,historical ,literature in ,agriculture 7,,chla71 ,cornell ,university7 ,transcriber's ,note3 ,the spelling in this text has been preserved as in the original4 ,obvious printer's errors have been corrected4 ,a list of the corrections can be found at the end of this e-text4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,cattle ,,and ,,their ,,diseases ,,embracing ,,their ,,history ,,and ,,breeds1 ,,crossing ,,and ,,breeding1 ,,and ,,feeding ,,and ,,management2 ,,with ,,the ,,diseases ,,to ,,which ,,they ,,are ,,subject1 ,,and ,,the ,,remedies ,,best ,,adapted ,,to ,,their ,,cure4 ,,to ,,which ,,is ,,added ,a ,,list ,,of ,,the ,,medicines ,,used ,,in ,,treating ,,cattle4 ,,by ,,robert ,,jennings1 ,v4 ,s41 ,,professor ,,of ,,pathology ,,and ,,operative ,,surgery ,,in ,,the ,,veterinary ,,college ,,of ,,philadelphia2 ,,late ,,professor ,,of ,,veterinary ,,medicine ,,in ,,the ,,agricultural ,,college ,,of ,,ohio2 ,,secretary ,,of ,,the ,,american ,,veterinary ,,association ,,of ,,philadelphia2 ,,author ,,of ,,the ,,horse ,,and ,,his ,,diseases1 ,,etc41 ,,etc4 ,illustration3 ,with ,numerous ,illustrations4 ,,philadelphia3 ,john ,e4 ,potter and ,company1 #fag ,sansom ,street4 ,entered according to ,act of ,congress1 in the year #ahfd1 by ,,john ,e4 ,,potter1 ,in the ,clerk's ,office of the ,district ,court of the ,united ,states1 in and for the ,eastern ,district of ,pennsylvania4 ,,preface4 ,a marked interest has of late years been manifested in our country relative to the subject of breeding and rearing domestic cattle4 ,this has not been confined to the dairyman alone4 ,the greater portion of intelligent agriculturists have perceived the necessity of paying more attention than was formerly devoted to the improvement and perfection of breeds for the uses of the table as well4 ,in this respect1 ,european cattle-raisers have long taken the precedence of our own4 ,the gratifying favor with which the author's former publication1 ,the ,horse and his ,diseases1 has been received by the public1 has induced him to believe that a work1 similar in spirit and general treatment1 upon ,cattle1 would not be without interest for the agricultural community4 ,in this belief1 the present treatise has been prepared4 ,the author has availed himself of the labors of others in this connection2 never1 however1 adopting results and conclusions1 no matter how strongly endorsed1 which have been contradicted by his own observation and experience4 ,in a field like the one in question1 assuredly1 if anywhere1 some degree of independent judgment will not be censured by those who are familiar with the sad consequences resulting from the attempted application of theories now universally exploded1 but which in the day and generation of their originators were sanctioned and advocated by those who claimed to be magnates in this department4 ,to the following works1 especially1 the author acknowledges himself indebted3 ,american ,farmer's ,encyclopaedia2 ,stephens's ,book of the ,farm2 ,flint's ,milch-,cows and ,dairy ,farming2 ,laurence on ,cattle2 ,allen's ,domestic ,animals2 ,youatt and ,martin on ,cattle2 ,thomson's ,food of ,animals2 ,allen's ,rural ,architecture2 ,colman's ,practical ,agriculture and ,rural ,economy2 ,goodale's ,breeding of ,domestic ,animals2 and ,prof4 ,gamgee's valuable contributions to veterinary science4 ,particular attention is requested to the division of ,diseases4 ,under this head1 as in his former work1 the author has endeavored to detail the symptoms of the most common ailments of cattle in such a manner that every farmer and cattle-owner can at once understand them1 and also to suggest such procurable remedies as a wide experience has proved to be most efficacious4 ,a generous space has been devoted to the consideration of that fatal epidemic1 now generally known as ,pleuro-,pneumonia1 as it has manifested itself in ,europe and this country1 in the belief that a matter of such vital importance to the stock-raiser ought to receive a complete exposition in a work like the present4 ,as the author's personal experience in connection with the treatment of this peculiar disease has been1 perhaps1 as large and varied as that of any ,american practitioner1 he is not without the hope that his views upon the matter may prove productive of some benefit to others4 ,should the present volume prove as acceptable to those interested as did his former work1 the author will be abundantly satisfied that he has not mistaken in this instance the wants of the public4 ,,contents4 ,,history ,,and ,,breeds ,,of ,,cattle1 #ac ,,the ,,british ,,ox1 #ae ,,american ,,cattle1 #ba ,the ,ayrshire1 #bc ,the ,jersey1 #cj ,the ,short-,horns1 #cb ,the ,dutch1 #cf ,the ,hereford1 #ch ,the ,north-,devon1 #da ,native ,cattle1 #dc ,,natural ,,history ,,of ,,cattle1 #ej ,gestation1 #ea ,formation of ,teeth1 #ea ,points of a ,good ,cow1 #eg ,,the ,,milk-,,mirror1 #fa ,,crossing ,,and ,,breeding1 #gg ,,pregnancy1 #ib ,,treatment ,,before ,,calving1 #ic ,,feeding ,,and ,,management1 #ig ,,soiling1 #aah ,,culture ,,of ,,grasses ,,for ,,fodder1 #abb ,,the ,,barn1 #adf ,,milking1 #aee ,,raising ,,of ,,calves1 #afh ,,points ,,of ,,fat ,,cattle1 #ahc ,,driving ,,and ,,slaughtering1 #ahh ,,diseases ,,and ,,their ,,remedies1 #bje ,abortion1 #bjf ,apoplexy1 #bae ,black-,water1 #bae ,bronchitis1 #baf ,consumption1 #bag ,coryza1 #bag ,cow-pox1 #bah ,diarrhoea1 #bai ,dysentery1 #bbj ,enteritis1 #bbb ,epizooetics1 #bbd ,epizooetic ,catarrh1 #bcd ,fardel1 #bcf ,foul in the ,foot1 #bcg ,garget1 #bcg ,gastro-enteritis1 #bch ,hoose1 #bch ,hoove1 #bci ,hydatids1 #bdj ,inflammation of the ,bladder1 #bda ,inflammation of the ,haw1 #bda ,inflammation of the ,kidneys1 #bdb ,inflammation of the ,liver1 #bdb ,laryngitis1 #bdc ,lice1 #bdd ,mange1 #bdd ,murrain1 #bdf ,navel-ill1 #bdg ,obstructions in the ,oesophagus1 #bdg ,open ,joints1 #bdh ,parturition1 #bdh ,free ,martins1 #bea ,cleansing1 #bec ,inversion of the ,uterus1 #bec ,phrenitis1 #bed ,pleurisy1 #bee ,pleuro-pneumonia1 #bef ,pneumonia1 #cjj ,protrusion of the ,bladder1 #cjb ,puerperal ,fever1 #cjb ,quarter ,evil1 #cjc ,rabies1 #cjd ,red ,water1 #cje ,rheumatism1 #cjg ,strangulation of the ,intestines1 #cjh ,thrush in the ,mouth1 #cjh ,tumors1 #cjh ,ulcers about the ,joints1 #cab ,warbles1 #cac ,worms1 #cae ,worms in the ,bronchial ,tubes1 #caf ,,surgical ,,operations1 #caf ,castration1 #caf ,tracheotomy1 #cai ,spaying1 #cbj ,,list ,,of ,,medicines ,,used ,,in ,,treating ,,cattle1 #ccj ,,doses ,,of ,,various ,,medicines1 #ccf ,,illustrations4 ,,page ,a ,prize ,bull1 #ac ,the ,well-fed ,beasts1 #ai ,an ,ayrshire ,bull1 #bc ,a ,short-horn ,bull1 #cc ,a ,north ,devon ,steer1 #da ,draft ,oxen1 #de ,skeleton of the ,ox1 #ej ,teeth at ,birth1 #eb ,teeth at ,second ,week1 #eb ,teeth at ,three ,weeks1 #ec ,teeth at a ,month1 #ec ,teeth at ,five to ,eight ,months1 #ec ,ten ,months ,teeth1 #ec ,twelve ,months ,teeth1 #ed ,fifteen ,months ,teeth1 #ed ,eighteen ,months ,teeth1 #ee ,teeth at ,two ,years ,past1 #ee ,teeth at ,three ,years ,past1 #ef ,teeth at ,four ,years ,past1 #ef ,teeth at ,five ,years ,past1 #ef ,teeth at ,ten ,years ,past1 #ef ,a ,good ,milch ,cow1 #eh ,milk-,mirror 7,a71 #fb ,milk-,mirror 7,b71 #fc ,milk-,mirror 7,c71 #fc ,milk-,mirror 7,d71 #fd ,milk-,mirror 7,e71 #fe ,milk-,mirror 7,f71 #ff ,milk-,mirror 7,g71 #fi ,milk-,mirror 7,h71 #gj ,milk-,mirror 7,k71 #gb ,milk-,mirror 7,l71 #gd ,cow and ,calf1 #gg ,ready for ,action1 #hc ,a ,sprightly ,youth1 #hi ,feeding1 #ig ,the ,family ,pets1 #ajb ,buying ,cattle1 #ajg ,calling in the ,cattle1 #aab ,on the ,rampage1 #aag ,patiently ,waiting1 #abc ,a ,chance for a ,selection1 #abi ,a ,west ,highland ,ox1 #aci ,barn for ,thirty-four ,cows and ,three ,yoke of ,oxen1 #aej ,transverse ,section1 #aeb ,room over the ,cow-,room1 #aec ,the ,preferable ,method1 #aei ,maternal ,affection1 #afh ,frolicksome1 #agg ,points of ,cattle1 #ahe ,a ,frontispiece1 #aij ,scotch ,mode of ,cutting up ,beef1 #aie ,english ,mode of ,cutting up ,beef1 #aig ,diseases and ,their ,remedies1 #bje ,a ,chat on the ,road1 #bah ,the ,mad ,bull1 #bcj ,an ,aberdeenshire ,polled ,bull1 #bdd ,taking an ,observation1 #bef ,the ,twins1 #bfh ,a ,rural ,scene1 #bhe ,taking it ,easily1 #bii ,home ,again1 #cac ,illustration ,history and ,breeds ,it is quite certain that the ox has been domesticated and in the service of man from a very remote period4 ,we are informed in the fourth chapter of ,genesis1 that cattle were kept by the early descendants of ,adam2 ,jubal1 the son of ,lamech--who was probably born during the lifetime of ,adam--being styled the father of such as have cattle4 ,the ox having been preserved by ,noah from the flood of waters1 the original breed of our present cattle must have been in the neighborhood of ,mount ,ararat4 ,from thence1 dispersing over the face of the globe--altering by climate1 by food1 and by cultivation--originated the various breeds of modern ages4 ,that the value of the ox tribe has been in all ages and climates highly appreciated1 we have ample evidence4 ,the natives of ,egypt1 ,india1 and ,hindostan1 seem alike to have placed the cow amongst their deities2 and1 judging by her usefulness to all classes1 no animal could perhaps have been selected whose value to mankind is greater4 ,the traditions1 indeed1 of every ,celtic nation enroll the cow among the earliest productions1 and represent it as a kind of divinity4 ,in nearly all parts of the earth cattle are employed for their labor1 for their milk1 and for food4 ,in southern ,africa they are as much the associates of the ,caffre as the horse is of the ,arab4 ,they share his toils1 and assist him in tending his herds4 ,they are even trained to battle1 in which they become fierce and courageous4 ,in central ,africa the proudest ebony beauties are to be seen upon the backs of cattle4 ,in all ages they have drawn the plough4 ,in ,spain they still trample out the corn2 in ,india they raise the water from the deepest wells to irrigate the thirsty soil of ,bengal4 ,when ,caesar invaded ,britain they constituted the chief riches of its inhabitants2 and they still form no inconsiderable item in the estimate of that country's riches4 ,the parent race of the ox is said to have been much larger than any of the present varieties4 ,the ,urus1 in his wild state at least1 was an enormous and fierce animal1 and ancient legends have thrown around him an air of mystery4 ,in almost every part of the continent of ,europe and in every district of ,england1 skulls1 evidently belonging to cattle1 have been found1 far exceeding in bulk any now known4 ,as the various breeds of cattle among us were introduced into this country from ,great ,britain1 we propose1 before going into the details of the leading ,american breeds1 to glance somewhat briefly at the history of ,,the ,,british ,,ox4 ,in the earliest and most reliable accounts which we possess of the ,british ,isles--the ,commentaries of ,caesar--we learn that the ancient ,britons possessed great numbers of cattle4 ,no satisfactory description of these cattle occurs in any ancient author2 but1 with occasional exceptions1 we know that they possessed no great bulk or beauty4 ,caesar tells us that the ,britons neglected tillage and lived on milk and flesh2 and this account of the early inhabitants of the ,british ,isle is corroborated by other authors4 ,it was such an occupation and mode of life as suited their state of society4 ,the island was divided into many little sovereignties2 no fixed property was secure2 and that alone was valuable which could be hurried away at the threatened approach of the invader4 ,many centuries after this1 when--although one sovereign seemed to reign paramount over the whole of the kingdom--there continued to be endless contests among the feudal barons1 and therefore that property alone continued to be valuable which could be secured within the walls of the castle1 or driven beyond the assailant's reach--an immense stock of provisions was always stored up in the various fortresses1 both for the vassals and the cattle2 or it was contrived that the latter should be driven to the domains of some friendly baron1 or concealed in some inland recess4 ,when the government became more powerful and settled1 and property of every kind was assured a proportionate degree of protection1 as well as more equally divided1 the plough came into use2 agricultural productions were oftener cultivated1 the reaping of which was sure after the labor of sowing4 ,cattle were then comparatively neglected and for some centuries injuriously so4 ,their numbers diminished1 and their size also seems to have diminished2 and it is only within the last century and a half that any serious and successful efforts have been made materially to improve them4 ,in the comparatively roving and uncertain life which the earlier inhabitants led1 their cattle would sometimes stray and be lost4 ,the country was at that time overgrown with forests1 and the beasts betook themselves to the recesses of these woods1 and became wild and sometimes ferocious4 ,they1 by degrees1 grew so numerous as to be dangerous to the inhabitants of the neighboring districts4 ,one of the chronicles asserts that many of them harbored in the forests in the neighborhood of ,london4 ,strange stories are told of some of them1 and1 doubtless1 when irritated1 they were fierce and dangerous enough4 ,as1 however1 civilization advanced1 and the forests became thinned and contracted1 these animals were seen more rarely1 and at length almost disappeared4 ,a few of them1 however1 are still to be found in the parks of some of the leading ,english noblemen1 who keep them for ornament and as curiosities4 ,the color of this wild breed is invariably white1 the muzzle being black2 the whole of the inside of the ear1 and about one-third of the outside1 from the tips downward1 red2 horns white1 with black tips1 very fine1 and bent upward2 some of the bulls have a thin1 upright mane1 about an inch and a half or two inches long4 ,the beef is finely marbled and of excellent flavor4 ,at the first appearance of any person they set off in full gallop1 and at the distance of about two hundred yards1 make a wheel around and come boldly up again in a menacing manner2 on a sudden they make a full stop at the distance of forty or fifty yards1 looking wildly at the object of their surprise2 but upon the least motion they all again turn round and fly off with equal speed1 but not to the same distance1 forming a shorter circle2 and1 again returning with a more threatening aspect than before1 they approach probably within thirty yards1 when they again make another stand1 and then fly off2 this they do several times1 shortening their distance and advancing nearer and nearer1 till they come within such short distance that most persons think it prudent to leave them4 ,when the cows calve1 they hide their calves for a week or ten days in some retired situation1 and go and suckle them two or three times a day4 ,if any persons come near the calves they clap their heads close to the ground to hide themselves--a proof of their native wildness4 ,the dams allow no one to touch their young without attacking with impetuous ferocity4 ,when one of the herd happens to be wounded1 or has grown weak and feeble through age or sickness1 the rest set on it and gore it to death4 ,the breeds of cattle which are now found in ,great ,britain1 are almost as various as the soil of the different districts or the fancies of the breeders4 ,they have1 however1 been very conveniently classed according to the comparative size of the horns2 the long-horns1 originally from ,lancashire1 and established through most of the midland counties2 the short-horns1 generally cultivated in the northern counties and in ,lincolnshire1 and many of them found in every part of the kingdom where the farmer pays much attention to his dairy1 or where a large supply of milk is desired2 and the middle-horns1 a distinct and valuable breed1 inhabiting1 principally1 the north of ,devon1 the east of ,sussex1 ,herefordshire1 and ,gloucestershire2 and of diminished bulk and with somewhat different character1 the cattle of the ,scottish and ,welsh mountains4 ,the ,alderney1 with its crumpled horn1 is found on the southern coast2 while the polled1 or hornless1 cattle prevail in ,suffolk1 ,norfolk1 and ,galloway1 whence they were first derived4 ,these leading breeds1 however1 have been intermingled in every possible way4 ,they are found pure only in their native districts1 or on the estate of some wealthy and spirited individuals4 ,each county has its own mongrel breed1 often difficult to be described1 and not always to be traced--neglected enough1 yet suited to the soil and the climate2 and among small farmers1 maintaining their station1 in spite of attempts at improvements by the intermixture or the substitution of foreign varieties4 ,much dispute has arisen as to the original breed of ,british cattle4 ,the battle has been sharply fought between the advocates of the middle and of the long-horns4 ,the short-horns and the polls are out of the lists2 the latter1 although it has existed in certain districts from time immemorial1 being probably an accidental variety4 ,the weight of argument appears at present to rest with the middle horns2 the long-horns being evidently of ,irish extraction4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,well-,,fed ,,beasts4 ,great ,britain has shared the fate of other nations1 and oftener than they been overrun and subjugated by invaders4 ,as the natives retreated they carried with them some portion of their property1 consisting1 in the remote and early times1 principally of cattle4 ,they drove along with them as many as they could1 when they retired to the fortresses of ,north ,devon and ,cornwall1 or the mountainous region of ,wales1 or when they took refuge in the retirement of ,east ,sussex2 and there1 retaining all their prejudices1 manners1 and customs1 were jealous of the preservation of that which reminded them of their native country before it yielded to a foreign yoke4 ,in this way was preserved the ancient breed of ,british cattle4 ,difference of climate produced some change1 particularly in their bulk4 ,the rich pasturage of ,sussex fattened the ox into its superior size and weight4 ,the plentiful1 but not so luxuriant1 herbage of the north of ,devon produced a smaller and more active animal2 while the privations of ,wales lessened the bulk and thickened the hide of the ,welsh ,stock4 ,as for ,scotland1 it set its invaders at defiance2 or its inhabitants retreated for a while1 and soon turned again on their pursuers4 ,they were proud of their country1 and of their cattle1 their choicest possession2 and there1 also1 the cattle were preserved1 unmixed and undegenerated4 ,thence it has resulted1 that in ,devon1 in ,sussex1 in ,wales1 and in ,scotland1 the cattle have been the same from time immemorial2 while in all the eastern coasts and through every district of ,england1 the breed of cattle degenerated1 or lost its original character2 it consisted of animals brought from all the neighboring1 and some remote districts1 mingled in every possible variety1 yet conforming to the soil and the climate4 ,careful observations will establish the fact1 that the cattle in ,devonshire1 ,sussex1 ,wales1 and ,scotland are essentially the same4 ,they are middle horned2 not extraordinary milkers1 and remarkable for the quality rather than the quantity of their milk2 active at work1 and with an unequalled aptitude to fatten4 ,they have all the characters of the same breed1 changed by soil1 climate1 and time1 yet little changed by man4 ,the color1 even1 may be almost traced1 namely3 the red of the ,devon1 the ,sussex1 and the ,hereford2 and where only the black are now found1 the recollection of the red prevails4 ,as this volume is intended especially for the farmers of our own country1 it is deemed unnecessary in this connection to present any thing additional under the present head1 except the names of the prominent species of ,british cattle4 ,these are1 commencing with the middle horns1 the ,north ,devon1 the ,hereford1 the ,sussex1 the ,welsh 7with the varieties of the ,pembrokeshire1 the ,glamorganshire1 the ,radnor black1 the ,anglesea and some others72 and the ,scotch with its chief varieties1 the ,west ,highlanders1 the ,north ,highlanders1 the ,north ,eastern1 the ,fife1 the ,ayrshire1 and the ,galloways4 ,as to the long horns1 which came originally from ,craven in ,yorkshire1 it may be remarked that this breed has been rapidly disappearing of late1 and has everywhere given place to better kinds4 ,of this species there are--or perhaps were--two leading classes1 the ,lancashire and the ,leicestershire improved4 ,of the short horns1 the leading breeds are the ,dutch1 the ,holderness1 the ,teeswater1 the ,yorkshire1 the ,durham1 the ,northumberland1 and some others4 ,,american ,,cattle4 ,the breeds of cattle which stock the farms of the ,united ,states are all derived from ,europe1 and1 with few exceptions1 from ,great ,britain4 ,the highest breeds at the present time are of comparatively recent origin1 since the great improvements in breeding were only commenced at about the period of the ,american ,revolution4 ,the old importations made by the early settlers1 must consequently have been from comparatively inferior grades4 ,in some sections of the ,union1 and more particularly in ,new ,england1 the primitive stock is thought to have undergone considerable improvement2 whilst in many parts of the ,middle1 and especially of the ,southern ,states1 a greater or less depreciation has ensued4 ,the prevailing stock in the ,eastern ,states is believed to be derived from the ,north ,devons1 most of the excellent marks and qualities of which they possess4 ,for this reason they are very highly esteemed1 and have been frequently called the ,american ,devon4 ,the most valuable working oxen are chiefly of this breed1 which also contributes so largely to the best displays of beef found in the markets of ,boston1 ,new ,york1 and ,philadelphia4 ,by means of this domestic stock1 and the importations still extensively made of selections from the short horns1 and others of the finest ,european breeds1 the cattle1 not only of ,new ,england1 but of other sections1 are rapidly improving1 especially in the ,middle and ,western ,states4 ,a brief sketch of the principal breeds of ,american cattle1 as well as of the grades or common stock of the country1 will be of service to the farmer in making an intelligent selection with reference to the special object of pursuit--whether it be the dairy1 the production of beef1 or the raising of cattle for work4 ,in selecting any breed1 regard should be had to the circumstances of the individual farmer and the object to be pursued4 ,the cow most profitable for the milk dairy1 may be very unprofitable in the butter and cheese dairy1 as well as for the production of beef2 while1 for either of the latter objects1 the cow which gave the largest quantity of milk might be very undesirable4 ,a union and harmony of all good qualities must be secured1 so far as possible4 ,the farmer wants a cow that will milk well for some years2 and then1 when dry1 fatten readily and sell to the butcher for the highest price4 ,these qualities1 often supposed to be utterly incompatible1 will be found united in some breeds to a greater extent than in others2 while some peculiarities of form have been found1 by observation1 to be better adapted to the production of milk and beef than others4 ,it is proposed1 therefore1 to sketch the pure breeds now found in ,america4 ,,the ,,ayrshire4 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,ayrshire ,,bull4 ,this breed is justly celebrated throughout ,great ,britain and this country for its excellent dairy qualities4 ,though the most recent in their origin1 they are pretty distinct from the ,scotch and ,english races4 ,in color1 the pure ,ayrshires are generally red and white1 spotted or mottled1 not roan like many of the short horns1 but often presenting a bright contrast of colors4 ,they are sometimes1 though rarely1 nearly or quite all red1 and sometimes black and white2 but the favorite color is red and white brightly contrasted2 and1 by some1 strawberry-color is preferred4 ,the head is small1 fine and clean2 the face long and narrow at the muzzle1 with a sprightly1 yet generally mild expression2 eye small1 smart and lively2 the horns short1 fine1 and slightly twisted upward1 set wide apart at the roots2 the neck thin2 body enlarging from fore to hind quarters2 the back straight and narrow1 but broad across the loin2 joints rather loose and open2 ribs rather flat2 hind quarters rather thin2 bone fine2 tail long1 fine1 and bushy at the end2 hair generally thin and soft2 udder light color and capacious1 extending well forward under the belly2 teats of the cow of medium size1 generally set regularly and wide apart2 milk-veins prominent and well developed4 ,the carcass of the pure bred ,ayrshire is light1 particularly the fore quarters1 which is considered by good judges as an index of great milking qualities2 but the pelvis is capacious and wide over the hips4 ,on the whole1 the ,ayrshire is good looking1 but wants some of the symmetry and aptitude to fatten which characterize the short horn1 which is supposed to have contributed to build up this valuable breed on the basis of the original stock of the county of ,ayr1 which extends along the eastern shore of the ,firth of ,clyde1 in the southwestern part of ,scotland4 ,the original stock of this country are described as of a diminutive size1 ill fed1 ill shaped1 and yielding but a scanty return in milk4 ,they were mostly of a black color1 with large stripes of white along the chine and ridge of their backs1 about the flanks1 and on their faces4 ,their horns were high and crooked1 having deep ringlets at the root--the surest proof that they were but scantily fed2 the chine of their backs stood up high and narrow2 their sides were lank1 short1 and thin2 their hides thick and adhering to the bones2 their pile was coarse and open2 and few of them gave more than six or eight quarts of milk a day when in their best condition1 or weighed1 when fat1 more than from a hundred to a hundred and sixty pounds avoirdupois1 rejecting offal4 ,a wonderful change has since been made in the condition1 aspect1 and qualities of the ,ayrshire dairy stock4 ,they are now almost double the size1 and yield about four times the quantity of milk that the ,ayrshire cows formerly yielded4 ,a large part of this improvement is due to better feeding and care1 but much1 no doubt1 to judicious crossing4 ,strange as it may seem1 considering the modern origin of this breed1 all that is certainly known touching it is1 that about a century and a half ago there was no such breed as ,ayrshire in ,scotland4 ,the question has therefore arisen1 whether these cattle came entirely from a careful selection of the best native breed4 ,if they did1 it is a circumstance without a parallel in the history of agriculture4 ,the native breed may indeed be ameliorated by careful selection2 its value may be incalculably increased2 some good qualities1 some of its best qualities1 may be developed for the first time2 but yet there will be some resemblance to the original stock1 and the more the animal is examined1 the more clearly can be traced the characteristic points of the ancestor1 although every one of them is improved4 ,youatt estimates the daily yield of an ,ayrshire cow1 for the first two or three months after calving1 at five gallons a day1 on an average2 for the next three months1 at three gallons2 and for the next four months1 at one gallon and a half4 ,this would give eight hundred and fifty gallons as the annual average2 but1 allowing for some unproductive cows1 he estimates the average of a dairy at six hundred gallons a year for each cow4 ,three gallons and a half of the ,ayrshire cow's milk will yield one and a half pounds of butter4 ,some have estimated the yield still higher4 ,one of the four cows originally imported into this country by ,john ,p4 ,cushing1 ,esq41 of ,massachusetts1 gave in one year three thousand eight hundred and sixty-four quarts1 beer measure1 or about nine hundred and sixty-six gallons1 at ten pounds the gallon2 being an average of over ten and a half beer quarts a day for the entire year4 ,the first cow of this breed1 imported by the ,massachusetts ,society1 for the ,promotion of ,agriculture1 in #ahcg1 yielded sixteen pounds of butter a week for several successive weeks1 on grass feed only4 ,it should be borne in mind1 in this connection that the climate of ,new ,england is less favorable to the production of milk than that of ,england and ,scotland1 and that no cow imported after arriving at maturity can be expected to yield as much1 under the same circumstances1 as one bred on the spot where the trial is made1 and perfectly acclimated4 ,on excellent authority1 the most approved shape and marks of a good dairy cow are as follows3 ,head small1 long1 and narrow toward the muzzle2 horns small1 clear1 bent1 and placed at considerable distance from each other2 eyes not large1 but brisk and lively2 neck slender and long1 tapering toward the head1 with a little loose skin below2 shoulders and fore quarters light and thin2 hind quarters large and broad2 back straight1 and joints slack and open2 carcass deep in the rib2 tail small and long1 reaching to the heels2 legs small and short1 with firm joints2 udder square1 but a little oblong1 stretching forward1 thin skinned and capacious1 but not low hung2 teats or paps small1 pointing outward1 and at a considerable distance from each other2 milk-veins capacious and prominent2 skin loose1 thin1 and soft like a glove2 hair short1 soft1 and woolly2 general figure1 when in flesh1 handsome and well proportioned4 ,if this description of the ,ayrshire cow be correct1 it will be seen that her head and neck are remarkably clean and fine1 the latter swelling gradually toward the shoulders1 both parts being unencumbered with superfluous flesh4 ,the same general form extends backward1 the fore quarters being1 light the shoulders thin1 and the carcass swelling out toward the hind quarters1 so that when standing in front of her it has the form of a blunted wedge4 ,such a structure indicates very fully developed digestive organs1 which exert a powerful influence on all the functions of the body1 and especially on the secretion of the milky glands1 accompanied with milk-veins and udder partaking of the same character as the stomach and viscera1 being large and capacious1 while the external skin and interior walls of the milk-glands are thin and elastic1 and all parts arranged in a manner especially adapted for the production of milk4 ,a cow with these marks will generally be of a quiet and docile temper1 which greatly increases her value4 ,a cow that is of a quiet and contented disposition feeds at ease1 is milked with ease1 and yields more than one of an opposite temperament2 while1 after she is past her usefulness as a milker1 she will easily take on fat1 and make fine beef and a good quantity of tallow1 because she feeds freely1 and when dry the food which went to make milk is converted into fat and flesh4 ,but there is no breed of cows with which gentle gentleness of treatment is so indispensable as with the ,ayrshire1 on account of her naturally nervous temperament4 ,if she receives other than kind and gentle treatment1 she will often resent it with angry looks and gestures1 and withhold her milk2 and if such treatment is long continued1 will dry up2 but she willingly and easily yields it to the hand that fondles her1 and all her looks and movements toward her friends are quiet and mild4 ,the ,ayrshires in their native country are generally bred for the dairy1 and for no other object2 and the cows have justly obtained a world-wide reputation for this quality4 ,the oxen are1 however1 very fair as working cattle1 though they cannot be said to excel other breeds in this respect4 ,the ,ayrshire steer maybe fed and turned at three years old2 but for feeding purposes the ,ayrshires are greatly improved by a cross with the short horns1 provided regard is had to the size of the animal4 ,it is the opinion of good breeders that a high-bred short horn bull and a large-sized ,ayrshire cow will produce a calf which will come to maturity earlier1 and attain greater weight1 and sell for more money than a pure-bred ,ayrshire4 ,this cross1 with feeding from the start1 may be sold fat at two or three years old1 the improvement being most noticeable in the earlier maturity and size4 ,in the ,cross with the short horn1 the form ordinarily becomes more symmetrical1 while there is1 perhaps1 little risk of lessening the milking qualities of the offspring1 if sufficient regard is paid to the selection of the individual animals to breed from4 ,it is thought by some that in the breeding of animals it is the male which gives the external form1 or the bony and muscular system of the young1 while the female imparts the respiratory organs1 the circulation of the blood1 the organs of secretion1 and the like4 ,if this principle be true1 it follows that the milking qualities come chiefly from the mother1 and that the bull cannot materially alter the conditions which determine the transmission of these qualities1 especially when they are as strongly marked as they are in this breed4 ,until1 however1 certain mooted questions connected with breeding are definitively settled1 it is the safest plan1 in breeding for the dairy1 to adhere to the rule of selecting only animals whose progenitors on both sides have been distinguished for their milking qualities4 ,it may be stated1 in conclusion1 that for purely dairy purposes the ,ayrshire cow deserves the first place4 ,in consequence of her small1 symmetrical1 and compact body1 combined with a well-formed chest and a capacious stomach1 there is little waste1 comparatively speaking1 through the respiratory system2 while at the same time there is very complete assimilation of the food1 and thus she converts a very large proportion of her food into milk4 ,so remarkable is this fact1 that all dairy farmers who have any experience on the point1 agree in stating that an ,ayrshire cow generally gives a larger return of milk for the food consumed than a cow of any other breed4 ,the absolute quality may not be so great1 but it is obtained at a less cost2 and this is the point upon which the question of profit depends4 ,the best milkers which have been known in this country were grade ,ayrshires1 larger in size than the pure bloods1 but still sufficiently high grades to give certain signs of their origin4 ,this grade would seem to possess the advantage of combining1 to some extent1 the two qualities of milking and adaptation to beef2 and this is no small recommendation of the stock to farmers situated as ,american farmers are1 who wish for milk for some years and then to turn over to the butcher4 ,,the ,,jersey4 ,these cattle are now widely known in this country4 ,many of them have been imported from an island of the same name in the ,british ,channel1 near the coast of ,france1 and they may now be considered1 for all practical purposes1 as fully acclimated4 ,they were first introduced1 upward of thirty years ago1 from the channel islands1 ,alderney1 ,guernsey1 and ,jersey4 ,this race is supposed to have been originally derived from ,normandy1 in the northern part of ,france4 ,the cows have been long celebrated for the production of very rich milk and cream1 but till within the last twenty-five or thirty years they were comparatively coarse1 ugly1 and ill-shaped4 ,improvements have been very marked1 but the form of the animal is still far from satisfying the eye4 ,the head of the pure ,jersey is fine and tapering1 the cheek small1 the throat clean1 the muzzle fine and encircled with a light stripe1 the nostril high and open2 the horns smooth1 crumpled1 but not very thick at the base1 tapering and tipped with black2 ears small and thin1 deep orange color inside2 eyes full and placid2 neck straight and fine2 chest broad and deep2 barrel hoofed1 broad and deep1 well ribbed up2 back straight from the withers to the hip1 and from the top of the hip to the setting of the tail2 tail fine1 at right angles with the back1 and hanging down to the hocks2 skin thin1 light color1 and mellow1 covered with fine soft hair2 fore legs short1 straight and fine below the knee1 arm swelling and full above2 hind quarters long and well filled2 hind legs short and straight below the hocks1 with bones rather fine1 squarely placed1 and not too close together2 hoofs small2 udder full in size1 in line with the belly1 extending well up behind2 teats of medium size1 squarely placed and wide apart1 and milk-veins very prominent4 ,the color is generally cream1 dun1 or yellow1 with more or less of white1 and the fine head and neck give the cows and heifers a fawn-like appearance1 and make them objects of attraction in the park2 but the hind quarters are often too narrow to work well1 particularly to those who judge animals by the amount of fat which they carry4 ,it should be borne in mind1 however1 that a good race of animals is not always the most beautiful1 as that term is generally understood4 ,beauty in stock has no invariable standard4 ,in the estimation of some1 it results mainly from fine forms1 small bones1 and close1 compact frames2 while others consider that structure the most perfect1 and therefore the most beautiful1 which is best adapted to the use for which it is destined4 ,with such1 beauty is relative4 ,it is not the same in an animal designed for beef and in one designed for the dairy or for work4 ,the beauty of a milch cow is the result of her good qualities4 ,large milkers are very rarely cows that please the eye of any but a skillful judge4 ,they are generally poor1 since their food goes mainly to the production of milk1 and because they are selected with less regard to form than to good milking qualities4 ,the prevailing opinion as to the beauty of the ,jersey1 is based on the general appearance of the cow when in milk--no experiments in feeding exclusively for beef having been made public1 and no opportunity to form a correct judgment from actual observation having been furnished2 and it must be confessed that the general appearance of the breed would amply justify the hasty conclusion4 ,the bulls are usually very different in character and disposition from the cows1 and are much inclined to become restive and cross at the age of two or three years1 unless their treatment is uniformly gentle and firm4 ,the ,jersey is to be regarded as a dairy breed1 and that almost exclusively4 ,it would not be sought for large dairies kept for the supply of milk to cities2 for1 though the quality would gratify the customer1 the quantity would not satisfy the owner4 ,the place of the ,jersey cow is rather in private establishments1 where the supply of cream and butter is a sufficient object2 or1 in limited numbers1 to add richness to the milk of large butter dairies4 ,even one or two good ,jersey cows with a herd of fifteen or twenty1 will make a great difference in the quality of the milk and butter of the whole establishment2 and they would probably be profitable for this1 if for no other object4 ,,the ,,short ,,horns4 ,no breed of cattle has commanded more universal admiration during the last half century than the improved short horns1 whose origin can be traced back for nearly a hundred years4 ,according to the best authorities1 the stock which formed the basis of improvement existed equally in ,yorkshire1 ,lincolnshire1 ,northumberland1 and the adjoining counties2 and the pre-eminence was accorded to ,durham1 which gave its name to the race1 from the more correct principles of breeding which seem to have obtained there4 ,there is a dispute among the most eminent breeders as to how far it owes its origin to early importations from ,holland1 whence many superior animals were brought for the purpose of improving the old long horned breed4 ,a large race of cattle had existed for many years on the western shores of the continent of ,europe4 ,as early as #afcc1 they were imported from ,denmark into ,new ,england in considerable numbers1 and thus laid the foundation of a valuable stock in farming at a very early date in ,holland1 and experience led to the greatest care in the choice and breeding of dairy stock4 ,from these cattle many selections were made to cross over to the counties of ,york and ,durham4 ,the prevailing color of the large ,dutch cattle was black and white1 beautifully contrasted4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,short ,,horn ,,bull4 ,the cattle produced by these crosses a century ago were known by the name of ,dutch4 ,the cows selected for crossing with the early imported ,dutch bulls were generally long horned1 large boned1 coarse animals1 a fair type of which was found in the old ,holderness breed of ,yorkshire--slow feeders1 strong in the shoulder1 defective in the fore quarter1 and not very profitable to the butcher1 their meat being coarse and uninviting4 ,their milking qualities were good1 surpassing those1 probably1 of the improved short horns4 ,whatever may be the truth with regard to these crosses1 and however far they proved effective in creating or laying the foundation of the modern improved short horns1 the results of the efforts made in ,yorkshire and some of the adjoining counties were never so satisfactory to the best judges as those of the breeders along the ,tees1 who selected animals with greater reference to fineness of bone and symmetry of form1 and the animals they bred soon took the lead and excited great emulation in improvement4 ,importations of short horns have been frequent and extensive into the ,united ,states within the last few years1 and this famous breed is now pretty generally diffused over the country4 ,the high-bred short horn is easily prepared for a show1 and1 as fat will cover faults1 the temptation is often too great to be resisted2 and hence it is not uncommon to see the finest animals rendered unfit for breeding purposes by over-feeding4 ,the race is susceptible of breeding for the production of milk1 as several families show1 and great milkers have often been known among pure-bred animals2 but it is more common to find it bred mainly for the butcher1 and kept accordingly4 ,it is1 however1 a well-known fact1 that the dairies of ,london are stocked chiefly with short horns and ,yorkshires1 or high grades between them1 which1 after being milked as long as profitable1 feed equal1 or nearly so1 to pure-bred short horns4 ,it has been said1 by very good authority1 that the short horns improve every breed with which they cross4 ,the desirable characteristics of the short horn bull may be summed up1 according to the judgment of the best breeders1 as follows3 ,he should have a short but fine head1 very broad across the eyes1 tapering to the nose1 with a nostril full and prominent2 the nose itself should be of a rich flesh color2 eyes bright and mild2 ears somewhat large and thin2 horns slightly covered and rather flat1 well set on2 a long1 broad1 muscular neck2 chest wide1 deep1 and projecting2 shoulders fine1 oblique1 well formed into the chine2 fore legs short1 with upper arm large and powerful2 barrel round1 deep1 well-ribbed horns2 hips wide and level2 back straight from the withers to the setting on of the tail1 but short from hips to chine2 skin soft and velvety to the touch2 moderately thick hair1 plentiful1 soft1 and mossy4 ,the cow has the same points in the main1 but her head is finer1 longer1 and more tapering2 neck thinner and lighter1 and shoulders more narrow across the chine4 ,the astonishing precocity of the short horns1 their remarkable aptitude to fatten1 the perfection of their forms1 and the fineness of their bony structure1 give them an advantage over most other races when the object of breeding is for the shambles4 ,no animal of any other breed can so rapidly transform the stock of any section around him as the improved short horn bull4 ,it does not1 however1 follow that the high-bred short horns are unexceptionable1 even for beef4 ,the very exaggeration1 so to speak1 of the qualities which make them so valuable for the improvement of other and less perfect races1 may become a fault when wanted for the table4 ,the very rapidity with which they increase in size is thought by some to prevent their meat from ripening up sufficiently before being hurried off to the butcher4 ,the disproportion of the fatty to the muscular flesh1 found in this to a greater extent than in races coming more slowly to maturity1 makes the meat of the thorough-bred short horn1 in the estimation of some1 less agreeable to the taste1 and less profitable to the consumer2 since the nitrogenous compounds1 true sources of nutriment1 are found in less quantity than in the meat of animals not so highly bred4 ,in sections where the climate is moist1 and the food abundant and rich1 some families of the short horns may be valuable for the dairy2 but they are most frequently bred exclusively for beef in this country1 and in sections where they have attained the highest perfection of form and beauty1 so little is thought of their milking qualities that they are often not milked at all1 the calf being allowed to run with the dam4 ,,the ,,dutch4 ,this short horned race1 in the opinion of many--as has been previously remarked--contributed largely1 about a century ago1 to build up the ,durham or ,teeswater stock4 ,it has been bred with special reference to dairy qualities1 and is eminently adapted to supply the wants of the dairy farmer4 ,the cows of ,north ,holland not only give a large quantity1 but also a very good quality1 so that a yield of sixteen to twenty-five quarts1 wine measure1 at every milking1 is not rare4 ,the principles upon which the inhabitants of ,holland practise1 in selecting a cow from which to breed1 are as follows3 ,she should have1 they say1 considerable size--not less than four and a half or five feet girth1 with a length of body corresponding2 legs proportionally short2 a finely formed head1 with a forehead or face somewhat concave2 clear1 large1 mild and sparkling eyes1 yet with no expression of wildness2 tolerably large and stout ears1 standing out from the head2 fine1 well curved horns2 a rather short1 than long1 thick1 broad neck1 well set against the chest and withers2 the front part of the breast and shoulders must be broad and fleshy2 the low-hanging dewlap must be soft to the touch2 the back and loins must be properly projected1 somewhat broad1 the bones not too sharp1 but well covered with flesh2 the animal should have long curved ribs1 which form a broad breast bone2 the body must be round and deep1 but not sunken into a hanging belly2 the rump must not be uneven1 the hip-bones should not stand out too broad and spreading1 but all the parts should be level and well filled up2 a fine tail1 set moderately high up and tolerably long1 but slender1 with a thick1 bushy tuft of hair at the end1 hanging down below the hocks2 the legs must be short and low1 but strong in the bony structure2 the knees broad1 with flexible joints2 the muscles and sinews must be firm and sound1 the hoofs broad and flat1 and the position of the legs natural1 not too close and crowded2 the hide1 covered with fine glossy hair1 must be soft and mellow to the touch1 and set loose upon the body4 ,a large1 rather long1 white and loose udder1 extending well back1 with four long teats1 serves also as a characteristic mark of a good milch cow4 ,large and prominent milk-veins must extend from the navel back to the udder2 the belly of a good milch cow should not be too deep and hanging4 ,the color of the ,north ,dutch cattle is mostly variegated4 ,cows with only one color are no favorites4 ,red or black variegated1 gray and blue variegated1 roan1 spotted and white variegated cows1 are especially liked4 ,,the ,,hereford4 ,these cattle derive their name from a county in the western part of ,england4 ,their general characteristics are a white face1 sometimes mottled2 white throat1 the white generally extending back on the neck1 and sometimes1 though rarely1 still further along on the back4 ,the color of the rest of the body is red1 generally dark1 but sometimes light4 ,eighty years ago the best ,hereford cattle were mottled or roan all over2 and some of the best herds1 down to a comparatively recent period1 were either all mottled1 or had the mottled or speckled face4 ,the expression of the face is mild and lively2 the forehead open1 broad1 and large2 the eyes bright and full of vivacity2 the horns glossy1 slender and spreading2 the head small1 though larger than1 and not quite so clear as1 that of the ,devons2 the lower jaw fine2 neck long and slender2 chest deep2 breast-bone large1 prominent1 and very muscular2 the shoulder-blade light2 shoulder full and soft2 brisket and loins large2 hips well developed1 and on a level with the chine2 hind quarters long and well filled in2 buttocks on a level with the back1 neither falling off nor raised above the hind quarters2 tail slender1 well set on2 hair fine and soft2 body round and full2 carcass deep and well formed1 or cylindrical2 bone small2 thigh short and well made2 legs short and straight1 and slender below the knee2 as handlers very excellent1 especially mellow to the touch on the back1 the shoulder1 and along the sides1 the skin being soft1 flexible1 of medium thickness1 rolling on the neck and the hips2 hair bright2 face almost bare1 which is characteristic of pure ,herefords4 ,they belong to the middle horned division of the cattle of ,great ,britain1 to which they are indigenous1 and have been improved within the last century by careful selections4 ,hereford oxen are excellent animals1 less active but stronger than the ,devons1 and very free and docile4 ,the demand for ,herefords for beef prevents their being much used for work in their native county1 and the farmers there generally use horses instead of oxen4 ,it is generally conceded that the qualities in which ,herefords stand pre-eminent among the middle-sized breeds are in the production of oxen and their superiority of flesh4 ,on these points there is little chance of their being excelled4 ,it should1 however1 be borne in mind that the best oxen are not produced from the largest cows2 nor is a superior quality of flesh1 such as is considered very soft to the touch1 with thin skin4 ,it is the union of these two qualities which often characterizes the short horns2 but ,hereford breeders--as a recent writer remarks--should endeavor to maintain a higher standard of excellence--that for which the best of the breed have always been esteemed--a moderately thick1 mellow hide1 with a well apportioned combination of softness with elasticity4 ,a sufficiency of hair is also desirable1 and if accompanied with a disposition to curl moderately1 it is more in esteem2 but that which has a harsh and wiry feel is objectionable4 ,in point of symmetry and beauty of form1 the well bred ,herefords may be classed with the improved short horns1 though they arrive somewhat more slowly at maturity1 and never attain such weight4 ,like the improved short horns1 they are chiefly bred for beef1 and their beef is of the best quality in the ,english markets1 commanding the highest price of any1 except perhaps1 the ,west ,highlanders4 ,the short horn produces more beef at the same age than the ,hereford1 but consumes more food in proportion4 ,the ,herefords are far less generally spread over ,england than the improved short horns4 ,they have seldom been bred for milk1 as some families of the latter have2 and it is not very unusual to find pure-bred cows incapable of supplying milk sufficient to nourish their calves4 ,they have been imported to this country to some extent1 and several fine herds exist in different sections2 the earliest importations being those of ,henry ,clay1 of ,kentucky1 in #ahag4 ,the want of care and attention to the udder1 soon after calving1 especially if the cow be on luxuriant grass1 often injures her milking properties exceedingly4 ,the practice in the county of ,hereford has generally been to let the calves suckle from four to six months1 and bull calves often run eight months with the cow4 ,but their dairy qualities are perhaps as good as those of any cattle whose fattening properties have been so carefully developed2 and1 though it is probable that they could be bred for milk with proper care and attention1 yet1 as this change would be at the expense of other qualities equally valuable1 it would evidently be wiser to resort to other stock for the dairy4 ,,the ,,north ,,devons4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,north ,,devon ,,steer4 ,this beautiful race of middle horned cattle dates further back than any well established breed among us4 ,it goes generally under the simple name of ,devon2 but the cattle of the southern part of the country1 from which the race derives its name1 differ somewhat from those of the northern1 having a larger and coarser frame1 and far less tendency to fatten though their dairy qualities are superior4 ,the ,north ,devons are remarkable for hardihood1 symmetry and beauty1 and are generally bred for work and for beef1 rather than for the dairy4 ,the head is fine and well set on2 the horns of medium length1 generally curved2 color usually bright blood-red1 but sometimes inclining to yellow2 skin thin and orange-yellow2 hair of medium length1 soft and silky1 making the animals remarkable as handlers2 muzzle of the nose white2 eyes full and mild2 ears yellowish1 or orange-color inside1 of moderate size2 neck rather long1 with little dewlap2 shoulders oblique2 legs small and straight1 with feet in proportion2 chest of good width2 ribs round and expanded2 loins of first-rate quality1 long1 wide1 and fleshy2 hips round1 of medium width2 rump level2 tail full near the setting on1 tapering to the tip2 thighs of the bull and ox muscular and full1 and high in the flank1 though in the cow sometimes thought to be light2 the size medium1 generally called small4 ,the proportion of meat on the valuable parts is greater1 and the offal less1 than on most other breeds1 while it is well settled that they consume less food in its production4 ,the ,devons are popular with the ,smithfield butchers1 and their beef is well marbled or grained4 ,as working oxen1 the ,devons perhaps excel all other races in quickness1 docility1 beauty1 and the ease with which they are matched4 ,with a reasonable load1 they are said to be equal to horses as walkers on the road1 and when they are no longer wanted for work they fatten easily and turn well4 ,as milkers1 they do not excel--perhaps they may be said not to equal--the other breeds1 and they have a reputation of being decidedly below the average4 ,in their native country the general average of the dairy is one pound of butter a day during the summer4 ,they are bred for beef and for work1 and not for the dairy2 and their yield of milk is small1 though of a rich quality4 ,several animals1 however1 of the celebrated ,patterson herd would have been remarkable as milkers even among good milking stock4 ,still1 the faults of the ,north ,devon cow1 considered as a dairy animal1 are too marked to be overlooked4 ,the rotundity of form and compactness of frame1 though they contribute to her remarkable beauty constitute an objection to her for this purpose3 since it is generally admitted that the peculiarity of form which disposes an animal to take on fat is somewhat incompatible with good milking qualities4 ,on this account1 ,youatt--who is standard authority in such matters--says that for the dairy the ,north ,devon must be acknowledged to be inferior to several other breeds4 ,the milk is good1 and yields more than the average proportion of cream and butter2 but it is deficient in quantity4 ,he also maintains that its property as a milker could not be improved without producing a certain detriment to its grazing qualities4 ,distinguished ,devon breeders themselves have come to the same conclusion upon this point4 ,the improved ,north ,devon cow may be classed1 in this respect1 with the ,hereford1 neither of which has well developed milk-vessels--a point of the utmost consequence to the practical dairyman4 ,,native ,,cattle4 ,the foregoing comprise the pure-bred races in ,america2 for1 though other and well-established breeds--like the ,galloways1 the long horns1 the ,spanish1 and others--have1 at times1 been imported1 and have had some influence on our ,american stock1 yet they have not been kept distinct to such an extent as to become the prevailing stock of any particular section4 ,a large proportion1 however--by far the largest proportion1 indeed--of the cattle known among us cannot be included under any of the races to which allusion has been made2 and to the consideration of this class the present article is devoted4 ,the term breed--as was set forth in the author's treatise1 ,the ,horse and his ,diseases--when properly understood1 applies only to animals of the same species1 possessing1 besides the general characteristics of that species1 other characteristics peculiar to themselves1 which they owe to the influence of soil1 climate1 nourishment1 and the habits of life to which they are subjected1 and which they transmit with certainty to their progeny4 ,the characteristics of certain breeds or families are so well marked1 that1 if an individual supposed to belong to any one of them were to produce an offspring not possessing them1 or possessing them only in part1 with others not belonging to the breed1 it would be just ground for suspecting a want of purity of bloods4 ,in this view1 no grade animals1 and no animals destitute of fixed peculiarities or characteristics which they1 share in common with all other animals of the class of which they are a type1 and which they are capable of transmitting with certainty to their descendants1 can be recognized by breeders as belonging to any one distinct race1 breed1 or family4 ,the term native is applied to a vast majority of our ,american cattle1 which1 though born on the soil1 and thus in one sense natives1 do not constitute a breed1 race1 or family1 as correctly understood by breeders4 ,they do not possess characteristics peculiar to them all1 which they transmit with any certainty to their offspring1 either of form1 size1 color1 milking or working properties4 ,but1 though an animal may be made up of a mixture of blood almost to impurity1 it does not follow that1 for specific purposes1 it may not1 as an individual animal1 be one of the best of the species4 ,indeed1 for particular purposes1 animals might be selected from among those commonly called natives in ,new ,england1 and scrubs at the west and south1 equal1 and perhaps superior1 to any among the races produced by the most skillful breeding4 ,there can be no objection1 therefore1 to the use of the term native1 when it is understood as descriptive of no known breed1 but only as applied to the common stock of a country1 which does not constitute a breed4 ,but perhaps the entire class of animals commonly called natives would be more accurately described as grades2 since they are well known to have sprung from a great variety of cattle procured at different times and in different places on the continent of ,europe1 in ,england1 and in the ,spanish ,west ,indies1 brought together without any regard to fixed principles of breeding1 but only from individual convenience1 and by accident4 ,the first importations to this country were doubtless those taken to ,virginia previous to #afji1 though the exact date of their arrival is not known4 ,several cows were carried there from the ,west ,indies in #afaj1 and in the next year no less than one hundred arrived there from abroad4 ,illustration3 ,,draft ,,oxen4 ,the earliest cattle imported into ,new ,england arrived in #afbd4 ,at the division of cattle which took place three years after1 one or two are distinctly described as black1 or black and white1 others as brindle1 showing that there was no uniformity of color4 ,soon after this1 a large number of cattle were brought over from ,england for the settlers at ,salem4 ,these importations formed the original stock of ,massachusetts4 ,in #agbe1 the first importation was made into ,new ,york from ,holland by the ,dutch ,west ,india ,company1 and the foundation was then laid for an exceedingly valuable race of animals1 which1 subsequent importations from the same country1 as well as from ,england1 have greatly improved4 ,the points and value of this race in its purity have been already adverted to under the head of the ,dutch cattle4 ,in #afbg1 cattle were brought from ,sweden to the settlements on the ,delaware1 by the ,swedish ,west ,india ,company4 ,in #afca1 #afcb1 and #afcc1 several importations were made into ,new ,hampshire by ,captain ,john ,mason who1 with ,gorges1 had procured the patent of large tracts of land in the vicinity of the ,piscataqua river1 and who immediately formed settlements there4 ,the object of ,mason was to carry on the manufacture of potash4 ,for this purpose he employed the ,danes2 and it was in his voyage to and from ,denmark that he procured many ,danish cattle and horses1 which were subsequently scattered over that entire region1 large numbers being driven to the vicinity of ,boston and sold4 ,these ,danish cattle are described as large and coarse1 of a yellow color2 and it is supposed that they were procured by ,mason as being best capable of enduring the severity of the climate and the hardships to which they would be subjected4 ,however this may have been1 they very soon spread among the colonists of the ,massachusetts ,bay1 and have undoubtedly left their marks on the stock of the ,new ,england and the ,middle ,states1 which exist to some extent even to the present day1 mixed in with an infinite multitude of crosses with the ,devons1 the ,dutch cattle already alluded to1 the black cattle of ,spain and ,wales1 and the long horn and the short horn--most of which crosses were accidental1 or due to local circumstances or individual convenience4 ,many of these cattle1 the descendants of such crosses1 are of a very high order of merit2 but to which particular cross this is due1 it is impossible to say4 ,they generally make hardy1 strong1 and docile oxen1 easily broken to the yoke and quick to work1 with a fair tendency to fatten when well fed2 while the cows1 though often ill-shaped1 are sometimes remarkably good milkers1 especially as regards the quantity which they give4 ,indeed1 it has been remarked by excellent judges of stock1 that if they desired to select a dairy of cows for milk for sale1 they would make their selection from cows commonly called native1 in preference to pure-bred animals of any of the established breeds1 and that they believed they should find such a dairy the most profitable4 ,in color1 the natives1 made up as already indicated1 are exceedingly various4 ,the old ,denmarks1 which to a considerable extent laid the foundation of the stock of ,maine and ,new ,hampshire1 were light yellow4 ,the ,dutch of ,new ,york and the ,middle ,states1 were black and white2 the ,spanish and ,welsh were generally black2 the ,devons1 which are supposed to have laid the foundation of the stock of some of the ,states1 were red4 ,crosses of the ,denmark with the ,spanish and ,welsh naturally made a dark brindle2 crosses of the ,devon often made a lighter or yellowish brindle while the more recent importations of ,jerseys and short horns have generally produced a beautiful spotted progeny4 ,the deep red has long been a favorite color in ,new ,england2 but the prejudice in its favor is fast giving way to more variegated colors4 ,among the earlier importations into this country were also several varieties of hornless cattle1 which have been kept measurably distinct in some sections2 or where they have been crossed with the common stock there has been a tendency to produce hornless grades4 ,these are not unfrequently known as buffalo cattle4 ,they were1 in many cases1 supposed to belong to the ,galloway breed2 or1 which is more likely1 to the ,suffolk dun1 a variety of the ,galloway1 and a far better milking stock than the ,galloways1 from which1 it sprung4 ,these polled1 or hornless cattle vary in color and qualities1 but they are usually very good milkers when well kept1 and many of them fatten well1 and attain good weight4 ,the ,hungarian cattle have also been imported1 to some extent1 into different parts of the country1 and have been crossed upon the natives with some success4 ,many other strains of blood from different breeds have also contributed to build up the common stock of the country of the present day2 and there can be no question that its appearance and value have been largely improved during the last quarter of a century1 nor that improvements are still in progress which will lead to satisfactory results in the future4 ,but1 though we already have an exceedingly valuable foundation for improvement1 no one will pretend to deny that our cattle1 as a whole1 are susceptible of it in many respects4 ,they possess neither the size1 the symmetry1 nor the early maturity of the short horns2 they do not1 as a general thing1 possess the fineness of bone1 the beauty of form and color1 nor the activity of the ,devons or the ,herefords2 they do not possess that uniform richness of milk1 united with generous quality1 of the ,ayrshires1 nor the surpassing richness of milk of the ,jerseys3 but1 above all1 they do not possess the power of transmitting the many good qualities which they often have to their offspring--which is the characteristic of all well established breeds4 ,it is equally certain1 in the opinion of many good judges1 that the dairy stock of the country has not been materially improved in its intrinsic good qualities during the last thirty or forty years4 ,this may not be true of certain sections1 where the dairy has been made a special object of pursuit1 and where the custom of raising the best male calves of the neighborhood1 or those that came from the best dairy cows1 and then of using only the best formed bulls1 has long prevailed4 ,although in this way some progress has1 doubtless1 been made1 there are still room and need for more4 ,more attention must be paid to correct principles of breeding before the satisfactory results which every farmer should strive to reach can be attained4 ,having glanced generally at the leading breeds of cattle in ,great ,britain1 and examined1 more in detail1 the various breeds in the ,united ,states1 the next subject demanding attention is1 ,,the ,,natural ,,history ,,of ,,cattle4 ,illustration3 ,,skeleton ,,of ,,the ,,ox ,,as ,,covered ,,by ,,the ,,muscles4 #a4 ,the upper jaw-bone4 #b4 ,the nasal bone1 or bone of the nose4 #c4 ,the lachrymal bone4 #d4 ,the malar1 or cheek bone4 #e4 ,the frontal bone1 or bone of the forehead4 #f4 ,the horns1 being processes or continuations of the frontal4 #g4 ,the temporal bone4 #h4 ,the parietal bone1 low in the temporal fossa4 #i4 ,the occipital bone1 deeply depressed below the crest or ridge of the head4 #aj4 ,the lower jaw4 #aa4 ,the grinders4 #ab4 ,the nippers1 found on the lower jaw alone4 #ac4 ,the ligament of the neck1 and its attachments4 #ad4 ,the atlas4 #af4 ,the dentata4 #ag4 ,the orbits of the eye4 #ah4 ,the vertebrae1 or bones of the neck4 #ai4 ,the bones of the back4 #bj4 ,the bones of the loins4 #ba4 ,the sacrum4 #bb4 ,the bones of the tail4 #bc4 ,the haunch and pelvis4 #bd4 ,the eight true ribs4 #be4 ,the false ribs1 with their cartilages4 #bf4 ,the sternum4 #bg4 ,the scapula1 or shoulder-blade4 #bh4 ,the humerus1 or lower bone of the shoulder4 #bi4 ,the radius1 or principal bone of the arm4 #dj4 ,the ulna1 its upper part forming the elbow4 #da4 ,the small bones of the knee4 #db4 ,the large metacarpal or shank bone4 #dc4 ,the smaller or splint bone4 #dd4 ,the sessamoid bones4 #de4 ,the bifurcation at the pasterns1 and the two larger pasterns to each foot4 #df4 ,the two smaller pasterns to each foot4 #dg4 ,the two coffin bones to each foot4 #dh4 ,the navicular bones4 #di4 ,the thigh bone4 #ej4 ,the patella1 or bone of the knee4 #ea4 ,the tibia1 or proper leg bone4 #eb4 ,the point of the hock4 #ec4 ,the small bones of the hock4 #ed4 ,the metatarsals1 or larger bones of the hind leg4 #ee4 ,the pasterns and feet4 ,,division4 ,vertebrata--possessing a back-bone4 ,,class4 ,mammalia--such as give suck4 ,,order4 ,ruminantia--chewing the cud4 ,,family4 ,with horns4 ,,genus4 ,bovidae--the ox tribe4 ,of this tribe there are eight species3 ,bos urus1 the ancient bison4 ,bos bison1 the ,american buffalo4 ,bos moschatus1 the musk ox4 ,bos frontalis1 the gayal4 ,bos grunniens1 the grunting