,,/eam ,,its ,,g5]ation ,,& ,,use ,illu/ration ,,! ,,babcock ,,wilcox ,,co4 ,,new ,,york ,?irty-fif? ,edition #d? ,issue ,copyright1 #aiai1 by ,! ,babcock ,wilcox ,co4 99 99 99 99 99 ,b>tlett ,orr ,press ,new ,york ,,! ,,babcock ,,wilcox ,,co4 #he ,,lib]ty ,,/reet1 ,,new ,,york1 ,u4 ,s4 ,a4 ,works ,,bayonne ,,new ,,j]sey ,,b>b]ton ,,ohio ,(fic]s ,w4 ,d4 ,,hoxie1 ,presid5t ,e4 ,h4 ,,wells1 ,*airman ( ! ,bo>d ,a4 ,g4 ,,pratt1 ,vice-,presid5t ,bran* ,(fices ,,atlanta ,c&l] ,build+ ,,bo/on #ce ,f$]al ,/reet ,,*icago ,m>quette ,build+ ,,c9c9nati ,traction ,build+ ,,clevel& ,new ,gu>dian ,build+ ,,d5v] #dce ,sev5te5? ,/reet ,,havana1 ,,cuba #ajd ,calle de ,agui> ,,h\/on ,s\!rn ,pacific ,build+ ,,los ,,angeles ,i4 ,n4 ,van ,nuy's ,build+ ,,new ,,orleans ,%ub]t ,arcade ,,philadelphia ,nor? ,am]ican ,build+ ,,pittsburgh ,f>m]s' ,deposit ,bank ,build+ ,,salt ,,lake ,,city ,ke>ns ,build+ ,,san ,,francisco ,%eldon ,build+ ,,seattle ,l4 ,c4 ,smi? ,build+ ,,tucson1 ,,ariz4 ,santa ,rita ,hotel ,build+ ,,san ,,juan1 ,,porto ,,rico ,royal ,bank ,build+ ,export ,dep>tm5t1 ,new ,york3 ,alb]to de ,v]a/egni1 ,director ,,telegraphic ,,address3 ,,= ,,new ,,york1 ,,gloveboxes ,,= ,,havana1 ,,babcock ,illu/ration3 ,works ( ,! ,babcock ,wilcox ,co41 at ,bayonne1 ,new ,j]sey ,illu/ration3 ,works ( ,! ,babcock ,wilcox ,co41 at ,b>b]ton1 ,ohio ,illu/ration3 ,works ( ,babcock ,wilcox1 ,limit$1 ,r5frew1 ,,scotl& ,,babcock ,,wilcox ,limit$ ,,oriel ,,h\se1 ,,f>r+don ,,/reet1 ,,london1 ,e4 ,c4 ,,works3 ,,r5frew1 ,,scotl& ,directors ,,john ,,dewrance1 ,*airman ,,*>les ,a4 ,,knight ,,ar?ur ,t4 ,,simpson ,j4 ,h4 ,r4 ,,kemnal ,,william ,d4 ,,hoxie ,manag+ ,director ,e4 ,h4 ,,wells ,,walt] ,,colls1 ,secret>y ,bran* ,(fices 9 ,great ,brita9 ,,glasg[3 #bi ,/4 ,v9c5t ,place ,,birm+ham3 ,w9*e/] ,h\se ,,c>diff3 #abi ,bute ,/reet ,,belfa/3 ,ocean ,build+s1 ,donegal ,squ>e1 ,e4 ,,man*e/]3 #cj ,cross ,/reet ,,middlesbr\gh3 ,! ,ex*ange ,,newca/le3 #db ,we/gate ,road ,,%effield3 #ad ,bank ,*amb]s1 ,f>gate ,(fices ,abroad ,,bombay3 ,:eel]'s ,build+1 ,hornby ,road1 ,=t ,,brussels3 #ahg ,rue ,royal ,,bilbao3 #a ,plaza de ,albia ,,calcutta3 ,clive ,build+ ,,johannesburg3 ,consolidat$ ,build+s ,,lima3 ,p]u ,,lisbon3 #hd-hf ,rua d ,comm]cio ,,madrid3 ,v5tura de la ,vega ,,melb\rne3 #i ,william ,/reet ,,mexico3 #bb-bc ,tiburcio ,,milan3 #bb ,via ,pr9cipe ,umb]to ,,montreal3 ,college ,/reet1 ,/4 ,h5ry ,,naples3 #ajg ,via ,santa ,lucia ,,%anghai3 #a;a ,j9kee ,road ,,sydney3 #dbg-dbi ,sussex ,/reet ,,tokyo3 ,japan ,,toronto3 ,trad]s' ,bank ,build+ ,repres5tatives & ,lic5sees 9 ,,adelaide1 ,s\? ,au/ralia ,,a!ns1 ,greece ,,auckl&1 ,new ,zeal& ,,bahia1 ,brazil ,,bangkok1 ,siam ,,b>celona1 ,spa9 ,,brunn1 ,au/ria ,,bu*>e/1 ,r\mania ,,budape/1 ,hung>y ,,bu5os ,,ayres1 ,arg5t9e ,rep4 ,,cairo1 ,egypt ,,*ile1 ,valp>aiso1 ,s4 ,am]ica ,,*ri/iania1 ,norway ,,colombo1 ,ceylon ,,cop5hag51 ,d5m>k ,,eskil/una1 ,sw$5 ,,gijon1 ,spa9 ,,hels+=s1 ,f9l& ,,h5gelo1 ,holl& ,,kimb]ley1 ,s\? ,africa ,,mosc[1 ,russia ,,p]?1 ,we/]n ,au/ralia ,,pol&1 ,b]l9 ,,rangoon1 ,burma ,,rio ,,de ,,janeiro1 ,brazil ,,smyrna1 ,asia ,m9or ,,s\rabaya1 ,java ,,/4 ,,pet]sburg1 ,russia ,,tamm]=s1 ,f9l& ,,! ,,hague1 ,holl& ,,telegraphic ,,address ,,= ,,all ,,(fices ,,except ,,bombay ,,& ,,calcutta3 ,,babcock ,,= ,,bombay ,,& ,,calcutta3 ,,boil] ,illu/ration3 ,fond]ies et ,ateli]s de la ,c\rneuve1 ,*audires ,babcock ,wilcox1 ,p>is1 ,france ,,fond]ies ,,et ,,ateli]s ,,de ,,la ,,c\rneuve ,,*audi,,res ,,babcock ,,wilcox #f ,,rue ,,laf]ri,,re1 ,,p>is ,,works3 ,,se9e--,,la ,,c\rneuve ,directors ,,edmond ,,dupuis ,j4 ,h4 ,r4 ,,kemnal ,,eti5ne ,,besson ,,ir,n,e ,,*avanne ,,*>les ,a4 ,,knight ,,jules ,,lemaire ,bran* ,(fices ,,bordeaux3 #cj ,b\lev>d ,anto9e ,gauti] ,,lille3 #bc ,rue ,faidh]be ,,lyon3 #bh ,quai de la ,guilloti] ,,m>seille3 #ba ,c\rs ,devilli]s ,,montpelli]3 #a ,rue ,b\ssairolles ,,nancy3 #b ,rue de ,lorra9e ,,/4 ,,eti5ne3 #ac ,rue de la ,b\rse ,,repres5tative ,,= ,,switz]l&3 ,,spo]ri ,,cie1 ,,zuri* ,,telegraphic ,,address3 ,,babcock-,,p>is ,illu/ration3 ,wr\ght-/eel ,v]tical ,head] ,longitud9al ,drum ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil]1 ,equipp$ ) ,babcock ,wilcox ,sup]heat] & ,babcock ,wilcox ,*a9 ,grate ,/ok] ,,! ,,e>ly ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,! ,,g5]ation ,,& ,,use ,,( ,,/eam ,:ile ! "t ( man's fir/ k & use ( ! expansive =ce ( ! vapor ( wat] is unkn[n1 records %[ t su* k exi/$ e>li] ?an #aej ,b4 ,c4 ,9 a treatise ( ab\t t "t entitl$ ,pneumatica1 ,h]o1 ( ,alex&]1 describ$ n only exi/+ devices ( 8 pr$ecessors & contempor>ies b also an inv5tion ( 8 own :i* utiliz$ ! expansive =ce ( /eam = rais+ wat] above its natural level4 ,he cle>ly describes ?ree me?ods 9 :i* /eam might be us$ directly z a motive ( p[]2 rais+ wat] by its ela/icity1 elevat+ a weight by its expansive p[] & produc+ a rot>y motion by its reaction on ! atmosph]e4 ,! ?ird me?od1 :i* is kn[n z ,h]o's eng9e1 is describ$ z a holl[ sph]e support$ ov] a caldron or boil] by two trunnions1 "o ( :i* 0 holl[1 & connect$ ! int]ior ( ! sph]e ) ! /eam space ( ! caldron4 ,two pipes1 op5 at ! ends & b5t at "r angles1 7 ins]t$ at opposite poles ( ! sph]e1 =m+ a connection betwe5 ! caldron & ! atmosph]e4 ,heat be+ appli$ to ! caldron1 ! /eam g5]at$ pass$ ?r\gh ! holl[ trunnion to ! sph]e & !nce into ! atmosph]e ?r\gh ! two pipes4 ,by ! reaction incid5tal to its escape ?r\gh ^! pipes1 ! sph]e 0 caus$ to rotate & "h is ! primitive /eam reaction turb9e4 ,h]o makes no sugge/ions z to application ( any ( ! devices he describes to a useful purpose4 ,f ! "t ( ,h]o until ! late sixte5? & e>ly sev5te5? c5turies1 !re is no record ( progress1 ?\gh evid5ce is f\nd t su* devices z 7 describ$ by ,h]o 7 sometimes us$ = trivial purposes1 ! bl[+ ( an organ or ! turn+ ( a skillet4 ,ma!sius1 ! ,g]man au?or1 9 #aega2 ,besson1 a philosoph] & ma!matician at ,orleans2 ,ramelli1 9 #aehh2 ,batti/a ,delia ,porta1 a ,neapolitan ma!matician & philosoph]1 9 #afja2 ,decause1 ! ,fr5* eng9e] & ar*itect1 9 #afae2 & ,branca1 an ,italian ar*itect1 9 #afbi1 all publi%$ treatises be>+ on ! subject ( ! g5]ation ( /eam4 ,to ! next contributor1 ,edw>d ,som]set1 second ,m>quis ( ,worce/]1 is app>5tly due ! cr$it ( propos+1 if n ( mak+1 ! fir/ useful /eam eng9e4 ,9 ! ,c5tury ( ,scantl+s & ,inv5tions1 publi%$ 9 ,london 9 #affc1 he describes devices %[+ t he _h 9 m9d ! rais+ ( wat] n only by =c+ x f two receiv]s by direct /eam pressure b also = "s sort ( reciprocat+ pi/on actuat+ "o end ( a lev]1 ! o!r op]at+ a pump4 ,8 descriptions are r obscure & no draw+s are extant s t x is difficult to say :e!r !re 7 any di/9ctly novel features to 8 devices aside f ! d\ble action4 ,:ile !re is no direct au!ntic record t any ( ! devices he describ$ 7 actually con/ruct$1 x is claim$ by _m t he really built & op]at$ a /eam eng9e conta9+ pi/ons4 ,9 #afge1 ,sir ,samuel ,morel& 0 decorat$ by ,k+ ,*>les ,,ii1 = a demon/ration ( a c]ta9 p[]ful ma*9e to raise wat]4 ,?\gh !re appe>s to be no record ( ! design ( ?is ma*9e1 ! ma!matical diction>y1 publi%$ 9 #ahbb1 cr$its ,morel& ) ! fir/ acc\nt ( a /eam eng9e1 on :i* subject he wrote a treatise t is /ill pres]v$ 9 ! ,briti% ,museum4 ,illu/ration3 #cig ,horse-p[] ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil] 9 ,c\rse ( ,erection at ! ,plant ( ! ,crock] ,:eel] ,co41 ,amp]e1 ,n4 ,j4 ,dr4 ,d5ys ,pap91 an +5i\s ,fr5*man1 inv5t$ 9 #afhj a /eam dige/] = extract+ m>r[y1 n\ri%+ juices f bones by enclos+ !m 9 a boil] "u heavy pressure1 & f9d+ dang] f explosion1 add$ a contrivance :i* is ! fir/ safety valve on record4 ,! /eam eng9e fir/ became comm]cially successful ) ,?omas ,sav]y4 ,9 #afii1 ,sav]y exhibit$ be=e ! ,royal ,society ( ,engl& 7,sir ,isaac ,newton 0 ,presid5t at ! "t71 a model eng9e :i* consi/$ ( two copp] receiv]s alt]nately connect$ by a ?ree-way h&-op]at$ valve1 ) a boil] & a s\rce ( wat] supply4 ,:5 ! wat] 9 "o receiv] _h be5 driv5 out by ! /eam1 cold wat] 0 p\r$ ov] its outside surface1 creat+ a vacuum ?r\gh cond5sation & caus+ x to fill aga9 :ile ! wat] 9 ! o!r res]voir 0 be+ =c$ out4 ,a numb] ( ma*9es 7 built on ?is pr9ciple & plac$ 9 actual use z m9e pumps4 ,! s]i\s difficulty enc\nt]$ 9 ! use ( ,sav]y's eng9e 0 ! fact t ! height to :i* x c\ld lift wat] 0 limit$ by ! pressure ! boil] & vessels c\ld be>4 ,be=e ,sav]y's eng9e 0 entirely displac$ by its successor1 ,newcom5's1 x 0 consid]ably improv$ by ,desaguli]s1 :o appli$ ! ,pap9 safety valve to ! boil] & sub/itut$ cond5sation by a jet )9 ! vessel = ,sav]y's surface cond5sation4 ,9 #afij1 ,pap9 sugge/$ t ! cond5sation ( /eam %\ld be employ$ to make a vacuum b5ea? a cyl9d] :i* _h previ\sly be5 rais$ by ! expansion ( /eam4 ,?is 0 ! e>lie/ cyl9d] & pi/on /eam eng9e & 8 plan took practical %ape 9 ,newcom5's atmosph]ic eng9e4 ,pap9's fir/ eng9e 0 unworkable ow+ to ! fact t he us$ ! same vessel = bo? boil] & cyl9d]4 ,a small quantity ( wat] 0 plac$ 9 ! bottom ( ! vessel & heat 0 appli$4 ,:5 /eam =m$ & rais$ ! pi/on1 ! heat 0 )drawn & ! pi/on did "w on its d[n /roke "u pressure ( ! atmosph]e4 ,aft] he>+ ( ,sav]y's eng9e1 ,pap9 develop$ an improv$ =m4 ,pap9's eng9e ( #agje consi/$ ( a displacem5t *amb] 9 :i* a float+ diaphragm or pi/on on top ( ! wat] kept ! /eam & wat] f direct contact4 ,! wat] deliv]$ by ! d[nw>d movem5t ( ! pi/on "u pressure1 to a clos$ tank1 fl[$ 9 a cont9u\s /ream aga9/ ! vanes ( a wat] :eel4 ,:5 ! /eam 9 ! displacem5t *amb] _h exp&$1 x 0 exhau/$ to ! atmosph]e ?r\gh a valve in/ead ( be+ cond5s$4 ,! eng9e 01 9 fact1 a non-cond5s+1 s+le action /eam pump ) ! /eam & pump cyl9d]s 9 "o4 ,a curi\s feature ( ?is eng9e 0 a heat] plac$ 9 ! diaphragm4 ,?is 0 a mass ( heat$ metal = ! purpose ( keep+ ! /eam dry or prev5t+ cond5sation dur+ expansion4 ,?is device might be call$ ! fir/ sup]heat]4 ,among ! v>i\s inv5tions attribut$ to ,pap9 0 a boil] ) an int]nal fire box1 ! e>lie/ record ( su* con/ruction4 ,:ile ,pap9 _h neglect$ 8 e>li] sugge/ion ( a /eam & pi/on eng9e to "w on ,sav]y's ideas1 ,?omas ,newcom51 ) 8 assi/ant1 ,john ,cawley1 put into practical =m ,pap9's sugge/ion ( #afij4 ,/eam admitt$ f ! boil] to a cyl9d] rais$ a pi/on by its expansion1 assi/$ by a c\nt]-weight on ! o!r end ( a beam actuat$ by ! pi/on4 ,! /eam valve 0 !n %ut & ! /eam cond5s$ by a jet ( cold wat]4 ,! pi/on 0 !n =c$ d[nw>d by atmosph]ic pressure & did "w on ! pump4 ,! cond5s$ wat] 9 ! cyl9d] 0 expell$ ?r\gh an escapem5t valve by ! next entry ( /eam4 ,?is eng9e us$ /eam hav+ pressure b little1 if any1 above t ( ! atmosph]e4 ,illu/ration3 ,two ,units ( #habh ,horse ,p[] ( ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil]s & ,sup]heat]s at ! ,fisk ,/reet ,/ation ( ! ,commonweal? ,edison ,co41 ,*icago1 ,ill41 #ej1djj ,horse ,p[] be+ ,in/all$ 9 ?is ,/ation4 ,! ,commonweal? ,edison ,co4 ,op]ates 9 its ,v>i\s ,/ations a ,total ( #hf1jjj ,horse ,p[] ( ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil]s1 all ,fitt$ ) ,babcock ,wilcox ,sup]heat]s & ,equipp$ ) ,babcock ,wilcox ,*a9 ,grate ,/ok]s ,9 #agaa1 ?is eng9e 0 introduc$ into m9es = pump+ purposes4 ,:e!r its action 0 orig9ally automatic or :e!r dep5d5t ^u ! h& op]ation ( ! valves is a "q ( d\bt4 ,! /ory commonly believ$ is t a boy1 ,humphrey ,pott]1 9 #agac1 ^: duty x 0 to op5 & %ut su* valves ( an eng9e he att5d$1 by suitable cords & cat*es atta*$ to ! beam1 caus$ ! eng9e to automatically manipulate ^! valves4 ,?is device 0 simplifi$ 9 #agah by ,h5ry ,beighton1 :o susp5d$ f ! bottom1 a rod call$ ! plug-tree1 :i* actuat$ ! valve by tappets4 ,by #agbe1 ?is eng9e 0 9 common use 9 ! colli]ies & 0 *ang$ b little = a matt] ( sixty or sev5ty ye>s4 ,comp>$ ) ,sav]y's eng9e1 f ! aspect ( a pump+ eng9e1 ,newcom5's 0 a di/9ct advance1 9 t ! pressure 9 ! pumps 0 9 no mann] dep5d5t ^u ! /eam pressure4 ,9 common ) ,sav]y's eng9e1 ! losses f ! alt]nate heat+ & cool+ ( ! /eam cyl9d] 7 enorm\s4 ,?\gh obvi\sly ?is eng9e might h be5 modifi$ to s]ve _m purposes1 its use seems to h be5 limit$ almo/ entirely to ! pump+ ( wat]4 ,! rivalry betwe5 ,sav]y & ,pap9 appe>s to h /imulat$ att5tion to ! "q ( fuel sav+4 ,dr4 ,john ,all51 9 #agcj1 call$ att5tion to ! fact t ow+ to ! %ort l5g? ( "t ( ! contact betwe5 ! gases & ! heat+ surfaces ( ! boil]1 ne>ly half ( ! heat ( ! fire 0 lo/4 ,) a view to ov]com+ ?is loss at lea/ p>tially1 he us$ an int]nal furnace ) a smoke flue w9d+ ?r\gh ! wat] 9 ! =m ( a worm 9 a /ill4 ,9 ord] t ! l5g? ( passage ( ! gases might n act z a damp] on ! fire1 ,dr4 ,all5 recomm5d$ ! use ( a pair ( bell[s = =c+ ! sluggi% vapor ?r\gh ! flue4 ,?is is probably ! fir/ sugge/$ use ( =c$ draft4 ,9 =m+ an e/imate ( ! quantity ( fuel lo/ up ! /ack1 ,dr4 ,all5 probably made ! fir/ boil] te/4 ,t[>d ! end ( ! p]iod ( use ( ,newcom5's atmosph]ic eng9e1 ,john ,smeaton1 :o1 ab\t #aggj1 built & in/all$ a numb] ( l>ge eng9es ( ?is type1 greatly improv$ ! design 9 its me*anical details4 ,illu/ration3 ,erie ,c\nty ,electric ,co41 ,erie1 ,pa41 ,op]at+ #cjhb ,horse ,p[] ( ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil]s & ,sup]heat]s1 ,equipp$ ) ,babcock ,wilcox ,*a9 ,grate ,/ok]s ,! improvem5t 9 boil] & eng9e design ( ,smeaton1 ,newcom5 & _! contempor>ies1 7 foll[$ by ^? ( ! great eng9e]1 ,james ,watt1 an in/rum5t mak] ( ,glasg[4 ,9 #agfc1 :ile repair+ a model ( ,newcom5's eng9e1 he 0 impress$ by ! great wa/e ( /eam to :i* ! alt]nat+ cool+ & heat+ ( ! eng9e gave rise4 ,8 rem$y 0 ! ma9ta9+ ( ! cyl9d] z hot z ! ent]+ /eam & ) ?is 9 view he add$ a vessel sep>ate f ! cyl9d]1 into :i* ! /eam %\ld pass f ! cyl9d] & be !re cond5s$ ei!r by ! application ( cold wat] outside or by a jet f )94 ,to pres]ve a vacuum 9 8 cond5s]1 he add$ an air pump :i* %\ld s]ve to remove ! wat] ( cond5sation & air br\ght 9 ) ! injection wat] or due to leakage4 ,z ! cyl9d] no long] act$ z a cond5s]1 he c\ld ma9ta9 x at a high temp]ature by cov]+ x ) non-conduct+ mat]ial &1 9 p>ticul>1 by ! use ( a /eam jacket4 ,fur!r & ) ! same object 9 view1 he cov]$ ! top ( ! cyl9d] & introduc$ /eam above ! pi/on to d ! "w previ\sly accompli%$ by atmosph]ic pressure4 ,aft] sev]al trials ) an exp]im5tal app>atus bas$ on ^! ideas1 ,watt pat5t$ 8 improvem5ts 9 #agfi4 ,aside f _! hi/orical importance1 ,watt's improvem5ts1 z describ$ 9 8 specification1 are to ?is day a /atem5t ( ! pr9ciples :i* guide ! sci5tific developm5t ( ! /eam eng9e4 ,8 words are3 ,my me?od ( less5+ ! consumption ( /eam1 & consequ5tly fuel1 9 fire eng9es1 consi/s ( ! foll[+ pr9ciples3 ,fir/1 ,t vessel 9 :i* ! p[]s ( /eam are to be employ$ to "w ! eng9e1 :i* is call$ ! cyl9d] 9 common fire eng9es1 & :i* ,i call ! /eam vessel1 mu/1 dur+ ! :ole "t ! eng9e is at "w1 be kept z hot z ! /eam t ent]s x2 fir/1 by enclos+ x 9 a case ( wood1 or any o!r mat]ials t transmit heat sl[ly2 secondly1 by surr\nd+ x ) /eam or o!r heat$ bodies2 &1 ?irdly1 by suff]+ nei!r wat] nor any o!r sub/ance cold] ?an ! /eam to ent] or t\* x dur+ t "t4 ,secondly1 ,9 eng9es t are to be work$ :olly or p>tially by cond5sation ( /eam1 ! /eam is to be cond5s$ 9 vessels di/9ct f ! /eam vessels or cyl9d]s1 al?\gh occasionally communicat+ ) !m2 ^! vessels ,i call cond5s]s2 &1 :il/ ! eng9es are work+1 ^! cond5s]s ought at lea/ to be kept z cold z ! air 9 ! neighborhood ( ! eng9es1 by application ( wat] or o!r cold bodies4 ,?irdly1 ,:atev] air or o!r ela/ic vapor is n cond5s$ by ! cold ( ! cond5s]1 & may imp$e ! work+ ( ! eng9e1 is to be drawn out ( ! /eam vessels or cond5s]s by means ( pumps1 wr\ght by ! eng9es !mselves1 or o!rwise4 ,f\r?ly1 ,i int5d 9 _m cases to employ ! expansive =ce ( /eam to press on ! pi/ons1 or :atev] may be us$ in/ead ( !m1 9 ! same mann] 9 :i* ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e is n[ employ$ 9 common fire eng9es4 ,9 cases :]e cold wat] _c be _h 9 pl5ty1 ! eng9es may be wr\ght by ?is =ce ( /eam only1 by dis*>g+ ! /eam into ! air aft] x has done its (fice4444 ,six?ly1 ,i int5d 9 "s cases to apply a degree ( cold n capable ( r$uc+ ! /eam to wat]1 b ( contract+ x consid]ably1 s t ! eng9es %all be work$ by ! alt]nate expansion & contraction ( ! /eam4 ,la/ly1 ,in/ead ( us+ wat] to r5d] ! pi/ons & o!r p>ts ( ! eng9e air & /eam tight1 ,i employ oils1 wax1 res9\s bodies1 fat ( animals1 quick-silv] & o!r metals 9 _! fluid /ate4 ,! fif? claim 0 = a rot>y eng9e1 & ne$ n be quot$ "h4 ,! e>ly ef=ts ( ,watt are typical ( ^? ( ! poor inv5tor /ruggl+ ) insuffici5t res\rces to ga9 recognition & x 0 n until he became associat$ ) ! weal?y manufactur]1 ,mat!u ,b\lton ( ,birm+ham1 t he met ) ! success ^u :i* 8 pres5t fame is bas$4 ,9 p>tn]%ip ) ,b\lton1 ! bus9ess ( ! manufacture & ! sale ( 8 eng9es 7 highly successful 9 spite ( vigor\s attacks on ! validity ( 8 pat5ts4 ,?\gh ! f\r? claim ( ,watt's pat5t describes a non-cond5s+ eng9e :i* w\ld require high pressures1 8 av]sion to su* practice 0 /rong4 ,not)/&+ 8 entire k ( ! advantages ?r\gh add$ expansion "u high pressure1 he cont9u$ to use pressures n above #g p\nds p] squ>e in* above ! atmosph]e4 ,to ov]come su* pressures1 8 boil]s 7 f$ ?r\gh a /&-pipe ( suffici5t height to h ! column ( wat] (fset ! pressure )9 ! boil]4 ,watt's attitude t[>d high pressure made 8 influ5ce felt long aft] 8 pat5ts _h expir$4 ,illu/ration3 ,portion ( #ifjj ,horse-p[] ,in/allation ( ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil]s & ,sup]heat]s1 ,equipp$ ) ,babcock ,wilcox ,*a9 ,grate ,/ok]s at ! ,blue ,isl&1 ,ill41 ,plant ( ! ,public ,s]vice ,co4 ( ,nor!rn ,ill9ois4 ,?is ,company ,op]ates #ad1ehj ,horse ,p[] ( ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil]s & ,sup]heat]s 9 its ,v>i\s ,/ations ,9 #aghb1 ,watt pat5t$ two o!r features :i* he _h inv5t$ z e>ly z #agfi4 ,^! 7 ! d\ble act+ eng9e1 t is1 ! use ( /eam on bo? sides ( ! pi/on & ! use ( /eam expansively1 t is1 ! %utt+ (f ( /eam f ! cyl9d] :5 ! pi/on _h made b a portion ( its /roke1 ! p[] = ! completion ( ! /roke be+ suppli$ by ! expansive =ce ( ! /eam already admitt$4 ,he fur!r add$ a ?rottle valve = ! regulation ( /eam admission1 inv5t$ ! automatic gov]nor & ! /eam indicator1 a m]cury /eam gauge & a glass wat] column4 ,x has be5 ! object ( ?is brief hi/ory ( ! e>ly developm5ts 9 ! use ( /eam to cov] su* developm5ts only ?r\gh ! "t ( ,james ,watt4 ,! progress ( ! /eam eng9e f ?is "t ?r\gh ! /ages ( high] pressures1 comb9+ ( cyl9d]s1 ! application ( /eam vehicles & /eamboats1 ! add+ ( ?ird & f\r? cyl9d]s1 to ! inv5tion ( ! turb9e ) its developm5t & ! accompany+ developm5t ( ! reciprocat+ eng9e to hold its place1 is "o long attribute to ! inv5tive g5ius ( man4 ,:ile little is said 9 ! biographies ( ,watt z to ! improvem5t ( /eam boil]s1 all ! evid5ce indicates t ,b\lton & ,watt introduc$ ! fir/ wagon boil]1 s call$ because ( its %ape4 ,9 #aghe1 ,watt took out a numb] ( pat5ts = v>iations 9 furnace con/ruction1 _m ( :i* conta9 ! basic pr9ciples ( "s ( ! mod]n smoke prev5t+ furnaces4 ,until ! e>ly "p ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 ! l[ /eam pressures us$ caus$ b little att5tion to be giv5 to ! =m ( ! boil] op]at$ 9 connection ) ! eng9es above describ$4 ,ab\t #ahjj1 ,ri*>d ,trevi?ick1 9 ,engl&1 & ,oliv] ,evans1 9 ,am]ica1 introduc$ non-cond5s+1 & = t "t1 high pressure /eam eng9es4 ,to ! initiative ( ,evans may be attribut$ ! g5]al use ( high pressure /eam 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 a feature :i* = _m ye>s di/+ui%$ ,am]ican f ,european practice4 ,! dem& = light weight & economy ( space foll[+ ! beg9n+ ( /eam navigation & ! inv5tion ( ! locomotive requir$ boil]s design$ & con/ruct$ to )/& heavi] pressures & =c$ ! adoption ( ! cyl9drical =m ( boil]4 ,!re are 9 use to-day _m examples ( e /ep 9 ! developm5t ( /eam boil]s f ! fir/ pla9 cyl9drical boil] to ! mo/ mod]n type ( multi-tubul> locomotive boil]1 :i* /&s z ! highe/ type ( fire-tube boil] con/ruction4 ,! e>ly attempts to utilize wat]-tube boil]s 7 few4 ,a brief hi/ory ( ! developm5t ( ! boil]s1 9 :i* ?is pr9ciple 0 employ$1 is giv5 9 ! foll[+ *apt]4 ,f ?is hi/ory x w be cle>ly indicat$ t ! fir/ comm]cially successful utilization ( wat] tubes 9 a /eam g5]ator is prop]ly attribut$ to ,george ,h4 ,babcock & ,/eph5 ,wilcox4 ,illu/ration3 ,copyright by ,und]wood ,und]wood ,woolwor? ,build+1 ,new ,york ,city1 ,op]at+ #bded ,horse ,p[] ( ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil]s ,,brief ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,wat]-,,tube ,,boil]s#a ,z /at$ 9 ! previ\s *apt]1 ! fir/ wat]-tube boil] 0 built by ,john ,blakey & 0 pat5t$ by him 9 #agff4 ,sev]al tubes alt]nately incl9$ at opposite angles 7 arrang$ 9 ! furnaces1 ! adjac5t tube ends be+ connect$ by small pipes4 ,! fir/ successful us] ( wat]-tube boil]s1 h[ev]1 0 ,james ,rumsey1 an ,am]ican inv5tor1 celebrat$ = 8 e>ly exp]im5ts 9 /eam navigation1 & x is he :o may be truly class$ z ! orig9ator ( ! wat]-tube boil]4 ,9 #aghh he pat5t$1 9 ,engl&1 sev]al =ms ( boil]s1 "s ( :i* 7 ( ! wat]-tube type4 ,"o _h a fire box ) flat top & sides1 ) horizontal tubes across ! fire box connect+ ! wat] spaces4 ,ano!r _h a cyl9drical fire box surr\nd$ by an annul> wat] space & a coil$ tube 0 plac$ )9 ! box connect+ at its two ends ) ! wat] space4 ,?is 0 ! fir/ ( ! coil boil]s4 ,ano!r =m 9 ! same pat5t 0 ! v]tical tubul> boil]1 practically z made at ! pres5t "t4 ,illu/ration3 ,blakey1 #agff ,! fir/ boil] made ( a comb9ation ( small tubes1 connect$ at "o end to a res]voir1 0 ! inv5tion ( ano!r ,am]ican1 ,john ,/ev5s1 9 #ahjd4 ,?is boil] 0 actually employ$ to g5]ate /eam = runn+ a /eamboat on ! ,hudson ,riv]1 b l all ! porcup9e boil]s1 ( :i* type x 0 ! fir/1 x did n h ! elem5ts ( a cont9u$ success4 ,illu/ration3 ,john ,/ev5s1 #ahjd ,ano!r =m ( wat] tube 0 pat5t$ 9 #ahje by ,john ,cox ,/ev5s1 a son ( ,john ,/ev5s4 ,?is boil] consi/$ ( tw5ty v]tical tubes1 #a in*es int]nal diamet] & #dj in*es long1 arrang$ 9 a circle1 ! outside diamet] ( :i* 0 approximately #ab in*es1 connect+ a wat] *amb] at ! bottom ) a /eam *amb] at ! top4 ,! /eam & wat] *amb]s 7 annul> spaces ( small cross section & conta9$ approximately #cc cubic in*es4 ,! illu/ration %[s ! cap ( ! /eam *amb] secur$ by bolts4 ,! /eam outlet pipe ,a is a pipe ( "o in* diamet]1 ! wat] ent]+ ?r\gh a simil> ap]ture at ! bottom4 ,"o ( ^! boil]s 0 = a long "t at ! ,/ev5s ,in/itute ( ,te*nology at ,hobok51 & is n[ 9 ! ,smi?sonian ,in/itute at ,wa%+ton4 ,illu/ration3 ,john ,cox ,/ev5s1 #ahje ,ab\t ! same "t1 ,jacob ,woolf built a boil] ( l>ge horizontal tubes1 ext5d+ across ! furnace & connect$ at ! ends to a longitud9al drum above4 ,! fir/ purely sectional wat]-tube boil] 0 built by ,julius ,griffi?1 9 #ahba4 ,9 ?is boil]1 a numb] ( horizontal wat] tubes 7 connect$ to v]tical side pipes1 ! side pipes 7 connect$ to horizontal ga!r+ pipes1 & ^! latt] 9 turn to a /eam drum4 ,9 #ahbb1 ,jacob ,p]k9s con/ruct$ a fla% boil] = c>ry+ :at 0 !n consid]$ a high pressure4 ,a numb] ( ca/-iron b>s hav+ #a in*es annul> holes ?r\gh !m & connect$ at _! out] ends by a s]ies ( b5t pipes1 outside ( ! furnace walls1 7 arrang$ 9 ?ree ti]s ov] ! fire4 ,! wat] 0 f$ sl[ly to ! upp] ti] by a =ce pump & /eam 9 ! sup]heat$ /ate 0 dis*>g$ to ! l[] ti]s into a *amb] f :i* x 0 tak5 to ! eng9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,joseph ,eve1 #ahbe ,! fir/ sectional wat]-tube boil]1 ) a well-def9$ circulation1 0 built by ,joseph ,eve1 9 #ahbe4 ,! sections 7 compos$ ( small tubes ) a slight d\ble curve1 b be+ practically v]tical1 fix$ 9 horizontal head]s1 :i* head]s 7 9 turn connect$ to a /eam space above & a wat] space bel[ =m$ ( l>g] pipes4 ,! /eam & wat] spaces 7 connect$ by outside pipes to secure a circulation ( ! wat] up ?r\gh ! sections & d[n ?r\gh ! ext]nal pipes4 ,9 ! same ye>1 ,john ,m',curdy ( ,new ,york1 built a ,duplex ,/eam ,g5]ator ( tubes ( wr\ght or ca/ iron or o!r mat]ial arrang$ 9 sev]al horizontal r[s1 connect$ toge!r alt]nately at ! front & re> by return b5ds4 ,9 ! tubes bel[ ! wat] l9e 7 plac$ int]ior circul> vessels clos$ at ! ends 9 ord] to expose a ?9 %eet ( wat] to ! action ( ! fire4 ,illu/ration3 ,gurney1 #ahbf ,9 #ahbf1 ,goldswor?y ,gurney built a numb] ( boil]s1 :i* he us$ on 8 /eam c>riages4 ,a numb] ( small tubes 7 b5t into ! %ape ( a ,u laid sidewise & ! ends 7 connect$ ) l>g] horizontal pipes4 ,^! 7 connect$ by v]tical pipes to p]mit ( circulation & also to a v]tical cyl9d] :i* s]v$ z a /eam & wat] res]voir4 ,9 #ahbh1 ,paul ,/e5/rup made ! fir/ %ell boil] ) v]tical wat] tubes 9 ! l>ge flues1 simil> to ! boil] kn[n z ! ,m>t9 & sugge/+ ! ,gall[ay4 ,! fir/ wat]-tube boil] hav+ fire tubes )9 wat] tubes 0 built 9 #ahcj1 by ,summ]s ,ogle4 ,horizontal connections at ! top & bottom 7 connect$ by a s]ies ( v]tical wat] tubes1 ?r\gh :i* 7 fire tubes ext5d+ ?r\gh ! horizontal connections1 ! fire tubes be+ held 9 place by nuts1 :i* also s]v$ to make ! jo9t4 ,illu/ration3 ,/eph5 ,wilcox1 #ahef ,/eph5 ,wilcox1 9 #ahef1 0 ! fir/ to use incl9$ wat] tubes connect+ wat] spaces at ! front & re> ) a /eam space above4 ,! fir/ to make su* incl9$ tubes into a sectional =m 0 ,twibill1 9 #ahfe4 ,he us$ wr\ght-iron tubes connect$ at ! front & re> ) /&pipes ?r\gh int]m$iate connections4 ,^! /&pipes c>ri$ ! sy/em to a horizontal cross drum at ! top1 ! entra9$ wat] be+ c>ri$ to ! re>4 ,cl>ke1 ,moore1 ,mc,dowell1 ,alban & o!rs work$ on ! problem ( con/ruct+ wat]-tube boil]s1 b because ( difficulties ( con/ruction involv$1 met ) no practical success4 ,illu/ration3 ,twibill1 #ahfe ,x may be ask$ :y wat]-tube boil]s did n come into m g5]al use at an e>ly date1 t is1 :y ! numb] ( wat]-tube boil]s built 0 s small 9 comp>ison to ! numb] ( %ell boil]s4 ,! reason = ?is is f\nd 9 ! difficulties involv$ 9 ! design & con/ruction ( wat]-tube boil]s1 :i* design & con/ruction requir$ a high class ( eng9e]+ & workman%ip1 :ile ! pla9 cyl9drical boil] is comp>atively easy to build4 ,! great] skill requir$ to make a wat]-tube boil] successful is readily %[n 9 ! great numb] ( failures 9 ! attempts to make !m4 ,illu/ration3 ,p>tial ,view ( #gjjj ,horse-p[] ,in/allation ( ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil]s at ! ,philadelphia1 ,pa41 ,plant ( ! ,baldw9 ,locomotive ,works4 ,?is ,company ,op]ates 9 its ,v>i\s ,plants a ,total ( #ibhj ,horse ,p[] ( ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil]s ,,requirem5ts ,,( ,,/eam ,,boil]s ,s9ce ! fir/ appe>ance 9 ,/eam ( ! foll[+ ,requirem5ts ( a ,p]fect ,/eam ,boil]1 ! li/ has be5 copi$ _m times ei!r ^w = ^w or clo!d 9 diff]5t language & appli$ to "s specific type ( boil] design or con/ruction4 ,9 mo/ cases1 al?\gh full compliance ) "o or m ( ! requirem5ts 0 /ructurally impossible1 ! read] 0 left to inf] t ! boil] "u consid]ation possess$ all ! desirable features4 ,x is notewor?y t ?is li/ ( requirem5ts1 z prep>$ by ,george ,h4 ,babcock & ,/eph5 ,wilcox1 9 #ahge1 repres5ts ! be/ practice ( to-day4 ,moreov]1 c\pl$ ) ! boil] itself1 :i* is us$ 9 ! l>ge/ & mo/ important /eam g5]at+ plants ?r\gh\t ! _w1 ! li/ =ms a fitt+ monum5t to ! =esight & g5ius ( ! inv5tors4 ,,requirem5ts ,,( ,a ,,p]fect ,,/eam ,,boil] #a/4 ,prop] workman%ip & simple con/ruction1 us+ mat]ials :i* exp]i5ce has %[n to be ! be/1 ?us avoid+ ! necessity ( e>ly repairs4 #bnd4 ,a mud drum to receive all impurities deposit$ f ! wat]1 & s plac$ z to be remov$ f ! action ( ! fire4 #crd4 ,a /eam & wat] capacity suffici5t to prev5t any fluctuation 9 /eam pressure or wat] level4 #d?4 ,a wat] surface = ! dis5gagem5t ( ! /eam f ! wat]1 ( suffici5t ext5t to prev5t foam+4 #e?4 ,a con/ant & ?or\gh circulation ( wat] ?r\gh\t ! boil]1 s z to ma9ta9 all p>ts at ! same temp]ature4 #f?4 ,! wat] space divid$ into sections s arrang$ t1 %\ld any section fail1 no g5]al explosion c occur & ! de/ructive effects w be conf9$ to ! escape ( ! cont5ts4 ,l>ge & free passages betwe5 ! diff]5t sections to equalize ! wat] l9e & pressure 9 all4 #g?4 ,a great excess ( /r5g? ov] any legitimate /ra91 ! boil] be+ s con/ruct$ z to be free f /ra9s due to unequal expansion1 &1 if possible1 to avoid jo9ts expos$ to ! direct action ( ! fire4 #h?4 ,a combu/ion *amb] s arrang$ t ! combu/ion ( ! gases />t$ 9 ! furnace may be complet$ be=e ! gases escape to ! *imney4 #i?4 ,! heat+ surface z ne>ly z possible at "r angles to ! curr5ts ( heat$ gases1 s z to break up ! curr5ts & extract ! entire available heat f ! gases4 #aj?4 ,all p>ts readily accessible = clean+ & repairs4 ,?is is a po9t ( ! greate/ importance z reg>ds safety & economy4 #aa?4 ,proportion$ = ! "w to be done1 & capable ( work+ to its full rat$ capacity ) ! highe/ economy4 #ab?4 ,equipp$ ) ! v be/ gauges1 safety valves & o!r fixtures4 ,! exhau/ive /udy made ( ea* "o ( ^! requirem5ts is %[n by ! foll[+ extract f a lecture deliv]$ by ,mr4 ,geo4 ,h4 ,babcock at ,cornell ,univ]sity 9 #ahij ^u ! subject3 ,,! ,,circulation ,,( ,,wat] ,,9 ,,/eam ,,boil]s ,y h all notic$ a kettle ( wat] boil+ ov] ! fire1 ! fluid ris+ some:at tumultu\sly ar\nd ! edges ( ! vessel1 & tumbl+ t[>d ! c5t]1 :]e x desc5ds4 ,simil> curr5ts are 9 action :ile ! wat] is simply be+ heat$1 b !y are n p]ceptible unless !re are float+ p>ticles 9 ! liquid4 ,^! curr5ts are caus$ by ! jo9t action ( ! add$ temp]ature & two or m qualities :i* ! wat] possesses4 #a/4 ,wat]1 9 common ) mo/ o!r sub/ances1 exp&s :5 heat$2 a /atem5t1 h[ev]1 /rictly true only :5 ref]r$ to a temp]ature above #ci degrees ,f4 or #d degrees ,c41 b z 9 ! mak+ ( /eam we r>ely h to d ) temp]atures s l[ z t1 we may1 = our pres5t purposes1 ignore t exception4 #bnd4 ,wat] is practically a non-conductor ( heat1 ?\gh n entirely s4 ,if ice-cold wat] 0 kept boil+ at ! surface ! heat w\ld n p5etrate suffici5tly to beg9 melt+ ice at a dep? ( #c in*es 9 less ?an ab\t two h\rs4 ,z1 !re=e1 ! heat$ wat] _c imp>t its heat to its neighbor+ p>ticles1 x rema9s exp&$ & rises by its levity1 :ile cold] portions come to be heat$ 9 turn1 ?us sett+ up curr5ts 9 ! fluid4 ,n[1 :5 all ! wat] has be5 heat$ to ! boil+ po9t correspond+ to ! pressure to :i* x is subject$1 ea* add$ unit ( heat conv]ts a portion1 ab\t #g gra9s 9 weight1 into vapor1 greatly increas+ its volume2 & ! m+l$ /eam & wat] rises m rapidly /ill1 produc+ ebullition su* z we h notic$ 9 ! kettle4 ,s long z ! quantity ( heat add$ to ! cont5ts ( ! kettle cont9ues practically con/ant1 ! conditions rema9 simil> to ^? we notic$ at fir/1 a tumultu\s lift+ ( ! wat] ar\nd ! edges1 fl[+ t[>d ! c5t] & !nce d[nw>d2 if1 h[ev]1 ! fire be quick5$1 ! upw>d curr5ts int]f]e ) ! d[nw>d & ! kettle boils ov] 7,fig4 #a74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #a ,if n[ we put 9 ! kettle a vessel some:at small] 7,fig4 #b7 ) a hole 9 ! bottom & support$ at a prop] di/ance f ! side s z to sep>ate ! upw>d f ! d[nw>d curr5ts1 we c =ce ! fires to a v mu* great] ext5t )\t caus+ ! kettle to boil ov]1 & :5 we place a deflect+ plate s z to guide ! ris+ column t[>d ! c5t] x w be almo/ impossible to produce t effect4 ,?is is ! inv5tion ( ,p]k9s 9 #ahca & =ms ! basis ( v _m ( ! arrangem5ts = produc+ free circulation ( ! wat] 9 boil]s :i* h be5 made s9ce t "t4 ,x consi/s 9 divid+ ! curr5ts s t !y w n int]f]e ea* ) ! o!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #b ,b :at is ! object ( facilitat+ ! circulation ( wat] 9 boil]s8 ,:y may we n safely leave ?is to ! unassi/$ action ( nature z we d 9 cul9>y op]ations8 ,we may1 if we d n c>e = ! ?ree mo/ important aims 9 /eam-boil] con/ruction1 namely1 effici5cy1 durability1 & safety1 ea* ( :i* is m or less dep5d5t ^u a prop] circulation ( ! wat]4 ,z = effici5cy1 we h se5 "o pro( 9 our kettle4 ,:5 we provid$ means to pres]ve ! circulation1 we f\nd t we c\ld c>ry a hott] fire & boil away ! wat] mu* m rapidly ?an be=e4 ,x is ! same 9 a /eam boil]4 ,& we also notic$ t :5 !re 0 no?+ b ! unassi/$ circulation1 ! ris+ /eam c>ri$ away s mu* wat] 9 ! =m ( foam t ! kettle boil$ ov]1 b :5 ! curr5ts 7 sep>at$ & an unimp$$ circuit 0 e/abli%$1 ?is ceas$1 & a mu* l>g] supply ( /eam 0 deliv]$ 9 a comp>atively dry /ate4 ,?us1 circulation increases ! effici5cy 9 two ways3 x adds to ! ability to take up ! heat1 & decreases ! liability to wa/e t heat by :at is te*nically kn[n z prim+4 ,!re is yet ano!r way 9 :i*1 incid5tally1 circulation increases effici5cy ( surface1 & t is by prev5t+ 9 a great] or less degree ! =mation ( deposits !reon4 ,mo/ wat]s conta9 "s impurity :i*1 :5 ! wat] is evaporat$1 rema9s to incru/ ! surface ( ! vessel4 ,?is incru/ation becomes v s]i\s sometimes1 s mu* s z to almo/ entirely prev5t ! transmission ( heat f ! metal to ! wat]4 ,x is said t an incru/ation ( only "o-eigh? in* w cause a loss ( #be p] c5t 9 effici5cy1 & ?is is probably )9 ! tru? 9 _m cases4 ,circulation ( wat] w n prev5t incru/ation altoge!r1 b x less5s ! am\nt 9 all wat]s1 & almo/ entirely s 9 "s1 ?us add+ greatly to ! effici5cy ( ! surface4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #c ,a second advantage to be obta9$ ?r\gh circulation is durability ( ! boil]4 ,?is x secures ma9ly by keep+ all p>ts at a ne>ly uni=m temp]ature4 ,! way to secure ! greate/ fre$om f unequal /ra9s 9 a boil] is to provide = su* a circulation ( ! wat] z w insure ! same temp]ature 9 all p>ts4 #crd4 ,safety foll[s 9 ! wake ( durability1 because a boil] :i* is n subject to unequal /ra9s ( expansion & contraction is n only less liable to ord9>y repairs1 b also to rupture & disa/r\s explosion4 ,by f> ! mo/ prolific cause ( explosions is ?is same /ra9 f unequal expansions4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #d ,illu/ration3 #chf ,horse-p[] ,in/allation ( ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil]s at ,b4 ,f4 ,kei?'s ,!atre1 ,bo/on1 ,mass4 ,hav+ ?us briefly look$ at ! advantages ( circulation ( wat] 9 /eam boil]s1 let u see :at are ! be/ means ( secur+ x "u ! mo/ effici5t conditions ,we h se5 9 our kettle t "o ess5tial po9t 0 t ! curr5ts %\ld be kept f int]f]+ ) ea* o!r4 ,if we c\ld look into an ord9>y return tubul> boil] :5 /eam+1 we %\ld see a curi\s commotion ( curr5ts ru%+ hi!r & ?i!r1 & %ift+ cont9ually z "o or ! o!r cont5d+ =ce ga9$ a mom5t>y ma/]y4 ,! pr9cipal upw>d curr5ts w\ld be f\nd at ! two ends1 "o ov] ! fire & ! o!r ov] ! fir/ foot or s ( ! tubes4 ,betwe5 ^!1 ! d[nw>d curr5ts /ruggle aga9/ ! ris+ curr5ts ( /eam & wat]4 ,at a sudd5 dem& = /eam1 or on ! lift+ ( ! safety valve1 ! pressure be+ slightly r$uc$1 ! wat] jumps up 9 jets at e portion ( ! surface1 be+ lift$ by ! sudd5 g5]ation ( /eam ?r\gh\t ! body ( wat]4 ,y h se5 ! effect ( ?is sudd5 g5]ation ( /eam 9 ! well-kn[n exp]im5t ) a ,flor5ce flask1 to :i* a cold application is made :ile boil+ wat] "u pressure is )94 ,y h also witness$ ! geys]-l action :5 wat] is boil$ 9 a te/ tube held v]tically ov] a lamp 7,fig4 #c74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #e ,if n[ we take a ,u-tube dep5d+ f a vessel ( wat] 7,fig4 #d7 & apply ! lamp to "o leg a circulation is at once set up )9 x1 & no su* spasmodic action c be produc$4 ,?us ,u-tube is ! repres5tative ( ! true me?od ( circulation )9 a wat]-tube boil] prop]ly con/ruct$4 ,we c1 = ! purpose ( secur+ m heat+ surface1 ext5d ! heat$ leg into a long incl9e 7,fig4 #e71 :5 we h ! well-kn[n incl9$-tube g5]ator4 ,n[1 by add+ o!r tubes1 we may fur!r increase ! heat+ surface 7,fig4 #f71 :ile x w /ill be ! ,u-tube 9 effect & action4 ,9 su* a con/ruction ! circulation is a function ( ! diff]5ce 9 d5sity ( ! two columns4 ,its velocity is measur$ by ! well-kn[n ,torricellian =mula1 ,v 7#b;gh71 or1 approximately ,v #h7;h71 h be+ measur$ 9 t]ms ( ! light] fluid4 ,?is velocity w increase until ! ris+ column becomes all /eam1 b ! quantity or weight circulat$ w atta9 a maximum :5 ! d5sity ( ! m+l$ /eam & wat] 9 ! ris+ column becomes "o-half t ( ! solid wat] 9 ! desc5d+ column :i* is ne>ly co9cid5t ) ! condition ( half /eam & half wat]1 ! weight ( ! /eam be+ v slight comp>$ to t ( ! wat]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #f ,x becomes easy by ?is rule to det]m9e ! circulation 9 any giv5 boil] built on ?is pr9ciple1 provid$ ! con/ruction is su* z to p]mit a free fl[ ( ! wat]4 ,( c\rse1 e b5d detracts a little & some?+ is lo/ 9 gett+ up ! velocity1 b :5 ! boil] is well arrang$ & proportion$ ^! ret>dations are slight4 ,let u take = example "o ( ! #bdj horse-p[] ,babcock ,wilcox boil]s "h 9 ! ,univ]sity4 ,! height ( ! columns may be tak5 z #d feet1 measur+ f ! surface ( ! wat] to ab\t ! c5t] ( ! bundle ( tubes ov] ! fire1 & ! head w\ld be equal to ?is height at ! maximum ( circulation4 ,we %\ld1 !re=e1 h a velocity ( #h7d7 #af4ig1 say #ag feet p] second4 ,!re are 9 ?is boil] f\rte5 sections1 ea* hav+ a #d-;in* tube op5+ into ! drum1 ! area ( :i* 7inside7 is #aa squ>e in*es1 ! f\rte5 aggregat+ #aed squ>e in*es1 or #a4jg squ>e feet4 ,?is multipli$ by ! velocity1 #af4ig feet1 gives #ah4af cubic feet m+l$ /eam & wat] dis*>g$ p] second1 "o-half ( :i*1 or #i4jh cubic feet1 is /eam4 ,assum+ ?is /eam to be at #ajj p\nds gauge pressure1 x w weigh #j4beh p\nd p] cubic foot4 ,h5ce1 #b4cd p\nds ( /eam w be dis*>g$ p] second1 & #h1dcc p\nds p] h\r4 ,divid+ ?is by #cj1 ! numb] ( p\nds repres5t+ a boil] horse p[]1 we get #bha4a horse p[]1 ab\t #ag p] c5t1 9 excess ( ! rat$ p[] ( ! boil]4 ,! wat] at ! temp]ature ( /eam at #ajj p\nds pressure weighs #ef p\nds p] cubic foot1 & ! /eam #j4beh p\nd1 s t ! /eam =ms b #a_/bah "p ( ! mixture by weight1 & consequ5tly ea* p>ticle ( wat] w make #bah circuits be=e be+ evaporat$ :5 work+ at ?is capacity1 & circulat+ ! maximum weight ( wat] ?r\gh ! tubes4 ,illu/ration3 ,a ,portion ( #ifjj ,horse-p[] ,in/allation ( ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil]s & ,sup]heat]s ,be+ ,erect$ at ! ,s\? ,bo/on1 ,mass41 ,/ation ( ! ,bo/on ,elevat$ ,railway ,co4 ,?is ,company ,op]ates 9 its ,v>i\s ,/ations a ,total ( #df1djj ,horse ,p[] ( ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil]s ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #g ,x is evid5t t at ! highe/ possible velocity ( exit f ! g5]at+ tubes1 no?+ b /eam w be deliv]$ & !re w be no circulation ( wat] except to supply ! place ( t evaporat$4 ,let u see at :at rate ( /eam+ ?is w\ld occur ) ! boil] "u consid]ation4 ,we %all h a column ( /eam1 say #d feet high on "o side & an equal column ( wat] on ! o!r4 ,assum+1 z be=e1 ! /eam at #ajj p\nds & ! wat] at same temp]ature1 we w h a head ( #hff feet ( /eam & an issu+ velocity ( #bce4e feet p] second4 ,?is multipli$ by #a4jg squ>e feet ( op5+ by #c1fjj seconds 9 an h\r1 & by #j4beh gives #bcd1jdc p\nds ( /eam1 :i*1 ?\gh only "o-eigh? ! weight ( m+l$ /eam & wat] deliv]$ at ! maximum1 gives u #g1hja horse p[]1 or #cb times ! rat$ p[] ( ! boil]4 ,( c\rse1 ?is is f> beyond any possibility ( atta9m5t1 s t x may be set d[n z c]ta9 t ?is boil] _c be =c$ to a po9t :]e !re w n be an effici5t circulation ( ! wat]4 ,by ! same me?od ( calculation x may be %[n t :5 =c$ to d\ble its rat$ p[]1 a po9t r>ely expect$ to be rea*$ 9 practice1 ab\t two-?irds ! volume ( mixture ( /eam & wat] deliv]$ into ! drum w be /eam1 & t ! wat] w make #aaj circuits :ile be+ evaporat$4 ,also t :5 work$ at only ab\t "o-qu>t] its rat$ capacity1 "o-fif? ( ! volume w be /eam & ! wat] w make ! r\nds #hgj times be=e x becomes /eam4 ,y w ?us see t 9 ! proportions adopt$ 9 ?is boil] !re is provision = p]fect circulation "u all ! possible conditions ( practice4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #h ,develop$ to %[ ,circulation ,9 design+ boil]s ( ?is /yle x is necess>y to gu>d aga9/ hav+ ! uptake at ! upp] end ( ! tubes too l>ge1 = if suffici5tly l>ge to all[ d[nw>d curr5ts !re91 ! :ole effect ( ! ris+ column 9 increas+ ! circulation 9 ! tubes is nullifi$ 7,fig4 #g74 ,?is w readily be se5 if we consid] ! uptake v l>ge :5 ! only head produc+ circulation 9 ! tubes w be t due to ! incl9ation ( ea* tube tak5 by itself4 ,?is objection is only ov]come :5 ! uptake is s small z to be entirely fill$ ) ! asc5d+ curr5t ( m+l$ /eam & wat]4 ,x is also necess>y t ?is uptake %\ld be practically direct1 & x %\ld n be compos$ ( frequ5t enl>gem5ts & contractions4 ,take1 = in/ance1 a boil] well kn[n 9 ,europe1 copi$ & sold "h "u ano!r "n4 ,x is made up ( incl9$ tubes secur$ by pairs into boxes at ! ends1 :i* boxes are made to communicate ) ea* o!r by return b5ds opposite ! ends ( ! tubes4 ,^! boxes & return b5ds =m an irregul> uptake1 :]eby ! /eam is expect$ to rise to a res]voir above4 ,y w notice 7,fig4 #h7 t ! upw>d curr5t ( /eam & wat] 9 ! return b5d meets & directly antagonizes ! upw>d curr5t 9 ! adjo9+ tube4 ,only "o result c foll[4 ,if _! velocities are equal1 ! mom5tum ( bo? w be neutraliz$ & all circulation /opp$1 or1 if "o be /rong]1 x w cause a back fl[ 9 ! o!r by ! am\nt ( diff]5ce 9 =ce1 ) practically ! same result4 ,illu/ration3 #dhhj ,horse-p[] ,in/allation ( ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil]s at ! ,op5 ,he>? ,plant ( ! ,cambria ,/eel ,co41 ,john/[n1 ,pa4 ,?is ,company ,op]ates a ,total ( #eb1jjj ,horse ,p[] ( ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil]s ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #i ,9 a well-kn[n boil]1 _m ( :i* 7 sold1 b ( :i* none are n[ made & a v few are /ill 9 use1 ! inv5tor claim$ t ! return b5ds & small op5+s aga9/ ! tubes 7 = ! purpose ( re/rict+ ! circulation & no d\bt !y p]=m$ well t (fice2 b except+ = ! smallness ( ! op5+s !y 7 n z effici5t = t purpose z ! arrangem5t %[n 9 ,fig4 #h4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aj ,ano!r =m ( boil]1 fir/ inv5t$ by ,cl>ke or ,craw=d1 & lately reviv$1 has ! uptake made ( boxes into :i* a numb]1 g5]ally f two to f\r tubes1 are exp&$1 ! boxes be+ connect$ toge!r by nipples 7,fig4 #i74 ,x is a well-kn[n fact t :]e a fluid fl[s ?r\gh a conduit :i* enl>ges & !n contracts1 ! velocity is lo/ to a great] or less ext5t at ! enl>gem5ts1 & has to be gott5 up aga9 at ! contractions ea* "t1 ) a correspond+ loss ( head4 ,! same ?+ occurs 9 ! con/ruction %[n 9 ,fig4 #i4 ,! enl>gem5ts & contractions q de/roy ! head & practically ov]come ! t5d5cy ( ! wat] to circulate4 ,a horizontal tube /opp$ at "o end1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #aj1 c h no prop] circulation )9 x4 ,if mod]ately driv51 ! wat] may /ruggle 9 aga9/ ! issu+ /eam suffici5tly to keep ! surface cov]$1 b a slight degree ( =c+ w cause x to act l ! te/ tube 9 ,fig4 #c1 & ! m !re are ( !m 9 a giv5 boil] ! m spasmodic w be its work+4 ,! exp]im5t ) our kettle 7,fig4 #b7 gives ! clue to ! be/ means ( promot+ circulation 9 ord9>y %ell boil]s4 ,/e5/rup or ,m>t9 & ,gall[ay wat] tubes plac$ 9 su* boil]s also assi/ 9 direct+ ! circulation !re91 b x is almo/ impossible to produce 9 %ell boil]s1 by any means ! circulation ( all ! wat] 9 "o cont9u\s r\nd1 su* z m>ks ! well-con/ruct$ wat]-tube boil]4 ,z ,i h be=e rem>k$1 provision = a prop] circulation ( wat] has be5 almo/ univ]sally ignor$ 9 design+ /eam boil]s1 sometimes to ! great damage ( ! own]1 b (t5] to ! jeop>dy ( ! lives ( ^? :o are employ$ to run !m4 ,! not$ case ( ! ,montana & h] si/] %ip1 :]e "s #cjj1jjj 0 ?r[n away 9 try+ an exp]im5t :i* a prop] consid]ation ( ?is subject w\ld h avoid$1 is a case 9 po9t2 b :o %all c\nt ! co/ ( life & treasure n1 p]haps1 directly traceable to1 b1 nev]!less1 due entirely to su* neglect 9 design & con/ruction ( ! ?\s&s ( boil]s 9 :i* ?is necess>y elem5t has be5 ignor$8 ,9 ! light ( ! p]=mance ( ! exact+ conditions ( pres5t day p[]-plant practice1 a review ( ?is lecture & ( ! =ego+ li/ ( requirem5ts reveals ! insight ( ! inv5tors ( ! ,babcock ,wilcox boil] into ! fundam5tal pr9ciples ( /eam g5]ator design & con/ruction4 ,s9ce ! ,babcock ,wilcox boil] became ?or\ghly e/abli%$ z a durable & effici5t /eam g5]ator1 _m types ( wat]-tube boil]s h appe>$ on ! m>ket4 ,mo/ ( !m1 fail+ to meet en\gh ( ! requirem5ts ( a p]fect boil]1 h fall5 by ! wayside1 :ile a few fail+ to meet all ( ! requirem5ts1 h only a limit$ field ( usefulness4 ,none h be5 sup]ior1 & 9 ! mo/ cases ! mo/ ard5t admir]s ( o!r boil]s h be5 satisfi$ 9 look+ up to ! ,babcock ,wilcox boil] z a /&>d & 9 claim+ t ! new] boil]s 7 j z good4 ,records ( rec5t p]=mances "u ! mo/ sev]e conditions ( s]vices on l& & sea1 %[ t ! ,babcock ,wilcox boil] c be run cont9ually & regul>ly at high] ov]loads1 ) high] effici5cy1 & l[] upkeep co/ ?an any o!r boil] on ! m>ket4 ,x is especially adapt$ = p[]-plant "w :]e x is necess>y to use a boil] 9 :i* /eam c be rais$ quickly & ! boil] plac$ on ! l9e ei!r f a cold /ate or f a bank$ fire 9 ! %orte/ possible "t1 & ) :i* ! capacity1 ) clean fe$ wat]1 w be l>gely limit$ by ! am\nt ( coal t c be burn$ 9 ! furnace4 ,! di/ribution ( ! circulation ?r\gh ! sep>ate head]s & sections & ! action ( ! head]s 9 =c+ a maximum & cont9u\s circulation 9 ! l[] tubes1 p]mit ! op]ation ( ! ,babcock ,wilcox boil] )\t objectionable prim+1 ) a high] degree ( conc5tration ( salts 9 ! wat] ?an is possible 9 any o!r type ( boil]4 ,repeat$ daily p]=mances at ov]loads h demon/rat$ beyond a d\bt ! correctness ( ,mr4 ,babcock's computation reg>d+ ! circulat+ tube & head] area requir$ = mo/ effici5t circulation4 ,!y also h prov$ t enl>gem5t ( ! area ( head]s & circulat+ tubes beyond a c]ta9 po9t dim9i%es ! head available = caus+ circulation & consequ5tly limits ! ability ( ! boil] to respond to dem&s = ov]loads4 ,9 ?is lecture ,mr4 ,babcock made ! pr$iction t ) ! circulat+ tube area proportion$ 9 accordance ) ! pr9ciples laid d[n1 ! ,babcock ,wilcox boil] c\ld be cont9u\sly run at d\ble its nom9al rat+1 :i* at t "t 0 bas$ on #ab squ>e feet ( heat+ surface p] horse p[]4 ,?is pr$iction is be+ fulfill$ daily 9 all ! l>ge & prom95t p[] plants 9 ?is c\ntry & abroad1 & x has be5 repeat$ly demon/rat$ t ) clean wat] & clean tube surfaces x is possible to safely op]ate at ov] #cjj p] c5t ( ! nom9al rat+4 ,9 ! developm5t ( electrical p[] /ations x becomes m & m app>5t t x is economical to run a boil] at high rat+s dur+ ! times ( peak loads1 z by s do+ ! lay-ov] losses are dim9i%$ & ! economy ( ! plant z a :ole is increas$4 ,! numb] & importance ( ! l>ge electric light+ & p[] /ations con/ruct$ dur+ ! la/ t5 ye>s t are equipp$ ) ,babcock ,wilcox boil]s1 is a mo/ gratify+ demon/ration ( ! m]it ( ! app>atus1 especially 9 view ( _! satisfactory op]ation "u conditions :i* are p]haps m exact+ ?an ^? ( any o!r s]vice4 ,"t1 ! te/ ( all1 results ) boil]s z ) o!r ?+s1 9 ! survival ( ! fitte/4 ,:5 judg$ on ?is basis ! ,babcock ,wilcox boil] /&s pre-em95t 9 its ability to cov] ! :ole field ( /eam g5]ation ) ! highe/ comm]cial effici5cy obta9able4 ,ye> aft] ye> ! ,babcock ,wilcox boil] has become m firmly e/abli%$ z ! /&>d ( excell5ce 9 ! boil] mak+ art4 ,illu/ration3 ,s\? ,bo/on ,/ation ( ! ,bo/on ,elevat$ ,ry4 ,co41 ,bo/on1 ,mass4 #ifjj ,horse ,p[] ( ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil]s & ,sup]heat]s ,in/all$ 9 ?is ,/ation ,illu/ration3 #cfjj ,horse-p[] ,in/allation ( ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil]s at ! ,phipps ,p[] ,h\se ( ! ,duquesne ,light ,company1 ,pittsburgh1 ,pa4 ,,evolution ,,( ,,! ,,babcock ,,wilcox ,,wat]-,,tube ,,boil] ,q z mu* may be le>n$ f ! records ( failures z f ^? ( success4 ,:]e a device has be5 once fairly tri$ & f\nd to be imp]fect or impracticable1 ! k ( t trial is ( advantage 9 fur!r inve/igation4 ,reg>dless ( ! lesson taught by failure1 h[ev]1 x is an almo/ e-day occurr5ce t "s device or con/ruction :i* has be5 tri$ & f\nd want+1 if n wor?less1 is aga9 introduc$ z a great improvem5t ^u a device :i* has %[n by its survival to be ! fitte/4 ,! success ( ! ,babcock ,wilcox boil] is due to _m ye>s ( con/ant adh]5ce to "o l9e ( rese>*1 9 :i* an endeavor has be5 made to introduce improvem5ts ) ! view to produc+ a boil] :i* w\ld mo/ effectively meet ! dem&s ( ! times4 ,dur+ ! p]iods t ?is boil] has be5 built1 o!r companies h plac$ on ! m>ket m ?an ?irty wat]-tube or sectional wat]-tube boil]s1 mo/ ( :i*1 ?\gh !y may h atta9$ "s di/9ction & sale1 h n[ entirely disappe>$4 ,! foll[+ incomplete li/ w s]ve to recall ! names ( "s ( ! boil]s t h _h a vogue at v>i\s times1 b :i* are n[ practically unkn[n3 ,dimpfel1 ,h[>d1 ,griffi? ,wundrum1 ,d9smore1 ,mill] ,fire ,box1 ,mill] ,am]ican1 ,mill] ,int]nal ,tube1 ,mill] ,incl9$ ,tube1 ,phleg]1 ,weigant1 ! ,lady ,v]n]1 ! ,all51 ! ,kelly1 ! ,&]son1 ! ,rog]s ,black1 ! ,eclipse or ,kilgore1 ! ,moore1 ! ,bak] ,smi?1 ! ,r5%aw1 ! ,%ackleton1 ! ,duplex1 ! ,pond ,brad=d1 ! ,:itt+ham1 ! ,bee1 ! ,hazleton or ,common ,s5se1 ! ,reynolds1 ! ,suplee or ,lud]1 ! ,babbit1 ! ,re$1 ! ,smi?1 ! ,/&>d1 etc41 etc4 ,x is ) ! object ( protect+ our cu/om]s & fri5ds f loss ?r\gh pur*as+ disc>d$ ideas t !re is giv5 on ! foll[+ pages a brief hi/ory ( ! developm5t ( ! ,babcock ,wilcox boil] z x is built to-day4 ,! illu/rations & brief descriptions indicate cle>ly ! v>i\s designs & con/ructions t h be5 us$ & t h be5 replac$1 z exp]i5ce has %[n 9 :at way improvem5t might be made4 ,!y s]ve z a hi/ory ( ! exp]im5tal /eps 9 ! developm5t ( ! pres5t ,babcock ,wilcox boil]1 ! value & success ( :i*1 z a /eam g5]ator1 is evid5c$ by ! fact t ! l>ge/ & mo/ discrim9at+ us]s cont9ue to pur*ase !m aft] ye>s ( exp]i5ce 9 _! op]ation4 ,illu/ration3 ,no4 #a ,no4 #a4 ,! orig9al ,babcock ,wilcox boil] 0 pat5t$ 9 #ahfg4 ,! ma9 idea 9 its design 0 safety1 to :i* all o!r features 7 sacrific$ :]ev] !y conflict$4 ,! boil] consi/$ ( a ne/ ( horizontal tubes1 s]v+ z a /eam & wat] res]voir1 plac$ above & connect$ at ea* end by bolt$ jo9ts to a second ne/ ( incl9$ heat+ tubes fill$ ) wat]4 ,! tubes 7 plac$ "o above ! o!r 9 v]tical r[s1 ea* r[ & its connect+ end =m+ a s+le ca/+4 ,h&-holes 7 plac$ at ea* end = clean+4 ,int]nal tubes 7 plac$ )9 ! incl9$ tubes ) a view to aid+ circulation4 ,no4 #b4 ,?is boil] 0 ! same z ,no4 #a1 except t ! int]nal circulat+ tubes 7 omitt$ z !y 7 f\nd to h9d] r ?an help ! circulation4 ,nos4 #a & #b 7 f\nd to be faulty 9 bo? mat]ial & design1 ca/ metal prov+ unfit = heat+ surfaces plac$ directly ov] ! fire1 z x crack$ z soon z any scale =m$4 ,no4 #c4 ,wr\ght-iron tubes 7 sub/itut$ = ! ca/-iron heat+ tubes1 ! ends be+ bright5$1 laid 9 m\lds1 & ! head]s ca/ on4 ,! /eam & wat] capacity 9 ?is design 7 insuffici5t to secure regul>ity ( action1 !re be+ no res]ve ^u :i* to draw dur+ fir+ or :5 ! wat] 0 f$ int]mitt5tly4 ,! attempt to dry ! /eam by sup]heat+ x 9 ! ne/ ( tubes =m+ ! /eam space 0 f\nd to be impracticable4 ,! /eam deliv]$ 0 ei!r wet1 dry or sup]heat$1 accord+ to ! rate at :i* x 0 be+ drawn f ! boil]4 ,s$im5t 0 f\nd to lodge 9 ! l[]mo/ po9t ( ! boil] at ! re> end & ! expos$ portions crack$ (f at ?is po9t :5 subject$ to ! furnace heat4 ,illu/ration3 ,no4 #d ,no4 #d4 ,a pla9 cyl9d]1 c>ry+ ! wat] l9e at its c5t] & leav+ ! upp] half = /eam space1 0 sub/itut$ = ! ne/ ( tubes =m+ ! /eam & wat] space 9 ,nos4 #a1 #b & #c4 ,! sections 7 made z 9 ,no4 #c & a mud drum add$ to ! re> end ( ! sections at ! po9t t 0 l[e/ & f>!/ remov$ f ! fire4 ,! gases 7 made to pass (f at "o side & did n come into contact ) ! mud drum4 ,dry /eam 0 obta9$ ?r\gh ! increase ( sep>at+ surface & /eam space & ! add$ wat] capacity furni%$ a /orage = heat to tide ov] irregul>ities ( fir+ & fe$+4 ,by ! addition ( ! drum1 ! boil] became a s]viceable & practical design1 reta9+ all ( ! features ( safety4 ,z ! drum 0 remov$ f ! direct action ( ! fire1 x 0 n subject$ to excessive /ra9 due to unequal expansion1 & its diamet]1 if l>ge 9 comp>ison ) t ( ! tubes =m]ly us$1 0 small :5 comp>$ ) t ( cyl9drical boil]s4 ,difficulties 7 enc\nt]$ 9 ?is boil] 9 secur+ reliable jo9ts betwe5 ! wr\ght-iron tubes & ! ca/-iron head]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,no4 #e ,no4 #e4 ,9 ?is design1 wr\ght-iron wat] legs 7 sub/itut$ = ! ca/-iron head]s1 ! tubes be+ exp&$ into ! inside %eets & a l>ge cov] plac$ opposite ! front end ( ! tubes = clean+4 ,! tubes 7 /agg]$ "o above ! o!r1 an arrangem5t f\nd to be m effici5t 9 ! absorption ( heat ?an :]e !y 7 plac$ 9 v]tical r[s4 ,9 o!r respects1 ! boil] 0 simil> to ,no4 #d1 except t x _h lo/ ! important elem5t ( safety ?r\gh ! introduction ( ! v objectionable feature ( flat /ay$ surfaces4 ,! l>ge doors = access to ! tubes 7 also a cause ( weakness4 ,an in/allation ( ^! boil]s 0 made at ! plant ( ! ,calv]t ,sug> ,ref9]y 9 ,baltimore1 & :ile !y 7 satisfactory 9 _! op]ation1 7 nev] duplicat$4 ,illu/ration3 ,no4 #f ,no4 #f4 ,?is 0 a modification ( ,no4 #e 9 :i* long] tubes 7 us$ & ov] :i* ! gases 7 caus$ to make ?ree passes ) a view ( bett] economy4 ,9 addition1 "s ( ! /ay$ surfaces 7 omitt$ & h&holes sub/itut$ = ! l>ge access doors4 ,a numb] ( boil]s ( ?is design 7 built b _! excessive fir/ co/1 ! lack ( adju/ability ( ! /ructure "u v>y+ temp]atures1 & ! inconv5i5ce ( transportation1 l$ to ,no4 #g4 ,illu/ration3 ,no4 #g ,no4 #g4 ,9 ?is boil]1 ! head]s & wat] legs 7 replac$ by ,t-heads screw$ to ! ends ( ! incl9$ tubes4 ,! faces ( ^! ,ts 7 mill$ & ! tubes plac$ "o above ! o!r ) ! mill$ faces metal to metal4 ,long bolts pass$ ?r\gh ea* v]tical section ( ! ,t-heads & ?r\gh connect+ boxes on ! heads ( ! drums hold+ ! :ole toge!r4 ,a l>ge numb] ( boil]s ( ?is design 7 built & _m 7 9 successful op]ation = ov] tw5ty ye>s4 ,9 mo/ in/ances1 h[ev]1 !y 7 alt]$ to lat] types4 ,illu/ration3 ,no4 #h ,illu/ration3 ,no4 #i ,nos4 #h & #i4 ,^! boil]s 7 kn[n z ! ,griffi? ,wundrum type1 ! conc]n :i* built !m be+ lat] m]g$ 9 ,! ,babcock ,wilcox ,co4 ,exp]im5ts 7 made ) ?is design ) f\r passages ( ! gases across ! tubes & ! d[nw>d circulation ( ! wat] at ! re> ( ! boil] 0 c>ri$ to ! bottom r[ ( tubes4 ,9 ,no4 #i an attempt 0 made to increase ! safety & r$uce ! co/ by r$uc+ ! am\nt ( /eam & wat] capacity4 ,a drum at "r angles to ! l9e ( tubes 0 us$ b z !re 0 no provision made to secure dry /eam1 ! results 7 n satisfactory4 ,! next move 9 ! direction ( safety 0 ! employm5t ( sev]al drums ( small diamet] in/ead ( a s+le drum4 ,illu/ration3 ,no4 #aj ,?is is %[n 9 ,no4 #aj4 ,a ne/ ( small horizontal drums1 #ae in*es 9 diamet]1 0 us$ 9 place ( ! s+le drum ( l>g] diamet]4 ,a set ( circulation tubes 0 plac$ at an int]m$iate angle betwe5 ! ma9 bank ( heat+ tubes & ! horizontal drums =m+ ! /eam res]voir4 ,^! circulators 7 to return to ! re> end ( ! circulat+ tubes ! wat] c>ri$ up by ! circulation1 & 9 ?is way 7 to all[ only /eam to be deliv]$ to ! small drums above4 ,!re 0 no improvem5t 9 ! action ( ?is boil] ov] t ( ,no4 #i4 ,! f\r passages ( ! gas ov] ! tubes tri$ 9 ,nos4 #h1 #i & #aj 7 n f\nd to add to ! economy ( ! boil]4 ,illu/ration3 ,no4 #aa ,no4 #aa4 ,a trial 0 next made ( a box coil sy/em1 9 :i* ! wat] 0 made to transv]se ! furnace sev]al times be=e be+ deliv]$ to ! drum above4 ,! t5d5cy "h1 z 9 all simil> boil]s1 0 to =m /eam 9 ! middle ( ! coil & bl[ ! wat] f ea* end1 leav+ ! tubes practically dry until ! /eam f\nd an outlet & ! wat] return$4 ,?is boil] _h1 9 addition to a defective circulation1 a decid$ly geys]-l action & produc$ wet /eam4 ,illu/ration3 ,no4 #ab ,all ( ! types m5tion$1 ) ! exception ( ,nos4 #e & #f1 _h betwe5 _! sev]al p>ts a l>ge numb] ( bolt$ jo9ts :i* 7 subject$ to ! action ( ! fire4 ,:5 ^! boil]s 7 plac$ 9 op]ation x 0 demon/rat$ t z soon z any scale =m$ on ! heat+ surfaces1 leaks 7 caus$ due to unequal expansion4 ,no4 #ab4 ,) ?is boil]1 an attempt 0 made to remove ! jo9ts f ! fire & to increase ! heat+ surface 9 a giv5 space4 ,wat] tubes 7 exp&$ into bo? sides ( wr\ght-iron boxes1 op5+s be+ made = ! admission ( wat] & ! exit ( /eam4 ,fire tubes 7 plac$ inside ! wat] tubes to increase ! heat+ surface4 ,?is design 0 ab&on$ because ( ! rapid /opp+ up ( ! tubes by scale & ! impossibility ( clean+ !m4 ,illu/ration3 ,no4 #ac ,no4 #ac4 ,v]tical /raight l9e head]s ( ca/ iron1 ea* conta9+ two r[s ( tubes1 7 bolt$ to a connection lead+ to ! /eam & wat] drum above4 ,illu/ration3 ,no4 #ad ,no4 #ad4 ,a wr\ght-iron box 0 sub/itut$ = ! d\ble ca/-iron head]s4 ,9 ?is design1 /ays 7 necess>y & 7 f\nd1 z always1 to be an elem5t to be avoid$ :]ev] possible4 ,! boil] 0 an improvem5t on ,no4 #f1 h[ev]4 ,a slant+ bridge wall 0 introduc$ und]nea? ! drum to ?r[ a l>g] portion ( its heat+ surface into ! combu/ion *amb] "u ! bank ( tubes4 ,?is bridge wall 0 f\nd to be difficult to keep 9 repair & 0 ( no p>ticul> b5efit4 ,illu/ration3 ,no4 #ae ,no4 #ae4 ,ea* r[ ( tubes 0 exp&$ at ea* end into a cont9u\s head]1 ca/ ( c> :eel metal4 ,! head]s _h a s9u\s =m s t !y w\ld lie close toge!r & admit ( a /agg]$ position ( ! tubes :5 assembl$4 ,:ile o!r designs ( head] =m 7 tri$ lat]1 exp]i5ce ) ,nos4 #ad & #ae %[$ t ! /yle "h adopt$ 0 ! be/ = all purposes & x has n be5 *ang$ mat]ially s9ce4 ,! drum 9 ?is design 0 support$ by gird]s re/+ on ! brickwork4 ,bolt$ jo9ts 7 disc>d$1 ) ! exception ( ^? connect+ ! head]s to ! front & re> ends ( ! drums & ! bottom ( ! re> head]s to ! mud drum4 ,ev5 su* jo9ts1 h[ev]1 7 f\nd objectionable & 7 sup]s$$ 9 subsequ5t con/ruction by %ort l5g?s ( tubes exp&$ into bor$ holes4 ,illu/ration3 ,no4 #af ,no4 #af4 ,9 ?is design1 head]s 7 tri$ :i* 7 made 9 ! =m ( triangul> boxes1 9 ea* ( :i* !re 7 ?ree tubes exp&$4 ,^! boxes 7 alt]nately rev]s$ & connect$ by %ort l5g?s ( exp&$ tubes1 be+ connect$ to ! drum by tubes b5t 9 a mann] to all[ !m to ent] ! %ell normally4 ,! jo9ts betwe5 head]s introduc$ an elem5t ( weakness & ! connections to ! drum 7 insuffici5t to give adequate circulation4 ,illu/ration3 ,no4 #ag ,no4 #ag4 ,/raight horizontal head]s 7 next tri$1 alt]nately %ift$ "r & left to all[ a /agg]+ ( tubes4 ,^! head]s 7 connect$ to ea* o!r & to ! drums by exp&$ nipples4 ,! objections to ?is boil] 7 almo/ ! same z ^? to ,no4 #af4 ,illu/ration3 ,no4 #ah ,illu/ration3 ,no4 #ai ,nos4 #ah & #ai4 ,^! boil]s 7 design$ prim>ily = fire protection purposes1 ! requirem5ts dem&+ a small1 compact boil] ) ability to raise /eam quickly4 ,^! bo? s]v$ ! purpose admirably b1 z 9 ,no4 #i1 ! only provision made = ! secur+ ( dry /eam 0 ! use ( ! /eam dome1 %[n 9 ! illu/ration4 ,?is dome 0 f\nd inadequate & has s9ce be5 ab&on$ 9 ne>ly all =ms ( boil] con/ruction4 ,no o!r rem$y be+ sugge/$ at ! "t1 ^! boil]s 7 n consid]$ z desirable = g5]al use z ,nos4 #ba & #bb4 ,9 ,europe1 h[ev]1 :]e small size units 7 m 9 dem&1 ,no4 #ah 0 modifi$ some:at & us$ l>gely ) excell5t results4 ,^! exp]im5ts1 z !y may n[ be call$1 al?\gh _m boil]s ( "s ( ! designs 7 built1 cle>ly demon/rat$ t ! be/ con/ruction & effici5cy requir$ adh]5ce to ! foll[+ elem5ts ( design3 #a/4 ,s9u\s head]s = ea* v]tical r[ ( tubes4 #bnd4 ,a sep>ate & indep5d5t connection ) ! drum1 bo? front & re>1 = ea* v]tical r[ ( tubes4 ,illu/ration3 ,no4 #bj;,a ,illu/ration3 ,no4 #bj;,b #crd4 ,all jo9ts betwe5 p>ts ( ! boil] prop] to be made )\t bolts or screw plates4 #d?4 ,no surfaces to be us$ :i* necessitate ! use ( /ays4 #e?4 ,! boil] support$ indep5d5tly ( ! brickwork s z to all[ fre$om = expansion & contraction z x is heat$ or cool$4 #f?4 ,ample diamet] ( /eam & wat] drums1 ^! n to be less ?an #cj in*es except = small size units4 #g?4 ,e "p accessible = clean+ & repairs4 ,) ^! po9ts hav+ be5 det]m9$1 ,no4 #bj 0 design$4 ,?is boil] _h all ! desirable features j enum]at$1 toge!r ) a numb] ( improvem5ts z to detail ( con/ruction4 ,! g5]al =m ( ,no4 #ae 0 adh]$ to b ! bolt$ connections betwe5 sections & drum & sections & mud drum 7 disc>d$ 9 favor ( connections made by %ort l5g?s ( boil] tubes exp&$ into ! adjac5t p>ts4 ,?is boil] 0 susp5d$ f gird]s1 l ,no4 #ae1 b ^! 9 turn 7 c>ri$ on v]tical supports1 leav+ ! pressure p>ts entirely free f ! brickwork1 ! mutually det]iorat+ /ra9s pres5t :]e "o 0 support$ by ! o!r be+ 9 ?is way ov]come4 ,hundr$s ( ?\s&s ( horse p[] ( ?is design 7 built1 giv+ great satisfaction4 ,! boil] 0 kn[n z ! ,c4 ,i4 ,f4 7ca/-iron front7 /yle1 an ornam5tal ca/-iron front hav+ be5 usually furni%$4 ,illu/ration3 ,no4 #ba ,! next /ep1 & ! "o :i* connects ! boil]s z describ$ above to ! boil] z x is built to-day1 0 ! design illu/rat$ 9 ,no4 #ba4 ,^! boil]s 7 kn[n z ! ,w4 ,i4 ,f4 /yle1 ! fronts furni%$ z "p ( ! equipm5t be+ con/ruct$ l>gely ( wr\ght iron4 ,! ca/-iron drumheads us$ 9 ,no4 #bj 7 replac$ by wr\ght-/eel flang$ & bump$ heads4 ,! drums 7 made long] & ! sections connect$ to wr\ght-/eel cross boxes rivet$ to ! bottom ( ! drums4 ,! boil]s 7 support$ by gird]s & columns z 9 ,no4 #bj4 ,illu/ration3 ,no4 #bb ,no4 #bb4 ,?is boil]1 :i* is designat$ z ! ,v]tical ,head] type1 has ! same g5]al features ( con/ruction z ,no4 #ba1 except t ! tube %eet side ( ! head]s is /epp$ to all[ ! head]s to be plac$ v]tically & at "r angles to ! drum & /ill ma9ta9 ! tubes at ! angle us$ 9 ,nos4 #bj & #ba4 ,illu/ration3 ,no4 #bc ,no4 #bc1 or ! cross drum design ( boil]1 is a developm5t ( ! ,babcock ,wilcox m>9e boil]1 9 :i* ! cross drum is us$ exclusively4 ,! exp]i5ce ( ! ,glasg[ ,works ( ,! ,babcock ,wilcox1 ,ltd41 ) ,no4 #ah prov$ t prop] att5tion to details ( con/ruction w\ld make x a mo/ desirable =m ( boil] :]e headroom 0 limit$4 ,a l>ge numb] ( ?is design h be5 successfully in/all$ & are giv+ satisfactory results "u widely v>y+ conditions4 ,! cross drum boil] is also built 9 a v]tical head] design4 ,boil]s ,nos4 #ba1 #bb & #bc1 ) a few modifications1 are n[ ! /&>d =ms4 ,^! designs are illu/rat$1 z !y are con/ruct$ to-day1 on pages #dh1 #eb1 #ed1 #eh & #fj4 ,! la/ /ep 9 ! developm5t ( ! wat]-tube boil]1 beyond :i* x seems almo/ impossible = sci5ce & skill to advance1 consi/s 9 ! mak+ ( all pressure p>ts ( ! boil] ( wr\ght /eel1 includ+ s9u\s head]s1 cross boxes1 nozzles1 & ! l4 ,?is con/ruction 0 ! result ( ! dem&s ( c]ta9 ,cont95tal laws t are com+ into g5]al vogue 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,! ,babcock ,wilcox ,co4 h at ! pres5t "t a plant produc+ /eel =g+s t h be5 pron\nc$ by ! ,london ,eng9e] to be a p]fect triumph ( ! =g]s' art4 ,! v>i\s designs ( ?is all wr\ght-/eel boil] are fully illu/rat$ 9 ! foll[+ pages4 ,illu/ration3 ,wr\ght-/eel ,v]tical ,head] ,longitud9al ,drum ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil]1 ,equipp$ ) ,babcock ,wilcox ,sup]heat] & ,babcock ,wilcox ,*a9 ,grate ,/ok] ,,! ,,babcock ,,wilcox ,,boil] ,! foll[+ brief description ( ! ,babcock ,wilcox boil] w cle>ly indicate ! mann] 9 :i* x fulfills ! requirem5ts ( ! p]fect /eam boil] already enum]at$4 ,! ,babcock ,wilcox boil] is built 9 two g5]al classes1 ! longitud9al drum type & ! cross drum type4 ,ei!r ( ^! designs may be con/ruct$ ) v]tical or incl9$ head]s1 & ! head]s 9 turn may be ( wr\ght /eel or ca/ iron dep5d5t ^u ! work+ pressure = :i* ! boil] is con/ruct$4 ,! head]s may be ( diff]5t l5g?s1 t is1 may connect diff]5t numb]s ( tubes1 & x is by a *ange 9 ! numb] ( tubes 9 height p] section & ! numb] ( sections 9 wid? t ! size ( ! boil] is v>i$4 ,! longitud9al drum boil] is ! g5]ally accept$ /&>d ( ,babcock ,wilcox con/ruction4 ,! cross drum boil]1 ?\gh orig9ally design$ to meet c]ta9 conditions ( headroom1 has become popul> = num]\s classes ( "w :]e l[ headroom is n a requirem5t :i* mu/ be met4 ,,longitud9al ,,drum ,,con/ruction--,! heat+ surface ( ?is type ( boil] is made up ( a drum or drums1 dep5d+ ^u ! wid? ( ! boil] ext5d+ longitud9ally ov] ! o!r pressure p>ts4 ,to ! drum or drums !re are connect$ ?r\gh cross boxes at ei!r end ! sections1 :i* are made up ( head]s & tubes4 ,at ! l[] end ( ! sections !re is a mud drum ext5d+ entirely across ! sett+ & connect$ to all sections4 ,! connections betwe5 all p>ts are by %ort l5g?s ( tubes exp&$ into bor$ seats4 ,illu/ration3 ,=g$-/eel ,drumhead ) ,manhole ,plate 9 ,position ,! drums are ( ?ree %eets1 ( su* ?ickness z to give ! requir$ factor ( safety "u ! maximum pressure = :i* ! boil] is con/ruct$4 ,! circul> seams are ord9>ily s+le lap rivet$ ?\gh ^! may be d\ble lap rivet$ to meet c]ta9 requirem5ts ( pressure or ( specifications4 ,! longitud9al seams are prop]ly proportion$ butt & /rap or lap rivet$ jo9ts dep5d5t ^u ! pressure = :i* ! boil]s are built4 ,:]e butt /rap jo9ts are us$ ! /raps are b5t to ! prop] radius 9 an hydraulic press4 ,! c\rses are built indep5d5tly to template & are assembl$ by an hydraulic =c+ press4 ,all rivet$ holes are pun*$ "o-qu>t] in* small] ?an ! size ( rivets z driv5 & are ream$ to full size aft] ! plates are assembl$4 ,all rivets are driv5 by hydraulic pressure & held until black4 ,illu/ration3 ,=g$-/eel ,drumhead ,int]ior ,! drumheads are hydraulic =g$ at a s+le heat1 ! manhole op5+ & /iff5+ r+ be+ =g$ 9 position4 ,flat rais$ seats = wat] column & fe$ connections are =m$ 9 ! =g+4 ,all heads are provid$ ) manholes1 ! edges ( :i* are turn$ true4 ,! manhole plates are ( =g$ /eel & turn$ to fit manhole op5+4 ,^! plates are held 9 position by =g$-/eel gu>ds & bolts4 ,! drum nozzles are ( =g$ /eel1 fac$1 & fitt$ ) tap] ?read /ud bolts4 ,illu/ration3 ,=g$-/eel ,drum ,nozzle ,cross boxes by means ( :i* ! sections are atta*$ to ! drums1 are ( =g$ /eel1 made f a s+le %eet4 ,:]e two or m drums are us$ 9 "o boil] !y are connect$ by a cross pipe hav+ a flang$ outlet = ! /eam connection4 ,illu/ration3 ,=g$-/eel ,cross ,box ,! sections are built ( #d-;in* hot f9i%$ seamless op5-he>? /eel tubes ( ,no4 #aj ,b4 ,w4 ,g4 :]e ! boil]s are built = work+ pressures up to #baj p\nds4 ,:]e ! work+ pressure is to be above ?is & bel[ #bfj p\nds1 ,no4 #i ,b4 ,w4 ,g4 tubes are suppli$4 ,illu/ration3 ,inside ,h&hole ,fitt+s ,wr\ght-/eel ,v]tical ,head] ,! tubes are exp&$ into head]s ( s]p5t9e or s9u\s =m1 :i* dispose ! tubes 9 a /agg]$ position :5 assembl$ z a complete boil]4 ,^! head]s are ( wr\ght /eel or ( ca/ iron1 ! latt] be+ ord9>ily suppli$ :]e ! work+ pressure is n to exce$ #afj p\nds4 ,! head]s may be ei!r v]tical or incl9$ z %[n 9 ! v>i\s illu/rations ( assembl$ boil]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,wr\ght-/eel ,v]tical ,head] ,opposite ea* tube end 9 ! head]s !re is plac$ a h&hole ( suffici5t size to p]mit ! clean+1 removal or r5ewal ( a tube4 ,^! op5+s 9 ! wr\ght /eel v]tical head]s are elliptical 9 %ape1 ma*9e fac$1 & mill$ to a true plane back f ! edge a suffici5t di/ance to make a seat4 ,! op5+s are clos$ by inside fitt+ =g$ plates1 %\ld]$ to c5t] 9 ! op5+1 _! flang$ seats mill$ to a true plane4 ,^! plates are held 9 position by /uds & =g$-/eel b9d]s & nuts4 ,! jo9ts betwe5 plates & head]s are made ) a ?9 gasket4 ,illu/ration3 ,inside ,h&hole ,fitt+ ,wr\ght-/eel ,incl9$ ,head] ,9 ! wr\ght-/eel incl9$ head]s ! h&hole op5+s are ei!r circul> or elliptical1 ! =m] be+ ord9>ily suppli$4 ,! circul> op5+s h a rais$ seat mill$ to a true plane4 ,! op5+s are clos$ on ! outside by =g$-/eel caps1 mill$ & gr\nd true1 held 9 position by =g$-/eel safety clamps & secur$ by ball-head$ bolts to assure correct alignm5t4 ,) ?is /yle ( fitt+1 jo9ts are made tight1 metal to metal1 )\t pack+ ( any k9d4 ,illu/ration3 ,wr\ght-/eel ,incl9$ ,head] ,:]e elliptical h&holes are furni%$ !y are fac$ inside1 clos$ by inside fitt+ =g$-/eel plates1 held to _! seats by /uds & secur$ by =g$-/eel b9d]s & nuts4 ,! jo9ts betwe5 plates & head] are made ) a ?9 gasket4 ,illu/ration3 ,ca/-iron ,v]tical ,head] ,! v]tical ca/-iron head]s h elliptical h&holes ) rais$ seats mill$ to a true plane4 ,^! are clos$ on ! outside by ca/-iron caps mill$ true1 held 9 position by =g$-/eel safety clamps1 :i* close ! op5+s f ! inside & :i* are secur$ by ball-head$ bolts to assure prop] alignm5t4 ,all jo9ts are made tight1 metal to metal1 )\t pack+ ( any k9d4 ,! mud drum to :i* ! sections are atta*$ at ! l[] end ( ! re> head]s1 is a =g$-/eel box #g in*es squ>e1 & ( su* l5g? z to be connect$ to all head]s by means ( wr\ght nipples exp&$ into c\nt]bor$ seats4 ,! mud drum is furni%$ ) h&holes = clean+1 ^! be+ clos$ f ! inside by =g$-/eel plates ) /uds1 & secur$ on a fac$ seat 9 ! mud drum by =g$-/eel b9d]s & nuts4 ,! jo9ts betwe5 ! plates & ! drum are made ) ?9 gaskets4 ,! mud drum is tapp$ = bl[-(f connection4 ,all connections betwe5 drums & sections & betwe5 sections & mud drum are ( hot f9i%$ seamless op5-he>? /eel tubes ( ,no4 #i ,b4 ,w4 ,g4 ,boil]s ( ! longitud9al drum type are susp5d$ front & re> f wr\ght-/eel support+ frames entirely indep5d5t ( ! brickwork4 ,?is all[s = expansion & contraction ( ! pressure p>ts )\t /ra9+ ei!r ! boil] or ! brickwork1 & also all[s ( brickwork repair or r5ewal )\t 9 any way di/urb+ ! boil] or its connections4 ,illu/ration3 ,babcock ,wilcox ,wr\ght-/eel ,v]tical ,head] ,cross ,drum ,boil] ,,cross ,,drum ,,con/ruction--,! cross drum type ( boil]s diff]s f ! longitud9al only 9 drum con/ruction & me?od ( support4 ,! drum 9 ?is type is plac$ transv]sely across ! re> ( ! boil] & is connect$ to ! sections by means ( circulat+ tubes exp&$ into bor$ seats4 ,! drums = all pressures are ( two %eets ( suffici5t ?ickness to give ! requir$ factor ( safety4 ,! longitud9al seams are d\ble rivet$ butt /rapp$1 ! /raps be+ b5t to ! prop] radius 9 an hydraulic press4 ,! circulat+ tubes are exp&$ into ! drums at ! seams1 ! butt /raps s]v+ z tube seats4 ,! drumheads1 drum fitt+s & features ( rivet+ are ! same 9 ! cross drum z 9 ! longitud9al types4 ,! sections & mud drum are also ! same = ! two types4 ,cross drum boil]s are support$ at ! re> on ! mud drum :i* re/s on ca/-iron f\ndation plates4 ,!y are susp5d$ at ! front f a wr\ght-iron support+ frame1 ea* section be+ susp5d$ indep5d5tly f ! cross memb]s by hook susp5sion bolts4 ,?is me?od ( support is su* z to all[ = expansion & contraction )\t /ra9+ ei!r ! boil] or ! brickwork & p]mits ( repair or r5ewal ( ! latt] )\t 9 any way di/urb+ ! boil] or its connections4 ,! foll[+ features ( design & ( atta*m5ts suppli$ are ! same = all types4 ,,fronts--,ornam5tal fronts are fitt$ to ! front support+ frame4 ,^! h l>ge doors = access to ! front head]s & panels above ! fire fronts4 ,! fire fronts :]e furni%$ h indep5d5t frames = fire doors :i* are bolt$ on1 & a%pit doors fitt$ ) bla/ cat*es4 ,! lugs on door frames & on doors are ca/ solid4 ,! faces ( doors & ( frames are plan$ & ! lugs mill$4 ,! doors & frames are plac$ 9 _! f9al relative position1 clamp$1 & ! holes = h+e p9s drill$ :ile ?us held4 ,a p]fect alignm5t ( door & frame is ?us assur$ & ! me?od is repres5tative ( ! c>e tak5 9 small details ( manufacture4 ,! front z a :ole is s arrang$ t any /ok] may be appli$ ) b slight modification :]ev] boil]s are set ) suffici5t furnace height4 ,illu/ration3 ,cross ,drum ,boil] ,front ,9 ! v]tical head] boil]s l>ge wr\ght-iron doors1 :i* give access to ! re> head]s1 are atta*$ to ! re> support+ frame4 ,illu/ration3 ,wr\ght-/eel ,incl9$ ,head] ,longitud9al ,drum ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil]1 ,equipp$ ) ,babcock ,wilcox ,sup]heat] ,illu/ration3 ,automatic ,drumhead ,/op & ,*eck ,valve ,,fitt+s--,ea* boil] is provid$ ) ! foll[+ fitt+s z "p ( ! /&>d equipm5t3 ,bl[-(f connections & valves atta*$ to ! mud drum4 ,safety valves plac$ on nozzles on ! /eam drums4 ,a wat] column connect$ to ! front ( ! drum4 ,a /eam gauge atta*$ to ! boil] front4 ,fe$ wat] connection & valves4 ,a flang$ /op & *eck valve ( heavy patt]n is atta*$ directly to ea* drumhead1 clos+ automatically 9 case ( a rupture 9 ! fe$ l9e4 ,all valves & fitt+s are sub/antially built & are ( designs :i* by _! successful s]vice = _m ye>s h become /&>d ) ,! ,babcock ,wilcox ,co4 ,! fixtures t are suppli$ ) ! boil]s consi/ (3 ,dead plates & supports1 ! plates arrang$ = a fire brick l9+4 ,a full set ( grate b>s & be>]s1 ! latt] fitt$ ) expansion sockets = side walls4 ,flame bridge plates ) necess>y fa/5+s1 & special fire brick = l9+ same4 ,bridge wall gird] = hang+ bridge wall ) expansion sockets = side walls4 ,a full set ( access & clean+ doors ?r\gh :i* all portions ( ! pressure p>ts may be rea*$4 ,a sw+ damp] & frame ) damp] op]at+ rig4 ,!re are also suppli$ ) ea* boil] a wr5* = h&hole nuts1 a wat]-driv5 turb9e tube clean]1 a set ( fire tools & a metal /eam hose & clean+ pipe equipp$ ) a special nozzle = bl[+ du/ & soot f ! tubes4 ,aside f ! details ( design & con/ruction z cov]$ 9 ! =ego+ description1 a /udy ( ! illu/rations w make cle> ! features ( ! boil] z a :ole :i* h l$ to its success4 ,! me?od ( support+ ! boil] has be5 describ$4 ,?is all[s x to be hung at any height t may be necess>y to prop]ly h&le ! fuel to be burn$ or to accommodate ! /ok] to be in/all$4 ,! height ( ! ne/ ( tubes :i* =ms ! ro( ( ! furnace is ?us ! controll+ feature 9 det]m9+ ! furnace height1 or ! di/ance f ! front head]s to ! floor l9e4 ,! sides & front ( ! furnace are =m$ by ! side & front boil] walls4 ,! re> wall ( ! furnace consi/s ( a bridge wall built f ! bottom ( ! a%pit to ! l[] r[ ( tubes4 ,! location ( ?is wall may be adju/$ )9 limits to give ! dep? ( furnace dem&$ by ! fuel us$4 ,ord9>ily ! bridge wall is ! det]m9+ feature 9 ! locat+ ( ! front baffle4 ,:]e a great dep? ( furnace is necess>y1 9 :i* case1 if ! front baffle 7 plac$ at ! bridge wall ! front pass ( ! boil] w\ld be relatively too long1 a pat5t$ con/ruction is us$ :i* ma9ta9s ! baffle 9 :at may be consid]$ its normal position1 & a connection made betwe5 ! baffle & ! bridge wall by means ( a tile ro(4 ,su* furnace con/ruction is kn[n z a ,web/] furnace4 ,illu/ration3 ,longitud9al ,drum ,boil]--,front ,view ,a consid]ation ( ?is furnace w cle>ly indicate its adaptability1 by reason ( its flexibility1 = any fuel & any design ( /ok]4 ,! boil] l5ds itself readily to in/allation ) an ext5sion or ,dut* ov5 furnace if ?is be dem&$ by ! fuel to be us$1 & 9 g5]al x may be /at$ t a satisfactory furnace arrangem5t may be made 9 connection ) a ,babcock ,wilcox boil] = burn+ any fuel1 solid1 liquid or gase\s4 ,! gases ( combu/ion evolv$ 9 ! furnace above describ$ are l$ ov] ! heat+ surfaces by two baffles4 ,^! are =m$ ( ca/-iron baffle plates l9$ ) special fire brick & held 9 position by tube clamps4 ,! front baffle leads ! gases ?r\gh ! =w>d portion ( ! tubes to a *amb] b5ea? ! drum or drums4 ,x is 9 ?is *amb] t a sup]heat] is in/all$ :]e su* an app>atus is desir$4 ,! gases make a turn ov] ! front baffle1 are l$ d[nw>d ?r\gh ! c5tral portion ( ! tubes1 call$ ! second pass1 by means ( a hang+ bridge wall ( brick & ! second baffle1 ar\nd :i* !y make a second turn upw>d1 pass ?r\gh ! re> portion ( ! tubes & are l$ to ! /ack or flue ?r\gh a damp] box 9 ! re> wall1 or ar\nd ! drums to a damp] box plac$ ov]head4 ,! space b5ea? ! tubes betwe5 ! bridge wall & ! re> boil] wall =ms a pocket into :i* mu* ( ! soot f ! gases 9 _! d[nw>d passage ?r\gh ! second pass w be deposit$ & f :i* x may be readily clean$ ?r\gh doors furni%$ = ! purpose4 ,! gas passages are ample & are s proportion$ t ! resi/ance (f]$ to ! gases is only su* z w assure ! prop] ab/raction ( heat f ! gases )\t caus+ undue friction1 requir+ excessive draft4 ,illu/ration3 ,p>tial ,v]tical ,section ,%[+ ,me?od ( ,introduc+ ,fe$ ,wat] ,! me?od 9 :i* ! fe$ wat] is introduc$ ?r\gh ! front drumhead ( ! boil] is cle>ly se5 by ref]5ce to ! illu/ration4 ,f ?is po9t ( introduction ! wat] passes to ! re> ( ! drum1 d[nw>d ?r\gh ! re> circulat+ tubes to ! sections1 upw>d ?r\gh ! tubes ( ! sections to ! front head]s & ?r\gh ^! head]s & front circulat+ tubes aga9 to ! drum :]e su* wat] z has n be5 =m$ into /eam retraces its c\rse4 ,! /eam =m$ 9 ! passage ?r\gh ! tubes is lib]at$ z ! wat] rea*es ! front ( ! drum4 ,! /eam s =m$ is /or$ 9 ! /eam space above ! wat] l9e1 f :i* x is drawn ?r\gh a s-call$ dry pipe4 ,! dry pipe 9 ! ,babcock ,wilcox boil] is misnam$1 z 9 reality x fulfills none ( ! functions ord9>ily attribut$ to su* a device4 ,?is function is usually to re/rict ! fl[ ( /eam f a boil] ) a view to avoid prim+4 ,9 ! ,babcock ,wilcox boil] its function is simply t ( a collect+ pipe1 & z ! aggregate area ( ! holes 9 x is greatly 9 excess ( ! area ( ! /eam outlet f ! drum1 x is pla9 t !re c be no re/riction ?r\gh ?is collect+ pipe4 ,x ext5ds ne>ly ! l5g? ( ! drum1 & draws /eam ev5ly f ! :ole l5g? ( ! /eam space4 ,illu/ration3 ,ca/-iron ,v]tical ,head] ,longitud9al ,drum ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil] ,illu/ration3 ,clos$ ,op5 ,pat5t$ ,side ,du/+ ,doors ,! l>ge tube doors ?r\gh :i* access is _h to ! front head]s & ! doors giv+ su* access to ! re> head]s 9 boil]s ( ! v]tical head] type h already be5 describ$ & are %[n cle>ly by ! illu/rations on pages #ef & #gd4 ,9 boil]s ( ! incl9$ head] type1 access to ! re> head]s is secur$ ?r\gh ! *amb] =m$ by ! head]s & ! re> boil] wall4 ,l>ge doors 9 ! sides ( ! sett+ give full access to all p>ts = inspection & = removal ( accumulations ( soot4 ,small du/+ doors are suppli$ = ! side walls ?r\gh :i* all ( ! heat+ surfaces may be clean$ by means ( a /eam du/+ lance4 ,^! side du/+ doors are a pat5t$ feature & ! %utt]s are self clos+4 ,9 wide boil]s additional clean+ doors are suppli$ at ! top ( ! sett+ to insure ease 9 rea*+ all portions ( ! heat+ surface4 ,! drums are accessible = inspection ?r\gh ! manhole op5+s4 ,! removal ( ! h&hole plates makes possible ! inspection ( ea* tube = its full l5g? & gives ! assurance t no defect c exi/ t _c be actually se54 ,?is is p>ticul>ly advantage\s :5 inspect+ = ! pres5ce ( scale4 ,! mat]ials ent]+ into ! con/ruction ( ! ,babcock ,wilcox boil] are ! be/ obta9able = ! special purpose = :i* !y are us$ & are subject$ to rigid inspection & te/s4 ,! boil]s are manufactur$ by means ( ! mo/ mod]n %op equipm5t & appliances 9 ! h&s ( an old & well-tri$ organization ( skill$ me*anics "u ! sup]vision ( exp]i5c$ eng9e]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,ca/-iron ,v]tical ,head] ,cross ,drum ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil] ,,advantages ,,( ,,! ,,babcock ,,wilcox ,,boil] ,! advantages ( ! ,babcock ,wilcox boil] may p]haps be mo/ cle>ly set =? by a consid]ation1 #a/1 ( wat]-tube boil]s z a class z comp>$ ) %ell & fire-tube boil]s2 & #bnd1 ( ! ,babcock ,wilcox boil] specifically z comp>$ ) o!r designs ( wat]-tube boil]s4 ,,wat]-,,tube ,,v]sus ,,fire-,,tube ,,boil]s ,safety--,! mo/ important requirem5t ( a /eam boil] is t x %all be safe 9 s f> z dang] f explosion is conc]n$4 ,if ! en]gy 9 a l>ge %ell boil] "u pressure is consid]$1 ! ?\ght ( ! de/ruction possible 9 ! case ( an explosion is appall+4 ,! late ,dr4 ,rob]t ,h4 ,?ur/on1 ,dean ( ,sibley ,college1 ,cornell ,univ]sity1 & pa/ presid5t ( ! ,am]ican ,society ( ,me*anical ,eng9e]s1 e/imat$ t !re is suffici5t en]gy /or$ 9 a pla9 cyl9d] boil] "u #ajj p\nds /eam pressure to project x 9 case ( an explosion to a height ( ov] #c miles2 a locomotive boil] at #abe p\nds pressure f "o-half to "o-?ird ( a mile2 & a #fj horse-p[] return tubul> boil] "u #ge p\nds pressure some:at ov] a mile4 ,to quote3 ,a cubic foot ( heat$ wat] "u a pressure ( f #fj to #gj p\nds p] squ>e in* has ab\t ! same en]gy z "o p\nd ( gunp[d]4 ,f su* a consid]ation1 x may be readily appreciat$ h[ ! adv5t ( high pressure /eam 0 "o ( ! /ronge/ factors 9 =c+ ! adoption ( wat]-tube boil]s4 ,a consid]ation ( ! ?ickness ( mat]ial necess>y = cyl9d]s ( v>i\s diamet]s "u a /eam pressure ( #bjj p\nds & assum+ an all[able /ress ( #ab1jjj p\nds p] squ>e in*1 w p]haps be/ illu/rate ?is po9t4 ,table #a gives su* ?icknesses = v>i\s diamet]s ( cyl9d]s n tak+ into consid]ation ! weak5+ effect ( any jo9ts :i* may be necess>y4 ,! rapidity ) :i* ! plate ?ickness increases ) ! diamet] is app>5t & 9 practice1 due to ! fact t rivet$ jo9ts mu/ be us$1 ! ?icknesses z giv5 9 ! table1 ) ! exception ( ! fir/1 mu/ be increas$ f #cj to #dj p] c5t4 ,9 a wat]-tube boil] ! drums seldom exce$ #dh in*es 9 diamet] & ! ?ickness ( plate requir$1 !re=e1 is nev] excessive4 ,! ?9n] metal c be roll$ to a m uni=m quality1 ! seams admit ( bett] proportion+1 & ! jo9ts c be m easily & p]fectly fitt$ ?an is ! case :]e ?ick] plates are necess>y4 ,all ( ^! po9ts contribute t[>d mak+ ! drums ( wat]-tube boil]s bett] able to )/& ! /ress :i* !y w be call$ ^u to endure4 ,! ess5tial con/ructive diff]5ce betwe5 wat]-tube & fire-tube boil]s lies 9 ! fact t ! =m] is compos$ ( p>ts ( relatively small diamet] z aga9/ ! l>ge diamet]s necess>y 9 ! latt]4 ,! factor ( safety ( ! boil] p>ts :i* come 9 contact ) ! mo/ int5se heat 9 wat]-tube boil]s c be made mu* high] ?an w\ld be practicable 9 a %ell boil]4 ,"u ! assumptions consid]$ above 9 connection ) ! ?ickness ( plates requir$1 a numb] #aj gauge tube 7#j4acd in*71 :i* is /&>d 9 ,babcock ,wilcox boil]s = pressures up to #baj p\nds "u ! same all[able /ress z 0 us$ 9 comput+ ,table #a1 ! safe work+ pressure = ! tubes is #hgj p\nds p] squ>e in*1 indicat+ ! v l>ge m>g9 ( safety ( su* tubes z comp>$ ) t possible ) ! %ell ( a boil]4 ,,table #a ,,plate ,,?ickness ,,requir$ ,,= ,,v>i\s ,,cyl9d] ,,diamet]s ,,all[able ,,/ress1 #abjjj ,,p\nds ,,p] ,,squ>e ,,in*1 #bjj ,,p\nds ,,gauge ,,pressure1 ,,no ,,jo9ts -------------------- ,diamet] ,?ickness ,in*es ,in*es -------------------- #d #j4jcc #cf #j4cjj #dh #j4djj #fj #j4ejj #gb #j4fjj #ajh #j4ijj #abj #a4jjj #add #a4bjj -------------------- ,a fur!r advantage 9 ! wat]-tube boil] z a class is ! elim9ation ( all compressive /resses4 ,cyl9d]s subject$ to ext]nal pressures1 su* z fire tubes or ! int]nally fir$ furnaces ( c]ta9 types ( boil]s1 w collapse "u a pressure mu* l[] ?an t :i* !y c\ld )/& if x 7 appli$ int]nally4 ,?is is due to ! fact t if !re exi/s any initial di/ortion f its true %ape1 ! ext]nal pressure w t5d to increase su* di/ortion & collapse ! cyl9d]1 :ile an int]nal pressure t5ds to re/ore ! cyl9d] to its orig9al %ape4 ,/resses due to unequal expansion h be5 a fruitful s\rce ( tr\ble 9 fire-tube boil]s4 ,9 boil]s ( ! %ell type1 ! rivet$ jo9ts ( ! %ell1 ) _! consequ5t d\ble ?ickness ( metal expos$ to ! fire1 gives rise to s]i\s difficulties4 ,^u ^! po9ts are conc5trat$ all /ra9s ( unequal expansion1 giv+ rise to frequ5t leaks & (t5times to actual ruptures4 ,moreov]1 9 ! case ( su* rupture1 ! :ole body ( conta9$ wat] is lib]at$ in/antane\sly & a disa/r\s & usually fatal explosion results4 ,fur!r1 unequal /ra9s result 9 %ell or fire-tube boil]s due to ! diff]5ce 9 temp]ature ( ! v>i\s p>ts4 ,?is diff]5ce 9 temp]ature results f ! lack ( positive well def9$ circulation4 ,:ile su* a circulation does n necess>ily accompany all wat]-tube designs1 9 g5]al1 ! circulation 9 wat]-tube boil]s is mu* m def9$ ?an 9 fire-tube or %ell boil]s4 ,a positive & effici5t circulation assures t all portions ( ! pressure p>ts w be at approximately ! same temp]ature & 9 ?is way /ra9s result+ f unequal temp]atures are obviat$4 ,if a %ell or fire-tubul> boil] explodes1 ! app>atus z a :ole is de/roy$4 ,9 ! case ( wat]-tube boil]s1 ! drums are ord9>ily s locat$ t !y are protect$ f int5se heat & any rupture is usually 9 ! case ( a tube4 ,tube failures1 result+ f bli/]s or burn+1 are n s]i\s 9 _! nature4 ,:]e a tube ruptures because ( a flaw 9 ! metal1 ! result may be m sev]e1 b !re _c be ! disa/r\s explosion su* z w\ld occur 9 ! case ( ! explosion ( a %ell boil]4 ,to quote ,dr4 ,?ur/on1 relative to ! great] safety ( ! wat]-tube boil]3 ,! /or$ available en]gy is usually less ?an t ( any ( ! o!r /ation>y boil]s & n v f> f ! am\nt /or$1 p\nd = p\nd1 9 ! pla9 tubul> boil]4 ,x is evid5t t _! admitt$ safety f de/ructive explosion does n come f ?is relation1 h[ev]1 b f ! division ( ! cont5ts into small portions & especially f ^? details ( con/ruction :i* make x tol]ably c]ta9 t any rupture %all be local4 ,a viol5t explosion c only come f ! g5]al disruption ( a boil] & ! lib]ation at once ( l>ge masses ( /eam & wat]4 ,economy--,! requirem5t probably next 9 importance to safety 9 a /eam boil] is economy 9 ! use ( fuel4 ,to fulfill su* a requirem5t1 ! ?ree items1 ( prop] grate = ! class ( fuel to be burn$1 a combu/ion *amb] p]mitt+ complete combu/ion ( gases be=e _! escape to ! /ack1 & ! heat+ surface ( su* a "* & arrangem5t t ! maximum am\nt ( available heat may be extract$1 mu/ be co-ord9at$4 ,fire-tube boil]s f ! nature ( _! design d n p]mit ! v>iety ( comb9ations ( grate surface1 heat+ surface1 & combu/ion space possible 9 practically any wat]-tube boil]4 ,9 secur+ ! be/ results 9 fuel economy1 ! draft area 9 a boil] is an important consid]ation4 ,9 fire-tube boil]s ?is area is limit$ to ! cross sectional area ( ! fire tubes1 a condition fur!r aggravat$ 9 a horizontal boil] by ! t5d5cy ( ! hot gases to pass ?r\gh ! upp] r[s ( tubes in/ead ( ?r\gh all ( ! tubes alike4 ,9 wat]-tube boil]s ! draft area is t ( ! space outside ( ! tubes & is h5ce mu* great] ?an ! cross sectional area ( ! tubes4 ,capacity--,due to ! g5]ally m effici5t circulation f\nd 9 wat]-tube ?an 9 fire-tube boil]s1 rates ( evaporation are possible ) wat]-tube boil]s t _c be approa*$ :]e fire-tube boil]s are employ$4 ,quick ,/eam+--,ano!r important result ( ! bett] circulation ord9>ily f\nd 9 wat]-tube boil]s is 9 _! ability to raise /eam rapidly 9 />t+ & to meet ! sudd5 dem&s t may be ?r[n on !m4 ,9 a prop]ly design$ wat]-tube boil] /eam may be rais$ f a cold boil] to #bjj p\nds pressure 9 less ?an "o-half h\r4 ,= ! sake ( comp>ison ) ! figure above1 x may be /at$ t 9 ! ,u4 ,s4 ,gov]nm5t ,s]vice ! %orte/ "t all[$ = gett+ up /eam 9 ,scot* m>9e boil]s is #f h\rs & ! "t ord9>ily all[$ is #ab h\rs4 ,9 l>ge d\ble-end$ ,scot* boil]s1 su* z are g5]ally us$ 9 ,trans-,atlantic s]vice1 ! fires are usually />t$ #bd h\rs be=e ! "t set = gett+ "u way4 ,?is l5g? ( "t is necess>y = su* boil]s 9 ord] to elim9ate z f> z possible excessive /ra9s result+ f ! sudd5 application ( heat to ! surfaces4 ,accessibility--,9 ! ,requirem5ts ( a ,p]fect ,/eam ,boil]1 z /at$ by ,mr4 ,babcock1 he demon/rates ! necessity = complete accessibility to all portions ( ! boil] = clean+1 inspection & repair4 ,clean+--,:5 ! great diff]5ce is realiz$ 9 p]=mance1 bo? z to economy & capacity ( a clean boil] & "o 9 :i* ! heat+ surfaces h be5 all[$ to become f\l$1 x may be appreciat$ t ! ability to keep heat+ surfaces clean int]nally & ext]nally is a factor ( ! highe/ importance4 ,su* results c be accompli%$ only by ! use ( a design 9 boil] con/ruction :i* gives complete accessibility to all portions4 ,9 fire-tube boil]s ! tubes are frequ5tly ne/$ toge!r ) a space betwe5 !m (t5 less ?an #a in*es &1 z a consequ5ce1 ne>ly ! entire tube surface is inaccessible4 ,:5 scale =ms ^u su* tubes x is impossible to remove x completely f ! inside ( ! boil] & if x is remov$ by a turb9e hamm]1 !re is no way ( kn[+ h[ ?or\gh a job has be5 done4 ,) ! =mation ( su* scale !re is dang] ?r\gh ov]heat+ & frequ5t tube r5ewals are necess>y4 ,illu/ration3 ,portion ( #bi1jjj ,horse-p[] ,in/allation ( ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil]s 9 ! ,l ,/reet ,/ation ( ! ,edison ,electric ,illum9at+ ,co4 ( ,bo/on1 ,mass4 ,?is ,company ,op]ates 9 its ,v>i\s ,/ations a ,total ( #ci1jjj ,horse ,p[] ( ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil]s ,9 ,scot* m>9e boil]s1 ev5 ) ! eng9es op]at+ cond5s+1 complete tube r5ewals at int]vals ( six or sev5 ye>s are requir$1 :ile l>ge replacem5ts are (t5 necess>y 9 less ?an "o ye>4 ,9 return tubul> boil]s op]at$ ) bad fe$ wat]1 complete tube r5ewals annually are n uncommon4 ,9 ?is type ( boil] mu* s$im5t falls on ! bottom %eets :]e ! int5se heat to :i* !y are subject$ bakes x to su* an excessive h>dness t ! only me?od ( remov+ x is to *isel x out4 ,?is c be done only by omitt+ tubes en\gh to leave a space into :i* a man c crawl & ! discom=ts "u :i* he mu/ "w are app>5t4 ,unless su* a deposit is remov$1 a burn$ & buckl$ plate w inv>iably result1 & if neglect$ too long an explosion w foll[4 ,9 v]tical fire-tube boil]s us+ a wat] leg con/ruction1 a deposit ( mud 9 su* legs is an active ag5t 9 caus+ corrosion & ! difficulty ( remov+ su* deposit ?r\gh h&holes is well kn[n4 ,a complete removal is practically impossible & z a la/ resort to obviate corrosion 9 c]ta9 designs1 ! bottom ( ! wat] legs 9 "s cases h be5 made ( copp]4 ,a ?ick lay] ( mud & scale is also liable to accumulate on ! cr[n %eet ( su* boil]s & may cause ! %eet to crack & lead to an explosion4 ,! soot & f9e coal swept along ) ! gases by ! draft w settle 9 fire tubes & unless remov$ promptly1 mu/ be cut out ) a special =m ( scrap]4 ,x is n unusual :]e s(t coal is us$ to f9d tubes half fill$ ) soot1 :i* r5d]s useless a l>ge portion ( ! heat+ surface & s re/ricts ! draft z to make x difficult to burn suffici5t coal to develop ! requir$ p[] f su* heat+ surface z is n cov]$ by soot4 ,wat]-tube boil]s 9 g5]al are f ! nature ( _! design m readily accessible = clean+ ?an are fire-tube boil]s4 ,inspection--,! objections giv5 above 9 ! consid]ation ( ! inability to prop]ly clean fire-tube boil]s hold z well = ! inspection ( su* boil]s4 ,repairs--,! lack ( accessibility 9 fire-tube boil]s fur!r leads to difficulties :]e repairs are requir$4 ,9 fire-tube boil]s tube r5ewals are a s]i\s und]tak+4 ,! accumulation ( h>d deposit on ! ext]ior ( ! surfaces s enl>ges ! tubes t x is (t5times difficult1 if n impossible1 to draw !m ?r\gh ! tube %eets & x is usually necess>y to cut out su* tubes z w all[ access to ! "o :i* has fail$ & remove !m ?r\gh ! manhole4 ,:5 a tube %eet bli/]s1 ! defective "p mu/ be cut out by h&-tapp$ holes drill$ by rat*ets & z x is frequ5tly impossible to get space 9 :i* to drive rivets1 a s(t pat* is necess>y4 ,?is is b a make%ift at be/ & usually results 9 ei!r a r$uction ( ! safe work+ pressure or 9 ! necessity = a new plate4 ,if ! latt] c\rse is foll[$1 ! old plate mu/ be cut out1 a new "o scrib$ to place to locate rivet holes & 9 ord] to obta9 room = driv+ rivets1 ! boil] w h to be re-tub$4 ,! sett+ mu/1 ( c\rse1 be at lea/ p>tially torn out & replac$4 ,9 case ( repairs1 ( su* nature 9 fire-tube boil]s1 ! work+ pressure ( su* repair$ boil]s w frequ5tly be l[]$ by ! insurance companies :5 ! boil] is aga9 plac$ 9 s]vice4 ,9 ! case ( a rupture 9 a wat]-tube boil]1 ! loss w ord9>ily be limit$ to "o or two tubes :i* c be readily replac$4 ,! fire-tube boil] w be s completely demoli%$ t ! "q ( repairs w be %ift$ f ! boil] to ! surr\nd+ prop]ty1 ! damage to :i* w usually exce$ _m times ! co/ ( a boil] ( a type :i* w\ld h elim9at$ ! possibility ( a disa/r\s explosion4 ,9 consid]+ ! prop] repair co/ ( ! two types ( boil]s1 ! fact %\ld n be ov]look$ t x is poor economy to inve/ l>ge sums 9 equipm5t t1 ?r\gh a possible accid5t to ! boil] may be :olly de/roy$ or s damag$ t ! co/ ( repairs1 toge!r ) ! loss ( "t :ile su* repairs are be+ made1 w\ld pur*ase boil]s ( absolute safety & leave a l>ge m>g9 beside4 ,! possibility ( loss ( human life %\ld also be consid]$1 ?