge's             
translation71 %\ld n be frequ5tly       
repeat$4 ,su* frequ5cy is an indication 
( importunat5ess2 & importunat5ess is   
inconsi/5t ) rev]5ce4 ,nor %\ld !y be at
 di/ant int]vals4 ,su* infrequ5cy is    
indicative ( indiff]5ce2 & indiff]5ce   
leads to =gett+ !m altoge!r4 ,!re=e !   
sup]ior man1 9 h>mony ) ! c\rse (       
,nature1 (f]s ! sacrifices ( spr+ &     
autumn4 ,:5 he treads on ! dew :i* has  
desc5d$ z ho>-fro/ he _c help a feel+ ( 
sadness1 :i* arises 9 8 m9d1 & :i* _c be

 ascrib$ to ! cold4 ,9 spr+1 :5 he      
treads on ! gr\nd1 wet ) ! ra9s & dews t
 h fall5 heavily1 he _c avoid be+ mov$  
by a feel+ z if he 7 see+ 8 dep>t$      
fri5ds4 ,we meet ! approa* ( our fri5ds 
) music1 & escort !m away ) sadness1 &  
h5ce at ! sacrifice 9 spr+ we use music1
 b n at ! sacrifice 9 autumn4           
,sacrifice is n a ?+ com+ to a man f    
)\t2 x issues f )9 him1 & has its bir? 9
 8 he>t4 ,:5 ! he>t is deeply mov$1     
expression is giv5 to x by c]emonies2 & 
h5ce1 only m5 ( ability & virtue c give 
complete exhibition to ! idea (         
sacrifice4 ,x 0 9 ?is s5se t ,confucius 
w>n$ 8 foll[]s n to sacrifice to spirits
 :i* did n belong to !m1 i4e4 to o!r ?an
 ^? ( _! own imm$iate ance/ors4 ,to d   
o!rwise w\ld raise a suspicion ( ult]ior
 motives4  ,ance/ral ,wor%ip4--,= !     
purpose ( ance/ral wor%ip1 :i* _h be5   
practis$ f ! e>lie/ ages1 ! ,emp]or _h  
sev5 %r9es1 ea* ) its alt> repres5t+    
v>i\s =efa!rs2 & at all ( ^! a sacrifice
 0 (f]$ e mon?4 ,feudal nobles c\ld h   

only five sets ( ^!1 & ! v>i\s (ficials 
?ree or few]1 on a desc5d+ scale 9      
proportion to _! rank4 ,petty (fic]s & !
 p g5]ally _h no ance/ral %r9e1 b       
wor%ipp$ ! %ades ( _! =efa!rs z be/ !y  
c\ld 9 _! h\ses & cottages4  ,= ?ree    
days be=e sacrific+ to ance/ors1 a /rict
 vigil & purification 0 ma9ta9$1 & by ! 
end ( t "t1 f %e] conc5tration ( ?\ght1 
! m\rn] 0 able to see ! spirits ( !     
dep>t$2 & at ! sacrifice next day seem$ 
to he> _! v movem5ts1 & ev5 ! murmur (  
_! sighs4  ,! object ( ! c]emony 0 to   
br+ d[n ! spirits f above1 toge!r ) !   
%ades ( ance/ors1 & ?us to secure !     
bless+ ( ,god2 at ! same "t to please ! 
s\ls ( ! dep>t$1 & to create a l9k      
betwe5 ! liv+ & ! dead4  ,! object 9    
sacrifices is n to pray2 ! "t %\ld n be 
ha/5$ on2 a great app>atus is n requir$2
 ornam5tal details are n to be approv$2 
! victims ne$ n be fat & l>ge 7cf4      
,horace1 ,od4 ,,iii1 #bc2 ,immunis aram1
 etc472 a pr(usion ( ! o!r (f]+s is n to
 be admir$4 ,!re mu/1 h[ev]1 be no      

p>simony4 ,a high (ficial1 well able to 
af=d bett] ?+s1 0 ju/ly blam$ = hav+    
sacrific$ to ! manes ( 8 fa!r a         
suck+-pig :i* did n fill ! di%4         
,religi\s ,dances4--,! v>i\s dances     
display$ ! gravity ( ! p]=m]s1 b did n  
awak5 ! emotion ( delight4 ,! ance/ral  
temple produc$ ! impression ( maje/y1 b 
did n dispose "o to re/ on x4 ,its      
vessels might be employ$1 b c\ld n be   
conv5i5tly us$ = any o!r purpose4 ,!    
idea :i* leads to int]c\rse ) spiritual 
,be+s is n int]*angeable ) t :i* f9ds   
its realisation 9 re/ & pleasure4       
,prie/craft4--,f ! c]emonial ( ance/or  
wor%ip ! ?9 end ( ! w$ge ( prie/craft 0 
rigor\sly exclud$4 ,= ! words ( pray] & 
bless+ & ^? ( b5$iction to be kept hidd5
 away by ! (fic]s ( pray] ( ! ance/ral  
temple1 & by ! sorc]]s & record]s1 is a 
violation ( ! rules ( propriety4 ,?is   
may be call$ keep+ 9 a /ate ( d>kness4  
,confucius sums up ! value ( sacrifices 
9 ! foll[+ words4 ,by _! great          
sacrificial c]emonies ! anci5ts s]v$    

,god2 by _! c]emonies 9 ! ance/ral      
temple !y wor%ipp$ _! =efa!rs4 ,he :o   
%\ld und]/& ! great sacrificial         
c]emonies1 & ! mean+ ( ! c]emonies 9 !  
ance/ral temple1 w\ld f9d x z easy to   
gov]n ! empire z to look ^u ! palm ( 8  
h&4  ,filial ,piety4--,intimately       
connect$ ) ance/ral wor%ip is ! practice
 ( filial piety2 x is 9 fact on filial  
piety t ance/ral wor%ip is dep5d5t = its
 exi/5ce4 ,9 e>ly ages1 sons sacrific$  
to ! manes ( _! p>5ts & ance/ors        
g5]ally1 9 ord] to af=d "s my/]i\s      
pleasure to ! disembodi$ spirits4 ,!re 0
 !n no idea ( propitiation1 ( b5efits to
 ensue4 ,9 lat] times1 ! "* ( !         
sacrifice und]w5t a *ange1 until a      
s5tim5t ( d ut des became ! real ma9spr+
 ( ! c]emony4 ,mean:ile1 ,confucius _h  
compla9$ t ! filial piety ( 8 day only  
meant ! support ( p>5ts4 ,b1 argu$ !    
,sage1 we support our dogs & our horses2
 )\t rev]5ce1 :at is !re to di/+ui% "o f
 ! o!r8 ,he affirm$ t *ildr5 :o w\ld be 
acc\nt$ filial %\ld give _! p>5ts no    

cause ( anxiety beyond su* anxiety z    
might be occasion$ by ill-heal?4 ,filial
 piety1 he said aga91 did n consi/ 9    
reliev+ ! p>5ts ( toil1 or 9 sett+ be=e 
!m w9e & food2 x did consi/ 9 s]v+ !m   
:ile alive accord+ to ! e/abli%$ rules1 
9 bury+ !m :5 dead accord+ to ! e/abli%$
 rules1 & 9 sacrific+ to !m aft] dea?1  
also accord+ to ! e/abli%$ rules4 ,9    
ano!r passage ,confucius decl>$ t filial
 piety consi/s 9 c>ry+ on ! aims ( our  
=efa!rs1 :i* really am\nts to s]v+ !    
dead z !y w\ld h be5 s]v$ if alive4     
,div9ation4--,div9ation seems to h be5  
practis$ 9 ,*9a f ! e>lie/ ages4 ,!     
implem5ts us$ 7 ! %ell ( ! tortoise1    
spiritualis$ by ! long life ( its       
occupant1 & ! /alks ( a k9d ( grass1 to 
:i* also spiritual p[]s _h = "s reason  
or o!r be5 attribut$4 ,^! 7 ! me?ods1 we
 are told1 by :i* ! anci5t ,k+s made _! 
p rev]e spirits1 obey ! law1 & settle   
all _! d\bts4 ,god gave ^! spiritual    
boons to mank9d1 & ! sages took         
advantage ( !m4 ,to explore :at is      

complex1 to se>* out :at is hidd51 to   
hook up :at lies deep1 & to rea* to :at 
is di/ant1 !reby det]m9+ ! issues = good
 or ill ( all ev5ts "u ! sky1 & mak+ all
 m5 full ( /r5u\s endeav\r1 !re are no  
ag5cies great] ?an ^? ( ! /alks & !     
tortoise %ell4  ,9 ,b4,c4 #bbbd1 :5 !   
,emp]or ,%un wi%$ to associate ! ,great 
,yu ) him 9 ! gov]nm5t1 ! latt] begg$ t 
rec\rse might be _h to div9ation1 9 ord]
 to discov] ! mo/ suitable among !      
,m9i/]s = ?is exalt$ position4 ,!       
,emp]or refus$1 say+ t 8 *oice _h       
already be5 confirm$ by ! body (        
,m9i/]s4 ,! spirits too h signifi$ _!   
ass5t1 ! tortoise & grass hav+ bo?      
concurr$4 ,div9ation1 :5 =tunate1 may n 
be repeat$4  ,s9c]ity1 on :i* ,confucius
 lays su* especial /ress1 is closely    
associat$ ) success 9 div9ation4        
,s9c]ity is ( ,god2 cultivation (       
s9c]ity is ( man4 ,he :o is naturally   
s9c]e is he :o hits 8 m>k )\t ef=t1 &   
)\t ?9k+ appreh5ds4 ,he easily keeps to 
! gold5 mean2 he is inspir$4 ,he :o     

