,libraries7 ,,the ,,foundations ,,of ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,species ,,cambridge ,,university ,,press ,london3 ,,fetter ,,lane1 ,e4,c4 ,c4 ,f4 ,,clay1 ,,manager ,illustration ,edinburgh3 #ajj1 ,,princes ,,street ,,also ,london3 ,h4 ,k4 ,,lewis1 #acf1 ,,gower ,,street1 ,w4,c4 ,berlin3 ,a4 ,,asher ,,and ,,co4 ,leipzig3 ,f4 ,a4 ,,brockhaus ,new ,york3 ,g4 ,p4 ,,putnam',s ,,sons ,bombay and ,calcutta3 ,,macmillan ,,and ,co41 ,,ltd4 ,all rights reserved ,illustration3 ,charles ,darwin from a photograph by ,maull ,fox in #ahed ,,the ,,foundations ,,of ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,species ,,two ,,essays ,,written ,,in #ahdb ,,and #ahdd by ,,charles ,,darwin ,edited by his son ,,francis ,,darwin ,honorary ,fellow of ,christ's ,college ,cambridge3 at the ,university ,press #aiji ,astronomers might formerly have said that ,god ordered each planet to move in its particular destiny4 ,in same manner ,god orders each animal created with certain form in certain country4 ,but how much more simple and sublime power1--let attraction act according to certain law1 such are inevitable consequences1--let animal7s7 be created1 then by the fixed laws of generation1 such will be their successors4 ,from ,,darwin',s ,note ,book1 #ahcg1 p4 #aja4 ,,to ,,the ,,master ,,and ,,fellows ,,of ,,christ',s ,,college1 ,,this ,,book ,,is ,,dedicated ,,by ,,the ,,editor ,,in ,,token ,,of ,,respect ,,and ,,gratitude ,,contents ,,essay ,,of #ahdb ,,pages ,,introduction xi ,,part ,i ,sec4 i4 ,on variation under domestication1 and on the principles of selection #a ,sec4 ii4 ,on variation in a state of nature and on the natural means of selection #d ,sec4 iii4 ,on variation in instincts and other mental attributes #ag ,,part ,,ii ,sec4,sec4 iv4 and v4 ,on the evidence from ,geology4 7,the reasons for combining the two sections are given in the ,introduction7 #bb ,sec4 vi4 ,geographical distribution #bi ,sec4 vii4 ,affinities and classification #ce ,sec4 viii4 ,unity of type in the great classes #ch ,sec4 ix4 ,abortive organs #de ,sec4 x4 ,recapitulation and conclusion #dh ,,essay ,,of #ahdd ,,part ,i ,,chapter ,i #eg-hj ,,on ,,the ,,variation ,,of ,,organic ,,beings ,,under ,,domestication2 ,,and ,,on ,,the ,,principles ,,of ,,selection4 ,variation ,on the hereditary tendency ,causes of ,variation ,on ,selection ,crossing ,breeds ,whether our domestic races have descended from one or more wild stocks ,limits to ,variation in degree and kind ,in what consists ,domestication--,summary ,,chapter ,,ii #ha-aaa ,,on ,,the ,,variation ,,of ,,organic ,,beings ,,in ,a ,,wild ,,state2 ,,on ,,the ,,natural ,,means ,,of ,,selection2 ,,and ,,on ,,the ,,comparison ,,of ,,domestic ,,races ,,and ,,true ,,species4 ,variation ,natural means of ,selection ,differences between ,races and ,species3-first1 in their trueness or variability ,difference between ,races and ,species in fertility when crossed ,causes of ,sterility in ,hybrids ,infertility from causes distinct from hybridisation ,points of ,resemblance between ,races and ,species ,external characters of ,hybrids and ,mongrels ,summary ,limits of ,variation ,,chapter ,,iii #aab-acb ,,on ,,the ,,variation ,,of ,,instincts ,,and ,,other ,,mental ,,attributes ,,under ,,domestication ,,and ,,in ,a ,,state ,,of ,,nature2 ,,on ,,the ,,difficulties ,,in ,,this ,,subject2 ,,and ,,on ,,analogous ,,difficulties ,,with ,,respect ,,to ,,corporeal ,,structures4 ,variation of mental attributes under domestication ,hereditary habits compared with instincts ,variation in the mental attributes of wild animals ,principles of ,selection applicable to instincts ,difficulties in the acquirement of complex instincts by ,selection ,difficulties in the acquirement by ,selection of complex corporeal structures ,,part ,,ii ,,on ,,the ,,evidence ,,favourable ,,and ,,opposed ,,to ,,the ,,view ,,that ,,species ,,are ,,naturally ,,formed ,,races1 ,,descended ,,from ,,common ,,stocks4 ,,chapter ,,iv #acc-adc ,,on ,,the ,,number ,,of ,,intermediate ,,forms ,,required ,,on ,,the ,,theory ,,of ,,common ,,descent2 ,,and ,,on ,,their ,,absence ,,in ,a ,,fossil ,,state ,,chapter ,v #add-aej ,,gradual ,,appearance ,,and ,,disappearance ,,of ,,species4 ,gradual appearance of species ,extinction of species ,,chapter ,,vi ,,on ,,the ,,geographical ,,distribution ,,of ,,organic ,,beings ,,in ,,past ,,and ,,present ,,times4 ,,section ,,first #aea-agd ,distribution of the inhabitants in the different continents ,relation of range in genera and species ,distribution of the inhabitants in the same continent ,insular ,faunas ,alpine ,floras ,cause of the similarity in the floras of some distant mountains ,whether the same species has been created more than once ,on the number of species1 and of the classes to which they belong in different regions ,,second ,,section #agd-ahb ,geographical distribution of extinct organisms ,changes in geographical distribution ,summary on the distribution of living and extinct organic beings ,,section ,,third #ahc-aig ,an attempt to explain the foregoing laws of geographical distribution1 on the theory of allied species having a common descent ,improbability of finding fossil forms intermediate between existing species ,,chapter ,,vii #aih-bac ,,on ,,the ,,nature ,,of ,,the ,,affinities ,,and ,,classification ,,of ,,organic ,,beings4 ,gradual appearance and disappearance of groups ,what is the ,natural ,system8 ,on the kind of relation between distinct groups ,classification of ,races or ,varieties ,classification of ,races and ,species similar ,origin of genera and families ,,chapter ,,viii #bad-bcj ,,unity ,,of ,,type ,,in ,,the ,,great ,,classes2 ,,and ,,morphological ,,structures4 ,unity of ,type ,morphology ,embryology ,attempt to explain the facts of embryology ,on the graduated complexity in each great class ,modification by selection of the forms of immature animals ,importance of embryology in classification ,order in time in which the great classes have first appeared ,,chapter ,,ix #bca-bch ,,abortive ,,or ,,rudimentary ,,organs4 ,the abortive organs of ,naturalists ,the abortive organs of ,physiologists ,abortion from gradual disuse ,,chapter ,x #bci-bee ,,recapitulation ,,and ,,conclusion4 ,recapitulation ,why do we wish to reject the ,theory of ,common ,descent8 ,conclusion ,,index #beg ,portrait frontispiece ,facsimile to face p4 #ej ,,introduction ,we know from the contents of ,charles ,darwin's ,note ,book of #ahcg that he was at that time a convinced ,evolutionist#a4 ,nor can there be any doubt that1 when he started on board the ,beagle1 such opinions as he had were on the side of immutability4 ,when therefore did the current of his thoughts begin to set in the direction of ,evolution8 #a ,see the extracts in ,life and ,letters of ,charles ,darwin1 ii4 p4 #e4 ,we have first to consider the factors that made for such a change4 ,on his departure in #ahca1 ,henslow gave him vol4 ,i4 of ,lyell's ,principles1 then just published1 with the warning that he was not to believe what he read#b4 ,but believe he did1 and it is certain 7as ,huxley has forcibly pointed out#c7 that the doctrine of uniformitarianism when applied to ,biology leads of necessity to ,evolution4 ,if the extermination of a species is no more catastrophic than the natural death of an individual1 why should the birth of a species be any more miraculous than the birth of an individual8 ,it is quite clear that this thought was vividly present to ,darwin when he was writing out his early thoughts in the #ahcg ,note ,book#d3-- ,propagation explains why modern animals same type as extinct1 which is law almost proved4 ,they die1 without they change1 like golden pippins2 it is a generation of species like generation of individuals4 ,if species generate other species their race is not utterly cut off4 #b ,the second volume1--especially important in regard to ,evolution1--reached him in the autumn of #ahcb1 as ,prof4 ,judd has pointed out in his most interesting paper in ,darwin and ,modern ,science4 ,cambridge1 #aiji4 #c ,obituary ,notice of ,c4 ,darwin1 ,proc4 ,r4 ,soc4 vol4 #dd4 ,reprinted in ,huxley's ,collected ,essays4 ,see also ,life and ,letters of ,c4 ,darwin1 ii4 p4 #agi4 #d ,see the extracts in the ,life and ,letters1 ii4 p4 #e4 ,these quotations show that he was struggling to see in the origin of species a process just as scientifically comprehensible as the birth of individuals4 ,they show1 ,i think1 that he recognised the two things not merely as similar but as identical4 ,it is impossible to know how soon the ferment of uniformitarianism began to work1 but it is fair to suspect that in #ahcb he had already begun to see that mutability was the logical conclusion of ,lyell's doctrine1 though this was not acknowledged by ,lyell himself4 ,there were however other factors of change4 ,in his ,autobiography#e he wrote3--,during the voyage of the ,beagle ,i had been deeply impressed by discovering in the ,pampean formation great fossil animals covered with armour like that on the existing armadillos2 secondly1 by the manner in which closely allied animals replace one another in proceeding southward over the ,continent2 and thirdly1 by the ,south ,american character of most of the productions of the ,galapagos archipelago1 and more especially by the manner in which they differ slightly on each island of the group2 none of the islands appearing to be very ancient in a geological sense4 ,it was evident that such facts as these1 as well as many others1 could only be explained on the supposition that species gradually become modified2 and the subject haunted me4 #e ,life and ,letters1 i4 p4 #hb4 ,again we have to ask3 how soon did any of these influences produce an effect on ,darwin's mind8 ,different answers have been attempted4 ,huxley#f held that these facts could not have produced their essential effect until the voyage had come to an end1 and the relations of the existing with the extinct species and of the species of the different geographical areas with one another were determined with some exactness4 ,he does not therefore allow that any appreciable advance towards evolution was made during the actual voyage of the ,beagle4 #f ,obituary ,notice1 loc4 cit4 ,professor ,judd#g takes a very different view4 ,he holds that ,november #ahcb may be given with some confidence as the date at which ,darwin commenced that long series of observations and reasonings which eventually culminated in the preparation of the ,origin of ,species4 #g ,darwin and ,modern ,science4 ,though ,i think these words suggest a more direct and continuous march than really existed between fossil-collecting in #ahcb and writing the ,origin of ,species in #ahei1 yet ,i hold that it was during the voyage that ,darwin's mind began to be turned in the direction of ,evolution1 and ,i am therefore in essential agreement with ,prof4 ,judd1 although ,i lay more stress than he does on the latter part of the voyage4 ,let us for a moment confine our attention to the passage1 above quoted1 from the ,autobiography and to what is said in the ,introduction to the ,origin1 ,ed4 i41 viz4 ,when on board ,h4,m4,s4 ',beagle1' as naturalist1 ,i was much struck with certain facts in the distribution of the inhabitants of ,south ,america1 and in the geological relations of the present to the past inhabitants of that continent4 ,these words1 occurring where they do1 can only mean one thing1--namely that the facts suggested an evolutionary interpretation4 ,and this being so it must be true that his thoughts began to flow in the direction of ,descent at this early date4 ,i am inclined to think that the new light which was rising in his mind#h had not yet attained any effective degree of steadiness or brightness4 ,i think so because in his ,pocket ,book under the date #ahcg he wrote1 ,in ,july opened first note-book on 'transmutation of species4' ,had been greatly struck from about month of previous ,march#i on character of ,south ,american fossils1 and species on ,galapagos ,archipelago4 ,these facts origin 7especially latter71 of all my views4 ,but he did not visit the ,galapagos till #ahce and ,i therefore find it hard to believe that his evolutionary views attained any strength or permanence until at any rate quite late in the voyage4 ,the ,galapagos facts are strongly against ,huxley's view1 for ,darwin's attention was thoroughly aroused#aj by comparing the birds shot by himself and by others on board4 ,the case must have struck him at once1--without waiting for accurate determinations1--as a microcosm of evolution4 #h ,huxley1 ,obituary1 p4 xi4 #i ,in this citation the italics are mine4 #aj ,journal of ,researches1 ,ed4 #ahfj1 p4 #cid4 ,it is also to be noted1 in regard to the remains of extinct animals1 that1 in the above quotation from his ,pocket ,book1 he speaks of ,march #ahcg as the time at which he began to be greatly struck on character of ,south ,american fossils1 which suggests at least that the impression made in #ahcb required reinforcement before a really powerful effect was produced4 ,we may therefore conclude1 ,i think1 that the evolutionary current in my father's thoughts had continued to increase in force from #ahcb onwards1 being especially reinforced at the ,galapagos in #ahce and again in #ahcg when he was overhauling the results1 mental and material1 of his travels4 ,and that when the above record in the ,pocket ,book was made he unconsciously minimised the earlier beginnings of his theorisings1 and laid more stress on the recent thoughts which were naturally more vivid to him4 ,in his letter#aa to ,otto ,zacharias 7#ahgg7 he wrote1 ,on my return home in the autumn of #ahcf1 ,i immediately began to prepare my ,journal for publication1 and then saw how many facts indicated the common descent of species4 ,this again is evidence in favour of the view that the later growths of his theory were the essentially important parts of its development4 #aa ,f4 ,darwin's ,life of ,charles ,darwin 7in one volume71 #ahib1 p4 #aff4 ,in the same letter to ,zacharias he says1 ,when ,i was on board the ,beagle ,i believed in the permanence of species1 but as far as ,i can remember vague doubts occasionally flitted across my mind4 ,unless ,prof4 ,judd and ,i are altogether wrong in believing that late or early in the voyage 7it matters little which7 a definite approach was made to the evolutionary standpoint1 we must suppose that in #dj years such advance had shrunk in his recollection to the dimensions of vague doubts4 ,the letter to ,zacharias shows ,i think some forgetting of the past where the author says1 ,but ,i did not become convinced that species were mutable until1 ,i think1 two or three years had elapsed4 ,it is impossible to reconcile this with the contents of the evolutionary ,note ,book of #ahcg4 ,i have no doubt that in his retrospect he felt that he had not been convinced that species were mutable until he had gained a clear conception of the mechanism of natural selection1 i4e4 in #ahch-i4 ,but even on this last date there is some room1 not for doubt1 but for surprise4 ,the passage in the ,autobiography#ab is quite clear1 namely that in ,october #ahch he read ,malthus's ,essay on the principle of ,population and being well prepared to appreciate the struggle for existence 4441 it at once struck me that under these circumstances favourable variations would tend to be preserved1 and unfavourable ones to be destroyed4 ,the result of this would be the formation of new species4 ,here then ,i had at last got a theory by which to work4 #ab ,life and ,letters1 i4 p4 #hc4 ,it is surprising that ,malthus should have been needed to give him the clue1 when in the ,note ,book of #ahcg there should occur--however obscurely expressed--the following forecast#ac of the importance of the survival of the fittest4 ,with respect to extinction1 we can easily see that a variety of the ostrich 7,petise#ad71 may not be well adapted1 and thus perish out2 or on the other hand1 like ,orpheus#ae1 being favourable1 many might be produced4 ,this requires the principle that the permanent variations produced by confined breeding and changing circumstances are continued and produced according to the adaptation of such circumstances1 and therefore that death of species is a consequence 7contrary to what would appear in ,america7 of non-adaptation of circumstances4 #ac ,life and ,letters1 ii4 p4 #h4 #ad ,avestruz ,petise1 i4e4 ,rhea ,darwini4 #ae ,a bird4 ,i can hardly doubt1 that with his knowledge of the interdependence of organisms and the tyranny of conditions1 his experience would have crystallized out into a theory by which to work even without the aid of ,malthus4 ,in my father's ,autobiography#af he writes1 ,in ,june #ahdb ,i first allowed myself the satisfaction of writing a very brief abstract of my theory in pencil in #ce pages2 and this was enlarged during the summer of #ahdd into one of #bcj pages#ag1 which ,i had fairly copied out and still possess4 ,these two ,essays1 of #ahdb and #ahdd1 are now printed under the title ,the ,foundations of the ,origin of ,species4 #af ,life and ,letters1 i4 p4 #hd4 #ag ,it contains as a fact #bca pp4 ,it is a strongly bound folio1 interleaved with blank pages1 as though for notes and additions4 ,his own ,,ms4 from which it was copied contains #ahi pp4 ,it will be noted that in the above passage he does not mention the ,,ms4 of #ahdb as being in existence1 and when ,i was at work on ,life and ,letters ,i had not seen it4 ,it only came to light after my mother's death in #ahif when the house at ,down was vacated4 ,the ,,ms4 was hidden in a cupboard under the stairs which was not used for papers of any value1 but rather as an overflow for matter which he did not wish to destroy4 ,the statement in the ,autobiography that the ,,ms4 was written in #ahdb agrees with an entry in my fathers ,diary3-- #ahdb4 ,may #ahth went to ,maer4 ,june #aeth to ,shrewsbury1 and on #ahth to ,capel ,curig4444 ,during my stay at ,maer and ,shrewsbury 7five years after commencement7 wrote pencil sketch of my species theory4 ,again in a letter to ,lyell 7,june #ah1 #aheh7 he speaks of his ,,ms4 sketch written out in #ahdbah4 ,in the ,origin of ,species1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #a1 he speaks of beginning his speculations in #ahcg and of allowing himself to draw up some short notes after five years' work1 i4e4 in #ahdb4 ,so far there seems no doubt as to #ahdb being the date of the first sketch2 but there is evidence in favour of an earlier date#ai4 ,thus across the ,table of ,contents of the bound copy of the #ahdd ,,ms4 is written in my father's hand ,this was sketched in #ahci4 ,again in a letter to ,mr ,wallace#bj 7,jan4 #be1 #ahei7 he speaks of his own contributions to the ,linnean paper#ba of ,july #a1 #aheh1 as written in #ahci1 now just twenty years ago4 ,this statement as it stands is undoubtedly incorrect1 since the extracts are from the ,,ms4 of #ahdd1 about the date of which no doubt exists2 but even if it could be supposed to refer to the #ahdb ,essay1 it must1 ,i think1 be rejected4 ,i can only account for his mistake by the supposition that my father had in mind the date 7#ahci7 at which the framework of his theory was laid down4 ,it is worth noting that in his ,autobiography 7p4 #hh7 he speaks of the time about #ahci1 when the theory was clearly conceived4 ,however this may be there can be no doubt that #ahdb is the correct date4 ,since the publication of ,life and ,letters ,i have gained fresh evidence on this head4 ,a small packet containing #ac pp4 of ,,ms4 came to light in #ahif4 ,on the outside is written ,first ,pencil ,sketch of ,species ,theory4 ,written at ,maer and ,shrewsbury during ,may and ,june #ahdb4 ,it is not however written in pencil1 and it consists of a single chapter on ,the ,principles of ,variation in ,domestic ,organisms4 ,a single unnumbered page is written in pencil1 and is headed ,maer1 ,may #ahdb1 useless2 it also bears the words ,this page was thought of as introduction4 ,it consists of the briefest sketch of the geological evidence for evolution1 together with words intended as headings for discussion1--such as ,affinity1--unity of type1--foetal state1--abortive organs4 #ah ,life and ,letters1 ii4 p4 #aaf4 #ai ,life and ,letters1 ii4 p4 #aj4 #bj ,life and ,letters1 ii4 p4 #adf4 #ba ,j4 ,linn4 ,soc4 ,zool4 iii4 p4 #de4 ,the back of this useless page is of some interest1 although it does not bear on the question of date1--the matter immediately before us4 ,it seems to be an outline of the ,essay or sketch of #ahdb1 consisting of the titles of the three chapters of which it was to have consisted4 ,i4 ,the ,principles of ,var4 in domestic organisms4 ,,ii4 ,the possible and probable application of these same principles to wild animals and consequently the possible and probable production of wild races1 analogous to the domestic ones of plants and animals4 ,,iii4 ,the reasons for and against believing that such races have really been produced1 forming what are called species4 ,it will be seen that ,chapter ,,iii as originally designed corresponds to ,part ,,ii 7p4 #bb7 of the ,essay of #ahdb1 which is 7p4 #g7 defined by the author as discussing whether the characters and relations of animated things are such as favour the idea of wild species being races descended from a common stock4 ,again at p4 #bc the author asks ,what then is the evidence in favour of it 7the theory of descent7 and what the evidence against it4 ,the generalised section of his ,essay having been originally ,chapter ,,iii#bb accounts for the curious error which occurs in pp4 #ah and #bb where the second ,part of the ,essay is called ,part ,,iii4 #bb ,it is evident that ,parts and ,chapters were to some extent interchangeable in the author's mind1 for p4 #a 7of the ,,ms4 we have been discussing7 is headed in ink ,chapter ,i1 and afterwards altered in pencil to ,part ,i4 ,the division of the ,essay into two parts is maintained in the enlarged ,essay of #ahdd1 in which he writes3 ,the ,second ,part of this work is devoted to the general consideration of how far the general economy of nature justifies or opposes the belief that related species and genera are descended from common stocks4 ,the ,origin of ,species however is not so divided4 ,we may now return to the question of the date of the ,essay4 ,i have found additional evidence in favour of #ahdb in a sentence written on the back of the ,table of ,contents of the #ahdd ,,ms4--not the copied version but the original in my father's writing3 ,this was written and enlarged from a sketch in #cg pages#bc in ,pencil 7the latter written in summer of #ahdb at ,maer and ,shrewsbury7 in beginning of #ahdd1 and finished it sic in ,july2 and finally corrected the copy by ,mr ,fletcher in the last week in ,september4 ,on the whole it is impossible to doubt that #ahdb is the date of the earlier of the two ,essays4 #bc ,on p4 #bc of the ,,ms4 of the ,foundations is a reference to the back of p4 #ba bis3 this suggests that additional pages had been interpolated in the ,,ms4 and that it may once have had #cg in place of #ce pp4 ,the sketch of #ahdb is written on bad paper with a soft pencil1 and is in many parts extremely difficult to read1 many of the words ending in mere scrawls and being illegible without context4 ,it is evidently written rapidly1 and is in his most elliptical style1 the articles being frequently omitted1 and the sentences being loosely composed and often illogical in structure4 ,there is much erasure and correction1 apparently made at the moment of writing1 and the ,,ms4 does not give the impression of having been re-read with any care4 ,the whole is more like hasty memoranda of what was clear to himself1 than material for the convincing of others4 ,many of the pages are covered with writing on the back1 an instance of his parsimony in the matter of paper#bd4 ,this matter consists partly of passages marked for insertion in the text1 and these can generally 7though by no means always7 be placed where he intended4 ,but he also used the back of one page for a preliminary sketch to be rewritten on a clean sheet4 ,these parts of the work have been printed as footnotes1 so as to allow what was written on the front of the pages to form a continuous text4 ,a certain amount of repetition is unavoidable1 but much of what is written on the backs of the pages is of too much interest to be omitted4 ,some of the matter here given in footnotes may1 moreover1 have been intended as the final text and not as the preliminary sketch4 #bd ,life and ,letters1 i4 p4 #aec4 ,when a word cannot be deciphered1 it is replaced by3--illegible1 the angular brackets being1 as already explained1 a symbol for an insertion by the editor4 ,more commonly1 however1 the context makes the interpretation of a word reasonably sure although the word is not strictly legible4 ,such words are followed by an inserted mark of interrogation 84 ,lastly1 words inserted by the editor1 of which the appropriateness is doubtful1 are printed thus variation84 ,two kinds of erasure occur in the ,,ms4 of #ahdb4 ,one by vertical lines which seem to have been made when the #ce pp4 ,,ms4 was being expanded into that of #ahdd1 and merely imply that such a page is done with3 and secondly the ordinary erasures by horizontal lines4 ,i have not been quite consistent in regard to these3 ,i began with the intention of printing 7in square brackets7 all such erasures4 ,but ,i ultimately found that the confusion introduced into the already obscure sentences was greater than any possible gain2 and many such erasures are altogether omitted4 ,in the same way ,i have occasionally omitted hopelessly obscure and incomprehensible fragments1 which if printed would only have burthened the text with a string of illegibles and queried words4 ,nor have ,i printed the whole of what is written on the backs of the pages1 where it seemed to me that nothing but unnecessary repetition would have been the result4 ,in the matter of punctuation ,i have given myself a free hand4 ,i may no doubt have misinterpreted the author's meaning in so doing1 but without such punctuation1 the number of repellantly crabbed sentences would have been even greater than at present4 ,in dealing with the ,essay of #ahdd1 ,i have corrected some obvious slips without indicating such alterations1 because the ,,ms4 being legible1 there is no danger of changing the author's meaning4 ,the sections into which the ,essay of #ahdb is divided are in the original merely indicated by a gap in the ,,ms4 or by a line drawn across the page4 ,no titles are given except in the case of ,sec4 ,,viii42 and ,sec4 ,,ii4 is the only section which has a number in the original4 ,i might equally well have made sections of what are now subsections1 e4g4 ,natural ,selection p4 #g1 or ,extermination p4 #bh4 ,but since the present sketch is the germ of the ,essay of #ahdd1 it seemed best to preserve the identity between the two works1 by using such of the author's divisions as correspond to the chapters of the enlarged version of #ahdd4 ,the geological discussion with which ,part ,,ii begins corresponds to two chapters 7,,iv and ,v7 of the #ahdd ,essay4 ,i have therefore described it as ,sec4,sec4 ,,iv4 and ,v41 although ,i cannot make sure of its having originally consisted of two sections4 ,with this exception the ten sections of the ,essay of #ahdb correspond to the ten chapters of that of #ahdd4 ,the ,origin of ,species differs from the sketch of #ahdb in not being divided into two parts4 ,but the two volumes resemble each other in general structure4 ,both begin with a statement of what may be called the mechanism of evolution1--variation and selection3 in both the argument proceeds from the study of domestic organisms to that of animals and plants in a state of nature4 ,this is followed in both by a discussion of the ,difficulties on ,theory and this by a section ,instinct which in both cases is treated as a special case of difficulty4 ,if ,i had to divide the ,origin 7first edition7 into two parts without any knowledge of earlier ,,ms41 ,i should1 ,i think1 make ,part ,,ii begin with ,ch4 ,,vi1 ,difficulties on ,theory4 ,a possible reason why this part of the argument is given in ,part ,i of the ,essay of #ahdb may be found in the ,essay of #ahdd1 where it is clear that the chapter on instinct is placed in ,part ,i because the author thought it of importance to show that heredity and variation occur in mental attributes4 ,the whole question is perhaps an instance of the sort of difficulty which made the author give up the division of his argument into two ,parts when he wrote the ,origin4 ,as matters stand ,sec4,sec4 ,,iv4 and ,v4 of the #ahdb ,essay correspond to the geological chapters1 ,,ix and ,x1 in the ,origin4 ,from this point onwards the material is grouped in the same order in both works3 geographical distribution2 affinities and classification2 unity of type and morphology2 abortive or rudimentary organs2 recapitulation and conclusion4 ,in enlarging the ,essay of #ahdb into that of #ahdd1 the author retained the sections of the sketch as chapters in the completer presentment4 ,it follows that what has been said of the relation of the earlier ,essay to the ,origin is generally true of the #ahdd ,essay4 ,in the latter1 however1 the geological discussion is1 clearly instead of obscurely1 divided into two chapters1 which correspond roughly with ,chapters ,,ix and ,x of the ,origin4 ,but part of the contents of ,chapter ,x 7,origin7 occurs in ,chapter ,,vi 7#ahdd7 on ,geographical ,distribution4 ,the treatment of distribution is particularly full and interesting in the #ahdd ,essay1 but the arrangement of the material1 especially the introduction of ,sec4 ,,iii4 p4 #ahc1 leads to some repetition which is avoided in the ,origin4 ,it should be noted that ,hybridism1 which has a separate chapter 7,,viii7 in the ,origin1 is treated in ,chapter ,,ii of the ,essay4 ,finally that ,chapter ,,xiii 7,origin7 corresponds to ,chapters ,,vii1 ,,viii and ,,ix of the work of #ahdd4 ,the fact that in #ahdb1 seventeen years before the publication of the ,origin1 my father should have been able to write out so full an outline of his future work1 is very remarkable4 ,in his ,autobiography#be he writes of the #ahdd ,essay1 ,but at that time ,i overlooked one problem of great importance4444 ,this problem is the tendency in organic beings descended from the same stock to diverge in character as they become modified4 ,the absence of the principle of divergence is of course also a characteristic of the sketch of #ahdb4 ,but at p4 #cg1 the author is not far from this point of view4 ,the passage referred to is3 ,if any species1 ,a1 in changing gets an advantage and that advantage 444 is inherited1 ,a will be the progenitor of several genera or even families in the hard struggle of nature4 ,a will go on beating out other forms1 it might come that ,a would people the earth1--we may now not have one descendant on our globe of the one or several original creations#bf4 ,but if the descendants of ,a have peopled the earth by beating out other forms1 they must have diverged in occupying the innumerable diverse modes of life from which they expelled their predecessors4 ,what ,i wrote#bg on this subject in #ahhg is ,i think true3 ,descent with modification implies divergence1 and we become so habituated to a belief in descent1 and therefore in divergence1 that we do not notice the absence of proof that divergence is in itself an advantage4 #be ,life and ,letters1 i4 p4 #hd4 #bf ,in the footnotes to the ,essay of #ahdd attention is called to similar passages4 #bg ,life and ,letters1 ii4 p4 #ae4 ,the fact that there is no set discussion on the principle of divergence in the #ahdd ,essay1 makes it clear why the joint paper read before the ,linnean ,society on ,july #a1 #aheh1 included a letter#bh to ,asa ,gray1 as well as an extract#bi from the ,essay of #ahdd4 ,it is clearly because the letter to ,gray includes a discussion on divergence1 and was thus1 probably1 the only document1 including this subject1 which could be appropriately made use of4 ,it shows once more how great was the importance attached by its author to the principle of divergence4 #bh ,the passage is given in the ,life and ,letters1 ii4 p4 #abd4 #bi ,the extract consists of the section on ,natural ,means of ,selection1 p4 #hg4 ,i have spoken of the hurried and condensed manner in which the sketch of #ahdb is written2 the style of the later ,essay 7#ahdd7 is more finished4 ,it has1 however1 the air of an uncorrected ,,ms4 rather than of a book which has gone through the ordeal of proof sheets4 ,it has not all the force and conciseness of the ,origin1 but it has a certain freshness which gives it a character of its own4 ,it must be remembered that the ,origin was an abstract or condensation of a much bigger book1 whereas the ,essay of #ahdd was an expansion of the sketch of #ahdb4 ,it is not therefore surprising that in the ,origin there is occasionally evident a chafing against the author's self-imposed limitation4 ,whereas in the #ahdd ,essay there is an air of freedom1 as if the author were letting himself go1 rather than applying the curb4 ,this quality of freshness and the fact that some questions were more fully discussed in #ahdd than in #ahei1 makes the earlier work good reading even to those who are familiar with the ,origin4 ,the writing of this ,essay during the summer of #ahdd1 as stated in the ,autobiography#cj1 and from memory1 as ,darwin says elsewhere#ca1 was a remarkable achievement1 and possibly renders more conceivable the still greater feat of the writing of the ,origin between ,july #aheh and ,september #ahei4 #cj ,life and ,letters1 i4 p4 #hd4 #ca ,life and ,letters1 ii4 p4 #ah4 ,it is an interesting subject for speculation3 what influence on the world the ,essay of #ahdd would have exercised1 had it been published in place of the ,origin4 ,the author evidently thought of its publication in its present state as an undesirable expedient1 as appears clearly from the following extracts from the ,life and ,letters1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #af--ah3 ,c4 ,darwin to ,mrs ,darwin4 ,,down1 ,july #e1 #ahdd4 444 ,i have just finished my sketch of my species theory4 ,if1 as ,i believe1 my theory in time be accepted even by one competent judge1 it will be a considerable step in science4 ,i therefore write this in case of my sudden death1 as my most solemn and last request1 which ,i am sure you will consider the same as if legally entered in my will1 that you will devote ,l#djj to its publication1 and further will yourself1 or through ,hensleigh#cb1 take trouble in promoting it4 ,i wish that my sketch be given to some competent person1 with this sum to induce him to take trouble in its improvement and enlargement4 ,i give to him all my books on ,natural ,history1 which are either scored or have references at the end to the pages1 begging him carefully to look over and consider such passages as actually bearing1 or by possibility bearing1 on this subject4 ,i wish you to make a list of all such books as some temptation to an editor4 ,i also request that you will hand over to him all those scraps roughly divided into eight or ten brown paper portfolios4 ,the scraps1 with copied quotations from various works1 are those which may aid my editor4 ,i also request that you1 or some amanuensis1 will aid in deciphering any of the scraps which the editor may think possibly of use4 ,i leave to the editor's judgment whether to interpolate these facts in the text1 or as notes1 or under appendices4 ,as the looking over the references and scraps will be a long labour1 and as the correcting and enlarging and altering my sketch will also take considerable time1 ,i leave this sum of ,l#djj as some remuneration1 and any profits from the work4 ,i consider that for this the editor is bound to get the sketch published either at a publisher's or his own risk4 ,many of the scraps in the portfolios contain mere rude suggestions and early views1 now useless1 and many of the facts will probably turn out as having no bearing on my theory4 #cb ,mrs ,darwin's brother4 ,with respect to editors1 ,mr ,lyell would be the best if he would undertake it2 ,i believe he would find the work pleasant1 and he would learn some facts new to him4 ,as the editor must be a geologist as well as a naturalist1 the next best editor would be ,professor ,forbes of ,london4 ,the next best 7and quite best in many respects7 would be ,professor ,henslow4 ,dr ,hooker would be very good4 ,the next1 ,mr ,strickland#cc4 ,if none of these would undertake it1 ,i would request you to consult with ,mr ,lyell1 or some other capable man1 for some editor1 a geologist and naturalist4 ,should one other hundred pounds make the difference of procuring a good editor1 ,i request earnestly that you will raise ,l#ejj4 #cc ,after ,mr ,strickland's name comes the following sentence1 which has been erased1 but remains legible4 ,professor ,owen would be very good2 but ,i presume he would not undertake such a work4 ,my remaining collections in ,natural ,history may be given to any one or any museum where they would be accepted4444 ,the following note seems to have formed part of the original letter1 but may have been of later date3 ,lyell1 especially with the aid of ,hooker 7and of any good zoological aid71 would be best of all4 ,without an editor will pledge himself to give up time to it1 it would be of no use paying such a sum4 ,if there should be any difficulty in getting an editor who would go thoroughly into the subject1 and think of the bearing of the passages marked in the books and copied out of scraps of paper1 then let my sketch be published as it is1 stating that it was done several years ago#cd1 and from memory without consulting any works1 and with no intention of publication in its present form4 #cd ,the words several years ago1 and seem to have been added at a later date4 ,the idea that the sketch of #ahdd might remain1 in the event of his death1 as the only record of his work1 seems to have been long in his mind1 for in ,august1 #ahed1 when he had finished with the ,cirripedes1 and was thinking of beginning his species work1 he added on the back of the above letter1 ,hooker by far best man to edit my species volume4 ,august #ahed4 ,i have called attention in footnotes to many points in which the ,origin agrees with the ,foundations4 ,one of the most interesting is the final sentence1 practically the same in the ,essays of #ahdb and #ahdd1 and almost identical with the concluding words of the ,origin4 ,i have elsewhere pointed out#ce that the ancestry of this eloquent passage may be traced one stage further back1--to the ,note ,book of #ahcg4 ,i have given this sentence as an appropriate motto for the ,foundations in its character of a study of general laws4 ,it will be remembered that a corresponding motto from ,whewell's ,bridgewater ,treatise is printed opposite the title-page of the ,origin of ,species4 #ce ,life and ,letters1 ii4 p4 #i4 ,mr ,huxley who1 about the year #ahhg1 read the ,essay of #ahdd1 remarked that much more weight is attached to the influence of external conditions in producing variation and to the inheritance of acquired habits than in the ,origin4 ,in the ,foundations the effect of conditions is frequently mentioned1 and ,darwin seems to have had constantly in mind the need of referring each variation to a cause4 ,but ,i gain the impression that the slighter prominence given to this view in the ,origin was not due to change of opinion1 but rather because he had gradually come to take this view for granted2 so that in the scheme of that book1 it was overshadowed by considerations which then seemed to him more pressing4 ,with regard to the inheritance of acquired characters ,i am not inclined to agree with ,huxley4 ,it is certain that the ,foundations contains strong recognition of the importance of germinal variation1 that is of external conditions acting indirectly through the reproductive functions4 ,he evidently considered this as more important than the inheritance of habit or other acquired peculiarities4 ,another point of interest is the weight he attached in #ahdb-d to sports or what are now called mutations4 ,this is ,i think more prominent in the ,foundations than in the first edition of the ,origin1 and certainly than in the fifth and sixth editions4 ,among other interesting points may be mentioned the good effects of crossing being possibly analogous to good effects of change in condition1--a principle which he upheld on experimental grounds in his ,cross and ,self-,fertilisation in #ahgf4 ,in conclusion1 ,i desire to express my thanks to ,mr ,wallace for a footnote he was good enough to supply3 and to ,professor ,bateson1 ,sir ,w4 ,thiselton-,dyer1 ,dr ,gadow1 ,professor ,judd1 ,dr ,marr1 ,col4 ,prain and ,dr ,stapf for information on various points4 ,i am also indebted to ,mr ,rutherford1 of the ,university ,library1 for his careful copy of the manuscript of #ahdb4 ,,cambridge1 ,june #i1 #aiji4 ,,explanation ,,of ,,signs1 c4 ,means that the words so enclosed are erased in the original ,,ms4 ,indicates an insertion by the ,editor4 ,origin1 ,ed4 vi4 refers to the ,popular ,edition4 ,,part ,i4 ,sec4 ,i4 ,,on ,,variation ,,under ,,domestication1 ,,and ,,on ,,the ,,principles ,,of ,,selection4 ,an individual organism placed under new conditions often sometimes varies in a small degree and in very trifling respects such as stature1 fatness1 sometimes colour1 health1 habits in animals and probably disposition4 ,also habits of life develope certain parts4 ,disuse atrophies4 ,most of these slight variations tend to become hereditary4 ,when the individual is multiplied for long periods by buds the variation is yet small1 though greater and occasionally a single bud or individual departs widely from its type 7example7#cf and continues steadily to propagate1 by buds1 such new kind4 #cf ,evidently a memorandum that an example should be given4 ,when the organism is bred for several generations under new or varying conditions1 the variation is greater in amount and endless in kind especially#cg holds good when individuals have long been exposed to new conditions4 ,the nature of the external conditions tends to effect some definite change in all or greater part of offspring1--little food1 small size--certain foods harmless c4 c4 organs affected and diseases--extent unknown4 ,a certain degree of variation 7,mueller's twins7#ch seems inevitable effect of process of reproduction4 ,but more important is that simple 8 generation1 especially under new conditions when no crossing causes infinite variation and not direct effect of external conditions1 but only in as much as it affects the reproductive functions#ci4 ,there seems to be no part 7beau ideal of liver7#dj of body1 internal or external1 or mind or habits1 or instincts which does not vary in some small degree and often some 8 to a great amount4 #cg ,the importance of exposure to new conditions for several generations is insisted on in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #g1 also p4 #aca4 ,in the latter passage the author guards himself against the assumption that variations are due to chance1 and speaks of our ignorance of the cause of each particular variation4 ,these statements are not always remembered by his critics4 #ch ,cf4 ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #aj1 vi4 p4 #i1 ,young of the same litter1 sometimes differ considerably from each other1 though both the young and the parents1 as ,mueller has remarked1 have apparently been exposed to exactly the same conditions of life4 #ci ,this is paralleled by the conclusion in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #h1 that the most frequent cause of variability may be attributed to the male and female reproductive elements having been affected prior to the act of conception4 #dj ,the meaning seems to be that there must be some variability in the liver otherwise anatomists would not speak of the 'beau ideal' of that organ4 ,all such variations being congenital or those very slowly acquired of all kinds decidedly evince a tendency to become hereditary1 when not so become simple variety1 when it does a race4 ,each#da parent transmits its peculiarities1 therefore if varieties allowed freely to cross1 except by the chance of two characterized by same peculiarity happening to marry1 such varieties will be constantly demolished#db4 ,all bisexual animals must cross1 hermaphrodite plants do cross1 it seems very possible that hermaphrodite animals do cross1--conclusion strengthened3 ill effects of breeding in and in1 good effects of crossing possibly analogous to good effects of change in condition 8#dc4 #da ,the position of the following passage is uncertain4 ,if individuals of two widely different varieties be allowed to cross1 a third race will be formed--a most fertile source of the variation in domesticated animals4 ,in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #bj the author says that the possibility of making distinct races by crossing has been greatly exaggerated4 ,if freely allowed1 the characters of pure parents will be lost1 number of races thus illegible but differences 8 besides the illegible4 ,but if varieties differing in very slight respects be allowed to cross1 such small variation will be destroyed1 at least to our senses1--a variation clearly just to be distinguished by long legs will have offspring not to be so distinguished4 ,free crossing great agent in producing uniformity in any breed4 ,introduce tendency to revert to parent form4 #db ,the swamping effect of intercrossing is referred to in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #ajc1 vi4 p4 #abf4 #dc ,a discussion on the intercrossing of hermaphrodites in relation to ,knight's views occurs in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #if1 vi4 p4 #aai4 ,the parallelism between crossing and changed conditions is briefly given in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #bfg1 vi4 p4 #cia1 and was finally investigated in ,the ,effects of ,cross and ,self-,fertilisation in the ,vegetable ,kingdom1 #ahgf4 ,therefore if in any country or district all animals of one species be allowed freely to cross1 any small tendency in them to vary will be constantly counteracted4 ,secondly reversion to parent form--analogue of vis medicatrix#dd4 ,but if man selects1 then new races rapidly formed1--of late years systematically followed1--in most ancient times often practically followed#de4 ,by such selection make race-horse1 dray-horse--one cow good for tallow1 another for eating c4--one plant's good lay illegible in leaves another in fruit c4 c43 the same plant to supply his wants at different times of year4 ,by former means animals become adapted1 as a direct effect to a cause1 to external conditions1 as size of body to amount of food4 ,by this latter means they may also be so adapted1 but further they may be adapted to ends and pursuits1 which by no possibility can affect growth1 as existence of tallow-chandler cannot tend to make fat4 ,in such selected races1 if not removed to new conditions1 and if preserved from all cross1 after several generations become very true1 like each other and not varying4 ,but man#df selects only 8 what is useful and curious--has bad judgment1 is capricious1--grudges to destroy those that do not come up to his pattern1--has no knowledge power of selecting according to internal variations1--can hardly keep his conditions uniform1--cannot does not select those best adapted to the conditions under which the form 8 lives1 but those most useful to him4 ,this might all be otherwise4 #dd ,there is an article on the vis medicatrix in ,brougham's ,dissertations1 #ahci1 a copy of which is in the author's library4 #de ,this is the classification of selection into methodical and unconscious given in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #cc1 vi4 p4 #ch4 #df ,this passage1 and a similar discussion on the power of the ,creator 7p4 #f71 correspond to the comparison between the selective capacities of man and nature1 in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #hc1 vi4 p4 #ajb4 ,sec4 ,,ii4 ,,on ,,variation ,,in ,a ,,state ,,of ,,nature ,,and ,,on ,,the ,,natural ,,means ,,of ,,selection4 ,let us see how far above principles of variation apply to wild animals4 ,wild animals vary exceedingly little--yet they are known as individuals#dg4 ,british ,plants1 in many genera number quite uncertain of varieties and species3 in shells chiefly external conditions#dh4 ,primrose and cowslip4 ,wild animals from different countries can be recognized4 ,specific character gives some organs as varying4 ,variations analogous in kind1 but less in degree with domesticated animals--chiefly external and less important parts4 #dg i4e4 they are individually distinguishable4 #dh ,see ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #acc1 vi4 p4 #afe4 ,our experience would lead us to expect that any and every one of these organisms would vary if the organism were taken away 8 and placed under new conditions4 ,geology proclaims a constant round of change1 bringing into play1 by every possible 8 change of climate and the death of pre-existing inhabitants1 endless variations of new conditions4 ,these 8 generally very slow1 doubtful though illegible how far the slowness 8 would produce tendency to vary4 ,but ,geologists show change in configuration which1 together with the accidents of air and water and the means of transportal which every being possesses1 must occasionally bring1 rather suddenly1 organism to new conditions and 8 expose it for several generations4 ,hence 8 we should expect every now and then a wild form to vary#di2 possibly this may be cause of some species varying more than others4 #di ,when the author wrote this sketch he seems not to have been so fully convinced of the general occurrence of variation in nature as he afterwards became4 ,the above passage in the text possibly suggests that at this time he laid more stress on sports or mutations than was afterwards the case4 ,according to nature of new conditions1 so we might expect all or majority of organisms born under them to vary in some definite way4 ,further we might expect that the mould in which they are cast would likewise vary in some small degree4 ,but is there any means of selecting those offspring which vary in the same manner1 crossing them and keeping their offspring separate and thus producing selected races3 otherwise as the wild animals freely cross1 so must such small heterogeneous varieties be constantly counter-balanced and lost1 and a uniformity of character kept up preserved4 ,the former variation as the direct and necessary effects of causes1 which we can see can act on them1 as size of body from amount of food1 effect of certain kinds of food on certain parts of bodies c4 c42 such new varieties may then become adapted to those external natural agencies which act on them4 ,but can varieties be produced adapted to end1 which cannot possibly influence their structure and which it is absurd to look at as effects of chance4 ,can varieties like some vars of domesticated animals1 like almost all wild species be produced adapted by exquisite means to prey on one animal or to escape from another1--or rather1 as it puts out of question effects of intelligence and habits1 can a plant become adapted to animals1 as a plant which cannot be impregnated without agency of insect2 or hooked seeds depending on animal's existence3 woolly animals cannot have any direct effect on seeds of plant4 ,this point which all theories about climate adapting woodpecker#ej to crawl 8 up trees1 illegible miseltoe1 sentence incomplete4 ,but if every part of a plant or animal was to vary illegible1 and if a being infinitely more sagacious than man 7not an omniscient creator7 during thousands and thousands of years were to select all the variations which tended towards certain ends 7or were to produce causes 8 which tended to the same end71 for instance1 if he foresaw a canine animal would be better off1 owing to the country producing more hares1 if he were longer legged and keener sight1--greyhound produced#ea4 ,if he saw that aquatic animal would need skinned toes4 ,if for some unknown cause he found it would advantage a plant1 which 8 like most plants is occasionally visited by bees c43 if that plant's seed were occasionally eaten by birds and were then carried on to rotten trees1 he might select trees with fruit more agreeable to such birds as perched1 to ensure their being carried to trees2 if he perceived those birds more often dropped the seeds1 he might well have selected a bird who would illegible rotten trees or gradually select plants which he had proved to live on less and less rotten trees4 ,who1 seeing how plants vary in garden1 what blind foolish man has done#eb in a few years1 will deny an all-seeing being in thousands of years could effect 7if the ,creator chose to do so71 either by his own direct foresight or by intermediate means1--which will represent 8 the creator of this universe4 ,seems usual means4 ,be it remembered ,i have nothing to say about life and mind and all forms descending from one common type#ec4 ,i speak of the variation of the existing great divisions of the organised kingdom1 how far ,i would go1 hereafter to be seen4 #ej ,the author may possibly have taken the case of the woodpecker from ,buffon1 ,histoire ,nat4 des ,oiseaux1 ,t4 vii4 p4 #c1 #aghj1 where however it is treated from a different point of view4 ,he uses it more than once1 see for instance ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 pp4 #c1 #fj1 #ahd1 vi4 pp4 #c1 #gf1 #bbj4 ,the passage in the text corresponds with a discussion on the woodpecker and the mistletoe in ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #c1 vi4 p4 #c4 #ea ,this illustration occurs in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 pp4 #ij1 #ia1 vi4 pp4 #aaj1 #aaa4 #eb ,see ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #hc1 vi4 p4 #ajb1 where the word ,creator is replaced by ,nature4 #ec ,note in the original4 ,good place to introduce1 saying reasons hereafter to be given1 how far ,i extend theory1 say to all mammalia--reasons growing weaker and weaker4 ,before considering whether there be any natural means of selection1 and secondly 7which forms the #bnd ,part of this sketch7 the far more important point whether the characters and relations of animated things are such as favour the idea of wild species being races 8 descended from a common stock1 as the varieties of potato or dahlia or cattle having so descended1 let us consider probable character of selected races wild varieties4 ,natural ,selection4 ,de ,candolle's war of nature1--seeing contented face of nature1--may be well at first doubted2 we see it on borders of perpetual cold#ed4 ,but considering the enormous geometrical power of increase in every organism and as 8 every country1 in ordinary cases countries must be stocked to full extent1 reflection will show that this is the case4 ,malthus on man1--in animals no moral check restraint 8--they breed in time of year when provision most abundant1 or season most favourable1 every country has its seasons1--calculate robins1--oscillating from years of destruction#ee4 ,if proof were wanted let any singular change of climate occur here 81 how astoundingly some tribes 8 increase1 also introduced animals#ef1 the pressure is always ready1--capacity of alpine plants to endure other climates1--think of endless seeds scattered abroad1--forests regaining their percentage#eg1--;a thousand wedges#eh are being forced into the oeconomy of nature4 ,this requires much reflection2 study ,malthus and calculate rates of increase and remember the resistance1--only periodical4 #ed ,see ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 pp4 #fb1 #fc1 vi4 p4 #gg1 where similar reference is made to ,de ,candolle2 for ,malthus see ,origin1 p4 #e4 #ee ,this may possibly refer to the amount of destruction going on4 ,see ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #fh1 vi4 p4 #hd1 where there is an estimate of a later date as to death-rate of birds in winter4 ,calculate robins probably refers to a calculation of the rate of increase of birds under favourable conditions4 #ef ,in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 pp4 #fd1 #fe1 vi4 p4 #hj1 he instances cattle and horses and certain plants in ,s4 ,america and ,american species of plants in ,india1 and further on1 as unexpected effects of changed conditions1 the enclosure of a heath1 and the relation between the fertilisation of clover and the presence of cats 7,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #gd1 vi4 p4 #ia74 #eg ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #gd1 vi4 p4 #ia4 ,it has been observed that the trees now growing on 444 ancient ,indian mounds 444 display the same beautiful diversity and proportion of kinds as in the surrounding virgin forests4 #eh ,the simile of the wedge occurs in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #fg2 it is deleted in ,darwin's copy of the first edition3 it does not occur in ,ed4 vi4 ,the unavoidable effect of this is that many of every species are destroyed either in egg or young or mature 7the former state the more common74 ,in the course of a thousand generations infinitesimally small differences must inevitably tell#ei2 when unusually cold winter1 or hot or dry summer comes1 then out of the whole body of individuals of any species1 if there be the smallest differences in their structure1 habits1 instincts senses1 health c1 it will on an average tell2 as conditions change a rather larger proportion will be preserved3 so if the chief check to increase falls on seeds or eggs1 so will1 in the course of #ajjj generations or ten thousand1 those seeds 7like one with down to fly#fj7 which fly furthest and get scattered most ultimately rear most plants1 and such small differences tend to be hereditary like shades of expression in human countenance4 ,so if one parent 8 fish deposits its egg in infinitesimally different circumstances1 as in rather shallower or deeper water c41 it will then 8 tell4 #ei ,in a rough summary at the close of the ,essay1 occur the words3--,every creature lives by a struggle1 smallest grain in balance must tell4 #fj ,cf4 ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #gg1 vi4 p4 #id4 ,let hares#fa increase very slowly from change of climate affecting peculiar plants1 and some other illegible rabbit decrease in same proportion let this unsettle organisation of1 a canine animal1 who formerly derived its chief sustenance by springing on rabbits or running them by scent1 must decrease too and might thus readily become exterminated4 ,but if its form varied very slightly1 the long legged fleet ones1 during a thousand years being selected1 and the less fleet rigidly destroyed must1 if no law of nature be opposed to it1 alter forms4 #fa ,this is a repetition of what is given at p4 #f4 ,remember how soon ,bakewell on the same principle altered cattle and ,western1 sheep1--carefully avoiding a cross 7pigeons7 with any breed4 ,we cannot suppose that one plant tends to vary in fruit and another in flower1 and another in flower and foliage1--some have been selected for both fruit and flower3 that one animal varies in its covering and another not1--another in its milk4 ,take any organism and ask what is it useful for and on that point it will be found to vary1--cabbages in their leaf1--corn in size and quality of grain1 both in times of year1--kidney beans for young pod and cotton for envelope of seeds c4 c43 dogs in intellect1 courage1 fleetness and smell 83 pigeons in peculiarities approaching to monsters4 ,this requires consideration1--should be introduced in first chapter if it holds1 ,i believe it does4 ,it is hypothetical at best#fb4 #fb ,compare ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #da1 vi4 p4 #dg4 ,i have seen it gravely remarked1 that it was most fortunate that the strawberry began to vary just when gardeners began to attend closely to this plant4 ,no doubt the strawberry had always varied since it was cultivated1 but the slight varieties had been neglected4 ,nature's variation far less1 but such selection far more rigid and scrutinising4 ,man's races not even so well only not better adapted to conditions than other races1 but often not 8 one race adapted to its conditions1 as man keeps and propagates some alpine plants in garden4 ,nature lets an animal live1 till on actual proof it is found less able to do the required work to serve the desired end1 man judges solely by his eye1 and knows not whether nerves1 muscles1 arteries1 are developed in proportion to the change of external form4 ,besides selection by death1 in bisexual animals illegible the selection in time of fullest vigour1 namely struggle of males2 even in animals which pair there seems a surplus 8 and a battle1 possibly as in man more males produced than females1 struggle of war or charms#fc4 ,hence that male which at that time is in fullest vigour1 or best armed with arms or ornaments of its species1 will gain in hundreds of generations some small advantage and transmit such characters to its offspring4 ,so in female rearing its young1 the most vigorous and skilful and industrious1 whose instincts are best developed1 will rear more young1 probably possessing her good qualities1 and a greater number will thus be prepared for the struggle of nature4 ,compared to man using a male alone of good breed4 ,this latter section only of limited application1 applies to variation of specific sexual characters4 ,introduce here contrast with ,lamarck1--absurdity of habit1 or chance88 or external conditions1 making a woodpecker adapted to tree#fd4 #fc ,here we have the two types of sexual selection discussed in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 pp4 #hh et seq41 vi4 pp4 #ajh et seq4 #fd ,it is not obvious why the author objects to chance or external conditions making a woodpecker4 ,he allows that variation is ultimately referable to conditions and that the nature of the connexion is unknown1 i4e4 that the result is fortuitous4 ,it is not clear in the original to how much of the passage the two 8 refer4 ,before considering difficulties of theory of selection let us consider character of the races produced1 as now explained1 by nature4 ,conditions have varied slowly and the organisms best adapted in their whole course of life to the changed conditions have always been selected1--man selects small dog and afterwards gives it profusion of food1--selects a long-backed and short-legged breed and gives it no particular exercise to suit this function c4 c4 ,in ordinary cases nature has not allowed her race to be contaminated with a cross of another race1 and agriculturists know how difficult they find always to prevent this1--effect would be trueness4 ,this character and sterility when crossed1 and generally a greater amount of difference1 are two main features1 which distinguish domestic races from species4 ,sterility not universal admitted by all#fe4 ,gladiolus1 ,crinum1 ,calceolaria#ff must be species if there be such a thing4 ,races of dogs and oxen3 but certainly very general2 indeed a gradation of sterility most perfect#fg very general4 ,some nearest species will not cross 7crocus1 some heath 871 some genera cross readily 7fowls#fh and grouse1 peacock c474 ,hybrids no ways monstrous quite perfect except secretions#fi hence even the mule has bred1--character of sterility1 especially a few years ago 8 thought very much more universal than it now is1 has been thought the distinguishing character2 indeed it is obvious if all forms freely crossed1 nature would be a chaos4 ,but the very gradation of the character1 even if it always existed in some degree which it does not1 renders it impossible as marks 8 those 8 suppose distinct as species#gj4 ,will analogy throw any light on the fact of the supposed races of nature being sterile1 though none of the domestic ones are8 ,mr ,herbert and ,koelreuter have shown external differences will not guide one in knowing whether hybrids will be fertile or not1 but the chief circumstance is constitutional differences#ga1 such as being adapted to different climate or soil1 differences which must probably affect the whole body of the organism and not any one part4 ,now wild animals1 taken out of their natural conditions1 seldom breed4 ,i do not refer to shows or to ,zoological ,societies where many animals unite1 but do not8 breed1 and others will never unite1 but to wild animals caught and kept quite tame left loose and well fed about houses and living many years4 ,hybrids produced almost as readily as pure breds4 ,st ,hilaire great distinction of tame and domestic1--elephants1--ferrets#gb4 ,reproductive organs not subject to disease in ,zoological ,garden4 ,dissection and microscope show that hybrid is in exactly same condition as another animal in the intervals of breeding season1 or those animals which taken wild and not bred in domesticity1 remain without breeding their whole lives4 ,it should be observed that so far from domesticity being unfavourable in itself it makes more fertile3 when animal is domesticated and breeds1 productive power increased from more food and selection of fertile races4 ,as far as animals go might be thought an effect on their mind and a special case4 #fe ,the meaning is ,that sterility is not universal is admitted by all4 #ff ,see ,var4 under ,dom41 ,ed4 #b1 i4 p4 #chh1 where the garden forms of ,gladiolus and ,calceolaria are said to be derived from crosses between distinct species4 ,herbert's hybrid ,crinums are discussed in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #bej1 vi4 p4 #cgj4 ,it is well known that the author believed in a multiple origin of domestic dogs4 #fg ,the argument from gradation in sterility is given in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 pp4 #bdh1 #bee1 vi4 pp4 #cfh1 #cge4 ,in the ,origin1 ,i have not come across the cases mentioned1 viz4 crocus1 heath1 or grouse and fowl or peacock4 ,for sterility between closely allied species1 see ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #beg1 vi4 p4 #cgg4 ,in the present essay the author does not distinguish between fertility between species and the fertility of the hybrid offspring1 a point on which he insists in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #bde1 vi4 p4 #cfe4 #fh ,ackermann 7,ber4 d4 ,vereins f4 ,naturkunde zu ,kassel1 #ahih1 p4 #bc7 quotes from ,gloger that a cross has been effected between a domestic hen and a ,tetrao tetrix2 the offspring died when three days old4 #fi ,no doubt the sexual cells are meant4 ,i do not know on what evidence it is stated that the mule has bred4 #gj ,the sentence is all but illegible4 ,i think that the author refers to forms usually ranked as varieties having been marked as species when it was found that they were sterile together4 ,see the case of the red and blue ,anagallis given from ,gaertner in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #bdg1 vi4 p4 #cfh4 #ga ,in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #beh1 where the author speaks of constitutional differences in this connexion1 he specifies that they are confined to the reproductive system4 #gb ,the sensitiveness of the reproductive system to changed conditions is insisted on in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #h1 vi4 p4 #aj4 ,the ferret is mentioned1 as being prolific in captivity1 in ,var4 under ,dom41 ,ed4 #b1 ii4 p4 #ij4 ,but turning to plants we find same class of facts4 ,i do not refer to seeds not ripening1 perhaps the commonest cause1 but to plants not setting1 which either is owing to some imperfection of ovule or pollen4 ,lindley says sterility is the curse bane of all propagators1--,linnaeus about alpine plants4 ,american bog plants1--pollen in exactly same state as in hybrids1--same in geraniums4 ,persian and ,chinese#gc lilac will not seed in ,italy and ,england4 ,probably double plants and all fruits owe their developed parts primarily 8 to sterility and extra food thus 8 applied#gd4 ,there is here gradation in sterility and then parts1 like diseases1 are transmitted hereditarily4 ,we cannot assign any cause why the ,pontic ,azalea produces plenty of pollen and not ,american#ge1 why common lilac seeds and not ,persian1 we see no difference in healthiness4 ,we know not on what circumstances these facts depend1 why ferret breeds1 and cheetah#gf1 elephant and pig in ,india will not4 #gc ,lindley's remark is quoted in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #i4 ,linnaeus' remark is to the effect that ,alpine plants tend to be sterile under cultivation 7see ,var4 under ,dom41 ,ed4 #b1 ii4 p4 #adg74 ,in the same place the author speaks of peat-loving plants being sterile in our gardens1--no doubt the ,american bog-plants referred to above4 ,on the following page 7p4 #adh7 the sterility of the lilac 7,syringa persica and chinensis7 is referred to4 #gd ,the author probably means that the increase in the petals is due to a greater food supply being available for them owing to sterility4 ,see the discussion in ,var4 under ,dom41 ,ed4 #b1 ii4 p4 #aea4 ,it must be noted that doubleness of the flower may exist without noticeable sterility4 #ge ,i have not come across this case in the author's works4 #gf ,for the somewhat doubtful case of the cheetah 7,felis jubata7 see ,var4 under ,dom41 ,ed4 #b1 ii4 p4 #acc4 ,i do not know to what fact pig in ,india refers4 ,now in crossing it is certain every peculiarity in form and constitution is transmitted3 an alpine plant transmits its alpine tendency to its offspring1 an ,american plant its ,american-bog constitution1 and with animals1 those peculiarities1 on which#gg when placed out of their natural conditions they are incapable of breeding2 and moreover they transmit every part