,transcriber's note3 ,page numbers in this book are indicated by numbers enclosed in curly braces1 e4g4 #ii4 ,they have been located where page breaks occurred in the original book4 ,for its ,index1 a page number has been placed only at the start of that section4 ,,the ,,books ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,testament by the ,,rev4 ,,leighton ,,pullan ,fellow and ,tutor of ,st4 ,john ,baptist's ,college1 ,oxford4 ,if you choose to obey your ,bibles1 you will never care who attacks them4--,,ruskin4 ,fourth ,edition ,revised ,rivingtons #cd ,king ,street1 ,covent ,garden ,london #aiab v ,,preface ,this book is intended to meet the widely prevalent need of an introduction to the ,new ,testament which is neither a mere hand-book nor an elaborate treatise for specialists4 ,it is written in a conservative spirit1 and at the same time an ample use has been made of recent critical investigation4 ,it has been impossible to give an exhaustive proof of the position maintained1 but no matter of great importance has been overlooked4 ,the arguments will be intelligible to educated persons who are unacquainted with the ,greek language4 ,the author has sometimes derived much help from the articles in ,dr4 ,hastings' ,dictionary of the ,bible4 ,the dates which have been adopted are in most cases those adopted in vi that ,dictionary by ,dr4 ,sanday and ,mr4 ,c4 ,h4 ,turner4 ,his best thanks are due to the ,rev4 ,e4 ,w4 ,pullan1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,f4 ,briscoe1 and ,mr4 ,e4 ,w4 ,corbett1 for the kind help which they have given him in the preparation of the book4 vii ,,contents ,,chapter ,,page ,,table ,,of ,,approximate ,,dates 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 x ,i4 ,,the ,,new ,,testament 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #a ,,ii4 ,,the ,,gospels 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #i ,,iii4 ,,the ,,gospel ,,according ,,to ,,st4 ,,matthew 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #cc ,,iv4 ,,the ,,gospel ,,according ,,to ,,st4 ,,mark 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #di ,v4 ,,the ,,gospel ,,according ,,to ,,st4 ,,luke 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #fd ,,vi4 ,,the ,,gospel ,,according ,,to ,,st4 ,,john 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #hj ,,vii4 ,,the ,,acts ,,of ,,the ,,apostles 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #ajb ,,viii4 ,,the ,,epistles ,,of ,,st4 ,,paul 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #aaf ,,ix4 #a ,,and #b ,,thessalonians 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #abe ,x4 ,,the ,,first ,,epistle ,,of ,,paul ,,the ,,apostle ,,to ,,the ,,corinthians 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #acc ,,xi4 ,,the ,,second ,,epistle ,,of ,,paul ,,the ,,apostle ,,to ,,the ,,corinthians 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #adc ,,xii4 ,,the ,,epistle ,,of ,,paul ,,the ,,apostle ,,to ,,the ,,galatians 4 4 #aej ,,xiii4 ,,the ,,epistle ,,of ,,paul ,,the ,,apostle ,,to ,,the ,,romans 4 4 4 #aeh ,,xiv4 ,,the ,,epistle ,,of ,,paul ,,the ,,apostle ,,to ,,the ,,colossians--,,the ,,epistle ,,of ,,paul ,,to ,,philemon 4 4 4 #agj ,,xv4 ,,the ,,epistle ,,of ,,paul ,,the ,,apostle ,,to ,,the ,,ephesians 4 4 #ahj ,,xvi4 ,,the ,,epistle ,,of ,,paul ,,the ,,apostle ,,to ,,the ,,philippians #ahh ,,xvii4 ,,the ,,pastoral ,,epistles 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #aie ,,xviii4 ,,the ,,epistle ,,to ,,the ,,hebrews 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #bjh ,,xix4 ,,the ,,catholic ,,epistles 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #bai ,,xx4 ,,the ,,general ,,epistle ,,of ,,james 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #bbc ,,xxi4 ,,the ,,first ,,epistle ,,general ,,of ,,peter 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #bce ,,xxii4 ,,the ,,second ,,epistle ,,general ,,of ,,peter 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #bdf ,,xxiii4 ,,the ,,epistles ,,of ,,st4 ,,john 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #bee ,,xxiv4 ,,the ,,general ,,epistle ,,of ,,jude 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #bfe ,,xxv4 ,,the ,,revelation ,,of ,,st4 ,,john ,,the ,,divine 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #bgj ,,appendix ,a4--,,rationalist ,,criticism ,,on ,,st4 ,,john',s ,,writings #bhd ,,appendix ,b4--,,papias ,,and ,,john ,,the ,,presbyter 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #bhe ,,appendix ,c4--,,the ,,muratorian ,,fragment 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #bhh ,,appendix ,d4--,,some ,,early ,,witnesses ,,to ,,new ,,testament ,,writings 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #bia ,,appendix ,e4--,,books ,,recommended 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #bic ,,index 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #big x ,,table ,,of ,,approximate ,,dates ,,the ,,gospel ,,according ,,to ,,st4 ,,matthew 4 4 4 4 4 ,a4,d4 #fi ,,st4 ,,mark 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,a4,d4 #fb ,,st4 ,,luke 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,a4,d4 #gj-ge ,,st4 ,,john 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,a4,d4 #hj-ij ,,acts 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,a4,d4 #ge-hj ,,romans 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,a4,d4 #ef #a ,,corinthians4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,a4,d4 #ee #b ,,corinthians4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,a4,d4 #ee ,,galatians 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,a4,d4 #ef ,,ephesians 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,a4,d4 #fj ,,philippians 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,a4,d4 #fa ,,colossians 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,a4,d4 #fj #a ,,thessalonians 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,a4,d4 #ea #b ,,thessalonians 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,a4,d4 #ea #a ,,timothy 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,a4,d4 #fc #b ,,timothy 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,a4,d4 #fd ,,titus 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,a4,d4 #fc ,,philemon 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,a4,d4 #fj ,,hebrews 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,a4,d4 #ff ,,james 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,a4,d4 #ej #a ,,peter 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,a4,d4 #fd #b ,,peter 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,a4,d4 #fe #a1 #b1 #c ,,john 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,a4,d4 #hj-ij ,,jude 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,a4,d4 #fc ,,revelation 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,a4,d4 #if #a ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,new ,,testament ,sidenote3 ,its ,name4 ,after the gift of the ,holy ,spirit ,himself1 we may justly reckon the ,new ,testament as the most precious gift which our ,lord ,jesus ,christ has given since ,his ,ascension to those who believe on ,his ,name4 ,the word testament1 which is in ,latin testamentum1 corresponds with our word covenant1 and the phrase ,new ,testament signifies the record of that new covenant in which ,god bound man to ,himself by the death of ,his ,son4 ,the truth that this was a new covenant1 distinct from the covenant which ,god made with ,abraham1 was taught by our ,lord when ,he instituted the memorial of ,his death and said1 ,this cup is the new covenant in ,my ,blood4 ,we do not know precisely at what date the ,christians began to call this record the ,new ,testament1 but we do know that they used this name before ,a4,d4 #bjj4 ,sidenote3 ,its ,language4 ,in the time of our ,lord the popular language of ,palestine was ,aramaic1 a language which was akin to ,hebrew and borrowed some words from ,hebrew4 ,hebrew was known by learned people1 but the language which the ,son of ,god learned from ,his blessed mother and ,his foster father was ,aramaic1 and ,he spoke the ,galilean dialect of that language4 ,from a few words preserved in the ,gospels1 it is plain that the gospel was first preached in that tongue4 ,in the #gth century after ,christ1 the ,mohammedan conquerors1 who spoke ,arabic1 began to supplant #b ,aramaic by ,arabic1 and this is now the ordinary language of ,palestine4 ,as many people who spoke ,aramaic were at one time heathen1 both the ,jews and the ,christians adopted the habit of calling their language ,syriac rather than ,aramaic4 ,the great centre of ,christian ,syriac literature was ,edessa1 and in the eastern part of the ,roman ,empire ,syriac was the most important and most elegant language next to ,greek4 ,it is still used in the ,church services of many ,oriental ,christians1 and it is spoken in ordinary conversation in parts of ,north ,mesopotamia and ,kurdistan4 ,further west it is only spoken in a few villages of ,anti-,libanus4 ,in the course of this book it will be necessary to refer occasionally to the ,aramaic language4 ,it is highly probable that some of the earliest ,christian writings were in ,aramaic1 but all the books of the ,new ,testament which we now possess are in ,greek4 ,the ,greek language was known by many people in ,palestine1 and it was splendidly fitted to be the medium of ,god's revelation4 ,it was widely known among the civilized nations of the time1 and it is so rich and expressive that religious ideas are better conveyed in ,greek than in almost any other tongue4 ,whereas it was essential that the gospel should be preached first in ,aramaic1 it was equally essential that it should be written in ,greek1 for the benefit of people who did not live in ,palestine or who lived there as strangers4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,canon4 ,the ,new ,testament ,scriptures consist of twenty-seven different books1 written by nine different authors4 ,each book has some special characteristics corresponding with the mind of the writer and the circumstances under which it was written4 ,yet these books exhibit a manifest unity of purpose and doctrine4 ,under many differences of dialect and expression there is an internal unity such as we do not find in any secular literature1 and this unity is due to inspiration4 ,the whole collection of books is called the ,,canon of the ,new ,testament4 ,this ,greek word canon originally meant a straight rod1 such as could be used for #c ruling or measuring1 then it was employed to signify a rule or law1 and finally it meant a list or catalogue4 ,as applied to the ,new ,testament1 the word canon means the books which fit the ,church's rule of faith1 and which themselves become a rule that measures forgeries and finds them wanting4 ,the ,church set these genuine books apart as having their origin in inspiration which came from ,god4 ,they were all either written by the apostles or by men who were trained by the apostles1 and thus they contain a unique account of the sayings of the ,lord ,jesus and the teaching of those who received their commission from ,him4 ,they are therefore documents to which the ,church can refer1 as a final court of appeal1 in all questions of faith and conduct4 ,it was only by degrees that the ,church realized the importance of placing all these twenty-seven books in the canon4 ,this was finally done in the western ,churches of ,christendom in ,a4,d4 #chb1 by a ,council held at ,rome4#a ,the disciples first endeavoured to collect the sayings of our ,lord and the record of ,his life4 ,thus the four ,gospels constitute the first layer of the ,new ,testament canon4 ,the canon of our four ,gospels existed by ,a4,d4 #aej1 as is shown by ,hermas and ,justin ,martyr4 ,the next layer of the canon consists of the thirteen ,epistles of ,st4 ,paul and the ,acts4 ,to these the ,epistle to the ,hebrews was generally attached in the east1 though not in the west4 ,this layer of the canon was universally recognized towards the close of the #bnd century1 and perhaps some years earlier1 for the books composing it were used and quoted throughout the #bnd century4 ,the third layer of the canon gained its place more slowly4 ,it consists of what are called the ,catholic ,epistles1 viz4 those of ,st4 ,james1 ,st4 ,peter1 ,st4 ,john1 and ,st4 ,jude1 together with the ,revelation or ,apocalypse of ,st4 ,john4 ,a crowd of works circulated among the ,christians of the #d and century1 including some forged ,gospels and ,apocalypses1 the ,epistle of ,st4 ,clement1 ,bishop of ,rome1 written about ,a4,d4 #ie1 and the allegory known as the ,shepherd of ,hermas1 written about ,a4,d4 #adj4 ,several of these works appear to have enjoyed a popularity in excess of that which attached to some of the books now included in the canon4 ,nevertheless they were rejected when they were examined4 ,it was not merely a wonderful intellectual feat on the part of the ,church to have sifted out this mass of literature2 it was an action in which the ,christian cannot fail to see the hand of ,god4 ,one question remains to be asked after drawing this small sketch of the history of the canon4 ,why is it that for several generations the canon of the ,new ,testament varied in different countries1 containing fewer books in one place than in another8 ,two reasons may be given3 7i47 ,certain books at first enjoyed only a local popularity2 thus ,hebrews was saved by the value set upon it by the scholars of ,alexandria1 and the ,epistle of ,st4 ,james by the attachment of certain ,churches in the ,east4 7ii47 ,the books of the ,new ,testament1 when translated into other languages1 were not all translated together4 ,the ,gospels were naturally translated first1 as containing the words of our ,lord4 ,the other books followed gradually4 ,interesting information is given us with regard to the latter fact by the ,doctrine of ,addai1 a ,syriac book of which the present form dates from about ,a4,d4 #djj1 but which appears to describe the condition of the ,syrian ,church in the #crd century4 ,the writings of ,aphraates1 a ,syrian writer1 ,a4,d4 #cch1 supplement this information4 ,we find from these books that about ,a4,d4 #afj the ,syrian ,christians possessed a translation of the ,gospels4 ,early in the #crd century they used a harmony of the ,gospels with ,acts and the ,epistles of ,st4 ,paul4 ,in the #dth century they used also the ,epistle to the ,hebrews4 ,it is fairly evident1 from the ,doctrine of ,addai1 that only the ,old ,testament and the ,gospels were at first used by the ,syrian ,christians1 and that ,st4 ,paul's ,epistles and ,acts arrived later4 ,and as late as #e ,a4,d4 #cch they knew nothing of the ,catholic ,epistles and ,revelation1 though these books were well known by the ,christians who spoke ,greek and ,latin4 ,sidenote3 ,ancient ,versions4 ,the most ancient versions or translations of the ,new ,testament were in those three great languages spoken by people who touched the borders of the districts where ,greek was spoken4 ,these were ,latin1 ,syriac1 and the ,coptic language spoken by the ,egyptians4 ,it seems probable that a large part of the ,new ,testament was translated into these languages within about a hundred years after the time of the apostles4 ,the oldest version in any language closely akin to ,english was that made by ,ulphilas1 the celebrated bishop of the ,goths1 who translated the ,bible from ,greek into ,gothic about ,a4,d4 #cej4 ,there is a most beautiful manuscript of this version preserved at ,upsala1 in ,sweden4 ,the ,goths were then settled in the country between the ,danube and the ,dnieper4 ,as late as the #agth century their language was still spoken in part of the south of ,russia4 ,a carefully revised translation of the ,latin ,bible was made by ,st4 ,jerome between ,a4,d4 #chb and #djd1 and this version came to be used by the ,church throughout the west of ,europe4 ,sidenote3 ,english ,versions4 ,the ,gospel of ,st4 ,john and perhaps the other ,gospels were translated by the patient historian and monk1 the ,venerable ,bede1 who was buried at ,durham in ,a4,d4 #gca4 ,parts of the ,bible1 especially the ,psalms1 were soon fairly well known through translations4 ,king ,alfred was translating the ,psalms when he died1 in ,a4,d4 #ija2 and soon after ,a4,d4 #ajjj1 ,archbishop ,aelfric translated large portions of the ,bible4 ,as the language of ,england gradually changed1 new versions of the ,psalms were made1 and most of the ,bible was known in a version made before #acfj4 ,but perhaps there was no complete version of the ,bible in ,english until the time of ,john ,wyclif 7#achj74 ,wyclif translated most of the ,new ,testament of this version1 and a priest named ,hereford translated the ,old ,testament4 ,wyclif held various #f opinions which the ,church of ,england at that time condemned1 and some of which she still rightly condemns4 ,the result was that in #adab ,archbishop ,arundel denounced ,wyclif's version1 but it seems to have been revised and to have come into common use4 ,all these versions or partial versions in the ,english language were made from the ,latin4 ,but after the ,turks captured ,constantinople from the ,greeks in #adec1 a number of learned ,greeks fled for refuge to the west of ,europe4 ,the result was that ,greek books began to be studied again1 and the ,new ,testament began to be read once more in the original language4 ,three important editions were printed in #aead1 #aeaf1 and #aeej respectively4 ,the first was printed under the direction of the ,spanish ,cardinal ,ximenes1 but owing to various causes was not published until #aebb4 ,the edition of #aeaf was printed under the direction of the great ,dutch scholar ,erasmus4 ,that of #aeej is important as being substantially the received text which has appeared in the ordinary ,greek ,testaments printed in ,england until the present day1 and as being the foundation of our ,english ,authorised ,version4 ,this received text was printed by ,robert ,estienne 7or ,stephanus71 a great printer of ,paris4 ,about the same time a desire for a reformation of abuses in the ,church caused a deeper interest to be taken in the ,word of ,god4 ,the first ,english translation of the ,new ,testament shows a desire for a reformation of a somewhat extreme kind4 ,it was the version of ,william ,tyndale1 which was printed at ,worms in ,germany1 in #aebe4 ,in #aecd the ,convocation or ,church ,parliament of ,england made a petition to ,king ,henry ,,viii4 to allow a better version to be made4 ,the work of translation was interrupted by an order to have an ,english ,bible in every church4 ,as the ,church version was not completed1 a version made in #aece by ,miles ,coverdale had to be used instead4 ,two other versions1 also somewhat inferior1 appeared in #aecg and #aeci1 and then a slightly improved version called the ,great ,bible appeared in ,april1 #aeci4 ,it is #g also called ,cranmer's ,bible1 because ,archbishop ,cranmer wrote a preface to the second edition4 ,three other important versions were published before the end of the #afth century4 ,the ,calvinists1 who were the predecessors of the modern ,presbyterians1 published a ,new ,testament at ,geneva in #aeeg1 followed by the whole ,bible in #aefj4 ,the ,english bishops published what is called the ,bishops' ,bible in #aefh1 and the ,roman ,catholics published an ,english ,new ,testament at ,rheims in ,france1 in #aehb4 ,we cannot fail to be impressed by the eager desire felt at that time by the people of ,great ,britain1 of all religious parties1 to study the ,holy ,scriptures1 a desire to which these various translations bear witness4 ,all previous ,english versions were thrown into the shade by the brilliant ,authorised ,version1 which was commenced in #afjd and published in #afaa4 ,its beauty and accuracy are so great that even the ,presbyterians1 both in ,england and ,scotland1 gradually gave up the use of their ,genevan ,bible in favour of this translation4 ,but since #afaa hundreds of manuscripts have been discovered and examined4 ,textual criticism1 by which an endeavour is made to discover the precise words written by the writers of the ,new ,testament1 where discrepancies exist in the manuscripts1 has become a science4 ,many results of this criticism have been embodied in the ,revised ,version1 published in #ahha4 ,the ,english of the ,revised ,version is not so musical as that of the ,authorised ,version1 and it seems probable that a deeper knowledge of the ancient versions will before long enable us to advance even beyond the verbal accuracy attained in #ahha4 ,but at the same time we know that both our modern ,english versions give us a noble and trustworthy interpretation of the ,greek4 ,and criticism has made it certain that the earliest ,greek manuscripts are essentially the same as the original books written by the apostles and their companions4 ,the manuscripts are almost utterly free from wilful corruptions4 ,and concerning the small variations which they contain1 we #h can fitly quote the words of a fine old ,english scholar1 ,bentley3 ,even put them into the hands of a knave or a fool1 and yet with the most sinistrous and absurd choice1 he shall not extinguish the light of any one chapter1 nor so disguise ,christianity but that every feature of it will still be the same4 ,for the sake of space the works of the evangelists are often referred to in an abbreviated form2 e4g4 ,matt4 has been written for the ,gospel according to ,st4 ,matthew1 and ,mark for the ,gospel according to ,st4 ,mark4 ,but when the writers themselves are mentioned1 their names are usually given in full1 with the title which ,christian reverence has bestowed upon these holy men of old4 #a ,see ,mr4 ,c4 ,h4 ,turner1 ,journal of ,theological ,studies1 ,july1 #aijj4 #i ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,gospels ,sidenote3 ,their ,name4 ,the modern ,english word ,gospel is derived from the ,anglo-,saxon word ,godspell1 which means ,god story1 the story about the life of ,god in human flesh4 ,it does not1 therefore1 exactly correspond with the ,greek name euaggelion1 which means good tidings4 ,in the earliest times the ,greek name meant the good tidings proclaimed by our ,lord about the ,kingdom of ,god which ,he had come to establish4 ,and1 as our ,lord ,himself rules over this kingdom1 the tidings about the kingdom included tidings about ,himself4 ,so ,christ ,himself says1 for ,my sake and the gospel's 7,mark viii4 #ce74 ,after the ,ascension of our ,lord and the disappearance of ,his visible presence1 the euaggelion came to mean the good tidings about ,christ1 rather than the good tidings brought by ,christ 7see #a ,cor4 ix4 #ad and #b ,cor4 iv4 #d74 ,so ,st4 ,paul generally means by euaggelion the good news1 coming from ,god1 of salvation freely given to man through ,christ4 ,when he speaks of ,my gospel 7,rom4 ii4 #af71 he means my explanation of the gospel2 and when he says1 ,i had been intrusted with the gospel of the uncircumcision 7,gal4 ii4 #g71 he means that he had been appointed by ,god to preach the good tidings to the ,gentiles1 with special emphasis on the points most necessary for their instruction4 ,the word euaggellon1 in the sense of a written gospel1 is first found in the ancient ,christian manual called the ,didach1 or ,teaching of the ,twelve ,apostles1 in ch4 xv43 ,reprove one #aj another1 not in anger but in peace1 as ye have it in the gospel4 ,this book was probably composed about ,a4,d4 #ajj4 ,the word seems to have been still more definitely applied to a written account of the life of ,christ in the time of the great heretic ,marcion1 ,a4,d4 #adj4 ,the plural word euaggelia1 signifying the ,four ,gospels1 is first found in a writing of ,justin ,martyr1#a about ,a4,d4 #aeb4 ,it is important to notice that he also calls them ,memoirs of the ,apostles1 and that he refers to them collectively as the ,gospel1 inasmuch as they were1 in reference to their distinctive value as records of ,christ1 one book4 ,sidenote3 ,their ,genuineness4 ,the first three ,gospels do not contain the name of the writers in any connection which can be used to prove conclusively that they were written by the men whose names they bear4 ,on the other hand1 the fourth ,gospel in a concluding passage 7,john xxi4 #bd7 contains an obvious claim to have been written by that intimate friend of ,jesus to whom the ,church has always attributed it4 ,but the titles1 according to ,matthew1 according to ,mark1 according to ,luke1 rest on excellent authority4 ,and they imply that each book contains the good news brought by ,christ and recorded in the teaching of the evangelist specified4 ,these titles must1 at the very least1 signify that the ,christians who first gave these titles to these books1 meant that each ,gospel was connected with one particular person who lived in the apostolic age1 and that it contained nothing contrary to what that person taught4 ,the titles1 taken by themselves1 are therefore compatible with the theory that the first three ,gospels were perhaps written by friends or disciples of the men whose names they bear4 ,but we shall afterwards see that there is overwhelming evidence to show that the connection between each book and the specified person is much closer than that theory would suggest4 ,speaking of the four ,gospels generally1 we may first observe that it is impossible to place any one of them as late as ,a4,d4 #ajj1 #aa and that the first three ,gospels must have been written long before that date4 ,this is shown by the internal evidence1 of which proof will be given in detail in the chapters dealing with the separate ,gospels4 ,the external evidence of the use of all the four ,gospels by ,christians1 and to some extent by non-,christians1 supports the internal evidence4 ,let us begin by noting facts which are part of undoubted history1 and then work back to facts of earlier date4 ,it is now undisputed that between the years #agj and #bjj after ,christ our four ,gospels were known and regarded as genuine products of the apostolic age4 ,st4 ,irenaeus1 who became ,bishop of ,lyons in ,france in ,a4,d4 #agg1 and was the pupil of ,polycarp1 who had actually been a disciple of ,st4 ,john1 uses and quotes the four ,gospels4 ,he shows that various semi-,christian sects appeal severally to one of the four ,gospels as supporting their peculiar views1 but that the ,christian ,church accepts all four4 ,he lays great stress on the fact that the teaching of the ,church has always been the same1 and he was personally acquainted with the state of ,christianity in ,asia ,minor1 ,rome1 and ,france4 ,his evidence must therefore be considered as carrying great weight4 ,equally important is the evidence of ,tatian4 ,this remarkable ,syrian wrote a harmony of the ,gospels near ,a4,d4 #afj4 ,allusions to this harmony1 called the ,diatessaron1 were known to exist in several ancient writers1 but until recently it was strenuously maintained by sceptical writers that there was not sufficient evidence to prove that the ,diatessaron was composed of our present ,gospels4 ,it was suggested that it might have been drawn from other ,gospels more or less resembling those which we now possess4 ,this idea has now been dispelled4 ,a great ,syrian father1 ,ephraim1 who died in #cgc1 wrote a commentary on the ,diatessaron4 ,this was preserved in an ,armenian translation which was made known to the world in #ahgf4 ,the discovery proved that the ,diatessaron had been drawn from our four ,gospels4 ,in #ahhf an ,arabic version of the ,diatessaron itself was found1 and it #ab proved conclusively that ,tatian's ,diatessaron was simply a combination of our four canonical ,gospels4 ,about the same date as ,tatian1 a famous ,gnostic writer named ,heracleon wrote commentaries on ,luke and ,john1 and it can also be shown that he was acquainted with ,matt4 ,there can therefore be no doubt that all our four ,gospels were well known by ,a4,d4 #agj4 ,between ,a4,d4 #acj and #agj our ,gospels were also in use4 ,the most important evidence is furnished by ,justin ,martyr1 who was born near ,samaria1 and lectured in ,rome about ,a4,d4 #aeb4 ,he says the apostles handed down in the ,memoirs made by them1 which are called ,gospels2 he shows that these ,memoirs were used in ,christian worship1 and he says that they were compiled by ,christ's apostles and those who companied with them4 ,this exactly agrees with the fact that the first and the fourth of our ,gospels are attributed by the tradition of the ,church to apostles1 while the second and the third are attributed to companions of the apostles4 ,the quotations which ,justin makes show that these ,memoirs were our four ,gospels4 ,it has been thought that ,justin perhaps used some apocryphal ,gospel in addition to our ,gospels1 but there is no sufficient proof of this4 ,we may explain that he uses the term ,memoirs in order to make himself intelligible to non-,christian readers who would not understand the word ,gospel4 ,the ,shepherd of ,hermas1 which was written at ,rome1 probably about ,a4,d4 #adj1 but perhaps earlier1 uses expressions which imply an acquaintance with all our ,gospels1 though none of them are directly quoted4 ,moreover1 the ,shepherd1 in depicting the ,christian ,church as seated on a bench with four feet1 probably refers to the four ,gospels4 ,this would be in agreement with the allegorical style of the book1 and it gains support from the language of ,origen and ,irenaeus4 ,the testimony rendered to the authenticity of the ,gospels by the heretics who flourished between ,a4,d4 #acj and #agj is of importance4 ,at the beginning of this period1 ,basilides1 the #ac great ,gnostic of ,alexandria1 who tried to replace ,christianity by a semi-,christian ,pantheism1 appears to have used ,matt41 ,luke1 and ,john4 ,the fact that they contain nothing which really supports his peculiar tenets1 forms an argument which shows that the genuineness of these documents was then too well established for it to be worth his while to dispute it4 ,marcion1 whose teaching was half ,gnostic and half ,catholic1 endeavoured to revive what he imagined to be the ,christianity of ,st4 ,paul1 whom he regarded as the only true apostle4 ,he believed that ,judaism was the work of an inferior god1 and he therefore rejected the whole of the ,old ,testament1 and retained only the ,gospel written by ,st4 ,luke1 the friend of ,st4 ,paul1 and ten of ,st4 ,paul's ,epistles4 ,modern writers have sometimes urged that ,marcion's list of ,new ,testament books proves that all other parts of the ,new ,testament were regarded as doubtful about ,a4,d4 #adj4 ,but it is quite evident that ,marcion1 unlike those ,gnostics who adapted uncongenial books to their own systems by means of allegorical explanations1 cut out the books and verses which would not correspond with his own dogma4 ,in spite of his pretended fidelity to ,st4 ,paul1 he mutilated not only ,st4 ,luke's ,gospel1 but even the ,epistle to the ,galatians4 ,so whereas it is certain that he used our ,luke1 there is no indication to show that he did not admit that the other ,gospels were really the work of the writers whose names they bear4 ,in the period between ,a4,d4 #ih1 when the death of ,st4 ,john probably took place1 and ,a4,d4 #acj1 we find several signs of acquaintance with the ,gospels4 ,about ,a4,d4 #acj1 ,papias1 ,bishop of ,hierapolis1 wrote a book called ,expositions of the ,oracles of the ,lord4 ,it may be regarded as almost certain that the word ,oracles signifies written ,gospels1 just as in the ,new ,testament the word signifies the written documents of the ,old ,testament4 ,he mentions ,gospels written by ,st4 ,matthew and ,st4 ,mark1 and we know from ,eusebius that he made use of #a ,john4 ,it is deeply to be regretted that we only have #ad a few remaining fragments of the writings of this early bishop1 who was acquainted with men who knew our ,lord's disciples4 ,in the letters of ,st4 ,ignatius1 the martyred ,bishop of ,antioch1 ,a4,d4 #aaj1 we find signs of acquaintance with ,matt4 and ,john4 ,the ,epistle written by ,st4 ,polycarp to the ,philippians soon after the death of ,st4 ,ignatius contains quotations from ,matt4 and ,luke1 and the quotations in it from #a ,john almost certainly imply the authenticity of ,st4 ,john's ,gospel1 as it is impossible to attribute the ,epistles to any writer except the writer of the ,gospel4 ,the ,didach1 about ,a4,d4 #ajj1 shows acquaintance with ,matt4 and ,luke1 and contains early ,eucharistic prayers of which the language closely resembles the language of ,st4 ,john4 ,the ,epistle of ,barnabas1 probably about ,a4,d4 #ih1 contains what is probably the oldest remaining quotation from a book of the ,new ,testament4 ,it says1 ,it is written1 ,many called1 but few chosen1 which appears to be a quotation from ,matt4 xxii4 #ad4 ,the ,epistle of ,st4 ,clement of ,rome1 written to the ,christians of ,corinth about ,a4,d4 #ie1 is full of the phraseology of ,st4 ,paul's ,epistles1 but contains nothing that can be called a direct quotation from our ,gospels4 ,but it does contain what are possibly traces of the first three ,gospels1 though these passages are perhaps quoted from an oral ,gospel employed in the instruction of catechumens4 ,we must conclude that1 considering what a large amount of early ,christian literature has perished1 the external evidence for the authenticity of our ,gospels is remarkably strong4 ,they are genuine writings of the apostolic age1 and were received by men whose lifetime overlapped the lifetime of some of the apostles4 ,in the early ,christian literature which remains1 there is much which lends support to the authenticity of the ,gospels1 and nothing which injures a belief in that authenticity4 ,and there are strong reasons for thinking that in the early ,christian literature which has perished1 there was much which would have made a belief in their authenticity quite inevitable4 ,it would be an aid to modern study if we could be certain #ae when and where the four ,gospels were put together in one canon4 ,in the #dth and #eth centuries it was believed by some ,christians that the collection had been made at ,ephesus by ,st4 ,john himself1 and that he had prefixed the names of the writers to the ,gospels when he published his own ,gospel4 ,it is at present impossible to discover how far this supposed fact is legendary or not1 but modern criticism has done something to corroborate the idea that the ,gospels were really collected first in ,asia ,minor1 and if ,st4 ,john did not make the collection himself1 it was probably made by his disciples soon after his death4 ,sidenote3 ,their ,diversity4 ,if we compare the four ,gospels together1 it is as plain as daylight that there is a marked difference between the first three ,gospels on the one hand and the fourth ,gospel on the other hand4 ,the first three ,gospels are usually called the ,synoptic ,gospels1 because they give us one synopsis or common view of our ,lord's work4 ,to a great extent they record the same events and the same discourses1 and in many passages they express themselves in almost identical words4 ,the account which they give of our ,lord's work is mostly confined to ,his ministry in ,galilee1 the birthplace of our religion1 and it includes only one visit to ,jerusalem4 ,but ,st4 ,john's ,gospel differs widely in language from the other ,gospels1 and also gives an account of no less than five visits to ,jerusalem1 and chiefly describes the scenes connected with our ,lord's ministry in ,judaea4 ,whereas our first three ,gospels can be appropriately printed in three parallel columns1 the greater part of ,st4 ,john's ,gospel cannot be appropriately placed by the side of the other three4 ,another most important difference is that ,st4 ,john's ,gospel is marked by a tone and teaching which are seldom to be found in the ,synoptic ,gospels4 ,the difference was well expressed by ,clement of ,alexandria1 who calls the ,synoptic ,gospels bodily and ,st4 ,john's ,gospel spiritual2 and by ,theodore of ,mopsuestia1 who says that ,st4 ,john declared that doubtless it was not right to omit #af the facts told with regard to the sojourn of ,christ in the flesh1 but neither was it right to omit the words relating to ,his ,divinity4 ,for the ,synoptic ,gospels relate the outward events connected with our ,lord's ministry1 while ,st4 ,john records the discourses and works which reveal our ,lord's heavenly origin and divine authority4 ,again1 the ,synoptic ,gospels report ,christ's addresses to simple ,galilean people1 addresses consisting largely of parables2 while ,st4 ,john reports discourses1 frequently expressed in the language of allegory1 and uttered to the ,jews of ,jerusalem or to ,his own intimate disciples4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,synoptic problem4 ,the ,synoptic problem consists in the difficulties raised by the fact that the ,synoptic ,gospels show both a remarkable similarity and a remarkable dissimilarity4 ,it is just because the similarity is often so astonishing that we find it all the more difficult to explain the dissimilarity when it exists4 ,a study of the ,synoptic problem is valuable for the ,christian student1 inasmuch as it directs our attention to the sources employed by the evangelists1 and thus leads us nearer to the actual events connected with the rise of ,christianity4 ,the ,,resemblances between the ,synoptic ,gospels may be observed in the following points3-- 7a7 ,a common plan4--,the general view of the course of events is almost identical4 ,st4 ,matthew and ,st4 ,luke give separate accounts of the infancy of our ,lord1 but they then join with ,st4 ,mark in their account of ,st4 ,john the ,baptist1 the baptism and temptation of ,christ1 and the beginning of ,his ministry4 ,later all three direct their attention mainly to ,christ's work in ,galilee1 while ,st4 ,john describes much that took place in ,judaea and ,samaria4 ,they pass rapidly over some considerable space of time until they come to the last week of ,his life1 where all three give a detailed account4 7b7 ,a common selection of facts4--,by far the larger number of both events and discourses are found in all three ,gospels4 ,if anything is recorded in ,mark it is generally to be found in #ag ,matt4 and ,luke1 and almost always in either ,matt4 or ,luke4 ,if the whole number of incidents in the ,synoptic ,gospels be reckoned as eighty-eight1 the distribution of the incidents shared by at least two ,gospels is as follows3-- ,in all three ,gospels 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #db ,in ,mark and ,matt4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #ab ,in ,mark and ,luke 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #e ,in ,matt4 and ,luke 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #ab ,if we add the above together1 we realize that seventy-one incidents out of a total of eighty-eight are to be found in more than one ,gospel4 ,of the remaining seventeen incidents1 three are peculiar to ,mark1 five to ,matt41 and nine to ,luke4 7c7 ,similar groups of incidents4--,not only is there a common selection of facts1 but detached events which happened at different times are sometimes grouped together in the same way in all of the ,synoptic ,gospels or in two of the three4 ,thus in all three we find together the cure of the paralytic1 the call of ,levi1 and the question of fasting 7,matt4 ix4 #a-ag2 ,mark ii4 #a-bb2 ,luke v4 #ag-ci72 so also the plucking of the ears of corn and the cure of the withered hand--events separated by at least a week 7,matt4 xii4 #a-ba2 ,mark ii4 #bc-;iii4 #f2 ,luke vi4 #a-aa74 ,thus also the death of ,john the ,baptist is introduced both in ,matt4 xiv4 #c and in ,mark vi4 #ag to explain the fear felt by ,herod ,antipas that he had risen from the dead4 ,in fact1 when a parallel passage is found in all three ,synoptic ,gospels1 it is never immediately followed in both ,matt4 and ,luke by a whole separate incident which is not in ,mark4#b ,there is a general tendency in ,matt4 and ,luke to narrate the same facts as ,mark in the order of ,mark4 ,and therefore it is difficult to think that the original basis of the ,synoptic ,gospels1 whether written or unwritten1 did not coincide closely with ,mark in the order of events4 #ah 7d7 ,similarity of language4--,the ,synoptic ,gospels often agree verbally4 ,and this agreement is not merely found in the reports of the sayings of our ,lord1 but even in the narrative of events4 ,it extends even to rare ,greek words and phrases4 ,the clauses are often remarkably similar4 ,sometimes quotations from the ,old ,testament are found in two or three ,gospels with the same variations from the original4 ,matt4 iii4 #c1 ,mark i4 #c1 and ,luke iii4 #d have the same quotation from ,isa4 xl4 #c1 in which they agree in every word1 although at the end they depart in the same way from both the ,hebrew and the ,greek version of the ,old ,testament1 for they put ,his paths instead of the paths of our ,god4 ,another interesting instance is to be found in ,matt4 xxvi4 #dg1 ,mark xiv4 #dc1 and ,luke xxii4 #dg1 where all three evangelists1 apparently without any necessity1 explain that ,judas was one of the twelve4 ,again in ,matt4 xxiv4 #ae1 #af1 and ,mark xiii4 #ad1 we have the note or parenthesis let him that readeth understand1 which one evangelist seems to have copied from the other4 ,the ,,differences between the ,synoptic ,gospels may be observed in the following facts3-- 7a7 ,facts peculiar to one or two ,gospels4--,there is a wide difference between the account of the birth and infancy of our ,lord given in ,matt4 and that given in ,luke4 ,in ,matt4 we have recorded an angelic communication to ,st4 ,joseph concerning the future birth of ,jesus4 ,in ,luke1 an earlier and fuller annunciation to ,st4 ,mary is recorded4 ,in ,matt4 the story of the infancy is centred at ,bethlehem1 in ,luke at ,nazareth4 ,the accounts given of the appearances of our ,lord after the ,resurrection record different events4 ,in ,matt4 and ,mark ,galilee is the scene of ,his appearances1 in ,luke the scene is laid in ,jerusalem and its neighbourhood4 ,there is not the least reason for regarding these accounts as contradictory1 but there is reason for inquiring why the different writers selected different appearances4 #ai 7b7 ,different accounts of the same facts4--,the three distinct incidents of the temptation of our ,lord are recorded in a different order in ,matt4 and ,luke1 and the temptation is recorded without these incidents in ,mark4 ,st4 ,luke's version of the ,beatitudes is reduced in number1 and is followed by corresponding denunciations4 ,in ,mark x4 #df and ,matt4 x4 #bi we have the cure of ,bartimaeus on the departure from ,jericho1 in ,luke xviii4 #ce1 xix4 #a at the entrance of the city4 ,in ,matt4 viii4 #bh there are two demoniacs1 while in ,mark v4 #b and ,luke viii4 #bg1 which seem to narrate the same event1 only one demoniac is mentioned4 ,all the ,synoptic ,gospels give slightly different accounts of the inscription on the cross1 and the words spoken by the centurion at the death of ,jesus vary in ,luke from the words in ,matt4 and ,mark4 7c7 ,differences in the order of words and sentences4--,although ,matt4 and ,luke do not combine against ,mark in narrating a whole incident in an order different from ,mark1 it is important to notice that there are some cases in which ,matt4 and ,mark agree against ,luke1 or ,mark and ,luke agree against ,matt4 ,and we must not omit a significant instance where ,matt4 and ,luke agree against ,mark in the order of part of an incident4 ,in ,matt4 iii4 #aa1 #ab and ,luke iii4 #af1 ,i indeed baptize you with water1 etc41 comes before1 in ,mark i4 #g1 #h it comes after1 the description of ,jesus as ,he that is mightier than ,i4 ,no doubt one author who copies another may often omit something stated by the first author4 ,but1 surely1 he is not very likely to invert the order of the materials before him1 especially when no obvious purpose can be served by such an inversion4 ,another instance of inversion is this3 in ,mark ix4 #ab1 #ac the rejection of the ,son of ,man is mentioned by our ,lord between two statements of ,his about ,ehas1 in ,matt4 xvii4 #ab it is mentioned after both statements4 ,such inversions would naturally take place in the case of oral transmission of the sacred story1 but they would be less likely in the case of one writer copying another4 #bj 7d7 ,verbal differences4--,striking verbal differences occur even when the general resemblance is most close4 ,in ,matt4 ix4 #a-ag1 ,mark ii4 #a-bb1 ,luke v4 #ag-ci1 there are verbal changes even where the sentences closely coincide4 ,other instances might be quoted4 ,all three evangelists have a style of their own1 and show a marked preference for particular idioms and words4 ,in narrating the sayings of our ,lord1 they narrate them with some verbal differences1 and in the case of the history of ,his ministry1 they narrate it with numerous verbal differences4 ,it is therefore evident that ,st4 ,matthew and ,st4 ,luke1 if they used ,st4 ,mark's work1 felt themselves at liberty to deal with it very freely4 ,the above brief account of the chief resemblances and differences between the first three ,gospels is an attempt to give a fair though condensed statement of certain facts which appeal with different force to different minds4 ,how came these ,gospels to be so alike and yet so different8 ,this is the ,synoptic problem1 and great divergence of opinion exists as to the solution4 ,sidenote3 ,possible solutions4 ,the most important views propounded to solve the problem are-- 7#a7 ,both ,st4 ,matthew and ,st4 ,luke copied the ,gospel of ,st4 ,mark1 while not omitting to make use of other documents4 ,in the case of ,st4 ,luke1 his acquaintance with earlier written stories about our ,lord is rendered indisputable by his own statement4 ,sometimes it has been thought that ,st4 ,luke made use of the ,gospel according to ,st4 ,matthew as well as the ,gospel according to ,st4 ,mark4 ,this theory is most appropriately called the theory of the mutual dependence of the documents4 7#b7 ,the three ,synoptic ,gospels put down in writing different1 but closely similar forms of an oral tradition concerning the teaching of our ,lord4 ,it is thought that the statements made by the apostles about ,christ were repeated by them and occasionally added to1 and treasured up in faithful memories4 #ba ,the idea of a literary connection between the ,gospels is dismissed1 and it is held that the methods of teaching employed among the ,jews1 and the probable existence of a school of trained catechists1 will account sufficiently for the fixed form of the tradition4 ,according to this hypothesis the differences between the ,synoptic ,gospels are to be explained by the necessity of teaching different aspects of the truth among different classes of inquirers1 and by the fluctuating memories of the teachers4 ,this theory is known as the oral theory4#c 7#c7 ,the three ,synoptic ,gospels are based upon one original ,gospel written in the ,aramaic language4 ,a large number of verbal variations can thus be accounted for4 ,they might have sprung from different renderings of the same ,aramaic original1 and various passages derived from oral tradition might have been added to the original ,gospel when it was translated4 ,it has been held by some that there was at least an ,aramaic document behind ,mark1 if there was not an ,aramaic original employed by all the ,synoptics4 ,the different forms of this hypothesis can be described as the theory of an ,aramaic original4 ,it is now generally believed that the three evangelists did not employ one original ,aramaic ,gospel4 ,the agreement between the ,greek words of the ,synoptic ,gospels is too close to be explained by the use of an ,aramaic original4 ,the real controversy1 therefore1 lies between the scholars who support theory 7#a7 or theory 7#b74 ,sidenote3 ,probable conclusions4 ,on the whole1 it appears that a general agreement is being arrived at4 ,it is becoming evident that the theory of the mutual dependence of the documents and the oral theory are both partly true1 and that neither of them can be held in an extreme form4 ,in the first place1 the resemblances between the first three ,gospels make it extremely probable that ,st4 ,matthew and ,st4 ,luke #bb employed the work of ,st4 ,mark4 ,in ,england1 ,germany1 and ,france the opinion of scholars seems steadily tending towards this conclusion4 ,the chief reasons for it are undoubtedly that 7i47 the order of facts in ,mark is the normal order of the whole narrative of the ,synoptists1 and 7ii47 in the main1 the language of ,mark explains the verbal agreements between ,matt4 and ,luke4 ,therefore among the probable conclusions with regard to the ,synoptic problem we must reckon the fact that ,mark is earlier than ,matt4 and ,luke1 and was employed in the composition of them both4 ,this is the first important conclusion4 ,but we must also allow room for the influence of oral tradition4 ,we have already noticed many differences between the ,synoptists1 all of which more or less suggest that the ,gospels are largely based on oral tradition4 ,we may now mention a few other facts which point in the same direction4 ,there are cases in which ,matt4 or ,luke has a more decided appearance of originality than ,mark4 ,these cases include words1 phrases1 and even sections4 ,for instance1 ,matt4 employs several times the phrase the ,father who is in heaven1 a phrase which our ,lord must certainly have used1 but which in ,mark only occurs once 7xi4 #be74 ,mark i4 #dj-de1 ii4 #a-ab1 iii4 #a-f1 x4 #ce1 appear less original than the parallel passages in the other ,synoptic ,gospels4 ,moreover1 there are statements in ,matt4 of a striking kind1 which are not at all likely to have been invented1 but which are entirely absent from ,mark4 ,we may notice the texts1 ,go not into any way of the ,gentiles1 and enter not into any city of the ,samaritans2 but go rather to the lost sheep of the house of ,israel 7,matt4 x4 #e1 #f72 and again1 ,i was not sent but unto the lost sheep of the house of ,israel 7,matt4 xv4 #bd74 ,in both cases the context has a parallel in ,mark1 but the verses in question do not occur in those parallels4 ,also there are certain passages to be found in ,mark which are in neither ,luke nor ,matt4 ,if we believe that the ,gospels #bc are largely based on oral tradition1 it is easy to account for the absence of a passage in one or two of the three ,synoptic ,gospels4 ,an incident which was remembered in one place might be forgotten in another4 ,but if we exclude the influence of oral tradition1 there are only two solutions of the problem raised by these passages4 ,either 7a7 ,st4 ,matthew and ,st4 ,luke were ignorant of them1 because they were added to ,mark later than the date when they used ,mark2 or 7b7 they knew them and omitted them4 ,in other words1 we have to ask1 ,did they use an original form of the second ,gospel1 a form to which ,german scholars apply the name ,ur-,marcus and ,french scholars apply the name ,proto-,marc1 or did they omit passages in ,mark which suggested difficulties or appeared unnecessary8 ,the main argument against the existence of a ,proto-,mark is that neither ,papias nor any known ,father of the ,church preserves the least recollection of it4 ,it has simply been invented to account for the difficulties of the ,synoptic problem4 ,if1 on the other hand1 ,st4 ,matthew and ,st4 ,luke deliberately abbreviated or altered the narrative of ,st4 ,mark1 we must naturally inquire why they did so4 ,the authors who maintain that they did alter the material which lay before them1 account for some of the changes as having been made from a mere desire to abbreviate1 or to remove a few verses which might prove hard sayings to ,jewish or ,gentile ,christians respectively4 ,some think that other passages in ,mark were emitted because ,st4 ,matthew and ,st4 ,luke considered them to be derogatory to our ,lord's power or the character of ,his apostles4 ,for instance1 ,st4 ,matthew omits the rebuke administered to the apostles in ,mark viii4 #ag1 #ah1 and he does not mention our ,lord's use of spittle as a means of healing4 ,he also in ch4 xiii4 #ee represents the ,jews as calling our ,lord the carpenter's son1 whereas in ,mark vi4 #c they call ,him the carpenter4 ,this latter line of argument is often hazardous and occasionally profane4 ,and in special reference to the points just #bd described1 we may remark that ,st4 ,matthew in ch4 xiv4 #bh-cc does not hesitate to record the weakness of even ,st4 ,peter's faith2 and that ,st4 ,john1 although he gives the greatest prominence to the majesty of our ,lord1 does in ch4 ix4 #f record ,his use of spittle in healing4 ,and if ,st4 ,matthew thought it irreverent to record the fact that the ,jews called ,jesus the carpenter1 he might have naturally shrunk far more from saying1 as he does1 that they named ,him the carpenter's son1 a title which might seem to imply an ignoring of ,his miraculous birth4 ,it seems1 therefore1 that we must be content to acknowledge that we cannot always determine the reasons which influenced ,st4 ,matthew and ,st4 ,luke1 but we can say that in some cases they were probably influenced by the mere desire to abbreviate1 and that they were also influenced by the forms which the oral teaching of the ,gospel had assumed4 ,we may also regard it as almost certain that ,st4 ,luke sometimes altered words in ,st4 ,mark's narrative simply because he preferred a more elegant and less homely form of ,greek4 ,the textual criticism of the oldest manuscripts of the ,new ,testament also points to the fact that for a few generations1 when reminiscences of our ,lord and ,his apostles were still handed down1 writers occasionally tried to make room for these reminiscences when they copied the books of the ,new ,testament4 ,a famous instance of this is ,john vii4 #ec-viii4 #aa1 which was almost certainly not written by ,st4 ,john1 and is almost certainly a genuine story which the apostle knew1 and which ,christians afterwards inserted in his ,gospel4 ,we believe1 then1 that all the ,synoptic ,gospels are influenced by oral tradition4 ,this is the second important conclusion4 ,thirdly1 it seems that ,matt4 and ,luke1 and perhaps ,mark1 made use of written collections of ,logia1 or sayings of our ,lord4 ,evidence of one such collection comes to us on the high authority of ,papias4 ,he says-- ,matthew then composed the ,logia in the ,hebrew tongue1 and every one interpreted them as he was able4 #be ,an equally important statement which ,papias makes with regard to the composition of ,mark1 is made on the authority of ,john the ,presbyter who had been a personal follower of the ,lord and was an elder contemporary of ,papias4 ,it is at least possible that ,papias derived his information about ,matt4 from the same authority4 ,it is almost inconceivable that between the time of ,papias and that of ,irenaeus1 whose life probably overlapped that of ,papias1 the name of ,matthew became wrongly affixed to our first ,gospel4 ,we may therefore regard it as certain that in our first ,gospel is contained the book of sayings1 which ,st4 ,matthew himself wrote4 ,in our third ,gospel we find that ,st4 ,luke has inserted much information with regard to our ,lord's teaching which is apparently derived from a version of the ,logia4 ,the order of the sayings is more original in ,luke than in ,matt4 ,the reason for this assertion is the following3-- ,the two evangelists arrange the sayings of our ,lord differently4 ,in more than two-thirds of the instances in which they seem to employ some collection of ,logia1 they place their materials in a different setting4 ,it has often been remarked that ,st4 ,matthew places the discourses of our ,lord together in large blocks1 while ,st4 ,luke records them separately1 and in many cases records the circumstances which led up to them4 ,instances of this are--,the ,lord's ,prayer 7,matt4 vi4 #i-ac and ,luke xi4 #a-d72 the treasure and the heart 7,matt4 vi4 #ai-ba and ,luke xii4 #cc1 #cd72 ,god and ,mammon 7,matt4 vi4 #bd and ,luke xvi4 #ac74 ,it would therefore seem plain that either one evangelist or the other altered the places of these discourses4 ,examination makes it equally plain that the alteration was made in ,matt4 ,much of ,matt4 is arranged in numerical forms1 and this is especially true of those passages which are not derived from ,mark4 ,the numbers #e1 #aj1 and #g are used as helps to memory4 ,thus in ,matt4 we find five chapters 7called by the ,jews ,pereqs7 of the sayings of our ,lord1 ending respectively at vii4 #bh2 xi4 #a2 xiii4 #ec1 xix4 #a2 xxvi4 #a4 ,the #bf number five was a favourite number with the ,jews in such cases2 thus we have five books of the ,pentateuch1 five books of the ,psalms1 the five ,megilloth or festival volumes1 and the five parts of the ,pirqe ,aboth4 ,in chs4 viii4 and ix4 we have a collection of ten miracles1 in spite of the fact that three of these miracles are placed elsewhere by ,st4 ,mark and ,st4 ,luke4 ,the petitions of the ,lord's ,prayer are arranged as seven1 there are seven parables in ch4 xiii41 seven woes in ch4 xxiii41 and the genealogy of our ,lord is arranged in three fourteens4 ,as these numerical arrangements are specially characteristic of ,matt41 and certainly appear to be caused by a desire to aid oral repetition1 we are led to the conclusion that the ,logia are to be found in a less artificial and therefore earlier form in ,luke4 ,we are also led once more to the conclusion that though we cannot say that the whole of ,matt4 owes its form to oral teaching1 yet many sections of it are moulded by oral teaching4 ,it must lastly be noted that although the collection of ,logia employed in ,luke contained much material which is also found in ,matt41 the parallel passages vary considerably in style and language4 ,examination of these passages seldom enables us to prove what expressions were specially characteristic of the ,logia4 ,but we can assert with a fair amount of confidence that the version1 or versions1 of the ,logia so employed1 had a simple and ,hebraic style2 and that whereas ,luke has kept the order of the ,logia better than ,matt41 the latter preserves the style more faithfully4 ,in addition to ,mark and collections of the ,logia1 ,st4 ,matthew and ,st4 ,luke employed other sources now unknown to us4 ,the narratives of the infancy and the ,resurrection are independent1 and are so different that they point both to the fact that the two evangelists were here employing different sources1 and that each was unacquainted with the ,gospel written by the other4 ,also1 ,st4 ,luke's account of our ,lord's ministry in ,peraea and elsewhere1 contained in ix4 #ea-xix4 #bh1 is peculiar to his ,gospel4 ,sidenote3 ,the relation of ,st4 ,john's ,gospel to the ,synoptic ,gospels4 ,the difference between the theological tone of ,st4 ,john's ,gospel and that which we find in the ,synoptists is mentioned #bg in our account of the separate ,gospels4 ,besides this difference of tone1 there is a decided difference in the march of the events which are recorded and some difference in the narrative of passages which are parallel4 ,the first rough impression which we gather from the ,synoptists is that our ,lord did not visit ,jerusalem until shortly before the ,crucifixion4 ,matthew and ,mark refer to one ,passover only for which ,jesus comes to ,jerusalem4 ,the scene of ,his ministry is ,galilee4 ,on the other hand1 the centre of interest in ,john is not ,galilee1 but ,jerusalem and ,judaea4 ,but a minute examination proves that the narrative of ,st4 ,john fits that of the ,synoptists in a remarkable manner4 ,in the first place1 the ,synoptists give us hints of our ,lord's earlier visits to ,judaea and ,jerusalem4 ,in ,luke iv4 #dd 7see margin ,r4,v47 we find ,him preaching in the synagogues of ,judaea 7cf4 ,acts x4 #cg74 ,in ,luke v4 #ag the presence in ,galilee of ,pharisees from ,jerusalem is a testimony to the impression which ,christ had produced in the holy city4 ,both ,matt4 7xxiii4 #cg7 and ,luke 7xiii4 #cd7 record the lament of our ,lord1 ,o ,jerusalem1 4 4 4 how often would ,i1 etc4 ,so from ,john iv4 #c1 #dc we learn of our ,lord returning to ,galilee after ,his first visit to ,jerusalem4 ,this second journey into ,galilee recorded by ,st4 ,john brings us to a point corresponding with the early days of the ministry in ,galilee described by the ,synoptists4 ,in ,john vi4-vii4 #i we have narratives connected with ,galilee1 and this section belongs to an interval of time between the approach of ,passover in ,march ,a4,d4 #bh and the feast of ,tabernacles in ,september ,a4,d4 #bh4 ,of this period the ,synoptists give a much fuller account4 ,the question of the length of our ,lord's ministry is thus intimately connected with that of the scene of ,his ministry4 ,st4 ,john marks the length of our ,lord's ministry1 not by ordinary chronology1 but by the mention of various ,jewish feasts4 ,the dates of these feasts show that ,his ministry lasted two years and a half4 ,the absence of dates in the ,synoptists #bh has led to the opinion that they represent our ,lord's ministry as only extending over one year4 ,this opinion may be summarily dismissed4 ,the mention of ripe corn in ,mark ii4 #bc1 and green grass in vi4 #ci1 implies two spring-times before the last ,passover4 ,it is impossible to compress the teaching which the ,synoptic ,gospels relate into the period of one year1 and they show a hostility towards ,christ on the part of the ruling classes in ,jerusalem which could not have sufficiently fermented in the space of a few months4 ,we may also notice that there is a close agreement between the ,synoptists and ,st4 ,john with regard to the points on which the conflict between ,christ and the ,jews turned 7cf4 ,matt4 xvi4 #a-d1 ,mark viii4 #aa-ac1 ,luke xi4 #af1 #bi-cb1 with ,john ii4 #ah74 ,the ,jews specially charged ,him with being possessed by a devil 7cf4 ,matt4 xii4 #bd1 ,mark iii4 #bb1 ,luke xi4 #ae1 with ,john viii4 #dh and x4 #ai71 and also with breaking the sabbath 7cf4 ,matt4 xii4 #i1 ,mark iii4 #a1 ,luke vi4 #f1 xiii4 #aj1 with ,john v4 #aj1 vii4 #bb1 ix4 #ad74 ,the dates of two important incidents have been the subjects of much discussion4 ,a cleansing of the temple by our ,lord is related by the ,synoptists at the close of our ,lord's ministry 7,mark xi4 #ae74 ,john ii4 #ad places a cleansing of the temple at the very beginning of our ,lord's ministry4 ,if we have to choose between one record and the other1 we should perhaps be inclined to say that the narrative in ,john is the more probable4 ,but there is no good reason for making such a choice4 ,no one who is at all familiar with the history of the abuses which took place in some mediaeval churches would find a difficulty in believing that the temple needed a second cleansing by our ,lord4 ,the first cleansing is the natural outcome of ,his righteous indignation in beholding for the first time the holiest place in the world given up to common traffic1 the second cleansing is appropriate in ,him who had then openly proclaimed ,his divine authority and ,messiahship4 ,the day of our ,lord's death is a date about which there is an apparent discrepancy between the ,synoptists and ,st4 ,john4 #bi ,the discrepancy has been elevated into momentous importance by the sceptics of the last sixty years1 and has been employed as one of the most formidable arguments against the authenticity of ,st4 ,john's ,gospel4 ,the argument employed by these critics is as follows3--7#a7 ,the ,synoptic ,gospels contain the original apostolic tradition1 and they agree in stating that ,jesus celebrated the ordinary ,jewish passover on the evening between the #adth and #aeth of the month ,nisan2 they therefore represent the crucifixion as taking place on the #aeth1 after the passover had been eaten4 7#b7 ,the fourth ,gospel places the ,last ,supper on the evening between the #acth and the #adth of ,nisan4 ,it therefore represents the crucifixion as taking place on the #adth1 and tacitly denies that ,christ ate the usual ,jewish passover4 7#c7 ,the ,churches of the province of ,asia1 which were founded by ,st4 ,john1 were accustomed in the #bnd century to keep their passover on the #adth of ,nisan1 and declared that they derived their custom from ,st4 ,john4 ,they consequently believed that ,christ died on the #aeth1 and that ,he ate the usual ,jewish ,passover4 7#d7 ,therefore the fourth ,gospel was not written by ,st4 ,john1 but by a forger who wished to emphasize the break between ,judaism and ,christianity4 ,this argument can be turned with fatal force against the critics who made it4 ,it is no doubt true that ,st4 ,john by numerous indications 7xiii4 #a2 xviii4 #bh2 xix4 #ad1 #ca7 implies that the ,last ,supper was eaten the day before the usual passover1 and that ,christ died on ,nisan #ad4 ,but the usage of the ,christians of the ,asiatic ,churches in the #bnd century absolutely corroborates these indications4 ,these ,churches when they celebrated the passover were not celebrating the anniversary of the ,last ,supper1 but the anniversary of the death of ,christ1 the true ,paschal ,lamb4 ,by doing this on ,nisan #ad1 they showed that they believed that ,christ died on that day1 and there is particularly strong evidence of a belief among the early ,christians that our ,lord did die on ,nisan #ad4 ,moreover1 although the account of the ,synoptists is not free from #cj ambiguity1 it bears many testimonies to ,st4 ,john's chronology4 ,they record as happening on the day of ,christ's death several actions which the ,jewish law did not permit on a feast day such as ,nisan #ae1 and which must presumably have taken place on ,nisan #ad4 ,the ,synoptists make the ,sanhedrim say that they will not arrest ,jesus on the feast day1 the guards and ,st4 ,peter carry arms1 the trial is held1 ,simon the ,cyrenian comes from work1 ,joseph of ,arimathaea buys a linen cloth1 the holy women prepare spices1 all of which works would have been forbidden on ,nisan #ae4 ,finally1 the day is itself called the preparation1 a name which would not be given to ,nisan #ae4 ,the conclusion is irresistible4 ,it is that our ,lord died on ,nisan #ad1 that ,st4 ,john is correct1 and that the ,synoptists in most of the passages concerned corroborate ,st4 ,john4 ,the only real difficulty is raised by ,mark xiv4 #ab 7cf4 ,matt4 xxvi4 #ag2 ,luke xxii4 #g71 which seems to imply that the ,paschal lamb was sacrificed on the day before ,christ died4 ,if so1 this verse implies that ,christ died on ,nisan #ae4 ,but we must observe that not one of the ,synoptists says that the disciples ate a lamb at the ,last ,supper1 and also that1 for all ceremonial purposes1 the day for killing the lamb began on the evening of ,nisan #ac4 ,it is therefore doubtful whether there is even as much as one verbal contradiction on this point between the ,synoptists and ,st4 ,john4 ,the omission of events which are of importance in the ,synoptic ,gospels is a striking feature in ,st4 ,john's ,gospel4 ,but these instances of omission can be more reasonably explained by the hypothesis that the author was content to omit facts with which the ,christians around him were well acquainted1 than by the hypothesis that he was a spiritualistic writer of the #bnd century who wished to make his ,gospel fit some fanciful theory of his own4 ,in fact1 the latter hypothesis has proved a signal failure4 ,the critics who say that the writer omitted the story of our ,lord's painful temptation as incompatible with the majesty of the ,divine ,word1 may be asked #ca why the writer gives no fuller account of the glorious transfiguration than the hint in i4 #ad4 ,those who say that sentimental superstition induced the writer to omit the agony the garden1 may be asked why the writer records the weariness of ,christ at ,samaria and ,his tears at the grave1 of ,lazarus4 ,there are gaps in the evangelist's narrative1 but we cannot argue that the ,gospel is therefore a forgery4 ,the evangelist is acquainted with the ,ascension 7vi4 #fb71 though he does not record it2 and he knows that ,nazareth was the early home of ,christ 7i4 #df71 though he does not narrate the story of the sacred infancy4 ,the ,gospel of ,st4 ,john is none the less genuine for being of the nature of a treatise1 intended to bring certain aspects of the life of our ,lord to bear upon the intellectual life of ,ephesus4 ,much has been made of the fact that he says nothing of the institution of the ,eucharist4 ,nor does he record the command of ,jesus to baptize4 ,are we to suppose that a writer who has told us how the ,word was made flesh so shrank from believing material things to be connected with a spiritual efficacy that he rejected the sacraments8 ,is it not more probable that among people who were perfectly familiar with both ,baptism and the ,eucharist he preferred to tell what ,christ had said about being born again 7iii471 and about the assimilation of ,his life by the believer 7vi478 ,this seems to us more reasonable4 ,the fourth ,gospel1 though it has a character and purpose of its own1 and might even have been written if there had been no other ,gospel1 yet was intended to supplement either the ,synoptic ,gospels or else a body of teaching corresponding with that contained in those ,gospels4 ,the facts which ,st4 ,john records in common with the ,synoptists before the ,last ,supper1 the ,passion1 and the ,resurrection are--the ,baptism of ,john 7i4 #bf71 the ,feeding of the #ejjj 7vi4 #aj71 the ,walking on the ,sea 7vi4 #ai71 the ,anointing at ,bethany1 with the action of ,judas 7xii4 #a71 the ,triumphal ,entry into ,jerusalem 7xii4 #ab74 ,even in connection with these incidents ,st4 ,john gives his additional details1 and #cb therefore the character of his work is here1 as elsewhere1 both independent and supplemental4 ,it remains to ask whether any words used by ,st4 ,john seem to show that he borrowed expressions from the ,synoptic ,gospels4 ,the following passages may be noticed3 ,john v4 #h f4 7,mark ii4 #aa f471 vi4 #g1 #aj1 #ai f4 7,mark vi4 #cg1 #dj1 #di f471 xii4 #c1 #e1 #g f4 7,mark xiv4 #c-f71 xiii4 #ba 7,mark xiv4 #ah71 xviii4 #ah1 #ag 7,mark xiv4 #ed1 #fi71 xviii4 #bb 7,mark xiv4 #fe74 ,for the quotation from ,zechariah in xii4 #ae1 cf4 ,matt4 xxi4 #e4 ,the words of our ,lord in ,john xv4 #ah-xvi4 #b have been compared with those in ,matt4 x4 #ag-bb4 ,sometimes ,john has more points of contact with ,luke than with the other ,synoptists2 e4g4 there is the journey of ,christ to ,galilee before the death of ,john the ,baptist1 the fact that the scourging of ,christ by ,pilate was intended to restrain the ,jews from demanding ,his death1 and the visit of ,st4 ,peter to the sepulchre4 ,it has been thought that ,john xii4 #c is based upon ,luke vii4 #ch4 ,the anointing of our ,lord's feet in both is certainly remarkable4 ,sometimes ,john agrees with ,matt4 and ,mark and not ,luke1 as in recording the binding of ,jesus1 the crown of thorns1 the purple robe1 and the custom of releasing a malefactor at the feast4 ,such coincidences between ,john and the ,synoptic ,gospels are so slight and disconnected that it seems doubtful whether the former uses any material drawn from the latter4 ,nevertheless1 the story contained in the ,synoptic ,gospels1 though not quoted1 is presupposed4 ,a good instance is in ,john vi4 #e1 where ,st4 ,john does not stop to explain that the hour was late and the people therefore hungry4 #a ,apol4 i4 #ff4 #b ,the longest instance of a passage in ,matt4 and ,luke being parallel in these ,gospels and without a parallel in ,mark is the short passage1 ,matt4 iii4 #g-aj1 ,luke iii4 #g-i4 #c ,this theory was first clearly expounded in #ahah by ,gieseler1 a celebrated ,german ,protestant ,church historian4 ,it has been more popular in ,england than in ,germany4 #cc ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,gospel ,,according ,,to ,,st4 ,,matthew ,sidenote3 ,the ,author4 ,st4 ,matthew is one of the least known of the ,apostles4 ,he was first called ,levi the son of ,alphaeus1 and was a publican or collector of customs at ,capernaum4 ,at the call of ,jesus1 he forsook all1 and rose up and followed ,him4 ,he then made a great feast1 to which he invited his old companions1 no doubt that they too might come under the influence of the ,lord4 ,after the appointment of the twelve ,apostles1 he was put in the second of the three groups of ,apostles4 ,the ,new ,testament gives us no further information concerning him4 ,an early tradition narrates that the ,apostles remained at ,jerusalem until twelve years after the ,ascension1 and certainly ,st4 ,paul does not seem to have found any of the ,apostles at ,jerusalem when he was there in ,a4,d4 #ef 7,acts xxi4 #ag74 ,according to ,clement of ,alexandria1 ,a4,d4 #aij1 ,st4 ,matthew led a rigorously ascetic life1 such as is also recorded of ,st4 ,james4 ,nothing certain is known of his missionary labours4 ,parthia1 ,ethiopia1 and ,india were believed in the #dth and #eth centuries to have been visited by ,st4 ,matthew4 ,we learn from ,clement of ,alexandria that he did not suffer martyrdom4#a ,the fact that he disappears almost completely from the realm of history is an additional reason for believing the tradition which connects our first ,gospel with his name4 ,a false tradition would have probably connected it with one of the more favourite figures of early ,christian story4 #cd ,it is repeatedly asserted by the ,fathers that ,st4 ,matthew wrote his ,gospel in ,hebrew1 which may either mean the sacred language of the synagogues1 or the popular language of ,palestine which we now call ,aramaic4 ,it should1 however1 be remembered that ,papias1 our earliest authority1 describes ,st4 ,matthew's composition by the word ,logia1 which seems to point to a list of sacred sayings or oracles of our ,lord1 rather than to a historical narrative4 ,about ,a4,d4 #abe1 ,papias writes3 ,matthew then composed the ,logia in the ,hebrew tongue1 and every one interpreted them as he was able4 #b ,about ,a4,d4 #ahe1 ,st4 ,irenaeus writes3 ,matthew published a ,gospel among the ,hebrews in their own dialect4 #c ,origen and ,eusebius make similar statements4 ,st4 ,jerome1 in ,a4,d4 #cib1 writes3 ,matthew1 also called ,levi1 who