\gh ?is may seem a f> cry f ! "q ( repair co/s4 ,space ,occupi$--,! space requir$ = ! boil]s 9 a plant (t5 exce$s ! requirem5ts = ! rema9d] ( ! plant equipm5t4 ,any sav+ ( space 9 a boil] room w be a l>ge factor 9 r$uc+ ! co/ ( real e/ate & ( ! build+4 ,ev5 :5 ! boil] plant is comp>atively small1 ! sav+ 9 space frequ5tly w am\nt to a consid]able p]c5tage ( ! co/ ( ! boil]s4 ,table #b %[s ! diff]5ce 9 floor space occupi$ by fire-tube boil]s & ,babcock ,wilcox boil]s ( ! same capacity1 ! latt] be+ tak5 z repres5t+ ! wat]-tube class4 ,?is sav+ 9 space w increase ) ! size ( ! plant = ! reason t l>ge size boil] units :ile common 9 wat]-tube practice are impracticable 9 fire-tube practice4 ,,table #b ,,comp>ative ,,approximate ,,floor ,,space ,,occupi$ ,,by ,,babcock ,,wilcox ,,& ,h4 ,r4 ,t4 ,,boil]s ---------------------------------------- --- ,size ( unit,babcock ,wilcox ,h4 ,r4 ,t4 ,horse ,p[] ,feet & ,in*es ,feet & ,in*es ---------------------------------------- --- #ajj #g #c #ai #i #aj #j #bj #j #aej #g #aj #ai #i #aj #j #bb #f #bjj #i #j #ai #i #aa #f #bc #aj #bej #i #j #ai #i #aa #f #bc #aj #cjj #aj #b #ai #i #ab #j #be #j ---------------------------------------- --- ,,babcock ,,wilcox ,,boil]s ,,z ,,comp>$ ,,) ,,o!r ,,wat]-,,tube ,,designs ,x mu/ be borne 9 m9d t ! simple fact t a boil] is ( ! wat]-tube design does n z a necessity indicate t x is a good or safe boil]4 ,safety--,_m ( ! wat]-tube boil]s on ! m>ket are z lack+ z are fire-tube boil]s 9 ! positive circulation :i*1 z has be5 demon/rat$ by ,mr4 ,babcock's lecture1 is s necess>y 9 ! requirem5ts ( ! p]fect /eam boil]4 ,9 boil]s us+ wat]-leg con/ruction1 !re is dang] ( defective circulation1 leaks are common1 & unsuspect$ corrosion may be go+ on 9 portions ( ! boil] t _c be inspect$4 ,/resses due to unequal expansion ( ! metal _c be well avoid$ b !y may be m9imiz$ by ma9ta9+ at ! same temp]ature all pressure p>ts ( ! boil]4 ,! result is to be secur$ only by means ( a well def9$ circulation4 ,! ma9 feature to :i* ! ,babcock ,wilcox boil] owes its safety is ! con/ruction made possible by ! use ( head]s1 by :i* ! wat] 9 ea* v]tical r[ ( tubes is sep>at$ f t 9 ! adjac5t r[s4 ,?is con/ruction results 9 ! v effici5t circulation produc$ ?r\gh ! break+ up ( ! /eam & wat] 9 ! front head]s1 ! effect ( ^! head]s 9 produc+ su* a positive circulation hav+ be5 cle>ly demon/rat$ 9 ,mr4 ,babcock's lecture4 ,! use ( a numb] ( sections1 ?us compos$ ( head]s & tubes1 has a di/9ct advantage ov] ! use ( a common *amb] at ! outlet ends ( ! tubes4 ,9 ! =m] case ! circulation ( wat] 9 "o v]tical r[ ( tubes _c int]f]e ) t 9 ! o!r r[s1 :ile 9 ! latt] con/ruction !re w be d[nw>d z well z upw>d curr5ts & su* d[nw>d curr5ts t5d to neutralize any good effect !re might be ?r\gh ! dim9ution ( ! d5sity ( ! wat] column by ! /eam4 ,fur!r1 ! circulation results directly f ! design ( ! boil] & requires no assi/ance f ret>d]s1 *eck valves & ! l1 )9 ! boil]4 ,all su* me*anical devices 9 ! int]ior ( a boil] s]ve only to complicate ! design & %\ld n be us$4 ,?is positive & effici5t circulation assures t all portions ( ! pressure p>ts ( ! ,babcock ,wilcox boil] w be at approximately ! same temp]ature & 9 ?is way /ra9s result+ f unequal temp]atures are obviat$4 ,:]e ! wat] ?r\gh\t ! boil] is at ! temp]ature ( ! /eam conta9$1 a condition to be secur$ only by prop] circulation1 dang] f int]nal pitt+ is m9imiz$1 or at lea/ limit$ only to effects ( ! wat] f$ ! boil]4 ,:]e ! wat] 9 any portion ( ! boil] is l[] ?an ! temp]ature ( ! /eam correspond+ to ! pressure c>ri$1 :e!r ! fact t su* l[] temp]atures exi/ z a result ( lack ( circulation1 or because ( int5tional design1 int]nal pitt+ or corrosion w almo/ inv>iably result4 ,dr4 ,?ur/on has already be5 quot$ to ! effect t ! admitt$ safety ( a wat]-tube boil] is ! result ( ! division ( its cont5ts into small portions4 ,9 boil]s us+ a wat]-leg con/ruction1 :ile ! dang] f explosion w be l>gely limit$ to ! tubes1 !re is ! dang]1 h[ev]1 t su* legs may explode due to ! det]ioration ( _! /ays1 & su* an explosion might be almo/ z disa/r\s z t ( a %ell boil]4 ,! head]s 9 a ,babcock ,wilcox boil] are practically free f any dang] ( explosion4 ,7 su* an explosion to occur1 x w\ld /ill be localiz$ to a mu* l>g] ext5t ?an 9 ! case ( a wat]-leg boil] & ! head] con/ruction ?us almo/ absolutely localizes any dang] f su* a cause4 ,/aybolts are admitt$ly an undesirable elem5t ( con/ruction 9 any boil]4 ,!y are :olly objectionable & ! only reason = ! pres5ce ( /aybolts 9 a boil] is to enable a *eap] =m ( con/ruction to be us$ ?an if !y 7 elim9at$4 ,9 boil]s utiliz+ 9 _! design flat-/ay$ surfaces1 or /aybolt con/ruction "u pressure1 corrosion & we> & te> 9 s]vice t5ds to weak5 "s s+le "p subject to cont9ual /ra91 ! result be+ an increas$ /ra9 on o!r p>ts greatly 9 excess ( t = :i* an all[ance c be made by any reasonable factor ( safety4 ,:]e ! con/ruction is su* t ! weak5+ ( a s+le "p w produce a m>k$ decrease 9 ! safety & reliability ( ! :ole1 x foll[s ( necessity1 t !re w be a correspond+ decrease 9 ! work+ pressure :i* may be safely c>ri$4 ,9 wat]-leg boil]s1 ! use ( su* flat-/ay$ surfaces "u pressure pres5ts difficulties t are practically unsurm\ntable4 ,su* surfaces expos$ to ! heat ( ! fire are subject to unequal expansion1 di/ortion1 leakage & corrosion1 or 9 g5]al1 to _m ( ! objections t h already be5 advanc$ aga9/ ! fire-tube boil]s 9 ! consid]ation ( wat]-tube boil]s z a class 9 comp>ison ) fire-tube boil]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,mc,alpin ,hotel1 ,new ,york ,city1 ,op]at+ #bcfj ,horse ,p[] ( ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil]s ,aside f ! difficulties t may arise 9 actual s]vice due to ! failure ( /aybolts1 or 9 g5]al1 due to ! use ( flat-/ay$ surfaces1 con/ructional features are enc\nt]$ 9 ! actual manufacture ( su* boil]s t make x difficult if n impossible to produce a fir/-class me*anical job4 ,x is practically impossible 9 ! build+ ( su* a boil] to s design & place ! /aybolts t all w be "u equal /ra94 ,su* unequal /ra9s1 result+ f con/ructional difficulties1 w be greatly multipli$ :5 su* a boil] is plac$ 9 s]vice4 ,mu* ( ! rivet+ 9 boil]s ( ?is design mu/ ( necessity be h& "w1 :i* is nev] ! equal ( ma*9e rivet+4 ,! use ( wat]-leg con/ruction ord9>ily requires ! flang+ ( l>ge plates1 :i* is difficult1 & because ( ! numb] ( heats necess>y & ! cont9ual work+ ( ! mat]ial1 may lead to ! weak5+ ( su* plates4 ,9 v]tical or semi-v]tical wat]-tube boil]s utiliz+ flat-/ay$ surfaces "u pressure1 ^! surfaces are ord9>ily s locat$ z to (f] a conv5i5t lodg+ place = flue du/1 :i* fuses into a h>d mass1 is difficult ( removal & "u :i* corrosion may be go+ on ) no possibility ( detection4 ,:]e /ay$ surfaces or wat] legs are features 9 ! design ( a wat]-tube boil]1 ! factor ( safety ( su* p>ts mu/ be mo/ c>efully consid]$4 ,9 su* p>ts too1 is ! det]m9ation ( ! factor mo/ difficult1 & because ( ! rule-(-?umb det]m9ation frequ5tly necess>y1 ! factor ( safety becomes 9 reality a factor ( ignorance4 ,z oppos$ to su* indet]m9ate factors ( safety1 9 ! ,babcock ,wilcox boil]1 :5 ! factor ( safety = ! drum or drums has be5 det]m9$1 & su* a factor may be det]m9$ accurately1 ! factors = all o!r portions ( ! pressure p>ts are greatly 9 excess ( t ( ! drum4 ,all ,babcock ,wilcox boil]s are built ) a factor ( safety ( at lea/ five1 & inasmu* z ! factor ( ! safety ( ! tubes & head]s is greatly 9 excess ( ?is figure1 x applies specifically to ! drum or drums4 ,?is factor repres5ts a great] degree ( safety ?an a consid]ably high] factor appli$ to a boil] 9 :i* ! %ell or any rivet$ portion is act$ ^u directly by ! fire1 or ! same factor appli$ to a boil] utiliz+ flat-/ay$ surface con/ruction1 :]e ! accurate det]m9ation ( ! limit+ factor ( safety is difficult1 if n impossible4 ,t ! factor ( safety ( /ay$ surfaces is que/ionable may p]haps be be/ realiz$ f a consid]ation ( ! sev]e requirem5ts z to su* factor call$ = by ! rules & regulations ( ! ,bo>d ( ,sup]vis+ ,inspectors1 ,u4 ,s4 ,gov]nm5t4 ,9 view ( ! above1 ! abs5ce ( any /ay$ surfaces 9 ! ,babcock ,wilcox boil] is obvi\sly a di/+ui%+ advantage :]e safety is a factor4 ,x is ( int]e/ to note1 9 ! article on ! evolution ( ! ,babcock ,wilcox boil]1 t /aybolt con/ruction 0 us$ 9 sev]al designs1 f\nd unsatisfactory & unsafe1 & disc>d$4 ,ano!r feature 9 ! design ( ! ,babcock ,wilcox boil] t5d+ t[>d add$ safety is its mann] ( susp5sion4 ,?is has be5 indicat$ 9 ! previ\s *apt] & is ( su* nature t all ( ! pressure p>ts are free to exp& or contract "u v>iations ( temp]ature )\t 9 any way int]f]+ ) any "p ( ! boil] sett+4 ,! sectional nature ( ! boil] all[s a flexibility "u v>y+ temp]ature *anges t practically obviates int]nal /ra94 ,9 boil]s utiliz+ wat]-leg con/ruction1 on ! o!r h&1 ! con/ruction is rigid1 giv+ rise to s]i\s int]nal /ra9s & ! me?od ( support ord9>ily made necess>y by ! boil] design is n only unme*anical b frequ5tly dang]\s1 due to ! fact t prop] provision is n made = expansion & contraction "u temp]ature v>iations4 ,boil]s utiliz+ wat]-leg con/ruction are n ord9>ily provid$ ) mud drums4 ,?is is a s]i\s defect 9 t x all[s impurities & s$im5t to collect 9 a portion ( ! boil] n easily inspect$1 & corrosion may result4 ,economy--,t ! wat]-tube boil] z a class l5ds itself m readily ?an does ! fire-tube boil] to a v>iation 9 ! relation ( grate surface1 heat+ surface & combu/ion space has be5 already po9t$ out4 ,9 economy aga91 ! con/ruction made possible by ! use ( head]s 9 ,babcock ,wilcox boil]s appe>s z a di/9ct advantage4 ,because ( ?is con/ruction1 !re is a flexibility possible1 9 an unlimit$ v>iety ( heights & wid?s t w satisfactorily meet ! special requirem5ts ( ! fuel to be burn$ 9 individual cases4 ,an ext5d$ exp]i5ce 9 ! design ( furnaces be/ suit$ = a wide v>iety ( fuels has made ,! ,babcock ,wilcox ,co4 lead]s 9 ! field ( economy4 ,furnaces h be5 built & are 9 successful op]ation = burn+ an?racite & bitum9\s coals1 lignite1 crude oil1 gas-h\se t>1 wood1 sawdu/ & %av+s1 bagasse1 tan b>k1 natural gas1 bla/ furnace gas1 by-product coke ov5 gas & = ! utilization ( wa/e heat f comm]cial processes4 ,! great numb] ( ,babcock ,wilcox boil]s n[ 9 satisfactory op]ation "u su* a wide range ( fuel conditions con/itutes an unimpea*able te/imonial to ! ability to meet all ( ! _m conditions ( s]vice4 ,! limitations 9 ! draft area ( fire-tube boil]s z affect+ economy h be5 po9t$ out4 ,t a great] draft area is possible 9 wat]-tube boil]s does n ( necessity indicate t prop] advantage ( ?is fact is tak5 9 all boil]s ( ! wat]-tube class4 ,9 ! ,babcock ,wilcox boil]1 ! l>ge draft area tak5 9 connection ) ! effective baffl+ all[s ! gases to be br\ght into intimate contact ) all portions ( ! heat+ surfaces & r5d]s su* surfaces highly effici5t4 ,9 c]ta9 designs ( wat]-tube boil]s ! baffl+ is su* z to r5d] ineffective c]ta9 portions ( ! heat+ surface1 due to ! t5d5cy ( soot & dirt to collect on or beh9d baffles1 9 ?is way caus+ ! int]position ( a lay] ( non-conduct+ mat]ial betwe5 ! hot gases & ! heat+ surfaces4 ,9 ,babcock ,wilcox boil]s ! /&>d baffle arrangem5t is su* z to all[ ! in/allation ( a sup]heat] )\t 9 any way alt]+ ! pa? ( ! gases f furnace to /ack1 or requir+ a *ange 9 ! boil] design4 ,9 c]ta9 wat]-tube boil]s ! baffle arrangem5t is su* t if a sup]heat] is to be in/all$ a complete *ange 9 ! ord9>y baffle design is necess>y4 ,frequ5tly to insure suffici5tly hot gas /rik+ ! heat+ surfaces1 a portion is by-pass$ directly f ! furnace to ! sup]heat] *amb] )\t pass+ ov] any ( ! boil] heat+ surfaces4 ,any su* arrangem5t w lead to a decrease 9 economy & ! use ( boil]s requir+ x %\ld be avoid$4 ,capacity--,babcock ,wilcox boil]s are run successfully 9 e-day practice at high] rat+s ?an any o!r boil]s 9 practical s]vice4 ,! capacities ?us obta9able are due directly to ! effici5t circulation already po9t$ out4 ,inasmu* z ! con/ruction utiliz+ head]s has a direct be>+ 9 produc+ su* circulation1 x is also connect$ ) ! high capacities obta9able ) ?is app>atus4 ,:]e intellig5tly h&l$ & kept prop]ly clean$1 ,babcock ,wilcox boil]s are op]at$ 9 _m plants at f #bjj to #bbe p] c5t ( _! rat$ evaporative capacity & x is n unusual = !m to be op]at$ at #cjj p] c5t ( su* rat$ capacity dur+ p]iods ( peak load4 ,dry ,/eam--,9 ! li/ ( ! requirem5ts ( ! p]fect /eam boil]1 ! necessity t dry /eam be g5]at$ has be5 po9t$ out4 ,! ,babcock ,wilcox boil] w deliv] dry /eam "u high] capacities & poor] conditions ( fe$ wat] ?an any o!r boil] n[ manufactur$4 ,c]ta9 boil]s w1 :5 op]at$ at ord9>y rat+s1 h&le poor fe$ wat] & deliv] /eam 9 :i* ! moi/ure cont5t is n objectionable4 ,:5 ^! same boil]s are driv5 at high ov]loads1 !re w be a direct t5d5cy to prime & ! p]c5tage ( moi/ure 9 ! /eam deliv]$ w be high4 ,?is t5d5cy is ! result ( ! lack ( prop] circulation & once m !re is se5 ! advantage ( ! head]s ( ! ,babcock ,wilcox boil]1 result+ z x does 9 ! secur+ ( a positive circulation4 ,9 ! design ( ! ,babcock ,wilcox boil] suffici5t space is provid$ betwe5 ! /eam outlet & ! dis5gag+ po9t to insure ! /eam pass+ f ! boil] 9 a dry /ate )\t entra9+ or aga9 pick+ up any p>ticles ( wat] 9 its passage ev5 at high rates ( evaporation4 ,ample "t is giv5 = a complete sep>ation ( /eam f ! wat] at ! dis5gag+ surface be=e ! /eam is c>ri$ f ! boil]4 ,^! two features1 :i* are additional causes = ! ability ( ! ,babcock ,wilcox boil] to deliv] dry /eam1 result f ! prop] proportion+ ( ! /eam & wat] space ( ! boil]4 ,f ! hi/ory ( ! developm5t ( ! boil]1 x is evid5t t ! cubical capacity p] horse p[] ( ! /eam & wat] space has be5 adopt$ aft] num]\s exp]im5ts4 ,t ! dry pipe s]ves 9 no way ! g5]ally und]/ood function ( su* device has be5 po9t$ out4 ,z /at$1 ! function ( ! dry pipe 9 a ,babcock ,wilcox boil] is simply t ( a collect+ pipe & ?is /atem5t holds true reg>dless ( ! rate ( op]ation ( ! boil]4 ,9 c]ta9 boil]s1 sup]heat+ surface is provid$ to dry ! /eam1 or to remove ! moi/ure due to prim+ or foam+4 ,su* surface is inv>iably a s\rce ( tr\ble unless ! /eam is initially dry & a boil] :i* w deliv] dry /eam is obvi\sly to be pref]r$ to "o 9 :i* surface mu/ be suppli$ especially = su* purpose4 ,:]e sup]heat]s are in/all$ ) ,babcock ,wilcox boil]s1 !y are 9 e s5se ( ! ^w sup]heat]s & n dri]s1 ! /eam be+ deliv]$ to !m 9 a dry /ate4 ,! "q has be5 rais$ 9 connection ) ! cross drum design ( ! ,babcock ,wilcox boil] z to its ability to deliv] dry /eam4 ,exp]i5ce has %[n ! absolute lack ( basis = any su* objection4 ,! ,babcock ,wilcox ,company at its ,bayonne ,works "s "t ago made a s]ies ( exp]im5ts to see 9 :at mann] ! /eam g5]at$ 0 sep>at$ f ! wat] ei!r 9 ! drum or 9 its passage to ! drum4 ,glass peepholes 7 in/all$ 9 ea* end ( a drum 9 a boil] ( ! m>9e design1 at ! po9t midway betwe5 t at :i* ! horizontal circulat+ tubes ent]$ ! drum & ! drum baffle plate4 ,by hold+ a light at "o ( ^! peepholes ! action 9 ! drum 0 cle>ly se5 ?r\gh ! o!r4 ,x 0 f\nd t ) ! boil] op]at$ "u ?ree-qu>t] in* a%pit pressure1 :i*1 ) ! fuel us$ w\ld be equival5t to approximately #ahe p] c5t ( rat+ = /ation>y boil] practice1 t ea* tube 0 deliv]+ ) great velocity a /ream ( solid wat]1 :i* fill$ ! tube = half its cross sectional area4 ,!re 0 no spray or mi/ accompany+ su* deliv]y1 cle>ly indicat+ t ! /eam _h entirely sep>at$ f ! wat] 9 its passage ?r\gh ! horizontal circulat+ tubes1 :i* 9 ! boil] 9 "q 7 b #ej in*es long4 ,illu/ration3 ,nor?we/ ,/ation ( ! ,commonweal? ,edison ,co41 ,*icago1 ,ill4 ,?is ,in/allation ,consi/s ( #aa1cfj ,horse ,p[] ( ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil]s & ,sup]heat]s1 ,equipp$ ) ,babcock ,wilcox ,*a9 ,grate ,/ok]s ,^! exp]im5ts prov$ conclusively t ! size ( ! /eam drums 9 ! cross drum design has no appreciable effect 9 det]m9+ ! am\nt ( lib]at+ surface1 & t suffici5t lib]at+ surface is provid$ 9 ! circulat+ tubes alone4 ,if fur!r pro( ( ! ability ( ?is design ( boil] to deliv] dry /eam is requir$1 su* pro( is p]haps be/ se5 9 ! cont9u$ use ( ! ,babcock ,wilcox m>9e boil]1 9 :i* ! cross drum is us$ exclusively1 & ) :i* rates ( evaporation are obta9$ f> 9 excess ( ^? secur$ 9 ord9>y practice4 ,quick ,/eam+--,! advantages ( wat]-tube boil]s z a class ov] fire-tube boil]s 9 ability to raise /eam quickly h be5 indicat$4 ,due to ! con/ant & ?or\gh circulation result+ f ! sectional nature ( ! ,babcock ,wilcox boil]1 /eam may be rais$ m rapidly ?an 9 practically any o!r wat]-tube design4 ,9 />t+ up a cold ,babcock ,wilcox boil] ) ei!r coal or oil fuel1 :]e a prop] furnace arrangem5t is suppli$1 /eam may be rais$ to a pressure ( #bjj p\nds 9 less ?an half an h\r4 ,) a ,babcock ,wilcox boil] 9 a te/ :]e =c$ draft 0 available1 /eam 0 rais$ f an initial temp]ature ( ! boil] & its conta9$ wat] ( #gb degrees to a pressure ( #bjj p\nds1 9 #ab m9utes aft] light+ ! fire4 ,! boil] also responds quickly 9 />t+ f bank$ fires1 especially :]e =c$ draft is available4 ,9 ,babcock ,wilcox boil]s ! wat] is divid$ into _m small /reams :i* circulate )\t undue frictional resi/ance 9 ?9 envelopes pass+ ?r\gh ! hotte/ "p ( ! furnace1 ! /eam be+ c>ri$ rapidly to ! dis5gag+ surface4 ,!re is no "p ( ! boil] expos$ to ! heat ( ! fire t is n 9 contact ) wat] int]nally1 & z a result !re is no dang] ( ov]heat+ on />t+ up quickly nor c leaks occur f unequal expansion su* z might be ! case :]e an attempt is made to raise /eam rapidly 9 boil]s us+ wat] leg con/ruction4 ,/orage ,capacity = ,/eam & ,wat]--,:]e suffici5t /eam & wat] capacity are n provid$ 9 a boil]1 its action w be irregul>1 ! /eam pressure v>y+ ov] wide limits & ! wat] level be+ subject to frequ5t & rapid fluctuation4 ,ow+ to ! small relative weight ( /eam1 wat] capacity is ( great] importance 9 ?is respect ?an /eam space4 ,) a gauge pressure ( #ahj p\nds p] squ>e in*1 #h cubic feet ( /eam1 :i* is equival5t to "o-half cubic foot ( wat] space1 are requir$ to supply "o boil] horse p[] = "o m9ute & if no heat be suppli$ to ! boil] dur+ su* an int]val1 ! pressure w drop to #aej p\nds p] squ>e in*4 ,! volume ( /eam space1 !re=e1 may be ov] rat$1 b if ?is be too small1 ! /eam pass+ (f w c>ry wat] ) x 9 ! =m ( spray4 ,too great a wat] space results 9 sl[ /eam+ & wa/e ( fuel 9 />t+ up2 :ile too mu* /eam space adds to ! radiat+ surface & increases ! losses f t cause4 ,t ! /eam & wat] space ( ! ,babcock ,wilcox boil] are ! result ( num]\s exp]im5ts has previ\sly be5 po9t$ out4 ,accessibility--,clean+4 ,t wat]-tube boil]s are m accessible z a class ?an are fire-tube boil]s has be5 indicat$4 ,all wat]-tube boil]s1 h[ev]1 are n equally accessible4 ,9 c]ta9 designs1 due to ! arrangem5t ( baffl+ us$ x is practically impossible to remove all deposits ( soot & dirt4 ,frequ5tly1 9 ord] to *eap5 ! product1 suffici5t clean+ & access doors are n suppli$ z "p ( ! boil] equipm5t4 ,! t5d5cy ( soot to collect on ! cr[n %eets ( c]ta9 v]tical wat]-tube boil]s has be5 not$4 ,su* deposits are difficult to remove & if corrosion goes on b5ea? su* a cov]+ ! %eet may crack & an explosion result4 ,illu/ration3 ,re> ,view--,longitud9al ,drum ,v]tical ,head] ,boil]1 ,%[+ ,access ,doors to ,re> ,head]s ,x is almo/ impossible to ?or\ghly clean wat] legs int]nally1 & 9 su* places also is !re a t5d5cy to unsuspect$ corrosion "u deposits t _c be remov$4 ,9 ,babcock ,wilcox boil]s e portion ( ! int]ior ( ! heat+ surfaces c be rea*$ & kept clean1 :ile any soot deposit$ on ! ext]ior surfaces c be bl[n (f :ile ! boil] is "u pressure4 ,inspection--,! accessibility :i* makes possible ! ?or\gh clean+ ( all portions ( ! ,babcock ,wilcox boil] also provides a means = a ?or\gh inspection4 ,drums are accessible = int]nal inspection by ! removal ( ! manhole plates4 ,front head]s may be inspect$ ?r\gh l>ge doors furni%$ = ! purpose4 ,re> head]s 9 ! incl9$ head] designs may be inspect$ f ! *amb] =m$ by su* head]s & ! re> wall ( ! boil]4 ,9 ! v]tical head] designs re> tube doors are furni%$1 z has be5 /at$4 ,9 c]ta9 designs ( wat]-tube boil]s 9 ord] to assure accessibility = inspection ( ! re> ends ( ! tubes1 ! re> portion ( ! boil] is expos$ to ! atmosph]e ) result+ excessive radiation losses4 ,9 o!r designs ! means ( access to ! re> ends ( ! tubes are ( a make%ift & unworkmanlike "*4 ,by ! removal ( h&hole plates1 all tubes 9 a ,babcock ,wilcox boil] may be inspect$ = _! full l5g? ei!r = ! pres5ce ( scale or = suspect$ corrosion4 ,repairs--,9 ,babcock ,wilcox boil]s ! possession ( great /r5g?1 ! elim9ation ( /resses due to unev5 temp]atures & ( ! result+ dang] ( leaks & corrosion1 ! protection ( ! drums f ! int5se heat ( ! fire1 & ! decreas$ liability ( ! scale =m+ matt] to lodge on ! hotte/ tube surfaces1 all t5d to m9imize ! necessity = repairs4 ,! tubes ( ! ,babcock ,wilcox boil] are practically ! only "p :i* may ne$ r5ewal & ^! only at infrequ5t int]vals ,:5 necess>y1 su* r5ewals may be made *eaply & quickly4 ,a small /ock ( tubes1 #d in*es 9 diamet]1 ( suffici5t l5g? = ! boil] us$1 is all t ne$ be c>ri$ to make r5ewals4 ,repairs 9 wat]-leg boil]s are difficult at be/ & frequ5tly unsatisfactory :5 complet$4 ,:5 /aybolt replacem5ts are necess>y1 9 ord] to get at ! inn] %eet ( ! wat] leg1 sev]al tubes mu/ 9 "s cases be cut out4 ,n infrequ5tly a replacem5t ( an entire wat] leg is necess>y & ?is is difficult & requires a l5g?y %utd[n4 ,) ! ,babcock ,wilcox boil]1 on ! o!r h&1 ev5 if x is necess>y to replace a section1 ?is may be done 9 a few h\rs aft] ! boil] is cool4 ,9 ! case ( c]ta9 /aybolt failures ! work+ pressure ( a repair$ boil] utiliz+ su* con/ruction w frequ5tly be l[]$ by ! insurance companies :5 ! boil] is aga9 plac$ 9 s]vice4 ,! sectional nature ( ! ,babcock ,wilcox boil] enables x to ma9ta9 its orig9al work+ pressure ov] long p]iods ( "t1 almo/ reg>dless ( ! nature ( any repair t may be requir$4 ,illu/ration3 #adef ,horse-p[] ,in/allation ( ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil]s at ! ,r>itan ,wool5 ,mills1 ,r>itan1 ,n4 ,j4 ,! ,fir/ ( ,^! ,boil]s 7 ,in/all$ 9 #ahgh & #ahha & are /ill ,op]at$ at #hj ,p\nds ,pressure ,durability--,babcock ,wilcox boil]s are be+ op]at$ 9 e-day s]vice ) entirely satisfactory results & "u ! same /eam pressure z t = :i* !y 7 orig9ally sold t h be5 op]at$ f ?irty to ?irty-five ye>s4 ,x is int]e/+ to note 9 consid]+ ! life ( a boil] t ! l5g? ( life ( a ,babcock ,wilcox boil] mu/ be tak5 z ! crit]ion ( :at l5g? ( life is possible4 ,?is is due to ! fact t !re are ,babcock ,wilcox boil]s 9 op]ation to-day t h be5 9 s]vice f a "t t ant$ates by a consid]able m>g9 t at :i* ! manufactur] ( any o!r wat]-tube boil] n[ on ! m>ket 0 />t$4 ,probably ! v be/ evid5ce ( ! value ( ! ,babcock ,wilcox boil] z a /eam g5]ator & ( ! reliability ( ! app>atus1 is se5 9 ! sales ( ! company4 ,s9ce ! company 0 =m$1 !re h be5 sold ?r\gh\t ! _w ov] #i1ijj1jjj horse p[]4 ,a feature t _c be ov]look$ 9 ! consid]ation ( ! advantages ( ! ,babcock ,wilcox boil] is ! fact t z a "p ( ! organization back ( ! boil]1 !re is a body ( eng9e]s ( recogniz$ ability1 ready at all times to assi/ its cu/om]s 9 e possible way4 ,illu/ration3 #bdjj ,horse-p[] ,in/allation ( ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil]s 9 ! ,union ,/ation ,p[] ,h\se ( ! ,p5nsylvania ,railroad ,co41 ,pittsburgh1 ,pa4 ,?is ,company has a ,total ( #bh1ejj ,horse ,p[] ( ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil]s ,in/all$ ,,heat ,,& ,,its ,,measurem5t ,! usual conception ( heat is t x is a =m ( en]gy produc$ by ! vibratory motion ( ! m9ute p>ticles or molecules ( a body4 ,all bodies are assum$ to be compos$ ( ^! molecules1 :i* are held toge!r by mutual cohesion & yet are 9 a /ate ( cont9ual vibration4 ,! hott] a body or ! m heat add$ to x1 ! m vigor\s w be ! vibrations ( ! molecules4 ,z is well kn[n1 ! effect ( heat on a body may be to *ange its temp]ature1 its volume1 or its /ate1 t is1 f solid to liquid or f liquid to gase\s4 ,:]e wat] is melt$ f ice & evaporat$ into /eam1 ! v>i\s *anges are admirably describ$ 9 ! lecture by ,mr4 ,babcock on ,! ,!ory ( ,/eam ,mak+1 giv5 9 ! next *apt]4 ,! *ange 9 temp]ature ( a body is ord9>ily measur$ by !rmomet]s1 ?\gh = v high temp]atures s-call$ pyromet]s are us$4 ,! latt] are dealt ) "u ! head+ ,high ,temp]ature ,measurem5ts at ! end ( ?is *apt]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aa ,by reason ( ! uni=m expansion ( m]cury & its great s5sitiv5ess to heat1 x is ! fluid mo/ commonly us$ 9 ! con/ruction ( !rmomet]s4 ,9 all !rmomet]s ! freez+ po9t & ! boil+ po9t ( wat]1 "u mean or av]age atmosph]ic pressure at sea level1 are assum$ z two fix$ po9ts1 b ! division ( ! scale betwe5 ^! two po9ts v>ies 9 diff]5t c\ntries4 ,! freez+ po9t is det]m9$ by ! use ( melt+ ice & = ?is reason is (t5 call$ ! melt+ po9t4 ,!re are 9 use ?ree !rmomet] scales kn[n z ! ,fahr5heit1 ! ,c5tigrade or ,celsius1 & ! ,raumur4 ,z %[n 9 ,fig4 #aa1 9 ! ,fahr5heit scale1 ! space betwe5 ! two fix$ po9ts is divid$ into #ahj p>ts2 ! boil+ po9t is m>k$ #bab1 & ! freez+ po9t is m>k$ #cb1 & z]o is a temp]ature :i*1 at ! "t ?is !rmomet] 0 inv5t$1 0 incorrectly imag9$ to be ! l[e/ temp]ature atta9able4 ,9 ! c5tigrade & ! ,raumur scales1 ! di/ance betwe5 ! two fix$ po9ts is divid$ into #ajj & #hj p>ts1 respectively4 ,9 ea* ( ^! two scales ! freez+ po9t is m>k$ z]o1 & ! boil+ po9t is m>k$ #ajj 9 ! c5tigrade & #hj 9 ! ,raumur4 ,ea* ( ! #ahj1 #ajj or #hj divisions 9 ! respective !rmomet]s is call$ a degree4 ,table #c & app5d$ =mulae are useful = conv]t+ f "o scale to ano!r4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ! bulbs ( high-grade !rmomet]s are usually made ( ei!r ,j5a #eh;,,iii borosilicate !rmomet] glass or ,j5a #af;,,iii glass1 ! /ems be+ made ( ord9>y glass4 ,! ,j5a #af;,,iii glass is n suitable = use at temp]atures mu* above #hej degrees ,fahr5heit & ! h>d] ,j5a #ei;,,iii %\ld be us$ 9 !rmomet]s = temp]atures high] ?an ?is4 ,bel[ ! boil+ po9t1 ! hydrog5-gas !rmomet] is ! almo/ univ]sal /&>d ) :i* m]curial !rmomet]s may be comp>$1 :ile above ?is po9t ! nitrog5-gas !rmomet] is us$4 ,9 bo? ( ^! /&>ds ! *ange 9 temp]ature is measur$ by ! *ange 9 pressure ( a con/ant volume ( ! gas4 ,9 graduat+ a m]curial !rmomet] = ! ,fahr5heit scale1 ord9>ily a degree is repres5t$ z #a_/ahj "p ( ! volume ( ! /em betwe5 ! read+s at ! melt+ po9t ( ice & ! boil+ po9t ( wat]4 ,= temp]atures above ! latt]1 ! scale is ext5d$ 9 degrees ( ! same volume4 ,= v accurate "w1 h[ev]1 ! !rmomet] may be graduat$ to read true-gas-scale temp]atures by comp>+ x ) ! gas !rmomet] & m>k+ ! temp]atures at #be or #ej degree int]vals4 ,ea* degree is !n #a_/be or #a_/ej ( ! volume ( ! /em 9 ea* int]val4 ,e !rmomet]1 especially if int5d$ = use above ! boil+ po9t1 %\ld be suitably anneal$ be=e x is us$4 ,if ?is is n done1 ! true melt+ po9t & also ! fundam5tal int]val1 t is1 ! int]val betwe5 ! melt+ & ! boil+ po9ts1 may *ange consid]ably4 ,aft] cont9u$ use at ! high] temp]atures also1 ! melt+ po9t w *ange1 s t ! !rmomet] mu/ be calibrat$ occasionally to insure accurate read+s4 ,,table #c ,,comp>ison ,,( ,,!rmomet] ,,scales ---------------------------------------- ----- ,fahr5heit,c5tigrade ,raumur ---------------------------------------- ----- ,absolute ,z]o -#dei4fd -#bgc4ac -#bah4ej #j -#ag4gh -#ad4bb #aj -#ab4bb -#i4gh #bj -#f4fg -#e4cc #cj -#a4aa -#j4hi ,freez+ ,po9t #cb #j #j ,maximum ,d5sity ( ,wat] #ci4a #c4id #c4ae #ej #aj #h #ge #bc4hi #ai4aa #ajj #cg4gh #cj4bb #bjj #ic4cc #gd4fg ,boil+ ,po9t #bab #ajj #hj #bej #aba4aa #if4hi #cjj #adh4hi #aai4aa #cej #agf4fg #ada4cc ---------------------------------------- ----- ,f #i_/e;,c#cb #i_/d,r#cb ,c #e_/i7;,f-#cb7 #e_/d,r ,r #d_/i7;,f-#cb7 #d_/e;,c ,z a g5]al rule !rmomet]s are graduat$ to read correctly = total imm]sion1 t is1 ) bulb & /em ( ! !rmomet] at ! same temp]ature1 & !y %\ld be us$ 9 ?is way :5 comp>$ ) a /&>d !rmomet]4 ,if ! /em em]ges into space ei!r hott] or cold] ?an t 9 :i* ! bulb is plac$1 a /em correction mu/ be appli$ to ! obs]v$ temp]ature 9 addition to any correction t may be f\nd 9 ! comp>ison ) ! /&>d4 ,= in/ance1 = a p>ticul> !rmomet]1 comp>ison ) ! /&>d ) bo? fully imm]s$ made necess>y ! foll[+ corrections3 ,temp]ature ,correction #dj;,f #j4j #ajj #j4j #bjj #j4j #cjj #b4e #djj -#j4e #ejj -#b4e ,:5 ! sign ( ! correction is positive 77 x mu/ be add$ to ! obs]v$ read+1 & :5 ! sign is a negative 7-7 ! correction mu/ be subtract$4 ,! =mula = ! /em correction is z foll[s3 ,/em correction #j4jjjjhe n 7,t-t7 9 :i* ,t is ! obs]v$ temp]ature1 t is ! mean temp]ature ( ! em]g5t column1 n is ! numb] ( degrees ( m]cury column em]g5t1 & #j4jjjjhe is ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! coeffici5t ( expansion ( ! m]cury & t 9 ! glass 9 ! /em4 ,suppose ! obs]v$ temp]ature is #djj degrees & ! !rmomet] is imm]s$ to ! #bjj degrees m>k1 s t #bjj degrees ( ! m]cury column project into ! air4 ,! mean temp]ature ( ! em]g5t column may be f\nd by ty+ ano!r !rmomet] on ! /em ) ! bulb at ! middle ( ! em]g5t m]cury column z 9 ,fig4 #ab4 ,suppose ?is mean temp]ature is #he degrees1 !n ,/em correction #j4jjjjhe #bjj 7#djj - #he7 #e4c degrees4 ,z ! /em is at a l[] temp]ature ?an ! bulb1 ! !rmomet] w evid5tly read too l[1 s t ?is correction mu/ be add$ to ! obs]v$ read+ to f9d ! read+ correspond+ to total imm]sion4 ,! correct$ read+ w !re=e be #dje4c degrees4 ,if ?is !rmomet] is to be correct$ 9 accordance ) ! calibrat$ corrections giv5 above1 we note t a fur!r correction ( #j4e mu/ be appli$ to ! obs]v$ read+ at ?is temp]ature1 s t ! correct temp]ature is #dje4c - #j4e #djd4h degrees or #dje degrees4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ab ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ac ,fig4 #ab %[s h[ a /em correction c be obta9$ = ! case j describ$4 ,fig4 #ac af=ds an opportunity = comp>+ ! scale ( a !rmomet] correct = total imm]sion ) "o :i* w read correctly :5 subm]g$ to ! #cjj degrees m>k1 ! /em be+ expos$ at a mean temp]ature ( #aaj degrees ,fahr5heit1 a temp]ature (t5 prevail+ :5 !rmomet]s are us$ = measur+ temp]atures 9 /eam ma9s4 ,absolute ,z]o--,exp]im5ts %[ t at #cb degrees ,fahr5heit a p]fect gas exp&s #a_/dia4fd "p ( its volume if its pressure rema9s con/ant & its temp]ature is increas$ "o degree4 ,?us if gas at #cb degrees ,fahr5heit occupies #ajj cubic feet & its temp]ature is increas$ "o degree1 its volume w be increas$ to #ajj #ajj_/dia4fd #ajj4bjc cubic feet4 ,= a rise ( two degrees ! volume w\ld be #ajj 7#ajj #b7 _/ #dia4fd #ajj4djf cubic feet4 ,if ?is rate ( expansion p] "o degree held good at all temp]atures1 & exp]im5t %[s t x does above ! freez+ po9t1 ! gas1 if its pressure rema9$ ! same1 w\ld d\ble its volume1 if rais$ to a temp]ature ( #cb #dia4fd #ebc4fd degrees ,fahr5heit1 :ile "u a dim9ution ( temp]ature x w\ld %r9k & f9ally disappe> at a temp]ature ( #dia4fd - #cb #dei4fd degrees bel[ z]o ,fahr5heit4 ,:ile und\bt$ly "s *ange 9 ! law w\ld take place be=e ! l[] temp]ature c\ld be rea*$1 !re is no reason :y ! law may n be us$ )9 ! range ( temp]ature :]e x is kn[n to hold good4 ,f ?is explanation x is evid5t t "u a con/ant pressure ! volume ( a gas w v>y z ! numb] ( degrees betwe5 its temp]ature & ! temp]ature ( -#dei4fd degrees ,fahr5heit4 ,to simplify ! application ( ! law1 a new !rmometric scale is con/ruct$ z foll[s3 ! po9t correspond+ to -#dfj degrees ,fahr5heit1 is tak5 z ! z]o po9t on ! new scale1 & ! degrees are id5tical 9 magnitude ) ^? on ! ,fahr5heit scale4 ,temp]atures ref]r$ to ?is new scale are call$ absolute temp]atures & ! po9t -#dfj degrees ,fahr5heit 7 -#bgc degrees c5tigrade7 is call$ ! absolute z]o4 ,to conv]t any temp]ature ,fahr5heit to absolute temp]ature1 add #dfj degrees to ! temp]ature on ! ,fahr5heit scale3 ?us #ed degrees ,fahr5heit w be #ed #dfj #ead degrees absolute temp]ature2 #aac degrees ,fahr5heit w likewise be equal to #aac #dfj #egc degrees absolute temp]ature4 ,if "o p\nd ( gas is at a temp]ature ( #ed degrees ,fahr5heit & ano!r p\nd is at a temp]ature ( #aad degrees ,fahr5heit ! respective volumes at a giv5 pressure w\ld be 9 ! ratio ( #ead to #egc4 ,illu/ration3 ,n9ety-six? ,/reet ,/ation ( ! ,new ,york ,railways ,co41 ,new ,york ,city1 ,op]at+ #bj1jjj ,horse ,p[] ( ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil]s4 ,?is ,company & its ,alli$ ,companies ,op]ate a ,total ( #ajj1jjj ,horse ,p[] ( ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil]s ,briti% ,!rmal ,unit--,! quantitative measure ( heat is ! ,briti% !rmal unit1 ord9>ily writt5 ,b4 t4 u4 ,?is is ! quantity ( heat requir$ to raise ! temp]ature ( "o p\nd ( pure wat] "o degree at #fb degrees ,fahr5heit2 t is1 f #fb degrees to #fc degrees4 ,9 ! metric sy/em ?is unit is ! calorie & is ! heat necess>y to raise ! temp]ature ( "o kilogram ( pure wat] f #ae degrees to #af degrees c5tigrade4 ,^! two def9itions lead to a discrepancy ( #j4jc ( #a p] c5t1 :i* is insignificant = eng9e]+ purposes1 & 9 ! foll[+ ! ,b4 t4 u4 is tak5 ) ?is discrepancy ignor$4 ,! discrepancy is due to ! fact t !re is a slight diff]5ce 9 ! specific heat ( wat] at #ae degrees c5tigrade & #fb degrees ,fahr5heit4 ,! two units may be comp>$ ?us3 #a ,calorie #c4ifh ,b4 t4 u4 #a ,b4 t4 u4 #j4beb ,calories4 ,unit ,wat] ,temp]ature ,rise #a ,b4 t4 u4 #a ,p\nd #a ,degree ,fahr5heit #a ,calorie #a ,kilogram #a ,degree c5tigrade ,b #a kilogram #b4bjdf p\nds & #a degree c5tigrade #i_/e degree ,fahr5heit4 ,h5ce #a calorie 7#b4bjdf #i_/e7 #c4ifh ,b4 t4 u4 ,! heat values 9 ,b4 t4 u4 are ord9>ily giv5 p] p\nd1 & ! heat values 9 calories p] kilogram1 9 :i* case ! ,b4 t4 u4 p] p\nd are approximately equival5t to #i_/e ! calories p] kilogram4 ,z det]m9$ by ,j\le1 heat en]gy has a c]ta9 def9ite relation to "w1 "o ,briti% !rmal unit be+ equival5t f 8 det]m9ations to #ggb foot p\nds4 ,r[l&1 a lat] inve/igator1 f\nd t #ggh foot p\nds 7 a m exact equival5t4 ,/ill lat] inve/igations indicate t ! correct value = a ,b4 t4 u4 is #ggg4eb foot p\nds or approximately #ggh4 ,! relation ( heat en]gy to "w z det]m9$ is a demon/ration ( ! fir/ law ( !rmo-dynamics1 namely1 t heat & me*anical en]gy are mutually conv]tible 9 ! ratio ( #ggh foot p\nds = "o ,briti% !rmal unit4 ,?is law1 algebraically express$1 is ,w ,,jh2 ,w be+ ! "w done 9 foot p\nds1 ,h be+ ! heat 9 ,b4 t4 u41 & ,j be+ ,j\les equival5t4 ,?us #ajjj ,b4 t4 u4's w\ld be capable ( do+ #ajjj #ggh #gghjjj foot p\nds ( "w4 ,specific ,heat--,! specific heat ( a sub/ance is ! quantity ( heat express$ 9 !rmal units requir$ to raise or l[] ! temp]ature ( a unit weight ( any sub/ance at a giv5 temp]ature "o degree4 ,?is quantity w v>y = diff]5t sub/ances ,= example1 x requires ab\t #af ,b4 t4 u4 to raise ! temp]ature ( "o p\nd ( ice #cb degrees or #j4e ,b4 t4 u4 to raise x "o degree1 :ile x requires approximately #ahj ,b4 t4 u4 to raise ! temp]ature ( "o p\nd ( wat] #ahj degrees or "o ,b4 t4 u4 = "o degree4 ,if !n1 a p\nd ( wat] be consid]$ z a /&>d1 ! ratio ( ! am\nt ( heat requir$ to raise a simil> unit ( any o!r sub/ance "o degree1 to ! am\nt requir$ to raise a p\nd ( wat] "o degree is kn[n z ! specific heat ( t sub/ance4 ,?us s9ce "o p\nd ( wat] requir$ "o ,b4 t4 u4 to raise its temp]ature "o degree1 & "o p\nd ( ice requires ab\t #j4e degrees to raise its temp]ature "o degree1 ! ratio is #j4e :i* is ! specific heat ( ice4 ,to be exact1 ! specific heat ( ice is #j4ejd1 h5ce #cb degrees #j4ejd #af4abh ,b4 t4 u4 w\ld be requir$ to raise ! temp]ature ( "o p\nd ( ice f #j to #cb degrees4 ,= solids1 at ord9>y temp]atures1 ! specific heat may be consid]$ a con/ant = ea* individual sub/ance1 al?\gh x is v>iable = high temp]atures4 ,9 ! case ( gases a di/9ction mu/ be made betwe5 specific heat at con/ant volume1 & at con/ant pressure4 ,:]e specific heat is /at$ alone1 specific heat at ord9>y temp]ature is impli$1 & mean specific heat ref]s to ! av]age value ( ?is quantity betwe5 ! temp]atures nam$4 ,! specific heat ( a mixture ( gases is obta9$ by multiply+ ! specific heat ( ea* con/itu5t gas by ! p]c5tage by weight ( t gas 9 ! mixture1 & divid+ ! sum ( ! products by #ajj4 ,! specific heat ( a gas ^: composition by weight is ,,co#b1 #ac p] c5t2 ,,co1 #j4d p] c5t2 ,o1 #h p] c5t2 ,n1 #gh4f p] c5t1 is f\nd z foll[s3 ,,co#b 3 #ac #j4bag #b4hba ,,co 3 #j4d #j4bdgi #j4jiiaf ,o 3 #h #j4bage #a4gdjjj ,n 3 #gh4f #j4bdch #ai4afbfh -------- #ajj4j #bc4hbbhd & #bc4hbbh #ajj #j4bch specific heat ( ! gas4 ,! specific heats ( v>i\s solids1 liquids & gases are giv5 9 ,table #d4 ,s5sible ,heat--,! heat utiliz$ 9 rais+ ! temp]ature ( a body1 z t 9 rais+ ! temp]ature ( wat] f #cb degrees up to ! boil+ po9t1 is t]m$ s5sible heat4 ,9 ! case ( wat]1 ! s5sible heat requir$ to raise its temp]ature f ! freez+ po9t to ! boil+ po9t correspond+ to ! pressure "u :i* ebullition occurs1 is t]m$ ! heat ( ! liquid4 ,lat5t ,heat--,lat5t heat is ! heat :i* app>5tly disappe>s 9 produc+ "s *ange 9 ! condition ( a body )\t increas+ its temp]ature ,if heat be add$ to ice at freez+ temp]ature1 ! ice w melt b its temp]ature w n be rais$4 ,! heat s utiliz$ 9 *ang+ ! condition ( ! ice is ! lat5t heat & 9 ?is p>ticul> case is kn[n z ! lat5t heat ( fusion4 ,if heat be add$ to wat] at #bab degrees "u atmosph]ic pressure1 ! wat] w n become hott] b w be evaporat$ into /eam1 ! temp]ature ( :i* w also be #bab degrees4 ,! heat s utiliz$ is call$ ! lat5t heat ( evaporation & is ! heat :i* app>5tly disappe>s 9 caus+ ! sub/ance to pass f a liquid to a gase\s /ate4 ,,table #d ,,specific ,,heats ,,( ,,v>i\s ,,sub/ances ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,solids ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,temp]ature#b ,degrees ,specific ,fahr5heit ,heat ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,copp] #ei-dfj 4#jiea ,gold #cb-bab 4#jcaf ,wr\ght ,iron #ei-bab 4#aaeb ,ca/ ,iron #fh-bab 4#aahi ,/eel 7s(t7 #fh-bjh 4#aage ,/eel 7h>d7 #fh-bjh 4#aafe ,z9c #cb-bab 4#jice ,brass 7yell[7 #cb 4#jhhc ,glass 7normal !r4 #af;,,iii7 #ff-bab 4#aihh ,lead #ei 4#jbii ,plat9um #cb-bab 4#jcbc ,silv] #cb-bab 4#jeei ,t9 -#aje-fd 4#jeah ,ice 4#ejdj ,sulphur 7newly fus$7 4#bjbe ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,,liquids ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,temp]ature#b ,degrees ,specific ,fahr5heit ,heat ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,wat]#c #ei #a4jjjj ,alcohol #cb 4#edge #agf 4#gfid ,m]cury #cb 4#jccdf ,b5zol #ej 4#djff #abb 4#dejb ,glyc]9e #ei-ajb 4#egf ,lead 7,melt$7 to #cfj 4#jdaj ,sulphur 7melt$7 #bdf-big 4#bcej ,t9 7melt$7 4#jfcg ,sea ,wat] 7sp4 gr4 #a4jjdc7 #fd 4#ihj ,sea ,wat] 7sp4 gr4 #a4jdfc7 #fd 4#ijc ,oil ( ,turp5t9e #cb 4#daa ,petroleum #fd-baj 4#dih ,sulphuric ,acid #fh-acc 4#ccfc ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,,gases ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,specific ,specific ,temp]ature#b ,heat at ,heat at ,degrees ,con/ant ,con/ant ,fahr5heit ,pressure ,volume ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,air #cb-cib 4#bcge 4#afic ,oxyg5 #dd-dje 4#bage 4#aeec ,nitrog5 #cb-cib 4#bdch 4#agbi ,hydrog5 #ed-chh #c4djij #b4dada ,sup]heat$ ,/eam ,see table #be ,c>bon ,monoxide #da-bjh 4#bdbe 4#agbh ,c>bon ,dioxide #eb-dag 4#bafi 4#aece ,me?ane #fd-djf 4#eibi 4#deje ,bla/ ,fur4 ,gas 7approx47 444 4#bbgg 444 ,flue gas 7approx47 444 4#bdjj 444 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,lat5t heat is n lo/1 b reappe>s :5ev] ! sub/ances pass ?r\gh a rev]se cycle1 f a gase\s to a liquid1 or f a liquid to a solid /ate4 ,x may1 !re=e1 be def9$ z /at$1 z ! heat :i* app>5tly disappe>s1 or is lo/ to !rmometric measurem5t1 :5 ! molecul> con/itution ( a body is be+ *ang$4 ,lat5t heat is exp5d$ 9 p]=m+ ! "w ( ov]com+ ! molecul> cohesion ( ! p>ticles ( ! sub/ance & 9 ov]com+ ! resi/ance ( ext]nal pressure to *ange ( volume ( ! heat$ body4 ,lat5t heat ( evaporation1 !re=e1 may be said to consi/ ( int]nal & ext]nal heat1 ! =m] be+ utiliz$ 9 ov]com+ ! molecul> resi/ance ( ! wat] 9 *ang+ to /eam1 :ile ! latt] is exp5d$ 9 ov]com+ any resi/ance to ! increase ( its volume dur+ =mation4 ,9 evaporat+ a p\nd ( wat] at #bab degrees to /eam at #bab degrees1 #hig4f ,b4 t4 u4 are exp5d$ z int]nal lat5t heat & #gb4h ,b4 t4 u4 z ext]nal lat5t heat4 ,= a m detail$ description ( ! *anges br\ght ab\t 9 wat] by s5sible & lat5t heat1 ! read] is aga9 ref]r$ to ! *apt] on ,! ,!ory ( ,/eam ,mak+4 ,ebullition--,! temp]ature ( ebullition ( any liquid1 or its boil+ po9t1 may be def9$ z ! temp]ature :i* exi/s :]e ! addition ( heat to ! liquid no long] increases its temp]ature1 ! heat add$ be+ absorb$ or utiliz$ 9 conv]t+ ! liquid into vapor4 ,?is temp]ature is dep5d5t ^u ! pressure "u :i* ! liquid is evaporat$1 be+ high] z ! pressure is great]4 ,,table #e ,,boil+ ,,po9ts ,,at ,,atmosph]ic ,,pressure ----------------------------------- ,degrees ,fahr5heit ----------------------------------- ,ammonia #adj ,brom9e #ade ,alcohol #agc ,b5z9e #bab ,wat] #bab ,av]age ,sea ,wat] #bac4b ,saturat$ ,br9e #bbf ,m]cury #fhj ----------------------------------- ,total ,heat ( ,evaporation--,! quantity ( heat requir$ to raise a unit ( any liquid f ! freez+ po9t to any giv5 temp]ature1 & to entirely evaporate x at t temp]ature1 is ! total heat ( evaporation ( ! liquid = t temp]ature4 ,x is ! sum ( ! heat ( ! liquid & ! lat5t heat ( evaporation4 ,to recapitulate1 ! heat add$ to a body is divid$ z foll[s3 ,total heat ,heat to *ange ! temp]ature heat to ov]come ! molecul> cohesion heat to ov]come ! ext]nal pressure resi/+ an increase ( volume ( ! body4 ,:]e wat] is conv]t$ into /eam1 ?is total heat is divid$ z foll[s3 ,total heat ,heat to *ange ! temp]ature ( ! wat] heat to sep>ate ! molecules ( ! wat] heat to ov]come resi/ance to increase 9 volume ( ! /eam1 ,heat ( ! liquid int]nal lat5t heat ext]nal lat5t heat1 ,heat ( ! liquid total lat5t heat ( /eam1 ,total heat ( evaporation4 ,! /eam tables giv5 on pages #abb to #abg give ! heat ( ! liquid & ! total lat5t heat ?r\gh a wide range ( temp]atures4 ,gases--,:5 heat is add$ to gases !re is no int]nal "w done2 h5ce ! total heat is t requir$ to *ange ! temp]ature plus t requir$ to d ! ext]nal "w4 ,if ! gas is n all[$ to exp& b is pres]v$ at con/ant volume1 ! entire heat add$ is t requir$ to *ange ! temp]ature only4 ,l9e> ,expansion ( ,sub/ances by ,heat--,to f9d ! increase 9 ! l5g? ( a b> ( any mat]ial due to an increase ( temp]ature1 multiply ! numb] ( degrees ( increase 9 temp]ature by ! coeffici5t ( expansion = "o degree & by ! l5g? ( ! b>4 ,:]e ! coeffici5t ( expansion is giv5 = #ajj degrees1 z 9 ,table #f1 ! result %\ld be divid$ by #ajj4 ,! expansion ( metals p] "o degree rise ( temp]ature increases slightly z high temp]atures are rea*$1 b = all practical purposes x may be assum$ to be con/ant = a giv5 metal4 ,,table #f ,,l9eal ,,expansion ,,( ,,solids ,,at ,,ord9>y ,,temp]atures 7,tabul> values repres5t increase p] foot p] #ajj degrees increase 9 temp]ature1 ,fahr5heit or c5tigrade7 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,temp]ature ,conditions#d;,coeffici5t p] ,coeffici5t p] ,sub/ance ,degrees #ajj ,degrees #ajj ,degrees ,fahr5heit ,fahr5heit ,c5tigrade ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,brass 7ca/7 #cb to #bab 4#jjajdb 4#jjahge ,brass 7wire7 #cb to #bab 4#jjajgb 4#jjaicj ,copp] #cb to #bab 4#jjjibf 4#jjafff ,glass 7,engli% fl9t7 #cb to #bab 4#jjjdea 4#jjjhab ,glass 7,fr5* fl9t7 #cb to #bab 4#jjjdhd 4#jjjhgb ,gold #cb to #bab 4#jjjhaf 4#jjadgj ,granite 7av]age7 #cb to #bab 4#jjjdhb 4#jjjhfh ,iron 7ca/7 #ajd 4#jjjehi 4#jjajfa ,iron 7s(t =g$7 #j to #bab 4#jjjfcd 4#jjaada ,iron 7wire7 #cb to #bab 4#jjjhjj 4#jjaddj ,lead #cb to #bab 4#jjaeje 4#jjbgji ,m]cury #cb to #bab 4#jjiihde 4#jagiga ,plat9um #ajd 4#jjjdii 4#jjjhii ,lime/one #cb to #bab 4#jjjaci 4#jjjbea ,silv] #ajd 4#jjajfg 4#jjaiba ,/eel 7,bessem] roll$1 h>d7 #j to #bab 4#jjjef 4#jjaja ,/eel 7,bessem] roll$1 s(t7 #j to #bab 4#jjjfc 4#jjaag ,/eel 7ca/1 ,fr5*7 #ajd 4#jjjgcd 4#jjacbb ,/eel 7ca/ anneal$1 ,engli%7 #ajd 4#jjjfjh 4#jjajie ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,high ,temp]ature ,measurem5ts--,! temp]atures to be dealt ) 9 /eam-boil] practice range f ^? ( ord9>y air & /eam to ! temp]atures ( burn+ fuel4 ,! gases ( combu/ion1 orig9ally at ! temp]ature ( ! furnace1 cool z !y pass ?r\gh ea* successive bank ( tubes 9 ! boil]1 to ne>ly ! temp]ature ( ! /eam1 result+ 9 a wide range ( temp]atures ?r\gh :i* def9ite measurem5ts are sometimes requir$4 ,( ! diff]5t me?ods devis$ = asc]ta9+ ^! temp]atures1 "s ( ! mo/ important are z foll[s3 #a/4 ,m]curial pyromet]s = temp]atures up to #ajjj degrees ,fahr5heit4 #bnd4 ,expansion pyromet]s = temp]atures up to #aejj degrees ,fahr5heit4 #crd4 ,calorimetry = temp]atures up to #bjjj degrees ,fahr5heit4 #d?4 ,!rmo-electric pyromet]s = temp]atures up to #bijj degrees ,fahr5heit4 #e?4 ,melt+ po9ts ( metal :i* fl[ at v>i\s temp]atures up to ! melt+ po9t ( plat9um #cbbg degrees ,fahr5heit4 #f?4 ,radiation pyromet]s = temp]atures up to #cfjj degrees ,fahr5heit4 #g?4 ,optical pyromet]s capable ( measur+ temp]atures up to #ab1fjj degrees ,fahr5heit4#f ,= ord9>y boil] practice h[ev]1 _! range is #afjj to #cfjj degrees ,fahr5heit4 ,illu/ration3 #bbh ,horse-p[] ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil]1 ,in/all$ at ! ,w5twor? ,in/itute1 ,bo/on1 ,mass4 ,table #g gives ! degree ( accuracy ( high temp]ature measurem5ts4 ,,table #g ,,accuracy ,,( ,,high ,,temp]ature ,,measurem5ts#g ---------------------------------------- -------- ,c5tigrade ,fahr5heit ---------------------------------------- ------ ,accuracy ,accuracy ,temp]ature ,plus or ,temp]ature ,plus or ,range ,m9us ,range ,m9us ,degrees ,degrees ---------------------------------------- ------ #bjj- #ejj #j4e #cib- #icb #j4i #ejj- #hjj #b #icb-adgb #c4f #hjj-aajj #c #adgb-bjab #e4d #aajj-afjj #ae #bjab-biab #bg #afjj-bjjj #be #biab-cfcb #de ---------------------------------------- ------ ,m]curial ,pyromet]s--,at atmosph]ic pressure m]cury boils at #fgf degrees ,fahr5heit & ev5 at l[] temp]atures ! m]cury 9 !rmomet]s w be di/ill$ & w collect 9 ! upp] "p ( ! /em4 ,!re=e1 = temp]atures mu* above #djj degrees ,fahr5heit1 "s in]t gas1 su* z nitrog5 or c>bon dioxide1 mu/ be =c$ "u pressure into ! upp] "p ( ! !rmomet] /em4 ,! pressure at #fjj degrees ,fahr5heit is ab\t #ae p\nds1 or slightly above t ( ! atmosph]e1 at #hej degrees ab\t #gj p\nds1 & at #ajjj degrees ab\t #cjj p\nds4 ,flue-gas temp]atures are ne>ly always tak5 ) m]curial !rmomet]s z !y are ! mo/ accurate & are easy to read & manipulate4 ,c>e mu/ be tak5 t ! bulb ( ! in/rum5t projects into ! pa? ( ! mov+ gases 9 ord] t ! temp]ature may truly repres5t ! flue gas temp]ature4 ,no read+s %\ld be consid]$ until ! !rmomet] has be5 9 place long en\gh to heat x up to ! full temp]ature ( ! gases4 ,expansion ,pyromet]s--,brass exp&s ab\t #ej p] c5t m ?an iron & 9 bo? brass & iron ! expansion is ne>ly proportional to ! increase 9 temp]ature4 ,?is ph5om5on is utiliz$ 9 expansion pyromet]s by enclos+ a brass rod 9 an iron pipe1 "o end ( ! rod be+ rigidly atta*$ to a cap at ! end ( ! pipe1 :ile ! o!r is connect$ by a multiply+ ge> to a po9t] mov+ ar\nd a graduat$ dial4 ,! :ole l5g? ( ! expansion piece mu/ be at a uni=m temp]ature be=e a correct read+ c be obta9$4 ,?is fact1 toge!r ) ! lo/ motion :i* is likely to exi/ 9 ! me*anism connect$ to ! po9t]1 makes ! expansion pyromet] unreliable2 x %\ld be us$ only :5 its limitations are ?or\ghly und]/ood & x %\ld be c>efully calibrat$4 ,unless ! brass & iron are kn[n to be ( ! same temp]ature1 its action w be anomal\s3 = in/ance1 if x be all[$ to cool aft] be+ expos$ to a high temp]ature1 ! ne$le w rise be=e x beg9s to fall4 ,simil>ly1 a rise 9 temp]ature is fir/ %[n by ! in/rum5t z a fall4 ,! explanation is t ! iron1 be+ on ! outside1 heats or cools m quickly ?an ! brass4 ,calorimetry--,?is me?od d]ives its "n f ! fact t ! process is ! same z ! det]m9ation ( ! specific heat ( a sub/ance by ! wat] calorimet]1 except t 9 "o case ! temp]ature is kn[n & ! specific heat is requir$1 :ile 9 ! o!r ! specific heat is kn[n & ! temp]ature is requir$4 ,! temp]ature is f\nd z foll[s3 ,a giv5 weight ( "s sub/ance su* z iron1 nickel or fire brick1 is heat$ to ! unkn[n temp]ature & !n plung$ into wat] & ! rise 9 temp]ature not$4 ,if ,x temp]ature to be measur$1 w weight ( heat$ body 9 p\nds1 ,w weight ( wat] 9 p\nds1 ,t f9al temp]ature ( wat]1 t diff]5ce betwe5 initial & f9al temp]atures ( wat]1 s kn[n specific heat ( body4 ,!n ,x ,t ,wt ws ,any temp]atures secur$ by ?is me?od are affect$ by s _m s\rces ( error t ! results are v approximate4 ,!rmo-electric ,pyromet]s--,:5 wires ( two diff]5t metals are jo9$ at "o end & heat$1 an electromotive =ce w be set up betwe5 ! free ends ( ! wires4 ,its am\nt w dep5d ^u ! composition ( ! wires & ! diff]5ce 9 temp]ature betwe5 ! two4 ,if a delicate galvanomet] ( high resi/ance be connect$ to ! !rmal c\ple1 z x is call$1 ! deflection ( ! ne$le1 aft] a c>eful calibration1 w indicate ! temp]ature v accurately4 ,9 ! !rmo-electric pyromet] ( ,le ,*ateli]1 ! wires us$ are plat9um & a #aj p] c5t alloy ( plat9um & rhodium1 enclos$ 9 porcela9 tubes to protect !m f ! oxidiz+ influ5ce ( ! furnace gases4 ,! c\ple ) its protect+ tubes is call$ an elem5t4 ,! elem5ts are made 9 diff]5t l5g?s to suit conditions4 ,x is n necess>y = accuracy to expose ! :ole l5g? ( ! elem5t to ! temp]ature to be measur$1 z ! electromotive =ce dep5ds only ^u ! temp]ature ( ! juncture at ! clos$ end ( ! protect+ tube & t ( ! cold end ( ! elem5t4 ,! galvanomet] c be locat$ at any conv5i5t po9t1 s9ce ! l5g? ( ! wires lead+ to x simply alt] ! resi/ance ( ! circuit1 = :i* all[ance may be made4 ,! advantages ( ! !rmo-electric pyromet] are accuracy ov] a wide range ( temp]atures1 cont9uity ( read+s1 & ! ease ) :i* obs]vations c be tak54 ,its disadvantages are high fir/ co/ &1 9 "s cases1 extreme delicacy4 ,melt+ ,po9ts ( ,metals--,! approximate temp]ature ( a furnace or flue may be det]m9$1 if s desir$1 by introduc+ c]ta9 metals ( :i* ! melt+ po9ts are kn[n4 ,! m common metals =m a s]ies 9 :i* ! respective melt+ po9ts diff] by #ajj to #bjj degrees ,fahr5heit1 & by us+ ^! 9 ord]1 ! temp]ature c be fix$ betwe5 ! melt+ po9ts ( "s two ( !m4 ,?is me?od lacks accuracy1 b x suffices = det]m9ations :]e approximate read+s are satisfactory4 ,! approximate melt+ po9ts ( c]ta9 metals t may be us$ = det]m9ations ( ?is nature are giv5 9 ,table #h4 ,radiation ,pyromet]s--,^! are simil> to !rmo-electric pyromet]s 9 t a !rmo-c\ple is employ$4 ,! heat rays giv5 out by ! hot body fall on a concave mirror & are br\ght to a focus at a po9t at :i* is plac$ ! junction ( a !rmo-c\ple4 ,! temp]ature read+s are obta9$ f an indicator simil> to t us$ ) !rmo-electric pyromet]s4 ,optical ,pyromet]s--,( ! optical pyromet]s ! ,wann] is p]haps ! mo/ reliable4 ,! pr9ciple on :i* ?is in/rum5t is con/ruct$ is t ( comp>+ ! quantity ( light emanat+ f ! heat$ body ) a con/ant s\rce ( light1 9 ?is case a two-volt osmium lamp4 ,! lamp is plac$ at "o end ( an optical tube1 :ile at ! o!r an eyepiece is provid$ & a scale4 ,a batt]y ( cells furni%es ! curr5t = ! lamp4 ,on look+ ?r\gh ! pyromet]1 a circle ( r$ light appe>s1 divid$ into di/9ct halves ( diff]5t int5sities4 ,adju/m5t may be made s t ! two halves appe> alike & a read+ is !n tak5 f ! scale4 ,! temp]atures are obta9$ f a table ( temp]atures correspond+ to scale read+s4 ,= /&>diz+ ! osmium lamp1 an amylacetate lamp1 is provid$ ) a /& = hold+ ! optical tube4 ,,table #h ,,approximate ,,melt+ ,,po9ts ,,( ,,metals#h ----------------------------------- ,metal ,temp]ature ,degrees ,fahr5heit ----------------------------------- ,wr\ght ,iron #bgcg ,pig ,iron 7gray7 #baij-bcbg ,ca/ ,iron 7:ite7 #bjge ,/eel #bdfj-beej ,/eel 7ca/7 #bejj ,copp] #aiha ,z9c #ghf ,antimony #aaff ,lead #fba ,bismu? #dih ,t9 #ddi ,plat9um #caia ,gold #aidf ,silv] #agfb ,alum9um #abaf ----------------------------------- ,det]m9ation ( ,temp]ature f ,"* ( ,emitt$ ,light--,z a fur!r means ( det]m9+ approximately ! temp]ature ( a furnace1 ,table #i1 compil$ by ,messrs4 ,:ite ,taylor1 may be ( s]vice4 ,! color at a giv5 temp]ature is approximately ! same = all k9ds ( combu/ibles "u simil> conditions4 ,,table #i ,,"* ,,( ,,emitt$ ,,light ,,& ,,correspond+ ,,approximate ,,temp]ature#i ---------------------------------------- --------- ,"* ( ,emitt$ ,light ,temp]ature ,degrees ,fahr5heit ---------------------------------------- --------- ,d>k r$1 blood r$1 l[ r$ #ajej ,d>k *]ry r$ #aage ,*]ry1 full r$ #acge ,light *]ry1 bright *]ry1 light r$ #aeej ,orange #afej ,light orange #agbe ,yell[ #ahbe ,light yell[ #aige ,:ite #bbjj ---------------------------------------- --------- ,,! ,,!ory ,,( ,,/eam ,,mak+ ,extracts f a ,lecture deliv]$ by ,george ,h4 ,babcock1 at ,cornell ,univ]sity1 #ahhgaj ,! *emical comp\nd kn[n z ,h#b,o exi/s 9 ?ree /ates or conditions--ice1 wat] & /eam2 ! only diff]5ce betwe5 ^! /ates or conditions is 9 ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( a quantity ( en]gy exhibit$ p>tly 9 ! =m ( heat & p>tly 9 molecul> activity1 :i*1 = want ( a bett] "n1 we are accu/om$ to call lat5t heat2 & to trans=m x f "o /ate to ano!r we h only to supply or extract heat4 ,= in/ance1 if we take a quantity ( ice1 say "o p\nd1 at absolute z]o#aa & supply heat1 ! fir/ effect is to raise its temp]ature until x arrives at a po9t #dib ,fahr5heit degrees above ! />t+ po9t4 ,"h x /ops gr[+ w>m]1 ?\gh we keep on add+ heat4 ,x1 h[ev]1 *anges f ice to wat]1 & :5 we h add$ suffici5t heat to h made x1 _h x rema9$ ice1 #bhc degrees hott] or a temp]ature ( #cae degrees ,fahr5heit's !rmomet]1 x has all become wat]1 at ! same temp]ature at :i* x comm5c$ to *ange1 namely1 #dib degrees above absolute z]o1 or #cb degrees by ,fahr5heit's scale4 ,let u /ill cont9ue to add heat1 & x w n[ gr[ w>m] aga91 ?\gh at a sl[] rate--t is1 x n[ takes ab\t d\ble ! quantity ( heat to raise ! p\nd "o degree t x did be=e--until x rea*es a temp]ature ( #bab degrees ,fahr5heit1 or #fgb degrees absolute 7assum+ t we are at ! level ( ! sea74 ,"h we f9d ano!r critical po9t4 ,h[ev] mu* m heat we may apply1 ! wat]1 z wat]1 at t pressure1 _c be heat$ any hott]1 b *anges on ! addition ( heat to /eam2 & x is n until we h add$ heat en\gh to h rais$ ! temp]ature ( ! wat] #iff degrees1 or to #a1agh degrees by ,fahr5heit's !rmomet] 7presum+ = ! mom5t t its specific heat has n *ang$ s9ce x became wat]71 t x has all become /eam1 :i* /eam1 nev]!less1 is at ! temp]ature ( #bab degrees1 at :i* ! wat] began to *ange4 ,?us ov] f\r-fif?s ( ! heat :i* has be5 add$ to ! wat] has disappe>$1 or become ins5sible 9 ! /eam to any ( our in/rum5ts4 ,x foll[s t if we c\ld r$uce /eam at atmosph]ic pressure to wat]1 )\t loss ( heat1 ! heat /or$ )9 x w\ld cause ! wat] to be r$ hot2 & if we c\ld fur!r *ange x to a solid1 l ice1 )\t loss ( heat1 ! solid w\ld be :ite hot1 or hott] ?an melt$ /eel--x be+ assum$1 ( c\rse1 t ! specific heat ( ! wat] & ice rema9 normal1 or ! same z !y respectively are at ! freez+ po9t4 ,aft] /eam has be5 =m$1 a fur!r addition ( heat increases ! temp]ature aga9 at a mu* fa/] ratio to ! quantity ( heat add$1 :i* ratio also v>ies accord+ z we ma9ta9 a con/ant pressure or a con/ant volume2 & ,i am n aw>e t any o!r critical po9t exi/s :]e ?is w cease to be ! fact until we arrive at t v high temp]ature1 kn[n z ! po9t ( dissociation1 at :i* x becomes resolv$ into its orig9al gases4 ,! heat :i* has be5 absorb$ by "o p\nd ( wat] to conv]t x into a p\nd ( /eam at atmosph]ic pressure is suffici5t to h melt$ #c p\nds ( /eel or #ac p\nds ( gold4 ,?is has be5 trans=m$ into some?+ besides heat2 /or$ up to reappe> z heat :5 ! process is rev]s$4 ,t condition is :at we are pleas$ to call lat5t heat1 & 9 x resides ma9ly ! ability ( ! /eam to d "w4 ,graph3 ,temp]ature 9 ,fahr5heit ,degrees 7f ,absolute ,z]o7 aga9/ ,quantity ( ,heat 9 ,briti% ,!rmal ,units ,! diagram %[s graphically ! relation ( heat to temp]ature1 ! horizontal scale be+ quantity ( heat 9 ,briti% !rmal units1 & ! v]tical temp]ature 9 ,fahr5heit degrees1 bo? reckon$ f absolute z]o & by ! usual scale4 ,! dott$ l9es = ice & wat] %[ ! temp]ature :i* w\ld h be5 obta9$ if ! conditions _h n *ang$4 ,! l9es m>k$ gold & /eel %[ ! relation to heat & temp]ature & ! melt+ po9ts ( ^! metals4 ,all ! incl9$ l9es w\ld be slightly curv$ if att5tion _h be5 paid to ! *ang+ specific heat1 b ! curvature w\ld be small4 ,x is wor? not+ t1 ) "o or two exceptions1 ! curves ( all sub/ances lie betwe5 ! v]tical & t = wat]4 ,t is to say1 t wat] has a great] capacity = heat ?an all o!r sub/ances except two1 hydrog5 & brom9e4 ,9 ord] to g5]ate /eam1 !n1 only two /eps are requir$3 #a/1 procure ! heat1 & #bnd1 transf] x to ! wat]4 ,n[1 y h x laid d[n z an axiom t :5 a body has be5 transf]r$ or trans=m$ f "o place or /ate into ano!r1 ! same "w has be5 done & ! same en]gy exp5d$1 :atev] may h be5 ! int]m$iate /eps or conditions1 or :atev] ! app>atus4 ,!re=e1 :5 a giv5 quantity ( wat] at a giv5 temp]ature has be5 made into /eam at a giv5 temp]ature1 a c]ta9 def9ite "w has be5 done1 & a c]ta9 am\nt ( en]gy exp5d$1 f :atev] ! heat may h be5 obta9$1 or :atev] boil] may h be5 employ$ = ! purpose4 ,a p\nd ( coal or any o!r fuel has a def9ite heat produc+ capacity1 & is capable ( evaporat+ a def9ite quantity ( wat] "u giv5 conditions4 ,t is ! limit beyond :i* ev5 p]fection _c g1 & yet ,i h kn[n1 & d\btless y h he>d (1 cases :]e inv5tors h claim$1 & s-call$ eng9e]s h c]tifi$ to1 mu* high] results4 ,! fir/ /ep 9 g5]at+ /eam is 9 burn+ ! fuel to ! be/ advantage4 ,a p\nd ( c>bon w g5]ate #ad1ejj ,briti% !rmal units1 dur+ combu/ion into c>bonic dioxide1 & ?is w be ! same1 :atev] ! temp]ature or ! rapidity at :i* ! combu/ion may take place4 ,if possible1 we might oxidize x at z sl[ a rate z t ) :i* iron ru/s or wood rots 9 ! op5 air1 or we might burn x ) ! rapidity ( gunp[d]1 a ton 9 a second1 yet ! total heat g5]at$ w\ld be precisely ! same4 ,aga91 we may keep ! temp]ature d[n to ! l[e/ po9t at :i* combu/ion c take place1 by br++ l>ge bodies ( air 9 contact ) x1 or o!rwise1 or we may supply x ) j ! "r quantity ( pure oxyg51 & burn x at a temp]ature approa*+ t ( dissociation1 & /ill ! heat units giv5 (f w be nei!r m nor less4 ,x foll[s1 !re=e1 t great latitude 9 ! mann] or rapidity ( combu/ion may be tak5 )\t affect+ ! quantity ( heat g5]at$4 ,b 9 practice x is f\nd t o!r consid]ations limit ?is latitude1 & t !re are c]ta9 conditions necess>y 9 ord] to get ! mo/ available heat f a p\nd ( coal4 ,!re are ?ree ways1 & only ?ree1 9 :i* ! heat develop$ by ! combu/ion ( coal 9 a /eam boil] furnace may be exp5d$4 #a/1 & pr9cipally4 ,x %\ld be convey$ to ! wat] 9 ! boil]1 & be utiliz$ 9 ! production ( /eam4 ,to be p]fect1 a boil] %\ld s utilize all ! heat ( combu/ion1 b !re are no p]fect boil]s4 #bnd4 ,a portion ( ! heat ( combu/ion is convey$ up ! *imney 9 ! wa/e gases4 ,?is is 9 proportion to ! weight ( ! gases1 & ! diff]5ce betwe5 _! temp]ature & t ( ! air & coal be=e !y ent]$ ! fire4 #crd4 ,ano!r portion is dissipat$ by radiation f ! sides ( ! furnace4 ,9 a /ove ! heat is all us$ 9 ^! latt] two ways1 ei!r x goes (f ?r\gh ! *imney or is radiat$ into ! surr\nd+ space4 ,x is "o ( ! pr9cipal problems ( boil] eng9e]+ to r5d] ! am\nt ( heat ?us lo/ z small z possible4 ,! loss f radiation is 9 proportion to ! am\nt ( surface1 its nature1 its temp]ature1 & ! "t x is expos$4 ,?is loss c be almo/ entirely elim9at$ by ?ick walls & a smoo? :ite or poli%$ surface1 b its am\nt is ord9>ily s small t ^! extraord9>y precautions d n pay 9 practice4 ,x is evid5t t ! temp]ature ( ! escap+ gases _c be br\ght bel[ t ( ! absorb+ surfaces1 :ile x may be mu* great] ev5 to t ( ! fire4 ,?is is suppos+ t all ( ! escap+ gases h pass$ ?r\gh ! fire4 ,9 case air is all[$ to leak into ! flues1 & m+le ) ! gases aft] !y h left ! heat+ surfaces1 ! temp]ature may be br\ght d[n to almo/ any po9t above t ( ! atmosph]e1 b )\t any r$uction 9 ! am\nt ( heat wa/$4 ,x is 9 ?is way t ^? l[ *imney temp]atures are sometimes atta9$ :i* pass = pro( ( economy ) ! unobs]v+4 ,all surplus air admitt$ to ! fire1 or to ! gases be=e !y leave ! heat+ surfaces1 increases ! losses4 ,we are n[ prep>$ to see :y & h[ ! temp]ature & ! rapidity ( combu/ion 9 ! boil] furnace affect ! economy1 & t ?\gh ! am\nt ( heat develop$ may be ! same1 ! heat available = ! g5]ation ( /eam may be mu* less ) "o rate or temp]ature ( combu/ion ?an ano!r4 ,assum+ t !re is no air pass+ up ! *imney o!r ?an t :i* has pass$ ?r\gh ! fire1 ! high] ! temp]ature ( ! fire & ! l[] t ( ! escap+ gases ! bett] ! economy1 = ! losses by ! *imney gases w be> ! same proportion to ! heat g5]at$ by ! combu/ion z ! temp]ature ( ^? gases be>s to ! temp]ature ( ! fire4 ,t is to say1 if ! temp]ature ( ! fire is #bejj degrees & t ( ! *imney gases #ejj degrees above t ( ! atmosph]e1 ! loss by ! *imney w be #ejj_/bejj #bj p] c5t4 ,!re=e1 z ! escap+ gases _c be br\ght bel[ ! temp]ature ( ! absorb+ surface1 :i* is practically a fix$ quantity1 ! temp]ature ( ! fire mu/ be high 9 ord] to secure good economy4 ,! losses by radiation be+ practically proportion$ to ! "t occupi$1 ! m coal burn$ 9 a giv5 furnace 9 a giv5 "t1 ! less w be ! proportionate loss f t cause4 ,x !re=e foll[s t we %\ld burn our coal rapidly & at a high temp]ature to secure ! be/ available economy4 ,illu/ration3 ,portion ( #ihhj ,horse-p[] ,in/allation ( ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil]s & ,sup]heat]s1 ,equipp$ ) ,babcock ,wilcox ,*a9 ,grate ,/ok]s at ! ,s\? ,side ,elevat$ ,ry4 ,co41 ,*icago1 ,ill4 ,,prop]ties ,,( ,,wat] ,pure wat] is a *emical comp\nd ( "o volume ( oxyg5 & two volumes ( hydrog51 its *emical symbol be+ ,h#b,o4 ,! weight ( wat] dep5ds ^u its temp]ature4 ,its weight at f\r temp]atures1 mu* us$ 9 physical calculations1 is giv5 9 ,table #aj4 ,,table #aj ,,weight ,,( ,,wat] ,,at ,,temp]atures ,,us$ ,,9 ,,physical ,,calculations ---------------------------------------- ------- ,temp]ature ,degrees ,weight p],weight p] ,fahr5heit ,cubic ,foot,cubic ,in* ,p\nds ,p\nds ---------------------------------------- ------- ,at #cb degrees or freez+ po9t at sea level #fb4dah #j4jcfab ,at #ci4b degrees or po9t ( maximum d5sity #fb4dbg #j4jcfac ,at #fb degrees or /&>d temp]ature #fb4cee #j4jcfjh ,at #bab degrees or boil+ po9t at sea level #ei4hdf #j4jcdfi ---------------------------------------- ------- ,:ile au?orities diff] z to ! weight ( wat]1 ! range ( values giv5 = #fb degrees ,fahr5heit 7! /&>d temp]ature ord9>ily tak57 be+ f #fb4bia p\nds to #fb4cfj p\nds p] cubic foot1 ! value #fb4cee is g5]ally accept$ z ! mo/ accurate4 ,a ,unit$ ,/ates /&>d gallon holds #bca cubic in*es & weighs1 at #fb degrees ,fahr5heit1 approximately #h-a_/c p\nds4 ,a ,briti% ,imp]ial gallon holds #bgg4db cubic in*es & weighs1 at #fb degrees ,fahr5heit1 #aj p\nds4 ,! above are ! true weights correct$ = ! effect ( ! buoyancy ( ! air1 or ! weight 9 vacuo4 ,if wat] is weigh$ 9 air 9 ! ord9>y way1 !re is a correction ( ab\t "o-eigh? ( "o p] c5t :i* is usually negligible4 ,,table #aa ,,volume ,,& ,,weight ,,( ,,di/ill$ ,,wat] ,,at ,,v>i\s ,,temp]atures#ab ------------------------------------ ,temp]ature,relative ,volume,weight p] ,degrees ,wat] at #ci4b ,cubic ,foot ,fahr5heit ,degrees #a ,p\nds ------------------------------------ #cb #a4jjjagf #fb4db #ci4b #a4jjjjjj #fb4dc #dj #a4jjjjjd #fb4dc #ej #a4jjjbg #fb4db #fj #a4jjjif #fb4cg #gj #a4jjbja #fb4cj #hj #a4jjcch #fb4bb #ij #a4jjejd #fb4aa #ajj #a4jjfih #fb4jj #aaj #a4jjiae #fa4hf #abj #a4jaaeg #fa4ga #acj #a4jadbj #fa4ee #adj #a4jagje #fa4ch #aej #a4jbjaa #fa4bj #afj #a4jbccg #fa4jj #agj #a4jbfhb #fj4hj #ahj #a4jcjdg #fj4eh #aij #a4jcdca #fj4cf #bjj #a4jchce #fj4ab #baj #a4jdbef #ei4hh #bab #a4jdcdc #ei4hc #bbj #a4jdfi #ei4fc #bcj #a4jeae #ei4cg #bdj #a4jefb #ei4aa #bej #a4jfaa #eh4hc #bfj #a4jffb #eh4ee #bgj #a4jgae #eh4bf #bhj #a4jgga #eg4if #bij #a4jhcj #eg4fe #cjj #a4jhij #eg4cc #caj #a4jiec #eg4jj #cbj #a4ajai #ef4ff #ccj #a4ajhh #ef4cj #cdj #a4aafj #ee4id #cej #a4abce #ee4eg #cfj #a4acac #ee4ah #cgj #a4acif #ed4gh #chj #a4adhc #ed4cf #cij #a4aegc #ec4id #djj #a4afg #ec4e #daj #a4agg #ec4j #dbj #a4ahg #eb4f #dcj #a4aig #eb4b #ddj #a4bjh #ea4g #dej #a4bbj #ea4b #dfj #a4bcb #ej4g #dgj #a4bdd #ej4b #dhj #a4bef #di4g #dij #a4bfi #di4b #ejj #a4bhc #dh4g #eaj #a4big #dh4a #ebj #a4cab #dg4f #ecj #a4cbi #dg4j #edj #a4ce #df4c #eej #a4cg #de4f #efj #a4ci #dd4i ------------------------------------ ,wat] is b slightly compressible & = all practical purposes may be consid]$ non-compressible4 ,! coeffici5t ( compressibility ranges f #j4jjjjdj to #j4jjjjea p] atmosph]e at ord9>y temp]atures1 ?is coeffici5t decreas+ z ! temp]ature increases4 ,table #aa gives ! weight 9 vacuo & ! relative volume ( a cubic foot ( di/ill$ wat] at v>i\s temp]atures4 ,! weight ( wat] at ! /&>d temp]ature be+ tak5 z #fb4cee p\nds p] cubic foot1 ! pressure ex]t$ by ! column ( wat] ( any /at$ height1 & conv]sely ! height ( any column requir$ to produce a /at$ pressure1 may be comput$ z foll[s3 ,! pressure 9 p\nds p] squ>e foot #fb4cee height ( column 9 feet4 ,! pressure 9 p\nds p] squ>e in* #j4dcc height ( column 9 feet4 ,height ( column 9 feet pressure 9 p\nds p] squ>e foot #fb4cee4 ,height ( column 9 feet pressure 9 p\nds p] squ>e in* #j4dcc4 ,height ( column 9 in*es pressure 9 p\nds p] squ>e in* #bg4ga4 ,height ( column 9 in*es pressure 9 ounces p] squ>e in* #a4gc4 ,by a *ange 9 ! weights giv5 above1 ! pressure ex]t$ & height ( column may be comput$ = temp]atures o!r ?an #fb degrees4 ,a pressure ( "o p\nd p] squ>e in* is ex]t$ by a column ( wat] #b4cjic feet or #bg4ga in*es high at #fb degrees ,fahr5heit4 ,wat] 9 its natural /ate is nev] f\nd absolutely pure4 ,9 solv5t p[] wat] has a great] range ?an any o!r liquid4 ,= common salt1 ?is is approximately a con/ant at all temp]atures1 :ile ) su* impurities z magnesium & sodium sulphates1 ?is solv5t p[] increases ) an increase 9 temp]ature4 ,,table #ab ,,boil+ ,,po9t ,,( ,,wat] ,,at ,,v>i\s ,,altitudes ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,boil+ ,po9t ,altitude ,above ,atmosph]ic ,b>omet] ,degrees ,sea ,level ,pressure ,r$uc$ ,fahr5heit ,feet ,p\nds p] to #cb ,degrees ,squ>e ,in* ,in*es ---------------------------------------- ------------------ #ahd #aebba #h4bj #af4gj #ahe #adfdi #h4ch #ag4jf #ahf #adjge #h4eg #ag4de #ahg #acdih #h4gf #ag4hc #ahh #abicd #h4ie #ah4bb #ahi #abcfg #i4ad #ah4fa #aij #aagii #i4cd #ai4jb #aia #aabdc #i4ed #ai4dc #aib #ajfhe #i4gd #ai4he #aic #ajabg #i4ie #bj4bg #aid #iegi #aj4ag #bj4ga #aie #ijca #aj4ci #ba4ae #aif #hdha #aj4fa #ba4fj #aig #gicb #aj4hc #bb4je #aih #gcha #aa4jf #bb4eb #aii #fhdc #aa4bi #bb4ii #bjj #fcjd #aa4eb #bc4dg #bja #egfd #aa4gf #bc4ie #bjb #ebbe #ab4ja #bd4de #bjc #dfig #ab4bf #bd4if #bjd #dafi #ab4ea #be4dh #bje #cfdb #ab4gg #bf4jj #bjf #caae #ac4jc #bf4ec #bjg #behi #ac4cj #bg4jh #bjh #bjfc #ac4eg #bg4fc #bji #aeci #ac4he #bh4ai #baj #ajbe #ad4ac #bh4gf #baa #eab #ad4da #bi4cc #bab ,sea ,level #ad4gj #bi4ib ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,sea wat] conta9s on an av]age approximately #c4abe p] c5t ( its weight ( solid matt] or a ?irty-second "p ( ! weight ( ! wat] & salt held 9 solution4 ,! approximate composition ( ?is solid matt] w be3 sodium *loride #gf p] c5t1 magnesium *loride #aj p] c5t1 magnesium sulphate #f p] c5t1 calcium sulphate #e p] c5t1 calcium c>bonate #j4e p] c5t1 o!r sub/ances #b4e p] c5t4 ,illu/ration3 #gbjj ,horse-p[] ,in/allation ( ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil]s & ,sup]heat]s at ! ,capital ,traction ,co41 ,wa%+ton1 ,d4 ,c4 ,! boil+ po9t ( wat] decreases z ! altitude above sea level increases4 ,table #ab gives ! v>iation 9 ! boil+ po9t ) ! altitude4 ,wat] has a great] specific heat or heat-absorb+ capacity ?an any o!r kn[n sub/ance 7brom9e & hydrog5 except$7 & its specific heat is ! basis = measurem5t ( ! capacity ( heat absorption ( all o!r sub/ances4 ,f ! def9ition1 ! specific heat ( wat] is ! numb] ( ,briti% !rmal units requir$ to raise "o p\nd ( wat] "o degree4 ,?is specific heat v>ies ) ! temp]ature ( ! wat]4 ,! g5]ally accept$ values are giv5 9 ,table #ac1 :i* indicates ! values z det]m9$ by ,messrs4 ,m>ks & ,davis & ,mr4 ,peabody4 ,,table #ac ,,specific ,,heat ,,( ,,wat] ,,at ,,v>i\s ,,temp]atures ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,m>ks ,,& ,,davis ,,peabody ,f ,values ( ,f ,values ( ,b>nes & ,diet]ici ,b>nes & ,regnault ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,temp]ature ,specific ,temp]ature ,specific ----------- ,heat -------------------- ,heat ,degrees ,degrees ,degrees ,fahr5heit ,c5tigrade,fahr5heit ---------------------------------------- ----------- #cj #a4jjih #j #cb #a4jjid #dj #a4jjde #e #da #a4jjec #ej #a4jjab #aj #ej #a4jjbc #ee #a4jjjj #ae #ei #a4jjjc #fj #j4iiij #af4aa #fa #a4jjjj #gj #j4iigg #bj #fh #j4iiij #hj #j4iigj #be #gg #j4iiha #ij #j4iifg #cj #hf #j4iigf #ajj #j4iifg #ce #ie #j4iigd #aaj #j4iigj #dj #ajd #j4iigd #abj #j4iigd #de #aac #j4iigf #acj #j4iigi #ej #abb #j4iihj #adj #j4iihf #ee #aca #j4iihe #aej #j4iiid #fj #adj #j4iiid #afj #a4jjjb #fe #adi #a4jjjd #agj #a4jjaj #gj #aeh #a4jjae #ahj #a4jjai #ge #afg #a4jjbh #aij #a4jjbi #hj #agf #a4jjdb #bjj #a4jjci #he #ahe #a4jjef #baj #a4jjeb #ij #aid #a4jjga #bbj #a4jjg #ie #bjc #a4jjhf #bcj #a4jji #ajj #bab #a4jaja ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,9 consequ5ce ( ?is v>iation 9 specific heat1 ! v>iation 9 ! heat ( ! liquid ( ! wat] at diff]5t temp]atures is n a con/ant4 ,table #bbac gives ! heat ( ! liquid 9 a p\nd ( wat] at temp]atures rang+ f #cb to #cdj degrees ,fahr5heit4 ,! specific heat ( ice at #cb degrees is #j4dfc4 ,! specific heat ( saturat$ /eam 7ice & saturat$ /eam repres5t+ ! o!r =ms 9 :i* wat] may exi/71 is some?+ t is difficult to def9e 9 any way :i* w n be mislead+4 ,:5 no liquid is pres5t ! specific heat ( saturat$ /eam is negative4#ad ,! use ( ! value ( ! specific heat ( /eam is practically limit$ to in/ances :]e sup]heat is pres5t1 & ! specific heat ( sup]heat$ /eam is cov]$ lat] 9 ! book4 ,,boil] ,,fe$ ,,wat] ,all natural wat]s conta9 "s impurities :i*1 :5 introduc$ into a boil]1 may appe> z solids4 ,9 view ( ! app>5t pres5t-day t5d5cy t[>d l>ge size boil] units & high ov]loads1 ! importance ( ! use ( pure wat] = boil] fe$ purposes _c be ov]-e/imat$4 ,ord9>ily1 :5 wat] ( suffici5t purity = su* use is n at h&1 ! supply available may be r5d]$ suitable by "s process ( treatm5t4 ,aga9/ ! co/ ( su* treatm5t1 !re are _m factors to be consid]$4 ,) wat] 9 :i* !re is a m>k$ t5d5cy t[>d scale =mation1 ! int]e/ & depreciation on ! add$ boil] units necess>y to all[ = ! sy/ematic clean+ ( c]ta9 units mu/ be tak5 into consid]ation4 ,aga9 !re is a consid]able loss 9 tak+ boil]s (f = clean+ & replac+ !m on ! l9e4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! decrease 9 capacity & effici5cy accompany+ an increas$ incru/ation ( boil]s 9 use has be5 too g5]ally discuss$ to ne$ repetition "h4 ,_m exp]im5ts h be5 made & actual figures report$ z to ?is decrease1 b 9 g5]al1 su* figures apply only to ! p>ticul> set ( conditions f\nd 9 ! plant :]e ! boil] 9 "q 0 te/$4 ,s _m factors ent] into ! effect ( scale on capacity & economy t x is impossible to give any accurate figures on su* decrease t w s]ve all cases1 b t x is l>ge has be5 ?or\ghly prov54 ,:ile x is almo/ inv>iably true t practically any co/ ( treatm5t w pay a return on ! inve/m5t ( ! app>atus1 ! fact mu/ n be ov]look$ t !re are c]ta9 wat]s :i* %\ld nev] be us$ = boil] fe$ purposes & :i* no treatm5t c r5d] suitable = su* purpose4 ,9 su* cases1 ! only rem$y is ! secur+ ( o!r fe$ supply or ! employm5t ( evaporators = di/ill+ ! fe$ wat] z 9 m>9e s]vice4 ,,table #ad ,,approximate ,,classification ,,( ,,impurities ,,f\nd ,,9 ,,fe$ ,,wat]s ,,_! ,,effect ,,& ,,ord9>y ,,me?ods ,,( ,,relief ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,difficulty ,result+ ,nature ( ,ord9>y ,me?od ( f ,pres5ce ( ,difficulty ,ov]com+ or ,reliev+ ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,s$im5t1 ,mud1 etc4 ,incru/ation ,settl+ tanks1 filtration1 bl[+ d[n4 ,readily ,soluble ,salts ,incru/ation ,bl[+ d[n4 ,bic>bonates ( ,lime1 ,incru/ation ,heat+ fe$4 ,treatm5t by ,magnesia1 etc4 addition ( lime or ( lime & soda4 ,b>ium c>bonate4 ,sulphate ( ,lime ,incru/ation ,treatm5t by addition ( soda4 ,b>ium c>bonate4 ,*loride & ,sulphate ,corrosion ,treatm5t by addition ( ( ,magnesium c>bonate ( soda4 ,acid ,corrosion ,alkali4 ,dissolv$ ,c>bonic ,corrosion ,heat+ fe$4 ,keep+ air ,acid & ,oxyg5 f fe$4 ,addition ( cau/ic soda or slack$ lime4 ,grease ,corrosion ,filt]4 ,iron alum z coagul5t4 ,neutralization by c>bonate ( soda4 ,use ( be/ hydroc>bon oils4 ,organic ,matt] ,corrosion ,filt]4 ,use ( coagul5t4 ,organic ,matt] ,prim+ ,settl+ tanks4 ,filt] 9 7,sewage7 connection ) coagul5t4 ,c>bonate ( ,soda 9 ,prim+ ,b>ium c>bonate4 ,new fe$ l>ge quantities supply4 ,if f treatm5t1 *ange4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,x is evid5t t ! :ole subject ( boil] fe$ wat]s & _! treatm5t is "o = ! *emi/ r ?an = ! eng9e]4 ,a brief outl9e ( ! difficulties t may be exp]i5c$ f ! use ( poor fe$ wat] & a sugge/ion z to a me?od ( ov]com+ c]ta9 ( ^! difficulties is all t w be attempt$ "h4 ,su* a brief outl9e ( ! subject1 h[ev]1 w indicate ! necessity = a *emical analysis ( any wat] be=e a treatm5t is tri$ & ! necessity ( adapt+ ! treatm5t 9 ea* case to ! nature ( ! difficulties t may be exp]i5c$4 ,table #ad gives a li/ ( impurities :i* may be f\nd 9 boil] fe$ wat]1 gr\p$ accord+ to _! effect on boil] op]ation & giv+ ! cu/om>y me?od us$ = ov]com+ difficulty to :i* !y lead4 ,scale--,scale is =m$ on boil] heat+ surfaces by ! deposit+ ( impurities 9 ! fe$ wat] 9 ! =m ( a m or less h>d adh]5t cru/4 ,su* deposits are due to ! fact t wat] loses its soluble p[] at high temp]atures or because ! conc5tration becomes s high1 due to evaporation1 t ! impurities cry/allize & adh]e to ! boil] surfaces4 ,! opportunity = =mation ( scale 9 a boil] w be app>5t :5 x is realiz$ t dur+ a mon?'s op]ation ( a #ajj horse-p[] boil]1 #cjj p\nds ( solid matt] may be deposit$ f wat] conta9+ only #g gra9s p] gallon1 :ile "s spr+ & well wat]s conta9 suffici5t to cause a deposit ( z high z #bjjj p\nds4 ,! salts usually responsible = su* incru/ation are ! c>bonates & sulphates ( lime & magnesia1 & boil] fe$ treatm5t 9 g5]al deals ) ! gett+ rid ( ^! salts m or less completely4 ,,table #ae ,,solubility ,,( ,,m9]al ,,salts ,,9 ,,wat] 7,,sp>ks7 ,,9 ,,gra9s ,,p] ,u4 ,s4 ,,gallon 7#eh1cha ,,gra9s71 ,,except ,,z ,,not$ ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,temp]ature ,degrees ,fahr5heit #fj ,degrees #bab ,degrees ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,calcium ,c>bonate #b4e #a4e ,calcium ,sulphate #adj4j #abe4j ,magnesium ,c>bonate #a4j #a4h ,magnesium ,sulphate #c4j p\nds #ab4j p\nds ,sodium ,*loride #c4e p\nds #d4j p\nds ,sodium ,sulphate #a4a p\nds #e4j p\nds ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,,calcium ,,sulphate ,,at ,,temp]ature ,,above #bab ,,degrees 7,,*ri/ie7 ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,temp]ature degrees ,fahr5heit#bhd #cbi #cdg-cfe #dfddhb ,correspond+ gauge pressure #ch #hg #aae-adi #dfiefa ,gra9s p] gallon #de4ecb4g #ae4g #aj4ei4c ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,table #ae gives ! solubility ( ^! m9]al salts 9 wat] at v>i\s temp]atures 9 gra9s p] ,u4 ,s4 gallon 7#eh1cha gra9s74 ,x w be se5 f ?is table t ! c>bonates ( lime & magnesium are n soluble above #bab degrees1 & calcium sulphate :ile some:at insoluble above #bab degrees becomes m greatly s z ! temp]ature increases4 ,scale is also =m$ by ! settl+ ( mud & s$im5t c>ri$ 9 susp5sion 9 wat]4 ,?is may bake or be cem5t$ to a h>d scale :5 mix$ ) o!r scale-=m+ +r$i5ts4 ,corrosion--,corrosion1 or a *emical action lead+ to ! actual de/ruction ( ! boil] metal1 is due to ! solv5t or oxidiz+ prop]ties ( ! fe$ wat]4 ,x results f ! pres5ce ( acid1 ei!r free or develop$#ae 9 ! fe$1 ! admixture ( air ) ! fe$ wat]1 or z a result ( a galvanic action4 ,9 boil]s x takes sev]al =ms3 #a/4 ,pitt+1 :i* consi/s ( isolat$ spots ( active corrosion :i* does n attack ! boil] z a :ole4 #bnd4 ,g5]al corrosion1 produc$ by naturally acid wat]s & :]e ! am\nt is s ev5 & cont9u\s t no accurate e/imate ( ! metal eat5 away may be made4 #crd4 ,groov+1 :i*1 :ile l>gely a me*anical action :i* may occur 9 neutral wat]s1 is int5sifi$ by acidity4 ,foam+--,?is ph5om5on1 :i* ord9>ily occurs ) wat]s contam9at$ ) sewage or organic gr[?s1 is due to ! fact t ! susp5d$ p>ticles collect on ! surface ( ! wat] 9 ! boil] & r5d] difficult ! lib]ation ( /eam bubbles aris+ to t surface4 ,x sometimes occurs ) wat] conta9+ c>bonates 9 solution 9 :i* a light floccul5t precipitate w be =m$ on ! surface ( ! wat]4 ,aga91 x is ! result ( an excess ( sodium c>bonate us$ 9 treatm5t = "s o!r difficulty :]e animal or vegetable oil f9ds its way into ! boil]4 ,prim+--,prim+1 or ! pass+ (f ( /eam f a boil] 9 bel*es1 is caus$ by ! conc5tration ( sodium c>bonate1 sodium sulphate or sodium *loride 9 solution4 ,sodium sulphate is f\nd 9 _m s\!rn wat]s & also :]e calcium or magnesium sulphate is precipitat$ ) soda a%4 ,treatm5t ( ,fe$ ,wat]--,= scale =mation4 ,! treatm5t ( fe$ wat]1 c>ry+ scale-=m+ +r$i5ts1 is along two ma9 l9es3 #a/1 by *emical means by :i* su* impurities z are c>ri$ by ! wat] are caus$ to precipitate2 & #bnd1 by ! means ( heat1 :i* results 9 ! r$uction ( ! p[] ( wat] to hold c]ta9 salts 9 solution4 ,! latt] me?od alone is suffici5t 9 ! case ( c]ta9 tempor>ily h>d wat]s1 b ! heat treatm5t1 9 g5]al1 is us$ 9 connection ) a *emical treatm5t to assi/ ! latt]4 ,be=e go+ fur!r into detail z to ! treatm5t ( wat]1 x may be well to def9e c]ta9 t]ms us$4 ,h>dness1 :i* is ! mo/ widely kn[n evid5ce ( ! pres5ce 9 wat] ( scale-=m+ matt]1 is t quality1 ! v>iation ( :i* makes x m difficult to obta9 a la!r or suds f soap 9 "o wat] ?an 9 ano!r4 ,?is action is made use ( 9 ! soap te/ = h>dness describ$ lat]4 ,h>dness is ord9>ily class$ z ei!r tempor>y or p]man5t4 ,tempor>ily h>d wat]s are ^? conta9+ c>bonates ( lime & magnesium1 :i* may be precipitat$ by boil+ at #bab degrees & :i*1 if !y conta9 no o!r scale-=m+ +r$i5ts1 become s(t "u su* treatm5t4 ,p]man5tly h>d wat]s are ^? conta9+ ma9ly calcium sulphate1 :i* is only precipitat$ at ! high temp]atures f\nd 9 ! boil] itself1 #cjj degrees ,fahr5heit or m4 ,! scale ( h>dness is an arbitr>y "o1 bas$ on ! numb] ( gra9s ( solids p] gallon & wat]s may be class$ on su* a basis z foll[s3 #a-aj gra9 p] gallon1 s(t wat]2 #aj-bj gra9 p] gallon1 mod]ately h>d wat]2 above #be gra9s p] gallon1 v h>d wat]4 ,alkal9ity is a g5]al t]m us$ = wat]s conta9+ comp\nds ) ! p[] ( neutraliz+ acids4 ,cau/icity1 z us$ 9 wat] treatm5t1 is a t]m co9$ by ,a4 ,mc,gill1 indicat+ ! pres5ce ( an excess ( lime add$ dur+ treatm5t4 ,?\gh su* pres5ce w\ld also indicate alkal9ity1 ! t]m is arbitr>ily us$ to apply to ^? hydrates ^: pres5ce is indicat$ by ph5olph?ale94 ,( ! *emical me?ods ( wat] treatm5t1 !re are ?ree g5]al processes3 #a/4 ,lime ,process4 ,! lime process is us$ = wat]s conta9+ bic>bonates ( lime & magnesia4 ,slack$ lime 9 solution1 z lime wat]1 is ! reag5t us$4 ,?is comb9es ) ! c>bonic acid :i* is pres5t1 ei!r free or z c>bonates1 to =m an insoluble monoc>bonate ( lime4 ,! soluble bic>bonates ( lime & magnesia1 los+ _! c>bonic acid1 !reby become insoluble & precipitate4 #bnd4 ,soda ,process4 ,! soda process is us$ = wat]s conta9+ sulphates ( lime & magnesia4 ,c>bonate ( soda & hydrate ( soda 7cau/ic soda7 are us$ ei!r alone or toge!r z ! reag5ts4 ,c>bonate ( soda1 add$ to wat] conta9+ little or no c>bonic acid or bic>bonates1 decomposes ! sulphates to =m insoluble c>bonate ( lime or magnesia :i* precipitate1 ! neutral soda rema9+ 9 solution4 ,if free c>bonic acid or bic>bonates are pres5t1 bic>bonate ( lime is =m$ & rema9s 9 solution1 ?\gh "u ! action ( heat1 ! c>bon dioxide w be driv5 (f & insoluble monoc>bonates w be =m$4 ,cau/ic soda us$ 9 ?is process causes a m en]getic action1 x be+ presum$ t ! cau/ic soda absorbs ! c>bonic acid1 becomes c>bonate ( soda & acts z above4 #crd4 ,lime & ,soda ,process4 ,?is process1 :i* is ! comb9ation ( ! fir/ two1 is by f> ! mo/ g5]ally us$ 9 wat] purification4 ,su* a me?od is us$ :]e sulphates ( lime & magnesia are conta9$ 9 ! wat]1 toge!r ) su* quantity ( c>bonic acid or bic>bonates z to impair ! action ( ! soda4 ,suffici5t soda is us$ to break d[n ! sulphates ( lime & magnesia & z mu* lime add$ z is requir$ to absorb ! c>bonic acid n tak5 up 9 ! soda reaction4 ,all ( ! app>atus = effect+ su* treatm5t ( fe$ wat]s is approximately ! same 9 its *emical action1 ! num]\s sy/ems diff]+ 9 ! me?ods ( introduction & h&l+ ( ! reag5ts4 ,! me?ods ( te/+ wat] treat$ by an app>atus ( ?is description foll[4 ,:5 prop]ly treat$1 alkal9ity1 h>dness & cau/icity %\ld be 9 ! approximate relation ( #f1 #e & #d4 ,:5 too mu* lime is us$ 9 ! treatm5t1 ! cau/icity 9 ! purifi$ wat]1 z indicat$ by ! acid te/1 w be ne>ly equal to ! alkal9ity4 ,if too little lime is us$1 ! cau/icity w fall to approximately half ! alkal9ity4 ,! h>dness %\ld n be 9 excess ( two po9ts less ?an ! alkal9ity4 ,:]e too great a quantity ( soda is us$1 ! h>dness is l[]$ & ! alkal9ity rais$4 ,if too little soda1 ! h>dness is rais$ & ! alkal9ity l[]$4 ,alkal9ity & cau/icity are te/$ ) a /&>d solution ( sulphuric acid4 ,a /&>d soap solution is us$ = te/+ = h>dness & a silv] nitrate solution may also be us$ = det]m9+ :e!r an excess ( lime has be5 us$ 9 ! treatm5t4 ,alkal9ity3 ,to #ej cubic c5timet]s ( treat$ wat]1 to :i* !re has be5 add$ suffici5t me?ylorange to color x1 add ! acid solution1 drop by drop1 until ! mixture is on ! po9t ( turn+ r$4 ,z ! acid solution is fir/ add$1 ! r$ color1 :i* %[s quickly1 disappe>s on %ak+ ! mixture1 & ?is color disappe>s m sl[ly z ! critical po9t is approa*$4 ,"o-t5? cubic c5timet] ( ! /&>d acid solution corresponds to "o degree ( alkal9ity4 ,illu/ration3 #bfdj ,horse-p[] ,in/allation ( ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil]s at ! ,botany ,wor/$ ,mills1 ,passaic1 ,n4 ,j4 ,cau/icity3 ,to #ej cubic c5timet]s ( treat$ wat]1 to :i* !re has be5 add$ "o drop ( ph5olph?ale9 dissolv$ 9 alcohol to give ! wat] a p9ki% color1 add ! acid solution1 drop by drop1 %ak+ aft] ea* addition1 until ! color entirely disappe>s4 ,"o-t5? cubic c5timet] ( acid solution corresponds to "o degree ( cau/icity4 ,! alkal9ity may be det]m9$ f ! same sample te/$ = cau/icity by ! color+ ) me?ylorange & add+ ! acid until ! sample is on ! po9t ( turn+ r$4 ,! total acid add$ 9 det]m9+ bo? cau/icity & alkal9ity 9 ?is case is ! measure ( ! alkal9ity4 ,h>dness3 #ajj cubic c5timet]s ( ! treat$ wat] is us$ = ?is te/1 "o cubic c5timet] ( ! soap solution correspond+ to "o degree ( h>dness4 ,! soap solution is add$ a v little at a "t & ! :ole viol5tly %ak54 ,en\gh ( ! solution mu/ be add$ to make a p]man5t la!r or foam1 t is1 ! soap bubbles mu/ n disappe> aft] ! %ak+ is /opp$4 ,excess ( lime z det]m9$ by nitrate ( silv]3 ,if !re is an excess ( lime us$ 9 ! treatm5t1 a sample w become a d>k br[n by ! addition ( a small quantity ( silv] nitrate1 o!rwise a milky :ite solution w be =m$4 ,comb9$ ,heat & ,*emical ,treatm5t3 ,heat is us$ 9 _m sy/ems ( fe$ treatm5t app>atus z an adjunct to ! *emical process4 ,heat alone w remove tempor>y h>dness by ! precipitation ( c>bonates ( lime & magnesia &1 :5 us$ 9 connection ) ! *emical process1 leaves only ! p]man5t h>dness or ! sulphates ( lime to be tak5 c>e ( by *emical treatm5t4 ,,table #af ,,reag5ts ,,requir$ ,,9 ,,lime ,,& ,,soda ,,process ,,= ,,treat+ #ajjj ,u4 ,s4 ,,gallons ,,( ,,wat] ,,p] ,,gra9 ,,p] ,,gallon ,,( ,,conta9$ ,,impurities#af ---------------------------------------- ----- ,lime#ag ,soda#ah ,p\nds ,p\nds ---------------------------------------- ----- ,calcium ,c>bonate #j4jih 444 ,calcium ,sulphate 444 #j4abd ,calcium ,*loride 444 #j4aea ,calcium ,nitrate 444 #j4ajd ,magnesium ,c>bonate #j4bcd 444 ,magnesium ,sulphate #j4jgi #j4ada ,magnesium ,*loride #j4ajc #j4agg ,magnesium ,nitrate #j4jfg #j4aae ,f]r\s ,c>bonate #j4afi 444 ,f]r\s ,sulphate #j4jgj #j4aaj ,f]ric ,sulphate #j4jgd #j4abf ,alum9um ,sulphate #j4jhg #j4adg ,free ,sulphuric ,acid #j4ajj #j4aga ,sodium ,c>bonate #j4jic 444 ,free ,c>bon ,dioxide #j4bbc 444 ,hydrog5 ,sulphite #j4bhh 444 ---------------------------------------- ----- ,! *emicals us$ 9 ! ord9>y lime & soda process ( fe$ wat] treatm5t are common lime & soda4 ,! effici5cy ( su* app>atus w dep5d :olly ^u ! am\nt & "* ( ! impurities 9 ! wat] to be treat$4 ,table #af gives ! am\nt ( lime & soda requir$ p] #ajjj gallons = ea* gra9 p] gallon ( ! v>i\s impurities f\nd 9 ! wat]4 ,?is table is bas$ on lime conta9+ #ij p] c5t calcium oxide & soda conta9+ #eh p] c5t sodium oxide1 :i* correspond to ! comm]cial quality ord9>ily pur*asable4 ,f ?is table & ! co/ ( ! lime & soda1 ! co/ ( treat+ any wat] p] #ajjj gallons may be readily comput$4 ,less ,usual ,reag5ts--,b>ium hydrate is sometimes us$ to r$uce p]man5t h>dness or ! calcium sulphate compon5t4 ,until rec5tly1 ! high co/ ( b>ium hydrate has r5d]$ its use prohibitive b at ! pres5t x is obta9$ z a by-product 9 cem5t manufacture & x may be pur*as$ at a m reasonable figure ?an h]et(ore4 ,x acts directly on ! soluble sulphates to =m b>ium sulphate :i* is insoluble & may be precipitat$4 ,:]e ?is reag5t is us$1 x is desirable t ! reaction be all[$ to take place outside ( ! boil]1 ?