of their constitution1 their respiration1 their pulse1 their instinct1 which are all suddenly modified1 can it be wondered at that they are incapable of breeding8 ,i think it may be truly said it would be more wonderful if they did4 ,but it may be asked why have not the recognised varieties1 supposed to have been produced through the means of man1 not refused to breed have all bred#gh4 ,variation depends on change of condition and selection#gi1 as far as man's systematic or unsystematic selection has gone2 he takes external form1 has little power from ignorance over internal invisible constitutional differences4 ,races which have long been domesticated1 and have much varied1 are precisely those which were capable of bearing great changes1 whose constitutions were adapted to a diversity of climates4 ,nature changes slowly and by degrees4 ,according to many authors probably breeds of dogs are another case of modified species freely crossing4 ,there is no variety which illegible has been illegible adapted to peculiar soil or situation for a thousand years and another rigorously adapted to another1 till such can be produced1 the question is not tried#hj4 ,man in past ages1 could transport into different climates1 animals and plants which would freely propagate in such new climates4 ,nature could effect1 with selection1 such changes slowly1 so that precisely those animals which are adapted to submit to great changes have given rise to diverse races1--and indeed great doubt on this head#ha4 #gg ,this sentence should run on which depends their incapacity to breed in unnatural conditions4 #gh ,this sentence ends in confusion3 it should clearly close with the words refused to breed in place of the bracket and the present concluding phrase4 #gi ,the author doubtless refers to the change produced by the summation of variation by means of selection4 #hj ,the meaning of this sentence is made clear by a passage in the ,,ms4 of #ahdd3--,until man selects two varieties from the same stock1 adapted to two climates or to other different external conditions1 and confines each rigidly for one or several thousand years to such conditions1 always selecting the individuals best adapted to them1 he cannot be said to have even commenced the experiment4 ,that is1 the attempt to produce mutually sterile domestic breeds4 #ha ,this passage is to some extent a repetition of a previous one and may have been intended to replace an earlier sentence4 ,i have thought it best to give both4 ,in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #ada1 vi4 p4 #agf1 the author gives his opinion that the power of resisting diverse conditions1 seen in man and his domestic animals1 is an example of a very common flexibility of constitution4 ,before leaving this subject well to observe that it was shown that a certain amount of variation is consequent on mere act of reproduction1 both by buds and sexually1--is vastly increased when parents exposed for some generations to new conditions#hb1 and we now find that many animals when exposed for first time to very new conditions1 are as incapable of breeding as hybrids4 ,it probably bears also on supposed fact of crossed animals when not infertile1 as in mongrels1 tending to vary much1 as likewise seems to be the case1 when true hybrids possess just sufficient fertility to propagate with the parent breeds and inter se for some generations4 ,this is ,koelreuter's belief4 ,these facts throw light on each other and support the truth of each other1 we see throughout a connection between the reproductive faculties and exposure to changed conditions of life whether by crossing or exposure of the individuals#hc4 #hb ,in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 ,chs4 ,i4 and ,v41 the author does not admit reproduction1 apart from environment1 as being a cause of variation4 ,with regard to the cumulative effect of new conditions there are many passages in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 e4g4 pp4 #g1 #ab1 vi4 pp4 #h1 #ad4 #hc ,as already pointed out1 this is the important principle investigated in the author's ,cross and ,self-,fertilisation4 ,professor ,bateson has suggested to me that the experiments should be repeated with gametically pure individuals4 ,difficulties on theory of selection#hd4 ,it may be objected such perfect organs as eye and ear1 could never be formed1 in latter less difficulty as gradations more perfect2 at first appears monstrous and to the end appears difficulty4 ,but think of gradation1 even now manifest1 7,tibia and ,fibula74 ,everyone will allow if every fossil preserved1 gradation infinitely more perfect2 for possibility of selection a perfect 8 gradation is required4 ,different groups of structure1 slight gradation in each group1--every analogy renders it probable that intermediate forms have existed4 ,be it remembered what strange metamorphoses2 part of eye1 not directly connected with vision1 might come to be thus used gradually worked in for this end1--swimming bladder by gradation of structure is admitted to belong to the ear system1--rattlesnake4 ,woodpecker best adapted to climb4 ,in some cases gradation not possible1--as vertebrae1--actually vary in domestic animals1--less difficult if growth followed4 ,looking to whole animals1 a bat formed not for flight#he4 ,suppose we had flying fish#hf and not one of our now called flying fish preserved1 who would have guessed intermediate habits4 ,woodpeckers and tree-frogs both live in countries where no trees#hg4 #hd ,in the ,origin a chapter is given up to difficulties on theory3 the discussion in the present essay seems slight even when it is remembered how small a space is here available4 ,for ,tibia c4 see p4 #dh4 #he ,this may be interpreted ,the general structure of a bat is the same as that of non-flying mammals4 #hf ,that is truly winged fish4 #hg ,the terrestrial woodpecker of ,s4 ,america formed the subject of a paper by ,darwin1 ,proc4 ,zool4 ,soc41 #ahgj4 ,see ,life and ,letters1 vol4 iii4 p4 #aec4 ,the gradations by which each individual organ has arrived at its present state1 and each individual animal with its aggregate of organs has arrived1 probably never could be known1 and all present great difficulties4 ,i merely wish to show that the proposition is not so monstrous as it at first appears1 and that if good reason can be advanced for believing the species have descended from common parents1 the difficulty of imagining intermediate forms of structure not sufficient to make one at once reject the theory4 ,sec4 ,,iii4 ,,on ,,variation ,,in ,,instincts ,,and ,,other ,,mental ,,attributes4 ,the mental powers of different animals in wild and tame state present still greater difficulties require a separate section4 ,be it remembered ,i have nothing to do with origin of memory1 attention1 and the different faculties of the mind#hh1 but merely with their differences in each of the great divisions of nature4 ,disposition1 courage1 pertinacity 81 suspicion1 restlessness1 ill-temper1 sagacity and the reverse unquestionably vary in animals and are inherited 7,cuba wildness dogs1 rabbits1 fear against particular object as man ,galapagos#hi74 ,habits purely corporeal1 breeding season c41 time of going to rest c41 vary and are hereditary1 like the analogous habits of plants which vary and are inherited4 ,habits of body1 as manner of movement do4 and do4 ,habits1 as pointing and setting on certain occasions do4 ,taste for hunting certain objects and manner of doing so1--sheep-dog4 ,these are shown clearly by crossing and their analogy with true instinct thus shown1--retriever4 ,do not know objects for which they do it4 ,lord ,brougham's definition#ij4 ,origin partly habit1 but the amount necessarily unknown1 partly selection4 ,young pointers pointing stones and sheep--tumbling pigeons--sheep#ia going back to place where born4 ,instinct aided by reason1 as in the taylor-bird#ib4 ,taught by parents1 cows choosing food1 birds singing4 ,instincts vary in wild state 7birds get wilder7 often lost#ic2 more perfect1--nest without roof4 ,these facts only clear way show how incomprehensibly brain has power of transmitting intellectual operations4 #hh ,the same proviso occurs in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #bjg1 vi4 p4 #cai4 #hi ,the tameness of the birds in the ,galapagos is described in the ,journal of ,researches 7#ahfj71 p4 #cih4 ,dogs and rabbits are probably mentioned as cases in which the hereditary fear of man has been lost4 ,in the #ahdd ,,ms4 the author states that the ,cuban feral dog shows great natural wildness1 even when caught quite young4 #ij ,in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #bjg1 vi4 p4 #cai1 he refuses to define instinct4 ,for ,lord ,brougham's definition see his ,dissertations on ,subjects of ,science etc41 #ahci1 p4 #bg4 #ia ,see ,james ,hogg 7the ,ettrick ,shepherd71 ,works1 #ahfe1 ,tales and ,sketches1 p4 #djc4 #ib ,this refers to the tailor-bird making use of manufactured thread supplied to it1 instead of thread twisted by itself4 #ic ,often lost applies to instinct3 birds get wilder is printed in a parenthesis because it was apparently added as an after-thought4 ,nest without roof refers to the water-ousel omitting to vault its nest when building in a protected situation4 ,faculties#id distinct from true instincts1--finding way4 ,it must ,i think be admitted that habits whether congenital or acquired by practice sometimes often become inherited#ie2 instincts1 influence1 equally with structure1 the preservation of animals2 therefore selection must1 with changing conditions tend to modify the inherited habits of animals4 ,if this be admitted it will be found possible that many of the strangest instincts may be thus acquired4 ,i may observe1 without attempting definition1 that an inherited habit or trick 7trick because may be born7 fulfils closely what we mean by instinct4 ,a habit is often performed unconsciously1 the strangest habits become associated1 do4 tricks1 going in certain spots c4 c41 even against will1 is excited by external agencies1 and looks not to the end1--a person playing a pianoforte4 ,if such a habit were transmitted it would make a marvellous instinct4 ,let us consider some of the most difficult cases of instincts1 whether they could be possibly acquired4 ,i do not say probably1 for that belongs to our #crd ,part#if1 ,i beg this may be remembered1 nor do ,i mean to attempt to show exact method4 ,i want only to show that whole theory ought not at once to be rejected on this score4 #id ,in the ,,ms4 of #ahdd is an interesting discussion on faculty as distinct from instinct4 #ie ,at this date and for long afterwards the inheritance of acquired characters was assumed to occur4 #if ,part ,,ii4 is here intended3 see the ,introduction4 ,every instinct must1 by my theory1 have been acquired gradually by slight changes illegible of former instinct1 each change being useful to its then species4 ,shamming death struck me at first as remarkable objection4 ,i found none really sham death#ig1 and that there is gradation2 now no one doubts that those insects which do it either more or less1 do it for some good1 if then any species was led to do it more1 and then 8 escaped c4 c4 #ig ,the meaning is that the attitude assumed in shamming is not accurately like that of death4 ,take migratory instincts1 faculty distinct from instinct1 animals have notion of time1--like savages4 ,ordinary finding way by memory1 but how does savage find way across country1--as incomprehensible to us1 as animal to them1--geological changes1--fishes in river1--case of sheep in ,spain#ih4 ,architectural instincts1--a manufacturer's employee in making single articles extraordinary skill1--often said seem to make it almost illegible1 child born with such a notion of playing#ii1--we can fancy tailoring acquired in same perfection1--mixture of reason1--water-ouzel1--taylor-bird1--gra dation of simple nest to most complicated4 #ih ,this refers to the transandantes sheep mentioned in the ,,ms4 of #ahdd1 as having acquired a migratory instinct4 #ii ,in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #bji1 vi4 p4 #cba1 ,mozart's pseudo-instinctive skill in piano-playing is mentioned4 ,see ,phil4 ,trans41 #aggj1 p4 #ed4 ,bees again1 distinction of faculty1--how they make a hexagon1--,waterhouse's theory#ajj1--the impulse to use whatever faculty they possess1--the taylor-bird has the faculty of sewing with beak1 instinct impels him to do it4 #ajj ,in the discussion on bees' cells1 ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #bbe1 vi4 p4 #cdc1 the author acknowledges that his theory originated in ,waterhouse's observations4 ,last case of parent feeding young with different food 7take case of ,galapagos birds1 gradation from ,hawfinch to ,sylvia7 selection and habit might lead old birds to vary taste 8 and form1 leaving their instinct of feeding their young with same food#aja1--or ,i see no difficulty in parents being forced or induced to vary the food brought1 and selection adapting the young ones to it1 and thus by degree any amount of diversity might be arrived at4 ,although we can never hope to see the course revealed by which different instincts have been acquired1 for we have only present animals 7not well known7 to judge of the course of gradation1 yet once grant the principle of habits1 whether congenital or acquired by experience1 being inherited and ,i can see no limit to the amount of variation extraordinariness 8 of the habits thus acquired4 #aja ,the hawfinch-and ,sylvia-types are figured in the ,journal of ,researches1 p4 #cgi4 ,the discussion of change of form in relation to change of instinct is not clear1 and ,i find it impossible to suggest a paraphrase4 ,summing up this ,division4 ,if variation be admitted to occur occasionally in some wild animals1 and how can we doubt it1 when we see all thousands of organisms1 for whatever use taken by man1 do vary4 ,if we admit such variations tend to be hereditary1 and how can we doubt it when we remember resemblances of features and character1--disease and monstrosities inherited and endless races produced 7#abjj cabbages74 ,if we admit selection is steadily at work1 and who will doubt it1 when he considers amount of food on an average fixed and reproductive powers act in geometrical ratio4 ,if we admit that external conditions vary1 as all geology proclaims1 they have done and are now doing1--then1 if no law of nature be opposed1 there must occasionally be formed races1 slightly differing from the parent races4 ,so then any such law#ajb1 none is known1 but in all works it is assumed1 in 8 flat contradiction to all known facts1 that the amount of possible variation is soon acquired4 ,are not all the most varied species1 the oldest domesticated3 who would think that horses or corn could be produced8 ,take dahlia and potato1 who will pretend in #ejjj years#ajc that great changes might not be effected3 perfectly adapted to conditions and then again brought into varying conditions4 ,think what has been done in few last years1 look at pigeons1 and cattle4 ,with the amount of food man can produce he may have arrived at limit of fatness or size1 or thickness of wool 81 but these are the most trivial points1 but even in these ,i conclude it is impossible to say we know the limit of variation4 ,and therefore with the adapting selecting power of nature1 infinitely wise compared to those of man1 ,i conclude that it is impossible to say we know the limit of races1 which would be true to their kind2 if of different constitutions would probably be infertile one with another1 and which might be adapted in the most singular and admirable manner1 according to their wants1 to external nature and to other surrounding organisms1--such races would be species4 ,but is there any evidence that species have been thus produced1 this is a question wholly independent of all previous points1 and which on examination of the kingdom of nature we ought to answer one way or another4 #ajb ,i should interpret this obscure sentence as follows1 ,no such opposing law is known1 but in all works on the subject a law is 7in flat contradiction to all known facts7 assumed to limit the possible amount of variation4 ,in the ,origin1 the author never limits the power of variation1 as far as ,i know4 #ajc ,in ,var4 under ,dom4 ,ed4 #b1 ii4 p4 #bfc1 the ,dahlia is described as showing sensitiveness to conditions in #ahda4 ,all the varieties of the ,dahlia are said to have arisen since #ahjd 7ibid4 i4 p4 #cic74 ,,part ,,ii#ajd4 #ajd ,in the original ,,ms4 the heading is3 ,part ,,iii42 but ,part ,,ii4 is clearly intended2 for details see the ,introduction4 ,i have not been able to discover where ,sec4 ,,iv4 ends and ,sec4 ,v4 begins4 ,sec4,sec4 ,,iv4 ,v4 ,,on ,,the ,,evidence ,,from ,,geology4 ,i may premise1 that according to the view ordinarily received1 the myriads of organisms peopling this world have been created by so many distinct acts of creation4 ,as we know nothing of the illegible will of a ,creator1--we can see no reason why there should exist any relation between the organisms thus created2 or again1 they might be created according to any scheme4 ,but it would be marvellous if this scheme should be the same as would result from the descent of groups of organisms from certain the same parents1 according to the circumstances1 just attempted to be developed4 ,with equal probability did old cosmogonists say fossils were created1 as we now see them1 with a false resemblance to living beings#aje2 what would the ,astronomer say to the doctrine that the planets moved not according to the law of gravitation1 but from the ,creator having willed each separate planet to move in its particular orbit8 ,i believe such a proposition 7if we remove all prejudices7 would be as legitimate as to admit that certain groups of living and extinct organisms1 in their distribution1 in their structure and in their relations one to another and to external conditions1 agreed with the theory and showed signs of common descent1 and yet were created distinct4 ,as long as it was thought impossible that organisms should vary1 or should anyhow become adapted to other organisms in a complicated manner1 and yet be separated from them by an impassable barrier of sterility#ajf1 it was justifiable1 even with some appearance in favour of a common descent1 to admit distinct creation according to the will of an ,omniscient ,creator2 or1 for it is the same thing1 to say with ,whewell that the beginnings of all things surpass the comprehension of man4 ,in the former sections ,i have endeavoured to show that such variation or specification is not impossible1 nay1 in many points of view is absolutely probable4 ,what then is the evidence in favour of it and what the evidence against it4 ,with our imperfect knowledge of past ages surely there will be some it would be strange if the imperfection did not create some unfavourable evidence4 #aje ,this passage corresponds roughly to the conclusion of the ,origin1 see ,ed4 i4 p4 #dhb1 vi4 p4 #ffa4 #ajf ,a similar passage occurs in the conclusion of the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #dha1 vi4 p4 #fei4 ,give sketch of the ,past1--beginning with facts appearing hostile under present knowledge1--then proceed to geograph4 distribution1--order of appearance1--affinities1--morphology c41 c4 ,our theory requires a very gradual introduction of new forms#ajg1 and extermination of the old 7to which we shall revert74 ,the extermination of old may sometimes be rapid1 but never the introduction4 ,in the groups descended from common parent1 our theory requires a perfect gradation not differing more than breeds of cattle1 or potatoes1 or cabbages in forms4 ,i do not mean that a graduated series of animals must have existed1 intermediate between horse1 mouse1 tapir#ajh1 elephant or fowl and peacock1 but that these must have had a common parent1 and between horse and this 8 parent c41 c41 but the common parent may possibly have differed more from either than the two do now from each other4 ,now what evidence of this is there8 ,so perfect gradation in some departments1 that some naturalists have thought that in some large divisions1 if all existing forms were collected1 a near approach to perfect gradation would be made4 ,but such a notion is preposterous with respect to all1 but evidently so with mammals4 ,other naturalists have thought this would be so if all the specimens entombed in the strata were collected#aji4 ,i conceive there is no probability whatever of this2 nevertheless it is certain all the numerous fossil forms fall into1 as ,buckland remarks1 not present classes1 families and genera1 they fall between them3 so is it with new discoveries of existing forms4 ,most ancient fossils1 that is most separated by space of time1 are most apt to fall between the classes--7but organisms from those countries most separated by space also fall between the classes e4g4 ,ornithorhyncus874 ,as far as geological discoveries go they tend towards such gradation#aaj4 ,illustrate it with net4 ,toxodon1--tibia and fibula1--dog and otter1--but so utterly improbable is it1 in ex4 gr4 ,pachydermata1 to compose series as perfect as cattle1 that if1 as many geologists seem to infer1 each separate formation presents even an approach to a consecutive history1 my theory must be given up4 ,even if it were consecutive1 it would only collect series of one district in our present state of knowledge2 but what probability is there that any one formation during the immense period which has elapsed during each period will generally present a consecutive history4 ,compare number living at one period to fossils preserved--look at enormous periods of time4 #ajg ,see ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #cab1 vi4 p4 #dec4 #ajh ,see ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 pp4 #bhj1 #bha1 vi4 p4 #dad4 ,the author uses his experience of pigeons for examples for what he means by intermediate2 the instance of the horse and tapir also occurs4 #aji ,the absence of intermediate forms between living organisms 7and also as regards fossils7 is discussed in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 pp4 #bgi1 #bhj1 vi4 p4 #dac4 ,in the above discussion there is no evidence that the author felt this difficulty so strongly as it is expressed in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #bii1--;as perhaps the most obvious and gravest objection that can be urged against my theory4 ,but in a rough summary written on the back of the penultimate page of the ,,ms4 he refers to the geological evidence3--,evidence1 as far as it does go1 is favourable1 exceedingly incomplete1--greatest difficulty on this theory4 ,i am convinced not insuperable4 ,buckland's remarks are given in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #cbi1 vi4 p4 #dga4 #aaj ,that the evidence of geology1 as far as it goes1 is favourable to the theory of descent is claimed in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 pp4 #cdc-cde1 vi4 pp4 #dij-dib4 ,for the reference to net in the following sentence1 see ,note #a1 p4 #dh1 ,note #afa of this ,essay4 ,referring only to marine animals1 which are obviously most likely to be preserved1 they must live where 8 sediment 7of a kind favourable for preservation1 not sand and pebble7#aaa is depositing quickly and over large area and must be thickly capped1 illegible littoral deposits3 for otherwise denudation will destroy them1--they must live in a shallow space which sediment will tend to fill up1--as movement is in8 progress if soon brought 8 up 8 subject to denudation1--if as during subsidence favourable1 accords with facts of ,european deposits#aab1 but subsidence apt to destroy agents which produce sediment#aac4 #aaa ,see ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #bhh1 vi4 p4 #dbb4 ,the remains that do become embedded1 if in sand and gravel1 will1 when the beds are upraised1 generally be dissolved by the percolation of rain-water4 #aab ,the position of the following is not clear3--,think of immense differences in nature of ,european deposits1--without interposing new causes1--think of time required by present slow changes1 to cause1 on very same area1 such diverse deposits1 iron-sand1 chalk1 sand1 coral1 clay6 #aac ,the paragraph which ends here is difficult to interpret4 ,in spite of obscurity it is easy to recognize the general resemblance to the discussion on the importance of subsidence given in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 pp4 #bij et seq41 vi4 pp4 #dbb et seq4 ,i believe safely inferred that groups of marine 8 fossils only preserved for future ages where sediment goes on long and continuously and with rapid but not too rapid deposition in an area of subsidence4 ,in how few places in any one region like ,europe will 8 these contingencies be going on8 ,hence 8 in past ages mere gaps pages preserved#aad4 ,lyell's doctrine carried to extreme1--we shall understand difficulty if it be asked3--what chance of series of gradation between cattle by illegible at age illegible as far back as ,miocene#aae8 ,we know then cattle existed4 ,compare number of living1--immense duration of each period1--fewness of fossils4 #aad ,see ,note #c1 p4 #bg4 #aae ,compare ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #bih1 vi4 p4 #dcg4 ,we shall1 perhaps1 best perceive the improbability of our being enabled to connect species by numerous1 fine1 intermediate1 fossil links1 by asking ourselves whether1 for instance1 geologists at some future period will be able to prove that our different breeds of cattle1 sheep1 horses1 and dogs have descended from a single stock or from several aboriginal stocks4 ,this only refers to consecutiveness of history of organisms of each formation4 ,the foregoing argument will show firstly1 that formations are distinct merely from want of fossils of intermediate beds1 and secondly1 that each formation is full of gaps1 has been advanced to account for fewness of preserved organisms compared to what have lived on the world4 ,the very same argument explains why in older formations the organisms appear to come on and disappear suddenly1--but in later tertiary not quite suddenly#aaf1 in later tertiary gradually1--becoming rare and disappearing1--some have disappeared within man's time4 ,it is obvious that our theory requires gradual and nearly uniform introduction1 possibly more sudden extermination1--subsidence of continent of ,australia c41 c4 #aaf ,the sudden appearance of groups of allied species in the lowest known fossiliferous strata is discussed in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #cjf1 vi4 p4 #ddf4 ,the gradual appearance in the later strata occurs in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #cab1 vi4 p4 #dec4 ,our theory requires that the first form which existed of each of the great divisions would present points intermediate between existing ones1 but immensely different4 ,most geologists believe ,silurian#aag fossils are those which first existed in the whole world1 not those which have chanced to be the oldest not destroyed1--or the first which existed in profoundly deep seas in progress of conversion from sea to land3 if they are first they 8 we give up4 ,not so ,hutton or ,lyell3 if first reptile#aah of ,red ,sandstone 8 really was first which existed3 if ,pachyderm#aai of ,paris was first which existed3 fish of ,devonian3 dragon fly of ,lias3 for we cannot suppose them the progenitors3 they agree too closely with existing divisions4 ,but geologists consider ,europe as 8 a passage from sea to island 8 to continent 7except ,wealden1 see ,lyell74 ,these animals therefore1 ,i consider then mere introduction 8 from continents long since submerged4 #aag ,compare ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #cjg1 vi4 p4 #ddh4 #aah ,i have interpreted as ,sandstone a scrawl which ,i first read as ,sea2 ,i have done so at the suggestion of ,professor ,judd1 who points out that footprints in the red sandstone were known at that time1 and geologists were not then particular to distinguish between ,amphibians and ,reptiles4 #aai ,this refers to ,cuvier's discovery of ,palaeotherium c4 at ,montmartre4 ,finally1 if views of some geologists be correct1 my theory must be given up4 ,lyell's views1 as far as they go1 are in favour1 but they go so little in favour1 and so much more is required1 that it may be viewed as objection4 ,if geology present us with mere pages in chapters1 towards end of a history1 formed by tearing out bundles of leaves1 and each page illustrating merely a small portion of the organisms of that time1 the facts accord perfectly with my theory#abj4 #abj ,this simile is more fully given in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #caj1 vi4 p4 #deb4 ,for my part1 following out ,lyell's metaphor1 ,i look at the natural geological record1 as a history of the world imperfectly kept1 and written in a changing dialect2 of this history we possess the last volume alone1 relating only to two or three countries4 ,of this volume1 only here and there a short chapter has been preserved2 and of each page1 only here and there a few lines4 ,each word of the slowly-changing language1 in which the history is supposed to be written1 being more or less different in the interrupted succession of chapters1 may represent the apparently abruptly changed forms of life1 entombed in our consecutive1 but widely separated formations4 ,professor ,judd has been good enough to point out to me1 that ,darwin's metaphor is founded on the comparison of geology to history in ,ch4 i4 of the ,principles of ,geology1 ,ed4 i4 #ahcj1 vol4 i4 pp4 #a-d4 ,professor ,judd has also called my attention to another passage1--,principles1 ,ed4 i4 #ahcc1 vol4 iii4 p4 #cc1 when ,lyell imagines an historian examining two buried cities at the foot of ,vesuvius1 immediately superimposed upon each other4 ,the historian would discover that the inhabitants of the lower town were ,greeks while those of the upper one were ,italians4 ,but he would be wrong in supposing that there had been a sudden change from the ,greek to the ,italian language in ,campania4 ,i think it is clear that ,darwin's metaphor is partly taken from this passage4 ,see for instance 7in the above passage from the ,origin7 such phrases as history 444 written in a changing dialect--apparently abruptly changed forms of life4 ,the passage within in the above paragraph3--,lyell's views as far as they go c41 no doubt refers1 as ,professor ,judd points out1 to ,lyell not going so far as ,darwin on the question of the imperfection of the geological record4 ,extermination4 ,we have seen that in later periods the organisms have disappeared by degrees and perhaps probably by degrees in earlier1 and ,i have said our theory requires it4 ,as many naturalists seem to think extermination a most mysterious circumstance#aba and call in astonishing agencies1 it is well to recall what we have shown concerning the struggle of nature4 ,an exterminating agency is at work with every organism3 we scarcely see it3 if robins would increase to thousands in ten years how severe must the process be4 ,how imperceptible a small increase3 fossils become rare3 possibly sudden extermination as ,australia1 but as present means very slow and many means of escape1 ,i shall doubt very sudden exterminations4 ,who can explain why some species abound more1--why does marsh titmouse1 or ring-ouzel1 now little change1--why is one sea-slug rare and another common on our coasts1--why one species of ,rhinoceros more than another1--why is illegible tiger of ,india so rare8 ,curious and general sources of error1 the place of an organism is instantly filled up4 #aba ,on rarity and extinction see ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 pp4 #aji1 #cai1 vi4 pp4 #acc1 #dfa4 ,we know state of earth has changed1 and as earthquakes and tides go on1 the state must change1--many geologists believe a slow gradual cooling4 ,now let us see in accordance with principles of variation specification explained in ,sect4 ,,ii4 how species would probably be introduced and how such results accord with what is known4 ,the first fact geology proclaims is immense number of extinct forms1 and new appearances4 ,tertiary strata leads to belief1 that forms gradually become rare and disappear and are gradually supplied by others4 ,we see some forms now becoming rare and disappearing1 we know of no sudden creation3 in older periods the forms appear to come in suddenly1 scene shifts3 but even here ,devonian1 ,permian c4 keep on supplying new links in chain--,genera and higher forms come on and disappear1 in same way leaving a species on one or more stages below that in which the form abounded4 ,,geographical ,,distribution4 ,sec4 ,,vi4 ,let us consider the absolute state of distribution of organisms of earth's face4 ,referring chiefly1 but not exclusively 7from difficulty of transport1 fewness1 and the distinct characteristics of groups7 to ,mammalia2 and first considering the three or four main regions divisions2 ,north ,america1 ,europe1 ,asia1 including greater part of ,e4 ,indian ,archipelago and ,africa are intimately allied4 ,africa most distinct1 especially most southern parts4 ,and the ,arctic regions1 which unite ,n4 ,america1 ,asia and ,europe1 only separated 7if we travel one way by ,behring's ,st47 by a narrow strait1 is most intimately allied1 indeed forms but one restricted group4 ,next comes ,s4 ,america1--then ,australia1 ,madagascar 7and some small islands which stand very remote from the land74 ,looking at these main divisions separately1 the organisms vary according to changes in condition#abb of different parts4 ,but besides this1 barriers of every kind seem to separate regions in a greater degree than proportionally to the difference of climates on each side4 ,thus great chains of mountains1 spaces of sea between islands and continents1 even great rivers and deserts4 ,in fact the amount of difference in the organisms bears a certain1 but not invariable relation to the amount of physical difficulties to transit#abc4 #abb ,in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #cdf1 vi4 p4 #dic1 the author begins his discussion on geographical distribution by minimising the effect of physical conditions4 ,he lays great stress on the effect of barriers1 as in the present ,essay4 #abc ,note in the original1 ,would it be more striking if we took animals1 take ,rhinoceros1 and study their habitats8 ,there are some curious exceptions1 namely1 similarity of fauna of mountains of ,europe and ,n4 ,america and ,lapland4 ,other cases just the reverse1 mountains of eastern ,s4 ,america1 ,altai 81 ,s4 ,india 8#abd3 mountain summits of islands often eminently peculiar4 ,fauna generally of some islands1 even when close1 very dissimilar1 in others very similar4 ,i am here led to observe one or more centres of creation#abe4 #abd ,note by ,mr ,a4 ,r4 ,wallace4 ,the want of similarity referred to1 is1 between the mountains of ,brazil and ,guiana and those of the ,andes4 ,also those of the ,indian peninsula as compared with the ,himalayas4 ,in both cases there is continuous intervening land4 ,the islands referred to were1 no doubt1 the ,galapagos for dissimilarity from ,s4 ,america2 our own ,islands as compared with ,europe1 and perhaps ,java1 for similarity with continental ,asia4 #abe ,the arguments against multiple centres of creation are given in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #ceb1 vi4 p4 #dii4 ,the simple geologist can explain many of the foregoing cases of distribution4 ,subsidence of a continent in which free means of dispersal1 would drive the lowland plants up to the mountains1 now converted into islands1 and the semi-alpine plants would take place of alpine1 and alpine be destroyed1 if mountains originally were not of great height4 ,so we may see1 during gradual changes#abf of climate on a continent1 the propagation of species would vary and adapt themselves to small changes causing much extermination#abg4 ,the mountains of ,europe were quite lately covered with ice1 and the lowlands probably partaking of the ,arctic climate and ,fauna4 ,then as climate changed1 arctic fauna would take place of ice1 and an inundation of plants from different temperate countries would seize the lowlands1 leaving islands of arctic forms4 ,but if this had happened on an island1 whence could the new forms have come1--here the geologist calls in creationists4 ,if island formed1 the geologist will suggest that many of the forms might have been borne from nearest land1 but if peculiar1 he calls in creationist1--as such island rises in height c41 he still more calls in creation4 ,the creationist tells one1 on a illegible spot the ,american spirit of creation makes ,orpheus and ,tyrannus and ,american doves1 and in accordance with past and extinct forms1 but no persistent relation between areas and distribution1 ,geologico-,geograph4-,distribution4 #abf ,in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #cff1 vi4 p4 #eaf1 the author does not give his views on the distribution of alpine plants as original but refers to ,edward ,forbes' work 7,geolog4 ,survey ,memoirs1 #ahdf74 ,in his autobiography1 ,darwin refers to this4 ,i was forestalled he says1 in only one important point1 which my vanity has always made me regret4 7,life and ,letters1 i4 p4 #hh47 #abg ,the following is written on the back of a page of the ,,ms4 ,discuss one or more centres of creation3 allude strongly to facilities of dispersal and amount of geological change3 allude to mountain-summits afterwards to be referred to4 ,the distribution varies1 as everyone knows1 according to adaptation1 explain going from ,n4 to ,s4 how we come to fresh groups of species in the same general region1 but besides this we find difference1 according to greatness of barriers1 in greater proportion than can be well accounted for by adaptation4 ,on representive species see ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #cdi1 vi4 p4 #dif4 ,this very striking when we think of cattle of ,pampas1 plants 8 c4 c4 ,then go into discussion2 this holds with #c or #d main divisions as well as the endless minor ones in each of these #d great ones3 in these ,i chiefly refer to mammalia c4 c4 ,the similarity of type1 but not in species1 in same continent has been much less insisted on than the dissimilarity of different great regions generically3 it is more striking4 ,i have here omitted an incomprehensible sentence4 ,galapagos ,islands1 ,tristan d',acunha1 volcanic islands covered with craters we know lately did not support any organisms4 ,how unlike these islands in nature to neighbouring lands4 ,these facts perhaps more striking than almost any others4 ,geology apt to affect geography therefore we ought to expect to find the above4 ,geological-geographical distribution4 ,in looking to past times we find ,australia equally distinct4 ,s4 ,america was distinct1 though with more forms in common4 ,n4 ,america its nearest neighbour more in common1--in some respects more1 in some less allied to ,europe4 ,europe we find 8 equally ,european4 ,for ,europe is now part of ,asia though not illegible4 ,africa unknown1--examples1 ,elephant1 ,rhinoceros1 ,hippopotamus1 ,hyaena4 ,as geology destroys geography we cannot be surprised in going far back we find ,marsupials and ,edentata in ,europe3 but geology destroys geography4 ,now according to analogy of domesticated animals let us see what would result4 ,let us take case of farmer on ,pampas1 where everything approaches nearer to state of nature4 ,he works on organisms having strong tendency to vary3 and he knows that the only way to make a distinct breed is to select and separate4 ,it would be useless to separate the best bulls and pair with best cows if their offspring run loose and bred with the other herds1 and tendency to reversion not counteracted2 he would endeavour therefore to get his cows on islands and then commence his work of selection4 ,if several farmers in different rincons#abh were to set to work1 especially if with different objects1 several breeds would soon be produced4 ,so would it be with horticulturist and so history of every plant shows2 the number of varieties#abi increase in proportion to care bestowed on their selection and1 with crossing plants1 separation4 ,now1 according to this analogy1 change of external conditions1 and isolation either by chance landing of a form on an island1 or subsidence dividing a continent1 or great chain of mountains1 and the number of individuals not being numerous will best favour variation and selection#acj4 ,no doubt change could be effected in same country without any barrier by long continued selection on one species3 even in case of a plant not capable of crossing would easier get possession and solely occupy an island#aca4 ,now we can at once see that if two parts of a continent isolated1 new species thus generated in them1 would have closest affinities1 like cattle in counties of ,england3 if barrier afterwards destroyed one species might destroy the other or both keep their ground4 ,so if island formed near continent1 let it be ever so different1 that continent would supply inhabitants1 and new species 7like the old7 would be allied with that continent4 ,an island generally very different soil and climate1 and number and order of inhabitants supplied by chance1 no point so favourable for generation of new species#acb1--;especially the mountains1 hence1 so it is4 ,as isolated mountains formed in a plain country 7if such happens7 is an island4 ,as other islands formed1 the old species would spread and thus extend and the fauna of distant island might ultimately meet and a continent formed between them4 ,no one doubts continents formed by repeated elevations and depressions#acc4 ,in looking backwards1 but not so far that all geographical boundaries are destroyed1 we can thus at once see why existing forms are related to the extinct in the same manner as existing ones are in some part of existing continent4 ,by chance we might even have one or two absolute parent fossils4 #abh ,rincon in ,spanish means a nook or corner1 it is here probably used to mean a small farm4 #abi ,the following is written across the page3 ,no one would expect a set of similar varieties to be produced in the different countries1 so species different4 #acj ,the following passage seems to have been meant to follow here4 ,the parent of an organism1 we may generally suppose to be in less favourable condition than the selected offspring and therefore generally in fewer numbers4 7,this is not borne out by horticulture1 mere hypothesis2 as an organism in favourable conditions might by selection be adapted to still more favourable conditions47 ,barrier would further act in preventing species formed in one part migrating to another part4 #aca ,the following notes occur on the back of the page4 ,number of species not related to capabilities of the country3 furthermore not always those best adapted1 perhaps explained by creationists by changes and progress4 ,see p4 #cd1 note #a4,note #acd ,although creationists can1 by help of geology1 explain much1 how can he explain the marked relation of past and present in same area1 the varying relation in other cases1 between past and present1 the relation of different parts of same great area4 ,if island1 to adjoining continent1 if quite different1 on mountain summits1--the number of individuals not being related to capabilities1 or how c4--our theory1 ,i believe1 can throw much light and all facts accord4 #acb ,see ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #cij1 vi4 p4 #edc4 #acc ,on oscillation see ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #bia1 vi4 p4 #dbf4 ,the detection of transitional forms would be rendered more difficult on rising point of land4 ,the distribution therefore in the above enumerated points1 even the trivial ones1 which on any other theory8 can be viewed as so many ultimate facts1 all follow in a simple manner on the theory of the occurrence of species by illegible and being adapted by selection to illegible1 conjoined with their power of dispersal1 and the steady geographico-geological changes which are now in progress and which undoubtedly have taken place4 ,ought to state the opinion of the immutability of species and the creation by so many separate acts of will of the ,creator#acd4 #acd ,from the back of ,,ms4 ,effect of climate on stationary island and on continent1 but continent once island4 ,moreover repeated oscillations fresh diffusion when non-united1 then isolation1 when rising again immigration prevented1 new habitats formed1 new species1 when united free immigration1 hence uniform characters4 ,hence more forms on8 the island4 ,mountain summits4 ,why not true species4 ,first let us recall in ,part ,i1 conditions of variation3 change of conditions during several generations1 and if frequently altered so much better perhaps excess of food4 ,secondly1 continued selection while in wild state4 ,thirdly1 isolation in all or nearly all1--as well to recall advantages of4 ,in continent1 if we look to terrestrial animal1 long continued change might go on1 which would only cause change in numerical number 8 proportions3 if continued long enough might ultimately affect all1 though to most continents there is chance of immigration4 ,some few of whole body of species must be long affected and entire selection working same way4 ,but here isolation absent1 without barrier1 cut off such illegible4 ,we can see advantage of isolation4 ,but let us take case of island thrown up by volcanic agency at some distances1 here we should have occasional visitants1 only in few numbers and exposed to new conditions and illegible more important1--a quite new grouping of organic beings1 which would open out new sources of subsistence1 or would control 8 old ones4 ,the number would be few1 can old have the very best opportunity4 ,the conquest of the indigenes by introduced organisms shows that the indigenes were not perfectly adapted1 see ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #cij4 ,moreover as the island continued changing1--continued slow changes1 river1 marshes1 lakes1 mountains c4 c41 new races as successively formed and a fresh occasional visitant4 ,if island formed continent1 some species would emerge and immigrate4 ,everyone admits continents4 ,we can see why ,galapagos and ,c4 ,verde differ see ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #cih1 depressed and raised4 ,we can see from this repeated action and the time required for a continent1 why many more forms than in ,new ,zealand see ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #chi for a comparison between ,new ,zealand and the ,cape no mammals or other classes see however1 ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #cic for the case of the frog4 ,we can at once see how it comes when there has been an old channel of migration1--,cordilleras2 we can see why ,indian ,asiatic ,flora1--why species having a wide range gives better chance of some arriving at new points and being selected1 and adapted to new ends4 ,i need hardly remark no necessity for change4 ,finally1 as continent 7most extinction 8 during formation of continent7 is formed after repeated elevation and depression1 and interchange of species we might foretell much extinction1 and that the survivor would belong to same type1 as the extinct1 in same manner as different part of same continent1 which were once separated by space as they are by time see ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 pp4 #cci and #cdi4 ,as all mammals have descended from one stock1 we ought to expect that every continent has been at some time connected1 hence obliteration of present ranges4 ,i do not mean that the fossil mammifers found in ,s4 ,america are the lineal successors ancestors of the present forms of ,s4 ,america3 for it is highly improbable that more than one or two cases 7who will say how many races after ,plata bones7 should be found4 ,i believe this from numbers1 who have lived1--mere 8 chance of fewness4 ,moreover in every case from very existence of genera and species only few at one time will leave progeny1 under form of new species1 to distant ages2 and the more distant the ages the fewer the progenitors4 ,an observation may be here appended1 bad chance of preservation on rising island1 the nurseries of new species1 appeal to experience see ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #bib4 ,this observation may be extended1 that in all cases1 subsiding land must be1 in early stages1 less favourable to formation of new species2 but it will isolate them1 and then if land recommences rising how favourable4 ,as preoccupation is bar to diffusion to species1 so would it be to a selected variety4 ,but it would not be if that variety was better fitted to some not fully occupied station2 so during elevation or the formation of new stations1 is scene for new species4 ,but during elevation not favourable to preservation of fossil 7except in caverns 872 when subsidence highly favourable in early stages to preservation of fossils2 when subsidence1 less sediment4 ,so that our strata1 as general rule will be the tomb of old species 7not undergoing any change7 when rising land the nursery4 ,but if there be vestige will generally be preserved to future ages1 the new ones will not be entombed till fresh subsidence supervenes4 ,in this long gap we shall have no record3 so that wonderful if we should get transitional forms4 ,i do not mean every stage1 for we cannot expect that1 as before shown1 until geologists will be prepared to say that although under unnaturally favourable condition we can trace in future ages short-horn and ,herefordshire see note #b1 p4 #bf4 ,note #aae ,sec4 ,,vii4 ,,affinities ,,and ,,classification4 ,looking now to the affinities of organisms1 without relation to their distribution1 and taking all fossil and recent1 we see the degrees of relationship are of different degrees and arbitrary1--sub-genera1--genera1--sub-fa milies1 families1 orders and classes and kingdoms4 ,the kind of classification which everyone feels is most correct is called the natural system1 but no can define this4 ,if we say with ,whewell that we have an undefined instinct of the importance of organs#ace1 we have no means in lower animals of saying which is most important1 and yet everyone feels that some one system alone deserves to be called natural4 ,the true relationship of organisms is brought before one by considering relations of analogy1 an otter-like animal amongst mammalia and an otter amongst marsupials4 ,in such cases external resemblance and habit of life and the final end of whole organization very strong1 yet no relation#acf4 ,naturalists cannot avoid these terms of relation and affinity though they use them metaphorically4 ,if used in simple earnestness the natural system ought to be a genealogical one2 and our knowledge of the points which are most easily affected in transmission are those which we least value in considering the natural system1 and practically when we find they do vary we regard them of less value#acg4 ,in classifying varieties the same language is used and the same kind of division3 here also 7in pine-apple7#ach we talk of the natural classification1 overlooking similarity of the fruits1 because whole plant differs4 ,the origin of sub-genera1 genera1 c41 c41 is not difficult on notion of genealogical succession1 and accords with what we know of similar gradations of affinity in domesticated organisms4 ,in the same region the organic beings are illegible related to each other and the external conditions in many physical respects are allied#aci and their differences of same kind1 and therefore when a new species has been selected and has obtained a place in the economy of nature1 we may suppose that generally it will tend to extend its range during geographical changes1 and thus1 becoming isolated and exposed to new conditions1 will slightly alter and its structure by selection become slightly remodified1 thus we should get species of a sub-genus and genus1--as varieties of merino-sheep1--varieties of ,british and ,indian cattle4 ,fresh species might go on forming and others become extinct and all might become extinct1 and then we should have an extinct genus2 a case formerly mentioned1 of which numerous cases occur in ,palaeontology4 ,but more often the same advantages which caused the new species to spread and become modified into several species would favour some of the species being preserved3 and if two of the species1 considerably different1 each gave rise to group of new species1 you would have two genera2 the same thing will go on4 ,we may look at case in other way1 looking to future4 ,according to mere chance every existing species may generate another1 but if any species1 ,a1 in changing gets an advantage and that advantage 7whatever it may be1 intellect1 c41 c41 or some particular structure or constitution7 is inherited#adj1 ,a will be the progenitor of several genera or even families in the hard struggle of nature4 ,a will go on beating out other forms1 it might come that ,a would people earth1--we may now not have one descendant on our globe of the one or several original creations#ada4 ,external conditions air1 earth1 water being same#adb on globe1 and the communication not being perfect1 organisms of widely different descent might become adapted to the same end and then we should have cases of analogy#adc1 they might even tend to become numerically representative4 ,from this often happening each of the great divisions of nature would have their representative eminently adapted to earth1 to air#add1 to water1 and to these in illegible and then these great divisions would show numerical relations in their classification4 #ace ,after organs is inserted1 apparently as an afterthought3--no1 and instance metamorphosis1 afterwards explicable4 #acf ,for analogical resemblances see ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #dbg1 vi4 p4 #ehb4 #acg ,practically when naturalists are at work1 they do not trouble themselves about the physiological value of the characters4444 ,if they find a character nearly uniform1 444 they use it as one of high value1 ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #dag1 vi4 p4 #egc4 #ach ,we are cautioned 444 not to class two varieties of the pine-apple together1 merely because their fruit1 though the most important part1 happens to be nearly identical1 ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #dbc1 vi4 p4 #egi4 #aci ,the whole of this passage is obscure1 but the text is quite clear1 except for one illegible word4 #adj ,the exact position of the following passage is uncertain3 just as it is not likely every present breed of fancy birds and cattle will propagate1 only some of the best4 #ada ,this suggests that the author was not far from the principle of divergence on which he afterwards laid so much stress4 ,see ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #aaa1 vi4 p4 #acd1 also ,life and ,letters1 i4 p4 #hd4 #adb ,that is to say the same conditions occurring in different parts of the globe4 #adc ,the position of the following is uncertain1 greyhound and racehorse have an analogy to each other4 ,the same comparison occurs in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #dbg1 vi4 p4 #ehc4 #add ,air is evidently intended2 in the ,,ms4 water is written twice4 ,sec4 ,,viii4 ,,unity ,,or ,,similarity ,,of ,,type ,,in ,,the ,,great ,,classes4 ,nothing more wonderful in ,nat4 ,hist4 than looking at the vast number of organisms1 recent and fossil1 exposed to the most diverse conditions1 living in the most distant climes1 and at immensely remote periods1 fitted to wholely different ends1 yet to find large groups united by a similar type of structure4 ,when we for instance see bat1 horse1 porpoise-fin1 hand1 all built on same structure#ade1 having bones#adf with same name1 we see there is some deep bond of union between them#adg1 to illustrate this is the foundation and objects 8 of what is called the ,natural ,system2 and which is foundation of distinction 8 of true and adaptive characters#adh4 ,now this wonderful fact of hand1 hoof1 wing1 paddle and claw being the same1 is at once explicable on the principle of some parent-forms1 which might either be illegible or walking animals1 becoming through infinite number of small selections adapted to various conditions4 ,we know that proportion1 size1 shape of bones and their accompanying soft parts vary1 and hence constant selection would alter1 to almost any purpose 8 the framework of an organism1 but yet would leave a general1 even closest similarity in it4 #ade ,written between the lines occurs3--extend to birds and other classes4 #adf ,written between the lines occurs3--many bones merely represented4 #adg ,in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #dcd1 vi4 p4 #eie1 the term morphology is taken as including unity of type4 ,the paddle of the porpoise and the wing of the bat are there used as instances of morphological resemblance4 #adh ,the sentence is difficult to decipher4 ,we know the number of similar parts1 as vertebrae and ribs can vary1 hence this also we might expect4 ,also if the changes carried on to a certain point1 doubtless type will be lost1 and this is case with ,plesiosaurus#adi4 ,the unity of type in past and present ages of certain great divisions thus undoubtedly receives the simplest explanation4 #adi ,in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #dcf1 vi4 p4 #eih1 the author speaks of the general pattern being obscured in the paddles of extinct gigantic sea-lizards4 ,there is another class of allied and almost identical facts1 admitted by the soberest physiologists1 from the study of a certain set of organs in a group of organisms and refers 8 referring to a unity of type of different organs in the same individual1 denominated the science of ,morphology4 ,the 8 this discovered by beautiful and regular series1 and in the case of plants from monstrous changes1 that certain organs in an individual are other organs metamorphosed4 ,thus every botanist considers petals1 nectaries1 stamens1 pistils1 germen as metamorphosed leaf4 ,they thus explain1 in the most lucid manner1 the position and number of all parts of the flower1 and the curious conversion under cultivation of one part into another4 ,the complicated double set of jaws and palpi of crustaceans#aej1 and all insects are considered as metamorphosed limbs and to see the series is to admit this phraseology4 ,the skulls of the vertebrates are undoubtedly composed of three metamorphosed vertebrae2 thus we can understand the strange form of the separate bones which compose the casket holding man's brain4 ,these#aea facts differ but slightly from those of last section1 if with wing1 paddle1 hand and hoof1 some common structure was yet visible1 or could be made out by a series of occasional monstrous conversions1 and if traces could be discovered of the whole having once existed as walking or swimming instruments1 these organs would be said to be metamorphosed1 as it is they are only said to exhibit a common type4 #aej ,see ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #dcg1 vi4 p4 #eii4 #aea ,the following passage seems to have been meant to precede the sentence beginning ,these facts3--,it is evident1 that when in each individual species1 organs are metamorph4 a unity of type extends4 ,this distinction is not drawn by physiologists1 and is only implied by some by their general manner of writing4 ,these facts1 though affecting every organic being on the face of the globe1 which has existed1 or does exist1 can only be viewed by the ,creationist as ultimate and inexplicable facts4 ,but this unity of type through the individuals of a group1 and this metamorphosis of the same organ into other organs1 adapted to diverse use1 necessarily follows on the theory of descent#aeb4 ,for let us take case of ,vertebrata1 which if#aec they descended from one parent and by this theory all the ,vertebrata have been altered by slow degrees1 such as we see in domestic animals4 ,we know that proportions alter1 and even that occasionally numbers of vertebrae alter1 that parts become soldered1 that parts are lost1 as tail and toes1 but we know that8 here we can see that possibly a walking organ might 8 be converted into swimming or into a gliding organ and so on to a flying organ4 ,but such gradual changes would not alter the unity of type in their descendants1 as parts lost and soldered and vertebrae4 ,but we can see that if this carried to extreme1 unity lost1--,plesiosaurus4 ,here we have seen the same organ is formed 8 for different purposes ten words illegible3 and if1 in several orders of vertebrata1 we could trace origin of spinous processes and monstrosities c4 we should say1 instead of there existing a unity of type1 morphology#aed1 as we do when we trace the head as being the vertebrae metamorphosed4 ,be it observed that ,naturalists1 as they use terms of affinity without attaching real meaning1 here also they are obliged to use metamorphosis1 without meaning that any parent of crustacean was really an animal with as many legs as crustacean has jaws4 ,the theory of descent at once explains these wonderful facts4 #aeb ,this is1 ,i believe1 the first place in which the author uses the words theory of descent4 #aec ,the sentence should probably run1 ,let us take the case of the vertebrata3 if we assume them to be descended from one parent1 then by this theory they have been altered c4 #aed ,that is we should call it a morphological fact4 ,now few of the physiologists who use this language really suppose that the parent of insect with the metamorphosed jaw1 was an insect with more so many legs1 or that the parent of flowering plants1 originally had no stamens1 or pistils or petals1 but some other means of propagation1--and so in other cases4 ,now according to our theory during the infinite number of changes1 we might expect that an organ used for a purpose might be used for a different one by his descendant1 as must have been the case by our theory with the bat1 porpoise1 horse1 c41 which are descended from one parent4 ,and if it so chanced that traces of the former use and structure of the part should be retained1 which is manifestly possible if not probable1 then we should have the organs1 on which morphology is founded and which instead of being metaphorical becomes plain and and instead of being utterly unintelligible becomes simple matter of fact#aee4 #aee ,in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #dch1 vi4 p4 #fjb1 the author1 referring to the expressions used by naturalists in regard to morphology and metamorphosis1 says ,on my view these terms may be used literally4 ,embryology4 ,this general unity of type in great groups of organisms 7including of course these morphological cases7 displays itself in a most striking manner in the stages through which the foetus passes#aef4 ,in early stage1 the wing of bat1 hoof1 hand1 paddle are not to be distinguished4 ,at a still earlier stage there is no difference between fish1 bird1 c4 c4 and mammal4 ,it is not that they cannot be distinguished1 but the arteries#aeg illegible4 ,it is not true that one passes through the form of a lower group1 though no doubt fish more nearly related to foetal state#aeh4 #aef ,see ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #dci1 vi4 p4 #fje4 #aeg ,in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #ddj1 vi4 p4 #fjf1 the author argues that the loop-like course of the arteries in the vertebrate embryo has no direct relation to the conditions of existence4 #aeh ,the following passages are written across the page3--,they pass through the same phases1 but some1 generally called the higher groups1 are further metamorphosed4 8 ,degradation and complication8 no tendency to perfection4 8 ,justly argued against ,lamarck8 ,this similarity at the earliest stage is remarkably shown in the course of the arteries which become greatly altered1 as foetus advances in life and assumes the widely different course and number which characterize full-grown fish and mammals4 ,how wonderful that in egg1 in water or air1 or in womb of mother1 artery#aei should run in same course4 #aei ,an almost identical passage occurs in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #ddj1 vi4 p4 #fjf4 ,light can be thrown on this by our theory4 ,the structure of each organism is chiefly adapted to the sustension of its life1 when full-grown1 when it has to feed itself and propagate#afj4 ,the structure of a kitten is quite in secondary degree adapted to its habits1 whilst fed by its mother's milk and prey4 ,hence variation in the structure of the full-grown species will chiefly determine the preservation of a species now become ill-suited to its habitat1 or rather with a better place opened to it in the economy of ,nature4 ,it would not matter to the full-grown cat whether in its young state it was more or less eminently feline1 so that it become so when full-grown4 ,no doubt most variation1 7not depending on habits of life of individual7 depends on early change#afa and we must suspect that at whatever time of life the alteration of foetus is effected1 it tends to appear at same period4 ,when we see a tendency to particular disease in old age transmitted by the male1 we know some effect is produced during conception1 on the simple cell of ovule1 which will not produce its effect till half a century afterwards and that effect is not visible#afb4 ,so we see in grey-hound1 bull-dog1 in race-horse and cart-horse1 which have been selected for their form in full-life1 there is much less 787 difference in the few first days after birth#afc1 than when full-grown3 so in cattle1 we see it clearly in cases of cattle1 which differ obviously in shape and length of horns4 ,if man were during #aj1jjj years to be able to select1 far more diverse animals from horse or cow1 ,i should expect there would be far less differences in the very young and foetal state3 and this1 ,i think1 throws light on above marvellous fact4 ,in larvae1 which have long life selection1 perhaps1 does much1--in the pupa not so much#afd ,there is no object gained in varying form c4 of foetus 7beyond certain adaptations to mother's womb7 and therefore selection will not further act on it1 than in giving to its changing tissues a tendency to certain parts afterwards to assume certain forms4 #afj ,the following3 ,deaths of brothers when old by same peculiar disease which is written between the lines seems to have been a memorandum which is expanded a few lines lower4 ,i believe the case of the brothers came from ,dr ,r4 ,w4 ,darwin4 #afa ,see the discussion to this effect in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 pp4 #ddc-d1 vi4 p4 #faj4 ,the author there makes the distinction between a cause affecting the germ-cell and the reaction occurring at a late period of life4 #afb ,possibly the sentence was meant to end is not visible till then4 #afc ,see ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 pp4 #ddd-e1 vi4 p4 #faa4 ,the query appended to much less is justified1 since measurement was necessary to prove that the greyhound and bulldog puppies had not nearly acquired their full amount of proportional difference4 #afd ,the following discussion1 from the back of the page1 is in large measure the same as the text4 ,i think light can be thrown on these facts4 ,from the following peculiarities being hereditary1 we know that some change in the germinal vesicle is effected1 which will only betray itself years after diseases--man1 goitre1 gout1 baldness1 fatness1 size1 longevity illegible time of reproduction1 shape of horns1 case of old brothers dying of same disease4 ,and we know that the germinal vesicle must have been affected1 though no effect is apparent or can be apparent till years afterwards1--no more apparent than when these peculiarities appear by the exposure of the full-grown individual4 ,that is1 the young individual is as apparently free from the hereditary changes which will appear later1 as the young is actually free from the changes produced by exposure to certain conditions in adult life4 ,so that when we see a variety in cattle1 even if the variety be due to act of reproduction1 we cannot feel sure at what period this change became apparent4 ,it may have been effected during early age of free life or foetal existence1 as monsters show4 ,from arguments before used1 and crossing1 we may generally suspect in germ2 but ,i repeat it does not follow1 that the change should be apparent till life fully developed2 any more than fatness depending on heredity should be apparent during early childhood1 still less during foetal existence4 ,in case of horns of cattle1 which when inherited must depend on germinal vesicle1 obviously no effect till cattle full-grown4 ,practically it would appear that the hereditary peculiarities characterising our domestic races1 therefore resulting from vesicle1 do not appear with their full characters in very early states2 thus though two breeds of cows have calves different1 they are not so different1--grey-hound and bull-dog4 ,and this is what is to be expected1 for man is indifferent to characters of young animals and hence would select those full-grown animals which possessed the desirable characteristics4 ,so that from mere chance we might expect that some of the characters would be such only as became fully apparent in mature life4 ,furthermore we may suspect it to be a law1 that at whatever time a new character appears1 whether from vesicle1 or effects of external conditions1 it would appear at corresponding time see ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #ddd4 ,thus diseases appearing in old age produce children with do41--early maturity1--longevity1--old men1 brothers1 of same disease--young children of do4 ,i said men