cultivates s9c]ity is he :o *ooses :at  
is good & holds fa/ to x4  ,x is        
*>act]i/ic ( ! mo/ entire s9c]ity to be 
able to =ekn[4 ,:5 a ,/ate or a family  
is ab\t to fl\ri%1 !re are sure to be   
happy om5s2 & :5 x is ab\t to p]i%1 !re 
are sure to be unpropiti\s om5s4 ,!     
ev5ts port5d$ are set =? by !           
div9+-grass & ! tortoise4 ,:5 calamity  
or good =tune may be ab\t to come1 !    
evil or ! good w be =ekn[n by ! p]fectly
 s9c]e man1 :o may !re=e be comp>$ ) a  
_s4  ,! tortoise & ! grass h long s9ce  
disappe>$ z in/rum5ts ( div9ation1 :i*  
is n[ c>ri$ on by means ( lots drawn f a
 vase1 ) answ]s atta*$2 by plan*ette2 & 
by ! *iao4 ,! la/ consi/s ( two pieces (
 wood1 anci5tly ( /one1 9 ! %ape ( ! two
 halves ( a kidney bean4 ,^! are ?r[n   
into ! air be=e ! alt> 9 a              
temple1--,buddhi/ or ,taoi/1 x matt]s   
no?+1--) ! foll[+ results4 ,two convex  
sides upp]mo/ mean a response           
indiff]5tly good2 two flat sides mean   
negative & bad2 "o convex & "o flat side

 mean t ! pray] w be grant$4 ,?is =m (  
div9ation1 ?\gh widely practis$ at !    
pres5t day1 is by no means ( rec5t date4
 ,x 0 common 9 ! ,*'u ,/ate1 :i* 0      
de/roy$ ,b4,c4 #cjj1 aft] f\r hundr$ &  
tw5ty ye>s ( exi/5ce4    ,,*apt] ,,ii --
 ,,confucianism  ,attitude (            
,confucius4--,"u ! influ5ce (           
,confucius1 ,b4,c4 #eea-dgi1 ! old ord] 
( ?+s began to und]go a *ange4 ,!       
,sage's attitude ( m9d t[>ds religion 0 
"o ( a b5evol5t agno/icism1 z summ$ up 9
 8 fam\s utt]ance1 ,respect ! spirits1 b
 keep !m at a di/ance4 ,t he fully      
recognis$ ! exi/5ce ( a _s _w1 ?\gh     
admitt+ t he knew no?+ ab\t x1 is       
manife/ f ! foll[+ rem>ks ( 83--  ,h[   
abundantly d spiritual be+s display !   
p[]s t belong to !m6 ,we look =1 b d n  
see !m2 we li/5 =1 b d n he> !m2 yet !y 
ent] into all ?+s1 & !re is no?+ )\t !m4
 ,!y cause all ! p 9 ! empire to fa/ &  
purify !mselves1 & array !mselves 9 _!  
ri*e/ dresses1 9 ord] to att5d at _!    
sacrifices4 ,!n1 l ov]fl[+ wat]1 !y seem

 to be ov] ! heads1 & on ! "r & left1 ( 
_! wor%ipp]s4  ,he believ$ t he himself 
01 at any rate to "s ext5t1 a prophet ( 
,god1 z witness 8 rem>ks :5 9 dang] f ! 
p ( ,k'uang3--  ,aft] ! dea? ( ,k+ ,w51 
0 n wisdom lodg$ 9 me8 ,if ,god 7 to    
de/roy ?is wisdom1 future g5]ations c\ld
 n possess x4 ,s long z ,god does n     
de/roy ?is wisdom1 :at c ! p ( ,k'uang d
 to me8  ,aga91 :5 ,confucius cri$1     
,alas6 !re is no "o t kn[s me1 & a      
disciple ask$ :at 0 meant1 he repli$1 ,i
 d n murmur aga9/ ,god4 ,i d n mumble   
aga9/ man4 ,my /udies lie l[1 & my      
p5etration lies high4 ,b !re is ,god2   
,he kn[s me4  ,we "k t ,confucius fa/$1 
& we "k t he sacrific$ to ! spirits z   
?\gh ! spirits 7 pres5t2 x is ev5 /at$ t
 :5 a fri5d s5t him a pres5t1 ?\gh x    
might be a c>riage & horses1 unless x 7 
fle% :i* _h be5 us$ 9 sacrifice1 he did 
n b[4 ,he decl>$ t = a p]son 9 m\rn+    
food & music 7 )\t flav\r & *>m2 & :5ev]
 he saw anyone approa*+ :o 0 9 m\rn+    
dress1 ev5 ?\gh y\ng] ?an himself1 he   

w\ld imm$iately rise f 8 seat4 ,he      
believ$ 9 de/9y2 he 0 sup]/iti\s1 *ang+ 
col\r at a squall or at a clap ( ?und]2 
& he ev5 c\nt5anc$ ! c]emonies p]=m$ by 
villag]s :5 driv+ out evil spirits f _! 
dwell+s4 ,he prote/$ aga9/ any attempt  
to impose on ,god4 ,he said t he :o     
(f5ds aga9/ ,god has none to :om he c   
pray2 & :5 9 an h\r ( sickness a        
disciple ask$ to be all[$ to pray = him1
 he repli$1 ,my pray+ has be5 = a long  
"t4 ,yet he decl9$ to speak to 8        
disciples ( ,god1 ( spiritual be+s or   
ev5 ( dea? & a h]eaft]1 hold+ t life &  
its problems 7 alone suffici5t to tax ! 
en]gies ( ! human race4 ,:ile n altoge!r
 ignor+ man's duty t[>ds ,god1 he       
subord9at$ x 9 e way to man's duty t[>ds
 8 neighb\r4 ,he also did mu* t[>ds     
weak5+ ! p]sonality ( ,god1 = :om he    
inv>iably us$ ,t'i51 nev] ,%ang ,ti1    
reg>d+ ,him evid5tly m z an ab/raction  
?an z a liv+ s5ti5t ,be+1 ) ! physical  
attributes ( man4 ,confucianism is !re=e
 entirely a sy/em ( morality1 & n a     

religion4  ,x is also a curi\s fact t   
?r\gh\t ! ,spr+ & ,autumn1 or ,annals ( 
! ,/ate ( ,lu1 :i* ext5d f ,b4,c4 #gbb  
to ,b4,c4 #dhd1 !re is no allusion ( any
 k9d to ! int]position ( ,god 9 human   
affairs1 al?\gh a v>iety ( natural      
ph5om5a are record$1 su* z h always be5 
reg>d$ by primitive peoples z ! direct  
acts ( an ang]$ or b5evol5t ,deity4 ,lu 
0 ! ,/ate 9 :i* ,confucius 0 born1 & its
 annals 7 compil$ by ! ,sage himself2 & 
?r\gh\t ^! ,annals ! t]m ,god is nev]   
us$ except 9 connection ) ! ^w ,k+1 :]e 
x always has ! s5se ( by ! grace ( ,god1
 & once :]e ! suz]a9 is spok5 ( z ! ,son
 ( ,god1 or1 z we usually phrase x1 !   
,son ( ,heav54  ,h[ to br+ ra94--,9 !   
fam\s ,comm5t>y by ,tso-*'iu ,m+ on !   
,spr+ & ,autumn1 :i* imp>ts a human     
int]e/ to ! bald entries set aga9/ ea*  
ye> ( ^! annals1 !re are sev]al         
allusions to ! ,supreme ,be+4 ,=        
in/ance1 at a "t ( great dr\ght ! ,duke 
( ,lu wi%$1 9 accordance ) cu/om1 to    
burn a wit* & a p]son 9 ! la/ /age (    