from being a publican became an apostle1 first wrote a ,gospel of ,christ in ,judaea1 and in ,hebrew letters and words for the benefit of those of the circumcision who believed4 ,who afterwards translated it into ,greek is not quite certain4 #d ,we naturally inquire what became of this ,hebrew ,gospel8 ,st4 ,jerome1 in ,a4,d4 #cib1 believed that he had found it4 ,he says that it was still preserved at ,caesarea1 and that the ,nazarenes1 a ,jewish ,christian sect of ,palestine1 allowed him to transcribe a copy of it at ,beroea 7now ,aleppo74 ,in ,a4,d4 #cih1 he says that he had translated this ,gospel into ,greek and ,latin4 ,it is known that it was used by the ,nazarenes and by the ,ebionites1 a ,jewish sect which admitted that ,jesus was the ,messiah1 but denied that ,he was divine4 ,lastly1 we find ,st4 ,epiphanius1 about the same time as ,st4 ,jerome1 describing the ,hebrew ,gospel according to the ,hebrews as the ,gospel written by ,st4 ,matthew4 ,so at the end of the #dth century it was generally believed that the ,gospel used by the ,nazarenes1 and ordinarily known as the ,gospel according to the ,hebrews1 was the original #ce ,hebrew version of ,matt4 ,the opinion arose from the two simple facts that it was known that 7#a7 ,st4 ,matthew originally wrote in ,hebrew1 and that 7#b7 the ,nazarenes possessed a ,gospel in ,hebrew4 ,the conclusion was natural1 but it was false4 ,clement of ,alexandria and ,origen1 who quote the ,gospel according to the ,hebrews1 do not represent it as the work of ,st4 ,matthew4 ,st4 ,jerome himself felt doubts4 ,when he first discovered the ,hebrew ,gospel1 he felt the enthusiasm of a critic who has made an important find4 ,he believed that he had discovered the original ,gospel4 ,he afterwards became more cautious4 ,his later allusions to the ,gospel say that it is called by most the original ,matthew1 #e and that it is the ,gospel according to the ,apostles or1 as most suppose1 according to ,matthew4 #f ,in fact1 this ,hebrew ,gospel1 which bore sometimes the title of the ,hebrews1 sometimes the ,apostles1 sometimes ,st4 ,matthew1 was not the ,hebrew original of our present ,matthew1 nor could it have been written by an ,apostle4 ,the fragments of it which now remain come from two versions4 ,both versions show traces of a mixed ,jewish and ,gnostic heresy1 and are plainly apocryphal4 ,the ,holy ,spirit is called the mother of ,jesus1 and represented as transporting ,him by a hair of ,his head to ,mount ,tabor1 and our ,lord is represented as handing ,his grave-clothes to the servant of the high-priest as soon as ,he was risen from the dead4 ,the ,gospel certainly seems not only to be a forgery1 but to betray a knowledge both of our ,greek ,gospel according to ,st4 ,matthew and that according to ,st4 ,john4#g ,we are obliged to conclude that it throws no light on the origin of our ,matt41 and that the original ,hebrew ,matt4 was lost at an early date4 ,on the other hand1 it is certain that our ,greek ,matt4 was #cf regarded as authentic in the #bnd century1 and it is plain that it records the sayings of ,christ with peculiar fulness4 ,we must now return to what was stated in our previous chapter when dealing with the ,synoptic problem4 ,we there saw that there is a great mass of common material in all three ,synoptic ,gospels1 and saw that ,mark was probably used as a groundwork for ,matt4 and ,luke4 ,we therefore are led to the conclusion that the ,gospel according to ,st4 ,matthew is a combination of a ,greek version of ,st4 ,matthew's original ,hebrew ,logia--,st4 ,matthew possibly wrote a ,greek version of it as well as the ,hebrew--with the ,gospel written by ,st4 ,mark4 ,the combination was apparently made either by the apostle himself1 or by a disciple of the apostle as the result of his directions4 ,the ,catholic ,jewish ,christians1 knowing that the ,gospel contained ,st4 ,matthew's own ,logia1 and that the rest of the ,gospel was in accordance with his teaching as delivered to them1 called it the ,gospel according to ,matthew4 ,the less orthodox ,jewish ,christians1 as we have seen1 invented a ,gospel of their own4 ,a little help is given us by the internal evidence afforded by ,matt4 ,the author appears to be writing for ,greek-speaking converts from ,judaism1 who need to have ,hebrew words interpreted to them4 ,thus he interprets ,immanuel 7i4 #bc71 ,golgotha 7xxvii4 #cc71 and the words of our ,lord on the cross 7xxvii4 #df74 ,the numerous quotations from the ,old ,testament have for a long time exercised the ingenuity of scholars1 who have believed that they enable us to determine how the ,gospel was written4 ,on the whole these quotations suggest two conclusions3 7#a7 ,that the evangelist knew both ,greek and ,aramaic1 7#b7 that the ,gospel is not a mere translation from the ,aramaic or ,hebrew4 ,roughly speaking1 the quotations which ,st4 ,matthew has in common with the other ,synoptists are from the ,greek 7,septuagint7 version of the ,old ,testament1 while those which are peculiar to his #cg ,gospel show that the ,hebrew has been consulted4 ,altogether the quotations number #de4 ,of these there are #aa which are texts quoted by the evangelist himself to illustrate the ,messianic work of our ,lord1 and #i of the #aa seem to imply a knowledge of ,hebrew4 ,they are i4 #bc2 ii4 #ae1 iv4 #ae-af1 viii4 #ag1 xii4 #ah-ba2 xiii4 #ad-ae2 xiii4 #ce;b2 xxi4 #e2 xxvii4 #i1 #aj4 ,the other #cd texts comprise the quotations which are made in the discourses of our ,lord1 and they are sometimes called context-quotations or cyclic quotations1 as coming in the cycle of discourses4 ,perhaps #f or #g of these #cd texts imply a knowledge of the ,hebrew4 ,but it is certain that this class of quotations is far nearer to the ,septuagint than the other class4 ,this conclusion remains good in spite of the fact that even the ,messianic quotations show the influence of the ,septuagint1 e4g4 in i4 #bc the writer uses the ,septuagint1 inasmuch as the ,greek word translated virgin necessarily implies the unique condition of the mother of our ,lord1 whereas the corresponding ,hebrew word does not necessarily imply the same condition4 ,now1 it is plain that if the ,gospel had been translated from the ,hebrew1 the context-quotations would probably have been as near to the ,hebrew as the quotations made by the evangelist himself4 ,this is not the case4 ,the quotations in ,matt4 show that the writer knew ,hebrew but wrote in ,greek1 and based part of his work on a ,greek document4 ,the fact that the ,gospel was written in ,greek does not prove that it was not written in ,palestine4 ,it has been urged that it cannot have been written in ,palestine1 because in ix4 #bf1 #ca we find ,palestine called that land1 but the phrase may refer only to a part of ,palestine1 and therefore can hardly be urged as proving anything4 ,it is well known that educated persons in ,palestine were acquainted with ,greek1 although the majority spoke ,aramaic4 ,the two languages existed side by side1 very much as ,welsh and ,english exist side by side in ,north ,wales4 ,if the ,gospel was not written in ,palestine1 it was probably written in ,south ,syria4 #ch ,sidenote3 ,date4 ,the date must be shortly before ,a4,d4 #gj4 ,a favourite argument of modern sceptics is that it contains a reference 7xxii4 #g7 to the burning of ,jerusalem by the ,romans in ,a4,d4 #gj1 and therefore must have been written after that event4 ,the argument rests upon the assumption that our ,lord could not have foreseen the event predicted--an assumption which no ,christian can accept4 ,even the favoured servants of ,god in later ages have sometimes possessed the gift of prophecy4 ,savonarola certainly foretold the fall of ,rome1 which took place in ,a4,d4 #aebg1 and the prophecy was printed long before the event seemed credible4 ,much more might the ,son of ,god have foretold the fall of that city which had so signally neglected ,his summons4 ,such expressions as the holy city1 the holy place1 the city of the great ,king1 suggest that when the ,gospel was written it had not yet become the home of the abomination of desolation4 ,and a far stronger proof is afforded by the caution of the writer in xxiv4 #ae1 let him that readeth understand4 ,this is an editorial note inserted by the evangelist1 as by ,st4 ,mark1 before our ,lord's warning to flee from ,judaea4 ,we learn from the early historians of the ,church that the ,jewish ,christians took warning from this statement to flee from ,judaea to ,peraea before the ,romans invested the holy city in ,a4,d4 #gj4 ,now1 it would have been absurd for the evangelist to insert this note after the ,roman forces had begun the siege1 as absurd as it would have been to warn the ,parisians to flee to ,england after ,paris had been surrounded by the ,prussians in #ahgj1 or to warn the ,english to leave ,ladysmith in #aijj after it was surrounded by the ,boers4 ,another and final proof that the ,gospel was written before ,a4,d4 #gj is given by the form in which the evangelist has recorded our ,lord's prophecy of the end of the world 7the so-called eschatological discourse in chs4 xxiv4-xxv474 ,the prophecy of the destruction of ,jerusalem and that of the last coming of the ,lord are placed side by side with no perceptible break4 ,ch4 xxiv4 #bi-ca refers to the #ci last coming of ,christ1 whereas the verses which immediately precede it refer to the destruction of ,jerusalem1 and so do vers4 #cb-cd4 ,it is impossible to resist the conclusion that the evangelist believed that the judgment upon ,jerusalem would be immediately followed by the last judgment of the world4 ,he knows that our ,lord foretold both1 and both events loom large in his mind4 ,as a traveller in a valley sees before him two great mountains which appear close to one another1 though really separated by many miles1 so the evangelist sees these two events together4 ,after the fall of ,jerusalem he would almost certainly have made a definite break between the two subjects4 ,sidenote3 ,literary ,style4 ,we have already noticed in ch4 ii4 the fondness for numerical arrangement1 which is a marked characteristic of the style of this ,gospel4 ,there are other proofs of the fact that this ,gospel is more ,hebrew in tone than the others4 ,in the other ,gospels we find the expression the kingdom of ,god1 but here we find it called the kingdom of heaven1 an instance of the peculiarly ,jewish reverence which shrank from uttering the name of ,god4 ,there are a few ,aramaic words found in this ,gospel--raca 7v4 #bb71 gehenna 7v4 #bb71 mammon 7vi4 #bd72 and we should add the peculiar use of righteousness in vi4 #a1 where the word is used in the sense of alms in accordance with a ,jewish idiom4 ,but the ,greek phrases are often neat and clear-cut4 ,they sometimes seem to imply a play upon words1 e4g4 in vi4 #af and xxiv4 #cj4 ,this is another indication that the ,gospel1 as it stands1 was first written in ,greek4 ,the ,greek is smoother than that of ,st4 ,mark1 though not so vivid4 ,the evangelist writes with a joyous interest in his work4 ,the historical parts of it are full of beauty1 but he uses them mainly as a framework for the discourses of ,jesus1 which he preserves with loving fidelity4 ,in ,st4 ,matthew's ,gospel the ,old ,testament is frequently quoted1 that the reader may see that ,jesus is the realization of #dj the hopes of the ,jewish prophets4 ,with set purpose the fair picture of the ,servant of ,jehovah drawn by ,isaiah is placed in the middle of the ,gospel 7xii4 #ah-ba71 that we may recognize it as the true portrait of ,christ4 ,close to it on either side the blasphemies of the ,pharisees are skilfully depicted as a foil to ,his divine beauty4 ,we have already noticed the bearing of these quotations on the origin of the ,gospel1 but we must speak further of their bearing on the evangelist's view of the ,old ,testament4 ,his ,messianic quotations are introduced by such phrases as that it might be fulfilled which was spoken by the prophet1 or1 then was fulfilled1 etc4 ,the tendency of modern scepticism to ridicule the supernatural element in prophecy has caused some writers to depreciate this method of quotation4 ,and we find even a thoughtful ,roman ,catholic writer speaking of it as giving the impression that the supple and living story of the life of ,jesus is only a chain of debts which fall due1 and fulfilments which cannot be avoided4 #h ,in particular1 it has been alleged that the ,greek word translated that1 or in order that1 and prefixed to these quotations1 implies this fatalistic necessity4 ,but this particular argument is mistaken4 ,in later ,greek the use of the word was vaguer than it had been formerly4#i ,it cannot be narrowed down so as to prove that the evangelist thought that events in the ,old ,testament only took place in order to be types which the ,son of ,god constrained ,himself to fulfil4 ,and1 speaking more generally1 we may say that the evangelist shows an exquisite taste in his selection of ,messianic quotations4 ,convinced that ,jesus sums up the history of ,israel1 he does not hesitate to quote passages in the ,old ,testament1 whether they directly refer to the ,messianic ,king1 or only call up some picture which has a counterpart in the life of ,christ4 #da ,thus the quotations in i4 #bc and ii4 #f directly refer to one who is the expected ,king1 that in viii4 #ag to one who is the ideal martyred ,servant1 that in ii4 #ae to ,israel conceived of as the peculiar child of ,god and so a type of ,christ4 ,in ii4 #bc the evangelist finds in the name of ,nazareth an echo of the ancient ,messianic title ,netzer 7a branch74 ,in ii4 #ah we see that the tomb of ,rachel near ,bethlehem reminds him of the mothers of ,israel weeping over the death of their children at the hands of the ,babylonians2 and as ,jeremiah poetically conceived of ,rachel weeping with the mothers of his own day1 so ,st4 ,matthew conceives of her as finding her crowning sorrow in the massacre of the ,holy ,innocents4 ,three other quotations deserve special notice3 7#a7 ,that in xxvii4 #i1 which the evangelist quotes from ,jeremiah4 ,it is often said that this is a mere mistake for ,zechariah4 ,but it is a quotation combined1 according to the ,jewish method known as the ,charaz1 or string of pearls1 from ,zech4 xi4 #ab and ,jer4 xix4 #a1 #b1 #f1 the valley of the son of ,hinnom being regarded as typical of the field of blood4 7#b7 ,that in xxvii4 #cd1 from ,ps4 lxix4 #ba4 ,it is said that the evangelist1 in order to make our ,lord's action correspond with the words of the ,psalmist1 makes ,him drink gall instead of myrrh 7,mark xv4 #bc71 and thus represents the soldiers as cruelly giving ,him a nauseating draught instead of a draught to dull ,his pain4 ,the argument will hardly hold good1 for the ,greek word translated gall can also signify a stupefying drug1 and thus ,matt4 and ,mark agree4 7#c7 ,that in xxi4 #b-g1 where our ,lord is represented as making use of both an ass and a colt for ,his triumphal entry into ,jerusalem4 ,the other ,synoptists mention a colt only1 and it is supposed that the evangelist altered his narrative of the fact in order to make it agree with a too literal interpretation of ,zech4 ix4 #i4 ,it must be admitted that the account in ,mark and ,luke has an air of greater probability1 and it has the support of the brief account in ,john4 ,but there is not a decisive contradiction between ,matt4 and the other ,gospels1 and it is therefore unreasonable to pass an unfavourable verdict on any of them4 ,the story in ,matt4 cannot be discredited as containing an apocryphal miracle1 and the mere fact that it is so independent of the other ,gospels suggests that it is really primitive4 ,sidenote3 ,character and ,contents4 ,the chief characteristic of this ,gospel is the representation of ,jesus as the ,messiah in whom was fulfilled the #db ,law and the prophets4 ,it was probably placed first in the ,new ,testament because this ,messianic doctrine is the point of union between the old covenant and the new4 ,st4 ,matthew's representation of the ,messiah is the result of very careful reflection1 and it shows that the evangelist wrote in a spirit which was philosophical and in one sense controversial4 ,he is philosophic because he is not a mere annalist4 ,he groups incidents and discourses together in a manner which brings out their significance as illustrating the ,messiahship of ,jesus and the majestic forward movement of the kingdom of ,god4 ,he is in one sense controversial because he wishes his picture of ,christ to correct that false idea of the ,messiah and ,his reign which was ruining the ,jewish people4 ,the best kind of controversy is that which is intent upon explaining the truth rather than eager to expose and ridicule what is false4 ,so the evangelist presents to his readers ,jesus as the ,lord's ,anointed with inspired powers of persuasion4 ,the manner in which he records our ,lord's urgent warnings against going after false ,jewish ,messiahs at the time when the destruction of ,jerusalem should draw near1 is a witness to the depth of his convictions4 ,like the author of the ,epistle to the ,hebrews1 who wrote shortly before him1 he cannot endure the thought of any waverers or deserters4 ,the ,jewish ,christian must be loyal to ,jesus1 even although the invasion of the holy land by ,gentiles may sorely tempt him to throw in his lot with his patriotic but unbelieving kinsmen4 ,the very first verse suggests the nature of the ,gospel--,the book of the generation 7i4e4 the genealogical tree7 of ,jesus ,christ1 the son of ,david1 the son of ,abraham4 ,this book includes the first #ag verses of the ,gospel4 ,while ,st4 ,luke traces the genealogy of our ,lord back to ,adam1 the head of the human race1 ,st4 ,matthew desires to show that our ,lord1 as the son of ,abraham1 is the child of promise in whom all the families of the earth shall be blessed1 and1 as the son of ,david1 #dc is heir to the kingdom of spiritual ,israel4 ,the genealogy is partly based on that of the ,greek version of #a ,chron4 i4-iii41 and is intended to teach certain special truths4 ,it is arranged so as to be a kind of summary of the history of the people of ,god1 each group of #ad names ending with a crisis4 ,jesus is the flower and fulfilment of that history4 ,it furnishes a reply to ,jewish critics4 ,they would say that ,jesus could not be ,messiah unless ,joseph1 his supposed father1 was descended from ,david4 ,st4 ,matthew shows that ,st4 ,joseph was of ,davidic descent4 ,again1 the ,jews would say that in any case the ,messiah would not be likely to be connected with a humble carpenter and his folk4 ,the evangelist's reply is that ,david himself was descended from comparatively undistinguished men and from women who were despised4 ,thus ,st4 ,matthew meets both points raised by the ,jews4 ,of recent years another criticism has been passed on this pedigree of our ,lord4 ,a copy of the ,old ,syriac version of the ,gospels1 discovered at ,sinai and published in #ahid1 says that ,joseph begat ,jesus1 and in this way denies that ,jesus was born of a pure virgin4 ,some writers who wish to believe that our ,lord was brought into the world in the same manner as ourselves1 have said that this ,syriac version represents what was actually the fact4 ,there is1 however1 no reason for believing anything of the kind4 ,there is no ground for the notion that the ,syriac genealogy was taken from a primitive ,jewish register4 ,it is merely a translation of the ,greek1 probably from some ,western ,greek manuscript which had ,joseph begat ,jesus4 ,when the evangelist wrote the genealogy1 he can only have meant that ,joseph was by ,jewish law regarded as the father of ,jesus2 for his whole narrative of our ,lord's infancy assumes that ,he was born of a virgin mother4 ,the truth that our ,lord was born miraculously is asserted by ,st4 ,luke as well as by ,st4 ,matthew4 ,it is assumed by ,st4 ,paul1 when he argues that the second ,adam was free from the taint of sin which affected the rest of the first ,adam's descendants4 ,it #dd was also cherished from the earliest times in every part of the ,christian world where the teaching of the apostles was retained1 and was only denied by a few heretics who had openly rejected the teaching of the ,new ,testament on other subjects4 ,connected with the representation of ,jesus as the ,messiah is the record of ,his continual teaching about the kingdom of heaven4 ,the kingdom of heaven or kingdom of ,god signifies the reign and influence of ,god4 ,the meaning of it is best expressed by the words in the ,lord's ,prayer3 ,thy kingdom come4 ,thy will be done1 as in heaven1 so on earth 7,matt4 vi4 #aj74 ,the second petition explains the first4 ,the kingdom comes in proportion as the righteous will of our loving ,father is done among men4 ,the kingdom therefore includes the influence of ,god in the heart of the believer1 or in great movements in the world1 or in the organization and growth of ,his ,church 7xvi4 #ah2 xviii4 #ag74 ,the kingdom has both a present and a future aspect4 ,in xii4 #bh our ,lord says to ,his hearers that it is come upon you1 and in xxi4 #ca ,he speaks of people who were entering into it at the time4 ,but the night before ,he died ,he spoke of it as still future 7xxvi4 #bi74 ,it is plain that ,he taught that it was already present1 though its consummation is yet to come4 ,the kingdom is spiritual1 not of this world1 it is universal1 for though the ,jews were the sons of the kingdom 7viii4 #ab7 by privilege1 it is free to others4 ,the worst sinner might come in 7xxi4 #ca71 if he came with repentance1 humility1 and purity of heart4 ,the teaching of ,christ with regard to the kingdom was based upon an idea of ,god's personal rule1 which runs through nearly all the ,old ,testament1 beginning with the ,books of ,samuel and revealing itself in ,isaiah1 ,jeremiah1 and ,daniel4 ,but our ,lord's teaching is original and distinctive4 ,and it is more distant from the popular ,jewish idea of a ,hebrew counterpart to the ,roman empire than the east is distant from the west4 ,nowhere else is our ,lord shown to have given such an unmistakable sanction to the ,law4 ,it is here only that we #de read1 ,think not that ,i came to destroy the ,law1 or the prophets3 ,i came not to destroy1 but to fulfil 7v4 #ag74aj ,here1 too1 we find an allusion to the observance of the sabbath after the ,ascension 7xxiv4 #bj71 a temporary prohibition of preaching to the ,gentiles and ,samaritans 7x4 #e71 and the statement of our ,lord1 ,i was not sent but unto the lost sheep of the house of ,israel 7xv4 #bd74 ,most remarkable of all is the direction to obey the scribes and ,pharisees 7xxiii4 #c74 ,on the other hand1 there is a rigorous denunciation of the rabbinical additions to the ,jewish ,law4 ,mercy is preferable to sacrifice 7xii4 #g71 the ,son of man is ,lord of the sabbath 7xii4 #h71 moral defilement does not come from a failure to observe ceremonial 7xv4 #aa71 the kingdom will be transferred to a more faithful nation 7xxi4 #dc71 even the strangers from the east and the west 7viii4 #aa71 the ,gospel will be for all people 7xxiv4 #ad71 and the scribes and ,pharisees are specially denounced 7xxiii4 #ac74 ,it has been said that there is an absolute opposition between these two classes of sayings2 that either ,jesus contradicted ,himself1 or the evangelist drew from one source which was of a ,judaizing character1 and from another source which taught ,st4 ,paul's principle of justification by faith versus justification by the ,law4 ,but the same divine paradox of truth which we find in ,matt4 runs through most of the ,new ,testament1 and is found plainly in ,st4 ,paul4 ,in the ,epistle where he exposes the failure of contemporary ,judaism most remorselessly1 he asserts that we establish the ,law4 ,the true inner meaning of the divine revelation granted in the ,old ,testament is fulfilled in ,christ4 ,not only so1 but ,christ ,himself was the servant of the circumcision1 living under the ,law4 ,the limits which ,he imposed upon ,his own ministry 7xv4 #bd7 and that of ,his apostles 7x4 #e7 were entirely fitting until ,christ at ,his resurrection laid aside all that was peculiarly ,jewish with its limits and humiliations4 #df ,,analysis#aa ,the infancy of our ,lord3 i4 #a-;ii4 #bc4--;,genealogy from ,abraham1 announcement to ,joseph1 birth1 visit of ,magi1 flight into ,egypt1 massacre of innocents1 settlement at ,nazareth4 ,a4 ,winter ,a4,d4 #bf till after ,pentecost #bg4 ,the preparation for the ministry3 iii4 #a-;iv4 #aa4-- ,the ministry of ,john the ,baptist and the baptism of ,jesus1 the threefold temptation4 ,b4 ,pentecost ,a4,d4 #bg till before ,passover #bh4 ,the preaching of the kingdom of ,god by ,jesus in ,galilee3 iv4 #ab-xiii4 #eh4--,the call of the four fishermen1 ,jesus preaches and heals 7iv474 ,the ,sermon on the ,mount--,jesus fulfils the law1 the deeper teaching concerning the commandments 7v474 ,false and true almsgiving1 prayer and fasting1 worldliness1 trust in ,god 7vi474 ,censoriousness1 discrimination in teaching1 encouragements to prayer1 false prophets1 the two houses 7vii474 ,the ministry at ,capernaum and by the lake is illustrated by the record of many works of ,messianic healing power 7viii4-ix471 the apostles are chosen and receive a charge 7x471 and the ministry is illustrated by words and parables of ,messianic wisdom 7xi4-xiii474 ,we find a growing hostility on the part of the scribes and ,pharisees 7ix4 #aa2 ix4 #cd2 xii4 #b1 xii4 #ad2 xii4 #bd74 ,jesus returns to ,nazareth 7xiii4 #ec-eh74 ,perplexity of ,herod and death of ,john the ,baptist1 xiv4 #a-ab4 #dg ,c4 ,passover ,a4,d4 #bh till before ,tabernacles #bh4 ,climax of missionary work in ,galilee3 xiv4 #ac-xviii4 #ce4--;,christ feeds the #ejjj1 walks on the sea1 heals the sick in ,gennesaret 7xiv474 ,christ now labours chiefly in the dominions of ,herod ,philip1 the journeys are more plainly marked in ,mark4 ,teaching about defilement1 the ,canaanite woman1 ,christ feeds the #djjj 7xv474 ,leaven of the ,pharisees and ,sadducees1 ,peter's confession of ,christ1 ,christ's first prediction of ,his death 7xvi474 ,transfiguration1 lunatic boy cured1 second prediction of death1 the shekel in the fish's mouth 7xvii474 ,treatment of children1 ,christ saving lost sheep1 forgiveness 7xviii474 ,d4 ,tabernacles1 ,september ,a4,d4 #bh until early #bi4 ,the ministry in ,peraea2 xix4 i-xx4 #cd4--;,christ forbids divorce1 ,he blesses children1 the rich young man1 the difficulties of the rich 7xix474 ,parable of the labourers1 ,christ's third prediction of ,his death1 the request of the mother of ,zebedee's children1 the two blind men of ,jericho 7xx474 ,e4 ,passover ,a4,d4 #bi4 ,last days at ,jerusalem1 and afterwards3 xxi4 #a-xxviii4 #bj4--;,entry into ,jerusalem1 the cleansing of the temple1 the withered fig tree1 ,christ challenged1 parable of the vineyard 7xxi474 ,the marriage feast1 three questions to entrap ,christ1 ,his question 7xxii474 ,on not seeking chief places1 denunciation of scribes and ,pharisees1 lament over ,jerusalem 7xxiii474 ,predictions of destruction of temple1 siege of ,jerusalem1 the second coming 7xxiv471 three discourses on the judgment 7xxv474 #dh ,the ,council discuss how they may arrest ,jesus1 the woman with the ointment1 ,judas' bargain1 the ,passover1 ,gethsemane1 the betrayal1 the trial before ,caiaphas1 ,peter's denial 7xxvi474 ,jesus delivered to ,pilate1 ,judas' suicide1 ,jesus tried by ,pilate1 ,jesus and ,barabbas1 the mockery1 crucifixion1 burial by ,joseph of ,arimathaea1 guard granted by ,pilate 7xxvii474 ,the women at the sepulchre1 the angel1 ,jesus meets them1 the guard bribed1 ,jesus meets the eleven in ,galilee1 ,his commission to baptize and teach 7xxviii474 ,note on the ,date of ,matthew4--,irenaeus1 apparently following ,papias1 says1 ,matthew published a written ,gospel among the ,hebrews in their own dialect1 ,peter and ,paul preaching the ,gospel at ,rome 7,adv4 ,haer4 iii4 #a74 ,this would fix the date of the ,hebrew ,matt4 about ,a4,d4 #fc1 if it was the intention of ,irenaeus to give chronological information in this sentence4 ,but the context makes it more probable that this is not the case1 and that he simply wished to make it clear that the teaching of the four chief apostles1 ,peter and ,paul1 ,matthew and ,john1 has come down to us in writing4 ,that of ,matthew and ,john survives in their ,gospels1 that of ,peter and ,paul1 though they wrote no ,gospels1 survives in ,mark and ,luke4 ,eusebius1 in his ,chronicle dates the composition in ,a4,d4 #da4 ,this he probably does in order to make it fit with the supposed departure of the apostles from ,jerusalem after twelve years from the ,crucifixion4 ,his statement is very improbable4 ,at any rate our ,greek ,matt4 must have been written after ,mark4 ,the frequent quotations from it in primitive literature from the ,epistle of ,barnabas and the ,didach onwards1 bear witness both to its early date and its high authority4 ,internal evidence points to the same conclusion4 ,in addition to what is said above 7p4 #ch71 we may note some passages likely to perplex the reader4 ,such are ii4 #bc1 the ass and the colt in xxi4 #g1 the three days and three nights in the belly of the whale mentioned as typical of ,christ's rest in the tomb 7xii4 #dj71 the absence of all reference to the burning of the temple in xxiv4 #b1 the reference to ,zachariah the son of ,barachiah 7xxiii4 #ce2 contrast #b ,chron4 xxiv4 #bj74 ,such verses would probably have been altered if the ,gospel had not gained an authoritative position at a very early date4 #a ,strom4 iv4 #i4 #b ,eusebius1 ,h4 ,e4 iii4 #ci4 #c ,adv4 ,haer4 iii4 #a4 #d ,de ,vir1 ,ill4 #c4 #e ,in ,matt4 xii4 #ac4 #f ,con4 ,pelag4 iii4 #a4 #g ,so ,prof4 ,armitage ,robinson1 ,expositor1 ,march1 #ahig4 #h ,batiffol1 ,six ,leons sur les ,evangiles1 p4 #dh4 #i ,burton1 ,syntax of the ,moods and ,tenses of ,new ,testament ,greek1 pp4 #ib-ie4 #aj ,in this ,gospel only is sin called lawlessness4 #aa ,these analyses of the ,gospels are not complete1 but are arranged with the hope that the readers1 by studying all the four1 may gain a clearer conception of the life of our ,lord4 #di ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,gospel ,,according ,,to ,,st4 ,,mark ,sidenote3 ,the ,author4 ,john ,mark was the son of a ,mary who was an influential member of the ,church at ,jerusalem1 as the ,church met in her house 7,acts xii4 #ab74 ,he was a cousin of ,barnabas 7,col4 iv4 #aj71 who had been a man of some property4 ,it has been thought that ,mark was the young man referred to in the account given by this ,gospel of the arrest of ,jesus in the garden4 ,to others the incident would probably have appeared insignificant4 ,he lived at ,jerusalem during the famine in ,a4,d4 #de1 and ,barnabas took him to ,antioch on returning thither from ,jerusalem at that time4 ,he accompanied ,st4 ,paul and ,st4 ,barnabas on ,st4 ,paul's first missionary journey1 and laboured with them at ,salamis in ,cyprus4 ,it is possible that ,acts xiii4 #e means that ,john ,mark had been a minister of the synagogue at ,salamis4 ,at any rate1 the ,greek can be so interpreted4 ,after crossing from ,paphos to the mainland of ,asia ,minor1 the missionaries arrived at ,perga4 ,here ,st4 ,paul made the great resolve to extend the gospel beyond the ,taurus mountains4 ,st4 ,mark determined to leave him4 ,perhaps he was not prepared for so magnificent an undertaking as a work which included the conversion of the ,gentiles 7,acts xiv4 #bg71 or for the substitution of the leadership of ,st4 ,paul for that of ,st4 ,barnabas4 ,st4 ,mark returned to ,jerusalem1 and was again at ,antioch about the time of ,st4 ,paul's rebuke of ,st4 ,peter4 ,possibly ,st4 ,mark followed the example of most of the ,jewish ,christians at ,antioch in inducing ,st4 ,peter and ,st4 ,barnabas to withdraw from #ej fellowship with the ,gentile converts4 ,whether he did so or not1 it is certain that ,st4 ,paul refused to take ,st4 ,mark with him on his second missionary journey1 ,a4,d4 #di4 ,st4 ,barnabas then went home to ,cyprus with ,st4 ,mark4 ,we hear no more of the future evangelist until ,a4,d4 #fj1 when we find that he is with ,st4 ,paul in ,rome1 and completely reconciled to him4 ,he is the apostle's fellow-worker and his comfort 7,col4 iv4 #aa2 ,philem4 #bd74 ,about four years later1 ,st4 ,paul1 in writing shortly before his martyrdom to ,timothy1 requests him to come to ,rome by the shortest route1 and to take up ,mark on the way1 for he is useful to me for ministering 7#b ,tim4 iv4 #aa74 ,the last notice that we have of ,st4 ,mark in the ,new ,testament illustrates how complete a harmony had been effected between the expansive theology of ,st4 ,paul and the once cramped policy of ,st4 ,peter and ,st4 ,mark4 ,in his ,first ,epistle ,st4 ,peter refers to ,mark1 my son1 and his words make it certain that the two friends were then together at ,babylon1 i4e4 ,rome4 ,in the #dth century it was widely believed that ,st4 ,mark was the founder of ,christianity in ,alexandria1 and the first bishop of the see which was afterwards ruled by ,st4 ,athanasius and ,st4 ,cyril4 ,it is important to notice that this tradition appears first in ,eusebius1 and is not mentioned in the extant works of ,clement and ,origen1 the great luminaries of the early ,alexandrian ,church4 ,but it seems to be too well supported by the great writers of the #dth century for us to regard it as a fabrication4 ,if the tale is true1 ,st4 ,mark must have brought ,christianity to ,alexandria either after the death of ,st4 ,peter about ,a4,d4 #fe1 or about ,a4,d4 #ee1 in the interval between his separation from ,st4 ,paul and his stay with him at ,rome4 ,the early ,fathers1 so far as their testimony remains1 are unanimous in ascribing this ,gospel to ,st4 ,mark1 and they are equally unanimous in tracing the work of ,st4 ,mark to the influence of ,st4 ,peter4 ,justin ,martyr speaks of the ,memoirs of ,peter when referring to a statement which we find in #ea ,mark iii4 #ag4 ,papias closely associates the two saints in his account of the ,gospel1 and gives us his information on the authority of ,john the ,presbyter1 who was a disciple of the ,lord4 ,irenaeus1 ,clement of ,alexandria1 ,tertullian1 and ,origen say practically the same thing4 ,this evidence is overwhelming1 and it is uncontradicted by any early authority4 ,the statement of ,papias is as follows3 ,and the elder said this also3 ,mark1 having become the interpreter of ,peter1 wrote down accurately everything that he remembered of the things that were either said or done by ,christ2 but1 however1 not in order4 ,for neither did he hear the ,lord1 nor did he follow ,him2 but afterwards1 as ,i said1 he attended ,peter1 who adapted his instructions to the needs of his hearers1 but had no design of giving a connected account of the ,lord's words4 ,so then ,mark committed no error in thus writing down certain things as he remembered them2 for he made it his special care not to omit anything that he heard1 or to set down any false statement therein4 #a ,by calling ,st4 ,mark an interpreter1 ,papias perhaps means that he translated statements made in ,aramaic into ,greek1 which was the language most used by the ,christians of ,rome until the #crd century after ,christ4 ,by saying that ,st4 ,mark wrote not in order1 ,papias probably means that the ,gospel is not a systematic history of all our ,lord's ministry1 or an orderly arrangement of subjects placed together with a view to instruction like those in ,matthew4 ,so far as we are able to test them1 the facts are related chronologically in the great majority of cases4 ,papias does not tell us when ,st4 ,mark wrote his ,gospel4 ,irenaeus writes3 ,matthew also published a written ,gospel among the ,hebrews in their own dialect1 ,peter and ,paul preaching the ,gospel at ,rome1 and laying the foundations of the ,church4 ,after their departure1 ,mark1 the disciple and interpreter of ,peter1 delivered to us in writing the things that had been preached by ,peter4 #b #eb ,st4 ,peter and ,st4 ,paul probably died not later than ,a4,d4 #fe4 ,eusebius quotes from ,clement of ,alexandria that ,peter having publicly preached the word at ,rome1 and having spoken the ,gospel by the ,spirit1 many present exhorted ,mark to write the things which had been spoken1 since he had long accompanied ,peter1 and remembered what he had said2 and that when he had composed the ,gospel1 he delivered it to them who had asked it of him1 which when ,peter knew1 he neither forbad nor encouraged it4 #c ,clement is here relying upon the presbyters of old1 and the antiquity of the tradition is proved by the fact that it does not claim ,st4 ,peter's direct sanction for the ,gospel4 ,both ,irenaeus and ,clement were probably born about ,a4,d4 #acj1 or earlier4 ,irenaeus was acquainted with ,rome1 where ,st4 ,peter taught1 while ,clement lived at ,alexandria1 where ,st4 ,mark was probably bishop4 ,moreover1 ,clement's office of head-catechist at ,alexandria had been previously held by at least three predecessors1 who must have handed down traditions of first-rate value4 ,the testimony of ,clement with regard to ,st4 ,mark is not inconsistent with that of ,irenaeus4 ,the ,gospel was probably written while ,st4 ,peter was alive1 and when he was dead1 was given to the ,church4 ,possibly it underwent some revision before publication4 ,now1 as ,st4 ,peter evidently had not taught in ,rome when ,st4 ,paul wrote the ,epistle to the ,romans in ,a4,d4 #ef1 and as ,st4 ,mark was in ,rome when he wrote the ,epistle to the ,colossians in ,a4,d4 #fj1 we may reasonably date this ,gospel about ,a4,d4 #fb4 ,it seems to be later than ,colossians1 as there is no indication of ,st4 ,peter's being in ,rome when that ,epistle was written4 ,sidenote3 ,literary ,style4 ,the internal evidence afforded by the ,gospel strongly corroborates the belief that it was based upon the discourses of one who had been with our ,lord during ,his ministry4 ,it is marked by a vivid and dramatic realism4 ,there is a fondness for rapid transitions from one scene to another1 as may be illustrated by the #ec fact that the ,greek word for immediately occurs no less than forty-one times4 ,in i4 #bg the actual form of an original dialogue is shown in the abrupt and broken sentences employed4 ,st4 ,mark uses different tenses of the ,greek verb--present1 perfect1 imperfect1 and aorist--with singular freedom1 not because he did not know ,greek well enough to write with more regularity1 but because he is carried away by his interest in the facts which he relates4 ,the student will find good instances of this interchange of tenses in v4 #ae ff42 vi4 #ad ff42 viii4 #ce2 ix4 #cd ff4 ,st4 ,mark's language shows that he was well acquainted with the ,greek version of the ,old ,testament1 which has exercised considerable influence on his style4 ,there are many picturesque phrases1 such as the heavens rent 7i4 #aj7 and devour houses 7xii4 #dj74 ,there are little redundancies in which the author repeats his thoughts with a fresh shade of meaning1 as at even1 when the sun did set 7i4 #cb72 he looked steadfastly1 and was restored1 and saw all things clearly 7viii4 #be72 all that she had1 even all her living 7xii4 #dd74 ,there is a frequent use of popular diminutives1 such as words for little boat1 little daughter1 little dog4 ,this is probably due to provincial ,custom1 and may be compared with the fondness shown in some parts of ,scotland for words such as boatie1 lassie or lassock1 etc4 ,there are several ,hebraisms4 ,some of the ,greek words are frankly plebeian1 such as a foreigner would pick up without realizing that they were inelegant4 ,there are also some ,aramaic words and phrases which the writer inserts with a true artistic sense and then interprets--,boanerges 7iii4 #ag71 ,talitha cumi 7v4 #da71 ,corban 7vii4 #aa71 ,ephphatha 7vii4 #cd71 ,abba 7xiv4 #cf71 and ,eloi1 ,eloi1 lama sabachthani#d 7xv4 #cd74 ,the ,greek also contains numerous grammatical irregularities which betray the hand of a foreigner1 #ed as in ii4 #bf2 iv4 #bb2 vi4 #eb2 vii4 #d1 #ai2 ix4 #ah1 xi4#cb2 xiii4 #cd4 ,the use of participles is clumsy1 especially in the account of the woman with the issue of blood 7v4 #be ff474 ,finally1 there are more ,latin words and idioms than in any of the other ,gospels4 ,latin idioms may be seen in v4 #bc and xv4 #ae1 and instances of ,latin words are speculator 7vi4 #bg71 centurion 7xv4 #ci71 sextarius 7vii4 #d71 denarius 7vi4 #cg71 quadrans 7xii4 #db74 ,in xii4 #db1 xv4 #af1 ,greek words are explained in ,latin4 ,these facts corroborate the tradition that the writer was a ,palestinian who stayed in ,rome1 and knew personally some one who had exceptional knowledge of our ,lord's actual words4 ,the narrative is particularly fresh1 and abounds in vivid details such as would have been likely to linger in ,st4 ,peter's memory4 ,the green grass whereon the crowds sat1 and the appearance of flower-beds which they presented in their gay costume 7vi4 #ci1 #dj72 the stern of the boat1 and the pillow whereon our ,lord slept 7iv4 #ch72 the ,gerasene demoniac cutting himself with stones 7v4 #e72 the woman who was a ,syro-,phoenician but spoke ,greek 7vii4 #bf72 ,jesus taking children in ,his arms 7ix4 #cf2 x4 #af72 the street where the colt was tied 7xi4 #d72 the two occasions on which the cock crew 7xiv4 #fh1 #gb72 and ,st4 ,peter warming himself in the light of the fire 7xiv4 #ed72--such are some of the instances of the writer's fidelity in recording the impressions of his teacher4 ,this ,gospel also abounds in proper names1 both of places and persons4 ,among the latter may be mentioned the name of ,bartimaeus1 the blind beggar 7x4 #df72 the names of ,alexander and ,rufus1 the sons of ,simon of ,cyrene 7xv4 #ba72 ,salome1 the mother of ,zebedee's children 7xv4 #dj72 and ,boanerges1 their surname 7iii4 #ag74 ,equally remarkable is the manner in which the emotions of our ,lord and others are recorded4 ,we notice the indignation and grief which ,he felt in the synagogue 7iii4 #e72 ,his compassion for the unshepherded people 7vi4 #cd72 ,his deep sigh at the sceptical demand for a sign from heaven 7viii4 #ab71 #ee ,his displeasure at the disciples for keeping the children from ,him 7x4 #ad72 ,his undisguised love for the rich young man who yet lacked one thing 7x4 #ba72 ,his tragic walk in front of the apostles 7x4 #cb72 the intensity of feeling with which ,he was driven into the wilderness 7i4 #ab71 and overturned the tables and seats in the temple 7xi4 #ae74 ,st4 ,mark always seems to be painting our ,lord from the life4 ,in spite of the fact that ,st4 ,mark shows that he knew well how to compress the material which was at his disposal1 there is hardly a story which he narrates in common with the other synoptists without some special feature4 ,we may notice the imploring words of the father of the lunatic boy 7ix4 #b71 the spoken blessing on little children 7x4 #af71 the view of the temple 7xiii4 #c71 and ,pilate's question of the centurion 7xv4 #dd74 ,none of these things are narrated in the other ,gospels4 ,in ix4 #b-ac we have the story of the ,transfiguration1 with the statement that the garments of our ,lord became glistering1 exceeding white2 so as no fuller on earth can whiten them4 ,we are also told that ,st4 ,peter then addressed our ,lord as ,rabbi1 and that he wist not what to answer4 ,the same significant phrase1 they wist not what to answer ,him1 occurs in ,st4 ,mark's account of the agony in the garden 7xiv4 #dj74 ,these are only a few instances out of many which show ,st4 ,mark's originality1 and they are just such personal reminiscences as we might expect ,st4 ,peter to retain4 ,sidenote3 ,character and ,contents4 ,just as the style is realistic and the narrative circumstantial1 so the contents are practical4 ,he went about doing good is the impression which this ,gospel gives us of our ,lord4 ,the teaching which ,he announced to the people is made less prominent than in ,matt4 ,if we count even the shortest similitudes as parables1 we find only nine parables in ,mark4 ,equally remarkable is the absence of quotations made by the writer4 ,he records numerous references made by our ,lord to the ,old ,testament1 though fewer than ,matt4 or ,luke1 but the only quotations made by ,st4 ,mark #ef himself are in i4 #b1 #c 7,mal4 iii4 #a2 ,isa4 xl4 #c7 and xv4 #bh 7,isa4 liii4 #ab74 ,on the other hand1 we find eighteen miracles1 only two less than in the much longer ,gospel of ,st4 ,matthew4 ,the theological tone of ,mark may be described as neutral4 ,there is no trace of the innocent preferences which ,matt4 and ,luke show toward this or that aspect of the teaching of ,jesus4 ,in ,mark we do not find so strong an approval of the more permanent parts of the ,jewish ,law1 or so strong a denunciation of the ,pharisees who exalted the external adjuncts of the ,law1 as we find in ,matt4 ,nor do we find such parables as the ,good ,samaritan and the ,prodigal ,son1 by which ,luke lays emphasis upon the truth that the ,jews have no monopoly of holiness1 and that the outcast is welcome to the gospel4 ,mark is less ,jewish than ,matt41 less ,gentile and ,pauline than ,luke4 ,it used to be said that this was the result of trimming1 and intended to bridge over the differences between two different schools of theology4 ,but the charge has broken down4 ,st4 ,mark1 though not anti-,jewish1 regards ,christ as above the law of the sabbath 7ii4 #bh71 and teaches the necessity of new external religious forms 7ii4 #bb74 ,though he is not ,jewish1 and though he omits the statement made in ,matt4 xv4 #bd1 a statement indicating that the ,jews had the first right to be taught by the ,messiah1 he does record1 like ,matt41 the still harder statement of the same fact made to the ,syro-,phoenician woman 7vii4 #bg74 ,the truth is that ,st4 ,mark is neutral simply in the sense that he faithfully records a story which was moulded before doctrinal conflicts had taken place between ,christian believers4 ,the doctrine of ,st4 ,mark is archaic4 ,one of the most distinctive features of this ,gospel is the decisive clearness with which it shows how ,jesus trained and educated ,his disciples4 ,the simplicity with which ,st4 ,mark describes the faults of the friends of our ,lord is as remarkable as the vigour with which the gestures and feelings of our ,lord are portrayed4 ,st4 ,mark relates how that early in the ministry of ,jesus1 ,his friends 7iii4 #ba7 said that ,he was mad1 and that ,his #eg mother and ,his brethren 7iii4 #ca7 sought to bring ,him back4 ,the discipline and education of the disciples are recorded with a plain revelation of their mistakes and their spiritual dulness4 ,when they had settled in ,capernaum ,christ shows them that ,he must find a wider sphere of work 7i4 #ch72 ,he meets with a significant silence their obtrusive remonstrance when the woman with the issue of blood caused ,him to ask1 ,who touched ,my clothes8 7v4 #cj1 #ca72 ,he tells them with affectionate care to rest a while1 when they had been too busy even to eat 7vi4 #ca72 ,he rebukes them gravely when they put a childish interpretation upon ,his command to beware of the leaven of the ,pharisees and of ,herod1 the formalists and the ,erastian 7viii4 #ag72 they are unintelligent and uninquiring when ,he prophesies ,his death and resurrection 7ix4 #cb71 and after this prophecy they actually dispute about their own precedence 7ix4 #cd72 when ,christ goes boldly forward to ,jerusalem1 they follow with fear and hesitation 7x4 #cb72 ,he rebukes the niggardly criticism of those who were indignant with the waste of the perfume poured upon ,his head 7xiv4 #f72 and in ,gethsemane they all left ,him and fled 7xiv4 #ej74 ,among these disciples1 ,st4 ,peter is prominent1 and though his confession of the ,messiahship of ,jesus is recorded1 a confession which is necessarily central in the ,gospel 7viii4 #bi71 ,st4 ,mark neither records that our ,lord designed him as the rock1 nor his commission to feed the ,lord's lambs and sheep4 ,on the other hand1 ,st4 ,mark inserts things which were often of a nature to humble ,st4 ,peter4 ,he records the crushing reprimand which he received when he criticized the ,lord's mission 7viii4 #cc72 it was ,peter's fanciful plan to erect three tabernacles on the scene of the ,transfiguration 7ix4 #e71 it was ,peter who informed the ,lord that the fig tree had withered after ,his curse 7xi4 #ba71 it was ,peter whom ,christ awoke in ,gethsemane by uttering his name ,simon 7xiv4 #cg72 and ,peter's denial appears doubly guilty in this ,gospel1 inasmuch as he did not repent until the cock crew twice 7xiv4 #fh1 #gb74 ,at the #eh beginning 7iii4 #af7 and at the end 7xvi4 #g7 ,peter occupies a special position4 ,but the conduct of ,peter is narrated in a fashion which renders the notion of fiction quite impossible4 ,the ,gospel cannot have been written by a hero-worshipper wishing to glorify a saint of old1 but must surely have been written by the interpreter of ,peter4 ,in comparing the contents of ,mark with those of ,matt4 and ,luke1 we are struck by the absence of many of our ,lord's discourses4 ,yet we find an eschatological discourse about the second coming in xiii41 though much shorter than those in ,matt4 xxiv4 and xxv4 ,the genuineness of ,mark xiii4 has been assailed1 and it has been described as an apocalyptic fly-sheet1 which was somehow inserted in the ,gospel4 ,there is no reason for believing this theory to be true4 ,the chapter was in ,mark when it was incorporated into ,matthew1 and its teaching agrees with that attributed to our ,lord in the collections of ,logia4 ,we have also the beginning of the charge given to the apostles 7vi4 #g-aa2 cf4 ,matt4 x474 ,there are a few echoes of the ,sermon on the ,mount1 and only a specimen of the final denunciation of the ,pharisees1 which occupies a whole chapter in ,matt4 7,mark xii4 #ch-dj1 cf4 ,matt4 xxiii474 ,we find a few statements made by our ,lord which are peculiar to this ,gospel3 e4g4--the sabbath was made for man1 and not man for the sabbath 7ii4 #bg71 foolishness coming from the heart 7vii4 #bb72 every sacrifice shall be salted with salt 7ix4 #di72 ,father1 all things are possible unto ,thee1 in the touching filial appeal during the agony 7xiv4 #cf74 ,here alone have we the tiny parable about the growth of the blade of corn 7iv4 #bf71 and that of the porter commanded to watch until the master's return 7xiii4 #cd74 ,there are two miracles peculiar to ,mark1 the cure of the deaf-mute 7vii4 #cb7 and of the blind man at ,bethsaida 7viii4 #bb74 ,among the miracles recorded in ,mark1 the cures of demoniacs are prominent4 ,this is in peculiar contrast with ,john1 where we find no cure of demoniacs recorded4 ,in marked contrast to ,st4 ,luke1 ,st4 ,mark appears indifferent #ei to the political conditions of the countries where our ,lord worked4 ,thus ,herod ,antipas is simply called the king 7vi4 #ad71 whereas both in ,matt4 and ,luke he is correctly called by the title of tetrarch1 which only implies governorship of a portion of a country4 ,yet the narrative of ,st4 ,mark shows that he was quite aware of facts which can only be explained by the political conditions which he does not describe4 ,he knows that ,tyre and ,sidon1 ,caesarea ,philippi and ,bethsaida1 which were not under ,herod ,antipas1 were more safe for our ,lord than ,capernaum4 ,and he knows that in travelling to ,jerusalem ,he was in greater danger than while ,he remained in ,galilee1 and was meeting ,his doom at the sentence of ,gentile officials4 ,although ,st4 ,mark is silent as to the names of many of the places which our ,lord visited1 he gives us numerous indications of the various scenes of our ,lord's labours4 ,we are thus able to fix the geographical surroundings of nearly all the more important events1 and construct an intelligible plan of our ,lord's ministry4 ,we can see how ,he made the shores of the lake of ,gennesaret the focus of ,his mission1 and went on evangelistic journeys from ,capernaum into ,galilee4 ,the time of these journeys was largely determined by circumstances1 such as the unregulated enthusiasm of the mob1 the spite of the scribes at ,capernaum1 or the anger of ,herod's court at ,tiberias4 ,towards the end of the ministry in ,galilee our ,lord devoted ,himself to the deeper instruction of ,his ,apostles and their initiation into the mystery of ,his death 7vii4 #bd ff42 viii4 #bg ff474 ,for such teaching the mountain slopes of ,lebanon and ,hermon afforded scenes of perfect calm and beauty4 #fj ,,analysis ,a4 ,winter ,a4,d4 #bf till after ,pentecost #bg4 ,the preparation for the ministry2 i4 #a-ac4--,the mission of ,john the ,baptist and the baptism of ,jesus1 the temptation4 ,b4 ,pentecost ,a4,d4 #bg till before ,passover #bh4 ,the ministry of ,jesus in ,galilee1 journeys from ,capernaum2 i4 #ad-vi4 #ac4--,the call of the four fishermen1 ,jesus preaches and heals at ,capernaum 7i4 #ad-cd74 ,first missionary journey1 in towns of ,galilee3 leper cleansed1 return to ,capernaum 7i4 #ch-;ii4 #a74 ,work in ,capernaum1 five grounds of offence against ,jesus1 ,jesus followed by crowds of hearers on the sea-shore 7ii4 #b-;iii4 #ab74 ,appointment of the twelve1 ,christ accused of alliance with ,satan1 the unpardonable sin1 ,christ's relation to ,his mother and brethren4 ,he begins to teach in parables about the kingdom 7iii4 #ac-;iv4 #cd74 ,second missionary journey1 on the eastern shore of the lake of ,gennesaret3 the storm calmed1 ,gerasene demoniac and swine 7iv4 #ce-v4 #bj74 ,return to the western shore1 the cure of the woman who touched ,his garment1 ,jairus' daughter raised 7v4 #ba-dc74 ,third missionary journey1 in the western highlands1 including ,nazareth1 where ,he is rejected1 and adjacent villages1 the mission of the twelve 7vi4 #a-ac74 ,perplexity of ,herod and death of ,john the ,baptist1 vi4 #ad-bi4 #fa ,c4 ,passover ,a4,d4 #bh till before ,tabernacles #bh4 ,climax of missionary work in ,galilee1 journeys from ,capernaum2 vi4 #cj-;ix4 #ej4--;,christ in a desert place feeds the #ejjj1 visits ,bethsaida1 walks on the sea1 returns to ,gennesaret1 heals many 7vi4 #cj-ef74 ,teaching about defilement 7vii4 #a-bc74 ,fourth missionary journey1 to the north-west into ,phoenicia3 the ,syro-,phoenician woman1 departure from ,tyre and ,sidon1 approach to the sea of ,galilee through ,decapolis1 cure of the deaf-mute 7vii4 #bd-cg74 ,christ feeds the #djjj 7viii4 #a-i7 ,christ takes ship to ,dalmanutha1 ,pharisees seek a sign1 ,jesus takes ship to the other side1 the leaven of the ,pharisees and of ,herod1 cure of a blind man at ,bethsaida 7viii4 #aj-bf74 ,fifth journey1 to towns of ,caesarea ,philippi1 special teaching of the select few3 ,peter's confession of ,christ1 ,christ's first prediction of ,his death 7viii4 #bg-;ix4 #a74 ,transfiguration1 lunatic boy cured1 journey through ,galilee1 second prediction of death1 arrival at ,capernaum1 the value of a child's example1 the danger of causing one to stumble 7ix4 #b-ej74 ,d4 ,tabernacles1 ,september ,a4,d4 #bh until early #bi4 ,journey to ,jerusalem through ,peraea3 x4--,christ forbids divorce1 blesses children1 the rich young man1 the difficulties of the rich1 ,christ's third prediction of ,his death1 the request of ,zebedee's sons1 ,christ's announcement of ,his mission to serve1 blind ,bartimaeus cured at ,jericho4 #fb ,e4 ,passover ,a4,d4 #bi4 ,last days at ,jerusalem1 and afterwards2 xi4 #a-xvi4 #bj4--;,entry into ,jerusalem1 the withered fig-tree1 cleansing of the temple1 the duty of forgiveness1 ,christ challenged 7xi474 ,the parable of the vineyard1 three questions to entrap ,christ1 ,his question1 denunciation of scribes1 the widow's mites 7xii474 ,predictions of destruction of temple1 of woes and of the second coming 7xiii474 ,the ,council discuss how they may arrest ,jesus1 the woman with the ointment1 ,judas' bargain1 the ,passover1 ,gethsemane1 the betrayal1 the trial before the ,council1 ,peter's denial 7xiv474 ,jesus delivered to ,pilate1 trial1 ,jesus and ,barabbas1 the mockery1 crucifixion1 burial by ,joseph of ,arimathaea 7xv474 ,the women at the sepulchre1 the angel 7xvi4 #a-h74 ,appendix with summary of appearances of the ,lord 7xvi4 #i-bj74 ,note on the ,concluding ,section4--,the origin of xvi4 #i-bj is one of the most difficult of questions1 7a7 ,the section is not found in the two famous ,greek ,,mss41 the ,vatican and the ,sinaitic1 nor is it found in the very ancient ,sinaitic ,syriac ,,ms4 ,it is also lacking in one ,latin ,,ms4 7k71 which represents the ,latin version used before ,st4 ,jerome made the ,vulgate translation1 about ,a4,d4 #chd4 ,the great scholar ,eusebius1 ,a4,d4 #cbj1 omitted it from his canons1 which contain parallel passages from the three ,gospels4 7b7 ,the language does not resemble the ,greek employed in other parts of the ,gospels1 differing from it in some small particulars which most strongly suggest diversity of authorship4 7c7 ,much of the section might have been constructed out of the other ,gospels and ,acts2 e4g4 ver4 #i is thought to be derived from ,john xx4 #ad1 and ver4 #ad from ,john xx4 #bf-bi4 7d7 ,mary ,magdalene is introduced as though she had not been mentioned previously2 but she has already appeared thrice in ,mark 7xv4 #dj1 #dg2 xvi4 #a74 ,on the other hand1 it is obvious that the ,gospel could never have ended with the words for they #fc were afraid1 in ver4 #h4 ,all the old ,latin ,,mss4 contain the present section except k1 and perhaps originally ,a4 ,the evidence of the ,vatican and the ,sinaitic ,,mss4 is not so strong as it appears to be at first sight4 ,the end of ,mark in the ,sinaitic was actually written by the same scribe as the man who wrote the ,new ,testament in the ,vatican ,,ms4 ,and the way in which he has arranged the conclusion of the ,gospel in both ,,mss4 suggests that the ,,mss4 from which the ,sinaitic and the ,vatican were copied1 both contained this or a similar section4 ,moreover1 there is considerable reason for thinking that he acted under the personal influence of ,eusebius4 ,the verses are attested by ,irenaeus1 and apparently by ,justin and ,hermas1 and were therefore regarded as authentic1 or at least as truthful1 by educated men at ,lyons and ,rome1 in the #bnd century4 ,a possible solution is offered by an ,armenian ,,ms4 7,a4,d4 #ihf71 which assigns the section to the presbyter ,ariston4 ,this is probably the presbyter ,aristion whom ,papias describes as a disciple of the ,lord 7,eusebius1 ,h4 ,e4 iii4 #ci74 ,the conclusion of ,st4 ,mark's ,,ms4 probably became accidentally detached1 and vanished soon after his death1 and the ,church may well have requested one who knew the ,lord to supply the deficiency4 #a ,eusebius1 ,h4 ,e4 iii4 #ci4 #b ,op4 cit4 iii4 #ci4 #c ,eusebius1 ,h4 ,e4 vi4 #ad4 #d ,also in ,matt4 xxvii4 #df4 ,observe also the explanation of ,beelzebub 7iii4 #bb71 ,gehenna 7ix4 #dc71 ,bartimaeus 7x4 #df71 ,golgotha 7xv4 #bb74 ,also the explanation of ,jewish customs in vii4 #c1 #d2 xiv4 #ab4 #fd ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,gospel ,,according ,,to ,,st4 ,,luke ,sidenote3 ,the ,author4 ,the evidence for believing that the third ,gospel was written by ,st4 ,luke1 the friend of ,st4 ,paul1 is very strong4 ,in the #bnd century both this ,gospel and ,acts were attributed to him4 ,st4 ,irenaeus1 about ,a4,d4 #ahe1 writes3 ,luke1 also1 the companion of ,paul1 recorded in a book the gospel preached by him4 #a ,a few years earlier the author of the ,muratorian ,fragment wrote the words1 ,the third book of the ,gospel1 that according to ,luke4 ,according to ,eusebius and ,jerome and an unknown writer of the #crd century1 ,st4 ,luke was a native of ,antioch in ,syria4 ,of this we seem to have confirmation in the full account given in ,acts of the ,church at ,antioch4 ,it is shown by ,col4 iv4 #ad that he was a ,gentile1 as there is a distinction drawn between him and those of the circumcision4 ,from the same passage we learn that he was a physician4 ,traces of his profession have been discovered in the frequency with which he describes the healing wrought by ,christ and ,his apostles 7iv4 #ah1 #bc2 ix4 #a1 #b1 #f2 x4 #i2 xxii4 #ea71 and the occasional use of terms which a physician was more likely to employ than other people 7iv4 #ch2 v4 #ab2 vi4 #ai2 xxii4 #dd74 ,it is very possible that it is ,st4 ,luke who is described 7#b ,cor4 viii4 #ah7 as the brother whose praise in the gospel is spread through all the ,churches4 ,this tradition can be traced as far back as ,origen4 ,the fact that he was a dear friend of ,st4 ,paul is #fe shown by the epithet beloved in ,col4 iv4 #ad2 by the fact that he is one of the fellow-workers who send greetings from ,rome when ,st4 ,paul1 who was imprisoned there1 wrote to ,philemon2 and by the touching statement in #b ,tim4 iv4 #aa1 where ,st4 ,paul1 as he awaits his death1 writes1 ,only ,luke is with me4 ,st4 ,luke's relations with ,st4 ,paul are further illustrated from ,acts4 ,the literary resemblances between this ,gospel and ,acts are so numerous and so subtle that the tradition which ascribes both books to one author cannot reasonably be controverted4 ,the passages in ,acts which contain the word we show that the writer of ,acts accompanied ,st4 ,paul from ,troas to ,philippi in ,a4,d4 #ej1 when the apostle made his first missionary journey in ,europe 7,acts xvi4 #aj-ag74 ,the apostle left him at ,philippi4 ,about six years afterwards ,st4 ,paul was again at ,philippi1 and there met ,st4 ,luke1 who travelled with him to ,jerusalem 7,acts xx4 #e-xxi4 #ah72 he also was with the apostle when he made the voyage to ,rome1 and was shipwrecked with him at ,malta4 ,a writer of the #crd century 7quoted in ,wordsworth's ,vulgate1 p4 #bfi7 tells us that ,st4 ,luke had neither wife nor children1 and died in ,bithynia at the age of seventy-four4 ,a writer of the #fth century asserts that ,st4 ,luke was a painter1 and attributes to him a certain picture of the ,blessed ,virgin4 ,another such picture is preserved in the great church of ,s4 ,maria ,maggiore at ,rome4 ,the legend finds no support in early ,christian writers4 ,at the same time1 it bears witness to the fact that this ,gospel contains the elements of beauty in especial richness4 ,it is the work of ,st4 ,luke that inspired ,fra ,angelico's pictures of the ,annunciation1 and the ,english hymn ,abide with me4 ,although ,st4 ,irenaeus is the first writer who names ,st4 ,luke as the author of the third ,gospel1 the ,gospel is quoted by earlier writers4 ,special mention must be made of 7#a7 ,justin ,martyr4 ,he records several facts only found in this ,gospel1 e4g4 ,elisabeth as the mother of ,john the ,baptist1 the census #ff under ,quirinius1 and the cry1 ,father1 into ,thy hands ,i commend ,my spirit4 7#b7 ,celsus1 the pagan philosopher1 who opposed ,christianity4 ,he refers to the genealogy which narrates that ,jesus was descended from the first man4 7#c7 ,the ,letter of the ,churches of ,lyons and ,vienne1 written in ,a4,d4 #agg4 7#d7 ,marcion4 ,he endeavoured to found a system of theology which he pretended to be in accordance with the teaching of ,st4 ,paul4 ,he rejected the ,old ,testament as the work of an evil god1 and asserted that ,st4 ,paul was the only apostle who was free from the taint of ,judaism4 ,the only ,gospel which he kept was that according to ,st4 ,luke1 which he retained as agreeing with the teaching of ,st4 ,paul4 ,the contents of ,marcion's ,gospel can be largely discovered in ,tertullian4 ,the differences which existed between ,marcion's ,gospel and our ,luke can be easily accounted for4 ,here1 as in ,st4 ,paul's ,epistles1 he simply altered the passages which did not agree with his own interpretation of ,st4 ,paul's doctrine4 ,for instance1 in ,luke xiii4 #bh1 instead of ,abraham1 and ,isaac1 and ,jacob1 he put the righteous4 ,the account of our ,lord's birth and infancy he omitted1 because he did not believe that our ,lord's human body was thoroughly human and real4 ,an interesting modern parallel to ,marcion's ,new ,testament can be found in ,england4 ,at the beginning of the #aith century the ,english ,unitarians circulated large numbers of an ,english version of the ,new ,testament in which were altered all the passages in the ,english ,authorised ,version which imply that ,jesus is ,god4 ,the translators of this ,unitarian version accepted the ,gospels of the ,new ,testament as genuine1 although they used unscrupulous methods to support their assertion that the ,new ,testament is ,unitarian4 ,in the same way ,marcion1 although he made unscrupulous alterations in ,luke in order to prove that it was really ,marcionite1 obviously accepted it as a genuine work of the apostolic age4 ,the ,preface of the ,gospel begins with a ceremonious dedication to a person of high rank1 named ,theophilus4 ,he is #fg called by the title most excellent1 which ordinarily implies that the person so designated is a member of the equestrian order4 ,the evangelist tells ,theophilus that many had taken in hand to draw up a narrative of those things which are most surely believed among us4 ,the preface shows us that many attempts to give an account in order of what our ,lord did and said had already been made4 ,the literary activity of the earliest ,christians is thus demonstrated to us4 ,the preface suggests to us that substantial accuracy marked these early efforts1 and1 in a still higher degree1 ,st4 ,luke's own ,gospel4 ,he does not speak of the earlier works as inaccurate1 and he does distinctly give his reader to understand that he possesses peculiar qualifications for his task4 ,he asserts that his information is derived from eye-witnesses and ministers of the ,word1 and that he has himself traced the course of all things accurately from the first4 ,this preface certainly shows us that the writer took real pains in writing1 and that he had personally known men who accompanied our ,lord4 ,the date can hardly be later than ,a4,d4 #hj1 unless the evangelist wrote in extreme old age4 ,and the date must be earlier than ,acts1 as the ,gospel is referred to in that work 7,acts i4 #a1 #b74 ,can we fix the date more accurately than this8 ,many critics think that we can4 ,they say that it must be later than the fall of ,jerusalem1 ,a4,d4 #gj4 ,it is said that the ,gospel presupposes that ,jerusalem was already destroyed4 ,the arguments for this are3 7#a7 ,in ,luke xxi4 #bj-bd the utter destruction of ,jerusalem is foretold with peculiar clearness4 ,we have already seen that a similar argument is employed by many in speaking of ,matt41 an argument which seems to imply that our ,lord did not foretell that destruction because ,he could not4 ,this argument must be dismissed4 7#b7 ,in ,luke xxi4 #bj there is no editorial note like that in ,matt4 xxiv4 #ae1 to emphasize the necessity of paying peculiar attention to our ,lord's warning about the coming destruction1 and in ,luke xxi4 #be the final judgment is not so #fh clearly connected with the fall of ,jerusalem as in ,matt4 xxiv4 #bi1 where it is foretold as coming immediately1 after the tribulation of those days4 ,moreover1 xxi4 #bd suggests that the writer was well aware that an interval must elapse between the two great events4 ,this is the only good argument for placing ,luke later than ,matt41 and it certainly deserves careful attention4 ,at the same time1 we must observe the following facts3 7a7 ,st4 ,luke probably did not know ,st4 ,matthew's ,gospel1 otherwise he would not have given such very different1 though not contradictory1 accounts of the infancy and the resurrection of our ,lord2 7b7 ,st4 ,luke may perhaps owe the superior accuracy of his report of the eschatological discourse of ,christ to persons whom he knew at ,jerusalem in ,a4,d4 #ef2 7c7 ,st4 ,luke himself possibly thought that the end of the world would follow soon after the destruction of ,jerusalem1 for in xxi4 #cb he seems to connect the final judgment with his own generation4 ,but the statement is not so strong as in ,matt4 and ,mark4 ,for ,st4 ,luke says1 ,this generation shall not pass away till all be accomplished1 while ,matt4 and ,mark say1 until all these things be accomplished1 evidently including the final judgment4 ,on the whole1 it seems reasonable to date the ,gospel according to ,st4 ,luke soon after ,a4,d4 #gj1 but it contains so many primitive touches that it may be rather earlier4 ,it has been urged that both the ,gospel and ,acts betray a knowledge of the ,antiquities of ,josephus1 and must therefore be later than ,a4,d4 #id4 ,this theory remains wholly unproved1 and the small evidence which can be brought to support it is far outweighed by the early features which mark ,st4 ,luke's books4 ,sidenote3 ,literary ,style4 ,the style is marked by great delicacy and power4 ,it is in better ,greek than the other ,synoptic ,gospels1 and the evangelist seems to deliberately avoid some of the racy1 popular words which are employed by ,st4 ,mark4 ,but the beginner should be warned that this ,gospel is not very easy to translate1 for it contains a good #fi many words with which he is not likely to be familiar4 ,the language of ,st4 ,luke contains many proofs that he is writing as a ,gentile for ,gentiles4 ,thus he calls the ,apostle ,simon1 who belonged to the fanatically devout party known as the ,cananaeans1 by the corresponding ,greek name ,zealot 7vi4 #ae72 he seldom uses the ,hebrew word ,amen1 and he never uses the word ,rabbi as a form of address4 ,he adds the word unclean before the word devil 7iv4 #cc71 as the ,greeks believed that some devils were good and kind1 while the ,jews believed all devils to be evil4 ,he also substitutes the word lawyer for scribe4 ,but while the preface is written in what is perhaps the best ,greek in the ,new ,testament1 the evangelist allows his language to be penetrated by his visions of ,jewish scenes4 ,partly from his study of the ,old ,testament1 partly from his knowledge of the books and the lives in which he found a testimony to ,jesus1 he acquired the art of breathing into his ,greek the simple manner and the sweet tone of a ,hebrew story4 ,there is nothing in all literature more perfectly told than the story of the walk to ,emmaus4 ,nothing can be better than the delineation of character which is suggested to us in the story of ,zacharias1 or of ,anna1 or of ,zacchaeus4 ,there is always a freshness to remind us that the ,gospel is good tidings of great joy 7ii4 #aj71 and the ,magnificat 7i4 #df-ee71 the ,benedictus 7i4 #fh-gi71 the ,gloria in ,excelsis 7ii4 #ad71 and the ,nunc ,dimittis 7ii4 #bi-cb71 have become for ever part of the praises of the ,christian ,church4 ,more often than in any other ,gospel we find such expressions as glorifying ,god1 praising ,god1 blessing ,god4 ,again1 ,st4 ,luke1 in choosing incidents from the life of home1 and more especially in choosing incidents in which women are prominent1 gives a new solemnity to a life which men had hitherto despised4 ,we always think of the ,blessed ,virgin as highly favoured1 of ,martha cumbered about much serving 7x4 #dj71 of the widow with the two mites1 of the daughters of ,jerusalem weeping on the way of the cross 7xxiii4 #bh71 of the double joy of ,elisabeth #gj to bear a son in her old age and to be visited by the mother of her ,lord 7i4 #dc72 and we think all this because ,st4 ,luke has told us their story4 ,these passages with their smiles and tears1 their simplicity and their depth1 are a divine contrast to the grotesque passage in the ,jewish liturgy1 where the men thank ,god that they are not women4 ,the last point in ,st4 ,luke's literary style is his use of phrases which resemble phrases in ,st4 ,paul's ,epistles4 ,he writes as a man who has lived in familiar intercourse with ,st4 ,paul4 ,there is a striking similarity between the words attributed to our ,lord in the institution of the ,eucharist 7xxii4 #ai1 #bj7 and those in #a ,cor4 xi4 #bd1 #be1 a similarity which is probably to be accounted for by the fact that ,st4 ,luke must often have heard the apostle use these words in celebrating this ,sacrament4 ,besides this1 there are phrases which are parallel with phrases in every ,epistle of ,st4 ,paul4 ,a few instances are--,luke vi4 #cf 7#b ,cor4 i4 #c72 ,luke vi4 #ci 7,rom4 ii4 #ai72 ,luke viii4 #ac 7#a ,thess4 i4 #f72 ,luke x4 #bj 7,phil4 iv4 #c72 ,luke xii4 #ce 7,eph4 vi4 #ad72 ,luke xxi4 #bd 7,rom4 xi4 #be72 ,luke xxii4 #ec 7,col4 i4 #ac74 ,sidenote3 ,character and ,contents4 ,it has been well said that ,st4 ,matthew's ,gospel is in a peculiar sense ,messianic1 ,st4 ,mark's is in a peculiar sense realistic1 and ,st4 ,luke's is in a peculiar sense ,catholic4 ,and while ,st4 ,matthew takes pains to connect ,christianity with the religion of the past1 and ,st4 ,mark allows his interest in the past and the future to be overshadowed by his resolve to speak of ,jesus as actually working marvels1 ,st4 ,luke seems1 like ,st4 ,paul1 to be essentially progressive and to have a wider horizon than his predecessors4 ,he does not manifest the least antipathy towards ,judaism4 ,he has none of that intolerance which so often marks the men who advertise their own breadth of view4 ,he represents our ,lord as fulfilling the ,law1 as quoting the ,old ,testament1 and declaring that it is easier for heaven and earth to pass away than for one tittle of the ,law to fail 7xvi4 #ag74 ,but he writes as a representative ,gentile #ga convert4 ,he takes pleasure in recording all that can attract to ,christ that ,gentile world which was beginning to learn of the new religion4 ,we may note the following points which illustrate this fact3 7#a7 ,luke traces the genealogy of our ,lord1 not like ,matt4 by the legal line to ,abraham1 the father of the ,jews1 but by the natural line to ,adam1 the father of humanity 7iii4 #ch71 thus showing ,jesus to be the elder ,brother and the ,redeemer of every human being4 7#b7 ,while the true ,godhead of our ,lord is taught throughout1 ,his true manhood is brought into prominence with peculiar pathos4 ,we note ,his condescension in passing through the various stages of a child's life 7ii4 #d-g1 #ba1 #bb1 #dj1 #db1 #ea1 #eb71 the continuance of ,his temptations during ,his ministry 7xxii4 #bh71 ,his constant recourse to prayer in the great crises of ,his life1 ,his deep sobbing over ,jerusalem 7xix4 #da71 ,his sweat like drops of blood during ,his agony in ,gethsemane 