,,the ,,verbalist3 ,a ,,manual ,,devoted ,,to ,,brief ,,discussions ,,of ,,the ,,right ,,and ,,the ,,wrong ,,use ,,of ,,words ,,and ,,to ,,some ,,other ,,matters ,,of ,,interest ,,to ,,those ,,who ,,would ,,speak ,,and ,,write ,,with ,,propriety4 ,,by ,,alfred ,,ayres4 ,we remain shackled by timidity till we have learned to speak with propriety4--,,johnson4 ,as a man is known by his company1 so a man's company may be known by his manner of expressing himself4--,,swift4 ,illustration ,,new ,,york3 ,d4 ,,appleton ,,and ,,company1 #a1 #c1 ,,and #e ,,bond ,,street4 #ahhg4 ,,copyright ,,by ,d4 ,,appleton ,,and ,,company1 #ahha ,transcriber's ,note ,minor typographical errors have been corrected without note4 ,archaic spellings have been retained as printed4 ,,prefatory ,,note4 ,the title-page sufficiently sets forth the end this little book is intended to serve4 ,for convenience' sake ,i have arranged in alphabetical order the subjects treated of1 and for economy's sake ,i have kept in mind that he that uses many words for the explaining of any subject doth1 like the cuttle-fish1 hide himself in his own ink4 ,the curious inquirer who sets himself to look for the learning in the book is advised that he will best find it in such works as ,george ,p4 ,marsh's ,lectures on the ,english ,language1 ,fitzedward ,hall's ,recent ,exemplifications of ,false ,philology1 and ,modern ,english1 ,richard ,grant ,white's ,words and ,their ,uses1 ,edward ,s4 ,gould's ,good ,english1 ,william ,mathews' ,words3 their ,use and ,abuse1 ,dean ,alford's ,the ,queen's ,english1 ,george ,washington ,moon's ,bad ,english1 and ,the ,dean's ,english1 ,blank's ,vulgarisms and ,other ,errors of ,speech1 ,alexander ,bain's ,english ,composition and ,rhetoric1 ,bain's ,higher ,english ,grammar1 ,bain's ,composition ,grammar1 ,quackenbos' ,composition and ,rhetoric1 ,john ,nichol's ,english ,composition1 ,william ,cobbett's ,english ,grammar1 ,peter ,bullions' ,english ,grammar1 ,goold ,brown's ,grammar of ,english ,grammars1 ,graham's ,english ,synonymes1 ,crabb's ,english ,synonymes1 ,bigelow's ,handbook of ,punctuation1 and other kindred works4 ,suggestions and criticisms are solicited1 with the view of profiting by them in future editions4 ,if ,the ,verbalist receive as kindly a welcome as its companion volume1 ,the ,orthopist1 has received1 ,i shall be content4 ,a4 ,a4 ,,new ,,york1 ,october1 #ahha4 ,eschew fine words as you would rouge4--,,hare4 ,cant is properly a double-distilled lie2 the second power of a lie4--,,carlyle4 ,if a gentleman be to study any language1 it ought to be that of his own country4--,,locke4 ,in language the unknown is generally taken for the magnificent4--,,richard ,,grant ,,white4 ,he who has a superlative for everything1 wants a measure for the great or small4--,,lavater4 ,inaccurate writing is generally the expression of inaccurate thinking4--,,richard ,,grant ,,white4 ,to acquire a few tongues is the labor of a few years2 but to be eloquent in one is the labor of a life4--,,anonymous4 ,words and thoughts are so inseparably connected that an artist in words is necessarily an artist in thoughts4-,,wilson ,,flagg4 ,it is an invariable maxim that words which add nothing to the sense or to the clearness must diminish the force of the expression4--,,campbell4 ,propriety of thought and propriety of diction are commonly found together4 ,obscurity of expression generally springs from confusion of ideas4--,,macaulay4 ,he who writes badly thinks badly4 ,confusedness in words can proceed from nothing but confusedness in the thoughts which give rise to them4--,,cobbett4 ,,the ,,verbalist4 ,a--,,an4 ,the second form of the indefinite article is used for the sake of euphony only4 ,herein everybody agrees1 but what everybody does not agree in is1 that it is euphonious to use an before a word beginning with an aspirated h1 when the accented syllable of the word is the second4 ,for myself1 so long as ,i continue to aspirate the h's in such words as heroic1 harangue1 and historical1 ,i shall continue to use a before them2 and when ,i adopt the ,cockney mode of pronouncing such words1 then ,i shall use an before them4 ,to my ear it is just as euphonious to say1 ,i will crop off from the top of his young twigs a tender one1 and will plant it upon an high mountain and eminent1 as it is to say an harangue1 an heroic1 or an historical4 ,an is well enough before the doubtful ,british aspiration1 but before the distinct ,american aspiration it is wholly out of place4 ,the reply will perhaps be1 ,but these h's are silent2 the change of accent from the first syllable to the second neutralizes their aspiration4 ,however true this may be in ,england1 it is not at all true in ,america2 hence we ,americans should use a and not an before such h's until we decide to ape the ,cockney mode of pronouncing them4 ,errors are not unfrequently made by omitting to repeat the article in a sentence4 ,it should always be repeated when a noun or an adjective referring to a distinct thing is introduced2 take1 for example1 the sentence1 ,he has a black and white horse4 ,if two horses are meant1 it is clear that it should be1 ,he has a black and a white horse4 ,see ,,the4 ,,ability--,,capacity4 ,the distinctions between these two words are not always observed by those who use them4 ,capacity is the power of receiving and retaining knowledge with facility2 ability is the power of applying knowledge to practical purposes4 ,both these faculties are requisite to form a great character3 capacity to conceive1 and ability to execute designs4 ,capacity is shown in quickness of apprehension4 ,ability supposes something done2 something by which the mental power is exercised in executing1 or performing1 what has been perceived by the capacity4--,graham's ,english ,synonymes4 ,,abortive4 ,an outlandish use of this word may be occasionally met with1 especially in the newspapers4 ,a lad was yesterday caught in the act of abortively appropriating a pair of shoes4 ,that is abortive that is untimely1 that has not been borne its full time1 that is immature4 ,we often hear abortion used in the sense of failure1 but never by those that study to express themselves in chaste ,english4 ,,above4 ,there is little authority for using this word as an adjective4 ,instead of1 the above statement1 say1 the foregoing statement4 ,above is also used very inelegantly for more than2 as1 above a mile1 above a thousand2 also1 for beyond2 as1 above his strength4 ,,accident4 ,see ,,casualty4 ,,accord4 ,he the ,secretary of the ,treasury was shown through the building1 and the information he desired was accorded him4--,reporters' ,english4 ,the heroes prayed1 and ,pallas from the skies ,accords their vow4--,pope4 ,the goddess of wisdom1 when she granted the prayers of her worshipers1 may be said to have accorded2 not so1 however1 when the clerks of our ,sub-,treasury answer the inquiries of their chief4 ,,accuse4 ,see ,,blame ,,it ,,on4 ,,acquaintance4 ,see ,,friend4 ,,ad4 ,this abbreviation for the word advertisement is very justly considered a gross vulgarism4 ,it is doubtful whether it is permissible under any circumstances4 ,,adapt--,,dramatize4 ,in speaking and in writing of stage matters1 these words are often misused4 ,to adapt a play is to modify its construction with the view of improving its form for representation4 ,plays translated from one language into another are usually more or less adapted2 i4 e41 altered to suit the taste of the public before which the translation is to be represented4 ,to dramatize is to change the form of a story from the narrative to the dramatic2 i4 e41 to make a drama out of a story4 ,in the first instance1 the product of the playwright's labor is called an adaptation2 in the second1 a dramatization4 ,,adjectives4 ,very often adjectives stand where adverbs might be expected2 as1 'drink deep1' 'this looks strange1' 'standing erect4' ,we have also examples of one adjective qualifying another adjective2 as1 'wide open1' 'red hot1' 'the pale blue sky4' ,sometimes the corresponding adverb is used1 but with a different meaning2 as1 ',i found the way easy--easily'2 'it appears clear--clearly4' ,although there is a propriety in the employment of the adjective in certain instances1 yet such forms as 'indifferent well1' 'extreme bad1' are grammatical errors4 ',he was interrogated relative to that circumstance1' should be relatively1 or in relation to4 ,it is not unusual to say1 ',i would have done it independent of that circumstance1' but independently is the proper construction4 ,the employment of adjectives for adverbs is accounted for by the following considerations3 7#a47 ,in the classical languages the neuter adjective may be used as an adverb1 and the analogy would appear to have been extended to ,english4 7#b47 ,in the oldest ,english the adverb was regularly formed from the adjective by adding 'e1' as 'soft1 softe1' and the dropping of the 'e' left the adverb in the adjective form2 thus1 'clne1' adverb1 became 'clean1' and appears in the phrase 'clean gone'2 'fste1 fast1' 'to stick fast4' ,by a false analogy1 many adjectives that never formed adverbs in -e were freely used as adverbs in the age of ,elizabeth3 ',thou didst it excellent1' 'equal 7for equally7 good1' 'excellent well4' ,this gives precedent for such errors as those mentioned above4 7#c47 ,there are cases where the subject is qualified rather than the verb1 as with verbs of incomplete predication1 'being1' 'seeming1' 'arriving1' etc4 ,in 'the matter seems clear1' 'clear' is part of the predicate of 'matter4' ',they arrived safe'3 'safe' does not qualify 'arrived1' but goes with it to complete the predicate4 ,so1 'he sat silent1' 'he stood firm4' ',it comes beautiful' and 'it comes beautifully' have different meanings4 ,this explanation applies especially to the use of participles as adverbs1 as in ,southey's lines on ,lodore2 the participial epithets applied there1 although appearing to modify 'came1' are really additional predications about 'the water1' in elegantly shortened form4 ',the church stood gleaming through the trees'3 'gleaming' is a shortened predicate of 'church'2 and the full form would be1 'the church stood and gleamed4' ,the participle retains its force as such1 while acting the part of a cordinating adjective1 complement to 'stood'2 'stood gleaming' is little more than 'gleamed4' ,the feeling of adverbial force in 'gleaming' arises from the subordinate participial form joined with a verb1 'stood1' that seems capable of predicating by itself4 ',passing strange' is elliptical3 'passing 7surpassing7 what is strange4'--,bain4 ,the comparative adjectives wiser1 better1 larger1 etc41 and the contrasting adjectives different1 other1 etc41 are often so placed as to render the construction of the sentence awkward2 as1 ',that is a much better statement of the case than yours1' instead of1 ',that statement of the case is much better than yours'2 ',yours is a larger plot of ground than ,john's1' instead of1 ',your plot of ground is larger than ,john's'2 ',this is a different course of proceeding from what ,i expected1' instead of1 ',this course of proceeding is different from what ,i expected'2 ',i could take no other method of silencing him than the one ,i took1' instead of1 ',i could take no method of silencing him other than the one ,i took4'--,gould's ,good ,english1 p4 #fi4 ,,administer4 ,carson died from blows administered by policeman ,johnson4--,new ,york ,times4 ,if policeman ,johnson was as barbarous as is this use of the verb to administer1 it is to be hoped that he was hanged4 ,governments1 oaths1 medicine1 affairs--such as the affairs of the state--are administered1 but not blows3 they are dealt4 ,,adopt4 ,this word is often used instead of to decide upon1 and of to take2 thus1 ,the measures adopted by ,parliament1 as the result of this inquiry1 will be productive of good4 ,better1 ,the measures decided upon1 etc4 ,instead of1 ,what course shall you adopt to get your pay8 say1 ,what course shall you take1 etc4 ,adopt is properly used in a sentence like this3 ,the course 7or measures7 proposed by ,mr4 ,blank was adopted by the committee4 ,that is1 what was ,blank's was adopted by the committee--a correct use of the word1 as to adopt1 means1 to assume as one's own4 ,adopt is sometimes so misused that its meaning is inverted4 ,wanted to adopt1 in the heading of advertisements1 not unfrequently is intended to mean that the advertiser wishes to be relieved of the care of a child1 not that he wishes to assume the care of one4 ,,aggravate4 ,this word is often used when the speaker means to provoke1 irritate1 or anger4 ,thus1 ,it aggravates provokes me to be continually found fault with2 ,he is easily aggravated irritated4 ,to aggravate means to make worse1 to heighten4 ,we therefore very properly speak of aggravating circumstances4 ,to say of a person that he is aggravated is as incorrect as to say that he is palliated4 ,,agriculturist4 ,this word is to be preferred to agriculturalist4 ,see ,,conversationist4 ,,alike4 ,this word is often most bunglingly coupled with both4 ,thus1 ,these bonnets are both alike1 or1 worse still1 if possible1 both just alike4 ,this reminds one of the story of ,sam and ,jem1 who were very like each other1 especially ,sam4 ,,all4 ,see ,,universal4 ,,all ,,over4 ,the disease spread all over the country4 ,it is more logical and more emphatic to say1 ,the disease spread over all the country4 ,,allegory4 ,an elaborated metaphor is called an allegory2 both are figurative representations1 the words used signifying something beyond their literal meaning4 ,thus1 in the eightieth ,psalm1 the ,jews are represented under the symbol of a vine3 ,thou hast brought a vine out of ,egypt3 thou hast cast out the heathen1 and planted it4 ,thou preparedst room before it1 and didst cause it to take deep root1 and it filled the land4 ,the hills were covered with the shadow of it1 and the boughs thereof were like the goodly cedars4 ,she sent out her boughs unto the sea1 and her branches unto the river4 ,why hast thou then broken down her hedges1 so that all they which pass by the way do pluck her8 ,the boar out of the wood doth waste it1 and the wild beast of the field doth devour it4 ,an allegory is sometimes so extended that it makes a volume2 as in the case of ,swift's ,tale of a ,tub1 ,arbuthnot's ,john ,bull1 ,bunyan's ,pilgrim's ,progress1 etc4 ,fables and parables are short allegories4 ,,allow4 ,this word is frequently misused in the ,west and ,south1 where it is made to do service for assert or to be of opinion4 ,thus1 ,he allows that he has the finest horse in the country4 ,,allude4 ,the treatment this word has received is to be specially regretted1 as its misuse has well-nigh robbed it of its true meaning1 which is1 to intimate delicately1 to refer to without mentioning directly4 ,allude is now very rarely used in any other sense than that of to speak of1 to mention1 to name1 which is a long way from being its legitimate signification4 ,this degradation is doubtless a direct outcome of untutored desire to be fine and to use big words4 ,,alone4 ,this word is often improperly used for only4 ,that is alone which is unaccompanied2 that is only of which there is no other4 ,virtue alone makes us happy1 means that virtue unaided suffices to make us happy2 ,virtue only makes us happy1 means that nothing else can do it--that that1 and that only 7not alone71 can do it4 ,this means of communication is employed by man alone4 ,dr4 ,quackenbos should have written1 ,by man only4 ,see also ,,only4 ,,amateur--,,novice4 ,there is much confusion in the use of these two words1 although they are entirely distinct from each other in meaning4 ,an amateur is one versed in1 or a lover and practicer of1 any particular pursuit1 art1 or science1 but not engaged in it professionally4 ,a novice is one who is new or inexperienced in any art or business--a beginner1 a tyro4 ,a professional actor1 then1 who is new and unskilled in his art1 is a novice and not an amateur4 ,an amateur may be an artist of great experience and extraordinary skill4 ,,ameliorate4 ,the health of the ,empress of ,germany is greatly ameliorated4 ,why not say improved8 ,,among4 ,see ,,between4 ,,amount ,,of ,,perfection4 ,the observant reader of periodical literature often notes forms of expression which are perhaps best characterized by the word bizarre4 ,of these queer locutions1 amount of perfection is a very good example4 ,mr4 ,g4 ,f4 ,watts1 in the ,nineteenth ,century1 says1 ,an amount of perfection has been reached which ,i was by no means prepared for4 ,what ,mr4 ,watts meant to say was1 doubtless1 that a degree of excellence had been reached4 ,there are not a few who1 in their prepossession for everything transatlantic1 seem to be of opinion that the ,english language is generally better written in ,england than it is in ,america4 ,those who think so are counseled to examine the diction of some of the most noted ,english critics and essayists1 beginning1 if they will1 with ,matthew ,arnold4 ,,and4 ,few vulgarisms are more common than the use of and for to4 ,examples3 ,come and see me before you go2 ,try and do what you can for him2 ,go and see your brother1 if you can4 ,in such sentences as these1 the proper particle to use is clearly to and not and4 ,and is sometimes improperly used instead of or2 thus1 ,it is obvious that a language like the ,greek and ,latin 7language871 etc41 should be1 a language like the ,greek or the ,latin 7language71 etc4 ,there is no such thing as a ,greek and ,latin language4 ,,answer--,,reply4 ,these two words should not be used indiscriminately4 ,an answer is given to a question2 a reply1 to an assertion4 ,when we are addressed1 we answer2 when we are accused1 we reply4 ,we answer letters1 and reply to any arguments1 statements1 or accusations they may contain4 ,crabb is in error in saying that replies are used in personal discourse only4 ,replies1 as well as answers1 are written4 ,we very properly write1 ,i have now1 ,i believe1 answered all your questions and replied to all your arguments4 ,a rejoinder is made to a reply4 ,who goes there8 he cried2 and1 receiving no answer1 he fired4 ,the advocate replied to the charges made against his client4 ,,anticipate4 ,lovers of big words have a fondness for making this verb do duty for expect4 ,anticipate is derived from two ,latin words meaning before and to take1 and1 when properly used1 means1 to take beforehand2 to go before so as to preclude another2 to get the start or ahead of2 to enjoy1 possess1 or suffer1 in expectation2 to foretaste4 ,it is1 therefore1 misused in such sentences as1 ,her death is hourly anticipated2 ,by this means it is anticipated that the time from ,europe will be lessened two days4 ,,antithesis4 ,a phrase that opposes contraries is called an antithesis4 ,i see a chief who leads my chosen sons1 ,all armed with points1 antitheses1 and puns4 ,the following are examples3 ,though gentle1 yet not dull2 ,strong1 without rage2 without o'erflowing1 full4 ,contrasted faults through all their manners reign2 ,though poor1 luxurious2 though submissive1 vain2 ,though grave1 yet trifling2 zealous1 yet untrue2 ,and e'en in penance planning sins anew4 ,the following is an excellent example of personification and antithesis combined3 ,talent convinces2 ,genius but excites3 ,that tasks the reason2 this the soul delights4 ,talent from sober judgment takes its birth1 ,and reconciles the pinion to the earth2 ,genius unsettles with desires the mind1 ,contented not till earth be left behind4 ,in the following extract from ,johnson's ,life of ,pope1 individual peculiarities are contrasted by means of antitheses3 ,of genius--that power which constitutes a poet2 that quality without which judgment is cold1 and knowledge is inert2 that energy which collects1 combines1 amplifies1 and animates--the superiority must1 with some hesitation1 be allowed to ,dryden4 ,it is not to be inferred that of this poetical vigor ,pope had only a little1 because ,dryden had more2 for every other writer1 since ,milton1 must give place to ,pope2 and even of ,dryden it must be said that1 if he has brighter paragraphs1 he has not better poems4 ,dryden's performances were always hasty1 either excited by some external occasion or extorted by domestic necessity2 he composed without consideration and published without correction4 ,what his mind could supply at call or gather in one excursion was all that he sought and all that he gave4 ,the dilatory caution of ,pope enabled him to condense his sentiments1 to multiply his images1 and to accumulate all that study might produce or chance might supply4 ,if the flights of ,dryden1 therefore1 are higher1 ,pope continues longer on the wing4 ,if of ,dryden's fire the blaze is brighter1 of ,pope's the heat is more regular and constant4 ,dryden often surpasses expectation1 and ,pope never falls below it4 ,dryden is read with frequent astonishment1 and ,pope with perpetual delight4 ,dryden's page is a natural field1 rising into inequalities1 and diversified by the varied exuberance of abundant vegetation2 ,pope's is a velvet lawn1 shaven by the scythe1 and leveled by the roller4 ,there are forms of antithesis in which the contrast is only of a secondary kind4 ,,any4 ,this word is sometimes made to do service for at all4 ,we say properly1 ,she is not any better2 but we can not properly say1 ,she does not see any1 meaning that she is blind4 ,,anybody ,,else4 ,public ,school ,teachers are informed that anybody else's is correct4--,new ,york ,times1 ,sunday1 ,july #ca1 #ahha4 ,an ,english writer says3 ,in such phrases as anybody else1 and the like1 else is often put in the possessive case2 as1 'anybody else's servant'2 and some grammarians defend this use of the possessive case1 arguing that somebody else is a compound noun4 ,it is better grammar and more euphonious to consider else as being an adjective1 and to form the possessive by adding the apostrophe and s to the word that else qualifies2 thus1 anybody's else1 nobody's else1 somebody's else4 ,,anyhow4 ,an exceedingly vulgar phrase1 says ,professor ,mathews1 in his ,words3 ,their ,use and ,abuse4 ,its use1 in any manner1 by one who professes to write and speak the ,english tongue with purity1 is unpardonable4 ,professor ,mathews seems to have a special dislike for this colloquialism4 ,it is recognized by the lexicographers1 and ,i think is generally accounted1 even by the careful1 permissible in conversation1 though incompatible with dignified diction4 ,,anxiety ,,of ,,mind4 ,see ,,equanimity ,,of ,,mind4 ,,apostrophe4 ,turning from the person or persons to whom a discourse is addressed and appealing to some person or thing absent1 constitutes what1 in rhetoric1 is called the apostrophe4 ,the following are some examples3 ,o gentle sleep1 ,nature's soft nurse1 how have ,i frighted thee1 ,that thou no more wilt weigh my eyelids down1 ,and steep my senses in forgetfulness8 ,sail on1 thou lone imperial bird ,of quenchless eye and tireless wing6 ,help1 angels1 make assay6 ,bow1 stubborn knees6 and heart with strings of steel1 ,be soft as sinews of the new-born babe3 ,all may yet be well6 ,,appear4 ,see ,,seem4 ,,appreciate4 ,if any word in the language has cause to complain of ill-treatment1 this one has4 ,appreciate means1 to estimate justly--to set the true value on men or things1 their worth1 beauty1 or advantages of any sort whatsoever4 ,thus1 an overestimate is no more appreciation than is an underestimate2 hence it follows that such expressions as1 ,i appreciate it1 or her1 or him1 highly1 can not be correct4 ,we value1 or prize1 things highly1 not appreciate them highly4 ,this word is also very improperly made to do service for rise1 or increase1 in value2 thus1 ,land appreciates rapidly in the ,west4 ,dr4 ,l4 ,t4 ,townsend blunders in the use of appreciate in his ,art of ,speech1 vol4 i1 p4 #adb1 thus3 ,the laws of harmony 444 may allow copiousness 444 in parts of a discourse 444 in order that the condensation of other parts may be the more highly appreciated4 ,,apprehend--,,comprehend4 ,the ,english often use the first of these two words where we use the second4 ,both express an effort of the thinking faculty2 but to apprehend is simply to take an idea into the mind--it is the mind's first effort--while to comprehend is fully to understand4 ,we are dull or quick of apprehension4 ,children apprehend much that they do not comprehend4 ,trench says3 ,we apprehend many truths which we do not comprehend4 ,apprehend1 says ,crabb1 expresses the weakest kind of belief1 the having of the least idea of the presence of a thing4 ,,apt4 ,often misused for likely1 and sometimes for liable4 ,what is he apt to be doing8 ,where shall ,i be apt to find him8 ,if properly directed1 it will be apt to reach me4 ,in such sentences as these1 likely is the proper word to use4 ,if you go there1 you will be apt to get into trouble4 ,here either likely or liable is the proper word1 according to the thought the speaker would convey4 ,,arctics4 ,see ,,rubbers4 ,,artist4 ,of late years this word has been appropriated by the members of so many crafts1 that it has well-nigh been despoiled of its meaning4 ,your cook1 your barber1 your tailor1 your boot-maker1 and so on to satiety1 are all artists4 ,painters1 sculptors1 architects1 actors1 and singers1 nowadays1 generally prefer being thus called1 rather than to be spoken of as artists4 ,,as4 ,not as ,i know3 read1 not that ,i know4 ,this is not as good as the last3 read1 not so good4 ,it may be complete so far as the specification is concerned3 correctly1 as far as4 ,as1 preceded by such or by same1 has the force of a relative applying to persons or to things4 ,he offered me the same conditions as he offered you4 ,the same conditions that would be equally proper4 ,see1 also1 ,,like4 ,,ascribe4 ,see ,,impute4 ,,at4 ,things are sold by1 not at1 auction4 ,the scene is more beautiful at night than by day3 say1 by night4 ,,at ,,all4 ,it is not strange1 for my uncle is ,king of ,denmark4 ,had ,shakespeare written1 ,it is not at all strange1 it is clear that his diction would have been much less forcible4 ,i do not wish for any at all2 ,i saw no one at all2 ,if he had any desire at all to see me1 he would come where ,i am4 ,the at all in sentences like these is superfluous4 ,yet there are instances in which the phrase is certainly a very convenient one1 and seems to be unobjectionable4 ,it is much used1 and by good writers4 ,,at ,,best4 ,instead of at best and at worst1 we should say at the best and at the worst4 ,,at ,,last4 ,see ,,at ,,length4 ,,at ,,least4 ,this adverbial phrase is often misplaced4 ',the ,romans understood liberty at least as well as we4' ,this must be interpreted to mean1 ',the ,romans understood liberty as well as we understand liberty4' ,the intended meaning is1 'that whatever things the ,romans failed to understand1 they understood liberty4' ,to express this meaning we might put it thus3 ',the ,romans understood at least liberty as well as we do'2 'liberty1 at least1 the ,romans understood as well as we do4' ',a tear1 at least1 is due to the unhappy'2 'at least a tear is due to the unhappy'2 'a tear is due at least to the unhappy'2 'a tear is due to the unhappy at least'--all express different meanings4 ',this can not1 often at least1 be done'2 'this can not be done often1 at least4' 7#a4 ',it often happens that this can not be done4' #b4 ',it does not often happen that this can be done4'7 ,so1 'man is always capable of laughing'2 'man is capable of laughing always4'--,bain4 ,,at ,,length4 ,this phrase is often used instead of at last4 ,at length we managed to get away3 read1 at last4 ,at length we heard from him4 ,to hear from any one at length is to hear fully2 i4 e41 in detail4 ,,authoress4 ,with regard to the use of this and certain other words of like formation1 ,mr4 ,gould1 in his ,good ,english1 says3 ,poet means simply a person who writes poetry2 and author1 in the sense under consideration1 a person who writes poetry or prose--not a man who writes1 but a person who writes4 ,nothing in either word indicates sex2 and everybody knows that the functions of both poets and authors are common to both sexes4 ,hence1 authoress and poetess are superfluous4 ,and they are superfluous1 also1 in another respect--that they are very rarely used1 indeed they hardly can be used1 independently of the name of the writer1 as ,mrs41 or ,miss1 or a female ,christian name4 ,they are1 besides1 philological absurdities1 because they are fabricated on the false assumption that their primaries indicate men4 ,they are1 moreover1 liable to the charge of affectation and prettiness1 to say nothing of pedantic pretension to accuracy4 ,if the ess is to be permitted1 there is no reason for excluding it from any noun that indicates a person2 and the next editions of our dictionaries may be made complete by the addition of writress1 officeress1 manageress1 superintendentess1 secretaryess1 treasureress1 walkeress1 talkeress1 and so on to the end of the vocabulary4 ,,avocation4 ,see ,,vocation4 ,,bad ,,cold4 ,inasmuch as colds are never good1 why say a bad cold8 ,we may talk about slight colds and severe colds1 but not about bad colds4 ,,baggage4 ,see ,,luggage4 ,,balance4 ,this word is very frequently and very erroneously used in the sense of rest1 remainder4 ,it properly means the excess of one thing over another1 and in this sense and in no other should it be used4 ,hence it is improper to talk about the balance of the edition1 of the evening1 of the money1 of the toasts1 of the men1 etc4 ,in such cases we should say the rest or the remainder4 ,,barbarism4 ,defined as an offense against good usage1 by the use of an improper word1 i4 e41 a word that is antiquated or improperly formed4 ,preventative1 enthuse1 agriculturalist1 donate1 etc41 are barbarisms4 ,see also ,,solecism4 ,,been ,,to4 ,we not unfrequently hear a superfluous to tacked to a sentence2 thus1 ,where have you been to8 ,,beg4 ,we often see letters begin with the words1 ,i beg to acknowledge the receipt of your favor1 etc4 ,we should write1 ,i beg leave to acknowledge1 etc4 ,no one would say1 ,i beg to tell you1 instead of1 ,i beg leave to tell you4 ,,begin--,,commence4 ,these words have the same meaning2 careful speakers1 however1 generally prefer to use the former4 ,indeed1 there is rarely any good reason for giving the preference to the latter4 ,see also ,,commence4 ,,being ,,built4 ,see ,,is ,,being ,,built4 ,,belongings4 ,an old idiomatic expression now coming into use again4 ,,beside--,,besides4 ,in the later unabridged editions of ,webster's dictionary we find the following remarks concerning the use of these two words3 ,beside and besides1 whether used as prepositions or adverbs1 have been considered synonymous from an early period of our literature1 and have been freely interchanged by our best writers4 ,there is1 however1 a tendency in present usage to make the following distinction between them3 #a4 ,that beside be used only and always as a preposition1 with the original meaning by the side of2 as1 to sit beside a fountain2 or with the closely allied meaning aside from1 or out of2 as1 this is beside our present purpose3 ',paul1 thou art beside thyself4' ,the adverbial sense to be wholly transferred to the cognate word4 #b4 ,that besides1 as a preposition1 take the remaining sense1 in addition to2 as1 besides all this2 besides the consideration here offered3 ',there was a famine in the land besides the first famine4' ,and that it also take the adverbial sense of moreover1 beyond1 etc41 which had been divided between the words2 as1 besides1 there are other considerations which belong to this case4 ,,best4 ,see ,,at ,,best4 ,,between4 ,this word is often misused for among2 thus1 ,the word fellow1 however much in use it may be between men1 sounds very objectionable from the lips of women4--,london ,queen4 ,should be1 among men4 ,between is used in reference to two things1 parties1 or persons2 among1 in reference to a greater number4 ,castor and ,pollux with one soul between them4 ,you have among you many a purchased slave4 ,,blame ,,it ,,on4 ,here is a gross vulgarism which we sometimes hear from persons of considerable culture4 ,they use it in the sense of accuse or suspect2 thus1 ,he blames it on his brother1 meaning that he accuses or suspects his brother of having done it1 or of being at fault for it4 ,,bogus4 ,a colloquial term incompatible with dignified diction4 ,,both4 ,we sometimes hear such absurd sentences as1 ,they both resemble each other very much2 ,they are both alike2 ,they both met in the street4 ,both is likewise redundant in the following sentence3 ,it performs at the same time the offices both of the nominative and objective cases4 ,,bound4 ,the use of this word in the sense of determined is not only inelegant but indefensible4 ,i am bound to have it1 should be1 ,i am determined to have it4 ,,bravery--,,courage4 ,the careless often use these two words as though they were interchangeable4 ,bravery is inborn1 is instinctive2 courage is the product of reason1 calculation4 ,there is much merit in being courageous1 little merit in being brave4 ,men who are simply brave are careless1 while the courageous man is always cautious4 ,bravery often degenerates into temerity4 ,moral courage is that firmness of principle which enables a man to do what he deems to be his duty1 although his action may subject him to adverse criticism4 ,true moral courage is one of the rarest and most admirable of virtues4 ,alfred the ,great1 in resisting the attacks of the ,danes1 displayed bravery2 in entering their camp as a spy1 he displayed courage4 ,,bring--,,fetch--,,carry4 ,the indiscriminate use of these three words is very common4 ,to bring is to convey to or toward--a simple act2 to fetch means to go and bring--a compound act2 to carry often implies motion from the speaker1 and is followed by away or off1 and thus is opposed to bring and fetch4 ,yet one hears such expressions as1 ,go to ,mrs4 ,d4's and bring her this bundle2 and here1 you may fetch her this book also4 ,we use the words correctly thus3 ,fetch1 or go bring1 me an apple from the cellar2 ,when you come home bring some lemons2 ,carry this book home with you4 ,,british ,,against ,,american ,,english4 ,the most important peculiarity of ,american ,english is a laxity1 irregularity1 and confusion in the use of particles4 ,the same thing is1 indeed1 observable in ,england1 but not to the same extent1 though some gross departures from idiomatic propriety1 such as different to for different from1 are common in ,england1 which none but very ignorant persons would be guilty of in ,america4444 ,in the tenses of the verbs1 ,i am inclined to think that well-educated ,americans conform more closely to grammatical propriety than the corresponding class in ,england4444 ,in general1 ,i think we may say that1 in point of naked syntactical accuracy1 the ,english of ,america is not at all inferior to that of ,england2 but we do not discriminate so precisely in the meaning of words1 nor do we habitually1 in either conversation or in writing1 express ourselves so gracefully1 or employ so classic a diction1 as the ,english4 ,our taste in language is less fastidious1 and our licenses and inaccuracies are more frequently of a character indicative of want of refinement and elegant culture than those we hear in educated society in ,england4--,george ,p4 ,marsh4 ,,british ,,against ,,american ,,ortho,,py4 ,the causes of the differences in pronunciation between the ,english and the ,americans are partly physical1 and therefore difficult1 if not impossible1 to resist2 and partly owing to a difference of circumstances4 ,of this latter class of influences1 the universality of reading in ,america is the most obvious and important4 ,the most marked difference is1 perhaps1 in the length or prosodical quantity of the vowels2 and both of the causes ,i have mentioned concur to produce this effect4 ,we are said to drawl our words by protracting the vowels and giving them a more diphthongal sound than the ,english4 ,now1 an ,englishman who reads will habitually utter his vowels more fully and distinctly than his countryman who does not2 and1 upon the same principle1 a nation of readers1 like the ,americans1 will pronounce more deliberately and clearly than a people so large a proportion of whom are unable to read1 as in ,england4 ,from our universal habit of reading1 there results not only a greater distinctness of articulation1 but a strong tendency to assimilate the spoken to the written language4 ,thus1 ,americans incline to give to every syllable of a written word a distinct enunciation2 and the popular habit is to say dic-tion-ar-y1 mil-it-ar-y1 with a secondary accent on the penultimate1 instead of sinking the third syllable1 as is so common in ,england4 ,there is1 no doubt1 something disagreeably stiff in an anxious and affected conformity to the very letter of orthography2 and to those accustomed to a more hurried utterance we may seem to drawl1 when we are only giving a full expression to letters which1 though etymologically important1 the ,english habitually slur over1 sputtering out1 as a ,swedish satirist says1 one half of the word1 and swallowing the other4 ,the tendency to make the long vowels diphthongal is noticed by foreigners as a peculiarity of the orthopy of our language2 and this tendency will1 of course1 be strengthened by any cause which produces greater slowness and fullness of articulation4 ,besides the influence of the habit of reading1 there is some reason to think that climate is affecting our articulation4 ,in spite of the coldness of our winters1 our flora shows that the climate of even our ,northern ,states belongs1 upon the whole1 to a more southern type than that of ,england4 ,in southern latitudes1 at least within the temperate zone1 articulation is generally much more distinct than in the northern regions4 ,witness the pronunciation of ,spanish1 ,italian1 ,turkish1 as compared with ,english1 ,danish1 and ,german4 ,participating1 then1 in the physical influences of a southern climate1 we have contracted something of the more distinct articulation that belongs to a dry atmosphere and a clear sky4 ,and this view of the case is confirmed by the fact that the inhabitants of the ,southern ,states incline1 like the people of southern ,europe1 to throw the accent toward the end of the word1 and thus1 like all nations that use that accentuation1 bring out all the syllables4 ,this we observe very commonly in the comparative ,northern and ,southern pronunciation of proper names4 ,i might exemplify by citing familiar instances2 but1 lest that should seem invidious1 it may suffice to say that1 not to mention more important changes1 many a ,northern member of ,congress goes to ,washington a dactyl or a trochee1 and comes home an amphibrach or an iambus4 ,why or how external physical causes1 as climate and modes of life1 should affect pronunciation1 we can not say2 but it is evident that material influences of some sort are producing a change in our bodily constitution1 and we are fast acquiring a distinct national ,anglo-,american type4 ,that the delicate organs of articulation should participate in such tendencies is altogether natural2 and the operation of the causes which give rise to them is palpable even in our handwriting1 which1 if not uniform with itself1 is generally1 nevertheless1 so unlike common ,english script as to be readily distinguished from it4 ,to the joint operation1 then1 of these two causes--universal reading and climatic influences--we must ascribe our habit of dwelling upon vowel and diphthongal sounds1 or of drawling1 if that term is insisted upon4444 ,but it is often noticed by foreigners as both making us more readily understood by them when speaking our own tongue1 and as connected with a flexibility of organ1 which enables us to acquire a better pronunciation of other languages than is usual with ,englishmen4 ,in any case1 as1 in spite of the old adage1 speech is given us that we may make ourselves understood1 our drawling1 however prolonged1 is preferable to the nauseous1 foggy1 mumbling thickness of articulation which characterizes the cockney1 and is not unfrequently affected by ,englishmen of a better class4--,george ,p4 ,marsh4 ,,bryant',s ,,prohibited ,,words4 ,see ,,index ,,expurgatorius4 ,,but4 ,this word is misused in various ways4 ,i do not doubt but he will be here3 read1 doubt that4 ,i should not wonder but3 read1 if4 ,i have no doubt but that he will go3 suppress but4 ,i do not doubt but that it is true3 suppress but4 ,there can be no doubt but that the burglary is the work of professional cracksmen4--,new ,york ,herald4 ,doubt that1 and not but that4 ,a careful canvass leaves no doubt but that the nomination1 etc43 suppress but4 ,there is no reasonable doubt but that it is all it professes to be3 suppress but4 ,the mind no sooner entertains any proposition but it presently hastens1 etc43 read1 than4 ,no other resource but this was allowed him3 read1 than4 ,,by4 ,see ,,at4 ,,calculate4 ,this word means to ascertain by computation1 to reckon1 to estimate2 and1 say some of the purists1 it never means anything else when properly used4 ,if this is true1 we can not say a thing is calculated to do harm1 but must1 if we are ambitious to have our ,english irreproachable1 choose some other form of expression1 or at least some other word1 likely or apt1 for example4 ,cobbett1 however1 says1 ,that1 to ,her1 whose great example is so well calculated to inspire1 etc42 and1 ,the first two of the three sentences are well enough calculated for ushering1 etc4 ,calculate is sometimes vulgarly used for intend1 purpose1 expect2 as1 ,he calculates to get off to-morrow4 ,,caliber4 ,this word is sometimes used very absurdly2 as1 ,brown's ,essays are of a much higher caliber than ,smith's4 ,it is plain that the proper word to use here is order4 ,,cant4 ,cant is a kind of affectation2 affectation is an effort to sail under false colors2 an effort to sail under false colors is a kind of falsehood2 and falsehood is a term of ,latin origin which we often use instead of the stronger ,saxon term ,,lying6 ,who is not familiar1 writes ,dr4 ,william ,matthews1 with scores of pet phrases and cant terms which are repeated at this day apparently without a thought of their meaning8 ,who ever attended a missionary meeting without hearing 'the ,macedonian cry1' and an account of some 'little interest' and 'fields white for the harvest'8 ,who is not weary of the ding-dong of 'our ,zion1' and the solecism of 'in our midst'2 and who does not long for a verbal millennium when ,christians shall no longer 'feel to take' and 'grant to give'8 ,how much ,i regret1 says ,coleridge1 that so many religious persons of the present day think it necessary to adopt a certain cant of manner and phraseology and of tone of voice as a token to each other one another6 ,they improve this and that text1 and they must do so and so in a prayerful way2 and so on4 ,,capacity4 ,see ,,ability4 ,,caption4 ,this word is often used for heading1 but1 thus used1 it is condemned by careful writers4 ,the true meaning of caption is a seizure1 an arrest4 ,it does not come from a ,latin word meaning a head1 but from a ,latin word meaning to seize4 ,,caret4 ,cobbett writes of the caret to his son3 ,the last thing ,i shall mention under this head is the caret 1 which is used to point upward to a part which has been omitted1 and which is inserted between the line where the caret is placed and the line above it4 ,things should be called by their right names1 and this should be called the blunder-mark4 ,i would have you1 my dear ,james1 scorn the use of the thing4 ,think before you write2 let it be your custom to write correctly and in a plain hand4 ,be careful that neatness1 grammar1 and sense prevail when you write to a blacksmith about shoeing a horse as when you write on the most important subjects4 ,habit is powerful in all cases2 but its power in this case is truly wonderful4 ,when you write1 bear constantly in mind that some one is to read and to understand what you write4 ,this will make your handwriting and also your meaning plain4 ,far1 ,i hope1 from my dear ,james will be the ridiculous1 the contemptible affectation of writing in a slovenly or illegible hand1 or that of signing his name otherwise than in plain letters4 ,,carry4 ,see ,,bring4 ,,case4 ,many persons of considerable culture continually make mistakes in conversation in the use of the cases1 and we sometimes meet with gross errors of this kind in the writings of authors of repute4 ,witness the following3 ,and everybody is to know him except ,i4--,george ,merideth in ,the ,tragic ,comedies1 ,eng4 ed41 vol4 i1 p4 #cc4 ,let's you and ,i go3 say1 me4 ,we can not say1 ,let ,i go4 ,properly1 ,let's go1 i4 e41 let us go1 or1 let you and me go4 ,he is as good as me3 say1 as ,i4 ,she is as tall as him3 say1 as he4 ,you are older than me3 say1 than ,i4 ,nobody said so but he3 say1 but him4 ,every one can master a grief but he that hath it3 correctly1 but him4 ,john went out with ,james and ,i3 say1 and me4 ,you are stronger than him3 say1 than he4 ,between you and ,i3 say1 and me4 ,between you and they3 say1 and them4 ,he gave it to ,john and ,i3 say1 and me4 ,you told ,john and ,i3 say1 and me4 ,he sat between him and ,i3 say1 and me4 ,he expects to see you and ,i3 say1 and me4 ,you were a dunce to do it4 ,who8 me8 say1 ,i4 ,supply the ellipsis1 and we should have1 ,who8 me a dunce to do it8 ,where are you going8 ,who8 me8 say1 ,i4 ,we can't say1 me going4 ,who do you mean8 say1 whom4 ,was it them8 say1 they4 ,if ,i was him1 ,i would do it3 say1 were he4 ,if ,i was her1 ,i would not go3 say1 were she4 ,was it him8 say1 he4 ,was it her8 say1 she4 ,for the benefit of those whom he thought were his friends3 say1 who4 ,this error is not easy to detect on account of the parenthetical words that follow it4 ,if we drop them1 the mistake is very apparent2 thus1 ,for the benefit of those whom were his friends4 ,on the supposition1 says ,bain1 that the interrogative who has whom for its objective1 the following are errors3 'who do you take me to be8' 'who should ,i meet the other day8' 'who is it by8' 'who did you give it to8' 'who to8' 'who for8' ,but1 considering that these expressions occur with the best writers and speakers1 that they are more energetic than the other form1 and that they lead to no ambiguity1 it may be doubted whether grammarians have not exceeded their province in condemning them4 ,cobbett1 in writing of the pronouns1 says3 ,when the relatives are placed in the sentence at a distance from their antecedents or verbs or prepositions1 the ear gives us no assistance4 ',who1 of all the men in the world1 do you think ,i saw to-day8' ',who1 for the sake of numerous services1 the office was given to4' ,in both these cases it should be whom4 ,bring the verb in the first and the preposition in the second case closer to the relative1 as1 who ,i saw1 to who the office was given1 and you see the error at once4 ,but take care6 ',whom1 of all the men in the world1 do you think1 was chosen to be sent as an ambassador8' ',whom1 for the sake of his numerous services1 had an office of honor bestowed upon him4' ,these are nominative cases1 and ought to have who2 that is to say1 who was chosen1 who had an office4 ,most grammarians1 says ,dr4 ,bain1 in his ,higher ,english ,grammar1 have laid down this rule3 ',the verb to be has the same case after as before it4' ,macaulay censures the following as a solecism3 ',it was him that ,horace ,walpole called a man who never made a bad figure but as an author4' ,thackeray similarly adverts to the same deviation from the rule3 ',is