ox4 ,bos caffer1 the ,south ,african buffalo4 ,bos bubalus1 the common buffalo4 ,bos taurus1 the common domestic ox4 ,,gestation4 ,the usual period of pregnancy in a cow is nine calendar months1 and something over3 at times as much as three weeks4 ,with one thousand and thirty one cows1 whose gestations were carefully observed in ,france1 the average period was about two hundred and eighty-five days4 ,,formation ,,of ,,teeth4 ,it is of the utmost importance to be able to judge of the age of a cow4 ,few farmers wish to purchase a cow for the dairy after she has passed her prime1 which will ordinarily be at the age of nine or ten years1 varying1 of course1 according to care1 feeding1 c41 in the earlier part of her life4 ,the common method of forming an estimate of the age of cattle is by an examination of the horn4 ,at three years old1 as a general rule1 the horns are perfectly smooth2 after this1 a ring appears near the nob1 and annually afterward a new one is formed1 so that1 by adding two years to the first ring1 the age is calculated4 ,this is a very uncertain mode of judging4 ,the rings are distinct only in the cow2 and it is well known that if a heifer goes to bull when she is two years old1 or a little before or after that time1 a change takes place in the horn and the first ring appears2 so that a real three-year-old would carry the mark of a four-year-old4 ,illustration3 ,,teeth ,,at ,,birth4 ,the rings on the horns of a bull are either not seen until five1 or they cannot be traced at all2 while in the ox they do not appear till he is five years old1 and then are often very indistinct4 ,in addition to this1 it is by no means an uncommon practice to file the horns1 so as to make them smooth1 and to give the animal the appearance of being much younger than it really is4 ,this is1 therefore1 an exceedingly fallacious guide1 and cannot be relied upon by any one with the degree of confidence desired4 ,illustration3 ,,second ,,week4 ,the surest indication of the age in cattle1 as in the horse1 is given by the teeth4 ,the calf1 at birth1 will usually have two incisor or front teeth--in some cases just appearing through the gums2 in others1 fully set1 varying as the cow falls short of1 or exceeds1 her regular time of calving4 ,if she overruns several days1 the teeth will have set and attained considerable size1 as appears in the cut representing teeth at birth4 ,during the second week1 a tooth will usually be added on each side1 and the mouth will generally appear as in the next cut2 and before the end of the third week1 the animal will generally have six incisor teeth1 as denoted in the cut representing teeth at the third week2 and in a week from that time the full number of incisors will have appeared1 as seen in the next cut4 ,illustration3 ,,three ,,weeks4 ,illustration3 ,,month4 ,illustration3 ,,five ,,to ,,eight ,,months4 ,illustration3 ,,ten ,,months4 ,illustration3 ,,twelve ,,months4 ,illustration3 ,,fifteen ,,months4 ,these teeth are temporary1 and are often called milk-teeth4 ,their edge is very sharp2 and as the animal begins to live upon more solid food1 this edge becomes worn1 showing the bony part of the tooth beneath1 and indicates with considerable precision the length of time they have been used4 ,the centre1 or oldest teeth show the marks of age first1 and often become somewhat worn before the corner teeth appear4 ,at eight weeks1 the four inner teeth are nearly as sharp as before4 ,they appear worn not so much on the outer edge or line of the tooth1 as inside this line2 but1 after this1 the edge begins gradually to lose its sharpness1 and to present a more flattened surface2 while the next outer teeth wear down like the four central ones2 and at three months this wearing off is very apparent1 till at four months all the incisor teeth appear worn1 but the inner ones the most4 ,now the teeth begin slowly to diminish in size by a kind of contraction1 as well as wearing down1 and the distance apart becomes more and more apparent4 ,illustration3 ,,eighteen ,,months4 ,from the fifth to the eighth month1 the inner teeth will usually appear as in the cut of the teeth at that time2 and at ten months1 this change shows more clearly1 as represented in the next cut2 and the spaces between them begin to show very plainly1 till at a year old they ordinarily present the appearance of the following cut2 and at the age of fifteen months1 that shown in the next1 where the corner teeth are not more than half the original size1 and the centre ones still smaller4 ,illustration3 ,,two ,,years ,,past4 ,the permanent teeth are now rapidly growing1 and preparing to take the place of the milk-teeth1 which are gradually absorbed till they disappear1 or are pushed out to give place to the two permanent central incisors1 which at a year and a half will generally present the appearance indicated in the cut1 which shows the internal structure of the lower jaw at this time1 with the cells of the teeth1 the two central ones protruding into the mouth1 the next two pushing up1 but not quite grown to the surface1 with the third pair just perceptible4 ,these changes require time2 and at two years past the jaw will usually appear as in the cut1 where four of the permanent central incisors are seen4 ,after this1 the other milk-teeth decrease rapidly1 but are slow to disappear2 and at three years old1 the third pair of permanent teeth are but formed1 as represented in the cut2 and at four years the last pair of incisors will be up1 as in the cut of that age2 but the outside ones are not yet fully grown1 and the beast can hardly be said to be full-mouthed till the age of five years4 ,but before this age1 or at the age of four years1 the two inner pairs of permanent teeth are beginning to wear at the edges1 as shown in the cut2 while at five years old the whole set becomes somewhat worn down at the top1 and on the two centre ones a darker line appears in the middle1 along a line of harder bone1 as appears in the appropriate cut4 ,illustration3 ,,three ,,years ,,past4 ,illustration3 ,,four ,,years ,,past4 ,illustration3 ,,five ,,years ,,past4 ,illustration3 ,,ten ,,years ,,past4 ,now will come a year or two1 and sometimes three1 when the teeth do not so clearly indicate the exact age1 and the judgment must be guided by the extent to which the dark middle lines are worn4 ,this will depend somewhat upon the exposure and feeding of the animal2 but at seven years these lines extend over all the teeth4 ,at eight years1 another change begins1 which cannot be mistaken4 ,a kind of absorption begins with the two central incisors--slow at first1 but perceptible--and these two teeth become smaller than the rest1 while the dark lines are worn into one in all but the corner teeth1 till1 at ten years1 four of the central incisors have become smaller in size1 with a smaller and fainter mark1 as indicated in the proper cut4 ,at eleven1 the six inner teeth are smaller than the corner ones2 and at twelve1 all become smaller than they were1 while the dark lines are nearly gone1 except in the corner teeth1 and the inner edge is worn to the gum4 ,,points ,,of ,a ,,good ,,cow4 ,after satisfaction is afforded touching the age of a cow1 she should be examined with reference to her soundness of constitution4 ,a good constitution is indicated by large lungs1 which are found in a deep1 broad1 and prominent chest1 broad and well-spread ribs1 a respiration somewhat slow and regular1 a good appetite1 and if in milk a strong inclination to drink1 which a large secretion of milk almost invariably stimulates4 ,in such a cow the digestive organs are active and energetic1 and they make an abundance of good blood1 which in turn stimulates the activity of the nervous system1 and furnishes the milky glands with the means of abundant secretion4 ,such a cow1 when dry1 readily takes on fat4 ,when activity of the milk-glands is found united with close ribs1 small and feeble lungs1 and a slow appetite1 often attended by great thirst1 the cow will generally possess only a weak and feeble constitution2 and if the milk is plentiful1 it will generally be of bad quality1 while the animal1 if she does not die of diseased lungs1 will not readily take on fat1 when dry and fed4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,good ,,milch ,,cow4 ,in order to have no superfluous flesh1 the cow should have a small1 clean1 and rather long head1 tapering toward the muzzle4 ,a cow with a large1 coarse head will seldom fatten readily1 or give a large quantity of milk4 ,a coarse head increases the proportion of weight of the least valuable parts1 while it is a sure indication that the whole bony structure is too heavy4 ,the mouth should be large and broad2 the eye bright and sparkling1 but of a peculiar placidness of expression1 with no indication of wildness1 but rather a mild and feminine look4 ,these points will indicate gentleness of disposition4 ,such cows seem to like to be milked1 are fond of being caressed1 and often return caresses4 ,the horns should be small1 short1 tapering1 yellowish1 and glistening4 ,the neck should be small1 thin1 and tapering toward the head1 but thickening when it approaches the shoulder2 the dewlaps small4 ,the fore quarters should be rather small when compared with the hind quarters4 ,the form of the barrel will be large1 and each rib should project further than the preceding one1 up to the loins4 ,she should be well formed across the hips and in the rump4 ,the spine or back-bone should be straight and long1 rather loosely hung1 or open along the middle part1 the result of the distance between the dorsal vertebrae1 which sometimes causes a slight depression1 or sway back4 ,by some good judges1 this mark is regarded as of great importance1 especially when the bones of the hind quarters are also rather loosely put together1 leaving the rump of great width and the pelvis large1 and the organs and milk-vessels lodged in the cavities largely developed4 ,the skin over the rump should be loose and flexible4 ,this point is of great importance2 and as1 when the cow is in low condition or very poor1 it will appear somewhat harder and closer than it otherwise would1 some practice and close observation are required to judge well of this mark4 ,the skin1 indeed1 all over the body1 should be soft and mellow to the touch1 with soft and glossy hair4 ,the tail1 if thick at the setting on1 should taper and be fine below4 ,but the udder is of special importance4 ,it should be large in proportion to the size of the animal1 and the skin thin1 with soft1 loose folds extending well back1 capable of great distension when filled1 but shrinking to a small compass when entirely empty4 ,it must be free from lumps in every part1 and provided with four teats set well apart1 and of medium size4 ,nor is it less important to observe the milk-veins carefully4 ,the principal ones under the belly should be large and prominent1 and extend forward to the navel1 losing themselves1 apparently1 in the very best milkers1 in a large cavity in the flesh1 into which the end of the finger can be inserted2 but when the cow is not in full milk1 the milk-vein1 at other times very prominent1 is not so distinctly traced2 and hence1 to judge of its size when the cow is dry1 or nearly so1 this vein may be pressed near its end1 or at its entrance into the body1 when it will immediately fill up to its full size4 ,this vein does not convey the milk to the udder1 as some suppose1 but is the channel by which the blood returns2 and its contents consist of the refuse of the secretion1 or of what has not been taken up in forming milk4 ,there are also veins in the udder1 and the perineum1 or the space above the udder1 and between that and the buttocks1 which it is of special importance to observe4 ,these veins should be largely developed1 and irregular or knotted1 especially those of the udder4 ,they are largest in great milkers4 ,the knotted veins of the perineum1 extending from above downwards in a winding line1 are not readily seen in young heifers1 and are very difficult to find in poor cows1 or those of only a medium quality4 ,they are easily found in very good milkers1 and if not at first apparent1 they are made so by pressing upon them at the base of the perineum1 when they swell up and send the blood back toward the vulva4 ,they form a kind of thick network under the skin of the perineum1 raising it up somewhat1 in some cases near the vulva1 in others nearer down and closer to the udder4 ,it is important to look for these veins1 as they often form a very important guide1 and by some they would be considered as furnishing the surest indications of the milking qualities of the cow4 ,full development almost always shows an abundant secretion of milk2 but they are far better developed after the cow has had two or three calves1 when two or three years' milking has given full activity to the milky glands1 and attracted a large flow of blood4 ,the larger and more prominent these veins the better4 ,it is needless to say that in observing them some regard should be had to the condition of the cow1 the thickness of skin and fat by which they may be surrounded1 and the general activity and food of the animal4 ,food calculated to stimulate the greatest flow of milk will naturally increase these veins1 and give them more than usual prominence4 ,,the ,,milk-,,mirror4 ,the discovery of ,m4 ,guenon1 of ,bordeaux1 in ,france--a man of remarkable practical sagacity1 and a close observer of stock--consisted in the connection between the milking qualities of the cow and certain external marks on the udder1 and on the space above it1 called the perineum1 extending to the buttocks4 ,to these marks he gave the name of milk-mirror1 or escutcheon1 which consists in certain perceptible spots rising up from the udder in different directions1 forms and sizes1 on which the hair grows upward1 whilst the hair on other parts of the body grows downward4 ,the reduction of these marks into a system1 explaining the value of particular forms and sizes of the milk-mirror1 belongs exclusively to ,guenon4 ,illustration3 ,,milk-,,mirror ,a4 ,he divided the milk-mirror into eight classes1 and each class into eight orders1 making in all no less than sixty-four divisions1 which he afterward increased by subdivisions1 thus rendering the whole system complicated in the extreme1 especially as he professed to be able to judge with accuracy1 by means of the milk-mirror1 not only of the exact quantity a cow would give1 but also of the quality of the milk1 and of the length of time it would continue4 ,he endeavored to prove too much1 and was1 as a matter of consequence1 frequently at fault himself4 ,despite the strictures which have been passed upon ,guenon's method of judging of cows1 the best breeders and judges of stock concur in the opinion1 as the result of their observations1 that cows with the most perfectly developed milk-mirrors are1 with rare exception1 the best milkers of their breed2 and that cows with small and slightly developed milk-mirrors are1 in the majority of cases1 bad milkers4 ,there are1 undoubtedly1 cows with very small mirrors1 which are1 nevertheless1 very fair in the yield of milk2 and among those with middling quality of mirrors1 instances of rather more than ordinary milkers often occur1 while at the same time it is true that cases now and then are found where the very best marked and developed mirrors are found on very poor milkers4 ,these apparent exceptions1 however1 are to be explained1 in the large majority of cases1 by causes outside of those which affect the appearance of the milk-mirror4 ,it is1 of course1 impossible to estimate with mathematical accuracy either the quantity1 quality1 or duration of the milk1 since it is affected by so many chance circumstances1 which cannot always be known or estimated by even the most skillful judges2 such1 for example1 as the food1 the treatment1 the temperament1 accidental diseases1 inflammation of the udder1 premature calving1 the climate and season1 the manner in which she has been milked1 and a thousand other things which interrupt or influence the flow of milk1 without materially changing the size or shape of the milk-mirror4 ,it has1 indeed1 been very justly observed that we often see cows equally well formed1 with precisely the same milk-mirror1 and kept in the same circumstances1 yet giving neither equal quantities nor similar qualities of milk4 ,nor could it be otherwise2 since the action of the organs depends1 not merely on their size and form1 but1 to a great extent1 on the general condition of each individual4 ,illustration3 ,,milk-,,mirror ,b4 ,illustration3 ,,milk-,,mirror ,c4 ,the different forms of milk-mirrors are represented by the shaded parts of cuts1 lettered ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d2 but it is necessary to premise that upon the cows themselves they are always partly concealed by the thighs1 the udder1 and the folds of the skin1 which are not shown1 and therefore they are not always so uniform in nature as they appear in the cuts4 ,illustration3 ,,milk-,,mirror ,d4 ,their size varies as the skin is more or less folded or stretched2 while the cuts represent the skin as uniform or free from folds1 but not stretched out4 ,it is usually very easy to distinguish the milk-mirrors by the upward direction of the hair which forms them4 ,they are sometimes marked by a line of bristly hair growing in the opposite direction1 which surrounds them1 forming a sort of outline by the upward and downward growing hair4 ,yet1 when the hair is very fine and short1 mixed with longer hairs1 and the skin much folded1 and the udder voluminous and pressed by the thighs1 it is necessary1 in order to distinguish the part enclosed between the udder and the legs1 and examine the full size of the mirrors1 to observe them attentively1 and to place the legs wide apart1 and to smooth out the skin1 in order to avoid the folds4 ,the mirrors may also be observed by holding the back of the hand against the perineum1 and drawing it from above downward1 when the nails rubbing against the up-growing hair1 make the parts covered by it very perceptible4 ,as the hair of the milk-mirror has not the same direction as the hair which surrounds it1 it may often be distinguished by a difference in the shade reflected by it4 ,it is then sufficient to place it properly to the light in order to see the difference in shade1 and to make out the part covered by the upward-growing hair4 ,most frequently1 however1 the hair of the milk-mirror is thin and fine1 and the color of the skin can easily be seen4 ,if the eye alone is trusted1 we shall often be deceived4 ,illustration3 ,,milk-,,mirror ,e4 ,in some countries cattle-dealers shave the back part of the cow4 ,just after this operation the mirrors can neither be seen nor felt2 but this inconvenience ceases in a few days4 ,it may be added that the shaving--designed1 as the dealers say1 to beautify the cow--is generally intended simply to destroy the milk-mirror1 and to deprive buyers of one means of judging of the milking qualities of the cows4 ,it is unnecessary to add that the cows most carefully shaven are those which are badly marked1 and that it is prudent to take it for granted that cows so shorn are bad milkers4 ,milk-mirrors vary in position1 extent1 and the figure which they represent4 ,they may be divided according to their position1 into mirrors or escutcheons1 properly so called1 or into lower and upper tufts1 or escutcheons4 ,the latter are very small in comparison with the former1 and are situated in close proximity to the vulva1 as seen at #a1 in cut ,e4 ,they are very common on cows of bad milking races1 but are very rarely seen on the best milch cows4 ,they consist of one or two ovals1 or small bands of up-growing hair1 and serve to indicate the continuance of the flow of milk4 ,the period is short1 in proportion as the tufts are large4 ,they must not be confounded with the escutcheon proper1 which is often extended up to the vulva4 ,they are separated from it by bands of hair1 more or less large1 as in cut marked ,f4 ,illustration3 ,,milk-,,mirror ,f4 ,milk-mirrors are sometimes symmetrical1 and sometimes without symmetry4 ,when there is a great difference in the extent of the two halves1 it almost always happens that the teats on the side where the mirror is best developed give more milk than those of the opposite side4 ,the left half of the mirror1 it may be remarked1 is almost always the largest2 and so1 when the perinean part is folded into a square1 it is on this side of the body that it unfolds4 ,of three thousand cows in ,denmark1 but a single one was found1 whose escutcheon varied even a little from this rule4 ,the mirrors having a value in proportion to the space which they occupy1 it is of great importance to attend to all the rows of down-growing hairs1 which diminish the extent of surface1 whether these tufts are in the midst of the mirror1 or form indentations on its edges4 ,these indentations1 concealed in part by the folds of the skin1 are sometimes seen with difficulty2 but it is important to take them into account1 since in a great many cows they materially lessen the size of the mirror4 ,cows are often found1 whose milk-mirrors at first sight appear very large1 but which are only medium milkers2 and it will usually be found that lateral indentations greatly diminish the surface of up-growing hair4 ,many errors are committed in estimating the value of such cows1 from a want of attention to the real extent of the mirror4 ,all the interruptions in the surface of the mirror indicate a diminution in the quantity of the milk1 with the exception1 however1 of small oval or elliptical plates which are found in the mirror1 on the back part of the udders of the best cows1 as represented in the cut already given1 marked ,a4 ,these ovals have a peculiar tint1 which is occasioned by the downward direction of the hair which forms them4 ,in the best cows these ovals exist with the lower mirrors very well developed1 as represented in the cut just named4 ,in short1 it should be stated that1 in order to determine the extent and significance of a mirror1 it is necessary to consider the state of the perineum as to fat1 and that of the fullness of the udder4 ,in a fat cow1 with an inflated udder1 the mirror would appear larger than it really is2 whilst in a lean cow1 with a loose and wrinkled udder1 it appears smaller4 ,fat will cover faults--a fact to be borne in mind when selecting a cow4 ,in bulls1 the mirrors present the same peculiarities as in cows2 but they are less varied in their form1 and especially much less in size4 ,in calves1 the mirrors show the shapes which they are afterwards to have1 only they are more contracted1 because the parts which they cover are but slightly developed4 ,they are easily seen after birth2 but the hair which then covers them is long1 coarse1 and stiff2 and when this hair falls off1 the calf's mirror will resemble that of the cow1 but will be of less size4 ,with calves1 however1 it should be stated1 in addition1 that the milk-mirrors are more distinctly recognized on those from cows that are well kept1 and that they will generally be fully developed at two years old4 ,some changes take place in the course of years1 but the outlines of the mirror appear prominent at the time of advanced pregnancy1 or1 in the case of cows giving milk1 at the times when the udder is more distended with milk than at others4 ,m4 ,mayne1 who has explained and simplified the method of ,m4 ,guenon1 divides cows1 according to the quantity which they give1 into four classes3 first1 the very good2 second1 the good2 third1 the medium2 and fourth1 the bad4 ,in the ,,first class he places cows1 both parts of whose milk mirror1 the mammary--the tuft situated on the udder1 the legs and the thighs--and the perinean--that on the perineum1 extending sometimes more or less out upon the thighs--are large1 continuous1 and uniform1 covering at least a great part of the perineum1 the udder1 the inner surface of the thighs1 and extending more or less out upon the legs1 as in cut ,a1 with no interruptions1 or1 if any1 small ones1 oval in form1 and situated on the posterior face of the udder4 ,illustration3 ,,milk-,,mirror ,g4 ,such mirrors are found on most very good cows1 but may also be found on cows which can scarcely be called good1 and which should be ranked in the next class4 ,but cows1 whether having very well developed mirrors or not1 may be reckoned as very good1 and as giving as much milk as is to be expected from their size1 food1 and the hygienic circumstances in which they are kept1 if they present the following characteristics3 veins of the perineum large1 as if swollen1 and visible on the exterior--as in cut ,a--or which can easily be made to appear by pressing upon the base of the perineum2 veins of the udder large and knotted2 milk-veins large1 often double1 equal on both sides1 and forming zig-zags1 under the belly4 ,to the signs furnished by the veins and by the mirror1 may be added also the following marks3 a uniform1 very large1 and yielding udder1 shrinking much in milking1 and covered with soft skin and fine hair2 good constitution1 full chest1 regular appetite1 and great propensity to drink4 ,such cows rather incline to be poor than to be fat4 ,the skin is soft and yielding2 short1 fine hair2 small head2 fine horns2 bright1 sparkling eye2 mild expression2 feminine look2 with a fine neck4 ,cows of this first class are very rare4 ,they give1 even when small in size1 from ten to fourteen quarts of milk a day2 and the largest sized from eighteen to twenty-six quarts a day1 and even more4 ,just after calving1 if arrived at maturity and fed with good1 wholesome1 moist food in sufficient quantity and quality1 adapted to promote the secretion of milk1 they can give about a pint of milk for every ten ounces of hay1 or its equivalent1 which they eat4 ,they continue in milk for a long period4 ,the best never go dry1 and may be milked even up to the time of calving1 giving from eight to ten quarts of milk a day4 ,but even the best cows often fall short of the quantity of milk which they are able to give1 from being fed on food which is too dry1 or not sufficiently varied1 or not rich enough in nutritive qualities1 or deficient in quantity4 ,illustration3 ,,milk-,,mirror ,h4 ,the ,,second class is that of good cows2 and to this belong the best commonly found in the market and among the cow-feeders of cities4 ,they have the mammary part of the milk-mirror well developed1 but the perinean part contracted1 or wholly wanting1 as in cut ,g2 or both parts of the mirror are moderately developed1 or slightly indented1 as in cut ,h4 ,cut ,e belongs also to this class1 in the lower part2 but it indicates a cow1 which--as the upper mirror1 #a1 indicates--dries up sooner when again in calf4 ,these marks1 though often seen in many good cows1 should be considered as certain only when the veins of the perineum form1 under the skin1 a kind of network1 which1 without being very apparent1 may be felt by a pressure on them2 when the milk-veins on the belly are well-developed1 though less knotty and less prominent than in cows of the first class2 in short1 when the udder is well developed1 and presents veins which are sufficiently numerous1 though not very large4 ,it is necessary here1 as in the preceding class1 to distrust cows in which the mirror is not accompanied by large veins4 ,this remark applies especially to cows which have had several calves1 and are in full milk4 ,they are medium or bad1 let the milk-mirror be what it may1 if the veins of the belly are not large1 and those of the udder apparent4 ,the general characteristics which depend on form and constitution combine1 less than in cows of the preceding class1 the marks of good health and excellent constitution with those of a gentle and feminine look4 ,small cows of this class give from seven to ten or eleven quarts of milk a day1 and the largest from thirteen to seventeen quarts4 ,they can be made to give three-fourths of a pint of milk1 just after calving1 for every ten ounces of hay consumed1 if well cared for1 and fed in a manner favorable to the secretion of milk4 ,they hold out long in milk1 when they have no upper mirrors or tufts4 ,at seven or eight months in calf1 they may give from five to eight quarts of milk a day4 ,the ,,third class consists of middling cows4 ,when the milk-mirror really presents only the mammary or lower part slightly indicated or developed1 and the perinean part contracted1 narrow1 and irregular--as in cut ,k--the cows are middling4 ,the udder is slightly developed or hard1 and shrinks very little after milking4 ,the veins of the perineum are not apparent1 and those which run along the lower side of the abdomen are small1 straight1 and sometimes unequal4 ,in this case the mirror is not symmetrical1 and the cow gives more milk on the side where the vein is the largest4 ,illustration3 ,,milk-,,mirror ,k4 ,these cows have large heads1 and a thick1 hard skin4 ,being ordinarily in good condition1 they are beautiful to look at1 and seem to be well formed4 ,many of them are nervous and restive1 and not easily approached4 ,cows of this class give1 according to size1 from three or four to ten quarts of milk4 ,they very rarely give1 even in the most favorable circumstances1 half a pint of milk for every ten ounces of hay which they consume4 ,the milk diminishes rapidly1 and dries up wholly the fourth or fifth month in calf4 ,the ,,fourth class is composed of bad cows4 ,as they are commonly in good condition1 these cows are often the most beautiful of the herd and in the markets4 ,they have fleshy thighs1 thick and hard skin1 a large and coarse neck and head1 and horns large at the base4 ,the udder is hard1 small and fleshy1 with a skin covered with long1 rough hair4 ,no veins are to be seen either on the perineum or the udder1 while those of the belly are slightly developed1 and the mirrors are ordinarily small1 as in cut ,l4 ,with these characteristics1 cows give only a few quarts of milk a day1 and dry up in a short time after calving4 ,some of them can scarcely nourish their calves1 even when they are properly cared for and well fed4 ,sickly habits1 chronic affections of the digestive organs1 the chest1 the womb1 and the lacteal system1 sometimes greatly affect the milk secretion1 and cause cows troubled with them to fall from the first or second to the third1 and sometimes to the fourth class4 ,without pushing this method of judging of the good milking qualities of cows into the objectionable extreme to which it was carried by its originator1 it may be safely asserted that the milk-mirror forms an important additional mark or point for distinguishing good milkers2 and it may be laid down as a rule that1 in the selection of milch cows1 as well as in the choice of young animals for breeders1 the milk-mirror should1 by all means1 be examined and considered2 but that we should not limit or confine ourselves exclusively to it1 and that other and long-known marks should be equally regarded4 ,there are cases1 however1 where a knowledge and careful examination of the form and size of the mirror become of the highest importance4 ,it is well known that certain signs or marks of great milkers are developed1 only as the capacities of the animal herself are fully and completely developed by age4 ,the milk-veins1 for instance1 are never so large and prominent in heifers and young cows as in old ones1 and the same may be said of the udder1 and of the veins of the udder and perineum2 all of which it is of great importance to observe in the selection of milch cows4 ,those signs1 then1 which in cows arrived at maturity are almost sufficient in themselves to warrant a conclusion as to their merits as milkers1 are1 to a great extent1 wanting in younger animals1 and altogether in calves1 as to which there is often doubt whether they shall be raised2 and here a knowledge of the form of the mirror is of immense advantage1 since it gives1 at the outset and before any expense is incurred1 a somewhat reliable means of judging of the future milking capacities of the animal2 or1 if a male1 of the probability of his transmitting milking qualities to his offspring4 ,illustration3 ,,milk-,,mirror ,l4 ,it will be seen1 from an examination of the points of a good milch cow that1 though the same marks which indicate the greatest milking qualities may not always indicate the greatest aptitude to fatten1 yet that the signs which denote good fattening qualities are included among the signs favorable to the production of milk2 such as soundness of constitution1 marked by good organs of digestion and respiration fineness and mellowness of the skin and hair1 quietness of disposition--which inclines the animal to rest and lie down while chewing the cud--and other marks which are relied on by graziers in selecting animals to fatten4 ,in buying dairy stock the farmer generally finds it for his interest to select young heifers1 as they give the promise of longer usefulness4 ,but it is often the case that older cows are selected with the design of using them for the dairy for a limited period1 and then feeding them for the butcher4 ,in either case1 it is advisable1 as a rule1 to choose animals in low or medium condition4 ,the farmer cannot commonly afford to buy fat2 it is more properly his business to make it1 and to have it to sell4 ,good and well-marked cows in poor condition will rapidly gain in flesh and products when removed to better pastures and higher keeping1 and they cost less in the original purchase4 ,it is1 perhaps1 superfluous to add that regard should be had to the quality of the pasturage and keeping which a cow has previously had1 as compared with that to which she is to be subjected4 ,the size of the animal should also be considered with reference to the fertility of the pastures into which she is to be put4 ,small or medium-sized animals accommodate themselves to ordinary pastures far better than large ones4 ,where a very large cow will do well1 two small ones will usually do better2 while the large animal might fail entirely where two small ones would do well4 ,it is better to have the whole herd1 so far as may be1 uniform in size2 for1 if they vary greatly1 some may get more than they need1 and others will not have enough4 ,this1 however1 cannot always be brought about4 ,illustration ,crossing and ,breeding ,the raising of cattle has now become a source of profit in many sections1--to a greater extent1 at least1 than formerly--and it becomes a matter of great practical importance to our farmers to take the proper steps to improve them4 ,indeed1 the questions--what are the best breeds1 and what are the best crosses1 and how shall ,i improve my stock--are now asked almost daily2 and their practical solution would add many thousand dollars to the aggregate wealth of the farmers of the country1 if they would all study their own interests4 ,the time is gradually passing away when the intelligent practical farmer will be willing to put his cows to any bull1 simply because his services may be had for twenty-five cents2 for1 even if the progeny is to go to the butcher1 the calf sired by a pure-bred bull--particularly of a race distinguished for fineness of bone1 symmetry of form1 and early maturity--will bring a much higher price at the same age than a calf sired by a scrub4 ,blood has a money value1 which will1 sooner or later1 be generally appreciated4 ,the first and most important object of the farmer is to get the greatest return in money for his labor and his produce2 and it is for his interest to obtain an animal--a calf1 for example--that will yield the largest profit on the outlay4 ,if a calf1 for which the original outlay was five dollars1 will bring at the same age and on the same keep more real net profit than another1 the original outlay for which was not twenty-five cents1 it is certainly for the farmer's interest to make the heavier original outlay and thus secure the superior animal4 ,setting all fancy aside1 it is merely a question of dollars and cents2 but one thing is certain--and that is1 that no farmer can afford to keep poor stock4 ,it eats as much1 and requires nearly the same amount of care and attention1 as stock of the best quality2 while it is equally certain that stock of ever so good a quality1 whether grade1 native1 or thorough-bred1 will be sure to deteriorate and sink to the level of poor stock by neglect and want of proper attention4 ,how1 then1 is our stock to be improved8 ,not1 certainly1 by that indiscriminate crossing1 with a total disregard of all well-established principles1 which has thus far marked our efforts with foreign stock1 and which is one prominent reason why so little improvement has been made in our dairies2 nor by leaving all the results to chance1 when1 by a careful and judicious selection1 they may be within our own control4 ,we want cattle for distinct purposes1 as for milk1 beef1 or labor4 ,in a large majority of cases--especially in the dairy districts1 at least1 comprising the ,eastern and ,middle ,states--the farmer cares more for the milking qualities of his cows1 especially for the quantity they give1 than for their fitness for grazing1 or aptness to fatten4 ,these latter points become more important in the ,western and some of the ,southern ,states1 where much greater attention is paid to breeding and to feeding1 and where comparatively slight attention is given to the productions of the dairy4 ,a stock of cattle which would suit one farmer might be wholly unsuited to another1 and in such particular case the breeder should have some special object in view1 and select his animals with reference to it4 ,there are1 however1 some well-defined general principles that apply to breeding everywhere1 and which1 in many cases1 are not thoroughly understood4 ,to these attention will now be directed4 ,the first and most important of the laws to be considered in this connection is that of similarity4 ,it is by virtue of this law that the peculiar characters1 properties1 and qualities of the parents--whether external or internal1 good or bad1 healthy or diseased--are transmitted to their offspring4 ,this is one of the plainest and most certain of the laws of nature4 ,the lesson which it teaches may be stated in five words3--,breed only from the best4 ,judicious selection is indispensable to success in breeding1 and this should have regard to every particular--general appearance1 length of limb1 shape of carcass1 development of chest2 in cattle1 to the size1 shape1 and position of the udder1 thickness of skin1 touch1 length and texture of hair1 docility1 and all those points which go to make up the desirable animal4 ,not only should care be exercised to avoid structural defects1 but especially to secure freedom from hereditary diseases2 as both defects and diseases appear to be more easily transmissible than desirable qualities4 ,there is1 oftentimes1 no obvious peculiarity of structure or appearance which suggests the possession of diseases or defects which are transmissible2 and for this reason1 special care and continued acquaintance are requisite in order to be assured of their absence in breeding animals2 but such a tendency1 although invisible or inappreciable to careless observers1 must still1 judging from its effects1 have as real and certain an existence as any peculiarity of form or color4 ,in neat cattle1 hereditary diseases do not usually show themselves at birth2 and sometimes the tendency remains latent for many years1 perhaps through one or two generations1 and afterward breaks out with all its former severity4 ,the diseases which are found hereditary in cattle are scrofula1 consumption1 dysentery1 diarrhoea1 rheumatism1 and malignant tumors4 ,as these animals are less exposed to the exciting causes of disease1 and less liable to be overtasked or subjected to violent changes of temperature1 or otherwise put in jeopardy1 their diseases are not so numerous as those of the horse1 and what they have are less violent1 and generally of a chronic character4 ,with regard to hereditary diseases1 it is eminently true that an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure4 ,as a general and almost invariable rule1 animals possessing either defects or a tendency to disease1 should not be employed for breeding4 ,if1 however1 for special reasons it seems desirable to breed from one which has some slight defect of symmetry1 or a faint tendency to disease--although for the latter it is doubtful whether the possession of any good qualities can fully compensate--it should be mated with one which excels in every respect in which it is itself deficient1 and on no account with one which is near of kin to it4 ,there is another law1 by which that of similarity is greatly modified--the law of ,variation or divergence4 ,all animals possess a certain flexibility or pliancy of organization1 which renders them capable of change to a greater or less extent4 ,when in a state of nature1 variations are comparatively slow and infrequent2 but when in a state of domestication they occur much oftener and to a much greater extent4 ,the greater variability in the latter case is doubtless owing1 in some measure1 to our domestic productions' being reared under conditions of life not so uniform as1 and different from1 those to which the parent species was exposed in a state of nature4 ,among what are usually reckoned the more active causes of variation may be named climate1 food1 and habit4 ,animals in a cold climate are provided with a thicker covering of hair than in warmer ones4 ,indeed1 it is said that in some of the tropical provinces of ,south ,america1 there are cattle which have an extremely rare and fine fur1 in place of the ordinary pile of hair4 ,the supply of food1 whether abundant or scanty1 is one of the most efficient causes of variation known to be within the control of man4 ,a due consideration of the natural effects of climate and food is a point worthy the careful attention of the stock-husbandman4 ,if the breeds employed be well adapted to the situation1 and the capacity of the soil be such as to feed them fully1 profit may be safely anticipated4 ,animals are to be regarded as machines for converting herbage into money4 ,the bestowal of food sufficient1 both in amount and quality1 to enable animals to develop all the excellencies inherent in them1 and yield all the profit of which they are capable1 is something quite distinct from undue forcing of pampering4 ,the latter process may produce wonderful animals to look at1 but neither useful nor profitable ones1 and there is danger of thus producing a most undesirable variation1 since in animals the process may be carried far enough to produce barrenness4 ,instances are not wanting1 particularly among the more recent improved short-horns1 of impotency among the males and of barrenness among the females2 and in some cases where the latter have borne calves1 they have failed to secrete sufficient milk for their nourishment4 ,impotency in bulls of various breeds has1 in many instances1 occurred from too high feeding1 especially when connected with a lack of sufficient exercise4 ,a working bull1 though perhaps not so pleasing to the eye as a fat one1 is a surer stock-getter2 and his progeny is more likely to inherit full health and vigor4 ,habit has a decided influence toward producing variations4 ,we find in domestic animals that use--or the demand created by habit--is met by a development or change in the organization adapted to the requirement4 ,for instance1 with cows in a state of nature1 or where required only to suckle their young1 the supply of milk is barely fitted to the requirement4 ,if more is desired1 and the milk is drawn completely and regularly1 the yield is increased and continued longer4 ,by keeping up the demand there is induced1 in the next generation1 a greater development of the secreting organs1 and more milk is given4 ,by continuing the practice1 by furnishing the needful conditions of suitable food and the like1 and by selecting in each generation those animals showing the greatest tendency toward milk1 a breed specially adapted for the dairy may be established4 ,it is just by this mode that the ,ayrshires have1 within the past century1 been brought to be what they are--a breed giving more good milk upon a certain amount of food than any other4 ,illustration3 ,,ready ,,for ,,action4 ,it is a fact too well established to be controverted1 that the first male produces impressions upon subsequent progeny by other males4 ,to what extent this principle holds1 it is impossible to say4 ,although the instances in which it is known to be of a very marked and obvious character may be comparatively few1 yet there is ample reason to believe that1 although in a majority of cases the effect may be less noticeable1 it is not less real2 and it therefore demands the special attention of breeders4 ,the knowledge of this law furnishes a clue to the cause of many of the disappointments of which practical breeders often complain1 and of many variations otherwise unaccountable1 and it suggests particular caution as to the first male employed in the coupling of animals--a matter which has often been deemed of little consequence in regard to cattle1 inasmuch as fewer heifers' first calves are reared1 than those are which are borne subsequently4 ,the phenomenon--or law1 as it is sometimes called--of atavism1 or ancestral influence1 is one of considerable practical importance1 and well deserves the careful attention of the breeder of farm stock4 ,every one is aware that it is by no means unusual for a child to resemble its grandfather1 or grandmother1 or even some ancestor still more remote1 more than it does either its own father or mother4 ,the same occurrence is found among our domestic animals1 and oftener in proportion as the breeds are crossed or mixed up4 ,among our common stock of neat cattle1 or natives--originating1 as they did1 from animals brought from ,england1 ,scotland1 ,denmark1 ,france1 and ,spain1 each possessing different characteristics of form1 color1 and use1 and bred1 as our common stock has usually been1 indiscriminately together1 with no special object in view1 with no attempt to obtain any particular type or form1 or to secure adaptation for any particular purpose--frequent opportunities are afforded of witnessing the results of this law of hereditary transmission4 ,so common1 indeed1 is its occurrence1 that the remark is often made1 that1 however good a cow may be1 there is no telling beforehand what sort of a calf she may have4 ,the fact is sufficiently obvious1 that certain peculiarities often lie dormant for a generation or two and then reappear in subsequent progeny4 ,stockmen often speak of it as breeding back1 or crying back4 ,the lesson taught by this law is very plain4 ,it shows the importance of seeking thorough-bred or well-bred animals2 and by these terms are simply meant such as are descended from a line of ancestors in which for many generations the desirable forms1 qualities1 and characteristics have been uniformly shown4 ,in such a case1 even if ancestral influence does come in play1 no material difference appears in the offspring1 the ancestors being all essentially alike4 ,from this standpoint we best perceive in what consists the money value of a good pedigree4 ,this is valuable1 in proportion as it shows an animal to be descended1 not only from such as are purely of its own race or breed1 but also from such individuals of that breed as were specially noted for the excellencies for which that particular breed is esteemed4 ,probably the most distinctly marked evidence of ancestral influence among us1 is to be found in the ill-begotten1 round-headed calves1 not infrequently dropped by cows of the common mixed kind1 which1 if killed early1 make very blue veal1 and if allowed to grow up1 become exceedingly profitless and unsatisfactory beasts2 the heifers being often barren1 the cows poor milkers1 the oxen dull1 mulish beasts1 yielding flesh of very dark color1 of ill flavor and destitute of fat4 ,the relative influence of the male and female parents upon the characteristics of progeny has long been a fruitful subject of discussion among breeders4 ,it is found in experience that progeny sometimes resembles one parent more than the other--sometimes there is an apparent blending of the characteristics of both--sometimes a noticeable dissimilarity to either1 though always more or less resemblance somewhere--and sometimes the impress of one may be seen upon a portion of the organization of the offspring1 and that of the other parent upon another portion2 yet we are not authorized from such discrepancies to conclude that it is a matter of chance2 for all of nature's operations are conducted in accordance with fixed laws1 whether we be able fully to discover them or not4 ,the same causes always produce the same results4 ,in this case1 not less than in others1 there are1 beyond all doubt1 certain fixed laws2 and the varying results which we see are easily and sufficiently accounted for by the existence of conditions or modifying influences not fully open to our observation4 ,it may be stated1 on the whole--as a result of the varied investigations to which this question has given rise--that the evidence1 both from observation and the testimony of the best practical breeders1 goes to show that each parent usually contributes certain portions of the organization to the offspring1 and that each has a modifying influence upon the other4 ,facts also show that the same parent does not always contribute the same portions1 but that the order is at times1 and not rarely1 reversed4 ,where animals are of distinct species or breeds1 transmission is usually found to be in harmony with the principle1 that the male gives mostly the outward form and locomotive system1 and the female chiefly the interior system1 constitution and the like4 ,where the parents are of the same breed1 it appears that the proportions contributed by each are governed1 in a large measure1 by the condition of each in regard to age and vigor1 or by virtue of individual potency or superiority of physical endowment4 ,this potency or power of transmission1 seems to be legitimately connected with high breeding1 or the concentration of fixed qualities1 obtained by continued descent for many generations from such only as possess in the highest degree the qualities desired4 ,practically1 the knowledge obtained dictates in a most emphatic manner that every stock-grower use his utmost endeavor to obtain the services of the best sires2 that is1 the best for the ends and purposes in view--that he depend chiefly on the sire for outward form and symmetry--and that he select dams best calculated to develop the good qualities of the male1 depending chiefly upon these for freedom1 from internal disease1 for hardihood and constitution1 and1 generally1 for all qualities dependent upon the vital or nutritive system4 ,the neglect of the qualities of the dam1 which is far too common--miserably old and inferior animals being often employed--cannot be too strongly censured4 ,with regard to the laws which regulate the sex of the progeny very little is known4 ,many and extensive observations have been made1 without reaching any definite conclusion4 ,nature seems to have provided that the number of each sex2 produced1 shall be nearly equal2 but by what means this result is attained1 has not as yet been discovered4 ,it has long been a disputed point1 whether the system of breeding in-and-in1 or the opposite one of frequent crossing1 has the greater tendency to improve the character of stock ,this term1 in-and-in1 is often very loosely used and as variously understood4 ,some confine the phrase to the coupling of those of exactly the same blood1 as brothers and sisters1 while others include in it breeding from parents and offsprings2 and others still employ it to embrace those of a more distant relationship4 ,for the last1 the term breeding-in1 or close breeding1 is generally deemed more suitable4 ,the current opinion is decidedly against the practice of breeding from any near relatives2 it being usually found that degeneracy follows1 and often to a serious degree2 but it is not proved that this degeneracy1 although very common and even usual1 is yet a necessary consequence4 ,that ill effects follow1 in a majority of cases1 is not to be doubted2 but this is easily and sufficiently accounted for upon quite other grounds4 ,perhaps1 however1 the following propositions may be safely stated3 ,that in general practice1 with the grades and mixed animals common in the country1 close-breeding should be scrupulously avoided as highly detrimental4 ,it is better always to avoid breeding from near relatives whenever stock-getters of the same breed and of equal merit can be obtained which are not related4 ,yet1 where this is not possible1 or where there is some desirable and clearly defined purpose in view--as the fixing and perpetuating of some valuable quality in a particular animal not common to the breed--and the breeder possesses the knowledge and skill needful to accomplish his purpose1 and the animals are perfect in health and development1 close breeding may be practised with advantage4 ,the practice of crossing1 like that of close breeding1 has its strong and its weak side4 ,judiciously practised1 it offers a means of providing animals for the butcher1 often superior to1 and more profitable than1 those of any pure breed4 ,it is also admissible as the foundation of a systematic and well-considered attempt to establish a new breed4 ,but when crossing is practised injudiciously and indiscriminately1 and especially when so done for the purpose of procuring breeding animals1 it is scarcely less objectionable than careless in-and-in breeding4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,sprightly ,,youth4 ,the profitable style of breeding for the great majority of farmers to adopt1 is neither to cross nor to breed from close affinities--except in rare instances1 and for some specific and clearly understood purpose--but to breed in the line2 that is1 to select the breed or race best adapted to fulfil the requirement demanded1 whether it be for the dairy1 for labor1 or for such combination of these as can be had without too great a sacrifice of the principal requisite1 and then to procure a pure-bred male of the kind determined upon1 and breed him to the females of the herd2 and if these be not such as are calculated to develop his qualities1 endeavor by purchase or exchange to procure such as will4 ,let the progeny of these be bred to another pure-bred male of the same breed1 but as distantly related to the first as may be4 ,let this plan be faithfully pursued1 and1 although we cannot1 without the intervention of well-bred females1 procure stock purely of the kind desired1 yet in several generations--if proper care be given to the selection of males1 that each one be such as to retain and improve upon the points gained by his predecessor--the stock1 for most practical purposes1 will be as good as if thorough-bred4 ,if this plan were generally adopted1 and a system of letting or exchanging males established1 the cost might be brought within the means of most persons1 and the advantages which would accrue would be almost beyond belief4 ,a brief summing-up of the foregoing principles may not be inappropriate here4 ,the law of similarity teaches us to select animals for breeding which possess the desired forms and qualities in the greatest perfection and best combination4 ,regard should be had1 not only to the more obvious characteristics1 but also to such hereditary traits and tendencies as may be hidden from cursory observation and demand careful and thorough investigation4 ,from the hereditary nature of all characteristics1 whether good or bad1 we learn the importance of having all desirable qualities thoroughly inbred2 or1 in other words1 so firmly in each generation that the next is warrantably certain to present nothing worse--that no ill results follow from breeding back to some inferior ancestor--that all undesirable traits or points be1 so far as possible1 bred-out4 ,so important is this consideration1 that1 in practice1 it is decidedly preferable to employ a male of ordinary external appearance--provided his ancestry be all which is desired--rather than a grade1 or cross-bred animal1 although the latter be greatly his superior in personal beauty4 ,a knowledge of the law of variation teaches us to avoid1 for breeding purposes1 such animals as exhibit variations unfavorable to the purpose in view2 to endeavor to perpetuate every real improvement gained2 as well as to secure1 as far as practicable1 the conditions necessary to induce or continue any improvement1 such as general treatment1 food1 climate1 habits1 and the like4 ,where the parents do not possess the perfections desired1 selections for coupling should be made with critical reference to correcting the faults or deficiencies of one by corresponding excellencies in the other4 ,to correct defects1 too much must not be attempted at once4 ,pairing those very unlike oftener results in loss than gain4 ,avoid all extremes1 and endeavor by moderate degrees to attain the end desired4 ,crossing1 between different breeds1 for the purpose of obtaining animals for the shambles1 may be advantageously practised to a considerable extent1 but not for the production of breeding animals4 ,as a general rule1 cross-bred males should not be employed for propagation1 and cross-bred females should be served by thorough-bred males4 ,in ordinary practice1 breeding from near relatives is to be scrupulously avoided4 ,for certain purposes1 under certain conditions and circumstances1 and in the hands of a skillful breeder1 it may be practised with advantage--but not otherwise4 ,in a large majority of cases--other things being equal--we may expect in progeny the outward form and general structure of the sire1 together with the internal qualities1 constitution1 and nutritive system of the dam2 each1 however1 modified by the other4 ,particular care should always be taken that the male by which the dam first becomes pregnant is the best which can be obtained2 also1 that at the time of sexual congress both are in vigorous health4 ,breeding animals should not be allowed to become fat1 but always kept in thrifty condition2 and such as are intended for the butcher should never be fat but once4 ,in deciding with what breeds to stock a farm1 endeavor to select those best adapted to its surface1 climate1 and degree of fertility2 also1 with reference to probable demand and proximity to markets4 ,no expense incurred in procuring choice animals for propagation1 no amount of skill in breeding1 can supersede1 or compensate for1 a lack of liberal feeding and good treatment4 ,the better the stock1 the better care they deserve4 ,,pregnancy ,the symptoms of pregnancy in its early stage were formerly deemed exceedingly unsatisfactory4 ,the period of being in season--which commonly lasts three or four days1 and then ceases for a while1 and returns in about three weeks--might entirely pass over2 and1 although it was then probable that conception had taken place1 yet in a great many instances the hopes of the breeder were disappointed4 ,it was not until between the third and fourth month1 when the belly began to enlarge--or1 in many cases1 considerably later--and when the motions of the foetus might be seen1 or1 at all events1 felt by pressing on the right flank1 that the farmer could be assured that his cow was in calf4 ,that greatest of improvements in veterinary practice1 the application of the ear to the chest and belly of various animals1 in order to detect by the different sounds--which after a short time1 will be easily recognized--the state of the circulation through most of the organs1 and consequently1 the precise seat and degree of inflammation and danger1 has now enabled the breeder to ascertain the existence of pregnancy at as early a stage as six or eight weeks4 ,the beating of the heart of the calf may then be distinctly heard1 twice1 or more than twice1 as frequent as that of the mother2 and each pulsation will betray the singular double beating of the foetal heart4 ,this will also be accompanied by the audible rushing of the blood through the vessels of the placenta4 ,the ear should be applied to the right flank1 beginning on the higher part of it1 and gradually shifting downward and backward4 ,these sounds will thus soon be heard1 and cannot be mistaken4 ,,treatment ,,before ,,calving4 ,little alteration needs to be made in the management of the cow for the first seven months of pregnancy2 except that1 as she has not only to yield milk for the profit of the farmer1 but to nourish the growing foetus within1 she should be well1 yet not too luxuriantly1 fed4 ,the half-starved cow will not adequately discharge this double duty1 nor provide sufficient nutriment for the calf when it has dropped2 while the cow in high condition will be dangerously disposed to inflammation and fever1 when1 at the time of parturition1 she is otherwise so susceptible of the power of every stimulus4 ,if the season and the convenience of the farmer will allow1 she will be better at pasture1 at least for some hours each day than when confined altogether to the cow-house4 ,at a somewhat uncertain period before she calves1 there will be a new secretion of milk for the expected little one2 and under the notion of somewhat recruiting her strength1 in order better to enable her to discharge her new duty--but more from the uniform testimony of experience that there is danger of local inflammation1 general fever1 garget in the udder1 and puerperal fever1 if the new milk descends while the old milk continues to flow--it has been usual to let the cow go dry for some period before parturition4 ,farmers and breeders have been strangely divided as to the length of this period4 ,it must be decided by circumstances4 ,a cow in good condition may be milked for a much longer period than a poor one4 ,her abundance of food renders a period of respite almost unnecessary2 and all that needs to be taken care of1 is that the old milk should be fairly gone before the new milk springs4 ,in such a cow1 while there is danger of inflammation from the sudden rush of new milk into a bag already occupied1 there is almost always considerable danger of indurations and tumors in the teats from the habit of secretion being too long suspended4 ,the emaciated and over-milked beast1 however1 must rest a while before she can again advantageously discharge the duties of a mother4 ,if the period of pregnancy were of equal length at all times and in all cows1 the one that has been well fed might be milked until within a fortnight or three weeks of parturition1 while a holiday of two months should be granted to the poorer beast2 but as there is much irregularity about the time of gestation1 it may be prudent to take a month or five ,weeks1 as the average period4 ,the process of parturition is necessarily one that is accompanied with a great deal of febrile excitement2 and1 therefore1 when it nearly approaches1 not only should a little care be taken to lessen the quantity of food1 and to remove that which is of a stimulating action1 but a mild dose of physic1 and a bleeding regulated by the condition of the animal1 will be very proper precautionary measures4 ,a moderately open state of the bowels is necessary at the period of parturition in the cow4 ,during the whole time of pregnancy her enormous stomach sufficiently presses upon and confines the womb2 and that pressure may be productive of injurious and fatal consequences1 if at this period the rumen is suffered to be distended by innutritious food1 or the manyplus takes on that hardened state to which it is occasionally subject4 ,breeders have been sadly negligent in this respect4 ,the springing of the udder1 or the rapid enlargement of it from the renewed secretion of milk--the enlargement of the external parts of the bearing 7the former1 as has been said by some1 in old cows1 and the latter in young ones7--the appearance of a glaring discharge from the bearing--the evident dropping of the belly1 with the appearance of leanness and narrowness between the shape and the udder--a degree of uneasiness and fidgetiness--moaning occasionally--accelerated respiration--all these symptoms will announce that the time of calving is not far off4 ,the cow should be brought near home1 and put in some quiet1 sheltered place4 ,in cold or stormy weather she should be housed4 ,her uneasiness will rapidly increase--she will be continually getting up and lying down--her tail will begin to be elevated and the commencement of the labor-pains will soon be evident4 ,in most cases the parturition will be natural and easy1 and the less the cow is disturbed or meddled with1 the better4 ,she will do better without help than with it2 but she should be watched1 in order to see that no difficulty occurs which may require aid and attention4 ,in cases of difficult parturition the aid of a skillful veterinary surgeon may be required4 ,illustration ,feeding and ,management ,no branch of dairy farming can compare in importance with the management of cows4 ,the highest success will depend upon it1 whatever breed be selected1 and whatever amount of care and attention be given to the points of the animals2 for experience will show that very little milk comes out of the bag1 that is not first put into the throat4 ,it is poor economy1 therefore1 to attempt to keep too many cows for the amount of feed one has2 for it will generally be found that one good cow well-bred and well fed will yield as much as two ordinary cows kept in the ordinary way2 while a saving is effected both in labor and room required1 and in the risks on the capital invested4 ,if an argument for the larger number on poorer feed is urged on the ground of the additional manure--which is the only basis upon which it can be put--it is enough to say that it is a very expensive way of making manure4 ,it is not too strong an assertion1 that a proper regard to profit and economy would require many an ,american farmer to sell off nearly half of his cows1 and to feed the whole of his hay and roots hitherto used into the remainder4 ,an animal1 to be fully fed and satisfied1 requires a quantity of food in proportion to its live weight4 ,no feed is complete that does not contain a sufficient amount of nutritive elements2 hay1 for example1 being more nutritive than straw1 and grains than roots4 ,the food1 too1 must possess a bulk sufficient to fill up to a certain degree the organs of digestion of the stomach2 and1 to receive the full benefit of its food1 the animal must be wholly satisfied--since1 if the stomach is not sufficiently distended1 the food cannot be properly digested1 and of course many of the nutritive principles which it contains cannot be perfectly assimilated4 ,an animal regularly fed eats till it is satisfied1 and no more than is requisite4 ,a part of the nutritive elements in hay and other forage plants is needed to keep an animal on its feet--that is1 to keep up its condition--and if the nutrition of its food is insufficient for this1 the weight decreases1 and if it is more than sufficient the weight increases1 or else this excess is consumed in the production of milk or in labor4 ,about one sixtieth of their live weight in hay1 or its equivalent1 will keep horned cattle on their feet2 but1 in order to be completely nourished1 they require about one thirtieth in dry substances1 and four thirtieths in water1 or other liquid contained in their food4 ,the excess of nutritive food over and above what is necessary to sustain life will go1 in milch cows1 generally to the production of milk1 or to the growth of the foetus1 but not in all cows to an equal extent2 the tendency to the secretion of milk being much more developed in some than in others4 ,with regard1 however1 to the consumption of food in proportion to the live weight of the animal1 it must be taken1 in common with all general principles1 with some qualifications4 ,the proportion is probably not uniform as applied to all breeds indiscriminately1 though it may be more so as applied to animals of the same breed4 ,the idea of some celebrated stock-raisers has been that the quantity of food required depends much upon the shape of the barrel2 and it is well known that an animal of a close1 compact1 well-rounded barrel1 will consume less than one of an opposite make4 ,the variations in the yield of milch cows are caused more by the variations in the nutritive elements of their food than by a change of the form in which it is given4 ,a cow1 kept through the winter on mere straw1 will cease to