do not select for quality of young1--calf with big bullocks4 ,silk-worms1 peculiarities which1 appear in caterpillar state or cocoon state1 are transmitted to corresponding states4 ,the effect of this would be that if some peculiarity was born in a young animal1 but never exercised1 it might be inherited in young animal2 but if exercised that part of structure would be increased and would be inherited in corresponding time of life after such training4 ,i have said that man selects in full-life1 so would it be in ,nature4 ,in struggle of existence1 it matters nothing to a feline animal1 whether kitten eminently feline1 as long as it sucks4 ,therefore natural selection would act equally well on character which was fully developed only in full age4 ,selection could tend to alter no character in foetus1 7except relation to mother7 it would alter less in young state 7putting on one side larva condition7 but alter every part in full-grown condition4 ,look to a foetus and its parent1 and again after ages foetus and its i4 e4 the above mentioned parents descendant2 the parent more variable 8 than foetus1 which explains all4 ,thus there is no power to change the course of the arteries1 as long as they nourish the foetus2 it is the selection of slight changes which supervene at any time during illegible of life4 ,the less differences of foetus1--this has obvious meaning on this view3 otherwise how strange that a monkey horse1 a man1 a bat should at one time of life have arteries1 running in a manner1 which is only intelligibly useful in a fish6 ,the natural system being on theory genealogical1 we can at once see1 why foetus1 retaining traces of the ancestral form1 is of the highest value in classification4 ,sec4 ,,ix4 ,,abortive ,,organs4 ,there is another grand class of facts relating to what are called abortive organs4 ,these consist of organs which the same reasoning power that shows us how beautifully these organs in some cases are adapted to certain end1 declares in other cases are absolutely useless4 ,thus teeth in ,rhinoceros#afe1 whale1 narwhal1--bone on tibia1 muscles which do not move1--little bone of wing of ,apteryx1--bone representing extremities in some snake1--little wings within 8 soldered cover of beetles1--men and bulls1 mammae3 filaments without anthers in plants1 mere scales representing petals in others1 in feather-hyacinth whole flower4 ,almost infinitely numerous4 ,no one can reflect on these without astonishment1 can anything be clearer than that wings are to fly and teeth to bite1 and yet we find these organs perfect in every detail in situations where they cannot possibly be of their normal use#aff4 #afe ,some of these examples occur in ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 pp4 #dej-ea1 vi4 pp4 #fai-bj4 #aff ,the two following sentences are written1 one down the margin1 the other across the page4 ,abortive organs eminently useful in classification4 ,embryonic state of organs4 ,rudiments of organs4 ,the term abortive organ has been thus applied to above structure 7as invariable as all other parts#afg7 from their absolute similarity to monstrous cases1 where from accident1 certain organs are not developed2 as infant without arms or fingers with mere stump representing them3 teeth represented by mere points of ossification3 headless children with mere button1--viscera represented by small amorphous masses1 c41--the tail by mere stump1--a solid horn by minute hanging one#afh4 ,there is a tendency in all these cases1 when life is preserved1 for such structures to become hereditary4 ,we see it in tailless dogs and cats4 ,in plants we see this strikingly1--in ,thyme1 in ,linum flavum1--stamen in ,geranium pyrenaicum#afi4 ,nectaries abort into petals in ,columbine ,aquilegia1 produced from some accident and then become hereditary1 in some cases only when propagated by buds1 in other cases by seed4 ,these cases have been produced suddenly by accident in early growth1 but it is part of law of growth that when any organ is not used it tends to diminish 7duck's wing#agj87 muscles of dog's ears1 and of rabbits1 muscles wither1 arteries grow up4 ,when eye born defective1 optic nerve 7,tuco ,tuco7 is atrophied4 ,as every part whether useful or not 7diseases1 double flowers7 tends to be transmitted to offspring1 the origin of abortive organs whether produced at the birth or slowly acquired is easily understood in domestic races of organisms3 a struggle between the atrophy and hereditariness4 ,abortive organs in domestic races4 ,there will always be a struggle between atrophy of an organ rendered useless1 and hereditariness#aga4 ,because we can understand the origin of abortive organs in certain cases1 it would be wrong to conclude absolutely that all must have had same origin1 but the strongest analogy is in favour of it4 ,and we can by our theory1 for during infinite changes some organ1 we might have anticipated1 would have become useless4 ,we can readily explain the fact1 so astounding on any other view1 namely that organs possibly useless have been formed often with the same exquisite care as when of vital importance4 #afg ,i imagine the meaning to be that abortive organs are specific characters in contrast to monstrosities4 #afh ,minute hanging horns are mentioned in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #ded1 vi4 p4 #fbe1 as occurring in hornless breeds of cattle4 #afi ,linum flavum is dimorphic3 thyme gynodiaecious4 ,it is not clear what point is referred to under ,geranium pyrenaicum4 #agj ,the author's work on duck's wings c4 is in ,var4 under ,dom41 ,ed4 #b1 i4 p4 #bii4 #aga ,the words vis medicatrix are inserted after useless1 apparently as a memorandum4 ,our theory1 ,i may remark would permit an organ to become abortive with respect to its primary use1 to be turned to any other purpose1 7as the buds in a cauliflower7 thus we can see no difficulty in bones of male marsupials being used as fulcrum of muscles1 or style of marygold#agb1--;indeed in one point of view1 the heads of vertebrated animal may be said to be abortive vertebrae turned into other use3 legs of some crustacea abortive jaws1 c41 c4 ,de ,candolle's analogy of table covered with dishes#agc4 #agb ,in the male florets of certain ,compositae the style functions merely as a piston for forcing out the pollen4 #agc ,on the back of the page is the following4 ,if abortive organs are a trace preserved by hereditary tendency1 of organ in ancestor of use1 we can at once see why important in natural classification1 also why more plain in young animal because1 as in last section1 the selection has altered the old animal most4 ,i repeat1 these wondrous facts1 of parts created for no use in past and present time1 all can by my theory receive simple explanation2 or they receive none and we must be content with some such empty metaphor1 as that of ,de ,candolle1 who compares creation to a well covered table1 and says abortive organs may be compared to the dishes 7some should be empty7 placed symmetrically6 ,the following passage was possibly intended to be inserted here4 ,degradation and complication see ,lamarck3 no tendency to perfection3 if room1 even high organism would have greater power in beating lower one1 thought 8 to be selected for a degraded end4 ,sec4 ,x4 ,,recapitulation ,,and ,,conclusion4 ,let us recapitulate the whole 8 of these latter sections by taking case of the three species of ,rhinoceros1 which inhabit ,java1 ,sumatra1 and mainland of ,malacca or ,india4 ,we find these three close neighbours1 occupants of distinct but neighbouring districts1 as a group having a different aspect from the ,rhinoceros of ,africa1 though some of these latter inhabit very similar countries1 but others most diverse stations4 ,we find them intimately related scarcely 8 differences more than some breeds of cattle in structure to the ,rhinoceros1 which for immense periods have inhabited this one1 out of three main zoological divisions of the world4 ,yet some of these ancient animals were fitted to very different stations3 we find all three illegible of the generic character of the ,rhinoceros1 which form a piece of net#agd set of links in the broken chain representing the ,pachydermata1 as the chain likewise forms a portion in other and longer chains4 ,we see this wonderfully in dissecting the coarse leg of all three and finding nearly the same bones as in bat's wings or man's hand1 but we see the clear mark in solid tibia of the fusion into it of the fibula4 ,in all three we find their heads composed of three altered vertebrae1 short neck1 same bones as giraffe4 ,in the upper jaws of all three we find small teeth like rabbit's4 ,in dissecting them in foetal state we find at a not very early stage their form exactly alike the most different animals1 and even with arteries running as in a fish3 and this similarity holds when the young one is produced in womb1 pond1 egg or spawn4 ,now these three undoubted species scarcely differ more than breeds of cattle1 are probably subject to many the same contagious diseases2 if domesticated these forms would vary1 and they might possibly breed together1 and fuse into something#age different from their aboriginal forms2 might be selected to serve different ends4 #agd ,the author doubtless meant that the complex relationships between organisms can be roughly represented by a net in which the knots stand for species4 #age ,between the lines occurs3--one 8 form be lost4 ,now the ,creationist believes these three ,rhinoceroses were created#agf with their deceptive appearance of true1 not illegible relationship2 as well can ,i believe the planets revolve in their present courses not from one law of gravity but from distinct volition of ,creator4 #agf ,the original sentence is here broken up by the insertion of3--out of the dust of ,java1 ,sumatra1 these 8 allied to past and present age and illegible1 with the stamp of inutility in some of their organs and conversion in others4 ,if real species1 sterile one with another1 differently adapted1 now inhabiting different countries1 with different structures and instincts1 are admitted to have common descent1 we can only legitimately stop where our facts stop4 ,look how far in some case a chain of species will lead us4 ,this probably refers to the ,crustacea1 where the two ends of the series have hardly a character in common4 ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #dai4 ,may we not jump 7considering how much extermination1 and how imperfect geological records7 from one sub-genus to another sub-genus4 ,can genera restrain us2 many of the same arguments1 which made us give up species1 inexorably demand genera and families and orders to fall1 and classes tottering4 ,we ought to stop only when clear unity of type1 independent of use and adaptation1 ceases4 ,be it remembered no naturalist pretends to give test from external characters of species2 in many genera the distinction is quite arbitrary#agg4 ,but there remains one other way of comparing species with races2 it is to compare the effects of crossing them4 ,would it not be wonderful1 if the union of two organisms1 produced by two separate acts of ,creation1 blended their characters together when crossed according to the same rules1 as two races which have undoubtedly descended from same parent stock2 yet this can be shown to be the case4 ,for sterility1 though a usual 81 is not an invariable concomitant1 it varies much in degree and has been shown to be probably dependent on causes closely analogous with those which make domesticated organisms sterile4 ,independent of sterility there is no difference between mongrels and hybrids1 as can be shown in a long series of facts4 ,it is strikingly seen in cases of instincts1 when the minds of the two species or races become blended together#agh4 ,in both cases if the half-breed be crossed with either parent for a few generations1 all traces of the one parent form is lost 7as ,koelreuter in two tobacco species almost sterile together71 so that the ,creationist in the case of a species1 must believe that one act of creation is absorbed into another6 #agg ,between the lines occur the words3--,species vary according to same general laws as varieties2 they cross according to same laws4 #agh ,a cross with a bull-dog has affected for many generations the courage and obstinacy of greyhounds1 ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #bad1 vi4 p4 #cbg4 ,illustration3 ,facsimile of the original manuscript of the paragraph on p4 #ej4 ,,conclusion4 ,such are my reasons for believing that specific forms are not immutable4 ,the affinity of different groups1 the unity of types of structure1 the representative forms through which foetus passes1 the metamorphosis of organs1 the abortion of others cease to be metaphorical expressions and become intelligible facts4 ,we no longer look an on animal as a savage does at a ship#agi1 or other great work of art1 as a thing wholly beyond comprehension1 but we feel far more interest in examining it4 ,how interesting is every instinct1 when we speculate on their origin as an hereditary or congenital habit or produced by the selection of individuals differing slightly from their parents4 ,we must look at every complicated mechanism and instinct1 as the summary of a long history1 as the summing up of#ahj useful contrivances1 much like a work of art4 ,how interesting does the distribution of all animals become1 as throwing light on ancient geography4 ,we see some seas bridged over4 ,geology loses in its glory from the imperfection of its archives#aha1 but how does it gain in the immensity of the periods of its formations and of the gaps separating these formations4 ,there is much grandeur in looking at the existing animals either as the lineal descendants of the forms buried under thousand feet of matter1 or as the coheirs of some still more ancient ancestor4 ,it accords with what we know of the law impressed on matter by the ,creator1 that the creation and extinction of forms1 like the birth and death of individuals should be the effect of secondary laws means#ahb4 ,it is derogatory that the ,creator of countless systems of worlds should have created each of the myriads of creeping parasites and slimy worms which have swarmed each day of life on land and water on this one globe4 ,we cease being astonished1 however much we may deplore1 that a group of animals should have been directly created to lay their eggs in bowels and flesh of other1--that some organisms should delight in cruelty1--that animals should be led away by false instincts1--that annually there should be an incalculable waste of eggs and pollen4 ,from death1 famine1 rapine1 and the concealed war of nature we can see that the highest good1 which we can conceive1 the creation of the higher animals has directly come4 ,doubtless it at first transcends our humble powers1 to conceive laws capable of creating individual organisms1 each characterised by the most exquisite workmanship and widely-extended adaptations4 ,it accords better with our modesty the lowness of our faculties to suppose each must require the fiat of a creator1 but in the same proportion the existence of such laws should exalt our notion of the power of the omniscient ,creator#ahc4 ,there is a simple grandeur in the view of life with its powers of growth1 assimilation and reproduction1 being originally breathed into matter under one or a few forms1 and that whilst this our planet has gone circling on according to fixed laws1 and land and water1 in a cycle of change1 have gone on replacing each other1 that from so simple an origin1 through the process of gradual selection of infinitesimal changes1 endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been evolved#ahd4 #agi ,the simile of the savage and the ship occurs in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #dhe1 vi4 p4 #ffe4 #ahj ,in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #dhf1 vi4 p4 #ffe1 the author speaks of the summing up of many contrivances3 ,i have therefore introduced the above words which make the passage clearer4 ,in the ,origin the comparison is with a great mechanical invention1--not with a work of art4 #aha ,see a similar passage in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #dhg1 vi4 p4 #ffg4 #ahb ,see the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #dhh1 vi4 p4 #ffh4 #ahc ,the following discussion1 together with some memoranda are on the last page of the ,,ms4 ,the supposed creative spirit does not create either number or kind which are from analogy adapted to site 7viz4 ,new ,zealand73 it does not keep them all permanently adapted to any country1--it works on spots or areas of creation1--it is not persistent for great periods1--it creates forms of same groups in same regions1 with no physical similarity1--it creates1 on islands or mountain summits1 species allied to the neighbouring ones1 and not allied to alpine nature as shown in other mountain summits--even different on different island of similarly constituted archipelago1 not created on two points3 never mammifers created on small isolated island2 nor number of organisms adapted to locality3 its power seems influenced or related to the range of other species wholly distinct of the same genus1--it does not equally effect1 in amount of difference1 all the groups of the same class4 #ahd ,this passage is the ancestor of the concluding words in the first edition of the ,origin of ,species which have remained substantially unchanged throughout subsequent editions1 ,there is grandeur in this view of life1 with its several powers1 having been originally breathed into a few forms or into one2 and that whilst this planet has gone cycling on according to the fixed law of gravity1 from so simple a beginning endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been1 and are being1 evolved4 ,in the #bnd edition by the ,creator is introduced after originally breathed4 ,n4,b4--,there ought somewhere to be a discussion from ,lyell to show that external conditions do vary1 or a note to ,lyell's works work84 ,besides other difficulties in ii4 ,part1 non-acclimatisation of plants4 ,difficulty when asked how did white and negro become altered from common intermediate stock3 no facts4 ,we do ,,not know that species are immutable1 on the contrary4 ,what arguments against this theory1 except our not perceiving every step1 like the erosion of valleys#ahe4 #ahe ,compare the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #dha1 vi4 p4 #fei1 ,the difficulty is the same as that felt by so many geologists1 when ,lyell first insisted that long lines of inland cliffs had been formed1 and great valleys excavated1 by the slow action of the coast-waves4 ,,the ,,essay ,,of #ahdd ,,part ,i ,,chapter ,i ,,on ,,the ,,variation ,,of ,,organic ,,beings ,,under ,,domestication2 ,,and ,,on ,,the ,,principles ,,of ,,selection ,the most favourable conditions for variation seem to be when organic beings are bred for many generations under domestication#ahf3 one may infer this from the simple fact of the vast number of races and breeds of almost every plant and animal1 which has long been domesticated4 ,under certain conditions organic beings even during their individual lives become slightly altered from their usual form1 size1 or other characters3 and many of the peculiarities thus acquired are transmitted to their offspring4 ,thus in animals1 the size and vigour of body1 fatness1 period of maturity1 habits of body or consensual movements1 habits of mind and temper1 are modified or acquired during the life of the individual#ahg1 and become inherited4 ,there is reason to believe that when long exercise has given to certain muscles great development1 or disuse has lessened them1 that such development is also inherited4 ,food and climate will occasionally produce changes in the colour and texture of the external coverings of animals2 and certain unknown conditions affect the horns of cattle in parts of ,abyssinia2 but whether these peculiarities1 thus acquired during individual lives1 have been inherited1 ,i do not know4 ,it appears certain that malconformation and lameness in horses1 produced by too much work on hard roads1--that affections of the eyes in this animal probably caused by bad ventilation1--that tendencies towards many diseases in man1 such as gout1 caused by the course of life and ultimately producing changes of structure1 and that many other diseases produced by unknown agencies1 such as goitre1 and the idiotcy resulting from it1 all become hereditary4 #ahf ,the cumulative effect of domestication is insisted on in the ,origin1 see e4g4 ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #g1 vi4 p4 #h4 #ahg ,this type of variation passes into what he describes as the direct effect of conditions4 ,since they are due to causes acting during the adult life of the organism they might be called individual variations1 but he uses this term for congenital variations1 e4g4 the differences discoverable in plants raised from seeds of the same pod 7,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #de1 vi4 p4 #ec74 ,it is very doubtful whether the flowers and leaf-buds1 annually produced from the same bulb1 root1 or tree1 can properly be considered as parts of the same individual1 though in some respects they certainly seem to be so4 ,if they are parts of an individual1 plants also are subject to considerable changes during their individual lives4 ,most florist-flowers if neglected degenerate1 that is1 they lose some of their characters2 so common is this1 that trueness is often stated1 as greatly enhancing the value of a variety#ahh3 tulips break their colours only after some years' culture2 some plants become double and others single1 by neglect or care3 these characters can be transmitted by cuttings or grafts1 and in some cases by true or seminal propagation4 ,occasionally a single bud on a plant assumes at once a new and widely different character3 thus it is certain that nectarines have been produced on peach trees and moss roses on provence roses2 white currants on red currant bushes2 flowers of a different colour from that of the stock1 in ,chrysanthemums1 ,dahlias1 sweet-williams1 ,azaleas1 c41 c42 variegated leaf-buds on many trees1 and other similar cases4 ,these new characters appearing in single buds1 can1 like those lesser changes affecting the whole plant1 be multiplied not only by cuttings and such means1 but often likewise by true seminal generation4 #ahh ,it is not clear where the following note is meant to come3 ,case of ,orchis1--most remarkable as not long cultivated by seminal propagation4 ,case of varieties which soon acquire1 like ,a,egilops and ,carrot 7and ,maize7 a certain general character and then go on varying4 ,the changes thus appearing during the lives of individual animals and plants are extremely rare compared with those which are congenital or which appear soon after birth4 ,slight differences thus arising are infinitely numerous3 the proportions and form of every part of the frame1 inside and outside1 appear to vary in very slight degrees3 anatomists dispute what is the beau ideal of the bones1 the liver and kidneys1 like painters do of the proportions of the face3 the proverbial expression that no two animals or plants are born absolutely alike1 is much truer when applied to those under domestication1 than to those in a state of nature#ahi4 ,besides these slight differences1 single individuals are occasionally born considerably unlike in certain parts or in their whole structure to their parents3 these are called by horticulturists and breeders sports2 and are not uncommon except when very strongly marked4 ,such sports are known in some cases to have been parents of some of our domestic races2 and such probably have been the parents of many other races1 especially of those which in some senses may be called hereditary monsters2 for instance where there is an additional limb1 or where all the limbs are stunted 7as in the ,ancon sheep71 or where a part is wanting1 as in rumpless fowls and tailless dogs or cats#aij4 ,the effects of external conditions on the size1 colour and form1 which can rarely and obscurely be detected during one individual life1 become apparent after several generations3 the slight differences1 often hardly describable1 which characterize the stock of different countries1 and even of districts in the same country1 seem to be due to such continued action4 #ahi ,here1 as in the ,,ms4 of #ahdb1 the author is inclined to minimise the variation occurring in nature4 #aij ,this is more strongly stated than in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #cj4 ,on the hereditary tendency4 ,a volume might be filled with facts showing what a strong tendency there is to inheritance1 in almost every case of the most trifling1 as well as of the most remarkable congenital peculiarities#aia4 ,the term congenital peculiarity1 ,i may remark1 is a loose expression and can only mean a peculiarity apparent when the part affected is nearly or fully developed3 in the ,second ,part1 ,i shall have to discuss at what period of the embryonic life connatal peculiarities probably first appear2 and ,i shall then be able to show from some evidence1 that at whatever period of life a new peculiarity first appears1 it tends hereditarily to appear at a corresponding period#aib4 ,numerous though slight changes1 slowly supervening in animals during mature life 7often1 though by no means always1 taking the form of disease71 are1 as stated in the first paragraphs1 very often hereditary4 ,in plants1 again1 the buds which assume a different character from their stock likewise tend to transmit their new peculiarities4 ,there is not sufficient reason to believe that either mutilations#aic or changes of form produced by mechanical pressure1 even if continued for hundreds of generations1 or that any changes of structure quickly produced by disease1 are inherited2 it would appear as if the tissue of the part affected must slowly and freely grow into the new form1 in order to be inheritable4 ,there is a very great difference in the hereditary tendency of different peculiarities1 and of the same peculiarity1 in different individuals and species2 thus twenty thousand seeds of the weeping ash have been sown and not one come up true2--out of seventeen seeds of the weeping yew1 nearly all came up true4 ,the ill-formed and almost monstrous ,niata cattle of ,s4 ,america and ,ancon sheep1 both when bred together and when crossed with other breeds1 seem to transmit their peculiarities to their offspring as truly as the ordinary breeds4 ,i can throw no light on these differences in the power of hereditary transmission4 ,breeders believe1 and apparently with good cause1 that a peculiarity generally becomes more firmly implanted after having passed through several generations2 that is if one offspring out of twenty inherits a peculiarity from its parents1 then its descendants will tend to transmit this peculiarity to a larger proportion than one in twenty2 and so on in succeeding generations4 ,i have said nothing about mental peculiarities being inheritable for ,i reserve this subject for a separate chapter4 #aia ,see ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #ac4 #aib ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #hf1 vi4 p4 #aje4 #aic ,it is interesting to find that though the author1 like his contemporaries1 believed in the inheritance of acquired characters1 he excluded the case of mutilation4 ,causes of ,variation4 ,attention must here be drawn to an important distinction in the first origin or appearance of varieties3 when we see an animal highly kept producing offspring with an hereditary tendency to early maturity and fatness2 when we see the wild-duck and ,australian dog always becoming1 when bred for one or a few generations in confinement1 mottled in their colours2 when we see people living in certain districts or circumstances becoming subject to an hereditary taint to certain organic diseases1 as consumption or plica polonica1--we naturally attribute such changes to the direct effect of known or unknown agencies acting for one or more generations on the parents4 ,it is probable that a multitude of peculiarities may be thus directly caused by unknown external agencies4 ,but in breeds1 characterized by an extra limb or claw1 as in certain fowls and dogs2 by an extra joint in the vertebrae2 by the loss of a part1 as the tail2 by the substitution of a tuft of feathers for a comb in certain poultry2 and in a multitude of other cases1 we can hardly attribute these peculiarities directly to external influences1 but indirectly to the laws of embryonic growth and of reproduction4 ,when we see a multitude of varieties 7as has often been the case1 where a cross has been carefully guarded against7 produced from seeds matured in the very same capsule#aid1 with the male and female principle nourished from the same roots and necessarily exposed to the same external influences2 we cannot believe that the endless slight differences between seedling varieties thus produced1 can be the effect of any corresponding difference in their exposure4 ,we are led 7as ,mueller has remarked7 to the same conclusion1 when we see in the same litter1 produced by the same act of conception1 animals considerably different4 #aid ,this corresponds to ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #aj1 vi4 p4 #i4 ,as variation to the degree here alluded to has been observed only in organic beings under domestication1 and in plants amongst those most highly and long cultivated1 we must attribute1 in such cases1 the varieties 7although the difference between each variety cannot possibly be attributed to any corresponding difference of exposure in the parents7 to the indirect effects of domestication on the action of the reproductive system#aie4 ,it would appear as if the reproductive powers failed in their ordinary function of producing new organic beings closely like their parents2 and as if the entire organization of the embryo1 under domestication1 became in a slight degree plastic#aif4 ,we shall hereafter have occasion to show1 that in organic beings1 a considerable change from the natural conditions of life1 affects1 independently of their general state of health1 in another and remarkable manner the reproductive system4 ,i may add1 judging from the vast number of new varieties of plants which have been produced in the same districts and under nearly the same routine of culture1 that probably the indirect effects of domestication in making the organization plastic1 is a much more efficient source of variation than any direct effect which external causes may have on the colour1 texture1 or form of each part4 ,in the few instances in which1 as in the ,dahlia#aig1 the course of variation has been recorded1 it appears that domestication produces little effect for several generations in rendering the organization plastic2 but afterwards1 as if by an accumulated effect1 the original character of the species suddenly gives way or breaks4 #aie ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #h1 vi4 p4 #aj4 #aif ,for plasticity see ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 pp4 #ab1 #acb4 #aig ,var4 under ,dom41 ,ed4 ii4 ,i4 p4 #cic4 ,on ,selection4 ,we have hitherto only referred to the first appearance in individuals of new peculiarities2 but to make a race or breed1 something more is generally#aih requisite than such peculiarities 7except in the case of the peculiarities being the direct effect of constantly surrounding conditions7 should be inheritable1--namely the principle of selection1 implying separation4 ,even in the rare instances of sports1 with the hereditary tendency very strongly implanted1 crossing must be prevented with other breeds1 or if not prevented the best characterized of the half-bred offspring must be carefully selected4 ,where the external conditions are constantly tending to give some character1 a race possessing this character will be formed with far greater ease by selecting and breeding together the individuals most affected4 ,in the case of the endless slight variations produced by the indirect effects of domestication on the action of the reproductive system1 selection is indispensable to form races2 and when carefully applied1 wonderfully numerous and diverse races can be formed4 ,selection1 though so simple in theory1 is and has been important to a degree which can hardly be overrated4 ,it requires extreme skill1 the results of long practice1 in detecting the slightest difference in the forms of animals1 and it implies some distinct object in view2 with these requisites and patience1 the breeder has simply to watch for every the smallest approach to the desired end1 to select such individuals and pair them with the most suitable forms1 and so continue with succeeding generations4 ,in most cases careful selection and the prevention of accidental crosses will be necessary for several generations1 for in new breeds there is a strong tendency to vary and especially to revert to ancestral forms3 but in every succeeding generation less care will be requisite for the breed will become truer2 until ultimately only an occasional individual will require to be separated or destroyed4 ,horticulturalists in raising seeds regularly practise this1 and call it roguing1 or destroying the rogues or false varieties4 ,there is another and less efficient means of selection amongst animals3 namely repeatedly procuring males with some desirable qualities1 and allowing them and their offspring to breed freely together2 and this in the course of time will affect the whole lot4 ,these principles of selection have been methodically followed for scarcely a century2 but their high importance is shown by the practical results1 and is admitted in the writings of the most celebrated agriculturalists and horticulturalists2--,i need only name ,anderson1 ,marshall1 ,bakewell1 ,coke1 ,western1 ,sebright and ,knight4 #aih ,selection is here used in the sense of isolation1 rather than as implying the summation of small differences4 ,professor ,henslow in his ,heredity of ,acquired ,characters in ,plants1 #aijh1 p4 #b1 quotes from ,darwin's ,var4 under ,dom41 ,ed4 i4 ,,ii4 p4 #bga1 a passage in which the author1 speaking of the direct action of conditions1 says3--,a new sub-variety would thus be produced without the aid of selection4 ,darwin certainly did not mean to imply that such varieties are freed from the action of natural selection1 but merely that a new form may appear without summation of new characters4 ,professor ,henslow is apparently unaware that the above passage is omitted in the second edition of ,var4 under ,dom41 ,,ii4 p4 #bfj4 ,even in well-established breeds the individuals of which to an unpractised eye would appear absolutely similar1 which would give1 it might have been thought1 no scope to selection1 the whole appearance of the animal has been changed in a few years 7as in the case of ,lord ,western's sheep71 so that practised agriculturalists could scarcely credit that a change had not been effected by a cross with other breeds4 ,breeders both of plants and animals frequently give their means of selection greater scope1 by crossing different breeds and selecting the offspring2 but we shall have to recur to this subject again4 ,the external conditions will doubtless influence and modify the results of the most careful selection2 it has been found impossible to prevent certain breeds of cattle from degenerating on mountain pastures2 it would probably be impossible to keep the plumage of the wild-duck in the domesticated race2 in certain soils1 no care has been sufficient to raise cauliflower seed true to its character2 and so in many other cases4 ,but with patience it is wonderful what man has effected4 ,he has selected and therefore in one sense made one breed of horses to race and another to pull2 he has made sheep with fleeces good for carpets and other sheep good for broadcloth2 he has1 in the same sense1 made one dog to find game and give him notice when found1 and another dog to fetch him the game when killed2 he has made by selection the fat to lie mixed with the meat in one breed and in another to accumulate in the bowels for the tallow-chandler#aii2 he has made the legs of one breed of pigeons long1 and the beak of another so short1 that it can hardly feed itself2 he has previously determined how the feathers on a bird's body shall be coloured1 and how the petals of many flowers shall be streaked or fringed1 and has given prizes for complete success2--by selection1 he has made the leaves of one variety and the flower-buds of another variety of the cabbage good to eat1 at different seasons of the year2 and thus has he acted on endless varieties4 ,i do not wish to affirm that the long-and short-wooled sheep1 or that the pointer and retriever1 or that the cabbage and cauliflower have certainly descended from one and the same aboriginal wild stock2 if they have not so descended1 though it lessens what man has effected1 a large result must be left unquestioned4 #aii ,see the ,essay of #ahdb1 p4 #c4 ,in saying as ,i have done that man makes a breed1 let it not be confounded with saying that man makes the individuals1 which are given by nature with certain desirable qualities2 man only adds together and makes a permanent gift of nature's bounties4 ,in several cases1 indeed1 for instance in the ,ancon sheep1 valuable from not getting over fences1 and in the turnspit dog1 man has probably only prevented crossing2 but in many cases we positively know that he has gone on selecting1 and taking advantage of successive small variations4 ,selection#bjj has been methodically followed1 as ,i have said1 for barely a century2 but it cannot be doubted that occasionally it has been practised from the remotest ages1 in those animals completely under the dominion of man4 ,in the earliest chapters of the ,bible there are rules given for influencing the colours of breeds1 and black and white sheep are spoken of as separated4 ,in the time of ,pliny the barbarians of ,europe and ,asia endeavoured by cross-breeding with a wild stock to improve the races of their dogs and horses4 ,the savages of ,guyana now do so with their dogs3 such care shows at least that the characters of individual animals were attended to4 ,in the rudest times of ,english history1 there were laws to prevent the exportation of fine animals of established breeds1 and in the case of horses1 in ,henry ,,viii's time1 laws for the destruction of all horses under a certain size4 ,in one of the oldest numbers of the ,phil4 ,transactions1 there are rules for selecting and improving the breeds of sheep4 ,sir ,h4 ,bunbury1 in #affj1 has given rules for selecting the finest seedling plants1 with as much precision as the best recent horticulturalist could4 ,even in the most savage and rude nations1 in the wars and famines which so frequently occur1 the most useful of their animals would be preserved3 the value set upon animals by savages is shown by the inhabitants of ,tierra del ,fuego devouring their old women before their dogs1 which as they asserted are useful in otter-hunting#bja3 who can doubt but that in every case of famine and war1 the best otter-hunters would be preserved1 and therefore in fact selected for breeding4 ,as the offspring so obviously take after their parents1 and as we have seen that savages take pains in crossing their dogs and horses with wild stocks1 we may even conclude as probable that they would sometimes pair the most useful of their animals and keep their offspring separate4 ,as different races of men require and admire different qualities in their domesticated animals1 each would thus slowly1 though unconsciously1 be selecting a different breed4 ,as ,pallas has remarked1 who can doubt but that the ancient ,russian would esteem and endeavour to preserve those sheep in his flocks which had the thickest coats4 ,this kind of insensible selection by which new breeds are not selected and kept separate1 but a peculiar character is slowly given to the whole mass of the breed1 by often saving the life of animals with certain characteristics1 we may feel nearly sure1 from what we see has been done by the more direct method of separate selection within the last #ej years in ,england1 would in the course of some thousand years produce a marked effect4 #bjj ,see ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #cc1 vi4 p4 #ch4 ,the evidence is given in the present ,essay rather more fully than in the ,origin4 #bja ,journal of ,researches1 ,ed4 #ahfj1 p4 #bad4 ,doggies catch otters1 old women no4 ,crossing ,breeds4 ,when once two or more races are formed1 or if more than one race1 or species fertile inter se1 originally existed in a wild state1 their crossing becomes a most copious source of new races#bjb4 ,when two well-marked races are crossed the offspring in the first generation take more or less after either parent or are quite intermediate between them1 or rarely assume characters in some degree new4 ,in the second and several succeeding generations1 the offspring are generally found to vary exceedingly1 one compared with another1 and many revert nearly to their ancestral forms4 ,this greater variability in succeeding generations seems analogous to the breaking or variability of organic beings after having been bred for some generations under domestication#bjc4 ,so marked is this variability in cross-bred descendants1 that ,pallas and some other naturalists have supposed that all variation is due to an original cross2 but ,i conceive that the history of the potato1 ,dahlia1 ,scotch ,rose1 the guinea-pig1 and of many trees in this country1 where only one species of the genus exists1 clearly shows that a species may vary where there can have been no crossing4 ,owing to this variability and tendency to reversion in cross-bred beings1 much careful selection is requisite to make intermediate or new permanent races3 nevertheless crossing has been a most powerful engine1 especially with plants1 where means of propagation exist by which the cross-bred varieties can be secured without incurring the risk of fresh variation from seminal propagation3 with animals the most skilful agriculturalists now greatly prefer careful selection from a well-established breed1 rather than from uncertain cross-bred stocks4 #bjb ,the effects of crossing is much more strongly stated here than in the ,origin4 ,see ,ed4 i4 p4 #bj1 vi4 p4 #bc1 where indeed the opposite point of view is given4 ,his change of opinion may be due to his work on pigeons4 ,the whole of the discussion on crossing corresponds to ,chapter ,,viii of the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 rather than to anything in the earlier part of the book4 #bjc ,the parallelism between the effects of a cross and the effects of conditions is given from a different point of view in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #bff1 vi4 p4 #cia4 ,see the experimental evidence for this important principle in the author's work on ,cross and ,self-,fertilisation4 ,professor ,bateson has suggested that the experiments should be repeated with gametically pure plants4 ,although intermediate and new races may be formed by the mingling of others1 yet if the two races are allowed to mingle quite freely1 so that none of either parent race remain pure1 then1 especially if the parent races are not widely different1 they will slowly blend together1 and the two races will be destroyed1 and one mongrel race left in its place4 ,this will of course happen in a shorter time1 if one of the parent races exists in greater number than the other4 ,we see the effect of this mingling1 in the manner in which the aboriginal breeds of dogs and pigs in the ,oceanic ,islands and the many breeds of our domestic animals introduced into ,s4 ,america1 have all been lost and absorbed in a mongrel race4 ,it is probably owing to the freedom of crossing1 that1 in uncivilised countries1 where inclosures do not exist1 we seldom meet with more than one race of a species3 it is only in enclosed countries1 where the inhabitants do not migrate1 and have conveniences for separating the several kinds of domestic animals1 that we meet with a multitude of races4 ,even in civilised countries1 want of care for a few years has been found to destroy the good results of far longer periods of selection and separation4 ,this power of crossing will affect the races of all terrestrial animals2 for all terrestrial animals require for their reproduction the union of two individuals4 ,amongst plants1 races will not cross and blend together with so much freedom as in terrestrial animals2 but this crossing takes place through various curious contrivances to a surprising extent4 ,in fact such contrivances exist in so very many hermaphrodite flowers by which an occasional cross may take place1 that ,i cannot avoid suspecting 7with ,mr ,knight7 that the reproductive action requires1 at intervals1 the concurrence of distinct individuals#bjd4 ,most breeders of plants and animals are firmly convinced that benefit is derived from an occasional cross1 not with another race1 but with another family of the same race2 and that1 on the other hand1 injurious consequences follow from long-continued close interbreeding in the same family4 ,of marine animals1 many more1 than was till lately believed1 have their sexes on separate individuals2 and where they are hermaphrodite1 there seems very generally to be means through the water of one individual occasionally impregnating another3 if individual animals can singly propagate themselves for perpetuity1 it is unaccountable that no terrestrial animal1 where the means of observation are more obvious1 should be in this predicament of singly perpetuating its kind4 ,i conclude1 then1 that races of most animals and plants1 when unconfined in the same country1 would tend to blend together4 #bjd ,the so-called ,knight-,darwin ,law is often misunderstood4 ,see ,goebel in ,darwin and ,modern ,science1 #aiji1 p4 #dai2 also ,f4 ,darwin1 ,nature1 ,oct4 #bg1 #ahih4 ,whether our domestic races have descended from one or more wild stocks4 ,several naturalists1 of whom ,pallas#bje regarding animals1 and ,humboldt regarding certain plants1 were the first1 believe that the breeds of many of our domestic animals such as of the horse1 pig1 dog1 sheep1 pigeon1 and poultry1 and of our plants have descended from more than one aboriginal form4 ,they leave it doubtful1 whether such forms are to be considered wild races1 or true species1 whose offspring are fertile when crossed inter se4 ,the main arguments for this view consist1 firstly1 of the great difference between such breeds1 as the ,race-and ,cart-,horse1 or the ,greyhound and ,bull-dog1 and of our ignorance of the steps or stages through which these could have passed from a common parent2 and secondly that in the most ancient historical periods1 breeds resembling some of those at present most different1 existed in different countries4 ,the wolves of ,n4 ,america and of ,siberia are thought to be different species2 and it has been remarked that the dogs belonging to the savages in these two countries resemble the wolves of the same country2 and therefore that they have probably descended from two different wild stocks4 ,in the same manner1 these naturalists believe that the horse of ,arabia and of ,europe have probably descended from two wild stocks both apparently now extinct4 ,i do not think the assumed fertility of these wild stocks any very great difficulty on this view2 for although in animals the offspring of most cross-bred species are infertile1 it is not always remembered that the experiment is very seldom fairly tried1 except when two near species both breed freely 7which does not readily happen1 as we shall hereafter see7 when under the dominion of man4 ,moreover in the case of the ,china#bjf and common goose1 the canary and siskin1 the hybrids breed freely2 in other cases the offspring from hybrids crossed with either pure parent are fertile1 as is practically taken advantage of with the yak and cow2 as far as the analogy of plants serves1 it is impossible to deny that some species are quite fertile inter se2 but to this subject we shall recur4 #bje ,pallas' theory is discussed in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 pp4 #bec1 #bed1 vi4 p4 #cgd4 #bjf ,see ,darwin's paper on the fertility of hybrids from the common and ,chinese goose in ,nature1 ,jan4 #a1 #ahhj4 ,on the other hand1 the upholders of the view that the several breeds of dogs1 horses1 c41 c41 have descended each from one stock1 may aver that their view removes all difficulty about fertility1 and that the main argument from the high antiquity of different breeds1 somewhat similar to the present breeds1 is worth little without knowing the date of the domestication of such animals1 which is far from being the case4 ,they may also with more weight aver that1 knowing that organic beings under domestication do vary in some degree1 the argument from the great difference between certain breeds is worth nothing1 without we know the limits of variation during a long course of time1 which is far from the case4 ,they may argue that almost every county in ,england1 and in many districts of other countries1 for instance in ,india1 there are slightly different breeds of the domestic animals2 and that it is opposed to all that we know of the distribution of wild animals to suppose that these have descended from so many different wild races or species3 if so1 they may argue1 is it not probable that countries quite separate and exposed to different climates would have breeds not slightly1 but considerably1 different8 ,taking the most favourable case1 on both sides1 namely that of the dog2 they might urge that such breeds as the bull-dog and turnspit have been reared by man1 from the ascertained fact that strictly analogous breeds 7namely the ,niata ox and ,ancon sheep7 in other quadrupeds have thus originated4 ,again they may say1 seeing what training and careful selection has effected for the greyhound1 and seeing how absolutely unfit the ,italian greyhound is to maintain itself in a state of nature1 is it not probable that at least all greyhounds1--from the rough deerhound1 the smooth ,persian1 the common ,english1 to the ,italian1--have descended from one stock#bjg8 ,if so1 is it so improbable that the deerhound and long-legged shepherd dog have so descended8 ,if we admit this1 and give up the bull-dog1 we can hardly dispute the probable common descent of the other breeds4 #bjg ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #ai1 vi4 p4 #bb4 ,the evidence is so conjectural and balanced on both sides that at present ,i conceive that no one can decide3 for my own part1 ,i lean to the probability of most of our domestic animals having descended from more than one wild stock2 though from the arguments last advanced and from reflecting on the slow though inevitable effect of different races of mankind1 under different circumstances1 saving the lives of and therefore selecting the individuals most useful to them1 ,i cannot doubt but that one class of naturalists have much overrated the probable number of the aboriginal wild stocks4 ,as far as we admit the difference of our races to be due to the differences of their original stocks1 so much must we give up of the amount of variation produced under domestication4 ,but this appears to me unimportant1 for we certainly know in some few cases1 for instance in the ,dahlia1 and potato1 and rabbit1 that a great number of varieties have proceeded from one stock2 and1 in many of our domestic races1 we know that man1 by slowly selecting and by taking advantage of sudden sports1 has considerably modified old races and produced new ones4 ,whether we consider our races as the descendants of one or several wild stocks1 we are in far the greater number of cases equally ignorant what these stocks were4 ,limits to ,variation in degree and kind4 ,man's power in making races deends1 in the first instance1 on the stock on which he works being variable2 but his labours are modified and limited1 as we have seen1 by the direct effects of the external conditions1--by the deficient or imperfect hereditariness of new peculiarities1--and by the tendency to continual variation and especially to reversion to ancestral forms4 ,if the stock is not variable under domestication1 of course he can do nothing2 and it appears that species differ considerably in this tendency to variation1 in the same way as even sub-varieties from the same variety differ greatly in this respect1 and transmit to their offspring this difference in tendency4 ,whether the absence of a tendency to vary is an unalterable quality in certain species1 or depends on some deficient condition of the particular state of domestication to which they are exposed1 there is no evidence4 ,when the organization is rendered variable1 or plastic1 as ,i have expressed it1 under domestication1 different parts of the frame vary more or less in different species3 thus in the breeds of cattle it has been remarked that the horns are the most constant or least variable character1 for these often remain constant1 whilst the colour1 size1 proportions of the body1 tendency to fatten c41 vary2 in sheep1 ,i believe1 the horns are much more variable4 ,as a general rule the less important parts of the organization seem to vary most1 but ,i think there is sufficient evidence that every part occasionally varies in a slight degree4 ,even when man has the primary requisite variability he is necessarily checked by the health and life of the stock he is working on3 thus he has already made pigeons with such small beaks that they can hardly eat and will not rear their own young2 he has made families of sheep with so strong a tendency to early maturity and to fatten1 that in certain pastures they cannot live from their extreme liability to inflammation2 he has made 7i4e4 selected7 sub-varieties of plants with a tendency to such early growth that they are frequently killed by the spring frosts2 he has made a breed of cows having calves with such large hinder quarters that they are born with great difficulty1 often to the death of their mothers#bjh2 the breeders were compelled to remedy this by the selection of a breeding stock with smaller hinder quarters2 in such a case1 however1 it is possible by long patience and great loss1 a remedy might have been found in selecting cows capable of giving birth to calves with large hinder quarters1 for in human kind there are no doubt hereditary bad and good confinements4 ,besides the limits already specified1 there can be little doubt that the variation of different parts of the frame are connected together by many laws#bji3 thus the two sides of the body1 in health and disease1 seem almost always to vary together3 it has been asserted by breeders that if the head is much elongated1 the bones of the extremities will likewise be so2 in seedling-apples large leaves and fruit generally go together1 and serve the horticulturalist as some guide in his selection2 we can here see the reason1 as the fruit is only a metamorphosed leaf4 ,in animals the teeth and hair seem connected1 for the hairless ,chinese dog is almost toothless4 ,breeders believe that one part of the frame or function being increased causes other parts to decrease3 they dislike great horns and great bones as so much flesh lost2 in hornless breeds of cattle certain bones of the head become more developed3 it is said that fat accumulating in one part checks its accumulation in another1 and likewise checks the action of the udder4 ,the whole organization is so connected that it is probable there are many conditions determining the variation of each part1 and causing other parts to vary with it2 and man in making new races must be limited and ruled by all such laws4 #bjh ,var4 under ,dom41 ,ed4 ii4 vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #baa4 #bji ,this discussion corresponds to the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 pp4 #aa and #adc1 vi4 pp4 #ac and #agg4 ,in what consists ,domestication4 ,in this chapter we have treated of variation under domestication1 and it now remains to consider in what does this power of domestication consist#baj1 a subject of considerable difficulty4 ,observing that organic beings of almost every class1 in all climates1 countries1 and times1 have varied when long bred under domestication1 we must conclude that the influence is of some very general nature#baa4 ,mr ,knight alone1 as far as ,i know1 has tried to define it2 he believes it consists of an excess of food1 together with transport to a more genial climate1 or protection from its severities4 ,i think we cannot admit this latter proposition1 for we know how many vegetable products1 aborigines of this country1 here vary1 when cultivated without any protection from the weather2 and some of our variable trees1 as apricots1 peaches1 have undoubtedly been derived from a more genial climate4 ,there appears to be much more truth in the doctrine of excess of food being the cause1 though ,i much doubt whether this is the sole cause1 although it may well be requisite for the kind of variation desired by man1 namely increase of size and vigour4 ,no doubt horticulturalists1 when they wish to raise new seedlings1 often pluck off all the flower-buds1 except a few1 or remove the whole during one season1 so that a great stock of nutriment may be thrown into the flowers which are to seed4 ,when plants are transported from high-lands1 forests1 marshes1 heaths1 into our gardens and greenhouses1 there must be a considerable change of food1 but it would be hard to prove that there was in every case an excess of the kind proper to the plant4 ,if it be an excess of food1 compared with that which the being obtained in its natural state#bab1 the effects continue for an improbably long time2 during how many ages has wheat been cultivated1 and cattle and sheep reclaimed1 and we cannot suppose their amount of food has gone on increasing1 nevertheless these are amongst the most variable of our domestic productions4 ,it has been remarked 7,marshall7 that some of the most highly kept breeds of sheep and cattle are truer or less variable than the straggling animals of the poor1 which subsist on commons1 and pick up a bare subsistence#bac4 ,in the case of forest-trees raised in nurseries1 which vary more than the same trees do in their aboriginal forests1 the cause would seem simply to lie in their not having to struggle against other trees and weeds1 which in their natural state doubtless would limit the conditions of their existence4 ,it appears to me that the power of domestication resolves itself into the accumulated effects of a change of all or some of the natural conditions of the life of the species1 often associated with excess of food4 ,these conditions moreover1 ,i may add1 can seldom remain1 owing to the mutability of the affairs1 habits1 migrations1 and knowledge of man1 for very long periods the same4 ,i am the more inclined to come to this conclusion from finding1 as we shall hereafter show1 that changes of the natural conditions of existence seem peculiarly to affect the action of the reproductive system#bad4 ,as we see that hybrids and mongrels1 after the first generation1 are apt to vary much1 we may at least conclude that variability does not altogether depend on excess of food4 #baj ,see ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #g1 vi4 p4 #g4 #baa ,note in the original4 ,isidore ,g4 ,st ,hilaire insists that breeding in captivity essential element4 ,schleiden on alkalies4 ,see ,var4 under ,dom41 ,ed4 ii4 vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #bdd1 note #aj4 ,what is it in domestication which causes variation8 #bab ,note in the original4 ,it appears that slight changes of condition are good for health2 that more change affects the generative system1 so that variation results in the offspring2 that still more change checks or destroys fertility not of the offspring4 ,compare the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #i1 vi4 p4 #aa4 ,what the meaning of not of the offspring may be is not clear4 #bac ,in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #da1 vi4 p4 #df the question is differently treated2 it is pointed out that a large stock of individuals gives a better chance of available variations occurring4 ,darwin quotes from ,marshall that sheep in small lots can never be improved4 ,this comes from ,marshall's ,review of the ,reports to the ,board of ,agriculture1 #ahjh1 p4 #djf4 ,in this ,essay the name ,marshall occurs in the margin4 ,probably this refers to loc4 cit4 p4 #bjj1 where unshepherded sheep in many parts of ,england are said to be similar owing to mixed breeding not being avoided4 #bad ,see ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #h1 vi4 p4 #h4 ,after these views1 it may be asked how it comes that certain animals and plants1 which have been domesticated for a considerable length of time1 and transported from very different conditions of existence1 have not varied much1 or scarcely at all2 for instance1 the ass1 peacock1 guinea-fowl1 asparagus1 ,jerusalem artichoke#bae4 ,i have already said that probably different species1 like different sub-varieties1 possess different degrees of tendency to vary2 but ,i am inclined to attribute in these cases the want of numerous races less to want of variability than to selection not having been practised on them4 ,no one will take the pains to select without some corresponding object1 either of use or amusement2 the individuals raised must be tolerably numerous1 and not so precious1 but that he may freely destroy those not answering to his wishes4 ,if guinea-fowls or peacocks#baf became fancy birds1 ,i cannot doubt that after some generations several breeds would be raised4 ,asses have not been worked on from mere neglect2 but they differ in some degree in different countries4 ,the insensible selection1 due to different races of mankind preserving those individuals most useful to them in their different circumstances1 will apply only to the oldest and most widely domesticated animals4 ,in the case of plants1 we must put entirely out of the case those exclusively 7or almost so7 propagated by cuttings1 layers or tubers1 such as the ,jerusalem artichoke and laurel2 and if we put on one side plants of little ornament or use1 and those which are used at so early a period of their growth that no especial characters signify1 as asparagus#bag and seakale1 ,i can think of none long cultivated which have not varied4 ,in no case ought we to expect to find as much variation in a race when it alone has been formed1 as when several have been formed1 for their crossing and recrossing will greatly increase their variability4 #bae ,see ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #db1 vi4 p4 #dh4 #baf ,note in the original4 ,there are white peacocks4 #bag ,note in the original4 ,there are varieties of asparagus4 ,summary of first ,chapter4 ,to sum up this chapter4 ,races are made under domestication3 #ast1 by the direct effects of the external conditions to which the species is exposed3 #bnd1 by the indirect effects of the exposure to new conditions1 often aided by excess of food1 rendering the organization plastic1 and by man's selecting and separately breeding certain individuals1 or introducing to his stock selected males1 or often preserving with care the life of the individuals best adapted to his purposes3 #crd1 by crossing and recrossing races already made1 and selecting their offspring4 ,after some generations man may relax his care in selection3 for the tendency to vary and to revert to ancestral forms will decrease1 so that he will have only occasionally to remove or destroy one of the yearly offspring which departs from its type4 ,ultimately1 with a large stock1 the effects of free crossing would keep1 even without this care1 his breed true4 ,by these means man can produce infinitely numerous races1 curiously adapted to ends1 both most important and most frivolous2 at the same time that the effects of the surrounding conditions1 the laws of inheritance1 of growth1 and of variation1 will modify and limit his labours4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,on ,,the ,,variation ,,of ,,organic ,,beings ,,in ,a ,,wild ,,state2 ,,on ,,the ,,natural ,,means ,,of ,,selection2 ,,and ,,on ,,the ,,comparison ,,of ,,domestic ,,races ,,and ,,true ,,species ,having treated of variation under domestication1 we now come to it in a state of nature4 ,most organic beings in a state of nature vary exceedingly little#bah3 ,i put out of the case variations 7as stunted plants c41 and sea-shells in brackish water#bai7 which are directly the effect of external agencies and which we do not know are in the breed#bbj1 or are hereditary4 ,the amount of hereditary variation is very difficult to ascertain1 because naturalists 7partly from the want of knowledge1 and partly from the inherent difficulty of the subject7 do not all agree whether certain forms are species or races#bba4 ,some strongly marked races of plants1 comparable with the decided sports of horticulturalists1 undoubtedly exist in a state of nature1 as is actually known by experiment1 for instance in the primrose and cowslip#bbb1 in two so-called species of dandelion1 in two of foxglove#bbc1 and ,i believe in some pines4 ,lamarck has observed that1 as long as we confine our attention to one limited country1 there is seldom much difficulty in deciding what forms to call species and what varieties2 and that it is when collections flow in from all parts of the world that naturalists often feel at a loss to decide the limit of variation4 ,undoubtedly so it is1 yet amongst ,british plants 7and ,i may add land shells71 which are probably better known than any in the world1 the best naturalists differ very greatly in the relative proportions of what they call species and what varieties4 ,in many genera of insects1 and shells1 and plants1 it seems almost hopeless to establish which are which4 ,in the higher classes there are less doubts2 though we find considerable difficulty in ascertaining what deserve to be called species amongst foxes and wolves1 and in some birds1 for instance in the case of the white barn-owl4 ,when specimens are brought from different parts of the world1 how often do naturalists dispute this same question1 as ,i found with respect to the birds brought from the ,galapagos islands4 ,yarrell has remarked that the individuals of the same undoubted species of birds1 from ,europe and ,n4 ,america1 usually present slight1 indefinable though perceptible differences4 ,the recognition indeed of one animal by another of its kind seems to imply some difference4 ,the disposition of wild animals undoubtedly differs4 ,the variation1 such as it is1 chiefly affects the same parts in wild organisms as in domestic breeds2 for instance1 the size1 colour1 and the external and less important parts4 ,in many species the variability of certain organs or qualities is even stated as one of the specific characters3 thus1 in plants1 colour1 size1 hairiness1 the number of the stamens and pistils1 and even their presence1 the form of the leaves2 the size and form of the mandibles of the males of some insects2 the length and curvature of the beak in some birds 7as in ,opetiorynchus7 are variable characters in some species and quite fixed in others4 ,i do not perceive that any just distinction can be drawn between this recognised variability of certain parts in many species and the more general variability of the whole frame in domestic races4 #bah ,in ,chapter ,,ii of the first edition of the ,origin ,darwin insists rather on the presence of variability in a state of nature2 see1 for instance1 p4 #de1 ,ed4 vi4 p4 #ec1 ,i am convinced that the most experienced naturalist would be surprised at the number of the cases of variability 444 which he could collect on good authority1 as ,i have collected1 during a course of years4 #bai ,see ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #dd1 vi4 p4 #eb4 #bbj ,note in the original4 ,here discuss what is a species1 sterility can most rarely be told when crossed4--,descent from common stock4 #bba ,note in the original4 ,give only rule3 chain of intermediate forms1 and analogy2 this important4 ,every ,naturalist at first when he gets hold of new variable type is quite puzzled to know what to think species and what variations4 #bbb ,the author had not at this time the knowledge of the meaning of dimorphism4 #bbc ,note in original4 ,compare feathered heads in very different birds with spines in ,echidna and ,hedgehog4 ,in ,variation under ,domestication1 ,ed4 ii4 vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #cag1 ,darwin calls attention to laced and frizzled breeds occurring in both fowls and pigeons4 ,in the same way a peculiar form of covering occurs in ,echidna and the hedgehog4 ,plants under very different climate not varying4 ,digitalis shows jumps 8 in variation1 like ,laburnum and ,orchis case--in fact hostile cases4 ,variability of sexual characters alike in domestic and wild4 ,although the amount of variation be exceedingly small in most organic beings in a state of nature1 and probably quite wanting 7as far as our senses serve7 in the majority of cases2 yet considering how many animals and plants1 taken by mankind from different quarters of the world for the most diverse purposes1 have varied under domestication in every country and in every age1 ,i think we may safely conclude that all organic beings with few exceptions1 if capable of being domesticated and bred for long periods1 would vary4 ,domestication seems to resolve itself into a change from the natural conditions of the species generally perhaps including an increase of food2 if this be so1 organisms in a state of