that him8 said the lady in questionable grammar4' ,but1 notwithstanding this1 continues ,dr4 ,bain1 we certainly hear in the actual speech of all classes of society such expressions as 'it was me1' 'it was him1' 'it was her1' more frequently than the prescribed form4#a ',this shy creature1 my brother says1 is me'2 'were it me1 ,i'd show him the difference4'--,clarissa ,harlowe4 ',it is not me#b you are in love with4'--,addison4 ',if there is one character more base than another1 it is him who1' etc4--,sydney ,smith4 ',if ,i were him'2 'if ,i had been her1' etc4 ,the authority of good writers is strong on the side of objective forms4 ,there is also the analogy of the ,french language2 for while ',i am here' is je suis ici1 the answer to 'who is there8' is moi 7me72 and c'est moi 7it is me7 is the legitimate phrase--never c'est je 7it is ,i74 ,but moi1 according to all ,french grammarians1 is very often in the nominative case4 ,moi is in the nominative case when used in reply to ,who is there8 and also in the phrase ,c'est moi1 which makes ,it is ,i the correct translation of the phrase1 and not ,it is me4 ,the ,french equivalent of ,i6 ,i am here1 is ,moi6 je suis ici4 ,the ,frenchman uses moi in the nominative case when je would be inharmonious4 ,euphony with him is a matter of more importance than grammatical correctness4 ,bescherelle gives many examples of moi in the nominative4 ,here are two of them3 ,mon avocat et moi sommes de cet avis4 ,qui veut aller avec lui8 ,moi4 ,if we use such phraseology as ,it is me1 we must do as the ,french do--consider me as being in the nominative case1 and offer euphony as our reason for thus using it4 ,when shall we put nouns 7or pronouns7 preceding verbal1 or participial1 nouns1 as they are called by some grammarians--infinitives in ing1 as they are called by others--in the possessive case8 ',i am surprised at ,john's 7or his1 your1 etc47 refusing to go4' ',i am surprised at ,john 7or him1 you1 etc47 refusing to go4' ,in the latter sentence refusing is a participle4 ,the latter construction is not so common with pronouns as with nouns1 especially with such nouns as do not readily take the possessive form4 ',they prevented him going forward'3 better1 ',they prevented his going forward4' ',he was dismissed without any reason being assigned4' ',the boy died through his clothes being burned4' ',we hear little of any connection being kept up between the two nations4' ',the men rowed vigorously for fear of the tide turning against us4' ,but most examples of the construction without the possessive form are ,,obviously ,,due ,,to ,,mere ,,slovenliness4444 ',in case of your being absent'3 here being is an infinitive verbal1 or participial1 noun qualified by the possessive your4 ',in case of you being present'3 here being would have to be construed as a participle4 ,the possessive construction is1 in this case1 the primitive and regular construction2 ,,the ,,other ,,is ,a ,,mere ,,lapse4 ,the difficulty of adhering to the possessive form occurs when the subject is not a person3 ',it does not seem safe to rely on the rule of demand creating supply'3 in strictness1 ',demand's creating supply4' ',a petition was presented against the license being granted4' ,but for the awkwardness of extending the possessive to impersonal subjects1 it would be right to say1 'against the license's being granted4' ',he had conducted the ball without any complaint being urged against him4' ,the possessive would be suitable1 but undesirable and unnecessary4--,professor ,alexander ,bain4 ,though the ordinary syntax of the possessive case is sufficiently plain and easy1 there is1 perhaps1 among all the puzzling and disputable points of grammar1 nothing more difficult of decision than are some questions that occur respecting the right management of this case4 ,the observations that have been made show that possessives before participles are seldom to be approved4 ,the following example is manifestly inconsistent with itself2 and1 in my opinion1 the three possessives are all wrong3 ',the kitchen1 too1 now begins to give dreadful note of preparation2 not from armorers accomplishing the knights1 but from the shopmaid's chopping force-meat1 the apprentice's cleaning knives1 and the journeyman's receiving a practical lesson in the art of waiting at table4' ',the daily instances of men's dying around us4' ,say rather1 ',of men dying around us4' ,the leading word in sense ought not to be made the adjunct in construction4--,goold ,brown4 ,,casualty4 ,this word is often heard with the incorrect addition of a syllable1 casuality1 which is not recognized by the lexicographers4 ,some writers object to the word casualty1 and always use its synonym accident4 ,,celebrity4 ,a number of celebrities witnessed the first representation4 ,this word is frequently used1 especially in the newspapers1 as a concrete term2 but it would be better to use it in its abstract sense only1 and in sentences like the one above to say distinguished persons4 ,,character--,,reputation4 ,these two words are not synonyms1 though often used as such4 ,character means the sum of distinguishing qualities4 ,actions1 looks1 words1 steps1 form the alphabet by which you may spell characters4--,lavater4 ,reputation means the estimation in which one is held4 ,one's reputation1 then1 is what is thought of one's character2 consequently1 one may have a good reputation and a bad character1 or a good character and a bad reputation4 ,calumny may injure reputation1 but not character4 ,sir ,peter does not leave his character behind him1 but his reputation--his good name4 ,,cheap4 ,the dictionaries define this adjective as meaning1 bearing a low price1 or to be had at a low price2 but nowadays good usage makes it mean that a thing may be had1 or has been sold1 at a bargain4 ,hence1 in order to make sure of being understood1 it is better to say low-priced1 when one means low-priced1 than to use the word cheap4 ,what is low-priced1 as everybody knows1 is often dear1 and what is high-priced is often cheap4 ,a diamond necklace might be cheap at ten thousand dollars1 and a pinchbeck necklace dear at ten dollars4 ,,cherubim4 ,the ,hebrew plural of cherub4 ,we are authorized1 says ,dr4 ,campbell1 both by use and analogy1 to say either cherubs and seraphs1 according to the ,english idiom1 or cherubim and seraphim1 according to the ,oriental4 ,the former suits better the familiar1 the latter the solemn1 style4 ,as the words cherubim and seraphim are plural1 the terms cherubims and seraphims1 as expressing the plural1 are quite improper4--,philosophy of ,rhetoric4 ,,citizen4 ,this word properly means one who has certain political rights2 when1 therefore1 it is used1 as it often is1 to designate persons who may be aliens1 it1 to say the least1 betrays a want of care in the selection of words4 ,several citizens were injured by the explosion4 ,here some other word--persons1 for example--should be used4 ,,clever4 ,in this country the word clever is most improperly used in the sense of good-natured1 well-disposed1 good-hearted4 ,it is properly used in the sense in which we are wont most inelegantly to use the word smart1 though it is a less colloquial term1 and is of wider application4 ,in ,england the phrase a clever man is the equivalent of the ,french phrase1 un homme d'esprit4 ,the word is properly used in the following sentences3 ,every work of ,archbishop ,whately must be an object of interest to the admirers of clever reasoning2 ,cobbett's letter 444 very clever1 but very mischievous2 ,bonaparte was certainly as clever a man as ever lived4 ,,climax4 ,a clause1 a sentence1 a paragraph1 or any literary composition whatsoever1 is said to end with a climax when1 by an artistic arrangement1 the more effective is made to follow the less effective in regular gradation4 ,any great departure from the order of ascending strength is called an anti-climax4 ,here are some examples of climax3 ,give all diligence2 add to your faith1 virtue2 and to virtue1 knowledge2 and to knowledge1 temperance2 and to temperance1 patience2 and to patience1 godliness2 and to godliness1 brotherly kindness2 and to brotherly kindness1 charity4 ,what is every year of a wise man's life but a criticism on the past6 ,those whose life is the shortest live long enough to laugh at one half of it2 the boy despises the infant1 the man the boy1 the sage both1 and the ,christian all4 ,what a piece of work is man6 how noble in reason6 how infinite in faculties6 in form and moving1 how express and admirable6 in action1 how like an angel6 in apprehension1 how like a god6 ,,co4 ,the prefix co should be used only when the word to which it is joined begins with a vowel1 as in co-eval1 co-incident1 co-operate1 etc4 ,con is used when the word begins with a consonant1 as in con-temporary1 con-junction1 etc4 ,co-partner is an exception to the rule4 ,,commence4 ,the ,britons use or misuse this word in a manner peculiar to themselves4 ,they say1 for example1 commenced merchant1 commenced actor1 commenced politician1 and so on4 ,dr4 ,hall tells us that commence has been employed in the sense of begin to be1 become1 set up as1 by first-class writers1 for more than two centuries4 ,careful speakers make small use of commence in any sense2 they prefer to use its ,saxon equivalent1 begin4 ,see1 also1 ,,begin4 ,,comparison4 ,when only two objects are compared1 the comparative and not the superlative degree should be used2 thus1 ,mary is the older of the two2 ,john is the stronger of the two2 ,brown is the richer of the two1 and the richest man in the city2 ,which is the more desirable1 health or wealth8 ,which is the most desirable1 health1 wealth1 or genius8 ,of two such lessons1 why forget ,the nobler and the manlier one8 ,,completed4 ,this word is often incorrectly used for finished4 ,that is complete which lacks nothing2 that is finished which has had all done to it that was intended4 ,the builder of a house may finish it and yet leave it very incomplete4 ,,condign4 ,it is safe to say that most of those who use this word do not know its meaning1 which is1 suitable1 deserved1 merited1 proper4 ,his endeavors shall not lack condign praise2 i4 e41 his endeavors shall not lack proper or their merited praise4 ,a villain condignly punished is a villain punished according to his deserts4 ,to use condign in the sense of severe is just as incorrect as it would be to use deserved or merited in the sense of severe4 ,,confirmed ,,invalid4 ,this phrase is a convenient mode of expressing the idea it conveys1 but it is difficult to defend1 inasmuch as confirmed means strengthened1 established4 ,,consequence4 ,this word is sometimes used instead of importance or moment2 as1 ,they were all persons of more or less consequence3 read1 of more or less importance4 ,it is a matter of no consequence3 read1 of no moment4 ,,consider4 ,this word1 says ,mr4 ,richard ,grant ,white1 in his ,words and ,their ,uses1 is perverted from its true meaning by most of those who use it4 ,consider means1 to meditate1 to deliberate1 to reflect1 to revolve in the mind2 and yet it is made to do service for think1 suppose1 and regard4 ,thus3 ,i consider his course very unjustifiable2 ,i have always considered it my duty1 etc42 ,i consider him as being the cleverest man of my acquaintance4 ,,contemptible4 ,this word is sometimes used for contemptuous4 ,an old story says that a man once said to ,dr4 ,parr1 ,sir1 ,i have a contemptible opinion of you4 ,that does not surprise me1 returned the ,doctor2 all your opinions are contemptible4 ,what is worthless or weak is contemptible4 ,despicable is a word that expresses a still more intense degree of the contemptible4 ,a traitor is a despicable character1 while a poltroon is only contemptible4 ,,continually4 ,see ,,perpetually4 ,,continue ,,on4 ,the on in this phrase is generally superfluous4 ,we continued on our way is idiomatic ,english1 and is more euphonious than the sentence would be without the particle4 ,the meaning is1 ,we continued to travel on our way4 ,in such sentences1 however1 as ,continue on1 ,he continued to read on1 ,the fever continued on for some hours1 and the like1 the on generally serves no purpose4 ,,conversationist4 ,this word is to be preferred to conversationalist4 ,mr4 ,richard ,grant ,white says that conversationalist and agriculturalist are inadmissible4 ,on the other hand1 ,dr4 ,fitzedward ,hall says3 ,as for conversationist and conversationalist1 agriculturist and agriculturalist1 as all are alike legitimate formations1 it is for convention to decide which we are to prefer4 ,,convoke--,,convene4 ,at one time and another there has been some discussion with regard to the correct use of these two words4 ,according to ,crabb1 ,there is nothing imperative on the part of those that assemble1 or convene1 and nothing binding on those assembled1 or convened3 one assembles1 or convenes1 by invitation or request2 one attends to the notice or not1 at pleasure4 ,convoke1 on the other hand1 is an act of authority2 it is the call of one who has the authority to give the call2 it is heeded by those who feel themselves bound to attend4 ,properly1 then1 ,president ,arthur convokes1 not convenes1 the ,senate4 ,,corporeal--,,corporal4 ,these adjectives1 though regarded as synonyms1 are not used indiscriminately4 ,corporal is used in reference to the body1 or animal frame1 in its proper sense2 corporeal1 to the animal substance in an extended sense--opposed to spiritual4 ,corporal punishment2 corporeal or material form or substance4 ,that to corporeal substances could add ,speed most spiritual4--,milton4 ,what seemed corporal ,melted as breath into the wind4--,shakespeare4 ,,couple4 ,in its primitive signification1 this word does not mean simply two1 but two that are united by some bond2 such as1 for example1 the tie that unites the sexes4 ,it has1 however1 been so long used to mean two of a kind considered together1 that in this sense it may be deemed permissible1 though the substitution of the word two for it would often materially improve the diction4 ,,courage4 ,see ,,bravery4 ,,crime--,,vice--,,sin4 ,the confusion that exists in the use of these words is due largely to an imperfect understanding of their respective meanings4 ,crime is the violation of the law of a state2 hence1 as the laws of states differ1 what is crime in one state may not be crime in another4 ,vice is a course of wrong-doing1 and is not modified either by country1 religion1 or condition4 ,as for sin1 it is very difficult to define what it is1 as what is sinful in the eyes of one man may not be sinful in the eyes of another2 what is sinful in the eyes of a ,jew may not be sinful in the eyes of a ,christian2 and what is sinful in the eyes of a ,christian of one country may not be sinful in the eyes of a ,christian of another country4 ,in the days of slavery1 to harbor a runaway slave was a crime1 but it was1 in the eyes of most people1 neither a vice nor a sin4 ,,crushed ,,out4 ,the rebellion was finally crushed out4 ,out of what8 ,we may crush the life out of a man1 or crush a man to death1 and crush1 not crush out1 a rebellion4 ,,cultured4 ,this word is said to be a product of ,boston--an excellent place for anybody or anything to come from4 ,many persons object to its use on the ground that there can be no such participial adjective1 because there is no verb in use from which to form it4 ,we have in use the substantive culture1 but1 though the dictionaries recognize the verb to culture1 we do not use it4 ,be this objection valid or be it not1 cultured having but two syllables1 while its synonym cultivated has four1 it is likely to find favor with those who employ short words when they convey their meaning as well as long ones4 ,other adjectives of this kind are1 moneyed1 whiskered1 slippered1 lettered1 talented1 cottaged1 lilied1 anguished1 gifted1 and so forth4 ,,curious4 ,this word is often used instead of strange or remarkable4 ,a curious fact3 better1 a remarkable fact4 ,a curious proceeding3 better1 a strange proceeding4 ,,dangerous4 ,he is pretty sick1 but not dangerous4 ,dangerous people are generally most dangerous when they are most vigorous4 ,say1 rather1 ,he is sick1 but not in danger4 ,,dearest4 ,a gentleman once began a letter to his bride thus3 ',my dearest ,maria4' ,the lady replied3 ',my dear ,john1 ,i beg that you will mend either your morals or your grammar4 ,you call me your dearest ,maria2 am ,i to understand that you have other ,marias'8--,moon's ,bad ,english4 ,,deceiving4 ,you are deceiving me4 ,not unfrequently deceiving is used when the speaker means trying to deceive4 ,it is when we do not suspect deception that we are deceived4 ,,decimate4 ,this word1 meaning as it properly does to tithe1 to take the tenth part1 is hardly permissible in the sense in which it is used in such sentences as1 ,the regiment held its position1 though terribly decimated by the enemy's artillery4 ,though terribly tithed would be equally correct4 ,,demean4 ,this word is sometimes erroneously used in the sense of to debase1 to disgrace1 to humble4 ,it is a reflexive verb1 and its true meaning is to behave1 to carry1 to conduct2 as1 ,he demeans himself in a gentlemanly manner1 i4 e41 ,he behaves1 or carries1 or conducts1 himself in a gentlemanly manner4 ,,denude4 ,the vulture1 says ,brande1 has some part of the head and sometimes of the neck denuded of feathers4 ,most birds might be denuded of the feathers on their heads2 not so1 however1 the vulture1 for his head is always featherless4 ,a thing can not be denuded of what it does not have4 ,denuding a vulture's head and neck of the feathers is like denuding an eel of its scales4 ,,deprecate4 ,strangely enough1 this word is often used in the sense of disapprove1 censure1 condemn2 as1 ,he deprecates the whole proceeding2 ,your course1 from first to last1 is universally deprecated4 ,but1 according to the authorities1 the word really means1 to endeavor to avert by prayer2 to pray exemption or deliverance from2 to beg off2 to entreat2 to urge against4 ,daniel kneeled upon his knees to deprecate the captivity of his people4--,hewyt4 ,,despite4 ,this word is often incorrectly preceded by in and followed by of2 thus1 ,in despite of all our efforts to detain him1 he set out2 which should be1 ,despite all our efforts1 etc41 or ,in spite of all our efforts1 etc4 ,,determined4 ,see ,,bound4 ,,diction4 ,this is a general term1 and is applicable to a single sentence or to a connected composition4 ,bad diction may be due to errors in grammar1 to a confused disposition of words1 or to an improper use of words4 ,diction1 to be good1 requires to be only correct and clear4 ,of excellent examples of bad diction there are very many in a little work by ,dr4 ,l4 ,t4 ,townsend1 ,professor of ,sacred ,rhetoric in ,boston ,university1 the first volume of which has lately come under my notice4 ,the first ten lines of ,dr4 ,townsend's preface are3 ,the leading genius#a of the ,people's ,college at ,chautauqua ,lake1 with a the8 view of providing for his course#b a text-book1 asked for the publication of the following laws and principles of speech4#c ,the author1 not seeing sufficient reason#d for withholding what had been of much practical benefit#e to himself1 consented4#f ,the subject-matter herein contained is an outgrowth from#g occasional instructions#h given#i while occupying the chair#aj of ,sacred ,rhetoric4 #a4 ,the phrase leading genius is badly chosen4 ,founder1 projector1 head1 organizer1 principal1 or president--some one of these terms would probably have been appropriate4 #b4 ,what course8 ,race-course1 course of ethics1 sthetics1 rhetoric1 or what8#c #c4 ,the following laws and principles of speech4 ,and how came these laws and principles in existence8 ,who made them8 ,we are to infer1 it would seem1 that ,professor ,townsend made them1 and that the world would have had to go without the laws that govern language and the principles on which language is formed had it pleased ,professor ,townsend to withhold them4 #d4 ,sufficient reason6 ,then there were reasons why ,professor ,townsend ought to have kept these good things all to himself2 only1 they were not sufficient4 #e4 ,practical benefit6 ,is there any such thing as impractical benefit8 ,are not all benefits practical8 and1 if they are1 what purpose does the epithet practical serve8 #f4 ,consented to what8 ,it is easy to see that the ,doctor means acceded to the request1 but he is a long way from saying so4 ,the object writers usually have in view is to convey thought1 not to set their readers to guessing4 #g4 ,the outgrowth of would be ,english4 #h4 ,occasional instructions6 ,very vague1 and well calculated to set the reader to guessing again4 #i4 ,given to whom8 #aj4 ,the chair4 ,the definite article made it necessary for the writer to specify what particular chair of ,sacred ,rhetoric he meant4 ,these ten lines are a fair specimen of the diction of the entire volume4 ,page #aca4 ,to render a given ambiguous or unintelligible sentence transparent1 the following suggestions are recommended4 ,the words in italics are unnecessary1 since what is ambiguous is unintelligible4 ,then who has ever heard of recommending suggestions8 ,dr4 ,townsend speaks of mastering a subject before publishing it4 ,publishing a subject8 ,page #acc4 ,violations of simplicity1 whatever the type1 show either that the mind of the writer is tainted with affectation1 or else that an effort is making to conceal conscious poverty of sentiment under loftiness of expression4 ,here is an example of a kind of sentence that can be mended in only one way--by rewriting1 which might be done thus3 ,violations of simplicity1 whatever the type1 show either that the writer is tainted with affectation1 or that he is making an effort to conceal poverty of thought under loftiness of expression4 ,page #adc4 ,this quality is fully stated and recommended1 etc4 ,who has ever heard of stating a quality8 ,on page #ade ,dr4 ,townsend says3 ,a person can not read a single book of poor style without having his own style vitiated4 ,a book of poor style is an awkward expression1 to say the least4 ,a single badly-written book would have been unobjectionable4 ,page #afj4 ,the presented picture produces instantly a definite effect4 ,why this unusual disposition of words8 ,why not say1 in accordance with the idiom of the language1 ,the picture presented instantly produces1 etc48 ,page #afa4 ,the boy studies 444 geography and hates everything connected with the sea and land4 ,why the boy8 ,as there are few things besides seals and turtles that are connected with the sea and land1 the boy in question has few things to hate4 ,on page #age1 ,dr4 ,townsend heads a chapter thus3 ,art of acquiring ,skill in the use of ,poetic ,speech4 ,this reminds one of the man who tried to lift himself over a fence by taking hold of the seat of his breeches4 ,how to acquire skill is probably what is meant4 ,on page #bcb1 ,jeremy ,taylor is among the best models of long sentences which are both clear and logical4 ,jeremy ,taylor is a clear and logical long sentence86 ,true1 our learned rhetorician says so1 but he doesn't mean it4 ,he means1 ,in ,jeremy ,taylor we find some of the best examples of long sentences which are at once clear and logical4 ,since the foregoing was written1 the second volume of ,professor ,townsend's ,art of ,speech has been published4 ,in the brief preface to this volume we find this characteristic sentence3 ,the author has felt that clergymen more than those of other professions will study this treatise4 ,the antecedent of the relative those being clergymen1 the sentence1 it will be perceived1 says3 ,the author has felt that clergymen more than clergymen of other professions will study this treatise4 ,comment on such art as ,professor ,townsend's is not necessary4 ,i find several noteworthy examples of bad diction in an article in a recent number of an ,australian magazine4 ,the following are some of them3 ,large capital always manages to make itself master of the situation2 it is the small capitalist and the small landholder that would suffer1 etc4 ,should be1 ,the large capitalist 444 himself1 etc4 ,again3 ,the small farmer would 444 be despoiled 444 of the meager profit which strenuous labor had conquered from the reluctant soil4 ,not only are the epithets in italics superfluous1 and consequently weakening in their effect1 but idiom does not permit strenuous to be used to qualify labor3 hard labor and strenuous effort4 ,again3 ,capital has always the choice of a large field4 ,should be1 the choice offered by a large field4 ,again3 ,should capital be withdrawn1 tenements would soon prove insufficient4 ,should be1 the number of tenements would1 etc4 ,again3 ,men of wealth1 therefore1 would find their ,fifth ,avenue mansions and their summer villas a little more burdened with taxes1 but with this increase happily balanced by the exemption of their bonds and mortgages1 their plate and furniture4 ,the thought here is so simple that we easily divine it2 but1 if we look at the sentence at all carefully1 we find that1 though we supply the ellipses in the most charitable manner possible1 the sentence really says3 ,men would find their mansions more burdened1 but would find them with this increased burden happily balanced by the exemption1 etc4 ,the sentence should have been framed somewhat in this wise3 ,men 444 would find their 444 mansions 444 more burdened with taxes1 but this increase in the taxes on their real estate would be happily balanced by the exemption from taxation of their bonds1 mortgages1 plate1 and furniture4 ,again3 ,men generally 444 would be inclined to laugh at the idea of intrusting the modern politician with such gigantic opportunities for enriching his favorites4 ,we do not intrust one another with opportunities4 ,to enrich would better the diction4 ,again3 ,the value of land that has accrued from labor is not 444 a just object for confiscation4 ,correctly3 ,the value of land that has resulted from labor is not justly 444 an object of confiscation4 ,accrue is properly used more in the sense of spontaneous growth4 ,again3 ,if the state attempts to confiscate this increase by means of taxes1 either rentals will increase correspondingly1 or such a check will be put upon the growth of each place and all the enterprises connected with it that greater injury would be done than if things had been left untouched4 ,we have here1 it will be observed1 a confusion of moods2 the sentence begins in the indicative and ends in the conditional4 ,the words in italics are worse than superfluous4 ,rewritten3 ,if the state should attempt to confiscate this increase by means of taxes1 either rentals would increase correspondingly1 or such a check would be put upon growth and enterprise that greater injury would1 etc4 ,again3 ,the theory that land 444 is a boon of ,nature1 to which every person has an inalienable right equal to every other person1 is not new4 ,the words theory and boon are here misused4 ,a theory is a system of suppositions4 ,the things man receives from ,nature are gifts1 not boons3 the gift of reason1 the gift of speech1 etc4 ,the sentence should be3 ,the declaration 7or assertion7 that land 444 is a gift of ,nature1 to which every person has an inalienable right equal to that of any other person1 is not new4 ,or1 more simply and quite as forcibly3 444 to which one person has an inalienable right equal to that of another1 is not new4 ,or1 more simply still1 and more forcibly3 444 to which one man has as good a right as another1 is not new4 ,by substituting the word man for person1 we have a word of one syllable that expresses1 in this connection1 all that the longer word expresses4 ,the fewer the syllables1 if the thought be fully expressed1 the more vigorous the diction4 ,inalienability being foreign to the discussion1 the long word inalienable only encumbers the sentence4 ,we have thus#a passed in review#b the changes and improvements#c which the revision contains#d in the ,first ,epistle to the ,corinthians4 ,it has#e not1 indeed1#f been possible to refer to#g them all2 but so many illustrations#h have been given in#i the several classes described that the reader will have#aj a satisfactory#aa survey of the whole subject4 ,whatever may be said of other portions#ab of the ,new ,testament1 we think it will be generally admitted that in this ,epistle the changes have improved the old#ac translation4 ,they are such as#ad make the ,english version#ae conform more completely#af to the ,greek original4 ,if this be#ag true1 the revisers have done a good work for the ,church4#ah ,if it be true#ai with regard to all the ,new ,testament books1 the work which they have done will remain#bj a blessing to the readers of those books for#ba generations to come4 ,but the blessing will be only in the clearer presentation of the ,divine truth1 and1 therefore1 it will be only to the glory of ,god4 ,this astonishingly slipshod bit of composition is from the pen of the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,timothy ,dwight4 ,if the learned ,professor of ,divinity in ,yale ,college deemed it worth while to give a little thought to manner as well as to matter1 it is probable that his diction would be very different from what it is2 and1 if he were to give a few minutes to the making of verbal corrections in the foregoing paragraph1 he would1 perhaps1 do something like this3 #a1 change thus to now2 #b1 write some of the changes2 #c1 strike out and improvements2 #d1 for contains changes substitute some other form of expression2 #e1 instead of has been1 write was2 #f1 strike out indeed2 #g1 instead of refer to1 write cite2 #h1 change illustrations to examples2 #i1 instead of in1 write of2 #aj1 instead of the reader will have1 write the reader will be able to get2 #aa1 change satisfactory to tolerable2 #ab1 change portions to parts2 #ac1 not talk of the old translation1 as we have no new one2 #ad1 strike out as superfluous the words are such as2 #ae1 change version to text2 #af1 substitute nearly for completely1 which does not admit of comparison2 #ag1 substitute the indicative for the conditional2 #ah1 end sentence with the word work2 #ai1 introduce also after be2 #bj1 instead of remain1 in the sense of be1 use be2 #ba1 introduce the after for4 ,as for the last sentence1 it reminds one of ,mendelssohn's ,songs without ,words1 though here we have1 instead of a song and no words1 words and no song1 or rather no meaning4 ,as is often true of cant1 we have here simply a syntactical arrangement of words signifying--nothing4 ,if ,professor ,dwight were of those who1 in common with the ,addisons and ,macaulays and ,newmans1 think it worth while to give some attention to diction1 the thought conveyed in the paragraph under consideration would1 perhaps1 have been expressed somewhat in this wise3 ,we have now passed in review some of the changes that1 in the revision1 have been made in the ,first ,epistle to the ,corinthians4 ,it was not possible to cite them all1 but a sufficient number of examples of the several classes described have been given to enable the reader to get a tolerable survey of the whole subject4 ,whatever may be said of the other parts of the ,new ,testament1 we think it will be generally admitted that in this ,epistle the changes have improved the translation4 ,they make the ,english text conform more nearly to the ,greek4 ,this being true1 the revisers have done a good work2 and1 if it be also true with regard to all the ,new ,testament books1 the work which they have done will be a blessing to the readers of these books for the generations to come4 ,,die ,,with4 ,man and brute die of1 and not with1 fevers1 consumption1 the plague1 pneumonia1 old age1 and so on4 ,,differ4 ,writers differ from one another in opinion with regard to the particle we should use with this verb4 ,some say they differ with1 others that they differ from1 their neighbors in opinion4 ,the weight of authority is on the side of always using from1 though ,a may differ with ,c from ,d in opinion with regard1 say1 to the size of the fixed stars4 ,i differ1 as to this matter1 from ,bishop ,lowth4--,cobbett4 ,different to is heard sometimes instead of different from4 ,,directly4 ,the ,britons have a way of using this word in the sense of when1 as soon as4 ,this is quite foreign to its true meaning1 which is immediately1 at once1 straightway4 ,they say1 for example1 ,directly he reached the city1 he went to his brother's4 ,directly he the saint was dead1 the ,arabs sent his woolen shirt to the sovereign4--,london ,news4 ,dr4 ,hall says of its use in the sense of as soon as3 ,but1 after all1 it may simply anticipate on the ,english of the future4 ,,dirt4 ,this word means filth or anything that renders foul and unclean1 and means nothing else4 ,it is often improperly used for earth or loam1 and sometimes even for sand or gravel4 ,we not unfrequently hear of a dirt road when an unpaved road is meant4 ,,discommode4 ,this word is rarely used2 incommode is accounted the better form4 ,,disremember4 ,this is a word vulgarly used in the sense of forget4 ,it is said to be more frequently heard in the ,south than in the ,north4 ,,distinguish4 ,this verb is sometimes improperly used for discriminate4 ,we distinguish by means of the senses as well as of the understanding2 we discriminate by means of the understanding only4 ,it is difficult1 in some cases1 to distinguish between1 etc43 should be1 ,it is difficult1 in some cases1 to discriminate between1 etc4 ,we distinguish one thing from another1 and discriminate between two or more things4 ,,dock--,,wharf4 ,the first of these words is often improperly used for the second4 ,of docks there are several kinds3 a naval dock is a place for the keeping of naval stores1 timber1 and materials for ship-building2 a dry dock is a place where vessels are drawn out of the water for repairs2 a wet dock is a place where vessels are kept afloat at a certain level while they are loaded and unloaded2 a sectional dock is a contrivance for raising vessels out of the water on a series of air-tight boxes4 ,a dock1 then1 is a place into which things are received2 hence1 a man might fall into a dock1 but could no more fall off a dock than he could fall off a hole4 ,a wharf is a sort of quay built by the side of the water4 ,a similar structure built at a right angle with the shore is generally called a pier4 ,vessels lie at wharves and piers1 not at docks4 ,,donate4 ,this word1 which is defined as meaning to give1 to contribute1 is looked upon by most champions of good ,english as being an abomination4 ,donation is also little used by careful writers4 ,donate1 says ,mr4 ,gould1 may be dismissed with this remark3 so long as its place is occupied by give1 bestow1 grant1 present1 etc41 it is not needed2 and it should be unceremoniously bowed out1 or thrust out1 of the seat into which it has1 temporarily1 intruded4 ,,done4 ,this past participle is often very inelegantly1 if not improperly1 used thus3 ,he did not cry out as some have done against it1 which should read1 ,he did not cry out as some have against it2 i4 e41 as some have cried out against it4 ,done is frequently a very great offender against grammar1 says ,cobbett4 ,to do is the act of doing4 ,we see people write1 ',i did not speak yesterday so well as ,i wished to have done4' ,now1 what is meant by the writer8 ,he means to say that he did not speak so well as he then wished1 or was wishing1 to speak4 ,therefore1 the sentence should be1 ',i did not speak yesterday so well as ,i wished to do4' ,that is to say1 'so well as ,i wished to do it'2 that is to say1 to do or to perform the act of speaking4 ,take great care not to be too free in your use of the verb to do in any of its times or modes4 ,it is a nice little handy word1 and1 like our oppressed it1 it is made use of very often when the writer is at a loss for what to put down4 ,to do is to act1 and therefore it never can1 in any of its parts1 supply the place of a neuter verb4 ',how do you do8' ,here do refers to the state1 and is essentially passive or neuter4 ,yet1 to employ it for this purpose is very common4 ,dr4 ,blair1 in his #bc;d ,lecture1 says3 ',it is somewhat unfortunate that this ,number of the ,spectator did not end1 as it might have done1 with the former beautiful period4' ,that is to say1 done it4 ,and then we ask1 ,done what8 ,not the act of ending1 because in this case there is no action at all4 ,the verb means to come to an end1 to cease1 not to go any further4 ,this same verb to end is sometimes an active verb3 ',i end my sentence'2 then the verb to do may supply its place2 as1 ',i have not ended my sentence so well as ,i might have done'2 that is1 done it2 that is1 done1 or performed1 the act of ending4 ,but the ,number of the ',spectator' was no actor2 it was expected to perform nothing2 it was1 by the ,doctor1 wished to have ceased to proceed4 ',did not end as it very well might have ended4444' ,this would have been correct2 but the ,doctor wished to avoid the repetition1 and thus he fell into bad grammar4 ',mr4 ,speaker1 ,i do not feel so well satisfied as ,i should have done if the ,right ,honorable ,gentleman had explained the matter more fully4' ,to feel satisfied is--when the satisfaction is to arise from conviction produced by fact or reasoning--a senseless expression2 and to supply its place1 when it is1 as in this case1 a neuter verb1 by to do1 is as senseless4 ,done what8 ,done the act of feeling6 ',i do not feel so well satisfied as ,i should have done1 or executed1 or performed the act of feeling'6 ,what incomprehensible words6 ,,don',t4 ,everybody knows that don't is a contraction of do not1 and that doesn't is a contraction of does not2 and yet nearly everybody is guilty of using don't when he should use doesn't4 ,so you don't go2 ,john doesn't either1 ,i hear4 ,,double ,,genitive4 ,an anecdote of ,mr4 ,lincoln--an anecdote of ,mr4 ,lincoln's4 ,we see at a glance that these two phrases are very different in meaning4 ,so1 also1 a portrait of ,brown--a portrait of ,brown's4 ,no precise rule has ever been given to guide us in our choice between these two forms of the possessive case4 ,sometimes it is not material which form is employed2 where1 however1 it is material--and it generally is--we must consider the thought we wish to express1 and rely on our discrimination4 ,,dramatize4 ,see ,,adapt4 ,,drawing-,,room4 ,see ,,parlor4 ,,dress--,,gown4 ,within the memory of many persons the outer garment worn by women was properly called a gown by everybody1 instead of being improperly called a dress1 as it now is by nearly everybody4 ,,drive4 ,see ,,ride4 ,,due--,,owing4 ,these two words1 though close synonyms1 should not be used indiscriminately4 ,the mistake usually made is in using due instead of owing4 ,that is due which ought to be paid as a debt2 that is owing which is to be referred to as a source4 ,it was owing to his exertions that the scheme succeeded4 ,it was owing to your negligence that the accident happened4 ,a certain respect is due to men's prejudices4 ,this was owing to an indifference to the pleasures of life4 ,it is due to the public that ,i should tell all ,i know of the matter4 ,,each ,,other4 ,their great authors address themselves1 not to their country1 but to each other4--,buckle4 ,each other is properly applied to two only2 one another must be used when the number considered exceeds two4 ,buckle should have written one another and not each other1 unless he meant to intimate that the ,germans had only two great authors1 which is not probable4 ,,eat4 ,grammarians differ very widely with regard to the conjugation of this verb2 there is no doubt1 however1 that from every point of view the preferable forms for the preterite and past participle are respectively ate and eaten4 ,to refined ears the other forms smack of vulgarity1 although supported by good authority4 ,i ate an apple4 ,i have eaten dinner4 ,john ate supper with me4 ,as soon as you have eaten breakfast we will set out4 ,,editorial4 ,the use of this adjective as a substantive is said to be an ,americanism4 ,,education4 ,this is one of the most misused of words4 ,a man may be well acquainted with the contents of text-books1 and yet be a person of little education2 on the other hand1 a man may be a person of good education1 and yet know little of the contents of text-books4 ,abraham ,lincoln and ,edwin ,forrest knew comparatively little of what is generally learned in schools2 still they were men of culture1 men of education4 ,a man may have ever so much book-knowledge and still be a boor2 but a man can not be a person of good education and not be--so far as manner is concerned--a gentleman4 ,education1 then1 is a whole of which ,instruction and ,breeding are the parts4 ,the man or the woman--even in this democratic country of ours--who deserves the title of gentleman or lady is always a person of education2 i4 e41 he or she has a sufficient acquaintance with books and with the usages of social intercourse to acquit himself or herself creditably in the society of cultivated people4 ,not moral worth1 nor learning1 nor wealth1 nor all three combined1 can unaided make a gentleman1 for with all three a man might be uneducated--i4 e41 coarse1 unbred1 unschooled in those things which alone make men welcome in the society of the refined4 ,,effectuate4 ,this word1 together with ratiocinate and eventuate1 is said to be a great favorite with the rural members of the ,arkansas legislature4 ,,effluvium4 ,the plural of this word is effluvia4 ,it is a common error with those who have no knowledge of ,latin to speak of a disagreeable effluvia1 which is as incorrect as it would be to talk about a disagreeable vapors4 ,,effort ,,without ,,effect4 ,some writers deal in expletives to a degree that tires the ear and offends the understanding4 ,with them everything is excessively1 or immensely1 or extremely1 or vastly1 or surprisingly1 or wonderfully1 or abundantly1 or the like4 ,the notion of such writers is that these words give strength to what they are saying4 ,this is a great error4 ,strength must be found in the thought1 or it will never be found in the words4 ,big-sounding words1 without thoughts corresponding1 are effort without effect4--,william ,cobbett4 ,see ,,forcible-,,feeble4 ,,egoist4 ,one of a class of philosophers who professed to be sure of nothing but their own existence4--,reid4 ,,egotist4 ,one who talks much of himself4 ,a tribe of egotists for whom ,i have always had a mortal aversion4--,spectator4 ,,either4 ,this word means1 strictly1 the one or the other of two4 ,unlike both1 which means two taken collectively1 either1 like each1 may mean two considered separately2 but in this sense each is the better word to use4 ,give me either of them means1 ,give me the one or the other of two4 ,he has a farm on either side of the river would mean that he has two farms1 one on each 7or either7 side of the river4 ,he has a farm on both sides of the river would mean that his farm lies partly on the one side of the river and partly on the other4 ,the use of either in the sense of each1 though biblical and defensible1 may be accounted little if any better than an affectation4 ,neither is the negative of either4 ,either is responded to by or1 neither by nor2 as1 either this or that1 neither this nor that4 ,either and neither should not--strictly--be used in relation to more than two objects4 ,but1 though both either and neither are strictly applicable to two only1 they have been for a very long time used in relation to more than two by many good writers2 and1 as it is often convenient so to use them1 it seems probable that the custom will prevail4 ,when more than two things are referred to1 any and none should be used instead of either and neither2 as1 any of the three1 not1 either of the three2 none of the four1 not1 neither of the four4 ,,either ,,alternative4 ,the word alternative means a choice offered between two things4 ,an alternative writ1 for example1 offers the alternative of choosing between the doing of a specified act or of showing cause why it is not done4 ,such propositions1 therefore1 as1 ,you are at liberty to choose either alternative1 ,two alternatives are presented to me1 ,several alternatives presented themselves1 and the like1 are not correct ,english4 ,the word is correctly used thus3 ,i am confronted with a hard alternative3 ,i must either denounce a friend or betray my trust4 ,we rarely hear the word alternate or any of its derivatives correctly pronounced4 ,,elder4 ,see ,,older4 ,,elegant4 ,professor ,proctor says3 ,if you say to an ,american1 ',this is a fine morning1' he is likely to reply1 ',it is an elegant morning1' or perhaps oftener by using simply the word elegant4 ,this is not a pleasing use of the word4 ,this is not ,american ,english1 ,professor1 but popinjay ,english4 ,,ellipsis4 ,the omission of a word or of words necessary to complete the grammatical construction1 but not necessary to make the meaning clear1 is called an ellipsis4 ,we almost always1 whether in speaking or in writing1 leave out some of the words necessary to the full expression of our meaning4 ,for example1 in dating a letter to-day1 we should write1 ,new ,york1 ,august #be1 #ahha1 which would be1 if fully written out1 ,i am now writing in the city of ,new ,york2 this is the twenty-fifth day of ,august1 and this month is in the one thousand eight hundred and eighty-first year of the ,christian era4 ,i am going to ,wallack's means1 ,i am going to ,wallack's theatre4 ,i shall spend the summer at my aunt's2 i4 e41 at my aunt's house4 ,by supplying the ellipses we can often discover the errors in a sentence1 if there are any4 ,,enjoy ,,bad ,,health4 ,as no one has ever been known to enjoy bad health1 it is better to employ some other form of expression than this4 ,say1 for example1 he is in feeble1 or delicate1 health4 ,,enthuse4 ,this is a word that is occasionally heard in conversation1 and is sometimes met with in print2 but it has not as yet made its appearance in the dictionaries4 ,what its ultimate fate will be1 of course1 no one can tell2 for the present1 however1 it is studiously shunned by those who are at all careful in the selection of their language4 ,it is said to be most used in the ,south4 ,the writer has never seen it anywhere in the ,north but in the columns of the ,boston ,congregationalist4 ,,epigram4 ,the word epigram signified originally an inscription on a monument4 ,it next came to mean a short poem containing some single thought pointedly expressed1 the subjects being very various--amatory1 convivial1 moral1 eulogistic1 satirical1 humorous1 etc4 ,of the various devices for brevity and point employed in such compositions1 especially in modern times1 the most frequent is a play upon words4444 ,in the epigram the mind is roused by a conflict or contradiction between the form of the language and the meaning really conveyed4--,bain4 ,some examples are3 ,when you have nothing to say1 say it4 ,we can not see the wood for the trees2 that is1 we can not get a general view because we are so engrossed with the details4 ,verbosity is cured by a large vocabulary2 that is1 he who commands a large vocabulary is able to select words that will give his meaning tersely4 ,by indignities men come to dignities4 ,some people are too foolish to commit follies4 ,he went to his imagination for his facts1 and to his memory for his tropes4 ,,epithet4 ,many persons use this word who are in error with regard to its meaning2 they think that to apply epithets to a person is to vilify and insult him4 ,not at all4 ,an epithet is a word that expresses a quality1 good or bad2 a term that expresses an attribute4 ,all adjectives are epithets1 but all epithets