,! ,wisdom ( ! ,ea/ ,s]ies              
,,edit$ ,,by                            
,l4 ,,cranm]-,,byng                     
,dr4 ,s4 ,a4 ,,kapadia                  
,,wisdom ,,( ,,! ,,ea/                  
,,h9du ,,gods ,,&                       
,,h]oes                        ,,/udies 
,,9 ,,! ,,hi/ory ,,(                    
,,! ,,religion ,,( ,,india              
,,by                      ,,lionel ,d4  
,,b>nett1 ,m4,a41 ,,litt         99     
99       99       99       99           
,,preface   ,! foll[+ pages are tak5 f !
 ,=long ,beque/ lectures :i* ,i deliv]$ 
9 ,m>* la/ at ! ,s*ool ( ,ori5tal       
,/udies4 ,ow+ to exig5cies ( space1 mu* 
( :at ,i !n said has be5 omitt$ "h1     
especially ) reg>d to ! wor%ip ( ,siva2 
b en\gh rema9s to make cle> my g5]al    
view1 :i* is t ! religion ( ! ,aryans ( 
,india 0 ess5tially a wor%ip (          
spirits--sometimes spirits ( real       
p]sons1 sometimes imag9>y spirits--& t1 
al?\gh 9 e>ly days x provisionally f\nd 
room = p]sonifications ( natural =ces1 x

 c\ld n dige/ !m into ,great ,gods1 &   
!re=e !y h ei!r disappe>$ or1 if        
surviv+1 rema9 z m]e ,/ruldbrugs4 ,?us  
,i am a h]etic 9 relation to bo? ! ,sol>
 ,!ory & ! ,vegetation ,!ory1 z ev]yone 
mu/ be :o takes ! tr\ble to /udy ,h9du  
nature )\t prejudice4  ,l4 ,d4 ,b4  ,may
 #bi1 #aibb4         99       99        
99       99       99     ,,cont5ts   ,i4
 ,,! ,,v$ic ,,age3  ,popul> ,religion1  
p4 #i--,rig-v$a & prie/ly religion1 p4  
#aa--;,dyaus-,zeus1 p4 #ad--,u%as1 p4   
#ah--,surya1 p4 #ai--,savita1 p4        
#ai--,mitra & ,v>una1 p4 #ai--;,agni1 p4
 #bb--,soma1 p4 #bc--;,indra1 p4 #be--,!
 ,asv9s1 p4 #ce--,vi%nu1 p4             
#cg--,rudra-,siva1 p4 #db--,summ>y1 p4  
#db4   ,,ii4 ,,! ,,age ,,( ,,!          
,,brahmanas3  ,gr[? ( ,brahman influ5ce 
9 exp&+ ,aryan society1 p4 #de--,sy/em (
 prie/ly doctr9e3 !ory ( ,sacrifice &   
me*anical control ( nature !reby1 p4    
#dh--;,its ant9omianism3 p>tly correct$ 
by ! gr[+ cult ( ,rudra-,siva1 p4       
#ec--,! ,upani%ads3 _! relation to !    

,brahmanas1 p4 #ei--;,brahma !          
,absolute1 p4 #fj--,k>ma-,sams>a1 p4    
#fc--,results3 ,saiva ,!ism1 p4         
#fe--,kri%na3 e>ly hi/ory & leg5ds1 p4  
#ff--,tea*+s1 p4 #fh4   ,,iii4 ,,!      
,,epics1 ,,& ,,lat]3  ,i4 ,! ,great ,w> 
& ! ,p&avas1 p4 #gj--,vi%nu-,kri%na1 p4 
#gd--,n>ayana1 p4 #gf--;,bhagavad-gita &
 ,n>ayaniya1 p4 #gg--;,gr[? ( *ur* (    
,vi%nu-,kri%na1 p4 #gi--,wor%ip (       
,p&avas1 p4 #ib--,new erotic & romantic 
,kri%naism1 p4 #id4  ,,ii4 ,rama3 leg5d 
( ,rama & con/itution ( ,ramayana1 p4   
#ih4  ,,iii4 ,"s lat] ,prea*]s1 p4      
#ajc--,religions ( ,vi%nu-,kri%na &     
,siva 9 ,s\!rn ,india1 p4 #ajc--,samk>a 
,a*>ya1 p4 #aje--,ramanuja1 p4          
#ajg--,nimb>ka1 ,madhva1 ,vallabha1 p4  
#ajh--;,jnanadeva1 p4 #aji--,nama-deva1 
p4 #aji--,tuk>am1 p4 #aji--,raman&a1 p4 
#aaj--,tulsi ,das1 p4 #aaj--,kabir1 p4  
#aaj--,nanak1 p4 #aaj--;,*aitanya1 p4   
#aaj4  ,,iv4 ,brahma & ! ,trimurti1 p4  
#aaa--;,dattatreya1 p4 #aad4  ,v4 ,two  
,mod]n ,in/ances1 p4 #aaf4              

,,conclusion4         99       99       
99       99       99     ,,editorial    
,,note   ,! object ( ! ,editors ( ?is   
s]ies is a v def9ite "o4 ,!y desire     
above all ?+s t1 9 _! humble way1 ^!    
books %all be ! ambassadors ( goodwill &
 und]/&+ betwe5 ,ea/ & ,we/--! old _w ( 
,?\ght & ! new ( ,action4 ,9 ?is        
endeav\r1 & 9 _! own sph]e1 !y are b    
foll[]s ( ! highe/ example 9 ! l&4 ,!y  
are confid5t t a deep] k ( ! great      
ideals & l(ty philosophy ( ,ori5tal     
?\ght may help to a revival ( t true _s 
( ,*>ity :i* nei!r despises nor fe>s !  
nations ( ano!r cre$ & col\r4  ,l4      
,,cranm]-,,byng4  ,s4 ,a4 ,,kapadia4    
,,nor?brook ,,society1  #ba ,,cromwell  
,,road1  ,,k5s+ton1 ,s4 ,w4         99  
99       99       99       99     ,,h9du
 ,,gods ,,& ,,h]oes  ,,*apt] ,i  ,,!    
,,v$ic ,,age   ,let u imag9e we are 9 a 
village ( an ,aryan tribe 9 ! ,ea/]n    
,panjab some?+ m ?an ?irty c5turies ago4
 ,x is made up ( a few l>ge huts1 r\nd  
:i* clu/] small] ones1 all ( !m rudely  

built1 mo/ly ( bamboo2 9 ! o!r l>g] ones
 dwell ! heads ( families1 :ile ! small]
 ones %elt] _! k9sfolk & foll[]s1 = ?is 
is a patri>*al _w1 & ! h\sefa!r gives ! 
law to 8 h\sehold4 ,! p are mo/ly a     
comely folk1 tall & clean-limb$1 & r    
fair ( sk91 ) well-cut features &       
/raight noses2 b among !m are n a few   
squat & ugly m5 & wom51 flat-nos$ &     
ne>ly black 9 col\r1 :o 7 once ! free   
dwell]s 9 ?is l&1 & n[ h become slaves  
or s]fs to _! ,aryan conqu]ors4 ,ar\nd !
 village are fields :]e bullocks are    
dragg+ r\gh pl\ghs2 & beyond ^! are     
woods & moors 9 :i* lurk wild m51 &     
beyond ^! are ! l&s ( o!r ,aryan tribes4
 ,life 9 ! village is simple & rude1 b n
 unev5tful1 = ! village is "p ( a tribe1
 & tribes are con/antly fight+ ) "o     
ano!r1 z well z ) ! d>k-sk9n$ m5 :o (t5 
try to drive back ! ,aryans1 sometimes 9
 small =ays & sometimes 9 mass$ hordes4 
,b ! _w 9 :i* ! village is int]e/$ is a 
small "o1 & h>dly ext5ds beyond ! b\nds 
( ! l& :]e its tribe dwells4 ,x kn[s    

some?+ ( ! l& ( ! ,five ,riv]s1 9 "o    
corn] ( :i* x lives1 & some?+ ev5 ( !   
l&s to ! nor? ( x1 & to ! we/ z f> z !  
m\nta9s & des]ts1 :]e live m5 ( its own 
k9d & tongue2 b beyond ^! limits x has  
no k4 ,only a few bold spirits h        
travell$ ea/w>d across ! high slope t   
divides ! l& ( ! ,five ,riv]s f ! /range
 & my/]i\s c\ntries ar\nd ! great riv]s 
,ganga & ,yamuna1 ! unkn[n l& ( deep    
=e/s & sw>m+ d>k-sk9n$ m54  ,9 ! matt] (
 religion ^! ,aryans c>e a good deal    
ab\t *>ms & spells1 black & :ite magic1 
= prev5t+ or cur+ all k9ds ( diseases or
 mi%aps1 = w9n+ success 9 love & w> &   
trade & husb&ry1 = br++ h>m ^u enemies  
or rivals--*>ms :i* a few c5turies lat] 
w be dress$ up 9 ,rigv$ic /yle1 /uff$   
out ) imitations ( ,rigv$ic hymns1 &    
publi%$ "u ! "n ( ,a?>va v$a1 ! lore ( !
 ,a?>vans1 by wiz>ds :o claim to belong 
to ! old prie/ly clans ( ,a?>van &      
,angiras4 ,b we h n yet come s f>1 & z  
yet all t ^! p c tell u is a great deal 
ab\t _! black & :ite magic1 9 :i* !y are

 hugely int]e/$1 & a fair am\nt ab\t    
c]ta9 valiant m5 ( old5 times :o are n[ 
wor%ipp$ by !m z helpful spirits1 & a   
little ab\t "s vague spirits :o are 9 ! 
sun & ! air & ! fire & o!r places1 & are
 v high & great1 b are n int]e/+ at all4
  ,?is popul> religion seems to be a    
hopeless "o1 )\t ideals & symbols ( love
 & hope4 ,is !re no?+ bett] to be f\nd 9
 ?is place8 ,yes1 !re is a prie/ly      
religion also2 & if we w\ld "k some?+   
ab\t x we mu/ li/5 to ! *ant+ ( !       
prie/s1 ! brahmans or m5 ( ! holy _s1 z 
!y are call$1 :o are hold+ a sacrifice  
n[ on behalf ( ! ri* "l :o lives 9 !    
l>ge/ h\se 9 ! village--a s]vice = :i*  
!y expect to be paid ) a h&some fee (   
ox5 & gold4 ,!y are prie/s by h]$ity1   
wise 9 ! k ( ! ways ( ! gods2 "s ( !m   
und]/& h[ to compose riks1 or hymns1 9 !
 f9e spee* de> to _! ord]1 hymns :i* are
 almo/ sure to w9 ! gods' fav\r1 & all (
 !m "k h[ ! sacrifices %all be p]=m$ )  
p]fect exactness s t no slip or         
imp]fection may m> _! efficacy4 ,_!     

psalms are call$ ,rig-v$a1 lore ( !     
v]ses1 & !y set !mselves to f9d grace 9 
! e>s ( ! _m gods :om ^! prie/s wor%ip1 
sometimes by op5 praise & sometimes by  
riddl+ description ( ! exploits & nature
 ( ! gods4 ,(t5 !y are v f9e2 b always  
!y are ! "w ( prie/s1 arti/s 9 ritual4  
,& if y look he$fully into x y w also   
m>k t ^! prie/s are incl9$ to ?9k t !   
act ( sacrifice1 ! (f]+ (1 say1 c]ta9   
oblations 9 a p>ticul> mann] ) p>ticul> 
words accompany+ !m1 is 9 itself pot5t1 
q ap>t f ! psalms :i* !y s+ ov] x1 t x  
has a magic p[] ( its own ov] ! ma*9]y (
 nature4#a ,really ?is is no new idea ( 
our ,v$ic prie/s2 t5 ?\s& ye>s be=e !m  
_! remote =efa!rs believ$ x & act$ ^u x1
 & if = example !y want$ ra9 !y w\ld    
spr9kle drops ( wat] & utt] magic words4
 ,our ,v$ic prie/s h n[ a diff]5t k9d ( 
symbols1 b all ! same !y /ill h ! notion
 t c]emony1 rita z !y call x1 has a     
magic pot5cy ( its own4 ,let u m>k ?is  
well1 = we %all see mu* issu+ f x4      
,footnote #a3 ,cf4 e4g4 ,,rv4 ,,iii4    

xxxii4 #ab4  ,:o are ! gods to :om ^!   
prie/s (f] _! pray]s & psalms8 ,!y are  
_m1 & ( v>i\s k9ds4 ,mo/ ( !m are tak5 f
 ! religion ( ! p1 & dress$ 9 new g>b   
accord+ to ! imag9ation ( ! prie/2 & a  
few are prie/ly inv5tions altoge!r4 ,!re
 is ,dyau%-pita1 ! ,sky-fa!r1 ) ,pri?ivi
 ,mata1 ! ,e>?-"m2 !re are ,vayu !      
,w9d-_s1 ,p>janya ! ,ra9-god1 ,surya !  
,sun-god1 & o!r spirits ( ! sky su* z   
,savita2 !re is ! ,dawn-goddess1 ,u%as4 
,all ^! are or 7 orig9ally deifi$ p[]s (
 nature3 ! p1 ?\gh _! imag9ation creat$ 
!m1 h nev] felt any deep int]e/ 9 !m1 & 
! prie/s :o h tak5 !m into _! *>ge1 ?\gh
 !y treat !m v c\rte\sly & s+ to !m     
elegant hymns full ( figures ( spee*1 h 
n be5 able to cov] !m ) ! fle% & blood (
 liv+ p]sonality4 ,!n we h ,agni !      
,fire-god1 & ,soma ! _s ( ! intoxicat+  
juice ( ! soma-plant1 :i* is us$ to     
inspire ! pi\s to drunk5 raptures 9     
c]ta9 c]emonies2 bo? ( ^! h acquir$ a   
peculi> importance ?r\gh _! association 
) prie/ly wor%ip1 especially ,agni1     

because he1 z be>+ to ! gods !          
sacrifices ca/ into 8 flames1 has become
 ! ideal ,prie/ & div9e ,p>aclete (     
,heav54 ,nev]!less all ?is hi]atic      
importance has n made !m gods 9 ! deep] 
s5se1 reign+ 9 ! he>ts ( m54 ,!n we f9d 
p[]s ( d\btful orig91 ,mitra & ,v>una & 
,vi%nu & ,rudra1 & figures ( h]oic      
leg5d1 l ! w>rior ,indra & ! tw9        
*>iote]s call$ ,asv9aa & ,nasatya4 ,all 
^!1 ) _m o!rs1 h _! wor%ip 9 ! ,rig-v$a3
 ! prie/s s+ _! praises lu/ily1 & (t5   
speak n[ ( "o deity1 n[ ( ano!r1 z be+ !
 highe/ div9ity1 )\t ! lea/ consi/5cy4  
,"s savage races believe 9 a highe/ god 
or fir/ div9e ,be+ 9 :om !y feel little 
p]sonal int]e/4 ,!y seldom speak ( him1 
& h>dly ev] wor%ip him4 ,s x seems to be
 ) ,dyau%-pita4 ,! prie/s speak ( him & 
to him1 b only 9 connexion ) o!r gods2  
he has n a s+le :ole hymn 9 8 hon\r1 & !
 only def9ite attribute t atta*es to him
 is t ( fa!rhood4 ,yet he has become a  
great god among o!r races ak9 9 spee* to
 ! ,aryans ( ,india3 ,dyau%-pita is     

phonetically ! same z ! ,greek ,greek3  
,zeus pat] & ! ,lat9 ,iuppit]4 ,h[ comes
 x !n t he is n1 & app>5tly nev] 01 a   
god 9 ! true s5se among ! ,indian       
,aryans8 ,because1 ,i ?9k1 8 "n has     
always betray$ him4 ,to call a deity    
,sky-fa!r is to label him z a m]e       
ab/raction4 ,no my/]y1 no possibility ( 
human p]sonality1 c ga!r r\nd ^? two    
pla9 prose words4 ,s long z a deity is  
kn[n by ! "n ( ! physical ag5cy t he    
repres5ts1 s long w he be unable to gr[ 
into a p]sonal ,god 9 ,india4 ,! prie/s 
may s+ vocif]\s psalms to ,vayu !       
,w9d-_s & ,surya ! ,sun-_s1 & ev5 to _! 
belov$ ,agni ! ,fire-god2 b s+ z mu* z  
!y w1 !y nev] c make ! p 9 g5]al take !m
 to _! he>ts4  ,obs]ve :at a diff]5t    
hi/ory is t ( ,zeus among !             
,greeks--,zeus1 ,fa!r ( ,gods & ,m51 !  
ideal ( k+ly maje/y & wisdom & goodness4
 ,! reason is pat5t4 ,ages & ages be=e !
 days :5 ! ,hom]ic poets sang1 ! ,greeks
 _h =gott5 t ,zeus orig9ally meant sky3 
x _h become to !m a p]sonal "n ( a great

 spiritual p[]1 :i* !y 7 free to inve/ )
 ! noble/ ideal ( p]sonality4 ,b v      
likely !re is also ano!r reason3 ,i     
believe t ! ,olympian ,zeus1 z modell$  
by ,hom] & accept$ by foll[+ g5]ations1 
0 n ! orig9al ,greek3 ,zeus pat] at all1
 b a usurp] :o _h robb$ ! old ,sky-fa!r 
( 8 ?rone & ( 8 title z well1 t he 0 at 
! outset a h]o-k+ :o "s "t aft] 8 dea? 0
 rais$ to ! seat & dignity ( ! old      
,sky-fa!r & receiv$ likewise 8 "n4 ,?is 
!ory expla9s ! old h]o-sagas :i* are    
connect$ ) ,zeus & ! /range fact t !    
,cretans po9t$ to a spot 9 _! isl& :]e  
!y believ$ ,zeus 0 buri$4 ,x expla9s :y 
leg5ds p]si/5tly av]r$ t ,zeus expell$ 8
 fa!r ,kronos f ! ?rone & suppress$ !   
,titan dyna/y3 on my view1 ,kronos 0 !  
orig9al ,fa!r ,zeus1 & 8 "n ( ,zeus &   
rank z *ief god 7 appropriat$ by a      
deifi$ h]o4 ,h[ natural su* a process 0 
9 ^? days may be se5 f ! liturgy ( ,unas
 on ! pyramids at ,sakk>ah 9 ,egypt4#b  
,"h ,unas is describ$ z ris+ 9 heav5    
aft] 8 dea? z a supreme god1 dev\r+ 8   

fa!rs & mo!rs1 slaught]+ ! gods1 eat+ _!
 magical p[]s1 & swall[+ _! _s-s\ls1 s t
 he ?us becomes ! fir/-born ( !         
fir/-born gods1 omnisci5t1 omnipot5t1 & 
et]nal1 id5tifi$ ) ! ,osiris1 ! highe/  
god4 ,n[ ?is ,unas 0 a real hi/orical   
man2 he 0 ! la/ k+ ( ! ,fif? ,dyna/y1 & 
0 deifi$ aft] dea?1 j l any o!r k+ (    
,egypt4 ,! e>ly ,egyptians1 l _m savage 
tribes1 reg>d$ all _! k+s z gods on e>? 
& paid !m =mal wor%ip aft] _! dea?2 !   
lat] ,egyptians1 go+ a /ep fur!r1       
wor%ipp$ !m ev5 9 _! lifetime z         
embodim5ts ( ! gods4#c ,:at is said 9 ! 
liturgy = ! deification ( ,unas is mu* !
 same z 0 said ( o!r k+s4 ,! dead k+ 9  
e>ly ,egypt becomes a god1 ev5 ! greate/
 ( ! gods1 & he assumes ! "n ( t god#d2 
he ov]comes ! o!r gods by brute =ce1 he 
kills & dev\rs !m4 ,?is is v l :at ,i   
?9k 0 ! case ) ,zeus2 ! ma9 diff]5ce is 
t 9 ,egypt ! "* ( ! deifi$ k+ 0 m]g$ 9 t
 ( ! old god1 & m5 cont9u$ to reg>d !   
latt] 9 exactly ! same light z be=e2 b  
among ! =efa!rs ( ! ,greeks ! rev]se    

happ5$ 9 at lea/ "o case1 t ( ,zeus1 :]e
 ! "* ( a h]o :o _h peculi>ly fasc9at$  
popul> imag9ation p>tly eclips$ t ( !   
old god ^: "n & rank he usurp$4 ,!      
reason = ?is1 ,i suppose1 is t ev5 !    
e>ly ,egyptians _h already a cons]vative
 religion ) fix$ traditions & a         
prie/hood t =got no?+1#e :]eas among !  
=efa!rs ( ! ,greeks1 :o 7 w&]+ savages1 
social ord] & religion 7 9 a v fluid    
/ate4 ,h[ev] t may be1 a deifi$ h]o     
might ou/ an old] god & reign "u 8 "n2 &
 ?is !ory expla9s _m difficulties 9 !   
leg5ds ( ,zeus4  ,footnote #b3 ,sir ,e4 
,a4 ,w4 ,budge1 ,lit]ature ( ! ,anci5t  
,egyptians1 p4 #ba ff41 & ,gods ( !     
,egyptians1 i1 pp4 #cb f41 #dc4         
,footnote #c3 ,erman1 ,h&book (         
,egyptian ,religion1 p4 #cg f4          
,footnote #d3 ,budge1 ,lit4 ( !         
,egyptians1 p4 #ba2 ,erman1 ut supra1 p4
 #cg f4  ,footnote #e3 ,x is ev5        
possible t 9 "o case1 t ( ,osiris1 a h]o
 9 ,egypt may h eclips$ by 8 p]sonality 
! god :om he ou/$4 ,see ,sir ,j4 ,w4    

,fraz]'s ,adonis1 ,attis1 ,osiris1 ii1  
p4 #bjj1 & ,sir ,w4 ,ridgeway's ,dramas 
& ,dramatic ,dances1 etc41 p4 #id ff4   
,z to ! ,roman ,iuppit]1 ,i ne$ n say   
mu* ab\t him4 ,l all ! g5u9e gods (     
,latium1 he nev] 0 mu* m ?an an         
ab/raction until ! ,greeks came ) _!    
lit]ature & dress$ him 9 ! w>drobe ( _! 
,zeus4  ,com+ n[ to ,u%as1 ! ,lady ( !  
,dawn1 & look+ at h] "n f ! /&po9t (    
comp>ative philosophy1 we see t ! ^w    
u%as is closely connect$ ) ! ,greek     
,greek3 heos & ! ,lat9 aurora4 ,b :5 we 
read ! lit]ature1 we are a/oni%$ to f9d 
t :ile ! ,greek ,dawn-lady has rema9$   
almo/ always a m]e ab/raction1 ! ,indian
 _s is a lovely1 liv+ woman in/9ct ) !  
ri*e/ s5su\s *>ms ( ! ,ea/4 ,"s tw5ty   
hymns are address$ to h]1 & = ! mo/ "p  
!y are alive ) real poetry1 ) a s5se (  
beauty & gladness & sometimes )al an    
"u-note ( sadness = ! brief joys ( life4
 ,b :5 we look c>efully into x we notice
 a curi\s ?+3 all ?is hymn-s++ to ,u%as 
is purely lit]>y & arti/ic1 & !re is    

practically no religion at all at ! back
 ( x4 ,a few /ories are told ( h]1 b !y 
seem to conv9ce no "o1 & %e c]ta9ly has 
no ritual wor%ip ap>t f ^! hymns1 :i*   
are really poetical essays m ?an any?+  
else4 ,! prie/ly poets are ?rill$ )     
s9c]e emotion at ! sight ( ! dawn1 & are
 inspir$ by x to /ately & lively        
descriptions ( its beauties & to t\*+   
reflections ^u ! pass+ ( "t & mortal    
life2 b 9 ?is sc5e ,u%as h]self is h>dly
 m ?an a model f an arti/'s /udio1 9 a v
 ,bohemian qu>t]4 ,m ?an once on acc\nt 
( h] free display ( h] *>ms %e is comp>$
 to a danc+ girl1 or ev5 a common h>lot6
 ,"h ! imag9ation is at "w :i* 9 c\rse (
 "t w populate ! ,h9du ,p>adise ) a     
cele/ial corps de ballet1 ! fair & frail
 ,aps>asas4 ,our ,v$ic ,u%as is a =]unn]
 ( t gay company4 ,a *>m+ p]son1 inde$2 
b c]ta9ly no g5u9e goddess4  ,z 8 "n    
%[s1 ,surya is ! _s ( ! sun4 ,we he> a  
good deal ab\t him 9 ! ,rig-v$a1 b !    
:ole ( x is m]ely description ( ! p[] ( 
! sun 9 ! ord] ( nature1 p>tly          

allegorical1 & p>tly lit]al4 ,he is only
 a nature-p[]1 n a p]sonal god4 ,! case 
is n q s cle> ) ,savita1 ^: "n seems to 
mean lit]ally /imulator1 "o :o /irs up4 
,on ! :ole x seems mo/ likely t he      
repres5ts ! sun1 z ! vivify+ p[] 9      
nature1 ?\gh "s#f ?9k t he 0 orig9ally  
an ab/raction ( ! vivify+ =ces 9 ! _w & 
lat] became connect$ ) ! sun4 ,h[ev] ?is
 may be1 ,savita is & rema9s an         
imp]sonal _s ) no human elem5t 9 8 "*4  
,footnote #f3 ,see ,old5b]g1 ,religion  
des ,v$a1 p4 #fd f4  ,/ill m p]plex+ are
 ! two deities ,mitra & ,v>una1 :o are v
 (t5 associat$ ) "o ano!r1 & app>5tly   
are relat$4 ,mitra c]ta9ly is an old    
god3 if we g ov] ! m\nta9s to ! we/ &   
nor?-we/ ( ! c\ntry ( our ,indian       
,aryans1 we %all f9d _! k9sm5 9 ,p]sia &
 ,bactria wor%ipp+ him z a p[] t ma9ta9s
 ! laws ( righte\sness & gu>ds !        
sanctity ( oa?s & engagem5ts1 :o by     
means ( 8 wat*m5 keeps mank9d "u 8      
obs]vation & ) 8 t]rible weapons cru%es 
evil p[]s4 ,! ,indian ,aryans tell almo/

 exactly ! same tale ( _! ,mitra & 8    
companion ,v>una1 :o p]haps is simply a 
d\blet ( ,mitra ) a diff]5t "n1 :i*     
p]haps is due to a v>iety ( wor%ip4 ,b  
!y h m to say ( ,v>una ?an ( ,mitra4 ,9 
,v>una we h ! highe/ ideal (            
spirituality t ,h9du religion w rea* =  
_m c5turies4 ,n only is he describ$ z   
supreme controll] ( ! ord] ( nature--t  
is an attribute :i* ^! prie/ly poets    
ascribe ) g5]\s inconsi/5cy to _m o!rs (
 _! deities--b he is likewise !         
omnisci5t gu>dian ( ! moral law & ! rule
 ( religion1 /]nly puni%+ s9 & falsehood
 ) 8 dread$ noose1 b %[+ m]cy to !      
p5it5t & graci\sly commun+ ) ! sage :o  
has f\nd fav\r 9 8 eyes4  ,b ,mitra &   
,v>una w n enjoy ?is exalt$ rank = long4
 ,soon ! prie/s w decl>e t ,mitra rules 
ov] ! day & ,v>una ov] ! night 7,,ts4   
,,ii4 i4 #g1 #d2 ,,vi4 iv4 #h1 #c71 & !n
 ,v>una w beg9 to s9k 9 hon\r4 ,! noose 
( ,v>una w come to mean m]ely ! disease 
( dropsy4 ,8 connection ) ! d>kness ( ! 
night w cause m5 to ?9k ( him ) fe>2 & 9

 _! dread !y w =get 8 anci5t attributes 
( univ]sal righte\sness1 ju/ice1 & m]cy1
 & rememb] him *iefly z an av5g] (      
guilt4 ,!y w bani% him to ! di/ant seas1
 ^: riv]s he n[ guides ov] ! e>? 9 8    
graci\s gov]nm5t ( nature2 & !re he w   
dwell 9 exile = ev]1 rememb]$ only to be
 fe>$4 ,& ,mitra w become m]ely ano!r "n
 = ! sun4  ,:at is ! orig9 ( ?is s+ul>  
c\ple8 ,& :y are !y de/9$ to ?is fall8  
,nei!r ( ^! que/ions c be answ]$ by     
any?+ b conjectures4 ,!re is no evid5ce 
ei!r f ,indian or f ,iranian religion t 
,mitra or 8 d\ble ,v>una grew out ( !   
wor%ip ( ! sun or ! sky1 al?\gh 9 _!    
wor%ip !y 7 sometimes connect$ ) ! sun &
 ! sky4 ,h[ev] f> backw>ds we look1 we  
/ill f9d !m ess5tially spirits ( natural
 ord] & moral law1 gods 9 ! high] s5se (
 ! ^w4 ,b _! "*1 & especially ! "* (    
,v>una1 x seems to me1 is r too high to 
survive ! competition ( rival cults1 su*
 z t ( ! popul> h]o ,indra & ! prie/s'  
d>l+ ,agni1 :i* t5d to engross ! int]e/ 
( wor%ipp]s lay & cl]ic1 & to blunt _!  

reli% = m spiritual ideals4 ,s ,mitra & 
,v>una become /unt$ 9 _! gr[?2 & at la/ 
comes ! fatal "t :5 !y are id5tifi$ ) ! 
sky by day & night4 ,?is is ! f9al bl[4 
,no deity t is pla9ly limit$ to any "o  
phase or =m ( nature 9 ,india c be or   
become a great god2 & spe$ily all _!    
real div9ity fades away f ,mitra &      
,v>una1 & !y %rivel into insignificance4
  ,next we turn to a _s ( a v diff]5t   
sort1 ! ,fire-god1 ,agni4 ,! ^w agni is 
id5tical ) ! ,lat9 ignis2 x means fire1 
& no?+ else b fire1 & ?is fact is q     
suffici5t to prev5t ,agni f becom+ a    
great god4 ,! prie/s inde$ d _! be/1 by 
f]tile fancy & endless repetition ( 8   
praises1 to lift him to t rank2 b ev5 !y
 _c d x4 ,f ! days ( ! e>lie/ g5]ations 
( m5 ,fire 0 a _s2 & ! h\sehold fire1   
:i* cooks ! food ( ! family & receives  
its simple oblations ( cl>ifi$ butt]1 is
 a k9dly g5ius ( ! home4 ,b ) all 8     
usefulness & elfi% my/]y ,fire simply   
rema9s fire1 & !re's an end ( x1 = !    
ord9>y man4 ,b ! prie/s w n h x s4 ,!   