nature must occasionally1 in the course of ages1 be exposed to analogous influences2 for geology clearly shows that many places must1 in the course of time1 become exposed to the widest range of climatic and other influences2 and if such places be isolated1 so that new and better adapted organic beings cannot freely emigrate1 the old inhabitants will be exposed to new influences1 probably far more varied1 than man applies under the form of domestication4 ,although every species no doubt will soon breed up to the full number which the country will support1 yet it is easy to conceive that1 on an average1 some species may receive an increase of food2 for the times of dearth may be short1 yet enough to kill1 and recurrent only at long intervals4 ,all such changes of conditions from geological causes would be exceedingly slow2 what effect the slowness might have we are ignorant2 under domestication it appears that the effects of change of conditions accumulate1 and then break out4 ,whatever might be the result of these slow geological changes1 we may feel sure1 from the means of dissemination common in a lesser or greater degree to every organism taken conjointly with the changes of geology1 which are steadily 7and sometimes suddenly1 as when an isthmus at last separates7 in progress1 that occasionally organisms must suddenly be introduced into new regions1 where1 if the conditions of existence are not so foreign as to cause its extermination1 it will often be propagated under circumstances still more closely analogous to those of domestication2 and therefore we expect will evince a tendency to vary4 ,it appears to me quite inexplicable if this has never happened2 but it can happen very rarely4 ,let us then suppose that an organism by some chance 7which might be hardly repeated in #ajjj years7 arrives at a modern volcanic island in process of formation and not fully stocked with the most appropriate organisms2 the new organism might readily gain a footing1 although the external conditions were considerably different from its native ones4 ,the effect of this we might expect would influence in some small degree the size1 colour1 nature of covering c41 and from inexplicable influences even special parts and organs of the body4 ,but we might further 7and this is far more important7 expect that the reproductive system would be affected1 as under domesticity1 and the structure of the offspring rendered in some degree plastic4 ,hence almost every part of the body would tend to vary from the typical form in slight degrees1 and in no determinate way1 and therefore without selection the free crossing of these small variations 7together with the tendency to reversion to the original form7 would constantly be counteracting this unsettling effect of the extraneous conditions on the reproductive system4 ,such1 ,i conceive1 would be the unimportant result without selection4 ,and here ,i must observe that the foregoing remarks are equally applicable to that small and admitted amount of variation which has been observed in some organisms in a state of nature2 as well as to the above hypothetical variation consequent on changes of condition4 ,let us now suppose a ,being#bbd with penetration sufficient to perceive differences in the outer and innermost organization quite imperceptible to man1 and with forethought extending over future centuries to watch with unerring care and select for any object the offspring of an organism produced under the foregoing circumstances2 ,i can see no conceivable reason why he could not form a new race 7or several were he to separate the stock of the original organism and work on several islands7 adapted to new ends4 ,as we assume his discrimination1 and his forethought1 and his steadiness of object1 to be incomparably greater that those qualities in man1 so we may suppose the beauty and complications of the adaptations of the new races and their differences from the original stock to be greater than in the domestic races produced by man's agency3 the ground-work of his labours we may aid by supposing that the external conditions of the volcanic island1 from its continued emergence and the occasional introduction of new immigrants1 vary2 and thus to act on the reproductive system of the organism1 on which he is at work1 and so keep its organization somewhat plastic4 ,with time enough1 such a ,being might rationally 7without some unknown law opposed him7 aim at almost any result4 #bbd ,a corresponding passage occurs in ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #hc1 vi4 p4 #aja1 where however ,nature takes the place of the selecting ,being4 ,for instance1 let this imaginary ,being wish1 from seeing a plant growing on the decaying matter in a forest and choked by other plants1 to give it power of growing on the rotten stems of trees1 he would commence selecting every seedling whose berries were in the smallest degree more attractive to tree-frequenting birds1 so as to cause a proper dissemination of the seeds1 and at the same time he would select those plants which had in the slightest degree more and more power of drawing nutriment from rotten wood2 and he would destroy all other seedlings with less of this power4 ,he might thus1 in the course of century after century1 hope to make the plant by degrees grow on rotten wood1 even high up on trees1 wherever birds dropped the non-digested seeds4 ,he might then1 if the organization of the plant was plastic1 attempt by continued selection of chance seedlings to make it grow on less and less rotten wood1 till it would grow on sound wood#bbe4 ,supposing again1 during these changes the plant failed to seed quite freely from non-impregnation1 he might begin selecting seedlings with a little sweeter or differently tasted honey or pollen1 to tempt insects to visit the flowers regularly3 having effected this1 he might wish1 if it profited the plant1 to render abortive the stamens and pistils in different flowers1 which he could do by continued selection4 ,by such steps he might aim at making a plant as wonderfully related to other organic beings as is the mistletoe1 whose existence absolutely depends on certain insects for impregnation1 certain birds for transportal1 and certain trees for growth4 ,furthermore1 if the insect which had been induced regularly to visit this hypothetical plant profited much by it1 our same ,being might wish by selection to modify by gradual selection the insect's structure1 so as to facilitate its obtaining the honey or pollen3 in this manner he might adapt the insect 7always presupposing its organization to be in some degree plastic7 to the flower1 and the impregnation of the flower to the insect2 as is the case with many bees and many plants4 #bbe ,the mistletoe is used as an illustration in ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #c1 vi4 p4 #c1 but with less detail4 ,seeing what blind capricious man has actually effected by selection during the few last years1 and what in a ruder state he has probably effected without any systematic plan during the last few thousand years1 he will be a bold person who will positively put limits to what the supposed ,being could effect during whole geological periods4 ,in accordance with the plan by which this universe seems governed by the ,creator1 let us consider whether there exists any secondary means in the economy of nature by which the process of selection could go on adapting1 nicely and wonderfully1 organisms1 if in ever so small a degree plastic1 to diverse ends4 ,i believe such secondary means do exist#bbf4 #bbf ,note in original4 ,the selection1 in cases where adult lives only few hours as ,ephemera1 must fall on larva--curious speculation of the effect which changes in it would bring in parent4 ,natural means of ,selection#bbg4 #bbg ,this section forms part of the joint paper by ,darwin and ,wallace read before the ,linnean ,society on ,july #a1 #aheh4 ,de ,candolle1 in an eloquent passage1 has declared that all nature is at war1 one organism with another1 or with external nature4 ,seeing the contented face of nature1 this may at first be well doubted2 but reflection will inevitably prove it is too true4 ,the war1 however1 is not constant1 but only recurrent in a slight degree at short periods and more severely at occasional more distant periods2 and hence its effects are easily overlooked4 ,it is the doctrine of ,malthus applied in most cases with ten-fold force4 ,as in every climate there are seasons for each of its inhabitants of greater and less abundance1 so all annually breed2 and the moral restraint1 which in some small degree checks the increase of mankind1 is entirely lost4 ,even slow-breeding mankind has doubled in #be years#bbh1 and if he could increase his food with greater ease1 he would double in less time4 ,but for animals1 without artificial means1 on an average the amount of food for each species must be constant2 whereas the increase of all organisms tends to be geometrical1 and in a vast majority of cases at an enormous ratio4 ,suppose in a certain spot there are eight pairs of robins birds1 and that only four pairs of them annually 7including double hatches7 rear only four young2 and that these go on rearing their young at the same rate3 then at the end of seven years 7a short life1 excluding violent deaths1 for any birds7 there will be #bjdh robins1 instead of the original sixteen2 as this increase is quite impossible1 so we must conclude either that robins do not rear nearly half their young or that the average life of a robin when reared is from accident not nearly seven years4 ,both checks probably concur4 ,the same kind of calculation applied to all vegetables and animals produces results either more or less striking1 but in scarcely a single instance less striking than in man#bbi4 #bbh ,occurs in ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #fd1 vi4 p4 #gi4 #bbi ,corresponds approximately with ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 pp4 #fd-fe1 vi4 p4 #hj4 ,many practical illustrations of this rapid tendency to increase are on record1 namely during peculiar seasons1 in the extraordinary increase of certain animals1 for instance during the years #ahbf to #ahbh1 in ,la ,plata1 when from drought1 some millions of cattle perished1 the whole country swarmed with innumerable mice3 now ,i think it cannot be doubted that during the breeding season all the mice 7with the exception of a few males or females in excess7 ordinarily pair2 and therefore that this astounding increase during three years must be attributed to a greater than usual number surviving the first year1 and then breeding1 and so on1 till the third year1 when their numbers were brought down to their usual limits on the return of wet weather4 ,where man has introduced plants and animals into a new country favourable to them1 there are many accounts in how surprisingly few years the whole country has become stocked with them4 ,this increase would necessarily stop as soon as the country was fully stocked2 and yet we have every reason to believe from what is known of wild animals that all would pair in the spring4 ,in the majority of cases it is most difficult to imagine where the check falls1 generally no doubt on the seeds1 eggs1 and young2 but when we remember how impossible even in mankind 7so much better known than any other animal7 it is to infer from repeated casual observations what the average of life is1 or to discover how different the percentage of deaths to the births in different countries1 we ought to feel no legitimate surprise at not seeing where the check falls in animals and plants4 ,it should always be remembered that in most cases the checks are yearly recurrent in a small regular degree1 and in an extreme degree during occasionally unusually cold1 hot1 dry1 or wet years1 according to the constitution of the being in question4 ,lighten any check in the smallest degree1 and the geometrical power of increase in every organism will instantly increase the average numbers of the favoured species4 ,nature may be compared to a surface1 on which rest ten thousand sharp wedges touching each other and driven inwards by incessant blows#bcj4 ,fully to realise these views much reflection is requisite2 ,malthus on man should be studied2 and all such cases as those of the mice in ,la ,plata1 of the cattle and horses when first turned out in ,s4 ,america1 of the robins by our calculation1 c41 should be well considered3 reflect on the enormous multiplying power inherent and annually in action in all animals2 reflect on the countless seeds scattered by a hundred ingenious contrivances1 year after year1 over the whole face of the land2 and yet we have every reason to suppose that the average percentage of every one of the inhabitants of a country will ordinarily remain constant4 ,finally1 let it be borne in mind that this average number of individuals 7the external conditions remaining the same7 in each country is kept up by recurrent struggles against other species or against external nature 7as on the borders of the arctic regions#bca1 where the cold checks life72 and that ordinarily each individual of each species holds its place1 either by its own struggle and capacity of acquiring nourishment in some period 7from the egg upwards7 of its life1 or by the struggle of its parents 7in short lived organisms1 when the main check occurs at long intervals7 against and compared with other individuals of the same or different species4 #bcj ,this simile occurs in ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #fg1 not in the later editions4 #bca ,note in the original4 ,in case like mistletoe1 it may be asked why not more species1 no other species interferes2 answer almost sufficient1 same causes which check the multiplication of individuals4 ,but let the external conditions of a country change2 if in a small degree1 the relative proportions of the inhabitants will in most cases simply be slightly changed2 but let the number of inhabitants be small1 as in an island#bcb1 and free access to it from other countries be circumscribed2 and let the change of condition continue progressing 7forming new stations72 in such case the original inhabitants must cease to be so perfectly adapted to the changed conditions as they originally were4 ,it has been shown that probably such changes of external conditions would1 from acting on the reproductive system1 cause the organization of the beings most affected to become1 as under domestication1 plastic4 ,now can it be doubted from the struggle each individual 7or its parents7 has to obtain subsistence that any minute variation in structure1 habits1 or instincts1 adapting that individual better to the new conditions1 would tell upon its vigour and health8 ,in the struggle it would have a better chance of surviving1 and those of its offspring which inherited the variation1 let it be ever so slight1 would have a better chance to survive4 ,yearly more are bred than can survive2 the smallest grain in the balance1 in the long run1 must tell on which death shall fall1 and which shall survive#bcc4 ,let this work of selection1 on the one hand1 and death on the other1 go on for a thousand generations2 who would pretend to affirm that it would produce no effect1 when we remember what in a few years ,bakewell effected in cattle and ,western in sheep1 by this identical principle of selection4 #bcb ,see ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 pp4 #ajd1 #bib1 vi4 pp4 #abg1 #dbi4 #bcc ,recognition of the importance of minute differences in the struggle occurs in the ,essay of #ahdb1 p4 #h note #c4,note #ei ,to give an imaginary example1 from changes in progress on an island1 let the organization#bcd of a canine animal become slightly plastic1 which animal preyed chiefly on rabbits1 but sometimes on hares2 let these same changes cause the number of rabbits very slowly to decrease and the number of hares to increase2 the effect of this would be that the fox or dog would be driven to try to catch more hares1 and his numbers would tend to decrease2 his organization1 however1 being slightly plastic1 those individuals with the lightest forms1 longest limbs1 and best eye-sight 7though perhaps with less cunning or scent7 would be slightly favoured1 let the difference be ever so small1 and would tend to live longer and to survive during that time of the year when food was shortest2 they would also rear more young1 which young would tend to inherit these slight peculiarities4 ,the less fleet ones would be rigidly destroyed4 ,i can see no more reason to doubt but that these causes in a thousand generations would produce a marked effect1 and adapt the form of the fox to catching hares instead of rabbits1 than that greyhounds can be improved by selection and careful breeding4 ,so would it be with plants under similar circumstances2 if the number of individuals of a species with plumed seeds could be increased by greater powers of dissemination within its own area 7that is if the check to increase fell chiefly on the seeds71 those seeds which were provided with ever so little more down1 or with a plume placed so as to be slightly more acted on by the winds1 would in the long run tend to be most disseminated2 and hence a greater number of seeds thus formed would germinate1 and would tend to produce plants inheriting this slightly better adapted down4 #bcd ,see ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #ij1 vi4 p4 #aaj4 ,besides this natural means of selection1 by which those individuals are preserved1 whether in their egg or seed or in their mature state1 which are best adapted to the place they fill in nature1 there is a second agency at work in most bisexual animals tending to produce the same effect1 namely the struggle of the males for the females4 ,these struggles are generally decided by the law of battle2 but in the case of birds1 apparently1 by the charms of their song#bce1 by their beauty or their power of courtship1 as in the dancing rock-thrush of ,guiana4 ,even in the animals which pair there seems to be an excess of males which would aid in causing a struggle3 in the polygamous animals#bcf1 however1 as in deer1 oxen1 poultry1 we might expect there would be severest struggle3 is it not in the polygamous animals that the males are best formed for mutual war8 ,the most vigorous males1 implying perfect adaptation1 must generally gain the victory in their several contests4 ,this kind of selection1 however1 is less rigorous than the other2 it does not require the death of the less successful1 but gives to them fewer descendants4 ,this struggle falls1 moreover1 at a time of year when food is generally abundant1 and perhaps the effect chiefly produced would be the alteration of sexual characters1 and the selection of individual forms1 no way related to their power of obtaining food1 or of defending themselves from their natural enemies1 but of fighting one with another4 ,this natural struggle amongst the males may be compared in effect1 but in a less degree1 to that produced by those agriculturalists who pay less attention to the careful selection of all the young animals which they breed and more to the occasional use of a choice male#bcg4 #bce ,these two forms of sexual selection are given in ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #hg1 vi4 p4 #ajg4 ,the ,guiana rock-thrush is given as an example of bloodless competition4 #bcf ,note in original4 ,seals8 ,pennant about battles of seals4 #bcg ,in the ,linnean paper of ,july #a1 #aheh the final word is mate3 but the context shows that it should be male2 it is moreover clearly so written in the ,,ms4 ,differences between ,races and ,species3--first1 in their trueness or variability4 ,races#bch produced by these natural means of selection#bci we may expect would differ in some respects from those produced by man4 ,man selects chiefly by the eye1 and is not able to perceive the course of every vessel and nerve1 or the form of the bones1 or whether the internal structure corresponds to the outside shape4 ,he#bdj is unable to select shades of constitutional differences1 and by the protection he affords and his endeavours to keep his property alive1 in whatever country he lives1 he checks1 as much as lies in his power1 the selecting action of nature1 which will1 however1 go on to a lesser degree with all living things1 even if their length of life is not determined by their own powers of endurance4 ,he has bad judgment1 is capricious1 he does not1 or his successors do not1 wish to select for the same exact end for hundreds of generations4 ,he cannot always suit the selected form to the properest conditions2 nor does he keep those conditions uniform3 he selects that which is useful to him1 not that best adapted to those conditions in which each variety is placed by him3 he selects a small dog1 but feeds it highly2 he selects a long-backed dog1 but does not exercise it in any peculiar manner1 at least not during every generation4 ,he seldom allows the most vigorous males to struggle for themselves and propagate1 but picks out such as he possesses1 or such as he prefers1 and not necessarily those best adapted to the existing conditions4 ,every agriculturalist and breeder knows how difficult it is to prevent an occasional cross with another breed4 ,he often grudges to destroy an individual which departs considerably from the required type4 ,he often begins his selection by a form or sport considerably departing from the parent form4 ,very differently does the natural law of selection act2 the varieties selected differ only slightly from the parent forms#bda2 the conditions are constant for long periods and change slowly2 rarely can there be a cross2 the selection is rigid and unfailing1 and continued through many generations2 a selection can never be made without the form be better adapted to the conditions than the parent form2 the selecting power goes on without caprice1 and steadily for thousands of years adapting the form to these conditions4 ,the selecting power is not deceived by external appearances1 it tries the being during its whole life2 and if less well 8 adapted than its congeners1 without fail it is destroyed2 every part of its structure is thus scrutinised and proved good towards the place in nature which it occupies4 #bch ,in the ,origin the author would here have used the word variety4 #bci ,the whole of p4 #id and #ae lines of p4 #ie are1 in the ,,ms41 marked through in pencil with vertical lines1 beginning at ,races produced1 c4 and ending with to these conditions4 #bdj ,see ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #hc1 vi4 p4 #ajb4 #bda ,in the present ,essay there is some evidence that the author attributed more to sports than was afterwards the case3 but the above passage points the other way4 ,it must always be remembered that many of the minute differences1 now considered small mutations1 are the small variations on which ,darwin conceived selection to act4 ,we have every reason to believe that in proportion to the number of generations that a domestic race is kept free from crosses1 and to the care employed in continued steady selection with one end in view1 and to the care in not placing the variety in conditions unsuited to it2 in such proportion does the new race become true or subject to little variation#bdb4 ,how incomparably truer then would a race produced by the above rigid1 steady1 natural means of selection1 excellently trained and perfectly adapted to its conditions1 free from stains of blood or crosses1 and continued during thousands of years1 be compared with one produced by the feeble1 capricious1 misdirected and ill-adapted selection of man4 ,those races of domestic animals produced by savages1 partly by the inevitable conditions of their life1 and partly unintentionally by their greater care of the individuals most valuable to them1 would probably approach closest to the character of a species2 and ,i believe this is the case4 ,now the characteristic mark of a species1 next1 if not equal in importance to its sterility when crossed with another species1 and indeed almost the only other character 7without we beg the question and affirm the essence of a species1 is its not having descended from a parent common to any other form71 is the similarity of the individuals composing the species1 or in the language of agriculturalists their trueness4 #bdb ,see ,var4 under ,dom41 ,ed4 ii4 vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #bcj4 ,difference between ,races and ,species in fertility when crossed4 ,the sterility of species1 or of their offspring1 when crossed has1 however1 received more attention than the uniformity in character of the individuals composing the species4 ,it is exceedingly natural that such sterility#bdc should have been long thought the certain characteristic of species4 ,for it is obvious that if the allied different forms which we meet with in the same country could cross together1 instead of finding a number of distinct species1 we should have a confused and blending series4 ,the fact however of a perfect gradation in the degree of sterility between species1 and the circumstance of some species most closely allied 7for instance many species of crocus and ,european heaths7 refusing to breed together1 whereas other species1 widely different1 and even belonging to distinct genera1 as the fowl and the peacock1 pheasant and grouse#bdd1 ,azalea and ,rhododendron1 ,thuja and ,juniperus1 breeding together ought to have caused a doubt whether the sterility did not depend on other causes1 distinct from a law1 coincident with their creation4 ,i may here remark that the fact whether one species will or will not breed with another is far less important than the sterility of the offspring when produced2 for even some domestic races differ so greatly in size 7as the great stag-greyhound and lap-dog1 or cart-horse and ,burmese ponies7 that union is nearly impossible2 and what is less generally known is1 that in plants ,koelreuter has shown by hundreds of experiments that the pollen of one species will fecundate the germen of another species1 whereas the pollen of this latter will never act on the germen of the former2 so that the simple fact of mutual impregnation certainly has no relation whatever to the distinctness in creation of the two forms4 ,when two species are attempted to be crossed which are so distantly allied that offspring are never produced1 it has been observed in some cases that the pollen commences its proper action by exserting its tube1 and the germen commences swelling1 though soon afterwards it decays4 ,in the next stage in the series1 hybrid offspring are produced though only rarely and few in number1 and these are absolutely sterile3 then we have hybrid offspring more numerous1 and occasionally1 though very rarely1 breeding with either parent1 as is the case with the common mule4 ,again1 other hybrids1 though infertile inter se1 will breed quite freely with either parent1 or with a third species1 and will yield offspring generally infertile1 but sometimes fertile2 and these latter again will breed with either parent1 or with a third or fourth species3 thus ,koelreuter blended together many forms4 ,lastly it is now admitted by those botanists who have longest contended against the admission1 that in certain families the hybrid offspring of many of the species are sometimes perfectly fertile in the first generation when bred together3 indeed in some few cases ,mr ,herbert#bde found that the hybrids were decidedly more fertile than either of their pure parents4 ,there is no way to escape from the admission that the hybrids from some species of plants are fertile1 except by declaring that no form shall be considered as a species1 if it produces with another species fertile offspring3 but this is begging the question#bdf4 ,it has often been stated that different species of animals have a sexual repugnance towards each other2 ,i can find no evidence of this2 it appears as if they merely did not excite each others passions4 ,i do not believe that in this respect there is any essential distinction between animals and plants2 and in the latter there cannot be a feeling of repugnance4 #bdc ,note in the original4 ,if domestic animals are descended from several species and become fertile inter se1 then one can see they gain fertility by becoming adapted to new conditions and certainly domestic animals can withstand changes of climate without loss of fertility in an astonishing manner4 #bdd ,see ,suchetet1 ,l',hybridite dans la ,nature1 ,bruxelles1 #ahhh1 p4 #fg4 ,in ,var4 under ,dom41 ,ed4 ii4 vol4 ,,ii4 hybrids between the fowl and the pheasant are mentioned4 ,i can give no information on the other cases4 #bde ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #bej1 vi4 p4 #cgj4 #bdf ,this was the position of ,gaertner and of ,koelreuter3 see ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 pp4 #bdf-g1 vi4 pp4 #cfg-h4 ,causes of ,sterility in ,hybrids4 ,the difference in nature between species which causes the greater or lesser degree of sterility in their offspring appears1 according to ,herbert and ,koelreuter1 to be connected much less with external form1 size1 or structure1 than with constitutional peculiarities2 by which is meant their adaptation to different climates1 food and situation1 c43 these peculiarities of constitution probably affect the entire frame1 and no one part in particular#bdg4 #bdg ,note in the original4 ,yet this seems introductory to the case of the heaths and crocuses above mentioned4 ,herbert observed that crocus does not set seed if transplanted before pollination1 but that such treatment after pollination has no sterilising effect4 7,var4 under ,dom41 ,ed4 ii4 vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #adh47 ,on the same page is a mention of the ,ericaceae being subject to contabescence of the anthers4 ,for ,crinum see ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #bej3 for ,rhododenron and ,calceolaria see p4 #bea4 ,from the foregoing facts ,i think we must admit that there exists a perfect gradation in fertility between species which when crossed are quite fertile 7as in ,rhododendron1 ,calceolaria1 c471 and indeed in an extraordinary degree fertile 7as in ,crinum71 and those species which never produce offspring1 but which by certain effects 7as the exsertion of the pollen-tube7 evince their alliance4 ,hence1 ,i conceive1 we must give up sterility1 although undoubtedly in a lesser or greater degree of very frequent occurrence1 as an unfailing mark by which species can be distinguished from races1 i4e4 from those forms which have descended from a common stock4 ,infertility from causes distinct from hybridisation4 ,let us see whether there are any analogous facts which will throw any light on this subject1 and will tend to explain why the offspring of certain species1 when crossed1 should be sterile1 and not others1 without requiring a distinct law connected with their creation to that effect4 ,great numbers1 probably a large majority of animals when caught by man and removed from their natural conditions1 although taken very young1 rendered quite tame1 living to a good old age1 and apparently quite healthy1 seem incapable under these circumstances of breeding#bdh4 ,i do not refer to animals kept in menageries1 such as at the ,zoological ,gardens1 many of which1 however1 appear healthy and live long and unite but do not produce2 but to animals caught and left partly at liberty in their native country4 ,rengger#bdi enumerates several caught young and rendered tame1 which he kept in ,paraguay1 and which would not breed3 the hunting leopard or cheetah and elephant offer other instances2 as do bears in ,europe1 and the #be species of hawks1 belonging to different genera1 thousands of which have been kept for hawking and have lived for long periods in perfect vigour4 ,when the expense and trouble of procuring a succession of young animals in a wild state be borne in mind1 one may feel sure that no trouble has been spared in endeavours to make them breed4 ,so clearly marked is this difference in different kinds of animals1 when captured by man1 that ,st ,hilaire makes two great classes of animals useful to man3--the tame1 which will not breed1 and the domestic which will breed in domestication4 ,from certain singular facts we might have supposed that the non-breeding of animals was owing to some perversion of instinct4 ,but we meet with exactly the same class of facts in plants3 ,i do not refer to the large number of cases where the climate does not permit the seed or fruit to ripen1 but where the flowers do not set1 owing to some imperfection of the ovule or pollen4 ,the latter1 which alone can be distinctly examined1 is often manifestly imperfect1 as any one with a microscope can observe by comparing the pollen of the ,persian and ,chinese lilacs#bej with the common lilac2 the two former species 7,i may add7 are equally sterile in ,italy as in this country4 ,many of the ,american bog plants here produce little or no pollen1 whilst the ,indian species of the same genera freely produce it4 ,lindley observes that sterility is the bane of the horticulturist#bea3 ,linnaeus has remarked on the sterility of nearly all alpine flowers when cultivated in a lowland district#beb4 ,perhaps the immense class of double flowers chiefly owe their structure to an excess of food acting on parts rendered slightly sterile and less capable of performing their true function1 and therefore liable to be rendered monstrous1 which monstrosity1 like any other disease1 is inherited and rendered common4 ,so far from domestication being in itself unfavourable to fertility1 it is well known that when an organism is once capable of submission to such conditions its fertility is increased#bec beyond the natural limit4 ,according to agriculturists1 slight changes of conditions1 that is of food or habitation1 and likewise crosses with races slightly different1 increase the vigour and probably the fertility of their offspring4 ,it would appear also that even a great change of condition1 for instance1 transportal from temperate countries to ,india1 in many cases does not in the least affect fertility1 although it does health and length of life and the period of maturity4 ,when sterility is induced by domestication it is of the same kind1 and varies in degree1 exactly as with hybrids3 for be it remembered that the most sterile hybrid is no way monstrous2 its organs are perfect1 but they do not act1 and minute microscopical investigations show that they are in the same state as those of pure species in the intervals of the breeding season4 ,the defective pollen in the cases above alluded to precisely resembles that of hybrids4 ,the occasional breeding of hybrids1 as of the common mule1 may be aptly compared to the most rare but occasional reproduction of elephants in captivity4 ,the cause of many exotic ,geraniums producing 7although in vigorous health7 imperfect pollen seems to be connected with the period when water is given them#bed2 but in the far greater majority of cases we cannot form any conjecture on what exact cause the sterility of organisms taken from their natural conditions depends4 ,why1 for instance1 the cheetah will not breed whilst the common cat and ferret 7the latter generally kept shut up in a small box7 do1--why the elephant will not whilst the pig will abundantly--why the partridge and grouse in their own country will not1 whilst several species of pheasants1 the guinea-fowl from the deserts of ,africa and the peacock from the jungles of ,india1 will4 ,we must1 however1 feel convinced that it depends on some constitutional peculiarities in these beings not suited to their new condition2 though not necessarily causing an ill state of health4 ,ought we then to wonder much that those hybrids which have been produced by the crossing of species with different constitutional tendencies 7which tendencies we know to be eminently inheritable7 should be sterile3 it does not seem improbable that the cross from an alpine and lowland plant should have its constitutional powers deranged1 in nearly the same manner as when the parent alpine plant is brought into a lowland district4 ,analogy1 however1 is a deceitful guide1 and it would be rash to affirm1 although it may appear probable1 that the sterility of hybrids is due to the constitutional peculiarities of one parent being disturbed by being blended with those of the other parent in exactly the same manner as it is caused in some organic beings when placed by man out of their natural conditions#bee4 ,although this would be rash1 it would1 ,i think1 be still rasher1 seeing that sterility is no more incidental to all cross-bred productions than it is to all organic beings when captured by man1 to assert that the sterility of certain hybrids proved a distinct creation of their parents4 #bdh ,note in original4 ,animals seem more often made sterile by being taken out of their native condition than plants1 and so are more sterile when crossed4 ,we have one broad fact that sterility in hybrids is not closely related to external difference1 and these are what man alone gets by selection4 #bdi ,see ,var4 under ,dom41 ,ed4 ii4 vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #acb2 for the case of the cheetah see loc cit4 p4 #acc4 #bej ,var4 under ,dom41 ,ed4 ii4 vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #adh4 #bea ,quoted in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #i4 #beb ,see ,var4 under ,dom41 ,ed4 ii4 vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #adg4 #bec ,var4 under ,dom41 ,ed4 ii4 vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #hi4 #bed ,see ,var4 under ,dom41 ,ed4 ii4 vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #adg4 #bee ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #bfg1 vi4 p4 #cib4 ,this is the principle experimentally investigated in the author's ,cross-and ,self-,fertilisation4 ,but it may be objected#bef 7however little the sterility of certain hybrids is connected with the distinct creations of species71 how comes it1 if species are only races produced by natural selection1 that when crossed they so frequently produce sterile offspring1 whereas in the offspring of those races confessedly produced by the arts of man there is no one instance of sterility4 ,there is not much difficulty in this1 for the races produced by the natural means above explained will be slowly but steadily selected2 will be adapted to various and diverse conditions1 and to these conditions they will be rigidly confined for immense periods of time2 hence we may suppose that they would acquire different constitutional peculiarities adapted to the stations they occupy2 and on the constitutional differences between species their sterility1 according to the best authorities1 depends4 ,on the other hand man selects by external appearance#beg2 from his ignorance1 and from not having any test at least comparable in delicacy to the natural struggle for food1 continued at intervals through the life of each individual1 he cannot eliminate fine shades of constitution1 dependent on invisible differences in the fluids or solids of the body2 again1 from the value which he attaches to each individual1 he asserts his utmost power in contravening the natural tendency of the most vigorous to survive4 ,man1 moreover1 especially in the earlier ages1 cannot have kept his conditions of life constant1 and in later ages his stock pure4 ,until man selects two varieties from the same stock1 adapted to two climates or to other different external conditions1 and confines each rigidly for one or several thousand years to such conditions1 always selecting the individuals best adapted to them1 he cannot be said to have even commenced the experiment4 ,moreover1 the organic beings which man has longest had under domestication have been those which were of the greatest use to him1 and one chief element of their usefulness1 especially in the earlier ages1 must have been their capacity to undergo sudden transportals into various climates1 and at the same time to retain their fertility1 which in itself implies that in such respects their constitutional peculiarities were not closely limited4 ,if the opinion already mentioned be correct1 that most of the domestic animals in their present state have descended from the fertile commixture of wild races or species1 we have indeed little reason now to expect infertility between any cross of stock thus descended4 #bef ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #bfh1 vi4 p4 #cih4 #beg ,notes in original4 ,mere difference of structure no guide to what will or will not cross4 ,first step gained by races keeping apart4 ,it is not clear where these notes were meant to go4 ,it is worthy of remark1 that as many organic beings1 when taken by man out of their natural conditions1 have their reproductive system so affected as to be incapable of propagation1 so1 we saw in the first chapter1 that although organic beings when taken by man do propagate freely1 their offspring after some generations vary or sport to a degree which can only be explained by their reproductive system being in some way affected4 ,again1 when species cross1 their offspring are generally sterile2 but it was found by ,koelreuter that when hybrids are capable of breeding with either parent1 or with other species1 that their offspring are subject after some generations to excessive variation#beh4 ,agriculturists1 also1 affirm that the offspring from mongrels1 after the first generation1 vary much4 ,hence we see that both sterility and variation in the succeeding generations are consequent both on the removal of individual species from their natural states and on species crossing4 ,the connection between these facts may be accidental1 but they certainly appear to elucidate and support each other1--on the principle of the reproductive system of all organic beings being eminently sensitive to any disturbance1 whether from removal or commixture1 in their constitutional relations to the conditions to which they are exposed4 #beh ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #bgb1 vi4 p4 #djd4 ,points of ,resemblance between ,races and ,species#bei4 #bei ,this section seems not to correspond closely with any in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i42 in some points it resembles pp4 #ae1 #af1 also the section on analogous variation in distinct species1 ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #aei1 vi4 p4 #aid4 ,races and reputed species agree in some respects1 although differing from causes which1 we have seen1 we can in some degree understand1 in the fertility and trueness of their offspring4 ,in the first place1 there is no clear sign by which to distinguish races from species1 as is evident from the great difficulty experienced by naturalists in attempting to discriminate them4 ,as far as external characters are concerned1 many of the races which are descended from the same stock differ far more than true species of the same genus2 look at the willow-wrens1 some of which skilful ornithologists can hardly distinguish from each other except by their nests2 look at the wild swans1 and compare the distinct species of these genera with the races of domestic ducks1 poultry1 and pigeons2 and so again with plants1 compare the cabbages1 almonds1 peaches and nectarines1 c4 with the species of many genera4 ,st ,hilaire has even remarked that there is a greater difference in size between races1 as in dogs 7for he believes all have descended from one stock71 than between the species of any one genus2 nor is this surprising1 considering that amount of food and consequently of growth is the element of change over which man has most power4 ,i may refer to a former statement1 that breeders believe the growth of one part or strong action of one function causes a decrease in other parts2 for this seems in some degree analogous to the law of organic compensation#bfj1 which many naturalists believe holds good4 ,to give an instance of this law of compensation1--those species of ,carnivora which have the canine teeth greatly developed have certain molar teeth deficient2 or again1 in that division of the ,crustaceans in which the tail is much developed1 the thorax is little so1 and the converse4 ,the points of difference between different races is often strikingly analogous to that between species of the same genus3 trifling spots or marks of colour#bfa 7as the bars on pigeons' wings7 are often preserved in races of plants and animals1 precisely in the same manner as similar trifling characters often pervade all the species of a genus1 and even of a family4 ,flowers in varying their colours often become veined and spotted and the leaves become divided like true species3 it is known that the varieties of the same plant never have red1 blue and yellow flowers1 though the hyacinth makes a very near approach to an exception#bfb2 and different species of the same genus seldom1 though sometimes they have flowers of these three colours4 ,dun-coloured horses having a dark stripe down their backs1 and certain domestic asses having transverse bars on their legs1 afford striking examples of a variation analogous in character to the distinctive marks of other species of the same genus4 #bfj ,the law of compensation is discussed in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #adg1 vi4 p4 #ahb4 #bfa ,note in original4 ,boitard and ,corbie on outer edging red in tail of bird1--so bars on wing1 white or black or brown1 or white edged with black or illegible3 analogous to marks running through genera but with different colours4 ,tail coloured in pigeons4 #bfb ,note in original4 ,oxalis and ,gentian4 ,in ,gentians blue1 yellow and reddish colours occur4 ,in ,oxalis yellow1 purple1 violet and pink4 ,external characters of ,hybrids and ,mongrels4 ,there is1 however1 as it appears to me1 a more important method of comparison between species and races1 namely the character of the offspring#bfc when species are crossed and when races are crossed3 ,i believe1 in no one respect1 except in sterility1 is there any difference4 ,it would1 ,i think1 be a marvellous fact1 if species have been formed by distinct acts of creation1 that they should act upon each other in uniting1 like races descended from a common stock4 ,in the first place1 by repeated crossing one species can absorb and wholly obliterate the characters of another1 or of several other species1 in the same manner as one race will absorb by crossing another race4 ,marvellous1 that one act of creation should absorb another or even several acts of creation6 ,the offspring of species1 that is hybrids1 and the offspring of races1 that is mongrels1 resemble each other in being either intermediate in character 7as is most frequent in hybrids7 or in resembling sometimes closely one and sometimes the other parent2 in both the offspring produced by the same act of conception sometimes differ in their degree of resemblance2 both hybrids and mongrels sometimes retain a certain part or organ very like that of either parent1 both1 as we have seen1 become in succeeding generations variable2 and this tendency to vary can be transmitted by both2 in both for many generations there is a strong tendency to reversion to their ancestral form4 ,in the case of a hybrid laburnum and of a supposed mongrel vine different parts of the same plants took after each of their two parents4 ,in the hybrids from some species1 and in the mongrel of some races1 the offspring differ according as which of the two species1 or of the two races1 is the father 7as in the common mule and hinny7 and which the mother4 ,some races will breed together1 which differ so greatly in size1 that the dam often perishes in labour2 so it is with some species when crossed2 when the dam of one species has borne offspring to the male of another species1 her succeeding offspring are sometimes stained 7as in ,lord ,morton's mare by the quagga1 wonderful as the fact#bfd is7 by this first cross2 so agriculturists positively affirm is the case when a pig or sheep of one breed has produced offspring by the sire of another breed4 #bfc ,this section corresponds roughly to that on ,hybrids and ,mongrels compared independently of their fertility1 ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #bgb1 vi4 p4 #djc4 ,the discussion on ,gaertner's views1 given in the ,origin1 is here wanting4 ,the brief mention of prepotency is common to them both4 #bfd ,see ,animals and ,plants1 ,ed4 ii4 vol4 ,i4 p4 #dce4 ,the phenomenon of ,telegony1 supposed to be established by this and similar cases1 is now generally discredited in consequence of ,ewart's experiments4 ,summary of second chapter#bfe4 #bfe ,the section on p4 #aji is an appendix to the summary4 ,let us sum up this second chapter4 ,if slight variations do occur in organic beings in a state of nature2 if changes of condition from geological causes do produce in the course of ages effects analogous to those of domestication on any1 however few1 organisms2 and how can we doubt it1--from what is actually known1 and from what may be presumed1 since thousands of organisms taken by man for sundry uses1 and placed in new conditions1 have varied4 ,if such variations tend to be hereditary2 and how can we doubt it1--when we see shades of expression1 peculiar manners1 monstrosities of the strangest kinds1 diseases1 and a multitude of other peculiarities1 which characterise and form1 being inherited1 the endless races 7there are #abjj kinds of cabbages#bff7 of our domestic plants and animals4 ,if we admit that every organism maintains its place by an almost periodically recurrent struggle2 and how can we doubt it1--when we know that all beings tend to increase in a geometrical ratio 7as is instantly seen when the conditions become for a time more favourable72 whereas on an average the amount of food must remain constant1 if so1 there will be a natural means of selection1 tending to preserve those individuals with any slight deviations of structure more favourable to the then existing conditions1 and tending to destroy any with deviations of an opposite nature4 ,if the above propositions be correct1 and there be no law of nature limiting the possible amount of variation1 new races of beings will1--perhaps only rarely1 and only in some few districts1--be formed4 #bff ,i do not know the authority for this statement4 ,limits of ,variation4 ,that a limit to variation does exist in nature is assumed by most authors1 though ,i am unable to discover a single fact on which this belief is grounded#bfg4 ,one of the commonest statements is that plants do not become acclimatised2 and ,i have even observed that kinds not raised by seed1 but propagated by cuttings1 c41 are instanced4 ,a good instance has1 however1 been advanced in the case of kidney beans1 which it is believed are now as tender as when first introduced4 ,even if we overlook the frequent introduction of seed from warmer countries1 let me observe that as long as the seeds are gathered promiscuously from the bed1 without continual observation and careful selection of those plants which have stood the climate best during their whole growth1 the experiment of acclimatisation has hardly been begun4 ,are not all those plants and animals1 of which we have the greatest number of races1 the oldest domesticated8 ,considering the quite recent progress#bfh of systematic agriculture and horticulture1 is it not opposed to every fact1 that we have exhausted the capacity of variation in our cattle and in our corn1--even if we have done so in some trivial points1 as their fatness or kind of wool8 ,will any one say1 that if horticulture continues to flourish during the next few centuries1 that we shall not have numerous new kinds of the potato and ,dahlia8 ,but take two varieties of each of these plants1 and adapt them to certain fixed conditions and prevent any cross for #ejjj years1 and then again vary their conditions2 try many climates and situations2 and who#bfi will predict the number and degrees of difference which might arise from these stocks8 ,i repeat that we know nothing of any limit to the possible amount of variation1 and therefore to the number and differences of the races1 which might be produced by the natural means of selection1 so infinitely more efficient than the agency of man4 ,races thus produced would probably be very true2 and if from having been adapted to different conditions of existence1 they possessed different constitutions1 if suddenly removed to some new station1 they would perhaps be sterile and their offspring would perhaps be infertile4 ,such races would be undistinguishable from species4 ,but is there any evidence that the species1 which surround us on all sides1 have been thus produced8 ,this is a question which an examination of the economy of nature we might expect would answer either in the affirmative or negative#bgj4 #bfg ,in the ,origin no limit is placed to variation as far as ,i know4 #bfh ,note in original4 ,history of pigeons shows increase of peculiarities during last years4 #bfi ,compare an obscure passage in the ,essay of #ahdb1 p4 #ad4 #bgj ,note in original4 ,certainly two pages in the ,,ms4 ought to be here introduced1 viz41 difficulty in forming such organ1 as eye1 by selection4 ,in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i41 a chapter on ,difficulties on ,theory follows that on ,laws of ,variation1 and precedes that on ,instinct3 this was also the arrangement in the ,essay of #ahdb2 whereas in the present ,essay ,instinct follows ,variation and precedes ,difficulties4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,on ,,the ,,variation ,,of ,,instincts ,,and ,,other ,,mental ,,attributes ,,under ,,domestication ,,and ,,in ,,state ,,of ,,nature2 ,,on ,,the ,,difficulties ,,in ,,this ,,subject2 ,,and ,,on ,,analogous ,,difficulties ,,with ,,respect ,,to ,,corporeal ,,structures ,variation of mental attributes under domestication4 ,i have as yet only alluded to the mental qualities which differ greatly in different species4 ,let me here premise that1 as will be seen in the ,second ,part1 there is no evidence and consequently no attempt to show that all existing organisms have descended from any one common parent-stock1 but that only those have so descended which1 in the language of naturalists1 are clearly related to each other4 ,hence the facts and reasoning advanced in this chapter do not apply to the first origin of the senses#bga1 or of the chief mental attributes1 such as of memory1 attention1 reasoning1 c41 c41 by which most or all of the great related groups are characterised1 any more than they apply to the first origin of life1 or growth1 or the power of reproduction4 ,the application of such facts as ,i have collected is merely to the differences of the primary mental qualities and of the instincts in the species#bgb of the several great groups4 ,in domestic animals every observer has remarked in how great a degree1 in the individuals of the same species1 the dispositions1 namely courage1 pertinacity1 suspicion1 restlessness1 confidence1 temper1 pugnaciousness1 affection1 care of their young1 sagacity1 c41 c41 vary4 ,it would require a most able metaphysician to explain how many primary qualities of the mind must be changed to cause these diversities of complex dispositions4 ,from these dispositions being inherited1 of which the testimony is unanimous1 families and breeds arise1 varying in these respects4 ,i may instance the good and ill temper of different stocks of bees and of horses1--the pugnacity and courage of game fowls1--the pertinacity of certain dogs1 as bull-dogs1 and the sagacity of others1--for restlessness and suspicion compare a wild rabbit reared with the greatest care from its earliest age with the extreme tameness of the domestic breed of the same animal4 ,the offspring of the domestic dogs which have run wild in ,cuba#bgc1 though caught quite young1 are most difficult to tame1 probably nearly as much so as the original parent-stock from which the domestic dog descended4 ,the habitual periods of different families of the same species differ1 for instance1 in the time of year of reproduction1 and the period of life when the capacity is acquired1 and the hour of roosting 7in ,malay fowls71 c41 c4 ,these periodical habits are perhaps essentially corporeal1 and may be compared to nearly similar habits in plants1 which are known to vary extremely4 ,consensual movements 7as called by ,mueller7 vary and are inherited1--such as the cantering and ambling paces in horses1 the tumbling of pigeons1 and perhaps the handwriting1 which is sometimes so similar between father and sons1 may be ranked in this class4 ,manners1 and even tricks which perhaps are only peculiar manners1 according to ,w4 ,hunter and my father1 are distinctly inherited in cases where children have lost their parent in early infancy4 ,the inheritance of expression1 which often reveals the finest shades of character1 is familiar to everyone4 #bga ,a similar proviso occurs in the chapter on instinct in ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #bjg1 vi4 p4 #cai4 #bgb ,the discussion occurs later in ,chapter ,,vii of the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 than in the present ,essay1 where moreover it is fuller in some respects4 #bgc ,in the margin occurs the name of ,poeppig4 ,in ,var4 under ,dom41 ,ed4 ii4 vol4 ,i4 p4 #bh1 the reference to ,poeppig on the ,cuban dogs contains no mention of the wildness of their offspring4 ,again the tastes and pleasures of different breeds vary1 thus the shepherd-dog delights in chasing the sheep1 but has no wish to kill them1--the terrier 7see ,knight7 delights in killing vermin1 and the spaniel in finding game4 ,but it is impossible to separate their mental peculiarities in the way ,i have done3 the tumbling of pigeons1 which ,i have instanced as a consensual movement1 might be called a trick and is associated with a taste for flying in a close flock at a great height4 ,certain breeds of fowls have a taste for roosting in trees4 ,the different actions of pointers and setters might have been adduced in the same class1 as might the peculiar manner of hunting of the spaniel4 ,even in the same breed of dogs1 namely in fox-hounds1 it is the fixed opinion of those best able to judge that the different pups are born with different tendencies2 some are best to find their fox in the cover2 some are apt to run straggling1 some are best to make casts and to recover the lost scent1 c42 and that these peculiarities undoubtedly are transmitted to their progeny4 ,or again the tendency to point might be adduced as a distinct habit which has become inherited1--as might the tendency of a true sheep dog 7as ,i have been assured is the case7 to run round the flock instead of directly at them1 as is the case with other young dogs when attempted to be taught4 ,the transandantes sheep#bgd in ,spain1 which for some centuries have been yearly taken a journey of several hundred miles from one province to another1 know when the time comes1 and show the greatest restlessness 7like migratory birds in confinement71 and are prevented with difficulty from starting by themselves1 which they sometimes do1 and find their own way4 ,there is a case on good evidence#bge of a sheep which1 when she lambed1 would return across a mountainous country to her own birth-place1 although at other times of year not of a rambling disposition4 ,her lambs inherited this same disposition1 and would go to produce their young on the farm whence their parent came2 and so troublesome was this habit that the whole family was destroyed4 #bgd ,note in original4 ,several authors4 #bge ,in the margin ,hogg occurs as authority for this fact4 ,for the reference1 see p4 #ag1 note #d4 ,these facts must lead to the conviction1 justly wonderful as it is1 that almost infinitely numerous shades of disposition1 of tastes1 of peculiar movements1 and even of individual actions1 can be modified or acquired by one individual and transmitted to its offspring4 ,one is forced to admit that mental phenomena 7no doubt through their intimate connection with the brain7 can be inherited1 like infinitely numerous and fine differences of corporeal structure4 ,in the same manner as peculiarities of corporeal structure slowly acquired or lost during mature life 7especially cognisant 8 in disease71 as well as congenital peculiarities1 are transmitted2 so it appears to be with the mind4 ,the inherited paces in the horse have no doubt been acquired by compulsion during the lives of the parents3 and temper and tameness may be modified in a breed by the treatment which the individuals receive4 ,knowing that a pig has been taught to point1 one would suppose that this quality in pointer-dogs was the simple result of habit1 but some facts1 with respect to the occasional appearance of a similar quality in other dogs1 would make one suspect that it originally appeared in a less perfect degree1 by chance1 that is from a congenital tendency#bgf in the parent of the breed of pointers4 ,one cannot believe that the tumbling1 and high flight in a compact body1 of one breed of pigeons has been taught2 and in the case of the slight differences in the manner of hunting in young fox-hounds1 they are doubtless congenital4 ,the inheritance of the foregoing and similar mental phenomena ought perhaps to create less surprise1 from the reflection that in no case do individual acts of reasoning1 or movements1 or other phenomena connected with consciousness1 appear to be transmitted4 ,an action1 even a very complicated one1 when from long practice it is performed unconsciously without any effort 7and indeed in the case of many peculiarities of manners opposed to the will7 is said1 according to a common expression1 to be performed instinctively4 ,those cases of languages1 and of songs1 learnt in early childhood and quite forgotten1 being perfectly repeated during the unconsciousness of illness1 appear to me only a few degrees less wonderful than if they had been transmitted to a second generation#bgg4 #bgf ,in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i41 he speaks more decidedly against the belief that instincts are hereditary habits1 see for instance pp4 #bji1 #bad1 ,ed4 vi4 pp4 #cba1 #cbg4 ,he allows1 however1 something to habit 7p4 #baf74 #bgg ,a suggestion of ,hering's and ,s4 ,butler's views on memory and inheritance4 ,it is not1 however1 implied that ,darwin was inclined to accept these opinions4 ,hereditary habits compared with instincts4 ,the chief characteristics of true instincts appear to be their invariability and non-improvement during the mature age of the individual animal3 the absence of knowledge of the end1 for which the action is performed1 being associated1 however1 sometimes with a degree of reason2 being subject to mistakes and being associated with certain states of the body or times of the year or day4 ,in most of these respects there is a resemblance in the above detailed cases of the mental qualities acquired or modified during domestication4 ,no doubt the instincts of wild animals are more uniform than those habits or qualities modified or recently acquired under domestication1 in the same manner and from the same causes that the corporeal structure in this state is less uniform than in beings in their natural conditions4 ,i have seen a young pointer point as fixedly1 the first day it was taken out1 as any old dog2 ,magendie says this was the case with a retriever which he himself reared3 the tumbling of pigeons is not probably improved by age3 we have seen that in the case above given that the young sheep inherited the migratory tendency to their particular birth-place the first time they lambed4 ,this last fact offers an instance of a domestic instinct being associated with a state of body2 as do the transandantes sheep with a time of year4 ,ordinarily the acquired instincts of domestic animals seem to require a certain degree of education 7as generally in pointers and retrievers7 to be perfectly developed3 perhaps this holds good amongst wild animals in rather a greater degree than is generally supposed2 for instance1 in the singing of birds1 and in the knowledge of proper herbs in ,ruminants4 ,it seems pretty clear that bees transmit knowledge from generation to generation4 ,lord ,brougham#bgh insists strongly on ignorance of the end proposed being eminently characteristic of true instincts2 and this appears to me to apply to many acquired hereditary habits2 for instance1 in the case of the young pointer alluded to before1 which pointed so steadfastly the first day that we were obliged several times to carry him away#bgi4 ,this puppy not only pointed at sheep1 at large white stones1 and at every little bird1 but likewise backed the other pointers3 this young dog must have been as unconscious for what end he was pointing1 namely to facilitate his master's killing game to eat1 as is a butterfly which lays her eggs on a cabbage1 that her caterpillars would eat the leaves4 ,so a horse that ambles instinctively1 manifestly is ignorant that he performs that peculiar pace for the ease of man2 and if man had never existed1 he would never have ambled4 ,the young pointer pointing at white stones appears to be as much a mistake of its acquired instinct1 as in the case of flesh-flies laying their eggs on certain flowers instead of putrifying meat4 ,however true the ignorance of the end may generally be1 one sees that instincts are associated with some degree of reason2 for instance1 in the case of the tailor-bird1 who spins threads with which to make her nest yet will use artificial threads when she can procure them#bhj2 so it has been known that an old pointer has broken his point and gone round a hedge to drive out a bird towards his master#bha4 #bgh ,lord ,brougham's ,dissertations on ,subjects of ,science1 etc41 #ahci1 p4 #bg4 #bgi ,this case is more briefly given in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #bac1 vi4 p4 #cbf4 ,the simile of the butterfly occurs there also4 #bhj ,a little dose1 as ,pierre ,huber expresses it1 of judgment or reason1 often comes into play4 ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #bjh1 vi4 p4 #cbj4 #bha ,in the margin is written ,retriever killing one bird4 ,this refers to the cases given in the ,descent of ,man1 #bnd ,ed4 7in #a vol47 p4 #gh1 of a retriever being puzzled how to deal with a wounded and a dead bird1 killed the former and carried both at once4 ,this was the only known instance of her wilfully injuring game4 ,there is one other quite distinct method by which the instincts or habits acquired under domestication may be compared with those given by nature1 by a test of a fundamental kind2 ,i mean the comparison of the mental powers of mongrels and hybrids4 ,now the instincts1 or habits1 tastes1 and dispositions of one breed of animals1 when crossed with another breed1 for instance a shepherd-dog with a harrier1 are blended and appear in the same curiously mixed degree1 both in the first and succeeding generations1 exactly as happens when one species is crossed with another#bhb4 ,this would hardly be the case if there was any fundamental difference between the domestic and natural instinct#bhc2 if the former were1 to use a metaphorical expression1 merely superficial4 #bhb ,see ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #bad1 vi4 p4 #cbg4 #bhc ,note in original4 ,give some definition of instinct1 or at least give chief attributes4 ,in ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #bjg1 vi4 p4 #cai1 ,darwin refuses to define instinct4 ,the term instinct is often used in a sense which implies no more than that the animal does the action in question4 ,faculties and instincts may ,i think be imperfectly separated4 ,the mole has the faculty of scratching burrows1 and the instinct to apply it4 ,the bird of passage has the faculty of finding its way and the instinct to put it in action at certain periods4 ,it can hardly be said to have the faculty of knowing the time1 for it can possess no means1 without indeed it be some consciousness of passing sensations4 ,think over all habitual actions and see whether faculties and instincts can be separated4 ,we have faculty of waking in the night1 if an instinct prompted us to do something at certain hour of night or day4 ,savages finding their way4 ,wrangel's account--probably a faculty inexplicable by the possessor4 ,there are besides faculties means1 as conversion of larvae into neuters and queens4 ,i think all this generally implied1 anyhow useful4 ,this discussion1 which does not occur in the ,origin1 is a first draft of that which follows in the text1 p4 #abc4 ,variation in the mental attributes of wild animals4 ,with respect to the variation#bhd of the mental powers of animals in a wild state1 we know that there is a considerable difference in the disposition of different individuals of the same species1 as is recognised by all those who have had the charge of animals in a menagerie4 ,with respect to the wildness of animals1 that is fear directed particularly against man1 which appears to be as true an instinct as the dread of a young mouse of a cat1 we have excellent evidence that it is slowly acquired and becomes hereditary4 ,it is also certain that1 in a natural state1 individuals of the same species lose or do not practice their migratory instincts--as woodcocks in ,madeira4 ,with respect to any variation in the more complicated instincts1 it is obviously most difficult to detect1 even more so than in the case of corporeal structure1 of which it has been admitted the variation is exceedingly small1 and perhaps scarcely any in the majority of species at any one period4 ,yet1 to take one excellent case of instinct1 namely the nests of birds1 those who have paid most attention to the subject maintain that not only certain