give milk2 and1 when fed in spring on green forage1 will give a fair quantity of milk4 ,but she owes the cessation and restoration of the secretion1 respectively1 to the diminution and increase of her nourishment1 and not at all to the change of form1 or of outward substance in which the nutriment is administered4 ,let cows receive through winter nearly as large a proportion of nutritive matter as is contained in the clover1 lucerne1 and fresh grass which they eat in summer1 and1 no matter in what precise substance or mixture that matter be contained1 they will yield a winter's produce of milk quite as rich in caseine and butyraceous ingredients as the summer's produce1 and far more ample in quantity than almost any dairyman with old-fashioned notions would imagine to be possible4 ,the great practical error on this subject consists1 not in giving wrong kinds of food1 but in not so proportioning and preparing it as to render an average ration of it equally rich in the elements of nutrition1 and especially in nitrogenous elements1 as an average ration of the green and succulent food of summer4 ,we keep too much stock for the quantity of good and nutritious food which we have for it2 and the consequence is1 that cows are1 in nine cases out of ten1 poorly wintered1 and come out in the spring weakened1 if not1 indeed1 positively diseased1 and a long time is required to bring them into a condition to yield a generous quantity of milk4 ,it is a hard struggle for a cow reduced in flesh and in blood to fill up the wasted system with the food which would otherwise have gone to the secretion of milk2 but1 if she is well fed1 well housed1 well littered1 and well supplied with pure1 fresh water1 and with roots1 or other moist food1 and properly treated to the luxury of a frequent carding1 and constant kindness1 she comes out ready to commence the manufacture of milk under favorable circumstances4 ,keep the cows constantly in good condition1 ought1 therefore1 to be the motto of every dairy farmer1 posted up over the barn1 and on and over the stalls1 and over the milk-room1 and repeated to the boys whenever there is danger of forgetting it4 ,it is the great secret of success2 and the difference between success and failure turns upon it4 ,cows in milk require more food in proportion to their size and weight than either oxen or young cattle4 ,in order to keep cows in milk well and economically1 regularity is next in importance to a full supply of wholesome and nutritious food4 ,the animal stomach is a very nice chronometer1 and it is of the utmost importance to observe regular hours in feeding1 cleaning1 and milking4 ,this is a point1 also1 in which very many farmers are at fault--feeding whenever it happens to be convenient4 ,the cattle are thus kept in a restless condition1 constantly expecting food when the keeper enters the barn2 while1 if regular hours are strictly adhered to1 they know exactly when they are to be fed1 and they rest quietly till the time arrives4 ,if one goes into any well-regulated dairy establishment an hour before feeding1 scarcely an animal will rise to its feet2 while2 if it happens to be the hour of feeding1 the whole herd will be likely to rise and seize their food with an avidity and relish not to be mistaken4 ,with respect to the exact nurture to be pursued1 no rule could be prescribed which would apply to all cases2 and each individual must be governed much by circumstances1 both regarding the particular kinds of feed at different seasons of the year1 and the system of feeding4 ,it has been found--it may be stated--in the practice of the most successful dairymen1 that1 in order to encourage the largest secretion of milk in stalled cows1 one of the best courses is1 to feed in the morning1 either at the time of milking--which is preferred by many--or immediately after1 with cut feed1 consisting of hay1 oats1 millet1 or cornstalks1 mixed with shorts1 and ,indian linseed1 or cotton-seed meal1 thoroughly moistened with water4 ,if in winter1 hot or warm water is far better than cold4 ,if given at milking-time1 the cows will generally give down their milk more readily4 ,the stalls and mangers should first be thoroughly cleansed4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,family ,,pets4 ,roots and long hay may be given during the day2 and at the evening milking1 or directly after1 another generous meal of cut feed1 well moistened and mixed1 as in the morning4 ,no very concentrated food1 like grains alone1 or oil-cakes1 should be fed early in the morning on an empty stomach1 although it is sanctioned by the practice in the ,london milk-dairies4 ,the processes of digestion go on best when the stomach is sufficiently distended2 and for this purpose the bulk of food is almost as important as the nutritive qualities4 ,the flavor of some roots1 as cabbages and turnips1 is more apt to be imparted to the flesh and milk when fed on an empty stomach than otherwise4 ,after the cows have been milked and have finished their cut feed1 they are carded and curried down1 in well-managed dairies1 and then either watered in the stall--which1 in very cold or stormy weather1 is far preferable--or turned out to water in the yard4 ,while they are out1 if they are let out at all1 the stables are put in order2 and1 after tying them up1 they are fed with long hay1 and left to themselves till the next feeding time4 ,this may consist of roots--such as cabbages1 beets1 carrots1 or turnips sliced--or of potatoes1 a peck1 or--if the cows are very large--a half-bushel each1 and cut feed again at the evening milking1 as in the morning2 after which1 water in the stall1 if possible4 ,the less cows are exposed to the cold of winter1 the better4 ,they eat less1 thrive better1 and give more milk1 when kept housed all the time1 than when exposed to the cold4 ,a case is on record1 where a herd of cows1 which had usually been supplied from troughs and pipes in the stalls1 were1 on account of an obstruction in the pipes1 obliged to be turned out thrice a day to be watered in the yard4 ,the quantity of milk instantly decreased1 and in three days the diminution became very considerable4 ,after the pipes were mended1 and the cows again watered1 as before1 in their stalls1 the flow of milk returned4 ,this1 however1 must be governed much by the weather2 for in very mild and warm days it may be judicious not only to let them out1 but to allow them to remain out for a short time1 for the purpose of exercise4 ,any one can arrange the hour for the several processes named above1 to suit himself2 but1 when once fixed1 it should be rigidly and regularly followed4 ,if the regular and full feeding be neglected for even a day1 the yield of milk will immediately decline1 and it will be very difficult to restore it4 ,it may be safely asserted1 as the result of many trials and long practice1 that a larger flow of milk follows a complete system of regularity in this respect than from a higher feeding where this system is not adhered to4 ,one prime object which the dairyman should keep constantly in view is1 to maintain the animal in a sound and healthy condition4 ,without this1 no profit can be expected from a milch cow for any considerable length of time2 and with a view to this1 there should be an occasional change of food4 ,but1 in making changes1 great care is requisite in order to supply the needful amount of nourishment1 or the cow will fall off in flesh1 and eventually in milk4 ,it should1 therefore1 be remembered that the food consumed goes not alone to the secretion of milk1 but also to the growth and maintenance of the bony structure1 the flesh1 the blood1 the fat1 the skin1 and the hair1 and in exhalations from the body4 ,these parts of the body consist of different organic constituents4 ,some are rich in nitrogen1 as the fibrin of the blood and albumen2 others destitute of it1 as fat2 some abound in inorganic salts1 phosphate of lime1 and salts of potash4 ,to explain how the constant waste of these substances may be supplied1 a celebrated chemist observes that the albumen1 gluten1 caseine1 and other nitrogenized principles of food1 supply the animal with the materials requisite for the formation of muscle and cartilage2 they are1 therefore1 called flesh-forming principles4 ,fats1 or oily matters of the food1 are used to lay on fat1 or for the purpose of sustaining respiration4 ,starch1 sugar1 gum1 and a few other non-nitrogenized substances1 consisting of carbon1 oxygen1 and hydrogen1 supply the carbon given off in respiration1 or they are used for the production of fat4 ,phosphate of lime and magnesia in food principally furnish the animal with the materials of which the bony skeleton of its body consists4 ,saline substances--chlorides of sodium and potassium1 sulphate and phosphate of potash and soda1 and some other mineral matters occurring in food--supply the blood1 juice of flesh1 and various animal juices1 with the necessary mineral constituents4 ,the healthy state of an animal can thus only be preserved by a mixed food2 that is1 food which contains all the proximate principles just noticed4 ,starch or sugar alone cannot sustain the animal body1 since neither of them furnishes the materials to build up the fleshy parts of the animal4 ,when fed on substances in which an insufficient quantity of phosphates occurs1 the animal will become weak1 because it does not find any bone-producing principle in its food4 ,due attention should1 therefore1 be paid by the feeder to the selection of food which contains all the kinds of matter required1 nitrogenized as well as non-nitrogenized1 and mineral substances2 and these should be mixed together in the proportion which experience points out as best for the different kinds of animals1 or the particular purpose for which they are kept4 ,relative to the nutrition of cows for dairy purposes1 milk may be regarded as a material for the manufacture of butter and cheese2 and1 according to the purpose for which the milk is intended to be employed1 whether for the manufacture of butter or the production of cheese1 the cow should be differently fed4 ,butter contains carbon1 oxygen1 and hydrogen1 and no nitrogen4 ,cheese1 on the contrary1 is rich in nitrogen4 ,food which contains much fatty matter1 or substances which in the animal system are readily converted into fat1 will tend to increase the proportion of cream in milk4 ,on the other hand1 the proportion of caseine or cheesy matter in milk is increased by the use of highly nitrogenized food4 ,those1 then1 who desire much cream1 or who produce cream for the manufacture of butter1 select food likely to increase the proportion of butter in the milk4 ,on the contrary1 where the principal object is the production of milk rich in curd--that is1 where cheese is the object of the farmer--clover1 peas1 bran-meal1 and other plants which abound in legumine--a nitrogenized organic compound1 almost identical in properties and composition with caseine1 or the substance which forms the curd of milk--will be selected4 ,and so the quality1 as well as the quantity1 of butter in the milk1 depends on the kind of food consumed and on the general health of the animal4 ,cows fed on turnips in the stall always produce butter inferior to that of cows living upon the fresh and aromatic grasses of the pastures4 ,succulent food in which water abounds--the green grass of irrigated meadows1 green clover1 brewers' and distillers' refuse1 and the like--increases the quantity1 rather than the quality1 of the milk2 and by feeding these substances the milk-dairyman studies his own interest1 and makes thin milk without diluting it with water--though1 in the opinion of some1 this may be no more legitimate than watering the milk4 ,but1 though the yield of milk may be increased by succulent or watery food1 it should be given so as not to interfere with the health of the cow4 ,food rich in starch1 gum1 or sugar1 which are the respiratory elements1 an excess of which goes to the production of fatty matters1 increases the butter in milk4 ,quietness promotes the secretion of fat in animals and increases the butter4 ,cheese will be increased by food rich in albumen1 such as the leguminous plants4 ,illustration3 ,,buying ,,cattle4 ,the most natural1 and of course the healthiest1 food for milch cows in summer1 is the green grass of the pastures2 and when these fail from drought or over-stocking1 the complement of nourishment may be made up with green clover1 green oats1 barley1 millet1 or corn-fodder and cabbage-leaves1 or other succulent vegetables2 and if these are wanting1 the deficiency may be partly supplied with shorts1 ,indian-meal1 linseed or cotton-seed meal4 ,green grass is more nutritious than hay1 which always loses somewhat of its nutritive properties in curing2 the amount of the loss depending chiefly on the mode of curing1 and the length of exposure to sun and rain4 ,but1 apart from this1 grass is more easily and completely digested than hay1 though the digestion of the latter may be greatly aided by cutting and moistening1 or steaming2 and by this means it is rendered more readily available1 and hence far better adapted to promote a large secretion of milk--a fact too often overlooked even by many intelligent farmers4 ,in autumn1 the best feed will be the grasses of the pastures1 so far as they are available1 green-corn fodder1 cabbage1 carrot1 and turnip leaves1 and an addition of meal or shorts4 ,toward the middle of autumn1 the cows fed in the pastures will require to be housed regularly at night1 especially in the more northern latitudes1 and put1 in part at least1 upon hay4 ,but every farmer knows that it is not judicious to feed out the best part of his hay when his cattle are first put into the barn1 and that he should not feed so well in the early part of winter that he cannot feed better as the winter advances4 ,at the same time1 it should always be borne in mind that the change from grass to a poor quality of hay or straw1 for cows in milk1 should not be too sudden4 ,a poor quality of dry hay is far less palatable in the early part of winter1 after the cows are taken from grass1 than at a later period2 and1 if it is resorted to with milch cows1 will invariably lead to a falling off in the milk1 which no good feed can afterward wholly restore4 ,it is desirable1 therefore1 for the farmer to know what can be used instead of his best ,english or upland meadow hay1 and yet not suffer any greater loss in the flow of milk1 or in condition1 than is absolutely necessary4 ,in some sections of the ,eastern ,states1 the best quality of swale hay will be used2 and the composition of that is as variable as possible1 depending on the varieties of the grasses of which it was made1 and the manner of curing4 ,but1 in other sections1 many will find it necessary to use straw and other substitutes4 ,taking good ,english or meadow hay as the standard of comparison1 and calling that one1 #d4gi times the weight of rye-straw1 or #c4hc times the weight of oat-straw1 contains the same amount of nutritive matter2 that is1 it would take #d4gi times as good rye-straw to produce the same result as good meadow hay4 ,in winter1 the best food for cows in milk will be good sweet meadow hay1 a part of which should be cut and moistened with water--as all inferior hay or straw should be--with an addition of root-crops1 such as turnips1 carrots1 parsnips1 potatoes1 mangold-wurtzel1 with shorts1 oil-cake1 ,indian meal1 or bean meal4 ,it is the opinion of most successful dairymen that the feeding of moist food cannot be too highly recommended for cows in milk1 especially to those who desire to obtain the largest quantity4 ,hay cut and thoroughly moistened becomes more succulent and nutritive1 and partakes more of the nature of green grass4 ,as a substitute for the oil-cake1 hitherto known as an exceedingly valuable article for feeding stock1 there is probably nothing better than cotton-seed meal4 ,this is an article whose economic value has been but recently made known1 but which1 from practical trials already made1 has proved eminently successful as food for milch cows4 ,chemists have decided that its composition is not inferior to that of the best flaxseed cake1 and that in some respects its agricultural value surpasses that of any other kind of oil-cake4 ,it has been remarked by chemists1 in this connection1 that the great value of linseed-cake1 as an adjunct to hay1 for fat cattle and milch cows1 has been long recognized2 and that it is undeniably traceable1 in the main1 to three ingredients of the seeds of the oil-yielding plants4 ,the value of food depends upon the quantities of matters it contains which may be appropriated by the animal which consumes the food ,now1 it is proved that the fat of animals is derived from the starch1 gum1 and sugar1 and more directly and easily from the oil of the food4 ,these four substances1 then1 are fat-formers4 ,the muscles1 nerves1 and tendons of animals1 the brine of their blood and the curd of their milk1 are almost identical in composition with1 and strongly similar in many of their properties to1 matters found in all vegetables1 but chiefly in such as form the most concentrated food4 ,these blood 7and muscle7 formers are characterized by containing about fifteen and a half per cent4 of nitrogen2 and hence are called nitrogenous substances4 ,they are1 also1 often designated as the albuminous bodies4 ,the bony framework of the animal owes its solidity to phosphate of lime1 and this substance must be furnished by the food4 ,a perfect food must supply the animal with these three classes of bodies1 and in proper proportions4 ,the addition of a small quantity of a food1 rich in oil and albuminous substances1 to the ordinary kinds of feed1 which contain a large quantity of vegetable fibre or woody matter1 more or less indigestible1 but1 nevertheless1 indispensable to the herbivorous animals1 their digestive organs being adapted to a bulky food1 has been found highly advantageous in practice4 ,neither hay alone nor concentrated food alone gives the best results4 ,a certain combination of the two presents the most advantages4 ,some who have used cotton-seed cake have found difficulty in inducing cattle to eat it4 ,by giving it at first in small doses1 mixed with other palatable food1 they soon learn to eat it with relish4 ,cotton-seed cake is much richer in oils and albuminous matters than the linseed cake4 ,a correspondingly less quantity will therefore be required4 ,three pounds of this cotton-seed cake are equivalent to four of linseed cake of average quality4 ,during the winter season1 as has been already remarked1 a frequent change of food is especially necessary1 both as contributions to the general health of animals1 and as a means of stimulating the digestive organs1 and thus increasing the secretion of milk4 ,a mixture used as cut feed and well moistened is now especially beneficial1 since concentrated food1 which would otherwise be given in small quantities1 may be united with larger quantities of coarser and less nutritive food1 and the complete assimilation of the whole be better secured4 ,on this subject it has been sensibly observed that the most nutritious kinds of food produce little or no effect when they are not digested by the stomach1 or if the digested food is not absorbed by the lymphatic vessels1 and not assimilated by the various parts of the body4 ,now1 the normal functions of the digestive organs not only depend upon the composition of the food1 but also on its volume4 ,the volume or bulk of the food contributes to the healthy action of the digestive organs1 by exercising a stimulating effect upon the nerves which govern them4 ,thus the whole organization of ruminating animals necessitates the supply of bulky food1 to keep the animal in good condition4 ,feed sweet and nutritious food1 therefore1 frequently1 regularly1 and in small quantities1 and change it often1 and the best results may be confidently anticipated4 ,if the cows are not in milk1 but are to come in in the spring1 the difference in feeding should be rather in the quantity than the quality1 if the highest yield is to be expected from them during the coming season4 ,the most common feeding is hay alone1 and oftentimes very poor hay at that4 ,the main point is to keep the animal in a healthy and thriving condition1 and not to suffer her to fail in flesh2 and with this object1 some change and variety of food are highly important4 ,illustration3 ,,calling ,,in ,,the ,,cattle4 ,toward the close of winter1 a herd of cows will begin to come in1 or approach their time of calving4 ,care should then be taken not to feed too rich or stimulating food for the last week or two before this event1 as it is often attended with ill consequences4 ,a plenty of hay1 a few potatoes or shorts1 and pure water will suffice4 ,in spring1 the best feeding for dairy cows will be much the same as that for winter2 the roots in store over winter1 such as carrots1 mangold wurtzel1 turnips1 and parsnips1 furnishing very valuable aid in increasing the quantity and improving the quality of milk4 ,toward the close of this season1 and before the grass of pastures is sufficiently grown to make it judicious to turn out the cows1 the best dairymen provide a supply of green fodder in the shape of winter rye1 which1 if cut while it is tender and succulent1 and before it is half grown1 will be greatly relished4 ,unless cut young1 however1 its stalk soon becomes hard and unpalatable4 ,all practical dairymen agree in saying that a warm and well-ventilated barn is indispensable to the promotion of the highest yield of milk in winter2 and most agree that cows in milk should not be turned out1 even to drink1 in cold weather2 all exposure to cold tending to lessen the yield of milk4 ,in the ,london dairies1 in which1 of course1 the cows are fed so as to produce the largest flow of milk1 the treatment is as follows3 ,the cows are kept at night in stalls4 ,about three ,a4 ,m4 each has a half-bushel of grains4 ,when milking is finished1 each receives a bushel of turnips 7or mangolds71 and shortly afterward1 one tenth of a truss of hay of the best quality4 ,this feeding occurs before eight ,a4 ,m41 when the animals are turned into the yard4 ,four hours after1 they are again tied up in their stalls1 and have another feed of grains4 ,when the afternoon milking is over 7about three ,p4 ,m471 they are fed with a bushel of turnips1 and after the lapse of an hour1 hay is given them as before4 ,this mode of feeding usually continues throughout the cool season1 or from ,november to ,march4 ,during the remaining months they are fed with grains1 tares1 and cabbages1 and a proportion of rowen1 or second-cut hay4 ,they are supplied regularly until they are turned out to grass1 when they pass the whole of the night in the field4 ,the yield is about six hundred and fifty gallons a year for each cow4 ,mr4 ,harley--whose admirable dairy establishment was erected for the purpose of supplying the city of ,glasgow with a good quality of milk1 and which has contributed more than any thing else to improve the quality of the milk furnished to all the principal cities of ,great ,britain--adopted the following system of feeding with the greatest profit3 ,in the early part of the summer1 young grass and green barley1 the first cutting especially1 mixed with a large proportion of old hay or straw1 and a good quantity of salt to prevent swelling1 were used4 ,as summer advanced1 less hay and straw were given1 and as the grass approached ripeness1 they were discontinued altogether2 but young and wet clover was never given without an admixture of dry provender4 ,when grass became scarce1 young turnips and turnip leaves were steamed with hay1 and formed a good substitute4 ,as grass decreased1 the turnips were increased1 and at length became a complete substitute4 ,as the season advanced1 a large proportion of distillers' grains and wash was given with other food1 but these were found to have a tendency to make the cattle grain-sick2 and if this feeding were long-continued1 the health of the cows became affected4 ,boiled linseed and short-cut wheat straw mixed with the grains1 were found to prevent the cows from turning sick4 ,as spring approached1 ,swedish turnips1 when cheap1 were substituted for yellow turnips4 ,these two roots1 steamed with hay and other mixtures1 afforded safe food till grass was again in season4 ,when any of the cows were surfeited1 the food was withheld till the appetite returned1 when a small quantity was given1 and increased gradually to the full allowance4 ,but the most elaborate and valuable experiments in the feeding and management of milch cows1 are those made1 not long since1 by ,mr4 ,t4 ,horsfall1 of ,england1 and published in the ,journal of the ,royal ,agricultural ,society4 ,his practice1 though adapted more especially1 perhaps1 to his own section1 is nevertheless of such general application and importance as to be worthy of attention4 ,by his course of treatment he found that he could produce as much and as rich butter in winter as in summer4 ,his first object was to afford a full supply of the elements of food adapted to the maintenance1 and also to the produce of the animal2 and this could not be effected by the ordinary food and methods of feeding1 since it is impossible to induce a cow to consume a quantity of hay requisite to supply the waste of the system1 and keep up1 at the same time1 a full yield of the best quality of milk4 ,he used1 to some extent1 cabbages1 kohl rabi1 mangolds1 shorts1 and other substances1 rich in the constituents of cheese and butter4 ,my food for milch cows1 says he1 after having undergone various modifications1 has for two seasons consisted of rape cake five pounds1 and bran two pounds1 for each cow1 mixed with a sufficient quantity of bean-straw1 oat-straw1 and shells of oats1 in equal proportions1 to supply them three times a day with as much as they will eat4 ,the whole of the materials are moistened and blended together1 and1 after being well steamed1 are given to the animal in a warm state4 ,the attendant is allowed one pound to one pound and a half per cow1 according to circumstances1 of bean-meal1 which he is charged to give to each cow in proportion to the yield of milk2 those in full milk getting each two pounds per day1 others but little4 ,it is dry1 and mixed with the steamed food on its being dealt out separately4 ,when this is eaten up1 green food is given1 consisting of cabbages1 from ,october to ,december1 kohl rabi till ,february1 and mangold till grass time1 with a view to nicety of flavor4 ,i limit the quantity of green food to thirty or thirty-five pounds per day for each4 ,after each feed1 four pounds of meadow hay1 or twelve pounds per day1 is given to each cow4 ,they are allowed water twice a day1 to the extent which they will drink4 ,bean-straw uncooked having been found to be hard and unpalatable1 it was steamed to make it soft and pulpy1 when it possessed an agreeable odor1 and imparted its flavor to the whole mass4 ,it was cut for this purpose just before ripening1 but after the bean was fully grown1 and in this state was found to possess nearly double the amount of albuminous matter1 so valuable to milch cows1 of good meadow or upland hay4 ,bran or shorts is also vastly improved by steaming or soaking with hot water1 when its nutriment is more readily assimilated4 ,it contains about fourteen per cent4 of albumen1 and is rich in phosphoric acid4 ,rape-cake was found to be exceedingly valuable4 ,linseed and cotton-seed cake may probably be substituted for it in this country4 ,mr4 ,horsfall turned his cows in ,may into a rich pasture1 housing them at night1 and giving them a mess of the steamed mixture and some hay morning and night2 and from ,june to ,october they had cut grass in the stall1 besides what they got in the pasture1 and two feeds of the steamed mixture a day4 ,after the beginning of ,october the cows were kept housed4 ,with such management his cows generally yielded from twelve to sixteen quarts of milk 7wine measure7 a day1 for about eight months after calving1 when they fell off in milk1 but gained in flesh1 up to calving-time4 ,in this course of treatment the manure was far better than the average1 and his pastures constantly improved4 ,the average amount of butter from every sixteen quarts of milk was twenty-five ounces--a proportion far larger than the average4 ,illustration3 ,,on ,,the ,,rampage4 ,how widely does this course of treatment differ from that of most farmers6 ,the object with many seems to be1 to see with how little food they can keep the cow alive4 ,from a correct point of view1 the milch cow should be regarded as an instrument of transformation4 ,the question should be--with so much hay1 so much grain1 so many roots1 how can the most milk1 or butter1 or cheese1 be made8 ,the conduct of a manufacturer who owned good machinery1 and an abundance of raw material1 and had the labor at hand1 would be considered very senseless1 if he hesitated to supply the material1 and keep the machinery at work1 at least so long as he could run it with profit4 ,stimulate the appetite1 then1 and induce the cow to eat1 by a frequent change of diet1 not merely enough to supply the constant waste of her system1 but enough and to spare1 of a food adapted to the production of milk of the quality desired4 ,,soiling4 ,of the advantages of soiling milch cows--that is1 feeding exclusively in the barn--there are yet many conflicting opinions4 ,as to its economy of land and feed there can be no question1 it being generally admitted that a given number of animals may be abundantly fed on a less space2 nor is there much question as to the increased quantity of milk yielded in stall feeding4 ,its economy1 in this country1 turns rather upon the cost of labor and time2 and the question raised by the dairyman is1 whether it will pay--whether its advantages are sufficient to balance the extra expense of cutting and feeding1 over and above cropping on the pasture4 ,the importance of this subject has been strongly impressed upon the attention of farmers in many sections of the country1 by a growing conviction that something must be done to improve the pastures1 or that they must be abandoned altogether4 ,thousands of acres of neglected pasture-land in the older ,states are so poor and worn out that from four to eight acres furnish but a miserable subsistence for a good-sized cow4 ,no animal can flourish under such circumstances4 ,the labor and exertion of feeding are too great1 to say nothing of the vastly inferior quality of the grasses in such pastures1 compared with those on more recently seeded lands4 ,true economy would dictate that such pastures should either be allowed to run to wood1 or be devoted to sheep-walks1 or ploughed and improved4 ,cows1 to be able to yield well1 must have plenty of food of a sweet and nutritious quality2 and1 unless they find it1 they wander over a large space1 if at liberty1 and thus deprive themselves of rest4 ,if a farmer or dairyman unfortunately owns such pastures1 there can be no question that1 as a matter of real economy1 he had better resort to the soiling system for his milch cows2 by which means he will largely increase his annual supply of good manure1 and thus have the means of improving1 and bringing his land to a higher state of cultivation4 ,a very successful instance of this management occurs in the report of the visiting committee of an agricultural society in ,massachusetts1 in which they say3 ,we have now in mind a farmer in this county who keeps seven or eight cows in the stable through the summer1 and feeds them on green fodder1 chiefly ,indian corn4 ,we asked him his reasons for it4 ,his answer was3 #a4 ,that he gets more milk than he can by any other method4 #b4 ,that he gets more manure1 especially liquid manure4 #c4 ,that he saves it all1 by keeping a supply of mud or mould under the stable1 to be taken out and renewed as often as necessary4 #d4 ,that it is less troublesome than to drive his cows to pasture2 that they are less vexed by flies1 and have equally good health4 #e4 ,that his mowing land is every year growing more productive1 without the expense of artificial manure4--,he estimates that on an acre of good land twenty tons of green fodder may be raised4 ,that which is dried is cut fine1 and mixed with meal or shorts1 and fed with profit4 ,he believes that a reduced and worn-out farm--supposing the land to be naturally good--could be brought into prime order in five years1 without any extra outlay of money for manure1 by the use of green fodder in connection with the raising and keeping of pigs2 not fattening them1 but selling at the age of four or five months4 ,he keeps most of his land in grass1 improving its quality and productiveness by means of top-dressing1 and putting money in his pocket--which is1 after all1 the true test both for theory and practice4 ,another practical case on this point is that of a gentleman in the same ,state who had four cows1 but not a rod of land on which to pasture them4 ,they were1 therefore1 never out of the barn--or1 at least1 not out of the yard--and were fed with grass1 regularly mown for them2 with green ,indian corn and fodder1 which had been sown broadcast for the purpose2 and with about three pints of meal a day4 ,their produce in butter was kept for thirteen weeks4 ,two of them were but two years old1 having calved the same spring4 ,all the milk of one of them was taken by her calf for six weeks out of the thirteen1 and some of the milk of the other was taken for family use1 the quantity of which was not measured4 ,these heifers could not1 therefore1 be estimated as equal to more than one cow in full milk4 ,and yet from these cows no less than three hundred and eighty-nine pounds of butter were made in the thirteen weeks4 ,another pound would have made an average of thirty pounds a week for the whole time4 ,it appears from these and other similar instances of soiling1 or stall-feeding in summer on green crops cut for the purpose1 that the largely increased quantity of the yield fully compensates for the slightly deteriorated quality4 ,and not only is the quantity yielded by each cow increased1 but the same extent of land1 under the same culture1 will carry double or treble the number of ordinary pastures1 and keep them in better condition4 ,there is also a saving of manure4 ,but with us the economy of soiling is the exception1 and not the rule4 ,in adopting this system of feeding1 regularity is required as much as in any other1 and a proper variety of food4 ,a succession of green crops should be provided1 as near as convenient to the stable4 ,the first will naturally be winter rye1 in the ,northern ,states1 as that shoots up with great luxuriance4 ,winter rape would probably be an exceedingly valuable addition to the plants usually cultivated for soiling in this country1 in sections where it would withstand the severity of the winter4 ,cabbages1 kept in the cellar or pit1 and transplanted early1 will also come in here to advantage1 and clover will very soon follow them2 oats1 millet1 and green ,indian-corn1 as the season advances2 and1 a little later still1 perhaps1 the ,chinese sugar-cane1 which should not be cut till headed out4 ,these plants1 in addition to other cultivated grasses1 will furnish an unfailing succession of succulent and tender fodder2 while the addition of a little ,indian1 linseed1 or cotton-seed meal will be found economical4 ,in the vicinity of large towns and cities1 where the object is too often to feed for the largest quantity1 without reference to quality1 an article known as distillers' swill1 or still-slop1 is extensively used4 ,this1 if properly fed in limited quantities1 in combination with other and more bulky food1 may be a valuable article for the dairyman2 but1 if given--as it too often is--without the addition of other kinds of food1 it soon affects the health and constitution of the animals fed on it4 ,this swill contains a considerable quantity of water1 some nitrogenous compounds1 and some inorganic matter in the shape of phosphates and alkaline salts found in the different kinds of grain of which it is made up1 as ,indian corn1 wheat1 barley1 rye1 and the like4 ,where this forms the principal food of milch cows1 the milk is of a very poor quality--blue in color1 and requiring the addition of coloring substances to make it saleable4 ,it contains1 often1 less than one per cent4 of butter1 and seldom over one and three-tenths or one and a half per cent4--while good1 saleable milk should contain from three to five per cent4 ,it will not coagulate1 it is said1 in less than five or six hours2 while good milk will invariably coagulate in an hour or less1 under the same conditions4 ,its effect on the system of young children is1 therefore1 very destructive1 causing diseases of various kinds1 and1 if continued1 death4 ,so pernicious have been the consequences resulting from the use of this swill-milk1 as it is called1 in the largest city of this country1 that the ,legislature of the ,state of ,new ,york1 at a recent session 7#ahfa-b71 interfered in behalf of the community by making the sale of the article a penal offence4 ,,culture ,,of ,,grasses ,,for ,,fodder4 ,as has been already stated1 the grasses in summer1 and hay in winter1 form the most natural and important food for milch cows2 and1 whatever other crops come in as additional1 these will form the basis of all systems of feeding4 ,the nutritive qualities of the grasses differ widely2 and their value as feed for cows will depend1 to a considerable extent1 on the management of pastures and mowing-lands4 ,some considerations bearing upon the subject of the proper cultivation of these leading articles of food are1 therefore1 proposed in this article4 ,illustration3 ,,patiently ,,waiting4 ,if the turf of an old pasture is carefully examined1 it will be found to contain a large variety of plants and grasses adapted for forage2 some of them valuable for one purpose1 and some for another4 ,some of them1 though possessing a lower percentage of nutritive constituents than others1 are particularly esteemed for an early and luxuriant growth1 furnishing sweet feed in early spring1 before other grasses appear2 some of them1 for starting more rapidly than others1 after having been eaten off by cattle1 and1 consequently1 of great value as pasture grasses4 ,most grasses will be found to be of a social character1 and do best in a large mixture with other varieties4 ,in forming a mixture for pasture grasses1 the peculiar qualities of each species should1 therefore1 be regarded3 as the time of flowering1 the habits of growth1 the soil and location on which it grows best1 and other characteristics4 ,among the grasses found on cultivated lands in this country1 the following are considered as among the most valuable for ordinary farm cultivation2 some of them being adapted to pastures1 and others almost exclusively to mowing and the hay-crop3 ,timothy1 ,meadow ,foxtail1 ,june or ,kentucky ,blue ,grass1 ,fowl ,meadow1 ,rough-stalked ,meadow1 ,orchard ,grass1 ,perennial ,rye ,grass1 ,italian ,rye ,grass1 ,redtop1 ,english ,bent1 ,meadow ,fescue1 ,tall ,oat ,grass1 ,sweet-scented ,vernal1 ,hungarian ,grass1 ,red ,clover1 ,white or ,dutch ,clover1 and some others4 ,of these1 the most valuable1 all things considered1 is ,,timothy4 ,it forms a large proportion of what is commonly called ,english1 or in some sections meadow1 hay1 though it originated and was first cultivated in this country4 ,it contains a large percentage of nutritive matter1 in comparison with other agricultural grasses4 ,it thrives best on moist1 peaty1 or loamy soils1 of medium tenacity1 and is not well suited to very light1 sandy lands4 ,on very moist soils1 its root is almost always fibrous2 while on dry and loamy ones it is bulbous4 ,on soils of the former description1 which it especially affects1 its growth is rapid1 and its yield of hay large1 sometimes amounting to three or four tons the acre1 depending much1 of course1 upon cultivation4 ,but1 though very valuable for hay1 it is not adapted for pasture1 as it will neither endure severe grazing1 nor is its aftermath to be compared with that of meadow foxtail1 and some of the other grasses4 ,,june ,,grass1 better known in some sections as ,kentucky ,blue ,grass1 is very common in most sections of the country1 especially on limestone lands1 forming a large part of the turf1 wherever it flourishes1 and being held in universal esteem as a pasture grass4 ,it starts early1 but varies much in size and appearance1 according to the soil2 growing in some places with the utmost luxuriance1 and forming the predominant grass2 in others1 yielding to the other species4 ,if cut at the time of flowering1 or a few days after1 it makes a good and nutritious hay1 though it is surpassed in nutritive qualities by several of the other grasses4 ,it starts slowly after having been cut1 especially if not cut very early4 ,but its herbage is fine and uniform1 and admirably adapted to lawns1 growing well in almost all soils1 though it does not endure very severe droughts4 ,it withstands1 however1 the frosts of winter better than most other grasses4 ,in ,kentucky--a section where it attains its highest perfection and luxuriance1 ripening its seeds about the tenth of ,june--and in latitudes south of that1 it sometimes continues green through the mild winters4 ,it requires three or four years to become well set1 after sowing1 and it does not attain its highest yield as a pasture grass till the sod is even older than that4 ,it is not1 therefore1 suited to alternate husbandry1 where land usually remains in grass but two or three years before being ploughed up4 ,in ,kentucky1 it is sown any time in winter when the sun is on the ground1 three or four quarts of seed being used to the acre4 ,in spring the seeds germinate1 when the sprouts are exceedingly fine and delicate4 ,stock is not allowed on it the first year4 ,the ,,meadow ,,foxtail is also an excellent pasture grass ,it somewhat resembles ,timothy1 but is earlier1 has a softer spike1 and thrives on all soils except the dryest4 ,its growth is rapid1 and it is greatly relished by stock of all kinds4 ,its stalks and leaves are too few and light for a field crop1 and it shrinks too much in curing to be valuable for hay4 ,it flourishes best in a rich1 moist1 and rather strong soil1 sending up a luxuriant aftermath when cut or grazed off1 which is much more valuable1 both in quality and nutritive value1 than the first crop4 ,in all lands designed for permanent pasture1 therefore1 it should form a considerable part of a mixture4 ,it will endure almost any amount of forcing1 by liquid manures or irrigation4 ,it requires three or four years1 after soiling1 to gain a firm footing in the soil4 ,the seed is covered with the soft and woolly husks of the flower1 and is consequently light2 weighing but five pounds to the bushel1 and containing seventy-six thousand seeds to the ounce4 ,the ,,orchard ,,grass1 or ,,rough ,,cocksfoot1 for pastures1 stands pre-eminent4 ,this is a native of this country1 and was introduced into ,england1 from ,virginia1 in #agfd1 since which time its cultivation has extended into every country of ,europe1 where it is universally held in very high estimation4 ,the fact of its being very palatable to stock of all kinds1 its rapid growth1 and the luxuriance of its aftermath1 with its power of enduring the cropping of cattle1 have given it a very high reputation1 especially as a pasture grass4 ,it blossoms earlier than ,timothy2 when green1 is equally relished by milch cows2 requires to be fed closer1 to prevent its forming tufts and growing up to seed1 when it becomes hard and wiry1 and loses much of its nutritive quality4 ,as it blossoms about the same time1 it forms an admirable mixture with red clover1 either for permanent pasture or mowing4 ,it resists drought1 and is less exhausting to the soil than either rye grass or ,timothy4 ,the seed weighs twelve pounds to the bushel1 and when sown alone requires about two bushels to the acre4 ,the ,,rough-,,stalked ,,meadow ,,grass is somewhat less common than the ,june grass1 but is considered equally valuable4 ,it grows best on moist1 sheltered meadows1 where it flowers in ,june and ,july4 ,it is readily distinguished from ,june grass by its having a rough sheath1 while the latter has a smooth one1 and by having a fibrous root1 while the root of the other is creeping4 ,it possesses very considerable nutritive qualities1 and comes to perfection at a desirable time1 and is exceedingly relished by cattle1 horses and sheep4 ,for suitable soils it should form a portion of a mixture of seeds1 producing1 in mixture with other grasses which serve to shelter it1 a large yield of hay1 far above the average of grass usually sown on a similar soil4 ,it should be cut when the seed is formed4 ,seven pounds of seed to the acre will make a good sward4 ,the grass loses about seventy per cent4 of its weight in drying4 ,the nutritive qualities of its aftermath exceed very considerably those of the crop cut in the flower or in the seed4 ,,fowl ,,meadow ,,grass is another indigenous species1 of great value for low and marshy grounds1 where it flourishes best2 and1 if cut and properly cured1 makes a sweet and nutritious hay1 which1 from its fineness1 is eaten by cows without waste4 ,according to ,sinclair--who experimented1 with the aid of ,sir ,humphrey ,davy1 to ascertain its comparative nutritive properties--it is superior in this respect to either meadow foxtail1 orchard grass1 or tall meadow oat grass2 but it is probable that he somewhat overrates it4 ,if allowed to stand till nearly ripe1 it falls down1 but sends up innumerable flowering stems from the joints1 so that it continues green and luxuriant till late in the season4 ,it thrives best in mixture with other grasses1 and deserves a prominent place in all mixtures for rich1 moist pastures1 and low mowing-lands4 ,,rye ,,grass has a far higher reputation abroad than in this country1 and probably with reason2 for it is better adapted to a wet and uncertain climate than to a dry and hot one4 ,it varies exceedingly1 depending much on soil and culture2 but1 when cut in the blossom to make into hay1 it possesses very considerable nutritive power4 ,if allowed to get too ripe1 it is hard and wiry1 and not relished by cows4 ,the change from a juicy and nutritious plant to a woody fibre1 containing but little soluble matter1 is very rapid4 ,properly managed1 however1 it is a tolerably good grass1 though not to be compared to ,timothy1 or orchard grass4 ,,redtop is a grass familiar to every farmer in the country4 ,it is the ,herd's grass of ,pennsylvania1 while in ,new ,york and ,new ,england it is known by a great variety of names and assumes a great variety of forms1 according to the soil in which it grows4 ,it is well adapted to almost every soil1 though it seems to prefer a moist loam4 ,it makes a profitable crop for spending1 in the form of hay1 though its yield is less than that of ,timothy4 ,it is well suited to our permanent pastures1 where it should be fed close1 otherwise it becomes wiry and innutritious1 and cattle refuse it4 ,it stands the climate of the country as well as any other grass1 and so forms a valuable part of any mixture for pastures and permanent mowing-lands2 but it is1 probably1 rather over rated by us4 ,,english ,,bent1 known also by a number of other names1 is largely cultivated in some sections4 ,it closely resembles redtop1 but may be distinguished from it by the roughness of the sheaths when the hand is drawn from above downward4 ,it possesses about the same qualities as redtop4 ,,meadow ,,fescue is one of the most common of the fescue grasses1 and is said to be the ,randall grass of ,virginia4 ,it is an excellent pasture grass1 forming a very considerable portion of the turf of old pasture lands and fields2 and is more extensively propagated and diffused from the fact that it ripens its seeds before most other grasses are cut1 and sheds them to spring up and cover the ground4 ,its long and tender leaves are much relished by cattle4 ,it is rarely sown in this country1 notwithstanding its great and acknowledged value as a pasture grass4 ,if sown at all1 it should be in mixture with other grasses1 as orchard grass1 and rye grass1 or ,june grass4 ,it is of much greater value at the time of flowering than when the seed is ripe4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,chance ,,for ,a ,,selection4 ,,the ,,tall ,,oat ,,grass is the ,ray grass of ,france4 ,it furnishes a luxuriant supply of foliage1 is valuable either for hay or for pasture1 and has been especially recommended for soiling purposes1 on account of its early and luxuriant growth4 ,it is often found on the borders of fields and hedges1 woods and pastures1 and is sometimes very plenty in mowing-lands4 ,after having been mown it shoots up a very thick aftermath1 and1 on this account1 partly1 is regarded of nearly equal excellence with the common foxtail4 ,it grows spontaneously on deep1 sandy soils1 when once naturalized4 ,it has been cultivated to a considerable extent in this country1 and is esteemed by those who know it mainly for its early1 rapid1 and late growth1 making it very well calculated as a permanent pasture grass4 ,it will succeed on tenacious clover soil4 ,the ,,sweet-,,scented ,,vernal ,,grass is one of the earliest in spring and one of the latest in autumn2 and this habit of growth is one of its chief excellencies1 as it is neither a nutritious grass1 nor very palatable to stock of any kind1 nor does it yield a very good crop4 ,it is very common in ,new ,england and all over the ,middle ,states1 coming into old worn-out fields and moist pastures spontaneously1 and along every roadside4 ,it derives its name from its sweetness of odor when partially wilted or crushed in the hand1 and it is this chiefly which gives the delicious fragrance to all new-mown bay4 ,it is almost the only grass that possesses a strongly-marked aromatic odor1 which is imparted to other grasses with which it is cured4 ,its seed weighs eight pounds to the bushel4 ,in mixtures for permanent pastures it may be of some value4 ,,hungarian ,,grass1 or millet1 is an annual forage plant1 introduced into ,france in #ahae1 and more recently into this country4 ,it germinates readily1 and withstands the drought remarkably1 remaining green when other grasses are parched and dried up4 ,it has numerous succulent leaves which furnish an abundance of sweet fodder1 greatly relished by stock of all kinds4 ,it attains its greatest luxuriance on soils of medium consistency and richness1 but does very well on light and dry plains4 ,,red ,,clover is an artificial grass of the leguminous family1 and one of the most valuable cultivated plants for feeding to dairy cows4 ,it flourishes best on tenacious soils and stiff loams4 ,its growth is rapid1 and a few months after sowing are sufficient to supply an abundant sweet and nutritious food4 ,in the climate of ,new ,england1 clover should be sown in the spring of the year1 while most of the natural grasses do far better when sown in the fall4 ,it is often sown with perfect success on the late snows of ,march or ,april1 and soon finds its way down into the soil and takes a vigorous hold with its root4 ,it is valuable not only as a forage plant1 but as shading the ground1 and thereby increasing its fertility4 ,the introduction of clover among the cultivated plants of the farm has done more1 perhaps1 for modern agriculture than that of any other single plant4 ,it is now considered indispensable in all good dairy districts4 ,,white ,,clover1 often called ,honeysuckle1 is also widely diffused over this country1 to which it is undoubtedly indigenous4 ,as a mixture in all pasture grasses it holds a very high rank1 as it is exceedingly sweet and nutritious1 and relished by all kinds of stock4 ,it grows most luxuriantly in moist grounds and moist seasons1 but easily accommodates itself to a great variety of circumstances4 ,with respect to the mixtures of grass-seeds most profitable for the dairy farmer1 no universal rule can be given1 as they depend very much upon the nature of the soil and the locality4 ,the most important point to be observed1 and the one as to which1 probably1 the greatest deficiency exists1 is to use a large number of species1 with smaller quantities of each than those most commonly used4 ,this is ,nature's rule2 for1 in examining the turf of a rich old pasture1 a large number of different species will be found growing together1 while1 if the turf of a field sown without two or three species is examined1 a far less number of plants is found to the square foot1 even after the sod is fairly set4 ,in the opinion of the most competent judges1 no improvement in grass culture is more important than this4 ,as an instance of what he would consider an improvement on the ordinary mixtures for permanent pastures1 ,mr4 ,flint1 in his ,milch ,cows and ,dairy ,farming1 suggests the following as likely to give satisfactory results1 dependent1 of course1 to a considerable extent1 on the nature and preparation of the soil3 ,meadow ,foxtail1 flowering in ,may and ,june1 #b pounds ,orchard ,grass1 #f ,sweet-scented ,vernal1 ,april and ,may1 #a ,meadow ,fescue1 ,may and ,june1 #b ,redtop1 ,june and ,july1 #b ,june ,grass1 ,may and ,june1 #d ,italian ,rye ,grass1 ,june1 #d ,perennial do41 #f ,timothy1 ,june and ,july1 #c ,rough-stalked ,meadow ,grass1 #b ,perennial ,clover1 flowering in ,june1 #c ,white ,clover1 ,may to ,september #e-dj ,for mowing-lands the mixture would1 of course1 be somewhat changed4 ,the meadow foxtail and sweet-scented vernal would be left out entirely1 and some six or eight pounds added to the ,timothy and red clover4 ,the proper time to lay down lands to grass in the latitude of ,new ,england is ,august or ,september1 and no grain crop should be sown with the seed4 ,stiff or clayey pastures should never be overstocked1 but when fed pretty close the grasses are far sweeter and more nutritious than when they are allowed to grow up rank and coarse2 and if1 by a want of sufficient feeding1 they get the start of the stock1 and grow into rank tufts1 they should be cut and removed1 when a fresh grass will start up1 similar to the aftermath of mowing-lands1 which will be eaten with avidity4 ,grasses for curing into hay should be cut either at the time of flowering1 or just before1 especially if designed for milch cows4 ,they are then more succulent and juicy1 and1 if properly cured1 form the sweetest food4 ,grass cut in the blossom will make more milk than if allowed to stand later4 ,cut a little before the blossoming2 it will make more than when in blossom1 and the cows prefer it1 which is by no means an unimportant consideration1 since their tastes should always be consulted4 ,grass cut somewhat green1 and properly cured1 is next to fresh1 green grass in palatable1 nutritive qualities4 ,every farmer knows the milk-producing properties of rowen1 or second crop1 which is generally cut before it ripens4 ,no operation on the farm is of greater importance to the dairyman than the cutting of his grass and the manner of curing hay2 and in this respect the practice over the country generally is susceptible of very marked improvement4 ,the chief object is to preserve the sweetness and succulence of the grass in its natural state1 so far as possible2 and this object cannot be attained by exposing it too long to the scorching suns and drenching rains to which our climate is liable4 ,as a general thing1 farmers try to make their hay too much4 ,as to the best modes of curing clover1 the following1 among others1 is adopted by many successful farmers3 ,what is mown in the morning is left in the swath1 to be turned over early in the afternoon4 ,at about four o'clock1 or while it is still warm1 it is put into small cocks with a fork1 and1 if the weather is favorable1 it may be housed on the fourth or fifth day1 the cocks being turned over on the morning of the day in which it is to be carted4 ,by this method all the heads and leaves are saved1 and these are more valuable than the stems4 ,for new milch cows in winter scarcely any food is better4 ,it will cause them to give as great a flow of milk as any hay1 unless it be good rowen4 ,,indian ,,corn makes an exceedingly valuable fodder1 both as a means of carrying a herd of milch cows through our severe droughts of summer1 and as an article for soiling cows kept in the stall4 ,no dairy farmer will neglect to sow an extent in proportion to the number of cows which he keeps4 ,the most common practice is1 to sow in drills from two and a half to three feet apart1 on land well tilled and thoroughly manured1 making the drills from six to ten inches wide with the plough1 manuring in the furrow1 dropping the kernels about two inches apart1 and covering with the hoe4 ,in this mode of culture1 the cultivator may be used between the rows when the corn is from six to twelve inches high1 and1 unless the ground is very weedy1 no other after culture is needed4 ,the first sowing usually takes place about the middle of ,may1 and this is succeeded by other sowings1 at intervals of a week or ten days1 till ,july1 in order to have a succession of green fodder2 but1 if it is designed to cut it up to cure for winter use1 an early sowing is generally preferred1 in order to be able to cure it in warm weather1 in ,august or early in ,september4 ,sown in this way1 about three or four bushels of corn are required for an acre2 since1 if sown thickly1 the fodder is better1 the stalks smaller1 and the waste less4 ,the chief difficulty in curing corn cultivated for this purpose1 and after the methods just spoken of1 arises from the fact that it comes at a season when the weather is often colder1 the days shorter1 and the dews heavier1 than when the curing of hay takes place4 ,nor is the curing of corn cut up green so easy and simple as that of the drying of stalks of ,indian corn cut above the ear1 as in the common practice of topping4 ,the plant is then riper1 less juicy1 and cures more readily4 ,the method sometimes adopted is to cut and tie into small bundles1 after it is somewhat wilted1 and then to stook upon the ground1 where it is allowed to stand1 subject to all the changes of weather1 with only the protection of the stook itself4 ,the stooks consist of bunches of stalks first bound into small bundles1 and are made sufficiently large to prevent the wind from blowing them over4 ,the arms are thrown around the tops to bring them as closely together as possible1 when the tops are broken over or twisted together1 or otherwise fastened1 in order to make the stook shed the rain as well as possible4 ,in this condition they remain out until they are sufficiently dried to be put in the barn4 ,corn fodder is very excellent for young dairy stock4 ,,common ,,millet is another very valuable crop for fodder in soiling1 or to cure for winter use1 but especially to feed out during the usual season of drought4 ,many varieties of millet are cultivated in this country1 the ground being prepared and treated as for oats4 ,if designed to cut for green fodder1 half a bushel of seed to the acre should be used2 if to ripen seed1 twelve quarts1 sown broadcast1 about the last of ,may or early in ,june4 ,a moist loam or muck is the best soil adapted to millet2 but very great crops have been grown on dry upland4 ,it is very palatable and nutritious for milch cows1 both green and when properly cured4 ,the curing should be very much like that of clover1 care being taken not to over-dry it4 ,for fodder1 either green or cured1 it is cut before ripening4 ,in this state all cattle eat it as readily as green corn1 and a less extent will feed them4 ,millet is worthy of a widely-extended cultivation1 particularly on dairy farms4 ,indian millet is another cultivated variety4 ,,rye1 as a fodder plant1 is chiefly valuable for its early growth in spring4 ,it is usually sown in ,september or ,october--from the middle to the end of ,september being1 perhaps1 the most desirable time--on land previously cultivated and in good condition4 ,if designed to ripen only1 a bushel of seed is required to the acre1 evenly sown2 but1 if intended for early fodder in spring1 two or two and a half bushels of seed per acre should be used4 ,on warm land the rye can be cut green the last of ,april or the first of ,may4 ,care should be taken to cut early2 since1 if it is allowed to advance too far towards maturity1 the stalk becomes hard and unpalatable to cows4 ,,oats are also sometimes used for soiling1 or for feeding green1 to eke out a scanty supply of pasture feed2 and for this purpose they are valuable4 ,they should be sown on well-tilled and well-manured land1 about four bushels to the acre1 towards the last of ,april or the first of ,may4 ,if the whole crop is to be used as green fodder1 five bushels of seed will not be too much for good1 strong soil4 ,they will be sufficiently grown to cut by the first of ,july1 or in some sections earlier1 depending upon the location4 ,the ,,chinese ,,sugar-,,cane also may deserve attention as a fodder plant4 ,experiments thus far made would seem to show that when properly cultivated1 and cut at the right time1 it is a palatable and nutritious plant1 while many of the failures have been the result of too early cutting4 ,for a fodder crop the drill culture is preferable1 both on account of the larger yield obtained and because it is thus prevented from becoming too hard and stalky4 ,of the root crops the ,,potato is the first to be mentioned4 ,this produces a large quantity of milk1 though the quality is inferior4 ,the market value of this root is1 at times1 too great to allow of feeding extensively with it1 even in milk dairies1 where it is most valuable as a food for cows2 still1 there are locations where it may be judicious to cultivate this root for dairy feed1 and in all circumstances there is a certain portion of the crop of unmarketable size1 which will be of value fed to milch cows or swine4 ,it should be planted in ,april or ,may1 but in many sections in ,june1 on good mellow soil1 first thoroughly plowed and harrowed1 then furrowed three feet apart1 and manured in the furrows with a mixture of ashes1 plaster of ,paris1 and salt4 ,the seed may be dropped in the furrows1 one foot apart1 after the drill system--or in hills1 two and a half or three feet apart--to be covered with the plough by simply turning the furrows back1 after which the whole should be rolled with the field-roller1 when it can be done4 ,if the land is not already in good heart from continued cultivation1 a few loads of barnyard manure may be spread1 and plowed under1 by the first plowing4 ,used in this way it is far less liable to cause the rot1 than when it is put in the hill4 ,if a sufficient quantity of wood-ashes is not at hand1 sifted coal-ashes will answer the purpose1 and these are said to be valuable as a preventive of rot4 ,in this way1 one man1 two boys1 and a horse can plant from three to four acres a day on mellow land4 ,by another method two acres a day on the sod have been planted4 ,the manure is first spread upon the grass1 and then a furrow made by a yoke of oxen and one man1 another following after and dropping1 a foot apart1 along the outer edge of the furrow on the grass4 ,by quick work1 one hand can nearly keep up with the plow in dropping4 ,when arrived at the end of the piece1 a back furrow is turned up to the potatoes1 and a good plowman will cover nearly all without difficulty4 ,on the return furrow1 the man or boy who dropped follows after1 covering up any that may be left or displaced1 and smoothing off the top of the back-furrows when necessary4 ,potatoes thus planted have come out finely4 ,the cost of cultivation in this mode1 it must be evident1 is but trifling1 compared with the slower method of hand-planting4 ,it requires a skillful ploughman1 a quick1 active lad1 and a good yoke of oxen1 and the extent of the work will depend somewhat upon the state of the turf4 ,the nutritive equivalent for potatoes in a hundred pounds of good hay is #cai pounds2 that is1 it will take #c4ai pounds of potatoes to afford the same amount of nourishment as one pound of hay4 ,the great value of roots is as a change or condiment calculated to keep the animal in a healthy condition4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,west ,,highland ,,ox4 ,the ,,carrot is somewhat extensively fed1 and is a valuable root for milch cows4 ,this1 like the potato1 has been cultivated and improved from a wild plant4 ,carrots require a deep1 warm1 mellow soil1 thoroughly cultivated1 but clean1 and free from weed-seed4 ,the difference between a very good profit and a loss on the crop depends much upon the use of land and manures perfectly free from foul seeds of any kind4 ,ashes1 guano1 seaweed1 ground bones1 and other similar substances1 or thoroughly-rotted and fermented compost1 will answer the purpose4 ,after plowing deep1 and harrowing carefully1 the seed should be planted with a seed-sower1 in drills about eighteen inches apart1 at the rate of four pounds to the acre1 about the middle of ,may4 ,the difference between sowing on the fifteenth of ,may and on the tenth of ,june in ,new ,england is said to be nearly one-third in the crop on an average of years4 ,in weeding1 a little wheel hoe is invaluable1 as with it a large part of the labor of cultivation is saved4 ,a skillful hand can run this hoe within a half an inch of the young plants without injury1 and go over a large space in the course of a day1 if the land was properly prepared in the first place4 ,the ,american farmer should always plan to economize labor1 which is the great item of expense upon a farm4 ,by this is not meant that he should strive to shirk or avoid work1 but that he should make the least amount of work accomplish the greatest and most profitable results4 ,labor-saving machinery on the farm is applied1 not to reduce the number of hours of labor1 or to make the owner a man of leisure--who is1 generally1 the unhappiest man in the world--but to enable him to accomplish the greatest results in the same time that he would be compelled to obtain smaller ones4 ,carrots will continue to grow and increase in size late into the fall4 ,when ready to dig1 plow around as near to the outside rows as possible1 turning away the furrow from the row4 ,then take out the carrots1 pulling off the tops1 and throw the carrots and tops into separate heaps on the plowed furrows4 ,in this way a man and two boys can harvest and put into the cellar upwards of a hundred bushels a day4 ,the ,,turnip1 and the ,swedish turnip1 or ruta baga1 are also largely cultivated as a field crop to feed to stock2 and for this purpose almost numberless varieties are used1 furnishing a great amount of succulent and nutritious food1 late into winter1 and1 if well-kept1 late into spring4 ,the chief objection to the turnip is1 that it taints the milk4 ,this may be remedied--to a considerable extent1 if not wholly--by the use of salt1 or salt hay1 and by feeding at the time of milking1 or immediately after1 or by steaming before feeding1 or putting a small quantity of the solution of nitre into the pail1 and milking upon it4 ,turnips may be sown any time in ,june1 in rich land1 well mellowed by cultivation4 ,very large crops are obtained1 sown as late as the middle of ,july1 or the first of ,august1 on an inverted sod4 ,the ,michigan1 or double-mould-board plow leaves the land light1 and in admirable condition to harrow1 and drill in turnips4 ,in one instance1 a successful root-grower cut two tons of hay to the acre1 on the twenty-third of ,june1 and after it was removed from the land spread eight cords of rotten kelp to the acre1 and plowed in2 after which about three cords of fine old compost manure were used to the acre1 which was sown with ruta baga seed1 in drills1 three feet apart1 plants thinned to eight or ten inches in the drill4 ,no after cultivation was required4 ,on the fifteenth of ,november he harvested three hundred and seventy bushels of splendid roots to the acre1 carefully measured off4 ,the nutritive equivalent of ,swedish turnips as compared with good meadow hay is #fgf1 taking hay as a standard at #ajj2 that is1 it would require #f4gf pounds of turnips to furnish the same nutriment as one pound of good hay2 but fed in connection with other food--as hay1 for example--perhaps five pounds of turnips would be about equal to one pound of hay4 ,the ,english or round turnip is usually sown broadcast after some other crop1 and large and valuable returns are often obtained4 ,the ,swede is sown in drills4 ,both of these varieties are used for the production of milk4 ,the chief objection to the turnip crop is that it leaves