\gh !re are c]ta9 cases :]e its int]nal use is p]missible4 ,b>ium c>bonate is sometimes us$ 9 remov+ calcium sulphate1 ! products ( ! reaction be+ b>ium sulphate & calcium c>bonate1 bo? ( :i* are insoluble & may be precipitat$4 ,z b>ium c>bonate 9 itself is insoluble1 x _c be add$ to wat] z a solution & its use %\ld1 !re=e1 be conf9$ to treatm5t outside ( ! boil]4 ,silicate ( soda w precipitate calcium c>bonate ) ! =mation ( a gelat9\s silicate ( lime & c>bonate ( soda4 ,if calcium sulphate is also pres5t1 c>bonate ( soda is =m$ 9 ! above reaction1 :i* 9 turn w break d[n ! sulphate4 ,oxalate ( soda is an exp5sive b effici5t reag5t :i* =ms a precipitate ( calcium oxalate ( a p>ticul>ly insoluble nature4 ,alum & iron alum w act z effici5t coagul5ts :]e organic matt] is pres5t 9 ! wat]4 ,iron alum has n only ?is prop]ty b also t ( r$uc+ oil dis*>g$ f surface cond5s]s to a condition 9 :i* x may be readily remov$ by filtration4 ,corrosion--,:]e !re is a corrosive action because ( ! pres5ce ( acid 9 ! wat] or ( oil conta9+ fatty acids :i* w decompose & cause pitt+ :]ev] ! sludge c f9d a re/+ place1 x may be ov]come by ! neutralization ( ! wat] by c>bonate ( soda4 ,su* neutralization %\ld be c>ri$ to ! po9t :]e ! wat] w j turn r$ litmus pap] blue4 ,z a prev5tative ( su* action aris+ f ! pres5ce ( ! oil1 only ! highe/ grades ( hydroc>bon oils %\ld be us$4 ,acidity w occur :]e sea wat] is pres5t 9 a boil]4 ,!re is ! possibility ( su* an occurr5ce 9 m>9e practice & 9 /ation>y plants us+ sea wat] = cond5s+1 due to leaky cond5s] tubes1 prim+ 9 ! evaporators1 etc4 ,su* acidity is caus$ ?r\gh ! dissociation ( magnesium *loride into hydro*loride acid & magnesia "u high temp]atures4 ,! acid 9 contact ) ! metal =ms an iron salt :i* imm$iately ^u its =mation is neutraliz$ by ! free magnesia 9 ! wat]1 !reby precipitat+ iron oxide & re=m+ magnesium *loride4 ,! prev5tive = corrosion aris+ f su* acidity is ! keep+ tight ( ! cond5s]4 ,:]e x is unavoidable t "s sea wat] %\ld f9d its way into a boil]1 ! acidity result+ %\ld be neutraliz$ by soda a%4 ,?is w conv]t ! magnesium *loride into magnesium c>bonate & sodium *loride1 nei!r ( :i* is corrosive b bo? ( :i* are scale-=m+4 ,! pres5ce ( air 9 ! fe$ wat] :i* is suck$ 9 by ! fe$ pump is a well recogniz$ cause ( corrosion4 ,air bubbles =m bel[ ! wat] l9e & attack ! metal ( ! boil]1 ! oxyg5 ( ! air caus+ oxidization ( ! boil] metal & ! =mation ( ru/4 ,! p>ticle ( ru/ ?us =m$ is swept away by ! circulation or is dislodg$ by expansion & ! m9ute pit ?us left =ms an ideal re/+ place = o!r air bubbles & ! cont9uation ( ! oxidization process4 ,! prev5tion is1 ( c\rse1 ! remov+ ( ! air f ! fe$ wat]4 ,9 m>9e practice1 :]e !re has be5 exp]i5c$ ! mo/ difficulty f ?is s\rce1 x has be5 f\nd to be advantage\s to pump ! wat] f ! hot well to a filt] tank plac$ above ! fe$ pump suction valves4 ,9 ?is way ! air is lib]at$ f ! surface ( ! tank & a head is assur$ = ! suction end ( ! pump4 ,9 ?is same class ( "w1 ! corrosive action ( air is r$uc$ by introduc+ ! fe$ ?r\gh a spray nozzle into ! /eam space above ! wat] l9e4 ,galvanic action1 result+ 9 ! eat+ away ( ! boil] metal ?r\gh electrolysis 0 =m]ly consid]$ practically ! sole cause ( corrosion4 ,b little is kn[n ( su* action aside f ! fact t x does take place 9 c]ta9 in/ances4 ,! means adopt$ z a rem$y is usually ! in/allation ( z9c plates )9 ! boil]1 :i* mu/ h positive metallic contact ) ! boil] metal4 ,9 ?is way1 local electrolytic effects are ov]come by a /ill great] electrolytic action at ! exp5se ( ! m positive z9c4 ,! positive contact necess>y is difficult to ma9ta9 & x is que/ionable j :at efficacy su* plates h except = a %ort p]iod aft] _! in/allation :5 ! contact is kn[n to be positive4 ,aside f protection f su* electrolytic action1 h[ev]1 ! z9c plates h a di/9ct use :]e !re is ! liability ( air 9 ! fe$1 z !y (f] a sub/ance mu* m readily oxidiz$ by su* air ?an ! metal ( ! boil]4 ,foam+--,:]e foam+ is caus$ by organic matt] 9 susp5sion1 x may be l>gely ov]come by filtration or by ! use ( a coagul5t 9 connection ) filtration1 ! latt] comb9ation hav+ come rec5tly into consid]able favor4 ,alum1 or pota% alum1 & iron alum1 :i* 9 reality conta9s no alum9a & %\ld r be call$ potassia-f]ric1 are ! coagul5ts g5]ally us$ 9 connection ) filtration4 ,su* matt] z is n remov$ by filtration may1 "u c]ta9 conditions1 be h&l$ by surface bl[+4 ,9 "s in/ances1 settl+ tanks are us$ = ! removal ( matt] 9 susp5sion1 b :]e l>ge quantities ( wat] are requir$1 filtration is ord9>ily sub/itut$ on acc\nt ( ! "t elem5t & ! l>ge area necess>y 9 settl+ tanks4 ,:]e foam+ occurs z ! result ( ov]treatm5t ( ! fe$ wat]1 ! obvi\s rem$y is a *ange 9 su* treatm5t4 ,prim+--,:]e prim+ is caus$ by excessive conc5tration ( salts )9 a boil]1 x may be ov]come l>gely by frequ5t bl[+ d[n4 ,! degree ( conc5tration all[able be=e prim+ w take place v>ies widely ) conditions ( op]ation & may be def9itely det]m9$ only by exp]i5ce ) ea* individual set ( conditions4 ,x is ! pres5ce ( ! salts t cause prim+ t may result 9 ! absolute unfitness ( wat] = boil] fe$ purposes4 ,:]e ^! salts exi/ 9 su* quantities t ! am\nt ( bl[+ d[n necess>y to keep ! degree ( conc5tration bel[ ! prim+ po9t results 9 excessive losses1 ! only rem$y is ! secur+ ( ano!r supply ( fe$1 & ! results w w>rant ! *ange almo/ reg>dless ( ! exp5se4 ,9 "s few in/ances1 ! impurities may be tak5 c>e ( by "s me?od ( wat] treatm5t b su* wat] %\ld be submitt$ to an au?ority on ! subject be=e any treatm5t app>atus is in/all$4 ,illu/ration3 #cjjj ,horse-p[] ,in/allation ( ,cross ,drum ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil]s & ,sup]heat]s ,equipp$ ) ,babcock ,wilcox ,*a9 ,grate ,/ok]s at ! ,wa%+ton ,t]m9al ,co41 ,wa%+ton1 ,d4 ,c4 ,boil] ,comp\nds--,! me?od ( treatm5t ( fe$ wat] by f> ! mo/ g5]ally us$ is by ! use ( "s ( ! s-call$ boil] comp\nds4 ,!re are _m reliable conc]ns h&l+ su* comp\nds :o unque/ionably secure ! promis$ results1 b !re is a great t5d5cy t[>d look+ on ! comp\nd z a cure all = any wat] difficulties & c>e %\ld be tak5 to deal only ) reputable conc]ns4 ,! composition ( ^! comp\nds is almo/ inv>iably bas$ on soda ) c]ta9 tannic sub/ances & 9 "s in/ances a gelat9\s sub/ance :i* is presum$ to encircle scale p>ticles & prev5t _! adh]+ to ! boil] surfaces4 ,! action ( ^! comp\nds is ord9>ily to r$uce ! calcium sulphate 9 ! wat] by means ( c>bonate ( soda & to precipitate x z a muddy =m ( calcium c>bonate :i* may be bl[n (f4 ,! tannic comp\nds are us$ 9 connection ) ! soda ) ! idea ( introduc+ organic matt] into any scale already =m$4 ,:5 x has p5etrat$ to ! boil] metal1 decomposition ( ! scale sets 91 caus+ a disruptive effect :i* breaks ! scale f ! metal sometimes 9 l>ge slabs4 ,x is ?is effect ( boil] comp\nds t is to be mo/ c>efully gu>d$ aga9/ or inevitable tr\ble w result f ! pres5ce ( loose scale ) ! consequ5t dang] ( tube losses ?r\gh burn+4 ,:5 prop] c>e is tak5 to suit ! comp\nd to ! wat] 9 use1 ! results secur$ are fairly effective4 ,9 g5]al1 h[ev]1 ! use ( comp\nds may only be recomm5d$ = ! prev5tion ( scale r ?an ) ! view to remov+ scale :i* has already =m$1 t is1 ! comp\nds %\ld be introduc$ ) ! fe$ wat] only :5 ! boil] has be5 ?or\ghly clean$4 ,,fe$ ,,wat] ,,heat+ ,,& ,,me?ods ,,( ,,fe$+ ,be=e wat] f$ into a boil] c be conv]t$ into /eam1 x mu/ be fir/ heat$ to a temp]ature correspond+ to ! pressure )9 ! boil]4 ,/eam at #afj p\nds gauge pressure has a temp]ature ( approximately #cga degrees ,fahr5heit4 ,if wat] is f$ to ! boil] at #fj degrees ,fahr5heit1 ea* p\nd mu/ h #caa ,b4 t4 u4 add$ to x to increase its temp]ature #cga degrees1 :i* increase mu/ take place be=e ! wat] c be conv]t$ into /eam4 ,z x requires #aafg4h ,b4 t4 u4 to raise "o p\nd ( wat] f #fj to #cga degrees & to conv]t x into /eam at #afj p\nds gauge pressure1 ! #caa degrees requir$ simply to raise ! temp]ature ( ! wat] f #fj to #cga degrees w be approximately #bg p] c5t ( ! total4 ,if1 !re=e1 ! temp]ature ( ! wat] c be increas$ f #fj to #cga degrees be=e x is introduc$ into a boil] by ! utilization ( heat f "s s\rce t w\ld o!rwise be wa/$1 !re w be a sav+ 9 ! fuel requir$ ( #caa #aafg4h #bg p] c5t1 & !re w be a net sav+1 provid$ ! co/ ( ma9ta9+ & op]at+ ! app>atus = secur+ ?is sav+ is less ?an ! value ( ! heat ?us sav$4 ,! sav+ 9 ! fuel due to ! heat+ ( fe$ wat] by means ( heat t w\ld o!rwise be wa/$ may be comput$ f ! =mula3 #ajj 7t - ti7 ,fuel sav+ p] c5t --------------- 7#a7 ,h #cb - ti :]e1 t temp]ature ( fe$ wat] aft] heat+1 ti temp]ature ( fe$ wat] be=e heat+1 & ,h total heat above #cb degrees p] p\nd ( /eam at ! boil] pressure4 ,values ( ,h may be f\nd 9 ,table #bc4 ,table #ag has be5 comput$ f ?is =mula to %[ ! fuel sav+ "u ! conditions assum$ ) ! boil] op]at+ at #ahj p\nds gauge pressure4 ,,table #ag ,,sav+ ,,9 ,,fuel1 ,,9 ,,p] ,,c5t1 ,,by ,,heat+ ,,fe$ ,,wat] ,,gauge ,,pressure #ahj ,,p\nds ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,initial ,f9al ,temp]ature--,degrees ,fahr5heit ,temp]ature----------------------------- ------ ,fahr5heit #abj #adj #afj #ahj #bjj #bej #cjj ---------------------------------------- ------ #cb #g4ce #i4jbaj4fiab4cfad4jdah4bjbb4ch #ce #g4ab #h4giaj4dfab4adac4hbah4jjbb4ah #dj #f4gb #h4daaj4jiaa4ggac4deag4feba4hf #de #f4cc #h4jb #i4gaaa4djac4jhag4cjba4eb #ej #e4ic #g4fc #i4cbaa4jbab4gbaf4ieba4ai #ee #e4ec #g4bd #h4idaj4fdab4cdaf4fjbj4hf #fj #e4ac #f4hd #h4eeaj4bgaa4igaf4bdbj4eb #fe #d4gb #f4dd #h4af #i4hgaa4eiae4hhbj4ah #gj #d4ca #f4jd #g4gg #i4dhaa4baae4ebai4hc #ge #c4ij #e4fd #g4cf #i4jiaj4hbae4afai4dh #hj #c4dh #e4bb #f4if #h4gjaj4ddad4giai4ac #he #c4jf #d4hj #f4ee #h4cjaj4jead4daah4gh #ij #b4fc #d4ci #f4ad #g4hi #i4fead4jdah4dc #ie #b4bj #c4ig #e4gc #g4di #i4beac4ffah4jg #ajj #a4gg #c4ed #e4ca #g4jh #h4heac4bhag4gj #aaj 4#hi #b4fh #d4dg #f4be #h4jdab4ejaf4ig #abj 4#jj #a4hj #c4fa #e4da #g4baaa4gaaf4bb #acj 4#ia #b4gc #d4ee #f4cgaj4iaae4df #adj 4#jj #a4hd #c4fg #e4eaaj4jiad4fh #aej 4#ic #b4gh #d4fc #i4bfac4hi #afj 4#jj #a4hg #c4gd #h4daac4ji #agj 4#id #b4hc #g4eeab4bg #ahj 4#jj #a4ia #f4fgaa4dc #aij 4#if #e4ggaj4eh #bjj 4#jj #d4hf #i4ga #baj #c4ib #h4hb ---------------------------------------- ------ ,besides ! sav+ 9 fuel effect$ by ! use ( fe$ wat] heat]s1 o!r advantages are secur$4 ,! "t requir$ = ! conv]sion ( wat] into /eam is dim9i%$ & ! /eam capacity ( ! boil] !reby increas$4 ,fur!r1 ! fe$+ ( cold wat] into a boil] has a t5d5cy t[>d ! sett+ up ( temp]ature /ra9s1 :i* are dim9i%$ 9 proportion z ! temp]ature ( ! fe$ approa*es t ( ! /eam4 ,an important additional advantage ( heat+ fe$ wat] is t 9 c]ta9 types ( heat]s a l>ge portion ( ! scale =m+ +r$i5ts are precipitat$ be=e ent]+ ! boil]1 ) a consequ5t sav+ 9 clean+ & losses ?r\gh decreas$ effici5cy & capacity4 ,9 g5]al1 fe$ wat] heat]s may be divid$ into clos$ heat]s1 op5 heat]s & economiz]s2 ! fir/ two dep5d = _! heat ^u exhau/1 or 9 "s cases live /eam1 :ile ! la/ class utilizes ! heat ( ! wa/e flue gases to secure ! same result4 ,! "q ( ! type ( app>atus to be in/all$ is dep5d5t ^u ! conditions atta*$ to ea* individual case4 ,9 clos$ heat]s ! fe$ wat] & ! exhau/ /eam d n come into actual contact ) ea* o!r4 ,ei!r ! /eam or ! wat] passes ?r\gh tubes surr\nd$ by ! o!r m$ium1 z ! heat] is ( ! /eam-tube or wat]-tube type4 ,a clos$ heat] is be/ suit$ = wat] free f scale-=m+ matt]1 z su* matt] soon clogs ! passages4 ,clean+ su* heat]s is co/ly & ! effici5cy drops (f rapidly z scale =ms4 ,a clos$ heat] is n advisable :]e ! eng9es "w int]mitt5tly1 z is ! case ) m9e hoi/+ eng9es4 ,9 ?is class ( "w ! frequ5t cool+s betwe5 op]at+ p]iods & ! sudd5 heat+s :5 op]ation comm5ces w t5d to loos5 ! tubes or ev5 pull !m ap>t4 ,= ?is reason1 an op5 heat]1 or economiz]1 w give m satisfactory s]vice ) int]mitt5tly op]at+ app>atus4 ,op5 heat]s are be/ suit$ = wat]s conta9+ scale-=m+ matt]4 ,mu* ( ! tempor>y h>dness may be precipitat$ 9 ! heat] & ! s$im5t easily remov$4 ,su* heat]s are frequ5tly us$ ) a reag5t = precipitat+ p]man5t h>dness 9 ! comb9$ heat & *emical treatm5t ( fe$ wat]4 ,! s-call$ live /eam purifi]s are op5 heat]s1 ! wat] be+ rais$ to ! boil+ temp]ature & ! c>bonates & a portion ( ! sulphates be+ precipitat$4 ,! disadvantage ( ?is class ( app>atus is t "s ( ! sulphates rema9 9 solution to be precipitat$ z scale :5 conc5trat$ 9 ! boil]4 ,suffici5t conc5tration to h su* an effect1 h[ev]1 may (t5 be prev5t$ by frequ5t bl[+ d[n4 ,economiz]s f9d _! l>ge/ field :]e ! design ( ! boil] is su* t ! maximum possible am\nt ( heat is n extract$ f ! gases ( combu/ion4 ,! m wa/eful ! boil]1 ! great] ! sav+ effect$ by ! use ( ! economiz]1 & x is sometimes possible to raise ! temp]ature ( ! fe$ wat] to t ( high pressure /eam by ! in/allation ( su* an app>atus1 ! sav+ am\nt+ 9 "s cases to z mu* z #bj p] c5t4 ,! fuel us$ be>s directly on ! "q ( ! advisability ( an economiz] in/allation1 = :5 oil is ! fuel a boil] effici5cy ( #hj p] c5t or ov] is frequ5tly realiz$1 an effici5cy :i* w\ld leave a small opportunity = a comm]cial ga9 ?r\gh ! addition ( an economiz]4 ,f ! /&po9t ( space requirem5ts1 economiz]s are at a disadvantage 9 t !y are bulky & require a consid]able increase ov] space occupi$ by a heat] ( ! exhau/ type4 ,!y also require additional brickwork or a metal cas+1 :i* increases ! co/4 ,sometimes1 too1 ! frictional resi/ance ( ! gases ?r\gh an economiz] make its adaptability que/ionable because ( ! draft conditions4 ,:5 figur+ ! net return on economiz] inve/m5t1 all ( ^! factors mu/ be consid]$4 ,:5 ! fe$ wat] is su* t scale w quickly encru/ ! economiz] & ?r[ x out ( s]vice = clean+ dur+ an excessive portion ( ! "t1 x w be necess>y to purify wat] be=e introduc+ x into an economiz] to make x e>n a pr(it on ! inve/m5t4 ,f ! =ego+1 x is cle>ly indicat$ t x is impossible to make a def9ite /atem5t z to ! relative sav+ by heat+ fe$ wat] 9 any ( ! ?ree types4 ,ea* case mu/ be work$ out indep5d5tly & a decision c be rea*$ only aft] an exhau/ive /udy ( all ! conditions affect+ ! case1 includ+ ! "t ! plant w be 9 s]vice & probable gr[? ( ! plant4 ,:51 z a result ( su* /udy1 ! possible me?ods = h&l+ ! problem h be5 det]m9$1 ! solution ( ! be/ app>atus c be made easily by ! balanc+ ( ! sav+ possible by ea* me?od aga9/ its fir/ co/1 depreciation1 ma9t5ance & co/ ( op]ation4 ,fe$+ ( ,wat]--,! *oice ( me?ods to be us$ 9 introduc+ fe$ wat] into a boil] lies betwe5 an injector & a pump4 ,9 mo/ plants1 an injector w\ld n be economical1 z ! wat] f$ by su* means mu/ be cold1 a fact :i* makes impossible ! use ( a heat] be=e ! wat] ent]s ! injector4 ,su* a heat] might be in/all$ betwe5 ! injector & ! boil] b z heat is add$ to ! wat] 9 ! injector1 ! heat] c\ld n prop]ly fulfill its function4 ,,table #ah ,,comp>ison ,,( ,,pumps ,,& ,,injectors ,me?od ( ,supply+ ,fe$-wat] to ,boil] ,relative am\nt ( ,sav+ ( fuel ov] ,temp]ature ( fe$-wat] z coal requir$ p] ! am\nt requir$ deliv]$ to ! pump or to unit ( "t1 ! :5 ! boil] is injector1 #fj degrees ,fahr5- am\nt = a direct- f$ by a direct- heit4 ,rate ( evaporation ( act+ pump1 fe$+ act+ pump )\t boil]1 to p\nds ( wat] wat] at #fj degrees heat] p] p\nd ( coal f & )\t a heat]1 ,p] ,c5t at #bab degrees ,fahr5heit be+ tak5 z unity ,direct-act+ ,pump fe$+ wat] at #fj degrees )\t a heat] #a4jjj 4#j ,injector fe$+ wat] at #aej degrees )\t a heat] 4#ihe #a4e ,injector fe$+ ?r\gh a heat] 9 :i* ! wat] is heat$ f #aej to #bjj degrees 4#ich #f4b ,direct-act+ ,pump fe$+ wat] ?r\gh a heat] 9 :i* x is heat$ f #fj to #bjj degrees 4#hgi #ab4a ,ge>$ ,pump run f ! eng9e1 fe$+ wat] ?r\gh a heat] 9 :i* x is heat$ f #fj to #bjj degrees 4#hfh #ac4b ,! injector1 consid]$ only 9 ! light ( a comb9$ heat] & pump1 is claim$ to h a !rmal effici5cy ( #ajj p] c5t1 s9ce all ( ! heat 9 ! /eam us$ is return$ to ! boil] ) ! wat]4 ,?is claim leads to an errone\s idea4 ,if a pump is us$ 9 fe$+ ! wat] to a boil] & ! heat 9 ! exhau/ f ! pump is imp>t$ to ! fe$ wat]1 ! pump has z high a !rmal effici5cy z ! injector4 ,! pump has ! fur!r advantage t x uses s mu* less /eam = ! =c+ ( a giv5 quantity ( wat] into ! boil] t x makes possible a great] sav+ ?r\gh ! use ( ! exhau/ f o!r auxili>ies = heat+ ! fe$1 :i* exhau/1 if an injector 7 us$1 w\ld be wa/$1 z has be5 po9t$ out4 ,9 locomotive practice1 injectors are us$ because !re is no exhau/ /eam available = heat+ ! fe$1 ?is be+ utiliz$ 9 produc+ a =c$ draft1 & because ( space requirem5ts4 ,9 p[] plant "w1 h[ev]1 pumps are univ]sally us$ = regul> op]ation1 ?\gh injectors are sometimes in/all$ z an auxili>y me?od ( fe$+4 ,table #ah %[s ! relative value ( injectors1 direct-act+ /eam pumps & pumps driv5 f ! eng9e1 ! data hav+ be5 obta9$ f actual exp]im5t4 ,x w be not$ t :5 fe$+ cold wat] direct to ! boil]s1 ! injector has a slightly great] economy b :5 fe$+ ?r\gh a heat]1 ! pump is by f> ! m economical4 ,auxili>ies--,x is ! g5]al impression t auxili>ies w take less /eam if ! exhau/ is turn$ into ! cond5s]s1 9 ?is way r$uc+ ! back pressure4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 vacuum is r>ely regi/]$ on an indicator c>d tak5 f ! cyl9d]s ( c]ta9 types ( auxili>ies unless ! exhau/ connection is %ort & )\t b5ds1 z long pipes & _m angles (fset ! effect ( ! cond5s]4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if ! exhau/ /eam f ! auxili>ies c be us$ = heat+ ! fe$ wat]1 all ( ! lat5t heat less only ! loss due to radiation is return$ to ! boil] & is sav$ in/ead ( be+ lo/ 9 ! cond5s+ wat] or wa/$ ) ! free exhau/4 ,tak+ into consid]ation ! plant z a :ole1 x w\ld appe> t ! auxili>y ma*9]y1 "u su* conditions1 is m effici5t ?an ! ma9 eng9es4 ,illu/ration3 ,portion ( #dafj ,horse-p[] ,in/allation ( ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil]s at ! ,prud5tial ,life ,insurance ,co4 ,build+1 ,new>k1 ,n4 ,j4 ,,/eam ,:5 a giv5 weight ( a p]fect gas is compress$ or exp&$ at a con/ant temp]ature1 ! product ( ! pressure & volume is a con/ant4 ,vapors1 :i* are liquids 9 a]i=m condition1 on ! o!r h&1 c exi/ only at a def9ite pressure correspond+ to ea* temp]ature if 9 ! saturat$ /ate1 t is1 ! pressure is a function ( ! temp]ature only4 ,/eam is wat] vapor1 & at a pressure (1 say1 #aej p\nds absolute p] squ>e in* saturat$ /eam c exi/ only at a temp]ature #ceh degrees ,fahr5heit4 ,h5ce if ! pressure ( saturat$ /eam be fix$1 its temp]ature is also fix$1 & vice v]sa4 ,saturat$ /eam is wat] vapor 9 ! condition 9 :i* x is g5]at$ f wat] ) :i* x is 9 contact4 ,or x is /eam :i* is at ! maximum pressure & d5sity possible at its temp]ature4 ,if any *ange be made 9 ! temp]ature or pressure ( /eam1 !re w be a correspond+ *ange 9 its condition4 ,if ! pressure be increas$ or ! temp]ature decreas$1 a portion ( ! /eam w be cond5s$4 ,if ! temp]ature be increas$ or ! pressure decreas$1 a portion ( ! wat] ) :i* ! /eam is 9 contact w be evaporat$ into /eam4 ,/eam w rema9 saturat$ j s long z x is ( ! same pressure & temp]ature z ! wat] ) :i* x c rema9 9 contact )\t a ga9 or loss ( heat4 ,moreov]1 saturat$ /eam _c h its temp]ature l[]$ )\t a l[]+ ( its pressure1 any loss ( heat be+ made up by ! lat5t heat ( su* portion z w be cond5s$4 ,nor c ! temp]ature ( saturat$ /eam be increas$ except :5 accompani$ by a correspond+ increase 9 pressure1 any add$ heat be+ exp5d$ 9 ! evaporation into /eam ( a portion ( ! wat] ) :i* x is 9 contact4 ,dry saturat$ /eam conta9s no wat]4 ,9 "s cases1 saturat$ /eam is accompani$ by wat] :i* is c>ri$ along ) x1 ei!r 9 ! =m ( a spray or is bl[n along ! surface ( ! pip+1 & ! /eam is !n said to be wet4 ,! p]c5tage weight ( ! /eam 9 a mixture ( /eam & wat] is call$ ! quality ( ! /eam4 ,?us1 if 9 a mixture ( #ajj p\nds ( /eam & wat] !re is ?ree-qu>t]s ( a p\nd ( wat]1 ! quality ( ! /eam w be #ii4be4 ,heat may be add$ to /eam n 9 contact ) wat]1 su* an addition ( heat result+ 9 an increase ( temp]ature & pressure if ! volume be kept con/ant1 or an increase 9 temp]ature & volume if ! pressure rema9 con/ant4 ,/eam ^: temp]ature ?us exce$s t ( saturat$ /eam at a correspond+ pressure is said to be sup]heat$ & its prop]ties approximate ^? ( a p]fect gas4 ,z po9t$ out 9 ! *apt] on heat1 ! heat necess>y to raise "o p\nd ( wat] f #cb degrees ,fahr5heit to ! po9t ( ebullition is call$ ! heat ( ! liquid4 ,! heat absorb$ dur+ ebullition consi/s ( t necess>y to dissociate ! molecules1 or ! inn] lat5t heat1 & t necess>y to ov]come ! resi/ance to ! increase 9 volume1 or ! out] lat5t heat4 ,^! two make up ! lat5t heat ( evaporation & ! sum ( ?is lat5t heat ( evaporation & ! heat ( ! liquid make ! total heat ( ! /eam4 ,^! values = v>i\s pressures are giv5 9 ! /eam tables1 pages #abb to #abg4 ,! specific volume ( saturat$ /eam at any pressure is ! volume 9 cubic feet ( "o p\nd ( /eam at t pressure4 ,! d5sity ( saturat$ /eam1 t is1 its weight p] cubic foot1 is obvi\sly ! reciprocal ( ! specific volume4 ,?is d5sity v>ies z ! #af_/ag p[] ov] ! ord9>y range ( pressures us$ 9 /eam boil] "w & may be f\nd by ! =mula1 ,d 4#jjcjbgp4#ida1 :i* is correct )9 #j4ae p] c5t up to #bej p\nds pressure4 ,! relative volume ( /eam is ! ratio ( ! volume ( a giv5 weight to ! volume ( ! same weight ( wat] at #ci4b degrees ,fahr5heit & is equal to ! specific volume times #fb4dbg4 ,z vapors are liquids 9 _! gase\s =m & ! boil+ po9t is ! po9t ( *ange 9 ?is condition1 x is cle> t ?is po9t is dep5d5t ^u ! pressure "u :i* ! liquid exi/s4 ,?is fact is ( great practical importance 9 /eam cond5s] "w & 9 _m op]ations involv+ boil+ 9 an op5 vessel1 s9ce 9 ! latt] case its altitude w h consid]able influ5ce4 ,! relation betwe5 altitude & boil+ po9t ( wat] is %[n 9 ,table #ab4 ,! conditions ( fe$ temp]ature & /eam pressure 9 boil] te/s1 fuel p]=mances & ! l1 w be f\nd to v>y widely 9 diff]5t trials4 ,9 ord] to secure a means = comp>ison ( diff]5t trials1 x is necess>y to r$uce all results to "s common basis4 ,! me?od :i* has be5 adopt$ = ! r$uction to a comp>able basis is to trans=m ! evaporation "u actual conditions ( /eam pressure & fe$ temp]ature :i* exi/ 9 ! trial to an equival5t evaporation "u a set ( /&>d conditions4 ,^! /&>d conditions presuppose a fe$ wat] temp]ature ( #bab degrees ,fahr5heit & a /eam pressure equal to ! normal atmosph]ic pressure at sea level1 #ad4g p\nds absolute4 ,"u su* conditions /eam w\ld be g5]at$ at a temp]ature ( #bab degrees1 ! temp]ature correspond+ to atmosph]ic pressure at sea level1 f wat] at #bab degrees4 ,! weight ( wat] :i* w\ld be evaporat$ "u ! assum$ /&>d conditions by exactly ! am\nt ( heat absorb$ by ! boil] "u actual conditions exi/+ 9 ! trial1 is1 !re=e1 call$ ! equival5t evaporation f & at #bab degrees4 ,! factor = r$uc+ ! weight ( wat] actually conv]t$ into /eam f ! temp]ature ( ! fe$1 at ! /eam pressure exi/+ 9 ! trial1 to ! equival5t evaporation "u /&>d conditions is call$ ! factor ( evaporation4 ,?is factor is ! ratio ( ! total heat add$ to "o p\nd ( /eam "u ! /&>d conditions to ! heat add$ to ea* p\nd ( /eam 9 heat+ ! wat] f ! temp]ature ( ! fe$ 9 ! trial to ! temp]ature correspond+ to ! pressure exi/+ 9 ! trial4 ,?is heat add$ is obvi\sly ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! total heat ( evaporation ( ! /eam at ! pressure exi/+ 9 ! trial & ! heat ( ! liquid 9 ! wat] at ! temp]ature at :i* x 0 f$ 9 ! trial4 ,to illu/rate by an example3 ,9 a boil] trial ! temp]ature ( ! fe$ wat] is #fj degrees ,fahr5heit & ! pressure "u :i* /eam is deliv]$ is #afj4c p\nds gauge pressure or #age p\nds absolute pressure4 ,! total heat ( "o p\nd ( /eam at #age p\nds pressure is #aaie4i ,b4 t4 u4 measur$ above ! /&>d temp]ature ( #cb degrees ,fahr5heit4 ,b ! wat] f$ to ! boil] conta9$ #bh4jh ,b4 t4 u4 z ! heat ( ! liquid measur$ above #cb degrees ,fahr5heit4 ,!re=e1 to ea* p\nd ( /eam !re has be5 add$ #aafg4hb ,b4 t4 u4 ,to evaporate "o p\nd ( wat] "u /&>d conditions w\ld1 on ! o!r h&1 h requir$ b #igj4d ,b4 t4 u41 :i*1 z describ$1 is ! lat5t heat ( evaporation at #bab degrees ,fahr5heit4 ,express$ diff]5tly1 ! total heat ( "o p\nd ( /eam at ! pressure correspond+ to a temp]ature ( #bab degrees is #aaej4d ,b4 t4 u4 ,"o p\nd ( wat] at #bab degrees conta9s #ahj ,b4 t4 u4 ( s5sible heat above #cb degrees ,fahr5heit4 ,h5ce1 "u /&>d conditions1 #aaej4d - #ahj #igj4d ,b4 t4 u4 is add$ 9 ! *ang+ ( "o p\nd ( wat] into /eam at atmosph]ic pressure & a temp]ature ( #bab degrees4 ,?is is 9 effect ! def9ition ( ! lat5t heat ( evaporation4 ,h5ce1 if conditions ( ! trial _h be5 /&>d1 only #igj4d ,b4 t4 u4 w\ld be requir$ & ! ratio ( #aafg4hb to #igj4d ,b4 t4 u4 is ! ratio det]m9+ ! factor ( evaporation4 ,! factor 9 ! assum$ case is #aafg4hb #igj4d #a4bjcd & if ! same am\nt ( heat _h be5 absorb$ "u /&>d conditions z 0 absorb$ 9 ! trial condition1 #a4bjcd times ! am\nt ( /eam w\ld h be5 g5]at$4 ,express$ z a =mula = use ) any set ( conditions1 ! factor is1 ,h - h ,f ----- 7#b7 #igj4d ,:]e ,h ! total heat ( /eam above #cb degrees ,fahr5heit f /eam tables1 h s5sible heat ( fe$ wat] above #cb degrees ,fahr5heit f ,table #bb4 ,9 ! =m above1 ! factor may be det]m9$ ) ei!r saturat$ or sup]heat$ /eam1 provid$ t 9 ! latt] case values ( ,h are available = v>y+ degrees ( sup]heat & pressures4 ,:]e su* values are n available1 ! =m becomes1 ,h - h s7tsup - tsat7 ,f ---------------------------- 7#c7 #igj4d ,:]e s mean specific heat ( sup]heat$ /eam at ! pressure exi/+ 9 ! trial f saturat$ /eam to ! temp]ature exi/+ 9 ! trial1 tsup f9al temp]ature ( /eam1 tsat temp]ature ( saturat$ /eam1 correspond+ to pressure exi/+1 7tsup - tsat7 degrees ( sup]heat4 ,! specific heat ( sup]heat$ /eam w be tak5 up lat]4 ,table #ai gives factors ( evaporation = saturat$ /eam boil] trials to cov] a l>ge range ( conditions4 ,except = ! mo/ ref9$ "w1 int]m$iate values may be det]m9$ by int]polation4 ,/eam gauges indicate ! pressure above ! atmosph]e4 ,z has be5 po9t$ out1 ! atmosph]ic pressure *anges accord+ to ! altitude & ! v>iation 9 ! b>omet]4 ,h5ce1 calculations involv+ ! prop]ties ( /eam are bas$ on absolute pressures1 :i* are equal to ! gauge pressure plus ! atmosph]ic pressure 9 p\nds to ! squ>e in*4 ,?is latt] is g5]ally assum$ to be #ad4g p\nds p] squ>e in* at sea level1 b = o!r levels x mu/ be det]m9$ f ! b>ometric read+ at t place4 ,vacuum gauges indicate ! diff]5ce1 express$ 9 in*es ( m]cury1 betwe5 atmosph]ic pressure & ! pressure )9 ! vessel to :i* ! gauge is atta*$4 ,= approximate purposes1 #b4jd in*es height ( m]cury may be consid]$ equal to a pressure ( "o p\nd p] squ>e in* at ! ord9>y temp]atures at :i* m]cury gauges are us$4 ,h5ce = any read+ ( ! vacuum gauge 9 in*es1 ,g1 ! absolute pressure = any b>omet] read+ 9 in*es1 ,b1 w be 7,b - ,g7 #b4jd4 ,if ! b>omet] is #cj in*es measur$ at ord9>y temp]atures & n correct$ to #cb degrees ,fahr5heit & ! vacuum gauge #bd in*es1 ! absolute pressure w be 7#cj - #bd7 #b4jd #b4i p\nds p] squ>e in*4 ,,table #ai ,,factors ,,( ,,evaporation ,,calculat$ ,,f ,,m>ks ,,& ,,davis ,,tables ,fe$ ,temp- erature ,degrees ,/eam ,pressure by ,gauge ,fahr5- heit #ej #fj #gj #hj #ij #ajj #aaj #cb #a4badc #a4bagj #a4baid #a4bbae #a4bbcc #a4bbcc #a4bbfe #dj #a4bjfj #a4bjhg #a4baaa #a4baca #a4baej #a4bafh #a4baha #ej #a4aieg #a4aihd #a4bjjh #a4bjbh #a4bjdg #a4bjfe #a4bjgi #fj #a4ahed #a4ahha #a4aije #a4aibe #a4aidd #a4aifa #a4aigf #gj #a4agej #a4aggh #a4ahjb #a4ahbb #a4ahda #a4ahei #a4ahgc #hj #a4afdi #a4afge #a4afii #a4agbj #a4agch #a4agef #a4aggj #ij #a4aede #a4aegb #a4aeif #a4afag #a4afcf #a4afec #a4affh #ajj #a4addc #a4adgj #a4adic #a4aead #a4aecc #a4aeej #a4aefe #aaj #a4acdj #a4acfg #a4acia #a4adaa #a4adcj #a4addh #a4adfb #abj #a4abcg #a4abfd #a4abhh #a4acji #a4acbg #a4acde #a4acei #acj #a4aacd #a4aafa #a4aahe #a4abjf #a4abbe #a4abdb #a4abeg #adj #a4ajca #a4ajeh #a4ajhb #a4aajc #a4aabb #a4aaci #a4aaed #aej #a4jibh #a4jiee #a4jigi #a4ajjj #a4ajai #a4ajcf #a4ajea #afj #a4jhbe #a4jheb #a4jhgf #a4jhig #a4jiaf #a4jicc #a4jidh #agj #a4jgbb #a4jgdi #a4jggc #a4jgid #a4jhac #a4jhcj #a4jhde #ahj #a4jfai #a4jfdf #a4jfgj #a4jfia #a4jgji #a4jgbg #a4jgda #aij #a4jeaf #a4jedc #a4jefg #a4jehg #a4jfjf #a4jfbd #a4jfch #bjj #a4jdab #a4jdci #a4jdfc #a4jdhd #a4jejc #a4jebj #a4jece #baj #a4jcji #a4jccf #a4jcfj #a4jchj #a4jcii #a4jdag #a4jdcb ,fe$ ,temp- erature ,degrees ,/eam ,pressure by ,gauge ,fahr5- heit #abj #acj #adj #aej #afj #agj #ahj #cb #a4bbhj #a4bbib #a4bcjd #a4bcad #a4bcbc #a4bccc #a4bcdb #dj #a4baif #a4bbji #a4bbba #a4bbca #a4bbda #a4bbej #a4bbei #ej #a4bjic #a4bajf #a4baag #a4babh #a4bacg #a4badg #a4baef #fj #a4aiij #a4bjjc #a4bjad #a4bjbe #a4bjcd #a4bjdd #a4bjec #gj #a4ahhg #a4aijj #a4aiaa #a4aibb #a4aica #a4aida #a4aiej #hj #a4aghe #a4agig #a4ahji #a4ahai #a4ahbh #a4ahch #a4ahdg #ij #a4afhb #a4afie #a4agjf #a4agag #a4agbe #a4agce #a4agdd #ajj #a4aegi #a4aeib #a4afjc #a4afad #a4afbc #a4afcc #a4afdb #aaj #a4adgg #a4adhi #a4aejj #a4aeaa #a4aebj #a4aecj #a4aeci #abj #a4acgd #a4achf #a4acih #a4adjh #a4adah #a4adbg #a4adcf #acj #a4abga #a4abhd #a4abie #a4acje #a4acae #a4acbd #a4accc #adj #a4aafh #a4aaha #a4aaib #a4abjc #a4abab #a4abba #a4abcj #aej #a4ajfe #a4ajgh #a4ajhi #a4ajii #a4aaji #a4aaah #a4aabg #afj #a4jifb #a4jige #a4jihf #a4jiig #a4ajjf #a4ajae #a4ajbd #agj #a4jhei #a4jhgb #a4jhhc #a4jhic #a4jijc #a4jiab #a4jiba #ahj #a4jgef #a4jgfh #a4jghj #a4jgij #a4jhjj #a4jhji #a4jhah #aij #a4jfec #a4jffe #a4jfgf #a4jfhg #a4jfif #a4jgjf #a4jgae #bjj #a4jedi #a4jefb #a4jegc #a4jehd #a4jeic #a4jfjb #a4jfaa #baj #a4jddf #a4jdeh #a4jdfi #a4jdhj #a4jdhi #a4jdii #a4jejh ,fe$ ,temp- erature ,degrees ,/eam ,pressure by ,gauge ,fahr5- heit #aij #bjj #baj #bbj #bcj #bdj #bej #cb #a4bcej #a4bceg #a4bcfd #a4bcgb #a4bcgh #a4bchd #a4bcij #dj #a4bbfg #a4bbgd #a4bbhb #a4bbhi #a4bbie #a4bcja #a4bcjg #ej #a4bafd #a4baga #a4bagh #a4bahf #a4baib #a4baih #a4bbjd #fj #a4bjfa #a4bjfh #a4bjge #a4bjhc #a4bjhi #a4bjie #a4baja #gj #a4aieh #a4aife #a4aigb #a4aihj #a4aihf #a4aiib #a4aiih #hj #a4ahee #a4ahfc #a4ahfi #a4ahgg #a4ahhc #a4ahhi #a4ahie #ij #a4agej #a4agfj #a4agff #a4aggd #a4aghj #a4aghf #a4agib #ajj #a4afej #a4afeg #a4affd #a4afga #a4afgh #a4afhd #a4afij #aaj #a4aedg #a4aeed #a4aefb #a4aefi #a4aege #a4aeha #a4aehg #abj #a4addd #a4adeb #a4adei #a4adff #a4adgb #a4adgh #a4adhd #acj #a4acda #a4acdi #a4acef #a4acfc #a4acfi #a4acge #a4acha #adj #a4abci #a4abdf #a4abec #a4abfj #a4abff #a4abgb #a4abgh #aej #a4aacf #a4aadc #a4aaej #a4aaeg #a4aafc #a4aafi #a4aagf #afj #a4ajcc #a4ajdj #a4ajdg #a4ajed #a4ajfj #a4ajff #a4ajgc #agj #a4jicj #a4jicg #a4jidd #a4jiea #a4jieg #a4jifc #a4jifi #ahj #a4jhbf #a4jhcd #a4jhda #a4jhdh #a4jhed #a4jhfj #a4jhff #aij #a4jgbc #a4jgcj #a4jgcg #a4jgde #a4jgea #a4jgeg #a4jgfc #bjj #a4jfbj #a4jfbg #a4jfcd #a4jfda #a4jfdg #a4jfec #a4jffj #baj #a4jeaf #a4jebc #a4jecj #a4jech #a4jedd #a4jeej #a4jeef ,! temp]ature1 pressure & o!r prop]ties ( /eam = v>y+ am\nts ( vacuum & ! pressure above vacuum correspond+ to ea* in* ( read+ ( ! vacuum gauge are giv5 9 ,table #bj4 ,,table #bj ,,prop]ties ,,( ,,saturat$ ,,/eam ,,= ,,v>y+ ,,am\nts ,,( ,,vacuum ,,calculat$ ,,f ,,m>ks ,,& ,,davis ,,tables ,heat ( ,lat5t ,total ,temp- ! ,liquid ,heat ,heat erature ,above ,above ,above ,d5sity or ,absolute ,degrees #cb ,de- #cb ,de- #cb ,de- ,weight p] ,vacuum ,pressure ,fahr5- grees grees grees ,cubic ,foot ,ins4 ,hg4 ,p\nds heit ,b4 t4 u4 ,b4 t4 u4,b4 t4 u4 ,p\nds #bi4e 4#bjg #ed4a #bb4ah #ajfa4j #ajhc4b #j4jjjfgh #bi 4#deb #gf4f #dd4fd #ajdh4g #ajic4c #j4jjadae #bh4e 4#fih #ij4a #eh4ji #ajda4a #ajii4b #j4jjbacg #bh 4#idd #ii4i #fg4hg #ajce4f #aajc4e #j4jjbhdc #bg #a4dd #aab4e #hj4d #ajbh4f #aaji4j #j4jjdba #bf #a4ic #abd4e #ib4c #ajbb4j #aaad4c #j4jjegg #be #b4db #acb4f #ajj4e #ajag4c #aaag4h #j4jjfhi #bd #b4ia #adj4a #ajh4j #ajac4a #aaba4a #j4jjhba #bb #c4hi #aea4g #aai4f #ajjf4d #aabf4j #j4jajgh #bj #d4hg #afa4a #abh4i #ajja4j #aabi4i #j4jacca #ah #e4hf #afh4i #acf4h #iif4d #aacc4b #j4jaeha #af #f4hd #age4h #adc4f #iib4d #aacf4j #j4jahbg #ad #g4hb #aha4h #adi4g #ihh4h #aach4e #j4jbjgj #ab #h4hj #ahg4b #aee4a #ihe4f #aadj4g #j4jbcab #aj #i4gi #aib4b #afj4a #ihb4f #aadb4g #j4jbeed #e #ab4bd #bjb4i #agj4h #igf4j #aadf4h #j4jcadh ,f ! /eam tables1 ! cond5s$ ,table #ba ( ! prop]ties ( /eam at diff]5t pressures may be con/ruct$4 ,f su* a table !re may be drawn ! foll[+ conclusions4 ,,table #ba ,,v>iation ,,9 ,,prop]ties ,,( ,,saturat$ ,,/eam ,,) ,,pressure ,pressure ,temp]ature ,heat ( ,lat5t ,total ,p\nds ,degrees ,liquid ,heat ,heat ,absolute ,fahr5heit ,b4 t4 u4 ,b4 t4 u4,b4 t4 u4 #ad4g #bab4j #ahj4j #igj4d #aaej4d #bj4j #bbh4j #aif4a #ifj4j #aaef4b #ajj4j #cbg4h #bih4c #hhh4j #aahf4c #cjj4j #dag4e #cib4g #haa4c #abjd4a ,z ! pressure & temp]ature increase1 ! lat5t heat decreases4 ,?is decrease1 h[ev]1 is less rapid ?an ! correspond+ increase 9 ! heat ( ! liquid & h5ce ! total heat increases ) an increase 9 ! pressure & temp]ature4 ,! p]c5tage increase 9 ! total heat is small1 be+ #j4e1 #c4a1 & #d4g p] c5t = #bj1 #ajj1 & #cjj p\nds absolute pressure respectively above ! total heat 9 "o p\nd ( /eam at #ad4g p\nds absolute4 ,! temp]atures1 on ! o!r h&1 increase at ! rates ( #g4e1 #ed4f1 & #if4i p] c5t4 ,! effici5cy ( a p]fect /eam eng9e is proportional to ! expression 7t - t#a7_/t 9 :i* t & t#a are ! absolute temp]atures ( ! saturat$ /eam at admission & exhau/ respectively4 ,:ile actual eng9es only approximate ! ideal eng9e 9 effici5cy1 yet !y foll[ ! same g5]al law4 ,s9ce ! exhau/ temp]ature _c be l[]$ beyond pres5t practice1 x foll[s t ! only available me?od ( increas+ ! effici5cy is by an increase 9 ! temp]ature ( ! /eam at admission4 ,h[ ?is may be accompli%$ by an increase ( pressure is cle>ly %[n1 = ! increase ( fuel necess>y to increase ! pressure is negligible1 z %[n by ! total heat1 :ile ! increase 9 economy1 due to ! high] pressure1 w result directly f ! rapid increase ( ! correspond+ temp]ature4 ,,table #bb ,,heat ,,units ,,p] ,,p\nd ,,& ,,weight ,,p] ,,cubic ,,foot ,,( ,,wat] ,,betwe5 #cb ,,degrees ,,fahr5heit ,,& #cdj ,,degrees ,,fahr5heit ,temp]ature,heat ,units ,weight ,degrees p] p] ,fahr5heit ,p\nd ,cubic ,foot #cb #j4jj #fb4db #cc #a4ja #fb4db #cd #b4ja #fb4db #ce #c4jb #fb4dc #cf #d4jc #fb4dc #cg #e4jd #fb4dc #ch #f4jd #fb4dc #ci #g4je #fb4dc #dj #h4je #fb4dc #da #i4je #fb4dc #db #aj4jf #fb4dc #dc #aa4jf #fb4dc #dd #ab4jf #fb4dc #de #ac4jg #fb4db #df #ad4jg #fb4db #dg #ae4jg #fb4db #dh #af4jg #fb4db #di #ag4jh #fb4db #ej #ah4jh #fb4db #ea #ai4jh #fb4da #eb #bj4jh #fb4da #ec #ba4jh #fb4da #ed #bb4jh #fb4dj #ee #bc4jh #fb4dj #ef #bd4jh #fb4ci #eg #be4jh #fb4ci #eh #bf4jh #fb4ch #ei #bg4jh #fb4cg #fj #bh4jh #fb4cg #fa #bi4jh #fb4cf #fb #cj4jh #fb4cf #fc #ca4jg #fb4ce #fd #cb4jg #fb4ce #fe #cc4jg #fb4cd #ff #cd4jg #fb4cc #fg #ce4jg #fb4cc #fh #cf4jg #fb4cb #fi #cg4jf #fb4ca #gj #ch4jf #fb4cj #ga #ci4jf #fb4cj #gb #dj4je #fb4bi #gc #da4je #fb4bh #gd #db4je #fb4bg #ge #db4je #fb4bf #gf #dd4jd #fb4bf #gg #de4jd #fb4be #gh #df4jd #fb4bd #gi #dg4jd #fb4bc #hj #dh4jc #fb4bb #ha #di4jc #fb4ba #hb #ej4jc #fb4bj #hc #ea4jb #fb4ai #hd #eb4jb #fb4ah #he #ec4jb #fb4ag #hf #ed4ja #fb4af #hg #ee4ja #fb4ae #hh #ef4ja #fb4ad #hi #eg4jj #fb4ac #ij #eh4jj #fb4ab #ia #ei4jj #fb4aa #ib #fj4jj #fb4ji #ic #fj4ii #fb4jh #id #fa4ii #fb4jg #ie #fb4ii #fb4jf #if #fc4ih #fb4je #ig #fd4ih #fb4jd #ih #fe4ih #fb4jc #ii 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#bja #afh4id #fj4aj #bjb #afi4ie #fj4jg #bjc #agj4ie #fj4je #bjd #aga4if #fj4jb #bje #agb4if #fj4jj #bjf #agc4ig #ei4ih #bjg #agd4ig #ei4ie #bjh #age4ih #ei4ic #bji #agf4ih #ei4ij #baj #agg4ii #ei4hh #baa #agh4ii #ei4he #bab #ahj4jj #ei4hc #bac #aha4j #ei4hj #bad #ahb4j #ei4gh #bae #ahc4j #ei4ge #baf #ahd4j #ei4gc #bag #ahe4j #ei4gj #bah #ahf4a #ei4fh #bai #ahg4a #ei4fe #bbj #ahh4a #ei4fc #bba #ahi4a #ei4fj #bbb #aij4a #ei4eh #bbc #aia4a #ei4ee #bbd #aib4a #ei4ec #bbe #aic4a #ei4ej #bbf #aid4a #ei4dh #bbg #aie4b #ei4de #bbh #aif4b #ei4db #bbi #aig4b #ei4dj #bcj #aih4b #ei4cg #bca #aii4b #ei4cd #bcb #bjj4b #ei4cb #bcc #bja4b #ei4bi #bcd #bjb4b #ei4bg #bce #bjc4b #ei4bd #bcf #bjd4b #ei4ba #bcg #bje4c #ei4ai #bch #bjf4c #ei4af #bci #bjg4c #ei4ad #bdj #bjh4c #ei4aa #bda #bji4c #ei4jh #bdb #baj4c #ei4je #bdc #baa4d #ei4jc #bdd #bab4d #ei4jj #bde #bac4d #eh4ig #bdf #bad4d #eh4id #bdg #bae4d #eh4ia #bdh #baf4d #eh4hi #bdi #bag4d #eh4hf #bej #bah4e #eh4hc #bfj #bbh4f #eh4ee #bgj #bch4h #eh4bf #bhj #bdi4j #eg4if #bij #bei4c #eg4fe #cjj #bfi4f #eg4cc #caj #bgi4i #eg4jj #cbj #bij4b #ef4ff #ccj #cjj4f #ef4cj #cdj #caa4j #ee4id ,! ga9 due to sup]heat _c be pr$ict$ f ! =mula = ! effici5cy ( a p]fect /eam eng9e giv5 on page #aai4 ,?is =mula is n applicable 9 cases :]e sup]heat is pres5t s9ce only a relatively small am\nt ( ! heat 9 ! /eam is imp>t$ at ! maximum or sup]heat$ temp]ature4 ,! advantage ( ! use ( high pressure /eam may be also indicat$ by consid]+ ! "q f ! aspect ( volume4 ,) an increase ( pressure comes a decrease 9 volume1 ?us "o p\nd ( saturat$ /eam at #ajj p\nds absolute pressure occupies #d4dc cubic feet1 :ile at #bjj p\nds pressure x occupies #b4bi cubic feet4 ,if !n1 9 sep>ate cyl9d]s ( ! same dim5sions1 "o p\nd ( /eam at #ajj p\nds absolute pressure & "o p\nd at #bjj p\nds absolute pressure ent] & are all[$ to exp& to ! full volume ( ea* cyl9d]1 ! high-pressure /eam1 hav+ m room & a great] range = expansion ?an ! l[-pressure /eam1 w ?us d m "w4 ,?is increase 9 ! am\nt ( "w1 z 0 ! increase 9 temp]ature1 is l>ge relative to ! additional fuel requir$ z indicat$ by ! total heat4 ,9 g5]al1 x may be /at$ t ! fuel requir$ to imp>t a giv5 am\nt ( heat to a boil] is practically indep5d5t ( ! /eam pressure1 s9ce ! temp]ature ( ! fire is s high z comp>$ ) ! /eam temp]ature t a v>iation 9 ! /eam temp]ature does n produce an appreciable effect4 ,! =mulae = ! algebraic expression ( ! relation betwe5 saturat$ /eam pressures1 temp]atures & /eam volumes h be5 up to ! pres5t "t empirical4 ,^! relations h1 h[ev]1 be5 det]m9$ by exp]im5t &1 f ! exp]im5tal data1 tables h be5 comput$ :i* r5d] unnecess>y ! use ( empirical =mulae4 ,su* =mulae may be f\nd 9 any /&>d "w ( !rmo-dynamics4 ,! foll[+ tables cov] all practical cases4 ,table #bb gives ! heat units conta9$ 9 wat] above #cb degrees ,fahr5heit at diff]5t temp]atures4 ,table #bc gives ! prop]ties ( saturat$ /eam = v>i\s pressures4 ,table #bd gives ! prop]ties ( sup]heat$ /eam at v>i\s pressures & temp]atures4 ,^! tables are bas$ on ^? comput$ by ,lionel ,s4 ,m>ks & ,h>vey ,n4 ,davis1 ^! be+ g5]ally accept$ z be+ ! mo/ correct4 ,,table #bc ,,prop]ties ,,( ,,saturat$ ,,/eam ,,reproduc$ ,,by ,,p]mission ,,f ,,m>ks ,,& ,,davis ,,/eam ,,tables ,,& ,,diagrams 7,copyright1 #aiji1 by ,longmans1 ,gre5 ,co47 ,pressure1 ,temp]- ,specific ,vol-,heat ( ,lat5t ,heat,total ,heat ,p\nds ature ,de- ume ,cu4 ,ft4 ! ,liquid1 ( ,evap41 ( ,/eam1 ,absolute grees ,f4 p] ,p\nd ,b4 t4 u4 ,b4 t4 u4 ,b4 t4 u4 #a #aja4hc #ccc4j #fi4h #ajcd4f #aajd4d #b #abf4ae #agc4e #id4j #ajba4j #aaae4j #c #ada4eb #aah4e #aji4d #ajab4c #aaba4f #d #aec4ja #ij4e #abj4i #ajje4g #aabf4e #e #afb4bh #gc4cc #acj4a #ajjj4c #aacj4e #f #agj4jf #fa4hi #acg4i #iie4h #aacc4g #g #agf4he #ec4ef #add4g #iia4h #aacf4e #h #ahb4hf #dg4bg #aej4h #ihh4b #aaci4j #i #ahh4bg #db4cf #aef4b #ihe4j #aada4a #aj #aic4bb #ch4ch #afa4a #ihb4j #aadc4a #aa #aig4ge #ce4aj #afe4g #igi4b #aadd4i #ab #bja4if #cb4cf #afi4i #igf4f #aadf4e #ac #bje4hg #cj4jc #agc4h #igd4b #aadh4j #ad #bji4ee #bh4jb #agg4e #iga4i #aadi4d #ae #bac4j #bf4bg #aha4j #ifi4g #aaej4g #af #baf4c #bd4gi #ahd4d #ifg4f #aaeb4j #ag #bai4d #bc4ch #ahg4e #ife4f #aaec4a #ah #bbb4d #bb4af #aij4e #ifc4g #aaed4b #ai #bbe4b #ba4jg #aic4d #ifa4h #aaee4b #bj #bbh4j #bj4jh #aif4a #ifj4j #aaef4b #bb #bcc4a #ah4cg #bja4c #ief4g #aaeh4j #bd #bcg4h #af4ic #bjf4a #iec4e #aaei4f #bf #bdb4b #ae4gb #baj4f #iej4f #aafa4b #bh #bdf4d #ad4fg #bad4h #idg4h #aafb4f #cj #bej4c #ac4gd 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#eja4j #eea4j #fja4j #fea4j #gja4j #bej v #a4he #b4jb #b4ag #b4cc #b4dg #b4fa #b4ge h #abja4e #abce4d #abfc4j #abhh4h #acac4i #acch4h #acfc4e t #djb4h #deb4h #ejb4h #eeb4h #fjb4h #feb4h #gjb4h #bee v #a4ha #a4ih #b4ad #b4bh #b4dc #b4ef #b4gj h #abja4h #abce4i #abfc4f #abhi4c #acad4e #acci4c #acfd4a t ,temp]ature1 degrees ,fahr5heit4 v ,specific volume1 9 cubic feet1 p] p\nd4 h ,total heat f wat] at #cb degrees1 ,b4 t4 u4 ,graph3 ,temp]ature ( ,/eam--,degrees ,fahr4 aga9/ ,temp]ature 9 ,calorimet]--,degrees ,fahr4 ,fig4 #ae4 ,graphic ,me?od ( ,det]m9+ ,moi/ure ,conta9$ 9 ,/eam f ,calorimet] ,read+s ,,moi/ure ,,9 ,,/eam ,! pres5ce ( moi/ure 9 /eam causes a loss1 n only 9 ! practical wa/e ( ! heat utiliz$ to raise ?is moi/ure f ! temp]ature ( ! fe$ wat] to ! temp]ature ( ! /eam1 b also ?r\gh ! increas$ initial cond5sation 9 an eng9e cyl9d] & ?r\gh friction & o!r actions 9 a /eam turb9e4 ,! pres5ce ( su* moi/ure also int]f]es ) prop] cyl9d] lubrication1 causes a knock+ 9 ! eng9e & a wat] hamm] 9 ! /eam pipes4 ,9 /eam turb9es x w cause erosion ( ! blades4 ,! p]c5tage by weight ( /eam 9 a mixture ( /eam & wat] is call$ ! quality ( ! /eam4 ,! app>atus us$ to det]m9e ! moi/ure cont5t ( /eam is call$ a calorimet] ?\gh s9ce x may n measure ! heat 9 ! /eam1 ! "n is n descriptive ( ! function ( ! app>atus4 ,! fir/ =m us$ 0 ! b>rel calorimet]1 b ! liability ( error 0 s great t its use 0 ab&on$4 ,mod]n calorimet]s are 9 g5]al ( ei!r ! ?rottl+ or sep>ator type4 ,?rottl+ ,calorimet]--,fig4 #ad %[s a typical =m ( ?rottl+ calorimet]4 ,/eam is drawn f a v]tical ma9 ?r\gh ! sampl+ nipple1 passes ar\nd ! fir/ !rmomet] cup1 !n ?r\gh a "o-eigh? in* orifice 9 a disk betwe5 two flanges1 & la/ly ar\nd ! second !rmomet] cup & to ! atmosph]e4 ,!rmomet]s are ins]t$ 9 ! wells1 :i* %\ld be fill$ ) m]cury or heavy cyl9d] oil4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ad4 ,?rottl+ ,calorimet] & ,sampl+ ,nozzle ,! in/rum5t & all pipes & fitt+s lead+ to x %\ld be ?or\ghly insulat$ to dim9i% radiation losses4 ,c>e mu/ be tak5 to prev5t ! orifice f becom+ *ok$ ) dirt & to see t no leaks occur4 ,! exhau/ pipe %\ld be %ort to prev5t back pressure bel[ ! disk4 ,:5 /eam passes ?r\gh an orifice f a high] to a l[] pressure1 z is ! case ) ! ?rottl+ calorimet]1 no ext]nal "w has to be done 9 ov]com+ a resi/ance4 ,h5ce1 if !re is no loss f radiation1 ! quantity ( heat 9 ! /eam w be exactly ! same aft] pass+ ! orifice z be=e pass+4 ,if ! high] /eam pressure is #afj p\nds gauge & ! l[] pressure t ( ! atmosph]e1 ! total heat 9 a p\nd ( dry /eam at ! =m] pressure is #aaie4i ,b4 t4 u4 & at ! latt] pressure #aaej4d ,b4 t4 u41 a diff]5ce ( #de4d ,b4 t4 u4 ,z ?is heat w /ill exi/ 9 ! /eam at ! l[] pressure1 s9ce !re is no ext]nal "w done1 its effect mu/ be to sup]heat ! /eam4 ,assum+ ! specific heat ( sup]heat$ /eam to be #j4dg1 ea* p\nd pass+ ?r\gh w be sup]heat$ #de4d_/j4dg #if4f degrees4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! /eam _h conta9$ "o p] c5t ( moi/ure1 x w\ld h conta9$ less heat units p] p\nd ?an if x 7 dry4 ,s9ce ! lat5t heat ( /eam at #afj p\nds gauge pressure is #heb4h ,b4 t4 u41 x foll[s t ! "o p] c5t ( moi/ure w\ld h requir$ #h4e ,b4 t4 u4 to evaporate x1 leav+ only #de4d - #h4e #cf4i ,b4 t4 u4 available = sup]heat+2 h5ce1 ! sup]heat w\ld be #cf4i_/j4dg #gh4e degrees1 z aga9/ #if4f degrees = dry /eam4 ,9 a simil> mann]1 ! degree ( sup]heat = o!r p]c5tages ( moi/ure may be det]m9$4 ,! action ( ! ?rottl+ calorimet] is bas$ ^u ! =ego+ facts1 z %[n bel[4 ,let ,h total heat ( "o p\nd ( /eam at boil] pressure1 ,l lat5t heat ( /eam at boil] pressure1 h total heat ( /eam at r$uc$ pressure aft] pass+ orifice1 t#a temp]ature ( saturat$ /eam at ! r$uc$ pressure1 t#b temp]ature ( /eam aft] exp&+ ?r\gh ! orifice 9 ! disc1 #j4dg ! specific heat ( saturat$ /eam at atmosph]ic pressure1 x proportion by weight ( moi/ure 9 /eam4 ,! diff]5ce 9 ,b4 t4 u4 9 a p\nd ( /eam at ! boil] pressure & aft] pass+ ! orifice is ! heat available = evaporat+ ! moi/ure cont5t & sup]heat+ ! /eam4 ,!re=e1 ,h - h x,l #j4dg7t#b - t#a7 ,h - h - #j4dg7t#b - t#a7 or x --------------------------- 7#d7 ,l ,almo/ inv>iably ! l[] pressure is tak5 z t ( ! atmosph]e4 ,"u su* conditions1 h #aaej4d & t#a #bab degrees4 ,! =mula ?us becomes3 ,h - #aaej4d - #j4dg7t#b - #bab7 x ------------------------------ 7#e7 ,l ,= practical "w x is m conv5i5t to disp5se ) ! upp] !rmomet] 9 ! calorimet] & to measure ! pressure 9 ! /eam ma9 by an accurate /eam pressure gauge4 ,a *>t may be us$ = det]m9+ ! value ( x = approximate "w )\t ! necessity = computation4 ,su* a *>t is %[n 9 ,fig4 #ae & its use is z foll[s3 ,assume a gauge pressure ( #ahj p\nds & a !rmomet] read+ ( #bie degrees4 ,! int]section ( ! v]tical l9e f ! scale ( temp]atures z %[n by ! calorimet] !rmomet] & ! horizontal l9e f ! scale ( gauge pressures w indicate directly ! p] c5t ( moi/ure 9 ! /eam z read f ! diagonal scale4 ,9 ! pres5t in/ance1 ?is p] c5t is #a4j4 ,s\rces ( ,error 9 ! ,app>atus--,a slight error may arise f ! value1 #j4dg1 us$ z ! specific heat ( sup]heat$ /eam at atmosph]ic pressure4 ,?is value1 h[ev] is v ne>ly correct & any error result+ f its use w be negligible4 ,!re is ord9>ily a l>g] s\rce ( error due to ! fact t ! /em ( ! !rmomet] is n heat$ to its full l5g?1 to an initial error 9 ! !rmomet] & to radiation losses4 ,) an ord9>y !rmomet] imm]s$ 9 ! well to ! #ajj degrees m>k1 ! error :5 regi/]+ #cjj degrees w\ld be ab\t #c degrees & ! true temp]ature be #cjc degrees4#ai ,! /eam is evid5tly los+ heat ?r\gh radiation f ! mom5t x ent]s ! sampl+ nipple4 ,! heat available = evaporat+ moi/ure & sup]heat+ /eam aft] x has pass$ ?r\gh ! orifice into ! l[] pressure w be dim9i%$ by j ! am\nt lo/ ?r\gh radiation & ! value ( t#b1 z %[n by ! calorimet] !rmomet]1 w1 !re=e1 be l[] ?an if !re 7 no su* loss4 ,! me?od ( correct+ = ! !rmomet] & radiation error recomm5d$ by ! ,p[] ,te/ ,committee ( ! ,am]ican ,society ( ,me*anical ,eng9e]s is by ref]r+ ! read+s z f\nd on ! boil] trial to a normal read+ ( ! !rmomet]4 ,?is normal read+ is ! read+ ( ! l[] calorimet] !rmomet] = dry saturat$ /eam1 & %\ld be det]m9$ by atta*+ ! in/rum5t to a horizontal /eam pipe 9 su* a way t ! sampl+ nozzle projects upw>d to ne> ! top ( ! pipe1 !re be+ no p]=ations 9 ! nozzle & ! /eam tak5 only ?r\gh its op5 upp] end4 ,! te/ %\ld be made ) ! /eam 9 a quiesc5t /ate & ) ! /eam pressure ma9ta9$ z ne>ly z possible at ! pressure obs]v$ 9 ! ma9 trial1 ! calorimet] !rmomet] to be ! same z 0 us$ on ! trial or "o exactly simil>4 ,) a normal read+ ?us obta9$ = a pressure approximately ! same z exi/$ 9 ! trial1 ! true p]c5tage ( moi/ure 9 ! /eam1 t is1 ) ! prop] correction made = radiation1 may be calculat$ z foll[s3 ,let ,t d5ote ! normal read+ = ! conditions exi/+ 9 ! trial4 ,! effect ( radiation f ! in/rum5t z po9t$ out w be to l[] ! temp]ature ( ! /eam at ! l[] pressure4 ,let x#a repres5t ! proportion ( wat] 9 ! /eam :i* w l[] its temp]ature an am\nt equal to ! loss by radiation4 ,!n1 ,h - h - #j4dg7,t - t#a7 x#a ----------------------- ,l ,?is am\nt ( moi/ure1 x#a 0 n 9 ! /eam orig9ally b is ! result ( cond5sation 9 ! in/rum5t ?r\gh radiation4 ,h5ce1 ! true am\nt ( moi/ure 9 ! /eam repres5t$ by ,x is ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! am\nt z det]m9$ 9 ! trial & t result+ f cond5sation1 or1 ,x x - x#a ,h - h - #j4dg7t#b - t#a7 ,h - h - #j4dg7,t - t#a7 --------------------------- - ----------------------- ,l ,l #j4dg7,t - t#b7 --------------- 7#f7 ,l ,z ,t & t#b are tak5 ) ! same !rmomet] "u ! same set ( conditions1 any error 9 ! read+ ( ! !rmomet]s w be approximately ! same = ! temp]atures ,t & t#b & ! above me?od !re=e corrects = bo? ! radiation & !rmomet] errors4 ,! !oretical read+s = dry /eam1 :]e !re are no losses due to radiation1 are obta9able f =mula 7#e7 by lett+ x #j & solv+ = t#b4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! !oretical read+ & ! normal read+ = no moi/ure w be ! !rmomet] & radiation correction to be appli$ 9 ord] t ! correct read+ ( t#b may be obta9$4 ,= any calorimet] )9 ! range ( its ord9>y use1 su* a !rmomet] & radiation correction tak5 f "o normal read+ is approximately correct = any conditions ) ! same or a duplicate !rmomet]4 ,! p]c5tage ( moi/ure 9 ! /eam1 correct$ = !rmomet] error & radiation & ! correction to be appli$ to ! p>ticul> calorimet] us$1 w\ld be det]m9$ z foll[s3 ,assume a gauge pressure 9 ! trial to be #ahj p\nds & ! !rmomet] read+ to be #bie degrees4 ,a normal read+1 tak5 9 ! mann] describ$1 gives a value ( ,t #cjc degrees2 !n1 ! p]c5tage ( moi/ure correct$ = !rmomet] error & radiation is1 #j4dg7cjc - #bie7 x ---------------- #hde4j #j4de p] c5t4 ,! !oretical read+ = dry /eam w be1 #aaig4g - #aaej4d - #j4dg7t#b - #bab7 #j ------------------------------------ #hde4j t#b #cac degrees4 ,! !rmomet] & radiation correction to be appli$ to ! in/rum5t us$1 !re=e ov] ! ord9>y range ( pressure is ,correction #cac - #cjc #aj degrees ,! *>t may be us$ 9 ! det]m9ation ( ! correct read+ ( moi/ure p]c5tage & ! p]man5t radiation correction = ! in/rum5t us$ )\t computation z foll[s3 ,assume ! same trial pressure1 fe$ temp]ature & normal read+ z above4 ,if ! normal read+ is f\nd to be #cjc degrees1 ! correction = !rmomet] & radiation w be ! !oretical read+ = dry /eam z f\nd f ! *>t1 less ?is normal read+1 or #aj degrees correction4 ,! correct temp]ature = ! trial 9 "q is1 !re=e1 #cje degrees4 ,! moi/ure correspond+ to ?is temp]ature & #ahj p\nds gauge pressure w be f\nd f ! *>t to be #j4de p] c5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #af4 ,compact ,?rottl+ ,calorimet] ,!re are _m =ms ( ?rottl+ calorimet]1 all ( :i* "w ^u ! same pr9ciple4 ,! simple/ "o is probably t %[n 9 ,fig4 #ad4 ,an extremely conv5i5t & compact design is %[n 9 ,fig4 #af4 ,?is calorimet] consi/s ( two conc5tric metal cyl9d]s screw$ to a cap conta9+ a !rmomet] well4 ,! /eam pressure is measur$ by a gauge plac$ 9 ! supply pipe or o!r conv5i5t location4 ,/eam passes ?r\gh ! orifice ,a & exp&s to atmosph]ic pressure1 its temp]ature at ?is pressure be+ measur$ by a !rmomet] plac$ 9 ! cup ,c4 ,to prev5t z f> z possible radiation losses1 ! annul> space betwe5 ! two cyl9d]s is us$ z a jacket1 /eam be+ suppli$ to ?is space ?r\gh ! hole ,b4 ,! limits ( moi/ure )9 :i* ! ?rottl+ calorimet] w "w are1 at sea level1 f #b4hh p] c5t at #ej p\nds gauge pressure & #g4ag p] c5t moi/ure at #bej p\nds pressure4 ,sep>at+ ,calorimet]--,! sep>at+ calorimet] me*anically sep>ates ! entra9$ wat] f ! /eam & collects x 9 a res]voir1 :]e its am\nt is ei!r indicat$ by a gauge glass or is dra9$ (f & weigh$4 ,fig4 #ag %[s a calorimet] ( ?is type4 ,! /eam passes out ( ! calorimet] ?r\gh an orifice ( kn[n size s t its total am\nt c be calculat$ or x c be weigh$4 ,a gauge is ord9>ily provid$ ) ?is type ( calorimet]1 :i* %[s ! pressure 9 its inn] *amb] & ! fl[ ( /eam = a giv5 p]iod1 ?is latt] scale be+ graduat$ by trial4 ,! in/rum5t1 l a ?rottl+ calorimet]1 %\ld be well insulat$ to prev5t losses f radiation4 ,:ile !oretically ! sep>at+ calorimet] is n limit$ 9 capacity1 x is well 9 cases :]e ! p]c5tage ( moi/ure pres5t 9 ! /eam is kn[n to be high1 to atta* a ?rottl+ calorimet] to its exhau/4 ,?is1 9 effect1 is ! us+ ( ! sep>at+ calorimet] z a small sep>ator betwe5 ! sampl+ nozzle & ! ?rottl+ in/rum5t1 & is necess>y to insure ! det]m9ation ( ! full p]c5tage ( moi/ure 9 ! /eam4 ,! sum ( ! p]c5tages %[n by ! two in/rum5ts is ! moi/ure cont5t ( ! /eam4 ,! /eam pass+ ?r\gh a sep>at+ calorimet] may be calculat$ by ,napi]'s =mula1 ! size ( ! orifice be+ kn[n4 ,!re are objections to su* a calculation1 h[ev]1 9 t x is difficult to accurately det]m9e ! areas ( su* small orifices4 ,fur!r1 small orifices h a t5d5cy to become p>tly clos$ by s$im5t t may be c>ri$ by ! /eam4 ,! m accurate me?od ( det]m9+ ! am\nt ( /eam pass+ ?r\gh ! in/rum5t is z foll[s3 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ag4 ,sep>at+ ,calorimet] ,a hose %\ld be atta*$ to ! sep>ator outlet lead+ to a vessel ( wat] on a plat=m scale graduat$ to #a_/ajj ( a p\nd4 ,! /eam outlet %\ld be connect$ to ano!r vessel ( wat] re/+ on a second scale4 ,9 ea* case1 ! weight ( ea* vessel & its cont5ts %\ld be not$4 ,:5 ready = an obs]vation1 ! in/rum5t %\ld be bl[n out ?or\ghly s t !re w be no wat] )9 ! sep>ator4 ,! sep>ator drip %\ld !n be clos$ & ! /eam hose ins]t$ into ! vessel ( wat] at ! same in/ant4 ,:5 ! sep>ator has accumulat$ a suffici5t quantity ( wat]1 ! valve ( ! in/rum5t %\ld be clos$ & ! hose remov$ f ! vessel ( wat]4 ,! sep>ator %\ld be empti$ into ! vessel on its scale4 ,! f9al weight ( ea* vessel & its cont5ts are to be not$ & ! diff]5ces betwe5 ! f9al & orig9al weights w repres5t ! weight ( moi/ure collect$ by ! sep>ator & ! weight ( /eam f :i* ! moi/ure has be5 tak54 ,! proportion ( moi/ure c !n be calculat$ f ! foll[+ =mula3 #ajj w x ----- 7#g7 ,w - w ,:]e x p] c5t moi/ure 9 /eam1 ,w weight ( /eam cond5s$1 w weight ( moi/ure z tak5 out by ! sep>at+ calorimet]4 ,sampl+ ,nipple--,! pr9ciple s\rce ( error 9 /eam calorimet] det]m9ations is ! failure to obta9 an av]age sample ( ! /eam deliv]$ by ! boil] & x is extremely d\btful :e!r su* a sample is ev] obta9$4 ,! two gov]n+ features 9 ! obta9+ ( su* a sample are ! type ( sampl+ nozzle us$ & its location4 ,! ,am]ican ,society ( ,me*anical ,eng9e]s recomm5ds a sampl+ nozzle made ( "o-half in* iron pipe clos$ at ! inn] end & ! int]ior portion p]=at$ ) n less ?an tw5ty "o-eigh? in* holes equally di/ribut$ f end to end & pref]ably drill$ 9 irregul> or spiral r[s1 ) ! fir/ hole n less ?an "o-half in* f ! wall ( ! pipe4 ,_m eng9e]s object to ! use ( a p]=at$ sampl+ nipple because x ord9>ily indicates a high] p]c5tage ( moi/ure ?an is actually pres5t 9 ! /eam4 ,?is is due to ! fact t if ! p]=ations come close to ! inn] surface ( ! pipe1 ! moi/ure1 :i* 9 _m in/ances cl+s to ?is surface1 w fl[ into ! calorimet] & cause a l>ge error4 ,:]e a p]=at$ nipple is us$1 9 g5]al x may be said t ! p]=ations %\ld be at lea/ "o in* f ! inn] pipe surface4 ,a sampl+ nipple1 op5 at ! inn] end & unp]=at$1 und\bt$ly gives z accurate a measure z c be obta9$ ( ! moi/ure 9 ! /eam pass+ t end4 ,x w\ld appe> t a satisfactory me?od ( obta9+ an av]age sample ( ! /eam w\ld result f ! use ( an op5 end unp]=at$ nipple pass+ ?r\gh a /uff+ box :i* w\ld all[ ! end to be plac$ at any po9t across ! diamet] ( ! /eam pipe4 ,incid5tal to a te/ ( a #ae1jjj ,k4 ,w4 /eam eng9e turb9e unit1 ,mr4 ,h4 ,g4 ,/ott & ,mr4 ,r4 ,g4 ,s4 ,pigott1 f9d+ no exp]im5tal data be>+ on ! subject ( l[ pressure /eam quality det]m9ations1 made a inve/igation ( ! subject & ! sampl+ nozzle illu/rat$ 9 ,fig4 #ah 0 develop$4 ,9 speak+ ( sampl+ nozzles 9 ! det]m9ation ( ! moi/ure cont5t ( l[ pressure /eam1 ,mr4 ,pigott says1 ! ord9>y /&>d p]=at$ pipe sampl] is absolutely wor?less 9 giv+ a true sample & x is vital t ! sample be ab/ract$ f ! ma9 )\t *ang+ its direction or velocity until x is safely )9 ! sample pipe & entirely isolat$ f ! re/ ( ! /eam4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ah4 ,/ott & ,pigott ,sampl+ ,nozzle ,x w\ld appe> t ! nozzle illu/rat$ is und\bt$ly ! be/ t has be5 develop$ = use 9 ! det]m9ation ( ! moi/ure cont5t ( /eam1 n only 9 ! case ( l[1 b also 9 high pressure /eam4 ,location ( ,sampl+ ,nozzle--,! calorimet] %\ld be locat$ z ne> z possible to ! po9t f :i* ! /eam is tak5 & ! sampl+ nipple %\ld be plac$ 9 a section ( ! ma9 pipe ne> ! boil] & :]e !re is no *ance ( moi/ure pocket+ 9 ! pipe4 ,! ,am]ican ,society ( ,me*anical ,eng9e]s recomm5ds t a sampl+ nipple1 ( :i* a description has be5 giv51 %\ld be locat$ 9 a v]tical ma91 ris+ f ! boil] ) its clos$ end ext5d+ ne>ly across ! pipe4 ,:]e non-return valves are us$1 or :]e !re are horizontal connections lead+ f ! boil] to a v]tical outlet1 wat] may collect at ! l[] end ( ! uptake pipe & be bl[n upw>d 9 a spray :i* w n be c>ri$ away by ! /eam ow+ to a lack ( velocity4 ,a sample tak5 f ! l[] "p ( ?is pipe w %[ a great] am\nt ( moi/ure ?an a true sample4 ,) goose-neck connections a small am\nt ( wat] may collect on ! bottom ( ! pipe ne> ! upp] end :]e ! incl9ation is su* t ! t5d5cy to fl[ backw>d is ord9>ily c\nt]balanc$ by ! fl[ ( /eam =w>d ov] its surface2 b :5 ! velocity mom5t>ily decreases ! wat] fl[s back to ! l[] end ( ! goose-neck & increases ! moi/ure at t po9t1 mak+ x an undesirable location = sampl+4 ,9 any case1 x %\ld be borne 9 m9d t ) l[ velocities ! t5d5cy is = drops ( entra9$ wat] to settle to ! bottom ( ! pipe1 & to be tempor>ily brok5 up into spray :5ev] an abrupt b5d or o!r di/urbance is met4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ai4 ,illu/rat+ ! ,mann] 9 :i* ,errone\s ,calorimet] ,read+s may be ,obta9$ due to ,improp] ,location ( ,sampl+ ,nozzle ,case #a--;,horizontal pipe4 ,wat] fl[s at bottom4 ,if p]=ations 9 nozzle are too ne> bottom ( pipe1 wat] piles aga9/ nozzle1 fl[s into calorimet] & gives false read+4 ,case #b--;,if nozzle locat$ too ne> junction ( two horizontal runs1 z at a1 cond5sation f v]tical pipe :i* collects at ?is po9t w be ?r[n aga9/ ! nozzle by ! velocity ( ! /eam1 result+ 9 a false read+4 ,nozzle %\ld be locat$ f> en\gh above junction to be remov$ f wat] kept 9 motion by ! /eam velocity1 z at b4 ,case #c--;,cond5sation 9 b5d w be held by velocity ( ! /eam z %[n4 ,:5 velocity is dim9i%$ dur+ fir+ int]vals & ! l moi/ure fl[s back aga9/ nozzle1 a1 & false read+ is obta9$4 ,a true read+ w be obta9$ at b provid$ cond5sation is n bl[n ov] on nozzle4 ,case #d--,:]e non-return valve is plac$ be=e a b5d1 cond5sation w collect on /eam l9e side & wat] w be swept by /eam velocity aga9/ nozzle & false read+s result4 ,fig4 #ai indicates c]ta9 locations ( sampl+ nozzles f :i* errone\s results w be obta9$1 ! reasons be+ obvi\s f a /udy ( ! cuts4 ,be=e tak+ any calorimet] read+1 /eam %\ld be all[$ to fl[ ?r\gh ! in/rum5t freely until x is ?or\ghly heat$4 ,! me?od ( us+ a ?rottl+ calorimet] is evid5t f ! description ( ! in/rum5t giv5 & ! pr9ciple ^u :i* x works4 ,illu/ration3 ,babcock ,wilcox ,sup]heat] ,,sup]heat$ ,,/eam ,sup]heat$ /eam1 z already /at$1 is /eam ! temp]ature ( :i* exce$s t ( saturat$ /eam at ! same pressure4 ,x is produc$ by ! addition ( heat to saturat$ /eam :i* has be5 remov$ f contact ) ! wat] f :i* x 0 g5]at$4 ,! prop]ties ( sup]heat$ /eam approximate ^? ( a p]fect gas r ?an ( a vapor4 ,saturat$ /eam _c be sup]heat$ :5 x is 9 contact ) wat] :i* is also heat$1 nei!r c sup]heat$ /eam cond5se )\t fir/ be+ r$uc$ to ! temp]ature ( saturat$ /eam4 ,j s long z its temp]ature is above t ( saturat$ /eam at a correspond+ pressure x is sup]heat$1 & be=e cond5sation c take place t sup]heat mu/ fir/ be lo/ ?r\gh radiation or "s o!r means4 ,table #bdbj gives su* prop]ties ( sup]heat$ /eam = v>y+ pressures z are necess>y = use 9 ord9>y eng9e]+ practice4 ,specific ,heat ( ,sup]heat$ ,/eam--,! specific heat ( sup]heat$ /eam at atmosph]ic pressure & ne> saturation po9t 0 det]m9$ by ,regnault1 9 #ahfb1 :o gives x ! value ( #j4dh4 ,regnault's value 0 bas$ on f\r s]ies ( exp]im5ts1 all at atmosph]ic pressure & ) ab\t ! same temp]ature range1 ! maximum ( :i* 0 #bca4a degrees c5tigrade4 ,= fifty ye>s aft] ,regnault's det]m9ation1 ?is value 0 accept$ & appli$ to high] pressures & temp]atures z well z to ! range ( 8 exp]im5ts4 ,m rec5t inve/igations h %[n t ! specific heat is n a con/ant & v>ies ) bo? pressure & ! temp]ature4 ,a numb] ( exp]im5ts h be5 made by v>i\s inve/igators &1 up to ! pres5t1 ! mo/ reliable appe> to be ^? ( ,knoblau* & ,jacob4 ,messrs4 ,m>ks & ,davis h us$ ! values z det]m9$ by ,knoblau* & ,jacob ) slight modifications4 ,! fir/ consi/s 9 a v>y+ ( ! curves at l[ pressures close to saturation because ( !rmodynamic evid5ce & 9 view ( ,regnault's det]m9ation at atmosph]ic pressure4 ,! second modification is at high degrees ( sup]heat to foll[ ,holborn's & ,h5n+'s curve1 :i* is accept$ z au!ntic4 ,= ! sake ( conv5i5ce1 ! mean specific heat ( sup]heat$ /eam at v>i\s pressures & temp]atures is giv5 9 tabulat$ =m 9 ,table #be4 ,^! values h be5 calculat$ f ,m>ks & ,davis ,/eam ,tables by d$uct+ f ! total heat ( "o p\nd ( /eam at any pressure = any degree ( sup]heat ! total heat ( "o p\nd ( saturat$ /eam at ! same pressure & divid+ ! diff]5ce by ! numb] ( degrees ( sup]heat &1 !re=e1 repres5t ! av]age specific heat />t+ f t at saturation to ! value at ! p>ticul> pressure & temp]ature4#ba ,express$ z a =mula ?is calculation is repres5t$ by ,hsup - ,hsat ,sp4 ,ht4 ----------------- 7#h7 ,ssup - ,ssat ,:]e ,hsup total heat ( "o p\nd ( sup]heat$ /eam at any pressure & temp]ature1 ,hsat total heat ( "o p\nd ( saturat$ /eam at same pressure1 ,ssup temp]ature ( sup]heat$ /eam tak51 ,ssat temp]ature ( saturat$ /eam correspond+ to ! pressure tak54 ,,table #be ,,mean ,,specific ,,heat ,,( ,,sup]heat$ ,,/eam ,,calculat$ ,,f ,,m>ks ,,& ,,davis ,,tables ,gauge ,pressure ,degree ( ,sup]heat #ej #fj #gj #hj #ij #ajj #aaj #abj #acj #ej 4#eah 4#eag 4#ead 4#eac 4#eaa 4#eaj 4#ejh 4#ejg 4#eje #fj 4#ebh 4#ebe 4#ebc 4#eba 4#eai 4#eag 4#eae 4#eac 4#eab #gj 4#ecf 4#ecd 4#eca 4#ebi 4#ebg 4#ebd 4#ebb 4#ebj 4#eah #hj 4#edd 4#edb 4#eci 4#ece 4#ecb 4#ecj 4#ebh 4#ebf 4#ebd #ij 4#eec 4#eej 4#edf 4#edc 4#eci 4#ecf 4#ecd 4#ecb 4#ebi #ajj 4#efb 4#eeg 4#eec 4#edi 4#edd 4#edb 4#eci 4#ecf 4#ecc #aaj 4#egj 4#efe 4#efj 4#eef 4#eeb 4#edh 4#ede 4#edb 4#eci #abj 4#egh 4#egc 4#efg 4#efa 4#eeg 4#eed 4#eej 4#edf 4#edc #acj 4#ehf 4#ehj 4#egd 4#efi 4#efd 4#efj 4#eee 4#eeb 4#edh #adj 4#eid 4#ehh 4#eha 4#ege 4#egj 4#efe 4#efa 4#eeg 4#eec #aej 4#fjd 4#eie 4#ehg 4#eha 4#egf 4#egj 4#eff 4#efa 4#eeg #afj 4#fab 4#fjc 4#eif 4#ehi 4#ehb 4#egf 4#ega 4#eff 4#efb #agj 4#fbj 4#fab 4#fjc 4#eie 4#ehh 4#ehb 4#egf 4#ega 4#eff #ahj 4#fbh 4#fah 4#faj 4#fja 4#eic 4#ehg 4#eha 4#ege 4#egj #aij 4#fch 4#fbg 4#fag 4#fjh 4#eii 4#eib 4#ehe 4#egi 4#egd #bjj 4#fdh 4#fce 4#fbd 4#fad 4#fje 4#eig 4#eij 4#ehd 4#egh #baj 4#fef 4#fdc 4#fca 4#fbj 4#faa 4#fjb 4#eie 4#ehh 4#ehc #bbj 4#ffd 4#fej 4#fcg 4#fbf 4#faf 4#fjg 4#fjj 4#eib 4#ehf #bcj 4#fgb 4#feh 4#fdd 4#fcc 4#fbb 4#fac 4#fje 4#eig 4#eia #bdj 4#fhd 4#ffh 4#fec 4#fdj 4#fbi 4#fai 4#faj 4#fjb 4#eie #bej 4#fib 4#fge 4#fei 4#fde 4#fcc 4#fbc 4#fad 4#fjf 4#eii ,gauge ,pressure ,degree ( ,sup]heat ---------------------------------------- ------------- #adj #aej #afj #agj #ahj #aij #bjj #bbe #bej ---------------------------------------- -------------- #ej 4#ejd 4#ejc 4#ejb 4#eja 4#ejj 4#ejj 4#dii 4#dig 4#dif #fj 4#eaa 4#eji 4#ejh 4#ejg 4#ejf 4#ejd 4#ejd 4#ejb 4#ejj #gj 4#eaf 4#eae 4#eac 4#eab 4#eaa 4#eaj 4#eji 4#ejf 4#ejd #hj 4#ebb 4#ebj 4#eah 4#eaf 4#eae 4#ead 4#eac 4#eaa 4#ejh #ij 4#ebg 4#ebe 4#ebc 4#eba 4#eai 4#eah 4#eag 4#ead 4#eaj #ajj 4#eca 4#ebi 4#ebg 4#ebe 4#ebc 4#ebb 4#eba 4#eag 4#eac #aaj 4#ecf 4#ecd 4#ecb 4#ebi 4#ebh 4#ebf 4#ebe 4#ebj 4#eag #abj 4#edj 4#ecg 4#ece 4#ecc 4#eca 4#ebi 4#ebh 4#ebc 4#eai #acj 4#ede 4#edb 4#eci 4#ecg 4#ece 4#ecc 4#eca 4#ebg 4#ebc #adj 4#eej 4#edg 4#edd 4#eda 4#eci 4#ecf 4#ecd 4#ecj 4#ebf #aej 4#eed 4#eej 4#edg 4#edd 4#edb 4#eci 4#ecg 4#ecc 4#ebi #afj 4#eeh 4#eed 4#eea 4#edh 4#ede 4#edc 4#eda 4#ecf 4#eca #agj 4#efb 4#eeh 4#eee 4#eeb 4#edi 4#edf 4#edd 4#ech 4#ecc #ahj 4#eff 4#efa 4#eeh 4#eee 4#eeb 4#edi 4#edf 4#edj 4#ecf #aij 4#efi 4#efe 4#efb 4#eeh 4#eee 4#eeb 4#edi 4#edc 4#ech #bjj 4#egd 4#efi 4#eff 4#efb 4#eeh 4#eee 4#eeb 4#edf 4#eda #baj 4#egh 4#egc 4#efi 4#efe 4#efa 4#eeh 4#eee 4#edi 4#edc #bbj 4#eha 4#egg 4#egb 4#efh 4#efd 4#efa 4#eeh 4#eea 4#ede #bcj 4#ehe 4#ehj 4#ege 4#egb 4#efg 4#efd 4#efa 4#eed 4#edh #bdj 4#ehi 4#ehd 4#egi 4#ege 4#ega 4#efg 4#efd 4#eef 4#eej #bej 4#eic 4#ehg 4#ehb 4#egg 4#egd 4#egj 4#efg 4#eei 4#eec ,factor ( ,evaporation ) ,sup]heat$ ,/eam--,:5 sup]heat is pres5t 9 ! /eam dur+ a boil] trial1 :]e sup]heat$ /eam tables are available1 ! =mula = det]m9+ ! factor ( evaporation is t already giv51 7#b71bb namely1 ,h - h ,factor ( evaporation ----- ,l ,"h ,h total heat 9 "o p\nd ( sup]heat$ /eam f ! table1 h & ,l hav+ ! same values z 9 7#b74 ,:]e no su* tables are available b ! specific heat ( sup]heat is kn[n1 ! =mula becomes3 ,h - h ,sp4 ,ht47,t - t7 ,factor ( evaporation ---------------------- ,l ,:]e ,h total heat 9 "o p\nd ( saturat$ /eam at pressure exi/+ 9 trial1 h s5sible heat above #cb degrees 9 "o p\nd ( wat] at ! temp]ature ent]+ ! boil]1 ,t temp]ature ( sup]heat$ /eam z det]m9$ 9 ! trial1 t temp]ature ( saturat$ /eam correspond+ to ! boil] pressure1 ,sp4 ,ht4 mean specific heat ( sup]heat$ /eam at ! pressure & temp]ature z f\nd 9 ! trial1 ,l lat5t heat ( "o p\nd ( saturat$ /eam at atmosph]ic pressure4 ,advantages ( ! ,use ( ,sup]heat$ ,/eam--,9 consid]+ ! sav+ possible by ! use ( sup]heat$ /eam1 x is too (t5 assum$ t !re is only a sav+ 9 ! prime mov]s1 a sav+ :i* is at lea/ p>tially (fset by an increase 9 ! fuel consumption ( ! boil]s g5]at+ /eam4 ,?is misconception is due to ! fact t ! fuel consumption ( ! boil] is only consid]$ 9 connection ) a def9ite weight ( /eam4 ,x is true t :]e su* a def9ite weight is to be sup]heat$1 an add$ am\nt ( fuel mu/ be burn$4 ,) a prop]ly design$ sup]heat] :]e ! comb9$ effici5cy ( ! boil] & sup]heat] w be at lea/ z high z ( a boil] alone1 ! approximate increase 9 coal consumption = produc+ a giv5 weight ( /eam w be z foll[s3 ,sup]heat ,add$ ,fuel ,degrees ,p] ,c5t #be #a4ei #ej #c4jg #ge #d4ch #ajj #e4fi #aej #h4ai #bjj #aj4eh ,^! figures repres5t ! add$ fuel necess>y = sup]heat+ a def9ite weight ( /eam to ! numb] ( degrees z giv54 ,! /&>d basis1 h[ev]1 ( boil] evaporation is "o ( heat units &1 consid]$ f su* a /&po9t1 aga9 provid+ ! effici5cy ( ! boil] & sup]heat] is z high1 z ( a boil] alone1 !re is no additional fuel requir$ to g5]ate /eam conta9+ a def9ite numb] ( heat units :e!r su* units be due to sup]heat or saturation4 ,t is1 if #f p] c5t m fuel is requir$ to g5]ate & sup]heat to #ajj degrees1 a def9ite weight ( /eam1 ov] :at w\ld be requir$ to produce ! same weight ( saturat$ /eam1 t /eam :5 sup]heat$1 w conta9 #f p] c5t m heat units above ! fuel wat] temp]ature ?an if saturat$4 ,?is holds true if ! effici5cy ( ! boil] & sup]heat] comb9$ is ! same z ( ! boil] alone4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 ! effici5cy ( a boil] & sup]heat]1 :]e ! latt] is prop]ly design$ & locat$1 w be slightly high] = ! same set ( furnace conditions ?an w\ld ! effici5cy ( a boil] 9 :i* no sup]heat] 7 in/all$4 ,a sup]heat]1 prop]ly plac$ )9 ! boil] sett+ 9 su* way t products ( combu/ion = g5]at+ saturat$ /eam are utiliz$ z well = sup]heat+ t /eam1 w n 9 any way alt] furnace conditions4 ,) a giv5 set ( su* furnace conditions = a giv5 am\nt ( coal burn$1 ! fact t additional surface1 :e!r z boil] heat+ or sup]heat+ surface1 is plac$ 9 su* a mann] t ! gases mu/ sweep ov] x1 w t5d to l[] ! temp]ature ( ! exit gases4 ,x is su* a l[]+ ( exit gas temp]atures t is ! ultimate indication ( add$ effici5cy4 ,?\gh ! am\nt ( ?is add$ effici5cy is difficult to det]m9e by te/1 t !re is an increase is unque/ionable4 ,:]e a prop]ly design$ sup]heat] is in/all$ 9 a boil] ! heat+ surface ( ! boil] prop]1 9 ! g5]ation ( a def9ite numb] ( heat units1 is reliev$ ( a portion ( ! "w :i* w\ld be requir$ 7 ^! heat units deliv]$ 9 saturat$ /eam4 ,su* a sup]heat] ne$s practically no att5tion1 is n subject to a l>ge upkeep co/ or depreciation1 & p]=ms its function )\t 9 any way int]f]+ ) ! op]ation ( ! boil]4 ,its use1 !re=e f ! /&po9t ( ! boil] room1 results 9 a sav+ 9 we> & te> due to ! l[] rat+s at :i* ! boil] may be run1 or its use w lead to ! possibility ( obta9+ ! same numb] ( boil] horse p[] f a small] numb] ( boil]s1 ) ! boil] heat+ surface do+ exactly ! same am\nt ( "w z if ! sup]heat]s 7 n in/all$4 ,! sav+ due to ! add$ boil] effici5cy t w be obta9$ is obvi\s4 ,foll[+ ! c\rse ( ! /eam 9 a plant1 ! next advantage ( ! use ( sup]heat$ /eam is ! abs5ce ( wat] 9 ! /eam pipes4 ,! !rmal conductivity ( sup]heat$ /eam1 t is1 its p[] to give up its heat to surr\nd+ bodies1 is mu* l[] ?an t ( saturat$ /eam & its heat1 !re=e1 w n be transmitt$ s rapidly to ! walls ( ! pipes z :5 saturat$ /eam is fl[+ ?r\gh ! pipes4 ,! loss ( heat radiat$ f a /eam pipe1 assum+ no loss 9 pressure1 repres5ts ! equival5t cond5sation :5 ! pipe is c>ry+ saturat$ /eam4 ,9 well-cov]$ /eam ma9s1 ! heat lo/ by radiation :5 c>ry+ sup]heat$ /eam is accompani$ only by a r$uction ( ! sup]heat :i*1 if x be suffici5tly high at ! boil]1 w enable a consid]able am\nt ( heat to be radiat$ & /ill deliv] dry or sup]heat$ /eam to ! prime mov]s4 ,x is 9 ! prime mov]s t ! advantages ( ! use ( sup]heat$ /eam are mo/ cle>ly se54 ,9 an eng9e1 /eam is admitt$ into a space t has be5 cool$ by ! /eam exhau/$ dur+ ! previ\s /roke4 ,! heat necess>y to w>m ! cyl9d] walls f ! temp]ature ( ! exhau/ to t ( ! ent]+ /eam c be suppli$ only by ! ent]+ /eam4 ,if ?is /eam be saturat$1 su* an add+ ( heat to ! walls at ! exp5se ( ! heat ( ! ent]+ /eam results 9 ! cond5sation ( a portion4 ,?is initial cond5sation is seldom less ?an f #bj to #cj p] c5t ( ! total weight ( /eam ent]+ ! cyl9d]4 ,x is obvi\s t if ! /eam ent]+ be sup]heat$1 x mu/ be r$uc$ to ! temp]ature ( saturat$ /eam at ! correspond+ pressure be=e any cond5sation c take place4 ,if ! /eam be sup]heat$ suffici5tly to all[ a r$uction 9 temp]ature equival5t to ! quantity ( heat t mu/ be imp>t$ to ! cyl9d] walls & /ill rema9 sup]heat$1 x is cle> t initial cond5sation is avoid$4 ,= example3 assume "o p\nd ( saturat$ /eam at #bjj p\nds gauge pressure to ent] a cyl9d] :i* has be5 cool$ by ! exhau/4 ,assume ! initial cond5sation to be #bj p] c5t4 ,! lat5t heat ( ! /eam is giv5 up 9 cond5sation2 h5ce1 4#bj #hch #afg4f ,b4 t4 u4 are giv5 up by ! /eam4 ,if "o p\nd ( sup]heat$ /eam ent]s ! same cyl9d]1 x w\ld h to be sup]heat$ to a po9t :]e its total heat is #aaii #afh #acfg ,b4 t4 u4 or1 at #bjj p\nds gauge pressure1 sup]heat$ approximately #cbe degrees if ! heat giv5 up to ! cyl9d] walls 7 ! same z = ! saturat$ /eam4 ,z sup]heat$ /eam conducts heat less rapidly ?an saturat$ /eam1 ! am\nt ( heat imp>t$ w be less ?an = ! saturat$ /eam & consequ5tly ! am\nt ( sup]heat requir$ to prev5t cond5sation w be less ?an ! above figure4 ,?is1 ( c\rse1 is ! extreme case ( a simple eng9e ) ! range ( temp]ature *ange a maximum4 ,z cyl9d]s are add$1 ! range 9 ea* is decreas$ & ! cond5sation is proportionate4 ,! true economy ( ! use ( sup]heat$ /eam is be/ %[n 9 a comp>ison ( ! heat consumption ( an eng9e4 ,?is is ! numb] ( heat units requir$ 9 develop+ "o indicat$ horse p[] & ! measure ( ! relative p]=mance ( two eng9es is bas$ on a comp>ison ( _! heat consumption z ! measure ( a boil] is bas$ on its evaporation f & at #bab degrees4 ,! wat] consumption ( an eng9e 9 p\nds p] indicat$ horse p[] is 9 no s5se a true indication ( its effici5cy4 ,! initial pressures & correspond+ temp]atures may diff] widely & ?us make a diff]5ce 9 ! temp]ature ( ! exhau/ & h5ce 9 ! temp]ature ( ! cond5s$ /eam return$ to ! boil]4 ,= example3 suppose a c]ta9 weight ( /eam at #aej p\nds absolute pressure & #ceh degrees be exp&$ to atmosph]ic pressure1 ! temp]ature !n be+ #bab degrees4 ,if ! same weight ( /eam be exp&$ f an initial pressure ( #abe p\nds absolute & #cdd degrees1 to enable x to d ! same am\nt ( "w1 t is1 to give up ! same am\nt ( heat1 expansion !n mu/ be c>ri$ to a po9t bel[ atmosph]ic pressure to1 say1 #ac p\nds absolute1 ! f9al temp]ature ( ! /eam !n be+ #bjf degrees4 ,9 actual practice1 x has be5 obs]v$ t ! wat] consumption ( a comp\nd pi/on eng9e runn+ on #bf-;in* vacuum & return+ ! cond5s$ /eam at #adj degrees 0 approximately ! same z :5 runn+ on #bh-;in* vacuum & return+ wat] at #ij degrees4 ,) an equal wat] consumption = ! two sets ( conditions1 ! economy 9 ! =m] case w\ld be great] ?an 9 ! latt]1 s9ce x w\ld be necess>y to add less heat to ! wat] return$ to ! boil] to raise x to ! /eam temp]ature4 ,! l[] ! heat consumption ( an eng9e p] indicat$ horse p[]1 ! high] its economy & ! less ! numb] ( heat units mu/ be imp>t$ to ! /eam g5]at$4 ,?is 9 turn leads to ! l[]+ ( ! am\nt ( fuel t mu/ be burn$ p] indicat$ horse p[]4 ,) ! sav+ 9 fuel by ! r$uction ( heat consumption ( an eng9e indicat$1 x rema9s to be %[n ! effect ( ! use ( sup]heat$ /eam on su* heat consumption4 ,z already expla9$1 ! use ( sup]heat$ /eam r$uces cond5sation n only 9 ! ma9s b especially 9 ! /eam cyl9d]1 leav+ a great] quantity ( /eam available to d ! "w4 ,fur!rmore1 a portion ( ! saturat$ /eam introduc$ into a cyl9d] w cond5se dur+ adiabatic expansion1 ?is cond5sation increas+ z expansion progresses4 ,s9ce sup]heat$ /eam _c cond5se until x becomes saturat$1 n only is initial cond5sation prev5t$ by its use b also su* cond5sation z w\ld occur dur+ expansion4 ,:5 sup]heat$ suffici5tly1 /eam deliv]$ by ! exhau/ w /ill be dry4 ,9 ! avoidance ( su* cond5sation1 !re is a direct sav+ 9 ! heat consumption ( an eng9e1 ! heat giv5 up be+ utiliz$ 9 ! develop+ ( p[] & n 9 *ang+ ! condition ( ! work+ fluid4 ,t is1 :ile ! numb] ( heat units lo/ 9 ov]com+ cond5sation effects w\ld be ! same 9 ei!r case1 :5 saturat$ /eam is cond5s$ ! wat] ( cond5sation has no p[] to d "w :ile ! sup]heat$ /eam1 ev5 aft] x has lo/ a l numb] ( heat units1 /ill has ! p[] ( expansion4 ,! sav+ ?r\gh ! use ( sup]heat$ /eam 9 ! heat consumption ( an eng9e decreases dem&s on ! boil] & h5ce ! fuel consumption p] unit ( p[]4 ,sup]heat$ ,/eam = ,/eam ,turb9es--,exp]i5ce 9 us+ sup]heat$ /eam 9 connection ) /eam turb9es has %[n t x leads to economy & t x und\bt$ly pays to use sup]heat$ /eam 9 place ( saturat$ /eam4 ,?is is s well e/abli%$ t x is /&>d practice to use sup]heat$ /eam 9 connection ) /eam turb9es4 ,aside f ! economy secur$ ?r\gh us+ sup]heat$ /eam1 !re is an important advantage aris+ ?r\gh ! fact t x mat]ially r$uces ! erosion ( ! turb9e blades by ! action ( wat] t w\ld be c>ri$ by saturat$ /eam4 ,9 us+ saturat$ /eam 9 a /eam turb9e or pi/on eng9e1 ! "w done on exp&+ ! /eam causes cond5sation ( a portion ( ! /eam1 s t ev5 7 ! /eam dry on ent]+ ! turb9e1 x w\ld conta9 wat] on leav+ ! turb9e4 ,by sup]heat+ ! /eam ! wat] t exi/s 9 ! l[ pressure /ages ( ! turb9e may be r$uc$ to an am\nt t w n cause tr\ble4 ,aga91 if saturat$ /eam conta9s moi/ure1 ! effect ( ?is moi/ure on ! economy ( a /eam turb9e is to r$uce ! economy to a great] ext5t ?an ! proportion by weight ( wat]1 "o p] c5t ( wat] caus+ approximately a fall+ (f ( #b p] c5t 9 ! economy4 ,! wat] rate ( a l>ge economical /eam turb9e ) sup]heat$ /eam is r$uc$ ab\t "o p] c5t1 = e #ab degrees ( sup]heat up to #bjj degrees ,fahr5heit ( sup]heat4 ,to sup]heat "o p\nd ( /eam #ab degrees requires ab\t #g ,b4 t4 u4 & if #ajej ,b4 t4 u4 are requir$ at ! boil] to evaporate "o p\nd ( ! saturat$ /eam f ! temp]ature ( ! fe$ wat]1 ! heat requir$ = ! sup]heat$ /eam w\ld be #ajeg degrees4 ,"o p] c5t ( sav+1 !re=e1 9 ! wat] consumption w\ld correspond to a net sav+ ( ab\t "o-?ird ( "o p] c5t 9 ! coal consumption4 ,on ?is basis #ajj degrees ( sup]heat ) an economical /eam turb9e w\ld result 9 some:at ov] #c p] c5t ( sav+ 9 ! coal = equal boil] effici5cies4 ,z a boil] ) a prop]ly design$ sup]heat] plac$ )9 ! sett+ is m economical = a giv5 capacity ?an a boil] )\t a sup]heat]1 ! m9imum ga9 9 ! coal consumption w\ld be1 say1 #d or #e p] c5t z comp>$ to a plant ) ! same boil]s )\t sup]heat]s4 ,! above e/imates are on ! basis ( a ?or\ghly dry saturat$ /eam or /eam j at ! po9t ( be+ sup]heat$ or conta9+ a few degrees ( sup]heat4 ,if ! saturat$ /eam is moi/1 ! sav+ due to sup]heat is m & ord9>ily ! ga9 9 economy due to sup]heat$ /eam1 = equal boil] effici5cies1 z comp>$ ) comm]cially dry /eam is1 say1 #e p] c5t = ea* #ajj degrees ( sup]heat4 ,aside f ?is ga91 z already /at$1 sup]heat$ /eam prev5ts erosion ( ! turb9e buckets t w\ld be caus$ by wat] 9 ! /eam1 & = ! reasons enum]at$ x is /&>d practice to use sup]heat$ /eam = turb9e "w4 ,! less economical ! /eam motor1 ! m ! ga9 due to sup]heat$ /eam1 & :]e !re are a numb] ( auxili>ies t are run ) sup]heat$ /eam1 ! p]c5tage ( ga9 w be great] ?an ! figures giv5 above1 :i* are ! m9imum & are = ! mo/ economical type ( l>ge /eam turb9es4 ,an example f actual practice w p]haps be/ illu/rate & emphasize ! =ego+ facts4 ,9 ,octob] #aiji1 a s]ies ( comp>able te/s 7 conduct$ by ,! ,babcock ,wilcox ,co4 on ! /eam ya*t ,idalia to det]m9e ! /eam consumption bo? ) saturat$ & sup]heat$ /eam ( ! ma9 eng9e on t ya*t1 includ+ z well ! fe$ pump1 circulat+ pump & air pump4 ,^! te/s are m repres5tative ?an are mo/ te/s ( l "* 9 t ! sav+ 9 ! /eam consumption ( ! auxili>ies1 :i* 7 mu* m wa/eful ?an ! ma9 eng9e1 =m$ an important factor4 ,a rsum ( ^! te/s 0 publi%$ 9 ! ,j\rnal ( ! ,society ( ,naval ,eng9e]s1 ,novemb] #aiji4 ,! ma9 eng9es ( ! ,idalia are f\r cyl9d]1 triple expansion1 #aa-a_/b #ai in*es by #bb-aa_/af #ah in*es /roke4 ,/eam is suppli$ by a ,babcock ,wilcox m>9e boil] hav+ #bejj squ>e feet ( boil] heat+ surface1 #cdj squ>e feet ( sup]heat+ surface & #fe squ>e feet ( grate surface4 ,! auxili>ies consi/ ( a fe$ pump #f #d #f in*es1 an indep5d5t air pump #f #ab #h in*es1 & a c5trifugal pump driv5 by a reciprocat+ eng9e #e-g_/af #e in*es4 ,"u ord9>y op]at+ conditions ! sup]heat exi/+ is ab\t #ajj degrees ,fahr5heit4 ,te/s 7 made ) v>i\s degrees ( sup]heat1 ! am\nt be+ v>i$ by by-pass+ ! gases & 9 ! te/s ) ! l[] am\nts ( sup]heat by pass+ a portion ( ! /eam f ! boil] to ! /eam ma9 )\t pass+ x ?r\gh ! sup]heat]4 ,/eam temp]ature read+s 7 tak5 at ! eng9e ?rottle4 ,9 ! te/s ) saturat$ /eam1 ! sup]heat] 0 completely cut out ( ! sy/em4 ,c>eful calorimet] measurem5ts 7 tak51 %[+ t ! saturat$ /eam deliv]$ to ! sup]heat] 0 dry4 ,! weight ( /eam us$ 0 det]m9$ f ! weight ( ! cond5s$ /eam dis*>ge f ! surface cond5s]1 ! wat] be+ pump$ f ! hot well into a tank m\nt$ on plat=m scales4 ,! same indicators1 !rmomet]s & gauges 7 us$ 9 all ! te/s1 s t ! results are directly comp>able4 ,! indicators us$ 7 ( ! outside spr+ type s t !re 0 no effect ( ! temp]ature ( ! /eam4 ,all te/s 7 ( suffici5t duration to %[ a uni=mity ( results by h\rs4 ,a summ>y ( ! results secur$ is giv5 9 ,table #bf1 :i* %[s ! wat] rate p] indicat$ horse p[] & ! heat consumption4 ,! latt] figures are comput$ on ! basis ( ! heat imp>t$ to ! /eam above ! actual temp]ature ( ! fe$ wat] &1 z /at$1 ^! are ! results t are directly comp>able4 ,,table #bf ,,results ,,( ,,idalia ,,te/s ,date #aiji ,oct4 #aa,oct4 #ad,oct4 #ad,oct4 #ab,oct4 #ac ,degrees ( sup]heat ,fahr5heit #j #eg #hh #if #aje ,pressures1 p\nds p] ,?rottle #aij #aif #bja #aih #bjc squ>e in* above ,fir/ ,atmosph]ic ,pressure ,receiv] #fh4d #ff4j #fd4c #fa4i #fc4j ,second ,receiv] #i4g #i4b #h4g #g4h #h4d ,vacuum1 in*es #be4e #be4i #be4i #be4d #be4b ,temp]ature1 ,degrees ,fahr5heit ,fe$ #bja #bjf #bje #bjb #bjj ,hot ,well #aaf #aji4e #aae #aaa4e #aaa ,revolutions p] m9ute ,air ,pump #eg #ef #ec #ed #de ,circulat+ ,pump #aif #aih #aif #aih #aig ,ma9 ,eng9e #aid4c #aia4e #aie4a #aia4e #aic4a ,indicat$ ,horse ,p[]1 ,ma9 ,eng9e #eab4c #die4b #eba4a #dih4c #ejb4b ,wat] p] h\r1 total p\nds #icig #hdcj #hbcd #gijb #ggij ,wat] p] indicat$ ,horse ,p[]1 p\nds #ah4c #ag4j #ae4h #ae4h #ae4e ,b4 t4 u4 p] m9ute p] indicat$ ,horse ,p[] #cad #cjj #bhd #bhf #bhc ,p] c5t ,sav+ ( ,/eam 444 #g4a #ac4g #ac4g #ae4c ,p]c5t ,sav+ ( ,fuel 7comput$7 444 #d4d #i4e #h4i #i4i ,! table %[s t ! sav+ 9 /eam consumption ) #aje degrees ( sup]heat 0 #ae4c p] c5t & 9 heat consumption ab\t #aj p] c5t4 ,?is may be safely /at$ to be a cons]vative repres5tation ( ! sav+ t may be accompli%$ by ! use ( sup]heat$ /eam 9 a plant z a :ole1 :]e sup]heat$ /eam is furni%$ n only to ! ma9 eng9e b also to ! auxili>ies4 ,! figures may be tak5 z cons]vative = ! reason t 9 addition to ! sav+ z %[n 9 ! table1 !re w\ld be 9 an ord9>y plant a sav+ mu* great] ?an is g5]ally realiz$ 9 ! drips1 :]e ! loss ) saturat$ /eam is greatly 9 excess ( t ) sup]heat$ /eam4 ,! mo/ conclusive & mo/ practical evid5ce t a sav+ is possible ?r\gh ! use ( sup]heat$ /eam is 9 ! fact t 9 ! l>ge/ & mo/ economical plants x is us$ almo/ )\t exception4 ,reg>dless ( any su* evid5ce1 h[ev]1 !re is a deep root$ conviction 9 ! m9ds ( c]ta9 eng9e]s t ! use ( sup]heat$ /eam w involve op]at+ difficulties :i*1 ) additional fir/ co/1 w m ?an (fset any fuel sav+4 ,!re are1 ( c\rse1 conditions "u :i* ! in/allation ( sup]heat]s w\ld 9 no way be advisable4 ,) a poorly design$ sup]heat]1 no ga9 w\ld result4 ,9 g5]al1 x may be /at$ t 9 a new plant1 prop]ly design$1 ) a boil] & sup]heat] :i* w h an effici5cy at lea/ z high z a boil] )\t a sup]heat]1 a ga9 is c]ta94 ,su* a ga9 is dep5d5t ^u ! class ( eng9e & ! p[] plant equipm5t 9 g5]al4 ,9 det]m9+ ! advisability ( mak+ a sup]heat] in/allation1 all ( ! factors ent]+ into ea* individual case %\ld be consid]$ & balanc$1 ) a view to det]m9+ ! sav+ 9 relation to co/1 ma9t5ance1 depreciation etc4 ,9 highly economical plants1 :]e ! wat] consumption = an indicat$ horse p[] is l[1 ! ga9 w be less ?an w\ld result f ! use ( sup]heat$ /eam 9 less economical plants :]e ! wat] consumption is high]4 ,x is impossible to make an accurate /atem5t z to ! sav+ possible b1 broadly1 x may v>y f #c to #e p] c5t = #ajj degrees ( sup]heat 9 ! l>ge & economical plants us+ turb9es or /eam eng9es1 9 :i* !re is a l>ge ratio ( expansion1 to f #aj to #be p] c5t = #ajj degrees ( sup]heat = ! less economical /eam motors4 ,?\gh a prop]ly design$ sup]heat] w t5d to raise r ?an to decrease ! boil] effici5cy1 x does n foll[ t all sup]heat]s are effici5t1 = if ! gases 9 pass+ ov] ! sup]heat] d n foll[ ! pa? !y w\ld ord9>ily take 9 pass+ ov] ! boil] heat+ surface1 a loss may result4 ,?is is noticeably true :]e "p ( ! gases are pass$ ov] ! sup]heat] & are all[$ to pass ov] only a "p or 9 "s cases none ( ! boil] heat+ surface4 ,) mod]ate degrees ( sup]heat1 f #ajj to #bjj degrees1 :]e ! pip+ is prop]ly in/all$1 !re w be no great] op]at+ difficulties ?an ) saturat$ /eam4 ,eng9e & turb9e build]s gu>antee satisfactory op]ation ) sup]heat$ /eam4 ,) high degrees ( sup]heat1 say1 ov] #bej degrees1 app>atus ( a special nature mu/ be us$ & x is que/ionable :e!r ! additional c>e & liability to op]at+ difficulties w (fset any fuel sav+ accompli%$4 ,x is well e/abli%$1 h[ev]1 t ! op]at+ difficulties1 ) ! degrees ( sup]heat to :i* ?is article is limit$1 h be5 entirely ov]come4 ,! use ( ca/-iron fitt+s ) sup]heat$ /eam has be5 widely discuss$4 ,x is an und\bt$ fact t :ile 9 "s in/ances sup]heat$ /eam has caus$ det]ioration ( su* fitt+s1 9 o!rs ca/-iron fitt+s h be5 us$ ) #aej degrees ( sup]heat )\t ! lea/ difficulty4 ,! quality ( ! ca/ iron us$ 9 su* fitt+s has d\btless a l>ge be>+ on ! life ( su* fitt+s = ?is s]vice4 ,! difficulties t h be5 enc\nt]$ are an increase 9 ! size ( ! fitt+s & ev5tually a det]ioration great en\gh to lead to s]i\s breakage1 ! developm5t ( cracks1 & :5 flanges are drawn up too tightly1 ! break+ ( a flange f ! body ( ! fitt+4 ,! latt] difficulty is und\bt$ly due1 9 c]ta9 in/ances1 to ! =m ( flange 9 :i* ! /ra9 ( ! connect+ bolts t5d$ to di/ort ! metal4 ,! ,babcock ,wilcox ,co4 h us$ /eel ca/+s 9 sup]heat$ /eam "w ov] a long p]iod & exp]i5ce has %[n t ?is metal is suitable = ! s]vice4 ,!re seems to be a g5]al t5d5cy t[>d ! use ( /eel fitt+s4 ,9 ,european practice1 until rec5tly1 ca/ iron 0 us$ ) app>5tly satisfactory results4 ,! claim ( ,european eng9e]s 0 to ! effect t _! ca/ iron 0 ( bett] quality ?an t f\nd 9 ?is c\ntry & ?us expla9$ ! results secur$4 ,rec5tly1 h[ev]1 c]ta9 difficulties h be5 enc\nt]$ ) su* fitt+s & ,european eng9e]s are lean+ t[>d ! use ( /eel = ?is "w4 ,! degree ( sup]heat produc$ by a sup]heat] plac$ )9 ! boil] sett+ w v>y accord+ to ! class ( fuel us$1 ! =m ( furnace1 ! condition ( ! fire & ! rate at :i* ! boil] is be+ op]at$4 ,?is is necess>ily true ( any sup]heat] swept by ! ma9 body ( ! products ( combu/ion & is a fact t %\ld be appreciat$ by ! prospective us] ( sup]heat$ /eam4 ,) a prop]ly design$ sup]heat]1 h[ev]1 su* fluctuations w\ld n be excessive1 provid$ ! boil]s are prop]ly op]at$4 ,z a matt] ( fact ! po9t to be gu>d$ aga9/ 9 ! use ( sup]heat$ /eam is t a maximum %\ld n be exce$$4 ,:ile1 z /at$1 !re may be a consid]able fluctuation 9 ! temp]ature ( ! /eam z deliv]$ f individual sup]heat]s1 :]e !re are a numb] ( boil]s on a l9e ! temp]ature ( ! comb9$ fl[ ( /eam 9 ! ma9 w be f\nd to be practically a con/ant1 result+ f ! (fsett+ ( v>i\s furnace conditions ( "o boil] by ano!r4 ,illu/ration3 #hdjj ,horse-p[] ,in/allation ( ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil]s & ,sup]heat]s at ! ,butl] ,/reet ,plant ( ! ,georgia ,railway & ,p[] ,co41 ,atlanta1 ,ga4 ,?is ,company ,op]ates a ,total ( #ae1bjj ,horse ,p[] ( ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil]s ,,prop]ties ,,( ,,air ,pure air is a me*anical mixture ( oxyg5 & nitrog54 ,:ile diff]5t au?orities give slightly v>y+ values = ! proportion ( oxyg5 & nitrog5 conta9$1 ! g5]ally accept$ values are3 ,by volume1 oxyg5 #bj4ia p] c5t1 nitrog5 #gi4ji p] c5t4 ,by weight1 oxyg5 #bc4ae p] c5t1 nitrog5 #gf4he p] c5t4 ,air 9 nature always conta9s o!r con/itu5ts 9 v>y+ am\nts1 su* z du/1 c>bon dioxide1 ozone & wat] vapor4 ,be+ p]fectly ela/ic1 ! d5sity or weight p] unit ( volume decreases 9 geometric progression ) ! altitude4 ,?is fact has a direct be>+ 9 ! proportion+ ( furnaces1 flues & /acks at high altitudes1 z w be %[n lat] 9 ! discussion ( ^! subjects4 ,! atmosph]ic pressures correspond+ to v>i\s altitudes are giv5 9 ,table #ab4 ,! weight & volume ( air dep5d ^u ! pressure & ! temp]ature1 z express$ by ! =mula3 ,pv #ec4cc ,t 7#i7 ,:]e ,p ! absolute pressure 9 p\nds p] squ>e foot1 v ! volume 9 cubic feet ( "o p\nd ( air1 ,t ! absolute temp]ature ( ! air 9 degrees ,fahr5heit1 #ec4cc a con/ant = air d]iv$ f ! ratio ( pressure1 volume & temp]ature ( a p]fect gas4 ,! weight ( "o cubic foot ( air w obvi\sly be ! reciprocal ( its volume1 t is1 #a_/v p\nds4 ,,table #bg ,,volume ,,& ,,weight ,,( ,,air ,,at ,,atmosph]ic ,,pressure ,,at ,,v>i\s ,,temp]atures ,volume ,temp]ature ,"o ,p\nd ,weight ,"o ,degrees 9 ,cubic ,foot ,fahr5heit ,cubic ,feet 9 ,p\nds #cb #ab4cij 4#jhjgaj #ej #ab4hdc 4#jgghfc #ee #ab4ifi 4#jggajg #fj #ac4jie 4#jgfcfe #fe #ac4bba 4#jgefcg #gj #ac4cdg 4#jgdibc #ge #ac4dgc 4#jgdbbc #hj #ac4eii 4#jgcece #he #ac4gbe 4#jgbhfj #ij #ac4hea 4#jgbaig #ie #ac4igg 4#jgaedf #ajj #ad4ajc 4#jgjijg #aaj #ad4cee 4#jfiffb #abj #ad4fjg 4#jfhdfj #acj #ad4hei 4#jfgbii #adj #ae4aaa 4#jffagg #aej #ae4cfc 4#jfejib #afj #ae4fae 4#jfdjda #agj #ae4hfg 4#jfcjbd #ahj #af4aai 4#jfbjci #aij #af4cga 4#jfajhd #bjj #af4fbc 4#jfjaeh #baj #af4hge 4#jeibei #bab #af4ibe 4#jeijhd #bbj #ag4abg 4#jehchh #bcj #ag4cgi 4#jegeda #bdj #ag4fca 4#jefgah #bej #ag4hhc 4#jeeiai #bfj #ah4ace 4#jeeadb #bgj #ah4chg 4#jedchf #bhj #ah4fci 4#jecfea #bij #ah4hia 4#jebice #cjj #ai4adc 4#jebbch #cbj #ai4fdg 4#jejhih #cdj #bj4aea 4#jdifbe #cfj #bj4fee 4#jdhdad #chj #ba4aei 4#jdgbfa #djj #ba4ffc 4#jdfafb #dbe #bb4bic 4#jddheg #dej #bb4ibc 4#jdcfbd #dge #bc4eed 4#jdbdef #ejj #bd4ahd 4#jdacej #ebe #bd4had 4#jdjcjj #eej #be4ddd 4#jcicjb #ege #bf4jgd 4#jchceb #fjj #bf4gjd 4#jcgddh #fej #bg4ifd 4#jcegfj #gjj #bi4bbd 4#jcdbai #gej #cj4dhd 4#jcbhjd #hjj #ca4gdd 4#jcaejb #hej #cc4jjd 4#jcjbii ,example3 ,requir$ ! volume ( air 9 cubic feet "u #fj4c p\nds gauge pressure p] squ>e in* at #aae degrees ,fahr5heit4 ,p #add 7#ad4g #fj4c7 #aj1hjj4 ,t #aae #dfj #ege degrees4 #ec4cc #ege ,h5ce v ----------- #b4hd cubic feet1 & #aj1hjj #a #a ,weight p] cubic foot - ---- #j4ceb p\nds4 v #b4hd ,table #bg gives ! weights & volumes ( air "u atmosph]ic pressure at v>y+ temp]atures4 ,=mula 7#i7 holds good = o!r gases ) ! *ange 9 ! value ( ! con/ant z foll[s3 ,= oxyg5 #dh4bd1 nitrog5 #ed4ig1 hydrog5 #gfe4ga4 ,! specific heat ( air at con/ant pressure v>ies ) its temp]ature4 ,a numb] ( det]m9ations ( ?is value h be5 made & c]ta9 ( ^? ord9>ily accept$ z mo/ au!ntic are giv5 9 ,table #bh4 ,,table #bh ,,specific ,,heat ,,( ,,air ,,at ,,con/ant ,,pressure ,,& ,,v>i\s ,,temp]atures ,temp]ature ,range ,degrees ,degrees ,specific ,heat ,au?ority ,c5tigrade ,fahr5heit -#cj- #aj -#bb- #ej #j4bcgg ,regnault #j-ajj #cb- #bab #j4bcgd ,regnault #j-bjj #cb- #cib #j4bcge ,regnault #bj-ddj #fh- #hbd #j4bcff ,holborn & ,curtis #bj-fcj #fh-aaff #j4bdbi ,holborn & ,curtis #bj-hjj #fh-adgb #j4bdcj ,holborn & ,curtis #j-bjj #cb- #cib #j4bchi ,wi$emann ,?is value is ( p>ticul> importance 9 wa/e heat "w & x is regrettable t !re is su* a v>iation 9 ! diff]5t exp]im5ts4 ,mall>d & ,le ,*ateli] det]m9$ values consid]ably high] ?an any giv5 9 ,table #bh4 ,all ?