*ief conc]n ( _! lives is ) sacrifice1 &
 _! deepe/ int]e/ is 9 ! _s ( !         
sacrificial fire4 ,all ! ri*es ( _!     
imag9ation & _! vocabul>y are lavi%$ ^u 
him1 8 =ms & 8 activities4 ,!y h devot$ 
to him ab\t #bjj hymns & _m occasional  
v]ses1 9 :i* !y dwell ) con/ant delight 
& +5i\s metaphor ^u 8 spl5d\r1 8 p[]1 8 
bir? f wood1 f ! two fire/icks1 f trees 
( ! =e/1 f /ones1 or z lightn+ f !      
cl\ds1 8 k9%ip ) ! sun1 8 dwell+ 9 ?ree 
abodes 7viz4 z a rule on e>?1 9 ! cl\ds 
z lightn+1 & 9 ! upp] heav5s z ! sun71 8
 place 9 ! homes ( m5 z a holy gue/1 a  
fri5d & a k9sman1 8 protection (        
wor%ipp]s aga9/ evil spirits & malignant
 sorc]]s1 & especially 8 function (     
convey+ ! oblation p\r$ into 8 flames up
 to ! gods4 ,?us !y are l$ to repres5t  
him z ! div9e ,prie/1 ! ideal hi]ophant1
 9 :om are unit$ ! functions ( ! ?ree   
*ief classes ( ,rigv$ic sacrificial     
prie/s1 ! hota1 adhv>yu1 & brahman1 &   
h5ce z an all-kn[+ sage & se]4 ,if      
inf9ite zeal & +5uity 9 s++ ,agni's     

praises & glorify+ 8 activities c avail 
to raise him to ! rank ( a great god1 we
 may expect to f9d him v ne> ! top4 ,b x
 is n to be4 ,! prie/s _c conv9ce ! pla9
 man ( ,agni's sup]-godhead1 & soon !y w
 fail to conv9ce ev5 !mselves4 ,! "t w  
%ortly come :5 !y w reg>d all ^! gods z 
little m ?an puppets ^: /r+s are pull$  
by ! my/]i\s _s ( ! sacrifice4  ,!      
prie/s h ano!r pet deity1 ,soma4 ,= !   
sacr$ rites include ! press+ & dr9k+ ( !
 f]m5t$ yell[ juice ( ! soma-plant1 an  
acid draught ) intoxicat+ p[]s1 :i* :5  
mix$ ) milk & drunk 9 ! prie/ly rites   
inspires religi\s ec/asy4 ,?is dr9k+ ( !
 soma-juice is already an anci5t &      
important feature 9 ! wor%ip ( our      
,aryans1 z x is also among _! k9sm5 9   
,iran2 s x is no wond] t ! _s ( ! sacr$ 
plant has be5 made by ! prie/s into an  
important deity & celebrat$ ) endless   
abundance ( praise & pray]4 ,z ) ,agni1 
,soma's appe>ance & prop]ties are       
describ$ ) inexhau/ible weal? ( epi!ts &
 metaphors4 ,! poets love to dwell on ! 

my/ic p[]s ( ?is wond]ful potion1 :i* c 
heal sickness ( s\l & body & inspire    
gods & m5 to mighty de$s & holy ec/asy4 
,mo/ (t5 !y tell h[ ! god ,indra drank  
huge potions ( x to /r5g!n himself = 8  
great fight ) ! dragon ,vritra4 ,mo/ (  
?is wor%ip is ( prie/ly inv5tion2       
volum9\s z its rhetoric is1 x makes no  
great impression on ! laity1 nor p]haps 
on ! cl]gy ei!r4 ,"s ( ! m +5i\s ( !    
prie/s are already beg9n+ to trace an   
aff9ity betwe5 ,soma & ! moon4 ,! yell[ 
soma-/alks swell 9 ! wat] ( !           
press+-vat1 z ! yell[ moon waxes 9 !    
sky2 ! soma has a magical p[] (         
/imulation1 & ! moon s5ds =? a my/ic    
liquid influ5ce ov] ! vegetation ( !    
e>?1 & especially ov] magic plants2 !   
soma is an ambrosia drunk by gods &     
h]oes to inspire !m to mighty de$s1 & ! 
moon is a b[l ( ambrosia :i* is         
p]iodically drunk by ! gods & !re=e     
wanes mon? by mon?4 ,! next /ep w soon  
be tak51 & ! prie/s w say t ,soma is !  
moon2 & lit]ature w !n ob$i5tly accept  

?is /atem5t1 &1 gradually =gett+ ne>ly  
ev]y?+ t ,soma meant to ! ,rigv$ic      
prie/s1 w use ! "n ,soma m]ely z a      
second>y "n = ,*&ra1 ! moon & its god4  
,a v illum9at+ process1 :i* %[s h[ a god
 may utt]ly *ange 8 nature4 ,n[ we turn 
to ! h]o-gods4  ,indra & ! ,asv9a at !  
beg9n+ came to be wor%ipp$ because !y 7 
h]oes1 m5 :o 7 suppos$ to h wr\ght      
m>vell\sly noble & valiant de$s 9 dim   
f>-(f days1 savi\rs ( ! afflict$1       
*ampions ( ! "r1 & :o = ?is reason 7    
wor%ipp$ aft] dea?1 p]haps ev5 be=e     
dea?1 z div9e be+s1 & gradually became  
associat$ 9 _! leg5ds & ! =ms ( _!      
wor%ip ) all k9ds ( o!r gods4 ,times    
*ange1 gods gr[ old & fade away1 b !    
remembrance ( great de$s lives on 9     
/range wild leg5ds1 :i*1 h[ev] mu* !y   
may borr[ f o!r wor%ips & h[ev] mu* !y  
may be obscur$ by ! phantom lights (    
false fancy1 /ill ?r[ a glimm] ( true   
light back ?r\gh ! d>kness ( ! ages into
 an immeasurably di/ant pa/4  ,indra is 
a mighty giant1 tawny ( hair & be>d &   

tawny ( aspect4 ,! poets tell u t he    
be>s up or /ret*es out e>? & sky1 ev5 t 
he has creat$ heav5 & e>?4 ,he is a     
mon>* supreme among ! gods1 ! "l ( all  
be+s1 immeasurable & irresi/ible ( p[]4 
,he rides 9 a gold5 *>iot drawn by two  
tawny horses1 or _m horses1 ev5 z _m z  
elev5 hundr$1 & he be>s z 8 *ief weapon 
! vajra1 or ?und]bolt1 sometimes also a 
b[ ) arr[s1 a hook1 or a net4 ,( all    
dr9k]s ( soma he is ! lu/ie/2 he swills 
_m lakes ( x1 & he eats mightily ( !    
fle% ( bulls & buffaloes4 ,to 8         
wor%ipp]s he gives abundance ( weal? &  
happ9ess1 & he leads !m to victory ov]  
ho/ile tribes ( ,aryans & ! /ill m      
dread$ hordes ( d>k-sk9s1 ! ,dasas &    
,dasyus4 ,he guid$ ! pr9ces ,yadu &     
,turvasa across ! riv]s1 he aid$        
,divodasa ,ati?igva to discomfit !      
d>k-sk9n$ ,samb>a1 he gave to           
,divodasa's son ,sudas ! victory ov] !  
armies ( ! t5 alli$ k+s beside ! riv]   
,p>u%ni4 ,_m are ! names ( ! devils &   
demons t h fall5 be=e him2 b mo/ glori\s

 ( all 8 de$s is ! conque/ ( ,vritra1 ! 
dragon dwell+ 9 a m\nta9 fa/ness amid/ !
 wat]s1 :]e ,indra1 accompani$ by !     
troop ( ,m>uts1 or /orm-gods1 slew !    
mon/] ) 8 bolt & set free ! wat]s1 or   
recov]$ ! hidd5 k9e4 ,our poets s+      
endless v>iations on ?is !me1 &         
sometimes speak ( ,indra repeat+ !      
exploit = ! b5efit ( 8 wor%ipp]s1 :i* is
 z mu* z to say t !y1 or at lea/ "s (   
!m1 ?9k x an allegory4  ,9 all ?is maze 
( savage fancy & prie/ly inv5tion & wild
 exagg]ation !re are "s po9ts t /& out  
cle>ly4 ,indra is a god ( ! p1          
p>ticul>ly ( ! fight+ man1 a glorifi$   
type ( ! fair-hair$1 h>d-fight+1        
h>d-dr9k+ =efa!rs ( ! ,indian ,aryans & 
_! di/ant c\s9s ! ,hell5es2 & !re=e he  
is ! *ampion ( _! armies 9 battles4 ,he 
is n a fiction ( hi]atic imag9ation1 :om
 prie/s regale ) hyp]bolic flatt]y      
qualifi$ only by ! lukew>mness ( _!     
belief 9 _! own words4 ,he is a liv+    
p]sonality 9 ! fai? ( ! p2 ! prie/s only
 inv5t words to express ! p's fai?1 &   

p]haps add to ! old leg5ds "s riddl+    
fancies ( _! own4 ,_m times !y tell u t 
aft] conqu]+ ,vritra & sett+ free !     
wat]s or ! k9e ,indra creat$ ! light1 ! 
dawn1 or ! sun2 or !y say t he produc$  
!m )\t m5tion+ any fight ) ,vritra2     
sometimes !y speak ( him z sett+ free ! 
k9e ( ! ,morn+1 :i* means t !y und]/ood 
! c[s to signify ! light ( morn+1 & x   
w\ld seem also t !y ?\ght t ! wat]s     
m5tion$ 9 ! /ory signifi$ ! ra94 ,b :y d
 !y speak ( ^! acts z h]oic de$s1       
exploits ( a mighty w>rior1 9 ! same    
tone & ) ! same epic fire z :5 !y s+ (  
,indra's battles 9 times ne> to _! own1 
real battles 9 :i* _! own =efa!rs1 /rong
 9 _! fai? 9 ! god1 %att]$ ! armies (   
ho/ile ,aryan tribes or ! =tresses (    
d>k-sk9n$ natives8 ,! p]sonality (      
,indra & ! _s 9 :i* 8 de$s are rec\nt$  
rem9d u ( h]o-sagas2 ! allegories :i* ! 
poets read into !m are on ! o!r h& q 9 !
 /yle ( ! prie/4 ,h[ c we expla9 !      
pres5ce ( ^! two voices8 ,besides1 :y   
%\ld ! sett+ free ( ! ra9 or ! daylight 

be a peculi>ly h]oic attribute ( ,indra8
 ,o!r gods are said to d ! same ?+s z "p
 ( _! regul> duties3 ,p>janya1 ,mitra & 
,v>una1 ,dyaus1 disp5se ! ra91 o!rs !   
light4  ,! explanation is simple4       
,indra1 x seems to me1 is a god ( j !   
same sort z ,zeus1 ^: nature & hi/ory ,i
 h already expla9$ accord+ to my lights4
 ,9 ! f>-away pa/ ,indra 0 simply a h]o3
 v likely he 0 once a *iefta9 on e>?4 ,!
 /ory ( 8 great de$s s fasc9at$ !       
imag9ation ( m5 t !y wor%ipp$ 8 memory &
 at la/ rais$ him to ! rank ( a *ief    
god4 ,n[ !y _h previ\sly wor%ipp$ two v 
high gods2 "o ( ^! 0 ,dyau%-pita1 !     
,sky-fa!r1 ( :om ,i h spok5 be=e1 &     
ano!r 0 ,tva%ta1 ! ,all-creator4 ,s "s (
 !m1 z ! ,rig-v$a proves1 decl>$ t      
,dyaus 0 ! fa!r ( ,indra1 & o!rs appe>  
to h giv5 ?is hon\r to ,tva%ta1 :ile    
o!rs reg>d$ ,tva%ta z ,indra's gr&fa!r2 
& "s ev5 said t 9 ord] to obta9 ! soma  
to inspire him to div9e de$s ,indra     
kill$ 8 fa!r1 :i* ( c\rse is j an       
imag9ative way ( say+ t ,indra 0 made   

into a god & wor%ipp$ 9 place ( ! eld]  
god4  ,! puzzle n[ is solv$4 ,indra has 
rema9$ d[n to ! "t ( ! ,rig-v$a true to 
8 e>ly nature1 an epic h]o & typical    
w>rior2 b he has also borr[$ f ! old    
,sky-fa!r ! *ief attributes ( a sky-_s1 
especially ! giv+ ( ra9 & ! mak+ (      
light1 :i* ! prie/s ( ! ,rig-v$a        
riddl+ly describe z sett+ free ! wat]s &
 ! c[s4 ,he be>s ! ?und]bolt1 z does    
also ,zeus2 l ,zeus1 he has got x f !   
,sky-fa!r1 :o _h likewise a ?und]bolt1  
accord+ to "s ,rigv$ic poets1 ?\gh o!rs 
say x 0 =g$ = him by ,tva%ta1 8 o!r     
fa!r4 ,i ev5 v5ture to ?9k t !re is a   
k]nel ( h]oic leg5d 9 ! /ory ( ! slay+ (
 ,vritra2 t at bottom x is a tale relat+
 h[ ,indra ) a b& ( brave fell[s /orm$ a
 m\nta9 hold surr\nd$ by wat] 9 :i*     
dwelt a wick$ *iefta9 :o _h c>ri$ away !
 cattle ( 8 p1 & t :5 ,indra _h ris5 to 
! rank ( a great god ( ! sky m5 add$ to 
?is pla9 tale mu* my?ical decoration    
appropriate to 8 new quality1 turn+ !   
comrades ( ,indra into ! /orm-gods &    

int]pret+ ! wat]s & c[s to mean ra9 &   
daylight4 ,s9ce mo/ ( u are agre$ t     
/ories su* z t ( ,indra defeat+ ,samb>a 
= ! b5efit ( ,divodasa ref] to real     
ev5ts1 x seems unnatural to suppose t ! 
,vritra-leg5d is a purely imag9>y my?4  
,we c ?us expla9 :y ! ideas ( ,indra    
sett+ free ! ra9 & ! light fit 9 s      
awkw>dly ) ! h]oic elem5t 9 ! leg5d3 =  
!y are m]ely second>y attributes1 borr[$
 f ! my?s ( o!r gods & me*anically      
atta*$ to ,indra on 8 elevation 9 !     
pan!on4 ,b we c expla9 mu* m4 ,!re is a 
regul> cycle ( h]o-saga connect$ )      
,indra :i* is visible or half-visible at
 ! back ( "s ( ! ,v$ic hymns & ( !      
prie/ly lit]ature :i* is de/9$ to foll[ 
!m4  ,! tru? is t ! prie/s ( ! ,rig-v$a 
on ! :ole h n q made up _! m9ds ab\t    
,indra's m]its1 & we %all f9d !m a few  
g5]ations h5ce equally unc]ta94 ,!y     
praise 8 h]oic de$s lu/ily & admire 8   
p[] imm5sely2 b !y are ke5ly aw>e t he  
is a god ) a pa/1 & sometimes !y dwell  
on t4 ,_! fav\rite me?od is to relate "s

 ( 8 =m] que/ionable de$s 9 ! =m ( a    
reproa*1 & !n to turn ! /ory to 8 cr$it 
9 "s way or ano!r2 b z "t goes on & !   
prie/s ?9k less & less ( mo/ ( _! gods1 
,indra's "* w /eadily s9k1 & 9 ! end we 
%all f9d him play+ a subord9ate "p1 a   
debau*$ k+ 9 a s5su\s p>adise1 popul>ly 
wor%ipp$ z a giv] ( ra94 ,b ?is is to   
anticipate4 ,z yet ,indra is to !       
,rigv$ic prie/s a v great god2 b h[ did 
he become s8 ,if we read c>efully ! hymn
 ,,rv4 ,,iv4 xviii4#g we see at ! back (
 x a /ory some:at l ?is4 ,be=e he 0     
born1 ,tva%ta1 ,indra's gr&fa!r1 knew t 
,indra w\ld dispossess him ( 8          
sov]eignty ov] ! gods1 & !re=e did 8 be/
 to prev5t 8 bir? 7cf4 ,,rv4 ,,iii4     
xlviii472 b ! baby ,indra w\ld n be     
d5i$1 & he =c$ 8 way into ! light ( day 
?r\gh ! side ( 8 "m ,aditi1 :o seems to 
be ! same z ,"m ,e>? 7cf4 ,v$4 ,/ud41   
ii1 p4 #hf71 kill$ 8 fa!r1 & drank      
,tva%ta's soma1 by :i* he obta9$ div9e  
p[]s4 ,9 v4 #ab ( ?is hymn ,indra       
excuses himself by say+ t he 0 9 great  

/raits1 & t !n ! soma 0 br\ght to him by
 an eagle4 ,:at ^! /raits 7 is indicat$ 
9 ano!r hymn 7,,iv4 xxvii471 :i* tells u
 t he 0 imprison$1 & escap$ on ! back ( 
! eagle1 :i* he compell$ to c>ry him2 ! 
wat*man ,krisanu %ot an arr[ at ! bird1 
b x pass$ h>mlessly ?r\gh its fea!rs4   
,evid5tly 9 ! /ory ,indra _h a h>d      
/ruggle ) rival gods4 ,"o poet says     
7,,rv4 ,,iv4 xxx4 #c73 ,n ev5 all !     
gods1 ,o ,indra1 defeat$ !e1 :5 ?\ did/ 
l5g!n days into nights1 :i* app>5tly    
ref]s also to "s miracle l t ascrib$ to 
,jo%ua4 ,ano!r tradition 7,,ms4 ,i4 vi4 
#ab7 relates t :ile ,indra & 8 bro!r    
,vivasvan 7 /ill unborn !y decl>$ _!    
resolve to ou/ ! ,adityas1 ! eld] sons (
 _! "m ,aditi2 s ! ,adityas tri$ to kill
 !m :5 born1 & actually slew ,vivasvan1 
b ,indra escap$4 ,ano!r v]sion 7,,ts4   
,,ii4 iv4 #ac7 says t ! gods1 be+ afraid
 ( ,indra1 b\nd him ) fett]s be=e he 0  
born2 & at ! same "t ,indra is id5tifi$ 
) ! ,rajanya1 or w>rior class1 z its    
type & repres5tative4#h ,?is la/ po9t is

 imm5sely important1 = x really cl9*es !
 matt]4 ,n once1 b repeat$ly1 ! prie/ly 
lit]ature ( ! g5]ations t w foll[       
imm$iately aft] t ( ! ,rig-v$a w be f\nd
 to treat ,indra z ! type ( ! w>rior    
ord]4#i ,!y w describe an imag9>y       
coronation-c]emony ( ,indra1 end+ ) ^!  
words3 ,ano9t$ ) ?is great ano9tm5t     
,indra won all victories1 f\nd all !    
worlds1 atta9$ ! sup]iority1 pre-em95ce1
 & supremacy ov] all ! gods1 & hav+ won 
! ov]lord%ip1 ! p>am\nt rule1 ! self    
rule1 ! sov]eignty1 ! supreme au?ority1 
! k+%ip1 ! great k+%ip1 ! suz]a9ty 9 ?is
 _w1 self-exi/+1 self-rul+1 immortal1 9 
yond] _w ( heav51 hav+ atta9$ all       
desires he became immortal4#aj ,?us we  
see t amid/ ! maze ( obscure leg5ds ab\t
 ,indra !re are ?ree po9ts :i* /& out ) 
p]fect cle>ness4 ,!y are1 fir/ly1 t     
,indra 0 a usurp]2 secondly1 t ! old]   
gods f\ght h>d b va9ly to keep him f    
supreme div9ity1 & t 9 8 /ruggle he     
kill$ 8 fa!r2 & ?irdly1 t he 0 id5tifi$ 
) ! w>rior class1 z oppos$ to ! prie/ly 

ord]1 or ,brahmans4 ,?is antagonism to !
 ,brahmans is br\ght out v cle>ly 9 "s  
v]sions ( ! tales ( 8 exploits4 ,m ?an  
once ! poets ( ! ,rig-v$a h9t t 8 slay+ 
( ,vritra involv$ "s guilt1 ! guilt (   
brahma-hatya1 or slaught] ( a be+ 9 :om 
! brahma1 or holy _s1 0 embodi$#aa2 &   
?is is expla9$ cle>ly 9 a prie/ly tale  
7,,ts4 ,,ii4 v4 #b1 #a ff42 cf4 ,,sb4   
,i4 i4 #c1 #d1 vi4 #c1 #h71 accord+ to  
:i* ,indra f jeal\sy kill$ ,tva%ta's son
 ,visv>upa1 :o 0 *apla9 ( ! gods1 & ?us 
he incurr$ ! guilt ( brahma-hatya4 ,!n  
,tva%ta held a soma-sacrifice2 ,indra1  
be+ exclud$ f x1 broke up ! c]emony &   
himself drank ! soma4 ,! soma t 0 left  
ov] ,tva%ta ca/ into "o ( ! sacr$ fires 
& produc$ !reby f x ! giant ,vritra1 by 
:om ! :ole univ]se1 includ+ ,agni &     
,soma1 0 envelop$ 7cf4 ! lat] v]sion 9  
,mahabh>ata1 ,v4 viii4 f474 ,by slay+   
him ,indra aga9 became guilty (         
brahma-hatya2 & "s ,rigv$ic poets h9t t 
x 0 ! consci\sness ( ?is s9 :i* made him
 flee away aft] ! de$ 0 done4  ,footnote

 #g3 ,i foll[ 9 ! int]pretation ( ?is   
hymn ,e4 ,sieg1 ,die ,sag5/(fe des      
,rgv$a1 i4 p4 #gf ff4 ,cf4 on ! subject 
,v$4 ,/ud41 i4 p4 #baa1 ii4 pp4 #db-ed4 
,*>p5ti]1 ,die ,sup>nasage1 takes a     
some:at diff]5t view ( ,,rv4 ,,iv4      
xxvi4-xxvii41 :i*1 h[ev]1 does n conv9ce
 me2 ,i r suspect t ,,rv4 ,,iv4 xxvi4 #a
 & #d1 ) _! m5tion ( ,manu1 to :om !    
soma 0 br\ght1 are e*oes ( an anci5t &  
true tradition t ,indra 0 once a mortal4
  ,footnote #h3 ,! o!r leg5d 9 ,,ms4    
,,ii4 i4 #ab1 t ,aditi b\nd ! unborn    
,indra ) an iron fett]1 ) :i* he 0 born1
 & ( :i* he 0 able to rid himself by    
means ( a sacrifice1 is probably lat]4  
,footnote #i3 ,e4g4 ,,ab4 ,,vii4 xxxi41 
,,viii4 xii4 ,cf4 ,,ba4 ,up4 ,i4 iv4    
#aa-ac4  ,footnote #aj3 ,,ab4 ,,viii4   
xiv4 7,kei?'s translation74  ,footnote  
#aa3 ,cf4 ,sayana on ,,rv4 ,i4 xciii4   
#e4  ,^! bits ( saga prove1 z           
effectually z is possible 9 a case l    
?is1 t ,indra 0 orig9ally a w>rior-k+ or
 *iefta9 :o 0 deifi$1 p]haps by !       

prie/ly tribe ( ! ,angirasas1 :o claim 9
 "s ( ! hymns to h aid$ him 9 8 fight ) 
,vritra1 & t he ?us rose to ! fir/ rank 
9 ! pan!on1 ga!r+ r\nd himself a great  
cycle ( h]oic leg5d bas$ ^u ^?          
traditions1 & only second>ily & by      
artificial inv5tion becom+ associat$ ) !
 control ( ! ra9 & ! daylight4  ,! "n   
,asv9a means ,! ,two ,horsem52 :at _!   
o!r "n1 ,nasatya1 signifies nobody has  
satisfactorily expla9$4 ,b ev5 ) ! "n   
,asv9a !re is a difficulty4 ,!y are     
describ$ usually z rid+ toge!r 9 a *>iot
 :i* is sometimes said to be drawn by   
horses1 & ?is w\ld suit _! "n2 b m (t5 !
 poets say t _! *>iot is drawn by birds1
 su* z eagles or swans1 & sometimes ev5 
by a buffalo or buffaloes1 or by an ass4
 ,i d n see h[ we c escape f ?is        
difficulty except by suppos+ t popul>   
imag9ation 9 reg>d to ?is matt] v>i$ f v
 e>ly times1 b pref]r$ to ?9k ( !m z    
hav+ horses4 ,at any rate !y are v      
anci5t gods1 = ! p ( ,iran also h       
traditions ab\t !m1 & 9 ! f>-away l& ( !