are not adjectives1 says ,crabb2 thus1 in ,virgil's ,pater neas1 the pater is an epithet1 but not an adjective4 ,epithet is the technical term of the rhetorician2 adjective1 that of the grammarian4 ,,equally ,,as ,,well4 ,a redundant form of expression1 as any one will see who for a moment considers it4 ,as well1 or equally well1 expresses quite as much as equally as well4 ,,equanimity ,,of ,,mind4 ,this phrase is tautological1 and expresses no more than does equanimity 7literally1 equalmindedness7 alone2 hence1 of mind is superfluous1 and consequently inelegant4 ,anxiety of mind is a scarcely less redundant form of expression4 ,a capricious mind is in the same category4 ,,erratum4 ,plural1 errata4 ,,esquire4 ,an esquire was originally the shield-bearer of a knight4 ,it is much1 and1 in the opinion of some1 rather absurdly1 used in this country4 ,mr4 ,richard ,grant ,white says on the subject of its use3 ,i have yet to discover what a man means when he addresses a letter to ,john ,dash1 ,esqr4 ,he means no more nor less than when he writes ,mr4 7master74 ,the use of ,esq4 is quite as prevalent in ,england as in ,america1 and has little more meaning there than here4 ,it simply belongs to our stock of courteous epithets4 ,,euphemism4 ,a description which describes in inoffensive language that which is of itself offensive1 or a figure which uses agreeable phraseology when the literal would be offensive1 is called a euphemism4 ,,eventuate4 ,see ,,effectuate4 ,,everlastingly4 ,this adverb is misused in the ,south in a manner that is very apt to excite the risibility of one to whom the peculiar misuse is new4 ,the writer recently visited the upper part of ,new ,york with a distinguished ,southern poet and journalist4 ,it was the gentleman's first ride over an elevated road4 ,when we were fairly under way1 in admiration of the rate of speed at which the cars were moving1 he exclaimed1 ,well1 they do just everlastingly shoot along1 don't they6 ,,every4 ,this word1 which means simply each or all taken separately1 is of late years frequently made1 by slipshod speakers1 to do duty for perfect1 entire1 great1 or all possible4 ,thus we have such expressions as every pains1 every confidence1 every praise1 every charity1 and so on4 ,we also have such diction as1 ,every one has this in common2 meaning1 ,all of us have this in common4 ,,every-,,day ,,latin4 ,a fortiori3 with stronger reason4 ,a posteriori3 from the effect to the cause4 ,a priori3 from the cause to the effect4 ,bona fide3 in good faith2 in reality4 ,certiorari3 to be made more certain4 ,ceteris paribus3 other circumstances being equal4 ,de facto3 in fact2 in reality4 ,de jure3 in right2 in law4 ,ecce homo3 behold the man4 ,ergo3 therefore4 ,et cetera3 and the rest2 and so on4 ,excerpta3 extracts4 ,exempli gratia3 by way of example2 abbreviated1 e4 g41 and ex4 gr4 ,ex officio3 by virtue of his office4 ,ex parte3 on one side2 an ex parte statement is a statement on one side only4 ,ibidem3 in the same place2 abbreviated1 ibid4 ,idem3 the same4 ,id est3 that is2 abbreviated1 i4 e4 ,imprimis3 in the first place4 ,in statu quo3 in the former state2 just as it was4 ,in statu quo ante bellum3 in the same state as before the war4 ,in transitu3 in passing4 ,index expurgatorius3 a purifying index4 ,in extremis3 at the point of death4 ,in memoriam3 in memory4 ,ipse dixit3 on his sole assertion4 ,item3 also4 ,labor omnia vincit3 labor overcomes every difficulty4 ,locus sigilli3 the place of the seal4 ,multum in parvo3 much in little4 ,mutatis mutandis3 after making the necessary changes4 ,ne plus ultra3 nothing beyond2 the utmost point4 ,nolens volens3 willing or unwilling4 ,nota bene3 mark well2 take particular notice4 ,omnes3 all4 ,o tempora1 ,o mores6 ,o the times and the manners6 ,otium cum dignitate3 ease with dignity4 ,otium sine dignitate3 ease without dignity4 ,particeps criminis3 an accomplice4 ,peccavi3 ,i have sinned4 ,per se3 by itself4 ,prima facie3 on the first view or appearance2 at first sight4 ,pro bono publico3 for the public good4 ,quid nunc3 what now8 ,quid pro quo3 one thing for another2 an equivalent4 ,quondam3 formerly4 ,rara avis3 a rare bird2 a prodigy4 ,resurgam3 ,i shall rise again4 ,seriatim3 in order4 ,sine die3 without specifying any particular day2 to an indefinite time4 ,sine qua non3 an indispensable condition4 ,sui generis3 of its own kind4 ,vade mecum3 go with me4 ,verbatim3 word by word4 ,versus3 against4 ,vale3 fare-well4 ,via3 by the way of4 ,vice3 in the place of4 ,vide3 see4 ,vi et armis3 by main force4 ,viva voce3 orally2 by word of mouth4 ,vox populi1 vox ,dei3 the voice of the people is the voice of ,god4 ,,evidence--,,testimony4 ,these words1 though differing widely in meaning1 are often used indiscriminately by careless speakers4 ,evidence is that which tends to convince2 testimony is that which is intended to convince4 ,in a judicial investigation1 for example1 there might be a great deal of testimony--a great deal of testifying--and very little evidence2 and the evidence might be quite the reverse of the testimony4 ,see ,,proof4 ,,exaggeration4 ,weak minds1 feeble writers and speakers delight in superlatives4 ,see ,,effort ,,without ,,effect4 ,,except4 ,no one need apply except he is thoroughly familiar with the business1 should be1 ,no one need apply unless1 etc4 ,,excessively4 ,that class of persons who are never content with any form of expression that falls short of the superlative1 frequently use excessively when exceedingly or even the little word very would serve their turn better4 ,they say1 for example1 that the weather is excessively hot1 when they should content themselves with saying simply that the weather is very warm1 or1 if the word suits them better1 hot4 ,intemperance in the use of language is as much to be censured as intemperance in anything else2 like intemperance in other things1 its effect is vulgarizing4 ,,execute4 ,this word means to follow out to the end1 to carry into effect1 to accomplish1 to fulfill1 to perform2 as1 to execute an order1 to execute a purpose4 ,and the dictionaries and almost universal usage say that it also means to put to death in conformity with a judicial sentence2 as1 to execute a criminal4 ,some of our careful speakers1 however1 maintain that the use of the word in this sense is indefensible4 ,they say that laws and sentences are executed1 but not criminals1 and that their execution only rarely results in the death of the persons upon whom they are executed4 ,in the hanging of a criminal1 it is1 then1 not the criminal who is executed1 but the law and the sentence4 ,the criminal is hanged4 ,,expect4 ,this verb always has reference to what is to come1 never to what is past4 ,we can not expect backward4 ,instead1 therefore1 of saying1 ,i expect1 you thought ,i would come to see you yesterday1 we should say1 ,i suppose1 etc4 ,,experience4 ,we experience great difficulty in getting him to take his medicine4 ,the word have ought to be big enough1 in a sentence like this1 for anybody4 ,we experienced great hardships4 ,better1 ,we suffered4 ,,extend4 ,this verb1 the primary meaning of which is to stretch out1 is used1 especially by lovers of big words1 in connections where to give1 to show1 or to offer would be preferable4 ,for example1 it is certainly better to say1 ,they showed me every courtesy1 than ,they extended every courtesy to me4 ,see ,,every4 ,,false ,,grammar4 ,some examples of false grammar will show what every one is the better for knowing3 that in literature nothing should be taken on trust2 that errors of grammar even are found where we should least expect them4 ,i do not know whether the imputation were just or not4--,emerson4 ,i proceeded to inquire if the 'extract' 444 were a veritable quotation4--,emerson4 ,should be was in both cases4 ,how sweet the moonlight sleeps6--,townsend1 ,art of ,speech1 vol4 i1 p4 #aad4 ,should be sweetly4 ,there is no question but these arts 444 will greatly aid him1 etc4--,ibid41 p4 #acj4 ,should be that4 ,nearly all who have been distinguished in literature or oratory have made 444 the generous confession that their attainments have been reached through patient and laborious industry4 ,they have declared that speaking and writing1 though once difficult for them1 have become well-nigh recreations4--,ibid41 p4 #adc4 ,the have been should be were1 and the have become should be became4 ,many pronominal adverbs are correlatives of each other4--,harkness's ,new ,latin ,grammar1 p4 #adg4 ,should be one another4 ,hot and cold springs1 boiling springs1 and quiet springs lie within a few feet of each other1 but none of them are properly geysers4--,appletons' ,condensed ,cyclopdia1 vol4 ii1 p4 #dad4 ,should be one another1 and not one of them is properly a geyser4 ,how much better for you as seller and the nation as buyer 444 than to sink 444 in cutting one another's throats4 ,should be each other's4 ,a minister1 noted for prolixity of style1 was once preaching before the inmates of a lunatic asylum4 ,in one of his illustrations he painted a scene of a man condemned to be hung1 but reprieved under the gallows4 ,these two sentences are so faulty that the only way to mend them is to rewrite them4 ,they are from a work that professes to teach the art of speech4 ,mended3 ,a minister1 noted for his prolixity1 once preached before the inmates of a lunatic asylum4 ,by way of illustration he painted a scene in which a man1 who had been condemned to be hanged1 was reprieved under the gallows4 ,,female4 ,the terms male and female are not unfrequently used where good taste would suggest some other word4 ,for example1 we see over the doors of school-houses1 ,entrance for males1 ,entrance for females4 ,now bucks and bulls are males as well as boys and men1 and cows and sows are females as well as girls and women4 ,,fetch4 ,see ,,bring4 ,,fewer4 ,see ,,less4 ,,final ,,completion4 ,if there were such a thing as a plurality or a series of completions1 there would1 of course1 be such a thing as the final completion2 but1 as every completion is final1 to talk about a final completion is as absurd as it would be to talk about a final finality4 ,,first ,,rate4 ,there are people who object to this phrase1 and yet it is well enough when properly placed1 as it is1 for example1 in such a sentence as this3 ,he's a 'first class' fellow1 and ,i like him first rate2 if ,i didn't1 'you bet' ,i'd just give him 'hail ,columbia' for 'blowing' the thing all round town like the big fool that he is4 ,,firstly4 ,george ,washington ,moon says in defense of firstly3 ,i do not object to the occasional use of first as an adverb2 but1 in sentences where it would be followed by secondly1 thirdly1 etc41 ,i think that the adverbial form is preferable4 ,to this1 one of ,mr4 ,moon's critics replies3 ,however desirable it may be to employ the word firstly on certain occasions1 the fact remains that the employment of it on any occasion is not the best usage4 ,webster inserts firstly1 but remarks1 ,improperly used for first4 ,,flee--,,fly4 ,these verbs1 though near of kin1 are not interchangeable4 ,for example1 we can not say1 ,he flew the city1 ,he flew from his enemies1 ,he flew at the approach of danger1 flew being the imperfect tense of to fly1 which is properly used to express the action of birds on the wing1 of kites1 arrows1 etc4 ,the imperfect tense of to flee is fled2 hence1 ,he fled the city1 etc4 ,,forcible-,,feeble4 ,this is a novicy kind of diction in which the would-be forcible writer defeats his object by the overuse of expletives4 ,examples3 ,and yet the great centralization of wealth is one of the great evils of the day4 ,all that ,mr4 ---- utters says upon this point is forcible and just4 ,this centralization is due to the enormous reproductive power of capital1 to the immense advantage that costly and complicated machinery gives to great large establishments1 and to the marked difference of personal force among men4 ,the first great is misplaced2 the word utters is misused2 the second great is ill-chosen4 ,the other words in italics only enfeeble the sentence4 ,again3 ,in countries where immense large estates exist1 a breaking up of these vast demesnes into many minor freeholds would no doubt be a of very great advantage4 ,substitute large for immense1 and take out vast1 many1 and very1 and the language becomes much more forcible4 ,again3 ,the very first effect of the ---- taxation plan would be destructive to the interests of this great multitude class2 it would impoverish our innumerable farmers1 it would confiscate the earnings of our industrious tradesmen and artisans1 it would and paralyze the hopes of struggling millions4 ,what a waste of portly expletives is here6 ,with them the sentence is high-flown and weak2 take them out1 and introduce the words inclosed in brackets1 and it becomes simple and forcible4 ,,friend--,,acquaintance4 ,some philosopher has said that he who has half a dozen friends in the course of his life may esteem himself fortunate2 and yet1 to judge from many people's talk1 one would suppose they had friends by the score4 ,no man knows whether he has any friends or not until he has their adoption tried2 hence1 he who is desirous to call things by their right names will1 as a rule1 use the word acquaintance instead of friend4 ,your friend is a favorite and very objectionable way many people1 especially young people1 have of writing themselves at the bottom of their letters4 ,in this way the obscure stripling protests himself the ,,friend of the first man in the land1 and that1 too1 when he is1 perhaps1 a comparative stranger and asking a favor4 ,,galsome4 ,here is a good1 sonorous ,anglo-,saxon word--meaning malignant1 venomous1 churlish--that has fallen into disuse4 ,,gentleman4 ,few things are in worse taste than to use the term gentleman1 whether in the singular or plural1 to designate the sex4 ,if ,i was a gentleman1 says ,miss ,snooks4 ,gentlemen have just as much curiosity as ladies1 says ,mrs4 ,jenkins4 ,gentlemen have so much more liberty than we ladies have1 says ,mrs4 ,parvenue4 ,now1 if these ladies were ladies1 they would in each of these cases use the word man instead of gentleman1 and woman instead of lady2 further1 ,miss ,snooks would say1 ,if ,i were4 ,well-bred men1 men of culture and refinement--gentlemen1 in short--use the terms lady and gentleman comparatively little1 and they are especially careful not to call themselves gentlemen when they can avoid it4 ,a gentleman1 for example1 does not say1 ,i1 with some other gentlemen1 went1 etc42 he is careful to leave out the word other4 ,the men who use these terms most1 and especially those who lose no opportunity to proclaim themselves gentlemen1 belong to that class of men who cock their hats on one side of their heads1 and often wear them when and where gentlemen would remove them2 who pride themselves on their familiarity with the latest slang2 who proclaim their independence by showing the least possible consideration for others2 who laugh long and loud at their own wit2 who wear a profusion of cheap finery1 such as outlandish watch-chains hooked in the lowest button-hole of their vests1 ,brazilian diamonds in their shirt-bosoms1 and big seal-rings on their little fingers2 who use bad grammar and interlard their conversation with big oaths4 ,in business correspondence ,smith is addressed as ,sir1 while ,smith ,brown are often addressed as ,gentlemen--or1 vulgarly1 as ,gents4 ,better1 much1 is it to address them as ,sirs4 ,since writing the foregoing1 ,i have met with the following paragraph in the ,london publication1 ,all the ,year ,round3 ,socially1 the term 'gentleman' has become almost vulgar4 ,it is certainly less employed by gentlemen than by inferior persons4 ,the one speaks of 'a man ,i know1' the other of 'a gentleman ,i know4' ,in the one case the gentleman is taken for granted1 in the other it seems to need specification4 ,again1 as regards the term 'lady4' ,it is quite in accordance with the usages of society to speak of your acquaintance the duchess as 'a very nice person4' ,people who would say 'very nice lady' are not generally of a social class which has much to do with duchesses2 and if you speak of one of these as a 'person1' you will soon be made to feel your mistake4 ,,gents4 ,of all vulgarisms1 this is1 perhaps1 the most offensive4 ,if we say gents1 why not say lades8 ,,gerund4 ',i have work to do1' 'there is no more to say1' are phrases where the verb is not in the common infinitive1 but in the form of the gerund4 ',he is the man to do it1 or for doing it4' ',a house to let1' 'the course to steer by1' 'a place to lie in1' 'a thing to be done1' 'a city to take refuge in1' 'the means to do ill deeds1' are adjective gerunds2 they may be expanded into clauses3 'a house that the owner lets or will let'2 'the course that we should steer by'2 'a thing that should be done'2 'a city wherein one may take refuge'2 'the means whereby ill deeds may be done4' ,when the to ceased in the twelfth century to be a distinctive mark of the dative infinitive or gerund1 for was introduced to make the writer's intention clear4 ,hence the familiar form in 'what went ye out for to see8' 'they came for to show him the temple4'--,bain4 ,,get4 ,in sentences expressing simple possession--as1 ,i have got a book1 ,what has he got there8 ,have you got any news8 ,they have got a new house1 etc4--got is entirely superfluous1 if not1 as some writers contend1 absolutely incorrect4 ,possession is completely expressed by have4 ,foxes have holes2 the birds of the air have nests2 not1 ,foxes have got holes2 the birds of the air have got nests4 ,formerly the imperfect tense of this verb was gat1 which is now obsolete1 and the perfect participle was gotten1 which1 some grammarians say1 is growing obsolete4 ,if this be true1 there is no good reason for it4 ,if we say eaten1 written1 striven1 forgotten1 why not say gotten1 where this form of the participle is more euphonious--as it often is--than got8 ,,goods4 ,this term1 like other terms used in trade1 should be restricted to the vocabulary of commerce4 ,messrs4 ,arnold ,constable1 in common with the ,washington ,market huckster1 very properly speak of their wares as their goods2 but ,mrs4 ,arnold and ,mrs4 ,constable should1 and ,i doubt not do1 speak of their gowns as being made of fine or coarse silk1 cashmere1 muslin1 or whatever the material may be4 ,,gould ,,against ,,alford4 ,mr4 ,edward ,s4 ,gould1 in his review of ,dean ,alford's ,queen's ,english1 remarks1 on page #aca of his ,good ,english3 ,and now1 as to the style#d of the ,dean's book1 taken as a whole4 ,he must be held responsible for every error in it2 because1 as has been shown1 he has had full leisure for its revision4#e ,the errors are1 nevertheless1 numerous2 and the shortest way to exhibit them is#f in tabular form4 ,in several instances ,mr4 ,gould would not have taken the ,dean to task had he known ,english better4 ,the following are a few of ,mr4 ,gould's corrections in which he is clearly in the right3 ,paragraph #d4 ,into another land than2 should be1 into a land other than4 #af4 ,we do not follow rule in spelling other words1 but custom2 should be1 we do not follow rule1 but custom1 in spelling1 etc4 #ah4 ,the distinction is observed in ,french1 but never appears to have been made1 etc42 read1 appears never to have been made4 #fa4 ,rather to aspirate more than less2 should be1 to aspirate more rather than less4 #i4 ,it is said also only to occur three times1 etc42 read1 occur only three times4 #dd4 ,this doubling only takes place in a syllable1 etc42 read1 takes place only4 #adb4 ,which can only be decided when those circumstances are known2 read1 can be decided only when1 etc4 #aff4 ,i will only say that it produces1 etc42 read1 ,i will say only1 etc4 #agj4 ,it is said that this can only be filled in thus2 read1 can be filled in only thus4 #cfh4 ,i can only deal with the complaint in a general way2 read1 deal with the complaint only1 etc4 #hf4 ,in so far as they are idiomatic1 etc4 ,what is the use of in8 #aga4 ,try the experiment2 tried the experiment4 ,read1 make and made4 #cde4 ,it is most generally used of that very sect1 etc4 ,why most8 #cfb4 ,the joining together two clauses with a third1 etc42 read1 of two clauses1 etc4 ,,gown4 ,see ,,dress4 ,,graduated4 ,students do not graduate2 they are graduated4 ,hence most writers nowadays say1 ,i was1 he was1 or they were graduated2 and ask1 ,when were you1 or was he1 graduated8 ,,grammatical ,,errors4 ,the correctness of the expression grammatical errors has been disputed4 ',how1' it has been asked1 'can an error be grammatical8' ,how1 it may be replied1 can we with propriety say1 grammatically incorrect8 ,yet we can do so4 ,no one will question the propriety of saying grammatically correct4 ,yet the expression is the acknowledgment of things grammatically ,i,ncorrect4 ,likewise the phrase grammatical correctness implies the existence of grammatical ,i,ncorrectness4 ,if1 then1 a sentence is grammatically incorrect1 or1 what is the same thing1 has grammatical incorrectness1 it includes a ,,grammatical ,,error4 ,grammatically incorrect signifies ,,incorrect ,,with ,,relation ,,to ,,the ,,rules ,,of ,,grammar4 ,grammatical errors signifies ,,errors ,,with ,,relation ,,to ,,the ,,rules ,,of ,,grammar4 ,they who ridicule the phrase grammatical errors1 and substitute the phrase errors in grammar1 make an egregious mistake4 ,can there1 it may be asked with some show of reason1 be an error in grammar8 ,why1 grammar is a science founded in our nature1 referable to our ideas of time1 relation1 method2 imperfect1 doubtless1 as to the system by which it is represented2 but surely we can speak of error in that which is error's criterion6 ,all this is hypercritical1 but hypercriticism must be met with its own weapons4 ,of the two expressions--a grammatical error1 and an error in grammar--the former is preferable4 ,if one's judgment can accept neither1 one must relinquish the belief in the possibility of tersely expressing the idea of an offense against grammatical rules4 ,indeed1 it would be difficult to express the idea even by circumlocution4 ,should some one say1 ',this sentence is1 according to the rules of grammar1 incorrect4' ',what6' the hypercritic may exclaim1 'incorrect6 and according to the rules of grammar6' ',this sentence1 then1' the corrected person would reply1 'contains an error in grammar4' ',nonsense6' the hypercritic may shout1 'grammar is a science2 you may be wrong in its interpretation1 but principles are immutable6' ,after this1 it need scarcely be added that1 grammatically1 no one can make a mistake1 that there can be no grammatical mistake1 that there can be no bad grammar1 and1 consequently1 no bad ,english2 a very pleasant conclusion1 which would save us a great amount of trouble if it did not lack the insignificant quality of being true4--,vulgarisms and ,other ,errors of ,speech4 ,,gratuitous4 ,there are those who object to the use of this word in the sense of unfounded1 unwarranted1 unreasonable1 untrue4 ,its use in this sense1 however1 has the sanction of abundant authority4 ,weak and gratuitous conjectures4--,porson4 ,a gratuitous assumption4--,godwin4 ,the gratuitous theory4--,southey4 ,a gratuitous invention4--,de ,quincey4 ,but it is needless to dwell on the improbability of a hypothesis which has been shown to be altogether gratuitous4--,dr4 ,newman4 ,,grow4 ,this verb originally meant to increase in size1 but has normally come to be also used to express a change from one state or condition to another2 as1 to grow dark1 to grow weak or strong1 to grow faint1 etc4 ,but it is doubtful whether what is large can properly be said to grow small4 ,in this sense1 become would seem to be the better word4 ,,gums4 ,see ,,rubbers4 ,,had ,,have4 ,nothing could be more incorrect than the bringing together of these two auxiliary verbs in this manner2 and yet we occasionally find it in writers of repute4 ,instead of ,had ,i known it1 ,had you seen it1 ,had we been there1 we hear1 ,had ,i have known it1 ,had you have seen it1 ,had we have been there4 ,,had ,,ought4 ,this is a vulgarism of the worst description1 yet we hear people1 who would be highly indignant if any one should intimate that they were not ladies and gentlemen1 say1 ,he had ought to go4 ,a fitting reply would be1 ,yes1 ,i think he better had4 ,ought says all that had ought says4 ,,had ,,rather4 ,this expression and had better are much used1 but1 in the opinion of many1 are indefensible4 ,we hear them in such sentences as1 ,i had rather not do it1 ,you had better go home4 ,now1 what tense1 it is asked1 is had do and had go8 ,if we transpose the words thus1 ,you had do better 7to7 go home1 it becomes at once apparent1 it is asserted1 that the proper word to use in connection with rather and better is not had1 but would2 thus1 ,i would rather not do it1 ,you would better go home4 ,examples of this use of had can be found in the writings of our best authors4 ,for what ,professor ,bain has to say on this subject in his ,composition ,grammar1 see ,,subjunctive ,,mood4 ,,half4 ,it might have been expressed in one half the space4 ,we see at a glance that one here is superfluous4 ,,hanged--,,hung4 ,the irregular form1 hung1 of the past participle of the verb to hang is most used2 but1 when the word denotes suspension by the neck for the purpose of destroying life1 the regular form1 hanged1 is always used by careful writers and speakers4 ,,haste4 ,see ,,hurry4 ,,heading4 ,see ,,caption4 ,,healthy--,,wholesome4 ,the first of these two words is often improperly used for the second2 as1 ,onions are a healthy vegetable4 ,a man1 if he is in good health1 is healthy2 the food he eats1 if it is not deleterious1 is wholesome4 ,a healthy ox makes wholesome food4 ,we speak of healthy surroundings1 a healthy climate1 situation1 employment1 and of wholesome food1 advice1 examples4 ,healthful is generally used in the sense of conducive to health1 virtue1 morality2 as1 healthful exercise1 the healthful spirit of the community--meaning that the spirit that prevails in the community is conducive to virtue and good morals4 ,,helpmate4 ,the dictionaries suggest that this word is a corruption of help and meet1 as we find these words used in ,gen4 ii1 #ah1 ,i will make him a help meet for him1 and that the proper word is helpmeet4 ,if1 as is possible1 the words in ,genesis mean1 ,i will make him a help1 meet suitable for him1 then neither helpmate nor helpmeet has any raison d'tre4 ,,highfalutin4 ,this is a style of writing often called the freshman style4 ,it is much indulged in by very young men1 and by a class of older men who instinctively try to make up in clatter for what they lack in matter4 ,examples of this kind of writing are abundant in ,professor ,l4 ,t4 ,townsend's ,art of ,speech1 which1 as examples1 are all the better for not being of that exaggerated description sometimes met within the newspapers4 ,vol4 i1 p4 #aca3 ,very often adverbs1 prepositions1 and relatives drift so far from their moorings as to lose themselves1 or make attachments where they do not belong4 ,again1 p4 #ace3 ,every law of speech enforces the statement that there is no excuse for such inflated and defective style4 ,such style6 ,to speak thus is treason in the realms and under the laws of language4 ,again1 p4 #age3 ,cultivate figure-making habitudes4 ,this is done by asking the spiritual import of every physical object seen2 also by forming the habit of constantly metaphorizing4 ,knock at the door of anything met which interests1 and ask1 ',who lives here8' ,the process is to look1 then close the eyes1 then look within4 ,the blundering inanity of this kind of writing is equaled only by its bumptious grandiloquence4 ,on p4 #acg ,dr4 ,townsend quotes this wholesome admonition from ,coleridge3 ,if men would only say what they have to say in plain terms1 how much more eloquent they would be6 ,as an example of reportorial highfalutin1 ,i submit the following3 ,the spirit of departed day had joined communion with the myriad ghosts of centuries1 and four full hours fled into eternity before the citizens of many parts of the town found out there was a freshet here at all4 ,,hints4 ,never write about any matter that you do not well understand4 ,if you clearly understand all about your matter1 you will never want thoughts1 and thoughts instantly become words4 ,one of the greatest of all faults in writing and in speaking is this3 the using of many words to say little4 ,in order to guard yourself against this fault1 inquire what is the substance1 or amount1 of what you have said4 ,take a long speech of some talking ,lord and put down upon paper what the amount of it is4 ,you will most likely find that the amount is very small2 but at any rate1 when you get it1 you will then be able to examine it and to tell what it is worth4 ,a very few examinations of the sort will so frighten you that you will be for ever after upon your guard against talking a great deal and saying little4--,cobbett4 ,be simple1 be unaffected1 be honest in your speaking and writing4 ,never use a long word where a short one will do4 ,call a spade a spade1 not a well-known oblong instrument of manual husbandry2 let home be home1 not a residence2 a place a place1 not a locality2 and so of the rest4 ,where a short word will do1 you always lose by using a long one4 ,you lose in clearness2 you lose in honest expression of your meaning2 and1 in the estimation of all men who are qualified to judge1 you lose in reputation for ability4 ,the only true way to shine1 even in this false world1 is to be modest and unassuming4 ,falsehood may be a very thick crust1 but1 in the course of time1 truth will find a place to break through4 ,elegance of language may not be in the power of all of us2 but simplicity and straightforwardness are4 ,write much as you would speak2 speak as you think4 ,if with your inferiors1 speak no coarser than usual2 if with your superiors1 no finer4 ,be what you say2 and1 within the rules of prudence1 say what you are4--,dean ,alford4 ,go critically over what you have written1 and strike out every word1 phrase1 and clause which it is found will leave the sentence neither less clear nor less forcible than it is without them4--,swinton4 ,with all watchfulness1 it is astonishing what slips are made1 even by good writers1 in the employment of an inappropriate word4 ,in ,gibbon's ',rise and ,fall1' the following instance occurs3 ',of nineteen tyrants who started up after the reign of ,gallienus1 there was not one who enjoyed a life of peace or a natural death4' ,alison1 in his ',history of ,europe1' writes3 ',two great sins--one of omission and one of commission--have been committed by the states of ,europe in modern times4' ,and not long since a worthy ,scotch minister1 at the close of the services1 intimated his intention of visiting some of his people as follows3 ',i intend1 during this week1 to visit in ,mr4 ,m----'s district1 and will on this occasion take the opportunity of embracing all the servants in the district4' ,when worthies such as these offend1 who shall call the bellman in question as he cries1 ',lost1 a silver-handled silk lady's parasol'8 ,the proper arrangement of words into sentences and paragraphs gives clearness and strength4 ,to attain a clear and pithy style1 it may be necessary to cut down1 to rearrange1 and to rewrite whole passages of an essay4 ,gibbon wrote his ',memoirs' six times1 and the first chapter of his ',history' three times4 ,beginners are always slow to prune or cast away any thought or expression which may have cost labor4 ,they forget that brevity is no sign of thoughtlessness4 ,much consideration is needed to compress the details of any subject into small compass4 ,essences are more difficult to prepare1 and therefore more valuable1 than weak solutions4 ,pliny wrote to one of his friends1 ',i have not time to write you a short letter1 therefore ,i have written you a long one4' ,apparent elaborateness is always distasteful and weak4 ,vividness and strength are the product of an easy command of those small trenchant ,saxon monosyllables which abound in the ,english language4--,leisure ,hour4 ,as a rule1 the student will do well to banish for the present all thought of ornament or elegance1 and to aim only at expressing himself plainly and clearly4 ,the best ornament is always that which comes unsought4 ,let him not beat about the bush1 but go straight to the point4 ,let him remember that what is written is meant to be read2 that time is short2 and that--other things being equal--the fewer words the better4444 ,repetition is a far less serious fault than obscurity4 ,young writers are often unduly afraid of repeating the same word1 and require to be reminded that it is always better to use the right word over again than to replace it by a wrong one--and a word which is liable to be misunderstood is a wrong one4 ,a frank repetition of a word has even sometimes a kind of charm--as bearing the stamp of truth1 the foundation of all excellence of style4--,hall4 ,a young writer is afraid to be simple2 he has no faith in beauty unadorned1 hence he crowds his sentences with superlatives4 ,in his estimation1 turgidity passes for eloquence1 and simplicity is but another name for that which is weak and unmeaning4--,george ,washington ,moon4 ,,honorable4 ,see ,,reverend4 ,,how4 ,i have heard how in ,italy one is beset on all sides by beggars3 read1 heard that4 ,i have heard how some critics have been pacified with claret and a supper1 and others laid asleep with soft notes of flattery4--,dr4 ,johnson4 ,the how in this sentence also should be that4 ,how means the manner in which4 ,we may1 therefore1 say1 ,i have heard how he went about it to circumvent you4 ,and it is good judgment alone can dictate how far to proceed in it and when to stop4 ,cobbett comments on this sentence in this wise3 ,dr4 ,watts is speaking here of writing4 ,in such a case1 an adverb1 like how far1 expressive of longitudinal space1 introduces a rhetorical figure2 for the plain meaning is1 that judgment will dictate how much to write on it and not how far to proceed in it4 ,the figure1 however1 is very proper and much better than the literal words4 ,but when a figure is begun it should be carried on throughout1 which is not the case here2 for the ,doctor begins with a figure of longitudinal space and ends with a figure of time4 ,it should have been1 where to stop4 ,or1 how long to proceed in it and when to stop4 ,to tell a man how far he is to go into the ,western countries of ,america1 and when he is to stop1 is a very different thing from telling him how far he is to go and where he is to stop4 ,i have dwelt thus on this distinction for the purpose of putting you on the watch and guarding you against confounding figures4 ,the less you use them the better1 till you understand more about them4 ,,humanitarianism4 ,this word1 in its original1 theological sense1 means the doctrine that denies the godhead of ,jesus ,christ1 and avers that he was possessed of a human nature only2 a humanitarian1 therefore1 in the theological sense1 is one who believes this doctrine4 ,the word and its derivatives are1 however1 nowadays1 both in this country and in ,england1 most used in a humane1 philanthropic sense2 thus1 ,the audience enthusiastically endorsed the humanitarianism of his eloquent discourse4--,hatton4 ,,hung4 ,see ,,hanged4 ,,hurry4 ,though widely different in meaning1 both the verb and the noun hurry are continually used for haste and hasten4 ,hurry implies not only haste1 but haste with confusion1 flurry2 while haste implies only rapidity of action1 an eager desire to make progress1 and1 unlike hurry1 is not incompatible with deliberation and dignity4 ,it is often wise to hasten in the affairs of life2 but1 as it is never wise to proceed without forethought and method1 it is never wise to hurry4 ,sensible people1 then1 may be often in haste1 but are never in a hurry2 and we tell others to make haste1 and not to hurry up4 ,,hyperbole4 ,the magnifying of things beyond their natural limits is called hyperbole4 ,language that signifies1 literally1 more than the exact truth1 more than is really intended to be represented1 by which a thing is represented greater or less1 better or worse than it really is1 is said to be hyperbolical4 ,hyperbole is exaggeration4 ,our common forms of compliment are almost all of them extravagant hyperboles4--,blair4 ,some examples are the following3 ,rivers of blood and hills of slain4 ,they were swifter than eagles2 they were stronger than lions4 ,the sky shrunk upward with unusual dread1 ,and trembling ,tiber div'd beneath his bed4 ,so frowned the mighty combatants1 that hell ,grew darker at their frown4 ,i saw their chief tall as a rock of ice2 his spear the blasted fir2 his shield the rising moon2 he sat on the shore like a cloud of mist on a hill4 ,,ice-,,cream--,,ice-,,water4 ,as for ice-cream1 there is no such thing1 as ice-cream would be the product of frozen cream1 i4 e41 cream made from ice by melting4 ,what is called ice-cream is cream iced2 hence1 properly1 iced cream and not ice-cream4 ,the product of melted ice is ice-water1 whether it be cold or warm2 but water made cold with ice is iced water1 and not ice-water4 ,,if4 ,i doubt if this will ever reach you3 say1 ,i doubt whether this will ever reach you4 ,,ill4 ,see ,,sick4 ,,illy4 ,it will astonish not a few to learn that there is no such word as illy4 ,the form of the adverb1 as well as of the adjective and the noun1 is ill4 ,a thing is ill formed1 or ill done1 or ill made1 or ill constructed1 or ill put together4 ,ill fares the land1 to hastening ills a prey1 ,where wealth accumulates and men decay4--,goldsmith4 ,,immodest4 ,this adjective and its synonyms1 indecent and indelicate1 are often used without proper discrimination being made in their respective meanings4 ,indecency and immodesty are opposed to morality3 the former in externals1 as dress1 words1 and looks2 the latter in conduct and disposition4 ,indecency1 says ,crabb1 may be a partial1 immodesty is a positive and entire breach of the moral law4 ,indecency is less than immodesty1 but more than indelicacy4 ,it is indecent for a man to marry again very soon after the death of his wife4 ,it is indelicate for any one to obtrude himself upon another's retirement4 ,it is indecent for women to expose their persons as do some whom we can not call immodest4 ,immodest words admit of no defense1 ,for want of decency is want of sense4 --,earl of ,roscommon4 ,,impropriety4 ,as a rhetorical term1 defined as an error in using words in a sense different from their recognized signification4 ,,impute4 ,non-painstaking writers not unfrequently use impute instead of ascribe4 ,the numbers of blunders that have been imputed to him are endless4--,appletons' ,journal4 ,the use of impute in this connection is by no means indefensible2 still it would have been better to use ascribe4 ,,in ,,our ,,midst4 ,the phrases in our midst and in their midst are generally supposed to be of recent introduction2 and1 though they have been used by some respectable writers1 they nevertheless find no favor with those who study propriety in the use of language4 ,to the phrase in the midst no one objects4 ,jesus came and stood in the midst4 ,there was a hut in the midst of the forest4 ,,in ,,respect ,,of4 ,the deliberate introduction of incorrect forms1 whether by the coinage of new or the revival of obsolete and inexpressive syntactical combinations1 ought to be resisted even in trifles1 especially where it leads to the confusion of distinct ideas4 ,an example of this is the recent use of the adverbial phrases in respect of1 in regard of1 for in or with respect to1 or regard to4 ,this innovation is without any syntactical ground1 and ought to be condemned and avoided as a mere grammatical crotchet4--,george ,p4 ,marsh1 ,lectures on the ,english ,language1 p4 #ffj4 ,,in ,,so ,,far ,,as4 ,a phrase often met with1 and in which the in is superfluous4 ,a want of proper opportunity would suffice1 in so far as the want could be shown4 ,we are to act up to the extent of our knowledge2 but1 in so far as our knowledge falls short1 etc4 ,,inaugurate4 ,this word1 which means to install in office with certain ceremonies1 is made1 by many lovers of big words1 to do service for begin2 but the sooner these rhetorical high-fliers stop inaugurating and content themselves with simply beginning the things they are called upon to do in the ordinary routine of daily life1 the sooner they will cease to set a very bad example4 ,,indecent4 ,see ,,immodest4 ,,index ,,expurgatorius4 ,william ,cullen ,bryant1 who was a careful student of ,english1 while he was editor of the ,new ,york ,evening ,post1 sought to prevent the writers for that paper from using over and above 7for 'more than'72 artiste 7for 'artist'72 aspirant2 authoress2 beat 7for 'defeat'72 bagging 7for 'capturing'72 balance 7for 'remainder'72 banquet 7for 'dinner' or 'supper'72 bogus2 casket 7for 'coffin'72 claimed 7for 'asserted'72 collided2 commence 7for 'begin'72 compete2 cortge 7for 'procession'72 cotemporary 7for 'contemporary'72 couple 7for 'two'72 darky 7for 'negro'72 day before yesterday 7for 'the day before yesterday'72 dbut2 decrease 7as a verb72 democracy 7applied to a political party72 develop 7for 'expose'72 devouring element 7for 'fire'72 donate2 employ2 enacted 7for 'acted'72 indorse 7for 'approve'72 en route2 esq42 graduate 7for 'is graduated'72 gents 7for 'gentlemen'72 ',hon4'2 ,house 7for ',house of ,representatives'72 humbug2 inaugurate 7for 'begin'72 in our midst2 item 7for 'particle1 extract1 or paragraph'72 is being done1 and all passives of this form2 jeopardize2 jubilant 7for 'rejoicing'72 juvenile 7for 'boy'72 lady 7for 'wife'72 last 7for 'latest'72 lengthy 7for 'long'72 leniency 7for 'lenity'72 loafer2 loan or loaned 7for 'lend' or 'lent'72 located2 majority 7relating to places or circumstances1 for 'most'72 ,mrs4 ,president1 ,mrs4 ,governor1 ,mrs4 ,general1 and all similar titles2 mutual 7for 'common'72 official 7for 'officer'72 ovation2 on yesterday2 over his signature2 pants 7for 'pantaloons'72 parties 7for 'persons'72 partially 7for 'partly'72 past two weeks 7for 'last two weeks1' and all similar expressions relating to a definite time72 poetess2 portion 7for 'part'72 posted 7for 'informed'72 progress 7for 'advance'72 reliable 7for 'trustworthy'72 rendition 7for 'performance'72 repudiate 7for 'reject' or 'disown'72 retire 7as an active verb72 ,rev4 7for 'the ,rev4'72 rle 7for 'part'72 roughs2 rowdies2 secesh2 sensation 7for 'noteworthy event'72 standpoint 7for 'point of view'72 start1 in the sense of setting out2 state 7for 'say'72 taboo2 talent 7for 'talents' or 'ability'72 talented2 tapis2 the deceased2 war 7for 'dispute' or 'disagreement'74 ,this index is offered here as a curiosity rather than as a guide1 though in the main it might safely be used as such4 ,no valid reason1 however1 can be urged for discouraging the use of several words in the list2 the words aspirant1 banquet1 casket1 compete1 decrease1 progress1 start1 talented1 and deceased1 for example4 ,,indicative ,,and ,,subjunctive4 ',i see the signal1' is unconditional2 'if ,i see the signal1' is the same fact expressed in the form of a condition4 ,the one form is said to be in the indicative mood1 the mood that simply states or indicates the action2 the other form is in the subjunctive1 conditional1 or conjunctive mood4 ,there is sometimes a slight variation made in ,english1 to show that an affirmation is made as a condition4 ,the mood is called 'subjunctive1' because the affirmation is subjoined to another affirmation3 ',if ,i see the signal1 ,i will call out4' ,such forms as ',i may see1' ',i can see1' have sometimes been considered as a variety of mood1 to which the name ',potential' is given4 ,but this can not properly be maintained4 ,there is no trace of any inflection corresponding to this meaning1 as we find with the subjunctive4 ,moreover1 such a mood would have itself to be subdivided into indicative and subjunctive forms3 ',i may go1' 'if ,i may go4' ,and further1 we might proceed to constitute other moods on the same analogy1 as1 for example1 an obligatory mood--',i must go1' or ',i ought to go'2 a mood of resolution--',i will go1 you shall go'2 a mood of gratification--',i am delighted to go'2 of deprecation--',i am grieved to go4' ,the only difference in the two last instances is the use of the sign of the infinitive 'to1' which does not occur after 'may1' 'can1' 'must1' 'ought1' etc42 but that is not an essential difference4 ,some grammarians consider the form ',i do go' a separate mood1 and term it the emphatic mood4 ,but all the above objections apply to it likewise1 as well as many others4--,bain4 ,see ,,subjunctive ,,mood4 ,,individual4 ,this word is often most improperly used for person2 as1 ,the individual ,i saw was not over forty2 ,there were several individuals on board that ,i had never seen before4 ,individual means1 etymologically1 that which can not be divided1 and is used1 in speaking of things as well as of persons1 to express unity4 ,it is opposed to the whole1 or that which is divisible into parts4 ,,indorse4 ,careful writers generally discountenance the use of indorse in the sense of sanction1 approve1 applaud4 ,in this signification it is on the list of prohibited words in some of our newspaper offices4 ,the following rules are indorsed by nearly all writers upon this subject4--,dr4 ,townsend4 ,it is plain that the right word to use here is approved4 ,the public will heartily indorse the sentiments uttered by the court4--,new ,york ,evening ,telegram4 ,the public will heartily approve the sentiments expressed by the court1 is what the sentence should be4 ,,infinitive ,,mood4 ,when we can choose1 it is generally better to use the verb in the infinitive than in the participial form4 ,ability being in general the power of doing1 etc4 ,say1 to do4 ,i desire to reply 444 to the proposal of substituting a tax upon land values 444 and making this tax1 as near nearly as may be1 equal to rent1 etc4 ,say1 to substitute and to make4 ,this quality is of prime importance when the chief object is the imparting of knowledge4 ,say1 to impart4 ,,initiate4 ,this is a pretentious word1 which1 with its derivatives1 many persons--especially those who like to be grandiloquent--use1 when homely ,english would serve their turn much better4 ,,innumerable ,,number4 ,a repetitional expression to be avoided4 ,we may say innumerable times1 or numberless times1 but we should not say an innumerable number of times4 ,,interrogation4 ,the rhetorical figure that asks a question in order to emphasize the reverse of what is asked is called interrogation2 as1 ,do we mean to submit to this measure8 ,do we mean to submit1 and consent that we ourselves1 our country and its rights1 shall be trampled on8 ,doth ,god pervert judgment8 or doth the ,almighty pervert justice8 ,,introduce4 ,see ,,present4 ,,irony4 ,that mode of speech in which what is meant is contrary to the literal meaning of the words--in which praise is bestowed when censure is intended--is called irony4 ,irony is a kind of delicate sarcasm or satire--raillery1 mockery4 ,in writings of humor1 figures are sometimes used of so delicate a nature that it shall often happen that some people will see things in a direct contrary sense to what the author and the majority of the readers understand them3 to such the most innocent irony may appear irreligion4--,cambridge4 ,,irritate4 ,see ,,aggravate4 ,,is ,,being ,,built4 ,a tolerable idea of the state of the discussion regarding the propriety of using the locution is being built1 and all like expressions1 will1 it is hoped1 be obtained