individuals 8 species seem to be able to build very imperfectly1 but that a difference in skill may not unfrequently be detected between individuals#bhe4 ,certain birds1 moreover1 adapt their nests to circumstances2 the water-ouzel makes no vault when she builds under cover of a rock--the sparrow builds very differently when its nest is in a tree or in a hole1 and the golden-crested wren sometimes suspends its nest below and sometimes places it on the branches of trees4 #bhd ,a short discussion of a similar kind occurs in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #baa1 vi4 p4 #cbd4 #bhe ,this sentence agrees with the ,,ms41 but is clearly in need of correction4 ,principles of ,selection applicable to instincts4 ,as the instincts of a species are fully as important to its preservation and multiplication as its corporeal structure1 it is evident that if there be the slightest congenital differences in the instincts and habits1 or if certain individuals during their lives are induced or compelled to vary their habits1 and if such differences are in the smallest degree more favourable1 under slightly modified external conditions1 to their preservation1 such individuals must in the long run have a better chance of being preserved and of multiplying#bhf4 ,if this be admitted1 a series of small changes may1 as in the case of corporeal structure1 work great changes in the mental powers1 habits and instincts of any species4 #bhf ,this corresponds to ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #bab1 vi4 p4 #cbe4 ,difficulties in the acquirement of complex instincts by ,selection4 ,every one will at first be inclined to explain 7as ,i did for a long time7 that many of the more complicated and wonderful instincts could not be acquired in the manner here supposed#bhg4 ,the ,second ,part of this work is devoted to the general consideration of how far the general economy of nature justifies or opposes the belief that related species and genera are descended from common stocks2 but we may here consider whether the instincts of animals offer such a prima facie case of impossibility of gradual acquirement1 as to justify the rejection of any such theory1 however strongly it may be supported by other facts4 ,i beg to repeat that ,i wish here to consider not the probability but the possibility of complicated instincts having been acquired by the slow and long-continued selection of very slight 7either congenital or produced by habit7 modifications of foregoing simpler instincts2 each modification being as useful and necessary1 to the species practising it1 as the most complicated kind4 #bhg ,this discussion is interesting in differing from the corresponding section of the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #baf1 vi4 p4 #ccj1 to the end of the chapter4 ,in the present ,essay the subjects dealt with are nest-making instincts1 including the egg-hatching habit of the ,australian bush-turkey4 ,the power of shamming death4 ,faculty in relation to instinct4 ,the instinct of lapse of time1 and of direction4 ,bees' cells very briefly given4 ,birds feeding their young on food differing from their own natural food4 ,in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i41 the cases discussed are the instinct of laying eggs in other birds' nests2 the slave-making instinct in ants2 the construction of the bee's comb1 very fully discussed4 ,first1 to take the case of birds'-nests2 of existing species 7almost infinitely few in comparison with the multitude which must have existed1 since the period of the new ,red ,sandstone of ,n4 ,america1 of whose habits we must always remain ignorant7 a tolerably perfect series could be made from eggs laid on the bare ground1 to others with a few sticks just laid round them1 to a simple nest like the wood-pigeons1 to others more and more complicated3 now if1 as is asserted1 there occasionally exist slight differences in the building powers of an individual1 and if1 which is at least probable1 that such differences would tend to be inherited1 then we can see that it is at least possible that the nidificatory instincts may have been acquired by the gradual selection1 during thousands and thousands of generations1 of the eggs and young of those individuals1 whose nests were in some degree better adapted to the preservation of their young1 under the then existing conditions4 ,one of the most surprising instincts on record is that of the ,australian bush-turkey1 whose eggs are hatched by the heat generated from a huge pile of fermenting materials1 which it heaps together2 but here the habits of an allied species show how this instinct might possibly have been acquired4 ,this second species inhabits a tropical district1 where the heat of the sun is sufficient to hatch its eggs2 this bird1 burying its eggs1 apparently for concealment1 under a lesser heap of rubbish1 but of a dry nature1 so as not to ferment4 ,now suppose this bird to range slowly into a climate which was cooler1 and where leaves were more abundant1 in that case1 those individuals1 which chanced to have their collecting instinct strongest developed1 would make a somewhat larger pile1 and the eggs1 aided during some colder season1 under the slightly cooler climate by the heat of incipient fermentation1 would in the long run be more freely hatched and would probably produce young ones with the same more highly developed collecting tendencies2 of these again1 those with the best developed powers would again tend to rear most young4 ,thus this strange instinct might possibly be acquired1 every individual bird being as ignorant of the laws of fermentation1 and the consequent development of heat1 as we know they must be4 ,secondly1 to take the case of animals feigning death 7as it is commonly expressed7 to escape danger4 ,in the case of insects1 a perfect series can be shown1 from some insects1 which momentarily stand still1 to others which for a second slightly contract their legs1 to others which will remain immovably drawn together for a quarter of an hour1 and may be torn asunder or roasted at a slow fire1 without evincing the smallest sign of sensation4 ,no one will doubt that the length of time1 during which each remains immovable1 is well adapted to favour the insect's escape from the dangers to which it is most exposed1 and few will deny the possibility of the change from one degree to another1 by the means and at the rate already explained4 ,thinking it1 however1 wonderful 7though not impossible7 that the attitude of death should have been acquired by methods which imply no imitation1 ,i compared several species1 when feigning1 as is said1 death1 with others of the same species really dead1 and their attitudes were in no one case the same4 ,thirdly1 in considering many instincts it is useful to endeavour to separate the faculty#bhh by which they perform it1 and the mental power which urges to the performance1 which is more properly called an instinct4 ,we have an instinct to eat1 we have jaws c4 to give us the faculty to do so4 ,these faculties are often unknown to us3 bats1 with their eyes destroyed1 can avoid strings suspended across a room1 we know not at present by what faculty they do this4 ,thus also1 with migratory birds1 it is a wonderful instinct which urges them at certain times of the year to direct their course in certain directions1 but it is a faculty by which they know the time and find their way4 ,with respect to time#bhi1 man without seeing the sun can judge to a certain extent of the hour1 as must those cattle which come down from the inland mountains to feed on sea-weed left bare at the changing hour of low-water#bij4 ,a hawk 7,d',orbigny7 seems certainly to have acquired a knowledge of a period of every #ba days4 ,in the cases already given of the sheep which travelled to their birth-place to cast their lambs1 and the sheep in ,spain which know their time of march#bia1 we may conjecture that the tendency to move is associated1 we may then call it instinctively1 with some corporeal sensations4 ,with respect to direction we can easily conceive how a tendency to travel in a certain course may possibly have been acquired1 although we must remain ignorant how birds are able to preserve any direction whatever in a dark night over the wide ocean4 ,i may observe that the power of some savage races of mankind to find their way1 although perhaps wholly different from the faculty of birds1 is nearly as unintelligible to us4 ,bellinghausen1 a skilful navigator1 describes with the utmost wonder the manner in which some ,esquimaux guided him to a certain point1 by a course never straight1 through newly formed hummocks of ice1 on a thick foggy day1 when he with a compass found it impossible1 from having no landmarks1 and from their course being so extremely crooked1 to preserve any sort of uniform direction3 so it is with ,australian savages in thick forests4 ,in ,north and ,south ,america many birds slowly travel northward and southward1 urged on by the food they find1 as the seasons change2 let them continue to do this1 till1 as in the case of the sheep in ,spain1 it has become an urgent instinctive desire1 and they will gradually accelerate their journey4 ,they would cross narrow rivers1 and if these were converted by subsidence into narrow estuaries1 and gradually during centuries to arms of the sea1 still we may suppose their restless desire of travelling onwards would impel them to cross such an arm1 even if it had become of great width beyond their span of vision4 ,how they are able to preserve a course in any direction1 ,i have said1 is a faculty unknown to us4 ,to give another illustration of the means by which ,i conceive it possible that the direction of migrations have been determined4 ,elk and reindeer in ,n4 ,america annually cross1 as if they could marvellously smell or see at the distance of a hundred miles1 a wide tract of absolute desert1 to arrive at certain islands where there is a scanty supply of food2 the changes of temperature1 which geology proclaims1 render it probable that this desert tract formerly supported some vegetation1 and thus these quadrupeds might have been annually led on1 till they reached the more fertile spots1 and so acquired1 like the sheep of ,spain1 their migratory powers4 #bhh ,the distinction between faculty and instinct corresponds in some degree to that between perception of a stimulus and a specific reaction4 ,i imagine that the author would have said that the sensitiveness to light possessed by a plant is faculty1 while instinct decides whether the plant curves to or from the source of illumination4 #bhi ,note in the original in an unknown handwriting4 ,at the time when corn was pitched in the market instead of sold by sample1 the geese in the town fields of ,newcastle ,staffordshire8 used to know market day and come in to pick up the corn spilt4 #bij ,note in original4 ,macculloch and others4 #bia ,i can find no reference to the transandantes sheep in ,darwin's published work4 ,he was possibly led to doubt the accuracy of the statement on which he relied4 ,for the case of the sheep returning to their birth-place see p4 #ag1 note #d4,note #ia ,fourthly1 with respect to the combs of the hive-bee#bib2 here again we must look to some faculty or means by which they make their hexagonal cells1 without indeed we view these instincts as mere machines4 ,at present such a faculty is quite unknown3 ,mr ,waterhouse supposes that several bees are led by their instinct to excavate a mass of wax to a certain thinness1 and that the result of this is that hexagons necessarily remain4 ,whether this or some other theory be true1 some such means they must possess4 ,they abound1 however1 with true instincts1 which are the most wonderful that are known4 ,if we examine the little that is known concerning the habits of other species of bees1 we find much simpler instincts3 the humble bee merely fills rude balls of wax with honey and aggregates them together with little order in a rough nest of grass4 ,if we knew the instinct of all the bees1 which ever had existed1 it is not improbable that we should have instincts of every degree of complexity1 from actions as simple as a bird making a nest1 and rearing her young1 to the wonderful architecture and government of the hive-bee2 at least such is possible1 which is all that ,i am here considering4 #bib ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #bbd1 vi4 p4 #cdb4 ,finally1 ,i will briefly consider under the same point of view one other class of instincts1 which have often been advanced as truly wonderful1 namely parents bringing food to their young which they themselves neither like nor partake of#bic2--;for instance1 the common sparrow1 a granivorous bird1 feeding its young with caterpillars4 ,we might of course look into the case still earlier1 and seek how an instinct in the parent1 of feeding its young at all1 was first derived2 but it is useless to waste time in conjectures on a series of gradations from the young feeding themselves and being slightly and occasionally assisted in their search1 to their entire food being brought to them4 ,with respect to the parent bringing a different kind of food from its own kind1 we may suppose either that the remote stock1 whence the sparrow and other congenerous birds have descended1 was insectivorous1 and that its own habits and structure have been changed1 whilst its ancient instincts with respect to its young have remained unchanged2 or we may suppose that the parents have been induced to vary slightly the food of their young1 by a slight scarcity of the proper kind 7or by the instincts of some individuals not being so truly developed71 and in this case those young which were most capable of surviving were necessarily most often preserved1 and would themselves in time become parents1 and would be similarly compelled to alter their food for their young4 ,in the case of those animals1 the young of which feed themselves1 changes in their instincts for food1 and in their structure1 might be selected from slight variations1 just as in mature animals4 ,again1 where the food of the young depends on where the mother places her eggs1 as in the case of the caterpillars of the cabbage-butterfly1 we may suppose that the parent stock of the species deposited her eggs sometimes on one kind and sometimes on another of congenerous plants 7as some species now do71 and if the cabbage suited the caterpillars better than any other plant1 the caterpillars of those butterflies1 which had chosen the cabbage1 would be most plentifully reared1 and would produce butterflies more apt to lay their eggs on the cabbage than on the other congenerous plants4 #bic ,this is an expansion of an obscure passage in the ,essay of #ahdb1 p4 #ai4 ,however vague and unphilosophical these conjectures may appear1 they serve1 ,i think1 to show that one's first impulse utterly to reject any theory whatever1 implying a gradual acquirement of these instincts1 which for ages have excited man's admiration1 may at least be delayed4 ,once grant that dispositions1 tastes1 actions or habits can be slightly modified1 either by slight congenital differences 7we must suppose in the brain7 or by the force of external circumstances1 and that such slight modifications can be rendered inheritable1--a proposition which no one can reject1--and it will be difficult to put any limit to the complexity and wonder of the tastes and habits which may possibly be thus acquired4 ,difficulties in the acquirement by ,selection of complex corporeal structures4 ,after the past discussion it will perhaps be convenient here to consider whether any particular corporeal organs1 or the entire structure of any animals1 are so wonderful as to justify the rejection prima facie of our theory#bid4 ,in the case of the eye1 as with the more complicated instincts1 no doubt one's first impulse is to utterly reject every such theory4 ,but if the eye from its most complicated form can be shown to graduate into an exceedingly simple state1--if selection can produce the smallest change1 and if such a series exists1 then it is clear 7for in this work we have nothing to do with the first origin of organs in their simplest forms#bie7 that it may possibly have been acquired by gradual selection of slight1 but in each case1 useful deviations#bif4 ,every naturalist1 when he meets with any new and singular organ1 always expects to find1 and looks for1 other and simpler modifications of it in other beings4 ,in the case of the eye1 we have a multitude of different forms1 more or less simple1 not graduating into each other1 but separated by sudden gaps or intervals2 but we must recollect how incomparably greater would the multitude of visual structures be if we had the eyes of every fossil which ever existed4 ,we shall discuss the probable vast proportion of the extinct to the recent in the succeeding ,part4 ,notwithstanding the large series of existing forms1 it is most difficult even to conjecture by what intermediate stages very many simple organs could possibly have graduated into complex ones3 but it should be here borne in mind1 that a part having originally a wholly different function1 may on the theory of gradual selection be slowly worked into quite another use2 the gradations of forms1 from which naturalists believe in the hypothetical metamorphosis of part of the ear into the swimming bladder in fishes#big1 and in insects of legs into jaws1 show the manner in which this is possible4 ,as under domestication1 modifications of structure take place1 without any continued selection1 which man finds very useful1 or valuable for curiosity 7as the hooked calyx of the teazle1 or the ruff round some pigeons' necks71 so in a state of nature some small modifications1 apparently beautifully adapted to certain ends1 may perhaps be produced from the accidents of the reproductive system1 and be at once propagated without long-continued selection of small deviations towards that structure#bih4 ,in conjecturing by what stages any complicated organ in a species may have arrived at its present state1 although we may look to the analogous organs in other existing species1 we should do this merely to aid and guide our imaginations2 for to know the real stages we must look only through one line of species1 to one ancient stock1 from which the species in question has descended4 ,in considering the eye of a quadruped1 for instance1 though we may look at the eye of a molluscous animal or of an insect1 as a proof how simple an organ will serve some of the ends of vision2 and at the eye of a fish as a nearer guide of the manner of simplification2 we must remember that it is a mere chance 7assuming for a moment the truth of our theory7 if any existing organic being has preserved any one organ1 in exactly the same condition1 as it existed in the ancient species at remote geological periods4 #bid ,the difficulties discussed in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #aga1 vi4 p4 #bjg1 are the rarity of transitional varieties1 the origin of the tail of the giraffe2 the otter-like polecat 7,mustela vison72 the flying habit of the bat2 the penguin and the logger-headed duck2 flying fish2 the whale-like habit of the bear2 the woodpecker2 diving petrels2 the eye2 the swimming bladder2 ,cirripedes2 neuter insects2 electric organs4 ,of these1 the polecat1 the bat1 the woodpecker1 the eye1 the swimming bladder are discussed in the present ,essay1 and in addition some botanical problems4 #bie ,in the ,origin1 ,ed4 vi4 p4 #bge1 the author replies to ,mivart's criticisms 7,genesis of ,species1 #ahga71 referring especially to that writer's objection that natural selection is incompetent to account for the incipient stages of useful structures4 #bif ,the following sentence seems to have been intended for insertion here and that each eye throughout the animal kingdom is not only most useful1 but perfect for its possessor4 #big ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #aij1 vi4 p4 #bcj4 #bih ,this is one of the most definite statements in the present ,essay of the possible importance of sports or what would now be called mutations4 ,as is well known the author afterwards doubted whether species could arise in this way4 ,see ,origin1 ,ed4 v4 p4 #ajc1 vi4 p4 #aaj1 also ,life and ,letters1 vol4 iii4 p4 #ajg4 ,the nature or condition of certain structures has been thought by some naturalists to be of no use to the possessor#bii1 but to have been formed wholly for the good of other species2 thus certain fruit and seeds have been thought to have been made nutritious for certain animals--numbers of insects1 especially in their larval state1 to exist for the same end--certain fish to be bright coloured to aid certain birds of prey in catching them1 c4 ,now could this be proved 7which ,i am far from admitting7 the theory of natural selection would be quite overthrown2 for it is evident that selection depending on the advantage over others of one individual with some slight deviation would never produce a structure or quality profitable only to another species4 ,no doubt one being takes advantage of qualities in another1 and may even cause its extermination2 but this is far from proving that this quality was produced for such an end4 ,it may be advantageous to a plant to have its seeds attractive to animals1 if one out of a hundred or a thousand escapes being digested1 and thus aids dissemination3 the bright colours of a fish may be of some advantage to it1 or more probably may result from exposure to certain conditions in favourable haunts for food1 notwithstanding it becomes subject to be caught more easily by certain birds4 #bii ,see ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #baj1 vi4 p4 #cbb1 where the question is discussed for the case of instincts with a proviso that the same argument applies to structure4 ,it is briefly stated in its general bearing in ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #hg1 vi4 p4 #ajf4 ,if instead of looking1 as above1 at certain individual organs1 in order to speculate on the stages by which their parts have been matured and selected1 we consider an individual animal1 we meet with the same or greater difficulty1 but which1 ,i believe1 as in the case of single organs1 rests entirely on our ignorance4 ,it may be asked by what intermediate forms could1 for instance1 a bat possibly have passed2 but the same question might have been asked with respect to the seal1 if we had not been familiar with the otter and other semi-aquatic carnivorous quadrupeds4 ,but in the case of the bat1 who can say what might have been the habits of some parent form with less developed wings1 when we now have insectivorous opossums and herbivorous squirrels fitted for merely gliding through the air#cjj4 ,one species of bat is at present partly aquatic in its habits#cja4 ,woodpeckers and tree-frogs are especially adapted1 as their names express1 for climbing trees2 yet we have species of both inhabiting the open plains of ,la ,plata1 where a tree does not exist#cjb4 ,i might argue from this circumstance that a structure eminently fitted for climbing trees might descend from forms inhabiting a country where a tree did not exist4 ,notwithstanding these and a multitude of other well-known facts1 it has been maintained by several authors that one species1 for instance of the carnivorous order1 could not pass into another1 for instance into an otter1 because in its transitional state its habits would not be adapted to any proper conditions of life2 but the jaguar#cjc is a thoroughly terrestrial quadruped in its structure1 yet it takes freely to the water and catches many fish2 will it be said that it is impossible that the conditions of its country might become such that the jaguar should be driven to feed more on fish than they now do2 and in that case is it impossible1 is it not probable1 that any the slightest deviation in its instincts1 its form of body1 in the width of its feet1 and in the extension of the skin 7which already unites the base of its toes7 would give such individuals a better chance of surviving and propagating young with similar1 barely perceptible 7though thoroughly exercised71 deviations#cjd8 ,who will say what could thus be effected in the course of ten thousand generations8 ,who can answer the same question with respect to instincts8 ,if no one can1 the possibility 7for we are not in this chapter considering the probability7 of simple organs or organic beings being modified by natural selection and the effects of external agencies into complicated ones ought not to be absolutely rejected4 #cjj ,note in original4 ,no one will dispute that the gliding is most useful1 probably necessary for the species in question4 #cja ,note in original4 ,is this the ,galeopithecus8 ,i forget4 ,galeopithecus or the flying ,lemur is mentioned in the corresponding discussion in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #aha1 vi4 p4 #bag1 as formerly placed among the bats4 ,i do not know why it is described as partly aquatic in its habits4 #cjb ,in the ,origin1 ,ed4 vi4 p4 #bba1 the author modified the statement that it never climbs trees2 he also inserted a sentence quoting ,mr ,hudson to the effect that in other districts this woodpecker climbs trees and bores holes4 ,see ,mr ,darwin's paper1 ,zoolog4 ,soc4 ,proc41 #ahgj1 and ,life and ,letters1 iii4 p4 #aec4 #cjc ,note by the late ,alfred ,newton4 ,richardson in ,fauna ,boreali-,americana1 i4 p4 #di4 #cjd ,note in original4 ,see ,richardson a far better case of a polecat animal ,mustela vison1 which half-year is aquatic4 ,mentioned in ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #agi1 vi4 p4 #baf4 ,,part ,,ii#cje ,,on ,,the ,,evidence ,,favourable ,,and ,,opposed ,,to ,,the ,,view ,,that ,,species ,,are ,,naturally ,,formed ,,races1 ,,descended ,,from ,,common ,,stocks #cje ,in the ,origin the division of the work into ,parts ,i and ,,ii is omitted4 ,in the ,,ms4 the chapters of ,part ,,ii are numbered afresh1 the present being ,ch4 ,i of ,pt4 ,,ii4 ,i have thought it best to call it ,ch4 ,,iv and there is evidence that ,darwin had some thought of doing the same4 ,it corresponds to ,ch4 ,,ix of ,origin1 ,ed4 i41 ,ch4 ,x in ,ed4 vi4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,on ,,the ,,number ,,of ,,intermediate ,,forms ,,required ,,on ,,the ,,theory ,,of ,,common ,,descent2 ,,and ,,on ,,their ,,absence ,,in ,a ,,fossil ,,state ,i must here premise that1 according to the view ordinarily received1 the myriads of organisms1 which have during past and present times peopled this world1 have been created by so many distinct acts of creation4 ,it is impossible to reason concerning the will of the ,creator1 and therefore1 according to this view1 we can see no cause why or why not the individual organism should have been created on any fixed scheme4 ,that all the organisms of this world have been produced on a scheme is certain from their general affinities2 and if this scheme can be shown to be the same with that which would result from allied organic beings descending from common stocks1 it becomes highly improbable that they have been separately created by individual acts of the will of a ,creator4 ,for as well might it be said that1 although the planets move in courses conformably to the law of gravity1 yet we ought to attribute the course of each planet to the individual act of the will of the ,creator#cjf4 ,it is in every case more conformable with what we know of the government of this earth1 that the ,creator should have imposed only general laws4 ,as long as no method was known by which races could become exquisitely adapted to various ends1 whilst the existence of species was thought to be proved by the sterility#cjg of their offspring1 it was allowable to attribute each organism to an individual act of creation4 ,but in the two former chapters it has 7,i think7 been shown that the production1 under existing conditions1 of exquisitely adapted species1 is at least possible4 ,is there then any direct evidence in favour of or against this view8 ,i believe that the geographical distribution of organic beings in past and present times1 the kind of affinity linking them together1 their so-called metamorphic and abortive organs1 appear in favour of this view4 ,on the other hand1 the imperfect evidence of the continuousness of the organic series1 which1 we shall immediately see1 is required on our theory1 is against it2 and is the most weighty objection#cjh4 ,the evidence1 however1 even on this point1 as far as it goes1 is favourable2 and considering the imperfection of our knowledge1 especially with respect to past ages1 it would be surprising if evidence drawn from such sources were not also imperfect4 #cjf ,in the ,essay of #ahdb the author uses astronomy in the same manner as an illustration4 ,in the ,origin this does not occur2 the reference to the action of secondary causes is more general1 e4g4 ,ed4 i4 p4 #dhh1 vi4 p4 #ffh4 #cjg ,it is interesting to find the argument from sterility given so prominent a place4 ,in a corresponding passage in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #dhj1 vi4 p4 #fei1 it is more summarily treated4 ,the author gives1 as the chief bar to the acceptance of evolution1 the fact that we are always slow in admitting any great change of which we do not see the intermediate steps2 and goes on to quote ,lyell on geological action4 ,it will be remembered that the question of sterility remained a difficulty for ,huxley4 #cjh ,similar statements occur in the ,essay of #ahdb1 p4 #bd1 note #a1 and in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #bii4 ,as ,i suppose that species have been formed in an analogous manner with the varieties of the domesticated animals and plants1 so must there have existed intermediate forms between all the species of the same group1 not differing more than recognised varieties differ4 ,it must not be supposed necessary that there should have existed forms exactly intermediate in character between any two species of a genus1 or even between any two varieties of a species2 but it is necessary that there should have existed every intermediate form between the one species or variety of the common parent1 and likewise between the second species or variety1 and this same common parent4 ,thus it does not necessarily follow that there ever has existed a series of intermediate sub-varieties 7differing no more than the occasional seedlings from the same seed-capsule17 between broccoli and common red cabbage2 but it is certain that there has existed1 between broccoli and the wild parent cabbage1 a series of such intermediate seedlings1 and again between red cabbage and the wild parent cabbage3 so that the broccoli and red cabbage are linked together1 but not necessarily by directly intermediate forms#cji4 ,it is of course possible that there may have been directly intermediate forms1 for the broccoli may have long since descended from a common red cabbage1 and this from the wild cabbage4 ,so on my theory1 it must have been with species of the same genus4 ,still more must the supposition be avoided that there has necessarily ever existed 7though one may have descended from the other7 directly intermediate forms between any two genera or families--for instance between the genus ,sus and the ,tapir#caj2 although it is necessary that intermediate forms 7not differing more than the varieties of our domestic animals7 should have existed between ,sus and some unknown parent form1 and ,tapir with this same parent form4 ,the latter may have differed more from ,sus and ,tapir than these two genera now differ from each other4 ,in this sense1 according to our theory1 there has been a gradual passage 7the steps not being wider apart than our domestic varieties7 between the species of the same genus1 between genera of the same family1 and between families of the same order1 and so on1 as far as facts1 hereafter to be given1 lead us2 and the number of forms which must have at former periods existed1 thus to make good this passage between different species1 genera1 and families1 must have been almost infinitely great4 #cji ,in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #bhj1 vi4 p4 #dad he uses his newly-acquired knowledge of pigeons to illustrate this point4 #caj ,compare the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #bha1 vi4 p4 #dad4 ,what evidence#caa is there of a number of intermediate forms having existed1 making a passage in the above sense1 between the species of the same groups8 ,some naturalists have supposed that if every fossil which now lies entombed1 together with all existing species1 were collected together1 a perfect series in every great class would be formed4 ,considering the enormous number of species requisite to effect this1 especially in the above sense of the forms not being directly intermediate between the existing species and genera1 but only intermediate by being linked through a common but often widely different ancestor1 ,i think this supposition highly improbable4 ,i am however far from underrating the probable number of fossilised species3 no one who has attended to the wonderful progress of palaeontology during the last few years will doubt that we as yet have found only an exceedingly small fraction of the species buried in the crust of the earth4 ,although the almost infinitely numerous intermediate forms in no one class may have been preserved1 it does not follow that they have not existed4 ,the fossils which have been discovered1 it is important to remark1 do tend1 the little way they go1 to make good the series2 for as observed by ,buckland they all fall into or between existing groups#cab4 ,moreover1 those that fall between our existing groups1 fall in1 according to the manner required by our theory1 for they do not directly connect two existing species of different groups1 but they connect the groups themselves3 thus the ,pachydermata and ,ruminantia are now separated by several characters1 for instance the ,pachydermata#cac have both a tibia and fibula1 whilst ,ruminantia have only a tibia2 now the fossil ,macrauchenia has a leg bone exactly intermediate in this respect1 and likewise has some other intermediate characters4 ,but the ,macrauchenia does not connect any one species of ,pachydermata with some one other of ,ruminantia but it shows that these two groups have at one time been less widely divided4 ,so have fish and reptiles been at one time more closely connected in some points than they now are4 ,generally in those groups in which there has been most change1 the more ancient the fossil1 if not identical with recent1 the more often it falls between existing groups1 or into small existing groups which now lie between other large existing groups4 ,cases like the foregoing1 of which there are many1 form steps1 though few and far between1 in a series of the kind required by my theory4 #caa ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #cja1 vi4 p4 #ddj4 #cab ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #cbi1 vi4 p4 #dga4 #cac ,the structure of the ,pachyderm leg was a favourite with the author4 ,it is discussed in the ,essay of #ahdb1 p4 #dh4 ,in the present ,essay the following sentence in the margin appears to refer to ,pachyderms and ,ruminants3 ,there can be no doubt1 if we banish all fossils1 existing groups stand more separate4 ,the following occurs between the lines ,the earliest forms would be such as others could radiate from4 ,as ,i have admitted the high improbability1 that if every fossil were disinterred1 they would compose in each of the ,divisions of ,nature a perfect series of the kind required2 consequently ,i freely admit1 that if those geologists are in the right who consider the lowest known formation as contemporaneous with the first appearances of life#cad2 or the several formations as at all closely consecutive2 or any one formation as containing a nearly perfect record of the organisms which existed during the whole period of its deposition in that quarter of the globe2--if such propositions are to be accepted1 my theory must be abandoned4 #cad ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #cjg1 vi4 p4 #ddh4 ,if the ,palaeozoic system is really contemporaneous with the first appearance of life1 my theory must be abandoned1 both inasmuch as it limits from shortness of time the total number of forms which can have existed on this world1 and because the organisms1 as fish1 mollusca#cae and star-fish found in its lower beds1 cannot be considered as the parent forms of all the successive species in these classes4 ,but no one has yet overturned the arguments of ,hutton and ,lyell1 that the lowest formations known to us are only those which have escaped being metamorphosed illegible2 if we argued from some considerable districts1 we might have supposed that even the ,cretaceous system was that in which life first appeared4 ,from the number of distant points1 however1 in which the ,silurian system has been found to be the lowest1 and not always metamorphosed1 there are some objections to ,hutton's and ,lyell's view2 but we must not forget that the now existing land forms only #a_/e part of the superficies of the globe1 and that this fraction is only imperfectly known4 ,with respect to the fewness of the organisms found in the ,silurian and other ,palaeozoic formations1 there is less difficulty1 inasmuch as 7besides their gradual obliteration7 we can expect formations of this vast antiquity to escape entire denudation1 only when they have been accumulated over a wide area1 and have been subsequently protected by vast superimposed deposits3 now this could generally only hold good with deposits accumulating in a wide and deep ocean1 and therefore unfavourable to the presence of many living things4 ,a mere narrow and not very thick strip of matter1 deposited along a coast where organisms most abound1 would have no chance of escaping denudation and being preserved to the present time from such immensely distant ages#caf4 #cae ,pencil insertion by the author4 ,the parent-forms of ,mollusca would probably differ greatly from all recent1--it is not directly that any one division of ,mollusca would descend from first time unaltered1 whilst others had become metamorphosed from it4 #caf ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #bia1 vi4 p4 #dbf4 ,if the several known formations are at all nearly consecutive in time1 and preserve a fair record of the organisms which have existed1 my theory must be abandoned4 ,but when we consider the great changes in mineralogical nature and texture between successive formations1 what vast and entire changes in the geography of the surrounding countries must generally have been effected1 thus wholly to have changed the nature of the deposits on the same area4 ,what time such changes must have required6 ,moreover how often has it not been found1 that between two conformable and apparently immediately successive deposits a vast pile of water-worn matter is interpolated in an adjoining district4 ,we have no means of conjecturing in many cases how long a period#cag has elapsed between successive formations1 for the species are often wholly different3 as remarked by ,lyell1 in some cases probably as long a period has elapsed between two formations as the whole ,tertiary system1 itself broken by wide gaps4 #cag ,note in original4 ,reflect on coming in of the ,chalk1 extending from ,iceland to the ,crimea4 ,consult the writings of any one who has particularly attended to any one stage in the ,tertiary system 7and indeed of every system7 and see how deeply impressed he is with the time required for its accumulation#cah4 ,reflect on the years elapsed in many cases1 since the latest beds containing only living species have been formed2--see what ,jordan ,smith says of the #bj1jjj years since the last bed1 which is above the boulder formation in ,scotland1 has been upraised2 or of the far longer period since the recent beds of ,sweden have been upraised #djj feet1 what an enormous period the boulder formation must have required1 and yet how insignificant are the records 7although there has been plenty of elevation to bring up submarine deposits7 of the shells1 which we know existed at that time4 ,think1 then1 over the entire length of the ,tertiary epoch1 and think over the probable length of the intervals1 separating the ,secondary deposits4 ,of these deposits1 moreover1 those consisting of sand and pebbles have seldom been favourable1 either to the embedment or to the preservation of fossils#cai4 #cah ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #bhb1 vi4 p4 #daf4 #cai ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 pp4 #bhh1 #cjj1 vi4 pp4 #dbb1 #dch4 ,nor can it be admitted as probable that any one ,secondary formation contains a fair record even of those organisms which are most easily preserved1 namely hard marine bodies4 ,in how many cases have we not certain evidence that between the deposition of apparently closely consecutive beds1 the lower one existed for an unknown time as land1 covered with trees4 ,some of the ,secondary formations which contain most marine remains appear to have been formed in a wide and not deep sea1 and therefore only those marine animals which live in such situations would be preserved#cbj4 ,in all cases1 on indented rocky coasts1 or any other coast1 where sediment is not accumulating1 although often highly favourable to marine animals1 none can be embedded3 where pure sand and pebbles are accumulating few or none will be preserved4 ,i may here instance the great western line of the ,s4 ,american coast#cba1 tenanted by many peculiar animals1 of which none probably will be preserved to a distant epoch4 ,from these causes1 and especially from such deposits as are formed along a line of coast1 steep above and below water1 being necessarily of little width1 and therefore more likely to be subsequently denuded and worn away1 we can see why it is improbable that our ,secondary deposits contain a fair record of the ,marine ,fauna of any one period4 ,the ,east ,indian ,archipelago offers an area1 as large as most of our ,secondary deposits1 in which there are wide and shallow seas1 teeming with marine animals1 and in which sediment is accumulating2 now supposing that all the hard marine animals1 or rather those having hard parts to preserve1 were preserved to a future age1 excepting those which lived on rocky shores where no sediment or only sand and gravel were accumulating1 and excepting those embedded along the steeper coasts1 where only a narrow fringe of sediment was accumulating1 supposing all this1 how poor a notion would a person at a future age have of the ,marine ,fauna of the present day4 ,lyell#cbb has compared the geological series to a work of which only the few latter but not consecutive chapters have been preserved2 and out of which1 it may be added1 very many leaves have been torn1 the remaining ones only illustrating a scanty portion of the ,fauna of each period4 ,on this view1 the records of anteceding ages confirm my theory2 on any other they destroy it4 #cbj ,note in original4 ,neither highest or lowest fish 7i4e4 ,myxina 8 or ,lepidosiren7 could be preserved in intelligible condition in fossils4 #cba ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #bij1 vi4 p4 #dbe4 #cbb ,see ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #caj1 vi4 p4 #deb for ,lyell's metaphor4 ,i am indebted to ,prof4 ,judd for pointing out that ,darwin's version of the metaphor is founded on the first edition of ,lyell's ,principles1 vol4 ,i4 and vol4 ,,iii42 see the ,essay of #ahdb1 p4 #bg4 ,finally1 if we narrow the question into1 why do we not find in some instances every intermediate form between any two species8 the answer may well be that the average duration of each specific form 7as we have good reason to believe7 is immense in years1 and that the transition could1 according to my theory1 be effected only by numberless small gradations2 and therefore that we should require for this end a most perfect record1 which the foregoing reasoning teaches us not to expect4 ,it might be thought that in a vertical section of great thickness in the same formation some of the species ought to be found to vary in the upper and lower parts#cbc1 but it may be doubted whether any formation has gone on accumulating without any break for a period as long as the duration of a species2 and if it had done so1 we should require a series of specimens from every part4 ,how rare must be the chance of sediment accumulating for some #bj or #cj thousand years on the same spot#cbd1 with the bottom subsiding1 so that a proper depth might be preserved for any one species to continue living3 what an amount of subsidence would be thus required1 and this subsidence must not destroy the source whence the sediment continued to be derived4 ,in the case of terrestrial animals1 what chance is there when the present time is become a pleistocene formation 7at an earlier period than this1 sufficient elevation to expose marine beds could not be expected71 what chance is there that future geologists will make out the innumerable transitional sub-varieties1 through which the short-horned and long-horned cattle 7so different in shape of body7 have been derived from the same parent stock#cbe8 ,yet this transition has been effected in the same country1 and in a far shorter time1 than would be probable in a wild state1 both contingencies highly favourable for the future hypothetical geologists being enabled to trace the variation4 #cbc ,see ,more ,letters1 vol4 ,i4 pp4 #cdd-g1 for ,darwin's interest in the celebrated observations of ,hilgendorf and ,hyatt4 #cbd ,this corresponds partly to ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #bid1 vi4 p4 #dca4 #cbe ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #bii1 vi4 p4 #dcg4 ,,chapter ,v ,,gradual ,,appearance ,,and ,,disappearance ,,of ,,species#cbf #cbf ,this chapter corresponds to ch4 ,x of ,origin1 ,ed4 i41 vi4 ch4 ,,xi1 ,on the geological succession of organic beings4 ,in the ,tertiary system1 in the last uplifted beds1 we find all the species recent and living in the immediate vicinity2 in rather older beds we find only recent species1 but some not living in the immediate vicinity#cbg2 we then find beds with two or three or a few more extinct or very rare species2 then considerably more extinct species1 but with gaps in the regular increase2 and finally we have beds with only two or three or not one living species4 ,most geologists believe that the gaps in the percentage1 that is the sudden increments1 in the number of the extinct species in the stages of the ,tertiary system are due to the imperfection of the geological record4 ,hence we are led to believe that the species in the ,tertiary system have been gradually introduced2 and from analogy to carry on the same view to the ,secondary formations4 ,in these latter1 however1 entire groups of species generally come in abruptly2 but this would naturally result1 if1 as argued in the foregoing chapter1 these ,secondary deposits are separated by wide epochs4 ,moreover it is important to observe that1 with our increase of knowledge1 the gaps between the older formations become fewer and smaller2 geologists of a few years standing remember how beautifully has the ,devonian system#cbh come in between the ,carboniferous and ,silurian formations4 ,i need hardly observe that the slow and gradual appearance of new forms follows from our theory1 for to form a new species1 an old one must not only be plastic in its organization1 becoming so probably from changes in the conditions of its existence1 but a place in the natural economy of the district must be made1 come to exist1 for the selection of some new modification of its structure1 better fitted to the surrounding conditions than are the other individuals of the same or other species#cbi4 #cbg ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #cab1 vi4 p4 #dec4 #cbh ,in the margin the author has written ,lonsdale4 ,this refers to ,w4 ,lonsdale's paper ,notes on the age of the ,limestone of ,south ,devonshire1 ,geolog4 ,soc4 ,trans41 ,series #b1 vol4 ,v4 #ahdj1 p4 #gba4 ,according to ,mr ,h4 ,b4 ,woodward 7,history of the ,geological ,society of ,london1 #aijg1 p4 #ajg7 ,lonsdale's 'important and original suggestion of the existence of an intermediary type of ,palaeozoic fossils1 since called ,devonian1' led to a change which was then 'the greatest ever made at one time in the classification of our ,english formations'4 ,mr ,woodward's quotations are from ,murchison and ,buckland4 #cbi ,note in original4 ,better begin with this4 ,if species really1 after catastrophes1 created in showers over world1 my theory false4 ,in the above passage the author is obviously close to his theory of divergence4 ,in the ,tertiary system the same facts1 which make us admit as probable that new species have slowly appeared1 lead to the admission that old ones have slowly disappeared1 not several together1 but one after another2 and by analogy one is induced to extend this belief to the ,secondary and ,palaeozoic epochs4 ,in some cases1 as the subsidence of a flat country1 or the breaking or the joining of an isthmus1 and the sudden inroad of many new and destructive species1 extinction might be locally sudden4 ,the view entertained by many geologists1 that each fauna of each ,secondary epoch has been suddenly destroyed over the whole world1 so that no succession could be left for the production of new forms1 is subversive of my theory1 but ,i see no grounds whatever to admit such a view4 ,on the contrary1 the law1 which has been made out1 with reference to distinct epochs1 by independent observers1 namely1 that the wider the geographical range of a species the longer is its duration in time1 seems entirely opposed to any universal extermination#ccj4 ,the fact of species of mammiferous animals and fish being renewed at a quicker rate than mollusca1 though both aquatic2 and of these the terrestrial genera being renewed quicker than the marine2 and the marine mollusca being again renewed quicker than the ,infusorial animalcula1 all seem to show that the extinction and renewal of species does not depend on general catastrophes1 but on the particular relations of the several classes to the conditions to which they are exposed#cca4 #ccj ,opposite to this passage the author has written d',archiac1 ,forbes1 ,lyell4 #cca ,this passage1 for which the author gives as authorities the names of ,lyell1 ,forbes and ,ehrenberg1 corresponds in part to the discussion beginning on p4 #cac of ,origin1 ,ed4 i41 vi4 p4 #ded4 ,some authors seem to consider the fact of a few species having survived#ccb amidst a number of extinct forms 7as is the case with a tortoise and a crocodile out of the vast number of extinct sub-,himalayan fossils7 as strongly opposed to the view of species being mutable4 ,no doubt this would be the case1 if it were presupposed with ,lamarck that there was some inherent tendency to change and development in all species1 for which supposition ,i see no evidence4 ,as we see some species at present adapted to a wide range of conditions1 so we may suppose that such species would survive unchanged and unexterminated for a long time2 time generally being from geological causes a correlative of changing conditions4 ,how at present one species becomes adapted to a wide range1 and another species to a restricted range of conditions1 is of difficult explanation4 #ccb ,the author gives ,falconer as his authority3 see ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #cac1 vi4 p4 #ded4 ,extinction of species4 ,the extinction of the larger quadrupeds1 of which we imagine we better know the conditions of existence1 has been thought little less wonderful than the appearance of new species2 and has1 ,i think1 chiefly led to the belief of universal catastrophes4 ,when considering the wonderful disappearance within a late period1 whilst recent shells were living1 of the numerous great and small mammifers of ,s4 ,america1 one is strongly induced to join with the catastrophists4 ,i believe1 however1 that very erroneous views are held on this subject4 ,as far as is historically known1 the disappearance of species from any one country has been slow--the species becoming rarer and rarer1 locally extinct1 and finally lost#ccc4 ,it may be objected that this has been effected by man's direct agency1 or by his indirect agency in altering the state of the country2 in this latter case1 however1 it would be difficult to draw any just distinction between his agency and natural agencies4 ,but we now know in the later ,tertiary deposits1 that shells become rarer and rarer in the successive beds1 and finally disappear3 it has happened1 also1 that shells common in a fossil state1 and thought to have been extinct1 have been found to be still living species1 but very rare ones#ccd4 ,if the rule is that organisms become extinct by becoming rarer and rarer1 we ought not to view their extinction1 even in the case of the larger quadrupeds1 as anything wonderful and out of the common course of events4 ,for no naturalist thinks it wonderful that one species of a genus should be rare and another abundant1 notwithstanding he be quite incapable of explaining the causes of the comparative rareness#cce4 ,why is one species of willow-wren or hawk or woodpecker common in ,england1 and another extremely rare3 why at the ,cape of ,good ,hope is one species of rhinoceros or antelope far more abundant than other species8 ,why again is the same species much more abundant in one district of a country than in another district8 ,no doubt there are in each case good causes3 but they are unknown and unperceived by us4 ,may we not then safely infer that as certain causes are acting unperceived around us1 and are making one species to be common and another exceedingly rare1 that they might equally well cause the final extinction of some species without being perceived by us8 ,we should always bear in mind that there is a recurrent struggle for life in every organism1 and that in every country a destroying agency is always counteracting the geometrical tendency to increase in every species2 and yet without our being able to tell with certainty at what period of life1 or at what period of the year1 the destruction falls the heaviest4 ,ought we then to expect to trace the steps by which this destroying power1 always at work and scarcely perceived by us1 becomes increased1 and yet if it continues to increase ever so slowly 7without the fertility of the species in question be likewise increased7 the average number of the individuals of that species must decrease1 and become finally lost4 ,i may give a single instance of a check causing local extermination which might long have escaped discovery#ccf2 the horse1 though swarming in a wild state in ,la ,plata1 and likewise under apparently the most unfavourable conditions in the scorched and alternately flooded plains of ,caraccas1 will not in a wild state extend beyond a certain degree of latitude into the intermediate country of ,paraguay2 this is owing to a certain fly depositing its eggs on the navels of the foals3 as1 however1 man with a little care can rear horses in a tame state abundantly in ,paraguay1 the problem of its extinction is probably complicated by the greater exposure of the wild horse to occasional famine from the droughts1 to the attacks of the jaguar and other such evils4 ,in the ,falkland ,islands the check to the increase of the wild horse is said to be loss of the sucking foals#ccg1 from the stallions compelling the mares to travel across bogs and rocks in search of food3 if the pasture on these islands decreased a little1 the horse1 perhaps1 would cease to exist in a wild state1 not from the absolute want of food1 but from the impatience of the stallions urging the mares to travel whilst the foals were too young4 #ccc ,this corresponds approximately to ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #cag1 vi4 p4 #deh4 #ccd ,the case of ,trigonia1 a great ,secondary genus of shells surviving in a single species in the ,australian seas1 is given as an example in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #cba1 vi4 p4 #dfc4 #cce ,this point1 on which the author laid much stress1 is discussed in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #cai1 vi4 p4 #dfa4 #ccf ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #gb1 vi4 p4 #hi4 #ccg ,this case does not occur in the ,origin1 ,ed4 ,from our more intimate acquaintance with domestic animals1 we cannot conceive their extinction without some glaring agency2 we forget that they would undoubtedly in a state of nature 7where other animals are ready to fill up their place7 be acted on in some part of their lives by a destroying agency1 keeping their numbers on an average constant4 ,if the common ox was known only as a wild ,s4 ,african species1 we should feel no surprise at hearing that it was a very rare species2 and this rarity would be a stage towards its extinction4 ,even in man1 so infinitely better known than any other inhabitant of this world1 how impossible it has been found1 without statistical calculations1 to judge of the proportions of births and deaths1 of the duration of life1 and of the increase and decrease of population2 and still less of the causes of such changes3 and yet1 as has so often been repeated1 decrease in numbers or rarity seems to be the high-road to extinction4 ,to marvel at the extermination of a species appears to me to be the same thing as to know that illness is the road to death1--to look at illness as an ordinary event1 nevertheless to conclude1 when the sick man dies1 that his death has been caused by some unknown and violent agency#cch4 #cch ,an almost identical sentence occurs in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #cbj1 vi4 p4 #dfb4 ,in a future part of this work we shall show that1 as a general rule1 groups of allied species#cci gradually appear and disappear1 one after the other1 on the face of the earth1 like the individuals of the same species3 and we shall then endeavour to show the probable cause of this remarkable fact4 #cci ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #caf1 vi4 p4 #deg4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,on ,,the ,,geographical ,,distribution ,,of ,,organic ,,beings ,,in ,,past ,,and ,,present ,,times ,for convenience sake ,i shall divide this chapter into three sections#cdj4 ,in the first place ,i shall endeavour to state the laws of the distribution of existing beings1 as far as our present object is concerned2 in the second1 that of extinct2 and in the third section ,i shall consider how far these laws accord with the theory of allied species having a common descent4 #cdj ,chapters ,,xi and ,,xii in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i41 vi4 chs4 ,,xii and ,,xiii 7,on geographical distribution7 show signs of having been originally one1 in the fact that one summary serves for both4 ,the geological element is not separately treated there1 nor is there a separate section on how far these laws accord with the theory1 c4 ,in the ,,ms4 the author has here written in the margin ,if same species appear at two spot at once1 fatal to my theory4 ,see ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #ceb1 vi4 p4 #dii ,,section ,,first4 ,distribution of the inhabitants in the different continents4 ,in the following discussion ,i shall chiefly refer to terrestrial mammifers1 inasmuch as they are better known2 their differences in different countries1 strongly marked2 and especially as the necessary means of their transport are more evident1 and confusion1 from the accidental conveyance by man of a species from one district to another district1 is less likely to arise4 ,it is known that all mammifers 7as well as all other organisms7 are united in one great system2 but that the different species1 genera1 or families of the same order inhabit different quarters of the globe4 ,if we divide the land#cda into two divisions1 according to the amount of difference1 and disregarding the numbers of the terrestrial mammifers inhabiting them1 we shall have first ,australia including ,new ,guinea2 and secondly the rest of the world3 if we make a three-fold division1 we shall have ,australia1 ,s4 ,america1 and the rest of the world2 ,i must observe that ,north ,america is in some respects neutral land1 from possessing some ,s4 ,american forms1 but ,i believe it is more closely allied 7as it certainly is in its birds1 plants and shells7 with ,europe4 ,if our division had been four-fold1 we should have had ,australia1 ,s4 ,america1 ,madagascar 7though inhabited by few mammifers7 and the remaining land3 if five-fold1 ,africa1 especially the southern eastern parts1 would have to be separated from the remainder of the world4 ,these differences in the mammiferous inhabitants of the several main divisions of the globe cannot1 it is well known1 be explained by corresponding differences in their conditions#cdb2 how similar are parts of tropical ,america and ,africa2 and accordingly we find some analogous resemblances1--thus both have monkeys1 both large feline animals1 both large ,lepidoptera1 and large dung-feeding beetles2 both have palms and epiphytes2 and yet the essential difference between their productions is as great as between those of the arid plains of the ,cape of ,good ,hope and the grass-covered savannahs of ,la ,plata#cdc4 ,consider the distribution of the ,marsupialia1 which are eminently characteristic of ,australia1 and in a lesser degree of ,s4 ,america2 when we reflect that animals of this division1 feeding both on animal and vegetable matter1 frequent the dry open or wooded plains and mountains of ,australia1 the humid impenetrable forests of ,new ,guinea and ,brazil2 the dry rocky mountains of ,chile1 and the grassy plains of ,banda ,oriental1 we must look to some other cause1 than the nature of the country1 for their absence in ,africa and other quarters of the world4 #cda ,this division of the land into regions does not occur in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 #cdb ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #cdf1 vi4 p4 #dic4 #cdc ,opposite this passage is written not botanically1 in ,sir ,j4 ,d4 ,hooker's hand4 ,the word palms is underlined three times and followed by three exclamation marks4 ,an explanatory note is added in the margin singular paucity of palms and epiphytes in ,trop4 ,africa compared with ,trop4 ,america and ,ind4 ,or4 ,east ,indies4 ,furthermore it may be observed that all the organisms inhabiting any country are not perfectly adapted to it#cdd2 ,i mean by not being perfectly adapted1 only that some few other organisms can generally be found better adapted to the country than some of the aborigines4 ,we must admit this when we consider the enormous number of horses and cattle which have run wild during the three last centuries in the uninhabited parts of ,st ,domingo1 ,cuba1 and ,s4 ,america2 for these animals must have supplanted some aboriginal ones4 ,i might also adduce the same fact in ,australia1 but perhaps it will be objected that #cj or #dj years has not been a sufficient period to test this power of struggling with and overcoming the aborigines4 ,we know the ,european mouse is driving before it that of ,new ,zealand1 like the ,norway rat has driven before it the old ,english species in ,england4 ,scarcely an island can be named1 where casually introduced plants have not supplanted some of the native species3 in ,la ,plata the ,cardoon covers square leagues of country on which some ,s4 ,american plants must once have grown3 the commonest weed over the whole of ,india is an introduced ,mexican poppy4 ,the geologist who knows that slow changes are in progress1 replacing land and water1 will easily perceive that even if all the organisms of any country had originally been the best adapted to it1 this could hardly continue so during succeeding ages without either extermination1 or changes1 first in the relative proportional numbers of the inhabitants of the country1 and finally in their constitutions and structure4 #cdd ,this partly corresponds to ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #ccg1 vi4 p4 #dhc4 ,inspection of a map of the world at once shows that the five divisions1 separated according to the greatest amount of difference in the mammifers inhabiting them1 are likewise those most widely separated from each other by barriers#cde which mammifers cannot pass3 thus ,australia is separated from ,new ,guinea and some small adjoining islets only by a narrow and shallow strait2 whereas ,new ,guinea and its adjoining islets are cut off from the other ,east ,indian islands by deep water4 ,these latter islands1 ,i may remark1 which fall into the great ,asiatic group1 are separated from each other and the continent only by shallow water2 and where this is the case we may suppose1 from geological oscillations of level1 that generally there has been recent union4 ,south ,america1 including the southern part of ,mexico1 is cut off from ,north ,america by the ,west ,indies1 and the great table-land of ,mexico1 except by a mere fringe of tropical forests along the coast3 it is owing1 perhaps1 to this fringe that ,n4 ,america possesses some ,s4 ,american forms4 ,madagascar is entirely isolated4 ,africa is also to a great extent isolated1 although it approaches1 by many promontories and by lines of shallower sea1 to ,europe and ,asia3 southern ,africa1 which is the most distinct in its mammiferous inhabitants1 is separated from the northern portion by the ,great ,sahara ,desert and the table-land of ,abyssinia4 ,that the distribution of organisms is related to barriers1 stopping their progress1 we clearly see by comparing the distribution of marine and terrestrial productions4 ,the marine animals being different on the two sides of land tenanted by the same terrestrial animals1 thus the shells are wholly different on the opposite sides of the temperate parts of ,south ,america#cdf1 as they are 787 in the ,red ,sea and the ,mediterranean4 ,we can at once perceive that the destruction of a barrier would permit two geographical groups of organisms to fuse and blend into one4 ,but the original cause of groups being different on opposite sides of a barrier can only be understood on the hypothesis of each organism having been created or produced on one spot or area1 and afterwards migrating as widely as its means of transport and subsistence permitted it4 #cde ,on the general importance of barriers1 see ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #cdg1 vi4 p4 #did4 #cdf ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #cdh1 vi4 p4 #die4 ,relation of range in genera and species4 ,it is generally#cdg found1 that where a genus or group ranges over nearly the entire world1 many of the species composing the group have wide ranges3 on the other hand1 where a group is restricted to any one country1 the species composing it generally have restricted ranges in that country#cdh4 ,thus among mammifers the feline and canine genera are widely distributed1 and many of the individual species have enormous ranges the genus ,mus ,i believe1 however1 is a strong exception to the rule4 ,mr ,gould informs me that the rule holds with birds1 as in the owl genus1 which is mundane1 and many of the species range widely4 ,the rule holds also with land and fresh-water mollusca1 with butterflies and very generally with plants4 ,as instances of the converse rule1 ,i may give that division of the monkeys which is confined to ,s4 ,america1 and amongst plants1 the ,cacti1 confined to the same continent1 the species of both of which have generally narrow ranges4 ,on the ordinary theory of the separate creation of each species1 the cause of these relations is not obvious2 we can see no reason1 because many allied species have been created in the several main divisions of the world1 that several of these species should have wide ranges2 and on the other hand1 that species of the same group should have narrow ranges if all have been created in one main division of the world4 ,as the result of such and probably many other unknown relations1 it is found that1 even in the same great classes of beings1 the different divisions of the world are characterised by either merely different species1 or genera1 or even families3 thus in cats1 mice1 foxes1 ,s4 ,america differs from ,asia and ,africa only in species2 in her pigs1 camels and monkeys the difference is generic or greater4 ,again1 whilst southern ,africa and ,australia differ more widely in their mammalia than do ,africa and ,s4 ,america1 they are more closely 7though indeed very distantly7 allied in their plants4 #cdg ,note in original4 ,the same laws seem to govern distribution of species and genera1 and individuals in time and space4 ,see ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #cej1 vi4 p4 #dig1 also a passage in the last chapter1 p4 #adf4 #cdh ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #djd1 vi4 p4 #eei4 ,distribution of the inhabitants in the same continent4 ,if we now look at the distribution of the organisms in any one of the above main divisions of the world1 we shall find it split up into many regions1 with all or nearly all their species distinct1 but yet partaking of one common character4 ,this similarity of type in the subdivisions of a great region is equally well-known with the dissimilarity of the inhabitants of the several great regions2 but it has been less often insisted on1 though more worthy of remark4 ,thus for instance1 if in ,africa or ,s4 ,america1 we go from south to north#cdi1 or from lowland to upland1 or from a humid to a dryer part1 we find wholly different species of those genera or groups which characterise the continent over which we are passing4 ,in these subdivisions we