 ,mitanni1 9 ! nor? ( ,mesopotamia1 !y  
are invok$ toge!r ) ,indra1 ,mitra1 &   
,v>una to sanction treaties4 ,9 ,india !
 ,aryans keep !m v busy1 = !y are m ?an 
any?+ else gods ( help4 ,?rice e day &  
?rice e night !y sally =? on _! patrols 
?r\gh e>? & heav51 9 ord] to aid !      
di/ress$#ab3 & ! poets tell u ! names ( 
_m p]sons :om !y h reliev$1 su* z old   
,*yavana1 :om !y re/or$ to y\? & love1  
,bhujyu1 :om !y rescu$ f dr[n+ 9 !      
ocean1 ,atri1 :om !y sav$ f a fi]y pit1 
,vispala1 to :om :5 h] leg _h be5 cut (f
 !y gave "o ( iron1 & ,gho%a1 to :om !y 
br\ght a husb&4 ,_m o!r helpful acts are
 ascrib$ to !m1 & x is v likely t at    
lea/ "s ( ^! /ories are m or less true4 
,ano!r leg5d relates t !y jo9tly w$d$   
,surya1 ! daught] ( ! ,sun-god1 :o *ose 
!m f among/ ! o!r gods4#ac  ,footnote   
#ab3 ,cf4 ,v$4 ,/udi51 ii4 p4 #ca1 ,,rv4
 ,i4 xxxiv4 #b4  ,footnote #ac3 ,cf4    
,v$4 ,/udi51 i4 p4 #ad ff4  ,amid/ !    
m$ley ( saga & facts & poetical         
imag9ation :i* surr\nds ! ,asv9a1 c we  

see ! outl9es ( _! orig9al "*8 ,x is h>d
 to say3 op9ions mu/ diff]4 ,! ,aryans (
 ,india are incl9$ to say t !y are      
simply div9e k+s active 9 good works2 b 
! prie/s are p]haps beg9n+ to fancy t !y
 may be embodim5ts ( p[]s ( nature--!y  
are n sure :i*--& 9 c\rse ( "t !y w h   
v>i\s !ories1 p>tly connect$ ) _!       
rituals4 ,b really all t is c]ta9 9 !   
,v$ic age ab\t ! ,asv9s is t !y are an  
anci5t pair ( savi\r-gods :o ride ab\t 9
 a *>iot & r5d] con/ant s]vices to      
mank9d4 ,we are tempt$ h[ev] to see a   
lik5ess betwe5 !m & ! ,greek3 ,dios koro
 ( ! di/ant ,hell5es1 ! h]oes ,ka/or &  
,polydeukes1 ,ca/or & ,pollux1 ! tw9    
,horsem5 :o are savi\rs ( afflict$      
mank9d by l& & sea4 ,!re are            
difficulties 9 ! way ( ?is !ory2 b !y   
are n unsurm\ntable1 & ,i believe t !   
,asv9a ( ,india h ! same orig9 z ! ,tw9 
,horsem5 ( ,greece4 ,at any rate bo? !  
pairs are h]o-gods1 ^: div9ity has be5  
creat$ by mank9d's ne$ = help &         
admiration = val\r4 ,:e!r !re 0 any     

human hi/ory at ! back ( ?is process we 
_c say4  ,n[ we may leave ! h]oes &     
consid] a god ( a v diff]5t k9d1 ,vi%nu4
  ,! ,rig-v$a has n v mu* to say ab\t   
,vi%nu1 & :at x says is puzzl+4 ,! poets
 figure him z a b5efic5t "y giant1 (    
unkn[n p>5tage1 ) two *>act]i/ic        
attributes3 ! fir/ ( ^! is 8 ?ree my/ic 
/rides1 ! second 8 close association )  
,indra4 ,v (t5 !y ref] to ^! ?ree       
/rides1 sometimes us+ ! v]b vi-kram1 to 
/ep out1 sometimes ! adjectives         
uru-krama1 widely-/epp+1 & uru-gaya1    
wide-go+4 ,! ?ree /eps c>ry ,vi%nu      
across ! ?ree divisions ( ! univ]se1 9 !
 highe/ ( :i* is 8 home1 :i* app>5tly he
 %>es ) ,indra 7,,rv4 ,i4 xxxii4 #bj1   
cliv4 #e-f1 ,,iii4 lv4 #aj2 cf4 ,,ab4   
,i4 i41 etc474 ,"s ( !m are beg9n+ to   
imag9e t ^! /eps symbolise ! passage ( !
 sun ?r\gh ! ?ree divisions ( ! _w1 !   
e>?1 sky1 & upp] heav52 c]ta9ly ?is idea
 w be held by _m lat] s*ol>s1 ?\gh a few
 w ma9ta9 t x d5otes ! sun at its ris+1 
at midday1 & at its sett+4 ,be=e long we

 %all f9d "s prie/s h>p+ on ! same      
notion 9 ano!r =m1 say+ t ,vi%nu's head 
0 cut (f by accid5t & became ! sun2 &   
lat] on we %all see ,vi%nu be>+ z "o ( 8
 weapons a *akra1 or discus1 :i* looks l
 a figure ( ! sun4 ,b really all ?is is 
an aft]?\ght3 9 ! ,v$a1 & ! prie/ly     
lit]ature t foll[s directly ^u ! ,v$a1  
,vi%nu is n ! sun4 ,nor d we le>n :at he
 is v readily f 8 second lead+ attribute
 9 ! ,rig-v$a1 8 association ) ,indra4  
,yet x is a v cle>ly m>k$ trait 9 8 "*4 
,n only d ! poets (t5 c\ple ! two gods 9
 pray] & praise1 b !y (t5 tell u t ! "o 
p]=m$ 8 *>act]i/ic de$s by ! help ( !   
o!r4 ,!y say t ,vi%nu made 8 ?ree /rides
 by ! p[] ( ,indra 7,,viii4 xii4 #bg71  
or = ! sake ( ,indra 7,val4 iv4 #c71 &  
ev5 t ,indra /rode along ) ,vi%nu 7,,vi4
 lxix4 #e1 ,,vii4 xcix4 #f71 & on ! o!r 
h& !y tell u (t5 t x 0 by ! aid ( ,vi%nu
 t ,indra ov]came ,vritra & o!r         
malignant foes4 ,fri5d ,vi%nu1 /ride out
 lu/ily1 cries ,indra be=e he c /rike   
d[n ,vritra 7,,iv4 xviii4 #aa74ad ,!    

answ] to ?is riddle ,i f9d 9 !          
,brahmanas1 ! prie/ly lit]ature :i* is  
ab\t to foll[ imm$iately aft] ! ,v$a4 ,9
 pla9 unequivocal words ! ,brahmanas    
tell u aga9 & aga9 t ,vi%nu is !        
sacrifice4#ae ,evid5tly :5 !y repeat ?is
 !y are repeat+ an old hi]atic          
tradition2 & x is "o :i* p]fectly       
expla9s ! facts ( ! case4 ,vi%nu1 ,i    
conceive1 0 orig9ally no?+ m or less ?an
 ! embodi$ _s ( ! sacrificial rites4 ,8 
"n seems to be d]iv$ f ! root vi%1 mean+
 /imulation or inspiration2 & ?is is    
exactly :at ! sacrifice is suppos$ 9    
prie/ly !ory to d4 ,! sacrifice1        
accompani$ by pray] & praise1 is imag9$ 
to h a magic p[] ( its own1 by :i* !    
gods wor%ipp$ 9 x are /r5g!n$ to p]=m _!
 div9e functions4 ,"o poet says to      
,indra3 ,:5 ?y two w&]+ ,bays ?\ drave/ 
hi!r1 ?y prais] laid )9 ?9e arms ! ?und]
 7,,rv4 ,i4 lxiii4 #b72 & /ill m boldly 
ano!r says3 ,sacrifice1 ,indra1 made !e 
wax s mighty 444 wor%ip help$ ?y bolt :5
 slay+ ! dragon 7,,iii4 xxxii4 #ab74 ,s 

x w\ld be v natural = ! prie/s to       
conceive ?is _s ( ! sacrificial rites z 
a p]sonal deity2 & ?is deity1 !         
,brahmanas assure u1 is ,vi%nu4 ,!n !   
idea ( ! ?ree /rides & ! association )  
,indra w\ld easily gr[ up 9 ! prie/ly   
imag9ation4 ,! inspir+ p[] ( ! sacrifice
 is suppos$ to p]vade ! ?ree realms ( ! 
univ]se1 e>?1 sky1 & upp] heav5s2 ?is   
idea is express$ 9 ! common ritual =mula
 bhur bhuvas svah1 & is symbolis$ by    
?ree /eps tak5 by ! prie/ 9 c]ta9       
c]emonies1 :i* are translat$ into !     
language ( my? z ! ?ree /rides (        
,vi%nu4#af ,obs]ve t 9 ! ,rig-v$a ! upp]
 heav5 is n ! dwell+-place ( ,vi%nu     
only2 ,agni ! ,fire-god1 ,indra & ,soma 
h _! home 9 x also 7,,rv4 ,i4 cliv4 #f1 
,,iv4 xxvi4 #f1 xxvii4 #c-d1 ,v4 iii4   
#c1 ,,viii4 lxxxix4 #h1 ,,ix4 lxiii4    
#bg1 lxvi4 #cj1 lxviii4 #f1 lxxvii4 #b1 
lxxxvi4 #bd1 ,x4 i4 #c1 xi4 #d1 xcix4   
#h1 cxliv4 #d74 ,lat]1 h[ev]1 :5 _!     
adv5titi\s div9ity beg9s to fade away f 
,agni & ,soma1 & ,indra is allott$ a    

special p>adise ( 8 own1 ?is highe/ /ep 
w be reg>d$ z peculi> to ,vi%nu1 ,vi%noh
 p>amam padam4  ,footnote #ad3 ,a lat] &
 di/ort$ v]sion ( ?is my? appe>s 9 ,,ab4
 ,,vi4 xv4  ,footnote #ae3 ,e4g4 ,,ms4  
#a4 iv4 #ad1 ,,sb4 ,i4 i4 #a1 #b1 #ac1  
,,tb4 ,i4 ii4 #e1 #a1 ,,ab4 ,i4 xv41    
,,kb4 ,,iv4 ii41 ,,xviii4 viii41 xiv4   
,footnote #af3 ,,sb4 ,i4 ix4 #c1 #h-aa4 
,cf4 ! ?ree /eps ( ! ,ame%a-sp5tas f !  
e>? to ! sun1 imitat$ 9 ! ,ave/ic ritual
 7,ave/a1 transl4 ,d>me/et]1 ,i4 #dja74 
,z soon z ?is _s ( sacrifice 0 ?us      
p]sonifi$1 he at once atta*$ himself to 
,indra2 = ,indra is pre-em95tly ! god ( 
action1 & = 8 activities he ne$s to be  
/imulat$ by sacrifice & praise4 ,z !    
prie/s w tell u 9 pla9 unv>ni%$ words1  
he to :om ! ,sacrifice comes z portion  
slays ,indra 7,,ab4 ,i4 iv474 ,!re=e we 
are told t ,vi%nu aids ,indra 9 8 h]oic 
exploits1 t ,vi%nu takes 8 /rides &     
presses ,soma 9 ord] t ,indra may be    
/r5g!n$ = 8 tasks4 ,n[ we c see ! full  
mean+ ( ,indra's cry be=e /rik+ ,vritra1

 ,fri5d ,vi%nu1 /ride out lu/ily62 =    
until ! sacrifice has put =? its my/ic  
en]gy ! god _c /rike 8 bl[4 ,we are told
 also t ,vi%nu cooks buffaloes & boils  
milk = ,indra1#ag = buffaloes 7 no d\bt 
anci5tly (f]$ to ,indra4 ,! vivid       
reality ( ,indra's "* has clo!d ,vi%nu )
 "s ( its own fle% & blood2 orig9ally a 
prie/ly ab/raction1 he has become ?r\gh 
association ) ,indra a liv+ be+1 a real 
god4 ,! blood :i* has ?us be5 p\r$ into 
8 ve9s w enable him to live ?r\gh a     
critical p]iod ( 8 life1 until by       
comb9ation ) ano!r deity he w rise to   
new & supreme sov]eignty4 ,b ( t m anon4
 ,mean:ile let u note ! significance (  
?is union ( ,vi%nu & ,indra 9 ! ,v$a4   
,vi%nu1 ! _s ( ,sacrifice1 is 9 a s5se  
repres5tative ( ! ,brahman prie/hood1 & 
,indra1 z ,i h %[n1 is commonly reg>d$ z
 typical ( ! w>rior ord]4 ,9 ! ,rig-v$a 
,indra is p[]less )\t ,vi%nu's my/ic    
s]vice1 & ,vi%nu lab\rs to aid ,indra 9 
8 h]oic works = ! welf>e ( m5 & gods4   
,surely ?is is an allegory1 ?\gh !      

prie/s may s f> be only dimly consci\s (
 its full mean+--an allegory body+ =? ! 
prie/ly ideal ( ! reign ( righte\sness1 
9 :i* ! ,k+ is /rong by ! my/ic p[] ( ! 
,prie/1 & ! ,prie/ lives = ! s]vice ( ! 
,k+4  ,footnote #ag3 ,,rv4 ,,vi4 xvii4  
#aa1 ,,viii4 lxvi4 #aj2 ! my? 9 ,,rv4   
,i4 lxi4 #g1 ,,viii4 lxvi4 #aj1 & ,,ts4 
,,vi4 ii4 #d1 #b-c is exp&$ f ?is       
orig9al idea4 ,cf4 ,macdonell1 ,v$ic    
,my?41 p4 #da4  ,!re is ano!r god :o is 
de/9$ to become 9 future ages ,vi%nu's  
*ief rival--,rudra1 ,! ,tawny1 or ,siva1
 ,! ,graci\s4 ,he belongs to ! realm (  
popul> sup]/ition1 a spiteful demon ev] 
ready to smite m5 & cattle ) disease1 b 
likewise disp5s+ heal+ balms & m$ic9es  
to ^? t w9 8 fav\r4 ,! ,rigv$ic prie/s z
 yet d n take mu* int]e/ 9 him1 & = !   
mo/ "p !y leave him to _! some:at       
despis$ k9sm5 ! ,a?>vans1 :o d a ?riv+  
trade 9 hymns & spells to secure !      
common folk aga9/ 8 wra?4  ,!re are _m m
 gods1 godl+s1 & spirits 9 ! ,v$ic      
religion2 b we mu/ pass ov] !m4 ,we h   

se5 en\gh1 ,i hope1 to give u a fair    
idea ( ! nature & value ( t religion 9  
g5]al4 ,:at !n is its value8  ,! ,rigv$a
 is ess5tially a prie/ly book2 b x is n 
entirely a prie/ly book4 ,mu* ( ! ?\ght 
to :i* x gives utt]ance is popul> 9     
orig9 & s5tim5t1 & is by no means ( !   
l[e/ ord]4 ,on ?is gr\ndwork ! prie/s h 
built up a sy/em ( hi]atic ?\ght &      
ritual ( _! own1 9 :i* !re is mu* t     
des]ves a c]ta9 respect4 ,!re is a good 
deal ( f9e poetry 9 x4 ,!re is also 9 x 
"s idea ( a law ( righte\sness3 9 spite 
( mu* wild & unmoral my? & fancy1 its   
gods = ! mo/ "p are n caprici\s demons b
 spirits :o act 9 accordance ) e/abli%$ 
laws1 maje/ic & wise be+s 9 :om are     
embodi$ ! highe/ ideals to :i* m5 h ris5
 z yet4 ,moreov]1 ! prie/s 9 ! lat]     
books h giv5 u "s my/ic hymns conta9+   
vigor\s & pregnant speculations on !    
deepe/ que/ions ( exi/5ce1 speculations 
:i* are inde$ fanciful & unsci5tific1 b 
:i* nev]!less h 9 !m ! g]ms ( ! p[]ful  
idealism t is de/9$ to arise 9 c5turies 

to come4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! prie/s h ca/ _!
 sy/em 9 ! m\ld ( ritualism4 ,ritual1   
c]emony1 sacrifice1 pr(essional         
b5efit--^! are _! pr$om9ant int]e/s4 ,! 
prie/ly c]emonies are conceiv$ to       
possess a magical p[] ( _! own2 & ! fix$
 laws ( ritual by :i* ^! c]emonies are  
regulat$ t5d to eclipse1 & f9ally ev5 to
 swall[ up1 ! laws ( moral righte\sness 
"u :i* ! gods live4 ,a few g5]ations m1 
& ! prie/hood w frankly ann\nce its     
ritual to be ! supreme law ( ! univ]se4 
,mean:ile !y are becom+ m & m indiff]5t 
to ! p]sonalities ( ! gods1 :5 !y h     
pres]v$ any2 !y are q ready to ascribe  
attributes ( "o deity to ano!r1 ev5     
attributes ( nom9al supremacy1 )        
unscrupul\s inconsi/5cy & dubi\s        
s9c]ity2 = ! p]sonalities ( ! diff]5t   
gods are beg9n+ to fade away 9 _! eyes1 
& 9 _! m9d is aris+ ! conception ( a    
s+le univ]sal ,godhead4     ,,*apt] ,,ii
  ,,! ,,age ,,( ,,! ,,brahmanas ,,&     
,,upani%ads   ,c5turies h pass$ s9ce !  
hymns ( ! ,rig-v$a 7 compos$4 ,! ,aryans

 h n[ cross$ ! fateful ridge on ! ea/ ( 
_! =m] settlem5ts1 & h spread !mselves  
ov] ! l&s ( ,nor!rn ,h9do/an ar\nd !    
upp] bas9s ( ! ,ganges & ,jamna1 rea*+  
ea/w>d z f> z ,bih> & s\?w>d d[n to !   
,v9dhya ,m\nta9s1 & 9 ! c\rse ( _! gr[? 
!y h absorb$ n a little ( ! blood ( !   
d>k-sk9n$ natives4 ,! old organisation (
 society by tribes has come to an end1  
?\gh ! names ( _m anci5t tribes are /ill
 he>d2 ! ,aryans are n[ divid$ lat]ally 
by ! pr9ciple ( :at we call ca/e1 :i* is
 bas$ ^u a comb9ation ( religi\s &      
pr(essional di/9ctions1 & v]tically by !
 rule ( k+s1 :ile a few olig>*ic        
gov]nm5ts /ill survive to rem9d !m (    
,v$ic days4 ,9 ^! k+doms ! old tribes   
are beg9n+ to be fus$ toge!r2 f ^!      
comb9ations new ,/ates are aris+1 w>r+ )
 "o ano!r1 con/antly wax+ & wan+4       
,society is rul$ politically by k+s1    
spiritually by ,brahmans4 ,) ! rise ( ! 
k+dom an ,e/abli%$ ,*ur* has come into  
exi/5ce1 & ! ,brahman prie/hood works   
out its pr9ciples to ! bitt]e/ end (    

logic4  ,! ,brahmans are n[1 m ?an !y   
ev] 7 be=e1 a close corporation ( race1 
religion1 & pr(ession1 a religi\s       
frat]nity 9 ! /rict s5se ( ! words4     
,:ile o!r classes ( ! ,aryans h mix$ _! 
blood to a great] or less degree ) t ( !
 natives1 ! ,brahmans h pres]v$ mu* ( ! 
pure ,aryan /ra94 ,!y1 moreov]1 h       
ma9ta9$ ! k ( ! anci5t ,v$ic language 9 
:i* ! sacr$ hymns ( _! =efa!rs 7        
compos$1 ( ! traditions associat$ ) !m1 
& ( ! prie/ly lore ( ,v$ic ritual4 ,pr\d
 ( ?is h]itage & resolv$ to ma9ta9 x    
undim9i%$1 !y h knitt$ !mselves into a  
close spiritual & intellectual          
ari/ocracy1 :i* /&s fa/ l a ligh?\se    
amid/ ! d>kness & /orms ( political     
*anges4 ,!y employ all ! arts ( ! prie/1
 ! ?9k]1 ! /atesman1 & ev5 ! magician to
 pres]ve _! primacy2 & ar\nd !m !       
manifold v>iety ( ! o!r ca/es1 9 all _! 
divisions & subdivisions1 gr\ps itself  
to make up ! multi-col\r$ web ( ,indian 
life4  ,9 c\rse ( "t ?is prie/hood w    
spread out octopus-l t5tacles ov] ! :ole

 ( ,india4 ,becom+ all ?+s to all m51 x 
w f9d a place 9 its pan!on = all gods & 
all ideas1 baptis+ !m by or?odox names  
or ju/ify+ !m by +5i\s fictions4 ,x w   
s5d =? apo/les & colonies ev5 to !      
fur!rmo/ regions ( ! di/ant ,s\?1 :i*1  
ali5 9 blood & 9 tradition1 w nev]!less 
accept !m & surr5d] its be/ intellect to
 _! control4 ,x w ev5 admit into ! l[]  
ranks ( its own body m5 ( =eign bir? by 
means ( legal fictions1 9 ord] to ma9ta9
 its control ( religion4 ,?\gh itself   
splitt+ up into scores ( divisions v>y+ 
9 purity ( blood & tradition1 x w /ill z
 a :ole ma9ta9 its position z aga9/ all 
o!r classes ( society4 ,t ! ,brahman is 
! ,deity on e>?1 & o!r classes %all     
accept ?is dogma & agree to take _! rank
 9 accordance ) x1 w become ! pr9ciple  
hold+ toge!r a va/ agglom]ation ( utt]ly
 div]se elem5ts )9 ! ela/ic b\nds (     
,ca?olic ,brahmanism4  ,b z yet ?is     
condition ( ?+s has n arriv$4 ,!        
,brahmans are /ill comp>atively pure 9  
blood & homog5e\s 9 doctr9e1 & !y h z   

yet s5t =? no colonies s\? ( ! ,v9dhya4 
,!y are e/abli%$ 9 ! l&s ( ! ,ganges &  
,jamna z f> to ! ea/ z ,b5>es1 & !y look
 ) "s contempt on _! k9sm5 9 ! we/]n    
c\ntry t !y h left beh9d4 ,!y are busily
 employ$ 9 work+ out to logical         
conclusions ! ideas & pr9ciples ( _!    
,rigv$ic =efa!rs4 ,!y h n[ ?ree ,v$as2 =
 to ! old ,rig-v$a !y h add$ a          
,yajur-v$a = ! use ( ! sacrificant ord]s
 ( prie/s & a ,sama-v$a or hymnal       
conta9+ ,rigv$ic hymns arrang$ = ! *ant+
 ( *ori/]s4 ,! result ( ^! lab\rs is t  
!y h creat$ a va/ & intricate sy/em (   
sacrificial ritual1 p]haps ! mo/        
colossal ( its k9d t ! _w has ev] se5 or
 ev] w see4 ,:at is /ill m rem>kable1 ! 
logical result ( ?is imm5se developm5t (
 ritualism is t ! prie/hood 9 !ory is   
practically a!i/ic1 :ile on ! o!r h& a  
c]ta9 numb] ( its memb]s h arriv$ at a  
philosophy ( complete idealism :i* is   
beg9n+ to turn its back ^u ritualism4   
,! a!i/ is n s mu* ! man :o d5ies !     
exi/5ce ( any god z ! man to :om ,god is

 n ,god1 :o looks ^u ! ,deity z         
subord9ate to p[]s void ( hol9ess &     
nobility1 ! man :o w n see 9 ,god !     
highe/ =ce 9 ! _w ( nature & 9 ! realm (
 ! _s4 ,9 ?is s5se ! ,brahmans are      
?or\gh a!i/s4 ,accord+ to !m1 ! univ]se 
) all t is 9 x--gods1 m51 & l[] ?+s--is 
creat$ & gov]n$ by an iron law ( s\lless
 natural necessity4 ,x has aris5 by     
emanation f a cosmic ,pr9ciple1         
,prajapati1 ! ,"l ( ,creatures1 an      
imp]sonal be+ :o %[s no trace ( moral   
purpose 9 8 activity4 ,prajapati himself
 is n absolutely ! fir/ 9 ! c\rse (     
nature4 ,! ,brahmanas1 ! prie/ly books  
compos$ 9 ?is p]iod to exp\nd ! rules & 
my/ic significance ( ! ,brahmanic       
c]emonies1 give u v>y+ acc\nts ( 8      
orig91 "s ( !m say+ t he arose ?r\gh "o 
or m int]m$iate /ages f non-exi/5ce     
7,,tb4 ,,ii4 ii4 #i1 #a-aj1 ,,sb4 ,,vi4 
i4 #a1 #a-e71 o!rs d]iv+ him indirectly 
f ! primitive wat]s 7,,sb4 ,,xi4 i4 #f1 
#a71 o!rs trac+ 8 orig9 back to ! /ill m
 imp]sonal & ab/ract ,brahma 7,samav4   

,b4 ,i4 #a-c1 ,gop4 ,b4 ,i4 i4 #d74 ,all
 ^! are attempts to express 9 ! =m ( my?
 ! idea ( an imp]sonal ,pr9ciple (      
,creation z aris+ f a /ill m ab/ract    
fir/ pr9ciple4 ,we h se5 ! poets ( !    
,rig-v$a gradually mov+ t[>ds ! idea ( a
 unity ( godhead2 9 ,prajapati ?is goal 
is atta9$1 b un=tunately x is atta9$ by 
sacrific+ almo/ all t is truly div9e 9  
godhead4 ,! conception ( ,prajapati t we
 f9d 9 ! ,brahmanas is also express$ 9  
"s ( ! late/ hymns ( ! ,rig-v$a4 ,among 
^! is ! fam\s ,puru%a-sukta 7,,rv4 ,x4  
#ij71 :i* ?r[s a peculi> light on ! "* (
 ,prajapati4 ,x is 9 praise ( a         
primitive ,puru%a or ,man1 :o is1 (     
c\rse1 ! same z ,prajapati2 9 "s my/]i\s
 mann] ?is ,puru%a is sacrific$1 & f !  
v>i\s p>ts ( 8 body arise ! v>i\s p>ts (
 ! _w4 ,! idea convey$ by ?is is t !    
univ]se came into exi/5ce by ! op]ation 
( ! my/ic laws reveal$ 9 ! ,brahmanic   
rituals1 & is ma9ta9$ 9 its natural ord]
 by ! same means4 ,! ,brahmanas d n     
inde$ (t5 ass]t on _! own au?ority t    