from the following extracts4 ,the ,rev4 ,peter ,bullions1 in his ,grammar of the ,english ,language1 says3 ,there is properly no passive form1 in ,english1 corresponding to the progressive form in the active voice1 except where it is made by the participle ing1 in a passive sense2 thus1 ',the house is building'2 ',the garments are making'2 ',wheat is selling1' etc4 ,an attempt has been made by some grammarians1 of late1 to banish such expressions from the language1 though they have been used in all time past by the best writers1 and to justify and defend a clumsy solecism1 which has been recently introduced chiefly through the newspaper press1 but which has gained such currency1 and is becoming so familiar to the ear1 that it seems likely to prevail1 with all its uncouthness and deformity4 ,i refer to such expressions as ',the house is being built'2 ',the letter is being written'2 ',the mine is being worked'2 ',the news is being telegraphed1' etc41 etc4 ,this mode of expression had no existence in the language till within the last fifty years4#g ,this1 indeed1 would not make the expression wrong1 were it otherwise unexceptionable2 but its recent origin shows that it is not1 as is pretended1 a necessary form4 ,this form of expression1 when analyzed1 is found not to express what it is intended to express1 and would be used only by such as are either ignorant of its import or are careless and loose in their use of language4 ,to make this manifest1 let it be considered1 first1 that there is no progressive form of the verb to be1 and no need of it2 hence1 there is no such expression in ,english as is being4 ,of course the expression 'is being built1' for example1 is not a compound of is being and built1 but of is and being built2 that is1 of the verb to be and the present participle passive4 ,now1 let it be observed that the only verbs in which the present participle passive expresses a continued action are those mentioned above as the first class1 in which the regular passive form expresses a continuance of the action2 as1 is loved1 is desired1 etc41 and in which1 of course1 the form in question 7is being built7 is not required4 ,nobody would think of saying1 ',he is being loved'2 ',this result is being desired4' ,the use of this form is justified only by condemning an established usage of the language2 namely1 the passive sense in some verbs of the participle in ing4 ,in reference to this it is flippantly asked1 ',what does the house build8' ',what does the letter write8' etc4--taking for granted1 without attempting to prove1 that the participle in ing can not have a passive sense in any verb4 ,the following are a few examples from writers of the best reputation1 which this novelty would condemn3 ',while the ceremony was performing4'--,tom4 ,brown4 ',the court was then holding4'--,sir ,g4 ,mc,kenzie4 ',and still be doing1 never done4'--,butler4 ',the books are selling4'--,allen's ',grammar4' ',to know nothing of what is transacting in the regions above us4'--,dr4 ,blair4 ',the spot where this new and strange tragedy was acting4'--,e4 ,everett4 ',the fortress was building4'--,irving4 ',an attempt is making in the ,english parliament4'--,d4 ,webster4 ',the church now erecting in the city of ,new ,york4'--',n4 ,a4 ,review4' ',these things were transacting in ,england4'--,bancroft4 ,this new doctrine is in opposition to the almost unanimous judgment of the most distinguished grammarians and critics1 who have considered the subject1 and expressed their views concerning it4 ,the following are a specimen3 ',expressions of this kind are condemned by some critics2 but the usage is unquestionably of far better authority1 and 7according to my apprehension7 in far better taste1 than the more complex phraseology which some late writers adopt in its stead2 as1 ,the books are now being sold4'--,goold ,brown4 ',as to the notion of introducing a new and more complex passive form of conjugation1 as1 ,the bridge is being built1 ,the bridge was being built1 and so forth1 it is one of the most absurd and monstrous innovations ever thought of4 ,the work is now being published1 is certainly no better ,english than1 ,the work was being published1 has been being published1 had been being published1 shall or will be being published1 shall or will have been being published1 and so on through all the moods and tenses4 ,what a language shall we have when our verbs are thus conjugated6'--,brown's ',gr4 of ,eng4 ,gr41' p4 #cfa4 ,de ,war observes3 ',the participle in ing is also passive in many instances2 as1 ,the house is building1 ,i heard of a plan forming1' etc4--,quoted in ',frazee's ,grammar1' p4 #di4 ',it would be an absurdity1 indeed1 to give up the only way we have of denoting the incomplete state of action by a passive form 7viz41 by the participle in ing in the passive sense74'--,arnold's ',english ,grammar1' p4 #df4 ',the present participle is often used passively2 as1 ,the ship is building4 ,the form of expression1 is being built1 is being committed1 etc41 is almost universally condemned by grammarians1 but it is sometimes met with in respectable writers2 it occurs most frequently in newspaper paragraphs and in hasty compositions4 ,see ,worcester's ,universal and ,critical ,dictionary4'--,weld's ',grammar1' pp4 #aah and #ahj4 ',when we say1 ,the house is building1 the advocates of the new theory ask1 ,building what8 ,we might ask1 in turn1 when you say1 ,the field ploughs well1--,ploughs what8 ,wheat sells well1--,sells what8 ,if usage allows us to say1 ,wheat sells at a dollar1 in a sense that is not active1 why may we not say1 ,wheat is selling at a dollar1 in a sense that is not active8'--,hart's ',grammar1' p4 #gf4 ',the prevailing practice of the best authors is in favor of the simple form2 as1 ,the house is building4'--,wells' ',school ,grammar1' p4 #adh4 ',several other expressions of this sort now and then occur1 such as the newfangled and most uncouth solecism is being done1 for the good old ,english idiom is doing--an absurd periphrasis driving out a pointed and pithy turn of the ,english language4'--',n4 ,a4 ,review1' quoted by ,mr4 ,wells1 p4 #adh4 ',the phrase1 is being built1 and others of a similar kind1 have been for a few years insinuating themselves into our language2 still they are not ,english4'--,harrison's ',rise1 ,progress1 and ,present ,structure of the ,english ,language4' ',this mode of expression the house is being built is becoming quite common4 ,it is liable1 however1 to several important objections4 ,it appears formal and pedantic4 ,it has not1 as far as ,i know1 the support of any respectable grammarian4 ,the easy and natural expression is1 ,the house is building4'--,prof4 ,j4 ,w4 ,gibbs4 ,mr4 ,richard ,grant ,white1 in his ,words and ,their ,uses1 expresses his opinion of the locution is being in this wise3 ,in bad eminence1 at the head of those intruders in language which to many persons seem to be of established respectability1 but the right of which to be at all is not fully admitted1 stands out the form of speech is being done1 or rather1 is being1 which1 about seventy or eighty years ago1 began to affront the eye1 torment the ear1 and assault the common sense of the speaker of plain and idiomatic ,english4 ,mr4 ,white devotes thirty pages of his book to the discussion of the subject1 and adduces evidence that is more than sufficient to convince those who are content with an ex parte examination that it can hardly be that such an incongruous and ridiculous form of speech as is being done was contrived by a man who1 by any stretch of the name1 should be included among grammarians4 ,mr4 ,george ,p4 ,marsh1 in his ,lectures on the ,english ,language1 says that the deviser of the locution in question was some grammatical pretender1 and that it is an awkward neologism1 which neither convenience1 intelligibility1 nor syntactical congruity demands4 ,to these gentlemen1 and to those who are of their way of thinking with regard to is being1 ,dr4 ,fitzedward ,hall replies at some length1 in an article published in ,scribner's ,monthly for ,april1 #ahgb4 ,dr4 ,hall writes3 ',all really well educated in the ,english tongue lament the many innovations introduced into our language from ,america2 and ,i doubt if more than one of these novelties deserve acceptation4 ,that one is1 substituting a compound participle for an active verb used in a neuter signification3 for instance1 ,the house is being built1 instead of1 ,the house is building4' ,such is the assertion and such is the opinion of some anonymous luminary1#h who1 for his liberality in welcoming a supposed ,americanism1 is somewhat in advance of the herd of his countrymen4 ,almost any popular expression which is considered as a novelty1 a ,briton is pretty certain to assume1 off-hand1 to have originated on our side of the ,atlantic4 ,of the assertion ,i have quoted1 no proof is offered2 and there is little probability that its author had any to offer4 ',are being1' in the phrase 'are being thrown up1'#i is spoken of in ',the ,north ,american ,review'#aj as 'an outrage upon ,english idiom1 to be detested1 abhorred1 execrated1 and given over to six thousand penny-paper editors'2 and the fact is1 that phrases of the form here pointed at have hitherto enjoyed very much less favor with us than with the ,english4 ,as lately as #ahfj1 ,dr4 ,worcester1 referring to is being built1 etc41 while acknowledging that 'this new form has been used by some respectable writers1' speaks of it as having 'been introduced' 'within a few years4' ,mr4 ,richard ,grant ,white1 by a most peculiar process of ratiocination1 endeavors to prove that what ,dr4 ,worcester calls 'this new form' came into existence just fifty-six years ago4 ,he premises that in ,jarvis's translation of ',don ,quixote1' published in #agdb1 there occurs 'were carrying1' and that this1 in the edition of #ahah1 is sophisticated into 'were being carried4' ',this change1' continues our logician1 'and the appearance of is being with a perfect participle in a very few books published between ,a4 ,d4 #ahae and #ahbj1 indicate the former period as that of the origin of this phraseology1 which1 although more than half a century old1 is still pronounced a novelty as well as a nuisance4' ,who1 in the next place1 devised our modern imperfects passive8 ,the question is not1 originally1 of my asking2 but1 as the learned are at open feud on the subject1 it should not be passed by in silence4 ,its deviser is1 more than likely1 as undiscoverable as the name of the valiant antediluvian who first tasted an oyster4 ,but the deductive character of the miscreant is another thing2 and hereon there is a war between the philosophers4 ,mr4 ,g4 ,p4 ,marsh1 as if he had actually spotted the wretched creature1 passionately and categorically denounces him as 'some grammatical pretender4' ',but1' replies ,mr4 ,white1 'that it is the work of any grammarian is more than doubtful4 ,grammarians1 with all their faults1 do not deform language with fantastic solecisms1 or even seek to enrich it with new and startling verbal combinations4 ,they rather resist novelty1 and devote themselves to formulating that which use has already established4' ,in the same page with this1 ,mr4 ,white compliments the great unknown as 'some precise and feeble-minded soul1' and elsewhere calls him 'some pedantic writer of the last generation4' ,to add even one word toward a solution of the knotty point here indicated transcends1 ,i confess1 my utmost competence4 ,it is painful to picture to one's self the agonizing emotions with which certain philologists would contemplate an authentic effigy of the ,attila of speech who1 by his is being built or is being done1 first offered violence to the whole circle of the proprieties4 ,so far as ,i have observed1 the first grammar that exhibits them is that of ,mr4 ,r4 ,s4 ,skillern1 ,m4 ,a41 the first edition of which was published at ,gloucester in #ahjb4 ,robert ,southey had not1 on the #ith of ,october1 #agie1 been out of his minority quite two months when1 evidently delivering himself in a way that had already become familiar enough1 he wrote of 'a fellow whose uttermost upper grinder is being torn out by the roots by a mutton-fisted barber4'#aa ,this is in a letter4 ,but repeated instances of the same kind of expression are seen in ,southey's graver writings4 ,thus1 in his ',colloquies1' etc41#ab we read of 'such nunneries as at this time are being restablished4' ',while my hand was being drest by ,mr4 ,young1 ,i spoke for the first time1' wrote ,coleridge1 in ,march1 #agig4 ,charles ,lamb speaks of realities which 'are being acted before us1' and of 'a man who is being strangled4' ,walter ,savage ,landor1 in an imaginary conversation1 represents ,pitt as saying3 ',the man who possesses them may read ,swedenborg and ,kant while he is being tossed in a blanket4' ,again3 ',i have seen nobles1 men and women1 kneeling in the street before these bishops1 when no ceremony of the ,catholic ,church was being performed4' ,also1 in a translation from ,catullus3 ',some criminal is being tried for murder4' ,nor does ,mr4 ,de ,quincey scruple at such ,english as 'made and being made1' 'the bride that was being married to him1' and 'the shafts of ,heaven were even now being forged4' ,on one occasion he writes1 ',not done1 not even 7according to modern purism7 being done'2 as if 'purism' meant exactness1 rather than the avoidance of neoterism4 ,i need1 surely1 name no more1 among the dead1 who found is being built1 or the like1 acceptable4 ',simple-minded common people and those of culture were alike protected against it by their attachment to the idiom of their mother tongue1 with which they felt it to be directly at variance4' ,so ,mr4 ,white informs us4 ,but the writers whom ,i have quoted are formidable exceptions4 ,even ,mr4 ,white will scarcely deny to them the title of 'people of culture4' ,so much for offenders past repentance2 and we all know that the sort of phraseology under consideration is daily becoming more and more common4 ,the best written of the ,english reviews1 magazines1 and journals are perpetually marked by it2 and some of the choicest of living ,english writers employ it freely4 ,among these1 it is enough if ,i specify ,bishop ,wilberforce and ,mr4 ,charles ,reade4#ac ,extracts from ,bishop ,jewel downward being also given1 ,lord ,macaulay1 ,mr4 ,dickens1 ',the ,atlantic ,monthly1' and ',the ,brooklyn ,eagle' are alleged by ,mr4 ,white in proof that people still use such phrases as ',chelsea ,hospital was building1' and 'the train was preparing4' ',hence we see1' he adds1#ad 'that the form is being done1 is being made1 is being built1 lacks the support of authoritative usage from the period of the earliest classical ,english to the present day4' ,i fully concur with ,mr4 ,white in regarding 'neither ,the ,brooklyn ,eagle nor ,mr4 ,dickens as a very high authority in the use of language'2 yet1 when he has renounced the aid of these contemned straws1 what has he to rest his inference on1 as to the present day1 but the practice of ,lord ,macaulay and ',the ,atlantic ,monthly'8 ,those who think fit will bow to the dictatorship here prescribed to them2 but there may be those with whom the classic sanction of ,southey1 ,coleridge1 and ,landor will not be wholly void of weight4 ,all scholars are aware that1 to convey the sense of the imperfects passive1 our ancestors1 centuries ago1 prefixed1 with is1 etc41 in1 afterward corrupted into a1 to a verbal substantive4 ',the house is in building' could be taken to mean nothing but des dificantur2 and1 when the in gave place to a1#ae it was still manifest enough1 from the context1 that building was governed by a preposition4 ,the second stage of change1 however1 namely1 when the a was omitted1 entailed1 in many cases1 great danger of confusion4 ,in the early part of the last century1 when ,english was undergoing what was then thought to be purification1 the polite world substantially resigned is a-building to the vulgar4 ,toward the close of the same century1 when1 under the influence of free thought1 it began to be felt that even ideas had a right to faithful and unequivocal representation1 a just resentment of ambiguity was evidenced in the creation of is being built4 ,the lament is too late that the instinct of reformation did not restore the old form4 ,it has gone forever2 and we are now to make the best of its successors4 ',the brass is forging1' in the opinion of ,dr4 ,johnson1 is 'a vicious expression1 probably corrupted from a phrase more pure1 but now somewhat obsolete1 444 the brass is a-forging4' ,yet1 with a true ,tory's timidity and aversion to change1 it is not surprising that he went on preferring what he found established1 vicious as it confessedly was1 to the end4 ,but was the expression 'vicious' solely because it was a corruption8 ,in #aghg ,william ,beckford wrote as follows of the fortune-tellers of ,lisbon3 ',i saw one dragging into light1 as ,i passed by the ruins of a palace thrown down by the earthquake4 ,whether a familiar of the ,inquisition was griping her in his clutches1 or whether she was taking to account by some disappointed votary1 ,i will not pretend to answer4' ,are the expressions here italicized either perspicuous or graceful8 ,whatever we are to have in their place1 we should be thankful to get quit of them4 ,inasmuch as1 concurrently with building for the active participle1 and being built for the corresponding passive participle1 we possessed the former1 with is prefixed1 as the active present imperfect1 it is in rigid accordance with the symmetry of our verb that1 to construct the passive present-imperfect1 we prefix is to the latter1 producing the form is being built4 ,such1 in its greatest simplicity1 is the procedure which1 as will be seen1 has provoked a very levanter of ire and vilification4 ,but anything that is new will be excepted to by minds of a certain order4 ,their tremulous and impatient dread of removing ancient landmarks even disqualifies them for thoroughly investigating its character and pretensions4 ,in has built and will build1 we find the active participle perfect and the active infinitive subjoined to auxiliaries2 and so1 in has been built and will be built1 the passive participle perfect and the passive infinitive are subjoined to auxiliaries4 ,in is building and is being built1 we have1 in strict harmony with the constitution of the perfect and future tenses1 an auxiliary followed by the active participle present and the passive participle present4 ,built is determined as active or passive by the verbs which qualify it1 have and be2 and the grammarians are right in considering it1 when embodied in has built1 as active1 since its analogue1 embodied in has been built1 is the exclusively passive been built4 ,besides this1 has been built would signify something like has existed1 built1#af which is plainly neuter4 ,we are debarred1 therefore1 from such an analysis2 and1 by parity of reasoning1 we may not resolve is being built into is being built4 ,it must have been an inspiration of analogy1 felt or unfelt1 that suggested the form ,i am discussing4 ,is being built1 as it can mean1 pretty nearly1 only exists1 built1 would never have been proposed as adequate to convey any but a neuter sense2 whereas it was perfectly natural for a person aiming to express a passive sense to prefix is to the passive concretion being built4#ag ,the analogical justification of is being built which ,i have brought forward is so obvious that1 as it occurred to myself more than twenty years ago1 so it must have occurred spontaneously to hundreds besides4 ,it is very singular that those who1 like ,mr4 ,marsh and ,mr4 ,white1 have pondered long and painfully over locutions typified by is being built1 should have missed the real ground of their grammatical defensibleness1 and should have warmed themselves1 in their opposition to them1 into uttering opinions which no calm judgment can accept4 ',one who is being beaten' is1 to ,archbishop ,whately1 'uncouth ,english4' ',the bridge is being built1 and other phrases of the like kind1 have pained the eye' of ,mr4 ,david ,booth4 ,such phrases1 according to ,mr4 ,m4 ,harrison1 'are not ,english4' ,to ,professor ,j4 ,w4 ,gibbs 'this mode of expression 444 appears formal and pedantic'2 and 'the easy and natural expression is1 ,the house is building4'#ah ,in all this1 little or nothing is discernible beyond sheer prejudice1 the prejudice of those who resolve to take their stand against an innovation1 regardless of its utility1 and who are ready to find an argument against it in any random epithet of disparagement provoked by unreasoning aversion4 ,and the more recent denouncers in the same line have no more reason on their side than their elder brethren4 ,in ,mr4 ,marsh's estimation1 is being built illustrates 'corruption of language'2 it is 'clumsy and unidiomatic'2 it is 'at best but a philological coxcombry'2 it 'is an awkward neologism1 which neither convenience1 intelligibility1 nor syntactical congruity demands1 and the use of which ought1 therefore1 to be discountenanced1 as an attempt at the artificial improvement of the language in a point which needed no amendment4' ,again1 ',to reject' is building in favor of the modern phrase 'is to violate the laws of language by an arbitrary change2 and1 in this particular case1 the proposed substitute is at war with the genius of the ,english tongue4' ,mr4 ,marsh seems to have fancied that1 wherever he points out a beauty in is building1 he points out1 inclusively1 a blemish in is being built4 ,the fervor and feeling with which ,mr4 ,white advances to the charge are altogether tropical4 ',the full absurdity of this phrase1 the essence of its nonsense1 seems not to have been hitherto pointed out4' ,it is not 'consistent with reason'2 and it is not 'conformed to the normal development of the language4' ,it is 'a monstrosity1 the illogical1 confusing1 inaccurate1 unidiomatic character of which ,i have at some length1 but yet imperfectly1 set forth4' ,finally1 ',in fact1 it means nothing1 and is the most incongruous combination of words and ideas that ever attained respectable usage in any civilized language4' ,these be 'prave 'ords'2 and it seems a pity that so much sterling vituperative ammunition should be expended in vain4 ,and that it is so expended thinks ,mr4 ,white himself2 for1 though passing sentence in the spirit of a ,jeffreys1 he is not really on the judgment-seat1 but on the lowest hassock of despair4 ,as concerns the mode of expression exemplified by is being built1 he owns that 'to check its diffusion would be a hopeless undertaking4' ,if so1 why not reserve himself for service against some evil not avowedly beyond remedy8 ,again we read1 ',some precise and feeble-minded soul1 having been taught that there is a passive voice in ,english1 and that1 for instance1 building is an active participle1 and builded or built a passive1 felt conscientious scruples at saying the house is building4 ,for what could the house build8' ,as children say at play1 ,mr4 ,white burns here4 ,if it had occurred to him that the 'conscientious scruples' of his hypothetical1 'precise1 and feeble-minded soul' were roused by been built1 not by built1 ,i suspect his chapter on is being built would have been much shorter than it is at present1 and very different4 ',the fatal absurdity in this phrase consists1' he tells us1 'in the combination of is with being2 in the making of the verb to be a supplement1 or1 in grammarians' phrase1 an auxiliary to itself--an absurdity so palpable1 so monstrous1 so ridiculous1 that it should need only to be pointed out to be scouted4'#ai ,lastly1 ',the question is thus narrowed simply to this1 ,does to be being 7esse ens7 mean anything more or other than to be8' ,having convicted ,mr4 ,white of a mistaken analysis1 ,i am not concerned with the observations which he founds on his mistake4 ,however1 even if his analysis had been correct1 some of his arguments would avail him nothing4 ,for instance1 is being built1 on his understanding of it1 that is to say1 is being built1 he represents by ens dificatus est1 as 'the supposed corresponding ,latin phrase4'#bj ,the ,latin is illegitimate2 and he infers that1 therefore1 the ,english is the same4 ,but dificans est1 a translation1 on the model which he offers1 of the active is building1 is quite as illegitimate as ens edificatus est4 ,by parity of non-sequitur1 we are1 therefore1 to surrender the active is building4 ,assume that a phrase in a given language is indefensible unless it has its counterpart in some other language2 from the very conception and definition of an idiom every idiom is illegitimate4 ,i now pass to another point4 ',to be and to exist are1' to ,mr4 ,white's apprehension1 'perfect synonyms1 or more nearly perfect1 perhaps1 than any two verbs in the language4 ,in some of their meanings there is a shade of difference1 but in others there is none whatever2 and the latter are those which serve our present purpose4 ,when we say1 ,he1 being forewarned of danger1 fled1 we say1 ,he1 existing forewarned of danger1 fled4 ,when we say that a thing is done1 we say that it exists done4444 ,is being done is simply exists existing done4' ,but1 since is and exists are equipollent1 and so being and existing1 is being is the same as the unimpeachable is existing4 ,q4 non ,e4 ,d4 ,is existing ought1 of course1 to be no less objectionable to ,mr4 ,white than is being4 ,just as absurd1 too1 should he reckon the ,italian sono stato1 era stato1 sia stato1 fossi stato1 saro stato1 sarei stato1 essere stato1 and essendo stato4 ,for in ,italian both essere and stare are required to make up the verb substantive1 as in ,latin both esse and the offspring of fuere are required2 and stare1 primarily 'to stand1' is modified into a true auxiliary4 ,the alleged 'full absurdity of this phrase1' to wit1 is being built1 'the essence of its nonsense1' vanishes thus into thin air4 ,so ,i was about to comment bluntly1 not forgetting to regret that any gentleman's cultivation of logic should fructify in the shape of irrepressible tendencies to suicide4 ,but this would be precipitate4 ,agreeably to one of ,mr4 ,white's judicial placita1 which ,i make no apology for citing twice1 'no man who has preserved all his senses will doubt for a moment that to exist a mastiff or a mule is absolutely the same as to be a mastiff or a mule4' ,declining to admit their identity1 ,i have not preserved all my senses2 and1 accordingly--though it may be in me the very superfetation of lunacy--,i would caution the reader to keep a sharp eye on my arguments1 hereabouts particularly4 ,the ,cretan1 who1 in declaring all ,cretans to be liars1 left the question of his veracity doubtful to all eternity1 fell into a pit of his own digging4 ,not unlike the unfortunate ,cretan1 ,mr4 ,white has tumbled headlong into his own snare4 ,it was1 for the rest1 entirely unavailing that he insisted on the insanity of those who should gainsay his fundamental postulate4 ,sanity1 of a crude sort1 may accept it2 and sanity may put it to a use other than its propounder's4 ,mr4 ,marsh1 after setting forth the all-sufficiency of is building1 in the passive sense1 goes on to say3 ',the reformers who object to the phrase ,i am defending must1 in consistency1 employ the proposed substitute with all passive participles1 and in other tenses as well as the present4 ,they must say1 therefore1 ,the subscription-paper is being missed1 but ,i know that a considerable sum is being wanted to make up the amount2 the great ,victoria ,bridge has been being built more than two years2 when ,i reach ,london1 the ship ,leviathan will be being built2 if my orders had been followed1 the coat would have been being made yesterday2 if the house had then been being built1 the mortar would have been being mixed4' ,we may reply that1 while awkward instances of the old form are most abundant in our literature1 there is no fear that the repulsive elaborations which have been worked out in ridicule of the new forms will prove to have been anticipations of future usage4 ,there was a time when1 as to their adverbs1 people compared them1 to a large extent1 with -er and -est1 or with more and most1 just as their ear or pleasure dictated4 ,they wrote plainlier and plainliest1 or more plainly and most plainly2 and some adverbs1 as early1 late1 often1 seldom1 and soon1 we still compare in a way now become anomalous4 ,and as our forefathers treated their adverbs we still treat many adjectives4 ,furthermore1 obligingness1 preparedness1 and designedly seem quite natural2 yet we do not feel that they authorize us to talk of 'the seeingness of the eye1' 'the understoodness of a sentence1' or of 'a statement acknowledgedly correct4' ',the now too notorious fact' is tolerable2 but 'the never to be sufficiently execrated monster ,bonaparte' is intolerable4 ,the sun may be shorn of his splendor2 but we do not allow cloudy weather to shear him of it4 ,how1 then1 can any one claim that a man who prefers to say is being built should say has been being built8 ,are not awkward instances of the old form1 typified by is building1 as easily to be picked out of extant literature as such instances of the new form1 likely ever to be used1 are to be invented8 ,and 'the reformers' have not forsworn their ears4 ,mr4 ,marsh1 at p4 #ace of his admirable ',lectures1' lays down that 'the adjective reliable1 in the sense of worthy of confidence1 is altogether unidiomatic'2 and yet1 at p4 #aab1 he writes 'reliable evidence4' ,again1 at p4 #cif of the same work1 he rules that whose1 in ',i passed a house whose windows were open1' is 'by no means yet fully established'2 and at p4 #ade of his very learned ',man and ,nature' he writes 'a quadrangular pyramid1 the perpendicular of whose sides1' etc4 ,really1 if his own judgments sit so very loose on his practical conscience1 we may1 without being chargeable with exaction1 ask of him to relax a little the rigor of his requirements at the hands of his neighbors4 ,beckford's ,lisbon fortune-teller1 before had into court1 was 'dragging into light1' and1 perchance1 'was taking to account4' ,many moderns would say and write 'being dragged into light1' and 'was being taken to account4' ,but1 if we are to trust the conservative critics1 in comparison with expressions of the former pattern1 those of the latter are 'uncouth1' 'clumsy1' 'awkward neologisms1' 'philological coxcombries1' 'formal and pedantic1' 'incongruous and ridiculous forms of speech1' 'illogical1 confusing1 inaccurate monstrosities4' ,moreover1 they are neither 'consistent with reason' nor 'conformed to the normal development of the language'2 they are 'at war with the genius of the ,english tongue'2 they are 'unidiomatic'2 they are 'not ,english4' ,in passing1 if ,mr4 ,marsh will so define the term unidiomatic as to evince that it has any applicability to the case in hand1 or if he will arrest and photograph 'the genius of the ,english tongue1' so that we may know the original when we meet with it1 he will confer a public favor4 ,and now ,i submit for consideration whether the sole strength of those who decry is being built and its congeners does not consist in their talent for calling hard names4 ,if they have not an uneasy subconsciousness that their cause is weak1 they would1 at least1 do well in eschewing the violence to which1 for want of something better1 the advocates of weak causes proverbially resort4 ,i once had a friend who1 for some microscopic penumbra of heresy1 was charged1 in the words of his accuser1 with 'as near an approach to the sin against the ,holy ,ghost as is practicable to human infirmity4' ,similarly1 on one view1 the feeble potencies of philological turpitude seem to have exhibited their most consummate realization in engendering is being built4 ,the supposed enormity perpetrated in its production1 provided it had fallen within the sphere of ethics1 would1 at the least1 have ranked1 with its denunciators1 as a brand-new exemplification of total depravity4 ,but1 after all1 what incontestable defect in it has any one succeeded in demonstrating8 ,mr4 ,white1 in opposing to the expression objections based on an erroneous analysis1 simply lays a phantom of his own evoking2 and1 so far as ,i am informed1 other impugners of is being built have1 absolutely1 no argument whatever against it over and beyond their repugnance to novelty4 ,subjected to a little untroubled contemplation1 it would1 ,i am confident1 have ceased long ago to be matter of controversy2 but the dust of prejudice and passion1 which so distempers the intellectual vision of theologians and politicians1 is seen to make1 with ruthless impartiality1 no exception of the perspicacity of philologists4 ,prior to the evolution of is being built and was being built1 we possessed no discriminate equivalents to dificatur and dificabatur2 is built and was built1 by which they were rendered1 corresponding exactly to dificatus est and dificatus erat4 ,cum dificaretur was to us the same as dificabatur4 ,on the wealth of the ,greek in expressions of imperfect passive ,i need not dwell4 ,with rare exceptions1 the ,romans were satisfied with the present-imperfect and the past-imperfect2 and we1 on the comparatively few occasions which present themselves for expressing other imperfects1 shall be sure to have recourse to the old forms rather than to the new1 or else to use periphrases4#ba ,the purists may1 accordingly1 dismiss their apprehensions1 especially as the neoterists have1 clearly1 a keener horror of phraseological ungainliness than themselves4 ,one may have no hesitation about saying 'the house is being built1' and may yet recoil from saying that 'it should have been being built last ,christmas'2 and the same person--just as1 provided he did not feel a harshness1 inadequacy1 and ambiguity in the passive 'the house is building1' he would use the expression--will1 more likely than not1 elect is in preparation preferentially to is being prepared4 ,if there are any who1 in their zealotry for the congruous1 choose to adhere to the new form in its entire range of exchangeability for the old1 let it be hoped that they will find1 in ,mr4 ,marsh's speculative approbation of consistency1 full amends for the discomfort of encountering smiles or frowns4 ,at the same time1 let them be mindful of the career of ,mr4 ,white1 with his black flag and no quarter4 ,the dead ,polonius was1 in ,hamlet's phrase1 at supper1 'not where he eats1 but where he is eaten4' ,shakespeare1 to ,mr4 ,white's thinking1 in this wise expressed himself at the best1 and deserves not only admiration therefor1 but to be imitated4 ',while the ark was built1' 'while the ark was prepared1' writes ,mr4 ,white himself4#bb ,shakespeare is commended for his ambiguous is eaten1 though in eating or an eating would have been not only correct in his day1 but1 where they would have come in his sentence1 univocal4 ,with equal reason a man would be entitled to commendation for tearing his mutton-chops with his fingers1 when he might cut them up with a knife and fork4 ',is eaten1' says ,mr4 ,white1 'does not mean has been eaten4' ,very true2 but a continuous unfinished passion--,polonius's still undergoing manducation1 to speak ,johnsonese--was in ,shakespeare's mind2 and his words describe a passion no longer in generation4 ,the ,king of ,denmark's lord chamberlain had no precedent in ,herod1 when 'he was eaten of worms'2 the original1 1 yielding1 but for its participle1 'he became worm-eaten4' ,having now done with ,mr4 ,white1 ,i am anxious1 before taking leave of him1 to record1 with all emphasis1 that it would be the grossest injustice to write of his elegant ',life and ,genius of ,shakespeare1' a book which does credit to ,american literature1 in the tone which ,i have found unavoidable in dealing with his ',words and their ,uses4' ,the student of ,english who has honestly weighed the arguments on both sides of the question1 must1 ,i believe1 be of opinion that our language is the richer for having two forms for expressing the ,progressive ,passive4 ,further1 he must1 ,i believe1 be of opinion that in very many cases he conforms to the most approved usage of our time by employing the old form2 that1 however1 if he were to employ the old form in all cases1 his meaning would sometimes be uncertain4 ,,it4 ,cobbett discourses of this little neuter pronoun in this wise3 ,the word it is the greatest troubler that ,i know of in language4 ,it is so small and so convenient that few are careful enough in using it4 ,writers seldom spare this word4 ,whenever they are at a loss for either a nominative or an objective to their sentence1 they1 without any kind of ceremony1 clap in an it4 ,a very remarkable instance of this pressing of poor it into actual service1 contrary to the laws of grammar and of sense1 occurs in a piece of composition1 where we might1 with justice1 insist on correctness4 ,this piece is on the subject of grammar2 it is a piece written by a ,doctor of ,divinity and read by him to students in grammar and language in an academy2 and the very sentence that ,i am now about to quote is selected by the author of a grammar as testimony of high authority in favor of the excellence of his work4 ,surely1 if correctness be ever to be expected1 it must be in a case like this4 ,i allude to two sentences in the ',charge of the ,reverend ,doctor ,abercrombie to the ,senior ,class of the ,philadelphia ,academy1' published in #ahjf2 which sentences have been selected and published by ,mr4 ,lindley ,murray as a testimonial of the merits of his grammar2 and which sentences are by ,mr4 ,murray given to us in the following words3 ',the unwearied exertions of this gentleman have done more toward elucidating the obscurities and embellishing the structure of our language than any other writer on the subject4 ,such a work has long been wanted1 and from the success with which it is executed1 can not be too highly appreciated4' ,as in the learned ,doctor's opinion obscurities can be elucidated1 and as in the same opinion ,mr4 ,murray is an able hand at this kind of work1 it would not be amiss were the grammarian to try his skill upon this article from the hand of his dignified eulogist2 for here is1 if one may use the expression1 a constellation of obscurities4 ,our poor oppressed it1 which we find forced into the ,doctor's service in the second sentence1 relates to 'such a work1' though this work is nothing that has an existence1 notwithstanding it is said to be 'executed4' ,in the first sentence1 the 'exertions' become1 all of a sudden1 a 'writer'3 the exertions have done more than 'any other writer'2 for1 mind you1 it is not the gentleman that has done anything2 it is 'the exertions' that have done what is said to be done4 ,the word gentleman is in the possessive case1 and has nothing to do with the action of the sentence4 ,let us give the sentence a turn1 and the ,doctor and the grammarian will hear how it will sound4 ',this gentleman's exertions have done more than any other writer4' ,this is on a level with ',this gentleman's dog has killed more hares than any other sportsman4' ,no doubt ,doctor ,abercrombie meant to say1 ',the exertions of this gentleman have done more than those of any other writer4 ,such a work as this gentleman's has long been wanted2 his work1 seeing the successful manner of its execution1 can not be too highly commended4' ,meant6 ,no doubt at all of that6 ,and when we hear a ,hampshire ploughboy say1 ',poll ,cherrycheek have giv'd a thick handkecher1' we know very well that he means to say1 ',poll ,cherrycheek has given me this handkerchief'2 and yet we are too apt to laugh at him and to call him ignorant2 which is wrong1 because he has no pretensions to a knowledge of grammar1 and he may be very skillful as a ploughboy4 ,however1 we will not laugh at ,doctor ,abercrombie1 whom ,i knew1 many years ago1 for a very kind and worthy man4 ,but1 if we may1 in any case1 be allowed to laugh at the ignorance of our fellow-creatures1 that case certainly does arise when we see a professed grammarian1 the author of voluminous precepts and examples on the subject of grammar1 producing1 in imitation of the possessors of valuable medical secrets1 testimonials vouching for the efficacy of his literary panacea1 and when1 in those testimonials1 we find most flagrant instances of bad grammar4 ,however1 my dear ,james1 let this strong and striking instance of the misuse of the word it serve you in the way of caution4 ,never put an it upon paper without thinking well of what you are about4 ,when ,i see many its in a page1 ,i always tremble for the writer4 ,,jeopardize4 ,this is a modern word which we could easily do without1 as it means neither more nor less than its venerable progenitor to jeopard1 which is greatly preferred by all careful writers4 ,,just ,,going ,,to4 ,instead of ,i am just going to go1 it is better to say1 ,i am just about to go4 ,,kids4 ,this is another vile contraction4 ,habit blinds people to the unseemliness of a term like this4 ,how would it sound if one should speak of silk gloves as silks8 ,,kind4 ,see ,,polite4 ,,knights ,,templars4 ,the name of this ancient body has been adopted by a branch of the ,masonic fraternity1 but in a perverted form--,knights ,templar2 and this form is commonly seen in print1 whether referring to the old knights or to their modern imitators4 ,this doubtless is due to the erroneous impression that ,templar is an adjective1 and so can not take the plural form2 while in fact it is a case of two nouns in apposition--a double designation--meaning ,knights of the order of ,templars4 ,hence the plural should be ,knights ,templars1 and not ,knights ,templar4 ,members of the contemporaneous order of ,st4 ,john of ,jerusalem were commonly called ,knights ,hospitallers4 ,,lady4 ,to use the term lady1 whether in the singular or in the plural1 simply to designate the sex1 is in the worst possible taste4 ,there is a kind of pin-feather gentility which seems to have a settled aversion to using the terms man and woman4 ,gentlemen and ladies establish their claims to being called such by their bearing1 and not by arrogating to themselves1 even indirectly1 the titles4 ,in ,england1 the title lady is properly correlative to lord2 but there1 as in this country1 it is used as a term of complaisance1 and is appropriately applied to women whose lives are exemplary1 and who have received that school and home education which enables them to appear to advantage in the better circles of society4 ,such expressions as ,she is a fine lady1 a clever lady1 a well-dressed lady1 a good lady1 a modest lady1 a charitable lady1 an amiable lady1 a handsome lady1 a fascinating lady1 and the like1 are studiously avoided by persons of refinement4 ,ladies say1 we women1 the women of ,america1 women's apparel1 and so on2 vulgar women talk about us ladies1 the ladies of ,america1 ladies' apparel1 and so on4 ,if a woman of culture and refinement--in short1 a lady--is compelled from any cause soever to work in a store1 she is quite content to be called a sales-woman2 not so1 however1 with your young woman who1 being in a store1 is in a better position than ever before4 ,she1 ,heaven bless her6 boils with indignation if she is not denominated a sales-lady4 ,lady is often the proper term to use1 and then it would be very improper to use any other2 but it is very certain that the terms lady and gentleman are least used by those persons who are most worthy of being designated by them4 ,with a nice discrimination worthy of special notice1 one of our daily papers recently said3 ,miss ,jennie ,halstead1 daughter of the proprietor of the ',cincinnati ,commercial1' is one of the most brilliant young women in ,ohio4 ,in a late number of the ,london ,queen was the following3 ,the terms ladies and gentlemen become in themselves vulgarisms when misapplied1 and the improper application of the wrong term at the wrong time makes all the difference in the world to ears polite4 ,thus1 calling a man a gentleman when he should be called a man1 or speaking of a man as a man when he should be spoken of as a gentleman2 or alluding to a lady as a woman when she should be alluded to as a lady1 or speaking of a woman as a lady when she should properly be termed a woman4 ,tact and a sense of the fitness of things decide these points1 there being no fixed rule to go upon to determine when a man is a man or when he is a gentleman2 and1 although he is far oftener termed the one than the other1 he does not thereby lose his attributes of a gentleman4 ,in common parlance1 a man is always a man to a man1 and never a gentleman2 to a woman1 he is occasionally a man and occasionally a gentleman2 but a man would far oftener term a woman a woman than he would term her a lady4 ,when a man makes use of an adjective in speaking of a lady1 he almost invariably calls her a woman4 ,thus1 he would say1 ',i met a rather agreeable woman at dinner last night'2 but he would not say1 ',i met an agreeable lady'2 but he might say1 ',a lady1 a friend of mine1 told me1' etc41 when he would not say1 ',a woman1 a friend of mine1 told me1' etc4 ,again1 a man would say1 ',which of the ladies did you take in to dinner8' ,he would certainly not say1 ',which of the women1' etc4 ,speaking of people en masse1 it would be to belong to a very advanced school to refer to them in conversation as 'men and women1' while it would be all but vulgar to style them 'ladies and gentlemen1' the compromise between the two being to speak of them as 'ladies and men4' ,thus a lady would say1 ',i have asked two or three ladies and several men'2 she would not say1 ',i have asked several men and women'2 neither would she say1 ',i have asked several ladies and gentlemen4' ,and1 speaking of numbers1 it would be very usual to say1 ',there were a great many ladies1 and but very few men present1' or1 ',the ladies were in the majority1 so few men being present4' ,again1 a lady would not say1 ',i expect two or three men1' but she would say1 ',i expect two or three gentlemen4' ,when people are on ceremony with each other one another1 they might1 perhaps1 in speaking of a man1 call him a gentleman2 but1 otherwise1 it would be more usual to speak of him as a man4 ,ladies1 when speaking of each other one another1 usually employ the term woman in preference to that of lady4 ,thus they would say1 ',she is a very good-natured woman1' ',what sort of a woman is she8' the term lady being entirely out of place under such circumstances4 ,again1 the term young lady gives place as far as possible to the term girl1 although it greatly depends upon the amount of intimacy existing as to which term is employed4 ,,language4 ,a note in ,worcester's ,dictionary says3 ,language is a very general term1 and is not strictly confined to utterance by words1 as it is also expressed by the countenance1 by the eyes1 and by signs4 ,tongue refers especially to an original language2 as1 'the ,hebrew tongue4' ,the modern languages are derived from the original tongues4 ,if this be correct1 then he who speaks ,french1 ,german1 ,english1 ,spanish1 and ,italian1 may properly say that he speaks five languages1 but only one tongue4 ,,lay--,,lie4 ,errors are frequent in the use of these two irregular verbs4 ,lay is often used for lie1 and lie is sometimes used for lay4 ,this confusion in their use is due in some measure1 doubtless1 to the circumstance that lay appears in both verbs1 it being the imperfect tense of to lie4 ,we say1 ,a mason lays bricks1 ,a ship lies at anchor1 etc4 ,i must lie down2 ,i must lay myself down2 ,i must lay this book on the table2 ,he lies on the grass2 ,he lays his plans well2 ,he lay on the grass2 ,he laid it away2 ,he