may clearly observe1 as in the main divisions of the world1 that sub-barriers divide different groups of species1 although the opposite sides of such sub-barriers may possess nearly the same climate1 and may be in other respects nearly similar3 thus it is on the opposite sides of the ,cordillera of ,chile1 and in a lesser degree on the opposite sides of the ,rocky mountains4 ,deserts1 arms of the sea1 and even rivers form the barriers2 mere preoccupied space seems sufficient in several cases3 thus ,eastern and ,western ,australia1 in the same latitude1 with very similar climate and soils1 have scarcely a plant1 and few animals or birds1 in common1 although all belong to the peculiar genera characterising ,australia4 ,it is in short impossible to explain the differences in the inhabitants1 either of the main divisions of the world1 or of these sub-divisions1 by the differences in their physical conditions1 and by the adaptation of their inhabitants4 ,some other cause must intervene4 #cdi ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #cdi1 vi4 p4 #dif4 ,we can see that the destruction of sub-barriers would cause 7as before remarked in the case of the main divisions7 two sub-divisions to blend into one2 and we can only suppose that the original difference in the species1 on the opposite sides of sub-barriers1 is due to the creation or production of species in distinct areas1 from which they have wandered till arrested by such sub-barriers4 ,although thus far is pretty clear1 it may be asked1 why1 when species in the same main division of the world were produced on opposite sides of a sub-barrier1 both when exposed to similar conditions and when exposed to widely different influences 7as on alpine and lowland tracts1 as on arid and humid soils1 as in cold and hot climates71 have they invariably been formed on a similar type1 and that type confined to this one division of the world8 ,why when an ostrich#cej was produced in the southern parts of ,america1 was it formed on the ,american type1 instead of on the ,african or on ,australian types8 ,why when hare-like and rabbit-like animals were formed to live on the ,savannahs of ,la ,plata1 were they produced on the peculiar ,rodent type of ,s4 ,america1 instead of on the true#cea hare-type of ,north ,america1 ,asia and ,africa8 ,why when borrowing ,rodents1 and camel-like animals were formed to tenant the ,cordillera1 were they formed on the same type#ceb with their representatives on the plains8 ,why were the mice1 and many birds of different species on the opposite sides of the ,cordillera1 but exposed to a very similar climate and soil1 created on the same peculiar ,s4 ,american type8 ,why were the plants in ,eastern and ,western ,australia1 though wholly different as species1 formed on the same peculiar ,australian types8 ,the generality of the rule1 in so many places and under such different circumstances1 makes it highly remarkable and seems to demand some explanation4 #cej ,the case of the ostrich 7,rhea7 occurs in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #cdi1 vi4 p4 #dif4 #cea ,note in original4 ,there is a hare in ,s4 ,america1--so bad example4 #ceb ,see ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #cdi1 vi4 p4 #dig4 ,insular ,faunas4 ,if we now look to the character of the inhabitants of small islands#cec1 we shall find that those situated close to other land have a similar fauna with that land#ced1 whilst those at a considerable distance from other land often possess an almost entirely peculiar fauna4 ,the ,galapagos ,archipelago#cee is a remarkable instance of this latter fact2 here almost every bird1 its one mammifer1 its reptiles1 land and sea shells1 and even fish1 are almost all peculiar and distinct species1 not found in any other quarter of the world3 so are the majority of its plants4 ,but although situated at the distance of between #ejj and #fjj miles from the ,s4 ,american coast1 it is impossible to even glance at a large part of its fauna1 especially at the birds1 without at once seeing that they belong to the ,american type#cef4 ,hence1 in fact1 groups of islands thus circumstanced form merely small but well-defined sub-divisions of the larger geographical divisions4 ,but the fact is in such cases far more striking3 for taking the ,galapagos ,archipelago as an instance2 in the first place we must feel convinced1 seeing that every island is wholly volcanic and bristles with craters1 that in a geological sense the whole is of recent origin comparatively with a continent2 and as the species are nearly all peculiar1 we must conclude that they have in the same sense recently been produced on this very spot2 and although in the nature of the soil1 and in a lesser degree in the climate1 there is a wide difference with the nearer part of the ,s4 ,american coast1 we see that the inhabitants have been formed on the same closely allied type4 ,on the other hand1 these islands1 as far as their physical conditions are concerned1 resemble closely the ,cape de ,verde volcanic group1 and yet how wholly unlike are the productions of these two archipelagoes4 ,the ,cape de ,verde#ceg group1 to which may be added the ,canary ,islands1 are allied in their inhabitants 7of which many are peculiar species7 to the coast of ,africa and southern ,europe1 in precisely the same manner as the ,galapagos ,archipelago is allied to ,america4 ,we here clearly see that mere geographical proximity affects1 more than any relation of adaptation1 the character of species4 ,how many islands in the ,pacific exist far more like in their physical conditions to ,juan ,fernandez than this island is to the coast of ,chile1 distant #cjj miles2 why then1 except from mere proximity1 should this island alone be tenanted by two very peculiar species of humming-birds--that form of birds which is so exclusively ,american8 ,innumerable other similar cases might be adduced4 #cec ,for the general problem of ,oceanic ,islands1 see ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #chh1 vi4 p4 #eda4 #ced ,this is an illustration of the general theory of barriers 7,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #cdg1 vi4 p4 #did74 ,at i4 p4 #cia1 vi4 p4 #edd the question is discussed from the point of view of means of transport4 ,between the lines1 above the words with that land1 the author wrote ,cause1 formerly joined1 no one doubts after ,lyell4 #cee ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #cij1 vi4 p4 #edc4 #cef ,see ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #cig1 vi4 p4 #eeb4 #ceg ,the ,cape de ,verde and ,galapagos ,archipelagoes are compared in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #cih1 vi4 p4 #eec4 ,see also ,journal of ,researches1 #ahfj1 p4 #cic4 ,the ,galapagos ,archipelago offers another1 even more remarkable1 example of the class of facts we are here considering4 ,most of its genera are1 as we have said1 ,american1 many of them are mundane1 or found everywhere1 and some are quite or nearly confined to this archipelago4 ,the islands are of absolutely similar composition1 and exposed to the same climate2 most of them are in sight of each other2 and yet several of the islands are inhabited1 each by peculiar species 7or in some cases perhaps only varieties7 of some of the genera characterising the archipelago4 ,so that the small group of the ,galapagos ,islands typifies1 and follows exactly the same laws in the distribution of its inhabitants1 as a great continent4 ,how wonderful it is that two or three closely similar but distinct species of a mocking-thrush#ceh should have been produced on three neighbouring and absolutely similar islands2 and that these three species of mocking-thrush should be closely related to the other species inhabiting wholly different climates and different districts of ,america1 and only in ,america4 ,no similar case so striking as this of the ,galapagos ,archipelago has hitherto been observed2 and this difference of the productions in the different islands may perhaps be partly explained by the depth of the sea between them 7showing that they could not have been united within recent geological periods71 and by the currents of the sea sweeping straight between them1--and by storms of wind being rare1 through which means seeds and birds could be blown1 or drifted1 from one island to another4 ,there are however some similar facts3 it is said that the different1 though neighbouring islands of the ,east ,indian ,archipelago are inhabited by some different species of the same genera2 and at the ,sandwich group some of the islands have each their peculiar species of the same genera of plants4 #ceh ,in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #cij1 a strong point is made of birds which immigrated with facility and in a body not having been modified4 ,thus the author accounts for the small percentage of peculiar marine birds4 ,islands standing quite isolated within the intra-tropical oceans have generally very peculiar floras1 related1 though feebly 7as in the case of ,st ,helena#cei where almost every species is distinct71 with the nearest continent3 ,tristan d',acunha is feebly related1 ,i believe1 in its plants1 both to ,africa and ,s4 ,america1 not by having species in common1 but by the genera to which they belong#cfj4 ,the floras of the numerous scattered islands of the ,pacific are related to each other and to all the surrounding continents2 but it has been said1 that they have more of an ,indo-,asiatic than ,american character#cfa4 ,this is somewhat remarkable1 as ,america is nearer to all the ,eastern islands1 and lies in the direction of the trade-wind and prevailing currents2 on the other hand1 all the heaviest gales come from the ,asiatic side4 ,but even with the aid of these gales1 it is not obvious on the ordinary theory of creation how the possibility of migration 7without we suppose1 with extreme improbability1 that each species with an ,indo-,asiatic character has actually travelled from the ,asiatic shores1 where such species do not now exist7 explains this ,asiatic character in the plants of the ,pacific4 ,this is no more obvious than that 7as before remarked7 there should exist a relation between the creation of closely allied species in several regions of the world1 and the fact of many such species having wide ranges2 and on the other hand1 of allied species confined to one region of the world having in that region narrow ranges4 #cei ,the affinities of the ,st ,helena flora are strongly ,south ,african4 ,hooker's ,lecture on ,insular ,floras in the ,gardeners' ,chronicle1 ,jan4 #ahfg4 #cfj ,it is impossible to make out the precise form which the author intended to give to this sentence1 but the meaning is clear4 #cfa ,this is no doubt true1 the flora of the ,sandwich group however has marked ,american affinities4 ,alpine ,floras4 ,we will now turn to the floras of mountain-summits which are well known to differ from the floras of the neighbouring lowlands4 ,in certain characters1 such as dwarfness of stature1 hairiness1 c41 the species from the most distant mountains frequently resemble each other1--a kind of analogy like that for instance of the succulency of most desert plants4 ,besides this analogy1 ,alpine plants present some eminently curious facts in their distribution4 ,in some cases the summits of mountains1 although immensely distant from each other1 are clothed by the same identical species#cfb which are likewise the same with those growing on the likewise very distant ,arctic shores4 ,in other cases1 although few or none of the species may be actually identical1 they are closely related2 whilst the plants of the lowland districts surrounding the two mountains in question will be wholly dissimilar4 ,as mountain-summits1 as far as their plants are concerned1 are islands rising out of an ocean of land in which the ,alpine species cannot live1 nor across which is there any known means of transport1 this fact appears directly opposed to the conclusion which we have come to from considering the general distribution of organisms both on continents and on islands--namely1 that the degree of relationship between the inhabitants of two points depends on the completeness and nature of the barriers between those points#cfc4 ,i believe1 however1 this anomalous case admits1 as we shall presently see1 of some explanation4 ,we might have expected that the flora of a mountain summit would have presented the same relation to the flora of the surrounding lowland country1 which any isolated part of a continent does to the whole1 or an island does to the mainland1 from which it is separated by a rather wide space of sea4 ,this in fact is the case with the plants clothing the summits of some mountains1 which mountains it may be observed are particularly isolated2 for instance1 all the species are peculiar1 but they belong to the forms characteristic of the surrounding continent1 on the mountains of ,caraccas1 of ,van ,dieman's ,land and of the ,cape of ,good ,hope#cfd4 ,on some other mountains1 for instance in ,tierra del ,fuego and in ,brazil1 some of the plants though distinct species are ,s4 ,american forms2 whilst others are allied to or are identical with the ,alpine species of ,europe4 ,in islands of which the lowland flora is distinct from but allied to that of the nearest continent1 the ,alpine plants are sometimes 7or perhaps mostly7 eminently peculiar and distinct#cfe2 this is the case on ,teneriffe1 and in a lesser degree even on some of the ,mediterranean islands4 #cfb ,see ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #cfe1 vi4 p4 #eae4 ,the present discussion was written before the publication of ,forbes' celebrated paper on the same subject2 see ,life and ,letters1 vol4 ,i4 p4 #hh4 #cfc ,the apparent breakdown of the doctrine of barriers is slightly touched on in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #cfe1 vi4 p4 #eae4 #cfd ,in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #cge1 vi4 p4 #ebf1 the author points out that on the mountains at the ,cape of ,good ,hope some few representative ,european forms are found1 which have not been discovered in the inter-tropical parts of ,africa4 #cfe ,see ,hooker's ,lecture on ,insular ,floras in the ,gardeners' ,chronicle1 ,jan4 #ahfg4 ,if all ,alpine floras had been characterised like that of the mountain of ,caraccas1 or of ,van ,dieman's ,land1 c41 whatever explanation is possible of the general laws of geographical distribution would have applied to them4 ,but the apparently anomalous case just given1 namely of the mountains of ,europe1 of some mountains in the ,united ,states 7,dr ,boott7 and of the summits of the ,himalaya 7,royle71 having many identical species in common conjointly with the ,arctic regions1 and many species1 though not identical1 closely allied1 require a separate explanation4 ,the fact likewise of several of the species on the mountains of ,tierra del ,fuego 7and in a lesser degree on the mountains of ,brazil7 not belonging to ,american forms1 but to those of ,europe1 though so immensely remote1 requires also a separate explanation4 ,cause of the similarity in the floras of some distant mountains4 ,now we may with confidence affirm1 from the number of the then floating icebergs and low descent of the glaciers1 that within a period so near that species of shells have remained the same1 the whole of ,central ,europe and of ,north ,america 7and perhaps of ,eastern ,asia7 possessed a very cold climate2 and therefore it is probable that the floras of these districts were the same as the present ,arctic one1--as is known to have been to some degree the case with then existing sea-shells1 and those now living on the ,arctic shores4 ,at this period the mountains must have been covered with ice of which we have evidence in the surfaces polished and scored by glaciers4 ,what then would be the natural and almost inevitable effects of the gradual change into the present more temperate climate#cff8 ,the ice and snow would disappear from the mountains1 and as new plants from the more temperate regions of the south migrated northward1 replacing the ,arctic plants1 these latter would crawl#cfg up the now uncovered mountains1 and likewise be driven northward to the present ,arctic shores4 ,if the ,arctic flora of that period was a nearly uniform one1 as the present one is1 then we should have the same plants on these mountain-summits and on the present ,arctic shores4 ,on this view the ,arctic flora of that period must have been a widely extended one1 more so than even the present one2 but considering how similar the physical conditions must always be of land bordering on perpetual frost1 this does not appear a great difficulty2 and may we not venture to suppose that the almost infinitely numerous icebergs1 charged with great masses of rocks1 soil and brushwood#cfh and often driven high up on distant beaches1 might have been the means of widely distributing the seeds of the same species8 #cff ,in the margin the author has written 7,forbes74 ,this may have been inserted at a date later than #ahdd1 or it may refer to a work by ,forbes earlier than his ,alpine paper4 #cfg ,see ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #cfg1 vi4 p4 #eag4 #cfh ,note in original4 ,perhaps vitality checked by cold and so prevented germinating4 ,on the carriage of seeds by icebergs1 see ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #cfc1 vi4 p4 #eac4 ,i will only hazard one other observation1 namely that during the change from an extremely cold climate to a more temperate one the conditions1 both on lowland and mountain1 would be singularly favourable for the diffusion of any existing plants1 which could live on land1 just freed from the rigour of eternal winter2 for it would possess no inhabitants2 and we cannot doubt that preoccupation#cfi is the chief bar to the diffusion of plants4 ,for amongst many other facts1 how otherwise can we explain the circumstance that the plants on the opposite1 though similarly constituted sides of a wide river in ,eastern ,europe 7as ,i was informed by ,humboldt7 should be widely different2 across which river birds1 swimming quadrupeds and the wind must often transport seeds2 we can only suppose that plants already occupying the soil and freely seeding check the germination of occasionally transported seeds4 #cfi ,a note by the author gives many authors apparently as authority for this statement4 ,at about the same period when icebergs were transporting boulders in ,n4 ,america as far as #cf deg4 south1 where the cotton tree now grows in ,south ,america1 in latitude #db deg4 7where the land is now clothed with forests having an almost tropical aspect with the trees bearing epiphytes and intertwined with canes71 the same ice action was going on2 is it not then in some degree probable that at this period the whole tropical parts of the two ,americas possessed#cgj 7as ,falconer asserts that ,india did7 a more temperate climate8 ,in this case the ,alpine plants of the long chain of the ,cordillera would have descended much lower and there would have been a broad high-road#cga connecting those parts of ,north and ,south ,america which were then frigid4 ,as the present climate supervened1 the plants occupying the districts which now are become in both hemispheres temperate and even semi-tropical must have been driven to the ,arctic and ,antarctic#cgb regions2 and only a few of the loftiest points of the ,cordillera can have retained their former connecting flora4 ,the transverse chain of ,chiquitos might perhaps in a similar manner during the ice-action period have served as a connecting road 7though a broken one7 for ,alpine plants to become dispersed from the ,cordillera to the highlands of ,brazil4 ,it may be observed that some 7though not strong7 reasons can be assigned for believing that at about this same period the two ,americas were not so thoroughly divided as they now are by the ,west ,indies and tableland of ,mexico4 ,i will only further remark that the present most singularly close similarity in the vegetation of the lowlands of ,kerguelen's ,land#cgc and of ,tierra del ,fuego 7,hooker71 though so far apart1 may perhaps be explained by the dissemination of seeds during this same cold period1 by means of icebergs1 as before alluded to#cgd4 #cgj ,opposite to this passage1 in the margin1 the author has written3--too hypothetical4 #cga ,the ,cordillera is described as supplying a great line of invasion in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #cgh4 #cgb ,this is an approximation to the author's views on trans-tropical migration 7,origin1 ,ed4 i4 pp4 #cgf-h74 ,see ,thiselton-,dyer's interesting discussion in ,darwin and ,modern ,science1 p4 #cjd4 #cgc ,see ,hooker's ,lecture on ,insular ,floras in the ,gardeners' ,chronicle1 ,jan4 #ahfg4 #cgd ,note by the author4 ,similarity of flora of coral islands easily explained4 ,finally1 ,i think we may safely grant from the foregoing facts and reasoning that the anomalous similarity in the vegetation of certain very distant mountain-summits is not in truth opposed to the conclusion of the intimate relation subsisting between proximity in space 7in accordance with the means of transport in each class7 and the degree of affinity of the inhabitants of any two countries4 ,in the case of several quite isolated mountains1 we have seen that the general law holds good4 ,whether the same species has been created more than once4 ,as the fact of the same species of plants having been found on mountain-summits immensely remote has been one chief cause of the belief of some species having been contemporaneously produced or created at two different points#cge1 ,i will here briefly discuss this subject4 ,on the ordinary theory of creation1 we can see no reason why on two similar mountain-summits two similar species may not have been created2 but the opposite view1 independently of its simplicity1 has been generally received from the analogy of the general distribution of all organisms1 in which 7as shown in this chapter7 we almost always find that great and continuous barriers separate distinct series2 and we are naturally led to suppose that the two series have been separately created4 ,when taking a more limited view we see a river1 with a quite similar country on both sides1 with one side well stocked with a certain animal and on the other side not one 7as is the case with the ,bizcacha#cgf on the opposite sides of the ,plata71 we are at once led to conclude that the ,bizcacha was produced on some one point or area on the western side of the river4 ,considering our ignorance of the many strange chances of diffusion by birds 7which occasionally wander to immense distances7 and quadrupeds swallowing seeds and ova 7as in the case of the flying water-beetle which disgorged the eggs of a fish71 and of whirlwinds carrying seeds and animals into strong upper currents 7as in the case of volcanic ashes and showers of hay1 grain and fish#cgg71 and of the possibility of species having survived for short periods at intermediate spots and afterwards becoming extinct there#cgh2 and considering our knowledge of the great changes which have taken place from subsidence and elevation in the surface of the earth1 and of our ignorance of the greater changes which may have taken place1 we ought to be very slow in admitting the probability of double creations4 ,in the case of plants on mountain-summits1 ,i think ,i have shown how almost necessarily they would1 under the past conditions of the northern hemisphere1 be as similar as are the plants on the present ,arctic shores2 and this ought to teach us a lesson of caution4 #cge ,on centres of creation see ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #ceb1 vi4 p4 #dii4 #cgf ,in the ,journal of ,researches1 ,ed4 #ahfj1 p4 #abd1 the distribution of the ,bizcacha is described as limited by the river ,uruguay4 ,the case is not ,i think given in the ,origin4 #cgg ,in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 a special section 7p4 #cef1 vi4 p4 #ejd7 is devoted to ,means of ,dispersal4 ,the much greater prominence given to this subject in the ,origin is partly accounted for by the author's experiments being of later date1 i4e4 #ahee 7,life and ,letters1 vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #ec74 ,the carriage of fish by whirlwinds is given in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #chd1 vi4 p4 #ecf4 #cgh ,the case of islands serving as halting places is given in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #ceg1 vi4 p4 #eje4 ,but here the evidence of this having occurred is supposed to be lost by the subsidence of the islands1 not merely by the extinction of the species4 ,but the strongest argument against double creations may be drawn from considering the case of mammifers#cgi in which1 from their nature and from the size of their offspring1 the means of distribution are more in view4 ,there are no cases where the same species is found in very remote localities1 except where there is a continuous belt of land3 the ,arctic region perhaps offers the strongest exception1 and here we know that animals are transported on icebergs#chj4 ,the cases of lesser difficulty may all receive a more or less simple explanation2 ,i will give only one instance2 the nutria#cha1 ,i believe1 on the eastern coast of ,s4 ,america live exclusively in fresh-water rivers1 and ,i was much surprised how they could have got into rivulets1 widely apart1 on the coast of ,patagonia2 but on the opposite coast ,i found these quadrupeds living exclusively in the sea1 and hence their migration along the ,patagonian coast is not surprising4 ,there is no case of the same mammifer being found on an island far from the coast1 and on the mainland1 as happens with plants#chb4 ,on the idea of double creations it would be strange if the same species of several plants should have been created in ,australia and ,europe2 and no one instance of the same species of mammifer having been created1 or aboriginally existing1 in two as nearly remote and equally isolated points4 ,it is more philosophical1 in such cases1 as that of some plants being found in ,australia and ,europe1 to admit that we are ignorant of the means of transport4 ,i will allude only to one other case1 namely1 that of the ,mydas#chc1 an ,alpine animal1 found only on the distant peaks of the mountains of ,java3 who will pretend to deny that during the ice period of the northern and southern hemispheres1 and when ,india is believed to have been colder1 the climate might not have permitted this animal to haunt a lower country1 and thus to have passed along the ridges from summit to summit8 ,mr ,lyell has further observed that1 as in space1 so in time1 there is no reason to believe that after the extinction of a species1 the self-same form has ever reappeared#chd4 ,i think1 then1 we may1 notwithstanding the many cases of difficulty1 conclude with some confidence that every species has been created or produced on a single point or area4 #cgi ,we find no inexplicable cases of the same mammal inhabiting distant points of the world4 ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #ceb1 vi4 p4 #ejj4 ,see also ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #cic1 vi4 p4 #edg4 #chj ,note by the author4 ,many authors4 ,see ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #cid1 vi4 p4 #edg4 #cha ,nutria is the ,spanish for otter1 and is now a synonym for ,lutra4 ,the otter on the ,atlantic coast is distinguished by minute differences from the ,pacific species4 ,both forms are said to take to the sea4 ,in fact the case presents no especial difficulties4 #chb ,in ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #cid1 vi4 p4 #edh1 bats are mentioned as an explicable exception to this statement4 #chc ,this reference is doubtless to ,mydaus1 a badger-like animal from the mountains of ,java and ,sumatra 7,wallace1 ,geographical ,distribution1 ii4 p4 #aii74 ,the instance does not occur in the ,origin but the author remarks 7,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #cgf1 vi4 p4 #ebg7 that cases1 strictly analogous to the distribution of plants1 occur among terrestrial mammals4 #chd ,see ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #cac1 vi4 p4 #ded4 ,on the number of species1 and of the classes to which they belong in different regions4 ,the last fact in geographical distribution1 which1 as far as ,i can see1 in any way concerns the origin of species1 relates to the absolute number and nature of the organic beings inhabiting different tracts of land4 ,although every species is admirably adapted 7but not necessarily better adapted than every other species1 as we have seen in the great increase of introduced species7 to the country and station it frequents2 yet it has been shown that the entire difference between the species in distant countries cannot possibly be explained by the difference of the physical conditions of these countries4 ,in the same manner1 ,i believe1 neither the number of the species1 nor the nature of the great classes to which they belong1 can possibly in all cases be explained by the conditions of their country4 ,new ,zealand#che1 a linear island stretching over about #gjj miles of latitude1 with forests1 marshes1 plains and mountains reaching to the limits of eternal snow1 has far more diversified habitats than an equal area at the ,cape of ,good ,hope2 and yet1 ,i believe1 at the ,cape of ,good ,hope there are1 of phanerogamic plants1 from five to ten times the number of species as in all ,new ,zealand4 ,why on the theory of absolute creations should this large and diversified island only have from #djj to #ejj 78 ,dieffenbach7 phanerogamic plants8 and why should the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 characterised by the uniformity of its scenery1 swarm with more species of plants than probably any other quarter of the world8 ,why on the ordinary theory should the ,galapagos ,islands abound with terrestrial reptiles8 and why should many equal-sized islands in the ,pacific be without a single one#chf or with only one or two species8 ,why should the great island of ,new ,zealand be without one mammiferous quadruped except the mouse1 and that was probably introduced with the aborigines8 ,why should not one island 7it can be shown1 ,i think1 that the mammifers of ,mauritius and ,st ,iago have all been introduced7 in the open ocean possess a mammiferous quadruped8 ,let it not be said that quadrupeds cannot live in islands1 for we know that cattle1 horses and pigs during a long period have run wild in the ,west ,indian and ,falkland ,islands2 pigs at ,st ,helena2 goats at ,tahiti2 asses in the ,canary ,islands2 dogs in ,cuba2 cats at ,ascension2 rabbits at ,madeira and the ,falklands2 monkeys at ,st ,iago and the ,mauritius2 even elephants during a long time in one of the very small ,sooloo ,islands2 and ,european mice on very many of the smallest islands far from the habitations of man#chg4 ,nor let it be assumed that quadrupeds are more slowly created and hence that the oceanic islands1 which generally are of volcanic formation1 are of too recent origin to possess them2 for we know 7,lyell7 that new forms of quadrupeds succeed each other quicker than ,mollusca or ,reptilia4 ,nor let it be assumed 7though such an assumption would be no explanation7 that quadrupeds cannot be created on small islands2 for islands not lying in mid-ocean do possess their peculiar quadrupeds2 thus many of the smaller islands of the ,east ,indian ,archipelago possess quadrupeds2 as does ,fernando ,po on the ,west ,coast of ,africa2 as the ,falkland ,islands possess a peculiar wolf-like fox#chh2 so do the ,galapagos ,islands a peculiar mouse of the ,s4 ,american type4 ,these two last are the most remarkable cases with which ,i am acquainted2 inasmuch as the islands lie further from other land4 ,it is possible that the ,galapagos mouse may have been introduced in some ship from the ,s4 ,american coast 7though the species is at present unknown there71 for the aboriginal species soon haunts the goods of man1 as ,i noticed in the roof of a newly erected shed in a desert country south of the ,plata4 ,the ,falkland ,islands1 though between #bjj and #cjj miles from the ,s4 ,american coast1 may in one sense be considered as intimately connected with it2 for it is certain that formerly many icebergs loaded with boulders were stranded on its southern coast1 and the old canoes which are occasionally now stranded1 show that the currents still set from ,tierra del ,fuego4 ,this fact1 however1 does not explain the presence of the ,canis antarcticus on the ,falkland ,islands1 unless we suppose that it formerly lived on the mainland and became extinct there1 whilst it survived on these islands1 to which it was borne 7as happens with its northern congener1 the common wolf7 on an iceberg1 but this fact removes the anomaly of an island1 in appearance effectually separated from other land1 having its own species of quadruped1 and makes the case like that of ,java and ,sumatra1 each having their own rhinoceros4 #che ,the comparison between ,new ,zealand and the ,cape is given in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #chi1 vi4 p4 #edb4 #chf ,in a corresponding discussion in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #cic1 vi4 p4 #edf1 stress is laid on the distribution of ,batrachians not of reptiles4 #chg ,the whole argument is given--more briefly than here--in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #cid1 vi4 p4 #edg4 #chh ,see ,origin1 ,ed i4 p4 #cic1 vi4 p4 #edg4 ,the discussion is much fuller in the present ,essay4 ,before summing up all the facts given in this section on the present condition of organic beings1 and endeavouring to see how far they admit of explanation1 it will be convenient to state all such facts in the past geographical distribution of extinct beings as seem anyway to concern the theory of descent4 ,,section ,,second4 ,geographical distribution of extinct organisms4 ,i have stated that if the land of the entire world be divided into 7we will say7 three sections1 according to the amount of difference of the terrestrial mammifers inhabiting them1 we shall have three unequal divisions of 7#ast7 ,australia and its dependent islands1 7#bnd7 ,south ,america1 7#crd7 ,europe1 ,asia and ,africa4 ,if we now look to the mammifers which inhabited these three divisions during the later ,tertiary periods1 we shall find them almost as distinct as at the present day1 and intimately related in each division to the existing forms in that division#chi4 ,this is wonderfully the case with the several fossil ,marsupial genera in the caverns of ,new ,south ,wales and even more wonderfully so in ,south ,america1 where we have the same peculiar group of monkeys1 of a guanaco-like animal1 of many rodents1 of the ,marsupial ,didelphys1 of ,armadilloes and other ,edentata4 ,this last family is at present very characteristic of ,s4 ,america1 and in a late ,tertiary epoch it was even more so1 as is shown by the numerous enormous animals of the ,megatheroid family1 some of which were protected by an osseous armour like that1 but on a gigantic scale1 of the recent ,armadillo4 ,lastly1 over ,europe the remains of the several deer1 oxen1 bears1 foxes1 beavers1 field-mice1 show a relation to the present inhabitants of this region2 and the contemporaneous remains of the elephant1 rhinoceros1 hippopotamus1 hyaena1 show a relation with the grand ,africo-,asiatic division of the world4 ,in ,asia the fossil mammifers of the ,himalaya 7though mingled with forms long extinct in ,europe7 are equally related to the existing forms of the ,africo-,asiatic division2 but especially to those of ,india itself4 ,as the gigantic and now extinct quadrupeds of ,europe have naturally excited more attention than the other and smaller remains1 the relation between the past and the present mammiferous inhabitants of ,europe has not been sufficiently attended to4 ,but in fact the mammifers of ,europe are at present nearly as much ,africo-,asiatic as they were formerly when ,europe had its elephants and rhinoceroses1 etc42 ,europe neither now nor then possessed peculiar groups as does ,australia and ,s4 ,america4 ,the extinction of certain peculiar forms in one quarter does not make the remaining mammifers of that quarter less related to its own great division of the world3 though ,tierra del ,fuego possesses only a fox1 three rodents1 and the guanaco1 no one 7as these all belong to ,s4 ,american types1 but not to the most characteristic forms7 would doubt for one minute as to classifying this district with ,s4 ,america2 and if fossil ,edentata1 ,marsupials and monkeys were to be found in ,tierra del ,fuego1 it would not make this district more truly ,s4 ,american than it now is4 ,so it is with ,europe#cij1 and so far as is known with ,asia1 for the lately past and present mammifers all belong to the ,africo-,asiatic division of the world4 ,in every case1 ,i may add1 the forms which a country has is of more importance in geographical arrangement than what it has not4 #chi ,see ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #cci1 vi4 p4 #dhe4 #cij ,in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #cci1 vi4 p4 #dhe1 which corresponds to this part of the present ,essay1 the author does not make a separate section for such cases as the occurrence of fossil ,marsupials in ,europe 7,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #cdj1 vi4 p4 #dhf7 as he does in the present ,essay2 see the section on ,changes in geographical distribution1 p4 #agg4 ,we find some evidence of the same general fact in a relation between the recent and the ,tertiary sea-shells1 in the different main divisions of the marine world4 ,this general and most remarkable relation between the lately past and present mammiferous inhabitants of the three main divisions of the world is precisely the same kind of fact as the relation between the different species of the several sub-regions of any one of the main divisions4 ,as we usually associate great physical changes with the total extinction of one series of beings1 and its succession by another series1 this identity of relation between the past and the present races of beings in the same quarters of the globe is more striking than the same relation between existing beings in different sub-regions3 but in truth we have no reason for supposing that a change in the conditions has in any of these cases supervened1 greater than that now existing between the temperate and tropical1 or between the highlands and lowlands of the same main divisions1 now tenanted by related beings4 ,finally1 then1 we clearly see that in each main division of the world the same relation holds good between its inhabitants in time as over space#cia4 #cia ,we can understand how it is that all the forms of life1 ancient and recent1 make together one grand system2 for all are connected by generation4 ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #cdd1 vi4 p4 #dia4 ,changes in geographical distribution4 ,if1 however1 we look closer1 we shall find that even ,australia1 in possessing a terrestrial ,pachyderm1 was so far less distinct from the rest of the world than it now is2 so was ,s4 ,america in possessing the ,mastodon1 horse1 hyaena1#cib and antelope4 ,n4 ,america1 as ,i have remarked1 is now1 in its mammifers1 in some respects neutral ground between ,s4 ,america and the great ,africo-,asiatic division2 formerly1 in possessing the horse1 ,mastodon and three ,megatheroid animals1 it was more nearly related to ,s4 ,america2 but in the horse and ,mastodon1 and likewise in having the elephant1 oxen1 sheep1 and pigs1 it was as much1 if not more1 related to the ,africo-,asiatic division4 ,again1 northern ,india was much more closely related 7in having the giraffe1 hippopotamus1 and certain musk-deer7 to southern ,africa than it now is2 for southern and eastern ,africa deserve1 if we divide the world into five parts1 to make one division by itself4 ,turning to the dawn of the ,tertiary period1 we must1 from our ignorance of other portions of the world1 confine ourselves to ,europe2 and at that period1 in the presence of ,marsupials#cic and ,edentata1 we behold an entire blending of those mammiferous forms which now eminently characterise ,australia and ,s4 ,america#cid4 #cib ,the word hyaena is erased4 ,there appear to be no fossil ,hyaenidae in ,s4 ,america4 #cic ,see note #acij1 p4 #age1 also ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #cdj1 vi4 p4 #dhf4 #cid ,note by the author4 ,and see ,eocene ,european mammals in ,n4 ,america4 ,if we now look at the distribution of sea-shells1 we find the same changes in distribution4 ,the ,red ,sea and the ,mediterranean were more nearly related in these shells than they now are4 ,in different parts of ,europe1 on the other hand1 during the ,miocene period1 the sea-shells seem to have been more different than at present4 ,in#cie the ,tertiary period1 according to ,lyell1 the shells of ,n4 ,america and ,europe were less related than at present1 and during the ,cretaceous still less like2 whereas1 during this same ,cretaceous period1 the shells of ,india and ,europe were more like than at present4 ,but going further back to the ,carbonaceous period1 in ,n4 ,america and ,europe1 the productions were much more like than they now are#cif4 ,these facts harmonise with the conclusions drawn from the present distribution of organic beings1 for we have seen1 that from species being created in different points or areas1 the formation of a barrier would cause or make two distinct geographical areas2 and the destruction of a barrier would permit their diffusion#cig4 ,and as long-continued geological changes must both destroy and make barriers1 we might expect1 the further we looked backwards1 the more changed should we find the present distribution4 ,this conclusion is worthy of attention2 because1 finding in widely different parts of the same main division of the world1 and in volcanic islands near them1 groups of distinct1 but related1 species2--and finding that a singularly analogous relation holds good with respect to the beings of past times1 when none of the present species were living1 a person might be tempted to believe in some mystical relation between certain areas of the world1 and the production of certain organic forms2 but we now see that such an assumption would have to be complicated by the admission that such a relation1 though holding good for long revolutions of years1 is not truly persistent4 #cie ,note by the author4 ,all this requires much verification4 #cif ,this point seems to be less insisted on in the ,origin4 #cig ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #cef1 vi4 p4 #ejd4 ,i will only add one more observation to this section4 ,geologists finding in the most remote period with which we are acquainted1 namely in the ,silurian period1 that the shells and other marine productions#cih in ,north and ,south ,america1 in ,europe1 ,southern ,africa1 and ,western ,asia1 are much more similar than they now are at these distant points1 appear to have imagined that in these ancient times the laws of geographical distribution were quite different than what they now are3 but we have only to suppose that great continents were extended east and west1 and thus did not divide the inhabitants of the temperate and tropical seas1 as the continents now do2 and it would then become probable that the inhabitants of the seas would be much more similar than they now are4 ,in the immense space of ocean extending from the east coast of ,africa to the eastern islands of the ,pacific1 which space is connected either by lines of tropical coast or by islands not very distant from each other1 we know 7,cuming7 that many shells1 perhaps even as many as #bjj1 are common to the ,zanzibar coast1 the ,philippines1 and the eastern islands of the ,low or ,dangerous ,archipelago in the ,pacific4 ,this space equals that from the ,arctic to the ,antarctic pole6 ,pass over the space of quite open ocean1 from the ,dangerous ,archipelago to the west coast of ,s4 ,america1 and every shell is different3 pass over the narrow space of ,s4 ,america1 to its eastern shores1 and again every shell is different6 ,many fish1 ,i may add1 are also common to the ,pacific and ,indian ,oceans4 #cih ,note by the author4 ,d',orbigny shows that this is not so4 ,summary on the distribution of living and extinct organic beings4 ,let us sum up the several facts now given with respect to the past and present geographical distribution of organic beings4 ,in a previous chapter it was shown that species are not exterminated by universal catastrophes1 and that they are slowly produced3 we have also seen that each species is probably only once produced1 on one point or area once in time2 and that each diffuses itself1 as far as barriers and its conditions of life permit4 ,if we look at any one main division of the land1 we find in the different parts1 whether exposed to different conditions or to the same conditions1 many groups of species wholly or nearly distinct as species1 nevertheless intimately related4 ,we find the inhabitants of islands1 though distinct as species1 similarly related to the inhabitants of the nearest continent2 we find in some cases1 that even the different islands of one such group are inhabited by species distinct1 though intimately related to one another and to those of the nearest continent3--thus typifying the distribution of organic beings over the whole world4 ,we find the floras of distant mountain-summits either very similar 7which seems to admit1 as shown1 of a simple explanation7 or very distinct but related to the floras of the surrounding region2 and hence1 in this latter case1 the floras of two mountain-summits1 although exposed to closely similar conditions1 will be very different4 ,on the mountain-summits of islands1 characterised by peculiar faunas and floras1 the plants are often eminently peculiar4 ,the dissimilarity of the organic beings inhabiting nearly similar countries is best seen by comparing the main divisions of the world2 in each of which some districts may be found very similarly exposed1 yet the inhabitants are wholly unlike2--far more unlike than those in very dissimilar districts in the same main division4 ,we see this strikingly in comparing two volcanic archipelagoes1 with nearly the same climate1 but situated not very far from two different continents2 in which case their inhabitants are totally unlike4 ,in the different main divisions of the world1 the amount of difference between the organisms1 even in the same class1 is widely different1 each main division having only the species distinct in some families1 in other families having the genera distinct4 ,the distribution of aquatic organisms is very different from that of the terrestrial organisms2 and necessarily so1 from the barriers to their progress being quite unlike4 ,the nature of the conditions in an isolated district will not explain the number of species inhabiting it2 nor the absence of one class or the presence of another class4 ,we find that terrestrial mammifers are not present on islands far removed from other land4 ,we see in two regions1 that the species though distinct are more or less related1 according to the greater or less possibility of the transportal in past and present times of species from one to the other region2 although we can hardly admit that all the species in such cases have been transported from the first to the second region1 and since have become extinct in the first3 we see this law in the presence of the fox on the ,falkland ,islands2 in the ,european character of some of the plants of ,tierra del ,fuego2 in the ,indo-,asiatic character of the plants of the ,pacific2 and in the circumstance of those genera which range widest having many species with wide ranges2 and those genera with restricted ranges having species with restricted ranges4 ,finally1 we find in each of the main divisions of the land1 and probably of the sea1 that the existing organisms are related to those lately extinct4 ,looking further backwards we see that the past geographical distribution of organic beings was different from the present2 and indeed1 considering that geology shows that all our land was once under water1 and that where water now extends land is forming1 the reverse could hardly have been possible4 ,now these several facts1 though evidently all more or less connected together1 must by the creationist 7though the geologist may explain some of the anomalies7 be considered as so many ultimate facts4 ,he can only say1 that it so pleased the ,creator that the organic beings of the plains1 deserts1 mountains1 tropical and temperature forests1 of ,s4 ,america1 should all have some affinity together2 that the inhabitants of the ,galapagos ,archipelago should be related to those of ,chile2 and that some of the species on the similarly constituted islands of this archipelago1 though most closely related1 should be distinct2 that all its inhabitants should be totally unlike those of the similarly volcanic and arid ,cape de ,verde and ,canary ,islands2 that the plants on the summit of ,teneriffe should be eminently peculiar2 that the diversified island of ,new ,zealand should have not many plants1 and not one1 or only one1 mammifer2 that the mammifers of ,s4 ,america1 ,australia and ,europe should be clearly related to their ancient and exterminated prototypes2 and so on with other facts4 ,but it is absolutely opposed to every analogy1 drawn from the laws imposed by the ,creator on inorganic matter1 that facts1 when connected1 should be considered as ultimate and not the direct consequences of more general laws4 ,,section ,,third4 ,an attempt to explain the foregoing laws of geographical distribution1 on the theory of allied species having a common descent4 ,first let us recall the circumstances most favourable for variation under domestication1 as given in the first chapter--viz4 #ast1 a change1 or repeated changes1 in the conditions to which the organism has been exposed1 continued through several seminal 7i4e4 not by buds or divisions7 generations3 #bnd1 steady selection of the slight varieties thus generated with a fixed end in view3 #crd1 isolation as perfect as possible of such selected varieties2 that is1 the preventing their crossing with other forms2 this latter condition applies to all terrestrial animals1 to most if not all plants and perhaps even to most 7or all7 aquatic organisms4 ,it will be convenient here to show the advantage of isolation in the formation of a new breed1 by comparing the progress of two persons 7to neither of whom let time be of any consequence7 endeavouring to select and form some very peculiar new breed4 ,let one of these persons work on the vast herds of cattle in the plains of ,la ,plata#cii1 and the other on a small stock of #bj or #cj animals in an island4 ,the latter might have to wait centuries 7by the hypothesis of no importance7#djj before he obtained a sport approaching to what he wanted2 but when he did and saved the greater number of its offspring and their offspring again1 he might hope that his whole little stock would be in some degree affected1 so that by continued selection he might gain his end4 ,but on the ,pampas1 though the man might get his first approach to his desired form sooner1 how hopeless would it be to attempt1 by saving its offspring amongst so many of the common kind1 to affect the whole herd3 the effect of this one peculiar sport#dja would be quite lost before he could obtain a second original sport of the same kind4 ,if1 however1 he could separate a small number of cattle1 including the offspring of the desirable sport1 he might hope1 like the man on the island1 to effect his end4 ,if there be organic beings of which two individuals never unite1 then simple selection whether on a continent or island would be equally serviceable to make a new and desirable breed2 and this new breed might be made in surprisingly few years from the great and geometrical powers of propagation to beat out the old breed2 as has happened 7notwithstanding crossing7 where good breeds of dogs and pigs have been introduced into a limited country1--for instance1 into the islands of the ,pacific4 #cii ,this instance occurs in the ,essay of #ahdb1 p4 #cb1 but not in the ,origin2 though the importance of isolation is discussed 7,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #ajd1 vi4 p4 #abg74 #djj ,the meaning of the words within parenthesis is obscure4 #dja ,it is unusual to find the author speaking of the selection of sports rather than small variations4 ,let us now take the simplest natural case of an islet upheaved by the volcanic or subterranean forces in a deep sea1 at such a distance from other land that only a few organic beings at rare intervals were transported to it1 whether borne by the sea#djb 7like the seeds of plants to coral-reefs71 or by hurricanes1 or by floods1 or on rafts1 or in roots of large trees1 or the germs of one plant or animal attached to or in the stomach of some other animal1 or by the intervention 7in most cases the most probable means7 of other islands since sunk or destroyed4 ,it may be remarked that when one part of the earth's crust is raised it is probably the general rule that another part sinks4 ,let this island go on slowly1 century after century1 rising foot by foot2 and in the course of time we shall have instead of a small mass of rock#djc1 lowland and highland1 moist woods and dry sandy spots1 various soils1 marshes1 streams and pools3 under water on the sea shore1 instead of a rocky steeply shelving coast1 we shall have in some parts bays with mud1 sandy beaches and rocky shoals4 ,the formation of the island by itself must often slightly affect the surrounding climate4 ,it is impossible that the first few transported organisms could be perfectly adapted to all these stations2 and it will be a chance if those successively transported will be so adapted4 ,the greater number would probably come from the lowlands of the nearest country2 and not even all these would be perfectly adapted to the new islet whilst it continued low and exposed to coast influences4 ,moreover1 as it is certain that all organisms are nearly as much adapted in their structure to the other inhabitants of their country as they are to its physical conditions1 so the mere fact that a few beings 7and these taken in great degree by chance7 were in the first case transported to the islet1 would in itself greatly modify their conditions#djd4 ,as the island continued rising we might also expect an occasional new visitant2 and ,i repeat that even one new being must often affect beyond our calculation by occupying the room and taking part of the subsistence of another 7and this again from another and so on71 several or many other organisms4 ,now as the first transported and any occasional successive visitants spread or tended to spread over the growing island1 they would undoubtedly be exposed through several generations to new and varying conditions3 it might also easily happen that some of the species on an average might obtain an increase of food1 or food of a more nourishing quality#dje4 ,according then to every analogy with what we have seen takes place in every country1 with nearly every organic being under domestication1 we might expect that some of the inhabitants of the island would sport1 or have their organization rendered in some degree plastic4 ,as the number of the inhabitants are supposed to be few and as all these cannot be so well adapted to their new and varying conditions as they were in their native country and habitat1 we cannot believe that every place or office in the economy of the island would be as well filled as on a continent where the number of aboriginal species is far greater and where they consequently hold a more strictly limited place4 ,we might therefore expect on our island that although very many slight variations were of no use to the plastic individuals1 yet that occasionally in the course of a century an individual might be born#djf of which the structure or constitution in some slight degree would allow it better to fill up some office in the insular economy and to struggle against other species4 ,if such were the case the individual and its offspring would have a better chance of surviving and of beating out its parent form2 and if 7as is probable7 it and its offspring crossed with the unvaried parent form1 yet the number of the individuals being not very great1 there would be a chance of the new and more serviceable form being nevertheless in some slight degree preserved4 ,the struggle for existence would go on annually selecting such individuals until a new race or species was formed4 ,either few or all the first visitants to the island might become modified1 according as the physical conditions of the island and those resulting from the kind and number of other transported species were different from those of the parent country--according to the difficulties offered to fresh immigration--and according to the length of time since the first inhabitants were introduced4 ,it is obvious that whatever was the country1 generally the nearest from which the first tenants were transported1 they would show an affinity1 even if all had become modified1 to the natives of that country and even if the inhabitants of the same source 787 had been modified4 ,on this view we can at once understand the cause and meaning of the affinity of the fauna and flora of the ,galapagos ,islands with that of the coast of ,s4 ,america2 and consequently why the inhabitants of these islands show not the smallest affinity with those inhabiting other volcanic islands1 with a very similar climate and soil1 near the coast of ,africa#djg4 #djb ,this brief discussion is represented in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 by a much fuller one 7pp4 #cef1 #chc1 vi4 pp4 #ejd1 #ece74 ,see1 however1 the section in the present ,essay1 p4 #afh4 #djc ,on the formation of new stations1 see ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #bib1 vi4 p4 #dbi4 #djd ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 pp4 #cij1 #djj1 vi4 pp4 #edc1 #eed4 #dje ,in the ,,ms4 some of the species 444 nourishing quality is doubtfully erased4 ,it seems clear that he doubted whether such a problematical supply of food would be likely to cause variation4 #djf ,at this time the author clearly put more faith in the importance of sport-like variation than in later years4 #djg ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #cih1 vi4 p4 #eec4 ,to return once again to our island1 if by the continued action of the subterranean forces other neighbouring islands were formed1 these would generally be stocked by the inhabitants of the first island1 or by a few immigrants from the neighbouring mainland2 but if considerable obstacles were interposed to any communication between the terrestrial productions of these islands1 and their conditions were different 7perhaps only by the number of different species on each island71 a form transported from one island to another might become altered in the same manner as one from the continent2 and we should have several of the islands tenanted by representative races or species1 as is so wonderfully the case with the different islands of the ,galapagos ,archipelago4 ,as the islands become mountainous1 if mountain-species were not introduced1 as could rarely happen1 a greater amount of variation and selection would be requisite to adapt the species1 which originally came from the lowlands of the nearest continent1 to the mountain-summits than to the lower districts of our islands4 ,for the lowland species from the continent would have first to struggle against other species and other conditions on the coast-land of the island1 and so probably become modified by the selection of its best fitted varieties1 then to undergo the same process when the land had attained a moderate elevation2 and then lastly when it had become ,alpine4 ,hence we can understand why the faunas of insular mountain-summits are1 as in the case of ,teneriffe1 eminently peculiar4 ,putting on one side the case of a widely extended flora being driven up the mountain-summits1 during a change of climate from cold to temperate1 we can see why in other cases the floras of mountain-summits 7or as ,i have called them islands in a sea of land7 should be tenanted by peculiar species1 but related to those of the surrounding lowlands1 as are the inhabitants of a real island in the sea to those of the nearest continent#djh4 #djh ,see ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #djc1 vi4 p4 #eeh1 where the author speaks of ,alpine humming birds1 rodents1 plants1 c4 in ,s4 ,america1 all of strictly ,american forms4 ,in the ,,ms4 the author has added between the lines ,as world has been getting hotter1 there has been radiation from high-lands1--old view8--curious2 ,i presume ,diluvian in origin4 ,let us now consider the effect of a change of climate or of other conditions on the inhabitants of a continent and of an isolated island without any great change of level4 ,on a continent the chief effects would be changes in the numerical proportion of the individuals of the different species2 for whether the climate became warmer or colder1 drier or damper1 more uniform or extreme1 some species are at present adapted to its diversified districts2 if for instance it became cooler1 species would migrate from its more temperate parts and from its higher land2 if damper1 from its damper regions1 c4 ,on a small and isolated island1 however1 with few species1 and these not adapted to much diversified conditions1 such changes instead of merely increasing the number of certain species already adapted to such conditions1 and decreasing the number of other species1 would be apt to affect the constitutions of some of the insular species3 thus if the island became damper it might well happen that there were no species living in any part of it adapted to the consequences resulting from more moisture4 ,in this case therefore1 and still more 7as we have seen7 during the production of new stations from the elevation of the land1 an island would be a far more fertile source1 as far as we can judge1 of new specific forms than a continent4 ,the new forms thus generated on an island1 we might expect1 would occasionally be transported by accident1 or through long-continued geographical changes be enabled to emigrate and thus become slowly diffused4 ,but if we look to the origin of a continent2 almost every geologist will admit that in most cases it will have first existed as separate islands which gradually increased in size#dji2 and therefore all that which has been said concerning the probable changes of the forms tenanting a small archipelago is applicable to a continent in its early state4 ,furthermore1 a geologist who reflects on the geological history of ,europe 7the only region well known7 will admit that it has been many times depressed1 raised and left stationary4 ,during the sinking of a continent and the probable generally accompanying changes of climate the effect would be little1 except on the numerical proportions and in the extinction 7from the lessening of rivers1 the drying of marshes and the conversion of high-lands into low c47 of some or of many of the species4 ,as soon however as the continent became divided into many isolated portions or islands1 preventing free immigration from one part to another1 the effect of climatic and other changes on the species would be greater4 ,but let the now broken continent1 forming isolated islands1 begin to rise and new stations thus to be formed1 exactly as in the first case of the upheaved volcanic islet1 and we shall have equally favourable conditions for the modification of old forms1 that is the formation of new races or species4 ,let the islands become reunited into a continent2 and then the new and old forms would all spread1 as far as barriers1 the means of transportal1 and the preoccupation of the land by other species1 would permit4 ,some of the new species or races would probably become extinct1 and some perhaps would cross and blend together4 ,we should thus have a multitude of forms1 adapted to all kinds of slightly different stations1 and to diverse groups of either antagonist or food-serving species4 ,the oftener these oscillations of level had taken place 7and therefore generally the older the land7 the greater the number of species which would tend to be formed4 ,the inhabitants of a continent being thus derived in the first stage from the same original parents1 and subsequently from the inhabitants of one wide area1 since often broken up and reunited1 all would be obviously related together and the inhabitants of the most dissimilar stations on the same continent would be more closely allied than the inhabitants of two very similar stations on two of the main divisions of the world#daj4 #dji ,see the comparison between the ,malay ,archipelago and the probable former state of ,europe1 ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #bii1 vi4 p4 #dch1 also ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #bib1 vi4 p4 #dbi4 #daj ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #cdi1 vi4 p4 #dif4 ,the arrangement of the argument in the present ,essay leads to repetition of statements made in the earlier part of the book3 in the ,origin this is avoided4 ,i need hardly point out that we now can obviously see why the number of species in two districts1 independently of the number of stations in such districts1 should be in some cases as widely different as in ,new ,zealand and the ,cape of ,good ,hope#daa4 ,we can see1 knowing the difficulty in the transport of terrestrial mammals1 why islands far from mainlands do not possess them#dab2 we see the general reason1 namely accidental transport 7though not the precise reason71 why certain islands should1 and others should not1 possess members of the class of reptiles4 ,we can see why an ancient channel of communication between two distant points1 as the ,cordillera probably was between southern ,chile and the ,united ,states during the former cold periods2 and icebergs between the ,falkland ,islands and ,tierra del ,fuego2 and gales1 at a former or present time1 between the ,asiatic shores of the ,pacific and eastern islands in this ocean2 is connected with 7or we may now say causes7 an affinity between the species1 though distinct1 in two such districts4 ,we can see how the better chance of diffusion1 from several of the species of any genus having wide ranges in their own countries1 explains the presence of other species of the same genus in other countries#dac2 and on the other hand1 of species of restricted powers of ranging1 forming genera with restricted ranges4 #daa ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #chi1 vi4 p4 #edb4 #dab ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #cic1 vi4 p4 #edg4 #dac ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 pp4 #cej1 #djd1 vi4 pp4 #dih1 #eei4 ,as every one would be surprised if two exactly similar but peculiar varieties#dad of any species were raised by man by long continued selection1 in two different countries1 or at two very different periods1 so we ought not to expect that an exactly similar form would be produced from the modification of an old one in two distinct countries or at two distinct periods4 ,for in such places and times they would probably be exposed to somewhat different climates and almost certainly to different associates4 ,hence we can see why each species appears to have been produced singly1 in space and in time4 ,i need hardly remark that1 according to this theory of descent1 there is no necessity of modification in a species1 when it reaches a new and isolated country4 ,if it be able to survive and if slight variations better adapted to the new conditions are not selected1 it might retain 7as far as we can see7 its old form for an indefinite time4 ,as we see that some sub-varieties produced under domestication are more variable than others1 so in nature1 perhaps1 some species and genera are more variable than others4 ,the same precise form1 however1 would probably be seldom preserved through successive geological periods1 or in widely and differently conditioned countries#dae4 #dad ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #ceb1 vi4 p4 #ejj4 #dae ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #cac1 vi4 p4 #ded4 ,finally1 during the long periods of time and probably of oscillations of level1 necessary for the formation of a continent1 we may conclude 7as above explained7 that many forms would become extinct4 ,these extinct forms1 and those surviving 7whether or not modified and changed in structure71 will all be related in each continent in the same manner and degree1 as are the inhabitants of any two different sub-regions in that same continent4 ,i do not mean to say that1 for instance1 the present ,marsupials of ,australia or ,edentata and rodents of ,s4 ,america have descended from any one of the few fossils of the same orders which have been discovered in these countries4 ,it is possible that1 in a very few instances1 this may be the case2 but generally they must be considered as merely codescendants of common stocks#daf4 ,i believe in this1 from the improbability1 considering the vast number of species1 which 7as explained in the last chapter7 must by our theory have existed1 that the comparatively few fossils which have been found should chance to be the immediate and linear progenitors of those now existing4 ,recent as the yet discovered fossil mammifers of ,s4 ,america are1 who will pretend to say that very many intermediate forms may not have existed8 ,moreover1 we shall see in the ensuing chapter that the very existence of genera and