7xxii4 #dd71 a fact recorded by none of the other evangelists4 ,st4 ,luke seems to be filled with a sense of the divine compassion of ,jesus1 and thus he relates the facts which prove the reality of the grace1 the undeserved lovingkindness1 of ,god to man4 ,rightly did the poet ,dante call him the scribe of the gentleness of ,christ4 7#c7 ,corresponding with this human character of the incarnate ,son of ,god1 we find the offer of universal salvation4 ,st4 ,luke alone--for the words are wrongly inserted in ,matt4--records the tender words of ,jesus1 ,the ,son of man came to seek and to save that which was lost 7xix4 #aj74 ,st4 ,paul knew no distinction between ,jew and ,greek1 rich and poor1 but taught that to be justified by ,god is a privilege which can be claimed not by birth but by faith2 and what ,st4 ,paul enforces by stern arguments which convince our minds1 ,st4 ,luke instils by the sweet parables and stories which convince our hearts4 ,it is here that we find kindness shown to the ,gentile 7iv4 #be-bg2 xiii4 #bh1 #bi71 and the ,samaritan 7ix4 #ea-ef2 xvii4 #aa-ai72 here we are told of the publican who was justified rather than the ,pharisee 7xviii4 #i71 the story of the penitent #gb thief who had no time to produce the good works which his faith would have prompted 7xxiii4 #dc71 of the good ,samaritan who1 schismatic though he was1 showed the spirit of a child of ,god 7x4 #cj74 ,last1 and best1 there is the parable of the ,prodigal ,son 7xv4 #aa71 and the story of the woman who was a sinner 7vii4 #cg74 ,to her ,christ says1 ,thy faith hath saved thee1 and to ,his host ,he says1 ,her sins1 which are many1 are forgiven1 for she loved much--words which no one but the ,son of ,god could dare to say of any woman who was in the city1 a sinner4 ,in recording these words1 ,st4 ,luke proves that ,jesus ,christ ,himself taught the ,pauline doctrine that man is saved by faith2 and yet not by an empty faith1 but by faith working through love 7,gal4 v4 #f74 ,in this ,gospel ,jesus is especially the ,refuge of sinners1 and the teaching of our ,lord may be best described by the happy phrase which records ,his address in the synagogue of ,nazareth3 words of grace4 ,it is important to notice that in no ,gospel do we find such an especial sympathy shown for the poor4 ,the poverty of the holy family 7ii4 #g1 #h1 #bd72 the beatitude on the poor#b 7vi4 #bj71 with the corresponding woes pronounced upon the rich 7vi4 #bd ff472 the parable of ,dives and ,lazarus 7xvi4 #ai71 the invitation of the poor to the supper of the ,king 7xiv4 #ba71 show this sympathy4 ,in consequence of this1 ,st4 ,luke's ,gospel has been said to show an ,ebionite tendency4 ,but the word is misleading4 ,it is possible that some early ,christians may have called themselves by the name ,ebionim1 a ,hebrew word which designated the poor and oppressed servants of ,god4 ,and it is known that in the #bnd century and afterwards there was a heretical semi-,christian ,jewish sect of that name4 ,but ,st4 ,luke's ,gospel is utterly opposed to the main tenets of these heretics1 which were a repudiation of ,christ's real ,divinity and an insistence upon the necessity of circumcision for all ,christians4 #gc ,perhaps it is the gentleness of the evangelist1 and his preference for all that is tender and gracious1 which causes his account of the twelve apostles to differ considerably from that in ,mark4 ,their slowness1 their weakness of faith1 their rivalries1 are set in a subdued light4 ,he does not tell us that ,christ once called ,st4 ,peter ,satan1 or that ,peter cursed and swore when he denied ,christ4 ,he omits the rebuke administered to the disciples in the conversation concerning the leaven 7,mark viii4 #ag71 the ambitious request of the two sons of ,zebedee1 and the indignation of the disciples at ,mary's costly gift of ointment 7,matt xxvi4 #h74 ,when ,st4 ,mark speaks of the failure of the disciples to keep awake while their ,master was in ,gethsemane1 he says that they were asleep1 for their eyes were heavy 7xiv4 #dj74 ,when ,st4 ,luke speaks of it1 he says that they were sleeping for sorrow 7xxii4 #de74 ,doubtless both accounts are true1 and we can reverently wonder both at the rugged honesty with which ,st4 ,peter must have told ,st4 ,mark about the faults of himself and his friends1 and at the consideration shown by ,st4 ,luke towards the twelve in spite of the fact that he was more closely connected with ,st4 ,paul than with them4 ,about one-third of this ,gospel is peculiar to itself1 consisting mainly of the large section1 ix4 #ea-xviii4 #ad4 ,st4 ,luke here seems to have used an ,aramaic document2 the beginning of the section is full of ,aramaic idioms4 ,in places where ,st4 ,luke records the same facts as the other ,synoptists1 he sometimes adds slight but significant touches4 ,the withered hand restored on the sabbath is the right hand 7vi4 #f72 the centurion's servant is one dear to him 7vii4 #b72 and the daughter of ,jairus an only daughter 7viii4 #db2 cf4 the son of the widow at ,nain1 an only son1 vii4 #ab74 ,among the remarkable omissions in this ,gospel we may notice two sayings which are found in ,matt4 and ,mark1 and which seem to us to have been peculiarly appropriate for ,st4 ,luke's general purpose4 ,the first is the saying of ,christ that ,he had come not to be ministered unto1 #gd but to minister1 and to give ,his life a ransom for many 7,matt4 xx4 #bh2 ,mark x4 #de74 ,the second is the statement that the ,gospel shall be preached in the whole world 7,matt4 xxvi4 #ac2 ,mark xiv4 #i74 ,with the omission of these sayings we may compare the omission of any record of the visit of the ,gentile wise men to the cradle of the infant ,saviour of the world--an incident which would probably have appealed most strongly to the heart of ,st4 ,luke1 if he had known it4 ,its absence from this ,gospel is one of the many proofs that ,st4 ,luke was not familiar with the ,gospel according to ,st4 ,matthew4 ,we have already noticed that much of the freshness of this ,gospel is due to its being in a peculiar sense the ,gospel of praise and thanksgiving4 ,it is also peculiarly the ,gospel of prayer4 ,all the three ,synoptists record that ,christ prayed in ,gethsemane4 ,but on seven occasions ,st4 ,luke is alone in recording prayers which ,jesus offered at the crises of ,his life3 at ,his baptism 7iii4 #ba72 before ,his first conflict with the ,pharisees and scribes 7v4 #af72 before choosing the ,twelve 7vi4 #ab72 before the first prediction of ,his ,passion 7ix4 #ah72 at the ,transfiguration 7ix4 #bi72 before teaching the ,lord's ,prayer 7xi4 #a72 and on the ,cross 7xxiii4 #cd1 #df74 ,st4 ,luke mentions ,his insistence on the duty of prayer in two parables which no other evangelist has recorded 7xi4 #e-ac2 xviii4 #a-h74 ,he alone relates the declaration of ,jesus that ,he had made supplication for ,peter1 and ,his charge to the ,twelve1 ,pray that ye enter not into temptation 7xxii4 #cb1 #dj74 ,as the ,gospel according to ,st4 ,luke is more rich in parables than any other ,gospel1 we may conclude by giving a few words of explanation concerning our ,lord's parables4 ,the word parable means a comparison1 or1 more strictly1 a placing of one thing beside another with a view to comparing them4 ,in the ,gospels the word is generally applied to a particular form of teaching4 ,that is to say1 it means a story about earthly things told in such a manner as to teach a #ge spiritual truth4 ,the ,jews were familiar with parables4 ,there are some in the ,old ,testament1 the ,book of ,isaiah containing two 7v4 #a-f2 xxviii4 #bd-bh74 ,the rabbinical writings of the ,jews are full of them4 ,but the ,jewish parable was only an illustration of a truth which had already been made known4 ,the parables of our ,lord are often means of conveying truths which were not known4 ,they must be distinguished from 7a7 fables1 7b7 allegories1 7c7 myths4 ,a fable teaches worldly wisdom and prudence1 not spiritual wisdom1 and it is put into somewhat childish forms in which foxes and birds converse together4 ,an allegory puts the story and its interpretation side by side1 and each part of the story usually has some special significance4 ,a myth takes the form of history1 but it relates things which happened before the dawn of history1 as they appear to the child-mind of primitive men4 ,the parables of our ,lord were intended to teach the secrets of the kingdom of ,god 7see p4 #dd74 ,they unfold these secrets and at the same time veil them in the illustrations which are employed4 ,these illustrations attract the attention and inquiry of those who are spiritually receptive4 ,on the other hand1 those who are unworthy or hardened do not recognize the truth4 ,nevertheless1 the parables were such miracles of simplicity and power1 were so easy to remember1 and so closely connected with everyday objects1 that even the dullest man would awake to the truth if he retained a spark of life4 ,it is difficult to divide the parables into separate groups4 ,but they may perhaps be divided into two groups4 ,the first group is drawn from man's relations with the world of nature and from his simpler experiences1 and the second is drawn from man's relations with his fellow-men1 relations which involve more complicated experiences4 ,the parables of the second group were sometimes spoken in answer to questions addressed to our ,lord in private2 such is the parable of the good ,samaritan1 and that of the rich fool4 ,if we desire to study the parables in special relation to the kingdom of ,god1 #gf we can divide them into three groups4 ,the first consists of those collected in ,matt4 xiii41 delivered in and near ,capernaum1 and referring to the kingdom of ,god as a whole4 ,the second consists of those collected in ,luke x4-xviii41 delivered on ,christ's journeys from ,galilee to ,jerusalem1 and referring to the character of the individual members of the kingdom4 ,the third consists of parables spoken during our ,lord's last days at ,jerusalem1 and referring to the judgment of members of the kingdom4 ,it is difficult to decide whether some of the shorter parables ought to be regarded as parables or not1 but the number is usually estimated at about thirty1 of which eighteen are peculiar to ,luke4 ,in ,john there are no parables1 strictly so called1 and ,st4 ,john never uses the word parable4 ,but he uses the word paroimia1 or proverb1 and records several proverbial sayings of our ,lord which are rather like parables 7,john iv4 #cd2 x4 i-#c2 xii4 #bd2 xv4 #a-f2 xvi4 #ba74 ,,analysis ,the infancy of our ,lord3 i4 #a-;ii4 #eb4--,similarity and contrast between the predictions of the birth of ,john the ,baptist and ,jesus1 and also between their birth4 ,the circumcision1 the visit of ,jesus to the temple in boyhood4 ,a4 ,winter ,a4,d4 #bf till after ,pentecost #bg4 ,the preparation for the ministry3 iii4 #a-;iv4 #ac4--,the ministry of ,john the ,baptist and the baptism of ,jesus1 the genealogy from ,adam1 the threefold temptation4 ,b4 ,pentecost ,a4,d4 #bg till before ,passover #bh4 ,missionary work of ,jesus in ,galilee3 iv4 #ad-;ix4 #f4--;,jesus preaches1 is rejected at ,nazareth1 goes to ,capernaum1 various miracles 7iv474 ,call of ,simon1 leper cleansed1 five #gg grounds of offence against ,jesus 7v4-vi4 #aa74 ,appointment of the twelve1 the sermon 7vi474 ,the centurion's servant1 the widow's son1 ,christ's description of ,john and of the age1 the penitent 7vii474 ,parables1 ,christ's relation to ,his mother and brethren1 various miracles 7viii474 ,the mission of the twelve 7ix4 #a-f74 ,perplexity of ,herod1 ix4 #g-i4 ,c4 ,passover ,a4,d4 #bh till before ,tabernacles #bh4 ,climax of missionary work in ,galilee3 ix4 #aj-ej4--;,christ feeds the multitude1 ,peter's confession1 ,christ's first prediction of ,his death1 transfiguration1 lunatic boy cured1 second prediction of death1 two rebukes to apostles4 ,d4 ,tabernacles1 ,september ,a4,d4 #bh until early #bi4 ,later ministry1 chiefly in ,peraea3 ix4 #ea-xix4 #bh4--;,jesus rejected by ,samaritans1 discouragements 7ix474 ,mission of the seventy1 lament over cities of ,galilee1 the good ,samaritan1 ,mary and ,martha 7x474 ,prayer and the ,lord's ,prayer1 ,jesus accused of alliance with ,beelzebub1 ,his saying about ,his mother1 denunciation of a generation which will not believe without signs1 and of the ,pharisees and lawyers 7xi474 ,the leaven of the ,pharisees1 confidence in ,god1 warnings against covetousness1 anxiety and lack of watchfulness1 ,christ's coming baptism1 signs of the times 7xii474 ,the meaning of calamities1 parable of the fig tree1 cure on the sabbath1 the mustard seed and the leaven1 ,gentiles to replace ,jews1 the ,pharisees try to persuade ,jesus to leave the dominions of ,herod1 ,christ's first lament over ,jerusalem 7xiii474 ,lawfulness of healing on the sabbath1 humility1 inviting the poor1 the ,king's supper1 counting the cost 7xiv474 ,parables to #gh illustrate ,christ's care for the lost 7xv474 ,the use and abuse of money 7xvi474 ,occasions of stumbling1 the increase of faith1 the truth that we cannot purchase ,god's favour by doing more than ,he commands1 the ten lepers1 the coming of the ,son of man 7xvii474 ,answer to prayer1 the ,pharisee and publican1 little children1 the rich young man1 ,christ's third prediction of ,his death1 the blind beggar at ,jericho 7xviii474 ,zacchaeus1 the parable of the pounds 7xix4 #a-bh74 ,e4 ,passover ,a4,d4 #bi4 ,last days at ,jerusalem1 and afterwards3 xix4 #bi-xxiv4 #ec4--;,entry into ,jerusalem1 ,christ's second lament over ,jerusalem1 cleansing of the temple 7xix4 #bi-xx474 ,christ challenged1 parable of the vineyard1 two questions to entrap ,christ1 ,his question 7xx474 ,the widow's mites1 predictions of the destruction of the temple1 siege of ,jerusalem1 the second coming 7xxi474 ,judas' bargain1 the ,passover1 agony on the mount of ,olives1 the betrayal1 ,peter's denial1 ,jesus tried before the elders 7xxii474 ,jesus before ,pilate1 ,herod1 ,pilate again1 ,simon of ,cyrene1 the daughters of ,jerusalem1 the crucifixion1 burial by ,joseph of ,arimathaea 7xxiii474 ,the women at the sepulchre1 and ,peter1 the walk to ,emmaus1 ,jesus appears to the disciples and eats1 ,his commission1 the ,ascension 7xxiv474 ,the ,date of our ,lord's ,birth4--,it is fairly well known that the dates of our ,lord's ,birth and of ,his ,death are both1 in all probability1 misrepresented in popular chronology4 ,the best ancient chronology fixes the date of the ,crucifixion in ,a4,d4 #bi4 ,the ,birth was probably about six years before the commencement of our present era4 ,various reasons make this date probable1 including the fact that there was at that time a conjunction of ,jupiter1 ,saturn1 and ,mars1 which must have presented a most brilliant appearance in the sky1 and would #gi certainly have attracted the star-loving sages of the ,east4 ,the great astronomer ,kepler was of opinion that this conjunction was followed by the brief appearance of a new star1 which is the star mentioned in ,matt4 ii4 #b4 ,this is of importance in considering the statements of ,st4 ,luke4 ,several objections have been made to his account of the census held under ,quirinius4 7#a7 ,it is said that ,quirinius was not governor of ,syria when ,jesus was born2 his administration was from ,a4,d4 #f to ,a4,d4 #i1 and ,quinctilius ,varus was governor in ,a4,d4 #a4 ,but ,st4 ,luke cannot be proved to say that ,quirinius was governor2 he describes his office by a participle which may mean acting as leader1 and there is proof that ,quirinius was engaged in a military command in the time of ,herod1 and also proof that some high official twice governed ,syria in the time of ,augustus4 ,st4 ,luke's expression might fit either of these two facts4 7#b7 ,it is said that ,herod was reigning as king in ,palestine1 and that his subjects would not be included in a ,roman census4 ,but in the year #h-g ,b4,c4 ,augustus wrote to ,herod1 saying that he would henceforth treat him as a subject4 ,his dominions must henceforth have been treated like the rest of the dominions of ,augustus4 7#c7 ,it is said that no census took place at that time1 and that if there had been a census1 it would have been carried out by households1 according to ,roman custom1 and not by families4 ,but there seems to have been a census in ,egypt and ,syria in ,b4,c4 #h1 and after ,augustus determined to put ,herod under his authority1 the census would naturally be extended to ,judaea4 ,herod would probably be allowed to carry out the census on his own lines1 so long as it was really carried out4 ,and he would plainly prefer to do it in the ,jewish fashion1 so as to irritate the ,jews as little as might be4 ,the question is still involved in some obscurity1 but ,st4 ,luke's accuracy has not been in the least disproved by the controversy4 ,he is the only evangelist who connects his narrative with the history of ,syria and of the ,roman empire1 and we have every reason to believe that he did his work with care as well as sympathy4 #a ,adv4 ,har4 iii4 #a4 #b ,matt4 v4 #c has poor in spirit4 ,the same ,aramaic word might be used for both poor and poor in spirit4 #hj ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,gospel ,,according ,,to ,,st4 ,,john ,sidenote3 ,the ,author4 ,we learn from the ,gospels that ,st4 ,john was the son of ,zebedee1 a ,galilean fisherman1 and was a follower of the ,baptist before he joined our ,lord4 ,the ,synoptists show that he was one of the most prominent and intimate of our ,lord's followers4 ,with ,st4 ,peter and ,st4 ,james he was permitted to witness the raising of ,jairus' daughter1 and to be present at the ,transfiguration1 and with them was nearest to ,christ at the agony in ,gethsemane4 ,with ,st4 ,peter he was sent to prepare the last ,passover4 ,like his brother ,st4 ,james1 he shared in the fervour of his mother1 ,salome1 who begged for them a special place of dignity in the kingdom of ,christ4 ,they both wished to call down fire on a ,samaritan village1 and ,st4 ,john asked ,jesus what was to be done with the man whom they found casting out devils in ,his name4 ,their fiery temperament caused our ,lord to give them the surname of ,boanerges 7sons of thunder74 ,in the fourth ,gospel the name of ,john the son of ,zebedee is never mentioned1 but there are several references to an apostle whose name is not recorded1 but can be intended for no other than ,st4 ,john4 ,at the crucifixion this apostle was bidden by our ,lord to regard ,mary as henceforth his mother1 and the writer claims to have been an eye-witness of the crucifixion4 ,in the last chapter very similar words are used to assert that the writer is he whom ,jesus loved4 ,in ,acts ,st4 ,john appears with ,st4 ,peter as healing the lame #ha man at the ,beautiful ,gate of the temple1 and with ,st4 ,peter he goes to ,samaria to bestow the ,holy ,ghost on those whom ,philip had baptized4 ,he was revered as one of the pillars of the ,church when ,st4 ,paul visited ,jerusalem in ,a4,d4 #di 7,gal4 ii4 #i74 ,it is remarkable that the ,synoptic ,gospels1 the fourth ,gospel1 ,acts1 and ,galatians1 all show ,st4 ,john in close connection with ,st4 ,peter4 ,st4 ,john's name occurs in the ,revelation1 which has been attributed to him since the beginning of the #bnd century4 ,numerous fragments of tradition concerning ,st4 ,john are preserved by early ,christian writers4 ,tertullian1 about ,a4,d4 #bjj1 says that ,st4 ,john came to ,rome1 and was miraculously preserved from death when an attempt was made to kill him in a cauldron of boiling oil4 ,tertullian and ,eusebius both say that he was banished to an island1 and ,eusebius tells us that the island was ,patmos1 and that the banishment took place in the time of ,domitian4 ,on the accession of ,nerva1 ,st4 ,john removed from ,patmos to ,ephesus1 where he survived until the time of ,trajan1 who became emperor in ,a4,d4 #ih4 ,polycrates1 ,bishop of ,ephesus1 writing about ,a4,d4 #aij1 speaks of ,st4 ,john's tomb in that city1 and says that he wore the petalon1 the high priest's mitre used in the ,jewish ,church4 ,we are told by other writers how he reclaimed a robber1 how he played with a tame partridge1 how when too old to preach he was carried into church and would repeat again and again1 ,little children1 love one another4 ,on one occasion a spark of his youthful fire was seen4 ,it was when the old man indignantly refused to stay under the roof of the same public baths as ,cerinthus1 the heretic who denied that ,mary was a virgin when she bore our ,lord1 and asserted that the ,divinity of ,jesus was only a power which came upon ,him and went from ,him4 ,the residence of ,st4 ,john at ,ephesus is attested by the ,revelation4 ,even if that book were a forgery1 no forger at the close of the #ast century would have ventured to place the hero of his book in a neighbourhood where he had not lived4 #hb ,many threads of evidence lead us back to the statement made by ,polycrates about the apostle's tomb4 ,it was not until long after that date that the ,christians began to carry the relics of saints from place to place1 and churches rivalled one another in producing shrines for the severed members of one body4 ,there is therefore no reason whatever to doubt that the tomb at ,ephesus marked the resting-place of the apostle4 ,it was known two hundred years later in the time of ,jerome1 and visited in #dca by the members of the great ,church ,council which met at ,ephesus4 ,the ,emperor ,justinian built a sumptuous church on the site1 and near a modern ,turkish mosque may still be seen the remnants of the church of ,st4 ,john4 ,until the end of the #ahth century the authorship of this ,gospel was not seriously challenged4 ,the only party which ever denied that it was written by the ,apostle ,st4 ,john was an ignorant and insignificant body of people mentioned by ,irenaeus and ,epiphanius4 ,they were known as the ,alogi1 or unbelievers in the ,word4 ,their views in no wise undermine the tradition of the ,catholic ,church4 ,for the ,alogi asserted that this ,gospel was written by ,cerinthus1 who lived at ,ephesus where ,st4 ,john lived1 and was himself a contemporary of ,st4 ,john4 ,we have sufficient knowledge of the teaching of ,cerinthus to be perfectly certain that he could not have written a ,gospel which so completely contradicts his own theories4 ,therefore the opinion of the ,alogi is absolutely worthless where it negatives the tradition of the ,church1 and on the other hand it agrees with that tradition in asserting that the book was written in the apostolic age4 ,during the last hundred years the men who deny that ,jesus ,christ was truly ,god of ,god1 ,light of ,light1 have strained every nerve to prove that the fourth ,gospel was not written by ,st4 ,john4 ,it is1 of course1 almost impossible that they should admit that the writer was an apostle and an honest man and continue to deny that the ,christ whom he depicts claimed to be the ,lord and ,maker of all things4 ,during the controversy #hc which has been waged during the last three generations with regard to ,st4 ,john's ,gospel1 it has been evident throughout that the ,gospel has been rejected for this very reason4 ,the book has driven a wedge into the whole band of ,new ,testament students4 ,the critics who deny that ,jesus was ,god1 but are willing to grant that ,he was the most holy and the most divine of men1 have been forced to side with those who are openly ,atheists or ,agnostics4 ,the clue to their theories was unguardedly exposed by ,weizscker1 who said1 with regard to ,st4 ,john's ,gospel1 ,it is impossible to imagine any power of faith and philosophy so great as thus to obliterate the recollection of the real life1 and to substitute for it this marvellous picture of a ,divine ,being4 #a ,this remark shows us that the critic approached the ,gospel with a prejudice against the doctrine of our ,lord's ,divinity1 and rejected the ,gospel mainly because it would not agree with his own prejudice4 ,but the determination to fight to the uttermost against the converging lines of ,christian evidence has now driven such critics into a corner4 ,many have already abandoned the position that the book is a semi-,gnostic forgery written in the middle of the #bnd century1 and they are now endeavouring to maintain that it was written about ,a4,d4 #ajj by a certain ,john the ,presbyter1 whom they assert to have been afterwards confounded with the ,apostle ,john4 ,of ,john the ,presbyter very little indeed is known4 ,papias1 about ,a4,d4 #acj1 says that he was1 like ,aristion1 a disciple of the ,lord1 and that he had himself made oral inquiries as to his teaching4 ,he seems to have been an elder contemporary of ,papias4 ,dionysius of ,alexandria1 about ,a4,d4 #bej1 mentions that there were two monuments in ,ephesus bearing the name of ,john1 and we may reasonably suppose that one of these was in memory of the presbyter mentioned by ,papias4 ,but a little reflection will soon convince us that nothing has been gained by the conjecture that this ,john wrote the ,gospel4 ,if ,john #hd the ,presbyter was personally acquainted with our ,lord1 as some writers understand ,papias to mean1 then the sceptics are forced to admit that one who personally knew ,jesus1 describes ,jesus as a more than human ,being--as1 in fact1 the ,divine ,creator4 ,this is the precise fact which keeps these writers from admitting that an apostle wrote the ,gospel4 ,if1 on the other hand1 they suppose1 as some do1 that ,john the ,presbyter was very much younger than the apostles1 the sceptics are confronted with the following difficulties3-- 7a7 ,there is the important external evidence which shows how widely the ,gospel was regarded in the early ,church as the work of ,st4 ,john4 7b7 ,there is the minute knowledge displayed of the topography1 customs1 and opinions of ,jerusalem and the ,holy ,land as they existed in the time of ,christ4 7c7 ,there is the impossibility of supposing that ,irenaeus1 who was probably not born a year later than ,a4,d4 #acj1 would not have known that the ,gospel was written by ,john the ,presbyter4 7d7 ,there is the fact that the evidence for ,st4 ,john having lived in ,ephesus is better than the evidence for a renowned presbyter of the same name having lived in ,ephesus4 ,this has been wisely pointed out by ,jlicher1 even though he himself denies that the apostle wrote ,st4 ,john's ,gospel4 ,and the justice of this argument proves that it is sheer paradox to maintain1 as some now maintain1 that the only ,john who lived in ,ephesus was the ,presbyter4 ,it is constantly urged by the opponents of the authenticity of this ,gospel that1 as it was published at ,ephesus at a late period1 it cannot be the work of the apostle1 because he never went to ,ephesus1 and died early as a martyr4 #b ,this is a most unscrupulous use of an inexact quotation made by some later ,greek writers from a lost book of ,papias4 ,it can be #he traced to ,philip of ,side 7#eth century71 and it is to the effect that ,john the ,divine and ,james his brother were killed by the ,jews4 ,papias does not say that they died together1 and his statement is compatible with the belief that ,st4 ,john survived his brother very many years4 ,we know from ,gal4 ii4 #i that he was alive some time after his brother's death1 which was about ,a4,d4 #dd4 ,and ,george ,hamartolus1 one of the ,greek writers who quote the above passage in ,papias1 expressly says that the ,emperor ,nerva 7,a4,d4 #if7 recalled ,john from ,patmos1 and dismissed him to live in ,ephesus4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,external ,evidence4 ,the external evidence for the authenticity of this ,gospel is in some respects stronger than that which is to be found in the case of the other ,gospels4 ,thus the ,christian may recognize with gratitude that his ,divine ,master has especially added the witness of the ,church to the work of ,his beloved disciple4 ,all through the #bnd century we have the links of a chain of evidence1 and after ,a4,d4 #bjj the canon of the ,gospels is known to have been so fixed that no defender of the faith is called upon to show what that canon was4 ,the earliest traces of the phraseology of ,st4 ,john are to be discovered in the ,didach1 which was probably written in ,eastern ,palestine or ,syria about ,a4,d4 #ajj4 ,the prayers which are provided in this book for use at the ,eucharist are plainly of a ,johannine type1 and are probably derived from oral teaching given by the apostle himself before he lived at ,ephesus4 ,in any case1 the ,didach seems sufficient to disprove the sceptical assertion that theological language of a ,johannine character was unknown in the ,christian ,church about ,a4,d4 #ajj4 ,the letters attributed to ,st4 ,ignatius1 the martyr bishop of ,antioch1 are now universally admitted to be genuine by competent scholars4 ,they may most reasonably be dated about ,a4,d4 #aaj1 and they are deeply imbued with thought of a ,johannine type4 ,it has been lately suggested that this tendency of thought does not prove an actual acquaintance with the ,gospel of ,st4 ,john4 ,but when we find ,christ #hf called the ,word1 and the devil called the prince of this world1 and read such a phrase as the bread of ,god which is the flesh of ,christ1 it is almost impossible to deny that the letters of ,ignatius contain actual reminiscences of ,st4 ,john's language4 ,nor is there the least reason why ,ignatius should not have been acquainted with this ,gospel4 ,his younger contemporary ,st4 ,polycarp1 whose letter to the ,philippians was also written about ,a4,d4 #aaj1 quotes from the ,first ,epistle of ,st4 ,john4 ,and ,papias1 who probably wrote about ,a4,d4 #acj1 and collected his materials many years earlier1 also quoted that ,epistle1 as we learn from ,eusebius4 ,now1 the connection between the ,gospel and the ,epistle is1 as has been cleverly remarked1 like the connection between a star and its satellite4 ,they are obviously the work of the same author4 ,if ,polycarp1 who had himself seen ,st4 ,john1 knew that the ,epistle was genuine1 he must have known that the ,gospel was genuine4 ,the evidence which can definitely be dated between ,a4,d4 #abj and ,a4,d4 #agj is of extreme interest4 ,it proves conclusively that a belief in the authenticity of this ,gospel was so firmly engrained in the ,christian mind that men holding the most opposite opinions appealed to its authority4 ,it is true that the irrational ,alogi rejected it1 and that ,marcion repudiated it1 not because it was not by an apostle1 but because ,st4 ,paul was the only apostle whom he admired4 ,but it was used by the ,catholics1 the ,gnostics1 and the ,montanists4 ,st4 ,justin ,martyr was acquainted with it1 and before he wrote1 ,basilides1 the great ,gnostic of ,alexandria1 borrowed from it some materials for his doctrine4 ,the equally celebrated ,gnostic ,valentinus used it1 and his followers also revered it4 ,about ,a4,d4 #agj ,heracleon1 an eminent ,valentinian1 wrote a commentary upon this ,gospel1 of which commentary some fragments still remain4 ,the ,montanists arose in ,phrygia about ,a4,d4 #aeg4 ,montanus1 their founder1 endeavoured to revive the power of prophecy1 and his followers maintained that the ,paraclete said more things in ,montanus than ,christ #hg uttered in the ,gospel4 ,it can easily be proved that their teaching was an attempt to realize some of the promises of our ,lord contained in ,st4 ,john's ,gospel4 ,and the fact that the ,montanists were strongly opposed to the ,gnostics makes it all the more remarkable that both sects regarded this ,gospel as so important4 ,somewhat before ,a4,d4 #agj ,st4 ,john's ,gospel was inserted by the great ,syrian apologist1 ,tatian1 in his ,diatessaron1 or harmony of the ,gospels1 and the apocryphal ,acts of ,john composed near the same date contain unmistakable allusions to this ,gospel4 ,the evidence of ,irenaeus is the culminating proof of the genuineness of the ,gospel according to ,st4 ,john4 ,he became ,bishop of ,lyons in ,a4,d4 #agg1 and remembered ,polycarp1 who suffered martyrdom at ,smyrna in ,a4,d4 #aef1 at the age of eighty-six4 ,irenaeus1 in writing to his friend ,florinus1 says1 ,i can describe the very place in which the blessed ,polycarp used to sit when he discoursed1 and his goings-out and his comings-in1 and his manner of life1 and his personal appearance1 and the discourses which he held before the people1 and how he would describe his intercourse with ,john and the rest who had seen the ,lord1 and how he would relate their words4 ,and whatsoever things he had heard from them about the ,lord and about ,his miracles1 ,polycarp1 as having received them from eye-witnesses of the life of the ,word1 would relate1 altogether in accordance with the ,scriptures4 #c ,now1 it is perfectly certain that ,irenaeus1 like his contemporaries ,heracleon and ,tatian1 accepted the fourth ,gospel as the work of the ,apostle ,john4 ,and can we believe that he would have thus accepted it1 if it had not been acknowledged by his teacher ,polycarp1 who knew ,st4 ,john1 and was nearly thirty years old at the time of ,st4 ,john's death8 #hh ,sidenote3 ,the ,internal ,evidence4 ,the ,gospel itself contains manifest tokens that it was written by a ,jew of ,palestine1 by one who held no ,gnostic heresy1 and by a contemporary of our ,lord4 ,i4 ,the author was a ,jew and not a ,gentile4 ,he makes frequent quotations from the ,old ,testament1 and some of these quotations imply an acquaintance with the ,hebrew4 ,this is especially the case in the verse from the #dast ,psalm 7xiii4 #ah71 and in that 7xix4 #cg7 from ,zech4 xii4 #aj1 ,they shall look on ,him whom they pierced4 ,the ,septuagint of ,zech4 xii4 #aj1 translating from a different form of the ,hebrew1 has1 instead of the words whom they pierced1 because they mocked4 ,it is1 therefore1 plain that ,john xiii4 #ah is not derived from the ,septuagint4 ,the ,gospel is also ,hebraic in style4 ,the sentences are broken up in a manner which is at variance with ,greek idiom4 ,whereas in ,st4 ,luke's two writings the style becomes more ,greek or more ,hebraic in proportion to his writing independently or employing the writings of ,jewish ,christians1 the style of this ,gospel is the same throughout4 ,we may particularly notice the ,hebraic use of the word and to signify both and and but 7e4g4 in v4 #ci1 #dj1 where and ye will not come means but ye will not come74 ,we may also notice the correct use of certain ,hebrew proper names3 e4g4 ,judas is called the son of ,iscariot1 showing that the writer did not regard the word ,iscariot as the fixed name of ,judas only1 but knew that it might be applied to any man of ,kerioth4 ,in fact1 the ,greek of ,st4 ,john is exactly like the ,english of a ,scottish ,highlander who has only spoken ,gaelic in his earlier days1 and1 when he has acquired ,english1 shows his origin by the continued use of a few ,gaelic idioms and his knowledge of ,highland proper names4 ,he shows a minute acquaintance with ,jewish social and ceremonial customs4 ,we may notice iii4 #be2 iv4 #i1 #bg2 vii4 #b1 #bc1 #cg2 x4 #bb2 xi4 #dd2 xix4 #g1 #ca2 and especially the waterpots 7ii4 #f71 the purification previous to the ,passover 7xi4 #ee71 the fear #hi of our ,lord's accusers to defile themselves by entering the praetorium 7xviii4 #bh71 and the ,jewish method of embalming 7xix4 #dj74 ,jewish opinions are faithfully reflected1 e4g4 as to the importance attached to the religious schools 7vii4 #ae72 the disparagement of the ,jews of the dispersion 7vii4 #ce72 the scorn felt by many ,jews for the provincials of ,galilee 7i4 #df2 vii4 #da1 #eb71 and the idea of the soul's pre-existence 7ix4 #b74 ,,ii4 ,the author was a ,jew of ,palestine4 ,he shows a minute acquaintance with the geography of the ,holy ,land4 ,at the present day elaborate guide-books and histories make it possible for a very clever writer to disguise the fact that he has not visited the land in which he lays the scene of his story4 ,but even at the present day such procedure is dangerous1 and likely to be detected4 ,in ancient times it was almost impossible4 ,yet no one has ever detected an error in the geography of this ,gospel4 ,the writer mentions ,cana of ,galilee 7ii4 #a1 #aa71 a place not noticed by any earlier writer1 and ,bethany beyond ,jordan 7i4 #bh72 he knows the exact distance from ,jerusalem to the better-known ,bethany 7xi4 #ah72 the deep well of ,jacob at ,sychar 7iv4 #aa72 the city of ,ephraim near the wilderness 7xi4 #ed72 ,aenon near to ,salim1 where ,john baptized 7iii4 #bc74 ,this word ,aenon is an ,aramaic word signifying springs1 and even ,renan ridicules the notion of such a name having been invented by ,greek-speaking sectaries at ,ephesus4 ,the place was too obscure to be known to ordinary travellers1 and1 on the other hand1 such a name cannot have been invented by a ,gentile4 ,the topography of ,jerusalem is described with equal nicety4 ,we may notice viii4 #bj2 ix4 #g2 x4 #bc2 xviii4 #a1 #ae2 xix4 #ag1 #da2 and particularly the pool near the sheep-gate1 having five porches 7v4 #b71 and the place which is called the ,pavement1 but in the ,hebrew ,gabbatha 7xix4 #ac74 ,even a person who had heard of ,solomon's porch and of ,golgotha might well have been ignorant of the sheep-gate and the ,pavement1 unless he had been in ,jerusalem4 ,lastly1 the writer shows an acquaintance not only with the #ij ,jewish feasts1 but also with facts connected with them which imply special knowledge on his part4 ,he could not have gathered from the ,old ,testament the fact that the later ,jews were in the habit of keeping a feast in honour of the dedication of the temple after its profanation by ,antiochus ,epiphanes 7x4 #bb71 nor would he have learned how to introduce an allusion to the rite of pouring forth water from the pool at ,siloam at the ,feast of ,tabernacles 7vii4 #cg74 ,the only important argument which can be urged against the author having been a ,jew is that founded on the use of the phrase the ,jews1 which is said to imply that the writer was not a ,jew4 ,now1 in some passages 7as vii4 #a71 the ,jews may mean the inhabitants of ,judaea1 as distinct from those of ,galilee1 and such passages are therefore indecisive4 ,but in other passages the phrase the ,jews does not admit this interpretation1 and is used with a decided suggestion of dislike4 ,but when we remember the bitter hostility which the ,jews soon manifested towards the ,christians1 and remember that in ,asia ,minor this hostility was active1 the phrase presents no real difficulty4 ,st4 ,paul was proud to reckon himself a ,jew1 but long before the ,jews had shown their full antagonism to ,christianity1 ,st4 ,paul spoke of the ,jews 7#a ,thess4 ii4 #ad-af7 with the same condemnation as the writer of the fourth ,gospel4 ,the only important arguments in favour of the author having absorbed ,gnostic views are drawn3 7#a7 ,from the alleged ,dualism of the ,gospel4 ,in theology the word ,dualism signifies the doctrine that the world is not only the battle-ground of two opposing forces1 one good and the other evil1 but also that the material world is itself essentially evil4 ,such was the doctrine of the great ,gnostic sects of the #bnd century4 ,but this ,gospel1 in spite of the strong contrast which it draws between ,god and the world1 light and darkness1 is not ,dualist4 ,it teaches that there is one ,god1 that the world was made by the ,word who is ,god1 that this ,word was made flesh and came to save the world4 ,in thus teaching that the material world was made by the good ,god1 and that ,god took a material human body1 this ,gospel opposes the fundamental tenet of ,gnostic ,dualism4 7#b7 ,from the alleged condemnation of the ,jewish prophets by ,christ in x4 #h4 ,other passages make it perfectly plain that this is not a condemnation of the ,jewish prophets1 but of any religious pretenders who claimed divine authority4 ,in this ,gospel an appeal is made to ,moses 7v4 #df71 to ,abraham 7viii4 #ef71 to ,isaiah #ia 7xii4 #da71 and1 what is most remarkable of all1 our ,lord says1 ,salvation is of the ,jews1 i4e4 the knowledge and the origin of religious truth came from the ,jews4 ,the ,jewish ,scriptures are ratified 7v4 #ci2 x4 #ce74 ,it is impossible to find a shred of the anti-,jewish theories which the ,gnostics taught4 ,and though it is true that some ,gnostics were fond of using such words as life and light in their religious phraseology1 it is much more probable that they were influenced by the fourth ,gospel than that this ,gospel was tinged with ,gnosticism4 ,we conclude1 therefore1 that the author was a ,jew of ,palestine1 and that he was not a ,gentile or in any sense a ,gnostic4 ,,iii4 ,the author was a contemporary and an eye-witness of the events described4 ,his knowledge of ,jerusalem and of the temple1 which we have already noticed1 strongly suggests that he knew the city before its destruction in ,a4,d4 #gj4 ,so far as can be tested1 his treatment of the ,messianic ideas of the people is exactly accurate1 and of a kind which it would have been difficult for a later writer to exhibit4 ,this ,gospel represents the people as pervaded by a nationalist notion of the ,messiah as of a king who would deliver them from foreign powers 7vi4 #ae1 xi4 #dh2 xix4 #ab71 a notion which was dispelled in ,a4,d4 #gj1 and apparently did not revive until the rising of ,bar ,kocheba in ,a4,d4 #ace1 a date which is now almost universally recognized as too late for this ,gospel to have been written4 ,we also find the two contradictory ideas as to the place of the ,messiah's origin then current 7vii4 #bg1 #db71 and the writer distinguishes the prophet 7i4 #ba1 #be2 vi4 #ad2 vii4 #dj71 who was expected to precede ,christ1 from ,christ ,himself4 ,at a very early date the ,christians identified the prophet with ,christ1 and it is in the highest degree improbable that any but a contemporary of our ,lord would have been aware of this change of belief4 ,it is claimed that the author is an eye-witness in i4 #ad2 xix4 #ce2 and xxi4 #bd4 ,we may add #a ,john i4 #a1 for the author of the ,epistle was obviously the author of the ,gospel4 ,numerous details1 especially the frequent notes of time1 suggest the hand #ib of an eye-witness4 ,and the delicate descriptions of the inner life of the disciples and of ,christ ,himself point to the same conclusion4 ,the description of the ,last ,supper and the words spoken at it suggest with overwhelming force that the writer knew the peculiar manner of seating employed at this ceremony4 ,another ,jew would have known where the celebrant sat1 but he would scarcely have been able to make the actions of our ,lord and ,judas1 ,st4 ,john and ,st4 ,peter1 fit their places at the table with such perfection4#d ,the ,gospel claims that the disciple who wrote these things is the disciple whom ,jesus loved1 and who reclined in ,jesus' bosom at the ,supper4 ,it was not ,peter1 for ,peter did not recline in ,jesus' bosom4 ,the presumption therefore is that it was either ,james or ,john1 these two being with ,peter the closest friends of ,jesus4 ,it could hardly have been ,james1 who was martyred in ,a4,d4 #dd1 as the whole weight of tradition and external evidence is against this4 ,it must1 then1 have been ,john1 or a forger who wished to pass for that apostle4 ,and to suppose that an unknown forger1 born two generations1 or even one generation1 later than the apostles1 could invent such sublime doctrine1 and insert it in so realistic a story1 and completely deceive the whole ,christian world1 including the district where ,st4 ,john lived and died1 is to show a credulity which is without parallel in the history of civilization4#e ,now that we have reviewed the internal evidence for the authenticity1 we are able to return with renewed vigour to deal with the popular rationalistic hypothesis that the author was a ,christian who had learned some genuine stories about ,jesus current in the ,church at ,ephesus1 and then wove them into a narrative of his own composing4 ,we have observed that the marks of an eye-witness and contemporary of ,jesus are #ic scattered over the whole surface of the ,gospel4 ,if the ,gospel is not by ,st4 ,john1 only one other explanation is possible4 ,it must be composed of three distinct elements3 7a7 some genuine traditions1 7b7 numerous fictions1 7c7 a conscious manipulation of the narrative contained in the ,synoptists4 ,but the internal evidence is absolutely opposed to any such theory4 ,we can trace no manipulation of the ,synoptic narrative4 ,the writer seems to be aware of ,st4 ,mark's ,gospel1 and possibly the other two1 but he evidently did not write with them actually before him4 ,he plainly had a wholly independent plan and an independent source of information4 ,and if we turn to the passages which tell us facts not recorded by the ,synoptists1 it is quite impossible to separate the supposed fictions from the supposed genuine traditions4 ,both style and matter proceed from one and the same individuality4 ,one passage alone can be separated from the rest without interrupting the flow of the story1 and that passage is absent in the best manuscripts4 ,it is the story of the woman taken in adultery 7vii4 #ec-viii4 #aa74 ,it seems to have been originally placed after ,luke xxi4 #cf1 and was inserted into ,st4 ,john's ,gospel after it was completed4 ,we cannot apply the same process to any other passage in the ,gospel4 ,it is an organic whole1 as much as any play of ,shakespeare or poem of ,tennyson4 ,and over the whole book we find the same morsels of history and geography4 ,they are of a kind which tradition never hands down unimpaired1 and which no ,ephesian disciple of an apostle would be likely to commit to memory4 ,in spite of all attempts to divide the ,gospel into parts derived straight from an apostle and parts invented by later minds1 the ,gospel remains like the seamless coat which once clothed the form of the ,son of man4 ,sidenote3 ,date4 ,it is important to observe that even the most hostile criticism has tended to recede in its attempt to find a probable date for this ,gospel4 ,baur fixed it about ,a4,d4 #afj-agj1 ,pfleiderer at #adj1 ,hilgenfeld #acj-adj2 ,jlicher and ,harnack will not date it later than #aaj1 #id and the latter grants that it may be as early as #hj4 ,the year #hj is as early a date as the most orthodox ,christian need desire1 and we can reasonably believe that it was written by the apostle at ,ephesus between ,a4,d4 #hj and ,a4,d4 #ij4 ,we learn from ,irenaeus that ,st4 ,john survived until ,a4,d4 #ih4 ,sidenote3 ,literary ,style4 ,several points in the literary style of the apostle have been noticed in dealing with the internal evidence which they afford to the authenticity of his ,gospel4 ,but it is necessary to add something more1 for there is no writer to whom we can more fitly apply the profound saying that the style is the man4 ,the language of ,st4 ,john is the result of a long and impassioned contemplation4 ,whether he writes down his own words1 or records the words and deeds of our ,lord1 his language shows the result of careful reflection4 ,the teaching of ,jesus exhibits a development different from that in the ,synoptists4 ,we find in chs4 ii41 iii41 and iv4 that our ,lord definitely taught that ,he was the ,son of ,god and ,messiah quite early in ,his ministry1 while in the earlier part of ,mark our ,lord's teaching about ,his ,messiahship is far less definite4 ,and the method of teaching is also different4 ,in the ,synoptists we find picturesque parables and pointed proverbs1 while in ,john we find long discourses and arguments4 ,in the ,synoptists the teaching is generally practical1 in ,john it is much more openly theological4 ,this difference between the ,synoptists and ,st4 ,john can be partly accounted for by the fact that ,st4 ,john's ,gospel contains much more of the instruction given by our ,lord to ,his intimate friends1 and that this instruction was naturally more profound than that which was given to the multitude4 ,but there is another reason for the difference4 ,if we attend to such passages as xiv4 #ae-ba1 #be-bf2 xv4 #bf-bg1 we see that our ,lord teaches that there are two manifestations of ,his ,person1 one during the time between ,his birth and ,his death1 and the other after the outpouring of the ,holy ,spirit4 ,the ,spirit is not a substitute #ie for an absent ,christ2 ,his coming brings with it an inward presence of ,christ within the ,christian soul 7xiv4 #ah74 ,by the aid of the ,spirit1 ,st4 ,john condenses and interprets the language of our ,lord in a manner which can be understood by the simplest of simple souls who live the inner life4 ,in ,st4 ,john we find a writer who is writing when ,jesus spoke no longer in parables and proverbs1 but plainly 7xvi4 #be1 #bi74 ,he records the teaching of ,jesus1 as it had shaped itself in his own mind1 but not so much by his own mind as by perpetual communion with the ascended ,christ4 ,sidenote3 ,character and ,contents4 ,we have noted on p4 #ca the fact that ,st4 ,john's ,gospel shows that he was acquainted with facts in the ,synoptic ,gospels which he does not himself narrate4 ,yet the broad difference between the character of the ,synoptic writers and that of ,st4 ,john is that the ,synoptists are historical1 he is mystical4 ,we do not mean that ,st4 ,john does not trouble about historical accuracy4 ,his history is often more minute than that of the ,synoptists4 ,but his purpose is to bring his readers into deeper life through union with the ,god who is in ,christ and is ,christ4 ,the true mystic ever desires to maintain the knowledge of this inward union in life with ,god4 ,it is a knowledge which is made possible by obedience1 made perfect by love1 and causes not new ecstasies1 but a new character4 ,st4 ,john adjusts all his material to this one purpose4 ,these are written that ye may believe that ,jesus is the ,christ1 the ,son of ,god2 and that believing ye may have life in ,his name 7xx4 #ca74 ,the ,introduction or ,prologue 7i4 #a-ah7 teaches that ,jesus ,christ is that personal manifestation of ,god to whom the ,jews had given the name of the ,word4 ,the ,palestinian ,jews were accustomed to describe ,god acting upon the world by the name ,memra1 or ,word of the ,lord4 ,the ,alexandrian ,jews also were in the habit of giving the title ,logos1 which means both ,word and ,reason1 to an idea of ,god which perfectly expressed all that ,god is4 ,the ,greek ,stoics had #if used the name in a similar sense1 and thus ,st4 ,john1 having realized that ,jesus is truly ,god made manifest1 called ,him by a name which every educated ,jew and ,greek would understand4 ,unlike ,philo1 the great ,alexandrian ,jew who tried to combine ,greek philosophy with ,jewish religion1 ,st4 ,john teaches that this divine ,word is a ,person1 and took human flesh and revealed ,himself as the ,messiah4 ,the whole ,gospel shows how this revelation met with increasing faith on the part of some1 and increasing unbelief and hatred on the part of others4 ,the crises of this unbelief are represented chiefly in connection with our ,lord's visits to ,jerusalem1 when ,he made ,his claims before the religious leaders of ,judaism4 ,his revelation is attended by various forms of witness4 ,there is that of the apostle himself 7i4 #ad72 that of the other apostles who also witnessed ,his glory1 as displayed by ,his miracles 7ii4 #aa74 ,there is that of ,john the ,baptist 7i4 #cd72 and when we remember that there had existed at ,ephesus an incomplete ,christianity which had only known the baptism given by ,john the ,baptist 7,acts xix4 #c71 we see how fit it was that the apostle should record the ,baptist's testimony to ,christ's superiority4 ,there is the witness of ,his works1 and that which the ,father ,himself bore 7v4 #cd-cf74 ,we should notice that the miracles are called signs1 and are carefully selected so as to give evidence to the reader concerning particular aspects of our ,lord's glory4#f ,even the ,passion is described as containing an element of glory 7xii4 #bh1 #cb71 it contains a secret divine triumph 7cf4 ,col4 ii4 #ae71 and is a stage towards the glory of the ,ascension4 ,the darkness contends with the #ig divine light1 but cannot suppress it4 ,after the world has done its worst1 the final victory of faith is seen in the confession of ,st4 ,thomas1 ,my ,lord and my ,god 7xx4 #bh74 ,we find other points of doctrine corresponding with the mystical teaching that eternal life does not begin after the last judgment1 but may be enjoyed here and now by knowing ,god and ,jesus ,christ whom ,he hath sent 7xvii4 #c74 ,thus the judgment is shown to be executed in one sense by the mere division which takes place among men when they come in contact with ,christ1 according as they are good or bad 7v4 #cj2 viii4 #af2 ix4 #ci74 ,the principle of this moral testing is made plain in iii4 #ai4 ,those who stand the test1 and believe in ,christ1 undergo a resurrection here 7xi4 #bf74 ,on the other hand1 there is also a future judgment 7v4 #bb1 #bi7 and a future consummation 7v4 #bh1 #bi2 vi4 #ci f41 xiv4 #c74 ,similar beautiful paradoxes are found in the teaching that the work which ,god requires of us is to believe in ,his ,son 7vi4 #bh1 #bi72 and that to fulfil ,god's will is the mark not of servants but of friends 7xv4 #ad74 ,and those who hope that they are numbered among the friends of ,jesus will find in this ,gospel all the deepest experiences of the soul--the new birth1 the finding of the living water and the true light1 and that abiding in ,christ which is made complete by the eating of ,his flesh and the drinking of ,his blood4 ,to realize the meaning of ,jesus it is necessary to follow the guidance of the ,holy ,spirit4 ,the ,synoptists tell us comparatively little of ,his work1 though they show us the ,spirit descending on ,christ at ,his baptism1 driving ,him into the wilderness to be tempted1 speaking in ,his disciples1 pervading ,his work 7,luke iv4 #ah71 and possessed of a personality into which the ,christian is baptized 7,matt4 xxviii4 #ai71 and against which blasphemy is unpardonable 7,luke xii4 #aj74 ,in ,john we find a much fuller doctrine of the ,holy ,spirit4 ,the fact that ,he is not a mere impersonal influence of ,god is very clearly shown4 ,and it is impossible to accept the modern rationalistic #ih hypothesis that the ,holy ,spirit is only a phrase for describing the idea which the apostles had about the invisible presence of ,christ4 ,he is called another ,advocate 7xiv4 #af74 ,christ was an ,advocate or ,helper2 the ,spirit will be another4 ,again1 it is the work of the ,spirit to refresh the memory and strengthen the apprehension of the disciples concerning ,christ 7xiv4 #bf72 and our ,lord definitely says1 ,if ,i go1 ,i will send ,him unto you 7xvi4 #g74 ,with regard to the unbelieving world1 the ,spirit will prove the sinfulness of opposition to ,christ1 will convince the world of ,his righteousness as testified by the ,father's approval manifested in the ,ascension1 and will procure the verdict of history that by the crucifixion the evil spirit who inspires worldliness was condemned 7xvi4 #h-aa74 ,the ,spirit's work is the same in kind as the work of ,christ1 but the two ,persons are distinct4 ,that ,christ continues ,his advent and ,his work in the world through the ,spirit implies neither that the ,spirit is an impersonal influence nor that ,he is personally identical with ,christ4 ,this ,gospel gives us invaluable help in determining the chronology of our ,lord's ministry4 ,his ministry is connected with six ,jewish feasts 7ii4 #ac2 v4 #a2 vi4 #d2 vii4 #b2 x4 #bb2 xii4 #a74 ,all are named except that in v4 #a1 which is probably ,pentecost1 ,a4,d4 #bg4 ,the forty-six years in ii4 #bj are correct4 ,herod began to rebuild the temple in #bj-ai ,b4,c4 ,therefore the ,passover in ii4 #ac cannot be before ,a4,d4 #bg4 ,,analysis ,introduction3 i4 #a--;i4 #ah4--,the ,word ever with ,god and ,himself ,god1 manifested in creation1 in conscience1 in the incarnation4 ,a4 ,winter ,a4,d4 #bf till after ,passover #bg4 ,the preparation and beginning of the ministry3 i4 #ai-;iv4 #ed4--,the testimony of ,john the ,baptist to ,jesus #ii and his baptism of ,jesus1 his disciples come to ,jesus1 the gathering of other disciples1 the promise of seeing heaven opened 7i474 ,jesus and ,mary at the marriage at ,cana1 the disciples believe4 ,jesus at ,capernaum4 ,at the ,passover ,jesus goes to ,jerusalem and cleanses the temple 7ii74 ,at ,jerusalem ,jesus teaches ,nicodemus of the new birth1 ,he labours in ,judaea while ,john is at ,aenon 7iii474 ,the woman of ,samaria converted2 ,jesus returns and is welcomed in ,galilee1 is again at ,cana1 cures the ,capernaum nobleman's son 7iv474 ,b4 ,pentecost ,a4,d4 #bg till before ,passover #bh4 ,the increased self-revelation of ,jesus at ,jerusalem3 v4--,jesus cures the infirm man at the pool of ,bethesda1 is accused of sabbath-breaking4 ,he co-ordinates ,his work and ,his honour with the work and honour of the ,father1 claims to give life now and execute judgment1 claims the testimony of ,john1 of ,his own miracles1 of the ,scriptures4 ,c4 ,passover ,a4,d4 #bh till before ,tabernacles #bh4 ,full self-revelation of ,jesus in ,galilee3 vi4--,christ sustains physical life by feeding the #ejjj1 the people wish to make ,him ,king4 ,he again shows power over nature by walking on the sea4 ,he reveals ,himself as the ,bread sustaining all spiritual life1 commands the eating of ,his flesh and drinking of ,his blood4 ,the effect of this teaching is increased enmity1 the desertion by nominal disciples1 and intensified faith as shown by ,peter's confession4 ,d4 ,tabernacles1 ,september ,a4,d4 #bh till early #bi4 ,further self-revelation at ,jerusalem3 conflict3 journey to ,peraea2 vii4 #a-xi4 #eg4--;,jesus at the feast1 #ajj is accused of having a devil1 defends ,his former action on the sabbath1 attempt to seize ,him1 ,his invitation to all who thirst1 the people divided1 the officers refuse to arrest ,him 7vii474 ,interpolated story of the woman taken in adultery1 vii4 #ec-viii4 #aa4 ,jesus reveals ,himself as the ,light of the world1 the ,jews no longer ,abraham's children1 the ,jews reject ,his claim to pre-existence1 and attempt to stone ,him 7viii474 ,jesus gives sight to the blind man at ,siloam1 discussion about healing on the sabbath 7ix474 ,jesus the good ,shepherd1 at the feast of the ,dedication in ,december the ,jews try to stone ,him and ,he goes east of ,jordan 7x474 ,jesus as ,conqueror of death goes to ,bethany1 raises ,lazarus and proclaims ,himself as the ,resurrection and the ,life4 ,on the advice of ,caiaphas1 the ,council propose to put ,jesus to death4 ,after raising ,lazarus ,jesus retires to ,ephraim1 a city on the edge of the wilderness to the north-east of ,jerusalem 7xi474 ,e4 ,passover ,a4,d4 #bi4 ,last public ministry at ,jerusalem3 xii4--,mary anoints ,jesus for burial1 the entry into ,jerusalem1 the ,greeks who desire to see ,jesus1 a voice from heaven promises to glorify ,him4 ,rejecting or receiving ,christ4 ,full self-revelation of ,jesus to ,his apostles3 xiii4-xvii4--,at the ,passover ,he washes the disciples' feet4 ,judas pointed out and departs4 ,the question of ,peter 7xiii4 #cg71 of ,thomas 7xiv4 #e71 of ,philip 7xiv4 #h71 of ,judas 7xiv4 #bb74 ,the work of the ,advocate who is to come 7xiv4 #bf74 ,abiding in ,christ1 the new commandment to love one another1 the hatred of the world1 future testimony of the ,spirit of truth 7xv474 ,the ,spirit will convict the world1 guide the disciples4 ,sorrow only for a little while1 final assurances1 warm expression of faith on the part of the apostles1 ,christ's warning 7xvi474 ,christ's intercession 7xvii474 #aja ,the death of ,jesus1 the apparent triumph of unbelief3 xviii4-xix4--,betrayal in the garden1 trial before ,annas and ,caiaphas1 ,peter's denial1 trial before ,pilate1 ,jesus or ,barabbas 7xviii474 ,the scourging1 ,pilate's futile endeavour to release ,jesus1 his political fears1 the crucifixion1 behold thy mother1 the spear-thrust1 the writer's personal testimony1 the burial by ,joseph of ,arimathaea 7xix474 ,the resurrection1 the victory over unbelief3 xx4--,mary ,magdalene1 ,peter and the writer at the sepulchre1 the writer records his own conviction4 ,jesus manifests ,himself to the ,magdalene1 to the ten disciples1 most of whom had deserted ,him1 and to ,thomas who doubted4 ,thomas is convinced of the ,divinity of ,jesus1 the writer states that this ,gospel was written that ye might believe4 ,epilogue3 xxi4--,the manifestation of ,jesus by the sea of ,galilee1 the solemn charge to ,peter4 ,the editors of the ,gospel assert that the author was the beloved disciple4 7,john xxi4 #bd was probably written by the ,ephesian presbyters who knew ,st4 ,john4 ,the rest of the chapter is evidently by the apostle himself1 although1 it may have been added at a time later than the rest of the ,gospel1 which seems to come to an end with the impressive words in xx4 #ca4 ,the most contradictory hypotheses have been broached by writers who have denied the authenticity of ch4 xxi4 ,some have held that it was added in order to exalt ,st4 ,john1 the apostle of ,asia ,minor1 over ,st4 ,peter1 the patron of ,rome4 ,others have held that it was added to exalt ,st4 ,peter4 ,those who deny the authenticity of the whole ,gospel are compelled to regard ch4 xxi4 #bd as deliberate false witness47 ,st4 ,john's ,oral ,teaching4--,it seems that before ,st4 ,john wrote his ,gospel1 he had adapted it to oral teaching4 ,this is shown by the arrangement of facts in combinations of #c1 possibly suggested by the #c manifestations of the ,word recorded in the ,introduction4 ,there are #c ,passovers recorded1 #c feasts besides the ,passovers1 #c journeys to ,judaea1 #c discourses on the last day of ,tabernacles before the address to believing ,jews 7viii4 #ca71 #c sayings from the ,cross4 ,if we regard ch4 xxi4 as added later by ,st4 ,john1 we find in the rest of the ,gospel #c miracles in ,judaea1 #c in ,galilee1 and #c appearances of the risen ,lord4 #a ,apostolic ,age of the ,church1 vol4 ii4 p4 #baa4 7,english translation47 #b ,dr4 ,james ,moffat1 ,introduction to the ,literature of the ,new ,testament1 p4 #fja4 #c ,eusebius1 ,h4 ,e4 v4 #bj4 ,it is worth noting that ,dr4 ,moffat1 op4 cit4 p4 #fji1 admits that if ,irenaeus is correct1 his testimony to ,john the ,apostle is of first-rate importance4 ,so he adds1 he must be held to have mistaken what ,polykarp said1 and to have confused ,john the ,presbyter with ,john the ,apostle4 #d ,see ,edersheim1 ,life and ,times of ,jesus the ,messiah1 vol4 ii4 p4 #did4 #e ,the difficulties which arise from the difference between the history of our ,lord's ministry as given by ,st4 ,john1 and by the ,synoptists1 have been discussed on p4 #bg1 ff4 #f ,he changes the good into better 7ii4 #i72 saves the dying 7iv4 #ej72 gives power 7v4 #h72 gives food 7vi4 #aa72 gives sight 7ix4 #g72 is ,lord over death 7xi4 #dd72 blesses the work done in faith 7xxi4 #aa74 ,it should be noticed that ,st4 ,john never mentions that our ,lord cured any one possessed with a devil1 which according to the ,synoptists was a common kind of miracle4 ,but ,st4 ,john does not therefore contradict the other evangelists4 ,he recognizes that there are visible works of the devil 7viii4 #da2 cf4 #a ,john iii4 #h71 and mentions the prince of this world as causing the trials of our ,lord4 #ajb ,,chapter ,,vii ,,the ,,acts ,,of ,,the ,,apostles ,sidenote3 ,the ,author4 ,the ,christian ,church has never attributed the ,book of ,acts to any other writer than ,st4 ,luke4 ,the external proofs of the primitive date of the book are important1 and point to the apostolic age as the date of its composition4 ,st4 ,clement of ,rome1 about ,a4,d4 #ie1 in referring to ,ps4 lxxxviii4 #bj1 quotes it in words which are almost certainly based on ,acts xiii4 #bb4 ,there are two apparent quotations from ,acts in the letters of ,st4 ,ignatius and one in the letter of ,st4 ,polycarp4 ,it is also quoted in the works of ,justin ,martyr1 ,tatian1 and ,athenagoras1 and in the letter of the ,churches of ,vienne and ,lyons written in ,a4,d4 #agg4 ,it was evidently read throughout the #bnd century1 and it is definitely assigned to ,st4 ,luke by ,irenaeus1 the ,muratorian ,fragment1 ,tertullian1 and ,clement of ,alexandria4 ,in opposition to this tradition1 a persistent effort has been made to prove that the book belongs to the early part of the and century4 ,there are certain passages in which the writer uses the first person plural1 implying that he was personally present on the occasions described4 ,the sections of the book in which that peculiarity is found are ordinarily called the we sections1 and it has been asserted that though the we sections are primitive they have been worked into the narrative of a later writer4#a ,furthermore it is asserted that #ajc the book was deliberately intended to be a fictitious account of the primitive ,church1 and that its special purpose was to balance the story of ,st4 ,peter with that of ,st4 ,paul in such a manner as to completely disguise the fundamental antagonism of the two apostles4 ,the force of this argument has been weakened by the general admission of non-,christian writers that the differences of opinion between the two apostles were grossly exaggerated by the critics of fifty years ago4 ,it is therefore granted that there was less necessity for the forgery than there was said to be by the critics in question4 ,it is also very obvious that we cannot fairly charge a historian with dishonesty because he wishes to balance one great character with another4 ,no one would assert that a modern writer was a partisan or a liar because he devoted in the same book twenty appreciative pages to the ,evangelical ,revival and twenty appreciative pages to the ,oxford ,movement4 ,in spite of this fact1 the trustworthy character of the book is still vigorously assailed4 ,it is said that no statement in the book deserves ready belief except the we sections1 that those sections were written by an unknown companion of ,st4 ,paul1 and impudently appropriated by a ,christian who wrote between ,a4,d4 #aje and ,a4,d4 #acj4 ,this argument about the we sections can be completely overthrown by a consideration of the linguistic evidence of ,acts4 ,if language implies anything1 the peculiarities of ,acts imply that the author of the we sections1 who was a companion of ,st4 ,paul1 was the author of the whole book4 ,and they also show that the author of the whole book was the person who wrote the third ,gospel4 ,there are many words and phrases found only in the we sections and in the rest of ,acts4 ,there is1 too1 a large number of words and phrases in the we sections which are rarely used in those books of the ,new ,testament which are not attributed to ,st4 ,luke1 and occur frequently in the rest of ,acts and in ,st4 ,luke's ,gospel4 ,if #ajd we compare ,acts with ,st4 ,luke's ,gospel1 we find that ,acts contains #ajh out of #adj which are characteristic of this ,gospel1 whereas it contains only about a half of those which are characteristic of ,matt4 and ,mark4 ,there are #eh ,greek words which are found in both ,acts and ,luke and nowhere else in the ,new ,testament4#b ,among the terms which serve as connecting links between ,st4 ,luke's ,gospel and ,acts1 including the we sections1 occur various medical phrases4 ,it is becoming more and more widely recognized that these phrases imply that the writer was a physician1 such as we know ,st4 ,luke to have been 7,col4 iv4 #ad74 ,it is all the more remarkable that many of the words peculiar to ,acts are found in ,st4 ,luke's contemporary1 the physician ,dioscorides4 ,it is true that the sections taken from ,mark show numerous ,lucan characteristics as they appear in our third ,gospel1 but these characteristics are due to the third evangelist1 and not to ,st4 ,mark4 ,so1 it can be urged1 the ,lucan characteristics in the we sections are due not to the author1 but to an expert editor of a later time4 ,in reply1 we can answer that the cases are not strictly parallel4 ,for if the we sections are not by the writer of ,acts1 he must have almost entirely rewritten them1 and1 at the same time1 have been guilty of a gross fraud1 which he stupidly dropped in passages where it could have been effectively used4 ,to this linguistic evidence of authenticity we can add archaeological evidence4 ,the discoveries of the last thirty years have greatly confirmed the accuracy of the writer in points where a writer of the #bnd century would have betrayed his ignorance4 ,in fact1 we are able to compare his accuracy with the inaccuracy of the writing known as the ,acts of ,paul and ,thecla1 a #bnd century blend of sensationalism and piety based on a document of the #ast century4 ,now1 in almost every point where we are able to test the knowledge possessed by the author of ,acts with regard to the topography of ,asia #aje ,minor and the details of ,roman government1 it can be pronounced correct4 ,this has been admirably shown by ,prof4 ,ramsay's works on ,the ,church in the ,roman ,empire and ,st4 ,paul4 ,st4 ,luke knows that ,cyprus was governed by a pro-consul1 which had ceased to be the case early in the #bnd century2 that the magistrates at ,philippi were called strategoi1 and were attended by lictors1 while those at ,thessalonica were called politarchai 7xvii4 #f71 a title which has been verified by inscriptions4 ,he is aware that the governor of ,malta was only called the head-man 7xxviii4 #g74 ,he knows that ,derbe and ,lystra1 but not ,iconium1 were cities of ,lycaonia1 and that great ,artemis was the cry used at ,ephesus in invoking the patronal goddess of the city 7xix4 #bh74 ,we must not assert that these and similar details absolutely prove that the writer was a companion of ,st4 ,paul2 but we can say that he was peculiarly well acquainted with the life of that period4 ,the account of ,st4 ,paul's voyage and shipwreck is equally accurate4 ,a very favourite argument against the genuineness of ,acts is that ,acts xv41 in its account of ,st4 ,paul's third visit to ,jerusalem1 ,a4,d4 #di1 is inconsistent with ,gal4 ii4 ,it is asserted that the author deliberately falsified the story in order to represent the older apostles as promoting the union of ,gentile and ,jewish ,christians1 some modern critics assuming that the apostles would never have done anything so ,catholic4 ,but there is no real discrepancy between the two accounts1 if we are ready to believe that ,st4 ,luke gives the public and exterior view of the proceedings1 while ,st4 ,paul1 as is natural1 describes the personal aspect of those proceedings4 ,according to ,acts xv4 #b1 ,st4 ,paul and ,st4 ,barnabas were deputed to go to ,jerusalem by the ,church at ,antioch2 according to ,gal4 ii4 #b1 ,st4 ,paul went there by revelation4 ,the internal motive is surely compatible with the external4 ,again1 both ,acts xv4 and ,gal4 ii4 show that the momentous ,council at ,jerusalem included private and public meetings4 ,the two accounts fit one another all the better in consequence of the fact that ,acts #ajf lays stress upon the public settlement 7xv4 #g f47 and ,galatians upon a private conference 7ii4 #b74 ,acts shows that there was much dispute1 and ,galatians shows that the dispute included opposition to ,st4 ,paul's methods4 ,acts shows that ,st4 ,paul greatly desired to be on good terms with the older apostles1 ,galatians shows that they gave him the right hand of fellowship4 ,the historical situation1 the occasion of dispute 7viz4 the attempt to impose circumcision on the ,gentiles71 the chief persons concerned and the feelings which they entertained1 are the same in both books4#c ,as to the fact that ,st4 ,paul in ,galatians makes no mention of a second visit to ,jerusalem about ,a4,d4 #df1 he ignores it because it was devoted to the specific business mentioned in ,acts xi4 #cj2 xii4 #be4 ,nothing arose out of it affecting his relations with the first apostles or his own apostleship4 ,a description of this visit was therefore quite beside the argument of ,galatians4 ,we cannot therefore say that its omission in ,galatians proves that it was an invention of the author of ,acts4 ,the fact that ,acts does not depend upon ,st4 ,paul's writings and nevertheless shows many undesigned points of contact with them1 leads us to a very important conclusion4 ,this conclusion is that the writer of ,acts was a companion of ,st4 ,paul4 ,it is incredible that a later writer1 who took an eager interest in ,st4 ,paul's adventures1 should have made no use of ,st4 ,paul's letters4 ,those letters made a deep impression upon ,st4 ,paul's contemporaries 7cf4 #b ,cor4 x4 #aj71 and they were carefully treasured by all succeeding generations4 ,we can only explain the relation between ,acts and the ,pauline ,epistles by the theory that the author of ,acts was sufficiently intimate with the apostle to be able to write his book without feeling the necessity of enriching it by references to those ,epistles4 ,the theory1 then1 fits with the theory which is suggested to us by the we sections4 ,the only remaining question is whether this companion was1 or was not1 ,st4 ,luke4 #ajg ,he was evidently with ,st4 ,paul at ,rome1 and this makes it impossible to attribute the authorship of ,acts to ,titus1 as there is no hint in the ,new ,testament of ,titus being there4 ,nor was the author ,silas1 for ,silas was not with ,st4 ,paul on the third missionary journey1 while the author of ,acts was4 ,acts xx4 #e1 #f seems to prove that the book was not written by ,timothy4 ,no one seems so likely to have been the author as ,st4 ,luke4 ,for the writer of ,acts xxvii4 #a-xxviii4 #af evidently accompanied ,st4 ,paul to ,rome1 and we learn from ,col4 iv4 #ad and ,philem4 #bd that ,st4 ,luke was with the apostle during his first imprisonment in that city4 ,we may therefore say that every line of evidence points to the truth of the ancient tradition that ,st4 ,luke wrote ,acts4 ,the sources of information employed by ,st4 ,luke can sometimes be determined with a high degree of probability4 ,where he did not draw upon his own recollections he could often rely upon those of ,st4 ,paul4 ,the apostle was1 as we should expect1 in the habit of narrating his own experiences 7cf4 #b ,cor4 i4 #h-aj2 xii4 #i2 ,gal4 i4 #aa-;ii4 #ad2 ,phil4 iii4 #c-g2 ,rom4 xv4 #af-cb74 ,acts xxi4 #ai2 xiv4 #bg2 xv4 #c1 #ab1 #bf1 show how ,st4 ,paul related his travels4 ,acts i4-v4 probably incorporates an early ,jewish ,christian document1 and contains features which unmistakably point to the truthfulness of the record4 ,a good deal of information was probably obtained from ,john ,mark3 it was to the house of ,mark's mother that ,st4 ,peter made his way after his escape from prison recorded in ch4 xii4 ,as ,st4 ,mark was with ,st4 ,luke and ,st4 ,paul at ,rome1 and acted as ,st4 ,peter's interpreter1 ,st4 ,luke had the opportunity of learning from him many facts concerning ,st4 ,peter4 ,st4 ,barnabas also perhaps furnished some details concerning the history of the early ,church at ,jerusalem4 ,some of the converts who fled from ,judaea to ,antioch 7xi4 #ai7 were probably men who witnessed the wonders of the ,day of ,pentecost4 ,and if ,st4 ,luke was a ,christian of ,antioch1 as tradition says1 he may have made inquiries of these converts4 #ajh ,from ,philip the evangelist1 ,st4 ,luke may have learnt the history of events with which ,philip was concerned1 as he stayed with him at ,caesarea 7xxi4 #h-ab71 and he also knew ,mnason1 who was one of the original disciples of ,pentecost 7xxi4 #af74 ,finally1 we notice that ,st4 ,luke had intercourse with ,st4 ,james1 the ,bishop of ,jerusalem1 himself 7xxi4 #ah74 ,sidenote3 ,date4 ,we have seen above 7p4 #fh7 that ,st4 ,luke's ,gospel was probably written soon after ,a4,d4 #gj4 ,as ,acts i4 #a shows that ,acts was written later than the ,gospel1 and as there is just enough difference in style between the two books to encourage the idea that ,acts was not written immediately after the ,gospel1 we may reasonably place ,acts between ,a4,d4 #ge and #hj4 ,one obvious objection to placing the date of ,acts so late is the fact that the writer does not record the death of ,st4 ,paul4 ,this is certainly startling1 for the martyrdom of the great apostle would have formed an impressive conclusion to the book4 ,but there are several reasons which may be appropriately suggested to account for the omission4 ,possibly the author intended to write a third treatise1 in which the story of the martyrdom of his two great heroes1 ,st4 ,peter and ,st4 ,paul1 would be recounted2 possibly ,acts1 which ends very abruptly1 was never completed by the author4 ,it is also possible that1 after showing that the ,roman civil power had generally been tolerant towards ,christianity1 he did not wish to endanger the circulation of his book by giving an account of ,nero's brutal persecution of the ,christians4 ,if the book had contained any such history1 the possession of it would have been regarded as no small offence by the civil authorities4 ,several years later1 when the ,church was probably much stronger1 ,st4 ,john1 in writing the ,revelation1 disguised his description of ,nero in symbolical language4 ,in any case1 ,st4 ,luke may have wished both to show ,theophilus that ,christianity was compatible with loyalty to the government1 #aji and that the government had for a long time been tolerant towards ,christianity4 ,sidenote3 ,character and ,contents4 ,the general plan of the book may easily be seen by a glance at the ,analysis printed below4 ,we may describe it by saying that the ruling ideas are the progress and the continuity of the ,church4 ,that is to say1 ,st4 ,luke shows how the ,church1 the divinely organized society which promotes the kingdom of ,god1 lives and develops through various stages and crises4 ,it spreads from one upper room in ,jerusalem to ,rome1 the world's mightiest city4 ,from the election of ,matthias1 the new apostle1 until the decision reached by the ,council at ,jerusalem twenty years afterwards1 and recorded in ch4 xv41 we behold a slow but sure progress4 ,the secret of this progress is dependence upon the risen ,christ4 ,we cannot conceive how the apostles could ever have come out of the perplexity and dismay caused by the death of their ,lord1 and laboured with such enthusiasm1 unless they were certain that the ,lord was indeed risen4 ,without the resurrection1 the ,church would have collapsed at once4 ,knowing that it could not be possibly disproved1 the apostles appeal to it as their reason for advancing out of ,judaism4 ,two points with regard to the doctrine implied in chs4 i4-xv4 deserve special attention4 7#a7 ,the doctrine of ,christ's ,person4 ,the doctrine is of the simplest kind1 but the facts asserted by the apostles imply that ,he is divine4 ,he is the ,messiah1 anointed by ,god1 and the ,holy ,one1 and ,he is in a special sense the ,holy ,servant or ,child of ,god 7iii4 #ad2 iv4 #bg74 ,he is seated at the right hand of ,god 7v4 #ca71 ,he is ,prince and ,saviour4 ,he fulfils divine functions4 ,it is ,he who has poured out the ,holy ,spirit 7ii4 #cc74 ,he is the object of man's faith1 and ,his name or revealed personality is declared to have just restored a lame man to soundness 7iii4 #af72 signs and wonders are expected to be done through ,him 7iv4 #cj74 ,there is salvation in none other 7iv4 #ab71 and ,he is to be the ,judge of quick and dead #aaj 7x4 #db74 ,st4 ,stephen in dying prays to ,him4 ,he is perpetually called ,lord1 and the fact that the same name is applied to ,jehovah in the ,septuagint makes it impossible to suppose that ,christ is not regarded as possessed of divine attributes4 7#b7 ,the doctrine of the salvation of the world4 ,rationalist critics have asserted that the first apostles had no idea that the gospel was meant for the world1 and that they limited its light to the children of ,abraham4 ,the unfairness of this assertion is shown by the consistent manner in which the same doctrine of the salvation of all men is interwoven in different parts of ,acts1 including the early chapters1 which are generally acknowledged to be derived from an early ,jewish ,christian source4 ,the doctrine is that salvation is offered to the ,jews first 7iii4 #bf71 but all that are afar off may share in it 7ii4 #ci2 iii4 #be74 ,this is exactly the doctrine expressed by ,st4 ,paul in ,rom4 i4 #af4 ,and the conversion of ,gentiles of different classes1 as recorded in ,acts1 testifies that the apostles acted up to the doctrine4 ,they did not doubt that the ,gentiles had a right to the gospel4 ,the point which did agitate them was1 how much of the ,jewish ceremonial ought the ,gentiles to be required to observe4 ,when the ,gentile converts became numerous the question became acute1 being sharpened by the demand of certain ,jewish ,christians that all converts should be circumcised4 ,st4 ,peter and ,st4 ,james set their faces against this demand1 and it was determined on their advice that the ,gentiles should only be required to abstain from meats offered to idols1 and from blood1 and from things strangled1 and from fornication 7xv4 #bi74 ,the rule was primarily meant for ,antioch1 ,syria1 and ,cilicia4 ,it prohibits complicity in idolatry1 and in the immorality with which ,syrian idolatry had been historically associated4 ,and it prohibits the eating of blood and things strangled1 a practice which might cause friction in the presence of ,jewish communities4 ,nothing is said about circumcision or the sabbath4 ,it is impossible to reconcile ,acts xv4 with the #aaa theory that the original apostles were merely ,jewish ,unitarians who detested ,st4 ,paul4 ,and the ,rationalists who have propagated this theory gain no help either from ,galatians or from ,acts xxi4 ,for ,st4 ,paul1 in writing to the ,galatians1 asserts the two central facts which we find in ,acts xv41 viz4 7i47 that his policy of an open gospel was opposed by a party which appealed to the original apostles1 7ii47 that the original apostles gave him the hand of fellowship and repudiated the ,judaizers4 ,in ,acts xxi4 #bd we find ,st4 ,paul himself performing a ,jewish ceremonial act at the request of ,st4 ,james4 ,the request was made in order to counteract the falsehood that he had been trying to make the ,hebrew converts desert the old ,jewish customs4 ,it cannot be interpreted as a proof of the supposed blind ,judaism of ,st4 ,james4 ,for ,st4 ,paul voluntarily performed a similar act at ,cenchreae1 and we have no ground for believing that he always claimed for himself that entire freedom from ,jewish usages which he always claimed for his ,gentile converts4 ,his own words contradict such a notion emphatically 7#a ,cor4 ix4 #bj74 ,the truth is that it is only by doing violence to all the evidence which we possess1 that anything can be done to support either the theory of ,baur and his school that the apostles of the ,church were divided with regard to the ,law1 or the more recent theory of ,harnack and others that they were divided with regard to the ,person of ,christ4 ,all the apostles believed that the gospel was for all men on equal terms1 and that ,christ was the divine ,lord of all4 ,in addition to these points1 it is necessary to say a few words about the ministry of the ,church which is described in ,acts4 ,it is asserted by such writers as ,martineau1 ,sabatier1 and ,schmiedel1 that the state of the ,church and the ministry in ,acts betrays the fact that the author did not write in the apostolic age4 ,it is said that hierarchical ideas or hierarchical pretensions can be detected in such passages as i4 #ag1 #bj2 viii4 #ad-ag2 xv4 #bh2 xx4 #bh1 and that such ideas #aab could not have been entertained by the apostles4 ,it is not possible to give a full discussion of such a theory in this book4#d ,we must be content with noting that1 in order to give it any appearance of validity1 it is necessary to reject every part of the ,new ,testament which does not happen to agree with it4 ,schmiedel1 who places ,acts between ,a4,d4 #aaj and #acj1 says that ,acts xx4 #ah-ce has many ideas in common with those of the ,pastoral ,epistles1 but that the author has not yet reached the stage in the development of ,church government which characterizes the ,first ,epistle to ,timothy4 #e ,he says this simply because that ,epistle1 which he regards as a late forgery1 shows a form of ,church government practically identical with ,episcopacy1 while he thinks that ,acts xx4 shows a form of government intermediate between the genuine apostolic form and ,episcopacy4 ,to this we may make two answers2 7a7 that the ,church government in ,acts and #a ,timothy is practically the same1 the work of the apostle being in r ,timothy partly delegated to an apostolic vicar2 7b7 as there is excellent evidence for regarding #a ,timothy as a genuine writing of ,st4 ,paul1 it gives us an additional cause for believing that the description of ,church government in ,acts is not fictitious4 ,,analysis ,the outline of the book is laid down in the words of our ,lord quoted in i4 #h1 ,ye shall receive power after that the ,holy ,ghost is come upon you3 and ye shall be ,my witnesses both in ,jerusalem1 and in all ,judaea1 and ,samaria1 and unto the uttermost parts of the earth4 #aac ,a4 ,from ,a4,d4 #bi to 8 #cd1 ,the ,church at ,jerusalem3 i4-viii4 #a4--;,introduction2 the commission to the apostles1 the ,ascension1 choice of ,matthias in place of ,judas 7i474 ,outpouring of the ,holy ,spirit at ,pentecost1 ,peter's speech1 the unity of the ,church 7ii474 ,cure of a lame man1 ,peter's speech on the occasion 7iii474 ,peter and ,john imprisoned and before the ,council1 their dismissal and return to the ,church1 community of goods in the ,church 7iv474 ,ananias and ,sapphira1 miracles of healing1 especially by ,peter1 second imprisonment of ,peter and ,john1 ,peter's speech1 ,gamaliel's advice to refrain from persecution 7v474 ,appointment of the seven deacons1 ,stephen's ministry and arrest 7vi474 ,stephen's defence1 in which he shows that the ,jews have always opposed the chief servants of ,god and that true worship is independent of the ,jewish temple1 ,stephen's martyrdom 7vii4-viii4 #a74 ,b4 ,from ,a4,d4 8 #cd to #df4 ,christianity spreads through ,judaea and ,samaria and to the ,gentiles1 ,st4 ,paul's conversion3 viii4-xii4--,church scattered by persecution1 ,philip in ,samaria1 ,simon ,magus1 ,peter and ,john at ,samaria1 ,philip baptizes an ,ethiopian proselyte to ,judaism 7viii474 ,conversion of ,paul1 his baptism1 he is introduced to the apostles1 ,peter at ,joppa and ,lydda1 raising of ,tabitha by ,peter 7ix474 ,peter and ,cornelius1 ,peter's trance1 he eats with and has baptized ,gentiles who had previously believed in ,god but were uncircumcised 7x474 ,he explains his conduct and the ,church approves 7xi4 #a-ah74 ,christianity spreads to ,phoenicia1 ,cyprus1 and ,antioch1 where it is preached to pagan ,greeks 7xi4 #ai-cj74 ,herod's #aad persecution1 murder of ,james1 ,peter's third imprisonment and escape1 death of ,herod in ,a4,d4 #dd1 ,paul returns from his second visit to ,jerusalem 7xii474 ,c4 ,from ,a4,d4 #dg to #di4 ,st4 ,paul's ,first ,missionary ,journey3 xiii4 #a-xv4 #ce4--;,barnabas and ,paul receive the laying on of hands at ,antioch1 journey through ,cyprus1 ,elymas the sorcerer blinded1 visit to ,antioch in ,pisidia1 ,paul's speech in the synagogue1 he turns to the ,gentiles 7xiii474 ,paul preaches at ,iconium1 cures lame man at ,lystra1 is stoned1 returns to ,antioch 7xiv474 ,persecution of the ,christians by ,jews4 ,the ,jerusalem ,church ,council decides that ,gentiles need not be circumcised 7xv4 #a-ce74 ,d4 ,from ,a4,d4 #di to #eb4 ,st4 ,paul's ,second ,missionary ,journey3 xv4 #cf-xviii4 #bb4--,paul with ,silas visits the ,churches founded during the first journey1 ,timothy circumcised 7xv4 #cf-xvi4 #e74 ,paul crosses to ,europe1 imprisoned at ,philippi1 conversion of the jailor 7xvi474 ,at ,thessalonica and ,beroea1 at ,athens1 ,paul's speech at the ,areopagus 7xvii474 ,at ,corinth1 brought before ,gallic the ,roman proconsul1 travels by ,ephesus and ,caesarea to ,jerusalem and ,antioch 7xviii4 #a-bb74 ,persecution by ,jews1 or by ,gentiles whose pockets are affected 7xvi4 #ai74 ,e4 ,from ,a4,d4 #eb to #ef4 ,st4 ,paul's ,third ,missionary ,journey3 xviii4 #bc-xxi4 #af4--,paul revisits ,galatia and ,phrygia2 ,apollos1 a converted #aae ,jew1 defends ,christianity at ,corinth 7xviii4 #bc-bh74 ,paul stays at ,ephesus1 great riot 7xix474 ,roman officials tolerant to ,christianity1 craftsmen whose pockets are affected show violence4 ,journey to ,macedonia and ,greece1 ,paul at ,troas1 ,eutychus' fall and cure1 journey to ,miletus where ,paul meets the presbyters of ,ephesus 7xx474 ,voyage to ,tyre and ,caesarea 7xxi4 #a-af74 ,f4 ,from ,a4,d4 #ef to #fa4 ,st4 ,paul arrested at ,jerusalem1 imprisoned at ,caesarea1 voyage to ,rome3 xxi4 #ag-xxviii4 #ca4--,paul visits ,james and the presbyters1 the ,jews try to kill him1 he is rescued and taken to the castle 7xxi4 #ag-dj74 ,his speech to the ,jews1 is removed by the chief captain 7xxii474 ,his speech before the ,jewish ,council1 is taken to ,caesarea 7xxiii474 ,appears before the procurator ,felix 7xxiv474 ,appears before the procurator ,festus1 appeals to the emperor1 speaks before ,agrippa 7xxv41 xxvi474 ,roman officials still tolerant1 but obliged to interfere4 ,the voyage and shipwreck 7xxvii474 ,paul at ,melita 7xxviii4 #a-aj74 ,he journeys to ,rome and expounds the gospel at ,rome1 where the ,jews had not previously heard anything against him4 ,he preaches the kingdom of ,god for two years 7xxviii4 #aa-ca74 ,similar ,characteristics of ,st4 ,luke's ,gospel and ,acts4--,among such are the continued interest in ,samaritans 7,acts i4 #h2 viii4 #e-be7 ,john the ,baptist 7,acts i4 #bb2 x4 #cg2 xiii4 #bd2 xviii4 #be2 xix4 #c71 women 7,acts i4 #ad2 ix4 #cf2 xii4 #ab2 xvii4 #d71 the poor 7,acts ii4 #de2 iii4 #c2 iv4 #cb2 ix4 #ci1 etc474 ,in both books ,christ is specially called ,lord1 and is the great ,prophet 7,luke vii4 #af1 #ci2 xxiv4 #ai-bg2 cf4 ,acts iii4 #bb2 vii4 #cg71 also the suffering ,servant 7,luke xxiv4 #cf1 #de2 cf4 ,acts iii4 #ac1 #ah2 iv4 #bg2 viii4 #cb74 ,notice1 too1 in both books the long reports of prayers and speeches4 #a ,the we sections contain #ig verses4 ,they are xvi4 #aj-ag1 xx4 #e-ae2 xxi4 #a-ah1 xxvii4 #a-xxviii4 #af4 #b ,see ,rev4 ,sir ,john ,c4 ,hawkins1 ,bart41 ,m4,a41 ,horae ,synopticae4 #c ,see ,lightfoot1 ,commentary on ,galatians4 #d ,the reader is referred to ,dr4 ,gore1 ,the ,church and the ,ministry1 p4 #bcd f4 7fourth edition74 #e ,encyclopaedia ,biblica1 vol4 i4 p4 #di4 #aaf ,,chapter ,,viii ,,the ,,epistles ,,of ,,st4 ,,paul ,although the ,christian cannot regard the ,epistles contained in the ,new ,testament as having quite the same importance as the ,gospels which record the life and sayings of his ,divine ,master1 he must regard them as having a profound significance4 ,they deal with the creed and the conduct of the ,church with an inspired insight which gives them an undying value1 and they are marked by a personal affection which gives them an undying charm4 ,they lend1 too1 a most powerful support to the historical evidence of the truth of ,christianity4 ,we have already noticed that the earliest ,gospel was probably not written before ,a4,d4 #fb1 while ,st4 ,john's ,gospel is probably as late as ,a4,d4 #he4 ,but several of the twenty-one ,epistles in the ,new ,testament are certainly earlier than ,a4,d4 #fb1 and out of the whole number only the three by ,st4 ,john can be confidently placed at a later date than ,st4 ,john's ,gospel4 ,now1 these twenty-one ,epistles assume the truth of the story contained in the ,gospels4 ,they do more than this4 ,for they prove that during the lifetime of men who had personally known ,jesus ,christ1 there were large numbers of earnest men and women who were at home with the same ideas as those which ,christians have cherished until modern times4 ,some of these ideas explain what we find in the ,gospels4 ,for instance1 the doctrine of the ,atonement is more plainly expounded in the ,epistles than in the ,gospels4 ,this doctrine1 together with those which concern the ,person of ,jesus ,christ1 the ,holy #aag ,trinity1 the sacraments1 the ,church1 and the ministry1 could be shown to have existed about ,a4,d4 #fj1 even if the ,gospels had perished or were proved to be forgeries4 ,the indirect evidence which the ,epistles give to the life and teaching of our ,lord is therefore of immense importance4 ,if the infidel says that these doctrines are mere theories1 we can ask him how these theories arose1 and challenge him to produce a cause which so adequately accounts for them as the incarnation of the ,son of ,god4 ,the origin of spiritual letters or epistles was perhaps due to the wisdom and originality of ,st4 ,paul4 ,at any rate1 there is nothing improbable in this conjecture1 nor need it draw us into any sympathy with the recent attempts to use it as a means for discrediting those ,epistles in the ,new ,testament which bear the names of other authors4 ,it is possible that the earliest ,epistle is that of ,st4 ,james1 and we have no means of telling whether ,st4 ,paul did or did not anticipate him in writing ,epistles4 ,in any case1 if ,st4 ,paul is not the pioneer1 he is the captain of epistle-writers4 ,st4 ,cyprian1 ,st4 ,jerome1 ,st4 ,bernard1 and in modern times ,archbishop ,fenelon and ,dr4 ,pusey1 have illustrated the power of making a letter the vehicle of momentous truths4 ,but on the greatest of them there has fallen only a portion of the mantle of ,st4 ,paul4 ,we possess thirteen ,epistles written by ,st4 ,paul4 ,there is no real reason for doubting the genuineness of any of them1 and a remarkable change has lately taken place in the manner in which the opponents of orthodox ,christianity have treated them4 ,when the ingenious attempt was made1 sixty years ago1 to prove that ,st4 ,paul invented a type of ,christianity which was not taught by ,christ1 it was held that only ,galatians1 ,romans1 and #a and #b ,corinthians were genuine4 ,the other ,epistles attributed to ,st4 ,paul were said to be forgeries written after ,st4 ,paul's death1 and intended to act as certificates for the ,catholic faith of the #bnd century4 ,since then criticism has grown wiser4 ,the genuineness of ,philippians and #a ,thessalonians was first conceded4 ,then it became necessary to #aah admit the genuineness of ,colossians and ,philemon2 and #b ,thessalonians and ,ephesians are now being placed in the same list even by some extreme critics4 ,in fact1 the use made of ,st4 ,paul's ,epistles in the #bnd century1 and the impossibility of finding any one who had the genius to personate the great apostle1 are two things which have disabled fancy-criticism4 ,the ,epistles to ,timothy and ,titus are still confidently rejected by some authors1 but this confidence is being undermined4 ,some special attention is given to the question of their genuineness in this book4 ,the writings of ,st4 ,paul fall into four groups1 each group being shaped by something which is unmistakably novel and by something which it has in common with the other groups4 ,i4 ,a4,d4 #ea4 #a and #b ,thessalonians4 ,,ii4 ,a4,d4 #ee-ef4 #a and #b ,corinthians1 ,galatians1 ,romans4 ,,iii4 ,a4,d4 #ei-fa4 ,colossians1 ,philemon1 ,ephesians1 ,philippians4 ,,iv4 ,a4,d4 #fa-fd4 #a ,timothy1 ,titus1 #b ,timothy4 ,st4 ,paul was in the habit of dictating his letters4 ,in ,rom4 xvi4 #bb occurs the name of ,tertius1 who was then acting as his secretary4 ,but ,st4 ,paul wrote the little letter to ,philemon himself1 and in ,gal4 vi4 #aa-ah we find a postscript which the apostle wrote in his own large handwriting4 ,similar instances are found in #a ,cor4 xvi4 #ba-bd and ,col4 iv4 #ah1 while in #b ,thess4 iii4 #ag he shows us that he sometimes made these additions in order to protect his converts from being deceived by forged letters written in his name4 ,in order to enter into the spirit of ,st4 ,paul's letters it is necessary to understand his history1 a brief outline of which will now be given4 ,saul1 who changed his name to ,paul1 was born at ,tarsus in ,cilicia1 a city which prided itself upon its good education4 ,the language of the city was ,greek2 ,saul's father was a ,jew and a ,roman citizen4 ,he was trained at ,jerusalem by #aai ,gamaliel1 a renowned ,pharisee4 ,the future apostle was therefore born a member of the most religious race in the world1 spoke the language of the most cultivated race in the world1 and lived under the most masterly and fully organized government4 ,all these three influences left their mark on a soul which was always impressible towards everything great and noble4 ,but his nature was not only impressible2 it was endowed as well by ,god with a strong pure heat which could fuse truths together into an orderly and well-proportioned form1 and purge away the falsehoods which clung to truths4 ,it is plain that he was not a ,pharisee of the baser sort1 even when he believed that the ,messiah was a pretender4 ,righteousness was his ideal1 and because he hated sin1 a struggle raged between his conscience and his lower instincts 7,rom4 vii4 #g-be74 ,he fiercely persecuted the ,christians1 whom he regarded as traitors to their race and their religion4 ,on his way from ,jerusalem to ,damascus with a warrant from the high priest to arrest the ,christians1 he was converted 7about ,a4,d4 #ce7 by a direct interposition of the risen ,lord4 ,every effort has been made by modern rationalists to explain this revelation as either an imaginary vision or an inward light in his conscience4 ,the fact remains that ,st4 ,paul never speaks of it as a merely inward reality1 that he does not number his conversion among the ecstatic states to which he was subject 7#b ,cor4 xii4 #a71 and that he reckons the appearance of ,christ to himself as an outward appearance like the appearances to the older apostles 7#a ,cor4 xv4 #e-h74 ,we cannot get behind the statements made by ,st4 ,paul and those made in ,acts by his friend1 ,st4 ,luke4 ,they show that he was met and conquered by ,christ4 ,the appearance of ,christ changed his whole career1 transformed his character1 convinced him that ,jesus was the ,messiah1 and that salvation can only be obtained by faith in ,him--that is1 by a devoted adherence to ,his ,person and ,his teaching4 ,after preaching ,christ in ,damascus1 he retired into the keen air and inspiring solitude of the ,arabian desert4 #abj ,during this period the outline of his creed seems to have grown clear and definite4 ,it afterwards expanded and developed1 as truly as youth passes into manhood1 but there is no evidence for any material alteration having taken place after his return from ,arabia4 ,many ,christians doubted the sincerity of his conversion1 but ,st4 ,barnabas1 a conciliatory and kind evangelist1 introduced him to ,st4 ,peter and ,st4 ,james at ,jerusalem1 ,a4,d4 #ch4 ,his life being threatened by the ,greek-speaking ,jews1 he departed for ,tarsus4 ,in due time he was brought by ,st4 ,barnabas to aid the new mission to the ,gentiles at ,antioch1 a large and splendid city1 admirably adapted for the first propagation of the gospel among the heathen4 ,in ,a4,d4 #df he paid with ,barnabas a second visit to ,jerusalem1 taking thither a contribution from ,antioch to relieve the famine which raged there4 ,in ,a4,d4 #dg he went from ,antioch in company with ,barnabas on his first missionary tour1 visiting ,cyprus and part of ,asia ,minor4 ,on his return1 ,a4,d4 #di1 he attended the ,council at ,jerusalem 7,acts xv42 ,gal4 ii471 at which he insisted that converts from paganism should not be required to submit to circumcision and the other ceremonial rules of the ,jewish ,church4 ,only once again has any ,council of the ,church had to discuss such a burning and weighty question1 and that once was at the ,council of ,nicaea in #cbe1 when it was determined to describe the fact that ,jesus is ,god in language which would admit of no possible mistake or jugglery4 ,at ,jerusalem1 in ,a4,d4 #di1 the ,church had to determine whether it was sufficient for a man to be a ,christian1 or necessary for him to become a ,jew and a ,christian simultaneously4 ,some ,judaizing ,christians maintained the latter4 ,faithful to the teaching of our ,lord1 who laid on no ,gentile the necessity of adopting ,judaism1 the ,church decided that ,gentile converts need not be circumcised4 ,in ,a4,d4 #di1 soon after the ,council at ,jerusalem1 ,st4 ,paul began a second missionary journey1 and crossed over into ,europe1 where he founded several ,churches1 including those of ,philippi and ,thessalonica4 ,at ,athens he seems to have made #aba but little impression1 but at ,corinth1 the busy and profligate centre of ,greek commerce1 he was more successful4 ,he stayed there for eighteen months1 and during this stay he wrote the ,epistles to the ,thessalonians4 ,they are marked by the attention given to eschatology1 or doctrine of the last things--the second coming of ,christ1 the resurrection of mankind1 and the judgment4 ,this second journey closed with a visit to ,jerusalem1 and was followed by an incident which shows that the apostle's long warfare with ,judaism was not over4 ,the ,judaizers had been defeated at the ,council of ,jerusalem1 and they were aware that the ,gentiles were pouring into the ,church4 ,so they attempted a new and artful plan for securing their own predominance4 ,they no longer denied that uncircumcised ,christians were ,christians1 but they tried to gain a higher status for the circumcised4 ,they asserted that special prerogatives belonged to the ,messiah's own people1 and to the apostles whom ,he had chosen while ,he was on earth4 ,when ,st4 ,paul went from ,jerusalem to ,antioch in ,a4,d4 #eb1 ,st4 ,peter1 fearing to offend these ,judaizers1 was guilty of pretending to believe that he agreed with them4#a ,he refused to eat with ,gentile 7uncircumcised7 ,christians4 ,he thereby tried to compel the ,gentiles to ,judaize 7,gal4 ii4 #ad71 treating them as if they were an inferior caste4 ,st4 ,barnabas was carried away by ,st4 ,peter's example4 ,st4 ,paul then openly rebuked the leader of the apostles4 ,it is on this incident that ,f4 ,c4 ,baur and the ,tbingen school founded their fictitious history of a doctrinal struggle between ,st4 ,paul and the original apostles4 ,the fundamental falsehood of this history lies in the fact that there was no real difference of opinion between ,st4 ,peter and ,st4 ,paul4 ,the latter rebuked the former for dissembling1 i4e4 for acting on a special occasion in a #abb manner contrary to his convictions and openly professed principles4 ,the ,judaizing party not only tried to inoculate the ,church with ,judaism1 but strained every nerve to undermine the authority of ,st4 ,paul4 ,they said that he had no authority to preach ,christ unless it was derived through the ,twelve1 and they showed letters of commendation 7,gal4 ii4 #ab2 #b ,cor4 iii4 #a71 to the effect that they represented the first apostles and came to supply the defects of ,st4 ,paul's teaching4 ,with these opponents he was in conflict during his third missionary journey1 which began about ,august1 ,a4,d4 #eb4 ,on this journey he revisited ,galatia and ,phrygia1 made a long stay at ,ephesus1 and went to ,macedonia and ,greece4 ,during this third missionary journey he wrote #a and #b ,corinthians1 ,galatians1 and ,romans4 ,it is hard to determine the exact order in which they were written1 as ,galatians may have been written before #a ,corinthians4 ,these ,epistles are the noblest work of ,st4 ,paul4 ,the persistent efforts of his opponents compel him to defend both his principles and his character4 ,amid the perplexity of the time1 his clear and clarifying mind formulated ,christian doctrine so perfectly that he compels his readers to see what he sees4 ,this group of ,epistles is mainly devoted to soteriology1 or the method by which ,god saves man4 ,it contains abundant teaching about ,god's purpose of saving us1 the use of the ,jewish law1 the struggle between our flesh and our spirit1 the work of ,jesus ,christ in dying and rising for us1 the work of the ,holy ,spirit1 and the morals and worship of the ,church4 ,st4 ,paul's arguments are mainly addressed to believing ,christians1 whom he wishes to preserve from ,jewish or heathen error4 ,they are marked by the strongest light and shade4 ,nowhere does sin appear more awful1 and the love of ,god to undeserving man appear more generous4 ,at one moment the apostle writes as a logician1 at another as a mystic4 ,now he is stern1 and now he is pathetic4 ,in compass1 in variety1 in depth1 these four ,epistles are great works of art1 and all the greater #abc because the writer esteems his intellectual powers as nothing in comparison with the story of the ,cross4 ,in ,may1 ,a4,d4 #ef1 ,st4 ,paul was arrested at ,jerusalem1 after which he was detained by the ,roman procurator ,felix for two years at ,caesarea1 and then sent to ,rome because he appealed to have his case tried by the emperor4 ,he arrived at ,rome early in ,a4,d4 #ei1 and was imprisoned for two years in his own hired house before his trial4 ,during this imprisonment he wrote the ,epistles to the ,colossians1 ,ephesians1 and ,philippians1 and the exquisite private letter to ,philemon4 ,in ,philippians there is a strong reprimand of the infatuation of trusting in ,jewish privileges1 but it is plain from ,colossians and ,ephesians that ,gentile ,christianity was already firmly established1 and that in ,asia ,minor the ,judaizing heresies were becoming fainter and more fanciful4 ,st4 ,paul criticizes a ,judaic ,gnosticism1 a morbid mixture of ,jewish ritual with that ,oriental spiritualism which fascinated many devotees in the ,roman empire at this period4 ,the ,philippians do not seem to have been infected with the same religious malaria as the ,christians who dwelt in the valley of the ,lycus4 ,but ,st4 ,paul in writing to them1 as to the ,colossians and ,ephesians1 takes great pains to show who ,christ is and what our relation towards ,him ought to be4 ,this group is therefore distinguished by its ,christology4 ,st4 ,paul was released from his first imprisonment at ,rome1 though we know no details of his release4 ,he again resumed his missionary life1 and wrote the ,first ,epistle to ,timothy and that to ,titus4 ,according to a tradition of very great antiquity1 he visited ,spain4 ,but the changed attitude of the ,roman government towards the ,christians soon cut short his work4 ,earlier in his career the ,roman officials had regarded the new religion with easy though somewhat supercilious toleration4 ,in #b ,thessalonians we find ,st4 ,paul apparently describing the ,roman authorities as the restraining power which hindered the malice of antichristian ,judaism from working revenge upon #abd the ,church4 ,at ,ephesus he had been personally protected from the mob by the men who were responsible for the public worship of the ,roman emperor4 ,but under ,nero an active persecution of the ,christians was set on foot1 and ,st4 ,paul was again imprisoned at ,rome4 ,during this last imprisonment he wrote his ,second ,epistle to ,timothy4 ,this letter1 like the ,first ,epistle to ,timothy and that to ,titus1 deals specially with the organization and ministry of the ,church1 and was intended to consolidate the ,church before the apostle's death4 ,the martyrdom of the apostle probably took place in ,a4,d4 #fd4 ,his tomb1 marked by an inscription of the #dth century1 still remains at ,rome in the church of ,st4 ,paul outside the walls1 which stands near the scene of his martyrdom4 ,unless the relics were destroyed by the ,saracens who sacked ,rome in #hdf1 they probably remain in this tomb4 ,the festival of ,june #bi1 which in mediaeval times was kept in honour of ,st4 ,peter and ,st4 ,paul1 and which in our present ,english ,prayer-book is wrongly dedicated to ,st4 ,peter only1 is probably not the day on which either of the apostles suffered4 ,it is the day on which their relics were removed for safety to the catacombs in the time of the persecution of the ,christians by the ,emperor ,decius1 ,a4,d4 #beh4 #a ,the above account places the dispute at ,antioch before the third missionary journey4 ,some writers of deserved repute place it in the winter of ,a4,d4 #dh1 before the ,council of ,jerusalem4 #abe ,,chapter ,,ix #a ,,and #b ,,thessalonians ,,the ,,first ,,epistle ,,of ,,paul ,,the ,,apostle ,,to ,,the ,,thessalonians ,sidenote3 ,the ,author4 ,among all schools of thought there has been an increasing conviction that this ,epistle is genuine4 ,it was included in ,marcion's ,apostolicon1 or list of ,pauline writings1 it is contained in the ,muratorian ,fragment1 it is quoted by the great ,fathers of the close of the #bnd century1 and is found in the ,old ,latin and ,peshitta ,syriac versions of the ,new ,testament4 ,the earnest and affectionate tone of the ,epistle is thoroughly ,pauline1 and the argument that it is not genuine because it does not contain the same pronounced anti-,jewish teaching as we find in ,romans is precarious1 though it has seemed to some sceptics to be convenient4 ,the argument might be turned in the opposite direction4 ,for it would be just as reasonable to say that the absence of anti-,jewish doctrine proves that the ,epistle was written before the great conflict with the semi-,christian ,jews began1 as to say that it proves that it was written by a forger after the conflict was over4 ,one paragraph in the ,epistle points decisively to an early date4 ,in iv4 #ac-ah we find that some ,thessalonians were under the delusion that it would be an exceptional thing for a ,christian to die before the second coming of our ,lord1 and that those who did so die would miss some of the felicity appointed for the rest4 ,such a delusion must have been dispelled at a very early date4 ,moreover1 the #abf comfort which ,st4 ,paul administers to those who are agitated by this notion gives us the idea that he expected ,christ to return in his own lifetime4 ,in this respect he writes to the ,thessalonians something very different from what he writes in his later ,epistles 7,phil4 i4 #ba-bd2 #b ,tim4 iv4 #f71 or even in #b ,cor4 v4 #a4 ,we need not be surprised that ,god left the great apostle in ignorance of an event which it is not given even to the angels to understand 7,matt4 xxiv4 #cf74 ,but a forger1 living after the apostle's death1 would not be at all likely to represent his hero as falling into such a mistake4 ,sidenote3 ,to whom written4 ,thessalonica1 the modern ,saloniki1 was the capital of part of ,macedonia1 situated in the middle of the bend of the ,thermaic ,gulf1 and not far from ,mount ,olympus1 the snow-clad home of the gods of ,greece4 ,it was a busy mercantile town1 and in ready communication with ,italy1 as the great road called ,via ,egnatia passed through its walls4 ,it contained then1 as now1 a considerable number of ,jews among its inhabitants4 ,in ,christian times it became a great ecclesiastical centre1 and was influential in the conversion of the ,slavs and ,bulgarians4 ,it is still famous for its splendid ,byzantine churches1 though the finest have long since been converted into mosques by the ,turks4 ,the ,church was planted there by ,st4 ,paul on his second missionary journey1 in ,a4,d4 #ej 7,acts xvii474 ,he preached first to the ,jews1 and after his third visit to the synagogue he was rejected by the ,jews1 and he turned to the ,gentiles4 ,some of these ,thracian ,gentiles were converts to ,judaism1 but they were people whose character could be trusted4 ,in the mean time his ,philippian converts twice sent aid to him 7,phil4 iv4 #af74 ,previous to this the apostle had been earning his own bread1 no doubt by tent-making4 ,st4 ,paul was forced to leave ,thessalonica in consequence of a riot stirred up by the ,jews4 ,he visited it again before his last journey to ,jerusalem in ,a4,d4 #ef4 #a ,thess4 i4 #i shows that the majority of the ,christians had #abg been ,gentile idolaters1 though there were a few of ,jewish blood4 ,it was among the sturdy people of ,macedonia that ,st4 ,paul won his steadiest recruits for ,christ4 ,here1 as in the letter to ,philippi1 we find that he uses words of more than ordinary affection4 ,these converts are to ,st4 ,paul his joy and crown 7#a ,thess4 ii4 #ai2 ,phil4 iv4 #a74 ,he compares his relation with them to that of a nurse with her own children 7#a ,thess4 ii4 #g74 ,when he wrote to the ,corinthians he displayed his ,macedonians as brilliant examples of ,christian liberality and ,christian loyalty 7#b ,cor4 viii4 #a-e74 ,in this passage he alludes to their poverty1 and these ,epistles show that they had to work for their bread4 ,they were exposed to bitter and continuous persecution from ,jews1 who were capable of inciting the roughs of the town to set on ,st4 ,paul 7,acts xvii4 #e74 ,sidenote3 ,where and when written4 ,the ,epistle was written from ,corinth on the occasion of ,st4 ,paul's first visit there4 ,when ,st4 ,paul had to leave ,beroea in ,a4,d4 #ej1 ,silas and ,timothy remained 7,acts xvii4 #ad1 #ae2 xviii4 #e74 ,he sent for them to meet him at ,athens1 and when they had come1 he despatched ,timothy to ,thessalonica 7#a ,thess4 iii4 #b74 ,in ,october ,a4,d4 #ej1 ,st4 ,paul arrived at ,corinth from ,athens3 ,timothy and ,silas rejoined him at ,corinth1 and the letter was written soon afterwards1 probably early in ,a4,d4 #ea4 ,sidenote3 ,character and ,contents4 ,the immediate cause of the ,epistle was the arrival of ,timothy with news from ,thessalonica4 ,the apostle's reasons for writing were3 7a7 to calm and encourage the converts whom he had so abruptly left2 7b7 to urge them to perform their ordinary duties4 ,they had fallen into a state bordering on religious hysteria4 ,quite determined to be true to ,christ1 they had been demoralized by the strain of facing constant hostility4 ,they had begun to take excessive interest in unfulfilled prophecy and eschatological speculation4 ,the result was that individuals had become careless as to the performance of simple duties4 ,the apostle comforts the ,thessalonians by reminding them #abh of the happiness and reality of their own spiritual experience4 ,he wishes them to see plainly the working of ,god both in his own preaching of the gospel and their acceptance of it4 ,on the one hand1 he gladly recognizes the faith1 charity1 hope1 and constancy under persecution3 the story of their conversion1 as it had been known everywhere1 has won many friends for the ,faith 7i474 ,on the other hand1 ,st4 ,paul is aware that his own conduct has not been unworthy of an apostle4 ,probably to vindicate himself against ,jewish calumnies1 he declares that his ministry at ,thessalonica was bold1 pure1 honest1 and gentle4 ,moreover1 he did not quarter himself upon his converts2 he worked with his hands1 and was just and fatherly 7ii4 #a-ab74 ,after a thanksgiving for the manner in which they received the word of ,god1 he speaks of his eager wish to see his friends again4 ,he had sent ,timothy that he might comfort them1 and ,timothy has returned with glad tidings4 ,he prays for their establishment in holiness 7ii4 #ac-;iii4 #ac74 ,he goes on to exhort them to avoid impurity and work quietly1 and then he speaks of the eschatological difficulties4 ,the ,thessalonians wondered whether the ,christians already dead would miss a share in the joy of ,christ's second coming4 ,st4 ,paul replies that those who are alive at ,christ's appearing will have no advantage over the dead 7iv4 #ae74 ,on the contrary1 the dead will rise first1 and then the living ,christians will be caught up together with them to meet the ,lord4 ,the day will come with surprise1 and will terrify the unprepared 7iv4 #a-v4 #c74 ,he then calls them to watchfulness and sobriety4 ,there follows an exhortation to obey the clergy1 and the early date of the ,epistle is again suggested by the fact that the titles which are used in his later epistles are not given to the clergy of ,thessalonica4 ,the existence of an order of prophets seems implied 7v4 #bj74 ,the ,epistle has a special blessing for these troubled ,christians who look so wistfully for the coming of our ,lord ,jesus ,christ4 #abi ,,analysis ,salutation1 thanksgiving1 and congratulation4 ,the good fruit borne by ,christianity at ,thessalonica is known of through all ,macedonia and ,achaia 7i474 ,the character of the apostle's ministry there1 a fresh thanksgiving1 the apostle desires to see his friends1 but is hindered by ,satan working through adverse circumstances 7ii474 ,timothy's expedition1 a prayer 7iii474 ,encouragement to obedience1 exhortation against impurity and to work2 the blessed dead and ,christ's second coming4 ,the sudden coming of the ,lord 7iv4 #a-v4 #c74 ,practical conclusion based on the above doctrine 7v4 #d-bh74 ,,the ,,second ,,epistle ,,of ,,paul ,,the ,,apostle ,,to ,,the ,,thessalonians ,sidenote3 ,the ,author4 ,the external evidence for the genuineness of the ,second ,epistle is even stronger than that of the ,first4 ,it is mentioned by ,polycarp1#a and apparently by ,justin ,martyr4#b ,it is also supported by the same versions of the ,new ,testament and by the same ,fathers as the ,first ,epistle4 ,in modern times it has been rejected even by some who accept #a ,thessalonians4 ,some of the objections which have been raised are almost too trivial to deserve attention4 ,but the prophetic and apocalyptic passage in ii4 #a-ab has been regarded by many critics as a serious stumbling-block4 ,it has been urged 7a7 that #a ,thessalonians implies that ,st4 ,paul believed ,christ would return immediately1 whereas #b ,thessalonians implies that certain important occurrences must first intervene4 ,but there is no real contradiction4 ,for #a ,thessalonians represents the return of ,christ as certainly sudden #acj and possibly soon2 it does not represent it as certainly immediate4 ,a thief may come suddenly in the night1 and yet the man who gives warning that the thief will come1 does not necessarily mean that the thief is coming without delay4 ,it has been urged 7b7 that the doctrine of ,antichrist in #b ,thessalonians is un-,pauline1 and depends on the ,book of ,revelation4 ,but there is not the least improbability in supposing that ,st4 ,paul was in touch with these ideas about the end of the world4 ,we know that such ideas were common among the ,jews at this period4 ,nor is there any proof that the teaching of #b ,thessalonians on this subject is derived from the ,revelation of ,st4 ,john4 ,moreover1 on the least ,christian view with regard to ,christ and the ,gospels1 it is irrational to deny that our ,lord made various predictions about ,his second coming4 ,we find a list of such predictions in ,matt4 xxiv4 and in the parallel passages of the other ,gospels4 ,it is therefore natural to find ,st4 ,paul speaking about the end of the world in language which resembles that used by our ,lord1 or that found in ,daniel1 ,ezekiel1 and the later ,jewish ,apocalypses4 ,sidenote3 ,where and when written4 ,st4 ,paul sent this ,epistle from ,corinth1 probably towards the end of the year #ea4 ,several modern writers have dated #b ,thessalonians earlier than #a ,thessalonians4 ,the grounds for this view are the references in this ,epistle to the teaching lately given by ,st4 ,paul while at ,thessalonica4 ,but although these references would be natural in any ,epistle written first after his departure from that place1 they do not necessarily imply that #b ,thessalonians was the first4 ,moreover1 ii4 #b probably contains a reference to the ,first ,epistle1 and this letter was apparently written to clear up a difficulty which the ,first ,epistle did not solve4 ,persecution had continued at ,thessalonica1 and higher excitement and wider confusion prevailed4 ,the ,thessalonians were more sure than ever that ,christ's advent was coming immediately1 on the strength1 perhaps1 of some words in ,st4 ,paul's earlier letter to them1 #aca supported by a forged letter which pretended to be his and by feigned revelations4 ,the result was entire neglect of daily duties4 ,there is no reason1 men said1 why ,i should work for my living or try to be provident1 because the ,lord is sure to come to-day or to-morrow4 ,as the circumstances are so similar to those in the ,first ,epistle1 and as ,silvanus 7otherwise ,silas7 and ,timothy are still with the apostle1 we may be sure that #b ,thessalonians was written during ,st4 ,paul's first stay at ,corinth4 ,sidenote3 ,character and ,contents4 ,the ,epistle consists of instruction and exhortation4 ,the most characteristic passage is ii4 #a-ab4 ,the apostle declares that he never taught that the day of the ,lord is about to dawn immediately 7ii4 #b74 ,it must be preceded by several events4 ,there will be an apostasy1 the revelation of the man of sin1 the son of perdition1 who will assume equality with ,god and sit in the temple of ,god4 ,over against this man of sin we find placed one that restraineth now4 ,many strange interpretations of these two phrases have been devised1 and the fancy of commentators has ranged over various historical monsters from ,mohammed to ,napoleon ,bonaparte4 ,one favourite idea is that the description of the man of sin setting himself forth as ,god refers to the worship offered to the ,roman emperors1 and to the attempt made by ,caligula in ,a4,d4 #ci to place his statue in the temple at ,jerusalem4 ,but it seems far better to regard the man of sin as hostile ,judaism1 personified in an ,antichrist who pretends to be the representative of ,god foretold in ,mal4 iii4 #a4 ,the other force which ,st4 ,paul personifies is the curbing power of a strong government as then seen in the administrative system of the ,roman empire4 ,the power of ,rome protected him against ,jewish fanaticism at this period 7,acts xix4 #ce-da2 xxii4 #bb-bi71 but in this truly irreligious fanaticism he discerned a latent mysterious evil 7ii4 #g7 which would afterwards reveal itself in hideous excesses4 ,while the man of sin1 or #acb wicked one1 thus wreaks his will1 ,christ will come and consume him with the breath of ,his mouth4 ,st4 ,paul understood the real genius of the antichristian ,jews4 ,early in the #bnd century they began a series of rebellions against the power of ,rome1 committing horrible atrocities4 ,these rebellions culminated between ,a4,d4 #acb and #ace4 ,the ,jews then rallied round a pretended ,messiah1 ,simon ,bar ,kocheba1 whom they named ,prince of ,israel2 they killed the ,christians who refused to blaspheme ,jesus1 and they captured ,jerusalem from the ,romans4 ,after a fierce struggle the ,romans took ,jerusalem again1 and crowds of ,jews were either massacred1 or sold as slaves by the oak of ,abraham at ,hebron and in the markets of ,egypt4 ,,analysis ,salutation1 thanksgiving for faith1 charity1 steadfastness1 the certainty of ,christ's coming to render vengeance and to be glorified in ,his saints 7i474 ,apocalyptic passage1 renewed thanksgiving1 exhortation to hold the traditions already received1 invocation of ,christ and our ,father to comfort and stablish the converts 7ii474 ,st4 ,paul requests their prayers for himself1 anticipates their ,christian progress1 excommunication of disorderly brethren commanded4 ,the apostle had worked for his living1 they must do likewise4 ,he commends them to the ,lord1 and appends a salutation in his own hand as a seal of authenticity 7iii474 #a ,ad ,phil4 ii4 #b ,trypho1 #aaj4 #acc ,,chapter ,x ,,the ,,first ,,epistle ,,of ,,paul ,,the ,,apostle ,,to ,,the ,,corinthians ,sidenote3 ,the ,author4 ,the genuineness of #a and #b ,corinthians1 ,galatians1 and ,romans is admitted by almost every modern critic1 ,christian or not ,christian4 ,it was always acknowledged by ,f4 ,c4 ,baur1 who rejected all the ,epistles bearing the name of ,st4 ,paul except these four4 ,this ,epistle is referred to in several writings of the #bnd century1 and is unmistakably mentioned in the letter written to the ,corinthians by ,st4 ,clement of ,rome about ,a4,d4 #ie4 ,he says1 ,take up the ,epistle of the blessed ,paul the apostle4 ,what did he first write to you in the beginning of the ,gospel8 ,of a truth he sent a letter to you by the ,spirit concerning himself1 and also ,cephas and ,apollos1 because you had even then formed parties 7cf4 #a ,cor4 i4 #ab74 ,the style of the ,epistle is spontaneous1 vivid1 and coherent4 ,the authenticity is only disputed by a tiny group of infidel writers who1 in reaction against ,baur1 have endeavoured to make good their unbelief by asserting the genuineness of the ,scriptures which ,baur rejected1 and rejecting what ,baur defended4 ,sidenote3 ,to whom written4 ,unto the ,church of ,god which is at ,corinth 7i4 #b74 ,in former times ,corinth had been the most important city in ,greece after ,athens itself4 ,it was one of the earliest homes of ,greek art1 and its position made it so favourable for commerce that it attracted a colony of ,phoenician traders at a very remote period4 ,when its art declined1 it remained celebrated for its wealth and its #acd extreme licentiousness4 ,the patron deity of the ,corinthians was ,aphrodite1 who was no other than the foul ,phoenician ,astarte4 ,her temple on the rock of the ,acrocorinthus dominated the city below1 and from it there came a stream of impure1 influences to turn men into swine4 ,in ,b4,c4 #adf the city was captured by the ,roman general ,mummius4 ,it was left desolate until ,b4,c4 #df1 when ,julius ,caesar refounded it as a ,roman colony4 ,the ,romans called the whole of ,greece the province of ,achaia1 and constituted ,corinth the capital of it4 ,while ,athens was still the seat of the greatest university in the world1 where lived most vigorously the glorious memories of bygone ,greece1 the government of the province was directed from ,corinth4 ,when ,st4 ,paul visited it1 it was under a proconsul1 ,junius ,gallio1 the brother of the philosopher ,seneca4 ,the possession of two good harbours1 and its position on the quickest route from ,rome to the ,east1 caused a rapid revival of ,corinthian wealth and ,corinthian manners4 ,there was also a good deal of literary and philosophic culture4 ,in the time of ,st4 ,paul the descendants of the original ,roman colonists probably formed a small aristocracy among the mass of ,greek dwellers at ,corinth1 and some settlements of various nationalities1 including one of ,jews1 were living there4 ,a few miles away1 at the shrine of ,poseidon1 were held the athletic ,isthmian games1 and still by the sea-shore there grow the pine trees1 such as furnished the quickly withering wreaths which were given to the victors in the race4 ,the ,church of ,corinth was founded by ,st4 ,paul on his second missionary journey1 during his first visit to ,europe4 ,his stay at ,corinth lasted for eighteen months4 ,there is an account of it in ,acts xviii4 ,he laboured at tent-making1 and found a home with a devout ,jewish couple1 ,aquila and ,priscilla4 ,at first he preached in the synagogue1 where he converted the ruler of the synagogue1 ,crispus4 ,being rejected by the ,jews1 he turned to the ,gentiles1 and held his meetings #ace in the house of ,justus1 a converted proselyte4 ,the ,jews prosecuted ,st4 ,paul before ,gallio1 who1 however1 dismissed the case with contemptuous indifference4 ,the converts to ,christianity were numerous4 ,they were mostly ,gentiles 7#a ,cor4 xii4 #b71 but there were a few influential ,jewish ,christians and some ,gentiles who had been proselytes of ,judaism4 ,it is clear that the ,church contained a few men of good birth and education 7#a ,cor4 i4 #bf71 but the majority were from the poorer classes4 ,the ,corinthians as ,christians were by no means entirely free from the characteristics which had marked them as citizens4 ,they were ready to form cliques and quarrel in the name of ,christ1 and they still showed the same quarrelsome mood in the time of ,st4 ,clement4 ,they found it hard to hate the sensuality which in their earlier days they had regarded as divine4 ,they were puffed up with eloquence and philosophic speculation1 and forgot that there is no sweetness and light comparable to the ,gospel4 ,sidenote3 ,where and when written4 ,this ,epistle was written from ,ephesus in the spring of ,a4,d4 #ee4 ,the note at the end of the ,epistle to the effect that it was written from ,philippi1 though ancient1 is incorrect1 and is due to a misunderstanding of xvi4 #e4 ,when ,st4 ,paul left ,corinth in ,april1 ,a4,d4 #eb1 to go to ,jerusalem1 ,apollos came to take his place1 and preached with much success 7,acts xviii4 #bg74 ,st4 ,paul returned to ,ephesus at the end of the summer of #eb1 and ,apollos left ,corinth and joined ,st4 ,paul4 ,soon some ,judaizing teachers appeared at ,corinth1 and the apostle was obliged to go thither1 though in sorrow 7#b ,cor4 ii4 #a2 cf4 #b ,cor4 xii4 #ad2 xiii4 #a74 ,after this disciplinary visit he returned to ,ephesus1 and sent the ,corinthians a sharp letter1 now lost1 about the relations which they should have with open and notorious evil-livers 7#a ,cor4 v4 #i74 ,st4 ,paul's next news from ,corinth caused him to write this letter4 ,some members of ,chloe's household told him of the development of factions there2 and a letter was sent1 perhaps #acf by the hands of ,stephanas1 ,fortunatus1 and ,achaicus 7xvi4 #ae-ah71 asking for advice about matters of grave importance1 including litigation between ,christians and an unseemly freedom in public worship4 ,realizing the serious state of affairs1 ,st4 ,paul determined to visit ,corinth a third time1 and sent ,timothy as his representative to prepare for his coming 7#a ,cor4 iv4 #ag1 xvi4 #aj74 ,after ,timothy's departure he wrote this ,epistle4 ,the above account assumes that ,st4 ,paul's second visit to ,corinth was paid before #a ,corinthians was written1 but it is thought by some writers of repute that it was paid after #a ,corinthians was written and before #b ,corinthians4 ,sidenote ,character and ,contents4 ,this ,epistle1 like each of the three other ,epistles belonging to the same group1 has a perfectly distinct character of its own4 ,it expounds the doctrine of a crucified ,christ as applied to social difficulties4 ,what ,romans does as a theological treatise1 and ,galatians as a controversial admonition1 and #b ,corinthians as a record of personal experience and vocation1 this #a ,corinthians does as an instruction for influencing a corrupt urban life with the leaven of the gospel4 ,it is very practical in tone1 and the doctrine which it contains is not stated separately1 but is throughout woven into the cords of the apostle's argument4 ,there is nothing in the ,new ,testament equal to this ,epistle in its power of bringing us close to the difficulties of the ,church in an ancient city4 ,we seem to see the men and women who composed it--their eagerness for religious novelties1 their debased surroundings1 their anarchic divisions1 their frail sense of moral responsibility4 ,and a modern reader will probably lay the letter down with a conviction that our great modern cities have much to learn from the words written by ,st4 ,paul to ,corinth1 the light of ,greece4 ,the ,epistle is very olderly in arrangement4 ,it deals first with the report which ,st4 ,paul had received about the ,corinthian ,church 7i4-vi472 then it answers various questions #acg which the ,corinthians had submitted to him 7vii4-xi4 #a74 ,then follow directions based on the report and the questions4 ,the letter opens with a significant salutation and thanksgiving 7i4 #a-i74 ,st4 ,paul then proceeds to rebuke the ,corinthian tendency to party spirit4 ,there were apparently four parties in the ,church4 ,the first asserted that they were followers of ,paul2 the second preferred the rhetorical preaching of ,apollos to ,paul's simplicity2 the third--probably ,judaizers--ranged themselves under the name of ,cephas as the leader of the original apostles2 the fourth repudiated human leaders1 and arrogantly named their clique that of ,christ1 thereby insinuating that the other parties were less ,christian than themselves4 ,it is evident that all these four names were really used as party watchwords4 ,st4 ,paul says that he has transferred by a fiction 7iv4 #f7 the action of the wranglers to himself and ,apollos4 ,he means by this1 not that the ,corinthians did not employ these names in their strife1 but that he and ,apollos were in no sense responsible for the strife4 ,some perplexity has been caused by the name of the ,christ-party4 ,it is thought by some that they were rigid ,jewish ,christians from ,jerusalem 7#b ,cor4 iii4 #a2 xi4 #bb74 ,but it is more probable that they were only a body of ,christians who protested against the parties named after human leaders1 and saying1 ,we are the people1 made a new party of their own4 ,st4 ,paul shows that this sectarian spirit is entirely alien to the whole principle and history of the ,christian faith4 ,that faith1 though it is a wisdom which comes from ,god1 does not lend itself to pride of intellect4 ,it is deliberately content to be counted foolish by the world2 its sign is the cross1 its converts are the poor and insignificant ,corinthians1 its eloquence the unpolished speaking of the apostle himself4 ,and as to their personal preferences for receiving spiritual benefits from one ,christian teacher rather than another1 this shows a complete misconception as to the source of the benefit and the position of the teacher4 ,this is explained in iii4 #a-;iv4 #e4 ,all spiritual #ach increase comes from ,god4 ,christ is the ,foundation4 ,human teachers are not figure-heads of different schools1 but the instruments and the stewards through whom ,god dispenses ,his gifts4 ,it is not the duty of ,christian teachers to put forward original ideas on religion4 ,then the apostle1 after referring to their ostentatious self-righteousness1 pathetically shows the unfitness of pitting against one another teachers who share in an equality of forlorn destitution and contempt 7iv4 #f-ac74 ,he concludes this section with an affectionate but authoritative speech3 he says that he has sent ,timothy to ,corinth1 and hopes shortly to come himself 7iv4 #ad-ba74 ,the apostle proceeds with sharp decision to deal with a case of incest4 ,the ,corinthians had treated this gross offence almost with levity1 but ,st4 ,paul declares that the offender shall be excommunicated and shall be punished by disease 7v4 #a-h74 ,after explaining some advice of his earlier letter 7v4 #i-ac71 he goes on to rebuke a third abuse--litigation between ,christians in pagan law-courts4 ,the love of law-suits was mischievous in itself1 as involving a breach of ,christian brotherhood4 ,it was also scandalous in its effects1 as exposing the bickerings of the disciples of ,christ to the ridicule of unbelievers4 ,a stern rebuke of vice follows 7vi4 #a-aa74 ,then comes an indignant and lofty argument against fornication1 which is a defilement of the temple of the ,holy ,ghost 7vi4 #ab-bj74 ,st4 ,paul now turns to the various questions that the ,corinthians have asked him4 ,he first gives some advice about matrimony1 carefully distinguishing between statements which he makes on his own authority1 and rules laid down by ,christ1 and also between counsels of perfection and the obligations of ordinary ,christians4 ,it is excellent to lead a single life1 but in view of prevailing sensuality1 he recommends marriage as generally more prudent4 ,he advises that when people do marry1 there should be a fulfilment of conjugal duties except for #aci occasional devotion unto prayer4 ,one permanently important assertion in the apostle's teaching is that both marriage and celibacy imply a gift from ,god4 ,st4 ,paul would have had no sympathy with either any mediaeval depreciation of married life1 or the modern ,english notion that a man has not settled down until he has married 7vii4 #a-dj74 ,the next question is whether converts may eat meat that has been offered to idols4 ,with strong common-sense1 the apostle points out that there is here no alternative between essential right and wrong4 ,you may eat it1 because an idol is nothing1 but you must take care not to hurt the consciences of other ,christians 7viii474 ,you may eat anything that you buy in the market-place1 but you must not attend an idolatrous feast in a temple1 and if you are at a private house you must not eat food offered to idols if your attention has been directly called to its character 7x4 #bc-cb74 ,st4 ,paul illustrates his meaning by reference to his own self-denial--the policy he had at ,corinth of exacting no payment for his ministry1 his tactful caution1 his severe self-control 7ix474 ,the need of such self-control is proved by the fact that the ancient ,jews1 in spite of their high privileges1 fell into carelessness and sin 7x4 #a-ac74 ,the ,corinthians must not be like the ,jews4 ,the nature of the ,eucharist warns them to be scrupulously careful about temple feasts4 ,there cannot be a drinking of the chalice of ,christ and of the cup of devils 7x4 #ad-bb74 ,chapter xi4 deals with public worship4 ,st4 ,paul gives directions for women to cover the head in church1 and then comes a reference to the ,holy ,eucharist which is of extreme interest and importance4 ,it was the custom for ,christians to meet together before the ,eucharist for a common meal called the ,agap1 which was intended to commemorate the ,lord's ,last ,supper4 ,st4 ,paul complains that this meal has been made an occasion of sin among the ,corinthians3 the richer people had overeaten themselves1 while the poor were left hungry and ashamed4 ,the apostle sets off the unfitness of #adj this conduct by a brief exposition of the ,eucharist2 the preliminary meal1 so much misused by these ungracious and ungenerous ,christians1 was intended to be a preparation for the ineffable ,feast1 at which the ,fare was the very ,body and ,blood of ,jesus ,christ1 and at which ,his death was solemnly represented 7xi4 #b-cd74 ,st4 ,paul deals next with spiritual gifts1 saying that they come from ,god1 and so give no ground for boasting1 and that the exercise of them is only pleasing to ,god if it be joined with charity4 ,after a sublime chapter on charity1 he lays down some regulations for those who possessed these abnormal gifts1 which1 it is evident1 were already the cause of disorders in the ,church4 ,the ,corinthians1 with their craving for the miraculous1 tended to set a high value on speaking with tongues1 but ,st4 ,paul upholds the superiority of the more intelligible and useful gift of prophecy 7xii4-xiv474 ,the ,epistle concludes with a splendid argument for the reality of the ,resurrection4 ,it is directed against some false philosophy4 ,st4 ,paul claims for the fact of the resurrection of ,christ the witness of ,scripture1 of many honest and intelligent ,christians1 and of himself4 ,then he goes on to show to the ,corinthian objectors what a denial of the resurrection of the dead involves4 ,it means that ,christ did not rise1 that ,i am preaching deceit1 that you are believing a lie1 that the dead in ,christ have no existence except as memories1 that we who have foregone the pleasures of this life have done so in pursuit of a delusive phantom4 ,but it cannot be so4 ,christ is really risen4 ,and ,st4 ,paul passes on to demonstrate the happy consequences which follow from this4 ,the ,resurrection is the earnest of all that ,christ will do for man2 and in the light of it ,christian baptism for the sake of the dead#a and ,christian heroism have their meaning 7xv4 #a-cd74 #ada ,in order to remove difficulties from the mind of an objector1 ,st4 ,paul discusses the kind of body which we shall have at the ,resurrection4 ,he shows by analogies from nature 7a7 that ,god is able to effect the transformation of a seed-grain into a new product1 and can therefore transform us while retaining a connection between our present and future body2 7b7 that ,god is able to create a variety of embodiments1 and can therefore give us a higher embodiment than we now possess4 ,there will be a spiritual body adapted to the spiritual world1 as truly as our natural body is adapted to life in this world4 ,thus the gospel is truly a gospel for the body as well as for the spirit4 ,our whole personality will be saved1 and nothing will be discarded 7xv4 #ce-eh74 ,st4 ,paul concludes with an order for the collection of alms on behalf of the faithful in ,jerusalem1 and says that he hopes to come soon to ,corinth4 ,after some personal matters1 he characteristically appends with his own hand a curse on those who do not love the ,lord1 and a prayer and loving message for the faithful4 ,,analysis ,salutation1 thanksgiving 7i4 #a-i74 7#a7 ,evils in the ,church3 i4 #aj-vi4 #bj4--,sectarianism4 ,this is rebuked on the ground that all the apostles1 etc41 are working for one end1 and all their power is ,god's4 ,christ is supreme over all 7i4 #aj-;iv4 #ba74 ,incest4 ,the ,church is to deliver the sinner to ,satan 7the severest form of excommunication74 ,st4 ,paul mentions a previous warning not to associate with immoral ,christians 7v474 #adb ,going to law with a ,christian in the pagan courts is rebuked4 ,warning against profligacy 7vi474 7#b7 ,answers to a letter from the ,corinthians3 vii4 #a-xi4 #a4--,marriage and celibacy4 ,it is well to avoid marriage4 ,but the married must not separate4 ,under present circumstances1 the apostle would prefer others to be unencumbered as he is 7vii474 ,food offered to idols4 ,christian liberty 7viii474 ,st4 ,paul's example in not claiming one's own rights 7ix474 ,danger of thinking that we stand4 ,we are one bread1 and must seek each other's good 7x4-xi4 #a74 7#c7 ,other evils in the ,church3 xi4 #b-cd4--,women to be covered4 ,conduct at the ,eucharist and the ,agap4 ,an account of the institution of the ,eucharist4 7#d7 ,answer to a question concerning spiritual gifts3 xii4-xiv4--,unity in diversity 7xii474 ,charity the greatest gift 7xiii474 ,prophesying and tongues compared 7xiv474 7#e7 ,vindication of the ,resurrection3 xv4--,the evidence for ,christ's resurrection4#b ,the nature of our resurrection4 7#f7 ,some directions and personal details3 xvi4 #a #a ,cor4 xv4 #bi4 ,this verse is very obscure4 ,it has been interpreted as meaning that when a convert died before it was possible for him to be baptized1 it was a custom of the ,corinthians to allow a friend to undergo baptism in his stead4 ,but perhaps it simply means being baptized for the sake of some dear one who was a sincere ,christian1 and begged that his or her surviving relatives would be baptized and meet him or her hereafter4 #b ,it is important to notice that ,st4 ,paul1 in writing of the death and resurrection of our ,lord1 gives powerful evidence in support of ,st4 ,john's assertion that our ,lord died on ,nisan #ad 7see above1 p4 #bi74 ,in #a ,cor4 v4 #g1 #h he says1 ,our ,passover also hath been sacrificed1 even ,christ3 wherefore let us keep the feast2 and in #a ,cor4 xv4 #bj he calls ,christ the first-fruits of them that are asleep4 ,now1 if ,christ died on ,nisan #ad1 when the ,passover lamb was sacrificed for a feast1 and if ,he rose on ,nisan #af1 when the ,passover firstfruits were offered in the temple1 this double comparison is exquisitely appropriate4 ,but if the statement in ,john is false1 ,st4 ,paul's comparison is forced and unnatural4 #adc ,,chapter ,,xi ,,the ,,second ,,epistle ,,of ,,paul ,,the ,,apostle ,,to ,,the ,,corinthians ,sidenote3 ,the ,author4 ,the genuineness of this ,epistle is almost universally admitted1 although it is not quoted quite as early as the ,first ,epistle4 ,the two ,epistles are interwoven with each other by several threads of thought1 such as ,st4 ,paul's intention to visit ,macedonia1 his decision with regard to the incestuous man1 and his direction to collect alms for the ,christians of ,jerusalem4 ,moreover1 this ,epistle agrees with the ,book of ,acts1 and at the same time is plainly independent of it4 ,acts does not mention ,titus1 whose name is prominent in #b ,corinthians1 and at the same time ,acts xx4 #e1 #f corroborates the account of the visit to ,troas in #b ,cor4 ii4 #ab1 #ac4 ,the whole style of the ,epistle is so natural and impassioned1 so wonderful in its light and gloom1 that there is only one author to whom we can possibly attribute it4 ,there is1 however1 a difficulty with regard to the last four chapters4 ,it is thought by some critics that they are a separate ,epistle written by ,st4 ,paul to the ,corinthians1 and afterwards joined to chs4 i4-ix4 ,these writers are usually of the opinion that the last four chapters were written before i4-ix41 and that their theory will account for the fact that they are more severe and depressed in tone4 ,now1 it is true that i4-ix4 seem more hopeful than x4-xiii41 and also that i4-ix4 contain two references to a previous letter 7ii4 #d2 vii4 #h1 #i74 ,we find1 too1 in #b #add ,cor4 i4 #bc2 ii4 #a1 #d1 that the apostle shows a shrinking from the thought of another visit to ,corinth1 while in #a ,corinthians no such feeling is manifested4 ,if1 however1 #b ,cor4 x4-xiii4 had been written in the interval1 the feeling is not unreasonable4 ,but the facts of the case seem to be most easily explained by the belief that there was a letter written between #a and #b ,corinthians1 but that this letter has been lost4 ,in spite of the difference in tone between the two parts of #b ,corinthians1 there is sufficient continuity of theme to make us hesitate to detach them4 ,sidenote3 ,to whom written4 ,unto the ,church of ,god which is at ,corinth1 with all the saints which are in the whole of ,achaia4 ,the latter part of the address shows us that ,st4 ,paul felt it necessary to vindicate himself to all the ,christians in ,greece 7,hellas74 ,his opponents had evidently been extremely active4 ,sidenote3 ,where and when written4 ,the ,epistle was written in ,a4,d4 #ee1 a few months after #a ,corinthians1 from some town in ,macedonia1 probably ,philippi4 ,it was sent by the hands of ,titus and perhaps ,st4 ,luke 7#b ,cor4 viii4 #ah-bc74 ,the ,first ,epistle was received submissively by the ,corinthians1 the strife of parties subsided1 and the case of incest was dealt with as the apostle required4 ,in consequence of this happy result1 it seems that ,st4 ,paul decided to visit the ,corinthians on his way to ,macedonia1 sailing straight to ,corinth from ,ephesus 7#b ,cor4 i4 #ae71 as well as to pay them the visit which he had promised before 7#a ,cor4 xvi4 #e74 ,timothy1 who had arrived at ,corinth in accordance with ,st4 ,paul's previous wish 7#a ,cor4 iv4 #ag2 xvi4 #aj71 soon returned to ,ephesus with news of a second and more serious crisis4 ,we do not know what caused it1 or what was precisely its character1 but it is certain that ,st4 ,paul's motives and authority were harshly and openly challenged4 ,perhaps ,timothy himself was insulted1 and therefore1 indirectly1 the apostle who gave him his commission and authority4 ,st4 ,paul wrote at once a #ade very sharp letter1 which is the second lost letter to the ,corinthians1 and he resolved to return to his earlier plan of visiting them only as he came south from ,macedonia4 ,he made this resolution to spare them for the present the pain of meeting him4 ,this lost letter was probably sent by ,titus 7#b ,cor4 xii4 #ah71 who also carried instructions with regard to the collection for the poor at ,jerusalem4 ,apparently ,st4 ,paul thought that it would be wiser not to entrust ,timothy with the delicate task of again calming the ,corinthian wranglers4 ,as soon as ,titus left1 ,st4 ,paul was full of nervous apprehension as to the effect which this letter would produce4 ,he set out from ,ephesus 7#b ,cor4 i4 #h-aj7 in great anxiety1 his departure being perhaps precipitated by the riot so graphically described in ,acts4 ,he tells us himself that when he came to ,troas he had still no relief for his spirit--no news from ,corinth4 ,though he found an opening for the gospel at ,troas1 he hurried on into ,macedonia1 and at last ,titus came with joyful news of the penitence and submission of the ,corinthians4 ,st4 ,paul then wrote this ,epistle4 ,towards the end of ,december1 ,a4,d4 #ee1 he reached ,corinth1 where he stayed for three months4 ,the ,book of ,acts fits perfectly with the ,epistles4 ,from ,acts xx4 #a-c we see that ,st4 ,paul did visit ,macedonia and ,greece at the close of his stay at ,ephesus1 and from ,acts xix4 #bb we see that he sent ,timothy before him4 ,sidenote3 ,character and ,contents4 ,the ,epistle has the nature of a letter sent by a spiritual father to his children rather than of a doctrinal treatise with an argument