+s consid]$ 9 view ( ! discrepancy ( ! values giv51 !re appe>s to be z mu* gr\nd = ! use ( a con/ant value = ! specific heat ( air at any temp]ature z = a v>iable value4 ,:]e ?is value is us$ ?r\gh\t ?is book1 x has be5 tak5 z #j4bd4 ,air may c>ry a consid]able quantity ( wat] vapor1 :i* is frequ5tly #c p] c5t ( ! total weight4 ,?is fact is ( importance 9 problems relat+ to heat+ dry+ & ! compress+ ( air4 ,table #bi gives ! am\nt ( vapor requir$ to saturate air at diff]5t temp]atures1 its weight1 expansive =ce1 etc41 & conta9s suffici5t in=mation = solv+ practically all problems ( ?is sort t may arise4 ,,table #bi ,,weights ,,( ,,air1 ,,vapor ,,( ,,wat]1 ,,& ,,saturat$ ,,mixtures ,,( ,,air ,,& ,,vapor ,,at ,,diff]5t ,,temp]atures1 ,,"u ,,! ,,ord9>y ,,atmosph]ic ,,pressure ,,( #bi4iba ,,in*es ,,( ,,m]cury ,column ,head+s3 #a3 ,temp]ature ,degrees ,fahr5heit #b3 ,volume ( ,dry ,air at ,diff]5t ,temp]atures1 ! ,volume at #cb ,degrees be+ #a4jjj #c3 ,weight ( ,cubic ,foot ( ,dry ,air at ! ,diff]5t ,temp]atures ,p\nds #d3 ,ela/ic ,=ce ( ,vapor 9 ,in*es ( ,m]cury 7,regnault7 #e3 ,ela/ic ,=ce ( ! ,air 9 ! ,mixture ( ,air & ,vapor 9 ,in*es ( ,m]cury #f3 ,weight ( ! ,air 9 ,p\nds #g3 ,weight ( ! ,vapor 9 ,p\nds #h3 ,total ,weight ( ,mixture 9 ,p\nds #i3 ,weight ( ,vapor ,mix$ ) ,"o ,p\nd ( ,air1 9 ,p\nds #aj3 ,weight ( ,dry ,air ,mix$ ) ,"o ,p\nd ( ,vapor1 9 ,p\nds #aa3 ,cubic ,feet ( ,vapor f ,"o ,p\nd ( ,wat] at its own ,pressure 9 ,column #d ,mixtures ( ,air ,saturat$ ) ,vapor ,weight ( ,cubic ,foot ( ! ,mixture ( ,air & ,vapor #a #b #c #d #e #f #g #h #i #aj #aa #j 4#ice4jhfd 4#jddbi4hgg4jhfc4jjjjgi4jhfcgi 4#jjjibajib4d #ab 4#ifj4jhdb 4#jgdbi4hdi4jhdj4jjjacj4jhdacj 4#jjaee #fdf4a #bb 4#ihj4jhbd 4#aahbi4hjc4jhba4jjjbjb4jhbcjb 4#jjbde #djf4d #cba4jjj4jhjg 4#ahabi4gdj4jhjb4jjjcjd4jhjejd 4#jjcgi #bfc4ha #cbhi #dba4jbj4jgia 4#bfgbi4fed4jghd4jjjddj4jghhdj 4#jjefa #agh4ah #bbeb #eba4jda4jggf 4#chhbi4ecc4jgff4jjjfbg4jggbbg 4#jjhaj #abb4ag #aeie #fba4jfa4jgfa 4#eefbi4cfe4jgdg4jjjhha4jgeeha 4#jaagi #hd4gi #aace #gba4jhb4jgdg 4#ghebi4acf4jgbg4jjabba4jgciba 4#jafhj #ei4ed #hai #hba4ajb4jgcc #a4jibbh4hbi4jgjf4jjaffg4jgbbfg 4#jbcfa #db4ce #fjj #iba4abb4jgbj #a4ejabh4dbj4jfhd4jjbbej4jgjgag 4#jcbhi #cj4dj #ddd #ajba4adc4jgjg #b4jcfbg4hhe4jfei4jjbiig4jfhhig 4#jdedg #ba4ih #ccd #aaba4afc4jfid #b4gcabg4aij4jfca4jjcidf4jfgjdf 4#jfbec #ae4ii #bec #abba4ahd4jfhb #c4fbabf4cjj4jeii4jjeadb4jfejdb 4#jhehd #aa4fe #aid #acba4bjd4jfga #d4gebbe4afi4jefd4jjffci4jfcjci 4#aagga #h4di #aea #adba4bbd4jffj #f4afebc4gef4jebd4jjhdgc4jfjhgc 4#afagj #f4ah #aah #aeba4bde4jfdi #g4icjba4iia4jdgg4jajgaf4jehdaf 4#bbdfe #d4de #ic4c #afba4bfe4jfchaj4jiiai4hbb4jdbc4jacdae4j eegae 4#cagac #c4ae #gd4e #agba4bhe4jfbhab4gehag4afc4jcfj4jaffhb4j ebfhb 4#dfcch #b4af #ei4b #ahba4cjf4jfahae4ifjac4ifa4jbhh4jbjecf4j diccf 4#gacjj #a4djb #dh4f #aiba4cbf4jfjiai4hbhaj4jic4jbje4jbeadb4j defdb #a4bbfdc 4#hae #ci4h #bjba4cdg4jfjjbd4dej #e4dga4jaji4jcjede4jdadde #b4hjbcj 4#ceg #cb4g #baba4cfg4jeiabi4iba #j4jjj4jjjj4jcfhbj4jcfhbj;,inf9ite 4#jjj #bg4a ,column #e b>omet] pressure ( #bi4iba1 m9us ! proportion ( ?is due to vapor pressure f column #d4 ,,combu/ion ,combu/ion may be def9$ z ! rapid *emical comb9ation ( oxyg5 ) c>bon1 hydrog5 & sulphur1 accompani$ by ! diffusion ( heat & light4 ,t portion ( ! sub/ance ?us comb9$ ) ! oxyg5 is call$ combu/ible4 ,z us$ 9 /eam eng9e]+ practice1 h[ev]1 ! t]m combu/ible is appli$ to t portion ( ! fuel :i* is dry & free f a%1 ?us includ+ bo? oxyg5 & nitrog5 :i* may be con/itu5ts ( ! fuel1 ?\gh n 9 ! true s5se ( ! t]m combu/ible4 ,combu/ion is p]fect :5 ! combu/ible unites ) ! greate/ possible am\nt ( oxyg51 z :5 "o atom ( c>bon unites ) two atoms ( oxyg5 to =m c>bon dioxide1 ,,co#b4 ,! combu/ion is imp]fect :5 complete oxidation ( ! combu/ible does n occur1 or :]e ! combu/ible does n unite ) ! maximum am\nt ( oxyg51 z :5 "o atom ( c>bon unites ) "o atom ( oxyg5 to =m c>bon monoxide1 ,,co1 :i* may be fur!r burn$ to c>bon dioxide4 ,k9dl+ ,po9t--,be=e a combu/ible c unite ) oxyg5 & combu/ion takes place1 its temp]ature mu/ fir/ be rais$ to ! ignition or k9dl+ po9t1 & a suffici5t "t mu/ be all[$ = ! completion ( ! combu/ion be=e ! temp]ature ( ! gases is l[]$ bel[ t po9t4 ,table #cj1 by ,/romey]1 gives ! approximate k9dl+ temp]atures ( diff]5t fuels4 ,,table #cj ,,k9dl+ ,,temp]ature ,,( ,,v>i\s ,,fuels ,degrees ,fahr5heit ,lignite ,du/ #cjj ,dri$ ,peat #dce ,sulphur #dgj ,an?racite ,du/ #egj ,coal #fjj ,coke ,r$ ,heat ,an?racite ,r$ ,heat1 #gej ,c>bon ,monoxide ,r$ ,heat1 #abaa ,hydrog5 #ajcj or #abij ,combu/ibles--,! pr9cipal combu/ibles 9 coal & o!r fuels are c>bon1 hydrog5 & sulphur1 occurr+ 9 v>y+ proportions & comb9ations4 ,c>bon is by f> ! mo/ abundant z is indicat$ 9 ! *apt]s on fuels4 ,hydrog5 9 a free /ate occurs 9 small quantities 9 "s fuels1 b is usually f\nd 9 comb9ation ) c>bon1 9 ! =m ( hydroc>bons4 ,! d5sity ( hydrog5 is #j4jfif 7,air #a7 & its weight p] cubic foot1 at #cb degrees ,fahr5heit & "u atmosph]ic pressure1 is #j4jjefba p\nds4 ,sulphur is f\nd 9 mo/ coals & "s oils4 ,x is usually pres5t 9 comb9$ =m1 ei!r z sulphide ( iron or sulphate ( lime2 9 ! latt] =m x has no heat value4 ,its pres5ce 9 fuel is objectionable because ( its t5d5cy to aid 9 ! =mation ( cl9k]s1 & ! gases f its combu/ion1 :5 9 ! pres5ce ( moi/ure1 may cause corrosion4 ,nitrog5 is drawn into ! furnace ) ! air4 ,its d5sity is #j4ifgc 7,air #a72 its weight1 at #cb degrees ,fahr5heit & "u atmosph]ic pressure1 is #j4jghbi p\nds p] cubic foot2 ea* p\nd ( air at atmosph]ic pressure conta9s #j4gfhe p\nds ( nitrog51 & "o p\nd ( nitrog5 is conta9$ 9 #a4cja p\nds ( air4 ,nitrog5 p]=ms no useful (fice 9 combu/ion & passes ?r\gh ! furnace )\t *ange4 ,x dilutes ! air1 absorbs heat1 r$uces ! temp]ature ( ! products ( combu/ion1 & is ! *ief s\rce ( heat losses 9 furnaces4 ,calorific ,value--,ea* combu/ible elem5t ( gas w comb9e ) oxyg5 9 c]ta9 def9ite proportions & w g5]ate a def9ite am\nt ( heat1 measur$ 9 ,b4 t4 u4 ,?is def9ite am\nt ( heat p] p\nd lib]at$ by p]fect combu/ion is t]m$ ! calorific value ( t sub/ance4 ,table #ca1 gives c]ta9 data on ! reactions & results ( combu/ion = elem5t>y combu/ibles & sev]al comp\nds4 ,,table #ca ,,oxyg5 ,,& ,,air ,,requir$ ,,= ,,combu/ion ,,at #cb ,,degrees ,,& #bi4ib ,,in*es ,column head+s3 #a3 ,oxidizable ,sub/ance or ,combu/ible #b3 ,*emical ,symbol #c3 ,atomic or ,comb9+ ,weight #d3 ,*emical ,reaction #e3 ,product ( ,combu/ion #f3 ,oxyg5 p] ,p\nd ( ,column #a ,p\nds #g3 ,nitrog5 p] ,p\nd ( ,column #a4 #c4cbbc ,o ,p\nds #h3 ,air p] ,p\nd ( ,column #a4 #d4cbbd ,o ,p\nds #i3 ,gase\s ,product p] ,p\nd ( ,column #abe ,column #h ,p\nds #aj3 ,heat ,value p] ,p\nd ( ,column #a ,b4 t4 u4 #aa3 ,volumes ( ,column #a ,ent]+ ,comb9ation ,volume #ab3 ,volumes ( ,oxyg5 ,comb9+ ) ,column #aa ,volume #ac3 ,volumes ( ,product ,=m$ ,volume #ad3 ,volume p] ,p\nd ( ,column #a 9 ,gase\s ,=m ,cubic ,feet #ae3 ,volume ( ,oxyg5 p] ,p\nd ( ,column #a ,cubic ,feet #af3 ,volume ( ,products ( ,combu/ion p] ,p\nd ( ,column #a ,cubic ,feet #ag3 ,volume ( ,nitrog5 p] ,p\nd ( ,column #a #c4ghbbf ,column #ae ,cubic ,feet #ah3 ,volume ( ,gas p] p\nd ( ,column #a ,column #aj ,column #ag ,cubic ,feet ,,by ,,weight #a #b #c #d #e #f ,c>bon ,c #ab ,c#b,o ,,co#b ,c>bon ,dioxide #b4ffg ,c>bon ,c #ab ,c,o ,,co ,c>bon ,monoxide #a4ccc ,c>bon ,monoxide ,,co #bh ,,co,o ,,co#b ,c>bon ,dioxide 4#ega ,hydrog5 ,h #a #b;,h,o ,h#b,o ,wat] #h _/ ,,*#dd,o ,c>bon ,dioxide ,me?ane ,,*#d #af #d ,,co#bb;,h#b,o & ,wat] _/ ,sulphur ,s #cb ,s#b,o ,,s#b ,sulphur ,dioxide #a #a #b #g #h #i #aj ,c>bon ,c #h4he #aa4eb #ab4eb #adfjj ,c>bon ,c #d4dc #e4gf #f4gf #ddej ,c>bon ,monoxide ,,co #a4ij #b4dg #c4dg #ajaej ,hydrog5 ,h #bf4ef #cd4ef #ce4ef #fbjjj ,me?ane ,,*#d #ac4bh #ag4bh #ah4bh #bceej ,sulphur ,s #c4cb #d4cb #e4cb #djej ,,by ,,volume #a #b #aa #ab #ac #ad ,c>bon ,c #a;,c #b #b;,,co#b #ad4ie ,c>bon ,c #a;,c #a #b;,,co #ad4ie ,c>bon ,monoxide ,,co #b;,,co #a #b;,,co#b #ab4hj ,hydrog5 ,h #b;,h #a #b;,h#b,o #agi4cb ,me?ane ,,*#d #a;,c#d;,h #d #a;,,co#b #b;,h#b,o #bb4da ,sulphur ,s #a,s #b #a,,s#b #e4fj #a #b #ae #af #ag #ah ,c>bon ,c #bi4hi #bi4hi #aab4ih #adb4hg ,c>bon ,c #ad4ie #bi4hi #ef4di #hf4ch ,c>bon ,monoxide ,,co #f4dj #ab4hj #bd4bj #cg4jj ,hydrog5 ,h #hi4ff #agi4cb #cci4ji #eah4da ,me?ane ,,*#d #dd4hc #fg4cd #afi4ee #bcf4hi ,sulphur ,s #aa4ba #aa4ba #db4ci #ec4fj ,x w be se5 f ?is table t a p\nd ( c>bon w unite ) #b-b_/c p\nds ( oxyg5 to =m c>bon dioxide1 & w evolve #ad1fjj ,b4 t4 u4 ,z an int]m$iate /ep1 a p\nd ( c>bon may unite ) #a-a_/c p\nds ( oxyg5 to =m c>bon monoxide & evolve #ddej ,b4 t4 u41 b 9 its fur!r conv]sion to ,,co#b x w\ld unite ) an additional #a-a_/c times its weight ( oxyg5 & evolve ! rema9+ #aj1aej ,b4 t4 u4 ,:5 a p\nd ( ,,co burns to ,,co#b1 h[ev]1 only #dcej ,b4 t4 u4 are evolv$ s9ce ! p\nd ( ,,co conta9s b #c_/g p\nd c>bon4 ,air ,requir$ = ,combu/ion--,x has already be5 %[n t ea* combu/ible elem5t 9 fuel w unite ) a def9ite am\nt ( oxyg54 ,) ! ultimate analysis ( ! fuel kn[n1 9 connection ) ,table #ca1 ! !oretical am\nt ( air requir$ = combu/ion may be readily calculat$4 ,let ! ultimate analysis be z foll[s3 ,p] ,c5t ,c>bon #gd4gi ,hydrog5 #d4ih ,oxyg5 #f4db ,nitrog5 #a4bj ,sulphur #c4bd ,wat] #a4ee ,a% #g4hb ------ #ajj4jj ,:5 complete combu/ion takes place1 z already po9t$ out1 ! c>bon 9 ! fuel unites ) a def9ite am\nt ( oxyg5 to =m ,,co#b4 ,! hydrog51 ei!r 9 a free or comb9$ /ate1 w unite ) oxyg5 to =m wat] vapor1 ,h#b,o4 ,n all ( ! hydrog5 %[n 9 a fuel analysis1 h[ev]1 is available = ! production ( heat1 z a portion ( x is already unit$ ) ! oxyg5 %[n by ! analysis 9 ! =m ( wat]1 ,h#b,o4 ,s9ce ! atomic weights ( ,h & ,o are respectively #a & #af1 ! weight ( ! comb9$ hydrog5 w be #a_/h ( ! weight ( ! oxyg51 & ! hydrog5 available = combu/ion w be ,h - #a_/h ,o4 ,9 complete combu/ion ( ! sulphur1 sulphur dioxide ,,s#b is =m$1 :i* 9 solution 9 wat] =ms sulphuric acid4 ,express$ num]ically1 ! !oretical am\nt ( air = ! above analysis is z foll[s3 #j4gdgi ,c #b-b_/c #a4iidd ,o ne$$ 7 #j4jfdb 7 7 #j4jdih - -------7 ,h #h #j4cbfb ,o ne$$ 7 #h 7 #j4jcbd ,s #a #j4jcbd ,o ne$$ ------ ,total #b4cecj ,o ne$$ ,"o p\nd ( oxyg5 is conta9$ 9 #d4cb p\nds ( air4 ,! total air ne$$ p] p\nd ( coal1 !re=e1 w be #b4cec #d4cb #aj4afe4 ,! weight ( combu/ible p] p\nd ( fuel is 4#gdgi 4#jdahbg 4#jcbd 4#jab 4#hc p\nds1 & ! air !oretically requir$ p] p\nd ( combu/ible is #aj4afe 4#hc #ab4b p\nds4 ,! above is equival5t to comput+ ! !oretical am\nt ( air requir$ p] p\nd ( fuel by ! =mula3 7 ,o7 ,weight p] p\nd #aa4eb ,c #cd4ef 7,h - -7 #d4cb ,s 7#aj7 7 #h7 :]e ,c1 ,h1 ,o & ,s are proportional p>ts by weight ( c>bon1 hydrog51 oxyg5 & sulphur by ultimate analysis4 ,9 practice x is impossible to obta9 p]fect combu/ion ) ! !oretical am\nt ( air1 & an excess may be requir$1 am\nt+ to sometimes d\ble ! !oretical supply1 dep5d+ ^u ! nature ( ! fuel to be burn$ & ! me?od ( burn+ x4 ,! reason = ?is is t x is impossible to br+ ea* p>ticle ( oxyg5 9 ! air into intimate contact ) ! p>ticles 9 ! fuel t are to be oxidiz$1 due n only to ! dilution ( ! oxyg5 9 ! air by nitrog51 b because ( su* factors z ! irregul> ?ickness ( ! fire1 ! v>y+ resi/ance to ! passage ( ! air ?r\gh ! fire 9 sep>ate p>ts on acc\nt ( a%1 cl9k]1 etc4 ,:]e ! difficulties ( draw+ air uni=mly ?r\gh a fuel b$ are elim9at$1 z 9 ! case ( burn+ oil fuel or gas1 ! air supply may be mat]ially less ?an w\ld be requir$ = coal4 ,exp]im5t has %[n t coal w usually require #ej p] c5t m ?an ! !oretical net calculat$ am\nt ( air1 or ab\t #ah p\nds p] p\nd ( fuel ei!r "u natural or =c$ draft1 ?\gh ?is am\nt may v>y widely ) ! type ( furnace1 ! nature ( ! coal1 & ! me?od ( fir+4 ,if less ?an ?is am\nt ( air is suppli$1 ! c>bon burns to monoxide in/ead ( dioxide & its full heat value is n develop$4 ,an excess ( air is also a s\rce ( wa/e1 z ! products ( combu/ion w be dilut$ & c>ry (f an excessive am\nt ( heat 9 ! *imney gases1 or ! air w s l[] ! temp]ature ( ! furnace gases z to delay ! combu/ion to an ext5t t w cause c>bon monoxide to pass (f unburn$ f ! furnace4 ,a suffici5t am\nt ( c>bon monoxide 9 ! gases may cause ! action kn[n z second>y combu/ion1 by ignit+ or m+l+ ) air aft] leav+ ! furnace or 9 ! flues or /ack4 ,su* second>y combu/ion :i* takes place ei!r )9 ! sett+ aft] leav+ ! furnace or 9 ! flues or /ack always leads to a loss ( effici5cy &1 9 "s in/ances1 leads to ov]heat+ ( ! flues & /ack4 ,table #cb gives ! !oretical am\nt ( air requir$ = v>i\s fuels calculat$ f =mula 7#aj7 assum+ ! analyses ( ! fuels giv5 9 ! table4 ,! process ( combu/ion ( diff]5t fuels & ! effect ( v>iation 9 ! air supply = _! combu/ion is treat$ 9 detail 9 ! *apt]s deal+ ) ! v>i\s fuels4 ,,table #cb ,,calculat$ ,,!oretical ,,am\nt ,,( ,,air ,,requir$ ,,p] ,,p\nd ,,( ,,v>i\s ,,fuels ,weight ( ,con/itu5ts 9 ,"o ,air ,requir$ ,fuel ,p\nd ,dry ,fuel p] ,p\nd ( ,fuel ,c>bon ,hydrog5 ,oxyg5 ,p\nds ,p] ,c5t ,p] ,c5t ,p] ,c5t ,coke #id4j 4 4 #aj4h ,an?racite ,coal #ia4e #c4e #b4f #aa4g ,bitum9\s ,coal #hg4j #e4j #d4j #aa4f ,lignite #gj4j #e4j #bj4j #h4i ,wood #ej4j #f4j #dc4e #f4j ,oil #he4j #ac4j #a4j #ad4c ,illu/ration3 #djfd ,,horse-,,p[] ,in/allation ( ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil]s & ,sup]heat]s1 ,equipp$ ) ,babcock ,wilcox ,*a9 ,grate ,/ok]s1 at ! ,cosmopolitan ,electric ,co41 ,*icago1 ,ill4 ,,analysis ,,( ,,flue ,,gases ,! object ( a flue gas analysis is ! det]m9ation ( ! complet5ess ( ! combu/ion ( ! c>bon 9 ! fuel1 & ! am\nt & di/ribution ( ! heat losses due to incomplete combu/ion4 ,! quantities actually det]m9$ by an analysis are ! relative proportions by volume1 ( c>bon dioxide 7,,co#b71 oxyg5 7,o71 & c>bon monoxide 7,,co71 ! det]m9ations be+ made 9 ?is ord]4 ,! v>iations ( ! p]c5tages ( ^! gases 9 an analysis is be/ illu/rat$ 9 ! consid]ation ( ! complete combu/ion ( pure c>bon1 a p\nd ( :i* requires #b4fg p\nds ( oxyg51#bh or #cb cubic feet at #fj degrees ,fahr5heit4 ,! gase\s product ( su* combu/ion w occupy1 :5 cool$1 ! same volume z ! oxyg51 namely1 #cb cubic feet4 ,! air suppli$ = ! combu/ion is made up ( #bj4ia p] c5t oxyg5 & #gi4ji p] c5t nitrog5 by volume4 ,! c>bon unit$ ) ! oxyg5 9 ! =m ( c>bon dioxide w h ! same volume z ! oxyg5 9 ! air orig9ally suppli$4 ,! volume ( ! nitrog5 :5 cool$ w be ! same z 9 ! air suppli$1 z x und]goes no *ange4 ,h5ce = complete combu/ion ( "o p\nd ( c>bon1 :]e no excess ( air is suppli$1 an analysis ( ! products ( combu/ion w %[ ! foll[+ p]c5tages by volume3 ,actual ,volume = ,"o ,p\nd ,c>bon ,p] ,c5t ,cubic ,feet by ,volume ,c>bon ,dioxide #cb #bj4ia ,oxyg5 #j #j4jj ,nitrog5 #aba #gi4ji --- ------ ,air requir$ = "o p\nd ,c>bon #aec #ajj4jj ,= #ej p] c5t excess air ! volume w be z foll[s3 #aec #a #bbi4e cubic feet ( air p] p\nd ( c>bon4 ,actual ,volume = ,"o ,p\nd ,c>bon ,p] ,c5t ,cubic ,feet by ,volume ,c>bon ,dioxide #cb #ac4ia ,oxyg5 #af #g4jj #bj4ia p] c5t ,nitrog5 #aha4e #gi4ji ----- ------ #bbi4e #ajj4jj ,= #ajj p] c5t excess air ! volume w be z foll[s3 #aec #b #cjf cubic feet ( air p] p\nd ( c>bon4 ,actual ,volume = ,"o ,p\nd ,c>bon ,p] ,c5t ,cubic ,feet by ,volume ,c>bon ,dioxide #cb #aj4de ,oxyg5 #cb #aj4de #bj4ia p] c5t ,nitrog5 #bdb #gi4ji --- ------ #cjf #ajj4jj ,9 ea* case ! volume ( oxyg5 :i* comb9es ) ! c>bon is equal to 7cubic feet ( air #bj4ia p] c5t7--#cb cubic feet4 ,x w be se5 t no matt] :at ! excess ( air suppli$1 ! actual am\nt ( c>bon dioxide p] p\nd ( c>bon rema9s ! same1 :ile ! p]c5tage by volume decreases z ! excess ( air increases4 ,! actual volume ( oxyg5 & ! p]c5tage by volume increases ) ! excess ( air1 & ! p]c5tage ( oxyg5 is1 !re=e1 an indication ( ! am\nt ( excess air4 ,9 ea* case ! sum ( ! p]c5tages ( ,,co#b & ,o is ! same1 #bj4i4 ,al?\gh ! volume ( nitrog5 increases ) ! excess ( air1 its p]c5tage by volume rema9s ! same z x und]goes no *ange :ile combu/ion takes place2 its p]c5tage = any am\nt ( air excess1 !re=e1 w be ! same aft] combu/ion z be=e1 if cool$ to ! same temp]ature4 ,x mu/ be borne 9 m9d t ! above conditions hold only = ! p]fect combu/ion ( a p\nd ( pure c>bon4 ,c>bon monoxide 7,,co7 produc$ by ! imp]fect combu/ion ( c>bon1 w occupy twice ! volume ( ! oxyg5 ent]+ into its composition & w increase ! volume ( ! flue gases ov] t ( ! air suppli$ = combu/ion 9 ! proportion ( #ajj ! p] c5t ,,co #a to ----------------------- #ajj ,:5 pure c>bon is ! fuel1 ! sum ( ! p]c5tages by volume ( c>bon dioxide1 oxyg5 & "o-half ( ! c>bon monoxide1 mu/ be 9 ! same ratio to ! nitrog5 9 ! flue gases z is ! oxyg5 to ! nitrog5 9 ! air suppli$1 t is1 #bj4ia to #gi4ji4 ,:5 burn+ coal1 h[ev]1 ! p]c5tage ( nitrog5 is obta9$ by subtract+ ! sum ( ! p]c5tages by volume ( ! o!r gases f #ajj4 ,?us if an analysis %[s #ab4e p] c5t ,,co#b1 #f4e p] c5t ,o1 & #j4f p] c5t ,,co1 ! p]c5tage ( nitrog5 :i* ord9>ily is ! only o!r con/itu5t ( ! gas :i* ne$ be consid]$1 is f\nd z foll[s3 #ajj - 7#ab4e #f4e #j4f7 #hj4d p] c5t4 ,! action ( ! hydrog5 9 ! volatile con/itu5ts ( ! fuel is to increase ! app>5t p]c5tage ( ! nitrog5 9 ! flue gases4 ,?is is due to ! fact t ! wat] vapor =m$ by ! combu/ion ( ! hydrog5 w cond5se at a temp]ature at :i* ! analysis is made1 :ile ! nitrog5 :i* accompani$ ! oxyg5 ) :i* ! hydrog5 orig9ally comb9$ ma9ta9s its gase\s =m & passes into ! sampl+ app>atus ) ! o!r gases4 ,= ?is reason coals conta9+ high p]c5tages ( volatile matt] w produce a l>g] quantity ( wat] vapor1 & ?us increase ! app>5t p]c5tage ( nitrog54 ,air ,requir$ & ,suppli$--,:5 ! ultimate analysis ( a fuel is kn[n1 ! air requir$ = complete combu/ion ) no excess c be f\nd z %[n 9 ! *apt] on combu/ion1 or f ! foll[+ approximate =mula3 ,p\nds ( air requir$ p] p\nd ( fuel 7,c ,o ,s7 #cd4ef 7- 7,h - -7 -7#bi 7#aa7 7#c #h #h7 :]e ,c1 ,h & ,o equal ! p]c5tage by weight ( c>bon1 hydrog5 & oxyg5 9 ! fuel divid$ by #ajj4 ,:5 ! flue gas analysis is kn[n1 ! total1 am\nt ( air suppli$ is3 ,p\nds ( air suppli$ p] p\nd ( fuel ,n #c4jcf 7-----------7 ,c#cj 7#ab7 ,,co#b ,,co :]e ,n1 ,,co#b & ,,co are ! p]c5tages by volume ( nitrog51 c>bon dioxide & c>bon monoxide 9 ! flue gases1 & ,c ! p]c5tage by weight ( c>bon :i* is burn$ f ! fuel & passes up ! /ack z flue gas4 ,?is p]c5tage ( ,c :i* is burn$ mu/ be di/+ui%$ f ! p]c5tage ( ,c z f\nd by an ultimate analysis ( ! fuel4 ,to f9d ! p]c5tage ( ,c :i* is burn$1 d$uct f ! total p]c5tage ( c>bon z f\nd 9 ! ultimate analysis1 ! p]c5tage ( unconsum$ c>bon f\nd 9 ! a%4 ,?is latt] quantity is ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! p]c5tage ( a% f\nd by an analysis & t z det]m9$ by a boil] te/4 ,x is usually assum$ t ! entire combu/ible elem5t 9 ! a% is c>bon1 :i* assumption is practically correct4 ,?us if ! a% 9 a boil] te/ 7 #af p] c5t & by an analysis conta9$ #be p] c5t ( c>bon1 ! p]c5tage ( unconsum$ c>bon w\ld be #af 4#be #d p] c5t ( ! total coal burn$4 ,if ! coal conta9$ by ultimate analysis #hj p] c5t ( c>bon ! p]c5tage burn$1 & ( :i* ! products ( combu/ion pass up ! *imney w\ld be #hj - #d #gf p] c5t1 :i* is ! correct figure to use 9 calculat+ ! total am\nt ( air suppli$ by =mula 7#ab74 ,! weight ( flue gases result+ f ! combu/ion ( a p\nd ( dry coal w be ! sum ( ! weights ( ! air p] p\nd ( coal & ! combu/ible p] p\nd ( coal1 ! latt] be+ equal to "o m9us ! p]c5tage ( a% z f\nd 9 ! boil] te/4 ,! weight ( flue gases p] p\nd ( dry fuel may1 h[ev]1 be comput$ directly f ! analyses1 z %[n lat]1 & ! direct computation is t ord9>ily us$4 ,! ratio ( ! air actually suppli$ p] p\nd ( fuel to t !oretically requir$ to burn x is3 ,n #c4jcf7---------7;,c ,,co#b;,,co ------------------ 7#ac7 ,c ,o #cd4ef7- ,h - -7 #c #h 9 :i* ! lett]s h ! same significance z 9 =mulae 7#aa7 & 7#ab74 ,! ratio ( ! air suppli$ p] p\nd ( combu/ible to ! am\nt !oretically requir$ is3 ,n ------------------ 7#ad7 ,n - #c4ghb7,o - ,,co7 :i* is d]iv$ z foll[s3 ,! ,n 9 ! flue gas is ! cont5t ( nitrog5 9 ! :ole am\nt ( air suppli$4 ,! oxyg5 9 ! flue gas is t conta9$ 9 ! air suppli$ & :i* 0 n utiliz$ 9 combu/ion4 ,?is oxyg5 0 accompani$ by #c4ghb times its volume ( nitrog54 ,! total am\nt ( excess oxyg5 9 ! flue gases is 7,o - ,,co72 h5ce ,n - #c4ghb7,o - ,,co7 repres5ts ! nitrog5 cont5t 9 ! air actually requir$ = combu/ion & ,n 7,n - #c4ghb,o - ,,co7 is ! ratio ( ! air suppli$ to t requir$4 ,?is ratio m9us "o w be ! proportion ( excess air4 ,! heat lo/ 9 ! flue gases is ,l #j4bd ,w 7,t - t7 7#ae7 ,:]e ,l ,b4 t4 u4 lo/ p] p\nd ( fuel1 ,w weight ( flue gases 9 p\nds p] p\nd ( dry coal1 ,t temp]ature ( flue gases1 t temp]ature ( atmosph]e1 #j4bd specific heat ( ! flue gases4 ,! weight ( flue gases1 ,w1 p] p\nd ( c>bon c be comput$ directly f ! flue gas analysis f ! =mula3 #aa ,,co#b #h ,o #g 7,,co ,n7 ---------------------------- 7#af7 #c 7,,co#b ,,co7 :]e ,,co#b1 ,o1 ,,co1 & ,n are ! p]c5tages by volume z det]m9$ by ! flue gas analysis ( c>bon dioxide1 oxyg51 c>bon monoxide & nitrog54 ,! weight ( flue gas p] p\nd ( dry coal w be ! weight det]m9$ by ?is =mula multipli$ by ! p]c5tage ( c>bon 9 ! coal f an ultimate analysis4 ,graph3 ,temp]ature ( ,escap+ ,gases--,deg4 ,fahr4 aga9/ ,heat c>ri$ away by ,*imney ,gases--,9 ,b4t4u4 p] p\nd ( ,c>bon burn$4#ca ,fig4 #bj4 ,loss ,due to ,heat ,c>ri$ ,away by ,*imney ,gases = ,v>y+ ,p]c5tages ( ,c>bon ,dioxide4 ,bas$ on ,boil] ,room ,temp]ature #hj ,degrees ,fahr5heit4 ,nitrog5 9 ,flue ,gas #hj4e ,p] ,c5t4 ,c>bon ,monoxide 9 ,flue ,gas #j4 ,p] ,c5t ,fig4 #bj repres5ts graphically ! loss due to heat c>ri$ away by dry *imney gases = v>y+ p]c5tages ( ,,co#b1 & diff]5t temp]atures ( exit gases4 ,! heat lo/1 due to ! fact t ! c>bon 9 ! fuel is n completely burn$ & c>bon monoxide is pres5t 9 ! flue gases1 9 ,b4 t4 u4 p] p\nd ( fuel burn$ is3 7 ,,co 7 ,l' #aj1aej 7-----------7 7#ag7 7,,co ,,co#b7 :]e1 z be=e1 ,,co & ,,co#b are ! p]c5tages by volume 9 ! flue gases & ,c is ! proportion by weight ( c>bon :i* is burn$ & passes up ! /ack4 ,fig4 #ba repres5ts graphically ! loss due to su* c>bon 9 ! fuel z is n completely burn$ b escapes up ! /ack 9 ! =m ( c>bon monoxide4 ,graph3 ,loss 9 ,b4,t4,u4 p] ,p\nd ( ,c>bon ,burn$#cb aga9/ ,p] ,c5t ,,co#b 9 ,flue ,gas ,fig4 #ba4 ,loss ,due to ,unconsum$ ,c>bon ,conta9$ 9 ! ,,co 9 ! ,flue ,gases ,app>atus = ,flue ,gas ,analysis--,! ,orsat app>atus1 illu/rat$ 9 ,fig4 #bb1 is g5]ally us$ = analyz+ flue gases4 ,! burette ,a is graduat$ 9 cubic c5timet]s up to #ajj1 & is surr\nd$ by a wat] jacket to prev5t any *ange 9 temp]ature f affect+ ! d5sity ( ! gas be+ analyz$4 ,= accurate "w x is advisable to use f\r pipettes1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 ,e1 ! fir/ conta9+ a solution ( cau/ic pota% = ! absorption ( c>bon dioxide1 ! second an alkal9e solution ( pyrogallol = ! absorption ( oxyg51 & ! rema9+ two an acid solution ( cupr\s *loride = absorb+ ! c>bon monoxide4 ,ea* pipette conta9s a numb] ( glass tubes1 to :i* "s ( ! solution cl+s1 ?us facilitat+ ! absorption ( ! gas4 ,9 ! pipettes ,d & ,e1 copp] wire is plac$ 9 ^! tubes to re-en]gize ! solution z x becomes weak5$4 ,! re> half ( ea* pipette is fitt$ ) a rubb] bag1 "o ( :i* is %[n at ,k1 to protect ! solution f ! action ( ! air4 ,! solution 9 ea* pipette %\ld be drawn up to ! m>k on ! capill>y tube4 ,! gas is drawn into ! burette ?r\gh ! ,u-tube ,h1 :i* is fill$ ) spun glass1 or simil> mat]ial1 to clean ! gas4 ,to dis*>ge any air or gas 9 ! app>atus1 ! cock ,g is op5$ to ! air & ! bottle ,f is rais$ until ! wat] 9 ! burette rea*es ! #ajj cubic c5timet]s m>k4 ,! cock ,g is !n turn$ s z to close ! air op5+ & all[ gas to be drawn ?r\gh ,h1 ! bottle ,f be+ l[]$ = ?is purpose4 ,! gas is drawn into ! burette to a po9t bel[ ! z]o m>k1 ! cock ,g !n be+ op5$ to ! air & ! excess gas expell$ until ! level ( ! wat] 9 ,f & 9 ,a are at ! z]o m>k4 ,?is op]ation is necess>y 9 ord] to obta9 ! z]o read+ at atmosph]ic pressure4 ,! app>atus %\ld be c>efully te/$ = leakage z well z all connections lead+ !reto4 ,simple te/s c be made2 = example3 ,if aft] ! cock ,g is clos$1 ! bottle ,f is plac$ on top ( ! frame = a %ort "t & aga9 br\ght to ! z]o m>k1 ! level ( ! wat] 9 ,a is above ! z]o m>k1 a leak is indicat$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bb4 ,orsat ,app>atus ,be=e tak+ a f9al sample = analysis1 ! burette ,a %\ld be fill$ ) gas & empti$ once or twice1 to make sure t all ! app>atus is fill$ ) ! new gas4 ,! cock ,g is !n clos$ & ! cock ,i 9 ! pipette ,b is op5$ & ! gas driv5 ov] into ,b by rais+ ! bottle ,f4 ,! gas is drawn back into ,a by l[]+ ,f & :5 ! solution 9 ,b has rea*$ ! m>k 9 ! capill>y tube1 ! cock ,i is clos$ & a read+ is tak5 on ! burette1 ! level ( ! wat] 9 ! bottle ,f be+ br\ght to ! same level z ! wat] 9 ,a4 ,! op]ation is repeat$ until a con/ant read+ is obta9$1 ! numb] ( cubic c5timet]s be+ ! p]c5tage ( ,,co#b 9 ! flue gases4 ,! gas is !n driv5 ov] into ! pipette ,c & a simil> op]ation is c>ri$ out4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! result+ read+ & ! fir/ read+ gives ! p]c5tage ( oxyg5 9 ! flue gases4 ,! next op]ation is to drive ! gas into ! pipette ,d1 ! gas be+ giv5 a f9al wa% 9 ,e1 & !n pass$ into ! pipette ,c to neutralize any hydro*loric acid fumes :i* may h be5 giv5 (f by ! cupr\s *loride solution1 :i*1 especially if x be old1 may give (f su* fumes1 ?us increas+ ! volume ( ! gases & mak+ ! read+ on ! burette less ?an ! true am\nt4 ,! process mu/ be c>ri$ out 9 ! ord] nam$1 z ! pyrogallol solution w also absorb c>bon dioxide1 :ile ! cupr\s *loride solution w also absorb oxyg54 ,z ! pressure ( ! gases 9 ! flue is less ?an ! atmosph]ic pressure1 !y w n ( !mselves fl[ ?r\gh ! pipe connect+ ! flue to ! app>atus4 ,! gas may be drawn into ! pipe 9 ! way already describ$ = fill+ ! app>atus1 b ?is is a t$i\s me?od4 ,= rapid "w a rubb] bulb aspirator connect$ to ! air outlet ( ! cock ,g w enable a new supply ( gas to be drawn into ! pipe1 ! app>atus !n be+ fill$ z already describ$4 ,ano!r =m ( aspirator draws ! gas f ! flue 9 a con/ant /ream1 ?us insur+ a fre% supply = ea* sample4 ,! analysis made by ! ,orsat app>atus is volumetric2 if ! analysis by weight is requir$1 x c be f\nd f ! volumetric analysis z foll[s3 ,multiply ! p]c5tages by volume by ei!r ! d5sities or ! molecul> weight ( ea* gas1 & divide ! products by ! sum ( all ! products2 ! quoti5ts w be ! p]c5tages by weight4 ,= mo/ "w suffici5t accuracy is secur$ by us+ ! ev5 values ( ! molecul> weights4 ,! ev5 values ( ! molecul> weights ( ! gases appe>+ 9 an analysis by an ,orsat are3 ,c>bon ,dioxide #dd ,c>bon ,monoxide #bh ,oxyg5 #cb ,nitrog5 #bh ,table #cc indicates ! me?od ( conv]t+ a volumetric flue gas analysis into an analysis by weight4 ,,table #cc ,,conv]sion ,,( ,a ,,flue ,,gas ,,analysis ,,by ,,volume ,,to ,,"o ,,by ,,weight ,column ,head+s3 ,a3 ,analysis by ,volume ,p] ,c5t ,b3 ,molecul> ,weight ,c3 ,volume times ,molecul> ,weight ,d3 ,analysis by ,weight ,p] ,c5t ,gas ,a ,b ,c ,d #ecf4h ,c>bon ,dioxide ,,co#b #ab4b #ab7baf7 #ecf4h ------ #ag4g #cjbb4h #aa4b ,c>bon ,monoxide ,,co 4#d #abaf #aa4b ------ 4#d #cjbb4h #bbj4h ,oxyg5 ,o #f4i #baf #bbj4h ------ #g4c #cjbb4h #bbed4j ,nitrog5 ,n #hj4e #bad #bbed4j ------ #gd4f #cjbb4h ,total #ajj4j #cjbb4h #ajj4j ,application ( ,=mulae & ,rules--,pocahontas coal is burn$ 9 ! furnace1 a p>tial ultimate analysis be+3 ,p] ,c5t ,c>bon #hb4a ,hydrog5 #d4be ,oxyg5 #b4f ,sulphur #a4f ,a% #f4j ,b4 t4 u41 p] p\nd dry #adejj ,! flue gas analysis %[s3 ,p] ,c5t ,,co#b #aj4g ,o #i4j ,,co #j4j ,n 7by diff]5ce7 #hj4c ,det]m9e3 ,! flue gas analysis by weight 7see ,table #cc71 ! am\nt ( air requir$ = p]fect combu/ion1 ! actual weight ( air p] p\nd ( fuel1 ! weight ( flue gas p] p\nd ( coal1 ! heat lo/ 9 ! *imney gases if ! temp]ature ( ^! is #ejj degrees ,fahr5heit1 & ! ratio ( ! air suppli$ to t !oretically requir$4 ,solution3 ,! !oretical weight ( air requir$ = p]fect combu/ion1 p] p\nd ( fuel1 f =mula 7#aa7 w be1 74#hba 4#jbf 4#jaf7 ,w #cd4ef 7---- 74#jdbe - ----7 ----7 #aj4hh p\nds4 7 #c #h #h 7 ,if ! am\nt ( c>bon :i* is burn$ & passes away z flue gas is #hj p] c5t1 :i* w\ld all[ = #b4a p] c5t ( unburn$ c>bon 9 t]ms ( ! total weight ( dry fuel burn$1 ! weight ( dry gas p] p\nd ( c>bon burn$ w be f =mula 7#af73 #aa #aj4g #h #i4j #g7j #hj4c7 ,w --------------------------------- #bc4db p\nds #c7aj4g #j7 & ! weight ( flue gas p] p\nd ( coal burn$ w be 4#hj #bc4db #ah4gd p\nds4 ,! heat lo/ 9 ! flue gases p] p\nd ( coal burn$ w be f =mula 7#ae7 & ! value #ah4gd j det]m9$4 ,loss 4#bd #ah4gd 7#ejj - #fj7 #aigi ,b4 t4 u4 ,! p]c5tage ( heat lo/ 9 ! flue gases w be #aigi #adejj #ac4f p] c5t4 ,! ratio ( air suppli$ p] p\nd ( coal to t !oretically requir$ w be #ah4gd #aj4hh #a4gb p] c5t4 ,! ratio ( air suppli$ p] p\nd ( combu/ible to t requir$ w be f =mula 7#ad73 4#hjc ------------------------- #a4gc 4#hjc - #c4ghb74ji - #j7 ,! ratio bas$ on combu/ible w be great] ?an ! ratio bas$ on fuel if !re is unconsum$ c>bon 9 ! a%4 ,unreliability ( ,,co#b ,read+s ,tak5 ,alone--,x is g5]ally assum$ t high ,,co#b read+s are indicative ( good combu/ion & h5ce ( high effici5cy4 ,?is is true only 9 ! s5se t su* high read+s d indicate ! small am\nt ( excess air t usually accompanies good combu/ion1 & = ?is reason high ,,co#b read+s alone are n consid]$ entirely reliable4 ,:]ev] an automatic ,,co#b record] is us$1 x %\ld be *eck$ f "t to "t & ! analysis c>ri$ fur!r ) a view to asc]ta9+ :e!r !re is ,,co pres5t4 ,z ! p]c5tage ( ,,co#b 9 ^! gases increases1 !re is a t5d5cy t[>d ! pres5ce ( ,,co1 :i*1 ( c\rse1 _c be %[n by a ,,co#b record]1 & :i* is (t5 difficult to detect ) an ,orsat app>atus4 ,! greate/ c>e %\ld be tak5 9 prep>+ ! cupr\s *loride solution 9 mak+ analyses & x mu/ be kn[n to be fre% & capable ( absorb+ ,,co4 ,9 "o in/ance t came to our att5tion1 9 us+ an ,orsat app>atus :]e ! cupr\s *loride solution 0 believ$ to be fre%1 no ,,co 0 indicat$ 9 ! flue gases b on pass+ ! same sample into a ,hempel app>atus1 a consid]able p]c5tage 0 f\nd4 ,x is n safe1 !re=e1 to assume )\t "q f a high ,,co#b read+ t ! combu/ion is correspond+ly good1 & ! "q ( excess air alone %\ld be di/+ui%$ f t ( good combu/ion4 ,! effect ( a small quantity ( ,,co1 say "o p] c5t1 pres5t 9 ! flue gases w h a negligible influ5ce on ! quantity ( excess air1 b ! pres5ce ( su* an am\nt w\ld mean a loss due to ! incomplete combu/ion ( ! c>bon 9 ! fuel ( possibly #d4e p] c5t ( ! total heat 9 ! fuel burn$4 ,:5 ?is is consid]$1 ! importance ( a complete flue gas analysis is app>5t4 ,table #cd gives ! d5sities ( v>i\s gases toge!r ) o!r data t w be ( s]vice 9 gas analysis "w4 ,,table #cd ,,d5sity ,,( ,,gases ,,at #cb ,,degrees ,,fahr5heit ,,& ,,atmosph]ic ,,pressure ,,adapt$ ,,f ,,smi?sonian ,,tables ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,relative ,weight ,d5sity1 ( ,volume ,hydrog5 #a ,specific,"o ,cubic ( -------------- ,gas ,*emical ,gravity ,foot ,"o ,p\nd ,approx- ,symbol ,air#a ,p\nds ,cubic ,feet ,exact imate ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,oxyg5 ,o #a4jec 4#jhibb #aa4bjh #ae4hg #af ,nitrog5 ,n #j4ifgc 4#jghbi #ab4ggc #ac4ib #ad ,hydrog5 ,h #j4jfif 4#jjefba #agg4ij #a4jj #a ,c>bon ,dioxide ,,co#b #a4ebia 4#abbfi #h4aea #ba4hc #bb ,c>bon ,monoxide ,,co #j4ifgb 4#jghjg #ab4hji #ac4hi #ad ,me?ane ,,*#d #j4eegf 4#jddgj #bb4cga #g4ie #h ,e?ane ,c#b;,h#f #a4jge 4#jhcgi #aa4ice #ad4ia #ae ,acetyl5e ,c#b;,h#b #j4ibj 4#jgbed #ac4ghe #ab4ia #ac ,sulphur ,dioxide ,,s#b #b4bfci 4#aghfb #e4eih #ca4if #cb ,air 444 #a4jjjj 4#jhjga #ab4cij 444 444 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,illu/ration3 #aidb ,horse-p[] ,in/allation ( ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil]s & ,sup]heat]s 9 ! ,s+] ,build+1 ,new ,york ,city ,,classification ,,( ,,fuels 7,,) ,,p>ticul> ,,ref]5ce ,,to ,,coal7 ,fuels = /eam boil]s may be classifi$ z solid1 liquid or gase\s4 ,( ! solid fuels1 an?racite & bitum9\s coals are ! mo/ common1 b 9 ?is class mu/ also be includ$ lignite1 peat1 wood1 bagasse & ! refuse f c]ta9 indu/rial processes su* z sawdu/1 %av+s1 tan b>k & ! l4 ,/raw1 corn & c(fee husks are utiliz$ 9 isolat$ cases4 ,! class ( liquid fuels is repres5t$ *iefly by petroleum1 ?\gh coal t> & wat]-gas t> are us$ to a limit$ ext5t4 ,gase\s fuels are limit$ to natural gas1 bla/ furnace gas & coke ov5 gas1 ! fir/ be+ a natural product & ! two latt] by-products f indu/rial processes4 ,?\gh wa/e gases f c]ta9 processes may be consid]$ z gase\s fuels1 inasmu* z ! "q ( combu/ion does n ent]1 ! me?ods ( utiliz+ !m diff] f t = combu/ible gase\s fuel1 & ! "q w be dealt ) sep>ately4 ,s9ce coal is by f> ! mo/ g5]ally us$ ( all fuels1 ?is *apt] w be devot$ entirely to ! =mation1 composition & di/ribution ( ! v>i\s grades1 f an?racite to peat4 ,! o!r fuels w be discuss$ 9 succe$+ *apt]s & _! combu/ion dealt ) 9 connection ) _! composition4 ,=mation ( ,coal--,all coals are ( vegetable orig9 & are ! rema9s ( prehi/oric =e/s4 ,de/ructive di/illation due to great pressures & temp]atures1 has resolv$ ! organic matt] into its inv>iable ultimate con/itu5ts1 c>bon1 hydrog51 oxyg5 & o!r sub/ances1 9 v>y+ proportions4 ,! factors ( "t1 dep? ( b$s1 di/urbance ( b$s & ! intrusion ( m9]al matt] result+ f su* di/urbances h produc$ ! v>iation 9 ! degree ( evolution f vegetable fib] to h>d coal4 ,?is v>iation is %[n *iefly 9 ! cont5t ( c>bon1 & ,table #ce %[s ! /eps ( su* v>iation4 ,,table #ce ,,approximate ,,*emical ,,*anges ,,f ,,wood ,,fib] ,,to ,,an?racite ,,coal ---------------------------------------- ---- ,sub/ance ,c>bon ,hydrog5,oxyg5 ---------------------------------------- ---- ,wood ,fib] #eb4fe #e4be #db4aj ,peat #ei4eg #e4if #cd4dg ,lignite #ff4jd #e4bg #bh4fi ,e>?y ,br[n ,coal #gc4ah #e4fh #ba4ad ,bitum9\s ,coal #ge4jf #e4hd #ai4aj ,semi-bitum9\s ,coal #hi4bi #e4je #e4ff ,an?racite ,coal #ia4eh #c4if #d4df ---------------------------------------- ---- ,composition ( ,coal--,! uncomb9$ c>bon 9 coal is kn[n z fix$ c>bon4 ,"s ( ! c>bon con/itu5t is comb9$ ) hydrog5 & ?is1 toge!r ) o!r gase\s sub/ances driv5 (f by ! application ( heat1 =m t portion ( ! coal kn[n z volatile matt]4 ,! fix$ c>bon & ! volatile matt] con/itute ! combu/ible4 ,! oxyg5 & nitrog5 conta9$ 9 ! volatile matt] are n combu/ible1 b cu/om has appli$ ?is t]m to t portion ( ! coal :i* is dry & free f a%1 ?us includ+ ! oxyg5 & nitrog54 ,! o!r important sub/ances ent]+ into ! composition ( coal are moi/ure & ! refractory e>?s :i* =m ! a%4 ,! a% v>ies 9 diff]5t coals f #c to #cj p] c5t & ! moi/ure f #j4ge to #de p] c5t ( ! total weight ( ! coal1 dep5d+ ^u ! grade & ! locality 9 :i* x is m9$4 ,a l>ge p]c5tage ( a% is undesirable z x n only r$uces ! calorific value ( ! fuel1 b *okes up ! air passages 9 ! furnace & ?r\gh ! fuel b$1 ?us prev5t+ ! rapid combu/ion necess>y to high effici5cy4 ,if ! coal conta9s an excessive quantity ( sulphur1 tr\ble w result f its h>mful action on ! metal ( ! boil] :]e moi/ure is pres5t1 & because x unites ) ! a% to =m a fusible slag or cl9k] :i* w *oke up ! grate b>s & =m a solid mass 9 :i* l>ge quantities ( unconsum$ c>bon may be imb$d$4 ,moi/ure 9 coal may be m detrim5tal ?an a% 9 r$uc+ ! temp]ature ( a furnace1 z x is non-combu/ible1 absorbs heat bo? 9 be+ evaporat$ & sup]heat$ to ! temp]ature ( ! furnace gases4 ,9 "s in/ances1 h[ev]1 a c]ta9 am\nt ( moi/ure 9 a bitum9\s coal produces a me*anical action t assi/s 9 ! combu/ion & makes x possible to develop high] capacities ?an ) dry coal4 ,classification ( ,coal--,cu/om has classifi$ coals 9 accordance ) ! v>y+ cont5t ( c>bon & volatile matt] 9 ! combu/ible4 ,table #cf gives ! approximate p]c5tages ( ^! con/itu5ts = ! g5]al classes ( coals ) ! correspond+ heat values p] p\nd ( combu/ible4 ,,table #cf ,,approximate ,,composition ,,& ,,calorific ,,value ,,( ,,g5]al ,,grades ,,( ,,coal ,,on ,,basis ,,( ,,combu/ible ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,k9d ( ,coal ,p] ,c5t ( ,combu/ible ,b4 t4 u4 --------------------------- ,p] ,p\nd ( ,fix$ ,c>bon,volatile ,matt] ,combu/ible ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,an?racite #ig4j to #ib4e #c4j to #g4e #adfjj to #adhjj ,semi-an?racite #ib4e to #hg4e #g4e to #ab4e #adgjj to #aeejj ,semi-bitum9\s #hg4e to #ge4j #ab4e to #be4j #aeejj to #afjjj ,bitum9\s--,ea/]n#ge4j to #fj4j #be4j to #dj4j #adhjj to #aecjj ,bitum9\s--,we/]n#fe4j to #ej4j #ce4j to #ej4j #acejj to #adhjj ,lignite ,"u #ej ,ov] #ej #aajjj to #acejj ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,an?racite--,! "n an?racite1 or h>d coal1 is appli$ to ^? dry coals conta9+ f #c to #g p] c5t volatile matt] & :i* d n swell :5 burn$4 ,true an?racite is h>d1 compact1 lu/r\s & sometimes iridesc5t1 & is *>act]iz$ by few jo9ts & clefts4 ,its specific gravity v>ies f #a4d to #a4h4 ,9 burn+1 x k9dles sl[ly & ) difficulty1 is h>d to keep alight1 & burns ) a %ort1 almo/ colorless flame1 )\t smoke4 ,semi-an?racite coal has less d5sity1 h>dness & lu/] ?an true an?racite1 & c be di/+ui%$ f x by ! fact t :5 newly fractur$ x w soot ! h&s4 ,its specific gravity is ord9>ily ab\t #a4d4 ,x k9dles q readily & burns m freely ?an ! true an?racites4 ,semi-bitum9\s coal is s(t] ?an an?racite1 conta9s m volatile hydroc>bons1 k9dles m easily & burns m rapidly4 ,x is ord9>ily free burn+1 has a high calorific value & is ( ! highe/ ord] = /eam g5]at+ purposes4 ,bitum9\s coals are /ill s(t] ?an ^? describ$ & conta9 /ill m volatile hydroc>bons4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! semi-bitum9\s & ! bitum9\s coals is an important "o1 economically4 ,! =m] h an av]age heat+ value p] p\nd ( combu/ible ab\t #f p] c5t high] ?an ! latt]1 & !y burn ) mu* less smoke 9 ord9>y furnaces4 ,! di/9ctive *>act]i/ic ( ! bitum9\s coals is ! emission ( yell[ flame & smoke :5 burn+4 ,9 color !y range f pit* black to d>k br[n1 hav+ a res9\s lu/] 9 ! mo/ compact specim5s1 & a silky lu/] 9 su* specim5s z %[ traces ( vegetable fib]4 ,! specific gravity is ord9>ily ab\t #a4c4 ,bitum9\s coals are ei!r ( ! cak+ or non-cak+ class4 ,! =m]1 :5 heat$1 fuse & swell 9 size2 ! latt] burn freely1 d n fuse1 & are commonly kn[n z free burn+ coals4 ,cak+ coals are ri* 9 volatile hydroc>bons & are valuable 9 gas manufacture4 ,bitum9\s coals absorb moi/ure f ! atmosph]e4 ,! surface moi/ure c be remov$ by ord9>y dry+1 b a portion ( ! wat] c be remov$ only by heat+ ! coal to a temp]ature ( ab\t #bej degrees ,fahr5heit4 ,cannel coal is a v>iety ( bitum9\s coal1 ri* 9 hydrog5 & hydroc>bons1 & is exce$+ly valuable z a gas coal4 ,x has a dull res9\s lu/] & burns ) a bright flame )\t fus+4 ,cannel coal is seldom us$ = /eam coal1 ?\gh x is sometimes mix$ ) semi-bitum9\s coal :]e an increas$ economy at high rates ( combu/ion is desir$4 ,! composition ( cannel coal is approximately z foll[s3 fix$ c>bon1 #bf to #ee p] c5t2 volatile matt]1 #db to #fd p] c5t2 e>?y matt]1 #b to #ad p] c5t4 ,its specific gravity is approximately #a4bd4 ,lignite is organic matt] 9 ! e>li] /ages ( its conv]sion into coal1 & includes all v>ieties :i* are int]m$iate betwe5 peat & coal ( ! old] =mation4 ,its specific gravity is l[1 be+ #a4b to #a4bc1 & :5 fre%ly m9$ x may conta9 z high z #ej p] c5t ( moi/ure4 ,its appe>ance v>ies f a light br[n1 %[+ a di/9ctly woody /ructure1 9 ! poor] v>ieties1 to a black1 ) a pit*y lu/] resembl+ h>d coal1 9 ! be/ v>ieties4 ,x is non-cak+ & burns ) a bright b slightly smoky flame ) mod]ate heat4 ,x is easily brok51 w n /& mu* h&l+ 9 transportation1 & if expos$ to ! wea!r w rapidly dis9tegrate1 :i* w increase ! difficulty ( burn+ x4 ,its composition v>ies ov] wide limits4 ,! a% may run z l[ z "o p] c5t & z high z #ej p] c5t4 ,its high cont5t ( moi/ure & ! l>ge quantity ( air necess>y = its combu/ion cause l>ge /ack losses4 ,x is di/9ctly a l[-grade fuel & is us$ almo/ entirely 9 ! di/ricts :]e m9$1 due to its *eapness4 ,peat is organic matt] 9 ! fir/ /ages ( its conv]sion into coal & is f\nd 9 bogs & simil> places4 ,its moi/ure cont5t :5 cut is extremely high1 av]ag+ #ge or #hj p] c5t4 ,x is unsuitable = fuel until dri$ & ev5 !n w conta9 z mu* z #cj p] c5t moi/ure4 ,its a% cont5t :5 dry v>ies f #c to #ab p] c5t4 ,9 ?is c\ntry1 ?\gh l>ge deposits ( peat h be5 f\nd1 x has n z yet be5 f\nd practicable to utilize x = /eam g5]at+ purposes 9 competition ) coal4 ,9 "s ,european c\ntries1 h[ev]1 ! peat indu/ry is common4 ,di/ribution--,! an?racite coals are1 ) "s unimportant exceptions1 conf9$ to five small fields 9 ,ea/]n ,p5nsylvania1 z %[n 9 ! foll[+ li/4 ,^! fields are giv5 9 ! ord] ( _! h>dness4 ,lehigh or ,ea/]n ,middle ,field ,gre5 ,m\nta9 ,di/rict ,black ,creek ,di/rict ,hazelton ,di/rict ,beav] ,mead[ ,di/rict ,pan!r ,creek ,di/rict#cc ,mahanoy or ,we/]n ,field#cd ,ea/ ,mahanoy ,di/rict ,we/ ,mahanoy ,di/rict ,wyom+ or ,nor!rn ,field ,c>bondale ,di/rict ,scranton ,di/rict ,pitt/on ,di/rict ,wilkesb>re ,di/rict ,plym\? ,di/rict ,s*uylkill or ,s\!rn ,field ,ea/ ,s*uylkill ,di/rict ,we/ ,s*uylkill ,di/rict ,l\b]ry ,di/rict ,lyk5s ,valley or ,s\?we/]n ,field ,lyk5s ,valley ,di/rict ,%amok9 ,di/rict#ce ,an?racite is also f\nd 9 ,pulaski & ,wy! ,c\nties1 ,virg9ia2 along ! bord] ( ,little ,walk] ,m\nta91 & 9 ,gunnison ,c\nty1 ,colorado4 ,! areas 9 ,virg9ia are limit$1 h[ev]1 :ile 9 ,colorado ! quality v>ies greatly 9 neighbor+ b$s & ev5 9 ! same b$4 ,an an?racite b$ 9 ,new ,mexico 0 describ$ 9 #ahgj by ,dr4 ,r4 ,w4 ,raymond1 =m]ly ,unit$ ,/ates ,m9+ ,commission]4 ,semi-an?racite coals are f\nd 9 a few small areas 9 ! we/]n "p ( ! an?racite field4 ,! l>ge/ ( ^! b$s is ! ,b]nice 9 ,sullivan ,c\nty1 ,p5nsylvania4 ,mr4 ,william ,k5t1 9 8 ,/eam ,boil] ,economy1 describes ?is z foll[s3 ,! ,b]nice semi-an?racite coal bas9 lies betwe5 ,bee* ,creek on ! nor? & ,loyalsock ,creek on ! s\?4 ,x is six miles long1 ea/ & we/1 & h>dly a ?ird ( a mile across4 ,an #h-;foot ve9 ( coal lies 9 a b$ ( #ab feet ( coal & slate4 ,! coal ( ?is b$ is ! divid+ l9e betwe5 an?racite & semi-an?racite1 & is simil> to ! coal ( ! ,lyk5s ,valley ,di/rict4 ,m9e analyses give a range z foll[s3 moi/ure1 #j4fe to #a4ig2 volatile matt]1 #c4ef to #i4dj2 fix$ c>bon1 #hb4eb to #hi4ci2 a%1 #c4bg to #i4cd2 sulphur1 #j4bd to #a4jd4 ,semi-bitum9\s coals are f\nd on ! ea/]n edge ( ! great ,appala*ian ,field4 ,/>t+ ) ,tioga & ,brad=d ,c\nties ( nor!rn ,p5nsylvania1 ! b$ runs s\?we/ ?r\gh ,lycom+1 ,cle>field1 ,c5tre1 ,hunt+don1 ,cambria1 ,som]set & ,fulton ,c\nties1 ,p5nsylvania2 ,allegh5y ,c\nty1 ,m>yl&2 ,bu*annan1 ,dick9son1 ,lee1 ,russell1 ,scott1 ,tazewell & ,wise ,c\nties1 ,virg9ia2 ,m]c]1 ,mc,dowell1 ,fayette1 ,raleigh & ,m9]al ,c\nties1 ,we/ ,virg9ia2 & end+ 9 nor!a/]n ,t5nessee1 :]e a small am\nt ( semi-bitum9\s is m9$4 ,! l>ge/ ( ! bitum9\s fields is ! ,appala*ian4 ,beg9n+ ne> ! nor!rn b\nd>y ( ,p5nsylvania1 9 ! we/]n portion ( ! ,/ate1 x ext5ds s\?we/w>d ?r\gh ,we/ ,virg9ia1 t\*+ ,m>yl& & ,virg9ia on _! we/]n bord]s1 pass+ ?r\gh s\!a/]n ,ohio1 ea/]n ,k5tucky & c5tral ,t5nessee1 & end+ 9 we/]n ,alabama1 #ijj miles f its nor!rn extremity4 ,! next bitum9\s coal produc+ region to ! we/ is ! ,nor!rn ,field1 9 nor? c5tral ,mi*igan4 ,/ill fur!r to ! we/1 & second 9 importance to ! ,appala*ian ,field1 is ! ,ea/]n ,int]ior ,field4 ,?is cov]s1 ) ! exception ( ! upp] nor!rn portion1 ne>ly ! entire ,/ate ( ,ill9ois1 s\?we/ ,indiana & ! we/]n portion ( ,k5tucky4 ,! ,we/]n ,field ext5ds ?r\gh c5tral & s\!rn ,i[a1 we/]n ,miss\ri1 s\?we/]n ,kansas1 ea/]n ,oklahoma & ! we/ c5tral portion ( ,arkansas4 ,! ,s\?we/]n ,field is conf9$ entirely to ! nor? c5tral portion ( ,texas1 9 :i* ,/ate !re are also two small isolat$ fields along ! ,rio ,gr&e ,riv]4 ,! rema9+ bitum9\s fields are scatt]$ ?r\gh :at may be t]m$ ! ,rocky ,m\nta9 ,region1 ext5d+ f ,montana to ,new ,orleans4 ,a p>tial li/ ( ^! fields & _! location foll[s3 ,judi? ,bas9 ,c5tral ,montana ,bull ,m\nta9 ,field ,c5tral ,montana ,yell[/one ,region ,s\?we/]n ,montana ,big ,horn ,bas9 ,region ,s\!rn ,montana ,big ,horn ,bas9 ,region ,nor!rn ,wyom+ ,black ,hills ,region ,nor!a/]n ,wyom+ ,hanna ,field ,s\!rn ,wyom+ ,gre5 ,riv] ,region ,s\?we/]n ,wyom+ ,yampa ,field ,nor?we/]n ,colorado ,nor? ,p>k ,field ,nor!rn ,colorado ,d5v] ,region ,nor? ,c5tral ,colorado ,u9ta ,region ,we/]n ,colorado ,u9ta ,region ,ea/]n ,utah ,s\?we/]n ,region ,s\?we/]n ,utah ,raton ,m\nta9 ,region ,s\!rn ,colorado ,raton ,m\nta9 ,region ,nor!rn ,new ,mexico ,san ,juan ,riv] ,region ,nor?we/]n ,new ,mexico ,capitan ,field ,s\!rn ,new ,mexico ,along ! ,pacific ,coa/ a few small fields are scatt]$ 9 we/]n ,cali=nia1 s\?we/]n ,oregon1 we/]n & nor?we/]n ,wa%+ton4 ,mo/ ( ! coals 9 ! above fields are on ! bord] l9e betwe5 bitum9\s & lignite4 ,!y are really a l[ grade ( bitum9\s coal & are kn[n z sub-bitum9\s or black lignites4 ,lignites--,^! resemble ! br[n coals ( ,europe & are f\nd 9 ! we/]n /ates1 ,wyom+1 ,new ,mexico1 ,arizona1 ,utah1 ,montana1 ,nor? ,dakota1 ,nevada1 ,cali=nia1 ,oregon & ,wa%+ton4 ,_m ( ! fields giv5 z ^? conta9+ bitum9\s coals 9 ! we/]n /ates also conta9 true lignite4 ,lignite is also f\nd 9 ! ea/]n "p ( ,texas & 9 ,oklahoma4 ,alaska ,coals--,coal has be5 f\nd 9 ,alaska & und\bt$ly is ( great value1 ?\gh ! ext5t & "* ( ! fields h probably be5 exagg]at$4 ,great quantities ( lignite are kn[n to exi/1 & 9 quality ! coal ranges 9 "* f lignite to an?racite4 ,!re are at pres5t1 h[ev]1 only two fields ( high-grade coals kn[n1 ^! be+ ! ,b]+ ,riv] ,field1 ne> ,controll]s ,bay1 & ! ,matanuska ,field1 at ! head ( ,cooks ,inlet4 ,bo? ( ^! fields are kn[n to conta9 bo? an?racite & high-grade bitum9\s coals1 ?\gh z yet !y _c be said to h be5 op5$ up4 ,wea!r+ ( ,coal--,! /orage ( coal has become )9 ! la/ few ye>s to a c]ta9 ext5t a necessity due to m>ket conditions1 dang] ( labor difficulties at ! m9es & 9 ! railroads1 & ! cr[d+ ( transportation facilities4 ,! fir/ cause is probably ! mo/ important1 & ?is is p>ticul>ly true ( an?racite coals :]e a slid+ scale ( prices is us$ accord+ to ! season ( ! ye>4 ,:ile m>ket conditions s]ve z "o ( ! pr9cipal reasons = coal /orage1 mo/ p[] plants & manufactur+ plants feel compell$ to protect _! coal supply f ! dang] ( /rikes1 c> %ortages & ! l1 & x is cu/om>y = l>ge p[] plants1 railroads & coal companies !mselves1 to /ore bitum9\s coal4 ,naval coal+ /ations are also an example ( :at is done along ^! l9es4 ,an?racite is ! ne>e/ approa* to ! ideal coal = /or+4 ,x is n subject to spontane\s ignition1 & = ?is reason is unlimit$ 9 ! am\nt t may be /or$ 9 "o pile4 ,) bitum9\s coals1 h[ev]1 ! case is diff]5t4 ,mo/ bitum9\s coals w ignite if plac$ 9 l>ge en\gh piles & all suff] m or less f dis9tegration4 ,coal produc]s only /ore su* coals z are lea/ liable to ignite1 & :i* w /& reh&l+ = %ipm5t4 ,! *anges :i* take place 9 /or$ coal are ( two k9ds3 #a/1 ! oxidization ( ! inorganic matt] su* z pyrites2 & #bnd1 ! direct oxidization ( ! organic matt] ( ! actual coal4 ,! fir/ *ange w result 9 an increas$ volume ( ! coal1 & sometimes 9 an increas$ weight1 & a m>k$ dis9tegration4 ,! *anges due to direct oxidization ( ! coal sub/ances usually _c be detect$ by ! eye1 b z !y involve ! oxidization ( ! c>bon & available hydrog5 & ! absorption ( ! oxyg5 by unsaturat$ hydroc>bons1 !y are ! *ief cause ( ! wea!r+ losses 9 heat value4 ,num]\s exp]im5ts h l$ to ! conclusion t ?is is also ! cause = spontane\s combu/ion4 ,exp]im5ts to %[ loss 9 calorific heat values due to wea!r+ indicate t su* loss may be z high z #aj p] c5t :5 ! coal is /or$ 9 ! air1 & #h4ge p] c5t :5 /or$ "u wat]4 ,x w\ld appe> t ! high] ! volatile cont5t ( ! coal1 ! great] w be ! loss 9 calorific value & ! m subject to spontane\s ignition4 ,"s exp]im5ts made by ,messrs4 ,s4 ,w4 ,p>r & ,w4 ,f4 ,:eel]1 publi%$ 9 #aiji by ! ,exp]im5t ,/ation ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,ill9ois1 indicate t coals ( ! nature f\nd 9 ,ill9ois & neighbor+ /ates are n affect$ s]i\sly dur+ /orage f ! /&po9t ( weight & heat+ value1 ! latt] loss av]ag+ ab\t #c p] c5t = ! fir/ ye> ( /orage4 ,!y f\nd t ! losses due to dis9tegration & to spontane\s ignition 7 ( great] importance4 ,_! conclusions agree ) ^? d$uc$ f ! o!r exp]im5ts1 viz41 t ! /or+ ( a l>g] size coal ?an t :i* is to be us$1 w ov]come to a c]ta9 ext5t ! objection to dis9tegration1 & t ! l>g] sizes1 besides be+ advantage\s 9 respect to dis9tegration1 are less liable to spontane\s ignition4 ,/orage "u wat] w1 ( c\rse1 entirely prev5t any fire loss &1 to a great ext5t1 w /op dis9tegration & r$uce ! calorific losses to a m9imum4 ,to m9imize ! dang] ( spontane\s ignition 9 /or+ coal1 ! piles %\ld be ?or\ghly v5tilat$4 ,pulv]iz$ ,fuels--,consid]able exp]im5tal "w has be5 done ) pulv]iz$ coal1 utiliz+ ei!r coal du/ or pulv]iz+ su* coal z is too small to be burn$ 9 o!r ways4 ,if satisfactorily f$ to ! furnace1 x w\ld appe> to h sev]al advantages4 ,! du/ burn$ 9 susp5sion w\ld be m completely consum$ ?an is ! case ) ! solid coals1 ! production ( smoke w\ld be m9imiz$1 & ! process w\ld admit ( an adju/m5t ( ! air supply to a po9t v close to ! am\nt !oretically requir$4 ,?is is due to ! fact t 9 burn+ !re is an intimate mixture ( ! air & fuel4 ,! pr9cipal objections h be5 9 ! inability to introduce ! pulv]iz$ fuel into ! furnace uni=mly1 ! difficulty ( r$uc+ ! fuel to ! same degree ( f95ess1 liability ( explosion 9 ! furnace due to improp] mixture ) ! air1 & ! decreas$ capacity & effici5cy result+ f ! difficulty ( keep+ tube surfaces clean4 ,press$ ,fuels--,9 ?is class are ^? compos$ ( ! du/ ( "s suitable combu/ible1 press$ & cem5t$ toge!r by a sub/ance possess+ b9d+ & 9 mo/ cases inflammable prop]ties4 ,su* fuels1 kn[n z briquettes1 are ext5sively us$ 9 =eign c\ntries & consi/ ( c>bon or s(t coal1 too small to be burn$ 9 ! ord9>y way1 mix$ usually ) pit* or coal t>4 ,mu* exp]im5t+ has be5 done 9 ?is c\ntry 9 briquett+ fuels1 ! gov]nm5t hav+ tak5 an active int]e/ 9 ! "q1 b z yet ?is class ( fuel has n come into common use z ! co/ & difficulty ( manufacture & h&l+ h made x impossible to place x 9 ! m>ket at a price to successfully compete ) coal4 ,coke is a por\s product consi/+ almo/ entirely ( c>bon rema9+ aft] c]ta9 manufactur+ processes h di/ill$ (f ! hydroc>bon gases ( ! fuel us$4 ,x is produc$1 fir/1 f gas coal di/ill$ 9 gas retorts2 second1 f gas or ord9>y bitum9\s coals burn$ 9 special furnaces call$ coke ov5s2 & ?ird1 f petroleum by c>ry+ ! di/illation ( ! residuum to a r$ heat4 ,coke is a smokeless fuel4 ,x readily absorbs moi/ure f ! atmosph]e & if n kept "u cov] its moi/ure cont5t may be z mu* z #bj p] c5t ( its own weight4 ,gas-h\se coke is g5]ally s(t] & m por\s ?an ov5 coke1 ignites m readily1 & requires less draft = its combu/ion4 ,illu/ration3 #af1jjj ,horse-p[] ,in/allation ( ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil]s & ,sup]heat]s at ! ,brunot's ,isl& ,plant ( ! ,duquesne ,light ,co41 ,pittsburgh1 ,pa4 ,,! ,,det]m9ation ,,( ,,heat+ ,,values ,,( ,,fuels ,! heat+ value ( a fuel may be det]m9$ ei!r by a calculation f a *emical analysis or by burn+ a sample 9 a calorimet]4 ,9 ! =m] me?od ! calculation %\ld be bas$ on an ultimate analysis1 :i* r$uces ! fuel to its elem5t>y con/itu5ts ( c>bon1 hydrog51 oxyg51 nitrog51 sulphur1 a% & moi/ure1 to secure a reasonable degree ( accuracy4 ,a proximate analysis1 :i* det]m9es only ! p]c5tage ( moi/ure1 fix$ c>bon1 volatile matt] & a%1 )\t det]m9+ ! ultimate composition ( ! volatile matt]1 _c be us$ = comput+ ! heat ( combu/ion ) ! same degree ( accuracy z an ultimate analysis1 b e/imates may be bas$ on ! ultimate analysis t are fairly correct4 ,an ultimate analysis requires ! s]vices ( a compet5t *emi/1 & ! me?ods to be employ$ 9 su* a det]m9ation w be f\nd 9 any /&>d book on eng9e]+ *emi/ry4 ,an ultimate analysis1 :ile resolv+ ! fuel into its elem5t>y con/itu5ts1 does n reveal h[ ^! may h be5 comb9$ 9 ! fuel4 ,! mann] ( _! comb9ation und\bt$ly has a direct effect ^u _! calorific value1 z fuels hav+ almo/ id5tical ultimate analyses %[ a diff]5ce 9 heat+ value :5 te/$ 9 a calorimet]4 ,su* a diff]5ce1 h[ev]1 is slight1 & v close approximations may be comput$ f ! ultimate analysis4 ,ultimate analyses are giv5 on bo? a moi/ & a dry fuel basis4 ,inasmu* z ! latt] is ! basis g5]ally accept$ = ! comp>ison ( data1 x w\ld appe> t x is ! be/ basis on :i* to report su* an analysis4 ,:5 an analysis is giv5 on a moi/ fuel basis x may be readily conv]t$ to a dry basis by divid+ ! p]c5tages ( ! v>i\s con/itu5ts by "o m9us ! p]c5tage ( moi/ure1 report+ ! moi/ure cont5t sep>ately4 ,moi/ ,fuel ,dry ,fuel ,c #hc4ie #hd4de ,h #d4bc #d4be ,o #c4jb #c4jd ,n #a4bg #a4bh ,s 4#ia 4#ia ,a% #f4jc #f4jg ------ #ajj4jj ,moi/ure 4#ei 4#ei ------ #ajj4jj ,calculations f an ,ultimate ,analysis--,! fir/ =mula = ! calculation ( heat+ values f ! composition ( a fuel z det]m9$ f an ultimate analysis is due to ,dulong1 & ?is =mula1 slightly modifi$1 is ! mo/ commonly us$ to-day4 ,o!r =mulae h be5 propos$1 "s ( :i* are m accurate = c]ta9 specific classes ( fuel1 b all h _! basis 9 ,dulong's =mula1 ! accept$ modifi$ =m ( :i* is3 ,heat units 9 ,b4 t4 u4 p] p\nd ( dry fuel ,o #ad1fjj ,c #fb1jjj7;,h - -7 #djjj ,s 7#ah7 #h :]e ,c1 ,h1 ,o & ,s are ! proportionate p>ts by weight ( c>bon1 hydrog51 oxyg5 & sulphur4 ,assume a coal ( ! composition giv54 ,sub/itut+ 9 ?is =mula 7#ah71 ,heat+ value p] p\nd ( dry coal 7 4#jcjd7 #ad1fjj 4#hdde #fb1jjj 74#jdbe - -----7 #djjj 4#jjia #ad1gfe ,b4 t4 u4 7 #h 7 ,?is coal1 by a calorimetric te/1 %[$ #ad1hdc ,b4 t4 u41 & f a comp>ison ! degree ( accuracy ( ! =mula w be not$4 ,! inve/igation ( ,"l & ,haas 9 ?is c\ntry1 ,mabl] 9 ,france1 & ,bunte 9 ,g]many1 all %[ t ,dulong's =mula gives results ne>ly id5tical ) ^? obta9$ f calorimetric te/s & may be safely appli$ to all solid fuels except cannel coal1 lignite1 turf & wood1 provid$ ! ultimate analysis is correct4 ,?is practically limits its use to coal4 ,! limit+ features are ! pres5ce ( hydrog5 & c>bon unit$ 9 ! =m ( hydroc>bons4 ,su* hydroc>bons are pres5t 9 coals 9 small quantities1 b !y h positive & negative heats ( comb9ation1 & 9 coals ^! appe> to (fset ea* o!r1 c]ta9ly suffici5tly to apply ! =mula to su* fuels4 ,high & ,l[ ,heat ,value ( ,fuels--,9 any fuel conta9+ hydrog5 ! calorific value z f\nd by ! calorimet] is high] ?an t obta9able "u mo/ work+ conditions 9 boil] practice by an am\nt equal to ! lat5t heat ( ! volatilization ( wat]4 ,?is heat w\ld reappe> :5 ! vapor 0 cond5s$1 ?\gh 9 ord9>y practice ! vapor passes away uncond5s$4 ,?is fact gives rise to a di/9ction 9 heat values into ! s-call$ high] & l[] calorific values4 ,! high] value1 i4 e41 ! "o det]m9$ by ! calorimet]1 is ! only sci5tific unit1 is ! value :i* %\ld be us$ 9 boil] te/+ "w1 & is ! "o recomm5d$ by ! ,am]ican ,society ( ,me*anical ,eng9e]s4 ,!re is no absolute measure ( ! l[] heat ( combu/ion1 & 9 view ( ! wide diff]5ce 9 op9ion among physici/s z to ! d$uctions to be made f ! high] or absolute unit 9 ?is det]m9ation1 ! l[] value mu/ be consid]$ an artificial unit4 ,! l[] value entails ! use ( an ultimate analysis & involves assumptions t w\ld make ! employm5t ( su* a unit impracticable = comm]cial "w4 ,! use ( ! l[ value may also lead to error & is 9 no way to be recomm5d$ = boil] practice4 ,an example ( its illogical use may be %[n by ! consid]ation ( a boil] op]at$ 9 connection ) a special economiz] :]e ! vapor produc$ by hydrog5 is p>tially cond5s$ by ! economiz]4 ,if ! l[ value 7 us$ 9 comput+ ! boil] effici5cy1 x is obvi\s t ! total effici5cy ( ! comb9$ boil] & economiz] mu/ be 9 error ?r\gh cr$it+ ! comb9ation ) ! heat imp>t$ 9 cond5s+ ! vapor & n *>g+ su* heat to ! heat value ( ! coal4 ,heat+ ,value ( ,gase\s ,fuels--,! me?od ( comput+ calorific values f an ultimate analysis is p>ticul>ly adapt$ to solid fuels1 ) ! exceptions already not$4 ,! heat+ value ( gase\s fuels may be calculat$ by ,dulong's =mula provid$ ano!r t]m is add$ to provide = any c>bon monoxide pres5t4 ,su* a me?od1 h[ev]1 involves ! sep>at+ ( ! con/itu5t gases into _! elem5t>y gases1 :i* is (t5times difficult & liable to simple ari?metical error4 ,z ! combu/ible portion ( gase\s fuels is ord9>ily compos$ ( hydrog51 c>bon monoxide & c]ta9 hydroc>bons1 a det]m9ation ( ! calorific value is mu* m readily obta9$ by a sep>ation into _! con/itu5t gases & a computation ( ! calorific value f a table ( su* values ( ! con/itu5ts4 ,table #cg gives ! calorific value ( ! m common combu/ible gases1 toge!r ) ! !oretical am\nt ( air requir$ = _! combu/ion4 ,,table #cg ,,weight ,,& ,,calorific ,,value ,,( ,,v>i\s ,,gases ,,at #cb ,,degrees ,,fahr5heit ,,& ,,atmosph]ic ,,pressure ,,) ,,!oretical ,,am\nt ,,( ,,air ,,requir$ ,,= ,,combu/ion ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,gas ,symbol ,cubic ,b4t4u,b4t4u4,cubic ,feet,cubic ,feet ,feet p] p] ( ,air ( ,air ( ,gas,p\nd,cubic ,requir$ ,requir$ p] ,foot p] ,p\nd ,p] ,cubic ,p\nd ( ,gas ,foot ( ,gas ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,hydrog5 ,h #agg4ijfbjjj #cdi #dbh4be #b4da ,c>bon ,monoxide ,,co #ab4ha #ddej #cdg #cj4fj #b4ci ,me?ane ,,*#d #bb4cgbceej #ajec #bad4jj #i4eg ,acetyl5e ,c#b;,h#b #ac4gibadfe #aeef #afd4hg #aa4ic ,olefiant ,gas ,c#b;,h#d #ab4hjbaddj #afge #ahc4fj #ad4cc ,e?ane ,c#b;,h#f #aa4idbbbcj #ahfb #aii4hh #af4gd ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,9 apply+ ?is table1 z gas analyses may be report$ ei!r by weight or volume1 !re is giv5 9 ,table #cccf a me?od ( *ang+ f volumetric analysis to analysis by weight4 ,examples3 #a/4 ,assume a bla/ furnace gas1 ! analysis ( :i* 9 p]c5tages by weight is1 oxyg5 #b4g1 c>bon monoxide #ai4e1 c>bon dioxide #ah4g1 nitrog5 #ei4a4 ,"h ! only combu/ible gas is ! c>bon monoxide1 & ! heat value w be1 #j4aie #ddej #hfg4ge ,b4 t4 u4 p] p\nd4 ,! net volume ( air requir$ to burn "o p\nd ( ?is gas w be1 #j4aie #cj4f #e4ifg cubic feet4 #bnd4 ,assume a natural gas1 ! analysis ( :i* 9 p]c5tages by volume is oxyg5 #j4dj1 c>bon monoxide #j4ie1 c>bon dioxide #j4cd1 olefiant gas 7,c#b;,h#d7 #j4ff1 e?ane 7,c#b;,h#f7 #c4ee1 m>% gas 7,,*#d7 #gb4ae & hydrog5 #ba4ie4 ,all b ! oxyg5 & ! c>bon dioxide are combu/ibles1 & ! heat p] cubic foot w be1 ,f ,,co #j4jjie #cdg #c4cj ,c#b;,h#d #j4jjff #afge #aa4je ,c#b;,h#f #j4jcee #ahfb #ff4aj ,,*#d #j4gbae #ajej #geg4eh ,h #j4baie #cdi #gf4fa ------ ,b4 t4 u4 p] cubic foot #iad4fd ,! net air requir$ = combu/ion ( "o cubic foot ( ! gas w be1 ,,co #j4jjie #b4ci #j4jb ,c#b;,h#d #j4jjff #ad4cc #j4ji ,c#b;,h#f #j4jcee #af4gd #j4ei ,,*#d #j4gbae #i4eg #f4ij ,h #j4baie #b4da #j4ec ---- ,total net air p] cubic foot #h4ac ,proximate ,analysis--,! proximate analysis ( a fuel gives its proportions by weight ( fix$ c>bon1 volatile combu/ible matt]1 moi/ure & a%4 ,a me?od ( mak+ su* an analysis :i* has be5 f\nd to give em95tly satisfactory results is describ$ bel[4 ,f ! coal sample obta9$ on ! boil] trial1 an av]age sample ( approximately #dj grams is brok5 up & weigh$4 ,a good means ( r$uc+ su* a sample is pass+ x ?r\gh an ord9>y c(fee mill4 ,?is sample %\ld be plac$ 9 a d\ble-wall$ air ba?1 :i* %\ld be kept at an approximately con/ant temp]ature ( #aje degrees c5tigrade1 ! sample be+ weigh$ at int]vals until a m9imum is rea*$4 ,! p]c5tage ( moi/ure c be calculat$ f ! loss 9 su* a dry+4 ,= ! det]m9ation ( ! rema9d] ( ! analysis1 & ! heat+ value ( ! fuel1 a portion ( ?is dri$ sample %\ld be ?or\ghly pulv]iz$1 & if x is to be kept1 %\ld be plac$ 9 an air-tight receptacle4 ,"o gram ( ! pulv]iz$ sample %\ld be weigh$ into a porcela9 crucible equipp$ ) a well fitt+ lid4 ,?is crucible %\ld be support$ on a plat9um triangle & heat$ = sev5 m9utes ov] ! full flame ( a ,buns5 burn]4 ,at ! end ( su* "t ! sample %\ld be plac$ 9 a desiccator conta9+ calcium *loride1 & :5 cool$ %\ld be weigh$4 ,f ! loss ! p]c5tage ( volatile combu/ible matt] may be readily calculat$4 ,! same sample f :i* ! volatile matt] has be5 driv5 %\ld be us$ 9 ! det]m9ation ( ! p]c5tage ( a%4 ,?is p]c5tage is obta9$ by burn+ ! fix$ c>bon ov] a ,buns5 burn] or 9 a muffle furnace4 ,! burn+ %\ld be kept up until a con/ant weight is secur$1 & x may be assi/$ by /irr+ ) a plat9um rod4 ,! weight ( ! residue det]m9es ! p]c5tage ( a%1 & ! p]c5tage ( fix$ c>bon is easily calculat$ f ! loss dur+ ! det]m9ation ( a% aft] ! volatile matt] has be5 driv5 (f4 ,proximate analyses may be made & report$ on a moi/ or dry basis4 ,! dry basis is t ord9>ily accept$1 & ?is is ! basis adopt$ ?r\gh\t ?is book4 ,! me?od ( conv]t+ f a moi/ to a dry basis is ! same z describ$ 9 ! case ( an ultimate analysis4 ,a proximate analysis is easily made1 gives in=mation z to ! g5]al *>act]i/ics ( a fuel & ( its relative heat+ value4 ,table #ch gives ! proximate analysis & calorific value ( a numb] ( repres5tative coals f\nd 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,,table #ch ,,approximate ,,composition ,,& ,,calorific ,,value ,,( ,,c]ta9 ,,typical ,,am]ican ,,coals ,no4 ,/ate ,c\nty ,field1 ,b$ ,m9e ,size or ,ve9 ,,an?racites #a ,pa4 ,c>bon ,lehigh ,beav] ,mead[ #b ,pa4 ,dauph9 ,s*uylkill ,buck:eat #c ,pa4 ,lackawanna ,wyom+ ,belleview ,no4 #b ,buck4 #d ,pa4 ,lackawanna ,wyom+ ,johnson ,culm4 #e ,pa4 ,luz]ne ,wyom+ ,pitt/on ,no4 #b ,buck4 #f ,pa4 ,luz]ne ,wyom+ ,mammo? ,l>ge #g ,pa4 ,luz]ne ,wyom+ ,exet] ,rice #h ,pa4 ,nor?umb]l& ,s*uylkill ,trev]ton #i ,pa4 ,s*uylkill ,s*uylkill ,buck ,m\nta9 #aj ,pa4 ,s*uylkill ,york ,f>m ,buck:eat #aa ,pa4 ,victoria ,buck:eat #ab ,pa4 ,c>bon ,lehigh ,lehigh ,buck4 ,pea ,wilkes ,c4 ,co4 #ac ,pa4 ,c>bon ,lehigh ,buck:eat #ad ,pa4 ,lackawanna ,del4 ,hud4 ,co4 ,no4 #a ,buck4 ,,semi-,,an?racites #ae ,pa4 ,lycom+ ,loyalsock #af ,pa4 ,sullivan ,lopez #ag ,pa4 ,sullivan ,b]nice ,,semi-,,bitum9\s #ah ,md4 ,alleghany ,big ,ve91 ,george's ,crk4 #ai ,md4 ,alleghany ,george's ,creek #bj ,md4 ,alleghany ,george's ,creek #ba ,md4 ,alleghany ,george's ,creek ,ocean ,no4 #g ,m9e run #bb ,md4 ,alleghany ,cumb]l& #bc ,md4 ,g>rett ,wa%+ton ,m9e run ,no4 #c #bd ,pa4 ,brad=d ,long ,valley #be ,pa4 ,tioga ,antrim #bf ,pa4 ,cambria ,b or ,mill] ,soriman ,%aft ,c4 ,co4 #bg ,pa4 ,cambria ,b or ,mill] ,h5rietta #bh ,pa4 ,cambria ,b or ,mill] ,p5k] #bi ,pa4 ,cambria ,b or ,mill] ,lanca%ire #cj ,pa4 ,cambria ,l[] ,p5n4 ,c4 ,c4 ,m9e run ,kittann+ ,co4 ,no4 #c #ca ,pa4 ,cambria ,upp] ,valley ,m9e run ,kittann+ #cb ,pa4 ,cle>field ,l[] ,eureka ,m9e run ,kittann+ #cc ,pa4 ,cle>field ,ghem ,m9e run #cd ,pa4 ,cle>field ,osceola #ce ,pa4 ,cle>field ,reynoldsville #cf ,pa4 ,cle>field ,atlantic- ,m9e run ,cle>field #cg ,pa4 ,hunt+ton ,b>net ,fulton ,c>bon ,m9e run #ch ,pa4 ,hunt+ton ,rock ,hill ,m9e run #ci ,pa4 ,som]set ,l[] ,kimmelton ,m9e run ,kittann+ #dj ,pa4 ,som]set ,c ,prime ,ve9 ,j5n] ,m9e run ,proximate ,analysis 7,dry ,coal7 ,b4 t4 u4 ,no4 ,p] ,p\nd ,au?ority ,moi/ure ,volatile ,fix$ ,a% ,dry ,matt] ,c>bon ,coal #a #a4ej #b4da #ij4cj #g4bi ,gale #b #b4ae #ab4hh #gh4bc #h4hi #acacg ,:i?am #c #h4bi #g4ha #gg4ai #ae4jj #abcda ,sadtl] #d #ac4ij #aa4af #fe4if #bb4hh #ajeia ,b4 ,w4 ,co4 #e #c4ff #d4dj #gh4if #af4fd #abhfe ,b4 ,w4 ,co4 #f #d4jj #c4dd #ij4ei #e4ig #acgbj ,c>p5t] #g #j4be #h4ah #gi4fa #ab4ba #abdjj ,b4 ,w4 ,co4 #h #j4hd #f4gc #hf4ci #f4hh ,i%]wood #i #c4ag #ib4da #d4db #adbbj ,c>p5t] #aj #j4ha #e4ea #ge4ij #ah4ei #aadcj #aa #d4cj #j4ee #hf4gc #ab4gb #abfdb ,b4 ,w4 ,co4 #ab #a4eg #f4bg #ff4ec #bg4bj #abhdh ,b4 ,w4 ,co4 #ac #e4jj #ha4jj #ad4jj #aahjj ,c>p5t] #ad #f4bj #aa4fj #abajj ,d5ton #ae #a4cj #h4gb #hd4dd #f4hd #af #e4dh #g4ec #ha4jj #aa4dg #acedg ,b4 ,w4 ,co4 #ag #a4bi #h4ba #hd4dc #g4cf #ah #c4ej #ba4cc #gb4dg #f4bj #adfhb ,b4 ,w4 ,co4 #ai #c4fc #af4bg #gf4ic #f4hj #adfie ,b4 ,w4 ,co4 #bj #b4bh #ai4dc #gg4dd #f4ac #adgic ,b4 ,w4 ,co4 #ba #a4ac #addea ,b4 ,w4 ,co4 #bb #a4ej #ag4bf #gf4fe #f4ji 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,pa4 ,allegh5y ,pittsburgh ,slack #crd ,pool #ade ,pa4 ,allegh5y ,monongahela ,turtle ,creek #adf ,pa4 ,allegh5y ,pittsburgh ,b]?a in* #adg ,pa4 ,cambria ,bea* ,creek ,slack #adh ,pa4 ,cambria ,mill] ,l9coln ,m9e run #adi ,pa4 ,cl>ion ,l[] ,freeport #aej ,pa4 ,fayette ,connellsville ,slack #aea ,pa4 ,gre5e ,y\ghiogh5y ,lump #aeb ,pa4 ,gre5e ,we/morel& ,scre5+s #aec ,pa4 ,indiana ,isel9 ,m9e run #aed ,pa4 ,jeff]son ,punxsutawney ,m9e run #aee ,pa4 ,lawr5ce ,middle ,kittann+ #aef ,pa4 ,m]c] ,taylor #aeg ,pa4 ,wa%+ton ,pittsburgh ,ellswor? #aeh ,pa4 ,wa%+ton ,y\ghiogh5y ,&]son in* #aei ,pa4 ,we/morel& ,pittsburgh ,scott ,hav5 ,lump #afj ,t5n4 ,campbell ,jellico #afa ,t5n4 ,claiborne ,m+o #afb ,t5n4 ,m>ion ,etna #afc ,t5n4 ,morgan ,bru%y ,mt4 #afd ,t5n4 ,scott ,gl5 ,m>y ,no4 #d ,gl5 ,m>y #afe ,tex4 ,mav]ick ,eagle ,pass #aff ,tex4 ,paolo ,p9to ,?urb] ,m9e run #afg ,tex4 ,paolo ,p9to ,/rawn ,m9e run #afh ,va4 ,h5rico ,gayton ,proximate ,analysis 7,dry ,coal7 ,b4 t4 u4 ,no4 ,p] ,p\nd ,au?ority ,moi/ure ,volatile ,fix$ ,a% ,dry ,matt] ,c>bon ,coal #abf #ab4af #cd4fd #ec4aj #ab4bf #abbad #abg #e4ca #ch4gh #eb4bb #i4jj #abhdc ,u4 ,s4 ,geo4 ,s4 #abh #b4ae #cg4eg #ea4hj #aj4fc #accgj ,"l ,haas #abi #da4gf #de4bd #ac4jj #acbci ,b4 ,w4 ,co4 #acj #f4ai #cc4jb #ei4if #g4jb #acfcd ,b4 ,w4 ,co4 #aca #f4de #ci4ab #ej4jh #aj4hj #abgjj ,"l ,haas #acb #b4fj #dj4hj #dg4fj #aa4fj #abage ,jones #acc #g4ei #ch4de #dc4ii #ag4ef #aagjd ,u4 ,s4 ,geo4 ,s4 #acd #h4ii #da4dc #ej4jf #h4ea #acaac ,u4 ,s4 ,geo4 ,s4 #ace #c4ch #ce4bf #ed4ah #g4ef #abejf ,hill #acf #d4jd #dj4jh #eb4bg #i4fe #accgd ,u4 ,s4 ,geo4 ,s4 #acg #d4gd #cf4jh #ed4ha #i4aa #acecb ,u4 ,s4 ,geo4 ,s4 #ach #f #da #ch4cc #df4ga #ad4if #abbhd ,b4 ,w4 ,co4 #aci #f4fg #dj4jb #df4df #ac4eb #aahfj ,b4 ,w4 ,co4 #adj #b4dg #db4ch #ej4ci #f4bc #acdba ,u4 ,s4 ,geo4 ,s4 #ada #d4gi #ci4ah #di4ig #aj4he #acjje ,u4 ,s4 ,geo4 ,s4 #adb #d4gb #bh4ed #eh4ag #ac4bi #abaje ,b4 ,w4 ,co4 #adc #g4fe #cf4gg #ej4ad #ac4ji #abhcd ,u4 ,s4 ,geo4 ,s4 #add #a4gg #cb4jf #eg4aa #aj4hc #acbje ,c>p5t] #ade #a4ge #cf4he #ec4id #i4ba #acdhj ,"l ,haas #adf #b4fa #ce4hf #eg4ha #f4cc #aciig ,u4 ,s4 ,geo4 ,s4 #adg #c4ja #cb4hg #ee4hf #aa4bg #acgee ,b4 ,w4 ,co4 #adh #e4ci #cj4hc #fa4je #h4ab #acfjj ,b4 ,w4 ,co4 #adi #j4ed #ce4ic #eg4ff #f4da #acedg #aej #a4he #bh4gc #fc4bb #g4ie #acgge ,:i?am #aea #a4be #cb4fj #ed4gj #ab4gj #acajj ,b4 ,w4 ,co4 #aeb #aa4ab #ca4fg #ee4fa #ab4gb #acajj ,p4 ,r4 ,r4 #aec #b4gj #bi4cc #fc4ef #g4aa #adbbj ,b4 ,w4 ,co4 #aed #c4ch #bi4cc #fd4ic #e4gc #adgha ,b4 ,w4 ,co4 #aee #j4gj #cg4jf #ef4bd #f4gj #achdj ,"l ,haas #aef #d4ah #cb4ai #ee4ee #ab4bf #abhbj ,b4 ,w4 ,co4 #aeg #b4df #ce4ce #eh4df #f4ai #adjac ,u4 ,s4 ,geo4 ,s4 #aeh #a4jj #ci4bi #ed4hj #e4ia #acgbi ,jones #aei #d4jf #cb4ia #ei4gh #g4ca #acicd ,b4 ,w4 ,co4 #afj #a4hj #cg4gf #fb4ab #a4ab #achdf ,u4 ,s4 ,navy #afa #d4dj #cd4ca #ei4bb #f4dg ,u4 ,s4 ,geo4 ,s4 #afb #c4af #cb4ih #ef4ei #aj4dc #afc #a4gg #cc4df #ed4gc #aa4hg #achbd ,b4 ,w4 ,co4 #afd #a4ec #dj4hj #ef4gh #b4db #adfbe ,ky4 ,/ate ,col4 #afe #e4db #cc4gc #dd4hi #ba4ch #ajide ,b4 ,w4 ,co4 #aff #a4ij #cf4ja #di4ji #ad4ij #abgfj ,b4 ,w4 ,co4 #afg #d4ai #ce4dj #eb4ih #aa4fb #acbjb ,b4 ,w4 ,co4 #afh #j4hb #ag4ad #gd4ib #g4id #adcfc ,b4 ,w4 ,co4 ,,approximate ,,composition ,,& ,,calorific ,,value ,,( ,,c]ta9 ,,typical ,,am]ican ,,coals--,cont9u$ ,no4 ,/ate ,c\nty ,field1 ,b$ ,m9e ,size or ,ve9 #afi ,va4 ,lee ,d>by ,d>by #a in* #agj ,va4 ,lee ,mc,connel ,wilson ,m9e run #aga ,va4 ,wise ,upp] ,bann] ,coburn #c in* #agb ,va4 ,rock+ham ,clov] ,hill #agc ,va4 ,russel ,cl9*field #agd ,va4 ,monongahela ,b]nmont #age ,w4 ,va4 ,h>rison ,pittsburgh ,ocean ,m9e run #agf ,w4 ,va4 ,h>rison ,gir>d ,nut1 ,pea & ,slack #agg ,w4 ,va4 ,kana:a ,w9ifr$e ,w9ifr$e #agh ,w4 ,va4 ,kana:a ,key/one ,key/one ,m9e run #agi ,w4 ,va4 ,logan ,isl& ,creek ,nut & ,slack #ahj ,w4 ,va4 ,m>ion ,fairmont ,k+mont #aha ,w4 ,va4 ,m+o ,?ack] ,m>itime #ahb ,w4 ,va4 ,m+o ,gl5 ,alum ,gl5 ,alum ,m9e run #ahc ,w4 ,va4 ,pre/on ,bak]/[n #ahd ,w4 ,va4 ,putnam ,pittsburgh ,black ,betsy ,bug du/ #ahe ,w4 ,va4 ,r&olph ,upp] ,freeport ,coalton ,lump & ,nut ,,lignites ,,& ,,lignitic ,,coals #ahf ,col4 ,b\ld] ,rex #ahg ,col4 ,el ,paso ,curtis #ahh ,col4 ,el ,paso ,pike ,view #ahi ,col4 ,gunnison ,s\? ,platte ,mt4 ,c>bon #aij ,col4 ,las ,animas ,acme #aia ,col4 ,lehigh #aib ,n4 ,dak4 ,mc,lean ,eckl& ,m9e run #aic ,n4 ,dak4 ,mc,lean ,wilton ,lump #aid ,n4 ,dak4 ,mc,lean ,cas9o #aie ,n4 ,dak4 ,/>k ,lehigh ,lehigh ,m9e run #aif ,n4 ,dak4 ,william ,willi/on ,m9e run #aig ,n4 ,dak4 ,william ,willi/on ,m9e run #aih ,tex4 ,ba/rop ,ba/rop ,gl5ham #aii ,tex4 ,h\/on ,crockett #bjj ,tex4 ,h\/on ,h\/on ,c4 ,c4 ,co4 #bja ,tex4 ,milam ,rockdale ,worley #bjb ,tex4 ,rob]tson ,calv]t ,coal+ ,no4 #a #bjc ,tex4 ,wood ,hoyt ,consum]'s ,lig4 ,co4 #bjd ,tex4 ,wood ,hoyt #bje ,wa%4 ,k+ ,black ,diamond #bjf ,wyo4 ,c>bon ,hanna ,m9e run #bjg ,wyo4 ,crook ,black ,hills ,/ilwell ,coal ,co4 #bjh ,wyo4 ,%]idan ,%]idan ,mon>* #bji ,wyo4 ,sweetwat] ,rock ,spr+ ,scre5+s #baj ,wyo4 ,u9ta ,adaville ,laze>t ,proximate ,analysis 7,dry ,coal7 ,b4 t4 u4 ,no4 ,p] ,p\nd ,au?ority ,moi/ure ,volatile ,fix$ ,a% ,dry ,matt] ,c>bon ,coal #afi #d4ce #ch4df #ef4ia #d4fc #acici ,u4 ,s4 ,geo4 ,s4 #agj #c4ce #cf4ce #eg4hh #e4gg #acica ,u4 ,s4 ,geo4 ,s4 #aga #c4je #cb4fe #fb4gc #d4fb #addgj ,u4 ,s4 ,geo4 ,s4 #agb #ca4gg #eg4ih #aj4be #acajc #agc #b4jj #ce4gb #ef4ab #h4af #adbjj #agd #cb4jj #ei4ij #h4aj #acdbd ,c>p5t] #age #b4dg #ci4ce #eb4gh #g4hg #adbjb ,u4 ,s4 ,geo4 ,s4 #agf #cf4ff #eg4di #e4he #adedh ,b4 ,w4 ,co4 #agg #a4je #cb4gd #fd4ch #b4hh #adaaa ,hill #agh #b4ba #cc4bi #eh4fa #h4aj #adbjb ,u4 ,s4 ,geo4 ,s4 #agi #a4ab #ch4fa #ee4ia #e4dh #adbgc ,hill #ahj #a4ij #ce4ca #eg4cd #g4ce #adaih ,u4 ,s4 ,geo4 ,s4 #aha #j4fh #ca4hi #fc4dh #d4fc #adabf ,hill #ahb #c4jb #cc4ha #ei4de #f4gd #addad ,u4 ,s4 ,geo4 ,s4 #ahc #d4ad #bi4ji #fc4ej #g4da #adedf ,u4 ,s4 ,geo4 ,s4 #ahd #g4da #cb4hd #ec4if #ac4bj #abefh ,b4 ,w4 ,co4 #ahe #b4aa #bi4eg #ei4ic #aj4ej #ached ,u4 ,s4 ,geo4 ,s4 #ahf #af4je #db4ab #dg4ig #i4ia #ajfgh ,b4 ,w4 ,co4 #ahg #bc4be #db4aa #di4ch #h4ea #aajij ,b4 ,w4 ,co4 #ahh #bc4gg #dh4gj #da4dg #i4hc #ajfbi ,b4 ,w4 ,co4 #ahi #bj4ch #df4ch #dg4ej #f4ab #aij #af4gd #dg4ij #dd4fj #g4ej ,col4 ,sc4 ( ,m4 #aia #ah4cj #de4bi #dd4fg #aj4jd #aib #bi4fe #de4ef #dg4je #g4ci #ajeec ,"l #aic #ce4if #di4hd #ch4je #ab4aa #aajcf ,u4 ,s4 ,geo4 ,s4 #aid #bi4fe #df4ef #ch4gj #ad4gd ,"l #aie #ce4hd #dc4hd #ci4ei #af4eg #ajaba ,u4 ,s4 ,geo4 ,s4 #aif #da4gf #ci4cg #dh4ji #ab4ed #ajaba ,b4 ,w4 ,co4 #aig #db4gd #dj4hc #dg4gi #aa4ch #ajbga ,b4 ,w4 ,co4 #aih #cb4gg #db4gf #cf4hh #bj4cf #hieh ,b4 ,w4 ,co4 #aii #bc4bg #dj4ie #ch4cg #bj4fh #ajhhf ,u4 ,s4 ,geo4 ,s4 #bjj #ca4dh #df4ic #cd4dj #ah4hg #ajagf ,b4 ,w4 ,co4 #bja #cb4dh #dc4jd #da4ad #ae4hb #ajjba ,b4 ,w4 ,co4 #bjb #cb4ja #dc4gj #dc4jh #ac4bb #ajgec ,b4 ,w4 ,co4 #bjc #cc4ih #df4ig #da4dj #aa4fc #ajfjj ,u4 ,s4 ,geo4 ,s4 #bjd #cj4be #dc4bg #da4df #ae4bg #ajeig #bje #c4ga #dh4gb #df4ef #d4gb ,gale #bjf #f4dd #ea4cb #dc4jj #e4fh #aafjg ,b4 ,w4 ,co4 #bjg #ai4jh #de4ba #df4db #h4cg #abfda ,u4 ,s4 ,geo4 ,s4 #bjh #ba4ah #ea4hg #dj4dc #g4gj #abcaf ,u4 ,s4 ,geo4 ,s4 #bji #g4gj #ch4eg #ef4ii #d4dd #abecd ,b4 ,w4 ,co4 #baj #ai4ae #de4ej #dh4aa #f4ci #ihfh ,u4 ,s4 ,geo4 ,s4 ,illu/ration3 ,portion ( #ab1jhj ,horse-p[] ,in/allation ( ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil]s & ,sup]heat]s at ! ,potomac ,electric ,co41 ,wa%+ton1 ,d4 ,c4 ,,table #ci ,,%[+ ,,relation ,,betwe5 ,,proximate ,,& ,,ultimate ,,analyses ,,( ,,coal ,common 9 ,proximate ,proximate ,ultimate ,analysis ,ultimate ,analysis ,analysis ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,v ,h ,n ,m o y i ,s o l ,m ,c ,c d ,o t u i ,s a a ,f a a r x r l s t t t i r r o y o p t a ,field i t x b b g g g h ,a u t or l e e o o e e e e s r e ,b$ ,m9e e r d n n n n n r h e ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,icy ,coal ,iron ,horse ,co4 ,ala ,creek ,no4 #h #ca4haec4ijgb4jbd4gh #f4dea4ff 4#hjad4bi #b4ef ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,c5tral ,c4 ,c4 ,hunt- ,co4 ,ark+ton ,no4 #c #ah4iifg4gagf4cgc4ij #c4gaa4dia4bcac4cj #a4ii ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,pana ,clov] or ,leaf1 ,ill ,no4 #e ,no4 #a #cg4bbde4fdfc4jdd4diaj4jda4bhd4jaag4adac 4ai ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,no4 #e1 ,w>rick ,ind ,co4 ,electric#da4hedd4defh4jhd4gh #g4efa4ced4ecac4gj #i4aa ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,no4 #aa1 ,/4 ,hopk9s,b]n>d1 ,ky ,co4 ,no4 #aa #da4ajdi4fjgb4bbe4jf #h4dda4ccc4fe #i4cj #g4gf ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,b or ,l[] ,kittan- ,eureka1 ,pa n+ ,no4 #ca #af4gagg4bbhd4ded4be #c4jda4bh 4#ia #f4jg 4#ef ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,indiana ,pa ,co4 #bi4eefb4fdgi4hfe4jb #d4bga4hfa4ah #g4ha #b4ij ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,w4 ,fire ,ru% ,va ,creek ,run #bb4hgga4efhc4gad4fd #c4fga4gj 4#ga #e4eg #b4ad ,table #ci gives = comp>ison ! ultimate & proximate analyses ( c]ta9 ( ! coals ) :i* te/s 7 made 9 ! coal te/+ plant ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,geological ,survey at ! ,l\isiana ,pur*ase ,exposition at ,/4 ,l\is4 ,! heat+ value ( a fuel _c be directly comput$ f a proximate analysis1 due to ! fact t ! volatile cont5t v>ies widely 9 diff]5t fuels 9 composition & 9 heat+ value4 ,"s me?ods h be5 advanc$ = e/imat+ ! calorific value ( coals f ! proximate analysis4 ,william ,k5t#ch d$uct$ f ,mahl]'s te/s ( ,european coals ! approximate heat+ value dep5d5t ^u ! cont5t ( fix$ c>bon 9 ! combu/ible4 ,! relation z d$uc$ by ,k5t betwe5 ! heat & value p] p\nd ( combu/ible & ! p] c5t ( fix$ c>bon ref]r$ to combu/ible is repres5t$ graphically by ,fig4 #bc4 ,g\tal gives ano!r me?od ( det]m9+ ! heat value f a proximate analysis1 9 :i* ! c>bon is giv5 a fix$ value & ! heat+ value ( ! volatile matt] is consid]$ z a function ( its p]c5tage ref]r$ to combu/ible4 ,g\tal's me?od *ecks closely ) ,k5t's det]m9ations4 ,all ! =mulae1 h[ev]1 = comput+ ! calorific value ( coals f a proximate analysis are ord9>ily limit$ to c]ta9 classes ( fuels4 ,mr4 ,k5t1 = in/ance1 /ates t 8 d$uctions are correct )9 a close limit = fuels conta9+ m ?an #fj p] c5t ( fix$ c>bon 9 ! combu/ible1 :ile = ^? conta9+ a l[] p]c5tage1 ! error may be z great z #d p] c5t1 ei!r high or l[4 ,:ile ! use ( su* computations w s]ve :]e approximate results only are requir$1 t !y are approximate %\ld be ?or\ghly und]/ood4 ,calorimetry--,an ultimate or a proximate analysis ( a fuel is useful 9 det]m9+ its g5]al *>act]i/ics1 & z describ$ on page #ahc1 may be us$ 9 ! calculation ( ! approximate heat+ value4 ,:]e ! effici5cy ( a boil] is to be comput$1 h[ev]1 ?is heat+ value %\ld 9 all in/ances be det]m9$ accurately by means ( a fuel calorimet]4 ,graph3 ,b4,t4,u4 p] ,p\nd ( ,combu/ible aga9/ ,p] ,c5t ( ,fix$ ,c>bon 9 ,combu/ible ,fig4 #bc4 ,graphic ,repres5tation ( ,relation betwe5 ,heat ,value ,p] ,p\nd ( ,combu/ible & ,fix$ ,c>bon 9 ,combu/ible z ,d$uc$ by ,wm4 ,k5t4 ,9 su* an app>atus ! fuel is completely burn$ & ! heat g5]at$ by su* combu/ion is absorb$ by wat]1 ! am\nt ( heat be+ calculat$ f ! elevation 9 ! temp]ature ( ! wat]4 ,a calorimet] :i* has be5 accept$ z ! be/ = su* "w is "o 9 :i* ! fuel is burn$ 9 a /eel bomb fill$ ) compress$ oxyg54 ,! function ( ! oxyg51 :i* is ord9>ily "u a pressure ( ab\t #be atmosph]es1 is to cause ! rapid & complete combu/ion ( ! fuel sample4 ,! fuel is ignit$ by means ( an electric curr5t1 all[ance be+ made = ! heat produc$ by su* curr5t1 & by ! burn+ ( ! fuse wire4 ,a calorimet] ( ?is type :i* w be f\nd to give satisfactory results is t ( ,m4 ,pi]re ,mahl]1 illu/rat$ 9 ,fig4 #bd & consi/+ ( ! foll[+ p>ts3 ,a wat] jacket ,a1 :i* ma9ta9s con/ant conditions outside ( ! calorimet] prop]1 & ?us makes possible a m accurate computation ( radiation losses4 ,! porcela9 l9$ /eel bomb ,b1 9 :i* ! combu/ion ( ! fuel takes place 9 compress$ oxyg54 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bd4 ,mahl] ,bomb ,calorimet] ,! plat9um pan ,c1 = hold+ ! fuel4 ,! calorimet] prop] ,d1 surr\nd+ ! bomb & conta9+ a def9ite weigh$ am\nt ( wat]4 ,an electrode ,e1 connect+ ) ! fuse wire ,f1 = ignit+ ! fuel plac$ 9 ! pan ,c4 ,a support ,g1 = a wat] agitator4 ,a !rmomet] ,i1 = temp]ature det]m9ation ( ! wat] 9 ! calorimet]4 ,! !rmomet] is be/ support$ by a /& indep5d5t ( ! calorimet]1 s t x may n be mov$ by tremors 9 ! p>ts ( ! calorimet]1 :i* w\ld r5d] ! mak+ ( read+s difficult4 ,to obta9 accuracy ( read+s1 !y %\ld be made ?r\gh a telescope or eyeglass4 ,a spr+ & screw device = revolv+ ! agitator4 ,a lev] ,l1 by ! movem5t ( :i* ! agitator is revolv$4 ,a pressure gauge ,m1 = not+ ! am\nt ( oxyg5 admitt$ to ! bomb4 ,betwe5 #bj & #be atmosph]es are ord9>ily employ$4 ,an oxyg5 tank ,o4 ,a batt]y or batt]ies ,p1 ! curr5t f :i* heats ! fuse wire us$ to ignite ! fuel4 ,?is or a simil> calorimet] is us$ 9 ! det]m9ation ( ! heat ( combu/ion ( solid or liquid fuels4 ,:atev] ! fuel to be te/$1 too mu* importance _c be giv5 to ! secur+ ( an av]age sample4 ,:]e coal is to be te/$1 te/s %\ld be made f a portion ( ! dri$ & pulv]iz$ laboratory sample1 ! me?ods ( obta9+ :i* h be5 describ$4 ,9 consid]+ ! me?ods ( calorimet] det]m9ation1 ! rem>ks appli$ to coal are equally applicable to any solid fuel1 & su* *anges 9 me?ods z are necess>y = liquid fuels w be self-evid5t f ! same description4 ,approximately "o gram ( ! pulv]iz$ dri$ coal sample %\ld be plac$ directly 9 ! pan ( ! calorimet]4 ,!re is "s dang] 9 ! us+ ( a pulv]iz$ sample f ! fact t "s ( x may be bl[n out ( ! pan :5 oxyg5 is admitt$4 ,?is may be at lea/ p>tially ov]come by =m+ ab\t two grams into a briquette by ! use ( a cyl9d] equipp$ ) a plung] & a screw press4 ,su* a briquette %\ld be brok5 & approximately "o gram us$4 ,if a pulv]iz$ sample is us$1 c>e %\ld be tak5 to admit oxyg5 sl[ly to prev5t bl[+ ! coal out ( ! pan4 ,! weight ( ! sample is limit$ to approximately "o gram s9ce ! calorimet] is proportion$ = ! combu/ion ( ab\t ?is weight :5 "u an oxyg5 pressure ( ab\t #be atmosph]es4 ,a piece ( f9e iron wire is connect$ to ! l[] end ( ! plung] to =m a fuse = ignit+ ! sample4 ,! weight ( iron wire us$ is det]m9$1 & if aft] combu/ion a portion has n be5 burn$1 ! weight ( su* portion is det]m9$4 ,9 plac+ ! sample 9 ! pan1 & 9 adju/+ ! fuse1 ! top ( ! calorimet] is remov$4 ,x is !n replac$ & c>efully screw$ into place on ! bomb by means ( a long h&l$ wr5* furni%$ = ! purpose4 ,! bomb is !n plac$ 9 ! calorimet]1 :i* has be5 fill$ ) a def9ite am\nt ( wat]4 ,?is weight is ! wat] equival5t ( ! app>atus1 i4 e41 ! weight ( wat]1 ! temp]ature ( :i* w\ld be increas$ "o degree = an equival5t increase 9 ! temp]ature ( ! comb9$ app>atus4 ,x may be det]m9$ by calculation f ! weights & specific heats ( ! v>i\s p>ts ( ! app>atus4 ,su* a det]m9ation is liable to error1 h[ev]1 z ! weight ( ! bomb l9+ c only be approximat$1 & a consid]able portion ( ! app>atus is n subm]g$4 ,ano!r me?od ( mak+ su* a det]m9ation is by ! add+ ( def9ite weights ( w>m wat] to def9ite am\nts ( cool] wat] 9 ! calorimet] & tak+ an av]age ( a numb] ( exp]im5ts4 ,! be/ me?od = ! mak+ ( su* a det]m9ation is probably ! burn+ ( a def9ite am\nt ( resublim$ naph?al9e ^: heat ( combu/ion is kn[n4 ,! temp]ature ( ! wat] 9 ! wat] jacket ( ! calorimet] %\ld be approximately t ( ! surr\nd+ atmosph]e4 ,! temp]ature ( ! weigh$ am\nt ( wat] 9 ! calorimet] is made by "s exp]im5t]s slightly great] ?an t ( ! surr\nd+ air 9 ord] t ! initial correction = radiation w be 9 ! same direction z ! f9al correction4 ,o!r exp]im5t]s />t f a temp]ature ! same or slightly l[] ?an ! temp]ature ( ! room1 on ! basis t ! temp]ature aft] combu/ion w be slightly high] ?an ! room temp]ature & ! radiation correction be ei!r a m9imum or entirely elim9at$4 ,:ile no exp]im5ts h be5 made to %[ conclusively :i* ( ^! me?ods is ! bett]1 ! latt] is g5]ally us$4 ,aft] ! bomb has be5 plac$ 9 ! calorimet]1 x is fill$ ) oxyg5 f a tank until ! pressure rea*es f #bj to #be atmosph]es4 ,! l[] pressure w be suffici5t 9 all b exceptional cases4 ,connection is !n made to a curr5t f ! dry batt]ies 9 s]ies s arrang$ z to all[ completion ( ! circuit ) a swit*4 ,! curr5t f a light+ sy/em %\ld n be us$ = ignition1 z !re is dang] f sp>k+ 9 burn+ ! fuse1 :i* may effect ! results4 ,! app>atus is !n ready = ! te/4 ,unque/ionably ! be/ me?od ( tak+ data is by ! use ( co-ord9ate pap] & a plott+ ( ! data ) temp]atures & "t int]vals z ord9ates & abscissae4 ,su* a graphic repres5tation is %[n 9 ,fig4 #be4 ,graph3 ,temp]ature-- ,c4 aga9/ ,"t--,h\rs & ,m9utes ,fig4 #be4 ,graphic ,me?od ( ,record+ ,bomb ,calorimet] ,results ,aft] ! bomb is plac$ 9 ! calorimet]1 & be=e ! coal is ignit$1 read+s ( ! temp]ature ( ! wat] %\ld be tak5 at "o m9ute int]vals = a p]iod long en\gh to insure a con/ant rate ( *ange1 & 9 ?is way det]m9e ! initial radiation4 ,! coal is !n ignit$ by complet+ ! circuit1 ! temp]ature at ! in/ant ! circuit is clos$ be+ consid]$ ! temp]ature at ! beg9n+ ( ! combu/ion4 ,aft] ignition ! read+s %\ld be tak5 at "o-half m9ute int]vals1 ?\gh because ( ! rapidity ( ! m]cury's rise approximate read+s only may be possible = at lea/ a m9ute aft] ! fir+1 su* read+s1 h[ev]1 be+ suffici5tly accurate = ?is p]iod4 ,! "o-half m9ute read+s %\ld be tak5 aft] ignition = five m9utes1 & =1 say1 five m9utes long] at m9ute int]vals to det]m9e accurately ! f9al rate ( radiation4 ,fig4 #be %[s ! results ( su* read+s1 plott$ 9 accordance ) ! me?od sugge/$4 ,x n[ rema9s to compute ! results f ?is plott$ data4 ,! radiation correction is fir/ appli$4 ,probably ! mo/ accurate mann] ( mak+ su* correction is by ! use ( ,pfaundl]'s me?od1 :i* is a modification ( t ( ,regnault4 ,?is assumes t 9 />t+ ) an initial rate ( radiation1 z repres5t$ by ! incl9ation ( ! l9e ,,ab1 ,fig4 #be1 & end+ ) a f9al radiation repres5t$ by ! incl9ation ( ! l9e ,,cd1 ,fig4 #be1 t ! rate ( radiation = ! int]m$iate temp]atures betwe5 ! po9ts ,b & ,c are proportional to ! initial & f9al rates4 ,t is1 ! rate ( radiation at a po9t midway betwe5 ,b & ,c w be ! mean betwe5 ! initial & f9al rates2 ! rate ( radiation at a po9t ?ree-qu>t]s ( ! di/ance betwe5 ,b & ,c w\ld be ! rate at ,b plus ?ree-qu>t]s ( ! diff]5ce 9 rates at ,b & ,c1 etc4 ,?is me?od diff]s f ,regnault's 9 t ! radiation 0 assum$ by ,regnault to be 9 ea* case proportional to ! diff]5ce 9 temp]atures betwe5 ! wat] ( ! calorimet] & ! surr\nd+ air plus a con/ant f\nd = ea* exp]im5t4 ,pfaundl]'s me?od is m simple ?an t ( ,regnault1 & ! results by ! two me?ods are 9 practical agreem5t4 ,express$ z a =mula1 ,pfaundl]'s me?od is1 ?\gh n 9 =m giv5 by him3 ,r' - ,r ,c ,n,r ------ 7,t - ,t7 7#ai7 ,t' - ,t ,:]e ,c correction 9 degree c5tigrade1 ,n numb] ( int]vals ov] :i* correction is made1 ,r initial radiation 9 degrees p] int]val1 ,r' f9al radiation 9 degrees p] int]val1 ,t av]age temp]ature = p]iod ?r\gh :i* initial radiation is comput$1 ,t av]age temp]ature ov] p]iod ( combu/ion#ci1 ,t' av]age temp]ature ov] p]iod ?r\gh :i* f9al radiation is comput$4#ci ,! application ( ?is =mula to ,fig4 #be is z foll[s3 ,z already /at$1 ! temp]ature at ! beg9n+ ( combu/ion is ! read+ j be=e ! curr5t is turn$ on1 or ,b 9 ,fig4 #be4 ,! po9t ,c or ! temp]ature at :i* combu/ion is presumably complet$1 %\ld be tak5 at a po9t :i* falls well )9 ! e/abli%$ f9al rate ( radiation1 & n at ! maximum temp]ature t ! !rmomet] indicates 9 ! te/1 unless x lies on ! /raight l9e det]m9+ ! f9al radiation4 ,?is is due to ! fact t 9 c]ta9 in/ances local conditions w cause ! !rmomet] to read high] ?an x %\ld dur+ ! "t t ! bomb is transmitt+ heat to ! wat] rapidly1 & at o!r times ! maximum temp]ature might be l[] ?an t :i* w\ld be indicat$ 7 read+s to be tak5 at int]vals ( less ?an "o-half m9ute1 i4 e41 ! po9t ( maximum temp]ature w fall bel[ ! l9e det]m9$ by ! f9al rate ( radiation4 ,) ?is und]/&+ ,,ab1 ,fig4 #be1 repres5ts ! "t ( initial radiation1 ,,bc ! "t ( combu/ion1 & ,,cd ! "t ( f9al radiation4 ,!re=e to apply ,pfaundl]'s correction1 =mula 7#ai71 to ! data z repres5t$ by ,fig4 #be4 ,n #f1 ,r #j1 ,r' 4#ja1 ,t #bj4bi1 ,t' #bb4hc1 #bj4bi #bb4ed #bb4hd #bb4hh #bb4hg #bb4hf ,t ---------------------------------------- ----- #bb4cf #f 4#ja - #j ,c #fj -------------7#bb4cf - #bj4bi7 #bb4he - #bj4bi #f 4#jjh 4#jdh ,pfaundl]'s =mula :ile simple is r long4 ,mr4 ,e4 ,h4 ,peabody has devis$ a simpl] =mula ) :i*1 "u prop] conditions1 ! v>iation f correction z f\nd by ,pfaundl]'s me?od is negligible4 ,x 0 not$ ?r\gh\t an ext5d$ s]ies ( calorimet] te/s t ! maximum temp]ature 0 rea*$ by ! !rmomet] slightly ov] "o m9ute aft] ! "t ( fir+4 ,if ?is p]iod betwe5 ! "t ( fir+ & ! maximum temp]ature report$ 0 exactly "o m9ute1 ! radiation ?r\gh ?is p]iod w\ld equal ! radiation p] "o-half m9ute be=e fir+ plus ! radiation p] "o-half m9ute aft] ! maximum temp]ature is rea*$2 or1 ! radiation ?r\gh ! "o m9ute int]val w\ld be ! av]age ( ! radiation p] m9ute be=e fir+ & ! radiation p] m9ute aft] ! maximum4 ,a plott$ *>t ( temp]atures w\ld take ! =m ( a curve ( ?ree /raight l9es 7,b1 ,c'1 ,d7 9 ,fig4 #be4 ,"u su* conditions1 us+ ! notation z 9 =mula 7#ai7 ! correction w\ld become1 #b,r #b,r' ,c ------- 7,n - #b7,r'1 or ,r 7,n - #a7,r' 7#bj7 #b ,?is =mula may be g5]aliz$ = conditions :]e ! maximum temp]ature is rea*$ aft] a p]iod ( m ?an "o m9ute z foll[s3 ,let ,m ! numb] ( int]vals betwe5 ! "t ( fir+ & ! maximum temp]ature4 ,!n ! radiation ?r\gh ?is p]iod w be an av]age ( ! radiation = ,m int]vals be=e fir+ & = ,m int]vals aft] ! maximum is record$1 or ,,mr ,,mr' ,m ,m ,c ------- 7,n - ,m7,r' - ,r 7,n - -7,r' 7#ba7 #b #b #b ,9 ! case ( ,mr4 ,peabody's d$uctions ,m 0 f\nd to be approximately #b & =mula 7#ba7 becomes directly1 ,c ,r 7,n - #a7,r' or =mula 7#bj74 ,! corrections to be made1 z secur$ by ! use ( ?is =mula1 are v close to ^? secur$ by ,pfaundl]'s me?od1 :]e ! po9t ( maximum temp]ature is n m ?an five int]vals lat] ?an ! po9t ( fir+4 ,:]e a long] p]iod ?an ?is is indicat$ 9 ! *>t ( plott$ temp]atures1 ! approximate =mula %\ld n be us$4 ,z ! p]iod betwe5 fir+ & ! maximum temp]ature is increas$1 ! plott$ results are fur!r & fur!r away f ! !oretical /raight l9e curve4 ,:]e ?is p]iod is n ov] five int]vals1 or two & a half m9utes1 an approximation ( ! /raight l9e curve may be plott$ by eye1 & ord9>ily ! radiation correction to be appli$ may be det]m9$ v closely f su* an approximat$ curve4 ,peabody's approximate =mula has be5 f\nd f a numb] ( te/s to give results )9 4#jjc degrees ,fahr5heit = ! limits )9 :i* its application holds good z describ$4 ,! value ( ,m1 :i* is n necess>ily a :ole numb]1 %\ld be det]m9$ = ea* te/1 ?\gh 9 all probability su* a value is a con/ant = any individual calorimet] :i* is prop]ly op]at$4 ,! correction = radiation z f\nd on page #ahh is 9 all in/ances to be add$ to ! range ( temp]ature betwe5 ! fir+ po9t & ! po9t *os5 f :i* ! f9al radiation is calculat$4 ,?is correct$ range multipli$ by ! wat] equival5t ( ! calorimet] gives ! heat ( combu/ion 9 calories ( ! coal burn$ 9 ! calorimet] toge!r ) t evolv$ by ! burn+ ( ! fuse wire4 ,! heat evolv$ by ! burn+ ( ! fuse wire is f\nd f ! det]m9ation ( ! actual weight ( wire burn$ & ! heat ( combu/ion ( "o milligram ( ! wire 7#a4g calories71 i4 e41 multiply ! weight ( wire us$ by #a4g1 ! result be+ 9 gram calories or ! heat requir$ to raise "o gram ( wat] "o degree c5tigrade4 ,o!r small corrections to be made are ^? = ! =mation ( nitric acid & = ! combu/ion ( sulphur to sulphuric acid in/ead ( sulphur dioxide1 due to ! m complete combu/ion 9 ! pres5ce ( oxyg5 ?an w\ld be possible 9 ! atmosph]e4 ,to make ^! corrections ! bomb ( ! calorimet] is c>efully wa%$ out ) wat] aft] ea* te/ & ! am\nt ( acid det]m9$ f titrat+ ?is wat] ) a /&>d solution ( ammonia or ( cau/ic soda1 all ( ! acid be+ assum$ to be nitric acid4 ,ea* cubic c5timet] ( ! ammonia titrat+ solution us$ is equival5t to a correction ( #b4fe calories4 ,z "p ( acidity is due to ! =mation ( sulphuric acid1 a fur!r correction is necess>y4 ,9 burn+ sulphuric acid ! heat evolv$ p] gram ( sulphur is #bbcj calories 9 excess ( ! heat :i* w\ld be evolv$ if ! sulphur burn$ to sulphur dioxide1 or #bb4c calories = ea* p] c5t ( sulphur 9 ! coal4 ,"o cubic c5timet] ( ! ammonia solution is equival5t to #j4jjbhf grams ( sulphur z sulphuric acid1 or to #j4bhf #bb4c #f4ch calories4 ,x is evid5t !re=e t aft] multiply+ ! numb] ( cubic c5timet]s us$ 9 titrat+ by ! heat factor = nitric acid 7#b4fe7 a fur!r correction ( #f4ch - #b4fe #c4gc is necess>y = ea* cubic c5timet] us$ 9 titrat+ sulphuric in/ead ( nitric acid4 ,?is correction w be #c4gc_/j4big #ac units = ea* #j4ja gram ( sulphur 9 ! coal4 ,! total correction !re=e = ! aque\s nitric & sulphuric acid is f\nd by multiply+ ! ammonia by #b4fe & add+ #ac calories = ea* #j4ja gram ( sulphur 9 ! coal4 ,?is total correction is to be d$uct$ f ! heat value z f\nd f ! correct$ range & ! am\nt equival5t to ! calorimet]4 ,aft] ea* te/ ! pan 9 :i* ! coal has be5 burn$ mu/ be c>efully exam9$ to make sure t all ( ! sample has und]gone complete combu/ion4 ,! pres5ce ( black specks ord9>ily indicates unburn$ coal1 & (t5 w be f\nd :]e ! coal conta9s bone or slate4 ,:]e su* specks are f\nd ! te/s %\ld be repeat$4 ,9 te/+ any fuel :]e x is f\nd difficult to completely consume a sample1 a weigh$ am\nt ( naph?al9e may be add$1 ! total weight ( fuel & naph?al9e be+ approximately "o gram4 ,! naph?al9e has a kn[n heat ( combu/ion1 samples = ?is purpose be+ obta9able f ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,bureau ( ,/&>ds1 & f ! comb9$ heat ( combu/ion ( ! fuel & naph?al9e t ( ! =m] may be readily comput$4 ,! heat evolv$ 9 burn+ ( a def9ite weight ( /&>d naph?al9e may also be us$ z a means ( calibrat+ ! calorimet] z a :ole4 ,,combu/ion ,,( ,,coal ,! composition ( coal v>ies ov] su* a wide range1 & ! me?ods ( fir+ h to be alt]$ s greatly to suit ! v>i\s coals & ! innum]able types ( furnaces 9 :i* !y are burn$1 t any in/ructions giv5 = ! h&l+ ( diff]5t fuels mu/ ( necessity be ( ! mo/ g5]al "*4 ,= ea* k9d ( coal !re is "s me?od ( fir+ :i* w give ! be/ results = ea* individual set ( conditions4 ,g5]al rules c be sugge/$1 b ! be/ results c be obta9$ only by foll[+ su* me?ods z exp]i5ce & practice %[ to be ! be/ suit$ to ! specific conditions4 ,! "q ( draft is an all important factor4 ,if ?is be insuffici5t1 prop] combu/ion is impossible1 z ! suction 9 ! furnace w n be great en\gh to draw ! necess>y am\nt ( air ?r\gh ! fuel b$1 & ! gases may pass (f only p>tially consum$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 an excessive draft may cause losses due to ! excess quantities ( air drawn ?r\gh holes 9 ! fire4 ,:]e coal is burn$ h[ev]1 !re are r>ely compla9ts f excessive draft1 z ?is c be & %\ld be regulat$ by ! boil] damp] to give only ! draft necess>y = ! p>ticul> rate ( combu/ion desir$4 ,! draft requir$ = v>i\s k9ds ( fuel is treat$ 9 detail 9 ! *apt] on ,*imneys & ,draft4 ,9 ?is *apt] x w be assum$ t ! draft is at all times ample & t x is regulat$ to give ! be/ results = ea* k9d ( coal4 ,,table #dj ,,an?racite ,,coal ,,sizes ,te/+ ,segm5ts ,r\nd ,me% ,/&>d ,squ>e ,me% ,trade ,"n ,?r\gh ,ov] ,?r\gh ,ov] ,in*es ,in*es ,in*es ,in*es ,brok5 #d-a_/b #c-a_/d #d #b-c_/d ,egg #c-a_/d #b-c_/h #b-c_/d #b ,/ove #b-c_/h #a-e_/h #b #a-c_/h ,*e/nut #a-e_/h #g_/h #a-c_/h #c_/d ,pea #g_/h #e_/h #c_/d #a_/b ,no4 #a ,buck:eat #e_/h #c_/h #a_/b #a_/d ,no4 #b ,buck:eat or ,rice #c_/h #c_/af #a_/d #a_/h ,no4 #c ,buck:eat or ,b>ley #c_/af #c_/cb #a_/h #a_/af ,an?racite--,an?racite coal is ord9>ily m>ket$ "u ! names & sizes giv5 9 ,table #dj4 ,! l>g] sizes ( an?racite are r>ely us$ = comm]cial /eam g5]at+ purposes z ! dem& = dome/ic use n[ limits ! supply4 ,9 comm]cial plants ! sizes g5]ally f\nd are ,nos4 #a1 #b & #c buck:eat4 ,9 "s plants :]e ! f9] sizes are us$1 a small p]c5tage ( bitum9\s coal1 say1 #aj p] c5t1 is sometimes mix$ ) ! an?racite & b5eficial results secur$ bo? 9 economy & capacity4 ,an?racite coal %\ld be fir$ ev5ly1 9 small quantities & at frequ5t int]vals4 ,if ?is me?od is n foll[$1 dead spots w appe> 9 ! fire1 & if ! fire gets too irregul> ?r\gh burn+ 9 pat*es1 no?