has lain in bed long enough2 ,he has laid up some money1 in a stock1 down the law2 ,he is laying out the grounds2 ,ships lie at the wharf2 ,hens lay eggs2 ,the ship lay at anchor2 ,the hen laid an egg4 ,it will be seen that lay always expresses transitive action1 and that lie expresses rest4 ,here lies our sovereign lord1 the king1 ,whose word no man relies on2 ,he never says a foolish thing1 ,nor ever does a wise one4 --,written on the bedchamber door of ,charles ,,ii1 by the ,earl of ,rochester4 ,,learn4 ,this verb was long ago used as a synonym of teach1 but in this sense it is now obsolete4 ,to teach is to give instruction2 to learn is to take instruction4 ,i will learn1 if you will teach me4 ,see ,,teach4 ,,leave4 ,there are grammarians who insist that this verb should not be used without an object1 as1 for example1 it is used in such sentences as1 ,when do you leave8 ,i leave to-morrow4 ,the object of the verb--home1 town1 or whatever it may be--is1 of course1 understood2 but this1 say these gentlemen1 is not permissible4 ,on this point opinions will1 ,i think1 differ2 they will1 however1 not differ with regard to the vulgarity of using leave in the sense of let2 thus1 ,leave me be2 ,leave it alone2 ,leave her be--don't bother her2 ,leave me see it4 ,,lend4 ,see ,,loan4 ,,lengthy4 ,this word is of comparatively recent origin1 and1 though it is said to be an ,americanism1 it is a good deal used in ,england4 ,the most careful writers1 however1 both here and elsewhere1 much prefer the word long3 a long discussion1 a long discourse1 etc4 ,,leniency4 ,mr4 ,gould calls this word and lenience two philological abortions4 ,lenity is undoubtedly the proper word to use1 though both ,webster and ,worcester do recognize leniency and lenience4 ,,less4 ,this word is much used instead of fewer4 ,less relates to quantity2 fewer to number4 ,instead of1 ,there were not less than twenty persons present1 we should say1 ,there were not fewer than twenty persons present4 ,,lesser4 ,this form of the comparative of little is accounted a corruption of less4 ,it may1 however1 be used instead of less with propriety in verse1 and also1 in some cases1 in prose4 ,we may say1 for example1 ,of two evils choose the less1 or the lesser4 ,the latter form1 in sentences like this1 is the more euphonious4 ,,liable4 ,richard ,grant ,white1 in inveighing against the misuse of this word1 cites the example of a member from a rural district1 who called out to a man whom he met in the village1 where he was in the habit of making little purchases3 ,i say1 mister1 kin yer tell me whar ,i'd be li'ble to find some beans8 ,see1 also1 ,,apt4 ,,lie4 ,see ,,lay4 ,,like--,,as4 ,both these words express similarity2 like 7adjective7 comparing things1 as 7adverb7 comparing action1 existence1 or quality4 ,like is followed by an object only1 and does not admit of a verb in the same construction4 ,as must be followed by a verb expressed or understood4 ,we say1 ,he looks like his brother1 or ,he looks as his brother looks4 ,do as ,i do1 not like ,i do4 ,you must speak as ,james does1 not like ,james does4 ,he died as he had lived1 like a dog4 ,it is as blue as indigo2 i4 e41 as indigo is4 ,,like1 ,,to4 ,see ,,love4 ,,likely4 ,see ,,apt4 ,,lit4 ,this form of the past participle of the verb to light is now obsolete4 ,have you lighted the fire8 ,the gas is lighted4 ,het for heated is a similar1 but much greater1 vulgarism4 ,,loan--,,lend4 ,there are those who contend that there is no such verb as to loan1 although it has been found in our literature for more than three hundred years4 ,whether there is properly such a verb or not1 it is quite certain that it is only those having a vulgar penchant for big words who will prefer it to its synonym lend4 ,better far to say ,lend me your umbrella than ,loan me your umbrella4 ,,locate--,,settle4 ,the use of the verb to locate in the sense of to settle is said to be an ,americanism4 ,although the dictionaries recognize to locate as a neuter verb1 as such it is marked rarely used1 and1 in the sense of to settle1 it is among the vulgarisms that careful speakers and writers are studious to avoid4 ,a man settles1 not locates1 in ,nebraska4 ,where do you intend to settle8 not locate4 ,see1 also1 ,,settle4 ,,loggerheads4 ,in the mean time ,france is at loggerheads internally4--,new ,york ,herald1 ,april #bi1 #ahha4 ,loggerheads internally86 ,,looks ,,beautifully4 ,it is sometimes interesting to note the difference between vulgar bad grammar and genteel bad grammar1 or1 more properly1 between non-painstaking and painstaking bad grammar4 ,the former uses1 for example1 adjectives instead of adverbs2 the latter uses adverbs instead of adjectives4 ,the former says1 ,this bonnet is trimmed shocking2 the latter says1 ,this bonnet looks shockingly4 ,in the first sentence the epithet qualifies the verb is trimmed1 and consequently should have its adverbial form--shockingly2 in the second sentence the epithet qualifies the appearance--a noun--of the bonnet1 and consequently should have its adjectival form--shocking4 ,the second sentence means to say1 ,this bonnet presents a shocking appearance4 ,the bonnet certainly does not really look2 it is looked at1 and to the looker its appearance is shocking4 ,so we say1 in like manner1 of a person1 that he or she looks sweet1 or charming1 or beautiful1 or handsome1 or horrid1 or graceful1 or timid1 and so on1 always using an adjective4 ,miss ,coghlan1 as ,lady ,teazle1 looked charmingly4 ,the grammar of the ,new ,york ,herald would not have been any more incorrect if it had said that ,miss ,coghlan looked gladly1 or sadly1 or madly1 or delightedly1 or pleasedly4 ,a person may look sick or sickly1 but in both cases the qualifying word is an adjective4 ,the verbs to smell1 to feel1 to sound1 and to appear are also found in sentences in which the qualifying word must be an adjective and not an adverb4 ,we say1 for example1 ,the rose smells sweet2 ,the butter smells good1 or bad1 or fresh2 ,i feel glad1 or sad1 or bad1 or despondent1 or annoyed1 or nervous2 ,this construction sounds harsh2 ,how delightful the country appears6 ,on the other hand1 to look1 to feel1 to smell1 to sound1 and to appear are found in sentences where the qualifying word must be an adverb2 thus1 ,he feels his loss keenly2 ,the king looked graciously on her2 ,i smell it faintly4 ,we might also say1 ,he feels sad adjective1 because he feels his loss keenly 7adverb72 ,he appears well 7adverb74 ,the expression1 ,she seemed confusedly1 or timidly1 is not a whit more incorrect than ,she looked beautifully1 or charmingly4 ,see ,,adjectives4 ,,love--,,like4 ,men who are at all careful in the selection of language to express their thoughts1 and have not an undue leaning toward the superlative1 love few things3 their wives1 their sweethearts1 their kinsmen1 truth1 justice1 and their country4 ,women1 on the contrary1 as a rule1 love a multitude of things1 and1 among their loves1 the thing they perhaps love most is--taffy4 ,,luggage--,,baggage4 ,the former of these words is generally used in ,england1 the latter in ,america4 ,,lunch4 ,this word1 when used as a substantive1 may at the best be accounted an inelegant abbreviation of luncheon4 ,the dictionaries barely recognize it4 ,the proper phraseology to use is1 ,have you lunched8 or1 ,have you had your luncheon8 or1 better1 ,have you had luncheon8 as we may in most cases presuppose that the person addressed would hardly take anybody's else luncheon4 ,,luxurious--,,luxuriant4 ,the line is drawn much more sharply between these two words now than it was formerly4 ,luxurious was once used1 to some extent at least1 in the sense of rank growth1 but now all careful writers and speakers use it in the sense of indulging or delighting in luxury4 ,we talk of a luxurious table1 a luxurious liver1 luxurious ease1 luxurious freedom4 ,luxuriant1 on the other hand1 is restricted to the sense of rank1 or excessive1 growth or production2 thus1 luxuriant weeds1 luxuriant foliage or branches1 luxuriant growth4 ,prune the luxuriant1 the uncouth refine1 ,but show no mercy to an empty line4--,pope4 ,,mad4 ,professor ,richard ,a4 ,proctor1 in a recent number of ,the ,gentleman's ,magazine1 says3 ,the word mad in ,america seems nearly always to mean angry4 ,for mad1 as we use the word1 ,americans say crazy4 ,herein they have manifestly impaired the language4 ,have they8 ,now1 in faith1 ,gratiano1 ,you give your wife too unkind a cause of grief2 ,an 'twere1 to me1 ,i would be mad at it4 --,merchant of ,venice4 ,and being exceedingly mad against them1 ,i persecuted them even unto strange cities4--,acts xxvi1 ,,ii4 ,,make ,a ,,visit4 ,the phrase make a visit1 according to ,dr4 ,hall1 whatever it once was1 is no longer ,english4 ,,male4 ,see ,,female4 ,,marry4 ,there has been some discussion1 at one time and another1 with regard to the use of this word4 ,is ,john ,jones married to ,sally ,brown or with ,sally ,brown1 or are they married to each other8 ,inasmuch as the woman loses her name in that of the man to whom she is wedded1 and becomes a member of his family1 not he of hers--inasmuch as1 with few exceptions1 it is her life that is merged in his--it would seem that1 properly1 ,sally ,brown is married to ,john ,jones1 and that this would be the proper way to make the announcement of their having been wedded1 and not ,john ,jones to ,sally ,brown4 ,there is also a difference of opinion as to whether the active or the passive form is preferable in referring to a person's wedded state4 ,in speaking definitely of the act of marriage1 the passive form is necessarily used with reference to either spouse4 ,john ,jones was married to ,sally ,brown on ,dec4 #a1 #ahha2 not1 ,john ,jones married ,sally ,brown on such a date1 for 7unless they were ,quakers7 some third person married him to her and her to him4 ,but1 in speaking indefinitely of the fact of marriage1 the active form is a matter of course4 ,whom did ,john ,jones marry8 ,he married ,sally ,brown4 ,john ,jones1 when he had sown his wild oats1 married married himself1 as the ,french say and settled down4 ,got married is a vulgarism4 ,,may4 ,in the sense of can1 may1 in a negative clause1 has become obsolete4 ,though we may say a horse1 we may not say a ox4 ,the first may here is permissible2 not so1 however1 the second1 which should be can4 ,,meat4 ,at table1 we ask for and offer beef1 mutton1 veal1 steak1 turkey1 duck1 etc41 and do not ask for nor offer meat1 which1 to say the least1 is inelegant4 ,will you have not1 take another piece of beef not1 of the beef8 not1 ,will you have another piece of meat8 ,,memorandum4 ,the plural is memoranda1 except when the singular means a book2 then the plural is memorandums4 ,,mere4 ,this word is not unfrequently misplaced1 and sometimes1 as in the following sentence1 in consequence of being misplaced1 it is changed to an adverb3 ,it is true of men as of ,god1 that words merely meet with no response4 ,what the writer evidently intended to say is1 that mere words meet with no response4 ,,metaphor4 ,an implied comparison is called a metaphor2 it is a more terse form of expression than the simile4 ,take1 for example1 this sentence from ,spenser's ,philosophy of ,style3 ,as1 in passing through the crystal1 beams of white light are decomposed into the colors of the rainbow2 so1 in traversing the soul of the poet1 the colorless rays of truth are transformed into brightly-tinted poetry4 ,expressed in metaphors1 this becomes3 ,the white light of truth1 in traversing the many-sided1 transparent soul of the poet1 is refracted into iris-hued poetry4 ,worcester's definition of a metaphor is3 ,a figure of speech founded on the resemblance which one object is supposed to bear1 in some respect1 to another1 or a figure by which a word is transferred from a subject to which it properly belongs to another1 in such a manner that a comparison is implied1 though not formally expressed2 a comparison or simile comprised in a word2 as1 ',thy word is a lamp to my feet4' ,a metaphor differs from a simile in being expressed without any sign of comparison2 thus1 the silver moon is a metaphor2 the moon is bright as silver is a simile4 ,examples3 ,but look1 the morn1 in russet mantle clad1 ,walks o'er the dew of yon high eastern hill4 ,canst thou not minister to a mind diseased-- ,pluck from the memory a rooted sorrow8 ,at length ,erasmus ,stemmed the wild torrent of a barbarous age1 ,and drove those holy ,vandals off the stage4 ,censure is the tax a man pays to the public for being eminent4 ,,metonymy4 ,the rhetorical figure that puts the effect for the cause1 the cause for the effect1 the container for the thing contained1 the sign1 or symbol1 for the thing signified1 or the instrument for the agent1 is called metonymy4 ,one very common species of metonymy is1 when the badge is put for the office4 ,thus we say the miter for the priesthood2 the crown for royalty2 for military occupation we say the sword2 and for the literary professions1 those especially of theology1 law1 and physic1 the common expression is the gown4--,campbell4 ,dr4 ,quackenbos1 in his ,course of ,composition and ,rhetoric1 says3 ,metonymy is the exchange of names between things related4 ,it is founded1 not on resemblance1 but on the relation of1 #a4 ,cause and effect2 as1',they have ,moses and the prophets1' i4 e41 their writings2 ',gray hairs should be respected1' i4 e41 old age4 #b4 ,progenitor and posterity2 as1 ',hear1 ,o ,israel6' i4 e41 descendants of ,israel4 #c4 ,subject and attribute2 as1 ',youth and beauty shall be laid in dust1' i4 e41 the young and beautiful4 #d4 ,place and inhabitant2 as1 ',what land is so barbarous as to allow this injustice8' i4 e41 what people4 #e4 ,container and thing contained2 as1 ',our ships next opened fire1' i4 e41 our sailors4 #f4 ,sign and thing signified2 as1 ',the scepter shall not depart from ,judah1' i4 e41 kingly power4 #g4 ,material and thing made of it2 as1 ',his steel gleamed on high1' i4 e41 his sword4 ,petitions having proved unsuccessful1 it was determined to approach the throne more boldly4 ,,midst1 ,,the4 ,see ,,in ,,our ,,midst4 ,,mind--,,capricious4 ,lord ,salisbury's mind is capricious4--,tribune1 ,april #c1 #ahha4 ,see ,,equanimity ,,of ,,mind4 ,,misplaced ,,clauses4 ,in writing and speaking1 it is as important to give each clause its proper place as it is to place the words properly4 ,the following are a few instances of misplaced clauses and adjuncts3 ,all these circumstances brought close to us a state of things which we never thought to have witnessed to witness in peaceful ,england4 ,in the sister island1 indeed1 we had read of such horrors1 but now they were brought home to our very household hearth4--,swift4 ,better3 ,we had read1 indeed1 of such horrors occurring in the sister island1 etc4 ,the savage people in many places in ,america1 except the government of families1 have no government at all1 and live at this day in that savage manner as ,i have said before4--,hobbes4 ,better3 ,the savage people 444 in ,america have no government at all1 except the government of families1 etc4 ,i shall have a comedy for you1 in a season or two at farthest1 that ,i believe will be worth your acceptance4--,goldsmith4 ,bettered3 ,in a season or two at farthest1 ,i shall have a comedy for you that ,i believe will be worth your acceptance4 ,among the following examples of the wrong placing of words and clauses1 there are some that are as amusing as they are instructive3 ,this orthography is regarded as normal in ,england4 ,what the writer intended was1 in ,england as normal--a very different thought4 ,the ,normal ,school is a commodious building capable of accommodating three hundred students four stories high4 ,,housekeeper4--,a highly respectable middle-aged ,person who has been filling the above ,situation with a gentleman for upwards of eleven years and who is now deceased is anxious to meet a similar one4 ,,to ,,piano-,,forte ,,makers4--,a lady keeping a first-class school requiring a good piano1 is desirous of receiving a daughter of the above in exchange for the same4 ,the ,moor1 seizing a bolster boiling over with rage and jealousy1 smothers her4 ,the ,dying ,zouave the most wonderful mechanical representation ever seen of the last breath of life being shot in the breast and life's blood leaving the wound4 ,mr4 ,t---- presents his compliments to ,mr4 ,h----1 and ,i have got a hat that is not his1 and1 if he have a hat that is not yours1 no doubt they are the expectant ones4 ,see ,,only4 ,,misplaced ,,words4 ,of all the faults to be found in writing1 says ,cobbett1 this is one of the most common1 and perhaps it leads to the greatest number of misconceptions4 ,all the words may be the proper words to be used upon the occasion1 and yet1 by a misplacing of a part of them1 the meaning may be wholly destroyed2 and even made to be the contrary of what it ought to be4 ,i asked the question with no other intention than to set the gentleman free from the necessity of silence1 and to give him an opportunity of mingling on equal terms with a polite assembly from which1 however uneasy1 he could not then escape1 by a kind introduction of the only subject on which ,i believed him to be able to speak with propriety4--,dr4 ,johnson4 ,this1 says ,cobbett1 is a very bad sentence altogether4 ',however uneasy' applies to assembly and not to gentleman4 ,only observe how easily this might have been avoided4 ',from which he1 however uneasy1 could not then escape4' ,after this we have1 'he could not then escape1 by a kind introduction4' ,we know what is meant2 but the ,doctor1 with all his commas1 leaves the sentence confused4 ,let us see whether we can not make it clear4 ',i asked the question with no other intention than1 by a kind introduction of the only subject on which ,i believed him to be able to speak with propriety1 to set the gentleman free from the necessity of silence1 and to give him an opportunity of mingling on equal terms with a polite assembly from which he1 however uneasy1 could not then escape4' ,reason is the glory of human nature1 and one of the chief eminences whereby we are raised above our fellow-creatures1 the brutes1 in this lower world4--,doctor ,watts' ,logic4 ,i have before showed an error1 ,cobbett remarks1 in the first sentence of ,doctor ,watts' work4 ,this is the second sentence4 ,the words in this lower world are not words misplaced only2 they are wholly unnecessary1 and they do great harm2 for they do these two things3 first1 they imply that there are brutes in the higher world2 and1 second1 they excite a doubt whether we are raised above those brutes4 ,i might greatly extend the number of my extracts from these authors2 but here1 ,i trust1 are enough4 ,i had noted down about two hundred errors in ,dr4 ,johnson's ',lives of the ,poets'2 but1 afterward perceiving that he had revised and corrected ',the ,rambler' with extraordinary care1 ,i chose to make my extracts from that work rather than from the ',lives of the ,poets4' ,the position of the adverb should be as near as possible to the word it qualifies4 ,sometimes we place it before the auxiliary and sometimes after it1 according to the thought we wish to express4 ,the difference between ,the fish should properly be broiled and ,the fish should be properly broiled is apparent at a glance4 ,the colon may be properly used in the following cases3 should be1 may properly be used4 ,this mode of expression rather suits a familiar than a grave style3 should be1 suits a familiar rather than a grave style4 ,it is a frequent error in the writings even of some good authors3 should be1 in the writings of even some good authors4 ,both the circumstances of contingency and futurity are necessary3 should be1 ,the circumstances of contingency and futurity are both necessary4 ,he has made charges 444 which he has failed utterly to sustain4--,new ,york ,tribune4 ,here it is uncertain at first sight which verb the adverb is intended to qualify2 but the nature of the case makes it probable that the writer meant has utterly failed to sustain4 ,,mistaken4 ,if ,i am not mistaken1 you are in the wrong3 say1 ,if ,i mistake not4 ,i tell you1 you are mistaken4 ,here mistaken means1 ,you are wrong2 you do not understand2 but it might be taken to mean1 ,i mistake you4 ,for you are mistaken1 say1 you mistake4 ,if1 as ,horace and ,professor ,davidson aver1 usage in language makes right1 then the grammarians ought long ago to have invented some theory upon which the locution you are mistaken could be defended4 ,until they do invent such a theory1 it will be better to say you mistake1 he mistakes1 and so on2 or you are1 or he is--as the case may be--in error4 ,,more ,,perfect4 ,such expressions as1 the more perfect of the two1 the most perfect thing of the kind ,i have ever seen1 the most complete cooking-stove ever invented1 and the like1 can not be defended logically1 as nothing can be more perfect than perfection1 or more complete than completeness4 ,still such phrases are1 and probably will continue to be1 used by good writers4 ,,most4 ,everybody abuses this word1 says ,mr4 ,gould in his ,good ,english2 and then1 in another paragraph1 he adds3 ,if a man would cross out most wherever he can find it in any book in the ,english language1 he would in almost every instance improve the style of the book4 ,that this statement may appear within bounds1 he gives many examples from good authors1 some of which are the following3 a most profound silence2 a most just idea2 a most complete orator2 this was most extraordinary2 an object of most perfect esteem2 a most extensive erudition2 he gave it most liberally away2 it is1 most assuredly1 not because ,i value his services least2 would most seriously affect us2 that such a system must most widely and most powerfully1 etc42 it is most effectually nailed to the counter2 it is most undeniable that1 etc4 ,this word is much1 and very erroneously1 used for almost4 ,he comes here most every day4 ,the user of such a sentence as this means to say that he comes nearly every day1 but he really says1 if he says anything1 that he comes more every day than he does every night4 ,in such sentences almost1 and not most1 is the word to use4 ,,mutual4 ,this word is much misused in the phrase our mutual friend4 ,macaulay says3 ,mutual friend is a low vulgarism for common friend4 ,mutual properly relates to two persons1 and implies reciprocity of sentiment--sentiment1 be it what it may1 received and returned4 ,thus1 we say properly1 ,john and ,james have a mutual affection1 or a mutual aversion1 i4 e41 they like or dislike each other2 or1 ,john and ,james are mutually dependent1 i4 e41 they are dependent on each other4 ,in using the word mutual1 care should be taken not to add the words for each other or on each other1 the thought conveyed by these words being already expressed in the word mutual4 ,dependent on each other is the exact equivalent of mutually dependent2 hence1 saying that ,john and ,james are mutually dependent on each other is as redundant in form as it would be to say that the editors of ,the ,great ,vilifier are the biggest1 greatest mud-slingers in ,america4 ,,myself4 ,this form of the personal pronoun is properly used in the nominative case only where increased emphasis is aimed at4 ,i had as lief not be as live to be ,in awe of such a thing as ,i myself4 ,i will do it myself1 ,i saw it myself4 ,it is1 therefore1 incorrect to say1 ,mrs4 ,brown and myself were both very much pleased4 ,,name4 ,this word is sometimes improperly used for mention2 thus1 ,i never named the matter to any one3 should be1 ,i never mentioned the matter to any one4 ,,neighborhood4 ,see ,,vicinity4 ,,neither4 ,see ,,either4 ,,neither--,,nor4 ,he would neither give wine1 nor oil1 nor money4--,thackeray4 ,the conjunction should be placed before the excluded object2 neither give implies neither some other verb1 a meaning not intended4 ,rearrange thus1 taking all the common parts of the contracted sentences together3 ,he would give neither wine1 nor oil1 nor money4 ,so1 ,she can neither help her beauty1 nor her courage1 nor her cruelty 7,thackeray71 should be1 ,she can help neither1 etc4 ,he had neither time to intercept nor to stop her 7,scott71 should be1 ,he had time neither to intercept1 etc4 ,some neither can for wits nor critics pass 7,pope71 should be1 ,some can neither for wits nor critics pass4 ,,never4 ,grammarians differ with regard to the correctness of using never in such sentences as1 ,he is in error1 though never so wise1 ,charm he never so wisely4 ,in sentences like these1 to say the least1 it is better1 in common with the great majority of writers1 to use ever4 ,,new4 ,this adjective is often misplaced4 ,he has a new suit of clothes and a new pair of gloves4 ,it is not the suit and the pair that are new1 but the clothes and the gloves4 ,,nice4 ,archdeacon ,hare remarks of the use1 or rather misuse1 of this word3 ,that stupid vulgarism by which we use the word nice to denote almost every mode of approbation1 for almost every variety of quality1 and1 from sheer poverty of thought1 or fear of saying anything definite1 wrap up everything indiscriminately in this characterless domino1 speaking at the same breath of a nice cheese-cake1 a nice tragedy1 a nice sermon1 a nice day1 a nice country1 as if a universal deluge of niaiserie--for nice seems originally to have been only niais--had whelmed the whole island4 ,nice is as good a word as any other in its place1 but its place is not everywhere4 ,we talk very properly about a nice distinction1 a nice discrimination1 a nice calculation1 a nice point1 and about a person's being nice1 and over-nice1 and the like2 but we certainly ought not to talk about ,othello's being a nice tragedy1 about ,salvini's being a nice actor1 or ,new ,york bay's being a nice harbor4#bc ,,nicely4 ,the very quintessence of popinjay vulgarity is reached when nicely is made to do service for well1 in this wise3 ,how do you do8 ,nicely4 ,how are you8 ,nicely4 ,,no4 ,this word of negation is responded to by nor in sentences like this3 ,let your meaning be obscure1 and no grace of diction nor any music of well-turned sentences will make amends4 ,whether he is there or no4 ,supply the ellipsis1 and we have1 ,whether he is there or no there4 ,clearly1 the word to use in sentences like this is not no1 but not4 ,and yet our best writers sometimes inadvertently use no with whether4 ,example3 ,but perhaps some people are quite indifferent whether or no it is said1 etc4--,richard ,grant ,white1 in ,words and ,their ,uses1 p4 #hd4 ,supply the ellipsis1 and we have1 said or no said4 ,in a little book entitled ,live and ,learn1 ,i find1 ,no less than fifty persons were there2 ,no fewer1 etc4 ,in correcting one mistake1 the writer himself makes one4 ,it should be1 ,not fewer1 etc4 ,if we ask1 ,there were fifty persons there1 were there or were there not8 the reply clearly would be1 ,there were not fewer than fifty4 ,there was no one of them who would not have been proud1 etc41 should be1 ,there was not one of them4 ,,not4 ,the correlative of not1 when it stands in the first member of a sentence1 is nor or neither4 ,not for thy ivory nor thy gold will ,i unbind thy chain4 ,i will not do it1 neither shall you4 ,the wrong placing of not often gives rise to an imperfect negation2 thus1 ,john and ,james were not there1 means that ,john and ,james were not there in company4 ,it does not exclude the presence of one of them4 ,the negative should precede in this case3 ,neither ,john nor ,james was there4 ,our company was not present 7as a company1 but some of us might have been71 should be1 ,no member of our company was present4 ,,not--,,but ,,only4 ,errors frequently arise in the use of not--but only1 to understand which we must attend to the force of the whole expression4 ',he did not pretend to extirpate ,french music1 but only to cultivate and civilize it4' ,here the not is obviously misplaced4 ',he pretended1 or professed1 not to extirpate4'--,bain4 ,,notorious4 ,though this word can not be properly used in any but a bad sense1 we sometimes see it used instead of noted1 which may be used in either a good or a bad sense4 ,notorious characters are always persons to be shunned1 whereas noted characters may or may not be persons to be shunned4 ,this is the tax a man must pay for his virtues--they hold up a torch to his vices and render those frailties notorious in him which would pass without observation in another4--,lacon4 ,,novice4 ,see ,,amateur4 ,,number4 ,it is not an uncommon thing for a pronoun in the plural number to be used in connection with an antecedent in the singular4 ,at present1 the following notice may be seen in some of our ,broadway omnibuses3 ,fifty dollars reward for the conviction of any person caught collecting or keeping fares given to them to deposit in the box4 ,should be1 to him4 ,a person may be very near-sighted if they can not recognize an acquaintance ten feet off4 ,should be1 if he4 ,the verb to be is often used in the singular instead of in the plural2 thus1 ,there is several reasons why it would be better3 say1 are4 ,how many is there8 say1 are4 ,there is four3 say1 are4 ,was there many8 say1 were4 ,no matter how many there was3 say1 were4 ,a verb should agree in number with its subject1 and not with its predicate4 ,we say1 for example1 ,death is the wages of sin1 and ,the wages of sin are death4 ,when singular nouns connected by and are preceded by each1 every1 or no1 the verb must be singular4 ,we say1 for example1 ,each boy and each girl studies4 ,every leaf1 and every twig1 and every drop of water teems with life4 ,no book and no paper was arranged4 ,each being singular1 a pronoun or verb to agree with it must also be singular2 thus1 ,let them depend each on his own exertions2 ,each city has its peculiar privileges2 ,everybody has a right to look after his own interest4 ,errors are often the result of not repeating the verb2 thus1 ,its significance is as varied as the passions3 correctly1 as are the passions4 ,the words are as incapable of analysis as the thing signified3 correctly1 as is the thing signified4 ,,observe4 ,the dictionaries authorize the use of this word as a synonym of say and remark2 as1 for example1 ,what did you observe8 for ,what did you say1 or remark8 ,in this sense1 however1 it is better to leave observe to the exclusive use of those who delight in being fine4 ,o',,clock4 ,it is a quarter to ten o'clock4 ,what does this statement mean1 literally8 ,we understand by it that it lacks a quarter of ten1 i4 e41 of being ten2 but it does not really mean that4 ,inasmuch as to means toward1 it really means a quarter after nine4 ,we should say1 then1 a quarter of1 which means1 literally1 a quarter out of ten4 ,,of ,,all ,,others4 ,the vice of covetousness1 of all others1 enters deepest into the soul4 ,this sentence says that covetousness is one of the other vices4 ,a thing can not be another thing1 nor can it be one of a number of other things4 ,the sentence should be1 ,of all the vices1 covetousness enters deepest into the soul2 or1 ,the vice of covetousness1 of all the vices1 enters1 etc42 or1 ,the vice of covetousness1 above all others1 enters1 etc4 ,,of ,,any4 ,this phrase is often used when of all is meant2 thus1 ,this is the largest of any ,i have seen4 ,should be1 the largest of all1 etc4 ,,off ,,of4 ,in such sentences as1 ,give me a yard off of this piece of calico1 either the off or the of is vulgarly superfluous4 ,the sentence would be correct with either one1 but not with both of them4 ,the apples fell off of the tree3 read1 fell off the tree4 ,,often4 ,this adverb is properly compared by changing its termination3 often1 oftener1 oftenest4 ,why some writers use more and most to compare it1 it is not easy to see2 this mode of comparing it is certainly not euphonious4 ,,oh--,o4 ,it is only the most careful writers who use these two interjections with proper discrimination4 ,the distinction between them is said to be modern4 ,oh is simply an exclamation1 and should always be followed by some mark of punctuation1 usually by an exclamation point4 ,oh6 you are come at last4 ,oh1 help him1 you sweet heavens6 ,oh1 woe is me6 ,oh6 ,i die1 ,horatio4 ,o1 in addition to being an exclamation1 denotes a calling to or adjuration2 thus1 ,hear1 ,o heavens1 and give ear1 ,o earth6 ,o grave1 where is thy victory8 ,o heavenly powers1 restore him6 ,o shame6 where is thy blush8 ,,older--,,elder4 ,he is the older man of the two1 and the oldest in the neighborhood4 ,he is the elder of the two sons1 and the eldest of the family4 ,the elder son is heir to the estate2 he is older than his brother by ten years4 ,,on ,,to4 ,we get on a chair1 on an omnibus1 on a stump1 and on a spree1 and not on to4 ,,one4 ,certain pronouns of demonstrative signification are called indefinite because they refer to no particular subject4 ,this is one of them4 ,if we were putting a supposition by way of argument or illustration1 we might say1 ,suppose ,i were to lose my way in a wood2 or1 ,suppose you were to lose your way in a wood2 or1 ,suppose one were to lose one's way in a wood4 ,all these forms are used1 but1 as a rule1 the last is to be preferred4 ,the first verges on egotism1 and the second makes free with another's person1 whereas the third is indifferent4 ,if one's honesty were impeached1 what should one do8 is more courtly than to take either one's self or the person addressed for the example4 ,one should be followed by one1 and not by he4 ,the better acquainted one is with any kind of rhetorical trick1 the less liable he is to be misled by it4 ,should be1 the less liable one is to be misled by it4 ,in the phrase1 any of the little ones1 one is the numeral employed in the manner of a pronoun1 by indicating something that has gone before1 or1 perhaps1 has to come after4 ,i like peaches1 but ,i must have a ripe one1 or ripe ones4 ,professor ,bain says1 in his ,composition ,grammar3 ,this pronoun continually lands writers in difficulties4 ,english idiom requires that1 when the pronoun has to be again referred to1 it should be used itself a second time4 ,the correct usage is shown by ,pope3 ',one may be ashamed to consume half one's days in bringing sense and rhyme together4' ,it would be against idiom to say 'half his days4' ,still1 the repetition of the pronoun is often felt to be heavy1 and writers have recourse to various substitutions4 ,even an ear accustomed to the idiom can scarcely accept with unmixed pleasure this instance from ,browning3 ',alack6 one lies oneself ,even in the stating that one's end was truth1 ,truth only1 if one states so much in words4' ,the representative ',i' or 'we' occasionally acts the part of 'one4' ,the following sentence presents a curious alternation of 'we' with 'one'--possibly not accidental 7,george ,eliot73 ',it's a desperately vexatious thing that1 after all one's reflections and quiet determinations1 we should be ruled by moods that one can't calculate on beforehand4' ,by the use of 'we' here1 a more pointed reference is suggested1 while the vagueness actually remains4 ,fenimore ,cooper1 like ,scott1 is not very particular2 an example may be quoted3 ',modesty is a poor man's wealth2 but1 as we grow substantial in the world1 patroon1 one can afford to begin to speak truth of himself as well as of his neighbor4' ,were ,cooper a careful writer1 we might persuade ourselves that he chose 'we' and 'one' with a purpose3 'we' might indicate that the speaker had himself and the patroon directly in his eye1 although at the same time he wanted to put it generally2 and 'one' might hint that modesty succeeded in getting the better of him4 ,but 'himself' and 'his' would alone show that such speculations are too refined for the occasion4 ,the form 'a man1' which was at one time common1 seems to be reviving4 ,in ',adam ,bede' we have1 ',a man can never do anything at variance with his own nature4' ,we might substitute 'one4' ',men' was more frequent in good writing formerly than now4 ',neither do men light a candle1 and put it under a bushel4' ',do men gather grapes of thorns8' ,hume is fond of expressing a general subject by 'men4' ',small birds are much more exposed to the cold than large ones4' ,this usage is hardly 'indefinite'2 and it needs no further exemplification4 ,,only4 ,this word1 when used as an adjective1 is more frequently misplaced than any other word in the language4 ,indeed1 ,i am confident that it is not correctly placed half the time1 either in conversation or in writing4 ,thus1 ,in its pages1 papers of sterling merit only will only appear 7,miss ,braddon72 ,things are getting dull down in ,texas2 they only shot only three men down there last week2 ,i have only got only three4 ,only is sometimes improperly used for except or unless2 thus1 ,the trains will not stop only when the bell rings4 ,the meaning here is clearly except when the bell rings4 ,dr4 ,bain1 in his ,higher ,english ,grammar1 speaking of the order of words1 says3 ,the word requiring most attention is only4 ,according to the position of only1 the same words may be made to express very different meanings4 ',he only lived for their sakes4' ,here only must be held as qualifying 'lived for their sakes1' the emphasis being on lived1 the word immediately adjoining4 ,the meaning then is 'he lived1' but did not work1 did not die1 did not do any other thing for their sakes4 ',he lived only for their sakes4' ,only now qualifies 'for their sakes1' and the sentence means he lived for this one reason1 namely1 for their sakes1 and not for any other reason4 ',he lived for their sakes only4' ,the force of the word when placed at the end is peculiar4 ,then it often has a diminutive or disparaging signification4 ',he lived for their sakes1' and not for any more worthy reason4 ',he gave sixpence only1' is an insinuation that more was expected4 ,by the use of alone1 instead of only1 other meanings are expressed4 ',he alone lived for their sakes'2 that is1 he1 and nobody else1 did so4 ',he lived for their sakes alone1' or1 'for the sake of them alone'2 that is1 not for the sake of any other persons4 ',it was alone by the help of the ,confederates that any such design could be carried out4' ,better only4 ',when men grow virtuous in their old age1 they only make a sacrifice to ,god of the devil's leavings4'--,pope4 ,here only is rightly placed4 ',think only of the past as its remembrance gives you pleasure1' should be1 'think of the past1 only as its remembrance1' etc4 ',as he did not leave his name1 it was only known that a gentleman had called on business'3 it was known only4 ',i can only refute the accusation by laying before you the whole'3 this would mean1 'the only thing ,i am able to do is to refute2 ,i may not retaliate1 or let it drop1 ,i must refute it4' ',the negroes are to appear at church only in boots'2 that is1 when the negroes go to church they are to have no clothing but boots4 ',the negroes are to appear only at church in boots' might mean that they are not to appear anywhere but at church1 whether in boots or out of them4 ,the proper arrangement would be to connect the adverbial adjunct1 in boots1 with its verb1 appear1 and to make only qualify at church and no more3 'the negroes are to appear in boots only at church4' ,it thus appears very plain that we should look well to our onlys4 ,,ought--,,should4 ,these two words1 though they both imply obligation1 should not be used indiscriminately4 ,ought is the stronger term2 what we ought to do1 we are morally bound to do4 ,we ought to be truthful and honest1 and should be respectful to our elders and kind to our inferiors4 ,,overflown4 ,flown is the past participle of to fly1 and flowed of to flow4 ,as1 therefore1 a river does not fly over its banks1 but flows over them1 we should say of it that it has overflowed1 and not that it has overflown4 ,,overly4 ,this word is now used only by the unschooled4 ,,owing4 ,see ,,due4 ,,pants4 ,this abbreviation is not used by those who are careful in the choice of words4 ,the purist does not use the word pantaloons even1 but trousers4 ,pants are worn by gents who eat lunches and open wine1 and trousers are worn by gentlemen who eat luncheons and order wine4 ,,paraphernalia4 ,this is a law term4 ,in ,roman law1 it meant the goods which a woman brought to her husband besides her dowry4 ,in ,english law1 it means the goods which a woman is allowed to have after the death of her husband1 besides her dower1 consisting of her apparel and ornaments suitable to her rank4 ,when used in speaking of the affairs of every-day life1 it is generally misused4 ,,parlor4 ,this word1 in the sense of drawing-room1 according to ,dr4 ,hall1 except in the ,united ,states and some of the ,english colonies1 is obsolete4 ,,partake4 ,this is a very fine word to use for eat2 just the word for young women who hobble on ,french heels4 ,,partially--,,partly4 ,it is only partially done4 ,this use of the adverb partially is sanctioned by high authority1 but that does not make it correct4 ,a thing done in part is partly1 not partially1 done4 ,,participles4 ,when the present participle is used substantively1 in sentences like the following1 it is preceded by the definite article and followed by the preposition of4 ,the omitting of the preposition is a common error4 ,thus1 ,or1 it is the drawing a conclusion which was before either unknown or dark1 should be1 the drawing of a conclusion4 ,prompted by the most extreme vanity1 he persisted in the writing bad verses1 should be1 in writing bad verses1 or in the writing of bad verses4 ,there is a misuse of the article a which is very common4 ,it is the using it before the word most4--,moon4 ,most writers would have said the using of it4 ,mr4 ,moon argues for his construction4 ,,particles4 ,nothing but study of the best writers and practice in composition will enable us to decide what are the prepositions and conjunctions that ought to go with certain verbs4 ,the following examples illustrate some common blunders3 ',it was characterized with eloquence'3 read1 'by4' ',a testimonial of the merits of his grammar'3 read1 'to4' ',it was an example of the love to form comparisons'3 read1 'of forming4' ',repetition is always to be preferred before obscurity'3 read1 'to4' ',he made an effort for meeting them'3 read1 'to meet4' ',they have no other object but to come'3 read1 'other object than1' or omit 'other4' ,two verbs are not unfrequently followed by a single preposition1 which accords with one only2 e4 g41 ',this duty is repeated and inculcated upon the reader4' ',repeat upon' is nonsense2 we must read 'is repeated to and inculcated upon4'--,nichol's ,english ,composition1 p4 #ci4 ,we often see for used with the substantive sympathy2 the best practice1 however1 uses with2 thus1 ,words can not express the deep sympathy ,i feel with you4--,queen ,victoria4 ,,party4 ,this is a very good word in its place1 but it is very much out of its place when used--as it often is by the vulgar--where good taste would use the word person4 ,,patronize4 ,this word and its derivatives would be much less used by the ,american tradesman than they are1 if he were better acquainted with their true meaning4 ,then he would solicit his neighbors' custom1 not their patronage4 ,a man can have no patrons without incurring obligations--without becoming a protg2 while a man may have customers innumerable1 and1 instead of placing himself under obligations to them1 he may place them under obligations to him4 ,princes are the patrons of those tradesmen whom they allow to call themselves their purveyors2 as1 ,john ,smith1 ,haberdasher to ,h4 ,r4 ,h4 the ,prince of ,wales4 ,here the ,prince patronizes ,john ,smith4 ,,pell-,,mell4 ,this adverb means mixed or mingled together2 as1 ,men1 horses1 chariots1 crowded pell-mell4 ,it can not properly be applied to an individual4 ,to say1 for example1 ,he rushed pell-mell down the stairs1 is as incorrect as it would be to say1 ,he rushed down the stairs mixed together4 ,,per4 ,this ,latin preposition is a good deal used in ,english1 as1 for example1 in such phrases as per day1 per man1 per pound1 per ton1 and so on4 ,in all such cases it is better to use plain ,english1 and say1 a day1 a man1 a pound1 a ton1 etc4 ,per is correct before ,latin nouns only2 as1 per annum1 per diem1 per cent41 etc4 ,,perform4 ,she performs on the piano beautifully4 ,in how much better taste it is to say simply1 ,she plays the piano well1 or1 more superlatively1 exceedingly well1 or admirably6 ,if we talk about performing on musical instruments1 to be consistent1 we should call those who perform1 piano-performers1 cornet-performers1 violin-performers1 and so on4 ,,perpetually4 ,this word is sometimes misused for continually4 ,dr4 ,william ,mathews1 in his ,words1 their ,use and ,abuse1 says3 ,the ,irish are perpetually using shall for will4 ,perpetual means never ceasing1 continuing without intermission1 uninterrupted2 while continual means that which is constantly renewed and recurring with perhaps frequent stops and interruptions4 ,as the ,irish do something besides misuse shall1 the ,doctor should have said that they continually use shall for will4 ,i might perhaps venture to intimate that perpetually is likewise misused in the following sentence1 which ,i copy from the ,london ,queen1 if ,i were not conscious that the monster who can write and print such a sentence would not hesitate to cable a thunderbolt at an offender on the slightest provocation4 ,judge1 if my fears are groundless3 ,but some few people contract the ugly habit of making use of these expressions unconsciously and continuously1 perpetually interlarding their conversation with them4 ,,person4 ,see ,,party2 also1 ,,individual4 ,,personalty4 ,this word does not1 as some persons think1 mean the articles worn on one's person4 ,it is properly a law term1 and means personal property4 ,there is but one case on record of a peer of ,england leaving over #g1ejj1jjj personalty4 ,,personification4 ,that rhetorical figure which attributes sex1 life1 or action to inanimate objects1 or ascribes to objects and brutes the acts and qualities of rational beings1 is called personification or prosopopia4 ,the mountains sing together1 the hills rejoice and clap their hands4 ,the worm1 aware of his intent1 harangued him thus4 ,see1 ,winter comes to rule the varied year1 ,sullen and sad with all his rising train4--,thomson4 ,so saying1 her rash hand1 in evil hour1 ,forth reaching to the fruit1 she plucked1 she ate6 ,earth felt the wound2 and ,nature from her seat1 ,sighing through all her works1 gave signs of woe1 ,that all was lost4--,milton4 ,war and ,love are strange compeers4 ,war sheds blood1 and ,love sheds tears2 ,war has swords1 and ,love has darts2 ,war breaks heads1 and ,love breaks hearts4 ,levity is often less foolish and gravity less wise than each of them appears4 ,the ,english language1 by reserving the distinction of gender for living beings that have sex1 gives especial scope for personification4 ,the highest form of personification should be used seldom1 and only when justified by the presence of strong feeling4--,bain4 ,knowledge and wisdom1 far from being one1 ,have ofttimes no connection4 ,knowledge dwells ,in heads replete with thoughts of other men2 ,wisdom in minds attentive to their own4 ,knowledge is proud that he has learned so much2 ,wisdom is humble that he knows no more4--,cowper4 ,,phenomenon4 ,plural1 phenomena4 ,,plead4 ,the imperfect tense and the perfect participle of the verb to plead are both pleaded and not plead4 ,he pleaded not guilty4 ,you should have pleaded your cause with more fervor4 ,,plenty4 ,in ,worcester's ,dictionary we find the following note3 ,plenty is much used colloquially as an adjective1 in the sense