species can be explained only by a few species of each epoch leaving modified successors or new species to a future period2 and the more distant that future period1 the fewer will be the linear heirs of the former epoch4 ,as by our theory1 all mammifers must have descended from the same parent stock1 so is it necessary that each land now possessing terrestrial mammifers shall at some time have been so far united to other land as to permit the passage of mammifers#dag2 and it accords with this necessity1 that in looking far back into the earth's history we find1 first changes in the geographical distribution1 and secondly a period when the mammiferous forms most distinctive of two of the present main divisions of the world were living together#dah4 #daf ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #cda1 vi4 p4 #dhg4 #dag ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #cif1 vi4 p4 #edi4 #dah ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #cdj1 vi4 p4 #dhf4 ,i think then ,i am justified in asserting that most of the above enumerated and often trivial points in the geographical distribution of past and present organisms 7which points must be viewed by the creationists as so many ultimate facts7 follow as a simple consequence of specific forms being mutable and of their being adapted by natural selection to diverse ends1 conjoined with their powers of dispersal1 and the geologico-geographical changes now in slow progress and which undoubtedly have taken place4 ,this large class of facts being thus explained1 far more than counterbalances many separate difficulties and apparent objections in convincing my mind of the truth of this theory of common descent4 ,improbability of finding fossil forms intermediate between existing species4 ,there is one observation of considerable importance that may be here introduced1 with regard to the improbability of the chief transitional forms between any two species being found fossil4 ,with respect to the finer shades of transition1 ,i have before remarked that no one has any cause to expect to trace them in a fossil state1 without he be bold enough to imagine that geologists at a future epoch will be able to trace from fossil bones the gradations between the ,short-,horns1 ,herefordshire1 and ,alderney breeds of cattle#dai4 ,i have attempted to show that rising islands1 in process of formation1 must be the best nurseries of new specific forms1 and these points are the least favourable for the embedment of fossils#dbj3 ,i appeal1 as evidence1 to the state of the numerous scattered islands in the several great oceans3 how rarely do any sedimentary deposits occur on them2 and when present they are mere narrow fringes of no great antiquity1 which the sea is generally wearing away and destroying4 ,the cause of this lies in isolated islands being generally volcanic and rising points2 and the effects of subterranean elevation is to bring up the surrounding newly-deposited strata within the destroying action of the coast-waves3 the strata1 deposited at greater distances1 and therefore in the depths of the ocean1 will be almost barren of organic remains4 ,these remarks may be generalised3--periods of subsidence will always be most favourable to an accumulation of great thicknesses of strata1 and consequently to their long preservation2 for without one formation be protected by successive strata1 it will seldom be preserved to a distant age1 owing to the enormous amount of denudation1 which seems to be a general contingent of time#dba4 ,i may refer1 as evidence of this remark1 to the vast amount of subsidence evident in the great pile of the ,european formations1 from the ,silurian epoch to the end of the ,secondary1 and perhaps to even a later period4 ,periods of elevation on the other hand cannot be favourable to the accumulation of strata and their preservation to distant ages1 from the circumstance just alluded to1 viz4 of elevation tending to bring to the surface the circum-littoral strata 7always abounding most in fossils7 and destroying them4 ,the bottom of tracts of deep water 7little favourable1 however1 to life7 must be excepted from this unfavourable influence of elevation4 ,in the quite open ocean1 probably no sediment#dbb is accumulating1 or at a rate so slow as not to preserve fossil remains1 which will always be subject to disintegration4 ,caverns1 no doubt1 will be equally likely to preserve terrestrial fossils in periods of elevation and of subsidence2 but whether it be owing to the enormous amount of denudation1 which all land seems to have undergone1 no cavern with fossil bones has been found belonging to the ,secondary period#dbc4 #dai ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #bii1 vi4 p4 #dcg4 #dbj ,nature may almost be said to have guarded against the frequent discovery of her transitional or linking forms1 ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #bib4 ,a similar but not identical passage occurs in ,origin1 ,ed4 vi4 p4 #dbh4 #dba ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #bia1 vi4 p4 #dbf4 #dbb ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #bhh1 vi4 p4 #dbb4 #dbc ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #bhi1 vi4 p4 #dbc4 ,hence many more remains will be preserved to a distant age1 in any region of the world1 during periods of its subsidence#dbd1 than of its elevation4 #dbd ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #cjj1 vi4 p4 #dci4 ,but during the subsidence of a tract of land1 its inhabitants 7as before shown7 will from the decrease of space and of the diversity of its stations1 and from the land being fully preoccupied by species fitted to diversified means of subsistence1 be little liable to modification from selection1 although many may1 or rather must1 become extinct4 ,with respect to its circum-marine inhabitants1 although during a change from a continent to a great archipelago1 the number of stations fitted for marine beings will be increased1 their means of diffusion 7an important check to change of form7 will be greatly improved2 for a continent stretching north and south1 or a quite open space of ocean1 seems to be to them the only barrier4 ,on the other hand1 during the elevation of a small archipelago and its conversion into a continent1 we have1 whilst the number of stations are increasing1 both for aquatic and terrestrial productions1 and whilst these stations are not fully preoccupied by perfectly adapted species1 the most favourable conditions for the selection of new specific forms2 but few of them in their early transitional states will be preserved to a distant epoch4 ,we must wait during an enormous lapse of time1 until long-continued subsidence shall have taken the place in this quarter of the world of the elevatory process1 for the best conditions of the embedment and the preservation of its inhabitants4 ,generally the great mass of the strata in every country1 from having been chiefly accumulated during subsidence1 will be the tomb1 not of transitional forms1 but of those either becoming extinct or remaining unmodified4 ,the state of our knowledge1 and the slowness of the changes of level1 do not permit us to test the truth of these remarks1 by observing whether there are more transitional or fine 7as naturalists would term them7 species1 on a rising and enlarging tract of land1 than on an area of subsidence4 ,nor do ,i know whether there are more fine species on isolated volcanic islands in process of formation1 than on a continent2 but ,i may remark1 that at the ,galapagos ,archipelago the number of forms1 which according to some naturalists are true species1 and according to others are mere races1 is considerable3 this particularly applies to the different species or races of the same genera inhabiting the different islands of this archipelago4 ,furthermore it may be added 7as bearing on the great facts discussed in this chapter7 that when naturalists confine their attention to any one country1 they have comparatively little difficulty in determining what forms to call species and what to call varieties2 that is1 those which can or cannot be traced or shown to be probably descendants of some other form3 but the difficulty increases1 as species are brought from many stations1 countries and islands4 ,it was this increasing 7but ,i believe in few cases insuperable7 difficulty which seems chiefly to have urged ,lamarck to the conclusion that species are mutable4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,on ,,the ,,nature ,,of ,,the ,,affinities ,,and ,,classification ,,of ,,organic ,,beings#dbe #dbe ,ch4 ,,xiii of the ,origin1 ,ed4 i41 ,ch4 ,,xiv ,ed4 vi4 begins with a similar statement4 ,in the present ,essay the author adds a note3--,the obviousness of the fact 7i4e4 the natural grouping of organisms7 alone prevents it being remarkable4 ,it is scarcely explicable by creationist3 groups of aquatic1 of vegetable feeders and carnivorous1 c41 might resemble each other2 but why as it is4 ,so with plants1--analogical resemblance thus accounted for4 ,must not here enter into details4 ,this argument is incorporated with the text in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 ,gradual appearance and disappearance of groups4 ,it has been observed from the earliest times that organic beings fall into groups#dbf1 and these groups into others of several values1 such as species into genera1 and then into sub-families1 into families1 orders1 c4 ,the same fact holds with those beings which no longer exist4 ,groups of species seem to follow the same laws in their appearance and extinction#dbg1 as do the individuals of any one species3 we have reason to believe that1 first1 a few species appear1 that their numbers increase2 and that1 when tending to extinction1 the numbers of the species decrease1 till finally the group becomes extinct1 in the same way as a species becomes extinct1 by the individuals becoming rarer and rarer4 ,moreover1 groups1 like the individuals of a species1 appear to become extinct at different times in different countries4 ,the ,palaeotherium was extinct much sooner in ,europe than in ,india3 the ,trigonia#dbh was extinct in early ages in ,europe1 but now lives in the seas of ,australia4 ,as it happens that one species of a family will endure for a much longer period than another species1 so we find that some whole groups1 such as ,mollusca1 tend to retain their forms1 or to remain persistent1 for longer periods than other groups1 for instance than the ,mammalia4 ,groups therefore1 in their appearance1 extinction1 and rate of change or succession1 seem to follow nearly the same laws with the individuals of a species#dbi4 #dbf ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #daa1 vi4 p4 #eff4 #dbg ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #caf1 vi4 p4 #deg4 #dbh ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #cba1 vi4 p4 #dfc4 #dbi ,in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 this preliminary matter is replaced 7pp4 #daa1 #dab1 vi4 pp4 #eff1 #efg7 by a discussion in which extinction is also treated1 but chiefly from the point of view of the theory of divergence4 ,what is the ,natural ,system8 ,the proper arrangement of species into groups1 according to the natural system1 is the object of all naturalists2 but scarcely two naturalists will give the same answer to the question1 ,what is the natural system and how are we to recognise it8 ,the most important characters#dcj it might be thought 7as it was by the earliest classifiers7 ought to be drawn from those parts of the structure which determine its habits and place in the economy of nature1 which we may call the final end of its existence4 ,but nothing is further from the truth than this2 how much external resemblance there is between the little otter 7,chironectes7 of ,guiana and the common otter2 or again between the common swallow and the swift2 and who can doubt that the means and ends of their existence are closely similar1 yet how grossly wrong would be the classification1 which put close to each other a ,marsupial and ,placental animal1 and two birds with widely different skeletons4 ,relations1 such as in the two latter cases1 or as that between the whale and fishes1 are denominated analogical#dca1 or are sometimes described as relations of adaption4 ,they are infinitely numerous and often very singular2 but are of no use in the classification of the higher groups4 ,how it comes1 that certain parts of the structure1 by which the habits and functions of the species are settled1 are of no use in classification1 whilst other parts1 formed at the same time1 are of the greatest1 it would be difficult to say1 on the theory of separate creations4 #dcj ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #dad1 vi4 p4 #egj4 #dca ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #dad1 vi4 p4 #egj4 ,some authors as ,lamarck1 ,whewell c41 believe that the degree of affinity on the natural system depends on the degrees of resemblance in organs more or less physiologically important for the preservation of life4 ,this scale of importance in the organs is admitted to be of difficult discovery4 ,but quite independent of this1 the proposition1 as a general rule1 must be rejected as false2 though it may be partially true4 ,for it is universally admitted that the same part or organ1 which is of the highest service in classification in one group1 is of very little use in another group1 though in both groups1 as far as we can see1 the part or organ is of equal physiological importance3 moreover1 characters quite unimportant physiologically1 such as whether the covering of the body consists of hair or feathers1 whether the nostrils communicated with the mouth#dcb c41 c41 are of the highest generality in classification2 even colour1 which is so inconstant in many species1 will sometimes well characterise even a whole group of species4 ,lastly1 the fact1 that no one character is of so much importance in determining to what great group an organism belongs1 as the forms through which the embryo#dcc passes from the germ upwards to maturity1 cannot be reconciled with the idea that natural classification follows according to the degrees of resemblance in the parts of most physiological importance4 ,the affinity of the common rock-barnacle with the ,crustaceans can hardly be perceived in more than a single character in its mature state1 but whilst young1 locomotive1 and furnished with eyes1 its affinity cannot be mistaken#dcd4 ,the cause of the greater value of characters1 drawn from the early stages of life1 can1 as we shall in a succeeding chapter see1 be in a considerable degree explained1 on the theory of descent1 although inexplicable on the views of the creationist4 #dcb ,these instances occur with others in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #daf1 vi4 p4 #egb4 #dcc ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #dah1 vi4 p4 #egd4 #dcd ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 pp4 #dai1 #ddj1 vi4 pp4 #ege1 #fjf4 ,practically1 naturalists seem to classify according to the resemblance of those parts or organs which in related groups are most uniform1 or vary least#dce3 thus the aestivation1 or manner in which the petals etc4 are folded over each other1 is found to afford an unvarying character in most families of plants1 and accordingly any difference in this respect would be sufficient to cause the rejection of a species from many families2 but in the ,rubiaceae the aestivation is a varying character1 and a botanist would not lay much stress on it1 in deciding whether or not to class a new species in this family4 ,but this rule is obviously so arbitrary a formula1 that most naturalists seem to be convinced that something ulterior is represented by the natural system2 they appear to think that we only discover by such similarities what the arrangement of the system is1 not that such similarities make the system4 ,we can only thus understand ,linnaeus'#dcf well-known saying1 that the characters do not make the genus2 but that the genus gives the characters3 for a classification1 independent of characters1 is here presupposed4 ,hence many naturalists have said that the natural system reveals the plan of the ,creator3 but without it be specified whether order in time or place1 or what else is meant by the plan of the ,creator1 such expressions appear to me to leave the question exactly where it was4 #dce ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 pp4 #dah1 #dbe1 vi4 pp4 #egd1 #eha4 #dcf ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #dac1 vi4 p4 #efi4 ,some naturalists consider that the geographical position#dcg of a species may enter into the consideration of the group into which it should be placed2 and most naturalists 7either tacitly or openly7 give value to the different groups1 not solely by their relative differences in structure1 but by the number of forms included in them4 ,thus a genus containing a few species might be1 and has often been1 raised into a family on the discovery of several other species4 ,many natural families are retained1 although most closely related to other families1 from including a great number of closely similar species4 ,the more logical naturalist would perhaps1 if he could1 reject these two contingents in classification4 ,from these circumstances1 and especially from the undefined objects and criterions of the natural system1 the number of divisions1 such as genera1 sub-families1 families1 c41 c41 has been quite arbitrary#dch2 without the clearest definition1 how can it be possible to decide whether two groups of species are of equal value1 and of what value8 whether they should both be called genera or families2 or whether one should be a genus1 and the other a family#dci8 #dcg ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 pp4 #dai1 #dbg1 vi4 pp4 #ege1 #ehb4 #dch ,this is discussed from the point of view of divergence in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 pp4 #dbj1 #dba1 vi4 pp4 #egf1 #egg4 #dci ,footnote by the author4 ,i discuss this because if ,quinarism true1 ,i false4 ,the ,quinary ,system is set forth in ,w4 ,s4 ,macleay's ,horae ,entomologicae1 #ahba4 ,on the kind of relation between distinct groups4 ,i have only one other remark on the affinities of organic beings2 that is1 when two quite distinct groups approach each other1 the approach is generally generic#ddj and not special2 ,i can explain this most easily by an example3 of all ,rodents the ,bizcacha1 by certain peculiarities in its reproductive system1 approaches nearest to the ,marsupials2 of all ,marsupials the ,phascolomys1 on the other hand1 appears to approach in the form of its teeth and intestines nearest to the ,rodents2 but there is no special relation between these two genera#dda2 the ,bizcacha is no nearer related to the ,phascolomys than to any other ,marsupial in the points in which it approaches this division2 nor again is the ,phascolomys1 in the points of structure in which it approaches the ,rodents1 any nearer related to the ,bizcacha than to any other ,rodent4 ,other examples might have been chosen1 but ,i have given 7from ,waterhouse7 this example as it illustrates another point1 namely1 the difficulty of determining what are analogical or adaptive and what real affinities2 it seems that the teeth of the ,phascolomys though appearing closely to resemble those of a ,rodent are found to be built on the ,marsupial type2 and it is thought that these teeth and consequently the intestines may have been adapted to the peculiar life of this animal and therefore may not show any real relation4 ,the structure in the ,bizcacha that connects it with the ,marsupials does not seem a peculiarity related to its manner of life1 and ,i imagine that no one would doubt that this shows a real affinity1 though not more with any one ,marsupial species than with another4 ,the difficulty of determining what relations are real and what analogical is far from surprising when no one pretends to define the meaning of the term relation or the ulterior object of all classification4 ,we shall immediately see on the theory of descent how it comes that there should be real and analogical affinities2 and why the former alone should be of value in classification--difficulties which it would be ,i believe impossible to explain on the ordinary theory of separate creations4 #ddj ,in the corresponding passage in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #dcj1 vi4 p4 #eia1 the term general is used in place of generic1 and seems a better expression4 ,in the margin the author gives ,waterhouse as his authority4 #dda ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #dcj1 vi4 p4 #eia4 ,classification of ,races or ,varieties4 ,let us now for a few moments turn to the classification of the generally acknowledged varieties and subdivisions of our domestic beings#ddb2 we shall find them systematically arranged in groups of higher and higher value4 ,de ,candolle has treated the varieties of the cabbage exactly as he would have done a natural family with various divisions and subdivisions4 ,in dogs again we have one main division which may be called the family of hounds2 of these1 there are several 7we will call them7 genera1 such as blood-hounds1 fox-hounds1 and harriers2 and of each of these we have different species1 as the blood-hound of ,cuba and that of ,england2 and of the latter again we have breeds truly producing their own kind1 which may be called races or varieties4 ,here we see a classification practically used which typifies on a lesser scale that which holds good in nature4 ,but amongst true species in the natural system and amongst domestic races the number of divisions or groups1 instituted between those most alike and those most unlike1 seems to be quite arbitrary4 ,the number of the forms in both cases seems practically1 whether or not it ought theoretically1 to influence the denomination of groups including them4 ,in both1 geographical distribution has sometimes been used as an aid to classification#ddc2 amongst varieties1 ,i may instance1 the cattle of ,india or the sheep of ,siberia1 which from possessing some characters in common permit a classification of ,indian and ,european cattle1 or ,siberian and ,european sheep4 ,amongst domestic varieties we have even something very like the relations of analogy or adaptation#ddd2 thus the common and ,swedish turnip are both artificial varieties which strikingly resemble each other1 and they fill nearly the same end in the economy of the farm-yard2 but although the swede so much more resembles a turnip than its presumed parent the field cabbage1 no one thinks of putting it out of the cabbages into the turnips4 ,thus the greyhound and racehorse1 having been selected and trained for extreme fleetness for short distances1 present an analogical resemblance of the same kind1 but less striking as that between the little otter 7,marsupial7 of ,guiana and the common otter2 though these two otters are really less related than are the horse and dog4 ,we are even cautioned by authors treating on varieties1 to follow the natural in contradistinction of an artificial system and not1 for instance1 to class two varieties of the pine-apple#dde near each other1 because their fruits accidentally resemble each other closely 7though the fruit may be called the final end of this plant in the economy of its world1 the hothouse71 but to judge from the general resemblance of the entire plants4 ,lastly1 varieties often become extinct2 sometimes from unexplained causes1 sometimes from accident1 but more often from the production of more useful varieties1 and the less useful ones being destroyed or bred out4 #ddb ,in a corresponding passage in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #dbc1 vi4 p4 #egi1 the author makes use of his knowledge of pigeons4 ,the pseudo-genera among dogs are discussed in ,var4 under ,dom41 ,ed4 ii4 vol4 ,i4 p4 #ch4 #ddc ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 pp4 #dai1 #dbg1 vi4 pp4 #ege1 #ehb4 #ddd ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 pp4 #dbc1 #dbg1 vi4 pp4 #egi1 #ehc4 #dde ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #dbc1 vi4 p4 #egi4 ,i think it cannot be doubted that the main cause of all the varieties which have descended from the aboriginal dog or dogs1 or from the aboriginal wild cabbage1 not being equally like or unlike--but on the contrary1 obviously falling into groups and sub-groups--must in chief part be attributed to different degrees of true relationship2 for instance1 that the different kinds of blood-hound have descended from one stock1 whilst the harriers have descended from another stock1 and that both these have descended from a different stock from that which has been the parent of the several kinds of greyhound4 ,we often hear of a florist having some choice variety and breeding from it a whole group of sub-varieties more or less characterised by the peculiarities of the parent4 ,the case of the peach and nectarine1 each with their many varieties1 might have been introduced4 ,no doubt the relationship of our different domestic breeds has been obscured in an extreme degree by their crossing2 and likewise from the slight difference between many breeds it has probably often happened that a sport from one breed has less closely resembled its parent breed than some other breed1 and has therefore been classed with the latter4 ,moreover the effects of a similar climate#ddf may in some cases have more than counterbalanced the similarity1 consequent on a common descent1 though ,i should think the similarity of the breeds of cattle of ,india or sheep of ,siberia was far more probably due to the community of their descent than to the effects of climate on animals descended from different stocks4 #ddf ,a general statement of the influence of conditions on variation occurs in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 pp4 #aca-c1 vi4 pp4 #afd-e4 ,notwithstanding these great sources of difficulty1 ,i apprehend every one would admit1 that if it were possible1 a genealogical classification of our domestic varieties would be the most satisfactory one2 and as far as varieties were concerned would be the natural system3 in some cases it has been followed4 ,in attempting to follow out this object a person would have to class a variety1 whose parentage he did not know1 by its external characters2 but he would have a distinct ulterior object in view1 namely1 its descent in the same manner as a regular systematist seems also to have an ulterior but undefined end in all his classifications4 ,like the regular systematist he would not care whether his characters were drawn from more or less important organs as long as he found in the tribe which he was examining that the characters from such parts were persistent2 thus amongst cattle he does value a character drawn from the form of the horns more than from the proportions of the limbs and whole body1 for he finds that the shape of the horns is to a considerable degree persistent amongst cattle#ddg1 whilst the bones of the limbs and body vary4 ,no doubt as a frequent rule the more important the organ1 as being less related to external influences1 the less liable it is to variation2 but he would expect that according to the object for which the races had been selected1 parts more or less important might differ2 so that characters drawn from parts generally most liable to vary1 as colour1 might in some instances be highly serviceable--as is the case4 ,he would admit that general resemblances scarcely definable by language might sometimes serve to allocate a species by its nearest relation4 ,he would be able to assign a clear reason why the close similarity of the fruit in two varieties of pine-apple1 and of the so-called root in the common and ,swedish turnips1 and why the similar gracefulness of form in the greyhound and racehorse1 are characters of little value in classification2 namely1 because they are the result1 not of community of descent1 but either of selection for a common end1 or of the effects of similar external conditions4 #ddg ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #dbc1 vi4 p4 #egi4 ,in the margin ,marshall is given as the authority4 ,classification of races and species similar4 ,thus seeing that both the classifiers of species and of varieties#ddh work by the same means1 make similar distinctions in the value of the characters1 and meet with similar difficulties1 and that both seem to have in their classification an ulterior object in view2 ,i cannot avoid strongly suspecting that the same cause1 which has made amongst our domestic varieties groups and sub-groups1 has made similar groups 7but of higher values7 amongst species2 and that this cause is the greater or less propinquity of actual descent4 ,the simple fact of species1 both those long since extinct and those now living1 being divisible into genera1 families1 orders c4--divisions analogous to those into which varieties are divisible--is otherwise an inexplicable fact1 and only not remarkable from its familiarity4 #ddh ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #dbc1 vi4 p4 #egi4 ,origin of genera and families4 ,let us suppose#ddi for example that a species spreads and arrives at six or more different regions1 or being already diffused over one wide area1 let this area be divided into six distinct regions1 exposed to different conditions1 and with stations slightly different1 not fully occupied with other species1 so that six different races or species were formed by selection1 each best fitted to its new habits and station4 ,i must remark that in every case1 if a species becomes modified in any one sub-region1 it is probable that it will become modified in some other of the sub-regions over which it is diffused1 for its organization is shown to be capable of being rendered plastic2 its diffusion proves that it is able to struggle with the other inhabitants of the several sub-regions2 and as the organic beings of every great region are in some degree allied1 and as even the physical conditions are often in some respects alike1 we might expect that a modification in structure1 which gave our species some advantage over antagonist species in one sub-region1 would be followed by other modifications in other of the sub-regions4 ,the races or new species supposed to be formed would be closely related to each other2 and would either form a new genus or sub-genus1 or would rank 7probably forming a slightly different section7 in the genus to which the parent species belonged4 ,in the course of ages1 and during the contingent physical changes1 it is probable that some of the six new species would be destroyed2 but the same advantage1 whatever it may have been 7whether mere tendency to vary1 or some peculiarity of organization1 power of mind1 or means of distribution71 which in the parent-species and in its six selected and changed species-offspring1 caused them to prevail over other antagonist species1 would generally tend to preserve some or many of them for a long period4 ,if then1 two or three of the six species were preserved1 they in their turn would1 during continued changes1 give rise to as many small groups of species3 if the parents of these small groups were closely similar1 the new species would form one great genus1 barely perhaps divisible into two or three sections3 but if the parents were considerably unlike1 their species-offspring would1 from inheriting most of the peculiarities of their parent-stocks1 form either two or more sub-genera or 7if the course of selection tended in different ways7 genera4 ,and lastly species descending from different species of the newly formed genera would form new genera1 and such genera collectively would form a family4 #ddi ,the discussion here following corresponds more or less to the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 pp4 #daa1 #dab1 vi4 pp4 #eff1 #efg2 although the doctrine of divergence is not mentioned in this ,essay 7as it is in the ,origin7 yet the present section seems to me a distinct approximation to it4 ,the extermination of species follows from changes in the external conditions1 and from the increase or immigration of more favoured species3 and as those species which are undergoing modification in any one great region 7or indeed over the world7 will very often be allied ones from 7as just explained7 partaking of many characters1 and therefore advantages in common1 so the species1 whose place the new or more favoured ones are seizing1 from partaking of a common inferiority 7whether in any particular point of structure1 or of general powers of mind1 of means of distribution1 of capacity for variation1 c41 c471 will be apt to be allied4 ,consequently species of the same genus will slowly1 one after the other1 tend to become rarer and rarer in numbers1 and finally extinct2 and as each last species of several allied genera fails1 even the family will become extinct4 ,there may of course be occasional exceptions to the entire destruction of any genus or family4 ,from what has gone before1 we have seen that the slow and successive formation of several new species from the same stock will make a new genus1 and the slow and successive formation of several other new species from another stock will make another genus2 and if these two stocks were allied1 such genera will make a new family4 ,now1 as far as our knowledge serves1 it is in this slow and gradual manner that groups of species appear on1 and disappear from1 the face of the earth4 ,the manner in which1 according to our theory1 the arrangement of species in groups is due to partial extinction1 will perhaps be rendered clearer in the following way4 ,let us suppose in any one great class1 for instance in the ,mammalia1 that every species and every variety1 during each successive age1 had sent down one unaltered descendant 7either fossil or living7 to the present time2 we should then have had one enormous series1 including by small gradations every known mammiferous form2 and consequently the existence of groups#dej1 or chasms in the series1 which in some parts are in greater width1 and in some of less1 is solely due to former species1 and whole groups of species1 not having thus sent down descendants to the present time4 #dej ,the author probably intended to write groups separated by chasms4 ,with respect to the analogical or adaptive resemblances between organic beings which are not really related#dea1 ,i will only add1 that probably the isolation of different groups of species is an important element in the production of such characters3 thus we can easily see1 in a large increasing island1 or even a continent like ,australia1 stocked with only certain orders of the main classes1 that the conditions would be highly favourable for species from these orders to become adapted to play parts in the economy of nature1 which in other countries were performed by tribes especially adapted to such parts4 ,we can understand how it might happen that an otter-like animal might have been formed in ,australia by slow selection from the more carnivorous ,marsupial types2 thus we can understand that curious case in the southern hemisphere1 where there are no auks 7but many petrels71 of a petrel#deb having been modified into the external general form so as to play the same office in nature with the auks of the northern hemisphere2 although the habits and form of the petrels and auks are normally so wholly different4 ,it follows1 from our theory1 that two orders must have descended from one common stock at an immensely remote epoch2 and we can perceive when a species in either order1 or in both1 shows some affinity to the other order1 why the affinity is usually generic and not particular--that is why the ,bizcacha amongst ,rodents1 in the points in which it is related to the ,marsupial1 is related to the whole group#dec1 and not particularly to the ,phascolomys1 which of all ,marsupialia is related most to the ,rodents4 ,for the ,bizcacha is related to the present ,marsupialia1 only from being related to their common parent-stock2 and not to any one species in particular4 ,and generally1 it may be observed in the writings of most naturalists1 that when an organism is described as intermediate between two great groups1 its relations are not to particular species of either group1 but to both groups1 as wholes4 ,a little reflection will show how exceptions 7as that of the ,lepidosiren1 a fish closely related to particular reptiles7 might occur1 namely from a few descendants of those species1 which at a very early period branched out from a common parent-stock and so formed the two orders or groups1 having survived1 in nearly their original state1 to the present time4 #dea ,a similar discussion occurs in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #dbg1 vi4 p4 #ehb4 #deb ,puffinuria berardi1 see ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #ahd1 vi4 p4 #bba4 #dec ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #dcj1 vi4 p4 #eia4 ,finally1 then1 we see that all the leading facts in the affinities and classification of organic beings can be explained on the theory of the natural system being simply a genealogical one4 ,the similarity of the principles in classifying domestic varieties and true species1 both those living and extinct1 is at once explained2 the rules followed and difficulties met with being the same4 ,the existence of genera1 families1 orders1 c41 and their mutual relations1 naturally ensues from extinction going on at all periods amongst the diverging descendants of a common stock4 ,these terms of affinity1 relations1 families1 adaptive characters1 c41 which naturalists cannot avoid using1 though metaphorically1 cease being so1 and are full of plain signification4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,unity ,,of ,,type ,,in ,,the ,,great ,,classes2 ,,and ,,morphological ,,structures ,unity of ,type#ded4 #ded ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #dcd1 vi4 p4 #eie4 ,ch4 ,,viii corresponds to a section of ,ch4 ,,xiii in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 ,scarcely anything is more wonderful or has been oftener insisted on than that the organic beings in each great class1 though living in the most distant climes and at periods immensely remote1 though fitted to widely different ends in the economy of nature1 yet all in their internal structure evince an obvious uniformity4 ,what1 for instance1 is more wonderful than that the hand to clasp1 the foot or hoof to walk1 the bat's wing to fly1 the porpoise's fin#dee to swim1 should all be built on the same plan8 and that the bones in their position and number should be so similar that they can all be classed and called by the same names4 ,occasionally some of the bones are merely represented by an apparently useless1 smooth style1 or are soldered closely to other bones1 but the unity of type is not by this destroyed1 and hardly rendered less clear4 ,we see in this fact some deep bond of union between the organic beings of the same great classes--to illustrate which is the object and foundation of the natural system4 ,the perception of this bond1 ,i may add1 is the evident cause that naturalists make an ill-defined distinction between true and adaptive affinities4 #dee ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #dcd1 vi4 p4 #eif4 ,in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 these examples occur under the heading ,morphology2 the author does not there draw much distinction between this heading and that of ,unity of ,type4 ,morphology4 ,there is another allied or rather almost identical class of facts admitted by the least visionary naturalists and included under the name of ,morphology4 ,these facts show that in an individual organic being1 several of its organs consist of some other organ metamorphosed#def3 thus the sepals1 petals1 stamens1 pistils1 c4 of every plant can be shown to be metamorphosed leaves2 and thus not only can the number1 position and transitional states of these several organs1 but likewise their monstrous changes1 be most lucidly explained4 ,it is believed that the same laws hold good with the gemmiferous vesicles of ,zoophytes4 ,in the same manner the number and position of the extraordinarily complicated jaws and palpi of ,crustacea and of insects1 and likewise their differences in the different groups1 all become simple1 on the view of these parts1 or rather legs and all metamorphosed appendages1 being metamorphosed legs4 ,the skulls1 again1 of the ,vertebrata are composed of three metamorphosed vertebrae1 and thus we can see a meaning in the number and strange complication of the bony case of the brain4 ,in this latter instance1 and in that of the jaws of the ,crustacea1 it is only necessary to see a series taken from the different groups of each class to admit the truth of these views4 ,it is evident that when in each species of a group its organs consist of some other part metamorphosed1 that there must also be a unity of type in such a group4 ,and in the cases as that above given in which the foot1 hand1 wing and paddle are said to be constructed on a uniform type1 if we could perceive in such parts or organs traces of an apparent change from some other use or function1 we should strictly include such parts or organs in the department of morphology3 thus if we could trace in the limbs of the ,vertebrata1 as we can in their ribs1 traces of an apparent change from being processes of the vertebrae1 it would be said that in each species of the ,vertebrata the limbs were metamorphosed spinal processes1 and that in all the species throughout the class the limbs displayed a unity of type#deg4 #def ,see ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #dcf1 vi4 p4 #eii1 where the parts of the flower1 the jaws and palpi of ,crustaceans and the vertebrate skull are given as examples4 #deg ,the author here brings ,unity of ,type and ,morphology together4 ,these wonderful parts of the hoof1 foot1 hand1 wing1 paddle1 both in living and extinct animals1 being all constructed on the same framework1 and again of the petals1 stamina1 germens1 c4 being metamorphosed leaves1 can by the creationist be viewed only as ultimate facts and incapable of explanation2 whilst on our theory of descent these facts all necessary follow3 for by this theory all the beings of any one class1 say of the mammalia1 are supposed to be descended from one parent-stock1 and to have been altered by such slight steps as man effects by the selection of chance domestic variations4 ,now we can see according to this view that a foot might be selected with longer and longer bones1 and wider connecting membranes1 till it became a swimming organ1 and so on till it became an organ by which to flap along the surface or to glide over it1 and lastly to fly through the air3 but in such changes there would be no tendency to alter the framework of the internal inherited structure4 ,parts might become lost 7as the tail in dogs1 or horns in cattle1 or the pistils in plants71 others might become united together 7as in the feet of the ,lincolnshire breed of pigs#deh1 and in the stamens of many garden flowers72 parts of a similar nature might become increased in number 7as the vertebrae in the tails of pigs1 c41 c4 and the fingers and toes in six-fingered races of men and in the ,dorking fowls71 but analogous differences are observed in nature and are not considered by naturalists to destroy the uniformity of the types4 ,we can1 however1 conceive such changes to be carried to such length that the unity of type might be obscured and finally be undistinguishable1 and the paddle of the ,plesiosaurus has been advanced as an instance in which the uniformity of type can hardly be recognised#dei4 ,if after long and gradual changes in the structure of the co-descendants from any parent stock1 evidence 7either from monstrosities or from a graduated series7 could be still detected of the function1 which certain parts or organs played in the parent stock1 these parts or organs might be strictly determined by their former function with the term metamorphosed appended4 ,naturalists have used this term in the same metaphorical manner as they have been obliged to use the terms of affinity and relation2 and when they affirm1 for instance1 that the jaws of a crab are metamorphosed legs1 so that one crab has more legs and fewer jaws than another1 they are far from meaning that the jaws1 either during the life of the individual crab or of its progenitors1 were really legs4 ,by our theory this term assumes its literal meaning#dfj2 and this wonderful fact of the complex jaws of an animal retaining numerous characters1 which they would probably have retained if they had really been metamorphosed during many successive generations from true legs1 is simply explained4 #deh ,the solid-hoofed pigs mentioned in ,var4 under ,dom41 ,ed4 ii4 vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #dbd are not ,lincolnshire pigs4 ,for other cases see ,bateson1 ,materials for the ,study of ,variation1 #ahid1 pp4 #chg-ij4 #dei ,in the margin ,c4 ,bell is given as authority1 apparently for the statement about ,plesiosaurus4 ,see ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #dcf1 vi4 p4 #eih1 where the author speaks of the general pattern being obscured in extinct gigantic sea lizards4 ,in the same place the suctorial ,entomostraca are added as examples of the difficulty of recognising the type4 #dfj ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #dch1 vi4 p4 #fjb4 ,embryology4 ,the unity of type in the great classes is shown in another and very striking manner1 namely1 in the stages through which the embryo passes in coming to maturity#dfa4 ,thus1 for instance1 at one period of the embryo1 the wings of the bat1 the hand1 hoof or foot of the quadruped1 and the fin of the porpoise do not differ1 but consist of a simple undivided bone4 ,at a still earlier period the embryo of the fish1 bird1 reptile and mammal all strikingly resemble each other4 ,let it not be supposed this resemblance is only external2 for on dissection1 the arteries are found to branch out and run in a peculiar course1 wholly unlike that in the full-grown mammal and bird1 but much less unlike that in the full-grown fish1 for they run as if to aerate blood by branchiae#dfb on the neck1 of which even the slit-like orifices can be discerned4 ,how wonderful it is that this structure should be present in the embryos of animals about to be developed into such different forms1 and of which two great classes respire only in the air4 ,moreover1 as the embryo of the mammal is matured in the parent's body1 and that of the bird in an egg in the air1 and that of the fish in an egg in the water1 we cannot believe that this course of the arteries is related to any external conditions4 ,in all shell-fish 7,gasteropods7 the embryo passes through a state analogous to that of the ,pteropodous ,mollusca3 amongst insects again1 even the most different ones1 as the moth1 fly and beetle1 the crawling larvae are all closely analogous3 amongst the ,radiata1 the jelly-fish in its embryonic state resembles a polype1 and in a still earlier state an infusorial animalcule--as does likewise the embryo of the polype4 ,from the part of the embryo of a mammal1 at one period1 resembling a fish more than its parent form2 from the larvae of all orders of insects more resembling the simpler articulate animals than their parent insects#dfc2 and from such other cases as the embryo of the jelly-fish resembling a polype much nearer than the perfect jelly-fish2 it has often been asserted that the higher animal in each class passes through the state of a lower animal2 for instance1 that the mammal amongst the vertebrata passes through the state of a fish#dfd3 but ,mueller denies this1 and affirms that the young mammal is at no time a fish1 as does ,owen assert that the embryonic jelly-fish is at no time a polype1 but that mammal and fish1 jelly-fish and polype pass through the same state2 the mammal and jelly-fish being only further developed or changed4 #dfa ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #dci1 vi4 p4 #fjd4 #dfb ,the uselessness of the branchial arches in mammalia is insisted on in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #ddj1 vi4 p4 #fjf4 ,also the uselessness of the spots on the young blackbird and the stripes of the lion-whelp1 cases which do not occur in the present ,essay4 #dfc ,in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 pp4 #ddb1 #ddh1 vi4 pp4 #fjh1 #fad it is pointed out that in some cases the young form resembles the adult1 e4g4 in spiders2 again1 that in the ,aphis there is no worm-like stage of development4 #dfd ,in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #ddi1 vi4 p4 #fah1 the author speaks doubtfully about the recapitulation theory4 ,as the embryo1 in most cases1 possesses a less complicated structure than that into which it is to be developed1 it might have been thought that the resemblance of the embryo to less complicated forms in the same great class1 was in some manner a necessary preparation for its higher development2 but in fact the embryo1 during its growth1 may become less1 as well as more1 complicated#dfe4 ,thus certain female ,epizoic ,crustaceans in their mature state have neither eyes nor any organs of locomotion2 they consist of a mere sack1 with a simple apparatus for digestion and procreation2 and when once attached to the body of the fish1 on which they prey1 they never move again during their whole lives3 in their embryonic condition1 on the other hand1 they are furnished with eyes1 and with well articulated limbs1 actively swim about and seek their proper object to become attached to4 ,the larvae1 also1 of some moths are as complicated and are more active than the wingless and limbless females1 which never leave their pupa-case1 never feed and never see the daylight4 #dfe ,this corresponds to the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #dda1 vi4 p4 #fjg1 where1 however1 the example is taken from the ,cirripedes4 ,attempt to explain the facts of embryology4 ,i think considerable light can be thrown by the theory of descent on these wonderful embryological facts which are common in a greater or less degree to the whole animal kingdom1 and in some manner to the vegetable kingdom3 on the fact1 for instance1 of the arteries in the embryonic mammal1 bird1 reptile and fish1 running and branching in the same courses and nearly in the same manner with the arteries in the full-grown fish2 on the fact ,i may add of the high importance to systematic naturalists#dff of the characters and resemblances in the embryonic state1 in ascertaining the true position in the natural system of mature organic beings4 ,the following are the considerations which throw light on these curious points4 #dff ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #ddi1 vi4 p4 #fag4 ,in the economy1 we will say of a feline animal#dfg1 the feline structure of the embryo or of the sucking kitten is of quite secondary importance to it2 hence1 if a feline animal varied 7assuming for the time the possibility of this7 and if some place in the economy of nature favoured the selection of a longer-limbed variety1 it would be quite unimportant to the production by natural selection of a long-limbed breed1 whether the limbs of the embryo and kitten were elongated if they became so as soon as the animal had to provide food for itself4 ,and if it were found after continued selection and the production of several new breeds from one parent-stock1 that the successive variations had supervened1 not very early in the youth or embryonic life of each breed 7and we have just seen that it is quite unimportant whether it does so or not71 then it obviously follows that the young or embryos of the several breeds will continue resembling each other more closely than their adult parents#dfh4 ,and again1 if two of these breeds became each the parent-stock of several other breeds1 forming two genera1 the young and embryos of these would still retain a greater resemblance to the one original stock than when in an adult state4 ,therefore if it could be shown that the period of the slight successive variations does not always supervene at a very early period of life1 the greater resemblance or closer unity in type of animals in the young than in the full-grown state would be explained4 ,before practically#dfi endeavouring to discover in our domestic races whether the structure or form of the young has or has not changed in an exactly corresponding degree with the changes of full-grown animals1 it will be well to show that it is at least quite possible for the primary germinal vesicle to be impressed with a tendency to produce some change on the growing tissues which will not be fully effected till the animal is advanced in life4 #dfg ,this corresponds to the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 pp4 #ddc-d1 vi4 p4 #faj3 the feline animal is not used to illustrate the generalisation1 but is so used in the ,essay of #ahdb1 p4 #db4 #dfh ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #ddg1 vi4 p4 #fac4 #dfi ,in the margin is written ,get young pigeons2 this was afterwards done1 and the results are given in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #dde1 vi4 p4 #fab4 ,from the following peculiarities of structure being inheritable and appearing only when the animal is full-grown--namely1 general size1 tallness 7not consequent on the tallness of the infant71 fatness either over the whole body1 or local2 change of colour in hair and its loss2 deposition of bony matter on the legs of horses2 blindness and deafness1 that is changes of structure in the eye and ear2 gout and consequent deposition of chalk-stones2 and many other diseases#dgj1 as of the heart and brain1 c41 c42 from all such tendencies being ,i repeat inheritable1 we clearly see that the germinal vesicle is impressed with some power which is wonderfully preserved during the production of infinitely numerous cells in the ever changing tissues1 till the part ultimately to be affected is formed and the time of life arrived at4 ,we see this clearly when we select cattle with any peculiarity of their horns1 or poultry with any peculiarity of their second plumage1 for such peculiarities cannot of course reappear till the animal is mature4 ,hence1 it is certainly possible that the germinal vesicle may be impressed with a tendency to produce a long-limbed animal1 the full proportional length of whose limbs shall appear only when the animal is mature#dga4 #dgj ,in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 the corresponding passages are at pp4 #h1 #ac1 #ddc1 vi4 pp4 #h1 #ae1 #faj4 ,in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 ,i have not found a passage so striking as that which occurs a few lines lower that the germinal vesicle is impressed with some power which is wonderfully preserved1 c4 ,in the ,origin this preservation is rather taken for granted4 #dga ,in the margin is written ,aborted organs show1 perhaps1 something about period at which changes supervene in embryo4 ,in several of the cases just enumerated we know that the first cause of the peculiarity1 when not inherited1 lies in the conditions to which the animal is exposed during mature life1 thus to a certain extent general size and fatness1 lameness in horses and in a lesser degree blindness1 gout and some other diseases are certainly in some degree caused and accelerated by the habits of life1 and these peculiarities when transmitted to the offspring of the affected person reappear at a nearly corresponding time of life4 ,in medical works it is asserted generally that at whatever period an hereditary disease appears in the parent1 it tends to reappear in the offspring at the same period4 ,again1 we find that early maturity1 the season of reproduction and longevity are transmitted to corresponding periods of life4 ,dr ,holland has insisted much on children of the same family exhibiting certain diseases in similar and peculiar manners2 my father has known three brothers#dgb die in very old age in a singular comatose state2 now to make these latter cases strictly bear1 the children of such families ought similarly to suffer at corresponding times of life2 this is probably not the case1 but such facts show that a tendency in a disease to appear at particular stages of life can be transmitted through the germinal vesicle to different individuals of the same family4 ,it is then certainly possible that diseases affecting widely different periods of life can be transmitted4 ,so little attention is paid to very young domestic animals that ,i do not know whether any case is on record of selected peculiarities in young animals1 for instance1 in the first plumage of birds1 being transmitted to their young4 ,if1 however1 we turn to silk-worms#dgc1 we find that the caterpillars and coccoons 7which must correspond to a very early period of the embryonic life of mammalia7 vary1 and that these varieties reappear in the offspring caterpillars and coccoons4 #dgb ,see p4 #db1 note #e4,note #afj #dgc ,the evidence is given in ,var4 under ,dom41 ,i4 p4 #caf4 ,i think these facts are sufficient to render it probable that at whatever period of life any peculiarity 7capable of being inherited7 appears1 whether caused by the action of external influences during mature life1 or from an affection of the primary germinal vesicle1 it tends to reappear in the offspring at the corresponding period of life#dgd4 ,hence 7,i may add7 whatever effect training1 that is the full employment or action of every newly selected slight variation1 has in fully developing and increasing such variation1 would only show itself in mature age1 corresponding to the period of training2 in the second chapter ,i showed that there was in this respect a marked difference in natural and artificial selection1 man not regularly exercising or adapting his varieties to new ends1 whereas selection by nature presupposes such exercise and adaptation in each selected and changed part4 ,the foregoing facts show and presuppose that slight variations occur at various periods of life after birth2 the facts of monstrosity1 on the other hand1 show that many changes take place before birth1 for instance1 all such cases as extra fingers1 hare-lip and all sudden and great alterations in structure2 and these when inherited reappear during the embryonic period in the offspring4 ,i will only add that at a period even anterior to embryonic life1 namely1 during the egg state1 varieties appear in size and colour 7as with the ,hertfordshire duck with blackish eggs#dge7 which reappear in the egg2 in plants also the capsule and membranes of the seed are very variable and inheritable4 #dgd ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #ddd1 vi4 p4 #faj4 #dge ,in ,var4 under ,dom41 ,ed4 ii4 vol4 ,i4 p4 #bie1 such eggs are said to be laid early in each season by the black ,labrador duck4 ,in the next sentence in the text the author does not distinguish the characters of the vegetable capsule from those of the ovum4 ,if then the two following propositions are admitted 7and ,i think the first can hardly be doubted71 viz4 that variation of structure takes place at all times of life1 though no doubt far less in amount and seldomer in quite mature life#dgf 7and then generally taking the form of disease72 and secondly1 that these variations tend to reappear at a corresponding period of life1 which seems at least probable1 then we might a priori have expected that in any selected breed the young animal would not partake in a corresponding degree the peculiarities characterising the full-grown parent2 though it would in a lesser degree4 ,for during the thousand or ten thousand selections of slight increments in the length of the limbs of individuals necessary to produce a long-limbed breed1 we might expect that such increments would take place in different individuals 7as we do not certainly know at what period they do take place71 some earlier and some later in the embryonic state1 and some during early youth2 and these increments would reappear in their offspring only at corresponding periods4 ,hence1 the entire length of limb in the new long-limbed breed would only be acquired at the latest period of life1 when that one which was latest of the thousand primary increments of length supervened4 ,consequently1 the foetus of the new breed during the earlier part of its existence would remain much less changed in the proportions of its limbs2 and the earlier the period the less would the change be4 #dgf ,this seems to me to be more strongly stated here than in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 ,whatever may be thought of the facts on which this reasoning is grounded1 it shows how the embryos and young of different species might come to remain less changed than their mature parents2 and practically we find that the young of our domestic animals1 though differing1 differ less than their full-grown parents4 ,thus if we look at the young puppies#dgg of the greyhound and bulldog--7the two most obviously modified of the breeds of dog7--we find their puppies at the age of six days with legs and noses 7the latter measured from the eyes to the tip7 of the same length2 though in the proportional thicknesses and general appearance of these parts there is a great difference4 ,so it is with cattle1 though the young calves of different breeds are easily recognisable1 yet they do not differ so much in their proportions as the full-grown animals4 ,we see this clearly in the fact that it shows the highest skill to select the best forms early in life1 either in horses1 cattle or poultry2 no one would attempt it only a few hours after birth2 and it requires great discrimination to judge with accuracy even during their full youth1 and the best judges are sometimes deceived4 ,this shows that the ultimate proportions of the body are not acquired till near mature age4 ,if ,i had collected sufficient facts to firmly establish the proposition that in artificially selected breeds the embryonic and young animals are not changed in a corresponding degree with their mature parents1 ,i might have omitted all the foregoing reasoning and the attempts to explain how this happens2 for we might safely have transferred the proposition to the breeds or species naturally selected2 and the ultimate effect would necessarily have been that in a number of races or species descended from a common stock and forming several genera and families the embryos would have resembled each other more closely than full-grown animals4 ,whatever may have been the form or habits of the parent-stock of the ,vertebrata1 in whatever course the arteries ran and branched1 the selection of variations1 supervening after the first formation of the arteries in the embryo1 would not tend from variations supervening at corresponding periods to alter their course at that period3 hence1 the similar course of the arteries in the mammal1 bird1 reptile and fish1 must be looked at as a most ancient record of the embryonic structure of the common parent-stock of these four great classes4 #dgg ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #ddd1 vi4 p4 #faa4 ,a long course of selection might cause a form to become more simple1 as well as more complicated2 thus the adaptation of a crustaceous#dgh animal to live attached during its whole life to the body of a fish1 might permit with advantage great simplification of structure1 and on this view the singular fact of an embryo being more complex than its parent is at once explained4 #dgh ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #dda1 vi4 p4 #fjg4 ,on the graduated complexity in each great class4 ,i may take this opportunity of remarking that naturalists have observed that in most of the great classes a series exists from very complicated to very simple beings2 thus in ,fish1 what a range there is between the sand-eel and shark1--in the ,articulata1 between the common crab and the ,daphnia#dgi1--;between the ,aphis and butterfly1 and between a mite and a spider#dhj4 ,now the observation just made1 namely1 that selection might tend to simplify1 as well as to complicate1 explains this2 for we can see that during the endless geologico-geographical changes1 and consequent isolation of species1 a station occupied in other districts by less complicated animals might be left unfilled1 and be occupied by a degraded form of a higher or more complicated class2 and it would by no means follow that1 when the two regions became united1 the degraded organism would give way to the aboriginally lower organism4 ,according to our theory1 there is obviously no power tending constantly to exalt species1 except the mutual struggle between the different individuals and classes2 but from the strong and general hereditary tendency we might expect to find some tendency to progressive complication in the successive production of new organic forms4 #dgi ,compare ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #dai1 vi4 p4 #ege4 #dhj ,note in original4 ,scarcely possible to distinguish between non-development and retrograde development4 ,modification by selection of the forms of immature animals4 ,i have above remarked that the feline#dha form is quite of secondary importance to the embryo and to the kitten4 ,of course1 during any great and prolonged change of structure in the mature animal1 it might1 and often would be1 indispensable that the form of the embryo should be changed2 and this could be effected1 owing to the hereditary tendency at corresponding ages1 by selection1 equally well as in mature age3 thus if the embryo tended to become1 or to remain1 either over its whole body or in certain parts1 too bulky1 the female parent would die or suffer more during parturition2 and as in the case of the calves with large hinder quarters#dhb1 the peculiarity must be either eliminated or the species become extinct4 ,where an embryonic form has to seek its own food1 its structure and adaptation is just as important to the species as that of the full-grown animal2 and as we have seen that a peculiarity appearing in a caterpillar 7or in a child1 as shown by the hereditariness of peculiarities in the milk-teeth7 reappears in its offspring1 so we can at once see that our common principle of the selection of slight accidental variations would modify and adapt a caterpillar to a new or changing condition1 precisely as in the full-grown butterfly4 ,hence probably it is that caterpillars of different species of the ,lepidoptera differ more than those embryos1 at a corresponding early period of life1 do which remain inactive in the womb of their parents4 ,the parent during successive ages continuing to be adapted by selection for some one object1 and the larva for quite another one1 we need not wonder at the difference becoming wonderfully great between them2 even as great as that between the fixed rock-barnacle and its free1 crab-like offspring1 which is furnished with eyes and well-articulated1 locomotive limbs#dhc4 #dha ,see p4 #db1 where the same illustration is used4 #dhb ,var4 under ,dom41 ,ed4 ii4 vol4 ,i4 p4 #deb4 #dhc ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #dda1 vi4 p4 #fjg4 ,importance of embryology in classification4 ,we are now prepared to perceive why the study of embryonic forms is of such acknowledged importance in classification#dhd4 ,for we have seen that a variation1 supervening at any time1 may aid in the modification and adaptation of the full-grown being2 but for the modification of the embryo1 only the variations which supervene at a very early period can be seized on and perpetuated by selection3 hence there will be less power and less tendency 7for the structure of the embryo is mostly unimportant7 to modify the young3 and hence we might expect to find at this period similarities preserved between different groups of species which had been obscured and quite lost in the full-grown animals4 ,i conceive on the view of separate creations it would be impossible to offer any explanation of the affinities of organic beings thus being plainest and of the greatest importance at that period of life when their structure is not adapted to the final part they have to play in the economy of nature4 #dhd ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #ddi1 vi4 p4 #fag4 ,order in time in which the great classes have first appeared4 ,it follows strictly from the above reasoning only that the embryos of 7for instance7 existing vertebrata resemble more closely the embryo of the parent-stock of this great class than do full-grown existing vertebrata resemble their full-grown parent-stock4 ,but it may be argued with much probability that in the earliest and simplest condition of things the parent and embryo must have resembled each other1 and that the passage of any animal through embryonic states in its growth is entirely due to subsequent variations affecting only the more mature periods of life4 ,if so1 the embryos of the existing vertebrata will shadow forth the full-grown structure of some of those forms of this great class which existed at the earlier periods of the earth's history#dhe3 and accordingly1 animals with a fish-like structure ought to have preceded birds and mammals2 and of fish1 that higher organized division with the vertebrae extending into one division of the tail ought to have preceded the equal-tailed1 because the embryos of the latter have an unequal tail2 and of ,crustacea1 entomostraca ought to have preceded the ordinary crabs and barnacles--polypes ought to have preceded jelly-fish1 and infusorial animalcules to have existed before both4 ,this order of precedence in time in some of these cases is believed to hold good2 but ,i think our evidence is so exceedingly incomplete regarding the number and kinds of organisms