consumption2 ! latt] be+ sometimes      
expos$ 9 ! sun s z to excite !          
compassion ( ,god1 :o w\ld !n cause ra9 
to fall4 ,a ,m9i/] vigor\sly prote/$    
aga9/ ?is sup]/ition1 po9t+ out t !     
prop] way to meet a dr\ght w\ld be to   
r$uce ! quantity ( food consum$1 & to   
practise rigid economy 9 all ?+s4 ,:at h
 ^! creatures to d ) ! matt]8 he ask$4  
,if ,god _h wi%$ to put !m to dea?1 ,he 
_h bett] n h giv5 !m life4 ,if !y c     
really produce dr\ght1 to burn !m w only
 increase ! calamity4 ,! ,duke accord+ly
 desi/$2 & al?\gh !re 0 a fam9e1 x is   
said to h be5 less sev]e ?an usual4  ,9 
,b4,c4 #ebc !re 0 a comet4 ,a ,m9i/]    
said1 ,?is broom-/> sweeps away ! old1 &
 br+s 9 ! new4 ,! do+s ( ,god are       
con/antly att5d$ by su* appe>ances4  ,"u
 ,b4,c4 #ecb we h ! record ( a /one     
speak+4 ,! ,m>quis ( ,lu enquir$ ( 8    
*ief musician if ?is 0 a fact1 & receiv$
 ! foll[+ answ]3 ,/ones _c speak4       
,p]haps ?is "o 0 possess$ by a _s4 ,if  
n1 ! p mu/ h he>d wrong4 ,& yet x is    

said t :5 ?+s are done out ( season1 &  
discont5ts & compla9ts are /irr+ among !
 p1 !n spee*less ?+s d speak4  ,human   
,sacrifices4--,human sacrifices appe> to
 h be5 n altoge!r unkn[n4 ,! ,comm5t>y  
tells u t 9 ,b4,c4 #fcg1 9 consequ5ce ( 
a failure to appe> & ent] into a        
cov5ant1 ! ,visc\nt ( ,ts5g 0 immolat$  
by ! p ( ! ,*u ,/ate1 to appease ! wild 
tribes ( ! ea/4 ,! ,m9i/] ( ,w> prote/$3
 ,9 anci5t times ! six dome/ic animals 7
 n (f]$ promiscu\sly 9 sacrifice2 & =   
small matt]s1 ! regul> sacrificial      
animals 7 n us$4 ,h[ !n %\ld we d>e to  
(f] up a man8 ,sacrifices are p]=m$ = ! 
b5efit ( m51 :o ?us z x 7 ent]ta9 !     
spirits4 ,b if m5 sacrifice m51 :o w    
enjoy ! (f]+8  ,aga91 9 ,b4,c4 #ebi1 !  
rul] ( ! ,*'u ,/ate de/roy$ ! ,ts'ai    
,/ate1 & (f]$ up ! heir app>5t z a      
victim4 ,an (fic] said1 ,?is is         
inauspici\s4 ,if ! five sacrificial     
animals may n be us$ promiscu\sly1 h[   
mu* less c a feudal pr9ce be (f]$ up8   
,! cu/om ( bury+ live p]sons ) ! dead 0 

fir/ practis$ 9 ,*9a 9 ,b4,c4 #ehj4 ,x  
is said to h be5 sugge/$ by an e>li] & m
 h>mless cu/om ( plac+ /raw & wood5     
effigies 9 ! mausolea ( ! great4 ,:5 !  
,fir/ ,emp]or di$ 9 ,b4,c4 #baj1 all ^? 
among 8 wives :o _h borne no *ildr5 7   
buri$ alive ) him4  ,pray+ = ,ra94--,f  
ano!r ,comm5t>y on ! ,spr+ & ,autumn1 by
 ,ku-liang ,%u1 f\r? c5tury ,b4,c41 we h
 ! foll[+ note on ,pray]s = ,ra91 :i*   
are /ill (f]$ up on occasions ( dr\ght1 
b n[ g5]ally ?r\gh ! m$ium ( ,taoi/ &   
,buddhi/ prie/s3--  ,pray]s = ra9 %\ld  
be (f]$ up 9 spr+ & summ] only2 n 9     
autumn & w9t]4 ,:y n 9 autumn & w9t]8   
,p]haps ! moi/ure ( gr[+ ?+s is n !n    
exhau/$2 nei!r has man rea*$ ! limit ( 8
 skill4 ,:y 9 spr+ & summ]8 ,because "t 
is press+ & man's skill is ( no fur!r   
avail4 ,h[ s8 ,because )\t ra9 j !n no?+
 c\ld be made to gr[2 ! crops w\ld fail1
 & fam9e ensue4 ,b :y wait until "t is  
press+1 & man's skill ( no fur!r avail8 
,because to pray = ra9 is ! same ?+ z   
ask+ a fav\r1 & ! anci5ts did n lightly 

ask fav\rs4 ,:y s8 ,because !y held x m 
bless$ to give ?an to receive2 & z !    
latt] excludes ! =m]1 ! ma9 object (    
man's life is tak5 away4 ,h[ is pray+ = 
ra9 ask+ a fav\r8 ,x is a reque/ t ,god 
w d some?+ = u4 ,! div9e m5 ( old :o _h 
any reque/ to make to ,god 7 c>eful to  
pref] x 9 due season4 ,at ! head ( all 8
 high (fic]s ( ,/ate1 ! pr9ce w\ld      
proce$ 9 p]son to (f] up 8 pray]4 ,he   
c\ld n ask any "o else to g z 8 proxy4  
,po/hum\s ,hon\rs = ,confucius4--,be=e  
leav+ ,confucius1 x is necess>y to add t
 n[ = _m c5turies he has be5 ! c5tral   
figure & object ( a cult z s9c]e z ev]  
(f]$ by man to any be+1 human or div9e4 
,! rul] ( ,confucius' native ,/ate ( ,lu
 0 pr(\ndly di/ress$ by ! ,sage's dea?1 
& is said to h built a %r9e to          
commemorate 8 great wor?1 at :i*        
sacrifices 7 (f]$ at ! f\r seasons4 ,by 
! "t h[ev] t ! ,*\ dyna/y 0 draw+ to its
 close 7?ird c5tury ,b4,c471 x w\ld be  
safe to say t1 ow+ to civil w> & ! great
 political upheaval g5]ally1 ! wor%ip ( 

,confucius 0 altoge!r discont9u$4 ,x    
c]ta9ly did n fl\ri% "u ! ,fir/ ,emp]or 
7see po/71 & 0 only reviv$ 9 ,b4,c4 #aie
 by ! fir/ ,emp]or ( ! ,han dyna/y1 :o  
visit$ ! grave ( ,confucius 9 ,%antung &
 sacrific$ to 8 _s a pig1 a %eep1 & an  
ox4 ,fifty ye>s lat] a temple 0 built to
 ,confucius at 8 native place2 & 9      
,a4,d4 #gb 8 sev5ty-two disciples 7     
admitt$ to %>e 9 ! wor%ip1 music be+    
%ortly aft]w>ds add$ to ! c]emonial4    
,gradually1 ! p came to look ^u         
,confucius z a god1 & wom5 us$ to pray  
to him = *ildr51 until ! practice 0     
/opp$ by ,edict 9 ,a4,d4 #dgb4 ,9 #eje1 
:i* "s consid] to be ! date ( ! fir/    
g5u9e ,confucian ,temple1 wood5 images (
 ! ,sage 7 introduc$2 9 #aecj ^! 7      
aboli%$1 & inscrib$ tablets ( wood1 9   
use at ! pres5t day1 7 sub/itut$4 ,9    
#eee temples 7 plac$ 9 all prefectural  
cities2 & lat] on1 9 all ! important    
cities & t[ns ( ! empire4 ,9 ! second & 
eigh? mon?s ( ea* ye>1 be=e dawn1       
sacrifices to ,confucius are /ill       

celebrat$ ) consid]able solemnity &     
pomp1 includ+ music & dances by b&s (   
ei!r ?irty-six or sixty-f\r p]=m]s4     
,m5cius & ,confucianism4--,m5cius1 :o   
liv$ ,b4,c4 #cgb-bhi1 & devot$ himself  
to ! task ( spread+ & consolidat+ !     
,confucian tea*+s1 made no attempt to   
lead back ! ,*9ese p t[>ds _! e>ly      
beliefs 9 a p]sonal ,god & 9 a spiritual
 _w beyond ! k5 ( mortals4 ,he obs]ves 9
 a g5]al way t ^? :o obey ,god are sav$1
 :ile ^? :o rebel aga9/ ,him p]i%1 b 8  
ref]5ce is to ?is life1 & n to a future 
"o4 ,he also says t ^? :om ,god de/9es =
 "s great "p1 ,he fir/ *a/5s by suff]+ &
 toil4 ,b p]haps 8 mo/ orig9al          
contribution w be f\nd 9 ! foll[+       
p>agraph3--  ,by ex]t+ 8 m5tal p[]s to !
 full1 man comes to und]/& 8 own nature4
 ,:5 he und]/&s 8 own nature1 he und]/&s
 ,god4  ,9 all ! above in/ances ! t]m   
us$ = ,god is ,t'i54 ,only 9 "o s+le    
passage does ,m5cius use ,%ang          
,ti3--,?\gh a man be wick$1 if he duly  
prep>es himself by fa/+ & ab/95ce &     

