,transcriber's ,note3 ,in this e-book1 a macron over a character is represented with an equal sign1 thus3 e4 ,the character is used to denote musical octaves1 e4g41 a denotes ,a above middle ,c4 ,,essentials ,,in ,,conducting ,,by ,,karl ,,wilson ,,gehrkens1 ,a4,m4 ,,professor ,,of ,,school ,,music ,,oberlin ,,conservatory ,,of ,,music ,,author ,,of ,,music ,,notation ,,and ,,terminology #a4ge ,illustration ,,boston ,,oliver ,,ditson ,,company ,,new ,,york ,,chas4 ,h4 ,,ditson ,,co4 ,,chicago ,,lyon ,,healy ,,london ,,winthrop ,,rogers1 ,ltd4 ,,made ,,in ,u4,s4,a4 ,copyright ,,mcmxix ,by ,,oliver ,,ditson ,,company ,international ,copyright ,secured ,to the ,memory of ,,robert ,c4 ,,bedford for many years ,,secretary ,,of ,,the ,,board ,,of ,,trustees of ,,tuskegee ,,institute ,,contents ,page ,,chapter ,i--,introduction #a ,,chapter ,,ii--,personal ,traits ,necessary in ,conducting #h ,,chapter ,,iii--,the ,technique of the ,baton #bj ,,chapter ,,iv--,interpretation in ,conducting--,introductory #cf ,,chapter ,v--,interpretation in ,conducting--,tempo #df ,,chapter ,,vi--,interpretation in ,conducting--,dynamics #eg ,,chapter ,,vii--,interpretation in ,conducting--,timbre1 ,phrasing1 etc4 #fd ,,chapter ,,viii--,the ,supervisor of ,music as ,conductor #gf ,,chapter ,,ix--,the ,community ,chorus ,conductor #he ,,chapter ,x--,the ,orchestral ,conductor #ic ,,chapter ,,xi--,directing the ,church ,choir #ajh ,,chapter ,,xii--,the ,boy ,choir and its ,problems #aah ,,chapter ,,xiii--,the ,conductor as ,voice ,trainer #aca ,,chapter ,,xiv--,the ,art of ,program ,making #adj ,,chapter ,,xv--,conductor and ,accompanist #adg ,,chapter ,,xvi--,efficiency in the ,rehearsal #aeb ,,appendix ,a--,reference ,list #afd ,,appendix ,b--,score of second movement of ,haydn's ,symphony1 ,no4 #c #aff ,,index #aha ,,preface ,in putting out this little book1 the author is well aware of the fact that many musicians feel that conductors1 like poets and teachers1 are born and not made2 but his experience in training supervisors of music has led him to feel that1 although only the elementary phases of conducting can be taught1 such instruction is nevertheless quite worth while1 and is often surprisingly effective in its results4 ,he has also come to believe that even the musical genius may profit by the experience of others and may thus be enabled to do effective work as a conductor more quickly than if he relied wholly upon his native ability4 ,the book is of course planned especially with the amateur in view1 and the author1 in writing it1 has had in mind his own fruitless search for information upon the subject of conducting when he was just beginning his career as a teacher2 and he has tried to say to the amateur of today those things that he himself so sorely needed to know at that time1 and had to find out by blundering experience4 ,it should perhaps be stated that although the writer has himself had considerable experience in conducting1 the material here presented is rather the result of observing and analyzing the work of others than an account of his own methods4 ,in preparation for his task1 the author has observed many of the better-known conductors in this country1 both in rehearsal and in public performance1 during a period of some twelve years1 and the book represents an attempt to put into simple language and practical form the ideas gathered from this observation4 ,it is hoped that as a result of reading these pages the amateur may not only have become more fully informed concerning those practical phases of conducting about which he has probably been seeking light1 but may be inspired to further reading and additional music study in preparation for the larger aspects of the work4 ,the writer wishes to acknowledge the material assistance rendered him by ,professor ,john ,ross ,frampton1 of the ,iowa ,state ,teachers ,college1 and ,professor ,osbourne ,mc,conathy1 of ,northwestern ,university1 both of whom have read the book in manuscript and have given invaluable suggestions4 ,he wishes also to acknowledge his very large debt to ,professor ,george ,dickinson1 of ,vassar ,college1 who has read the material both in manuscript and in proof1 and to whose pointed comments and criticisms many improvements both in material and in arrangement are due4 ,k4,w4,g4 ,,oberlin1 ,,ohio ,june1 #aiah ,essentials in ,conducting ,,chapter ,i ,,introduction ,sidenote3 ,,definition ,the word conducting as used in a musical sense now ordinarily refers to the activities of an orchestra or chorus leader who stands before a group of performers and gives his entire time and effort to directing their playing or singing1 to the end that a musically effective ensemble performance may result4 ,this is accomplished by means of certain conventional movements of a slender stick called a baton 7usually held in the right hand71 as well as through such changes of facial expression1 bodily posture1 et cetera1 as will convey to the singers or players the conductor's wishes concerning the rendition of the music4 ,conducting in this sense involves the responsibility of having the music performed at the correct tempo1 with appropriate dynamic effects1 with precise attacks and releases1 and in a fitting spirit4 ,this in turn implies that many details have been worked out in rehearsal1 these including such items as making certain that all performers sing or play the correct tones in the correct rhythm2 insisting upon accurate pronunciation and skilful enunciation of the words in vocal music2 indicating logical and musical phrasing2 correcting mistakes in breathing or bowing2 and1 in general1 stimulating orchestra or chorus to produce a tasteful rendition of the music as well as an absolutely perfect ensemble with all parts in correct proportion and perfect balance4 ,in order to have his directing at the public performance function properly1 it thus becomes the conductor's task to plan and to administer the rehearsals in such a way that the performers may become thoroughly familiar with the music1 both in technique and in spirit4 ,in other words1 the conductor must play the part of musical manager as well as that of artistic inspirer1 and if he does not perform his task in such fashion as to be looked up to by the members of his chorus or orchestra as the real leader1 and if he himself does not feel confident of being able to do his work better than any one else upon the ground1 he cannot possibly be successful in any very high degree4 ,a conductor must first of all be a strong leader1 and failing in this1 no amount of musical ability or anything else will enable him to conduct well4 ,we shall have more to say upon this point in a later chapter4 ,sidenote3 ,,summary ,,of ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,conducting ,conducting of one kind or another has undoubtedly been practised for many centuries1 but directing by gestures of the hand has not been traced farther back than the fourteenth century1 at which time ,heinrich von ,meissen1 a ,minnesinger1 is represented in an old manuscript directing a group of musicians with stick in hand4 ,in the fifteenth century the leader of the ,sistine ,choir at ,rome directed the singers with a roll of paper 7called a sol-fa71 held in his hand4 ,by the latter part of the seventeenth century it had become customary for the conductor to sit at the harpsichord or organ1 filling in the harmonies from a figured bass1 and giving any needed signals with one hand or the head as best he could4 ,conducting during this period signified merely keeping the performers together2 that is1 the chief function of the conductor was that of time beater4 ,with the advent of the conductor in the rle of interpreter1 such directing became obsolete1 and from the early nineteenth century1 and particularly as the result of the impetus given the art by the conducting of ,mendelssohn1 ,berlioz1 ,liszt1 and ,wagner1 the conductor has become an exceedingly important functionary1 in these modern days even ranking with the prima donna in operatic performances6 ,it is now the conductor's aim not merely to see that a composition is played correctly and with good ensemble2 more than that1 the leader of today gives his own version or reading of the composition just as the pianist or violinist does4 ,instead of being a mere time beater he has become an interpreter1 and 7except in the case of the organist-director of a choir7 he attempts to do nothing except so to manipulate his musical forces as to secure an effective performance4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,psychological ,,basis ,,of ,,conducting ,the conductor works largely through the instrumentality of instinctive imitation2 that is1 his methods are founded upon the fact that human beings have an innate tendency to copy the actions of others1 often without being conscious that they are doing so4 ,thus1 if one person yawns or coughs1 a second person observing him has an instinctive tendency to do likewise4 ,one member of a group is radiant with happiness1 and very soon the others catch the infection and are smiling also2 a singer at a public performance strains to get a high tone1 and instinctively our faces pucker up and our throat muscles become tense1 in sympathetic but entirely unconscious imitation4 ,in very much the same way in conducting1 the leader sets the tempo1--and is imitated by the musicians under him2 he feels a certain emotional thrill in response to the composer's message1--and arouses a similar thrill in the performers2 lifts his shoulders as though taking breath1--and causes the singers to phrase properly1 often without either the conductor or the singers being aware of how the direction was conveyed4 ,it is at least partly because we instinctively imitate the mental state or the emotional attitude of the pianist or the vocalist that we are capable of being thrilled or calmed by musical performances1 and it is largely for this reason that an audience always insists upon seeing the artist as well as hearing him4 ,in the same way the musicians in a chorus or orchestra must see the conductor and catch from him by instinctive imitation his attitude toward the music being performed4 ,this point will be more fully discussed in a later chapter1 when we take up interpretation in conducting4 ,sidenote3 ,,conducting ,a ,,combination ,,of ,,science ,,and ,,art ,in setting out to become a conductor it will be well for the young musician to recognize at the outset that by far the larger part of the conductor's work rests upon an art basis1 and that only a comparatively small portion of it is science2 hence he must not expect to find complete information concerning his future work in any treatise upon the subject4 ,it is one thing to state that there are three primary colors1 or that orange is the result of mixing red and yellow1 but it is a very different matter to give directions for painting an effective landscape1 or a true-to-life portrait4 ,one thing involves science only1 but the other is concerned primarily with art1 and it is always dangerous to dogmatize concerning matters artistic4 ,to carry the illustration one step farther1 we may say that it is comparatively easy to teach a pupil to strike certain piano keys in such a way as to produce the correct melody1 harmony1 and rhythm of a certain composition2 but who would venture1 even in these days of frenzied advertising1 to promise that in so many lessons he could teach a pupil to play it as a ,hofmann or a ,paderewski would8 ,here again we see clearly the contrast between science and art1 matters of science being always susceptible of organization into a body of principles and laws which will work in every case1 while art is intangible1 subtle1 and ever-varying4 ,the application of our illustration to conducting should now be clear4 ,we may teach a beginner how to wield a baton according to conventional practice1 how to secure firm attacks and prompt releases1 and possibly a few other definitely established facts about conducting2 but unless our would-be leader has musical feeling within him and musicianship back of him1 it will be utterly futile for him to peruse these pages further1 or to make any other kind of an attempt to learn to conduct2 for1 as stated above1 only a very small part of conducting can be codified into rules1 directions1 and formul1 by far the larger part of our task being based upon each individual's own innate musical feeling1 and upon the general musical training that he has undergone4 ,all this may be discouraging1 but on the other hand1 granting a fair degree of native musical ability1 coupled with a large amount of solid music study1 any one possessing a sense of leadership can1 after a reasonable amount of intelligent practice1 learn to handle a chorus or even an orchestra in a fairly satisfactory manner4 ,it is our purpose in general to treat the scientific rather than the artistic side of conducting1 and we are taking for granted1 therefore1 that the reader is endowed with musical feeling at least in a fair degree1 and has acquired the rudiments of musical scholarship as the result of an extensive study of piano1 organ1 singing1 ear-training1 music history1 harmony1 et cetera1 and especially by attentive listening to a very large amount of good music with score in hand4 ,as a result of combining such musical ability with a careful reading of these pages and with a large amount of practice in actually wielding the baton1 it is hoped that the beginner will arrive at his goal somewhat earlier than he would if he depended entirely upon what the psychologist calls the trial-and-error method of learning4 ,sidenote3 ,,importance ,,of ,,musical ,,scholarship ,the musical amateur who is ambitious to conduct should therefore study music in all its phases1 and if in doubt as to his talent1 he should submit to a vocational test in order to determine whether his native musical endowment is sufficient to make it worth his while to study the art seriously4 ,if the result of the test is encouraging1 showing a good ear1 a strong rhythmic reaction1 and a considerable amount of what might be termed native musical taste1 let him practise his piano energetically and intelligently1 and especially let him learn to read three and four voices on separate staffs 7as in a vocal score7 in order to prepare himself for future reading of full scores4 ,let him study harmony1 counterpoint1 form1 and1 if possible1 composition and orchestration4 ,let him work indefatigably at ear-training1 and particularly at harmonic ear training1 so that notes and tones may become closely associated in his mind1 the printed page then giving him auditory rather than merely visual imagery2 in other words1 let him school himself to make the printed page convey to his mind the actual sounds of the music4 ,let him study the history of music1 not only as a record of the work of individual composers1 but as an account of what has transpired in the various periods or epochs of musical art1 so that he may become intelligent concerning the ideals1 the styles1 and the forms of these various periods4 ,and finally1 let him hear all the good music he possibly can1 listening to it from the threefold standpoint of sense1 emotion1 and intellect1 and noting particularly those matters connected with expression and interpretation in these renditions4 ,in as many cases as possible let him study the scores of the compositions beforehand1 comparing then his own ideas of interpretation with those of the performer or conductor1 and formulating reasons for any differences of opinion that may become manifest4 ,let the young musician also form the habit of reading widely1 not only along all musical lines 7history1 biography1 theory1 esthetics1 et cetera71 but upon a wide variety of topics1 such as painting and the other arts1 history1 literature1 sociology1 pedagogy1 et cetera4 ,as the result of such study and such reading1 a type of musical scholarship will be attained which will give the conductor an authority in his interpretations and criticisms that cannot possibly be achieved in any other way4 ,let us hasten to admit at once that the acquiring of this sort of scholarship will take a long time1 and that it cannot all be done before beginning to conduct4 ,but in the course of several years of broad and intelligent study a beginning at least can be made1 and later on1 as the result of continuous growth while at work1 a fine1 solid1 comprehensive scholarship may finally eventuate4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,personal ,,traits ,,necessary ,,in ,,conducting ,sidenote3 ,,importance ,,of ,,personality ,in the introductory chapter it was noted that the conductor must build upon a foundation of musical scholarship if he is to be really successful2 that he must possess musical feeling2 and that he must go through extensive musical training1 if he is to conduct with taste and authority4 ,but in addition to these purely musical requirements1 experience and observation have demonstrated that the would-be conductor must be possessed of certain definitely established personal characteristics1 and that many a musician who has been amply able to pass muster from a musical standpoint1 has failed as a conductor because he lacked these other traits4 ,it is not my purpose to give at this point an exhaustive list of qualities that must form the personal equipment of the conductor4 ,in general it will be sufficient to state that he must possess in a fair degree those personal traits that are advantageous in any profession4 ,but of these desirable qualities three or four seem to be so indispensable that it has been thought best to devote a brief chapter to a discussion of them4 ,these qualities are3 #a4 ,a sense of humor4 #b4 ,a creative imagination4 #c4 ,a sense of leadership combined with organizing ability4 ,sidenote3 ,a ,,sense ,,of ,,humor ,the first of these traits1 a sense of humor1 may perhaps upon first thought seem a peculiar quality to include in a category of virtues for the professional man of any type1 and especially for the musician4 ,but upon reflection it will be admitted that the ability to see things in a humorous light 7which very frequently means merely seeing them in true perspective7 has helped many a man to avoid wasting nervous energy upon insignificant occurrences1 while the lack of this ability has caused more trouble among all sorts of people 7and particularly1 it seems to me1 among musicians7 than any other single thing4 ,sidenote3 ,,illustrations ,,of ,,humor ,,in ,,the ,,rehearsal ,some player or singer is either over-arduous or a bit sleepy during the first stages of rehearsing a new composition1 and makes a wrong entrance1 perhaps during a pause just before the climacteric point4 ,the occurrence is really funny and the other performers are inclined to smile or snicker1 but our serious conductor quells the outbreak with a scowl4 ,the humorous leader1 on the other hand1 sees the occurrence as the performers do1 joins in the laugh that is raised at the expense of the offender1 and the rehearsal goes on with renewed spirit4 ,an instrumental performer makes a bad tone1 and the conductor laughs at him1 saying it sounds like a wolf howling or an ass braying4 ,if the remark is accompanied by a smile1 the performer straightens up and tries to overcome the fault2 but if the comment is made with a snarl there is a tightening up of muscles1 an increased tension of the nerves1 and the performer is more than likely to do worse the next time4 ,there is a difference of opinion between the conductor and some performer about fingering or bowing1 phrasing or interpretation1 and a quarrel seems imminent2 but the conductor refuses to take the matter too seriously1 and1 having ample authority for his own viewpoint1 proceeds as he has begun1 later on talking it over with the performer1 and perhaps giving him a reason for his opinion4 ,humor is thus seen to have the same effect upon a body of musicians as oil applied to machinery1 and musical machinery seems to need more of this kind of lubrication than almost any other variety4 ,but the conductor must distinguish carefully between sarcastic wit1 which laughs at1 and humor1 which laughs with4 ,in a book bearing the copyright date of #ahdi1 the writer distinguishes between the two1 in the following words3#a ,humor originally meant moisture1 a signification it metaphorically retains1 for it is the very juice of the mind1 enriching and fertilizing where it falls4 ,wit laughs at2 humor laughs with4 ,wit lashes external appearances1 or cunningly exchanges single foibles into character2 humor glides into the heart of its object1 looks lovingly upon the infirmities it attacks1 and represents the whole man4 ,wit is abrupt1 scornful 4442 humor is slow and shy1 insinuating its fun into your heart4 ,footnote #a3 ,whipple1 ,literature and ,life1 p4 #ia4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,value ,,of ,a ,,cheerful ,,attitude ,the conductor with a sense of humor will ordinarily have the advantage also of being cheerful in his attitude toward the performers1 and this is an asset of no mean significance4 ,it is a well-known psychophysical fact that the human body does much better work when the mind is free from care1 and that in any profession or vocation1 other things being equal1 the worker who is cheerful and optimistic will perform his labor much more efficiently at the expense of considerably less mental and bodily energy than he who is ill-humored1 worried1 fretful1 and unable to take a joke4 ,but the foreman who possesses this quality of cheerfulness and humor is doubly fortunate1 for he not only secures the beneficial results in his own case1 but by his attitude frequently arouses the same desirable state of mind and body in those who are working under him4 ,it is particularly because of this latter fact that the conductor needs to cultivate a cheerful1 even a humorous outlook1 especially in the rehearsal4 ,as the result of forming this habit1 he will be enabled to give directions in such a way that they will be obeyed cheerfully 7and consequently more effectively72 he will find it possible to rehearse longer with less fatigue both to himself and to his musical forces2 and he will be able to digest his food and to sleep soundly after the rehearsal because he is not worrying over trivial annoyances that1 after all1 should have been dismissed with a laugh as soon as they appeared4 ,there must not of course be so much levity that the effectiveness of the rehearsal will be endangered1 but there is not much likelihood that this will happen2 whereas there seems to be considerable danger that our rehearsals will become too cold and formal4 ,a writer on the psychology of laughter states that laughter is man's best friend2#b and in another place 7p4 #cdb7 says that the smile always brings to the mind relaxation from strain4 ,footnote #b3 ,sully1 ,an ,essay on ,laughter4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,value ,,of ,,imagination ,,in ,,conducting ,creative imagination is an inborn quality--a gift of the gods--and if the individual does not possess it1 very little can be done for him in the artistic realm4 ,constructive or creative imagination implies the ability to combine known elements in new ways--to use the mind forwards1 as it were4 ,the possession of this trait makes it possible to picture to oneself how things are going to look or sound or feel before any actual sense experience has taken place2 to see into people's minds and often find out in advance how they are going to react to a projected situation2 to combine chemical elements in new ways and thus create new substances2 to plan details of organization in a manufacturing establishment or in an educational institution1 and to be able to forecast how these things are going to work out4 ,it is this quality of creative imagination that enables the inventor to project his mind into the future and see a continent spanned by railways and telephones1 and the barrier of an ocean broken down by means of wireless and aeroplane2 and in every case the inventor works with old and well-known materials1 being merely enabled by the power of his creative faculties 7as they are erroneously called7 to combine these known materials in new ways4 ,in the case of the musician1 such creative imagination has always been recognized as a sine qua non of original composition1 but its necessity has not always been so clearly felt in the case of the performer4 ,upon analyzing the situation it becomes evident1 however1 that the performer cannot possibly get from the composer his real message unless he can follow him in his imagination1 and thus re-create the work4 ,as for adding anything original to what the composer has given1 this is plainly out of the question unless the interpreter is endowed somewhat extensively with creative imagination2 and the possession of this quality will enable him to introduce such subtle variations from a cut-and-dried1 merely accurate rendition as will make his performance seem really spontaneous1 and will inevitably arouse a more enthusiastic emotional response in the listeners4 ,weingartner sums up the value of imagination in the final paragraph of one of the few really valuable books on conducting at our disposal4#c ,more and more ,i have come to think that what decides the worth of conducting is the degree of suggestive power that the conductor can exercise over the performers4 ,at the rehearsals he is mostly nothing more than a workman1 who schools the men under him so conscientiously and precisely that each of them knows his place and what he has to do there2 he first becomes an artist when the moment comes for the production of the work4 ,not even the most assiduous rehearsing1 so necessary a prerequisite as this is1 can so stimulate the capacities of the players as the force of imagination of the conductor4 ,it is not the transference of his personal will1 but the mysterious act of creation that called the work itself into being takes place again in him1 and transcending the narrow limits of reproduction1 he becomes a new-creator1 a self-creator4 ,footnote #c3 ,weingartner1 ,on ,conducting1 translated by ,ernest ,newman1 p4 #ef4 ,this quality is indispensable to all musicians1 be they creators or performers1 but is especially desirable in the conductor1 for he needs it not only from the standpoint of interpretation1 as already noted1 but from that of manager or organizer4 ,upon this latter point we shall have more to say later1 but it may be well to state just here that if the conductor could imagine what was going on in the minds of his players or singers1 and could see things from their viewpoint2 if he could forecast the effect of his explanatory directions or of his disciplinary rulings1 nine-tenths of all the quarreling1 bickering1 and general dissatisfaction that so frequently mar the work of any musical organization could easily be eliminated4 ,we might also add that if the conductor could only foresee the effect upon his audiences of certain works1 or of certain interpretations1 his plans would probably often be materially altered4 ,sidenote3 ,,organizing ,,ability ,,and ,a ,,sense ,,of ,,leadership ,but the conductor must be more than a humorous-minded and imaginative musician4 ,he must also 7especially in these modern times7 be an organizer1 a business man1 a leader4 ,the qualities of leadership and organizing ability are so closely connected that we shall for the most part treat them together in our discussion1 and they are so important that a fairly extensive analysis will be attempted4 ,in an article on ,schumann in ,grove's ,dictionary ,dr4 ,philip ,spitta1 the well-known historian and critic1 comments upon the conducting of this famous composer as follows3#d ,schumann was sadly wanting in the real talent for conducting4 ,all who ever saw him conduct or played under his direction are agreed on this point4 ,irrespective of the fact that conducting for any length of time tired him out1 he had neither the collectedness and prompt presence of mind1 nor the sympathetic faculty1 nor the enterprising dash1 without each of which conducting in the true sense is impossible4 ,he even found difficulty in starting at a given tempo2 nay1 he even sometimes shrank from giving any initial beat1 so that some energetic pioneer would begin without waiting for the signal1 and without incurring ,schumann's wrath6 ,besides this1 any thorough practice1 bit by bit1 with his orchestra1 with instructive remarks by the way as to the mode of execution1 was impossible to this great artist1 who in this respect was a striking contrast to ,mendelssohn4 ,he would have a piece played through1 and if it did not answer to his wishes1 have it repeated4 ,if it went no better the second or perhaps third time1 he would be extremely angry at what he considered the clumsiness1 or even the ill-will of the players2 but detailed remarks he never made4 ,footnote #d3 ,grove's ,dictionary of ,music and ,musicians1 ,new ,edition1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #cfc4 ,this estimate of ,schumann's work as a conductor demonstrates unmistakably that he failed in this particular field1 not because his musical scholarship was not adequate1 but because he did not have that peculiar ability which enables one man to dominate others3 viz41 a sense of leadership1 or personal magnetism1 as it is often called4 ,seidl asserts#e that ,berlioz1 ,massenet1 and ,saint-,sans likewise failed as conductors1 in spite of recognized musicianship2 and it is of course well known that even ,beethoven and ,brahms could not conduct their own works as well as some of their contemporaries whose names are now almost forgotten4 ,footnote #e3 ,seidl1 ,the ,music of the ,modern ,world1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #ajf4 ,the feeling that one has the power to cause others to do one's will seems in most cases to be inborn1 at least certain children display it at a very early age2 and it is usually the boys and girls who decide on the playground what games shall be played next1 or what mischief shall now be entered upon1 who later on become leaders in their several fields of activity4 ,and yet this sense of leadership1 or something closely approximating it1 may also be acquired1 at least to a certain extent1 by almost any one who makes a consistent and intelligent attempt in this direction4 ,it is this latter fact which may encourage those of us who are not naturally as gifted along these lines as we should like to be1 and it is because of this possibility of acquiring what in conducting amounts to an indispensable qualification that an attempt is here made to analyze the thing called leadership into its elements4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,first ,,element ,,in ,,leadership ,the primary basis upon which a sense of leadership rests is undoubtedly confidence in one's general ability and in one's knowledge of the particular subject being handled4 ,the leader must not only know but must know that he knows4 ,this makes quick judgments possible1 and the leader and organizer must always be capable of making such judgments1 and of doing it with finality4 ,the baseball player must decide instantly whether to throw the ball to first1 second1 third1 or home1 and he must repeatedly make such decisions correctly before he can become a strong and respected baseball captain4 ,the same thing holds true of the foreman in a factory1 and both baseball captain and factory foreman must not only know every detail of the work done under them1 but must know that they know it1 and must feel confident of being able to cause those working under them to carry it on as they conceive it4 ,so the conductor must not only know music1 but must have confidence in his ear1 in his rhythmic precision1 in his taste1 in his judgment of tempo1 in short1 in his musical scholarship2 and he must not only feel that he knows exactly what should be done in any given situation1 but be confident that he can make his chorus or orchestra do it as he wishes4 ,think for instance of securing a firm attack on the first tone of such a song as the ,marseillaise4 ,it is an extremely difficult thing to do1 and it would be utterly impossible to direct any one else exactly how to accomplish it2 and yet1 if the conductor knows exactly how it must sound1 if he has an auditory image of it before the actual tones begin1 and if he feels that when he begins to beat time the chorus will sing as he has heard them in imagination1 then the expected result is almost certain to follow4 ,but if he is uncertain or hesitant upon any of these points1 he will as surely fail to get a good attack4 ,such confidence in one's own ability as we have been describing usually results in the acquiring of what is called an easy manner1--self-possession1--in short1 poise1 and it is the possession of such a bearing that gives us confidence in the scholarship and ability of the leaders in any type of activity4 ,but the influence of this type of manner cannot be permanent unless it rests upon a foundation of really solid knowledge or ability4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,second ,,element ,,in ,,leadership ,the second element included in leadership and organizing ability is the power to make oneself understood1 that is1 clearness of speech and of expression4 ,this involves probably first of all1 so far as conducting is concerned1 a voice that can be easily heard1 even in a fairly large room1 and that carries with it the tone of authority4 ,but it includes also a good command of language so that one's ideas may be expressed clearly1 and one's commands given definitely4 ,an important point to be noted in this connection is that the conductor must be able to exercise rigid self-control1 so as not to become incoherent under stress of anger1 emergencies1 or other excitement4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,third ,,element ,,in ,,leadership ,the final element involved in leadership is a tremendous love of and respect for the thing that is being done4 ,napoleon became a great general because of his confidence in his own ability1 and because of his very great enthusiasm for his work4 ,lincoln became one of the greatest statesmen of all times largely because of his earnestness1 his extraordinary love and respect for the common people1 and his unfaltering confidence in the justice of the cause for which the ,north was contending4 ,pestalozzi could never have become one of the world's most influential teachers if he had not felt that the thing