carefully built up4 ,its value for us lies chiefly in the vivid reality with which it reflects the personality of the writer1 his love for his converts1 his intense conviction that his apostolic commission and power are entirely genuine--a conviction which is set off by his wish always to associate himself with the weakness and fragility of ordinary human nature4 ,throughout the ,epistle there are scattered allusions to ,christian doctrine which are of the very highest importance4 ,before giving an outline of the #adf ,epistle1 we may notice one or two doctrinal passages of special importance4 ,first1 with regard to the ,resurrection4 ,the teaching of #a ,corinthians is further explained4 ,st4 ,paul shows how entirely he has thrown off the feeling of terror which environed the ordinary ,jewish idea of death4 ,the sense of union with ,god by which a few ,jews in some rare flashes of inspiration knew that they would live after death1 is here triumphant4 ,st4 ,paul regards death as a portal to that happy existence which can only be described as being at home with the ,lord 7#b ,cor4 v4 #a-h2 cf4 ,phil4 i4 #bc74 ,union with ,christ now absolutely guarantees union with ,him hereafter4 ,the resurrection-body which in #a ,corinthians he described as a spiritual body1 he poetically calls the house from heaven which ,god will provide for the redeemed spirit4 ,then he thinks of this new body as a robe4 ,and as he hopes that ,christ will come again before we have put off our present body in death1 he says that he desires to be clothed with the new body over his present body1 if so be that being clothed we shall not be found naked4 ,the last phrase is obscure1 but it probably is a fresh rebuke of those ,corinthians who denied the resurrection of the body4 ,if so1 it means assuming1 as is indeed the case1 that we shall really be found clothed with a body at ,christ's coming1 and not naked 7i4e4 bodiless spirits74 ,secondly1 with regard to the work of ,christ4 ,in #b ,cor4 iv4 #d ,he is called the image of ,god4 ,now1 ,st4 ,paul teaches that we men may reflect the likeness of ,christ to ,god3 ,the truth in ,god's breast ,lies trace for trace upon ours impressed3 ,though ,he is so bright and we so dim1 ,we are made in ,his image to witness ,him4 ,but ,st4 ,paul also teaches that the relation between the ,son and the ,father is unique4 ,he means that ,christ reveals the ,father completely in virtue of this eternal relation between them4 ,we are made to become like ,god1 but the ,son is not #adg made2 ,he does not belong to the class of created things 7#a ,cor4 viii4 #f74 ,and ,st4 ,paul never speaks of ,christ becoming the ,son of ,god4 ,he regards ,christ as having always been the ,son1 exercising divine functions1 and therefore as ,god blessed for ever 7,rom4 ix4 #e74 ,in #b ,cor4 iii4 #ag1 #ah he asserts that the ,lord is the divine ,spirit who animates the new dispensation4 ,the old ,jewish dispensation is described as letter1 because it was a system of outward commandments2 the ,gospel dispensation is described as spirit1 because it is a system of spiritual principles which are summed up in ,christ4 ,we by reflecting ,his glory are transformed into the same image by successive stages of glory4 ,this glory comes from the ,lord ,jesus1 who is the ,spirit of ,christianity 7#b ,cor4 iii4 #ah74 ,it is important to notice that ,st4 ,paul does not confuse the ,second ,person of the ,trinity with the ,third ,person1 and that for many years the ,christians used occasionally to describe the divine nature of the ,son by the word ,spirit4 ,they gradually gave up this manner of speaking1 as it was ambiguous4 ,in #b ,cor4 v4 #ah-ba there is an important statement on the ,atonement4 ,the close connection between the ,atonement and the ,incarnation is shown in the assertion that ,god was in ,christ1 reconciling the world unto ,himself1 and the love of both the ,father and the ,son is shown in the words that ,he made ,him to be sin on our behalf4 ,the first statement saves us from the idea that ,god selected a holy man to reveal ,his will1 and then gave up this best of men to unimaginable suffering4 ,no6 it was ,god ,himself who came in the ,person of the ,sufferer4 ,the second statement implies that ,christ1 though sinless1 was treated as a sinner4 ,he thus by dying accomplished the end which our punishment would accomplish1 namely1 the expression of ,god's hatred of sin and love of righteousness4 ,the ,epistle opens with an introduction and thanksgiving1 in which there seems to be a note of sadness1 marking the effect which the crisis in ,corinth has left on the mind of ,st4 ,paul4 ,he proceeds to give a personal explanation4 ,the visit to the #adh ,corinthians on the way to ,macedonia was abandoned only because of the pain which it would have given them2 the sharp letter was not written in wrath1 but in sorrowful love 7i4 #bc-;ii4 #a-d74 ,st4 ,paul goes on to ask pardon for the man who caused the recent disturbance 7ii4 #e-aa74 ,then1 whilst he is describing his journey to ,macedonia 7ii4 #ab-ag71 he breaks off suddenly into a digression1 in which he describes the dignity of the apostolic ministry1 its superiority over the ,mosaic ministry1 the nature of its commission1 and the seal of it in a life which is always martyrdom 7iii4 #a-vi4 #ac74 ,st4 ,paul concludes this section with a short appeal to the ,corinthians to avoid contamination from heathenism 7vi4 #ad-vii4 #a74 ,he then returns to the situation of ii4 #ac4 ,he tells us with how much joy he received the news that ,titus brought him--joy for the ,corinthians1 for ,titus1 and for himself4 ,the next two chapters 7viii41 ix47 contain instructions and exhortations respecting the fund mentioned in #a ,cor4 xvi4 #a4 ,the last four chapters follow quite naturally4 ,the apostle speaks with plain severity to rebuke those who created the recent disturbance1 and to warn any there may be whose submission perhaps has not been quite entire4 ,the prevailing tone is that of pathetic and sorrowful expostulation4 ,st4 ,paul repeats the unkind things that have been said of him--how unimposing his presence1 that he depends on alms1 that he is only eloquent with his pen4 ,but he defends his apostleship with absolute though very humble confidence1 counting up the things that he can say for himself--his share in ,jewish privileges1 his sufferings for ,christ1 the revelations that ,god has sent him1 the signs of his success1 the continual weakness that ,christ gives and blesses4 ,truly1 the apostle is even greater than his grief4 ,the ,epistle concludes with a benediction1 in which ,st4 ,paul co-ordinates the ,three ,persons of the ,holy ,trinity4 ,from primitive times these words have been used as the introduction to the most solemn part of the ,greek liturgy1 from which they were taken into the services of the ,church of ,england4 #adi ,,analysis 7#a7 ,st4 ,paul's thankfulness and exhortation3 i4 #a-;ii4 #ag4--,salutation1 thanksgiving1 the promised visit postponed1 the previous letter1 the penitent offender4 ,st4 ,paul's journey to ,macedonia1 triumph in ,christ4 7#b7 ,the ,apostle's ministry3 iii4 #a-vii4 #a4--;,his converts are his letters of commendation1 the superiority of this ministry of the gospel above that of the ,mosaic dispensation 7iii474 ,christ the subject of his preaching1 present light affliction resulting in eternal glory 7iv474 ,inspiring hopes of the resurrection1 constraining love of ,christ1 the ministry of reconciliation based on the atonement 7v474 ,he persuades and suffers 7vi4 #a-ac74 ,warning against being yoked with unbelievers 7vi4 #ad-vii4 #a74 7#c7 ,the ,corinthian ,church and ,titus3 vii4 #b-;ix4 #ae4--,the visit of ,titus to ,corinth1 the godly sorrow that followed 7vii4 #b-af74 ,the collection for the poor at ,jerusalem1 ,macedonian generosity1 praise of ,titus 7viii474 ,exhortation to a generosity like that of the ,macedonians 7ix474 7#d7 ,a sorrowful expostulation3 x4-xiii4--,a warning to those who despise his authority 7x474 ,his rights and his sufferings for ,christ 7xi474 ,revelations given1 but also a thorn in the flesh1 the signs of an apostle1 how he and ,titus had dealt with the ,corinthians 7xii474 ,he repeats that he will come to ,corinth a third time1 exhortation1 benediction 7xiii474 #aej ,,chapter ,,xii ,,the ,,epistle ,,of ,,paul ,,the ,,apostle ,,to ,,the ,,galatians ,sidenote3 ,the ,author4 ,this ,epistle1 being one of the four ,epistles which are almost universally unquestioned1 requires little or no defence4 ,the ,pauline authorship has never been called in question by a critic of first-rate importance1 and until recently has never been called in question at all4 ,the writings of those ,fathers of the ,church who lived nearest to the apostolic age contain several possible allusions to it1 and it is expressly named by ,irenaeus1 ,clement of ,alexandria1 and ,tertullian4 ,the internal evidence shows that it must belong to the time of the apostles1 for the errors which are criticized in it are different from the ,ebionite ideas which existed at the beginning of the #bnd century1 and from the ,gnosticism which existed even before the apostles were all dead4 ,they are evidently earlier than these heresies4 ,still more convincing is the vehement and pathetic energy which marks this ,epistle4 ,there is a ring of reality in its broken sentences and earnest appeals4 ,it displays none of the careful patchwork which we should expect from a forger2 it consists only of the quick hot words of a man who is very deeply moved4 ,sidenote3 ,to whom written4 ,unto the ,churches of ,galatia4 ,what is the meaning of the name ,galatia8 ,students are still divided on the question4 ,if the word ,galatia is used in a popular sense to describe the country inhabited by the ,galatai1 then it means ,north ,galatia1 a district in #aea the extreme north of ,asia ,minor4 ,it was mainly inhabited by ,celts1 who came thither from ,europe in the #crd century ,b4,c41 and spoke a ,celtic language as late as the #bnd and even #dth century after ,christ4 ,this language is mentioned by ,pausanias1 and ,st4 ,jerome says that it was a dialect only slightly varying from that used in ,gaul by the ,treveri4 ,but if the word ,galatia is used in a political sense1 signifying a particular province of the ,roman empire1 then it means a large area much further south1 including ,pisidia1 ,lycaonia1 and part of ,phrygia4 ,in this province were ,pisidian ,antioch1 ,derbe1 ,iconium1 and ,lystra1 where ,st4 ,paul founded ,churches in ,a4,d4 #dg1 on his first missionary journey4 ,the latter explanation is almost certainly correct4 ,no good argument can be brought forward in favour of ,north ,galatia which cannot be balanced by a better argument in favour of ,south ,galatia4 ,for instance1 though ,st4 ,luke in ,acts uses the popular and not the political names for districts1 this cannot be urged in favour of ,st4 ,paul's adopting the same usage4 ,on the contrary1 he uses ,asia1 ,macedonia1 and ,achaia in their political sense1 and so we may suppose that he would do the same in the case of ,galatia4 ,again1 though there were in ,north ,galatia ,jews who would tempt the converts to ,jewish observances1 there were ,jews in plenty in ,south ,galatia also4 ,and while many writers have said that the ,celtic blood of these recalcitrant ,christians is proved by the enthusiasm1 fickleness1 superstition1 love of strife1 and vanity which ,st4 ,paul rebukes1 we may reasonably urge that these defects are not confined to the ,celts4 ,the ,phrygians doted on a sombre and mysterious religion4 ,in heathen times they loved the worship of ,cybele1 with its exciting ceremonial and cruel mutilations4 ,and when they adopted ,christianity1 though their morality was generally austere1 their credulity was intense4 ,in the #bnd century many of them embraced the new revelations of ,montanus1 and in the #dth they largely affected the hard ,puritanism of ,novatian4 ,in religious matters the ,celts are very little #aeb inclined to fickleness1 and their superstitions are more closely connected with dreaminess than with vehemence4 ,the following facts also deserve attention2 7#a7 ,it would be strange if ,acts gave us no account of ,churches in which ,st4 ,paul took so much interest4 ,if ,galatia be ,north ,galatia1 there is no such account in ,acts4 ,if it be ,south ,galatia there is1 and the polite and natural manner of addressing the inhabitants of the cities of ,antioch1 ,derbe1 etc41 would be ,galatians4 ,their bond of union was association in one ,roman province4 7#b7 ,it is improbable that ,st4 ,paul would take the very difficult journey necessary for visiting the ,celtic ,galatians4 ,his usual plan was to travel on ,roman high-roads to the big centres of population4 ,north ,galatia was both isolated and half-civilized4 ,also1 he says that he visited the ,galatians on account of an illness 7iv4 #ac74 ,it is incredible that he would have chosen the long unhealthy journey to ,north ,galatia when he was ill4 ,but it is extremely probable that he left the damp lowlands of ,pamphylia for the bracing air of ,pisidian ,antioch4 ,the malady was probably the malarial neuralgia and fever which are contracted in those lowlands4 7#c7 ,the ,epistle contains technical legal terms for adoption1 covenant1 and tutor1 which seem to be used not in the ,roman but in the ,greek sense4#a ,they would hardly be intelligible except in cities like those of ,south ,galatia where the institutions were mainly ,greek4 ,assuming that the ,galatians are those of ,south ,galatia1 we note that in ,gal4 iv4 #ac ,st4 ,paul speaks of preaching to them the first time4 ,this first time must be the occasion mentioned in ,acts xiii41 xiv4 ,the second time is that in ,acts xvi4 #a-f4 ,the ,christians were mainly converts from heathenism 7iv4 #h2 v4 #b2 vi4 #ab71 but some were no doubt ,jews or proselytes4 #aec ,after the second visit of ,st4 ,paul1 his converts were tampered with4 ,some ,judaizers had put a perverse construction upon his action in promulgating the decrees of the ,council of ,jerusalem of ,a4,d4 #di1 and in circumcising ,timothy4 ,they urged that ,st4 ,paul had thereby acknowledged his inferiority to the other apostles1 and practically advocated a return to ,jewish ceremonial4 ,instigated by other ,judaizers from ,jerusalem1 the ,galatians had changed their ,christianity into a semi-,judaism1 and this all the more readily because of their previous familiarity with the ,jewish religion4 ,sidenote3 ,where and when written4 ,the place and date are both uncertain4 ,the words1 ,i marvel that ye are so quickly removing from ,him that called you 7i4 #f71 suggest that it was written not long after the conversion of the ,galatians4 ,but we cannot place it1 as some writers have done1 before #a and #b ,thessalonians4 ,its style is allied with that of #a and #b ,corinthians and ,romans4 ,it must be earlier than ,romans1 as it is like a rough model of that ,epistle4 ,if written soon before ,romans1 it was probably composed at ,corinth early in ,a4,d4 #ef4 ,it may1 however1 have been written as early as ,a4,d4 #eb1 before ,st4 ,paul's third missionary journey4 ,sidenote3 ,character and ,contents4 ,the ,epistle is intended to recall the ,galatians to ,st4 ,paul's true gospel4 ,in order to do this1 he vindicates his own apostolic authority to preach it1 and expounds its great principle--justification by faith1 and not by observance of the ,jewish law4 ,after a salutation1 without the congratulations which the apostle ordinarily offers1 ,st4 ,paul expresses his astonishment at their perversion1 and vehemently asserts that if any one dares to preach a gospel other than that which the ,galatians first received1 let him be anathema 7i4 #a-aj74 ,the history of ,st4 ,paul's reception of the gospel is then set out4 ,it came to him by revelation of ,jesus ,christ3 this is at once the demonstration of its unique authority1 and the decisive fact which settles the relation of ,st4 ,paul to the other apostles4 ,he did #aed not receive from them the gospel he preached1 and1 to emphasize this1 ,st4 ,paul counts up the various opportunities he had of intercourse with them1 and says what use he made of each 7i4 #aa-;ii4 #aj74 ,the best illustration of the independence of his position is the attitude which he adopted towards ,st4 ,peter1 the prince of the apostles1 when at ,antioch he deceitfully took the same sort of line with respect to ,jewish ceremonial that the ,galatians are taking now 7ii4 #aa-ac74b ,st4 ,paul describes the speech he made in opposition to ,st4 ,peter1 but while he is dictating it1 he is carried away by an orator's enthusiasm3 he forgets that he is telling the story only of an old debate1 and at some points we cannot confidently distinguish the rebuke to ,st4 ,peter from the exhortation to the ,galatians 7ii4 #ad-ba74 ,then1 still as if he were making a speech1 the apostle proceeds to argue as he does later in the ,epistle to the ,romans4 ,he recalls to the bewitched ,galatians the happy memories of the days when they first heard of ,christ--the out-pouring of the ,spirit1 the first sharp persecution endured so well4 ,did not all this happen when they were under the gospel of ,faith 7iii4 #b-e78 ,the true sons of ,abraham are those who accept the gospel 7iii4 #f-i74 ,on the other hand1 the people who still desire to be under the ,law can only avoid being under a curse by keeping the whole ,law--and this is impossible 7iii4 #aj74 ,god's will is plain3 ,he has said1 ,the righteous shall live by faith 7iii4 #aa1 #ab74 ,moreover1 whatever claim the ,law had on us is now discharged by the satisfaction made by ,christ 7iii4 #ac1 #ad74 ,now ,st4 ,paul goes on to show that the promise made by ,god to ,abraham binds ,him still4 ,just as no subsequent transaction can nullify a ,greek covenant1 i4e4 will1 so the ,law cannot nullify the earlier promise of ,god 7iii4 #ae-ah74c ,then he compares the promise made to #aee ,abraham with the ,law4 ,the latter was a contract1 a mutual agreement between two parties involving mutual obligations2 if the ,jews did not keep the ,law1 ,god was not bound to bless them4 ,but in the case of the promise1 there is no suggestion of contract4 ,then1 lest his readers should suppose that there was an inconsistency in the fact that ,god was the ,author of both the ,law and the promise1 ,st4 ,paul adds an explanation 7iii4 #ai-bb74 ,the ,law would have been contrary to the promise if it had been intended to produce the same result as the promise by another method4 ,but1 on the contrary1 the ,law was added as a parenthesis in order to make known transgressions1 and with the result that it increased them 7iii4 #ai74 ,scripture shut up all mankind in the fold of sin1 that they might look forward to the reign of faith as the only means of escape4 ,to emphasize further the contrast between the ,law and the promise1 ,st4 ,paul asserts that the ,law did not come direct from ,god to man4 ,it came1 as ,jewish traditions said1 from ,god and the angels to ,moses1 the mediator1 and from him to the ,hebrews4 ,the ,law had a mediator1 therefore it involved two parties--,god and the ,hebrew people4 ,but there was no such mediator in the case of the promise4 ,god spoke directly to ,abraham4 ,and ,god in the ,person of ,christ spoke directly to mankind4 ,thus the promises are greater and more gracious than the ,law4 ,it is important to observe that the argument implies the ,divinity of ,christ4 ,before ,faith came1 the ,law played the part of a ,greek tutor1 i4e4 a trusted servant who attended a child4 ,he took the child to the house where he was taught1 and kept him from harm and mischief4 ,and we1 if we wish to be still under the ,law1 shall be as foolish as a grown-up son who wishes to be under a steward and a guardian4 ,we must leave the mere rudiments of religion now that we have reached a stage at which we have been taught that ,god is indeed our ,father 7iii4 #bc-;iv4 #aa74 ,st4 ,paul supports this conclusion from his arguments by a #aef touching appeal1 in which he gratefully recalls the kindness he received from the ,galatians when he came to them in all the weakness and distress of fever 7iv4 #ab-bj74 ,then he interprets for them the story of ,hagar1 probably in answer to a reference in a letter which they had sent him 7iv4 #ba-v4 #a74 ,the ,jew is in bondage like ,hagar's child1 the ,christian is free like ,sarah's child4 ,after this we have another appeal1 a medley of exhortation1 warning1 denunciation1 and pathetic entreaty3 the apostle1 himself so appreciative of great ideas1 tries to make the unaspiring ,galatians understand that they are called to the perfect freedom which is the service of ,god 7v4 #b-bf74 ,the ,epistle closes with some plain words which the apostle wrote with his own hand in large characters so as to emphasize them for his readers4 ,the motive of the ,judaizers is boldly labelled4 ,then1 as if there had been a question of his own humility1 he associates himself with the crucified ,christ1 for whose sake he bears in his flesh the eloquent marks of the ,roman rods and the stones of the ,jews4 ,it was the cruel custom in ,asia ,minor1 a custom not yet extinct1 for masters to wound their slaves with marks which made it impossible for them to escape recognition4 ,and so ,st4 ,paul glories in the pitiful scars on his body1 because they prove ,whose he is and ,whom he serves4 #aeg ,,analysis ,salutation1 rebuke 7i4 #a-aj74 7#a7 ,st4 ,paul defends his apostleship3 i4 #aa-;ii4 #ba4--;,he was called by ,god in spite of his fanatical ,judaism1 ,god's ,son was revealed in him1 he conferred with no man1 but retired to ,arabia1 then three years after his conversion he stayed fifteen days with ,cephas1 and afterwards preached in ,syria and ,cilicia 7i474 ,fourteen years after his conversion#d he again went to ,jerusalem by revelation4 ,false brethren attempted to get ,titus circumcised1 but in vain4 ,james1 ,cephas1 and ,john were most friendly to ,paul and ,barnabas1 agreeing that they should go to the ,gentiles while remembering the poor in ,jerusalem4 ,cephas rebuked at ,antioch by ,st4 ,paul 7ii474 7#b7 ,st4 ,paul defends justification by faith3 iii4 #a-v4 #a4--;,galatian fickleness1 even ,abraham was justified by faith1 and in the ,old ,testament the righteous live by faith1 the ,jewish ,law merely a parenthesis between ,god's promise and its fulfilment1 the ,law a tutor to bring us to ,christ 7iii474 ,judaism is the state of a son who is a minor1 ,christianity is the state of a son who has attained his majority4 ,why return to the beggarly rudiments of knowledge8 ,the ,jew is like the child of ,hagar1 the ,christian is like the child of ,sarah 7iv4-v4 #a74 7#c7 ,practical exhortation3 v4 #b-vi4 #ah4--;,circumcision useless1 freedom and love are the allies of the true ,law1 the works of the flesh and the fruits of the ,spirit 7v474 ,bearing one another's burdens1 supporting our teachers4 ,a conclusion in ,st4 ,paul's handwriting 7vi474 #a ,the law implied in ,gal4 iv4 #b is in accordance with ,syrian law4 ,if a father died1 he left his son under the authority of a steward until he was fourteen1 and left his property in the hands of a guardian until he was twenty-five4 ,it is probable that in ,south ,galatia as in ,syria this law was made under the reign of the ,seleucids4 #b ,for the explanation of this quarrel1 see p4 #aba4 #c ,the argument about seeds and seed1 in iii4 #af1 looks like a mere verbal quibble in ,english4 ,but it becomes quite intelligible when we remember that in rabbinical ,hebrew the word seeds was used in the sense of descendants4 #d ,see ,gal4 ii4 #a1 at an interval of fourteen years4 ,this third visit to ,jerusalem 7the second mentioned here7 was in ,a4,d4 #di4 ,the verse probably means fourteen years after his conversion1 and eleven years after his first visit4 ,if we reckon the fourteen years from his first visit to ,jerusalem1 the first visit would be in ,a4,d4 #cc4 ,this will not agree with ,acts ix4 #be1 #bf2 #b ,cor4 xi4 #cb1 which show us that the first visit was made while ,aretas ruled at ,damascus4 ,aretas became master of ,damascus in ,a4,d4 #cg4 #aeh ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,the ,,epistle ,,of ,,paul ,,the ,,apostle ,,to ,,the ,,romans ,sidenote3 ,the ,author4 ,the genuineness of this ,epistle1 like that of ,galatians and #a and #b ,corinthians1 is practically undisputed4 ,no one ever seems to have questioned it between the time that ,marcion drew up his ,apostolicon1 about ,a4,d4 #adj1 and ,a4,d4 #agib4 ,before the time of ,marcion it is quoted by ,st4 ,clement of ,rome1 ,st4 ,ignatius1 and ,st4 ,polycarp4 ,and there seem to be some reminiscences of it in #a ,peter4 ,it is first definitely mentioned by name in the writings of ,st4 ,irenaeus1 who quotes it several times4 ,this early and frequent use postulates for the ,epistle a very authoritative source4 ,there is no one that we know of among the first ,christians who could have written it except ,st4 ,paul4 ,what he tells the ,romans about his personal wishes and intentions is exactly consonant with what he says elsewhere4 ,the notices that he gives them of his movements perfectly accord with the notices in ,acts4 ,the primary conceptions of the ,epistle are more or less common to all ,st4 ,paul's works4 ,they are concerned with the guilt and the power of sin1 the eternal purpose which ,god has for man1 the meaning of ,christ's death and the effect of ,his resurrection1 the nature of our acquittal by ,god and our new spiritual life4 ,the only serious question with regard to the criticism of the outward letter of the ,epistle1 is connected with the last two chapters 7xv41 xvi474 ,baur rejected both as spurious compilations1 #aei intended to reconcile ,paulinism with the more ,jewish school of early ,christian thought4 ,but ,baur's habit of pronouncing spurious every book or part of a book which did not agree with his peculiar estimate of ,st4 ,paul1 is now discredited4 ,in spite of this1 many critics think that xv4 and xvi4 do not belong to this ,epistle4 ,they are generally admitted to be by ,st4 ,paul1 but it is thought that they are simply pages which have become detached from some other writings of the apostle4 ,chapter xvi4 in particular is supposed to be a fragment of an ,epistle to ,ephesus4 ,it abounds in personal greetings to intimate friends2 and yet it is difficult to believe that ,st4 ,paul had many friends in ,rome before he visited it4 ,and among these friends are ,prisca and ,aquila 7xvi4 #c71 who certainly stayed at ,ephesus1 where ,st4 ,paul had laboured for two years and must have had many friends4 ,the tone of xvi4 #ag-bj is thought to imply sectarian divisions which the rest of the ,epistle ignores4 ,and the final doxology appears in different places in different ,,mss41 a fact which suggests that the early ,church doubted where the ,epistle ended4 ,no real importance need be attached to another argument used by some critics1 viz4 that ,marcion omitted xv4 and xvi4 ,he would have rejected them1 whether genuine or not1 on account of the sanction given to the ,old ,testament in xv4 #d4 ,on the other hand1 the integrity of the ,epistle is maintained by some of the best recent critics1 including ,sanday1 ,zahn1 and ,godet4 ,the best ,,mss4 place the final doxology in its present position4 ,the fact that the majority of cursive ,,mss4 and some valuable versions1 such as the later ,syriac and the ,armenian1 place it at the end of xiv4 seems to be accounted for by the fact that the last two chapters were often omitted in the lessons read in church1 being considered unimportant for the purposes of general edification4 ,the fact that the ,epistle seems to come to an end at xv4 #cc1 and also at xvi4 #bj1 before the final doxology in xvi4 #bg1 suggests the best solution4 ,it is that the apostle1 after concluding the argument of the ,epistle1 made various #afj additions of a personal nature with reference to himself and his friends as they occurred to his mind4 ,he then summed up the whole argument in xvi4 #be-bg1 where the obedience of faith is stated to be the purpose of ,god's final revelation4 ,the number of friends mentioned in xvi4 is not incredibly large when we remember the easy and frequent intercourse which existed between ,rome and the east4 ,sidenote3 ,to whom written4 ,to all that are in ,rome1 beloved by ,god1 called to be saints4 ,it has been well said that the universality of the gospel made ,st4 ,paul desire to preach it in the universal city4 ,he longed to see ,rome2 he was conscious that ,christ had called him to bear witness at ,rome4 ,he himself had the freedom of the city of ,rome1 and he was inspired with the hope1 which was fulfilled three hundred years afterwards1 that the religion of ,christ would be the religion of the ,roman empire4 ,the territory then ruled by ,rome more nearly embraced the whole of the civilized world than any empire that has since been seen4 ,it included ,london and ,toledo1 ,constantinople and ,jerusalem4 ,roman soldiers kept their watch on the blue ,danube1 and were planting outposts on the far-off grey ,euphrates4 ,the city of ,rome itself contained about a million and a half of inhabitants4 ,it was well governed and sumptuously adorned4 ,a real belief in the homely vulgar gods of their forefathers had declined among educated people1 and the humane principles of ,stoic philosophy were instilling a new regard for the less fortunate classes of mankind4 ,strange foreign devotions were satisfying some of the yearnings which found no nourishment in the hard old ,roman paganism4 ,men who took no interest in ,jupiter were attracted by ,mithras1 the ,eastern god of the light4 ,women who could obtain no entrance into the exclusive sisterhood of the ,vestal ,virgins1 could find occupation in the worship of the ,egyptian ,isis4 ,some vague belief in a ,divine ,one was rising in minds who thought that ,jupiter ,mithras and ,isis were only symbols of a power behind the mists of human wisdom4 ,jews #afa of all classes were numerous1 though the majority were as poor as those of ,east ,london4 ,they made some converts1 and ,poppaea1 the mistress of ,nero in ,a4,d4 #eh1 dallied with ,judaism as with a new sensation4 ,men and women of every race were included among the slaves of ,rome1 and the arts and elegance of ,greek and ,syrian slaves often proved a staircase by which new religions found a way into the chambers of the great and wealthy4 ,in spite of some signs of moral vigour1 society was cankered with pride of class and with self-indulgence4 ,it possessed no regenerating force capable of checking the repulsive vice which was encouraged by the obscenity of actors and the frivolity of sceptics4 ,we are told that sojourners from ,rome1 both ,jews and proselytes1 were in the crowd which listened to ,st4 ,peter's address on the ,day of ,pentecost 7,acts ii4 #aj74 ,it is possible that these men brought news of the gospel to the large body in ,rome of ,jews1 and of ,gentiles influenced by ,jewish ideas4 ,in any case1 communication between the chief cities of the empire was at this time so frequent that we may be sure that the principles and attractions of ,christianity were soon heard of at ,rome4 ,gradually a small band formed there of people who were interested and pleased by what they had learnt of ,christ2 it is probable that ,st4 ,paul sent ,aquila and ,prisca from ,ephesus to give them definite instruction4 ,it does not seem that they had been visited by an apostle 7xv4 #bj74 ,the ,epistle is addressed to a community consisting of ,jews and ,gentiles1 but the ,gentiles are by far the more numerous4 ,the apostle's claim in ch4 i4 to address this ,church as within the jurisdiction of the apostle of the ,gentiles1 his direct appeal to the ,gentiles in xi4 #ac1 and the statement of his priestly office exercised over the ,gentiles in xv4 #af1 show that the ,church of ,rome was ,gentile in character4 ,the proper names in the ,epistle afford us little indication of the proportion of ,jews and ,gentiles4 ,the majority of the names are ,greek1 and four names are ,latin2 but the ,jews of that time1 like the #afb ,jews of the present day1 often passed under ,gentile names4 ,we know how the ,english ,jews now disguise ,moses as ,moss ,judah as ,leo1 and ,levi as ,lewis4 ,the majority of the converts were probably in a humble social position4 ,when ,st4 ,paul wrote to the ,philippians1 there were ,christians in the imperial household itself1 and it is possible that the ,narcissus mentioned in ,romans may be the freedman of the ,emperor ,claudius1 put to death in ,a4,d4 #ed4 ,ordinary slaves and freedmen seem to have been the principal element among those who were first called to be saints at ,rome1 but before long there were people of good birth and cultured intelligence who turned gladly from the lifeless old ,roman religion and the fantastic new-fashioned ,eastern cults to this original faith in the incarnate ,god4 ,sidenote3 ,where and when written4 ,st4 ,paul wrote this letter towards the end of his stay at ,corinth1 at the close of ,a4,d4 #ee or the beginning of ,a4,d4 #ef 7see xvi4 #a2 xv4 #bc-bf1 and ,acts xix4 #ba74 ,sidenote3 ,character and ,contents4 ,st4 ,paul writes as the apostle of the ,gentiles to the ,christians of the greatest of all ,gentile cities4 ,he does so with a solemn sense of special responsibility4 ,profoundly impressed with the grandeur of the ,roman name1 the position of this promiscuous little body of converts is to him enormously significant4 ,they are the representatives of the faith of ,jesus in the capital of the world2 they are the first members of a ,church to which ,god seems to give the most magnificent of all opportunities4 ,and the thought is scarcely absent from his mind that this may be the last ,epistle he will ever send4 ,he is going to ,jerusalem1 and has a sad foreboding of what may await him there 7xv4 #ca74 ,the manner and style which give the ,epistle a unique place among the works of ,st4 ,paul are caused by these considerations4 ,he wishes to tell the ,roman ,christians his very best ideas in the very best way3 this may be his last chance of doing so4 ,he puts aside1 then1 all clamour of personal debate1 and sets #afc himself to produce an ordered theological treatise4 ,never elsewhere does the apostle write with so careful method1 so powerful concentration1 so effective marshalling of arguments1 so stirring yet measured eloquence4 ,the ,epistle opens with a brief introduction4 ,paul1 the apostle of ,christ1 wishes to preach the gospel to those in ,rome whom ,christ has called4 ,then he begins at once to describe the set of circumstances which the gospel is intended to meet4 ,the ,gentiles have not been true to such knowledge as they had of ,god1 and by an inevitable process they have passed on to unnatural and vicious excess 7i4 #ah-cb74 ,and when ,st4 ,paul turns to the ,jews1 he finds they are in no better case4 ,with fuller knowledge they have sinned scarcely less4 ,strict justice will be meted out by ,god to all1 the ,jew coming first and then the ,gentile4 ,the ,gentile will not escape1 for the ,gentiles1 whom we conceive of as having no law1 have a law in that moral sense which makes them instinctively put in practice the precepts of the ,law1 and their inward thoughts accuse or defend them 7ii4 #a-af74 ,the ,jew may boast of his ,law and his knowledge of revelation1 but he is no better in practice than a ,gentile4 ,and as for his circumcision1 it is worthless unless he is also spiritually circumcised in the heart 7ii4 #ag-bi74 ,after a parenthetical discussion of difficulties suggested by a possible ,jewish opponent 7iii4 #a-h71 ,st4 ,paul shows that the ,jews are not in a worse case than the ,gentiles4 ,both are under the dominion of sin1 and ,scripture says so4 ,the whole system of ,law is a failure4 ,law does nothing but give a clear knowledge of sin 7iii4 #i-bj74 ,st4 ,paul then brings forward his great remedy--the answer of ,god to the need which is represented by universal human sinfulness4 ,man has failed to correspond to the suggestions of conscience1 he has failed to fulfil the requirements of the written ,law1 but now he may come into a right relation with ,god by identifying himself with ,jesus ,christ4 ,he may be justified 7i4e4 accepted as righteous7 by an act of ,god's grace 7i4e4 by an #afd undeserved act of ,god's love7 on account of the redemption wrought by ,christ1 whom ,god has set forth as a propitiation to show ,his own righteousness4 ,god could no longer allow man to mistake ,his patience with our sins for slack indifference4 ,man must no longer seek to be justified before ,god on the strength of what he himself has done1 but on the strength of his faith in ,christ1 i4e4 his devoted personal adhesion to ,christ 7iii4 #ba-bf74 ,st4 ,paul tells the ,romans that this justifying faith excludes glorying1 can be realized by ,gentile as well as ,jew2 that by it we establish the ,law 7iii4 #bg-ca71 as the ,jewish dispensation1 rightly understood1 testifies to its necessity4 ,in fact1 ,abraham himself was justified by faith 7iv47 ,then ,st4 ,paul sets forth in glowing and stately words what are the consequences for us which follow from being so justified4 ,we are at peace with ,god1 and share in ,his love1 and this is the secure ground of ,christian hope for life and after death 7v4 #a-aa74 ,the effects of ,christ's death are computed by an argumentum a fortiori from the results of ,adam's fall 7v4 #ab-ba74 ,the apostle now carefully refutes the notion that the doctrine of justification by faith encourages ,antinomianism4 ,liberty does not mean licence4 ,st4 ,paul was quite alive to the fact that skilful opponents and brainless admirers would misrepresent his doctrine1 which was also ,christ's4 ,he therefore takes great pains to show that the connection between the righteousness of ,christ and the righteousness of a ,christian is not arbitrary or fictitious4 ,his argument throughout implies that man actually receives the righteousness of ,god1 that is1 the righteousness which is inherent in ,god1 and is bestowed by ,god upon man when he unites himself with ,christ 7vi4-viii474 ,shall ,i go on sinning that ,god's mercy may be all the greater in forgiving me8 ,god forbid3 for when ,i went down into the waters of baptism1 ,i shared in the death of ,christ2 and when ,i rose from them1 ,i rose as a sharer in ,his risen life4 ,because ,i am united thus to the life of ,christ1 sin is foreign to my nature 7vi4 #a-ad74 ,i am no longer under law1 but under grace3 but #afe to be the slave of sin and be occupied with uncleanness1 and to gain the wages of death1 is inconsistent with being the slave of righteousness1 occupied in a course of purification and rewarded with the gift of life 7vi4 #ae-bc74 ,next1 ,st4 ,paul asks why it is that we are no longer under the ,law8 ,because we have no connection with that state of sin to which the ,law was applicable4 ,our soul is like a wife whose lawful husband is dead4 ,or1 to put the truth into another form1 our old state was killed by our identification with ,christ crucified1 and we are espoused to ,christ risen 7vii4 #a-f74 ,what1 then1 shall we think of the ,law8 ,is it sin8 ,no4 ,it reveals the sinfulness of sin1 and it irritates dormant sin into activity4 ,a thing cannot be identical with another thing which it exposes and irritates4 ,but why did ,god permit the ,law1 which is holy1 to prove fatal to my soul 7vii4 #ac78 ,he did not4 ,the ,law was not fatal1 though sin was all but fatal4 ,sin was permitted to do its worst that its real hideousness might be apparent4 ,this is what took place4 ,the ,law gave me an ideal1 but my better self1 which corresponds to the ,law1 could not keep me from ding wrong or make me do right4 ,i became involved in a terrible conflict4 ,this was the opportunity of ,christ4 ,he has delivered me from that state of the body which involved me in sin and death4 ,without ,him1 ,i should still be serving the ,law of ,god with my conscience1 and the law of sin with my body 7vii4 #be74 ,where the ,law of ,moses failed1 ,christ splendidly succeeds4 ,he not only sets before men an ideal1 but also helps them to attain it1 and fulfil the righteous claims of the moral ,law1 by uniting ,himself with them by the ,spirit 7viii4 #a-aj74 ,men are now in a new relation to ,god3 they call ,him ,father1 ,he sees in them ,his sons4 ,though with all creation we wait still in fruitful pain for the fulness of redemption1 we wait with confident hope4 ,the ,spirit is with us to help and to pray1 we remember ,god's high purpose for us1 we have known ,his love in the past1 ,jesus in infinite exaltation is interceding for us2 #aff who1 then1 shall ever be able to separate us from the love of ,god 7viii4 #aa-ci78 ,st4 ,paul turns now to a parenthetical discussion which necessarily suggests itself here4 ,it has practically happened that ,god's own people1 the children of ,abraham1 in spite of their privileges1 are excluded from this new salvation which comes from acceptance of ,christ4 ,this does not mean that ,god has been unfaithful4 ,st4 ,paul vindicates ,his action toward them1 and he shows that it has been consistent with ,his previous action towards the ,israelites 7ix4 #f-ac71 righteous 7ix4 #ad-ba71 and merciful 7ix4 #bb-bi74 ,god has always shown that ,he is free to select whom he likes to carry out ,his purpose in the world4#a ,the ,jews are rejected because they seek to be justified1 on the strength of their own works 7ix4 #cj-cc2 x4 #a-c73 now1 the method of the ,law has been superseded by ,christ's1 which is an easier method 7x4 #d-aj7 and universal 7x4 #aa-ac74 ,and the ,jews have had every opportunity for hearing of it 7x4 #ad-ba74 ,but ,god has not rejected them entirely or finally 7xi4 #a-aj72 and if their fall has led to the preaching of the gospel to the ,gentiles1 how much more happily fruitful will be their reception into the ,church 7xi4 #aa-ae76 ,we may hope for this ultimate acceptance of the gospel by both ,jew and ,gentile because of the original holiness of the ,jewish stock4 ,the ,gentiles are grafted into that3 just as we may be cut off from it if we sin1 so the ,jews more easily may be grafted in again if they will 7xi4 #af-bd74 ,st4 ,paul now shows how the hardening of the ,jews and the disobedience of the ,gentiles alike have served the purposes of ,god4 ,israel as a nation shall be saved by the ,messiah4 ,the chapter closes #afg with words of reverent admiration for the wonderful workings of the ,divine ,providence 7xi4 #be-cf74 ,after this long doctrinal argument1 ,st4 ,paul insists upon certain practical duties 7xii4-xv4 #ac74 ,we may notice in xiii4 #b ff4 the emphasis which is laid upon the dignity of the civil government1 a dignity which was immeasurably degraded ten years later by the wanton persecution of the ,roman ,christians4 ,and xiii4 #ac is a verse ever to be remembered by the ,church as the verse by which ,god brought ,augustine from free thinking and licentious living to be numbered among the saints4 ,in xiv4 begins some considerate advice about certain ,christians weak in faith4 ,they seem to have formed a party1 but not a party which can be identified with any other religious clique mentioned by the apostle4 ,their vegetarianism and their observance of particular holy days have suggested the theory that they were ,christians who followed the ascetic practices of the ,jewish sect of ,essenes4 ,the theory that they were ,gentiles who affected the customs of the ,pythagoreans has commended itself to other writers4 ,on the whole1 the number of ,jews in ,rome supports the theory that these were ,jewish ,christians4 ,st4 ,paul deals very tenderly with these total abstainers from meat and wine4 ,he evidently does not put them on the same level as the sectaries of ,galatia or ,colossae4 ,the ,epistle closes with various references to personal matters1 including the expression of a desire to visit ,spain and ,rome 7xv4 #cd74 #afh ,,analysis ,salutation and introduction 7i4 #a-ae74 7#a7 ,,doctrinal4--,the subject of the ,epistle4 ,how is righteousness to be attained8 ,not by man's work1 but by ,god's gift1 through faith1 i4e4 personal attachment to ,christ 7i4 #af1 #ag74 ,a4 ,righteousness as a state of man in the sight of ,god 7,justification73 i4 #ah-v4 #ba4 a4 ,righteousness was never attained before ,christ came4 ,the ,gentiles neglected their conscience until they sank into abominable sins2 future judgment will certainly come on all men without respect of persons2 the ,jews1 too1 have no right to criticize the ,gentiles--they had the ,law of ,moses1 while the ,gentiles only had the unwritten law of conscience1 yet they failed4 ,the ,jewish quibble that there was no good in being a ,jew if ,god condemned him1 is refuted4 ,the witness of the ,old ,testament to the universality of sin is quoted 7i4 #ah-;iii4 #bj74 b4 ,exposition of the new method of attaining righteousness4 ,it is independent of the ,law1 is universal1 is obtainable through ,christ's death which manifests ,god's righteousness4 ,this method excludes human boasting1 and can be experienced by ,jew and ,gentile alike 7iii4 #ba-ca74 c4 ,the relation of this new method to the ,old ,testament4 ,abraham1 the typical saint of the ,old ,testament1 was not justified because of works1 or circumcision1 or law4 ,his faith shows that the ,old ,testament supports the ,christian method of salvation 7iv474 d4 ,the blessed state of the justified ,christian4 ,he is filled with hope1 and this hope is guaranteed by the proved love of ,god4 ,what a contrast between this blessedness and the effects of ,adam's fall6 ,the work of ,christ resembles that of ,adam1 because it passes from one man to all men3 it differs greatly1 because ,adam's fall brought sin1 our condemnation1 our death4 ,christ's gift brings grace1 our acquittal1 our life4 ,the ,fall brought sin1 ,law increased sin2 ,grace is greater than sin 7v474 #afi ,b4 ,righteousness as necessarily involving moral progress 7,sanctification72 vi4-viii4 a4 ,refutation of the theory that we may continue to sin in order to give ,god fresh opportunities of displaying ,his lovingkindness4 ,our baptism implies union with the sinless ,christ4 ,refutation of the theory that we may as well sin as not sin because we are no longer under the ,law4 ,our marriage to ,christ must be fruitful 7vi4 #a-vii4 #f74 ,the ,law is not to be disparaged1 though it is impotent to rescue me in the terrible moral conflict under which ,i should suffer1 if it were not for ,christ 7vii4 #f-be74 ,b4 ,where the ,law of ,moses failed1 the incarnation of ,christ succeeds4 ,the life of ,christian righteousness is ruled by the ,holy ,spirit4 ,it implies filial confidence in ,god1 a glorious inheritance1 divine assistance1 inviolable security 7viii474 ,c4 ,the problem raised by the fate of the ,jews3 ix4-xi4 a4 ,their rejection from their privileged position a sad contrast to their high destiny2 the entire justice of ,god in forming a new ,israel of ,jews and ,gentiles alike 7ix474 b4 ,the cause of their rejection was that they sought to be justified in their own way and not in ,god's way1 and this in spite of ,christian opportunities and prophetic warnings 7x474 c4 ,consolations which qualify the severity of their fate4 ,their unbelief is only partial and temporary1 and ,god's purpose is to restore all4 ,doxology 7xi474 7#b7 ,,practical4--,the ,christian sacrifice1 and the duties of a ,christian 7xii474 ,church and ,state1 the law of love1 the approaching judgment 7xiii474 ,toleration for weak and eccentric ,christians2 vegetarians1 observers of private holy days and total abstainers1 not to be disturbed2 we must do nothing that makes a brother stumble4 ,christ pleased not ,himself2 ,he was both a minister of the circumcision and the hope of the ,gentiles 7xiv4 #a-xv4 #ac74 ,personal conclusion 7xv4 #ad-xvi4 #bg74 #a ,the ,calvinistic doctrine of predestination1 as taught in the writings of ,calvin and in the ,presbyterian ,westminster ,confession1 is a complete perversion of ,st4 ,paul's teaching4 ,calvin teaches a predestination to heaven or hell2 ,st4 ,paul here speaks of an appointment to certain duties on earth4 ,the ,calvinists asserted that some men cannot be saved2 ,st4 ,paul teaches that ,god so acted in order that ,he might have mercy upon all 7xi4 #cb74 #agj ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,the ,,epistle ,,of ,,paul ,,the ,,apostle ,,to ,,the ,,colossians--,,the ,,epistle ,,of ,,paul ,,to ,,philemon ,,the ,,epistle ,,of ,,paul ,,the ,,apostle ,,to ,,the ,,colossians ,sidenote3 ,the ,author4 ,there is no good reason for doubting that this beautiful ,epistle is the work of ,st4 ,paul4 ,it is full of ,pauline thought1 and is well attested by external evidence4 ,it is apparently quoted in the very ancient work known as the ,epistle of ,barnabas1 and ,justin ,martyr quotes the title of ,christ the firstborn of all creation 7,col4 i4 #ae74 ,it is included in ,marcion's canon and in the ,muratorian ,fragment1 as well as in the ,old ,latin and ,peshitta ,syriac versions4 ,the notion that it is only a weak reflection of ,ephesians seems incredible1 for neither of the two ,epistles is appreciably inferior to the other1 and in each one there are several unique passages which represent as high a level of intellectual and spiritual attainment as the passages which are in some degree common to the two4 ,moreover1 we cannot trace any definite method according to which the one writing has been used for the other1 and destructive critics have only destroyed one another's arguments in their attempts to show which of the two ,epistles is genuine1 or why they both are forged4 ,it is also important to consider the association of this ,epistle with that to ,philemon3 the transparent genuineness of the latter makes it practically certain that ,colossians is genuine as well4 ,objections to the authenticity of ,colossians have been #aga steadily growing fainter4 ,it was denied by ,mayerhoff in #ahch1 and by the whole ,tbingen school1 in spite of very strong external evidence4 7#a7 ,the heresy opposed by ,st4 ,paul was said to be a form of #bnd-century ,gnosticism2 but the affinities which it shows with ,judaism point rather to the #ast century4 7#b7 ,there are a large number of words which ,st4 ,paul uses nowhere else1 thirty-four being found in no other part of the ,new ,testament2 but several of these words are called forth by the special error which ,st4 ,paul rebukes1 and the ,epistle does contain eleven ,pauline words used by no other ,new ,testament writer4 7#c7 ,the doctrine has been declared to be not ,pauline1 but a further development of ,st4 ,paul's doctrine of the dignity of ,christ4 ,this objection rests entirely on the hypothesis that ,jesus ,christ was not ,god1 but was gradually deified by successive generations of ,his followers4 ,the critics who declared that no apostle believed ,christ to be more than an ideal or half-divine man1 and said that ,st4 ,john's writings are forgeries of the #bnd century1 described the doctrine of ,colossians as a transition from the true ,pauline doctrine to the doctrine of the ,logos contained in the fourth ,gospel4 ,but ,st4 ,paul states nothing about ,christ in this ,epistle which is not implied in earlier ,epistles4 ,he only makes fresh statements of truth in view of fresh errors4 ,sidenote3 ,to whom written4 ,colossae was the least important town to which any ,epistle of ,st4 ,paul which now remains was addressed4 ,the place was on the river ,lycus in ,phrygia1 about ten miles from ,laodicea and thirteen from ,hierapolis1 and thus the three towns were the sphere of the missionary work of the ,colossian ,epaphras 7,col4 iv4 #ab1 #ac74 ,colossae had been flourishing enough in the time of ,herodotus1 but now1 overshadowed by greater neighbours--,laodicea1 ,hierapolis1 and ,chonae--and perhaps shaken by recurring earthquakes1 it was sinking fast into decay4 ,still it derived importance from its situation on the great main road which connected ,rome with the eastern provinces1 the road by #agb which ,xerxes had led his great armament against ,greece4 ,and as the people had a special way of their own for producing a rich dye named ,colossinus1 it retained a fair amount of trade4 ,we may account for the presence of ,jews at ,colossae which is suggested in the ,epistle1 by remembering its convenient position and its trade speciality4 ,the people were mainly the descendants of ,greek settlers and ,phrygian natives1 and the intellectual atmosphere was the same as that of which we have evidence in other parts of ,asia ,minor3 every one was infected with the ,greek keenness for subtle speculation1 and the usual ,phrygian tendency to superstition and fanaticism4 ,thirteen miles away1 at ,hierapolis1 was growing into manhood the slave ,epictetus1 who later on will set out some of the most noble and lofty of pagan thoughts4 ,the persistent love of the people of this neighbourhood for the angel-worship which ,st4 ,paul rebukes1 is illustrated by the facts that in the #dth century a ,church ,council at ,laodicea condemned the worship of angels1 and that1 in spite of this1 in the #ith and #ajth centuries the district was the centre of the worship of ,st4 ,michael1 who was believed to have opened the chasm of the ,lycus1 and so saved the people of ,chonae from an inundation4 ,colossae1 being exposed to the raids of the ,moslem ,saracens1 disappeared from history in the #hth century4 ,the ,church at ,colossae was not founded by ,st4 ,paul1 and he was not personally acquainted with it 7,col4 ii4 #a74 ,but we can hardly go so far as to say that he had never seen the town at all4 ,sidenote3 ,where and when written4 ,st4 ,paul sent this letter1 together with that to ,philemon and the circular which we call ,ephesians1 by ,tychicus from ,rome1 probably in ,a4,d4 #fj4 ,he alludes to his imprisonment twice incidentally1 and again with pathetic simplicity in the postscript added by his own hand1 ,remember my bonds4 ,sidenote3 ,character and ,contents4 ,some difficulties are connected with the heresy taught by the religious agitators at ,colossae4 ,it is plain that their #agc teaching affected both doctrine and practice4 ,they appealed to visions and a knowledge of the celestial world 7ii4 #ah71 and therefore set up a worship of angels which tended to thrust ,christ from ,his true position in the creed of the ,church4 ,they treated the body with unsparing severity 7ii4 #bc71 they abstained from meat and drink1 and paid a punctilious attention to festivals1 new moons1 and sabbaths 7ii4 #af74 ,st4 ,paul calls these practices material rudiments 7ii4 #h71 elementary methods now superseded by faith in ,christ4 ,moreover1 it is almost certain that literal circumcision was practised 7ii4 #aa74 ,these things point to ,judaism4 ,and yet ,st4 ,paul does not seem to be rebuking a return to the ,judaism of the ,old ,testament4 ,he could hardly have described a compliance with ,old ,testament injunctions as an arbitrary religion and doctrines of men 7ii4 #a1 #bb1 #bc74 ,it might be ,pharisaism1 but if we look in the direction of ,judaism1 it is most natural that we should think of a ,judaism resembling that of the ,essenes4 ,the ,essenes were vegetarians1 they avoided wine1 they kept the sabbath with special scrupulousness1 and had some secret teaching about the angels4 ,these resemblances have tempted some commentators to identify the false teachers with the ,essenes4 ,but there is nothing to prove that the ,essenes worshipped the angels1 and ,st4 ,paul makes no mention of the ,essene veneration for the sun1 or their monastic life1 or their elaborate process of initiation4 ,besides this1 the principal community of ,essenes dwelt by the ,dead ,sea1 and it is very doubtful if any existed in ,asia ,minor4 ,it is best to confess our ignorance4 ,all that we can say is that the scruple-mongers at ,colossae taught doctrines which had points of contact with ,essenism4 ,they employed some affected interpretation of the ,old ,testament4 ,they also were influenced by heathenism in their conception of half-divine beings intermediate between ,god and the world4 ,how far they held any definitely dualistic view of matter we cannot tell4 #agd ,but their system was a mischievous theosophy1 which they endeavoured to popularize under catchwords like wisdom and philosophy4 ,the fact that there was at this time such a widespread tendency to adopt an exaggerated asceticism and theories about mediatorial spirits1 makes it unnecessary to suppose that the ,colossian heresy need be affiliated to any particular school of speculation4 ,the ,epistle consists mainly of a more or less indirect argument against the insidious philosophy of the heretics1 with an exhortation and personal notes4 ,perhaps we account most naturally for the broken order and lax coherence of this letter1 by the suggestion that1 as ,st4 ,paul dictated it1 there was present with him a sense of almost nervous hesitation4 ,he has exactly a gentleman's reluctance to do an ungracious action3 while he knows that it is his duty to warn the ,colossians of a serious danger1 he knows that unless he does so with much tactful delicacy1 they will resent his interference4 ,so he begins by saying what polite things he can about them1 and instead of going on at once to talk of the heresy1 he first says with plain significance that he perpetually prays for their perfection in knowledge1 activity1 and constancy4 ,an incidental allusion to ,god's method for human salvation gives ,st4 ,paul an opportunity for making a digression--one of the most important statements in the ,new ,testament--concerning the nature and work of ,christ 7i4 #ad-bj74 ,he shows the ,colossians what views they ought to hold concerning ,him4 ,this would keep them from giving to the angels what is due to ,christ alone4 ,christ is the ,redeemer4 ,he was born prior to all creation1 even the angels1 and all creation coheres through union with ,him 7i4 #ae-ag74 ,he is the ,head of the ,church in virtue of ,his resurrection1 and as embodying the full number of divine attributes 7i4 #ah1 #ai74 ,he is the ,saviour of angels and men by ,his death1 and in this salvation the ,colossians ought to share 7i4 #bj-bc74 ,it seems that now he will deal with the heresy1 but again he #age postpones it4 ,he breaks in with a digression of a pastoral character4 ,he speaks of his commission to preach 7i4 #bd-bi71 his anxiety even for ,churches that he has never visited 7ii4 #a-e71 and he exhorts the ,colossians to continue in their original faith 7ii4 #f1 #g74 ,at last he enters upon the main business of the ,epistle and begins dogmatic controversy4 ,after a warning against spurious philosophy1 he asserts that ,christ is the sole incarnation of ,deity1 to whom all spirits are subject 7ii4 #i1 #aj74 ,this is the true doctrine3 ,god has not divided ,his attributes among a group of angels2 all are to be found in ,christ4 ,and the true method of salvation is simply that union with ,christ which begins with baptism1 the ,christian's circumcision4 ,in it we receive that forgiveness which was won for us when ,christ died1 and both blotted out the ,law and triumphed over evil angels 7ii4 #ac-ae74 ,the apostle then directly condemns the practices of the false teachers--their anxious and mechanical conduct with regard to food and seasons1 their intrusion into celestial secrets and their doctrine of angel-worship1 their loose hold on ,christ the ,head1 symptoms of an affected humility which is no real check against the indulgence of the flesh 7ii4 #af-bc74 ,he then turns to practical exhortation4 ,in the bracing words made familiar to us by the ,epistle for ,easter ,day1 ,st4 ,paul bids the ,colossians leave the gently stimulating exercise of intellectual theorizing and listen to the stern demands made by ,christ on life and character4 ,they have risen to a life hid with ,christ in ,god2 they must make dead the faculties of sensual action1 angry thinking1 and evil speaking3 this is implied in forsaking heathenism for the universal ,christ 7iii4 #a-aa74 ,live quietly in peace and love1 show a gracious life in a gracious worship1 consecrate your words and deeds by doing all in the name of the ,lord ,jesus 7iii4 #ab-ag74 ,then the special duties of wives and husbands1 children and fathers1 slaves and masters1 are dealt with4 ,prayer and thanksgiving are enjoined on all alike1 and the ,christians are bidden #agf to buy up the opportunity of furthering the cause of ,god in their dealings with the outer world1 having their speech seasoned with the salt of wholesome wisdom 7iii4 #ah-;iv4 #f74 ,a few words are said about ,tychicus1 ,onesimus1 and other friends1 including ,luke1 the beloved physician1 and the ,epistle ends with a farewell which ,st4 ,paul wrote with his own hand4 ,before writing it1 the apostle directs that this letter should be read at ,laodicea1 and that the ,colossians should procure another letter which had been left in that city4 ,this was probably the so-called ,epistle to the ,ephesians4 ,,analysis ,salutation1 thanksgiving1 the apostle's prayer for the readers 7i4 #a-ac74 ,christ1 who redeemed us1 is pre-eminent in ,person1 being the ,head of the natural creation1 and of the spiritual creation1 because the sum of divine attributes dwells in ,him 7i4 #ad-ai74 ,he is pre-eminent in work1 having reconciled us to ,god 7i4 #bj-bc74 ,st4 ,paul's own commission and his anxiety 7i4 #bd-;ii4 #g74 ,warning against the delusion of a false philosophy4 ,the fulness is in ,christ1 therefore the ,colossians must avoid semi-,jewish practices and also avoid the worship of angels 7ii4 #h-ai74 ,the converts have died with ,christ to their old life and earthly ordinances 7ii4 #bj-be74 ,the converts have risen with ,christ to a new life and heavenly principles1 vices must be made dead1 virtues must be put on 7iii4 #a-ag74 ,obligations of wives and husbands1 children and parents1 slaves and masters 7iii4 #ah-;iv4 #a74 ,the duty of prayer and thanksgiving1 and right behaviour towards the unconverted 7iv4 #b-f74 ,personal conclusion1 and a message relating to an ,epistle from ,laodicea 7iv4 #g-ah74 #agg ,,the ,,epistle ,,of ,,paul ,,to ,,philemon ,sidenote3 ,the ,author4 ,the genuineness of this winning little letter could never be doubted except by the most dryasdust of pedants4 ,it is no proof of acuteness to detect the artifice of a forger in its earnest simplicity1 its thoughtful tact1 and affectionate anxiety4 ,there is about it a vivacity and directness which at once and decisively stamp it as genuine4 ,and external evidence shows that it was included in the earliest lists of ,st4 ,paul's ,epistles4 ,it was accepted by ,marcion1 included in the ,muratorian ,fragment1 and expressly attributed to ,st4 ,paul by ,origen4 ,it shows a number of coincidences with ,colossians1 ,ephesians1 and ,philippians1 and it is especially connected with ,colossians by the proper names which it contains1 such as ,archippus1 ,aristarchus1 ,mark1 and ,luke4 ,no evidence exists to show that any early ,christians denied this ,epistle to be by ,st4 ,paul4 ,but it does appear that some of them half disliked its inclusion in the ,canon1 thinking it too trivial to be numbered with the ,scriptures4 ,to modern readers it manifests a great treatment of little things1 which is one of the surest proofs of inspiration4 ,sidenote3 ,to whom written4 ,the ,epistle is addressed to ,philemon1 a substantial citizen of ,colossae4 ,he has been converted by ,st4 ,paul1 who writes with deep appreciation of his faith in ,christ1 and of the kindness that he has shown to the saints4 ,he gives him the honourable title of fellow-worker4 ,religious services and the social gatherings of ,christians are held in ,philemon's house4 ,sidenote3 ,where and when written4 ,this ,epistle was written during ,st4 ,paul's first imprisonment in ,rome1 ,a4,d4 #ei-fa4 ,in ver4 #aj ,st4 ,paul alludes to his bonds4 ,sidenote3 ,character and ,contents4 ,philemon had a ,phrygian slave named ,onesimus1 who first #agh robbed him and then ran away4 ,onesimus was able without much difficulty to get to ,rome1 and here he met the apostle1 who received him into the ,church4 ,the young convert served him with such eager willingness that ,st4 ,paul would have been glad to keep him with him1 but he decides to send him back to ,philemon with this letter to ensure his forgiveness4 ,we have1 therefore1 in this letter a picture of ,st4 ,paul in a new relation4 ,there is no other letter in the ,new ,testament of such a private nature except #c ,john4 ,the great apostle of the ,gentiles is taking his pen to provide a dishonest runaway slave with a note that shall shield him from the just anger of his master4 ,he writes both with a strong sense of justice and with his own perfect diplomatic instinct4 ,the letter is at once authoritative1 confident1 and most gentle4 ,he does not command or insist1 yet it is quite clear that ,philemon must do just what he asks4 ,there is no violent attack upon slavery as an institution4 ,any such attack would have been both foolish and criminal4 ,for it would have encouraged slaves to make ,christianity a cloak for revolt1 and precipitated horrors far worse than those which it could have professed to remove4 ,but ,st4 ,paul asserts a principle which will eventually prove fatal to slavery4 ,when he tells ,philemon to receive ,onesimus as a brother beloved1 he is really saying that our estimate of men must not be based on their social class1 but rather on their relation to ,god4 ,this letter has been compared with a letter written under similar circumstances by the younger ,pliny1 one of the best of the pagan gentlemen of ,rome4 ,but while the letter of ,pliny is more elegant in language1 the letter of ,st4 ,paul is a finer masterpiece of feeling4 ,a ,roman slave was still allowed no rights and no family relationship1 and for the smallest offence he might be tortured and killed4 ,in the next century the ,emperor ,hadrian first took away from masters the power of life and death over their slaves1 and it was not until the time #agi of the ,emperor ,constantine1 who established ,christianity1 that the laws affecting slavery pointed to the future triumph of emancipation4 ,but the ancient conception of slavery was doomed as soon as slave-girls like ,blandina in ,gaul1 or ,felicitas in ,africa1 having won for themselves the crown of martyrdom1 were celebrated in the festivals of the ,church with honours denied to the most powerful and noblest born of mankind4 #a ,,analysis ,salutation from ,paul and ,timothy to ,philemon and ,apphia 78 wife71 to ,archippus and the ,church in ,philemon's house2 thanksgiving for ,philemon's faith2 a plea for the pardon of ,onesimus1 ,st4 ,paul promises to be responsible for what was stolen2 a lodging to be prepared for ,st4 ,paul2 concluding salutations1 benediction4 #a ,lightfoot1 ,colossians and ,philemon1 p4 #cbe4 #ahj ,,chapter ,,xv ,,the ,,epistle ,,of ,,paul ,,the ,,apostle ,,to ,,the ,,ephesians ,sidenote3 ,the ,author4 ,the ,pauline authorship of this ,epistle is well attested by external evidence4 ,before #aej we have proof of its wide use among both heretics and ,catholics2 it is quoted probably by ,st4 ,clement and ,st4 ,polycarp1 and some of its characteristic ideas are to be found in a more developed form in the ,shepherd of ,hermas4 ,there is one clear reference to it in ,st4 ,ignatius1 and two other possible references4 ,we trace an interesting connection between the thought of this ,epistle and that of the ,revelation and the ,gospel of ,st4 ,john 7e4g4 ch4 xvii47 and the ,first ,epistle of ,st4 ,peter4 ,perhaps we may account for it by accepting ,renan's suggestion that ,st4 ,peter1 ,st4 ,john1 and ,st4 ,paul were in ,rome together4 ,the strongest argument for the ,pauline authorship lies in the undesigned coincidences between ,ephesians and ,romans4 ,in both we notice the same courtesy of manner and sensitive frankness1 the same setting forth of ,god's method of salvation1 the same valuation of the relative position of ,jews and ,gentiles1 and of their union in ,jesus ,christ2 the same thought of ,god's eternal and unchanging purpose very gradually revealed1 and extending in its ultimate operation to all creation4 ,it has been well said that the ,epistle to the ,ephesians is required to give completeness to the argument of ,rom4 xv4 ,though we do not find here the controversial reasoning of the earlier ,epistle1 we have some of those characteristic passages in which the #aha writer1 carried away by emotion1 leaves statement for prayer or praise 7cf4 ,rom4 xi4 #cc and ,eph4 iii4 #bj74 ,we have1 indeed1 in this ,epistle evidence which points to a date later than that of some of his ,epistles4 ,we miss the expectation of ,christ's immediate coming2 the ,gentiles are now quite secure in the ,church2 there is proof of the growth of ,christian hymns 7v4 #ad1 #ai74 ,but the names of the ministers of the ,church seem very primitive1 the words presbyter and episkopos not being mentioned4 ,and words such as worlds1 fulness1 generations1 which were used in a special sense by the ,gnostics of the #bnd century1 are here used in an earlier and less technical meaning4 ,it has been argued that ,ephesians is a forged imitation of ,colossians1 because about half of its verses have parallels in ,colossians4 ,this argument has broken down1 since it has been shown that it is equally easy to prove that ,colossians is based upon ,ephesians4 ,and there is nothing strange in the idea that ,st4 ,paul wrote two similar letters at the same time to ,churches in similar difficulties4 ,the two ,epistles resemble one another just as two letters written by one man to two different friends during the same week4 ,the phrase holy apostles 7iii4 #e7 is also said to be a formula which ,st4 ,paul would not have employed4 ,but the word holy is used in his writings almost in the sense of ,christian2 it signifies consecration rather than personal perfection4 ,there would1 therefore1 be no vanity in the apostle applying such a title to himself4 ,the attempt to make the style furnish an argument against the genuineness of the ,epistle has also failed4 ,there are thirty-two words used only in this ,epistle1 but there are also eighteen which are found in ,pauline ,epistles and not elsewhere in the ,new ,testament4 ,the assumption of some sceptical writers that an apostle must have been too unintelligent to enrich his vocabulary1 scarcely deserves serious examination4 ,no one would think of applying the same rule to a ,greek classical writer1 and if he attempted to do so1 he would find that ,xenophon varies his language as much as ,st4 ,paul4 #ahb ,the real reason why the authenticity of this ,epistle has been attacked is this4 ,ephesians teaches that the ,church is a universal society1 visibly united by baptism and the ministry1 embracing ,jew and ,gentile on equal terms4 ,but1 according to ,baur1 this conception of the ,church is a product of the #bnd century4 ,he assumed that ,st4 ,paul could not include the twelve under the name of the holy apostles1 or teach a ,catholic doctrine of the ,church4#a ,the present school of rationalists is inclining to admit that ,ephesians is genuine4 ,but it is hard to see how they will be able to do this without also admitting that the ,epistle implies that the other holy apostles held1 like ,st4 ,paul1 that ,christ is divine4 ,sidenote3 ,to whom written4 ,it is almost certainly not primarily a letter to ,ephesus1 but a circular letter to several ,churches in ,asia ,minor4 ,in i4 #a we read the words to the saints which are in ,ephesus4 ,but the words in ,ephesus are omitted in the two great ,,mss4 ,k and ,b4 ,origen also implies that these words were absent in some ,,mss41 and ,st4 ,basil definitely says so4 ,and as the ,epistle contains no salutation to any individual1 it is difficult to imagine that it was specially addressed to ,ephesus1 where ,st4 ,paul's friends were numerous and dear 7see ,acts xx4 #ag-ch74 ,in some passages ,st4 ,paul speaks as if he and those to whom he writes knew each other only through third persons 7i4 #ae2 iii4 #b74 ,this suggests that the ,epistle was written primarily to a ,church like that of ,colossae which he had never visited4 ,the probable solution is that it was written to the ,christians of ,laodicea in the first instance4 ,tertullian says that ,marcion had copies with ,ad ,laodicenos as the title4 ,now1 in this case ,marcion had nothing to gain by fraud1 and we may therefore suppose that he had honest grounds for using this title4 ,the same title gains some support from ,col4 ii4 #a2 iv4 #ac1 #af4 ,the last verse suggests that it was to be passed on from ,laodicea4 ,perhaps several copies of the letter were written at #ahc ,laodicea1 and a blank space left in them for the insertion of the various addresses4 ,no doubt the letter would be forwarded to ,ephesus in time4 ,laodicea1 at present called ,eski-,hissar 7the old fortress71 is now utterly deserted4 ,it was probably founded about ,b4,c4 #bej by ,antiochus ,,ii4 ,theos1 and named after his wife ,laodike4 ,it was distant eleven miles from ,colossae4 ,the population included some ,syrians and ,jews4 ,it rose to great wealth under the ,roman power1 and was so rich that when it was destroyed by an earthquake in ,a4,d4 #fj it scorned to seek pecuniary aid from the emperor4 ,it was in a central position on the great trade route from the east1 and was famous for its banking business1 its manufacture of fine garments of black wool1 and its ,phrygian powder for weak eyes4 ,in ,rev4 iii4 #ah there appears to be a veiled allusion to each of these three sources of prosperity4 ,timothy1 ,mark1 and ,epaphras 7,col4 i4 #g7 were instrumental in spreading ,christianity in this region4 ,laodicea was the leading bishopric of ,phrygia throughout the ,christian period4 ,ephesus was the capital of the ,roman province of ,asia4 ,with ,antioch in ,syria and ,alexandria in ,egypt1 it ranked as one of the greatest cities of the ,east ,mediterranean lands4 ,planted amid the hills near the mouth of the river ,cayster1 it was excellently fitted to become a great mart1 and was the commercial centre for the whole country on the ,roman side of ,mount ,taurus4 ,the substratum of the population was ,asiatic1 but the progress and enterprise of the city belonged to the ,greeks4 ,there1 as in the ,florence of the ,medici1 we find commercial astuteness joined with intense delight in graceful culture4 ,some of the best work of the greatest ,greek sculptors and painters was treasured at ,ephesus4 ,a splendid but sensuous worship centred round the gross figure of the goddess ,artemis1 whose temple was one of the greatest triumphs of ancient art4 ,in the ,british ,museum are preserved some fragments of the old temple built by ,croesus1 ,king of ,lydia1 in ,b4,c4 #eej4 ,the vast #ahd temple which replaced this older structure was built about ,b4,c4 #cej1 with the help of contributions from the whole of ,asia4 ,the wealth of the city was increased by the crowds which attended the festivals1 and many trades were mainly dependent upon the pilgrims1 who required food1 victims1 images1 and shrines4 ,in ,st4 ,paul's time the city contained one temple devoted to the worship of a ,roman emperor4 ,ephesus was also a home of magical arts1 and was famous for the production of magical formulae known as ,ephesian letters4 ,the actual foundation of the ,christian ,church in ,ephesus may be ascribed to ,priscilla and ,aquila1 whom ,st4 ,paul left there on his first visit 7,acts xviii4 #ai71 ,on his return to ,ephesus he stayed there for two years 7,acts xix4 #a1 #aj71 and the opposition of the tradesmen to a creed which affected the vested interests of idolatry was the cause of the riot so vigorously described by ,st4 ,luke4 ,even after the riot the superstitions of the mob were a serious danger to ,st4 ,paul 7#a ,cor4 xv4 #cb2 xvi4 #i2 #b ,cor4 i4 #h-aj74 ,at a later period ,ephesus became the residence of ,st4 ,john4 ,sidenote3 ,where and when written4 ,st4 ,paul wrote this ,epistle during his imprisonment at ,rome1 which began in ,a4,d4 #ei 7see iii4 #a1 #ac2 iv4 #a1 vi4 #bb74 ,rome is not mentioned in the ,epistle1 but the connection between ,ephesians1 ,colossians1 ,philemon1 and ,philippians points to the high probability that they were all written from the same place4 ,this place is much more likely to have been ,rome than ,caesarea1 the only other possible locality4 ,ephesians was apparently written later than ,colossians1 for it shows an emphasis on new points of doctrine--the continuity of the ,church1 the work of the ,holy ,spirit1 the analogy between family life and the ,church1 and the simile of the spiritual armour4 ,sidenote3 ,character and ,contents4 ,the ,epistle is of the nature of a sermon1 full of closely interlaced doctrinal arguments on the greatness of that one ,gospel and that one ,church by which all distinctions in mankind are bridged over and salvation is made sure4 ,the writer #ahe fears that there will be some lack of unity in the ,church1 and that the moral tone of his converts will sink4 ,he wishes for a ,christianity both ,catholic and deep4 ,so he presents his readers with the portrait of a ,church predestined before all ages1 appointed to last through all ages1 in which all men will be united in holiness and love4 ,if ,galatians and ,corinthians are more vivid1 ,romans more rich1 and ,philippians more affectionate1 ,ephesians gives us ,st4 ,paul's most mature and complete picture of ,christianity4 ,st4 ,paul explains how his ,gentile readers came to their present position in the ,church4 ,they are not to regard it as a matter of chance4 ,they were called to ,christ as the result of an eternal counsel of ,god4 ,god intended from eternity to adopt them in union with ,his ,son4 ,this intention was now made known1 to sum up all things again in ,christ 7i4 #aj74 ,the apostle prays for his readers that they may receive enlightenment1 and grow in knowledge1 particularly concerning the power of ,god shown in the resurrection and ascension of ,christ and his consequent relation to the ,church4#b ,the unity of all things in the ,son of ,god is explained in ,colossians as having been involved in ,his creation of them4 ,in ,ephesians ,st4 ,paul assumes this relation1 and shows that it is largely in abeyance through sin4 ,estrangement has come between man and his ,god1 involving man in death and in the wrath of ,god 7ii4 #c-e74 ,a wall of division has also been made between ,jew and ,gentile 7ii4 #ad74 ,this division was visibly embodied in the ,jewish ordinances4 ,but ,jew and #ahf ,gentile alike have now been reconciled to ,god1 and in being reunited with ,god are reunited with each other4 ,this momentous change was effected by the shedding of ,christ's blood on the cross4 ,the readers are to remember that they are being built into ,god's own habitation1 of which ,christ is the ,corner-,stone 7ii4 #bj74 ,to the end that they may be filled in their degree with ,god's attributes1 the writer bows his knees 7iii4 #ad7 unto the ,father4 ,he prays for their strengthening because he has a special charge over the ,gentiles4 ,this charge involves the stewardship of a secret 7iii4 #c71 viz4 the inclusion of the ,gentiles in the promise of ,god4 ,he1 the least of all saints1 has been allowed to proclaim this secret1 a work which shows to the heavenly powers the wisdom of ,god corresponding with ,his eternal purpose 7iii4 #aj1 #aa74 ,this bounty of ,god will ever be praised in the ,church1 which is the monument of that bounty 7iii4 #ba74 ,chapters iv4-vi4 are largely practical4 ,they set out rules of conduct4 ,but even here doctrine is brought in to enforce practical advice4 ,the readers are to walk worthily of their calling4 ,to do this1 they must realize unity4 ,the principles of unity are magnificently summed up 7iv4 #d-f74 ,then the apostle mentions some means which ,god has appointed for the maintenance of unity4 ,christians have various gifts from the ascended ,christ 7iv4 #g-h71 and some are specially gifted for ecclesiastical offices 7iv4 #i-ac74 ,these gifts make for the completeness of the ,church1 of which ,christ is the ,head and the ,life4 ,to walk worthily also means that everything connected with heathen habits must be sedulously renounced4 ,the old self must be changed for the new4 ,a basis for social life must be found in truthfulness1 uprightness1 and kindliness 7iv4 #be-cb74 ,purity must specially be preserved1 impurity being contrasted with love4 ,light and darkness are then contrasted1 and the sober gaiety of the ,christian with heathen folly and excess 7v4 #a-ba74 ,st4 ,paul passes on to speak of the ,christian household--the #ahg duties of husband1 wife1 children1 slaves4 ,he seems to pronounce a great benediction over family life as he compares the union of marriage to the association of ,christ with ,his ,church4 ,just as in calling ,christ the ,head of which the ,church is the body1 he suggests the entire dependence of the ,church upon ,christ1 so now in describing the ,church as the spouse of ,christ1 he suggests that this dependence must imply a voluntary and conscious submission4 ,the final exhortation vividly describes the ,christian's conflict with evil3 to fight victoriously he will need to be well armoured with the whole panoply of ,god 7vi4 #aj-bj74 ,there is a short personal conclusion in which ,st4 ,paul describes himself as ,christ's ambassador in chains4 ,,analysis ,salutation 7i4 #a1 #b74 ,exposition of ,god's purpose in adopting the ,gentiles as ,his sons1 chosen by the ,father1 redeemed by the ,son1 sealed by the ,spirit4 ,a prayer for the readers 7i474 ,their new state as saved by grace through faith2 reconciliation of ,jews and ,gentiles in ,christ 7ii474 ,paul was made a minister to dispense the grace of ,god to the ,gentiles4 ,he prays for their spiritual progress 7iii474 ,the unity of ,christians in the ,church combined with diversity of gifts and offices1 a warning against heathen vices1 and advice as to duty towards one's neighbour 7iv474 ,christian love1 heathen uncleanness1 light and darkness1 walking circumspectly1 sobriety and song 7v4 #a-ba74 ,the union of husbands and wives like that of ,christ and ,his ,church 7v4 #bb1 #bc74 ,duties of children and parents1 servants and masters 7vi4 #a-i74 ,wrestling against evil powers with the whole armour of ,god 7vi4 #aj-ah74 ,personal conclusion and benediction 7vi4 #ai-bd74 #a ,see ,baur's ,paul1 vol4 ii4 p4 #agg 7,english translation74 #b ,eph4 i4 #bc4 ,the ,church is said to be the fulness of ,him that filleth all in all4 ,the word fulness is derived from philosophy1 and means that the ,church is1 or rather is the realization of1 the sum of the sacred attributes of ,christ1 who fills the whole universe with all kinds of gifts4 ,some commentators translate fulness as if it meant the receptacle of ,christ's attributes1 and others as if it meant the completion of ,christ4 ,but the word is used in a philosophical and not in a literal sense4 ,see ,lightfoot1 ,colossians1 p4 #bei4 #ahh ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,the ,,epistle ,,of ,,paul ,,the ,,apostle ,,to ,,the ,,philippians ,sidenote3 ,the ,author4 ,the genuineness of this ,epistle is now admitted by critics of very different schools of thought1 including some extreme rationalists4 ,about ,a4,d4 #aaj ,st4 ,polycarp1 in his letter to the ,philippians1 speaks of the letters which they had received from the blessed and glorious ,paul4 ,although he seems to refer to a number of letters1 we may be sure that this letter was among that number4 ,otherwise it would not have been so universally regarded as genuine during the #bnd century4 ,it is in ,marcion's canon1 in the ,muratorian ,fragment1 the ,peshitta ,syriac and ,old ,latin versions4 ,it is also quoted in the letter of the ,churches of ,lyons and ,vienne1 in the ,epistle of ,diognetus1 and by ,irenaeus and ,clement of ,alexandria4 ,it was rejected by ,baur and others on various grounds4 ,it was urged 7#a7 that the doctrine of ,christ's self-surrender or self-emptying in ,phil4 ii4 #g is derived from the ,valentinian ,gnostics of the #bnd century1 who taught that the ,spirit ,sophia fell from the fulness of divine spirits in heaven to the emptiness of the lower world4 ,this objection is too fantastic to deserve serious refutation4 ,it is1 in fact1 little more than a play upon words4 ,it was urged 7#b7 that in ,phil4 ii4 #g the manhood of ,christ is said to have come into existence at the incarnation1 whereas in #a ,cor4 xv4 #dg-di it is said to have existed in heaven before the incarnation4 ,this idea rests on a false interpretation2 in #a ,cor4 xv4 ,christ is called of heaven #ahi because ,his manhood became heavenly at ,his ascension4 ,it was urged 7#c7 that in ,phil4 iii4 #f the writer says that he had been1 as touching the righteousness which is in the ,law1 found blameless1 whereas ,st4 ,paul in ,rom4 vii4 speaks of his revolt against the ,law4 ,but it seems that in ,phil4 iii4 ,st4 ,paul is laying stress rather on his external privileges and external conformity1 while in ,rom4 vii4 he speaks of what is inward and secret4 ,it was urged 7#d7 that the mention of bishops 7or rather episkopoi7 and deacons in ,phil4 i4 #a shows that the ,epistle was not written in the apostolic age4 ,but there is nothing to make it impossible that such offices did exist at that period1 and there is much evidence in favour of them4 ,christians who are attached to the historical form of ,church government will now note with interest that1 since the genuineness of this ,epistle has been practically demonstrated1 some writers have suggested that these words do not refer to special ecclesiastical offices6#a ,sidenote3 ,to whom written4 ,philippi was named after ,philip1 ,king of ,macedon1 in the #dth century ,b4,c4 ,it was in ,eastern ,macedonia1 on a steep hill at the edge of a plain2 its seaport1 ,neapolis1 was about eight miles distant4 ,it was on the ,egnatian road1 the great high-road which connected the ,aegean and the ,adriatic seas1 and therefore connected ,asia with ,europe4 ,it was made into a ,roman colony1 with the title ,colonia ,augusta ,julia ,philippensium1 after the victory of ,antony and ,octavian over ,brutus and ,cassius4 ,its new name was1 therefore1 a memorial of the murdered but avenged ,julius ,caesar4 ,st4 ,paul brought ,christianity to ,philippi early in ,a4,d4 #ej1 during his second missionary journey4 ,st4 ,paul's first visit here is described in ,acts xvi4 #ab-dj1 and it has a special interest as the story of the apostle's first preaching in a ,european town4 ,the ,jews had no synagogue1 only a spot by the river-side in the suburbs1 where a few met together on the sabbath4 ,his first convert was ,lydia of ,thyatira1 who was a seller of purple-dyed #aij goods2 her house became the centre of the ,philippian ,church4 ,the imprisonment of ,st4 ,paul and ,st4 ,silas in consequence of ,st4 ,paul's exorcising a heathen slave-girl who professed to be inspired1 is one of the most dramatic incidents in ,acts4 ,when ,st4 ,paul was released he left the town1 but returned there1 in all probability1 in ,a4,d4 #ee1 on his third journey while travelling to ,corinth4 ,in ,a4,d4 #ef he was there once more1 and the last ,easter before his imprisonment was spent with these beloved converts 7,acts xx4 #f74 ,the ,christians of ,philippi were pre-eminent in the affections of ,st4 ,paul4 ,he calls them1 like the ,thessalonians1 his joy and crown 7iv4 #a71 and they alone of his children had the privilege of ministering to his personal necessities4 ,sidenote3 ,where and when written4 ,it may be regarded as almost certain that ,st4 ,paul wrote this ,epistle in ,rome4 ,he was a prisoner1 as we see in ,phil4 i4 #g1 #ac1 #ad1 #ag4 ,he sends greeting from those of ,caesar's household 7iv4 #bb74 ,the first and last chapters imply that he is in the midst of an active ,church1 and that he is the centre to which messengers come and from which they go4 ,this accords with the apostle's treatment at ,rome4 ,one phrase1 however1 has been thought to suggest ,caesarea rather than ,rome4 ,it is the whole praetorium 7i4 #ac74 ,this might mean the praetorium or palace of ,herod ,agrippa ,,ii4 at ,caesarea1 but it is possible that it has quite a different meaning4 ,it may either be the imperial guard or the supreme imperial court before which ,st4 ,paul had to be judged4 ,the latter interpretation is that suggested by the great historian ,mommsen1 and seems to be the most satisfactory explanation4 ,the meaning of the phrase has an important bearing upon the date of the ,epistle4 ,if it was not written at ,caesarea1 it must have been written at ,rome between ,a4,d4 #ei and ,a4,d4 #fa4 ,but the critics who are agreed that it was composed at ,rome1 are divided as to the place which it occupies among the ,epistles which ,st4 ,paul wrote during his imprisonment4 ,some #aia place it first1 because the vigorous style1 and many of the phrases1 suggest that it was written not very long after ,romans4 ,others1 with greater probability1 place it last among the ,epistles of the captivity4 ,for even if it was written first among those ,epistles1 it was written more than three years after ,romans4 ,and the ,epistle contains several indications of being written late in the captivity4 ,if praetorium means the imperial guard1 some time would have to elapse before such a large body of men could know much about ,st4 ,paul2 and if it means the imperial court1 the verse implies that he had already appeared before his judges4 ,phil4 ii4 #bd shows that he was expecting a speedy decision on his case4 ,epaphroditus1 probably not the ,colossian ,epaphras who was with ,st4 ,paul at ,rome 7,col4 iv4 #ab71 had come as a delegate from the ,philippians1 bringing their alms to the apostle 7ii4 #be2 iv4 #ah74 ,after his arrival in ,rome he was ill and homesick1 and now he is returning to ,philippi bearing this letter of thanks4 ,this all seems to imply that ,philippians was written a considerable time after the apostle's imprisonment began1 and we can therefore reasonably place it after ,colossians and ,ephesians1 and date it early in ,a4,d4 #fa4 ,sidenote3 ,character and ,contents4 ,with the exception of #b ,corinthians1 this is the most personal and intimate of ,st4 ,paul's writings4 ,in both he lays bare his heart4 ,but the tone of the two ,epistles is absolutely different4 ,in #b ,corinthians he writes as a man who has been bitterly injured2 he asserts his claims to fickle believers whose ears have been charmed by his unscrupulous opponents4 ,in ,philippians we chiefly observe a note of frank and loving confidence2 buffeted by the world1 the apostle finds refreshment in the affection of his friends at ,philippi4 ,after a salutation to all the saints at ,philippi1 including especially the episkopoi and deacons1 the apostle speaks of the joy which he feels in praying for them1 and begs of ,god that their love may abound1 and that they may approve the things #aib that are excellent1 being filled with the fruits of righteousness 7i4 #a-aa74 ,then ,st4 ,paul tells how his captivity has been a means of spreading the gospel in the praetorium and elsewhere4 ,even the malicious activity of his opponents has been a means of proclaiming ,christ1 and with true grandeur of soul the apostle rejoices in the fact4 ,so far as he is concerned1 death would be a more attractive prospect than life1 for death would mean admission into the presence of ,christ1 but for the sake of the ,philippians he is glad to live4 ,with wonderful cheerfulness he says that he is glad if his blood is to be offered like a libation poured over the living sacrifice of the souls and bodies which the ,philippians offer to ,god 7ii4 #ag74 ,before he speaks of this libation of his blood he makes a tender appeal to his converts to imitate the lowliness of ,jesus ,christ4 ,he puts into the language of theology the story of the incarnation which his friend ,st4 ,luke draws with an artist's pen in the first two chapters of his ,gospel4 ,he speaks to them of the mind of ,christ ,jesus1 whose life on earth was self-sacrifice in detail4 ,christ had before the incarnation the form or essential attributes of ,god1 but ,he did not set any store on ,his equality with ,god1 as though it were a prize1#b but stripped ,himself in self-surrender1 and took the form or nature of a bond-servant4 ,he looked like men as they actually are1 and if men recognized ,his outward fashion1 they would only have taken ,him for a man4 ,and then ,he made ,himself obedient to ,god up to ,his very death1 and that the death of the cross4 ,this was followed by ,his exaltation1 and worship is now paid to ,him in ,his glorified humanity 7ii4 #a-aa74 ,in ii4 #ai ,st4 ,paul returns to personal matters concerning ,timothy and ,epaphroditus2 then he seems on the point of concluding the ,epistle 7iii4 #a74 ,but he suddenly breaks into #aic an abrupt and passionate warning against the ,judaizers4 ,the passage almost looks as if it were a page from the ,epistle to the ,galatians4 ,the ,judaizers are called dogs1 and as their circumcision was no longer the sign of a covenant with ,god1 the apostle calls it a mere outward mutilation of the flesh 7iii4 #b74 ,it is unlikely that ,jewish influences were potent at ,philippi4 ,the explanation of this passage appears to be that the apostle1 before completing his letter1 learnt of some new and successful plot of the ,judaizers at ,rome or elsewhere4 ,nervously dreading lest they should invade his beloved ,philippian ,church1 he speaks with great severity of these conspirators4 ,the conclusion of the chapter is apparently directed against the licence of certain ,gentile converts4 ,these seem to have been enemies of the cross of ,christ in the looseness of their lives rather than in the corruptness of their creed4 ,it is difficult in this case1 as in that of the ,judaizers1 to know whether these errors already existed at ,philippi or not4 ,the passage concludes with an exhortation to steadfastness 7iii4 #b-;iv4 #a74 ,two women1 ,euodia and ,syntyche1 are exhorted to be of the same mind4 ,a true yokefellow of the apostle1 possibly ,epaphroditus1 and a certain ,clement1 possibly the ,clement who was afterwards ,bishop of ,rome1 are exhorted to try to bring about their reconciliation4 ,all are exhorted to rejoice in the ,lord1 and are told that the peace of ,god1 which passeth understanding1 shall stand sentinel over their hearts and thoughts4 ,before returning again to personal matters and thanking the ,philippians for their gifts1 ,st4 ,paul urges them to follow whatsoever is true and lovely4 ,his language here seems to consecrate all that was permanently valuable in the sayings of the ,greek philosophers4 ,it recalls to us the words of the ancient ,church historian1 ,socrates3 ,the beautiful1 wherever it may be1 is the property of truth4 #aid ,,analysis ,salutation1 thanksgiving1 prayer 7i4 #a-aa74 ,the position of affairs at ,rome4 ,his imprisonment has stimulated the preaching of the gospel2 his own feelings are divided between the desire for death and a willingness to live for their sakes2 an exhortation to boldness 7i4 #ab-cj74 ,an exhortation to imitate the humility of ,christ1 who took the form of man and was willing to die1 and was after this abasement exalted above every created being 7ii4 #a-aa74 ,an exhortation to obedience1 quietness1 purity1 mission and commendation of ,timothy and ,epaphroditus2 farewell 7ii4 #ab-;iii4 #a74 ,strong warning against ,judaism1 enforced by his own example2 against claim to perfection1 also enforced by his own example2 against ,antinomian licence as unworthy of citizens of heaven1 exhortation to steadfastness 7iii4 #b-;iv4 #a74 ,advice to ,euodia1 ,syntyche1 and others2 exhortation to think of all things true and lovely 7iv4 #b-i74 ,the apostle expresses his joy at the spirit shown by the offerings sent to him from ,philippi4 ,doxology4 ,salutation 7iv4 #aj-bc74 #a ,so ,e4 ,haupt1 ,die ,gefangenschaftsbriefe1 p4 #c4 #b ,the ,greek is ordinarily translated as a prize to be grasped1 but it seems quite possible to translate the passage1 ,he considered not equality with ,god to involve a process of grasping4 #aie ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,the ,,pastoral ,,epistles ,sidenote3 ,the ,author4 #a and #b ,timothy and ,titus form the fourth and last group of ,st4 ,paul's ,epistles1 and are known as the ,pastoral ,epistles1#a because they deal so largely with the duties and qualifications of the men entrusted with the pastoral care of the ,church4 ,st4 ,paul here teaches the teachers4 ,their genuineness is more frequently denied than that of any other of ,st4 ,paul's ,epistles1 and this attack upon their genuineness has been mostly based upon the character of their teaching about the office-bearers of the ,church4 ,attempts have sometimes been made to separate some fragments supposed to be genuine from the remaining portions4 ,all such attempts have failed4 ,these ,epistles must either be rejected entirely or accepted entirely4 ,otherwise we become involved in a hopeless tangle of conjectures4 ,the external evidence is excellent4 ,they are found in the ,syriac and ,old ,latin versions1 and in the ,muratorian ,fragment4 ,they are all quoted by ,irenaeus1 and also by ,clement of ,alexandria and ,tertullian4 ,their authenticity was therefore regarded as a certain fact in the latter part of the #bnd century1 and early in the #dth century ,eusebius was unaware that any doubts concerning them existed in the ,church4 ,moreover1 ,st4 ,polycarp1 ,a4,d4 #aaj1 quotes both #a and #b ,timothy4 ,the #aif combined evidence of these writers forms a very substantial argument4 ,against it we sometimes find urged the fact that the heretic ,marcion rejected them4 ,such an objection borders on frivolity4 ,marcion held a definite doctrinal heresy1 and rejected everything which he could not make to coincide with his own belief4 ,the value which is set on the ,old ,testament 7e4g4 #b ,tim4 iii4 #af71 the assertion of a real incarnation 7e4g4 #a ,tim4 ii4 #e71 and the sustained opposition to a false spiritualism1 which these ,epistles exhibit1 must have been intensely distasteful to ,marcion4 ,we have therefore no reason for believing that he would hesitate to reject them1 while knowing them to be genuine1 any more than he hesitated to reject all the ,gospels except ,luke4 ,the internal evidence is called in question for the following reasons4 #a4 ,historical difficulties4--,we cannot place the journey referred to in #a ,tim4 i4 #c during the three years' stay at ,ephesus mentioned in ,acts4 ,the visit to ,miletus in #b ,tim4 iv4 #bj cannot have taken place on the journey to ,jerusalem in ,acts xx41 because ,trophimus was with the apostle when he reached that city 7,acts xxi4 #bi74 ,again1 in #b ,tim4 iv4 #bj ,erastus abode at ,corinth4 ,but he had not been to ,corinth for a long time before the journey to ,rome recorded in ,acts4 ,in ,tit4 i4 #e we see ,titus left by ,st4 ,paul at ,crete2 he is to join the apostle in ,nicopolis 7iii4 #ab74 ,but ,acts allows no room for this1 and the reference to ,apollos 7iii4 #ac7 implies a later period than ,st4 ,paul's stay at ,corinth 7,acts xviii474 ,answer4--,all three ,epistles may quite well be later than the history related in ,acts4 ,there is no reason for denying that ,st4 ,paul was set free after his trial at ,rome1 and arrested again at a later date4 ,assuming that this liberation did take place1 all historical difficulties vanish4 ,there are several points in favour of this liberation4 ,first1 the attitude of the ,roman government towards ,christianity was fairly tolerant until ,nero began his persecution in ,a4,d4 #fd1 and the state of the law would #aig have allowed ,st4 ,paul's acquittal4 ,secondly1 it was believed in the early ,church that ,st4 ,paul was set free4 ,the ,muratorian ,fragment says that he went to ,spain1 and ,st4 ,clement of ,rome1 writing from ,rome about ,a4,d4 #ie1 says that he went to the boundary of the west1 which seems to point to ,spain4 ,thirdly1 the chronology implied in the ancient list of the bishops of ,rome will not allow us to put ,st4 ,paul's martyrdom earlier than ,a4,d4 #fd4 ,fourthly1 the apostle himself expected to be set free 7,phil4 ii4 #bd2 ,philem4 #bb74 ,there is therefore no historical reason for denying that ,st4 ,paul was set free from the imprisonment in which ,acts leaves him4 #b4 ,references to heresies4--,it has been said that these ,epistles contain references to heresies later than the apostolic age1 such as the ,gnosticism of the #bnd century4 ,more especially1 it is said that #a ,tim4 vi4 #bj1 which speaks of oppositions of gnosis falsely so called1 refers to a work by ,marcion called the ,oppositions 7,antitheses71 in which he tried to demonstrate that the ,old ,testament was antagonistic to the ,new4 ,answer4--,the heresies here rebuked are not so definitely described that we can determine their precise character4 ,this fact is in favour of the idea that the heresies belong to the #ast century rather than to the #bnd4 ,stress has been laid upon statements which seem to imply ,gnostic heresy1 and heresy of a ,docetic character1 i4e4 teaching a denial of the reality of our ,lord's human nature4 ,but there is certainly nothing which suggests that the error here rebuked was as developed as the heresy rebuked by ,st4 ,ignatius1 or even that denounced by ,st4 ,john4 ,it is most unlikely that the word oppositions can refer to a book bearing that title4 ,the passage #a ,tim4 vi4 #bj does not suggest this4 ,and if ,marcion is really quoted in #a ,tim41 how could ,polycarp have quoted #a ,tim41 as he does1 before ,marcion's book was written8 ,something of a ,gnostic tendency is betokened by the scorn of material life and the human body shown in #a ,tim4 iv4 #c1 #h and #b ,tim4 ii4 #ah4 ,but the error is mainly ,jewish4 ,the false #aih teachers professed to be teachers of the ,law 7#a ,tim4 i4 #g71 which was exactly the title claimed by the ,jewish rabbis 7see ,luke v4 #ag74 ,the general character of their teaching was vain talking 7#a ,tim4 i4 #f2 cf4 ,tit4 i4 #aj2 iii4 #i74 ,it consists of profane babblings 7#a ,tim4 vi4 #bj2 #b ,tim4 ii4 #af74 ,it is further characterized as foolish questionings1 and genealogies1 and strifes1 and fightings about the law 4 4 4 unprofitable and vain 7,tit4 iii4 #i74 ,it is summed up in the phrases old wives' fables 7#a ,tim4 iv4 #g71 ,jewish fables 7,tit4 i4 #ad74 ,all this shows that the error was not a definite ,gnostic heresy with a fundamentally false view of ,god4 ,it was something intrinsically ridiculous4 ,therefore the endless genealogies 7#a ,tim4 i4 #d7 can hardly be ,gnostic genealogies of the semi-divine beings who took part in the creation4 ,they are ,jewish tales about the heroes of the ,old ,testament4 ,the error is1 in fact1 primitive1 and does not belong to the #bnd century4 #c4 ,church organization4--,it is said that these ,epistles lay down the rules for an organization of the ,church which is later than the apostolic age1 and resembles the ,episcopal system1 such as we find it in the #bnd century4 ,titus and ,timothy act as delegates of the apostle1 and as the highest officials of the ministry1 and they appoint presbyters and deacons4 ,we thus find a threefold ministry which derives its sacred authority through the apostolate4 ,the apostle lays his hands upon his delegate 7#b ,tim4 i4 #f71 and this delegate lays his hands upon others 7#a ,tim4 v4 #bb74 ,answer4--,it is perfectly true that there is a threefold ministry mentioned in these ,epistles4 ,but there is no sufficient reason for denying that such a ministry is of apostolic origin4 ,it seems quite certain that at ,jerusalem the presbyters and deacons were under the authority of ,st4 ,james1 and after his death under that of ,symeon4 ,the same form of government can also be traced back in other places to apostolic times4 ,moreover1 the organization which is mentioned in ,acts is fundamentally the same as that in these ,epistles4 ,in ,acts we #aii find the apostles first appointing deacons and then presbyters4 ,all the additional evidence which has lately been discovered to support the genuineness of ,acts therefore favours the genuineness of these ,epistles4 ,finally1 we must notice that the titles of the ministry in these ,epistles do not correspond with the titles used in the #bnd century4 ,the government is substantially ,episcopal1 but the title episkopos was in the #bnd century only applied to the chief dignitary who ruled over the presbyters4 ,but here the title episkopos is applied to the presbyters themselves as the overseers of the congregation4 ,we find the same thing in the letter of ,st4 ,clement1 ,a4,d4 #ie4 ,st4 ,clement1 although ,bishop of ,rome1 still gives the title of episkopos to the presbyters4 ,this inconvenient practice was given up soon after that date1 for we find that ,st4 ,ignatius1 about ,a4,d4 #aaj1 applies the title episkopos only to the highest ministers of the ,church4 ,we conclude1 therefore1 that while the organization of the ,church described in the ,pastoral ,epistles supports the belief that the threefold ministry1 which we now call ,episcopal organization1 is of apostolic origin1 it does not prove that these ,epistles are forgeries4 ,and it is natural that ,st4 ,paul1 knowing that his death must before long come to pass1 should devote a large measure of attention to questions of ,church government and discipline4 ,the history of the ,church in the #bnd and #crd centuries proves to us that the organization of the ,church was almost as important as the inspiration of the ,church4 #d4 ,language4--,this is an important difficulty4 ,there are in these ,epistles many words and phrases which do not occur in the other ,epistles of ,st4 ,paul4 ,we find different ,greek words used for ,lord and for the second advent1 and a fondness for the words wholesome1 godliness1 and faithful saying4 ,the new element is most prominent in #a ,tim4 and ,titus4 ,answer4--,private letters to individuals and friends in reference to one particular subject are not likely to resemble public letters which were written in reference to other subjects4 ,it #bjj would therefore be unreasonable to expect that the style of the ,pastoral ,epistles should be cast in the same mould as that of the other ,epistles of ,st4 ,paul4 ,nevertheless1 the objection would have considerable weight1 if ,st4 ,paul's aptitude for varying his vocabulary could not be shown4 ,but it can be shown2 for his other ,epistles are marked by an astonishing variation in the ,greek4 ,beneath this diversity there exists a unity4 ,the ,pastoral ,epistles have many ,pauline phrases1#b many graphic touches1 many forcible and original statements1 and glow with that personal devotion to ,christ combined with a practical capacity for guiding ,christians which ,st4 ,paul possessed in so singular a degree4 ,if the ,pastoral ,epistles are spurious1 or if they are composite productions written by a forger who inserted some notes of ,st4 ,paul in his own effusions1 it becomes almost impossible to account for the fact that #b ,tim4 differs delicately both in language and subject from #a ,tim4 and ,titus4 ,in view of this fact we can admire the sagacity of a recent opponent of their authenticity who deprecates the possibility of extricating the ,pauline from the traditional and editorial material6 #c ,,the ,,first ,,epistle ,,of ,,paul ,,the ,,apostle ,,to ,,timothy ,sidenote3 ,the ,author4 ,reasons have already been given for rejecting the arguments which have been alleged against the ,pauline authorship of this ,epistle4 ,we may add that it is unlikely that a forger would have inserted the word mercy 7i4 #b7 in the usual ,pauline greeting grace and peace4 ,the reference to ,timothy's youth 7iv4 #ab2 cf4 #b ,tim4 ii4 #bb7 has seemed strange to many4 ,but although #bja ,st4 ,paul had been acquainted with ,timothy for about twelve years1 ,timothy must have been greatly the junior of ,st4 ,paul4 ,even if ,timothy was as old as thirty-five1 the word youth would be quite natural from the pen of an old man writing to a pupil1 whom he had known as a very young man1 and whom he was now putting in authority over men old enough to be his own father4 ,we can attribute this ,epistle to ,st4 ,paul without hesitation4 ,sidenote3 ,to whom written4 ,timothy was one of the apostle's own converts1 his child in faith4 ,we learn from ,acts xvi4 #a that he was the son of a ,greek-speaking ,gentile father and a ,jewish mother4 ,he had received a strictly religious ,jewish training from his mother ,eunice and his grandmother ,lois 7#b ,tim4 i4 #a-e2 iii4 #ad1 #ae74 ,he was converted by ,st4 ,paul on his first missionary journey1 at ,lystra or ,derbe4 ,on ,st4 ,paul's second visit to that district1 ,timothy was so well reported of that he was thought worthy of being associated with the apostle in his work4 ,before employing him as a colleague1 ,st4 ,paul had him circumcised1 that he might be able to work among ,jews as well as ,gentiles 7,acts xvi4 #c74 ,some ,christian prophets pointed him out as destined for his sacred office 7#a ,tim4 i4 #ah74 ,he was ordained by the laying on of the hands of ,st4 ,paul himself and the presbyters of the ,church 7#a ,tim4 iv4 #ad2 #b ,tim4 i4 #f74 ,he was frequently associated with the apostle in travelling and in the writing of ,epistles4 ,his name occurs as sending a salutation in ,rom4 xvi4 #ba1 and as the fellow-sender of six of the apostle's letters4 ,he was with the apostle during his first imprisonment at ,rome 7see ,phil41 ,col41 and ,philemon74 ,from this ,epistle we learn that after the apostle's release he was left in charge of the important ,church at ,ephesus4 ,while he was in this position1 the two ,epistles which bear his name were written to him4 ,sidenote3 ,where and when written4 ,it is impossible to ascertain the precise direction of ,st4 ,paul's journeys after his release1 and it is wisest to refrain from mere conjecture4 ,before writing this letter he had been recently #bjb at ,ephesus and had been called away to ,macedonia 7i4 #c74 ,he intended to return before long1 but had been unexpectedly delayed 7iii4 #ad1 #ae74 ,this delay rendered it necessary for him to send directions to ,timothy4 ,the precise date cannot be exactly fixed4 ,if ,st4 ,paul's martyrdom was as early as ,a4,d4 #fd1 and his release as early as ,a4,d4 #fa1 we may reasonably put this letter in ,a4,d4 #fc4 ,sidenote3 ,character and ,contents4 ,the letter is personal1 but it is also official4 ,it is intended to guide ,timothy in his work of apostolic delegate4 ,in speaking to the presbyters of ,ephesus at ,miletus 7,acts xx4 #bi1 #cj71 ,st4 ,paul had already expressed fears about the future of the ,church1 and these fears now seem to have been partly realized4 ,ephesus was a meeting-place of east and west1 a place where religious speculations and religious divisions were likely to increase1 and where wise supervision of the ,christian ,church was essential4 ,the contents of the ,epistle therefore mainly consist of warnings against ,judaism and false knowledge1 and directions as to the duties of various classes of ,christians1 and especially the clergy4 ,,analysis ,the danger of ,jewish and ,gnostic heresy 7i474 ,the order of common prayer 7ii474 ,the qualifications of episkopoi 7translated bishops in the ,english versions7 and deacons 7iii474 ,condemnation of ,gnostic asceticism and the duty of ,timothy towards heresy 7iv474 ,counsels as to the treatment of presbyters 7translated elders in the ,english versions7 and widows 7v474 ,warnings against disobedience towards masters1 vain disputations1 covetousness1 and a wrong use of wealth--concluding with a direct appeal to ,timothy 7vi474 #bjc ,,the ,,epistle ,,of ,,paul ,,to ,,titus ,sidenote3 ,the ,author4 ,this is exactly the kind of letter which we should expect to be written by a writer of strong individuality addressing a disciple entrusted with the duty of ruling a ,church threatened by the same troubles as the ,church which was under the supervision of ,timothy4 ,it is attributed to ,st4 ,paul by ,irenaeus1 and is amply supported by other early writers4 ,sidenote3 ,to whom written4 ,to ,titus1 my true child after a common faith 7i4 #d74 ,titus was converted by ,st4 ,paul 7i4 #d71 and was an uncircumcised ,gentile 7,gal4 ii4 #c74 ,he must have been converted at an early period in the apostle's career1 for he was with ,paul and ,barnabas on their visit from ,antioch to ,jerusalem in ,a4,d4 #di4 ,he was therefore present during the great crisis when the freedom of the ,gentiles from the ceremonial part of the ,jewish law was vindicated4 ,it is suggested by ,gal4 ii4 that ,titus was personally known to the ,galatians1 and possibly he was himself a ,galatian4 ,titus was prominent at another important crisis4 ,when the ,church at ,corinth was involved in strife1 ,titus was sent thither4 ,his efforts were attended with success1 and he was able to report good news on returning to ,st4 ,paul in ,macedonia 7#b ,cor4 vii4 #f1 #g1 #ac-ae74 ,he carried the ,second ,epistle to the ,corinthians to ,corinth4 ,we hear no more of him until the period when this ,epistle was written4 ,after ,st4 ,paul's release from his first imprisonment1 ,titus was with him in ,crete1 and was left by the apostle to direct the affairs of the ,church in that island 7,tit4 i4 #e74 ,it is plain that the tact and wisdom which he had shown at ,corinth had not failed him in the interval1 and that ,st4 ,paul still regarded him as a worthy delegate and a true evangelist of the gospel of peace4 ,sidenote3 ,where and when written4 ,the similarity to #a ,timothy makes it almost certain that ,titus was written about the same time1 and before #b ,timothy4 #bjd ,the apostle is expecting to winter at ,nicopolis1 probably the ,nicopolis in ,epirus4 ,the letter was therefore possibly written from ,greece4 ,it seems from iii4 #ac that ,zenas1 a former teacher of the ,jewish law1 and ,apollos1 had occasion to travel by ,crete1 and ,st4 ,paul takes the opportunity to send a letter with them to ,titus4 ,sidenote3 ,character and ,contents4 ,the greeting at the beginning of the ,epistle and the character of its general contents show that this letter is official as well as private4 ,possibly the gospel was first brought to ,crete by those ,jews or proselytes from ,crete who saw the outpouring of the ,holy ,spirit at ,jerusalem on the ,day of ,pentecost 7,acts ii4 #aa47 ,fully thirty years had passed since then1 but the ,church had not hitherto been sufficiently organized to be independent of the apostle4 ,now1 however1 the apostolic delegate will be able to ordain the presbyters required in every city4 ,the manner in which the episkopoi are mentioned immediately afterwards 7i4 #e1 #g7 strongly favours the idea that the name episkopos is here used as a title of the presbyters1 as in ,acts xx4 ,they form the order under the apostle's delegate4 ,useless speculations of a ,jewish character had invaded the ,church 7i4 #aj-ad2 iii4 #i74 ,the teachers of these fables were influenced by love of filthy lucre4 ,st4 ,paul quotes the saying that the ,cretans are liars1 evil beasts1 idle gluttons1 and attributes it to one of themselves1 a prophet of their own4 ,the saying is by the poet ,epimenides1 c4 ,b4,c4 #fjj4 ,he was a native of ,cnossus in ,crete1 who was regarded as a seer1 and his reputation for second-sight is testified by ,plato giving him the epithet divine4 ,st4 ,paul seems convinced that the ,cretan character was as prone to sensuality as in the days of ,epimenides1 and it is immediately after alluding to their dangers that he utters the memorable words1 unto the pure all things are pure4 ,the apostle's exhortation to maintain good works 7iii4 #h7 is one of the verses which have been absurdly alleged to be out of harmony with #bje ,st4 ,paul's insistence upon the importance of justification by faith4 ,there is a definite allusion to baptismal regeneration in iii4 #e4 ,,analysis ,titus to ordain elders2 the requisite character of episkopoi1 ,judaizing talkers to be checked 7i474 ,duties of aged men and women2 young women and men2 servants2 the grace of ,god and the hope inspired by it 7ii474 ,duty towards rulers and all men2 the kindness of ,god2 foolish discussions to be avoided2 how to deal with a heretic2 personal notes 7iii474 ,,the ,,second ,,epistle ,,of ,,paul ,,the ,,apostle ,,to ,,timothy ,sidenote3 ,the ,author4 ,it is generally considered that the authenticity of this ,epistle stands or falls with that of the ,first ,epistle4 ,but it bears its own peculiar marks of genuineness4 ,one thoroughly ,pauline feature is thanksgiving at the beginning1 a feature which is found in eight of his other ,epistles1 but not in the two other ,pastoral ,epistles4 ,a forger might have had the critical insight which would lead him to compose this thanksgiving4 ,but it is highly improbable that a forger would have put twenty-three proper names into the ,epistle without tamely copying names which occur elsewhere1 or without betraying any wish to glorify some saint who became popular after the death of the apostle4 ,neither of these two suspicious tokens can be detected here4 ,for instance1 ,demas1 concerning whom nothing that is discreditable is narrated elsewhere1 is here rebuked with a pathetic regret 7iv4 #aj2 cf4 ,col4 iv4 #ad72 while ,linus1 afterwards a famous bishop and martyr of ,rome1 is mentioned without any honourable distinction at all4 ,even if the ,linus of this ,epistle is not the bishop of that name #bjf the argument still holds good4 ,for a forger1 if he inserted the name of any ,linus1 would have been almost certain to mention the ,linus and no other4 ,sidenote3 ,to whom written4 ,to ,timothy1 my beloved child 7i4 #b74 ,sidenote3 ,where and when written4 ,it was written from ,rome1 where ,st4 ,paul is again a prisoner1 the reason of his imprisonment being the witness that he has borne to ,christ 7i4 #h1 #ab1 #ag74 ,his imprisonment had already lasted some time1 for it was known at ,ephesus4 ,the apostle had apparently requested two of his friends1 ,phygellus and ,hermogenes1 to come to him at ,rome1 but they had declined4 ,the ,ephesian ,onesiphorus had acted otherwise1 and when in ,rome had sought him out4 ,st4 ,paul anticipates death4 ,his case has already had a first hearing1 when no witness appeared in his defence 7iv4 #af74 ,he is now ready to be offered up4 ,but he does not anticipate an immediate martyrdom1 as he urges ,timothy to come to ,rome before winter4 ,the date is therefore probably some weeks or months before ,st4 ,paul's martyrdom4 ,the year is either ,a4,d4 #fd or very soon afterwards4 ,sidenote ,character and ,contents4 ,this ,epistle is the apostle's farewell pastoral charge4 ,he looks forward to his fate with courage and confidence4 ,he has fought a good fight1 and is sure of the crown of righteousness which the ,lord will give him4 ,but he sees that a dark future is in store for the ,church4 ,some professing ,christians have already deserted him1 others have perverted the faith4 ,among the latter are ,hymenseus and ,philetus1 who assert that the resurrection is past already4 ,it is probable that they were influenced by some ,gnostic dislike of the human body1 and taught that the only resurrection possible for a ,christian was the spiritual resurrection of becoming acquainted with their own ,gnostic doctrine4 ,such a heresy is described by ,irenaeus4 ,st4 ,paul warns ,timothy that there are grievous times to come 7iii4 #a74 ,scripture will be a means of security against the mischief-makers4 #bjg ,the various exhortations given to ,timothy are of great force and beauty2 he is to endure hardship like a good soldier1 and is charged before ,god to preach and rebuke with long-suffering4 ,the solemnity of these words is equalled by the pungent sarcasm with which the writer alludes to the schismatics who lead captive silly women or will heap to themselves teachers1 having itching ears4 ,we may notice that ii4 #aa-ac seems to contain part of a ,christian hymn1 that iii4 #h contains a reference to a ,jewish story not found in the ,old ,testament1 and that i4 #ah is perhaps a prayer for the dead4 ,the ,second ,book of ,maccabees xii4 #dd shows that in the century before the ,christian era the ,jews were wont to pray for the departed4 ,,analysis ,exhortation to energy1 the failure of friends1 the fidelity of ,onesiphorus 7i474 ,exhortation to endurance as ,christ's soldier1 profane discussions to be shunned2 the error of ,hymenseus and ,philetus2 varieties of character like varieties of vessels2 the way to become a vessel of honour 7ii474 ,coming corruption1 the creeping mischief-makers2 ,timothy is reminded of ,st4 ,paul's manner of life and of the value of ,scripture 7iii474 ,exhortation to fidelity in ministerial work2 the apostle's course drawing to an end1 ,timothy urged to come2 personal notes 7iv474 #a ,this title seems to have been first applied to them in #ahaj by ,wegscheider4 #b ,cf4 according to my gospel 7#b ,tim4 ii4 #h2 ,rom4 ii4 #af72 the gospel of the glory 7#a ,tim4 i4 #aa2 #b ,cor4 iv4 #d74 ,the ,greek phrase for give occasion to 7#a ,tim4 v4 #ad7 is found in #b ,cor4 v4 #ab1 and nowhere in the ,new ,testament except in ,st4 ,paul4 #c ,b4 ,w4 ,bacon1 ,introduction to the ,new ,testament1 p4 #adj4 #bjh ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,the ,,epistle ,,to ,,the ,,hebrews ,sidenote3 ,the ,author4 ,the question of the authorship of this ,epistle is one of the most fascinating problems raised by the criticism of the ,new ,testament4 ,it does not in the least involve any charge of forgery1 such as is involved in a consideration of ,st4 ,john's ,gospel or of ,st4 ,paul's ,epistle to the ,ephesians4 ,nor does it involve the fact of an author absorbing the work of a previous writer1 such as we find in the case of ,st4 ,luke4 ,the work is one complete and original composition of great finish and perfection1 and yet this perfect work contains hardly a hint as to its author4 ,the title which is placed above it in our ,bibles deserves serious consideration1 as it represents an opinion which was held in many parts of ,christendom in the #dth century1 and in some parts of ,christendom even in the #bnd century4 ,but it by no means represents the universal judgment of the ,church1 and is contradicted by good evidence1 both external and internal4 ,a remarkable divergence of opinion on the subject existed between the ,churches of the east and those of the west4 ,alexandria appears to have been the first centre of the belief that this ,epistle was written by ,st4 ,paul4 ,we find that about ,a4,d4 #agj1 ,pantaenus1 the head of the catechetical school at ,alexandria1 attributed it to ,st4 ,paul4 ,his successor ,clement agrees with this1 but states that it was written in ,hebrew and translated by ,st4 ,luke into ,greek--a statement which implies that scholars were conscious that the style of ,hebrews is not #bji the style ordinarily used by ,st4 ,paul4 ,in ,a4,d4 #bdj1 ,origen1 the successor of ,clement1 defends the ,pauline authorship--a defence which shows that the authorship was disputed4 ,in ,a4,d4 #bde ,origen had learnt to doubt the validity of his former defence1 and states that the writer was a disciple of ,paul1 but who wrote the ,epistle ,god only knows4 ,in ,a4,d4 #bfi the famous heretic ,paul of ,samosata quoted ,hebrews as the work of ,st4 ,paul in a letter read at the ,synod of ,antioch which deposed him from his bishopric4 ,early in the next century ,eusebius quotes the ,epistle as by ,st4 ,paul1 but he shows the same perplexity as ,clement of ,alexandria1 for he thinks that it was translated from the ,hebrew1 possibly by ,clement of ,rome4 ,after the time of ,eusebius the ,greek ,fathers all ascribe it to ,st4 ,paul4 ,we can therefore sum up the evidence of the ,greek ,churches by saying that though it mostly favours one theory1 it is not so cogent as to remove all our suspicions4 ,moreover1 the complete absence of references to this ,epistle in the extant writings of ,irenaeus#a almost compels us to ask if the ,greek ,churches of ,southern ,gaul and ,asia ,minor regarded this ,epistle as ,pauline4 ,irenaeus might naturally omit to quote a short and comparatively unimportant ,epistle1 but his omission of a long ,epistle1 well adapted to his arguments1 inclines us to place him in a rank opposite to his contemporary1 ,clement of ,alexandria4 ,a ,greek writer of the #fth century actually says that ,irenaeus1 in a passage now lost1 denied that ,st4 ,paul wrote the ,epistle4#b ,the ,latin ,churches of the west seem to have been for three centuries under the conviction that this ,epistle was not by ,st4 ,paul4 ,it is quoted by ,clement of ,rome1 ,a4,d4 #ie1 a fact which #baj alone is sufficient to prove its early date and its sacred character4 ,but ,clement makes no statement as to its authorship4 ,caius of ,rome1 ,a4,d4 #bjj1 excludes it from the list of ,st4 ,paul's ,epistles1 and the same hesitation with regard to it existed in the great ,latin-speaking ,church of ,carthage4 ,st4 ,cyprian1 ,a4,d4 #bej1 does not include ,hebrews among ,st4 ,paul's ,epistles4 ,no ,latin ,father attributes it to ,st4 ,paul before ,hilary of ,poictiers in ,a4,d4 #cfh1 and ,hilary was in close contact with the ,east4 ,at the end of the #dth century ,st4 ,jerome shows distinct hesitation in attributing it to ,st4 ,paul1 and it was not commonly attributed to him in the west until the time of ,st4 ,augustine1 who died in #dcb4 ,internal evidence agrees with the external evidence in making it very difficult for us to believe that ,st4 ,paul wrote ,hebrews4 7#a7 ,the ,greek is more elegant than that of ,st4 ,paul's ,epistles4 ,the styles are widely different4 ,that of ,st4 ,paul is abrupt and vehement like a mountain-torrent1 that of ,hebrews is calm and smooth like a river running through a meadow4 7#b7 ,the quotations are very unlike ,st4 ,paul's4 ,they are all from the ,greek version of the ,old ,testament1 with the exception of that in x4 #cj1 which occurs in the same form in ,rom4 xii4 #ai4 ,it had probably taken this shape in popular use4 ,the quotations are introduced by phrases such as ,god saith1 or the ,holy ,spirit saith4 ,but ,st4 ,paul often shows a knowledge of the ,hebrew when he makes quotations1 and he uses such phrases as it is written1 or the ,scripture saith1 or ,moses saith4 7#c7 ,there is no salutation such as is usual in ,st4 ,paul's ,epistles4 7#d7 ,in ,hebrews the incarnate ,son is called ,jesus1 or ,christ1 or the ,lord4 ,in ,st4 ,paul's ,epistles we find fuller titles employed1 such as our ,lord ,jesus ,christ4 7#e7 ,the theological differences are important4 ,the teaching of the author harmonizes with that of ,st4 ,paul1 but throughout the ,epistle we feel that the truths of ,christianity are being expounded to us by one whose personal history is different #baa from that of ,st4 ,paul4 ,the author starts from the fact of the perfection of ,christ's sacrifice1 and in his doctrine about the ,law he looks at it from that fact4 ,st4 ,paul1 on the other hand1 starts from the doctrine of justification by faith1 and looks at the ,law from the point of that doctrine4 ,again1 the author takes a general view of faith as heroic belief in unseen facts2 while ,st4 ,paul1 though he sometimes does the same1 prefers to use the word faith in the sense of devoted1 personal1 adhesion to ,christ4 7#f7 ,in ii4 #c1 #d the author seems to imply that he had not personally seen the ,lord4 ,many conjectures have been made as to the real author4 ,few of these conjectures deserve serious consideration4 ,luther suggested ,apollos1 and the suggestion has been accepted by many writers4 ,in favour of it are3 7#a7 he was a friend of ,st4 ,paul2 7#b7 he was mighty in the ,scriptures1 and ,hebrews deals with the ,old ,testament in a masterly way2 7#c7 he was an ,alexandrian ,jew1 and ,hebrews was plainly written by a ,jew1 and apparently by one acquainted with ,philo and other ,alexandrian authors4#c ,against this theory is the complete absence of traditional support1 and the fact that ,apollos was taught by ,aquila and ,priscilla1 whereas the author of ,hebrews implies that he was taught by a personal disciple of ,christ4 ,on the whole1 ,st4 ,barnabas seems to have the best claim4 ,tertullian not only speaks of it as the work of ,barnabas1 but also shows by his words that the ,church of ,north ,africa regarded it as his work4#d ,he is not1 therefore1 making a conjecture1 but assuming a tradition4 ,his evidence is the more valuable1 because the ,church of ,north ,africa was important and was in close contact with ,rome1 where the ,epistle was venerated at least as early as ,a4,d4 #ie4 ,in favour #bab of the tradition we can note3 7#a7 ,st4 ,barnabas was an influential companion of ,st4 ,paul2 7#b7 he was a ,levite1 and would be interested in ,levitical worship2 7#c7 he was a native of ,cyprus1 which was in close communication with ,alexandria2 7#d7 he had been in the regions to which the ,epistle was probably addressed4 ,against the theory that ,st4 ,barnabas was the author1 it is said that the author makes surprising errors with regard to the ,temple ritual1 which ,st4 ,barnabas was not likely to do4 ,the so-called errors are3 7a7 the high priest sacrificing daily 7vii4 #bg2 x4 #aa7--;but the high priest was free to do this2 7b7 the pot of manna and ,aaron's rod placed in the ark 7ix4 #d71 though not so described in #a ,kings viii4 #i--;but in the tabernacle they were at least close to the ark 7,exod4 xvi4 #cd2 ,numb4 xvii4 #aj72 7c7 the altar of incense is said to belong to the holiest place 7ix4 #d7--;but it did belong to it in the sense of sanctifying the approach to it1 though it was placed outside it3 see #a ,kings vi4 #bb4 ,no one can reasonably say that these statements are of such a nature as to prove that the ,epistle was not written by a ,levite4 ,sidenote3 ,to whom written4 ,the title says ,to the ,hebrews4 ,the character of the ,epistle suggests this4 ,it was plainly written for ,jewish ,christians1 and apparently for some particular community of them 7v4 #aa1 #ab2 vi4 #i1 #aj2 x4 #cb-cd2 xiii4 #a1 #g1 #ai1 #bc74 ,which community1 it is difficult to say4 ,the ,jewish ,christians of ,rome have been suggested1 and in support of this the reference to ,italian ,christians 7xiii4 #bd7 has been quoted4 ,it is a strange fact that this theory about the destination of the ,epistle is favoured by some critics who assign it to a late date4 ,for if it was really written to ,rome1 the date must be early4 ,it is almost inconceivable that the author should have said1 ,ye have not yet resisted unto blood1 to the ,christians of ,rome after the persecution of ,a4,d4 #fd-fe4 ,some town in ,syria or ,palestine is more likely than ,rome1 and ,antioch seems a probable destination for the ,epistle4 ,the community must have been #bac familiar with ,greek1 and at the same time must have been under strong temptations to relapse into ,judaism4 ,they had for the sake of ,christ left the warm social life of ,judaism4 ,they felt isolated and depressed4 ,the splendour of the temple worship and the zeal of ,jewish patriotism were luring them back to their old religion4 ,they felt that they had perhaps deserted a magnificent reality for a shadowy hope4 ,such circumstances fit with the theory that the community dwelt in ,palestine or ,syria1 and the same theory is supported by the fact that these ,christians had been converted long ago 7v4 #ab71 and had heard the apostles 7ii4 #c74 ,sidenote3 ,where and when written4 ,probably from ,italy1 as shown by xiii4 #bd4 ,the date may be put about ,a4,d4 #ff4 ,a generation of ,christians had passed away 7xiii4 #b74 ,the doom of ,jerusalem was approaching 7x4 #be2 viii4 #ac2 xiii4 #ac74 ,the frequent reference to the ,levitical worship1 as exerting an attractive force1 must imply that the temple was still standing4 ,the ,epistle must therefore be earlier than #gj4 ,it is true that the references to the ,levitical worship are sometimes more appropriate to the ancient tabernacle than to the temple1 and this fact is urged by those who maintain that the temple was already destroyed when the ,epistle was written4 ,but this is no answer to the fact that the ,jewish worship is throughout assumed to be in existence4 ,the author is not opposing the propaganda of ,jewish rabbis or the attractions of synagogues which were connected with the temple by tradition only4 ,he is opposing a great living system with its priesthood and its ritual4 ,and in order to criticize ,judaism he deals with the tabernacle1 concerning which the ,old ,testament gave definite directions4 ,this was a more effective method than discussing the temple which superseded the tabernacle4 ,sidenote3 ,character and contents4 ,hebrews is marked by a complete unity of argument4 ,though the thread of the argument is sometimes dropped for the sake of practical exhortation1 it is soon resumed and logically carried on4 #bad ,christ as the ,son of ,god is a manifestation of ,god superior to all other manifestations4 ,he is far above the prophets1 and above the angels1 who neither created the material world nor have the world to come subject unto them4 ,he towers above ,moses1 who was only a servant and a stone in the house of ,god1 for ,he is the ,son1 and built the house4 ,he is above ,joshua2 for ,he has won a rest for the people of ,god1 of which the rest of ,canaan was a mere type4 ,neither under ,joshua nor under ,david did the people of ,god reach the ideal sabbath rest which ,god has promised 7i4-iv4 #ac74 ,christ as ,high ,priest is above the ,aaronic priesthood1 for ,he is after the order of ,melchizedek 7,ps4 ex4 #d7 7iv4 #ad-v4 #aj74 ,then the writer1 before giving the full interpretation of ,christ's high priesthood1 makes a digression to urge the need of greater spiritual insight on the part of his readers 7v4 #aa-vi4 #ab74 ,they can be sure of ,god's blessing if they have faith and patience 7vi4 #ac-bj74 ,the unique position of ,melchizedek is then expounded4 ,in ,gen4 xiv4 nothing is said of ,melchizedek's descent or of his death4 ,thus he stands forth in contrast to the ,levitical priests whose descent is described1 and who die and are succeeded by others4 ,he was also superior to those priests1 because ,levi1 in the person of his father ,abraham1 paid tithes to ,melchizedek4 ,since ,melchizedek's priesthood is superior to that of the ,levitical priests1 much more is that of ,christ1 of whom ,melchizedek1 great as he was1 is only a type4 ,then the author shows that the rise of a new priesthood must imply the birth of a new religious system4 ,christ hath ,his priesthood unchangeable1 but needs not to repeat ,his sacrifice 7vii474 ,then the author shows that the new liturgy and the new sanctuary of the ,christian ,church are superior to the liturgy and the sanctuary of ,judaism4 ,though ,christ's blood was shed only once1 ,he retains the character of ,priest 7viii4 #c72 ,he hath somewhat to offer1 viz4 ,himself in ,his sacred manhood in heaven4 ,he thus acts as a ,mediator of the new covenant #bae promised in the ,old ,testament 7viii4 #f-ac74 ,the tabernacle was only a temporary parable2 ,christ acts as ,high ,priest in the holy of holies1 the actual presence of ,god typified by the tabernacle2 ,he has consecrated the new covenant between man and ,god by ,his own blood 7ix474 ,the repetition of the ,levitical sacrifices proves their impotence4 ,but that of ,christ is adequate4 ,it is an offering of inherent value1 being the offering of the will of ,christ1 instead of the offering of unconscious beasts4 ,and we need no other atonement1 for ,his unique offering has a perpetual value 7x4 #a-ah74 ,the writer then proceeds to insist upon the appropriation and application of the truths which he has expounded4 ,it is our privilege to have full confidence1 and our duty to assemble for worship3 apostasy is most serious 7x4 #ai-ci74 ,the writer next describes the nature of faith1 which is a faculty which makes the future as if it were present1 and the unseen as if it were visible4 ,it is illustrated by a magnificent roll-call of heroes from ,abel to the ,incarnation4 ,these heroes1 who saw both worlds1 and realized how petty the material world is compared with the spiritual1 had real insight 7xi474 ,emulate their example1 enduring persecution1 knowing that our ,mount ,zion is superior to ,sinai1 and our coming to church a reunion with angels and saints 7xii474 ,the ,epistle closes with a practical exhortation concerning brotherly love1 hospitality1 prisoners1 marriage1 and contentment4 ,the ministers who had formerly had rule over the readers are to be remembered4 ,we are not to be unsettled by strange teachings4 ,we have an altar of which the ,jewish priests may not partake4 ,our sin offering1 ,jesus1 is given to us as food4 ,we must go to ,him outside the camp of ,judaism4 ,after an injunction to obey the clergy and a request for prayers1 the ,epistle concludes4 ,just before the end it is stated that our brother ,timothy hath been set at liberty 7xiii474 ,the whole ,epistle is peculiarly dignified1 eloquent1 and #baf persuasive1 and its elegant ,greek and delicate ,alexandrian philosophy make it a literary treasure4 ,we may conclude with some further remarks on the writer's doctrine of ,christ's ,person and of the ,jewish ,law4 ,knowing that these ,christians were in danger of drifting away from ,christ1 the writer calls their special attention to ,his ,person1 in order that they may carefully consider who ,he is before deciding to part from ,him4 ,the doctrine corresponds most exactly with that which we find in ,colossians and in ,john4 ,it is declared in the most positive manner that ,christ is essentially divine4 ,he reflects ,his ,father's glory1 is the expression of ,his essence1 and the ,sustainer of the universe 7i4 #c74 ,he is the ,god whose throne is eternal1 and the ,lord who made the earth 7i4 #h1 #aj74 ,yet ,he became a little lower than the angels 7ii4 #i71 and1 though entirely sinless1 ,he was so truly human as to become the pattern of obedience 7x4 #g71 humility 7v4 #e71 reverent piety 7v4 #g71 and fidelity 7iii4 #b74 ,by the discipline of suffering ,he was made perfect for ,his redeeming work 7v4 #h1 #i74 ,it is made evident that this process of perfection did not consist in the diminution of sin1 but in the development of goodness4 ,nowhere do we find a more profound view of suffering and virtue1 or a more pathetic delineation of the character of ,jesus4 ,it has already been hinted that the author regards the ,jewish ,law differently from ,st4 ,paul4 ,the latter had lived under the goad of a ,pharisaic interpretation of the ,law of ,moses1 which laid down so many regulations as to what ought to be done1 and gave so little assistance towards doing it1 that escape from such a system was like an escape from penal servitude4 ,when he speaks of the ,law1 he regards it primarily as a system of stern moral requirements4 ,but the author of ,hebrews regards the ,law as primarily a system of worship4 ,he implies that it was in some sense a good tidings 7iv4 #b74 ,he teaches that the ,law was a shadow of those real good things which constitute the world of truth in heaven1 while the ,gospel is the #bag image or adequate representation of those holy realities4 ,the ,law is therefore a rough unsubstantial outline of truth1 while the ,gospel is exact and solid4 ,both writers regard the ,law as divine in origin1 and both regard it as insufficient and rudimentary 7vii4 #af2 cf4 ,gal4 iv4 #c1 #i74 ,but ,st4 ,paul thinks of the ,law as weak through the flesh1 unable to overcome the resistance which it encounters from man's lower instincts1 while the author of ,hebrews thinks of it as unable to cleanse and make perfect the human conscience4 ,,analysis ,the subject of the ,epistle3 ,,christianity ,,as ,,the ,,final ,,religion4 ,the contrast of the ,old ,revelation and the ,new in method1 time1 and messengers2 the divine personality and incarnation of the ,son 7i4 #a-d74 ,a4 ,the superiority of the ,son1 the ,mediator of the ,new ,revelation1 to the angels1 and to the human founders of the ,jewish polity3 i4 #e-;iv4 #ac4 a4 ,scripture shows the ,son to be above the angels 7i4 #e-ad74 b4 ,the danger of rejecting the ,son's revelation 7ii4 #a-d74 c4 ,the ,son of ,man through suffering fulfils the high destiny of mankind 7ii4 #e-ah74 d4 ,the dignity of ,jesus is far above that of ,moses1 ,he is the ,maker and ,son1 ,moses represents the house in which he is a servant 7iii4 #a-f74 e4 ,faith is necessary if we would enter the promised land of rest 7iii4 #g-ai74 f4 ,encouragement as well as warning can be based on the failure of the ,israelites4 ,under ,joshua they did not reach their rest4 ,the promise of it remains for us 7iv4 #a-ac74 #bah ,b4 ,the high-priesthood of ,christ1 superior to that of ,aaron's line1 universal and royal3 iv4 #ad-vii4 #bh4 a4 ,transition to the doctrine of ,christ's high priesthood 7iv4 #ad-af74 b4 ,the characteristics of a high priest1 human sympathy and divine appointment1 fulfilled in ,christ 7v4 #a-aj74 c4 ,a digression to urge the readers to advance2 the writer's hope for the ,hebrews1 ,god's blessing is assured 7v4 #aa-vi4 #bj74 d4 ,the characteristics of ,christ1 as perfect and universal ,high ,priest1 shadowed forth by ,melchizedek 7vii474 ,c4 ,the liturgy and sanctuary of ,christ superior to those of ,judaism3 viii4 i-x4 #ah4 a4 ,christ offers sacrifice in heaven 7viii4 #a-f74 b4 ,thus ,he maintains the ,new ,covenant between ,god and man promised in the ,old ,testament 7viii4 #g-ac74 c4 ,the sanctuary and priests of the ,old ,covenant 7ix4 #a-aj74 d4 ,fuller explanation of the atoning work of ,christ under the ,new ,covenant 7ix4 #aa-bh74 e4 ,the inadequacy of the old sacrifices1 the abiding efficacy of ,christ's one sacrifice 7x4 #a-ah74 ,d4 ,the appropriation and application of the above truths3 x4 #ai-xiii4 #be4 a4 ,the privilege of entering the holy place with confidence1 the duty of public worship 7x4 #ai-ci74 b4 ,the past triumphs of heroes of the faith 7xi474 c4 ,exhortation to energy1 endurance1 fidelity to our ,mount ,zion and its divine utterances 7xii474 d4 ,detailed instructions 7xiii474 #a ,eusebius1 ,h4 ,e4 v4 #bf1 says that ,irenaeus mentions the ,epistle to the ,hebrews and the so-called ,wisdom of ,solomon1 comparing certain expressions from them4 ,eusebius does not say that ,irenaeus attributed it to ,st4 ,paul4 ,we can compare words in ,heb4 i4 #a with ,wisd4 vii4 #bb2 ,heb4 i4 #c with ,wisd4 xvi4 #ba2 ,heb4 xii4 #ag with ,wisd4 xii4 #aj2 ,heb4 xiii4 #g with ,wisd4 ii4 #ag4 #b ,stephen ,gobar1 in a passage preserved by ,photius1 ,cod4 #bcb4 #c ,the word effulgence 7,heb4 i4 #c7 is a favourite word with ,philo4 ,the interpretation of ,king of ,salem as ,king of peace 7,heb4 vii4 #b7 occurs in ,philo1 and ,heb4 xiii4 #e has a quotation from ,josh4 i4 #e exactly resembling in form a quotation in ,philo1 ,de conf4 ling41 #cc4 #d ,de ,pudic1 #bj4 #abi ,,chapter ,,xix ,,the ,,catholic ,,epistles ,the ,new ,testament contains seven letters known as ,catholic1 viz4 that of ,james1 #a and #b ,peter1 #a1 #b1 and #c ,john1 and that of ,jude4 ,these letters were added to the ,canon of the ,new ,testament later than the rest of its contents4 ,in ancient manuscripts1 versions1 and catalogues their position in the ,new ,testament varies1 and for a long time they were often placed between ,acts and ,st4 ,paul's ,epistles4 #a ,peter and #a ,john were the first to be universally received4 ,about ,a4,d4 #cjj all seven were known and received in the ,greek ,churches1 but nearly as late as ,a4,d4 #cej the ,syrian ,church was unacquainted with any of them except ,james4 ,after this the ,syrian ,church adopted #a ,peter and #a ,john1 and finally the whole seven4 ,this fact with regard to the ,syrian ,church is of peculiar importance4 ,it shows us that we must take care not to argue that an ,epistle is probably a forgery because an important ,christian community was unacquainted with it at a comparatively late date4 ,for the evidence for the genuineness of #a ,peter and #a ,john is even stronger than the evidence for the genuineness of ,james4 ,yet at a time when the best ,greek critics were entirely satisfied as to the genuineness of #a ,peter and #a ,john1 the ,syrians did not recognize them4 ,the only reasonable explanation of this is the simplest explanation1 namely1 that some ,epistles were translated at a later date than others4 ,among ,syrian writers we find two distinct tendencies4 ,writers who were entirely at home with ,greek literature1 and in communion with the orthodox ,greek ,church1 like ,st4 ,ephraim or ,st4 ,john of ,damascus1 used the same ,catholic #bbj ,epistles as the ,christians of ,alexandria or ,jerusalem4 ,on the other hand1 ,christians who were cut off by schism from the main body of ,christendom continued for centuries to use exactly the same ,canon of ,scripture as that which had been employed by their ancestors before the schism4 ,thus ,ebed ,jesu1 ,metropolitan of ,nisibis1 and the last prelate of the ,nestorian sect who wrote important works in ,syriac1 died in ,a4,d4 #acah4 ,but we find that he only uses the three ,catholic ,epistles contained in the ,peshitta ,syriac version of the ,new ,testament1 probably completed soon after ,a4,d4 #djj4 ,if we pass from the extreme east to the extreme west of ancient ,christendom1 we find ourselves confronted with similar but not identical facts4 ,we find that a superior degree of authority was allowed to belong to #a ,peter and #a ,john4 ,there can be no doubt that in all the great centres of ,christian life outside ,syria these two ,epistles were in the ,canon by the year #bjj4 ,the ,muratorian ,fragment1 written in ,italy about ,a4,d4 #ahj1 mentions two ,epistles of ,st4 ,john and that of ,st4 ,jude4 ,it contains no mention of #a ,peter1 but there are grounds for believing that there was a reference to it in the lost portion which was devoted to ,mark4 ,it contains no mention of ,james1 though that ,epistle seems to be quoted in the ,shepherd of ,hermas1 written at ,rome about ,a4,d4 #adj4 ,it was long before ,james was universally regarded as part of the ,canon4 ,it is quoted as ,scripture by ,origen of ,alexandria early in the #crd century1 but a hundred years later ,eusebius says that it was disputed by a minority4 ,it is accepted by ,eusebius himself4 ,the very private character of #b and #c ,john accounts for the slowness with which they won acceptance as part of the word of ,god1 yet #b ,john is backed by the high authority of ,irenaeus1 and both ,epistles are obviously the work of the same author4 ,the ,second ,epistle which bears the name of ,st4 ,peter is connected with peculiar difficulties1 and possesses less evidence in its favour than any of the other ,catholic ,epistles4 ,we cannot do better than quote the admirable words in #bba which ,dr4 ,sanday has sketched the adventures of such books4 ,an ,epistle lodged in the archives of a great and cultured ,church like the ,church of ,rome would be one thing1 and an ,epistle straying about among the smaller communities of ,bithynia or ,pontus would be another2 while an ,epistle written to an individual like the ,gaius of #c ,st4 ,john would have worse chances still4 ,there were busy1 careless1 neglectful1 and unmethodical people in those days as well as now2 and we can easily imagine one of these precious rolls found with glad surprise1 covered with dust in some forgotten hiding-place1 and brought out to the view of a generation which had learnt to be more careful of its treasures4 ,but even then1 once off the main roads1 circulation was not rapid2 an obscure provincial ,church might take some time in making its voice heard1 and the authorities at headquarters might receive the reported discovery with suspicion4 ,they might1 or they might not1 as it happened4 #a ,but by degrees the customs of the different ,churches were levelled4 ,before the end of the #dth century all the ,catholic ,epistles were accepted as canonical in ,europe1 and in a large part of the ,christian world which lay beyond ,europe4 ,this leads us to inquire why these ,epistles bear the name of ,catholic4 ,the answer seems to be that the name ,catholic or ,general was given to the more important of the seven1 because they were addressed to the ,church ,universal1 or to groups of ,churches1 and not to individuals or to single ,churches4 ,the words ,catholic ,epistles therefore signify ,circular or ,encyclical ,letters4 ,origen gives the name of ,catholic to #a ,peter1 #a ,john1 and ,jude4 ,by the #dth century the name was applied to all the