,prajapati 0 himself sacrific$ 9 ord] to
 produce ! _w1 & 9 fact !y usually give 
o!r acc\nts ( ! creation2 b z _! au?ors 
live 9 a r>efi$ atmosph]e ( my/ical     
allegory 9 :i* fact & fancy are         
completely confus$ ) "o ano!r &         
consi/5cy ceases to h any mean+1 none ( 
!m w\ld h difficulty 9 accept+ !        
,rigv$ic /atem5t t he 0 sacrific$4 ,h5ce
 !y tell u on ! "o h& t ,prajapati has  
creat$ ! _w f a bl9d w = g5]ation or    
increase1 produc+ f ea* ( 8 limbs "s    
class ( be+s correspond+ to x 7e4g4     
,,ms4 ,,iv4 vi4 #c71 or copulat+ ) !    
e>?1 atmosph]e1 sky1 & spee* 7,,sb4     
,,vi4 i4 #b1 #a71 or t he br\ght x into 
exi/5ce indirectly by ent]+ ) ! ,triple 
,sci5ce or my/ic lore ( ! ?ree ,v$as    
into ! primeval wat]s & !nce =m+ an egg 
f :i* 0 hat*$ ! p]sonal ,demiurge       
,brahma1 :o actually creat$ ! _w 7,,sb4 
,,vi4 i4 #a1 #aj72 & on ! o!r h& !y     
relate t he creat$ sacrifice & p]=m$ x1 
mak+ ( himself a victim 9 ord] t ! gods1
 8 (fspr+1 might p]=m ! rites = _! own  

b5efit1 =m+ an image ( himself to be !  
sacrifice1 by :i* he r$eem$ himself f ! 
gods 7,,sb4 ,,xi4 i4 #h1 #b-d2 cf4 ,,ab4
 ,,vii4 #ai1 ,,kb4 ,,xiii4 #a1 ,,sb4    
,,iii4 ii4 #a1 #aa71 & t aft] creation  
he asc5d$ to heav5 7,,sb4 ,x4 ii4 #b1   
#a74 ,! ?\ght t lies und]nea? ^!        
bewild]+ flights ( fancy is "o ( my/ic  
pan!ism3 all creat$ exi/5ce has aris5 by
 emanation f ! "o ,creative ,pr9ciple1  
,prajapati1 & 9 ess5ce is "o )          
,prajapati2 ,prajapati is an imp]sonal  
be+1 a creative =ce1 9 :i* are embodi$ !
 laws ( ,brahmanic ritual1 :i* acts only
 9 ^! laws1 & :i* is above ! moral      
influ5ces t affect humanity2 & ! :ole ( 
creat$ nature1 animate & inanimate1 is  
controll$ 9 e process ( its be+ by ^!   
laws1 & by ! prie/ :o possesses ! k (   
!m4 ,?us !re lies a pr(\nd significance 
9 ! title ( gods on e>? :i* ! ,brahmans 
h assum$4  ,:5 we speak ( sacrifice 9   
,india1 we mu/ cle> our m9ds ( ! ideas  
:i* we h =m$ f read+ ! ,bible4 ,!       
,mosaic conception ( sacrifice 0 t ( a  

religi\s c]emony d5ot+ a moral relation 
betwe5 a p]sonal ,god & ,8 wor%ipp]s3 9 
! s9-(f]+s & trespass-(f]+s 0 symbolis$ 
a reconciliation betwe5 man & 8 ,god :o 
0 ang]$ by man's consci\s or unconsci\s 
brea* ( ! laws :i* _h be5 impos$ ^u him 
= 8 spiritual welf>e1 :ile meat-(f]+s & 
peace-(f]+s typifi$ ! wor%ipp]'s s5se ( 
gratitude = ! ,div9e love & wisdom t    
gu>d$ him4 ,( su* relations !re is to be
 f\nd 9 ! ,brahmanas no trace4 ,if we   
may use a mod]n figure ( spee*1 !y      
conceive ! univ]se ( gods1 m51 & l[]    
creatures z a s+le imm5se electric      
batt]y1 & ! sacrifice z a process ( *>g+
 ?is batt]y ) ev] fre% electricity4 ,!  
sacrifice is a process1 at once mat]ial 
& my/ic1 :i* pres]ves ! ord] ( nature z 
e/abli%$ by ! prototypic sacrifice p]=m$
 by ,prajapati4 ,! gods became div9e &  
immortal ?r\gh sacrifice 7,,ts4 ,,vi4   
iii4 #d1 #g1 ,,vi4 iii4 #aj1 #b1 ,,vii4 
iv4 #b1 #a1 ,,sb4 ,i4 vi4 #b1 #a1 ,,ms4 
,,iii4 ix4 #d1 ,,ab4 ,,vi4 i4 #a1 etc472
 & !y live on ! gifts ( e>?1 z mank9d   

lives on ! gifts ( heav5 7,,ts4 ,,iii4  
ii4 #i1 #g1 ,,sb4 ,i4 ii4 #e1 #bd74 ,!  
sacrifice is ?us ! life-pr9ciple1 ! s\l1
 ( all gods & all be+s 7,,sb4 ,,viii4   
vi4 #a1 #aj1 ,,ix4 iii4 #b1 #g1 ,,xiv4  
iii4 #b1 #a72 or1 :at am\nts to ! same  
?+1 ! ,triple ,sci5ce or ! k ( !        
c]emonies ( ! ,?ree ,v$as is _! ess5ce  
7,,sb4 ,x4 iv4 #b1 #ba74 ,z ,prajapati  
creat$ ! primeval sacrifice1 & z ! gods 
by foll[+ ?is rule obta9$ _! div9ity1 s 
man %\ld seek to foll[ _! example & by  
means ( sacrifice rise to godhead &     
immortality4 ,z "o ,brahmana puts x1 !  
sacrifice leads ! way to heav52 x is    
foll[$ by ! dak%9a1 or fee paid by !    
sacrific] to ! sacrificant prie/s1 :i* (
 c\rse mat]ially /r5g!ns ! efficacy ( ! 
sacrifice2 & ?ird comes ! sacrific]1    
hold+ fa/ to ! dak%9a4 ,?is asc5t (     
heav5 is symbolis$ 9 ! c]emony call$    
durohana1 or h>d m\nt+ 7,,ab4 ,,iv4 #bj1
 #ba1 ,,kb4 ,,xxv4 #g71 & x is ensur$ by
 ! rite ( dik%a1 or consecration1 9 :i* 
! sacrific] is symbolically repres5t$ z 

pass+ ?r\gh a new conception1 ge/ation1 
& bir?1 by :i* he is suppos$ to obta9   
two bodies4 ,"o ( ^! bodies is immortal 
& spiritual2 ! o!r is mortal & mat]ial1 
& is assign$ z a victim to all ! gods4  
,he !n ransoms 8 mat]ial body f !       
obligation ( be+ sacrific$1 z did       
,prajapati1 & ?us ranks lit]ally z a god
 on e>?1 ) ! c]ta9ty ( becom+ 9 due     
c\rse a god 9 heav54  ,:5 ! /ud5t on    
read+ ! ,brahmanas f9ds !m full (       
int]m9able c]emonial rules ) equally    
int]m9able comm5t>ies int]pret+ !m by   
wilde/ analogies z symbolical ( details 
( my?s or ( laws ( nature & h5ce z      
conf]r+ my/ic p[]s1 besides all k9ds (  
my?s1 "s =cibly dragg$ into !           
int]pretation ( ! ritual because ( "s   
imag9>y po9t ( resemblance1 o!rs inv5t$ 
or reca/ on purpose to ju/ify "s detail 
( c]emony1 & :5 moreov] he obs]ves t _m 
( ^! my?s & "s ( ! rites are brutally & 
fil?ily obsc5e1 & t h>dly any ( !m %[ ! 
lea/ moral feel+1 he may be excus$ =    
?9k+ ! ,brahmanas to be ! "w ( madm54 ,b

 !re is "s me?od 9 _! madness4 ,h[ev]   
/rangely !y may express !m1 !y h def9ite
 & /rictly logical ideas ab\t !         
sacrificial ritual & its cosmic         
function4 ,x is m difficult to def5d !m 
aga9/ ! *>ge ( want ( morality4 ,x mu/  
be admitt$ t _! supreme ,be+1           
,prajapati1 is 9 ! ma9 l9es ( 8 "*      
utt]ly imp]sonal1 & :]e incid5tally he  
%[s any human feel+s !y are z a rule f> 
f cr$itable to him4 ,he creat$ ! univ]se
 f me*anical in/9ct or bl9d desire1 &   
committ$ or tri$ to commit ince/ ) 8    
daught] 7! acc\nts are v>i\s74 ,he has  
begott5 bo? ! gods & ! demons1 devas &  
asuras1 :o are con/antly at w> ) "o     
ano!r4 ,! gods1 :o are embodim5ts ( tru?
 7t is to say1 correct k ( ! law (      
ritual71 h be5 (t5 9 great dang] ( be+  
ov]:elm$ by ! demons1 :o embody untru?1 
& !y h be5 sav$ by ,prajapati2 b he has 
done ?is n f any s5se ( "r1 b m]ely f   
bl9d w or fav\r1 = he c h>dly di/+ui% "o
 p>ty f ! o!r4 ,! gods !mselves1 9 spite
 ( be+ ( tru?1 are sadly frail4 ,doz5s (

 my?s *>ge !m ) falsehood1 hatr$1 lu/1  
gre$1 & jeal\sy1 & only ! /ress ( !     
dang] ?reat5+ !m f _! adv]s>ies ! demons
 has induc$ !m to organise !mselves into
 an ord]$ k+dom "u ! sov]eignty (       
,indra1 :o has be5 ano9t$ by ,prajapati4
 ,true1 _m ( ! (f5sive features 9 ?is   
my?ology & ritual are survivals f a v   
anci5t pa/1 a pre-hi/oric "t 9 :i*      
morals 7 conspicu\sly abs5t f religion2 
! prie/hood has =gott5 v little1 & z a  
rule has only add$ new rituals & new    
int]pretations to ?is legacy f ! days ( 
old4 ,nev]!less x mu/ be confess$ t !re 
is a tone ( rituali/ic pr(essionalism 9 
! ,brahmanas t is unpleas+2 ! prie/hood 
are consci\sly sup]ior to nature1 ,god1 
& morals by virtue ( _! ,triple ,sci5ce1
 & !y con/antly emphasise ?is claim4 ,x 
is difficult = u to realise t ^! are !  
same m5 :o h creat$ ! ,brahmanic culture
 ( ,india1 :i*1 h[ev] we may criticise x
 f ! ,we/]n po9t ( view1 is ess5tially a
 g5tle life1 a field 9 :i* moral feel+ &
 intellectual ef=t h born abundance (   

goodly fruit4 ,yet if we look m closely 
we %all see t ev5 ^! rituali/s1 besott$ 
z !y may seem to be ) _! orgies (       
prie/craft1 are n :olly unt\*$ by !     
bett] _s ( _! race4 ,extremes (         
sanctity1 :e!r x be rituali/ic or       
anti-rituali/ic sanctity1 always t5d 9  
,india--& 9 o!r c\ntries z well--to     
produce sup]m54 ,& if our prie/hood 9 ! 
,brahmanas feel !mselves 9 ! pride (    
spiritual p[] lift$ above ! rules (     
moral law1 !y are n 9 practice indiff]5t
 to x4 ,_! lives are = ! mo/ "p g5tle & 
good4 ,?\gh tru? 9 ! ,brahmanas usually 
means only accordance ) ! ritual & my/ic
 tea*+s ( ! ,triple ,sci5ce1 x sometimes
 signifies ev5 !re v]acity & hone/y     
also4 ,tru?fulness 9 spee* is ! hall-m>k
 ( ! ,brahman1 says ,h>idrumata ,gautama
 to ,satyakama ,jabala 7,*h&4 ,up4 ,,iv4
 iv4 #e72 & ev5 9 ! ,brahmanas a lie is 
sometimes a s94 ,if cons]vatism compels 
! prie/s to keep obsc5e old practices 9 
_! rituals1 !y are n always satisfi$ )  
!m1 & voices beg9 to be he>d plead+ t ^!

 rites are really obsolete4 ,9 %ort1 a  
moral s5se is beg9n+ to arise among !m4 
,n[ ! moral law1 9 ord] t x may be fe>$1
 ne$s to be embodi$ 9 ! p]sonality ( a  
god4 ,mo/ ( _! gods inspire no fe> at   
all 9 ! s\ls ( ! ,brahmans2 b !re is "o 
( :om !y h a dread1 :i* is all ! great] 
= be+ illogical4 ,prajapati is a va/    
imp]sonality1 too remote & ab/ract to   
inspire ! s\l ) ei!r fe> or love4 ,! o!r
 gods--,indra1 ,agni1 ,soma1 ,v>una1    
,vi%nu1 & ! re/--are 8 (fspr+1 & are    
mov$ l puppets by ! ma*9]y ( ! ritual ( 
sacrifice creat$ by him4 ,h[ev] mu* !y  
may seem to diff] "o f ano!r 9 _!       
attributes & p]sonalities1 !y are 9     
ess5ce "o & negligible 9 ! eyes ( ! ma/]
 ( ! ritual lore4 ,9 ! beg9n+1 say !    
,brahmanas1 all ! gods 7except          
,prajapati1 ( c\rse7 7 alike1 & all 7   
mortal2 !n !y p]=m$ sacrifices & !reby  
became immortal1 ea* ) 8 peculi>        
attributes ( div9ity4#ah ,?us at bottom 
!y are all ! same ?+1 m]ely phases ( !  
univ]sal godhead1 waves /irr$ up by !   

curr5t ( ! cosmic sacrifice4 ,!y h no   
t]rors = ! prie/hood4 ,b !re is "o deity
 :o ob/9ately refuses to accommodate    
himself to ?is conv5i5t po9t ( view1 & t
 is ,rudra1 or ,siva4 ,by rights &      
logically he ought to fall into rank ) !
 re/ ( ! gods2 b !re is a crossgra9$    
elem5t 9 8 nature :i* keeps him out4 ,z 
we h se51 he comes f a diff]5t s\rce3 9 
orig9 he 0 a demon1 a p[] ( t]ror1 ^:   
realm ( wor%ip lay ap>t f t ( ! gods (  
high] class1 & n[1 al?\gh x has ext5d$  
into ! doma9s ( or?odox religion1 an    
atmosph]e ( dread /ill broods ov] x4#ai 
,rudra wields all 8 anci5t t]rors ov] a 
mu* wid5$ area4 ,! prie/s h assign$ him 
a regul> place 9 _! liturgies1 & fully  
recognise him 9 8 sev]al phases z       
,bhava1 ,s>va1 ,ugra1 ,maha-deva or !   
,great ,god1 ,rudra1 ,isana or ! ,"l1 & 
,asani or ! ,?und]bolt 7,,kb4 ,,vi4     
#b-i74 ,arm$ ) 8 t]rors1 he is fit to be
 employ$ 9 ! s]vice ( consci5ce4 ,h5ce a
 my? has aris5 t 9 ord] to puni%        
,prajapati = 8 ince/ ) 8 daught] ! gods 

creat$ ,bhuta-pati 7:o is ,pasu-pati or 
,rudra "u a new "n71 :o /abb$ him4 ,!   
re/ ( ! my? is z immat]ial to our       
purpose z x is unsav\ry2 :at is         
important is t ! consci5ce ( ! ,brahmans
 0 beg9n+ to feel slight qualms at !    
uncleanness ( "s ( _! old my?s & to look
 t[>ds ,rudra z 9 "s degree an av5g] (  
s94 ,9 ?is is impli$ an imm5se moral    
advance4 ,h5ce=? !re w be a gradual     
ennoblem5t ( "o ( ! phases ( ! god's "*4
 ,_m ( ! be/ m9ds among ! ,brahmans w   
f9d _! imag9ations /irr$ & _! consci5ces
 mov$ by contemplation ( him4 ,to !m he 
w be no m a m]e demon ( ! m\nta9 & !    
wild4 ,8 de/ructive wra? !y w int]pret z
 symbolis+ ! ev]la/+ process (          
dea?-9-life :i* is ! keynote ( nature2 9
 8 wild dances !y w see imag$ =? !      
ev]la/+ ?rob ( cosmic exi/5ce2 to 8     
t]rors !y w f9d a rev]se ( inf9ite love 
& grace4 ,! horrors ( ,rudra ! deadly   
are ! mantle ( ,siva ! graci\s4 ,?us1   
:ile ! god's "* 9 its l[] phases rema9s 
! same z be=e1 claim+ ! wor%ip ( ! base/

 classes ( mank9d1 & n[ise ris+ to a    
high] level1 x develops p[]fully &      
fruitfully 9 "o aspect :i* attracts     
grave & e>ne/ imag9ations4 ,! ,muni1 !  
contemplative ascetic1 p5etrates 9      
m$itation ?r\gh ! t]rors ( ,siva's      
outw>d =m to ! god's inw>d love &       
wisdom1 & beholds 9 him 8 own div9e     
prototype4 ,& s ,siva comes to be figur$
 9 ?is nobl] aspect z ! div9e ,muni1 !  
supreme sa9t & sage4  ,footnote #ah3 ,= 
! orig9al mortality ( ! gods see ,,ts4  
,,vii4 iv4 #b1 #a1 ,,sb4 ,x4 iv4 #cc f41
 ,,xi4 i4 #b1 #ab1 ii4 #c1 #f2 = _!     
primitive non-diff]5tiation1 ,,ts4 ,,vi4
 vi4 #h1 #b1 ,,sb4 ,,iv4 v4 #d1 #a-d4   
,footnote #ai3 ,cf4 e4g4 ,,kb4 ,,iii4 #d
  #f1 ,,vi4 #b-i1 & ,ap4 ,,ss4 ,,vi4    
xiv4 #aa-ac4  ,:ile ! wor%ip ( ,siva is 
sl[ly mak+ its way into ! he>t (        
,brahmanic ritualism1 ano!r movem5t is  
at "w :i* is gradually draw+ _m ( !     
ke5e/ intellects among ! ,brahmans away 
f ! /udy ( ritual t[>ds an ideali/ic    
philosophy :i* views all ritual )       

indiff]5ce4 ,its lit]ature is !         
,upani%ads4  ,! pass+ ( ! ,rigv$ic age  
has left to ! ,brahmans a doctr9al      
legacy1 :i* may be ?us re/at$3 a s+le   
div9e pr9ciple ?r\gh a prototypic       
sacrifice has giv5 bir? to ! univ]se1 & 
all ! processes ( cosmic nature are     
controll$ by sacrifices f\nd$ ^u t      
primeval sacrifice4 ,9 %ort1 ! ritual   
symbolises & 9 a s5se actually is ! :ole
 cosmic process4 ,! ritual implies bo? !
 k ( ! law ( sacrifice & ! prop]        
practice ( t law1 bo? und]/&+ & works4  
,?is is ! /&po9t ( ! or?odox rituali/4  
,b !re has also aris5 a new s*ool among 
! ,brahmans1 t ( ! ,aupani%adas1 :i* has
 laid d[n = its fir/ doctr9e t works are
 = ! sake ( und]/&+1 t ! practice (     
ritual is ( value only z a help to !    
my/ic k ( ! ,all4 ,b "h !y h n halt$2 !y
 h gone a fur!r /ep1 & decl>$ t k once  
atta9$1 works become ne$less4 ,"s ev5   
v5ture to h9t t p]haps ! highe/ k is n  
to be rea*$ ?r\gh works at all4 ,& ! k t
 ! ,aupani%adas seek is ( ,brahma1 & is 

,brahma4  ,! ^w brahma is a neut] n\n1 &
 9 ! ,rig-v$a x means some?+ t c only be
 fully translat$ by a long              
circumlocution4 ,x may be r5d]$ z ! p[] 
( ritual devotion2 t is to say1 x d5otes
 ! my/ic or magic =ce :i* is put =? by !
 poet-prie/ ( ! ,rig-v$a :5 he p]=ms !  
rites ( sacrifice ) appropriate *ant+ ( 
hymns--9 %ort1 ritual magic4 ,?is my/ic 
=ce ! ,rigv$ic poets h repres5t$ 9      
p]sonal =m z ! god ,brihaspati1 9 mu* ! 
same way z !y embodi$ ! _s ( ! sacrifice
 9 ,vi%nu4 ,_! successors1 ! or?odox    
rituali/s ( ! ,brahmanas1 h n made mu*  
use ( ?is t]m2 b sometimes !y speak (   
,brahma z an ab/ract fir/ pr9ciple1 !   
highe/ & ultimate s\rce ( all be+1 ev5 (
 ,prajapati 7,samav4 ,b4 ,i4 #a1 ,gop4  
,b4 ,i4 i4 #d72 & :5 !y speak ( ,brahma 
!y ?9k ( him n z a p[] connect$ )       
religi\s c]emony b z a supremely        
transc5d5t & absolutely unqualifi$ &    
imp]sonal ,fir/ ,exi/5ce4 ,b ! s*ool ( !
 ,aupani%adas has gone fur!r4 ,seek+    
?r\gh works my/ic k z ! highe/ reality1 

!y see 9 ,brahma ! p]fect k4 ,to !m !   
absolute ,fir/ ,exi/5ce is also         
transc5d5tly full & unqualifi$ ,?\ght4  
,z k is p[]1 ! p]fect ,p[] is p]fect ,k4
  ,brahma !n is absolute k2 & all t     
exi/s is really ,brahma1 "o &           
indivisible 9 ess5ce1 b pres5t+ itself  
illusively to ! f9ite consci\sness z a  
_w ( plurality1 ( mo/ manifold subjects 
& objects ( ?\ght4 ,! highe/ wisdom1 !  
greate/ ( all secrets1 is to "k ?is     
tru?1 to realise ) full consci\sness t  
!re exi/s only ! ,"o1 ,brahma1 ! inf9ite
 ,idea2 & ! sage ( ! ,upani%ads is he :o
 has atta9$ ?is k1 und]/&+ t he himself1
 z individual subject ( ?\ght1 is really
 id5tical ) ! univ]sal ,brahma4 ,he has 
realis$ t he is "o ) ! ,inf9ite ,?\ght1 
he has rais$ himself to ! my/ic heights 
( transc5d5tal ,be+ & ,k1 immeasurably  
f> above nature & ! gods4 ,he kn[s all  
?+s at _! f\nta9-head1 & life c nev]more
 br+ h>m to him2 9 8 k he has salvation1
 & dea? w lead him to complete union )  
,brahma4  ,! ,aupani%adas h ?us advanc$ 

f ! pan!ism ( ! or?odox rituali/s to a  
transc5d5tal idealism4 ,! process has   
be5 gradual4 ,x 0 only by degrees t !y  
rea*$ ! idea ( salvation 9 k1 ! k t is  
union ) ,brahma2 & x 0 likewise only    
?r\gh sl[ /ages t !y 7 able to conceive 
( ,brahma 9 itself4 ,_m passages 9 !    
,upani%ads are full ( /ruggles to       
repres5t ,brahma by symbols or =ms      
p]ceptible to ! s5se1 su* z e!r1 brea?1 
! sun1 etc4 ,prie/s endeav\r$ to advance
 ?r\gh ritual works to ! ideas :i* ^!   
works are suppos$ to symbolise3 ! ritual
 is ! tra9+-gr\nd = ! high] k1 !        
lead+-/r+s = infant philosophy4         
,gradually m5 become capable ( ?9k+ )\t 
! help ( ^! symbols3 philosophy gr[s to 
manhood1 & looks ) a c]ta9 contempt ^u  
^? supports ( its infancy4  ,! nature ( 
,brahma z conceiv$ 9 ! ,upani%ads is a  
subject on :i* endless controv]sies h   
rag$1 & we ne$ n add to !m4 ,besides1 ! 
,upani%ads !mselves are n /rictly       
consi/5t on ?is po9t1 or on o!rs1 = t   
matt]2 = !y are n a s+le homog5e\s sy/em

 ( philosophy1 b a numb] ( speculations1
 f (t5 v>y+ /&po9ts1 & !y are frequ5tly 
inconsi/5t4 ,b !re are "s ideas :i* are 
m or less pres5t 9 all ( !m4 ,!y reg>d  
,brahma z absolute & inf9ite ,?\ght &   
,be+ at once1 & z su* x is "o ) !       
consci\sness1 s\l or self1 ( !          
individual :5 ! latt] rids himself ( !  
illusion ( a manifold univ]se & realises
 8 unity ) ,brahma4 ,moreov]1 ,brahma is
 bliss--! joy ( :olly p]fect &          
self-satisfi$ ?\ght & be+4 ,s9ce ,brahma
 z univ]sal ,s\l is really id5tical )   
ea* individual s\l or atma1 & vice v]sa1
 x foll[s t ea* individual s\l conta9s  
)9 itself1 qua ,brahma1 ! :ole (        
exi/5ce1 nature1 gods1 mank9d1 & all o!r
 be+s2 x creates !m all1 & all dep5d ^u 
x4 ,our ,aupani%adas are ?or\ghgo+      
ideali/s4  ,ano!r new idea also appe>s =
 ! fir/ "t 9 ! e>ly ,upani%ads1 & "o t  
h5ce=? w wield enorm\s influ5ce 9 all   
,indian ?\ght4 ,?is is ! !ory ( k>ma &  
sams>a1 rebir? ( ! s\l 9 accordance ) ! 
nature ( its previ\s works4 ,be=e !     