many kinds of soil unfit for a succession of some other crops1 like ,indian corn1 for instance4 ,in some sections1 no amount of manuring appears to make corn do well after turnips or ruta bagas4 ,the ,,mangold ,,wurtzel1 a variety of the common beet1 is often cultivated in this country with great success1 and fed to cows with advantage1 furnishing a succulent and nutritive food in winter and spring4 ,the crop is somewhat uncertain4 ,when it does well1 an enormous yield is often obtained2 but1 not rarely1 it proves a failure1 and is not1 on the whole1 quite as reliable as the ruta baga1 though a more valuable crop when the yield is good4 ,it is cultivated like the common beet in moist1 rich soils2 three pounds of seed to the acre ,the leaves may be stripped off1 towards fall1 and fed out1 without injury to the growth of the root4 ,both mangolds and turnips should be cut with a root-cutter1 before being fed out4 ,the ,,parsnip is a very sweet and nutritious article of fodder1 and adds richness and flavor to the milk4 ,it is worthy of extended culture in all parts of the country where dairy husbandry is pursued4 ,it is a biennial1 easily raised on deep1 rich1 well-cultivated and well-manured soils1 often yielding enormous crops1 and possessing the decided advantage of withstanding the severest winters4 ,as an article of spring feeding1 therefore1 it is exceedingly valuable4 ,sown in ,april or ,may1 it attains a large growth before winter4 ,then1 if desirable1 a part of the crop may be harvested for winter use1 and the remainder left in the ground till the frost is out1 in ,march or ,april1 when they can be dug as wanted1 and are exceedingly relished by milch cows and stock of all kinds4 ,they make an admirable feed at the time of milking1 and produce the richest cream1 and the yellowest and finest-flavored butter1 of any roots used among us4 ,the best dairy farmers on the ,island of ,jersey often feed to their cows from thirty to thirty-five pounds of parsnips a day1 in addition to hay or grass4 ,both practical experiment and scientific analysis prove this root to be eminently adapted to dairy stock1 where the richness of milk or fine-flavored butter is any object4 ,for mere milk-dairies1 it is not quite so valuable1 probably1 as the ,swedish turnip4 ,the culture is similar to that of carrots1 a rich1 mellow1 and deep loam being best2 while it has a great advantage over the carrot in being more hardy1 and rather less liable to injury from insects1 and more nutritive4 ,for feeding and fattening stock it is eminently adapted4 ,to be sure of a crop1 fresh seed must be had1 as it cannot be depended on for more than one year4 ,for this reason the largest and straightest roots should be allowed to stand for seed1 which1 as soon as nearly ripe1 should be taken out and spread out to dry1 and carefully kept for use4 ,for field culture1 the hollow-crowned parsnip is the best and most profitable2 but on thin1 shallow soils the turnip-rooted variety should be used4 ,parsnips may be harvested like carrots1 by plowing along the rows4 ,let butter or cheese dairymen give this crop a fair and full trial1 and watch its effect in the quality of the milk and butter4 ,the ,,kohl ,,rabi is also cultivated to a considerable extent in this country for the purpose of feeding stock4 ,it is supposed to be a hybrid between the cabbage and the turnip and is often called the cabbage-turnip1 having the root of the former1 with a turnip-like or bulbous stem4 ,the special reason for its more extensive cultivation among us is its wonderful indifference to droughts1 in which it seems to flourish best1 and to bring forth the most luxuriant crops4 ,it also withstands the frosts remarkably1 being a hardy plant4 ,it yields a somewhat richer quality of milk than the ordinary turnip1 and the crop is generally admitted to be as abundant and profitable4 ,very large crops of it have been produced by the ordinary turnip or cabbage cultivation4 ,as in cabbage-culture1 it is best to sow the seed in ,march or ,april1 in a warm and well-enriched seed-bed2 from which it is transplanted in ,may1 and set out after the manner of cabbages in garden culture4 ,it bears transplanting better than most other roots4 ,insects injure it less than the turnip1 dry weather favors it1 and it keeps well through winter4 ,for these reasons1 it must be regarded as a valuable addition to our list of forage plants adapted to dairy farming4 ,it grows well on stronger soils than the turnip requires4 ,,linseed ,,meal is the ground cake of flaxseed after the oil is pressed out4 ,it is very rich in fat-forming principles1 and given to milch cows increases the quality of butter1 and keeps them in condition4 ,four or five pounds a day are sufficient for cows in milk1 and this amount will effect a great saving in the cost of other food1 and at the same time make a very rich milk4 ,it is extensively manufactured in this country1 and largely exported1 but it is worthy of more general use here4 ,it must not be fed in too large quantities to milch cows1 for it would be liable to give too great a tendency to fat1 and thus affect the quantity of the milk4 ,,cotton-,,seed ,,meal is an article of comparatively recent introduction4 ,it is obtained by pressing the seed of the cotton-plant1 which extracts the oil1 when the cake is crushed or ground into meal1 which has been found to be a very valuable article for feeding stock4 ,from analysis it is shown to be equal or superior to linseed meal4 ,practical experiments only are needed to establish it4 ,it can be procured in market at a reasonable price4 ,the ,,manures used in this country for the culture of the above named plants are mostly such as are made on the farm1 consisting chiefly of barnyard composts of various kinds1 with often a large admixture of peat-mud4 ,there are few farms that do not contain substances1 which1 if properly husbanded1 would add very greatly to the amount of manure ordinarily made4 ,the best of the concentrated manures1 which it is sometimes necessary to use1 for want of time and labor to prepare enough upon the farm1 is1 unquestionably1 ,peruvian guano4 ,the results of this1 when properly applied1 are well known and reliable1 which can hardly be said of any other artificial manure offered for the farmer's notice4 ,the chief objection to depending upon manures made off the farm is1 in the first place1 their great expense2 and in the second--which is equally important--the fact1 that1 though they may be made valuable1 and produce at one time the best results1 a want of care in the manufacture1 or designed fraud1 may make them almost worthless1 with the impossibility of detecting the imposition1 without a chemical analysis1 till it becomes too late1 and the crop is lost4 ,it is1 therefore1 safest to rely mainly upon the home manufacture of manure4 ,the extra expense of soiling cattle1 saving and applying the liquid manure1 and thus bringing the land to a higher state of cultivation1 when it will be capable of keeping more stock and furnishing more manure1 would offer a surer road to success than a constant outlay for concentrated fertilizers4 ,,the ,,barn4 ,the farm barn1 next to the farm house1 is the most important structure of the farm itself1 in the ,northern and ,middle ,states2 and even at the ,south and ,southwest1 where barns are less used1 they are of more importance in the economy of farm management than is generally understood4 ,indeed1 to the eyes of a person of taste1 a farm or plantation appears incomplete1 without good barn accommodations1 as much as without good household appointments--and without them1 no agricultural establishment can be complete in all its proper economy4 ,the most thorough barn structures1 perhaps1 to be seen in the ,united ,states1 are those of the ,state of ,pennsylvania1 built by the ,german farmers of the lower and central counties4 ,they are large1 and expensive in their construction2 and1 in a strictly economical point of view1 are1 perhaps1 more costly than is required4 ,yet1 there is a substantial durability about them1 that is exceedingly satisfactory1 and1 where the pecuniary ability of the farmer will admit1 they may well furnish models for imitation4 ,in the structure of the barn1 and in its interior accommodation1 much will depend upon the branches of agriculture to which the farm is devoted4 ,a farm cultivated in grain chiefly requires but little room for stabling purposes4 ,storage for grain in the sheaf1 and granaries1 will require its room2 while a stock farm requires a barn with extensive hay storage1 and stables for its cattle1 horses1 and sheep1 in all climates which do not admit of such stocks living through the winter in the field1 as is the case in the great grazing districts west of the ,alleghanies4 ,again1 there are wide districts of country where a mixed husbandry of grain and stock is pursued1 which require barns and outbuildings accommodating both4 ,it may be well here to remark that many designers of barns1 sheds1 and other outbuildings for the accommodation of farm stock1 have indulged in fanciful arrangements for the comfort and convenience of animals1 which are so complicated that when constructed1 as they sometimes are1 the practical1 common-sense farmer will not use them2 and by reason of the learning which is required for their use1 they are altogether unsuitable for the treatment and use which they generally receive from those who have the daily care of the stock for which they are intended1 and for the rough usage which they experience from the animals themselves4 ,a very pretty and plausible arrangement of stabling1 feeding1 and all the other requirements of a barn establishment may be thus got up by an ingenious theorist at the fireside1 which will work charmingly as he dilates upon its good qualities1 untried2 but1 which1 when subjected to experiment1 will be utterly worthless for practical use4 ,there can be no doubt that the simplest plan of construction1 consistent with an economical expenditure of the material of food for the consumption of stock1 is by far the most preferable4 ,another item to be considered in this connection1 is the comparative value of the stock1 the forage fed to them1 and the labor expended in feeding and taking care of them4 ,to illustrate3 ,suppose a farm to lie in the vicinity of a large town or city4 ,its value is1 perhaps1 a hundred dollars an acre4 ,the hay cut upon it is worth fifteen dollars a ton1 at the barn1 and straw and coarse grains in proportion1 and hired labor ten or twelve dollars a month4 ,consequently1 the manager of this farm should use all the economy in his power1 by the aid of cutting-boxes and other machinery1 to make the least amount of forage supply the wants of his stock2 and the internal economy of his barn should be arranged accordingly1 since labor is his cheapest item1 and food his dearest4 ,therefore1 any contrivance by which to work up his forage the closest--by way of machinery1 or manual labor--so that it shall serve the purposes of keeping his stock1 is true economy2 and the making and saving of manures are items of the first importance4 ,his buildings and their arrangements throughout should1 for these reasons1 be constructed in accordance with his practice4 ,if1 on the other hand1 lands are cheap and productive1 and labor comparatively dear1 a different practice will prevail4 ,the farmer will feed his hay from the mow without cutting4 ,the straw will be stacked out1 and the cattle turned to it1 to pick what they like of it1 and make their beds of the remainder2 or1 if it is housed1 he will throw it into racks1 and the stock may eat what they choose4 ,to do this requires but one-third1 or one-half of the labor which is required by the other mode1 and the saving in this makes up1 and perhaps more than makes up1 for the increased quantity of forage consumed4 ,again1 climate may equally affect the mode of winter-feeding the stock4 ,the winters may be mild4 ,the hay may be stacked in the fields when gathered1 or put into small barns built for hay storage alone2 and the manure1 scattered over the fields by the cattle1 as they are fed from either of them1 may be knocked to pieces with the dung-beetle1 in the spring1 or harrowed and bushed over the ground2 and with the very small quantity of labor required in all this1 such practice will be more economical than any other which can be adopted4 ,in latitudes1 however1 in which it becomes necessary to stall-feed during several months of the year1 barns are indispensable4 ,these should be warm1 and at the same time well ventilated4 ,the barn should be arranged in a manner suitable to keeping hay and other fodder dry and sweet1 and with reference to the comfort and health of the animals1 and the economy of labor and manure4 ,the size and finish will1 of course1 depend on the wants and means of the farmer or dairyman2 but many little conveniences1 it should not be forgotten1 can be added at comparatively trifling cost4 ,the accompanying cut of a barn is given merely as an illustration of a convenient arrangement for a medium-sized dairy1 and not as being adapted to all circumstances or situations4 ,this barn is supposed to stand upon a side-hill or an inclined surface1 where it is easy to have a cellar1 if desired2 and the cattle-room1 as shown in the cut1 is in the second story1 or directly over the cellar1 the bottom of which should be somewhat dished1 or lower in the middle than around the outer sides1 and carefully paved1 or laid in cement4 ,illustration3 ,,barn ,,for ,,thirty-,,four ,,cows ,,and ,,three ,,yoke ,,of ,,oxen4 ,on the outside is represented an open shed1 m1 for carts and wagons to remain under cover1 thirty feet by fifteen1 while l l l l l l are bins for vegetables1 to be filled through scuttles from the floor of the story above1 and surrounded by solid walls4 ,the area of this whole floor equals one hundred feet by fifty-seven4 k1 is an open space1 nearly on a level with the cow-chamber1 through the door p4 s1 stairs to the third story and to the cellar1 d d d1 passage next to the walls1 five feet wide1 and nine inches above the dung-pit4 e e e1 dung-pit1 two feet wide1 and seven inches below the floor where the cattle stand4 ,the manure drops from this pit into the cellar below1 five feet from the walls1 and quite around the cellar4 c c c1 plank floor for cows1 four feet six inches long4 b b b1 stalls for three yoke of oxen1 on a platform five feet six inches long1 n n1 calf-pens1 which may also be used for cows in calving4 r r1 feeding-troughs for calves4 ,the feeding-boxes are made in the form of trays1 with partitions between them4 ,water comes in by a pipe1 to cistern a4 ,this cistern is regulated by a cock and ball1 and the water flows by dotted lines1 o o o1 to the boxes2 each box being connected by lead pipes well secured from frost1 so that1 if desired1 each animal can be watered without leaving the stall1 or water can be kept constantly before it4 ,a scuttle1 through which sweepings and refuse may be put into the cellar1 is seen at f4 g is a bin receiving cut hay from the third story1 or hay-room1 h h h h h h1 bins for grain-feed4 i is a tunnel to conduct manure or muck from the hay-floor to the cellar4 j j1 sliding-doors on wheels4 ,the cows all face toward the open area in the centre4 ,this cow-room may be furnished with a thermometer1 clock1 etc41 and should always be well ventilated by sliding windows1 which at the same time admit the light4 ,the next cut is a transverse section of the same cow-room2 a being a walk behind the cows1 five feet wide2 b1 dung-pit2 c1 cattle-stand2 d1 feeding-trough1 with a bottom on a level with the platform where the cattle stand2 k1 open area1 forty-three feet1 by fifty-six4 ,illustration3 ,,transverse ,,section4 ,the story above the cow-room--as represented in the next cut--is one hundred feet by forty-two2 the bays for hay1 ten on each side1 being ten feet front and fifteen feet deep2 and the open space1 p1 for the entrance of wagons1 carts1 etc41 twelve feet wide4 b1 hay-scales4 c1 scale beam4 m m m m m m1 ladders reaching almost to the roof4 l l l1 etc41 scuttle-holes for sending vegetables directly to the bins1 l l l1 etc41 below4 a a b b1 rooms on the corners for storage4 d1 scuttles2 four of which are used for straw1 one for cut hay1 and one for muck for the cellar4 n and the other small squares are eighteen-feet posts4 f1 passage to the tool-house1 a room one hundred feet long by eighteen wide4 o1 stairs leading to the scaffold in the roof of the tool-house4 i i1 benches4 g1 floor4 h1 boxes for hoes1 shovels1 spades1 picks1 iron bars1 old iron1 etc4 j j j1 bins for fruit4 k1 scuttles to put apples into wagons1 etc41 in the shed below4 ,one side of this tool-house may be used for plows and large implements1 hay-rigging1 harness1 etc4 ,proper ventilation of the cellar and the cow-room avoids the objection that the hay is liable to injury from noxious gases4 ,illustration3 ,,room ,,over ,,the ,,cow-,,room4 ,the excellent manure-cellar beneath this barn extends only under the cow-room4 ,it has a drive-way through doors on each side4 ,no barn-cellar should be kept shut up tight1 even in cold weather4 ,the gases are constantly escaping from the manure1 unless held by absorbents1 which are liable not only to affect the health of the stock1 but also to injure the quality of the hay4 ,to prevent this1 while securing the important advantages of a manure-cellar1 the barn may be furnished with good-sized ventilators on the top1 for every twenty-five feet of its length1 and with wooden tubes leading from the cellar to the top4 ,there should also be windows on different sides of the cellar to admit the free circulation of air4 ,with these precautions1 together with the use of absorbents in the shape of loam and muck1 there will be no danger of rotting the timbers of the barn1 or of risking the health of the cattle or the quality of the hay4 ,the temperature at which the cow-room should be kept is somewhere from fifty to sixty degrees1 ,fahrenheit4 ,the practice and the opinions of successful dairymen differ somewhat on this point4 ,too great heat would affect the health and appetite of the herd2 while too low a temperature is equally objectionable1 for various reasons4 ,the most economical plan for room in tying cattle in their stalls1 is to fasten the rope or chain1 whichever is used--the wooden stanchion1 or stanchel1 as it is called1 to open and shut1 enclosing the animal by the neck1 being objectionable--into a ring1 which is secured by a strong staple into a post4 ,this prevents the cattle from interfering with each other1 while a partition effectually prevents any contact from the animals on each side of it1 in the separate stalls4 ,there is no greater benefit for cattle1 after coming into winter-quarters1 than a systematic regularity in every thing pertaining to them4 ,every animal should have its own particular stall in the stable1 where it should always be kept4 ,the cattle should be fed and watered at certain fixed hours of the day1 as near as may be4 ,if let out of the stables for water1 unless the weather is very pleasant--when they may be permitted to lie out for a short time--they should be immediately put back1 and not allowed to range about with the outside cattle4 ,they are more quiet and contented in their stables than elsewhere1 and waste less food than if permitted to run out2 besides being in every way more comfortable1 if properly bedded and attended to1 as every one will find upon trial4 ,the habit which many farmers have1 of turning their cattle out of the stables in the morning1 in all weathers--letting them range about in a cold yard1 hooking and annoying each other--is of no possible benefit1 unless it be to rid them of the trouble of cleaning the stables1 which pays more than twice its cost in the saving of manure4 ,the outside cattle1 which occupy the yard--if there are any--are all the better that the stabled ones do not interfere with them4 ,they become habituated to their own quarters1 as do the others1 and all are better for being1 respectively1 in their proper places4 ,,milking4 ,the manner of milking exerts a more powerful and lasting influence on the productiveness of the cow than most farmers are aware4 ,that a slow and careless milker soon dries up the best of cows1 every practical farmer and dairyman knows2 but a careful examination of the beautiful structure of the udder will serve further to explain the proper mode of milking1 in order to obtain and keep up the largest yield4 ,the udder of a cow consists of four glands1 disconnected from each other1 but all contained within one bag or cellular membrane2 and these glands are uniform in structure4 ,each gland consists of three parts3 the glandular1 or secreting part1 tubular or conducting part1 and the teats1 or receptacle1 or receiving part4 ,the glandular forms by far the largest portion of the udder4 ,it appears to the naked eye composed of a mass of yellowish grains2 but under the microscope these grains are found to consist entirely of minute blood-vessels forming a compact plexus1 or fold4 ,these vessels secrete the milk from the blood4 ,the milk is abstracted from the blood in the glandular part2 the tubes receive and deposit it in the reservoir1 or receptacle2 and the sphincter at the end of the teat retains it there until it is wanted for use4 ,this must not be understood1 however1 as asserting that all the milk drawn from the udder at one milking is contained in the receptacle4 ,the milk1 as it is secreted1 is conveyed to the receptacle1 and when that is full1 the larger tubes begin to be filled1 and next the smaller ones1 until the whole become gorged4 ,when this takes place1 the secretion of the milk ceases1 and absorption of the thinner or more watery part commences4 ,now1 as this absorption takes place more readily in the smaller or more distant tubes1 it is invariably found that the milk from these1 which comes last into the receptacle1 is much thicker and richer than what was first drawn off4 ,this milk has been significantly styled afterings1 or strippings2 and should this gorged state of the tubes be permitted to continue beyond a certain time1 serious mischief will sometimes occur2 the milk becomes too thick to flow through the tubes1 and soon produces1 first irritation1 then inflammation1 and lastly suppuration1 and the function of the gland is materially impaired or altogether destroyed4 ,hence the great importance of emptying these smaller tubes regularly and thoroughly1 not merely to prevent the occurrence of disease1 but actually to increase the quantity of milk2 for1 so long as the smaller tubes are kept free1 milk is constantly forming2 but whenever1 as has already been mentioned1 they become gorged1 the secretion of milk ceases until they are emptied4 ,the cow herself has no power over the sphincter at the end of her teat1 so as to open it1 and relieve the overcharged udder2 neither has she any power of retaining the milk collected in the reservoirs when the spasm of the sphincter is overcome4 ,thus is seen the necessity of drawing away the last drop of milk at every milking2 and the better milker the cow1 the more necessary this is4 ,what has been said demonstrates1 also1 the impropriety of holding the milk in cows until the udder is distended much beyond its ordinary size1 for the sake of showing its capacity for holding milk--a device to which many dealers in cows resort4 ,thus much of the internal structure of the udder4 ,its external form requires attention1 because it indicates different properties4 ,its form should be spheroidal1 large1 giving an idea of capaciousness2 the bag should have a soft1 fine skin1 and the hind part upward toward the tail be loose and elastic4 ,there should be fine1 long hairs scattered plentifully over the surface1 to keep it warm4 ,the teats should not seem to be contracted1 or funnel-shaped1 at the inset with the bag4 ,in the former state1 teats are very apt to become corded1 or spindled2 and in the latter1 too much milk will constantly be pressing on the lower tubes1 or receptacle4 ,they should drop naturally from the lower parts of the bag1 being neither too short1 small1 or dumpy1 or long1 flabby1 and thick1 but1 perhaps1 about three inches in length1 and so thick as just to fill the hand4 ,they should hang as if all the quarters of the udder were equal in size1 the front quarters projecting a little forward1 and the hind ones a little more dependent4 ,each quarter should contain about equal quantities of milk2 though1 in the belief of some1 the hind quarters contain rather the most4 ,largely developed milk-veins--as the subcutaneous veins along the under part of the abdomen are commonly called--are regarded as a source of milk4 ,this is a popular error1 for the milk-vein has no connection with the udder2 yet1 although the office of these is to convey the blood from the fore part of the chest and sides to the inguinal vein1 yet a large milk-vein certainly indicates a strongly developed vascular system--one favorable to secretions generally1 and to that of the milk among the rest4 ,milking is performed in two ways1 stripping and handling4 ,stripping consists in seizing the teat firmly near the root between the face of the thumb and the side of the fore-finger1 the length of the teat passing through the other fingers1 and in milking the hand passes down the entire length of the teat1 causing the milk to flow out of its point in a forcible stream4 ,the action is renewed by again quickly elevating the hand to the root of the teat4 ,both hands are employed at the operation1 each having hold of a different teat1 and being moved alternately4 ,the two nearest teats are commonly first milked1 and then the two farthest4 ,handling is done by grasping the teat at its root with the fore-finger like a hoop1 assisted by the thumb1 which lies horizontally over the fore-finger1 the rest being also seized by the other fingers4 ,milk is drawn by pressing upon the entire length of the teat in alternate jerks with the entire palm of the hand4 ,both hands being thus employed1 are made to press alternately1 but so quickly following each other that the alternate streams of milk sound to the ear like one forcible1 continued stream4 ,this continued stream is also produced by stripping4 ,stripping1 then1 is performed by pressing and passing certain fingers along the teat2 handling1 by the whole hand doubled1 or fist1 pressing the teat steadily at one place4 ,hence the origin of both names4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,preferable ,,method4 ,of these two modes1 handling is the preferable1 since it is the more natural method--imitating1 as it does1 the suckling of the calf4 ,when a calf takes a teat into its mouth1 it makes the tongue and palate by which it seizes it1 play upon the teat by alternate pressures or pulsations1 while retaining the teat in the same position4 ,it is thus obvious that handling is somewhat like sucking1 whereas stripping is not at all like it4 ,it is said that stripping is good for agitating the udder1 the agitation of which is conducive to the withdrawal of a large quantity of milk2 but there is nothing to prevent the agitation of the udder as much as the dairymaid pleases1 while holding in the other mode4 ,indeed1 a more constant vibration could be kept up in that way by the vibrations of the arms than by stripping4 ,stripping1 by using an unconstrained pressure on two sides of the teat1 is much more apt to press it unequally1 than by grasping the whole teat in the palm of the hand2 while the friction occasioned by passing the finger and thumb firmly over the outside of the teat1 is more likely to cause heat and irritation in it than a steady and full grasp of the entire hand4 ,to show that this friction causes an unpleasant feeling even to the dairymaid1 she is obliged to lubricate the teat frequently with milk1 and to wet it at first with water2 whereas the other mode requires no such expedients4 ,and as a further proof that stripping is a mode of milking which may give pain to the cow1 it cannot be employed1 when the teats are chapped1 with so much ease to the cow as handling4 ,the first requisite in the person that milks is1 of course1 the utmost cleanliness4 ,without this1 the milk is unendurable4 ,the udder should1 therefore1 be carefully cleaned before the milking commences4 ,milking should be done fast1 to draw away the milk as quickly as possible1 and it should be continued as long as there is a drop of milk to bring away4 ,this is an issue which cannot be attended to in too particular a manner4 ,if any milk is left1 it is re-absorbed into the system1 or else becomes caked1 and diminishes the tendency to secrete a full quantity afterward4 ,milking as dry as possible is especially necessary with young cows with their first calf2 as the mode of milking and the length of time to which they can be made to hold out1 will have very much to do with their milking qualities as long as they live4 ,old milk left in the receptacle of the teat soon changes into a curdy state1 and the caseous matter not being at once removed by the next milking1 is apt to irritate the lining membrane of the teat during the operation1 especially when the teat is forcibly rubbed down between the finger and thumb in stripping4 ,the consequence of this repeated irritation is the thickening of the lining membrane1 which at length becomes so hardened as to close up the orifice at the end of the teat4 ,the hardened membrane may be easily felt from the outside of the teat1 when the teat is said to be corded4 ,after this the teat becomes deaf1 as it is called1 and no more milk can afterward be drawn from the quarter of the udder to which the corded teat is attached4 ,the milking-pail is of various forms and of various materials4 ,the ,dutch use brass ones1 which are brilliantly scoured every time they are in use4 ,tin pitchers are used in some places1 while pails of wood in cooper-work are employed in others4 ,a pail of oak1 having thin staves bound together by bright iron hoops1 with a handle formed by a stave projecting upward1 is convenient for the purpose1 and may be kept clean and sweet4 ,one nine inches in diameter at the bottom1 eleven inches at the top1 and ten inches deep1 with an upright handle or leg of five inches1 has a capacious enough mouth to receive the milk as it descends2 and a sufficient height1 when standing on the edge of its bottom on the ground1 to allow the dairymaid to grasp it firmly with her knees while sitting on a small three-legged stool4 ,of course1 such a pail cannot be milked full2 but it should be large enough to contain all the milk which a single cow can give at a milking2 because it is undesirable to rise from a cow before the milking is finished1 or to exchange one dish for another while the milking is in progress4 ,the cow being a sensitive and capricious creature1 is1 oftentimes so easily offended that if the maid rise from her before the milk is all withdrawn1 the chances are that she will not again stand quietly at that milking2 or1 if the vessel used in milking is taken away and another substituted in its place1 before the milking is finished1 the probability is that she will hold her milk--that is1 not allow it to flow4 ,this is a curious property which cows possess1 of holding up or keeping back their milk4 ,how it is effected has never been satisfactorily ascertained2 but there is no doubt of the fact that when a cow becomes irritated1 or frightened from any cause1 she can withhold her milk4 ,of course1 all cows are not affected in the same degree2 but1 as a proof how sensitive cows generally are1 it may be mentioned that very few will be milked so freely by a stranger the first time1 as by one to whom they have been accustomed4 ,there is one side of a cow which is usually called the milking side--that is the cow's left side--because1 somehow custom has established the practice of milking her from that side4 ,it may have been adopted for two reasons3 one1 because we are accustomed to approach all the larger domesticated animals by what we call the near side--that is1 the animal's left side--as being the most convenient one for ourselves2 and the other reason may have been1 that1 as most people are right-handed1 and the common use of the right hand has made it the stronger1 it is most conveniently employed in milking the hinder teats of the cow1 which are often most difficult to reach on account of the position of the hind legs and the length of the hinder teats1 or of the breadth of the hinder part of the udder4 ,the near side is most commonly used in this country and in ,scotland2 but in many parts of ,england the other side is preferred4 ,whichever side is selected1 that should uniformly be used1 as cows are very sensitive to changes4 ,in ,scotland it is a rare thing to see a cow milked by any other person than a woman1 though men are very commonly employed at it in this country and in ,england4 ,one never sees a man milking a cow without being impressed with the idea that he is usurping an office which does not become him2 and the same thought seems to be conveyed in the terms usually applied to the person connected with cows--a dairy-maid implying one who milks cows1 as well as performs the other duties connected with the dairy--a dairy-man meaning one who owns a dairy4 ,there can be but little question that the charge of this branch of the dairy should generally be entrusted to women4 ,they are more gentle and winning than men4 ,the same person should milk the same cow regularly1 and not change from one to another1 unless there are special reasons for it4 ,cows are easily rendered troublesome on being milked2 and the kicks and knocks which they usually receive for their restlessness1 only render them more fretful4 ,if they cannot be overcome by kindness1 thumps will never make them better4 ,the truth is1 restless habits are continued in them by the treatment which they receive at first1 when1 most probably1 they have been dragooned into submission4 ,their teats are tender at first2 but an unfeeling1 horny hand tugs at them at stripping1 as if the animal had been accustomed to the operation for years4 ,can the creature be otherwise than uneasy8 ,and how can she escape the wincing but by flinging out her heels8--,then hopples are placed on the hind fetlocks1 to keep her heels down4 ,the tail must then be held by some one1 while the milking is going on2 or the hair of its tuft be converted into a double cord1 to tie the tail to the animal's leg4 ,add to this the many threats and scoldings uttered by the milker1 and one gets a not very exaggerated impression of the breaking-in4 ,some cows1 no doubt1 are very unaccomodating and provoking2 but1 nevertheless1 nothing but a rational course toward them1 administered with gentleness1 will ever render them less so4 ,there are cows which are troublesome to milk for a few times after calving1 that become quite quiet for the remainder of the season2 others will kick pertinaciously at the first milking4 ,in this last case the safest plan--instead of hoppling1 which only irritates--is for the dairymaid to thrust her head against the flank of the cow1 and while standing on her feet1 stretch her hands forward1 get hold of the teats the best way she can1 and send the milk on the ground2 and in this position it is out of the power of the cow to hurt her4 ,these ebullitions of feeling at the first milking after calving1 arise either from feeling pain in a tender state of the teat1 most probably from inflammation in the lining membrane of the receptacle2 or they may arise from titillation of the skin of the udder and teat1 which becomes the more sensible to the affection from a heat which is wearing off4 ,at the age of two or three years the milking glands have not become fully developed1 and their largest development will depend very greatly upon the management after the first calf4 ,cows should have1 therefore1 the most milk-producing food2 be treated with constant gentleness2 never struck1 or spoken harshly to1 but coaxed and caressed2 and in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred1 they will grow up gentle and quiet4 ,the hundredth had better be fatted and sent to the butcher4 ,harshness is worse than useless4 ,be the cause of irritation what it may1 one thing is certain1 that gentle discipline will overcome the most turbulent temper4 ,nothing does so much to dry a cow up1 especially a young cow1 as the senseless treatment to which she is too often subjected4 ,the longer the young cow1 with her first and second calf1 is made to hold out1 the more surely will this habit be fixed upon her4 ,stop milking her four months before the next calf1 and it will be difficult to make her hold out to within four or six weeks of the time of calving afterward4 ,induce her1 if possible1 by moist and succulent food1 and by careful milking1 to hold out even up to the time of calving1 if you desire to milk her so long1 and this habit will be likely to be fixed upon her for life4 ,but do not expect to obtain the full yield of a cow the first year after calving4 ,some of the very best cows are slow to develop their best qualities2 and no cow reaches her prime till the age of five or six years4 ,the extreme importance of care and attention to these points cannot be overestimated4 ,the wild cows grazing on the plains of ,south ,america1 are said to give not more than three or four quarts a day at the height of the flow2 and many an owner of large herds in ,texas1 it is said1 has too little milk for family use1 and sometimes receives his supply of butter from the ,new ,york market4 ,there is1 therefore1 a constant tendency in milch cows to dry up2 and it must be guarded against with special care1 till the habit of yielding a large quantity1 and yielding it long1 becomes fixed in the young animal1 when1 with proper care1 it may easily be kept up4 ,cows1 independently of their power to retain their milk in the udder1 afford different degrees of pleasure in milking them1 even in the quietest mood4 ,some yield their milk in a copious flow1 with the gentlest handling that can be given them2 others require great exertion to draw the milk from them even in streams no larger than a thread4 ,the udder of the former will be found to have a soft skin and short teats2 that of the latter will have a thick skin1 with long rough teats4 ,the one feels like velvet2 the other is no more pleasant to the touch than untanned leather4 ,to induce quiet and persuade the animal to give down her milk freely1 it is better that she should be fed at milking-time with cut feed1 or roots1 placed within her easy reach4 ,if gentle and mild treatment is observed and persevered in1 the operation of milking1 as a general thing1 appears to be a pleasure to the animal1 as it undoubtedly is2 but1 if an opposite course is pursued--if at every restless movement1 caused1 perhaps1 by pressing a sore teat1 the animal is harshly spoken to--she will be likely to learn to kick as a habit1 and it will be difficult to overcome it ever afterward4 ,whatever may be the practice on other occasions1 there can be no doubt that1 for some weeks after calving1 and in the height of the flow1 cows ought1 if possible1 to be milked regularly three times a day--at early morning1 noon1 and night4 ,every practical dairyman knows that cows thus milked give a larger quantity of milk than if milked only twice1 though it may not be quite so rich2 and in young cows1 no doubt1 it has a tendency to promote the development of the udder and milk-veins4 ,a frequent milking stimulates an increased secretion1 therefore1 and ought never to be neglected in the milk-dairy1 either in the case of young cows1 or very large milkers1 at the height of the flow1 which will commonly be for two or three months after calving4 ,there being a great difference in the quality as well as in the quantity of the milk of different cows1 no dairyman should neglect to test the milk of each new addition to his dairy stock1 whether it be an animal of his own raising or one brought from abroad4 ,a lactometer--or instrument for testing the comparative richness of different species of milk--is very convenient for this purpose2 but any one can set the milk of each cow separately at first1 and give it a thorough trial1 when the difference will be found to be great4 ,economy will dictate that the cows least to the purpose should be disposed of1 and their places supplied with better ones4 ,,the ,,raising ,,of ,,calves4 ,it has been found in practice that calves properly bred and raised on the farm have a far greater intrinsic value for that farm1 other things being equal1 than any that can be procured elsewhere2 while on the manner in which they are raised will depend much of their future usefulness and profit4 ,these considerations should have their proper weight in deciding whether a promising calf from a good cow and bull shall be kept1 or sold to the butcher4 ,but1 rather than raise a calf at hap-hazard1 and simply because its dam was celebrated as a milker1 the judicious farmer will prefer to judge of the peculiar characteristics of the animal itself4 ,this will often save the great and useless outlay which has sometimes been incurred in raising calves for dairy purposes1 which a more careful examination would have rejected as unpromising4 ,illustration3 ,,maternal ,,affection4 ,the method of judging stock which has been recommended in the previous pages is of practical utility here1 and it is safer to rely upon it to some extent1 particularly when other appearances concur1 than to go on blindly4 ,the milk-mirror on the calf is1 indeed1 small1 but no smaller in proportion to its size than that of the cow2 while its shape and form can generally be distinctly seen1 particularly at the end of ten or twelve weeks4 ,the development of the udder1 and other peculiarities1 will give some indication of the future capacities of the animal1 and these should be carefully studied4 ,if we except the manure of young stock1 the calf is the first product of the cow1 and as such demands our attention1 whether it is to be raised or hurried off to the shambles4 ,the practice adopted in raising calves differs widely in different sections of the country1 being governed very much by local circumstances1 as the vicinity of a milk-market1 the value of milk for the dairy1 the object of breeding1 whether mainly for beef1 for work1 or for the dairy1 etc42 but1 in general1 it may be said1 that1 within the range of thirty or forty miles of good veal-markets1 which large towns furnish1 comparatively few are raised at all4 ,most of them are fattened and sold at ages varying from three to eight or ten weeks2 and in milk-dairies still nearer large towns and cities they are often hurried off at one or two days1 or1 at most1 a week old4 ,in both of these cases1 as long as the calf is kept it is generally allowed to suck the cow1 and1 as the treatment is very simple1 there is nothing which particularly calls for remark1 unless it be to condemn the practice entirely1 upon the ground that there is a more profitable way of fattening calves for the butcher1 and to say that allowing the calf to suck the cow at all is objectionable on the score of economy1 except in cases where it is rendered necessary by the hard and swollen condition of the udder4 ,if the calf is so soon to be taken away1 it is better that the cow should not be suffered to become attached to it at all3 since she is inclined to withhold her milk when it is removed1 and thus a loss is sustained4 ,the farmer will be governed by the question of profit1 whatever course it is decided to adopt4 ,in raising blood-stock1 however1 or in raising beef cattle1 without any regard to economy of milk1 the system of suckling the calves1 or letting them run with the cow1 may and will be adopted1 since it is usually attended with somewhat less labor4 ,the other course1 which is regarded as the best where the calf is to be raised for the dairy1 is to bring it up by hand4 ,this is almost universally done in all countries where the raising of dairy cows is best understood--in ,switzerland1 ,holland1 some parts of ,germany1 and ,england4 ,it requires rather more care1 on the whole2 but it is decidedly preferable1 since the calves cost less1 as the food can be easily modified1 and the growth is not checked1 as is usually the case when the calf is taken off from the cow4 ,allusion is here made1 of course1 to sections where the milk of the cow is of some account for the dairy1 and where it is too valuable to be devoted entirely to nourishing the calf4 ,in this case1 as soon as the calf is dropped the cow is allowed to lick off the slimy moisture till it is dry1 which she will generally do from instinct1 or1 if not1 a slight sprinkling of salt over the body of the calf will immediately tempt her4 ,the calf is left to suck once or twice1 which it will do as soon as it is able to stand4 ,it should1 in all cases1 be permitted to have the first milk which comes from the cow1 which is of a turbid1 yellowish color1 unfit for any of the purposes of the dairy1 but somewhat purgative and medicinal1 and admirably and wisely designed by ,nature to free the bowels and intestines of the new-born animal from the mucous1 excrementitious matter always existing in it after birth4 ,too much of this new milk may1 however1 be hurtful even to the new-born calf1 while it should never be given at all to older calves4 ,the best course would seem to be--and such is in accordance with the experience of the most successful stock-raisers--to milk the cow dry immediately after the calf has sucked once1 especially if the udder is painfully distended1 which is often the case1 and to leave the calf with the cow during one day1 and after that to feed it by putting the fingers into its mouth1 and gently bringing its muzzle down to the milk in a pail or trough when it will imbibe in sucking the fingers4 ,no great difficulty will be experienced in teaching the calf to drink when taken so young1 though some take to it much more readily than others4 ,what the calf does not need should be given to the cow4 ,some1 however1 prefer to milk immediately after calving2 and1 if the udder is overloaded1 this may be the best course1 though the better practice appears to be1 to leave the cow as quietly to herself as possible for a few hours4 ,the less she is disturbed1 as a general thing1 the better4 ,the after-birth should be taken from her immediately after it is dropped4 ,it is customary to give the cow1 as soon as convenient after calving1 some warm and stimulating drink--a little meal stirred into warm water1 with a part of the first milk which comes from her1 seasoned with a little salt4 ,in many cases the calf is taken from the cow immediately2 and before she has seen it1 to a warm1 dry pen out of her sight1 and there rubbed till it is thoroughly dry2 and then1 when able to stand1 fed with the new milk from the cow1 which it should have three or four times a day1 regularly1 for the first fortnight1 whatever course it is proposed to adopt afterwards4 ,it is of the greatest importance to give the young calf a thrifty start4 ,the milk1 unless coming directly from the cow1 should be warmed4 ,some object to removing the calf from the cow in this way1 on the ground of its apparent cruelty4 ,but the objection to letting the calf suck the cow for several days1 as they do1 or indeed of leaving it with the cow for any length of time1 is1 that she invariably becomes attached to it1 and frets and withholds her milk when it is at last taken from her4 ,she probably suffers much more1 after this attachment is once formed1 at the removal of the object of it1 than she does at its being taken at first out of her sight4 ,the cow's memory is far more retentive than many suppose2 and the loss and injury sustained by removing the calf after it has been allowed to suck her for a longer or shorter period are never known exactly1 because it is not usually known how much milk the calf takes2 but it is1 without doubt1 very considerable4 ,if the udder is all right1 there seems to be no good reason for leaving the calf with the cow for two or three days1 if it is then to be taken away4 ,the practice in ,holland is to remove the calf from its mother even before it has been licked1 and to take it into a corner of the barn1 or into another building1 out of the cow's sight and hearing1 put it on soft1 dry straw1 and rub it dry with some hay or straw1 when its tongue and gums are slightly rubbed with salt1 and the mucus and saliva removed from the nostrils and lips4 ,after this has been done1 the calf is made to drink the milk first taken as it comes from the mother4 ,it is slightly diluted with water1 if taken last from the udder2 but1 if the first of the milking1 it is given just as it is4 ,the calf is taught to drink in the same manner as in this country1 by putting the fingers in its mouth1 and bringing it down to the milk1 and it soon gets so as to drink unaided4 ,it is fed1 at first1 from four to six times a day1 or even oftener2 but soon only three times1 at regular intervals4 ,its food for two or three weeks is clear milk1 as it comes warm and fresh from the cow4 ,this is never omitted1 as the milk during most of that time possesses certain qualities which are necessary to the calf1 and which cannot be effectually supplied by any other food4 ,in the third or fourth week the milk is skimmed1 but warmed to the degree of fresh milk2 though1 as the calf grows a little older1 the milk is given cold1 while less care is taken to give it the milk of its own mother1 that of other cows now answering equally well4 ,in some places1 calves are fed on buttermilk at the age of two weeks and after2 but the change from new milk1 fresh from the cow1 is made gradually1 some sweet skimmed milk and warm water being first added to it4 ,at three weeks old1 or thereabouts1 the calf will begin to eat a little sweet1 fine hay1 and potatoes cut fine1 and it very soon becomes accustomed to this food4 ,many now begin to give linseed-meal mixed into hot water1 to which is added some skim-milk or buttermilk2 and others use a little bran cooked in hay-tea1 made by chopping the hay fine and pouring on boiling-hot water1 which is allowed to stand awhile on it4 ,an egg is frequently broken into such a mixture4 ,others still take pains at this age to have fresh linseed-cake1 broken into pieces of the size of a pigeon's egg2 putting one of these into the mouth after the meal of milk has been finished1 and when it is eager to suck at any thing in its way4 ,it will very soon learn to eat linseed-meal4 ,a little sweet clover is put in its way at the age of about three weeks1 and it will soon begin to eat that also4 ,in this manner the feeding is continued from the fourth to the seventh week1 the quantity of solid food being gradually increased4 ,in the sixth or seventh week the milk is by degrees withheld1 and water or buttermilk used instead2 and soon after this1 green food may be safely given1 increasing it gradually with the hay to the age of ten or twelve weeks1 when it will do to put them upon grass alone1 if the season is favorable4 ,a lot as near the house as possible1 where they can be easily looked after and frequently visited1 is the best4 ,calves should be gradually accustomed to all changes2 and even after having been turned out to pasture1 they ought to be put under shelter if the weather is not dry and warm4 ,the want of care and attention relative to these little details will be apparent sooner or later2 while1 if the farmer gives his personal attention to these matters1 he will be fully paid in the rapid growth of his calves4 ,it is especially necessary to see that the troughs from which they are fed1 if troughs are used1 are kept clean and sweet4 ,but there are some--even among intelligent farmers--who make a practice of turning their calves out to pasture at the tender age of two or three weeks--and that1 too1 when they have sucked the cow up to that time--and allow them nothing in the shape of milk and tender care4 ,this1 certainly1 is the poorest possible economy1 to say nothing of the manifest cruelty of such treatment4 ,the growth of the calf is checked1 and the system receives a shock from so sudden a change1 from which it cannot soon recover4 ,the careful ,dutch breeders bring the calves either skimmed milk or buttermilk to drink several times a day after they are turned to grass1 which is not till the age of ten or twelve weeks2 and1 if the weather is chilly1 the milk is warmed for them4 ,they put a trough generally under a covering1 to which the calves may come and drink at regular times4 ,thus1 they are kept tame and docile4 ,in the raising of calves1 through all stages of their growth1 great care should be taken neither to starve nor to over-feed4 ,a calf should never be surfeited1 and never be fed so highly that it cannot be fed more highly as it advances4 ,the most important part is to keep it growing thriftily without getting too fat1 if it is to be raised for the dairy4 ,the calves in the dairy districts of ,scotland are fed on the milk1 with seldom any admixture2 and they are not permitted to suck their dams1 but are taught to drink milk by the hand from a dish4 ,they are generally fed on milk only for the first four1 five1 or six weeks1 and are then allowed from two to two and a half quarts of new milk each meal1 twice in the twenty-four hours4 ,some never give them any other food when young except milk1 lessening the quantity when the calf begins to eat grass or other food1 which it generally does when about five weeks old1 if grass can be had2 and withdrawing it entirely about the seventh or eighth week of the calf's age4 ,but1 if the calf is reared in winter1 or early in spring1 before the grass rises1 it must be supplied with at least some milk until it is eight or nine weeks old1 as a calf will not so soon learn to eat hay or straw1 nor fare so well on them alone as it will on pasture4 ,some feed their calves reared for stock partly with meal mixed in the milk after the third or fourth week4 ,others introduce gradually some new whey into the milk1 first mixed with meal2 and1 when the calf gets older1 they withdraw the milk1 and feed it on whey and porridge4 ,hay-tea1 juices of peas and beans1 or pea or bean-straw1 linseed beaten into powder1 treacle1 etc41 have all been sometimes used to advantage in feeding calves2 but milk1 when it can be spared1 is1 in the judgment of the ,scotch breeders1 by far their most natural food4 ,in ,galloway1 and other pastoral districts1 where the calves are allowed to suck1 the people are so much wedded to their own customs as to argue that suckling is much more nutritious to the calves than any other mode of feeding4 ,that it induces a greater secretion of saliva1 which1 by promoting digestion1 accelerates the growth and fattening of the young animal1 cannot be doubted2 but the secretion of that fluid may likewise be promoted by placing an artificial teat in the mouth of the calf1 and giving it the milk slowly1 and at the natural temperature4 ,in the dairy districts of ,scotland1 the dairymaid puts one of her fingers into the mouth of the calf when it is fed1 which serves the purpose of a teat1 and will have nearly the same effect as the natural teat in inducing the secretion of saliva4 ,if that1 or an artificial teat of leather1 be used1 and the milk be given slowly before it is cold1 the secretion of saliva may be promoted to all the extent that can be necessary2 besides1 secretion is not confined to the mere period of eating1 but1 as in the human body1 the saliva is formed and part of it swallowed at all times4 ,as part of the saliva is sometimes seen dropping from the mouths of the calves1 it might be advisable not only to give them an artificial teat when fed1 but to place1 as is frequently done1 a lump of chalk before them to lick1 thus leading them to swallow the saliva4 ,the chalk would so far supply the want of salt1 of which cattle are often so improperly deprived1 and it would also promote the formation of saliva4 ,indeed1 calves are very much disposed to lick and suck every thing which comes within their reach1 which seems to be the way in which ,nature teaches them to supply their stomachs with saliva4 ,illustration3 ,,frolicksome4 ,but though sucking their dams may be most advantageous in that respect1 yet it has also some disadvantages4 ,the cow is always more injured than the calf is benefited by that mode of feeding4 ,she becomes so fond of the calf that she does not1 for a long time after1 yield her milk freely to the dairyman4 ,the calf does not when young draw off the milk completely1 and when it is taken off by the hand1 the cow withholds a part of her milk1 and1 whenever a cow's udder is not completely emptied every time she is milked1 the lactic secretion--as before stated--is thereby diminished4 ,feeding of calves by hand is also1 in various respects1 advantageous4 ,instead of depending on the uncertain1 or perhaps precarious supply of the dam1 which may be more at first than the young animal can consume or digest1 and at other times too little for its supply1 its food can1 by hand-feeding1 be regulated to suit the age1 appetite1 and the purposes for which the calf is intended2 other admixtures or substitutes can be introduced into the milk1 and the quantity gradually increased or withdrawn at pleasure4 ,this is highly necessary when the calves are reared for stock4 ,the milk is in that case diminished1 and other food introduced so gradually that the stomach of the young animal is not injured as it is when the food is too suddenly changed4 ,and1 in the case of feeding calves for the butcher1 the quantity of milk is not limited to that of the dam--for no cow will allow a stranger-calf to suck her--but it can be increased1 or the richest or poorest parts of the milk given at pleasure4 ,such are1 substantially1 the views upon this subject which are entertained by the most judicious farmers in the first dairy districts of ,scotland4 ,in those districts--where1 probably1 the feeding and management of calves are as well and as judiciously conducted as in any other part of ,great ,britain--the farmers' wives and daughters1 or the female domestics1 have the principal charge of young calves2 and they are1 doubtless1 much better calculated for this duty than men1 since they are more inclined to be gentle and patient4 ,the utmost gentleness--as has been already remarked1 in another connection--should always be observed in the treatment of all stock2 but especially of milch cows1 and calves designed for the dairy4 ,persevering kindness and patience1 will1 almost invariably1 overcome the most obstinate natures2 while rough and ungentle handling will be repaid in a quiet kind of way1 perhaps1 by withholding the milk1 which will always have a tendency to dry up the cow2 or1 what is nearly as bad1 by kicking and other modes of revenge1 which often contribute to the personal discomfort of the milker4 ,the disposition of the cow is greatly modified1 if not1 indeed1 wholly formed1 by her treatment while young2 and therefore it is best to handle calves as much as possible1 and make pets of them1 lead them with a halter1 and caress them in various ways4 ,calves managed in this way will always be docile1 and suffer themselves to be approached and handled1 both in the pasture and in the barn4 ,with respect to the use of hay-tea--often used in this country1 but more common abroad1 where greater care and attention are usually bestowed upon the details of breeding--,youatt says3 ,at the end of three or four days1 or perhaps a week1 or near a fortnight1 after a calf has been dropped1 and the first passages have been cleansed by allowing it to drink as much of the cow's milk as it feels inclined for1 let the quantity usually allotted for a meal be mixed1 consisting1 for the first week1 of three parts of milk and one part of hay-tea4 ,the only nourishing infusion of hay is that which is made from the best and sweetest hay1 cut by a chaff-cutter into pieces about two inches long1 and put into an earthen vessel2 over this1 boiling water should be poured1 and the whole allowed to stand for two hours1 during which time it ought to be kept carefully closed4 ,after the first week1 the proportions of milk and hay-tea may be equal2 then composed of two-thirds of hay-tea and one of milk2 and at length1 one-fourth part of milk will be sufficient4 ,this food should be given to the calf in a lukewarm state at least three1 if not four times a day1 in quantities averaging three quarts at a meal1 but gradually increasing to four quarts as the calf grows older4 ,toward the end of the second month1 beside the usual quantity given at each meal--composed of three parts of the infusion and one of milk--a small wisp or bundle of hay is to be laid before the calf1 which will gradually come to eat it2 but1 if the weather is favorable1 as in the month of ,may1 the beast may be turned out to graze in a fine1 sweet pasture1 well sheltered from the wind and sun4 ,this diet may be continued until toward the latter end of the third month1 when1 if the calf grazes heartily1 each meal may be reduced to less than a quart of milk1 with hay-water2 or skimmed milk1 or fresh buttermilk1 may be substituted for new milk4 ,at the expiration of the third month1 the animal will hardly require to be fed by hand2 though1 if this should still be necessary1 one quart of the infusion given daily--which1 during the summer1 need not be warmed--will suffice4 ,the hay-tea should be made fresh every two days1 as it soon loses its nutritious quality4 ,this and other preparations are given1 not because they are better than milk1--than which nothing is better adapted to fatten a calf1 or promote its growth1--but simply to economize by providing the simplest and cheapest substitutes4 ,experience shows that the first two or three calves are smaller than those which follow2 and hence1 unless they are pure-bred1 and to be kept for the blood1 they are not generally thought to be so desirable to raise for the dairy as the third or fourth1 and those that come after1 up to the age of nine or ten years4 ,opinions upon this point1 however1 differ4 ,according to the comparative experiments of a ,german agriculturist1 cows which as calves had been allowed to suck their dams from two to four weeks1 brought calves which weighed only from thirty-five to forty-eight pounds2 while others1 which as calves had been allowed to suck from five to eight weeks1 brought calves which weighed from sixty to eighty pounds4 ,it is difficult to see how there can be so great a difference1 if1 indeed1 there be any2 but it may be worthy of careful observation and experiment1 and as such it is stated here4 ,the increased size of the calf would be due to the increased size to which the cow would attain2 and if as a calf she were allowed to run in the pasture with her dam for four or five months1 taking all the milk she wanted1 she would doubtless be kept growing on in a thriving condition4 ,but taking a calf from the cow at four or even eight weeks must check its growth to some extent2 and this may be avoided by feeding liberally1 and bringing up by hand4 ,after the calf is fully weaned1 there is nothing very peculiar in the general management4 ,a young animal will require for the first few months--say up to the age of six months--an average of five or six pounds daily of good hay1 or its equivalent4 ,at the age of six months1 it will require from four and a half to five pounds2 and at the end of the year1 from three and a half or four pounds of good hay1 or its equivalent1 for every one hundred pounds of its live weight2 or1 in other words1 about three and a half or four per cent4 of its live weight4 ,at two years old1 it will require three and a half1 and some months later1 three per cent4 of its live weight daily in good hay1 or its equivalent4 ,indian-corn fodder1 either green or cured1 forms an excellent and wholesome food at this age4 ,the heifer should not be pampered1 nor yet poorly fed or half starved1 so as to receive a check in her growth4 ,an abundant supply of good healthy dairy food and milk will do all that is necessary up to the time of her having her first calf--which should not ordinarily be till the age of three years1 though some choose to allow them to come in at two1 or a little over1 on the ground that it early stimulates the secretion of milk1 and that this will increase the milking propensity through life4 ,this is undoubtedly the case1 as a general rule2 but greater injury is at the same time done by checking the growth1 unless the heifer has been fed up to large size and full development from the start--in which case she may perhaps take the bull at fifteen or eighteen months without injury4 ,even if a heifer comes in at two years1 it is generally deemed desirable to let her run barren for the following year1 which will promote her growth and more perfect development4 ,the feeding which young stock often get is not such as is calculated to make good-sized or valuable cattle of them4 ,they are often fed on the poorest of hay or straw through the winter1 not infrequently left exposed to cold1 unprotected and unhoused1 and thus stinted in their growth4 ,this is1 surely1 the very worst economy1 or rather it is no economy at all4 ,properly viewed1 it is an extravagant wastefulness which no farmer can afford4 ,no animal develops its good points under such treatment2 and if the starving system is to be followed at all1 it had better be after the age of two or three years1 when the animal's constitution has attained the strength and vigor which may1 possibly1 enable it to resist ill treatment4 ,to raise up first-rate milkers1 it is absolutely necessary to feed on dairy food even when they are young4 ,no matter how fine the breed is1 if the calf is raised on poor1 short feed1 it will never be so good a milker as if raised on better keeping2 and hence1 in dairy districts1 where calves are raised at all1 they ought to be allowed the best pasture during the summer1 and good1 sweet and wholesome food during the winter4 ,,points ,,of ,,fat ,,cattle4 ,whatever theoretical objections may be raised against over-fed cattle1 and great as may be the attempts to disparage the mountains of fat1--as highly-fed cattle are sometimes designated1--there is no doubt of the practical fact1 that the best butcher cannot sell any thing but the best fatted beef2 and of whatever age1 size1 or shape a half-fatted ox may be1 he is never selected by judges as fit for human food4 ,hence1 a well-fatted animal always commands a better price per pound than one imperfectly fed1 and the parts selected as the primest beef are precisely the parts which contain the largest deposits of fat4 ,the rump1 the crop1 and the sirloin1 the very favorite cuts1--which always command from twenty to twenty-five per cent4 more than any other part of the ox1--are just those parts on which the largest quantities of fat are found2 so that1 instead of the taste and fashion of the age being against the excessive fattening of animals1 the fact is1 practically1 exactly the reverse4 ,where there is the most fat1 there is the best lean2 where there is the greatest amount of muscle1 without its share of fat1 that part is accounted inferior1 and is used for a different purpose2 in fact1 so far from fat's being a disease1 it is a condition of muscle1 necessary to its utility as food1--a source of luxury to the rich1 and of comfort to the poor1 furnishing a nourishing and healthy diet for their families4 ,fattening is a secretive power which grazing animals possess1 enabling them to lay by a store of the superfluous food which they take for seasons of cold or scarcity4 ,it collects round the angular bones of the animal1 and gives the appearance of rotundity2 hence the tendency to deposit fat is indicated1 as has been stated1 by a roundness of form1 as opposed to the fatness of a milk-secreting animal4 ,but its greatest use is1 that it is a store of heat-producing aliment1 laid up for seasons of scarcity and want4 ,the food of animals1 for the most part1 may be said to consist of a saccharine1 an oleaginous1 and an albuminous principle4 ,to the first belong all the starchy1 saccharine1 and gummy parts of the plants1 which undergo changes in the digestive organs similar to fermentation before they can be assimilated in the system2 by them also animal heat is sustained4 ,in indolent animals1 the oily parts of plants are deposited and laid up as fat2 and1 when vigor and strength fail1 this is taken up and also used in breathing to supply the place of the consumed saccharine matter4 ,the albuminous1 or gelatinous principle of plants is mainly useful in forming muscle2 while the ashes of plants1 the