purification by wat]1 he may sacrifice  
to ,god4  ,*'u ,yuan4--,! /atesman-poet 
,*'u ,yuan1 ,b4,c4 #ccb-bie1 :o dr[n$   
himself 9 despair at 8 c\ntry's outlook1
 & ^: body is /ill se>*$ = annually at !
 ,dragon-,boat fe/ival1 frequ5tly       
alludes to a ,supreme ,be+3--           
,almighty ,god1 ,?\ :o art imp>tial1    
,& do/ appo9t ! virtu\s among m5 z ,?y  
,assi/ants4  ,"o ( 8 poems is entitl$   
,god ,que/ions1 & consi/s ( a numb] (   
que/ions on v>i\s my/]ies 9 ! univ]se4  
,! mean+ ( ! title w\ld be bett]        
express$ by ,que/ions put to ,god1 b we 
are told t su* a phrase 0 impossible on 
acc\nt ( ! hol9ess ( ,god & ! irrev]5ce 
( que/ion+ ,him4 ,"o "q 01 ,:o has h&$  
d[n to u an acc\nt ( ! beg9n+ ( all ?+s1
 & h[ d we "k any?+ ab\t ! "t :5 heav5 &
 e>? 7 )\t =m8 ,ano!r "q 01 ,z ,nu-*'i  
_h no husb&1 h[ c\ld %e be> n9e sons8 ,!
 ,comm5t>y tells u t ,nu-*'i 0 a div9e  
maid51 b no?+ m seems to be kn[n ab\t   
h]4  ,! foll[+ prose passage is tak5 f  
,*'u ,yuan's biography3--  ,man came    

orig9ally f ,god1 j z ! individual comes
 f 8 p>5ts4 ,:5 8 span is at an end1 he 
goes back to t f :i* he sprang4 ,?us x  
is t 9 ! h\r ( bitt] trial & exhau/ion1 
!re is no man b calls to ,god1 j z 9 8  
h\rs ( sickness & sorr[ e "o ( u w turn 
to 8 p>5ts4  ,! great sacrifices to ,god
 & to ,e>?1 z p]=m$ by ! e>ly rul]s (   
,*9a1 _h be5 traditionally associat$ )  
,m\nt ,t'ai1 9 ! mod]n prov9ce (        
,%antung1 "o ( ,*9a's five sacr$        
m\nta9s4 ,accord+ly1 9 ,b4,c4 #bai1 !   
self-/yl$ ,fir/ ,emp]or1 desir\s (      
re/or+ ! old cu/om1 :i* _h already fall5
 into desuetude1 proce$$ to ! summit (  
,m\nt ,t'ai1 :]e he is said to h c>ri$  
out 8 purpose1 ?\gh :at actually took   
place 0 always kept a pr(\nd secret4 ,! 
lit]ati1 h[ev]1 :om ! ,fir/ ,emp]or _h  
p]secut$ by =bidd+ any fur!r /udy ( !   
,confucian ,canon1 & burn+ all ! copies 
he c\ld lay h&s on1 gave out t he _h be5
 prev5t$ f p]=m+ ! sacrifices by a      
viol5t /orm ( ra91 alleg+ z a reason t  
he 0 altoge!r defici5t 9 ! virtue       

requir$ = su* a c]emony4  ,x may be add$
 t 9 ,b4,c4 #aaj ! !n reign+ ,emp]or    
proce$$ to ! summit ( ,m\nt ,t'ai1 &    
p]=m$ ! great sacrifice to ,god1 foll[+ 
?is up by sacrific+ to ,e>? on a hill at
 ! foot ( ! m\nta94 ,at ! c]emony he 0  
dress$ 9 yell[ robes1 & 0 accompani$ by 
music4 ,dur+ ! night !re 0 light1 & a   
:ite cl\d hung ov] ! alt>4 ,! ,emp]or   
himself decl>$ t he saw a dazzl+ glory1 
& he>d a voice speak+ to him4 ,! tru?ful
 hi/orian--! ,h]odotus ( ,*9a--:o has   
left an acc\nt ( ^! proce$+s1 accompani$
 ! ,emp]or on ?is & o!r occasions2 he 0 
also pres5t at ! sacrifices (f]$ be=e ! 
dep>ture ( ! mission1 & has left x on   
record t he himself actually he>d !     
voices ( spirits4    ,,*apt] ,,iii --   
,,taoism  ,lao ,tzu4--,mean:ile1 o!r    
influ5ces _h be5 help+ to div]t !       
att5tion ( ! ,*9ese p f ! simple wor%ip 
( ,god & ( ! p[]s ( nature4 ,!          
philosophy associat$ ) ! "n ( ,lao ,tzu1
 :o liv$ nobody kn[s :51--probably ab\t 
,b4,c4 #fjj--:i* is popul>ly kn[n z     

,taoism1 f ,tao1 ! omnipres5t1          
omnipot5t1 & un?9kable pr9ciple on :i* x
 is bas$1 op]at$ ) ,confucianism1 ?\gh 9
 an opposite direction1 9 dislimn+ ! old
 fai? :ile putt+ no?+ satisfactory 9 its
 place4 ,confucianism1 ) its %ad[y      
mono!i/ic backgr\nd1 0 at any rate a    
practical sy/em = ev]yday use1 & x may  
be said to conta9 all ! great e?ical    
tru?s to be f\nd 9 ! tea*+s ( ,*ri/4    
,lao ,tzu h>p$ ^u a doctr9e ( ,inaction1
 by virtue ( :i* all ?+s 7 to be        
accompli%$1--a p]petual accommodation ( 
self to "o's surr\nd+s1 ) ! m9imum (    
ef=t1 all progress be+ spontane\s & 9 ! 
l9e ( lea/ resi/ance4 ,su* a sy/em 0    
naturally f> bett] fitt$ = ! /udy1 :]e 9
 fact x has always rema9$1 ?an = use 9  
ord9>y life4  ,9 "o ( ! few g5u9e       
utt]ances ( ,lao ,tzu :i* h surviv$ !   
wreck ( "t1 we f9d an allusion to a     
spiritual _w4 ,un=tunately1 x is        
impossible to say exactly :at ! passage 
means4 ,accord+ to ,han ,fei 7di$ ,b4,c4
 #bcc71 :o wrote sev]al *apt]s to       

elucidate ! say+s ( ,lao ,tzu1 ! foll[+ 
is ! correct int]pretation3--  ,gov]n a 
great nation z y w\ld cook a small fi%  
7i4e4 d n ov]do x74  ,if ! empire is    
gov]n$ accord+ to ,tao1 evil spirits w n
 be wor%ipp$ z good ones4  ,if evil     
spirits are n wor%ipp$ z good ones1 good
 ones w d no injury4 ,nei!r w ! ,sages  
injure ! p4 ,ea* w n injure ! o!r4 ,& if
 nei!r injures ! o!r1 !n !re w be mutual
 pr(it4  ,! latt] portion is expla9$ by 
ano!r comm5tator z foll[s3--  ,spirits d
 n hurt ! natural4 ,if p are natural1   
spirits h no means ( manife/+ !mselves2 
& if spirits d n manife/ !mselves1 we   
are n consci\s ( _! exi/5ce z su*4      
,likewise1 if we are n consci\s ( !     
exi/5ce ( spirits z su*1 we mu/ be      
equally unconsci\s ( ! exi/5ce ( inspir$
 tea*]s z su*2 & to be unconsci\s ( !   
exi/5ce ( spirits & ( inspir$ tea*]s is 
! v ess5ce ( ,tao4  ,adumbrations (     
,h]acleitus4--,9 ! h&s ( ,lao ,tzu's m  
imm$iate foll[]s1 ,tao became !         
,absolute1 ! ,fir/ ,cause1 & f9ally ,"o 

9 ^: oblit]at+ unity all seem+ly oppos$ 
conditions ( "t & space 7 indi/+ui%ably 
bl5d$4 ,?is ,"o1 ! s\rce ( human life1 0
 plac$ beyond ! limits ( our visible    
univ]se2 & 9 ord] = human life to return
 ?i!r at dea? & to enjoy immortality1 x 
0 only necess>y to ref9e away corporeal 
grossness accord+ to ! doctr9es ( ,lao  
,tzu4 ,lat] on1 ?is ,"o came to be      
reg>d$ z a fix$ po9t ( dazzl+ lum9osity1
 9 remote e!r1 ar\nd :i* circl$ = ev] & 
ev]1 9 ! supreme/ glory ( motion1 ! s\ls
 ( ^? :o _h successfully pass$ ?r\gh !  
ordeal ( life1 & :o _h left ! sl\gh (   
humanity beh9d !m4  ,! f9al /ate is be/ 
describ$ by a poet ( ! n9? c5tury       
,a4,d43--       ,l a :irl+ wat]-:eel1   
,l roll+ pe>ls1--      ,yet h[ are ^!   
wor?y to be nam$8      ,!y are b        
illu/rations = fools4      ,!re is !    
mighty axis ( ,e>?1      ,! nev]-re/+   
pole ( ,heav52      ,let u grasp _!     
clue1      ,& ) !m be bl5d$ 9 ,"o1      
,beyond ! b\nds ( ?\ght1      ,circl+ = 
ev] 9 ! great ,void1      ,an orbit ( a 