of plentiful1 both in this country and in ,england2 and this use is supported by respectable authorities1 though it is condemned by various critics4 ,johnson says3 ',it is used barbarously1 ,i think1 for plentiful'2 and ,dr4 ,campbell1 in his ',philosophy of ,rhetoric1' says3 ',plenty for plentiful appears to me so gross a vulgarism that ,i should not have thought it worthy of a place here if ,i had not sometimes found it in works of considerable merit4' ,we should say1 then1 that money is plentiful1 and not that it is plenty4 ,,pleonasm4 ,redundancy or pleonasm is the use of more words than are necessary to express the thought clearly4 ,they returned back again to the same city from whence they came forth3 the five words in italics are redundant or pleonastic4 ,the different departments of science and of art mutually reflect light on each other3 either of the expressions in italics embodies the whole idea4 ,the universal opinion of all men is a pleonastic expression often heard4 ,i wrote you a letter yesterday3 here a letter is redundant4 ,redundancy is sometimes permissible for the surer conveyance of meaning1 for emphasis1 and in the language of poetic embellishment4 ,,polite4 ,this word is much used by persons of doubtful culture1 where those of the better sort use the word kind4 ,we accept kind1 not polite invitations2 and1 when any one has been obliging1 we tell him that he has been kind2 and1 when an interviewing reporter tells us of his having met with a polite reception1 we may be sure that the person by whom he has been received deserves well for his considerate kindness4 ,i thank you and ,mrs4 ,pope for my kind reception4--,atterbury4 ,,portion4 ,this word is often incorrectly used for part4 ,a portion is properly a part assigned1 allotted1 set aside for a special purpose2 a share1 a division4 ,the verb to portion means to divide1 to parcel1 to endow4 ,we ask1 therefore1 ,in what part not1 in what portion of the country1 state1 county1 town1 or street do you live8--or1 if we prefer grandiloquence to correctness1 reside4 ,in the sentence1 ,a large portion of the land is unfilled1 the right word would be either part or proportion1 according to the intention of the writer4 ,,posted4 ,a word very much and very inelegantly used for informed4 ,such expressions as1 ,i will post you1 ,i must post myself up1 ,if ,i had been better posted1 and the like1 are1 at the best1 but one remove from slang4 ,,predicate4 ,this word is often very incorrectly used in the sense of to base2 as1 ,he predicates his opinion on insufficient data4 ,then we sometimes hear people talk about predicating an action upon certain information or upon somebody's statement4 ,to predicate means primarily to speak before1 and has come to be properly used in the sense of assumed or believed to be the consequence of4 ,examples3 ,contentment is predicated of virtue2 ,good health may be predicated of a good constitution4 ,he who is not very sure that he uses the word correctly would do better not to use it at all4 ,,prejudice--,,prepossess4 ,both these words mean1 to incline in one direction or the other for some reason not founded in justice2 but by common consent prejudice has come to be used in an unfavorable sense1 and prepossess in a favorable one4 ,thus1 we say1 ,he is prejudiced against him1 and ,he is prepossessed in his favor4 ,we sometimes hear the expression1 ,he is prejudiced in his favor1 but this can not be accounted a good use of the word4 ,,prepositions4 ,the errors made in the use of the prepositions are very numerous4 ,the indolent child is one who that8 has a strong aversion from action of any sort4--,graham's ,english ,synonymes1 p4 #bcf4 ,the prevailing and best modern usage is in favor of to instead of from after averse and aversion1 and before the object4 ,clearness 444 enables the reader to see thoughts without noticing the language with which they are clothed4--,townsend's ,art of ,speech4 ,we clothe thoughts in language4 ,shakespeare 444 and the ,bible are 444 models for the ,english-speaking tongue4--,ibid4 ,if this means models of ,english1 then it should be of2 but if it means models for ,english organs of speech to practice on1 then it should be for2 or if it means models to model ,english tongues after1 then also it should be for4 ,if the resemblance is too faint1 the mind is fatigued while attempting to trace the analogies4 ,aristotle is in error while thus describing governments4--,ibid4 ,here we have two examples1 not of the misuse of the preposition1 but of the erroneous use of the adverb while instead of the preposition in4 ,for my part ,i can not think that ,shelley's poetry1 except by snatches and fragments1 has the value of the good work of ,wordsworth or ,byron4--,matthew ,arnold4 ,should be1 except in snatches4 ,taxes with us are collected nearly almost solely from real and personal estate4--,appletons' ,journal4 ,taxes are levied on estates and collected from the owners4 ,if ,i am not commended for the beauty of my works1 ,i may hope to be pardoned for their brevity4 ,cobbett comments on this sentence as follows3 ,we may commend him for the beauty of his works1 and we may pardon him for their brevity1 if we deem the brevity a fault2 but this is not what he means4 ,he means that1 at any rate1 he shall have the merit of brevity4 ',if ,i am not commended for the beauty of my works1 ,i may hope to be pardoned on account of their brevity4' ,this is what the ,doctor meant2 but this would have marred a little the antithesis3 it would have unsettled a little of the balance of that seesaw in which ,dr4 ,johnson so much delighted1 and which1 falling into the hands of novel-writers and of members of ,parliament1 has1 by moving unencumbered with any of the ,doctor's reason or sense1 lulled so many thousands asleep6 ,dr4 ,johnson created a race of writers and speakers4 ',mr4 ,speaker1 that the state of the nation is very critical1 all men will allow2 but that it is wholly desperate1 few will believe4' ,when you hear or see a sentence like this1 be sure that the person who speaks or writes it has been reading ,dr4 ,johnson1 or some of his imitators4 ,but1 observe1 these imitators go no further than the frame of the sentences4 ,they1 in general1 take care not to imitate the ,doctor in knowledge and reasoning4 ,the rhetoricians would have us avoid such forms of expression as1 ,the boy went to and asked the advice of his teacher2 ,i called on and had a conversation with my brother4 ,very often the preposition is not repeated in a sentence1 when it should be4 ,we say properly1 ,he comes from ,ohio or from ,indiana2 or1 ,he comes either from ,ohio or ,indiana4 ,,prepossess4 ,see ,,prejudice4 ,,present--,,introduce4 ,few errors are more common1 especially among those who are always straining to be fine1 than that of using present1 in the social world1 instead of introduce4 ,present means to place in the presence of a superior2 introduce1 to bring to be acquainted4 ,a person is presented at court1 and on an official occasion to our ,president2 but persons who are unknown to each other are introduced by a common acquaintance4 ,and in these introductions1 it is the younger who is introduced to the older2 the lower to the higher in place or social position2 the gentleman to the lady4 ,a lady should say1 as a rule1 that ,mr4 ,blank was introduced to her1 not that she was introduced to ,mr4 ,blank4 ,,presumptive4 ,this word is sometimes misused by the careless for presumptuous4 ,,preventive4 ,a useless and unwarranted syllable is sometimes added to this word--preventative4 ,,previous4 ,this adjective is much used in an adverbial sense2 thus1 ,previous to my return1 etc4 ,until previous is recognized as an adverb1 if we would speak grammatically1 we must say1 ,previously to my return4 ,previously to my leaving ,england1 ,i called on his lordship4 ,,procure4 ,this is a word much used by people who strive to be fine4 ,where did you get it8 with them is1 ,where did you procure it8 ,,profanity4 ,the extent to which some men habitually interlard their talk with oaths is disgusting even to many who1 on occasion1 do not themselves hesitate to give expression to their feelings in oaths portly and unctuous4 ,if these fellows could be made to know how offensive to decency they make themselves1 they would1 perhaps1 be less profane4 ,,promise4 ,this word is sometimes very improperly used for assure2 thus1 ,i promise you ,i was very much astonished4 ,,pronouns ,,of ,,the ,,first ,,person4 ,the ordinary uses of ',i' and 'we1' as the singular and plural pronouns of the first person1 would appear to be above all ambiguity1 uncertainty1 or dispute4 ,yet when we consider the force of the plural 'we1' we are met with a contradiction2 for1 as a rule1 only one person can speak at the same time to the same audience4 ,it is only by some exceptional arrangement1 or some latitude or license of expression1 that several persons can be conjoint speakers4 ,for example1 a plurality may sing together in chorus1 and may join in the responses at church1 or in the simultaneous repetition of the ,lord's ,prayer or the ,creed4 ,again1 one person may be the authorized spokesman in delivering a judgment or opinion held by a number of persons in common4 ,finally1 in written compositions1 the 'we' is not unsuitable1 because a plurality of persons may append their names to a document4 ,a speaker using 'we' may speak for himself and one or more others2 commonly he stands forward as the representative of a class1 more or less comprehensive4 ',as soon as my companion and ,i had entered the field1 we saw a man coming toward us'2 'we like our new curate'2 'you do us poets the greatest injustice'2 'we must see to the efficiency of our forces4' ,the widest use of the pronoun will be mentioned presently4 ',we' is used for ',i' in the decrees of persons in authority2 as when ,king ,lear says3 ',know that we have divided ,in three our kingdom4' ,by the fiction of plurality a veil of modesty is thrown over the assumption of vast superiority over human beings generally4 ,or1 'we' may be regarded as an official form whereby the speaker personally is magnified or enabled to rise to the dignity of the occasion4 ,the editorial 'we' is to be understood on the same principle4 ,an author using 'we' appears as if he were not alone1 but sharing with other persons the responsibility of his views4 ,this representative position is at its utmost stretch in the practice of using 'we' for human beings generally2 as in discoursing on the laws of human nature4 ,the preacher1 the novelist1 or the philosopher1 in dwelling upon the peculiarity of our common constitution1 being himself an example of what he is speaking of1 associates the rest of mankind with him1 and speaks collectively by means of 'we4' ',we are weak and fallible'2 'we are of yesterday'2 'we are doomed to dissolution4' ',here have we no continuing city1 but we seek one to come4' ,it is not unfrequent to have in one sentence1 or in close proximity1 both the editorial and the representative meaning1 the effect being ambiguity and confusion4 ',let us the author now consider why we humanity generally overrate distant good4' ,in such a case the author should fall back upon the singular for himself--',i will now consider--4' ',we speaker think we himself and hearers together should come to the conclusion4' ,say1 either ',i think1' or 'you would4' ,the following extract from ,butler exemplifies a similar confusion3 ',suppose we representative are capable of happiness and of misery in degrees equally intense and extreme1 yet we rep4 are capable of the latter for a much longer time1 beyond all comparison4 ,we change of subject to a limited class see men in the tortures of pain--4 ,such is our back to representative make that anything may become the instrument of pain and sorrow to us4' ,the 'we' at the commencement of the second sentence--',we see men in the tortures'--could be advantageously changed to 'you1' or the passive construction could be substituted2 the remaining we's would then be consistently representative4 ,from the greater emphasis of singularity1 energetic speakers and writers sometimes use ',i' as representative of mankind at large4 ,thus3 ',the current impressions received through the senses are not voluntary in origin4 ,what ,i see in walking is seen because ,i have an organ of vision4' ,the question of general moral obligation is forcibly stated by ,paley in the individual form1 ',why am ,i obliged to keep my word8' ,it is sometimes well to confine the attention of the hearer or reader to his own relation to the matter under consideration1 more especially in difficult or non-popular argument or exposition4 ,the speaker1 by using ',i1' does the action himself1 or makes himself the example1 the hearer being expected to put himself in the same position4--,bain's ,composition ,grammar4 ,,pronouns ,,of ,,the ,,second ,,person4 ,anomalous usages have sprung up in connection with these pronouns4 ,the plural form has almost wholly superseded the singular2 a usage more than five centuries old4#bd ,the motive is courtesy4 ,the singling out of one person for address is supposed to be a liberty or an excess of familiarity2 and the effect is softened or diluted by the fiction of taking in others4 ,if our address is uncomplimentary1 the sting is lessened by the plural form2 and if the reverse1 the shock to modesty is not so great4 ,this is a refinement that was unknown to the ancient languages4 ,the orators of ,greece delighted in the strong1 pointed1 personal appeal implied in the singular 'thou4' ,in modern ,german1 'thou' 7du7 is the address of familiarity and intimacy2 while the ordinary pronoun is the curiously indirect 'they' 7,sie74 ,on solemn occasions1 we may revert to 'thou4' ,cato1 in his meditative soliloquy on reading ,plato's views on the immortality of the soul before killing himself1 says3 ',plato1 thou reasonest well4' ,so in the ,commandments1 'thou' addresses to each individual an unavoidable appeal3 ',thou shall not----4' ,but our ordinary means of making the personal appeal is1 'you1 sir1' 'you1 madam1' 'my ,lord1 you----1' etc42 we reserve 'thou' for the special case of addressing the ,deity4 ,the application of the motive of courtesy is here reversed2 it would be irreverent to merge this vast personality in a promiscuous assemblage4 ',you' is not unfrequently employed1 like 'we1' as a representative pronoun4 ,the action is represented with great vividness1 when the person or persons addressed may be put forward as the performers3 ',there is such an echo among the old ruins1 and vaults1 that if you stamp a little louder than ordinary1 you hear the sound repeated'2 ',some practice is required to see these animals in the thick forest1 even when you hear them close by you4' ,there should not be a mixture of 'thou' and 'you' in the same passage4 ,thus1 ,thackeray 7,adventures of ,philip73 ',so1 as thy sun rises1 friend1 over the humble house-tops round about your home1 shall you wake many and many a day to duty and labor4' ,so1 ,cooper 7,water-,witch73 ',thou hast both master and mistress8 ,you have told us of the latter1 but we would know something of the former4 ,who is thy master8' ,shakespeare1 ,scott1 and others might also be quoted4 ',ye' and 'you' were at one time strictly distinguished as different cases2 'ye' was nominative1 'you' objective 7dative or accusative74 ,but the ,elizabethan dramatists confounded the forms irredeemably2 and 'you' has gradually ousted 'ye' from ordinary use4 ',ye' is restricted to the expression of strong feeling1 and in this employment occurs chiefly in the poets4--,bain's ,composition ,grammar4 ,,proof4 ,this word is much and very improperly used for evidence1 which is only the medium of proof1 proof being the effect of evidence4 ,what evidence have you to offer in proof of the truth of your statement8 ,see also ,,evidence4 ,,propose--,,purpose4 ,writers and speakers often fail to discriminate properly between the respective meanings of these two verbs4 ,propose1 correctly used1 means1 to put forward or to offer for the consideration of others2 hence1 a proposal is a scheme or design offered for acceptance or consideration1 a proposition4 ,purpose means1 to intend1 to design1 to resolve2 hence1 a purpose is an intention1 an aim1 that which one sets before one's self4 ,examples3 ,what do you purpose doing in the matter8 ,what do you propose that we shall do in the matter8 ,i will do means ,i purpose doing1 or to do4 ,i purpose to write a history of ,england from the accession of ,king ,james the ,second down to a time which is within the memory of men still living4--,macaulay4 ,it will be observed that ,macaulay says1 ,i purpose to write and not1 ,i purpose writing1 using the verb in the infinitive rather than in the participial form4 ,on which he purposed to mount one of his little guns4 ,see ,,infinitive4 ,,proposition4 ,this word is often used when proposal would be better1 for the reason that proposal has but one meaning1 and is shorter by one syllable4 ,he demonstrated the proposition of ,euclid1 and rejected the proposal of his friend4 ,,prosaist4 ,dr4 ,hall is of opinion that this is a word we shall do well to encourage4 ,it is used by good writers4 ,,proven4 ,this form for the past participle of the verb to prove is said to be a ,scotticism4 ,it is not used by careful writers and speakers4 ,the correct form is proved4 ,,providing4 ,the present participle of the verb to provide is sometimes vulgarly used for the conjunction provided1 as in this sentence from the ,london ,queen3 ,society may be congratulated1 444 providing that1 etc4 ,,provoke4 ,see ,,aggravate4 ,,punctuation4 ,the importance of punctuation can not be overestimated2 it not only helps to make plain the meaning of what one writes1 but it may prevent one's being misconstrued4 ,though no two writers could be found who punctuate just alike1 still in the main those who pay attention to the art put in their stops in essentially the same manner4 ,the difference that punctuation may make in the meaning of language is well illustrated by the following anecdote3 ,at ,ramessa there lived a benevolent and hospitable prior1 who caused these lines to be painted over his door3 ,be open evermore1 ,o thou my door6 ,to none be shut--to honest or to poor6 ,in time the good prior was succeeded by a man as selfish as his predecessor was generous4 ,the lines over the door of the priory were allowed to remain2 one stop1 however1 was altered1 which made them read thus3 ,be open evermore1 ,o thou my door6 ,to none--be shut to honest or to poor6 ,he punctuates best who makes his punctuation contribute most to the clear expression of his thought2 and that construction is best that has least need of being punctuated4 ,,the ,,comma4--,the chief difference in the punctuation of different writers is usually in their use of the comma1 in regard to which there is a good deal of latitude2 much is left to individual taste4 ,nowadays the best practice uses it sparingly4 ,an idea of the extent to which opinions differ with regard to the use of the comma may be formed from the following excerpt from a paper prepared for private use3 ,in the following examples1 gathered from various sources--chiefly from standard books--the superfluous commas are inclosed in parentheses3 #a4 ',it remains717 perhaps717 to be said717 that1 if any lesson at all717 as to these delicate matters717 is needed717 in this period1 it is not so much a lesson1' etc4 #b4 ',the obedience is not due to the power of a right authority1 but to the spirit of fear1 and717 therefore717 is717 in reality717 no obedience at all4' #c4 ',the patriot disturbances in ,canada 444 awakened deep interest among the people of the ,united ,states717 who lived adjacent to the frontier4' #d4 ',observers717 who have recently investigated this point717 do not all agree1' etc4 #e4 ',the wind did717 in an instant717 what man and steam together had failed to do in hours4' #f4 ',all the cabin passengers717 situated beyond the center of the boat717 were saved4' #g4 ',no other writer has depicted717 with so much art or so much accuracy717 the habits1 the manners1' etc4 #h4 ',if it shall give satisfaction to those who have717 in any way717 befriended it1 the author will feel1' etc4 #i4 ',formed717 or consisting of717 clay4' #aj4 ',the subject witchcraft grew interesting2 and717 to examine ,sarah ,cloyce and ,elizabeth ,proctor1 the deputy-governor717 and five other magistrates717 went to ,salem4' #aa4 ',the ,lusitanians717 who had not left their home717 rose as a man1' etc4 #ab4 ',vague reports 444 had preceded him to ,washington1 and his ,mississippi friends717 who chanced to be at the capital717 were not backward to make their boast of him4' #ac4 ',our faith has acquired a new vigor717 and a clearer vision4' #ad4 ',in #ahai717 he removed to ,cambridge4' #ae4 ',dor was born at ,strasburg717 in #ahcb1 and labors1' etc4 #af4 ',we should never apply dry compresses1 charpie1 or wadding717 to the wound4' #ag4 '--to stand idle1 to look1 act1 or think717 in a leisurely way4' #ah4 '--portraits taken from the farmers1 schoolmasters1 and peasantry717 of the neighborhood4' #ai4 '--gladly welcomed painters of ,flanders1 ,holland1 and ,spain717 to their shores4' ,in all these cases1 the clauses between or following the inclosed commas are so closely connected grammatically with the immediately preceding words or phrases1 that they should be read without a perceptible pause1 or with only a slight one for breath1 without change of voice4 ,some of the commas would grossly pervert the meaning if strictly construed4 ,thus1 from ,no4 #c it would appear that the people of the ,united ,states in general lived adjacent to the frontier2 from ,no4 #d1 that all observers have recently investigated the point in question2 from ,no4 #f1 that all the cabin passengers were so situated that they were saved1 whereas it is meant that only a certain small proportion of them were saved2 from ,no4 #aj 7,bancroft71 that somebody whose name is accidentally omitted went to ,salem 'to examine ,sarah ,cloyce and ,elizabeth ,proctor1 the deputy-governor1 and five other magistrates'2 from ,no4 #aa1 that none of the ,lusitanians had left their home1 whereas it was the slaughter by the ,romans of a great number of them who had left their home that caused the rising4 ,commas are frequently omitted1 and in certain positions very generally1 where the sense and correct reading require a pause4 ,in the following examples1 such commas1 omitted in the works from which they were taken1 are inclosed in brackets3 #a4 ',the modes of thought1 and the types of character which those modes produce1 are essentially and universally transformed4' #b4 ',taken by itself1 this doctrine could have no effect whatever2 indeed1 it would amount to nothing but a verbal proposition4' #c4 ',far below1 the little stream of the ,oder foamed over the rocks4' #d4 ',when the day returned1 the professor1 the artist1 and ,i rowed to within a hundred yards of the shore4' #e4 ',proceeding into the interior of ,india1 they passed through ,belgaum4' #f4 ',if ,loring is defeated in the ,sixth ,district1 it can be borne4' ,in ,no4 #c1 the reader naturally enunciates 'the little stream of the ,oder' as in the objective case after 'below'2 but there he comes to a predicate which compels him to go back and read differently4 ,in ,no4 #d1 it appears that 'the day returned the professor1' and then 'the artist and ,i rowed1' etc4 ,all clauses should generally be isolated by commas2 where1 however1 the connection is very close or the clause is very short1 no point may be necessary4 ,but his pride is greater than his ignorance1 and what he wants in knowledge he supplies by sufficiency4 ,a man of polite imagination can converse with a picture1 and find an agreeable companion in a statue4 ,though he slay me1 yet will ,i trust him4 ,the prince1 his father being dead1 succeeded4 ,to confess the truth1 ,i was much at fault4 ,as the heart panteth after the water-brooks1 so panteth my soul after thee4 ,where the bee sucks1 there suck ,i4 ,his father dying1 he succeeded to the estate4 ,the little that is known1 and the circumstance that little is known1 must be considered as honorable to him4 ,the comma is used before and after a phrase when cordinating and not restrictive4 ,the jury1 having retired for half an hour1 brought in a verdict4 ,the stranger1 unwilling to obtrude himself on our notice1 left in the morning4 ,rome1 the city of the ,emperors1 became the city of the ,popes4 ,his stories1 which made everybody laugh1 were often made to order4 ,he did not come1 which ,i greatly regret4 ,the younger1 who was yet a boy1 had nothing striking in his appearance4 ,they passed the cup to the stranger1 who drank heartily4 ,peace at any price1 which these orators seem to advocate1 means war at any cost4 ,sailors1 who are generally superstitious1 say it is unlucky to embark on ,friday4 ,adverbs and short phrases1 when they break the connection1 should be between commas4 ,some of the most common words and phrases so used are the following3 ,also1 too1 there1 indeed1 perhaps1 surely1 moreover1 likewise1 however1 finally1 namely1 therefore1 apparently1 meanwhile1 consequently1 unquestionably1 accordingly1 notwithstanding1 in truth1 in fact1 in short1 in general1 in reality1 no doubt1 of course1 as it were1 at all events1 to be brief1 to be sure1 now and then1 on the contrary1 in a word1 by chance1 in that case1 in the mean time1 for the most part4 ,history1 in a word1 is replete with moral lessons4 ,as an orator1 however1 he was not great4 ,there is1 remember1 a limit at which forbearance ceases to be a virtue4 ,our civilization1 therefore1 is not an unmixed good4 ,this1 ,i grant you1 is not of great importance4 ,if1 however1 the adverb does not break the connection1 but readily coalesces with the rest of the sentence1 the commas are omitted4 ,morning will come at last1 however dark the night may be4 ,we then proceeded on our way4 ,our civilization is therefore not an unmixed good4 ,patience1 ,i say2 your mind perhaps may change4 ,adverbial phrases and clauses beginning a sentence are set off by commas4 ,in truth1 ,i could not tell4 ,to sum up1 the matter is this4 ,everything being ready1 they set out4 ,by looking a little deeper1 the reason will be found4 ,finally1 let me sum up the argument4 ,if the premises were admitted1 ,i should deny the conclusion4 ,where your treasure is1 there will your heart be also4 ,words used in apposition should be isolated by commas4 ,newton1 the great mathematician1 was very modest4 ,and he1 their prince1 shall rank among my peers4 ,in such sentences1 however1 as1 ,the mathematician ,newton was very modest1 and ,the ,emperor ,napoleon was a great soldier1 commas are not used4 ,the name or designation of a person addressed is isolated by commas4 ,it touches you1 my lord1 as well as me4 ,john1 come here4 ,mr4 ,president1 my object is peace4 ,tell me1 boy1 where do you live8 ,yes1 sir1 ,i will do as you say4 ,mr4 ,brown1 what is your number8 ,pairs of words4--,old and young1 rich and poor1 wise and foolish1 were involved4 ,sink or swim1 live or die1 survive or perish1 ,i give my hand and heart to this vote4 ,interest and ambition1 honor and shame1 friendship and enmity1 gratitude and revenge1 are the prime movers in public transactions4 ,a restrictive clause is not separated by a comma from the noun4 ,every one must love a boy who that is attentive and docile4 ,he preaches sublimely who that lives a holy life4 ,the things which that are seen are temporal4 ,a king depending on the support of his subjects can not rashly go to war4 ,the sailor who that is not superstitious will embark any day4 ,the comma is used after adjectives1 nouns1 and verbs in sentences like the following3 ,are all thy conquests1 glories1 triumphs1 spoils ,shrunk to this little measure8 ,he fills1 he bounds1 connects and equals all4 ,who to the enraptured heart1 and ear1 and eye ,teach beauty1 virtue1 truth1 and love1 and melody4#be ,he rewarded his friends1 chastised his foes1 set ,justice on her seat1 and made his conquest secure4 ,the comma is used to separate adjectives in opposition1 but closely connected4 ,though deep1 yet clear2 though gentle1 yet not dull4 ,liberal1 not lavish1 is kind ,nature's hand4 ,though black1 yet comely2 and though rash1 benign4 ,after a nominative1 where the verb is understood4 ,to err is human2 to forgive1 divine4 ,a wise man seeks to shine in himself2 a fool1 in others4 ,conversation makes a ready man2 writing1 an exact man2 reading1 a full man4 ,a long subject is often separated from the predicate by a comma4 ,any one that refuses to earn an honest livelihood1 is not an object of charity4 ,the circumstance of his being unprepared to adopt immediate and decisive measures1 was represented to the ,government4 ,that he had persistently disregarded every warning and persevered in his reckless course1 had not yet undermined his credit with his dupes4 ,that the work of forming and perfecting the character is difficult1 is generally allowed4 ,in a series of adjectives that precede their noun1 a comma is placed after each except the last2 there usage omits the point4 ,a beautiful1 tall1 willowy1 sprightly girl4 ,a quick1 brilliant1 studious1 learned man4#bf ,a comma is placed between short members of compound sentences1 connected by and1 but1 for1 nor1 or1 because1 whereas1 that expressing purpose 7so that1 in order that71 and other conjunctions4 ,be virtuous1 that you may be respected4 ,love not sleep1 lest you come to poverty4 ,man proposes1 but ,god disposes4 ,a comma must not be placed before that except when it is equivalent to in order that4 ,he says that he will be here4 ,a comma must not be placed before and when it connects two words only4 ,time and tide wait for no man4 ,a rich and prosperous people4 ,plain and honest truth wants no artificial covering4 ,a comma is sometimes necessary to prevent ambiguity4 ,he who pursues pleasure only defeats the object of his creation4 ,without a comma before or after only1 the meaning of this sentence is doubtful4 ,the following sentences present some miscellaneous examples of the use of the comma by writers on punctuation3 ,industry1 as well as genius1 is essential to the production of great works4 ,prosperity is secured to a state1 not by the acquisition of territory or riches1 but by the encouragement of industry4 ,your manners are affable1 and1 for the most part1 pleasing4#bg ,however fairly a bad man may appear to act1 we distrust him4 ,why1 this is rank injustice4 ,well1 follow the dictates of your inclination4 ,the comma may be omitted in the case of too1 also1 therefore1 and perhaps1 when introduced so as not to interfere with the harmonious flow of the period2 and1 particularly1 when the sentence is short4#bh ,robert ,horton1 ,m4 ,d41 ,f4 ,r4 ,s4 ,to those who labor1 sleep is doubly pleasant2 ,sleep is doubly pleasant to those who labor4 ,those who persevere1 succeed4 ,to be overlooked1 slighted1 and neglected2 to be misunderstood1 misrepresented1 and slandered2 to be trampled under foot by the envious1 the ignorant1 and the vile2 to be crushed by foes1 and to be distrusted and betrayed even by friends--such is too often the fate of genius4 ,she is tall1 though not so handsome as her sister4 ,verily1 verily1 ,i say unto you4 ,whatever is1 is right4 ,what is foreordained to be1 will be4 ,the ,emperor ,augustus was a patron of the fine arts4 ,augustus1 the ,emperor1 was a patron of the fine arts4 ,united1 we stand2 divided1 we fall4 ,god said1 ,let there be light4 ,july #ba1 #ahha4 ,president ,garfield was shot1 ,saturday morning1 ,july #b1 #ahha2 he died1 ,monday night1 ,sept4 #ai1 #ahha4 ,i am1 sir1 very respectfully1 your obedient servant1 ,john ,jones4 ,new ,york1 ,august1 #ahha4 ,room #bj1 ,equitable ,building1 ,broadway1 ,new ,york4 ,when you are in doubt as to the propriety of inserting commas1 omit them2 ,,it ,,is ,,better ,,to ,,have ,,too ,,few ,,than ,,too ,,many4--,quackenbos4 ,,the ,,semicolon4--,reasons are preceded by semicolons2 ,economy is no disgrace2 for it is better to live on a little than to outlive a great deal4 ,clauses in opposition are separated by a semicolon when the second is introduced by an adversative3 ,straws swim at the surface2 but pearls lie at the bottom2 ,lying lips are an abomination to the ,lord2 but they that deal truly are his delight4 ,without the adversative1 the colon is to be preferred3 ,prosperity showeth vice3 adversity1 virtue4 ,the great divisions of a sentence must be pointed with a semicolon when the minor divisions are pointed with commas3 ,mirth should be the embroidery of conversation1 not the web2 and wit the ornament of the mind1 not the furniture4 ,the things enumerated must be separated by semicolons1 when the enunciation of particulars is preceded by a colon3 ,the value of a maxim depends on four things3 the correctness of the principle it embodies2 the subject to which it relates2 the extent of its application2 and the ease with which it may be practically carried out4 ,when as introduces an example1 it is preceded by a semicolon4 ,when several successive clauses have a common connection with a preceding or following clause1 they are separated by semicolons2 as1 ,children1 as they gamboled on the beach2 reapers1 as they gathered the harvest2 mowers1 as they rested from using the scythe2 mothers1 as they busied themselves about the household--were victims to an enemy1 who disappeared the moment a blow was struck4 ,reason as we may1 it is impossible not to read in such a fate much that we know not how to interpret2 much of provocation to cruel deeds and deep resentment2 much of apology for wrong and perfidy2 much of doubt and misgiving as to the past2 much of painful recollections2 much of dark foreboding4 ,philosophers assert that ,nature is unlimited2 that her treasures are endless2 that the increase of knowledge will never cease4 ,,the ,,colon4--,this point is less used now than formerly3 its place is supplied by the period1 the semicolon1 or the dash2 and sometimes1 even by the comma4 ,the colon is used very differently by different writers4 ,he was heard to say1 ',i have done with this world4' ,some writers would put a colon1 some a comma1 after say4 ,when the quoted passage is brought in without any introductory word1 if short1 says ,quackenbos1 it is generally preceded by a comma2 if long1 by a colon2 as1 ',a simpleton1 meeting a philosopher1 asked him1 ,what affords wise men the greatest pleasure8 ,turning on his heel1 the sage replied1 ,to get rid of fools4' ,formal enumerations of particulars1 and direct quotations1 when introduced by such phrases as in these words1 as follows1 the following1 namely1 this1 these1 thus1 etc41 are properly preceded by a colon4 ,we hold these truths to be self-evident3 that all men are created equal2 that they are endowed by their ,creator with certain inalienable rights2 that among these are life1 liberty1 and the pursuit of happiness4 ,lord ,bacon has summed up the whole matter in the following words3 ',a little philosophy inclineth men's minds to atheism2 but depth in philosophy bringeth men's minds to religion4' ,the human family is composed of five races3 first1 the ,caucasian2 second1 the ,mongolian2 third1 the1 etc4 ,all were attentive to the godlike man ,when from his lofty couch he thus began3 ',great queen1' etc4--,dryden4 ,when the quotation1 or other matter1 begins a new paragraph1 the colon is1 by many writers1 followed with a dash2 as1 ,the cloth being removed1 the ,president rose and said3-- ',ladies and gentlemen1 we are1' etc4 ,the colon is used to mark the greater breaks in sentences1 when the lesser breaks are marked by semicolons4 ,you have called yourself an atom in the universe2 you have said that you are but an insect in the solar blaze3 is your present pride consistent with these professions8 ,a clause is either independent or dependent3 independent1 if it forms an assertion by itself2 dependent1 if it enters into some other clause with the value of a part of speech4 ,a colon is sometimes used instead of a period to separate two short sentences1 which are closely connected4 ,never flatter people3 leave that to such as mean to betray them4 ,some things we can1 and others we can not do3 we can walk1 but we can not fly4 ,,the ,,period4--,complete sentences are always followed either by a period1 or by an exclamation or an interrogation point4#bi ,the period is also used after abbreviations2 as1 ,r4 ,d4 ,van ,nostrand1 ,st4 ,louis1 ,mo42 ,jno4 ,b4 ,morris1 ,m4 ,d41 ,f4 ,r4 ,s41 ,london1 ,eng42 ,jas4 ,w4 ,wallack1 ,jr41 ,new ,york ,city1 ,n4 ,y42 ,jas4 ,b4 ,roberts1 ,elocutionist1 ,phila41 ,pa4 ,,interrogation-,,point4--,this point is used after questions put by the writer1 and after questions reported directly4 ,what can ,i do for you8 ,where are you going8 ,what do you say8 cried the ,general4 ,the child still lives8 ,it should not be used when the question is reported indirectly4 ,he asked me where ,i was going4 ,the ,judge asked the witness if he believed the man to be guilty4 ,,exclamation-,,point4--,this mark is placed after interjections1 after sentences and clauses of sentences of passionate import1 and after solemn invocations and addresses4 ,zounds6 the man's in earnest4 ,pshaw6 what can we do8 ,bah6 what's that to me8 ,indeed6 then ,i must look to it4 ,look1 my lord1 it comes6 ,rest1 rest1 perturbed spirit6 ,o heat1 dry up my brains6 ,dear maid1 kind sister1 sweet ,ophelia6 ,while in this part of the country1 ,i once more revisited--and1 alas1 with what melancholy presentiments6--the home of my youth4 ,o rose of ,may6 ,oh1 from this time forth1 my thoughts be bloody or be nothing worth6 ,o heavens6 die two months ago1 and not forgotten yet8 ,night1 sable goddess6 from her ebon throne1 ,in rayless majesty now stretches forth ,her leaden scepter o'er a slumbering world4 ,silence1 how dead6 and darkness1 how profound6--,young4 ,hail1 holy light6 offspring of heaven just born6--,milton4 ,but thou1 ,o ,hope6 with eyes so fair1 ,what was thy delighted measure8--,collins4 ,it will be observed that the interjection ,o is an exception to the rule3 it is often followed by a comma1 but never by an exclamation-point4 ,an exclamation-point sometimes gives the same words quite another meaning4 ,the difference between ,what's that8 and ,what's that6 is obvious4 ,,the ,,dash4--,cobbett did not favor the use of this mark1 as we see from the following3 ,let me caution you against the use of what1 by some1 is called the dash4 ,the dash is a stroke along the line2 thus1 ',i am rich--,i was poor--,i shall be poor again4' ,this is wild work indeed6 ,who is to know what is intended by these dashes8 ,those who have thought proper1 like ,mr4 ,lindley ,murray1 to place the dash amongst the grammatical points1 ought to give us some rule relative to its different longitudinal dimensions in different cases4 ,the inch1 the three-quarter-inch1 the half-inch1 the quarter-inch3 these would be something determinate2 but 'the dash1' without measure1 must be a perilous thing for the young grammarian to handle4 ,in short1 'the dash' is a cover for ignorance as to the use of points1 and it can answer no other purpose4 ,this is one of the few instances in which ,cobbett was wrong4 ,the dash is the proper point with which to mark an unexpected or emphatic pause1 or a sudden break or transition4 ,it is very often preceded by another point4 ,and ,huitzilopochtli--a sweet name to roll under one's tongue--for how many years has this venerable war-god blinked in the noonday sun6 ,crowds gathered about the newspaper bulletins1 recalling the feverish scenes that occurred when the ,president's life was thought to be hanging by a thread4 ',wouldn't it be too bad1' said one1 'if1 after all--no1 ,i won't allow myself to think of it4' ,was there ever--but ,i scorn to boast4 ,you are--no1 ,i'll not tell you what you are4 ,he suffered--but his pangs are o'er2 ,enjoyed--but his delights are fled2 ,had friends--his friends are now no more2 ,and foes--his foes are dead4--,montgomery4 ,greece1 ,carthage1 ,rome1--where are they8 ,he chastens2--but he chastens to save4 ,dashes are much used where parentheses were formerly employed4 ,in the days of ,tweed the expression to divide fair--forcible1 if not grammatical--acquired much currency4 ,in truth1 the character of the great chief was depicted two thousand five hundred years before his birth1 and depicted--such is the power of genius--in colors which will be fresh as many years after his death4 ,to render the ,constitution perpetual--which ,god grant it may be6--it is necessary that its benefits should be practically felt by all parts of the country4 ,,parenthesis4--,this mark is comparatively little used nowadays4 ,the dash is preferred1 probably because it disfigures the page less4 ,the office of the parenthesis is to isolate a phrase which is merely incidental1 and which might be omitted without detriment to the grammatical construction4 ,know then this truth 7enough for man to know71 ,virtue alone is happiness below4--,pope4 ,the bliss of man 7could pride that blessing find7 ,is not to act or think beyond mankind4 ,,brackets4--,this mark is used principally to inclose words improperly omitted by the writer1 or words introduced for the purpose of explanation or to correct an error4 ,the bracket is often used in this book4 ,,the ,,apostrophe4--,this point is used to denote the omission of letters and sometimes of figures2 as1 ,jan'y1 '#ha2 ,i've for ,i have2 you'll for you will2 'tis for it is2 don't for do not2 can't for can not2 ,it was in the year '#ic2 the spirit of '#gf2 ,it was in the years #ahab1 '#ac1 and '#ad4 ,also to denote the possessive case2 as1 ,brown's house2 the king's command2 ,moses' staff2 for conscience' sake2 the boys' garden4 ,also with s to denote the plural of letters1 figures1 and signs2 as1 ,cross your t's1 dot your i's1 and mind your p's and q's2 make your #e's better1 and take out the x's4 ,,capitals4--,a capital letter should begin every sentence1 every line of verse1 and every direct quotation4 ,all names of the ,deity1 of ,jesus ,christ1 of the ,trinity1 and of the ,virgin ,mary must begin with a capital4 ,pronouns are usually capitalized when they refer to the ,deity4 ,proper names1 and nouns and adjectives formed from proper names1 names of streets1 of the months1 of the days of the week1 and of the holidays1 are capitalized4 ,titles of nobility and of high office1 when used to designate particular persons1 are capitalized2 as1 the ,earl of ,dunraven1 the ,mayor of ,boston1 the ,baron replied1 the ,cardinal presided4 ,,the ,,paragraph4--,in writing for the press1 the division of matter into paragraphs is often quite arbitrary2 in letter-writing1 on the contrary1 the several topics treated of should1 as a rule1 be isolated by paragraphic divisions4 ,these divisions give one's letters a shapely appearance that they otherwise never have4 ,,purchase4 ,this word is much preferred to its synonym buy1 by that class of people who prefer the word reside to live1 procure to get1 inaugurate to begin1 and so on4 ,they are generally of those who are great in pretense1 and who would be greater still if they were to pretend to all they have to pretend to4 ,,purpose4 ,see ,,propose4 ,,quantity4 ,this word is often improperly used for number4 ,quantity should be used in speaking of what is measured or weighed2 number1 of what is counted4 ,examples3 ,what quantity of apples have you1 and what number of pineapples8 ,delaware produces a large quantity of peaches and a large number of melons4 ,,quit4--,this word means1 properly1 to leave1 to go away from1 to forsake2 as1 ,avaunt6 quit my sight4 ,this is the only sense in which the ,english use it4 ,in ,america1 it is generally used in the sense of to leave off1 to stop2 as1 ,quit your nonsense2 ,quit laughing2 ,quit your noise2 ,he has quit smoking1 and so on4 ,,quite4 ,this word originally meant completely1 perfectly1 totally1 entirely1 fully2 and this is the sense in which it was used by the early writers of ,english4 ,it is now often used in the sense of rather2 as1 ,it is quite warm2 ,she is quite tall2 ,he is quite proficient4 ,sometimes it is incorrectly used in the sense of considerable2 as1 quite an amount1 quite a number1 quite a fortune4 ,quite1 according to good modern usage1 may qualify an adjective1 but not a noun4 ,she is quite the lady1 is a vile phrase1 meaning1 ,she is very or quite ladylike4 ,,railroad ,,depot4 ,few things are more offensive to fastidious ears than to hear a railway station called a depot4 ,a depot is properly a place where goods or stores of any kind are kept2 and the places at which the trains of a railroad--or1 better1 railway--stop for passengers1 or the points from which they start and at which they arrive1 are1 properly1 the stations4 ,,railway4 ,the ,english prefer this word to railroad4 ,,raise ,,the ,,rent4 ,an expression incorrectly used for increase the rent4 ,,rarely4 ,it is no uncommon thing to see this adverb improperly used in such sentences as1 ,it is very rarely that the puppets of the romancer assume1 etc4--,appletons' ,journal1 ,february1 #ahha1 p4 #agg4 ,but1 says the defender of this phraseology1 rarely qualifies a verb--the verb to be4 ,not at all4 ,the sentence1 if written out in full1 would be1 ,it is a very rare thing that1 etc41 or ,the circumstance is a very rare one that1 etc41 or ,it is a very rare occurrence that1 etc4 ,to those who contend for ,it is very rarely that1 etc41 ,i would say1 ,it is very sadly that persons of culture will write and then defend--or rather try to defend--such grammar4 ,,ratiocinate4 ,see ,,effectuate4 ,,real4--,this adjective is often vulgarly used in the sense of the adverb very2 thus1 real nice1 real pretty1 real angry1 real cute1 and so on4 ,,recommend4 ,this word1 which means to commend or praise to another1 to declare worthy of esteem1 trust1 or favor1 is sometimes put to strange uses4 ,example3 ,resolved1 that the tax-payers of the county be recommended to meet1 etc4 ,what the resolving gentlemen meant was1 that the tax-payers should be counseled to meet4 ,,redundancy4 ,see ,,pleonasm4 ,,reliable4 ,this is a modern word which is often met with2 but it is not used by our careful writers4 ,they prefer its synonym trustworthy1 and argue that1 in consequence of being ill-formed1 reliable can not possibly have the signification in which it is used4 ,,remainder4 ,see ,,balance4 ,,rendition4 ,this word is much misused for rendering4 ,example3 ,the excellence of ,mr4 ,gilbert's rendition of certain characters1 ,sir ,peter and ,sir ,antony1 for instance1 is not equaled1 etc4 ,rendition means the act of yielding possession1 surrender1 as the rendition of a town or fortress4 ,the sentence above should read1 ,the excellence of ,mr4 ,gilbert's rendering1 etc4 ,rendition is also sometimes improperly used for performance4 ,,reply4 ,see ,,answer4 ,,reputation4 ,see ,,character4 ,,reside4 ,a big word that ,mr4 ,wouldbe uses where ,mr4 ,is uses the little word live4 ,,residence4 ,in speaking of a man's domicile1 it is not only in better taste but more correct to use the term house than residence4 ,a man has a residence in ,new ,york1 when he has lived here long enough to have the right to exercise the franchise here2 and he may have a house in ,fifth ,avenue where he lives4 ,people who are live in houses2 people who would be reside in residences4 ,the former buy things2 the latter purchase them4 ,,rest4 ,see ,,balance4 ,,restive4 ,some of the dictionaries1 ,richard ,grant ,white1 and some other writers1 contend that this word1 when properly used1 means unwilling to go1 standing still stubbornly1 