unconsumable parts1 are for the supply1 mainly1 of bone1 hair1 and horn1 but also of muscle and of blood1 and to supply the waste which continually goes on4 ,now1 there are several qualities which are essentially characteristic of a disposition to fatten4 ,there have not1 as yet1 been any book-rules laid down1 as in the case of ,m4 ,guenon's indications of milking-cows2 but there are1 nevertheless1 marks so definite and well understood1 that they are comprehended and acted upon by every grazier1 although they are by no means easy to describe4 ,it is by skillful acumen that the grazier acquires his knowledge1 and not by theoretical rules2 observation1 judgment1 and experience1 powerful perceptive faculties1 and a keen and minute comparison and discrimination1 are essential to his success4 ,illustration3 ,,points ,,of ,,cattle4 ,the first indication upon which he relies1 is the touch4 ,it is the absolute criterion of quality1 which is supposed to be the keystone of perfection in all animals1 whether for the pail or the butcher4 ,the skin is so intimately connected with the internal organs1 in all animals1 that it is questionable whether even our schools of medicine might not make more use of it in a diagnosis of disease4 ,of physiological tendencies in cattle1 however1 it is of the last and most vital importance4 ,it must neither be thick1 nor hard1 nor adhere firmly to the muscles4 ,if it is so1 the animal is a hard grazer1 a difficult and obstinate feeder--no skillful man will purchase it--such a creature must go to a novice1 and even to him at a price so low as to tempt him to become a purchaser4 ,on the other hand1 the skin must not be thin1 like paper1 nor flaccid1 nor loose in the hand1 nor flabby4 ,this is the opposite extreme1 and is indicative of delicateness1 bad1 flabby flesh1 and1 possibly1 of inaptitude to retain the fat4 ,it must be elastic and velvety1 soft and pliable1 presenting to the touch a gentle resistance1 but so delicate as to give pleasure to the sensitive hand--a skin1 in short1 which seems at first to give an indentation from the pressure of the fingers1 but which again rises to its place by a gentle elasticity4 ,the hair is of nearly as much importance as the skin4 ,a hard skin will have straight and stiff hair2 it will not have a curl1 but be thinly and lankly distributed equally over the surface4 ,a proper grazing animal will have a mossy coat1 not absolutely curled1 but having a disposition to a graceful curl1 a semifold1 which presents a waving inequality2 but as different from a close and straightly-laid coat1 as it is from one standing off the animal at right angles1 a strong symptom of disease4 ,it will also1 in a thriving animal1 be licked here and there with its tongue1 a proof that the skin is duly performing its functions4 ,there must be1 also1 the full and goggle eye1 bright and pressed outward by the fatty bed below2 because1 as this is a part where ,nature always provides fat1 an animal capable of developing it to any considerable extent1 will have its indications here1 at least1 when it exists in excess4 ,so much for feeding qualities in the animal1 and their conformations indicative of this kindly disposition4 ,next come such formations of the animal itself as are favorable to the growth of fat1 other things being equal4 ,there must be size where large weights are expected4 ,christmas beef1 for instance1 is expected to be large as well as fat4 ,the symbol of festivity should be capacious1 as well as prime in quality4 ,but it is so much a matter of choice and circumstance with the grazier1 that profit alone will be his guide4 ,the axiom will be1 however1 as a general rule1 that the better the grazing soil the larger the animal may be2 the poorer the soil1 the smaller the animal4 ,small animals are1 unquestionably1 much more easily fed1 and they are well known by experienced men to be best adapted to second-rate feeding pastures4 ,but1 beyond this1 there must be breadth of carcass4 ,this is indicative of fattening1 perhaps1 beyond all other qualifications4 ,if rumps are favorite joints and produce the best price1 it is best to have the animal which will grow the longest1 the broadest1 and the best rump2 the same of crop1 and the same of sirloin2 and not only so1 but breadth is essential to the consumption of that quantity of food which is necessary to the development of a large amount of fat in the animal4 ,thus1 a deep1 wide chest1 favorable for the respiratory and circulating functions1 enables it to consume a large amount of food1 to take up the sugary matter1 and to deposit the fatty matter1--as then useless for respiration1 but afterwards to be prized4 ,a full level crop will be of the same physiological utility2 while a broad and open framework at the hips will afford scope for the action of the liver and kidneys4 ,there are other points1 also1 of much importance2 the head must be small and fine2 its special use is indicative of the quick fattening of the animal so constructed1 and it is also indicative of the bones being small and the legs short4 ,for constitutional powers1 the beast should have his ribs extended well towards the thigh-bones or hips1 so as to leave as little unprotected space as possible4 ,there must be no angular1 or abrupt points2 all must be round1 and broad1 and parallel4 ,any depression in the lean animal will give a deficient deposit of flesh and fat at that point1 when sold to the butcher1 and thus deteriorate its value2 and hence the animal must be round and full4 ,but either fancy1 or accident1 or skill--it is unnecessary to decide which--has associated symmetry with quality and conformation1 as a point of great importance in animals calculated for fattening2 and there is no doubt that1 to a certain extent1 this is so4 ,the beast must be a system of mathematical lines4 ,to the advocate of symmetry1 the setting-on of a tail will be a condemning fault2 indeed the ridge of the back1 like a straight line1 with the outline of the belly exactly parallel1 viewed from the side1 and a depth and squareness when viewed from behind1--which remind us of a geometrical cube1 rather than a vital economy1--may be said to be the indications of excellence in a fat ox4 ,the points of excellence in such an animal are outlined under the subsequent head1 as developed in the cutting up after slaughter4 ,now1 these qualities are inherent in some breeds2 there may be cases and instances in all the superior breeds1 and in most there may be failures4 ,,driving ,,and ,,slaughtering4 ,it is necessary that cattle which have been disposed of to the dealer or butcher1 or which are intended to be driven to market1 should undergo a preparation for the journey4 ,if they were immediately put to the road to travel1 from feeding on grass or turnips1 when their bowels are full of undigested vegetable matter1 a scouring might ensue which would render them unfit to pursue their journey2 and this complaint is the more likely to be brought on from the strong propensity which cattle have to take violent exercise upon feeling themselves at liberty after a long confinement4 ,they in fact1 become light-headed whenever they leave the barn or enclosure1 so much so that they actually frisk and race and leap1 and their antics would be highly amusing1 were it not for the apprehension that they may hurt themselves against some opposing object1 as they seem to regard nothing before them4 ,on being let out for the first time1 cattle should be put for awhile into a larger court1 or on a road well fenced with enclosures1 and guarded by men1 to romp about4 ,two or three such allowances of liberty will render them quiet2 and1 in the mean time1 to lighten their weight of carcass1 they should have hay for a large proportion of their food4 ,these precautions are absolutely necessary for cattle which have been confined in barns2 otherwise1 accidents may befall them on the road1 where they will at once break loose4 ,even at home serious accidents sometimes overtake them1 such as the breaking down of a horn1 casting off a hoof1 spraining a tendon1 bruising ribs1 and heating the whole body violently2 and1 of course1 when any such ill luck befalls1 the animal affected must be left behind1 and become a drawback upon the value of the rest1 unless kept for some time longer4 ,having the cattle prepared for travel1 the drover takes the road very slowly for the first two days1 not exceeding seven or eight miles a day4 ,at night1 in winter1 they should be put into an open court1 and supplied with hay1 water1 and a very few turnips2 for1 if roots are suddenly withdrawn from them1--since it is taken for granted that these have formed a staple portion of their food1--their bellies will become shrunken up into smaller dimensions--a state very much against favorable appearance in market4 ,after the first two days they may proceed faster1 say twelve or thirteen miles a day1 if very fat2 and fifteen1 if moderately so4 ,when the journey is long and the beasts get faint from travel1 they should have corn to support them4 ,in frosty weather1 when the roads become very hard1 they are apt to become shoulder-shaken1 an effect of founder2 and if sleet falls during the day1 and becomes frozen upon them at night1 they may become so chilled as to refuse food1 and shrink rapidly away4 ,cattle should1 if possible1 arrive the day before in the neighborhood of a distant market1 and be supplied with a good feed of roots and hay1 or grass1 to make them look fresh and fill them up again2 but if the market is at but short distance1 they can travel to it early in the morning4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,frontispiece4 ,in driving cattle the drover should have no dog1 which will only annoy them4 ,he should walk either before or behind1 as he sees them disposed to proceed too fast or to loiter upon the road2 and in passing carriages1 the leading ox1 after a little experience1 will make way for the rest to follow4 ,on putting oxen on a ferry-boat the shipping of the first one only is attended with much trouble4 ,a man on each side should take hold of a horn1 or of a halter made of any piece of rope1 should the beast be hornless1 and two other men1 one on each side1 should push him up behind with a piece of rope held between them as a breeching1 and conduct him along the plank into the boat2 if it have low gunwales1 a man will be required to remain beside him until one or two more of the cattle follow their companion1 which they will most readily do4 ,from neglecting this precaution in small ferry-boats1 the first beast sometimes leaps into the water1 when it becomes a difficult task to prevent some of the rest doing the same thing4 ,whatever time a lot of cattle may take to go to a market1 they should never be overdriven4 ,there is great difference of management in this respect among drovers4 ,some like to proceed upon the road quietly1 slowly1 but surely1 and to reach the market in a placid1 cool state4 ,others1 again1 drive smartly along for some distance1 and then rest to cool awhile1 when the beasts will probably get chilled and have a staring coat when they reach their destination2 while others like to enter the market with their beasts in an excited state1 imagining that they then look gay2 but distended nostrils1 loose bowels1 and reeking bodies are no recommendations to a purchaser4 ,good judges are shy of purchasing cattle in a heated state1 because they do not know how long they may have been in it2 and to cover any risk1 will give at least five dollars a head below what they would have offered for them in a cool state4 ,some drovers have a habit of thumping at the hindmost beast of the lot with a stick while on the road4 ,this is a censurable practice1 as the flesh1 where it is thumped1 will bear a red mark after the animal has been slaughtered1--the mark receiving the appropriate name of blood-burn--and the flesh thus affected will not take on salt1 and is apt to putrefy4 ,a touch up on the shank1 or any tendonous part1 when correction is necessary1 is all that is required2 but the voice1 in most cases1 will answer as well4 ,the flesh of overdriven cattle1 when slaughtered1 never becomes properly firm1 and their tallow has a soft1 melted appearance4 ,a few large oxen in one lot look best in a market on a position rather above the eye of a spectator4 ,when a large lot is nearly alike in size and appearance1 they look best and most level on a flat piece of ground4 ,very large fat oxen never look better than on ground on the same level with the spectator4 ,an ox1 to look well1 should hold his head on a line with the body1 with lively ears1 clear eye1 dewy nose1 a well-licked hide1 and should stand firmly on the ground on all his feet4 ,these are all symptoms of high health and good condition4 ,whenever an ox shifts his standing from one foot to another1 he is foot-sore1 and has been driven far4 ,whenever his head hangs down and his eyes water1 he feels ill at ease inwardly4 ,when his coat stares1 he has been overheated some time1 and has got a subsequent chill4 ,all these latter symptoms will be much aggravated in cattle that have been fed in a barn4 ,cattle are made to fast before being slaughtered4 ,the time they should stand depends upon their state on their arrival at the shambles4 ,if they have been driven a considerable distance in a proper manner1 the bowels will be in a tolerably empty state1 so that twelve hours may suffice2 but if they are full and just off their food1 twenty-four hours will be required4 ,beasts that have been overdriven1 or much struck with sticks1 or in any degree infuriated1 should not be immediately slaughtered1 but allowed to stand on dry food1 such as hay1 until the symptoms disappear4 ,these precautions are absolutely necessary that the meat may be preserved in the best state4 ,the mode of slaughtering cattle varies in different countries4 ,in the great slaughter-houses at ,montmartre1 in ,paris1 they are slaughtered by bisecting the spinal cord of the cervical vertebrae2 and this is accomplished by the driving of a sharp-pointed chisel between the second and third vertebrae1 with a smart stroke of a mallet1 while the animal is standing1 when it drops1 and death or insensibility instantly ensues1 and the blood is let out immediately by opening the blood-vessels of the neck4 ,the plan adopted in ,england is1 first to bring the ox down on his knees1 and place his under-jaw upon the ground by means of ropes fastened to his head and passed through an iron ring in the floor of the slaughterhouse4 ,he is then stunned with a few blows from an iron axe made for the purpose1 on the forehead1 the bone of which is usually driven into the brain4 ,the animal then falls upon his side1 and the blood is let out by the neck4 ,of the two modes1 the ,french is apparently the less cruel1 for some oxen require many blows to make them fall4 ,some butchers1 however1 allege that the separation of the spinal cord1 by producing a general nervous convulsion throughout the body1 prevents the blood from flowing as rapidly and entirely out of it as when the ox is stunned in the forehead4 ,the skin is then taken off to the knees1 when the legs are disjointed1 and also off the head4 ,the carcass is then hung up by the tendons of the hough on a stretcher1 by a block and tackle1 worked by a small winch1 which retains in place what rope it winds up by means of a wheel and ratchet4 ,after the carcass has hung for twenty-four hours1 it should be cut down by the back-bone1 or chine1 into two sides4 ,this is done either with the saw1 or chopper2 the saw making the neatest job in the hands of an inexperienced butcher1 though it is the most laborious2 and with the chopper is the quickest1 but by no means the neatest plan1 especially in the hands of a careless workman4 ,in ,london1 the chine is equally divided between both sides2 while in ,scotland1 one side of a carcass of beef has a great deal more bone than the other1 all the spinous processes of the vertebrae being left upon it4 ,the bony is called the lying side of the meat4 ,in ,london1 the divided processes in the fore-quarters are broken in the middle when warm1 and chopped back with the flat side of the chopper1 which has the effect of thickening the fore and middle ribs considerably when cut up4 ,the ,london butcher also cuts the joints above the hind knee1 and1 by making some incisions with a sharp knife1 cuts the tendons there1 and drops the flesh of the hind-quarter on the flank and loins1 which causes it to cut up thicker than in the ,scotch mode4 ,in opening the hind-quarter he also cuts the aitch bone1 or pelvis through the centre1 which makes the rump look better4 ,some butchers in the north of ,england score the fat of the closing of the hind-quarter1 which has the effect of making that part of both heifer and ox look like the udder of an old cow4 ,there is far too much of this scoring practised in ,scotland1 which prevents the pieces from retaining--which they should1 as nearly as possible--their natural appearance4 ,in cutting up a carcass of beef the ,london butcher displays great expertness2 he not only discriminates between the qualities of its different parts1 but can cut out any piece to gratify the taste of his customers4 ,in this way he makes the best use of the carcass and realizes the largest value for it1 while he gratifies the taste of every grade of customers4 ,a figure of the ,scotch and ,english modes of cutting up a carcass of beef will at once show the difference2 and upon being informed where the valuable pieces lie1 an opinion can be formed as to whether the oxen the farmer is breeding or feeding possess the properties which will enable him to demand the highest price for them4 ,illustration3 ,,scotch ,,mode ,,of ,,cutting ,,up ,,beef4 ,the sirloin is the principal roasting-piece1 making a very handsome dish1 and is a universal favorite4 ,it consists of two portions1 the ,scotch and ,english sides2 the former is above the lumbar bones1 and is somewhat hard in ill-fed cattle2 the latter consists of the muscles under these bones1 which are generally covered with fine fat1 and are exceedingly tender4 ,the better the beast is fed1 the larger is the under muscle1 better covered with fat1 and more tender to eat4 ,the hook-bone and the buttock are cut up for steaks1 beefsteak pie1 or minced collops1 and both these1 together with the sirloin1 bring the highest price4 ,the large round and the small round are both well known as excellent pieces for salting and boiling1 and are eaten cold with great relish4 ,the hough is peculiarly suited for boiling down for soup1 having a large proportion of gelatinous matter4 ,brown soup is the principal dish made of the hough1 but its decoction forms an excellent stock for various dishes1 and will keep in a state of jelly for a considerable time4 ,the thick and the thin flank are both admirable pieces for salting and boiling4 ,the tail1 insignificant as it may seem1 makes a soup of a very fine flavor4 ,hotel-keepers have a trick of seasoning brown soup or rather beef-tea1 with a few joints of tail1 and passing it off for genuine ox-tail soup4 ,these are all the pieces which constitute the hind-quarter2 and it will be seen that they are valuable both for roasting and boiling1 not containing a single coarse piece4 ,in the fore-quarter1 is the spare rib1 the six ribs of the back end of which make an excellent roast1 and when taken from the side opposite to the lying one1 being free of the bones of the spine1 it makes a large one2 and it also makes excellent beefsteaks and beefsteak pie4 ,the two runners and the nineholes make salting and boiling pieces2 but1 of these1 the nineholes is much the best1 as it consists of layers of fat and lean without any bone2 whereas the fore parts of the runners have a piece of shoulder-blade in them1 and every piece connected with that bone is more or less coarse-grained4 ,the brisket eats very well boiled fresh in broth1 and may be cooked and eaten with boiled greens or carrots4 ,the shoulder-lyar is a coarse piece1 and fit only for boiling fresh to make into broth or beef-tea4 ,the nap1 or shin1 is analogous to the hough of the hind-leg1 but not so rich and fine1 there being much less gelatinous matter in it4 ,the neck makes good broth2 and the sticking-piece is a great favorite with some epicures1 on account of the pieces of rich fat in it4 ,it makes an excellent stew1 as also sweet barley-broth1 and the meat eats well when boiled in it4 ,these are all the pieces of the fore-quarter2 and it will be seen that they consist chiefly of boiling-pieces1 and some of them none of the finest--the roasting-piece being confined to the six ribs of the spare rib1 and the finest boiling-piece1 corned1 only to be found in the nineholes4 ,illustration3 ,,english ,,mode ,,of ,,cutting ,,up ,,beef4 ,the loin is the principal roasting-piece2 the rump is the favorite steak-piece2 the aitch-bone1 the favorite stew2 the buttock1 the thick flank1 and the thin flank are all excellent boiling-pieces when corned2 the hock and the shin make soup and afford stock for the various requirements of the culinary art2 and the tail furnishes ox-tail soup--a favorite ,english luncheon4 ,these are all the pieces of the hind-quarter1 and they are valuable of their respective kinds4 ,in the fore-quarter1 the fore-rib1 middle-rib1 and chuckle-rib are all roasting-pieces1 not alike good2 but in removing the part of the shoulder-blade in the middle-rib1 the spare-ribs below make a good broil or roast2 the neck makes soup1 being used fresh1 boiled2 the back end of the brisket is boiled1 corned1 or stewed2 the leg-of-mutton piece is coarse1 but is as frequently stewed as boiled2 the shin is put to the same use as the shin and hock of the hind-quarter4 ,on comparing the two modes of cutting-up1 it will be observed that in the ,english there are more roasting-pieces than in the ,scotch1 a large proportion of the fore-quarter being used in that way4 ,the plan1 too1 of cutting the loin between the rump and aitch-bone in the hind-quarter1 lays open the steak-pieces to better advantage than in the ,scotch bullock4 ,extending the comparison from one part of the carcass to the other1 in both methods1 it will be seen that the most valuable pieces--the roasting--occupy its upper1 and the less valuable--the boiling--its lower part4 ,every beast1 therefore1 that lays on beef more upon the upper part of its body is more valuable than one that lays the same quantity of flesh on its lower parts4 ,it is deemed unnecessary to enter into details as to the modes of cutting-up most in vogue in this country1 as there is a needlessly great want of uniformity4 ,of the qualities of beef obtained from the different breeds of cattle in ,england1 there is no better meat than from the ,west ,highlanders for fineness of grain and cutting up into convenient pieces for family use4 ,the ,galloways and ,angus1 when fattened in ,english pastures1 are great favorites in the ,london market4 ,the ,short ,horns afford excellent steaks1 being thick of flesh1 and the slice deep1 large and juicy1 and their covered flanks and nineholes are always thick1 juicy1 and well-mixed4 ,the ,herefords are somewhat similar to the ,short ,horns1 and the ,devons1 may1 perhaps1 be classed among the ,galloways and ,angus1 while the ,welsh cannot be compared to the ,west ,highlanders4 ,taking1 then1 the breeds of ,scotland as suppliers of good beef1 they seem to be more valuable for the table than those of ,england4 ,there are1 perhaps1 not sufficient data in existence to determine the true proportion of offal of all kinds to the beef of any given fat ox2 but approximations have been made1 which may serve the purpose until the matter is investigated by direct experiment1 under various circumstances4 ,the dead weight bears to the live weight a ratio varying between 4#ega and 4#fje to #a2 and on applying one or the other multiplier to the cases of the live weight1 a pretty correct approximation is reached4 ,the tallow is supposed to be eight one-hundredths of the live weight2 so that the multiplier is the decimal 4#jh4 ,the hide is supposed to be five one-hundredths of the live weight2 so to obtain its weight1 a multiplier1 4#je1 is used4 ,the other offals are supposed to be in a proportion of about one-fourth of the live weight2 so that the multiplier1 4#bh1 is as near as can be proposed under existing experience4 ,beef is the staple animal food of this country1 and it is used in various states--fresh1 salted1 smoked1 roasted1 and boiled4 ,when intended to be eaten fresh1 the ribs will keep the best1 and with care will keep five or six days in summer1 and in winter ten days4 ,the middle of the loin is the next best1 and the rump the next4 ,the round will not keep long1 unless it is salted4 ,the brisket is the worst1 and will not keep more than three days in summer1 and in winter a week4 ,in regard to the power of the stomach to digest beef1 that which is eaten boiled with salt only1 is digested in two hours and forty-five minutes4 ,beef1 fresh1 lean1 and rarely-roasted1 and a beefsteak broiled1 takes three hours to digest2 that fresh1 and dry-roasted1 and boiled1 eaten with mustard1 is digested in three and a half hours4 ,lean fresh beef fried1 requires four hours1 and old hard salted beef boiled1 does not digest in less than four and a quarter hours4 ,fresh beef-suet boiled takes five and a half hours4 ,the usual mode of preserving beef is by salting2 and1 when intended to keep for a long time1 such as for the use of shipping1 it is always salted with brine2 but for family use it should be salted only with good salt2 for brine dispels the juice of meat1 and saltpetre only serves to make the meat dry1 and give it a disagreeable and unnatural red color4 ,various experiments have been made in curing beef with salt otherwise than by hand-rubbing1 and in a short space of time1 and also to preserve it from putrefaction by other means than salt4 ,some packers put meat in a copper which is rendered air-tight1 and an air-pump then creates a vacuum within it1 thereby extracting all the air out of the meat2 then brine is pumped in by pressure1 which1 entering into every pore of the meat formerly occupied by the air1 is said to place it in a state of preservation in a few minutes4 ,the carcass of an ox was preserved1 in ,france1 for two years from putrefaction by injecting four pounds of saline mixture into the carotid artery4 ,whether any such contrivance can be made available for family purposes1 seems doubtful4 ,cattle1 when slaughtered1 are useful to man in various other ways than by affording food from their flesh1--their offal of tallow1 hides1 and horns1 forming extensive articles of commerce4 ,of the hide1 the characteristics of a good one for strong purposes are strength in its middle1 or butt1 as it called1 and lightness in the edges1 or offal4 ,a bad hide is the opposite of this--thick in the edges and thin in the middle4 ,a good hide has a firm texture2 a bad one1 loose and soft4 ,a hide improves as the summer advances1 and it continues to improve after the new coat of hair in autumn until ,november or ,december1 when the coat gets rough from the coldness of the season1 and the hide is then in its best state4 ,it is surprising how a hide improves in thickness after the cold weather has set in4 ,the sort of food does not seem to affect the quality of the hide2 but the better it is1 and the better cattle have been fed1 and the longer they have been well fed1 even from a calf1 the better the hide4 ,from what has been said of the effect of weather upon the hide1 it seems a natural conclusion that a hide is better from an ox that has been fed in the open air1 than from one that has been kept in the barn4 ,dirt adhering to a hide injures it1 particularly in stall-fed animals2 and any thing that punctures a hide1 such as warbles arising from certain insects1 is also injurious4 ,the best hides are obtained from the ,west ,highlanders4 ,the ,short ,horns produce the thinnest hides1 the ,aberdeenshire the next1 and then the ,angus4 ,of the same breed1 the ox affords the strongest hide2 but1 as hides are applied to various uses1 the cow's1 provided it be large1 may be as valuable as that of the ox4 ,the bull's hide is the least valuable4 ,hides are imported from ,russia and ,south ,america4 ,hides1 when deprived of their hair1 are converted into leather by an infusion of the astringent property of bark4 ,the old plan of tanning used to occupy a long time2 but1 such was the value of the process1 that the old tanners used to pride themselves upon producing a substantial article--which is more than can be said in many instances under modern improved modes1 which hasten the process1 much to the injury of the article produced4 ,strong infusions of bark make leather brittle2 one hundred pounds of skin1 quickly tanned in a strong infusion1 produce one hundred and thirty-seven pounds of leather2 while a weak infusion produces only one hundred and seventeen and a half1--the additional nineteen and a half pounds serving only to deteriorate the leather1 and causing it to contain much less textile animal solid4 ,leather thus highly charged with tanning is so spongy as to allow moisture to pass readily through its pores1 to the great discomfort and injury of those who wear shoes made of it4 ,the proper mode of tanning lasts a year1 or a year and a half1 according to the quality of the leather wanted and the nature of the hides4 ,a perfect leather can be recognized by its section1 which should have a glistening marbled appearance1 without any white streaks in the middle4 ,the hair which is taken off hides in tanning1 is employed to mix with plaster1 and is often surreptitiously put into hair-mattresses4 ,the principal substances of which glue is made are the parings of ox and other thick hides1 which form the strongest article and the refuse of the leather-dresser4 ,both afford from forty-five to fifty-five per cent4 of glue4 ,the tendons1 and many other offals of slaughter-houses1 also afford materials1 though of an inferior quality1 for this purpose4 ,the refuse of tanneries--such as the ears of oxen and calves--are better articles4 ,animal skins also1 in any form1 uncombined with tannin1 may be worked into glue4 ,ox-tallow is of great importance in the arts4 ,candles and soap are made of it1 and it enters largely into the dressing of leather and the use of machinery4 ,large quantities are annually exported from ,russia4 ,ox-tallow consists of seventy-six parts of stearine and twenty-four of oleine1 out of one hundred parts4 ,the horns of oxen are used for many purposes4 ,the horn consists of two parts3 an outward horny case1 and an inward conical-shaped substance1 somewhat intermediate between indurated hair and bone1 called the fluid of the horn4 ,these two parts are separated by means of a blow upon a block of wood4 ,the horny exterior is then cut into three portions by means of a frame saw4 ,the lowest of these1 next the root of the horn1 after undergoing several processes by which it is rendered flat1 is made into combs4 ,the middle of the horn1 after having been flattened by heat1 and its transparency improved by oil1 is split into thin layers1 and forms a substitute for glass in lanterns of the commonest kind4 ,the tip of the horns is used by makers of knife-handles and of the tops of whips1 and for other similar purposes4 ,the interior1 or core of the horn1 is boiled down in water4 ,a large quantity of fat rises to the surface2 this is put aside1 and sold to the makers of yellow soap4 ,the itself is used as a kind of glue1 and is purchased by the cloth-draper for stiffening4 ,the bony substance remaining behind is then sent to the mill1 and1 after having been ground down1 is sold to farmers for manure4 ,besides these various purposes to which the different parts of the horn are applied1 the clippings which arise in comb-making are sold to the farmer for manure1 as well as the shavings which form the refuse of the lantern-makers4 ,horn1 as is well known1 is easily rendered soft and pliant in warm water2 and by this peculiarity and its property of adhering like glue1 large plates of horn can be made by cementing together the edges of small pieces rendered flat by a peculiar process1 as a substitute for glass4 ,imitation of tortoise-shell can be given to horn by means of various metallic solutions4 ,horn1 also1 when softened1 can be imprinted with any pattern1 by means of dies4 ,illustration ,diseases and their ,remedies ,under this head it is proposed to notice such diseases as are most common among cattle1 together with their symptoms1 and to suggest such treatment of the same as has been found in the practice of the author1 in the main1 effective4 ,he is aware that much more space might have been appropriated to this head1 as has been the case in other treatises of this class2 but he doubts the propriety of multiplying words about diseases which are of very rare occurrence1 deeming it more fitting to leave such instances exclusively to the intelligent consideration of the reliable veterinary practitioner4 ,for convenience of reference1 the diseases here noticed have been arranged in alphabetical order2 the whole concluding with information as to two or three operations which cannot be uninteresting to1 or unprofitable for1 the reader4 ,,abortion4 ,the cow is1 more than any other animal1 subject to abortion1 or slinking1 which takes place at different periods of pregnancy1 from half of the usual time to the seventh1 or almost to the eighth month4 ,the symptoms of the approach of abortion1 unless the breeder is very much among his stock1 are not often perceived2 or1 if perceived1 they are concealed by the person in charge1 lest he should be accused of neglect or improper treatment4 ,the cow is somewhat off her feed--rumination ceases--she is listless and dull--the milk diminishes or dries up--the motions of the foetus become more feeble1 and at length cease altogether--there is a slight degree of enlargement of the belly--there is a little staggering in her walk--when she is down she lies longer than usual1 and when she gets up she stands for a longer time motionless4 ,as the abortion approaches1 a yellow or red glairy fluid runs from the vagina 7this is a symptom1 which rarely1 or never1 deceives7 her breathing becomes laborious and slightly convulsive4 ,the belly has for several days lost its natural rotundity1 and has been evidently falling1--she begins to moan1--the pulse becomes small1 wiry1 and intermittent4 ,at length labor comes on1 and is often attended with much difficulty and danger4 ,if the abortion has been caused by blows or violence1 whether from brutality1 or the animal's having been teased by other cows in season1 or by oxen1 the symptoms are more intense4 ,the animal suddenly ceases to eat and to ruminate--is uneasy1 paws the ground1 rests her head on the manger while she is standing1 and on her flank when she is lying down--hemorrhage frequently comes on from the uterus1 or when this is not the case the mouth of that organ is spasmodically contracted4 ,the throes come on1 are distressingly violent1 and continue until the womb is ruptured4 ,if all these circumstances be not observed1 still the labor is protracted and dangerous4 ,abortion is sometimes singularly frequent in particular districts1 or on particular farms1 appearing to assume an epizooetic or epidemic form4 ,this has been accounted for in various ways4 ,some have imagined it to be contagious4 ,it is1 indeed1 destructively propagated among the cows1 but this is probably to be explained on a different principle from that of contagion4 ,the cow is a considerably imaginative animal1 and highly irritable during the period of pregnancy4 ,in abortion1 the foetus is often putrid before it is discharged2 and the placenta1 or after-birth1 rarely or never follows it1 but becomes decomposed1 and1 as it drops away in fragments1 emits a peculiar and most noisome smell4 ,this smell seems to be peculiarly annoying to the other cows3 they sniff at it and then run bellowing about4 ,some sympathetic influence is exercised on their uterine organs1 and in a few days a greater or less number of those that had pastured together likewise abort4 ,hence arises the rapidity with which the foetus is usually taken away and buried deeply1 and far from the cows2 and hence the more effectual preventive of smearing the parts of the cow with tar or stinking oils1 in order to conceal or subdue the smell2 and hence1 too1 the inefficacy1 as a preventive1 of removing her to a far-distant pasture4 ,the pastures on which the blood or inflammatory fever is most prevalent are those on which the cows oftenest slink their calves4 ,whatever can become a source of general excitation and fever is likely1 during pregnancy1 to produce inflammation of the womb2 or whatever would1 under other circumstances1 excite inflammation of almost any organ1 has at that time its injurious effect determined to this particular one4 ,every farmer is aware of the injurious effect of the coarse1 rank herbage of low1 marshy1 and woody countries1 and he regards these districts as the chosen residence of red water2 it may be added1 that they are also the chosen residence of abortion4 ,hard and mineral waters are justly considered as laying the foundation of many diseases among cattle1 and of abortion among the rest4 ,some careful observers have occasionally attributed abortion to disproportion in size between the male and the female4 ,farmers were formerly too fond of selecting a great overgrown bull to serve their dairy or breeding cows1 and many a heifer1 or little cow1 was seriously injured2 and she either cast her calf1 or was lost in parturition4 ,the breeders of cattle in later years are beginning to act more wisely in this matter4 ,cows that are degenerating into consumption are exceedingly subject to abortion4 ,they are continually in heat2 they rarely become pregnant1 or if they do1 a great proportion of them cast their calves4 ,abortion1 also1 often follows a sudden change from poor to luxuriant food4 ,cows that have been out1 half-starved in the winter1 when incautiously turned on rich pasture in the spring1 are too apt to cast their calves from the undue general or local excitation that is set up4 ,hence it is1 that when this disposition to abort first appears in a herd1 it is naturally in a cow that has been lately purchased4 ,fright1 from whatever cause1 may produce this trouble4 ,there are singular cases on record of whole herds of cows slinking their calves after having been terrified by an unusually violent thunder-storm4 ,commerce with the bull soon after conception is also a frequent cause1 as well as putrid smells--other than those already noticed--and the use of a diseased bull4 ,besides these tangible causes of abortion1 there is the mysterious agency of the atmosphere4 ,there are certain seasons when abortion is strangely frequent1 and fatal2 while at other times it disappears in a manner for several successive years4 ,the consequences of premature calving are frequently of a very serious nature2 and even when the case is more favorable1 the results are1 nevertheless1 very annoying4 ,the animal very soon goes again to heat1 but in a great many cases she fails to become pregnant2 she almost invariably does so1 if she is put to the bull during the first heat after abortion4 ,if she should come in calf again during that season1 it is very probable that at about the same period of gestation1 or a little later1 she will again abort3 or that when she becomes in calf the following year1 the same fatality will attend her4 ,some say that this disposition to cast her young gradually ceases2 that if she does miscarry1 it is at a later and still later period of pregnancy2 and that1 in about three or four years1 she may be depended upon as a tolerably safe breeder4 ,he1 however1 would be sadly inattentive to his own interests who keeps a profitless beast so long4 ,the calf very rarely lives1 and in the majority of cases it is born dead or putrid4 ,if there should appear to be any chance of saving it1 it should be washed with warm water1 carefully dried1 and fed frequently with small quantities of new milk1 mixed1 according to the apparent weakness of the animal1 either with raw eggs or good gruel2 while the bowels should1 if occasion requires1 be opened by means of small doses of castor-oil4 ,if any considerable period is to elapse before the natural time of pregnancy would have expired1 it will usually be necessary to bring up the little animal entirely by hand4 ,the treatment of abortion differs but little from that of parturition4 ,if the farmer has once been tormented by this pest in his dairy1 he should carefully watch the approaching symptoms of casting the calf1 and as soon as he perceives them1 should remove the animal from the pasture to a comfortable cow-house or shed4 ,if the discharge be glairy1 but not offensive1 he may hope that the calf is not dead2 he will be assured of this by the motion of the foetus1 and then it is possible that the abortion may still be avoided4 ,he should hasten to bleed her1 and that copiously1 in proportion to her age1 size1 condition1 and the state of excitation in which he may find her2 and he should give a dose of physic immediately after the bleeding4 ,when the physic begins to operate1 he should administer half a drachm of opium and half an ounce of sweet spirits of nitre4 ,unless she is in a state of great debility1 he should allow nothing but gruel1 and she should be kept as quiet as possible4 ,by these means he may occasionally allay the general or local irritation that precedes or causes the abortion1 and the cow may yet go to her full time4 ,should1 however1 the discharge be fetid1 the conclusion will be that the foetus is dead1 and must be got rid of1 and that as speedily as possible4 ,bleeding may even then be requisite if much fever exists2 or1 perhaps1 if there is debility1 some stimulating drink may not be out of place4 ,in other respects the animal must be treated as if her usual time of pregnancy had been accomplished4 ,much may be done in the way of preventing this habit of abortion among cows4 ,the foetus must be got rid of immediately4 ,it should be buried deep1 and far from the cow-pasture4 ,proper means should be taken to hasten the expulsion of the placenta4 ,a dose of physic should be given2 ergot of rye administered2 the hand should be introduced1 and an effort made1 cautiously and gently1 to detach the placenta2 all violence1 however1 should be carefully avoided2 for considerable and fatal hemorrhage may be speedily produced4 ,the parts of the cow should be well washed with a solution of the chloride of lime1 which should be injected up the vagina1 and also given internally4 ,in the mean time1 and especially after the expulsion of the placenta1 the cow-house should be well washed with the same solution4 ,the cow1 when beginning to recover1 should be fattened and sold4 ,this is the first and the grand step toward the prevention of abortion1 and he is unwise who does not immediately adopt it4 ,all other means are comparatively inefficient and worthless4 ,should the owner be reluctant to part with her1 two months1 at least1 should pass before she is permitted to return to her companions4 ,prudence would probably dictate that she should never return to them1 but be kept1 if possible1 on some distant part of the farm4 ,abortion having once occurred among the herd1 the breeding cows should be carefully watched4 ,although they should be well fed1 they should not be suffered to get into too high condition4 ,unless they are decidedly poor and weak1 they should be bled between the third and fourth months of pregnancy1 and a mild dose of physic administered to each4 ,if the pest continues to reappear1 the owner should most carefully examine how far any of the causes of abortion that have been detected1 may exist on his farm1 and exert himself to thoroughly remove them4 ,an interesting paper upon this subject may be found in the ,veterinary ,review1 vol4 #a41 p4 #dcd1 communicated by ,prof4 ,henry ,tanner1 of ,queen's ,college1 ,birmingham1 ,england4 ,as it suggests a theory as to the origin of this disease which is1 to say the least1 quite plausible1 we transfer the article3-- ,i shall not go into any notice of the general subject of abortion1 but rather restrict my remarks to a cause which is very much overlooked1 and yet which is probably more influential than all other causes combined4 ,i refer to the growth of ergotized grass-seeds in our pastures4 ,the action of ergot of rye 7secale cornutum7 upon the womb is well known as an excitant to powerful action1 which usually terminates in the expulsion of the foetus4 ,we have a similar disease appearing on the seeds of our grasses1 but especially on the rye grass1 and thus we have an ergot of the seeds of rye grass produced1 possessing similar exciting powers upon the womb to those produced by the ergot of rye4 ,two conditions are necessary for the production of this ergot upon the seed of rye grass4 ,the first is1 the grass must be allowed to run to seed2 and the second is1 that the climate must be favorable for encouraging the development of the ergot4 ,in practice1 we find that on land which has been fed on during the summer1 unless it has been grazed with unusual care1 much of the grass throws up seed-stalks and produces seed4 ,in districts where the climate is humid and rain abundant1 as well as in very wet seasons1 these seeds become liable to the growth of this ergot4 ,cattle appear to eat it with a relish1 and the result is that abortion spreads rapidly through the herd4 ,heifers and cows1 which1 up to the appearance of the ergot1 have held in calf1 are excited to cast their calves by consuming it in their food4 ,the abortion having once commenced1 we know that the peculiarly sensitive condition of the breeding animal will cause its extension1 even where the original cause may not be in operation2 but their combined action renders the loss far more serious4 ,if we add to this the tendency which an animal receives from her first abortion1 to repeat it when next in calf1 we see how seriously the mischief becomes multiplied4 ,a somewhat extended observation1 added to my own experience1 has led me to the conviction that very much of the loss arising from abortion in our cows may be traced to the cause ,i have named4 ,i feel assured the influence is even more extended than ,i have stated2 for not only would the foetus be thrown off in its advanced stage1 but also in its earlier growth1 thus causing great trouble to breeders of high-bred stock1 the repeated turning of cows to the bull1 and at most irregular intervals4 ,the remedy differs in no respect from the ordinary mode of treatment1 except that it compels a removal of the stock from the influence of the cause4 ,much1 however1 may be done by way of prevention2 and this ,i shall briefly notice4 ,it simply consists in keeping breeding cows and heifers upon land free from these seeds4 ,grass which has been grazed during the summer1 will very generally1 in a humid climate1 have some of this ergotized seed2 but ,i have not observed it produced before the end of ,july1 or early in ,august2 and ,i doubt its existence1 to any injurious degree1 up to this time4 ,we may1 therefore1 consider such ground safe up to this period4 ,if the breeding stock are then removed to grass land which1 having been mown for this operation is a guaranty against any seeds remaining1 it will seldom1 if ever1 happen that any injury will result from the production of ergotized grass later in the season4 ,i will not venture to say that such will not appear in some cases where the grass has been cut early and has been followed by a rapid growth2 but1 at any rate1 we have grazing land free from this excitant from ,july until ,september2 and in the grass which has been mown late1 ,i do not consider that there is the least fear of ergot's being again formed in that season4 ,in this manner a farmer may keep grass land for his breeding stock entirely free from ergotized grass2 and1 consequently1 so far as this cause is concerned1 they will be free from abortion4 ,how far young heifers may be prejudicially influenced1 before they are used for breeding1 by an excitement of the womb1 appears to me to be a subject worthy of some attention on the part of the veterinary profession4 ,,apoplexy4 ,this is a determination of blood to the head1 causing pressure upon the brain4 ,animals attacked with this disease are generally in a plethoric condition4 ,the usual symptoms are coma 7a sleepy state71 eyes protruding1 respiration accelerated2 finally1 the animal falls1 struggles1 and dies4 ,in such cases1 bleeding should be resorted to at an early period2 give in drink one pound of ,epsom-salts4 ,,black ,,water4 ,this is simply an exaggerated stage of the disease known as ,red ,water1--to which the reader is referred in its appropriate place1--the urine being darker in color in consequence of the admixture of venous blood4 ,the symptoms are similar1 though more acute4 ,there is constipation at first1 which is followed by diarrhoea1 large quantities of blood passing away with the evacuations from the bowels2 symptoms of abdominal pain are present2 the loins become extremely tender2 and the animal dies in a greatly prostrated condition4 ,the treatment does not differ from that prescribed in case of ,red ,water4 ,,bronchitis4 ,the trachea and bronchial tubes are frequently the seat of inflammation1 especially in the spring of the year1--the symptoms of which are often confounded with those of other pulmonary diseases4 ,this inflammation is frequently preceded by catarrhal affections2 cough is often present for a long time before the more acute symptoms are observed4 ,bronchitis occasionally makes its appearance in an epizooetic form4 ,symptoms4--,a peculiarly anxious expression of the countenance will be observed2 respiration laborious2 a husky1 wheezing1 painful cough2 on placing the ear to the windpipe a sonorous rale is heard2 symptomatic fever also prevails to a greater or less extent4 ,treatment4--,counter-irritation should be early resorted to2 strong mustard1 mixed with equal parts of spirits of hartshorn and water1 and made into a thin paste1 should be applied all along the neck1 over the windpipe1 and to the sides1 and should be well rubbed in2 or1 the tincture of cantharides1 with ten drops of castor-oil to each ounce1 applied in the same manner as the former1 will be found equally effective4 ,give internally ten drops of ,fleming's tincture of aconite every four hours1 until five or six doses have been given2 after which give one of the following powders twice a day3 nitrate of potash1 one ounce2 ,barbadoes aloes1 one ounce2 ,jamaica ginger1 half an ounce2 pulverized-gentian root1 one ounce2 mix and divide into eight powders4 ,if necessary a pound of salts may be given4 ,,consumption ,this affection--technically known as phthisis pulmonalis--is the termination of chronic disease of the lungs4 ,these organs become filled with many little cysts1 or sacks1 containing a yellowish or yellowish-white fluid1 which in time is hardened1 producing a condition of the lungs known as tuberculous4 ,these tubercles in turn undergo another change1 becoming soft in the centre and gradually involving the whole of the hardened parts1 which1 uniting with adjoining ones1 soon forms cysts of considerable size4 ,these cysts are known as abscesses4 ,no treatment will be of much service here4 ,it is1 therefore1 better1 if the animal is not too poor in flesh1 to have it slaughtered4 ,,coryza ,in the spring1 and late in the fall1 catarrhal affections are quite common1 occurring frequently in a epizooetic form4 ,coryza1 or nasal catarrh1--commonly called a cold in the head1--is not very common among cows4 ,as its name implies1 it is a local disease1 confined to the lining membrane of the nose2 and1 consequently1 the general system is not usually disturbed4 ,symptoms4--,the animal will be observed to sneeze2 the ,schneiderian membrane 7membrane of the nose7 is heightened in color2 cough sometimes accompanies2 there is also a muco-purulent discharge from the nose4 ,neglect to attend to these early symptoms frequently occasions disease of a more serious nature2 in fact1 coryza may be regarded as the forerunner of all epizooetic pulmonary disorders4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,chat ,,on ,,the ,,road4 ,treatment4--,the animal should be kept on a low diet for a few days2 the nostrils occasionally steamed1 and one of the following powders given night and morning1 which1 in most cases1 will be all the medicine required3 nitrate of potassa1 one ounce2 digitalis leaves pulverized and tartrate of antimony1 of each one drachm2 sulphate of copper1 two drachms2 mix1 and divide into eight powders4 ,should the disease prove obstinate1 give for two or three days two ounces of ,epsom-salts at a dose1 dissolved in water1 three times a day4 ,,cow-,,pox4 ,two varieties of sore teats occur in the cow1 in the form of pustular eruptions4 ,they first appear as small vesicles containing a purulent matter1 and subsequently assume a scabby appearance1 or small ulcers remain1 which often prove troublesome to heal4 ,this latter is the cow-pox1 from which ,jenner derived the vaccine matter4 ,treatment4--,foment the teats well with warm water and ,castile-soap2 after which1 wipe the bag dry1 and dress with citrine ointment4 ,the preparations of iodine have also been recommended1 and they are very serviceable4 ,,diarrhoea4 ,cattle are frequently subject to this disease1 particularly in the spring of the year when the grass is young and soft4 ,occasionally it assumes a very obstinate form in consequence of the imperfect secretion of gastric juice2 the faeces are thin1 watery1 and fetid1 followed by very great prostration of the animal4 ,the symptoms of diarrhoea are too well known to require any detailed description4 ,treatment4--,if in a mild form1 the diet should be low2 give two ounces of ,epsom-salts1 twice a day4 ,in a more obstinate form1 give two drachms of carbonate of soda in the food4 ,oak-bark tea will be found very useful in these cases2 or one of the following powders1 twice a day1 will be found very advantageous3 pulverized opium and catechu1 each one and a half ounces2 prepared chalk1 one drachm2 to be given in the feed4 ,calves are particularly subject to this disease1 and it often proves fatal to them4 ,it sometimes assumes an epizooetic form1 when it is generally of a mild character4 ,so long as the calf is lively and feeds well1 the farmer should entertain no fear for him2 but if he mopes about1 refuses his food1 ceases to ruminate1 wastes in flesh1 passes mucus and blood with the faeces1 and exhibits symptoms of pain1 the case is a dangerous one4 ,in such an emergency1 lose no time1 but give two or three ounces of ,castor-oil with flour-gruel1 or two ounces of salts at a dose1 followed with small draughts of oak-bark tea2 or give1 twice a day1 one of the following powders3 pulverized catechu1 opium1 and ,jamaca ginger1 of each half an ounce2 prepared chalk1 one ounce2 mix1 and divide into twelve powders4 ,bran washes1 green food1 and flour-gruel should be given1 with plenty of salt4 ,,dysentery ,this disease is very frequently confounded with the foregoing4 ,a distinction1 however1 exists1--since inflammation appears in this disease1 while it is absent in the former4 ,in this affection1 inflammation of the large intestines takes place1 which is attended with diarrhoea4 ,the faeces are covered with blood2 the animal rapidly becomes prostrated1 and death frequently comes to his relief4 ,youatt says3 ,it is1 however1 with dysentery that the practitioner is most loth to cope1--a disease that betrays thousands of cattle4 ,this1 also1 may be either acute or chronic4 ,its causes are too often buried in obscurity1 and its premonitory symptoms are disregarded or unknown4 ,there appears to be a strong predisposition in cattle to take on this disease4 ,it seems to be the winding-up of many serious complaints1 and the foundation of it is sometimes laid by those that appear to be of the most trifling nature4 ,it is that in cattle which glanders and farcy are in the horse1--the breaking up of the constitution4 ,dysentery may be a symptom and concomitant of other diseases4 ,it is one of the most fearful characteristics of murrain2 it is the destructive accompaniment1 or consequence1 of phthisis4 ,it is produced by the sudden disappearance of a cutaneous eruption2 it follows the cessation of chronic hoose2 it is the consequence of the natural or artificial suspension of every secretion4 ,were any secretion to be particularly selected1 the repression of which would produce dysentery1 it would be that of the milk4 ,how often does the farmer observe that no sooner does a milch cow cease her usual supply of milk than she begins to purge6 ,there may not appear to be any thing else the matter with her2 but she purges1 and1 in the majority of cases1 that purging is fatal4 ,it may1 sometimes1 however1 be traced to sufficient causes1 exclusive of previous disease4 ,unwholesome food--exposure to cold--neglect at the time of calving--low and marshy situations--the feeding in meadows that have been flooded1 where it is peculiarly fatal--the grazing 7according to ,mr4 ,leigh1 and our experience confirms his statement7 upon the clays lying over the blue lias rock--the neighborhood of woods and of half-stagnant rivers--the continuation of unusually sultry weather--overwork1 and all the causes of acute dysentery1 may produce that of a chronic nature2 an acute dysentery--neglected1 or badly1 or even most skillfully treated--may degenerate into an incurable chronic affection4 ,half starve a cow1 or over-feed her1 milk her to exhaustion1 or dry her milk too rapidly--and dysentery may follow4 ,the following will1 probably1 be the order of the symptoms1 if they are carefully observed3 ,there will be a little dullness or anxiety of countenance1 the muzzle becoming short or contracted2 a slight shrinking when the loins are pressed upon2 the skin a little harsh and dry2 the hair a little rough2 there will be a slight degree of uneasiness and shivering that scarcely attracts attention2 then--except it be the degeneracy of acute into chronic dysentery--constipation may be perceived4 ,it will be to a certain extent1 obstinate2 the excrement will voided with pain2 it will be dry1 hard1 and expelled in small quantities4 ,in other cases1 perhaps1 purging will be present from the beginning2 the animal will be tormented with tenesmus1 or frequent desire to void its excrement1 and that act attended by straining and pain1 by soreness about the anus1 and protrusion of the rectum1 and sometimes by severe colicky spasms4 ,in many cases1 however1 and in those of a chronic form1 few of these distressing symptoms are observed1 even at the commencement of the disease2 but the animal voids her faeces oftener than it is natural that she should1 and they are more fluid than in a state of health2 while at the same time she loses her appetite and spirits and condition1 and is evidently wasting away4 ,treatment4--,give one drachm of the extract of belladonna1 three times a day1 dissolved in water2 or calomel and powdered opium1 of each one drachm three times daily4 ,as soon as the inflammatory stage passes by1 give one of the following three times daily1 in their gruel3 nitrate of potash pulverized1 gentian-root pulverized1 of each one ounce2 pulverized ,jamaica ginger1 one half an ounce2 pulverized caraway1 or anise-seed1 six drachms4 ,a bottle of porter given once or twice a day1 will be found of very great advantage4 ,,enteritis4 ,this is an inflammation of the external or internal coat of the intestines1 sometimes attended with violent purging1 especially when it is confined to the internal coats4 ,oxen in good condition are more subject to this disease than are cows4 ,it most frequently occurs in dry1 hot weather4 ,it is sudden in its attacks1 and often fatal in its termination4 ,symptoms4--,the animal is dull1 and not disposed to move about2 the muzzle is dry1 and the coat staring2 the animal yields1 on pressure of the loins2 a weak1 staggering gait1 when forced to move2 respiration hurried2 pulse accelerated but small2 eyes red1 full and fiery2 head protruding2 mouth1 ears1 and horns hot2 appetite bad2 rumination ceases2 the bowels become constipated2 the animal moans continually1 and froths at the mouth4 ,these symptoms violently increase as the disease advances4 ,the animal becomes more depressed and feeble1 grinds his teeth1 and appears half unconscious1 and dies in convulsions4 ,of the causes of this disease1 ,youatt1 who is almost the only authority we have upon this subject1 says3 ,it seems occasionally to be epidemic2 for several instances of it occur1 of the same character1 and in the same district4 ,m4 ,cruzel gives an illustration of this in his description of the disease that destroyed so many cattle1 in the years #ahbf to #ahbg1 in the ,department de la ,nievre4 ,out of two hundred and eighteen cattle belonging to three farmers1 one hundred and thirteen were attacked by this disease1 and eighty-three of them died4 ,one farmer in a neighboring district had nineteen head of cattle1 all of which sickened1 but only three were lost4 ,these were unusually hot summers4 ,the upland pasture was burnt up1 or what remained of it was rendered unusually stimulating2 and the acrid plants of the marshes and low grounds acquired additional deleterious agency4 ,when isolated cases occur1 they may generally be attributed to mismanagement4 ,exposure to cold1 or the drinking of cold water when overheated with work2 too hard work in sultry weather2 the use of water stagnant1 impure1 or containing any considerable quantity of metallic salts2 the sudden revulsion of some cutaneous eruption2 the crowding of animals into a confined place2 too luxuriant and stimulating food generally2 and the mildewed and unwholesome food on which cattle are too often kept1 are fruitful sources of this complaint4 ,treatment4--,in the early stage of the disease1 give an active purge1 and follow it with ten drops of ,fleming's tincture of aconite1 four times daily1 for two days2 then give drachm doses of the extract of belladonna2 give no food for twenty-four or forty-eight hours1 according to circumstances4 ,bleeding1 if done early1 is often beneficial4 ,counter-irritants to the belly are also recommended2 the best are mustard1 hartshorn1 and water1 mixed together--or tincture of cantharides1 with one drachm of croton-oil added to every ounce4 ,e,p,i,z,o,oe,t,i,c,s4 ,diseases of this class have the same relation to the inferior animals that epidemic diseases have to man4 ,of course1 they assume a very pestilential character4 ,scarcely a year passes away without diseases of this nature making their appearance in some parts of the world4 ,they occur at all seasons of the year1 but more generally prevail in the spring and fall4 ,the period of their duration varies from months to years4 ,they are1 at times1 mild in their attacks1 and yield readily to proper treatment2 at other times1 they become painful pestilences1 destroying every thing in their course4 ,the causes are generally sought for in some peculiar condition of the atmosphere4 ,the use of the milk and flesh of diseased cattle has frequently been productive of malignant diseases in the human family4 ,silius ,italicus describes a fearful epizooetic1 which first attacked the dog1 then the feathered biped1 then horses1 and cattle1 and1 last of all1 the human being4 ,on mules and dogs the infection first began1 ,and1 last1 the vengeful arrows fixed in man4 ,epizooetics1 occurring in rats1 cats1 dogs1 horses1 and cattle1 which were followed in the succeeding years by more fearful ones which attacked the human family1 are numerously recorded4 ,these scourges have appeared in all ages of the world2 but1 as time and space will not allow our entering upon an extended consideration of them1--however interesting they might be to the general reader1--we shall content ourselves by quoting1 somewhat in brief1 from the lectures of the late ,william ,youatt on these fatal maladies3-- ,in the year #hja1 and at the commencement of the reign of ,charlemagne1 an epidemic disease devastated a great portion of his dominions4 ,this was attributed to the villainy of the ,duke of ,benevento1 who was said to have employed a great many persons in scattering an enchanted powder over the fields1 which destroyed both the cattle and the food of the cattle4 ,m4 ,paulet seems inclined to give full credence to this1 and says that history offers many proofs of this destructive and diabolical practice4 ,he affirms that many persons were punished in ,germany1 ,france1 and1 particularly1 at ,toulouse1 for the commission of this crime4 ,several of the suspected agents of these atrocities were put to the torture and made full confession of their crime4 ,of the occurrence of these diseases from the year #hjj to #acaf1--;an interval of mental darkness1 and of horrors and calamities of every kind1--history records twenty cases1 more or less destructive1 and extending1 with greater or less devastation1 over ,france and ,germany1 ,italy and ,england4 ,of these twenty1 four date their origin from an excessive moisture in the air1 accompanied by almost continual rains1 and flooding the country to a considerable extent4 ,one was supposed to be the consequence of long-continued drought and excessive heat2 one was traced to the influence of an eclipse of the sun2 another1 to a comet2 and a fourth1 to a most unusually stormy winter4 ,the reader will have the kindness to remember that we are here expressing the opinions of the writers of the day1 and by no means1 our own belief of the matter4 ,of the four which trace their origin to extreme wet and its consequences1 the first occurred in ,france1 in #hbj1 after a long continuance of rain2 and it was equally fatal to men and cattle4 ,the second1 which was equally fatal to both1 appeared in ,lorraine1 in #hhi4 ,the third broke out among the cavalry of the army of ,arnoul1 in its passage over the ,alps1 on its return to ,italy4 ,the fourth pervaded the whole of ,england in #aabe1 and was equally fatal to the biped and the quadruped4 ,that which followed excessive heat and drought1 was generally prevalent throughout ,europe1 but especially so in ,germany4 ,it attacked oxen1 sheep1 and pigs4 ,it appeared in #iid1 and lasted six months4 ,the one which was attributed to the comet1 and which principally attacked cattle1 appeared in ,france in #idc ,almost every animal perished4 ,another1 that was supposed to be connected with an eclipse of the sun1 was prevalent throughout the greater part of ,germany1 among men and animals1 in #ihi4 ,the disease1 which was the consequence of a cold and boisterous winter1 was principally prevalent in ,france1 in #hhg1 and committed sad ravages among the herds of cattle and sheep4 ,of the twelve others1 of which1 authors do not indicate the cause1 the first was in ,france1 in #haj1 and principally among cattle4 ,the second was also in ,france1 in #hej1 and almost depopulated the country of cattle4 ,the third1 in #hfh1 was common to all animals in ,france4 ,the fourth1 in #hgj1 was in the same country1 and caused severe loss among cattle4 ,the fifth prevailed on the ,rhine and in ,germany1 and destroyed an almost incalculable number of cattle4 ,the sixth attacked the horses of the army of ,arnoul in ,lorraine1 in #hhh4 ,the seventh1 in #idj1 destroyed a vast number of cattle in ,france1 ,italy1 and ,germany4 ,the eighth and ninth were in ,france1 in #ida and #idb1 and almost all the cattle in the country perished4 ,the tenth pestilence broke out in ,england1 in the year #ajda1 and frightful was its devastation among all animals1 and1 particularly1 horned cattle4 ,the eleventh also devastated our country1 in #aajc1 and the ravages were dreadful4 ,the twelfth was chiefly fatal in ,germany1 and particularly in ,gueldres1 in #aadi4 ,these twenty pestilences occurred in the space of #ejf years4 ,five or six of them were most prevalent among cattle2 two were almost confined to horses2 twelve included1 to a greater or less degree1 almost every species of quadrupeds2 and four extended to the human being4 ,among these the ravages of eight were most destructive in ,france2 as many in ,germany2 and four in ,italy and ,england4 ,as far as we have hitherto proceeded1 it will also appear that cattle are more subject to these diseases than any other species of domesticated animals1 and that the pestilence is always most fearful among them4 ,it is also evident that the maladies which proceed from cold or humidity are more frequent in the temperate