?\s& ye>s1--      ,yes1 ?is is ! key to 
my !me4  ,debas$ ,taoism4--,?is view    
naturally sugge/$ ! prolongation ( e>?ly
 life by artificial means2 h5ce ! se>* =
 an elixir1 c>ri$ on ?r\gh _m c5turies  
by deg5]ate disciples ( ,taoism4 ,b "h  
we mu/ pass on to consid] "s ( !        
speculations on ,god1 life1 dea?1 &     
immortality1 indulg$ 9 by ,taoi/        
philosoph]s & o!rs1 :o 7 n fett]$1 z !  
,confuciani/s 71 by traditional retic5ce
 on ! subject ( spirits & an unse5      
univ]se4  ,spirits mu/ exi/4--,mo ,tzu1 
a philosoph] ( ! f\r? & fif? c5turies   
,b4,c41 0 argu+ "o day = ! exi/5ce (    
spirits ) a disbeliev+ oppon5t4 ,all y h
 to d1 he said1 is to g into any village
 & make enquiries4 ,f ( old until n[ ! p
 h con/antly se5 & he>d spiritual be+s2 
h[ !n c y say !y d n exi/8 ,if !y _h    
nev] se5 nor he>d !m1 c\ld p say t !y   
exi/$8 ,( c\rse1 repli$ ! disbeliev]1 _m
 p h se5 & he>d spirits2 b is !re any   
in/ance ( a prop]ly v]ifi$ appe>ance8   
,mo ,tzu !n told a long /ory ( h[ ,k+   

,hsuan1 ,b4,c4 #hbg-gha1 unju/ly put to 
dea? a ,m9i/]1 & h[ ! latt] _h said to !
 ,k+1 ,if !re is no consci\sness aft]   
dea?1 ?is matt] w be at an end2 b if !re
 is1 !n )9 ?ree ye>s y w he> f me4 ,?ree
 ye>s lat]1 at a gr& durb>1 ! ,m9i/]    
desc5d$ f heav5 on a :ite horse1 & %ot !
 ,k+ dead be=e ! eyes ( all4  ,traces ( 
,my/icism4--,*uang ,tzu1 ! fam\s        
philosoph] ( ! ?ird & f\r? c5turies     
,b4,c41 & expon5t ( ! ,tao ( ,lao ,tzu1 
has ! foll[+ allusions to ,god1 ( c\rse 
z se5 ?r\gh ,taoi/ glasses3--  ,god is a
 pr9ciple :i* exi/s by virtue ( its own 
intr9sicality1 & op]ates spontane\sly   
)\t self-manife/ation4  ,he :o kn[s :at 
,god is1 & :at ,man is1 has atta9$4     
,kn[+ :at ,god is1 he kn[s t he himself 
proce$$ !refrom4 ,kn[+ :at ,man is1 he  
re/s 9 ! k ( ! kn[n1 wait+ = ! k ( !    
unkn[n4  ,! ultimate end is ,god4 ,he is
 manife/$ 9 ! laws ( nature4 ,he is !   
hidd5 spr+4 ,at ! beg9n+ ( all ?+s1 ,he 
04  ,taoism1 h[ev]1 does n seem to h    
succe$$ altoge!r1 any m ?an             

,confucianism1 9 altoge!r e/rang+ !     
,*9ese p f _! traditions ( a ,god1 m or 
less p]sonal1 ^: p[] 0 ! real det]m9+   
factor 9 human ev5ts4 ,! great g5]al    
,hsiang ,yu1 ,b4,c4 #bcc-bjb1 said to 8 
*>iote] at ! battle :i* prov$ fatal to 8
 =tunes1 ,i h f\ght no few] ?an sev5ty  
fights1 & h ga9$ dom9ion ov] ! empire4  
,t ,i am n[ br\ght to ?is pass is       
because ,god has des]t$ me4    ,,*apt]  
,,iv -- ,,mat]ialism  ,yang             
,hsiung4--,yang ,hsiung 0 a philosoph]  
:o fl\ri%$ ,b4,c4 #ec - ,a4,d4 #ah4 ,he 
taught t ! nature ( man at bir? is nei!r
 good nor evil1 b a mixture ( bo?1 & t  
developm5t 9 ei!r direction dep5ds :olly
 ^u environm5t4 ,to "o :o ask$ ab\t     
,god1 he repli$1 ,:at h ,i to d ) ,god8 
,wat* h[ )\t do+ any?+ ,he does all ?+s4
 ,to ano!r :o said1 ,surely x is ,god :o
 fa%ions & adorns all e>?ly =ms1 he     
repli$1 ,n s2 if ,god 9 an e>?ly s5se 7 
to fa%ion & adorn all ?+s1 ,8 /r5g? w\ld
 n be adequate to ! task4  ,wang        
,*'ung4--,wang ,*'ung1 ,a4,d4 #bg-ig1   

d5ies t m5 aft] dea? live aga9 z        
spiritual be+s on e>?4 ,animals1 he     
argues1 d n become spirits aft] dea?2 :y
 %\ld man alone und]go ?is *ange8 4 4 4 
,t :i* in=ms man at bir? is vitality1 & 
at dea? ?is vitality is ext+ui%$4       
,vitality is produc$ by ! pulsations ( !
 blood2 :5 ^! cease1 vitality is        
ext+ui%$1 ! body decays1 & becomes du/4 
,h[ c x become a _s8 4 4 4 ,:5 a man    
dies1 8 s\l asc5ds to heav51 & 8 bones  
return 7kuei7 to e>?2 !re=e he is spok5 
( z a disembodi$ _s 7kuei71 ! latt] ^w  
really mean+ t :i* has return$4 4 4 4   
,vitality becomes humanity1 j z wat]    
becomes ice4 ,! ice melts & is wat]     
aga92 man dies & rev]ts to spirituality4
 4 4 4 ,! spirits :i* p see are         
inv>iably 9 ! =m ( human be+s1 & t v    
fact is en\gh ( itself to prove t ^!    
app>itions _c be ! s\ls ( dead m54 ,if a
 sack is fill$ ) gra91 x w /& up1 & is  
obvi\sly a sack ( gra92 b if ! sack is  
bur/ & ! gra9 falls out1 !n x collapses 
& disappe>s f view4 ,n[1 man's s\l is   

enfold$ 9 8 body z gra9 9 a sack4 ,:5 he
 dies 8 body decays & 8 vitality is     
dissipat$2 & if :5 ! gra9 is tak5 away !
 sack loses its =m1 :y1 :5 ! vitality is
 gone1 %\ld ! body obta9 a new %ape 9   
:i* to appe> aga9 9 ! _w8 4 4 4 ,! numb]
 ( p]sons :o h di$ s9ce ! _w began1 old1
 middle-ag$1 & "y1 mu/ run into ?\s&s ( 
millions1 f> exce$+ ! numb] ( p]sons    
alive at ! pres5t day4 ,if e "o ( ^! has
 become a disembodi$ _s1 !re mu/ be at  
lea/ "o to e y>d z we walk along ! road2
 & ^? :o die mu/ n[ sudd5ly f9d !mselves
 face to face ) va/ cr[ds ( spirits1    
fill+ e h\se & /reet4 4 4 4 ,p say t    
spirits are ! s\ls ( dead m54 ,t be+ !  
case1 spirits %\ld always appe> nak$1 = 
surely x is n cont5d$ t clo!s h s\ls z  
well z m54 4 4 4 ,x c fur!r be %[n n    
only t dead m5 nev] become spirits1 b   
also t !y are )\t consci\sness1 by !    
fact t be=e bir? !y are )\t             
consci\sness4 ,be=e bir? man re/s 9 !   
,fir/ ,cause2 :5 he dies he goes back to
 ! ,fir/ ,cause4 ,! ,fir/ ,cause is     

vague & )\t =m1 & man's s\l is !re 9 a  
/ate ( unconsci\sness4 ,at dea? ! s\l   
rev]ts to its orig9al /ate3 h[ !n c x   
possess consci\sness8 4 4 4 ,z a matt] (
 fact1 ! univ]se is full ( disembodi$   
spirits1 b ^! are n ! s\ls ( dead m54   
,!y are be+s only ( ! m9d1 conjur$ up = 
! mo/ "p 9 sickness1 :5 ! pati5t is     
especially subject to fe>4 ,= sickness  
induces fe> ( spirits2 fe> ( spirits    
causes ! m9d to dwell ^u !m2 & ?us      
app>itions are produc$4  ,ano!r writ]   
enl>ges on ! view t kuei disembodi$ _s  
is ! same z kuei to return4 ,at dea?1   
man's s\l returns to heav51 8 fle% to   
e>?1 8 blood to wat]1 8 blood-vessels to
 m>%es1 8 voice to ?und]1 8 motion to ! 
w9d1 8 sleep to ! sun & moon1 8 bones to
 trees1 8 muscles to hills1 8 tee? to   
/ones1 8 fat to dew1 8 hair to grass1   
:ile 8 brea? returns to man4            
,attributes ( ,god4--,!re 0 a c]ta9     
philosoph]1 nam$ ,*'9 ,mi 7di$ ,a4,d4   
#bbf71 ^: s]vices 7 mu* requir$ by ! ,k+
 ( ,wu1 :o s5t an envoy to fet* him4 ,! 