he was trying to do was a big thing1 a vital thing in the life of his country1 and if he had not had a real love in his heart for his work among the ragged and untrained urchins whom he gathered about him4 ,and for the same reason it is clear that no one can become a strong and forceful conductor who does not have an overwhelming love of music in his heart4 ,we may go farther and say that no conductor can give a really spirited reading of a musical composition if he does not feel genuinely enthusiastic over the work being performed1 and that one reason for the sluggish response that musicians often make to the conductor's baton is the mediocrity of the music which they are being asked to perform4 ,the conductor is not in sympathy with it 7sometimes without realizing this himself71 and there is consequently no virility in the playing or singing4 ,the remedy for this state of affairs consists1 first1 in allowing only those who have some taste in the selection of music to conduct2 and second1 in inspiring all conductors to take much more time and much greater pains in deciding upon the works to be rehearsed4 ,in directing a choir one may examine a dozen cantatas1 or twenty-five anthems1 before one is found that is really distinctive4 ,if one stops at the second or third1 and thinks that although not very good yet it is possibly good enough1 very probably the choir will be found to be sluggish and unresponsive1 filled with what ,coward calls inertia4#f ,but if one goes on looking over more and more selections until something really distinctive is discovered1 it is more than probable that the chorus will respond with energy and enthusiasm4 ,footnote #f3 ,coward1 ,choral ,technique and ,interpretation1 p4 #gc4 ,we have heard many arguments in favor of teaching children only the best music1 and here is yet another1 perhaps more potent than all the rest4 ,they must be taught only good music because you as a musician will find it impossible to become enthusiastic over mediocre or poor works2 and if you do not yourself glow over the music that you are directing1 you will hardly succeed in arousing the children's interest1 for enthusiasm spreads by contagion1 and there can be no spreading by contact unless we have a point from which to start4 ,a sense of leadership consists1 then1 of a combination of self-confidence and poise1 clearness of speech and expression1 and enthusiasm for one's work2 and if with these three there is mingled the ability to think clearly and definitely1 we have a combination that is bound to produce distinctive results1 no matter what the field of activity may be4 ,let us repeat that the encouraging thing about the whole matter is the fact that most of the things involved in leadership can be acquired1 at least to a certain degree1 if persistent efforts are made for a long enough time4 ,before going on with the topic to be treated in the next chapter1 let us summarize the materials out of which our conductor is to be fashioned4 ,they are3 #a4 ,innate musical ability4 #b4 ,a long period of broad and intelligent music study4 #c4 ,an attractive and engaging personality4 #d4 ,a sense of humor4 #e4 ,a creative imagination4 #f4 ,conscious leadership and organizing ability4 ,some of these qualities are admittedly almost diametrically opposed to one another1 and it is probably because so few individuals combine such apparently opposite traits that such a small number of musicians succeed as conductors1 and so few organizers and business men succeed as musicians4 ,but in spite of this difficulty1 we must insist again that any really tangible and permanent success in conducting involves a combination of these attributes1 and that the conductor of the future1 even more than of the past1 must possess not only those qualities of the artist needed by the solo performer1 but must in addition be a good business manager1 an organizer1 a tactician1 a diplomat1 a task-master--in plain ,english1 a good boss4 ,it is primarily because of the lack of these last-mentioned qualities that most musicians fail as conductors4 ,a writer in the ,canadian ,journal of ,music1 signing himself ,varasdin1 sums it up well in the following words3 ,he who wishes to carry away his body of players as well as his audience1 the former to a unanimously acted improvisation1 the latter to a unanimously felt emotion1 needs above all commanding personal magnetism1 and everything else must be subordinate to that4 ,he must be very much alive--7highly accumulated vital energy1 always ready to discharge1 is the secret of all personal magnetism7--and the alertness1 the presence of mind1 the acute and immediate perception of everything going on during rehearsal or performance1 the dominancy and impressiveness of his minutest gesture1 the absolute self-possession and repose even in working up the most exciting climaxes and in effecting the most sudden contrasts--all these are simply self-evident corollaries from our first and foremost requirement4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,technique ,,of ,,the ,,baton ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,baton ,,itself ,before giving actual directions for the manipulation of the conductor's baton1 it may be well to state that the stick itself should be light in weight1 light in color1 and from sixteen to twenty inches long4 ,it must be thin and flexible1 and should taper gradually from the end held in the hand to the point4 ,batons of this kind can be manufactured easily at any ordinary planing mill where there is a lathe4 ,the kinds sold at stores are usually altogether too thick and too heavy4 ,if at any time some adulating chorus or choir should present the conductor with an ebony baton with silver mountings1 he must not feel that courtesy demands that it should be used in conducting4 ,the proper thing to do with such an instrument is to tie a ribbon around one end and hang it on the wall as a decoration4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,conductor',s ,,music ,,stand ,a word about the music desk may also be in order at this time4 ,it should be made of wood or heavy metal so that in conducting one need not constantly feel that it is likely to be knocked over4 ,the ordinary folding music stand made of light metal is altogether unsuitable for a conductor's use4 ,a good substantial stand with a metal base and standard and wood top can be purchased for from three to five dollars from any dealer in musical instruments4 ,if no money is available and the stand is constructed at home1 it may be well to note that the base should be heavy1 the upright about three and a half feet high1 and the top or desk about fourteen by twenty inches4 ,this top should tilt only slightly1 so that the conductor may glance from it to his performers without too much change of focus4 ,our reason for mentioning apparently trivial matters of this kind is to guard against any possible distraction of the conductor's mind by unimportant things4 ,if these details are well provided for in advance1 he will be able while conducting to give his entire attention to the real work in hand4 ,sidenote3 ,,holding ,,and ,,wielding ,,the ,,baton ,the baton is ordinarily held between the thumb and first1 second and third fingers1 but the conductor's grasp upon it varies with the emotional quality of the music4 ,thus in a dainty pianissimo passage1 it is often held very lightly between the thumb and the first two fingers1 while in a fortissimo one it is grasped tightly in the closed fist1 the tension of the muscles being symbolic of the excitement expressed in the music at that point4 ,all muscles must be relaxed unless a contraction occurs because of the conductor's response to emotional tension in the music4 ,the wrist should be loose and flexible1 and the entire beat so full of grace that the attention of the audience is never for an instant distracted from listening to the music by the conspicuous awkwardness of the conductor's hand movements4 ,this grace in baton-manipulation need not interfere in any way with the definiteness or precision of the beat4 ,in fact an easy1 graceful beat usually results in a firmer rhythmic response than a jerky1 awkward one4 ,for the first beat of the measure the entire arm 7upper as well as lower7 moves vigorously downward1 but for the remaining beats the movement is mostly confined to the elbow and wrist4 ,in the case of a divided beat 7see pages #bc and #bd7 the movement comes almost entirely from the wrist4 ,sidenote3 ,,position ,,of ,,the ,,baton ,the hand manipulating the baton must always be held sufficiently high so as to be easily seen by all performers1 the elbow being kept well away from the body1 almost level with the shoulder4 ,the elevation of the baton1 of course1 depends upon the size of the group being conducted1 upon the manner in which the performers are arranged1 and upon whether they are sitting or standing4 ,the conductor will accordingly vary its position according to the exigencies of the occasion1 always remembering that a beat that cannot be easily seen will not be readily followed4 ,sidenote3 ,,principles ,,and ,,methods ,,of ,,time ,,beating ,if one observes the work of a number of conductors1 it soon becomes evident that1 although at first they appear to have absolutely different methods1 there are nevertheless certain fundamental underlying principles in accordance with which each beats time1 and it is these general principles that we are to deal with in the remainder of this chapter4 ,it should be noted that principles rather than methods are to be discussed1 since principles are universal1 while methods are individual and usually only local in their application4 ,sidenote3 ,,diagrams ,,of ,,baton ,,movements ,the general direction of the baton movements now in universal use is shown in the following figures4 ,illustration ,in actual practice however1 the baton moves from point to point in a very much more complex fashion1 and in order to aid the learner still further in his analysis of time beating an elaborated version of the foregoing figures is supplied4 ,it is of course understood that such diagrams are of value only in giving a general idea of these more complex movements and that they are not to be followed minutely4 ,illustration3 ,,two-,,beat ,,measure ,illustration3 ,,three-,,beat ,,measure ,illustration3 ,,four-,,beat ,,measure ,illustration3 ,,six-,,beat ,,measure ,illustration3 ,,very ,,slow ,,two-,,beat ,,measure ,illustration3 ,,very ,,slow ,,three-,,beat ,,measure ,illustration3 ,,slow ,,four-,,beat ,,measure ,illustration3 ,,slow ,,nine-,,beat ,,measure ,illustration3 ,,slow ,,twelve-,,beat ,,measure ,an examination of these figures will show that all baton movements are based upon four general principles3 #a4 ,the strongest pulse of a measure 7the first one7 is always marked by a down-beat4 ,this principle is merely a specific application of the general fact that a downward stroke is stronger than an upward one 7cf4 driving a nail74 #b4 ,the last pulse of a measure is always marked by an up-beat1 since it is generally the weakest part of the measure4 #c4 ,in three- and four-beat measures1 the beats are so planned that there is never any danger of the hands colliding in conducting vigorous movements that call for the use of the free hand as well as the one holding the baton4 #d4 ,in compound measures the secondary accent is marked by a beat almost as strong as that given the primary accent4 ,sidenote3 ,,number ,,of ,,beats ,,determined ,,by ,,tempo ,the fact that a composition is in #d-d measure does not necessarily mean that every measure is to be directed by being given four actual beats1 and one of the things that the conductor must learn is when to give more beats and when fewer4 ,if the tempo is very rapid1 the #d-d measure will probably be given only two beats1 but in an adagio movement1 as1 e4g41 the first part of the ,messiah overture1 it may be necessary to beat eight for each measure in order to insure rhythmic continuity4 ,there are many examples of triple measure in which the movement is so rapid as to make it impracticable to beat three in a measure1 and the conductor is therefore content merely to give a down-beat at the beginning of each measure2 waltzes are commonly conducted by giving a down-beat for the first measure1 an up-beat for the second1 et cetera2 a six-part measure in rapid tempo receives but two beats2 while #i-h and #ab-h are ordinarily given but three and four beats respectively4 ,it is not only annoying but absolutely fatiguing to see a conductor go through all manner of contortions in trying to give a separate beat to each pulse of the measure in rapid tempos2 and the effect upon the performers is even worse than upon the audience1 for a stronger rhythmic reaction will always be stimulated if the rhythm is felt in larger units rather than in smaller ones4 ,but on the other hand1 the tempo is sometimes so very slow that no sense of continuity can be aroused by giving only one beat for each pulse2 hence1 as already noted1 it is often best to give double the number of beats indicated by the measure sign4 ,in general1 these two ideas may be summarized in the following rule3 ,as the tempo becomes more rapid1 decrease the number of beats2 but as it becomes slower1 increase the number1 at the same time elaborating the beat so as to express more tangibly the idea of a steady forward movement4 ,by carefully studying the second series of figures given on pages #bc and #bd and by making certain that the principle of continuous movement explained on page #bh is observed1 the student will be able to learn the more highly elaborated beats employed in slower tempos without very much difficulty4 ,these diagrams1 like the first set1 are1 of course1 intended to be suggestive only4 ,sidenote3 ,,shall ,,we ,,beat ,,the ,,rhythm ,,or ,,the ,,pulse8 ,in this same connection1 the amateur may perhaps raise the question as to whether it is wise to beat the rhythm or the pulse in such a measure as music notation4 ,in other words1 is it well to give a down-beat on #a1 two small beats toward the left for #b1 while #c and #d are treated in the ordinary way8 ,this question may be answered by referring to the rule given on page #be1 but perhaps it will be safer to make the application more specific by advising the young conductor to adhere fairly closely to beating the pulse unless a much slower tempo makes extra beats necessary4 ,the additional movements may be of some service in certain cases1 but in general they tend to confuse rather than to clarify1 this being especially true in the case of syncopated rhythms4 ,the only exceptions to this principle are3 #a4 ,when a phrase begins with a tone that is on a fractional part of the beat2 e4g41 if the preceding phrase ends with an eighth1 thus3 music notation2 for in this case the phrasing cannot be indicated clearly without dividing the beat4 #b4 ,when there is a ritardando and it becomes necessary to give a larger number of beats in order to show just how much slower the tempo is to be4 ,the second point is of course covered by the general rule already referred to4 ,the conductor must train himself to change instantly from two beats in the measure to four or six2 from one to three1 et cetera1 so that he may be able at any time to suit the number of beats to the character of the music at that particular point4 ,this is particularly necessary in places where a ritardando makes it desirable from the standpoint of the performers to have a larger number of beats4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,dotted-,,quarter ,,as ,a ,,beat ,,note ,although covered in general by the preceding discussion1 it may perhaps be well to state specifically that the compound measures #f-h1 #i-h1 and #ab-h are ordinarily taken as duple1 triple1 and quadruple measures1 respectively4 ,in other words1 the dotted-quarter-note 7dotted quarter-note symbol7 is thought of as the beat note1 some modern editors going so far as to write #b over dotted quarter symbol in place of #f-h as the measure sign2 #c over dotted quarter symbol in place of #i-h2 and #d over dotted quarter symbol in place of #ab-h4 ,in conducting these various types of measure1 the general principle given on page #be again applies1 and if the tempo is very slow1 the conductor beats #f1 #i1 or #ab1 to the measure1 but if it is rapid1 the flow of the rhythm is much better indicated by #b1 #c1 and #d beats respectively4 ,sidenote3 ,,five- ,,and ,,seven-,,beat ,,measures ,although only occasionally encountered by the amateur1 five- and seven-beat measures are now made use of frequently enough by composers to make some explanation of their treatment appropriate4 ,a five-beat measure 7quintuple7 is a compound measure comprising a two-beat and a three-beat one4 ,sometimes the two-beat group is first1 and sometimes the three-beat one4 ,if the former1 then the conductor's beat will be down-up1 down-right-up4 ,but if it is the other way about1 then the beat will naturally be down-right-up1 down-up4 ,but how am ,i to know which comes first8 asks the tyro4 ,and our answer is1 ,study the music1 and if you cannot find out in this way1 you ought not to be conducting the composition4 ,just as quintuple measure is a compound measure comprising two pulse-groups1 one of three and the other of two beats1 so seven-beat measure 7septuple7 consists of a four-beat group plus a three-beat one4 ,if the four-beat measure is first1 the conductor's beat will be down-left-right-up1 down-right-up2 i4e41 the regular movements for quadruple measure followed by those for triple2 but if the combination is three plus four1 it will be the other way about4 ,sometimes the composer helps the conductor by placing a dotted bar between the two parts of the septuple measure1 thus3 music notation ,sidenote3 ,,an ,,important ,,principle ,,of ,,time ,,beating ,the most fundamental principle of time beating1 and the one concerning which the young conductor is apt to be most ignorant1 is the following3 ,the baton must not usually come to a standstill at the points marking the beats1 neither must it move in a straight line from one point to another1 except in the case of the down beat2 for it is the free and varying movement of the baton between any two beats that gives the singers or players their cue as to where the second of the two is to come4 ,we may go further and say that the preliminary movement made before the baton arrives at what might be termed the bottom of the beat is actually more important than the bottom of the beat itself4 ,when the baton is brought down for the first beat of the measure1 the muscles contract until the imaginary point which the baton is to strike has been reached1 relaxing while the hand moves on to the next point 7i4e41 the second beat7 gradually contracting again as this point is reached1 and relaxing immediately afterward as the hand moves on to the third beat4 ,in the diagrams of baton movements given on preceding pages1 the accumulating force of muscular contraction is shown by the gradually increasing thickness of the line1 proceeding from the initial part of the stroke to its culmination2 while the light curved line immediately following this culmination indicates the so-called back-stroke1 the muscular relaxation4 ,it is easy to see that this muscular contraction is what gives the beat its definiteness1 its bottom1 while the relaxation is what gives the effect of continuity or flow4 ,it will be noticed that when the baton is brought down on an accented beat1 the beginning of the back-stroke is felt by the conductor as a sort of rebound of the baton from the bottom of the beat1 and this sensation of rebounding helps greatly in giving point to these accented beats4 ,in order to understand fully the principle that we have just been discussing1 it must be recalled that rhythm is not a succession of jerks1 but is basically a steady flow1 a regular succession of similar impulses1 the word rhythm itself coming from a ,greek stem meaning flow4 ,like all other good things1 this theory of continuous movement may be carried to excess1 and one occasionally sees conducting that has so much back-stroke that there is no definiteness of beat whatsoever2 in other words there is no bottom to the beat1 and consequently no precision in the conducting4 ,but on the other hand1 there is to be observed also a great deal of conducting in which the beats seem to be thought of as imaginary points1 the conductor apparently feeling that it is his business to get from one to another of these points in as straight a line as possible1 and with no relaxation of muscle whatever4 ,such conductors often imagine that they are being very definite and very precise indeed in their directing1 and have sometimes been heard to remark that the singers or players whom they were leading seemed exceedingly stupid about following the beat1 especially in the attacks4 ,the real reason for sluggish rhythmic response and poor attacks is1 however1 more often to be laid at the door of a poorly executed beat by the conductor than to the stupidity of the chorus or orchestra4#g ,footnote #g3 ,it is but a step from the conclusions arrived at above to a corollary relating to conducting from the organ bench4 ,how does it happen that most choirs directed by an organist-conductor do not attack promptly1 do not follow tempo changes readily1 and do not in general present examples of good ensemble performance8 ,is it not because the organist is using his hands and feet for other purposes1 and cannot therefore indicate to his singers the continuous flow of rhythm above referred to8 ,when a conductor directing with a baton wishes to indicate a ritardando1 he does so not merely by making the beats follow one another at longer intervals1 but even more by making a more elaborate and more extensive movement between the beat culminations2 and the musicians have no difficulty in following the baton1 because it is kept continuously in motion1 the points where the muscular contractions come being easily felt by the performers1 because they can thus follow the rhythm in their own muscles by instinctive imitation4 ,but when the organist-conductor wishes a ritardando1 he merely plays more slowly1 and the singers must get their idea of the slower tempo entirely through the ear4 ,since rhythm is a matter of muscle rather than of ear1 it will be readily understood that conducting and organ-playing will never go hand in hand to any very great extent4 ,there is1 of course1 another reason for the failure of many organists who try to play and conduct simultaneously1 viz41 that they are not able to do two things successfully at the same time1 so that the chorus is often left to work out its own salvation as best it may2 while1 if the conducting is done by using the left hand1 the organ end of the combination is not usually managed with any degree of distinction4 ,because of this and certain other well-known reasons1 the writer believes that choral music in general1 and church music in particular1 would be greatly benefited by a widespread return to the mixed chorus1 led by a conductor with baton in hand1 and accompanied by an organist4 ,sidenote3 ,,how ,,to ,,secure ,a ,,firm ,,attack ,coordinate with the discussion of continuous movement and back-stroke1 the following principle should be noted3 ,a preliminary movement sufficiently ample to be easily followed by the eye must be made before actually giving the beat upon which the singers or players are to begin the tone1 if the attack is to be delivered with precision and confidence4 ,thus in the case of a composition beginning upon the first beat of a measure1 the conductor holds the baton poised in full view of all performers1 then1 before actually bringing it down for the attack1 he raises it slightly1 this upward movement often corresponding to the back-stroke between an imaginary preceding beat and the actual beat with which the composition begins4 ,when a composition begins upon the weak beat 7e4g41 the fourth beat of a four-pulse measure71 the preceding strong beat itself1 together with the back-stroke accompanying it1 is often given as the preparation for the actual initial beat4 ,in case this is done the conductor must guard against making this preliminary strong beat so prominent as to cause the performers to mistake it for the actual signal to begin4 ,if the first phrase begins with an eighth-note 7music notation71 give a short beat for #d and an extra up-beat for the first note of the phrase4 ,if it begins with a sixteenth-note1 do the same thing1 but make the extra up-beat with which the first tone is to be coincident shorter and quicker4 ,if a good attack cannot be secured in any other way1 beat an entire preliminary measure until the attack goes well1 then adopt some such plan as has just been suggested4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,release ,the preliminary up-beat which has just been discussed is equally valuable as a preparation for the release or cut-off4 ,the movement for the release is usually a down stroke to right or left1 or even upward4 ,it is customary not to beat out the final measure of a composition or a complete final section of a composition1 but to bring the baton down a few inches for the first beat of the measure1 and then to hold it poised in this position1 either counting the beats mentally1 or trusting to feeling to determine the time for stopping4 ,a slight upward movement is then made just before the tone is to be released1 and it is the warning conveyed by this preliminary movement that enables the performers to release the tone at the precise instant when the baton is brought down for the cut-off4 ,it should be noted that the release must come at the end of the duration value of the final note4 ,in #d-d a final dotted half-note symbol would therefore be held up to the beginning of the fourth beat1 i4e41 until one is on the point of counting four2 a final whole note symbol1 until the beginning of the first beat of the following measure4 ,it is because of carelessness or ignorance on this point that composers now sometimes resort to such devices as music notation to show that the final tone has four full beats4 ,in such a case1 the ending music notation means exactly the same thing as music notation1 the tone being released precisely on one of the following measure1 in either case4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,hold ,in the case of a hold 7fermata71 the movement for the cut-off depends upon the nature of what follows4 ,if the tone to be prolonged forms the end of a phrase or section1 the baton is brought down vigorously as at the end of a composition2 but if the hold occurs at the end of a phrase in such a way as not to form a decided closing point1 or if it occurs in the midst of the phrase itself1 the cut-off is not nearly so pronounced1 and the conductor must exercise care to move his baton in such a direction as to insure its being ready to give a clear signal for the attack of the tone following the hold4 ,thus1 with a hold on the third beat1 music notation the cut-off would probably be toward the right and upward1 this movement then serving also as a preliminary for the fourth beat to follow4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,attack ,,in ,,reading ,,new ,,music ,for working in rehearsal it is convenient to use some such exclamation as ,ready--,sing1 or ,ready--,play1 in order that amateur musicians may be enabled to attack the first chord promptly1 even in reading new music4 ,in this case the word ,ready comes just before the preliminary movement2 the word ,sing or ,play being coincident with the actual preliminary movement4 ,in preparing for a public performance1 however1 the conductor should be careful not to use these words so much in rehearsing that his musicians will have difficulty in making their attacks without hearing them4 ,sidenote3 ,,length ,,of ,,the ,,stroke ,the length and general character of the baton movement depend upon the emotional quality of the music being conducted4 ,a bright1 snappy ,scherzo in rapid tempo will demand a short1 vigorous beat1 with almost no elaboration of back-stroke2 while for a slow and stately ,choral1 a long1 flowing beat with a highly-elaborated back-stroke will be appropriate4 ,the first beat of the phrase in any kind of music is usually longer and more prominent1 in order that the various divisions of the design may be clearly marked4 ,it is in the length of the stroke that the greatest diversity in time beating will occur in the case of various individual conductors1 and it is neither possible nor advisable to give specific directions to the amateur4 ,suffice it to say1 that if he understands clearly the foregoing principles of handling the baton1 and if his musical feeling is genuine1 there will be little difficulty at this point4 ,sidenote3 ,,non-,,measured ,,music ,the directions for beating time thus far given have1 of course1 referred exclusively to what is termed measured music1 i4e41 music in which the rhythm consists of groups of regularly spaced beats1 the size and general characteristics of the group depending upon the number and position of the accents in each measure4 ,there exists1 however1 a certain amount of non-measured vocal music1 and a word concerning the most common varieties 7recitative and ,anglican chant7 will perhaps be in order before closing our discussion of beating time4 ,sidenote3 ,,recitative ,in conducting the accompaniment of a vocal solo of the recitative style1 and particularly that variety referred to as recitativo secco1 the most important baton movement is a down-beat after each bar4 ,the conductor usually follows the soloist through the group of words found between two bars with the conventional baton movements1 but this does not imply regularly spaced pulses as in the case of measured music1 and the beats do not correspond in any way to those of the ordinary measure of rhythmic music4 ,they merely enable the accompanying players to tell at approximately what point in the measure the singer is at any given time1 the up-beat at the end of the group giving warning of the near approach of the next group4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,anglican ,,chant ,in the case of the ,anglican chant1 it should be noted that there are two parts to each verse3 one1 a reciting portion in which there is no measured rhythm2 the other1 a rhythmic portion in which the pulses occur as in measured music4 ,in the reciting portion of the chant1 the rhythm is that of ordinary prose speech1 punctuation marks being observed as in conventional language reading4 ,this makes it far more difficult to keep the singers together1 and in order to secure uniformity1 some conductors give a slight movement of the baton for each syllable2 others depend upon a down-beat at the beginning of each measure together with the lip movements made by the conductor himself and followed minutely by the chorus4 ,the beginning of the second part of the chant is indicated by printing its first syllable in italics1 by placing an accent mark over it1 or by some other similar device4 ,this syllable is then regarded as the first accented tone of the metrical division of the chant1 and1 beginning with it1 the conductor beats time as in ordinary measured music4 ,if no other syllable follows the accented one before a bar occurs1 it is understood that the accented syllable is to be held for two beats1 i4e41 a measure's duration4 ,final ed is always pronounced as a separate syllable4 ,the most important thing for an amateur to learn about conducting the ,anglican chant is that before he can successfully direct others in singing this type of choral music1 he must himself practically memorize each chant4 ,the amateur should perhaps also be warned not to have the words of the first part of the chant recited too rapidly4 ,all too frequently there is so much hurrying that only a few of the most prominent words are distinguishable1 most of the connecting words being entirely lost4 ,a more deliberate style of chanting than that in ordinary use would be much more in keeping with the idea of dignified worship4 ,before asking the choir to sing a new chant1 it is often well to have the members recite it1 thus emphasizing the fact that the meaning of the text must be brought out in the singing4 ,in inaugurating chanting in churches where this form of music has not previously formed a part of the service1 it will be well to have both choir and congregation sing the melody in unison for a considerable period before attempting to chant in parts4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,necessity ,,of ,,practice ,,in ,,handling ,,the ,,baton ,now that we have laid down the principles upon the basis of which our prospective conductor is to beat time1 let us warn him once more that here1 as in other things1 it is intelligent practice that makes perfect1 and that if he is to learn to handle the baton successfully1 and particularly if he is to learn to do it so well that he need never give the slightest thought to his baton while actually conducting1 hours of practice in beating time will be necessary4 ,this practising should sometimes take place before a mirror1 or better still1 in the presence of some critical friend1 so that a graceful rather than a grotesque style of handling the baton may result2 it should also be done with the metronome clicking or with some one playing the piano much of the time1 in order that the habit of maintaining an absolutely steady1 even tempo may evolve4 ,the phonograph may also be utilized for this purpose1 and may well become an indispensable factor in training conductors in the future1 it being possible in this way to study the elements of interpretation as well as to practise beating time4 ,sidenote3 ,,baton ,,technique ,,not ,,sufficient ,,for ,,success ,,in ,,conducting ,it must not be imagined that if one is fortunate enough to acquire the style of handling the baton which we have been advocating one will at once achieve success as a conductor4 ,the factors of musical scholarship1 personal magnetism1 et cetera1 mentioned in preceding pages1 must still constitute the real foundation of conducting4 ,but granting the presence of these other factors of endowment and preparation1 one may often achieve a higher degree of success if one has developed also a well-defined and easily-followed beat4 ,it is for this reason that the technique of time beating is worthy of some degree of serious investigation and of a reasonable amount of time spent in practice upon