and southern parts of ,europe than those which depend upon drought1 or almost any other cause4 ,the malady lingers in different countries1 in proportion to its want of power to accomplish at once all its devastation4 ,after this time1 there are few satisfactory accounts of these diseases for more than five centuries4 ,we only know that1 occasionally suspending their ravages1--or1 rather1 visiting new districts when they had ceased to desolate others--they have continued to be objects of terror and instruments of devastation1 even unto the present day2 and it is only within a few years that they have been really understood1 and have become1 to a certain degree1 manageable4 ,in the ,united ,states1 epizooetic diseases have been of frequent occurrence2 but1 owing to the want of properly qualified veterinary surgeons1 they have not1 until within a very recent period1 been properly described or understood4 ,the day however1 is fast approaching when this void will be filled1 and when epizooetic and other diseases will be correctly noted and recorded4 ,the necessity for this must have been forcibly impressed upon the minds of the inhabitants of our country from the experience of the last ten or twelve years4 ,respecting the late epizooetic among cattle in ,portage ,county1 ,ohio1 ,william ,pierce1 ,v4,s41 of ,ravenna1 thus describes the symptoms as they appeared1 in a letter to the author3 ,a highly-colored appearance of the sclerotic coat of the eye1 also of the conjunctiva 7a lining membrane of the eyelid7 and the ,schneiderian membrane of the nose2 a high animal heat about the head and horns2 a highly inflammatory condition of the blood2 contraction of all the abdominal viscera2 hurried respiration2 great prostration and nervous debility2 lameness2 followed by gangrene of the extremity of the tail1 and the hind-feet2 terminating in mortification and death4 ,mr4 ,pierce is convinced that these symptoms are produced by the continued use of the ergot1 or spur of the ,june grass1--the effects being similar to those produced upon the human family by long-continued use of ergot of rye4 ,this disease assumes both an acute and chronic form4 ,the same gentleman also says3 ,ordinary observers1 as well as those who claim to be scientific1 have entertained very conflicting opinions as to its general character2 some regarding it as epizooetic1 others as contagious2 some attributing it to atmospheric influence1 others to foulings in the stable or yard4 ,others1 again1 attribute it to freezing of the feet in winter4 ,cattle-doctors in a majority of cases1 fail to cure it4 ,i have1 however1 by a simple course of treatment1 effected many signal cures4 ,some parties are so confident of the contagious character of the disease that they refuse to drive cattle along a road where it is known to exist4 ,they even1 oftentimes1 wash their boots previous to entering their barnyards1 after walking over the ground where such diseased cattle have been running4 ,caution is both proper and commendable4 ,i do not1 however1 regard it as a contagious disease1 nor can it be transmitted by inoculation4 ,the calf is carried during the progress of the disease1 and delivered in apparently good health4 ,the milk of the cow appears to be unaffected and harmless4 ,i call this disease sphacial fever1 or gangrenous fever4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,mad ,,bull4 ,the ergot1 or spur of the hay1 is confined to the ,june grass1 as far as my observation extends2 owing1 probably1 to its early maturity4 ,most other kinds of grass are cut before the seeds have matured sufficiently to produce the spur4 ,i was suspicious of the foulness of the feed before ,i examined any hay1 and have found the spur in the hay wherever the disease is found4 ,mr4 ,sanford1 of ,edinburgh1 ,ohio1 purchased one half of a mow of hay from ,mr4 ,bassett1 of ,randolph1 which was removed to his farm in ,randolph1 eight miles distant4 ,of this hay1 ,mr4 ,sanford fed eleven cows some six or eight weeks4 ,mr4 ,bassett had been feeding the same to four cows4 ,at about the same time1 both heads began to show lameness4 ,i visited ,mr4 ,s4 after he had lost six cows1 and examined the remaining five1 four of which were lame and the other showed symptoms of the disease4 ,he had two other cows1 one of which was loaned to a neighbor1 and the other was fed upon different hay1 for convenience4 ,the loaned cow was returned about the first of ,march1--the two then running with the ailing ones until the #bdth of ,april1 when ,i saw them sound and in good health4 ,i then visited ,mr4 ,bassett's stock1 which ,i found infected with the same disease1--he having lost one1 and the remaining three being lame1 and much debilitated4 ,the hoofs were sloughing off4 ,some of the same hay remained in the snow1 which1 upon examination1 exhibited an abundance of the spur4 ,upon inquiry1 ,i found that no such disease existed between the two farms1 or in the neighborhood of either ,mr4 ,s4 or ,mr4 ,b4 ,the peculiarity of this circumstance at once swept away the last vestige of doubt from my mind4 ,mr4 ,e4 ,chapman1 of ,rootstown1 accompanied me1 and can vouch for the correctness of these statements4 ,he hooted at my opinions1 asserting that he understood the disease1 and that it was caused by the freezing of the feet4 ,he has since1 however1 abandoned that idea1 and honestly 'acknowledged the corn4' ,this ergot is regarded by some as a parasitic fungus1 formed in other grains1 an abundant vegeto-animal substance1 and much disposed to putrefaction4 ,we appear to be in the dark regarding its real composition4 ,the little which has been written upon the subject1 appears to be founded upon hypothesis1 and that the most obscure4 ,the articles to which ,i refer may differ in quality or property to a considerable extent1 and we may forever remain in the dark1 unless chemical investigation be instituted4 ,in this particular disease1 there appears to be singularity in the symptoms through all its various stages1 which is likely to originate in the peculiarity of the cause which produces them4 ,the effects and symptoms arising from the continued use of the ergot of rye1 as manifested in the human system1 have been but briefly hinted at by authors1 and1 probably1 some of them are only reasonable conjectures4 ,all they say is1 that it produces violent headache1 spaculation in the extremities1 and death4 ,hitherto1 its effects upon the inferior animal have been subjected to no investigation1 and its peculiarity in the symptoms1 differing from like phenomena by other causes1 may yet be demonstrated4 ,i am not alone in my opinion of this disease4 ,i have taken counsel of those whose judgment cannot be questioned4 ,whatever difference of opinion exists is attributable to a want of investigation1 and it will continue to exist until this singular phenomenon is clearly accounted for4 ,every opinion should be thoroughly criticized till facts are obtained4 ,every man's opinion is sacred to himself1 but we should yield to conviction4 ,two classes of this disease are exhibited3 one1 of irritation1 and the other1 of debility2 one1 an acute1 the other1 a chronic form4 ,the point at which it assumes the chronic form is between congestion and gangrene4 ,by close observation we can discover these to be different and higher degrees of the same disease4 ,all subsequent degrees are dependent upon the first4 ,the first symptom1 or degree1 is1 probably1 an attack upon the systematic circulation1 produced by a certain medicinal and deleterious property existing in the ergot1 and communicated to the blood through the absorption of the tongue4 ,this is more evident from the fact that the digestive organs retain their normal condition till the last stages of the chronic form4 ,the blood in the first two stages is healthy1 and the peculiar influence is only apparent in the subsequent stages2 as evidenced by the fact that the muscles and general good appearance1 as well as life itself1 last longer than could be possible1 if this deleterious influence were exhausted upon the digestive organs and the blood1 in its first stages4 ,and1 as we suppose that fever and congestion constitute an attack upon the red blood1 which is exhibited by hurried pulsation1 we might rationally infer that the next degree would be gangrene of the globule1 causing sloughing1 the same as if it were carried to the muscles1 or surface4 ,this sloughing of the globule would be the same as if exhibited on any other part of the organization1 for the fibrin is identical with muscle1 as albumen is identical with the white of an egg2 and since congestion is the forerunner of gangrene at the extremities1 or on the surface1 so fever and quick pulsation are the forerunners of congestion of the blood4 ,gangrene cannot ensue without obstruction in the blood-vessels2 and congestion cannot take place without obstruction in that which sustains the globule4 ,as gangrene1 then1 is the first stage of decomposition of animal matter1 so is congestion the first stage of decomposition of the globule2 and as mortification is death in the organized body1 so is congestion death in the organized globule4 ,it appears evident that this disease1 in all its forms and degrees of intensity1 seeks vent or release2 in other words1 ,nature conflicting with it1 throws it off its track1 or balance1 and offers means of escape1 or shows it a door by which it may make its exit4 ,in the first stage of the disease1 the dermoid 7skin7 tissues make the effort4 ,in the inflammatory1 the serous1 and the congestive1 the mucous gangrene seeks vent2 if obtained1 mortification is prevented2 if not1 mortification directly supervenes1 and death terminates the case4 ,in the case to which ,i refer1 observation confirms my opinion that absolute mortification without vent determines the gangrene of the blood1 and is hardly curable2 but that gangrene's finding vent determines it to be curable1 and the recovery highly probable4 ,e,p,i,z,o,oe,t,i,c ,,catarrh4 ,catarrh frequently assumes an epizooetic form of a very virulent character1 originating spontaneously and extending over a large section of country at or about the same time4 ,a cold spring succeeding a mild winter1 is peculiarly productive of malignant catarrh4 ,this is one of the most distressing and fatal diseases to which cattle are subject4 ,symptoms4--,the animal appears dull1 and unwilling to move about1 staggering when forced to do so2 obstinate costiveness is usually one of the earliest symptoms1 succeeded by diarrhoea1 which is equally difficult of management2 sometimes1 however1 diarrhoea is present from the first2 the animal loses flesh rapidly2 the coat is staring2 appetite is lost2 tumors form about the head1 neck1 back1 and joints1 which appear to be filled with air1 and upon pressure cause a crepitating sound2 saliva flows from the mouth1 becoming very fetid as the disease progresses4 ,the animal always dies of putrefaction4 ,treatment4--,this disease should be treated early1 or not at all4 ,good nursing is very essential4 ,when costiveness is present1 give ,barbadoes aloes1 one ounce2 croton-oil1 ten drops2 mix together2 or give one pint of linseed-oil1 to which add from ten to twenty drops of castor-oil4 ,if the bowels are not open in twenty-four hours1 give four ounces of sulphate of magnesia every six hours until they are opened4 ,follow this with tincture of aconite1 ten drops in water1 every four hours1 until the fever has abated4 ,bleeding has been recommended by some writers2 but the author has failed to experience any benefit from resorting to it1 but1 on the contrary1 has seen much injury result from the use--or1 rather1 the abuse--of the lancet4 ,he is1 indeed1 inclined to attribute much of the fatality attending this disease to indiscriminate blood-letting4 ,when much debility exists1 the animal should be sustained by tonics and stimulants4 ,one ounce of nitric ether and half an ounce of tincture of opium1 given in a little water1 will be found beneficial4 ,it should be given twice a day4 ,pulverized gentian-root1 one ounce2 ,jamaica ginger1 half an ounce2 pulverized cloves1 half an ounce2 mixed1 and divided into four powders1 one to be given at night and at morning2 will be found useful1 in place of the opium and ether4 ,,fardel4 ,this disease is properly known by the name of clue-bound4 ,the manyplus1 or omasum 7third stomach71 frequently becomes so choked up with food that it is hard and dry1 and the operation of the digestive organs is very seriously impaired4 ,the animal eats voraciously1 for a time1 but stops suddenly and trembles2 the countenance assumes a peculiarly haggard appearance2 there is a wild expression of the eye2 a foaming at the mouth2 a tendency to pitch forward1 and at times a falling head-foremost to the ground4 ,occasionally1 the symptoms are very active1 speedily terminating in death4 ,there are few diseases of a constitutional character in which the stomach is not1 more or less1 sympathetically involved4 ,toward the end of ,september1 #agdf1 a great number of cows died at ,osterwich1 in the principality of ,halberstadt4 ,lieberkuhn1 a celebrated physician1--there were no veterinary surgeons at that time1--was sent to examine into the nature of the disease1 which was supposed to be one of the species of murrain that was then committing such ravages among the cattle in various parts of the ,continent4 ,there were none of the tumors1 or pestilential buboes1 that1 in an earlier or later period of the malady1 usually accompanied and characterized murrain2 but upon inspection of the dead bodies1 considerable peritoneal inflammation was found2 the first and second stomachs were filled with food1 but the third stomach was the palpable seat of the disease2 its leaves were black and gangrened4 ,the mass contained between the leaves was black1 dry1 and so hard that it could scarcely be cut with a scalpel4 ,it intercepted the passage of the food from the first two stomachs to the fourth2 and this latter stomach was empty and much inflamed4 ,neither the heart1 nor the lungs1 nor the intestines exhibited any trace of disease4 ,twelve cows were opened1 and the appearances were nearly the same in all of them4 ,treatment4--,give one and a half pounds of ,epsom-salts1 dissolved in three pints of water2 or one quart of potash1 three times daily1 dissolved in water1 will be found useful in this disease4 ,,foul ,,in ,,the ,,foot4 ,this is caused by hard or irritating substances making their way in between the claws of the foot1 causing inflammation1 and sometimes ulceration1 in the parts4 ,the pasterns swell1 and the animal becomes lame4 ,the foot should be thoroughly washed1 and all foreign substances removed4 ,a pledget of tow1 saturated with tar and sprinkled with powdered sulphate of copper1 should be inserted between the claws4 ,this usually requires but one or two applications4 ,,garget4 ,this is a hard1 knotty condition of the udder1 which sometimes follows calving1 in consequence of the sudden distention of the bag with milk2 and the inflammation which supervenes causes a congealed or coagulated condition of the milk to take place1 of which1 if neglected1 suppuration and abscesses are the result4 ,treatment4--,let the calf suck the dam as speedily as possible1 and1 if the hardness is not then removed1 foment the udder with warm water2 after which1 wipe it dry1 and apply to the entire surface melted lard as hot as the animal will bear4 ,this is1 generally1 all that is required1 the most obstinate cases yielding to it4 ,if abscesses form1 they should be lanced4 ,,gastro-,,enteritis4 ,this disease--otherwise known as wood-evil1 or moor-ill--arises from eating the buds of oak1 young ash1 and other trees1 which are of a very highly stimulating or irritating character4 ,as the intestinal canal is liable to inflammatory action from irritant substances admitted into it1 animals are found to become diseased from eating too freely of these vegetable substances4 ,symptoms4--,loss of appetite and suspended rumination2 mouth hot2 skin dry2 pulse from sixty to seventy2 swelling and pain of the belly2 obstinate constipation2 faeces hard and covered with blood2 urine of a strong odor1 highly colored1 and voided with difficulty4 ,treatment4--,the animal should be bled1 and a strong purgative administered1 followed by aconite and belladonna1 as in enteritis4 ,injections of ,castile-soap and water should be freely used2 the application of the mustard1 hartshorn1 and water to the belly will also be found very beneficial4 ,,hoose4 ,this disease--known also as catarrh--is occasionally the sequence of coryza1 but more frequently it arises from an impure atmosphere2 consequently1 in cow-houses where animals are crowded together in numbers1 it is most frequently found4 ,scanty provender1 and of an inferior quality1 is among the exciting causes of hoose1 producing1 as it does1 a debilitated state of the system1 which1 upon exposure of the animal to cold1 or wet1 hastens the disorder4 ,some breeds of cattle are peculiarly liable to this disease1 which1 if not arrested in its early stage1 runs on1 involving the lungs1 and frequently terminating in consumption4 ,of all our domestic animals1 neat cattle are most subject to pulmonary diseases4 ,this is attributable to the neglect and exposure which are far too often their lot4 ,butchers will testify that a large portion of all cattle slaughtered have abscesses and other diseases of the lungs4 ,symptoms4--,loss of appetite2 muzzle dry2 coat rough1 or staring2 respiration quickened2 horns hot2 ears1 nose1 and legs cold2 husky cough2 pulse from sixty to seventy1 small and thready2 bowels frequently constipated4 ,treatment4--,give one ounce of the following powders every six hours1 until the bowels are opened3 ,barbadoes aloes1 one and half ounces2 nitrate of potassa1 half an ounce2 ginger1 six drachms2 mix and divide into six powders4 ,setons in the dewlap are often of great benefit4 ,,hoove4 ,hoove1 or blown1 so common1 and often so speedily fatal in cattle1 is the result of fermentation in the rumen1 or paunch1 in consequence of the animal's having eaten large quantities of wet grass1 luxuriant clover1 turnips1 etc4 ,an accumulation of gas is the result of this fermentation1 which greatly disturbs the haunch and left side of the belly1 causing much pain to the animal1 and frequently threatening suffocation4 ,treatment4--,drench the animal with one ounce of spirits of hartshorn in one quart of water1 the object being to neutralize the gas which is present in the rumen2 or1 two ounces of table salt dissolved in one quart of water will be found very effectual4 ,if these do not speedily give relief1 an active purge should be given4 ,injections of soap and water should be freely used4 ,if the case still proves obstinate1 and the life of the animal is threatened1 the paunch should be punctured4 ,for this purpose1 the trochar--an instrument specially adapted--should be used2 but1 in the absence of an instrument1 an ordinary pocket-knife may be employed1 taking care not to make a large opening4 ,the proper point to operate is midway between the last rib and the prominent point of the hip-bone1 about twelve inches from the centre of the back or loins4 ,few cases have a fatal termination where this operation has been properly performed4 ,,hydatids4 ,worms in the brain occasionally occur1 causing great uneasiness to the animal and generally proving fatal4 ,the symptoms are1 loss of appetite2 suspended rumination2 a fevered condition of the system2 horns and ears hot2 respiration disturbed2 coat staring1 etc4 ,no course of treatment will prove efficacious in this disease4 ,pressure on the brain may occur from an accumulation of water1 tumors1 bruises1 etc41 in the cranial case4 ,in either case1 the same effects are produced as are observed in apoplexy4 ,,inflammation ,,of ,,the ,,bladder4 ,inflammation of the bladder generally accompanies inflammation of the kidneys1 though it is sometimes found disconnected and alone4 ,it is occasionally caused by calculous concretions in the bladder1--which should be removed1--causing very acute abdominal pain to the animal4 ,she makes frequent efforts to stale1 passing but a few drops of urine at a time4 ,the pulse is full and rapid2 mouth clammy2 nose dry2 eyes bloodshot2 appetite lost2 moaning1 and walking with a staggering gait4 ,treatment4--,inject into the bladder one quart of tepid water1 and from one to two ounces of tincture of opium mixed together4 ,give internally one of the following powders every hour until relieved2 nitrate of potassa1 one ounce2 tartrate of antimony1 and pulverized digitalis leaves1 each one drachm2 mix1 and divide into six powders4 ,mucilaginous draughts should be freely given4 ,rupture of the bladder sometimes occurs1 but there are no symptoms by which it may be known2 and1 if there were1 no service could be rendered in the way of repairing the injury2 the animal must die4 ,,inflammation ,,of ,,the ,,haw4 ,the ox1 like the horse1 has a membrane of semilunar form in the inner corner of the eye1 which is capable of being thrown over the entire eyeball1 for the purpose of cleansing the eye from any foreign substance which may get into it4 ,this membrane is commonly called the haw1 and is susceptible of attacks of inflammation1 which cause it to swell1 frequently even closing up the eye4 ,treatment4--,give a dose of physic1 and1 if the animal is plethoric1 extract a little blood from the vein on the same side as the affected eye4 ,apply to the eye either of the following washes3 tincture of opium1 one ounce2 rain-water1 one pint2 or1 tincture of aconite1 one drachm1 to one pint of water4 ,bathe two or three times a day4 ,,inflammation ,,of ,,the ,,kidneys4 ,this disease--sometimes called nephritis--occurs occasionally in cattle in consequence of their eating bad or unwholesome food1 or of the abuse of diuretics1 etc4 ,the symptoms are very insidious in their approach4 ,the loins are very tender upon pressure2 the urine is voided in small quantities4 ,as the disease advances1 the symptoms become more marked and acute4 ,the animal is dull1 and feeds daintily2 the evacuation of urine is attended with increased pain1 and the urine is highly colored and bloody2 the nose is dry2 the horns1 ears1 and extremities are cold2 respiration hurried2 the pulse full1 hard1 and throbbing4 ,treatment4--,give one pint of linseed-oil and ten drops of castor-oil1 mixed together2 follow this with small doses of salts once a day1 for three or four days2 give injections of water1 one half a gallon to two ounces of tincture of arnica4 ,mustard applications to the loins are also very useful4 ,,inflammation ,,of ,,the ,,liver4 ,diseases of the liver are of very common occurrence1--a fact with which all beef-butchers are familiar4 ,perhaps no organ in the animal economy is so liable to disease4 ,the obscurity of the symptoms and the good condition of the animal prevent its discovery1 as a general thing1 during its lifetime4 ,when1 however1 the disease assumes an active form1--known as the yellows1 jaundice1 or inflammation of the liver1--the symptoms are more readily detected4 ,symptoms4--,a yellowish color of the eye will be observed2 skin1 urine1 etc41 highly colored2 soreness1 on pressure1 on the right side2 loss of appetite2 dullness2 constipation of the bowels1 etc4 ,treatment4--,calomel is the most reliable medicine known to practitioners for diseases of the liver4 ,its abuse1 however1 has brought it into disrepute4 ,yet1 as with ordinary care it may be advantageously used1 we will prescribe it as that upon which the most dependence is to be placed1 and in doing so1 will endeavor to have it used safely4 ,bleeding has been recommended3 but the author has never found any benefit resulting4 ,give ,epsom-salts1 in doses of four ounces each1 every night1 with one scruple of calomel1 until the animal is relieved4 ,mustard and water should be frequently applied to the right side1 and well rubbed in4 ,,laryngitis4 ,this disease is of rare occurrence in cattle4 ,in it1 the mucous membrane lining the larynx is in a very irritable condition2 the least pressure upon the parts affected causes intensely excruciating pain2 the respiration becomes quick1 painful1 and laborious2 the animal often appears to be hungry1 yet does not eat much1 in consequence of the pain occasioned by the act of swallowing4 ,treatment4--,apply to the throat externally strong mustard1 mixed1 with equal parts of aqua ammonia and water1 to a thin paste1 every hour1 until it produces an effect upon the skin2 sponging the parts each time with warm water before applying the mustard4 ,the animal should not be bled4 ,give upon the tongue1 or in drink1 half-drachm doses of nitrate of potassa1 every three or four hours1 until relief is obtained4 ,if suffocation threatens1 the operation of tracheotomy is the only resort4 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,aberdeenshire ,,polled ,,bull4 ,cloths saturated with cold water1 wrapped around the neck so as to cover the larynx1 frequently afford relief4 ,a purgative will also be found useful4 ,,lice4 ,cattle are very subject to lice1 particularly when they are neglected1 half-starved1 and in poor condition4 ,good care and good feeding--in connection with the treatment recommended in mange1 to which the reader is referred--will comprise all that is requisite4 ,,mange4 ,mange1 or leprosy1 is one of the most unpleasant and difficult diseases to manage of all the ailments to which cattle are subject requiring the nicest care and attention to render it easy of cure4 ,an animal badly nursed will not1 under the most skillful treatment1 quickly recover4 ,its causes are in the main1 due to poor food1 which produces a debilitated condition of the system1 and in connection with a want of cleanliness1 causes a development of the acari1 or minute insects1 exciting very great irritation upon the skin and causing the cow to rub herself against every object with which she comes in contact4 ,the hair falls off2 a scurfy appearance of the skin is perceptible2 and the animal is poor in condition and in milk4 ,the great trouble in treating this disease springs from its contagious character2 for1 no sooner is the animal1 oftentimes1 once free from the acari than it comes in contact with some object against which it has previously been rubbing1 when the acari which were left upon that object are again brought in contact with the animal1 and the disease is reproduced4 ,if1 immediately after the proper applications are made1 the animal is removed to other quarters1 and not allowed to return to the former ones for six or eight weeks1 there is1 generally speaking1 but little trouble in treating the disease4 ,take the animal upon a warm1 sunny day1 and with a scrubbing-brush cleanse the skin thoroughly with ,castile-soap and water2 when dry1 apply in the same manner the following mixture2 white hellebore1 one ounce2 sulphur flower1 three ounces2 gas-water1 one quart2 mix all well together4 ,one or two applications are1 generally1 all that will be required4 ,give internally one of the following powders in the feed1 night and morning3 flowers of sulphur1 two ounces2 black antimony1 one ounce2 nitrate of potassa1 one ounce2 mix1 and divide into eight powders4 ,,murrain4 ,this is one of the most malignant diseases to which cattle are liable4 ,fortunately1 however1 true murrain is comparatively rare in this great stock-raising country4 ,the entire system seems to partake of the disease4 ,the first indication of its approach is a feverish condition of the system1 attended with a frequent and painful cough2 the pulse is small1 hard1 and rapid4 ,as the disease advances1 the respiration becomes disturbed2 the flanks heave2 vesicular eruption is observed upon the teats1 mouth1 and feet2 the horns are cold2 the animal is sometimes lame2 constipation and1 sometimes1 diarrhoea are accompanying symptoms2 faeces black and fetid2 the eyes weep and become much swollen2 great tenderness along the spine2 a brown or bloody discharge from the nose and mouth2 the animal moans incessantly1 grinds his teeth1 rarely lies down1 but to get up again quickly2 finally1 the breath becomes very offensive2 tumors make their appearance in various parts of the body1 which1 in favorable cases1 suppurate1 and discharge a fetid matter4 ,treatment4--,give one fourth of a pound of ,epsom-salts1 with one drachm of ,jamaica ginger1 twice a day1 for two or three days4 ,a bottle of porter1 twice a day1 will be found serviceable4 ,very little medicine is required internally in this disease1 but much depends upon good nursing4 ,external applications are chiefly to be depended upon4 ,a solution of chloride of lime should be applied to the eruptions1 or a solution of the chloride of zinc1 twenty grains to an ounce of water2 or1 of sulphate of zinc1 two drachms to a pint of water2 or pulverized charcoal applied to the parts will be found useful4 ,,navel-,,ill4 ,inflammation of the navel in calves occasionally occurs1 causing redness1 pain1 and sudden swelling in the part affected4 ,this disease1 if not promptly attended to1 speedily carries off the creature4 ,treatment4--,foment the part well with warm hop-tea2 after which1 the application of a cloth1 well saturated with lead-water and secured by bandages1 should be applied4 ,internally1 doses of ,epsom-salts1 of two ounces each1 dissolved in half a pint of water1 should be given until the bowels are acted upon4 ,after the inflammation has subsided1 to counteract the weakness which may follow1 give a bottle of porter two or three times a day4 ,,obstructions ,,in ,,the ,,oesophagus4 ,choking in cattle is of common occurrence1 in consequence of turnips1 potatoes1 carrots1 or other hard substances1 becoming lodged in the oesophagus1 or gullet4 ,these obstructions can sometimes be removed by careful manipulations with the hand2 but1 where this can not be accomplished1 the flexible probang should be employed4 ,this is a long ,india-rubber tube1 with a whalebone stillet running through it1 so as to stiffen it when in use4 ,this instrument is passed down the animal's throat1 and the offending substance is thus pushed down into the stomach4 ,,open ,,joints4 ,opening of the joint generally results from accidents1 from puncturing with sharp substances1 from kicks1 blows1 etc4 ,these injuries cause considerable nervous irritation in the system1 and sometimes cause lock-jaw and death4 ,treatment4--,close up the wound as speedily as possible4 ,the firing-iron will sometimes answer the purpose very well4 ,the author depends more upon the application of collodion--as recommended in his work upon ,the ,horse and ,his ,diseases for the same trouble--than upon any other remedy4 ,it requires care in its application1 in order to make it adhere firmly4 ,shoemakers'-wax1 melted and applied1 answers a very good purpose4 ,,parturition4 ,in natural labor--as has been suggested in a former part of this work--the aid of man is rarely required in bringing away the calf4 ,but it not infrequently happens that1 from malformation or wrong presentation1 our assistance is required in order to deliver the animal4 ,the brute force1 which has been far too often heretofore resorted to1 should no longer be tolerated1 since the lives of many valuable animals have been sacrificed by such treatment4 ,very often1 by gentle manipulation with the greased hand1 the womb can be so dilated as to afford a comparatively easy exit for the foetus4 ,if1 however1 the calf is presented wrong1 it must be pushed back and placed in its proper position1 if possible4 ,in natural labor1 the fore-legs1 with the head lying between them1 are presented2 in which position--unless deformity1 either in the pelvis of the cow1 or in the foetus1 exists--the calf is passed with little difficulty1 and without assistance4 ,it sometimes happens that the head of the foetus is turned backward4 ,when this happens1 the attendant should at once strip himself to the waist1 bathe his arms1 and hands with a little sweet-oil1 or lard1 and introduce them into the vagina1 placing a cord around both fore-feet1 and then1 pushing them back1 search for the head1 which is to be brought forward to its proper position4 ,the feet are next to be brought up with it4 ,no force should be used1 except when the cow herself makes the effort to expel the calf2 otherwise1 more harm than good may be done4 ,a case of this kind recently occurred in the author's practice1 being the third within a year4 ,the subject was a cow belonging to ,william ,hance1 ,esq41 of ,bordentown1 ,new ,jersey4 ,after she had been in labor for some twenty hours1 he was called upon to see her4 ,upon inquiry1 he found that several persons had been trying1 without success1 to relieve her4 ,she was very much prostrated1 and would1 doubtless1 have died within two or three hours1 had no relief been afforded4 ,the legs of the foetus protruded as far as the knees2 the head was turned backward1 and with the body1 pressed firmly into the vagina1 so that it was impossible to return it1 or to bring the head forward4 ,the operation of embryotomy was1 therefore1 at once performed1 by cutting away the right shoulder1 which enabled the operator1 with the aid of his appropriate hooks1 to bring the head forward1 when the calf came away without further trouble1--the whole operation not requiring fifteen minutes4 ,the uterus was then washed out1 and the animal placed in as comfortable a position as possible1 and a stimulating draught given1 composed of two ounces of nitric ether1 one ounce of tincture of opium1 and a half pint of water4 ,this was followed with a few doses of ,fleming's tincture of aconite1 ten drops in a little water1 every few hours4 ,in a few days the animal had entirely recovered4 ,occasionally1 the head comes first1 or the head and one leg4 ,in such cases1 a cord should be slipped around the jaw and leg1 and these then pushed back1 so as to allow the other leg to be brought up4 ,when this cannot be done1 the foetus can1 in most cases1 be removed in the original position4 ,breech1 side1 back1 and other presentations sometimes occur2 in all of which instances1 the foetus must be turned in such a position that it can be brought away with as little trouble as possible4 ,when this cannot be accomplished1 the only resort is embryotomy1 or cutting up of the foetus1 which operation can only be safely performed by the qualified veterinary surgeon4 ,since writing the above1 another case has occurred in the author's practice4 ,the cow--belonging to ,samuel ,barton1 ,esq41 near ,bordentown1 ,new ,jersey--had been in labor some eighteen hours2 upon an examination of the animal1 the calf was found to be very much deformed1 presenting backwards1--one of the hind-legs having been pulled off by the person or persons assisting her previous to the author's arrival4 ,finding it impossible to deliver her in the usual way1 embryotomy was in this instance employed4 ,by this means1 after taking out the intestines1 lungs1 etc41 of the foetus1 and cutting away its hind-quarters1 the fore-parts were brought away4 ,the head presented a singular appearance2 the under jaw was so twisted as to bring the front teeth on the side of the face2 the spinal column or back-bone1 was turned twice around1 resembling a spiral string2 the front legs were over the back2 the ribs were much contorted2 the hind-parts were as much deformed2 and1 taken altogether1 the deformity was the most singular which has been brought under the author's observation4 ,,free ,,martins4--,it has long been supposed by stockbreeders1 that if a cow produce twins1 one of which is a male and the other a female1 the female is incapable of producing young1 but that the male may be a useful animal for breeding purposes4 ,many instances have occurred when the twin sister of a bull has never shown the least desire for the male4 ,this indifference to sexual commerce arises1 doubtless1 from the animal's being but imperfectly developed in the organs of generation4 ,this fact has been established by the investigations of ,mr4 ,john ,hunter1 who had three of these animals slaughtered for anatomical examination4 ,the result is thus reported3 ,the external parts were rather smaller than is customary in the cow4 ,the vagina passed on1 as in the cow1 to the opening of the urethra1 and then it began to contract into a small canal1 which passed on into the division of the uterus into the two horns2 each horn passed along the edge of the broad ligament laterally toward the ovaria4 ,at the termination of these horns were placed both the ovaries and the testicles4 ,both were nearly of the same size1 which was about as large as a small nutmeg4 ,to the ovaria1 ,i could not find any ,fallopian tube4 ,to the testicles were vasa deferentia1 but they were imperfect4 ,the left one did not come near the testicle2 the right one only came close to it1 but did not terminate in the body called the epididymis4 ,they were both pervious and opened into the vagina1 near the opening of the urethra4 ,on the posterior surface of the bladder1 or between the uterus and the bladder1 were the two bags1 called vesiculae seminales in the male1 but much smaller than they are in the bull4 ,the ducts opened along with the vasa deferentia4 ,this animal1 then1 had a mixture of all the parts1 but all of them were imperfect4 ,well-authenticated cases have1 however1 occurred where the female has bred1 and the offspring proved to be good milkers4 ,there are several instances on record of cows' giving birth to three1 four1 and even five calves at a time4 ,there were on exhibition1 in #ahfb1 at ,bordentown1 ,new ,jersey1 three free martins1 two sisters and a brother1 which were beautiful animals4 ,these were from a cow belonging to ,mr4 ,joab ,mershon1 residing on ,biles ,island1 situated in the ,delaware ,river1 a short distance above ,bordentown4 ,they were calved ,november #ast1 #aheh1 and were therefore nearly four years of age4 ,they had never shown the least desire for copulation4 ,their aggregate weight was #dcjj pounds4 ,we extract the following from the ,london ,veterinarian1 for #ahed3--;,a cow1 belonging to ,mr4 ,john ,marshall1 of ,repton1 on ,wednesday last1 gave birth to five1 live healthy calves1 all of which are1 at the time ,i write1 alive and vigorous1 and have every appearance of continuing so4 ,they are all nearly of a size1 and are larger and stronger than could be supposed4 ,four of them are bull-calves4 ,the dam is by no means a large one1 is eleven years old1 of a mongrel breed1 and has never produced more than one offspring at any previous gestation4 ,i saw her two days after she had calved1 at which time she was ruminating1 and did not manifest any unusual symptoms of exhaustion4 ,i may mention that the first four calves presented naturally2 the fifth was a breech-presentation4 ,,cleansing4--,the placenta1 or after-birth1 by which the foetus is nourished while in embryo1 should be removed soon after calving4 ,generally1 it will come away without any assistance4 ,this is what is called cleansing after calving4 ,when1 however1 it remains for some time1 its function having been performed1 it becomes a foreign body1 exciting uterine contractions1 and therefore injurious4 ,the sooner1 then1 it is removed1 the better for the animal as well as the owner4 ,to accomplish this1 the hand should be introduced1 and1 by pulling gently in various directions1 it will soon yield and come away4 ,should it be allowed to remain1 it rapidly decomposes1 producing a low1 feverish condition of the system1 which greatly interferes with the general health of the animal4 ,,inversion ,,of ,,the ,,uterus4--,the uterus is sometimes turned inside out after calving4 ,this is1 generally1 the result of debility1 or severe labor4 ,the uterus should be replaced as carefully as possible with the hands1 care being taken that no dirt1 straw1 or other foreign substance adheres to it4 ,should it again be expelled1 it would be advisable to quiet the system by the use of an anaesthetic1 as chloroform1 or--which is much safer--chloric ether4 ,as soon as the animal is under the influence of this1 the uterus may be again replaced4 ,the hind-quarters should be raised as high as possible1 in order to favor its retention4 ,the animal should have a little gruel and a bottle of porter given to her every five or six hours1 and the vulva should be bathed frequently with cold water4 ,,phrenitis4 ,inflammation of the brain is one of those dreadful diseases to which all animals are liable4 ,it is known to the farmer as frenzy1 mad staggers1 etc4 ,the active symptoms are preceded by stupor2 the animal stubbornly stands in one position2 the eyes are full1 red1 and fiery2 respiration rapid2 delirium soon succeeds2 the animal1 bellowing1 dashes wildly about1 and seems bent on mischief1 rushing madly at every object which comes in its way4 ,the causes of this disease are overwork in warm weather1 a plethoric condition of the system1 and too stimulating food4 ,prof4 ,gamgee1 of the ,edinburgh ,veterinary ,college1 relates a case resulting from the presence within the external meatus of a mass of concrete cerumen1 or wax1 which induced inflammation of the ear1 extending to the brain4 ,treatment4--,as this is attended with considerable risk1 unless it is taken prior to the frenzied stage1 bleeding almost to fainting should be resorted to1 and followed by a brisk purge4 ,take one ounce of ,barbadoes aloes1 and ten to fifteen drops of ,croton-oil2 mix the aloes with one pint of water and the oil1 using the mixture as a drench4 ,one pound of ,epsom-salts will answer the purpose very well1 in cases where the aloes and oil cannot be readily obtained4 ,application of bags of broken ice to the head1 is very beneficial4 ,spirits of turpentine1 or mustard1 together with spirits of hartshorn and water should be well rubbed in along the spine1 from the neck to the tail4 ,,pleurisy4 ,this is an inflammation of the pleura1 or the serous membrane which lines the cavity of the chest1 and which is deflected over the lungs4 ,inflammation of this membrane rarely occurs in a pure form1 but is more generally associated with inflammation of the tissue of the lungs4 ,if this disease is not attended to at an early period1 its usual termination is in hydrothorax1 or dropsy of the chest4 ,the same causes which produce inflammation of the lungs1 of the bronchia1 and of the other respiratory organs1 produce also pleurisy4 ,symptoms4--,the respiration is quick1 short1 and painful2 pressure between the ribs produces much pain2 a low1 short1 painful cough is present2 the respiratory murmur is much diminished1--in fact1 it is scarcely audible4 ,this condition is rapidly followed by effusion1 which may be detected from the dullness of the sounds1 on applying the ear to the lower part of the lungs4 ,the febrile symptoms disappear2 the animal for a few days appears to improve1 but soon becomes weak1 languid1 and often exhausted from the slightest exertion4 ,treatment4--,the same treatment in the early stage is enjoined as in inflammatory pneumonia1 which the reader will consult--counter-irritation and purgatives4 ,bleeding never should be resorted to4 ,when effusion takes place1 it is necessary to puncture the sides with a trochar1 and draw away the fluid1 giving internally one of the following purges three times a day3 rosin1 eight ounces2 saltpetre1 two ounces1 mix1 and divide into eight powders4 ,half-drachm doses of the iodide of potash1 dissolved in water1 to be given three times daily1 will be found useful in this disease4 ,,pleuro-,,pneumonia4 ,this disease1 as its name implies1 is an inflammatory condition of the lungs and the pleura1 or the enveloping membrane of the lungs and the lining membrane of the chest4 ,it is sometimes called contagious1 infectious1 and epizooetic pleuro-pneumonia1--contagious or infectious1 from its supposed property of transmission from the diseased to the healthy animal4 ,illustration3 ,,taking ,,an ,,observation4 ,a contagious character the author is not ready to assign to it1--contagious1 as he understands it1 being strictly applicable to those diseases which depend upon actual contact with the poison that it may be communicated from one animal to another4 ,this does not necessarily imply the actual touching of the animals themselves2 for it may be communicated from the poison left in the trough1 or other places where the diseased animal has been brought in contact with some object1 as is often the case in glanders in the horse2 the matter discharged from the nose1 and left upon the manger1 readily communicating that disease to healthy animals coming in contact with it4 ,contagious diseases1 therefore1 travel very slowly1 starting1 as they do1 at one point1 and gradually spreading over a large district1 or section of country4 ,this disease is1 however1 regarded by the author as infectious2 by which term is meant that it is capable of being communicated from the diseased to the healthy animal through the medium of the air1 which has become contaminated by the exhalations of poisonous matter4 ,the ability to inoculate other animals in this way is necessarily confined to a limited space1 sometimes not extending more than a few yards4 ,infectious diseases1 accordingly1 spread with more rapidity than contagious ones1 and are1 consequently1 more to be dreaded2 since we can avoid the one with comparatively little trouble1 while the other often steals upon us when we regard ourselves as beyond its influence1 carrying death and destruction in its course4 ,the term by which this disease is known1 is a misnomer4 ,pleuro-pneumonia proper is neither a contagious1 nor an infectious disease2 hence1 the denial of medical men that this so-called pleuro-pneumonia is a contagious1 or infectious disease1 has been the means of unnecessarily exposing many animals to its poisonous influence4 ,in the ,recueil de ,medecine ,veterinaire1 for #ahcc1 will be found a very interesting description of this fatal malady4 ,the author1 ,m4 ,lecoy1 ,assistant ,professor at the ,veterinary ,school of ,lyons1 ,france1 says3 ,there are few districts in the arrondissement of ,avesnes where more cattle are fattened than in that of ,soire-le-,chateau4 ,the farmers being unable to obtain a sufficient supply of cattle in the district1 are obliged to purchase the greater part of them from other provinces2 and they procure a great number for grazing from ,franche ,comte4 ,the cattle of this country are very handsome2 their forms are compact2 they fatten rapidly2 and they are a kind of cattle from which the grazer would derive most advantage1 were it not that certain diseases absorb1 by the loss of some of the animals1 the profits of the rest of the herd4 ,amongst the diseases which most frequently attack the cattle which are brought from the ,north1 there is one very prevalent in some years1 and which is the more to be dreaded as it is generally incurable2 and the slaughter of the animal1 before he is perceptibly wasted1 is the only means by which the farmer can avoid losing the whole value of the beast4 ,this disease is chronic pleuro-pneumonia4 ,the symptoms are scarcely recognizable at first1 and often the beast is ill for a long time without its being perceived4 ,he fattens well1 and when he is slaughtered the owner is astonished to find scarcely half of the lungs capable of discharging the function of respiration4 ,when1 however1 the ox has not sufficient strength of constitution to resist the ravages of disease1 the first symptom which is observed is diminution1 or irregularity of appetite4 ,soon afterwards1 a frequent1 dry cough is heard1 which becomes feeble and painful as the disease proceeds4 ,the dorso-lumbar portion of the spine 7loins7 grows tender2 the animal flinches when the part is pressed upon1 and utters a peculiar groan1 or grunt1 which the graziers regard as decisive of the malady4 ,quickly after this1 the movements of the flanks become irregular and accelerated1 and the act of respiration is accompanied by a kind of balancing motion of the whole body4 ,the sides of the chest become as tender as the loins1 or more so2 for the animal immediately throws himself down1 if pressed upon with any force4 ,the elbows become1 in many subjects1 more and more separated from the sides of the chest4 ,the pulse is smaller than natural1 and not considerably increased4 ,the muzzle is hot and dry1 alternately4 ,the animal lies down as in a healthy state1 but rumination is partially or entirely suspended4 ,the faeces are harder than they should be2 the urine is of its natural color and quantity2 the mouth is often dry2 and the horns and ears retain their natural temperature4 ,this first stage of the disease sometimes continues during a month1 or more1 and then1 if the animal is to recover1 or at least1 apparently so1 the symptoms gradually disappear4 ,first of all1 the appetite returns1 and the beast begins to acquire a little flesh4 ,the proprietor should then make haste and get rid of him2 for it is very rare that the malady1 however it may be palliated for a while1 does not reappear with greater intensity than before4 ,in most cases1 the disease continues to pursue its course toward its termination without any remission1--every symptom gradually increasing in intensity4 ,the respiration becomes more painful2 the head is more extended2 the eyes are brilliant2 every expiration is accompanied with a grunt1 and by a kind of puckering of the angles of the lips2 the cough becomes smaller1 more suppressed1 and more painful2 the tongue protrudes from the mouth1 and a frothy mucus is abundantly discharged2 the breath becomes offensive2 a purulent fluid of a bloody color escapes from the nostrils2 diarrhoea1 profuse and fetid1 succeeds to the constipation2 the animal becomes rapidly weaker2 he is a complete skeleton1 and at length he dies4 ,examination after death discloses slight traces of inflammation in the intestines1 discoloration of the liver1 and a hard1 dry substance contained in the manyplus4 ,the lungs adhere to the sides and to the diaphragm by numerous bands1 evidently old and very firm4 ,the substance of the lungs often presents a reddish-gray hepatization throughout almost its whole extent4 ,at other times1 there are tubercles in almost every state of hardness1 and in that of suppuration4 ,the portion of the lungs that is not hepatized is red1 and gorged with blood4 ,besides the old adhesions1 there are numerous ones of recent date4 ,the pleura is not much reddened1 but by its thickness in some points1 its adhesion in others1 and the effusion of a serous fluid1 it proves how much and how long it has participated in the inflammatory action4 ,the trachea and the bronchia are slightly red1 and the right side of the head is gorged with blood4 ,in a subject in which1 during life1 ,i could scarcely feel the beating of the heart1 ,i found the whole of the left lobe of the lungs adhering to the sides1 and completely hepatized4 ,in another1 that had presented no sign of disease of the chest1 and that for some days before his death vomited the little fodder which he could take1 the whole of that portion of the oesophagus that passed through the chest was surrounded with dense false membranes1 of a yellowish hue1 ranging from light to dark1 and being in some parts more than an inch in thickness1 and adhering closely to the muscular membrane of the tube1 without allowing any trace to be perceived of that portion of the mediastinal pleura on which this unnatural covering was fixed and developed4 ,the cattle purchased in ,franche ,comte are brought to ,avesnes at two periods of the year--in autumn and in the spring4 ,those which are brought in autumn are much more subject to the disease than those which have arrived in the spring2 and it almost always happens that the years in which it shows itself most generally are those in which the weather was most unfavorable while the cattle were on the road4 ,the journey is performed by two different routes1--through ,lorraine and through ,champagne1--and the disease frequently appears in cattle that have arrived by one of these routes4 ,the manner in which the beasts are treated1 on their arrival1 may contribute not a little to the development of the malady4 ,these animals1 which have been driven long distances in bad weather1 and frequently half starved1 arrived famished1 and therefore the more fatigued1 and some of them lame4 ,calculating on their ravenous appetite1 the graziers1 instead of giving them wholesome food1 make them consume the worst that the farm contains1--musty and mouldy fodder2 and it is usually by the cough1 which the eating of such food necessarily produces1 that the disease is discovered and first developed4 ,is chronic pleuro-pneumonia contagious8 ,the farmers believe that it is1 and ,i am partly of their opinion4 ,when an animal falls sick in the pasture1 the others1 after his removal1 go and smell at the grass where he has lain1 and which he has covered with his saliva1 and1 after that1 new cases succeed to the first4 ,it is true that this fact is not conclusive1 since the disease also appears in a great number of animals that have been widely separated from each other4 ,but ,i have myself seen three cases in which the cattle of the country1 perfectly well before1 have fallen ill1 and died with the same symptoms1 excepting that they have been more acute1 after they have been kept with cattle affected with this disease4 ,this circumstance inclines me to think that the disease is contagious2 or1 at least1 that1 in the progress of it1 the breath infects the cow-house in which there are other animals already predisposed to the same disease4 ,i am induced to believe that most of the serious internal diseases are communicated in this manner1 and particularly those which affect the organs of respiration1 when the animals are shut up in close1 low1 and badly-ventilated cow-houses4 ,rec4 de ,med4 ,vet4 ,mai1 #ahcc4 ,no malady can be more terrible and ruinous than this among dairy-stock2 and its spread all over the country1 together with its continuance with scarcely any abatement1 must be attributed to the combination of various causes4 ,the chief are3 first1 the very contagious or infectious nature of the disorder2 second1 inattention on the part of ,government to the importation and subsequent sale of diseased animals2 and1 third1 the recklessness of purchasers of dairy or feeding cattle4 ,this disease may be defined as an acute inflammation of the organs of the chest1 with the development of a peculiar and characteristic poison1 which is the active element of infection or contagion4 ,it is a disease peculiar to the cattle tribe1 notwithstanding occasional assertions regarding observations of the disease among horses1 sheep1 and other animals1--which pretended observations have not been well attested4 ,the infectious1 or contagious nature of this virulent malady is incontestibly substantiated by an overwhelming amount of evidence1 which cannot be adduced at full length here1 but which may be classified under the following heads3 first1 the constant spreading of the disease from countries in which it rages to others which1 previously to the importation of diseased animals1 had been perfectly free from it4 ,this may be proved in the case of ,england1 into which country it was carried in #ahdb1 by affected animals from ,holland4 ,twelve months after1 it spread from ,england to ,scotland1 by means of some cattle sold at ,all-,hallow ,fair1 and it was only twelve months afterward that cattle imported as far north as ,inverness took the disease there4 ,lately1 a cow taken from ,england to ,australia was observed to be diseased upon landing1 and the evil results were limited to her owner's stock1 who gave the alarm1 and ensured an effectual remedy against a wider spread4 ,besides1 the recent importation of pleuro-pneumonia into the ,united ,states from ,holland appears to have awakened our agricultural press generally1 and to have convinced them of the stubborn fact that our cattle have been decimated by a fearfully infectious1 through probably preventable1 plague4 ,a letter from this country to an ,english author says3 ,its 7pleuro-pneumonia's7 contagious character seems to be settled beyond a doubt1 though some of the ,v4,s4 practitioners deny it1 which is almost as reasonable as it would be to deny any other well-authenticated historic fact4 ,every case of the disease is traceable to one of two sources2 either to ,mr4 ,chenery's stock in ,belmont 7near ,boston1 ,massachusetts71 into which the disease was introduced by his importation of four ,dutch cows from ,holland1 which arrived here the #bc;d of last ,may2 or else to one of the three calves which he sold to a farmer in ,north ,brookfield1 ,massachusetts1 last ,june4 #b;dly4 ,apart from the importation into countries1 we have this certain proof--to which special attention was drawn several years ago--that cattle-dealers' farms1 and public markets1 constitute the busy centres of infection4 ,most anxious and careful inquiries have established the proposition that in breeding-districts1 where the proprietors of extensive dairies--as in ,dumfries1 ,scotland1 and other places--abstain from buying1 except from their neighbors1 who have never had diseases of the lungs amongst their stock1 pleuro-pneumonia has not been seen4 ,there is a wide district in the ,vicinity of ,abington1 ,england1 and in the parish of ,crawford1 which has not been visited by this plague1 with the exception of two farms1 into which market-cattle had been imported and thus brought the disease4 #c;dly4 ,in #ahed appeared a ,report of the ,researches on ,pleuro-,pneumonia1 by a scientific commission1 instituted by the ,minister of ,agriculture in ,france4 ,this very able pamphlet was edited by ,prof4 ,bouley1 of ,alfort1 ,france4 ,the members of the commission belonged to the most eminent veterinarians and agriculturists in ,france4 ,magendie was ,president2 ,regnal1 ,secretary2 besides ,rayer1 the renowned comparative pathologist2 ,yvart1 the ,inspector-,general of the ,imperial ,veterinary ,schools2 ,renault1 ,inspector of the ,imperial ,veterinary ,schools2 ,delafond1 ,director of ,alfort ,college2 ,bouley1 ,lassaigne1 ,baudemont1 ,doyere1 ,manny de ,morny1 and a few others representing the public4 ,if such a commission were occasionally appointed in this country for similar purposes1 how much light would be thrown on subjects of paramount importance to the agricultural community6 ,conclusions arrived at by the commission are too important to be overlooked in this connection4 ,the reader must peruse the ,report itself1 if he needs to satisfy himself as to the care taken in conducting the investigations3 but the foregoing names sufficiently attest the indisputable nature of the facts alluded to4 ,in instituting its experiments1 the commission had in view the solving of the following questions3-- #astly4 ,is the epizooetic pleuro-pneumonia of cattle susceptible of being transmitted from diseased to healthy animals by cohabitation8 #b;dly4 ,in the event of such contagion's existing1 would all the animals become affected1 or what proportion would resist the disease8 #c;dly4 ,amongst the animals attacked by the disease1 how many recover1 and under what circumstances8 ,how many succumb8 #dthly4 ,are there any animals of the ox species decidedly free from any susceptibility of being affected from the contagion of pleuro-pneumonia8 #ethly4 ,do the animals1 which have been once affected by a mild form of the disease1 enjoy immunity from subsequent attacks8 #fthly4 ,do the animals1 which have once been affected by the disease in its active form1 enjoy such immunity8 ,to determine these questions1 the commission submitted at different times to the influence of cohabitation with diseased animals forty-six perfectly healthy ones1 chosen from districts in which they had never been exposed to a similar influence4 ,of these forty-six animals1 twenty were experimented on at ,pomeraye1 two at ,charentonneau1 thirteen at ,alfort1 and eleven1 in the fourth experiment1 at ,charentonneau4 ,of this number1 twenty-one animals resisted the disease when first submitted to the influence of cohabitation1 ten suffered slightly1 and fifteen took the disease4 ,of the fifteen affected1 four died1 and eleven recovered4 ,consequently1 the animals which apparently escaped the disease at the first trial amounted to #de4fe per cent41 and those affected to #ba4gc per cent4 ,of these1 #bc4ia per cent4 recovered1 and #h4fi per cent4 died4 ,but the external appearances in some instances proved deceptive1 and six of the eleven animals of the last experiment1 which were regarded as having escaped free1 were found1 on being destroyed1 to bear distinct evidence of having been affected4 ,this1 therefore1 modifies the foregoing calculations1 and the numbers should stand thus3-- #ae enjoy immunity1 or #cb4fa per cent4 #aj indisposed1 #ba4gc #ag animals cured1 #cf4ie #d dead1 #h4ih ,of the forty-two animals which were exposed in the first experiments at ,pomeraye and ,charentonneau1 and which escaped either without becoming affected1 or recovering1 eighteen were submitted to a second trial2 and of these eighteen animals1 five had1 in the first experiment1 suffered from the disease and had recovered2 five had now become affected2 and four had been indisposed4 ,the four animals submitted to the influence of contagion a third time1 had been affected on the occasion of the first trial4 ,none of the eighteen animals contracted the disease during these renewed exposures to the influence of contagion4 ,from the results of these experiments1 the commission drew the following conclusions3-- #astly4 ,the epizooetic pleuro-pneumonia is susceptible of being transmitted from diseased to healthy animals by cohabitation4 #b;dly4 ,all the animals exposed do not take the disease2 some suffer slightly1 and others not at all4 #c;dly4 ,of the affected animals1 some recover and others die4 #dthly4 ,the animals1 whether slightly or severely affected1 possess an immunity against subsequent attacks4 ,these are the general conclusions which the commission deemed themselves authorized to draw from their experiments4 ,the absolute proportion of animals which become affected1 or which escape the disease1 or of those which die and which recover1 as a general rule1 cannot be deduced from the foregoing experiments1 which1 for such a purpose1 are too limited4 ,the commission simply state the numbers resulting from their experiments4 ,from these it transpires that forty five of the animals became severely affected with pleuro-pneumonia1 and twenty-one per cent4 took the disease slightly1 making the whole sixty-six per cent4 which were more or less severely attacked4 ,thirty-four per cent4 remained free from any malady4 ,the proportion of animals which re-acquired their wonted appearance of health amounted to eighty-three per cent41 whereas seventeen per cent4 died4 ,many minor points might be insisted on1 but it is sufficient here to say1 that the most careful analysis of all facts has proved to practical veterinarians1 as well as to experienced agriculturists1 and must prove to all who will calmly and dispassionately consider the point1 that pleuro-pneumonia is pre-eminently an infectious1 or contagious disease4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,twins4 ,symptoms4--,from the time that an animal is exposed to the contagion to the first manifestation of symptoms1 a certain period elapses4 ,this is the period of incubation4 ,it varies from a fortnight to forty days1 or even several months4 ,the first signs1 proving that the animal has been seized1 can scarcely be detected by any but a professional man2 though1 if a proprietor of cattle were extremely careful1 and had pains-taking individuals about his stock1 he would invariably notice a slight shiver as ushering in the disorder1 which for several days1 even after the shivering fit1 would limit itself to slight interference in breathing1 readily detected on auscultation4 ,perhaps a cough might be noticed1 and that the appetite and milk-secretion diminished4 ,the animal becomes costive1 and the shivering fits recur4 ,the cough becomes more constant and oppressive2 the pulse full and frequent1 usually numbering about eighty per minute at first1 and rising to upwards of one hundred4 ,the temperature of the body rises1 and all the symptoms of acute fever set in4 ,a moan1 or grunt1 in the early part of the disease indicates a dangerous attack1 and the alae nasi 7cartilages of the nose7 rise spasmodically at each inspiration2 the air rushes through the inflamed windpipe and bronchial tubes1 so as to produce a loud1 coarse respiratory murmur2 and the spasmodic action of the abdominal muscles indicates the difficulty the animal also experiences in the act of expiration4 ,pressure over the intercostal 7between the ribs7 spaces1 and pressing on the spine1 induce the pain so characteristic of pleurisy1 and a deep moan not infrequently follows such an experiment4 ,the eyes are bloodshot1 mouth clammy1 skin dry and tightly bound to the subcutaneous textures1 and the urine is scanty and high-colored4 ,upon auscultation1 the characteristic dry1 sonorous rale of ordinary bronchitis may be detected along the windpipe1 and in the bronchial tubes4 ,a loud sound of this description is1 not infrequently1 detected at the anterior part of either side of the chest2 whilst the respiratory murmur is entirely lost1 posteriorly1 from consolidation of the lungs4 ,a decided leathery1 frictional sound is detected over a considerable portion of the thoracic surface4 ,as the disease advances1 and gangrene1 with the production of cavities in the lungs1 ensues1 loud1 cavernous rales are heard1 which are more or less circumscribed1 occasionally attended by a decided metallic noise4 ,when one lobe of the lungs is alone affected1 the morbid sounds are confined to one side1 and on the healthy side the respiratory murmur is uniformly louder all over4 ,by carefully auscultating diseased cows from day to day1 interesting changes can be discovered during the animal's lifetime4 ,frequently1 the abnormal sounds indicate progressive destruction2 but1 at other times1 portions of the lungs that have been totally impervious to air1 become the seat of sibilant rales1 and gradually1 a healthy respiratory murmur proves that1 by absorption of the materials which have been plugging the tissues of the lungs1 resolution is fast advancing4 ,some very remarkable cases of this description have been encountered in practice4 ,unfortunately1 we often find a rapid destruction of the tissues of the lungs1 and speedy dissolution4 ,in other instances1 the general symptoms of hectic1 or consumption1 attend lingering cases1 in which the temperature of the body becomes low1 and the animal has a dainty appetite1 or refuses all nourishment4 ,it has a discharge from the eyes1 and a fetid1 sanious discharge from the nose4 ,not infrequently1 it coughs up disorganized lung-tissue and putrid pus4 ,great prostration1 and1 indeed1 typhus symptoms1 set in4 ,there is a fetid diarrhoea1 and the animal sinks in the most emaciated state1 often dying from suffocation1 in consequence of the complete destruction of the respiratory structures4 ,post mortem appearances4--,in acute cases1 the cadaverous lesions chiefly consist in abundant false membranes in the trachea1 or windpipe1 and closure of the bronchial tubes by plastic lymph4 ,the air-vesicles are completely plugged by this material1 and very interesting specimens may be obtained by careful dissection1 in the shape of casts of the bronchial tubes and air-vesicles1 clustered together like bunches of grapes4 ,on slicing the lungs in these cases1 hepatization is observed1 presenting a very peculiar appearance1 which is1 in a great measure1 due to the arrangement of the lung-tissue in cattle4 ,the pulmonary lobules are of a deep-red or brown color1 perfectly consolidated1 and intersected or separated1 one from the other1 by lighter streaks of yellowish-red lymph1 occupying the interlobular1 areolar tissue4 ,in the more chronic cases1 the diseased lobes and lobules are found partly separated from the more healthy structures4 ,this occurs from gangrene1 and putrefactive changes1 or in some instances1 from the ulcerative process1 so constantly observed in the segregation of dead from living tissues4 ,abscesses are not infrequently found in different parts of the lungs4 ,sometimes circumscribed1 at others connected with bronchial tubes1 and not infrequently communicating with the pleural cavity4 ,true empyema is not often seen2 but1 at all times1 the adhesions between the costal and visceral pleura are extensive1 and there is much effusion in the chest4 ,in dressed carcasses of cows that have been slaughtered from pleuro-pneumonia1 even though the