+ c be done to rem$y x until ! fire is clean$ z a :ole4 ,aft] ?is grade ( fuel has be5 fir$ x %\ld be left alone1 & ! fire tools us$ z little z possible4 ,ow+ to ! difficulty ( ignit+ ?is fuel1 c>e mu/ be tak5 9 clean+ fires4 ,! int]vals ( clean+ w1 ( c\rse1 dep5d ^u ! nature ( ! coal & ! rate ( combu/ion4 ,) ! small sizes & mod]ately high combu/ion rates1 fires w h to be clean$ twice on ea* eight-h\r %ift4 ,z ! fires become dirty ! ?ickness ( ! fuel b$ w increase1 until ?is dep? may be #ab or #ad in*es j be=e a clean+ p]iod4 ,9 clean+1 ! foll[+ practice is usually foll[$3 ,! good coal on ! =w>d half ( ! grate is pu%$ to ! re> half1 & ! refuse on ! front portion ei!r pull$ out or dump$4 ,! good coal is !n pull$ =w>d onto ! front "p ( ! grate & ! refuse on ! re> section dump$4 ,! rema9+ good coal is !n spread ev5ly ov] ! :ole grate surface & ! fire built up ) fre% coal4 ,a ratio ( grate surface to heat+ surface ( #a to f #ce to #dj w "u ord9>y conditions develop ! rat$ capacity ( a boil] :5 burn+ an?racite buck:eat4 ,:]e ! f9] sizes are us$1 or :]e ov]loads are desirable1 h[ev]1 ?is ratio %\ld pref]ably be #a to #be & a =c$ bla/ %\ld be us$4 ,grates #aj feet deep ) a slope ( #a in*es to ! foot c be h&l$ com=tably ) ?is class ( fuel1 & grates #ab feet deep ) ! same slope c be successfully h&l$4 ,:]e grates ov] #h feet 9 dep? are necess>y1 %ak+ grates or ov]lapp+ dump+ grates %\ld be us$4 ,dump+ grates may be appli$ ei!r = ! :ole grate surface or to ! re> section4 ,air op5+s 9 ! grate b>s %\ld be made f #c_/af in* 9 wid? = ,no4 #c buck:eat to #e_/af in* = ,no4 #a buck:eat4 ,x is important t ^! air op5+s be uni=mly di/ribut$ ov] ! :ole surface to avoid bl[+ holes 9 ! fire1 & x is = ?is reason t ov]lapp+ grates are recomm5d$4 ,no air %\ld be admitt$ ov] ! fire4 ,/eam is sometimes introduc$ into ! a%pit to s(t5 any cl9k] t may =m1 b ! quantity ( /eam %\ld be limit$ to t requir$ = ?is purpose4 ,! /eam t may be us$ 9 a /eam jet bl[] = secur+ bla/ w 9 c]ta9 in/ances assi/ 9 s(t5+ ! cl9k]1 b a mu* great] quantity may be us$ by su* an app>atus ?an is requir$ = ?is purpose4 ,combu/ion ar*es sprung above ! grates h prov$ ( advantage 9 ma9ta9+ a high furnace temp]ature & 9 assi/+ 9 ! ignition ( fre% coal4 ,/acks us$ ) =c$ bla/ %\ld be ( su* size z to insure a slight suction 9 ! furnace "u any conditions ( op]ation4 ,a bla/ up to #c in*es ( wat] %\ld be available = ! f9] sizes suppli$ by eng9e driv5 fans1 automatically controll$ by ! boil] pressure4 ,! bla/ requir$ w increase z ! dep? ( ! fuel b$ increases1 & ! slight suction %\ld be ma9ta9$ 9 ! furnace by damp] regulation4 ,! use ( bla/ ) ! f9] sizes causes rapid f\l+ ( ! heat+ surfaces ( ! boil]1 ! du/ (t5 am\nt+ to ov] #aj p] c5t ( ! total fuel fir$4 ,economical disposal ( du/ & a%es is ( ! utmo/ importance 9 burn+ fuel ( ?is nature4 ,provision %\ld be made 9 ! baffl+ ( ! boil] to accommodate & dispose ( ?is du/4 ,:5ev] conditions p]mit1 ! a%es c be economically dispos$ ( by flu%+ !m out ) wat]4 ,bitum9\s ,coals--,!re is no classification ( bitum9\s coal z to size t holds good 9 all localities4 ,! ,am]ican ,society ( ,me*anical ,eng9e]s sugge/s ! foll[+ grad+3 ,ea/]n ,bitum9\s ,coals-- 7,a7 ,run ( m9e coal2 ! unscre5$ coal tak5 f ! m9e4 7,b7 ,lump coal2 t :i* passes ov] a b>-scre5 ) op5+s #a in*es wide4 7,c7 ,nut coal2 t :i* passes ?r\gh a b>-scre5 ) #a-;in* op5+s & ov] "o ) -in* op5+s4 7,d7 ,slack coal2 t :i* passes ?r\gh a b>-scre5 ) -in* op5+s4 ,we/]n ,bitum9\s ,coals-- 7,e7 ,run ( m9e coal2 ! unscre5$ coal tak5 f ! m9e4 7,f7 ,lump coal2 divid$ into #f-;in*1 #c-;in* & #a-;in* lump1 accord+ to ! diamet] ( ! circul> op5+s ov] :i* ! respective grades pass2 also #f #c-;in* lump & #c #a-;in* lump1 accord+ z ! coal passes ?r\gh a circul> op5+ hav+ ! diamet] ( ! l>g] figure & ov] t ( ! small] diamet]4 7,g7 ,nut coal2 divid$ into #c-;in* /eam nut1 :i* passes ?r\gh an op5+ #c in*es diamet] & ov] #a in*es2 #a in* nut1 :i* passes ?r\gh a #a-;in* diamet] op5+ & ov] a -in* diamet] op5+2 -in* nut1 :i* passes ?r\gh a -in* diamet] op5+ & ov] a #e_/h-;in* diamet] op5+4 7,h7 ,scre5+s2 t :i* passes ?r\gh a #a-;in* diamet] op5+4 ,z ! v>iation 9 "* ( bitum9\s coals is mu* great] ?an 9 ! an?racites1 any rules set d[n = _! h&l+ mu/ be ! m g5]al4 ,! difficulties 9 burn+ bitum9\s coals ) economy & ) little or no smoke increases z ! cont5t ( fix$ c>bon 9 ! coal decreases4 ,x is _! volatile cont5t :i* causes ! difficulties & x is ess5tial t ! furnaces be design$ to prop]ly h&le ?is portion ( ! coal4 ,! fix$ c>bon w take c>e ( itself1 provid$ ! volatile matt] is prop]ly burn$4 ,mr4 ,k5t1 9 8 ,/eam ,boil] ,economy1 describ$ ! action ( bitum9\s coal aft] x is fir$ z foll[s3 ,! fir/ ?+ t ! f9e fre% coal does is to *oke ! air spaces exi/+ ?r\gh ! b$ ( coke1 ?us %utt+ (f ! air supply :i* is ne$$ to burn ! gases produc$ f ! fre% coal4 ,! next ?+ is a v rapid evaporation ( moi/ure f ! coal1 a *ill+ process1 :i* robs ! furnace ( heat4 ,next is ! =mation ( wat]-gas by ! *emical reaction1 ,c ,h#b,o ,,co #b;,h1 ! /eam be+ decompos$1 its oxyg5 burn+ ! c>bon ( ! coal to c>bonic oxide1 & ! hydrog5 be+ lib]at$4 ,?is reaction takes place :5 /eam is br\ght 9 contact ) highly heat$ c>bon4 ,?is also is a *ill+ process1 absorb+ heat f ! furnaces4 ,! two valuable fuel gases ?us g5]at$ w\ld give back all ! heat absorb$ 9 _! =mation if !y c\ld be burn$1 b !re is n en\gh air 9 ! furnace to burn !m4 ,admitt+ extra air ?r\gh ! fire door at ?is "t w be ( no s]vice1 = ! gases be+ comp>atively cool _c be burn$ unless ! air is highly heat$4 ,aft] all ! moi/ure has be5 driv5 (f f ! coal1 ! di/illation ( hydroc>bons beg9s1 & a consid]able portion ( !m escapes unburn$1 ow+ to ! defici5cy ( hot air1 & to _! be+ *ill$ by ! relatively cool heat+ surfaces ( ! boil]4 ,dur+ all ?is "t great volumes ( smoke are escap+ f ! *imney1 toge!r ) unburn$ hydrog51 hydroc>bons1 & c>bonic oxide1 all fuel gases1 :ile at ! same "t soot is be+ deposit$ on ! heat+ surface1 dim9i%+ its effici5cy 9 transmitt+ heat to ! wat]4 ,to burn ^! gases di/ill$ f ! coal1 x is necess>y t !y be br\ght into contact ) air suffici5tly heat$ to cause !m to ignite1 t suffici5t space be all[$ = _! mixture ) ! air1 & t suffici5t "t be all[$ = _! complete combu/ion be=e !y /rike ! boil] heat+ surfaces1 s9ce ^! surfaces are comp>atively cool & w l[] ! temp]ature ( ! gases bel[ _! ignition po9t4 ,! air drawn ?r\gh ! fire by ! draft suction is heat$ 9 its passage & heat is add$ by radiation f ! hot brick surfaces ( ! furnace1 ! air & volatile gases mix+ z ?is increase 9 temp]ature is tak+ place4 ,?us 9 mo/ in/ances is ! fir/ requirem5t fulfill$4 ,! elem5t ( space = ! prop] mixture ( ! gases ) ! air1 & ( "t 9 :i* combu/ion is to take place1 %\ld be tak5 c>e ( by suffici5tly l>ge combu/ion *amb]s4 ,c]ta9 bitum9\s coals1 ow+ to _! high volatile cont5t1 require t ! air be heat$ to a high] temp]ature ?an x is possible = x to atta9 simply 9 its passage ?r\gh ! fire & by absorption f ! side walls ( ! furnace4 ,su* coals c be burn$ ) ! be/ results "u fire brick ar*es4 ,su* ar*es increase ! temp]ature ( ! furnace & 9 ?is way ma9ta9 ! heat t mu/ be pres5t = ignition & complete combu/ion ( ! fuels 9 "q4 ,^! fuels too1 sometimes require additional combu/ion space1 & an ext5sion furnace w give ?is 9 addition to ! requir$ ar*es4 ,z /at$1 ! difficulty ( burn+ bitum9\s coals successfully w increase ) ! increase 9 volatile matt]4 ,?is p]c5tage ( volatile w affect directly ! dep? ( coal b$ to be c>ri$ & ! int]vals ( fir+ = ! mo/ satisfactory results4 ,! v>iation 9 ! fuel ov] su* wide ranges makes x impossible to def9itely /ate ! ?ickness ( fires = all classes1 & exp]im5t ) ! class ( fuel 9 use is ! be/ me?od ( det]m9+ h[ t p>ticul> fuel %\ld be h&l$4 ,! foll[+ sugge/ions1 :i* are n to be consid]$ 9 any s5se h>d & fa/ rules1 may be ( s]vice = g5]al op]at+ conditions = h& fir+3 ,semi-bitum9\s coals1 su* z ,pocahontas1 ,new ,riv]1 ,cle>field1 etc41 require fires f #aj to #ad in*es ?ick2 fre% coal %\ld be fir$ at int]vals ( #aj to #bj m9utes & suffici5t coal *>g$ at ea* fir+ to ma9ta9 a uni=m ?ickness4 ,bitum9\s coals f ,pittsburgh ,region require fires f #d to #f in*es ?ick1 & %\ld be fir$ (t5 9 comp>atively small *>ges4 ,k5tucky1 ,t5nessee1 ,ohio & ,ill9ois coals require a ?ickness f #d to #f in*es4 ,free burn+ coals f ,rock ,spr+s1 ,wyom+1 require f #f to #h in*es1 :ile ! poor] grades ( ,montana1 ,utah & ,wa%+ton bitum9\s coals require a dep? ( ab\t #d in*es4 ,9 g5]al z ?9 fires are f\nd necess>y1 ! int]vals ( fir+ %\ld be made m frequ5t & ! quantity ( coal fir$ at ea* int]val small]4 ,z ?9 fires become necess>y due to ! "* ( ! coal1 ! t5d5cy to cl9k] w increase if ! ?ickness be increas$ ov] t f\nd to give ! be/ results4 ,!re are two g5]al me?ods ( h& fir+3 #a/1 ! spread+ me?od2 & #bnd1 ! cok+ me?od4 ,illu/ration3 ,babcock ,wilcox ,*a9 ,grate ,/ok] ,9 ! spread+ me?od b little fuel is fir$ at "o "t1 & is spread ev5ly ov] ! fuel b$ f front to re>4 ,:]e !re is m ?an "o fir+ door ! doors %\ld be fir$ alt]nately4 ,! advantage ( alt]nate fir+ is ! :ole surface ( ! fire is n blanket$ ) gre5 coal1 & /eam is g5]at$ m uni=mly ?an if all doors 7 fir$ at "o "t4 ,aga91 a bett] combu/ion results due to ! burn+ ( m ( ! volatile matt] directly aft] fir+ ?an :]e all doors are fir$ at "o "t4 ,9 ! cok+ me?od1 fre% coal is fir$ at consid]able dep? at ! front ( ! grate & aft] x is p>tially cok$ x is pu%$ back into ! furnace4 ,! object ( su* a me?od is ! pres]v+ ( a b$ ( c>bon at ! re> ( ! grate1 9 pass+ ov] :i* ! volatile gases driv5 (f f ! gre5 coal w be burn$4 ,?is me?od is p>ticul>ly adaptable to a grate 9 :i* ! gases are made to pass horizontally ov] ! fire4 ,mod]n practice = h& fir+ leans m & m t[>d ! spread fir+ me?od4 ,aga9 ! t5d5cy is to "w bitum9\s coal fires less ?an =m]ly4 ,a c]ta9 am\nt ( slic+ & rak+ may be necess>y ) ei!r me?od ( fir+1 b 9 g5]al1 ! less ! fire is work$ ! bett] ! results4 ,lignites--,z ! cont5t ( volatile matt] & moi/ure 9 lignite is high] ?an 9 bitum9\s coal1 ! difficulties enc\nt]$ 9 burn+ !m are great]4 ,a l>ge combu/ion space is requir$ & ! be/ results are obta9$ :]e a furnace ( ! rev]b]atory type is us$1 giv+ ! gases a long travel be=e meet+ ! tube surfaces4 ,a fuel b$ f #d to #f in*es 9 dep? c be ma9ta9$1 & ! coal %\ld be fir$ 9 small quantities by ! alt]nate me?od4 ,above c]ta9 rates ( combu/ion cl9k] =ms rapidly1 & a /eam jet 9 ! a%pit = s(t5+ ?is cl9k] is (t5 desirable4 ,a consid]able draft %\ld be available1 b x %\ld be c>efully regulat$ by ! boil] damp] to suit ! condition ( ! fire4 ,smokelessness ) h& fir+ ) ?is class ( fuel is a practical impossibility4 ,x has a /rong t5d5cy to f\l ! heat+ surfaces rapidly & ^! surfaces %\ld be clean$ frequ5tly4 ,%ak+ grates1 intellig5tly h&l$1 aid 9 clean+ ! fires1 b _! manipulation mu/ be c>efully wat*$ to prev5t good coal be+ lo/ 9 ! a%pit4 ,/ok]s--,! t]m automatic /ok] (t5times conveys ! errone\s impression t su* an app>atus takes c>e ( itself1 & x mu/ be ?or\ghly und]/ood t any /ok] requires exp]t att5tion to z high if n high] degree ?an d h&-fir$ furnaces4 ,/ok]-fir$ furnaces h _m advantages ov] h& fir+1 b :]e a /ok] in/allation is contemplat$ !re are _m factors to be consid]$4 ,x is true t /ok]s fe$ coal to ! fire automatically1 b if ! coal has fir/ to be f$ to ! /ok] hopp] by h&1 its automatic advantage is lo/4 ,?is is z true ( ! removal ( a% f a /ok]4 ,9 a g5]al way1 x may be /at$ t a /ok] in/allation is n advantage\s except possibly = dim9i%+ smoke1 unless ! automatic feature is c>ri$ to ! h&l+ ( ! coal & a%1 z :]e coal & a% h&l+ app>atus is n in/all$ !re is no sav+ 9 labor4 ,9 l>ge plants1 h[ev]1 /ok]s us$ 9 conjunction ) ! mod]n me?ods ( coal /orage & coal & a% h&l+1 make possible a l>ge labor sav+4 ,9 small plants ! labor sav+ = /ok]s ov] h&-fir$ furnaces is negligible1 & ! exp5se ( ! in/allation no less proportionately ?an 9 l>ge plants4 ,/ok]s are1 !re=e1 advisable 9 small plants only :]e ! sav+ 9 fuel w be l>ge1 or :]e ! smoke "q is important4 ,int]e/ on inve/m5t1 repairs1 depreciation & /eam requir$ = bla/ & /ok] drive mu/ all be consid]$4 ,! upkeep co/ w1 9 g5]al1 be high] ?an = h&-fir$ furnaces4 ,/ok]s1 h[ev]1 make possible ! use ( *eap] fuels ) z high or high] economy ?an is obta9able "u op]at+ conditions 9 h&-fir$ furnaces ) a bett] grade ( fuel4 ,! bett] effici5cy obta9able ) a good /ok] is due to m ev5 & cont9u\s fir+ z aga9/ ! int]mitt5t fir+ ( h&-fir$ furnaces2 con/ant air supply z aga9/ a v>iation 9 ?is supply to meet v>y+ furnace conditions 9 h&-fir$ furnaces2 & ! do+ away to a great ext5t ) ! necessity ( work+ ! fires4 ,/ok]s "u ord9>y op]at+ conditions w give m ne>ly smokeless combu/ion ?an w h&-fir$ furnaces & = ?is reason mu/ (t5 be in/all$ reg>dless ( o!r consid]ations4 ,:ile a con/ant air supply = a giv5 p[] is !oretically secur$ by ! use ( a /ok]1 & 9 _m in/ances ! draft is automatically gov]n$1 ! air supply %\ld1 nev]!less1 be z c>efully wat*$ & *eck$ by flue gas analyses z 9 ! case ( h&-fir$ furnaces4 ,!re is a t5d5cy 9 all /ok]s to cause ! loss ( "s good fuel or sift+s 9 ! a%pit1 b suitable arrangem5ts may be made to reclaim ?is4 ,9 respect to effici5cy ( combu/ion1 o!r conditions be+ equal1 !re w be no appreciable diff]5ce ) ! diff]5t types ( /ok]s1 provid$ t ! prop] type is us$ = ! grade ( fuel to be burn$ & ! conditions ( op]ation to be fulfill$4 ,no /ok] w satisfactorily h&le all classes ( fuel1 & 9 mak+ a selection1 c>e %\ld be tak5 t ! type is suit$ to ! fuel & ! op]at+ conditions4 ,a *eap /ok] is a poor inve/m5t4 ,only ! be/ /ok] suit$ to ! conditions :i* are to be met %\ld be adopt$1 = if !re is to be a sav+1 x w m ?an cov] ! co/ ( ! be/ ov] ! *eap] /ok]4 ,me*anical ,/ok]s are ( ?ree g5]al types3 #a/1 ov]fe$2 #bnd1 und]fe$2 & #crd1 travel+ grate4 ,! travel+ grate /ok]s are sometimes class$ z ov]fe$ b prop]ly %\ld be class$ by !mselves z "u c]ta9 conditions !y are ( ! und]fe$ r ?an ! ov]fe$ type4 ,ov]fe$ ,/ok]s 9 g5]al may be divid$ into two classes1 ! di/9ction be+ 9 ! direction 9 :i* ! coal is f$ relative to ! furnaces4 ,9 "o class ! coal is f$ into hopp]s at ! front end ( ! furnace onto grates ) an incl9ation d[nw>d t[>d ! re> ( ab\t #de degrees4 ,^! grates are reciprocat$1 be+ made to take alt]nately level & incl9$ positions & ?is motion gradually c>ries ! fuel z x is burn$ t[>d ! re> & bottom ( ! furnace4 ,at ! bottom ( ! grates flat dump+ sections are suppli$ = complet+ ! combu/ion & = clean+4 ,! fuel is p>tly burn$ or cok$ on ! upp] portion ( ! grates1 ! volatile gases driv5 (f 9 ?is process = a p]fect action be+ ignit$ & burn$ 9 _! passage ov] ! b$ ( burn+ c>bon l[] on ! grates1 or on becom+ mix$ ) ! hot gases 9 ! furnace *amb]4 ,9 ! second class ! fuel is f$ f ! sides ( ! furnace = its full dep? f front to re> onto grates incl9$ t[>d ! c5t] ( ! furnace4 ,x is mov$ by rock+ b>s & is gradually c>ri$ to ! bottom & c5t] ( ! furnace z combu/ion advances4 ,"h "s type ( a s-call$ cl9k] break] removes ! refuse4 ,und]fe$ ,/ok]s are ei!r horizontal or incl9$4 ,! fuel is f$ f und]nea?1 ei!r cont9u\sly by a screw1 or int]mitt5tly by plung]s4 ,! pr9ciple ^u :i* ^! /ok]s base _! claims = effici5cy & smokelessness is t ! gre5 fuel is f$ "u ! cok$ & burn+ coal1 ! volatile gases f ?is fre% fuel be+ heat$ & ignit$ 9 _! passage ?r\gh ! hotte/ portion ( ! fire on ! top4 ,9 ! horizontal classes ( und]fe$ /ok]s1 ! action ( a screw c>ries ! fuel back ?r\gh a retort f :i* x passes upw>d1 z ! fuel above is consum$1 ! a% be+ f9ally deposit$ on dead plates on ei!r side ( ! retort1 f :i* x c be remov$4 ,9 ! incl9$ class1 ! refuse is c>ri$ d[nw>d to ! re> ( ! furnace :]e !re are dump+ plates1 z 9 "s ( ! ov]fe$ types4 ,und]fe$ /ok]s are ord9>ily op]at$ ) a =c$ bla/1 ?is 9 "s cases be+ op]at$ by ! same me*anism z ! /ok] drive1 ?us automatically meet+ ! requirem5ts ( v>i\s combu/ion rates4 ,travel+ ,grates are ( ! class be/ illu/rat$ by *a9 grate /ok]s4 ,z impli$ by ! "n ^! consi/ ( endless grates compos$ ( %ort sections ( b>s1 pass+ ov] sprockets at ! front & re> ( ! furnace4 ,coal is f$ by gravity onto ! =w>d end ( ! grates ?r\gh suitable hopp]s1 is ignit$ "u ignition ar*es & is c>ri$ ) ! grate t[>d ! re> ( ! furnace z its combu/ion progresses4 ,:5 op]at$ prop]ly1 ! combu/ion is complet$ z ! fire rea*es ! end ( ! grate & ! refuse is c>ri$ ov] ?is re> end by ! grate 9 mak+ ! turn ov] ! re> sprocket4 ,9 "s cases auxili>y dump+ grates at ! re> ( ! *a9 grates are us$ ) success4 ,*a9 grate /ok]s 9 g5]al produce less smoke ?an ei!r ov]fe$ or und]fe$ types1 due to ! fact t !re are no clean+ p]iods necess>y4 ,su* p]iods occur ) ! latt] types ( /ok]s at int]vals dep5d+ ^u ! "* ( ! fuel us$ & ! rate ( combu/ion4 ,) *a9 grate /ok]s ! clean+ is cont9u\s & automatic1 & no p]iods occur :5 smoke w necess>ily be produc$4 ,9 ! e>li] =ms1 *a9 grates _h an objectionable feature 9 t ! admission ( l>ge am\nts ( excess air at ! re> ( ! furnace ?r\gh ! grates 0 possible4 ,?is objection has be5 l>gely ov]come 9 rec5t models by ! use ( "s su* device z ! bridge wall wat] box & suitable damp]s4 ,a di/9ct advantage ( *a9 grates ov] o!r types is t !y c be )drawn f ! furnace = inspection or repairs )\t int]f]+ 9 any way ) ! boil] sett+4 ,?is class ( /ok] is p>ticul>ly successful 9 burn+ l[ grades ( coal runn+ high 9 a% & volatile matt] :i* c only be burn$ ) difficulty on ! o!r types4 ,! co/ ( up-keep 9 a *a9 grate1 prop]ly con/ruct$ & op]at$1 is l[ 9 comp>ison ) ! same co/ = o!r /ok]s4 ,! ,babcock ,wilcox *a9 grate is repres5tative ( ?is design ( /ok]4 ,smoke--,! "q ( smoke & smokelessness 9 burn+ fuels has rec5tly become a v important factor ( ! problem ( combu/ion4 ,cities & communities ?r\gh\t ! c\ntry h pass$ ord9ances relative to ! quantities ( smoke t may be emitt$ f a /ack1 & ! failure ( op]ators to live up to ! requirem5ts ( su* ord9ances1 result+ z x does 9 f9es & annoyance1 has br\ght _! att5tion =cibly to ! matt]4 ,! :ole "q ( smoke & smokelessness is to a l>ge ext5t a comp>ative "o4 ,!re are any numb] ( plants burn+ a wide v>iety ( fuels 9 ord9>y h&-fir$ furnaces1 9 ext5sion furnaces & on automatic /ok]s t are op]at+ "u s]vice conditions1 practically )\t smoke4 ,x is safe to say1 h[ev]1 t no plant w op]ate smokelessly "u any & all conditions ( s]vice1 nor is !re a plant 9 :i* ! degree ( smokelessness does n dep5d l>gely ^u ! intellig5ce ( ! op]at+ =ce4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bf4 ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil] & ,sup]heat] ,equipp$ ) ,babcock ,wilcox ,*a9 ,grate ,/ok]4 ,?is ,sett+ has be5 ,p>ticul>ly ,successful 9 ,m9imiz+ ,smoke ,:5 a condition arises 9 a boil] room requir+ ! fires to be br\ght up quickly1 ! op]atives 9 h&l+ c]ta9 types ( /ok]s w use _! slice b>s freely to break up ! gre5 portion ( ! fire ov] ! b$ ( p>tially burn$ coal4 ,9 fact1 :5 a load is sudd5ly ?r[n on a /ation ! /eam pressure c (t5 be ma9ta9$ only 9 ?is way1 & su* use ( ! slice b> w cause smoke ) ! v be/ type ( /ok]4 ,9 a c]ta9 plant us+ a highly volatile coal & op]at+ boil]s equipp$ ) ord9>y h&-fir$ furnaces1 ext5sion h&-fir$ furnaces & /ok]s1 9 :i* ! boil]s ) ! diff]5t types ( furnaces 7 on sep>ate /acks1 a diff]5ce 9 smoke f ! diff]5t types ( furnaces 0 app>5t at light loads1 b :5 a heavy load 0 ?r[n on ! plant1 all ?ree /acks w\ld smoke to ! same ext5t1 & x 0 impossible to judge :i* type ( furnace 0 on "o or ! o!r ( ! /acks4 ,9 h&-fir$ furnaces mu* c be accompli%$ by prop] fir+4 ,a comb9ation ( ! alt]nate & spread+ me?ods %\ld be us$1 ! coal be+ fir$ ev5ly1 quickly1 lightly & (t51 & ! fires work$ z little z possible4 ,smoke c be dim9i%$ by giv+ ! gases a long travel "u ! action ( heat$ brickwork be=e !y /rike ! boil] heat+ surfaces4 ,air introduc$ ov] ! fires & ! use ( heat$ ar*es1 etc41 = m+l+ ! air ) ! gases di/ill$ f ! coal w also dim9i% smoke4 ,ext5sion furnaces w und\bt$ly less5 smoke :]e h& fir+ is us$1 due to ! increase 9 l5g? ( gas travel & ! fact t ?is travel is p>tially "u heat$ brickwork4 ,:]e h&-fir$ grates are imm$iately "u ! boil] tubes1 & a high volatile coal is us$1 if suffici5t combu/ion space is n provid$ ! volatile gases1 di/ill$ z soon z ! coal is ?r[n on ! fire1 /rike ! tube surfaces & are cool$ bel[ ! burn+ po9t be=e !y are :olly consum$ & pass ?r\gh z smoke4 ,) an ext5sion furnace1 ^! volatile gases are act$ ^u by ! radiant heat f ! ext5sion furnace ar* & ?is heat1 toge!r ) ! add$ l5g? ( travel causes _! m complete combu/ion be=e /rik+ ! heat+ surfaces ?an 9 ! =m] case4 ,smoke may be dim9i%$ by employ+ a baffle arrangem5t :i* gives ! gases a fairly long travel "u heat$ brickwork & by introduc+ air above ! fire4 ,9 _m cases1 h[ev]1 special furnaces = smoke r$uction are in/all$ at ! exp5se ( capacity & economy4 ,f ! /&po9t ( smokelessness1 und\bt$ly ! be/ results are obta9$ ) a good /ok]1 prop]ly op]at$4 ,z /at$ above1 ! be/ /ok] w cause smoke "u c]ta9 conditions4 ,intellig5tly h&l$1 h[ev]1 "u ord9>y op]at+ conditions1 /ok]-fir$ furnaces are mu* m ne>ly smokeless ?an ^? :i* are h& fir$1 & are1 to all int5ts & purposes1 smokeless4 ,9 practically all /ok] in/allations !re ent]s ! elem5t ( "t = combu/ion1 ! volatile gases z !y are di/ill$ be+ act$ ^u by ignition or o!r ar*es be=e !y /rike ! heat+ surfaces4 ,9 _m in/ances too1 /ok]s are in/all$ ) an ext5sion beyond ! boil] front1 :i* gives an add$ l5g? ( travel dur+ :i*1 ! gases are act$ ^u by ! radiant heat f ! ignition or supplem5t>y ar*es1 & "h aga9 we see ! long travel giv+ "t = ! volatile gases to be prop]ly consum$4 ,to repeat1 x mu/ be emphatically borne 9 m9d t ! "q ( smokelessness is l>gely "o ( degree1 & dep5d5t to an ext5t mu* great] ?an is ord9>ily appreciat$ ^u ! h&l+ ( ! fuel & ! furnaces by ! op]ators1 be ^! furnaces h& fir$ or automatically fir$4 ,illu/ration3 #cebj ,horse-p[] ,in/allation ( ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil]s at ! ,portl& ,railway1 ,light & ,p[] ,co41 ,portl&1 ,ore4 ,^! ,boil]s are ,equipp$ ) ,wood ,refuse ,ext5sion ,furnaces at ! ,front & ,oil ,burn+ ,furnaces at ! ,mud ,drum ,end ,,solid ,,fuels ,,o!r ,,?an ,,coal ,,& ,,_! ,,combu/ion ,wood--,wood is vegetable tissue :i* has und]gone no geological *ange4 ,usually ! t]m is us$ to designate ^? compact sub/ances famili>ly kn[n z tree trunks & limbs4 ,:5 newly cut1 wood conta9s moi/ure v>y+ f #cj p] c5t to #ej p] c5t4 ,:5 dri$ = a p]iod ( ab\t a ye> 9 ! atmosph]e1 ! moi/ure cont5t w be r$uc$ to #ah or #bj p] c5t4 ,,table #da ,,ultimate ,,analyses ,,& ,,calorific ,,values ,,( ,,dry ,,wood 7,,gottlieb7 ,k9d ,b4 t4 u4 ( ,c ,h ,n ,o ,a% p] ,wood ,p\nd ,oak #ej4af #f4jb #j4ji #dc4cf #j4cg #hcaf ,a% #di4ah #f4bg #j4jg #dc4ia #j4eg #hdhj ,elm #dh4ii #f4bj #j4jf #dd4be #j4ej #heaj ,bee* #di4jf #f4aa #j4ji #dd4ag #j4eg #hcia ,bir* #dh4hh #f4jf #j4aj #dd4fg #j4bi #hehf ,fir #ej4cf #e4ib #j4je #dc4ci #j4bh #ijfc ,p9e #ej4ca #f4bj #j4jd #dc4jh #j4cg #iaec ,popl> #di4cg #f4ba #j4if #da4fj #a4hf #ghcddj ,will[ #di4if #e4if #j4if #ci4ef #c4cg #gibfdj ,wood is usually classifi$ z h>d wood1 includ+ oak1 maple1 hickory1 bir*1 walnut & bee*2 & s(t wood1 includ+ p9e1 fir1 spruce1 elm1 *e/nut1 popl> & will[4 ,contr>y to g5]al op9ion1 ! heat value p] p\nd ( s(t wood is slightly great] ?an ! same value p] p\nd ( h>d wood4 ,table #da gives ! *emical composition & ! heat values ( ! common woods4 ,ord9>ily ! heat+ value ( wood is consid]$ equival5t to #j4d t ( bitum9\s coal4 ,9 consid]+ ! calorific value ( wood z giv5 9 ?is table1 x is to be rememb]$ t :ile ?is value is bas$ on air-dri$ wood1 ! moi/ure cont5t is /ill ab\t #bj p] c5t ( ! :ole1 & ! heat produc$ 9 burn+ x w be dim9i%$ by ?is am\nt & by ! heat requir$ to evaporate ! moi/ure & sup]heat x to ! temp]ature ( ! gases4 ,! heat s absorb$ may be calculat$ by ! =mula giv+ ! loss due to moi/ure 9 ! fuel1 & ! net calorific value det]m9$4 ,9 design+ furnaces = burn+ wood1 ! "q resolves itself into3 #a/1 ! ess5tial elem5ts to give maximum capacity & effici5cy ) ?is class ( fuel2 & #bnd1 ! con/ruction :i* w entail ! lea/ labor 9 h&l+ & fe$+ ! fuel & remov+ ! refuse aft] combu/ion4 ,wood1 z us$ comm]cially = /eam g5]at+ purposes1 is usually a wa/e product f "s indu/rial process4 ,at ! pres5t "t refuse f lumb] & sawmills =ms by f> ! great] "p ( ?is class ( fuel4 ,9 su* refuse ! moi/ure may run z high z #fj p] c5t & ! composition ( ! fuel may v>y ov] wide ranges dur+ diff]5t portions ( ! mill op]ation4 ,! fuel consi/s ( sawdu/1 hogg$ wood & slabs1 & ! p]c5tage ( ea* ( ^! con/itu5ts may v>y greatly4 ,hogg$ wood is mill refuse & logs t h be5 pass$ ?r\gh a hogg+ ma*9e or mac]ator4 ,?is ma*9e1 ?r\gh ! action ( revolv+ knives1 cuts or %r$s ! wood into a /ate 9 :i* x may readily be h&l$ z fuel4 ,table #db gives ! moi/ure cont5t & heat value ( typical sawmill refuse f v>i\s woods4 ,,table #db ,,moi/ure ,,& ,,calorific ,,value ,,( ,,sawmill ,,refuse ,p] ,c5t ,b4 t4 u4 ,k9d ( ,wood ,nature ( ,refuse ,moi/ure p] ,p\nd ,dry ,fuel ,mexican ,:ite ,p9e ,sawdu/ & ,hog ,*ips #ea4ij #ijbj ,yosemite ,sug> ,p9e ,sawdu/ & ,hog ,*ips #fb4he #ijaj ,r$wood #ge1 ,sawdu/1 ,box ,mill ,d\glas ,fir #be ,refuse & ,hog #db4bj #higgda ,r$wood ,sawdu/ & ,hog ,*ips #eb4ih #ijdjda ,r$wood ,sawdu/ & ,hog ,*ips #di4aa #ibjdda ,fir1 ,hemlock1 ,spruce & ,c$> ,sawdu/ #db4jf #hidida ,x is ess5tial 9 ! burn+ ( ?is class ( fuel t a l>ge combu/ion space be suppli$1 & on acc\nt ( ! usually high moi/ure cont5t !re %\ld be mu* heat$ brickwork to radiate heat to ! fuel b$ & ?us evaporate ! moi/ure4 ,ext5sion furnaces ( ! prop] size are usually ess5tial = good results & :5 ?is fuel is us$ alone1 grates dropp$ to ! floor l9e ) an a%pit bel[ give additional volume = combu/ion & space = ma9ta9+ a ?ick fuel b$4 ,a ?ick fuel b$ is necess>y 9 ord] to avoid excessive quantities ( air pass+ ?r\gh ! boil]4 ,:]e ! fuel consi/s ( hogg$ wood & sawdu/ alone1 x is be/ to fe$ x automatically into ! furnace ?r\gh *utes on ! top ( ! ext5sion4 ,! be/ results are secur$ :5 ! fuel is all[$ to pile up 9 ! furnace to a height ( #c or #d feet 9 ! =m ( a cone "u ea* *ute4 ,! fuel burns be/ :5 n di/urb$ 9 ! furnace4 ,ea* fuel *ute1 :5 a prop] di/ance f ! grates & ) ! piles ma9ta9$ at _! prop] height1 w supply ab\t #cj or #ce squ>e feet ( grate surface4 ,:ile l>ge quantities ( air are requir$ = burn+ ?is fuel1 excess air is z h>mful z ) coal1 & c>e mu/ be tak5 t su* an excess is n admitt$ ?r\gh fire doors or fuel *utes4 ,a /rong natural draft usually is pref]able to a bla/ ) ?is fuel4 ,! action ( bla/ is to make ! regulation ( ! furnace conditions m difficult & to bl[ ov] unconsum$ fuel on ! heat+ surfaces & into ! /ack4 ,?is unconsum$ fuel settl+ 9 portions ( ! sett+ out ( ! direct pa? ( ! gases w h a t5d5cy to ignite provid$ any air rea*es x1 ) results h>mful to ! sett+ & bree*+ connection4 ,?is action is p>ticul>ly objectionable if ^! p>ticles are c>ri$ ov] into ! base ( a /ack1 :]e !y w settle bel[ ! po9t at :i* ! flue ent]s & if ignit$ may cause ! /ack to become ov]heat$ & buckle4 ,:e!r natural draft or bla/ is us$1 mu* ( ! fuel is c>ri$ onto ! heat+ surfaces & ^! %\ld be clean$ regul>ly to ma9ta9 a good effici5cy4 ,collect+ *amb]s 9 v>i\s portions ( ! sett+ %\ld be provid$ = ?is unconsum$ fuel1 & ^! %\ld be kept clean4 ,) prop] draft conditions1 #aej p\nds ( ?is fuel conta9+ ab\t #cj to #dj p] c5t ( moi/ure c be burn$ p] squ>e foot ( grate surface p] h\r1 & 9 a prop]ly design$ furnace "o squ>e foot ( grate surface c develop f #e to #f boil] horse p[]4 ,:]e ! wood conta9s #ej p] c5t ( moi/ure or ov]1 x is n usually safe to figure on obta9+ m ?an #c to #d horse p[] p] squ>e foot ( grate surface4 ,dry sawdu/1 *ips & blocks are also us$ z fuel 9 _m wood-work+ indu/ries4 ,"h1 z ) ! wet wood1 ample combu/ion space %\ld be suppli$1 b z ?is fuel is ord9>ily kiln dri$1 l>ge brickwork surfaces 9 ! furnace are n necess>y = ! evaporation ( moi/ure 9 ! fuel4 ,?is fuel may be burn$ 9 ext5sion furnaces ?\gh ^! are n requir$ unless !y are necess>y to secure an add$ furnace volume1 to get 9 suffici5t grate surface1 or :]e su* an arrangem5t mu/ be us$ to all[ = a fuel b$ ( suffici5t ?ickness4 ,dep? ( fuel b$ ) ! dry fuel is z important z ) ! moi/ fuel4 ,if ext5sion furnaces are us$ ) ?is dry wood1 c>e mu/ be tak5 9 _! design t !re is no excessive ?rottl+ ( ! gases 9 ! furnace1 or brickwork tr\ble w result4 ,9 ,babcock ,wilcox boil]s ?is fuel may be burn$ )\t ext5sion furnaces1 provid$ t ! boil]s are set at a suffici5t height to provide ample combu/ion space & to all[ = prop] dep? ( fuel b$4 ,sometimes ?is is ga9$ by l[]+ ! grates to ! floor l9e & excavat+ = an a%pit4 ,:]e ! fuel is l>gely sawdu/1 x may be introduc$ ov] ! fire doors ?r\gh incl9$ *utes4 ,! old me?ods ( h&l+ & collect+ sawdu/ by means ( air suction & bla/ 7 su* t ! am\nt ( air admitt$ ?r\gh su* *utes 0 excessive1 b ) improv$ me?ods ! am\nt ( air s admitt$ may be r$uc$ to a negligible quantity4 ,! blocks & refuse :i* _c be h&l$ ?r\gh *utes may be fir$ ?r\gh fire doors 9 ! front ( ! boil]1 :i* %\ld be made suffici5tly l>ge to accommodate ! l>g] sizes ( fuel4 ,z ) wet fuel1 !re w be a quantity ( unconsum$ wood c>ri$ ov] & ! heat+ surfaces mu/ be kept clean4 ,9 a few localities cord wood is burn$4 ,) ?is z ) o!r classes ( wood fuel1 a l>ge combu/ion space is an ess5tial feature4 ,! p]c5tage ( moi/ure 9 cord wood may make x necess>y to use an ext5sion furnace1 b ord9>ily ?is is n requir$4 ,ample combu/ion space is 9 mo/ cases secur$ by dropp+ ! grates to ! floor l9e1 l>ge d\ble-deck fire doors be+ suppli$ at ! usual fire door level ?r\gh :i* ! wood is ?r[n by h&4 ,air is admitt$ "u ! grates ?r\gh an excavat$ a%pit4 ,! side1 front & re> walls ( ! furnace %\ld be corbell$ out to cov] ab\t "o-?ird ( ! total grate surface4 ,?is prev5ts cold air f lane+ up ! sides ( ! furnace & also r$uces ! grate surface4 ,cord wood & slabs =m an op5 fire ?r\gh :i* ! frictional loss ( ! air is mu* less ?an 9 ! case ( sawdu/ or hogg$ mat]ial4 ,! combu/ion rate ) cord wood is1 !re=e1 high] & ! grate surface may be consid]ably r$uc$4 ,su* wood is usually cut 9 l5g?s ( #d feet or #d feet #f in*es1 & ! dep? ( ! grates %\ld be kept approximately #e feet to get ! be/ results4 ,bagasse--,bagasse is ! refuse ( sug> cane f :i* ! juice has be5 extract$ by pressure betwe5 ! rolls ( ! mill4 ,f ! />t ( ! sug> indu/ry bagasse has be5 consid]$ ! natural fuel = sug> plantations1 & 9 view ( ! importance ( ! indu/ry a ^w ( hi/ory relative to ! use ( ?is fuel is n out ( place4 ,:5 ! manufacture ( sug> 0 9 its infancy ! cane 0 pass$ ?r\gh b a s+le mill & ! defecation & conc5tration ( ! sac*>9e juice took place 9 a s]ies ( vessels m\nt$ "o aft] ano!r ov] a common fire at "o end & connect$ to a /ack at ! opposite end4 ,?is primitive me?od 0 kn[n 9 ! ,engli% colonies z ! ,op5 ,wall & 9 ! ,spani%-,am]ican c\ntries z ! ,jamaica ,tra94 ,! evaporation & conc5tration ( ! juice 9 ! op5 air & ov] a direct fire requir$ su* quantities ( fuel1 & ! bagasse1 9 fact1 play$ su* an important "p 9 ! manufacture ( sug>1 t (t5times ! degree ( extraction1 :i* 0 already l[1 w\ld be sacrific$ to ! necessity ( obta9+ a bagasse t might be readily burn$4 ,! furnaces 9 use ) ^! me?ods 7 z primitive z ! re/ ( ! app>atus1 & ! bagasse c\ld be burn$ 9 !m only by fir/ dry+ x4 ,?is naturally requir$ an enorm\s quantity ( h&l+ ( ! fuel 9 spread+ & collect+ & frequ5tly entail$ a %utt+ d[n ( ! mill1 because a %[] w\ld spoil ! supply :i* _h be5 dri$4 ,! difficulties aris+ f ! necessity ( dry+ ?is fuel caus$ a widespread attempt on ! "p ( inv5tors to ! turn+ out ( a furnace :i* w\ld successfully burn gre5 bagasse4 ,"s ( ! designs 7 m or less clev]1 & ab\t ! ye> #ahhj sev]al su* gre5 bagasse furnaces 7 in/all$4 ,^! did n come up to expectations1 h[ev]1 & almo/ inv>iably !y 7 ab&on$ & rec\rse _h to be tak5 to ! old me?od ( dry+ 9 ! sun4 ,f #ahhj ! new era 9 ! sug> indu/ry may be dat$4 ,slav]y 0 almo/ univ]sally aboli%$ & x became necess>y to pay = labor4 ,! co/ ( production 0 ?us increas$1 :ile gr[+ competition ( ,european beet sug> l[]$ ! prices4 ,! only rem$y = ! new /ate ( affairs 0 ! *eap5+ ( ! production by ! increase ( extraction & improvem5t 9 manufacture4 ,! d\ble mill took ! place ( ! s+le1 ! op5 wall me?od ( extraction 0 replac$ by vacuum evaporative app>atus & c5trifugal ma*9es 7 introduc$ to d ! "w ( ! great cur+ h\ses4 ,z oppos$ to ^! improvem5ts1 h[ev]1 ! /eam plants rema9$ z !y />t$1 consi/+ ( d\ble flue boil]s ext]nally fir$ ) dry bagasse4 ,on sev]al ( ! plantations horizontal multitubul> boil]s ext]nally fir$ 7 in/all$ & at ! "t 7 consid]$ ! acme ( p]fection4 ,num]\s attempts 7 made to burn ! bagasse gre51 among o!rs ! /ep grates import$ f ,l\isiana & kn[n z ! ,leon ,m>ie furnaces1 b satisfactory results 7 obta9$ 9 none ( ! appliances tri$4 ,! ,babcock ,wilcox ,co4 at ?is "t turn$ _! att5tion to ! problem ) ! results :i* ultimately l$ to its solution4 ,_! ,new ,orleans repres5tative1 ,mr4 ,fr$]ick ,cook1 inv5t$ a hot =c$ bla/ bagasse furnace & convey$ ! pat5t rights to ?is company4 ,?is furnace :ile n z effici5t z ! /&>d ( to-day1 & exp5sive 9 its con/ruction1 did1 nev]!less1 burn ! bagasse gre5 & enabl$ ! boil]s to develop _! normal rat$ capacity4 ,! fir/ furnace ( ?is type 0 in/all$ at ! ,s\?wood & ,mt4 ,h\mas plantations & on a small plantation 9 ,florida4 ,ab\t ! ye> #ahhh two furnaces 7 erect$ 9 ,cuba1 "o on ! plantation ,s5ado & ! o!r at ! ,c5tral ,hormigu]o4 ,! results obta9$ ) ^! furnaces 7 s rem>kable 9 comp>ison ) :at _h previ\sly be5 accompli%$ t ! company 0 ov]:elm$ ) ord]s4 ,! exp5se ( auxili>y fuel1 usually wood1 :i* 0 co/ly & indisp5sable 9 ra9y wea!r1 0 done away ) & z ! mill c\ld be op]at$ on bagasse alone1 ! /eam production & ! factory "w c\ld be regulat$ ) natural increase 9 daily output4 ,progress & improvem5t 9 ! manufacture itself 0 go+ on at a rem>kable rate1 ! s+le gr9d+ _h be5 replac$ by a d\ble gr9d+1 ?is 9 turn by a ?ird gr9d+1 & f9ally ! mac]ation & dilution ( ! bagasse 0 c>ri$ to ! extraction ( practically ! la/ trace ( sug> conta9$ 9 x4 ,! quantity ( juice to be treat$ 0 increas$ 9 ?is way #bj or #cj p] c5t b 0 accompani$ by ! r$uction to a m9imum ( ! bagasse available z a fuel1 & l$ to dem&s ^u ! furnace beyond its capacity4 ,) ! improvem5ts 9 ! manufacture1 plant]s _h be5 compell$ to make enorm\s sacrifices to *ange radically _! sy/ems1 & ! heavy disbursem5t necess>y = mill app>atus left few 9 a f9ancial position to make co/ly in/allations ( good furnaces4 ,! necessity ( turn+ to some?+ *eap 9 furnace con/ruction b :i* 0 nev]!less bett] ?an ! e>ly me?od ( burn+ ! fuel dry l$ to ! inv5tion ( num]\s furnaces by all classes ( eng9e]s reg>dless ( _! k ( ! subject & bas$ ^u no exp]i5ce4 ,none ( ! furnaces ?us produc$ 7 9 any s5se inv5tions b 7 m or less b>efac$ infr+em5ts ( ! pat5ts ( ,! ,babcock ,wilcox ,co4 ,z ! company c\ld n protect its rights )\t hurt+ its cli5ts1 :o 9 _m cases aga9/ _! own w 7 infr++ ^u ^! pat5ts1 & z on ! o!r h& !y 7 anxi\s to d some?+ to meet ! wants ( ! plant]s1 a s]ies ( exp]im5ts 7 />t$1 at _! own r ?an at _! cu/om]s' exp5se1 ) a view to develop+ a furnace :i*1 )\t be+ z exp5sive1 w\ld /ill fulfill all ! requirem5ts ( ! manufactur]4 ,! result 0 ! cold bla/ gre5 bagasse furnace :i* is n[ (f]$1 & x has be5 adopt$ z /&>d = ?is class ( "w aft] ye>s ( /udy & obs]vation 9 our in/allations 9 ! sug> c\ntries ( ! _w4 ,su* a furnace is describ$ lat] 9 consid]+ ! combu/ion ( bagasse4 ,composition & ,calorific ,value ( ,bagasse--,! proportion ( fib] conta9$ 9 ! cane & d5sity ( ! juice are important factors 9 ! relation ! bagasse fuel w h to ! total fuel necess>y to g5]ate ! /eam requir$ 9 a mill's op]ation4 ,a cane ri* 9 wood fib] produces m bagasse ?an a poor "o & a ?ick] juice is subject to a high] degree ( dilution ?an "o n s ri*4 ,besides ! p]c5tage ( bagasse 9 ! cane1 its physical condition has a be>+ on its calorific value4 ,! factors "h ent]+ are ! age at :i* ! cane mu/ be cut1 ! locality 9 :i* x is gr[n1 etc4 ,f ! analysis ( any sample ( bagasse its approximate calorific value may be calculat$ f ! =mula1 #heej;,f #gaai,s #fgej;,g - #igb,w ,b4 t4 u4 p] p\nd bagasse ---------------------------- 7#bb7 #ajj ,:]e ,f p] c5t ( fib] 9 cane1 ,s p] c5t sucrose1 ,g p] c5t glucose1 ,w p] c5t wat]4 ,?is =mula gives ! total available heat p] p\nd ( bagasse1 t is1 ! heat g5]at$ p] p\nd less ! heat requir$ to evaporate its moi/ure & sup]heat ! /eam ?us =m$ to ! temp]ature ( ! /ack gases4 ,?ree samples ( bagasse 9 :i* ! a% is assum$ to be #c p] c5t give f ! =mula3 ,f #ej ,s & ,g #d4e ,w #db4e ,b4 t4 u4 #dahc ,f #dj ,s & ,g #f4j ,w #ea4j ,b4 t4 u4 #ccea ,f #cc4c ,s & ,g #g4j ,w #ef4g ,b4 t4 u4 #bgig ,a sample ( ,java bagasse hav+ ,f #df4e1 ,s #d4ej1 ,g #j4e1 ,w #dg4e gives ,b4 t4 u4 #chfh4 ,^! figures %[ t ! dry] ! bagasse is cru%$1 ! high] ! calorific value1 ?\gh ?is is accompani$ by a decrease 9 sucrose4 ,! explanation lies 9 ! fact t ! pres5ce ( sucrose 9 an analysis is accompani$ by a def9ite am\nt ( wat]1 & t ! residual juice conta9s suffici5t organic sub/ance to evaporate ! wat] pres5t :5 a fuel is burn$ 9 a furnace4 ,= example1 assume ! residual juice 7#ajj p] c5t7 to conta9 #ab p] c5t organic matt]4 ,f ! con/ant 9 =mula1 #abgaai 7#ajj-ab7igb ------- #hed4c & ------------ #hee4d4 #ajj #ajj ,t is1 ! moi/ure 9 a juice conta9+ #ab p] c5t ( sug> w be evaporat$ by ! heat develop$ by ! combu/ion ( ! conta9$ sug>4 ,x w\ld1 !re=e1 appe> t a bagasse conta9+ su* juice has a calorific value due only to its fib] cont5t4 ,?is is1 ( c\rse1 true only :]e ! highe/ products ( oxidization are =m$ dur+ ! combu/ion ( ! organic matt]4 ,?is is n /rictly ! case1 especially ) a bagasse ( a high moi/ure cont5t :i* w n burn prop]ly b :i* sm\ld]s & produces a l>ge quantity ( products ( de/ructive di/illation1 *iefly heavy hydroc>bons1 :i* escape unburnt4 ,! reason+1 h[ev]1 is suffici5t to expla9 ! /eam mak+ prop]ties ( bagasse ( a l[ sucrose cont5t1 su* z are secur$ 9 ,java1 z :5 ! sucrose cont5t is l[]1 ! heat value is increas$ by extract+ m juice1 & h5ce m sug> f x4 ,! sug> op]ations 9 ,java exemplify ?is & %[ t ) a high dilution by mac]ation & heavy pressure ! bagasse meets all ( ! /eam requirem5ts ( ! mills )\t auxili>y fuel4 ,a high p]c5tage ( silica or salts 9 bagasse has sometimes be5 ascrib$ z ! reason = ! t5d5cy to sm\ld] 9 c]ta9 cases ( s(t fib] bagasse4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is due to ! l>ge moi/ure cont5t ( ! sample result+ directly f ! nature ( ! cane4 ,soluble salts 9 ! bagasse has also be5 giv5 z ! explanation ( su* sm\ld]+ action ( ! fire1 b "h too ! explanation lies solely 9 ! high moi/ure cont5t1 ?is result+ 9 ! developm5t ( only suffici5t heat to evaporate ! moi/ure4 ,,table #dc ,,analyses ,,& ,,calorific ,,values ,,( ,,bagasse ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,b4t4u4 p] ,s\rce ,moi/ure ,c ,h ,o ,n ,a% ,p\nd ,dry ,bagasse ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,cuba #ea4ej #dc4ae #f4jj #dg4ie #b4ij #gihe ,cuba #di4aj #dc4gd #f4jh #dh4fa #a4eg #hcjj ,cuba #db4ej #dc4fa #f4jf #dh4de #a4hh #hbdj ,cuba #ea4fa #df4hj #e4cd #df4ce #a4ea ,cuba #eb4hj #df4gh #e4gd #de4ch #b4aj ,porto ,rico #da4fj #dd4bh #f4ff #dg4aj #j4da #a4ce #hcei ,porto ,rico #dc4ej #dd4ba #f4ca #dg4gb #j4da #a4ce #hchf ,porto ,rico #dd4bj #dd4ib #f4bg #df4ej #j4da #a4ij #hchj ,l\isiana #eb4aj #b4bg #hbcj ,l\isiana #ed4jj #hcgj ,l\isiana #ea4hj #hcga ,java #df4jc #f4ef #de4ee #j4ah #a4fh #hfha ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,table #dc gives ! analyses & heat values ( bagasse f v>i\s localities4 ,table #dd gives ! value ( mill bagasse at diff]5t extractions1 :i* data may be ( s]vice 9 mak+ approximations z to its fuel value z comp>$ ) t ( o!r fuels4 ,,table #dd ,,value ,,( ,,"o ,,p\nd ,,( ,,mill ,,bagasse ,,at ,,diff]5t ,,extractions #a3 ,p] ,c5t ,extraction ( ,weight ( ,cane #b3 ,p] ,c5t ,moi/ure 9 ,bagasse #c3 ,p] ,c5t 9 ,bagasse #d3 ,fuel ,value1 ,b4 t4 u4 #e3 ,p] ,c5t 9 ,bagasse #f3 ,fuel ,value1 ,b4 t4 u4 #g3 ,p] ,c5t 9 ,bagasse #h3 ,fuel ,value1 ,b4 t4 u4 #i3 ,total ,heat ,develop$ p] ,p\nd ( ,bagasse #aj3 ,heat ,requir$ to ,evaporate ,moi/ure#db #aa3 ,heat ,available = ,/eam ,g5]ation #ab3 ,p\nds ( ,bagasse ,equival5t to "o ,p\nd ( ,coal ( #ad1jjj ,b4 t4 u4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,b4t4u4 ,value p] ,fib] ,sug> ,molasses ,p\nd ( ,bagasse --------------------------------------- #a #b #c #d #e #f #g #h #i #aj #aa #ab ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,,bas$ ,,^u ,,cane ,,( #ab ,,p] ,,c5t ,,fib] ,,& ,,juice ,,conta9+ #ah ,,p] ,,c5t ,,( ,,solid ,,matt]4 ,,repres5t+ ,,tropical ,,conditions ---------------------------------------- ----------- #ge #db4fddh4jjciiff4bddea #c4abbag #dffd #ebe #daci #c4ch #gg #ci4bbeb4agdcdce4gddad #b4hgbjj #dieh #dhc #ddge #c4ac #gi #ce4aeeg4addgege4adcga #b4egagi #ecjg #dcc #dhgd #b4hg #ha #cj4bafc4afebehd4dbcai #b4baaed #egca #cgb #ecei #b4fa #hc #bd4abgj4eiehggc4ecbef #a4gfabb #fbee #big #eieh #b4ce #he #af4bjhj4jjfffjb4djagc #a4bj #hc #fiaf #bjj #fgaf #b4jh ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,,bas$ ,,^u ,,cane ,,( #aj ,,p] ,,c5t ,,fib] ,,& ,,juice ,,conta9+ #ae ,,p] ,,c5t ,,( ,,solid ,,matt]4 ,,repres5t+ ,,l\isiana ,,conditions ---------------------------------------- ----------- #ge #ea4jjdj4jjcccjf4jjdcc #c4jjbji #cigb #fgh #cbid #d4be #gg #dh4jgdc4decfage4ffdji #b4hbaif #dbbb #eib #cfcj #c4hf #gi #dd4ebdg4fbcifde4bdcgh #b4fbahb #debd #edh #cigf #c4eb #ha #dj4aheb4fcdchad4gccdb #b4cfafd #dhhg #die #dcib #c4ai #hc #ce4jjeh4hbdhigd4abbih #b4jfadc #edcf #dca #ejje #b4hj #he #bh4ccff4fgeeejc4ccbda #a4fgaaf #eijg #cdi #eeeh #b4eb ---------------------------------------- ----------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,furnace ,design & ! ,combu/ion ( ,bagasse--,) ! advance 9 sug> manufacture !re came1 z describ$1 a decrease 9 ! am\nt ( bagasse available = fuel4 ,z ! g5]al effici5cy ( a plant ( ?is description is measur$ by ! am\nt ( auxili>y fuel requir$ p] ton ( cane1 ! relative importance ( ! furnace design = ! burn+ ( ?is fuel is app>5t4 ,9 mod]n practice1 "u c]ta9 conditions ( mill op]ation1 & ) bagasse ( c]ta9 physical prop]ties1 ! bagasse available f ! cane gr\nd w meet ! total /eam requirem5ts ( ! plant z a :ole2 su* conditions prevail1 z describ$1 9 ,java4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,cuba1 ,porto ,rico & l c\ntries1 h[ev]1 auxili>y fuel is almo/ univ]sally a necessity4 ,! am\nt w v>y1 dep5d+ to a great ext5t ^u ! proportion ( fib] 9 ! cane1 :i* v>ies widely ) ! locality & ) ! age at :i* x is cut1 & to a less] ext5t ^u ! degree ( purity ( ! manufactur$ sug>1 ! use ( ! mac]ation wat] & ! effici5cy ( ! mill app>atus z a :ole4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bg4 ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil] ,set ) ,gre5 ,bagasse ,furnace ,exp]i5ce has %[n t ?is fuel may be burn$ ) ! be/ results 9 l>ge quantities4 ,a giv5 am\nt ( bagasse burn$ 9 "o furnace betwe5 two boil]s w give bett] results ?an ! same quantity burn$ 9 a numb] ( small] furnaces4 ,an objection has be5 rais$ aga9/ su* practice on ! gr\nds t ! necessity ( %utt+ d[n two boil] units :5 x is necess>y = any reason to take (f a furnace1 requires a l>g] comb9$ boil] capacity to insure cont9uity ( s]vice4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 sev]al small furnaces w co/ consid]ably m ?an "o l>ge furnace1 & ! sav+ 9 orig9al furnace co/ by su* an in/allation1 tak5 9 conjunction ) ! add$ effici5cy ( ! l>g] furnace ov] ! small1 w probably m ?an (fset ! co/ ( additional boil] units = sp>es4 ,! ess5tial features 9 furnace design = ?is class ( fuel are ample combu/ion space & a l5g? ( gas travel suffici5t to enable ! gases to be completely burn$ be=e ! boil] heat+ surfaces are enc\nt]$4 ,exp]i5ce has %[n t bett] results are secur$ :]e ! fuel is burn$ on a he>? r ?an on grates1 ! objection to ! latt] me?od be+ t ! air = combu/ion ent]s l>gely ar\nd ! edges1 :]e ! fuel pile is ?9ne/4 ,:5 burn$ on a he>? ! air = combu/ion is introduc$ into ! furnace ?r\gh sev]al r[s ( tuy]es plac$ above & symmetrically ar\nd ! he>?4 ,an arrangem5t ( su* tuy]es ov] a grate1 & a prop] manipulation ( ! a%pit doors1 w ov]come l>gely ! objection to grates & at ! same "t enable o!r fuel to be burn$ 9 ! furnace :5 necess>y4 ,?is arrangem5t ( grates & tuy]es is probably ! bett] f a comm]cially effici5t /&po9t4 ,:]e ! air is admitt$ ?r\gh tuy]es ov] ! grate or he>? l9e1 x imp+es on ! fuel pile z a :ole & causes a uni=m combu/ion4 ,su* tuy]es connect ) an annul> space 9 :i*1 :]e a bla/ is us$1 ! air pressure is controll$ by a bl[]4 ,all exp]i5ce ) ?is class ( fuel indicates t ! be/ results are secur$ ) high combu/ion rates4 ,) a natural draft 9 ! furnace (1 say1 ?ree-t5?s in* ( wat]1 a combu/ion rate ( f #bej to #cjj p\nds p] squ>e foot ( grate surface p] h\r may be obta9$4 ,) a bla/ (1 say1 five-t5?s in* ( wat]1 ?is rate c be increas$ to #dej p\nds p] squ>e foot ( grate surface p] h\r4 ,^! rates apply to bagasse z fir$ conta9+ approximately #ej p] c5t ( moi/ure4 ,x w\ld appe> t ! mo/ economical results are secur$ ) a combu/ion rate ( approximately #cjj p\nds p] squ>e foot p] h\r :i*1 z /at$1 may be obta9$ ) natural draft4 ,:]e a natural draft is available suffici5t to give su* a rate1 x is 9 g5]al to be pref]r$ to a bla/4 ,fig4 #bg %[s a typical bagasse furnace ) :i* v satisfactory results h be5 obta9$4 ,! design ( ?is furnace may be alt]$ to suit ! boil]s to :i* x is connect$4 ,x may be *ang$ slightly 9 its proportions & 9 c]ta9 in/ances 9 its position relative to ! boil]4 ,! furnace z %[n is ess5tially a bagasse furnace & may be modifi$ some:at to accommodate auxili>y fuel4 ,! fuel is ignit$ 9 a pit ,a on a he>? :i* is ord9>ily elliptical 9 %ape4 ,air = combu/ion is admitt$ ?r\gh ! tuy]es ,b connect$ to an annul> space ,c ?r\gh :i* ! am\nt ( air is controll$4 ,above ! pit ! furnace wid5s out to =m a combu/ion space ,d :i* has a cyl9drical or sph]ical ro( ) its top ord9>ily f #aa to #ac feet above ! floor4 ,! gases pass f ?is space horizontally to a second combu/ion *amb] ,e f :i* !y are l$ ?r\gh ar*es ,f to ! boil]4 ,! arrangem5t ( su* ar*es is modifi$ to suit ! boil] or boil]s ) :i* ! furnace is op]at$4 ,a furnace ( su* design embodies ! ess5tial features ( ample combu/ion space & long gas travel4 ,! fuel %\ld be f$ to ! furnace ?r\gh an op5+ 9 ! ro( above ! pit by "s me*anical means :i* w insure a con/ant fuel fe$ & at ! same "t prev5t ! inru% ( cold air into ! furnace4 ,?is class ( fuel deposits a consid]able quantity ( du/1 :i* if n remov$ promptly w fuse into a h>d glass-l cl9k]4 ,ample provision %\ld be made = ! removal ( su* du/ f ! furnace1 ! gas ducts & ! boil] sett+1 & ^! %\ld be ?or\ghly clean$ once 9 #bd h\rs4 ,table #de gives ! results ( sev]al te/s on ,babcock ,wilcox boil]s us+ fuel ( ?is "*4 ,,table #de ,,te/s ,,( ,,babcock ,,wilcox ,,boil]s ,,) ,,gre5 ,,bagasse ,duration ( ,te/ ,h\rs #ab #aj #aj #aj ,rat$ ,capacity ( ,boil] ,horse ,p[] #cai #cai #cai #cai ,grate ,surface ,squ>e ,feet #cc #cc #af4e #af4e ,draft 9 ,furnace ,in*es 4#cj 4#bh 4#bi 4#bg ,draft at ,damp] ,in*es 4#dg 4#de 4#df 4#dh ,bla/ "u ,grates ,in*es 444 444 444 4#cd ,temp]ature ( ,exit ,gases ,degrees ,f4 #ecf #eda #ebb #edg _/,,co#b ,p] ,c5t #ac4h #ab4f #aa4g #ab4h ,flue ,gas ,analysis ,o ,p] ,c5t #e4i #g4f #h4b #f4i ,,co ,p] ,c5t #j4j #j4j #j4j #j4j ,bagasse p] ,h\r z ,fir$ ,p\nds #dihj #ddgi #ejdj #eehf ,moi/ure 9 ,bagasse ,p] ,c5t #eb4ci #eb4ic #ea4hd #ea4ga ,dry ,bagasse p] ,h\r ,p\nds #bcga #bajh #bdbg #bfig ,dry ,bagasse p] ,squ>e ,foot ( ,grate ,surface p] ,h\r ,p\nds #ga4i #fc4i #adg4a #afc4d ,wat] p] ,h\r f & at #bab ,degrees ,p\nds #ajada #ihej #ajdcj #aabbi ,p] ,c5t ( ,rat$ ,capacity ,develop$ ,p] ,c5t #ib4a #hi4b #id4g #ajb4j ,tan ,b>k--,tan b>k1 or sp5t tan1 is ! fibr\s portion ( b>k rema9+ aft] use 9 ! tann+ indu/ry4 ,x is usually v high 9 its moi/ure cont5t1 a numb] ( samples giv+ an av]age ( #fe p] c5t or ab\t two-?irds ( ! total weight ( ! fuel4 ,! weight ( ! sp5t tan is ab\t #b4ac times z great z ! weight ( ! b>k gr\nd4 ,9 calorific value an av]age ( #aj samples gives #iejj ,b4 t4 u4 p] p\nd dry4#dc ,! available heat p] p\nd z fir$1 ow+ to ! great p]c5tage ( moi/ure usually f\nd1 w be approximately #bgjj ,b4 t4 u4 ,s9ce ! weight ( ! sp5t tan z fir$ is #b4ac z great z ! weight ( ! b>k z gr\nd at ! mill1 "o p\nd ( gr\nd b>k produces an available heat ( approximately #egjj ,b4 t4 u4 ,relative to bitum9\s coal1 a ton ( b>k is equival5t to #j4d ton ( coal4 ,an av]age *emical analysis ( ! b>k is1 c>bon #ea4h p] c5t1 hydrog5 #f4jd1 oxyg5 #dj4gd1 a% #a4db4 ,tan b>k is burn$ 9 isolat$ cases & 9 g5]al ! rem>ks on burn+ wet wood fuel apply to its combu/ion4 ,! ess5tial features are a l>ge combu/ion space1 l>ge areas ( heat$ brickwork radiat+ to ! fuel b$1 & draft suffici5t = high combu/ion rates4 ,! rat+s obta9able ) ?is class ( fuel w n be z high z ) wet wood fuel1 because ( ! heat value & ! excessive moi/ure cont5t4 ,mr4 ,d4 ,m4 ,mey]s f\nd 9 a s]ies ( exp]im5ts t an av]age ( f #a4e to #b4jh horse p[] c\ld be develop$ p] squ>e foot ( grate surface ) horizontal return tubul> boil]s4 ,?is horse p[] w\ld v>y consid]ably ) ! me?od 9 :i* ! sp5t tan 0 fir$4 ,illu/ration3 #fhf ,horse-p[] ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil] & ,sup]heat] 9 ,c\rse ( ,erection at ! ,qu9cy1 ,mass41 ,/ation ( ! ,bay ,/ate ,/reet ,railway ,co4 ,,liquid ,,fuels ,,& ,,_! ,,combu/ion ,petroleum is practically ! only liquid fuel suffici5tly abundant & *eap to be us$ = ! g5]ation ( /eam4 ,x possesses _m advantages ov] coal & is ext5sively us$ 9 _m localities4 ,!re are ?ree k9ds ( petroleum 9 use1 namely ^? yield+ on di/illation3 #a/1 p>aff92 #bnd1 asphalt2 #crd1 olef9e4 ,to ! fir/ gr\p belong ! oils ( ! ,appala*ian ,range & ! ,middle ,we/ ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,^! are a d>k br[n 9 color ) a gre5i% t+e4 ,^u _! di/illation su* a v>iety ( valuable light oils are obta9$ t _! use z fuel is prohibitive because ( price4 ,to ! second gr\p belong ! oils f\nd 9 ,texas & ,cali=nia4 ,^! v>y 9 color f a r$di% br[n to a jet black & are us$ v l>gely z fuel4 ,! ?ird gr\p comprises ! oils f ,russia1 :i*1 l ! second1 are us$ l>gely = fuel purposes4 ,! light & easily ignit$ con/itu5ts ( petroleum1 su* z naph?a1 gasol5e & k]os5e1 are (t5times driv5 (f by a p>tial di/illation1 ^! products be+ ( great] value = o!r purposes ?an = use z fuel4 ,?is p>tial di/illation does n decrease ! value ( petroleum z a fuel2 9 fact1 ! residuum kn[n 9 trade z fuel oil has a slightly high] calorific value ?an petroleum & because ( its high] fla% po9t1 x may be m safely h&l$4 ,/atem5ts made ) ref]5ce to petroleum apply z well to fuel oil4 ,9 g5]al crude oil consi/s ( c>bon & hydrog51 ?\gh x also conta9s v>y+ quantities ( moi/ure1 sulphur1 nitrog51 ars5ic1 phosphorus & silt4 ,! moi/ure conta9$ may v>y f less ?an #a to ov] #cj p] c5t1 dep5d+ ^u ! c>e tak5 to sep>ate ! wat] f ! oil 9 pump+ f ! well4 ,z 9 any fuel1 ?is moi/ure affects ! available heat ( ! oil1 & 9 contract+ = ! pur*ase ( fuel ( ?is nature x is well to limit ! p] c5t ( moi/ure x may conta94 ,a l>ge portion ( any conta9$ moi/ure c be sep>at$ by settl+ & = ?is reason suffici5t /orage capacity %\ld be suppli$ to provide "t = su* action4 ,a me?od ( obta9+ approximately ! p]c5tage ( moi/ure 9 crude oil :i* may be us$ successfully1 p>ticul>ly ) light] oils1 is z foll[s4 ,a burette graduat$ into #bjj divisions is fill$ to ! #ajj m>k ) gasol5e1 & ! rema9+ #ajj divisions ) ! oil1 :i* %\ld be slightly w>m$ be=e mix+4 ,! two are !n %ak5 toge!r & any %r9kage bel[ ! #bjj m>k fill$ up ) oil4 ,! mixture %\ld !n be all[$ to /& 9 a w>m place = #bd h\rs1 dur+ :i* ! wat] & silt w settle to ! bottom4 ,_! p]c5tage by volume c !n be correctly read on ! burette divisions1 & ! p]c5tage by weight calculat$ f ! specific gravities4 ,?is me?od is exce$+ly approximate & :]e accurate results are requir$ x %\ld n be us$4 ,= su* "w1 ! di/illation me?od %\ld be us$ z foll[s3 ,gradually heat #ajj cubic c5timet]s ( ! oil 9 a di/illation flask to a temp]ature ( #aej degrees c5tigrade2 collect ! di/illate 9 a graduat$ tube & measure ! result+ wat]4 ,su* a me?od insures complete removal ( wat] & r$uces ! error aris+ f ! slight solubility ( ! wat] 9 gasol5e4 ,two samples *eck$ by ! two me?ods = ! am\nt ( moi/ure pres5t gave1 ,di/illation ,dilution ,p] ,c5t ,p] ,c5t #h4ga #f4be #h4hb #f4bf ,,table #df ,,composition ,,& ,,calorific ,,value ,,( ,,v>i\s ,,oils ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,k9d ( ,oil ,c ,h ,s ,o ,s4,g4,,fp ,h#b,o ,btu ,au?ority ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,cali=nia1 ,coal+ 4#ibgacd #agaag;,babcock ,wilcox ,co4 ,cali=nia1 ,bak]sfield 4#ige #agfjj,wade ,cali=nia1 ,bak]sfield #a4cj 4#iib #ahbeg,wade ,cali=nia1 ,k]n ,riv] 4#iejadj #ahhde;,babcock ,wilcox ,co4 ,cali=nia1 ,los ,angeles #b4ef #ahcbh;,babcock ,wilcox ,co4 ,cali=nia1 ,los ,angeles 4#iegaif #ahhee;,babcock ,wilcox ,co4 ,cali=nia1 ,los ,angeles 4#igg 4#dj #ahbhj;,babcock ,wilcox ,co4 ,cali=nia1 ,monte ,*ri/o 4#iffbje #ahhgh;,babcock ,wilcox ,co4 ,cali=nia1 ,:itti] 4#ih 4#idd #a4jf #ahejg,wade ,cali=nia1 ,:itti] 4#gb 4#icf #a4jf #ahbdj,wade ,cali=nia #he4jdaa4ebb4de 4#iidd #a4dj #aghga;,babcock ,wilcox ,co4 ,cali=nia #ha4ebaa4ea 4#eef4ibdd #bcj #ahffg,u4,s4,n4 ,liquid ,fuel ,bo>d ,cali=nia 4#hg 4#ie #ahecc;,blasdale ,cali=nia 4#hiabeg #ahfee;,babcock ,wilcox ,co4 ,cali=nia #b4de 4#igc #a4ejdeagigf,o',neill ,cali=nia #b4df 4#ige #a4cb #ahajd,%eph]d ,texas1 ,beaumont #hd4f #aj4i #a4fcb4hg 4#ibdahj #aijfj,u4,s4,n4 ,liquid ,fuel ,bo>d ,texas1 ,beaumont #hc4c #ab4d 4#ejc4hc 4#ibfbaf #aidha,u4,s4,n4 ,liquid ,fuel ,bo>d ,texas1 ,beaumont #he4j #ab4c #a4ge 4#ibdd #aijfj;,d5ton ,texas1 ,beaumont #hf4a #ab4c #a4fj 4#idb #bjaeb,sp>kes ,texas1 ,beaumont 4#ijcbbb #aicdi;,babcock ,wilcox ,co4 ,texas1 ,sab9e 4#icgadc #ahffb;,babcock ,wilcox ,co4 ,texas #hg4aeab4ccj4cb 4#ijhcgj #aicch,u4 ,s4 ,n4 ,texas #hg4biab4cbj4dc 4#iajcge #aifei,u4 ,s4 ,n4 ,ohio #hc4d #ad4g #j4f #a4c #aiehj ,p5nsylvania #hd4i #ac4g #a4d 4#hhf #aibaj;,boo? ,we/ ,virg9ia #hd4c #ad4a #a4f 4#hda #babdj ,mexico 4#ibaafb #ahhdj;,babcock ,wilcox ,co4 ,russia1 ,baku #hf4g #ab4i 4#hhd #bjfia;,boo? ,russia1 ,novorossick #hd4i #aa4f #c4df #aideb;,boo? ,russia1 ,caucasus #hf4f #ab4c #a4aj 4#ich #bjach ,java #hg4a #ab4j 4#i 4#ibc #baafc ,au/ria1 ,galicia #hb4b #ab4a #e4g 4#hgj #ahdaf ,italy1 ,p>ma #hd4j #ac4d #a4h 4#ghf ,borneo #he4g #aa4j #c4ca #aibdj,orde ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,c ,p] ,c5t ,c>bon ,h ,p] ,c5t ,hydrog5 ,s ,p] ,c5t ,sulphur ,o ,p] ,c5t ,oxyg5 ,s4,g4 ,specific ,gravity ,,fp ,degrees ,fla% ,po9t ,h#b,o ,p] ,c5t ,moi/ure ,btu ,b4 t4 u4 ,p] ,p\nd ,calorific ,value--,a p\nd ( petroleum usually has a calorific value ( f #ah1jjj to #bb1jjj ,b4 t4 u4 ,if an ultimate analysis ( an av]age sample be1 c>bon #hd p] c5t1 hydrog5 #ad p] c5t1 oxyg5 #b p] c5t1 & assum+ t ! oxyg5 is comb9$ ) its equival5t ( hydrog5 z wat]1 ! analysis w\ld become1 c>bon #hd p] c5t1 hydrog5 #ac4ge p] c5t1 wat] #b4be p] c5t1 & ! heat value p] p\nd includ+ its conta9$ wat] w\ld be1 ,c>bon 4#hdjj #ad1fjj #ab1bfd ,b4 t4 u4 ,hydrog5 4#acge #fb1ajj #h1fbe ,b4 t4 u4 ------9999,%\ld be 4#acge x #fb1jjj #h1ebe ,total #bj1hhi ,b4 t4 u49999,w\ld be ,total #bj1ghi ,! nitrog5 9 petroleum v>ies f #j4jjh to #a4j p] c5t1 :ile ! sulphur v>ies f #j4jg to #c4j p] c5t4 ,table #df1 compil$ f v>i\s s\rces1 gives ! composition1 calorific value & o!r data relative to oil f diff]5t localities4 ,! fla% po9t ( crude oil is ! temp]ature at :i* x gives (f inflammable gases4 ,:ile in=mation on ! actual fla% po9ts ( ! v>i\s oils is meag]1 x is1 nev]!less1 a "q ( importance 9 det]m9+ _! availability z fuels4 ,9 g5]al x may be /at$ t ! light oils h a l[1 & ! heavy oils a mu* high] fla% po9t4 ,a division is sometimes made at oils hav+ a specific gravity ( #j4he1 ) a /atem5t t :]e ! specific gravity is bel[ ?is po9t ! fla% po9t is bel[ #fj degrees ,fahr5heit1 & :]e x is above1 ! fla% po9t is above #fj degrees ,fahr5heit4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 _m exceptions to ?is rule4 ,z ! fla% po9t is l[] ! dang] ( ignition or explosion becomes great]1 & ! utmo/ c>e %\ld be tak5 9 h&l+ ! oils ) a l[ fla% po9t to avoid ?is dang]4 ,on ! o!r h&1 because ! fla% po9t is high is no ju/ification = c>elessness 9 h&l+ ^? fuels4 ,) prop] precautions tak51 9 g5]al1 ! use ( oil z fuel is practically z safe z ! use ( coal4 ,gravity ( ,oils--,oils are frequ5tly classifi$ accord+ to _! gravity z indicat$ by ! ,beaume hydromet] scale4 ,su* a classification is by no means an accurate measure ( _! relative calorific values4 ,petroleum z ,comp>$ ) ,coal--,! advantages ( ! use ( oil fuel ov] coal may be summ>iz$ z foll[s3 #a/4 ,! co/ ( h&l+ is mu* l[]1 ! oil be+ f$ by simple me*anical means1 result+ 91 #bnd4 ,a g5]al labor sav+ ?r\gh\t ! plant 9 ! elim9ation ( /ok]s1 coal pass]s1 a% h&l]s1 etc4 #crd4 ,= equal heat value1 oil occupies v mu* less space ?an coal4 ,?is /orage space may be at a di/ance f ! boil] )\t detrim5t4 #d?4 ,high] effici5cies & capacities are obta9able ) oil ?an ) coal4 ,! combu/ion is m p]fect z ! excess air is r$uc$ to a m9imum2 ! furnace temp]ature may be kept practically con/ant z ! furnace doors ne$ n be op5$ = clean+ or work+ fires2 smoke may be elim9at$ ) ! consequ5t increas$ cleanl9ess ( ! heat+ surfaces4 #e?4 ,! int5sity ( ! fire c be almo/ in/antane\sly regulat$ to meet load fluctuations4 #f?4 ,oil :5 /or$ does n lose 9 calorific value z does coal1 nor are !re any difficulties aris+ f dis9tegration1 su* z may be f\nd :5 coal is /or$4 #g?4 ,cleanl9ess & fre$om f du/ & a%es 9 ! boil] room ) a consequ5t sav+ 9 we> & te> on ma*9]y2 little or no damage to surr\nd+ prop]ty due to su* du/4 ,! disadvantages ( oil are3 #a/4 ,! necessity t ! oil h a reasonably high fla% po9t to m9imize ! dang] ( explosions4 #bnd4 ,city or t[n ord9ances may impose burd5some conditions relative to location & isolation ( /orage tanks1 :i* 9 ! case ( a plant situat$ 9 a conge/$ portion ( ! city1 might make use ( ?is fuel prohibitive4 #crd4 ,unless ! boil]s & furnaces are especially adapt$ = ! use ( ?is fuel1 ! boil] upkeep co/ w be high] ?an if coal 7 us$4 ,?is objection c be entirely obviat$1 h[ev]1 if ! in/allation is entru/$ to ^? :o h _h exp]i5ce 9 ! "w1 & ! op]ation ( a prop]ly design$ plant is plac$ 9 ! h&s ( intellig5t labor4 ,,table #dg ,,relative ,,value ,,( ,,coal ,,& ,,oil ,,fuel ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,gross ,net ,net ,wat] ,evaporat$ f & at ,boil] ,boil] ,evap- #bab ,degrees ,fahr5heit p] ,p\nd ( ,coal ,effic-,effici- oration--------------------------------- ------- i5cyency#df f ) ) & at ,oil ,oil #bab #e #f #g #h #i #aj #aa #ab ,fuel ,fuel ,degrees ,fahr5- heit ---------------------------------------- p] ,p\nd ,p\nds ( ,oil ,equal to ,"o ,p\nd ( ,coal ( ,oil ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #gc #ga #ac4ed 4#cfic4ddca4eagj4eiji4ffdg4gchf4habd4hhf c #gd #gb #ac4gc 4#cfdb4dcgj4ejii4ehbg4feef4gbhc4hjaa4hgd j #ge #gc #ac4ib 4#ceib4dcaj4ejbi4egdg4fdff4gahd4gijc4hfb a #gf #gd #ad4aa 4#cedd4dbec4difa4efgj4fcgh4gjhg4ggif4hej e #gg #ge #ad4cj 4#cdig4daif4dhie4eeid4fbid4fiic4gfib4hci b #gh #gf #ad4di 4#cdea4dada4dhca4eeba4fbaa4fija4geia4hbh a #gi #gg #ad4fh 4#cdjf4djhg4dgfh4edej4faca4fhab4gdic4hag d #hj #gh #ad4hg 4#ccfc4djce4dgjh4echj4fjec4fgbe4gcih4hjg j #ha #gi #ae4jf 4#ccbj4cihd4dfdh4ecab4eigf4ffdj4gcjd4gif h #hb #hj #ae4be 4#cbgi4cicd4deij4ebdf4eijb4feeg4gbac4ghf i #hc #ha #ae4dd 4#cbch4chhf4decd4eaha4ehbi4fddg4gabe4ggg b ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,net ,evap- oration f & at #bab ,b>rels ( ,oil ,equal to ,"o ,ton ( ,coal ,degrees ,fahr5- heit p] ,b>rel ( ,oil ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #gc #ga #dedi #b4aihb4fchc4jggc4eafc4ieed4cied4hcee4bg e #gd #gb #dfac #b4afhb4fjac4jcec4dfhc4ijbd4cced4gfie4bj b #ge #gc #dfgg #b4achb4efeb4iicc4dbjc4hdhd4bged4gjce4ac a #gf #gd #dgda #b4aajb4ecbb4iedc4cgfc4gihd4bbjd4fdbe4jf c #gg #ge #dhjg #b4jhbb4dihb4iadc4ccjc4gdfd4afbd4eghd4ii d #gh #gf #dhfi #b4jedb4dfeb4hgfc4bhfc4figd4ajhd4eahd4ib i #gi #gg #dicb #b4jbgb4dccb4hchc4bdcc4fdid4jedd4dfjd4hf e #hj #gh #diif #b4jjbb4djbb4hjbc4bjbc4fjbd4jjcd4djcd4hj c #ha #gi #ejfj #a4igfb4cgab4gfgc4afbc4eegc4iebd4cdhd4gd c #hb #hj #eabd #a4iebb4cdbb4gcbc4abbc4eacc4ijcd4bicd4fh c #hc #ha #eahg #a4ibgb4cacb4fiic4jhec4dgjc4hefd4bdad4fb g ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,illu/ration3 ,city ( ,san ,francisco1 ,cal41 ,fire ,fight+ ,/ation4 ,no4 #a4 #bhjj ,horse ,p[] ( ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil]s1 ,equipp$ = ,burn+ ,oil ,fuel ,_m tables h be5 publi%$ ) a view to comp>+ ! two fuels4 ,su* ( ^! z are bas$ solely on ! relative calorific values ( oil & coal are ( limit$ value1 inasmu* z ! effici5cies to be obta9$ ) oil are high] ?an t obta9able ) coal4 ,table #dg takes into consid]ation ! v>iation 9 effici5cy ) ! two fuels1 b is bas$ on a con/ant calorific value = oil & coal4 ,?is table1 l o!rs ( a simil> nature1 :ile useful z a r\gh guide1 _c be consid]$ z an accurate basis = comp>ison4 ,?is is due to ! fact t !re are num]\s factors ent]+ into ! problem :i* affect ! sav+ possible to a mu* great] ext5t ?an d ! relative calorific values ( two fuels4 ,"s ( ! features to be consid]$ 9 arriv+ at ! true basis = comp>ison are ! labor sav+ possible1 ! space available = fuel /orage1 ! facilities = convey+ ! oil by pipe l9es1 ! h\rs dur+ :i* a plant is 9 op]ation1 ! load factor1 ! quantity ( coal requir$ = bank+ fires1 etc41 etc4 ,! only exact me?od ( e/imat+ ! relative advantages & co/s ( ! two fuels is by consid]+ ! op]at+ exp5ses ( ! plant ) ea* 9 turn1 includ+ ! co/s ( e item ent]+ into ! problem4 ,burn+ ,oil ,fuel--,! requirem5ts = burn+ petroleum are z foll[s3 #a/4 ,its atomization mu/ be ?or\gh4 #bnd4 ,:5 atomiz$ x mu/ be br\ght into contact ) ! requisite quantity ( air = its combu/ion1 & ?is quantity mu/ be at ! same "t a m9imum to obviate loss 9 /ack gases4 #crd4 ,! mixture mu/ be burn$ 9 a furnace :]e a refractory mat]ial radiates heat to assi/ 9 ! combu/ion1 & ! furnace mu/ /& up "u ! high temp]atures develop$4 #d?4 ,! combu/ion mu/ be complet$ be=e ! gases come into contact ) ! heat+ surfaces or o!rwise ! flame w be ext+ui%$1 possibly to ignite lat] 9 ! flue connection or 9 ! /ack4 #e?4 ,!re mu/ be no localization ( ! heat on c]ta9 portions ( ! heat+ surfaces or tr\ble w result f ov]heat+ & bli/]+4 ,! fir/ requirem5t is met by ! selection ( a prop] burn]4 ,! second requirem5t is fulfill$ by prop]ly introduc+ ! air into ! furnace1 ei!r ?r\gh *eck]work "u ! burn]s or ?r\gh op5+s ar\nd !m1 & by controll+ ! quantity ( air to meet v>iations 9 furnace conditions4 ,! ?ird requirem5t is provid$ = by in/all+ a furnace s design$ z to give a suffici5t area ( heat$ brickwork to radiate ! heat requir$ to ma9ta9 a prop] furnace temp]ature4 ,! f\r? requirem5t is provid$ = by giv+ ample space = ! combu/ion ( ! mixture ( atomiz$ oil & air1 & a gas travel ( suffici5t l5g? to insure t ?is combu/ion be complet$ be=e ! gases /rike ! heat+ surfaces4 ,! fif? requirem5t is fulfill$ by ! adoption ( a suitable burn] 9 connection ) ! furnace meet+ ! o!r requirem5ts4 ,a burn] mu/ be us$ f :i* ! flame w n imp+e directly on ! heat+ surface & mu/ be locat$ :]e su* action _c take place4 ,if suitable burn]s prop]ly locat$ are n us$1 n only is ! heat localiz$ ) disa/r\s results1 b ! effici5cy is l[]$ by ! cool+ ( ! gases be=e combu/ion is complet$4 ,oil ,burn]s--,! functions ( an oil burn] is to atomize or vaporize ! fuel s t x may be burn$ l a gas4 ,all burn]s may be classifi$ "u ?ree g5]al types3 #a/1 spray burn]s1 9 :i* ! oil is atomiz$ by /eam or compress$ air2 #bnd1 vapor burn]s1 9 :i* ! oil is conv]t$ into vapor & !n pass$ into ! furnace2 #crd1 me*anical burn]s1 9 :i* ! oil is atomiz$ by submitt+ x to a high pressure & pass+ x ?r\gh a small orifice4 ,vapor burn]s h nev] be5 9 g5]al use & w n be discuss$4 ,spray burn]s are almo/ univ]sally us$ = l& practice & ! simplicity ( ! /eam atomiz] & ! excell5t economy ( ! bett] types1 toge!r ) ! l[ oil pressure & temp]ature requir$ makes ?is type a favorite = /ation>y plants1 :]e ! loss ( fre% wat] is n a vital consid]ation4 ,9 m>9e "w1 or 9 any case :]e x is advisable to save fe$ wat] t o!rwise w\ld h to be add$ 9 ! =m ( make-up1 ei!r compress$ air or me*anical means are us$ = atomization4 ,spray burn]s us+ compress$ air z ! atomiz+ ag5t are 9 satisfactory op]ation 9 "s plants1 b _! use is n g5]al4 ,:]e !re is no necessity ( sav+ raw fe$ wat]1 ! great] simplicity & economy ( ! /eam spray atomiz] is g5]ally ! mo/ satisfactory4 ,! air burn]s require bl[]s1 compressors or o!r app>atus :i* occupy space t might be o!rwise utiliz$ & require att5tion t is n necess>y :]e /eam is us$4 ,/eam spray burn]s ( ! old] types _h disadvantages 9 t !y 7 s design$ t !re 0 a t5d5cy = ! nozzle to clog ) sludge or coke =m$ f ! oil by ! heat1 )\t means ( be+ readily clean$4 ,?is has be5 ov]come 9 ! m mod]n types4 ,/eam spray burn]s1 z n[ us$1 may be divid$ into two classes3 #a/1 inside mix]s2 & #bnd1 outside mix]s4 ,9 ! =m] ! /eam & oil come into contact )9 ! burn] & ! mixture is atomiz$ 9 pass+ ?r\gh ! orifice ( ! burn] nozzle4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bh4 ,peabody ,oil ,burn] ,9 ! outside mix+ class ! /eam fl[s ?r\gh a n>r[ slot or horizontal r[ ( small holes 9 ! burn] nozzle2 ! oil fl[s ?r\gh a simil> slot or hole above ! /eam orifice1 & is pick$ up by ! /eam outside ( ! burn] & is atomiz$4 ,fig4 #bh %[s a type ( ! ,peabody burn] ( ?is class1 :i* has giv5 em95t satisfaction4 ,! con/ruction is evid5t f ! cut4 ,x w be not$ t ! portions ( ! burn] =m+ ! orifice may be readily replac$ 9 case ( we>1 or if x is desir$ to alt] ! =m ( ! flame4 ,:]e burn]s ( ! spray type are us$1 heat+ ! oil is ( advantage n only 9 caus+ x to be atomiz$ m easily1 b 9 aid+ economical combu/ion4 ,! temp]ature is1 ( c\rse1 limit$ by ! fla% po9t ( ! oil us$1 b )9 ! limit ( ?is temp]ature !re is no dang] ( decomposition or ( c>bon deposits on ! supply pipes4 ,su* heat+ %\ld be done close to ! boil] to m9imize radiation loss4 ,if ! temp]ature is rais$ to a po9t :]e an appreciable vaporization occurs1 ! oil w fl[ irregul>ly f ! burn] & cause ! flame to sputt]4 ,on bo? /eam & air atomiz+ types1 a by-pass %\ld be in/all$ betwe5 ! /eam or air & ! oil pipes to provide = ! bl[+ out ( ! oil duct4 ,/ra9]s %\ld be provid$ = remov+ sludge f ! fuel & %\ld be s locat$ z to all[ = rapid removal1 clean+ & replac+4 ,me*anical burn]s h be5 9 use = "s "t 9 ,european c\ntries1 b _! introduction & use has be5 ( only rec5t occurr5ce 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,"h z already /at$1 ! means = atomization are purely me*anical4 ,! mo/ successful ( ! me*anical atomiz]s up to ! pres5t h be5 ( ! r\nd flame type1 & only ^! w be consid]$4 ,exp]im5ts h be5 made ) flat flame me*anical burn]s1 b _! satisfactory action has be5 conf9$ to in/ances :]e x is only necess>y to burn a small quantity ( oil ?r\gh ea* individual burn]4 ,?is sy/em ( oil burn+ is especially adapt$ = m>9e "w z ! quantity ( /eam = putt+ pressure on ! oil is small & ! cond5s$ /eam may be return$ to ! sy/em4 ,! only me?od by :i* successful me*anical atomization has be5 accompli%$ is "o by :i* ! oil is giv5 a :irl+ motion )9 ! burn] tip4 ,?is is done ei!r by =c+ ! oil ?r\gh a passage ( helical =m or by deliv]+ x tang5tially to a circul> *amb] f :i* !re is a c5tral outlet4 ,! oil is f$ to ^! burn]s "u a pressure :i* v>ies ) ! make ( ! burn] & ! rates at :i* individual burn]s are us+ oil4 ,! oil p>ticles fly (f f su* a burn] 9 /raight l9es 9 ! =m ( a cone r ?an 9 ! =m ( a spiral spray1 z might be suppos$4 ,) burn]s ( ! me*anical atomiz+ design1 ! me?od ( introduc+ air = combu/ion & ! velocity ( ?is air are ( ! greate/ importance 9 secur+ good combu/ion & 9 ! effects on ! "* & %ape ( ! flame4 ,su* burn]s are locat$ at ! front ( ! furnace & v>i\s me?ods h be5 tri$ = introduc+ ! air = combu/ion4 ,:]e1 9 ! spray burn]s1 air is ord9>ily admitt$ ?r\gh a *eck]work "u ! burn] prop]1 ) ! me*anical burn]1 x is almo/ univ]sally admitt$ ar\nd ! burn]4 ,e>ly exp]im5ts ) ^! air di/ributors 7 conf9$ l>gely to s+le or duplicate cones us$ ) ! idea ( direct+ ! air to ! axis ( ! burn]4 ,a highly successful me?od ( su* air introduction1 develop$ by ,messrs4 ,peabody & ,iri% ( ,! ,babcock ,wilcox ,co41 is by means ( :at !y t]m an impell] plate4 ,?is consi/s ( a circul> metal disk ) an op5+ at ! c5t] = ! oil burn] & ) radial metal /rips f ! c5t] to ! p]iph]y turn$ at an angle :i* 9 ! lat] designs may be alt]$ to give ! air supply dem&$ by ! rate ( combu/ion4 ,! air s admitt$ does n necess>ily require a :irl+ motion1 b exp]im5ts %[ t :]e ! air is br\ght into contact ) ! oil spray ) ! "r twi/1 bett] combu/ion is secur$ & l[] air pressures & less ref9em5t ( adju/m5t ( individual burn]s are requir$4 ,me*anical burn]s h a di/9ct advantage ov] ^? 9 :i* /eam is us$ z ! atomiz+ ag5t 9 t !y l5d !mselves m readily to adju/m5t "u wid] v>iations ( load4 ,= a giv5 horse p[] !re w ord9>ily be in/all$ a mu* great] numb] ( me*anical ?an /eam atomiz+ burn]s4 ,?is 9 itself is a means to bett] regulation1 = ) ! /eam atomiz+ burn]1 if "o ( a numb] is %ut (f1 !re is a m>k$ decrease 9 effici5cy4 ,?is is due to ! fact t ) ! air admitt$ "u ! burn]1 x is ord9>ily pass+ ?r\gh ! *eck]work reg>dless ( :e!r x is be+ utiliz$ = combu/ion or n4 ,) a me*anical burn]1 on ! o!r h&1 :]e individual burn]s are %ut (f1 air t w\ld be admitt$ = su* burn]1 7 x 9 op]ation1 may also be %ut (f & !re w be no undue loss f excess air4 ,fur!r adju/m5t to meet load conditions is possible by a *ange 9 ! oil pressure act+ on all burn]s at once4 ,a good burn] w atomize mod]ately heavy oil ) an oil pressure z l[ z #cj p\nds p] squ>e in* & f t po9t up to #bjj p\nds or above4 ,! heat+ ( ! oil also has an effect on ! capacity ( individual burn]s & 9 ?is way a ?ird me?od ( adju/m5t is giv54 ,"u work+ conditions1 ! oil pressure rema9+ con/ant1 ! capacity ( ea* burn] w decrease z ! temp]ature ( ! oil is increas$ ?\gh at l[ temp]atures ! rev]se is ! case4 ,"s exp]im5ts ) a ,texas crude oil hav+ a fla% po9t ( #baj degrees %[$ t ! capacity ( a me*anical atomiz+ burn] ( ! ,peabody type increas$ f #hj degrees ,fahr5heit to #aaj degrees ,fahr5heit1 f :i* po9t x fell (f rapidly to #adj degrees & !n m sl[ly to ! fla% po9t4 ,! above me?ods1 toge!r ) ! regulation possible ?r\gh manipulation ( ! boil] damp]s1 indicate ! wide range ( load conditions t may be h&l$ ) an in/allation ( ?is class ( burn]s4 ,z has already be5 /at$1 results ) me*anical atomiz+ burn]s t may be consid]$ v successful h be5 limit$ almo/ entirely to cases :]e =c$ bla/ ( "s description has be5 us$1 ! high velocity ( ! air ent]+ be+ ( mat]ial assi/ance 9 secur+ ! prop] mixture ( air ) ! oil spray4 ,mu* has be5 done & is be+ done 9 ! way ( exp]im5t ) ?is class ( app>atus t[>d develop+ a successful me*anical atomiz+ burn] = use ) natural draft1 & !re appe>s to be no reason :y su* exp]im5ts %\ld n ev5tually produce satisfactory results4 ,/eam ,consumption ( ,burn]s--,! ,bureau ( ,/eam ,eng9e]+1 ,u4 ,s4 ,navy1 made 9 #aija an exhau/ive s]ies ( te/s ( v>i\s oil burn]s t may be consid]$ z repres5t+1 9 s f> z ! p]=mance ( ! burn]s !mselves is conc]n$1 ! practice ( t "t4 ,^! te/s %[$ t a burn] utiliz+ air z an atomiz+ ag5t1 requir$ = compress+ ! air f #a4jf to #g4de p] c5t ( ! total /eam g5]at$1 ! av]age be+ #c4ah p] c5t4 ,f\r te/s ( /eam atomiz+ burn]s %[$ a consumption ( #c4ih to #e4gg p] c5t ( ! total /eam1 ! av]age be+ #d4h p] c5t4 ,improvem5t 9 burn] design has l>gely r$uc$ ! /eam consumption1 ?\gh to a great] degree 9 /eam ?an 9 air atomiz+ burn]s4 ,rec5t exp]im5ts %[ t a good /eam atomiz+ burn] w require approximately #b p] c5t ( ! total /eam g5]at$ by ! boil] op]at$ at or ab\t its rat$ capacity4 ,?is figure w decrease z ! capacity is increas$ & is s l[ z to be practically negligible1 except 9 cases :]e ! "q ( loss ( fe$ wat] is all important4 ,!re are no figures available z to ! actual /eam consumption ( me*anical atomiz+ burn]s b app>5tly ?is is small if ! requirem5t is und]/ood to be entirely ap>t f ! /eam consumption ( ! app>atus produc+ ! =c$ bla/4 ,capacity ( ,burn]s--,a good /eam atomiz+ burn] prop]ly locat$ 9 a well-design$ oil furnace has a capacity ( some:at ov] #djj horse p[]4 ,?is "q ( capacity ( individual burn]s is l>gely "o ( ! prop] relation betwe5 ! numb] ( burn]s us$ & ! furnace volume4 ,9 "s rec5t te/s ) a ,babcock ,wilcox boil] ( #fdj rat$ horse p[]1 equipp$ ) ?ree burn]s1 approximately #acej horse p[] 0 develop$ ) an available draft ( 4#ee in* at ! damp] or #dej horse p[] p] burn]4 ,f\r burn]s 7 also tri$ 9 ! same furnace b ! total /eam g5]at$ did n exce$ #acej horse p[] or 9 ?is in/ance #cch horse p[] p] burn]4 ,f ! nature ( me*anical atomiz+ burn]s1 individual burn]s h n z l>ge a capacity z ! /eam atomiz+ class4 ,9 "s te/s on a ,babcock ,wilcox m>9e boil]1 equipp$ ) me*anical atomiz+ burn]s1 ! maximum horse p[] develop$ p] burn] 0 approximately #aje4 ,"h aga9 ! burn] capacity is l>gely "o ( prop] relation betwe5 furnace volume & numb] ( burn]s4 ,furnace ,design--,too mu* /ress _c be laid on ! importance ( furnace design = ! use ( ?is class ( fuel4 ,provid$ a good type ( burn] is adopt$ ! furnace arrangem5t & ! me?od ( introduc+ air = combu/ion into ! furnace are ! all important factors4 ,no matt] :at ! type ( burn]1 satisfactory results _c be secur$ 9 a furnace n suit$ to ! fuel4 ,! ,babcock ,wilcox ,co4 has _h mu* exp]i5ce ) ! burn+ ( oil z fuel & an ext5d$ s]ies ( exp]im5ts by ,mr4 ,e4 ,h4 ,peabody l$ to ! developm5t & adoption ( ! ,peabody furnace z be+ mo/ em95tly suit$ = ?is class ( "w4 ,fig4 #bi %[s su* a furnace appli$ to a ,babcock ,wilcox boil]1 & ) slight modification x c be z readily appli$ to any boil] ( ,! ,babcock ,wilcox ,co4 manufacture4 ,9 ! description ( ?is furnace1 its po9ts ( advantage cov] ! requirem5ts ( oil-burn+ furnaces 9 g5]al4 ,! atomiz$ oil is introduc$ into ! furnace 9 ! direction 9 :i* x increases 9 height4 ,?is increase 9 furnace volume 9 ! direction ( ! flame insures free expansion & a ?or\gh mixture ( ! oil ) ! air1 & ! consequ5t complete combu/ion ( ! gases be=e !y come into contact ) ! tube heat+ surfaces4 ,9 su* a furnace flat flame burn]s %\ld be us$1 pref]ably ( ! ,peabody type1 9 :i* ! flame spreads outw>d t[>d ! sides 9 ! =m ( a fan4 ,!re is no t5d5cy ( ! flames to imp+e directly on ! heat+ surfaces1 & ! furnace c h&le any quantity ( flame )\t dang] ( tube difficulties4 ,! burn]s %\ld be s locat$ t ! flames f individual burn]s d n int]f]e nor imp+e to any ext5t on ! side walls ( ! furnace1 an ev5 di/ribution ( heat be+ secur$ 9 ?is mann]4 ,! burn]s are op]at$ f ! boil] front & peepholes are suppli$ ?r\gh :i* ! op]ator may wat* ! flame :ile regulat+ ! burn]s4 ,! burn]s c be remov$1 inspect$1 or clean$ & replac$ 9 a few m9utes4 ,air is admitt$ ?r\gh a *eck]work ( fire brick support$ on ! furnace floor1 ! op5+s 9 ! *eck]work be+ s arrang$ z to give ! be/ economic results 9 combu/ion4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bi4 ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil]1 ,equipp$ ) a ,peabody ,oil ,furnace ,) /eam atomiz+ burn]s introduc$ ?r\gh ! front ( ! boil] 9 /ation>y practice1 x is usually 9 ! direction 9 :i* ! furnace decreases 9 height & x is ) su* an arrangem5t t difficulties ?r\gh ! loss ( tubes may be expect$4 ,) su* an arrangem5t1 ! flame may imp+e directly ^u ! tube surfaces & tube tr\bles f ?is s\rce may arise1 p>ticul>ly :]e ! fe$ wat] has a t5d5cy t[>d rapid scale =mation4 ,su* difficulties may be ! result ( a bl[pipe action on ! "p ( ! burn]1 ! ov] heat+ ( ! tube due to oil or scale )91 or ! actual erosion ( ! metal by p>ticles ( oil improp]ly atomiz$4 ,su* action ne$ n be anticipat$1 provid$ ! oil is burn$ ) a %ort flame4 ,! flames f me*anical atomiz+ burn]s h a less velocity ( projection ?an ^? f /eam atomiz+ burn]s & if introduc$ into ! high] end ( ! furnace1 %\ld n lead to tube difficulties provid$ !y are prop]ly locat$ & op]at$4 ,?is class ( burn] also w give ! mo/ satisfactory results if introduc$ s t ! flames travel 9 ! direction ( increase 9 furnace volume4 ,?is is p]haps be/ exemplifi$ by ! v good results secur$ ) me*anical atomiz+ burn]s & ,babcock ,wilcox m>9e boil]s 9 :i*1 due to ! fact t ! boil]s are fir$ f ! l[ end1 ! flames f burn]s introduc$ ?r\gh ! front are 9 ?is direction4 ,op]ation ( ,burn]s--,:5 burn]s are n 9 use1 or :5 !y are be+ />t$ up1 c>e mu/ be tak5 to prev5t oil f fl[+ & collect+ on ! floor ( ! furnace be=e x is ignit$4 ,9 />t+ a burn]1 ! atomiz$ fuel may be ignit$ by a burn+ wad ( oil-soak$ wa/e held be=e x on an iron rod4 ,to insure quick ignition1 ! /eam supply %\ld be cut d[n4 ,b little practice is requir$ to become an adept at light+ an oil fire4 ,:5 ignition has tak5 place & ! furnace br\ght to an ev5 heat1 ! /eam %\ld be cut d[n to ! m9imum am\nt requir$ = atomization4 ,?is am\nt c be det]m9$ f ! appe>ance ( ! flame4 ,if suffici5t /eam is n suppli$1 p>ticles ( burn+ oil w drop to ! furnace floor1 giv+ a sc9tillat+ appe>ance to ! flame4 ,! /eam valves %\ld be op5$ j suffici5tly to ov]come ?is sc9tillat+ action4 ,air ,supply--,f ! nature ( ! fuel & ! me?od ( burn+1 ! quantity ( air = combu/ion may be m9imiz$4 ,z ) o!r fuels1 :5 ! am\nt ( air admitt$ is ! m9imum :i* w completely consume ! oil1 ! results are ! be/4 ,! excess or defici5cy ( air c be judg$ by ! appe>ance ( ! /ack or by obs]v+ ! gases pass+ ?r\gh ! boil] sett+s4 ,a p]fectly cle> /ack indicates excess air1 :]eas smoke indicates a defici5cy4 ,) prop]ly design$ furnaces ! be/ results are secur$ by runn+ ne> ! smok+ po9t ) a slight haze 9 ! gases4 ,a slight v>iation 9 ! air supply w affect ! furnace conditions 9 an oil burn+ boil] m ?an ! same v>iation :]e coal is us$1 & = ?is reason x is ( ! utmo/ importance t flue gas analysis be made frequ5tly on oil-burn+ boil]s4 ,) ! air = combu/ion prop]ly regulat$ by adju/m5t ( any *eck]work or any o!r device :i* may be us$1 & ! damp]s c>efully set1 ! flue gas analysis %\ld %[1 = good furnace conditions1 a p]c5tage ( ,,co#b betwe5 #ac & #ad p] c5t1 ) ei!r no ,,co or b a trace4 ,9 boil] plant op]ation x is difficult to regulate ! /eam supply to ! burn]s & ! damp] position to meet sudd5 & repeat$ v>iations 9 ! load4 ,a device has be5 pat5t$ :i* automatically regulates by means ( ! boil] pressure ! pressure ( ! /eam to ! burn]s1 ! oil to ! burn]s & ! position ( ! boil] damp]4 ,su* a device has be5 %[n to give good results 9 plant op]ation :]e h& regulation is difficult at be/1 & 9 _m in/ances is un=tunately n ev5 attempt$4 ,effici5cy ) ,oil--,z po9t$ out 9 enum]at+ ! advantages ( oil fuel ov] coal1 high] effici5cies are obta9able ) ! =m]4 ,) boil]s ( approximately #ejj horse p[] equipp$ ) prop]ly design$ furnaces & burn]s1 an effici5cy ( #hc p] c5t is possible or mak+ an all[ance ( #b p] c5t = /eam us$ by burn]s1 a net effici5cy ( #ha p] c5t4 ,! conditions "u :i* su* effici5cies are to be secur$ are di/9ctly te/ conditions 9 :i* c>eful op]ation is a prime requisite4 ,) furnace conditions t are n conductive to ! be/ combu/ion1 ?is figure may be decreas$ by f #e to #aj p] c5t4 ,9 l>ge prop]ly design$ plants1 h[ev]1 ! fir/ nam$ effici5cy may be approa*$ = uni=m runn+ conditions1 ! ne>ness to :i* x is rea*$ dep5d+ on ! intellig5ce ( ! op]at+ crew4 ,x mu/ be rememb]$ t ! use ( oil fuel pres5ts to ! c>eless op]ator possibilities = wa/efulness mu* great] ?an 9 plants :]e coal is fir$1 & x !re=e pays to g c>efully into ?is feature4 ,table #dh gives "s repres5tative te/s ) oil fuel4 ,,table #dh ,,te/s ,,( ,,babcock ,,& ,,wilcox ,,boil]s ,,) ,,oil ,,fuel ,pacific ,light,pacific ,light,miami ,copp] & ,p[] & ,p[] ,company ,plant ,company ,company ,los ,angeles1 ,miami1 ,cal4 ,r$ondo1 ,cal4 ,arizona ,rat$ ,capacity ,horse ( ,boil] ,p[] #dfg #fjd #fjj ,duration ( ,te/ ,h\rs #aj #aj #g #g #aj #d ,/eam ,pressure by ,gauge ,p\nds #aef4d #aef4i #ahd4g #ahd4i #ahc4d #ahi4e ,temp]ature ( ,degrees ,fe$ ,wat] ,f4 #fb4f #fa4a #ic4d #aja4b #aeg4g #aef4f ,degrees ( ,degrees ,sup]heat ,f4 #hc4g #add4c #ajc4d #aci4f ,factor ( ,evaporation #a4bjjda4bjbja4bbbga4bdgea4afgfa4ahhf ,draft 9 ,furnace ,in*es 4#jb 4#je 4#jad 4#ai 4#ab 4#bb ,draft at ,damp] ,in*es 4#jh 4#ae 4#jdf 4#dg 4#ai 4#fg ,temp]ature ( ,degrees ,exit ,gases ,f4 #dch #ebe #djf #ecg #dcj #fab ,flue ,,co#b ,p] ,c5t #ad4c #ab4a ,gas ,o ,p] ,c5t #c4h #f4h ,analysis,,co ,p] ,c5t #j4j #j4j ,oil ,burn$ p] ,h\r ,p\nds #aadg #ahcg #adci #bhfi #adjd #cbad ,wat] ,evaporat$ p] ,h\r f f & at ,p\nds #ahcaj #bghee #bbfci #djcge #bagbj #dbhfc #bab ,degrees ,evaporation f & at #bab ,degrees p] ,p\nds #ae4if #ae4af #ae4gc #ad4jg #ae4dg #ac4cd ,p\nd ( ,oil ,p] ,c5t ( ,rat$ ,capacity ,p\nds #aac4f #agb4i #ajh4f #aic4h #ajd4i #bjg4a ,develop$ ,b4 t4 u4 p] ,p\nd ( ,oil ,b4 t4 u4 #ahfbf #aheah #ahcbf #ahjif #ahfjj #ahfjj ,effici5cy ,p] ,c5t #hc4ae #gi4df #hc4bi #gf4jb #hj4gj #fi4f ,burn+ ,oil 9 ,connection ) ,o!r ,fuels--,consid]able att5tion has be5 rec5tly giv5 to ! burn+ ( oil 9 connection ) o!r fuels1 & a comb9ation ( ?is sort may be advisable ei!r ) ! view to increas+ ! boil] capacity to assi/ ov] peak loads1 or to keep ! boil] 9 op]ation :]e !re is ! possibility ( a tempor>y failure ( ! prim>y fuel4 ,x w\ld appe> f exp]im5ts t su* a comb9ation gives satisfactory results f ! /&po9t ( bo? capacity & effici5cy1 if ! two fuels are burn$ 9 sep>ate furnaces4 ,satisfactory results _c ord9>ily be obta9$ :5 x is attempt$ to burn oil fuel 9 ! same furnace z ! prim>y fuel1 z x is practically impossible to admit ! prop] am\nt ( air = combu/ion = ea* ( ! two fuels simultane\sly4 ,! ,babcock ,wilcox boil] l5ds itself readily to a d\ble furnace arrangem5t & ,fig4 #cj %[s an in/allation :]e oil fuel is burn$ z an auxili>y to wood4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cj4 ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil] ,set ) ,comb9ation ,oil & ,wood-burn+ ,furnace ,wat]-gas ,t>--,wat]-gas t>1 or gas-h\se t>1 is a by-product ( ! coal us$ 9 ! manufacture ( wat] gas4 ,x is slightly heavi] ?an crude oil & has a comp>atively l[ fla% po9t4 ,9 burn+1 x %\ld be heat$ only to a temp]ature :i* makes x suffici5tly fluid1 & any furnace suitable = crude oil is 9 g5]al suitable = wat]-gas t>4 ,c>e %\ld be tak5 :]e ?is fuel is us$ to in/all a suitable app>atus = /ra9+ x be=e x is f$ to ! burn]4 ,illu/ration3 ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil]s ,fir$ ) ,bla/ ,furnace ,gas at ! ,be?lehem ,/eel ,co41 ,be?lehem1 ,pa4 ,?is ,company ,op]ates #ab1ijj ,horse ,p[] ( ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil]s ,,gase\s ,,fuels ,,& ,,_! ,,combu/ion ,( ! gase\s fuels available = /eam g5]at+ purposes1 ! mo/ common are bla/ furnace gas1 natural gas & by-product coke ov5 gas4 ,bla/ furnace gas1 z impli$ by its "n1 is a by-product f ! bla/ furnace ( ! iron indu/ry4 ,?is gasification ( ! solid fuel 9 a bla/ furnace results1 #a/1 ?r\gh combu/ion by ! oxyg5 ( ! bla/2 #bnd1 ?r\gh contact ) ! inc&esc5t ore 7,fe#b,o#c ,c #b ,fe,o ,,co & ,fe,o ,c ,fe ,,co72 & #crd1 ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( ,,co#b ei!r =m$ 9 ! process ( r$uction or driv5 f ! c>bonates *>g$ ei!r z ore or flux4 ,approximately #ij p] c5t ( ! fuel consum$ 9 all ( ! bla/ furnaces ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates is coke4 ,! consumption ( coke p] ton ( iron made v>ies f #afjj to #cfjj p\nds p] ton ( #bbdj p\nds ( iron4 ,?is consumption dep5ds ^u ! quality ( ! coal1 ! nature ( ! ore1 ! quality ( ! pig iron produc$ & ! equipm5t & managem5t ( ! plant4 ,! av]age consumption1 & "o :i* is approximately correct = ord9>y conditions1 is #bjjj p\nds ( coke p] gross ton 7#bbdj p\nds7 ( pig iron4 ,! gas produc$ 9 a gas furnace p] ton ( pig iron is obta9$ f ! weight ( fix$ c>bon gasifi$1 ! weight ( ! oxyg5 comb9$ ) ! mat]ial ( *>ge r$uc$1 ! weight ( ! gase\s con/itu5ts ( ! flux & ! weight ( air deliv]$ by ! bl[+ eng9e & ! weight ( volatile combu/ible conta9$ 9 ! coke4 ,ord9>ily1 ?is weight ( gas w be f\nd to be approximately five times ! weight ( ! coke burn$1 or #aj1jjj p\nds p] ton ( pig iron produc$4 ,) ! exception ( ! small am\nt ( c>bon 9 comb9ation ) hydrog5 z me?ane1 & a v small p]c5tage ( free hydrog51 ord9>ily less ?an #j4a p] c5t1 ! calorific value ( bla/ furnace gas is due to ! ,,co cont5t :i* :5 unit$ ) suffici5t oxyg5 :5 burn$ "u a boil]1 burns fur!r to ,,co#b4 ,! heat value ( su* gas w v>y 9 mo/ cases f #he to #ajj ,b4 t4 u4 p] cubic foot "u /&>d conditions4 ,9 mod]n practice1 :]e ! bla/ is heat$ by hot bla/ /oves1 approximately #ae p] c5t ( ! total am\nt ( gas is us$ = ?is purpose1 leav+ #he p] c5t ( ! total = use "u boil]s or 9 gas eng9es1 t is1 approximately #hejj p\nds ( gas p] ton ( pig iron produc$4 ,9 a mod]n bla/ furnace plant1 ! gas s]ves ord9>ily z ! only fuel requir$4 ,table #di gives ! analyses ( sev]al samples ( bla/ furnace gas4 ,,table #di ,,typical ,,analyses ,,( ,,bla/ ,,furnace ,,gas ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,,co#b ,o ,,co ,h ,,*#d ,n ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,bessem] ,furnace #i4hej4cfcb4gcc4ad 44 #ec4ib ,bessem] ,furnace #aa4d 44 #bg4g #a4i #j4c #eh4g ,bessem] ,furnace #aj4j 44 #bf4b #c4a #j4b #fj4e ,bessem] ,furnace #i4a 44 #bh4g #b4g #j4b #ei4c ,bessem] ,furnace #ac4e 44 #be4b #a4dc 44 #ei4hg ,bessem] ,furnace#dg #aj4i 44 #bg4h #b4h #j4b #eh4c ,f]ro ,manganese ,furnace #g4a 44 #cj4a 44 44 #fb4hdh ,basic ,ore ,furnace #af4j #j4b #bc4f 44 44 #fj4bdh ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,until rec5tly1 ! important consid]ation 9 ! burn+ ( bla/ furnace gas has be5 ! capacity t c be develop$ ) practically no att5tion giv5 to ! aspect ( effici5cy4 ,?is phase ( ! "q is n[ draw+ att5tion & furnaces especially design$ = good effici5cy ) ?is class ( fuel are dem&$4 ,! ess5tial feature is ample combu/ion space1 9 :i* ! combu/ion ( gases may be practically complet$ be=e /rik+ ! heat+ surfaces4 ,! gases h ! p[] ( burn+ out completely aft] /rik+ ! heat+ surfaces1 provid$ ! initial temp]ature is suffici5tly high1 b :]e ! combu/ion is complet$ be=e su* "t1 ! results secur$ are m satisfactory4 ,a furnace volume ( approximately #a to #a4e cubic feet p] rat$ boil] horse p[] w give a combu/ion space t is ample4 ,:]e !re is ! possibility ( a failure ( ! gas supply1 or :]e /eam is requir$ :5 ! bla/ furnace is %ut d[n1 coal fir$ grates ( suffici5t size to get ! requir$ capacity %\ld be in/all$4 ,:]e grates ( full size are n requir$1 ignition grates %\ld be in/all$1 :i* ne$ be only l>ge en\gh to c>ry a fire = ignit+ ! gas or = g5]at+ a small quantity ( /eam :5 ! bla/ furnace is %ut d[n4 ,! area ( su* grates has no direct be>+ on ! size ( ! boil]4 ,! grates may be plac$ directly "u ! gas burn]s 9 a /&>d position or may be plac$ betwe5 two bridge walls back ( ! gas furnace & fir$ f ! side ( ! boil]4 ,an advantage is claim$ = ! /&>d grate position t x m9imizes ! dang] ( explosion on ! re-ignition ( gas aft] a tempor>y /oppage ( ! supply & also t a consid]able am\nt ( dirt1 ( :i* !re is a good deal ) ?is class ( fuel & :i* is difficult to remove1 deposits on ! fire & is tak5 out :5 ! fires are clean$4 ,9 any ev5t1 reg>dless ( ! location ( ! grates1 ample provision %\ld be made = remov+ ?is du/1 n only f ! furnace b f ! sett+ z a :ole4 ,bla/ furnace gas burn]s are ( two g5]al types3 ,^? 