seven4 ,there can be little doubt that #b and #c ,john are not ,catholic in the sense of being ,circular or ,encyclical4 ,but they were numbered with the others for the sake of convenience1 being naturally associated with the first and more important letter by ,st4 ,john4 #bbb ,the following table gives an idea of the gradual incorporation of the ,catholic ,epistles into the ,canon4 ,an 99 denotes a direct quotation or the expression of almost no doubt2 a 8 notes that the writer is aware of decided doubts1 a 77 marks an uncertain reference4 #a #b ,j ,p ,p #a #b #c a e e ,j ,j ,j ,j m t t o o o u e e e h h h d s r r n n n e ,i4 ,,councils-- ,laodicea1 ,a4,d4 #cfc 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,rome1 ,a4,d4 #chb 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,carthage1 ,a4,d4 #cig 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,,ii4 ,,eastern ,,lists-- 7a7 ,syria4 ,ephraim1 ,a4,d4 #cgj 4 4 4 4 4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,chrysostom1 ,a4,d4 #djj 4 4 4 4 99 99 99 ,peshitta version1 8 ,a4,d4 #daj 99 99 99 ,junilius1 ,a4,d4 #eej 4 4 4 4 4 8 99 8 99 8 8 8 ,john of ,damascus1 ,a4,d4 #gej 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,ebed ,jesu1 ,a4,d4 #acjj 4 4 4 4 99 99 99 7b7 ,palestine4 ,eusebius1 ,a4,d4 #ccj 4 4 4 4 4 8 99 8 99 8 8 8 ,cyril1 ,a4,d4 #cdh 4 4 4 4 4 4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 7c7 ,alexandria4 ,clement1 ,a4,d4 #aij 4 4 4 4 4 99 99 99 99 ,origen1 ,a4,d4 #bbj 4 4 4 4 4 4 99 99 8 99 8 8 99 ,athanasius1 ,a4,d4 #cfg 4 4 4 4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 7d7 ,asia ,minor4 ,polycarp1 ,a4,d4 #aaj 4 4 4 4 4 99 99 ,amphilochius1 ,a4,d4 #chj 4 4 4 99 99 8 99 8 8 8 ,gregory ,nazianzen1 ,a4,d4 #chj 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,,iii4 ,,western ,,lists-- 7a7 ,italy4 ,muratorian1 ,a4,d4 #ahj 4 4 4 4 99 99 99 ,hippolytus1 ,a4,d4 #bbj 4 4 4 4 99 7 7 99 7b7 ,gaul4 ,irenaeus1 ,a4,d4 #ahj 4 4 4 4 4 99 99 99 7c7 ,roman ,africa4 ,tertullian1 ,a4,d4 #bjj 4 4 4 4 99 99 99 #a ,inspiration1 p4 #cfh4 #bbc ,,chapter ,,xx ,,the ,,general ,,epistle ,,of ,,james ,sidenote3 ,the ,author ,in the #dth century this ,epistle was reckoned among the authentic documents of the apostolic period4 ,it does not seem to have been universally known in the ,church at an earlier period4 ,it is not in the ,muratorian ,fragment4 ,but it is plainly quoted by ,irenaeus1 though he does not mention the author's name4 ,the same is true with regard to the ,shepherd of ,hermas1 which was written at ,rome about ,a4,d4 #adj4 ,justin ,martyr quotes the words the devils shudder 7,james ii4 #ai1 ,trypho1 #di74 ,polycarp seems to quote ,james i4 #bg1 and #a ,peter seems to show traces of its influence4 ,the first writer who both quotes it and mentions the author is ,origen4 ,it opens with the name of ,james1 a servant of ,god and of the ,lord ,jesus ,christ4 ,there can be no reasonable doubt that this is ,james the ,lord's brother4 ,james the son of ,zebedee was killed as early as ,a4,d4 #dd1 before which date it is unlikely that the ,epistle was written4 ,we have no reason to attribute the ,epistle to the ,apostle ,james the ,little4 ,he does not seem to have been of sufficient prominence to write an authoritative letter to the twelve tribes which are of the ,dispersion4 ,but such an action would have been exceedingly natural on the part of a saint who was bishop of the mother of ,churches1 ,jerusalem itself4 ,it will be convenient to postpone the consideration of such evidence as we possess for the foregoing conclusion until we have discussed the exact relation of ,st4 ,james to our ,lord4 #bbd ,three important theories must be mentioned as offering a solution of the difficult problem as to this relationship-- 7a7 ,that ,james1 ,joses1 ,simon1 and ,jude1 mentioned in the ,gospels as the brethren of our ,lord1 were ,his first cousins on ,his mother's side4 7b7 ,that they were the children of ,joseph and ,mary4 7c7 ,that they were the children of ,joseph by a former wife4 ,the theory of ,st4 ,jerome 7a7 may be perhaps discarded without any further comment than that ,st4 ,jerome apparently invented it1 that he claimed no traditional sanction for it1 he did not hold it consistently himself in his later writings1 and it is very difficult to reconcile it with ,scripture4 ,the theory of ,helvidius 7b71 which called forth ,st4 ,jerome's attempted refutation1 answers some verbal requirements of the ,gospel narrative1 and has found some skilful modern advocates4 ,but with the possible exception of ,tertullian1 no ,christian seems to have held it before ,helvidius1 and the theory that ,mary had other children besides ,jesus gave a profound shock to ,christian sentiment4 ,no argument can be brought against 7c71 the theory defended1 though not originated1 by ,st4 ,epiphanius1 that the brethren of our ,lord were children of ,st4 ,joseph by a former wife4 ,it is in keeping with the strong tradition which maintained the perpetual virginity of the ,blessed ,virgin2 it helps to explain the attitude of unbelief recorded in the ,gospels of ,christ's brethren1 and at the same time requires no distortion of the literalness of the passages in which they are mentioned4 ,there is hardly sufficient evidence to show that first cousins were ever called brethren4 ,but it would have been quite natural for those who called ,st4 ,joseph the father of ,jesus to call ,st4 ,joseph's sons the brothers of ,jesus4 ,and again1 the supposition that the ,blessed ,virgin had no other son1 seems strongly supported by the fact that at the crucifixion our ,lord commended her to ,his beloved disciple1 and not to one of ,st4 ,joseph's family4 #bbe ,this theory of ,st4 ,epiphanius is much older than the #dth century4 ,it is sometimes urged against it that ,origen derived it from the ,apocryphal ,gospels of the #bnd century1 and that its popularity in the ,church was owing to ,origen's influence4 ,but though the ,apocryphal ,gospels often contained fictions1 we cannot argue that everything in them is fictitious4 ,the tradition agrees with the words of ,scripture1 and gains support from some fragments of ,hegesippus1 a cultured ,palestinian ,christian1 born about ,a4,d4 #ajj4 ,he states directly that ,symeon1 the second bishop of ,jerusalem1 was the cousin of our ,lord1 because son of ,clopas who was the brother of ,joseph4 ,he also calls ,james the brother of the ,lord1 and in another passage speaks of ,jude as called brother of the ,lord4 ,he therefore plainly distinguishes the cousins from the so-called brethren4 ,we then get the following genealogy3-- ,jacob ---------------------------------------- ,joseph ,mary ,clopas 7or ,alphaeus7 ------------ -- ,james ,,jesus -- ,joses ,james ,joses ,symeon -- ,jude 7the ,little7 -- ,simon -- ,sisters ,we conclude1 therefore1 that ,st4 ,james was the son of ,st4 ,joseph4 ,the writer of the ,epistle frequently colours his sentences with words from the ,old ,testament1 and assumes a knowledge of it among his readers4 ,he makes no allusion to the ,gentiles4 ,he writes in a tone of authority and without any self-advertisement4 ,he briefly uses for illustration certain natural phenomena which would be familiar to the people of ,palestine1 such as allusions to the early and latter rain 7v4 #g71 the effect on vegetation of the burning wind 7i4 #aa71 the existence of salt or bitter springs 7iii4 #aa71 the cultivation #bbf of figs and olives 7iii4 #ab71 and the neighbourhood of the sea 7i4 #f2 iii4 #d74 ,from such a cursory view of the character of this ,epistle1 it would seem reasonable to admit that it was written by a ,palestinian ,jewish ,christian for the edification of ,christians of the same race and locality4 ,we get the same impression when we study what is said by the writer about the readers4 ,he speaks as though they had been under a law of bondage1 but are now under a law of liberty 7i4 #be2 ii4 #ab74 ,they are in touch with men who are unbelievers1 who blaspheme ,christ and persecute ,christians 7ii4 #f1 #g74 ,the believers are mostly poor 7ii4 #e72 the few rich who are ,christians are in danger of falling away through covetousness and pride 7iv4 #c-f1 #ac-af74 ,the rich appear as oppressors1 who luxuriously nourish their hearts in a day of slaughter1 and had even killed the righteous 7v4 #e1 #f74 ,the ,church is ruled by elders 7v4 #ad7 like the ,jewish synagogues1 and the ,christian synagogue is occasionally frequented by rich strangers 7ii4 #b74 ,all this is well suited to the conditions of ,christian life in ,palestine4 ,and it is difficult to find any locality equally appropriate4 ,even as late as the first part of the #bnd century rich ,gentiles were reluctant to persecute ,christians1 and to describe them as blaspheming the name of ,christ at any time within or near the apostolic age would be almost impossible4 ,they regarded ,christianity with good-natured contempt1 not with blasphemous hostility4 ,we have only to read ,acts to see that among the ,gentiles it was the poor and ignorant rather than the rich who began the persecution of the ,christians4 ,on the other hand1 if we turn to the ,jews1 we find that the rich were the leaders of persecution4 ,it was the wealthy ,sadducee party in union with the influential ,pharisees which harried the ,church4 ,the ,gospels and ,acts give repeated evidence on this point1 and the evidence of the ,jewish historian ,josephus supplies the keystone of that evidence4 ,against the ,palestinian origin of the ,epistle it is urged that #bbg the ,greek is too correct and rhetorical4 ,the style is vivacious and forcible4 ,it contains many rather unusual ,greek words1 including six which are neither in the ,septuagint version of the ,old ,testament nor in the rest of the ,new ,testament1 a long list of words which are found in the ,septuagint and not in the ,new ,testament1 and seven rare classical or late ,greek words4 ,the whole question of the style of the ,epistle requires the most delicate handling4 ,but the style is distinctly unfavourable to the theory that the ,epistle was written at a late date in a centre of ,gentile ,christianity4 ,the ,greek is neither the flowing ,greek of a ,greek1 nor the rough provincial ,greek which ,st4 ,paul spoke and wrote4 ,it is slow and careful1 with short sentences linked by repetitions4 ,one epithet is piled effectively on another 7e4g4 iii4 #ae1 #ag71 and abstract statements are avoided4 ,galilee was studded with ,greek towns1 and in ,jerusalem ,greek was well known4 ,the ,epistle might well have been written by a ,jew of ,palestine who had made a good use of his opportunities4 ,and the introduction of some rare words in the midst of a simple moral exhortation is by no means a proof of complete mastery over ,greek4 ,it points1 not to a mastery over the language1 but to a painstaking familiarity with it4 ,these facts seem compatible with the few details which we know about ,st4 ,james4 ,their full significance can only be appreciated when we know the difficulties which have beset the commentators who assign to the ,epistle a date outside his lifetime4 ,before considering the question of the date more minutely1 we may collect together some points of interest connected with ,st4 ,james4 ,st4 ,james1 like the other brethren of our ,lord1 watched the development of our ,lord's career1 but was unconvinced of the truth of ,his mission4 ,after the ,resurrection1 our ,lord1 ,st4 ,paul tells us1 was seen of ,james4 ,perhaps this was the turning-point of his life1 he1 like ,st4 ,thomas1 saw and #bbh believed4 ,the ,gospel according to the ,hebrews1 one of the oldest of the ,apocryphal ,gospels1 says that our ,lord1 after ,his ,resurrection1 went to ,james and appeared to him--for ,james had sworn that he would not eat bread from that hour in which he drank the cup of the ,lord1 until he saw ,him rising from the dead2--and again after a little while4 ',bring hither1 saith the ,lord1 a table and bread4' 4 4 4 ,he brought bread1 and blessed and brake it1 and gave it to ,james the ,just1 and said unto him1 ',my brother1 eat thy bread1 for the ,son of man hath risen from the dead4' ,there are other versions of the story which make the vow to be taken after the death of ,christ4 ,in spite of some absurdities in this ,apocryphal ,gospel1 it is possible that the legend is true1 and that the sublime death of the ,redeemer began to effect the repentance of ,his brother4 ,however this may be1 before ,pentecost1 ,a4,d4 #bi1 we find him joined to the ,christian community at ,jerusalem1 where he afterwards attained a foremost position4 ,in ,gal4 i4 we find that ,st4 ,paul visited ,st4 ,james and ,st4 ,peter at ,jerusalem4 ,in ,acts xii4 #ag ,st4 ,peter1 on escaping from prison in ,a4,d4 #dd1 desires that news of his escape should be taken to ,st4 ,james4 ,in ,gal4 ii4 ,st4 ,paul speaks of ,james and ,cephas and ,john as pillars of the ,church at ,jerusalem4 ,from ,acts xv4 we find that at this time1 ,a4,d4 #di1 ,st4 ,james acted as president of the ,council which determined how far the ,gentile ,christians need conform to the customs of the ,jews4 ,it is remarkable that the speech of ,st4 ,james in ,acts xv4 and the circular despatched from the ,council show several coincidences of style with the ,epistle4 ,if these coincidences are due to forgery1 the forger has certainly used consummate self-restraint and skill4 ,again1 when ,st4 ,paul paid his last visit to ,jerusalem1 in ,a4,d4 #ef1 and the ,jews accused him of advocating the abandonment of the ,law of ,moses and the customs1 it is ,st4 ,james and his presbyters who advise him to go up to the ,temple and purify himself with four ,nazirites1 and so reassure the myriads of ,christian ,jews who were zealous for the ,law4 #bbi ,once more we cannot help observing how well this anxiety of ,st4 ,james agrees with the very cautious tone of the ,epistle with regard to distinctively ,christian doctrine4 ,the end of ,st4 ,james is recorded by ,hegesippus and by ,josephus4 ,hegesippus represents him living as a strict ,nazirite1 always frequenting the ,temple1 with knees as hard as a camel's because of his perpetual prayers4#a ,he tells us that ,st4 ,james was thrown from a pinnacle of the ,temple1 stoned1 and clubbed to death at the order of the scribes and ,pharisees for asserting that ,jesus was on the right hand of ,god4 ,from ,josephus we learn that his martyrdom took place when a vacancy in the procuratorship caused by the death of ,festus 7in ,a4,d4 #fb7 gave the ,sadducees the opportunity which they desired4 ,he was dragged before the ,sanhedrim1 condemned and stoned4 ,josephus also gives us to understand that the more moderate ,jews were not in sympathy with such a thoroughly unconstitutional proceeding1 and that ,agrippa deprived ,ananus1 the high priest1 of his office for invading the rights of the civil power4 ,sidenote3 ,to whom written4 ,the twelve tribes of the ,dispersion4 ,we might suppose that the writer had in his mind all the ,jews who were dispersed throughout the world1 but came to ,jerusalem to offer sacrifice when they were able1 and who were all bound by the religious obligation to pay the yearly tribute to the temple4 ,there had been several dispersions in the history of the chosen people1 to ,assyria under ,shalmaneser1 to ,babylon and ,egypt in the time of ,nebuchadnezzar1 and to ,rome under ,pompeius4 ,but ch4 ii4 #a shows that the ,epistle was written to men who acknowledged ,jesus as ,lord4 ,it is therefore natural to think that it was written only to men who were both ,christians and of ,jewish origin4 ,but there is another interpretation of the phrase the twelve tribes4 ,some think that it is merely a symbolical name for the ,christian ,church composed both of ,jews and ,gentiles1 and #bcj forming the new and spiritual ,israel4 ,strong arguments have been brought forward in favour of each of these views1 but the former seems to be the sounder4 ,the argument that the ,jews at this period could not have been called twelve tribes when only two had returned from the captivity1 is disproved by the fact that the phrase is unquestionably used in this meaning in ,acts xxvi4 #g4 ,we must frankly admit that ,st4 ,paul speaks of the ,gentile ,christians as forming part of the new ,israel of ,god1 but he never alludes to them as part of twelve tribes4 ,in ,rev4 vii4 the twelve tribes still mean ,christian ,jews in contrast with the great multitude of redeemed ,gentiles4 ,justin ,martyr speaks of your twelve tribes in addressing ,trypho#b the ,jew1 and several instances are to be found in early ,christian literature where the words are used in this literal sense4 ,we may therefore rest content with this literal meaning4 ,but we must maintain it with reserve in view of the fact that ,st4 ,peter applies the word dispersion to the new and ideal ,israel4 ,and we must beware of arguing that the word synagogue 7ii4 #b7 proves that the readers were necessarily ,jews4 ,the word synagogue was for a long time occasionally applied to the ,gentile ,christian congregations1 as we find in the ,shepherd of ,hermas#c 7,a4,d4 #adj7 and ,theophilus#d 7,a4,d4 #ahj74 ,sidenote3 ,when and where written4 ,we have already seen that ,palestine is the most likely place1 and as ,st4 ,james lived at ,jerusalem1 the ,epistle was probably written there4 ,the date has always been a hopeless problem to those who reject the authenticity of the ,epistle4 ,that it was written by a heretic in ,palestine about ,a4,d4 #gj1 or by a ,catholic at ,rome about ,a4,d4 #ij1 or that it represents a ,catholicized ,paulinism of ,a4,d4 #adj1 or that it is a patchwork of homilies written soon after ,a4,d4 #abj1 are guesses which have been made but not substantiated4 ,the fact that it was written before ,a4,d4 #fb is #bca self-evident if we admit that it was written by ,st4 ,james4 ,but it is also corroborated by the fact that #a ,peter1 written about ,a4,d4 #fd1 seems to show a knowledge of this ,epistle4 ,far more complicated is the question as to whether ,st4 ,james shows any knowledge of ,st4 ,paul's ,epistles4 ,he insists so pointedly on the need of being justified by works that some writers have thought that he is attacking ,st4 ,paul's doctrine of justification by faith4 ,the idea must be dismissed4 ,such a masterly writer would not have attacked what an apostle did not really hold4 ,st4 ,james1 in attacking a theory of justification by faith1 is condemning a faith which means only orthodox intellectual assent4 ,st4 ,paul1 in defending his doctrine of justification by faith1 is upholding a faith which implies energetic and loving service4 ,the two doctrines simply supplement one another4 ,when ,luther called the ,epistle to the ,galatians his wife and called the ,epistle of ,st4 ,james an ,epistle of straw1 he simply showed that he understood neither4 ,st4 ,james is not only not criticizing ,st4 ,paul2 he is perhaps not even criticizing a popular perversion of ,st4 ,paul's doctrine4 ,the question of the justification of ,abraham was a favourite subject of discussion among the ,jews1 and the teaching of our ,lord had shown the superiority of a living faith over dead works4 ,there is no difficulty in supposing that some ,jewish believers were confused with regard to these great matters before they had read a word of ,st4 ,paul's letters4 ,and to such men the ,epistle of ,st4 ,james might be of the highest value4 ,in spite of this1 there often seems to be a verbal connection between this ,epistle and those of ,st4 ,paul4 ,the connection is admitted by critics of the most different schools4 ,moreover1 some are of opinion that there is a connection between ,james and the ,epistle to the ,hebrews1 ch4 xi4 ,these connections have been exaggerated1 but they are hard to deny4 ,now1 if ,st4 ,james had borrowed from any of these ,epistles1 it would be very difficult for us to account for the extreme simplicity of his #bcb doctrine4 ,on the other hand1 there is no difficulty in the fact that they put his words in a more elaborate setting4 ,and as ,st4 ,paul's opponents declared that they were backed by ,st4 ,james1 we may be sure that ,st4 ,paul would eagerly read anything written by ,st4 ,james4 ,we may therefore place this ,epistle earlier than ,st4 ,paul's ,epistles to ,corinth and ,rome1 and perhaps earlier than any of his extant ,epistles4 ,it is sometimes objected to this that it is grotesque to suppose that ,st4 ,james would have originated the practice of writing religious ,epistles4 ,it is said that the practice must have been begun by an apostle of supreme originality1 and one who travelled widely1 therefore by ,st4 ,paul4 ,but we have no means of deciding the question4 ,and as ,st4 ,paul may have written ,epistles before he wrote those now extant1 we may still hold that ,st4 ,paul began the practice1 and that this ,epistle is nevertheless older than the works of ,st4 ,paul which we now possess4 ,we can1 therefore1 see no good reason for denying that this ,epistle is as early as ,a4,d4 #ej4 ,sidenote3 ,character and ,contents4 ,the ,epistle is intensely practical1 and though it is in no sense anti-doctrinal1 it does not discuss doctrine4 ,the evils against which it contends all concern conduct4 ,the good which it recommends is persistent well-doing in accordance with the new moral law of ,christianity4 ,the sole validity of the law of love 7ii4 #h71 the gift of a new birth by the word of truth1 making us heirs of ,god 7i4 #ah2 ii4 #e71 the mention of the author's servitude to ,christ 7i4 #a71 and the ascription of divine power to ,his name 7v4 #ad71 show conclusively that the writing is not1 as some say1 of ,jewish origin4 ,the tone is austere1 and the ,epistle contains no word of praise for the readers4 ,a strong argument in favour of the genuineness of the ,epistle is furnished by the numerous parallels which it presents to the ,synoptic ,gospels4 ,these parallels are not quotations from the ,gospels1 but they show that the writer was saturated with the kind of teaching which the ,gospels record4 ,the #bcc connection with the ,sermon on the ,mount as recorded by ,st4 ,matthew is particularly plain4 ,among the numerous proofs of this connection we must content ourselves with noticing the agreement as to the spiritual view of the ,law 7,jas4 i4 #be2 ii4 #h1 #ab1 #ac2 ,matt4 v4 #ag-dd71 the blessings of adversity 7,jas4 i4 #b1 #ac2 ii4 #e2 v4 #g1 #h2 ,matt4 v4 #c-ab71 the dangers of wealth 7,jas4 i4 #aj1 #aa2 ii4 #f1 #g2 iv4 #ac-af2 v4 #a-f2 ,matt4 vi4 #ai-ba1 #bd-cd71 the true nature of prayer 7,jas4 i4 #e-h2 iv4 #c2 v4 #ac-ah2 ,matt4 vi4 #f-ac71 the necessity of forgiving others 7,jas4 ii4 #ac2 ,matt4 vi4 #ad1 #ae71 the tree known by its fruits 7,jas4 iii4 #aa1 #ab2 ,matt4 vii4 #af-bj71 the prohibition of oaths 7,jas4 v4 #ab2 ,matt4 v4 #cd-cg71 the ,judge before the door 7,jas4 v4 #i2 ,matt4 xxiv4 #cc74 ,many other coincidences can be found4 ,the perfect law upheld by ,st4 ,james1 a law both free and royal1 irresistibly reminds us of the legislation of the ,messianic ,king in our first ,gospel4 ,in v4 #ad-af we have a direction given with regard to the anointing of the sick by the presbyters of the ,church4 ,this rite1 perverted by the ,gnostics in the #bnd century1 survived that perversion4 ,the first full directions for it in a ,catholic document are in the prayers of ,bishop ,sarapion of ,thmuis in ,egypt1 about ,a4,d4 #cej4 ,in the ,eastern ,church the oil used for this purpose may be consecrated by presbyters1 contrary to the usual practice of the ,west1 which requires it to be consecrated by a bishop4 #bcd ,,analysis ,salutation 7i4 #a74 ,human trial and the wisdom which enables us to profit by it1 a warning against double-mindedness1 ,christianity exalts the lowly1 riches are transitory1 trial brings blessing1 trial due to lust is not a trial from ,god but from self1 ,god is the ,source of all our good 7i4 #b-ah74 ,we must receive the divine word with humility and act upon it1 kindness and purity are the best ceremonial 7i4 #ai-bg74 ,christian behaviour towards rich and poor to be based on the royal law of love2 violation of that law is a breach of ,god's command1 which embraces motive as well as action 7ii4 #a-ac74 ,intellectual faith is no substitute for godly works1 ,abraham and ,rahab were justified by works 7ii4 #ac-bf74 ,the responsibility of teaching1 the difficulty and importance of controlling the tongue 7iii4 #a-ab74 ,christian wisdom contrasted with the animal wisdom of faction 7iii4 #ac-ah74 ,the cause of quarrelling is selfish desire1 which infects even your prayers1 the adultery of a soul which indulges in worldliness and pride1 cease from finding fault1 worldliness is shown in business plans made without reference to ,god 7iv474 ,luxurious wealth denounced1 it is the rich who have persecuted the righteous1 patience is commended 7v4 #a-aa74 ,swear not1 prayer and praise1 the anointing of the sick with prayer1 mutual confession of sins and prayer1 the blessing on those who convert a sinner 7v4 #ab-bj74 #a ,quoted by ,eusebius1 ,h4 ,e4 ii4 #bc4 #b ,trypho4 #abf4 #c ,mand4 xi4 #i4 #d ,ad ,autol4 i4 #ad4 #bce ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,the ,,first ,,epistle ,,general ,,of ,,peter ,sidenote3 ,the ,author4 ,the author describes himself as ,peter1 an apostle of ,jesus ,christ 7i4 #a74 ,few books of the ,new ,testament are so well attested as this ,epistle4 ,the external evidence for its authenticity is strong1 and stronger than that for any other ,catholic ,epistle except #a ,john4 ,it seems to be quoted in ,didach1 i4 #d4 ,the letter of ,polycarp written about ,a4,d4 #aaj shows a complete familiarity with #a ,peter4 ,he evidently regarded it as a letter of the highest authority4 ,his contemporary ,papias was acquainted with it1 and so far as we can determine from ,eusebius1 he referred to it directly as the work of ,st4 ,peter4 ,the ,epistle of ,barnabas1 the date of which is uncertain1 but which is probably as old as ,a4,d4 #ih or even older1 quotes #a ,pet4 ii4 #e4 ,again1 it seems certain that the ,epistle is quoted1 though not by name1 in the ,epistle of ,clement of ,rome1 ,a4,d4 #ie4 ,it is quite unnecessary for us to point to important references in writers of the latter part of the #bnd century and onwards4 ,an ,epistle which has the triple support of ,clement1 ,polycarp1 and ,papias is1 so far as external evidence is concerned1 beyond the reach of any sober criticism4 ,the apostle was first called ,simon1 the son of ,john 7according to the correct reading in ,john xxi4 #ae1 #af1 #ag71 and was a fisherman of ,bethsaida4 ,he was brought to ,jesus by his brother ,andrew1 and1 like him1 had been a disciple of ,john the ,baptist4 ,our ,lord at once discerned his capacity1 and gave #bcf him the surname of ,cephas 7,aramaic7 or ,peter 7,greek71 signifying a rock or stone4 ,peter was the first disciple to confess the ,messiahship of our ,lord1 and was rewarded by the promise of the keys of the kingdom of heaven 7,matt4 xvi4 #ac-ai74 ,with ,john and ,james he was admitted to a peculiarly close relationship with ,jesus 7,mark v4 #cg2 ,matt4 xvii4 #a2 xxvi4 #cg2 cf4 ,mark iii4 #af1 #ag74 ,he thrice denied that he was a disciple of ,jesus on the night when ,jesus was tried and condemned4 ,he bitterly repented1 and on the third day after the ,crucifixion he1 again in the company of ,john1 hastened to the sepulchre and found it empty4 ,he was permitted several times to see the risen ,lord1 who cancelled his threefold denial by graciously drawing from him a threefold confession of his love1 and commanded him to feed ,his lambs and ,his sheep4 ,our ,lord also predicted his martyrdom 7,john xx4 and xxi42 ,luke xxiv4 #cc1 #cd2 #a ,cor4 xv4 #e74 ,in ,acts ,st4 ,peter appears as the leader of the ,church4 ,at the election of ,matthias in place of ,judas1 at the descent of the ,holy ,ghost at ,pentecost1 at the admission of the ,gentiles in the person of ,cornelius and his family to the privileges of the new covenant1 at the emancipation of the ,gentile ,christians from the ,jewish ceremonial law at the ,council of ,jerusalem1 ,st4 ,peter is foremost 7,acts i4 #ae-bf2 ii4 #a-db2 x42 xv4 #f-aa74 ,soon after the ,council ,st4 ,peter was at ,antioch1 and weakly dissembled by disguising his belief in the truth that the ,gentile ,christians were on the same spiritual level as the ,jewish ,christians4 ,he was rebuked by ,st4 ,paul 7,gal4 ii4 #aa-ad74 ,he does not seem to have laboured in ,rome until near the end of his life4 ,the ,roman tradition that he was bishop of that city for twenty-five years is almost certainly a legend1 based on the fact that twenty-five years elapsed between the year when the apostles were believed to have temporarily left ,jerusalem 7twelve years after the ,crucifixion7 and the date of his martyrdom4 ,there is1 however1 no ground for disputing the fact that #bcg he died at ,rome during the ,neronian persecution4 ,there are several reasons for thinking that he survived ,st4 ,paul for a short period1 though ,st4 ,augustine asserts that he was martyred before ,st4 ,paul4 ,he was crucified near the middle of the circus of ,nero1 on a spot afterwards marked by a chapel of the crucifixion4 ,he was buried nigh at hand4 ,his tomb1 probably in the form of a cella or open apse1 is mentioned by ,caius of ,rome about ,a4,d4 #bjj4 ,a huge basilica was built over it by the ,emperor ,constantine1 and remained until it was replaced in the #afth century by the present ,st4 ,peter's4 ,in spite of his unique position1 ,st4 ,peter in #a ,pet4 v4 #a speaks of himself as a presbyter1 as ,st4 ,john does in #b ,john #a and #c ,john #a 7compare also #a ,tim4 iv4 #ad1 where ,st4 ,paul reckons himself as a member of the presbytery74 ,at this period1 and for many years later1 the word presbyter was vague enough to be applied to the highest officers of the ,church4 ,the internal evidence afforded by the ,epistle is in harmony with ,st4 ,peter's experience4 7#a7 ,the writer claims to have been a witness of the sufferings of ,christ 7v4 #a71 and contrasts himself and his readers in saying 7i4 #h71 ,whom not having seen ye love4 7#b7 ,he lays stress upon the pastoral aspect of our ,lord's work 7ii4 #be2 v4 #b-d71 as though writing under a sense of the special pastoral charge given to him by our ,lord4 7#c7 ,his injunction1 all of you gird yourselves with humility--literally1 put on humility like a slave's apron--seems to be a reminiscence of the action of our ,lord that astonished ,st4 ,peter when ,he took a towel and girded ,himself at the ,last ,supper4 7#d7 ,there are points of resemblance between the ,epistle and the speeches delivered by ,st4 ,peter in ,acts4 7#e7 ,the appeal to ,old ,testament predictions of ,christ's sufferings 7#a ,pet4 i4 #aa2 ,acts iii4 #ah71 the reference to the stone that was rejected by the builders 7#a ,pet4 ii4 #g1 #h2 ,acts iv4 #aa71 the description of the cross as the tree 7#a ,pet4 ii4 #bd2 ,acts v4 #cj71 are coincidences which suggest a common authorship while they seem too small to be designed4 7#f7 ,the graphic and #bch pictorial style of the ,epistle bears resemblance to the style of ,mark1 which is based on ,st4 ,peter's preaching4 ,we may mention the word put to silence 7ii4 #ae7--literally1 muzzle--which ,st4 ,mark 7i4 #be2 iv4 #ci7 applies to the subduing of an unclean spirit and the stilling of a rough sea4 ,against the authenticity of the ,epistle it is sometimes said that it is improbable that ,st4 ,peter1 whose mission was to the ,jews1 would address ,churches in which ,st4 ,paul had laboured1 and which were largely composed of ,gentiles4 ,but in no case could such action on the part of ,st4 ,peter be thought incredible4 ,and if ,st4 ,peter survived ,st4 ,paul1 as he very probably did1 it would be particularly fitting for him to write to them after ,st4 ,paul's martyrdom4 ,many critics have been inclined to pronounce the ,epistle spurious on the ground that it seems to be so strongly influenced by ,st4 ,paul's teaching as to represent ,st4 ,paul's own school of thought4 ,we find1 as in ,st4 ,paul's writings1 the phrase in ,christ 7iii4 #af2 v4 #aj1 #ad71 and the second advent of ,christ called by the name revelation 7i4 #g1 #ac2 iv4 #ac74 ,moreover1 there are numerous verses which can be compared with verses in ,st4 ,paul's ,epistles1 particularly in ,romans and ,ephesians4#a ,we must not fail to notice in passing1 that if this ,epistle1 which manifestly belongs to the #ast century1 does actually quote ,ephesians1 as some affirm1 the authenticity of ,ephesians is thereby very strongly corroborated4 ,but in any case the similarity between the ,epistle and ,st4 ,paul's writings cannot be reasonably urged against its genuineness4 ,the once popular theory that ,st4 ,paul held a fundamentally different conception of ,christianity from that held by ,st4 ,peter has completely broken down4 ,there is not a shred of evidence for believing that the semi-,christian ,jews who lived in ,palestine in the #bnd century represented ,st4 ,peter's #bci type of ,christianity1 or that the teaching of ,st4 ,peter excluded the deep teaching of ,st4 ,paul4 ,he was susceptible to external influences1 and he may have caught the tone of ,st4 ,paul while living in a community which ,st4 ,paul had so profoundly influenced4 ,this tone seems to mark #a ,peter4 ,but a further point must be mentioned in this connection4 ,modern writers have too readily adopted the habit of labelling certain expressions and doctrines as ,pauline and assuming that ,st4 ,paul originated them4 ,no doubt the apostle of the ,gentiles possessed a mind as original as it was fertile4 ,but it is at least reasonable to suppose that a common creed and a common training produced similar habits of thought in many cultivated and eager minds4 ,st4 ,paul himself frequently writes as if his readers1 even those who had not seen his face1 were quite familiar with a treasury of words and ideas which he employs4 ,we cannot legitimately argue that he was the first and only coiner of such words and ideas4 ,for instance1 the phrase in ,christ1 which we have quoted above1 is often said to have been directly borrowed from ,st4 ,paul4 ,but the idea of abiding in ,christ is implied in ,matt4 and ,mark1 and expounded in ,john4 ,it reaches back to the ,old ,testament idea of abiding in ,god 7,ps4 lvi4 #d2 lxii4 #g2 ,isa4 xlv4 #be74 ,it would be quite natural in any ,christian who had adequately realized the truth of the ,incarnation4 ,we can therefore repudiate without hesitation the assertion that the writer is more affected by the teaching of ,paul than of ,jesus4 ,the imagery employed by the writer is of a distinctive character4 ,it is almost entirely derived from the ,old ,testament1 and is narrower in its range than that of ,st4 ,paul4 ,the figures are drawn from birth and family life 7i4 #c1 #ad1 #ag1 #bb2 ii4 #b71 nomadic life 7i4 #a1 #ag2 ii4 #aa71 temple and worship 7ii4 #c2 iii4 #ae71 building 7ii4 #d71 fields and pastoral life 7i4 #d2 v4 #b1 #h71 military life 7i4 #e2 ii4 #aa1 iv4 #a71 painting 7ii4 #ba71 working in metals 7i4 #g2 iv4 #ab74 ,some of these figures suggest that the author was a ,jew by birth1 and also that he was not a mere copyist of ,st4 ,paul4 #bdj ,again1 we must notice that #a ,peter shows a dependence upon ,james4#b ,while we therefore grant that the author of this ,epistle seems to have made use of ,st4 ,paul's writings1 we must be prepared to grant that he also made use of a document written by one who has been frequently declared by modern critics to have been antagonistic to ,st4 ,paul4 ,a tradition found as early as ,origen1 and in itself extremely probable1 represents ,st4 ,peter as having organized the ,church at ,antioch1 and ,st4 ,peter probably became acquainted with the ,epistle of ,st4 ,james while at ,antioch and before his arrival at ,rome4 ,in any case1 the author shows himself by no means exclusively indebted to ,st4 ,paul1 and the candid student must therefore admit that it is unreasonable to discredit this ,epistle on the ground that it represents ,st4 ,peter as preaching ,paulinism4 ,it is also asserted that the ,greek is too flowing to have been written by ,st4 ,peter1 especially if ,papias is right in saying that ,st4 ,peter required the services of ,st4 ,mark as interpreter4 ,the style of the ,greek is1 indeed1 good4 ,it contains a considerable number of classical ,greek words1 though it is also saturated with the language of the ,septuagint4 ,it is simple1 correct1 and impressive4 ,but the large extent to which ,greek was spoken in ,palestine1 and the fact that it was the language of ,antioch1 make it quite possible that ,st4 ,peter obtained a considerable mastery over ,greek4 ,we cannot attach a quite definite meaning to the word interpreter4 ,it need not imply that ,st4 ,peter always1 or even at any time in his later life1 required his ,aramaic to be translated into ,greek4 ,it is not unusual for a clever modern missionary to lecture and write in correct ,chinese after a very few years of practice1 and there would be nothing strange if ,st4 ,peter soon acquired a comparatively easy language such as ,hellenistic ,greek4 ,it is therefore quite unnecessary for #bda some half-hearted apologists to suggest that the ,epistle was mainly or entirely written for ,st4 ,peter by his secretary1 ,silvanus 7#a ,pet4 v4 #ab74 ,the expression and connection of the ideas contained in it are far too natural and easy for us to think that two hands were concerned in its composition1 and the tone of authority used in v4 #a can only be explained on the theory that ,st4 ,peter or a forger wrote the ,epistle4 ,the language of ch4 v4 is most easily explained by the theory that ,silvanus1 a trusted friend and delegate of ,st4 ,peter1 carried the letter4 ,the letter was purposely made short 7v4 #ab7 because its lessons were to be enforced by ,silvanus4 ,sidenote3 ,to whom written4 ,to the elect who are sojourners of the ,dispersion in ,pontus1 ,galatia1 ,cappadocia1 ,asia1 and ,bithynia4 ,considerable difficulty is attached to this address4 ,at first sight it seems to mean those ,christians of ,asia ,minor north of the ,taurus mountains who had been converted from ,judaism4 ,but there are some verses in the ,epistle which seem to imply that the readers had been pagans4 ,these verses are i4 #ad2 ii4 #i1 #aj2 iii4 #f2 iv4 #c4 ,they suggest that the readers had led a licentious heathen life1 and had been only recently admitted to any covenant with ,god4 ,the bearing of some of them is a little uncertain4 ,for instance1 ii4 #aj says that the converts in time past were no people1 but now are the people of ,god--the same verse that ,st4 ,paul in ,rom4 ix4 #be applies to the calling of the ,gentiles4 ,this verse is thought to furnish a strong argument for those scholars who hold that the ,epistle is addressed to ,gentiles1 and that sojourners of the ,dispersion must be taken in a figurative sense1 meaning ,christians who are exiled from the heavenly ,canaan4 ,but as the verse is from ,hos4 i4 #aj1 and is applied by ,hosea himself to the ,jews1 it is certainly possible to hold that ,st4 ,peter also applies it to ,jews4 ,in this case the word ,dispersion would retain its literal meaning1 and the ,epistle would be written to converts from ,judaism4 ,but the reference to idolatries in iv4 #c cannot be applied to ,jews4 ,and it #bdb would be quite unnatural for ,st4 ,peter to speak about the heathen thinking it strange that converted ,jews refused to join in their idolatrous excesses4 ,the word you in i4 #ab suggests that the readers belonged to a different race from the ,hebrew prophets4 ,finally1 the phrase elect of the ,dispersion must be compared with in ,babylon1 elect 7v4 #ac74 ,like the name ,babylon for ,rome1 the word ,dispersion is a ,jewish phrase taken over by the ,christian ,church4 ,we agree1 then1 with ,st4 ,jerome and ,st4 ,augustine in holding that this ,epistle was written to ,gentiles4 ,sidenote3 ,where and when written4 ,the ,epistle says1 ,she that is in ,babylon1 elect together with you1 saluteth you 7v4 #ac74 ,this means the ,church in ,rome4 ,the name ,babylon is applied to ,rome in the ,revelation1 and from an early period the ,christians would naturally be inclined to give this name to a city which had become1 like ,babylon of old1 the centre of worldliness and oppression4 ,it is practically certain that ,st4 ,peter spent his last days in ,rome4 ,moreover1 ,st4 ,mark was with ,st4 ,peter when this ,epistle was written 7v4 #ac71 and from #b ,tim4 iv4 #aa we know that ,st4 ,mark was invited to ,rome about ,a4,d4 #fd4 ,it is most improbable that ,babylon signifies either the ,babylon near ,cairo1 or the great city on the ,euphrates4 ,three facts enable us to determine the date3 7#a7 ,the presence of ,mark in ,rome4 7#b7 ,the fact that ,st4 ,peter appears never to have been in ,rome when ,colossians was written in ,a4,d4 #fj--so that the ,epistle cannot be earlier than ,a4,d4 #fj4 7#c7 ,the allusion in iv4 #ac-ae to the fact that ,christians are already punished for being named ,christians4 ,in the period described in ,acts they are not yet punished merely for being ,christians1 but for specific crimes alleged against them by their opponents4 ,it is often asserted that this ,epistle must be later than the time of ,nero1 on the ground that it was after ,nero's time that the name ,christian ensured the legal condemnation of any one who bore it4 ,but this assertion is not supported by the ,roman historians ,tacitus and ,suetonius4 ,their words support the contention #bdc that the kind of persecution mentioned in this ,epistle began under ,nero in ,a4,d4 #fd4 ,when the ,epistle was written this persecution had probably begun1 but it had not yet assumed its most savage form4#c 7#d7 ,st4 ,peter himself suffered under ,nero1 not later than ,a4,d4 #fg4 ,we may therefore confidently date the ,epistle about ,a4,d4 #fd4 ,it appears from v4 #ab that in writing this ,epistle ,st4 ,peter was assisted by ,silvanus1 our faithful brother1 as an amanuensis4 ,he is probably the ,silas 7another form of the same name7 mentioned in ,acts xv4 #bb1 #cb1 #dj1 and the ,silvanus in #a ,thess4 i4 #a2 #b ,thess4 i4 #a1 #b ,cor4 i4 #ai4 ,sidenote3 ,character and ,contents4 ,this ,epistle is highly practical1 and though it is rich in doctrinal elements1 it endeavours to instruct the readers in conduct rather than doctrine4 ,the two key-words of the ,epistle are suffering and hope1 and the sufferings of ,christ and the glories which crowned them furnish ,st4 ,peter with encouragement4 ,though he writes in plain sympathy with the liberal ,christianity of ,st4 ,paul1 his language throughout bears the impress of the ,old ,testament4 ,christ is the lamb 7i4 #ai7 and the corner-stone 7ii4 #f72 ,christians are the elect race 7ii4 #i7 and the royal priesthood 7ii4 #i74 ,without discussing the problems raised by ,god's predestination of the ,jews1 he says that they were appointed unto stumbling1 and their stumbling seems to be regarded as the punishment which ,god attached to their disobedience4 ,the fact that in i4 #b the names of the ,three ,persons of the ,trinity are given in an order which does not correspond with the order of their revelation in the history of religion1 indicates that they are regarded as coequal4 ,we may note that in iv4 #ai the ,father is called faithful ,creator1 a unique expression4 ,the teaching about the work of ,christ is full4 ,he is often #bdd simply called ,christ without the name ,jesus4 ,he is called ,lord1 and ,his special divine ,sonship is implied 7i4 #c74 ,the real existence of our ,lord before ,his birth on earth is also implied4 ,it has been said that i4 #bj signifies that ,he was only known to the ,father as destined to exist in the future4 ,this interpretation is excluded by i4 #aa1 which shows that ,his ,spirit inspired the prophets before ,his birth4 ,it is still more definitely excluded by iii4 #ah1 #ai4 ,here it is shown that ,his personality resided neither in ,his flesh1 nor in ,his human spirit clothed in which ,he preached to the dead4 ,this spirit was therefore taken by a personality which existed previous to the creation of the spirit4 ,the ,atonement is prominent4 ,christ's death is both an example and a redemption which procured ,god's grace4 ,he died for the unrighteous4 ,he carried our sins in ,his body to the cross 7ii4 #bd74 ,the ,resurrection is one of the glories which followed ,his sufferings 7i4 #aa74 ,it is a unique motive to our faith 7i4 #ba71 and the cause of the efficacy of our baptism 7iii4 #ba74 ,the ,ascension is the fact which guarantees to us the present rule of ,christ 7iii4 #bb74 ,in iv4 #f we have an important statement with regard to the dead1 which must be studied in relation to iii4 #ah-bj4 ,the purpose of ,christ's preaching to those who died before the gospel came was that though judged they yet might live4 ,blessings which they had not known on earth were offered to them by the dead but living ,christ4 ,the practical side of the ,epistle is simple but solemn4 ,it deals with the privileges 7i4 #c-;ii4 #aj71 duties 7ii4 #aa-;iv4 #aa71 and trials 7iv4 #ab-v4 #aa7 of the brethren4 ,it seems to be written with the hope that the ,christians may perhaps disarm persecution if they abstain from vainly attempting to set every one to rights and are scrupulously loyal to the ,government 7ii4 #ad-ag74 #bde ,,analysis ,salutation 7i4 #a1 #b74 ,the joy of salvation1 a joy which springs from faith2 this salvation was foretold by the prophets3 the fruits of salvation1 seriousness1 love towards others1 growth1 the privilege of being built upon ,christ3 ,christians are the true ,israel 7i4 #c-;ii4 #aj74 ,the ,christian brotherhood and its duties1 submission to civil magistrates1 slaves must obey even unreasonable masters1 wives if good and gentle may win their husbands1 husbands must reverence their wives3 kindness must be the ,christian's rule1 there must be no return of evil for evil2 suffering1 if wrongfully endured1 has its reward4 ,christ's sufferings issued in blessing1 in ,his ministerial journey to ,hades and ,his triumphant journey into heaven3 ,christ our ,example1 our rule is the will of ,god3 ,christian life must be guided in view of the approaching end of all things1 each of our gifts is to be used for the good of the whole ,church 7ii4 #aa-;iv4 #aa74 ,the trials of the brethren1 trust in ,god in the midst of suffering1 rejoice in your participation in ,christ's suffering1 bear the reproach that fell on ,him1 to suffer as a ,christian is cause for thanksgiving1 suffering to be expected1 judgment is beginning3 the relation of pastors and people1 the presbyters not to act as slaves1 hirelings1 or tyrants3 final counsels to humility and firmness 7iv4 #ab-v4 #aa74 ,commendation of the bearer1 and salutations 7v4 #ab-ad74 #a ,compare #a ,pet4 i4 #ad with ,rom4 xii4 #b2 #a ,pet4 i4 #ba with ,rom4 iv4 #bd2 #a ,pet4 ii4 #e with ,rom4 xii4 #a2 #a ,pet4 ii4 #f1 #g with ,rom4 ix4 #cc2 #a ,pet4 ii4 #aj with ,rom4 ix4 #be1 #bf2 #a ,pet4 ii4 #ah with ,eph4 vi4 #e2 #a ,pet4 iii4 #a with ,eph4 v4 #bb2 #a ,pet4 v4 #e with ,eph4 v4 #ba4 #b ,compare #a ,pet4 i4 #a with ,jas4 i4 #a2 #a ,pet4 i4 #f f4 with ,jas4 i4 #b f41 #ab2 #a ,pet4 i4 #bc with ,jas4 i4 #ah2 #a ,pet4 ii4 #a with ,jas4 i4 #ba2 #a ,pet4 ii4 #aa with ,jas4 iv4 #a2 #a ,pet4 v4 #f with ,jas4 iv4 #g1 #aj2 #a ,pet4 v4 #i with ,jas4 iv4 #g2 and the quotation in #a ,pet4 v4 #e with ,jas4 iv4 #f4 #c ,for the persecution and its bearing on the date of this ,epistle1 see ,leighton ,pullan1 ,history of ,early ,christianity1 p4 #aje ff4 7,service and ,paton1 #ahih74 #bdf ,,chapter ,,xxii ,,the ,,second ,,epistle ,,general ,,of ,,peter ,sidenote3 ,the ,author4 ,the difficulties which are connected with the authorship of this ,epistle are greater than those connected with the authorship of any other book of the ,new ,testament4 ,a multitude of objections have been raised against its genuineness1 and it has been pronounced spurious by a considerable number even of ,christian writers4 ,but while fully admitting that the problem is complicated1 we can lawfully simplify it by at once dismissing some of the weaker objections4 ,for instance1 the statement that #b ,peter quotes from ,josephus1 the celebrated ,jewish historian1 who died c4 ,a4,d4 #ajc1 is utterly unproved4 ,again1 the often-repeated statement that the doctrine of man being made a partaker of the divine nature 7#b ,pet4 i4 #d7 is a doctrine which was not taught until after the apostolic age1 is unwarrantable1 unless we repudiate wholesale many books of the ,new ,testament which we have every reason to regard as apostolic4 ,for the indwelling of the ,father in ,christ and in the believer through ,christ is implied by ,st4 ,paul1 ,st4 ,john1 ,st4 ,james1 and ,st4 ,peter4 ,the writer1 in laying stress upon the importance of spiritual knowledge1 is once more in agreement with ,st4 ,paul and ,st4 ,john4 ,he plainly does not mean mere intellectual knowledge1 and the doctrine which he teaches is of a very simple kind4 ,the slight reference made to the ,redemption 7ii4 #a7 and the silence manifested as to the ,resurrection cannot be considered so crucial as some scholars believe them to be4 ,readers of the ,first ,epistle could hardly fail to have these #bdg facts printed in their very souls4 ,they would not require to have them repeated in a second letter4 ,the language of the ,epistle1 especially in the verses which do not depend upon ,jude1 shows several small coincidences with #a ,peter and with the speeches of ,st4 ,peter in ,acts4 ,we may compare the phrases in #b ,pet4 ii4 #ae with ,acts i4 #ah1 and #b ,pet4 iii4 #aj with ,acts ii4 #ai1 and ,compare #b ,pet4 i4 #g with #a ,pet4 i4 #bb1 iii4 #h4 i4 #ai1 #bj i4 #aj-ab4 ii4 #a i4 #ah iii4 #f iii4 #bj4 iii4 #ad i4 #ai4 ,the writer abstains from copying the designation of the apostle contained in #a ,peter1 and does not record the words spoken from heaven at the ,transfiguration exactly as they are reported in the ,gospels4 ,in both these points a forger would very probably have acted otherwise4 ,on the whole1 the words employed in #b ,peter seem indecisive with regard to the authorship4 ,there is sufficient variation to allow us to believe that it was written or not written by the apostle4 ,one of the most remarkable words in #b ,peter is that employed in i4 #af for an eye-witness4 ,it is a word used in the ,greek heathen mysteries1 and some critics think that such a word would not have been used by an orthodox writer until an age when the ,church had learnt to borrow ,greek religious terms from the ,gnostic heretics4 ,it is a sufficient proof of the weakness of this argument that the ,greek verb derived from this noun is found in #a ,pet4 ii4 #ab4 ,it is1 however1 fair to say that the style of #b ,peter is less simple and less closely connected with the ,old ,testament than that of #a ,peter4 ,more serious objections are 7#a7 the lack of external evidence in the writers of the #bnd and #crd centuries2 7#b7 the internal evidence that the ,epistle is based upon ,jude1 and perhaps on the ,apocalypse of ,peter4 #bdh ,eusebius is evidently in doubt about it4 ,he says1 ,we have not indeed received it by tradition to be in the ,canon1 yet as it appeared useful to many1 it was studiously read with the other ,scriptures4 #a ,it is not mentioned by ,irenaeus1 nor is it in the list given in the ,muratorian ,fragment4 ,but it seems to have been commented on by ,clement of ,alexandria1 though it is not quoted in his extant works4 ,origen does mention it in his original ,greek works1 but in a manner which shows that it was disputed in his time4 ,in ,rufinus' ,latin translation of ,origen there are several quotations from #b ,peter1 but against this fact it is sometimes urged that ,rufinus emended ,origen1 and that we cannot be absolutely certain that these quotations are genuine4 ,the ,epistle seems to have been known to ,origen's great contemporary ,hippolytus 7,refut4 ix4 #g2 x4 #bj and elsewhere74 ,there are1 moreover1 passages in still earlier writers which are perhaps based on #b ,peter4 ,these are in ,clement of ,rome1 ,a4,d4 #ie1 ,justin ,martyr1 ,a4,d4 #aeb1 and the document which is wrongly called the ,second ,epistle of ,clement1 and is really a ,roman homily of about ,a4,d4 #adj4 ,the evidence of these passages is not positive1 but if even one of them is quoted from #b ,peter1 it becomes quite impossible to assign #b ,peter to ,a4,d4 #aej-agj1 which is the date most favoured by those who deny its authenticity4 ,nor is the omission of any mention of it in ,irenaeus and the ,muratorian ,fragment a very destructive fact4 ,the ,muratorian ,fragment is only a fragment1 and does not mention #a ,peter1 and there is no passage in ,irenaeus quoted from ,james4 ,yet it is certain that those two ,epistles belong to the apostolic age4 ,the fact is that such a very large amount of the literature of the #bnd century has been destroyed1 that it is always precarious to argue from omissions in the books which are still extant4 ,therefore1 although the evidence of writers of the #bnd and #crd centuries is certainly meagre in the case of #b ,peter1 we cannot argue that comparative lack of evidence means positively hostile evidence4 ,a #bdi notable step towards the determination of the problem will be made if scholars eventually agree to assign a very early date to the two great ,egyptian versions of the ,new ,testament4 ,both these versions contain #b ,peter4 ,as to the connection between #b ,peter and ,jude1 it may be regarded as certain that either they both depend on some previous document1 or that one of them depends on the other4 ,compare ,jude #f with #b ,pet4 ii4 #d4 #g ii4 #f4 #h ii4 #aj4 #aj ii4 #ab4 #aa ii4 #ae4 #ab1 #ac ii4 #ac1 #ag4 #af ii4 #ah4 #ag1 #ah iii4 #a-c4 ,an examination of these passages seems to prove that #a ,peter borrows from ,jude and not ,jude from #b ,peter4#b ,in ,jude the connection of ideas seems more simple and direct4 ,various verses in #b ,peter become more intelligible in the light thrown upon them by the corresponding verses in ,jude4 ,thus ,jude #aj alludes to the immorality which explains why the heretics are called animals to be destroyed in #b ,pet4 ii4 #ab4 ,jude #ac1 by calling the heretics wandering stars1 explains why darkness is said to be reserved for them in #b ,pet4 ii4 #ag4 ,between #b ,pet4 ii4 #ag and #ah there is no direct allusion to ,enoch as in ,jude #ad1 but some of the material taken from the ,book of ,enoch still remains4 ,it will be observed that this connection with ,jude is confined to #b ,pet4 ii4 #a-;iii4 #g4 ,now1 this passage must have been either inserted in some ancient manuscript of this ,epistle1 or it was originally part of the ,epistle4 ,if it has been inserted1 the question of the authenticity of the rest of the ,epistle obviously remains #bej untouched4 ,but if it originally formed part of the ,epistle1 as appears to be the case1 can we regard this as a conclusive proof that ,st4 ,peter did not write it8 ,surely not4#c ,the fact that ,st4 ,luke inserts most of the ,gospel of ,st4 ,mark is not considered to be any argument against the authenticity of ,st4 ,luke's work4 ,both in the ,old ,testament and the ,new we are occasionally confronted by the same phenomenon4 ,writers repeat what has been said by other writers when their words appear to them to be the best possible words for enforcing a particular lesson4 ,the question of the authenticity of #b ,peter has lately become still further complicated4 ,there has recently been discovered part of the ,apocalypse of ,peter mentioned in the ,muratorian ,fragment4 ,this ,apocalypse is usually thought to have been forged in ,egypt in the first half of the #bnd century4 ,it presents certain points of resemblance with #b ,peter4 ,these points of resemblance affect the first chapter of #b ,peter as well as the second chapter4 ,they therefore furnish an argument against the theory that ch4 ii4 is a late interpolation into a genuine ,epistle1 and they suggest that the ,epistle is either wholly genuine or wholly forged4 ,but the solution of the problem is not so easy as it seems to many scholars4 ,if we could positively say that the ,apocalypse was written in the #bnd century1 and positively say that #b ,peter borrows from it1 the question would be settled once for all4 ,but this is the very thing which we cannot do with confidence4 ,some critics of great ability hold it certain that #b ,peter was forged by some one who borrowed from the ,apocalypse4 ,some think that the same writer forged them both4 ,others think that the ,apocalypse is partly derived from #b ,peter4 ,they can strongly support their view by the fact that when ,christians were familiar with both writings1 it was decided to reject the ,apocalypse and #bea keep the ,epistle4 ,lastly1 it might be reasonably held that the coincidences in both writings are due to the use of one earlier document or a common stock of ideas and phrases4 ,the popularity of ,apocalyptic literature at the beginning of the ,christian era makes this theory credible4 ,we may sum up the evidence for and against #b ,peter as follows3-- #a4 ,the external evidence is meagre4 #b4 ,the internal evidence is perplexing1 and may reasonably be considered adverse4 ,on the other hand3-- #a4 ,the external evidence is not definitely adverse4 #b4 ,no convincing reason can be assigned for forging such an ,epistle4 ,the critics who believe it to be forged1 hold that it was written in ,egypt in order to oppose the ,gnosticism of c4 ,a4,d4 #aej or #afj4 ,but the ,gnosticism rebuked in #b ,peter cannot definitely be assigned to the #bnd century4 ,and it is very difficult to say that the heresy rebuked in #b ,peter belongs to the #bnd century without also maintaining that the heresy rebuked in ,jude belongs to the #bnd century4#d ,yet several facts in ,jude point so decidedly to the #ast century that some of the ablest writers who deny the authenticity of #b ,peter strongly assert the genuineness of ,jude4 ,we can only conclude by doubting whether we know more about the problem of #b ,peter than the ,church of the #crd and #dth centuries knew4 ,perhaps we do not know nearly as much4 ,and under these circumstances we cannot effectively criticize the judgment of the ,church which decided to admit #b ,peter into the ,canon4 ,sidenote3 ,to whom written4 ,to the same readers as the ,first ,epistle 7iii4 #a74 ,sidenote3 ,where and when written4 ,it was probably written in ,rome1 and some of the earliest references to it are by writers who lived in ,rome4 #beb ,justin ,martyr lived in ,rome1 and if the references in ,justin ,martyr and other writers before ,hippolytus be considered doubtful1 ,hippolytus is a ,roman witness of the first importance4 ,the date is perhaps between ,a4,d4 #fc and #fg4 ,if it were later than #gj1 we might reasonably expect to find a reference to the destruction of ,jerusalem after the allusion to ,god's retribution on the people of ,sodom and other malefactors of old times4 ,the errors which are denounced are akin to those which are denounced in #a and #b ,timothy4 ,the allusion to ,st4 ,paul's ,epistles in iii4 #af suggests that some collection of these ,epistles already existed1 and that ,st4 ,paul was already dead4 ,it has been urged against the genuineness of the ,epistle that it includes the ,pauline ,epistles in ,scripture 7iii4 #af71 and that this would have been impossible in the apostolic age4 ,but the statement need not necessarily mean more than that the ,epistles were on the margin of a ,canon which was in process of formation4 ,there is good reason for believing that the ,pauline ,epistles occupied this position at a time when men who had known some of the apostles were still living1 and perhaps earlier4 ,the manner in which ,st4 ,peter has made use of ,st4 ,paul's work in his ,first ,epistle1 makes it quite possible for us to think that he believed in the peculiar inspiration of his great comrade4 ,and it is an interesting fact that the ,syriac ,doctrine of ,addai in speaking of the ,epistles of ,st4 ,paul1 adds1 which ,simon ,peter sent us from the city of ,rome4 ,sidenote3 ,character and ,contents4 ,the key-word to the ,epistle is not hope1 as in #a ,peter1 but knowledge 7i4 #c1 #h2 ii4 #bj74 ,we find1 as in #a ,peter1 a fondness or the word glory4 ,but in #a ,peter glory seems to be represented as given to ,christ after ,his sufferings1 and promised to ,christians in the future after their sufferings 7#a ,pet4 i4 #aa2 iv4 #ac2 v4 #a74 ,here glory is rather spoken of as manifested in all the new dispensation1 and especially at the ,transfiguration 7i4 #c1 #ag74 ,the apostle #bec appeals to the fact that he witnessed the ,transfiguration as a guarantee of his prophecy of the second coming of ,christ4 ,he finds another warrant in the prophecies of the ,old ,testament1 and asserts that prophecy is not a matter for a man's own private unaided interpretation1 inasmuch as it was an utterance prompted by the ,holy ,spirit 7i4 #ai-ba74 ,this description of true religious knowledge is followed by an arraignment of false prophets and speculative heresy4 ,it is possible that the teaching of definitely false doctrine was already combined with previously existing immoral practice4 ,the verse 7ii4 #a7 in which the writer speaks of false teachers1 refers to the rise of these heretics as future4 ,but in other verses of the chapter the self-willed teachers are spoken of as already active4 ,we gather from iii4 #af that the licence which is so sternly rebuked was a system in which ,st4 ,paul's doctrine of justification by faith was represented as a justification of vile indulgence4 ,although this part of the ,epistle is a paraphrase of ,jude1 it is not a mere reproduction4 ,a new feature in #b ,peter is that the heretics were sceptical concerning the second coming of ,christ 7iii4 #d74 ,they argued that since the death of the fathers1 i4e4 the first followers of ,christ1 the world continued as before4 ,st4 ,peter urges that the deluge came1 though its coming was doubted1 and also that it must be remembered that the ,lord does not reckon time as men do4 ,a period which is long to us is not long to ,him4 ,the day of the ,lord will come suddenly as a thief in the night1 and in view of judgment the readers are exhorted to holiness and patience4 #bed ,,analysis ,salutation1 a list of ,christian graces which are to be successively blended with faith1 a reminder of the truth of ,christianity as testified by the words of ,god at the ,transfiguration1 and by the light of prophecy 7i474 ,denunciation of the false teachers who are guilty of gross sin and blindly follow their lower instincts 7ii474 ,allusion to the former letter1 rebuke of those who disbelieve in the last judgment1 the coming of the day of the ,lord and the destruction of the world1 exhortations to holiness1 diligence needed1 the long-suffering of ,christ witnessed to by ,paul1 growth in grace 7iii474 #a ,h4 ,e4 iii4 #c4 #b ,the priority of #b ,peter is strongly defended by ,spitta1 in his ,der ,zweite ,brief d4 ,petrus1 #ahhe4 #c ,this is very clearly stated by ,dr4 ,g4 ,b4 ,stevens in his valuable ,theology of the ,new ,testament1 although he decides against the genuineness of #b ,peter4 #d ,this is done by ,harnack1 who places ,jude between ,a4,d4 #ajj and #acj4 #bee ,,chapter ,,xxiii ,,the ,,epistles ,,of ,,st4 ,,john ,,the ,,first ,,epistle ,,general ,,of ,,john ,sidenote3 ,the ,author4 ,the authenticity of this ,epistle is bound up with the authenticity of ,st4 ,john's ,gospel4 ,like the ,gospel1 it does not contain any statement as to the name of the author4 ,like the ,gospel1 it is attributed by a very ancient tradition to the nearest friend of ,jesus ,christ4 ,the external evidence is particularly good4 ,we learn from the unimpeachable testimony of ,eusebius#a that it was used by ,papias1 who was a disciple of ,st4 ,john4 ,polycarp1 another disciple of ,st4 ,john1 directly quotes #a ,john iv4 #c in his still extant letter4 ,it is quoted by ,irenaeus1 the pupil of ,polycarp1 and was recognized as genuine in widely distant ,churches at the close of the #bnd century4 ,the internal evidence shows that the writer claims to be an eye-witness and intimate personal friend of ,jesus ,christ 7i4 #a-c74b ,and this eye-witness must be ,st4 ,john1 if the fourth ,gospel was written by ,st4 ,john4 ,the style is similar1 and the ideas are the same4 ,it is true that ,christ is not called our propitiation in the ,gospel as in this ,epistle 7ii4 #b2 iv4 #aj71 that in the ,gospel there is no mention of antichrists 7as in #bef ii4 #h71 and that the word ,paraclete is in the ,gospel applied to the ,holy ,ghost1 while it is here applied to our ,lord 7ii4 #a74 ,but the idea of propitiation is expressed in the description of our ,lord as the ,lamb of ,god 7,john i4 #bi71 the mention of antichrists is uncalled for in the ,gospel1 and by naming the ,holy ,ghost another ,paraclete our ,lord gave ,st4 ,john the best possible reason for calling ,christ ,himself by the same title4 ,the description of our ,lord as the only begotten ,son 7iv4 #i7 is an important point of contact with ,john i4 #ad1 #ah4 ,the language about light and darkness1 ,god and the world1 the new commandment1 the love of ,god1 being born of ,god1 eternal life1 abiding in ,christ1 recalls the ,gospel at every turn4 ,the ,epistle1 however1 does contain some phrases and ideas which are not to be found in the ,gospel4 ,such are love perfected1 a sin unto death1 the lust of the eyes1 to come in the flesh1 to walk in the light1 to do lawlessness1 to be from above4 ,yet they fit quite naturally with the language and theology of the ,gospel4 ,therefore there does not seem to be any sufficient reason for holding that it was the work of another writer4 ,f4 ,c4 ,baur and ,hilgenfeld thought it to be the work of a second forger of that mysterious band to which they attributed such versatility and success4 ,and several more recent critics who have denied the authenticity of the ,gospel1 have maintained with ,baur that the ,epistle is the work of a second forger4 ,but these negations have led to no assured result4 ,they are seen to be fruitless as soon as we realize that these critics have been quite unable to agree whether the ,epistle was composed before the ,gospel or after it4 ,some consider that it was a theological balloon sent to try the credulity of ,christian readers before the ,gospel was despatched4 ,others consider that there are overwhelming indications to prove that the ,epistle is only a poor imitation of the ,gospel4 ,renan and ,davidson favoured the former view1 ,f4 ,c4 ,baur and ,c4 ,weizscker the latter4 ,at the present time the majority #beg of critics1 both ,christian and non-,christian1 believe that it was written by the writer of the fourth ,gospel4 ,sidenote3 ,to whom written4 ,it seems to be a pastoral letter addressed to all the members of the apostle's flock1 intended therefore for the ,christians of ,asia in and around ,ephesus4 ,it is a strange fact that ,st4 ,augustine1 in quoting iii4 #b1 describes the passage as said by ,john in his ,epistle to the ,parthians4 ,this statement is a riddle which no commentator has been able to answer satisfactorily4 ,as the ,eastern ,churches had little or no knowledge of this title1 we are compelled to regard it as a mistake4 ,it may have arisen from some scribe failing to read a partially illegible manuscript in which ,st4 ,john may have been given the title of parthenos or virgin4 ,but it is most likely that it arose from a confusion with the ,second ,epistle1 which was thought in the time of ,clement of ,alexandria to be addressed to parthenoi or virgins4 ,the absence of quotations from the ,old ,testament1 and the command guard yourselves from idols 7v4 #ba71 solemnly given at the very end of the ,epistle1 suggest that the recipients of the letter were converts from heathenism4 ,the ,christians of ,ephesus1 the mother-city of ,asiatic idolatry1 were peculiarly in need of such an exhortation4 ,sidenote3 ,where and when written4 ,we can hardly doubt that it was written at ,ephesus1 where the apostle spent his last years4 ,the assertion that ,st4 ,john did not live at ,ephesus is in direct contradiction with the best and earliest traditions4 ,but it has been repeated at intervals during the last sixty years by several critics1 who found that they would be compelled to admit the genuineness of the ,revelation if they granted that ,st4 ,john lived at ,ephesus1 where the ,revelation was evidently published4#c ,against such criticism we can confidently marshal the express and independent statements of ,apollonius of ,ephesus 7,a4,d4 #aif71 ,polycrates of ,ephesus 7,a4,d4 #aij71 #beh ,irenaeus of ,lyons 7,a4,d4 #ahe71 ,clement of ,alexandria 7,a4,d4 #aij71 ,tertullian of ,carthage 7,a4,d4 #bjj71 not to mention some valuable indirect evidence of earlier date4 ,if we are to reject such evidence as this1 the science of history must be laid in the tomb4 ,the question as to the exact date is very important for those who believe that the ,epistle was not written by the author of the ,gospel4 ,they are involved in the most intricate questions about the reproduction of the ,gospel in the ,epistle or of the ,epistle in the ,gospel4 ,for those who do not believe in a diversity of authorship the problem is far less vital4 ,the apostle was evidently advanced in years4 ,he includes all his people under the affectionate name my little children 7ii4 #a74 ,on the whole1 it seems probable that it was written rather later than the ,gospel4 ,this is suggested by the teaching about the second coming of ,christ4 ,both in the ,gospel and in the ,epistle we find mentioned or implied a present and a future passing from death to life1 and a spiritual presence of ,christ now and another hereafter4 ,but in the ,epistle it is the future coming of ,christ which is more prominent 7ii4 #bh2 iii4 #b2 iv4 #ag74 ,in the ,revelation1 ,a4,d4 #if1 it is still more prominent4 ,the ,epistle suggests that ,st4 ,john's readers were already acquainted with the discourses in his ,gospel4 ,the heresy described1 and the fact that the heretics are already outside the ,church1 point to a comparatively late date4 ,we can hardly place it before ,a4,d4 #he4 ,sidenote3 ,character and ,contents4 ,this ,epistle contains no reference to any outward dangers4 ,domitian's persecution had not yet affected the ,church1 and the controversy with ,judaism had closed4 ,there is no trace of any conflict between ,jew and ,gentile1 and ,st4 ,john1 in asserting the truth of the incarnation of the ,son of ,god1 is not opposing any heresy resembling that of those semi-,christian ,jews of the #bnd century who declared ,christ to be merely the best of men4 ,he is combating a form of error taught by ,cerinthus1 who said that #bei ,jesus was a man born of ,joseph and ,mary1 and that on this man there descended a divine element named ,christ1 who left him before the crucifixion4 ,thus ,christ never suffered1 though the ,jesus who seemed to be ,christ did suffer4 ,in face of these false views ,st4 ,john asserts the truth4 ,he asserts that ,one who is both ,jesus and ,christ came in the flesh 7iv4 #b71 and that ,he came1 that is1 was manifested as ,christ1 both in the water of ,his baptism and the blood of ,his cross 7v4 #f74 ,by this blood ,he cleanses man from sin 7i4 #g74 ,we may be sure of ,his help1 for ,he lives as our ,advocate with the ,father4 ,to deny that ,jesus is the ,christ is to deny the ,father1 to deny ,god altogether 7ii4 #bb2 iv4 #c74 ,st4 ,ignatius and ,st4 ,polycarp inveigh in similar language against the ,docetists1 who flourished between ,a4,d4 #aaj and #abj4 ,it is important to notice that ,st4 ,john's opponents do not appear to have been ,antinomian in conduct4 ,he says1 ,every one that doeth sin1 doeth also lawlessness2 and sin is lawlessness 7iii4 #d74 ,if he had been blaming ,antinomianism it would have been more natural to say1 ,every one that doeth lawlessness1 doeth also sin4 ,the main theme of the ,epistle is not controversial4 ,it is to show that in faith and love is the guarantee of our fellowship with ,god and of our salvation4 ,since this fellowship implies that ,he abides in us1 it may be recognized by ,his ,spirit being in us 7iii4 #bd74 ,this ,spirit is distinguished from the spirit of error by the confession of ,christ2 so to hear the apostle's teaching about ,christ is a sign of the presence of ,god within us4 ,the moral and the religious life are summed up in the words ,god and ,love1 and those who love one another are born of ,god4 ,love in action corresponds with a confession of the incarnation in the intellect 7iv4 #g-ab74 ,it is wholly incompatible with sin 7iii4 #f71 and is therefore righteous towards ,god and man4 ,every one who1 as a child of ,god1 hopes to grow like ,god1 purifies himself as ,christ is pure4 ,he cannot love the world1 which is a system of selfishness4 ,st4 ,john speaks of the possibility of committing a sin unto death4 ,this #bfj is an old ,jewish expression for a sin deserving natural death4 ,but the apostle lifts the phrase to a higher level and slightly alters it4 ,his words literally mean a sin tending unto death4 ,it is any sin which by its very nature excludes a man from fellowship with ,christians4 ,it is a sin which requires chastisement before forgiveness1 and ,st4 ,john does not enjoin1 though he does not forbid1 prayer for those whose sin makes them unable to share in the privileges of the common life of the ,church4 ,behind the practical teaching of the ,epistle lies that great conception of the ,father which the writer had gained from intercourse with the only-begotten ,son4 ,god is ,love 7iv4 #h1 #af71 and has given us the greatest of all gifts 7iv4 #i72 ,god is ,light 7i4 #e71 and dispels all moral darkness 7i4 #f72 ,god is ,life 7v4 #bj71 imparting ,his own existence to man 7iii4 #i72 ,god is ,father 7ii4 #a2 iii4 #a7--though our relationship with ,him is forfeited by sin1 perfect and fearless intimacy may be gained through ,christ 7iv4 #ae1 #ah74 ,,analysis ,a promise to impart knowledge of the incarnate ,word2 ,god is ,light1 fellowship with ,god and forgiveness of sin 7i474 ,christ our propitiation1 love of our brother a necessary condition of walking in the light1 messages to children1 fathers1 young men1 the love of the world1 ,antichrist and the denial of ,christ1 abiding in the ,son and in