,upani%ads we f9d no evid5ce ( ?is      
doctr9e3 ! ne>e/ approa* to x is 9 "s   
passages ( ! ,brahmanas :i* speak (     
s9ful m5 dy+ aga9 9 ! next _w z a       
puni%m5t = _! guilt4 ,b 9 ! ,upani%ads !
 doctr9e appe>s full-fl$g$1 & x is      
fraught ) consequ5ces ( imm5se          
importance4 ,sams>a means lit]ally a    
w&]+ to & fro1 t is1 ! cycle ( bir?s    
?r\gh :i* ea* s\l mu/ ev]la/+ly pass f  
inf9ite "t1 & ,k>ma means ! acts ( ea*  
s\l4 ,ea* "w or act p]=m$ by a liv+ be+ 
is ( a c]ta9 degree ( righte\sness or   
unrighte\sness1 & x is requit$ by a     
future exp]i5ce ( correspond+ pleasure  
or pa94 ,s e bir? & ultimately e        
exp]i5ce ( a s\l is det]m9$ by !        
righte\sness ( its previ\s acts2 & !re  
is no release = ! s\l f ?is endless *a9 
( causes & effects unless x c f9d "s    
sup]natural way ( deliv]ance4 ,!        
,aupani%adas po9t to :at !y believe to  
be ! only way3 x is ! ,brahma-k ( !     
enlight5$ sage1 :i* releases 8 s\l f !  
*a9 ( natural causation & raises him to 

ev]la/+ union ) ,brahma4  ,! tea*+ ( !  
,upani%ads has _h two v diff]5t         
practical results4 ,on ! "o h&1 x has   
mov$ _m e>ne/ ?9k]s to ca/ (f ! ties ( !
 _w & to w&] ab\t z homeless begg>s1    
liv+ on alms & m$itat+ & disc\rs+ ^u !  
tea*+s ( ! ,upani%ads1 :ile !y await !  
com+ ( dea? to release _! s\ls f !      
prison ( ! fle% & br+ x to complete &   
et]nal union ) ,brahma4 ,^! w&]+        
ascetics--sannyasis1 bhik%us1 or        
p>ivrajakas !y are call$--=m a class by 
!mselves1 :i* is de/9$ to h an imm5se   
influ5ce 9 m\ld+ ! future ?\ght (       
,india4 ,! tea*+ ( ,brahmanism is beg9n+
 to recognise !m1 too4 ,x has already   
divid$ ! life ( ! or?odox man into ?ree 
/ages1 or asramas1 /ud5t%ip1 ! condition
 ( ! m>ri$ h\sehold]1 & ?irdly ! life ( 
! h]mit1 or vanapra/ha1 to :i* !        
h\sehold] %\ld retire aft] he has left a
 son to ma9ta9 8 h\sehold2 & n[ x is    
beg9n+ to add to ^! z f\r? /age ! life (
 ! homeless ascetic await+ dea? &       
release4 ,b ?is arrangem5t is = ! mo/ "p

 a fiction1 devis$ 9 ord] to keep !     
begg>-philosoph]s )9 ! s*eme (          
,brahmanic life2 9 reality !y !mselves  
recognise no su* law4  ,! o!r curr5t    
among ! ,aupani%adas is fl[+ 9 a v      
diff]5t direction4 ,we h se5 h[ ! wor%ip
 ( ,rudra-,siva has gr[n s9ce ! old     
,rigv$ic days1 & h[ "s s\ls h be5 able  
to see amid/ ! t]rors ( ! god a p[] (   
love & wisdom t satisfies _! deepe/     
hopes & long+s1 z none ( ! or?odox      
rituals c d4 ,a new feel+1 ! _s (       
religi\s devotion1 bhakti z x is call$1 
is aris+ among !m4 ,to !m--& !y numb] _m
 ,brahmans z well z m5 ( o!r            
ord]s--,siva has ?us become ! highe/    
object ( wor%ip1 ,isv>a or ! ,"l2 & hav+
 ?us en?ron$ him z supreme 9 _! he>ts1  
!y are endeav\r+ to f9d = him a         
correspond+ place 9 _! intellects4 ,to  
?is end !y claim t ,siva z ,isv>a is !  
highe/ ( all =ms ( exi/5ce2 & ?is       
doctr9e is gr[+ & f9d+ mu* fav\r4 ,among
 ! ,aupani%adas !re are _m :o reconcile 
x ) ! tea*+ ( ! ,upani%ads by id5tify+  

,siva ) ,brahma4 ,?us a new light beg9s 
to flick] "h & !re 9 ! ,upani%ads z !   
conception ( ,siva1 a p]sonal god wield+
 free grace1 col\rs ! pale :it5ess ( !  
imp]sonal ,brahma2 & at la/ 9 !         
,svetasvat>a1 :i* ?\gh r late 9 date is 
n ! lea/ important ( ! ,upani%ads1 ?is  
!i/ic movem5t boldly proclaims itself3 !
 supreme ,brahma1 id5tifi$ ) ,siva1 is  
def9itely contra/$ ) ! individual s\l z 
div9e to human1 giv] ( grace to receiv] 
( grace4 ,lat] ,upani%ads w take up ?is 
/ra91 9 hon\r ( ,siva & o!r gods1 &     
f9ally !y w end z m]e tracts ( ?is or t 
!i/ic *ur*4  ,yet ano!r curr5t is n[    
beg9n+ to /ir m5's m9ds1 & x is "o t is 
also de/9$ to a great future4 ,x />ts f 
,kri%na4  ,! tea*+ ( ! ,upani%ads1 t all
 be+ is ! ,"o ,brahma & t ,brahma is !  
same z ! individual s\l1 has busi$ _m   
m51 n only ,brahmans b also ,k%atriyas1 
noblem5 ( ! w>rior ord]4 ,"s ev5 say t x
 arose among ! ,k%atriyas2 & at any rate
 x is likely t !y1 be+ less obsess$ ) ! 
=ms ( ritual ?an ! ,brahmans & !re=e    

able to ?9k m directly & cle>ly1 h help$
 ! ,brahmans 9 _! discussions to cle> _!
 m9ds ( ritual symbolism1 & to realise m
 def9itely ! philosophic ideas :i*      
hi!rto !y _h se5 only dimly typifi$ 9 _!
 c]emonies4  ,kri%na 0 "o ( ^!          
,k%atriyas4 ,he belong$ to ! ,satvata or
 ,vri%ni tribe1 liv+ 9 or ne> ! anci5t  
city ( ,ma?ura4 ,sometimes 9 e>ly writ+s
 he is /yl$ ,kri%na ,devakiputra1       
,kri%na ,devaki's son1 because 8 "m's "n
 0 ,devaki2 sometimes aga9 he is call$  
,kri%na ,vasudeva1 or simply ,vasudeva1 
:i* is a patronymic said to be d]iv$ f !
 "n ( 8 fa!r ,vasudeva4 ,9 lat] times we
 %all f9d a :ole cycle ( leg5d ga!r+    
r\nd him1 9 :i* d\btless !re is a k]nel 
( fact4 ,omitt+ ! miracul\s elem5ts 9 ^!
 tales1 we may say t ! outl9e ( !       
,kri%na-leg5d is z foll[s3 ,kri%na's    
fa!r ,vasudeva & 8 "m ,devaki 7         
griev\sly wrong$ by ,devaki's c\s9      
,kamsa1 :o usurp$ ! royal p[] 9 ,ma?ura 
& endeav\r$ to slay ,kri%na 9 8 infancy2
 b ! *ild escap$1 & on gr[+ to manhood  

kill$ ,kamsa4 ,b ,kamsa _h made alliance
 ) ,j>as&ha k+ ( ,magadha1 :o n[ ?reat5$
 ,kri%na2 s ,kri%na prud5tly retir$ f   
,ma?ura & l$ a colony ( 8 tribesm5 to   
,dv>aka1 on ! we/]n coa/ 9 ,ka?iaw>1 :]e
 he f\nd$ a new ,/ate4 ,!re seems to be 
no valid reason = d\bt+ ^! /atem5ts4    
,sob] hi/ory does n reject a tale       
because x is embroid]$ ) my? & fiction4 
,n[ ?is man ,kri%na 9 ! mid/ ( 8 /irr+  
life ( w> & gov]nm5t f\nd "t & ta/e also
 = ! ?+s t are ( ! _s4 ,he talk$ ) m5   
le>n$ 9 ! ,upani%ads ab\t ,brahma & !   
s\l & ! wor%ip ( ,god2 & app>5tly he set
 up a little ,e/abli%$ ,*ur* ( 8 own1 9 
:i* 0 comb9$ some?+ ( ! idealism ( !    
,upani%ads ) ! wor%ip ( a supreme ,god (
 grace & p]haps too a k9d ( religi\s    
discipl9e1 ab\t :i* we %all say m lat]  
on4 ,x mu/ be confess$ t we "k sadly    
little ab\t 8 actual doctr9e f fir/ h&4 
,all t we he> ab\t x is a %ort *apt] 9 !
 ,*h&ogya ,upani%ad 7iii4 #ag71 :]e !   
,brahman ,ghora ,angirasa gives a s]mon 
to ,kri%na1 9 :i* he comp>es ! phases ( 

human life to /ages 9 ! dik%a or c]emony
 ( consecration1 & ! moral virtues t    
%\ld accompany !m to ! dak%9a or        
honor>ium paid to ! (ficiat+ prie/s1 &  
he concludes by exhort+ 8 he>] to       
realise t ! ,brahma is imp]i%able1      
unfail+1 & spiritual1 & quot+ two v]ses 
f ! ,rig-v$a speak+ ( ! ,sun z typify+ !
 supreme bliss to :i* ! enlight5$ s\l   
arises4 ,?is does n tell u v mu*1 &     
moreov] we %\ld rememb] t "h our au?or1 
be+ an ,aupani%ada1 is m int]e/$ 9 :at  
,ghora prea*$ to ,kri%na ?an 9 :at      
,kri%na accept$ f ,ghora's tea*+4 ,b we 
%all f9d c5turies lat] 9 !              
,bhagavad-gita1 ! greate/ textbook ( !  
religion ( ,kri%na1 "s di/ant e*oes (   
?is p>agraph ( ! ,*h&ogya4  ,! beg9n+s (
 ! religion ( ,kri%na are ?us v unc]ta94
 ,b z we travel d[n ! ages we f9d x gr[+
 & spread+4 ,we see ,kri%na himself     
reg>d$ z a half-div9e h]o & tea*]1 &    
wor%ipp$ "u ! "n ( ,bhagavan1 ! ,"l1 9  
association ) o!r half-div9e h]oes4 ,we 
see him becom+ id5tifi$ ) old gods1 &   

f9ally ris+ to ! rank ( ! ,supreme      
,deity ^: wor%ip he _h himself taught 9 
8 lifetime1 ! ,brahma ( ! philosoph]s & 
! ,mo/ ,high ,god ( ! !i/s4 ,z has      
happ5$ _m a "t1 ! tea*] has become !    
,god ( 8 ,*ur*4     ,,*apt] ,,iii  ,,!  
,,epics1 ,,& ,,lat]  ,i4                
,,vi%nu-,,kri%na   ,we n[ ent] ^u an age
 9 :i* ! old gods1 ,indra & ,brahma1    
retire to ! backgr\nd1 :ile ,vi%nu &    
,siva /& 9 ! =efront ( ! /age4  ,!      
,h9dus are ( ! same op9ion z ! ,lat9    
poet3 f]rea nunc aetas agitur4 ,we are  
n[ liv+ 9 an ,iron ,age1 accord+ to !m2 
& x began 9 ! ye> #cajb ,b4,c41 %ortly  
aft] ! great w> describ$ 9 !            
,mahabh>ata4 ,! date #cajb1 ,i ne$ h>dly
 rem>k1 is ( no hi/orical value1 be+    
bas$ m]ely ^u ! !ories ( comp>atively   
late a/ronom]s2 b ! /atem5t z a :ole is 
important4 ,! ,great ,w> m>ks an epo*4  
,x came at ! end ( :at may be call$ !   
pre-hi/oric p]iod1 & 0 foll[$ by a new  
age4 ,to be /rictly correct1 we mu/ say 
t ! age :i* foll[$ ! ,great ,w> 0 n new 

9 ! s5se t x introduc$ any />tl+        
novelties t _h be5 unkn[n previ\sly2 b x
 0 new 9 ! s5se t aft] ! ,great ,w>     
,india spe$ily became ! ,india t we "k f
 hi/orical records4 ,a c]ta9 fusion (   
diff]5t races1 cultures1 & ideals _h to 
take place 9 ord] t ! peculi>           
civilisation ( ,india might unfold      
itself2 & ?is fusion 0 accompli%$ ab\t !
 "t ( ! ,great ,w>1 & p>tly no d\bt by  
means ( ! ,great ,w>1 "s t5 c5turies    
be=e ! ,*ri/ian era4  ,! /ory ( ! ,great
 ,w> is told ) a wild pr(usion ( my?ical
 & leg5d>y col\r+ 9 ! ,mahabh>ata1 an   
epic ! "n ( :i* means lit]ally ,! ,great
 ,tale ( ! ,bh>ata ,clan4 ,x relates h[ 
! bl9d old ,k+ ,dhrit>a%tra ( ,ha/9apura
 _h a hundr$ sons1 kn[n z ! ,kuru or    
,kaurava pr9ces1 ! elde/ ( :om 0        
,duryodhana1 & ,dhrit>a%tra's bro!r ,p&u
 _h five sons1 ! ,p&ava bre?r52 h[ !    
,p&avas 7 ou/$ by ! ,kauravas f ! k+dom1
 ! elde/ ,p&ava pr9ce ,yudhi%?ira hav+  
be5 induc$ to /ake ! =tunes ( himself & 
8 bre?r5 on a game ( dice1 9 :i* he 0   

defeat$2 h[ ! five ,p&avas1 ) _! common 
wife ,draupadi 7obs]ve ?is curi\s & ugly
 feature ( poly&ry1 :i* is q oppos$ to  
/&>d ,h9du morals1 b is by no means     
unp>allel$ 9 e>ly ,indian lit]ature#bj7 
retir$ into exile = ?irte5 ye>s1 & !n   
came back ) a great army ( allies1 &    
aft] fi]ce & bloody battles ) !         
,kauravas & _! support]s 9 ! pla9 (     
,kuruk%etra at la/ ga9$ ! victory1 slew 
! ,kauravas1 & e/abli%$ ,yudhi%?ira z k+
 9 ,ha/9apura4 ,among ! ,p&avas ! lead+ 
"p is play$ by ! elde/1 ,yudhi%?ira1 & !
 ?ird1 ,arjuna2 ( ! o!rs1 ,bhima1 !     
second1 is a ,h]cules notable only = 8  
/r5g?1 c\rage1 & fidelity1 :ile ! tw9s  
,nakula & ,sahadeva are col\rless       
figures4 ,kri%na plays an important "p 9
 ! /ory2 = on ! return ( ! ,p&avas to   
fight ! ,kauravas he accompanies ,arjuna
 z 8 *>iote]1 & on ! eve ( ! fir/ battle
 deliv]s to him a disc\rse on 8         
religion1 ! ,bhagavad-gita1 or ,"l's    
,song1 :i* has become "o ( ! mo/ fam\s &
 p[]ful ( all ! sacr$ books ( ,india4   

,footnote #bj3 ,see ,h4 ,ray*audhuri1   
,mat]ials = ! ,/udy ( ! ,e>ly ,hi/ory ( 
! ,vai%nava ,sect1 p4 #bg4  ,n[ if !    
,mahabh>ata 7 z homog5e\s ev5 z ! ,iliad
 & ,odyssey1 :i* give u a fairly        
consi/5t & tru?ful picture ( a s+le age1
 we %\ld be 9 a v happy position4       
,un=tunately ?is is n ! case4 ,our epic 
began z a ,bh>ata1 or ,tale ( ! ,bh>ata 
,clan1 probably ( v mod]ate bulk1 n lat]
 ?an #fjj ,b4,c41 & p]haps consid]ably  
e>li]2 & f t "t onw>d x w5t on gr[+     
bigg] & bigg] = ov] a ?\s& ye>s1 z      
editors /uff$ 9 new episodes & /ill     
long] disc\rses on ne>ly all ! religi\s 
& philosophic doctr9es admitt$ )9 ! f\r 
walls ( ,h9duism1 until x grew to its   
pres5t imm5se bulk1 :i* x claims to     
am\nt to #ajj1jjj v]ses4 ,?us x pictures
 ! ?\ght n ( "o c5tury b ( m ?an t51 &  
we _c feel sure ( ! date ( any p>ticul> 
/atem5t 9 x4 ,nev]!less we c di/+ui% 9 a
 g5]al way betwe5 ! old skeleton ( !    
/ory1 9 :i* ! !me is treat$ 9 simple    
epic fa%ion1 society is f> fre] ?an 9   

lat] days & no "o objects to eat+ beef1 
f ! additional matt]1 9 :i* ! tale is   
reca/ 9 a f> m gr&iose ve9 & is padd$   
out ) enorm\s quantities ( moral1       
religi\s1 & philosophic s]mons4 ,!      
religion too is diff]5t 9 ! diff]5t     
p>ts4 ,9 ! old] portions ! gods :o are  
mo/ popul> are ,indra1 ,agni1 &         
,brahma--n ! neut] ab/ract ,brahma1 b ! 
mascul9e ,brahma1 ! ,demiurge1 :o       
corresponds m or less to ,prajapati ( ! 
,brahmanas & is repres5t$ 9 classical   
art z a f\r-head$ old man recit+ !      
,v$as--& ,kri%na seems to figure only z 
a h]o or at be/ z a demigod2 b ! lat]   
p>ts ) f9e imp>tiality claim ! supremacy
 ( heav5 v>i\sly = ,siva1 ,brahma1 &    
,vi%nu2 & ,vi%nu1 z we h se51 is        
sometimes id5tifi$ ) ,kri%na1 notably 9 
! *apt]s kn[n z ! ,bhagavad-gita4  ,!   
gods h *ang$ some:at s9ce e>li] days4   
,indra has settl$ d[n 9 ! con/itutional 
mon>*y ( ,p>adise assign$ to him by !   
,brahmanas2 he n[ figures z ! prototype 
( e>?ly k+s1 lead+ ! armies ( ! gods to 

w> aga9/ ! demons :5 occasion requires1 
& pass+ ! leisure ( peace 9 ! enjoym5t (
 cele/ial dissipation4 ,8 morals h n    
improv$3 he is a debonair debau*ee4     
,brahma ! ,creator1 a m popul> v]sion ( 
,prajapati1 is /ill too imp]sonal to h  
mu* hold on ! popul> imag9ation2 ! same 
is ! case ) ,agni ! ,fire-god4 ,pla9ly  
!re 0 a vacancy = a supreme deity ^: "* 
0 p[]ful en\gh to move m5's s\ls1 ei!r  
?r\gh awe or love2 & = ?is vacancy !re 7
 two /rong c&idates1 ,vi%nu & ,siva1 :o 
9 c\rse ( "t succe$$ to ! po/ & divid$ !
 supremacy betwe5 !m4  ,vi%nu has alt]$ 
imm5sely s9ce la/ we met him4 ,fir/1    
aft] an extraord9>y *ange 9 8 own "*1 he
 has be5 id5tifi$ ) ,n>ayana1 & !n bo? (
 !m h be5 equat$ ) ,kri%na4 ,!          
developm5t is s port5t\s t x calls = a  
little /udy4  ,we h se5 t 9 ! ,v$as     
,vi%nu appe>s to be1 & 9 ! ,brahmanas   
c]ta9ly is1 ! embodi$ ,_s ( !           
,sacrifice1 & t ritual my/icism has     
inv5t$ = him a supreme home 9 ! highe/  
heav54 ,b 9 ! ,epics he has develop$    

into a radiant & graci\s figure ( ideal 
div9ity1 an almighty savi\r ) a long    
record ( holy works = ! salvation (     
mank9d1 a god :o delights 9 moral       
goodness z well z 9 ritual propriety1 & 
:o f "t to "t inc>nates himself 9 human 
or animal =m s z to ma9ta9 ! ord] (     
righte\sness4 ,symbolism has fur!r end[$
 him ) a consort1 ! goddess ,sri or     
,lak%mi1 typify+ =tune2 sometimes also  
he is repres5t$ ) ano!r wife1 !         
,e>?-goddess4 ,! div9e hawk or kite     
,g>uda1 :o seems to h be5 orig9ally !   
same z ! eagle :o 9 ! ,rigv$ic leg5d    
c>ri$ (f ! soma = ,indra1 has be5 press$
 into 8 s]vice2 he n[ rides on ,g>uda1 &
 be>s 8 figure ^u 8 bann]4 ,i h already 
sugge/$ a possible explanation ( ?is    
evolution 7above1 p4 #da73 ow+ to 8     
close association ) ,indra1 ! mo/ truly 
popul> ( ,rigv$ic deities1 ! laic       
imag9ation transfus$ "s ( ! live blood (
 ,indra into ! ve9s ( ! prie/ly         
ab/raction ,vi%nu4 ,to ! pla9 man ,indra
 0 v real2 & z he frequ5tly he>d tales (

 ,indra be+ aid$ 9 8 exploits by ,vi%nu1
 he came to reg>d ,vi%nu z a v pres5t   
help] 9 tr\ble4 ,! fri5d ( ,indra became
 ! fri5d ( mank9d4 ,! po/ ( ,indra _h   
already be5 fix$ = him by ! !ologians2 b
 ! functions ( ,vi%nu1 outside !        
rituals1 7 /ill some:at vaguely def9$1 &
 7 capable ( consid]able expansion4 ,"h 
0 a great opportunity = ^? s\ls :o 7    
seek+ = a supreme god ( grace1 & 7 n    
satisfi$ to f9d him 9 ,siva2 & !y made  
full use ( x1 & :olly trans=m$ !        
p]sonality ( ,vi%nu4  ,"o ( ! /ages 9   
?is trans=mation 0 ! absorption (       
,n>ayana 9 ,vi%nu4 ,n>ayana 0 orig9ally 
a god ( a diff]5t k9d4 ,! e>lie/ ref]5ce
 to him is 9 a ,brahmana :i* calls him  
,puru%a ,n>ayana1 :i* means t x reg>ds  
him z be+ ! same z ! ,univ]sal ,_s :i*  
creates f itself ! cosmos2 x relates t  
,puru%a ,n>ayana p]vad$ ! :ole ( nature 
7,,sb4 ,,xii4 iii4 #d1 #a71 & t he made 
himself omnipres5t & supreme ov] all    
be+s by p]=m+ a pan*a-ratra sattra1 or  
s]ies ( sacrifices la/+ ov] five days   

7ib4 ,,xiii4 vi4 #a1 #a74 ,some:at lat] 
we f9d pray]s address$ to ,n>ayana1     
,vasudeva1 & ,vi%nu z ?ree phases ( !   
same god 7,taitt4 ,aran4 ,x4 i4 #f74 ,b 
0 ,n>ayana 9 orig9 m]ely a v>iety ( !   
,v$ic ,puru%a or our old acqua9tance    
,prajapati8 ,8 "n mu/ give u pause4 ,!  
mo/ simple explanation ( x is t x is a  
family "n3 z ,k>%nayana means a memb] ( 
! ,kri%na-family & ,ranayana a man      
belong+ to ! family ( ,rana1 s ,n>ayana 
w\ld naturally d5ote a p]son ( ! family 
( ,n>a4 ,b ,n>a itself signifies a man3 
is ! etymology !re=e r$uc$ to absurdity8
 ,n at all3 ,n>a is also us$ z a prop]  
"n1 z we %all see4#ba ,probably ! "n    
really means :at naturally x w\ld seem  
to mean1 a man ( ! ,n>a family2 t       
,n>ayana 0 orig9ally a div9e or deifi$  
sa9t1 a ri%i1 z ! ,h9dus w\ld call him2 
& t someh[ he became id5tifi$ ) ,vi%nu &
 ! ,univ]sal ,_s4  ,footnote #ba3 ,x mu/
 be admitt$ t anci5t writ]s give diff]5t
 etymologies ( ! "n3 ?us1 a poet 9 !    
,mahabh>ata 7,,iii4 clxxxix4 #c7 d]ives 

x f n>ah1 wat]s1 & ayanam1 go+1 und]/&+ 
x to mean "o :o has ! wat]s = 8         
re/+-place2 ,manu 7,i4 #aj1 )           
,m$hati?i's comm5t>y71 accept+ ! same   
etymology1 int]prets x z ! dwell+-place 
( all ! ,n>as2 & 9 ! ,mahabh>ata ,,xii4 
cccxli4 #ci1 x is also expla9$ z !      
dwell+-place ( mank9d4 ,b ^!            
int]pretations are pla9ly artificial    
concoctions4  ,?is !ory really is n by  
any means z wild z at fir/ sight x may  
seem to be4 ,div9e sa9ts are sometimes  
m5tion$ 9 ! ,rig-v$a & ,brahmanas z be+ 
! creators ( ! univ]se#bb2 & !y appe>   
aga9 & aga9 9 leg5d z equals ( ! gods1  
atta9+ div9e p[]s by _! my/ic insight   
into ! sacrificial lore4 ,b !re is m    
direct evid5ce ?an ?is4  ,footnote #bb3 
,,rv4 ,x4 cxxix4 #e1 ,,sb4 ,,vi4 i4 #a1 
#a-e4 ,cf4 ,*>p5ti]1 ,sup>nasage1 p4    
#chg4  ,9 ! ,mahabh>ata !re are         
incorporat$ two docum5ts ( fir/-rate    
importance = ! doctr9es ( ! *ur*es t    
wor%ipp$ ,vi%nu4 ,"o ( ^! is !          
,bhagavad-gita1 or ,"l's ,song 7,,vi4   

xxv4-xlii472 ! o!r is ! ,n>ayaniya1 or  
,acc\nt ( ,n>ayana 7,,xii4              
cccxxxvi4-cccliii474 ,_! tea*+s are n ! 
same 9 details1 ?\gh on mo/ ma9 po9ts !y
 agree2 = !y belong to diff]5t sections 
( ! "o religi\s body4 ,leav+ aside !    
,bhagavad-gita = ! mom5t1 we note t !   
,n>ayaniya relates a /ory t !re 7 born  
f\r sons ( ,dh>ma1 or ,righte\sness1    
viz4 ,n>a1 ,n>ayana1 ,h>i or ,vi%nu1 &  
,kri%na4 ,9 o!r places 7,i4 ccxxx4 #ah1 
,,iii4 xii4 #de1 xlvii4 #aj1 ,v4 xlviii4
 #ae1 etc47 we are pla9ly told t ,n>a is
 a previ\s inc>nation ( ,arjuna ! ,p&ava
 pr9ce1 & ,n>ayana is1 ( c\rse1 !       
supreme ,deity1 :o 9 ! "t ( ,arjuna 0   
born on e>? z ,kri%na ,vasudeva1 & t 9 8
 e>li] bir? ,n>a & ,n>ayana 7 bo?       
ascetic sa9ts4 ,?is tradition is v      
important1 = x enables u to see some?+ (
 ! e>ly "* ( ,n>ayana4 ,he 0 an anci5t  
sa9t ( leg5d1 :o 0 connect$ ) a h]o     
,n>a1 j z ,kri%na 0 associat$ ) ,arjuna2
 & ! atmosph]e ( sa9tl9ess cl+s to him  
ob/9ately4 ,tradition alleges t he 0 !  