9 :i* ! air = combu/ion is admitt$ ar\nd ! burn] prop]1 & ^? 9 :i* ?is air is admitt$ ?r\gh ! burn]4 ,:atev] ! design ( burn]1 provision %\ld be made = ! regulation ( bo? ! air & ! gas supply indep5d5tly4 ,a gas op5+ ( 4#h squ>e in* p] rat$ horse p[] w enable a boil] to develop its nom9al rat+ ) a gas pressure 9 ! ma9 ( ab\t #b in*es4 ,?is pressure is ord9>ily f #f to #h in*es & 9 ?is way op5+s ( ! above size w be good = ord9>y ov]loads4 ,! air op5+s %\ld be f 4#ge to 4#he squ>e in* p] rat$ horse p[]4 ,good results are secur$ by incl9+ ! gas burn]s slightly d[nw>d t[>d ! re> ( ! furnace4 ,:]e ! burn]s are introduc$ ov] coal fir$ grates1 !y %\ld be set high en\gh to give headroom = h& fir+4 ,ord9>ily1 individual /acks ( #acj feet high ) diamet]s z giv5 9 ,k5t's table = correspond+ horse p[] are l>ge en\gh = ?is class ( "w4 ,su* a /ack w give a draft suffici5t to all[ a boil] to be op]at$ at #age p] c5t ( its rat$ capacity1 & beyond ?is po9t ! capacity w n increase proportionately ) ! draft4 ,:5 m ?an "o boil] is connect$ ) a /ack1 ! draft available at ! damp] %\ld be equival5t to t :i* an individual /ack ( #acj feet high w\ld give4 ,! draft f su* a /ack is necess>y to ma9ta9 a suction "u all conditions ?r\gh\t all p>ts ( ! sett+4 ,if ! draft is increas$ above t :i* su* a /ack w give1 difficulties arise f excess air = combu/ion ) consequ5t loss 9 effici5cy4 ,a poor mix+ or lane+ action 9 ! furnace may result 9 a pulsat+ effect ( ! gases 9 ! sett+4 ,?is action may at times be rem$i$ by admitt+ m air to ! furnace4 ,on acc\nt ( ! possibility ( a pulsat+ action ( ! gases "u c]ta9 conditions & ! puffs or explosions1 sett+s = ?is class ( "w %\ld be c>efully con/ruct$ & ?or\ghly buck/ay$ & ti$4 ,natural ,gas--,natural gas f diff]5t localities v>ies consid]ably 9 composition & heat+ value4 ,9 ,table #ej !re is giv5 a numb] ( analyses & heat values = natural gas f v>i\s localities4 ,?is fuel is us$ = /eam g5]at+ purposes to a consid]able ext5t 9 "s localities1 ?\gh su* use is app>5tly decreas+4 ,x is be/ burn$ by employ+ a l>ge numb] ( small burn]s1 ea* be+ capable ( h&l+ #cj nom9al rat$ horse p[]4 ,! use ( a l>ge numb] ( burn]s obviates ! dang] ( any lane+ or bl[pipe action1 :i* might be pres5t :]e l>ge burn]s are us$4 ,ord9>ily1 su* a gas1 z x ent]s ! burn]s1 is "u a pressure ( ab\t #h ounces4 ,= ! purpose ( comp>ison1 all obs]vations %\ld be bas$ on gas r$uc$ to ! /&>d conditions ( temp]ature & pressure1 namely #cb degrees ,fahr5heit & #ad4g p\nds p] squ>e in*4 ,:5 ! temp]ature & pressure correspond+ to met] read+s are kn[n1 ! volume ( gas "u /&>d conditions may be obta9$ by multiply+ ! met] read+s 9 cubic feet by #cc4ed ,p_/,t1 9 :i* ,p equals ! absolute pressure 9 p\nds p] squ>e in* & ,t equals ! absolute temp]ature ( ! gas at ! met]4 ,9 boil] te/+ "w1 ! evaporation %\ld always be r$uc$ to t p] cubic foot ( gas "u /&>d conditions4 ,,table #ej ,,typical ,,analyses 7,,by ,,volume7 ,,& ,,calorific ,,values ,,( ,,natural ,,gas ,,f ,,v>i\s ,,localities ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,locality ( ,well ,h ,,*#d ,,co ,,co#b ,n ,o ,heavy ,h#b,s,b4 t4 u4 ,hydro- p] c>bons ,cubic ,foot ,calcul- at$#di ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,&]son1 ,ind4 #a4hfic4jg #j4gc #j4bf #c4jbj4db #j4dg #j4ae #ajag ,m>ion1 ,ind4 #a4bjic4af #j4fj #j4cj #c4dcj4ee #j4ae #j4bj #ajji ,muncie1 ,ind4 #b4ceib4fg #j4de #j4be #c4ecj4ce #j4be #j4ae #ajjd ,olean1 ,n4 ,y4 #if4ej #j4ej #b4jj #a4jj #ajah ,f9dlay1 ,o4 #a4fdic4ce #j4da #j4be #c4daj4ci #j4ce #j4bj #ajaa ,/4 ,ive1 ,pa4 #f4ajge4ed,trace #j4cd #ah4ab #aaag ,*]ry ,tree1 ,pa4#bb4ejfj4bg #b4bh #g4cbj4hc #f4hj #hdb ,grapeville1 ,pa4 #bd4efad4ic,trace,trace#ah4fia4bb #dj4fj #ibe ,h>vey ,well1 ,butl] ,co41 ,pa4#ac4ejhj4jj,trace #j4ff #e4gb #iih ,pittsburgh1 ,pa4 #i4fdeg4he #a4jj #bc4dab4aj #f4jj #gdh ,pittsburgh1 ,pa4 #bj4jbgb4ah #a4jj #j4hj #a4aj #d4cj #iag ,pittsburgh1 ,pa4 #bf4affe4be #j4hj #j4fj #j4hj #f4cj #hii ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,illu/ration3 #afjj ,horse-p[] ,in/allation ( ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil]s & ,sup]heat]s at ! ,c>negie ,natural ,gas ,co41 ,und]wood1 ,w4 ,va4 ,natural ,gas is ! ,fuel ,burn$ "u ^! ,boil]s ,:5 natural gas is ! only fuel1 ! burn]s %\ld be ev5ly di/ribut$ ov] ! l[] portion ( ! boil] front4 ,if ! fuel is us$ z an auxili>y to coal1 ! burn]s may be plac$ ?r\gh ! fire front4 ,a l>ge combu/ion space is ess5tial & a volume ( 4#ge cubic feet p] rat$ horse p[] w be f\nd to give good results4 ,! burn]s %\ld be ( a design :i* give ! gas & air a rot>y motion to insure a prop] mixture4 ,a *eck]work wall is sometimes plac$ 9 ! furnace ab\t #c feet f ! burn]s to break up ! flame1 b ) a good design ( burn] ?is is unnecess>y4 ,:]e ! gas is burn$ alone & no grates are furni%$1 good results are secur$ by incl9+ ! burn] d[nw>d to ! re> at a slight angle4 ,by-product ,coke ,ov5 ,gas--,by-product coke ov5 gas is a product ( ! de/ructive di/illation ( coal 9 a di/ill+ or by-product coke ov54 ,9 ?is class ( app>atus ! gases1 in/ead ( be+ burn$ at ! po9t ( _! orig91 z 9 a beehive or retort coke ov51 are tak5 f ! ov5 ?r\gh an uptake pipe1 cool$ & yield z by-products t>1 ammonia1 illum9at+ & fuel gas4 ,a c]ta9 portion ( ! gas product is burn$ 9 ! ov5s & ! rema9d] us$ or sold = illum9at+ or fuel purposes1 ! me?ods ( utiliz+ ! gas v>y+ ) plant op]ation & locality4 ,table #ea gives ! analyses & heat value ( c]ta9 samples ( by-product coke ov5 gas utiliz$ = fuel purposes4 ,?is gas is ne>] to natural gas 9 its heat value ?an is bla/ furnace gas1 & 9 g5]al ! rem>ks z to ! prop] me?ods ( burn+ natural gas & ! features to be foll[$ 9 furnace design hold z well = by-product coke ov5 gas4 ,,table #ea ,,typical ,,analyses ,,( ,,by-,,product ,,coke ,,ov5 ,,gas ---------------------------------------- ------ ---------------------------------------- --- ,,co#b ,o ,,co ,,*#d ,h ,n ,b4t4u4 p] ,cubic ,foot -------------------------------------- #j4ge ,trace#f4jbh4ae #ec4jab4a #eje #b4jj ,trace#c4bah4hj #eg4bah4j #cii #c4bj #j4d #f4cbi4fj #da4faf4a #eea #j4hj #a4f #d4ibh4dj #ed4baj4a #dfj -------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------ ,! ess5tial diff]5ce 9 burn+ ! two fuels is ! pressure "u :i* x rea*es ! gas burn]4 ,:]e ?is is ord9>ily f #d to #h ounces 9 ! case ( natural gas1 x is approximately #d in*es ( wat] 9 ! case ( by-product coke ov5 gas4 ,?is necessitates ! use ( l>g] gas op5+s 9 ! burn]s = ! latt] class ( fuel ?an = ! =m]4 ,by-product coke ov5 gas comes to ! burn]s saturat$ ) moi/ure & provision %\ld be made = ! bl[+ out ( wat] ( cond5sation4 ,?is gas too1 c>ries a l>ge proportion ( t> & hydroc>bons :i* =m a deposit 9 ! burn]s & provision %\ld be made = clean+ ?is out4 ,?is is be/ accompli%$ by an atta*m5t :i* p]mits ! bl[+ out ( ! burn]s by /eam4 ,,utilization ,,( ,,wa/e ,,heat ,:ile x has be5 long recogniz$ t ! reclamation ( heat f ! wa/e gases ( v>i\s indu/rial processes w\ld lead to a great sav+ 9 fuel & labor1 ! problem has1 until rec5tly1 nev] be5 giv5 ! att5tion t its importance m]its4 ,x is true t in/allations h be5 made = ! utilization ( su* gases1 b 9 g5]al !y h consi/$ simply 9 ! plac+ ( a giv5 am\nt ( boil] heat+ surface 9 ! pa? ( ! gases & ^? mak+ ! in/allations h be5 satisfi$ ) :atev] p[] has be5 g5]at$1 no att5tion be+ giv5 to ! proportion+ ( ei!r ! heat+ surface or ! gas passages to meet ! peculi> *>act]i/ics ( ! p>ticul> class ( wa/e gas available4 ,! ,babcock ,wilcox ,co4 has rec5tly gone into ! "q ( ! utilization ( :at has be5 kn[n z wa/e heat ) great ?or\ghness1 & ! results secur$ by _! in/allations ) practically all op]ations yield+ su* gases are em95tly successful4 ,,table #eb ,,temp]ature ,,( ,,wa/e ,,gases ,,f ,,v>i\s ,,indu/rial ,,processes ---------------------------------------- ------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,wa/e ,heat ,f ,temp]ature#ej ,degrees ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,brick ,kilns #bjjj-bcjj ,z9c ,furnaces #bjjj-bcjj ,copp] ,matte ,rev]b]atory ,furnaces #bjjj-bbjj ,beehive ,coke ,ov5s #ahjj-bjjj ,cem5t ,kilns #abjj-afjjea ,nickel ,ref9+ ,furnaces #aejj-agej ,op5 ,he>? ,/eel ,furnaces #aajj-adjj ---------------------------------------- ---------- ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,! p[] t c be obta9$ f wa/e gases dep5ds ^u _! temp]ature & weight1 & bo? ( ^! factors v>y widely 9 diff]5t comm]cial op]ations4 ,table #eb gives a li/ ( c]ta9 processes yield+ wa/e gases ! heat ( :i* is available = ! g5]ation ( /eam & ! approximate temp]ature ( su* gases4 ,x %\ld be und]/ood t ! temp]atures 9 ! table are ! av]age ( ! range ( a complete cycle ( ! op]ation & t ! m9imum & maximum temp]atures may v>y l>gely f ! figures giv54 ,! maximum available horse p[] t may be secur$ f su* gases is repres5t$ by ! =mula3 ,w7,t-t7s ,h4 ,p4 ------- 7#bc7 #cc1dgi ,:]e ,w ! weight ( gases pass+ p] h\r1 ,t temp]ature ( gases ent]+ heat+ surface1 t temp]ature leav+ heat+ surface1 s specific heat ( gases4 ,! initial temp]ature & ! weight or volume ( gas w dep5d1 z /at$1 ^u ! process involv$4 ,! exit temp]ature w dep5d1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 ^u ! temp]ature ( ! ent]+ gases1 b w be gov]n$ ma9ly by ! effici5cy ( ! heat+ surfaces in/all$ = ! absorption ( ! heat4 ,:]e ! temp]ature ( ! gas available is high1 approa*+ t f\nd 9 direct fir$ boil] practice1 ! problem is simple & ! "q ( design ( boil] becomes "o ( adapt+ ! prop] am\nt ( heat+ surface to ! volume ( gas to be h&l$4 ,) su* temp]atures1 & a volume ( gas available approximately 9 accordance ) t f\nd 9 direct fir$ boil] practice1 a /&>d boil] or "o b slightly modifi$ f ! /&>d w s]ve ! purpose satisfactorily4 ,z ! temp]atures become l[]1 h[ev]1 ! problem is m difficult & ! dep>ture f /&>d practice m radical4 ,) l[ temp]ature gases1 to obta9 a heat transf] rate at all comp>able ) t f\nd 9 ord9>y boil] practice1 ! lack ( temp]ature mu/ be (fset by an add$ velocity ( ! gases 9 _! passage ov] ! heat+ surfaces4 ,9 secur+ ! velocity necess>y to give a heat transf] rate ) l[ temp]ature gases suffici5t to make ! in/allation ( wa/e heat boil]s %[ a reasonable return on ! inve/m5t1 ! frictional resi/ance to ! gases ?r\gh ! boil] becomes greatly 9 excess ( :at w\ld be consid]$ good practice 9 direct fir$ boil]s4 ,practically all op]ations yield+ wa/e gases require t no?+ be done 9 ! way ( impair+ ! draft at ! furnace outlet1 z ?is might int]f]e ) ! op]ation ( ! prim>y furnace4 ,! in/allation ( a wa/e heat boil]1 !re=e1 v frequ5tly necessitates provid+ suffici5t me*anical draft to ov]come ! frictional resi/ance ( ! gases ?r\gh ! heat+ surfaces & /ill leave ample draft available to meet ! maximum requirem5ts ( ! prim>y furnace4 ,:]e ! temp]ature & volume ( ! gases are 9 l9e ) :at are f\nd 9 ord9>y direct fir$ practice1 ! area ( ! gas passages may be practically /&>d4 ,) ! volume ( gas kn[n1 ! draft loss ?r\gh ! heat+ surfaces may be obta9$ f exp]im5tal data & ?is additional draft requirem5t met by ! in/allation ( a /ack suffici5t to take c>e ( ?is draft loss & /ill leave draft en\gh = op]at+ ! furnace at its maximum capacity4 ,:]e ! temp]atures are l[1 ! add$ frictional resi/ance w ord9>ily be too great to all[ ! draft requir$ to be secur$ by additional /ack height & ! in/allation ( a fan is necess>y4 ,su* a fan %\ld be capable ( h&l+ ! maximum volume ( gas t ! furnace may produce1 & ( ma9ta9+ a suction equival5t to ! maximum frictional resi/ance ( su* volume ?r\gh ! boil] plus ! maximum draft requirem5t at ! furnace outlet4 ,/acks & fans = ?is class ( "w %\ld be figur$ on ! safe side4 ,:]e a fan in/allation is necess>y1 ! loss ( draft 9 ! fan connections %\ld be consid]$1 & 9 figur+ cons]vatively x %\ld be rememb]$ t a fan ( ample size may be run z economically z a small] fan1 :]eas ! small] fan1 if ov]load$1 is op]at$ ) a l>ge loss 9 effici5cy4 ,9 practically any in/allation :]e l[ temp]ature gas requires a fan to give ! prop] heat transf] f ! gases1 ! co/ ( ! fan & ( ! en]gy to drive x w be m ?an (fset by ! add$ p[] f ! boil] secur$ by its use4 ,fur!rmore1 ! in/allation ( su* a fan w frequ5tly increase ! capacity ( ! indu/rial furnace1 9 connection ) :i* ! wa/e heat boil]s are in/all$4 ,9 proportion+ heat+ surfaces & gas passages = wa/e heat "w !re are s _m factors be>+ directly on :at con/itutes ! prop] in/allation t x is impossible to set any fix$ rules4 ,ea* individual in/allation mu/ be consid]$ by itself z well z ! p>ticul> *>act]i/ics ( ! gases available1 su* z _! temp]ature & volume1 & ! pres5ce ( du/ or t>-l sub/ances1 & all mu/ be giv5 ! prop] weight 9 ! det]m9ation ( ! design ( ! heat+ surfaces & gas passages = ! specific set ( conditions4 ,graph3 ,p] ,c5t ( ,wat] ,heat+ ,surface pass$ ov] by ,gases_/,p] ,c5t ( ! ,total ,am\nt ( ,/eam ,g5]at$ 9 ! ,boil] aga9/ ,temp]ature 9 ,degrees ,fahr5heit ( ,hot ,gases ,sweep+ ,heat+ ,surface ,fig4 #ca4 ,curve ,%[+ ,relation ,betwe5 ,gas ,temp]ature1 ,heat+ ,surface pass$ ov]1 & ,am\nt ( ,/eam ,g5]at$4 ,t5 ,squ>e ,feet ( ,heat+ ,surface are ,assum$ z ,equival5t to ,"o ,boil] ,horse ,p[] ,fig4 #ca %[s ! relation ( gas temp]atures1 heat+ surface pass$ ov] & "w done by su* surface = use 9 cases :]e ! temp]atures approa* ^? f\nd 9 direct fir$ practice & :]e ! volume ( gas available is approximately t ) :i* "o horse p[] may be develop$ on #aj squ>e feet ( heat+ surface4 ,! curve assumes :at may be consid]$ /&>d gas passage areas1 & fur!r1 t !re is no heat absorb$ by direct radiation f ! fire4 ,exp]im5ts h %[n t ?is curve is v ne>ly correct = ! conditions assum$4 ,su* be+ ! case1 its application 9 wa/e heat "w is cle>4 ,decreas+ or increas+ ! velocity ( ! gases ov] ! heat+ surfaces f :at might be consid]$ normal direct fir$ practice1 t is1 decreas+ or increas+ ! frictional loss ?r\gh ! boil] w increase or decrease ! am\nt ( heat+ surface necess>y to develop "o boil] horse p[]4 ,! application ( ,fig4 #ca to su* use may be/ be se5 by an example3 ,assume ! ent]+ gas temp]atures to be #adgj degrees & t ! gases are cool$ to #egj degrees4 ,f ! curve1 "u :at are assum$ to be /&>d conditions1 ! gases h pass$ ov] #ai p] c5t ( ! heat+ surface by ! "t !y h be5 cool$ #adgj degrees4 ,:5 cool$ to #egj degrees1 #gh p] c5t ( ! heat+ surface has be5 pass$ ov]4 ,! "w done 9 relation to ! /&>d ( ! curve is repres5t$ by 7#adgj - #egj7 7#bejj - #ejj7 #de p] c5t4 7,^! figures may also be read f ! curve 9 t]ms ( ! p] c5t ( ! "w done by diff]5t p>ts ( ! heat+ surfaces47 ,t is1 #gh p] c5t - #ai p] c5t #ei p] c5t ( ! /&>d heat+ surface has done #de p] c5t ( ! /&>d am\nt ( "w4 #ei #de #a4ca1 :i* is ! ratio ( surface ( ! assum$ case to ! /&>d case ( ! curve4 ,express$ diff]5tly1 !re w be requir$ #ac4a squ>e feet ( heat+ surface 9 ! assum$ case to develop a horse p[] z aga9/ #aj squ>e feet 9 ! /&>d case4 ,! gases available = ?is class ( "w are almo/ inv>iably v dirty4 ,x is ess5tial = ! successful op]ation ( wa/e-heat boil]s t ample provision be made = clean+ by ! in/allation ( access doors ?r\gh :i* all p>ts ( ! sett+ may be rea*$4 ,9 _m in/ances1 su* z wa/e-heat boil]s set 9 connection ) cem5t kilns1 settl+ *amb]s are provid$ = ! du/ be=e ! gases rea* ! boil]4 ,by-passes = ! gases %\ld 9 all cases be provid$ to enable ! boil] to be %ut d[n = clean+ & repairs )\t int]f]+ ) ! op]ation ( ! prim>y furnace4 ,all connections f furnace to boil]s %\ld be kept tight to prev5t ! infiltration ( air1 ) ! consequ5t l[]+ ( gas temp]atures4 ,auxili>y gas or coal fir$ grates mu/ be in/all$ to insure cont9uity 9 ! op]ation ( ! boil] :]e ! op]ation ( ! furnace is int]mitt5t or :]e x may be desir$ to run ! boil] ) ! prim>y furnace n 9 op]ation4 ,su* grates are sometimes us$ cont9u\sly :]e ! gases available are n suffici5t to develop ! requir$ horse p[] f a giv5 am\nt ( heat+ surface4 ,fe> has at times be5 express$ t c]ta9 wa/e gases1 su* z ^? conta9+ sulphur fumes1 w h a delet]i\s action on ! heat+ surface ( ! boil]4 ,?is feature has be5 c>efully wat*$1 h[ev]1 & f plants 9 op]ation x w\ld appe> t 9 ! abs5ce ( wat] or /eam leaks )9 ! sett+1 !re is no su* h>mful action4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cb4 ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil] ,arrang$ = ,utiliz+ ,wa/e ,heat f ,op5 ,he>? ,furnace4 ,?is ,sett+ may be ,modifi$ to ,take ,c>e ( ,practically any ,k9d ( ,wa/e ,gas ,,*imneys ,,& ,,draft ,! height & diamet] ( a prop]ly design$ *imney dep5d ^u ! am\nt ( fuel to be burn$1 its nature1 ! design ( ! flue1 ) its arrangem5t relative to ! boil] or boil]s1 & ! altitude ( ! plant above sea level4 ,!re are s _m factors involv$ t z yet !re has be5 produc$ no =mula :i* is satisfactory 9 tak+ !m all into consid]ation1 & ! me?ods us$ = det]m9+ /ack sizes are l>gely empirical4 ,9 ?is *apt] a me?od suffici5tly compreh5sive & accurate to cov] all practical cases w be develop$ & illu/rat$4 ,draft is ! diff]5ce 9 pressure available = produc+ a fl[ ( ! gases4 ,if ! gases )9 a /ack be heat$1 ea* cubic foot w exp&1 & ! weight ( ! exp&$ gas p] cubic foot w be less ?an t ( a cubic foot ( ! cold air outside ! *imney4 ,!re=e1 ! unit pressure at ! /ack base due to ! weight ( ! column ( heat$ gas w be less ?an t due to a column ( cold air4 ,?is diff]5ce 9 pressure1 l ! diff]5ce 9 head ( wat]1 w cause a fl[ ( ! gases into ! base ( ! /ack4 ,9 its passage to ! /ack ! cold air mu/ pass ?r\gh ! furnace or furnaces ( ! boil]s connect$ to x1 & x 9 turn becomes heat$4 ,?is newly heat$ gas w also rise 9 ! /ack & ! action w be cont9u\s4 ,! int5sity ( ! draft1 or diff]5ce 9 pressure1 is usually measur$ 9 in*es ( wat]4 ,assum+ an atmosph]ic temp]ature ( #fb degrees ,fahr5heit & ! temp]ature ( ! gases 9 ! *imney z #ejj degrees ,fahr5heit1 &1 neglect+ = ! mom5t ! diff]5ce 9 d5sity betwe5 ! *imney gases & ! air1 ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! weights ( ! ext]nal air & ! int]nal flue gases p] cubic foot is 4#jcdg p\nd1 obta9$ z foll[s3 ,weight ( a cubic foot ( air at #fb degrees ,fahr5heit 4#jgfa p\nd ,weight ( a cubic foot ( air at #ejj degrees ,fahr5heit 4#jdad p\nd ------------------------ ,diff]5ce 4#jcdg p\nd ,!re=e1 a *imney #ajj feet high1 assum$ = ! purpose ( illu/ration to be susp5d$ 9 ! air1 w\ld h a pressure ex]t$ on ea* squ>e foot ( its cross sectional area at its base ( 4#jcdg #ajj #c4dg p\nds4 ,z a cubic foot ( wat] at #fb degrees ,fahr5heit weighs #fb4cb p\nds1 an in* ( wat] w\ld ex]t a pressure ( #fb4cb #ab #e4aic p\nds p] squ>e foot4 ,! #ajj-;foot /ack w\ld1 !re=e1 "u ! above temp]ature conditions1 %[ a draft ( #c4dg #e4aic or approximately #j4fg in*es ( wat]4 ,! me?od be/ suit$ = det]m9+ ! prop] proportion ( /acks & flues is dep5d5t ^u ! pr9ciple t if ! cross sectional area ( ! /ack is suffici5tly l>ge = ! volume ( gases to be h&l$1 ! int5sity ( ! draft w dep5d directly ^u ! height2 !re=e1 ! me?od ( proc$ure is z foll[s3 #a/4 ,select a /ack ( su* height z w produce ! draft requir$ by ! p>ticul> "* ( ! fuel & ! am\nt to be burn$ p] squ>e foot ( grate surface4 #bnd4 ,det]m9e ! cross sectional area necess>y to h&le ! gases )\t undue frictional losses4 ,! application ( ^! rules foll[s3 ,draft ,=mula--,! =ce or int5sity ( ! draft1 n all[+ = ! diff]5ce 9 ! d5sity ( ! air & ( ! flue gases1 is giv5 by ! =mula3 _/ #a #a ,d #j4eb ,h ,p --- - ----- 7#bd7 ,t ,t#a_/ 9 :i* ,d draft produc$1 measur$ 9 in*es ( wat]1 ,h height ( top ( /ack above grate b>s 9 feet1 ,p atmosph]ic pressure 9 p\nds p] squ>e in*1 ,t absolute atmosph]ic temp]ature1 ,t#a absolute temp]ature ( /ack gases4 ,9 ?is =mula no acc\nt is tak5 ( ! d5sity ( ! flue gases1 x be+ assum$ t x is ! same z t ( air4 ,any error aris+ f ?is assumption is negligible 9 practice z a factor ( correction is appli$ 9 us+ ! =mula to cov] ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! !oretical figures & ^? correspond+ to actual op]at+ conditions4 ,! =ce ( draft at sea level 7:i* corresponds to an atmosph]ic pressure ( #ad4g p\nds p] squ>e in*7 produc$ by a *imney #ajj feet high ) ! temp]ature ( ! air at #fj degrees ,fahr5heit & t ( ! flue gases at #ejj degrees ,fahr5heit is1 _/ #a #a ,d #j4eb #ajj #ad4g --- - --- #j4fg #eba #ifa _/ ,"u ! same temp]ature conditions ?is *imney at an atmosph]ic pressure ( #aj p\nds p] squ>e in* 7:i* corresponds to an altitude ( ab\t #aj1jjj feet above sea level7 w\ld produce a draft (1 _/ #a #a ,d #j4eb #ajj #aj --- - --- #j4de #eba #ifa _/ ,= use 9 apply+ ?is =mula x is conv5i5t to tabulate values ( ! product _/ #a #a #j4eb #ad4g--- - ----- ,t ,t#a_/ :i* we w call ,k1 = v>i\s values ( ,t#a4 ,) ^! values calculat$ = assum$ atmosph]ic temp]ature & pressure 7#bd7 becomes ,d ,,kh4 7#be7 ,= av]age conditions ! atmosph]ic pressure may be consid]$ #ad4g p\nds p] squ>e in*1 & ! temp]ature #fj degrees ,fahr5heit4 ,= ^! values & v>i\s /ack temp]atures ,k becomes3 ,temp]ature ,/ack ,gases ,con/ant ,k #gej 4#jjhd #gjj 4#jjha #fej 4#jjgh #fjj 4#jjge #eej 4#jjga #ejj 4#jjfg #dej 4#jjfc #djj 4#jjeh #cej 4#jjec ,draft ,losses--,! int5sity ( ! draft z det]m9$ by ! above =mula is !oretical & c nev] be obs]v$ ) a draft gauge or any record+ device4 ,h[ev]1 if ! a%pit doors ( ! boil] are clos$ & !re is no p]ceptible leakage ( air ?r\gh ! boil] sett+ or flue1 ! draft measur$ at ! /ack base w be approximately ! same z ! !oretical draft4 ,! diff]5ce exi/+ at o!r times repres5ts ! pressure necess>y to =ce ! gases ?r\gh ! /ack aga9/ _! own in]tia & ! friction aga9/ ! sides4 ,?is diff]5ce w increase ) ! velocity ( ! gases4 ,) ! a%pit doors clos$ ! volume ( gases pass+ to ! /ack are a m9imum & ! maximum =ce ( draft w be %[n by a gauge4 ,z draft measurem5ts are tak5 along ! pa? ( ! gases1 ! read+s gr[ less z ! po9ts at :i* !y are tak5 are f>!r f ! /ack1 until 9 ! boil] a%pit1 ) ! a%pit doors op5 = freely admitt+ ! air1 !re is little or no p]ceptible rise 9 ! wat] ( ! gauge4 ,! bree*+1 ! boil] damp]1 ! baffles & ! tubes1 & ! coal on ! grates all ret>d ! passage ( ! gases1 & ! draft f ! *imney is requir$ to ov]come ! resi/ance (f]$ by ! v>i\s factors4 ,! draft at ! re> ( ! boil] sett+ :]e connection is made to ! /ack or flue may be #j4e in*1 :ile 9 ! furnace directly ov] ! fire x may n be ov]1 say1 #j4ae in*1 ! diff]5ce be+ ! draft requir$ to ov]come ! resi/ance (f]$ 9 =c+ ! gases ?r\gh ! tubes & ar\nd ! baffl+4 ,"o ( ! mo/ important factors to be consid]$ 9 design+ a /ack is ! pressure requir$ to =ce ! air = combu/ion ?r\gh ! b$ ( fuel on ! grates4 ,?is pressure w v>y ) ! nature ( ! fuel us$1 & 9 _m in/ances w be a l>ge p]c5tage ( ! total draft4 ,9 ! case ( natural draft1 its measure is f\nd directly by not+ ! draft 9 ! furnace1 = ) prop]ly design$ a%pit doors x is evid5t t ! pressure "u ! grates w n diff] s5sibly f atmosph]ic pressure4 ,loss 9 ,/ack--,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! !oretical draft z det]m9$ by =mula 7#bd7 & ! am\nt lo/ by friction 9 ! /ack prop] is ! available draft1 or t :i* ! draft gauge indicates :5 connect$ to ! base ( ! /ack4 ,! sum ( ! losses ( draft 9 ! flue1 boil] & furnace mu/ be equival5t to ! available draft1 & z ^! quantities c be det]m9$ f record ( exp]im5ts1 ! problem ( design+ a /ack becomes "o ( proportion+ x to produce a c]ta9 available draft4 ,! loss 9 ! /ack due to friction ( ! gases c be calculat$ f ! foll[+ =mula3 f ,w ,c ,h ,delta,d -------- 7#bf7 ,a 9 :i* ,delta,d draft loss 9 in*es ( wat]1 ,w weight ( gas 9 p\nds pass+ p] second1 ,c p]imet] ( /ack 9 feet1 ,h height ( /ack 9 feet1 f a con/ant ) ! foll[+ values at sea level3 4#jjae = /eel /acks1 temp]ature ( gases #fjj degrees ,fahr5heit4 4#jjaa = /eel /acks1 temp]ature ( gases #cej degrees ,fahr5heit4 4#jjbj = brick or brick-l9$ /acks1 temp]ature ( gases #fjj degrees ,fahr5heit4 4#jjae = brick or brick-l9$ /acks1 temp]ature ( gases #cej degrees ,fahr5heit4 ,a ,area ( /ack 9 squ>e feet4 ,illu/ration3 #bd1dbj ,horse-p[] ,in/allation ( ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil]s & ,sup]heat]s1 ,equipp$ ) ,babcock ,wilcox ,*a9 ,grate ,/ok]s 9 ! ,qu>ry ,/reet ,/ation ( ! ,commonweal? ,edison ,co41 ,*icago1 ,ill4 ,?is =mula c also be us$ = calculat+ ! frictional losses = flues1 9 :i* case1 ,c ! p]imet] ( ! flue 9 feet1 ,h ! l5g? ( ! flue 9 feet1 ! o!r values be+ ! same z = /acks4 ,! available draft is equal to ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! !oretical draft f =mula 7#be7 & ! loss f =mula 7#bf71 h5ce3 f ,w ,c ,h d#a available draft ,,kh - -------- 7#bg7 ,a ,table #ec gives ! available draft 9 in*es t a /ack #ajj feet high w produce :5 s]v+ diff]5t horse p[]s ( boil]s ) ! me?ods ( calculation = o!r heights4 ,,table #ec ,,available ,,draft ,,calculat$ ,,= #ajj-;,,foot ,,/ack ,,( ,,diff]5t ,,diamet]s ,,assum+ ,,/ack ,,temp]ature ,,( #ejj ,,degrees ,,fahr5heit ,,& #ajj ,,p\nds ,,( ,,gas ,,p] ,,horse ,,p[] ,,= ,,o!r ,,heights ,,( ,,/ack ,,multiply ,,draft ,,by ,,height #ajj ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,horse ,p[] ,diamet] ( ,/ack 9 ,in*es ---------------------------------------- ---------------- #cf #db #dh #ed #fj #ff #gb #gh #hd #ij #if #ajbajhaadabjacbadd ---------------------------------------- ---------------- #ajj 4#fd #bjj 4#ee4fb #cjj 4#da4ee4fa #djj 4#ba4df4ef4fa #ejj 4#cd4ej4eg4fa #fjj 4#ai4db4ec4ei #gjj 4#cd4dh4ef4fj4fc #hjj 4#bc4dc4eb4eh4fa4fc #ijj 4#cf4di4ef4fj4fb4fd #ajjj 4#bi4de4ec4eh4fa4fc4fd #aajj 4#dj4ej4ef4fj4fb4fc4fd #abjj 4#ce4dg4ed4eh4fa4fc4fd4fe #acjj 4#bi4dd4eb4eg4fj4fb4fc4fd4fe #adjj 4#dj4di4ee4ei4fa4fc4fd4fe4fe #aejj 4#cf4dg4ec4eh4fj4fb4fc4fd4fe4fe #afjj 4#ca4dc4eb4ef4ei4fb4fc4fd4fe4fe #agjj 4#da4ej4ee4eh4fa4fb4fd4fd4fe #ahjj 4#cg4dg4ed4eg4fj4fb4fc4fd4fe #aijj 4#cd4de4eb4ef4ei4fa4fc4fd4fd #bjjj 4#dc4ej4ee4ei4fa4fb4fc4fd #bajj 4#dj4di4ed4eh4fj4fb4fc4fd #bbjj 4#ch4dg4ec4eg4ei4fa4fb4fd #bcjj 4#ce4de4eb4ef4ei4fa4fb4fc #bdjj 4#cb4dc4ej4ee4eh4fj4fb4fc #bejj 4#da4di4ed4eg4fj4fa4fc #bfjj 4#dg4ec4ef4ei4fa4fb4fd4fe #bgjj 4#de4eb4ee4eh4fj4fb4fd4fe #bhjj 4#dd4ei4ee4eh4fj4fa4fd4fe #bijj 4#db4di4ed4eg4ei4fa4fc4fe #cjjj 4#dj4dh4ec4ef4ei4fa4fc4fd #cajj 4#ch4dg4eb4ef4eh4fj4fc4fd #cbjj 4#de4ea4ee4eh4fj4fc4fd #ccjj 4#dd4ej4ed4eg4ei4fb4fd #cdjj 4#db4di4ec4ef4ei4fb4fd #cejj 4#dj4dh4eb4ef4eh4fb4fd #cfjj 4#dg4eb4ee4eh4fa4fc #cgjj 4#de4ea4ee4eg4fa4fc #chjj 4#dd4ej4ed4eg4fa4fc #cijj 4#dc4di4ec4ef4fj4fc #djjj 4#db4dh4eb4ef4fj4fb #dajj 4#dj4dg4eb4ee4fj4fb #dbjj 4#ci4df4ea4ee4ei4fb #dcjj 4#de4ej4ed4ei4fb #ddjj 4#dd4di4ec4ei4fb #dejj 4#dc4di4ec4eh4fa #dfjj 4#db4dh4eb4eh4fa #dgjj 4#da4dg4ea4eg4fa #dhjj 4#dj4df4ea4eg4fj #dijj 4#de4ej4eg4fj #ejjj 4#dd4di4ef4fj ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,,= ,,o!r ,,/ack ,,temp]atures ,,add ,,or ,,d$uct ,,be=e ,,multiply+ ,,by ,,height #ajj ,,z ,,foll[s#eb ,= #gej ,degrees ,f4 ,add 4#ag in*4 ,= #gjj ,degrees ,f4 ,add 4#ad in*4 ,= #fej ,degrees ,f4 ,add 4#aa in*4 ,= #fjj ,degrees ,f4 ,add 4#jh in*4 ,= #eej ,degrees ,f4 ,add 4#jd in*4 ,= #dej ,degrees ,f4 ,d$uct 4#jd in*4 ,= #djj ,degrees ,f4 ,d$uct 4#ji in*4 ,= #cej ,degrees ,f4 ,d$uct 4#ad in*4 ,graph3 ,horse ,p[] ( ,boil]s aga9/ ,diamet] ( ,/ack 9 ,in*es ,fig4 #cc4 ,diamet] ( ,/acks & ,horse ,p[] !y w ,s]ve ,comput$ f ,=mula 7#bh74 ,= brick or brick-l9$ /acks1 increase ! diamet] #f p] c5t ,height & ,diamet] ( ,/acks--,f ?is =mula 7#bg7 x becomes evid5t t a /ack ( c]ta9 diamet]1 if x be increas$ 9 height1 w produce ! same available draft z "o ( l>g] diamet]1 ! additional height be+ requir$ to ov]come ! add$ frictional loss4 ,x foll[s t among ! v>i\s /acks t w\ld meet ! requirem5ts ( a p>ticul> case !re mu/ be "o :i* c be con/ruct$ m *eaply ?an ! o!rs4 ,x has be5 det]m9$ f ! relation ( ! co/ ( /acks to _! diamet]s & heights1 9 connection ) ! =mula = available draft1 t ! m9imum co/ /ack has a diamet] dep5d5t solely ^u ! horse p[] ( ! boil]s x s]ves1 & a height proportional to ! available draft requir$4 ,assum+ #abj p\nds ( flue gas p] h\r = ea* boil] horse p[]1 :i* provides = ord9>y ov]loads & ! use ( poor coal1 ! me?od above /at$ gives3 ,= an unl9$ /eel /ack-- diamet] 9 in*es #d4fh 7,h4 ,p47#b_/e 7#bh7 ,= a /ack l9$ ) masonry-- diamet] 9 in*es #d4ib 7,h4 ,p47#b_/e 7#bi7 ,9 bo? ( ^! =mulae ,h4 ,p4 ! rat$ horse p[] ( ! boil]4 ,f ?is =mula ! curve1 ,fig4 #cc1 has be5 calculat$ & f x ! /ack diamet] = any boil] horse p[] c be select$4 ,= /ok] practice :]e a l>ge /ack s]ves a numb] ( boil]s1 ! area is usually made ab\t "o-?ird m ?an ! above rules call =1 :i* all[s = leakage ( air ?r\gh ! sett+ ( any idle boil]s1 irregul>ities 9 op]at+ conditions1 etc4 ,/acks ) diamet]s det]m9$ z above w give an available draft :i* be>s a con/ant ratio ( ! !oretical draft1 & all[+ = ! cool+ ( ! gases 9 _! passage upw>d ?r\gh ! /ack1 ?is ratio is #h4 ,us+ ?is factor 9 =mula 7#be71 & transpos+1 ! height ( ! *imney becomes1 d#a ,h ----- 7#cj7 4#h ,k ,:]e ,h height ( /ack 9 feet above ! level ( ! grates1 d#a available draft requir$1 ,k con/ant z 9 =mula4 ,losses 9 ,flues--,! loss ( draft 9 /raight flues due to friction & in]tia c be calculat$ approximately f =mula 7#bf71 :i* 0 giv5 = loss 9 /acks4 ,x is to be borne 9 m9d t ,c 9 ?is =mula is ! actual p]imet] ( ! flue & is lea/1 relative to ! cross sectional area1 :5 ! section is a circle1 is great] = a squ>e section1 & greate/ = a rectangul> section4 ,! ret>d+ effect ( a squ>e flue is #ab p] c5t great] ?an t ( a circul> flue ( ! same area & t ( a rectangul> ) sides z #a & #a1 #ae p] c5t great]4 ,! great] resi/ance ( ! m or less unev5 brick or concrete flue is provid$ = 9 ! value ( ! con/ants giv5 = =mula 7#bf74 ,bo? /eel & brick flues %\ld be %ort & %\ld h z ne> a circul> or squ>e cross section z possible4 ,abrupt turns are to be avoid$1 b z long easy sweeps require valuable space1 x is (t5 desirable to increase ! height ( ! /ack r ?an to take up add$ space 9 ! boil] room4 ,%ort "r-angle turns r$uce ! draft by an am\nt :i* c be r\ghly approximat$ z equal to #j4je in* = ea* turn4 ,! turns :i* ! gases make 9 leav+ ! damp] box ( a boil]1 9 ent]+ a horizontal flue & 9 turn+ up into a /ack %\ld always be consid]$4 ,! cross sectional areas ( ! passages lead+ f ! boil]s to ! /ack %\ld be ( ample size to provide aga9/ undue frictional loss4 ,x is poor economy to re/rict ! size ( ! flue & ?us make additional /ack height necess>y to ov]come ! add$ friction4 ,! g5]al practice is to make flue areas ! same or slightly l>g] ?an t ( ! /ack2 ^! %\ld be1 pref]ably1 at lea/ #bj p] c5t great]1 & a safe rule to foll[ 9 figur+ flue areas is to all[ #ce squ>e feet p] #ajjj horse p[]4 ,x is unnecess>y to ma9ta9 ! same size ( flue ! entire di/ance beh9d a r[ ( boil]s1 & ! areas at any po9t may be made proportional to ! volume ( gases t w pass t po9t4 ,t is1 ! areas may be r$uc$ z connections to v>i\s boil]s are pass$4 ,illu/ration3 #fjjj ,horse-p[] ,in/allation ( ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil]s at ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,navy ,y>d1 ,wa%+ton1 ,d4 ,c4 ,) circul> /eel flues ( approximately ! same size z ! /acks1 or r$uc$ proportionally to ! volume ( gases !y w h&le1 a conv5i5t rule is to all[ #j4a in* draft loss p] #ajj feet ( flue l5g? & #j4je in* = ea* "r-angle turn4 ,^! figures are also good = squ>e or rectangul> /eel flues ) areas suffici5tly l>ge to provide aga9/ excessive frictional loss4 ,= losses 9 brick or concrete flues1 ^! figures %\ld be d\bl$4 ,und]gr\nd flues are less desirable ?an ov]head or re> flues = ! reason t 9 mo/ in/ances ! gases w h to make m turns :]e und]gr\nd flues are us$ & because ! cross sectional area ( su* flues w (t5times be decreas$ on acc\nt ( an accumulation ( dirt or wat] :i* x may be impossible to remove4 ,9 tall build+s1 su* z (fice build+s1 x is frequ5tly necess>y 9 ord] to c>ry sp5t gases above ! ro(s1 to in/all a /ack ! height ( :i* is out ( all proportion to ! requirem5ts ( ! boil]s4 ,9 su* cases x is p]missible to decrease ! diamet] ( a /ack1 b c>e mu/ be tak5 t ?is decrease is n suffici5t to cause a frictional loss 9 ! /ack z great z ! add$ draft int5sity due to ! increase 9 height1 :i* local conditions make necess>y4 ,9 su* cases also ! fact t ! /ack diamet] is p]missibly decreas$ is no reason :y flue sizes connect+ to ! /ack %\ld be decreas$4 ,^! %\ld /ill be figur$ 9 proportion to ! area ( ! /ack t w\ld be furni%$ "u ord9>y conditions or ) an all[ance ( #ce squ>e feet p] #ajjj horse p[]1 ev5 ?\gh ! cross sectional area appe>s out ( proportion to ! /ack area4 ,loss 9 ,boil]--,9 calculat+ ! available draft ( a *imney #abj p\nds p] h\r has be5 us$ z ! weight ( ! gases p] boil] horse p[]4 ,?is cov]s an ov]load ( ! boil] to an ext5t ( #ej p] c5t & provides = ! use ( poor coal4 ,! loss 9 draft ?r\gh a boil] prop] w dep5d ^u its type & baffl+ & w increase ) ! p] c5t ( rat+ at :i* x is run4 ,no figures c be giv5 :i* w cov] all conditions1 b = approximate use 9 figur+ ! available draft necess>y x may be assum$ t ! loss ?r\gh a boil] w be #j4be in* :]e ! boil] is run at rat+1 #j4dj in* :]e x is run at #aej p] c5t ( its rat$ capacity1 & #j4gj in* :]e x is run at #bjj p] c5t ( its rat$ capacity4 ,loss 9 ,furnace--,! draft loss 9 ! furnace or ?r\gh ! fuel b$ v>ies betwe5 wide limits4 ,! air necess>y = combu/ion mu/ pass ?r\gh ! int]/ices ( ! coal on ! grate4 ,:]e ^! are l>ge1 z is ! case ) brok5 coal1 b little pressure is requir$ to =ce ! air ?r\gh ! b$2 b if !y are small1 z ) bitum9\s slack or small sizes ( an?racite1 a mu* great] pressure is ne$$4 ,if ! draft is insuffici5t ! coal w accumulate on ! grates & a dead smoky fire w result ) ! accompany+ poor combu/ion2 if ! draft is too great1 ! coal may be rapidly consum$ on c]ta9 portions ( ! grate1 leav+ ! fire ?9 9 spots & a portion ( ! grates uncov]$ ) ! result+ losses due to an excessive am\nt ( air4 ,graph3 ,=ce ( ,draft betwe5 ,furnace & ,a% ,pit--,in*es ( ,wat] aga9/ ,p\nds ( ,coal burn$ p] ,squ>e ,foot ( ,grate ,surface p] ,h\r ,fig4 #cd4 ,draft ,requir$ at ,diff]5t ,combu/ion ,rates = ,v>i\s ,k9ds ( ,coal ,draft ,requir$ = ,diff]5t ,fuels--,= e k9d ( fuel & rate ( combu/ion !re is a c]ta9 draft ) :i* ! be/ g5]al results are obta9$4 ,a comp>atively light draft is be/ ) ! free burn+ bitum9\s coals & ! am\nt to use increases z ! p]c5tage ( volatile matt] dim9i%es & ! fix$ c>bon increases1 be+ highe/ = ! small sizes ( an?racites4 ,num]\s o!r factors su* z ! ?ickness ( fires1 ! p]c5tage ( a% & ! air spaces 9 ! grates be> directly on ?is "q ( ! draft be/ suit$ to a giv5 combu/ion rate4 ,! effect ( ^! factors c only be f\nd by exp]im5t4 ,x is almo/ impossible to %[ by "o set ( curves ! furnace draft requir$ at v>i\s rates ( combu/ion = all ( ! diff]5t conditions ( fuel1 etc41 t may be met4 ,! curves 9 ,fig4 #cd1 h[ev]1 give ! furnace draft necess>y to burn v>i\s k9ds ( coal at ! combu/ion rates indicat$ by ! abscissae1 = a g5]al set ( conditions4 ,^! curves h be5 plott$ f ! records ( num]\s te/s & all[ a safe m>g9 = economically burn+ coals ( ! k9ds not$4 ,rate ( ,combu/ion--,! am\nt ( coal :i* c be burn$ p] h\r p] squ>e foot ( grate surface is gov]n$ by ! "* ( ! coal & ! draft available4 ,:5 ! boil] & grate are prop]ly proportion$1 ! effici5cy w be practically ! same1 )9 reasonable limits1 = diff]5t rates ( combu/ion4 ,! area ( ! grate1 & ! ratio ( ?is area to ! boil] heat+ surface w dep5d ^u ! nature ( ! fuel to be burn$1 & ! /ack %\ld be s design$ z to give a draft suffici5t to burn ! maximum am\nt ( fuel p] squ>e foot ( grate surface correspond+ to ! maximum evaporative requirem5ts ( ! boil]4 ,solution ( a ,problem--,! /ack diamet] c be det]m9$ f ! curve1 ,fig4 #cc4 ,! height c be det]m9$ by add+ ! draft losses 9 ! furnace1 ?r\gh ! boil] & flues1 & comput+ f =mula 7#cj7 ! height necess>y to give ?is draft4 ,example3 ,proportion a /ack = boil]s rat$ at #bjjj horse p[]1 equipp$ ) /ok]s1 & burn+ bitum9\s coal t w evaporate #h p\nds ( wat] f & at #bab degrees ,fahr5heit p] p\nd ( fuel2 ! ratio ( boil] heat+ surface to grate surface be+ #ej3a2 ! flues be+ #ajj feet long & conta9+ two "r-angle turns2 ! /ack to be able to h&le ov]loads ( #ej p] c5t2 & ! rat$ horse p[] ( ! boil]s bas$ on #aj squ>e feet ( heat+ surface p] horse p[]4 ,! atmosph]ic temp]ature may be assum$ z #fj degrees ,fahr5heit & ! flue temp]atures at ! maximum ov]load z #eej degrees ,fahr5heit4 ,! grate surface equals #djj squ>e feet4 #bjjj #cd ,! total coal burn$ at rat+ ---------- #hfbd p\nds4 #h ,! coal p] squ>e foot ( grate surface p] h\r at rat+ #hfbd ---- #bb p\nds4 #djj ,= #ej p] c5t ov]load ! combu/ion rate w be approximately #fj p] c5t great] ?an ?is or #a4fj #bb #ce p\nds p] squ>e foot ( grate surface p] h\r4 ,! furnace draft requir$ = ! combu/ion rate1 f ! curve1 ,fig4 #cd1 is #j4f in*4 ,! loss 9 ! boil] w be #j4d in*1 9 ! flue #j4a in*1 & 9 ! turns #b #j4je #j4a in*4 ,! available draft requir$ at ! base ( ! /ack is1 !re=e1 ,in*es ,boil] #j4d ,furnace #j4f ,flues #j4a ,turns #j4a --- ,total #a4b ,s9ce ! available draft is #hj p] c5t ( ! !oretical draft1 ?is draft due to ! height requir$ is #a4b 4#h #a4e in*4 ,! *imney con/ant = temp]atures ( #fj degrees ,fahr5heit & #eej degrees ,fahr5heit is 4#jjga & f =mula 7#cj71 #a4e ,h ----- #baa feet4 4#jjga ,its diamet] f curve 9 ,fig4 #cc is #if in*es if unl9$1 & #ajb in*es inside if l9$ ) masonry4 ,! cross sectional area ( ! flue %\ld be approximately #gj squ>e feet at ! po9t :]e ! total am\nt ( gas is to be h&l$1 tap]+ to ! boil] f>!/ f ! /ack to a size :i* w dep5d ^u ! size ( ! boil] units us$4 ,correction 9 ,/ack ,sizes = ,altitudes--,x has ord9>ily be5 assum$ t a /ack height = altitude w be increas$ inv]sely z ! ratio ( ! b>ometric pressure at ! altitude to t at sea level1 & t ! /ack diamet] w increase inv]sely z ! two-fif?s p[] ( ?is ratio4 ,su* a relation has be5 bas$ on ! assumption ( con/ant draft measur$ 9 in*es ( wat] at ! base ( ! /ack = a giv5 rate ( op]ation ( ! boil]s1 reg>dless ( altitude4 ,if ! assumption be made t boil]s1 flues & furnace rema9 ! same1 & fur!r t ! increas$ velocity ( a giv5 weight ( air pass+ ?r\gh ! furnace at a high] altitude w\ld h no effect on ! combu/ion1 ! !ory has be5 advanc$#ec t a diff]5t law applies4 ,"u ! above assumptions1 :5ev] a /ack is work+ at its maximum capacity at any altitude1 ! entire draft is utiliz$ 9 ov]com+ ! v>i\s resi/ances1 ea* ( :i* is proportional to ! squ>e ( ! velocity ( ! gases4 ,s9ce boil] areas are fix$1 all velocities may be relat$ to a common velocity1 say1 t )9 ! /ack1 & all resi/ances may1 !re=e1 be express$ z proportional to ! squ>e ( ! *imney velocity4 ,! total resi/ance to fl[1 9 t]ms ( velocity head1 may be express$ 9 t]ms ( weight ( a column ( ext]nal air1 ! num]ical value ( su* head be+ indep5d5t ( ! b>ometric pressure4 ,likewise ! draft ( a /ack1 express$ 9 height ( column ( ext]nal air1 w be num]ically indep5d5t ( ! b>ometric pressure4 ,x is evid5t1 !re=e1 t if a giv5 boil] plant1 ) its /ack op]at$ ) a fix$ fuel1 be transplant$ f sea level to an altitude1 assum+ ! temp]atures rema9 con/ant1 ! total draft head measur$ 9 height ( column ( ext]nal air w be num]ically con/ant4 ,! velocity ( *imney gases w1 !re=e1 rema9 ! same at altitude z at sea level & ! weight ( gases fl[+ p] second ) a fix$ velocity w be proportional to ! atmosph]ic d5sity or inv]sely proportional to ! normal b>ometric pressure4 ,to develop a giv5 horse p[] requires a con/ant weight ( *imney gas & air = combu/ion4 ,h5ce1 z ! altitude is increas$1 ! d5sity is decreas$ &1 = ! assumptions giv5 above1 ! velocity ?r\gh ! furnace1 ! boil] passes1 bree*+ & flues mu/ be correspond+ly great] at altitude ?an at sea level4 ,! mean velocity1 !re=e1 = a giv5 boil] horse p[] & con/ant weight ( gases w be inv]sely proportional to ! b>ometric pressure & ! velocity head measur$ 9 column ( ext]nal air w be inv]sely proportional to ! squ>e ( ! b>ometric pressure4 ,= /acks op]at+ at altitude x is necess>y n only to increase ! height b also ! diamet]1 z !re is an add$ resi/ance )9 ! /ack due to ! add$ friction f ! additional height4 ,?is frictional loss c be comp5sat$ by a suitable increase 9 ! diamet] & :5 s comp5sat$1 x is evid5t t on ! assumptions z giv51 ! *imney height w\ld h to be increas$ at a ratio inv]sely proportional to ! squ>e ( ! normal b>ometric pressure4 ,9 design+ a boil] = high altitudes1 z already /at$1 ! assumption is usually made t a giv5 grade ( fuel w require ! same draft measur$ 9 in*es ( wat] at ! boil] damp] z at sea level1 & ?is leads to mak+ ! /ack height inv]sely z ! b>ometric pressures1 in/ead ( inv]sely z ! squ>e ( ! b>ometric pressures4 ,! correct height1 no d\bt1 falls some:]e betwe5 ! two values z l>g] flues are usually us$ at ! high] altitudes1 :]eas to obta9 ! ratio ( ! squ>es1 ! flues mu/ be ! same size 9 ea* case1 & aga9 ! effect ( an increas$ velocity ( a giv5 weight ( air ?r\gh ! fire at a high altitude1 on ! combu/ion1 mu/ be neglect$4 ,9 mak+ capacity te/s ) coal fuel1 no diff]5ce has be5 not$ 9 ! rates ( combu/ion = a giv5 draft suction measur$ by a wat] column at high & l[ altitudes1 & ?is w\ld make x appe> t ! correct height to use is m ne>ly t obta9$ by ! inv]se ratio ( ! b>ometric read+s ?an by ! inv]se ratio ( ! squ>es ( ! b>ometric read+s4 ,if ! assumption is made t ! value falls midway betwe5 ! two =mulae1 ! error 9 us+ a /ack figur$ 9 ! ord9>y way by mak+ ! height inv]sely proportional to ! b>ometric read+s w\ld diff] ab\t #aj p] c5t 9 capacity at an altitude ( #aj1jjj feet1 :i* diff]5ce is well )9 ! probable v>iation ( ! size det]m9$ by diff]5t me?ods4 ,x w\ld1 !re=e1 appe> t ample accuracy is obta9$ 9 all cases by simply mak+ ! height inv]sely proportional to ! b>ometric read+s & increas+ ! diamet] s t ! /acks us$ at high altitudes h ! same frictional resi/ance z ^? us$ at l[ altitudes1 al?\gh1 if desir$1 ! /ack may be made some:at high] at high altitudes ?an ?is rule calls = 9 ord] to be on ! safe side4 ,! increase ( /ack diamet] necess>y to ma9ta9 ! same friction loss is inv]sely z ! two-fif?s p[] ( ! b>ometric pressure4 ,table #ed gives ! ratio ( b>ometric read+s ( v>i\s altitudes to sea level1 values = ! squ>e ( ?is ratio & values ( ! two-fif?s p[] ( ?is ratio4 ,,table #ed ,,/ack ,,capacities1 ,,correction ,,factors ,,= ,,altitudes ,altitude ,r ,r#b_/e ,height 9 ,feet ,normal ,ratio ,b>omet] ,ratio ,increase ,above ,b>omet] ,read+ ,r 9 ,/ack ,sea ,level ,sea ,level to ,diamet] ,altitude #j #cj4jj #a4jjj #a4jjj #a4jjj #ajjj #bh4hh #a4jci #a4jgi #a4jae #bjjj #bg4hj #a4jgi #a4jfd #a4jcj #cjjj #bf4gf #a4aba #a4beg #a4jdg #djjj #be4gf #a4afe #a4cef #a4jfc #ejjj #bd4gi #a4baj #a4dfd #a4jgi #fjjj #bc4hg #a4beg #a4ehj #a4jif #gjjj #bb4ig #a4cjf #a4gjf #a4aac #hjjj #bb4aa #a4ceg #a4hda #a4acj #ijjj #ba4bh #a4daj #a4ihh #a4adg #ajjjj #bj4di #a4dfd #b4add #a4afe ,^! figures %[ t ! altitude affects ! height to a mu* great] ext5t ?an ! diamet] & t practically no increase 9 diamet] is necess>y = altitudes up to #cjjj feet4 ,= high altitudes ! increase 9 /ack height necess>y is1 9 "s cases1 su* z to make ! proportion ( height to diamet] impracticable4 ,! me?od to be recomm5d$ 9 ov]com+1 at lea/ p>tially1 ! great increase 9 height necess>y at high altitudes is an increase 9 ! grate surface ( ! boil]s :i* ! /ack s]ves1 9 ?is way r$uc+ ! combu/ion rate necess>y to develop a giv5 p[] & h5ce ! draft requir$ = su* combu/ion rate4 ,,table #ee ,,/ack ,,sizes ,,by ,,k5t',s ,,=mula ,,assum+ #e ,,p\nds ,,( ,,coal ,,p] ,,horse ,,p[] ,height ( ,/ack 9 ,feet ,side ( ,equiva- ,dia- ,area l5t met],squ>e #ej #fj #gj #hj #ij #ajj #aaj #abe #aej #age,squ>e ,in*es ,feet ,/ack ,in*es ,comm]cial ,horse ,p[] #cc #e4idajfaaeabe #acc #ada #adi #cj #cf #g4jgabiadaaeb #afc #agc #ahb #cb #ci #h4cjaeeafiahc #aif #bjh #bai #bbi #bde #ce #db #i4fbahcbjjbaf #bca #bde #beh #bga #bhi #caf #ch #dh #ab4egbdfbfibij #caa #ccj #cdh #cfe #chi #dbf #dfj #dc #ed #ae4ijcahcdhcgf #djb #dbg #ddi #dgb #ejc #eea #eie #dh #fj #ai4fddjjdcgdgc #eje #ecf #efe #eic #fcb #fib #gdh #ed #ff #bc4gfdijecgehj #fbj #feh #fid #gbh #ggf #hdi #iah #ei #gb #bh4bgeiafdffih #gdg #gib #hce #hgf #icdajbcaaje #fd #gh #cc4ahgjjgffhbh #hhe #ici #iijajchaajgababacaj #gj #hd #ch4dhhahhififhajceajihaaegabadabidadaha eca #ge ,height ( ,/ack 9 ,feet ,side ( ,equiva- ,dia- ,area l5t met],squ>e #ajj #aaj #abe #aej #age #bjj #bbe #bej ,squ>e ,in*es ,feet ,/ack ,in*es ,comm]cial ,horse ,p[] #ij #dd4ahacch #adjc #adif #afci #aggj #ahic #bjjh #baaf #hj #if #ej4bgaecb #afjf #agac #ahgf #bjbg #bafg #bbih #bdbc #hf #ajb #ef4geagci #ahbd #aidd #bacj #bcjj #bdei #bfji #bgej #ia #ajh #fc4fbaiei #bjed #baij #bcib #beib #bggj #bici #cjih #ih #aad #gj4hhbaib #bbii #bdea #bfhe #bijj #cajj #cbhh #cdff #aja #abj #gh4edbdch #beeg #bgbf #bihf #cbbf #cddh #cfeg #chee #ajg #abf #hf4eibfig #bhbi #cjaf #ccjc #cefh #chad #djdf #dbfe #aab #acb #ie4jcbigj #caad #ccba #cfcg #cibi #dbjj #ddee #dfif #aag #add #aac4ajceed #cgbf #cigc #dceb #dgja #ejbf #ecca #efah #abh #aef #acb4gcdaij #dcic #dfhd #eaca #eedb #eibe #fbhe #ffbd #ach #afh #aec4iddhgh #eaae #eded #eigd #fded #fhii #gcah #ggac #aej ,k5t's ,/ack ,tables--,table #ee gives1 9 conv5i5t =m = approximate "w1 ! sizes ( /acks & ! horse p[] ( boil]s :i* !y w s]ve4 ,?is table is a modification ( ,mr4 ,william ,k5t's /ack table & is calculat$ f 8 =mula4 ,provid$ no unusual conditions are enc\nt]$1 x is reliable = ! ord9>y rates ( combu/ion ) bitum9\s coals4 ,x is figur$ on a consumption ( #e p\nds ( coal burn$ p] h\r p] boil] horse p[] develop$1 ?is figure giv+ a fairly lib]al all[ance = ! use ( poor coal & = a reasonable ov]load4 ,:5 ! coal us$ is a l[ grade bitum9\s ( ! ,middle or ,we/]n ,/ates1 x is /rongly recomm5d$ t ^! sizes be increas$ mat]ially1 su* an increase be+ f #be to #fj p] c5t1 dep5d+ ^u ! nature ( ! coal & ! capacity desir$4 ,= ! coal burn$ p] h\r = any size /ack giv5 9 ! table1 ! values %\ld be multipli$ by #e4 ,a conv5i5t rule = l>ge /acks1 #bjj feet high & ov]1 is to provide #cj squ>e feet ( cross sectional area p] #ajjj rat$ horse p[]4 ,/acks = ,oil ,fuel--,! requirem5ts ( /acks connect$ to boil]s "u :i* oil fuel is burn$ are entirely diff]5t f ^? :]e coal is us$4 ,:ile m att5tion has be5 paid to ! matt] ( /ack sizes = oil fuel 9 rec5t ye>s1 !re has n z yet be5 ga!r$ ! l>ge am\nt ( exp]im5tal data available = use 9 design+ coal /acks4 ,9 ! case ( oil-fir$ boil]s ! loss ( draft ?r\gh ! fuel b$ is p>tially elim9at$4 ,:ile !re may be practically no loss ?r\gh any *eck]work admitt+ air to ! furnace :5 a boil] is new1 ! areas = ! air passage 9 ?is *eck]work w 9 a %ort "t be decreas$1 due to ! silt :i* is pres5t 9 practically all fuel oil4 ,! loss 9 draft ?r\gh ! boil] prop] at a giv5 rat+ w be less ?an 9 ! case ( coal-fir$ boil]s1 ?is be+ due to a decrease 9 ! volume ( ! gases4 ,fur!r1 ! action ( ! oil burn] itself is to a c]ta9 ext5t t ( a =c$ draft4 ,to (fset ?is decrease 9 draft requirem5t1 ! temp]ature ( ! gases ent]+ ! /ack w be some:at l[] :]e oil is us$ ?an :]e coal is us$1 & ! draft t a /ack ( a giv5 height w\ld give1 !re=e1 decreases4 ,! factors z giv5 above1 affect+ z !y d ! int5sity ( ! draft1 affect directly ! height ( ! /ack to be us$4 ,z already /at$1 ! volume ( gases f oil-fir$ boil]s be+ less ?an 9 ! case ( coal1 makes x evid5t t ! area ( /acks = oil fuel w be less ?an = coal4 ,x is assum$ t ^! areas w v>y directly z ! volume ( ! gases to be h&l$1 & ?is volume = oil may be tak5 z approximately #fj p] c5t ( t = coal4 ,9 design+ /acks = oil fuel !re are two features :i* mu/ n be ov]look$4 ,9 coal-fir+ practice !re is r>ely dang] ( too mu* draft4 ,9 ! burn+ ( oil1 h[ev]1 ?is may play an important "p 9 ! r$uction ( plant economy1 ! influ5ce ( excessive draft be+ m app>5t :]e ! load on ! plant may be r$uc$ at int]vals4 ,! reason = ?is is t1 aside f a slight decrease 9 temp]ature at r$uc$ loads1 ! t5d5cy1 due to c>eless fir+1 is t[>d a con/ant gas fl[ ?r\gh ! boil] reg>dless ( ! rate ( op]ation1 ) ! correspond+ increase ( excess air at light loads4 ,) excessive /ack height1 economical op]ation at v>y+ loads is almo/ impossible ) h& control4 ,) automatic control1 h[ev]1 :]e /acks are necess>ily high to take c>e ( kn[n peaks1 "u light] loads ?is economical op]ation becomes less difficult4 ,= ?is reason ! "q ( design+ a /ack = a plant :]e ! load is kn[n to be ne>ly a con/ant is easi] ?an = a plant :]e ! load w v>y ov] a wide range4 ,:ile great c>e mu/ be tak5 to avoid excessive draft1 /ill m c>e mu/ be tak5 to assure a draft suction )9 all p>ts ( ! sett+ "u any & all conditions ( op]ation4 ,x is v easily possible to m ?an (fset ! economy ga9$ ?r\gh l[ draft1 by ! losses due to sett+ det]ioration1 result+ f su* lack ( suction4 ,"u conditions :]e ! suction is n suffici5t to c>ry (f ! products ( combu/ion1 ! action ( ! heat on ! sett+ brickwork w cause its rapid failure4 ,illu/ration3 #ghjj ,horse-p[] ,in/allation ( ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil]s1 ,equipp$ ) ,babcock ,wilcox ,*a9 ,grate ,/ok]s at ! ,metropolitan ,we/ ,side ,elevat$ ,ry4 ,co41 ,*icago1 ,ill4 ,x becomes evid5t1 !re=e1 t ! "q ( /ack height = oil-fir$ boil]s is "o :i* mu/ be consid]$ ) ! greate/ ( c>e4 ,! design]1 on ! "o h&1 mu/ gu>d aga9/ ! evils ( excessive draft ) ! view to plant economy1 &1 on ! o!r1 aga9/ ! evils ( lack ( draft f ! viewpo9t ( upkeep co/4 ,/acks = ?is "w %\ld be proportion$ to give ample draft = ! maximum ov]load t a plant w be call$ ^u to c>ry1 all conditions ( ov]load c>efully consid]$4 ,at ! same "t1 :]e ?is maximum ov]load is figur$ lib]ally en\gh to insure a draft suction )9 ! sett+ "u all conditions1 c>e mu/ be tak5 aga9/ ! in/allation ( a /ack :i* w\ld give m ?an ?is maximum draft4 ,,table #ef ,,/ack ,,sizes ,,= ,,oil ,,fuel ,,adapt$ ,,f ,c4 ,r4 ,,weym\?',s ,,table 7,,trans4 ,a4 ,s4 ,m4 ,e4 ,,vol4 #cd7 ---------------------------------------- ------------ ---------------------------------------- --------- ,height 9 ,feet ,above ,boil] ,room ,floor ,diamet]-------------------------------- ----- ,in*es #hj #ij #ajj #abj #adj #afj ---------------------------------------- ---- #cc #afa #bjf #bcc #bgj #cjf #cae #cf #bjh #bec #bie #cca #cfc #chg #ci #bea #cjc #cdc #cii #dhh #dfg #db #bie #cei #djc #dgd #eba #eeg #dh #cii #dhf #eea #fde #gac #gfj #ed #eai #fcd #gbj #hdg #icc #ajjj #fj #feg #hjj #iac #ajgc #aaic #abhj #ff #hac #iic #aacc #accc #adhj #aeic #gb #ihj #abjf #acgc #afbj #ahjg #aidj #hd #acgc #aehg #aicc #bbic #befj #bgfg #if #ahcc #bbfj #behg #cjhg #cdec #cgdj #ajh #bcfg #bibj #ccdg #djjj #ddhc #dhfg #abj #cjfj #cffj #dbjg #ejdj #effj #fafj ---------------------------------------- ---- ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,figures repres5t nom9al rat$ horse p[]4 ,sizes z giv5 good = #ej p] c5t ov]loads4 ,bas$ on c5trally locat$ /acks1 %ort direct flues & ord9>y op]at+ effici5cies4 ,table #ef gives ! sizes ( /acks1 & horse p[] :i* !y w s]ve = oil fuel4 ,?is table is1 9 modifi$ =m1 "o calculat$ by ,mr4 ,c4 ,r4 ,weym\? aft] an exhau/ive /udy ( data p]ta9+ to ! subject1 & w ord9>ily give satisfactory results4 ,/acks = ,bla/ ,furnace ,gas ,"w--,= boil]s burn+ bla/ furnace gas1 z 9 ! case ( oil-fir$ boil]s1 /ack sizes z suit$ = coal fir+ w h to be modifi$4 ,! diamet] ( /acks = ?is "w %\ld be approximately ! same z = coal-fir$ boil]s4 ,! volume ( gases w\ld be slightly great] ?an f a coal fire & w\ld decrease ! draft ) a giv5 /ack1 b su* a decrease due to volume is ab\t (fset by an increase due to some:at high] temp]atures 9 ! case ( ! bla/ furnace gases4 ,records %[ t ) ?is class ( fuel #age p] c5t ( ! rat$ capacity ( a boil] c be develop$ ) a draft at ! boil] damp] ( f #j4ge in* to #a4j in*1 & x is well to limit ! height ( /acks to "o :i* w give ?is draft z a maximum4 ,a /ack ( prop] diamet]1 #acj feet high above ! gr\nd1 w produce su* a draft & ?is height %\ld ord9>ily n be exce$$4 ,until rec5tly ! "q ( economy 9 boil]s fir$ ) bla/ furnace gas has n be5 consid]$1 b1 aside f ! economical /&po9t1 excessive draft %\ld be gu>d$ aga9/ 9 ord] to l[] ! upkeep co/4 ,/acks %\ld be made ( suffici5t height to produce a draft t w develop ! maximum capacity requir$1 & ?is draft decreas$ proportionately = loads "u ! maximum by damp] regulation4 ,! am\nt ( gas f$ to a boil] = any giv5 rat+ is a fix$ quantity & if a draft 9 excess ( t requir$ = t p>ticul> rate ( op]ation is suppli$1 economy is decreas$ & ! we> & te> on ! sett+ is mat]ially increas$4 ,excess air :i* is drawn 91 ei!r ?r\gh or ar\nd ! gas burn]s by an excessive draft1 w decrease economy1 z 9 any o!r class ( "w4 ,aga91 z 9 oil-fir$ practice1 x is ess5tial on ! o!r h& t a suction be ma9ta9$ )9 all p>ts ( ! sett+1 9 ?is case n only to provide aga9/ sett+ det]ioration b to protect ! op]ators f leakage ( gas :i* is disagreeable & may be dang]\s4 ,aside f ! int5sity ( ! draft1 a poor mixture ( ! gas & air or a lane+ action may lead to second>y combu/ion ) ! possibility ( dang]\s explosions )9 ! sett+1 may cause a pulsat+ action )9 ! sett+1 may increase ! exit temp]atures to a po9t :]e !re is dang] ( burn+ out damp] boxes1 &1 9 g5]al1 is h>d on ! sett+4 ,x is highly ess5tial1 !re=e1 t ! furnace be prop]ly con/ruct$ to meet ! draft :i* w be available4 ,/acks = ,wood-fir$ ,boil]s--,= boil]s us+ wood z fuel1 !re is b little data ^u :i* to base /ack sizes4 ,! loss ( draft ?r\gh ! b$ ( fuel w v>y ov] limits ev5 wid] ?an 9 ! case ( coal1 = 9 ?is class ( fuel ! moi/ure may run f practically #j4j p] c5t to ov] #fj p] c5t1 & ! me?ods ( h&l+ & fir+ are radically diff]5t = ! diff]5t classes ( wood 7see *apt] on ,wood-burn+ ,furnaces74 ,z economy is ord9>ily ( little importance1 high /ack temp]atures may be expect$1 & (t5 unavoidably l>ge quantities ( excess air are suppli$ due to ! me?od ( fir+4 ,9 g5]al1 x may be /at$ t = ?is class ( fuel ! diamet] ( /acks %\ld be at lea/ z great z = coal-fir$ boil]s1 :ile ! height may be slightly decreas$4 ,x is f> ! be/ plan 9 design+ a /ack = boil]s us+ wood fuel to consid] ea* individual set ( conditions t exi/1 r ?an try to foll[ any g5]al rule4 ,"o factor n to be ov]look$ 9 /acks = wood burn+ is _! location4 ,! f9e p>ticles ( ?is fuel are (t5 c>ri$ unconsum$ ?r\gh ! boil]1 & :]e ! /ack is n on top ( ! boil]1 ^! p>ticles may accumulate 9 ! base ( ! /ack bel[ ! po9t at :i* ! flue ent]s4 ,:]e !re is any air leakage ?r\gh ! base ( su* a /ack1 ?is fuel may become ignit$ & ! /ack burn$4 ,:]e !re is a possibility ( su* action tak+ place1 x is well to l9e ! /ack ) fire brick = a portion ( its height4 ,draft ,gauges--,! ord9>y =m ( draft gauge1 ,fig4 #ce1 :i* consi/s ( a ,u-tube1 conta9+ wat]1 lacks s5sitiv5ess 9 measur+ su* slight pressure diff]5ces z usually exi/1 & = t reason gauges :i* multiply ! draft indications are m conv5i5t & are mu* us$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ce4 ,u-tube ,draft ,gauge ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cf4 ,b>rus ,draft ,gauge ,an in/rum5t :i* has giv5 excell5t results is "o introduc$ by ,mr4 ,g4 ,h4 ,b>rus1 :i* multiplies ! ord9>y indications z _m times z desir$4 ,?is is illu/rat$ 9 ,fig4 #cf1 & consi/s ( a ,u-tube made ( "o-half in* glass1 surm\nt$ by two l>g] tubes1 or *amb]s1 ea* hav+ a diamet] ( #b in*es4 ,two diff]5t liquids :i* w n mix1 & :i* are ( diff]5t color1 are us$1 usually alcohol color$ r$ & a c]ta9 grade ( lubricat+ oil4 ,! movem5t ( ! l9e ( dem>cation is proportional to ! diff]5ce 9 ! areas ( ! *amb]s & ! ,u-tube connect+ !m4 ,! in/rum5t is calibrat$ by comp>ison ) ! ord9>y ,u-tube gauge4 ,9 ! ,ellison =m ( gauge ! l[] portion ( ! ord9>y ,u-tube has be5 replac$ by a tube slightly incl9$ to ! horizontal1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #cg4 ,by ?is arrangem5t any v]tical motion 9 ! "r-h& upright tube causes a v mu* great] travel ( ! liquid 9 ! incl9$ tube1 ?us p]mitt+ extremely small v>iation 9 ! int5sity ( ! draft to be read ) facility4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cg4 ,ellison ,draft ,gauge ,! gauge is fir/ level$ by means ( ! small level atta*$ to x1 bo? legs be+ op5 to ! atmosph]e4 ,! liquid is !n adju/$ until its m5iscus re/s at ! z]o po9t on ! left4 ,! "r-h& leg is !n connect$ to ! s\rce ( draft by means ( a piece ( rubb] tub+4 ,"u ^! circum/ances1 a rise ( level ( "o in* 9 ! "r-h& v]tical tube causes ! m5iscus 9 ! incl9$ tube to pass f ! po9t #j to #a4j4 ,! scale is divid$ into t5?s ( an in*1 & ! sub-divisions are hundr$?s ( an in*4 ,! mak]s furni% a non-dry+ oil = ! liquid1 usually a #cjj degrees te/ ref9$ petroleum4 ,a v conv5i5t =m ( ! ord9>y ,u-tube gauge is kn[n z ! ,peabody gauge1 & x is %[n 9 ,fig4 #ch4 ,?is is a small modifi$ ,u-tube ) a slid+ scale betwe5 ! two legs ( ! ,u & ) connections su* t ei!r a draft suction or a draft pressure may be tak54 ,! tops ( ! slid+ pieces ext5d+ across ! tubes are plac$ at ! bottom ( ! m5iscus & accurate read+s 9 hundr$?s ( an in* are obta9$ by a v]ni]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ch4 ,peabody ,draft ,gauge ,,effici5cy ,,& ,,capacity ,,( ,,boil]s ,two ( ! mo/ important op]at+ factors ent]+ into ! consid]ation ( :at con/itutes a satisfactory boil] are its effici5cy & capacity4 ,! relation ( ^! factors to "o ano!r w be consid]$ lat] "u ! selection ( boil]s ) ref]5ce to ! "w !y are to accompli%4 ,! pres5t *apt] deals ) ! effici5cy & capacity only ) a view to mak+ cle> exactly :at is meant by ^! t]ms z appli$ to /eam g5]at+ app>atus1 toge!r ) ! me?ods ( det]m9+ ^! factors by te/s4 ,effici5cy--,! t]m effici5cy1 specifically appli$ to a /eam boil]1 is ! ratio ( heat absorb$ by ! boil] 9 ! g5]ation ( /eam to ! total am\nt ( heat available 9 ! m$ium utiliz$ 9 secur+ su* g5]ation4 ,:5 ?is m$ium is a solid fuel1 su* z coal1 x is impossible to secure ! complete combu/ion ( ! total am\nt f$ to ! boil]4 ,a portion is b\nd to drop ?r\gh ! grates :]e x becomes mix$ ) ! a% &1 rema9+ unburn$1 produces no heat4 ,obvi\sly1 x is unfair to *>ge ! boil] ) ! failure to absorb ! portion ( available heat 9 ! fuel t is wa/$ 9 ?is way4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! boil] us] mu/ pay = su* wa/e & is ju/ifi$ 9 *>g+ x aga9/ ! comb9$ boil] & furnace4 ,due to ?is fact1 ! effici5cy ( a boil]1 z ord9>ily /at$1 is 9 reality ! comb9$ effici5cy ( ! boil]1 furnace & grate1 & ,effici5cy ( boil]1 ,heat absorb$ p] p\nd ( fuel furnace & grate ------------------------------- 7#ca7 ,heat value p] p\nd ( fuel ,! effici5cy w be ! same :e!r bas$ on dry fuel or on fuel z fir$1 includ+ its cont5t ( moi/ure4 ,= example3 ,if ! coal conta9$ #c p] c5t ( moi/ure1 ! effici5cy w\ld be ,heat absorb$ p] p\nd ( dry coal #j4ig ---------------------------------------- -- ,heat value p] p\nd ( dry coal #j4ig :]e #j4ig cancels & ! =mula becomes 7#ca74 ,! heat suppli$ to ! boil] is due to ! combu/ible portion ( fuel :i* is actually burn$1 irrespective ( :at proportion ( ! total combu/ible fir$ may be4#ed ,?is fact has l$ to ! use ( a second effici5cy basis on combu/ible & :i* is call$ ! effici5cy ( boil] & furnace#ee1 namely1 ,effici5cy ( boil] & furnace#ee ,heat absorb$ p] p\nd ( combu/ible#ef -------------------------------------- 7#cb7 ,heat value p] p\nd ( combu/ible ,! effici5cy s det]m9$ is us$ 9 comp>+ ! relative p]=mance ( boil]s1 irrespective ( ! type ( grates us$ "u !m4 ,if ! loss ( fuel ?r\gh ! grates c\ld be entirely ov]come1 ! effici5cies obta9$ by 7#ca7 & 7#cb7 w\ld obvi\sly be ! same4 ,h5ce1 9 ! case ( liquid & gase\s fuels1 :]e !re is practically no wa/e1 ^! effici5cies are almo/ id5tical4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 x is extremely difficult1 if n impossible1 to det]m9e ! actual effici5cy ( a boil] alone1 z di/+ui%$ f ! comb9$ effici5cy ( boil]1 grate & furnace4 ,?is is due to ! fact t ! losses due to excess air _c be correctly attribut$ to ei!r ! boil] or ! furnace1 b only to a comb9ation ( ! complete app>atus4 ,attempts h be5 made to devise me?ods = divid+ ! losses proportionately betwe5 ! furnace & ! boil]1 b su* attempts are unsatisfactory & x is impossible to det]m9e ! effici5cy ( a boil] ap>t f t ( a furnace 9 su* a way z to make su* det]m9ation ( any practical value or 9 a way t might n lead to endless dispute1 7 ! "q to arise 9 ! case ( a gu>ante$ effici5cy4 ,f ! boil] manufactur]'s /&po9t1 ! only way ( e/abli%+ an effici5cy t has any value :5 gu>antees are to be met1 is to require ! grate or /ok] manufactur] to make c]ta9 gu>antees z to m9imum ,,co#b1 maximum ,,co1 & t ! am\nt ( combu/ible 9 ! a% & bl[n away ) ! flue gases does n exce$ a c]ta9 p]c5tage4 ,) su* a gu>antee1 ! effici5cy %\ld be bas$ on ! comb9$ furnace & boil]4 ,g5]al practice1 h[ev]1 has e/abli%$ ! use ( ! effici5cy bas$ ^u combu/ible z repres5t+ ! effici5cy ( ! boil] alone4 ,:5 su* an effici5cy is us$1 its exact mean+1 z po9t$ out on opposite page1 %\ld be realiz$4 ,! computation ( ! effici5cies describ$ on opposite page is be/ illu/rat$ by example4 ,assume ! foll[+ data to be det]m9$ f an actual boil] trial4 ,/eam pressure by gauge1 #bjj p\nds4 ,fe$ temp]ature1 #ahj degrees4 ,total weight ( coal fir$1 #ag1ejj p\nds4 ,p]c5tage ( moi/ure 9 coal1 #c p] c5t4 ,total a% & refuse1 #bcif p\nds4 ,total wat] evaporat$1 #aec1edc p\nds4 ,p] c5t ( moi/ure 9 /eam1 #j4e p] c5t4 ,heat value p] p\nd ( dry coal1 #ac1eaf4 ,heat value p] p\nd ( combu/ible1 #ae1cei4 ,! factor ( evaporation = su* a set ( conditions is #a4jhcd4 ,! actual evaporation correct$ = moi/ure 9 ! /eam is #aeb1gge & ! equival5t evaporation f & at #bab degrees is1 !re=e1 #afe1eaf p\nds4 ,! total dry fuel w be #ag1ejj 4#ig #af1ige1 & ! evaporation p] p\nd ( dry fuel f & at #bab degrees w be #afe1eaf #af1ige #i4ge p\nds4 ,! heat absorb$ p] p\nd ( dry fuel w1 !re=e1 be #i4ge #igj4d #idfa ,b4 t4 u4 ,h5ce1 ! effici5cy by 7#ca7 w be #idfa #ac1eaf #gj4j p] c5t4 ,! total combu/ible burn$ w be #af1ige - #bcif #ad1egi1 & ! evaporation f & at #bab degrees p] p\nd ( combu/ible w be #afe1eaf #ad1egi #aa4ce p\nds4 ,h5ce1 ! effici5cy bas$ on combu/ible f 7#cb7 w be 7#aa4ce #ig4jd7 #ae1cei #ga4gi49999%\ld be #ga4ga ,= approximate results1 a *>t may be us$ to take ! place ( a computation ( effici5cy4 ,fig4 #ci %[s su* a *>t bas$ on ! evaporation p] p\nd ( dry fuel & ! heat value p] p\nd ( dry fuel1 f :i* effici5cies may be read directly to )9 "o-half ( "o p] c5t4 ,x is us$ z foll[s3 ,f ! int]section ( ! horizontal l9e1 repres5t+ ! evaporation p] p\nd ( fuel1 ) ! v]tical l9e1 repres5t+ ! heat value p] p\nd1 ! effici5cy is read directly f ! diagonal scale ( effici5cies4 ,?is *>t may also be us$ = effici5cy bas$ ^u combu/ible :5 ! evaporation f & at #bab degrees & ! heat values are bo? giv5 9 t]ms ( combu/ible4 ,graph3 ,evaporation f & at #bab p] ,p\nd ( ,dry ,fuel aga9/ ,b4,t4,u4 p] ,p\nd ( ,dry ,fuel ,fig4 #ci4 ,effici5cy ,*>t4 ,calculat$ f ,m>ks & ,davis ,tables ,diagonal ,l9es ,repres5t ,p] ,c5t ,effici5cy ,boil] effici5cies w v>y ov] a wide range1 dep5d+ on a great v>iety ( factors & conditions4 ,! highe/ effici5cies t h be5 secur$ ) coal are 9 ! neighborhood ( #hb p] c5t & f t po9t effici5cies are f\nd all ! way d[n to bel[ #ej p] c5t4 ,table #eieg ( te/s ( ,babcock ,wilcox boil]s "u v>y+ conditions ( fuel & op]ation w give an idea ( :at may be obta9$ ) prop] op]at+ conditions4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! effici5cy secur$ 9 any boil] trial & ! p]fect effici5cy1 #ajj p] c5t1 includes ! losses1 "s ( :i* are unavoidable 9 ! pres5t /ate ( ! art1 aris+ 9 ! conv]sion ( ! heat en]gy ( ! coal to ! heat en]gy 9 ! /eam4 ,^! losses may be classifi$ z foll[s3 #a/4 ,loss due to fuel dropp$ ?r\gh ! grate4 #bnd4 ,loss due to unburn$ fuel :i* is c>ri$ by ! draft1 z small p>ticles1 beyond ! bridge wall into ! sett+ or up ! /ack4 #crd4 ,loss due to ! utilization ( a portion ( ! heat 9 heat+ ! moi/ure conta9$ 9 ! fuel f ! temp]ature ( ! atmosph]e to #bab degrees2 to evaporate x at t temp]ature & to sup]heat ! /eam ?us =m$ to ! temp]ature ( ! flue gases4 ,?is /eam1 ( c\rse1 is fir/ heat$ to ! temp]ature ( ! furnace b z x gives up a portion ( ?is heat 9 pass+ ?r\gh ! boil]1 ! sup]heat+ to ! temp]ature ( ! exit gases is ! correct degree to be consid]$4 #d?4 ,loss due to ! wat] =m$ & by ! burn+ ( ! hydrog5 9 ! fuel :i* mu/ be evaporat$ & sup]heat$ z 9 item #c4 #e?4 ,loss due to ! sup]heat+ ( ! moi/ure 9 ! air suppli$ f ! atmosph]ic temp]ature to ! temp]ature ( ! flue gases4 #f?4 ,loss due to ! heat+ ( ! dry products ( combu/ion to ! temp]ature ( ! flue gases4 #g?4 ,loss due to ! incomplete combu/ion ( ! fuel :5 ! c>bon is n completely consum$ b burns to ,,co in/ead ( ,,co#b4 ,! ,,co passes out ( ! /ack unburn$ z a volatile gas capable ( fur!r combu/ion4 #h?4 ,loss due to radiation ( heat f ! boil] & furnace sett+s4 ,obvi\sly a v elaborate te/ w\ld h to be made 7 all ( ! above items to be det]m9$ accurately4 ,9 ord9>y practice x has become cu/om>y to summ>ize ^! losses z foll[s1 ! me?ods ( comput+ ! losses be+ giv5 9 ea* in/ance by a typical example3 7,a7 ,loss due to ! heat+ ( moi/ure 9 ! fuel f ! atmosph]ic temp]ature to #bab degrees1 evaporate x at t temp]ature & sup]heat x to ! temp]ature ( ! flue gases4 ,?is 9 reality is ! total heat above ! temp]ature ( ! air 9 ! boil] room1 9 "o p\nd ( sup]heat$ /eam at atmosph]ic pressure at ! temp]ature ( ! flue gases1 multipli$ by ! p]c5tage ( moi/ure 9 ! fuel4 ,z ! total heat above ! temp]ature ( ! air w\ld h to be comput$ 9 ea* in/ance1 ?is loss is be/ express$ by3 ,loss 9 ,b4 t4 u4 p] p\nd ,w7#bab-t#igj4d4dg7,t-#bab77 7#cc7 ,:]e ,w p] c5t ( moi/ure 9 coal1 t ! temp]ature ( air 9 ! boil] room1 ,t temp]ature ( ! flue gases1 4#dg ! specific heat ( sup]heat$ /eam at ! atmosph]ic pressure & at ! flue gas temp]ature1 7#bab-t7 ,b4 t4 u4 necess>y to heat "o p\nd ( wat] f ! temp]ature ( ! boil] room to #bab degrees1 #igj4d ,b4 t4 u4 necess>y to evaporate "o p\nd ( wat] at #bab degrees to /eam at atmosph]ic pressure1 4#dg7,t-#bab7 ,b4 t4 u4 necess>y to sup]heat "o p\nd ( /eam at atmosph]ic pressure f #bab degrees to temp]ature ,t4 ,illu/ration3 ,portion ( #ae1jjj ,horse-p[] ,in/allation ( ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil]s1 ,equipp$ ) ,babcock ,wilcox ,*a9 ,grate ,/ok]s at ! ,nor?umb]l&1 ,pa41 ,plant ( ! ,atlas ,portl& ,cem5t ,co4 ,?is ,company ,op]ates a ,total ( #bd1jjj ,horse ,p[] ( ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil]s 9 its ,v>i\s ,plants 7,b7 ,loss due to heat c>ri$ away 9 ! /eam produc$ by ! burn+ ( ! hydrog5 compon5t ( ! fuel4 ,9 burn+1 "o p\nd ( hydrog5 unites ) #h p\nds ( oxyg5 to =m #i p\nds ( /eam4 ,foll[+ ! reason+ ( item 7,a71 !re=e1 ?is loss w be3 ,loss 9 ,b4 t4 u4 p] p\nd #i;,h77#bab-t7#igj4d4dg7,t-#bab77 7#cd7 :]e ,h ! p]c5tage by weight ( hydrog54 ,?is item is frequ5tly consid]$ z a "p ( ! unacc\nt$ = loss1 :]e an ultimate analysis ( ! fuel is n giv54 7,c7 ,loss due to heat c>ri$ away by dry *imney gases4 ,?is is dep5d5t ^u ! weight ( gas p] p\nd ( coal :i* may be det]m9$ by =mula 7#af71 page #aeh4 ,loss 9 ,b4 t4 u4 p] p\nd 7,t-t74#bd,w4 ,:]e ,t & t h values z 9 7#cc71 4#bd specific heat ( *imney gases1 ,w weight ( dry *imney gas p] p\nd ( coal4 7,d7 ,loss due to incomplete combu/ion ( ! c>bon cont5t ( ! fuel1 t is1 ! burn+ ( ! c>bon to ,,co in/ead ( ,,co#b4 #aj1aej ,,co ,loss 9 ,b4 t4 u4 p] p\nd ,c--------- 7#ce7 ,,co#b;,,co ,c p] c5t ( c>bon 9 coal by ultimate analysis1 ,,co & ,,co#b p] c5t ( ,,co & ,,co#b by volume f flue gas analysis4 #aj1aej ! numb] ( heat units g5]at$ by burn+ to ,,co#b "o p\nd ( c>bon conta9$ 9 c>bon monoxide4 7,e7 ,loss due to unconsum$ c>bon 9 ! a% 7x be+ usually assum$ t all ! combu/ible 9 ! a% is c>bon74 ,loss 9 ,b4 t4 u4 p] p\nd p] c5t ,c p] c5t a% ,b4 t4 u4 p] p\nd ( combu/ible 9 ! a% 7usually tak5 z #ad1fjj ,b4 t4 u47 7#cf7 ,! loss incurr$ 9 ?is way is1 directly1 ! c>bon 9 ! a% 9 p]c5tage t]ms ( ! total dry coal fir$1 multipli$ by ! heat value ( c>bon4 ,to compute ?is item1 :i* is ( great importance 9 comp>+ ! relative p]=mances ( diff]5t designs ( grates1 an analysis ( ! a% mu/ be available4 ,! o!r losses1 namely1 items #b1 #e & #h ( ! fir/ classification1 are ord9>ily gr\p$ "u "o item1 z unacc\nt$ = losses1 & are obvi\sly ! diff]5ce betwe5 #ajj p] c5t & ! sum ( ! heat utiliz$ & ! losses acc\nt$ = z giv5 above4 ,item #e1 or ! loss due to ! moi/ure 9 ! air1 may be readily comput$1 ! moi/ure be+ det]m9$ f wet & dry bulb !rmomet] read+s1 b x is usually disreg>d$ z x is relatively small1 av]ag+1 say1 "o-fif? to "o-half ( "o p] c5t4 ,lack ( data may1 ( c\rse1 make x necess>y to include c]ta9 items ( ! second & ord9>y classification 9 ?is unacc\nt$ = gr\p4 ,,table #eg ,,data ,,f ,,:i* ,,heat ,,balance 7,,table #eh7 ,,is ,,comput$ ---------------------------------------- -------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,/eam ,pressure by ,gauge1 ,p\nds #aib ,temp]ature ( ,fe$1 ,degrees ,fahr5heit #ahj ,degrees ( ,sup]heat1 ,degrees ,fahr5heit #aae4b ,temp]ature ( ,boil] ,room1 ,degrees ,fahr5heit #ha ,temp]ature ( ,exit ,gases1 ,degrees ,fahr5heit #dhj ,weight ( ,coal ,us$ p] ,h\r1 ,p\nds #egad ,moi/ure1 ,p] ,c5t #a4hc ,dry ,coal ,p] ,h\r1 ,p\nds #efji ,a% & ,refuse p] ,h\r1 ,p\nds #efa ,a% & ,refuse 7( ,dry ,coal71 ,p] ,c5t #aj4jj ,actual ,evaporation p] ,h\r1 ,p\nds #egjcf 4- ,c1 ,p] ,c5t #gh4eg ,h1 ,p] ,c5t #e4fj ,ultimate ,o1 ,p] ,c5t #g4jb ,analysis - ,n1 ,p] ,c5t #a4aa ,dry ,coal ,a%1 ,p] ,c5t #f4eb '- ,sulphur1 ,p] ,c5t #a4ah ,heat ,value p] ,p\nd ,dry ,coal1 ,b4 t4 u4 #adbbe ,heat ,value p] ,p\nd ,combu/ible1 ,b4 t4 u4 #aebag ,combu/ible 9 ,a% by ,analysis1 ,p] ,c5t #ag4i 4- ,,co#b1 ,p] ,c5t #ad4cc ,flue ,gas - ,o1 ,p] ,c5t #d4ed ,analysis ,,co1 ,p] ,c5t #j4aa '- ,n1 ,p] ,c5t #ha4jb ---------------------------------------- ----------- ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,a s*$ule ( ! losses z outl9$1 requires an evaporative te/ ( ! boil]1 an analysis ( ! flue gases1 an ultimate analysis ( ! fuel1 & ei!r an ultimate or proximate analysis ( ! a%4 ,z ! am\nt ( unacc\nt$ = losses =ms a basis on :i* to judge ! accuracy ( a te/1 su* a s*$ule is call$ a heat balance4 ,a heat balance is be/ illu/rat$ by an example3 ,assume ! data z giv5 9 ,table #eg to be secur$ 9 an actual boil] te/4 ,f ?is data ! factor ( evaporation is #a4aead & ! evaporation p] h\r f & at #bab degrees is #fe1fga p\nds4 ,h5ce ! evaporation f & at #bab degrees p] p\nd ( dry coal is #fe1fgaefji #aa4ga p\nds4 ,! effici5cy ( boil]1 furnace & grate is3 7#aa4gaigj4d7ad1bbe #gi4hh p] c5t4 ,! heat losses are3 7,a7 ,loss due to moi/ure 9 coal1 4#jahca 77#bab-ha7igj4d4dg7dhj-bab77 #bb4 ,b4 t4 u41 #j4ae p] c5t4 7,b7 ,! loss due to ! burn+ ( hydrog53 #i4jefj77bab-ha7igj4d4dg7dhj-bab77 #fah ,b4 t4 u41 #d4cd p] c5t4 7,c7 ,to compute ! loss 9 ! heat c>ri$ away by dry *imney gases p] p\nd ( coal ! weight ( su* gases mu/ be fir/ det]m9$4 ,?is weight p] p\nd ( coal is3 7#aa;,,co#bh,o#g7;,,co,n77 7-------------------7,c 7 #c7;,,co#b;,,co7 7 :]e ,,co#b1 ,o1 ,,co & ,h are ! p]c5tage by volume z det]m9$ by ! flue gas analysis & ,c is ! p]c5tage by weight ( c>bon 9 ! dry fuel4 ,h5ce ! weight ( gas p] p\nd ( coal w be1 7#aaad4cchd4edg7j4aaha4jb77 7-----------------------------7#gh4eg #ac4g p\nds4 7 #c7ad4ccj4aa7 7 ,!re=e ! loss ( heat 9 ! dry gases c>ri$ up ! *imney #ac4gj4bd7dhj-ha7 #acaa ,b4 t4 u41 #i4bb p] c5t4 7,d7 ,! loss due to incomplete combu/ion z evid5c$ by ! pres5ce ( ,,co 9 ! flue gas analysis is3 #j4aa ----------4#ghegaj1aej #fa4 ,b4 t4 u41 #ad4ccj4aa 4#dc p] c5t4 7,e7 ,! loss due to unconsum$ c>bon 9 ! a%3 ,! analysis ( ! a% %[$ #ag4i p] c5t to be combu/ible matt]1 all ( :i* is assum$ to be c>bon4 ,! te/ %[$ #aj4jj ( ! total dry fuel fir$ to be a%4 ,h5ce #aj4jj4agi #a4gi p] c5t ( ! total fuel repres5ts ! proportion ( ?is total unconsum$ 9 ! a% & ! loss due to ?is cause is #a4gi p] c5t #ad1fjj #bfa ,b4 t4 u41 #a4hc p] c5t4 ,! heat absorb$ by ! boil]s p] p\nd ( dry fuel is #aa4gaigj4d #aa1cfc ,b4 t4 u4 ,?is quantity plus losses 7,a71 7,b71 7,c71 7,d7 & 7,e71 or #aa1cfcbbfahacaafabfa #ac1fcf ,b4 t4 u4 acc\nt$ =4 ,! heat value ( ! coal1 #ad1bbe ,b4 t4 u41 less #ac1fcf ,b4 t4 u41 leaves #ehi ,b4 t4 u41 unacc\nt$ = losses1 or #d4ae p] c5t4 ,! heat balance %\ld be arrang$ 9 ! =m indicat$ by ,table #eh4 ,,table #eh ,,heat ,,balance ,b4 ,t4 ,u4 ,,p] ,,p\nd ,,dry ,,coal #ad1bbe ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,b4 t4 u4,p] ,c5t ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,heat absorb$ by ,boil] #aa1cfc #gi4hh ,loss due to ,evaporation ( ,moi/ure 9 ,fuel #bb #j4ae ,loss due to ,moi/ure =m$ by ,burn+ ( ,hydrog5 #fah #d4cd ,loss due to ,heat c>ri$ away 9 ,dry ,*imney ,gases #acaa #i4bb ,loss due to ,incomplete ,combu/ion ( ,c>bon #fa #j4dc ,loss due to ,unconsum$ ,c>bon 9 ! ,a% #bfa #a4hc ,loss due to ,radiation & ,unacc\nt$ ,losses #ehi #d4ae ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,total #ad1bbe #ajj4jj ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,application ( ,heat ,balance--,a heat balance %\ld be made 9 connection ) any boil] trial on :i* suffici5t data = its computation has be5 obta9$4 ,?is is p>ticul>ly true :]e ! boil] p]=mance has be5 consid]$ unsatisfactory4 ,! di/ribution ( ! heat is ?us det]m9$ & any extraord9>y loss may be detect$4 ,:]e accurate data = comput+ su* a heat balance is n available1 su* a calculation bas$ on c]ta9 assumptions is sometimes suffici5t to indicate unusual losses4 ,! l>ge/ loss is ord9>ily due to ! *imney gases1 :i* dep5ds directly ^u ! weight ( ! gas & its temp]ature leav+ ! boil]4 ,z po9t$ out 9 ! *apt] on flue gas analysis1 ! l[] limit ( ! weight ( gas is fix$ by ! m9imum air suppli$ ) :i* complete combu/ion may be obta9$4 ,z %[n1 :]e ?is supply is unduly small1 ! loss caus$ by burn+ ! c>bon to ,,co in/ead ( to ,,co#b m ?an (fsets ! ga9 9 decreas+ ! weight ( gas4 ,! l[] limit ( ! /ack temp]ature1 z has be5 %[n 9 ! *apt] on draft1 is m or less fix$ by ! temp]ature necess>y to create suffici5t draft suction = good combu/ion4 ,) natural draft1 ?is l[] limit is probably betwe5 #djj & #dej degrees4 ,capacity--,be=e ! capacity ( a boil] is consid]$1 x is necess>y to def9e ! basis to :i* su* a t]m may be ref]r$4 ,su* a basis is ! s-call$ boil] horse p[]4 ,! unit ( motive p[] 9 g5]al use among /eam eng9e]s is ! horse p[] :i* is equival5t to #cc1jjj foot p\nds p] m9ute4 ,/ation>y boil]s are at ! pres5t "t rat$ 9 horse p[]1 ?\gh su* a basis ( rat+ may lead & has (t5 l$ to a misund]/&+4 ,"w1 z ! t]m is us$ 9 me*anics1 is ! ov]com+ ( resi/ance ?r\gh space1 :ile p[] is ! rate ( "w or ! am\nt done p] unit ( "t4 ,z ! op]ation ( a boil] 9 s]vice implies no motion1 x c produce no p[] 9 ! s5se ( ! t]m z und]/ood 9 me*anics4 ,its op]ation is ! g5]ation ( /eam1 :i* acts z a m$ium to convey ! en]gy ( ! fuel :i* is 9 ! =m ( heat to a prime mov] 9 :i* t heat en]gy is conv]t$ into en]gy ( motion or "w1 & p[] is develop$4 ,if all eng9es develop$ ! same am\nt ( p[] f an equal am\nt ( heat1 a boil] might be designat$ z "o hav+ a def9ite horse p[]1 dep5d5t ^u ! am\nt ( eng9e horse p[] its /eam w\ld develop4 ,su* a /atem5t ( ! rat+ ( boil]s1 ?