obstinate1 stubborn1 and nothing else4 ,in combating this opinion1 ,fitzedward ,hall says3 ,very few instances1 ,i apprehend1 can be produced1 from our literature1 of this use of restive4 ,webster gives impatient1 uneasy1 as a second meaning2 and this is the sense in which the word is nearly always used4 ,,retire4 ,it is only the over-nice who use retire in the sense of go to bed4 ,,reverend--,,honorable4 ,many persons are in doubt whether they should or should not put the before these adjectives4 ,emphatically1 yes1 they should4 ,see ,words and ,their ,uses1 by ,richard ,grant ,white1 for a full discussion of the question2 also ,good ,english1 by ,edward ,s4 ,gould4 ,,rhetoric4 ,the art which has for its object the rendering of language effective is called rhetoric4 ,without some study of the art of composition1 no one can expect to write well1 or to judge the literary work of others4 ,true ease in writing comes from art1 not chance1 ,as those move easiest who have learned to dance4 ,,ride--,,drive4 ,fashion1 both in ,england and in this country1 says that we must always use the second of these words when we speak of going out in a carriage1 although ride means1 according to all the lexicographers1 to be carried on a horse or other animal1 or in any kind of vehicle or carriage4 ,,right4 ,singularly enough1 this word is made1 by some people1 to do service for ought1 in duty bound1 under obligation to2 thus1 ,you had a right to tell me1 meaning1 ,you should have told me4 ,the ,colonists contended that they had no right to pay taxes1 meaning1 ,they were under no obligation to pay taxes1 i4 e41 that it was unjust to tax them4 ,,right ,,here4 ,the expressions right here and right there are ,americanisms4 ,correctly1 just here and just there4 ,,rolling4 ,the use of this participial adjective in the sense of undulating is said to be an ,americanism4 ,whether an ,americanism or not1 it would seem to be quite unobjectionable4 ,,rubbers4 ,this word1 in common with gums and arctics1 is often1 in defiance of good taste1 used for overshoes4 ,,sabbath4 ,this term was first used in ,english for ,sunday1 or ,lord's day1 by the ,puritans4 ,nowadays it is little used in this sense4 ,the word to use is ,sunday4 ,,sarcasm4 ,bain says that sarcasm is vituperation softened in the outward expression by the arts and figures of disguise--epigram1 innuendo1 irony--and embellished with the figures of illustration4 ,crabb says that sarcasm is the indulgence only of personal resentment1 and is never justifiable4 ,,satire4 ,the holding up to ridicule of the follies and weaknesses of mankind1 by way of rebuke1 is called satire4 ,satire is general rather than individual1 its object being the reformation of abuses4 ,a lampoon1 which has been defined as a personal satire1 attacks the individual rather than his fault1 and is intended to injure rather than to reform4 ,said ,sheridan3 ,satires and lampoons on particular people circulate more by giving copies in confidence to the friends of the parties than by printing them4 ,,saw4 ,the imperfect tense of the verb to see is carelessly used by good writers and speakers when they should use the perfect2 thus1 ,i never saw anything like it before1 when the meaning intended is1 ,i have never in all my life seen anything like it before until now4 ,we say properly1 ,i never saw anything like it when ,i was in ,paris2 but1 when the period of time referred to extends to the time when the statement is made1 it must be have seen4 ,like mistakes are made in the use of other verbs1 but they are hardly as common2 yet we often hear such expressions as1 ,i was never in ,philadelphia1 ,i never went to the theatre in my life1 instead of have been in ,philadelphia1 and have gone to the theatre4 ,,section4 ,the use of this word for region1 neighborhood1 vicinity1 part 7of the town or country71 is said to be a ,westernism4 ,a section is a division of the public lands containing six hundred and forty acres4 ,,seem--,,appear4 ,graham1 in his ,english ,synonymes1 says of these two words3 ,what seems is in the mind2 what appears is external4 ,things appear as they present themselves to the eye2 they seem as they are represented to the mind4 ,things appear good or bad1 as far as we can judge by our senses4 ,things seem right or wrong as we determine by reflection4 ,perception and sensation have to do with appearing2 reflection and comparison1 with seeming4 ,when things are not what they appear1 our senses are deceived2 when things are not what they seem1 our judgment is at fault4 ,no man had ever a greater power over himself1 or was less the man he seemed to be1 which shortly after appeared to everybody1 when he cared less to keep on the mask4--,clarendon4 ,,seldom ,,or ,,ever4 ,this phrase should be seldom if ever1 or seldom or never4 ,,seraphim4 ,this is the plural of seraph4 ,one of the seraphim4 ,to ,thee cherubim and seraphim continually do cry4 ,see ,,cherubim4 ,,set--,,sit4 ,the former of these two verbs is often incorrectly used for the latter4 ,to set2 imperfect tense1 set2 participles1 setting1 set4 ,to sit2 imperfect tense1 sat2 participles1 sitting1 sat4 ,to set means to put1 to place1 to plant2 to put in any place1 condition1 state1 or posture4 ,we say1 to set about1 to set against1 to set out1 to set going1 to set apart1 to set aside1 to set down 7to put in writing74 ,to sit means to rest on the lower part of the body1 to repose on a seat1 to perch1 as a bird1 etc4 ,we say1 ,sit up1 i4 e41 rise from lying to sitting2 ,we will sit up1 i4 e41 will not go to bed2 ,sit down1 i4 e41 place yourself on a seat4 ,we sit a horse and we sit for a portrait4 ,garments sit well or otherwise4 ,congress sits1 so does a court4 ,i have sat up long enough4 ,i have set it on the table4 ,we set down figures1 but we sit down on the ground4 ,we set a hen1 and a hen sits on eggs4 ,we should say1 therefore1 as cross as a sitting not1 as a setting hen4 ,,settle4 ,this word is often inelegantly1 if not incorrectly1 used for pay4 ,we pay our way1 pay our fare1 pay our hotel-bills1 and the like4 ,see1 also1 ,,locate4 ,,shall ,,and ,,will4 ,the nice distinctions that should be made between these two auxiliaries are1 in some parts of the ,english-speaking world1 often disregarded1 and that1 too1 by persons of high culture4 ,the proper use of shall and will can much better be learned from example than from precept4 ,many persons who use them1 and also should and would1 with well-nigh unerring correctness1 do so unconsciously2 it is simply habit with them1 and they1 though their culture may be limited1 will receive a sort of verbal shock from ,biddy's inquiry1 ,will ,i put the kettle on1 ma'am8 when your ,irish or ,scotch countess would not be in the least disturbed by it4 ,,shall1 in an affirmative sentence1 in the first person1 and ,,will in the second and third persons1 merely announce future action4 ,thus1 ,i shall go to town to-morrow4 ,i shall not2 ,i shall wait for better weather4 ,we shall be glad to see you4 ,i shall soon be twenty4 ,we shall set out early1 and shall try to arrive by noon4 ,you will be pleased4 ,you will soon be twenty4 ,you will find him honest4 ,he will go with us4 ,,shall1 in an affirmative sentence1 in the second and third persons1 announces the speaker's intention to control4 ,thus1 ,you shall hear me out4 ,you shall go1 sick or well4 ,he shall be my heir4 ,they shall go1 whether they want to go or not4 ,,will1 in the first person1 expresses a promise1 announces the speaker's intention to control1 proclaims a determination4 ,thus1 ,i will ,i promise to assist you4 ,i will ,i am determined to have my right4 ,we will we promise to come to you in the morning4 ,,shall1 in an interrogative sentence1 in the first and third persons1 consults the will or judgment of another2 in the second person1 it inquires concerning the intention or future action of another4 ,thus1 ,shall ,i go with you8 ,when shall we see you again8 ,when shall ,i receive it8 ,when shall ,i get well8 ,when shall we get there8 ,shall he come with us8 ,shall you demand indemnity8 ,shall you go to town to-morrow8 ,what shall you do about it8 ,,will1 in an interrogative sentence1 in the second person1 asks concerning the wish1 and1 in the third person1 concerning the purpose or future action of others4 ,thus1 ,will you have an apple8 ,will you go with me to my uncle's8 ,will he be of the party8 ,will they be willing to receive us8 ,when will he be here8 ,will can not be used interrogatively in the first person singular or plural4 ,we can not say1 ,will ,i go8 ,will ,i help you8 ,will ,i be late8 ,will we get there in time8 ,will we see you again soon8 ,official courtesy1 in order to avoid the semblance of compulsion1 conveys its commands in the you-will form instead of the strictly grammatical you-shall form4 ,it says1 for example1 ,you will proceed to ,key ,west1 where you will find further instructions awaiting you4 ,a clever writer on the use of shall and will says that whatever concerns one's beliefs1 hopes1 fears1 likes1 or dislikes1 can not be expressed in conjunction with ,i will4 ,are there no exceptions to this rule8 ,if ,i say1 ,i think ,i shall go to ,philadelphia to-morrow1 ,i convey the impression that my going depends upon circumstances beyond my control2 but if ,i say1 ,i think ,i will go to ,philadelphia to-morrow1 ,i convey the impression that my going depends upon circumstances within my control--that my going or not depends on mere inclination4 ,we certainly must say1 ,i fear that ,i shall lose it2 ,i hope that ,i shall be well2 ,i believe that ,i shall have the ague2 ,i hope that ,i shall not be left alone2 ,i fear that we shall have bad weather2 ,i shall dislike the country2 ,i shall like the performance4 ,the writer referred to asks1 ,how can one say1 ',i will have the headache'8 ,i answer1 ,very easily1 as every young woman knows4 ,let us see3 ,mary1 you know you promised ,john to drive out with him to-morrow2 how shall you get out of it8 ,oh1 ,i will have the headache6 ,we request that people will do thus or so1 and not that they shall4 ,thus1 ,it is requested that no one will leave the room4 ,shall is rarely1 if ever1 used for will2 it is will that is used for shall4 ,expressions like the following are common3 ,where will you be next week8 ,i will be at home4 ,we will have dinner at six o'clock4 ,how will you go about it8 ,when will you begin8 ,when will you set out8 ,what will you do with it8 ,in all such expressions1 when it is a question of mere future action on the part of the person speaking or spoken to1 the auxiliary must be shall1 and not will4 ,should and would follow the regimen of shall and will4 ,would is often used for should2 should rarely for would4 ,correct speakers say1 ,i should go to town to-morrow if ,i had a horse4 ,i should not2 ,i should wait for better weather4 ,we should be glad to see you4 ,we should have started earlier1 if the weather had been clear4 ,i should like to go to town1 and would go if ,i could4 ,i would assist you if ,i could4 ,i should have been ill if ,i had gone4 ,i would ,i were home again6 ,i should go fishing to-day if ,i were home4 ,i should so like to go to ,europe6 ,i should prefer to see it first4 ,i should be delighted4 ,i should be glad to have you sup with me4 ,i knew that ,i should be ill4 ,i feared that ,i should lose it4 ,i hoped that ,i should see him4 ,i thought ,i should have the ague4 ,i hoped that ,i should not be left alone4 ,i was afraid that we should have bad weather4 ,i knew ,i should dislike the country4 ,i should not like to do it1 and will not determination unless compelled to4 ,,shimmy4 ,we derive from the ,french language our word chemise--pronounced shemmeeze4 ,in ,french1 the word denotes a man's shirt1 as well as the under garment worn by women4 ,in this country1 it is often pronounced by people who should know better--shimmy4 ,rather than call it shimmy1 resume the use of the old ,english words shift and smock4 ,good usage unqualifiedly condemns gents1 pants1 kids1 gums1 and shimmy4--,vulgarisms and ,other ,errors of ,speech4 ,,should4 ,see ,,ought4 ,,sick--,,ill4 ,these words are often used indiscriminately4 ,sick1 however1 is the stronger word1 and generally the better word to use4 ,ill is used in ,england more than with us3 there sick is generally limited to the expressing of nausea2 as1 sick at the stomach4 ,,signature1 ,,over ,,or ,,under8 ,a man writes under1 not over1 a signature4 ,charles ,dickens wrote under the signature of ,boz2 ,mr4 ,samuel ,l4 ,clemens writes under the signature of ,mark ,twain4 ,the reason given in ,webster's ,dictionary for preferring the use of under is absurd2 viz41 that the paper is under the hand in writing4 ,the expression is elliptical1 and has no reference to the position either of the signature or of the paper4 ,given under my hand and seal means under the guarantee of my signature and my seal4 ,under his own signature or name means under his own character1 without disguise4 ,under the signature of ,boz means under the disguise of the assumed name ,boz4 ,we always write under a certain date1 though the date be placed1 as it often is1 at the bottom of the page4 ,,signs4 ,in one of the principal business streets of ,new ,york there is a sign which reads1 ,german ,lace ,store4 ,now1 whether this is a store that makes a specialty of ,german laces1 or whether it is a store where all kinds of lace are sold1 kept by a ,german or after the ,german fashion1 is something that the sign doubtless means to tell us1 but1 owing to the absence of a hyphen 7,german-,lace ,store1 or ,german ,lace-,store71 does not tell us4 ,nothing is more common than erroneous punctuation in signs1 and gross mistakes by the unlettered in the wording of the simplest printed matter4 ,the bad taste1 incorrect punctuation1 false grammar1 and ridiculous nonsense met with on signs and placards1 and in advertisements1 are really surprising4 ,an advertisement tells us that a pillow which assists in procuring sleep is a benediction2 a placard1 that they have ,charlotte de ,russe for sale within1 which means1 if it means anything1 that they have for sale somebody or something called ,charlotte of ,russian2 and1 then1 on how many signs do we see the possessive case when the plural number is intended6 ,,simile4 ,in rhetoric1 a direct and formal comparison is called a simile4 ,it is generally denoted by like1 as1 or so2 as1 ,i have ventured1 ,like little wanton boys that swim on bladders1 ,these many summers in a sea of glory4 ,thy smile is as the dawn of vernal day4--,shakespeare4 ,as1 down in the sunless retreats of the ocean1 ,sweet flow'rets are springing no mortal can see2 ,so1 deep in my bosom1 the prayer of devotion1 ,unheard by the world1 rises silent to thee4--,moore4 ',tis with our judgments as with our watches2 none ,go just alike1 yet each believes his own4--,pope4 ,grace abused brings forth the foulest deeds1 ,as richest soil the most luxuriant weeds4--,cowper4 ,as no roads are so rough as those that have just been mended1 so no sinners are so intolerant as those who have just turned saints4--,lacon4 ,,sin4 ,see ,,crime4 ,,since--,,ago4 ,dr4 ,johnson says of these two adverbs3 ,reckoning time toward the present1 we use since2 as1 ',it is a year since it happened'3 reckoning from the present1 we use ago2 as1 ',it is a year ago4' ,this is not1 perhaps1 always observed4 ,dr4 ,johnson's rule will hardly suffice as a sure guide4 ,since is often used for ago1 but ago never for since4 ,ago is derived from the participle agone1 while since comes from a preposition4 ,we say properly1 not long or some time ago agone4 ,since requires a verbal clause after it2 as1 ,since ,i saw you2 ,since he was here4 ,,sing4 ,of the two forms--sang and sung--for the imperfect tense of the verb to sing1 the former--sang--is to be preferred4 ,,sit4 ,see ,,set4 ,,slang4 ,the slang that is heard among respectable people is made up of genuine words1 to which an arbitrary meaning is given4 ,it is always low1 generally coarse1 and not unfrequently foolish4 ,with the exception of cant1 there is nothing that is more to be shunned4 ,we sometimes meet with persons of considerable culture who interlard their talk with slang expressions1 but it is safe to assert that they are always persons of coarse natures4 ,,smart4 ,see ,,clever4 ,,smell ,,of4 ,see ,,taste ,,of4 ,,so4 ,see ,,as2 ,,such2 ,,that4 ,,so ,,much ,,so4 ,the shipments by the coast steamers are very large1 so much so large8 as to tax the capacity of the different lines4--,telegram1 ,september #ai1 #ahha4 ,the sentence should be1 ,the shipments by the coast steamers are very large1 so large as to tax1 etc4 ,,solecism4 ,in rhetoric1 a solecism is defined as an offense against the rules of grammar by the use of words in a wrong construction2 false syntax4 ,modern grammarians designate by solecism any word or expression which does not agree with the established usage of writing or speaking4 ,but1 as customs change1 that which at one time is considered a solecism may at another be regarded as correct language4 ,a solecism1 therefore1 differs from a barbarism1 inasmuch as the latter consists in the use of a word or expression which is altogether contrary to the spirit of the language1 and can1 properly speaking1 never become established as correct language4--,penny ,cyclopdia4 ,see1 also1 ,,barbarism4 ,,some4 ,this word is not unfrequently misused for somewhat2 thus1 ,she is some better to-day4 ,it is likewise often misused for about2 thus1 ,i think it is some ten miles from here3 read1 about ten miles from here4 ,,specialty4 ,this form has within a recent period been generally substituted for speciality4 ,there is no apparent reason1 however1 why the i should be dropped1 since it is required by the etymology of the word1 and is retained in nearly all other words of the same formation4 ,,specious ,,fallacy4 ,a fallacy is a sophism1 a logical artifice1 a deceitful or false appearance2 while specious means having the appearance of truth1 plausible4 ,hence we see that the very essence of a fallacy is its speciousness4 ,we may very properly say that a fallacy is more or less specious1 but we can not properly say that a fallacy is specious1 since without speciousness we can have no fallacies4 ,,splendid4 ,this poor word is used by the gentler sex to qualify well-nigh everything that has their approval1 from a sugar-plum to the national capitol4 ,in fact1 splendid and awful seem to be about the only adjectives some of our superlative young women have in their vocabularies4 ,,standpoint4 ,this is a word to which many students of ,english seriously object1 and among them are the editors of some of our daily papers1 who do not allow it to appear in their columns4 ,the phrase to which no one objects is1 point of view4 ,,state4 ,this word1 which properly means to make known specifically1 to explain particularly1 is often misused for say4 ,when say says all one wants to say1 why use a more pretentious word8 ,,stop4 ,where are you stopping8 ,at the ,metropolitan4 ,the proper word to use here is staying4 ,to stop means to cease to go forward1 to leave off2 and to stay means to abide1 to tarry1 to dwell1 to sojourn4 ,we stay1 not stop1 at home1 at a hotel1 or with a friend1 as the case may be4 ,,storm4 ,many persons indulge in a careless use of this word1 using it when they mean to say simply that it rains or snows4 ,to a storm a violent commotion of the atmosphere is indispensable4 ,a very high wind constitutes a storm1 though it be dry4 ,,straightway4 ,here is a good ,anglo-,saxon word of two syllables whose place1 without any good reason1 is being usurped by the ,latin word immediately1 of five syllables4 ,,street4 ,we live in1 not on--meet our acquaintances in1 not on--things occur in1 not on--houses are built in1 not on1 the street1 and so forth4 ,,style4 ,this is a term that is used to characterize the peculiarities that distinguish a writer or a composition4 ,correctness and clearness properly belong to the domain of diction2 simplicity1 conciseness1 gravity1 elegance1 diffuseness1 floridity1 force1 feebleness1 coarseness1 etc41 belong to the domain of style4 ,,subjunctive ,,mood4 ,this mood is unpopular with not a few now-a-day grammarians4 ,one says that it is rapidly falling into disuse2 that1 in fact1 there is good reason to suppose it will soon become obsolete4 ,another says that it would1 perhaps1 be better to abolish it entirely1 as its use is a continual source of dispute among grammarians and of perplexity to schools4 ,another says that it is a universal stumbling-block2 that nobody seems to understand it1 although almost everybody attempts to use it4 ,that the subjunctive mood is much less used now than it was a hundred years ago is certain1 but that it is obsolescent is very far from certain4 ,it would not be easy1 ,i think1 to find a single contemporary writer who does not use it4 ,that it is not always easy to determine what form of it we should employ is very true2 but if we are justified in abolishing it altogether1 as ,mr4 ,chandler suggests1 because its correct use is not always easy1 then we are also justified in abolishing the use of shall and will1 and of the prepositions1 for surely their right use is likewise at times most puzzling4 ,meanwhile1 most persons will think it well to learn to use the subjunctive mood properly4 ,with that object in view1 one can not1 perhaps1 do better than to attend to what ,dr4 ,alexander ,bain1 ,professor of ,logic in the ,university of ,aberdeen1 says upon the subject4 ,in ,professor ,bain's ,higher ,english ,grammar we find3 ,in subordinate clauses4--,in a clause expressing a condition1 and introduced by a conjunction of condition1 the verb is sometimes1 but not always1 in the subjunctive mood3 ',if ,i be able1' 'if ,i were strong enough1' 'if thou should come4' ,the subjunctive inflexions have been wholly lost4 ,the sense that something is wanting appears to have led many writers to use indicative forms where the subjunctive might be expected4 ,the tendency appears strongest in the case of 'wert1' which is now used as indicative 7for 'wast'7 only in poetical or elevated language4 ,the following is the rule given for the use of the subjunctive mood3 ,when in a conditional clause it is intended to express doubt or denial1 use the subjunctive mood4#cj ',if ,i were sure of what you tell me1 ,i would go4' ,when the conditional clause is affirmative and certain1 the verb is indicative3 ',if that is the case' 7as you now tell me1 and as ,i believe71 ',i can understand you4' ,this is equivalent to a clause of assumption1 or supposition3 ',that being the case1' 'inasmuch as that is the case1' etc4 ,as futurity is by its nature uncertain1 the subjunctive is extensively used for future conditionality3 ',if it rain1 we shall not be able to go'2 'if ,i be well'2 'if he come shortly'2 'if thou return at all in peace'2 'though he slay me1 yet will ,i trust in him4' ,these events are all in the uncertain future1 and are put in the subjunctive4#ca ,a future result or consequence is expressed by the subjunctive in such instances as these3 ',i will wait till he return'2 'no fear lest dinner cool'2 'thou shalt stone him with stones1 that he die'2 'take heed lest at any time your hearts be overcharged with surfeiting4' ,uncertainty as to a past event may arise from our own ignorance1 in which case the subjunctive is properly employed1 and serves the useful purpose of distinguishing our ignorance from our knowledge4 ',if any of my readers has looked with so little attention upon the world around him'2 this would mean--'as ,i know that they have4' ,the meaning intended is probably--'as ,i do not know whether they have or not1' and therefore the subjunctive 'have' is preferable4 ',if ignorance is bliss1' which ,i 7ironically7 admit4 ,had ,gray been speaking seriously1 he would have said1 'if ignorance be bliss1' he himself dissenting from the proposition4 ,a wish contrary to the fact takes the subjunctive3 ',i wish he were here' 7which he is not74 ,an intention not yet carried out is also subjunctive3 ',the sentence is that you be imprisoned4' ,the only correct form of the future subjunctive is--'if ,i should4' ,we may say1 ',i do not know whether or not ,i shall come'2 but 'if ,i shall come1' expressing a condition1 is not an ,english construction4 ',if he will' has a real meaning1 as being the present subjunctive of the verb 'will'3 'if he be willing1' 'if he have the will4' ,it is in accordance with good usage to express a future subjunctive meaning by a present tense2 but in that case the form must be strictly subjunctive1 and not indicative4 ',if any member absents himself1 he shall forfeit a penny for the use of the club'2 this ought to be either 'absent1' or 'should absent4' ',if thou neglectest or doest unwillingly what ,i command thee1 ,i will rack thee with old cramps'2 better1 'if thou neglect or do unwillingly1' or 'if thou should neglect4' ,the indicative would be justified by the speaker's belief that the supposition is sure to turn out to be the fact4 ,the past subjunctive may imply denial2 as1 'if the book were in the library 7as it is not71 it should be at your service4' ',if the book be in the library1' means1 ',i do not know whether it be or not4' ,we have thus the power of discriminating three different suppositions4 ',if the book is in the library' 7as ,i know it is72 'if it be' 7,i am uncertain72 'if it were' 7as ,i know it is not74 ,so1 'if it rains1' 'if it rain1' 'if it rained4' ',nay1 and the villains march wide between the legs1 as if they had gyves on1' implying that they had not4 ,the same power of the past tense is exemplified in 'if ,i could1 ,i would1' which means1 ',i can not'2 whereas1 'if ,i can1 ,i will1' means ',i do not know4' ,the past subjunctive may be expressed by an inversion3 ',had ,i the power1' 'were ,i as ,i have been4' ,in ,principal ,clauses4--,the principal clause in a conditional statement also takes the subjunctive form when it refers to what is future and contingent1 and when it refers to what is past and uncertain1 or denied4 ',if he should try1 he would succeed'2 'if ,i had seen him1 ,i should have asked him4' ,the usual forms of the subjunctive in the principal clause are 'would1' 'should1' 'would have1' 'should have'2 and it is to be noted that in this application the second persons take the inflexional ending of the indicative3 'shouldst1' 'wouldst4' ',if 'twere done when 'tis done1 then 'twere 7would be7 well ,it were 7should be7 done quickly4' ,the ,english idiom appears sometimes to permit the use of an indicative where we should expect a subjunctive form4 ',many acts1 that had been otherwise blamable1 were employed'2 ',i had fainted1 unless ,i had believed1' etc4 ',which else lie furled and shrouded in the soul4' ,in 'else' there is implied a conditional clause that would suit 'lie'2 or the present may be regarded as a more vivid form of expression4 ',had' may be indicative2 just as we sometimes find pluperfect indicative for pluperfect subjunctive in the same circumstances in ,latin4 ,we may refer it to the general tendency1 as already seen in the uses of 'could1' 'would1' 'should1' etc41 to express conditionality by a past tense2 or the indicative may be used as a more direct and vivid mode4 ',had' may be subjunctive2 ',i had fainted' is1 in construction1 analogous to ',i should have fainted'2 the word for futurity1 'shall1' not being necessary to the sense1 is withdrawn1 and its past inflexion transferred to 'have4' ,compare ,germ4 wrde haben and htte4 ,in addition to the foregoing1 we find in ,professor ,bain's ,composition ,grammar the following3 ,the case most suited to the subjunctive is contingent futurity1 or the expression of an event unknown absolutely1 as being still in the future3 ',if to-morrow be fine1 ,i will walk with you4' ',unless ,i were prepared1' insinuates pretty strongly that ,i am or am not prepared1 according to the manner of the principal clause4 ',what's a tall man unless he fight8' ',the sword hath ended him3 so shall it thee1 ,unless thou yield thee as my prisoner4' ',who but must laugh1 if such a man there be8 ,who would not weep1 if ,atticus were he8' ',i am to second ,ion if he fail'2 the failing is left quite doubtful4 ',i should very imperfectly execute the task which ,i have undertaken if ,i were merely to treat of battles and sieges4' ,macaulay thus implies that the scope of his work is to be wider than mere battles and sieges4 ,the subjunctive appears in some other constructions4 ',i hope to see the exhibition before it close'2 'wait till he return'2 'thou shall stand by the river's brink against he come'2 'take heed lest passion sway thy judgment'2 'speak to me1 though it be in wrath'2 'if he smite him with an instrument of iron so that he die1 he is a murderer'2 'beware this night that thou cross not my footsteps' 7,shelley74 ,again4 ',whatever this be'2 'whoever he be'2 'howe'er it be' 7,tennyson72 and such like4 ',and as long1 ,o ,god1 as she ,have a grain of love for me1 ,so long1 no doubt1 no doubt1 ,shall ,i nurse in my dark heart1 ,however weary1 a spark of will ,not to be trampled out4' ,the ,future ,subjunctive is given in our scheme of the verb as 'should' in all persons3 ',if ,i should1 if thou should1 if he should4' ,in old ,english1 we have 'thou shouldst'3 'if thou1 ,lord1 shouldst mark iniquities4' ,an inverted conditional form has taken deep root in our language1 and may be regarded as an elegant and forcible variety4 ,while dispensing with the conjunction1 it does not cause ambiguity2 nevertheless1 conditionality is well marked4 ',if you should abandon your ,penelope and your home for ,calypso1 ----'3 'should you abandon ----4' ',go not my horse the better1 ,i must become a borrower of the night ,for a dark hour or twain4' ',here had we now our country's honor roof'd ,were the graced person of our ,banquo present4' ',be thou a spirit of health or goblin damn'd1 ,bring with thee airs from heaven or blasts from hell1 ,be thy intents wicked or charitable1 ,thou com'st in such a questionable shape ,that ,i will speak to thee4' ',come one1 come all1 this rock shall fly ,from its firm base as soon as ,i4'--,scott4 ,the following examples are given by ,mtzner3 ',varney's communications1 be they what they might1 were operating in his favor4'--,scott4 ',governing persons1 were they never so insignificant intrinsically1 have for most part plenty of ,memoir-writers4'--,carlyle4 ',even were ,i disposed1 ,i could not gratify the reader4'--,warren4 ',bring them back to me1 cost what it may4'--,coleridge1 ',wallenstein4' ',and will you1 nill you1 ,i will marry you4'--',taming of the ,shrew4' ,were is used in the principal clause for 'should be' or 'would be4'#cb ',i were 7should be7 a fool1 not less than if a panther ,were panic-stricken by the antelope's eye1 ,if she escape me4'--,shelley4 ',were you but riding forth to air yourself1 ,such parting were too petty4' ',he were 7would be7 no lion1 were not ,romans hinds4' ',should he be roused out of his sleep to-night1 444 ,it were not well2 indeed it were not well4'--,shelley4 ,had is sometimes used in the principal clause for 'should have' or 'would have4'#cc ',had ,i known this before we set out1 ,i think ,i had 7 would have7 remained at home4'--,scott4 ',hadst thou been kill'd when first thou didst presume1 ,thou hadst not lived to kill a son of mine4' ',if he ,had killed me1 he had done a kinder deed4' ',for once he had been ta'en or slain1 ,an it had not been his ministry4'--,scott4 ',if thou hadst said him nay1 it had been sin4'#cd ',had better1 rather1 best1 as lief1 as well1 etc41' is a form that is explained under this heading4 ',had' stands for 'would have4' ,the exploded notion that 'had' is a corrupted 'would' must be guarded against4 ',i had as lief not be4' ,that is--',i would as lief have not 7to7 be' ',i would as willingly 7or as soon7 have non-existence4' ',had you rather ,csar were living----8' ',would you rather have 7would you prefer that7 ,csar were living8' ',he had better reconsider the matter' is 'he would better have 7to7 reconsider the matter4' ',i had rather be a kitten and cry mew ,than one of these same metre ballad-mongers2 ,i had rather hear a brazen canstick turned4' ,let us compare this form with another that appears side by side with it in early writers4 7,cp4 ,lat4 'habeo' and 'mihi est4'7 ,the construction of 'had' is thus illustrated in ,chaucer1 as in--,nonne ,prestes ,tale1 #cjj3 ',by ,god1 ,i hadde levere than my scherte1 ,that ye hadde rad his legend1 as ,i have4' ,compare now3 ',ah me were levere with lawe loose my lyf ,then so to fote hem falle4'--,wright1 ',polit4 ,s4' ,here 'were' is unquestionably for 'would be'2 and the whole expression might be given by 'had1' thus3 ',ah1 ,i hadde levere ----1' '7to7 loose' and '7to7 falle1' changing from subjects of 'were' to objects of 'hadde4' ,so1 in the ,chaucer example above1 if we substitute 'be' for 'have1' we shall get the same meaning1 thus3 ',by ,god1 me were levere ----4' ,the interchange helps us to see more clearly that 'hadde' is to be explained as subjunctive for 'would have4' ,see ,,indicative ,,and ,,subjunctive4 ,,such4 ,i have never before seen such a large ox4 ,by a little transposing of the words of this sentence1 we have1 ,i have never before seen an ox such large1 which makes it quite clear that we should say so large an ox and not such a large ox4 ,as proof that this error in the use of such is common1 we find in ,mr4 ,george ,washington ,moon's ,dean's ,english and ,bad ,english1 the sentence1 ,with all due deference to such a high authority on such a very important matter4 ,with a little transposing1 this sentence is made to read1 ,with all due deference to an authority such high on a matter such very important4 ,it is clear that the sentence should read1 ,with all due deference to so high an authority on so very important a matter4 ,the phrases1 such a handsome1 such a lovely1 such a long1 such narrow1 etc41 are incorrect1 and should be so handsome1 so lovely1 so long1 and so on4 ,,summon4 ,this verb comes in for its full share of mauling4 ,we often hear such expressions as ,i will summons him1 instead of summon him2 and ,he was summonsed1 instead of summoned4 ,,superfluous ,,words4 ,whenever ,i try to write well1 ,i always find ,i can do it4 ,i shall have finished by the latter end of the week4 ,iron sinks down in water4 ,he combined together all the facts4 ,my brother called on me1 and we both took a walk4 ,i can do it equally as well as he4 ,we could not forbear from doing it4 ,before ,i go1 ,i must first be paid4 ,we were compelled to return back4 ,we forced them to retreat back fully a mile4 ,his conduct was approved of by everybody4 ,they conversed together for a long time4 ,the balloon rose up very rapidly4 ,give me another one4 ,come home as soon as ever you can4 ,who finds him in money8 ,he came in last of all4 ,he has got all he can carry4 ,what have you got8 ,no matter what ,i have got4 ,i have got the headache4 ,have you got any brothers8 ,no1 but ,i have got a sister4 ,all the words in italics are superfluous4 ,,superior4 ,this word is not unfrequently used for able1 excellent1 gifted2 as1 ,she is a superior woman1 meaning an excellent woman2 ,he is a superior man1 meaning an able man4 ,the expression an inferior man is not less objectionable4 ,,supposititious4 ,this word is properly used in the sense of put by a trick into the place or character belonging to another1 spurious1 counterfeit1 not genuine2 and improperly in the sense of conjectural1 hypothetical1 imaginary1 presumptive2 as1 ,this is a supposititious case1 meaning an imaginary or presumptive case4 ,the ,english critic derived his materials from a stray copy of some supposititious indexes devised by one of the ',post' reporters4--,nation4 ,here is a correct use of the word4 ,,swosh4 ,there is a kind of ill-balanced brain in which the reflective and the imaginative very much outweight the perceptive4 ,men to whom this kind of an organization has been given generally have active minds1 but their minds never present anything clearly4 ,to their mental vision all is ill-defined1 chaotic4 ,they see everything in a haze4 ,whether such men talk or write1 they are verbose1 illogical1 intangible1 will-o'-the-wispish4 ,their thoughts are phantomlike2 like shadows1 they continually escape their grasp4 ,in their talk they will1 after long dissertations1 tell you that they have not said just what they would like to say2 there is always a subtle1 lurking something still unexpressed1 which something is the real essence of the matter1 and which your penetration is expected to divine4 ,in their writings they are eccentric1 vague1 labyrinthine1 pretentious1 transcendental1#ce and frequently ungrammatical4 ,these men1 if write they must1 should confine themselves to the descriptive2 for when they enter the essayist's domain1 which they are very prone to do1 they write what ,i will venture to call swosh4 ,we find examples in plenty of this kind of writing in the essays of ,mr4 ,ralph ,waldo ,emerson4 ,indeed1 the impartial critic who will take the trouble to examine any of ,mr4 ,emerson's essays at all carefully1 is quite sure to come to the conclusion that ,mr4 ,emerson has seen everything he has ever made the subject of his essays very much as ,london is seen from the top of ,saint ,paul's in a fog4 ,mr4 ,emerson's definition of ,nature runs thus3 ,philosophically considered1 the universe is composed of ,nature and the ,soul4 ,strictly speaking1 therefore1 all that is separate from us1 all which philosophy distinguishes from the ,not ,me--that is1 both ,nature and ,art1 and all other men1 and my own body--must be ranked under this name ',,nature4' ,in enumerating the values of ,nature and casting up their sum1 ,i shall use the word in both senses--in its common and in its philosophical import4 ,in inquiries so general as our present one1 the inaccuracy is not material2 no confusion of thought will occur4 ,nature1 in the common sense1 refers to essences unchanged by man3 space1 the air1 the river1 the leaf4 ,art is applied to the mixture of his will with the same things1 as in a house1 a canal1 a picture1 a statue4 ,but his operations1 taken together1 are so insignificant--a little chipping1 baking1 patching1 and washing--that in an impression so grand as that of the world on the human mind they do not vary the result4 ,in ,letters and ,social ,aims ,mr4 ,emerson writes3 ,eloquence is the power to translate a truth into language perfectly intelligible to the person to whom you speak4 ,he who would convince the worthy ,mr4 ,dunderhead of any truth which ,dunderhead does not see1 must be a master of his art4 ,declamation is common2 but such possession of thought as is here required1 such practical chemistry as the conversion of a truth written in ,god's language into a truth in ,dunderhead's language1 is one of the most beautiful and cogent weapons that is forged in the shop of the ,divine ,artificer4 ,the first paragraph of ,mr4 ,emerson's ,essay on ,art reads3 ,all departments of life at the present day--,trade1 ,politics1 ,letters1 ,science1 or ,religion--seem to feel1 and to labor to express1 the identity of their law4 ,they are rays of one sun2 they translate each into a new language the sense of the other4 ,they are sublime when seen as emanations of a ,necessity contradistinguished from the vulgar ,fate by being instant and alive1 and dissolving man1 as well as his works1 in its flowing beneficence4 ,this influence is conspicuously visible in the principles and history of ,art4 ,another paragraph from ,mr4 ,emerson's ,essay on ,eloquence3 ,the orator1 as we have seen1 must be a substantial personality4 ,then1 first1 he must have power of statement--must have the fact1 and know how to tell it4 ,in a knot of men conversing on any subject1 the person who knows most about it will have the ear of the company1 if he wishes it1 and lead the conversation1 no matter what genius or distinction other men there present may have2 and1 in any public assembly1 him who has the facts1 and can and will state them1 people will listen to1 though he is otherwise ignorant1 though he is hoarse and ungrateful1 though he stutters and screams4 ,mr4 ,emerson1 in his ,essay on ,prudence1 writes3 ,there are all degrees of proficiency in knowledge of the world4 ,it is sufficient to our present purpose to indicate three4 ,one class live to the utility of the symbol1 esteeming health and wealth a final good4 ,another class live above this mark to the beauty of the symbol1 as the poet and artist1 and the naturalist and man of science4 ,a third class live above the beauty of the symbol to the beauty of the thing signified2 these are wise men4 ,the first class have common sense2 the second1 taste2 and the third1 spiritual perception4 ,once in a long time a man traverses the whole scale1 and sees and enjoys the symbol solidly2 then1 also1 has a clear eye for its beauty2 and1 lastly1 whilst he pitches his tent on this sacred volcanic isle of nature1 does not offer to build houses and barns thereon1 reverencing the splendor of ,god which he sees bursting through each chink and cranny4 ,those who are wont to accept others at their self-assessment and to see things through other people's eyes--and there are many such--are in danger of thinking this kind of writing very fine1 when in fact it is not only the veriest swosh1 but that kind of swosh that excites at least an occasional doubt with regard to the writer's sanity4 ,we can make no greater mistake than to suppose that the reason we do not understand these rhetorical contortionists is because they are so subtle and profound4 ,we understand them quite as well as they understand themselves4 ,at their very best1 they are but incoherent diluters of other men's ideas4 ,they have but one thing to recommend them--honesty4 ,they believe in themselves4 ,whatever is dark is deep4 ,stir a puddle1 and it is deeper than a well4--,swift4 ,,synecdoche4 ,the using of the name of a part for that of the whole1 the name of the whole for that of a part1 or the using of a definite number for an indefinite1 is called1 in rhetoric1 synecdoche4 ,the bay was covered with sails2 i4 e41 with ships4 ,the man was old1 careworn1 and gray2 i4 e41 literally1 his hair1 not the man1 was gray4 ,nine tenths of every man's happiness depends on the reception he meets with in the world4 ,he had seen seventy winters4 ,thus spoke the tempter3 here the part of the character is named that suits the occasion4 ,his roof was at the service of the outcast2 the unfortunate ever found a welcome at his threshold4 ,,take4 ,i copy from the ,london ,queen3 ,the verb to take is open to being considered a vulgar verb when used in reference to dinner1 tea1 or to refreshments of any kind4 ',will you take' is not considered comme il faut2 the verb in favor for the offering of civilities being to have4 ,according to ,the ,queen1 then1 we must say1 ,will you have some dinner1 tea1 coffee1 wine1 fish1 beef1 salad1 etc4 ,,taste ,,of4 ,the redundant of1 often used1 in this country1 in connection with the transitive verbs to taste and to smell1 is a ,yankeeism4 ,we taste or smell a thing1 not taste of nor smell of a thing4 ,the neuter verbs to taste and to smell are often followed by of4 ,if butter tastes of brass4 ,for age but tastes of pleasures4 ,you shall stifle in your own report1 and smell of calumny4--,shakespeare4 ,,tautology4 ,among the things to be avoided in writing is tautology1 which is the repeating of the same thought1 whether in the same or in different words4 ,,tautophony4 ,a regard for harmony requires us1 in the progress of a sentence1 to avoid repeating a sound by employing the same word more than once1 or using1 in contiguous words1 similar combinations of letters4 ,this fault is known as tautology4--,dr4 ,g4 ,p4 ,quackenbos1 ,advanced ,course of ,composition and ,rhetoric1 p4 #cjj4 ,dr4 ,quackenbos is in error4 ,the repetition of the same sense is tautology1 and the repetition of the same sound1 or1 as ,dr4 ,quackenbos has it1 the repeating of a sound by employing the same word more than once1 or by using in contiguous words similar combinations of letters1 is tautophony4 ,,teach4 ,to impart knowledge1 to inform1 to instruct2 as1 ,teach me how to do it2 ,teach me to swim2 ,he taught me to write4 ,the uncultured often misuse learn for teach4 ,see ,,learn4 ,,tense4 ,the errors made in the use of the tenses are manifold4 ,the one most frequently made by persons of culture--the one that everybody makes would1 perhaps1 be nearer the fact--is that of using the imperfect instead of the perfect tense2 thus1 ,i never saw it played but once3 say1 have seen4 ,he was the largest man ,i ever saw3 say1 have seen4 ,i never in my life had such trouble3 say1 have had4 ,another frequent error1 the making of which is not confined to the unschooled1 is that of using two verbs in a past tense when only one should be in that time2 thus1 ,i intended to have gone3 say1 to go4 ,it was my intention to have come3 say1 to come4 ,i expected to have found you here3 say1 to find4 ,i was very desirous to have gone3 say1 to go4 ,he was better than ,i expected to have found him3 say1 to find4 ,among other common errors are the following3 ,i seen him when he done it3 say1 ,i saw him when he did it4 ,i should have went home3 say1 gone4 ,if he had went3 say1 gone4 ,i wish you had went3 say1 gone4 ,he has went out3 say1 gone4 ,i come to town this morning3 say1 came4 ,he come to me for advice3 say1 came4 ,it begun very late3 say1 began4 ,it had already began3 say1 begun4 ,the following toasts were drank3 say1 drunk4 ,his text was that ,god was love3 say1 is love4 ,another error is made in such sentences as these3 ,if ,i had have known3 say1 had known4 ,if he had have come as he promised3 say1 had come4 ,if you had have told me3 say1 had told4 ,,testimony4 ,see ,,evidence4 ,,than4 ,than and as implying comparison have the same case after as before them4 ,he owes more than me3 read1 than ,i--i4 e41 more than ,i owe4 ,john is not so old as her3 read1 as she--i4 e41 as she is4 ,we should say1 then1 ,he is stronger than she1 ,she is older than he1 ,you are richer than ,i1 etc4 ,but it does not always happen that the nominative case comes after than or as4 ,i love you more than him1 ,i give you more than him1 ,i love you as well as him2 that is to say1 ,i love you more than ,i love him1 ,i give you more than ,i give him1 ,i love you as well as ,i love him4 ,take away him and put he in all these cases1 and the grammar is just as good1 but the meaning is quite different4 ,i love you as well as him1 means that ,i love you as well as ,i love him2 but1 ,i love you as well as he1 means that ,i love you as well as he loves you4 ,,than ,,whom4 ,cobbett1 in his ,grammar of the ,english ,language1 says3 ,there is an erroneous way of employing whom1 which ,i must point out to your particular attention1 because it is so often seen in very good writers1 and because it is very deceiving4 ',the ,duke of ,argyll1 than whom no man was more hearty in the cause4' ',cromwell1 than whom no man was better skilled in artifice4' ,a hundred such phrases might be collected from ,hume1 ,blackstone1 and even from ,drs4 ,blair and ,johnson4 ,yet they are bad grammar4 ,in all such cases1 who should be made use of3 for it is nominative and not objective4 ',no man was more hearty in the cause than he was'2 ',no man was better skilled in artifice than he was4'#cf ,it is a very common ,parliament-house phrase1 and therefore presumably corrupt2 but it is a ,dr4 ,johnson phrase1 too3 ',pope1 than whom few men had more vanity4' ,the ,doctor did not say1 ',myself1 than whom few men have been found more base1 having1 in