envoy took ^u himself to cate*ise !     
philosoph]1 ) ! foll[+ result3--  ,y are
 engag$ 9 /udy1 are y n8 ask$ ! envoy4  
,any slip ( a boy may be t1 repli$ ,*'92
 :y n ,i8  ,has ,god a head8 said !     
envoy4  ,he has1 0 ! reply4  ,:]e is    
,he8 0 ! next "q4  ,9 ! ,we/4 ,! ,odes  
say1       ,he gaz$ fondly on ! ,we/1   
,f :i* x may be inf]r$ t 8 head 0 9 !   
,we/4  ,has ,god got e>s8  ,god sits on 
high1 repli$ ,*'91 b he>s ! l[ly4 ,!    
,odes say1       ,! crane cries 9 ! m>%1
      ,& its cry is he>d by ,god4  ,if  
,he _h n e>s1 h[ c\ld ,he he> x8  ,has  
,god feet8 ask$ ! envoy4  ,he has1      
repli$ ,*'94 ,! ,odes say1       ,! /eps
 ( ,god are difficult2      ,?is man    
does n foll[ !m4  ,if ,he _h no feet1 h[
 c\ld ,he /ep8  ,has ,god a surname8    
enquir$ ! envoy4 ,& if s1 :at is x8  ,he
 has a surname1 said ,*'91 & x is ,liu4 
,h[ d y "k t8 rejo9$ ! o!r4  ,! surname 
( ! ,emp]or1 :o is ! ,son ( ,heav51 is  
,liu1 repli$ ,*'92 & t is h[ ,i "k x4   
,^! answ]s1 we are told1 came z quickly 

z e*o aft] s\nd4 ,a writ] ( ! n9? c5tury
 ,a4,d41 :5 rev]5ce = ! "o ,god ( anci5t
 ,*9a _h be5 to a great ext5t weak5$ by 
! multiplication ( inf]ior deities1     
tells a /ory h[ ?is ,god1 ^: "n 0 ,liu1 
_h be5 displac$ by ano!r ,god ^: "n 0   
,*ang4  ,! ,hs+ y+ tsa lu has ! foll[+  
/ory4 ,!re 0 once a v poor s*ol>1 :o    
made x 8 nightly practice to burn inc5se
 & pray to ,god4 ,"o ev5+ he he>d a     
voice f above1 say+1 ,god has be5 t\*$  
by y\r e>ne/ness1 & has s5t me to ask   
:at y require4 ,i wi%1 repli$ ! s*ol>1 =
 clo!s & food1 co>se if y w1 suffici5t =
 my necessities 9 ?is life1 & to be able
 to roam1 free f c>e1 among ! m\nta9s & 
/reams1 until ,i complete my allott$    
span2 t is all4 ,all6 cri$ ! voice1 amid
 peals ( laught] f ! cl\ds4 ,:y1 t is ! 
happ9ess enjoy$ by ! spirits 9 heav52 y 
c't h t4 ,ask r = weal? & rank4  ,good &
 ,evil4--,x has already be5 /at$ t !    
,*9ese imag9ation has nev] conceiv$ ( an
 ,evil ,"o1 deliv]ance f :om might be   
secur$ by pray]4 ,! exi/5ce ( evil 9 !  

ab/ract has h[ev] receiv$ "s att5tion4  
,wei ,tao ,tzu ask$ ,yu ,li ,tzu1 say+1 
,is x true t ,god loves good & hates    
evil8  ,x is1 repli$ ,yu4  ,9 t case1   
rejo9$ ,wei1 goodness %\ld ab\nd 9 !    
,empire & evil %\ld be sc>ce4 ,yet among
 birds1 kites & falcons outnumb]        
pho5ixes2 among bea/s1 wolves are _m &  
unicorns are few2 among gr[+ plants1    
?orns are _m & c]eals are few2 among ^? 
:o eat cook$ food & /& erect1 ! wick$   
are _m & ! virtu\s are few2 & 9 none (  
^! cases c y say t ! latt] are evil & ! 
=m] good4 ,c x be possible t :at man    
reg>ds z evil1 ,god reg>ds z good1 &    
vice v]sa8 ,is x t ,god is unable to    
det]m9e ! *>act]i/ics ( ea*1 & lets ea* 
foll[ its own b5t & develop good or evil
 accord+ly8 ,if ,he all[s good m5 to be 
put ^u1 & evil m5 to be a s\rce ( fe>1  
is n ?is to admit t ,god has ,8 likes & 
dislikes8 ,f ( old until n[1 times (    
misgov]nm5t h always exce$$ times ( "r  
gov]nm5t2 & :5 m5 ( pr9ciple h cont5d$ )
 ! ignoble1 ! latt] h usually won4 ,:]e 

!n is ,god's love ( good & hatr$ ( evil8
  ,yu ,li ,tzu _h no answ] to make4  ,! 
,tan y5 tsa lu says1 ,if ! p are cont5t$
 & happy1 ,god is at peace 9 ,8 m9d4 ,:5
 ,god is at peace 9 ,8 m9d1 ! two great 
motive ,p[]s act 9 h>mony4  ,:]e is     
,god8--,! ,pi *'ou says1 ,! empyrean    
above y is n ,god2 x is b ,8 outw>d     
manife/ation4 ,t :i* rema9s ev] fix$ 9  
man's he>t & :i* rules ov] all ?+s )\t  
cease1 t is ,god4 ,alas1 y e>ne/ly seek 
,god 9 ! blue sky1 :ile =gett+ ,him     
altoge!r 9 y\r he>ts4 ,c y expect y\r   
pray]s to be answ]$8  ,?is view--,=     
behold1 ! k+dom ( ,god is )9 y1 ,/4     
,luke xvii4 #ba1--;has be5 br\ght out by
 ! philosoph] ,%ao ,yung1 ,a4,d4        
#ajaa-ajgg1 9 ! foll[+ l9es3--       ,! 
heav5s are /ill3 no s\nd4      ,:]e !n  
%all ,god be f\nd8 4 4 4      ,se>* n 9 
di/ant skies2      ,9 man's own he>t ,he
 lies4  ,conflict ( ,fai?s4--,han       
,w5-kung1 ,a4,d4 #gfh-hbd1 ! em95t      
philosoph]1 poet1 & /atesman1 :o suff]$ 
bani%m5t = 8 opposition to ! ,buddhi/   

religion1 compla9s t1 ( old !re 0 b "o  
fai?2 n[ !re are ?ree1--mean+           
,confucianism1 ,buddhism1 & ,taoism4 ,he
 ?us pictures ! simplicity ( ,*9a's     
anci5t k+s3--  ,_! clo!s 7 ( clo? or (  
silk4 ,!y dwelt 9 palaces or 9 ord9>y   
h\ses4 ,!y ate gra9 & vegetables & fruit
 & fi% & fle%4 ,_! me?od 0 easy (       
compreh5sion3 _! doctr9es 7 easily c>ri$
 into practice4 ,h5ce _! lives pass$    
pleasantly away1 a s\rce ( satisfaction 
to !mselves1 a s\rce ( b5efit to mank9d4
 ,at peace )9 _! own he>ts1 !y readily  
adapt$ !mselves to ! necessities ( !    
family & ( ! ,/ate4 ,happy 9 life1 !y 7 
rememb]$ aft] dea?4 ,_! sacrifices 7    
grateful to ! ,god ( ,heav51 & ! spirits
 ( ! dep>t$ rejoic$ 9 ! hon\rs (        
ance/ral wor%ip4  ,8 m9d seems to h be5 
op5 on ! subject ( a future /ate4 ,9 a  
lam5tation on ! dea? ( a fav\rite       
nephew1 he writes1  ,if !re is k aft]   
dea?1 ?is sep>ation w be b = a little   
:ile4 ,if !re is no k aft] dea?1 s w ?is
 sorr[ be b = a little :ile1 & !n no m  

sorr[ = ev]4  ,8 views z to ! exi/5ce ( 
spirits on ?is e>? are n v logical3--   
,if !re is :i/l+ among ! raft]s1 & ,i   
take a light b fail to see any?+1--is t 
a _s8 ,x is n2 = spirits are s\ndless4  
,if !re is some?+ 9 ! room1 & ,i look = 
x b _c see x1--is t a _s8 ,x is n2      
spirits are =mless4 ,if some?+ bru%es   
aga9/ me1 & ,i grab at1 b d n seize     
x1--is t a _s8 ,x is n2 = if spirits are
 s\ndless & =mless1 h[ c !y h sub/ance8 
,if !n spirits h nei!r s\nd nor =m nor  
sub/ance1 are !y consequ5tly non-exi/5t8
 ,?+s :i* h =m )\t s\nd exi/ 9 nature2 =
 in/ance1 e>?1 & /ones4 ,?+s :i* h s\nd 
)\t =m exi/ 9 nature2 = in/ance1 w9d1 & 
?und]4 ,?+s :i* h bo? s\nd & =m exi/ 9  
nature2 = in/ance1 m51 & animals4 ,& ?+s
 :i* h nei!r s\nd nor =m also exi/ 9    
nature2 = in/ance1 disembodi$ spirits & 
angels4  ,= 8 own poetical _s1 accord+  
to ! fun]al elegy writt5 "s two hundr$ &
 fifty ye>s aft] 8 dea?1 a great hon\r 0
 res]v$3--       ,above 9 heav5 !re 0 no
 music1 & ,god 0 sad1      ,& summon$   