\gh x w\ld /ill be inaccurate1 if ! t]m is consid]$ 9 its me*anical s5se1 c\ld1 ?r\gh cu/om1 be int]pret$ to indicate t a boil] 0 ( ! exact capacity requir$ to g5]ate ! /eam necess>y to develop a def9ite am\nt ( horse p[] 9 an eng9e4 ,su* a basis ( rat+1 h[ev]1 is obvi\sly impossible :5 ! fact is consid]$ t ! am\nt ( /eam necess>y to produce ! same p[] 9 prime mov]s ( diff]5t types & sizes v>ies ov] v wide limits4 ,to d away ) ! confusion result+ f an indef9ite mean+ ( ! t]m boil] horse p[]1 ! ,committee ( ,judges 9 *>ge ( ! boil] trials at ! ,c5t5nial ,exposition1 #ahgf1 at ,philadelphia1 asc]ta9$ t a good eng9e ( ! type prevail+ at ! "t requir$ approximately #cj p\nds ( /eam p] h\r p] horse p[] develop$4 ,9 ord] to e/abli% a relation betwe5 ! eng9e p[] & ! size ( a boil] requir$ to develop t p[]1 !y recomm5d$ t an evaporation ( #cj p\nds ( wat] f an initial temp]ature ( #ajj degrees ,fahr5heit to /eam at #gj p\nds gauge pressure be consid]$ z "o boil] horse p[]4 ,?is recomm5dation has be5 g5]ally accept$ by ,am]ican eng9e]s z a /&>d1 & :5 ! t]m boil] horse p[] is us$ 9 connection ) /ation>y boil]s#eh ?r\gh\t ?is c\ntry1#ei )\t special def9ition1 x is und]/ood to h ?is mean+4 ,inasmu* z an equival5t evaporation f & at #bab degrees ,fahr5heit is ! g5]ally accept$ basis ( comp>ison#fj1 x is n[ cu/om>y to consid] ! /&>d boil] horse p[] z recomm5d$ by ! ,c5t5nial ,exposition ,committee1 9 t]ms ( equival5t evaporation f & at #bab degrees4 ,?is w be #cj p\nds multipli$ by ! factor ( evaporation = #gj p\nds gauge pressure & #ajj degrees fe$ temp]ature1 or #a4adid4 #cj #a4adid #cd4dhb1 or approximately #cd4e p\nds4 ,h5ce1 "o boil] horse p[] is equal to an evaporation ( #cd4e p\nds ( wat] p] h\r f & at #bab degrees ,fahr5heit4 ,! t]m boil] horse p[]1 !re=e1 is cle>ly a measure ( evaporation & n ( p[]4 ,a me?od ( bas+ ! horse p[] rat+ ( a boil] adopt$ by boil] manufactur]s is t ( heat+ surfaces4 ,su* a me?od is absolutely arbitr>y & *anges 9 no way ! def9ition ( a boil] horse p[] j giv54 ,x is simply a /atem5t by ! manufactur] t 8 product1 "u ord9>y op]at+ conditions or conditions :i* may be specifi$1 w evaporate #cd4e p\nds ( wat] f & at #bab degrees p] def9ite am\nt ( heat+ surface provid$4 ,! am\nt ( heat+ surface t has be5 consid]$ by manufactur]s capable ( evaporat+ #cd4e p\nds f & at #bab degrees p] h\r has *ang$ f "t to "t z ! art has progress$4 ,at ! pres5t "t #aj squ>e feet ( heat+ surface is ord9>ily consid]$ ! equival5t ( "o boil] horse p[] among manufactur]s ( /ation>y boil]s4 ,9 view ( ! arbitr>y nature ( su* rat+ & ( ! widely v>y+ rates ( evaporation possible p] squ>e foot ( heat+ surface ) diff]5t boil]s & diff]5t op]at+ conditions1 su* a basis ( rat+ has 9 reality no p>ticul> be>+ on ! "q ( horse p[] & %\ld be consid]$ m]ely z a conv5i5ce4 ,! :ole "q ( a unit ( boil] capacity has be5 widely discuss$ ) a view to ! adoption ( a /&>d to :i* !re w\ld appe> to be a m rational & def9ite basis4 ,_m sugge/ions h be5 (f]$ z to su* a basis b up to ! pres5t "t !re has be5 none :i* has met ) univ]sal approval or :i* w\ld appe> likely to be g5]ally adopt$4 ,) ! mean+ ( boil] horse p[] z giv5 above1 t is1 a measure ( evaporation1 x is evid5t t ! capacity ( a boil] is a measure ( ! p[] x c develop express$ 9 boil] horse p[]4 ,s9ce x is necess>y1 z /at$1 = boil] manufactur]s to adopt a /&>d = reasons ( conv5i5ce 9 sell+1 ! horse p[] = :i* a boil] is sold is kn[n z its normal rat$ capacity4 ,! effici5cy ( a boil] & ! maximum capacity x w develop c be det]m9$ accurately only by a boil] te/4 ,! /&>d me?ods ( conduct+ su* te/s are giv5 on ! foll[+ pages1 ^! me?ods be+ ! recomm5dations ( ! ,p[] ,te/ ,committee ( ! ,am]ican ,society ( ,me*anical ,eng9e]s br\ght out 9 #aiac4fa ,c]ta9 *anges h be5 made to incorporate 9 ! boil] code su* portions ( ! ,in/ructions ,reg>d+ ,te/s 9 ,g5]al z apply to boil] te/+4 ,me?ods ( calculation & su* matt] z are treat$ 9 o!r portions ( ! book h be5 omitt$ f ! code z not$4 ,illu/ration3 ,portion ( #bfjj ,horse-p[] ,in/allation ( ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil]s1 ,equipp$ ) ,babcock ,wilcox ,*a9 ,grate ,/ok]s at ! ,pet] ,s*o5h(5 ,brew+ ,co41 ,*icago1 ,ill4 #a4 ,,object ,asc]ta9 ! specific object ( ! te/1 & keep ?is 9 view n only 9 ! "w ( prep>ation1 b also dur+ ! progress ( ! te/1 & d n let x be obscur$ by devot+ too close att5tion to matt]s ( m9or importance4 ,:atev] ! object ( ! te/ may be1 accuracy & reliability mu/ und]lie ! "w f beg9n+ to end4 ,if que/ions ( fulfillm5t ( contract are involv$1 !re %\ld be a cle> und]/&+ betwe5 all ! p>ties1 pref]ably 9 writ+1 z to ! op]at+ conditions :i* %\ld obta9 dur+ ! trial1 & z to ! me?ods ( te/+ to be foll[$1 unless ^! are already express$ 9 ! contract itself4 ,among ! _m objects ( p]=mance te/s1 ! foll[+ may be not$3 ,det]m9ation ( capacity & effici5cy1 & h[ ^! comp>e ) /&>d or gu>ante$ results4 ,comp>ison ( diff]5t conditions or me?ods ( op]ation4 ,det]m9ation ( ! cause ( ei!r inf]ior or sup]ior results4 ,comp>ison ( diff]5t k9ds ( fuel4 ,det]m9ation ( ! effect ( *anges ( design or proportion ^u capacity or effici5cy1 etc4 #b4 ,,prep>ations 7,a7 ,dim5sions3 ,measure ! dim5sions ( ! pr9cipal p>ts ( ! app>atus to be te/$1 s f> z !y be> on ! objects 9 view1 or det]m9e ^! f correct work+ draw+s4 ,notice ! g5]al features ( ! same1 bo? ext]ior & int]ior1 & make sket*es1 if ne$$1 to %[ unusual po9ts ( design4 ,! dim5sions ( ! heat+ surfaces ( boil]s & sup]heat]s to be f\nd are ^? ( surfaces 9 contact ) ! fire or hot gases4 ,! subm]g$ surfaces 9 boil]s at ! mean wat] level %\ld be consid]$ z wat]-heat+ surfaces1 & o!r surfaces :i* are expos$ to ! gases z sup]heat+ surfaces4 7,b7 ,exam9ation ( ,plant3 ,make a ?or\gh exam9ation ( ! physical condition ( all p>ts ( ! plant or app>atus :i* conc]n ! object 9 view1 & record ! conditions f\nd1 toge!r ) any po9ts 9 ! matt] ( op]ation :i* be> !reon4 ,9 boil]s1 exam9e = leakage ( tubes & rivet$ or o!r metal jo9ts4 ,note ! condition ( brick furnaces1 grates & baffles4 ,exam9e brick walls & clean+ doors = air leaks1 ei!r by %utt+ ! damp] & obs]v+ ! escap+ smoke or by c&le-flame te/4 ,det]m9e ! condition ( heat+ surfaces ) ref]5ce to ext]ior deposits ( soot & int]ior deposits ( mud or scale4 ,see t ! /eam ma9 is s arrang$ t cond5s$ & entra9$ wat] _c fl[ back into ! boil]4 ,if ! object ( ! te/ is to det]m9e ! highe/ effici5cy or capacity obta9able1 any physical defects1 or defects ( op]ation1 t5d+ to make ! result unfavorable %\ld fir/ be rem$i$2 all f\l p>ts be+ clean$1 & ! :ole put 9 fir/-class condition4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 ! object is to asc]ta9 ! p]=mance "u exi/+ conditions1 no su* prep>ation is ei!r requir$ or desir$4 7,c7 ,g5]al ,precautions aga9/ ,leakage3 ,9 /eam te/s make sure t !re is no leakage ?r\gh bl[-(fs1 drips1 etc41 or any /eam or wat] connections ( ! plant or app>atus und]go+ te/1 :i* w\ld 9 any way affect ! results4 ,all su* connections %\ld be blank$ (f1 or satisfactory assurance %\ld be obta9$ t !re is leakage nei!r out nor 94 ,?is is a mo/ important matt]1 & no assurance %\ld be consid]$ satisfactory unless x is susceptible ( absolute demon/ration4 #c4 ,,fuel ,det]m9e ! "* ( fuel to be us$4#fb ,= te/s ( maximum effici5cy or capacity ( ! boil] to comp>e ) o!r boil]s1 ! coal %\ld be ( "s k9d :i* is comm]cially reg>d$ z a /&>d = ! locality :]e ! te/ is made4 ,9 ! ,ea/]n ,/ates ! /&>ds ?us reg>d$ = semi-bitum9\s coals are ,pocahontas 7,va4 & ,w4 ,va47 & ,new ,riv] 7,w4 ,va472 = an?racite coals ^? ( ! ,no4 #a buck:eat size1 fre%-m9$1 conta9+ n ov] #ac p] c5t a% by analysis2 & = bitum9\s coals1 ,y\ghiogh5y & ,pittsburgh coals4 ,9 "s sections ea/ ( ! ,allegh5y ,m\nta9s ! semi-bitum9\s ,cle>field 7,pa47 & ,cumb]l& 7,md47 are also consid]$ z /&>ds4 ,^! coals :5 ( good quality possess ! ess5tials ( excell5ce1 adaptability to v>i\s k9ds ( furnaces1 grates1 boil]s1 & me?ods ( fir+ requir$1 besides be+ widely di/ribut$ & g5]ally accessible 9 ! ,ea/]n m>ket4 ,!re are no special grades ( coal m9$ 9 ! ,we/]n ,/ates :i* are widely & g5]ally consid]$ z /&>ds = te/+ purposes2 ! be/ coal obta9able 9 any p>ticul> locality be+ reg>d$ z ! /&>d ( comp>ison4 ,a coal select$ = maximum effici5cy & capacity te/s1 %\ld be ! be/ ( its class1 & especially free f slagg+ & unusual cl9k]-=m+ impurities4 ,= gu>antee & o!r te/s ) a specifi$ coal conta9+ n m ?an a c]ta9 am\nt ( a% & moi/ure1 ! coal select$ %\ld n be high] 9 a% & 9 moi/ure ?an ! /at$ am\nts1 because any increase is liable to r$uce ! effici5cy & capacity m ?an ! equival5t proportion ( su* increase4 ,! size ( ! coal1 especially :]e x is ( ! an?racite class1 %\ld be det]m9$ by scre5+ a suitable sample4 #d4 ,,app>atus ,,& ,,in/rum5ts#fc ,! app>atus & in/rum5ts requir$ = boil] te/s are3 7,a7 ,plat=m scales = weigh+ coal & a%es4 7,b7 ,graduat$ scales atta*$ to ! wat] glasses4 7,c7 ,tanks & plat=m scales = weigh+ wat] 7or wat] met]s calibrat$ 9 place74 ,:]ev] practicable ! fe$ wat] %\ld be weigh$1 especially = gu>antee te/s4 ,! mo/ satisfactory & reliable app>atus = ?is purpose consi/s ( "o or m tanks ea* plac$ on plat=m scales1 ^! be+ elevat$ a suffici5t di/ance above ! floor to empty into a receiv+ tank plac$ bel[1 ! latt] be+ connect$ to ! fe$ pump4 ,:]e only "o weigh+ tank is us$ ! receiv+ tank %\ld be ( l>g] size ?an ! weigh+ tank1 to af=d suffici5t res]ve supply to ! pump :ile ! upp] tank is fill+4 ,if a s+le weigh+ tank is us$ x %\ld pref]ably be ( su* capacity z to require empty+ n (t5] ?an e #e m9utes4 ,if two or m are us$ ! int]vals betwe5 successive empty+s %\ld n be less ?an #c m9utes4 7,d7 ,pressure gauges1 !rmomet]s1 & draft gauges4 7,e7 ,calorimet]s = det]m9+ ! calorific value ( fuel & ! quality ( /eam4 7,f7 ,furnaces pyromet]s4 7,g7 ,gas analyz+ app>atus4 #e4 ,,op]at+ ,,conditions ,det]m9e :at ! op]at+ conditions & me?od ( fir+ %\ld be to con=m to ! object 9 view1 & see t !y prevail ?r\gh\t ! trial1 z ne>ly z possible4 ,:]e uni=mity 9 ! rate ( evaporation is requir$1 arrangem5t c be usually made to dispose ( ! /eam s t ?is result c be atta9$4 ,9 a s+le boil] x may be accompli%$ by dis*>g+ /eam ?r\gh a wa/e pipe & regulat+ ! am\nt by means ( a valve4 ,9 a batt]y ( boil]s1 9 :i* only "o is te/$1 ! draft may be regulat$ on ! rema9+ boil]s to meet ! v>y+ dem&s = /eam1 leav+ ! te/ boil] to "w "u a /eady rate ( evaporation4 #f4 ,,duration ,! duration ( te/s to det]m9e ! effici5cy ( a h&-fir$ boil]1 %\ld be #aj h\rs ( cont9u\s runn+1 or su* "t z may be requir$ to burn a total ( #bej p\nds ( coal p] squ>e foot ( grate4 ,9 ! case ( a boil] us+ a me*anical /ok]1 ! duration1 :]e practicable1 %\ld be at lea/ #bd h\rs4 ,if ! /ok] is ( a type t p]mits ! quantity & condition ( ! fuel b$ at beg9n+ & end ( ! te/ to be accurately e/imat$1 ! duration may be r$uc$ to #aj h\rs1 or su* "t z may be requir$ to burn ! above not$ total ( #bej p\nds p] squ>e foot4 ,9 comm]cial te/s :]e ! s]vice requires cont9u\s op]ation night & day1 ) frequ5t %ifts ( firem51 ! duration ( ! te/1 :e!r ! boil]s are h& fir$ or /ok] fir$1 %\ld be at lea/ #bd h\rs4 ,likewise 9 comm]cial te/s1 ei!r ( a s+le boil] or ( a plant ( sev]al boil]s1 :i* op]ate regul>ly a c]ta9 numb] ( h\rs & dur+ ! balance ( ! day ! fires are bank$1 ! duration %\ld n be less ?an #bd h\rs4 ,! duration ( te/s to det]m9e ! maximum evaporative capacity ( a boil]1 )\t det]m9+ ! effici5cy1 %\ld n be less ?an #c h\rs4 #g4 ,,/>t+ ,,& ,,/opp+ ,! conditions reg>d+ ! temp]ature ( ! furnace & boil]1 ! quantity & quality ( ! live coal & a% on ! grates1 ! wat] level1 & ! /eam pressure1 %\ld be z ne>ly z possible ! same at ! end z at ! beg9n+ ( ! te/4 ,to secure ! desir$ equality ( conditions ) h&-fir$ boil]s1 ! foll[+ me?od %\ld be employ$3 ,! furnace be+ well heat$ by a prelim9>y run1 burn ! fire l[1 & ?or\ghly clean x1 leav+ en\gh live coal spread ev5ly ov] ! grate 7say #b to #d in*es71#fd to s]ve z a f\ndation = ! new fire4 ,note quickly ! ?ickness ( ! coal b$ z ne>ly z x c be e/imat$ or measur$2 also ! wat] level1#fe ! /eam pressure1 & ! "t1 & record ! latt] z ! />t+ "t4 ,fre% coal %\ld !n be fir$ f t weigh$ = ! te/1 ! a%pit ?r\ghly clean$1 & ! regul> "w ( ! te/ proce$$ )4 ,be=e ! end ( ! te/ ! fire %\ld aga9 be burn$ l[ & clean$ 9 su* a mann] z to leave ! same am\nt ( live coal on ! grate z at ! />t4 ,:5 ?is condition is rea*$1 obs]ve quickly ! wat] level1#fe ! /eam pressure1 & ! "t1 & record ! latt] z ! /opp+ "t4 ,if ! wat] level is n ! same z at ! beg9n+ a correction %\ld be made by computation1 r ?an by fe$+ additional wat] aft] ! f9al read+s are tak54 ,f9ally remove ! a%es & refuse f ! a%pit4 ,9 a plant conta9+ sev]al boil]s :]e x is n practicable to clean !m simultane\sly1 ! fires %\ld be clean$ "o aft] ! o!r z rapidly z may be1 & ea* "o aft] clean+ *>g$ ) en\gh coal to ma9ta9 a ?9 fire 9 good work+ condition4 ,aft] ! la/ fire is clean$ & 9 work+ condition1 burn all ! fires l[ 7say #d to #f in*es71 note quickly ! ?ickness ( ea*1 also ! wat] levels1 /eam pressure1 & "t1 :i* la/ is tak5 z ! />t+ "t4 ,likewise :5 ! "t arrives = clos+ ! te/1 ! fires %\ld be quickly clean$ "o by "o1 & :5 ?is "w is complet$ !y %\ld all be burn$ l[ ! same z ! />t1 & ! v>i\s obs]vations made z not$4 ,9 ! case ( a l>ge boil] hav+ sev]al furnace doors requir+ ! fire to be clean$ 9 sections "o aft] ! o!r1 ! above directions p]ta9+ to />t+ & /opp+ 9 a plant ( sev]al boil]s may be foll[$4 ,to obta9 ! desir$ equality ( conditions ( ! fire :5 a me*anical /ok] o!r ?an a *a9 grate is us$1 ! proc$ure %\ld be modifi$ :]e practicable z foll[s3 ,regulate ! coal fe$ s z to burn ! fire to ! l[ condition requir$ = clean+4 ,%ut (f ! coal-fe$+ me*anism & fill ! hopp]s level full4 ,clean ! a% or dump plate1 note quickly ! dep? & condition ( ! coal on ! grate1 ! wat] level1#ff ! /eam pressure1 & ! "t1 & record ! latt] z ! />t+ "t4 ,!n />t ! coal-fe$+ me*anism1 clean ! a%pit1 & proce$ ) ! regul> "w ( ! te/4 ,:5 ! "t arrives = ! close ( ! te/1 %ut (f ! coal-fe$+ me*anism1 fill ! hopp]s & burn ! fire to ! same l[ po9t z at ! beg9n+4 ,:5 ?is condition is rea*$1 note ! wat] level1 ! /eam pressure1 & ! "t1 & record ! latt] z ! /opp+ "t4 ,f9ally clean ! a%plate & haul ! a%es4 ,9 ! case ( *a9 grate /ok]s1 ! desir$ op]at+ conditions %\ld be ma9ta9$ = half an h\r be=e />t+ a te/ & = a l p]iod be=e its close1 ! height ( ! ?roat plate & ! spe$ ( ! grate be+ ! same dur+ bo? ( ^! p]iods4 #h4 ,,records ,a log ( ! data %\ld be ent]$ 9 notebooks or on blank %eets suitably prep>$ 9 advance4 ,?is %\ld be done 9 su* mann] t ! te/ may be divid$ into h\rly p]iods1 or if necess>y1 p]iods ( less duration1 & ! lead+ data obta9$ = any "o or m p]iods z desir$1 !reby %[+ ! degree ( uni=mity obta9$4 ,half-h\rly read+s ( ! in/rum5ts are usually suffici5t4 ,if !re are sudd5 & wide fluctuations1 ! read+s 9 su* cases %\ld be tak5 e #ae m9utes1 & 9 "s in/ances (t5]4 ,! coal %\ld be weigh$ & deliv]$ to ! firem5 9 portions suffici5t = "o h\r's run1 !reby asc]ta9+ ! degree ( uni=mity ( fir+4 ,an ample supply ( coal %\ld be ma9ta9$ at all times1 b ! quantity on ! floor at ! end ( ea* h\r %\ld be z small z practicable1 s t ! same may be readily e/imat$ & d$uct$ f ! total weight4 ,! records %\ld be su* z to asc]ta9 also ! consumption ( fe$ wat] ea* h\r & !reby det]m9e ! degree ( uni=mity ( evaporation4 #i4 ,,quality ,,( ,,/eam#fg ,if ! boil] does n produce sup]heat$ /eam ! p]c5tage ( moi/ure 9 ! /eam %\ld be det]m9$ by ! use ( a ?rottl+ or sep>at+ calorimet]4 ,if ! boil] has sup]heat+ surface1 ! temp]ature ( ! /eam %\ld be det]m9$ by ! use ( a !rmomet] ins]t$ 9 a !rmomet] well4 ,= saturat$ /eam con/ruct a sampl+ pipe or nozzle made ( "o-half in* iron pipe & ins]t x 9 ! /eam ma9 at a po9t :]e ! entra9$ moi/ure is likely to be mo/ ?or\ghly mix$4 ,! inn] end ( ! pipe1 :i* %\ld ext5d ne>ly across to ! opposite side ( ! ma91 %\ld be clos$ & int]ior portion p]=at$ ) n less ?an tw5ty "o-eigh? in* holes equally di/ribut$ f end to end & pref]ably drill$ 9 irregul> or spiral r[s1 ) ! fir/ hole n less ?an half an in* f ! wall ( ! pipe4 ,! sampl+ pipe %\ld n be plac$ ne> a po9t :]e wat] may pocket or :]e su* wat] may effect ! am\nt ( moi/ure conta9$ 9 ! sample4 ,:]e non-return valves are us$1 or !re are horizontal connections lead+ f ! boil] to a v]tical outlet1 wat] may collect at ! l[] end ( ! uptake pipe & be bl[n upw>d 9 a spray :i* w n be c>ri$ away by ! /eam ow+ to a lack ( velocity4 ,a sample tak5 f ! l[] "p ( ?is pipe w %[ a great] am\nt ( moi/ure ?an a true sample4 ,) goose-neck connections a small am\nt ( wat] may collect on ! bottom ( ! pipe ne> ! upp] end :]e ! incl9ation is su* t ! t5d5cy to fl[ backw>d is ord9>ily c\nt]balanc$ by ! fl[ ( /eam =w>d ov] its surface2 b :5 ! velocity mom5t>ily decreases ! wat] fl[s back to ! l[] end ( ! goose-neck & increases ! moi/ure at t po9t1 mak+ x an undesirable location = sampl+4 ,9 any case x mu/ be borne 9 m9d t ) l[ velocities ! t5d5cy is = drops ( entra9$ wat] to settle to ! bottom ( ! pipe1 & to be tempor>ily brok5 up into spray :5ev] an abrupt b5d or o!r di/urbance is met4 ,if x is necess>y to atta* ! sampl+ nozzle at a po9t ne> ! end ( a long horizontal run1 a drip pipe %\ld be provid$ a %ort di/ance 9 front ( ! nozzle1 pref]ably at a pocket =m$ by "s fitt+ & ! wat] runn+ along ! bottom ( ! ma9 drawn (f1 weigh$1 & add$ to ! moi/ure %[n by ! calorimet]2 or1 bett]1 a /eam sep>ator %\ld be in/all$ at ! po9t not$4 ,9 te/+ a /ation>y boil] ! sampl+ pipe %\ld be locat$ z ne> z practicable to ! boil]1 & ! same is true z reg>ds ! !rmomet] well :5 ! /eam is sup]heat$4 ,9 an eng9e or turb9e te/ ^! locations %\ld be z ne> z practicable to ?rottle valve4 ,9 ! te/ ( a plant :]e x is desir$ to get complete in=mation1 especially :]e ! /eam ma9 is unusually long1 sampl+ nozzles or !rmomet] wells %\ld be provid$ at bo? po9ts1 s z to obta9 data at ei!r po9t z may be requir$4 #aj4 ,,sampl+ ,,& ,,dry+ ,,coal ,dur+ ! progress ( te/ ! coal %\ld be regul>ly sampl$ = ! purpose ( analysis & det]m9ation ( moi/ure4 ,select a repres5tative %ovelful f ea* b>r[-load z x is drawn f ! coal pile or o!r s\rce ( supply1 & /ore ! samples 9 a cool place 9 a cov]$ metal receptacle4 ,:5 all ! coal has ?us be5 sampl$1 break up ! lumps1 ?or\ghly mix ! :ole quantity1 & f9ally r$uce x by ! process ( repeat$ qu>t]+ & cru%+ to a sample weigh+ ab\t #e p\nds1 ! l>ge/ pieces be+ ab\t ! size ( a pea4 ,f ?is sample two "o-qu>t air-tight glass fruit j>s1 or o!r air-tight vessels1 are to be promptly fill$ & pres]v$ = subsequ5t det]m9ations ( moi/ure1 calorific value1 & *emical composition4 ,^! op]ations %\ld be conduct$ :]e ! air is cool & free f drafts4 ,illu/ration3 #cdfj ,horse-p[] ,in/allation ( ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil]s at ! ,*icago1 ,ill41 ,%ops ( ! ,*icago & ,nor?we/]n ,ry4 ,co4 ,:5 ! sample lot ( coal has be5 r$uc$ by qu>t]+ to1 say1 #ajj p\nds1 a portion weigh+1 say1 #ae to #bj p\nds %\ld be )drawn = ! purpose ( imm$iate moi/ure det]m9ation4 ,?is is plac$ 9 a %all[ iron pan & dri$ on ! hot iron boil] flue = at lea/ #ab h\rs1 be+ weigh$ be=e & aft] dry+ on scales read+ to qu>t] ounces4 ,! moi/ure ?us det]m9$ is approximately reliable = an?racite & semi-bitum9\s coals1 b n = coals conta9+ mu* inh]5t moi/ure4 ,= su* coals1 & = all absolutely reliable det]m9ations ! me?od to be pursu$ is z foll[s3 ,take "o ( ! samples conta9$ 9 ! glass j>s1 & subject x to a ?or\gh air dry+1 by spread+ x 9 a ?9 lay] & expos+ x = sev]al h\rs to ! atmosph]e ( a w>m room1 weigh+ x be=e & aft]1 !reby det]m9+ ! quantity ( surface moi/ure x conta9s4#fh ,!n cru% ! :ole ( x by runn+ x ?r\gh an ord9>y c(fee mill or o!r suitable cru%] adju/$ s z to produce some:at co>se gra9s 7less ?an #a_/af in*71 ?or\ghly mix ! cru%$ sample1 select f x a portion ( f #aj to #ej grams1#fi weigh x 9 a balance :i* w easily %[ a v>iation z small z #a "p 9 #ajjj1 & dry x = "o h\r 9 an air or s& ba? at a temp]ature betwe5 #bdj & #bhj degrees ,fahr5heit4 ,weigh x & record ! loss1 !n heat & weigh aga9 until ! m9imum weight has be5 rea*$4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! orig9al & ! m9imum weight is ! moi/ure 9 ! air-dri$ coal4 ,! sum ( ! moi/ure ?us f\nd & t ( ! surface moi/ure is ! total moi/ure4 #aa4 ,,a%es ,,& ,,refuse ,! a%es & refuse )drawn f ! furnace & a%pit dur+ ! progress ( ! te/ & at its close %\ld be weigh$ s f> z possible 9 a dry /ate4 ,if wet ! am\nt ( moi/ure %\ld be asc]ta9$ & all[$ =1 a sample be+ tak5 & dri$ = ?is purpose4 ,?is sample may s]ve also = analysis & ! det]m9ation ( unburn$ c>bon & fus+ temp]ature4 ,! me?od above describ$ = sampl+ coal may also be foll[$ = obta9+ a sample ( ! a%es & refuse4 #ab4 ,,calorific ,,te/s ,,& ,,analyses ,,( ,,coal ,! quality ( ! fuel %\ld be det]m9$ by calorific te/s & analysis ( ! coal sample above ref]r$ to4#gj #ac4 ,,analyses ,,( ,,flue ,,gases ,= approximate det]m9ations ( ! composition ( ! flue gases1 ! ,orsat app>atus1 or "s modification !re(1 %\ld be employ$4 ,if mom5t>y samples are obta9$ ! analyses %\ld be made z frequ5tly z possible1 say1 e #ae to #cj m9utes1 dep5d+ on ! skill ( ! op]ator1 not+ at ! "t ! sample is drawn ! furnace & fir+ conditions4 ,if ! sample drawn is a cont9u\s "o1 ! int]vals may be made long]4 #ad4 ,,smoke ,,obs]vations#ga ,9 te/s ( bitum9\s coals requir+ a det]m9ation ( ! am\nt ( smoke produc$1 obs]vations %\ld be made regul>ly ?r\gh\t ! trial at int]vals ( #e m9utes 7or if necess>y e m9ute71 not+ at ! same "t ! furnace & fir+ conditions4 #ae4 ,,calculation ,,( ,,results ,! me?ods to be foll[$ 9 express+ & calculat+ ^? results :i* are n self-evid5t are expla9$ z foll[s3 7,a7 ,effici5cy4 ,! effici5cy ( boil]1 furnace & grate is ! relation betwe5 ! heat absorb$ p] p\nd ( coal fir$1 & ! calorific value ( "o p\nd ( coal4 ,! effici5cy ( boil] & furnace is ! relation betwe5 ! heat absorb$ p] p\nd ( combu/ible burn$1 & ! calorific value ( "o p\nd ( combu/ible4 ,?is expression ( effici5cy furni%es a means = comp>+ "o boil] & furnace ) ano!r1 :5 ! losses ( unburn$ coal due to grates1 clean+s1 etc41 are elim9at$4 ,! combu/ible burn$ is det]m9$ by subtract+ f ! weight ( coal suppli$ to ! boil]1 ! moi/ure 9 ! coal1 ! weight ( a% & unburn$ coal )drawn f ! furnace & a%pit1 & ! weight ( du/1 soot1 & refuse1 if any1 )drawn f ! tubes1 flues1 & combu/ion *amb]s1 includ+ a% c>ri$ away 9 ! gases1 if any1 det]m9$ f ! analysis ( coal & a%4 ,! combu/ible us$ = det]m9+ ! calorific value is ! weight ( coal less ! moi/ure & a% f\nd by analysis4 ,! heat absorb$ p] p\nd ( coal1 or combu/ible1 is calculat$ by multiply+ ! equival5t evaporation f & at #bab degrees p] p\nd ( coal or combu/ible by #igj4d4 ,o!r items 9 ?is section :i* h be5 treat$ else:]e are3 7,b7 ,corrections = moi/ure 9 /eam4 7,c7 ,correction = live /eam us$4 7,d7 ,equival5t evaporation4 7,e7 ,heat balance4 7,f7 ,total heat ( combu/ion ( coal4 7,g7 ,air = combu/ion & ! me?ods recomm5d$ = calculat+ ^! results are 9 accordance ) ^? describ$ 9 diff]5t portions ( ?is book4 #af4 ,,data ,,& ,,results ,! data & results %\ld be report$ 9 accordance ) ei!r ! %ort =m or ! complete =m1 add+ l9es = data n provid$ =1 or omitt+ ^? n requir$1 z may con=m to ! object 9 view4 #ag4 ,,*>t ,9 trials hav+ = an object ! det]m9ation & exposition ( ! complete boil] p]=mance1 ! entire log ( read+s & data %\ld be plott$ on a *>t & repres5t$ graphically4 #ah4 ,,te/s ,,) ,,oil ,,& ,,gas ,,fuels ,te/s ( boil]s us+ oil or gas = fuel %\ld accord ) ! rules "h giv51 except+ z !y are v>i$ to con=m to ! p>ticul> *>act]i/ics ( ! fuel4 ,! duration 9 su* cases may be r$uc$1 & ! fly+ me?od ( />t+ & /opp+ employ$4 ,! table ( data & results %\ld conta9 items /at+ "* ( furnace & burn]1 quality & composition ( oil or gas1 temp]ature ( oil1 pressure ( /eam us$ = vaporiz+ & quantity ( /eam us$ = bo? vaporiz+ & = heat+4 ,,table ,,data ,,& ,,results ,,( ,,evaporative ,,te/ ,,%ort ,,=m1 ,,code ,,( #aiab #a ,te/ (44444444444444444boil] locat$ at44444444444444444444444444444444 to det]m9e444444444444444conduct$ by444444444444444444444444444444 #b ,k9d ( furnace444444444444444444444444444444444 4444444444444444444444444 #c ,grate surface444444444444444444444444444444444 4444444444444444squ>e feet #d ,wat]-heat+ surface444444444444444444444444444444444 44444444squ>e feet #e ,sup]heat+ surface444444444444444444444444444444444 444444444squ>e feet #f ,date44444444444444444444444444444444444 4444444444444444444444444444444444 #g ,duration4444444444444444444444444444444 44444444444444444444444444444h\rs #h ,k9d & size ( coal444444444444444444444444444444444444 4444444444444444 ,,av]age ,,pressures1 ,,temp]atures1 ,,etc4 #i ,/eam pressure by gauge44444444444444444444444444444444444 444444444p\nds #aj ,temp]ature ( fe$ wat] ent]+ boil]4444444444444444444444444degrees #aa ,temp]ature ( escap+ gases leav+ boil]4444444444444444444444degrees #ab ,=ce ( draft betwe5 damp] & boil]444444444444444444444444444in*es #ac ,p]c5tage ( moi/ure 9 /eam1 or numb] degrees ( sup]heat+444444444444444444p] c5t or degrees ,,total ,,quantities #ad ,weight ( coal z fir$#gb444444444444444444444444444444444 4444444p\nds #ae ,p]c5tage ( moi/ure 9 coal44444444444444444444444444444444444p ] c5t #af ,total weight ( dry coal consum$444444444444444444444444444444444 4p\nds #ag ,total a% & refuse4444444444444444444444444444444444 4444444444444p\nds #ah ,p]c5tage ( a% & refuse 9 dry coal4444444444444444444444444p] c5t #ai ,total weight ( wat] f$ to ! boil]#gc444444444444444444444444p\nds #bj ,total wat] evaporat$1 correct$ = moi/ure 9 /eam444444444444p\nds #ba ,total equival5t evaporation f & at #bab degrees444444444444444p\nds ,,h\rly ,,quantities ,,& ,,rates #bb ,dry coal consum$ p] h\r4444444444444444444444444444444444444 4444p\nds #bc ,dry coal p] squ>e feet ( grate surface p] h\r44444444444444444p\nds #bd ,wat] evaporat$ p] h\r correct$ = quality ( /eam44444444444p\nds #be ,equival5t evaporation p] h\r f & at #bab degrees444444444444p\nds #bf ,equival5t evaporation p] h\r f & at #bab degrees p] squ>e foot ( wat]-heat+ surface444444444444444444444444p\nds ,,capacity #bg ,evaporation p] h\r f & at #bab degrees 7same z ,l9e #be744444p\nds #bh ,boil] horse p[] develop$ 7,item #bgcd74444444444444;boil] horse p[] #bi ,rat$ capacity1 9 evaporation f & at #bab degrees p] h\r4444p\nds #cj ,rat$ boil] horse p[]4444444444444444444444444444444boil] horse p[] #ca ,p]c5tage ( rat$ capacity develop$444444444444444444444444444p] c5t ,,economy ,,results #cb ,wat] f$ p] p\nd ( coal fir$ 7,item #ai;,item #ad74444444444444444p\nds #cc ,wat] evaporat$ p] p\nd ( dry coal 7,item #bj;,item #af744444444444p\nds #cd ,equival5t evaporation f & at #bab degrees p] p\nd ( dry coal 7,item #ba;,item #af744444444444444444444444444444444444p \nds #ce ,equival5t evaporation f & at #bab degrees p] p\nd ( combu/ible ,item #ba7;,item #af-;,item #ag74444444444444444444444p\nds ,,effici5cy #cf ,calorific value ( "o p\nd ( dry coal4444444444444444444444444,b4 t4 u4 #cg ,calorific value ( "o p\nd ( combu/ible4444444444444444444444,b4 t4 u4 7 ,item #cdigj4d7 #ch ,effici5cy ( boil]1 furnace & grate 7#ajj -------------74444p] c5t 7 ,item #cf 7 7 ,item #ceigj4d7 #ci ,effici5cy ( boil] & furnace 7#ajj -------------744444444444p] c5t 7 ,item #cg 7 ,,co/ ,,( ,,evaporation #dj ,co/ ( coal p] ton (444444p\nds deliv]$ 9 boil] room444444doll>s #da ,co/ ( coal requir$ = evaporat+ #ajjj p\nds ( wat] f & at #bab degrees444444444444444444444444444444444 4444444doll>s ,illu/ration3 ,portion ( #cfjj ,horse-p[] ,in/allation ( ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil]s1 ,equipp$ ) ,babcock ,wilcox ,*a9 ,grate ,/ok]s at ! ,loomis ,/reet ,plant ( ! ,peoples ,gas ,light ,coke ,co41 ,*icago1 ,ill4 ,?is ,company has ,in/all$ #gghj ,horse ,p[] ( ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil]s ,,! ,,selection ,,( ,,boil]s ,,) ,a ,,consid]ation ,,( ,,! ,,factors ,,det]m9+ ,,su* ,,selection ,! selection ( /eam boil]s is a matt] to :i* ! mo/ c>eful ?\ght & att5tion may be well giv54 ,)9 ! la/ tw5ty ye>s1 radical *anges h tak5 place 9 ! me?ods & appliances = ! g5]ation & di/ribution ( p[]4 ,^! *anges h be5 made l>gely 9 ! prime mov]s1 bo? z to type & size1 & are be/ illu/rat$ by ! *anges 9 c5tral /ation p[]-plant practice4 ,x is h>dly )9 ! scope ( ?is "w to treat ( p[]-plant design & ! discussion w be limit$ to a consid]ation ( ! boil] end ( ! p[] plant4 ,z /at$1 ! *anges h be5 l>gely 9 prime mov]s1 ! /eam g5]at+ equipm5t hav+ be5 consid]$ m or less ( a /&>d piece ( app>atus ^: sole function is ! transf] ( ! heat lib]at$ f ! fuel by combu/ion to ! /eam /or$ or circulat$ 9 su* app>atus4 ,:5 ! fact is consid]$ t ! co/ ( /eam g5]ation is r\ghly f #fe to #hj p] c5t ( ! total co/ ( p[] production1 x may be readily und]/ood t ! mo/ fruitful field = improvem5t exi/s 9 ! boil] end ( ! p[] plant4 ,! effici5cy ( ! plant z a :ole w v>y ) ! load x c>ries & x is 9 ! boil] room :]e su* v>iation is l>ge/ & mo/ subject to control4 ,! improvem5ts to be secur$ 9 ! boil] room results are n simply a matt] ( dictation ( op]at+ me?ods4 ,! secur+ ( p]fect combu/ion1 ) ! accompany+ effici5cy ( heat transf]1 :ile comp>atively simple 9 !ory1 is difficult to obta9 9 practical op]ation4 ,?is fact is p]haps be/ exemplifi$ by ! diff]5ce betwe5 te/ results & ^? obta9$ 9 daily op]ation ev5 "u ! mo/ c>eful sup]vision4 ,?is diff]5ce makes x necess>y to e/abli% a /&>d by :i* op]at+ results may be judg$1 a /&>d n necess>ily t :i* might be possible "u te/ conditions b "o :i* exp]im5t %[s c be secur$ "u ! v be/ op]at+ conditions4 ,! /udy ( ! !ory ( combu/ion1 draft1 etc41 z already giv51 w indicate t ! "q ( effici5cy is l>gely a matt] ( prop] relation betwe5 fuel1 furnace & g5]ator4 ,:ile ! possibility ( a sub/antial sav+ ?r\gh add$ effici5cy _c be ov]look$1 ! boil] design ( ! future mu/1 ev5 m ?an 9 ! pa/1 be consid]$ p>ticul>ly f ! aspect ( reliability & simplicity4 ,a flexibility ( op]ation is necess>y z a gu>antee ( cont9uity ( s]vice4 ,9 view ( ! above1 be=e ! "q ( ! selection ( boil]s c be tak5 up intellig5tly1 x is necess>y to consid] ! subjects ( boil] effici5cy & boil] capacity1 toge!r ) _! relation to ea* o!r4 ,! crit]ion by :i* ! effici5cy ( a boil] plant is to be judg$ is ! co/ ( ! production ( a def9ite am\nt ( /eam4 ,consid]$ 9 ?is s5se1 !re mu/ be includ$ 9 ! effici5cy ( a boil] plant ! simplicity ( op]ation1 flexibility & reliability ( ! boil] us$4 ,! items ( repair & upkeep co/ are (t5 high because ( ! nature ( ! s]vice4 ,! gov]n+ factor 9 ^! items is unque/ionably ! type ( boil] select$4 ,! features ent]+ into ! plant effici5cy are s num]\s t x is impossible to make a /atem5t z to a means ( secur+ ! highe/ effici5cy :i* w apply to all cases4 ,su* effici5cy is to be secur$ by ! prop] relation ( fuel1 furnace & boil] heat+ surface1 actual op]at+ conditions1 :i* all[ ! approa*+ ( ! pot5tial effici5cies made possible by ! ref9em5t ( design1 & a sy/ematic sup]vision ( ! op]ation assi/$ by a detail$ record ( p]=mances & conditions4 ,! "q ( sup]vision w be tak5 up lat] 9 ! *apt] on ,op]ation & ,c>e ( ,boil]s4 ,! effici5cies t may be expect$ f ! comb9ation ( well-design$ boil]s & furnaces are indicat$ 9 ,table #ei 9 :i* are giv5 a numb] ( te/s ) v>i\s fuels & "u widely diff]5t op]at+ conditions4 ,x is to be appreciat$ t ! results obta9$ z giv5 9 ?is table are practically all "u te/ conditions4 ,! ne>ness ) :i* practical op]at+ conditions c approa* ^! figures w dep5d ^u ! "* ( ! sup]vision ( ! boil] room & ! intellig5ce ( ! op]at+ crew4 ,! size ( ! plant w ord9>ily gov]n ! exp5se w>rant$ 9 secur+ ! "r sort ( sup]vision4 ,! be>+ t ! type ( boil] has on ! effici5cy to be expect$ c only be realiz$ f a /udy ( ! =ego+ *apt]s4 ,capacity--,capacity1 z already def9$1 is ! ability ( a def9ite am\nt ( boil]-heat+ surface to g5]ate /eam4 ,boil]s are ord9>ily pur*as$ "u a manufactur]'s specification1 :i* rates a boil] at a nom9al rat$ horse p[]1 usually bas$ on #aj squ>e feet ( heat+ surface p] horse p[]4 ,su* a build]s' rat+ is absolutely arbitr>y & implies no?+ z to ! limit+ am\nt ( wat] t ?is am\nt ( heat+ surface w evaporate4 ,x does n imply t ! evaporation ( #cd4e p\nds ( wat] f & at #bab degrees ) #aj squ>e feet ( heat+ surface is ! limit ( ! capacity ( ! boil]4 ,fur!r1 f a /atem5t t a boil] is ( a c]ta9 horse p[] on ! manufactur]'s basis1 x is n to be und]/ood t ! boil] is 9 any /ate ( /ra9 :5 develop+ m ?an its rat$ capacity4 ,broadly /at$1 ! evaporative capacity ( a c]ta9 am\nt ( heat+ surface 9 a well-design$ boil]1 t is1 ! boil] horse p[] x is capable ( produc+1 is limit$ only by ! am\nt ( fuel t c be burn$ "u ! boil]4 ,:ile su* a /atem5t w\ld imply t ! "q ( capacity to be secur$ 0 simply "o ( mak+ an arrangem5t by :i* suffici5t fuel c\ld be burn$ "u a def9ite am\nt ( heat+ surface to g5]ate ! requir$ am\nt ( /eam1 !re are limit+ features t mu/ be weigh$ aga9/ ! advantages ( high capacity develop$ f small heat+ surfaces4 ,briefly /at$1 ^! factors are z foll[s3 #a/4 ,effici5cy4 ,z ! capacity increases1 !re w 9 g5]al be a decrease 9 effici5cy1 ?is loss above a c]ta9 po9t mak+ x inadvisable to try to secure m ?an a def9ite horse p[] f a giv5 boil]4 ,?is loss ( effici5cy ) increas$ capacity is treat$ bel[ 9 detail1 9 consid]+ ! relation ( effici5cy to capacity4 #bnd4 ,grate ,ratio ,possible or ,practicable4 ,all fuels h a maximum rate ( combu/ion1 beyond :i* satisfactory results _c be obta9$1 reg>dless ( draft available or :i* may be secur$ by me*anical means4 ,su* be+ ! case1 x is evid5t t ) ?is maximum combu/ion rate secur$1 ! only me?od ( obta9+ add$ capacity w be ?r\gh ! addition ( grate surface4 ,!re is obvi\sly a po9t beyond :i* ! grate surface = a giv5 boil] _c be increas$4 ,?is is due to ! impracticability ( h&l+ grates above a c]ta9 maximum size1 to ! enorm\s loss 9 draft pressure ?r\gh a boil] result+ f an attempt to =ce an abnormal quantity ( gas ?r\gh ! heat+ surface & to innum]able details ( design & ma9t5ance t w\ld make su* an arrangem5t :olly unfeasible4 #crd4 ,fe$ ,wat]4 ,! difficulties t may arise ?r\gh ! use ( poor fe$ wat] or t are liable to happ5 ?r\gh ! use ( practically any fe$ wat] h already be5 po9t$ out4 ,?is "q ( fe$ is frequ5tly ! limit+ factor 9 ! capacity obta9able1 = ) an increase 9 su* capacity comes an add$ conc5tration ( su* +r$i5ts 9 ! fe$ wat] z w cause prim+1 foam+ or rapid scale =mation4 ,c]ta9 wat]s :i* w give no tr\ble t _c be readily ov]come ) ! boil] run at ord9>y rat+s w cause difficulties at high] rat+s entirely out ( proportion to any advantage secur$ by an increase 9 ! p[] t a def9ite am\nt ( heat+ surface may be made to produce4 ,:]e capacity 9 ! s5se ( ov]load is desir$1 ! type ( boil] select$ w play a l>ge "p 9 ! successful op]ation ?r\gh su* p]iods4 ,a boil] mu/ be select$ ) :i* !re is possible a furnace arrangem5t t w give flexibility )\t undue loss 9 effici5cy ov] ! range ( capacity desir$4 ,! heat+ surface mu/ be s arrang$ t x w be possible to in/all 9 a practical mann]1 suffici5t grate surface at or bel[ ! maximum combu/ion rate to develop ! am\nt ( p[] requir$4 ,! design ( boil] mu/ be su* t !re w be no prim+ or foam+ at high ov]loads & t any add$ scale =mation due to su* ov]loads may be easily remov$4 ,c]ta9 boil]s :i* deliv] comm]cially dry /eam :5 op]at$ at ab\t _! normal rat$ capacity w prime badly :5 run at ov]loads & ?is action may take place ) a wat] t %\ld be easily h&l$ by a prop]ly design$ boil] at any reasonable load4 ,su* action is ord9>ily produc$ by ! lack ( a well def9$1 positive circulation4 ,relation ( ,effici5cy & ,capacity--,! /atem5t has be5 made t 9 g5]al ! effici5cy ( a boil] w decrease z ! capacity is increas$4 ,consid]+ ! boil] alone1 ap>t f ! furnace1 ?is /atem5t may be readily expla9$4 ,presuppos+ a con/ant furnace temp]ature1 reg>dless ( ! capacity at :i* a giv5 boil] is run2 to assure equal effici5cies at l[ & high rat+s1 ! exit temp]ature 9 ! two in/ances w\ld necess>ily be ! same4 ,= ?is temp]ature at ! high rat+1 to be id5tical ) t at ! l[ rat+1 ! rate ( heat transf] f ! gases to ! heat+ surfaces w\ld h to v>y directly z ! weight or volume ( su* gases4 ,exp]im5t has %[n1 h[ev]1 t ?is is n true b t ?is rate ( transf] v>ies z "s p[] ( ! volume ( gas less ?an "o4 ,z ! heat transf] does n1 !re=e1 increase proportionately ) ! volume ( gases1 ! exit temp]ature = a giv5 furnace temp]ature w be increas$ z ! volume ( gases increases4 ,z ?is is ! measure ( ! effici5cy ( ! heat+ surface1 ! boil] effici5cy w1 !re=e1 decrease z ! volume ( gases increases or ! capacity at :i* ! boil] is op]at$ increases4 ,fur!r1 a c]ta9 portion ( ! heat absorb$ by ! heat+ surface is ?r\gh direct radiation f ! fire4 ,aga91 presuppos+ a con/ant furnace temp]ature2 ! heat absorb$ ?r\gh radiation is solely a function ( ! am\nt ( surface expos$ to su* radiation4 ,h5ce1 = ! conditions assum$1 ! am\nt ( heat absorb$ by radiation at ! high] rat+s w be ! same z at ! l[] rat+s b 9 proportion to ! total absorption w be less4 ,z ! add$ volume ( gas does n increase ! rate ( heat transf]1 !re are !re=e two factors act+ t[>d ! decrease 9 ! effici5cy ( a boil] ) an increase 9 ! capacity4 ,,table #ei ,,te/s ,,( ,,babcock ,,wilcox ,,boil]s ,,) ,,v>i\s ,,fuels ,numb] ,rat$ ( ,"n & ,location ,k9d ( ,coal ,k9d ( ,horse ,te/ ( ,plant ,furnace ,p[] ( ,boil] ,susquehanna ,coal ,co41 ,no4 #a ,an?racite,h& #a ,%5&oah1 ,pa4 ,buck:eat ,fir$ #cjj ,balba* ,smelt+ ,no4 #b ,buck:eat ,wilk5son #b ,ref9+ ,co41 ,new>k1 ,n4 ,j4& ,bird's-eye ,/ok] #bah ,h4 ,r4 ,wor?+ton1 ,no4 #b ,an?racite,h& #c ,h>rison ,n4 ,j4 ,buck:eat ,fir$ #cjj ,raymond ,/reet ,jail1 ,an?racite ,pea ,h& #d ,brooklyn1 ,n4 ,y4 ,fir$ #aee ,r4 ,h4 ,macy ,co41 ,no4 #c ,an?racite,h& #e ,new ,york1 ,n4 ,y4 ,buck:eat ,fir$ #bic ,national ,bureau ( ,an?racite ,egg ,h& #f ,/&>ds1 ,wa%+ton1 ,d4,c4 ,fir$ #aai ,fr$4 ,loes] ,co41 ,no4 #a ,an?racite,h& #g ,brooklyn1 ,n4 ,y4 ,buck:eat ,fir$ #cjj ,new ,york ,edison ,co41 ,no4 #b ,an?racite,h& #h ,new ,york ,city ,buck:eat ,fir$ #cgd ,sewage ,pump+ ,/ation1 ,hock+ ,valley ,h& #i ,clevel&1 ,o4 ,lump1 ,o4 ,fir$ #aej ,scioto ,riv] ,pump+ ,/a41 ,hock+ ,valley1 ,h& #aj ,clevel&1 ,o4 ,o4 ,fir$ #cjj ,consolidat$ ,gas ,electric,som]set1 ,pa4 ,h& #aa ,co41 ,baltimore1 ,md4 ,fir$ #fdj ,consolidat$ ,gas ,electric,som]set1 ,pa4 ,h& #ab ,co41 ,baltimore1 ,md4 ,fir$ #fdj ,m]rimac ,mfg4 ,co41 ,georges ,creek1 ,h& #ac ,l[ell1 ,mass4 ,md4 ,fir$ #cba ,great ,we/'n ,sug> ,co41 ,lafayette1 ,col41,hand,fired #ad ,ft4 ,coll9s1 ,col4 ,m9e ,run ,ext5sion #cea ,baltimore ,sewage ,pump+ ,new ,riv] ,h& #ae ,/ation ,fir$ #bff ,t5nessee ,/ate ,prison1 ,bru%y ,m\nta91,h& #af ,na%ville1 ,t5n4 ,t5n4 ,fir$ #cjj ,p9e ,bluff ,corporation1 ,arkansas ,slack ,h& #ag ,p9e ,bluff1 ,ark4 ,fir$ #bih ,pub4 ,s]v4 ,corporation ,valley1 ,pa41 ,roney #ah ( ,n4 ,j41 ,hobok5 ,m9e ,run ,/ok] #ebj ,pub4 ,s]v4 ,corporation ,valley1 ,pa41 ,roney #ai ( ,n4 ,j41 ,hobok5 ,m9e ,run ,/ok] #ebj ,frick ,build+1 ,pittsburgh ,nut ,am]ican #bj ,pittsburgh1 ,pa4 & ,slack ,/ok] #cjj ,new ,york ,edison ,co41 ,loyal ,hanna1 ,pa4,taylor #ba ,new ,york ,city ,/ok] #fjd ,city ( ,columbus1 ,o41 ,hock+ ,valley1 ,detroit #bb ,dept4 ,light+ ,o4 ,/ok] #cjj ,edison ,elec4 ,illum4 ,co41 ,new ,riv] ,murphy #bc ,bo/on1 ,mass4 ,/ok] #ejh ,colorado ,spr+s ,pike ,view1 ,col41,gre5 ,*n #bd ,int]urban ,ry41 ,col4 ,m9e ,run ,grate #djj ,pub4 ,s]v4 ,corporation ,lanca%ire1 ,pa4 ,b,w4,*a9 #be ( ,n4 ,j41 ,m>ion ,grate #fjj ,pub4 ,s]v4 ,corporation ,lanca%ire1 ,pa4 ,b,w4,*a9 #bf ( ,n4 ,j41 ,m>ion ,grate #fjj ,erie ,c\nty ,electric ,co41 ,m]c] ,c\nty1 ,b,w4,*a9 #bg ,erie1 ,pa4 ,pa4 ,grate #ejh ,union ,elec4 ,lt4 ,pr4 ,co41 ,masc\?1 ,ill4 ,b,w4,*a9 #bh ,/4 ,l\is1 ,mo4 ,grate #ejh ,union ,elec4 ,lt4 ,pr4 ,co41 ,/4 ,clair ,b,w4,*a9 #bi ,/4 ,l\is1 ,mo4 ,c\nty1 ,ill4 ,grate #ejh ,commonweal? ,edison ,co41 ,c>t]ville1 ,b,w4,*a9 #cj ,*icago1 ,ill4 ,ill41 ,scre5+s,grate #ejh ,numb],grate ,dura-,/eam ,temp]-,degrees,factor ,draft ( ,surf4 tion,pres4 ature ,sup] ( ,9 ,at ,te/ ,squ>e,te/ ,by ,wat] -heat ,evapo-,furnace,boil] ,feet ,h\rs,gauge ,degrees,degreesration,in*es ,damp] ,p\nds ,fahr4 ,fahr4 ,upr_/,lwr,in*es #a #hd #h #fh #ec4i #a4aife 4#da 4#ba 4#fe #b #ea4f #g #acf4c #bjc #aej #a4adhj 4#dg 4#ef #c #fg4f #h #aci #aci4f #aci #a4aihd 4#gj 4#if #d #dj #h #aaj4b #acg #a4aahe 4#cc 4#dc #e #ei4e #aj #acc4b #ge4b #a4ahdi 4#ai 4#dj #f #bf4e #ah #acb4a #gj4e #a4ahig 4#cc 4#ea #g #dh4i #g #aja4 #aba4c #a4accc -4#bj 4#cj #h #ei4e #f #aia4h #hh4c #a4agga 4#ej #i #bg #bd #aef4c #eh #a4bjea 4#aj 4#bd #aj #bd #ade #ge #a4ahff 4#bf 4#df #aa #aah #h #agj #ahf4a #ff4g #a4aafb 4#cd 4#db #ab #aah #g4ib #agc #ahj4b #ge4b #a4abgf 4#dd 4#eh #ac #eb #bd #ge #ec4c #a4aihg 4#be 4#ce #ad #ei4e #h #aje #ce4h #a4bbai 4#ag 4#ch #ae #ei4e #bd #agj4a #acc #a4abic 4#ab 4#dc #af #ea4c #aj #aje #ge4a #a4ahad 4#ba 4#db #ag #ei4e #h #adi4b #ga #a4aiaj 4#ce 4#ei #ah #ajc4b #aj #acc4b #fe4c #fe4i #a4bcdf 4#je 4#di #ai #ajc4b #i #aci #fd #hj4b #a4bceh 4#ah 4#eg #bj #ec #i #abe #gf4f #a4ahbf #a4fd 4#fd #ba #ge #h #aih4e #afe4a #ajd #a4affb #c4je 4#fj #bb #i #adj #fg #ahj #a4bidb 4#bb 4#ce #bc #ij #af4be #aii #dh4d #acf4e #a4biif 4#bc #a4bg #bd #ajc #h #abi #ef #a4bjjb 4#bc 4#cj 4#eb #be #acb #h #bjj #eg4b #bhj4d #a4ciji 4#ai 4#eb 4#ae #bf #acb #h #aii #fj4g #aga4j #a4caia 4#jd 4#eb #bg #ij #h #abj #fi4i #a4ahhh 4#ca 4#eh #bh #ajc4e #h #ahj #df #aac #a4bhga 4#fb #a4bd #bi #ajc4e #h #ahc #ec4a #ajd #a4bgbe 4#fj #a4bf #cj #ij #g #ahd #abg4a #ahj #a4bcic 4#fh #a4ae ,numb],temp]- ,coal ( ature ,total ,moi/- ,total ,a% & ,total ,dry,coal ,te/ ,flue,gas,weight3 ure dry ,refuse,combus-_/sq4ft4 ,degrees ,fir$ ,p] ,coal ,p] tible ,grate ,fahr4 ,p\nds ,c5t ,p\nds ,c5t ,p\nds_/,hr4,lb4 #a #aafgj #d4de #aaaea #bf4je #hbdh #af4f #b #dhg #hhjj #g4fb #habi #bi4hb #egje #ai4ga #c #eei #ajgii #f4db #ajajf #bj4jb #hjha #ba4gg #d #dbg #ejhh #d4jj #dhhd #ai4ce #cici #ae4bf #e #dad #iddj #b4ad #ibch #aa4ai #hbjd #ae4eb #f #daj #heee #c4fb #hbde #ae4gc #fidh #ag4bh #g #dhj #gacj #g4ch #ffjd #ah4ce #ecib #ai4bi #h #ddi #gejj #b4gj #gbih #bg4id #ebei #ad4gc #i #daj #aejhg #g4ej #acief #aa4cj #abcgi #ba4e #aj #ejc #biebh #g4gb #bgbdh #bd4g #aa #dhg #bjdjj #b4hd #aihba #g4hc #ahbfi #ba4jj #ab #did #baccb #b4bi #bjhdc #h4bc #aiabg #bb4ca #ac #eaf #bdehd #d4bi #bcebi #g4fc #bahhc #ah4he #ad #ebc #aeedj #ah4fd #abfdc #bh4ei #ae #dgd #ahccj #b4jc #agieh #af4cf #afjif #ab4eg #af #ecf #abbdc #b4ad #aaiha #bc4dj #ag #ecd #ajejj #c4jd #ajaha #ba4dj #ah #deh #ahfjj #c4dj #agifh #ah4ch #adffe #ag4da #ai #fji #bcdjj #b4ef #bbhja #af4hi #ahiea #bd4ee #bj #eah #ajejj #a4hc #ajcjh #ab4bb #ijdh #ba4ef #ba #ecf #bebif #b4bj #bdgcf #da4j #bb #eaa #adbfc #h4fc #acjcb #bc #efj #cifgj #d4bb #cgiif #d4cb #cfcee #be4ih #bd #ech #bcjjj #bc4gc #agedb #ba4cf #be #eij #cbbje #d4jc #cjijg #ae4fe #bfjgj #bi4bf #bf #ebi #bdbdc #d4ji #bcbea #ab4cc #bjche #bb4ja #bg #ecc #bbcbh #d4db #bacda #af4hh #aggci #bi4fd #bh #ebc #cbafc #ac4gd #bggdd #cc4ej #bi #efg #cfaej #ad4fb #cjhfe #cg4bh #cj #cjfaj #aa4ab #bgbjf #ad4gj #bcaih #dc4bj ,numb] ,wat] ,flue ,gas ,analysis ( ,actual ,equiv4ditto _/ ,rat$,,co#b ,o ,,co ,te/ ,evapor-,evap4 sq4ft4 ,cap'ty4 ,p] ,p] ,p] ation #bab ,heat+,develpd ,c5t ,c5t ,c5t _/,hr4,lb4_/,hr4,lb4,surface,per,cent #a #ajbfh #abbhf #d4aj #aah4g #b #hbdf #idff #d4cd #abe4g #c #iade #ajiei #c4fe #aje4i #d #ejjf #eeii #c4fa #ajd4g #ab4bf #g4hh #j4j #e #gdcd #hhji #c4jf #hg4b #f #bijc #cded #b4ia #hd4d #g #gdfd #hdei #b4hb #ha4g #h #iafd #ajghg #b4hh #hc4e #i #dcgd #ebga #c4ea #aja4h #aa4g #g4c #j4jg #aj #hfhh #ajcji #c4dd #ii4f #ab4i #e4j #j4b #aa #bdjcf #bfhbi #d4ai #aba4e #ab4e #f4d #j4e #ab #becac #bhedd #d4df #abi4c #ac4c #e4a #j4e #ac #iafh #ajiij #c4db #ii4c #i4f #h4h #j4d #ad #aabjb #acfhi #c4ia #aac4e #i4a #i4i #j4j #ae #gefe #hedc #c4ba #ic4a #aj4ga #i4aj #j4j #af #ieab #aabcg #c4gd #ajh4f #ag #ibeg #aajbe #c4gj #ajg4b #ah #aehhg #aifad #c4gg #ajh4g #aa4g #g4g #j4j #ai #bacbj #bfcdg #e4jf #adf4g #aa4i #g4h #j4j #bj #iigf #aaigh #c4ic #aab4j #aa4c #g4e #j4j #ba #bhdea #ccjff #e4dg #aeh4f #ab4c #f4d #j4g #bb #ajdfg #acebf #d4ea #acj4g #aa4i #g4b #j4jd #bc #bjgjj #bfijb #e4cj #aec4e #aa4a #bd #adfej #agehc #d4dj #abg4d #be #bhijf #djbje #f4gj #aid4b #aj4e #h4c #j4j #bf #bcjgd #cjdcg #e4jg #adg4j #aj4a #i4j #j4j #bg #bjgei #bdfgh #d4he #adj4h #aj4a #i4a #j4j #bh #baiih #bhcad #e4fg #afa4e #h4g #aj4f #j4j #bi #bdchf #cajca #f4aa #agg4a #h4i #aj4g #j4b #cj #cjeje #cghje #g4dc #bae4g #aj4d #i4d #j4b ,numb] ,proximate ,analysis ,dry ,coal ,equiv4,combnd4 ( ,volatl4 ,fix$ ,a% ,b4t4u4_/,evap4 ,efficy4 ,te/ ,matt] ,c>bon ,p] ,p\nd #bab_/;,boil] ,p] ,p] ,c5t ,dry ,p\nd ,grate ,c5t ,c5t ,coal ,dry,coal,per,cent #a #bf4je #aaiac #h4ha #ga4h #b #aaajd #h4ae #gb4a #c #e4ee #hj4fj #ac4hg #abcjj #h4fg #fh4d #d #g4gd #gg4dh #ad4gh #abhea #i4ag #fi4b #e #acach #i4ec #fi4f #f #f4ac #hd4hf #i4ja #acded #i4eg #fi4j #g #abbbd #h4ig #ga4b #h #j4ee #hf4gc #ab4gb #abfdb #h4hg #fh4a #i #ci4ja #dh4jh #ab4ia #abbib #i4jf #ga4e #aj #ch4cc #df4ga #ad4if #abbhd #i4jh #ga4g #aa #ai4hf #gc4jb #g4ab #adfjb #aj4hc #gb4j #ab #bj4bd #gb4bf #g4ej #adcha #aj4hd #gc4b #ac #adiee #aa4ba #gb4g #ad #ci4fj #ed4df #e4id #aaehe #h4ff #gb4e #ae #ag4dd #gf4db #e4hd #aecgi #aa4db #gb4a #af #cc4dj #ed4gc #aa4hg #abgea #i4ch #ga4d #ag #ae4db #fb4dh #bb4aj #abjfj #h4ff #fi4f #ah #ad4ii #ge4ac #i4hh #adaeb #aj4ib #gd4hh #ai #ad4dj #gd4cc #aa4bg #adjbb #aj4dj #ga4ig #bj #cb4dd #ef4ga #aj4he #aceaj #aj4cj #gd4f #ba #ai4jb #gb4ji #h4hi #adaje #aj4fi #gc4e #bb #cb4aa #ec4ic #ac4if #abdce #i4da #gc4d #bc #ai4ff #ge4da #d4ic #adiaj #aa4ea #gd4i #bd #dc4eg #df4bb #aj4ba #aaafj #h4jb #fi4g #be #bb4hd #fi4ia #g4be #achdj #aj4da #gb4f #bf #cb4cf #fj4fg #f4ig #adjbg #aj4dg #gb4a #bg #cc4bf #ed4jc #ab4ga #abgdb #i4be #gj4d #bh #bh4if #df4hh #bd4af #ajegf #h4af #gd4i #bi #cf4ej #da4bj #bb4cj #ajhdi #h4jd #ga4i #cj #aj4bd #acabf #i4gc #ga4i ,illu/ration3 #aedjj ,horse-p[] ,in/allation ( ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil]s & ,sup]heat]s1 ,equipp$ ) ,babcock ,wilcox ,*a9 ,grate ,/ok]s at ! ,plant ( ! ,tw9 ,city ,rapid ,transit ,co41 ,m9neapolis1 ,m9n4 ,?is increase 9 ! effici5cy ( ! boil] alone ) ! decrease 9 ! rate at :i* x is op]at$1 w hold to a po9t :]e ! radiation ( heat f ! boil] sett+ is proportionately l>ge en\gh to be a gov]n+ factor 9 ! total am\nt ( heat absorb$4 ,! second reason giv5 above = a decrease ( boil] effici5cy ) increase ( capacity1 viz41 ! effect ( radiant heat1 is to a great] ext5t ?an ! fir/ reason dep5d5t ^u a con/ant furnace temp]ature4 ,any increase 9 ?is temp]ature w affect enorm\sly ! am\nt ( heat absorb$ by radiation1 z ?is absorption w v>y z ! f\r? p[] ( ! temp]ature ( ! radiat+ body4 ,9 ?is way x is se5 t b a slight increase 9 furnace temp]ature w be necess>y to br+ ! proportional "p1 due to absorption by radiation1 ( ! total heat absorb$1 up to its prop] proportion at ! high] rat+s4 ,?is factor ( furnace temp]ature m prop]ly belongs to ! consid]ation ( furnace effici5cy ?an ( boil] effici5cy4 ,!re is a po9t1 h[ev]1 9 any furnace above :i* ! combu/ion w be s poor z to actually r$uce ! furnace temp]ature &1 !re=e1 ! proportion ( heat absorb$ ?r\gh radiation by a giv5 am\nt ( expos$ heat+ surface4 ,s9ce x is ?us true t ! effici5cy ( ! boil] consid]$ alone w increase ) a decreas$ capacity1 x is evid5t t if ! furnace conditions are con/ant reg>dless ( ! load1 t ! comb9$ effici5cy ( boil] & furnace w also decrease ) increas+ loads4 ,?is fact 0 cle>ly prov5 9 ! te/s ( ! boil]s at ! ,detroit ,edison ,company4#gd ,! furnace arrangem5t ( ^! boil]s & ! great c>e ) :i* ! te/s 7 run made x possible to secure uni=mly good furnace conditions irrespective ( load1 & "h ! maximum effici5cy 0 obta9$ at a po9t some:at less ?an ! rat$ capacity ( ! boil]s4 ,9 "s cases1 h[ev]1 & especially 9 ! ord9>y op]ation ( ! plant1 ! furnace effici5cy w1 up to a c]ta9 po9t1 increase ) an increase 9 p[]4 ,?is increase 9 furnace effici5cy is ord9>ily at a great] rate z ! capacity increases ?an is ! decrease 9 boil] effici5cy1 ) ! result t ! comb9$ effici5cy ( boil] & furnace w to a c]ta9 po9t increase ) an increase 9 capacity4 ,?is makes ! ord9>y po9t ( maximum comb9$ effici5cy some:at above ! rat$ capacity ( ! boil] & 9 _m cases ! comb9$ effici5cy w be practically a con/ant ov] a consid]able range ( rat+s4 ,! features limit+ ! e/abli%+ ( ! po9t ( maximum effici5cy at a high rat+ are ! same z ^? limit+ ! am\nt ( grate surface t c be in/all$ "u a boil]4 ,! relative effici5cy ( diff]5t comb9ations ( boil]s & furnaces at diff]5t rat+s dep5ds s l>gely ^u ! furnace conditions t :at might hold = "o comb9ation w\ld n = ano!r4 ,9 view ( ! above1 x is impossible to make a /atem5t ( ! effici5cy at diff]5t capacities ( a boil] & furnace :i* w hold = any & all conditions4 ,fig4 #dj %[s 9 a g5]al =m ! relation ( effici5cy to capacity4 ,?is curve has be5 plott$ f a great numb] ( te/s1 all ( :i* 7 correct$ to br+ !m to approximately ! same conditions4 ,! curve repres5ts te/ conditions4 ,! effici5cies repres5t$ are ^? :i* may be secur$ only "u su* conditions4 ,! g5]al direction ( ! curve1 h[ev]1 w be f\nd to hold approximately correct = op]at+ conditions :5 us$ only z a guide to :at may be expect$4 ,graph3 ,comb9$ ,effici5cy ( ,boil] & ,furnace ,p] ,c5t aga9/ ,p] ,c5t ( ,boil]'s ,rat$ ,capacity ,develop$ ,fig4 #dj4 ,approximate ,v>iation ( ,effici5cy ) ,capacity "u ,te/ ,conditions ,economical ,loads--,) ! effect ( capacity on economy 9 m9d1 ! "q arises z to :at con/itutes ! economical load to be c>ri$4 ,9 figur+ on ! economical load = an individual plant1 ! broad] economy is to be consid]$1 t 9 :i*1 aga9/ ! boil] effici5cy1 !re is to be weigh$ ! plant fir/ co/1 returns on su* inve/m5t1 fuel co/1 labor1 capacity1 etc41 etc4 ,?is matt] has be5 widely discuss$1 b un=tunately su* discussion has be5 l>gely limit$ to c5tral p[] /ation practice4 ,! p[] g5]at$ 9 su* /ations1 :ile repres5t+ an enorm\s total1 is by no means ! l>g] proportion ( ! total p[] g5]at$ ?r\gh\t ! c\ntry4 ,! factors det]m9+ ! economic load = ! small plant1 h[ev]1 are ! same z 9 a l>ge1 & 9 g5]al ! /atem5ts made relative to ! "q are equally applicable4 ,! economical rat+ at :i* a boil] plant %\ld be run is dep5d5t solely ^u ! load to be c>ri$ by t individual plant & ! nature ( su* load4 ,! economical load = ea* individual plant c be det]m9$ only f ! c>eful /udy ( ea* individual set ( conditions or by actual trial4 ,! controll+ factor 9 ! co/ ( ! plant1 reg>dless ( ! nature ( ! load1 is ! capacity to c>ry ! maximum peak load t may be ?r[n on ! plant "u any conditions4 ,:ile load conditions1 d1 z /at$1 v>y 9 e individual plant1 9 a broad s5se all loads may be gr\p$ 9 ?ree classes3 #a/1 ! approximately con/ant #bd-;h\r load2 #bnd1 ! /eady #aj or #ab-;h\r load usually ) a noonday p]iod ( no load2 #crd1 ! #bd-;h\r v>iable load1 f\nd 9 c5tral /ation practice4 ,! economical load at :i* ! boil] may be run w v>y ) ^! gr\ps3 #a/4 ,= a con/ant load1 #bd h\rs 9 ! day1 x w be f\nd 9 mo/ cases t1 :5 all features are consid]$1 ! mo/ economical load or t at :i* a giv5 am\nt ( /eam c be produc$ ! mo/ *eaply w be consid]ably ov] ! rat$ horse p[] ( ! boil]4 ,h[ mu* above ! rat$ capacity ?is mo/ economic load w be1 is dep5d5t l>gely ^u ! co/ ( coal at ! plant1 b "u ord9>y conditions1 ! po9t ( maximum economy w probably be f\nd to be some:]e betwe5 #be & #ej p] c5t above ! rat$ capacity ( ! boil]s4 ,! capital inve/m5t mu/ be weigh$ aga9/ ! coal sav+ ?r\gh increas$ !rmal effici5cy & ! labor acc\nt1 :i* increases ) ! numb] ( units1 mu/ be giv5 prop] consid]ation4 ,:5 ! "q is consid]$ 9 connection ) a plant already in/all$1 ! conditions are diff]5t f :]e a new plant is contemplat$4 ,9 an old plant1 :]e !re are en\gh boil]s to op]ate at l[ rates ( capacity1 ! capital inve/m5t leads to a fix$ *>ge1 & x w be f\nd t ! mo/ economical load at :i* boil]s may be op]at$ w be l[] ?an :]e a new plant is "u consid]ation4 #bnd4 ,= a load ( #aj or #ab h\rs a day1 ei!r an approximately /eady load or "o 9 :i* !re is a peak1 :]e ! boil]s h be5 bank$ ov] night1 ! capacity at :i* !y may be run ) ! be/ economy w be f\nd to be high] ?an = uni=m #bd-;h\r load conditions4 ,?is is obvi\sly due to orig9al inve/m5t1 t is1 a giv5 am\nt ( inve/$ capital c be made to e>n a l>g] return ?r\gh ! high] ov]load1 & ?is w hold true to a po9t :]e ! add$ return m ?an (fsets ! decrease 9 actual boil] effici5cy4 ,"h aga9 ! det]m9+ factors ( :at is ! economical load are ! fuel & labor co/ balanc$ aga9/ ! !rmal effici5cy4 ,) a load ( ?is "*1 !re is ano!r factor :i* may affect ! economical plant op]at+ load4 ,?is is f ! viewpo9t ( sp>e boil]s4 ,t su* add$ capacity 9 ! way ( sp>es is necess>y is unque/ionable4 ,s9ce !y mu/ be in/all$1 !re=e1 _! pres5ce leads to a fix$ *>ge & x is probable t = ! plant1 z a :ole1 ! economical load w be some:at l[] ?an if ! boil]s 7 consid]$ only z sp>es4 ,t is1 x may be f\nd be/ to op]ate ^! sp>es z a "p ( ! regul> equipm5t at all times except :5 o!r boil]s are (f = clean+ & repairs1 ?us r$uc+ ! load on ! individual boil]s & increas+ ! effici5cy4 ,"u su* conditions1 ! add$ boil] units c be consid]$ z sp>es only dur+ su* "t z "s ( ! boil]s are n 9 op]ation4 ,due to ! op]at+ difficulties t may be enc\nt]$ at ! high] ov]loads1 x w ord9>ily be f\nd t ! mo/ economical rat+s at :i* to run boil]s = su* load conditions w be betwe5 #aej & #age p] c5t ( rat+4 ,"h aga9 ! maximum capacity at :i* ! boil]s may be run = ! be/ plant economy is limit$ by ! po9t at :i* ! effici5cy drops bel[ :at is w>rant$ 9 view ( ! fir/ co/ ( ! app>atus4 #crd4 ,! #bd-;h\r v>iable load4 ,?is is a class ( load c>ri$ by ! c5tral p[] /ation1 a load con/ant only 9 ! s5se t !re are no p]iods ( no load & :i* v>ies widely ) diff]5t portions ( ! #bd h\rs4 ,) su* a load x is p>ticul>ly difficult to make any ass]tion z to ! po9t ( maximum economy t w hold = any /ation1 z ?is po9t is m ?an ) any o!r class ( load dep5d5t ^u ! factors ent]+ into ! op]ation ( ea* individual plant4 ,! me?ods ( h&l+ a load ( ?is description v>y probably m ?an ) any o!r k9d ( load1 dep5d5t ^u fuel1 labor1 type ( /ok]1 flexibility ( comb9$ furnace & boil] etc41 etc4 ,9 g5]al1 "u ord9>y conditions su* z appe> 9 city c5tral p[] /ation "w :]e ! maximum peaks occur b a few times a ye>1 ! plant %\ld be made ( su* size z to enable x to c>ry ^! peaks at ! maximum possible ov]load on ! boil]s1 suffici5t m>g9 ( c\rse be+ all[$ = insurance aga9/ int]ruption ( s]vice4 ,) ! boil]s op]at+ at ?is maximum ov]load ?r\gh ! peaks a l>ge sacrifice 9 boil] effici5cy is all[able1 provid$ t by su* sacrifice ! ov]load expect$ is secur$4 ,illu/ration3 ,portion ( #dhij ,horse-p[] ,in/allation ( ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil]s at ! ,bill+s ,sug> ,co41 ,bill+s1 ,mont4 #fid ,horse ,p[] ( ^! ,boil]s are ,equipp$ ) ,babcock & ,wilcox ,*a9 ,grate ,/ok]s ,"s me?ods ( h&l+ a load ( ?is nature are giv5 bel[3 ,c]ta9 plant op]at+ conditions make x advisable1 f ! /&po9t ( plant economy1 to c>ry :atev] load is on ! plant at any "t on only su* boil]s z w furni% ! p[] requir$ :5 op]at+ at rat+s (1 say1 #aej to #bjj p] c5t4 ,t is1 all boil]s :i* are 9 s]vice are op]at$ at su* rat+s at all times1 ! v>iation 9 load be+ tak5 c>e ( by ! numb] ( boil]s on ! l9e4 ,bank$ boil]s are cut 9 to take c>e ( increas+ loads & peaks & plac$ aga9 on bank :5 ! peak p]iods h pass$4 ,x is probable t ?is me?od ( h&l+ c5tral /ation load is to-day ! mo/ g5]ally us$4 ,o!r conditions ( op]ation make x advisable to c>ry ! load on a def9ite numb] ( boil] units1 op]at+ ^! at slightly bel[ _! rat$ capacity dur+ p]iods ( light or l[ loads & secur+ ! ov]load capacity dur+ peaks by op]at+ ! same boil]s at high rat+s4 ,9 ?is me?od !re are no boil]s kept on bank$ fires1 ! sp>es be+ sp>es 9 e s5se ( ! ^w4 ,a ?ird me?od ( h&l+ widely v>y+ loads :i* is com+ some:at into vogue is t ( consid]+ ! plant z divid$1 "o "p to take c>e ( :at may be consid]$ ! con/ant plant load1 ! o!r to take c>e ( ! float+ or v>iable load4 ,) su* a me?od t portion ( ! plant c>ry+ ! /eady load is s proportion$ t ! boil]s may be op]at$ at ! po9t ( maximum effici5cy1 ?is po9t be+ rais$ to a maximum ?r\gh ! use ( economiz]s & ! g5]al in/allation ( any app>atus lead+ to su* results4 ,! v>iable load w be c>ri$ on ! rema9+ boil]s ( ! plant "u ei!r ( ! me?ods j giv51 t is1 at ! high rat+s ( all boil]s 9 s]vice & bank+ o!rs1 or a v>iable capacity f all boil]s 9 s]vice4 ,! opportunity is aga9 tak5 to indicate ! v g5]al "* ( any /atem5ts made relative to ! economical load = any plant & to emphasize ! fact t ea* individual case mu/ be consid]$ indep5d5tly1 ) ! conditions ( op]ations applicable !reto4 ,) a ?or\gh und]/&+ ( ! mean+ ( boil] effici5cy & capacity & _! relation to ea* o!r1 x is possible to consid] m specifically ! selection ( boil]s4 ,! =emo/ consid]ation is1 )\t "q1 ! adaptability ( ! design select$ to ! nature ( ! "w to be done4 ,an in/allation :i* is only tempor>y 9 its nature w\ld obvi\sly n w>rant ! fir/ co/ t a p]man5t plant w\ld4 ,if boil]s are to c>ry an int]mitt5t & sudd5ly fluctuat+ load1 su* z a hoi/+ load or a rev]s+ mill load1 a design w\ld h to be select$ t w\ld n t5d to prime ) ! fluctuations & sudd5 dem& = /eam4 ,a boil] t w\ld give ! highe/ possible effici5cy ) fuel ( "o description1 w\ld n ( necessity give su* effici5cy ) a diff]5t fuel4 ,a boil] ( a c]ta9 design :i* might be good = small plant practice w\ld n1 because ( ! limitations 9 practicable size ( units1 be suitable = l>ge in/allations4 ,a discussion ( ! relative value ( designs c be c>ri$ on almo/ indef9itely b en\gh has be5 said to indicate t a giv5 design w n s]ve satisfactorily "u all conditions & t ! adaptability to ! s]vice requir$ w be dep5d5t ^u ! fuel available1 ! class ( labor procurable1 ! fe$ wat] t mu/ be us$1 ! nature ( ! plant's load1 ! size ( ! plant & ! fir/ co/ w>rant$ by ! s]vice ! boil] is to fulfill4 ,,table #fj ,,actual ,,evaporation ,,= ,,diff]5t ,,pressures ,,& ,,temp]atures ,,( ,,fe$ ,,wat] ,,correspond+ ,,to ,,"o ,,horse ,,p[] 7#cd ,,p\nds ,,p] ,,h\r ,,f ,,& ,,at #bab ,,degrees ,,fahr5heit7 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,temp]ature ( ,pressure by ,gauge--,p\nds p] ,squ>e ,in* ,fe$ ,degrees ,fahr5heit #ej #fj #gj #hj #ij #ajj #aaj #abj #acj #adj #aej #afj #agj #ahj #aij #bjj #baj #bbj #bcj #bdj #bej ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------- #cb #bh4dabh4cfbh4bibh4bdbh4bjbh4afbh4acbh4j ibh4jgbh4jdbh4jbbg4iibg4igbg4iebg4idbg4i bbg4ijbg4hibg4hgbg4hfbg4hc #dj #bh4fabh4edbh4dibh4ddbh4djbh4cebh4cbbh4b ibh4bfbh4bcbh4babh4ahbh4afbh4adbh4abbh4a abh4jibh4jgbh4jfbh4jebh4jc #ej #bh4hebh4gibh4gcbh4fhbh4fdbh4fjbh4efbh4e cbh4ejbh4dgbh4debh4dcbh4djbh4chbh4cfbh4c ebh4ccbh4cabh4cjbh4bhbh4bg #fj #bi4ajbi4jdbh4ihbh4icbh4hhbh4hdbh4habh4g gbh4gdbh4gbbh4fibh4fgbh4febh4fbbh4fjbh4e ibh4egbh4eebh4edbh4ebbh4ea #gj #bi4cfbi4bibi4bcbi4ahbi4adbi4jibi4jfbi4j bbh4iibh4ifbh4idbh4ibbh4hibh4hgbh4hebh4h cbh4hbbh4hjbh4ghbh4ggbh4gf #hj #bi4fbbi4eebi4dibi4ddbi4cibi4cebi4cabi4b gbi4bdbi4bbbi4aibi4agbi4adbi4abbi4ajbi4j hbi4jgbi4jebi4jcbi4jbbi4jj #ij #bi4hhbi4habi4gebi4gjbi4febi4fabi4egbi4e cbi4ejbi4dgbi4debi4dbbi4djbi4chbi4cfbi4c dbi4cbbi4cjbi4bibi4bgbi4be #ajj #cj4aecj4jhcj4jbbi4ifbi4iabi4hgbi4hcbi4h jbi4gfbi4gcbi4gabi4fhbi4ffbi4fcbi4fabi4f jbi4ehbi4efbi4edbi4ecbi4ea #aaj #cj4dbcj4cecj4bicj4bccj4ahcj4adcj4ajcj4j fcj4jccj4jjbi4igbi4iebi4ibbi4ijbi4hhbi4h fbi4hdbi4hbbi4habi4gibi4gg #abj #cj4gjcj4fccj4efcj4eacj4dfcj4dacj4cgcj4c ccj4cjcj4bgcj4bdcj4bbcj4aicj4agcj4aecj4a ccj4aacj4jicj4jgcj4jfcj4jd #acj #cj4iicj4iacj4hdcj4gicj4gccj4ficj4fecj4f acj4egcj4edcj4ebcj4dicj4dgcj4ddcj4dbcj4d jcj4chcj4cfcj4cecj4cccj4ca #adj #ca4bhca4bjca4acca4jgca4jbcj4igcj4iccj4h icj4hfcj4hccj4hjcj4ggcj4gecj4gbcj4gjcj4f hcj4ffcj4fdcj4fbcj4facj4ei #aej #ca4ehca4dica4dbca4cfca4caca4bfca4bbca4a hca4adca4aaca4jhca4jfca4jcca4jacj4ihcj4i fcj4idcj4ibcj4iacj4hicj4hg #afj #ca4hgca4gica4gbca4ffca4faca4efca4eaca4d gca4ddca4djca4cgca4ceca4cbca4bica4bgca4b eca4bcca4baca4aica4ahca4af #agj #cb4ahcb4ajcb4jbca4ifca4iaca4hfca4haca4g gca4gcca4gjca4fgca4fdca4fbca4eica4egca4e dca4ebca4ejca4dica4dgca4df #ahj #cb4dicb4dacb4cccb4bgcb4bbcb4afcb4abcb4j hcb4jdcb4jjca4igca4ieca4ibca4hica4hgca4h dca4hbca4hjca4gica4ggca4ge #aij #cb4hacb4gbcb4fecb4eicb4eccb4dgcb4dccb4c hcb4cecb4cbcb4bicb4bfcb4bccb4bjcb4agcb4a ecb4accb4aacb4jicb4jgcb4je #bjj #cc4accc4jecb4igcb4iacb4hecb4gicb4gecb4g jcb4ffcb4fccb4fjcb4egcb4edcb4eacb4dicb4d fcb4ddcb4dbcb4djcb4chcb4cf #baj #cc4dgcc4chcc4cjcc4bdcc4ahcc4accc4jhcc4j ccb4iicb4iecb4ibcb4hicb4hfcb4hccb4hacb4g icb4gfcb4gdcb4gbcb4gjcb4fh ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,! prop] consid]ation c be giv5 to ! adaptability ( any boil] = ! s]vice 9 view only aft] a ?or\gh und]/&+ ( ! requirem5ts ( a good /eam boil]1 ) ! application ( :at has be5 said on ! prop] op]ation to ! special requirem5ts ( ea* case4 ,( almo/ equal importance to ! factors m5tion$ are ! exp]i5ce1 ! skill & responsibility ( ! manufactur]4 ,) ! design ( boil] select$ t is be/ adapt$ to ! s]vice requir$1 ! next /ep is ! det]m9ation ( ! boil] p[] requirem5ts4 ,! am\nt ( /eam t mu/ be g5]at$ is det]m9$ f ! /eam consumption ( ! prime mov]s4 ,x has already be5 indicat$ t su* consumption c v>y ov] wide limits ) ! size & type ( ! app>atus us$1 b =tunately all types h be5 s te/$ t manufactur]s are enabl$ to /ate )9 v close limits ! actual consumption "u any giv5 set ( conditions4 ,x is obvi\s t conditions ( op]ation w h a be>+ on ! /eam consumption t is z important z ! type & size ( ! app>atus itself4 ,?is be+ ! case1 any tabul> in=mation t c be giv5 on su* /eam consumption1 unless x be ext5d$ to an impracticable size1 is only ( use = ! mo/ approximate "w & m def9ite figures on ?is consumption %\ld 9 all cases be obta9$ f ! manufactur] ( ! app>atus to be us$ = ! conditions "u :i* x w op]ate4 ,to ! /eam consumption ( ! ma9 prime mov]s1 !re is to be add$ t ( ! auxili>ies4 ,aga9 x is impossible to make a def9ite /atem5t ( :at ?is all[ance %\ld be1 ! figure dep5d+ :olly ^u ! type & ! numb] ( su* auxili>ies4 ,= approximate "w1 x is p]haps be/ to all[ #ae or #bj p] c5t ( ! /eam requirem5ts ( ! ma9 eng9es1 = t ( auxili>ies4 ,:atev] figure is us$ %\ld be tak5 high en\gh to be on ! cons]vative side4 ,:5 any su* figures are bas$ on ! actual weight ( /eam requir$1 ,table #fj1 :i* gives ! actual evaporation = v>i\s pressures & temp]atures ( fe$ correspond+ to "o boil] horse p[] 7#cd4e p\nds ( wat] p] h\r f & at #bab degrees71 may be ( s]vice4 ,) ! /eam requirem5ts kn[n1 ! next /ep is ! det]m9ation ( ! numb] & size ( boil] units to be in/all$4 ,?is is directly affect$ by ! capacity at :i* a consid]ation ( ! economical load indicates is ! be/ = ! op]at+ conditions :i* w exi/4 ,! o!r factors ent]+ into su* det]m9ation are ! size ( ! plant & ! "* ( ! fe$ wat]4 ,! size ( ! plant has its be>+ on ! "q f ! fact t high] effici5cies are 9 g5]al obta9$ f l>ge units1 t labor co/ decreases ) ! numb] ( units1 ! fir/ co/ ( brickwork is l[] = l>ge ?an = small size units1 a g5]al decrease 9 ! complication ( pip+1 etc41 & 9 g5]al ! co/ p] horse p[] ( any design ( boil] decreases ) ! size ( units4 ,to illu/rate ?is1 x is only necess>y to consid] a plant (1 say1 #aj1jjj boil] horse p[]1 consi/+ ( #dj-bej horse-p[] units or #ag-fjj horse-p[] units4 ,! fe$ wat] available has its be>+ on ! subject f ! o!r side1 = x has already be5 %[n t v l>ge units are n advisable :]e ! fe$ wat] is n ( ! be/4 ,! "* ( an in/allm5t is also a factor4 ,:]e1 say1 #ajjj horse p[] is in/all$ 9 a plant :]e x is kn[n :at ! ultimate capacity is to be1 ! size ( units %\ld be select$ ) ! idea ( ?is ultimate capacity 9 m9d r ?an ! am\nt ( ! fir/ in/allation4 ,boil] s]vice1 f its nature1 is sev]e4 ,all boil]s h to be clean$ f "t to "t & c]ta9 repairs to sett+s1 etc41 are a necessity4 ,?is makes x necess>y1 9 det]m9+ ! numb] ( boil]s to be in/all$1 to all[ a c]ta9 numb] ( units or sp>es to be op]at$ :5 any ( ! regul> boil]s mu/ be tak5 (f ! l9e4 ,) ! /eam requirem5ts det]m9$ = a plant ( mod]ate size & a reasonably con/ant load1 x is highly advisable to in/all at lea/ two sp>e boil]s :]e a cont9uity ( s]vice is ess5tial4 ,?is p]mits ! tak+ (f ( "o boil] = clean+ or repairs & /ill all[s a sp>e boil] 9 ! ev5t ( "s un=ese5 occurr5ce1 su* z ! bl[+ out ( a tube or ! l4 ,inve/m5t 9 su* sp>e app>atus is no?+ m nor less ?an insurance on ! necess>y cont9uity ( s]vice4 ,9 small plants (1 say1 #ejj or #fjj horse p[]1 two sp>es are n usually w>rant$ 9 view ( ! co/ ( su* insurance4 ,a l>ge plant is ord9>ily laid out 9 a numb] ( sections or panels & ea* section %\ld h its sp>e boil] or boil]s ev5 ?\gh ! sections are cross connect$4 ,9 c5tral /ation "w1 :]e ! peaks are c>ri$ on ! boil]s br\ght up f ! bank1 su* sp>es are1 ( c\rse1 9 addition to ^! bank$ boil]s4 ,f ! aspect ( clean+ boil]s alone1 ! numb] ( sp>e boil]s is det]m9$ by ! nature ( any scale t may be =m$4 ,if scale is =m$ s rapidly t ! boil]s _c be kept clean en\gh = good op]at+ results1 by clean+ 9 rotation1 "o at a "t1 ! numb] ( sp>es to take c>e ( su* prop] clean+ w naturally increase4 ,9 view ( ! above1 x is evid5t t only a sugge/ion c be made z to ! numb] & size ( units1 z no recomm5dation w hold = all cases4 ,9 g5]al1 x w be f\nd be/ to in/all units ( ! l>ge/ possible size compatible ) ! size ( ! plant & op]at+ conditions1 ) ! total p[] requirem5ts divid$ among su* a numb] ( units z w give prop] flexibility ( load1 ) su* additional units = sp>es z conditions ( clean+ & insurance aga9/ int]ruption ( s]vice w>rant4 ,9 clos+ ! subject ( ! selection ( boil]s1 x may n be out ( place to ref] to ! effect ( ! build]'s gu>antee ^u ! det]m9ation ( design to be us$4 ,"h 9 "o ( its mo/ important aspects appe>s ! responsibility ( ! manufactur]4 ,emphasis has be5 laid on ! diff]5ce betwe5 te/ results & ^? secur$ 9 ord9>y op]at+ practice4 ,t su* a diff]5ce exi/s is well kn[n & x is n[ pretty g5]ally realiz$ t x is ! responsible manufactur] :o1 :]e gu>antees are necess>y1 submits ! cons]vative figures1 figures :i* may readily be exce$$ "u te/ conditions & :i* may be closely approa*$ "u ! ord9>y plant conditions t w be met 9 daily op]ation4 ,,op]ation ,,& ,,c>e ,,( ,,boil]s ,! g5]al subject ( boil] room practice may be consid]$ f two aspects4 ,! fir/ is t ( ! broad plant economy1 ) a sugge/ion z to ! me?ods to be foll[$ 9 secur+ ! be/ economical results ) ! app>atus at h& & procurable4 ,! second deals r ) specific recomm5dations :i* %\ld be foll[$ 9 plant practice1 recomm5dations lead+ n only to economy b also to safety & cont9uity ( s]vice4 ,su* recomm5dations are dictat$ f an und]/&+ ( ! nature ( /eam g5]at+ app>atus & its op]ation1 z cov]$ previ\sly 9 ?is book4 ,x has already be5 po9t$ out t ! att5tion giv5 9 rec5t ye>s to /eam g5]at+ practice has come ) a realization ( ! wide diff]5ce exi/+ betwe5 ! results be+ obta9$ 9 e-day op]ation & ^? !oretically possible4 ,! am\nt ( su* att5tion & regulation giv5 to ! /eam g5]at+ end ( a p[] plant1 h[ev]1 is comp>atively small 9 relation to t giv5 to ! balance ( ! plant1 b x may be safely /at$ t x is "h t !re is ! greate/ assurance ( a return = ! att5tion giv54 ,9 ! endeavor to increase boil] room effici5cy1 x is ( ! utmo/ importance t a /&>d basis be set by :i* av]age results are to be judg$4 ,) ! !oretical effici5cy obta9able v>y+ s widely1 ?is /&>d _c be plac$ at ! highe/ effici5cy t has be5 obta9$ reg>dless ( op]at+ conditions4 ,x is bett] set at ! be/ obta9able results = ea* individual plant "u its conditions ( in/allation & daily op]ation4 ,) an individual /&>d s set1 pres5t practice c only be improv$ by a sy/ematic ef=t to approa* ?is /&>d4 ,! degree ) :i* op]at+ results w approximate su* a /&>d w be f\nd to be directly proportional to ! am\nt ( intellig5t sup]vision giv5 ! op]ation4 ,= su* sup]vision to be giv51 x is necess>y to h n only a full realization ( :at ! plant c d "u ! be/ op]at+ conditions b also a full & complete k ( :at x is do+ "u all ( ! diff]5t conditions t may arise4 ,:at ! plant is do+ %\ld be made a matt] ( cont9u\s record s arrang$ t ! results may be directly comp>$ = any p]iod or set ( conditions1 & :]e su* results v>y f ! /&>d set1 /eps mu/ be tak5 imm$iately to rem$y ! causes ( su* fail+s4 ,su* a record is an important *eck 9 ! losses 9 ! plant4 ,z ! size ( ! plant & ! fuel consumption increase1 su* a *eck ( losses & record+ ( results becomes a necessity4 ,9 ! l>g] plants1 ! sav+ ( b a fraction ( "o p] c5t 9 ! fuel bill repres5ts an am\nt runn+ into ?\s&s ( doll>s annually1 :ile ! exp5se ( ! prop] sup]vision to secure su* sav+ is small4 ,! me?ods ( sup]vision foll[$ 9 ! l>ge plants are necess>ily elaborate & complete4 ,9 ! small] plants ! same me?ods may be foll[$ on a m mod]ate scale ) a correspond+ sav+ 9 fuel & an inappreciable increase 9 ei!r plant organization or exp5se4 ,!re has be5 )9 ! la/ few ye>s a great increase 9 ! practicability & reliability ( ! v>i\s types ( app>atus by :i* ! records ( plant op]ation may be secur$4 ,mu* ( ?is app>atus is +5i\s &1 consid]+ ! "w to be done1 is rem>kably accurate4 ,f ! delicate nature ( "s ( ! app>atus1 ! liability to error necessitates frequ5t calibration b ev5 :]e ! accuracy is kn[n to be only )9 limits (1 say1 #e p] c5t ei!r way1 ! records obta9$ are ( ! greate/ s]vice 9 consid]+ relative results4 ,"s ( ! records desirable & ! app>atus = secur+ !m are giv5 bel[4 ,illu/ration3 #bdjj ,horse-p[] ,in/allation ( ,cross ,drum ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil]s & ,sup]heat]s at ! ,we/+h\se ,electric & ,manufactur+ ,co41 ,ea/ ,pittsburgh1 ,pa4 ,inasmu* z ! ultimate measure ( ! effici5cy ( ! boil] plant is ! co/ ( /eam g5]ation1 ! important records are ^? ( /eam g5]at$ & fuel consum$ ,records ( temp]ature1 analyses1 draft & ! l1 s]ve z a *eck on ?is consumption1 indicat+ ! di/ribution ( ! losses & af=d+ a means ( rem$y+ conditions :]e improvem5t is possible4 ,coal ,records--,!re are _m devices on ! m>ket = conv5i5tly weigh+ ! coal us$4 ,^! are ord9>ily accurate )9 close limits1 & :]e ! size or nature ( ! plant w>rants ! inve/m5t 9 su* a device1 its use is to be recomm5d$4 ,! coal consumption %\ld be record$ by "s o!r me?od ?an f ! weights ( coal pur*as$4 ,! total weight gives no way ( divid+ ! consumption into p]iods & x w unque/ionably be f\nd to be pr(itable to put into op]ation "s s*eme by :i* ! coal is weigh$ z x is us$4 ,9 ?is way1 ! coal consumption1 dur+ any specific p]iod ( ! plant's op]ation1 c be readily se54 ,! simple/ ( su* me?ods :i* may be us$ 9 small plants is ! actual weigh+ on scales ( ! fuel z x is br\ght into ! fire room & ! record+ ( su* weights4 ,aside f ! actual weight ( ! fuel us$1 x is (t5 advisable to keep o!r coal records1 coal & a% analyses & ! l1 = ! evaporation to be expect$ w be dep5d5t ^u ! grade ( fuel us$ & its calorific value1 fusibility ( its a%1 & l factors4 ,! highe/ calorific value = unit co/ is n necess>ily ! indication ( ! be/ comm]cial results4 ,! co/ ( fuel is gov]n$ by ?is calorific value only :5 su* value is modifi$ by local conditions ( capacity1 labor & comm]cial effici5cy4 ,"o ( ! important factors ent]+ into fuel co/ is ! consid]ation ( ! co/ ( a% h&l+ & ! ma9t5ance ( a% h&l+ app>atus if su* be in/all$4 ,! value ( a fuel1 reg>dless ( its calorific value1 is to be bas$ only on ! results obta9$ 9 e-day plant op]ation4 ,coal & a% analyses us$ 9 connection ) ! am\nt ( fuel consum$1 are a direct indication ( ! relation betwe5 ! results be+ secur$ & ! /&>d ( results :i* has be5 set = ! plant4 ,! me?ods ( su* analyses h already be5 describ$4 ,! app>atus is simple & ! degree ( sci5tific k necess>y is only su* z may be readily ma/]$ by plant op]atives4 ,! a% cont5t ( a fuel1 z indicat$ f a coal analysis *eck$ aga9/ a% weights z actually f\nd 9 plant op]ation1 acts z a *eck on grate effici5cy4 ,! effect ( any sav+ 9 ! a%es1 t is1 ! p]missible a% to be all[$ 9 ! fuel pur*as$1 is det]m9$ by ! po9t at :i* ! co/ ( h&l+1 comb9$ ) ! fall+ (f 9 ! evaporation1 exce$s ! sav+ ( fuel co/ ?r\gh ! use ( poor] coal4 ,wat] ,records--,wat] records ) ! coal consumption1 =m ! basis = judg+ ! economic production ( /eam4 ,! me?ods ( secur+ su* records are ( lat] introduction ?an = coal1 b great advances h be5 made 9 ! app>atus to be us$4 ,"h possibly1 to a great] ext5t ?an 9 any record+ device1 are ! records ( value 9 det]m9+ relative evaporation1 t is1 an error is r all[able provid$ su* an error be reasonably con/ant4 ,! app>atus = record+ su* evaporation is ( two g5]al classes3 ,^? measur+ wat] be=e x is f$ to ! boil] & ^? measur+ ! /eam z x leaves4 ,( ! fir/1 ! v5turi met] is p]haps ! be/ kn[n1 ?\gh rec5tly !re has come into consid]able vogue an app>atus utiliz+ a weir not* = ! measur+ ( su* wat]4 ,bo? me?ods are reasonably accurate & app>atus ( ?is description has an advantage ov] "o measur+ /eam 9 t x may be calibrat$ mu* m readily4 ,( ! /eam measur+ devices1 ! "o 9 mo/ common use is ! /eam fl[ met]4 ,provid$ ! in/rum5ts are select$ = a prop] fl[1 etc41 !y are ( ine/imable value 9 indicat+ ! /eam consumption4 ,:]e su* in/rum5ts are plac$ on ! v>i\s eng9e room l9es1 !y w imm$iately indicate an excessive consumption = any "o ( ! units4 ,) a /eam fl[ met] plac$ on ea* boil]1 x is possible to fix relatively ! am\nt produc$ by ea* boil] &1 consid]$ 9 connection ) "s ( ! *eck records describ$ bel[1 cle>ly indicate :e!r its portion ( ! total /eam produc$ is up to ! /&>d set = ! ov]-all boil] room effici5cy4 ,flue ,gas ,analysis--,! value ( a flue gas analysis z a measure ( furnace effici5cy has already be5 indicat$4 ,!re are on ! m>ket a numb] ( in/rum5ts by :i* a cont9u\s record ( ! c>bon dioxide 9 ! flue gases may be secur$ & 9 g5]al ! results s record$ are accurate4 ,! limitations ( an analysis %[+ only ,,co#b & ! necessity ( complet+ su* an analysis ) an ,orsat1 or l app>atus1 & 9 ?is way *eck+ ! automatic device1 h already be5 po9t$ out1 b :]e su* records are prop]ly *eck$ f "t to "t & are us$ 9 conjunction ) a record ( flue temp]atures1 ! losses due to excess air or incomplete combu/ion & ! l may be directly comp>$ = any p]iod4 ,su* records act z a means = controll+ excess air & also z a *eck on individual firem54 ,:]e ! size ( a plant w n w>rant ! pur*ase ( an exp5sive cont9u\s ,,co#b record]1 x is advisable to make analyses ( samples = v>i\s conditions ( fir+ & to in/all an app>atus :]eby a sample ( flue gas cov]+ a p]iod (1 say1 eight h\rs1 may be obta9$ & su* a sample aft]w>ds analyz$4 ,temp]ature ,records--,flue gas temp]atures1 fe$ wat] temp]atures & /eam temp]atures are all tak5 ) record+ !rmomet]s1 any numb] ( :i* w1 :5 prop]ly calibrat$1 give accurate results4 ,a record ( flue temp]atures is s]viceable 9 *eck+ /ack losses &1 9 g5]al1 ! cleanl9ess ( ! boil]4 ,a record ( /eam temp]atures1 :]e sup]heat]s are us$1 w indicate excessive fluctuations & lead to an inve/igation ( _! cause4 ,fe$ temp]atures are valuable 9 %[+ t ! full b5efit ( ! exhau/ /eam is be+ d]iv$4 ,draft ,regulation--,z ! capacity ( a boil] v>ies ) ! combu/ion rate & ?is rate ) ! draft1 an automatic app>atus satisfactorily v>y+ ?is draft ) ! capacity dem&s on ! boil] w obvi\sly be advantage\s4 ,z has be5 po9t$ out1 any fuel has "s rate ( combu/ion at :i* ! be/ results w be obta9$4 ,9 a prop]ly design$ plant :]e ! load is reasonably /eady1 ! draft necess>y to secure su* a rate may be regulat$ automatically4 ,automatic app>atus = ! regulation ( draft has rec5tly rea*$ a /age ( p]fection :i* 9 ! l>g] plants at any rate makes its in/allation advisable4 ,! in/allation ( a draft gauge or gauges is /rongly to be recomm5d$ & a record ( su* drafts %\ld be kept z be+ a *eck on ! combu/ion rates4 ,an important feature to be consid]$ 9 ! in/all+ ( all record+ app>atus is its location4 ,!rmomet]s1 draft gauges & flue gas sampl+ pipes %\ld be s locat$ z to give z ne>ly z possible an av]age ( ! conditions1 ! gases fl[+ freely ov] ! ends ( ! !rmomet]s1 c\ples & sampl+ pipes4 ,) ! location p]man5t1 !re is no security t ! samples may be consid]$ an av]age b 9 any ev5t comp>ative results w be secur$ :i* w be useful 9 plant op]ation4 ,! be/ p]man5t location ( app>atus w v>y consid]ably ) ! design ( ! boil]4 ,x may n be out ( place to ref] briefly to "s ( ! %ortcom+s f\nd 9 boil] room practice1 ) a sugge/ion z to a means ( ov]com+ !m4 #a/4 ,x is sometimes f\nd t ! op]at+ =ce is n fully acqua9t$ ) ! boil]s & app>atus4 ,probably ! mo/ g5]al ( su* %ortcom+s is ! fix$ idea 9 ! heads ( ! op]atives t boil]s run above _! rat$ capacity are op]at+ "u a /ate ( /ra9 & t by op]at+ at less ?an _! rat$ capacity ! mo/ economical s]vice is assur$1 :]eas1 by det]m9+ :at a boil] w d1 x may be f\nd t ! mo/ economical rat+ "u ! conditions ( ! plant w be consid]ably 9 excess ( ! build]'s rat+4 ,su* ideas c be dislodg$ only by demon/rat+ to ! op]atives :at maximum load ! boil]s c c>ry1 %[+ h[ ! economy w v>y ) ! load & ! det]m9+ ( ! economical load = ! individual plant 9 "q4 #bnd4 ,/ok]s4 ,) /ok]-fir$ boil]s1 x is ess5tial t ! op]ators "k ! limitations ( _! /ok]s z det]m9$ by _! individual in/allation4 ,a ?or\gh und]/&+ ( ! requirem5ts ( effici5t h&l+ mu/ be insi/$ ^u4 ,! op]atives mu/ realize t smokeless /acks are n necess>ily ! indication ( good combu/ion =1 z has be5 po9t$ out1 absolute smokelessness is (t5times secur$ at an enorm\s loss 9 effici5cy ?r\gh excess air4 ,ano!r feature 9 /ok]-fir$ plants is 9 ! clean+ ( fires4 ,x mu/ be impress$ ^u ! op]atives t be=e ! fires are clean$ !y %\ld be put into condition = su* clean+4 ,if ?is clean+ is done at a def9ite "t1 reg>dless ( :e!r ! fires are 9 ! be/ condition = clean+1 !re w be a great loss ( good fuel ) ! a%es4 #crd4 ,x is necess>y t 9 ea* individual plant !re be a basis on :i* to judge ! cleanl9ess ( a boil]4 ,f ! op]ative's /&po9t1 x is probably m necess>y t !re be a ?or\gh und]/&+ ( ! relation betwe5 scale & tube difficulties ?an betwe5 scale & effici5cy4 ,x is1 ( c\rse1 impossible to keep boil]s absolutely free f scale at all times1 b exp]i5ce 9 ea* individual plant det]m9es ! limit to :i* scale c be all[$ to =m be=e tube difficulties w beg9 or a p]ceptible fall+ (f 9 effici5cy w take place4 ,) su* a limit ( scale =mation fix$1 ! op]atives %\ld be impress$ ) ! dang] ( all[+ x to be exce$$4 #d?4 ,! op]atives %\ld be in/ruct$ z to ! losses result+ f excess air due to leaks 9 ! sett+ & z to losses 9 effici5cy & capacity due to ! by-pass+ ( gases ?r\gh ! sett+1 t is1 n foll[+ ! pa? ( ! baffles z orig9ally in/all$4 ,9 replac+ tubes & 9 clean+ ! heat+ surfaces1 c>e mu/ be tak5 n to dislodge baffle brick or tile4 ,illu/ration3 #bjjj ,horse-p[] ,in/allation ( ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil]s1 ,equipp$ ) ,babcock ,wilcox ,*a9 ,grate ,/ok]s at ! ,sunnyside ,plant ( ! ,p5nsylvania ,tunnel & ,t]m9al ,railroad ,co41 ,long ,isl& ,city1 ,n4 ,y4 #e?4 ,t an increase 9 ! temp]ature ( ! fe$ r$uces ! am\nt ( "w dem&$ f ! boil] has be5 %[n4 ,! necessity ( keep+ ! fe$ temp]ature z high z ! quantity ( exhau/ /eam w all[ %\ld be ?or\ghly und]/ood4 ,z an example ( ?is1 !re 0 a case br\ght to our att5tion :]e a l>ge am\nt ( exhau/ /eam 0 wa/$ simply because ! fe$ pump %[$ a t5d5cy to leak if ! temp]ature ( fe$ wat] 0 increas$ above #adj degrees4 ,! am\nt wa/$ 0 suffici5t to increase ! temp]ature to #ahj degrees b 0 n utiliz$ simply because ( ! slight exp5se necess>y to ov]haul ! fe$ pump4 ,! highe/ return w be obta9$ :5 ! spe$ ( ! fe$ pumps is ma9ta9$ reasonably con/ant = %\ld ! pumps run v sl[ly at times1 !re may be a loss ( ! /eam f o!r auxili>ies by bl[+ (f f ! heat]s4 #f?4 ,) a view to *eck+ /eam losses ?r\gh ! useless bl[+ ( safety valves1 ! op]ative %\ld be made to realize ! great am\nt ( /eam t x is possible to get ?r\gh a pipe ( a giv5 size4 ,(t5times ! fireman feels a s5se ( security f objections to a drop 9 /eam simply because ( ! bl[+ ( safety valves1 n consid]+ ! losses due to su* a cause & makes no ef=t to *eck ?is fl[ ei!r by manipulation ( damp]s or regulation ( fires4 ,! few ( ! num]\s %ortcom+s outl9$ above1 :i* may be f\nd 9 _m plants1 are almo/ entirely due to lack ( k on ! "p ( ! op]at+ crew z to ! conditions exi/+ 9 _! own plants & ! bett] p]=mances be+ secur$ 9 o!rs4 ,su* %ortcom+s c be ov]come only by ! education ( ! op]atives1 ! %[+ ( ! defects ( pres5t me?ods1 & in/ruction 9 bett] me?ods4 ,:]e su* in/ruction is necess>y1 ! value ( records is obvi\s4 ,!re is =tunately a t5d5cy t[>d ! employm5t ( a bett] class ( labor 9 ! boil] room1 a t5d5cy :i* is becom+ m & m m>k$ z ! realization ( ! possible sav+ 9 ?is end ( ! plant increases4 ,! second aspect ( boil] room managem5t1 deal+ ) specific recomm5dations z to ! c>e & op]ation ( ! boil]s1 is dictat$ l>gely by ! nature ( ! app>atus4 ,"s ( ! features to be wat*$ 9 consid]+ ?is aspect foll[4 ,be=e plac+ a new boil] 9 s]vice1 a c>eful & ?or\gh exam9ation %\ld be made ( ! pressure p>ts & ! sett+4 ,! boil] z erect$ %\ld correspond 9 its baffle op5+s1 :]e baffles are adju/able1 ) ! pr9ts furni%$ = its erection1 & su* baffles %\ld be tight4 ,! sett+ %\ld be s con/ruct$ t ! boil] is free to exp& )\t int]f]+ ) ! brickwork4 ,?is ability to exp& applies also to bl[-(f & o!r pip+4 ,aft] erection all mort> & *ips ( brick %\ld be clean$ f ! pressure p>ts4 ,! tie rods %\ld be set up snug & !n slack$ slightly until ! sett+ has become ?or\ghly w>m aft] ! fir/ fir+4 ,! boil] %\ld be exam9$ int]nally be=e />t+ to insure ! abs5ce ( dirt1 any =eign mat]ial su* z wa/e1 & tools4 ,oil & pa9t are sometimes f\nd 9 ! int]ior ( a new boil] & :]e su* is ! case1 a quantity ( soda a% %\ld be plac$ )9 x1 ! boil] fill$ ) wat] to its normal level & a sl[ fire />t$4 ,aft] twelve h\rs ( sl[ simm]+1 ! fire %\ld be all[$ to die out1 ! boil] cool$ sl[ly & !n op5$ & wa%$ out ?or\ghly4 ,su* a proce$+ w remove all oil & grease f ! int]ior & prev5t ! possibility ( foam+ & tube difficulties :5 ! boil] is plac$ 9 s]vice4 ,! wat] column pip+ %\ld be exam9$ & kn[n to be free & cle>4 ,! wat] level1 z indicat$ by ! gauge glass1 %\ld be *eck$ by op5+ ! gauge cocks4 ,! me?od ( dry+ out a brick sett+ be=e plac+ a boil] 9 op]ation is describ$ lat] 9 ! discussion ( boil] sett+s4 ,a boil] %\ld n be cut into ! l9e ) o!r boil]s until ! pressure )9 x is approximately t 9 ! /eam ma94 ,! boil] /op valve %\ld be op5$ v sl[ly until x is fully op5$4 ,! arrangem5t ( pip+ %\ld be su* t !re c be no possibility ( wat] collect+ 9 a pocket betwe5 ! boil] & ! ma91 f :i* x c be c>ri$ ov] into ! /eam l9e :5 a boil] is cut 94 ,9 regul> op]ation ! safety valve & /eam gauge %\ld be *eck$ daily4 ,9 small plants ! /eam pressure %\ld be rais$ suffici5tly to cause ! safety valves to bl[1 at :i* "t ! /eam gauge %\ld indicate ! pressure at :i* ! valve is kn[n to be set4 ,if x does n1 "o is 9 error & ! gauge %\ld be comp>$ ) "o ( kn[n accuracy & any error at once rectifi$4 ,9 l>ge plants su* a me?od ( *eck+ w\ld result 9 losses too great to be all[$4 ,"h ! gauges & valves are ord9>ily *eck$ at ! "t a boil] is cut out1 ! valves be+ assur$ ( n /ick+ by daily in/antane\s op5+ ?r\gh manipulation by h& ( ! valve lev]4 ,! daily bl[+ ( ! safety valve acts n only z a *eck on ! gauge b insures ! valve aga9/ /ick+4 ,! wat] column %\ld be bl[n d[n ?or\ghly at lea/ once on e %ift & ! height ( wat] indicat$ by ! glass *eck$ by ! gauge cocks4 ,! bottom bl[-(fs %\ld be kept tight4 ,^! %\ld be op5$ at lea/ once daily to bl[ f ! mud drum any s$im5t t may h collect$ & to r$uce ! conc5tration4 ,! am\nt ( bl[+ d[n & ! frequ5cy is1 ( c\rse1 det]m9$ by ! nature ( ! fe$ wat] us$4 ,9 case ( l[ wat]1 result+ ei!r f c>elessness or f "s un=ese5 condition ( op]ation1 ! ess5tial object to be obta9$ is ! ext+ui%+ ( ! fire 9 ! quicke/ possible mann]4 ,:]e practicable1 ?is is be/ accompli%$ by ! play+ ( a heavy /ream ( wat] f a hose on ! fire4 ,ano!r me?od1 p]haps n s effici5t1 b m g5]ally recomm5d$1 is ! cov]+ ( ! fire ) wet a%es or fre% fuel4 ,a boil] s treat$ %\ld be cut out ( l9e aft] su* an occurr5ce & a ?or\gh inspection made to asc]ta9 :at damage1 if any1 has be5 done be=e x is aga9 plac$ 9 s]vice4 ,! effici5cy & capacity dep5d to an ext5t v mu* great] ?an is ord9>ily realiz$ ^u ! cleanl9ess ( ! heat+ surfaces1 bo? ext]nally & int]nally1 & too mu* /ress _c be put ^u ! necessity = sy/ematic clean+ z a regul> feature 9 ! plant op]ation4 ,! out] surfaces ( ! tubes %\ld be bl[n free f soot at regul> int]vals1 ! frequ5cy ( su* clean+ p]iods be+ dep5d5t ^u ! class ( fuel us$4 ,! mo/ effici5t way ( bl[+ soot f ! tubes is by means ( a /eam lance ) :i* all p>ts ( ! surfaces are rea*$ & swept clean4 ,!re are num]\s soot bl[+ devices on ! m>ket :i* are design$ to be p]man5tly fix$ )9 ! boil] sett+4 ,:]e su* devices are in/all$1 !re are c]ta9 features t mu/ be wat*$ to avoid tr\ble4 ,if !re is any leakage ( wat] ( cond5sation )9 ! sett+ com+ into contact ) ! boil] tubes1 x w t5d t[>d corrosion1 or if 9 contact ) ! heat$ brickwork w cause rapid dis9tegration ( ! sett+4 ,if ! /eam jets are s plac$ t !y imp+e directly aga9/ ! tubes1 erosion may take place4 ,:]e su* p]man5t soot bl[]s are in/all$1 too mu* c>e _c be tak5 to gu>d aga9/ ^! possibilities4 ,int]nally1 ! tubes mu/ be kept free f scale1 ! +r$i5ts ( :i* a /udy ( ! *apt] on ! impurities ( wat] indicates are pres5t 9 v>y+ quantities 9 all fe$ wat]s4 ,n only has ! pres5ce ( scale a direct be>+ on ! effici5cy & capacity to be obta9$ f a boil] b its abs5ce is an assurance aga9/ ! burn+ out ( tubes4 ,9 ! abs5ce ( a bl[-pipe action ( ! flames1 x is impossible to burn a metal surface :]e wat] is 9 intimate contact ) t surface4 ,9 /ok]-fir$ plants :]e a bla/ is us$1 & ! furnace is n prop]ly design$1 !re is a dang] ( a bl[-pipe action if ! fires are all[$ to get too ?94 ,! rapid =mation ( /eam at su* po9ts ( localiz$ heat may lead to ! burn+ ( ! metal ( ! tubes4 ,any =mation ( scale on ! int]ior surface ( a boil] keeps ! wat] f su* a surface & increases its t5d5cy to burn4 ,p>ticles ( loose scale t may become deta*$ w lodge at c]ta9 po9ts 9 ! tubes & localize ?is t5d5cy at su* po9ts4 ,x is because ( ! dang] ( deta*+ scale & caus+ loose flakes to be pres5t t ! use ( a boil] comp\nd is n recomm5d$ = ! removal ( scale t has already =m$ 9 a boil]4 ,?is "q is cov]$ 9 ! treatm5t ( fe$ wat]s4 ,if oil is all[$ to ent] a boil]1 its action is ! same z t ( scale 9 keep+ ! wat] away f ! metal surfaces4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #da ,x has be5 prov5 beyond a d\bt t a v l>ge p]c5tage ( tube losses is due directly to ! pres5ce ( scale :i*1 9 _m in/ances1 has be5 s ?9 z to be consid]$ ( no mom5t1 & ! importance ( ma9ta9+ ! boil] heat+ surfaces 9 a clean condition _c be emphasiz$ too /rongly4 ,! int]nal clean+ c be/ be accompli%$ by means ( an air or wat]-driv5 turb9e1 ! cutt] heads ( :i* may be *ang$ to h&le v>i\s ?icknesses ( scale4 ,fig4 #da %[s a turb9e clean] ) v>i\s cutt+ heads1 :i* has be5 f\nd to give satisfactory s]vice4 ,:]e a wat]-driv5 turb9e is us$1 x %\ld be connect$ to a pump :i* w deliv] at lea/ #abj gallons p] m9ute p] clean] at #aej p\nds pressure4 ,?is pressure %\ld nev] be less ?an #ij p\nds if satisfactory results are desir$4 ,:]e an air-driv5 turb9e is us$1 ! pressure %\ld be at lea/ #ajj p\nds1 ?\gh #aej p\nds is pref]able1 & suffici5t wat] %\ld be introduc$ into ! tube to keep ! cutt+ head cool & assi/ 9 wa%+ d[n ! scale z x is *ipp$ (f4 ,:]e scale has be5 all[$ to accumulate to an excessive ?ickness1 ! "w ( removal is difficult & t$i\s4 ,:]e su* a heavy scale is ( sulphate =mation1 its removal may be assi/$ by fill+ ! boil] ) wat] to :i* !re has be5 add$ a quantity ( soda a%1 a bucketful to ea* drum1 />t+ a l[ fire & all[+ ! wat] to boil = tw5ty-f\r h\rs ) no pressure on ! boil]4 ,x %\ld be cool$ sl[ly1 dra9$1 & ! turb9e clean] us$ imm$iately1 z ! scale w t5d to h>d5 rapidly "u ! action ( ! air4 ,:]e oil has be5 all[$ to get into a boil]1 x %\ld be remov$ be=e plac+ ! boil] 9 s]vice1 z describ$ previ\sly :]e ref]5ce is made to its removal by boil+ out ) soda a%4 ,:]e pitt+ or corrosion is not$1 ! p>ts affect$ %\ld be c>efully clean$ & ! int]ior ( ! drums %\ld be pa9t$ ) :ite z9c if ! boil] is to rema9 idle4 ,! cause ( su* action %\ld be imm$iately asc]ta9$ & /eps tak5 to apply ! prop] rem$y4 ,:5 mak+ an int]nal inspection ( a boil] or :5 clean+ ! int]ior heat+ surfaces1 great c>e mu/ be tak5 to gu>d aga9/ ! possibility ( /eam ent]+ ! boil] 9 "q f o!r boil]s on ! same l9e ei!r ?r\gh ! c>eless op5+ ( ! boil] /op valve or "s auxili>y valve or f an op5 bl[-(f4 ,bad accid5ts ?r\gh scald+ h result$ f ! neglect ( ?is precaution4 ,boil] brickwork %\ld be kept po9t$ up & all cracks fill$4 ,! boil] baffles %\ld be kept tight to prev5t by-pass+ ( any gases ?r\gh ! heat+ surfaces4 ,boil]s %\ld be tak5 out ( s]vice at regul> int]vals = clean+ & repairs4 ,:5 ?is is done1 ! boil] %\ld be cool$ sl[ly1 & :5 possible1 be all[$ to /& = tw5ty-f\r h\rs aft] ! fire is drawn be=e op5+4 ,! cool+ process %\ld n be hurri$ by all[+ cold air to ru% ?r\gh ! sett+ z ?is w inv>iably cause tr\ble ) ! brickwork4 ,:5 a boil] is (f = clean+1 a c>eful exam9ation %\ld be made ( its condition1 bo? ext]nal & int]nal1 & all leaks ( /eam1 wat] & air ?r\gh ! sett+ /opp$4 ,if wat] is all[$ to come into contact ) brickwork t is heat$1 rapid dis9tegration w take place4 ,if wat] is all[$ to come into contact ) ! metal ( ! boil] :5 out ( s]vice1 !re is a likelihood ( corrosion4 ,if a boil] is to rema9 idle = "s "t1 its det]ioration may be mu* m rapid ?an :5 9 s]vice4 ,if ! p]iod = :i* x is to be laid (f is n to exce$ ?ree mon?s1 x may be fill$ ) wat] :ile out ( s]vice4 ,! boil] %\ld fir/ be clean$ ?or\ghly1 int]nally & ext]nally1 all soot & a%es be+ remov$ f ! ext]ior ( ! pressure p>ts & any accumulation ( scale remov$ f ! int]ior surfaces4 ,x %\ld !n be fill$ ) wat]1 to :i* five or six pails ( soda a% h be5 add$1 a sl[ fire />t$ to drive ! air f ! boil]1 ! fire drawn & ! boil] pump$ full4 ,9 ?is condition x may be kept = "s "t )\t bad effects4 ,if ! boil] is to be out ( s]vice = m ?an ?ree mon?s1 x %\ld be empti$1 dra9$ & ?or\ghly dri$ aft] be+ clean$4 ,a tray ( quick lime %\ld be plac$ 9 ea* drum1 ! boil] clos$1 ! grates cov]$ & a quantity ( quick lime plac$ on top ( ! cov]+4 ,special c>e %\ld be tak5 to prev5t air1 /eam or wat] leaks into ! boil] or onto ! pressure p>ts to obviate dang] ( corrosion4 ,illu/ration3 #cjjj ,horse-p[] ,in/allation ( ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil]s 9 ! ,ma9 ,p[] ,plant1 ,*icago ,nor?we/]n ,ry4 ,depot1 ,*icago1 ,ill4 ,,brickwork ,,boil] ,,sett+s ,a consid]ation ( ! losses 9 boil] effici5cy1 due to ! effects ( excess air1 cle>ly indicates ! necessity ( ma9ta9+ ! brick sett+ ( a boil] tight & free f air leaks4 ,9 view ( ! temp]atures to :i* c]ta9 portions ( su* a sett+ are subject$1 ! mat]ial to be us$ 9 its con/ruction mu/ be ( ! be/ procurable4 ,boil] sett+s to-day consi/ almo/ univ]sally ( brickwork--two k9ds be+ us$1 namely1 r$ brick & fire brick4 ,! r$ brick %\ld only be us$ 9 su* portions ( ! sett+ z are well protect$ f ! heat4 ,9 su* location1 _! s]vice is n s sev]e z t ( fire brick & ord9>ily1 if su* r$ brick are s\nd1 h>d1 well burn$ & uni=m1 !y w s]ve _! purpose4 ,! fire brick %\ld be select$ ) ! greate/ c>e1 z x is ?is portion ( ! sett+ t has to endure ! high temp]atures n[ develop$ 9 boil] practice4 ,to a great ext5t1 ! life ( a boil] sett+ is dep5d5t ^u ! quality ( ! fire brick us$ & ! c>e ex]cis$ 9 its lay+4 ,! be/ fire brick are manufactur$ f ! fire clays ( ,p5nsylvania4 ,s\? & we/ f ?is locality ! quality ( fire clay becomes poor] z ! di/ance increases1 "s ( ! s\!rn fire clays conta9+ a consid]able p]c5tage ( iron oxide4 ,until v rec5tly1 ! important *>act]i/ic on :i* to base a judgm5t ( ! suitability ( fire brick = use 9 connection ) boil] sett+s has be5 consid]$ ! melt+ po9t1 or ! temp]ature at :i* ! brick w liquify & run4 ,exp]i5ce has %[n1 h[ev]1 t ?is po9t is only important )9 c]ta9 limits & t ! real basis on :i* to judge mat]ial ( ?is description is1 f ! boil] man's /&po9t1 ! quality ( pla/icity "u a giv5 load4 ,?is t5d5cy ( a brick to become pla/ic occurs at a temp]ature mu* bel[ ! melt+ po9t & to a degree t may cause ! brick to become de=m$ "u ! /ress to :i* x is subject$4 ,! all[able pla/ic or s(t5+ temp]ature w naturally be relative & dep5d5t ^u ! /ress to be endur$4 ,) ! pla/icity ! det]m9+ factor1 ! p]fect fire brick is "o ^: critical po9t ( pla/icity lies well above ! work+ temp]ature ( ! fire4 ,x is probable t !re are b few brick on ! m>ket :i* w\ld n %[1 if te/$1 ?is critical temp]ature at ! /ress met ) 9 ar* con/ruction at a po9t less ?an #bdjj degrees4 ,! fact t an ar* w /& = a long p]iod "u furnace temp]atures consid]ably above ?is po9t is due entirely to ! fact t its temp]ature z a :ole is f> bel[ ! furnace temp]ature & only ab\t #aj p] c5t ( its cross section ne>e/ ! fire approa*es ! furnace temp]ature4 ,?is is borne out by ! fact t ar*es :i* are heat$ on bo? sides to ! full temp]ature ( an ord9>y furnace w fir/ b[ d[n 9 ! middle & ev5tually fall4 ,a me?od ( te/+ brick = ?is *>act]i/ic is giv5 9 ! ,te*nologic ,pap] ,no4 #g ( ! ,bureau ( ,/&>ds deal+ ) ,! te/+ ( clay refractories ) special ref]5ce to _! load c>ry+ capacity at furnace temp]atures4 ,ref]r+ to ! te/ = ?is specific *>act]i/ic1 ?is publication recomm5ds ! foll[+3 ,:5 subject$ to ! load te/ 9 a mann] sub/antially z describ$ 9 ?is bullet91 at #acej degrees c5tigrade 7#bdfb degrees ,fahr5heit71 & "u a load ( #ej p\nds p] squ>e in*1 a /&>d fire brick te/$ on end %\ld %[ no s]i\s de=mation & %\ld n be compress$ m ?an "o in*1 ref]r$ to ! /&>d l5g? ( n9e in*es4 ,9 ! ,bureau ( ,/&>ds te/ = s(t5+ temp]ature1 or critical temp]ature ( pla/icity "u ! specifi$ load1 ! brick are te/$ on end4 ,9 te/+ fire brick = boil] purposes su* a me?od might be criticis$1 because su* a te/ is a compression te/ & subject to errors f unequal be>+ surfaces caus+ %e>4 ,fur!rmore1 a s]ies ( samples1 presumably duplicates1 w n fail 9 ! same way1 due to ! me*anical v>iation 9 ! manufacture ( ! brick4 ,ar*es t fail ?r\gh pla/icity %[ t ! t5sile /r5g? ( ! brick is important1 ?is be+ evid5c$ by ! fact t ! bottom ( a w$ge brick 9 an ar* t has fail$ is usually f\nd to be wid] ?an ! top & ! adjac5t bricks are firmly cem5t$ toge!r4 ,a bett] me?od ( te/+ is t ( te/+ ! brick z a beam subject$ to its own weight & n on end4 ,?is me?od has be5 us$ = ye>s 9 ,g]many & is recomm5d$ by ! highe/ au?orities 9 c]amics4 ,x takes into acc\nt ! failure by t5sion 9 ! brick z well z by compression & ?us cov]s ! t5sion elem5t :i* is important 9 ar* con/ruction4 ,! pla/ic po9t "u a unit /ress ( #ajj p\nds p] squ>e in*1 :i* may be tak5 z ! av]age maximum ar* /ress1 %\ld be above #bhjj degrees to give p]fect results & %\ld be above #bdjj degrees to enable ! brick to be us$ ) any degree ( satisfaction4 ,! o!r *>act]i/ics by :i* ! quality ( a fire brick is to be judg$ are3 ,fusion po9t4 ,9 view ( ! fact t ! critical temp]ature ( pla/icity is bel[ ! fusion po9t1 ?is is only important z an indication f high fusion po9t ( a high temp]ature ( pla/icity4 ,h>dness4 ,?is is a relative quality bas$ on an arbitr>y scale ( #aj & is an indication ( probable crack+ & spall+4 ,expansion4 ,! l9eal expansion p] brick 9 in*es4 ,?is *>act]i/ic 9 conjunction ) h>dness is a measure ( ! physical movem5t ( ! brick z affect+ a mass ( brickwork1 su* movem5t result+ 9 crack$ walls1 etc4 ,! expansion w v>y betwe5 wide limits 9 diff]5t brick & provid$ su* expansion is n 9 excess (1 say1 4#je in* 9 a #i-;in* brick1 :5 measur$ at #bfjj degrees1 x is n p>ticul>ly important 9 a prop]ly design$ furnace1 ?