the ,father 7ii474 ,the love of ,god in calling us ,his children1 the manifestation of ,christ to take away sin1 love of our brother the sign that we are spiritually changed1 to believe in ,christ and love one another the commandment of ,god 7iii474 ,acknowledgment of the incarnation is the test of spirits1 to love one another is to be like ,god1 perfect love loses fear 7iv474 ,faith in the incarnation overcomes the world1 the three #bfa witnesses to the incarnation1 eternal life possessed if we have the ,son1 prayer1 freedom from sin1 knowledge through ,jesus1 who is the true ,god and eternal life 7v474 ,,the ,,second ,,epistle ,,of ,,john ,sidenote3 ,the ,author4 ,the writer does not insert his name in the ,epistle1 but simply describes himself as the elder4 ,some writers have therefore supposed that it was written by the presbyter named ,john1 who lived at ,ephesus about the close of the apostolic age4 ,but ,irenaeus1 who was not likely to be mistaken in such a matter1 certainly regarded it as the work of the apostle1 and the ,muratorian ,fragment apparently so regards it4 ,clement of ,alexandria was certainly acquainted with more than one ,epistle by ,st4 ,john1 and a ,latin translation of his ,hypotyposes definitely says1 the ,second ,epistle of ,john1 written to virgins1 is very simple4 ,moreover1 the title elder or presbyter is by no means incompatible with apostolic authorship4 ,st4 ,peter in #a ,pet4 v4 #a expressly describes himself by this title1 nor does the title appear to have become confined to the presbyters or priests of the ,church until about ,a4,d4 #bjj4 ,the similarity to the ,first ,epistle is strong1 seven of the thirteen verses having parallels in the ,first ,epistle4 ,if the ,epistle were a forgery1 it is probable that the writer would have claimed to be an apostle in unmistakable language4 ,and if the author were not a forger1 but the presbyter who was for some years a contemporary of the apostle1 it is hardly likely that he would have been content to write this diminutive letter1 which does little more than sum up part of the ,first ,epistle4 ,the language of the ,second ,epistle bears almost the same relation to that of the first as the first bears to that of the ,gospel4 ,there is a fundamental likeness combined with a few fresh expressions1 such as walk according to1 coming in the flesh instead of come in the flesh1 to have ,god4 #bfb ,sidenote3 ,to whom written4 ,unto the elect lady and her children4 ,the interpretation of these words is a notorious difficulty4 ,at first sight the lady would be supposed to be a private individual4 ,but if so1 why is not the individual's name mentioned1 like the name of the recipient of the ,third ,epistle8 ,perhaps it is mentioned1 for the words translated the elect lady may mean the elect ,kyria4 ,the house of the lady 7ver4 #aj7 also suggests that the lady is an individual4 ,on the other hand1 it has been supposed that the lady is a symbolical name for a local ,church4 ,in favour of this interpretation is the fact that the writer speaks1 not only of the children of the lady who are with her1 but also of others whom he has met 7ver4 #d71 and in a manner which suggests a large number of persons4 ,the same interpretation can be put upon the elect sister mentioned in the last verse of the ,epistle4 ,writers of deserved repute accept this symbolical interpretation4 ,but when a literal meaning and a symbolical meaning are supported by equally good arguments1 it seems prudent to accept the simpler1 i4e4 the literal interpretation4 ,it is hard to believe that ,st4 ,jerome and ,hilgenfeld are right in thinking that it is addressed to the whole ,catholic ,church4 ,this is surely excluded by the mention of an elect sister4 ,sidenote3 ,where and when written4 ,probably from ,ephesus1 and the contents suggest that it was written later than the first ,epistle4 ,sidenote3 ,character and ,contents4 ,the letter contains an affectionate expression of happiness due to the steadfast ,christianity of the children of the elect lady4 ,but its main object is to utter a warning against the deceivers who deny that ,christ is come in the flesh4 ,these deceivers were evidently ,docetists4 ,in order to appreciate the necessity for such a warning we must remember the extraordinary attraction which many persons who liked a dilettante ,christianity found in the theory that ,christ was a divine ,spirit who clothed ,himself with flesh in which ,he did not suffer4 ,at the close of the apostolic age1 and #bfc for many generations afterwards1 orthodox ,christianity was often regarded as too materialistic for advanced thinkers4 ,they endeavoured to make ,christianity keep pace with the times by infusing into it the decadent ,greek or ,oriental mysticism which depreciated our human body4 ,,analysis ,salutation1 thanksgiving for certain of the elect lady's children1 reminder of the commandments to love and obey1 the deceivers who deny the incarnation not to be welcomed2 the writer1 expecting to visit his correspondents1 closes his letter4 ,,the ,,third ,,epistle ,,of ,,john ,sidenote3 ,the ,author4 ,it is generally admitted1 both by those who deny and those who accept the authenticity of the works of ,st4 ,john1 that this ,epistle was written by the author of #b ,john4 ,it presents several close parallels both with #b ,john and with the ,gospel4 ,its obviously private character accounts for the fact that it is seldom quoted in early literature4 ,it is found in the ,old ,latin version of the ,new ,testament1 though not in the ,muratorian ,fragment4 ,it was known to ,origen and ,dionysius of ,alexandria4 ,eusebius places it among the ,antilegomena 7,h4 ,e4 iii4 #be71 but it was generally accepted in the #dth century4 ,sidenote3 ,to whom written4 ,unto ,gaius the beloved4 ,the name was a common one1 being a form of the ,latin ,caius4 ,there is no reason for identifying this ,gaius with one of the persons of the same name who are mentioned as living in ,corinth1 ,macedonia1 and ,derbe respectively1 all of whom may have been dead at the late period when this letter was written4 ,the ,gaius of this ,epistle was evidently a faithful and hospitable ,christian4 ,baur displayed more than even his #bfd usual powers of invention by suggesting that ,gaius was a ,montanist of the latter part of the #bnd century1 and ,diotrephes a symbolical name for one of the ,catholic bishops of ,rome opposed to ,montanism4 ,sidenote3 ,where and when written4 ,probably at ,ephesus2 subsequently to the ,first ,epistle1 and probably very soon after the ,second4 ,sidenote3 ,character and ,contents4 ,this little letter gives us a few brief glimpses of the life of the ,church near the end of the #ast century4 ,the purpose of the letter is to commend a ,christian of good character1 named ,demetrius1 to the hospitable care of ,gaius4 ,it appears1 therefore1 to be one of those letters of commendation which are mentioned by ,st4 ,paul in #b ,cor4 iii4 #a1 and were common in later times4 ,by the side of this pleasantness there is distress4 ,connected with the ,church to which ,gaius belongs there is an ambitious schismatic named ,diotrephes1 who refuses to admit the authority of the apostle4 ,the fact that he was guilty of casting the friends of the apostle out of the ,church 7ver4 #aj71 suggests that ,diotrephes was at least a presbyter1 and perhaps a bishop appointed by the apostle4 ,we are told by ,clement of ,alexandria that ,st4 ,john appointed bishops in ,asia1 and there is no reason for doubting that episcopacy dates back to this period4 ,the apostle evidently intends to punish ,diotrephes for his malice when he visits the district again4 ,it is just possible that the letter to the ,church 7ver4 #i7 which ,diotrephes repudiated is our ,second ,epistle of ,st4 ,john4 ,this theory will win acceptance with some of those who think that the ,second ,epistle was not written to an individual1 but to a ,church4 ,,analysis ,salutations to ,gaius1 congratulations that he is walking in the truth1 his hospitality to travelling ,christians1 the tyranny of ,diotrephes1 recommendation of ,demetrius1 personal matters4 #a ,h4 ,e4 iii4 #ci4 #b ,it is impossible to accept the recent ,rationalist hypothesis that these words were written by a pious ,christian who had not seen ,jesus1 but wished to emphasize the truth that the historical ,church was intimately connected with the historical ,jesus4 #c ,among these critics must be numbered ,ltzelberger 7#ahdj71 ,keim 7#ahfg71 ,bousset 7#ahii74 #bfe ,,chapter ,,xxiv ,,the ,,general ,,epistle ,,of ,,jude ,sidenote3 ,the ,author4 ,judas1 a servant of ,jesus ,christ1 and brother of ,james4 ,we can be sure that the ,james here mentioned is the ,james who acted as the first bishop of the ,church at ,jerusalem4 ,the author's designation of himself would not be intelligible unless he meant that he was related to a very prominent man of that name4 ,the writer cannot be the ,apostle ,jude4 ,he does not claim to be an apostle1 and he seems indirectly to repudiate the authority of an apostle by describing himself only in relation to his brother and by referring to the apostles of our ,lord ,jesus ,christ in a manner which seems to distinguish them for himself4 ,if the ,apostle ,jude was the son of ,james 7as many scholars think71 this ,jude was clearly another man4 ,if the ,apostle was the brother of ,james 7as the ,english ,authorised ,version holds71 then his identification with this ,jude is still doubtful4 ,jude was a son of ,st4 ,joseph4 ,at first he did not believe in our ,lord 7,john vii4 #e71 but was convinced by the ,resurrection 7,acts i4 #ad74 ,he was married 7#a ,cor4 ix4 #e74 ,hegesippus1 a writer of the #bnd century1 tells us that two of his grandsons were taken before the ,emperor ,domitian as being of the royal house of ,david1 and therefore dangerous to the empire4#a ,he found them to be poor rough-handed men1 and dismissed them with good-humoured contempt when they described the kingdom of ,christ as heavenly4 ,philip of ,side1 about #dbe1 says #bff that ,hegesippus gave the names of these two men as ,zocer and ,james4 ,the ,epistle was known to ,clement of ,alexandria and ,tertullian1 and is in the ,muratorian ,fragment4 ,the chief objections to the authenticity of this ,epistle fall under three heads4 ,it is said that 7a7 a late date is indicated by the allusion to the teaching of the apostles in ver4 #ag4 ,but the allusion seems to correspond exactly with a late date in the apostolic age1 for vers4 #ag and #ah assume that the readers remember what the apostles had said4 ,it is said that 7b7 the phrase in ver4 #c1 the faith which was once for all delivered unto the saints1 indicates that a definite body of doctrine was recognized by the ,christians of the period1 and that the ,christians of the apostolic age did not use the word faith in this sense4 ,but it is not difficult to suppose that the word would be soon extended from the act of believing to the facts believed4 ,and in such early passages as ,gal4 i4 #bc and ,rom4 x4 #h we find the word closely approximating to the latter sense4 ,it is said that 7c7 the heresy which is described is a heresy of the #bnd century1 and implies a definite ,gnostic system4 ,but the fact that the ,epistle does not describe such a definite system is convincingly shown by the inability of certain critics to determine who the heretics are4 ,the ,balaamites of ,asia ,minor1 the ,carpocratians of ,egypt1 and some obscure sects of ,syria1 are all suggested4 ,there is no evidence to show that the errors here described could not have grown up in apostolic times1 and the ,epistles of ,st4 ,paul contain several passages which point to similar perversions of ,christianity4 ,the word sensual in ver4 #ai was an insulting term applied to ordinary ,christians by the ,gnostics of the #bnd century1 but ,st4 ,jude's use of it betrays no consciousness of this later application4 ,the style of the letter makes it practically certain that it was written by some one who had been a ,jew4 ,the ,greek is forcible4 ,it shows a considerable knowledge of ,greek words1 #bfg including various poetical and archaic expressions4 ,but the manner is stiff1 and the sentences are linked together with difficulty4 ,several phrases come from the ,septuagint1 some of them being taken from the ,book of ,wisdom4 ,it is probable that the author was acquainted with the ,hebrew ,old ,testament1 as ver4 #ab 7from ,ezek4 xxxiv4 #b7 and ver4 #bb f4 7from ,zech4 iii4 #b f47 suggest this4 ,sidenote3 ,to whom written4 ,the ,epistle is simply addressed to them that are called1 beloved in ,god the ,father1 and kept for ,jesus ,christ4 ,it seems that these ,christians must have been natives of ,palestine or ,syria4 ,they had been personally instructed by the apostles 7ver4 #ag71 which makes this region probable4 ,no place seems more likely than ,antioch and its neighbourhood4 ,the libertinism which was endangering the ,church would not be likely to arise except in a district where the ,christians were in close contact with heathenism4 ,extreme critics now usually maintain that it was written either in ,asia or in ,egypt4 ,if written in ,asia1 it can hardly have been written by the ,lord's brother1 as we know that his descendants lived in ,palestine4 ,if written in ,egypt1 it can hardly belong to the age of the apostles4 ,these two sceptical theories as to the place where the ,epistle was written contradict one another effectively4 ,sidenote3 ,where and when written4 ,the style and contents of the letter show that it was probably written in ,palestine and at ,jerusalem4 ,the date is probably soon after the martyrdom of ,st4 ,james in ,a4,d4 #fb4 ,st4 ,jude was dead before his grandsons had their interview with ,domitian4 ,the ,epistle must therefore be before ,a4,d4 #ha4 ,sidenote3 ,character and ,contents4 ,the ,epistle is remarkable as containing references to two ,jewish books of an apocalyptic character which are not mentioned in the ,old ,testament4 ,this caused some writers in early days to hesitate to ascribe the ,epistle to a brother of ,st4 ,james1 and in recent times the same argument has been revived in a new #bfh form4 ,but these quotations seem quite compatible with a belief in the genuineness of the ,epistle4 ,the books quoted were in existence in the apostolic age1 and would be likely to be valued by a devout ,jew4 ,in ver4 #i there is reference to ,michael1 which ,origen says was derived from the ,assumption of ,moses1 a ,jewish work written at the beginning of the ,christian era4 ,in #b ,pet4 ii4 #aa the allusion to ,michael is so modified1 that the origin of the reference is no longer obvious4 ,in vers4 #d1 #f1 and #ad1 there are quotations from the ,book of ,enoch1 a ,jewish book composed of sections written at various dates1 the latest being written in the century before ,christ4 ,the purpose of the ,epistle is to warn the ,church against certain depravers of ,god's grace who denied our only ,master and ,lord1 ,jesus ,christ 7ver4 #d74 ,the author sees fit to remind his readers of ancient examples of unfaithfulness and impurity1 and shows that they must be compassionate towards the wavering1 and try to save the worst by a desperate effort4 ,it is plain that the false teachers were guilty of gross and unnatural vice1 that they were greedy1 and destitute of godly fear4 ,they also1 like the evil ,christians at ,corinth1 brought discredit upon the ,agap 7ver4 #ab71 a social meal which the ,christians were first wont to partake of before the ,eucharist1 and at a later date after the ,eucharist4 ,the licence which is rebuked by ,st4 ,jude probably arose from a perversion of the doctrine of justification by faith which had been taught by our ,lord4 ,christians who had been taught that they could be saved without observing the ,jewish ceremonial law1 imagined that they could be saved without any self-discipline or self-restraint4 ,many parallels to such errors have been found in modern times1 the worst example being that afforded by the ,anabaptists1 who arose in ,germany at the time of the ,reformation4 ,it is worth noticing that1 in spite of the untheological character of this ,epistle1 the writer shows his belief in the ,holy ,trinity by the manner in which he refers to the ,father #bfi and ,jesus ,christ 7ver4 #a7 and the ,holy ,ghost 7ver4 #bj74 ,the ,epistle gives no encouragement to the theory that the first ,jewish ,christians were ,unitarians4 ,,analysis ,salutation and charge to maintain the faith 7#a-d74 ,warnings from the punishment of the ,israelites1 of the angels1 of ,sodom and ,gomorrha 7#e-g74 ,railing at dignities rebuked 7#h-aj74 ,denunciation of those who imitate ,cain 7murder71 ,balaam 7encouragement of impurity71 ,korah 7schism71 and spoil the ,agap 7#aa-ac74 ,these sectaries foretold by ,enoch 7#ad-af74 ,and by the apostles 7#ag-ai74 ,duty of edifying believers1 and saving sinners 7#bj-bc74 ,doxology 7#bd1 #be74 #a ,eusebius1 ,h4 ,e4 iii4 #bj4 #bgj ,,chapter ,,xxv ,,the ,,revelation ,,of ,,st4 ,,john ,,the ,,divine ,sidenote3 ,the ,author4 ,like the ,first ,epistle of ,st4 ,john1 the ,revelation has particularly strong external evidence in its favour4 ,about ,a4,d4 #aej ,justin ,martyr speaks of it as the work of ,john1 one of the apostles of ,christ1 in his dialogue held with ,trypho1 a ,jew1 at ,ephesus1 where ,st4 ,john had lived4 ,still earlier1 ,papias looked upon the book as inspired1 and bore testimony to its genuineness4 ,irenaeus1 the pupil of ,polycarp1 the disciple of ,st4 ,john1 quotes it as written by ,john1 the disciple of the ,lord4 ,about ,a4,d4 #agj ,melito of ,sardis1 one of the places to which part of the book was specially addressed1 wrote a commentary upon it4 ,it was accepted by the ,churches of ,vienne and ,lyons in ,gaul in ,a4,d4 #agg1 for they wrote of it as ,scripture in their letter to the ,christians of ,asia ,minor4 ,near the same date the ,muratorian ,fragment mentions it twice4 ,it will be observed that this evidence is not only good1 but it is also mostly drawn from sources which were most closely connected with ,st4 ,john4 ,the evidence of the ,churches of ,vienne and ,lyons would be important1 even if it stood alone4 ,for these ,greek-speaking ,churches were allied with the ,church of ,ephesus1 and were not likely to be mistaken about this question4 ,and the evidence of ,irenaeus and ,melito is still more weighty4 ,strange to say1 the belief in the authenticity of the ,revelation began to waver as time went on4 ,we need pay little heed to the sect known as the ,alogi1 who attributed both ,st4 ,john's #bga ,gospel and the ,revelation to ,cerinthus1 because they disliked the doctrine of the ,logos contained in these two books4 ,they were too ignorant to have been influenced by any real critical knowledge4 ,but it is an important fact that about ,a4,d4 #bdh ,dionysius of ,alexandria stated that it was probably written by ,john the ,presbyter1 and that the great ,eusebius seems at one time to have been inclined to accept the opinion of ,dionysius4#a ,so far as we can discover1 ,dionysius founded his opinion solely on the difference of style which can be observed as separating the ,revelation from the ,gospel4 ,he does not seem to have been in possession of any facts which gave historical support to his theory4 ,nevertheless1 we can legitimately think that there was another reason which induced orthodox ,christians to regard the ,revelation with less confidence4 ,the ,montanist sect1 which arose in the latter half of the #bnd century and became powerful in ,asia ,minor and ,north ,africa1 taught an extravagant doctrine about the millennium when ,christ would return to reign on earth4 ,this doctrine was partly founded on ,rev4 xx41 and was supported by pretended prophecies4 ,it caused orthodox ,christians to be more suspicious about the statements of ,christian prophets1 and probably made them less anxious to translate and circulate the ,revelation4 ,this hesitation was soon overruled1 and ,eusebius1 in spite of his own slight doubts1 reckons it as received among the undisputed books of the ,canon4 ,this was c4 ,a4,d4 #cbj4 ,in modern times the controversy about the authorship has been revived4 ,about one hundred years ago a school of critics took up the argument of ,dionysius4 ,they urged that the ,gospel and the ,revelation must have been written by two different authors1 the ,revelation being much more ,hebrew in style than the ,gospel4 ,the argument was elaborated by ,f4 ,c4 ,baur and the ,tbingen ,school4 ,as they were determined to deny the genuineness of the ,gospel which so clearly teaches #bgb that ,jesus is ,god1 they tried to discredit the ,gospel by insisting upon the authenticity of the ,revelation4 ,the successors of these critics soon found themselves on the horns of a dilemma4 ,a closer examination of the ,revelation made it clearer that on many important points the theology of the ,revelation is the same as that of the ,gospel4 ,if they admit that ,st4 ,john wrote both the books or one of them1 they will be forced to admit that the apostle taught definite orthodox ,christian theology4#b ,if1 on the other hand1 they affirm that both the books were written by ,john the ,presbyter1 they will shatter the old argument that diversity of style proves diversity of authorship4 ,it will therefore surprise no one to learn that they are now engaged in continuous disputes with regard to the identity of the author1 and the materials1 ,jewish or otherwise1 which he is supposed to have used in compiling his book4 ,at the present time the writers who hold the ,revelation to have been written by various authors1 are divided into no less than four camps1 while the rationalists who hold that it was written by one author cannot agree who that author was4 ,it is extremely significant that1 in spite of his conviction that the book was not all written at the same date1 the critic who is now by far the ablest opponent of orthodox ,christianity1 holds that the ,revelation was 7i47 published in the time of ,domitian1 as the tradition of the ,church affirms2 7ii47 published by the author of the fourth ,gospel1 though not by the real ,st4 ,john4#c ,it must be admitted that the style of the book is more ,hebrew and less ,greek than that of the ,gospel4 ,but some arguments may be reasonably alleged against the theory that #bgc this proves the ,revelation to be by a different author4 ,the difference in the scope and origin of the two books account in a large measure for the differences of vocabulary and style4 ,no book in the ,new ,testament is so steeped as the ,revelation in the imagery of the ,old ,testament2 ,daniel1 ,isaiah1 ,ezekiel1 and ,zechariah are constantly used4 ,the thoroughness with which their spirit has been assimilated1 and their ideas combined by the writer1 would create a ,hebrew tendency in his language4 ,whether ,st4 ,john made use of the material furnished by non-canonical apocalypses is uncertain4 ,if he did1 their style would also influence him in the same way4 ,we must also beware of exaggerating the contrast in style which does exist between the ,gospel and the ,revelation4 ,the ,gospel is not always in correct ,greek1 and never shows a thorough mastery of that language4 ,but the ,revelation is certainly in much rougher ,greek4 ,the writer uses the nominative case for the accusative 7vii4 #i2 xiv4 #f72 similar instances are in iii4 #ab2 xiv4 #ab4 ,this rugged usage is introduced with magnificent1 and perhaps intentional1 effect in i4 #d1 where the author emphasizes the eternity of ,god by using an entirely ungrammatical construction4#d ,apart from the question of grammar1 the language of the ,apocalypse shows a remarkable affinity with ,st4 ,john's ,gospel4 ,we may observe the use of such words as witness1 true1 tabernacle1 have part1 keep the word1 and overcome4 ,the theology of the two books is in close agreement4 ,this can easily be shown in the case of the doctrine of ,christ's ,person4 ,he is called the ,lamb #e in the ,gospel 7i4 #bi1 #cf7 and in the ,revelation 7v4 #f1 #h1 #ab1 etc474 ,he is called the ,word in the ,gospel 7i4 #a1 etc47 and in the ,revelation 7xix4 #ac74 ,he is taught to be eternal and divine4 ,he is the ,alpha and #bgd the ,omega1 the first and the last 7xxii4 #ac2 cf4 ,isa4 xliv4 #f74 ,he shares the throne of ,god 7xxii4 #a1 #c72 ,he determines who shall be released from the realm of death 7i4 #ah72 ,he joins in the judgment 7vi4 #af72 ,he is worshipped by the elders and the angels 7v4 #h1 #aa74 ,he is the ,bridegroom of the ,church 7xix4 #g2 xxi4 #b1 cf4 ,john iii4 #bi74 ,the attitude towards ,judaism is the same as that in the ,gospel4 ,the ,jews who oppose ,jesus are strongly denounced 7iii4 #i71 and though the ,church is a new ,jerusalem1 it is composed of people gathered out of every nation 7vii4 #i74 ,the necessity of good works is strenuously upheld 7ii4 #e1 #ai72 but they are not works of rabbinical righteousness1 but works of ,jesus 7ii4 #bf71 and the righteous acts of the saints 7xix4 #h7 are based on the faith of ,jesus 7xiv4 #ab74 ,salvation is the free gift of ,christ 7xxi4 #f2 xxii4 #ag74 ,the saints who overcome1 conquer not by relying upon their own righteousness1 but because of the blood of the ,lamb 7xii4 #aa74 ,in the ,revelation 7ii4 #ag7 ,jesus promises to believers the hidden manna2 in the ,gospel1 referring also to the manna1 ,he promises the true bread from heaven 7,john vi4 #cb74 ,in the ,revelation 7xxii4 #ag7 ,jesus says1 ,let him that is athirst come1 and whosoever will1 let him take of the water of life freely2 in the ,gospel ,he says1 ,if any man thirst1 let him come unto ,me and drink 7,john vii4 #cg74 ,if1 then1 the ,revelation is full of ,hebrew expressions1 it is essentially and profoundly ,christian1 and linked with the other ,johannine books by the closest kinship4 ,the theology and the style of the ,revelation are the same throughout4#f ,we can therefore reject without hesitation the recent hypothesis that it is one large ,jewish work with numerous ,christian interpolations4 ,the difficulty of supposing that the book was ever a purely ,jewish ,apocalypse #bge can quickly be realized by any one who undertakes to strike out all the ,christian allusions in the book4 ,the author states that he is ,john1 in the strongest fashion both in the beginning and end 7i4 #d1 #i2 xxii4 #h71 and his attitude towards the seven ,churches is inexplicable unless the writer held a position of the highest ecclesiastical importance4 ,sidenote3 ,for whom written4 ,plainly for the whole ,church1 as represented by the seven ,churches which are in ,asia 7i4 #d74 ,sidenote3 ,date4 ,from i4 #i we learn that the revelation was made to ,john when he was in the isle that is called ,patmos 7in the ,aegean ,sea7 for the word of ,god and the testimony of ,jesus4 ,irenaeus expressly says that the date of this banishment was at the end of the reign of ,domitian 7,emperor #ha-if ,a4,d471 and therefore he says it was almost within his own generation4 ,on the other hand1 some modern writers have assigned part or the whole of the book to the time of ,nero 7#ed-fh71 or a little later4 ,but though some parts of it seem earlier than ,domitian1 the final form of the book is unquestionably late4 ,a late date is indicated by the corruptions existing in some of the ,churches addressed1 by the expression the ,lord's day 7i4 #aj7 instead of the older expression first day of the week1 by the strong opposition to ,judaism which is called the synagogue of ,satan 7ii4 #i2 iii4 #i71 and above all by the attitude of the writer towards ,rome4 ,the imperial rule is no longer regarded with the tolerance which we find in ,acts and in ,st4 ,paul's ,epistles4 ,it is no longer the restraining and protecting power4 ,it is denounced as cruel and aggressive1 and not only is the worship offered to the ,roman emperor mentioned as widespread1 but also the worship offered to ,rome4 ,the city is called the ,great ,harlot1 because in prophetical language idolatry is described as an act of fornication1 being a violation of the pure love which should be felt by man towards his ,creator4 ,the worship of ,rome does not seem to have become common in #bgf ,asia until late in the #ast century1 and it is not even mentioned once in ,acts4 ,the destruction of ,jerusalem is definitely mentioned in xi4 #b1 where the earthly ,jerusalem is symbolized as the court which is without the temple1 the temple which the prophet measures being the heavenly temple only 7xi4 #ai74 ,this chapter seems to imply that ,jerusalem is already destroyed1 and is founded on ,ezek4 xl41 when the prophet measures the ideal city1 not the city which had been destroyed previously4 ,we are therefore pointed to a date later than ,a4,d4 #gj4 ,the same seems to be suggested by xiii4 #a and xvii4 #aj4 ,for the beast in xiii4 #a is the pagan ,roman ,state as typified by ,nero1 and so is the number #fff in xiii4 #ah2 for if the words ,nero ,caesar are written in ,hebrew letters1 and the numerical values of the letters are added together1 the result is #fff4 ,in xvii4 #h ,nero is described as dead1 and in xvii4 #aj ,vespasian is the sixth emperor1 ,titus the seventh1 and the eighth1 in xvii4 #aa1 is ,domitian1 who plays the ,satanic part of ,nero4 ,the sixth emperor is described as still living1 and we therefore seem compelled to assign part of this passage to ,vespasian's reign4 ,nevertheless1 there is abundant internal evidence for thinking that the book was not completed until the time of ,domitian4 ,it is worth noting that ,domitian exacted a more extravagant worship of his own person than any previous emperor1 and that his policy therefore made the publication of the book doubly appropriate4 ,sidenote3 ,character and ,contents4 ,there were a number of ,jewish books called by the name of ,revelation or ,apocalypse 7i4e4 revelation or unveiling74 ,in the ,old ,testament an ,apocalypse is to be found in the second part of ,daniel1 and there is a fine short ,apocalypse in ,isa4 xxiv4-xxvii41 where we find striking passages relating to the resurrection and eternal life4 ,the ,book of ,enoch and the ,apocalypse of ,baruch are later examples of this class of literature4 ,these books were generally written with the special purpose of giving encouragement to the #bgg servants of ,god in times of distress and persecution4 ,the ,revelation of ,st4 ,john was written under similar circumstances1 but is by far the most sublime of these writings4 ,the interpretation of the ,revelation appears to have always been a standing difficulty1 in spite of the fact that there has been no age of the ,christian ,church which has not been able to draw consolation and vigour from its beautiful pages1 all illuminated as they are with glowing pictures4 ,the question as to whether different portions of the book were written at different dates1 and afterwards edited in one volume by the writer1 does not necessarily interfere with the interpretation4 ,for the book is one work1 the materials have been fitted into one structure4 ,the connection between the different parts is organic and internal4 ,not only is the doctrinal standpoint the same throughout1 but the whole book has an immense number of connecting thoughts and words4 ,the letters to the seven ,churches contain statements which are taken up in the visions which follow4 ,among such we may compare ii4 #g with xxii4 #b2 ii4 #aa with xx4 #f2 ii4 #bf with xii4 #e1 ii4 #bh with xxii4 #af2 iii4 #e with xix4 #h2 iii4 #ab with xxi4 #b4 ,the description of the glorified ,redeemer in i4 #aj-ah is reflected in numerous passages1 and the strong assertion of the author's personality in i4 #i is again presented in xxii4 #h4 ,and the meaning of the book rapidly becomes clearer to the reader if he sees 7a7 that the notices of contemporary history in each of the seven parts of the book are arranged chronologically in reference to what is contained in that part2 7b7 that these seven parts are not related to one another in the order of temporal succession3 each part is complete in itself1 and is a full presentation of one aspect of the whole subject4 ,this is exactly what we find in ,isaiah1 ,amos1 and ,zechariah4 ,this leads us to another fact4 ,some writers have held that the ,revelation is to be interpreted simply on historical lines1 as though it contained a list of events occurring through the whole of history since the time of ,st4 ,john4 ,other writers #bgh have held that little or no historical meaning can be found in the book1 and that it is to be interpreted on ideal lines1 as teaching certain principles of religion4 ,the truth seems to be that these two methods of interpretation are both partly true4 ,certain historical facts1 such as the ,ascension of our ,lord1 the destruction of ,jerusalem1 the persecution of the ,church1 the struggle between the ,church and the ,roman empire1 are taken as a basis4 ,certain great principles of ,god's dealings with the world1 and of the continued conflict between good and evil1 are then illustrated in connection with these facts1 and the whole is knit together by the fixed expectation that ,christ will come again to vanquish the wicked and rescue the good4 ,while each division of the book thus possesses a real meaning1 it seems hardly possible to attach a significance to each detail in the imagery which is employed4 ,many items and even numbers appear to be introduced in order to make the scenes clear to the mind's eye rather than impart a knowledge of independent events4 ,in after-ages ,dante1 like ,st4 ,john1 showed this care for minute imagery in the midst of verses of mystic vision4 ,the book is the highest example of ,christian imagination led and inspired by the ,holy ,spirit1 and although at is written in prose it is of the nature of a poem4 ,the book contains seven revelations1 which are preceded by a prologue concerning the divine ,son of ,man and the seven ,churches of ,asia4 ,of these seven revelations1 the fourth is central both in place and meaning4 ,it represents the kingdom of the world becoming the kingdom of ,christ as the result of the coming of the ,messiah1 born of that glorious mother1 the woman whose seed wars against the serpent 7,gen4 iii4 #ae71 and the maiden who bears ,immanuel 7,isa4 vii4 #ad71 and who also represents the ,church banished to the wilderness4 ,on each side are three revelations1 which correspond with one another like the petals of a mystical rose4 ,the third1 which deals with the divine judgment upon ,jerusalem1 corresponds with the fifth1 which contains ,god's judgment upon #bgi ,rome4 ,here we see the triumph of ,god over corrupt religion and corrupt imperialism4 ,the second1 which describes the powers of divine judgment kept in check1 and the seal of ,god imprinted on the saints of the new ,israel1 corresponds with the sixth1 which describes the war of the ,word of ,god with the ,beast1 and events which end with the universal judgment4 ,the first1 which describes the ,lamb that was slain and the book of destiny which ,he alone could open1 corresponds with the seventh1 which describes the ,bride of the ,lamb1 the ,new ,jerusalem in heaven4 ,thus the final glory of the ,church corresponds with the glory which the ascended ,jesus already receives in heaven4 ,the whole closes with a short epilogue4 ,it will be observed that the book contains seven choric songs4 ,the first revelation contains two such songs1 one after each division4 ,the second1 third1 and fifth revelation1 each close with a song4 ,the fourth and central revelation contains two songs2 one is sung by the bodyguard of the ,lamb before they go to war1 the other is sung after the victory is gained4 ,the seventh and last chorus celebrates the fall of ,babylon 7,rome71 and ushers in the marriage of the ,lamb4 ,it comes at the end of the fifth revelation4 ,its form is double1 and it sums up the remaining action of the book4 ,two more facts must be mentioned in this connection4 ,the first is that the words of the song of the bodyguard of the ,lamb 7xiv4 #c7 are not told2 it can only be learned by the redeemed4 ,it begins with the voice of ,christ1 the voice of many waters1 and it is taken up by the thunder of the cherubim and the harps of the elders4 ,the second is that there is no song between the sixth and seventh revelation4 ,it is simply the voice out of the throne itself1 the voice of the cherubim who uphold the throne of ,god 7see iv4 #f71 which proclaims that the tabernacle of ,god is now with men1 and that ,he shall wipe away every tear 7xxi4 #d74 ,the exquisite art of this arrangement of the songs is manifest4 #bhj ,,analysis ,title and description 7i4 #a-c74 ,prologue 7i4 #d-;iii4 #bb74 ,the vision of the ,son of ,man 7i4 #d-bj74 ,the message to each of the seven ,churches of ,asia 7ii41 iii474 ,a general idea of conflict is present in this introduction4 ,the ,churches of ,asia have special temptations against which they must fight1 e4g4 coldness at ,ephesus1 false prophecy at ,thyatira1 emperor worship at ,pergamum4 ,i4 ,revelation of the ,book of ,destiny3 iv4-v4--,the throne of ,god is manifested1 surrounded by the elders and by the four living creatures who represent the created universe1 chorus of creation 7iv474 ,the sealed book which none can open but the ,lamb1 chorus of redemption 7v474 ,,ii4 ,revelation of the ,seals3 vi4-viii4 #a4--,the first four seals of the book are opened4 ,christ appears riding on a white horse1 and is followed by four symbolic powers of evil3 7a7 ,apollyon1 who rides on a red horse2 7b7 the ,steward1 who rides on a black horse1 and dispenses corn at a dear price1 representing a perverted ministry of the ,word1 which nevertheless cannot hurt the unction given to the ,christian nor the wine of ,christ's ,passion2 7c7 ,death on a pale horse2 and 7d7 his companion ,hell4 ,when the fifth scene is opened1 the martyrs who are under the altar which is before the throne cry in expectancy4 ,with the sixth seal there is a warning of prophetic horrors4 ,the day of ,god's wrath all but comes4 ,but judgment is restrained for a season 7vi474 ,chastisement is suspended until #add1jjj of ,israelites are sealed1 then a multitude of all nations1 chorus of salvation 7vii474 ,the seventh seal1 which discloses a war against ,god1 can now be opened2 silence 7viii4 #a74 #bha ,,iii4 ,revelation of the ,trumpets3 viii4 #b-xi4 #ah4--,seven angels receive trumpets1 incense offered4 ,with the sounding of each of the first four trumpets a chastisement is sent from above to rouse repentance 7viii474 ,with the fifth1 chastisement ascends from the pit2 with the sixth1 angels and terrific horsemen come from the ,euphrates2 but men repent not 7ix474 ,before the seventh trumpet sounds1 an angel tells the seer that when it has sounded the mystery of ,god as declared to the prophets will be finished 7x474 ,two prophets resembling ,elijah and ,moses appear as the symbols of ,christian prophecy2 they are slain in ,jerusalem where our ,lord was crucified1 they ascend like ,christ amid the wreck of a tenth of the city4 ,the city confesses ,god4 ,then the seventh trumpet proclaims the subject of the next revelation3 the kingdoms of the world becoming the kingdoms of ,christ1 chorus of ,god reigning 7xi4 #a-ah74 ,,iv4 ,revelation of the ,lamb's ,redemption3 xi4 #ai-xv4 #d4--,the ark itself is revealed to show that the coming revelation manifests what is most sacred and most profound4 ,the conflict between ,christ and evil is shown first as the conflict of the ,child of the ,woman against the dragon1 then as the conflict of ,michael and his angels against the dragon1 then as the conflict of the dragon against the woman's seed 7xii474 ,next come the allies of the dragon1 the beast out of the sea1 which is imperial pagan ,rome2 and the beast out of the earth1 which is the priesthood of ,asia appointed to promote the worship of the emperor 7xiii474 ,then there is seen on ,mount ,zion the ,lamb with ,his bodyguard of #add1jjj1 singing the incommunicable chorus4 ,an angel proclaims the eternal gospel2 another tells that ,babylon1 i4e4 pagan ,rome1 has fallen2 another proclaims the eternal punishment of those who worship the beast4 ,then a voice from heaven announces the blessedness of the dead in ,christ4 ,the ,son of ,man is seen with a sickle2 then comes the harvest of the good1 and the vintage of those who #bhb are to suffer in the winepress of ,god's wrath 7xiv474 ,seven angels appear1 and the victors over the beast sing the chorus ,of ,moses and the ,lamb 7xv4 #a-d74 ,v4 ,revelation of the ,bowls3 xv4 #e-xix4 #aj4--,the heavenly temple opens1 and the seven angels come to pour out the seven last punishments from the golden bowls 7xv4 #f-h74 ,there is a plague1 and the turning of the sea1 and then of the rivers1 into blood1 then the sun's heat is intensified1 then darkness is poured over ,rome4 ,then1 in conformity with ,revelation ,,iii41 we are shown the ,euphrates4 ,it is dried up that the kings of the ,east1 probably conceived of as ,parthians1 may march to destroy ,babylon4 ,other kings come to aid the beast4 ,they muster at ,har-,magedon4 ,the seventh bowl is poured on the air4 ,babylon breaks into three parts4 ,storms 7xvi474 ,then an angel shows ,john ,babylon riding triumphantly upon a beast as the mother of harlots1 drunken with the blood of the martyrs1 and he explains how she shall be destroyed by her subject kings 7xvii474 ,there follows a solemn dirge on ,babylon 7xviii474 ,then comes a triumphant chorus for the judgment of the city 7xix4 #a-h74 ,john is forbidden to worship his angel-guide 7xix4 #aj74 ,,vi4 ,revelation of the ,word of ,god and the universal ,judgment3 xix4 #aa-xx4 #ae4--;,it is now shown that judgment is the work of the ,word of ,god ,himself4 ,as in ,revelation ,,ii41 ,he appears upon a white horse4 ,brief sections display the complete overthrow of the great enemies of ,christ1 the beast1 the false prophet1 and the dragon4 ,then comes the millennium1 when the martyrs of ,jesus reign with ,christ while ,satan is bound4 ,satan is then loosed1 and with ,gog and ,magog1 who are leaders of nations hostile to ,god's people1 he is finally vanquished4 ,the final judgment takes place1 and ,death and ,hell are cast into fire4 #bhc ,,vii4 ,revelation of the ,new ,jerusalem3 xxi4 i-xxii4 #e4--;,from a mountain-top is seen the ,church1 the holy city1 ,new ,jerusalem1 the ,bride prepared for ,jesus4 ,its luminary and structure are described4 ,it rises on a vast rock of jewels4 ,the throne of ,god is no longer remote from man1 but in the midst of the city4 ,from the throne pours the river of life through the very heart of the city4 ,the river is shaded on both sides by the tree or wood of life1 with its perpetual variety of fruit4 ,this is in contrast with the one tree and its forbidden fruit which was the means of the ,fall4 ,epilogue 7xxii4 #f-ba74 ,the attestation of the angel1 the watchword of ,jesus1 ,john again forbidden to worship the angel4 ,the book to remain unclosed4 ,the watchword repeated4 ,the attestation of ,jesus to ,himself and the angel1 to ,his ,bride1 to the book1 to ,his advent4 ,the response of ,john to the ,lord ,jesus4 ,salutation4 #a ,h4 ,e4 iii4 #be1 #ci2 vii4 #be4 #b ,the determination to deny that ,st4 ,john could have believed in the ,divinity of ,christ made ,zeller maintain that in the ,revelation ,christ is called the ,word of ,god as a mere honorary title4 ,davidson interpreted it as meaning the highest creature4 ,renan tried to extricate himself from the difficulty by saying that ,st4 ,john did not write the ,revelation1 but1 having approved of it1 saw it circulate under his name without displeasure 7,l',antichrist1 p4 xli474 #c ,harnack1 ,chronologie1 vol4 i4 pp4 #bde1 #bdf1 #fgi4 #d ,many of the supposed wrong constructions in the ,revelation are capable of justification 7,dr4 ,benson1 ,the ,apocalypse1 p4 #aca ff474 #e ,it is true that a different ,greek word for ,lamb is used in the ,revelation from that in the ,gospel1 but the variation can be accounted for by the author's desire to use a word similar in form to the word used for the ,beast1 who is contrasted with the ,lamb4 #f ,the attempt to divide a supposed ,judaizing element in the book from a more ,catholic element has led to the assertion that vii4 #a-h is inconsistent with vii4 #i-ag4 ,there is no more incongruity between these two passages than in the statement of ,st4 ,paul in ,rom4 i4 #af1 that the gospel is a power unto salvation to the ,jew first1 and also to the ,greek4 #bhd ,,appendix ,a ,,rationalist ,,criticism ,,on ,,st4 ,,john',s ,,writings ,the following table will illustrate the points of agreement arrived at by the more prominent ,rationalist critics of the last sixty years3-- ,,the ,,gospel4 #a ,,john4 #b ,,and #c ,,john4 ,,revelation4 ,f4 ,c4 ,baur1 ,by a forger1 ,by a ,by a ,by ,st4 #ahdg4 #agj ,a4,d4 second third ,john4 forger4 forger4 ,th4 ,keim1 ,by the same forger1 ---- ,not by #ahfg4 #ajj-aag ,a4,d4 ,st4 ,john4 ,a4 ,hilgen- ,by a forger1 ,all by a second forger1 ,by ,st4 ,john4 feld1 #ahge4 #abj-adj ,a4,d4 #acj ,a4,d4 ,e4 ,renan1 ,by the ,presbyter ,john and others1 who ,not by ,st4 #ahgi4 pretended that they were by ,st4 ,john1 ,john1 but #abj ,a4,d4 circulated by him4 ,c4 ,weizsc- ,by a disciple ,not by ,st4 ,john nor by the ,not by ker1 #ahhf4 of ,st4 ,john4 author of the ,gospel4 ,st4 ,john4 ,a4 ,harnack1 ,the ,gospel and ,epistles all probably by ,by the #ahig4 the ,presbyter ,john1 who did not pretend ,presbyter that they were by ,st4 ,john1 ,john1 #hj-aaj ,a4,d4 #if ,a4,d4 ,a4 ,c4 ,uncertain4 ,by the ,uncertain4 ,possibly ,mc,giffert1 author by the #ahig4 of the ,presbyter ,gospel4 ,john4 ,b4 ,w4 ,by an ,all by another unknown ,by ,st4 ,bacon1 unknown writer1 ,a4,d4 #ie-ajj ,a4,d4 ,john4 #aijj4 writer1 #ajj-aaj ,a4,d4 ,p4 ,w4 ,not by ,st4 ,by a ,by a third ,possibly ,schmiedel1 ,john1 nor second forger4 by the #aija4 by the forger4 ,presbyter ,presbyter4 ,john4 #bhe ,,appendix ,b ,,papias ,,and ,,john ,,the ,,presbyter ,papias1 a ,phrygian by birth1 and ,bishop of ,hierapolis in ,phrygia1 wrote in the first half of the #bnd century a book called ,expositions of ,oracles of the ,lord4 ,among the ,elders whom ,irenaeus quotes1 ,papias and ,polycarp alone are called ancient 7archaios--,adv4 ,haer4 v4 #cc74 ,this helps us to fix the date of ,papias4 ,for ,polycarp died either in ,a4,d4 #aee or #aef4 ,he had been a ,christian for eighty-six years1 and was therefore born in ,a4,d4 #gj at the very latest4 ,papias was therefore probably born about ,a4,d4 #gj4 ,we know from ,irenaeus that ,polycarp was a disciple of ,st4 ,john1 and several ancient writers1 including ,irenaeus1 expressly assert that ,papias also was a hearer of ,st4 ,john4 ,eusebius 7,h4 ,e4 iii4 #ci7 says that in his preface ,papias does not declare that he was an eye-witness of the holy apostles4 ,but ,eusebius in his ,chronicle 7,syncell4 #fee1 #ad7 plainly says that ,papias1 like ,polycarp1 was a hearer of ,john the ,divine and ,apostle4 ,the preface of ,papias1 which ,eusebius transcribes1 mentions ,john the ,presbyter4 ,the following is a literal translation of it3-- ,but for your advantage ,i will not hesitate to put side by side with my interpretations everything that in time past ,i learnt well from the ,elders1 and remembered well1 guaranteeing its truth4 ,for1 unlike the many1 ,i did not take pleasure in those who say much1 but in those who teach the truth2 nor in those who relate alien commandments1 but in those who relate such as were given from the ,lord to the ,faith1 and are derived from 'the ,truth' itself4 ,and again1 on any occasion when a person came who had been a follower of the ,elders1 ,i would inquire about the discourses of the ,elders--what ,andrew or what ,peter said1 or what ,philip or what ,thomas or ,james1 or what ,john or ,matthew or any other of the disciples of the ,lord1 and the things which ,aristion and ,john the ,presbyter 7,elder71 the disciples of the ,lord1 say4 ,for ,i did #bhf not suppose that the contents of books would profit me so much as the utterances of a living and abiding voice4 ,the exact meaning of this passage is disputed1 but much of it is perfectly clear4 ,it is plain that ,papias is referring to his action at a time long past 7pote71 probably about ,a4,d4 #ajj4 ,it is also plain that he had no direct access at that date to the apostles about whose sayings he inquired4 ,they were already dead1 their speech was a thing of the past 7eipen74 ,on the other hand1 ,aristion and ,john the ,presbyter were then living1 their speech was a thing of the present 7legousin74 ,they survived at the time of his inquiries1 and we cannot accept the hypothesis that ,papias only meant that he inquired what ,aristion and ,john the ,presbyter said in their books4 ,he recorded what they said to his friends1 and he quoted them both so freely that ,eusebius believed that ,papias also wrote down words which ,aristion and ,john the ,presbyter said in his own hearing4 ,but whether he heard them or only heard about them1 it is evident that he had reached manhood before they were dead4 ,it is also certain that he calls them disciples of the ,lord4 ,he must mean by this that they had been personally in contact with ,christ1 like the apostles whom he has just mentioned4 ,we therefore can only draw the conclusion that ,papias believed that these two men had known the ,lord in their boyhood1 and the fact that he mentions only two such men favours this interpretation4 ,with regard to the other ,elders1 the question at once arises1 ,did ,papias include among those ,elders the apostles whom he mentions8 ,if he did not include them1 he means that he inquired of travellers what they had heard from ,elders who had known the apostles4 ,this seems incredible2 the information gained would be far inferior to that contained in books1 whereas ,papias speaks of it as superior4 ,moreover1 it would imply that the knowledge possessed by ,papias about those who had known the ,lord was less direct than that possessed by ,irenaeus6 ,for ,irenaeus 7#a7 knew ,polycarp 7#b7 and others1 who knew ,st4 ,john and others who had seen the ,lord4 ,whereas1 according to this theory1 ,papias 7#a7 was instructed by travellers 7#b71 who had heard the ,elders 7#c7 speak about the apostles4 ,if ,papias had no better knowledge than this1 ,irenaeus would not have referred to ,papias with such marked deference4 ,we conclude1 therefore1 that ,papias used the word ,elders to denote ,christians who had actually seen the ,lord1 including the apostles whom he mentions4 ,this interpretation is #bhg supported by the fact that in the ,new ,testament both ,st4 ,peter and ,st4 ,john give themselves this very title4 ,if the above views are correct1 they have an important bearing on the authenticity of ,st4 ,john's ,gospel4 ,the lifetime of ,papias1 like that of ,polycarp1 covers the whole period of dates to which modern ,rationalists now assign that ,gospel4 ,if it was not written by the apostle1 it is hard indeed to suppose that ,papias did not know the truth1 and record it4 ,and it is equally hard to believe that his statements about it would not have been copied by such men as ,irenaeus1 ,dionysius of ,alexandria1 and ,eusebius4 #bhh ,,appendix ,c ,,the ,,muratorian ,,fragment ,the ,muratorian ,fragment is part of a ,latin list of the books of the ,new ,testament1 named after ,muratori1 the librarian at ,milan1 who published it in ,a4,d4 #agdj4 ,the ,canon of which the ,fragment is a part was probably written about ,a4,d4 #ahj4 ,it begins in the midst of a sentence relating to ,st4 ,mark-- ,sidenote3 ,the ,gospels4 4 4 4 at some things1 however1 he was present1 and has thus recorded them4 ,the third book of the ,gospel according to ,luke1 ,luke compiled in his own name from report1 the physician whom ,paul took with him after the ascension of ,christ1 for a companion as devoted to the law3 however he did not himself see the ,lord in the flesh1 and hence begins his account with the birth of ,john as he was able to trace 7matters7 up4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,epistles of ,st4 ,john4 ,of the fourth of the ,gospels 7the author is7 ,john1 one of the disciples4 ,at the instance of his fellow-disciples and bishops he said1 ',fast with me to-day for three days1 and whatever shall be revealed to each1 let us relate it to one another4' ,the same night it was revealed to ,andrew1 one of the apostles1 that ,john should write all in his own name1 the rest revising4 4 4 4 ,and therefore1 although varying ideas may be taught in the several books of the ,evangelists1 there is no difference in that which pertains to the faith of believers1 since by one ,sovereign ,spirit in all are declared all things that relate to the nativity 7of the ,lord71 ,his passion1 resurrection1 intercourse with ,his disciples1 and concerning ,his double advent1 the first in humble guise1 which has taken place1 the second splendid with royal power1 which is yet to be4 4 4 4 ,what wonder1 then1 if ,john in his ,epistles also1 speaking of his own authorship1 so boldly advances each #bhi detail1 saying1 ',what we have seen with our eyes1 and have heard with our ears1 and our hands have handled1 these things we have written unto you4' ,for thus he professes himself not only an eye-witness1 but a hearer1 yea1 and a writer as well1 of all the wonders done by the ,lord in their order4 ,sidenote3 ,acts4 ,but the ,acts of all the ,apostles are written in a single book1 ,luke relates them excellently to ,theophilus1 confining himself to such as fell under his own notice1 as he plainly shows by the omission of all reference either to the martyrdom of ,peter or the journey of ,paul from ,rome to ,spain4 4 4 4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,epistles of ,st4 ,paul4 ,but the letters of ,paul themselves make known to those who would know both what they are1 and from what place1 or what occasion they were sent4 ,at considerable length he wrote to the ,corinthians first1 forbidding schismatic divisions1 then to the ,galatians 7forbidding7 circumcision1 and to the ,romans 7expounding7 the general tenor of the ,scriptures1 showing1 however1 that ,christ is the essence of their teaching2 to these 7,epistles7 we must devote separate discussion2 for the blessed ,apostle ,paul himself1 following the example of his predecessor ,john1 wrote by name to seven ,churches only in this order3 ,first to the ,corinthians1 second to the ,ephesians1 third to the ,philippians1 fourth to the ,colossians1 fifth to the ,galatians1 sixth to the ,thessalonians1 seventh to the ,romans4 ,true1 he wrote twice to the ,corinthians and ,thessalonians for their correction1 but he shows thereby#a the unity of the universal ,church2 for ,john also in the ,apocalypse1 though he writes to seven ,churches only1 yet speaks to all4 ,he also writes one to ,philemon1 one to ,titus1 and two to ,timothy1 out of personal regard and affection1 but these too are hallowed in the respect of the ,catholic ,church for the arrangement of ecclesiastical discipline4 ,moreover1 there is in circulation an ,epistle to the ,laodiceans1 another to the ,alexandrians forged under the name of ,paul1 looking towards the heresy of ,marcion1 and several others which cannot be received into the ,catholic ,church2 for gall should not be mixed with honey4 ,however1 the ,epistle of ,jude1 and two of ,john the above named1 are received among ,catholics4 ,also the ,book of ,wisdom written by the friends of ,solomon in his honour4 #bij ,sidenote3 ,apocalypses4 ,we receive1 moreover1 the ,apocalypse of ,john and ,peter only1 though some of our body will not have the latter read in the ,church4 ,the ,shepherd indeed was written quite recently in our own times in the city of ,rome by ,hermas1 while his brother ,pius occupied the seat of ,bishop of the ,church of ,rome2 wherefore the private reading of it is indeed commendable1 but it can never be publicly read to the people in the ,church whether among the ,prophets 4 4 4 or among the ,apostles4 ,we receive nothing whatever of the ,arsinoite1 or ,valentinus1 or of ,mitias 787 4 4 4 who also were the compilers of the new ,book of ,psalms 787 for ,marcion1 together with ,basilides4 4 4 4 #a ,as symbolized by the number seven4 #bia ,,appendix ,d ,,some ,,early ,,witnesses ,,to ,,new ,,testament ,,writings#a ,,clement ,,of ,,rome4 ,bishop of ,rome4 ,epistle to ,corinthians 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 c4 ,a4,d4 #ie ,,barnabas4 ,epistle of1 not by the ,barnabas who was ,st4 ,paul's companion 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 c4 ,a4,d4 #ih ,,didach4 ,the ,teaching of the ,twelve ,apostles1 a manual of ,church regulations 4 4 4 4 c4 ,a4,d4 #ajj ,,ignatius4 ,bishop of ,antioch and ,martyr4 #g ,epistles 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 c4 ,a4,d4 #aaj ,,polycarp4 ,bishop of ,smyrna and ,martyr4 ,epistle to ,philippians 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 c4 ,a4,d4 #aaj ,,papias4 ,bishop of ,hierapolis4 ,expositions of the ,oracles of the ,lord 7fragments are preserved by ,eusebius7 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 c4 ,a4,d4 #acj ,,hermas4 ,the ,shepherd1 an allegory 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 c4 ,a4,d4 #adj ,,marcion4 ,heretic from ,pontus at ,rome 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 c4 ,a4,d4 #add ,,justin ,,martyr4 ,apologist4 #a and #b ,apologies and ,dialogue with ,trypho 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,a4,d4 #aeb-aeg ,,epistle ,,to ,,diognetus4 ,anonymous defence of ,christianity 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 c4 ,a4,d4 #afj ,,tatian4 ,syrian ,apologist1 disciple of ,justin ,martyr4 ,diatessaron1 a harmony of the ,gospels ,a4,d4 #afj-agj ,,theophilus4 ,apologist of ,antioch4 ,ad ,autolycum c4 ,a4,d4 #ahj ,,irenaeus4 ,bishop of ,lyons4 ,against ,heresies c4 ,a4,d4 #ahe #a ,in the case of most of these witnesses the date here given is that of their chief literary activity4 #bib ,,clement ,,of ,,alexandria4 ,head of the ,catechetical ,school4 ,paedagogus1 ,hypotyposes1 etc4 4 4 4 4 c4 ,a4,d4 #aij ,,tertullian4 ,of ,carthage4 ,apologist 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,a4,d4 #bjj ,,hippolytus4 ,presbyter at ,rome4 ,refutation of ,all ,heresies and numerous commentaries 4 4 4 4 4 c4 ,a4,d4 #bbj ,,origen4 ,of ,alexandria4 ,successor of ,clement1 great philosopher and writer 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 c4 ,a4,d4 #bcj ,,dionysius4 ,bishop of ,alexandria 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,a4,d4 #bdh ,,eusebius4 ,bishop of ,caesarea4 ,ecclesiastical ,history1 etc4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,a4,d4 #cbj ,,aphraates4 ,syrian writer 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,a4,d4 #cch ,,athanasius4 ,bishop of ,alexandria 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,a4,d4 #cbh-cgc ,,epiphanius4 ,bishop of ,salamis 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,a4,d4 #chj ,,jerome4 ,author of the revised or ,vulgate ,latin version of the ,bible 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,a4,d4 #cij #bic ,,appendix ,e ,,books ,,recommended ,in this list are included the most useful books written in ,english or translated into ,english4 ,an 99 is placed before those commentaries which contain the whole ,greek text of the books indicated1 or which comment much on the ,greek text4 #a4 ,,canon-- ,charteris 7,prof4 ,a4 ,h471 ,canonicity1 #ahs4 ,sanday 7,dr4 ,w471 ,inspiration1 #fs4 #f;d4 7,longmans47 ,westcott 7,bishop71 ,history of the ,canon1 #ajs4 #f;d4 7,macmillan47 #b4 ,,text-- ,the ,greek ,text of the ,revised ,version1 various prices4 7,oxford ,university ,press47 ,concordance to the ,greek ,testament1 by ,moulton 7,w4 ,f47 and ,geden 7,a4 ,s471 #bfs4 7,t4 and ,t4 ,clark47 #c4 ,,textual ,,criticism-- ,lake 7,prof4 ,k471 ,the ,text of the ,new ,testament1 #as4 net4 ,oxford ,church ,text ,books4 7,rivingtons47 ,nestle 7,e471 ,textual ,criticism of the ,greek ,new ,testament1 #ajs4 #f;d4 7,williams and ,norgate47 #d4 ,,introduction-- ,zahn 7,prof4 ,th471 ,introduction to the ,new ,testament1 #c vols41 ,english ,translation1 #cfs4 7,t4 and ,t4 ,clark47 ,salmon 7,prof4 ,g471 ,historical ,introduction to the ,books of the ,new ,testament1 #is4 7,murray47 ,godet 7,f471 ,introduction to the ,new ,testament4 ,part ,i4 ,the ,epistles of ,st4 ,paul1 #abs4 #f;d4 7,t4 and ,t4 ,clark47 #e4 ,,the ,,gospels ,,and ,,the ,,synoptic ,,problem-- ,burkitt 7,prof4 ,f4 ,c471 ,the ,earliest ,sources for the ,life of ,jesus1 #as4 net4 7,constable47 ,sanday 7,dr4 ,w471 ,studies in the ,synoptic ,problem1 #abs4 #f;d4 7,oxford ,clarendon ,press47 ,wright 7,dr4 ,a471 99,a ,synopsis of the ,gospels in ,greek1 #ajs4 7,macmillan47 ,campbell 7,dr4 ,colin71 99,the ,first ,three ,gospels in ,greek1 #es4 7,williams and ,norgate47 #bid ,hawkins 7,sir ,j4 ,c471 99,horae ,synopticae1 #gs4 #f;d4 7,oxford ,clarendon ,press47 ,rushbrooke 7,w4 ,g471 99,synopticon1 #ces4 7,macmillan47 ,westcott 7,bishop71 ,introduction to the ,study of the ,gospels1 #ajs4 #f;d4 7,macmillan47 ,stanton 7,dr4 ,v4 ,h471 ,the ,gospels as ,historical ,documents1 ,part ,i4 #gs4 #f;d41 ,part ,,ii4 #ajs4 7,cambridge ,university ,press47 #f4 ,,commentaries-- ,st4 ,matthew4--,godet 7,f471 ,the ,collection of the ,four ,gospels and the ,gospel of ,st4 ,matthew1 #fs4 7,t4 and ,t4 ,clark47 ,allen 7,ven4 ,w4 ,c471 99,commentary1 #abs4 7,t4 and ,t4 ,clark47 ,plummer 7,dr4 ,a471 99,exegetical ,commentary on the ,gospel according to ,st4 ,matthew1 #abs4 7,elliot ,stock47 ,carr 7,a471 ,the ,gospel according to ,st4 ,matthew1 #ds4 #f;d4 7,cambridge ,greek ,testament for ,schools and ,colleges47 ,st4 ,mark4--,swete 7,prof4 ,h4 ,b471 99,greek ,text with ,notes1 #aes4 7,macmillan47 ,maclear 7,g4 ,f471 99,the ,gospel according to ,st4 ,mark1 #ds4 #f;d4 7,cambridge ,greek ,testament for ,schools and ,colleges47 ,st4 ,luke4--,plummer 7,dr4 ,a471 99,commentary1 #abs4 7,t4 and ,t4 ,clark47 ,st4 ,john4--,godet 7,f471 ,commentary1 #c vols41 #cas4 #f;d4 7,t4 and ,t4 ,clark47 ,westcott 7,bishop71 ,commentary1 #ajs4 #f;d4 7,murray47 ,lightfoot 7,bishop71 ,biblical ,essays1 #abs4 7,macmillan4 ,sanday 7,dr4 ,w471 ,the ,criticism of the ,fourth ,gospel1 #gs4 #f;d4 7,longmans47 ,acts4--,knowling 7,dr4 ,r4 ,j471 in 99,expositor's ,greek ,testament1 vol4 ii41 #bhs4 7,hodder and ,stoughton47 ,rackham 7,r4 ,b471 #abs4 #f;d4 7,methuen47 ,ramsay 7,prof4 ,w4 ,m471 ,the ,church in the ,roman ,empire1 #abs4 7,hodder and ,stoughton47 ,ramsay 7,prof4 ,w4 ,m471 ,st4 ,paul the ,traveller and the ,roman ,citizen1 #ajs4 #f;d4 7,hodder and ,stoughton47 ,romans4--,sanday 7,dr4 ,w47 and ,headlam 7,a4 ,c471 99,commentary1 #abs4 7,t4 and ,t4 ,clark47 ,liddon 7,dr4 ,h4 ,p471 99,analysis1 #ads4 7,longmans47 ,gore 7,bishop71 ,exposition1 #b vols41 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 7,murray47 #bie #a ,corinthians4--,goudge 7,h4 ,l471 in ,westminster ,commentaries1 #fs4 7,methuen47 ,findlay 7,g4 ,g471 in 99,expositor's ,greek ,testament1 vol4 ii4 #b ,corinthians4--,meyer's 99,critical ,commentary on the ,new ,testament1 #a and #b ,cor41 in #b vols41 #ajs4 #f;d4 each4 7,t4 and ,t4 ,clark47 ,galatians4--,lightfoot 7,bishop71 99,text with ,introduction1 #abs4 7,macmillan47 ,ramsay 7,prof4 ,w4 ,m471 ,historical ,commentary1 #abs4 7,hodder and ,stoughton47 ,ephesians4--,abbott 7,t4 ,k471 99,commentary on ,ephesians and ,colossians1 #ajs4 #f;d4 7,t4 and ,t4 ,clark47 ,robinson 7,dr4 ,j4 ,armitage71 99,st4 ,paul's ,epistle to the ,ephesians1 #abs4 7,macmillan47 ,westcott 7,bishop71 99,st4 ,paul's ,epistle to the ,ephesians1 #ajs4 #f;d4 7,macmillan47 ,gore 7,bishop71 ,exposition1 #cs4 #f;d4 7,murray47 ,philippians4--,lightfoot 7,bishop71 ,text with ,introduction1 #abs4 7,macmillan47 ,colossians and ,philemon4--,lightfoot 7,bishop71 99,text with ,introduction1 #abs4 7,macmillan47 #a and #b ,thessalonians4--,milligan 7,dr4 ,g471 99,commentary1 #abs4 7,macmillan47 ,ellicott 7,bishop71 99,commentary1 #gs4 #f;d4 7,longmans47 #a and #b ,timothy1 ,titus4--,bernard 7,dr4 ,j4 ,h471 99,cambridge ,greek ,testament1 #cs4 #f;d4 7,cambridge ,university ,press47 ,hebrews4--,westcott 7,bishop71 99,greek ,text with ,notes4 #ads4 7,macmillan47 ,davidson 7,prof4 ,a4 ,b471 ,handbook1 #bs4 #f;d4 7,t4 and ,t4 ,clark47 ,st4 ,james4--,mayor 7,dr4 ,j4 ,b471 99,greek ,text with ,notes41 #abs4 7,macmillan47 ,carr 7,a471 99,the ,general ,epistle of ,st4 ,james1 #bs4 #f;d4 7,cambridge ,greek ,testament for ,schools and ,colleges47 #a and #b ,st4 ,peter1 ,st4 ,jude4--,bigg 7,dr4 ,c471 99,commentary1 #ajs4 #f;d4 7,t4 and ,t4 ,clark47 ,mayor 7,dr4 ,j4 ,b471 99,the ,epistle of ,st4 ,jude and the ,second ,epistle of ,st4 ,peter1 #ads4 7,macmillan47 #a1 #b1 #c ,st4 ,john4--,westcott 7,bishop71 99,greek ,text with ,notes1 #abs4 #f;d4 7,macmillan47 #bif ,revelation4--,ramsay 7,prof4 ,w4 ,m471 ,letters to the ,seven ,churches1 #abs4 7,hodder and ,stoughton47 ,simcox 7,w4 ,h471 99,the ,revelation of ,st4 ,john the ,divine1 #es4 7,cambridge ,greek ,testament for ,schools and ,colleges47 ,milligan 7,prof4 ,w471 ,lectures on the ,apocalypse1 #es4 7,macmillan47 ,swete 7,prof4 ,h4 ,b471 99,the ,apocalypse of ,st4 ,john1 #aes4 7,macmillan47 #big ,,index ,acts1 ,book of1 #ajb ,agap1 or ,love-feast1 #aci1 #bfi ,alexandria1 ,st4 ,mark at1 #ej2 philosophy of1 #ie ,alogi1 rejected ,st4 ,john's writings1 #hb ,antichrist1 in #b ,thess41 #aca2 in #a ,john1 #bee ,antilegomena1 or disputed books1 #bbb1 #bga ,antioch1 in ,syria1 collision between ,,ss4 ,peter and ,paul at1 #aba1 #aeg ,antioch1 ,pisidian1 #aeb ,apocalypse4 ,see ,revelation ,apocalyptic teaching1 in ,st4 ,matt41 #ch2 in #b ,thess41 #aca2 general nature of1 #bgf ,apollos1 his partisans at ,corinth1 #ace1 #acg2 supposed author of ,hebrews1 #baa ,aramaic language1 #a2 original of ,st4 ,matt41 #cd ,aristion 7author of ,st4 ,mark xvi4 #i-bj71 #fc1 #bhe ,babylon in ,n4 ,t41 #bdb1 #bgi ,balaamites1 #bff ,baptism1 ,st4 ,paul's doctrine of1 #afd1 #age1 #bje2 for the dead1 #adj ,barnabas1 ,st41 author 787 of ,hebrews1 #baa ,barnabas1 so-called ,epistle of1 #ad ,baur1 ,f4 ,c41 his misrepresentation of the apostles1 #aaa1 #aba2 what ,epistles accepted by1 #acc2 repudiation of ,rom4 xv41 xvi41 #aeh2 of ,colossians1 #aga2 of ,ephesians1 #ahb2 of ,philippians1 #ahh ,beast in ,revelation1 #bgf1 #bha ,bousset1 ,w41 denies ,st4 ,john's residence at ,ephesus1 #beg ,brethren of our ,lord1 #bbd ,calvinistic doctrine of predestination1 not ,pauline1 #aff ,canon1 formation of1 #b1 #bbj ,catholic ,epp41 #bai2 gradual insertion in ,canon1 #c1 #bba ,census in ,st4 ,luke1 #gi ,christology1 or doctrine about ,christ's ,person1 in ,st4 ,matt41 #dj2 in ,st4 ,mark1 #ed1 #ef2 in ,st4 ,luke1 #ga2 in ,st4 ,john1 human side of1 #ca1 divine side of1 #hb1 #ie2 in ,acts1 #aji2 of ,st4 ,paul1 #abc1 #adf1 #agd1 #ahe1 #aib ,church1 doctrine of1 in ,st4 ,matt41 #dd2 in ,st4 ,paul1 #ahe ,clement1 ,st41 of ,rome1 quotes ,synoptic narrative1 #ad2 quotes the ,epistles1 #acc1 #bce ,clement of ,alexandria1 on date of ,st4 ,mark1 #eb2 on #b ,peter1 #bdh ,colossians1 ,ep4 to1 #agj2 heresy of1 #agc ,corinthians1 ,epp4 to1 #acc1 #adc2 first lost ,ep4 to1 #ace2 second lost ,ep4 to1 #ade2 factions among1 #acg2 doctrine of resurrection in ,epp41 #adj1 #adf ,date of ,n4 ,t4 books1 p4 x42 of ,christ's nativity1 #gh ,date of ,christ's death1 #bh2 ,st4 ,john supported by ,st4 ,luke as to1 #cj2 and by ,st4 ,paul1 #adb ,davidson1 ,s41 on ,i ,john1 #bef2 on ,christology of ,revelation1 #bgb ,diaspora1 or ,dispersion1 #bbi1 #bda ,diatessaron of ,tatian1 #aa ,dionysius of ,alexandria on ,revelation1 #bga ,diotrephes1 #bfd ,disputed books1 #bbb1 #bga ,docetic heresy1 #aig1 #bei1 #bfb ,domitian1 his treatment of ,christians1 #bfe1 #bgf ,ebionites1 their ,gospel1 #cd2 ,st4 ,luke not influenced by1 #gb ,enoch1 ,book of1 #bdi1 #bfh1 #bgf ,epaphroditus or ,epaphras1 #aga1 #aia ,ephesians1 ,ep4 to1 #ahj ,ephesus1 ,st4 ,john at1 #ha1 #beg ,epiphanius on ,gospel of the ,hebrews1 #cd ,eschatology1 in ,st4 ,matt41 #ch2 in ,st4 ,mark1 #eh2 in ,st4 ,luke1 #fg2 in ,st4 ,john1 #ig2 in ,st4 ,paul1 #aba1 #aca1 #adf ,essenes1 sect of1 possible influence at ,rome1 #afg2 at ,colossae1 #agc ,eucharist1 in ,st4 ,luke1 #gj2 in #a ,cor41 #aci ,eusebius1 on ,hebrews1 #bji2 on ,catholic ,epp41 #bbb2 on #b ,peter1 #bdh2 on ,revelation1 #bga ,faith1 ,st4 ,paul's doctrine of1 #aed1 #afd2 in ,hebrews1 #baa2 in ,st4 ,james1 #bca2 in ,st4 ,jude1 #bff ,feasts1 ,jewish1 in ,st4 ,john1 #ih ,felix1 ,antonius1 procurator of ,judaea1 #aae ,festus1 ,porcius1 procurator of ,judaea1 #aae ,florinus1 letter of ,irenaeus to1 #hg ,galatia1 ,north or ,south 7871 #aea ,galatians1 ,ep4 to1 #aej ,gallic1 #acd ,gieseler1 ,j4 ,k4 ,l41 on the ,synoptic problem1 #ba ,gnosticism1 supposed influence on ,ep4 to ,philippians1 #ahh2 rebuked in ,pastoral ,epp41 #aig2 in #b ,peter and ,jude1 #bea1 #bff ,godet1 ,f41 writings of1 #bic1 #bid ,gospels1 the four1 #i1 ,st4 ,matt41 #cc2 ,st4 ,mark1 #di2 ,st4 ,luke1 #fd2 ,st4 ,john1 #hj ,harnack1 ,a41 on ,st4 ,john1 #ic1 ,appendix ,a2 on the apostles' doctrine1 #aaa2 on ,revelation1 #bgb ,hebrews1 ,apocryphal ,gospel of1 #ce ,hebrews1 ,ep4 to1 #bjh2 its connection with ,philo1 #baa ,hegesippus1 on ,st4 ,james1 #bbe1 #bbi2 on ,st4 ,jude's grandsons1 #bfe ,heresies in ,n4 ,t4 times1 #abj1 #acg1 #aec1 #agb1 #aig1 #bea1 #beh1 #bff ,herod the ,great1 #gi ,herod ,agrippa ,i41 #aad ,herod ,agrippa ,,ii41 #aae1 #aij ,hilgenfeld1 ,a41 on ,st4 ,john's writings1 ,appendix ,a ,idols1 eating meat offered to1 #aci ,ignatius1 ,st41 relation to ,st4 ,matt41 #ad2 to ,st4 ,john1 #ad1 #he2 heresy rebuked by1 #aig1 #bei ,irenaeus1 ,st41 on ,canon of the ,gospels1 #aa2 on ,st4 ,luke1 #fd2 on ,st4 ,john1 #hd1 #hg2 on ,catholic ,epp41 #bbb ,james1 ,st41 ,ep4 of1 #bbc ,jerome1 ,st41 author of the ,vulgate1 #e2 on the ,hebrew of ,st4 ,matt41 #cd2 on #b ,john1 #bfb ,jewish ,christianity1 #cd1 #abj1 #acg1 #aec1 #agb ,john the ,presbyter1 not the author of the fourth ,gospel1 #hc2 ,papias on1 ,appendix ,b ,john1 ,st41 ,gospel of1 #ae1 #bg1 #hj2 relation to ,synoptists1 #bg2 does not quote them1 #cb2 ,epistles of1 #bee2 ,revelation of1 #bgj2 rationalist criticism of his writings1 #hc1 ,appendix ,a ,john1 ,st41 the ,baptist1 his infancy and ministry1 #gf2 interest shown in1 #aae ,josephus1 on ,st4 ,james1 #bbi2 not quoted in #b ,peter1 #bdf ,jude1 ,st41 ,ep4 of1 #bdi1 #bfe ,judgment1 the1 in ,st4 ,matt41 #ch2 in ,st4 ,john1 #ig1 #beh1 #bhb ,jlicher1 ,a41 on ,st4 ,john1 #hc ,justification1 in ,st4 ,luke1 #ga2 in ,st4 ,paul1 #aeg1 #afc2 in ,st4 ,james1 #bca ,justin ,martyr1 used our four ,gospels1 #ab2 ascribes ,revelation to ,st4 ,john1 #bgj ,keim1 ,th41 on ,st4 ,john's writings1 ,appendix ,a ,kingdom of ,god in ,st4 ,matt41 #dd ,laodiceans1 ,ep4 to1 identical with ,ephesians1 #agf1 #ahb ,latinisms in ,st4 ,mark1 #ed ,law1 teaching of ,christ on1 #dd1 of ,st4 ,paul on1 #aed1 #afc1 of ,hebrews on1 #baf ,linus1 8 ,bishop of ,rome1 #bje ,logia1 meaning of the word1 #ac2 early books of1 #bd1 #cd ,logos1 doctrine of1 in ,st4 ,john1 #ie ,luke1 ,st41 ,gospel of1 #fd2 its dependence on ,st4 ,mark1 #af2 ,acts written by1 #fe1 #ajb ,lycus valley1 ,churches of1 #abc1 #aga1 #ahb ,magi and the star1 #gh ,marcion1 ,canon of1 #ac2 ,gospel of1 #ff2 why he repudiated #a and #b ,tim4 and ,titus1 #aif ,mark1 ,st41 ,gospel of1 #di2 its dependence on ,st4 ,peter1 #ea1 #ed ,marriage and celibacy1 ,st4 ,paul's teaching on1 #ach1 #ahg ,matthew1 ,st41 ,gospel of1 #cc2 its dependence on ,st4 ,mark1 #af1 #cf2 some primitive features in1 #bb2 numerical arrangement in1 #be ,ministers of the ,church1 in ,acts1 #aaa2 in ,ephesians1 #ahf2 in ,pastoral ,epistles1 #aih2 in #c ,john1 #bfd ,muratorian ,fragment1 ,appendix ,c ,nazarenes1 ,gospel of1 #cd ,nero1 persecution by1 #ajh1 #abd1 in ,revelation1 #bgf ,nicopolis1 #bjd ,onesimus of ,colossae1 #agg ,onesiphorus of ,ephesus1 #bjf ,oral teaching1 influence on ,st4 ,matt41 #bf2 on ,st4 ,john1 #aja ,oral tradition theory of ,gospels1 #ba1 #bb ,origen1 on ,hebrews1 #bji2 on ,catholic ,epp41 #bbb2 on #b ,peter1 #bdh ,papias1 on the ,oracles1 #ac2 on the ,logia of ,st4 ,matt41 #bd1 #cd2 on ,st4 ,mark1 #ea2 on ,john the ,presbyter1 ,appendix ,b ,parables1 the different classes of1 #gd ,pastoral ,epp41 #aie ,paul1 ,st41 ,epp4 and life of1 #aaf2 ,epp4 questioned1 #aag1 #abe1 #acc1 #aga1 #aha1 #ahh1 #aie ,peter1 ,st41 source of ,st4 ,mark's ,gospel1 #ea1 #eg2 ,memoirs of1 #ej2 ,epistles of1 #bce1 #bdf2 ,apocalypse of1 #bej1 #bij ,philemon1 ,ep4 to1 #agg ,philippians1 ,ep4 to1 #ahh ,philo1 his difference from ,st4 ,john1 #if2 his similarity to ,hebrews1 #baa ,polycarp1 ,st41 connection with ,st4 ,john1 #aa1 #hf1 #hg1 #bbb ,polycrates on ,st4 ,john1 #ha ,prayer in ,st4 ,luke1 #gd ,quirinius1 ,p4 ,sulpicius1 governor of ,syria1 #gi ,ramsay1 ,w4 ,m41 on authenticity of ,acts1 #aje ,renan1 ,e41 on ,st4 ,john's writings1 #bgb1 ,appendix ,a ,revelation1 ,book of the1 #bgj ,romans1 ,ep4 to1 #aeh ,rome1 attitude of1 towards the ,church1 #ajh1 #aca1 #bge2 religion at1 #afj2 worship of1 #bge ,sabatier1 ,a41 on ministry in ,acts1 #aaa ,sanday1 ,w41 on ,catholic ,epp41 #bba2 writings of1 #bic1 #bid ,schmiedel1 ,p4 ,w41 on ,acts1 #aaa2 on ,st4 ,john's writings1 ,appendix ,a ,silvanus or ,silas1 not the author of ,acts1 #ajg2 bearer of #a ,peter1 #bdc ,sinaitic ,syriac version of ,gospels1 #dc ,slavery1 ,st4 ,paul on1 #age1 #agh1 #ahg ,spirit1 the ,holy1 doctrine of1 in ,st4 ,john1 #ig2 in ,st4 ,paul1 #adg ,synoptic problem1 #af ,synoptists1 relation of1 to ,st4 ,john1 #ae1 #bg1 #ie ,tatian1 ,diatessaron of1 #aa ,teaching of the ,twelve ,apostles1 or ,didach1 #ad2 ,johannine language in1 #he ,tertullian ascribes ,hebrews to ,st4 ,barnabas1 #baa ,theophilus of ,antioch1 #bia ,thessalonians1 ,epp4 to1 #abe ,timothy1 ,epp4 to1 #aie ,titus1 ,ep4 to1 #bjc ,titus1 ,roman emperor1 #bgf ,tbingen ,school1 on ,st4 ,paul's ,epistles1 #aag2 on relation of ,st4 ,peter to ,st4 ,paul1 #aba ,tychicus of ,asia1 #agb1 #agf ,versions of the ,bible1 #e ,vespasian in ,revelation1 #bgf ,virgin birth of our ,lord1 #dc ,we sections in ,acts1 #fe1 #ajb ,weizscker1 ,c41 on ,st4 ,john's writings1 #hc1 ,appendix ,a ,westcott 7,bishop71 writings of1 #bid1 #bie ,works1 doctrine of1 in ,st4 ,paul1 #aee1 #bjd2 in ,st4 ,james1 #bca2 in ,revelation1 #bgd ,zechariah1 quoted by ,st4 ,matt41 #da2 by ,st4 ,john1 #hh ,zeller1 ,e41 on ,revelation1 #bgb ,zenas1 #bjd