disease has not been far advanced1 it will be found that the butcher has carefully scraped the serous membrane off the inner surface of the ribs1 as it would otherwise be impossible for him to give the pleura its healthy1 smooth aspect1 from the firm manner in which the abundant false membranes adhere to it4 ,the diseased lungs sometimes attain inordinate weight4 ,they have been known to weigh as much as sixty pounds4 ,treatment4--,the veterinary profession is regarded by many who have sustained heavy losses from pleuro-pneumonia1 as deeply ignorant1 because its members cannot often cure the disease4 ,persons forget that there are several epidemics which prove equally difficult to manage on the part of the physician1 such as cholera1 yellow fever1 etc4 ,the poison in these contagious1 epizooetic diseases is so virulent that the animals may be regarded as dead from the moment they are attacked4 ,its elimination from the system is impossible1 and medicine cannot support an animal through its tardy1 exhausting1 and destructive process of clearing the system of so potent a virus4 ,all antiphlogistic means have failed1 such as blood-letting and the free use of evacuants4 ,derivatives1 in the form of mustard-poultices1 or more active blisters1 are attended with good results4 ,stimulants have proved of the greatest service2 and the late ,prof4 ,tessona1 of ,turin1 strongly recommended1 from the very onset of the disease1 the administration of strong doses of quinine4 ,maffei1 of ,ferrara1 states that he has obtained great benefit from the employment of ferruginous tonics and manganese in the very acute stage of the malady1 supported by alcoholic stimulants4 ,recently1 the advantages resulting from the use of sulphate of iron1 both as a preventive and curative1 have been exhibited in ,france4 ,it would appear that the most valuable depurative method of treatment yet resorted to is by the careful use of the ,roman bath4 ,acting1 like all other sudorifics in cases of fever and blood diseases1 it carries off by the skin much of the poison1 without unduly lowering the vital powers4 ,prevention4--,the rules laid down in ,denmark1 and indeed in many other places1 appear the most natural for the prevention of the disease4 ,if they could be carried out1 the disease must necessarily be stopped2 but there are practical and insuperable difficulties in the way of enforcing them4 ,thus1 a ,dr4 ,warneke says1 prevention consists in the avoidance of contagion2 the slaughter of infected beasts2 the prohibition of keeping cattle by those whose cattle have been slaughtered1 for a space of ten weeks after the last case occurring2 the disinfection of stalls vacated by slaughtering2 the closing of infected places to all passing of cattle2 especial attention to the removal of the dung1 and of the remains of the carcasses of slaughtered beasts2 and1 finally1 undeviating severity of the law against violators4 ,dr4 ,williams1 of ,hasselt1 suggested and carried out1 in #ahea1 the inoculation of the virus of pleuro-pneumonia1 in order to induce a mild form of the disease in healthy animals1 and prevent their decimation by the severe attacks due to contagion4 ,he met with much encouragement1 and perhaps more opposition4 ,didot1 ,corvini1 ,ercolani1 and many more accepted ,dr4 ,williams's facts as incontestable1 and wrote1 advocating his method of checking the spread of so destructive a plague4 ,the first able memoir which contested all that has been said in favor of inoculation1 appeared in ,turin1 and was written by ,dr4 ,riviglio1 a ,piedmontese veterinary surgeon4 ,this was supported by the views of many others4 ,prof4 ,simonds wrote against the plan1 and1 in #ahed1 the ,french commission1 whose report has been before mentioned1 confirmed1 in part1 ,riviglio's views1 though1 from the incompleteness of the experiments1 further trials were recommended4 ,inoculation is performed as follows3 ,a portion of diseased lung is chosen1 and a bistoury or needle made to pierce it so as to become charged with the material consolidating the lung1 and this is afterward plunged into any part1 but1 more particularly1 toward the point of the tail4 ,if operated severely1 and higher up1 great exudation occurs1 which spreads upward1 invades the areolar tissue round the rectum and other pelvic organs1 and death soon puts an end to the animal's excruciating suffering4 ,if the operation is properly performed with lymph that is not putrid1 and the incisions are not made too deep1 the results are limited to local exudation and swelling1 general symptoms of fever1 and gradual recovery4 ,the most common occurrence is sloughing of the tail2 and in ,london1 at the present time1 dairies are to be seen in which all the cows have short-tail stumps4 ,dr4 ,williams and others have gone too far in attempting to describe a particular corpuscle as existing in the lymph of pleuro-pneumonia4 ,all animal poisons can be alone discovered from their effects4 ,in structure and chemical constitution1 there is no difference1 and often the most potent poisons are simple fluids4 ,the ,belgian ,commission1 appointed to investigate the nature and influence of inoculation for pleuro-pneumonia1 very justly expressed an opinion that ,dr4 ,williams had not proved that a specific product1 distinguished by anatomical characters1 and appreciable by the microscope1 existed in this disease4 ,the all-important question1 ,is inoculation of service8 has to the satisfaction of most been solved4 ,the ,belgian and ,french commissions1 the observations of ,riviglio1 ,simond1 ,herring1 and many others1 prove that a certain degree of preservative influence is derived by the process of inoculation4 ,it does not1 however1 arrest the progress of the disease4 ,it certainly diminishes to some extent--though often very slightly so--the number of cases1 and1 particularly1 of severe ones4 ,this effect has been ascribed to a derivative action1 independent of any specific influence1 and1 indeed1 similar to that of introducing setons in the dewlap4 ,in ,london1 some dairymen have considerable faith in inoculation1 though its effect is uncertain1 and the manner of its working a mystery4 ,the best counsel1 in the premises1 which can be given to the keeper of dairy stock is1 to select his own animals from healthy herds1 and strictly to avoid public markets4 ,in many instances1 a faithful observance of these injunctions has been sufficient to prevent the invasion of this terrible disease4 ,gamgee4 ,the existence of this disease in the ,united ,states was not generally known until the year #ahei1 when ,mr4 ,chenery1 of ,belmont1 near ,boston1 ,massachusetts1 imported several cows from ,holland1 which arrived in the early part of the spring of that year4 ,some of the animals were sick when they arrived1 but the true nature of the disease was not at that time suspected4 ,several of them were so bad that they were carried in trucks to ,mr4 ,chenery's barn4 ,some two months passed away before the character of the disease was discovered4 ,upon the facts becoming known1 the citizens of ,massachusetts became panic-stricken1 as the disease was rapidly spreading over that ,state4 ,an extra session of the ,legislature was speedily convened1 when a ,joint ,special ,committee was appointed1 to adopt and carry out such measures as in their judgment seemed necessary for the extirpation of this monster1 pleuro-pneumonia4 ,the ,committee met in the ,hall of the ,house of ,representatives1 ,thursday1 ,may1 #ca1 #ahfj1 to receive evidence as to the contagious or infectious character of the disease1 in order to determine concerning the necessity of legislative action4 ,mr4 ,walker1 one of the commissioners appointed by the ,governor1 made the following statement3 ,the disease was introduced into ,north ,brookfield from ,belmont4 ,mr4 ,curtis ,stoddard1 a young man of ,north ,brookfield1 went down1 the very last of ,june1 last year1 and purchased three calves of ,mr4 ,chenery1 of ,belmont4 ,he brought these calves up in the cars to ,brookfield4 ,on their way from the depot to his house1 about five miles1 one of the calves was observed to falter1 and when he got to his house1 it seemed to be sick1 and in two or three days exhibited very great illness2 so much so1 that his father came along1 and1 thinking he could take better care of it1 took the calf home4 ,he took it to his own barn1 in which there were about forty head of cattle2 but it grew no better1 and his son went up and brought it back again to his own house4 ,in about ten days after that1 it died4 ,his father1 who had had the calf nearly four days1 in about a fortnight afterward observed that one of his oxen was sick1 and it grew worse very fast and died4 ,two weeks after1 a second also sickened1 and died4 ,then a third was attacked and died1 the interval growing wider from the attack of one animal to that of another1 until he had lost eight oxen and cows4 ,young ,stoddard lost no animal by the infection1--that is1 no one died on his hands4 ,prior to the appointment of this ,commission1 about the first of ,november1--for reasons independent of this disease1 which ,i don't suppose he then knew the nature of1--he sold off his stock4 ,he sold off eleven heifers1 or young animals1 and retained nine of the most valuable himself2 which shows that he did not then know any thing was the matter with them4 ,these nine were four oxen1 and five young cattle4 ,the four he took to his father's1 three of the others to his uncle's1 and the remaining two to his father-in-law's2 distributing them all among his friends1--which furnishes another proof that he did not suppose he was doing any mischief4 ,he disposed of his herd in that way4 ,from this auction1 these eleven animals went in different directions1 and wherever they went1 they scattered the infection4 ,without a single failure the disease has followed those cattle2 in one case1 more than two hundred cattle having been infected by one which was sold at ,curtis ,stoddard's auction1 when he was entirely ignorant of the disease4 ,when the commission was appointed1 they went and examined his cattle1 and were satisfied that they were diseased1--at least1 some of them4 ,they examined his father's herd1 and found that they were very much diseased2 and when we came to kill ,curtis ,stoddard's cattle1 seven of the nine head were diseased4 ,two were not condemned1 because the law says1 ',cattle not appearing to be diseased1 shall be appraised4' ,nevertheless1 it proved that these animals were diseased2 so that his whole herd was affected4 ,in regard to ,leonard ,stoddard's cattle1 he lost fourteen of his animals before the commissioners went to his place4 ,they took eighteen more1 all of which were diseased1--most of them very bad cases1--indeed1 extreme cases4 ,that left eight heads1 which were not condemned1 because not appearing to be diseased4 ,here ,i remark1 that when this disease is under the shoulder-blade1 it cannot be detected by percussion4 ,the physicians did not say that the animal was not diseased1 but that they did not see sufficient evidence upon which to condemn4 ,such animals were to be paid for1 upon the ground of their not appearing to be diseased4 ,nevertheless1 it is proper to state that the remaining eight which were not condemned1 were suspected to be diseased1 and we told ,mr4 ,stoddard that we had the impression that they were diseased1 notwithstanding appearances4 ,he said1 ',there is a three-year-old animal that has never faltered at all4 ,she has never manifested the slightest disease4 ,if you will kill her1 and she is diseased1 ,i shall make up my mind that ,i have not a well animal in my stalls4' ,we killed the animal1 and found her to be badly diseased4 ,thus1 the first two herds were all infected by the disease2 and in the last of ,curtis ,stoddard's oxen which we killed1 we found a cyst in the lungs of each4 ,one of these lungs is now in this building1 never having been cut open1 and medical men can see the cyst which it contains4 ,i have said in what manner ,mr4 ,curtis ,stoddard's cattle spread the infection4 ,in regard to ,mr4 ,leonard ,stoddard's3 in the first place1 he kept six or eight oxen which he employed in teaming4 ,he was drawing some lumber1 and stopped over night1 with his oxen1 at ,mr4 ,needham's4 ,needham lost his whole herd4 ,he lost eight or ten of them1 and the rest were in a terrible condition4 ,seven or eight more were condemned1 and his whole herd was destroyed1 in consequence of ,mr4 ,stoddard's stopping with him over night4 ,mr4 ,stoddard sold an animal to ,mr4 ,woodis of ,new ,braintree4 ,he had twenty-three fine cows4 ,it ruined his herd utterly4 ,seven or eight animals died before the commissioners got there4 ,mr4 ,l4 ,stoddard also sold a yoke of cattle to ,mr4 ,olmstead1 one of his neighbors1 who had a very good herd4 ,they stayed only five days in his hands1 when they passed over to ,mr4 ,doane4 ,in these five days they had so infected his herd that it was one of the most severe instances of disease that we have had4 ,one third were condemned1 and another third were passed over as sound1 whether they were so1 or not4 ,they did not appear to be diseased4 ,the cattle that were passed from ,mr4 ,stoddard through ,mr4 ,olmstead to ,mr4 ,doane1 were loaned by ,mr4 ,d4 to go to a moving of a building from ,oakham to ,new ,braintree4 ,they were put in with twenty-two yoke of cattle1 and employed a day and a half4 ,it has since been proved that the whole of these cattle took the contagion4 ,they belonged to eleven different herds1 and of course1 each of these herds formed a focus from which the disease spread4 ,now1 in these two ways the disease has spread in different directions4 ,but1 when the commissioners first commenced1 they had no idea that the disease extended further than those herds in which there were animals sick4 ,hence1 their ideas and the ideas of those who petitioned for the law1 did not extend at all to so large a number of herds as have since been proved to be diseased1 because they only judged of those who manifested disease4 ,as soon as we began in that circle1 we found a second circle of infection1 and another outside of that2 and by that time it had branched off in various directions to various towns4 ,it assumed such proportions that it was very evident that the commissioners had not the funds to perform the operations required by the law4 ,the law confines the commissioners to one operation1--killing and burying4 ,no discretionary power is given at all4 ,the commissioners became entirely dissatisfied with that condition of things1 because other measures besides merely killing and burying1 are quite as necessary and important4 ,when they arrived at that point and discovered to what extent the infection had spread1 they stopped killing the herds1 and ,i believe there has not been a herd killed for twenty days4 ,the policy was then changed to circumscribing the disease1 by isolating the herds just as fast as possible and as surely as possible4 ,a man's herd has been exposed4 ,there is no other way than to go and examine it1 and take the diseased animals away4 ,then he knows the animals are diseased1 and his neighbors know it4 ,that has been the business of the commissioners for the last twenty days2 and the facts that they have no discretionary power whatever1 and that they were entirely circumscribed in their means1 and that it was hard for the farmers to lose their stock and not be paid for it1--induced them to petition the ,governor1 in connection with the ,board of ,agriculture1 for the calling of a session of the ,legislature1 to take measures for the extinction of the disease4 ,in response to a question1 ,whether any animals that had once been affected1 had afterward recovered8--the same gentleman stated that instances had occurred where cattle had been sick twice1 and had1 apparently1 fully recovered2 they ruminated readily1 and were gaining flesh4 ,upon examination1 however1 they were pronounced diseased1 and1 when killed1 both lungs were found in a hopeless case1 very badly diseased4 ,dr4 ,george ,b4 ,loring1 another of the commissioners1 stated that eight hundred and forty-two head of cattle had1 at that time1 been killed1 and that1 from a careful estimate1 there still remained one thousand head1 which should either be killed1 or isolated for such a length of time as should establish the fact that they had no disease about them4 ,twenty thousand dollars and upwards had already been appraised as the value of the cattle then killed4 ,as to disinfecting measures1 the farmers who had lost cattle were requested to whitewash their barns thoroughly1 and some tons of a disinfecting powder were purchased for the advantage of the persons who wished to use it4 ,an early application was advised1 that the barns might be in readiness for hay the then coming season4 ,the practice adopted by the commissioners was1 to appraise the cattle whenever a herd was found which had been exposed1 and a surgeon was appointed to pass judgment upon the number of diseased animals4 ,after that judgment1 the remaining animals that were pronounced sound were killed and passed to the credit of the owner1 after an appraisement made by these persons4 ,the fair market-prices were paid1 averaging about thirty-three dollars a head4 ,at the time of the meeting of the committee1 some seventy cattle had died of the disease4 ,an examination was made of some of the animals killed1 and the following facts obtained3-- ,case #a4--,this cow had been sick for nineteen days2 was feeble1 without much appetite1 with diarrhoea1 cough1 shortness of breathing1 hair staring1 etc4 ,percussion dull over the whole of the left side of the chest2 respiration weak4 ,killed by authority4 ,several gallons of serum were found in the left side of the chest2 a thick1 furzy deposit of lymph over all the pleura-costalis4 ,this lymph was an inch in thickness1 resembling the velvety part of tripe1 and quite firm4 ,there was a firm deposit of lymph in the whole left lung1 but more especially at its base1 with strong adhesions to the diaphragm and pleura-costalis near the spine4 ,the lung was hard and brittle1 like liver1 near its base4 ,no pus4 ,right lung and right side of chest healthy4 ,case #b4--,this cow was taken very sick1 ,january #cjth4 ,in fourteen days1 she began to get better4 ,april #abth1 she is gaining flesh1 breathes well1 hair healthy1 gives ten quarts of milk a day1 and in all other respects bids fair for a healthy animal hereafter1 except a slight cough4 ,percussion dull over base of the left lung1 near the spine1 and respiration feeble in the same regions4 ,autopsy4--,left lung strongly adherent to diaphragm and costal pleura2 the long adhesions well smoothed off2 pleura-costalis shining and healthy4 ,also1 the surface of the lung1 when there were no adhesions1 sound and right2 all the lung white1 and free for the entrance of air1 except the base1 in which was a cyst containing a pint or two of pus4 ,loose in this pus was a hard mass1 as large as a two-quart measure1 looking like marble2 when cut through its centre1 it appeared like the brittle1 hardened lining in case #a4 ,it appeared as though a piece of lung had been detached by suppuration and enclosed in an air-tight cyst1 by which decomposition was prevented4 ,the other lung and the chest were sound4 ,it is to be inferred1 as there were adhesions1 that there had been pleurisy and deposit of lymph and serum1 as in case #a1 and that ,nature had commenced the cure by absorbing the serum from the chest1 and the lymph from the free pleural surface1 and smoothed off every thing to a good working condition4 ,the lump in the cyst was brittle and irregular on its surface1 as though it was dissolving in the pus4 ,no good reason can be given why ,nature should not consummate the work which she had so wisely begun4 ,case #c4--,this cow had been sick fourteen days2 was coughing and breathing badly2 percussion dull over both chests and respiration feeble4 ,killed4 ,autopsy4--,both chests filled with water2 deposits of lymph over all the pleura-costalis1 presenting the same velvety1 furzy appearance as in ,case #a4 ,both lungs were hardened at the base1 and the left throughout its whole extent1 and firmly adherent to diaphragm and costal pleura1 near the spine4 ,the right lung had nearly one-third of its substance in a condition for the entrance of air2 but this portion1 even1 was so compressed with the water1 that a few hours longer would have terminated the case fatally without ,state aid4 ,this case had not proceeded far enough for the formation of the cyst or pus4 ,in ,mr4 ,needham's herd1 about twenty-eight days intervened between the first and second case of disease1 instead of about fourteen1 as in ,mr4 ,olmstead's4 ,case #d4--;,a nice heifer1 in fair condition1 eating well1 only having a slight cough4 ,percussion dull over base of the left lung4 ,autopsy4--,base of left lung adherent to diaphragm and costal pleura2 lung hardened4 ,on cutting into base1 found ulceration and a head of ,timothy grass1 four or five inches long4 ,animal in every other way well4 ,case #e4--,this cow was taken1 ,january #ast1 with a cough1 difficulty of breathing1 and the other symptoms of the disease1 and continued sick till ,march #ast4 ,on taking her out1 ,april #abth1 to be slaughtered1 she capered1 stuck up her tail1 snuffed1 and snorted1 showing all the signs of feeling well and vigorous4 ,autopsy4--,right lung firmly adherent to diaphragm and costal pleura1 near the spine4 ,base of lung hardened1 containing a cyst with a large lump1 of the size of a two-quart measure1 floating in pus2 outside of the lump was of a dirty yellow-white1 irregular1 brittle1 and cheesy2 the inside mottled1 or divided into irregular squares2 red like muscle1 and breaking under the finger1 like liver4 ,costal pleura smooth1 shining2 adhesions where there was motion2 card-like and polished2 no serum2 lung apparently performing its functions well1 except for a short distance above the air-tight cyst1 where it was still hardened4 ,it would seem as though ,nature was intending to dissolve this lump1 and carry it off by absorption4 ,she knows how1 and would have done it1 in the opinion of the writer1 had she been allowed sufficient time4 ,case #f4--,was taken ,december #ahth1 and was very sick2 in three weeks she was well1 except a cough1 quite severe1 and so continued till about the first of ,march1 when she coughed harder and grew worse till seven days before she was killed1 ,april #abth1 when she brought forth a calf1 and then commenced improving again4 ,autopsy4--,right lung adherent to diaphragm and costal pleura4 ,at its base1 was a flabby1 fluctuating cyst4 ,in cutting into it1 the lump was found to be breaking up by decomposition1 and scenting badly4 ,every thing else normal4 ,was not the cyst broken through by some accident1 thus letting in the air1 when she grew worse8 ,would she not1 probably1 have overcome this disagreeable accident1 and recovered1 in spite of it8 ,this cow's hair did not look well1 as did that of those in which the cyst was air-tight2 but still she was beginning to eat well again1 and appeared in a tolerable way for recovery4 ,case #g4--,this heifer had coughed slightly for six weeks1 but the owner said he thought no one going into his herd would notice that any thing was the matter with her4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,rural ,,scene4 ,autopsy4--,slight adhesions of lung to diaphragm4 ,near these adhesions are small cysts1 of the size of a walnut1 containing pus and cheesy matter2 about the cysts a little way the lung was hardened1 say for half an inch4 ,there were several cysts1 and they appeared as though the inflammation attacked only the different lobes of the lungs1 leaving others healthy between1--,nature throwing out coagulable lymph around the diseased lobe1 and forming thereby an air-tight cyst1 cutting around the diseased lobe by suppuration1 so that it could be carried off by absorption4 ,in the herd to which this animal belonged1 nine days after the first cow died1 the second case occurred4 ,first cow was sick five weeks4 ,the time of incubation could not have been over six weeks1--probably not over three weeks4 ,of these cows1 one improved in eight weeks1 the other in three weeks4 ,case #h4--,this cow had been sick three weeks4 ,killed4 ,autopsy4--,large quantities of serum in left chest2 lung adherent1 and hardened at base4 ,on cutting into the hardened lung1 one side of the lump was found separated from the lung1 with pus between the lines of separation1 and the forming coat of the cyst outside of the pus2 the other side of the lump was part and parcel of the hardened lung which had not yet had time to commence separation4 ,the costal pleura was covered with organized lymph to the thickness of an inch1 with the usual characteristics4 ,the right chest contained a small quantity of serum1 and had several small1 hardened red spots in that lung1 with some tender1 weak adhesions2 but most of the right lung was healthy4 ,case #i4--,sick four weeks4 ,killed4 ,autopsy4--,right lung hardened at base2 adherent to diaphragm and costal pleura2 lump separated on one side only4 ,cyst beginning to form1 outside of separation2 pus between cyst and lump1 but in a very small quantity4 ,these two cases settle the character of the lump1 and the manner of the formation of the cyst2 the lump being lung and lymph1 cut out by suppuration1--the cyst being organized1 smoothed off by suppuration1 friction1 etc4 ,case #aj4--,killed4 ,hair looked badly2 but the cow1 it was said1 ate1 and appeared well4 ,this case1 however1 occurred in a herd1 of which no reliable information1 in detail1 could be procured4 ,autopsy4--,base of lung hardened1 adherent to diaphragm2 containing a cyst1 in which was a lump1 of the size of a quart measure1 but little pus4 ,this lump had air-tubes running through it1 which were not yet cut off by suppuration2 and in one place1 the cyst was perforated by a bronchial tube1 letting in the external air to the lump1 which was undergoing disorganization1 and swelling badly4 ,when cut into1 it did not present the red1 mottled1 organized appearance of those cases with air-tight cysts4 ,quite a number of other cases were examined1 but these ten present all the different phases4 ,one or two cases are needed of an early stage of the disease1 to settle the point1 whether1 in all cases1 the primary disease is lung fever1 and the pleurisy a continuation1 merely1 of the primary disease2 together with some six or eight cases1 during five1 six1 seven1 eight months from attack1 and so on till entire1 final recovery4 ,some cases were sick almost a year since1 and are now apparently quite well2 perhaps all the lump and pus are not yet gone4 ,many practitioners think that no severe case will ever recover1 and some think that none ever get entirely well4 ,others1 however1 can see no reason why1 as a general rule1 all single cases should not recover1 and all double cases die4 ,the disease was the most fatal in ,mr4 ,chenery's 7the original7 herd1 although it was the best-fed and the warmest-stabled4 ,he attributed the fatality1 in part1 to a want of sufficient ventilation4 ,the other herds1 in which all the fatal cases occurred in two hours1 consisted1 originally1 one of forty-eight head1 of which thirteen died1 or were killed1 to prevent certain death2 of twenty-three head1 of which seven died2 of twenty-two head1 of which eight died2 of twenty-two head1 of which eight also died2 and of twenty-one head1 of which four died4 ,a little less than thirty per cent41 therefore1 of these herds died4 ,this estimate excludes the calves4 ,most of the cows which had not calved before being attacked1 lost their calves prematurely4 ,the probable time of incubation1 as deduced from those ,massachusetts cases1 is from two to three weeks2 of propagation1 about the same time2 the acute stage of the disease lasting about three weeks4 ,the author's attention was first directed to this disease1 upon its appearance in ,camden and ,gloucester counties1 ,new ,jersey1 in the year #ahei1 at about the same time it made its advent in ,massachusetts4 ,the singularity of this coincidence inclined him for the time to regard the disease as an epizooetic--having its origin in some peculiar condition of the atmosphere--rather than as a contagious1 or infectious disease1 which position was at that time assumed by him4 ,this opinion was strengthened by the fact1 that no case occurring in ,new ,jersey could be traced to a ,massachusetts origin1 in which ,state it was claimed that the disease never had existed in this country previous to its introduction there4 ,it was1 therefore1 denied by the veterinary surgeons in the ,eastern ,states1 that the disease in ,new ,jersey was the true ,european pleuro-pneumonia1 but it was called by them the swill-milk disease of ,new ,york ,city1 and it was assigned an origin in the distillery cow-houses in ,brooklyn and ,williamsburg4 ,in #ahfj it found its way across the ,delaware ,river into ,philadelphia1 spreading very rapidly in all directions1 particularly in the southern section of the county1 known as ,the ,neck1--many of the dairymen losing from one third to one half of their herds by its devastating influence4 ,in order to save themselves--in part1 at least--from this heavy loss1 many of them1 upon the first indications of the malady1 sent their animals to the butcher1 to be slaughtered for beef4 ,in #ahfa the disease found its way into ,delaware1 where its ravages were severely felt4 ,so soon1 however1 as it became known that the disease was infectious or contagious1 an effort was made to trace it to its starting-point2 but1 in consequence of the unwillingness of dairymen to communicate the fact that their herds were affected with pleuro-pneumonia1 all efforts proved fruitless4 ,in #ahfj the disease found its way up the ,delaware to ,riverton1 a short distance above the city of ,philadelphia4 ,a cattle-dealer1 named ,ward1 turned some cattle into a lot1 adjoining which several others were grazing4 ,the residents of this place are chiefly the families of gentlemen doing business in the city1 many of whom lost their favorite animals from this destructive malady4 ,the first case occurring at this place1 to which the author's attention was called1 was a cow belonging to ,mr4 ,d4 ,parrish1 which had been exposed by coming in contact with ,ward's cattle1 had sickened1 and died4 ,an anxiety having been manifested to ascertain the cause of the death1 the author made an examination of the animal1 which1 upon dissection1 proved the disease to be a genuine case of the so-called pleuro-pneumonia4 ,this examination was made ,august #bjth1 #ahfj1 at the time of the ,massachusetts excitement4 ,two cows1 belonging to ,mr4 ,rose1 of the same place1 had been exposed1 and both had taken the disease4 ,his attention having been called to them1 he placed them under the author's treatment1 and by the use of diffusible stimulants and tonics1 one of these animals recovered1 while the other was slaughtered for an examination1 which revealed all the morbid conditions so characteristic of this disease4 ,the next case was a cow belonging to ,mr4 ,g4 ,h4 ,roach1 of the same place1 which had been grazing in a lot adjoining that of ,mr4 ,parrish4 ,this cow was killed in the presence of ,charles ,wood1 ,v4,s41 of ,boston1 ,mass41 and ,arthur ,s4 ,copeman1 of ,utica1 ,n4 ,y41 who was one of a committee appointed by the ,new ,york ,state ,agricultural ,society for the purpose of investigating the disease4 ,both of these gentlemen having witnessed the disease in-all its forms1 as it appeared in ,massachusetts1 were the first to identify this case with those in that ,state4 ,upon opening the cow1 the left lung was found to be completely consolidated1 and adhered to the left side1 presenting the appearance usual in such cases4 ,as she was with calf1 the lungs of the foetus were examined1 disclosing a beautiful state of red hepatization4 ,the author's attention was next called to the herd of ,mr4 ,lippincott1 a farmer in the neighborhood1 who had lost several cattle by the disease2 but as he had been persuaded that treatment was useless1 he abandoned the idea of attempting to save his stock in that way4 ,from ,riverton it soon spread to ,burlington1 some ten miles farther up the river1 where it carried off large numbers of valuable cattle1 and it continued in existence in that neighborhood for some time4 ,the disease was not then confined to these localities alone1 but has spread over a large extent of country1--and that1 too1 prior to its appearance in ,massachusetts1 as will be shown by extracts from the following letters1 published in the ,country ,gentleman3-- ,we have a disease among the cattle here1 ,i will class it under these names1--congestion of the lungs1 terminating with consumption1 or dropsy of the chest4 ,now1 ,i have treated two cases2 one five years since1 as congestion1--and the first is still able to eat her allowance1 and give a couple of pails of milk a day1--and the other1 quite recently4 ,the great terror of this disease is1 that it is not taken in its first stages1 which are the same in the cow as in the man--a difficulty in breathing1 which1 if not speedily relieved1 terminates in consumption or dropsy4 ,i have no doubt that consumption is contagious2 but is that a reason why every one taken with congestion should be killed to check the spread of consumption8 ,so ,i should reason1 if ,i had pleuro-pneumonia in my drove of cattle4 ,j4 ,,baldwin4 ,,newark1 ,n4 ,j41 ,june #aa1 #ahfj4 ,i notice that a good deal of alarm is felt in different parts of the country about what is called the cattle-disease4 ,from the diagnosis given in the papers1 ,i have no doubt this is pleuro-pneumonia1 with which ,i had some acquaintance a few years ago4 ,if it is the same1 my observation and experience may be of some service to those suffering now4 ,it was introduced into my stock1 in the fall of #ahec1 by one of my own cows1 which1 in the spring of that year1 ,i had sent down to my brother in ,brooklyn1 to be used during the summer for milk4 ,she was kept entirely isolated through out the summer1 and in ,november was sent up by the boat4 ,there were no other cattle on the boat at the time1 nor could ,i learn that she had come in contact with any in passing through the streets on her way to the boat2 and she certainly did not1 after leaving it1 until she mingled with her old companions1 all of whom were then1 and long afterward1 perfectly well4 ,after she had been home about two weeks1 we noticed that her appetite failed1 and her milk fell off3 she seemed dull and stupid1 stood with her head down1 and manifested a considerable degree of languor4 ,soon her breathing became somewhat hurried1 and with a decided catch in it2 she ground her teeth2 continued standing1 or1 if she lay down1 it was only to jump up again instantly4 ,her cough increased1 and so1 too1 a purulent and1 bloody discharge from her nostrils and mouth4 ,the excrement was fetid1 black1 and hard4 ,in this case1 we twice administered half a pound of ,epsom-salts1 and afterward1 a bottle of castor-oil4 ,very little1 but a temporary effect was produced by these doses4 ,the symptoms all increased in intensity2 strength diminished2 limbs drawn together2 belly tucked up1 etc42 until the eight day1 when she partly lay1 and partly fell down1 and never rose again4 ,in a post-mortem examination1 the lungs were gorged with black1 fetid blood2 the substance of them thickened and pulpy4 ,the pleura and diaphragm also showed a good deal of disease and some adhesion4 ,this cow1 on her arrival here1 was put in her usual place in the stable1 between others4 ,she remained there for two or three days after she was taken sick1 before we removed her to the hospital4 ,in about three weeks from the time she died1 one and then the other of those standing on either side of her were attacked in the same way1 and with but two days between4 ,this1 certainly1 looks very much like contagion2 but my attention had not before been called to this particular disease1 and to suppose inflammation or congestion of the lungs contagious was so opposed to my preconceived notions1 that ,i did not even then admit it2 and these animals were suffered to remain with the others until their own comfort seemed to require the greater liberty of open pens4 ,one of them was early and copiously bled twice1 while ,epsom-salts were administered1 both by the stomach and with the injective-pump4 ,the other we endeavored to keep nauseated with ipecacuanha1 and the same time to keep her bowels open by cathartic medicine4 ,all proved to be of no avail4 ,they both died1--the one in ten1 the other in thirteen days4 ,before these died1 however1 others were taken sick4 ,and thus1 later1 ,i had eight sick at one time4 ,the leading symptoms in all were the same1 with minor differences2 and so1 too1 was the appearance after death1 on examination4 ,of all that were taken sick 7sixteen7 but two recovered2 and they were among those we did the least for1 after we had become discouraged about trying to cure them4 ,in all the last cases we made no effort at all1 but to keep them as comfortable as we could4 ,in one case1 the acute character of the disease changed to chronic1 and the animal lived six or eight weeks1 until the whole texture of the lungs had become destroyed4 ,she had become much emaciated1 and finally died with the ordinary consumption4 ,at the time the first case appeared1 ,i had a herd of thirty-one animals1 all valuable ,ayrshires1 in fine condition and healthy4 ,in all the first cases1 ,i had a veterinary surgeon of considerable celebrity and experience1 and every ordinary approved method of treatment was resorted to and persevered in4 ,the last cases--as before intimated--we only strove to make comfortable4 ,after ,i had paid the third or fourth forfeit1 ,i began to awake up to the idea that the disease was1 in a high degree1 contagious1 whether ,i would have it so or not2 and that my future security was in prevention1 and not in remedy4 ,i therefore separated all the remaining animals2 in no instance having more than two together1 and generally but one in a place4 ,all were removed from the infected stalls1 and put into quarantine4 ,isolated cases continued to occur after this for some weeks1 but the spread of the disease was stayed2 nor did a single case occur after this1 which we did not think we traced directly to previous contact4 ,it is impossible to account for the first case of which ,i have spoken4 ,but1 as the cow in that case was put into a sale-stable in ,new ,york while waiting for the boat1--though there were no cattle then present1--yet ,i have supposed it not unlikely that diseased animals had been there1 and had left the seeds of the disease4 ,but1 account for this case as we may1--and ,i have no doubt it is sometimes spontaneous1--,i feel convinced it is very highly contagious2 and that the only safety to a herd into which it has been introduced1 is in complete isolation1--and in this ,i feel as convinced that there is safety4 ,my cattle were not suffered to return to the barnyard or to any part of the cattle-barns1 except as invalids were sent to 'the hospital' to die1 until late the next fall1 i4e41 the fall of #ahed4 ,in the mean time1 the hay and straw had all been removed2 the stables1 stalls1 cribs and all thoroughly scrubbed with ashes and water1 fumigated1 and white washed with quicklime4 ,i have had no case since1 and am persuaded ,i should have avoided most of those ,i had before1 if ,i had reasonably admitted the evidence of my senses in the second and third cases4 ,e4 ,p4 ,,prentice4 ,,mount ,,hope1 ,june #adth1 #ahfj4 ,the author's experience with the disease1 during the last year in ,new ,jersey1 proves the efficacy of remedial agents when applied in the early stages of the disease4 ,late in the spring of #ahfa1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,e4 ,hancock1 of ,burlington ,county 7residing near ,columbus1 ,n4 ,j471 purchased some cattle in the ,philadelphia market1 which1 after they were driven home1 he turned in with his other stock4 ,soon after this purchase1 one of the animals sickened and died4 ,this was in ,august2 after which time ,mr4 ,h4 lost eight cows1--having1 at the time of the death of the last animal1 some five others sick with the same disorder4 ,the author was called in1 ,december #hth1 #ahfa1 and the five animals then placed under his treatment4 ,on the #abth of ,december1 in the same year1 one of these cows1 at his suggestion1 was killed1 which1 upon the post-mortem examination1 beautifully illustrated the character of the disease4 ,the right lung was comparatively healthy2 the left one completely hepatized1 or consolidated1 and so enlarged as to fill up the left cavity of the chest to it's utmost capacity4 ,this lung weighed thirty pounds4 ,there was no effusion in the chest1 but there was considerable adhesion of the pleura-costalis and pleura-pulmonalis4 ,all the other tissues appeared to be healthy4 ,to the remaining animals1 was administered the following3 aqua ammonia1 three drachms2 nitric ether1 one ounce2 pulverized gentian-root1 half an ounce2 mixed with one quart of water1 and drenched three times a day4 ,the last thing at night was given a teaspoonful of phosphate of lime1 mixed in a little feed1 or in gruel4 ,setons1 or rowels1 in the dewlap are also very beneficial4 ,under this treatment they all did well4 ,soon after the introduction of the disease into this herd1 it found its way to the herd of ,william ,hancock1 a brother of the former gentleman1 who had an adjoining farm4 ,in this herd one cow died1 and the disease was found by the author developed in four more cows and two oxen1 all of which--with a single exception--did well under the above treatment4 ,the disease afterward showed itself in the herd of ,john ,pope1 half a mile distant1 who lost nine animals by it4 ,thursday1 ,december #aith1 was selected for the purpose of making an examination of the ,hancock herds2 but1 after some ten or twelve animals had been examined and all pronounced tainted with the disease1 the owners concluded to stop the investigation1 expressing themselves dissatisfied with the result1 as not one of the animals examined had shown any symptoms of disease4 ,in order to convince them of the correctness of the diagnosis1 a cow was selected and destroyed1 which the ,hancocks believed to be in perfect health4 ,upon opening the animal1 several small patches of hepatized lung were brought into view4 ,upon making a longitudinal section of the lump1 as both were involved1 they presented a red1 speckled appearance4 ,all the other tissues were healthy4 ,the symptoms in these cases were quite different from any which had been previously seen in an experience of three years with the disease in and about ,philadelphia1 inasmuch as they were not preceded by cough2 in fact1 cough did not appear in many of the animals at any time during the progress of the disease4 ,the animals looked1 ate1 and milked well1 previously to the development of the disease1 so that the owners were thrown completely off their guard by these deceptive symptoms of health4 ,knowing the uncertain character of this disease1 and wishing to stay its ravages1 a suggestion was made by the author as to the propriety of having the entire herd killed for beef4 ,this was done the more readily1 as the sale of the meat is legalized in ,europe1 it being regarded as uninjured1 and therefore wholesome meat4 ,this suggestion was acted upon1 and thus these two farms were rid of this dreadful scourge at one blow4 ,mr4 ,a4 ,gaskill1 of ,mount ,holly1 ,n4 ,j41 purchased a cow from one of the ,hancocks1 for his own family use1 which was sent to ,mr4 ,frank ,lippincott's to pasture and turned in with ,mr4 ,l4's own herd4 ,soon after1 this cow sickened and died4 ,this was soon followed by the loss of six of ,mr4 ,l4's own cattle1--three oxen1 two cows1 and one steer4 ,from this herd1 it was communicated to the ,widow ,lippincott's1 who occupied a neighboring farm2 as also to ,mr4 ,cleavenger's1 who lost four animals2 and to ,mr4 ,smith's1 who had1 at one time1 seven animals sick2 and from ,cleavenger's to ,noaknuts1 who lost two cows4 ,some two or three cows1 belonging to ,mr4 ,logan1 in the same neighborhood1 got upon the road and broke into ,mr4 ,lippincott's pasture1 mixing with his herd4 ,as soon as ,mr4 ,logan was informed of the fact1 he isolated these cows by enclosing them in a pen at some distance from his other cattle2 but they managed to break out1 and mingled with his other stock4 ,it could scarcely be expected that his herd could escape the disease1 considering the exposure to which they had been subjected4 ,the disease manifested itself in the herds of several other farmers in the country1 but space will not allow a more extended notice of the subject4 ,the treatment which has been found most successful in this country is as follows1 all of which has been tested by the author upon various occasions3 ,in the acute1 inflammatory stage of the disease1 give ten drops of ,flemming's tincture of aconite in water1 every four hours1 until a change takes place2 follow this with aqua ammonia1 three drachms2 nitric ether1 one ounce2 pulverized gentian-root1 one half an ounce2 water1 one quart4 ,drench three times a day1 and give1 late in the evening1 a tablespoonful of phosphate of lime1 in a little feed1 or drench with gruel4 ,put setons1 or rowels in the dewlap1 so as to have a dependent opening4 ,this course has been found very advantageous4 ,or1 the following will be found quite satisfactory2 nitrate of potash1 two drachms2 camphor1 half a drachm2 tartrate of antimony1 half a drachm2 mix1 and give in a little gruel1 night and morning4 ,or1 the following3 ,glauber-salts1 four ounces2 water1 one pint2 give twice a day4 ,a gill of cold-drawn castor-oil1 added to the above1 would be beneficial4 ,continue until the bowels are freely opened4 ,the following has also been found efficacious3 sulphate of magnesia1 eight ounces2 nitrate of potash and pulverized ,jamaica ginger-root1 of each one ounce4 ,repeat as often as may be required4 ,apply externally the following ointment to the sides2 biniodide of mercury1 four drachms2 castor-oil1 half an ounce2 lard1 four ounces2 mix for use4 ,preventive measures4--#ast4 ,the complete isolation of all herds in which the disease has made its appearance4 #b;d4 ,such animals as show symptoms of the disease should be placed under proper treatment4 #c;d4 ,in ,england1 it is recommended that animals recovering from the disease should be fattened and slaughtered for beef1 as they are not safe even after their apparent recovery4 #dth4 ,all animals beyond medical treatment should be killed and buried2 recompense in part1 at least1 being made to the owners4 #eth4 ,no animal1 healthy or diseased1 should be allowed to run at large upon the public highway so long as the disease may exist in its neighborhood4 ,illustration3 ,,taking ,,it ,,easily4 ,the united action of all those interested would soon rid the country of a disease which has smitten all ,europe4 ,the author takes this occasion to acknowledge the receipt of two very ably written articles upon this subject1 which1 in consequence of their length and the comparatively limited space allotted1 he is reluctantly compelled to omit4 ,one is from the pen of ,r4 ,mc,clure1 ,v4,s41 and the other from ,isaiah ,michener1 ,v4,s4 ,for the benefit his readers1 however1 he desires to make a single extract from the last-named communication1 without being considered as endorsing the opinion advanced therein3-- ,i am inclined to favor the hypothesis that pleuro-pneumonia is produced by animalculae1 and that these enter the lungs by myriads1 and thereby set up irritation and inflammation1 which lead to all the phenomena and pathological conditions which are to be found upon dissection4 ,this is my opinion of the cause of the malignant pleuro-pneumonia which has existed in the ,united ,states for the last seven years4 ,after writing the foregoing1 the author was informed that this disease had made its appearance in ,mr4 ,logan's herd1 already mentioned as exposed4 ,he was called to visit the herd of ,mr4 ,g4 ,satterthwaite1 who likewise lost two cows1 and had two cows and a calf sick at the time of sending for him4 ,,pneumonia4 ,there are two conditions of the lungs known as pneumonia1--one1 the inflammatory1 and the other1 the congestive stage4 ,the former may follow an attack of bronchitis1 or it may have a spontaneous origin4 ,the congestive is generally the result of cold suddenly applied to an overheated animal1 causing a determination of blood to the lungs1 which sometimes causes death by suffocation4 ,symptoms4--,the disease is preceded by a shivering fit2 dry skin2 staring coat2 clammy mouth2 short cough2 ,schneiderian membrane 7of the nose7 very much reddened2 respiration hurried or laborious4 ,in the congestive stage1 upon applying the ear to the sides1 no sound will be detected2 ,while in the inflammatory stage1 a crackling or crepitating sound will be distinctively heard4 ,treatment4--,in the congestive stage1 plenty of pure air will be necessary4 ,bleed freely2 and give in drench one pound of ,glauber-salts1 with two drachms of ,jamaica ginger4 ,nothing more will be required by way of treatment4 ,in the inflammatory stage1 bleeding should seldom be resorted to1 except where the animal is in full condition4 ,apply the following blister to the sides1 well rubbed in3 oil of turpentine1 one ounce2 croton-oil1 twelve drops2 aqua ammonia1 half an ounce2 linseed-oil1 four ounces2 mix all together4 ,give internally one pound of salts in drench1 and follow with one of the following powders every four hours3 nitrate of potash1 one ounce2 tartrate of antimony and pulverized digitalis leaves1 of each1 one drachm2 mix all together1 and divide into eight powders4 ,or the following may be given with equal advantage3 nitrate of potash1 one and a half ounces2 nitrate of soda1 six ounces2 mix1 and divide into six powders2 one to be given in wash or gruel every six hours4 ,,protrusion ,,of ,,the ,,bladder4 ,this sometimes occurs during the throes in difficult cases of parturition in cows1 and the aid of a skillful veterinary surgeon is requisite to replace the inverted bladder4 ,,puerperal ,,fever4 ,this disease--milk fever1 or dropping after calving--rarely occurs until the animal has attained mature age4 ,the first symptoms make their appearance in from one to five or six days after parturition4 ,it appears to be a total suspension of nervous function1 independent of inflammatory action1 which is suddenly developed1 and1 in favorable cases1 as suddenly disappears4 ,it is called dropping after calving1 from its following the parturient state4 ,symptoms4--,tremor of hind legs2 a staggering gait1 which soon terminates in loss of power in the hind limbs2 pulse rises to sixty or eighty per minute2 milk diminishing in quantity as the disease progresses2 the animal soon goes down1 and is unable to rise1 moans piteously2 eyes set in the head2 general stupor2 and slow respiration4 ,treatment4--,this disease1 though generally regarded as a febrile disorder1 will not yield to the general practice of taking blood1 as a large majority of the cases so treated die4 ,the bowels must be opened1 but the veins never4 ,give ,epsom-salts1 one pound2 ,jamaica ginger1 two ounces2 dissolve in warm water1 one quart1 and drench4 ,the author usually gives with good effect1 some five or six hours after the salts1 two ounces of nitric ether and one ounce of tincture of opium1 in half a pint of water4 ,rub well in1 along the back and loins1 the following3 strong mustard1 three ounces2 aqua ammonia and water1 each one and a half ounces4 ,some modifications in the treatment of this disease1 as well as of most others1 will be necessary under certain circumstances1 which can only be determined by the veterinary practitioner4 ,,quarter ,,evil4 ,in some sections of the country1 this disease--known by the other names of black quarter1 and joint murrain--is quite common among young cattle1 and is generally fatal in its termination4 ,there is little or no warning of its approach4 ,the first animals in a herd to be attacked are generally those in a full1 plethoric condition4 ,symptoms4--,the joints suddenly become swollen1 and so painful as to produce severe lameness1 particularly in the hind parts4 ,general irritative fever exists in the system1 attended with great tenderness of the loins2 the head is poked out2 eyes red and bulging2 the roots of the horns1 as well as the breath1 are hot2 the muzzle dry1 and nostrils expanded2 pulse rises to seventy or eighty1 full and hard2 respiration is hurried2 the animal is constantly moaning1 and appears to be unconscious of surrounding objects2 the swelling of the limbs extends to the shoulder and haunch2 the animal totters1 falls and dies in from twelve to twenty-four hours4 ,treatment4--,early bleeding is requisite here1 to be followed by active purgatives2 after which1 give one of the following powders every half hour3 nitrate of potassa1 two ounces2 tartrate of antimony and pulverized digitalis1 of each one and a half drachms2 mix1 and divide into eight powders4 ,these should not be renewed4 ,cold linseed tea should be freely given4 ,,rabies4 ,hydrophobia in cattle is the result of the bite of a rabid dog1 from which bite no animal escapes4 ,the effects produced by the wound made by the teeth of such an animal1 after the virus is once absorbed into the circulation of the blood1 are so poisonous that all treatment is useless4 ,the proper remedies must be instantly applied to prevent this absorption1 or the case is utterly hopeless4 ,among men1 nine out of every ten bitten by rabid dogs escape the terrible effects resulting from this dreadful disorder1 without resorting to any applications to prevent it4 ,it is a well-established fact1 that men1 when bitten by dogs1 are generally wounded in some part protected by their clothing1 which guards them from the deleterious effects of the saliva which covers the teeth1 and which1 at such times1 is deadly poison4 ,the teeth1 in passing through the clothing1 are wiped clean1 so that the virus is not introduced into the blood2 hence the comparatively few cases of rabies occurring in man4 ,when1 however1 the wound is made upon an exposed surface1 as the flesh of the hand1 or of the face1 this fatal disease is developed in spite of every precaution1 unless such precautions are immediately taken4 ,for this reason1 cattle when bitten1 do not escape the disease4 ,symptoms4--,the animal separates itself from the rest of the herd1 standing in a kind of stupor1 with the eyes half-closed2 respiration natural2 pulse quickened2 temperature of body and limbs natural2 the slightest noise agitates1 causing the eyes to glare and exciting bellowing2 the bark of a dog produces the most violent effects2 the animal foams at the mouth and staggers as it walks2 if water is offered1 the muzzle is plunged into it1 but the victim cannot drink2 in making the effort1 the most fearful consequences are produced4 ,the animal now seeks to do mischief1--and the quicker it is then destroyed1 the better4 ,treatment4--,this must be applied quickly1 or not at all4 ,the moment an animal is bitten1 that moment the wound should be searched for1 and when found1 should be freely opened with a knife1 and lunar caustic1 caustic potash1 or the permanganate of potash at once applied to all parts of the wound1 care being taken not to suffer a single scratch to escape4 ,this1 if attended to in time1 will save the animal4 ,,red ,,water4 ,this disease derives its name from the color of the urine voided in it4 ,it is one of the most common complaints of horned cattle1 and one of the most troublesome to manage4 ,symptoms4--,respiration hurried2 rumination ceases2 a high degree of fever presented2 the animal moans1 arches the back1 and strains in passing the urine1 which is tinged with blood1 or presents the appearance of pure blood4 ,prof4 ,gamgee1 of the ,edinburgh ,veterinary ,college1 says3 ,the cause is almost invariably feeding on turnips that have grown on damp1 ill-drained land2 and very often a change of diet stops the spread of this disease in the byre4 ,other succulent food1 grown under similar circumstances1 may produce the same symptoms1 tending to disturb the digestive organs and the blood-forming process4 ,in the course of my investigations as to the cause of various cattle-diseases1 and of red water in particular4 ,i have found that it is unknown on well-drained farms and in dairies where turnips are used only in a moderate degree4 ,the lands of poor people furnish the roots most likely to induce this disorder2 and ,i can confirm the statement of the late ,mr4 ,cumming1 of ,elton1 who1 in his very interesting essay upon this subject1 says1 particularly in reference to ,aberdeenshire1 that it is 'a disease essentially attacking the poor man's cow2 and to be seen and studied1 requires a practice extending into the less favorably situated parts of the country4 ,on large farms1 where good stock is well kept1 and in town dairies1 where artificial food is used to supplement the supply of turnips1 it is seldom now seen4' ,symptoms4--,general derangement attracts the dairyman's attention1 and1 upon observing the urine which the animal has voided1 it is seen to be of a red1 or of a reddish brown1 or claret color2 sometimes transparent1 at others clear4 ,the color increases in depth2 other secretions are checked2 the animal becomes hide-bound1 and the milk goes off4 ,appetite and rumination are suspended2 the pulse becomes extremely feeble and frequent1 though--as in all debilitating1 or anaemic1 disorders--the heart's action is loud and strong1 with a decided venous pulse1 or apparent regurgitation1 in the large veins of the neck4 ,in some cases1 if even a small quantity of blood be withdrawn1 the animal drops in a fainting state4 ,in red water1 the visible mucous membranes are blanched1 and the extremities cold1 indicating the languid state of the blood's circulation and the poverty of the blood itself4 ,constipation is one of the most obstinate complications2 and many veterinary surgeons--aware that1 if the bowels can be acted on1 the animal is cured--have employed purgatives in quantities far too large1 inducing at times even death4 ,occasionally1 diarrhoea is one of the first1 and not of the unfavorable1 symptoms4 ,treatment4--,give one pint of linseed-oil2 clysters of soap and water should be freely used2 and give plenty of linseed-tea to drink4 ,when the urine is abundant1 give one ounce of tincture of opium1 with one drachm of powdered aloes1 three times1 at intervals of six or eight hours4 ,,rheumatism4 ,this is a constitutional inflammatory affection of the joints1 affecting the fibrous tissue and serous1 or synovial membrane4 ,it is caused by exposure to cold and wet2 being quite common in low1 marshy sections4 ,symptoms4--,loss of appetite2 upon forcing the animal to move1 every joint seems stiffened2 nose dry2 coat staring2 constipation is also an attendant symptom2 the joints1 one or more1 become swollen and painful4 ,this may be regarded as a metastic1 or shifting disease2 first one part1 and then another1 seems to be affected4 ,treatment4--,mild purgatives should be used2 one-half-ounce doses of colchicum-root pulverized will be found useful2 one-ounce balls of pine-tar may also be given with advantage4 ,as a local application1 the author has found nothing to equal kerosene oil1 one pint1 to two ounces of aqua ammonia1 well rubbed in1 two or three times a day4 ,,strangulation ,,of ,,the ,,intestines4 ,this disease in cattle1--popularly styled ,knot1 or ,gut-tie1--in consequence of the peculiar arrangement of the abdominal viscera1 is of very rare occurrence4 ,when1 however1 it does occur1 the symptoms accompanying are those of inflammation of the intestines4 ,no kind of treatment will be successful1 and the poor brute must suffer until death comes to its relief4 ,,thrush ,,in ,,the ,,mouth4 ,aptha1 or thrush in the mouth1 is a vesicular disease of the mouth1 sometimes occurring as an epizooetic4 ,it is often mistaken for blain1--inflammation of the tongue1 or black tongue1--and usually occurs in the winter1 or early in the spring4 ,it appears in the form of vesicles1 or pustules all over the mouth1 occasionally extending to the outside of the lips4 ,these pustules break1 discharging a thin1 sanious fluid1 leaving minute ulcers in their places4 ,this disease yields readily to treatment1 when it is properly applied4 ,three ounces of ,epsom-salts1 once a day for three or four days1 should be given in drench2 wash the mouth well with a solution of alum1 tincture of myrrh1 or vinegar and honey1 and it will disappear in a few days4 ,,tumors4 ,these enlargements so common in cattle1 have been so admirably described1 in the ,veterinarian for #ahdc1 by ,john ,ralph1 ,v4,s41--who has been so successful in the treatment of these morbid growths1 that the benefit of his experience is here given4 ,he says3 ,of all the accidental productions met with among cattle1 with the exception of wens1 a certain kind of indurated tumor1 chiefly situated about the head and throat1 has abounded most in my practice4 ,the affection often commences in one of the thyroid glands1 which slowly but gradually increases in size1 feels firm when grasped1 and evinces very little tenderness4 ,generally the attendant is alarmed by a snoring or wheezing noise emitted by the animal in respiration1 before he is aware of the existence of any tumefaction4 ,this continues to increase1 embracing in its progress the adjacent cellular and muscular tissues1 and frequently the submaxillary and parotid glands4 ,it becomes firmly attached to the skin through which an opening is ultimately effected by the pressure of pus from the centre of the tumor4 ,the swelling often presents an irregular surface1 and various centres of maturation exist2 but the evacuations only effect a partial and temporary reduction of its bulk1 in consequence of the continued extension of the morbid growth and ulcerative process which often proceed towards the pharynx1 rendering respiration and deglutition still more difficult1 until at length the animal sinks from atrophy or phthisis pulmonalis4 ,in the early part of my practice1 having been frustrated in my attempts to establish healthy action in these ulcers1 and referring to the works that ,i had on surgery for information1 ,i concluded that they bore some resemblance to cancer in the human being1 and determined to attempt extirpation4 ,subsequently1 numerous cases have occurred in which ,i have successfully carried that determination into effect4 ,i have had some instances of failure1 which failure always arose from some portion of the morbid growth having been left4 ,in the first stage1 ,i have reason to believe that the tumor may be dispersed by the general and topical use of the iodurets4 ,after the suppuration1 ,i have tried them in vain4 ,as soon as the nature of the tumor is clearly developed1 ,i generally attempt its removal1 and1 when most prominent by the side of the larynx1 ,i proceed in the following manner3--,having cast the beast1 turned the occiput toward the ground1 and bolstered it up with bundles of straw1 ,i proceed to make an incision through it1 if the skin is free1 parallel with1 and over1 and between the trachea and sterno-maxillaris1 extending it sufficiently forward into the inter-maxillary spaces4 ,if ,i find it firmly attached to the apex of the tumor1 ,i then enclose it in a curvilinear incision and proceed to detach the healthy skin to beyond the verge of the tumor4 ,its edges being held by an assistant1 the knife is directed downwards through the subcutaneous parts1 and all those that exhibit the slightest change from healthy structure are removed4 ,by tying any considerable blood-vessel before dividing it1 and by using the handle of the scalpel and the fingers in detaching the portion of the parotid gland towards the ear the hemorrhage was always inconsiderable4 ,the wound is then treated in the ordinary way2 except that detergents and even antiseptics are often needed to arouse healthy action1 and the addition of some preparation of iodine is often made to the digestive4 ,in directing the constitutional treatment1 our chief aim must be to support the animal system with plenty of gruel until rumination is restored4 ,i need not note that the operation should be performed after the animal has fasted some hours4 ,as the success of the operation depends on an entire removal of the diseased parts1 and as the submaxillary and parotid glands1 with important branches of nerves and blood-vessels1 are often enveloped therein1 we must not hesitate to remove the former1 nor to divide the latter4 ,it has occasionally happened that a rupture has been made in the oesophagus1 or pharynx1 during the operation4 ,in that case1 a portion of the gruel with which the animal is drenched escapes for a few days2 but ,i always found that the wound healed by granulation1 without any particular attention4 ,the weight of these tumors varies from a few ounces to some pounds4 ,one that ,i removed from a two-year-old ,galloway bullock1 weighed six pounds and a quarter4 ,a considerable portion of the skin that covered it was excised and included in the above weight4 ,it comprehended one of the parotid glands1 and ,i had to divide the trunk of the carotid artery and jugular vein4 ,this affection may be distinguished from parotiditis and other phlegmasiae by the action of constitutional disturbance1 and heat1 and tenderness1 and by the lingering progress it makes4 ,i was once called to a bull laboring under alarming dyspnoea that had gradually increased4 ,no external enlargement was perceptible2 but on introducing my hand into the mouth1 a large polypus was found hanging from the velum palati into the pharynx1 greatly obstructing the elevation of the epiglottis and the passage of food4 ,after performing tracheotomy1 to prevent suffocation1 ,i passed a ligature around its pedicle in the way suggested by the old anatomist1 ,cheselden4 ,a section of one of these tumors mostly displays several abscesses1 with matter varying in consistency and often very fetid1 enclosed in what seems to me to be fibro-cartilaginous cysts1 the exterior of which sometimes gradually disappears in the surrounding more vascular abnormal growth4 ,osseous matter 7,i judge from the grating of the scalpel upon it7 occasionally enters into the composition of the cysts4 ,i have treated this affection in cattle of the ,long-horned1 ,short-horned1 ,galloway1 and ,highland breeds2 and from the number of bulls in this class of patients1 have reason to conclude that they are more liable to it than the female4 ,about twelve months ago1 ,i examined the head of a cow1 on the right facial region of which there existed an enormous tumor1 extending from the eye to the lips1 and which ,i mistook during life for a periosteal enlargement4 ,on cutting into it1 my mistake was evident4 ,there was scarcely a trace of the original bones beneath the mass2 even those forming the nasal sinuses on that side were replaced by a formation much resembling the cysts before alluded to1 and full of abscesses4 ,the progress of the disease was decisively marked in the inferior rim of the orbital cavity1 where the osseous matter was being removed1 and the morbid structure deposited4 ,,ulcers ,,about ,,the ,,joints4 ,occasionally1 the joints assume a tumefied appearance1 generally ulcerating1 and causing painful wounds4 ,treatment4--,the application of one part of alum to two parts of prepared chalk1 powdered and sprinkled upon the parts1 is usually all that is required4 ,,warbles4 ,it has been a prevalent opinion among farmers1 that warbles are so many evidences of the good condition of their cattle4 ,it must1 however1 be borne in mind that the warbles are the larvae of the oestrus bovis1 which is said to be the most beautiful variety of gad-fly4 ,this fly1 judging from the objects of its attack1 must be particularly choice in its selection of animals upon which to deposit its eggs1 as it rarely chooses those poor in flesh1 or in an unhealthy condition4 ,from this circumstance1 probably1 has arisen the opinion above-mentioned4 ,illustration3 ,,home ,,again4 ,these warbles--or larvae of the oestrus bovis--so nearly resemble bots in the horse--or larvae oestrus equi--that1 were it not for their increased size1 they might readily be mistaken the one for the other4 ,there is1 however1 one other difference1 and that is in the rings which encircle the body2 those of the former being perfectly smooth1 while those of the latter are prickly1 and from one third to one