ri%i1 or inspir$ se]1 :o compos$ !      
,puru%a-sukta ( ! ,rig-v$a 7,x4 #ij71 & 
repres5ts him by *oice z ly+ 9 a        
yoga-nidra1 or my/ic sleep1 ^u ! body ( 
! giant s]p5t ,se%a 9 ! mid/ ( ! ,ocean 
( ,milk4 ,?us ! wor%ip ( ,vi%nu1 l !    
wor%ip ( ,siva1 has ow$ mu* to !        
influ5ce ( live yogis idealis$ z div9e  
sa9ts2 ?\gh x mu/ be admitt$ t ! yogis (
 ! ,vai%nava ord]s h usually be5 m      
agreeable & less ambigu\s ?an ^? ( !    
,saiva community4  ,we mu/ briefly      
consid] n[ ! religi\s tea*+s ( !        
,bhagavad-gita & ! ,n>ayaniya1 & !n turn
 to ! inscriptions & contempor>y        
lit]ature to see :e!r we c f9d any      
sidelights 9 !m4 ,we beg9 ) !           
,bhagavad-gita1 or ,! ,"l's ,song4  ,!  
,bhagavad-gita purports to be a dialogue
 betwe5 ! ,p&ava pr9ce ,arjuna &        
,kri%na1 :o 0 s]v+ him z 8 *>iote]1 on !
 eve ( ! great battle4 ,9 ord] to inv5t 
a lead+ motive = 8 tea*+1 ! poet        
repres5ts ,arjuna z sudd5ly /rick5 )    
ov]:elm+ remorse at ! prospect ( !      

fratricidal /rife :i* he is ab\t to     
beg94 ,i w n fight1 he cries 9 angui%4  
,!n ,kri%na beg9s a long s]ies (        
argum5ts to /imulate him = ! com+       
battle4 ,he po9ts out1 ) quotations f ! 
,upani%ads1 t kill+ m5 9 battle does n  
de/roy _! s\ls2 = ! s\l is              
inde/ructible1 migrat+ f body to body   
accord+ to its own des]ts4 ,! duty ( !  
man born 9 ! ,w>rior-ca/e is to fight2  
fight+ is 8 ca/e-duty1 8 dh>ma1 & z su* 
x c entail ^u him no guilt if x be p]=m$
 9 ! "r _s4 ,b h[ is ?is to be done8 ,! 
answ] is ! lead+ motive ( ,kri%na's     
tea*+4 ,= ! ma9t5ance ( ! _w x is       
necess>y t m5 %\ld d ! works ( _!       
respective ca/es1 & ^! works d n op]ate 
z k>ma to ! detrim5t ( ! future life (  
_! s\ls if !y p]=m !m n f selfi% motives
 b z (f]+s made 9 p]fect unselfi%ness to
 ! ,"l4 ,?is is ! doctr9e ( ,k>ma-yoga1 
discipl9e ( works1 :i* is decl>$ to lead
 ! s\l ( ! wor%ipp] to salvation 9 ! ,"l
 z effectually z ! anci5t               
intellectualism prea*$ 9 ! ,upani%ads & 

! ,samkhya philosophy4 ,b !re is also a 
?ird way to salvation1 ! way ?r\gh lov+ 
devotion1 or bhakti1 :i* is z efficaci\s
 z ei!r ( ! o!r two2 ! wor%ipp]s ( ,siva
 _h already prea*$ ?is = _! own *ur* 9 !
 ,svetasvat>a ,upani%ad4 ,besides treat+
 )\t mu* consi/5cy or me?od ( _m        
incid5tal que/ions ( religi\s !ory &    
practice1 ,kri%na reveals himself = a   
few in/ants to ,arjuna 9 8 =m z ,viraj1 
! univ]sal be+ 9 :i* all be+s are       
compreh5d$ & consum$4 ,f9ally ,arjuna is
 com=t$1 & lay+ ! burd5 ( all 8 works ^u
 ,kri%na1 he prep>es 9 quiet fai? = !   
com+ day ( battle4  ,!re are f\r ma9    
po9ts to notice 9 ?is tea*+4 7#a7 ,!    
,supreme ,god1 sup]ior to ,brahma1 he :o
 rules by grace & compreh5ds 9 8        
univ]sal p]son ! :ole ( exi/5ce1 is     
,vi%nu1 or ,h>i1 repres5t$ on e>? = ! "t
 be+ by ,kri%na ,vasudeva4 ,! au?or     
makes no attempt to reconcile ! fatalism
 impli$ 9 ! old !ory ( k>ma-sams>a ) 8  
new doctr9e ( special & g5]al grace3 he 
all[s ! two pr9ciples to /& side by     

side1 & leaves = future g5]ations (     
!ologians ! delicate task ( h>monis+ !m4
 7#b7 ,?ree roads to salvation are      
recognis$ 9 pr9ciple1 ! intellectual    
gnosis ( ! old ,upani%ads & ! ,samkhya1 
! way ( works or p]=mance ( necess>y    
social duties 9 a _s ( p]fect surr5d] to
 ,god1 & ! way ( devotion1 cont9u\s lov+
 wor%ip & contemplation ( ,god4 ,9      
practice ! fir/ me?od is ignor$ z be+   
too sev]e = av]age m52 ! second & ?ird  
are recomm5d$1 z be+ suitable = all     
classes4 7#c7 ,! way ( salvation is ?us 
?r[n op5 directly to m5 & wom5 ( all    
ca/es & conditions4 ,! ,bhagavad-gita   
fully approves ( ! or?odox division (   
society into ca/es2 b by its doctr9e t !
 p]=mance ( ca/e-duties 9 a _s (        
sacrifice leads to salvation x makes    
ca/e an av5ue to salvation1 n a b>ri]4  
7#d7 ,! ,bhagavad-gita has no?+ to say =
 ! animal-sacrifices ( ! ,brahmans4 ,x  
recognises only (f]+s ( fl[]s1 fruits1 &
 ! l4 ,! doctr9e ( ahimsa1 ?\ %alt d no 
hurt1 0 mak+ mu* headway at ! "t1 & !   

:olesale animal-sacrifices ( ! ,brahmans
 r\s$ g5]al disgu/1 ( :i* ! ,buddhi/s & 
,ja9s took advantage = ! propagation (  
_! tea*+s4  ,i h previ\sly spok5 ( !    
solit>y passage 9 ! ,*h&ogya ,upani%ad 9
 :i* ,kri%na's "n is m5tion$1 z receiv+ 
! tea*+s ( ,ghora ,angirasa1 & x w n[ be
 fitt+ to see h[ f> ^! tea*+s are       
reflect$ 9 ! ,bhagavad-gita4 ,ghora     
comp>es ! functions ( life to !         
c]emonies ( ! dik%a 7see above1 p4#fh73 
& ?is is at bottom ! same idea z !      
doctr9e ( k>ma-yoga prea*$ aga9 & aga9 9
 ! ,bhagavad-gita4 ,:atev] be ?y "w1 ?9e
 eat+1 ?y sacrifice1 ?y gift1 ?y        
mortification1 make ( x an (f]+ to me1  
says ,kri%na 7,,ix4 #bg72 all life %\ld 
be reg>d$ z a sacrifice freely (f]$4 ,!n
 ,ghora cont9ues3 ,9 ! h\r ( dea? "o    
%\ld take refuge 9 ^! ?ree ?\ghts3 ',?\ 
art ! ,inde/ructible1 ,?\ art !         
,unfail+1 ,?\ art in/9ct ) ,_s4' ,on ?is
 !re are ^! two v]ses ( ! ,rig-v$a3     
,?us upw>d f ! primal se$     ,f out !  
d>kness all ar\nd     ,we1 look+ on !   

high] light1     ,yea1 look+ on ! high] 
heav51     ,h come to ,surya1 god mid/  
gods1     ,to him t is ! highe/ light1 !
 highe/ light4  ,9 ! ,bhagavad-gita     
7,,iv4 #a ff47 ,kri%na ann\nces t he    
prea*$ 8 doctr9e to ,vivasvan !         
,sun-god1 :o pass$ x on to 8 son !      
patri>* ,manu2 else:]e 9 ! ,mahabh>ata  
7,,xii4 cccv4 #ai7 ! ,satvata tea*+ is  
said to h be5 ann\nc$ by ! ,sun4 ,ghora 
9 8 li/ ( moral virtues enum]ates       
mortification1 *>ity1 uprightness1      
h>mlessness1 tru?fulness2 exactly ! same
 attributes1 ) a few m1 are said 9 !    
,bhagavad-gita to *>act]ise ! man :o is 
born to ! gods' e/ate 7,,xvi4 #a-c74    
,ghora's exhortation to ?9k ( ! nature (
 ! ,supreme 9 ! h\r ( dea? is balanc$ by
 ,kri%na's words3 ,he :o at 8 la/ h\r1  
:5 he ca/s (f ! body1 goes h5ce rememb]+
 me1 goes assur$ly into my be+ 7,,viii4 
#e2 cf4 #aj74 ,^! p>allels are inde$ n v
 close2 b collectively !y are           
significant1 & :5 we be> 9 m9d t ! au?or
 ( ! ,bhagavad-gita is eag] to associate

 8 doctr9e ) ^? ( ! ,upani%ads1 & ?us to
 make x a new & ca?olic ,upani%ad = all 
classes1 we are l$ to conclude t its    
fundam5tal ideas1 sanctification ( works
 7k>ma-yoga71 wor%ip ( a ,supreme ,god (
 ,grace 7bhakti7 by all classes1 &      
rejection ( animal sacrifices 7ahimsa7  
arose among ! or?odox ,k%atriyas1 :o    
f\nd means to p]suade _! ,brahmanic     
preceptors to br+ x into connection ) _!
 ,upani%ads & embelli% x ) appropriate  
texts f ^? s\rces4 ,v likely ,kri%na    
,vasudeva1 if n ! fir/ inv5tor ( ^!     
doctr9es1 0 _! mo/ vigor\s propagator4  
,n[ :at are ! tea*+s ( ! ,n>ayaniya8 ,x 
appe>s to conta9 two acc\nts4 ,9 ! fir/ 
we h ! /ory ( k+ ,vasu ,up>i*>a1 :o is  
said to h wor%ipp$ ! ,supreme ,god ,h>i 
7,vi%nu7 9 devotion )\t any             
animal-sacrifices1 9 accordance )       
doctr9es ascrib$ to ! ,aranyakas1 i4e4 !
 lat] sections ( ! ,brahmanas1 includ+ !
 old] ,upani%ads4 ,?is fully agrees ) ! 
/&po9t ( ! ,bhagavad-gita4 ,! second    
acc\nt gives ! /ory ( a visit paid by ! 

div9e sa9t ,n>ada to a my/]i\s ,:ite    
,isl&1 ,sveta-dvipa1 inhabit$ by holy   
wor%ipp]s ( ,god :o are1 /rangely en\gh1
 describ$ z hav+ heads %ap$ l umbrellas 
& feet l lotus-leaves & z mak+ a s\nd l 
t ( ?und]-cl\ds#bc2 !y are radiant l !  
moon1 h no physical s5ses1 eat no?+1 &  
conc5trate _! :ole s\l on raptur\s      
adoration ( ! _s ( ,god1 :i* %9es !re 9 
dazzl+ brightness to ! eye ( p]fect     
fai?4 ,n>ayana !re reveals himself to   
,n>ada1 & sets =? to him ! doctr9e (    
,vasudeva4 ,accord+ to ?is1 ,n>ayana has
 f\r =ms1 call$ murtis or vyuhas4 ,!    
fir/ ( ^! is ,vasudeva1 :o is ! highe/  
s\l & creator & inw>dly controls all    
individual s\ls4 ,f him arose           
,samk>%ana1 :o corresponds to !         
individual s\l2 f ,samk>%ana issu$      
,pradyumna1 to :om corresponds ! organ (
 m9d1 & f ,pradyumna came =? ,aniruddha1
 repres5t+ ! elem5t ( self-consci\sness4
 ,obs]ve 9 pass+ t ^! are all names (   
h]oes ( leg5d3 ,samk>%ana is ,vasudeva's
 bro!r ,bala-rama1 ,pradyumna 0 ! son & 

,aniruddha ! gr&son ( ,vasudeva4        
,n>ayana !n goes on to speak ( !        
creation ( all ?+s f himself & _!       
dissolution into himself1 & ( 8         
inc>nations 9 ! =m ( ! ,bo> :o lift$ up 
on 8 tusk ! e>? :5 subm]g$ "u ! ocean1  
,n>asimha ! ,man-lion :o de/roy$ !      
tyrant ,hiranya-kasipu1 ! ,dw>f :o      
ov]?rew ,bali1 ,rama ,bh>gava :o de/roy$
 ! ,k%atriyas1 ,rama ,das>a?i1 ( :om we 
%all h some?+ to say lat]4 ,kri%na      
,vasudeva ! slay] ( ,kamsa ( ,ma?ura1 ! 
,tortoise1 ! ,fi%1 & ,kalki4 ,!n foll[  
"s fur!r details1 among !m a /atem5t t  
?is doctr9e 0 reveal$ to ,arjuna at !   
beg9n+ ( ! ,great ,w>--a cle> ref]5ce to
 ! ,bhagavad-gita--t at ! beg9n+ ( e age
 x 0 promulgat$ by ,n>ayana1 t x        
requires activity 9 pi\s works1 t at !  
comm5cem5t ( ! pres5t age x pass$ f him 
to ,brahma1 f him to ,vivasvan !        
,sun-god1 f him to ! patri>* ,manu1     
etc41 t x does n all[ ! sacrifice (     
animals1 & t = salvation ! co-op]ative  
grace ( ,n>ayana is necess>y4 ,mo/ ( ?is

 doctr9e is already 9 ! ,bhagavad-gita2 
:at is n f\nd 9 ! latt] is ! acc\nt ( ! 
my/]i\s ,:ite ,isl&1 ! !ory ( vyuhas or 
emanations1 :i* repres5ts ,vasudeva z   
issu+ f ,n>ayana & s =?1 & ! details (  
,n>ayana's inc>nations4 ,x is !re=e a   
di/9ct textbook ( ! ,satvata or         
,pan*>atra *ur*1 n mu* lat] ?an !       
,bhagavad-gita4 ,accord+ to x1 !        
,supreme ,be+ is ,n>ayana1 ! ,almighty  
,god :o reveals himself z highe/ tea*] &
 sa9tly sage1 ^: leg5d>y p]=mance ( a   
five-days' sacrifice 7above1 p4 #gf7 has
 ga9$ = 8 doctr9e ! title ( ,pan*>atra4 
,next 9 ord] ( div9ity is ,kri%na       
,vasudeva1 ^: tribal "n ( ,satvata has  
furni%$ ! o!r "n ( ?is *ur*2 !n foll[ 9 
due ord] ,samk>%ana1 ,pradyumna1 &      
,aniruddha1 all ( 8 family2 & )         
,vasudeva is closely associat$ ! epic   
h]o ,arjuna1 a prototype = ?is mortal   
pair be+ discov]$ 9 ! leg5d>y ,n>a &    
,n>ayana4  ,footnote #bc3 ,x is obvi\s t
 ?is isl& lies 9 a latitude some:]e     
betwe5 t ( ,lilliput & ,brobd+nag1 & t !

 pr(essors :o h endeav\r$ to locate x on
 ! map ( ,asia h wa/$ _! "t4  ,comp>+ !n
 ! ,bhagavad-gita ) ! ,n>ayaniya1 we see
 t 9 all ess5tials !y agree1 b 9 two    
po9ts !y diff]4 ,bo? prea* a doctr9e (  
activity 9 pi\s works1 pravritti1 9     
consci\s opposition to ! inactivity ( ! 
,aupani%adas & ,samkhyas2 b ! ,n>ayaniya
 does n dwell mu* on ?is topic1 & limits
 activity to /rictly religi\s duties1   
:ile ! ,bhagavad-gita develops ! idea s 
z to include ev]y?+1 ?us sket*+ out a   
bold sy/em = ! sanctification ( all     
sides ( life1 :i* enables x to op5 !    
door ( salvation directly to all classes
 ( mank9d4 ,secondly1 ! ,bhagavad-gita  
says no?+ ab\t ! !ory ( emanations or   
vyuhas 9 connection ) ,vasudeva2        
probably its au?or knew ! leg5ds (      
,samk>%ana1 ,pradyumna1 & ,aniruddha1 b 
he app>5tly did n "k or at lea/ did n   
accept ! view t ^! p]sons 7 relat$ z    
successive emanations f ,vasudeva4 ,we  
mu/ !re=e look r\nd = sidelights :i* may
 cle> up ! obscurities 9 ! hi/ory ( ?is 

*ur*4  ,our fir/ sidelight glimm]s 9 !  
fam\s gramm> ( ,pan9i1 :o probably liv$ 
9 ! fif? c5tury ,b4,c41 or p]haps e>ly 9
 ! f\r? c5tury4 ,pan9i in=ms u 7,,iv4   
iii4 #ih7 t f ! names ( ,vasudeva &     
,arjuna ! d]ivative n\ns ,vasudevaka &  
,arjunaka are =m$ to d5ote p]sons :o    
wor%ip respectively ,vasudeva & ,arjuna4
 ,pla9ly !n 9 ! fif? c5tury ,kri%na     
,vasudeva & ,arjuna 7 wor%ipp$ by "s1   
probably 9 ! same connection z is %[n 9 
! ,mahabh>ata4 ,p]haps ,vasudeva _h n   
yet be5 rais$ to ! rank ( ! ,almighty2 x
 is m likely t he 0 /ill a deifi$ h]o & 
tea*]1 & ,arjuna 8 noble/ disciple4 ,b  
bo? ( !m 7 receiv+ div9e hon\rs2 !y _h  
be5 m51 & 7 n[ gods1 ) b&s ( ador]s4    
,our next evid5ce is an inscription f\nd
 n long ago on ! base ( a /one column at
 ,besnag> ne> ,bhilsa1 9 ! s\? (        
,gwalior ,/ate1#bd & mu/ h be5 engrav$  
soon aft] #bjj ,b4,c4 ,x reads z foll[s3
 ,?is ,g>uda-column ( ,vasudeva ! god ( 
gods 0 erect$ "h by ,heliodorus1 a      
wor%ipp] ( ! ,"l bhagavata1 ! son (     

,diya ,greek ,dion & an inhabitant (    
,taxila1 :o came z ambassador ( !       
,greeks f ! ,great ,k+ ,amtalikita      
,greek ,antialcidas to ,k+ ,kasiputra   
,bhagabhadra ! ,savi\r1 :o 0 fl\ri%+ 9 !
 f\rte5? ye> ( 8 reign2 & bel[ ?is are  
two l9es 9 "s k9d ( v]se1 :i* ann\nce t 
?ree immortal /eps 444 :5 practis$ lead 
to heav5--self-control1 *>ity1 &        
dilig5ce4 ,"h1 !n1 9 ! c5tre ( a ?riv+  
k+dom probably =m+ "p ( ! ,sunga empire1
 ,vasudeva is wor%ipp$ n z a m9or h]o or
 tea*]1 b z ! god ( gods1 deva-deva2 &  
he is wor%ipp$ by ! ,greek ,heliodorus1 
visit+ ! place z an ambassador f        
,antialcidas1 a ,hell5ic k+ ( ! l9eage (
 ,eucratides1 :o 0 reign+ 9 ! ,nor?-,we/
 ( ,india4 ,d\btless ! act ( ,heliodorus
 0 a diplomatic c\rtesy1 9 ord] to      
please ,k+ ,kasiputra ,bhagabhadra4 ,b  
obs]ve ! nature ( 8 act4 ,he caus$ to be
 erect$ a ,g>uda-column1 t is1 a pill>  
engrav$ ) ! figure ( ,g>uda1 ! sacr$    
bird ( ,vi%nu2 & he add$ a v]se ab\t    
?ree immortal /eps 7tr9i amutapadani71 z

 lead+ to heav51 :i* s\nds suspici\sly l
 an attempt to moralise ! old my?ical   
feature ( ! ?ree ,/eps ( ,vi%nu4 ,pla9ly
 ,vasudeva _h n[ ris5 9 ?is "p ( !      
c\ntry f be+ ! tea*] ( a *ur* (         
,vi%nu-,n>ayana to ! rank ( its *ief    
god1 ) :i* he _h become fully id5tifi$4 
,footnote #bd3 ,see ,rapson1 ,anci5t    
,india1 p4 #aef ff41 ,cambridge ,hi/4   
,india1 i1 pp4 #eba1 #eeh1 #fbe1 ,h4    
,ray ,*audhuri1 ,mat]ials = ! ,/udy ( ! 
,e>ly ,hi/ory ( ! ,vai%nava ,sect1 p4   
#ei1 & ,ramaprasad ,*&a1 ,ar*aeology &  
,vai%nava ,tradition 9 ,memoirs ( !     
,ar*aeological ,survey ( ,india1 ,no4   
#e1 p4 #aea ff41 etc4  ,ano!r           
inscription1 a few ye>s lat] 9 date1 has
 be5 f\nd 9 ,besnag>4 ,x is a m]e       
fragm5t1 b x supplem5ts ! o!r2 = x /ates
 t a c]ta9 bhagavata1 or wor%ipp] ( !   
,"l1 nam$ ,gotama-puta 7,gautama-putra 9
 ,sanskrit7 erect$ a ,g>uda-column = !  
,"l's temple 9 ! twelf? ye> f !         
coronation ( ,k+ ,bhagavata4 ,?is k+ is 
p]haps ! same z ! p]son ( t "n :o appe>s

 9 "s g5ealogical li/s z ! la/ b "o ( ! 
,sunga ,k+s4#be  ,footnote #be3 ,see ,r4
 ,*&a1 ut supra1 p4 #aeb f4  ,next 9    
date is an inscription on a /one slab   
f\nd at ,ghasundi1 ab\t f\r miles       
nor?-ea/ ( ,nag>i1 9 ,udaipur ,/ate4 ,x 
0 engrav$ ab\t #aej ,b4,c41 & records t 
a c]ta9 bhagavata1 or wor%ipp] ( ! ,"l1 
nam$ ,gajayana1 son ( ,p>as>i1 caus$ to 
be erect$ 9 ! ,n>ayana-vata1 or p>k (   
,n>ayana1 a /one *apel = ! wor%ip ( !   
,lords ,samk>%ana & ,vasudeva4#bf ,"h _!
 wor%ip is associat$ ) t ( ,n>ayana4    
,footnote #bf3 ,x is notewor?y t        
,samk>%ana is "h m5tion$ fir/1 z is also
 ! case 9 ! ,nanaghat inscription ( ab\t
 #ajj ,b4,c41 :i* m5tions !m z          
desc5dants ( ! ,moon 9 a li/ ( v>i\s    
deities4 ,?is ord] may possibly be due  
to ! fact t 9 anci5t leg5d ,samk>%ana1  
or ,bala-bhadra1 is ! eld] bro!r (      
,kri%na ,vasudeva1 & x does n entitle u 
to draw ! inf]5ce t he ev] receiv$ equal
 hon\r ) ,vasudeva4 ,special devotees ( 
,samk>%ana are m5tion$ 9 ! ,kautiliya1 !

 fam\s treatise on polity ascrib$ to    
,*anakya1 ! m9i/] ( ,*&ra-gupta ,maurya1
 :o came to ! ?rone ab\t #cbj ,b4,c4    
7,engl4 transl4 #a/ edn41 p4 #dhe74 ,i  
suspect t 9 its pres5t =m ! ,kautiliya  
is consid]ably lat] ?an #cbj ,b4,c42 b 9
 any case ! exi/5ce ( special vot>ies ( 
,samk>%ana is no pro( t he ev] rank$ z  
equal to ,vasudeva1 j z ! pres5ce (     
special wor%ipp]s ( ,arjuna is no pro( t
 ,arjuna 0 ev] consid]$ a pe] (         
,vasudeva4 ,on ! ,ghasundi inscription  
see ,r4 ,*&a1 ut supra1 p4 #afc ff41    
etc42 = ! ,nanaghat inscription1 ibidem 
& ,memoirs ( ! ,ar*4 ,survey ( ,india1  
,no4 #a1 ) ,h4 ,ray*audhuri's ,mat]ials1
 etc41 p4 #fh ff4  ,pass+ ov] an        
inscription at ,ma?ura :i* records !    
build+ ( a "p ( a sanctu>y to ! ,"l     
,vasudeva ab\t #ae ,b4,c4 by ! great    
,satrap ,sodasa1#bg we note t !         
gramm>ian ,patanjali1 :o wrote 8        
comm5t>y ! ,mahabha%ya ^u ,pan9i's      
gramm> ab\t #aej ,b4,c41 has some?+ to  
say ab\t ,kri%na ,vasudeva1 :om he      

recognises z a div9e be+ 7on ,,iv4 iii4 
#ih74 ,he quotes "s v]ses ref]r+ to him4
 ,! fir/ 7on ,,ii4 ii4 #bc7 is to !     
foll[+ effect3 ,may ! might ( ,kri%na   
accompani$ by ,samk>%ana increase6      
,ano!r 7on ,,vi4 iii4 #f7 speaks (      
,jan>dana ) himself z f\r?1 t is to say1
 ,kri%na ) ?ree companions3 ! ?ree may  
be ,samk>%ana1 ,pradyumna1 & ,aniruddha1
 or !y may n4 ,ano!r v]se 7on ,,ii4 ii4 
#cd7 speaks ( musical in/rum5ts be+     
play$ at meet+s 9 ! temples ( ,rama &   
,kesava4 ,rama is ,bala-rama or         
,bala-bhadra1 :o is ! same z ,samk>%ana1
 & ,kesava is a title ( ,kri%na1 :i* 0  
appli$ also to ,vi%nu or ,n>ayana       
accord+ to ! ,bodhayana-dh>ma-sutra1 :i*
 may be assign$ to ! second c5tury      
,b4,c4 ,! ,ovavai1 or ,aupapatika-sutra1
 a ,ja9 scripture :i* may p]haps belong 
to ! same p]iod1 m5tions 7,sec4 #gf7    
,kanha-p>ivvaya1 w&]+ fri>s :o wor%ipp$ 
,kri%na4 ,?us lit]ature z well z        
inscriptions %[s t ,kri%na ,vasudeva & 8
 bro!r ,samk>%ana 7 9 _m places wor%ipp$

 z sa9ts ( a *ur* ( ,vi%nu-,n>ayana ab\t
 #aej ,b4,c41 & t 9 "s p>ts ,vasudeva 0 
recognis$ z ! ,almighty himself ab\t    
#bjj ,b4,c4  ,footnote #bg3 ,r4 ,*&a1 ut
 supra1 p4 #afi f4  ,9 ano!r passage 7on
 ,,iii4 i1 #bf7 ,patanjali describes    
dramatic & mimetic p]=mances repres5t+ !
 kill+ ( ,kamsa by ,vasudeva4 ,altoge!r 
8 ref]5ces %[ t ! leg5d & wor%ip (      
,vasudeva bulk$ l>gely 9 ! popul> m9d at
 ?is "t 9 ,india nor? ( ! ,v9dhya       
m\nta9s4 ,vasudeva 0 ador$ z ! great    
tea*] & h]o-k+1 9 :om ! gods ,vi%nu &   
,n>ayana 7 inc>nat$2 & he 0 associat$ ) 
two great cycles ( leg5d1 ! "o t relat$ 
8 bir? at ,ma?ura1 8 victory ov] !      
tyrant ,kamsa1 8 e/abli%m5t ( ! colony  
at ,dv>aka1 & 8 adv5tures until 8 dea? &
 translation to heav51 & ! o!r tell+ ( 8
 %>e 9 ! ,great ,w> z ally ( ! five     
,p&ava bre?r54 ,bo? cycles repres5t$ him
 z support$ by pr9cely h]oes4 ,!        
,ma?ura-,dv>aka leg5d gave him 8 bro!r  
,bala-bhadra or ,samk>%ana1 8 son       
,pradyumna1 & 8 gr&son ,aniruddha1 :om  