\gh 9 g5]al ! small] ! expansion ! bett]4 ,compression4 ,! /r5g? necess>y to cause cru%+ ( ! brick at ! c5t] ( ! #d in* face by a /eel block "o in* squ>e4 ,! compression %\ld ord9>ily be l[1 a sugge/$ /&>d be+ t a brick %[ signs ( cru%+ at #gejj p\nds4 ,size ( ,nodules4 ,! av]age size ( fl9t gra9s :5 ! brick is c>efully cru%$4 ,! scale ( ^! sizes may be consid]$3 ,small1 size ( an?racite rice2 l>ge1 size ( an?racite pea4 ,ratio ( ,nodules4 ,! p]c5tage ( a giv5 volume occupi$ by ! fl9t gra9s4 ,?is scale may be consid]$3 ,high1 #ij to #ajj p] c5t2 m$ium1 #ej to #ij p] c5t2 l[1 #aj to #ej p] c5t4 ,! /atem5t ( *>act]i/ics sugge/$ z desirable1 are = ar* purposes :]e ! h>de/ s]vice is met4 ,= side wall purposes ! compression & h>dness limit may be rais$ consid]ably & ! pla/ic po9t l[]$4 ,aside f ! physical prop]ties by :i* a fire brick is judg$1 x is sometimes cu/om>y to require a *emical analysis ( ! brick4 ,su* an analysis is only necess>y z det]m9+ ! am\nt ( total basic fluxes 7,k#b,o1 ,na#b,o1 ,ca,o1 ,mg,o & ,fe,o74 ,^! fluxes are ord9>ily comb9$ into "o expression1 indicat$ by ! symbol ,,ro4 ,?is total becomes important only above #j4b molecul> equival5t z express$ 9 c]amic empirical =mulae1 & ?is limit %\ld n be exce$$4#ge ,f ! nature ( fire brick1 _! value c only be consid]$ f a relative /&po9t4 ,g5]ally speak+1 :at are kn[n z fir/-grade fire brick may be divid$ into ?ree classes1 suitable = v>i\s conditions ( op]ation1 z foll[s3 ,class ,a4 ,= /ok]-fir$ furnaces :]e high ov]loads are to be expect$ or :]e o!r extreme conditions ( s]vice are apt to occur4 ,class ,b4 ,= ord9>y /ok] sett+s :]e !re w be no excessive ov]loads requir$ f ! boil] or any h&-fir$ furnaces :]e ! rates ( driv+ w be high = su* practice4 ,class ,c4 ,= ord9>y h&-fir$ sett+s :]e ! presumption is t ! boil]s w n be ov]load$ except at r>e int]vals & = %ort p]iods only4 ,table #fa gives ! *>act]i/ics ( ^! ?ree classes accord+ to ! features det]m9+ ! quality4 ,?is table indicates t ! h>dness ( ! brick 9 g5]al increases ) ! poor] qualities4 ,provid$ ! h>dness is suffici5t to enable ! brick to )/& its load1 additional h>dness is a detrim5t r ?an an advantage4 ,,table #fa ,,approximate ,,classification ,,( ,,fire ,,brick ,*>act]i/ics ,class ,a ,class ,b ,class ,c ,fuse ,po9t1 ,degrees ,safe at ,degrees ,safe at ,degrees ,safe at ,degrees ,fahr5heit #cbjj-ccjj #bijj-cbjj #bijj-cjjj ,compression ,p\nds #fejj-gejj #gejj-aa1jjj #hejj-ae1jjj ,h>dness ,relative #a-b #b-d #d-f ,size ( ,nodules ,m$ium ,m$ium to ,m$ium to ,l>ge ,m$ium ,l>ge ,ratio ( ,nodules ,high ,m$ium to ,high ,m$ium ,l[ to ,m$ium ,an approximate det]m9ation ( ! quality ( a fire brick may be made f ! appe>ance ( a fracture4 ,:]e su* a fracture is op51 clean1 :ite & fl9ty1 ! brick 9 all probability is ( a good quality4 ,if ?is fracture has ! f9e uni=m texture ( bread1 ! brick is probably poor4 ,9 consid]+ ! heavy duty ( brick 9 boil] furnaces1 exp]i5ce %[s t ar*es are ! only "p t ord9>ily give tr\ble4 ,^! fail f ! foll[+ causes3 ,bad workman%ip 9 lay+ up ( brick4 ,?is feature is treat$ bel[4 ,! t5d5cy ( a brick to become pla/ic at a temp]ature bel[ ! fus+ po9t4 ,! limits ( all[able pla/ic temp]ature h already be5 po9t$ out4 ,spall+4 ,?is action occurs on ! inn] ends ( combu/ion ar*es :]e !y are swept by gases at a high velocity at ! full furnace temp]ature4 ,! mo/ tr\blesome spall+ arises ?r\gh cold air /rik+ ! heat$ brickwork4 ,failure f ?is cause is becom+ r>e1 due to ! l>ge increase 9 numb] ( /ok] in/allations 9 :i* rapid temp]ature *anges are to a great degree elim9at$4 ,fur!rmore1 !re are a numb] ( brick on ! m>ket practically free f su* defects & :]e a new brick is consid]$1 x c be tri$ out & if ! defect exi/s1 c be readily detect$ & ! brick disc>d$4 ,failures ( ar*es f ! expansive p[] ( brick are also r>e1 due to ! fact t !re are a numb] ( brick 9 :i* ! expansion is well )9 ! all[able limits & ! ease ) :i* su* defects may be det]m9$ be=e a brick is us$4 ,failures ?r\gh *emical dis9tegration4 ,failure ?r\gh ?is cause is f\nd only occasionally 9 brick conta9+ a high p]c5tage ( iron oxide4 ,) ! grade ( brick select$ be/ suit$ to ! s]vice ( ! boil] to be set1 ! o!r factor affect+ ! life ( ! sett+ is ! lay+4 ,x is probable t m sett+ difficulties arise f ! improp] workman%ip 9 ! lay+ up ( brick ?an f poor mat]ial1 & to insure a sett+ :i* w rema9 tight x is necess>y t ! masonry "w be done mo/ c>efully4 ,?is is p>ticul>ly true :]e ! boil] is ( su* a type z to require combu/ion ar*es 9 ! furnace4 ,r$ brick %\ld be laid 9 a ?or\ghly mix$ mort> compos$ ( "o volume ( ,portl& cem5t1 #c volumes ( unslack$ lime & #af volumes ( cle> %>p s&4 ,n less ?an #b bu%els ( lime %\ld be us$ 9 ! lay+ up ( #ajjj brick4 ,ea* brick %\ld be ?or\ghly emb$d$ & all jo9ts fill$4 ,:]e r$ brick & fire brick are bo? us$ 9 ! same wall1 !y %\ld be c>ri$ up at ! same "t & ?or\ghly bond$ to ea* o!r4 ,all fire brick %\ld be dry :5 us$ & protect$ f moi/ure until us$4 ,ea* brick %\ld be dipp$ 9 a ?9 fire clay wa%1 rubb$ & %ov$ into place1 & tapp$ ) a wood5 mallet until x t\*es ! brick next bel[ x4 ,x mu/ be recogniz$ t fire clay is n a cem5t & t x has little or no hold+ p[]4 ,its action is t ( a fill] r ?an a b9d] & no fire-clay wa% %\ld be us$ :i* has a consi/5cy suffici5t to p]mit ! use ( a tr[el4 ,all fire-brick l9+s %\ld be laid up f\r c\rses ( head]s & "o /ret*]4 ,furnace c5t] walls %\ld be entirely ( fire brick4 ,if ! c5t] ( su* walls are built ( r$ brick1 !y w melt d[n & cause ! failure ( ! wall z a :ole4 ,fire-brick ar*es %\ld be con/ruct$ ( select$ brick :i* are smoo?1 /raight & uni=m4 ,! frames on :i* su* ar*es are built1 call$ ar* c5t]s1 %\ld be con/ruct$ ( batt5 /rips n ov] #b in*es wide4 ,! brick %\ld be laid on ^! c5t]s 9 c\rses1 n 9 r+s1 ea* jo9t be+ brok5 ) a bond equal to ! l5g? ( half a brick4 ,ea* c\rse %\ld be fir/ tri$ 9 place dry1 & *eck$ ) a /raight edge to insure a uni=m ?ickness ( jo9t betwe5 c\rses4 ,ea* brick %\ld be dipp$ on "o side & two edges only & tapp$ into place ) a mallet4 ,w$ge brick c\rses %\ld be us$ only :]e necess>y to keep ! bottom faces ( ! /raight brick c\rse 9 ev5 contact ) ! c5t]s4 ,:5 su* contact _c be exactly secur$ by ! use ( w$ge brick1 ! /raight brick %\ld lean away f ! c5t] ( ! ar* r ?an t[>d x4 ,:5 ! ar* is approximately two-?irds complet$1 a trial r+ %\ld be laid to det]m9e :e!r ! key c\rse w fit4 ,:5 "s cutt+ is necess>y to secure su* a fit1 x %\ld be done on ! two adjac5t c\rses on ! side ( ! brick away f ! key4 ,x is necess>y t ! key+ c\rse be a true fit f top to bottom1 & aft] x has be5 dipp$ & driv5 x %\ld n ext5d bel[ ! surface ( ! ar*1 b pref]ably %\ld h its l[] l$ge "o-qu>t] in* above ?is surface4 ,aft] fitt+1 ! keys %\ld be dipp$1 replac$ loosely1 & ! :ole c\rse driv5 uni=mly into place by means ( a heavy hamm] & a piece ( wood ext5d+ ! full l5g? ( ! key+ c\rse4 ,su* a driv+ 9 ( ?is c\rse %\ld raise ! ar* z a :ole f ! c5t]4 ,! c5t] %\ld be s con/ruct$ t x may be dropp$ free ( ! ar* :5 ! key c\rse is 9 place & remov$ f ! furnace )\t be+ burn$ out4 ,illu/ration3 ,a ,typical ,/eel ,cas+ = a ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil] ,built by ,! ,babcock ,wilcox ,co4 ,c>e ( ,brickwork--,be=e a boil] is plac$ 9 s]vice1 x is ess5tial t ! brickwork sett+ be ?or\ghly & prop]ly dri$1 or o!rwise ! sett+ w inv>iably crack4 ,! be/ me?od ( />t+ su* a process is to block op5 ! boil] damp] & ! a%pit doors z soon z ! brickwork is complet$ & 9 ?is way ma9ta9 a free circulation ( air ?r\gh ! sett+4 ,if possible1 su* prelim9>y dry+ %\ld be cont9u$ = sev]al days be=e any fire is plac$ 9 ! furnace4 ,:5 ready = ! dry+ out fire1 wood %\ld be us$ at ! />t 9 a light fire :i* may be gradually built up z ! walls become w>m4 ,aft] ! walls h become ?or\ghly heat$1 coal may be fir$ & ! boil] plac$ 9 s]vice4 ,z already /at$1 ! life ( a boil] sett+ is dep5d5t to a l>ge ext5t ^u ! mat]ial ent]+ into its con/ruction & ! c>e ) :i* su* mat]ial is laid4 ,a ?ird & equally important factor 9 ! det]m9+ ( su* life is ! c>e giv5 to ! ma9ta9+ ( ! sett+ 9 good condition aft] ! boil] is plac$ 9 op]ation4 ,?is feature is discuss$ m fully 9 ! *apt] deal+ ) g5]al boil] room managem5t4 ,/eel ,cas+s--,9 ! *apt] deal+ ) ! losses op]at+ aga9/ high effici5cies z indicat$ by ! heat balance1 x has be5 %[n t a consid]able portion ( su* losses is due to radiation & to air infiltration into ! boil] sett+4 ,^! losses h be5 v>i\sly e/imat$ f #b to #aj p] c5t1 dep5d+ ^u ! condition ( ! sett+ & ! am\nt ( radiation surface1 ! latt] 9 turn be+ dep5d5t ^u ! size ( ! boil] us$4 ,9 ! mod]n ef=ts aft] ! highe/ obta9able plant effici5cies mu* has be5 done to r$uce su* losses by ! use ( an insulat$ /eel cas+ cov]+ ! brickwork4 ,9 an av]age size boil] unit ! use ( su* cas+1 :5 prop]ly in/all$1 w r$uce radiation losses f "o to two p] c5t41 ov] :at c be accompli%$ ) ! be/ brick sett+ )\t su* cas+ &1 9 addition1 prev5t ! loss due to ! infiltration ( air1 :i* may am\nt to an additional five p] c5t41 z comp>$ ) brick sett+s t are n ma9ta9$ 9 good ord]4 ,/eel plate1 or /eel plate back$ by asbe/os mill-bo>d1 :ile act+ z a prev5tative aga9/ ! infiltration ( air ?r\gh ! boil] sett+1 is n z effective f ! /&po9t ( decreas+ radiation losses z a cas+ prop]ly insulat$ f ! brick portion ( ! sett+ by magnesia block & asbe/os mill-bo>d4 ,a cas+ :i* has be5 f\nd to give excell5t results 9 elim9at+ air leakage & 9 ! r$uction ( radiation losses is cle>ly illu/rat$ on page #cjf4 ,_m attempts h be5 made to use "s mat]ial o!r ?an brick = boil] sett+s b up to ! pres5t no?+ has be5 f\nd t may be consid]$ successful or :i* w give z satisfactory s]vice "u sev]e conditions z prop]ly laid brickwork4 ,,boil] ,,room ,,pip+ ,9 ! design ( a /eam plant1 ! pip+ sy/em %\ld receive ! mo/ c>eful consid]ation4 ,aside f ! con/ructive details1 good practice 9 :i* is fairly well e/abli%$1 ! important factors are ! size ( ! pip+ to be employ$ & ! me?ods utiliz$ 9 avoid+ difficulties f ! pres5ce 9 ! sy/em ( wat] ( cond5sation & ! means employ$ t[>d r$uc+ radiation losses4 ,eng9e]+ op9ion v>ies consid]ably on ! "q ( mat]ial ( pipes & fitt+s = diff]5t classes ( "w1 & ! foll[+ is (f]$ simply z a sugge/ion ( :at con/itutes good repres5tative practice4 ,all pipe %\ld be ( wr\ght iron or s(t /eel4 ,pipe at pres5t is made 9 /&>d1 extra /rong#gf & d\ble extra /rong weights4 ,until rec5tly1 a f\r? weight approximately #aj p] c5t light] ?an /&>d & kn[n z ,m]*ants 0 built b ! use ( ?is pipe has l>gely gone out ( practice4 ,pipe sizes1 unless o!rwise /at$1 are giv5 9 t]ms ( nom9al int]nal diamet]4 ,table #fb gives ! dim5sions & "s g5]al data on /&>d & extra /rong wr\ght-iron pipe4 ,,table #fb ,,dim5sions ,,( ,,/&>d ,,& ,,extra ,,/rong#gf ,,wr\ght-,,iron ,,& ,,/eel ,,pipe ,diamet] ,circumf]5ce ,ext]nal ,int]nal ,ext]nal ,int]nal ,/&>d,/&>d & & ,nom9al ,extra ,/&>d ,extra ,extra ,/&>d ,extra ,size ,/rong ,/rong ,/rong ,/rong #a_/h 4#dje 4#bfi 4#bae #a4bgb 4#hdh 4#fge #a_/d 4#edj 4#cfd 4#cjb #a4fif #a4add 4#idi #c_/h 4#fge 4#dic 4#dbc #b4aba #a4eeb #a4cbi #a_/b 4#hdj 4#fbb 4#edf #b4fci #a4ieg #a4gae #c_/d #a4jej 4#hbd 4#gdb #c4bii #b4ehi #b4cca #a #a4cae #a4jdi 4#ieg #d4aca #c4bib #c4jjg #a-a_/d #a4ffj #a4chj #a4bgh #e4bae #d4cce #d4jae #a-a_/b #a4ijj #a4faj #a4ejj #e4ifi #e4jfa #d4gab #b #b4cge #b4jfg #a4ici #g4dfa #f4did #f4jib #b-a_/b #b4hge #b4dfi #b4cbc #i4jcb #g4gec #g4bih #c #c4ejj #c4jfh #b4ijj #aj4iif #i4fcf #i4aaa #c-a_/b #d4jjj #c4edh #c4cfd #ab4eff #aa4adf #aj4efh #d #d4ejj #d4jbf #c4hbf #ad4acg #ab4fdh #ab4jbj #d-a_/b #e4jjj #d4ejf #d4bij #ae4gjh #ad4afb #ac4dgg #e #e4efc #e4jdg #d4hac #ag4dgg #ae4hdi #ae4aba #f #f4fbe #f4jfe #e4gfa #bj4hac #ai4jed #ah4jii #g #g4fbe #g4jbc #f4fbe #bc4iee #bb4jfc #bj4hac #h #h4fbe #g4iha #g4fbe #bg4jif #be4jgf #bc4iee #i #i4fbe #h4ida #h4fbe #cj4bch #bh4jhi #bg4jif #aj #aj4gej #aj4jbj #i4gej #cc4ggb #ca4dgg #cj4fca #aa #aa4gej #aa4jjj #aj4gej #cf4iad #cd4eeh #cc4ggb #ab #ab4gej #ab4jjj #aa4gej #dj4jee #cg4gjj #cf4iad ,l5g? ,int]nal ( ,nom9al ,weight ,transv]se ,pipe 9 ,p\nds p] ,area ,feet p] ,foot ,squ>e ,foot ( ,nom9al ,/&>d ,extra ,ext]nal,/&>d ,extra ,size ,/rong ,surface ,/rong #a_/h 4#jegc 4#jcfc #i4ddj 4#bdd 4#cad #a_/d 4#ajda 4#jgaf #g4jge 4#dbd 4#ece #c_/h 4#aiag 4#adje #e4feg 4#efg 4#gch #a_/b 4#cjdh 4#bcda #d4edg 4#hej #a4jhg #c_/d 4#eccc 4#dcbd #c4fcg #a4acj #a4dgc #a 4#hfbf 4#gaic #b4ijd #a4fgh #b4aga #a-a_/d #a4dif #a4bhg #b4cja #b4bgb #b4iif #a-a_/b #b4jch #a4gfg #b4jaj #b4gag #c4fca #b #c4cef #b4iec #a4fjh #c4feb #e4jbb #b-a_/b #d4ghd #d4bch #a4cbh #e4gic #g4ffa #c #g4chh #f4fje #a4jia #g4ege #aj4beb #c-a_/b #i4hhg #h4hhh 4#iee #i4aji #ab4eje #d #ab4gcj #aa4dig 4#hdi #aj4gij #ad4ihc #d-a_/b #ae4ifa #ad4ded 4#gfd #ab4ech #ag4faa #e #ai4iij #ah4aid 4#fhg #ad4fag #bj4ggh #f #bh4hhh #bf4jfg 4#egg #ah4igd #bh4egc #g #ch4gch #cd4dgb 4#eja #bc4edd #ch4jdh #h #ej4jdj #de4ffd 4#ddc #bh4edd #dc4chh #i #fb4ggf #eh4dbf 4#cig #cc4ijg #dh4gbh #aj #gh4hci #gd4ffb 4#cee #dj4dhc #ed4gce #aa #ie4jcc #ij4gfc 4#cbe #de4eeg #fj4jge #ab #aac4jih #ajh4dc 4#bii #di4efb #fe4dae ,dim5sions are nom9al & except :]e not$ are 9 in*es4 ,9 connection ) pipe sizes1 ,table #fc1 giv+ c]ta9 tube data may be f\nd to be ( s]vice4 ,,table #fc ,,tube ,,data1 ,,/&>d ,,op5 ,,he>? ,,or ,,lap ,,weld$ ,,/eel ,,tubes ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,s ,e ,d,b ,t ,i ,d ,circumf]5ce ,transv]se ,squ>e ,l5g? ,nom9al i x i4 h n i ,area ,feet 9 ,feet,weight z t a,w i t a ,squ>e ,in*es ( p] ,p\nds e e m4 c e m ------------------------ ,ext] ,squ>e p] r e k r e ,ext]-,int]-,ext]-,int]- -nal ,foot ( ,foot n t,g n n t nal nal nal nal ,surface ,ext] a ea e a e p] -nal l ru s l r ,foot (,surface g s ,l5g? e ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #a-a_/baj4acda4bcb #d4gab #c4hgja4gfgaa4aiba 4#cib #b4edf #a4iee #a-a_/b #i4adha4bjd #d4gab #c4ghba4gfgaa4ache 4#cib #b4edf #b4acg #a-a_/b #h4afea4agj #d4gab #c4fgfa4gfgaa4jgea 4#cib #b4edf #b4cec #b #aj4acda4gcb #f4bhc #e4ddac4adafb4cefj 4#ebc #a4iji #b4fgj #b #i4adha4gjd #f4bhc #e4cecc4adafb4bggh 4#ebc #a4iji #b4ibg #b #h4afea4fgj #f4bhc #e4bdfc4adafb4aijd 4#ebc #a4iji #c4bcd #c-a_/daa4abjc4jajaj4baj #i4defh4biehg4aaeg 4#hej #a4age #d4jaa #c-a_/daj4acdb4ihbaj4baj #i4cfhh4biehf4ihdj 4#hej #a4age #d4dei #c-a_/d #i4adhb4iedaj4baj #i4bhjh4biehf4hece 4#hej #a4age #d4ijc #d #aj4acdc4gcbab4effaa4gbdab4effaj4ici #a4jdg 4#ied #e4ecb #d #i4adhc4gjdab4effaa4fcfab4effaj4gge #a4jdg 4#ied #f4jjj #d #h4afec4fgjab4effaa4ecjab4effaj4egh #a4jdg 4#ied #f4geh ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,dim5sions are nom9al & except :]e not$ are 9 in*es4 ,pipe ,mat]ial & ,?ickness--,= saturat$ /eam pressures n exce$+ #afj p\nds1 all pipe ov] #ad in*es %\ld be #c_/h in* ?ick ,o4 ,d4 pipe4 ,all o!r pipe %\ld be /&>d full weight1 except high pressure fe$#gg & bl[-(f l9es1 :i* %\ld be extra /rong4 ,= pressures above #aej p\nds up to #bjj p\nds ) sup]heat$ /eam1 all high pressure fe$ & bl[-(f l9es1 high pressure /eam l9es hav+ ?read$ flanges1 & /raight runs & b5ds ( high pressure /eam l9es #f in*es & "u hav+ ,van ,/one jo9ts %\ld be extra /rong4 ,all pip+ #g in*es & ov] hav+ ,van ,/one jo9ts %\ld be full weight s(t flang+ pipe ( special quality4 ,pipe #ad in*es & ov] %\ld be #c_/h in* ?ick ,o4 ,d4 pipe4 ,all pipes = ^! pressures n specifi$ above %\ld be full weight pipe4 ,flanges--,= saturat$ /eam1 #afj p\nds work+ pressure1 all flanges = wr\ght-iron pipe %\ld be ca/-iron ?read$4 ,all high pressure ?read$ flanges %\ld h ! diamet] ?ickness & drill+ 9 accordance ) ! manufactur]'s /&>d = extra heavy flanges4 ,all l[ pressure flanges %\ld h diamet]1 ?ickness & drill+ 9 accordance ) manufactur]'s /&>d = /&>d flanges4 ,! flanges on high pressure l9es %\ld be c\nt]bor$ to receive pipe & prev5t ! ?reads f %\ld]+4 ,! pipe %\ld be screw$ ?r\gh ! flange at lea/ #a_/af in*1 plac$ 9 ma*9e & aft] fac+ (f ! end "o smoo? cut %\ld be tak5 ov] ! face ( ! flange to make x squ>e ) ! axis ( ! pipe4 ,illu/ration3 #bjjj ,horse-p[] ,in/allation ( ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil]s & ,sup]heat]s1 ,equipp$ ) ,babcock ,wilcox ,*a9 ,grate ,/ok]s at ! ,k5tucky ,electric ,co41 ,l\isville1 ,ky4 ,= pressures above #afj p\nds1 :]e sup]heat$ /eam is us$1 all high pressure /eam l9es #d in*es & ov] %\ld h solid roll$ /eel flanges & special upset lapp$ jo9ts4 ,9 ! manufacture ( su* jo9ts1 ! ends ( ! pipe are heat$ & upset aga9/ ! face ( a hold+ m&rel con=m+ to ! %ape ( ! flange1 ! lapp$ portion ( ! pipe be+ flatt5$ out aga9/ ! face ( ! m&rel1 ! upsett+ action ma9ta9+ ! desir$ ?ickness ( ! lap4 ,:5 cool1 bo? sides ( ! lap are fac$ to =m a uni=m ?ickness & an ev5 be>+ aga9/ flange & gasket4 ,! jo9t1 !re=e1 is a /rictly metal to metal jo9t1 ! flanges m]ely hold+ ! lapp$ ends ( ! pipe aga9/ ! gasket4 ,a special grade ( s(t flang+ pipe is select$ to prev5t break+4 ,! b5d+ action is a sev]e te/ ( ! pipe & if x )/&s ! b5d+ process & ! pressure te/s1 ! reliability ( ! jo9t is assur$4 ,su* a jo9t is call$ a ,van ,/one jo9t1 ?\gh _m modifications & improvem5ts h be5 made s9ce ! jo9t 0 orig9ally introduc$4 ,! diamet] & ?ickness ( su* flanges %\ld be special extra heavy4 ,su* flanges %\ld be turn$ to diamet]1 _! fronts fac$ & ! backs ma*9$ 9 lieu ( spot fac+4 ,9 l9es o!r ?an giv5 = pressures ov] #aej p\nds1 all flanges = wr\ght-iron pipe %\ld be ?read$4 ,all ?read$ flanges = high pressure sup]heat$ l9es #c in*es & "u %\ld be semi-/eel extra heavy4 ,flanges = o!r ?an /eam l9es %\ld be manufactur]'s /&>d extra heavy4 ,weld$ flanges are frequ5tly us$ 9 place ( ^? describ$ ) satisfactory results4 ,fitt+s--,= saturat$ /eam "u pressures up to #afj p\nds1 all fitt+s #c in*es & "u %\ld be screw$4 ,fitt+s #d in*es & ov] %\ld h flang$ ends4 ,fitt+s = ?is pressure %\ld be ( ca/ iron & %\ld h heavy leads & full tap] ?reads4 ,flang$ fitt+s 9 high pressure l9es %\ld be extra heavy1 & 9 l[ pressure l9es /&>d weight4 ,:]e possible 9 high pressure flanges & fitt+s1 bolt surfaces %\ld be spot fac$ to provide suitable be>+ = bolt heads & nuts4 ,fitt+s = sup]heat$ /eam up to #gj degrees at pressures above #afj p\nds are sometimes ( ca/ iron4#gh ,= sup]heat above #gj degrees su* fitt+s %\ld be /eel ca/+s & 9 g5]al ^! fitt+s are recomm5d$ = any degree ( sup]heat4 ,fitt+s = o!r ?an high pressure "w may be ( ca/ iron1 except :]e sup]heat$ /eam is c>ri$1 :]e !y %\ld be ( wr\ght /eel or h>d metal4 ,fitt+s #c in*es & "u %\ld be screw$1 #d in*es & ov] flang$4 ,flanges = pressures up to #afj p\nds 9 pipes & fitt+s = l[ pressure l9es1 & any fitt+s = high pressure l9es %\ld h pla9 faces1 smoo? tool f9i%1 scor$ ) ,v-%ap$ grooves = rubb] gaskets4 ,high pressure l9e flanges %\ld h rais$ faces1 project+ ! full available diamet] inside ! bolt holes4 ,^! faces %\ld be simil>ly scor$4 ,all pipe in* & "u %\ld h gr\nd jo9t unions suitable = ! pressure requir$4 ,pipe in* & ov] %\ld h ca/-iron flang$ unions4 ,unions are to be pref]r$ to wr\ght-iron c\pl+s :]ev] possible to facilitate dismantl+4 ,valves--,= #aej p\nds work+ pressure1 saturat$ /eam1 all valves #b in*es & "u may h screw$ ends2 #b in*es & ov] %\ld be flang$4 ,all high pressure /eam valves #f in*es & ov] %\ld h suitable by-passes4 ,all valves = use ) sup]heat$ /eam %\ld be ( special con/ruction4 ,= pressures above #afj p\nds1 :]e ! sup]heat does n exce$ #gj degrees1 valve bodies1 caps & yokes are sometimes made ( ca/ iron1 ?\gh ord9>ily semi-/eel w give bett] satisfaction4 ,! sp9dles ( su* valves %\ld be ( bronze & !re %\ld be special necks ) cond5s+ *amb]s to prev5t ! sup]heat$ /eam f bl[+ ?r\gh ! pack+4 ,= pressures ov] #afj p\nds & degrees ( sup]heat above #gj1 all valves #c in*es & ov] %\ld h valve bodies1 caps & yokes ( /eel ca/+s4 ,sp9dles %\ld be ( "s non-corrosive metal1 su* z monel metal4 ,seat r+s %\ld be removable ( ! same non-corrosive metal z %\ld ! sp9dle seats & plug faces4 ,all salt wat] valves %\ld h bronze sp9dles1 sleeves & pack+ seats4 ,! sugge/ions z to flanges = diff]5t classes ( s]vice made on page #caa hold z well = valve flanges1 except t su* flanges are n scor$4 ,automatic /op & *eck valves are com+ into g5]al use ) boil]s & su* use is compulsory "u ! boil] regulations ( c]ta9 communities4 ,:]e us$1 !y %\ld be pref]ably plac$ directly on ! boil] nozzle4 ,:]e two or m boil]s are on "o l9e1 9 addition to ! valve at ! boil]1 :e!r ?is be an automatic valve or a gate valve1 !re %\ld be an additional gate valve on ea* boil] bran* at ! ma9 /eam head]4 ,relief valves %\ld be furni%$ at ! dis*>ge side ( ea* fe$ pump & on ! dis*>ge side ( ea* fe$ heat] ( ! clos$ type4 ,fe$ ,l9es--,fe$ l9es %\ld 9 all in/ances be made ( extra /rong pipe due to ! corrosive action ( hot fe$ wat]4 ,:ile x has be5 sugge/$ above t ca/-iron ?read$ flanges %\ld be us$ 9 su* l9es1 due to ! sudd5 expansion ( su* pipe 9 c]ta9 in/ances ca/-iron ?read$ flanges crack be=e !y become ?or\ghly heat$ & exp&1 & = ?is reason ca/-/eel ?read$ flanges w give m satisfactory results4 ,9 "s in/ances1 wr\ght-/eel & ,van ,/one jo9ts h be5 us$ 9 fe$ l9es & ?is und\bt$ly is bett] practice ?an ! use ( ca/-/eel ?read$ "w1 ?\gh ! additional co/ is n w>rant$ 9 all /ations4 ,fe$ valves %\ld always be ( ! globe patt]n4 ,a gate valve _c be closely regulat$ & (t5 clatt]s ow+ to ! pulsations ( ! fe$ pump4 ,gaskets--,= /eam & wat] l9es :]e ! pressure does n exce$ #afj p\nds1 wire ins]tion rubb] gaskets #a_/af in* ?ick w be f\nd to give good s]vice4 ,= l[ pressure l9es1 canvas ins]tion black rubb] gaskets are ord9>ily us$4 ,= oil l9es special gaskets are necess>y4 ,= pressure above #afj p\nds c>ry+ sup]heat$ /eam1 corrugat$ /eel gaskets ext5d+ ! full available diamet] inside ( ! bolt holes give good satisfaction4 ,= high pressure wat] l9es wire ins]t$ rubb] gaskets are us$1 & = l[ pressure flang$ jo9ts canvas ins]t$ rubb] gaskets4 ,size ( ,/eam ,l9es--,! factors affect+ ! prop] size ( /eam l9es are ! radiation f su* l9es & ! velocity ( /eam )9 !m4 ,z ! size ( ! /eam l9e increases1 !re w be an increase 9 ! radiation4#gi ,z ! size decreases1 ! /eam velocity & ! pressure drop = a giv5 quantity ( /eam naturally increases4 ,!re is a m>k$ t5d5cy 9 mod]n practice t[>d high] /eam velocities1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! case ( sup]heat$ /eam4 ,x 0 =m]ly consid]$ good practice to limit ?is velocity to #fjjj feet p] m9ute b ?is figure is to-day consid]$ l[4 ,9 practice ! limit+ factor 9 ! velocity advisable is ! all[able pressure drop4 ,9 ! description ( ! action ( ! ?rottl+ calorimet]1 x has be5 demon/rat$ t !re is no loss accompany+ a drop 9 pressure1 ! diff]5ce 9 en]gy betwe5 ! high] & l[] pressures appe>+ z heat1 :i*1 9 ! case ( /eam fl[+ ?r\gh a pipe1 may evaporate any cond5sation pres5t or may be radiat$ f ! pipe4 ,a decrease 9 pipe area decreases ! radiat+ surface ( ! pipe & ?us ! possible cond5sation4 ,z ! heat lib]at$ by ! pressure drop is utiliz$ 9 ov]com+ or dim9i%+ ! t5d5cy t[>d cond5sation & ! heat loss ?r\gh radiation1 ! /eam z x ent]s ! prime mov] w be dri] or m highly sup]heat$ :]e high /eam velocities are us$ ?an :]e !y are l[]1 & if en\gh excess pressure is c>ri$ at ! boil]s to ma9ta9 ! desir$ pressure at ! prime mov]1 ! pressure drop results 9 an actual sav+ r ?an a loss4 ,! :ole is analog\s to /&>d practice 9 electrical di/ribut+ sy/ems :]e g5]ator voltage is adju/$ to suit ! loss 9 ! fe$] l9es4 ,9 mod]n practice1 ) sup]heat$ /eam1 velocities ( #ae1jjj feet p] m9ute are n unusual & ?is figure is v frequ5tly exce$$4 ,pip+ ,sy/em ,design--,) ! prop] size ( pipe to be us$ det]m9$1 ! mo/ important factor is ! provision = ! removal ( wat] ( cond5sation t w occur 9 any sy/em4 ,su* cond5sation _c be :olly ov]come & if ! wat] ( cond5sation is c>ri$ to ! prime mov]1 difficulties w inv>iably result4 ,wat] is practically incompressible & its effect :5 travel+ at high velocities diff]s little f t ( a solid body ( equal weight1 h5ce impact aga9/ elb[s1 valves or o!r ob/ructions1 is ! equival5t ( a heavy hamm] bl[ t may result 9 ! fracture ( ! pipe4 ,if !re is n suffici5t wat] 9 ! sy/em to produce ?is result1 x w c]ta9ly cause knock+ & vibration 9 ! pipe1 result+ ev5tually 9 leaky jo9ts4 ,:]e ! wat] rea*es ! prime mov]1 its effect w v>y f disagreeable knock+ to disruption4 ,too frequ5tly :5 !re are disa/r\s results f su* a cause ! boil]s are blam$ = deliv]+ wet /eam :51 z a matt] ( fact1 ! evil is purely a result ( poor pip+ design1 ! mo/ common cause ( su* an action be+ ! pocket+ ( ! wat] 9 c]ta9 p>ts ( ! pip+ f :5ce x is c>ri$ along 9 slugs by ! /eam4 ,! action is p>ticul>ly sev]e if /eam is admitt$ to a cold pipe conta9+ wat]1 z ! wat] may !n =m a p>tial vacuum by cond5s+ ! /eam & be project$ at a v high velocity ?r\gh ! pipes produc+ a *>act]i/ic %>p metallic knock :i* (t5 causes bur/+ ( ! pipe or fitt+s4 ,! am\nt ( wat] pres5t ?r\gh cond5sation may be appreciat$ :5 x is consid]$ t uncov]$ #f-;in* pipe #aej feet long c>ry+ #cfjj p\nds ( high pressure /eam p] h\r w cond5se approximately #f p] c5t ( ! total /eam c>ri$ ?r\gh radiation4 ,x foll[s t effici5t means ( remov+ cond5sation wat] are absolutely imp]ative & ! foll[+ sugge/ions z to su* means may be ( s]vice3 ,! pit* ( all pipe %\ld be 9 ! direction ( ! fl[ ( /eam4 ,:]ev] a rise is necess>y1 a dra9 %\ld be in/all$4 ,all ma9 head]s & important bran*es %\ld end 9 a drop leg & ea* su* drop leg & any l[ po9ts 9 ! sy/em %\ld be connect$ to ! dra9age pump4 ,a simil> connection %\ld be made to e fitt+ :]e !re is dang] ( a wat] pocket4 ,bran* l9es %\ld nev] be tak5 f ! bottom ( a ma9 head] b :]e possible %\ld be tak5 f ! top4 ,ea* eng9e supply pipe %\ld h its own sep>ator plac$ z ne> ! ?rottle z possible4 ,su* sep>ators %\ld be dra9$ to ! dra9age sy/em4 ,*eck valves are frequ5tly plac$ 9 dra9 pipes to prev5t /eam f ent]+ any portion ( ! sy/em t may be %ut (f4 ,valves %\ld be s locat$ t !y _c =m wat] pockets :5 ei!r op5 or clos$4 ,globe valves w =m a wat] pocket 9 ! pip+ to :i* !y are connect$ unless set ) ! /em horizontal1 :ile gate valves may be set ) ! sp9dle v]tical or at an angle4 ,:]e valves are plac$ directly on ! boil] nozzle1 a dra9 %\ld be provid$ above !m4 ,high pressure dra9s %\ld be trapp$ to bo? fe$ heat]s & wa/e head]s4 ,traps & met]s %\ld be provid$ ) by-passes4 ,cyl9d] dra9s1 heat] bl[-(fs & dra9s1 boil] bl[-(fs & simil> l9es %\ld be l$ to wa/e4 ,! ends ( cyl9d] dra9s %\ld n ext5d bel[ ! surface ( wat]1 = on />t+ up or on clos+ ! ?rottle valve ) ! dra9s op51 wat] may be drawn back into ! cyl9d]s4 ,,table #fd ,,radiation ,,f ,,cov]$ ,,& ,,uncov]$ ,,/eam ,,pipes ,,calculat$ ,,= #afj ,,p\nds ,,pressure ,,& #fj ,,degrees ,,temp]ature ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,pipe #a_/b #c_/d #a #a-a_/da-a_/b ,in*es ,?ickness ( ,cov]+ in*in*in*in* in* ,b>e ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,b4 t4 u4 p] l9eal foot p] h\r #adi #aah #ii #hf #gi #eig ,b4 t4 u4 p] squ>e foot p] h\r #bdj #aij #afa #ach #abg #iei #b ,b4 t4 u4 p] squ>e foot p] h\r p] "o degree diff]5ce 9 temp]ature4#ggj4fac4eai4dde 4#daj #c4aih ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,b4 t4 u4 p] l9eal foot p] h\r #bdg #aic #afj #aci #abc #ajhe ,b4 t4 u4 p] squ>e foot p] h\r #baj #afd #acf #aah #ajd #iba #d ,b4 t4 u4 p] squ>e foot p] h\r p] "o degree diff]5ce 9 temp]ature4#fgg4eib4dci4cha 4#cce #b4igj ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,b4 t4 u4 p] l9eal foot p] h\r #ceb #bfi #bba #aij #afg #aeee ,b4 t4 u4 p] squ>e foot p] h\r #bjc #aee #abg #aaj #if #hig #f ,b4 t4 u4 p] squ>e foot p] h\r p] "o degree diff]5ce 9 temp]ature4#fee4ejj4daj4cee 4#caj #b4hi ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,b4 t4 u4 p] l9eal foot p] h\r #ddc #ccg #bgf #bce #bjg #aiid ,b4 t4 u4 p] squ>e foot p] h\r #aif #adi #abb #ajd #ib #hhc #h ,b4 t4 u4 p] squ>e foot p] h\r p] "o degree diff]5ce 9 temp]ature4#fcb4dha4cid4cce 4#big #b4he ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,b4 t4 u4 p] l9eal foot p] h\r #edi #daf #ccg #bhg #bej #bdfh ,b4 t4 u4 p] squ>e foot p] h\r #aie #adh #abj #ajb #hi #hgg #aj ,b4 t4 u4 p] squ>e foot p] h\r p] "o degree diff]5ce 9 temp]ature4#fbi4dgg4chg4cbi 4#bhg #b4hc ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,cov]+--,magnesia1 canvas cov]$4 ,= calculat+ radiation = pressure & temp]ature o!r ?an #afj p\nds1 & #fj degrees1 use ,b4 t4 u4 figures = "o degree diff]5ce4 ,radiation f ,pipes--,! evils ( ! pres5ce ( cond5s$ /eam 9 pip+ sy/ems h be5 ?or\ghly discuss$ above & 9 "s ( ! previ\s articles4 ,cond5sation result+ f radiation1 :ile x _c be :olly obviat$1 c1 by prop] in/allation1 be greatly r$uc$4 ,b>e pipe w radiate approximately #c ,b4 t4 u4 p] h\r p] squ>e foot ( expos$ surface p] "o degree ( diff]5ce 9 temp]ature betwe5 ! /eam conta9$ & ! ext]nal air4 ,?is figure may be r$uc$ to f #j4c to #j4d ,b4 t4 u4 = ! same conditions by a #a in* insulat+ cov]+4 ,table #fd gives ! radiation losses = b>e & cov]$ pipes ) diff]5t ?icknesses ( magnesia cov]+4 ,_m exp]im5ts h be5 made z to ! relative effici5cies ( diff]5t k9ds ( cov]+4 ,table #fe gives "s approximately relative figures bas$ on "o in* cov]+ f exp]im5ts by ,pauld+1 ,jacobus1 ,brill & o!rs4 ,,table #fe ,,approximate ,,effici5cies ,,( ,,v>i\s ,,cov]+s ,,ref]r$ ,,to ,,b>e ,,pipes -------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,cov]+ ,effici5cy ----------------------------- ,asbe/ocel #gf4h ,ga/'s ,air ,cell #gd4d ,asbe/o ,sponge ,felt #he4j ,magnesia #hc4e ,asbe/os ,navy ,br& #hb4j ,asbe/o ,sponge ,hair #hf4j ,asbe/os ,fire ,felt #gc4e ----------------------------- -------------------------------- ,bas$ on "o-in* cov]+4 ,! foll[+ sugge/ions may be ( s]vice3 ,expos$ radiat+ surfaces ( all pipes1 all high pressure /eam flanges1 valve bodies & fitt+s1 heat]s & sep>ators1 %\ld be cov]$ ) non-conduct+ mat]ial :]ev] su* cov]+ w improve plant economy4 ,all ma9 /eam l9es1 eng9e & boil] bran*es1 %\ld be cov]$ ) #b in*es ( #he p] c5t c>bonate ( magnesia or ! equival5t4 ,o!r l9es may be cov]$ ) "o in* ( ! same mat]ial4 ,all cov]+ %\ld be sectional 9 =m & l>ge surfaces %\ld be cov]$ ) blocks1 except :]e su* mat]ial w\ld be difficult to in/all1 9 :i* case pla/ic mat]ial %\ld be us$4 ,9 ! case ( flanges ! cov]+ %\ld be tap]$ back f ! flange 9 ord] t ! bolts may be remov$4 ,all surfaces %\ld be pa9t$ be=e ! cov]+ is appli$4 ,canvas is ord9>ily plac$ ov] ! cov]+1 held 9 place by wr\ght-iron or brass b&s4 ,expansion & ,support ( ,pipe--,x is highly important t ! pip+ be s run t !re w be no undue /ra9s ?r\gh ! action ( expansion4 ,c]ta9 po9ts are usually securely an*or$ & ! expansion ( ! pip+ at o!r po9ts tak5 c>e ( by provid+ supports along :i* ! pip+ w slide or by means ( flexible hang]s4 ,:]e pipe is support$ or an*or$1 x %\ld be f ! build+ /ructure & n f boil]s or prime mov]s4 ,:]e supports are furni%$1 !y %\ld 9 g5]al be ( any ( ! num]\s slid+ supports t are available4 ,expansion is tak5 c>e ( by su* a me?od ( support & by ! provid+ ( l>ge radius b5ds :]e necess>y4 ,x 0 =m]ly believ$ t pip+ w\ld actually exp& "u /eam temp]atures ab\t "o-half ! !oretical am\nt due to ! fact t ! ext]ior ( ! pipe w\ld n rea* ! full temp]ature ( ! /eam conta9$4 ,x w\ld appe>1 h[ev] f rec5t exp]im5ts t su* actual expansion w 9 ! case ( well-cov]$ pipe be v ne>ly ! !oretical am\nt4 ,9 "o case not$1 a /eam head] #bic feet long :5 heat$ "u a work+ pressure ( #aij p\nds1 ! /eam sup]heat$ approximately #abe degrees1 exp&$ #h in*es2 ! !oretical am\nt ( expansion "u ! conditions w\ld be approximately #i-ce_/fd in*es4 ,illu/ration3 ,bank]s ,tru/ ,build+1 ,new ,york ,city1 ,op]ation #ijj ,horse ,p[] ( ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil]s ,,fl[ ,,( ,,/eam ,,?r\gh ,,pipes ,,& ,,orifices ,v>i\s =mulae = ! fl[ ( /eam ?r\gh pipes h be5 advanc$1 all hav+ _! basis ^u ,b]n\lli's !orem ( ! fl[ ( wat] ?r\gh circul> pipes ) ! prop] modifications made = ! v>iation 9 con/ants betwe5 /eam & wat]4 ,! loss ( en]gy due to friction 9 a pipe is giv5 by ,unw9 7bas$ ^u ,weisba*7 z f #b v ,w ,l ,ef ---------- 7#cg7 gd :]e ,e is ! en]gy loss 9 foot p\nds due to ! friction ( ,w units ( weight ( /eam pass+ ) a velocity ( v feet p] second ?r\gh a pipe d feet 9 diamet] & ,l feet long2 g repres5ts ! accel]ation due to gravity 7#cb4b7 & f ! coeffici5t ( friction4 ,num]\s values h be5 giv5 = ?is coeffici5t ( friction1 f1 :i*1 f exp]im5t1 app>5tly v>ies ) bo? ! diamet] ( pipe & ! velocity ( ! pass+ /eam4 ,!re is no au!ntic data on ! rate ( ?is v>iation ) velocity &1 z 9 all exp]im5ts1 ! effect ( *ange ( velocity has seem$ less ?an ! unavoidable errors ( obs]vation1 ! coeffici5t is assum$ to v>y only ) ! size ( ! pipe4 ,unw9 e/abli%$ a relation = ?is coeffici5t = /eam at a velocity ( #ajj feet p] second1 _/ #c f ,k #a --- 7#ch7 #aj;d _/ :]e ,k is a con/ant exp]im5tally det]m9$1 & d ! int]nal diamet] ( ! pipe 9 feet4 ,if h repres5ts ! loss ( head 9 feet1 !n f #b v ,w ,l ,ef ,: ---------- 7#ci7 gd f #b v ,l & h -------- 7#dj7 gd ,if ,d repres5ts ! d5sity ( ! /eam or weight p] cubic foot1 & p ! loss ( pressure due to friction 9 p\nds p] squ>e in*1 !n h,d p --- 7#da7 #add & f equations 7#ch71 7#dj7 & 7#da71 ,d v ,l _/ #c p -------- ,k #a --- 7#db7 #gb g d #aj;d _/ ,to conv]t ! velocity t]m & to r$uce to units ord9>ily us$1 let d#a ! diamet] ( pipe 9 in*es #ab;d1 & w ! fl[ 9 p\nds p] m9ute2 !n pi _/ d#a w #fjv --- ---- #b ,d #d #ab _/ #i4f w & v -------------- pi d#ab ,d ,sub/itut+ ?is value & t ( d 9 =mula 7#db7 _/ #c4f w#b ,l p #j4jdhci ,k #a ----- ----------- 7#dc7 d#a _/ ,d d#ae ,"s ( ! exp]im5tal det]m9ations = ! value ( ,k are3 ,k 4#jje = wat] 7,unw974 ,k 4#jje = air 7,arson74 ,k 4#jjbh = air 7,/4 ,go?>d tunnel exp]im5ts74 ,k 4#jjbf = /eam 7,c>p5t] at ,oriskany74 ,k 4#jjbg = /eam 7,g4 ,h4 ,babcock74 ,! value 4#jjbg is app>5tly ! mo/ ne>ly correct1 & sub/itut+ 9 =mula 7#dc7 gives1 _/ #c4f w#b ,l p #j4jjjaca #a ---- ----------- 7#dd7 d#a_/ ,d d#ae _/ p,dd#ae w #hg -------------- 7#de7 _/ #c4f #a ---- ,l d#a_/ _/ ,:]e w ! weight ( /eam pass+ 9 p\nds p] m9ute1 p ! diff]5ce 9 pressure betwe5 ! two ends ( ! pipe 9 p\nds p] squ>e in*1 ,d d5sity ( /eam or weight p] cubic foot1#hj d#a int]nal diamet] ( pipe 9 in*es1 ,l l5g? ( pipe 9 feet4 ,,table #ff ,,fl[ ,,( ,,/eam ,,?r\gh ,,pipes ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------- ,initl,diamet]#ha ( ,pipe 9 ,in*es1 ,l5g? ( ,pipe #bdj ,diamet]s ,gauge---------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------- ,press #a #a #b #b #c #d #e #f #h #aj #ab #ae #ah ,p\nd----------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------ _/,sq,in ,weight ( ,/eam p] ,m9ute1 9 ,p\nds1 ,) ,"o ,p\nd ,loss ( ,pressure ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------ #a #a4afb4jg #e4gaj4bgae4debe4ch #df4he #gg4caae4ibaa4d #cda4a #ejb4d #hjdaagg #aj #a4ddb4eg #g4aab4gbai4aeca4de #eh4je #ie4hadc4fbfb4j #dbb4g #fbb4e #iifadeh #bj #a4gjc4jb #h4cad4idbb4dicf4id #fh4bjaab4fafh4gcjg4h #dif4e #gca4caagjagac #cj #a4iac4dj #i4daf4hdbe4ceda4fc #gf4hdabf4iaij4acdf4h #eei4e #hbd4aacahaicj #dj #b4ajc4gdaj4cah4eabg4hgde4gg #hd4diaci4ebji4jcha4c #fae4c #ijf4jadejbabb #ej #b4bgd4jdaa4bbj4jacj4acdi4dh #ia4cdaej4hbbf4jdab4b #ffe4j #igi4eaefgbbid #fj #b4dcd4cbaa4iba4chcb4aieb4hg #ig4fjafa4abda4eddj4e #gaj4fajdf4gafgebdea #gj #b4egd4ehab4fbb4fecd4ajef4jjajc4cgagj4gb ee4hdff4e #geb4gaajh4eaggdbeif #hj #b4gad4hbac4cbc4hbce4hgeh4iaajh4gdagi4eb fi4jdij4g #gia4gaaff4aahffbgca #ij #b4hce4jdac4ibd4ibcg4ebfa4fbaac4gdahg4hb ha4deac4c #hbh4aabai4haieabhef #ajj #b4iee4bead4ebe4ifci4jgfd4ahaah4dgaie4fb ic4aecd4f #hfb4fabgj4abjcbbige #abj #c4afe4fcae4ebg4heda4icfh4hgabg4abbji4ic ad4eegc4g #ibe4facfc4cbahacaic #aej #c4def4adag4jcj4cgde4gbge4jiach4fabbh4hc dc4jfbe4eajji4badhf4ebcghcdha ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------- ,?is =mula is ! mo/ g5]ally accept$ = ! fl[ ( /eam 9 pipes4 ,table #ff is calculat$ f ?is =mula & gives ! am\nt ( /eam pass+ p] m9ute t w fl[ ?r\gh /raight smoo? pipes hav+ a l5g? ( #bdj diamet]s f v>i\s initial pressures ) "o p\nd diff]5ce betwe5 ! initial & f9al pressures4 ,to apply ?is table = o!r l5g?s ( pipe & pressure losses o!r ?an ^? assum$1 let ,l ! l5g? & d ! diamet] ( ! pipe1 bo? 9 in*es2 l1 ! loss 9 p\nds2 ,q1 ! weight "u ! conditions assum$ 9 ! table1 & ,q#a1 ! weight = ! *ang$ conditions4 ,= any l5g? ( pipe1 if ! weight ( /eam pass+ is ! same z giv5 9 ! table1 ! loss w be1 ,l l ---- 7#df7 #bdj;d ,if ! pipe l5g? is ! same z assum$ 9 ! table b ! loss is diff]5t1 ! quantity ( /eam pass+ p] m9ute w be1 ,q#a ,ql 7#dg7 ,= any assum$ pipe l5g? & loss ( pressure1 ! weight w be1 _/#bdj;dl ,q#a ,q----- 7#dh7 ,l _/ ,,table #fg ,,fl[ ,,( ,,/eam ,,?r\gh ,,pipes ,,l5g? ,,( ,,pipe #ajjj ,,feet ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,dis*>ge 9 ,p\nds p] ,m9ute correspond+ to ,drop 9 ,pressure 9 ,drop 9 ,pressure on ,"r = ,pipe ,diamet]s ,p\nds p] ,squ>e ,in* correspond+ 9 ,in*es 9 ,top ,l9e to ,dis*>ge on ,left3 ,d5sities & correspond+ ,absolute ,pressures p] ,squ>e ,in* 9 ,fir/ ,two ,l9es ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,diamet]#hb--;,dis*>ge ,d5sity--,pressure--,drop ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------- #ab #aj #h #f #d #c #b #b #a #a 4#bjh 4#bcj4bhd4cbh4dja4ddc4ejf4edh ,9 ,9 ,9 ,9 ,9 ,9 ,9 ,9 ,9 ,9 #ij #ajj #abe #aej #ahj #bjj #bcj #bej ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --------- #bcbhaddc #gii #cgaabc4 #ee4ibh4hah4af4hab4ebah4ajaf4dac4caa4ai4 cih4ejg4ddf4hg #bafeacda #gdb #cddaad4fea4ibg4faf4hf4ebb4cdae4fjad4aaa 4di4fjh4jig4ccf4dae4ib #aiifabcg #fhe #cahajf4jdg4ibf4dae4ef4bdb4afac4c #ab4ji4gdh4ahf4ijf4bde4dge4je #ahcjaacd #fbh #bib #ig4jdc4ibe4bad4be4iea4ihaa4a #aj4jh4acf4hce4gfe4bad4efd4ba #affcajca #ega #bfe #hh4bci4ibd4jab4ie4fga4hj #i4beh4cff4ghe4fid4hjd4cdc4hjc4ea #aehj #igi #edb #beb #hc4hcg4ibb4hab4ce4bia4ga #h4ccg4ecf4aje4acd4cbc4iac4dbc4af #adig #ibh #ead #bci #gi4dce4iba4faa4fe4jja4fb #g4dhf4gfe4dhd4fjc4hhc4eac4jgb4hd #adad #hgf #dhe #bbf #ge4jcc4ibj4daj4id4gba4ec #f4fgf4jcd4hhd4ajc4dfc4acb4gdb4ec #acca #hbe #deg #bab #gj4fca4iai4baj4cd4dca4dd #e4iae4ced4ccc4fdc4jgb4ghb4dcb4bd #abdh #hgc #dbh #aii #ff4bbc4iah4ji4fhd4aea4ce #e4aid4fic4hjc4aib4fib4ddb4aca4ig #aafd #gbb #djj #ahf #fa4gbg4iaf4hi4jcc4hfa4bf #d4ebd4jic4cab4ghb4cdb4aba4hfa4gb #ajha #fgj #cga #agb #eg4cbe4iae4fh4chc4fha4ag #c4ijc4ecb4hfb4djb4jba4hca4fja4dh #iih #fai #cdc #aei #eb4ibc4iad4dg4gdc4dja4jh #c4cbc4jjb4dcb4jda4gba4efa4cfa4bf #iae #efg #cad #adf #dh4eba4iac4bg4ajc4aaj4ii #b4gib4ebb4jda4gba4dea4caa4aea4jf #hcb #eaf #bhf #acb #dd4abj4jab4jf4deb4hcj4ij #b4cab4jia4fia4dba4bja4jh4idi4hgg #gdh #dfd #beg #aai #ci4gah4jaj4he4hab4eej4ha #a4hga4fia4cga4ae 4#ig4hgh4gfi4gaj #ffe #dab #bbh #ajf #ce4caf4j #i4fe4afb4bfj4gb #a4dga4cca4jh4ije4gfb4fij4fjd4eeh #ehb #cfa #bjjib4h #cj4iad4j #h4dd4eba4ihj4fc #a4aca4jb4hbh4fie4ehf4eca4def4dbi ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,to get ! pressure drop = l5g?s o!r ?an #ajjj feet1 multiply by l5g?s 9 feet #ajjj4 ,example3 ,f9d ! weight ( /eam at #ajj p\nds initial gauge pressure1 :i* w pass ?r\gh a #f-;in* pipe #gbj feet long ) a pressure drop ( #d p\nds4 ,"u ! conditions assum$ 9 ! table1 #bic4a p\nds w\ld fl[ p] m9ute2 h5ce1 ,q #bic4a1 & #bdjfd ,q#a #bic4a ------- #bci4i p\nds #gbjab ,table #fg may be frequ5tly f\nd to be ( s]vice 9 problems involv+ ! fl[ ( /eam4 ,?is table 0 calculat$ by ,mr4 ,e4 ,c4 ,sickles = a pipe #ajjj feet long f =mula 7#de71 except t f ! use ( a value ( ! con/ant ,k 4#jjbf in/ead ( 4#jjbg1 ! con/ant 9 ! =mula becomes #hg4de in/ead ( #hg4 ,9 us+ ?is table1 ! pressures & d5sities to be consid]$1 z giv5 at ! top ( ! "r-h& portion1 are ! mean ( ! initial & f9al pressures & d5sities4 ,its use is z foll[s3 ,assume an all[able drop ( pressure ?r\gh a giv5 l5g? ( pipe4 ,f ! value z f\nd 9 ! "r-h& column "u ! column ( mean pressure1 z det]m9$ by ! initial & f9al pressures1 pass to ! left-h& portion ( ! table along ! same l9e until ! quantity is f\nd correspond+ to ! fl[ requir$4 ,! size ( ! pipe at ! head ( ?is column is t :i* w c>ry ! requir$ am\nt ( /eam ) ! assum$ pressure drop4 ,! table may be us$ conv]sely to det]m9e ! pressure drop ?r\gh a pipe ( a giv5 diamet] deliv]+ a specifi$ am\nt ( /eam by pass+ f ! kn[n figure 9 ! left to ! column on ! "r head$ by ! pressure :i* is ! mean ( ! initial & f9al pressures correspond+ to ! drop f\nd & ! actual initial pressure pres5t4 ,= a giv5 fl[ ( /eam & diamet] ( pipe1 ! drop 9 pressure is proportional to ! l5g? & if dis*>ge quantities = o!r l5g?s ( pipe ?an #ajjj feet are requir$1 !y may be f\nd by proportion4 ,,table #fh ,,fl[ ,,( ,,/eam ,,into ,,! ,,atmosph]e ,absolute ,velocity ,actual ,dis*>ge ,horse ,p[] ,initial ( ,outfl[ ,velocity p] ,squ>e p] ,squ>e ,pressure at ,con/ant ( ,outfl[ ,in* ( ,in* ( p] ,squ>e ,d5sity ,exp&$ ,orifice ,orifice if ,in* ,feet p] ,feet p] p] ,m9ute ,horse ,p[] ,p\nds ,second ,second ,p\nds #cj ,p\nds p] ,h\r #be4cg #hfc #adja #bb4ha #de4f #cj4 #hfg #adjh #bf4hd #ec4g #dj4 #hgd #adai #ce4ah #gj4d #ej4 #hhj #adbi #dd4jf #hh4a #fj4 #hhe #adcg #eb4ei #aje4b #gj4 #hhi #addd #fa4jg #abb4a #ge4 #hia #addg #fe4cj #acj4f #ij4 #hie #aded #gg4id #aee4i #ajj4 #hih #adei #hf4cd #agb4g #aae4 #ijb #adff #ih4gf #aig4e #ace4 #ijf #adgb #aae4fa #bca4b #aee4 #iaj #adgh #acb4ba #bfd4d #afe4 #iab #adha #adj4df #bhj4i #bae4 #iai #adic #aha4eh #cfc4b ,elb[s1 globe valves & a squ>e-end$ entrance to pipes all (f] resi/ance to ! passage ( /eam4 ,x is cu/om>y to measure ! resi/ance (f]$ by su* con/ruction 9 t]ms ( ! diamet] ( ! pipe4 ,_m =mulae h be5 advanc$ = comput+ ! l5g? ( pipe 9 diamet]s equival5t to su* fitt+s or valves :i* (f] resi/ance4 ,^! =mulae1 h[ev] v>y widely & = ord9>y purposes x w be suffici5tly accurate to all[ = resi/ance at ! entrance ( a pipe a l5g? equal to #fj times ! diamet]2 = a "r angle elb[1 a l5g? equal to #dj diamet]s1 & = a globe valve a l5g? equal to #fj diamet]s4 ,! fl[ ( /eam ( a high] t[>d a l[] pressure increases z ! diff]5ce 9 pressure increases to a po9t :]e ! ext]nal pressure becomes #eh p] c5t ( ! absolute initial pressure4 ,bel[ ?is po9t ! fl[ is nei!r increas$ nor decreas$ by a r$uction ( ! ext]nal pressure1 ev5 to ! ext5t ( a p]fect vacuum4 ,! l[e/ pressure = :i* ?is /atem5t holds :5 /eam is dis*>g$ into ! atmosph]e is #be4cg p\nds4 ,= any pressure bel[ ?is figure1 ! atmosph]ic pressure1 #ad4g p\nds1 is great] ?an #eh p] c5t ( ! initial pressure4 ,table #fh1 by ,d4 ,k4 ,cl>k1 gives ! velocity ( outfl[ at con/ant d5sity1 ! actual velocity ( outfl[ exp&$ 7! atmosph]ic pressure be+ tak5 z #ad4g p\nds absolute1 & ! ratio ( expansion 9 ! nozzle be+ #a4fbd71 & ! correspond+ dis*>ge p] squ>e in* ( orifice p] m9ute4 ,napi] d$uc$ an approximate =mula = ! outfl[ ( /eam into ! atmosph]e :i* *ecks closely ) ! figures j giv54 ,?is =mula is3 pa ,w ---- 7#di7 #gj ,:]e ,w ! p\nds ( /eam fl[+ p] second1 p ! absolute pressure 9 p\nds p] squ>e in*1 & a ! area ( ! orifice 9 squ>e in*es4 ,9 "s exp]im5ts made by ,pr(essor ,c4 ,h4 ,peabody1 9 ! fl[ ( /eam ?r\gh pipes f in* to #a in*es long & in* 9 diamet]1 ) r\nd$ entrances1 ! greate/ diff]5ce f ,napi]'s =mula 0 #c4b p] c5t excess ( ! exp]im5tal ov] ! calculat$ results4 ,= /eam fl[+ ?r\gh an orifice f a high] to a l[] pressure :]e ! l[] pressure is great] ?an #eh p] c5t ( ! high]1 ! fl[ p] m9ute may be calculat$ f ! =mula3 ,w #a4i;,,ak 77,p - d7d7 7#ej7 ,:]e ,w ! weight ( /eam dis*>g$ 9 p\nds p] m9ute1 ,a area ( orifice 9 squ>e in*es1 ,p ! absolute initial pressure 9 p\nds p] squ>e in*1 d ! diff]5ce 9 pressure betwe5 ! two sides 9 p\nds p] squ>e in*1 ,k a con/ant 4#ic = a %ort pipe1 & 4#fc = a hole 9 a ?9 plate or a safety valve4 ,illu/ration3 ,ve/a ,coal ,co41 ,cali=nia1 ,pa41 ,op]at+ at ?is ,plant #cafj ,horse ,p[] ( ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil]s ,,heat ,,transf] ,! rate at :i* heat is transmitt$ f a hot gas to a cool] metal surface ov] :i* ! gas is fl[+ has be5 ! subject ( a great deal ( inve/igation bo? f ! exp]im5tal & !oretical side4 ,a m or less complete explanation ( ?is process is necess>y = a detail$ analysis ( ! p]=mance ( /eam boil]s4 ,su* in=mation at ! pres5t is almo/ entirely lack+ & = ?is reason a boil]1 z a physical piece ( app>atus1 is n z well und]/ood z x might be4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 has _h little effect 9 its practical developm5t & x is h>dly possible t a m complete und]/&+ ( ! ph5om5a discuss$ w h any radical effect on ! pres5t design4 ,! am\nt ( heat t is transf]r$ across any surface is usually express$ z a product1 ( :i* "o factor is ! slope or l9e> rate ( *ange 9 temp]ature & ! o!r is ! am\nt ( heat transf]r$ p] unit's diff]5ce 9 temp]ature 9 unit's l5g?4 ,9 ,f\ri]'s analytical !ory ( ! conduction ( heat1 ?is second factor is tak5 z a con/ant & is call$ ! conductivity ( ! sub/ance4 ,foll[+ ?is practice1 ! am\nt ( heat absorb$ by any surface f a hot gas is usually express$ z a product ( ! diff]5ce 9 temp]ature betwe5 ! gas & ! absorb+ surface into a factor :i* is commonly designat$ ! transf] rate4 ,!re has be5 consid]able loos5ess 9 ! writ+s ( ev5 ! be/ au?ors z to ! way 9 :i* ! gas temp]ature diff]5ce is to be measur$4 ,if ! gas v>ies 9 temp]ature across ! section ( ! *annel ?r\gh :i* x is assum$ to fl[1 & mo/ ( !m seem to consid] t ?is w\ld be ! case1 !re are two mean gas temp]atures1 "o ! mean ( ! actual temp]atures at any "t across ! section1 & ! o!r ! mean temp]ature ( ! entire volume ( ! gas pass+ su* a section 9 any giv5 "t4 ,s9ce ! velocity ( fl[ w ( a c]ta9ty v>y across ! section1 ?is second mean temp]ature1 :i* is "o tacitly assum$ 9 mo/ in/ances1 may v>y mat]ially f ! fir/4 ,! two mean temp]atures are only approximately equal :5 ! actual temp]ature measur$ across ! section is v ne>ly a con/ant4 ,9 :at foll[s x w be assum$ t ! mean temp]ature measur$ 9 ! second way is ref]r$ to4 ,9 ,engli% units ! temp]ature diff]5ce is express$ 9 ,fahr5heit degrees & ! transf] rate 9 ,b4 t4 u4's p] h\r p] squ>e foot ( surface4 ,pecla1 :o seems to h be5 "o ( ! fir/ to consid] ?is subject analytically1 assum$ t ! transf] rate 0 con/ant & indep5d5t bo? ( ! temp]ature diff]5ces & ! velocity ( ! gas ov] ! surface4 ,rank9e1 on ! o!r h&1 assum$ t ! transf] rate1 :ile indep5d5t ( ! velocity ( ! gas1 0 proportional to ! temp]ature diff]5ce1 & express$ ! total am\nt ( heat absorb$ z proportional to ! squ>e ( ! diff]5ce 9 temp]ature4 ,nei!r ( ^! assumptions has any w>rant 9 ei!r !ory or exp]im5t & !y are only valuable 9 s f> z _! use det]m9e =mulae t fit exp]im5tal results4 ,( ! two1 ,rank9e's assumption seems to lead to =mulae t m ne>ly repres5t actual conditions4 ,x has be5 q fully develop$ by ,william ,k5t 9 8 ,/eam ,boil] ,economy4 ,pr(essor ,osborne ,reynolds1 9 a %ort pap] repr9t$ 9 ,volume ,i ( 8 ,sci5tific ,pap]s1 sugge/s t ! transf] rate is proportional to ! product ( ! d5sity & velocity ( ! gas & x is to be assum$ t he _h 9 m9d ! mean velocity1 d5sity & temp]ature ov] ! section ( ! *annel ?r\gh :i* ! gas 0 assum$ to fl[4 ,contr>y to preval5t op9ion1 ,pr(essor ,reynolds gave nei!r a valid exp]im5tal nor a !oretical explanation ( 8 =mula & ! attempts t h be5 made s9ce its fir/ publication to e/abli% x on any !oretical basis c h>dly be consid]$ ( sci5tific value4 ,nev]!less1 ,reynolds' sugge/ion 0 really ! />t+ po9t ( ! sci5tific inve/igation ( ?is subject & :ile 8 =mula _c 9 any s5se be held z completely express+ ! facts1 x is und\bt$ly correct to a fir/ approximation = small temp]ature diff]5ces if ! additive con/ant1 :i* 9 8 pap] he assum$ z negligible1 is giv5 a value4#hc ,exp]im5tal det]m9ations h be5 made dur+ ! la/ few ye>s ( ! heat transf] rate 9 cyl9drical tubes at comp>atively l[ temp]atures & small temp]ature diff]5ces4 ,! results at diff]5t velocities h be5 plott$ & an empirical =mula det]m9$ express+ ! transf] rate ) ! velocity z a factor4 ,! expon5t ( ! p[] ( ! velocity appe>+ 9 ! =mula1 accord+ to ,reynolds1 w\ld be unity4 ,! mo/ probable value1 h[ev]1 d$uc$ f mo/ ( ! exp]im5ts makes x less ?an unity4 ,aft] consid]+ exp]im5ts ( 8 own1 z well z exp]im5ts ( o!rs1 ,dr4 ,wilhelm ,nusselt#hd concludes t ! evid5ce supports ! foll[+ =mulae3 lambdaw w cp delta a b ------------ --------------- u d#a-u lambda ,:]e a is ! transf] rate 9 calories p] h\r p] squ>e met] ( surface p] degree c5tigrade diff]5ce 9 temp]ature1 u is a physical con/ant equal to 4#ghf f ,dr4 ,nusselt's exp]im5ts1 b is a con/ant :i*1 = ! units giv5 bel[1 is #ae4ij1 w is ! mean velocity ( ! gas 9 met]s p] second1 cp is ! specific heat ( ! gas at its mean temp]ature & pressure 9 calories p] kilogram1 delta is ! d5sity 9 kilograms p] cubic met]1 lambda is ! conductivity at ! mean temp]ature & pressure 9 calories p] h\r p] squ>e met] p] degree c5tigrade temp]ature drop p] met]1 lambdaw is ! conductivity ( ! /eam at ! temp]ature ( ! tube wall1 d is ! diamet] ( ! tube 9 met]s4 ,if ! unit ( "t = ! velocity is made ! h\r1 & 9 ! place ( ! product ( ! velocity & d5sity is writt5 its equival5t1 ! weight ( gas fl[+ p] h\r divid$ by ! area ( ! tube1 ?is equation becomes3 lambdaw ,wcp a 4#jbee ------------ --------- 4#ghf d4#bad ,alambda :]e ! quantities are 9 ! units m5tion$1 or1 s9ce ! con/ants are absolute con/ants1 9 ,engli% units1 a is ! transf] rate 9 ,b4 t4 u4 p] h\r p] squ>e foot ( surface p] degree diff]5ce 9 temp]ature1 ,w is ! weight 9 p\nds ( ! gas fl[+ ?r\gh ! tube p] h\r1 ,a is ! area ( ! tube 9 squ>e feet1 d is ! diamet] ( ! tube 9 feet1 cp is ! specific heat ( ! gas at con/ant pressure1 lambda is ! conductivity ( ! gas at ! mean temp]ature & pressure 9 ,b4 t4 u4 p] h\r p] squ>e foot ( surface p] degree ,fahr5heit drop 9 temp]ature p] foot1 lambdaw is ! conductivity ( ! /eam at ! temp]ature ( ! wall ( ! tube4 ,! conductivities ( air1 c>bonic acid gas & sup]heat$ /eam1 z affect$ by ! temp]ature1 9 ,engli% units1 are3 ,conductivity ( air 4#jabb 7#a 4#jjacb ,t7 ,conductivity ( c>bonic acid gas 4#jjgf 7#a 4#jjbbi ,t7 ,conductivity ( sup]heat$ /eam 4#jaai 7#a 4#jjbfa ,t7 :]e ,t is ! temp]ature 9 degrees ,fahr5heit4 ,nusselt's =mulae c be tak5 z typical ( ! numb] ( o!r =mulae propos$ by ,g]man1 ,fr5* & ,engli% writ]s4#he ,physical prop]ties1 9 addition to ! d5sity1 are introduc$ 9 ! =m ( coeffici5ts f a consid]ation ( ! physical dim5sions ( ! v>i\s units & ( ! !oretical =mulae t are suppos$ to gov]n ! fl[ ( ! gas & ! transf] ( heat4 ,all assume t ! correct me?od ( repres5t+ ! heat transf] rate is by ! use ( "o t]m1 :i* seems to be unw>rant$ & probably has be5 adopt$ on acc\nt ( ! conv5i5ce 9 work+ up ! results by plott+ !m log>i?mically4 ,?is 0 ! me?od ,pr(essor ,reynolds us$ 9 det]m9+ 8 equation = ! loss 9 head 9 fluids fl[+ ?r\gh cyl9drical pipes & x is n[ kn[n t ! d]iv$ equation _c be consid]$ z any?+ m ?an an empirical =mula4 ,x1 !re=e1 is well = anyone consid]+ ?is subject to und]/& at ! outset t ! =mulae discuss$ are only ( an empirical nature & applicable to limit$ ranges ( temp]ature "u ! conditions approximately ! same z ^? surr\nd+ ! exp]im5ts f :i* ! con/ants ( ! =mula 7 det]m9$4 ,x is n probable t ! subject ( heat transf] 9 boil]s w ev] be on any o!r ?an an exp]im5tal basis until ! ma!matical expression connect+ ! quantity ( fluid :i* w fl[ ?r\gh a *annel ( any section "u a giv5 head has be5 f\nd & "s explanation ( its d]ivation obta9$4 ,tak+ ! simple/ possible section1 namely1 a circle1 x is f\nd t at l[ velocities ! loss ( head is directly proportional to ! velocity & ! fluid fl[s 9 /raight /ream l9es or ! motion is direct4 ,?is motion is 9 exact accordance ) ! !oretical equations ( ! motion ( a visc\s fluid & con/itutes almo/ a direct pro( t ! fundam5tal assumptions on :i* ^! equations are bas$ are correct4 ,:51 h[ev]1 ! velocity exce$s a value :i* is det]m9able = any size ( tube1 ! direct or /ream l9e motion breaks d[n & is replac$ by an eddy or mix+ fl[4 ,9 ?is fl[ ! head loss by friction is approximately1 al?\gh n exactly1 proportional to ! squ>e ( ! velocity4 ,no explanation ( ?is has ev] be5 f\nd 9 spite ( ! fact t ! subject has be5 treat$ by ! be/ ma!maticians & physici/s = ye>s back4 ,x is to be assum$ t ! heat transf]r$ dur+ ! mix+ fl[ w\ld be at a mu* high] rate ?an ) ! direct or /ream l9e fl[1 & ,pr(essors ,crok] & ,clem5t#hf h demon/rat$ t ?is is true1 ! increase 9 ! transf] be+ s m>k$ z to enable !m to det]m9e ! po9t ( critical velocity f obs]v+ ! rise 9 temp]ature ( wat] fl[+ ?r\gh a tube surr\nd$ by a /eam jacket4 ,! =mulae giv5 apply only to a mix+ fl[ & inasmu* z1 f :at has j be5 /at$1 ?is =m ( motion does n exi/ f z]o velocity upw>d1 x foll[s t any expression = ! heat transf] rate t w\ld make its value z]o :5 ! velocity is z]o1 c h>dly be correct4 ,bel[ ! critical velocity1 ! transf] rate seems to be little affect$ by *ange 9 velocity & ,nusselt1#hg 9 ano!r pap] :i* ma!matically treats ! direct or /ream l9e fl[1 concludes t1 :ile x is approximately con/ant z f> z ! velocity is conc]n$ 9 a /raight cyl9drical tube1 x w\ld v>y f po9t to po9t ( ! tube1 gr[+ less z ! surface pass$ ov] increas$4 ,x %\ld fur!r be not$ t no acc\nt 9 any ( ?is exp]im5tal "w has be5 tak5 ( radiation ( heat f ! gas4 ,s9ce ! common gases absorb v little radiant heat at ord9>y temp]atures1 x has be5 assum$ t !y radiate v little at any temp]ature4 ,?is may or may n be true1 b c]ta9ly a visible flame mu/ radiate z well z absorb heat4 ,h[ev] ?is radiation may occur1 s9ce x w\ld be a volume ph5om5on r ?an a surface ph5om5on x w\ld be consid]$ some:at diff]5tly f ord9>y radiation4 ,x might apply z increas+ ! conductivity ( ! gas :i*1 h[ev] indep5d5t ( radiation1 is kn[n to increase ) ! temp]ature4 ,x is1 !re=e1 to be expect$ t at high temp]atures ! rate ( transf] w be great] ?an at l[ temp]atures4 ,! exp]im5tal det]m9ations ( transf] rates at high temp]atures are lack+4 ,al?\gh comp>atively no?+ is kn[n conc]n+ ! heat radiation f gases at high temp]atures1 !re is no "q b :at a l>ge proportion ( ! heat absorb$ by a boil] is receiv$ direct z radiation f ! furnace4 ,exp]im5ts %[ t ! l[] r[ ( tubes ( a ,babcock ,wilcox boil] absorb heat at an av]age rate p] squ>e foot ( surface betwe5 ! fir/ baffle & ! front head]s equival5t to ! evaporation ( f #ej to #ge p\nds ( wat] f & at #bab degrees ,fahr5heit p] h\r4 ,inasmu* z 9 ^! exp]im5ts no sep>ation c\ld be made betwe5 ! heat absorb$ by ! bottom ( ! tube & t absorb$ by ! top1 ! av]age includes bo? maximum & m9imum rates = ^? p>ticul> tubes & x is fair to assume t ! portion ( ! tubes actually expos$ to ! furnace radiations absorb heat at a high] rate4 ,"p ( ?is heat 01 ( c\rse absorb$ by actual contact betwe5 ! hot gases & ! boil] heat+ surface4 ,a l>ge portion ( x1 h[ev]1 mu/ h be5 due to radiation4 ,:e!r ?is radiant heat came f ! fire surface & ! brickwork & pass$ ?r\gh ! gases 9 ! furnace ) little or no absorption1 or :e!r1 on ! o!r h&1 ! radiation 7 absorb$ by ! furnace gases & ! heat receiv$ by ! boil] 0 a second>y radiation f ! gases !mselves & at a rate correspond+ to ! actual gas temp]ature1 is a "q4 ,if ! radiations are direct1 !n ! t]m furnace temp]ature1 z usually us$ has no sci5tific mean+1 = obvi\sly ! temp]ature ( ! gas 9 ! furnace w\ld be entirely diff]5t f ! radiation temp]ature1 ev5 7 x possible to atta* any significance to ! t]m radiation temp]ature1 & x is n possible to d ?is unless ! radiations are :at are kn[n z full radiations f a s-call$ black body4 ,if furnace radiation takes place 9 ?is mann]1 ! indications ( a pyromet] plac$ 9 a furnace are h>d to int]pret & su* temp]ature measurem5ts c be ( little value4 ,if ! furnace gases absorb ! radiations f ! fire & f ! brickwork ( ! side walls & 9 _! turn radiate heat to ! boil] surface1 x is sci5tifically correct to assume t ! actual or s5sible temp]ature ( ! gas w\ld be measur$ by a pyromet] & ! am\nt ( radiation c\ld be calculat$ f ?is temp]ature by ,/efan's law1 :i* is to ! effect t ! rate ( radiation is proportional to ! f\r? p[] ( ! absolute temp]ature1 us+ ! con/ant ) ! result+ =mula t has be5 det]m9$ f direct exp]im5t & o!r ph5om5a4 ,) ?is und]/&+ ( ! matt]1 ! radiations absorb$ by a boil] c be tak5 z equal to t absorb$ by a flat surface1 cov]+ ! portion ( ! boil] tubes expos$ to ! furnace & at ! temp]ature ( ! tube surface1 :5 completely expos$ on "o side to ! radiations f an atmosph]e at ! temp]ature 9 ! furnace4 ,) ?is assumption1 if ,s#a is ! area ( ! surface1 ,t ! absolute temp]ature ( ! furnace gases1 t ! absolute temp]ature ( ! tube surface ( ! boil]1 ! heat absorb$ p] h\r measur$ 9 ,b4 t4 u4's is equal to _/ ,t _/ t #afjj ----#d - ----#d ,s#a #ajjj_/ #ajjj_/ ,9 us+ ?is =mula1 or 9 any "w connect$ ) heat transf]1 ! ext]nal temp]ature ( ! boil] heat+ surface c be tak5 z t ( saturat$ /eam at ! pressure "u :i* ! boil] is work+1 ) an almo/ negligible error1 s9ce exp]im5ts h %[n t ) a surface clean int]nally1 ! ext]nal surface is only a few degrees hott] ?an ! wat] 9 contact ) ! inn] surface1 ev5 at ! highe/ rates ( evaporation4 ,fur!r ?an ?is1 x is n conceivable t 9 a mod]n boil] !re c be mu* diff]5ce 9 ! temp]ature ( ! boil] 9 ! diff]5t p>ts1 or mu* diff]5ce betwe5 ! temp]ature ( ! wat] & ! temp]ature ( ! /eam 9 ! drums :i* is 9 contact ) x4 ,if ! total evaporation ( a boil] measur$ 9 ,b4 t4 u4's p] h\r is repres5t$ by ,e1 ! furnace temp]ature by ,t#a1 ! temp]ature ( ! gas leav+ ! boil] by ,t#b1 ! weight ( gas leav+ ! furnace & pass+ ?r\gh ! sett+ p] h\r by ,w1 ! specific heat ( ! gas by ,c1 x foll[s f ! fact t ! total am\nt ( heat absorb$ is equal to ! heat receiv$ f radiation plus ! heat remov$ f ! gases by cool+ f ! temp]ature ,t#a to ! temp]ature ,t#b1 t _/ ,t _/ t ,e #afjj ----#d - ----#d ,s#a ,,wc7,t#a - ,t#b7 #ajjj_/ #ajjj_/ ,?is =mula c be us$ = calculat+ ! furnace temp]ature :5 ,e1 t & ,t#b are kn[n b x mu/ be rememb]$ t an assumption :i* is probably1 9 "p at lea/1 incorrect is impli$ 9 us+ x or 9 us+ any simil> =mula4 ,express$ 9 ?is way1 h[ev]1 x seems m rational ?an ! "o propos$ a few ye>s ago by ,dr4 ,ni*olson#hh :]e1 9 place ( ! surface expos$ to radiation1 he uses ! grate surface & assumes ! furnace gas temp]ature z equal to ! fire temp]ature4 ,if ! heat transf] rate is tak5 z indep5d5t ( ! gas temp]ature & ! heat absorb$ by an elem5t ( ! surface 9 a giv5 "t is equat$ to ! heat giv5 out f ! gas pass+ ov] ?is surface 9 ! same "t1 a s+le integration gives ,rs 7,t - t7 7,t#a - t7 e- -- ,,wc :]e s is ! area ( surface pass$ ov] by ! gases f ! furnace to any po9t :]e ! gas temp]ature ,t is measur$1 & ! rate ( heat transf] is ,r4 ,z writt51 ?is =mula c\ld be us$ = calculat+ ! temp]ature ( ! gas at any po9t 9 ! boil] sett+4 ,gas temp]atures1 h[ev]1 calculat$ 9 ?is way are n to be dep5d$ ^u z x is kn[n t ! transf] rate is n indep5d5t ( ! temp]ature4 ,aga91 if ! transf] rate is assum$ z v>y+ directly ) ! weight ( ! gases pass+1 :i* is ,reynolds' sugge/ion1 x is se5 t ! weight ( ! gases entirely disappe>s f ! =mula & z a consequ5ce if ! =mula 0 correct1 z long z ! temp]ature ( ! gas ent]+ ! surface f ! furnace 0 ! same1 ! temp]atures ?r\gh\t ! sett+ w\ld be ! same4 ,?is is kn[n also to be incorrect4 ,if1 h[ev]1 9 place ( ,t is writt5 ,t#b & 9 place ( s is writt5 ,s1 ! entire surface ( ! boil]1 & ! =mula is re-arrang$1 x becomes3 ,,wc ,t#a - t ,r --- ,log#hi --------- ,s ,t#b - t ,?is =mula c be consid]$ z giv+ a way ( calculat+ an av]age transf] rate4 ,x has be5 us$ 9 ?is way = calculat+ ! av]age transf] rate f boil] te/s 9 :i* ! capacity has v>i$ f an evaporation ( a little ov] #c p\nds p] squ>e foot ( surface up to #ae p\nds4 ,:5 plott$ aga9/ ! gas weights1 x 0 f\nd t ! po9ts 7 almo/ exactly on a l9e4 ,?is l9e1 h[ev]1 did n pass ?r\gh ! z]o po9t b />t$ at a po9t correspond+ to approximately a transf] rate ( #b4 ,*eck$ out aga9/ _m o!r te/s1 ! /raight l9e law seems to hold g5]ally & ?is is true ev5 ?\gh mat]ial *anges are made 9 ! me?od ( calculat+ ! furnace temp]ature4 ,! incl9ation ( ! l9e1 h[ev]1 v>i$ inv]sely z ! av]age area = ! passage ( ! gas ?r\gh ! boil]4 ,if ,a is ! av]age area betwe5 all ! passes ( ! boil]1 ! heat transf] rate 9 ,babcock ,wilcox type boil]s ) ord9>y clean surfaces c be det]m9$ to a r close approximation f ! =mula3 ,w ,r #b4jj 4#jjad - ,a ,! mann] 9 :i* ,a appe>s 9 ?is =mula is ! same z x w\ld appe> 9 any =mula 9 :i* ! heat transf] rate 0 tak5 z dep5d+ ^u ! product ( ! velocity & ! d5sity ( ! gas jo9tly1 s9ce ?is product1 z po9t$ out above1 is equival5t to ,w_/,a4 ,nusselt's exp]im5ts1 z well z ^? ( o!rs1 indicate t ! ratio appe>s 9 ! prop] way4 ,:ile ! und]ly+ pr9ciples f :i* ! =mula = ?is av]age transf] rate 0 det]m9$ are que/ionable & at be/ only approximately correct1 x nev]!less foll[s t assum+ ! transf] rate z det]m9$ exp]im5tally1 ! =mula c be us$ 9 an inv]se way = calculat+ ! am\nt ( surface requir$ 9 a boil] = cool+ ! gases ?r\gh a range ( temp]ature cov]$ by ! exp]im5ts & x has be5 f\nd t ! results be> out ?is assumption4 ,! practical application ( ! !ory ( heat transf]1 z develop$ at pres5t1 seems consequ5tly to re/ on ^! la/ two =mulae1 :i* f _! nature are m or less empirical4 ,?r\gh ! range 9 ! production ( /eam met ) 9 boil]s n[ 9 s]vice :i* 9 ! m>9e type ext5ds to ! av]age evaporation ( #ab to #ae p\nds ( wat] f & at #bab degrees ,fahr5heit p] squ>e foot ( surface1 ! con/ant #b 9 ! approximate =mula = ! av]age heat transf] rate con/itutes q a l>ge proportion ( ! total4 ,! comp>ative increase 9 ! transf] rate due to a *ange 9 weight ( ! gases is n z great consequ5tly z x w\ld be if ?is con/ant 7 z]o4 ,= ?is reason1 ) ! same temp]ature ( ! gases ent]+ ! boil] surface1 !re w be a gradual increase 9 ! temp]ature ( ! gases leav+ ! surface z ! velocity or weight ( fl[ increases & ! proportion ( ! heat conta9$ 9 ! gases ent]+ ! boil] :i* is absorb$ by x is gradually r$uc$4 ,x is1 ( c\rse1 possible t ! weight ( ! gases c\ld be increas$ to su* an am\nt or ! area = _! passage ?r\gh ! boil] r$uc$ by additional baffles until ! con/ant t]m 9 ! heat transf] =mula w\ld be relatively unimportant4 ,"u su* conditions1 z po9t$ out previ\sly1 ! f9al gas temp]ature w\ld be unaffect$ by a fur!r increase 9 ! velocity ( ! fl[ & ! fraction ( ! heat c>ri$ by ! gases remov$ by ! boil] w\ld be con/ant4 ,actual te/s ( wa/e heat boil]s 9 :i* ! weight ( gas p] squ>e foot ( sectional area = its passage is _m times m ?an 9 ord9>y in/allations %[1 h[ev]1 t ?is condition has n be5 atta9$ & x w probably nev] be atta9$ 9 any practical in/allation4 ,x is = ?is reason t ! conclusions ( ,dr4 ,ni*olson 9 ! pap] ref]r$ to & ( ,messrs4 ,kreis+] & ,ray 9 ! pamphlet ,! ,transmission ( ,heat into ,/eam ,boil]s1 publi%$ by ! ,dep>tm5t ( ! ,int]ior 9 #aiab1 are n applicable )\t modification to boil] design4 ,9 sup]heat]s ! heat transf] is effect$ 9 two diff]5t /ages2 ! fir/ transf] is f ! hot gas to ! metal ( ! sup]heat] tube & ! second transf] is f ! metal ( ! tube to ! /eam on ! inside4 ,!re is1 !oretically1 an int]m$iate /age 9 ! transf] ( ! heat f ! outside to ! inside surface ( ! tube4 ,! conductivity ( /eel is suffici5t1 h[ev]1 to keep ! temp]atures ( ! two sides ( ! tube v ne>ly equal to ea* o!r s t ! effect ( ! transf] 9 ! tube itself c be neglect$4 ,! transf] f ! hot gas to ! metal ( ! tube takes place 9 ! same way z ) ! boil] tubes prop]1 reg>d be+ paid to ! temp]ature ( ! tube :i* increases z ! /eam is heat$4 ,! transf] f ! inside surface ( ! tube to ! /eam is ! inv]se ( ! process ( ! transf] ( ! heat on ! outside & seems to foll[ ! same laws4 ,! transf] rate1 !re=e1 w increase ) ! velocity ( ! /eam ?r\gh ! tube4 ,= ?is reason1 int]nal cores are q (t5 us$ 9 sup]heat]s & actually result 9 an increase 9 ! am\nt ( sup]heat obta9$ f a giv5 surface4 ,! av]age transf] rate 9 sup]heat]s bas$ on a diff]5ce 9 mean temp]ature betwe5 ! gas on ! outside ( ! tubes & ! /eam on ! inside ( ! tubes is if ,r is ! transf] rate f ! gas to ! tube & r ! rate f ! tube to ! /eam3 ,rr ----- ,r r & is always less ?an ei!r ,r or r4 ,?is rate is usually great] ?an ! av]age transf] rate = ! boil] z comput$ 9 ! way outl9$ 9 ! prec$+ p>agraphs4 ,s9ce1 h[ev]1 /eam _c1 "u any imag9$ set ( conditions1 take up m heat f a tube ?an w\ld wat] at ! same av]age temp]ature1 ?is fact supports ! cont5tion made t ! actual transf] rate 9 a boil] mu/ increase q rapidly ) ! temp]atures4 ,! actual transf] rates 9 sup]heat]s are affect$ by s _m conditions t x has n s f> be5 possible to evolve any =mula ( practical value4 ,illu/ration3 ,iron ,city ,brew]y ( ! ,pittsburgh ,brew+ ,co41 ,pittsburgh1 ,pa1 ,op]at+ 9 ?is ,plant #bjjj ,horse ,p[] ( ,babcock ,wilcox ,boil]s ,,index ,,page ,absolute pressure #aag ,absolute z]o #hj ,accessibility ( ,babcock ,wilcox boil] #ei ,acidity 9 boil] fe$ wat] #ajf ,actual evap4 correspond+ to boil] horse p[] #bhh ,advantages ( ,babcock ,wilcox boil]s #fa ,/ok] fir+ #aie ,wat] tube ov] fire tube boil]s #fa ,air1 composition ( #adg ,9 boil] fe$ wat] #ajf ,prop]ties ( #adg ,requir$ = combu/ion #aeb1 #aef ,specific heat ( #adh ,suppli$ = combu/ion #aeg ,vapor 9 #adi ,volume ( #adg ,weight ( #adg ,alkal9ity 9 boil] fe$ wat] #ajc ,te/+ fe$ = #ajc ,altitude1 boil+ po9t ( wat] at #ig ,*imney sizes correct$ = #bdh ,alum 9 fe$ wat] treatm5t #ajf ,a4 ,s4 ,m4 ,e4 code = boil] te/+ #bfg ,analyses1 comp>ison ( proximate & ultimate #ahc ,proximate coal1 & heat+ values #agg ,analysis1 coal1 proximate1 me?ods ( #agf ,coal1 ultimate #agc ,det]m9ation ( heat+ value f #agc ,analysis1 ,flue gas #aee ,flue gas1 me?ods ( #afj ,flue gas1 object ( #aee ,an?racite coal #aff ,combu/ion rates ) #bdf ,di/ribution ( #afg ,draft requir$ = #bdf ,fir+ #aij ,grate ratio = #aia ,semi #aff ,sizes ( #aij ,/eam z aid to burn+ #aia ,?ickness ( fires ) #aia ,ar*es1 fire brick1 z aid to combu/ion #aij ,fire brick1 = #cjd ,fire brick1 lay+ #cje ,automatic /ok]s1 advantages ( #aie ,ov]fe$ #aif ,travel+ grate #aig ,travel+ grate1 ,babcock ,wilcox #aid ,und]fe$ #aif ,auxili>ies1 exhau/ f1 9 heat+ fe$ wat] #aac ,sup]heat$ /eam ) #adb ,auxili>y grates1 ) bla/ furnace gas #bbh ,) oil fuel #bbe ,) wa/e heat #bce ,babcock1 ,g4 ,h41 lecture on circulation ( wat] 9 ,boil]s #bh ,lecture on !ory ( /eam mak+ #ib ,babcock ,wilcox ,co41 ,works at ,b>b]ton1 ,ohio #g ,works at ,bayonne1 ,n4 ,j4 #f ,babcock ,wilcox boil]1 accessibility ( #ei ,advantages ( #fa ,circulation ( wat] 9 #eg1 #ff ,con/ruction ( #di ,cross boxes #ej ,cross drum #ec ,cross drum1 dry /eam ) #ga ,drumheads #di ,drums #di ,durability #ge ,evolution ( #ci ,fitt+s #ee ,fixtures #ee ,fronts #ec ,h&hole fitt+s #ej1 #ea ,head]s #ej1 #ea ,incl9$ head]1 wr\ght /eel #ed ,inspection #ge ,life ( #gf ,mat]ials ent]+ into ! con/ruction ( #ei ,mud drums #ea ,pa? ( gases 9 #eg ,pa? ( wat] 9 #eg ,re> tube doors ( #ec1 #gd ,repairs #ge ,safety ( #ff ,sections #ej ,set = utiliz+ wa/e heat #bcf ,set ) ,babcock ,wilcox *a9 grate /ok] #ab ,set ) bagasse furnace #bjh ,set ) ,peabody oil furnace #bbb ,supports1 cross drum #ec ,supports1 longitud9al drum #eb ,tube doors #ec ,v]tical head]1 ca/ iron #eh ,v]tical head]1 wr\ght /eel #dh ,babcock ,wilcox *a9 grate /ok] #aid ,babcock ,wilcox sup]heat] #acf ,bagasse1 composition ( #bjf ,furnace #bji ,heat1 value ( #bjf ,te/s ( ,babcock ,wilcox boil]s ) #baj ,value ( diffusion #bjg ,b>ium c>bonate 9 fe$ wat] treatm5t #ajf ,b>ium hydrate 9 fe$ wat] treatm5t #ajf ,b>rus draft gauge #bed ,bitum9\s coal1 classification ( #afg ,combu/ion rates ) #bdf ,composition ( #agg ,di/ribution ( #afh ,fir+ me?ods #aic ,semi #aff ,sizes ( #aia ,?ickness ( fire ) #aic ,bla/ furnace gas1 burn]s = #bbh ,combu/ion ( #bbh ,composition ( #bbg ,/acks = #bbh ,boil]1 ,blakey's #bc ,brickwork1 c>e ( #cjg ,circulation ( wat] 9 /eam #bh ,comp\nds #aji ,developm5t ( wat] tube #bc ,eve's #bd ,evolution ( ,babcock ,wilcox #ci ,fire tube1 comp>$ ) wat] tube #fa ,gu]ney's #bd ,horse p[] #bfc ,loads1 economical #bhc ,p]k9s' #bd ,room pip+ #ajh ,room practice #big ,rumsey's #bc ,/ev5s'1 ,john #bc ,/ev5s'1 ,john ,cox #bc ,units1 numb] ( #bhi ,units1 size ( #bhi ,wilcox's #be ,woolf's #bc ,boil]s1 capacity ( #bgh ,c>e ( #bia ,effici5cy ( #bef ,horse p[] ( #bfe ,op]ation ( #bia ,requirem5ts ( /eam #bg ,te/+ #bfg ,boil+ po9t #hf ,( v>i\s sub/ances #hf ,( wat] z affect$ by altitude #ig ,brick1 fire #cjd ,ar*es #cje ,classification ( #cjd ,compression ( #cjc ,expansion ( #cjc ,h>dness ( #cjc ,lay+ up #cje ,nodules1 ratio ( #cjc ,nodules1 size ( #cjc ,pla/icity ( #cjb ,brick1 r$ #cjb ,brickwork1 c>e ( #cjg ,briti% !rmal unit #hc ,burn]s1 bla/ furnace gas #bbh ,by-product coke ov5 gas #bca ,natural gas #bca ,oil #bag ,oil1 capacity ( #bba ,oil1 me*anical atomiz+ #bai ,oil1 op]ation ( #bbc ,oil1 /eam atomiz+ #bah ,oil1 /eam consumption ( #bbj ,burn+ hydrog51 loss due to moi/ure =m$ 9 #bfa ,by-product coke ov5 gas burn]s #bca ,by-product coke ov5 gas1 combu/ion ( #bca ,by-product coke ov5 gas1 composition & heat value ( #bca ,calorie #hc ,calorific value 7see ,heat value74 ,calorimet]1 coal1 ,mahl] bomb #ahd ,mahl] bomb1 me?od ( correction #ahg ,mahl] bomb1 me?od ( op]ation ( #ahe ,calorimet]1 /eam1 compact type ( ?rottl+ #acb ,correction = #aca ,location ( nozzles = #acd ,normal read+ #aca ,nozzles #acd ,sep>at+ #acc ,?rottl+ #abi ,capacity ( boil]s #bfd1 #bgh ,z affect+ economy #bgf ,economical loads #bhc ,) bagasse #baj ,) bla/ furnace gas #bbh ,) coal #bhj ,) oil fuel #bbd ,capacity ( natural gas burn]s #bbi ,capacity ( oil burn]s #bba ,c>bon dioxide 9 flue gases #aed ,unreliability ( read+s tak5 alone #afb ,c>bon1 fix$ #afe ,incomplete combu/ion (1 loss due to #aeh ,monoxide1 heat value ( #aea ,monoxide1 9 flue gases #aee ,unconsum$ 9 a%1 loss due to #bfa ,c>e ( boil]s :5 out ( s]vice #cjj ,cas+s1 boil]s #cjg ,cau/icity ( fe$ wat] #ajc ,te/+ = #aje ,celsius !rmomet] scale #gi ,c5tigrade !rmomet] scale #gi ,*a9 grate /ok]1 ,babcock ,wilcox #aid ,*emicals requir$ 9 fe$ wat] treatm5t #aje ,*imney gases1 losses 9 #aeh1 #aei ,*imneys 7see ,draft74 ,correction 9 dim5sions = altitude #bdh ,diamet] ( #bdc ,draft available f #bda ,draft loss 9 #bci ,= bla/ furnace gas #bec ,= oil fuel #bea ,= wood fuel #bed ,height ( #bdc ,horse p[] !y w s]ve #bej ,circulation ( wat] 9 ,babcock ,wilcox boil]s #eg1 #ff ,( wat] 9 /eam boil]s #bh ,results ( defective #fb1 #ff1 #fg ,classification ( coals #aff ,fire brick #cjd ,fe$ wat] difficulties #ajj ,fuels #afe ,clean]s1 turb9e tube #bii ,clean+1 ease (1 ,babcock ,wilcox boil]s #gc ,clos$ fe$ wat] heat]s #aaa ,coal1 ,alaska #afi ,analyses & heat value #agg ,analysis1 proximate #agf ,analysis1 ultimate #agc ,an?racite #aff ,bitum9\s #afg ,cannel #afg ,classification ( #afe1 #aff ,combu/ion ( #aij ,comp>ison ) oil #bad ,consumption1 increase due to sup]heat #aci ,di/ribution ( #afg ,=mation ( #afe ,lignite #afg ,records #bic ,semi-an?racite #aff ,semi-bitum9\s #aff ,sizes ( an?racite #aij ,sizes ( bitum9\s #aia ,code ( ,a4 ,s4 ,m4 ,e4 = boil] te/+ #bfg ,coeffici5t ( expansion ( v>i\s sub/ances #hg ,coke #aga ,ov5 gas1 by-product1 burn]s #bca ,ov5 gas1 by-product1 combu/ion ( #bca ,ov5 gas1 by-product1 composition & heat value ( #bca ,cok+ me?od ( fir+ #aie ,color z indication ( temp]ature #ia ,comb9ation furnaces #bbd ,combu/ible 9 fuels #aej ,combu/ion #aej ,air requir$ = #aeb1 #aef ,air suppli$ = #aeg ,combu/ion ( coal #aij ,( gase\s fuels #bbg ,( liquid fuels #bab ,( solid fuels o!r ?an coal #bja ,composition ( bagasse #bje ,bla/ furnace gas #bbg ,by-product coke ov5 gas #bca ,coals #agg ,natural gas #bbi ,oil #bac ,wood #bja ,comp\nds1 boil] #aji ,compressibility ( wat] #ig ,compression ( fire brick #cjc ,cond5sation1 effect ( sup]heat$ /eam on #adj ,9 /eam pipes #cac ,consumption1 heat1 ( eng9es #ada ,correction1 /em1 = !rmomet]s #hj ,= normal read+ 9 /eam calorimet] #aca ,= radiation1 bomb calorimet] #ahg ,corrosion #aja1 #ajf ,cov]+s1 pipe #cae ,cross drum1 ,babcock ,wilcox boil] #eb1 #ec1 #fj ,dry /eam ) #ga ,draft area z affect+ economy 9 ,babcock ,wilcox boil]s #gj ,available f *imneys #bda ,draft loss 9 *imneys #bci ,loss 9 boil]s #bde ,loss 9 flues #bdc ,loss 9 furnaces #bde ,draft requir$ = an?racite #bdf ,requir$ = v>i\s fuels #bdf ,drums1 ,babcock ,wilcox1 cross #ec ,cross1 boxes #ej ,heads #di ,longitud9al #di ,manholes #di ,nozzles on #ej ,dry /eam 9 ,babcock ,wilcox boil]s #ga ,d5sity ( gases #adg ,/eam #aae ,dulong's =mula = heat+ value #agc ,ebullition1 po9t ( #hf ,economiz]s #aaa ,effici5cy ( boil]s1 *>t ( #beh ,combu/ible basis #bef ,dry coal basis #bef ,increase 91 due to sup]heat]s #aci ,losses 9 7see ,heat balance7 #bei ,te/+ #bfg ,te/ vs4 op]at+ #bgh ,v>iation 91 ) capacity #bhd ,) coal #bhh ,) oil #bbd ,ellison draft gauge #bed ,eng9e1 ,h]o's #ac ,eng9es1 sup]heat$ /eam ) #ada ,equival5t evaporation f & at #bab degrees #aaf ,eve's boil] #bd ,evolution ( ,babcock ,wilcox boil] #ci ,exhau/ /eam f auxili>ies #aac ,expansion1 coeffici5t ( #hg ,( fire brick #cjc ,( pipe #cae ,pyromet] #hi ,factor ( evaporation #aag ,fahr5heit !rmomet] scale #gi ,fans1 use (1 9 wa/e heat "w #bcc ,fe$ wat]1 air 9 #ajf ,z affect+ capacity #bgi ,boil] #ajj ,fe$ wat] heat]s1 clos$ #aaa ,economiz]s #aaa ,op5 #aaa ,fe$ wat] heat+1 me?ods ( #aaa ,sav+ by #aaj ,fe$ wat]1 impurities 9 #ajj ,l9es #cab ,me?od ( fe$+ #aaj ,fe$ wat] treatm5t #ajb ,*emical #ajb ,*emical1 lime & soda process #ajb ,*emical1 lime process #ajb ,*emical1 soda process #ajb ,*emicals us$ 9 lime & soda process #aje ,comb9$ heat & *emical #aje ,heat #ajb ,less usual reag5ts #ajf ,fir+1 advantages ( /ok] #aie ,me?ods = an?racite #aij ,bitum9\s #aic ,lignite #aie ,fitt+s1 h&hole 9 ,babcock ,wilcox boil]s #ej1 #ea ,pipe #caa ,sup]heat$ /eam #ade ,) ,babcock ,wilcox boil]s #ee ,fixtures ) ,babcock ,wilcox boil]s #ee ,flanges1 pipe #cji ,fl[ ( /eam into pressure above atmosph]e #cag ,into ! atmosph]e #cbh ,?r\gh orifices #cag ,?r\gh pipes #cag ,flue gas analysis #aee ,conv]sion ( volumetric to weight #afa ,me?ods ( mak+ #afj ,object ( #aee ,orsat app>atus #aei ,flue gas1 composition ( #aee ,losses 9 #aeh1 #aei ,weight p] p\nd ( c>bon 9 fuel #aeh ,weight p] p\nd ( fuel #aeh ,weight result+ f combu/ion #aeg ,foam+ #ajb1 #ajg ,fuel analysis1 proximate #agf ,ultimate #agc ,fuel calorimet]1 ,mabl] bomb #ahd ,te/s1 me?od ( mak+ #ahf ,fuels1 classification ( #afe ,gase\s1 & _! combu/ion #bbg ,fuels1 liquid1 & _! combu/ion #bab ,solid1 coal #aij ,solid1 o!r ?an coal #bja ,furnace1 bagasse #bji ,bla/ furnace gas #bbh ,by-product coke ov5 gas #bca ,comb9ation wood & oil #bbe ,effici5cy ( #bhc ,natural gas #bbi ,peabody oil #bbb ,web/] #ee ,wood burn+ #bja1 #bjb ,galvanic action #ajg ,gas1 bla/ furnace1 burn]s #bbh ,combu/ion ( #bbh ,composition ( #bbg ,gas1 by-product coke ov51 burn]s #bca ,combu/ion ( #bca ,composition ( & heat value #bca ,gas1 natural1 burn]s #bbi ,combu/ion ( #bbi ,composition & heat value ( #bbi ,gases1 *imney1 losses 9 #aeh1 #aei ,d5sity ( #afc ,flue 7see ,flue gases74 ,pa? ( 9 ,babcock ,wilcox boil]s #eg ,wa/e 7see ,wa/e heat7 #bcb ,gaskets #cab ,gauges1 draft1 ,b>rus #bed ,ellison #bee ,peabody #bee ,u-tube #bed ,gauges1 vacuum #aag ,grate ratio = an?racite #aia ,gravity ( oils #bad ,groov+ #ajb ,gu]ney's boil] #bd ,h&hole fitt+s = ,babcock ,wilcox boil]s #ej1 #ea ,h&holes 9 ,babcock ,wilcox boil]s #ej1 #ea ,h>dness ( boil] fe$ wat] #ajb ,p]man5t #ajb ,tempor>y #ajb ,te/+ = #aje ,h>dness ( fire brick #cjc ,heat & *emical me?ods ( treat+ fe$ wat] #aje ,& its measurem5t #gi ,balance #bfb ,consumption ( eng9es #ada ,lat5t #hd ,( liquid #abj ,s5sible #hd ,specific 7see ,specific heat7 #hc ,total #hf ,transf] #cbc ,heat value ( bagasse #bje ,by-product coke ov5 gas #bca ,coal #agg ,heat value ( fuels1 det]m9ation ( #agc ,det]m9ation ( ,k5t's approximate me?od #ahc ,high & l[ #agd ,heat value ( natural gas #bbi ,oil #bae ,wood #bja ,heat wa/e 7see ,wa/e heat7 #bcb ,heat]s1 fe$ wat]1 clos$ #aaa ,economiz]s #aaa ,op5 #aaa ,heat+ fe$ wat]1 sav+ by #aaj ,h]o's eng9e #ac ,high & l[ heat value ( fuels #agd ,high pressure /eam1 advantages ( use ( #aai ,high temp]ature measurem5ts1 accuracy ( #hi ,horse p[]1 boil] #bfe ,evaporation 7actual7 correspond+ to #bhh ,rat$ boil] #bfe ,/acks = v>i\s1 ( boil]s #bej ,hydrog5 9 flue gases #aef ,ice1 specific heat ( #ii ,idalia1 te/s ) sup]heat$ /eam on ya*t #adc ,impurities 9 boil] fe$ wat] #ajj ,incomplete combu/ion ( c>bon1 loss due to #aeh ,injectors1 effici5cy ( #aab ,relative effici5cy (1 & pumps #aab ,iron alum 9 fe$ wat] treatm5t #ajf ,k5t1 ,wm41 det]m9ation ( heat value f analysis #ahc ,/ack table #bej ,k9dl+ po9t #aej ,lat5t heat #hd1 #aae ,lay+ ( fire brick #cje ,r$ brick #cje ,lignite1 analyses ( #aha ,combu/ion ( #aie ,lime & soda treatm5t ( boil] fe$ #ajb ,us$ 9 *emical treatm5t ( fe$ #aje ,lime treatm5t ( boil] fe$ wat] #ajb ,liquid fuels & _! combu/ion #bab ,loads1 economical boil] #bhc ,losses due to excess air #aeh ,due to unburn$ c>bon #aeh ,due to unconsum$ c>bon 9 ! a% #bfa ,losses 9 effici5cy 7see ,heat balance74 ,9 flue gases #aeh1 #aei ,l[ wat] 9 boil]s #bih ,melt+ po9ts ( metals #ia ,m]curial pyromet]s #hi ,moi/ure 9 coal1 det]m9ation ( #agf ,9 fuels1 losses due to #bei ,9 /eam1 det]m9ation ( #abi ,mud drum ( ,babcock ,wilcox boil] #ea ,napi]'s =mula = fl[ ( /eam #cba ,natural gas1 burn]s = #bbi ,combu/ion ( #bbi ,composition & heat value ( #bbi ,nitrate ( silv] 9 te/+ fe$ wat] #aje ,nitrog51 z indication ( excess air #aeg ,9 air #adg ,9 flue gases #aeg ,nodules1 fire brick1 ratio ( #cjc ,size ( #cjc ,normal read+1 ?rottl+ calorimet] #aca ,nozzles1 /eam sampl+ = calorimet] #acd ,location ( #acd ,oil fuel1 burn]s 7see ,burn]s74 ,capacity ) #bbd ,combu/ion ( #bag ,comp>ison ) coal #bad ,composition & heat value ( #bac ,effici5cy ) #bbd ,furnaces = #bba ,gravity ( #bad ,9 comb9ation ) o!r fuels #bbd ,/acks = #bea ,te/s ) #bbd ,op5 he>? furnace1 ,babcock ,wilcox boil] set = utiliz+ wa/e heat f #bcf ,op5 heat]s1 fe$ wat] #aaa ,op]ation ( boil]s #bia ,optical pyromet]s #ia ,orsat app>atus #afj ,oxalate ( soda 9 fe$ wat] treatm5t #ajf ,oxyg5 9 air #adg ,flue gases #aee ,peabody draft gauge #bee ,=mulae = coal calorimet] correction #ahh ,furnace = oil fuel #bba1 #bbb ,oil burn] #bah ,peat #afg ,p]k9s' boil] #bd ,pfaundl]'s me?od ( coal calorimet] radiation correction #ahg ,pipe cov]+s #cae ,data #cjh ,expansion ( #cae ,pipe fitt+s #caa ,flanges #cji ,fl[ ( /eam ?r\gh #cag ,radiation f b>e & cov]$ #cad ,sizes #cab ,supports = #cae ,pip+1 boil] room #cjh ,pitt+ #ajb ,plant records1 coal #bic ,draft #bid ,temp]ature #bid ,wat] #bic ,pla/icity ( fire brick #cjb ,press$ fuels #aga ,prim+ 9 boil]s #ajb ,me?ods ( treat+ = #ajg ,prop]ties ( wat] #if ,proximate analyses ( coal #agg ,proximate analysis #agc ,me?od ( mak+ #agf ,pulv]iz$ fuels #agj ,pump1 effici5cy ( fe$ #aab ,pyromet]s1 expansion #hi ,m]curial #hi ,optical #ia ,radiation #ij ,!rmo-electric #ij ,quality ( /eam #abi ,radiation correction = coal calorimet] #ahg1 #ahh ,correction = /eam calorimet] #aca ,effect ( sup]heat$ /eam on #adj ,f pipes #cad ,losses 9 effici5cy due to #cjg ,pyromet]s #ij ,ratio ( air suppli$ to t requir$ = combu/ion #aeg ,reag5ts1 less usual 9 fe$ treatm5t #ajf ,records1 plant1 coal #bic ,draft #bid ,temp]ature #bid ,wat] #bic ,requirem5ts ( /eam boil]s #bg ,z indicat$ by evolution ( ,babcock ,wilcox #de ,rumsey's boil] #bc ,safety ( ,babcock ,wilcox boil]s #ff ,salts responsible = scale #aja ,solubility ( #aja ,sampl+ coal #bga ,nozzles = /eam #acd ,nozzles = /eam1 location ( #acd ,/eam #acd ,/eam1 errors 9 #ace ,saturat$ air #adi ,sav+ by heat+ fe$ #aaj ,) sup]heat 9 ,idalia te/s #adc ,) sup]heat 9 prime mov]s #adj1 #adb ,scale 7see ,!rmomet]s7 #aja ,sea wat]1 composition ( #ig ,sections1 ,babcock ,wilcox boil] #ej ,selection ( boil]s #bgg ,s5sible heat #hd ,sep>at+ /eam calorimet] #acb ,sizes ( an?racite coal #aij ,bitum9\s coal #aia ,smoke1 me?ods ( elim9at+ #aig ,smokelessness1 relative nature ( #aig ,) h&-fir$ furnaces #aii ,) /ok]-fir$ furnaces #aii ,soda1 lime &1 treatm5t ( fe$ #ajc ,oxalate (1 9 treatm5t ( fe$ #ajf ,removal ( scale aid$ by #cjj ,silicate (1 9 treatm5t ( fe$ #ajf ,treatm5t ( boil] fe$ #ajc ,space occupi$ by ,babcock ,wilcox boil]s #ff ,specific heat #hc ,specific heat ( air #adh ,ice #ii ,saturat$ /eam #ii ,specific heat ( sup]heat$ /eam #acg ,v>i\s solids1 liquids & gases #he ,wat] #ii ,spread+ me?od ( fir+ #aic ,/acks & draft 7see ,*imneys7 #bcg ,/acks = bla/ furnace gas #bbh ,oil fuel #bea ,wood #bjb1 #bed ,/ay$ surfaces1 abs5ce (1 9 ,babcock ,wilcox boil]s #fi ,difficulties aris+ f use ( #fg ,/eam #aae ,z aid to combu/ion ( an?racite #aia ,z aid to combu/ion ( lignite #aie ,consumption ( prime mov]s #bhi ,d5sity ( #aae ,fl[ (1 into atmosph]e #cbj ,fl[ (1 into pressure above atmosph]e #cah ,fl[ (1 ?r\gh pipes #cag ,high pressure1 advantage ( #aai ,hi/ory ( g5]ation & use ( #ac ,mak+1 !ory ( #ib ,moi/ure 9 #abi ,prop]ties (1 = vacuum #aai ,prop]ties ( saturat$ #abb ,prop]ties ( sup]heat$ #abe ,quality ( #abi ,saturat$ #aae ,specific heat ( saturat$ #ii ,specific heat ( sup]heat$ #acg ,specific volume ( #aae ,sup]heat$ #acg ,sup]heat]s 7see ,sup]heat$ /eam74 ,/eam+1 quick1 ) ,babcock ,wilcox boil]s #gc ,/em ,correction1 !rmomet] #hj ,/ev5s1 ,john1 boil] #bc ,/ev5s1 ,john ,cox1 boil] #bc ,/ok]s1 automatic1 advantages ( #aie ,babcock ,wilcox *a9 grate #aid ,ov]fe$ #aif ,smokelessness ) #aii ,travel+ grate #aig ,und]fe$ #aif ,sup]heat$ /eam #acg ,additional fuel = #aci ,effect on cond5sation #adj ,effect on radiation #adj ,fitt+s = use ) #ade ,idalia te/s ) #adc ,specific heat ( #acg ,v>iation 9 temp]ature ( #ade ,) turb9es #adb ,sup]heat]1 ,babcock ,wilcox #acf ,effect ( on boil] effici5cy #aci ,supports1 ,babcock ,wilcox boil] #eb1 #ec ,tan b>k #baj ,t>1 wat] gas #bbe ,temp]ature1 accuracy ( high1 measurem5ts #hi ,z indicat$ by color #ia ,( wa/e gases #bcb ,records #bid ,te/ conditions vs4 op]at+ conditions #bgh ,te/+1 boil]1 ,a4 ,s4 ,m4 ,e4 code = #bfg ,te/s ( ,babcock ,wilcox boil]s ) bagasse #baj ,coal #bhj ,oil #bbd ,!ory ( /eam mak+ #ib ,!rmo-electric pyromet]s #ij ,!rmomet] scale1 celsius #gi ,!rmomet] scale1 c5tigrade #gf ,fahr5heit #gi ,raumur #gi ,!rmomet] scales1 comp>ison ( #hj ,conv]sion ( #hj ,!rmomet] /em correction = #hj ,!rmomet]s1 glass = #gi ,?rottl+ calorimet] #abi ,total heat #hf1 #aae ,treatm5t ( boil] fe$ wat] 7see ,fe$ wat]7 #ajb ,*emicals us$ 9 #aje ,less usual reag5ts 9 #ajf ,tube data #cji ,doors 9 ,babcock ,wilcox boil]s #ec ,tubes 9 ,babcock ,wilcox boil]s #ej ,ultimate analyses ( coal #ahc ,analysis ( fuels #agc ,unacc\nt$ losses 9 effici5cy #bfa ,unconsum$ c>bon 9 a% #bfa ,units1 boil]1 numb] ( #bhi ,size ( #bhi ,units1 ,briti% !rmal #hc ,unreliability ( ,,co#b read+s alone #afb ,vacuum gauges #aag ,prop]ties ( /eam = #aai ,valves us$ ) sup]heat$ /eam #cab ,v>iation 9 prop]ties ( saturat$ /eam #aai ,sup]heat f boil]s #ade ,volume ( air #adg ,wat] #if ,volume1 specific1 ( /eam #aae ,wa/e heat1 auxili>y grates ) boil]s = #bce ,babcock ,wilcox boil]s set = use ) #bcf ,boil] design = #bcc ,curve ( temp]ature1 heat absorption1 & heat+ surface #bce ,draft = #bcc ,fans = use ) #bcc ,p[] obta9able f #bcb ,temp]ature (1 f v>i\s processes #bcb ,utilization ( #bcb ,wat]1 air 9 boil] fe$ #ajf ,boil+ po9ts ( #ig ,compressibility ( #ig ,wat] fe$1 impurities 9 #ajj ,me?ods ( fe$+ to boil] #acb ,sav+ by heat+ #aaj ,treatm5t 7see ,fe$ wat]74 ,wat]-gas t> #bbe ,heat ( ! liquid #abj ,pa? (1 9 ,babcock ,wilcox boil]s #eg ,prop]ties ( #if ,records #bic ,specific heat ( #ii ,volume ( #if ,weight ( #if1 #abj ,watt1 ,james #ag ,wea!r+ ( coal #afi ,web/] furnace #ee ,weight ( air #adg ,wilcox boil] #be ,wood1 combu/ion ( dry #bjb ,wet #bjc ,composition & heat value ( #bja ,furnace design = #bja ,moi/ure 9 #bja ,sawmill refuse #bjb ,woolf s boil] #bd ,z]o1 absolute #ha ,,footnotes ,footnote #a3 ,see discussion by ,george ,h4 ,babcock1 ( ,/irl+'s pap] on ,wat]-tube & ,%ell ,boil]s1 9 ,transactions1 ,am]ican ,society ( ,me*anical ,eng9e]s1 ,volume ,,vi41 ,page #fja4 ,footnote #b3 ,:5 "o temp]ature alone is giv5 ! true specific heat is giv52 o!rwise ! value is ! mean specific heat = ! range ( temp]ature giv54 ,footnote #c3 ,= v>iation1 see ,table #ac4 ,footnote #d3 ,:]e range ( temp]ature is giv51 coeffici5t is mean ov] range4 ,footnote #e3 ,coeffici5t ( cubical expansion4 ,footnote #f3 ,le ,*ateli]'s ,inve/igations4 ,footnote #g3 ,burgess-,le ,*ateli]4 ,footnote #h3 ,= accuracy ( high temp]ature measurem5ts1 see ,table #g4 ,footnote #i3 ,messrs4 ,:ite ,taylor ,trans4 ,a4 ,s4 ,m4 ,e41 ,vol4 ,,xxi1 #aijj4 ,footnote #aj3 ,see ,sci5tific ,am]ican ,supplem5t1 #fbd1 #fbe1 ,decemb]1 #ahhg4 ,footnote #aa3 #dfj degrees bel[ ! z]o ( ,fahr5heit4 ,?is is ! ne>e/ approximation 9 :ole degrees to ! late/ det]m9ations ( ! absolute z]o ( temp]ature ,footnote #ab3 ,m>ks & ,davis ,footnote #ac3 ,see page #abj4 ,footnote #ad3 ,see ,trans41 ,a4 ,s4 ,m4 ,e41 ,vol4 ,,xiv41 ,page #gi4 ,footnote #ae3 ,"s wat]s1 n naturally acid1 become s at high temp]atures1 z :5 *loride ( magnesia decomposes ) ! =mation ( free hydro*loride acid2 su* ph5om5a become m s]i\s ) an increase 9 pressure & temp]ature4 ,footnote #af3 ,l4 ,m4 ,boo? ,company4 ,footnote #ag3 ,bas$ on lime conta9+ #ij p] c5t calcium oxide4 ,footnote #ah3 ,bas$ on soda conta9+ #eh p] c5t sodium oxide4 ,footnote #ai3 ,see ,/em ,correction1 page #hj4 ,footnote #bj3 ,see pages #abe to #abg4 ,footnote #ba3 ,! actual specific heat at a p>ticul> temp]ature & pressure is t correspond+ to a *ange ( "o degree "o way or ! o!r & diff]s consid]ably f ! av]age value = ! p>ticul> temp]ature & pressure giv5 9 ! table4 ,! mean values giv5 9 ! table give correct results :5 employ$ to det]m9e ! factor ( evaporation :]eas ! actual values at ! p>ticul> temp]atures & pressures w\ld n4 ,footnote #bb3 ,see page #aag4 ,footnote #bc3 ,ratio by weight ( ,o to ,n 9 air4 ,footnote #bd3 #d4cb p\nds ( air conta9s "o p\nd ( ,o4 ,footnote #be3 ,p] p\nd ( ,c 9 ! ,,co4 ,footnote #bf3 ,ratio by volume ( ,o to ,n 9 air4 ,footnote #bg3 ,available hydrog54 ,footnote #bh3 ,see ,table #ca1 page #aea4 ,footnote #bi3 ,?is =mula is equival5t to 7#aj7 giv5 9 *apt] on combu/ion4 #cd4ef !oretical air requir$ = combu/ion ( "o p\nd ( ,h 7see ,table #ca74 ,footnote #cj3 ,= degree ( accuracy ( ?is =mula1 see ,transactions1 ,a4 ,s4 ,m4 ,e41 ,volume ,,xxi1 #aijj1 page #id4 ,footnote #ca3 ,= loss p] p\nd ( coal multiply by p] c5t ( c>bon 9 coal by ultimate analysis4 ,footnote #cb3 ,= loss p] p\nd ( coal multiply by p] c5t ( c>bon 9 coal by ultimate analysis4 ,footnote #cc3 ,! ,pan!r ,creek ,di/rict =ms a "p ( :at is kn[n z ! ,s\!rn ,field2 9 ! matt] ( h>dness1 h[ev]1 ^! coals are m ne>ly ak9 to ,lehigh coals4 ,footnote #cd3 ,sometimes call$ ,we/]n ,middle or ,nor!rn ,s*uylkill ,field4 ,footnote #ce3 ,geographically1 ! ,%amok9 ,di/rict is "p ( ! ,we/]n ,middle ,mahanoy ,field1 b ! coals f\nd 9 ?is section resemble m closely ^? ( ! ,wyom+ ,field4 ,footnote #cf3 ,see page #afa4 ,footnote #cg3 ,u4 ,s4 ,geological ,survey4 ,footnote #ch3 ,see ,/eam ,boil] ,economy1 page #dg1 ,fir/ ,edition4 ,footnote #ci3 ,to agree ) ,pfaundl]'s =mula ! end ord9ates %\ld be giv5 half values 9 det]m9+ ,t1 i4 e41 ,t 77,temp4 at ,b ,temp4 at ,c7 #b ,temp4 all o!r ord9ates7 ,n ,footnote #dj3 ,b4 t4 u4 calculat$4 ,footnote #da3 ,av]age ( two samples4 ,footnote #db3 ,assum+ bagasse temp]ature #hj degrees ,fahr5heit & exit gas temp]ature #ejj degrees ,fahr5heit4 ,footnote #dc3 ,dr4 ,h5ry ,c4 ,%]man4 ,columbia ,univ]sity4 ,footnote #dd3 ,includes ,n4 ,footnote #de3 ,includes silt4 ,footnote #df3 ,net effici5cy gross effici5cy less #b p] c5t = /eam us$ 9 atomiz+ oil4 ,heat value ( oil #ahejj ,b4 t4 u4 ,"o ton ( coal weighs #bjjj p\nds4 ,"o b>rel ( oil weighs #ccf p\nds4 ,"o gallon ( oil weighs #h p\nds4 ,footnote #dg3 ,av]age ( #bj samples4 ,footnote #dh3 ,includes ,h & ,,*#d4 ,footnote #di3 ,b4 t4 u4 approximate4 ,= me?od ( calculation1 see page #age4 ,footnote #ej3 ,temp]atures are av]age ov] "o cycle ( op]ation & may v>y widely z to maximum & m9imum4 ,footnote #ea3 ,dep5dant ^u l5g? ( kiln4 ,footnote #eb3 ,results secur$ by ?is me?od w be approximately correct4 ,footnote #ec3 ,see ,*imneys = ,crude ,oil1 ,c4 ,r4 ,weym\?1 ,trans4 ,a4 ,s4 ,m4 ,e41 ,dec4 #aiab4 ,footnote #ed3 ,to det]m9e ! portion ( ! fuel :i* is actually burn$1 ! weight ( a%es %\ld be comput$ f ! total weight ( coal burn$ & ! coal & a% analyses 9 ord] to all[ = any a% t may be bl[n away ) ! flue gases4 ,9 _m cases ! a% s comput$ is consid]ably high] ?an t f\nd 9 ! te/4 ,footnote #ee3 ,z di/+ui%$ f ! effici5cy ( boil]1 furnace & grate4 ,footnote #ef3 ,to obta9 ! effici5cy ( ! boil] z an absorb] ( ! heat conta9$ 9 ! hot gases1 ?is %\ld be ! heat g5]at$ p] p\nd ( combu/ible correct$ s t any heat lo/ ?r\gh incomplete combu/ion w n be *>g$ to ! boil]4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 does n elim9ate ! furnace z ! pres5ce ( excess air 9 ! gases l[]s ! effici5cy & ! ability to run )\t excess air dep5ds on ! design & op]ation ( ! furnace4 ,! effici5cy bas$ on ! total heat value p] p\nd ( combu/ible is1 h[ev]1 ord9>ily tak5 z ! effici5cy ( ! boil] not)/&+ ! fact t x necess>ily involves ! furnace4 ,footnote #eg3 ,see pages #bhj & #bha4 ,footnote #eh3 ,:]e ! horse p[] ( m>9e boil]s is /at$1 x g5]ally ref]s to & is synonym\s ) ! horse p[] develop$ by ! eng9es :i* !y s]ve4 ,footnote #ei3 ,9 o!r c\ntries1 boil]s are ord9>ily rat$ n 9 horse p[] b by specify+ ! quantity ( wat] !y are capable ( evaporat+ f & at #bab degrees or "u o!r conditions4 ,footnote #fj3 ,see equival5t evaporation f & at #bab degrees1 page #aaf4 ,footnote #fa3 ,! recomm5dations are ^? made 9 ! prelim9>y report ( ! ,committee on ,p[] ,te/s & at ! "t ( go+ to press h n be5 f9ally accept$ by ! ,society z a :ole4 ,footnote #fb3 ,?is code relates prim>ily to te/s made ) coal4 ,footnote #fc3 ,! necess>y app>atus & in/rum5ts are describ$ else:]e4 ,no def9ite rules c be giv5 = location ( in/rum5ts4 ,= sugge/ions on location1 see ,a4 ,s4 ,m4 ,e4 ,code ( #aiab1 ,app5dix #bd4 ,= calibration ( in/rum5ts1 see ,code1 ,vol4 ,,xxxiv1 ,trans41 ,a4 ,s4 ,m4 ,e41 pages #afia-agjb & #agac-ad4 ,footnote #fd3 ,"o to two in*es = small an?racite coals4 ,footnote #fe3 ,d n bl[ d[n ! wat]-glass column = at lea/ "o h\r be=e ^! read+s are tak54 ,an errone\s indication may o!rwise be caus$ by a *ange ( temp]ature & d5sity ( ! wat] )9 ! column & connect+ pipe4 ,footnote #ff3 ,d n bl[ d[n ! wat]-glass column = at lea/ "o h\r be=e ^! read+s are tak54 ,an errone\s indication may o!rwise be caus$ by a *ange ( temp]ature & d5sity ( ! wat] )9 ! column & connect+ pipe4 ,footnote #fg3 ,= calculations relat+ to quality ( /eam1 see page #abi4 ,footnote #fh3 ,:]e ! coal is v moi/1 a portion ( ! moi/ure w cl+ to ! walls ( ! j>1 & 9 su* case ! j> & fuel toge!r %\ld be dri$ out 9 det]m9+ ! total moi/ure4 ,footnote #fi3 ,say ounce to #b ounces4 ,footnote #gj3 ,= me?ods ( analysis1 see page #agf4 ,footnote #ga3 ,= sugge/ions relative to ,smoke ,obs]vations1 see ,a4 ,s4 ,m4 ,e4 ,code ( #aiab1 ,app5dix #af & #ag4 ,footnote #gb3 ,! t]m z fir$ means actual condition includ+ moi/ure1 correct$ = e/imat$ diff]5ce 9 weight ( coal on ! grate at beg9n+ & end4 ,footnote #gc3 ,correct$ = inequality ( wat] level & /eam pressure at beg9n+ & end4 ,footnote #gd3 ,see ,transactions1 ,a4 ,s4 ,m4 ,e41 ,volume ,,xxxiii1 #aiab4 ,footnote #ge3 ,= me?ods ( det]m9+1 see ,te*nologic ,pap] ,no4 #g1 ,bureau ( ,/&>ds1 page #dd4 ,footnote #gf3 ,(t5 call$ extra heavy pipe4 ,footnote #gg3 ,see ,fe$ ,pip+1 page #cab4 ,footnote #gh3 ,see ,sup]heat ,*apt]1 page #ade4 ,footnote #gi3 ,see ,radiation f ,/eam ,l9es1 page #cad4 ,footnote #hj3 ,d1 ! d5sity1 is tak5 z ! mean ( ! d5sity at ! initial & f9al pressures4 ,footnote #ha3 ,diamet]s up to #e in*es1 inclusive1 are actual diamet]s ( /&>d pipe1 see ,table #fb1 page #cjh4 ,footnote #hb3 ,diamet]s up to #d in*es1 inclusive1 are actual int]nal diamet]s1 see ,table #fb1 page #cjh4 ,footnote #hc3 ,h4 ,p4 ,jordan1 ,proce$+s ( ! ,in/itute ( ,me*anical ,eng9e]s1 #aiji4 ,footnote #hd3 ,zeits*rift des ,v]e9es ,deuts*] ,+5ieur1 #aiji1 page #agej4 ,footnote #he3 ,he9ri* ,grb]--,zeit4 d4 ,v]4 ,+41 ,m>* #aiab1 ,decemb] #aiab4 ,lepr9ce-,r+uet--,revue de ,mecanique4 ,july #aiaa4 ,john ,p]ry--,! ,/eam ,eng9e4 ,t4 ,e4 ,/anton--,philosophical ,transactions1 #ahig4 ,dr4 ,j4 ,t4 ,ni*olson--,proce$+s ,in/itute ( ,eng9e]s ,%ipbuild]s 9 ,scotl&1 #aiaj4 ,w4 ,e4 ,dally--,proce$+s ,in/itute ( ,me*anical ,eng9e]s1 #aiji4 ,footnote #hf3 ,proce$+s ,royal ,society1 ,vol4 ,,lxxi4 ,footnote #hg3 ,zeits*rift des ,v]e9es ,deuts*] ,+5ieur1 #aiaj1 page #aaed4 ,footnote #hh3 ,proce$+s ,in/itute ( ,eng9e]s & ,%ipbuild]s1 #aiaj4 ,footnote #hi3 ,natural or ,hyp]bolic ,log>i?m4