half smaller4 ,the author was called1 in the year #ahef1 to see the prize cow1 ,pet1 belonging to ,james ,kelly1 of ,cleveland1 ,ohio1 whose extraordinary yield of butter and milk had been reported in the ,ohio ,farmer1 a short time previous to his visit4 ,this animal was found by him in rather poor condition2 the causes of which he could only trace to the existence of these worms1 comfortably located1 as they were1 beneath the animal's hide1 and forming small tumors all along the spinal column1 each being surrounded by a considerable quantity of pus4 ,a number of these were removed by means of a curved bistoury and a pair of forceps1 since which time--as he has been informed--the animal has rapidly improved1 regaining her former good condition4 ,some may urge that this is an isolated case2 but an examination of cattle for themselves1 will convince them to the contrary4 ,it may be added1 that two other cows1 belonging to the same gentleman1 were also examined at the same time1--one of them being in good condition1 and the other1 out of condition4 ,from the back of the latter several of these insects were removed1 since which time she also has much improved4 ,the former was entirely free from them4 ,these cows were all kept in the same pasture1 received the same care1 and were fed on the same food1 and at the same time2 and as the removal of these larvae has been productive of such beneficial results1 have we not a right to infer that these insects are injurious8 ,if we go further and examine1 in the spring of the year1 all cattle which are subject to them1 instead of finding them in the fine condition which one would naturally expect1--considering the abundance of fresh young grass whose vigorous life they may incorporate into their own1--they are out of condition1 and out of spirits1 with a laggard eye1 a rough coat1 and1 in some cases1 a staggering gait1 as though their strength had failed in consequence4 ,how shall such attacks be prevented8 ,during the months of ,august and ,september this gad-fly is busily engaged in depositing its eggs4 ,some are of the opinion that they are placed on the hairs of the animal2 others1 that the skin is perforated1 and the egg deposited in the opening1 which would account for the apparent pain manifested by cattle at and after the time of such deposit4 ,be this as it may1 it is certain that the maggot works its way into the muscular fibre of the back1 and depends upon the animal's blood for the nourishment which it receives4 ,the author has been informed1 by persons in whom he ought to have confidence1 that the free use of the card1 during the above-named months1 is a specific protection against the attacks of the oestrus bovis4 ,he repeats this information here1 not without diffidence2 since so large a majority of stock-owners evince1 by their lack of familiarity with the practical use of this convenient and portable instrument1 an utter disbelief in its reliability and value4 ,,worms4 ,cattle are not so subject to worms proper as are the other domestic animals2 nor1 when these parasites do exist1 is any injurious effect apparent1 except it be in the case of young calves of a weakly constitution4 ,worms are most commonly located in the small intestines1 and cause there considerable irritation1 and consequently1 general emaciation1 or at least a tendency to it4 ,the cause1 however1 is easily removed by administering doses of sulphate of iron1 one-half drachm each1 in molasses once or twice a day4 ,,worms ,,in ,,the ,,bronchial ,,tubes4 ,inflammation of the bronchial tubes is often caused by worms of the strongylus species4 ,upon examination after death1 the bronchial passages are completely blocked-up by these hangers-on4 ,symptoms4--,a rough1 staring coat2 hide-bound2 painful cough2 respiration hurried1 etc4 ,treatment4--,but little can be done by way of treatment in this disease4 ,the administration of small doses of spirits of turpentine has1 in some instances1 proved successful4 ,,surgical ,,operations4 ,,castration4 ,the period most commonly selected for this operation is between the first and third months4 ,the nearer it is to the expiration of the first month1 the less danger attends the operation4 ,some persons prepare the animal by the administration of a dose of physic2 but others proceed at once to the operation when it best suits their convenience1 or that of the farmer4 ,care1 however1 should be taken that the young animal is in perfect health4 ,the mode formerly practised was simple enough3--a piece of whip-cord was tied as tightly as possible around the scrotum4 ,the supply of blood being thus completely cut off1 the bag and its contents soon became livid and dead1 and were suffered to hang1 by some careless operators1 until they dropped off1 or they were cut off on the second or third day4 ,it is now1 however1 the general practice to grasp the scrotum in the hand1 between the testicles and the belly1 and to make an incision in one side of it1 near the bottom1 of sufficient depth to penetrate through the inner covering of the testicle1 and of sufficient length to admit of its escape4 ,the testicle immediately bursts from its bag1 and is seen hanging by its cord4 ,the careless or brutal operator now firmly ties a piece of small string around the cord1 and having thus stopped the circulation1 cuts through the cord1 half an inch below the ligature1 and removes the testicle4 ,he1 however1 who has any feeling for the poor animal on which he is operating1 considers that the only use of the ligature is to compress the blood-vessels and prevent after-hemorrhage1 and1 therefore1 saves a great deal of unnecessary torture by including them alone in the ligature1 and afterwards dividing the rest of the cord4 ,the other testicle is proceeded with in the same way and the operation is complete4 ,the length of the cord should be so contrived that it will immediately retract1 or be drawn back1 into the scrotum1 but not higher1 while the ends of the string hang out through the wound4 ,in the course of about a week1 the strings will usually drop off1 and the wounds will speedily heal4 ,there will rarely be any occasion to make any application to the scrotum1 except fomentation of it1 if much swelling should ensue4 ,a few1 whose practice cannot be justified1 seize the testicle as soon as it escapes from the bag1 and1 pulling violently1 break the cord and tear it out4 ,it is certain that when a blood-vessel is thus ruptured1 it forcibly contracts1 and very little bleeding follows2 but if the cord breaks high up1 and retracts into the belly1 considerable inflammation has occasionally ensued1 and the beast has been lost4 ,the application of torsion--or the twisting of the arteries by a pair of forceps which will firmly grasp them--has1 in a great degree1 superseded every other mode of castration1 both in the larger and the smaller domesticated animals4 ,the spermatic artery is exposed1 and seized with the forceps1 which are then closed by a very simple mechanical contrivance2 the vessel is drawn a little out from its surrounding tissue1 the forceps are turned around seven or eight times1 and the vessel liberated4 ,it will be found to be perfectly closed2 a small knot will have formed on its extremity2 it will retract into the surrounding surface1 and not a drop more of blood will flow from it2 the cord may then be divided1 and the bleeding from any little vessel arrested in the same way4 ,neither the application of the hot iron1 nor of the wooden clamps1 whether with or without caustic1 can be necessary in the castration of the calf4 ,a new instrument was introduced in ,france1 some few years since1 for this purpose1 called the acraseur1--so constructed as to throw a chain over the cord1 which is wound up by means of a screw working upon the chain1 and at the same time the cord is twisted off4 ,no bleeding follows this method of operating4 ,this instrument is constructed upon the same principle as the acraseur for use in the human family1 for the removal of hemorrhoids1 etc41 the dimensions of the two only varying4 ,the advantages resulting from the use of this instrument over all other methods are1 that the parts generally heal within a week1--the operation is not so painful to the animal1--it is less troublesome to the operator1--also to the owner of the animal1--and lastly1 it is a safer and more scientific operation4 ,its success in ,france soon gave it a reputation in ,england1 and recently it has been introduced by the author into this country1 and with the best results4 ,contractors1 hearing of the success attending this new mode of operating1 have visited him from all parts of the country to witness its performance1 and not one has returned without leaving an order for this instrument1--so well convinced have they been of its decided superiority over all other methods4 ,,tracheotomy4 ,in consequence of the formation of tumors about the throat in cattle1 from inflammation of the parotid gland1 blain1 etc41 so characteristic of this species of animals1 it sometimes becomes necessary to perform this operation in order to save their lives4 ,it never fails to give instant relief4 ,after the animal has been properly secured1--which is done by an assistant's holding the nose with one hand1 and one of the horns with the other1--the operator draws the skin tight over the windpipe with the thumb and fingers of his left hand2 then1 with the scalpel in his right1 cuts through the skin1 making an incision about three inches long1 dissecting up the skin on each side1 which brings the trachea1 or windpipe1 in full view4 ,he then cuts out a piece of the cartilaginous rings1 about two inches long and about half an inch wide4 ,this simple operation has saved the lives of very many valuable animals4 ,the wound readily heals1 and seldom leaves any perceptible blemish1 if the work is properly performed4 ,,spaying4 ,to secure a more uniform flow and a richer quality of milk1 cows are sometimes spayed1 or castrated4 ,the milk of spayed cows is pretty uniform in quality2 and this quality will be1 on an average1 a little more than before the operation was performed4 ,in instances where the results of this operation have been carefully noted1--and the operation is rarely resorted to in this country1 in comparison with the custom in ,france and other continental countries1--the quality of the milk has been greatly improved1 the yield becoming regular for some years1 and varying only in accordance with the difference in the succulence of the food4 ,the proper time for spaying is about five or six weeks after calving1 or at the time when the largest quantity of milk is given4 ,there seems to be some advantages in spaying for milk and butter dairies1 where attention is not paid to the raising of stock4 ,the cows are more quiet1 never being liable to returns of seasons of heat1 which always more or less affect the milk1 both in quantity and quality4 ,they give milk nearly uniform in these respects1 for several years1 provided the food is uniformly succulent and nutritious4 ,their milk is influenced like that of other cows1 though to a less extent1 by the quality and quantity of food2 so that in winter1 unless the animal is properly attended to1 the yield will decrease somewhat1 but will rise again as good feed returns4 ,this uniformity for the milk-dairy is of immense advantage4 ,besides1 the cow1 when old and inclined to dry up1 takes on fat with greater rapidity1 and produces a juicy and tender beef1 superior1 at the same age1 to that of the ox4 ,the following method of performing this operation is sanctioned by the practice of eminent veterinary surgeons in ,france3-- ,having covered the eyes of the cow to be operated upon1 she is placed against a wall1 provided with five rings firmly fastened and placed as follows3 the first corresponds to the top of the withers2 the second1 to the lower anterior part of the breast2 the third is placed a little distance from the angle of the shoulder2 the fourth is opposite to the anterior and superior part of the lower region2 and the fifth1 which is behind1 answers to the under-part of the buttocks4 ,a strong assistant is placed between the wall and the head of the animal1 who firmly holds the left horn in his left hand1 and with his right1 the muzzle1 which he elevates a little4 ,this done1 the end of a long and strong-plaited cord is passed1 through the ring which corresponds to the lower part of the breast1 and fastened2 the free end of the cord is brought along the left flank1 and through the ring which is below and in front of the withers4 ,this is brought down along the breast behind the shoulder and the angle of the fore-leg in order to pass it through the third ring2 then it must be passed around against the outer angle of the left hip1 and fastened after having been drawn tightly to the posterior ring1 by a simple bow-knot4 ,the cow being thus firmly fixed to the wall1 a cord is fastened by a slip-noose around her hocks1 to keep them together in such a manner that she cannot kick the operator1 the free end of the cord and the tail being held by an assistant4 ,the cow thus secured cannot1 during the operation1 move forward1 nor lie down1 and the operator has all the ease desirable1 and is protected from accident4 ,the operator next--placed opposite to the animal's left flank1 with his back turned a little toward the head of the animal--cuts off the hair which covers the hide in the middle of the flanks1 at an equal distance between the back and hip1 for the space of thirteen or fourteen centimetres in circumference 7the ,french centimetre is rather more than thirty-nine one hundredths of an inch72 a convex bistoury is placed1 opened1 between his teeth1 the edge out1 the joints to the left2 then1 with both hands1 he seizes the hide in the middle of the flank1 and forms of it a wrinkle of the requisite elevation1 running lengthwise of the body4 ,the assistant seizes with his right hand the right side of this wrinkle2 the operator takes the bistoury and cuts the wrinkle1 at one stroke1 through the middle2 the wrinkle having been suffered to go down1 a separation of the hide is presented1 of sufficient length to admit the introduction of the hand2 the edges of the hide are separated with the thumb and fore-finger of the left hand1 and in like manner the abdominal muscles are cut through1 for the distance of a centimetre from the lower extremity of the incision made in the hide1--the iliac slightly obliquely1 and the lumbar across2 a puncture of the peritoneum1 at the upper extremity of the wound1 is then made with the straight bistoury2 the buttoned bistoury is then introduced1 and moved obliquely from above to the lower part1 up to the termination of the incision made in the abdominal muscles4 ,the flank being opened1 the right hand is introduced into the abdomen1 and directed along the right side of the cavity of the pelvis1 behind the paunch1 and underneath the rectum1 to the matrix2 after the position of these viscera is ascertained1 the organs of reproduction1 or ovaries1 are searched for1 which are at the extremity of the matrix2 when found1 they are seized between the thumb and fore-finger1 detached completely from the ligaments which keeps them in their place1 and by a light pull1 the cord and the vessels1 the uterine or ,fallopian tube1 are separated at their place of union with the ovarium1 by means of the nails of the thumb and fore-finger1 which present themselves at the point of touch1 thus breaking the cord and bringing away the ovary4 ,the hand is again introduced into the abdominal cavity1 and the remaining ovaries brought away in like manner4 ,a suture is then placed of three or four double threads1 waxed at an equal distance1 and at two centimetres1 or a little less1 from the lips of the wound1 passing it through the divided tissues2 a movement is made from the left hand with the piece of thread2 having reached that point1 a fastening is made with a double knot1 the seam placed in the intervals of the thread from the right1 and as the lips of the wound are approached1 a fastening is effected by a simple knot1 with a bow1 care being taken not to close too tightly the lower part of the seam1 in order to allow the suppuration1 which may be established in the wound1 to escape4 ,the wound is then covered up with a pledget of lint1 kept in its place by three or four threads passed through the stitches1 and the operation is complete4 ,it happens1 sometimes1 that in cutting the muscles before mentioned1 one or two of the arteries are severed4 ,should much blood escape1 a ligature must be applied before opening the peritoneal sac2 since1 if this precaution is omitted1 blood will escape into the abdomen1 which may occasion the most serious consequences4 ,for the first eight days succeeding1 the animal should have a light diet1 and a soothing1 lukewarm draught2 if the weather should be cold1 cover with a woollen covering4 ,she must be prevented from licking the wound1 and from rubbing it against other bodies4 ,the third day after the operation1 bathe morning and evening about the wound with water of mallows lukewarm1 or anoint it with a salve of hog's lard1 and administer an emollient glyster during three or four days4 ,eight days after the operation1 take away the bandage1 the lint1 the fastenings1 and the thread4 ,the wound is at that time1 as a general thing1 completely cicatrized4 ,should1 however1 some slight suppuration exist1 a slight pressure must be used above the part where it is located1 so as to cause the pus to leave1 and if it continues more than five or six days1 emollients must be supplied by alcolized water1 or chloridized1 especially in summer4 ,the animal is then to be brought back gradually to her ordinary nourishment4 ,in some cows1 a swelling of the body is observable a short time after having been spayed1 attributable to the introduction of cold air into the abdomen during the operation2 but this derangement generally ceases within twenty-four hours4 ,should the contrary occur1 administer one or two sudorific draughts1 such as wine1 warm cider1 or a half-glass of brandy1 in a quart of warm water1--treatment which suffices in a short time to restore a healthy state of the belly1--the animal at the same time being protected by two coverings of wool4 ,the only precaution1 in the way of management1 to be observed as a preparative for the operation is1 that on the preceding evening not so copious a meal should be given4 ,the operation should also be performed in the morning before the animal has fed1 so that the operator may not find any obstacle from the primary digestive organs1 especially the paunch1 which1 during its state of ordinary fullness1 might prevent operating with facility4 ,the advantages of spaying milch-cows are thus summed up by able ,french writers3 ,first1 rendering permanent the secretion of milk1 and having a much greater quantity within the given time of every year2 second1 the quality of milk being improved2 third1 the uncertainty of1 and the dangers incident to1 breeding being1 to a great extent1 avoided2 fourth1 the increased disposition to fatten even when giving milk freely1 or when1 from excess of age or from accidental circumstances1 the secretion of milk is otherwise checked2 fifth1 the very short time required to produce a marketable condition2 and sixth1 the meat of spayed cattle being of a quality superior to that of ordinary cattle4 ,this operation would seem to have originated in this country4 ,the ,london ,veterinary ,journal of #ahcd contains the following1 taken from the ,united ,states ,southern ,agriculturist3--,some years since1 ,i passed a summer at ,natchez1 and put up at a hotel there1 kept by ,mr4 ,thomas ,winn4 ,during the time that ,i was there ,i noticed two remarkably fine cows1 which were kept constantly in the stable1 the servant who had charge of the horses1 feeding them regularly three times a day with green guinea grass1 cut with a sickle4 ,these cows had so often attracted my attention1 on account of the great beauty of their form1 and deep red color1 the large size of their bags1 and the high condition in which they were kept1 that ,i was at length induced to ask ,mr4 ,winn to what breed of cattle they belonged1 and his reasons for keeping them constantly in the stable in preference to allowing them to run in the pasture1 where they could enjoy the benefit of air and exercise1 and at the same time crop their own food1 and thereby save the labor and trouble of feeding them8 ,mr4 ,winn1 in reply to these inquiries1 stated that the two cows which ,i so much admired were of the common stock of the country1 and he believed1 of ,spanish origin2 but they were both spayed cows1 and that they had given milk either two or three years4 ,considering this a phenomenon 7if not in nature at least in art71 ,i made further inquiries of ,mr4 ,winn1 who politely entered into a very interesting detail1 communicating facts which were as extraordinary as they were novel4 ,mr4 ,winn1 by way of preface1 observed that he1 in former years1 had been in the habit of reading ,english magazines1 which contained accounts of the plowing-matches which were annually held in some of the southern counties of ,england1 performed by cattle1 and that he had noticed that the prizes were generally adjudged to the plowman who worked with spayed heifers2 and although there was no connection between that subject and the facts which he should state1 it was1 nevertheless1 the cause that first directed his mind into the train of thought and reasoning which finally induced him to make the experiments1 which resulted in the discovery of the facts which he detailed1 and which ,i will narrate as accurately as my memory will enable me to do it1 after the lapse of more than twenty years4 ,mr4 ,winn's frequent reflections had 7he said7 led him to the belief that if cows were spayed soon after calving1 and while in a full flow of milk1 they would continue to give milk for many years without intermission1 or any diminution of quantity1 except what would be caused by a change from green to dry1 or less succulent food4 ,to test this hypothesis1 ,mr4 ,winn caused a very good cow1 then in full milk1 to be spayed4 ,the operation was performed about one month after the cow had produced her third calf2 it was not attended with any severe pain1 or much or long continued fever4 ,the cow was apparently well in a few days1 and very soon yielded her usual quantity of milk1 and continued to give freely for several years without any intermission or diminution in quantity1 except when the food was scarce and dry2 but a full flow of milk always came back upon the return of a full supply of green food4 ,this cow ran in the ,mississippi low grounds or swamp near ,natchez1 got cast in deep mire1 and was found dead4 ,upon her death1 ,mr4 ,winn caused a second cow to be spayed4 ,the operation was entirely successful4 ,the cow gave milk constantly for several years1 but in jumping a fence stuck a stake in her bag1 that inflicted a severe wound1 which obliged ,mr4 ,winn to kill her4 ,upon this second loss1 ,mr4 ,winn had two other cows spayed1 and1 to prevent the recurrence of injuries from similar causes with those which had occasioned him the loss of the first two spayed cows1 he resolved to keep them always in the stable1 or some safe enclosure1 and to supply them regularly with green food1 which that climate throughout the greater part of1 if not all1 the year enabled him to procure4 ,the result1 in regard to the last two spayed cows1 was1 as in the case of the first two1 entirely satisfactory1 and fully established1 as ,mr4 ,winn believed1 the fact1 that the spaying of cows1 while in full milk1 will cause them to continue to give milk during the residue of their lives1 or until prevented by old age4 ,when ,i saw the last two spayed cows it was1 ,i believe1 during the third year that they had constantly given milk after they were spayed4 ,the character of ,mr4 ,winn 7now deceased7 was highly respectable1 and the most entire confidence could be reposed in the fidelity of his statements2 and as regarded the facts which he communicated in relation to the several cows which he had spayed1 numerous persons with whom ,i became acquainted1 fully confirmed his statements4 ,in ,november #ahfa1 the author was called to perform this operation upon the short-horn ,galloway cow1 ,josephine the ,second1 belonging to ,henry ,ingersoll1 ,esq41 of this city4 ,this cow was born ,may #hth1 #ahfj4 ,the morning was cold and cloudy4 ,about ten o'clock the cow was cast1 with the assistance of ,r4 ,mc,clure1 ,v4,s41 after which she was placed under the influence of chloric ether4 ,he then made an incision1 about five inches in length1 through the skin and walls of the abdomen1 midway between the pelvis bone and the last rib on the left side1 passing in his right hand1 cutting away the ovaries from the ,fallopian tubes with the thumbnail4 ,the opening on the side was then closed by means of the interrupted suture4 ,the animal recovered from the influence of the anaesthetic in about fifteen minutes1 when she was allowed to rise1 and walk back to her stall4 ,upon the morning of the second day succeeding the operation1 the animal was visited and found to be in good spirits1 apparently suffering very little pain or inconvenience from the operation1 and the wound healing nicely4 ,since that time1 he has operated upon some twenty cows1 all of which1 with a single exception1 have thus far proved satisfactory4 ,several of these cows are under the direction of a committee from the ,philadelphia ,society for promoting ,agriculture1 whose duty it is to have a daily record kept of each cow's yield of butter and milk1 for one year from the time of spaying4 ,their report will be perused by the agricultural community with much interest4 ,the author's own experience will not justify him in speaking either in favor of1 or against1 this operation2 as sufficient time has not as yet elapsed to satisfy him as to its relative advantages and disadvantages4 ,he1 however1 regards the operation as comparatively safe4 ,the ,french estimate the loss at about fifteen per cent41 and the gain at thirty per cent4 ,of those upon which he has operated1 not a single animal died4 ,a ,,list ,,of ,,medicines ,,used ,,in ,,treating ,,cattle4 ,the medicines used in the treatment of the diseases of cattle1 are essentially the same as those in vogue for the diseases of the human being and the horse1--the only difference being in their combination and the quantities administered4 ,,absorbents4--,medicines which destroy acidities in the stomach and bowels2 such as chalk1 magnesia1 etc4 ,,alteratives4--,medicines which restore the healthy functions of secretion1 by gradually changing the morbid action in an impaired constitution4 ,those in most common use are ,a,ethiops mineral1 antimony1 rosin1 sulphur1 etc41 which form the principal ingredients in all condition-powders1 and are chiefly useful in diseases of the skin1 such as hide-bound1 mange1 surfeit1 etc4 ,,alterative ,,powder4--,sulphur pulverized1 one pound2 black antimony1 one half a pound2 nitrate of potassa1 four ounces2 sulphate of iron1 one half a pound2 linseed meal1 one pound2 mix well2 dose1 one half an ounce1 night and morning4 ,,antacids4--,agents which neutralize1 by their chemical action1 acids in the stomach2 as ammonia1 carbonate of potassa1 chalk1 lime-water1 magnesia1 and soda4 ,,anthelmintics4--,remedies used for the expulsion of worms from the stomach and intestines4 ,these may act chemically or by their cathartic operation4 ,the most reliable are ,a,ethiops mineral1 nux vomica1 preparations of mercury1 wormwood1 etc4 ,,anthelmintic ,,powders4--,nux vomica1 in one half-drachm doses1 two or three times daily1 to an ox or cow2 for calves1 the dose must be diminished1 according to age4 ,,antidotes4--,medicines which neutralize the effects of poisons by a chemical union1 forming an insoluble compound1 or a mild1 harmless one4 ,alkaline solutions are antidotes for the mineral acids2 as soap in solution1 a simple remedy1 and always at hand4 ,lard1 magnesia1 and oil are antidotes for poisoning by arsenic2 albumen1--in the form of the white of an egg1--milk1 etc41 for corrosive sublimate1 and other mercurial preparations4 ,,antiseptics4--,medicines which prevent putridity in animal substances1 and arrest putrefaction1 when already existing4 ,these are used both externally and internally4 ,the chief specifics of this class are the acids1 alcohol1 ammonia1 asafoetida1 camphor1 charcoal1 chloride of lime1 cinchona1 ether1 and opium4 ,,antispasmodics4--,medicines which exert their power in allaying inordinate motions or spasms in the system1 arising from various causes1 such as debility1 worms1 etc4 ,those most generally in use are ammonia1 asafoetida1 camphor1 cinchona1 ether1 lactacarium1 mercury1 and opium4 ,,antispasmodic ,,draught4--,tincture of opium1 one ounce2 nitric ether1 two ounces2 water1 one-half pint4 ,mix for drench2 if repeated1 it should be followed by a purgative1 as soon as the spasms have subsided4 ,or1 use the following3 sulphuric ether1 one to two ounces2 water1 one-half pint ,mix for drench2 repeat every hour1 if necessary4 ,,aromatics4--,medicines possessing a grateful1 spicy scent1 and an agreeable1 pungent taste2 as anise-seed1 cardamoms1 cinnamon1 cloves1 ginger1 etc4 ,they are principally used in combination with purgatives1 stomachics1 and tonics4 ,,astringents4--,medicines which serve to diminish excessive discharges1 as in diabetes1 diarrhoea1 etc4 ,the principal agents of this class are the acids1 alum1 chalk1 lime-water1 opium1 and the sulphate of copper1 lead1 iron1 or zinc4 ,,astringent ,,powder4--,opium1 one drachm2 prepared chalk1 half an ounce2 ,jamaica ginger1 six drachms4 ,mix1 and divide into four powders2 one to be given every hour1 in a little flour gruel4 ,or1 the following3 opium1 one drachm2 catechu1 two drachms2 prepared chalk1 one ounce4 ,mix1 and divide into four powders2 to be given as before4 ,,cardiacs4--,cordials--so termed1 from their possessing warm and stimulating properties--given to invigorate the system4 ,,cathartics4--,medicines--also known as purgatives--which cause free evacuations of the bowels4 ,the only purgatives used by the author in his cattle practice1 as a general rule1 are aloes1 cream of tartar1 ,epsom-salts1 lard and linseed-oil4 ,these answer all the indications1 where purgatives are useful2 indeed1 no better purgative for cattle can be found than ,epsom-salts1 combined with a carminative or aromatic drug1 such as ginger4 ,,caustics4--,substances which burn or destroy parts1 by combining with them and causing their disorganization2 used to destroy unhealthy action1 or morbid growths1 such as foul ulcers1 foul in the foot1 warts1 etc4 ,the most powerful remedial of this class is actual cauterization with a red-hot iron2 caustic potash1 lunar caustic1 nitrous and sulphuric acids1 permanganate of potash1 etc41 are also used4 ,,cordials4--,best brandy1 three ounces2 orange peel1 one drachm2 tepid water1 one pint4 ,mix all together1 for one dose4 ,or1 this for a single dose3 ale1 one pint2 ,jamaica ginger1 two drachms4 ,or1 the following1 also a single dose3 allspice1 three drachms2 ginger1 one drachm2 caraway seeds1 two drachms4 ,,demulcents4--,mucilaginous medicaments1 which have the power of diminishing the effects of stimulating substances upon the animal system4 ,of this class1 garden rue1 or marsh-mallow1 gum-arabic1 and gum-tragacanth are the most useful4 ,,detergents4--,agents which remove foulness from ulcers4 ,,detergent ,,powder4--,prepared chalk1 two ounces2 alum1 one ounce4 ,mix2 to be sprinkled on the part1 after washing with ,castile-soap and water4 ,this powder is also an admirable application for foot-rot in sheep4 ,,diaphoretics4--,agents which increase the natural discharge through the pores of the skin1 and in some animals induce perspiration4 ,,digestives4--,medicines which promote suppuration4 ,,digestive ,,ointment4--,mix together equal portions of spirits of turpentine and lard4 ,or1 mix together with a gentle heat the following3 ,venetian turpentine1 one ounce2 lard1 one ounce2 pulverized sulphate of copper1 two drachms4 ,or this1 mixed3 rosin1 two ounces2 spirits of turpentine1 one ounce2 red precipitate1 one-half an ounce2 lard1 two ounces4 ,,diuretics4--,medicines that stimulate the action of the kidneys1 and augment the secretion of urine4 ,these are very useful in swellings of the legs1 or body4 ,take of nitrate of potash and rosin1 each six drachms2 mix1 and divide in three powders2 one to be given daily4 ,or1 the following3 spirits of turpentine1 half an ounce2 ,castile-soap1 one ounce2 ,jamaica ginger1 one drachm2 opium1 one drachm4 ,mix3 and divide in two balls2 one to be given each day4 ,,emollients4--,medicines which relax the lining tissues1 allay irritation1 and soften the parts involved1--generally of a mucilaginous1 or oily character4 ,lard1 linseed meal1 and marsh-mallows are chiefly used4 ,,lithontriptics4--,medicines possessing the power of dissolving calculi1 or stones in the urinary passages2 composed principally1 according to the researches of modern chemists1 of lithic or uric acid4 ,the preparation most successfully employed by the author in such cases is muriatic acid1 in doses of from one to two drachms1 in a pail of water1 once or twice a day4 ,,narcotics4--,medicines that stupefy1 and produce sleep4 ,belladonna1 camphor1 hyoscyamus and opium1 are among the narcotics in common use4 ,,nauseants4--,agents which cause loss of appetite1 and produce the sensation of vomiting1 without affecting it4 ,for this purpose1 aloes1 tartrate of antimony1 white hellebore1 etc41 are used4 ,,parturients4--,agents which act upon the uterus4 ,in cases of difficult parturition1 or calving1 resort is occasionally had to them4 ,ergot of rye is the most powerful4 ,,refrigerants4--,cooling applications1 which reduce the temperature of the blood and body2 as cold water1 ether1 lead-water1 etc4 ,,rubefacients4--,medicines which gently irritate the skin1 producing redness on white surfaces4 ,of this class1 are aqua ammonia1 creosote1 mustard1 turpentine1 etc4 ,,sedatives4--,agents which depress the vital energies1 without destroying life2 as aconite1 digitalis1 hellebore1 hydrochloric acid1 hyoscyamus1 opium1 and tartrate of antimony4 ,,tonics4--,medicines which increase the action of the muscular system1 giving strength and vigor to the animal4 ,these are among the most useful remedies known to man1 and are beneficial in all cases of debility1 toning up the stomach1 and improving the appetite and condition of the animal4 ,,tonic ,,powder4--,pulverized gentian-root1 one ounce2 ,jamaica ginger1 one half an ounce2 anise-seed1 six drachms4 ,mix1 and divide in eight powders2 one to be given night and morning4 ,,traumatics4--,medicines which excite the healing process of wounds2 as aloes1 friar's balsam1 myrrh1 rosin1 sulphate of copper or zinc1 tar1 etc4 ,,traumatic ,,lotion4--,mix tincture of aloes1 one ounce2 tincture of myrrh1 two ounces4 ,or1 melt together1 tar1 one ounce2 rosin1 two ounces2 lard1 four ounces4 ,or1 mix sulphate of zinc1 one drachm2 rain-water1 one half pint4 ,or1 use the following1 the celebrated friar's balsam2 benzoin1 in powder1 four ounces2 balsam of ,peru1 two ounces2 ,socotrine aloes1 one half ounce2 rectified spirits1 one quart4 ,digest for ten or twelve days2 then filter for use4 ,,doses ,,of ,,various ,,remedies ,,used ,,in ,,cattle ,,practice4 ,,aconite4--,monk's hood2 ,wolf's bane4 ,an active poison4 ,used as a sedative in tincture2 ten to twenty drops in water4 ,,aethiops ,,mineral4--,hydrargyri ,sulphuretum4 ,one to two drachms4 ,,alcohol4--,a stimulant2 three to six ounces4 ,,allspice4--,pimento berries4 ,aromatic2 two to four drachms4 ,,aloes4--,cathartic and tonic2 tonic dose1 one half to one drachm--cathartic1 one to two ounces4 ,,alum4--,alumen4 ,irritant1 astringent1 and sedative2 two to four drachms4 ,,ammonia4--,aqua ammonia2 ,liquor ammonia2 ,hartshorn4 ,principally used in combination with mustard1 as an external irritant1 and internally1 as a diffusible stimulant2 two to six drachms4 ,of carbonate of ammonia1 three to six drachms4 ,,anise-,,seed4--,fruit of the ,pimpinella ,anisum4 ,one to two drachms4 ,,antimony4--,sulphate of ,antimony4 ,used in condition-powders2 one to three drachms4 ,muriate of antimony4 ,oil1 or butter1 of antimony4 ,caustic2 very good in foul in the foot4 ,tartarized antimony4 ,tartar emetic4 ,one to four drachms4 ,the author1 in the last instance1 varies from the dose prescribed by veterinary authors1 never giving it in more than one-half-drachm doses1 believing its action thus more certain and satisfactory4 ,,asafoetida4--,stimulant2 two to four drachms4 ,,axunge4--,hog's ,lard4 ,ointment1 principally2 may be used as purgative in doses of from one to one and a half pounds4 ,,balsam ,,of ,,peru4--,stimulant1 and tonic2 two to four drachms4 ,,belladonna4--,deadly ,nightshade4 ,narcotic1 anti-spasmodic1 and irritant poison2 one to two drachms4 ,,benzoin4--,gum ,benjamin4 ,ointment2 see ,traumatics4 ,,calomel4--,hydrargyri ,chloridum4 ,one half to one drachm4 ,,camomile4--,anthemis4 ,stomachic1 carminative1 and tonic2 one to two ounces4 ,,camphor4--,camphora ,officinarum4 ,narcotic and irritant2 in small doses1 sedative and stimulant2 one to four drachms4 ,,cantharides4--,spanish ,flies4 ,internally1 stimulant and diuretic2 twenty to thirty grains4 ,externally1 vesicant2 used in form of ointment1 or tincture4 ,,caraway4--,fruit of the ,carum ,carisi4 ,used chiefly for flavoring purposes4 ,,cardamoms4--,fruit of the ,elettaria ,cardamomum4 ,used to communicate an agreeable flavor to other medicines4 ,,catechu4--,acacia ,catechu4 ,astringent1 and antiseptic2 three to six drachms4 ,,chalk4--,carbonate of ,lime2 ,calcis ,carbonas4 ,two to three ounces4 ,,charcoal4--,carbo ,ligni4 ,antiseptic2 one half to one ounce4 ,,cinchona4--,peruvian ,bark4 ,astringent and tonic2 one to two ounces4 ,,copper1 ,,sulphate ,,of4--,blue ,vitriol4 ,tonic and astringent2 two to four drachms4 ,,creosote4--,creosotum4 ,a sedative1 anodyne1 astringent1 narcotic1 and irritant poison2 fifteen to twenty drops4 ,,croton ,,oil4--,crotonis ,oleum4 ,internally1 as a cathartic1 six to ten drops in linseed-oil2 externally1 as a counter-irritant4 ,,digitalis4--,fox ,glove4 ,sedative and diuretic2 one to two scruples4 ,,epsom-,,salts4--,sulphate of magnesia4 ,cathartic2 one pound1 combined with ginger4 ,,ergot4--,spurred rye4 ,parturient2 two to six drachms4 ,,ether4--,stimulant1 narcotic1 and anaesthetic2 one to two ounces4 ,,gentian4--,root of ,gentiana lutea4 ,stomachic and tonic2 one to two ounces4 ,,ginger4--,zengiber officinale4 ,stomachic1 carminative1 and slightly tonic2 one to two ounces4 ,,gum-,,arabic4--,gummi ,acaciae4 ,demulcent and emollient2 one to two ounces4 ,,gum-,,tragacanth4 ,same action and same doses as the former4 ,,hellebore4--,helleborus4 ,irritant poison1 and sedative2 twenty to thirty grains4 ,,hyoscyamus4--,henbane4 ,narcotic1 anodyne1 and anti-spasmodic2 ten to twenty grains4 ,,iodine4--,iodineum4 ,internally1 as a tonic2 two to three scruples2 also as a tincture1 and in ointments for reducing enlargements of the soft tissues4 ,,iron1 ,,sulphate ,,of4--,ferri ,sulphas2 ,green ,vitriol1 ,coppera4 ,irritant1 astringent1 and tonic2 two to four drachms4 ,,koosso4 ,anthelmintic2 two to four drachms4 ,,lime1 ,,chloride ,,of4--,antiseptic2 dose internally1 one to two drachms4 ,,linseed ,,oil4--,cathartic2 one pint4 ,,lunar ,,caustic4--,nitrate of ,silver4 ,used as a caustic4 ,,magnesia4--,see ,,epsom-,,salts4 ,,marsh-,,mallow4--,altheae ,radix4 ,demulcent and emollient2 principally used for poultices and fomentations4 ,,muriatic ,,acid4--,hydrochloric ,acid2 ,spirit of ,salt4 ,tonic1 irritant1 and caustic2 dose internally1 one to two drachms4 ,,mustard4--,sinapis4 ,counter-irritant2 used principally as an external application4 ,,myrrh4--,stimulating tonic to unhealthy sores2 seldom used internally4 ,,nitric ,,acid4--,aqua fortis4 ,astringent and tonic2 one to two drachms in water4 ,used also as a caustic4 ,,nux ,,vomica4--,seeds of ,strychnos4 ,in large doses1 a deadly poison2 in medicinal doses1 a powerful tonic and anthelmintic2 one half to one drachm4 ,,opium4--,papaver ,somniferum4 ,narcotic1 sedative1 anodyne1 stimulant1 and anti-spasmodic2 two to four drachms4 ,,potash1 ,,carbonate ,,of4--,potassae ,carbonas4 ,antacid and diuretic2 three to six drachms4 ,,potash1 ,,caustic4--,potassa fusa4 ,used only as a caustic4 ,,potassa1 ,,permanganate ,,of4--,used externally as a caustic4 ,,rosin4--,diuretic2 two to three ounces4 ,,salt1 ,,common4--,chloride of ,sodium4 ,irritant1 cathartic1 stimulant1 and antiseptic2 one to one and a half pounds4 ,,salts1 ,,glauber4--,sulphate of ,soda4 ,cathartic and diuretic2 one to one and a half pounds4 ,,saltpetre4--,nitrate of ,potassa4 ,diuretic1 febrifuge1 and refrigerant2 one half to one ounce4 ,,sublimate1 ,,corrosive4--,protochloride of ,mercury4 ,seldom used internally2 externally1 caustic and stimulant4 ,,sulphur4--,brimstone4 ,stimulant and laxative2 three to four ounces4 ,,sulphuric ,,acid4--,irritant1 caustic1 and astringent2 two to three drachms4 ,,tartar1 ,,cream ,,of4--,potassae ,tartras4 ,cathartic2 three to four ounces4 ,,turpentine4--,stimulant1 anthelmintic1 diuretic1 and laxative2 one to two ounces4 ,,zinc1 ,,sulphate ,,of4--,white ,vitriol4 ,astringent and tonic2 one to two drachms4 ,,new ,,and ,,late ,,books ,,furnished ,,by ,,the ,publishers of this ,volume4 ,,mailing ,,notice4--,any books on the following list will be sent1 post paid1 to any address1 on receipt of price4 ,address ,,the ,,publishers ,,of ,,this ,,volume4 ,see title page4 ,,historical ,,and ,,secret ,,memoirs ,,of ,,the ,,empress ,,josephine4 ,a secret and truthful history of one of the most remarkable of women1 uniting all the value of absorbing facts with that of the most exciting romance4 ,translated from the ,french of ,m'lle ,le ,normand1 by ,,jacob ,m4 ,,howard1 ,esq4 #b vols4 in one4 ,cloth4 ,price #a #ge4 ,,memoirs ,,of ,,the ,,court ,,of ,,marie ,,antoinette4 ,an instructive work--one of the most intensely interesting ever issued from the ,american press--the events of which should be familiar to all4 ,by ,,madame ,,campan4 ,with ,biographical ,introduction by ,m4 ,,de ,,lamartine4 #b vols4 in one4 ,cloth4 ,price #a #ge4 ,,memoirs ,,of ,,the ,,life ,,of ,,mary1 ,,queen ,,of ,,scots4 ,affording a complete and authentic history of the unfortunate ,mary1 with materials and letters not used by other authors1 making up a volume of rare interest and value4 ,by ,,miss ,,benger4 ,with portrait on steel4 #b vols4 in one4 ,cloth4 ,price #a #ge4 ,,memoirs ,,of ,,the ,,queens ,,of ,,france4 ,written in ,france1 carefully compiled from researches made there1 commended by the press generally1 and published from the ,tenth ,london ,edition4 ,it is a truly valuable work for the reader and student of history4 ,by ,,mrs4 ,,forbes ,,bush4 #b vols4 in one4 ,cloth4 ,price #a #ge4 ,,memoirs ,,of ,,the ,,life ,,of ,,anne ,,boleyn1 ,,queen ,,of ,,henry ,,viii4 ,in the records of biography there is no character that more forcibly exemplifies the vanity of human ambition1 or more thoroughly enlists the attention of the reader than this--the ,seventh ,american1 and from the ,third ,london ,edition4 ,by ,,miss ,,benger4 ,with portrait on steel4 ,cloth4 #a #ge4 ,,heroic ,,women ,,of ,,history4 ,containing the most extraordinary examples of female courage of ancient and modern times1 and set before the wives1 sisters1 and daughters of the country1 in the hope that it may make them even more renowned for resolution1 fortitude1 and self-sacrifice than the ,spartan females of old4 ,by ,,henry ,c4 ,,watson4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,cloth4 #a #ge4 ,,public ,,and ,,private ,,history ,,of ,,louis ,,napoleon1 ,,emperor ,,of ,,the ,,french4 ,an impartial view of the public and private career of this extraordinary man1 giving full information in regard to his most distinguished ministers1 generals1 relatives and favorites4 ,by ,,samuel ,m4 ,,schmucker1 ,,ll4 ,d4 ,with portraits on ,steel4 ,cloth4 #a #ge4 ,,life ,,and ,,reign ,,of ,,nicholas ,i41 ,,emperor ,,of ,,russia4 ,the only complete history of this great personage that has appeared in the ,english language1 and furnishes interesting facts in connection with ,russian society and government of great practical value to the attentive reader4 ,by ,,samuel ,m4 ,,schmucker1 ,,ll4 ,d4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,cloth4 #a #ge4 ,,life ,,and ,,times ,,of ,,george ,,washington4 ,a concise and condensed narrative of ,washington's career1 especially adapted to the popular reader1 and presented as the best matter upon this immortal theme--one especially worthy the attention and admiration of every ,american4 ,by ,,samuel ,m4 ,,schmucker1 ,,ll4 ,d4 ,with ,portrait on steel4 ,cloth4 #a #ge4 ,,life ,,and ,,times ,,of ,,alexander ,,hamilton4 ,incidents of a career that will never lose its singular power to attract and instruct1 while giving impressive lessons of the brightest elements of character1 surrounded and assailed by the basest4 ,by ,,samuel ,m4 ,,schmucker1 ,,ll4 ,d4 ,with ,portrait on steel4 ,cloth4 #a #ge4 ,,life ,,and ,,times ,,of ,,thomas ,,jefferson4 ,in which the author has presented both the merits and defects of this great representative hero in their true light1 and has studiously avoided indiscriminate praise or wholesale censure4 ,by ,,samuel ,m4 ,,schmucker1 ,,ll4 ,d4 ,with ,portrait4 ,cloth4 #a #ge4 ,,life ,,of ,,benjamin ,,franklin4 ,furnishing a superior and comprehensive record of this celebrated ,statesman and ,philosopher--rich beyond parallel in lessons of wisdom for every age1 calling and condition in life1 public and private4 ,by ,o4 ,l4 ,,holley4 ,with ,portrait on steel and ,illustrations on wood4 ,cloth4 #a #ge4 ,,public ,,and ,,private ,,life ,,of ,,daniel ,,webster4 ,the most copious and attractive collection of personal memorials concerning the great ,statesman that has hitherto been published1 and by one whose intimate and confidential relations with him afford a guarantee for their authenticity4 ,by ,gen4 ,s4 ,p4 ,,lyman4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,cloth4 #a #ge4 ,,life ,,and ,,times ,,of ,,henry ,,clay4 ,an impartial biography1 presenting1 by bold and simple strokes of the historic pencil1 a portraiture of the illustrious theme which no one should fail to read1 and no library be without4 ,by ,,samuel ,m4 ,,schmucker1 ,,ll4 ,d4 ,with ,portrait on steel4 ,cloth4 #a #ge4 ,,life ,,and ,,public ,,services ,,of ,,stephen ,a4 ,,douglas4 ,a true and faithful exposition of the leading incidents of his brilliant career arranged so as to instruct the reader and produce the careful study which the life of so great a man deserves4 ,by ,h4 ,m4 ,,flint4 ,with ,portrait on steel4 ,cloth4 #a #ge4 ,,life ,,and ,,public ,,services ,,of ,,abraham ,,lincoln4 7,in both the ,english and ,german languages47 ,as a record of this great man it is a most desirable work1 admirably arranged for reference1 with an index over each page1 from which the reader can familiarize himself with the contents by glancing through it4 ,by ,,frank ,,crosby1 of the ,philadelphia ,bar4 ,with ,portrait on steel4 ,cloth4 #a #ge4 ,,life ,,of ,,daniel ,,boone1 ,,the ,,great ,,western ,,hunter ,,and ,,pioneer4 ,comprising graphic and authentic accounts of his daring1 thrilling adventures1 wonderful skill1 coolness and sagacity under the most hazardous circumstances1 with an autobiography dictated by himself4 ,by ,,cecil ,b4 ,,hartley4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,cloth4 #a #ge4 ,,life ,,of ,,colonel ,,david ,,crocket1 ,,the ,,original ,,humorist ,,and ,,irrepressible ,,backwoodsman4 ,showing his strong will and indomitable spirit1 his bear hunting1 his military services1 his career in ,congress1 and his triumphal tour through the ,states--written by himself2 to which is added the account of his glorious death at the ,alamo4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,cloth4 #a #ge4 ,,life ,,of ,,kit ,,carson1 ,,the ,,great ,,western ,,hunter ,,and ,,guide4 ,an exciting volume of wild and romantic exploits1 thrilling adventures1 hair-breadth escapes1 daring coolness1 moral and physical courage1 and invaluable services--such as rarely transpire in the history of the world4 ,by ,,charles ,,burdett4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,cloth4 #a #ge4 ,,life ,,of ,,captain ,,john ,,smith1 ,,the ,,founder ,,of ,,virginia4 ,the adventures contained herein serve to denote the more noble and daring events of a period distinguished by its spirit1 its courage1 and its passion1 and challenges the attention of the ,american people4 ,by ,w4 ,,gilmore ,,simms4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,price #a #ge4 ,,life ,,of ,,general ,,francis ,,marion1 ,,the ,,celebrated ,,partisan ,,hero ,,of ,,the ,,revolution4 ,this was one of the most distinguished men who figured on the grand theatre of war during the times that tried men's souls1 and his brilliant career has scarcely a parallel in history4 ,by ,,cecil ,b4 ,,hartley4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,cloth4 #a #ge4 ,,life ,,of ,,general ,,andrew ,,jackson1 ,,the ,,celebrated ,,patriot ,,and ,,statesman4 ,the character here shown as firm in will1 clear in judgment1 rapid in decision and decidedly pronounced1 sprung from comparative obscurity to the highest gift within the power of the ,american people1 and is prolific in interest4 ,by ,,alexander ,,walker4 #a #ge4 ,,life ,,and ,,times ,,of ,,general ,,sam ,,houston1 ,,the ,,hunter1 ,,patriot1 ,,and ,,statesman4 ,it reminds one of the story of ,romulus--who was nurtured by the beasts of the forest till he planted the foundations of a mighty empire--and stands alone as an authentic memoir4 ,with ,maps1 ,portrait1 and ,illustrations4 ,cloth4 #a #ge4 ,,lives ,,of ,,the ,,three ,,mrs4 ,,judsons1 ,,the ,,celebrated ,,female ,,missionaries4 ,the domestic lives and individual labors of these three bright stars in the galaxy of ,american heroines1 who in ministering to the souls of heathens1 experienced much of persecution4 ,by ,,cecil ,b4 ,,hartley4 ,with steel ,portraits4 ,cloth4 #a #ge4 ,,life ,,of ,,elisha ,,kent ,,kane1 ,,and ,,of ,,other ,,distinguished ,,american ,,explorers4 ,a narrative of the discoverers who possess the strongest hold upon public interest and attention1 and one of the few deeply interesting volumes of distinguished ,americans of this class4 ,by ,,samuel ,m4 ,,schmucker1 ,,ll4 ,d4 ,with ,portrait on steel4 ,cloth4 #a #ge4 ,,the ,,life ,,and ,,adventures ,,of ,,pauline ,,cushman1 ,,the ,,celebrated ,,union ,,spy ,,and ,,scout4 ,stirring details from the lips of the subject herself1 whose courage1 heroism1 and devotion to the old flag1 endeared her to the ,army of the ,southwest4 ,by ,f4 ,l4 ,,sarmiento1 ,esq41 ,member of the ,philadelphia ,bar4 ,with ,portrait on steel and ,illustrations on wood4 ,cloth4 #a #ge4 ,,jefferson ,,davis ,,and ,,stonewall ,,jackson3 ,,the ,,life ,,and ,,public ,,services ,,of ,,each4 ,truths from the lives of these men1 both of whom served their country before the war1 and afterwards threw themselves into the cause of the ,south with unbounded zeal--affording valuable historic facts for all1 ,north and ,south4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,cloth4 #a #ge4 ,,corsica1 ,,and ,,the ,,early ,,life ,,of ,,napoleon4 ,delicately drawn idyllic descriptions of the ,island1 yielding new light to political history1 exciting much attention in ,germany and ,england1 and altogether making a book of rare character and value4 ,translated by ,hon4 ,e4 ,,joy ,,morris4 ,with ,portrait on steel4 ,cloth4 #a #ge4 ,,the ,,horse ,,and ,,his ,,diseases3 ,,embracing ,,his ,,history ,,and ,,varieties1 ,,breeding ,,and ,,management1 ,,and ,,vices4 ,a splendid complete1 and reliable book--the work of more than fifteen years' careful study--pointing out diseases accurately1 and recommending remedies that have stood the test of actual trial4 ,to which is added ,,rarey',s ,,method ,,of ,,training ,,horses4 ,by ,,robert ,,jennings1 ,v4 ,s4 ,with nearly one hundred ,illustrations4 ,cloth4 #a #ge4 ,,sheep1 ,,swine1 ,,and ,,poultry4 ,enumerating their varieties and histories2 the best modes of breeding1 feeding1 and managing2 the diseases to which they are subject2 the best remedies--and offering the best practical treatise of its kind now published4 ,by ,,robert ,,jennings1 ,v4 ,s4 ,with numerous ,illustrations4 ,cloth4 #a #ge4 ,,cattle ,,and ,,their ,,diseases4 ,giving their history and breeds1 crossing and breeding1 feeding and management2 with the diseases to which they are subject1 and the remedies best adapted to their cure2 which is added a list of remedies used in treating cattle4 ,by ,,robert ,,jennings1 ,v4 ,s4 ,with numerous ,illustrations4 ,cloth4 #a #ge4 ,,horse ,,training ,,made ,,easy4 ,a new and practical system of ,teaching and ,educating the ,horse1 including whip training and thorough instructions in regard to shoeing--full of information of a useful and well-tested character4 ,by ,,robert ,,jennings1 ,v4 ,s4 ,with numerous ,illustrations4 ,cloth4 #a #be4 #fjj ,,receipts ,,worth ,,their ,,weight ,,in ,,gold4 ,an unequalled variety in kind1 the collection and testing of which have extended through a period of thirty years--a number of them having never before appeared in print1 while all are simple1 plain1 and highly meritorious4 ,by ,,john ,,marquart1 of ,lebanon1 ,pa4 ,cloth4 #a #ge4 #ejj ,,employments ,,adapted ,,to ,,women4 ,throwing open to womankind productive fields of labor everywhere1 and affording full opportunity to select employments best adapted to their tastes--all the result of over three years' constant care and investigation4 ,by ,miss ,,virginia ,,penny4 ,cloth4 #a #ge4 ,,everybody',s ,,lawyer ,,and ,,book ,,of ,,forms4 ,the simplicity of its instructions1 the comprehensiveness of its subject1 and the accuracy of its details1 together with its perfect arrangement1 conciseness1 attractiveness and cheapness make it the most desirable of all legal hand-books4 ,by ,,frank ,,crosby1 ,esq4 ,thoroughly revised to date by ,s4 ,j4 ,,vandersloot1 ,esq4 #fjh pp4 ,law ,style4 #b #jj4 ,,the ,,family ,,doctor4 ,intended to guard against diseases in the family2 to furnish the proper treatment for the sick2 to impart knowledge in regard to medicines1 herbs1 and plants2 to show how to preserve a sound body and mind1 and written in plain language1 free from medical terms4 ,by ,prof4 ,,henry ,,taylor1 ,m4 ,d4 ,profusely ,illustrated4 ,cloth4 #a #ge4 ,,the ,,american ,,practical ,,cookery ,,book4 ,a faithful and highly useful guide1 whose directions all can safely follow1 making housekeeping easy1 pleasant1 and economical in all its departments1 and based upon the personal test1 throughout1 of an intelligent practical housekeeper4 ,illustrated with ,fifty ,engravings4 ,cloth4 #a #ge4 ,,modern ,,cookery ,,in ,,all ,,its ,,branches4 ,designed to interest and benefit housekeepers everywhere by its plain and simple instructions in regard to the judicious preparation of food1 and altogether a work of superior merit4 ,by ,miss ,,eliza ,,acton4 ,carefully revised by ,mrs4 ,,sarah ,j4 ,,hale4 ,with many ,illustrations and a copious ,index4 ,cloth4 #a #ge4 ,,thirty ,,years ,,in ,,the ,,arctic ,,regions4 ,the graphic narrative of ,sir ,john ,franklin1 the most celebrated of ,arctic ,travellers1 in which ,sir ,john tells his own story--unsurpassed for intense and all-absorbing interest--sketching his three expeditions1 and that part of the fourth now shrouded in mystery to the world4 ,cloth4 #a #ge4 ,,explorations ,,and ,,discoveries ,,during ,,four ,,years' ,,wanderings ,,in ,,the ,,wilds ,,of ,,southwestern ,,africa4 ,important and exciting experiences1 full of wild adventure and instructive facts1 which seem to possess a mysterious charm for every mind1 and in which the spirit of intelligent and adventurous curiosity is everywhere prominent4 ,by ,,charles ,,john ,,anderson4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,cloth4 #a #ge4 ,,livingstone',s ,,travels ,,and ,,researches ,,in ,,south ,,africa4 ,given in the pleasing language of ,dr4 ,livingstone1 and rich in the personal adventures and hair-breadth escapes of that most indefatigable discoverer and interesting ,christian gentleman--making a work of special value4 ,by ,,david ,,livingstone1 ,,ll4 ,d41 ,d4 ,c4 ,s4 ,profusely ,illustrated4 ,cloth4 #a #ge4 ,,travels ,,and ,,discoveries ,,in ,,north ,,and ,,central ,,africa4 ,recounting an expedition undertaken under the auspices of ,h4 ,b4 ,m4's ,government1 exhibiting the most remarkable courage1 perseverance1 presence of mind1 and contempt of danger and death1 and immensely important as a work of information4 ,by ,,henry ,,barth1 ,ph4 ,d41 ,d4 ,c4 ,l41 etc4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,cloth4 #a #ge4 ,,ellis' ,,three ,,visits ,,to ,,madagascar4 ,written in ,madagascar1 while on a visit to the queen and people1 in which is carefully described the singularly beautiful country and the manners and customs of its people1 and from which an unusual amount of information is obtainable4 ,by ,rev4 ,,william ,,ellis1 ,f4 ,h4 ,s4 ,profusely ,illustrated4 ,cloth4 #a #ge4 ,,oriental ,,and ,,western ,,siberia4 ,a ,stirring narrative of seven years' explorations in ,siberia1 ,mongolia1 the ,kirghes ,steppes1 ,chinese ,tartary1 and part of ,central ,asia1 revealing extraordinary facts1 showing much of hunger1 thirst1 and perilous adventure1 and forming a work of rare attractiveness for every reader4 ,by ,,thomas ,,william ,,atkinson4 ,with numerous ,illustrations4 ,cloth4 #a #ge4 ,,hunting ,,scenes ,,in ,,the ,,wilds ,,of ,,africa4 ,thrilling adventures of daring hunters--,cummings1 ,harris1 and others--among the ,lions1 ,elephants1 ,giraffes1 ,buffaloes1 and other animals--than which few1 if any works1 are more exciting4 ,with numerous ,illustrations4 ,cloth4 #a #ge4 ,,hunting ,,adventures ,,in ,,the ,,northern ,,wilds4 ,a tramp in the ,chateaugay ,woods1 over hills1 lakes and forest streams1 at a time when millions of acres lay in a perfect wilderness1 affording incidents1 descriptions1 and adventures of extraordinary interest4 ,by ,s4 ,h4 ,,hammond4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,cloth4 #a #ge4 ,,wild ,,northern ,,scenes2 ,,or1 ,,sporting ,,adventures ,,with ,,the ,,rifle ,,and ,,the ,,rod4 ,affording remarkably interesting experiences in a section where the howl of the ,wolf1 the scream of the ,panther1 and the hoarse bellow of the ,moose could be heard--presenting a racy book4 ,by ,s4 ,h4 ,,hammond4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,cloth4 #a #ge4 ,,perils ,,and ,,pleasures ,,of ,a ,,hunter',s ,,life2 ,,or1 ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,hunting4 ,replete with thrilling incidents and hair-breadth escapes1 and fascinating in the extreme1 while depicting the romance of hunting4 ,by ,,peregrine ,,herne4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,cloth4 #a #ge4 ,,hunting ,,sports ,,in ,,the ,,west4 ,an amount of novelty and variety1 of bold enterprise and noble hardihood1 of heroic daring and fierce encounters1 which seem to be much more entertaining by the quiet fireside than they would be to the one going through them in the forest or field4 ,by ,,cecil ,b4 ,,hartley4 ,with numerous ,illustrations4 ,cloth4 #a #ge4 ,,fanny ,,hunter',s ,,western ,,adventures4 ,vividly portraying the stirring scenes enacted in ,kansas and ,missouri during a sojourn of several years on the ,western ,border1 and fully representing social and domestic affairs in frontier life--containing curious pictures of character4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,cloth4 #a #ge4 ,,wonderful ,,adventures1 ,,by ,,land ,,and ,,sea1 ,,of ,,the ,,seven ,,queer ,,travellers ,,who ,,met ,,at ,,an ,,inn4 ,revelations of a singular and unusually entertaining character1 in which the most terrible circumstances and mysterious occurrences are faithfully and forcibly placed before the reader4 ,by ,,josiah ,,barnes4 ,cloth4 #a #ge4 ,,nicaragua2 ,,past1 ,,present1 ,,and ,,future4 ,setting forth its history1 the manners and customs of its inhabitants1 its mines1 its minerals1 and other productions1 and throwing light upon a subject of very great importance to the masses of our people4 ,by ,,peter ,f4 ,,stout1 ,esq41 late ,u4 ,s4 ,vice-,consul4 ,cloth4 #a #ge4 ,,female ,,life ,,among ,,the ,,mormons2 ,,or1 ,,maria ,,ward',s ,,disclosures4 ,romantic ,incidents1 bordering on the marvelous1 which show the evils1 horrors1 and abominations of the ,mormon system--the degradation of its females1 and the consequent vices of its society4 ,by ,,maria ,,ward1 the ,wife of a ,mormon ,elder4 ,with ,illustrations4 #dj1jjj copies sold4 ,cloth4 #a #ge4 ,,male ,,life ,,among ,,the ,,mormons4 ,detailing sights and scenes among the ,mormons1 with important remarks on their moral and social economy2 being a true transcript of events1 viewing ,mormonism from a man's standpoint1 and forming a companion to the preceding volume4 ,by ,,austin ,n4 ,,ward4 ,edited by ,,maria ,,ward4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,cloth4 #a #ge4 ,,pioneer ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,west4 ,describing the adventures of ,boone1 ,kenton1 ,brady1 ,clark1 the ,whetzels1 the ,johnsons1 and others1 in their fierce encounters with the ,indians1 and making up a work of the most entertaining and instructive character for those who delight in history and adventure4 ,with numerous ,illustrations4 ,cloth4 #a #ge4 ,,thrilling ,,stories ,,of ,,the ,,great ,,rebellion4 ,fearful adventures of soldiers1 scouts1 spies1 and refugees2 daring exploits of smugglers1 guerillas1 desperadoes1 and others2 tales of loyal and disloyal women2 stories of the negro1 and incidents of fun and merriment in camp and field4 ,by ,lieut4 ,,charles ,s4 ,,greene1 late of the ,u4 ,s4 ,army4 ,with ,illustrations in ,oil4 ,cloth4 #a #ge4 ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,war ,,in ,,india4 ,furnishing the complete history of ,british ,india1 together with interesting and thrilling details which have scarcely a parallel in the world's history1 to which is added a memoir of ,general ,sir ,,henry ,,havelock4 ,by ,,henry ,,frederick ,,malcolm4 ,illustrated with numerous ,engravings4 ,cloth4 #a #ge4 ,,our ,,boys4 ,personal experiences of the author while in the army1 presenting the richest and raciest scenes of army and camp life ever published1 and portraying various events in all their originality4 ,by ,a4 ,f4 ,,hill1 of the ,eighth ,pennsylvania ,reserves4 ,with ,portrait on ,steel1 and characteristic ,illustrations4 ,cloth4 #a #ge4 ,,our ,,campaigns4 ,the marches1 bivouacs1 battles1 incidents1 camp life1 and history of a regiment during its three years' term of service in the war1 together with a sketch of the ,army of the ,potomac under ,generals ,mc,clellan1 ,burnside1 ,hooker1 ,meade1 and ,grant4 ,by ,e4 ,m4 ,,woodward1 ,adj't ,second ,penna4 ,reserves4 ,cloth4 #a #ge4 ,,margaret ,,moncrieffe1 ,,the ,,beautiful ,,spy4 ,an exciting story of ,army and high life in ,new ,york1 in #aggf1 presenting facts and historic names1 and showing the mutual attachment between ,aaron ,burr and ,margaret ,moncrieffe1 as well as the influence of the latter upon the former in the more important events of his life4 ,by ,,charles ,,burdett4 ,cloth4 #a #ge4 ,,six ,,nights ,,in ,a ,,block ,,house2 ,,or1 ,,sketches ,,of ,,border ,,life4 ,feats of hero hunters and thrilling exploits among the ,indians2 furnishing the names of hunters well known in western history1 and showing the most exciting drama of border warfare1 and1 as a whole1 the most intensely interesting and instructive work upon ,indian life now offered the public4 ,,by ,,henry ,c4 ,,watson4 ,with #ajj ,engravings4 ,cloth4 #a #ge4 ,,thrilling ,,adventures ,,among ,,the ,,early ,,settlers4 ,a series of desperate encounters with ,indians1 daring exploits of ,texan ,rangers1 incidents of guerilla warfare1 fearful deeds of desperadoes and regulators of the west1 and graphic delineations of hunting and trapping well worthy universal preservation4 ,by ,,warren ,,wildwood1 ,esq4 ,more than #bjj ,engravings4 ,cloth4 #a #ge4 ,,thrilling ,,incidents ,,in ,,american ,,history4 ,events which are among the most striking and important in our national annals1 covering the ,revolution1 the ,french ,war1 the ,tripolitan ,war1 the ,indian ,wars1 the ,war of #ahab1 and the ,mexican ,war--all of which are of great usefulness to the student and general reader4 ,by the author of ,the ,army and ,navy of the ,united ,states4 ,with ,three ,hundred ,illustrations4 ,cloth4 #a #ge4 ,,scouting ,,expeditions ,,of ,,the ,,texan ,,rangers4 ,operations which occurred during some of the prominent events of the ,mexican war1 together with sketches of the celebrated partisan chiefs1 ,hays1 ,mc,culloch1 and ,walker1 whose courage1 sagacity1 and remarkable exploits should be familiar to all ,americans4 ,by ,,samuel ,c4 ,,reid1 ,jr41 late of the ,texan ,rangers1 and ,member of the ,louisiana ,bar4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,cloth4 #a #ge4 ,,the ,,battle-,,fields ,,of ,,the ,,revolution4 ,the most brilliant points in the history of the ,revolutionary war1 recounting the principal battles1 sieges1 and other important events--the whole interspersed with numerous characteristic anecdotes4 ,by ,,thomas ,y4 ,,rhoads4 ,with many ,illustrations4 ,cloth4 #a #ge4 ,,thrilling ,,adventures ,,among ,,the ,,indians4 ,in which are enumerated the most remarkable incidents of the early ,indian ,wars1 which abound in dangers1 vindictiveness1 endurance1 heroism1 gratitude1 treachery1 stoicism1 and revenge1 and in which there is much to fascinate the reader1 and store the inquiring mind4 ,by ,,john ,,frost1 ,,ll4 ,d4 ,with more than #cjj ,illustrations4 ,cloth4 #a #ge4 ,,the ,,hero ,,girl1 ,,and ,,how ,,she ,,became ,a ,,captain ,,in ,,the ,,army4 ,the highly dramatic story of ,molly ,pitcher who1 having lost her husband at the battle of ,monmouth1 gallantly stepped forward1 took his place at the cannon1 and continued serving it until the battle ended--after which the rank of ,captain was conferred on her by ,gen4 ,washington4 ,by ,,thrace ,,talmon4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,cloth4 #a #ge4 ,,mrs4 ,,partington',s ,,knitting ,,work1 ,,and ,,what ,,was ,,done ,,by ,,her ,,plaguy ,,boy ,,ike4 ,in which all will see the acid and sugar1 and spirit and water--forming an intellectual punch1 of which all can partake without headache or heartache4 ,wrought by the old lady herself4 ,with characteristic ,illustrations1 including a portrait of the old lady in specs1 surrounded by the ,partington family4 ,cloth4 #a #ge4 ,,way ,,down ,,east2 ,,or1 ,,portraitures ,,of ,,yankee ,,life4 ,embodying some of the raciest stories of the ,down ,easter ever published by this humorous author--containing much of genuine wit and attractive thought4 ,by ,,seba ,,smith1 the original ,major ,jack ,downing4 ,with several rich and original ,illustrations4 ,cloth4 #a #ge4 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber's ,note3 ,summarized here are the corrections applied to the text4 ,list of ,illustrations3 ,frolicksome was spelled ,frolicsome as opposed to the illustration ,in color1 the pure ,ayrshires are generally red ,ayrshires was printed as ,aryshires ,some packers put meat in a copper which is rendered air-tight meat was printed as meal ,the principal substances of which glue is made substances was printed as subtances degeneracy of acute into chronic dysentery disentery was printed as dystentery ,it most frequently occurs in dry1 hot weather4 frequently was printed as freqently acquired additional deleterious agency acquired was printed as accquired and have found the spur in the hay wherever the disease is found4 disease was printed as diesase differing from like phenomena by other causes phenomena was printed as phenonema until this singular phenomenon is clearly accounted for phenomenon was printed as phenonemon embryotomy was in this instance employed embryotomy was printed as emrbyotomy ,the diseased lungs sometimes attain inordinate weight4 diseased was printed as direased supported by alcoholic stimulants4 alcoholic was printed as alcholic ,when cut into1 it did not present the red1 mottled1 organized appearance of those cases with air-tight cysts4 present was printed as prevent ,it comprehended one of the parotid glands comprehended was printed as comprehened drawn tightly to the posterior ring1 by a simple bow-knot4 knot was printed as not must be supplied by alcolized water alcolized was printed as alcotized