it4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,interpretation ,,in ,,conducting ,,introductory ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,conductor ,,as ,,interpreter ,interpretation from the standpoint of the conductor differs from interpretation in singing and playing in that the conductor must necessarily convey ideas or emotions to his audience through an intermediary1 viz41 the orchestra or chorus4 ,he furthermore labors under the disadvantage of having to stand with his back 7certainly the least expressive part of man's physique7 to the audience4 ,the pianist1 singer1 and violinist1 on the other hand1 face their audiences2 and because they themselves actually do the performing1 are able to work much more directly upon the minds and emotions of their hearers4 ,for this reason1 interpretation must be studied by the conductor from a twofold basis3 #a4 ,from the standpoint of the expressive rendition of music in general4 #b4 ,from the standpoint of securing the expressive rendition of music from a group of players or singers4 ,we shall devote this and the three following chapters to a discussion of these two phases of interpretation4 ,sidenote3 ,,interpretation ,,and ,,expression ,the word interpret1 as ordinarily used means to explain1--to elucidate1--to make clear the meaning of1 and this same definition of the word applies to music as well1 the conductor or performer making clear to the audience the message given him by the composer4 ,it should be noted at once1 however1 that interpretation in music is merely the process or means for securing the larger thing called expression1 and in discussing this larger thing1 the activity of two persons is always assumed2 one is the composer1 the other the performer4 ,which of these two is the more important personage has been for many decades a much mooted question among concert-goers4 ,considered from an intellectual standpoint1 there is no doubt whatever concerning the supremacy of the composer2 but when viewed in the light of actual box office experience1 on an evening when ,caruso or some other popular idol has been slated to appear1 and cannot do so because of indisposition1 it would seem as if the performer were still as far above the composer as he was in the days of eighteenth-century opera in ,italy4 ,it is the composer's function to write music of such a character that when well performed it will occasion an emotional reaction on the part of performer and listener4 ,granting this type of music1 it is the function of the performer or conductor to so interpret the music that an appropriate emotional reaction will actually ensue4 ,a recent writer calls the performer a messenger from the composer to the audience1 and states#h that-- ,as a messenger is accountable to both sender and recipient of his message1 so is the interpretative artist in a position of twofold trust and1 therefore1 of twofold responsibility4 ,the sender of his message--creative genius--is behind him2 before him sits an expectant and confiding audience1 the sovereign addressee4 ,the interpretative artist has1 therefore1 first to enter into the spirit of his message2 to penetrate its ultimate meaning2 to read in1 as well as between1 the lines4 ,and then he has to train and develop his faculties of delivery1 of vital production1 to such a degree as to enable him to fix his message decisively1 and with no danger of being misunderstood1 in the mind of his auditor4 ,footnote #h3 ,constantin von ,sternberg1 ,ethics and ,esthetics of ,piano ,playing1 p4 #aj4 ,this conception of the conductor's task demands from him two things3 #a4 ,a careful1 painstaking study of the work to be performed1 so as to become thoroughly familiar with its content and to discover its true emotional significance4 #b4 ,such display of emotion in his conducting as will arouse a sympathetic response1 first on the part of orchestra and chorus1 and then in turn in the audience4 ,sidenote3 ,,emotion ,,in ,,interpretation ,real interpretation1 then1 requires1 on the part of the conductor1 just as in the case of the actor1 a display of emotion4 ,coldness and self-restraint will not suffice1 for these represent merely the intellectual aspect of the art1 and music is primarily a language of the emotions4 ,this difference constitutes the dividing line between performances that merely arouse our judicial comment ,that was exceedingly well done2 and those on the other hand that thrill us1 carry us off our feet1 sweep us altogether out of our environment so that for the moment we forget where we are1 lose sight temporarily of our petty cares and grievances1 and are permitted to live for a little while in an altogether different world--the world not of things and ambitions and cares1 but of ecstasy4 ,such performances and such an attitude on the part of the listener are all too rare in these days of smug intellectualism and hypersophistication1 and we venture to assert that this is at least partly due to the fact that many present-day conductors are intellectual rather than emotional in their attitude4 ,it is this faculty of displaying emotion1 of entirely submerging himself in the work being performed1 that gives the veteran choral conductor ,tomlins his phenomenal hold on chorus and audience4 ,in a performance of choral works recently directed by this conductor1 the listener was made to feel at one moment the joy of springtime1 with roses blooming and lovers wooing1 as a light1 tuneful chorus in waltz movement was being performed2 then in a trice1 one was whisked over to the heart of ,russia1 and made to see1 as though they were actually present1 a gang of boatmen as they toiled along the bank of the ,volga with the tow-rope over their shoulders1 tugging away at a barge which moved slowly up from the distance1 past a clump of trees1 and then gradually disappeared around a bend in the river2 and in yet another moment1 one was thrilled through and through with religious fervor in response to the grandeur and majestic stateliness of the ,mendelssohn ,motet1 ,judge ,me1 oh ,god4 ,it was interpretation of this type too that gave the actor-singer ,wllner such a tremendous hold upon his audiences a few years ago1 this artist achieving a veritable triumph by the tremendous sincerity and vividness of his dramatic impersonations in singing ,german ,lieder1 in spite of the fact that he possessed a voice of only average quality4 ,it was an emotional response of this character that the ,greek philosophers must have been thinking of when they characterized drama as a purge for the soul2 and surely it must still be good for human beings to forget themselves occasionally and to become merged in this fashion in the wave of emotion felt by performer and fellow-listener in response to the message of the composer4 ,it is emotion of this type also that the great composers have sought to arouse through their noblest compositions4 ,handel is said to have replied1 when congratulated upon the excellence of the entertainment afforded by the ,messiah1 ,i am sorry if ,i have only entertained them2 ,i hoped to do them good4 ,an ,english writer1 in quoting this incident1 adds3#i ,what ,handel tried to do 444 by wedding fine music to an inspiring text1 ,beethoven succeeded in doing through instruments alone 444 for never have instruments--no matter how pleasing they were in the past--been capable of stirring the inmost feelings as they have done since the beginning of the nineteenth century4 ,footnote #i3 ,c4,f4,a4 ,williams1 ,the ,rhythm of ,modern ,music1 p4 #ac4 ,there is danger1 of course1 here as everywhere1 that one may go too far2 and it is entirely conceivable that both soloist and conductor might go to such extremes in their display of emotion that the music would be entirely distorted1 losing what is after all its main raison d'tre1 viz41 the element of beauty4 ,but there seems at present to be no especial danger that such an event will occur2 the tendency seems rather to be toward overemphasizing intellectualism in music1 and toward turning our art into a science4#aj ,the thing that we should like to convince the prospective conductor of is that real interpretation--i4e41 genuinely expressive musical performance--demands an actual display of emotion on the part of the conductor if the ideal sort of reaction is to be aroused in the audience4 ,footnote #aj3 ,this danger is especially insidious just now in our college and high school courses in the appreciation of music4 ,instructors in such courses are often so zealous in causing pupils to understand the machinery involved in the construction and rendition of music that they sometimes forget to emphasize sufficiently the product resulting from all this machinery1 viz41 beauty4 ,the idea of these courses is most excellent1 and in time those in charge of them will doubtless realize that the hearing of actual music in the classroom is more valuable to students than learning a mass of facts about it2 and that if a choice were necessary between a course in which there was opportunity for hearing a great deal of music without any comment1 and one on the other hand in which there was a great deal of comment without any music1 the former would be infinitely preferable4 ,but such a choice is not necessary2 and the ideal course in the ,appreciation of ,music is one in which the student has opportunity for hearing a great deal of music with appropriate comments by the instructor4 ,in order to interpret a musical work1 then1 the conductor himself must first study it so as to discover what the composer intended to express4 ,having become thoroughly permeated with the composer's message1 he may then by instinctive imitation arouse in his chorus or orchestra so strong a reflection of this mood that they will perform the work in the correct spirit1 the audience in turn catching its essential significance1 and each listener in his own way responding to the composer's message4 ,sidenote3 ,,definition ,,of ,,interpretation ,musical interpretation consists thus in impressing upon the listener the essential character of the music by emphasizing the important elements and subordinating the unimportant ones2 by indicating in a clear-cut and unmistakable way the phrasing1 and through skilful phrasing making evident the design of the composition as a whole2 and in general by so manipulating one's musical forces that the hearer will not only continue to be interested in the performance1 but will feel or understand the basic significance of the work being performed2 will catch and remember the important things in it1 will not have his attention distracted by comparatively unimportant details1 and will thus have delivered to him the real spirit of the composer's message4 ,this implies skilful accentuation of melody1 subordination of accompaniment1 increasing the tempo or force in some portions1 decreasing them in others1 et cetera4 ,clear enunciation and forceful declamation in choral music are also included1 and in it all1 the performer or conductor must so subordinate his own personality that the attention of the listeners will be centered upon the composition and not upon the eccentricities of dress or manner of the artist4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,boundaries ,,of ,,music ,it is inevitable that there should be considerable difference of opinion among composers1 critics1 listeners1 and performers1 as to just what music may or may not legitimately be expected to express4 ,some modern composers are apparently convinced that it ought to be possible through music to suggest pictures1 tell stories1 or depict moral and intellectual struggles on the part of the individual4 ,others contend that music exists solely because of its own inherent beauty1 that it can arouse general emotional states only1 and that if it is good music1 it needs no further meaning than this4 ,even pure music1 the champions of this latter idea urge1 may express an infinite variety of emotional tones1 from joy1 encouragement1 excitement1 tenderness1 expectancy1 invigoration1 and tranquillity1 to dread1 oppression of spirit1 hesitation1 harshness1 and despondency4 ,a modern writer on esthetics treats this matter at length1 and finally concludes3#aa ,is the symbolization pervasive enough to account for the steady continuing charm of lengthy compositions8444 ,the symbolizations 444 mostly resemble patches2 they form no system1 no plot or plan accompanying a work from beginning to end2 they only guarantee a fitful enjoyment--a fragment here1 a gleam there1 but no growing organic exaltation like that actually afforded by musical compositions4 ,footnote #aa3 ,gehring1 ,the ,basis of ,musical ,pleasure1 p4 #hi4 ,at another point in the same work1 this writer again discusses this same matter 7page #abj73 ,music is presentative in character1 not representative4 ,measure1 to be sure1 may correspond to the beating of the pulse1 and the final cadence may picture the satisfaction of desires2 the coda may simulate a mental summary2 but the composition in its totality1 with its particular melodies1 harmonies1 and rhythms1 and with the specific union of all these elements characteristic of this composition1 does not represent any definite psychical or material fact4 ,the majority of us would doubtless take a middle-ground position1 admitting the beauty and power of music1 per se1 but acknowledging also the fact that abstract beauty together with a certain amount of suggested imagery1 in combination1 will usually make a stronger appeal to the majority of people than either element by itself4 ,many of us are entirely willing to grant1 therefore1 that a more complex and more vividly colored emotional state will probably result if the auditor is furnished with the title or program of the work being performed2 but we contend nevertheless that this music1 regardless of its connection with imagery1 must at the same time be sound music1 and that no matter how vividly descriptive our tonal art may become1 if it cannot stand the test of many hearings as music1 entirely apart from the imagery aroused1 it is not worthy to endure4 ,it is not the meaning of the music which makes us want to hear it repeated1 but its inherent beauty2 it is not usually our intellectual impression1 but our emotional thrill which we recall in thinking back over a past musical experience4 ,those of us who take the middle ground that we have just been presenting contend also that descriptive music can only legitimately arouse its appropriate imagery when the essential idea has been supplied beforehand in the form of a title or program1 and that even then the effect upon various individuals is1 and may well be1 quite different1 since each one has the music thrown1 as it were1 upon the screen of his own personal experience4 ,sidenote3 ,,expression ,,concerns ,,both ,,composer ,,and ,,performer ,it will be noted that in this discussion we are constantly using the word expression from the twofold standpoint of composer and performer1 each having an indispensable part in it1 and neither being able to get along without the other4 ,but in our treatment of conducting1 we shall need to come back again and again to the idea of expression from the standpoint of interpretation1 and in directing a piece of music we shall now take it for granted that the composer has said something which is worthy of being heard1 and that as the intermediary between composer and audience1 we are attempting to interpret to the latter what the former has expressed in his composition4 ,it should be noted in this connection that wrong interpretation is possible in music1 even as in literature4 ,one may so read a poem that the hearer1 without being in any way to blame1 will entirely miss the point4 ,so also may one conduct a musical work1 whether it be a child's song or a symphonic poem1 in such a fashion that neither performers nor audience gain a proper conception of what it means4 ,sidenote3 ,,interpretation ,,in ,,vocal ,,music ,in the case of vocal music1 the key to the emotional content of the work may almost always be found by carefully studying the words4 ,in preparing to conduct choral singing1 master the text1 therefore2 read it aloud as though declaiming to an audience2 and when you come to the performance1 see that your vocalists sing the music in such a way that the audience will be able to catch without too great effort both the meaning of the individual words and the spirit of the text as a whole4 ,the great ,italian tenor ,caruso expressed himself forcibly upon this point during an interview for the ,christian ,science ,monitor1 in #aiac4 ,in reply to the question ,where do you locate the source of expression in singing8 he said3 ,i find it in the words always4 ,for unless ,i give my hearers what is in the text1 what can ,i give them8 ,if ,i just produce tone1 my singing has no meaning4 ,thereupon 7continues the interviewer71 vocalizing a series of scale passages such as are used in studio practice1 ,caruso commented3 ,now1 when ,i do that1 ,i don't say anything4 ,i may make musical sounds1 but ,i express nothing4 ,i may even execute the notes with a good staccato or legato 7again illustrating with his voice7 and still1 having no words to go by1 ,i make no effect on my listeners4 ,look at the question in another way4 ,suppose ,i were to sing a line of text with a meaning in my voice that contradicted the idea of the words4 ,would not that be nonsense8 ,it would be as much as though ,i were to say to you ,this wood is hard1 and were to say it with a soft voice4 ,people have observed that ,i sing as though ,i were talking4 ,well1 that is just what ,i mean to do4 ,singing1 then 7the interviewer goes on71 as ,caruso began to define it1 is a sort of exalted speech1 its purpose being to illuminate the imagery and sentiment of language4 ,the mere music of singing he seemed for the moment to put in a subordinate place4 ,by way of further emphasizing his point1 he referred to a theme in ,donizetti's ,l',elisir d',amore1 which is used in two opposing situations--by the soprano in a mood of joy1 and by the tenor in a mood of sorrow4 ,he sang the measures of the soprano as though laughing4 ,then he sang those of the tenor as though weeping4 ,but those two passages of melody cannot be identical1 objected the interviewer4 ,oh1 yes1 they are1 the tenor declared2 and he quickly proved it by singing them over again with a less marked indication of the moods4 ,here you plainly see where expression must start4 ,it has to be from the words1 of course4 ,the performer puts in the feeling of gladness or sadness without regard to the notes1 paying attention only to the text4 ,expression in choral music is dependent upon the text to just as great an extent as in the case of solo singing2 and choral conductors may well ponder upon the above words of one of the world's greatest singers1 and apply the lesson to their own problems4 ,the average audience is probably more interested in the words of vocal music than in anything else2 and since both vocal and choral performances are usually given before average audiences it behooves the conductor to look into the minds of those before whom he is directing1 and to adapt the performance to the attitude of the listeners4 ,,chapter ,v ,,interpretation ,,in ,,conducting 7,continued7 ,,tempo ,sidenote3 ,,expression ,,in ,,instrumental ,,music ,in the last chapter we discussed expression and interpretation from a general standpoint1 closing with certain comments upon the interpretation of vocal music4 ,but it must be admitted at once that expression in instrumental music is a vastly more intricate matter than in the case of vocal music2 and in order to get at the subject in any tangible way1 it will be necessary for us1 first1 to analyze music into its expressional elements2 second1 to decide which of these elements belong exclusively to the composer and which are shared by the interpreter2 and third1 to examine each of these latter elements in turn from the standpoint of the conductor as interpreter4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,elements ,,of ,,expression ,there are eight elements upon which expression in instrumental music rests4 ,these are3 #a4 ,rhythm #b4 ,melody #c4 ,harmony #d4 ,pitch registers #e4 ,timbre #f4 ,phrasing #g4 ,tempo #h4 ,dynamics ,of these1 the composer is able to indicate exactly the first four1 to convey his meaning fairly well in the fifth and sixth1 but to give only a relative idea of the seventh and eighth4 ,the interpreter is thus concerned with the first four only as it becomes necessary for him to find out from the notation what the composer intended to express4 ,on the other hand1 he is considerably concerned with the fifth and sixth factors 7timbre and phrasing7 and has the main responsibility in the last two 7tempo and dynamics74 ,this being the case1 we shall treat tempo and dynamics first of all1 as being the two primary factors of expression with which the conductor is concerned4 ,sidenote3 ,,importance ,,of ,,tempo ,wagner1 in his famous essay on conducting1 takes the rather radical ground that everything else is dependent upon the proper selection and management of tempo4 ,he says3#ab ,the whole duty of the conductor is comprised in his ability always to indicate the right tempo4 ,his choice of tempi will show whether he understands the piece or not4444 ,the true tempo induces correct force and expression4 ,footnote #ab3 ,wagner1 ,on ,conducting1 translated by ,dannreuther1 p4 #bj4 ,in another place in the same work he treats the matter further1 as follows3 7p4 #cd7 ,obviously the proper pace of a piece of music is determined by the particular character of the rendering it requires4 ,the question therefore comes to this3 ,does the sustained1 the cantilena1 predominate1 or the rhythmical movement8 ,the conductor should lead accordingly4 ,it is doubtful whether many modern conductors would entirely agree with ,wagner's statement that correct tempo always induces correct force and expression4 ,nevertheless tempo is so important that probably no one will quarrel with us if we at least give it first place in the order in which the elements of expression are discussed4 ,in modern music the composer indicates the tempos of the various movements much more definitely than was true in earlier days1 so it would seem as if not nearly so much responsibility rested upon the conductor2 and yet there is still a wide difference of opinion among musicians about the matter1 and in many cases the conductor substitutes his own judgment for that of the composer1 assuming that the latter either made a mistake in indicating the tempo1 or else that he had not tried the composition at the tempo preferred by the conductor1 and therefore did not realize how much more effective it would be that way4 ,sidenote3 ,,finding ,,the ,,correct ,,tempo ,in the main1 there are five methods upon which the conductor depends for determining the correct tempo of a composition4 ,these are3 #a4 ,the metronome indication1 found at the beginning of most modern scores4 #b4 ,the tempo or mood expressions 7andante1 allegro1 adagio1 et cetera71 which have been in universal use for two centuries or more1 and which are found in practically all music1 even when a metronome indication is also given4 #c4 ,the swing and1 in vocal music1 the general spirit of the text4 #d4 ,tradition4 #e4 ,individual judgment of tempo as depending upon and resulting from the quality of the music4 ,of these1 the fifth1 viz41 individual judgment is most important1 and is the court of final resort in the case of the mature musician2 but the amateur who has had but little experience and who is therefore without any well developed musical taste must depend largely upon his metronome1 upon his knowledge of ,italian tempo terms1 and upon tradition4 ,a brief discussion of these matters will accordingly be in order at this time4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,metronome ,,as ,a ,,tempo ,,indicator ,the metronome#ac is a sort of clock with inverted pendulum1 the ticks or clicks of which can be regulated as to rate of speed by means of a sliding weight4 ,when this weight is set at the point marked #fd1 for example1 the metronome gives sixty-four clicks per minute2 when set at #hd1 or #aab1 corresponding numbers of clicks per minute result2 so that in this way the composer is able to indicate precisely the rate of speed of his composition by indicating the number of beats per minute4 ,the indication quarter-note symbol #hd means that the sliding weight is to be set at the point marked #hd1 the metronome then clicking eighty-four times per minute1 each of these clicks indicating a quarter-note4 ,but if the marking is half-note symbol #fd1 this means that sixty-four half-notes are to be performed in a minute1--a tempo equal to one hundred and twenty-eight quarter-notes in the same composition4 ,in compound measures such as #f-h1 #i-h1 et cetera1 the tempo indication shows the number of eighth-notes per minute if the composition is in slow tempo2 but in moderate and rapid tempos the direction is usually given by taking the dotted-quarter-note as the beat unit1 thus3 dotted quarter-note symbol #hd4 ,it is of course obvious that in this case the composer is thinking of each measure as having only two or three beats instead of six or nine4 ,footnote #ac3 ,the metronome is supposed to have been invented1 or at least perfected1 by a ,bavarian named ,maelzel1 about #ahae1 and for many years the ,maelzel metronome was the only one in existence4 ,hence the letters ,m4,m41 still found in many scores1 in connection with tempo indications4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,italian ,,tempo ,,terms ,many instrumental compositions 7particularly the older ones7 are not provided by the composer with definite tempo directions2 and in this case the ,italian tempo terms usually give at least a clue to what the composer has in mind4 ,these terms do not of course give us the precise tempo1 but by indicating the mood of a composition they at least help one to determine the rate of speed 7adagio--at ease2 allegro--cheerful2 largo--large1 broad2 andante--going2 et cetera74 ,a comprehensive knowledge of these terms from the twofold standpoint of definition and derivation is indispensable to the conductor4 ,the most common of them are therefore defined at this point4 ,they are given in groups in order that the student may note how much the various terms overlap in meaning4 ,,the ,,very ,,slowest ,,tempo larghissimo 7superlative of largo7 adagissimo 7superlative of adagio7 lentissimo 7superlative of lento7 ,a ,,very ,,slow ,,tempo largo 7from ,latin largus1 meaning broad1 large7 adagio 7at ease7 lento 7slow7 ,a ,,slow ,,tempo larghetto 7diminutive of largo7 adagietto 7diminutive of adagio7 ,a ,,moderately ,,slow ,,tempo andante 7going or walking7 andantino 7diminutive of andante and therefore meaning literally going less1 but because of a misconception of meaning now often understood as meaning slightly faster than andante7 ,a ,,moderate ,,tempo moderato ,a ,,moderately ,,rapid ,,tempo allegro 7cheerful7 allegretto 7diminutive of allegro2 a little slower than allegro7 ,a ,,very ,,rapid ,,tempo con moto 7with motion7 vivo 7lively7 vivace 7vivacious7 presto 7quick7 presto assai 7very quick7 ,,the ,,most ,,rapid ,,tempo ,,possible prestissimo 7superlative of presto7 vivacissimo 7superlative of vivace7 allegrissimo 7superlative of allegro7 prestissimo possibile 7hypersuperlative of presto7 ,the expressions given above are frequently used in combination with one another1 and with certain auxiliary terms1 but to attempt to define these combinations in this book would be altogether impracticable4 ,the conductor should however understand the significance of the following qualifying expressions3 non tanto 7not too much7 non troppo 7not too much7 ma non tanto 7but not too much7 ma non troppo 7but not too much7 ,these expressions are used by the composer as a warning to the performer not to overdo any indicated effect4 ,thus1 largo1 ma non troppo means that the composition is to be taken slowly1 but not too slowly4 ,presto 7ma7 non troppo1 on the other hand1 indicates a rapid tempo1 but not too rapid4 ,for a fuller discussion of these matters1 see the author's text book on terminology4#ad ,footnote #ad3 ,gehrkens1 ,music ,notation and ,terminology4 ,the ,a4,s4 ,barnes ,co41 ,new ,york4 ,the third means of finding tempo has already been discussed1 7see p4 #de7 and the fifth needs no further explanation2 but a word should perhaps be said to the amateur about the matter of tradition4 ,the young conductor must not fail to take into consideration the fact that there has grown up1 in connection with many of the classics1 a well defined idea of the tempos most appropriate to their rendition1 and that any pronounced departure from this traditional tempo is apt to result in unfavorable criticism4 ,tradition is of course apt to make us hide-bound in all sorts of ways1 and yet in many respects it is a very good thing1 and before our conductor attempts to direct standard works it will be well for him to hear them rendered by some of the better organizations1 so that he may ascertain what the traditional tempo is4 ,in this way he may at least avoid the accusation of ignorance which might otherwise be made4 ,this latter point will remind the reader of the advice already so frequently given--viz41 study music and listen to music a long time before you attempt very much conducting4 ,sidenote3 ,,variation ,,in ,,tempo ,our treatment of tempo thus far has taken cognizance of only the generalized tempo of the movement1 and we have not discussed at all the much more difficult matter of variation in tempo4 ,the more evident changes of this sort are indicated by the composer through such expressions as ritardando1 accelerando1 et cetera2 and it may be well to give at this point a list of the commoner of these terms together with their meanings4 ,obviously1 such indications are of two general types dealing respectively with increasing and decreasing speed1 and we shall accordingly give the definitions in two classes3 ,,terms ,,indicating ,a ,,more ,,rapid ,,tempo #a4 ,a gradual acceleration accelerando affrettando stringendo poco a poco animato #b4 ,a definitely faster tempo at once pi allegro pi presto pi animato pi mosso pi tosto pi stretto un poco animato ,,terms ,,indicating ,a ,,slower ,,tempo #a4 ,a gradual retard ritardando rallentando slentando #b4 ,a definitely slower tempo at once pi lento meno mosso ritenuto #c4 ,a slower tempo combined with an increase in power largando allargando 7literally1 becoming broad7 #d4 ,a slower tempo combined with a decrease in power morendo perdendo perdendosi 7,usually translated1 gradually dying away7 calando smorzando 7,after any of the terms in the above list1 a return to the normal tempo is indicated by such expressions as a tempo1 tempo primo1 et cetera47 ,sidenote3 ,,tempo ,,nuances ,but in addition to the variations in tempo more or less definitely indicated by the composer there are 7particularly in modern music7 innumerable tempo fluctuations of a much subtler nature2 and since these are now recognized as a part of really artistic choral and orchestral interpretation1 7as they have long formed an indispensable element in expressive piano performance7 a brief discussion of their nature will be included before closing this chapter4 ,in some cases a variable tempo is asked for by the composer by means of one of the following expressions3 tempo rubato 7literally1 robbed time7 ad libitum 7at pleasure7 a piacere 7at pleasure7 a capriccio 7at the caprice7 agitato 7agitated7 7,the term tempo giusto--in exact tempo--is the opposite of the above expressions1 and is used to indicate that the music is to be performed in steady tempo47 ,in the majority of cases1 however1 the composer gives no indication whatsoever1 and the whole responsibility therefore rests upon the performer or conductor4 ,it is because of this latter fact that the amateur must study these matters indefatigably4 ,the advent of a more elastic rhythm and tempo has undoubtedly made all musical performance infinitely more pleasurable to the listener than it formerly was2 but unfortunately 7especially since the advent of ,chopin's music7 there has been a great deal of misunderstanding as to the use and meaning of this valuable new expressional element4 ,tempo rubato may be compared to speaking certain words more slowly or more rapidly in order that the essential meaning of the entire sentence may be more strongly impressed upon the listener4 ,it must not however break up the continuity of the tempo2 as one writer has said we must bend the tempo1 but not break it4 ,another well-known author1 in treating the same point1 states that#ae ,freedom in tempo does not mean unsteadiness4444 ,we must have in music the sense of equilibrium1 of stability4 ,a careless1 spasmodic hurrying and retarding leads only to flabbiness and inconsequence4 ,footnote #ae3 ,dickinson1 ,the ,education of a ,music ,lover1 p4 #ba4 ,the most common kind of rubato is probably that in which the first part of the phrase 7up to the climax7 is accelerated1 the climacteric tone lingered upon slightly1 then the remainder of the phrase rendered a tempo or possibly slightly ritardando4 ,but there are many phrases that demand a totally different sort of treatment2 e4g41 a ritardando in the first part instead of an accelerando4 ,which is the appropriate way of delivering any particular phrase must be determined in every case by musical feeling4 ,the thing that the beginner is apt to forget at the period when his musical feeling though sincere is yet characterized by lack of refinement1 is that these nuances must always be subtle1 and that the listener ought not to have fluctuations in tempo thrust in his face at every turn4 ,indeed we may say that he should hardly know that they are present1 unless he is making a definite attempt to analyze the performance4 ,the familiar story of ,chopin's breathing toward a candle flame and making it flicker slightly1 with the remark1 ,that is my rubato1 then blowing it violently out and saying ,this is yours1 is quite to the point in this connection4 ,it is of course understood that rubato is to be employed almost exclusively in moderate or slow tempos1 having little or no place in rapid1 strongly rhythmic music4 ,it should also be remarked that the more severe the form of the music1--the more architectonic it is--the less variation in tempo should there be in its rendition1 for in this type of music the expression is