!ologians ab\t ! beg9n+ ( ! ,*ri/ian era
 fitt$ into _! philosophical s*emes by  
repres5t+ !m z successive emanations f  
him2 & ! ,mahabh>ata furni%$ him ) !    
,p&avas1 ^: h]oic tale soon creat$ = !m 
a wor%ip ev]y:]e4 ,z we h se51 !re 7    
ador]s ( ,arjuna already 9 ! fif? c5tury
 ,b4,c42 & 9 ! fir/ c5tury ,b4,c4 !re   
seems to be evid5ce = a wor%ip ( all !  
five toge!r ) ,vasudeva1 = an           
inscription has be5 f\nd at ,mora :i*   
app>5tly m5tions a son ( ! great ,satrap
 ,rajuvula1 probably ! well-kn[n ,satrap
 ,sodasa1 & an image ( ! ,"l ,vri%ni1   
probably ,vasudeva1 & ( ! ,five         
,w>riors4#bh ,already ! poets ( !       
,mahabh>ata h tak5 ! fir/ /ep t[>ds !   
deification ( ! ,p&avas by f9d+ div9e   
fa!rs = ea* ( !m1 mak+ ,yudhi%?ira ! son
 ( ,dh>ma or ,yama1 ! god ( ! ne!r _w1  
,arjuna son ( ,indra1 ,bhima son ( ,vayu
 ! ,w9d-god1 & ,nakula & ,sahadeva      
(fspr+ ( ! ,asv9s4 ,hundr$s ( cav]ns    
?r\gh\t ,india are decl>$ by popul>     
leg5d to h be5 _! dwell+s dur+ _! w&]+s2

 & a noble monum5t to _! memory has be5 
rais$ by "o ( ! great ,pallava k+s (    
,conjev>am :o 9 ! sev5? c5tury ,a4,d4   
c>v$ out ( ! solid rock on ! sea%ore at 
,mamallapuram ! f9e *apels t be> _!     
names4 ,d\btless all ^! h]oes f bo?     
cycles 7 once wor%ipp$ 9 ! usual mann]1 
) (f]+s ( food1 inc5se1 lights1 fl[]s1  
etc41 & s++ ( hymns on _!               
exploits--*iefly 9 connection )         
,vasudeva2 b all ?is wor%ip is n[ utt]ly
 =gott51 except :]e e*oes ( x l+] 9     
popul> leg5d4  ,footnote #bh3 ,r4 ,*&ra1
 ut supra1 p4 #afe f4  ,our survey ( !  
religion ( ,vasudeva has br\ght u d[n to
 a date :i* _c inde$ be exactly fix$1 b 
:i* may be plac$ approximately 9 !      
second c5tury ( our era4 ,?is religion1 
z we h se51 arose & grew great 9 !      
f]tile soil ( ! spiritual ne$s &        
exp]i5ces ( ,india4 ,x began by m\ld+ a 
p]sonal ,god out ( anci5t figures ( my? 
& leg5d1 & x surr\nd$ him ) a hi]>*y (  
godly h]oes4 ,?\gh its doctr9es 7 (t5   
philosophically incongru\s & incoh]5t1  

its f\ndation 0 a true religi\s feel+2 x
 gave scope to ! my/ic raptures ( !     
ascetic & ! simple righte\sness ( !     
laic2 & x claim$ = its h]oes1 ,vasudeva 
& 8 k9dr$ & 8 fri5ds ! ,p&ava bre?r51 a 
grave & dignifi$ h]o-wor%ip4 ,9 %ort1 x 
is a s]i\s ,indian religion ) an epic   
sett+4  ,& n[ sudd5ly & mo/ unexpect$ly 
an utt]ly new _s beg9s to brea! 9 x4 ,to
 ! old tea*+s & leg5ds are add$ new ones
 ( a :olly diff]5t ca/4 ,! old epic _s (
 grave & manly *ivalry & godly wisdom is
 ov]%ad[$ by a new passion--adoration ( 
t5d] babyhood & wanton *ildhood1 amor\s 
ec/asies1 a hectic fire ( erotic        
romance4  ,( ?is new _s !re is no trace 
9 ! epic1 except 9 "o or two late       
int]polations4 ,b ! ,h>i-vamsa1 :i* 0   
add$ z an app5dix to ! ,mahabh>ata n v  
long be=e ! f\r? c5tury ,a4,d41 is      
already in/9ct ) x4 ,x adds to ! epic   
/ory ( ,kri%na a flu5t v]se acc\nt ( 8  
miracul\s pres]vation f ,kamsa at 8     
bir?1 8 *ildhood among ! h]dsm5 &       
h]dswom5 ( ,vraja 7! ,doab ne> ,ma?ura7 

) its m>vell\s freaks & wond]ful        
exploits1 8 amor\s sports ) ! h]dswom51 
9 fact all ! s5su\s emotionalism on :i* 
! lat] *ur* ( ,kri%na has ev] s9ce      
batt5$4 ,ab\t ! same "t appe>$ !        
,vi%nu-purana1 :i* includes mo/ ( ! same
 matt] z ! ,h>i-vamsa2 & "s c5turies    
lat]1 probably ab\t ! t5? c5tury1 !re 0 
writt5 a /ill m rem>kable book1 !       
,bhagavata-purana1 ( :i* a great "p is  
tak5 up ) ! romance ( ,kri%na's babyhood
 & *ildhood1 & especially 8 amor\s      
sports4 ,9 ! ,bhagavata ! lat] wor%ip ( 
,kri%na f\nd its classic expression4 ,9 
! ,h>i-vamsa & ,vi%nu-purana religi\s   
emotion is /ill held "u a c]ta9 re/ra9t2
 b 9 ! ,bhagavata x has brok5 loose &   
runs riot4 ,x is a romance ( ec/atic    
love = ,kri%na1 :o is no long]1 z 9 !   
,vi%nu-purana1 ! inc>nation ( a portion 
( ! ,supreme ,vi%nu1 b v ,god become    
man1 :olly & utt]ly div9e 9 8 humanity4 
,x dwells 9 a rapture ( t5d]ness ^u !   
,god-babe1 & ^u ! wanton play ( ! lovely
 *ild :o is delightful 9 8 naught9ess & 

m>vell\s 9 8 occasional displays (      
sup]human p[]2 x figures him z an ideal 
( boyi% beauty1 deck$ ) jewels & cre/$ )
 peacock's fea!rs1 w&]+ ?r\gh ! fl[]+   
=e/s ( ,vraja1 danc+ & play+ on 8 flute 
melodies t fill ! s\ls ( all t he> !m ) 
an irresi/ible passion ( love & delight2
 x revels 9 tales ( h[ ! precoci\s boy  
made wanton sport ) ! h]dswom5 ( ,vraja1
 & h[ ! magic ( 8 flut+ drew !m to !    
dance 9 :i* !y 7 unit$ to him 9 a       
rapture ( love4 ,! book ?rills ) amor\s1
 s5su\s ec/asy2 ! ?\ght ( ,kri%na /irs !
 wor%ipp] to a passion ( love 9 :i* te>s
 gu% =? 9 ! mid/ ( laught]1 ! spee*     
halts1 & (t5 ! s5ses fail & leave him 9 
long trances4 ,erotic emotionalism c g  
no fur!r4  ,:]e did ?is new _s come f8  
,"s h lab\r$ to prove t x _h its s\rce 9
 ,*ri/ianity2 o!rs h argu$ t x 0        
,*ri/ianity t 0 ! debtor to ,india 9 ?is
 respect4 ,bo? !ories are 9 ! ma9       
impossible4 ,?is cult ( ! *ild ,kri%na  
arose 9 ,india1 &1 ) ! possible         
exception ( a few obscure tales1 x nev] 

spread outside ! circle ( ,indian       
religion4 ,b h[ & :]e did x arise8 ,t is
 a "q h>d to answ]2 !re is no direct    
evid5ce1 & we c only balance            
probabilities4 ,n[ :at are !            
probabilities8  ,! wor%ip ( ,kri%na z a 
babe1 a boy1 & a "y man among ! h]dsfolk
 ( ,vraja seems to h no relation ) !    
old] =m ( ! religion z set =? 9 ! epic  
textbooks4 ,x is a new elem5t1 import$ f
 )\t4 ,! mo/ natural conclusion !n is t 
x came f ! p :o are describ$ 9 x1 "s    
tribe t pa/ur$ _! h]ds 9 ! woodl&s ne>  
,ma?ura4 ,p]haps ^! h]dsfolk 7 ,abhiras1
 ance/ors ( ! mod]n ,ahir tribes4 ,if s1
 x w\ld be natural t _! cult %\ld       
attract att5tion2 = sometimes ,abhiras  
c\nt$ = some?+ 9 society1 & we ev5 f9d a
 %ort-liv$ dyna/y ( ,abhira k+s reign+ 9
 ,nasik 9 ! ?ird c5tury ,a4,d4#bi ,be   
?is z x may1 x seems v likely t "s      
pa/oral tribe _h a cult ( a div9e *ild  
blue or black ( hue1 & p]haps actually  
call$ by !m ,kri%na or ,kanha1          
,black-man 7obs]ve t h5ce=? ,kri%na is  

regul>ly repres5t$ ) a blue sk971 a cult
 9 :i* gross ru/ic fantasy _h free play2
 t x came 9 "s circles to be l9k$ on to 
! epic cycle ( ,kri%na ,vasudeva2 & t "s
 ,bhagavatas1 see+ 9 x lat5t            
possibilities1 gave x poli%$ lit]>y     
expression & !reby e/abli%$ x z a "p ( !
 ,vasudeva leg5d4 ,x quickly seiz$ ^u ! 
popul> imag9ation & spread l wild-fire  
ov] ,india4 ,= x satisfi$ _m ne$s4 ,!   
t5d]ness ( ! fa!r & /ill m ( ! "m = !   
little babe1 _! delight 9 ! sports (    
*ildhood1 ! amori/'s pleasure 9 erotic  
adv5ture1 &1 n by any means lea/1 ! joy 
9 ! romantic sc5]y ( ! haunt$           
woodl&s--all ^! in/9cts f\nd full play 9
 x1 & 7 sanctifi$ by religion4          
,footnote #bi3 ,rapson1 ,catal4 ( !     
,co9s ( ! ,&hra ,dyna/y1 etc41 pp4 xliv1
 lxii1 lxix1 cxxxiii-cxxxvi1 clxii2     
,indian ,antiq41 xlvii1 p4 #he1 etc4    
,,ii4 ,,rama  ,rama is ! h]o ( !        
,ramayana1 ! great epic ascrib$ to      
,valmiki1 a poet :o 9 c\rse ( "t has    
pass$ f ! realm ( hi/ory into t ( my?1 l

 _m o!r ,h9dus4 ,! poem1 z x has come   
d[n to u1 conta9s sev5 books1 :i* relate
 ! foll[+ tale4 ,dasa-ra?a1 ,k+ (       
,ayodhya 7n[ ,ajodhya1 ne> ,faizabad71 (
 ! dyna/y :i* claim$ desc5t f !         
,sun-god1 _h no son1 & !re=e held !     
great ,asva-m$ha1 or horse-sacrifice1 z 
a result ( :i* he obta9$ f\r sons1 ,rama
 by 8 que5 ,kausalya1 ,bh>ata by        
,kaikeyi1 & ,lak%mana & ,satrughna by   
,sumitra4 ,rama1 ! elde/1 0 also        
pre-em95t = /r5g?1 brav]y1 & noble      
qualities ( s\l4 ,visit+ 9 8 e>ly y\? ! 
c\rt ( ,janaka1 k+ ( ,videha1 ,rama 0   
able to %oot an arr[ f ,janaka's b[1 :i*
 no o!r man c\ld b5d1 & z a rew>d he    
receiv$ z wife ! pr9cess ,sita1 :om     
,janaka _h f\nd 9 a furr[ ( 8 fields &  
br\ght up z 8 own daught]4 ,s f> ! fir/ 
book1 or ,bala-k&a4 ,! second book1 or  
,ayodhya-k&a1 relates h[ ,que5 ,kaikeyi 
induc$ ,dasa-ra?a1 sorely aga9/ 8 w1 to 
bani% ,rama to ! =e/s 9 ord] t h] son   
,bh>ata might succe$ to ! ?rone2 & !    
,aranya-k&a !n describes h[ ,rama1      

accompani$ by 8 wife ,sita & 8 fai?ful  
bro!r ,lak%mana1 dwelt 9 ! =e/ = a "t1  
until ! demon ,k+ ,ravana ( ,lanka1 by  
means ( a trick1 c>ri$ (f ,sita to 8    
city4 ,! ,ki%k9dha-k&a tells ( ,rama's  
pursuit ( ,ravana & 8 com+ to ,ki%k9dha1
 ! city ( ,sugriva1 ! k+ ( ! apes1 :o   
jo9$ him z an ally 9 8 exp$ition2 & !   
,sund>a-k&a describes ! m>* ( _! armies 
to ,lanka1 :i* is id5tifi$ ) ,ceylon1 & 
_! cross+ ov] ! /raits4 ,!n comes !     
,yuddha-k&a1 :i* n>rates ! w> ) ,ravana1
 8 dea? 9 battle1 ! re/oration ( ,sita1 
! return ( ,rama & ,sita to ,ayodhya1 & 
! cr[n+ ( ,rama 9 place ( ,dasa-ra?a1 :o
 _h di$ ( grief dur+ 8 exile4 ,f9ally   
comes ! ,utt>a-k&a1 :i* relates t ,rama1
 he>+ "s ( ! p ( ,ayodhya spitefully    
ca/+ asp]sions on ! virtue ( ,sita dur+ 
h] imprisonm5t 9 ! palace ( ,ravana1    
gave way to fooli% jeal\sy & bani%$ h]  
to ! h]mitage ( ,valmiki1 :]e %e gave   
bir? to tw9 sons1 ,kusa & ,lava2 :5 ^!  
boys _h gr[n up1 ,valmiki taught !m !   
,ramayana & s5t !m to s+ x at ! c\rt (  

,rama1 :o on he>+ x s5t = ,sita1 :o came
 to him accompani$ by ,valmiki1 :o      
assur$ him ( h] purity2 & !n ,sita swore
 to x on oa?1 call+ ^u h] "m !          
,e>?-goddess to be> witness2 & !        
,e>?-goddess receiv$ h] back into h]    
bosom1 leav+ ,rama b]eav$1 until aft] _m
 days he 0 translat$ to heav54  ,su* is 
! tale ( ,rama z told 9 !               
,valmiki-ramayana--a clean1 :olesome    
/ory ( *ivalry1 love1 & adv5ture4 ,b    
cle>ly ! ,valmiki-ramayana is n ! "w ( a
 s+le h&4 ,we c trace 9 x at lea/ two   
/rata4 ,books ,,ii4-,,vi4 conta9 ! old] 
/ratum2 ! re/ is ! addition ( a lat]    
poet or s]ies ( poets1 :o h also ins]t$ 
"s padd+ into ! e>li] books4 ,?is old]  
/ratum1 ! nucleus ( ! epic1 gives u a   
picture ( h]oic society 9 ,india at a v 
e>ly date1 probably n v long aft] ! age 
( ! ,upani%ads2 p]haps we %all n be f>  
wrong if we say x 0 compos$ "s "t be=e !
 f\r? c5tury ,b4,c4 ,9 x ,rama is simply
 a h]o1 miracul\s 9 /r5g? & goodness1 b 
nev]!less :olly human2 b 9 ! lat]       

/ratum--,books ,i4 & ,,vii4 & !         
occasional ins]tions 9 ! o!r            
books--conditions are *ang$1 & ,rama    
appe>s z a god on e>?1 a p>tial         
inc>nation ( ,vi%nu1 exactly z 9 !      
,bhagavad-gita & o!r lat] p>ts ( !      
,mahabh>ata ! h]o ,kri%na has become an 
inc>nation ( ,vi%nu also4 ,! p>allel may
 ev5 be trac$ fur!r4 ,kri%na /&s to     
,arjuna 9 v mu* ! same relation z ,rama 
to 8 bro!r ,lak%mana--a great] & a less]
 h]o1 gr[+ into an inc>nate god & 8 *ief
 foll[]4 ,?is is ?or\ghly 9 h>mony )    
,h9du ideas1 :i* regul>ly conceive !    
tea*] z accompani$ by 8 disciple & abhor
 ! notion ( a voice cry+ 9 ! wild]ness2 
inde$ we may almo/ v5ture to suspect t  
?is symmetry 9 ! epics is n altoge!r    
un9flu5c$ by ?is ideal4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is 
a detail3 ! ma9 po9t to obs]ve is t     
,rama 0 orig9ally a local h]o ( ! ,sol> 
dyna/y1 a leg5d>y k+ ( ,ayodhya1 & z !  
,puranas give him a full p$igree1 !re is
 no good reason to d\bt t he really     
exi/$ once ^u a "t4 ,b ! /ory ) :i* he  

is associat$ 9 ! ,ramayana is puzzl+4   
,is x a pure romance8 ,or is x a        
glorifi$ v]sion ( "s real adv5tures8 ,or
 c x be an old tale1 p]haps dat+ f !    
e>ly dawn ( human hi/ory1 readapt$ &    
fitt$ on to ! p]son ( an hi/orical      
,rama8 ,! fir/ ( ^! hypo!ses seems      
unlikely1 ?\gh by no means impossible4  
,! second sugge/ion has f\nd mu* fav\r4 
,_m h believ$ t ! /ory ( ! exp$ition (  
,rama & 8 army ( apes to ,lanka         
repres5ts a movem5t ( ! ,aryan invad]s f
 ! ,nor? t[>ds ! ,s\?2 & ?is is support$
 to "s ext5t by ,indian tradition1 :i*  
has locat$ mo/ ( ! places m5tion$ 9 !   
,ramayana1 & 9 p>ticul> has id5tifi$    
,lanka ) ,ceylon4 ,9 support ( ?is "o   
may po9t to ! ,iliad ( ,hom]1 :i* has a 
some:at simil> !me1 ! rape & recov]y (  
,hel5 by ! armies ( ! ,a*aeans1 ! basis 
( :i* is ! hi/orical fact ( an exp$ition
 aga9/ ,troy & ! de/ruction ( t city4 ,b
 !re are s]i\s difficulties 9 ! way (   
accept+ ?is analogy1 ! mo/ s]i\s ( all  
be+ ! indubitable fact t !re is n a     

tittle ( evid5ce to %[ t su* an         
exp$ition 0 ev] made by ! ,aryans4      
,true1 !re 7 waves ( emigration f ,aryan
 c5tres s\?w>d 9 e>ly times2 b ^? t     
travell$ z f> z ,ceylon w5t by sea1 ei!r
 f ! coa/s ( ,b5gal or ,orissa or       
,bombay4 ,besides1 ! exp$ition ( ,rama  
is obvi\sly fabul\s1 = 8 army 0 compos$ 
n ( ,aryans b ( apes4 ,all ?+s consid]$1
 !re seems to be mo/ plausibility 9 !   
?ird hypo!sis#cj4 ,c]ta9ly ,rama 0 a    
local h]o ( ,ayodhya1 & probably he 0   
once a real k+2 s x is likely en\gh t an
 old saga 7or sagas7 atta*$ itself e>ly 
to 8 memory4 ,& z 8 fame spread abroad1 
pr9cipally on ! w+s ( ,valmiki's poem1 !
 hon\rs ( semi-div9ity began to be paid 
to him 9 _m places beyond 8 native l&1 &
 ab\t ! beg9n+ ( our era he 0 recognis$ 
z an inc>nation ( ,vi%nu s5t to e/abli% 
a reign ( righte\sness 9 ! _w4 ,9 ,s\!rn
 ,india ?is cult ( ,rama1 l t ( ,kri%na1
 has = ! mo/ "p rema9$ subord9ate to !  
wor%ip ( ,vi%nu1 ?\gh ! ,vai%nava *ur*  
!re has f e>ly times recognis$ ! div9ity

 ( bo? ( !m z embodim5ts ( ! ,almighty4 
,b its great home is ! ,nor?1 :]e       
millions wor%ip ,rama ) passionate &    
all-absorb+ love4  ,footnote #cj3 ,i    
regret t ,i _c accept ! +5i\s hypo!sis  
lately put =w>d by ,rai ,saheb ,d9e%*&ra
 ,s5 9 8 ,b5gali ,ramayanas4 ,! /ory ( !
 ,das>a?a-jataka seems to me to be a    
g>bl$ & b[dl]is$ snippet cut (f f a     
possibly pre-,valmikian v]sion ( ! old  
,rama-saga2 ! re/ ( ! !ory appe>s to be 
q mi/ak54   ,,iii4 ,,"s ,,lat] ,,prea*]s
  ,) all its attractions & success1 !   
new ,kri%naism did n ev]y:]e ov]gr[ !   
old] /ock ^u :i* x _h be5 engraft$4 ,!re
 7 _m places 9 :i* ! e>ly wor%ip (      
,vi%nu & ,vasudeva rema9$ almo/ un*ang$4
 ,! new leg5ds ( ,kri%na's *ildhood     
might inde$ be accept$ 9 ^! c5tres (    
cons]vatism1 b !y made little diff]5ce 9
 ! _s & =m ( ! wor%ip1 :i* cont9u$ to   
foll[ ! anci5t ord]4 ,9 "s ( !m !       
,bhagavad-gita1 ,n>ayaniya1 & o!r epic  
doctr9als /ill rema9$ ! /&>d texts1 :i* 
!ologians connect$ ) ! anci5t ,upani%ads

 & ! ,brahma-sutra summ>is+ ! latt]2 9  
o!r c5tres !re arose1 beg9n+ p]haps ab\t
 ! sev5? c5tury ,a4,d41 a s]ies (       
,samhitas1 or manuals ( doctr9e &       
practice = ! ,pan*>atra#ca sect1 :i*1   
?\gh 9 ess5tials agree+ ) ! ,n>ayaniya1 
taught a diff]5t !ory ( cosmogony &     
introduc$ ! wor%ip ( ! goddess ,sri or  
,lak%mi1 ! consort ( ,vi%nu1 z ! ag5cy  
or en]gy ?r\gh :i* ! ,supreme ,be+      
becomes active 9 f9ite exi/5ce2 & 9 yet 
o!r places o!r texts 7 foll[$1 su* z ^? 
( ! ,vaikhanasa s*ool4 ,?is wor%ip (    
,vi%nu-,vasudeva on ! anci5t l9es 0     
peculi>ly vigor\s among ! repres5tatives
 ( ,aryan culture 9 ! ,s\?1 :o _h       
introduc$ ! cults ( ,vi%nu & ,siva ) !  
re/ ( ! ,aryan pan!on into ! mid/ (     
,dravidian animism4 ,h9duism1           
transplant$ into ! ,dravidian area1 has 
!re rema9$ m cons]vative ?an any:]e     
else1 & has clung firmly to its anci5t  
traditions4 ,!re is no?+ ( ,dravidian   
orig9 9 ! ,s\? ,indian wor%ip ( ,vi%nu &
 ,siva2 !y are entirely ,aryan          

importations4 ,b !y h become ?or\ghly   
assimilat$ 9 _! s\!rn home1 & ea* ( !m  
has produc$ a huge mass ( f9e devotional
 lit]ature 9 ! v]nacul>s4 ,9 ! ,tamil   
c\ntry ! *ur* ( ,vi%nu boa/s ( !        
,nal-ayira-prab&ham1 a collection (     
,tamil psalms numb]+ ab\t #d1jjj /anzas 
compos$ by twelve poets call$ ,alv>s1   
:i* 7 collect$ ab\t #ajjj ,a4,d42 & !   
wor%ip ( ',siva is equally well express$
 9 ! ,tiru-murai1 compil$ ab\t ! twelf? 
c5tury1 ( :i* "o section1 ! ,dev>am1 0  
put toge!r ab\t ! same "t z !           
,nal-ayira-prab&ham4 ,bo? ! ,tiru-murai 
& ! ,nal-ayira-prab&ham brea! ! same _s 
( ec/atic devotion z !                  
,bhagavata-purana2 !y are ! utt]ances ( 
w&]+ vot>ies :o travell$ f temple to    
temple & p\r$ =? ! passionate raptures (
 _! s\ls 9 lyrical praise ( _! deities4 
,?r\gh ^! ?ree ma9 *annels ! /ream (    
devotion spread f> & wide ?r\gh ! l&4 ,l
 mo/ curr5ts ( :at we call revivalism1 x
 usually _h an erotic side2 & ! l>g]    
temples frequ5tly h atta*$ to !m female 

/affs ( att5dant vot>ies & corps de     
ballet ( v easy virtue4 ,b ?is aspect 0 
f> m m>k$ 9 neo-,kri%naism1 :i* (t5 t5ds
 to int5se pruri5cy1 ?an 9 ! o!r two    
cults4 ,! ,alv>s pay little reg>d to !  
leg5ds ( ,kri%na1 & conc5trate _!       
en]gies ^u ! wor%ip ( ,vi%nu z he is    
repres5t$ 9 ! great temples (           
,srirangam1 ,conjev>am1 ,tirupati1 &    
simil> sanctu>ies4  ,footnote #ca3 ,on  
?is "n see above1 p4 #hf4  ,ab\t !      
beg9n+ ( ! n9? c5tury ! peaceful c\rse (
 ,vai%nava religion 0 rudely di/urb$ by 
! prea*+ ( ,samk>a ,a*>ya4 ,samk>a1 "o (
 ! greate/ intellects t ,india has ev]  
produc$1 0 a ,brahman ( ,malab>1 & 0    
born ab\t ! ye> #ghh4 ,tak+ 8 /& ^u !   
,upani%ads1 ,brahma-sutra1 &            
,bhagavad-gita1 ^u :i* he wrote         
comm5t>ies1 he int]pret$ !m z tea*+ !   
doctr9e ( ,advaita1 ?or\gh moni/ic      
idealism1 tea*+ t ! univ]sal ,s\l1      
,brahma1 is absolutely id5tical ) !     
individual ,s\l1 ! atma or ,self1 t all 
be+ is only "o1 t salvation consi/s 9 ! 