my dictionary1 described a pensioner as a slave of state1 and having afterward myself become a pensioner4' ,i differ in this matter from ,bishop ,lowth1 who says that ',the relative who1 having reference to no verb or preposition understood1 but only to its antecedent1 when it follows than1 is always in the objective case2 even though the pronoun1 if substituted in its place1 would be in the nominative4' ,and then he gives an instance from ,milton4 ',beelzebub1 than whom1 ,satan except1 none higher sat4' ,it is curious enough that this sentence of the ,bishop is1 itself1 ungrammatical6 ,our poor unfortunate it is so placed as to make it a matter of doubt whether the ,bishop meant it to relate to who or to its antecedent4 ,however1 we know its meaning2 but1 though he says that who1 when it follows than1 is always in the objective case1 he gives us no reason for this departure from a clear general principle2 unless we are to regard as a reason the example of ,milton1 who has committed many hundreds1 if not thousands1 of grammatical errors1 many of which the ,bishop himself has pointed out4 ,there is a sort of side-wind attempt at reason in the words1 'having reference to no verb or preposition understood4' ,i do not see the reason1 even if this could be2 but it appears to me impossible that a noun or pronoun can exist in a grammatical state without having reference to some verb or preposition1 either expressed or understood4 ,what is meant by ,milton8 ',than ,beelzebub1 none sat higher1 except ,satan4' ,and when1 in order to avoid the repetition of the word ,beelzebub1 the relative becomes necessary1 the full construction must be1 'no devil sat higher than who sat1 except ,satan'2 and not1 'no devil sat higher than whom sat4'#cg ,the supposition that there can be a noun or pronoun which has reference to no verb and no preposition1 is certainly a mistake4 ,of this1 ,dr4 ,fitzedward ,hall remarks1 in his ,recent ,exemplifications of ,false ,philology3 ,that any one but ,cobbett would abide this as ,english is highly improbable2 and how the expression--a quite classical one--which he discards can be justified grammatically1 except by calling its than a preposition1 others may resolve at their leisure and pleasure4 ,,thanks4 ,there are many persons who think it in questionable taste to use thanks for thank you4 ,,that4 ,the best writers often appear to grope after a separate employment for the several relatives4 ',,that' is the proper restrictive1 explicative1 limiting1 or defining relative4 ',that1' the neuter of the definite article1 was early in use as a neuter relative4 ,all the other oldest relatives gradually dropt away1 and 'that' came to be applied also to plural antecedents1 and to masculines and feminines4 ,when 'as1' 'which1' and 'who' came forward to share the work of 'that1' there seems to have arisen not a little uncertainty about the relatives1 and we find curious double forms3 'whom that1' 'which that1' 'which as1' etc4 ,gower has1 ',venus whose priest that ,i am'2 ,chaucer writes--',this ,abbot which that was an holy man1' 'his love the which that he oweth4' ,by the ,elizabethan period1 these double forms have disappeared1 and all the relatives are used singly without hesitation4 ,from then till now1 'that' has been struggling with 'who' and 'which' to regain superior favor1 with varying success4 ',who' is used for persons1 'which' for things1 in both numbers2 so is 'that'2 and the only opportunity of a special application of 'that' lies in the important distinction between cordination and restriction4 ,now1 as 'who' and 'which' are most commonly preferred for cordination1 it would be a clear gain to confine them to this sense1 and to reserve 'that' for the restrictive application alone4 ,this arrangement1 then1 would fall in with the most general use of 'that1' especially beyond the limits of formal composition4 ,the use of 'that' solely as restrictive1 with 'who' and 'which' solely as cordinating1 also avoids ambiguities that often attend the indiscriminate use of 'who' and 'which' for cordinate and for restrictive clauses4 ,thus1 when we say1 'his conduct surprised his ,english friends1 who had not known him long1' we may mean either that his ,english friends generally were surprised 7the relative being1 in that case1 cordinating71 or that only a portion of them--namely1 the particular portion that had not known him long--were surprised4 ,in this last case the relative is meant to define or explain the antecedent1 and the doubt would be removed by writing thus3 'his ,english friends that had not known him long4' ,so in the following sentence there is a similar ambiguity in the use of 'which'3 'the next winter which you will spend in town will give you opportunities of making a more prudent choice4' ,this may mean1 either 'you will spend next winter in town' 7'which' being cordinating71 or 'the next of the winters when you are to live in town1' let that come when it may4 ,in the former case1 'which' is the proper relative2 in the latter case1 the meaning is restrictive or defining1 and would be best brought out by 'that'3 'the next winter that you will spend in town4' ,a further consideration in favor of employing 'that' for explicative clauses is the unpleasant effect arising from the too frequent repetition of 'who' and 'which4' ,grammarians often recommend 'that' as a means of varying the style2 but this end ought to be sought in subservience to the still greater end of perspicuity4 ,the following examples will serve further to illustrate the distinction between that1 on the one hand1 and who and which1 on the other3 ',in general1 ,mr4 ,burchell was fondest of the company of children1 whom he used to call harmless little men4' ',whom' is here idiomatically used1 being the equivalent of 'and them he used to call1' etc4 ',bacon at last1 a mighty man1 arose1 ,whom a wise king and nation chose ,lord ,chancellor of both their laws4' ,here1 also1 'whom' is equal to 'and him4' ,in the following instance the relative is restrictive or defining1 and 'that' would be preferable3 'the conclusion of the ,iliad is like the exit of a great man out of company whom he has entertained magnificently4' ,compare another of ,addison's sentences3 'a man of polite imagination is let into a great many pleasures that the vulgar are not capable of receiving4' ,both relatives are introduced discriminatingly in this passage3--',she had learned that from ,mrs4 ,wood1 who had heard it from her husband1 who had heard it at the public-house from the landlord1 who had been let into the secret by the boy that carried the beer to some of the prisoners4' ,the following sentences are ambiguous under the modern system of using 'who' for both purposes3--',i met the boatman who took me across the ferry4' ,if 'who' is the proper relative here1 the meaning is1 ',i met the boatman1 and he took me across1' it being supposed that the boatman is known and definite4 ,but if there be several boatmen1 and ,i wish to indicate one in particular by the circumstance that he had taken me across the ferry1 ,i should use 'that4' ',the youngest boy who has learned to dance is ,james4' ,this means either 'the youngest boy is ,james1 and he has learned to dance1' or1 'of the boys1 the youngest that has learned to dance is ,james4' ,this last sense is restrictive1 and 'that' should be used4 ,turning now to 'which1' we may have a series of parallel examples4 ',the court1 which gives currency to manners1 should be exemplary'3 here the meaning is 'the court should be exemplary1 for the court gives currency to manners4' ',which' is the idiomatic relative in this case4 ',the cat1 which you despise so much1 is a very useful animal4' ,the relative here also is cordinating1 and not restrictive4 ,if it were intended to point out one individual cat specially despised by the person addressed1 'that' would convey the sense4 ',a theory which does not tend to the improvement of practice is utterly unworthy of regard4' ,the meaning is restrictive2 'a theory that does not tend4' ,the following sentence is one of many from ,goldsmith that give 'that' instead of 'which'3--',age1 that lessens the enjoyment of life1 increases our desire of living4' ,thackeray also was fond of this usage4 ,but it is not very common4 ',their faith tended to make them improvident2 but a wise instinct taught them that if there was one thing which ought not to be left to fate1 or to the precepts of a deceased prophet1 it was the artillery'2 a case where 'that' is the proper relative4 ',all words1 which are signs of complex ideas1 furnish matter of mistake4' ,this gives an erroneous impression1 and should be 'all words that are signs of complex ideas4' ',in all cases of prescription1 the universal practice of judges is to direct juries by analogy to the ,statute of ,limitations1 to decide against incorporeal rights which have for many years been relinquished'3 say instead1 'incorporeal rights that have for many years1' and the sense is clear4 ,it is necessary for the proper understanding of 'which' to advert to its peculiar function of referring to a whole clause as the antecedent3 ',william ran along the top of the wall1 which alarmed his mother very much4' ,the antecedent is obviously not the noun 'wall1' but the fact expressed by the entire clause--',william ran1' etc4 ',he by no means wants sense1 which only serves to aggravate his former folly'2 namely1 7not 'sense1' but7 the circumstance 'that he does not want sense4' ',he is neither over-exalted by prosperity1 nor too much depressed by misfortune2 which you must allow marks a great mind4' ',we have done many things which we ought not to have done1' might mean 'we ought not to have done many things'2 that is1 'we ought to have done few things4' ',that' would give the exact sense intended3 'we have done many things that we ought not to have done4' ',he began to look after his affairs himself1 which was the way to make them prosper4' ,we must next allude to the cases where the relative is governed by a preposition4 ,we can use a preposition before 'who' and 'which1' but when the relative is 'that1' the preposition must be thrown to the end of the clause4 ,owing to an imperfect appreciation of the genius of our language1 offense was taken at this usage by some of our leading writers at the beginning of last century1 and to this circumstance we must refer the disuse of 'that' as the relative of restriction4#ch ',it is curious that the only circumstance connected with ,scott1 and related by ,lockhart1 of which ,i was a witness1 is incorrectly stated in the ,life of ,sir ,walter4'--,leslie's ',memoirs4' ,the relative should be restrictive3 'that ,i was a witness of4' ',there are many words which are adjectives which have nothing to do with the qualities of the nouns to which they are put4'--,cobbett4 ,better3 'there are many words that are adjectives that have nothing to do with the qualities of the nouns 7that7 they are put to4' ',other objects1 of which we have not occasion to speak so frequently1 we do not designate by a name of their own4' ,this1 if amended1 would be3 'other objects that we have not occasion to speak of so frequently1 we do not1' etc4 ',sorrow for the dead is the only sorrow from which we refuse to be divorced'3 'the only sorrow 7that7 we refuse to be divorced from4' ',why1 there is not a single sentence in this play that ,i do not know the meaning of4'--,addison4 ',originality is a thing we constantly clamor for1 and constantly quarrel with4'--,carlyle4 ',a spirit more amiable1 but less vigorous1 than ,luther's would have shrunk back from the dangers which he braved and surmounted'3 'that he braved'2 'the dangers braved and surmounted by him4' ',nor is it at all improbable that the emigrants had been guilty of those faults from which civilized men who settle among an uncivilized people are rarely free4'--,macaulay4 ',nor is it at all improbable that the emigrants had been guilty of the faults that 7such faults as7 civilized men that settle 7settling1 or settled7 among an uncivilized people are rarely free from4' ',prejudices are notions or opinions which the mind entertains without knowing the grounds and reasons of them1 and which are assented to without examination4'--,berkeley4 ,the 'which' in both cases should be 'that1' but the relative may be entirely dispensed with by participial conversion3 'prejudices are notions or opinions entertained by the mind without knowing the grounds and reasons of them1 and assented to without examination4' ,the too frequent repetition of 'who' and 'which' may be avoided by resolving them into the conjunction and personal or other pronoun3 ',in such circumstances1 the utmost that ,bosquet could be expected to do was to hold his ground1 7which7 and this he did4'--,bain's ,higher ,english ,grammar4 ,this word is sometimes vulgarly used for so2 thus1 ,i was that nervous ,i forgot everything2 ,i was that frightened ,i could hardly stand4 ,,the4 ,bungling writers sometimes write sheer nonsense1 or say something very different from what they have in their minds1 by the simple omission of the definite article2 thus1 ,the indebtedness of the ,english tongue to the ,french1 ,latin and ,greek is disclosed in almost every sentence framed4 ,according to this1 there is such a thing as a ,french1 ,latin and ,greek tongue4 ,professor ,townsend meant to say3 ,the indebtedness of the ,english tongue to the ,french1 the ,latin1 and the ,greek1 etc4 ,,then4 ,the use of this word as an adjective is condemned in very emphatic terms by some of our grammarians1 and yet this use of it has the sanction of such eminent writers as ,addison1 ,johnson1 ,whately1 and ,sir ,j4 ,hawkins4 ,johnson says1 ,in his then situation1 which1 if brevity be really the soul of wit1 certainly has much more soul in it than ,in the situation he then occupied4 ,however1 it is doubtful whether then1 as an adjective1 will ever again find favor with careful writers4 ,,thence4 ,see ,,whence4 ,,think ,,for4 ,we not unfrequently hear a superfluous for tacked to a sentence2 thus1 ,you will find that he knows more about the affair than you think for4 ,,those ,,kind4 ,those kind of apples are best3 read1 ,that kind of apples is best4 ,it is truly remarkable that many persons who can justly lay claim to the possession of considerable culture use this barbarous combination4 ,it would be just as correct to say1 ,those flock of geese1 or ,those drove of cattle1 as to say1 ,those sort or kind of people4 ,,those ,,who4 ,this phrase1 applied in a restrictive sense1 is the modern substitute for the ancient idiom they that1 an idiom in accordance with the true meaning of that4 ',they that told me the story said'2 ',blessed are they that mourn'2 'and ,simon and they that were with him'2 ',i love them that love me1 and they that seek me early shall find me'2 'they that are whole have no need of a physician'2 'how sweet is the rest of them that labor6' ',i can not tell who to compare them to so fitly as to them that pick pockets in the presence of the judge'2 'they that enter into the state of marriage cast a die of the greatest contingency' 7,j4 ,taylor74 ',that man hath perfect blessedness ,who walketh not astray1' if expressed according to the old idiom would be1 'the man hath--that walketh4' ',that' and 'those1' as demonstrative adjectives1 refer backward1 and are not therefore well suited for the forward reference implied in making use of 'that which' and 'those who' as restrictive relatives4 ,it is also very cumbrous to say 'that case to which you allude' for 'the case 7that7 you allude to4' ,take now the following3 ',the ,duke of ,wellington is not one of those who interfere with matters over which he has no control'3 'the ,duke is not one of them that interfere in matters that they have no control over 7matters that they can not control1 beyond their control1 out of their province74' ,if 'them that' sounds too antiquated1 we may adopt as a convenient compromise1 'the ,duke is not one of those that'2 or1 'the ,duke is not one to interfere in matters out of his province'2 'the duke is not one that interferes with what he has no control over4'--,bain4 ,,threadbare ,,quotations4 ,among the things that are in bad taste in speaking and writing1 the use of threadbare quotations and expressions is in the front rank4 ,some of these uss et casss old-timers are the following3 ,their name is legion2 hosts of friends2 the upper ten2 ,variety is the spice of life2 ,distance lends enchantment to the view2 ,a thing of beauty is a joy for ever2 the light fantastic toe2 own the soft impeachment2 fair women and brave men2 revelry by night2 ,a rose by any other name would smell as sweet4 ,,to4 ,it is a well-established rule of grammar that to1 the sign of the infinitive mood1 should not be used for the infinitive itself3 thus1 ,he has not done it1 nor is he likely to4 ,it should be1 nor is he likely to do it4 ,we often find to1 when the sign of the infinitive1 separated by an adverb from the verb to which it belongs4 ,professor ,a4 ,p4 ,peabody says that no standard ,english writer makes this mistake1 and that1 so far as he knows1 it occurs frequently with but one respectable ,american writer4 ,very often to is used instead of at2 thus1 ,i have been to the theatre1 to church1 to my uncle's1 to a concert1 and so on4 ,in all these cases1 the preposition to use is clearly at1 and not to4 ,see1 also1 ,,and4 ,,to ,,the ,,fore4 ,an old idiomatic phrase1 now freely used again4 ,,tongue4 ,much tongue and much judgment seldom go together4--,l',estrange4 ,see ,,language4 ,,toward4 ,those who profess to know about such things say that etymology furnishes no pretext for the adding of s to ward in such words as backward1 forward1 toward1 upward1 onward1 downward1 afterward1 heavenward1 earthward1 and the like4 ,,transferred ,,epithet4 ,this is the shifting of a qualifying word from its proper subject to some allied subject4 ,examples3 ,the little fields made green ,by husbandry of many thrifty years4 ,he plods his weary way4 ,hence to your idle bed6 ,by this figure the diction is rendered more terse and vigorous2 it is much used in verse4 ,for the sake of conciseness1 it is used in prose in such phrases as the lunatic asylum1 the criminal court1 the condemned cell1 the blind asylum1 the cholera hospital1 the foundling asylum1 and the like4 ,still in harmonious intercourse they lived ,the rural day1 and talked the flowing heart4 ,there be some who1 with everything to make them happy1 plod their discontented and melancholy way through life1 less grateful than the dog that licks the hand that feeds it4 ,,transpire4 ,this is one of the most frequently misused words in the language4 ,its primary meaning is to evaporate insensibly through the pores1 but in this sense it is not used2 in this sense we use its twin sister perspire4 ,transpire is now properly used in the sense of to escape from secrecy1 to become known1 to leak out2 and improperly used in the sense of to occur1 to happen1 to come to pass1 and to elapse4 ,the word is correctly used thus3 ,you will not let a word concerning the matter transpire2 ,it transpires leaks out that ,s4 ,b4 control the enterprise2 ,soon after the funeral it transpired became known that the dead woman was alive2 ,it has transpired leaked out that the movement originated with ,john ,blank2 ,no report of the proceedings was allowed to transpire2 ,it has not yet transpired who the candidate is to be4 ,the word is incorrectly used thus3 ,the ,mexican war transpired in #ahdg2 ,the drill will transpire under shelter2 ,the accident transpired one day last week2 ,years will transpire before it will be finished2 ,more than a century transpired before it was revisited by civilized man4 ,,trifling ,,minuti4 ,the meaning of trifles and of minuti is so nearly the same that no one probably ever uses the phrase trifling minuti except from thoughtlessness4 ,,trustworthy4 ,see ,,reliable4 ,,try4 ,this word is often improperly used for make4 ,we make experiments1 not try them1 which is as incorrect as it would be to say1 try the attempt1 or the trial4 ,,ugly4 ,in ,england1 this word is restricted to meaning ill-favored2 with us it is often used--and not without authority--in the sense of ill-tempered1 vicious1 unmanageable4 ,,unbeknown4 ,this word is no longer used except by the unschooled4 ,,underhanded4 ,this word1 though found in the dictionaries1 is a vulgarism1 and as such is to be avoided4 ,the proper word is underhand4 ,an underhand1 not an underhanded1 proceeding4 ,,universal--,,all4 ,he is universally esteemed by all who know him4 ,if he is universally esteemed1 he must be esteemed by all who know him2 and1 if he is esteemed by all who know him1 he must be universally esteemed4 ,,upward ,,of4 ,this phrase is often used1 if not improperly1 at least inelegantly1 for more than2 thus1 ,i have been here for upward of a year2 ,for upward of three quarters of a century she has1 etc41 meaning1 for more than three quarters of a century4 ,,utter4 ,this verb is often misused for say1 express4 ,to utter means to speak1 to pronounce2 and its derivative utterance means the act1 manner1 or power of uttering1 vocal expression2 as1 the utterance of articulate sounds4 ,we utter a cry2 express a thought or sentiment2 speak our mind2 and1 though prayers are said1 they may be uttered in a certain tone or manner4 ,mr4 ,blank is right in all he utters3 read1 says4 ,the court uttered a sentiment that all will applaud3 read1 expressed a sentiment4 ,the primary meaning of the adjective utter is outer1 on the outside2 but it is no longer used in this sense4 ,it is now used in the sense of complete1 total1 perfect1 mere1 entire2 but he who uses it indiscriminately as a synonym of these words will frequently utter utter nonsense--i4 e41 he will utter that which is without the pale of sense4 ,for example1 we can not say utter concord1 but we can say utter discord--i4 e41 without the pale of concord4 ,,valuable4 ,the following sentence1 which recently appeared in one of the more fastidious of our morning papers1 is offered as an example of extreme slipshodness in the use of language3 ,sea captains are among the most valuable contributors to the ,park aviary4 ,what the writer probably meant to say is1 ,sea captains are among those whose contributions to the ,park aviary are the most valuable4 ,,vast4 ,this word is often met with in forcible-feeble diction1 where it is used instead of great or large to qualify such words as number1 majority1 multitude1 and the like4 ,big words and expletives should be used only where they are really needed2 where they are not really needed1 they go wide of the object aimed at4 ,the sportsman that hunts small game with buck-shot comes home empty-handed4 ,,veracity4 ,the loss would be a small one if we were to lose this word and its derivatives4 ,truth and its derivatives would supply all our needs4 ,in the phrase so often heard1 ,a man of truth and veracity1 veracity is entirely superfluous1 it having precisely the same meaning as truth4 ,the phrase1 ,a big1 large man1 is equally good diction4 ,,verbiage4 ,an unnecessary profusion of words is called verbiage3 verbosity1 wordiness4 ,i thought what ,i read of it verbiage4--,johnson4 ,sometimes a better name than verbiage for wordiness would be emptiness4 ,witness3 ,clearness may be developed and cultivated in three ways1 7a7 ,by constantly practicing in heart and life the thoughts and ways of honesty and frankness4 ,the first sentence evidently means1 ,clearness may be attained in three ways2 but what the second sentence means--if it means anything--is more than ,i can tell4 ,professor ,l4 ,t4 ,townsend1 ,art of ,speech1 vol4 i1 p4 #acj1 adds3 ,this may be regarded as the surest path to greater transparency of style4 ,the transparency of ,dr4 ,townsend's style is peculiar4 ,also1 p4 #add1 we find3 ,the laws and rules#a thus far laid down#b furnish ample foundation for#c the general statement that an easy and natural#d expression1 an exact verbal incarnation of one's thinking1#e together with the power of using appropriate figures1 and of making nice discriminations between approximate synonyms1#f each being an important factor in correct style1 are attained in two ways4#g 7#a7 ,through moral#h and mental discipline4 7#b7 ,through continuous and intimate#i acquaintance with such authors as best exemplify those attainments4#aj #a4 ,would not laws cover the whole ground8 #b4 ,en passant ,i would remark that ,dr4 ,townsend did not make these laws1 though he so intimates4 #c4 ,i suggest the word justify in place of these four4 #d4 ,what is natural is easy2 easy1 therefore1 is superfluous4 #e4 ,if this means anything1 it does not mean more than the adjective clear would express1 if properly used in the sentence4 #f4 ,approximate synonyms66 ,who ever heard of any antagonistic or even of dissimilar synonyms8 #g4 ,the transparency of this sentence is not unlike the transparency of corrugated glass4 #h4 ,what has morality to do with correctness8 #i4 ,an intimate acquaintance would suffice for most people4 #aj4 ,those attainments6 ,what are they8 ,dr4 ,townsend's corrugated style makes it hard to tell4 ,this paragraph is so badly conceived throughout that it is well-nigh impossible to make head1 middle1 or tail of it2 still1 if ,i am at all successful in guessing what ,professor ,townsend wanted to say in it1 then--when shorn of its redundancy and high-flown emptiness--it will read somewhat like this3 ,the laws thus far presented justify the general statement that a clear and natural mode of expression--together with that art of using appropriate figures and that ability properly to discriminate between synonyms which are necessary to correctness--is attained in two ways4 7#a7 ,by mental discipline4 7#b7 ,by the study of our best authors4 ,the following sentence is from a leading magazine3 ,if we begin a system of interference1 regulating men's gains1 bolstering here1 in order to strengthen this interest1 and repressing elsewhere there1 in order to equalize wealth1 we shall do an a immense deal of mischief1 and without bringing about a more agreeable condition of things than now we shall simply discourage enterprise1 repress industry1 and check material growth in all directions4 ,read without the eighteen words in italics and with the four inclosed4 ,nothing disgusts sooner than the empty pomp of language4 ,,vice4 ,see ,,crime4 ,,vicinity4 ,this word is sometimes incorrectly used without the possessive pronoun2 thus1 ,washington and vicinity1 instead of ,washington and its vicinity4 ,the primary meaning of vicinity is nearness1 proximity4 ,in many of the cases in which vicinity is used1 neighborhood would be the better word1 though vicinity is perhaps preferable where it is a question of mere locality4 ,,vocation--,,avocation4 ,these words are frequently confounded4 ,a man's vocation is his profession1 his calling1 his business2 and his avocations are the things that occupy him incidentally4 ,mademoiselle ,bernhardt's vocation is acting2 her avocations are painting and sculpture4 ,the tracing of resemblances among the objects and events of the world is a constant avocation of the human mind4 ,,vulgar4 ,by the many1 this word is probably more frequently used improperly than properly4 ,as a noun1 it means the common people1 the lower orders1 the multitude1 the many2 as an adjective1 it means coarse1 low1 unrefined1 as the vulgar people4 ,the sense in which it is misused is that of immodest1 indecent4 ,the wearing1 for example1 of a gown too short at the top may be indecent1 but is not vulgar4 ,,was4 ,he said he had come to the conclusion that there was no ,god4 ,the greatest of ,byron's works was his whole work taken together4--,matthew ,arnold4 ,what is true at all times should be expressed by using the verb in the present tense4 ,the sentences above should read is1 not was4 ,,wharf4 ,see ,,dock4 ,,what4 ,he would not believe but what ,i did it3 read1 but that4 ,i do not doubt but what ,i shall go to ,boston to-morrow3 read1 doubt that4 ,we say properly1 ,i have nothing but what you see2 ,you have brought everything but what ,i wanted4 ,,whence4 ,as this adverb means--unaided--from what place1 source1 or cause1 it is1 as ,dr4 ,johnson styled it1 a vicious mode of speech to say from whence1 ,milton to the contrary notwithstanding4 ,nor is there any more propriety in the phrase from thence1 as thence means--unaided--from that place4 ,whence do you come8 not ,from whence do you come8 ,likewise1 ,he went hence1 not from hence4 ,,whether4 ,this conjunction is often improperly repeated in a sentence2 thus1 ,i have not decided whether ,i shall go to ,boston or whether ,i shall go to ,philadelphia4 ,,which4 ,this pronoun as an interrogative applies to persons as well as to things2 as a relative1 it is now made to refer to things only4 ,which is employed in cordinate sentences1 where it1 or they1 and a conjunction might answer the purpose2 thus1 ',at school ,i studied geometry1 which 7and it7 ,i found useful afterward4' ,here the new clause is something independent added to the previous clause1 and not limiting that clause in any way4 ,so in the adjectival clause2 as1 ',he struck the poor dog1 which 7and it1 or although it7 had never done him harm4' ,such instances represent the most accurate meaning of which4 ,who and which might be termed the ,,co,,rdinating ,,relatives4 ,which is likewise used in restrictive clauses that limit or explain the antecedent2 as1 ',the house which he built still remains4' ,here the clause introduced by which specifies1 or points out1 the house that is the subject of the statement1 namely1 by the circumstance that a certain person built it4 ,as remarked with regard to who1 our most idiomatic writers prefer that in this particular application1 and would say1 ',the house that he built still remains4' ,which sometimes has a special reference attaching to it1 as the neuter relative3 ',csar crossed the ,rubicon1 which was in effect a declaration of war4' ,the antecedent in this instance is not ,rubicon1 but the entire clause4 ,there is a peculiar usage where which may seem to be still regularly used in reference to persons1 as in ',john is a soldier1 which ,i should like to be1' that is1 ',and ,i should like to be a soldier4' ,see ,,that4 ,,who4 ,there are few persons1 even among the most cultivated1 who do not make frequent mistakes in the use of this pronoun4 ,they say1 ,who did you see8 ,who did you meet8 ,who did he marry8 ,who did you hear8 ,who did he know8 ,who are you writing to8 ,who are you looking at8 ,in all these sentences the interrogative pronoun is in the objective case1 and should be used in the objective form1 which is whom1 and not who4 ,to show that these sentences are not correct1 and are not defensible by supposing any ellipsis whatsoever1 we have only to put the questions in another form4 ,take the first one1 and1 instead of ,who did you see8 say1 ,who saw you8 which1 if correct1 justifies us in saying1 ,who knew he1 which is the equivalent of ,who did he know8 ,but ,who saw you8 in this instance1 is clearly not correct1 since it says directly the opposite of what is intended4 ,who was little used as a relative till about the sixteenth century4 ,bain says3 ,in modern use1 more especially in books1 who is frequently employed to introduce a clause intended to restrict1 define1 limit1 or explain a noun 7or its equivalent72 as1 ',that is the man who spoke to us yesterday4' ,here the clause introduced by who is necessary to define or explain the antecedent the man2 without it1 we do not know who the man is4 ,such relative clauses are typical adjective clauses--i4 e41 they have the same effect as adjectives in limiting nouns4 ,this may be called the ,,restrictive use of the relative4 ,now it will be found that the practice of our most idiomatic writers and speakers is to prefer that to who in this application4 ,who is properly used in such cordinate sentences as1 ',i met the watchman1 who told me there had been a fire4' ,here the two clauses are distinct and independent2 in such a case1 and he might be substituted for who4 ,another form of the same use is when the second clause is of the kind termed adverbial1 where we may resolve who into a personal or demonstrative pronoun and conjunction4 ',why should we consult ,charles1 who 7for he1 seeing that he7 knows nothing of the matter8' ,who may be regarded as a modern objective form1 side by side with whom4 ,for many good writers and speakers say 'who are you talking of8' 'who does the garden belong to8' 'who is this for8' 'who from8' etc4 ,if this be true--if who may be regarded as a modern objective form1 side by side with whom--then1 of course1 such expressions as ,who did you see8 ,who did you meet8 ,who did he marry8 ,who were you with8 ,who will you give it to8 and the like1 are correct4 ,that they are used colloquially by well-nigh everybody1 no one will dispute2 but that they are correct1 few grammarians will concede4 ,see ,,that4 ,,whole4 ,this word is sometimes most improperly used for all2 thus1 ,the whole ,germans seem to be saturated with the belief that they are really the greatest people on earth1 and that they would be universally recognized as being the greatest1 if they were not so exceeding modest4 ,the whole ,russians are inspired with the belief that their mission is to conquer the world4--,alison4 ,,wholesome4 ,see ,,healthy4 ,,whose4 ,mr4 ,george ,washington ,moon discountenances the use of whose as the possessive of which4 ,he says1 ,the best writers1 when speaking of inanimate objects1 use of which instead of whose4 ,the correctness of this statement is doubtful4 ,the truth is1 ,i think1 that good writers use that form for the possessive case of which that in their judgment is1 in each particular case1 the more euphonious1 giving the preference1 perhaps1 to of which4 ,on this subject ,dr4 ,campbell says3 ,the possessive of who is properly whose4 ,the pronoun which1 originally indeclinable1 had no possessive4 ,this was supplied1 in the common periphrastic manner1 by the help of the preposition and the article4 ,but1 as this could not fail to enfeeble the expression1 when so much time was given to mere conjunctives1 all our best authors1 both in prose and verse1 have now come regularly to adopt1 in such cases1 the possessive of who1 and thus have substituted one syllable in the room of three1 as in the example following3 ',philosophy1 whose end is to instruct us in the knowledge of nature1' for ',philosophy1 the end of which is to instruct us4' ,some grammarians remonstrate2 but it ought to be remembered that use1 well established1 must give law to grammar1 and not grammar to use4 ,professor ,bain says3 ,whose1 although the possessive of who1 and practically of which1 is yet frequently employed for the purpose of restriction3 ',we are the more likely to guard watchfully against those faults whose deformity we have seen fully displayed in others4' ,this is better than 'the deformity of which we have seen4' ',propositions of whose truth we have no certain knowledge4'--,locke4 ,dr4 ,fitzedward ,hall says that the use of whose for of which1 where the antecedent is not only irrational but inanimate1 has had the support of high authority for several hundred years4 ,,widow ,,woman4 ,since widows are always women1 why say a widow woman8 ,it would be perfectly correct to say a widowed woman4 ,,widowhood4 ,there is good authority for using this word in speaking of men as well as of women4 ,,without4 ,this word is often improperly used instead of unless2 as1 ,you will never live to my age without you keep yourself in breath and exercise2 ,i shall not go without my father consents3 properly1 unless my father consents1 or1 without my father's consent4 ,,worst4 ,we should say at the worst1 not at worst4 ,,wove4 ,the past participle of the verb to weave is woven4 ,where was this cloth woven8 not wove4 ,,you ,,are ,,mistaken4 ,see ,,mistaken4 ,,you ,,was4 ,good usage does1 and it is to be hoped always will1 consider you was a gross vulgarism1 certain grammarians to the contrary notwithstanding4 ,you is the form of the pronoun in the second person plural1 and must1 if we would speak correctly1 be used with the corresponding form of the verb4 ,the argument that we use you in the singular number is so nonsensical that it does not merit a moment's consideration4 ,it is a custom we have--and have in common with other peoples--to speak to one another in the second person plural1 and that is all there is of it4 ,the ,germans speak to one another in the third person plural4 ,the exact equivalent in ,german of our ,how are you8 is1 ,how are they8 ,those who would say you was should be consistent1 and in like manner say you has and you does4 ,,yours1 ,c4 ,the ignorant and obtuse not unfrequently profess themselves at the bottom of their letters ,yours1 c4 ,and so forth6 forth what8 ,few vulgarisms are equally offensive1 and none could be more so4 ,in printing correspondence1 the newspapers often content themselves with this short-hand way of intimating that the writer's name was preceded by some one of the familiar forms of ending letters2 this an occasional dunderhead seems to think is sufficient authority for writing himself1 ,yours1 c4 ,,the ,,end4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,if this is true in ,england1 it is not true in ,america4 ,nowhere in the ,united ,states is such questionable grammar as this frequently heard in cultivated circles4 #b ,it may be confidently affirmed that with good speakers1 in the case of negation1 not me is the usual practice4--,bain4 ,this1 ,i confidently affirm1 is not true in ,america4--,a4 ,a4 #c ,should be1 a text-book for his course1 and not1 for his course a text-book4 #d ,mr4 ,gould criticises the ,dean's diction1 not his style4 #e ,better1 to revise it4 #f ,is to put them in tabular form4 #g ,bullions' ,grammar was published in #ahfg4 #h ,l4 ,w4 ,k41 ,,clk41 ,,ll4 ,d41 ,,ex4 ,,sch41 ,t4 ,c41 ,d4 ,of this reverend gentleman's personality ,i know nothing4 ,he does not say exactly what he means2 but what he means is1 yet1 unmistakable4 ,the extract given above is from ',public ,opinion1' ,january #bj1 #ahff4 #i ,the analysis1 taken for granted in this quotation1 of 'are being thrown up' into 'are being' and 'thrown up' will be dealt with in the sequel1 and shown to be untenable4 #aj ,vol4 xlv1 p4 #ejd 7#ahcg74 #aa ',the ,life and ,correspondence of the late ,robert ,southey1' vol4 i1 p4 #bdi4 #ab ,vol4 i1 p4 #cch4 ',a student who is being crammed'2 'that verb is eternally being declined4'--',the ,doctor1' pp4 #ch and #dj 7mono-tome ed474 #ac ,in ',put ,yourself in his ,place1' chapter x1 he writes3 ',she basked in the present delight1 and looked as if she was being taken to heaven by an angel4' #ad ',words1' etc41 p4 #cdj4 #ae ,thomas ,fuller writes3 ',at his arrival1 the last stake of the ,christians was on losing4'--',the ,historie of the ,holy ,warre1' p4 #bah 7ed4 #afdg74 #af ,i express myself in this manner because ,i distinguish between be and exist4 #ag ,samuel ,richardson writes3 ',jenny1 who attends me here1 has more than once hinted to me that ,miss ,jervis loves to sit up late1 either reading or being read to by ,anne1 who1 though she reads well1 is not fond of the task4'--',sir ,charles ,grandison1' vol4 iii1 p4 #df 7ed4 #aged74 ,the transition is very slight by which we pass from 'sits being read to' to 'is being read to4' #ah ,i am here indebted to the last edition of ,dr4 ,worcester's ',dictionary1' preface1 p4 xxxix4 #ai ',words and their ,uses1' p4 #cec4 #bj ',it is being is simply equal to it is4 ,and1 in the supposed corresponding ,latin phrases1 ens factus est1 ens dificatus est 7the obsoleteness of ens as a participle being granted71 the monstrosity is not in the use of ens with factus1 but in that of ens with est4 ,the absurdity is1 in ,latin1 just what it is in ,english1 the use of is with being1 the making of the verb to be a complement to itself4'--,ibid41 pp4 #ced1 #cee4 ,apparently1 ,mr4 ,white recognizes no more difference between supplement and complement than he recognizes between be and exist4 ,see the extract ,i have made above1 from p4 #cec4 #ba ',but those things which1 being not now doing1 or having not yet been done1 have a natural aptitude to exist hereafter1 may be properly said to appertain to the future4'--,harris's ',hermes1' book ,i1 chap4 viii 7p4 #aee1 foot-note1 ed4 #agga74 ,for ,harris's being not now doing1 which is to translate 1 the modern school1 if they pursued uniformity with more of fidelity than of taste1 would have to put being not now being done4 ,there is not much to choose between the two4 #bb ',words and their ,uses1' p4 #cdc4 #bc ,the possessive construction here is1 in my judgment1 not imperatively demanded4 ,there is certainly no lack of authority for putting the three substantives in the accusative4 ,the possessive construction seems to me1 however1 to be preferable4 #bd ,the use of the plural for the singular was established as early the beginning of the fourteenth century4--,morris1 p4 #aah1 #aec4 #be ,some writers omit the comma in cases where the conjunction is used4 ,but1 as the conjunction is generally employed in such cases for emphasis1 commas ought to be used2 although1 where the words are very closely connected1 or where they constitute a clause in the midst of a long sentence1 they may be omitted4--,bigelow's ,handbook of ,punctuation4 #bf ,this usage violates one of the fundamental principles of punctuation2 it indicates1 very improperly1 that the noun man is more closely connected with learned than with the other adjectives4 ,analogy and perspicuity require a comma after learned4--,quackenbos4 #bg ,many writers would omit the last two commas in this sentence4 #bh ,the commas before and after particularly are hardly necessary4 #bi ,the only exception to this rule is the occasional use of the colon to separate two short sentences that are closely connected4 #cj ,dr4 ,angus on the ',english ,tongue1' art4 #ebg4 #ca ,in the following passages1 the indicative mood would be more suitable than the subjunctive3 ',if thou be the ,son of ,god1 command that these stones be made bread'2 'if thou be the ,son of ,god1 come down from the cross4' ,for1 although the address was not sincere on the part of the speakers1 they really meant to make the supposition or to grant that he was the ,son of ,god2 'seeing that thou art the ,son of ,god4' ,likewise in the following3 ',now if ,christ be preached1 that ,he rose from the dead1 how say some among you that there is no resurrection from the dead8' ,the meaning is1 ',seeing now that ,christ is preached4' ,in the continuation1 the conditional clauses are of a different character1 and 'be' is appropriate3 ',but if there be no resurrection from the dead1 then is ,christ not risen4 ,and if ,christ be not risen1 then is our preaching vain1 and your faith is also vain4' ,again1 ',if thou bring thy gift to the altar1 and there rememberest1' etc4 ,consistency and correctness require 'remember4'--,harrison on the ,english ,language1 p4 #bhg4 #cb ,so1 in ,german1 wre for wrde sein4 ',htt' ich ,schwingen1 htt' ich ,flgel1 nach den ,hgeln zg' ich hin1' for 'wrde ich ziehen4' #cc ,so1 in ,german1 htte occurs for wrde haben4 ',wre er da gewesen1 so htten wir ihn gesehen1' for 'so wrden wir ihn gesehen haben4' ,htten is still conditional1 not indicative4 ,in ,latin1 the pluperfect indicative is occasionally used2 which is explained as a more vivid form4 #cd ,in principal clauses the inflection of the second person is always retained3 'thou hadst1' 'thou wouldst1 shouldst1' etc4 ,in the example1 the subordinate clause1 although subjunctive1 shows1 'hadst4' ,and this usage is exceedingly common4 #ce ,to those who are not quite clear as to what transcendentalism is1 the following lucid definition will be welcome3 ,it is the spiritual cognoscence of psychological irrefragability connected with concutient ademption of incolumnient spirituality and etherealized contention of subsultory concretion4 ,translated by a ,new ,york lawyer1 it stands thus3 ,transcendentalism is two holes in a sand-bank3 a storm washes away the sand-bank without disturbing the holes4 #cf ,cromwell--than he no man was more skilled in artifice2 or1 ,cromwell--no man was more skilled in artifice than he 7was74 #cg ,no devil sat higher than he sat1 except ,satan4 #ch ,speaking of ,dryden1 ,hallam says1 ',his ,essay on ,dramatic ,poesy1 published in #affh1 was reprinted sixteen years afterward1 and it is curious to observe the changes which ,dryden made in the expression4 ,malone has carefully noted all these2 they show both the care the author took with his own style1 and the change which was gradually working in the ,english language4 ,the ,anglicism of terminating the sentence with a preposition is rejected4 ,thus1 ,i can not think so contemptibly of the age ,i live in1 is exchanged for the age in which ,i live4 ,a deeper expression of belief than all the actor can persuade us to1 is altered1 can insinuate into us4 ,and1 though the old form continued in use long after the time of ,dryden1 it has of late years been reckoned inelegant1 and proscribed in all cases1 perhaps with an unnecessary fastidiousness1 to which ,i have not uniformly deferred1 since our language is of ,teutonic structure1 and the rules of ,latin and ,french grammar are not always to bind us4' ,the following examples1 taken from ,massinger's ',grand ,duke of ,florence1' will show what was the usage of the ,elizabethan writers3-- ',for ,i must use the freedom ,i was born with4' ',in that dumb rhetoric which you make use of4' '---- if ,i had been heir ,of all the globes and sceptres mankind bows to4' '---- the name of friend ,which you are pleased to grace me with4' '---- wilfully ignorant in my opinion ,of what it did invite him to4' ',i look to her as on a princess ,i dare not be ambitious of4' '---- a duty ,that ,i was born with4' ,,the ,,ortho,,pist3 ,a ,,pronouncing ,,manual1 ,,containing ,,about ,,three ,,thousand ,,five ,,hundred ,,words1 ,,including ,a ,,considerable ,,number ,,of ,,the ,,names ,,of ,,foreign ,,authors1 ,,artists1 ,,etc41 ,,that ,,are ,,often ,,mispronounced4 ,by ,,alfred ,,ayres4 ,,selections ,,from ,,the ,,work4 b-dmn1 not bd-mn4 c-cre1 not -cr4 ,the orthopists agree that u1 preceded by r in the same syllable1 generally becomes simply oo1 as in rude1 rumor1 rural1 rule1 ruby4 l-lp-thy2 l-lp-thst4 r-bc1 not -rbc4 ,asia--sh-1 not zh4 ay1 or aye 7meaning yes7--4 aye 7meaning always7--4 ,bsmrck1 not bz-4 ,at the end of a syllable1 s1 in ,german1 has invariably its sharp1 hissing sound4 ,cairo--in ,egypt1 kr2 in the ,united ,states1 kr4 ,courbet--korb4 dcde1 not d-kd4 d-cros4 ,the authority is small1 and is becoming less1 for saying dco-ros1 which is really as incorrect as it would be to say sno-ros4 df-ct1 not d-fit4 ds-din1 not dis-4 ds-hnor1 not dis-4 c--nm-cl1 or -c-nm-cl4 ,the first is the marking of a large majority of the orthopists4 -nrvte4 ,the only authority for saying ner-vte is popular usage2 all the orthopists say e-nrvte4 pch1 not pch4 ,the latter is a ,websterian pronunciation1 which is not even permitted in the late editions4 fn-n-cir4 ,this much-used word is rarely pronounced correctly4 ,hen1 not hine4 ,final e in ,german is never silent4 honest--nest1 not -st1 nor -st4 ,honest1 honest ,iago1 is preferable to honust1 honust ,iago1 some of our accidental ,othellos to the contrary notwithstanding4 s-lte1 or s-late1 not s-lt4 ,the first marking is ,walker's1 ,worcester's1 and ,smart's2 the second1 ,webster's4 ,,one ,,vol41 #ah,,mo1 ,,cloth4 ,,price1 #a4jj4 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,,appleton ,,co41 #a1 #c1 #e ,bond ,street4