primarily intellectual4 ,such instrumental works 7of which certain compositions of ,bach and ,mozart are typical7 must not be played sentimentally1 as a modern ,english writer has remarked1 and yet they must be played with sentiment4 ,the remarks of this same author may well be quoted in closing this discussion3#af ,rubato is necessary in emotional music and is an excellent means of picturing longing1 persuading1 dreaming1 et cetera4 ,that is why its use is so characteristic in performing the works of the romantic school and why it must be used with such caution in the classics4 ,the classic must be clear as daylight--the structure must be evident even on the surface2 but the romantic composition needs often to be played in a veiled manner in order to produce atmosphere4 ,in such a case the rhythm is veiled as it were1 draped in gauze1 but the rhythmic design is there under the veil just the same4 ,to express calmness1 decision1 et cetera1 avoid rubato4 ,footnote #af3 ,matthay1 ,musical ,interpretation1 p4 #hh4 ,it must now be evident to the reader that this whole matter of musical nuance is too subtle to be treated adequately in a book of this character1 and it becomes necessary for us once more to advise the amateur to study music1 both vocal and instrumental1 in order that his latent musical feeling may be developed into a ripe and adequate musical taste4 ,sidenote3 ,,tempo ,,recorded ,,in ,,muscles ,in concluding the chapter let us emphasize the fact that the establishing of a tempo is a matter of muscle even more than of mind1 and that before beginning to beat time the conductor should have the tempo recorded in his muscular memory4 ,before rising to conduct a composition then let him feel its tempo in the muscles of the arm and hand wielding the baton2 for if not thus felt1 the work will rarely be begun with a clearly defined rate of speed4 ,this consideration receives added weight when it is recalled that if the conductor does not set the tempo1 the chorus accompanist or first violinist will1 and they1 not having studied the music from this standpoint1 will rarely succeed in hitting upon the correct rate of movement4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,interpretation ,,in ,,conducting 7,continued7 ,,dynamics ,sidenote3 ,,importance ,,of ,,dynamics ,another important factor in the expressive rendition of music is dynamics1 i4e41 the relative loudness and softness of tone4 ,the composer is supposed to have a fairly large share in this phase of expression1 and in modern music always indicates in the score at least the most important dynamic changes that he has in mind4 ,but our observation of musical performances tends to make us feel that in this aspect1 even more than in tempo changes1 it is the conductor or performer who must bear the greater responsibility1 and that the amount of dynamic contrast to be employed certainly depends entirely upon the taste of the conductor or performer4 ,it is safe to say that the dynamic factor is easier to control than is the tempo1 and yet in spite of this fact1 there is no question but that the rendition of most choral and orchestral music could be made much more interesting if it could be given with a greater variety of dynamic shading4 ,nor is there1 in our opinion1 any question but that the changes from forte to piano and vice versa1 the gradually worked up crescendos1 the vigorous accents on certain important tones or chords1 together with those subtler shadings often referred to as dynamic nuances1 may become just as important and powerful a means of conveying emotional effects as tempo4 ,joy and triumph and exuberance are of course expressed by forte and fortissimo effects 7the crowd at a football game does not whisper its approval when its own team has made a touch-down71 but the image of a mother singing a lullaby would demand altogether different dynamic treatment4 ,the crescendo is one of the most powerful means of expression that the composer has at his disposal--especially in writing for the modern orchestra1 but there seems to be a good deal of misunderstanding on the part of amateur conductors and performers about the real meaning of the term4 ,crescendo does not mean forte2 indeed ,weingartner 7op4 cit41 p4 #f7 quotes von ,blow as remarking that crescendo signifies piano1--meaning of course that a crescendo usually implies a soft beginning4 ,it should perhaps be noted at this point that there are two varieties of crescendo2 one being produced by performing succeeding tones each more loudly than the one immediately preceding it2 the other by prolonging the same tone and increasing its power gradually as it continues to sound4 ,the first type is much commoner than the second1 and is indeed the one kind of crescendo that is possible in piano playing2 but the second variety can be secured in the case of an organ with swell box1 the human voice1 and in both string and wind orchestral instruments4 ,since some of the most beautiful musical effects may be produced by the use of this second type of crescendo1 it should be employed very much more than it is in choral and orchestral music4 ,the ,english conductor ,coward takes the ground that the swell 7a combination of crescendo and diminuendo7 is the most powerful choral effect in existence4#ag ,footnote #ag3 ,coward1 ,choral ,technique and ,interpretation1 p4 #aab4 ,when the composer wishes to build up a really tremendous climax and sweep all before him by the intensity of the emotional excitement generated1 he frequently indicates an increase in the amount of tone1 coupled with a very gradual acceleration in tempo1 all proceeding by slow degrees1 and perhaps accompanied by a rise from a low pitch register to higher ones4 ,if on the other hand1 he wants to let down in emotional intensity1 he does the opposite of all these things4 ,the combination of crescendo and ritardando is also tremendously effective4 ,in order to bring together in fairly comprehensive array the terms that are ordinarily used by the composer to indicate various expressional effects1 a table of the most frequently encountered dynamic expressions is here included4 ,pianississimo 7ppp7 pianissimo possibile 7as softly as possible7 pianissimo 7pp7 7superlative of piano--very softly7 piano 7p7 7softly7 pi piano 7more softly7 il pi piano 7most softly7 piano assai 7very softly7 mezzo-piano 7mp7 7moderately softly7 forte 7f7 7loudly7 fortissimo 7ff7 7superlative of forte--very loudly7 fortississimo 7fff7 7as loudly as possible7 pi forte 7more loudly7 il pi forte 7most loudly7 il pi forte possibile 7as loudly as possible7 mezzo forte 7mf7 7moderately loudly7 forte-piano 7fp7 7loudly followed immediately by softly7 forzando 7z7 7,these words and signs indicate that sforzando 7sf or sfz7 a single tone or chord is to be forzato 7fz7 accented1 the amount of stress sforzato 7sf or sfz7 depending upon the character of the accent hairpin symbol or passage and of the composition7 accent symbol rinforzando 7rinf7 7reinforced2 a definite increase in power rinforzato 7rfz7 extending through a phrase or passage7 crescendo 7cresc4 or crescendo symbol7 7gradually becoming louder7 decrescendo 7decresc4 or decrescendo symbol7 7gradually becoming softer7 diminuendo 7dim4 or diminuendo symbol7 crescendo poco a poco 7becoming louder little by little7 crescendo subito 7becoming louder immediately7 crescendo molto 7becoming much louder7 crescendo al fortissimo 7becoming gradually louder until the fortissimo point has been reached7 crescendo poi diminuendo 7gradually louder then crescendo e diminuendo gradually softer7 crescendo ed animando 7gradually louder and faster7 diminuendo al pianissimo 7becoming gradually softer until the pianissimo point is reached7 morendo perdendosi 7gradually dying away1 i4e41 becoming slower smorzando and softer by very small degrees7 calando con amore 7with tenderness7 con bravura 7with boldness7 con energia 7with energy7 con espressione espressivo 7with expression7 con brio 7with brilliancy7 con fuoco 7with fire7 con passione 7with passion7 con grazia 7with grace7 con tenerezza 7with tenderness7 dolce 7gently7 7literally1 sweetly7 giocoso 7humorously7 7cf4 jocose7 giojoso 7joyfully7 7cf4 joyous7 con maest maestoso 7majestically7 pastorale 7in pastoral1 i4e41 in simple and unaffected style7 pomposo 7pompously7 scherzando scherzo 7jokingly7 sotto voce 7with subdued voice7 ,we shall close our discussion of the subject of dynamics with a brief presentation of a few practical matters with which every amateur conductor should be familiar4 ,the pianissimo of choruses and orchestras is seldom soft enough4 ,the extreme limit of soft tone is very effective in both choral and orchestral music1 and most conductors seem to have no adequate notion of how soft the tone may be made in such passages4 ,this is especially true of chorus music in the church service2 and even the gospel singer ,sankey is said to have found that the softest rather than the loudest singing was spiritually the most impressive4#ah ,footnote #ah3 ,on the other hand1 the criticism has been made in recent years that certain orchestral conductors have not sufficiently taken into consideration the size and acoustics of the auditoriums in which they were conducting1 and have made their pianissimos so soft that nothing at all could be heard in the back of the room4 ,in order to satisfy himself that the tone is as soft as possible1 and yet that it is audible1 it will be well for the conductor to station some one of good judgment in the back of the auditorium during the concert1 this person later reporting to the conductor in some detail the effect of the performance4 ,pianissimo singing or playing does not imply a slower tempo1 and in working with very soft passages the conductor must be constantly on guard lest the performers begin to drag4 ,if the same virile and spirited response is insisted upon in such places as is demanded in ordinary passages1 the effect will be greatly improved1 and the singing moreover will not be nearly so likely to fall from the pitch4 ,the most important voice from the standpoint of melody must in some way be made to stand out above the other parts4 ,this may be done in two ways3 #a4 ,by making the melody louder than the other parts4 #b4 ,by subduing the other parts sufficiently to make the melody prominent by contrast4 ,the second method is frequently the better of the two1 and should more frequently be made use of in ensemble music than is now the case in amateur performance4 ,the conductor of the ,russian ,symphony ,orchestra1 ,modeste ,altschuler1 remarks on this point3 ,a melody runs through every piece1 like a road through a country hillside4 ,the art of conducting is to clear the way for this melody1 to see that no other instruments interfere with those which are at the moment enunciating the theme4 ,it is something like steering an automobile4 ,when the violins1 for instance1 have the tune1 ,i see to it that nobody hurries it or drags it or covers it up4 ,in polyphonic music containing imitative passages1 the part having the subject must be louder than the rest1 especially at its first entrance4 ,this is of course merely a corollary of the general proposition explained under number three1 above4 ,in vocal music the accent and crescendo marks provided by the composer are often intended merely to indicate the proper pronunciation of some part of the text4 ,often1 too1 they assist in the declamation of the text by indicating the climax of the phrase1 i4e41 the point of greatest emphasis4 ,the dynamic directions provided by the composer are intended to indicate only the broader and more obvious effects1 and it will be necessary for the performer to introduce many changes not indicated in the score4 ,professor ,edward ,dickinson1 in referring to this matter in connection with piano playing1 remarks3#ai ,after all1 it is only the broader1 more general scheme of light and shade that is furnished by the composer2 the finer gradations1 those subtle and immeasurable modifications of dynamic value which make a composition a palpitating1 coruscating thing of beauty1 are wholly under the player's will4 ,footnote #ai3 ,dickinson1 ,the ,education of a ,music ,lover1 p4 #abc4 ,in concluding our discussion of dynamics1 let us emphasize again the fact that all expression signs are relative1 never absolute1 and that piano1 crescendo1 sforzando1 et cetera1 are not intended to convey to the performer any definite degree of power4 ,it is because of misunderstanding with regard to this point that dynamic effects are so frequently overdone by amateurs1 both conductors and performers seeming to imagine that every time the word crescendo occurs the performers are to bow or blow or sing at the very top of their power2 and that sforzando means a violent accent approaching the effect of a blast of dynamite1 whether occurring in the midst of a vigorous1 spirited movement1 or in a tender lullaby4 ,berlioz1 in the treatise on conducting appended to his monumental work on ,orchestration1 says3#bj ,a conductor often demands from his players an exaggeration of the dynamic nuances1 either in this way to give proof of his ardor1 or because he lacks fineness of musical perception4 ,simple shadings then become thick blurs1 accents become passionate shrieks4 ,the effects intended by the poor composer are quite distorted and coarsened1 and the attempts of the conductor to be artistic1 however honest they may be1 remind us of the tenderness of the ass in the fable1 who knocked his master down in trying to caress him4 ,footnote #bj3 ,berlioz1 ,a ,treatise on ,modern ,instrumentation and ,orchestration1 p4 #bee4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,interpretation ,,in ,,conducting 7,concluded7 ,,timbre1 ,,phrasing1 ,,et ,,cetera ,sidenote3 ,,importance ,,of ,,timbre ,,in ,,interpretation ,having devoted considerable space to discussing the two expressional elements for which the composer is mainly responsible1 let us now present briefly certain matters connected with the other six elements in our list 7see p4 #df74 ,the two described as being partly controlled by composer and partly by the interpreter are timbre and phrasing1 and we shall accordingly treat these first4 ,timbre or tone-quality is less important than either tempo or dynamics1 and is obviously less under the control of the conductor4 ,the vocalist may be induced to sing more loudly or the violinist to play more rapidly1 but it is often impossible to get either to so modify his actual tone quality as to make his rendition more expressive4 ,and yet1 in spite of this difficulty1 there are many passages in both choral and orchestral music in which the essential significance depends absolutely upon beauty or ugliness or plaintiveness or boldness of tone2 and especially in choral music is it possible for the conductor to induce his chorus to bring out many more such effects than is usually done4 ,a positively ugly and raspy vocal tone may convey a certain dramatic effect that no mere variation in dynamics is able to bring about1 an example of this being found in the ,chorus of ,people who sing at various points in the cantata by ,dubois called ,the ,seven ,last ,words of ,christ4 ,another very short passage of the same sort is found in ,stainer's ,crucifixion in the scene at the cross4 ,mr4 ,coward has written more in detail upon this point than anyone else1 and we may well quote his discussion of the topic characterization4#ba ,footnote #ba3 ,coward1 ,choral ,technique and ,interpretation1 p4 #gc4 ,one of the distinguishing features of modern choral technique is what ,i term characterization1 or realism of the sentiment expressed in the music4 ,formerly this kind of singing was tabooed to such an extent that when in rehearsals and at concerts ,i induced the ,sheffield ,musical ,union to sing with graphic power musicians of the old school voted me a mad enthusiast1 extravagant1 theatrical1 ultra1 and many other things of the same sort4 ,these people wondered why ,i wanted variety of tone color--who had ever heard of such a demand from a choir8--and many of my friends even thought ,i was demanding too much when1 in rehearsing ,berlioz's ,faust1 ,i asked for something harder in tone than the usual fluty1 mellifluous sound in order to depict the hearty laugh of the peasants in the first chorus4 ,they were almost scandalized when ,i asked for a somewhat raucous1 devil-may-care carousal1 tone in the ,auerbach's ,wine-cellar scene1 and when a fiendish1 snarling utterance was called for in the ,pandemonium scene they thought ,i was mad4 ,however1 the performance settled all these objections4 ,it was seen by contrast how ridiculous it was for a choir to laugh like ,lord ,dundreary with a sort of throaty gurgle2 how inane it was to depict wine-cellar revelry with voices suggesting the sentimental drawing-room tenor1 and how insipid it was to portray fiendish glee within hell's portals with the staid decorum of a body of local preachers of irreproachable character4 ,of course the battle in the rehearsal room had to be fought sternly inch by inch1 but frequent trials1 approval of the progress shown1 and brilliant success at the concert won the day4 ,it was so convincing that many said they could taste wine and smell brimstone4444 ,contrasts of tone-color1 contrasts of differently placed choirs1 contrasts of sentiment--love1 hate1 hope1 despair1 joy1 sorrow1 brightness1 gloom1 pity1 scorn1 prayer1 praise1 exaltation1 depression1 laughter1 and tears--in fact all the emotions and passions are now expected to be delineated by the voice alone4 ,it may be said1 in passing1 that in fulfilling these expectations choral singing has entered on a new lease of life4 ,instead of the cry being raised that the choral societies are doomed1 we shall find that by absorbing the elixir of characterization they have renewed their youth2 and when the shallow pleasures of the picture theater and the empty elements of the variety show have been discovered to be unsatisfying to the normal aspirations of intellectual1 moral beings1 the social1 healthful1 stimulating1 intellectual1 moral1 and spiritual uplift of the choral society will be appreciated more than ever4444 ,tender-handed stroke a nettle1 ,and it stings you for your pains1 ,grasp it like a man of mettle1 ,and it soft as silk remains4 ,before stating how to produce the laugh1 the sob1 the sigh1 the snarl1 the moan1 bell effects1 ejaculations and trick-singing1 all of which come under the head of characterization1 ,i would say that if an ultra thing is undertaken it must be done boldly4 ,the spirit of the old rhyme above quoted must be acted upon1 or fear will paralyze the efforts put forth1 and failure will be the result4 ,in choral singing1 as in other things1 the masculinity of the doing1 the boldness1 the daring1 the very audacity with which an extreme effect is produced1 carries success with it4 ,therefore do not attempt a daring thing feebly or by halves4 ,sidenote3 ,,timbre ,,in ,,instrumental ,,music ,in instrumental music1 timbre is also a highly potent influence in arousing emotional states1 and we are all familiar with the fact that an oboe passage is often associated with the simplicity of outdoor rural life2 that a melody for ,english horn has somehow become connected with mournful thoughts2 the sound of trumpets1 with martial ideas2 and the grunting of the lower register of the bassoon1 with comic effects4 ,it is well known1 also1 that the skilful violinist can cause his instrument to sound an infinite variety of shades of color4 ,but these means of expression are almost wholly under the control of the individual players and of the composer 7as orchestrator71 and cannot therefore be profitably discussed in a work on conducting4 ,sidenote3 ,,phrasing ,the phrase in music is very similar to the phrase in language4 ,in both cases1 it is a thought 7usually incomplete and forming a part of some larger idea7 which must be slightly separated from the preceding and following phrases1 that it may be correctly understood2 yet must be so rendered in relation to the neighboring material as to seem an integral part of the whole4 ,in addition1 it is of course necessary to emphasize the important words in a language phrase and the most significant tones in a musical one1 as well as to subordinate the comparatively unimportant parts1 in such a way that the real significance of the whole may be clear4 ,phrasing is thus readily seen to be an extremely important factor in the expressive reading of language1 since one could scarcely interpret intelligibly if he did not first of all read as a group the words that belong together as a thought2 and one could certainly not convey the correct idea of the group to a listener if the most important words in it were not stressed so as to stand out more vividly than the others4 ,although not so readily understood because of the absence of symbolism1 phrasing is quite as important an element in the expressive rendition of music as it is in the case of language4 ,in order to interpret properly the conductor must first of all determine what tones belong together in a group2 must make the individuality of these groups evident by slightly separating them1 but usually not to the degree of disturbing the basic rhythmic flow2 and must so manage the dynamics and tempo of each phrase as to make its content clear to the listener4 ,many phrases are so constructed that their proper delivery involves a gradual crescendo up to the climax 7usually the highest tone7 and a corresponding diminuendo from this point to the end of the phrase4 ,sidenote3 ,,phrasing ,,in ,,vocal ,,music ,in vocal music1 the matter of phrasing is comparatively simple because here the composer has1 in general1 adapted the melody to the phrasing of the text2 and since in language we have definite ideas and concrete imagery to assist us1 all that we usually need to do in studying the phrasing of vocal music is to follow carefully the phrasing of the text4 ,but even then a warning ought perhaps to be given the young conductor regarding carelessness or ignorance on the part of singers about some of the most fundamental principles of phrasing4 ,the most common mistakes made are3 #a4 ,taking breath unnecessarily in the middle of a phrase4 #b4 ,breathing between the syllables of a word4 #c4 ,dividing a long phrase improperly4 #d4 ,running over breathing places where a pause is really necessary in order to bring out the meaning of the text4 #e4 ,pronouncing the unaccented syllable of a word at the end of a phrase with too much stress4 #f4 ,failing to stress the climax sufficiently4 ,mistakes of this kind are made because the singer all too frequently fails to recognize the fact that the interpretation of vocal music must be based upon the meaning of the text rather than upon purely musical considerations 7cf4 quotation from ,caruso on page #dd74 ,a comma or rest ordinarily indicates the end of a phrase in vocal music4 ,if1 however1 the phrase as marked is too long to be taken in one breath1 the conductor should study it carefully for some point in it where another breath may be taken without too greatly marring the continuity of the text4 ,sometimes in a large chorus various sections of a division may take breath at different points1 thus preserving the integrity of the phrase in certain cases where this is particularly desirable4 ,it should be noted that when a breath is taken in the middle of a phrase or between the phrases where no rest occurs1 the time for breathing must always be taken from the last note of the preceding phrase1 in order that the continuity of the rhythm may not be sacrificed4 ,the importance of studying phrasing from the standpoint of the effective rendition of sacred music will be realized more vividly if one takes the trouble to inquire of some of the members of the congregation how well they understood the words of the anthem or solo4 ,the replies that will ordinarily be given to such a question will probably astonish the director of the church choir2 and although he will sometimes be inclined to put the blame on the ears and minds of the congregation1 there is no doubt that in very many cases the difficulty may be traced to poor enunciation and faulty phrasing on the part of the singers4 ,the following examples are reported to be authentic instances of phrasing by church choirs3 ,jesus lives no longer now1 ,can thy terrors1 ,death1 appall us8 ,the poet had quite a different thought in mind when he penned these words1 with the correct punctuation marks3 ,jesus lives6 no longer now ,can thy terrors1 ,death1 appall us6 ,the wild winds hushed the angry deep1 ,sank like a little child to sleep4 ,what this verse means is1 of course1 easily seen by inserting the correct punctuation marks3 ,the wild winds hushed2 the angry deep ,sank like a little child to sleep4 ,sidenote3 ,,phrasing ,,in ,,instrumental ,,music ,in instrumental music we have no definite ideas and no concrete imagery to guide us2 and the conductor1 in company with all other students of instrumental music1 will find it necessary to study his score most carefully if he is to unravel the threads that are woven together in such complex fashion in orchestral music4 ,as implied above1 phrasing in instrumental music means3 #a4 ,the grouping together of tones that belong to the same musical thought1 this implying a slight break in continuity between phrases1 as in language4 #b4 ,making evident the musical significance of the group by accenting or prolonging its most important tones4 ,these are only general principles1 however1 and the details of phrasing in instrumental music cannot be treated adequately in writing because of their too great complexity4 ,it is only through practice1 reinforced by the intelligent criticism of a real musician1 that skill and taste in the art of phrasing can be acquired4 ,a few concrete suggestions are offered1 and these may be of some slight help to the amateur1 but they are not to be thought of as a complete guide4 #a4 ,the first tone of the phrase is often stressed slightly in order to mark the beginning of the new idea4 #b4 ,the final tone 7particularly of the short phrase7 is commonly shortened in order to make clear the separation between phrases4 #c4 ,the climacteric tone of the phrase is often prolonged slightly as well as accented1 in order to make its relationship to the other tones stand out clearly4 ,sidenote3 ,,rhythm ,closely connected with phrasing is rhythm1 and although the rhythmic factor should perhaps theoretically belong wholly to the composer1 since he is able to express his rhythmic ideas in definite notation1 yet in actual practice this does not prove to be the case because the amateur player or singer so often finds that time is hard2 and there are consequently many occasions when the rhythm indicated by the composer is wholly distorted1 either because the performers are weak in their rhythmic feeling or because the conductor is careless and does not see to it that the rhythmic response of his chorus or orchestra is accurate and incisive and yet elastic4 ,rhythm is the oldest of the musical elements and there is no question but that the rhythmic appeal is still the strongest of all for the majority of people4 ,rhythm is the spark of life in music1 therefore1 woe to the composer who attempts to substitute ethereal harmonies for virile rhythms as a general principle of musical construction4 ,mere tones1 even though beautiful both in themselves and through effective combination1 are meaningless1 and it is only through rhythm that they become vitalized4 ,in order to have interesting performances of choral and orchestral music the conductor must see to it that the performers play or sing all rhythmic figures correctly1 that long tones are sustained for their correct duration1 and that in general the musical performance be permeated by that steady throb of regular pulsation which is the foundation of all rhythmic coherence4 ,modern musical rhythm is so complex in its frequent employment of syncopations1 cross accents1 et cetera1 that the prospective conductor must study indefatigably if he is to unravel its apparently inextricably snarled-up threads4 ,we assume1 however1 that detailed study of rhythm has constituted a part of the student's work in piano1 singing1 et cetera1 and shall therefore not attempt to treat the matter further4 ,let us advise the would-be conductor1 however1 to continue his study of rhythm and phrasing unceasingly and never to allow himself to be deluded into believing that an accurate knowledge of these things is less necessary now than formerly4 ,it has seemed to us that some public performers of the present day were cloaking their inability to play or sing with rhythmic accuracy under a pretense of being highly artistic and flexible in their rhythmic feeling4 ,needless to say1 the existence of such a state of affairs is to be greatly deplored and the student is admonished to make sure that he is able to perform every detail of his music with metronomic accuracy before he attempts rubato effects4 ,sidenote3 ,,melody1 ,,harmony1 ,,and ,,pitch ,,registers ,the second1 third1 and fourth of the elements of expression as cited in our list on page #df belong almost wholly to the composer since he is able to indicate them precisely1 and the conductor's chief concern in dealing with melody1 harmony1 and pitch registers will be to make certain that the composer's wishes are carried out to the letter4 ,for this reason no attempt will be made to discuss these matters further1 the topic belonging to composition rather than to conducting4 ,sidenote3 ,,physical ,,means ,,used ,,by ,,the ,,conductor ,,for ,,indicating ,,expressional ,,effects ,now that we have reviewed the elements of expression somewhat fully1 what of the conductor8 ,shall we give him a set of specific directions for making his chorus or orchestra sing or play more loudly or more rapidly or more dramatically8 ,our reply is--no1 not any more than we should attempt to show the student of acting or oratory exactly what gestures he is to make use of in playing upon the emotions of his audience4 ,as implied at the outset1 the thing that is necessary in both cases is that the interpreter have3 #a4 ,general scholarship4 #b4 ,an intimate acquaintance with the content and spirit of the particular work to be interpreted4 ,granting the presence of these two things1 the actual gestures will usually take care of themselves4 ,the conductor ,altschuler remarks on this point3 ,there is no artificial code of signals needed between the conductor and his men2 what the conductor needs is a clear conception of the composition4 ,we are fully in accord with this sentiment2 but for the benefit of the tyro it may be well to note again that1 in general1 a quickening of tempo is indicated by a shorter1 more vigorous stroke of the baton1 whereas a slowing down in rate of speed1 especially when accompanied by a letting down of emotional intensity1 involves a longer1 more flowing movement1 with more back stroke4 ,louder tone is often indicated by the clenched fist1 the fortissimo effect at the climacteric point often involving a strong muscular contraction in the entire body2 while softer tone is frequently called for by holding the left hand out with palm down1 by loosening the grip upon the baton1 and by a generally relaxed condition of the entire body4 ,dynamic changes are also indicated to a certain extent by the amplitude of the beat and by the position of the hands4 ,in calling for a pianissimo effect1 the conductor usually gives short beats with the hands close together 7if the left hand is also used71 but in demanding fortissimo the beat is usually of much greater amplitude1 and the hands1 therefore1 widely separated4 ,for the swell 7crescendo-decrescendo symbol7 the hands are usually close together at the beginning1 are then gradually separated as far as possible1 coming together again at the end of the decrescendo4 ,changes in quality are perhaps most frequently suggested by variation in the facial expression1 poise of body1 et cetera1 while phrasing is often indicated by a movement of the left hand 7thus signaling some part to begin or stop7 or by a lifting of the arms and shoulders at the breathing point1 thus simulating the action of the lungs in taking breath1 and causing the singers or players actually to take a breath by instinctive imitation4 ,the manner in which the baton is grasped and manipulated is of course another way of indicating these various expressional effects1 this being especially noticeable in the case of phrasing1 which is perhaps most often indicated by simply raising the baton higher at the end of a phrase1 thus preparing it for a longer sweep at the beginning of the following phrase4 ,but all of these things are done in different ways by various conductors1 and no set rules can therefore be formulated4 ,the most important point to be noted by the beginner in conducting is that one must not direct with merely the hand and arm1 but must use the entire body from head to toe in communicating to his chorus or orchestra his own emotion4 ,facial expression1 the manner of grasping the baton1 the set of the shoulders1 the elevation of the chest1 the position of the feet1 the poise of the head--all these must he indicative of the emotional tone of the music being rendered4 ,but be sure you feel a genuine emotion which leads you to do these various things1 and do not play to the audience by going through all kinds of contortions that are not prompted at all by the meaning of the music1 but are called into existence entirely by the conductor's desire to have the audience think that he is a great interpreter4 ,if the conductor does his work at any point in such a fashion that the audience watches him and is filled with marvel and admiration because of the interesting movements that he is making1 instead of listening to the chorus or orchestra and being thrilled by the beautiful music that is being heard1 then that conductor is retarding rather than advancing the progress of art appreciation2 in short he is failing in his mission4 ,one of the sincerest compliments that the writer has ever received came when he asked his wife whether he had conducted well at a certain public performance1 and she replied that she guessed it was all right1 but that she had been so absorbed in listening to the music that she had not thought of him at all6 ,the development of modern orchestral and operatic music has brought about a tremendous change in the prominence of the conductor1 and there is no doubt