him to 8 place beside ! ,?rone4  ,8     
fri5d & contempor>y1 ,liu ,tsung-yuan1 a
 poet & philosoph] l himself1 0 tempt$  
into ! foll[+ reflections by !          
contemplation ( a beautiful l&scape :i* 
he discov]$ f> f ! beat5 track3--  ,n[1 
,i h always _h my d\bts ab\t ! exi/5ce (
 a ,god2 b ?is sc5e made me ?9k ,he     
really mu/ exi/4 ,at ! same "t1 h[ev]1  
,i began to wond] :y ,he did n place x 9
 "s wor?y c5tre ( civilisation1 r ?an 9 
?is out-(-!-way b>b>\s region1 :]e =    
c5turies !re has be5 no "o to enjoy its 
beauty4 ,& s1 on ! o!r h&1 su* wa/e (   
lab\r & incongruity ( position dispos$  
me to ?9k t !re c\ld n be a ,god aft]   
all4  ,lett] f ,god4--,9 ,a4,d4 #ajjh   
!re 0 a pret5d$ revelation f ,god 9 ! =m
 ( a lett]1 recall+ ! lett] f ,*ri/ on !
 neglect ( ! ,sabba? m5tion$ by ,rog] ( 
,w5dov] & ,hov$51 contempor>y *ronicl]s4
 ,! ,emp]or & 8 ,c\rt reg>d$ ?is        
communication ) pr(\nd awe2 b a high    
(ficial ( ! day said1 ,i h le>nt 7f !   
,confucian ,disc\rses7 t ,god does n ev5

 speak2 h[ !n %\ld ,he write a lett]8   
,mod]n ,mat]ialism4--,! philosoph] &    
comm5tator1 ,*u ,hsi1 ,a4,d4 #aacj-abjj1
 ^: int]pretations ( ! ,confucian ,canon
 are ! only ones n[ (ficially recognis$1
 has done m ?an any "o s9ce ,confucius  
himself to dissem9ate a rigid mat]ialism
 among 8 fell[-c\ntrym54 ,! ,god ( !    
,canon is expla9$ away z an ,et]nal     
,pr9ciple2 ! ph5om5a ( ! univ]se are    
attribut$ to ,nature1 ) its absurd      
p]sonification s commonly met ) 9 ,we/]n
 writ]s2 & spirits g5]ally are associat$
 ) ! p]f]vid imag9ations ( sick p]sons &
 en?usia/s4  ,is consci\sness disp]s$   
aft] dea?1 or does x /ill exi/8 said an 
enquir]4  ,x is n disp]s$1 repli$ ,*u   
,hsi2 x is at an end4 ,:5 vitality comes
 to an end1 consci\sness comes to an end
 ) x4  ,he got into m tr\ble ov] ! v]se 
quot$ e>li]1       ,k+ ,w5 is on high1  
,9 glory 9 heav54      ,8 com+s & 8 go+s
      ,are to & f ! pres5ce ( ,god4  ,if
 x is ass]t$1 he argu$1 t ,k+ ,w5 0     
really 9 ! pres5ce ( ,god1 & t !re      

really is su* a ,be+ z ,god1 ,he c]ta9ly
 _c h ! =m 9 :i* ,he is repres5t$ by !  
clay or wood5 images 9 vogue4 ,/ill1 z  
^! /atem5ts 7 made by ! ,prophets ( old1
 !re mu/ h be5 "s f\ndation = !m4  ,!re 
is1 h[ev]1 a c]ta9 am\nt ( inconsi/5cy 9
 8 writ+s on ! sup]natural1 = 9 ano!r   
passage he says1  ,:5 ,god is ab\t to   
s5d d[n calamities ^u u1 ,he fir/ raises
 up ! h]o ^: g5ius %all f9ally prevail  
aga9/ ^? calamities4  ,sometimes he     
seems to be address+ ! educat$          
,confuciani/2 at o!r times1 ! common h]d
 ^: weaknesses h to be tak5 into acc\nt4
    ,,*apt] ,v -- ,,buddhism ,,& ,,o!r  
,,religions  ,s e>ly z ! ?ird c5tury    
,b4,c41 ,buddhism seems to h appe>$ 9   
,*9a1 ?\gh x 0 n until ! latt] "p ( !   
fir/ c5tury ,a4,d4 t a regul> propag&a 0
 e/abli%$1 & n until a c5tury or two    
lat] /ill t ?is religion began to take a
 firm hold ( ! ,*9ese p4 ,x 0 bitt]ly   
oppos$ by ! ,taoi/s1 & only aft] ! lapse
 ( _m c5turies 7 ! two doctr9es able to 
exi/ side by side 9 peace4 ,ea* religion

 began e>ly to borr[ f ! o!r4 ,9 ! words
 ( ! philosoph] ,*u ,hsi1 ( ! twelf?    
c5tury1 ,buddhism /ole ! be/ features ( 
,taoism2 ,taoism /ole ! wor/ features ( 
,buddhism4 ,x is z ?\gh "o took a jewel 
f ! o!r1 & ! los] rec\p$ ! loss ) a     
/one4  ,f ,buddhism ! ,taoi/s borr[$ _! 
:ole s*eme ( temples1 prie/s1 nuns1 &   
ritual4 ,!y drew up liturgies to        
resemble ! ,buddhi/ ,sutras1 & also     
pray]s = ! dead4 ,!y adopt$ ! idea ( a  
,tr9ity1 consi/+ ( ,lao ,tzu1 ,p'an ,ku1
 & ! ,rul] ( ! ,univ]se2 & !y fur!r     
appropriat$ ! ,buddhi/ ,purgatory ) all 
its frightful t]rors & tortures aft]    
dea?4  ,n[adays x takes an exp]t to     
di/+ui% betwe5 ! temples & prie/s ( !   
two religions1 & memb]s ( bo? hi]>*ies  
are (t5 simultane\sly summon$ by p]sons 
ne$+ religi\s consolation or c]emonial (
 any k9d4  ,d\bts4--,9 a *apt] on       
,d\bts1 by ! ,taoi/ philosoph] ,m\ ,tzu1
 we read1  ,"s "o said to ,m\1 ,!       
,buddhi/ doctr9e tea*es t :5 m5 die !y  
are born aga94 ,i _c believe ?is4  ,:5 a

 man is at ! po9t ( dea?1 repli$ ,m\1 8 
family m\nt ^u ! h\se-top & call to him 
to /ay4 ,if he is already dead1 to :om d
 !y call8  ,!y call 8 s\l1 said ! o!r4  
,if ! s\l comes back1 ! man lives1      
answ]$ ,m\2 b if x does n1 :i!r does x  
g8  ,x becomes a disembodi$ _s1 0 !     
reply4  ,precisely s1 said ,m\4 ,! s\l  
is imp]i%able2 only ! body decays1 j z !
 /alks ( corn p]i%1 :ile ! gra9 cont9ues
 = ev] & ev]4 ,did n ,lao ,tzu say1 ',! 
reason :y ,i suff] s mu* is because ,i h
 a body'8  ,b all m5 die :e!r !y h f\nd 
! tru? or n1 urg$ ! que/ion]2 :at !n is 
! diff]5ce betwe5 !m8  ,t1 repli$ ,m\1  
is l consid]+ y\r rew>d be=e y h put 9  
"r conduct = a s+le day4 ,if a man has  
f\nd ! tru?1 ev5 ?\gh he dies1 8 _s w g 
to heav52 if he has l$ an evil life 8 _s
 w suff] ev]la/+ly4 ,a fool kn[s :5 a ?+
 is done1 b a wise man kn[s be=eh&4 ,to 
h f\nd ! tru? & n to h f\nd x are z     
unlike z gold & lea!r2 good & evil1 z   
black & :ite4 ,h[ !n c y ask :at is !   
diff]5ce8  ,buddhism1 :i* =bids !       