id5tification ( ^! two1 & is atta9$ by  
k1 ! intuition ( _! id5tity1 & t !      
ph5om5al univ]se or manifold ( exp]i5ce 
is simply an illusion 7maya7 conjur$ up 
9 ,brahma by 8 cong5ital nature1 b      
really ali5 to him--9 fact1 a k9d (     
disease 9 ,brahma4 ,?is 0 n new3 x _h   
be5 taught by "s anci5t s*ools (        
,aupani%adas1 & 0 v l ! doctr9e ( "s ( !
 ,buddhi/ ideali/s2 b ! vig\r & skill ) 
:i* ,samk>a propagat$ 8 doctr9es ?reat5$
 ru9 to or?odox ,vai%nava !ologians1 &  
r\s$ !m to c\nt]-campaigns4 ,among !    
,vai%nava ,brahmans ( ! ,s\? :o won     
laurels 9 ?is field 0 ,yamuna*>ya1 :o   
liv$ ab\t #ajej1 & 0 ! gr&son ( ,na?a   
,muni1 :o collect$ ! hymns ( ! ,alv>s 9 
! ,nal-ayira-prab&ham & f\nd$ ! great   
s*ool ( ,vai%nava !ology at ,srirangam4 
,9 opposition to ,samk>a's monism1      
,yamuna*>ya prop\nd$ ! doctr9e ( 8      
s*ool1 ! s-call$ ,visi%tadvaita1 :i* 0  
prea*$ ) /ill great] skill & success by 
8 fam\s successor ,ramanuja1 :o di$ 9   
#aacg4 ,ramanuja's greate/ works are 8  

comm5t>ies on ! ,brahma-sutra &         
,bhagavad-gita4 ,9 !m he exp\nds ) great
 ability ! pr9ciples ( 8 s*ool1 namely1 
t ,god1 s5ti5t be+s or s\ls1 & ins5ti5t 
matt] =m ?ree ess5tially di/9ct classes 
( be+2 t ,god1 :o is ! same z ,brahma1  
,vi%nu1 ,n>ayana1 or ,kri%na1 is        
omnipot5t1 omnipres5t1 & possess$ ( all 
good qualities2 t matt] =ms ! body (    
s\ls1 & s\ls =m ! body ( ,god2 t ! s\l  
atta9s salvation z a result ( dev\t &   
lov+ m$itation ^u ,god1 wor%ip ( him1 & 
/udy ( ! scriptures2 & t salvation      
consi/s 9 et]nal union ( ! s\l ) ,god1 b
 n 9 id5tity ) him1 z ,samk>a taught4 ,!
 scriptures on :i* ,ramanuja took 8 /& 7
 ma9ly ! ,upani%ads1 ,brahma-sutra1 &   
,bhagavad-gita2 b he also ackn[l$g$ z   
au?oritative ! ,pan*>atra ,samhitas1 9  
spite ( _! div]g5ces 9 details (        
doctr9e1 & x is f !m t 8 *ur* has d]iv$ 
! wor%ip ( ,sri or ,lak%mi z consort (  
,vi%nu1 :i* is a v m>k$ feature ( _!    
community & has ga9$ = !m ! title (     
,sri-vai%navas4 ,b ,ramanuja 0 mu* m ?an

 a s*ol> & a writ] ( books2 he 0 also a 
man ( action1 a practical my/ic4 ,l     
,samk>a1 he organis$ a body ( sannyasis 
or ascetic vot>ies1 into :i*1 h[ev]1 he 
admitt$ only ,brahmans1 :]eas ,samk>a   
op5$ "s ( ! sections ( 8 devotees to    
non-,brahmans2 b on ! o!r h& he 0 f> m  
lib]al ?an ,samk>a 9 ! *oice ( 8        
congregations1 = he endeav\r$ to br+ m5 
( ! l[e/ ca/es1 ,sudras & ev5 ,p>iahs1  
)9 ! influ5ce ( 8 *ur*1 ?\gh he kept up 
! social b>ri] betwe5 !m & ! high]      
ca/es1 & he firmly upheld ! pr9ciple ( !
 ,bhagavad-gita t x is by ! p]=mance (  
religi\s & social duties ( ca/e1 & n by 
k alone1 t salvation is mo/ surely to be
 won4 ,he e/abli%$ s*ools & mona/]ies1  
reorganis$ ! wor%ip ( ! temples1 usually
 9 accordance ) ! ,pan*>atra rules1 &   
?us plac$ 8 *ur* 9 a position ( su*     
/r5g? 9 ,s\!rn ,india t its only s]i\s  
rival is ! *ur* ( ,siva4  ,nimb>ka1 :o  
probably fl\ri%$ ab\t ! fir/ half ( !   
twelf? c5tury1 prea*$ = ! cult ( ,kri%na
 a doctr9e comb9+ monism ) dualism1 :i* 

is foll[$ by a small sect 9 ,nor!rn     
,india4 ,an&a-tir?a or ,madhva1 9 ! fir/
 ?ree qu>t]s ( ! ?irte5? c5tury1        
prop\nd$ = ! same *ur* a !ory ( ?or\gh  
dualism1 :i* has f\nd _m admir]s1 *iefly
 9 ! ,dekkan4 ,vallabha*>ya1 born 9     
#adgi1 f\nd$ a s*ool ( ,kri%na-wor%ipp]s
 :i* claims a pure monism )\t ! aid ( ! 
!ory ( maya1 or illusion1 :i* is a      
*>act]i/ic ( ,samk>a's monism4 ,?is     
community has become v influ5tial1      
*iefly 9 ,bombay ,presid5cy2 b 9 rec5t  
times x has be5 "u a cl\d ow+ to !      
sc&als aris+ f a t5d5cy to practise     
immoral orgies & f ! claims ( its       
prie/hood1 z repres5t+ ! god1 to enjoy !
 p]sons & prop]ty ( _! congregations4   
,besides ^! & o!r s*ools :i* 7 f\nd$ on 
a basis ( ,sanskrit s*ola/ic philosophy1
 !re h be5 _m popul> religi\s movem5ts1 
:i* f ! fir/ appeal$ directly to ! he>t 
( ! p 9 _! own tongues4  ,! fir/ place 9
 :i* we see ?is curr5t 9 movem5t is !   
,m>a?a c\ntry4 ,"h1 ab\t #abij1         
,jnanesv>a or ,jnanadeva1 popul>ly kn[n 

z ,jnanoba1 compos$ 8 ,jnanesv>i1 a     
p>aphrase ( ! ,bhagavad-gita 9 ab\t     
#aj1jjj ,m>a?i v]ses1 z well z a numb] (
 hymns to ,kri%na & a poem on ! wor%ip (
 ,siva4 ,to ! same p]iod belong$        
,namadeva1 :o 0 born at ,p&h>pur1       
accord+ to "s 9 #abgj & accord+ to o!rs 
ab\t a c5tury lat]4 ,!n came ,ekana?a1  
:o is said to h di$ 9 #afjh1 & compos$  
"s hymns & ,m>a?i v]se-translations f ! 
,bhagavata4 ,! greate/ ( all 0 ,tuk>am1 
:o 0 born ab\t #afjh4cb ,9 ! v]ses ( ^! 
poets ! wor%ip ( ,kri%na is rais$ to a  
level ( high spirituality4 ,raman&a1 :o 
app>5tly liv$ betwe5 #adjj & #adgj & 0  
someh[ connect$ ) ! s*ool ( ,ramanuja1  
prea*$ salvation ?r\gh ,rama to all     
ca/es & classes ( ,nor!rn ,india1 )     
imm5se & endur+ success4 ,to 8 spiritual
 l9eage belongs ,tulsi ,das             
7#aecb-afbc71 ^: ,rama-*>ita-manasa1 a  
poem 9 ,ea/]n ,h9di on ! /ory (         
,valmiki's ,ramayana1 has become !      
,bible ( ! ,nor?4 ,! same influ5ces are 
visible 9 ! poems ( ,kabir1 a ,moslem by

 bir?1 :o comb9$ ,h9du & ,muhammadan    
doctr9es into an eclectic mono!ism1 & is
 wor%ipp$ z an inc>nation ( ,god by 8   
sect4 ,he di$ 9 #aeah4 ,a k9dr$ _s 0    
,nanak1 ! f\nd] ( ! ,sikh *ur*          
7#adfi-aech74cc  ,footnote #cb3 ,! /ud5t
 may ref] to ,sir ,r4 ,g4 ,bh&>k>'s     
,vaisnavas & ,saivas 79 ,buehl]'s       
,grundriss1 p4 #gd ff417 ,j4 ,n4        
,f>quh>'s ,outl9e ( ! ,relig4 ,lit]4 (  
,india1 p4 #bcd f41 #bih ff41 & my ,he>t
 ( ,india1 p4 #fj ff41 = "s details on  
^! poets4  ,footnote #cc3 ,see ,f>quh>1 
ut supra1 p4 #cbc ff42 ,he>t ( ,india1  
p4 #di f41 etc4  ,by ! side ( ^! upw>d  
movem5ts !re h be5 _m :i* h rema9$ on ! 
old] level ( ! ,bhagavata4 ,! mo/       
important is t ( ,visvambh>a ,misra1 :o 
is bett] kn[n by 8 titles ( ,*aitanya & 
,gauranga 7#adhe-aecc72 he c>ri$ on a   
revival ( volcanic int5sity 9 ,b5gal &  
,orissa1 & ! *ur* f\nd$ by him is /ill  
p[]ful1 & wor%ips him z an inc>nation ( 
,kri%na4   ,,iv4 ,,brahma ,,& ,,!       
,,trimurti  ,brahma1 ! ,creator1 a      

mascul9e n\n1 mu/ be c>efully di/+ui%$ f
 ! neut] ,brahma1 ! ab/ract ,fir/ ,be+4 
,! latt] comes fir/ 9 ! scale ( exi/5ce1
 :ile ! =m] appe>s at "s di/ance fur!r  
on z ! creator ( ! mat]ial _w 7see      
above1 p4 #fj f474 ,9 mod]n days ,brahma
 has be5 completely eclips$ by ,vi%nu & 
,siva & ev5 by "s m9or deities1 & has n[
 only f\r temples d$icat$ to 8 exclusive
 wor%ip4#cd ,b !re 0 a "t :5 he 0 a     
great god4 ,9 ! old] p>ts ( !           
,mahabh>ata & ,ramayana he figures z "o 
( ! great] deities1 p]haps ! greate/4 ,b
 9 ! lat] portions ( ! epic he has %runk
 into comp>ative insignificance z comp>$
 to ,vi%nu & ,siva1 & especially to     
,vi%nu4 ,?is *ange fai?fully reflects   
hi/orical facts4 ,dur+ ! la/ f\r or five
 c5turies ( ! mill5nium :i* end$ ) !    
,*ri/ian era ! or?odox ,v$ic religion ( 
! ,brahmans _h /eadily lo/ gr\nd1 & !   
sects wor%ipp+ ,vi%nu & ,siva _h        
correspond+ly gr[n 9 p[] & f9ally _h    
come to be recognis$ z !mselves or?odox4
 ,brahma1 z 8 "n implies1 is ! ideal    

,brahman sage1 & typifies ,v$ic         
or?odoxy4 ,he is repres5t$ z ev]la/+ly  
*ant+ ! f\r ,v$as f 8 f\r m\?s 7= he has
 f\r heads71 & he be>s ! wat]-pot &     
ros>y ( eleoc>pus b]ries1 ! symbols ( ! 
,brahman ascetic4 ,b ,v$ic or?odoxy _h  
to make way = m fasc9at+ cults1 & !     
,v$ic ,brahman typifi$ 9 ! god ,brahma  
sank into comp>ative unimportance beside
 ! sect>ian ascetics4 ,/ill ! old god1  
?\gh %orn ( mu* ( 8 glory1 0 by no means
 driv5 f ! field4 ,! new *ur*es look$ ) 
rev]5ce ^u 8 ,v$as1 & (t5 claim$ !m z   
div9e au?ority = _! doctr9es2 & ?\gh ea*
 ( !m ass]t$ t its p>ticul> god1 ,siva  
or ,vi%nu1 0 ! ,supreme ,be+1 &         
ultimately ! only be+1 bo? ( !m all[$   
,brahma to reta9 8 old (fice ( creator1 
x be+ ( c\rse und]/ood t he held x z a  
subord9ate ( ! ,supreme1 ,siva or ,vi%nu
 z ! case might be4 ,mean:ile1 at any   
rate betwe5 ! ?ird & ! six? c5turies1   
!re exi/$ a small frat]nity :o reg>d$   
,brahma z ! ,supreme1 & !re=e z id5tical
 ) ! ab/ract ,brahma2 b al?\gh !y h left

 a record ( _! doctr9es 9 !             
,m>k&eya-purana & ! ,padma-purana1 !y h 
_h little influ5ce on ,indian religion 9
 g5]al4  ,footnote #cd3 ,^? are at      
,pu%k> 9 ,rajputana1 ,dudahi 9          
,bundelkh&1 ,kh$ ,brahma 9 ,id> ,/ate1 &
 ,kodakkal 9 ,malab>4  ,a love (        
sy/em--un=tunately n always             
effectual--is a notable feature ( !     
,h9du m9d 9 deal+ ) mo/ subjects1 f     
gramm> to ,ars ,amoris2 & ?is in/9ct    
inspir$ "s unkn[n !ologian ) ! idea (   
h>monis+ ! ?ree gods into a unity by    
repres5t+ 9 "o comp\nd =m or ,trimurti  
,brahma z creator1 ,vi%nu z ! su/a9+ p[]
 9 ! univ]se1 & ,siva z ! =ce (         
dissolution :i* p]iodically br+s !      
cosmos to an end & necessitates 9 due   
c\rse new cycles ( be+4#ce ,?is +5i\s   
plan has ! advantage t x is )\t         
prejudice to ! religion ( any ( ! gods  
conc]n$1 = all ! ?ree memb]s ( ?is      
tr9ity are subord9ate to ! ,supreme     
,be+1 or ,p>am ,brahma1 :om ! ,vai%navas
 id5tify ) ,vi%nu 9 8 highe/ phase1     

,p>a-,vasudeva1 & di/+ui% f 8 l[] phase1
 ! ,vi%nu ( ?is comp\nd1 :ile ! ,saivas 
draw a correspond+ di/9ction betwe5     
,p>ama-,siva1 ! god 9 8 transc5d5t      
nature1 & ! ,siva :o figures 9 !        
,trimurti4 ,s ! mo/ or?odox ,vai%nava & 
! mo/ bigot$ ,saiva c adore ?is         
?ree-head$ image ( ! ,trimurti side by  
side ) easy consci5ces4  ,footnote #ce3 
,?is idea 9 g]m is already sugge/$ 9    
,maitr4 ,upan41 ,,iv4 #e f41 & ,v4 #b4  
,?is idea ( ! ?ree gods 9 "o1 ?\gh x is 
embodi$ 9 "s important works ( sculpture
 su* z ! fam\s ,trimurti 9 ! ,caves (   
,elephanta1 has n _h mu* practical      
effect ^u ,h9du religion4 ,b x has giv5 
bir? to at any rate "o int]e/+ little   
sect1 ! wor%ipp]s ( ,dattatreya1 :o are 
to be f\nd ma9ly 9 ! ,m>a?a c\ntry4 ,!  
leg5d ( ! sa9t ,dattatreya1 :i* is      
already f\nd 9 ! ,mahabh>ata & ,puranas 
& is repeat$ ) "s modifications &       
amplifications 9 mod]n works ( !        
sect1#cf relates t :5 ! holy ,ri%i ,atri
 subject$ himself to t]rific au/]ities 9

 ord] to obta9 wor?y prog5y1 ! gods     
,brahma1 ,vi%nu1 & ,siva visit$ him &   
promis$ him ! desir$ boon2 accord+ly 8  
wife ,anasuya gave bir? to ?ree sons1 ( 
:om ! fir/ 0 ! ,moon1 an inc>nation (   
,brahma1 ! second ,dattatreya1 an       
inc>nation ( ,vi%nu1 & ! ?ird ! holy b  
irascible sa9t ,durvasas1 repres5t+     
,siva4 ,dattatreya dwelt 9 a h]mitage 9 
! ,dekkan3 he indulg$ 9 m>riage &       
w9e-dr9k+1 :i* h[ev] 7 n detrim5tal to 8
 miracul\s sanctity & wisdom1 & he      
became fam\s z a b5efactor to humanity4 
,he is said to h liv$ 9 ! "t (          
,k>tavirya ,arjuna1 ! ,haihaya k+1 & to 
h c\nsell$ ! latt] to rema9 on 8 ?rone  
:5 he wi%$ to resign x4 ,9 old] works ( 
pla/ic art he is sometimes repres5t$ by 
! simple exp$i5t ( plac+ ! ?ree gods    
side by side1 sometimes by figur+ him z 
,vi%nu 9 ! guise ( a ,yogi ) "s ( !     
attributes ( ! o!r two2 b 9 mod]n times 
he usually appe>s z a s+le figure ) ?ree
 heads1 "o = ea* ( ! great gods1 & f\r  
or six arms be>+ _! sev]al attributes   

7usually ! ros>y & wat]-pot ( ,brahma1 !
 con* & discus ( ,vi%nu1 & ! trid5t &   
drum ( ,siva71 :ile he is accompani$ by 
f\r dogs ( diff]5t col\rs1 suppos$ to   
repres5t ! f\r ,v$as1 & a bull4#cg      
,obs]ve t 9 all ^! types ,dattatreya is 
conceiv$ z an embodim5t ( ! ?ree gods1  
:i* is comp>atively a lat] idea1 = 9 !  
olde/ v]sion ( ! leg5d he 0 simply an   
inc>nation ( ,vi%nu2 b z ,vi%nu 0 reg>d$
 n only z a memb] ( ! ,tr9ity b also !  
,supreme ,be+ ov] & above x1 ,dattatreya
 z 8 repres5tative has come to include 9
 8 p]sonality ! nature ( all ! trio4    
,!re is1 moreov]1 some?+ curi\s 9 8 "*4 
,8 love ( w9e & woman is a s+ul> trait1 
& is q incompatible ) ! nature ( an     
ideal sa9t4 ,x smells ( reality1 &      
/rongly sugge/s t he 0 n a figm5t ( !   
religi\s imag9ation b an actual man2 &  
?is is support$ by ! tradition ( 8      
association ) ,k>tavirya ,arjuna1 :o1 9 
spite ( all ! my?ical tales t are relat$
 ( him1 really seems to h be5 a k+ (    
fle% & blood4 ,?us we may v5ture to see 

9 him yet ano!r example ( !             
metamorphosis s common 9 ,india f a sa9t
 to an inc>nation ( ! god wor%ipp$ by   
him4  ,footnote #cf3 ,see ,vasudevan&a  
,s>asvati's ,datta-purana & ,ganesa     
,n>ayana ,k>ve's ,dattatreya-s>vasva4   
,footnote #cg3 ,on ^! figures see       
,gop9a?a ,rau1 ,elem5ts ( ,h9du         
,iconography1 i4 p4 #beb ff4 ,! dogs    
seem to be connect$ ) ! ,v$ic ,s>ama1 on
 :om see ,*>p5ti]1 ,die ,sup>nasage1 p4 
#ia4   ,v4 ,,two ,,mod]n ,,in/ances  ,9 
,nor!rn ,india1 & especially 9 ,b5gal1 y
 w (t5 f9d ,h9dus wor%ipp+ a god :om !y 
call ,satya-n>ayana & believe to be an  
embodim5t ( ,vi%nu himself4 ,! obs]vance
 ( ?is ritual is believ$ to br+ weal? & 
all k9ds ( good =tune2 a ,sanskrit sacr$
 leg5d 9 illu/ration ( ?is belief has   
be5 creat$1 & y may buy badly li?ograph$
 copies ( x 9 mo/ ( ! baza>s if y l1    
besides :i* y w f9d elegant acc\nts ( ! 
god's c>e] on e>? writt5 by q a numb] ( 
di/+ui%$ ,b5gali poets ( ! la/ ?ree     
c5turies4 ,b curi\sly en\gh ?is god1    

?\gh q real1 0 n a ,h9du at all2 he 0 a 
,b5gali ,moslem1 a fakir1 & !           
,muhammadans ( ,b5gal1 among :om he is  
kn[n z ,satya ,pir1 h _! own v]sions ( 8
 c>e]1 :i* seem to be mu* ne>] ! tru?   
?an ^? ( ! ,h9dus4 ,9 _! /ories he      
figures simply z a sa9t1 :o busi$       
himself 9 p]=m+ miracles = ! b5efit (   
pi\s ,moslems 9 di/ress2 & z "o leg5d   
says t he 0 ! son ( a daught] ( ,h4usa9 
,%ah1 ! ,emp]or ( ,gaur1 & ano!r br+s   
him into contact ) ,man ,s+h1 x is      
evid5t t tradition ascrib$ him to !     
sixte5? c5tury1 :i* is probably q ne>   
en\gh to ! tru?4#ch  ,footnote #ch3 ,see
 ,d9e%*&ra ,s51 ,folk-lit]ature (       
,b5gal1 p4 #ii ff4  ,! next in/ance     
belongs to ! tw5tie? c5tury4 ,a few ye>s
 ago !re di$ 9 ! village ( ,eral1 9     
,t9nevelly ,di/rict1 a local g5tleman ( 
! ,%an> ca/e nam$ ,aruna*ala ,nad>4 ,!re
 0 no?+ rem>kable ab\t 8 c>e]3 he _h    
liv$ a highly respectable life1         
scrupul\sly fulfill$ 8 religi\s duties1 
& s]v$ ) cr$it z *airman ( ! municipal  

bo>d 9 8 native village4 ,if he _h done 
some?+ prodigi\sly wick$1 "o might h    
expect$ him to become a local god at    
once1 9 accordance ) ,dravidian prec$5t2
 b he be+ :at he 01 8 po/-mortem c>e] is
 r curi\s4 ,= a leg5d gradually arose t 
8 k9dly _s haunt$ a c]ta9 place1 &      
little by little x has gr[n until n[ !re
 is a regul> wor%ip ( him 9 ,eral1 &    
pilgrims travel ?i!r to receive 8       
bless+s1 /imulat$ by a lively lit]>y    
propag&a4 ,he is wor%ipp$ "u ! "n ( ,!  
,*airman ,god1 9 affectionate memory ( 8
 municipal c>e]1 & z ,jagadisa1 or ,"l (
 ! ,univ]se1 a phase ( ! god ,siva4     
,,conclusion   ,c we trace any uni=m    
pr9ciple runn+ ?r\gh ! bewild]+ v>iety (
 *anges t we h obs]v$8  ,consid] !      
*anges ?r\gh :i* ,vi%nu has pass$4 ,at !
 beg9n+ a _s ( vaguely def9$ p]sonality1
 he appe>s successively z a savi\r-god1 
z ! my/ic sa9t ,n>ayana1 z ! epic       
w>riors ,kri%na & ,rama1 z a wanton     
blue-sk9n$ h]d-boy flut+ & danc+ amid/ a
 cr[d ( wildly amor\s wom51 & z ! noble 

ideal ( ,god prea*$ by ! great ,m>a?a & 
,raman&i vot>ies1 n to m5tion ! _m o!r  
inc>nations t h delight$ ! ,h9du        
imag9ation4 ,:at does all ?is mean8 ,x  
means t ! hi/ory ( a god is ma9ly m\ld$ 
by two great factors1 ! gr[? ( ! p's    
spiritual exp]i5ce & ! "* ( its religi\s
 tea*]s4 ,z ! /ream ( hi/ory rolls on1 x
 fills m5's s\ls ) deep] & wid] und]/&+ 
( life4 ,old conceptions are pond]$ ^u1 
explor$1 te/$1 sometimes reject$1       
sometimes accept$ ) a new & pr(\nd]     
cont5t1 & ?us enl>g$ !y are appli$ to ! 
old ideals ( godhead4 ,:5 ,indian       
society _h organis$ itself out ( tribal 
*aos & settl$ d[n "u an e/abli%$        
mon>*ical gov]nm5t1 x made ,indra ! k+ (
 ! gods1 rul+ ) ! same =ms & "u ! same  
conditions z a human sov]eign4 ,:5 m5 ( 
f9] ca/ realis$ t ! k+dom ( ! _s is     
high] ?an e>?ly royalty1 !y turn$ away f
 ,indra & set _! s\ls ^u great]         
conceptions1 ideals ( va/] spiritual    
=ces1 my/ic inf9itudes4 ,attract$ ?us to
 wor%ips su* z ^? ( ,siva & ,vi%nu1 !y  

fill$ !m ) _! own visions & imp>t$ to ^!
 gods ! ideals ( _! own /riv+s1 mak+ !m 
into ,yogisv>as1 ,supreme ,my/ics4 ,& s 
! sequ5ce ( *ange has gone on ?r\gh !   
g5]ations4 ,mo/ pot5tly x has be5       
effect$ by ! *>act]s ( ! prea*]s &      
tea*]s ( religion4 ,almo/ e tea*] :o has
 a p]sonality ( 8 own1 ^: s\l conta9s   
?\ghts o!r ?an ^? ( ! common sort1 /amps
 some?+ ( 8 own type ^u ! ideal ( 8 god 
:i* he imp>ts to 8 foll[]s1 & :i* may   
!reby come to be au?oritatively         
recognis$ z a canonical "* ( ! god4     
,india is peculi>ly liable to ?is       
transf]5ce ( p]sonality f ! guru to !   
god :om ! guru prea*es1 because f       
immemorial times ,india has reg>d$ !    
guru z repres5tative ( ! god1 & (t5     
deifies him z a p]man5t phase ( ! deity4
 ,saivas decl>e t 9 ! guru :o tea*es !  
way ( salvation ,siva himself is        
manife/$3 ,vai%navas tell ! same tale1 &
 f9d a %ort road to salvation by        
surr5d]+ _! s\ls to him4 ,we h se5 cases
 ( apo!osis ( ! guru 9 mod]n & m$ieval  

times2 reason+ f ! kn[n to ! unkn[n1 we 
may be sure t x took place no less      
regul>ly 9 anci5t ages1 & br\ght ab\t   
mo/ ( ! surpris+ *anges 9 ! "* ( gods   
:i* we h notic$4 ,sometimes ! gurus h   
only prea*$ "s new features 9 ! *>act]s 
( _! gods2 sometimes1 z is ! ,h9du      
fa%ion1 !y h also exhibit$ 9 _! own     
p]sons1 _! dress & equipm5t1 _! orig9al 
ideas ( div9ity1 z1 = example1 ,lakulisa
 ) 8 club2 & _! sanctity & apo!osis h   
ratifi$ _! innovations 9 !ology &       
iconology1 :i* h spread abroad z _!     
congregations h gr[n4 ,?us ! gurus & _! 
congregations h made ! hi/ory ( _!      
deities1 reca/+ ! gods ev] anew 9 ! m\ld
 ( man's hopes & /riv+s & ideals4 ,!re  
is mu* tru? 9 ! say+ ( ! ,brahmanas3 ,9 
! beg9n+ ! gods 7 mortal4         99    
99       99       99       99