but that his part in musical performance is now more important than that of any other type of interpreter1 being probably second in importance only to that of the composer4 ,from having been originally a mere time-beater1 he has now come to be the interpreter par excellence2 and as ,weingartner remarks 7op4 cit41 p4 #i7 in referring to ,wagner's conducting3 ,he is often able to transform as if by magic a more or less indefinite sound picture into a beautifully shaped1 heart-moving vision1 making people ask themselves in astonishment how it is that this work which they had long thought they knew should have all at once become quite another thing4 ,and the unprejudiced mind joyfully confesses1 ,thus1 thus1 must it be4 ,it will soon be discovered by the amateur that in every case where an effect such as that described by ,weingartner has been brought about1 it is because the conductor has studied the music and has then made gestures which were prompted by his sympathetic response to the thought of the composer4 ,in other words1 the conducting was effective because the feeling which prompted the gestures came from within1 as is always the case when an orator or an actor moves us deeply4 ,this is what is meant by interpretation in conducting2 and we can scarcely do better1 in concluding our discussion of the whole matter1 than to quote once more from a writer to whom we have already referred4#bb ,footnote #bb3 ,c4,f4,a4 ,williams1 ,the ,rhythm of ,modern ,music1 p4 #ah4 ,the great interpreters of instrumental music are those who can most nearly enter into the composer's ideals1 or can even improve upon them1 and who are able to give a delicacy or force of accentuation or phrasing which it is outside of the possibility of notation to express4444 ,the days of cold1 classical performance of great works are practically over4 ,the executant or conductor now seeks to stir the deeper emotions of his audience1 and to do so he must pay homage to the artist who conceived the work1 by interpreting it with enthusiasm and warmth4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,the ,,supervisor ,,of ,,music ,,as ,,conductor ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,field ,,of ,,school ,,music ,the phenomenal progress which has been made during recent years in the music departments of both the grades and the high schools of our great public educational systems1 together with the fact that a large number of young men and women of real musical ability are entering the field of public school music as a life work1 make it seem worth while to include a chapter upon the work of the music supervisor as conductor4 ,the writer has long contended that the public school systems of this country offered the most significant opportunity for influencing the musical taste of a nation that has ever existed4 ,if this be true1 then it is highly important that the teachers of music in these school systems shall be men and women who are1 in the first place1 thoroughly trained musicians2 in the second place1 broadly educated along general lines2 and in the third place1 imbued with a knowledge concerning1 and a spirit of enthusiasm for1 what free education along cultural lines is able to accomplish in the lives of the common people4 ,in connection with this latter kind of knowledge1 the supervisor of music will1 of course1 need also to become somewhat intimately acquainted with certain basic principles and practical methods of both general pedagogy and music education4 ,we are not writing a treatise on music in the public schools1 and shall therefore not attempt to acquaint the reader1 in the space of one chapter1 with even the fundamental principles of school music teaching4 ,we shall merely call attention to certain phases of the supervisor's work that seem to come within the scope of a book on conducting4 ,sidenote3 ,,difficulties ,,involved ,,in ,,teaching ,,large ,,groups ,the first point that we should like to have noted in this connection is that teaching a group of from forty to one hundred children all at the same time is a vastly different matter from giving individual instruction to a number of pupils separately4 ,the teacher of a class needs to be much more energetic1 much more magnetic1 much more capable of keeping things moving and of keeping everyone interested in the work and therefore out of mischief2 he needs1 in short1 to possess in high degree those qualities involved in leadership and organization that were cited in an earlier chapter as necessary for the conductor in general4 ,in teaching individual pupils one need not usually think of the problem of discipline at all2 but1 in giving instruction to a class of from thirty to forty children in the public schools1 one inevitably finds in the same group those with musical ability and those without it2 those who are interested in the music lesson and those who are indifferent or even openly scornful2 those who are full of energy and enthusiasm and those who are lazy and indifferent and will do only what they are made to do2 those who have had lessons on piano or violin and have acquired considerable proficiency in performance1 and those who have just come in from an outlying rural school where no music has ever been taught1 and are therefore not able to read music1 have no musical perception or taste whatsoever1 and are frequently not even able to carry a tune4 ,in dealing with such heterogeneous classes1 problems of discipline as well as problems of pedagogy are bound to arise1 and it requires rare tact and skill in working out details of procedure1 as well as a broad vision of the ultimate end to be accomplished1 to bring order out of such musical chaos4 ,and yet precisely this result is being secured by hundreds of music teachers and supervisors all over the country2 and the musical effects of a fifteen-minute daily practice period are already surprisingly evident1 and will undoubtedly become more and more manifest as the years go by4 ,the outlook for the future is wholly inspiring indeed2 and no musician need fear that in taking up public school music he is entering upon a field of work which is too small for one of his caliber4 ,the only question to be asked in such a case is whether the teacher in question is big enough and is sufficiently trained along musical1 general1 and pedagogical lines to handle this important task in such fashion as to insure a result commensurate with the opportunity4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,advantages ,,of ,,an ,,attractive ,,personality ,charm of personality has a great deal to do with the success of many directors of children's singing4 ,school superintendents are well aware of this fact1 and of two equally capable candidates for a school position 7especially one involving work with small children7 the supervisor who is attractive in appearance and neat in attire1 is almost sure to be chosen4 ,we mention this fact not in order to discourage those not possessing an average amount of personal charm1 but to encourage them to take physical exercise1 and by other means to increase the attractiveness of their physical appearance2 to enhance their charm further by tasteful dress2 and most important of all1 to cultivate a sprightly and cheerful attitude 7but not a patronizing and gushing manner7 toward children as well as adults4 ,attractiveness of personality may be increased further by the cultivation of refined language and a well-modulated voice in speaking1 as well as by schooling oneself in the habitual use of the utmost courtesy in dealing with all people4 ,sidenote3 ,,directing ,,young ,,children ,in the lower grades1 it is best not to conduct formally with baton in hand1 but rather to stand 7or sit7 before the class1 and by facial expression1 significant gesture1 bodily pose1 et cetera1 arouse an appropriate response to the expression of the song4 ,every song tells a story of some sort and even little children can be caused to sing with surprisingly good expression if the teacher makes a consistent effort to arouse the correct mental and emotional attitude toward each individual song every time it is sung4 ,sidenote3 ,,directing ,,older ,,children ,in teaching a class of older children1 it is well for the supervisor to stand at the front of the room with baton in hand1 giving the conventional signals for attack and release and beating time in the usual way during at least a part of each song in order that the children may become accustomed to following a conductor's beat4 ,it is not necessary to beat time constantly1 and the teacher1 after giving the signal for the attack and setting the tempo1 may lower the baton1 until a fermata1 or a ritardando1 or the final tone of the song makes its use necessary again4 ,a word of warning should perhaps be inserted at this point against tapping with the baton1 counting aloud1 beating time with the foot1 et cetera1 on the teacher's part4 ,these various activities may occasionally be necessary1 in order to prevent dragging1 to change the tempo1 to get a clear and incisive rhythmic response in a certain passage1 et cetera2 but their habitual employment is not only exceedingly inartistic1 but is positively injurious to the rhythmic sense of the children1 because it takes away from them the opportunity 7or rather necessity7 of each one making his own individual muscular response to the rhythm of the music4 ,the more responsibility the teacher takes1 the less the pupils will assume1 and in this way they are deprived of the practice which they need in working out the rhythm for themselves1 the result often being that a group of children get to the point where they cannot keep time at all unless some one counts aloud or pounds the desk with a ruler as an accompaniment to their singing4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,selection ,,of ,,music ,,for ,,grade ,,children ,a very large element in the success of all public performances is the selection of just the right type of music4 ,in the case of small children1 unison songs with attractive music and childlike texts should be chosen4 ,when the children are somewhat older 7from eight or nine to twelve7 longer and more elaborate unison songs provided with musicianly accompaniments may be selected1 while rounds and unaccompanied part songs are effective by way of contrast4 ,in the case of upper-grade children1 part songs 7sometimes even with a bass part1 if there are enough changed voices to carry it successfully7 are best4 ,but it should be noted that the voices in these upper grades are not usually so clear and brilliant as they have been in the two or three preceding years1 the beauty and brilliancy of the child's voice culminating at about the ,sixth ,grade4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,high ,,school ,,chorus ,,in ,,public ,in planning public performances for a high school chorus1 many difficult questions arise4 ,shall the program consist of miscellaneous selections or of a connected work8 ,if the latter1 shall it be of the operatic type1 involving action1 scenery1 and costumes1 or shall it be of the cantata or oratorio type8 ,and if the latter1 shall heavy works like the ,messiah and ,elijah be given1 or shall our efforts be confined to presenting the shorter and simpler modern works which are musically interesting and in the rendition of which the immature voices of adolescent boys and girls are not so likely to be strained8 ,a discussion of these matters properly belongs in a treatise on public school music1 and we can only state our belief here that1 in general1 the musical development of the children will be more directly fostered by practice upon choral rather than upon operatic works2 and that extreme care must be exercised by the high school chorus director in handling immature voices lest they be strained in the enthusiasm of singing music written for mature adult voices4 ,whether this implies the entire elimination of the ,messiah and other similar works1 is left to the discretion of each individual supervisor1 it being our task merely to point out the responsibility of the high school chorus director for recognizing the difference between mature voices and immature ones4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,public ,,performance ,in giving public performances with a large group of small children1 the director will need to learn that it is necessary to teach in advance the precise shading to be employed at the performance4 ,in working with an adult chorus1 the conductor expects every singer to watch him closely throughout the selection1 and many slight changes of tempo and dynamics are made at the performance that have perhaps never been thought of during the rehearsal4 ,but children are usually not able to keep their minds on the task in hand to this extent1 and if there is to be a ritardando or a crescendo at a certain point1 the only safe thing is to teach this change in tempo or dynamics when first taking up the song1 so that the expressional element may become a habit in the same way as the tones and rhythms4 ,this is particularly necessary in teaching the same songs to several different groups separately in preparation for a public performance in which various groups that have not practised together are to sing the same numbers4 ,sidenote3 ,,attitude ,,of ,,the ,,conductor ,,at ,,the ,,performance ,the conductor must always appear cheerful and confident when conducting children 7or for that matter1 adults7 in public1 for if he seems anxious and distressed1 or worse yet1 if he informs the singers that he is afraid that they will not do well1 his uneasiness is almost sure to be communicated to the performers and there will probably be a panic and perhaps even a breakdown4 ,if the conductor seriously feels that the compositions to be performed have not been rehearsed sufficiently1 it will be far better for him either to insist upon extra rehearsals 7even at considerable inconvenience71 or else upon a postponement of the performance4 ,a good rule to follow in preparing for a public performance of any kind is this3 ,go through the work over and over until it is done correctly2 then go through it enough times more to fix this correct way in mind and muscle as a habit4 ,too many performances are given upon an inadequate rehearsal basis1 and it has happened again and again that performers have been so busy watching the notes that they have had no time to watch the conductor1 and the rendition of really beautiful music has been made in a tame1 groping1 and consequently uninteresting manner4 ,our ,american impatience with slow processes of any sort is as often to blame here as the negligence of the conductor1 the latter often arranging to have a performance at an earlier date than he really wishes to because he knows that his chorus will become impatient with the large number of repetitions that a really artistic performance requires4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,high ,,school ,,chorus ,in directing a large high school chorus 7sometimes numbering from five hundred to fifteen hundred singers71 the conductor will find it necessary to study his score in advance even more than usual1 for here he is dealing with large numbers of bright and lively ,american boys and girls1 many of whom are not particularly interested in the chorus practice and all of whom love to indulge in mischievous pranks of various sorts4 ,the conductor who is likely to be most successful in handling such a chorus is he who1 other things being equal1 has prepared his work most thoroughly and is able to conduct without looking at his music at all1 and who can1 therefore1 keep things moving throughout the rehearsal period4 ,we might add that if he does not keep things moving musically1 the students in his chorus will keep them moving along other and probably less desirable lines6 ,sidenote3 ,,seating ,,the ,,high ,,school ,,chorus ,many other topics might be discussed in this chapter but the subject is too complex for adequate treatment except in a work dealing with this one subject alone4 ,let us1 therefore1 close the chapter by giving a plan for seating the high school chorus that has been found effective in various schools where it has been used4 ,illustration3 ,,seating ,,plan ,,for ,a ,,high ,,school ,,chorus -------------------------------------- ,mezzo-soprano ,mezzo-soprano girls girls singing soprano singing alto ------------------------------------- ,girl ,baritones ,girl ,sopranos ,tenors and ,altos --------- ,basses ------- ,boy ,boy ,sopranos ,altos ----------------------------------- -------- ----- ,director ,piano -------- ----- ,the advantages of the plan given above are3 #a4 ,that it places the boys in front where their less developed voices and often smaller numbers will insure better balance1#bc and where also the teacher can more easily see what is going on in their midst4 #b4 ,it places all the boys in the same part of the room and thus removes the chief objection that boys with unchanged voices make to singing soprano and alto4 ,there will probably not be a great number of these unchanged voices in any ordinary high school chorus1 but there are almost certain to be a few1 and these few should not be attempting to sing tenor or bass when their voice-range is still that of soprano or alto4 #c4 ,by placing the mezzo voices 7of which variety there are usually more than of any other7 between the sopranos and altos1 they can be used on either the soprano or alto part1 as may be necessitated by the range and dynamic demands of the composition in hand4 ,in seating these mezzo-soprano girls the teacher may furthermore allow those who1 although having mezzo voices1 prefer to sing the alto part1 to sit on the side next to the alto section and the others on the side next to the soprano section4 ,if there are any boys with unchanged voices who are mezzo in range1 they may be seated directly back of the bass section1 thus keeping them in the boys' division and yet giving them an opportunity of singing with those who have the same range as themselves4 ,footnote #bc3 ,the essentials of this same plan of seating are recommended to adult choruses for a like reason2 viz41 in order to enable a smaller number of men's voices to balance a larger number of sopranos and altos by placing the men in the most prominent position1 instead of seating them back of the women1 as is so frequently done4 ,as will be noted in the plan1 the conductor stands directly in front of the basses1 the piano being placed on either side as may be most convenient1 the pianist1 of course1 facing the conductor4 ,in directing a large chorus1 it is a great advantage to have two pianos1 one on either side4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,the ,,community ,,chorus ,,conductor ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,significance ,,of ,,community ,,music ,the recent rise of community music has evoked no little controversy as to whether art can be made free as air and its satisfactions thrown open to all1 poor as well as rich2 or whether it is by its very nature exclusive and aristocratic and therefore necessarily to be confined largely to the few4 ,we are inclined to the former belief1 and would therefore express the opinion that in our efforts to bring beauty into the lives of all the people1 we are engaged in one of the most significant musico-sociological enterprises ever inaugurated4 ,for this reason we shall discuss at this point ways and means of securing satisfactory results in one of the most interesting phases of community music1 viz41 the community chorus4 ,the development of the community chorus 7and indeed to a certain extent1 the whole movement to bring music and the other arts into the lives of the proletariat7 is due to a combination of artistic and sociological impulses2 and it undoubtedly owes its origin and success as much to the interest in the living and social problems of the middle and lower classes1 which the recently developed science of sociology has aroused1 as it does to purely musical impulses4 ,because of the fact that community music is a sociological phenomenon as well as an artistic one1 the director of a community chorus must possess a combination of artistic and personal traits not necessarily present in the case of other musicians4 ,in particular1 he must be a good mixer as well as a good musician2 and if one or the other of these qualities has to be sacrificed in some degree in favor of the other1 we should be inclined to insist first of all upon the right sort of personal traits in the leader of community music4 ,in order to be really successful in working among the common people1 the leader must be one of them in all sincerity of spirit1 and must be genuinely in sympathy with their point of view4 ,this fact is especially pertinent in those types of work in which one deals with large masses of men and women4 ,the director of community singing must therefore1 first of all1 be a good mob leader4 ,but if1 having met the people upon their own level1 he can now call upon his artistic instincts and his musical training1 and by means of a purely esthetic appeal raise his crowd a degree or two higher in their appreciation of music as a fine art1 eventually perhaps finding it possible to interest them in a higher type of music than is represented by the songs sung in this friendly and informal way1 then he has indeed performed his task with distinction1 and may well be elated over the results of his labors4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,social ,,effect ,,of ,,community ,,singing ,one of the fundamental reasons for encouraging the use of carols at community ,christmas tree celebrations1 as well as other similar forms of group singing1 is its beneficial effect upon the attitude of the people toward one another and toward their social group or their country4 ,through singing together in this informal way1 each individual in the crowd is apt to be drawn closer to the others1 to feel more interested in his neighbors2 and in the case of sings1 where the dominating note is patriotism1 to become imbued with a deeper spirit of loyalty to country4 ,in very many cases1 individuals who formerly would have nothing to do with one another have been drawn together and have become really friendly1 as the result of sitting together at a community sing4 ,referring to the effect of the first ,song and ,light ,festival in ,new ,york ,city1 a well-known artist remarked3#bd ,the movement illustrates plainly to me the coming forth of a new consciousness4 ,outside the park1 strikes1 sedition1 anarchy1 hatred1 malice1 envy2 within1 beauty1 peace1 the sense of brotherhood and harmony4444 ,community singing is teaching men to find themselves1 and to do it in unity and brotherly love4 ,footnote #bd3 ,kitty ,cheatham1 ,musical ,america1 ,october #g1 #aiaf4 ,this same sort of an effect has been noted by us and by innumerable others in many other places1 and various testimonies to the beneficial social effect of community singing1 neighborhood bands1 school orchestras1 children's concerts1 and similar types of musical activity have come from all parts of the country since the inception of the movement4 ,the impulse to bring music into the lives of all the people is not a fad1 but is the result of the working out of a deep-seated and tremendously significant innate tendency--the instinct for self-expression2 the same instinct which in another form is making us all feel that democracy is the only sure road to ultimate satisfaction and happiness4 ,it behooves the musician1 therefore1 to study the underlying bases of the community music movement1 and to use this new tool that has been thus providentially thrown into his hands for the advancement of art appreciation1 rather than to stand aloof and scoff at certain imperfections and crudities which inevitably are only too evident in the present phase of the movement4 ,sidenote3 ,,qualities ,,of ,,the ,,community ,,song ,,leader ,if the social benefit referred to above1--viz41 the growth of group feeling and of neighborly interest in one's fellows1 is to result from our community singing1 we must first of all have leaders who are able to make people feel cheerful and at ease4 ,the community song leader must be able to raise a hearty laugh occasionally1 and he must by the magnetism of his personality be able to make men and women who have not raised their voices in song for years past forget their shyness1 forget to be afraid of the sound of their own voices1 forget to wonder whether anyone is listening1 and join heartily in the singing4 ,there is no one way of securing this result2 in fact1 the same leader often finds it necessary to use different tactics in dealing with different crowds1 or for that matter1 different methods with the same crowd at different times4 ,the crux of the matter is that the leader must in some way succeed in breaking up the formality1 the stiffness of the occasion2 must get the crowd to loosen up in their attitude toward him1 toward one another1 and toward singing4 ,this can often be accomplished by making a pointed remark or two about the song1 and thus1 by concentrating the attention upon the meaning of the words1 make the singers forget themselves4 ,sometimes having various sections of the crowd sing different stanzas1 or different parts of a stanza antiphonally will bring the desired result4 ,by way of variety1 also1 the women may be asked to sing the verse while the entire chorus joins in the refrain2 or the men and women may alternate in singing stanzas2 or those in the back of the balcony may repeat the refrain as an echo2 or the leader and the crowd may sing antiphonally4 ,in these various ways1 considerable rivalry may be aroused in the various sections of a large chorus1 and the stiffness and unfriendliness will usually be found to disappear like magic4 ,but if the director is cold and formal in his attitude1 and if one song after another is sung in the conventional way with no comment1 no anecdote1 and no division into sections1 the people will be more than likely to go away criticizing the leader or the accompanist or the songs or each other1 and the next time the crowd will probably be smaller and the project will eventually die out4 ,the chronic fault-finder will then say1 ,i told you it was only a fad and that it would not last2 but he is wrong1 and the failure must be attributed to poor management rather than to any inherent weakness in the idea itself4 ,sidenote3 ,,variety ,,of ,,song ,,material ,,made ,,possible ,,by ,,community ,,singing ,the majority of people have no opportunity of singing except when they go to church2 but many do not go to church often1 and even those who go do not always sing1 and only have the opportunity of singing one type of music when they do take part4 ,moreover1 for various reasons1 the singing of church congregations is not as hearty as it used to be a generation or two ago4 ,the opportunity to spend an hour in singing patriotic hymns1 sentimental songs1 and occasionally a really fine composition1 such as the ,pilgrims' ,chorus from ,tannhuser1 is therefore eagerly welcomed by a great many men and women--those belonging to the upper classes as well as the proletariat4 ,when once the barrier of formality has been broken down1 such gatherings1 especially when directed by a leader who is a good musician as well as a good mixer1 may well become the means of interesting many thousands of men and women in the more artistic phases of music2 may indeed eventually transform many a community1 not only from a crowd of individuals into a homogeneous social group1 but may actually change the city or village from a spot where ugliness has reigned supreme to one where the dominating note is beauty--beauty of service as well as beauty of street and garden and public building2 and where drama and music1 pictures and literature1 are the most cherished possessions of the people4 ,in a place which has been so transformed1 the eight hours of leisure that have so troubled our sociologists will present no problem whatever2 for the community chorus1 the neighborhood orchestra1 the music and dramatic clubs1 and the splendid libraries and art galleries will assume most of the burden of providing a worthy use of leisure4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,necessity ,,of ,,advertising ,community sings 7like everything else that is to achieve success in this age7 must be advertised1 and to the leader usually falls the lot of acting as advertising manager4 ,it will be well to begin the campaign a month or more before the first sing is to be held1 sending short articles to the local papers1 in which is described the success of similar enterprises in other places4 ,then a week or so before the sing1 carefully worded announcements should be read in churches1 ,sunday schools1 lodge meetings1 and high-school assemblies4 ,in connection with this general publicity1 the leader will do well also to talk personally with a large number of men and women in various walks of life1 asking these people not only to agree to be present themselves1 but urging them to talk about the project to other friends and acquaintances1 inviting them to come also4 ,on the day of the first sing it may be well to circulate attractively printed handbills as a final reminder1 these of course giving in unmistakable language the time and place of the meeting and perhaps stating in bold type that admission is entirely free and that no funds are to be solicited4 ,these various advertising activities will naturally necessitate the expenditure of a small amount of money2 but it is usually possible to secure donations or at least reductions of price in the case of printing1 hall rental1 et cetera1 and the small amount of actual cash that is needed can usually be raised among a group of interested people without any difficulty4 ,it is our belief that the whole project is more likely to succeed if the leader himself is serving without remuneration1 for he will then be easily able to refute any charge that he is urging the project out of selfish or mercenary considerations4 ,sidenote3 ,,providing ,,the ,,words ,,of ,,songs ,the leader of community singing must not make the mistake of supposing that everybody knows ,america1 ,swanee ,river1 and ,old ,black ,joe1 and that no words need therefore to be provided4 ,as a matter of fact1 not more than one person in twenty-five can repeat correctly even one of these songs that everybody knows1 and we may as well recognize this fact at the outset and thus prevent a probable fiasco4 ,there are three ways of placing the songs before our crowd of people3 #a4 ,having the words of all songs to be sung printed on sheets of paper and passing one of these out to each person in the audience4 #b4 ,furnishing a book of songs at a cost of five or ten cents and asking each person in the audience to purchase this book before the sing begins1 bringing it back each succeeding time4 #c4 ,flashing the words 7sometimes the music also7 on a screen in front of the assembly4 ,the disadvantage of the last named method is the fact that the auditorium has to be darkened in order that the words may stand out clearly2 but in out-of-door singing the plan has very great advantages1 being for this purpose perhaps the best of the three4 ,after the chorus has gotten well on its feet1 it will probably be best to purchase copies of some larger and more elaborate book1 the copies being either owned by individual members or else purchased out of treasury funds1 and therefore belonging to the organization4 ,at the first sing it will be a distinct advantage if no financial outlay whatever is required of the individuals composing the chorus4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,advantages ,,of ,,planning ,,in ,,advance ,in conclusion1 let us urge the leader of community singing to decide beforehand just what songs are to be used1 and to study the words of these songs carefully so as to be able to imbue the chorus with the correct spirit of each one1 having at his tongue's end the story of the song and other pointed remarks about it that will enliven the occasion and keep things from stagnating4 ,he will1 of course1 frequently find it necessary to modify his plan as the sing progresses1 for one of the most necessary qualifications in the leader is flexibility and quick wit4 ,but if he has a definite program in mind and knows his material so well that he does not need to look at his book1 he will be much more likely to succeed in holding the interest of his chorus throughout the sing4 ,let him be sure that a skilful accompanist is at hand to play the piano1 perhaps even going to the trouble of meeting the accompanist beforehand and going through all material to be used so as to insure a mutual understanding upon such matters as tempo1 et cetera4 ,in out-of-door group singing a brass quartet 7consisting of two cornets and two trombones1 or two cornets1 a trombone1 and a baritone7 is more effective than a piano1 but if this is to be done be sure to find players who can transpose1 or else write out the parts in the proper transposed keys4 ,when such an accompaniment is to be used1 the leader should have at least one rehearsal with the quartet in order that there may be no hitches4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,meeting ,,place ,if possible1 let the sing be held1 in some hall not connected with any particular group of people1 so that all may feel equally at home 7there are decided objections to using either a church or a lodge room72 and1 in giving the invitation for the first meeting1 make sure that no group of people shall have any ground whatsoever for feeling slighted1 even in the smallest degree4 ,granting the various factors that we have been recommending1 and1 most important of all1 having provided the right type of leader to take charge of the sings1 the enterprise cannot but have significant results along both musical and sociological lines4 ,,chapter ,x ,,the ,,orchestral ,,conductor ,sidenote3 ,,difficulties ,,involved ,,in ,,conducting ,a ,,large ,,orchestra ,conducting an orchestra from full score is a vastly more complicated matter than directing a chorus singing four-part music1 and the training necessary in order to prepare one for this task is long and complicated4 ,in addition to the points already rehearsed as necessary for the conductor in general1 the leader of an orchestra must in the first place know at least superficially the method of playing the chief orchestral instruments1 the advantages and disadvantages involved