slaught] ( any liv+ creature1 has wisely
 ab/a9$ f d5\nc+ ! sacrifice ( victims  
at ! ,temple ( ,heav5 & at ! ,confucian 
,temple4 ,b back$ by ,confucianism x    
d5\nces ! slaught] = food ( ! ox :i*    
tills ! soil4 ,"s l9es ( dogg]el to ?is 
effect1 bas$ ^u ! ,buddhi/ doctr9e ( !  
transmigration ( s\ls & put into ! m\? (
 an ox1 h be5 r5d]$ z foll[s3--         
,my murd]]s %all come to grief1         
,along ) all :o reli% beef2      ,:5    
,i'm a man & y're a c[1      ,i'll eat y
 z y eat me n[4  ,fire                  
,wor%ipp]s4--,mazdeism1 ! religion (    
,zoroa/]1 bas$ ^u ! wor%ip ( fire1 & 9 t
 s5se n altoge!r unfamili> to ! ,*9ese1 
rea*$ ,*9a "s "t 9 ! sev5? c5tury ,a4,d4
 ,! fir/ temple 0 built at ,*'ang-an1 ! 
capital1 9 #fba1 t5 ye>s aft] :i* came !
 fam\s mission>y1 ,ho ,lu ! ,magus4 ,b !
 lease ( life enjoy$ by ?is religion 0 (
 %ort duration4  ,islamism4--,mahometans
 fir/ settl$ 9 ,*9a 9 ! ye> ( !         
,mission1 ,a4,d4 #fbh1 "u               
,wahb-,abi-,kab*a1 a mat]nal uncle (    

,mahomet1 :o 0 s5t ) pres5ts to !       
,emp]or4 ,! fir/ mosque 0 built at      
,canton1 :]e1 aft] sev]al re/orations1 x
 /ill exi/s4 ,!re is at pres5t a v l>ge 
,mahometan community 9 ,*9a1 *iefly 9 ! 
prov9ce ( ,yunnan4 ,^! p c>ry on _!     
wor%ip unmole/$1 on ! sole condition t 9
 ea* mosque !re %all be exhibit$ a small
 tablet ) an inscription1 ! purport (   
:i* is recognition ( allegiance to !    
reign+ ,emp]or4  ,ne/orians4--,9 ,a4,d4 
#fca ! ,ne/orian ,*ur* introduc$        
,*ri/ianity into ,*9a1 "u ! title ( ,!  
,lum9\s ,doctr9e2 & 9 #fcf ,ne/orian    
mission>ies 7 all[$ to settle at !      
capital4 ,9 #gha ! fam\s ,ne/orian      
,tablet1 ) a bil+ual inscription 9      
,*9ese & ,syriac1 0 set up at ,si-ngan  
,fu1 :]e x /ill rema9s1 & :]e x 0       
discov]$ 9 #afbe by ,fa!r ,sem$o1 long  
aft] ,ne/orianism _h altoge!r disappe>$1
 leav+ n a rack beh9d4  ,mani*aeans4--,9
 ,a4,d4 #gai an ambassador f ,tokh>e/an 
arriv$ at ! capital4 ,he 0 accompani$ by
 "o ,ta-m\-%e1 :o is said to h taught ! 

religion ( ! ,*aldean ,mani1 or ,manes1 
:o di$ ab\t ,a4,d4 #bgd4 ,9 #hjg !      
,mani*aean sect made =mal application to
 be all[$ to h recognis$ places ( meet+2
 %ortly aft] :i* !y too disappe> f      
hi/ory4  ,judaism4--,! ,jews1 kn[n to ! 
,*9ese z ^? :o take out ! s9ew1 f _!    
peculi> me?od ( prep>+ meat1 are said by
 "s to h rea*$ ,*9a1 & to h f\nd$ a     
colony 9 ,honan1 %ortly aft] !          
,captivity1 c>ry+ ! ,p5tateu* ) !m4     
,?ree inscriptions on /one tablets are  
/ill extant1 dat$ #adhi1 #aeab1 & #affc1
 respectively4 ,! fir/ says ! ,jews came
 to ,*9a dur+ ! ,sung dyna/y2 ! second1 
dur+ ! ,han dyna/y2 & ! ?ird1 dur+ ! ,*\
 dyna/y4 ,! fir/ is probably ! correct  
acc\nt4 ,we "k t ! ,jews built a        
synagogue at ,k'ai-f5g ,fu 9 ,a4,d4     
#aafd1 :]e !y 7 discov]$ by ,ricci 9 !  
sev5te5? c5tury1 & :]e1 9 #ahej1 !re 7  
/ill to be f\nd traces ( ! old fai?1 n[ 
said to be completely effac$4           
,*ri/ianity4--,) ! adv5t ( ! ,jesuit    
,fa!rs 9 ! sixte5? c5tury1 & ( !        

,prote/ant mission>ies1 ,m>%man &       
,morrison1 9 #agii & #ahjg respectively1
 we pass gradually d[n to ! pres5t day1 
:]e we may well pause & look ar\nd to   
see :at rema9s to ! mod]n ,*9ese ( _!   
anci5t fai?s4 ,x is sc>cely too mu* to  
say t all idea ( ! e>ly ,god ( _!       
=efa!rs has long s9ce ceas$ to vivify _!
 religi\s in/9cts1 ?\gh ! sacrifices to 
,god & to ,e>? are /ill annually p]=m$  
by ! ,emp]or4 ,ance/or-wor%ip1 & ! cult 
( ,confucius1 are probably v mu* :at !y 
7 _m hundr$s ( ye>s ago2 :ile ,taoism1  
once a pure philosophy1 is n[ a corrupt 
religion4 ,z to ali5 fai?s1 ! ,buddhism 
( ,*9a w\ld c]ta9ly n be recognis$ by ! 
,f\nd] ( ,buddhism 9 ,india2            
,mahometanism is fairly fl\ri%+2        
,*ri/ianity is /ill bitt]ly oppos$4     
,,*ronological ,,syllabus   ,leg5d>y    
,p]iod 7,tw5ty-n9? ,c5tury to ,t5?      
,c5tury ,b4,c47--,p'an ,ku &            
,creation--,fir/ ,wor%ip (              
,spirits--,wor%ip ( ,god1 )             
inc5se--,sacrifices to ,m\nta9s &       

,riv]s--,wor%ip ( ,sun1 ,moon1 &        
,/>s--,in/itution ( ,ance/ral           
,wor%ip--,god enjoys music1 danc+1 &    
burnt (f]+s--,god res5ts bad            
gov]nm5t--,revelation 9 a               
,dream--,an?ropomorphism--,feti%ism--,no
 ,devil--,no ,hell--,t]ms = ,god--,! ,"*
 = ,god is a picture ( a ,man--,god &   
,jehovah--,god 9 ! ,odes--,h\ ,*i &     
,p>!nog5esis--,sup]/itions &            
,sup]natural                            
,manife/ations--,sacrifice--,ance/ral   
,wor%ip--,filial ,piety4  ,feudal ,age  
7,t5? ,c5tury to ,?ird ,c5tury          
,b4,c47--,! ,influ5ce (                 
,confucianism--,8 ,agno/icism--,weak5+ (
 ,sup]natural ,beliefs--,consolidation (
 ,confucianism--,human                  
,sacrifices--,pray]s = ,ra9--,!         
,philosophy ( ,taoism--,a ,rival to     
,confucianism--,b unit+ to weak5 ! old  
,mono!i/ic ,fai?--,its ,!ory (          
,spirits--,modifications ( ,taoism--,!  
,elixir ( ,life--,evid5ces ( a          
,spiritual ,_w--,my/icism4  ,! ,empire  

7,?ird ,c5tury ,b4,c4 to mod]n          
times7--,argum5ts aga9/ a ,spiritual    
,_w--,attributes ( ,god--,good &        
,evil--,buddhism appe>s--,conflict (    
,fai?s--,/ruggle betwe5 ,buddhism &     
,taoism--,taoism borr[s f ,buddhism &   
becomes a ,religion--,mazdeism          
appe>s--,foll[$ closely by              
,mahometanism1 ,ne/orian ,*ri/ianity1 & 
,mani*aeism--,mahometanism alone        
surviv$--,jews arriv$ ab\t ,elev5?      
,c5tury ,a4,d4--,*u ,hsi mat]ialis$ !   
,confucian ,canon--,h5ce=w>d ,agno/icism
 ! rule = lit]ati--,buddhism & ,taoism  
7bo? debas$7 = ! ,masses--,! ,jesuits   
arrive 9 ! ,sixte5? ,c5tury--,prote/ant 
,mission>ies date f #agii4     ,,select$
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 ,,*9a  ,religion 9 ,*9a4 ,joseph       
,edk9s1 ,d4,d4  ,! ,religions ( ,*9a4   
,james ,legge1 ,d4,d4  ,! ,dragon1      
,image & ,demon1 or ! ?ree ,religions ( 
,*9a4 ,rev4 ,h4 ,c4 du ,bose4  ,les     
,religions de la ,*9e4 ,c4 de ,h>bez4   
,! ,religi\s ,sy/em ( ,*9a3 ,its anci5t 

=ms1 evolution1 hi/ory1 etc4 ,j4 ,j4 de 
,groot1 ,ph4,d4  ,! ,sacr$ ,books (     
,*9a4 ,james ,legge1 ,d4,d4  ,*9ese     
,buddhism4 ,joseph ,edk9s1 ,d4,d4  ,le  
,%9ntoisme4 ,mi*el ,revon4