which have existed during all1 especially the earlier1 periods of the earth's history1 that ,i should put no stress on this accordance1 even if it held truer than it probably does in our present state of knowledge4 #dhe ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #ddi1 vi4 p4 #fah4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,abortive ,,or ,,rudimentary ,,organs ,the abortive organs of naturalists4 ,parts of structure are said to be abortive1 or when in a still lower state of development rudimentary#dhf1 when the same reasoning power1 which convinces us that in some cases similar parts are beautifully adapted to certain ends1 declares that in others they are absolutely useless4 ,thus the rhinoceros1 the whale#dhg1 etc41 have1 when young1 small but properly formed teeth1 which never protrude from the jaws2 certain bones1 and even the entire extremities are represented by mere little cylinders or points of bone1 often soldered to other bones3 many beetles have exceedingly minute but regularly formed wings lying under their wing-cases#dhh1 which latter are united never to be opened3 many plants have1 instead of stamens1 mere filaments or little knobs2 petals are reduced to scales1 and whole flowers to buds1 which 7as in the feather hyacinth7 never expand4 ,similar instances are almost innumerable1 and are justly considered wonderful3 probably not one organic being exists in which some part does not bear the stamp of inutility2 for what can be clearer#dhi1 as far as our reasoning powers can reach1 than that teeth are for eating1 extremities for locomotion1 wings for flight1 stamens and the entire flower for reproduction2 yet for these clear ends the parts in question are manifestly unfit4 ,abortive organs are often said to be mere representatives 7a metaphorical expression7 of similar parts in other organic beings2 but in some cases they are more than representatives1 for they seem to be the actual organ not fully grown or developed2 thus the existence of mammae in the male vertebrata is one of the oftenest adduced cases of abortion2 but we know that these organs in man 7and in the bull7 have performed their proper function and secreted milk3 the cow has normally four mammae and two abortive ones1 but these latter in some instances are largely developed and even 7887 give milk#dij4 ,again in flowers1 the representatives of stamens and pistils can be traced to be really these parts not developed2 ,koelreuter has shown by crossing a diaecious plant 7a ,cucubalus7 having a rudimentary pistil#dia with another species having this organ perfect1 that in the hybrid offspring the rudimentary part is more developed1 though still remaining abortive2 now this shows how intimately related in nature the mere rudiment and the fully developed pistil must be4 #dhf ,in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #dej1 vi4 p4 #fai1 the author does not lay stress on any distinction in meaning between the terms abortive and rudimentary organs4 #dhg ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #dej1 vi4 p4 #fai4 #dhh ,ibid4 #dhi ,this argument occurs in ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #dea1 vi4 p4 #fai4 #dij ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #dea1 vi4 p4 #fai1 on male mammae4 ,in the ,origin he speaks certainly of the abortive mammae of the cow giving milk1--a point which is here queried4 #dia ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #dea1 vi4 p4 #fbj4 ,abortive organs1 which must be considered as useless as far as their ordinary and normal purpose is concerned1 are sometimes adapted to other ends#dib3 thus the marsupial bones1 which properly serve to support the young in the mother's pouch1 are present in the male and serve as the fulcrum for muscles connected only with male functions3 in the male of the marigold flower the pistil is abortive for its proper end of being impregnated1 but serves to sweep the pollen out of the anthers#dic ready to be borne by insects to the perfect pistils in the other florets4 ,it is likely in many cases1 yet unknown to us1 that abortive organs perform some useful function2 but in other cases1 for instance in that of teeth embedded in the solid jaw-bone1 or of mere knobs1 the rudiments of stamens and pistils1 the boldest imagination will hardly venture to ascribe to them any function4 ,abortive parts1 even when wholly useless to the individual species1 are of great signification in the system of nature2 for they are often found to be of very high importance in a natural classification#did2 thus the presence and position of entire abortive flowers1 in the grasses1 cannot be overlooked in attempting to arrange them according to their true affinities4 ,this corroborates a statement in a previous chapter1 viz4 that the physiological importance of a part is no index of its importance in classification4 ,finally1 abortive organs often are only developed1 proportionally with other parts1 in the embryonic or young state of each species#die2 this again1 especially considering the classificatory importance of abortive organs1 is evidently part of the law 7stated in the last chapter7 that the higher affinities of organisms are often best seen in the stages towards maturity1 through which the embryo passes4 ,on the ordinary view of individual creations1 ,i think that scarcely any class of facts in natural history are more wonderful or less capable of receiving explanation4 #dib ,the case of rudimentary organs adapted to new purposes is discussed in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #dea1 vi4 p4 #fbj4 #dic ,this is here stated on the authority of ,sprengel2 see also ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #deb1 vi4 p4 #fba4 #did ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #dee1 vi4 p4 #fbg4 ,in the margin ,r4 ,brown's name is given apparently as the authority for the fact4 #die ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #dee1 vi4 p4 #fbf4 ,the abortive organs of physiologists4 ,physiologists and medical men apply the term abortive in a somewhat different sense from naturalists2 and their application is probably the primary one2 namely1 to parts1 which from accident or disease before birth are not developed or do not grow#dif3 thus1 when a young animal is born with a little stump in the place of a finger or of the whole extremity1 or with a little button instead of a head1 or with a mere bead of bony matter instead of a tooth1 or with a stump instead of a tail1 these parts are said to be aborted4 ,naturalists on the other hand1 as we have seen1 apply this term to parts not stunted during the growth of the embryo1 but which are as regularly produced in successive generations as any other most essential parts of the structure of the individual3 naturalists1 therefore1 use this term in a metaphorical sense4 ,these two classes of facts1 however1 blend into each other#dig2 by parts accidentally aborted1 during the embryonic life of one individual1 becoming hereditary in the succeeding generations3 thus a cat or dog1 born with a stump instead of a tail1 tends to transmit stumps to their offspring2 and so it is with stumps representing the extremities2 and so again with flowers1 with defective and rudimentary parts1 which are annually produced in new flower-buds and even in successive seedlings4 ,the strong hereditary tendency to reproduce every either congenital or slowly acquired structure1 whether useful or injurious to the individual1 has been shown in the first part2 so that we need feel no surprise at these truly abortive parts becoming hereditary4 ,a curious instance of the force of hereditariness is sometimes seen in two little loose hanging horns1 quite useless as far as the function of a horn is concerned1 which are produced in hornless races of our domestic cattle#dih4 ,now ,i believe no real distinction can be drawn between a stump representing a tail or a horn or the extremities2 or a short shrivelled stamen without any pollen2 or a dimple in a petal representing a nectary1 when such rudiments are regularly reproduced in a race or family1 and the true abortive organs of naturalists4 ,and if we had reason to believe 7which ,i think we have not7 that all abortive organs had been at some period suddenly produced during the embryonic life of an individual1 and afterwards become inherited1 we should at once have a simple explanation of the origin of abortive and rudimentary organs#dii4 ,in the same manner as during changes of pronunciation certain letters in a word may become useless#ejj in pronouncing it1 but yet may aid us in searching for its derivation1 so we can see that rudimentary organs1 no longer useful to the individual1 may be of high importance in ascertaining its descent1 that is1 its true classification in the natural system4 #dif ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #ded1 vi4 p4 #fbe4 #dig ,in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #ded1 vi4 p4 #fbe1 the author in referring to semi-monstrous variations adds ,but ,i doubt whether any of these cases throw light on the origin of rudimentary organs in a state of nature4 ,in #ahdd he was clearly more inclined to an opposite opinion4 #dih ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #ded1 vi4 p4 #fbe4 #dii ,see ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #ded1 vi4 p4 #fbe4 ,the author there discusses monstrosities in relation to rudimentary organs1 and comes to the conclusion that disuse is of more importance1 giving as a reason his doubt whether species under nature ever undergo abrupt changes4 ,it seems to me that in the ,origin he gives more weight to the ,lamarckian factor than he did in #ahdd4 ,huxley took the opposite view1 see the ,introduction4 #ejj ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #dee1 vi4 p4 #fbg4 ,abortion from gradual disuse4 ,there seems to be some probability that continued disuse of any part or organ1 and the selection of individuals with such parts slightly less developed1 would in the course of ages produce in organic beings under domesticity races with such parts abortive4 ,we have every reason to believe that every part and organ in an individual becomes fully developed only with exercise of its functions2 that it becomes developed in a somewhat lesser degree with less exercise2 and if forcibly precluded from all action1 such part will often become atrophied4 ,every peculiarity1 let it be remembered1 tends1 especially where both parents have it1 to be inherited4 ,the less power of flight in the common duck compared with the wild1 must be partly attributed to disuse#eja during successive generations1 and as the wing is properly adapted to flight1 we must consider our domestic duck in the first stage towards the state of the ,apteryx1 in which the wings are so curiously abortive4 ,some naturalists have attributed 7and possibly with truth7 the falling ears so characteristic of most domestic dogs1 some rabbits1 oxen1 cats1 goats1 horses1 c41 c41 as the effects of the lesser use of the muscles of these flexible parts during successive generations of inactive life2 and muscles1 which cannot perform their functions1 must be considered verging towards abortion4 ,in flowers1 again1 we see the gradual abortion during successive seedlings 7though this is more properly a conversion7 of stamens into imperfect petals1 and finally into perfect petals4 ,when the eye is blinded in early life the optic nerve sometimes becomes atrophied2 may we not believe that where this organ1 as is the case with the subterranean mole-like ,tuco-tuco ,ctenomys#ejb1 is frequently impaired and lost1 that in the course of generations the whole organ might become abortive1 as it normally is in some burrowing quadrupeds having nearly similar habits with the ,tuco-tuco8 #eja ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #aa1 vi4 p4 #ac1 where drooping-ears of domestic animals are also given4 #ejb ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #acg1 vi4 p4 #agj4 ,in as far then as it is admitted as probable that the effects of disuse 7together with occasional true and sudden abortions during the embryonic period7 would cause a part to be less developed1 and finally to become abortive and useless2 then during the infinitely numerous changes of habits in the many descendants from a common stock1 we might fairly have expected that cases of organs becoming abortive would have been numerous4 ,the preservation of the stump of the tail1 as usually happens when an animal is born tailless1 we can only explain by the strength of the hereditary principle and by the period in embryo when affected#ejc3 but on the theory of disuse gradually obliterating a part1 we can see1 according to the principles explained in the last chapter 7viz4 of hereditariness at corresponding periods of life#ejd1 together with the use and disuse of the part in question not being brought into play in early or embryonic life71 that organs or parts would tend not to be utterly obliterated1 but to be reduced to that state in which they existed in early embryonic life4 ,owen often speaks of a part in a full-grown animal being in an embryonic condition4 ,moreover we can thus see why abortive organs are most developed at an early period of life4 ,again1 by gradual selection1 we can see how an organ rendered abortive in its primary use might be converted to other purposes2 a duck's wing might come to serve for a fin1 as does that of the penguin2 an abortive bone might come to serve1 by the slow increment and change of place in the muscular fibres1 as a fulcrum for a new series of muscles2 the pistil#eje of the marigold might become abortive as a reproductive part1 but be continued in its function of sweeping the pollen out of the anthers2 for if in this latter respect the abortion had not been checked by selection1 the species must have become extinct from the pollen remaining enclosed in the capsules of the anthers4 #ejc ,these words seem to have been inserted as an afterthought4 #ejd ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #ddd1 vi4 p4 #faa4 #eje ,this and similar cases occur in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #deb1 vi4 p4 #fba4 ,finally then ,i must repeat that these wonderful facts of organs formed with traces of exquisite care1 but now either absolutely useless or adapted to ends wholly different from their ordinary end1 being present and forming part of the structure of almost every inhabitant of this world1 both in long-past and present times--being best developed and often only discoverable at a very early embryonic period1 and being full of signification in arranging the long series of organic beings in a natural system--these wonderful facts not only receive a simple explanation on the theory of long-continued selection of many species from a few common parent-stocks1 but necessarily follow from this theory4 ,if this theory be rejected1 these facts remain quite inexplicable2 without indeed we rank as an explanation such loose metaphors as that of ,de ,candolle's#ejf1 in which the kingdom of nature is compared to a well-covered table1 and the abortive organs are considered as put in for the sake of symmetry6 #ejf ,the metaphor of the dishes is given in the ,essay of #ahdb1 p4 #dg1 note #c4,note #agc ,,chapter ,x ,,recapitulation ,,and ,,conclusion ,recapitulation4 ,i will now recapitulate the course of this work1 more fully with respect to the former parts1 and briefly as to the latter4 ,in the first chapter we have seen that most1 if not all1 organic beings1 when taken by man out of their natural condition1 and bred during several generations1 vary2 that is variation is partly due to the direct effect of the new external influences1 and partly to the indirect effect on the reproductive system rendering the organization of the offspring in some degree plastic4 ,of the variations thus produced1 man when uncivilised naturally preserves the life1 and therefore unintentionally breeds from those individuals most useful to him in his different states3 when even semi-civilised1 he intentionally separates and breeds from such individuals4 ,every part of the structure seems occasionally to vary in a very slight degree1 and the extent to which all kinds of peculiarities in mind and body1 when congenital and when slowly acquired either from external influences1 from exercise1 or from disuse are inherited1 is truly wonderful4 ,when several breeds are once formed1 then crossing is the most fertile source of new breeds#ejg4 ,variation must be ruled1 of course1 by the health of the new race1 by the tendency to return to the ancestral forms1 and by unknown laws determining the proportional increase and symmetry of the body4 ,the amount of variation1 which has been effected under domestication1 is quite unknown in the majority of domestic beings4 #ejg ,compare however ,darwin's later view3--,the possibility of making distinct races by crossing has been greatly exaggerated1 ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #bj1 vi4 p4 #bc4 ,the author's change of opinion was no doubt partly due to his experience in breeding pigeons4 ,in the second chapter it was shown that wild organisms undoubtedly vary in some slight degree3 and that the kind of variation1 though much less in degree1 is similar to that of domestic organisms4 ,it is highly probable that every organic being1 if subjected during several generations to new and varying conditions1 would vary4 ,it is certain that organisms1 living in an isolated country which is undergoing geological changes1 must in the course of time be so subjected to new conditions2 moreover an organism1 when by chance transported into a new station1 for instance into an island1 will often be exposed to new conditions1 and be surrounded by a new series of organic beings4 ,if there were no power at work selecting every slight variation1 which opened new sources of subsistence to a being thus situated1 the effects of crossing1 the chance of death and the constant tendency to reversion to the old parent-form1 would prevent the production of new races4 ,if there were any selective agency at work1 it seems impossible to assign any limit#ejh to the complexity and beauty of the adaptive structures1 which might thus be produced3 for certainly the limit of possible variation of organic beings1 either in a wild or domestic state1 is not known4 #ejh ,in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #dfi1 vi4 p4 #fdd1 ,darwin makes a strong statement to this effect4 ,it was then shown1 from the geometrically increasing tendency of each species to multiply 7as evidenced from what we know of mankind and of other animals when favoured by circumstances71 and from the means of subsistence of each species on an average remaining constant1 that during some part of the life of each1 or during every few generations1 there must be a severe struggle for existence2 and that less than a grain#eji in the balance will determine which individuals shall live and which perish4 ,in a country1 therefore1 undergoing changes1 and cut off from the free immigration of species better adapted to the new station and conditions1 it cannot be doubted that there is a most powerful means of selection1 tending to preserve even the slightest variation1 which aided the subsistence or defence of those organic beings1 during any part of their whole existence1 whose organization had been rendered plastic4 ,moreover1 in animals in which the sexes are distinct1 there is a sexual struggle1 by which the most vigorous1 and consequently the best adapted1 will oftener procreate their kind4 #eji ,a grain in the balance will determine which individual shall live and which shall die1 ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #dfg1 vi4 p4 #fdb4 ,a similar statement occurs in the #ahdb ,essay1 p4 #h1 note #c4,note #ei ,a new race thus formed by natural selection would be undistinguishable from a species4 ,for comparing1 on the one hand1 the several species of a genus1 and on the other hand several domestic races from a common stock1 we cannot discriminate them by the amount of external difference1 but only1 first1 by domestic races not remaining so constant or being so true as species are2 and secondly by races always producing fertile offspring when crossed4 ,and it was then shown that a race naturally selected--from the variation being slower--from the selection steadily leading towards the same ends#eaj1 and from every new slight change in structure being adapted 7as is implied by its selection7 to the new conditions and being fully exercised1 and lastly from the freedom from occasional crosses with other species1 would almost necessarily be truer than a race selected by ignorant or capricious and short-lived man4 ,with respect to the sterility of species when crossed1 it was shown not to be a universal character1 and when present to vary in degree3 sterility also was shown probably to depend less on external than on constitutional differences4 ,and it was shown that when individual animals and plants are placed under new conditions1 they become1 without losing their healths1 as sterile1 in the same manner and to the same degree1 as hybrids2 and it is therefore conceivable that the cross-bred offspring between two species1 having different constitutions1 might have its constitution affected in the same peculiar manner as when an individual animal or plant is placed under new conditions4 ,man in selecting domestic races has little wish and still less power to adapt the whole frame to new conditions2 in nature1 however1 where each species survives by a struggle against other species and external nature1 the result must be very different4 #eaj ,thus according to the author what is now known as orthogenesis is due to selection4 ,races descending from the same stock were then compared with species of the same genus1 and they were found to present some striking analogies4 ,the offspring also of races when crossed1 that is mongrels1 were compared with the cross-bred offspring of species1 that is hybrids1 and they were found to resemble each other in all their characters1 with the one exception of sterility1 and even this1 when present1 often becomes after some generations variable in degree4 ,the chapter was summed up1 and it was shown that no ascertained limit to the amount of variation is known2 or could be predicted with due time and changes of condition granted4 ,it was then admitted that although the production of new races1 undistinguishable from true species1 is probable1 we must look to the relations in the past and present geographical distribution of the infinitely numerous beings1 by which we are surrounded--to their affinities and to their structure--for any direct evidence4 ,in the third chapter the inheritable variations in the mental phenomena of domestic and of wild organic beings were considered4 ,it was shown that we are not concerned in this work with the first origin of the leading mental qualities2 but that tastes1 passions1 dispositions1 consensual movements1 and habits all became1 either congenitally or during mature life1 modified and were inherited4 ,several of these modified habits were found to correspond in every essential character with true instincts1 and they were found to follow the same laws4 ,instincts and dispositions c4 are fully as important to the preservation and increase of a species as its corporeal structure2 and therefore the natural means of selection would act on and modify them equally with corporeal structures4 ,this being granted1 as well as the proposition that mental phenomena are variable1 and that the modifications are inheritable1 the possibility of the several most complicated instincts being slowly acquired was considered1 and it was shown from the very imperfect series in the instincts of the animals now existing1 that we are not justified in prima facie rejecting a theory of the common descent of allied organisms from the difficulty of imagining the transitional stages in the various now most complicated and wonderful instincts4 ,we were thus led on to consider the same question with respect both to highly complicated organs1 and to the aggregate of several such organs1 that is individual organic beings2 and it was shown1 by the same method of taking the existing most imperfect series1 that we ought not at once to reject the theory1 because we cannot trace the transitional stages in such organs1 or conjecture the transitional habits of such individual species4 ,in the ,second ,part#eaa the direct evidence of allied forms having descended from the same stock was discussed4 ,it was shown that this theory requires a long series of intermediate forms between the species and groups in the same classes--forms not directly intermediate between existing species1 but intermediate with a common parent4 ,it was admitted that if even all the preserved fossils and existing species were collected1 such a series would be far from being formed2 but it was shown that we have not good evidence that the oldest known deposits are contemporaneous with the first appearance of living beings2 or that the several subsequent formations are nearly consecutive2 or that any one formation preserves a nearly perfect fauna of even the hard marine organisms1 which lived in that quarter of the world4 ,consequently1 we have no reason to suppose that more than a small fraction of the organisms which have lived at any one period have ever been preserved2 and hence that we ought not to expect to discover the fossilised sub-varieties between any two species4 ,on the other hand1 the evidence1 though extremely imperfect1 drawn from fossil remains1 as far as it does go1 is in favour of such a series of organisms having existed as that required4 ,this want of evidence of the past existence of almost infinitely numerous intermediate forms1 is1 ,i conceive1 much the weightiest difficulty#eab on the theory of common descent2 but ,i must think that this is due to ignorance necessarily resulting from the imperfection of all geological records4 #eaa ,part ,,ii begins with ,ch4 ,,iv4 ,see the ,introduction1 where the absence of division into two parts 7in the ,origin7 is discussed4 #eab ,in the recapitulation in the last chapter of the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #dge1 vi4 p4 #fea1 the author does not insist on this point as the weightiest difficulty1 though he does so in ,ed4 i4 p4 #bii4 ,it is possible that he had come to think less of the difficulty in question3 this was certainly the case when he wrote the #fth edition1 see p4 #dch4 ,in the fifth chapter it was shown that new species gradually#eac appear1 and that the old ones gradually disappear1 from the earth2 and this strictly accords with our theory4 ,the extinction of species seems to be preceded by their rarity2 and if this be so1 no one ought to feel more surprise at a species being exterminated than at its being rare4 ,every species which is not increasing in number must have its geometrical tendency to increase checked by some agency seldom accurately perceived by us4 ,each slight increase in the power of this unseen checking agency would cause a corresponding decrease in the average numbers of that species1 and the species would become rarer3 we feel not the least surprise at one species of a genus being rare and another abundant2 why then should we be surprised at its extinction1 when we have good reason to believe that this very rarity is its regular precursor and cause4 #eac ,the following words3 ,the fauna changes singly were inserted by the author1 apparently to replace a doubtful erasure4 ,in the sixth chapter the leading facts in the geographical distribution of organic beings were considered--namely1 the dissimilarity in areas widely and effectually separated1 of the organic beings being exposed to very similar conditions 7as for instance1 within the tropical forests of ,africa and ,america1 or on the volcanic islands adjoining them74 ,also the striking similarity and general relations of the inhabitants of the same great continents1 conjoined with a lesser degree of dissimilarity in the inhabitants living on opposite sides of the barriers intersecting it--whether or not these opposite sides are exposed to similar conditions4 ,also the dissimilarity1 though in a still lesser degree1 in the inhabitants of different islands in the same archipelago1 together with their similarity taken as a whole with the inhabitants of the nearest continent1 whatever its character may be4 ,again1 the peculiar relations of ,alpine floras2 the absence of mammifers on the smaller isolated islands2 and the comparative fewness of the plants and other organisms on islands with diversified stations2 the connection between the possibility of occasional transportal from one country to another1 with an affinity1 though not identity1 of the organic beings inhabiting them4 ,and lastly1 the clear and striking relations between the living and the extinct in the same great divisions of the world2 which relation1 if we look very far backward1 seems to die away4 ,these facts1 if we bear in mind the geological changes in progress1 all simply follow from the proposition of allied organic beings having lineally descended from common parent-stocks4 ,on the theory of independent creations they must remain1 though evidently connected together1 inexplicable and disconnected4 ,in the seventh chapter1 the relationship or grouping of extinct and recent species2 the appearance and disappearance of groups2 the ill-defined objects of the natural classification1 not depending on the similarity of organs physiologically important1 not being influenced by adaptive or analogical characters1 though these often govern the whole economy of the individual1 but depending on any character which varies least1 and especially on the forms through which the embryo passes1 and1 as was afterwards shown1 on the presence of rudimentary and useless organs4 ,the alliance between the nearest species in distinct groups being general and not especial2 the close similarity in the rules and objects in classifying domestic races and true species4 ,all these facts were shown to follow on the natural system being a genealogical system4 ,in the eighth chapter1 the unity of structure throughout large groups1 in species adapted to the most different lives1 and the wonderful metamorphosis 7used metaphorically by naturalists7 of one part or organ into another1 were shown to follow simply on new species being produced by the selection and inheritance of successive small changes of structure4 ,the unity of type is wonderfully manifested by the similarity of structure1 during the embryonic period1 in the species of entire classes4 ,to explain this it was shown that the different races of our domestic animals differ less1 during their young state1 than when full grown2 and consequently1 if species are produced like races1 the same fact1 on a greater scale1 might have been expected to hold good with them4 ,this remarkable law of nature was attempted to be explained through establishing1 by sundry facts1 that slight variations originally appear during all periods of life1 and that when inherited they tend to appear at the corresponding period of life2 according to these principles1 in several species descended from the same parent-stock1 their embryos would almost necessarily much more closely resemble each other than they would in their adult state4 ,the importance of these embryonic resemblances1 in making out a natural or genealogical classification1 thus becomes at once obvious4 ,the occasional greater simplicity of structure in the mature animal than in the embryo2 the gradation in complexity of the species in the great classes2 the adaptation of the larvae of animals to independent powers of existence2 the immense difference in certain animals in their larval and mature states1 were all shown on the above principles to present no difficulty4 ,in the ninth chapter1 the frequent and almost general presence of organs and parts1 called by naturalists abortive or rudimentary1 which1 though formed with exquisite care1 are generally absolutely useless was considered4 ,these structures1 though sometimes applied to uses not normal1--which cannot be considered as mere representative parts1 for they are sometimes capable of performing their proper function1--which are always best developed1 and sometimes only developed1 during a very early period of life1--and which are of admitted high importance in classification1--were shown to be simply explicable on our theory of common descent4 ,why do we wish to reject the theory of common descent8 ,thus have many general facts1 or laws1 been included under one explanation2 and the difficulties encountered are those which would naturally result from our acknowledged ignorance4 ,and why should we not admit this theory of descent#ead8 ,can it be shown that organic beings in a natural state are all absolutely invariable8 ,can it be said that the limit of variation or the number of varieties capable of being formed under domestication are known8 ,can any distinct line be drawn between a race and a species8 ,to these three questions we may certainly answer in the negative4 ,as long as species were thought to be divided and defined by an impassable barrier of sterility1 whilst we were ignorant of geology1 and imagined that the world was of short duration1 and the number of its past inhabitants few1 we were justified in assuming individual creations1 or in saying with ,whewell that the beginnings of all things are hidden from man4 ,why then do we feel so strong an inclination to reject this theory--especially when the actual case of any two species1 or even of any two races1 is adduced--and one is asked1 have these two originally descended from the same parent womb8 ,i believe it is because we are always slow in admitting any great change of which we do not see the intermediate steps4 ,the mind cannot grasp the full meaning of the term of a million or hundred million years1 and cannot consequently add up and perceive the full effects of small successive variations accumulated during almost infinitely many generations4 ,the difficulty is the same with that which1 with most geologists1 it has taken long years to remove1 as when ,lyell propounded that great valleys#eae were hollowed out and long lines of inland cliffs had been formed by the slow action of the waves of the sea4 ,a man may long view a grand precipice without actually believing1 though he may not deny it1 that thousands of feet in thickness of solid rock once extended over many square miles where the open sea now rolls2 without fully believing that the same sea which he sees beating the rock at his feet has been the sole removing power4 #ead ,this question forms the subject of what is practically a section of the final chapter of the ,origin 7,ed4 i4 p4 #dhj1 vi4 p4 #feg74 #eae ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #dha1 vi4 p4 #fei4 ,shall we then allow that the three distinct species of rhinoceros#eaf which separately inhabit ,java and ,sumatra and the neighbouring mainland of ,malacca were created1 male and female1 out of the inorganic materials of these countries8 ,without any adequate cause1 as far as our reason serves1 shall we say that they were merely1 from living near each other1 created very like each other1 so as to form a section of the genus dissimilar from the ,african section1 some of the species of which section inhabit very similar and some very dissimilar stations8 ,shall we say that without any apparent cause they were created on the same generic type with the ancient woolly rhinoceros of ,siberia and of the other species which formerly inhabited the same main division of the world3 that they were created1 less and less closely related1 but still with interbranching affinities1 with all the other living and extinct mammalia8 ,that without any apparent adequate cause their short necks should contain the same number of vertebrae with the giraffe2 that their thick legs should be built on the same plan with those of the antelope1 of the mouse1 of the hand of the monkey1 of the wing of the bat1 and of the fin of the porpoise4 ,that in each of these species the second bone of their leg should show clear traces of two bones having been soldered and united into one2 that the complicated bones of their head should become intelligible on the supposition of their having been formed of three expanded vertebrae2 that in the jaws of each when dissected young there should exist small teeth which never come to the surface4 ,that in possessing these useless abortive teeth1 and in other characters1 these three rhinoceroses in their embryonic state should much more closely resemble other mammalia than they do when mature4 ,and lastly1 that in a still earlier period of life1 their arteries should run and branch as in a fish1 to carry the blood to gills which do not exist4 ,now these three species of rhinoceros closely resemble each other2 more closely than many generally acknowledged races of our domestic animals2 these three species if domesticated would almost certainly vary1 and races adapted to different ends might be selected out of such variations4 ,in this state they would probably breed together1 and their offspring would possibly be quite1 and probably in some degree1 fertile2 and in either case1 by continued crossing1 one of these specific forms might be absorbed and lost in another4 ,i repeat1 shall we then say that a pair1 or a gravid female1 of each of these three species of rhinoceros1 were separately created with deceptive appearances of true relationship1 with the stamp of inutility on some parts1 and of conversion in other parts1 out of the inorganic elements of ,java1 ,sumatra and ,malacca8 or have they descended1 like our domestic races1 from the same parent-stock8 ,for my own part ,i could no more admit the former proposition than ,i could admit that the planets move in their courses1 and that a stone falls to the ground1 not through the intervention of the secondary and appointed law of gravity1 but from the direct volition of the ,creator4 #eaf ,the discussion on the three species of ,rhinoceros which also occurs in the ,essay of #ahdb1 p4 #dh1 was omitted in ,ch4 ,,xiv of the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 ,before concluding it will be well to show1 although this has incidentally appeared1 how far the theory of common descent can legitimately be extended#eag4 ,if we once admit that two true species of the same genus can have descended from the same parent1 it will not be possible to deny that two species of two genera may also have descended from a common stock4 ,for in some families the genera approach almost as closely as species of the same genus2 and in some orders1 for instance in the monocotyledonous plants1 the families run closely into each other4 ,we do not hesitate to assign a common origin to dogs or cabbages1 because they are divided into groups analogous to the groups in nature4 ,many naturalists indeed admit that all groups are artificial2 and that they depend entirely on the extinction of intermediate species4 ,some naturalists1 however1 affirm that though driven from considering sterility as the characteristic of species1 that an entire incapacity to propagate together is the best evidence of the existence of natural genera4 ,even if we put on one side the undoubted fact that some species of the same genus will not breed together1 we cannot possibly admit the above rule1 seeing that the grouse and pheasant 7considered by some good ornithologists as forming two families71 the bull-finch and canary-bird have bred together4 #eag ,this corresponds to a paragraph in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #dhc1 vi4 p4 #ffb1 where it is assumed that animals have descended from at most only four or five progenitors1 and plants from an equal or lesser number4 ,in the ,origin1 however1 the author goes on1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #dhd1 vi4 p4 #ffc3 ,analogy would lead me one step further1 namely1 to the belief that all animals and plants have descended from some one prototype4 ,no doubt the more remote two species are from each other1 the weaker the arguments become in favour of their common descent4 ,in species of two distinct families the analogy1 from the variation of domestic organisms and from the manner of their intermarrying1 fails2 and the arguments from their geographical distribution quite or almost quite fails4 ,but if we once admit the general principles of this work1 as far as a clear unity of type can be made out in groups of species1 adapted to play diversified parts in the economy of nature1 whether shown in the structure of the embryonic or mature being1 and especially if shown by a community of abortive parts1 we are legitimately led to admit their community of descent4 ,naturalists dispute how widely this unity of type extends3 most1 however1 admit that the vertebrata are built on one type2 the articulata on another2 the mollusca on a third2 and the radiata on probably more than one4 ,plants also appear to fall under three or four great types4 ,on this theory1 therefore1 all the organisms yet discovered are descendants of probably less than ten parent-forms4 ,conclusion4 ,my reasons have now been assigned for believing that specific forms are not immutable creations#eah4 ,the terms used by naturalists of affinity1 unity of type1 adaptive characters1 the metamorphosis and abortion of organs1 cease to be metaphorical expressions and become intelligible facts4 ,we no longer look at an organic being as a savage does at a ship#eai or other great work of art1 as at a thing wholly beyond his comprehension1 but as a production that has a history which we may search into4 ,how interesting do all instincts become when we speculate on their origin as hereditary habits1 or as slight congenital modifications of former instincts perpetuated by the individuals so characterised having been preserved4 ,when we look at every complex instinct and mechanism as the summing up of a long history of contrivances1 each most useful to its possessor1 nearly in the same way as when we look at a great mechanical invention as the summing up of the labour1 the experience1 the reason1 and even the blunders of numerous workmen4 ,how interesting does the geographical distribution of all organic beings1 past and present1 become as throwing light on the ancient geography of the world4 ,geology loses glory#ebj from the imperfection of its archives1 but it gains in the immensity of its subject4 ,there is much grandeur in looking at every existing organic being either as the lineal successor of some form now buried under thousands of feet of solid rock1 or as being the co-descendant of that buried form of some more ancient and utterly lost inhabitant of this world4 ,it accords with what we know of the laws impressed by the ,creator#eba on matter that the production and extinction of forms should1 like the birth and death of individuals1 be the result of secondary means4 ,it is derogatory that the ,creator of countless ,universes should have made by individual acts of ,his will the myriads of creeping parasites and worms1 which since the earliest dawn of life have swarmed over the land and in the depths of the ocean4 ,we cease to be astonished#ebb that a group of animals should have been formed to lay their eggs in the bowels and flesh of other sensitive beings2 that some animals should live by and even delight in cruelty2 that animals should be led away by false instincts2 that annually there should be an incalculable waste of the pollen1 eggs and immature beings2 for we see in all this the inevitable consequences of one great law1 of the multiplication of organic beings not created immutable4 ,from death1 famine1 and the struggle for existence1 we see that the most exalted end which we are capable of conceiving1 namely1 the creation of the higher animals#ebc1 has directly proceeded4 ,doubtless1 our first impression is to disbelieve that any secondary law could produce infinitely numerous organic beings1 each characterised by the most exquisite workmanship and widely extended adaptations3 it at first accords better with our faculties to suppose that each required the fiat of a ,creator4 ,there#ebd is a simple grandeur in this view of life with its several powers of growth1 reproduction and of sensation1 having been originally breathed into matter under a few forms1 perhaps into only one#ebe1 and that whilst this planet has gone cycling onwards according to the fixed laws of gravity and whilst land and water have gone on replacing each other--that from so simple an origin1 through the selection of infinitesimal varieties1 endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been evolved4 #eah ,this sentence corresponds1 not to the final section of the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #dhd1 vi4 p4 #ffd1 but rather to the opening words of the section already referred to 7,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #dhj1 vi4 p4 #feg74 #eai ,this simile occurs in the ,essay of #ahdb1 p4 #ej1 and in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #dhe1 vi4 p4 #ffe1 i4e4 in the final section of ,ch4 ,,xiv 7vi4 ,ch4 ,,xv74 ,in the ,,ms4 there is some erasure in pencil of which ,i have taken no notice4 #ebj ,an almost identical sentence occurs in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #dhg1 vi4 p4 #ffg4 ,the fine prophecy 7in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #dhf1 vi4 p4 #fff7 on the almost untrodden field of inquiry is wanting in the present ,essay4 #eba ,see the last paragraph on p4 #dhh of the ,origin1 ,ed4 i41 vi4 p4 #ffh4 #ebb ,a passage corresponding to this occurs in the sketch of #ahdb1 p4 #ea1 but not in the last chapter of the ,origin4 #ebc ,this sentence occurs in an almost identical form in the ,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #dij1 vi4 p4 #ffi4 ,it will be noted that man is not named though clearly referred to4 ,elsewhere 7,origin1 ,ed4 i4 p4 #dhh7 the author is bolder and writes ,light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history4 ,in ,ed4 vi4 p4 #ffh1 he writes ,much light c4 #ebd ,for the history of this sentence 7with which the ,origin of ,species closes7 see the ,essay of #ahdb1 p4 #eb1 note #b,note #ahd3 also the concluding pages of the ,introduction4 #ebe ,these four words are added in pencil between the lines4 ,,index ,for the names of ,authors1 ,birds1 ,mammals 7including names of classes7 and ,plants1 see sub-indexes under ,authors1 ,birds1 ,mammals and ,plants4 ,acquired characters1 see ,characters ,affinities and classification1 #ce ,america1 fossils1 #agg ,analogy1 resemblance by1 #cf1 #hb1 #aii1 #bje1 #baa ,animals1 marine1 preservation of as fossils1 #be1 #aci1 #ada2 --marine distribution1 #aee1 #aif ,australia1 fossils1 #agg ,,authors1 ,,names ,,of3--,ackerman on hybrids1 #aa2 ,bakewell1 #i1 #ia2 ,bateson1 ,w41 xxix1 #fi n41 #bag2 ,bellinghausen1 #abd2 ,boitard and ,corbie1 #ajf n42 ,brougham1 ,lord1 #ag1 #aag2 ,brown1 ,r41 #bcc2 ,buckland on fossils1 #bd1 #acg1 #ade n42 ,buffon on woodpecker1 #f2 ,bunbury 7,sir ,h471 rules for selection1 #fg2 ,butler1 ,s41 #aaf n42 d',archiac1 #adf n42 ,darwin1 ,c41 origin of his evolutionary views1 xi-xv2 --on ,forbes' theory1 #cj2 --his ,journal of ,researches quoted1 #fg n41 #afh n42 --his ,cross-and ,self-,fertilisation1 #fi n41 #ajc n42 --on crossing ,chinese and common goose1 #gb n42 ,darwin1 ,mrs1 letter to1 xxvi2 ,darwin1 ,f41 on ,knight's ,law1 #gj n42 ,darwin1 ,r4 ,w41 fact supplied by1 #db n41 #bbc2 ,darwin and ,wallace1 joint paper by1 xxiv1 #hg n42 ,de ,candolle1 #g1 #dg1 #hg1 #bjd1 #bch2 ,d',orbigny1 #abd1 #agi n42 ,ehrenberg1 #adf n42 ,ewart on telegony1 #ajh n42 ,falconer1 #afg2 ,forbes1 ,e41 xxvii1 #cj1 #adf n41 #afc n41 #afe n42 ,gadow1 ,dr1 xxix2 ,gaertner1 #ih1 #ajg2 ,goebel on ,knight's ,law1 #gj n42 ,gould on distribution1 #aef2 ,gray1 ,asa1 letter to1 publication of in ,linnean paper explained1 xxiv2 ,henslow1 ,g41 on evolution without selection1 #fc n42 ,henslow1 ,j4 ,s41 xxvii2 ,herbert on hybrids1 #ab1 #ih2 --sterility of crocus1 #ii n42 ,hering1 #aaf n42 ,hogg1 #aae n42 ,holland1 ,dr1 #bbc2 ,hooker1 ,j4 ,d41 xxvii1 xxviii1 #aec n42 --on ,insular ,floras1 #afa1 #afd1 #afg2 ,huber1 ,p41 #aah2 ,hudson on woodpecker1 #aca n42 ,humboldt1 #ga1 #aff2 ,hunter1 ,w41 #aad2 ,hutton1 #bg1 #ach2 ,huxley1 #acd n42 --on ,darwin1 xi1 xii1 xiv2 --on ,darwin's ,essay of #ahdd1 xxviii1 #bce2 ,judd1 xi1 xiii1 xxix1 #bh1 #ada n42 ,knight1 ,a41 #c n41 #fe1 #aad2 --on ,domestication1 #gg2 ,knight-,darwin ,law1 #gj n42 ,koelreuter1 #ab1 #ig1 #ih1 #ajd1 #bcb2 ,lamarck1 #db n41 #dg1 #hb1 #adf1 #bjj2 --reasons for his belief in mutability1 #aig2 ,lindley1 #aja2 ,linnean ,society1 joint paper1 see ,darwin and ,wallace2 ,linnaeus on sterility of ,alpine plants1 #aja2 --on generic characters1 #bja2 ,lonsdale1 #ade n42 ,lyell1 xxvii1 #acd n41 #ach1 #ada and n41 #adf n41 #aei1 #aga1 #agc1 #agh2 --his doctrine carried to an extreme1 #bf2 --his geological metaphor1 #bg n41 #ada2 --his uniformitarianism1 #ec n42 --his views on imperfection of geological record1 #bg2 ,macculloch1 #abd n42 ,macleay1 ,w4 ,s41 #bjb2 ,magendie1 #aag2 ,malthus1 xv1 #g1 #hh1 #ij2 ,marr1 ,dr1 xxix2 ,marshall1 #fe2 --on sheep and cattle1 #gh and n42 --on horns of cattle1 #bjg2 ,mivart1 criticisms1 #abh n42 ,mozart as a child1 his skill on the piano compared to instinct1 #ai n42 ,mueller on consensual movements1 #aac2 --on variation under uniform conditions1 7#b71 #fb2 --on recapitulation theory1 #bai2 ,murchison1 #ade n42 ,newton1 ,alfred1 #acb n42 ,owen1 ,r41 xxvii1 #bai2 ,pallas1 #fh1 #fi2 ,pennant1 #ic n42 ,pliny on selection1 #fg2 ,poeppig1 #aac n42 ,prain1 ,col41 xxix2 ,rengger1 sterility1 #ajj2 ,richardson1 #acb n42 ,rutherford1 ,h4 ,w41 xxix2 ,st ,hilaire on races of dogs1 #ajf2 --on sterility of tame and domestic animals1 #ab1 #ajj2 ,smith1 ,jordan1 #adj2 ,sprengel1 #bcc2 ,stapf1 ,dr1 xxix2 ,strickland1 xxvii2 ,suchetet1 #ig n42 ,thiselton-,dyer1 ,sir ,w41 xxix1 #afg2 ,wallace1 xxiv1 xxix1 #cj1 #agj n42 ,waterhouse1 #abe1 #abf2 ,western1 ,lord1 #i1 #fe1 #ia2 ,whewell1 xxviii1 #bjj2 ,woodward1 ,h4 ,b41 #ade n42 ,wrangel1 #aai n42 ,zacharias1 ,darwin's letter to1 xv ,barriers and distribution1 #cj1 #aed1 #aeg1 #agh ,bees1 #aac1 #aag2 combs of ,hive-bee1 #ai1 #aba1 #abe1 #abf ,beetles1 abortive wings of1 #de ,,birds1 transporting seeds1 #afi2 feeding young with food different to their own1 #ai1 #abf2 migration1 #abc1 #abd2 nests1 #abj1 #aba1 #abb1 #abf2 of ,galapagos1 #ai1 #aei2 rapid increase1 #hh2 song1 #aag ,,birds1 ,,names ,,of3--,apteryx1 #de1 #bcf2 ,duck1 #df1 #fa1 #fe1 #abh1 #bbd n42 ,fowl1 domestic1 #ei1 #hb n41 #ig1 #aac1 #aad1 #bag2 ,goose1 #gb2 --periodic habit1 #abd n42 ,grouse1 hybridised1 #ig1 #ajb2 ,guinea-fowl1 #gi2 ,hawk1 sterility1 #ajj2 --periodic habit1 #abd2 ,opetiorynchus1 #hc2 ,orpheus1 #ca2 ,ostrich1 distribution of1 #aeh2 ,owl1 white barn1 #hb2 ,partridge1 infertility of1 #ajb2 ,peacock1 #gi1 #ig1 #ajb2 ,penguin1 #abh n41 #bcg2 ,petrel1 #abh n42 ,pheasant1 #ig1 #ajb2 ,pigeon1 #ff1 #hb1 #aaj n41 #aac1 #aad1 #aaf1 #aag1 #abi1 #ace2 see ,wood-pigeon2 ,rhea1 #aeh2 ,robins1 increase in numbers1 #hh1 #ij2 ,rock-thrush of ,guiana1 #ic2 ,swan1 species of1 #aje2 ,tailor-bird1 #ah1 #aah2 ,turkey1 ,australian bush-turkey1 #aba n41 #abb2 ,tyrannus1 #ca2 ,water-ouzel1 #ah n41 #abj2 ,woodcock1 loss of migratory instinct1 #abj2 ,woodpecker1 #f1 #af1 #abh n41 #adh2 --in treeless lands1 #af1 #aca2 ,wood-pigeon1 #abb2 ,wren1 gold-crested1 #abj2 --willow1 #aje1 #adh ,breeds1 domestic1 parentage of1 #ga ,brothers1 death of by same peculiar disease in old age1 #db n41 #dd n41 #bbc ,bud variation1 #eh2 see ,sports ,butterfly1 cabbage1 #abg ,catastrophes1 geological1 #ade1 #adg ,caterpillars1 food1 #abf1 #abg ,characters1 acquired1 inheritance of1 #a1 #eg1 #fj1 #bbe2 --congenital1 #fj2 --fixed by breeding1 #fa2 --mental1 variation in1 #ag1 #aab1 #aai2 --running through whole groups1 #ajf2 --useless for classification1 #aii ,cirripedes1 #bja1 #bbi ,classification1 natural system of1 #ce1 #aii1 #bjf1 #bjh2 --by any constant character1 #bja2 --relation of1 to geography1 #bjb2 --a law that members of two distinct groups resemble each other not specifically but generally1 #bjc1 #bab2 --of domestic races1 #bjd2 --rarity and extinction in relation to1 #baj ,compensation1 law of1 #ajf ,conditions1 direct1 action of1 #a1 #eg n41 #fb1 #fe2 --change of1 analogous to crossing1 #ae1 #gg n41 #aje2 --accumulated effects of1 #fj1 #gh2 --affecting reproduction1 #a1 #d1 #gh1 #ii2 --and geographical distribution1 #aeb ,continent originating as archipelago1 bearing of on distribution1 #ahi ,cordillera1 as channel of migration1 #cd n41 #aia ,correlation1 #gf ,creation1 centres of1 #afh1 #aib ,crocodile1 #adf ,cross-and ,self-,fertilisation1 early statement of principles of1 #ae1 #fi n41 #ajc n4 ,crossing1 swamping effect of1 #b1 #fi1 #if2 --of bisexual animals and hermaphrodite plants1 #b2 --analogous to change in conditions1 #c1 #ae1 #fi2 --in relation to breeds1 #fh2 --in plants1 adaptations for1 #gj ,death1 feigned by insects1 #abc ,difficulties1 on theory of evolution1 #ae1 #aba1 #abh1 #acd ,disease1 hereditary1 #dc n41 #eh1 #bbb ,distribution1 geographical1 #bi1 #ca1 #aea1 #agd1 #agg2 --in space and time1 subject to same laws1 #aee2 --occasional means of 7seeds1 eggs1 c471 #afi ,disuse1 inherited effects of1 #df1 #eg ,divergence1 principle of1 xxv1 #cg n41 #ade n41 #bjh n4 ,domestication1 variation under1 #eg1 #fb2 --accumulated effects of1 #ge1 #gh2 --analysis of effects of1 #gf1 #hc ,ears1 drooping1 #bcf ,elevation1 geological1 favouring birth of new species1 #cb1 #cd n41 #ce n41 #ahe-ahi2 --alternating with subsidence1 importance of for evolution1 #cc1 #aij2 --bad for preservation of fossils1 #aid ,embryo1 branchial arches of1 #db1 #bbj2 --absence of special adaptation in1 #db1 #dd n41 #bbj1 #bbh2 --less variable than parent1 hence importance of embryology for classification1 #dd n41 #bbi2 --alike in all vertebrates1 #db1 #bah2 --occasionally more complicated than adult1 #bai1 #bbg ,embryology1 #db1 #bah2 its value in classification1 #de1 #bjj2 law of inheritance at corresponding ages1 #dd n41 #bbd2 young of very distinct breeds closely similar1 #dd n41 #bbe ,ephemera1 selection falls on larva1 #hg n4 ,epizoa1 #bai ,essay of #ahdb1 question as to date of1 xvi2 description of ,,ms41 ,,xx2 compared with the ,origin1 xxii ,essay of #ahdd1 writing of1 xvi2 compared with that of #ahdb and with the ,origin1 xxii ,evolution1 theory of1 why do we tend to reject it1 #bdh ,expression1 inheritance of1 #aad ,extinction1 #bc1 #adg1 #aib2 locally sudden1 #ade2 continuous with rarity1 #adg1 #aih ,extinction and rarity1 #aih ,eye1 #aaa n41 #abh1 #abi1 #acj ,faculty1 in relation to instinct1 #abc ,faunas1 alpine1 #cj1 #agj1 #ahh2 of ,galapagos1 #ca n41 #hb1 #aei2 insular-alpine very peculiar1 #ahh2 insular1 #aei1 #afj ,fauna and flora1 of islands related to nearest land1 #ahg ,fear of man1 inherited1 #ag1 #aac ,fertility1 interracial1 #ajc1 #ajd ,fish1 colours of1 #acj1 #aca2 eggs of carried by water-beetle1 #afi2 flying1 #abh n42 --transported by whirlwind1 #afi ,floras1 alpine1 #afb2 of oceanic islands1 #afb2 alpine1 related to surrounding lowlands1 #afc2 alpine1 identity of on distant mountains1 #afc2 alpine resembling arctic1 #afd2 arctic relation to alpine1 #afd ,flower1 morphology of1 #ci1 #baf2 degenerate under domestication if neglected1 #eh2 changed by selection1 #ff ,fly1 causing extinction1 #adi ,flying1 evolution of1 #af1 #aca ,food1 causing variations1 #a1 #eh1 #gg1 #gh ,formation 7geological7 evidence from ,tertiary system1 #add2 7geological71 groups of species appear suddenly in ,secondary1 #bf1 #add2 ,palaeozoic1 if contemporary with beginning of life1 author's theory false1 #ach ,formations1 most ancient escape denudation in conditions unfavourable to life1 #be1 #aci ,forms1 transitional1 #bd1 #ce n41 #acf1 #adb1 #aid2 on rising land1 #aif2 indirectly intermediate1 #bd1 #ace ,fossils1 ,silurian1 not those which first existed in the world1 #bf1 #ach2 falling into or between existing groups and indirectly intermediate1 #bd1 #acg2 conditions favourable to preservation1 not favourable to existence of much life1 #be1 #aci1 #ada ,fruit1 attractive to animals1 #acj ,galapagos ,islands and ,darwin's views1 xiv2 physical character of in relation to fauna1 #ca n41 #aei ,galapagos ,islands1 fauna1 #ca n41 #hb ,gasteropods1 embryology1 #bah ,genera1 crosses between1 #aa1 #ig2 wide ranging1 has wide ranging species1 #aee2 origin of1 #bji ,geography1 in relation to geology1 #ca n41 #agd1 #agg ,geographical distribution1 see ,distribution ,geology1 as producing changed conditions1 #d2 evidence from1 #bb1 #acc2 destroys geography1 #ca n4 ,glacial period1 effect of on distribution of alpine and arctic plants1 #afe ,habit in relation to instinct1 #ag1 #aac1 #aae1 #aaf ,habits in animals taught by parent1 #ah ,heredity1 see ,inheritance ,homology of limbs1 #ch1 #bad ,homology1 serial1 #ci1 #bae ,hybrid1 fowls and grouse1 #aa2 fowl and peacock1 #ig2 pheasant and grouse1 #ig2 ,azalea and ,rhododendron1 #ig ,hybrids1 gradation in sterility of1 #aa1 #gb1 #ig2 sterility of not reciprocal1 #ig2 variability of1 #gh2 compared and contrasted with mongrel1 #ajg ,individual1 meaning of term1 #eh ,inheritance of acquired characters1 see ,character ,inheritance1 delayed or latent1 #dc1 #dd n41 #bbc2 of character at a time of life corresponding to that at which it first appeared1 #dc1 #dd n41 #bbc2 germinal1 #dd1 #bbb1 #bbc ,insect1 adapted to fertilise flowers1 #hg2 feigning death1 #abc2 metamorphosis1 #abi2 variation in larvae1 #bbc ,instinct1 variation in1 #ag1 #aab2 and faculty1 #ah1 #abc2 guided by reason1 #ah1 #ai1 #aah2 migratory1 #ai2 migratory1 loss of by woodcocks1 #abj2 migratory1 origin of1 #abe2 due to germinal variation rather than habit1 #aaf2 requiring education for perfection1 #aag2 characterised by ignorance of end3 e4g4 butterflies laying eggs1 #ag1 #aah2 butterflies laying eggs on proper plant1 #aah1 #abg2 instinct1 natural selection applicable to1 #ai1 #abj ,instinct1 for finding the way1 #abd2 periodic1 i4e4 for lapse of time1 #abd2 comb-making of bee1 #abe2 birds feeding young1 #ai1 #abf2 nest-building1 gradation in1 #ah1 #abj1 #aba1 #abb2 instincts1 complex1 difficulty in believing in their evolution1 #bj1 #aba ,intermediate forms1 see ,forms ,island1 see ,elevation1 ,fauna1 ,flora ,island1 upheaved and gradually colonised1 #ahd ,islands1 nurseries of new species1 #cc1 #ce n41 #ahe1 #ahi ,isolation1 #cb1 #cd n41 #fd1 #ie1 #ahc1 #ahd ,lepidosiren1 #adj n41 #bab ,limbs1 vertebrate1 of one type1 #ch1 #baf ,,mammals1 arctic1 transported by icebergs1 #agj2 distribution1 #aea1 #aeb1 #aic2 distribution of1 ruled by barriers1 #aed2 introduced by man on islands1 #agb2 not found on oceanic islands1 #agb2 relations in time and space1 similarity of1 #agf2 of ,tertiary period1 relation of to existing forms in same region1 #agd ,,mammals1 ,,names ,,of3-- ,antelope1 #adh2 ,armadillo1 #agd2 ,ass1 #gi1 #ajg1 #agb2 ,bat1 #ch1 #abc1 #abh n41 #aca1 #acb1 #bad2 ,bear1 sterile in captivity1 #ajj2 --whale-like habit1 #abh n42 ,bizcacha1 #afh1 #bjc1 #bab2 ,bull1 mammae of1 #bcb2 ,carnivora1 law of compensation in1 #ajf2 ,cats1 run wild at ,ascension1 #agb2 --tailless1 #fj2 ,cattle1 horns of1 #ge1 #bjg2 --increase in ,s4 ,america1 #ij2 --,indian1 #bje2 --,niata1 #fa1 #gc2 --suffering in parturition from too large calves1 #ge2 ,cheetah1 sterility of1 #ajj and n42 ,chironectes1 #aii2 ,cow1 abortive mammae1 #bcb2 ,ctenomys1 see ,tuco-tuco2 ,dog1 #ajf1 #aad2 --in ,cuba1 #aac and n42 --mongrel breed in oceanic islands1 #gj2 --difference in size a bar to crossing1 #ig2 --domestic1 parentage of1 #ga1 #gb1 #gc2 --drooping ears1 #bcf2 --effects of selection1 #ff2 --inter-fertile1 #ad2 --long-legged breed produced to catch hares1 #i1 #aj1 #ia1 #ib2 --of savages1 #fg2 --races of resembling genera1 #ajf1 #bjd2 --,australian1 change of colour in1 #fa2 --bloodhound1 ,cuban1 #bjd2 --bull-dog1 #aac2 --foxhound1 #aad1 #aaf2 --greyhound and bull-dog1 young of resembling each other1 #dc1 #dd n41 #bbe2 --pointer1 #aad1 #aae1 #aaf1 #aag1 #aah2 --retriever1 #aah n42 --setter1 #aad2 --shepherd-dog and harrier crossed1 instinct of1 #aah1 #aai2 --tailless1 #fj2 --turnspit1 #ff2 ,echidna1 #hb n42 ,edentata1 fossil and living in ,s4 ,america1 #agd2 ,elephant1 sterility of1 #ab1 #ajj2 ,elk1 #abe2 ,ferret1 fertility of1 #ab1 #ajb2 ,fox1 #hb1 #agc1 #aha2 ,galeopithecus1 #aca n42 ,giraffe1 fossil1 #agg2 --tail1 #abh n42 ,goat1 run wild at ,tahiti1 #agb2 ,guanaco1 #age2 ,guinea-pig1 #fi2 ,hare1 ,s4 ,american1 #aeh n42 ,hedgehog1 #hb n42 ,horse1 #fg1 #aac1 #aae1 #adh1 #adi2 --checks to increase1 #adh1 #adi2 --increase in ,s4 ,america1 #ij2 --malconformations and lameness inherited1 #eh2 --parentage1 #ga1 #gb2 --stripes on1 #ajg2 --young of cart-horse and racehorse resembling each other1 #dc2 ,hyena1 fossil1 #agg2 ,jaguar1 catching fish1 #acb2 ,lemur1 flying1 #aca n42 ,macrauchenia1 #acg2 ,marsupials1 fossil in ,europe1 #age n41 #agg2 --pouch bones1 #bcb1 #bcg2 ,mastodon1 #agg2 ,mouse1 #aec1 #aee2 --enormous rate of increase1 #hi1 #ij2 ,mule1 occasionally breeding1 #ig1 #ajb2 ,musk-deer1 fossil1 #agg2 ,mustela vison1 #abh n41 #acb n42 ,mydas1 #agj2 ,mydaus1 #agj2 ,nutria1 see ,otter2 ,otter1 #aca1 #acb1 #agj2 --marsupial1 #aii1 #bje1 #baa2 ,pachydermata1 #acg2 ,phascolomys1 #bjc1 #bab2 ,pig1 #aae1 #bag2 --in oceanic islands1 #gj2 --run wild at ,st ,helena1 #agb2 ,pole-cat1 aquatic1 #abh n41 #acb n42 ,porpoise1 paddle of1 #ch1 #bad2 ,rabbit1 #gd1 #aac1 #bcf2 ,rat1 ,norway1 #aec2 ,reindeer1 #abe2 ,rhinoceros1 #adh2 --abortive teeth of1 #de1 #bca2 --three oriental species of1 #dh1 #bdi2 ,ruminantia1 #acg and n42 ,seal1 #ic n41 #aca2 ,sheep1 #fh1 #gh1 #aag1 #bje2 --,ancon variety1 #ei1 #ff1 #gc2 --inherited habit of returning home to lamb1 #aae2 --transandantes of ,spain1 their migratory instinct1 #aad1 #aag1 #abd n42 ,squirrel1 flying1 #aca2 ,tapir1 #ace1 #acf2 ,tuco-tuco1 blindness of1 #df1 #bcf2 ,whale1 rudimentary teeth1 #de1 #bbi2 ,wolf1 #ga1 #gb1 #hb2 ,yak1 #gb ,metamorphosis1 literal not metaphorical1 #da1 #bag ,metamorphosis1 e4g4 leaves into petals1 #bae ,migrants to new land1 struggle among1 #cc1 #ahe ,migration1 taking the place of variation1 #ahh ,monstrosities1 as starting-points of breeds1 #di1 #ei2 their relation to rudimentary organs1 #df1 #bcd ,morphology1 #ch1 #bae2 terminology of1 no longer metaphorically used1 #da1 #bag ,mutation1 see ,sports ,natural selection1 see ,selection ,nest1 bird's1 see ,instinct ,ocean1 depth of1 and fossils1 #be1 #aie ,organisms1 gradual introduction of new1 #bc1 #add2 extinct related to1 existing in the same manner as representative existing ones to each other1 #cc1 #aib2 introduced1 beating indigenes1 #aec2 dependent on other organisms rather than on physical surroundings1 #ahe2 graduated complexity in the great classes1 #bbg2 immature1 how subject to natural selection1 #db1 #bbj1 #bbh2 all descended from a few parent-forms1 #eb1 #beb ,organs1 perfect1 objection to their evolution1 #ae1 #abh2 distinct in adult life1 indistinguishable in embryo1 #db1 #bah2 rudimentary1 #de1 #bca1 #bcb1 #bcc2 rudimentary1 compared to monstrosities1 #df1 #bcd2 rudimentary1 caused by disuse1 #df1 #bce2 rudimentary1 adapted to new ends1 #dg1 #bcg ,orthogenesis1 #bda n4 ,oscillation of level in relation to continents1 #cc1 #cd n41 #ahi ,pallas1 on parentage of domestic animals1 #ga ,pampas1 imaginary case of farmer on1 #cb1 #ahd ,perfection1 no inherent tendency towards1 #bbg ,plants1 see also ,flora2 fertilisation1 #gj2 migration of1 to arctic and antarctic regions1 #afg2 alpine and arctic1 migration of1 #ca1 #aff2 alpine1 characters common to1 #afb2 alpine1 sterility of1 #ac1 #aja ,,plants1 ,,names ,,of3--,a,egilops1 #eh n42 ,artichoke 7,jerusalem71 #gi2 ,ash1 weeping1 seeds of1 #fa2 ,asparagus1 #gi2 ,azalea1 #ac1 #ei1 #ig2 ,cabbage1 #aji1 #ace1 #bjd2 ,calceolaria1 #aa1 #ii2 ,cardoon1 #aec2 ,carrot1 variation of1 #eh n42 ,chrysanthemum1 #ei2 ,crinum1 #aa1 #ii2 ,crocus1 #if1 #ii n42 ,cucubalus1 crossing1 #bcb2 ,dahlia1 #ba1 #ei1 #fc1 #fi1 #gd1 #aaj2 ,foxglove1 #hb2 ,gentian1 colour of flower1 #ajg n42 ,geranium1 #ajb2 ,gladiolus1 crossed1 ancestry of1 #aa2 ,grass1 abortive flowers1 #bcc2 ,heath1 sterility1 #if2 ,hyacinth1 colours of1 #ajf2 --feather-hyacinth1 #bbi2 ,juniperus1 hybridised1 #ig2 ,laburnum1 peculiar hybrid1 #ajh2 ,lilac1 sterility of1 #ac1 #ajj2 ,marigold1 style of1 #dg1 #bcc1 #bcg2 ,mistletoe1 #f1 #hf1 #hg1 #ij n42 ,nectarines on peach trees1 #ei2 ,oxalis1 colour of flowers of1 #ajg n42 ,phaseolus1 cultivated form suffers from frost1 #aji2 ,pine-apple1 #bjg2 ,poppy1 ,mexican1 #aed2 ,potato1 #fi1 #gd1 #aaj2 ,rhododendron1 #ig1 #ii2 ,rose1 moss1 #ei2 --,scotch1 #fi2 ,seakale1 #gi2 ,sweet-william1 #ei2 ,syringa1 persica and chinensis1 see ,lilac2 ,teazle1 #abi2 ,thuja1 hybridised1 #ig2 ,tulips1 breaking of1 #eh2 ,turnip1 ,swedish and common1 #bje2 ,vine1 peculiar hybrid1 #ajh2 ,yew1 weeping1 seeds of1 #fa ,plasticity1 produced by domestication1 #a1 #fc ,plesiosaurus1 loss of unity of type in1 #da1 #bag ,pteropods1 embryology1 #bah ,quadrupeds1 extinction of large1 #adg ,quinary ,system1 #bjb ,race1 the word used as equivalent to variety1 #id ,races1 domestic1 classification of1 #bjd ,rarity1 #bh1 #adh2 and extinction1 #bh1 #adi1 #baj ,recapitulation theory1 #db1 #bai1 #bcj1 #bci ,record1 geological1 imperfection of1 #bf1 #adj ,regions1 geographical1 of the world1 #bi1 #aeb1 #agd2 formerly less distinct as judged by fossils1 #agg ,resemblance1 analogical1 #cf1 #aii ,reversion1 #c1 #fd1 #fi1 #gd ,roguing1 #fe ,rudimentary organs1 see ,organs ,savages1 domestic animals of1 #fg1 #fh1 #if ,selection1 human1 #c1 #fc2 references to the practice of1 in past times1 #fg2 great effect produced by1 #c1 #ia2 necessary for the formation of breeds1 #fd2 methodical1 effects of1 #c1 #fe2 unconscious1 #c1 #fg ,selection1 natural1 xvi1 #g1 #hg2 natural compared to human1 #he1 #id1 #bbd2 of instincts1 #ai1 #abj2 difficulty of believing1 #ae1 #aba1 #abh ,selection1 sexual1 two types of1 #aj1 #ib ,silk-worms1 variation in larval state1 #dd n41 #bbc ,skull1 morphology of1 #ci1 #bae ,species1 representative1 seen in going from ,n4 to ,s4 in a continent1 #ca n41 #aef2 representative in archipelagoes1 #ahg2 wide-ranging1 #cd n41 #adf2 and varieties1 difficulty of distinguishing1 #d1 #ha1 #aig2 sterility of crosses between1 supposed to be criterion1 #aa1 #acd2 gradual appearance and disappearance of1 #bc1 #add2 survival of a few among many extinct1 #adf ,species1 not created more than once1 #afh1 #aga1 #aia2 evolution of1 compared to birth of individuals1 #aej1 #aih1 #bec2 small number in ,new ,zealand as compared to the ,cape1 #aga1 #aia2 persistence of1 unchanged1 #aib1 #aii ,sports1 #a1 #eh1 #ei1 #fd1 #gd1 #ie1 #abi1 #ahf1 #bjf1 #bbd ,sterility1 due to captivity1 #ab1 #gg n41 #ajj2 of various plants1 #ac1 #aja2 of species when crossed1 #aa1 #bc1 #if1 #ii1 #ajc2 produced by conditions1 compared to sterility due to crossing1 #aja1 #ajb ,struggle for life1 #g1 #ia1 #ib1 #adh1 #bda ,subsidence1 importance of1 in relation to fossils1 #be1 #ce n41 #aie2 of continent leading to isolation of organisms1 #aij2 not favourable to birth of new species1 #aif ,swimming bladder1 #af1 #abi ,system1 natural1 is genealogical1 #cf1 #bjh ,telegony1 #ajh ,tibia and fibula1 #dh1 #acg ,time1 enormous lapse of1 in geological epochs1 #be1 #adj ,tortoise1 #adf ,transitional forms1 see ,forms ,trigonia1 #adg n41 #aii ,tree-frogs in treeless regions1 #aca ,type1 unity of1 #ch1 #bad2 uniformity of1 lost in ,plesiosaurus1 #bag2 persistence of1 in continents1 #aeh1 #agh ,uniformitarian views of ,lyell1 bearing on evolution1 #bdi ,use1 inherited effects of1 see ,characters1 acquired ,variability1 as specific character1 #hc2 produced by change and also by crossing1 #aje ,variation1 by ,sports1 see ,sports2 under domestication1 #a1 #eg1 #fc1 #gh2 due to causes acting on reproductive system1 see ,variation1 germinal2 --germinal1 #b1 #dc1 #fb1 #bbb2 individual1 #eg n42 causes of1 #a1 #d1 #eg1 #fa2 due to crossing1 #fh1 #fi2 limits of1 #gd1 #ge1 #hb1 #aji2 small in state of nature1 #d1 #ei n41 #ha1 #hc2 results of without selection1 #hd2 --minute1 value of1 #ia2 analogous in species of same genus1 #ajg2 of mental attributes1 #ag1 #aab2 in mature life1 #ei1 #bbd1 #bbe ,varieties1 minute1 in birds1 #hb2 resemblance of to species1 #ha n41 #hb1 #aje ,vertebrate skull1 morphology of1 #bae ,wildness1 hereditary1 #aac1 #aai ,,cambridge3 ,,printed ,,by ,,john ,,clay1 ,m4,a4 ,,at ,,the ,,university ,,press ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,transcriber's ,notes ,errata ,inline transcriber's notes are enclosed in curly brackets4 ,footnote anchors and labels are enclosed in curly brackets4 ,the footnotes have been renumbered consecutively4 ,because of this1 the changed footnote numbers are appended in curly brackets to the internal cross-references4 ,superscript letters are denoted by a preceding caret e4g41 do 'oe' ligatures have been rendered as separate letters4 ,the following typographical errors have been corrected4 simplication simplification care case apparant apparent ,the following words were found in both hyphenated and unhyphenated forms4 ,the figures in parentheses are the number of instances of each4 after-thought 7#a7 afterthought 7#b7 blood-hound 7#b7 bloodhound 7#a7 bull-dog 7#g7 bulldog 7#b7 co-descendants 7#a7 codescendants 7#a7 feather-hyacinth 7#b7 feather hyacinth 7#a7 grey-hound 7#b7 greyhound 7#aj7 high-lands 7#c7 highlands 7#b7 long-legged 7#b7 long legged 7#a7 race-horse 7#b7 racehorse 7#d7 shepherd-dog 7#c7 shepherd dog 7#a7 sub-divisions 7#c7 subdivisions 7#d7 table-land 7#b7 tableland 7#a7 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------