in using their various registers1 the difficulties of certain kinds of execution1 and other similar matters which are often referred to by the term instrumentation4 ,in the second place1 he must understand the combinations of these various instruments that are most effective1 and also what registers in certain instruments blend well with others2 in other words1 he must be familiar with the science of orchestration4 ,in the third place1 he must understand the complicated subject of transposing instruments1 and must be able to detect a player's mistakes by reading the transposed part as readily as any other4 ,and finally1 he must be able to perform that most difficult task of all1 viz41 to read an orchestral score with at least a fair degree of ease1 knowing at all times what each performer is supposed to be playing and whether he is doing the right thing or not4 ,this implies being able to look at the score as a whole and get a fairly definite impression of the total effect2 but it also involves the ability to take the score to the piano and assemble the various parts 7including the transposed ones7 so that all important tones1 harmonic and melodic1 are brought out4 ,a glance at even a very simple orchestral score such as that found in ,appendix ,b will probably at once convince the reader of the complexity of the task1 and will perhaps make him hesitate to rush in where angels fear to tread until he has spent a number of years in preparation for the work4 ,sidenote3 ,,directing ,a ,,small ,,orchestra ,the above description has reference1 of course1 to conducting an orchestra of approximately symphonic dimensions1 and does not refer to the comparatively easy task of directing a group consisting of piano1 violins1 cornet1 trombone1 and perhaps one or two other instruments that happen to be available4#be ,in organizing an orchestra of this type1 the two most necessary factors are a fairly proficient reader at the piano 7which1 of course1 not only supplies the complete harmony1 but also covers a multitude of sins both of omission and of commission71 and at least one skilful violinist1 who must also be a good reader4 ,given these two indispensable elements1 other parts may be added as players become available2 and although the larger the number of wind instruments admitted1 the greater the likelihood of out-of-tune playing1 yet so great is the fascination of tonal variety that our inclination is always to secure as many kinds of instruments as possible4 ,footnote #be3 ,let us not be misunderstood at this point4 ,we are not sneering at the heterogeneous collections of instruments that are gathered together under the name of orchestra in many of the public schools throughout the country4 ,on the contrary1 we regard this rapidly increasing interest in ensemble playing as one of the most significant tendencies that has ever appeared in our ,american musical life1 and as a result of it we expect to see the establishment of many an additional orchestra of symphonic rank1 as well as the filling in of existing organizations with ,american-born and ,american-trained players4 ,there is no reason why wind players should not be trained in this country as well as in ,europe1 if we will only make a consistent attempt to interest our children in the study of these instruments while they are young1 and provide sufficient opportunity for ensemble practice in connection with our music departments in the public schools4 ,the chief value to be derived from ensemble practice of this type is not1 of course1 in any public performances that may be given1 but is to be found in the effect upon the performers themselves1 and the principal reason for encouraging the organization of all sorts of instrumental groups is in order to offer an opportunity for ensemble playing to as many amateur performers as possible4 ,for this reason1 unavoidable false intonation must not be too seriously regarded4 ,an orchestra such as we have been describing is frequently directed by one of the performers2 but it is our belief that if the group consists of ten or more players it will be far better to have the conductor stand before the players and direct them with a baton4 ,the type of music that is available for amateur ensemble practice is unfortunately not often accompanied by a full score for the conductor's use1 and he must usually content himself with studying the various parts as well as he may before the rehearsal1 and then direct from a first violin part 7in which the beginnings of all important parts played by other instruments are cued in74 ,directing from an incomplete score is1 of course1 extremely unsatisfactory from the musician's standpoint1 but the necessity of doing it has this advantage1 viz41 that many persons who have charge of small orchestras of this type would be utterly unable to follow a full score1 and might therefore be discouraged from organizing the group at all4 ,sidenote3 ,,seating ,,the ,,orchestra ,symphony orchestras are always seated in approximately the same way1 and if our small ensemble group consists of twenty players or more1 it will be well for the conductor to arrange them in somewhat the same manner as a larger orchestra4 ,in order to make this clear1 the ordinary arrangement of the various parts of a symphony orchestra is here supplied4 ,the position of the wood winds and of the lower strings as well as of the percussion instruments and harp varies somewhat1 this depending upon the composition being performed1 the idiosyncrasies of the conductor1 the size and shape of the platform1 et cetera4 ,illustration3 ,,seating ,,plan ,,of ,a ,,symphony ,,orchestra ,in dealing with a smaller group 7not of symphonic dimensions71 it will be well to have the piano in the middle1 the lower strings at the left1 the winds at the right1 and the violins in their usual position4 ,the diagram will make this clear4 ,it is to be noted that this seating plan is only suggestive1 and that some other arrangement may frequently prove more satisfactory4 ,illustration3 ,,seating ,,plan ,,suggested ,,for ,a ,,small ,,orchestra ,sidenote3 ,,proportion ,,of ,,instruments ,in a symphony orchestra of about one hundred players1 the proportion of instruments is approximately as follows3 #a4 ,,strings3 #ah first violins #af second violins #ad violas #ab violoncellos #aj double basses #b4 ,,wood ,,wind3 #c flutes #a piccolo 7,usually only three players7 #c oboes #a ,english horn 7,usually only three players7 #c clarinets #a bass clarinet 7,usually only three players7 #c bassoons #a double bassoon 7,usually only three players7 #c4 ,,brass ,,wind3 #d horns 7,sometimes #f or #h7 #b or #c trumpets 7,sometimes #b cornets also7 #c trombones #a bass tuba #d4 ,,percussion3 #a bass drum #a snare drum 7,one player7 #c kettledrums 7,of different sizes--one player7 #a triangle #a glockenspiel 7,one player7 #a pair cymbals et cetera #a harp 7,sometimes #b7 ,it will be noted that out of about one hundred players almost three-quarters are performers upon stringed instruments1 and it is this very large proportion of strings that gives the orchestral tone its characteristic smoothness1 its infinite possibilities of dynamic shading1 its almost unbelievable agility1 and1 of course1 its inimitable sonority4 ,the wind instruments are useful chiefly in supplying variety of color1 and also in giving the conductor the possibility of occasionally obtaining enormous power by means of which to thrill the hearer at climacteric points4 ,our reason for supplying the above information is mainly in order to direct attention to the small proportion of wind 7and especially of brass7 instruments1 and to warn the amateur conductor not to admit too large a number of cornets and trombones to his organization1 lest the resulting effect be that of a band rather than that of an orchestra4 ,if there are available a great many wind instruments and only a few strings1 it will probably be better to admit only a few of the best wind instrument players to the orchestra 7about two cornets and one trombone7 and to organize a band in order to give the rest of the players an opportunity for practice4#bf ,it will probably be necessary for the conductor to warn his wind players to aim at a more mellow tone than they use when playing in a band1 in order that the brass tone may blend with the string tone4 ,in the case of the reed instruments1 this will sometimes mean a thinner reed in orchestra work than is used in bands4 ,footnote #bf3 ,in making plans for the organization of a group of wind instrument players into a band1 it should be noted by the conductor that here the entire harmony must be supplied by the individual instruments 7no piano being used7 thus making it necessary to have alto1 tenor1 and baritone saxhorns in addition to cornets1 clarinets1 flutes1 and trombones4 ,the tuba is also almost indispensable1 while the inclusion of two or three saxophones will greatly increase the mellowness of the effect as well as providing an additional color to make the tonal textures more interesting4 ,sidenote3 ,,transposing ,,instruments ,in dealing with any ensemble group that includes wind instruments1 the conductor must master the intricacies involved in the subject of transposing instruments1 and although this book is not the place to get such technical knowledge as was referred to in the introductory paragraph of this chapter1 yet perhaps a brief explanation of the most important points will not be wholly out of place1 since we are writing more especially from the standpoint of the amateur4 ,by a transposing instrument we mean one in the case of which the performer either plays from a part that is written in a different key from that of the composition1 or that sounds pitches an octave higher or lower than the notes indicate4 ,thus1 e4g41 in a composition written in the key of ,e-flat1 and actually played in that key by the strings1 piano1 et cetera1 the clarinet part would probably be written in the key of ,f1 i4e41 it would be transposed a whole step upward2 but1 of course1 the actual tones would be in the key of ,e-flat4 ,the player1 in this case1 would perform upon a ,b-flat clarinet--i4e41 a clarinet sounding pitches a whole step lower than indicated by the notes4 7,it is called a ,b-flat clarinet because its fundamental gives us the pitch ,b-flat--this pitch being a whole-step lower than ,c2 and it is because the pitch sounded is a whole step lower that the music has to be transposed a whole step higher in order to bring it into the correct key when played47 ,in the case of the clarinet in ,a1 the pitches produced by the instrument are actually a minor third lower than the notes indicate 7,a is a minor third lower than ,c1 just as ,b-flat is a whole-step lower74 ,in writing music for clarinet in ,a1 therefore1 the music will need to be transposed upward a minor third in order that when played it may be in the right key2 just as in the case of the clarinet in ,b-flat1 it has to be transposed upward a whole-step4 ,clarinet or cornet in ,b-flat means1 therefore1 an instrument that sounds pitches a whole-step lower than written2 clarinet or cornet in ,a means one that sounds pitches a minor third lower than written2 horn in ,f means an instrument sounding pitches a perfect fifth lower than written 7because ,f is a perfect fifth below ,c72 while the clarinet in ,e-flat sounds pitches a minor third higher than written4 ,whether the pitches sounded are higher or lower than the notes indicate will have to be learned by experience or study4 ,if the passage marked ,fig4 #a were to be orchestrated so as to give the highest voice to the clarinet and the lowest to the horn1 the clarinet and horn parts would appear as shown in ,fig4 #b4 ,music3 ,fig4 #a ,music3 ,fig4 #b ,clarinet in ,b-flat ,horns in ,f ,in order to make this information more specific1 we add a table showing the keys of the original and transposed parts4 ,the practical band man expresses the substance of this table tersely by saying1 subtract #c sharps or #b flats4 ,,original ,,key ,,transposed ,,key ,,kind ,,of ,,instrument ,c ,d ,b-flat ,g ,b-flat ,a ,d ,f ,a ,a ,c ,a ,e ,g ,a ,b ,d ,a ,f-sharp ,a ,a ,c-sharp ,e ,a ,f ,g ,b-flat ,b-flat ,c ,b-flat ,e-flat ,f ,b-flat ,a-flat ,b-flat ,b-flat ,d-flat ,e-flat ,b-flat ,g-flat ,a-flat or ,a ,b-flat or ,a ,c-flat ,d-flat ,b-flat ,sidenote3 ,,reasons ,,for ,,transposing ,,instruments ,the principal reasons for the use of transposing instruments are3 first1 because certain sizes of instruments produce a better quality of tone than others 7e4g41 the ,b-flat clarinet sounds better than the ,c clarinet72 and second1 because it is easier to play in keys having a smaller number of sharps and flats1 and by transposing the parts to other keys1 we can usually get rid of several sharps or flats4 ,in the case of performers on the clarinet1 each player is necessarily provided with two instruments 7an ,a and a ,b-flat--the ,c clarinet being almost obsolete1 and the ,e-flat being used only in military bands72 but in playing upon the brass wind instruments the same instrument may be tuned in various keys1 either by means of a tuning slide or by inserting separate shanks or crooks1 these latter being merely additional lengths of tubing by the insertion of which the total length of the tube constituting the instrument may be increased1 thus throwing its fundamental pitch into a lower key4 ,in order to gain facility in dealing with transposed parts1 the amateur is advised to try his hand at arranging simple music 7hymn tunes1 folk songs1 easy piano pieces1 et cetera7 for his group of players1 transposing the parts for clarinets1 cornets1 et cetera1 into the appropriate keys4 ,in this way he will also get an insight into the mysteries of instrumental combination that cannot be secured in any other way4 ,sidenote3 ,,pitch ,,standards ,the first difficulty that the conductor of an amateur ensemble group usually encounters is that the instruments owned by his players are tuned according to various pitch standards2 and he is very likely to find at his first rehearsal that his first-clarinet player has an instrument tuned in high pitch1 i4e41 what is commonly known as concert pitch 7about one half step above standard71 while his second-clarinet player has an instrument in low pitch1 i4e41 international1 a having #dce vibrations per second4 7,there is also a third pitch which is used by many of the standard symphony orchestras--this pitch being based upon a vibration rate of #ddj for a74 ,if the conductor attempts to have his orchestra perform under these conditions1 disaster will surely overtake him1 and he will not only find his ears suffering tortures1 but will be more than likely to hear uncomplimentary remarks from the neighbors1 and will be fortunate indeed not to be ordered on to the next block or the next town by the police force6 ,the difficulty arises1 of course1 because the oboe1 ,english horn1 clarinet1 and other wood-wind instruments are built in a certain fixed pitch1 and since the length of the tube cannot be altered1 they must either play in the pitch intended or else not at all4 ,in the case of the clarinet and flute1 the pitch can be altered a very little by pulling out one of the joints slightly 7the tube is made in several sections7 thus making the total length slightly greater and the pitch correspondingly lower2 but when this is done the higher tones are very apt to be out of tune1 and in general1 if the player has an instrument tuned in high pitch1 he cannot play with an ensemble group having low-pitched instruments1 especially when the piano supplies the fundamental harmony4 ,in the case of the brass instruments1 a tuning slide is usually provided1 and the same instrument can therefore be utilized in either low or high pitch combinations4#bg ,footnote #bg3 ,high pitch is employed mostly in bands2 the reason for its use being that the wind instruments are much more brilliant when tuned to the higher pitch4 ,it is encouraging to be able to state1 however1 that more and more instruments are being built in philharmonic pitch 7a #ddj71 and the conductor who is organizing a band or orchestra is advised to see to it that all players who are purchasing new instruments insist upon having them built in this pitch4 ,sidenote3 ,,tuning ,the conductor of an amateur ensemble group will find it very greatly to his advantage to be able to tune the various instruments1 or at least to help the players to do it accurately4 ,this involves not merely a mechanical knowledge of what to do to the instrument to change its pitch1 but1 what is much more important1 a very high degree of pitch discrimination on the conductor's part4 ,it is at this latter point that assistance is most often necessary1 and the conductor who can tell his cornet player when he is just a shade high or low1 and can determine precisely when the violinist has his strings tuned to an absolutely perfect fifth1 will have far less trouble with out-of-tune playing than otherwise2 for a great deal of sharping and flatting 7particularly in the case of wind instruments7 is the result of inaccurate tuning4 ,sidenote3 ,,bowing ,since an orchestra contains such a large proportion of stringed instruments it will be very greatly to the interest of the conductor to take up the study of some instrument belonging to the violin family1 and to learn to play it at least a little4 ,if this is altogether impracticable at the beginning1 the next best thing for him to do is to study bowing1 learning not only the bowing signs and their meaning1 but familiarizing himself thoroughly with the principles underlying the art4 ,for this purpose some good work on bowing should be studied1 but meanwhile a few words on the subject at this point will give the absolute beginner at least a small amount of indispensable information4 ,the signs commonly employed in music for violin1 viola1 violoncello1 and double-bass1 to indicate various manners of bowing1 are as follows3 down-bow symbol ,down-bow3 i4e41 from nut to point4 up-bow symbol ,up-bow3 i4e41 from point to nut4 slur symbol ,slurred3 i4e41 all notes under the sign played in one bow4 slur over staccato symbol ,staccato3 i4e41 all notes in one bow1 but the tones separated4 ,the ordinary staccato mark 7dot staccato symbol or wedge staccato symbol7 means a long quick stroke1 either up or down as the case may be4 ,the absence of slurs indicates a separate stroke of the bow for each tone4 ,sometimes the player is directed to use the lower half1 the upper half1 or the middle of the bow1 such directions being given by printing the words lower half1 et cetera1 above the passage1 or by giving the initials of these words 7sometimes in ,german74 ,when no bowing is indicated1 a phrase beginning with a weak beat commonly has an up-bow for the first tone1 while one beginning on a strong beat has a down-bow2 but this principle has many exceptions4 ,it is perhaps needless to state that correct phrasing in the case of the stringed instruments depends upon the employment of suitable bowing2 and since the first violin part is most prominent and most important in orchestral music1 it becomes the business of the conductor to observe most carefully the bowing of his concert-master and to confer with him about possible changes in bowing wherever necessary4 ,it will save a great deal of confusion if players understand that the bowing is to be exactly as indicated in the score unless a change is definitely made4 ,the first player in each group in point of position on the platform is called the principal1 and is supposed to be the most skilful performer in that section2 and he is responsible1 in conference with the conductor when necessary1 for selecting the best bowing1 et cetera1 all others in the group watching him1 and all phrasing as he does4 ,in actual practice1 this means that the players at the second desk bow like those at the first1 those at the third desk follow those at the second1 et cetera4 ,absolute uniformity is thus secured in each section4 ,it should perhaps be remarked at this point that when different groups are playing the same phrase1 e4g41 violoncellos and basses1 or second violins and violas1 the bowing must be uniform in the two sections1 if absolute uniformity of phrasing is to result4 ,in addition to the bowing signs explained on page #ajc1 the conductor should also be familiar with certain other directions commonly found in music for stringed instruments4 ,some of the most important of these1 together with their explanations1 are therefore added4 ,pizzicato 7pizz47 7pluck the string instead of bowing7 ,col arco 7or arco7 7play with the bow again7 ,con sordino1 or ,avec sourdine 7affix the mute to the bridge7 ,senza sordino1 or ,sans sourdine 7remove the mute7 ,divisi 7div47 7divide1 i4e41 let some of the players take one of the two tones indicated and the remainder of them the other one4 ,this direction is of course used only in case two or more notes appear on the staff for simultaneous performance4 ,it is customary to divide such passages by having the players seated on the side next the audience take the higher tone1 while the others take the lower4 ,if the section is to be divided into more than two parts1 the conductor must designate who is to play the various tones47 ,sidenote3 ,,score ,,reading ,reading an orchestral score is a matter for the professional rather than for the amateur2 and yet the great increase during recent years in the number of amateur orchestras probably means that more and more of these groups will continue their practice until they are able to play a more difficult class of music--this involving the necessity on the part of their conductors of learning to read an orchestral score4 ,for this reason a few suggestions upon score reading are added as a final paragraph in this chapter1 and an example of a score is supplied at the end of the book--,appendix ,b 7p4 #aff47 ,the main difficulties involved in reading a full score are3 first1 training the eye to read from a number of staffs simultaneously and assembling the tones 7in the mind or at the keyboard7 into chords2 and second1 transposing into the actual key of the composition those parts which have been written in other keys and including these as a part of the harmonic structure4 ,this latter difficulty may be at least partially overcome by practice in arranging material for orchestra as recommended on page #aja2 but for the first part of the task1 extensive practice in reading voices on several staffs is necessary4 ,the student who is ambitious to become an orchestral conductor is therefore advised1 in the first place1 not to neglect his ,bach during the period when he is studying the piano1 but to work assiduously at the two- and three-part inventions and at the fugues4 ,he may then purchase miniature scores of some of the string quartets by ,haydn1 ,mozart1 and ,beethoven1 training himself to read all four parts simultaneously1 sometimes merely trying to hear mentally the successive harmonies as he looks at the score1 but most often playing the parts on the piano4 ,after mastering four voices in this way1 he is ready to begin on one of the slow movements of a ,haydn symphony4 ,in examining an orchestral score1 it will be noted at once that the string parts are always together at the bottom of the page1 while the wood-wind material is at the top4 ,since the strings furnish the most important parts of the harmonic structure for so much of the time1 our amateur will at first play only the string parts1 with the possible addition of the flute1 oboe1 and certain other non-transposed voices a little later on4 ,but as he gains facility he will gradually be able to take in all the parts and to include at least a sort of summary of them all in his playing4 ,the student is advised to purchase a number of the ,haydn and ,mozart symphonies either in the form of pocket editions or in the regular conductor's score1 and to practise on these until he feels quite sure of himself4 ,by this time he will be ready to try his hand at a modern score1 which will be found not only to contain parts for more instruments1 but many more divided parts for the strings4 ,meanwhile1 he is1 of course1 taking every possible opportunity of attending concerts given by symphony orchestras1 and is begging1 borrowing1 or buying the scores of as many of the compositions as possible1 studying them in advance1 and taking keen delight in following them at the performance2 perhaps even imagining himself to be the conductor1 and having visions of changes in interpretation that he would like to make if he were directing4 ,as the result of several years of this sort of study1 even an amateur may get to the point where he is able to conduct an orchestra from a full score with some degree of skill1 and hence with some little satisfaction both to himself and to the performers4 ,illustration3 ,,table ,,showing ,,ranges ,,of ,,orchestral ,,instruments ,note3 ,the arrangement of instruments here indicated is essentially that found in a modern orchestral score4 ,the ranges given represent practical orchestral usage4 ,additional tones possible for highly skilled performers or on instruments with certain special keys 7like the low b of the flute7 are shown in brackets4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,directing ,,the ,,church ,,choir ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,problem ,in taking up the special problems of conducting involved in directing a church choir1 we shall first of all need to consider the dual nature of church music--its religio-artistic aspect1 and in studying the matter from this standpoint we shall soon discover that most of the difficulties that have encompassed church music in the past can be traced directly or indirectly to a conflict or a lack of balance between these two factors4 ,the churchman has not been sufficiently interested in the art side of church music1 while the music director1 organist1 and singers have all too frequently been not only entirely out of sympathy with the religious work of the church1 but have usually been wholly ignorant concerning the purpose and possibilities of music in the church service4 ,the result in most churches at the present time is either that the music is vapid or even offensive from the art standpoint2 or else that it emphasizes the purely artistic side so strongly that it entirely fails to perform its function as an integral part of a service whose raison d'tre is1 of course1 to inculcate religious feeling4 ,the church wishes for worship in music1 but not for the worship of music1 is said to have been the statement of ,father ,haberl at the ,saint ,cecilia ,conference in ,mainz 7#ahhd74bh ,and it is indeed a far cry from this demand to the very evident deification of music that exists in many of our modern city churches1 with their expensive soloists and their utter failure to cause music to minister as the handmaid of religion4 ,the problem is not a new one1 and in a book written about a century ago the author says3#bi ,the guiding rule which ought always to be present to the mind of a clergyman should also be held in mind by all good musicians who would help the church's object1 and not employ the sacred building merely as a place where all kind of sounds that tickle the ear can be heard4 ,all kinds of music are suitable for sacred use that do not raise secular associations4 ,a ,largo1 an ,adagio1 a ,grave1 an ,andante1 an ,allegro1 a fugal or a non-fugal composition can all be performed in the ,church but should one and all be of a staid and dignified character throughout1 elevated and sober1 and of such a nature that any preacher of note could say3 ,this splendid music is a fitting introduction to my discourse2 or ,after such singing my lips had better be closed1 and the spirit left to its own silent worship4 ,footnote #bh3 ,quoted by ,curwen on the title page of ,studies in ,worship ,music 7second series74 ,footnote #bi3 ,thibaut1 ,purity in ,music1 translated by ,broadhouse1 p4 #bd4 ,a distinguished modern writer voices the same thought in the following words3#cj ,the singing of the choir must be contrived and felt as part of the office of prayer4 ,the spirit and direction of the whole service for the day must be unified2 the music must be a vital and organic element in this unit4 ,footnote #cj3 ,dickinson1 ,music in the ,history of the ,western ,church1 p4 #dja4 ,but in most churches music does not function in this ideal way and in many cases 7especially in non-liturgical churches7 there is no unity whatever in the service1 and the music is evidently both performed and listened to from a purely art standpoint2 or else it is so crude and inartistic as to be actually painful to the worshiper with refined sensibilities4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,remedy ,what is to be the remedy for this state of affairs8 ,or is there no remedy1 and must we go on1 either enduring tortures artistically1 or suffering spiritually8 ,we are not omniscient1 but we venture to assert that conditions might be caused to improve by the adoption of several changes of procedure that are herewith recommended4 #a4 ,educate the minister musically during his general and professional training1 causing him not only to acquire a certain amount of technical musical ability1 but attempting also to cultivate in him that intangible something which we call musical taste4 ,a few seminaries--notably the ,hartford ,theological ,seminary and the ,boston ,university ,department of ,religious ,education--are doing pioneer work along this line1 but they are the exception rather than the rule1 and the thing must be done by all if the desired result is to obtain in the future4 #b4 ,encourage the organization of chorus choirs composed largely of those who belong to or attend the church and are therefore vitally interested in its work4 #c4 ,select more churchly music1 i4e41 a type of music which when appropriately rendered will tend to bring about a mood of worship4 ,this will often mean a simpler style of music2 it may mean more a cappella singing2 and it undoubtedly implies music that is fundamentally sincere4 ,that many of our modern sacred solos and anthems fail in this latter respect must be evident to any one who has given the matter any thought whatever4 #d4 ,let the church make an attempt to secure as its musical director one who possesses a type of seriousness and high-mindedness that will make him sympathetic with what the church is trying to do1 thus enabling him to minister to the people through music even as the priest or preacher does through words of consolation or inspiration4 ,we admit that this sort of a man 7who is at the same time unimpeachable in his musical authority7 is often hard to find2 but that the two elements are incompatible1 and that such a type of choir director cannot be trained1 we absolutely refuse to believe4 ,if the church sufficiently recognizes the failure of music as now frequently administered1 and makes a strong enough demand for leaders of a different type1 they are bound to be forthcoming4 ,sidenote3 ,,correlating ,,the ,,music ,,with ,,the ,,rest ,,of ,,the ,,service ,having trained our minister from a musical standpoint1 organized a chorus choir1 selected appropriate music1 and secured the right type of choir leader1 let us now make a strenuous attempt to correlate the musical with the non-musical parts of the service2 and if we succeed in our effort at this point also1 our task will be at least in sight of completion4 ,this desirable correlation will only result if both minister and musician are willing to work together amicably1 each recognizing the rights of the other1 and both willing to give in upon occasion in order to make the service as a whole work out more smoothly4 ,many humorous stories are told1 the point of which is based upon the absolute incongruity of the various parts of the church service4 ,the writer remembers most vividly an incident that occurred during the first year of the ,great ,war1 in the church in which he was at that time the choirmaster4 ,the choir had just finished singing an anthem written by an ,english composer as a prayer for peace1#ca the concluding strains being sung to the words ,give peace1 ,o ,god1 give peace again6 ,amen4 ,as the choir sat down1 after an effective rendition of the anthem1 there was a hush in the congregation1 showing that the message of the music had gone home to the hearers4 ,but a moment later the spell was rudely broken1 as the minister rose1 and in a stentorian voice proclaimed the text of the day--,for ,i come not to bring peace into the world1 but a sword4 ,footnote #ca3 ,john ,e4 ,west1 ,o ,god of ,love1 ,o ,king of ,peace4 ,the responsibility in this case rested as much upon the shoulders of the choir director as upon those of the preacher1 for he should at least have taken the trouble to acquaint his coworker with the nature of the anthem1 so that some reference might have been made to the subject in either the prayer or scripture reading or in some of the hymns1 if not in the sermon itself4 ,it is perhaps not always feasible to have sermon and anthem agree absolutely in subject1 but it is entirely possible to avoid such occurrences as that cited above1 if even a small amount of thought is given to the matter of correlation each week4 ,surely the choir leader could at least provide the minister with the titles of the anthems and solos to be rendered4 ,sidenote3 ,,difficulties ,,involved ,,in ,,the ,,chorus ,,choir ,in advocating a return to the volunteer chorus choir instead of the salaried solo quartet1 we are well aware of the disadvantages that are likely to accompany any attempt along this line4 ,we know that the chorus choir composed of volunteers is often poorly balanced1 usually contains for the most part indifferent voices and often unskilful readers1 and frequently consists largely of giddy young girls1 whose main object in singing in the choir is obviously not based upon their interest in the spiritual advancement of the community6 ,but we believe that under the right type of leadership most of these bad conditions will in time disappear1 and that1 through the chorus choir1 music may well become a vitalizing force in the life of many a church in which a revitalizing process is badly needed4 ,in order to make ourselves perfectly clear1 let us summarize at this point the qualifications especially needed by the conductor of a volunteer church chorus4 #a4 ,he must be a reasonably good musician1 possessing not only familiarity with music in general1 but in particular an intimate knowledge of vocal music1 and knowing at least the fundamentals of voice training4 #b4 ,he must understand the purpose of church music1 and must be in sympathy with the religious work of the church4 #c4 ,he must be young in spirit1 and thus be able to take a sympathetic attitude toward the members of his choir as human beings1 and particularly as human beings who are still young1 inexperienced1 and frequently thoughtless4 ,this implies1 of course1 a certain amount of personal magnetism and this is as necessary in the volunteer choir for holding the membership together and securing regular attendance as it is for inspiring them musically4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,danger ,,of ,,individualism ,one of the chief difficulties encountered in more or less all choral organizations1 and especially in the volunteer church choir1 is the tendency on the part of many members to do all they possibly can in the way of dress1 actions1 loud singing1 and lack of voice blending1 to call attention to themselves as individuals4 ,this not only results in frequent offense to the eye of the worshiper because of clashing color combinations 7the remedy for which is1 of course1 some uniform method of dressing or perhaps a vestment71 but what is even more serious1 it often causes a lack of voice blending that seriously interferes with both the religious and the artistic effect of the music4 ,for this latter state of affairs there is no remedy except to learn to listen to individual voices1 and when some voice does not blend with the rest1 to let the person who owns it know that he must either sing very softly or else stop entirely4 ,this can often be accomplished by a look in the direction of the singer who is causing the trouble2 but if this does not suffice1 then a private admonition may be necessary--and here we have a situation in which the diplomacy and the good humor of the conductor must be exercised to the utmost1 especially if the offending voice belongs to a prominent member of1 and perhaps a liberal contributor to1 the church4 ,in such a case1 one may sometimes1 without unduly compromising one's reputation for veracity1 inform the offending member that his method of singing is very bad indeed for his voice1 and if persisted in will surely ruin that organ6 ,needless to say1 the conductor must exercise the utmost tactfulness in dealing with such matters as these1 but it is our belief that if he insists strongly enough in the rehearsal upon a unified body of tone from each part1 and backs this up by private conversations with individual members1 with perhaps a free lesson or two in correct voice placement1 or even the elimination of one or two utterly hopeless voices1 a fine quality of voice blending will eventually result4 ,it might be remarked at this point that such desirable homogeneity of tone will only eventuate if each individual member of the choir becomes willing to submerge his own voice in the total effect of his part2 and that learning to give way in this fashion for the sake of the larger good of the entire group is one of the most valuable social lessons to be learned by the young men and women of today4 ,it is the business of the choir leader to drive home this lesson whenever necessary4 ,it is also his task to see to it that no member of his choir by his actions causes any interference with the worship of the congregation4 ,in plain speech1 it is his duty to see to it that choir members conduct themselves in a manner appropriate to their position1 and that they do not by whispering1 laughing1 note writing1 and other similar frivolities1 hinder in any way the development of a spirit of reverent devotion on the part of the congregation4 ,sidenote3 ,,solo ,,singing ,,in ,,the ,,church ,,service ,another type of undesirable individualism is to be found in the case of the church solo singer4 ,we have no quarrel with the sacred solo when sung in such a way as to move the hearts of the congregation to a more sincere attitude of devotion2 and we are entirely willing to grant that the sacred solo has the inherent possibility of becoming as pregnant with religious fervor as the sermon itself1 and may indeed1 because of its esthetic and emotional appeal1 convey a message of comfort or of inspiration to many a heart that might remain untouched by the appeal of a merely intellectual sermon4 ,but it has been our observation that the usual church solo very seldom functions in this way2 that the singer usually considers it only as an opportunity to show how well he can perform2 that he seldom thinks very much about the words2 that the selections are usually not chosen because they are appropriate to the remainder of the service but because they are effective or perhaps because they are well adapted to the voice or the style of the singer2 and that our congregations have grown so accustomed to this sort of thing that the performance of a sacred solo is now usually listened to1 commented upon1 and criticized in exactly the same way in the church service as would be the case at a concert performance4 ,instead of thinking1 ,i am delivering a message1 the singer is only too palpably saying to us1 ,i am singing a solo1 don't you think ,i am doing it well8 ,the remedy for this condition of affairs is the same as that which we have been recommending for church music in general1 and before church solo singing can be commended in very glowing terms as a method of assisting the congregation to become more thoughtful1 more fervent in their devotional attitude1 we must have3 #a4 ,more appropriate selections4 #b4 ,a more sincerely reverent and a more thoroughly non-egoistic attitude on the part of the soloists4 ,because these things are so difficult of attainment under present conditions our feeling is that1 all in all1 chorus music is probably considerably more effective as a vehicle for making a religio-esthetic appeal1 than solo singing4 ,sidenote3 ,,progress ,,in ,,public ,,school ,,music ,,as ,,related ,,to ,,church ,,choirs ,the public schools are doing very much more in the way of teaching music than formerly1 and in many places consistent work is being carried on as the result of which the children now in school are learning to read music notation somewhat fluently1 to use their voices correctly1 and are cultivating as well a certain amount of taste in music4 ,because of this musical activity in the public schools1 our task of organizing and directing volunteer church choirs should be very much simplified in the near future4 ,community singing will help at this point also1 and the very much larger number of boys and girls who are receiving training as the result of the development of high school music1 ought to make it considerably easier to secure the right type of choir director in the future than has been the case in the past4 ,as a result of the present widespread interest in music and music study1 it should be possible also to get very much better congregational singing1 and withal to interest the congregation 7and the preacher67 in a better type of music4 ,all in all1 the outlook is extremely promising and we venture to predict a great improvement in all that pertains to church music during the next quarter century4 ,sidenote3 ,,importance ,,of ,,congregational ,,singing ,let us close this discussion by urging the choir director to remember that the most important music1 at least in the ,protestant church1 is the congregational singing2 and to consider the fact that if music is to help people worship without becoming a substitute for worship1 it will be necessary for him not only to inspire his choir with high ideals of church music1 but also to devise means of inducing the congregation to take part in the singing to a much greater extent than is now the case in most churches4 ,it is usually true that the finer the choir1 and the more elaborate the accompaniment1 the less hearty is the congregational singing4 ,if there is to be steady growth in the efficiency of chorus choirs1 therefore1 it will not be surprising if congregational singing sometimes falls off in volume and enthusiasm4 ,the reasons for such a decline are3 ,first1 because the people take no responsibility for the singing1 knowing that it will go well whether they join in or not2 second1 because the choir often sings so well that the people would rather listen than take part2 third1 because the director frequently stands with his back to the congregation and apparently does not expect much singing from them2 and fourth1 because the choir leader often insists upon a highly musical interpretation of the hymns1 this involving the carrying over of phrases1 et cetera4 ,these latter things may well be done after a long period of training1 but in the early stages the way to arouse interest in congregational singing is not to insist too strongly upon the purely artistic aspects1 but to remember that most of the congregation are musically untrained and not only do not see the point to all these refinements1 but will frequently become discouraged and stop singing entirely if too many of them are insisted upon4 ,it will be well also to apply to this type of group singing the principles already discussed in connection with community sings1 having the congregation sing alone part of the time1 having a stanza sung as a solo occasionally1 making use of antiphonal effects1 and in other ways introducing variety and placing more responsibility upon the congregation2 and1 most important of all1 calling attention more frequently to the words of the hymns1 either the preacher or the choir leader sometimes giving the stories of their origin1 and in other ways attempting to interest the congregation in the meaning of the hymn as a poem4 ,perhaps a more careful selection of the hymns would help also1 especially if a consistent attempt were to be made to give the congregation an opportunity of practising the more musical tunes1 so that they would come to feel familiar with them and at ease in singing them4 ,if the choir director will take the trouble to go through the hymn book and select forty or fifty really fine hymns and tunes that are not being used1 suggesting to the minister that these be sung sometimes in connection with the more familiar ones1 he will very often find the minister more than willing to meet him half way in the matter4 ,in these various ways the choir leader and the minister may by consistent cooperation inspire the congregation to the point where the vocal response is as hearty and as heartfelt as it used to be in the olden days4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,the ,,boy ,,choir ,,and ,,its ,,problems ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,problems ,the two special problems connected with directing a boy choir are3 #a4 ,becoming intimately acquainted with the compass1 registers1 possibilities1 and limitations of the boy's voice4 #b4 ,finding out how to manage the boys themselves so as to keep them good-natured1 well-behaved1 interested1 and hard at work4 ,to these two might be added a third--namely1 the problem of becoming familiar with the liturgy of the particular church in which the choir sings1 since male choirs are to be found most often in liturgical churches4 ,but since this will vary widely in the case of different sects1 we shall not concern ourselves with it1 but will be content with giving a brief discussion of each of the other points4 ,sidenote3 ,,peculiarities ,,of ,,the ,,child ,,voice ,the child voice is not merely a miniature adult voice1 but is an instrument of quite different character4 ,in the first place1 it is not nearly so individualistic in timbre as the adult voice1 and because of the far greater homogeneity of voice quality that obtains in children's singing1 it is much easier to secure blending of tone1 the effect being that of one voice rather than of a number of voices in combination4 ,this is a disadvantage from the standpoint of variety of color in producing certain emotional effects1 but it is in some ways an advantage in the church service1 especially in churches where the ideal is to make the entire procedure as impersonal and formal as possible4 ,in the second place1 the child voice is good only in the upper register--the chest tones being throaty1 unpleasant1 and frequently off pitch4 ,in the third place1 the child voice is immature1 and his vocal organs are much more likely to be injured by overstraining4 ,when directed by a competent voice trainer1 however1 the effect of a large group of children singing together is most striking1 and their pure1 fresh1 flutelike tones1 combined with the appearance of purity and innocence which they present to the eye1 bring many a thrill to the heart and not infrequently a tear to the eye of the worshiper4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,boy ,,voice ,,in ,,the ,,church ,,choir ,in many ,european churches1 and in a considerable number in the ,united ,states1 it is customary to have boys with unchanged voices sing the soprano part1 men with trained falsetto voices 7called male altos7 taking the alto1#cb while the tenor and bass parts are1 of course1 sung by men as always4 ,since the child voice is only useful when the tones are produced with relaxed muscles1 and since the resonance cavities have not developed sufficiently to give the voice a great deal of power1 it is possible for a few men on each of the lower parts to sing with from twenty to thirty boys on the soprano part4 ,six basses1 four tenors1 and four altos will easily balance twenty-five boy sopranos1 if all voices are of average power4 ,footnote #cb3 ,in many male choirs the alto part is sung by boys2 but this does not result in a fine blending of parts1 because of the fact1 as already noted in the above paragraph1 that the boy's voice is good only in its upper register4 ,it may be of interest to the reader to know that in places where there are no adult male altos1 these voices may be trained with comparative ease4 ,all that is needed is a baritone or bass who has no particular ambitions in the direction of solo singing 7the extensive use of the falsetto voice is detrimental to the lower tones72 who is a good reader2 and who is willing to vocalize in his falsetto voice a half hour a day for a few months4 ,the chief obstacle that is likely to be encountered in training male altos is the fact that the men are apt to regard falsetto singing as effeminate4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,necessity ,,of ,,being ,a ,,voice ,,trainer ,there is one difference between the mixed choir of adult voices and the boy choir that should be noted at the outset by the amateur4 ,it is that1 in the former1 the choir leader is working with mature men and women1 most of whom have probably learned to use their voices as well as they ever will2 but in directing a boy choir1 the sopranos must be taught not only the actual music to be sung at the church service1 but1 what is much more difficult1 they must be trained in the essentials of correct breathing1 tone placement1 et cetera1 from the ground up4 ,hence the absolute necessity of the choirmaster being a voice specialist4 ,he need not have a fine solo voice1 but he must know the essentials of good singing1 and must be able to demonstrate with his own voice what he means by purity of vowel1 clearness of enunciation1 et cetera4 ,these things are probably always best taught by imitation1 even in the case of adults2 but when dealing with a crowd of lively ,american boys1 imitation is practically the only method that can be used successfully4 ,we shall not attempt to give information regarding this highly important matter in the present volume1 because it is far too complex and difficult to be taken up in anything short of a treatise and because1 moreover1 the art of singing cannot be taught in a book4 ,the student who is ambitious to become the director of a boy choir is advised1 first1 to study singing for a period of years1 and second1 to read several good books upon the training of children's voices4 ,there are a number of books of this character1 some of the best ones being included in the reference list in ,appendix ,a 7p4 #afd74 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,difference ,,between ,,the ,,voices ,,of ,,boys ,,and ,,girls ,the child's larynx grows steadily up to the age of about six1 but at this time growth ceases1 and until puberty the vocal cords1 larynx1 and throat muscles develop in strength and flexibility1 without increasing appreciably in size4 ,this means that from six until the beginning of adolescence the voice maintains approximately the same range1 and that this is the time to train it as a child voice4 ,the question now arises1 why not use the girl's voice in choirs as well as the boy's8--and the answer is threefold4 ,in the first place1 certain churches have always clung to the idea of the male choir1 women being refused any participation in what originally was strictly a priestly office2 in the second place1 the girl arrives at the age of puberty somewhat earlier than the boy1 and since her voice begins to change proportionately sooner1 it is not serviceable for so long a period1 and is therefore scarcely worth training as a child voice because of the short time during which it can be used in this capacity2 and in the third place1 the boy's voice is noticeably more brilliant between the ages of seven or eight and thirteen or fourteen1 and is therefore actually more useful from the standpoint of both power and timbre4 ,if it were not for such considerations as these1 the choir of girls would doubtless be more common than the choir of boys1 for girls are much more likely to be tractable at this age1 and are in many ways far easier to deal with than boys4 ,at the age of six1 the voices of boys and girls are essentially alike in timbre2 but as the boy indulges in more vigorous play and work1 and his muscles grow firmer and his whole body sturdier1 the voice-producing mechanism too takes on these characteristics1 and a group of thirty boys ten or twelve years old will actually produce tones that are considerably more brilliant than those made by a group of thirty girls of similar age4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,compass ,,of ,,the ,,child ,,voice ,to the novice in the handling children's voices1 the statement that the typical voice of boys and girls about ten years of age easily reaches a and frequently b or c music notation will at first seem unbelievable4 ,this is nevertheless the case1 and the first thing to be learned by the trainer of a boy choir is therefore to keep the boys singing high1 beginning with the higher tones music notation and vocalizing downward1 instead of vice versa4 ,the main reason for the necessity of this downward vocalization is what is known as the movable break4 ,in an adult voice1 the change from a low register to a higher one always takes place at approximately the same place in the scale2 but the child's voice is immature1 his vocal organs have not formed definitely established habits1 and the chest register is often pushed upward to c1 d1 or even e music notation4 ,this is practically always done in singing an ascending scale loudly1 and the result is not only distressing to the listener1 but ruinous to the voice4 ,in former days this type of singing was common in our public schools1 the result being that most boys honestly thought it impossible to sing higher than c or d music notation this being the limit beyond which it was difficult to push the chest voice4 ,the head voice was thus not used at all1 and the singing of public school children in the past has in most cases been anything but satisfactory from the standpoint of tonal beauty4 ,but most supervisors of music have now become somewhat familiar with the child voice1 and are insisting upon high-pitched songs1 soft singing1 and downward vocalization1 these being the three indispensable factors in the proper training of children's voices4 ,the result is that in many places school children are at the present time singing very well indeed1 and the present growing tendency to encourage public performance by large groups of them makes available a new color to the composer of choral and orchestral music1 and promises many a thrill to the concert-goer of the future4 ,it is the head register1 or thin voice1 that produces the pure1 flutelike tones which are the essential charm of a boy choir1 and if chest tones are to be employed at all1 they must be made as nearly as possible as are the head tones1 thus causing the voice to produce an approximately uniform timbre in the entire scale4 ,this may be accomplished with a fair degree of ease by a strict adherence to the three principles of procedure mentioned in the above paragraph4 ,in fact these three things are almost the beginning1 middle1 and end of child-voice training1 and since they thus form the sine qua non of effective boy-choir singing1 we shall emphasize them through reiteration4 #a4 ,the singing must be soft until the child has learned to produce tone correctly as a habit4 #b4 ,downward vocalization should be employed in the early stages1 so as to insure the use of the head voice4 #c4 ,the music should be high in range1 in order that the child may be given as favorable an opportunity as possible of producing his best tones4 ,when these principles are introduced in either a boy choir or a public school system1 the effect will at first be disappointing1 for the tone produced by the boy's head voice is so small and seems so insignificant as compared with the chest voice which he has probably been using1 that he is apt to resent the instruction1 and perhaps to feel that1 you are trying to make a baby1 or worse yet1 a girl1 out of him6 ,but he must be encouraged to persist1 and after a few weeks or months of practice1 the improvement in his singing will be so patent that there will probably be no further trouble4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,life ,,of ,,the ,,boy ,,voice ,boys are admitted to male choirs at from seven or eight to ten or twelve years of age1 but are often required to undergo a course of training lasting a year or more before being permitted to sing with the choir in public4 ,for this reason1 if for no other1 the director of a boy choir must be a thoroughly qualified voice trainer4 ,he1 of course1 takes no voice that is not reasonably good to start with1 but after admitting a boy with a naturally good vocal organ it is his task so to train that voice as to enable it to withstand several hours of singing each day without injury and to produce tones of maximal beauty as a matter of habit4 ,but if the choir leader is not a thoroughly qualified vocal instructor1 or if he has erroneous ideals of what boy-voice tone should be1 the result is frequently that the voice is overstrained and perhaps ruined2 or else the singing is of an insipid1 lifeless1 hooty character1 making one feel that an adult mixed choir is infinitely preferable to a boy choir4#cc ,footnote #cc3 ,even when an ideal type of tone is secured1 there is considerable difference of opinion as to whether the boy soprano is1 all in all1 as effective as the adult female voice4 ,many consider that the child is incapable of expressing a sufficient variety of emotions because of his lack of experience with life1 and that the boy-soprano voice is therefore unsuited to the task assigned it1 especially when the modern conception of religion is taken into consideration4 ,but to settle this controversy is no part of our task1 hence we shall not even express an opinion upon the matter4 ,adolescence begins at the age of thirteen or fourteen in boys1 and with the growth of the rest of the body at this time1 the vocal organs also resume their increase in size1 the result being not only longer vocal cords and a correspondingly lower range of voice1 but an absolute breaking down of the habits of singing that have been established1 and frequently a temporary but almost total loss of control of the vocal organs4 ,these changes sometimes take place as early as the thirteenth year1 but on the other hand are frequently not noticeable until the boy is fifteen or sixteen1 and there are on record instances of boys singing soprano in choirs until seventeen or even eighteen4 ,the loss of control that accompanies the change of voice 7with which we are all familiar because of having heard the queer alternations of squeaking and grumbling in which the adolescent boy so frequently indulges71 is due to the fact that the larynx1 vocal cords1 et cetera1 increase in size more rapidly than the muscles develop strength to manipulate them1 and this rapid increase in the size of the parts 7in boys a practical doubling in the length of the vocal cords7 makes it incumbent upon the choir trainer to use extreme caution in handling the voices at this time1 just as the employer of adolescent boys must use great care in setting them at any sort of a task involving heavy lifting or other kinds of strain4 ,in the public schools1 where no child is asked to sing more than ten or twelve minutes a day1 no harm is likely to result2 but in a choir which rehearses from one to two hours each day and frequently sings at a public service besides1 it seems to be the consensus of opinion that the boy is taking a grave risk in continuing to sing while his voice is changing4#cd ,he is usually able to sing the high tones for a considerable period after the low ones begin to develop2 but to continue singing the high tones is always attended with considerable danger1 and many a voice has undoubtedly been ruined for after use by singing at this time4 ,the reason for encouraging the boy to keep on singing is1 of course1 that the choirmaster1 having trained a voice for a number of years1 dislikes losing it when it is at the very acme of brilliancy4 ,for this feeling he can hardly be blamed1 for the most important condition of successful work by a male choir is probably permanency of membership2 and the leader must exercise every wile to keep the boys in1 once they have become useful members of the organization4 ,but in justice to the boy's future1 he ought probably in most cases to be dismissed from the choir when his voice begins to change4 ,footnote #cd3 ,browne and ,behnke1 in ,the ,child's ,voice1 p4 #ge1 state in reply to a questionnaire sent out to a large number of choir trainers1 singers1 et cetera1 that seventy-nine persons out of one hundred fifty-two stated positively that singing through the period of puberty causes certain injury1 deterioration1 or ruin to the after voice4 ,in the same book are found also 7pp4 #he to #ij7 a series of extremely interesting comments on the choirmaster's temptation to use a voice after it begins to change4 ,let us now summarize the advice given up to this point before going on to the consideration of our second problem3 #a4 ,have the boys sing in high range most of the time4 ,the actual compass of the average choir boy's voice is probably g--c but his best tones will be between e and g music notation4 ,an occasional a or b or a d or c will do no harm1 but the voice must not remain outside of the range e--g for long at a time4 #b4 ,insist upon soft singing until correct habits are established4 ,there is a vast difference of opinion as to what soft singing means1 and we have no means of making the point clear except to say that at the outset of his career the boy can scarcely sing too softly4 ,later on1 after correct habits are formed1 the singing may1 of course1 be louder1 but it should at no time be so loud as to sound strained4 #c4 ,train the voice downward for some time before attempting upward vocalization4 #d4 ,dismiss the boy from the choir when his voice begins to change1 even if you need him and if he needs the money which he receives for singing4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,boy ,,himself ,the second special problem mentioned at the beginning of this chapter is the management of the boys owning the voices which we have just been discussing2 and this part of the choirmaster's task is considerably more complex1 less amenable to codification1 and requires infinitely more art for its successful prosecution4 ,one may predict with reasonable certainty what a typical boy-voice will do as the result of certain treatment2 but the wisest person can not foresee what the result will be when the boy himself is subjected to any specified kind of handling4 ,as a matter of fact1 there is no such thing as a typical boy1 and even if there were1 our knowledge of boy nature in general has been1 at least up to comparatively recent times1 so slight that it has been impossible to give directions as to his management4 ,sidenote3 ,,how ,,to ,,handle ,,boys ,in general1 that choir director will succeed best in keeping his boys in the choir and in getting them to do good work1 who1 other things being equal1 keeps on the best terms with them personally4 ,our advice is1 therefore1 that the prospective director of a choir of boys find out just as much as possible about the likes and dislikes1 the predilections and the prejudices of pre-adolescent boys1 and especially that he investigate ways and means of getting on good terms with them4 ,he will find that most boys are intensely active at this stage1 for their bodies are not growing very much1 and there is therefore a large amount of superfluous energy4 ,this activity on their part is perfectly natural and indeed wholly commendable2 and yet it will be very likely to get the boy into trouble unless some one is at hand to guide his energy into useful channels4 ,this does not necessarily mean making him do things that he does not like to do2 on the contrary1 it frequently involves helping him to do better1 something that he already has a taste for doing4 ,space does not permit details2 but if the reader will investigate the ,boy ,scout movement1 the supervised playground idea1 and the development of school athletics1 as well as the introduction of manual training of various sorts1 trips to museums of natural history1 zological and botanical gardens1 et cetera1 school hikes and other excursions1 and similar activities that now constitute a part of the regular school work in many of our modern educational institutions1 he will find innumerable applications of the idea that we are presenting2 and he will perhaps be surprised to discover that the boy of today likes to go to school2 that he applies at home many of the things that he learns there1 and that he frequently regards some teacher as his best friend instead of as an arch enemy1 as formerly4 ,these desirable changes have not taken place in all schools by any means1 but the results of their introduction have been so significant that a constantly increasing number of schools are adopting them2 and public school education is to mean infinitely more in the future than it has in the past because we are seeing the necessity of looking at things through the eyes of the pupil1 and especially from the standpoint of his life outside of and after leaving the school4 ,let the choir trainer learn a lesson from the public school teacher1 and let him not consider the boy to be vicious just because he is lively1 and let him not try to repress the activity but rather let him train it into useful channels4 ,above all1 let him not fail to take into consideration the boy's viewpoint1 always treating his singers in such a way that they will feel that he is playing fair4 ,it has been found that if boys are given a large share in their own government1 they are not only far easier to manage at the time1 but grow enormously in maturity of social ideals1 and are apt to become much more useful citizens because of such growth4 ,placing responsibility upon the boys involves trusting them1 of course1 but it has been found that when the matter has been presented fairly and supervised skilfully1 they have always risen to the responsibility placed upon their shoulders4 ,we therefore recommend that self-government be inaugurated in the boy choir1 that the boys be allowed to elect officers out of their own ranks1 and that the rules and regulations be worked out largely by the members themselves with a minimum of assistance from the choirmaster4 ,let us not make the serious mistake of supposing that in order to get on the good side of boys we must make their work easy4 ,football is not easy1 but it is extremely popular6 ,it is the motive rather than the intrinsic difficulty of the task that makes the difference4 ,the thing needed by the choir director is a combination of firmness 7but not crossness7 with the play spirit4 ,let him give definite directions1 and let these directions be given with such decision that there will never be any doubt as to whether they are to be obeyed2 but let him always treat the boys courteously and pleasantly1 and let him always convey the idea that he is not only fair in his attitude toward them1 but that he is attempting to be friendly as well4 ,work the boys hard for a half hour or so1 therefore1 and then stop for five minutes and join them in a game of leapfrog1 if that is the order of the day4 ,if they invite you to go with them on a hike or picnic1 refuse at your peril2 and if you happen to be out on the ball ground when one side is short a player1 do not be afraid of losing your dignity1 but jump at the chance of taking a hand in the game4 ,some one has said that familiarity breeds contempt1 only if one of the persons be contemptible1 and this dictum might well be applied to the management of the boy choir4 ,on the other hand1 it is absolutely necessary to maintain discipline in the choir rehearsal1 and it is also necessary to arouse in the boys a mental altitude that will cause them to do efficient work and to conduct themselves in a quiet and reverent manner during the church service2 hence the necessity for rules and regulations and for punishments of various kinds4 ,but the two things that we have been outlining are entirely compatible1 and the choir director who plays with the boys and is hailed by them as a good fellow will on the whole have far less trouble than he who holds himself aloof and tries to reign as a despot over his little kingdom4 ,sidenote3 ,,remuneration ,,et ,,cetera ,in conclusion1 a word should perhaps be added about various plans of remunerating the boys for their singing4 ,in some large churches and cathedrals a choir-school is maintained and the boys receive food1 clothing1 shelter1 and education in return for their services2 but this entails a very heavy expense1 and in most smaller churches the boys are paid a certain amount for each rehearsal and service1 or possibly a lump sum per week4 ,the amount received by each boy depends upon his voice1 his experience1 his attitude toward the work1 et cetera1 in other words1 upon his usefulness as a member of the choir4 ,attempts have often been made to organize a boy choir on the volunteer basis1 but this plan has not usually proved to be successful1 and is not advocated4 ,when the boys live in their own homes and there are ,sunday services only1 the usual plan is to have them meet for about two rehearsals each week by themselves1 with a third rehearsal for the full choir4 ,often the men have a separate practice also1 especially if they are not good readers4 ,if the organization is to be permanent1 it will be necessary to be constantly on the lookout for new voices1 these being trained partly by themselves and partly by singing with the others at the rehearsals through the period of weeks or months before they are permitted to take part in the public services4 ,in this way the changing voices that drop out are constantly being replaced by newly trained younger boys1 and the number in the chorus is kept fairly constant4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,the ,,conductor ,,as ,,voice ,,trainer ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,conductor',s ,,need ,,of ,,vocal ,,training ,correct voice placement1 the full use of the resonance cavities1 good habits of breathing1 and other details connected with what is commonly termed voice culture1 cannot be taught by correspondence2 neither can the conductor be made an efficient voice trainer by reading books4 ,but so many choral conductors are failing to secure adequate results from their choruses because of their ignorance of even the fundamentals of singing1 that it has been thought best to include a brief presentation of a few of the most important matters with which the conductor ought to be acquainted4 ,in discussing these things it will only be possible for us to present to the student of conducting the problems involved1 leaving their actual working out to each individual4 ,the chief difficulty in connection with the whole matter arises from the fact that the conductor needs in his work certain qualities of musicianship that are more apt to result from instrumental than from vocal training1 the education of the instrumentalist usually emphasizing harmony1 ear-training1 form1 and in general1 the intellectual aspect of music2 while that of the vocalist too often entirely leaves out this invaluable type of training1 dealing only with voice culture and in general the interpretative side of music study4 ,the vocalist who attempts to conduct is therefore frequently criticized for his lack of what is called solid musical training2 but the instrumentalist-conductor as often fails to get adequate results in working with singers because of his utter ignorance of vocal procedure2 and this latter type of failure is probably as productive of poor choral singing as the former4 ,this chapter is1 of course1 written especially for the instrumentalist1 and our advice to him is not merely to read books about singing1 but to study singing itself1 whether he is interested in cultivating his own voice for solo purposes or not4 ,it might be remarked in this connection that aside from the considerations that we have been naming1 the conductor who can sing a phrase to his orchestra or chorus and thus show by imitation exactly what shading1 et cetera1 he wishes1 has an enormous advantage over him who can only convey his ideas by means of words4 ,sidenote3 ,,proper ,,breathing ,probably the first thing about singing to be learned by the student of conducting is that good voice production depends upon using the full capacity of the lungs instead of merely the upper portion4 ,hence the necessity of holding the body easily erect as a matter of habit1 with chest up1 and with the diaphragm alternately pushing the viscera away in order to enable the lungs to expand downward1 and then allowing the parts to come back into place again1 as the air is in turn expelled from the lungs4 ,by practising deep breathing in this way the actual capacity of the lungs may be considerably increased1 and breathing exercises have therefore always formed part of the routine imposed upon the vocal student4 ,a deep breath involves1 then1 a pushing down of the diaphragm and a pushing out of the lower ribs1 and not merely an expansion of the upper part of the chest4 ,the singer must form the habit of breathing in this way at all times4 ,to test breathing1 the singer may place the hands about the waist on the sides of the thorax 7fingers toward the front1 thumbs toward the back7 and see whether there is good side expansion of the ribs in inhaling1 and whether in taking breath the abdomen swells out1 receding as the air is expelled4 ,we have always felt that a few minutes spent at each chorus rehearsal in deep breathing and in vocalizing would more than justify the time taken from practising music2 but such exercises should not be undertaken unless the conductor understands singing and knows exactly what their purpose is4 ,it is important that the conductor should understand the difference between the use of the singer's full breath which we have been describing1 and his half breath4 ,the full breath is taken at punctuation marks of greater value1 at long rests1 before long sustained tones1 and1 in solo singing1 before long trills or cadenzas4 ,the half breath is usually taken at the lesser punctuation marks and at short rests1 when it is necessary to replenish the supply of air in as short a time as possible1 in order not to interrupt the legato any more than is absolutely necessary4 ,sidenote3 ,,breath ,,control ,the next point to be noted is that1 having provided as large a supply of air as possible every particle of it must now be made use of in producing tone2 in the first place1 in order that no breath may be wasted1 and in the second place1 in order that the purity of the tone may not be marred by non-vocalized escaping breath4 ,this implies absolute breath control1 and the skilful singer is able to render incredibly long phrases in one breath1 not so much because his lungs have more capacity1 but because every atom of breath actually functions in producing vocal tone4 ,and because of the fact that no breath escapes without setting the cords in vibration1 the tone is clear1 and not breathy4 ,the secret of expressive singing in sustained melody is absolutely steady tone combined with a perfect legato1 and neither of these desirable things can be achieved without perfect breath control1 this matter applying to choral singing as forcefully as it does to solo work4 ,sidenote3 ,,resonance ,the next point to be noted is that the carrying power and quality of a voice depend far more upon the use made of the resonance cavities than upon the violence with which the vocal cords vibrate4 ,every musical instrument involves1 in its production of tone1 a combination of three elements3 #a4 ,the vibrating body4 #b4 ,the force which sets the body in vibration4 #c4 ,the reinforcing medium 7the sound board of a piano1 the body of a violin1 et cetera47 ,in the case of the human voice1 the vocal cords 7or1 as they might more properly be termed1 the vocal bands7 constitute the vibrating body2 the air expelled from the lungs is the force which sets the cords in vibration2 and the cavities of the mouth1 nose1 and to a lesser extent1 of the remainder of the head and even of the chest1 are the reinforcing medium--the resonator4 ,a small voice cannot of course be made into a large one2 but by improving its placement1 and particularly by reinforcing it with as much resonance power as possible1 it may be caused to fill even a large auditorium4 ,this involves such details as keeping the tongue down1 allowing part of the air to pass through the nose1 focusing the tone against the roof of the mouth just back of the teeth1 opening the mouth exactly the right distance1 forming the lips in just the right way1 et cetera4 ,the result is that instead of sounding as though it came from the throat1 the tone apparently comes from the upper part of the mouth just back of the teeth2 and instead of seeming to be forced out1 it appears to flow or float out without the slightest effort on the part of the singer4 ,a forced or squeezed-out tone is always bad--bad for the voice and bad for the ear of the listener6 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,vowel ,,in ,,singing ,another point to be noted by the conductor is that one sings upon vowels and not upon consonants2 that most of the consonants are in fact merely devices for interrupting the vowel sounds in various ways2 and that good tone depends largely upon the ability of the singer to select the best of several different sounds of the vowel and to hold this sound without any change in quality during the entire time that the tone is prolonged4 ,it is comparatively easy to make a good tone with some vowels1 but extremely difficult with others1 and it is the singer's task so to modify the vowel that is unfavorable as to make it easier to produce good tone in using it4 ,but while thus modifying the actual vowel sound1 the integrity of the vowel must at least be sufficiently preserved to enable the listener to understand what vowel is being sung4 ,all this is particularly difficult in singing loudly1 and it is largely for this reason that the vocal student is required by his teacher to practise softly so much of the time4 ,some vowels have two parts 7e4g41 i e71 and here it is the singer's task to sustain the part upon which the better tone can be made1 sounding the other part only long enough to produce a correct total effect4 ,sidenote3 ,,consonants ,as noted above1 the consonants are in general merely devices for cutting off the flow of vowel sound in various ways1 and one of the most difficult problems confronting the singer in his public performances is to articulate the consonants so skilfully that the words shall be easy to follow by the audience1 and at the same time to keep the vowel sounds so pure and their flow so uninterrupted that the singing may be perfect in its tone quality and in its legato4 ,it is because this matter presents great difficulty that the words of the singer with a good legato can so seldom be understood1 while the declamatory vocalist who presents his words faultlessly is apt to sing with no legato at all4 ,the problem is not insoluble1 but its solution can only be accomplished through years of study under expert guidance4 ,vocal teachers in general will probably disagree with us2 but it is our opinion that in choral performance at least1 the tone rather than the words should be sacrificed if one or the other has to give way1 and the choral conductor is therefore advised to study the use of the consonants most carefully1 and to find out how to make use of every means of securing well enunciated words from his body of singers4 ,sidenote3 ,,relaxation ,the next point to be noted is the importance of what vocal teachers refer to as the movable lower jaw1 this1 of course1 implying absolute 7but controlled7 relaxation of all muscles used in singing4 ,without relaxation of this sort1 the tone is very likely to be badly placed1 the sound seeming to come from the throat1 and the whole effect being that of tone squeezed out or forced out instead of tone flowing or floating out1 as described in a previous paragraph4 ,this difficulty is1 of course1 most obvious in singing the higher tones2 and one remedy within the reach of the choral conductor is to test all voices carefully and not to allow anyone to sing a part that is obviously too high4 ,but in addition to this general treatment of the matter1 it will often be possible for the director to urge upon his chorus the necessity of relaxation in producing tone1 thus reminding those who tighten up unconsciously that they are not singing properly1 and conveying to those who are ignorant of the matter at least a hint regarding a better use of their voices4 ,sidenote3 ,,vocal ,,registers ,a vocal register has been defined as a series of tones produced by the same mechanism4 ,this means that in beginning with the lowest tone of the voice and ascending the scale1 one comes to a point where before going on to the next scale-tone1 a readjustment of the vocal organs is necessary1 this change in the action of the larynx and vocal cords being felt by the singer and heard by the listener4 ,the point at which the readjustment takes place1 i4e41 the place where the voice goes from one register into another1 is called the break2 and one of the things the voice trainer tries to do for each pupil is to teach him to pass so skilfully from one register to another that these breaks will not be noticeable to the hearer--the voice eventually sounding an even scale from its lowest to its highest tone4 ,there is considerable difference of opinion as to the number of registers existing in any one voice1 but perhaps the majority of writers incline to the view that there are three2 the chest or lower1 the thin or middle1 and the small or head4 ,it should be noted1 however1 that the readjustment in the action of the vocal cords referred to above probably takes place only when passing from the lowest register to the next higher one1 and that such changes in action as occur at other points are more or less indefinite and possibly even somewhat imaginary4 ,authorities differ as to just what the change in mechanism is in passing from the chest register to the middle one2 but the most plausible explanation seems to be that in the lowest register1 the change in pitch from a lower tone to the next higher one is accomplished at least partly by stretching the vocal bands more tightly1 and that when the limit of this stretching process has been reached1 the cords relax slightly1 and from this point on each higher tone is made by shortening the vibrating portion of the cords2 in other words1 by decreasing the length of the glottis 7the aperture between the vocal cords74 ,this point may become clearer if we compare the process with tuning a violin string4 ,the string may be a third or a fourth below its normal pitch when the violinist begins to tune his instrument1 but by turning the peg and thus stretching the string tighter and tighter1 the tone is raised by small degrees until the string gives forth the pitch that it is supposed to sound4 ,but this same string may now be made to play higher and higher pitches by pressing it against the fingerboard1 thus shortening the vibrating portion more and more4 ,the tuning process may be said to compare roughly with the mechanism of the chest register of the human voice2 while the shortening of the string by pressing it against the fingerboard is somewhat analogous to what takes place in the higher registers of the voice4 ,we have now enumerated what seem to us to be the most essential matters connected with vocal procedure2 and if to such information as is contained in the foregoing paragraphs the conductor adds the knowledge that the messa di voce 7a beautiful vocal effect produced by swelling a tone from soft to loud and then back again7 is to be produced by increase and decrease of breath pressure and not by a greater or lesser amount of straining of the throat muscles2 that portamento 7gliding by infinitely small degrees in pitch from one tone to another71 although a valuable and entirely legitimate expressional effect when used occasionally in a passage where its employment is appropriate1 may be over-used to such an extent as to result in a slovenly1 vulgar1 and altogether objectionable style of singing2 and that whereas the vibrato may imbue with virility and warmth an otherwise cold1 dead tone and if skilfully and judiciously used may add greatly to the color and vitality of the singing1 the tremolo is on the other hand a destroyer of pitch accuracy1 a despoiler of vocal idealism1 and an abhorrence to the listener2 if our conductor knows these and other similar facts about singing1 then he will not run quite so great a risk of making himself ridiculous in the eyes of the singers whom he is conducting as has sometimes been the case when instrumentalists have assumed control of vocal forces4 ,but let us emphasize again the fact that these things cannot be learned from a book1 but must be acquired through self-activity1 i4e41 by actual experience in singing2 hence the importance of vocal study on the part of the prospective choral conductor4 ,in conclusion1 let us enumerate the main points involved in what is called good singing--these points applying to choral music as directly as to solo performance4 #a4 ,the intonation must be perfect2 i4e41 the tones produced must be neither sharp nor flat1 but exactly true to pitch4 #b4 ,the tone must be attacked and released exactly at the right pitch2 i4e41 the voice must not begin on some indefinite lower tone and slide up1 or on a higher tone and slide down1 but must begin on precisely the right pitch4 #c4 ,the tone must be absolutely steady1 and there must be no wavering1 no tremolo1 no uncertainty4 ,this means absolute breath control4 #d4 ,the tones must follow one another without break1 unless the character of the music demands detached effects2 in other words1 there must be a perfect legato4 ,the tones must also follow each other cleanly1 unless the character of the music makes the use of portamento desirable4 #e4 ,the singer must feel the mood of each song1 and must sing as he feels1 if he is to perform with real expression4 ,this is a much more vital matter in song interpretation than the mere mechanical observation of tempo and dynamic indications4 #f4 ,the text must be enunciated with sufficient clarity to enable the audience to catch at least the most important ideas presented4 ,this involves not only the complete pronunciation of each syllable instead of the slovenly half-pronunciation so commonly heard2 but implies as well that the sounds be formed well forward in the mouth instead of back in the throat4 ,if the singing of a soloist or a chorus can meet the test of these requirements1 the singing may be called good4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,program ,,making ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,problem ,,stated ,in constructing a concert program for either a solo or an ensemble performance1 and in the case of both vocal and instrumental music1 at least five important points must be taken into consideration3 #a4 ,variety4 #b4 ,unity4 #c4 ,effective arrangement4 #d4 ,appropriate length4 #e4 ,adaptability to audience4 ,sidenote3 ,,variety ,we have given variety first place advisedly2 for it is by changing the style and particularly through varying the emotional quality of the selections that the conductor or performer will find it most easy to hold the attention and interest of the audience4 ,in these days the matter of keeping an audience interested presents far greater difficulty than formerly1 for our audiences are now much more accustomed to hearing good music than they used to be1 and a performance that is moderately good and that would probably have held the attention from beginning to end in the olden days will now often be received with yawning1 coughing1 whispering1 early leaving1 and a spirit of uneasiness permeating the entire audience1 especially during the latter part of the program4 ,the change of etiquette brought about by the phenomenal popularization of the moving picture theater has doubtless had something to do with this change in the attitude of our audiences2 the spread of musical knowledge and the far greater intelligence concerning musical performance manifested by the average audience of today as compared with that of fifty years ago is also partly responsible2 but the brunt of the charge must be borne by our habitual attitude of nervous hurry1 our impatience with slow processes of any kind1 and the demand for constant change of sensation that is coming to characterize ,americans of all ages and classes4 ,it is doubtless unfortunate that conditions are as they are2 but since the attitude of our audiences has admittedly undergone a decided change1 it behooves the program maker to face conditions as they actually exist1 rather than to pretend that they are as he should like them to be4 ,since our audiences are harder to hold now than formerly1 and since our first-class performers 7except possibly in the case of orchestral music7 are probably not greatly above the level of the first-class performers of a generation ago 7although larger in number71 it will be necessary to keep the listener interested by employing methods of program making1 which1 although they have always been not only entirely legitimate but highly desirable1 are now absolutely necessary4 ,as stated above1 the obvious way to help our audience to listen to an entire concert is to provide variety of material--a heavy number followed by a light one2 a slow1 flowing adagio by a bright snappy scherzo2 a tragic and emotionally taxing song like the ,erl-,king by a sunny and optimistic lyric2 a song or a group of songs in major possibly relieved by one in minor2 a coloratura aria by a song in cantabile style2 a group of songs in ,french by a group in ,english2 a composition in severe classic style by one of romantic tendency1 et cetera4 ,these contrasting elements are not1 of course1 to be introduced exactly as they are here listed1 and this series of possible contrasts is cited rather to give the amateur maker of programs an idea of what is meant by contrast rather than to lay down rules to be followed in the actual construction of programs4 ,sidenote3 ,,unity ,but while contrast is necessary to keep the audience from becoming bored or weary1 there must not be so much variety that a lack of unity is felt in the program as a whole4 ,it must be constructed like a symphony--out of material that has variety and yet that all belongs together4 ,in other words1 the program1 like a musical composition1 must achieve unity in variety2 and this is the second main problem confronting the conductor or performer who is planning a concert4 ,it is impossible to give specific directions as to how unity is to be secured1 for this is a matter to be determined almost wholly upon the basis of taste1 and taste is not subjectable to codification4 ,the most that we can do for the amateur at this point1 as at so many others1 is to set before him the main problem involved1 and in constructing a program1 this is undoubtedly to provide variety of material and yet to select numbers that go well together and seem to cohere as a unified group4 ,sidenote3 ,,length ,our third question in making a program of musical works is1 how long shall it be8 ,the answer is1 ,it depends upon the quality of the audience4 ,an audience composed largely of trained concert-goers1 many of whom are themselves musicians1 can listen to a program composed of interesting works and presented by a first-rate artist even though it extends through a period of two and a half hours1 although on general principles a two-hour program is probably long enough4 ,but one made up mostly of people who have had very little musical training1 who read little except the daily newspaper and the lightest sort of fiction1 and whose chief amusement is probably attendance upon the picture show1--such an audience must not be expected to listen to a program that is either too heavy or too long2 and our judgment is that for such a group a program an hour and a half long is probably more suitable than one of two or two and a half hours4 ,our feeling is1 furthermore1 that the tired business man would not object so strenuously to attending the serious musical performances to which his wife urges him to go if some of these matters were considered more carefully by the artist in planning the program6 ,but here again1 of course1 we have a matter which depends altogether upon the kind of music presented1 whether the entire program is given by one artist or whether there are several performers1 whether the whole program is of one kind of music or whether there is variety of voice and instrument1 whether the performers are amateurs or professionals1 and upon whether the performer is an artist of the first rank and is able by his perfection of technique1 his beauty of tone1 and his emotional verve1 to hold his audience spellbound for an indefinite length of time1 or whether he belongs to the second or third rank of performers and is able to arouse only an average amount of interest4 ,our purpose in including a discussion of the matter is principally in order that we may have an opportunity of warning the amateur conductor not to cause an audience which would probably give favorable consideration to a short program1 to become weary and critical by compelling them to sit through too long a performance4 ,this is particularly true in the case of amateur performance2 and since this book is written chiefly for the amateur director1 it may not be out of order to advise him at this point to plan programs not more than an hour or an hour and a quarter long1 at first4 ,it is far better to have the audience leaving the auditorium wishing the program had been longer than to have them grumbling because it is too long4 ,sidenote3 ,,adaptability ,,to ,,audiences ,our fourth problem has already been presented in discussing the other three1 for it is because of the necessity of adapting the performance to the audience that we have insisted upon variety1 unity1 and reasonable length4 ,many a concert has turned out to be an utter fiasco because of failure on the part of the program maker to consider the type of people who were to listen to it2 and although on such occasions it is customary for the performer to ascribe his failure to the stupidity of the audience1 it must nevertheless be acknowledged that the fault is more commonly to be laid at the door of the one who planned the event4 ,a program composed of two symphonies and an overture or two1 or of two or three ,beethoven sonatas1 is not a suitable meal for the conglomerate crowd comprising the average audience2 indeed it is doubtful whether in general it is the best kind of diet for any group of listeners4 ,here again we cannot give specific directions1 since conditions vary greatly1 and we must content ourselves once more with having opened up the problem for thought and discussion4 ,sidenote3 ,,effective ,,arrangement ,having selected musical material that is varied in content and yet appropriate for performance upon the same program2 having taken into consideration what kind of music is adapted to our audience and how much of it they will probably be able to listen to without becoming weary2 our final problem will now be so to arrange the numbers that each one will be presented at the point in the program where it will be likely to be most favorably received1 and will make the most lasting impression upon the auditors4 ,in general1 of course1 the heavier part of the program should usually come in the first half and the lighter part in the second1 for the simple reason that it is at the beginning that our minds and bodies are fresh and unwearied1 and since we are able to give closer attention at that time we should accordingly be supplied with the more strenuous music when we are best able to digest it4 ,but although this is doubtless true in most cases1 we have often noticed that audiences are restless during the first part of the concert1 and frequently do not get warmed up to the point of giving close attention to the performance until ten or fifteen minutes after the program begins1 and sometimes not until the second half has been reached4 ,for this reason1 and also to cover the distraction arising from the entrance of the ubiquitous late-comer1 it seems best to us that some shorter and lighter work be placed at the very beginning of the program--possibly an overture1 in the case of a symphony concert4 ,the phenomenon here alluded to has an exact parallel in the church service4 ,when we enter the church1 we are thinking about all sorts of things connected with our daily life1 and it takes us some little time to forget these extraneous matters and adjust ourselves to the spirit of a church service1 and particularly to get into the appropriate mood for listening to a sermon4 ,the organ prelude and other preliminary parts of the service have as their partial function1 at least1 the transference of our thoughts and attitudes from their former chaotic and egoistic state to one more appropriate to the demands of the more serious part of the service to follow4 ,somewhat the same sort of thing is found in the case of the majority of people who go to a concert hall for an evening's performance1 and although the end to be attained is of course altogether different1 yet the method should probably be somewhat the same4 ,our feeling is therefore that there ought usually to be some comparatively light number at the beginning of the concert program in order that we may be assisted in getting into the listening mood before the heavier works are presented4 ,on the other hand1 an artist often plunges into a difficult composition at the very beginning of the concert1 and by his marvelous technique or his tremendous emotional vitality sweeps his audience immediately into an attitude of rapt attention2 all of which proves again that art is intangible1 subtle1 and ever-varying--as we stated at the beginning4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,importance ,,of ,,small ,,details ,in concluding our very brief statement of program-making1 it may be well to mention the fact that small details often have a good deal to do with the failure of audiences to follow the program with as keen attention as might be desired4 ,these details are often overlooked or disdained merely because they seem too trifling to make it worth the artist's while to notice them2 but by seeing to it that the concert hall is well warmed 7or well cooled71 that it is well lighted and well ventilated2 that the doors are closed when the first number begins1 and that no one is allowed to enter during the performance of any number2 that there are no long waits either at the beginning or between numbers2 that unnecessary street and other outside noises are stopped or shut out so far as practicable2 and that the printed program 7if it has more than one sheet7 is so arranged that the pages do not have to be turned while compositions are being performed--by providing in advance for someone who will see to all these little matters1 the artist may often be rewarded by a fine type of concentrated attention which would not be possible if the minds of the individuals comprising the audience were being distracted by these other things4 ,the printer too bears no small responsibility in this matter of having an audience follow a program with undiminished attention from beginning to end1 and there is no doubt that the tastefully printed page 7and particularly if there are explanatory remarks concerning the composer1 style1 meaning of the composition1 et cetera7 will usually be followed with much keener attention than one the parts of which have merely been thrown together4 ,the reason for this we shall leave for some one else to discuss--possibly some writer of the future upon the psychology of the printed page4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,conductor ,,and ,,accompanist ,sidenote3 ,,necessity ,,of ,,cordial ,,relation ,in chorus directing1 it is of the utmost importance that conductor and accompanist not only understand one another thoroughly1 but that the relationship between them be so sympathetic1 so cordial1 that there may never be even a hint of non-unity in the ensemble4 ,the unskilful or unsympathetic accompanist may utterly ruin the effect of the most capable conducting2 and the worst of it is that if the accompanist is lacking in cordiality toward the conductor1 he can work his mischief so subtly as to make it appear to all concerned as if the conductor himself were to blame for the ununified attacks and ragged rhythms4#ce ,footnote #ce3 ,on the other hand1 the conductor sometimes shifts the responsibility for mishaps to the accompanist when the latter is in no wise to blame1 as1 e4g41 when the organ ciphers or a page does not turn properly4 ,sidenote3 ,,choosing ,,the ,,accompanist ,in order to obviate the disadvantages that are likely to arise from having a poor accompanist1 the conductor must exercise the greatest care in choosing his coworker4 ,unless he knows of some one concerning whose ability there is no question1 the best plan is probably to have several candidates compete for the position2 and in this case1 the points to be especially watched for are as follows3 #a4 ,adequate technique4 #b4 ,good reading ability4 #c4 ,sympathetic response to vocal nuance4 #d4 ,willingness to cooperate and to accept suggestions4 ,of these four1 the last two are by no means the least important2 and sometimes it is better to choose the person who has less skill in reading or technique but who has sufficient innate musical feeling to enable him not only to follow a soloist's voice or a conductor's beat intelligently1 but even to anticipate the dynamic and tempo changes made by singer or conductor4 ,the minds of conductor and accompanist must work as one4 ,in stopping his chorus for a correction1 it should be possible for the conductor to assume that the accompanist has followed him so carefully and is in such close musical rapport with him that1 before the conductor speaks1 the accompanist has already found the badly executed passage1 and the instant the conductor cites page and score1 is ready to play the phrase or interval that was wrongly rendered4 ,the same sort of thing ought of course to take place whenever there is a change of tempo1 and it is to be noted that in all these cases the accompanist must make a musical response to the conductor's interpretation1 and not merely an obedient one4 ,sidenote3 ,,courteous ,,treatment ,,necessary ,having chosen the best available person to do the accompanying1 the next thing in order will be to treat the accompanist in such a way that he will always do his best and be a real help in causing the chorus to produce effective results4 ,next to the conductor1 the accompanist is undoubtedly the most important factor in producing fine choral singing2 hence our reference to the accompanist as the conductor's coworker4 ,the first thing to note in connection with getting the best possible help from the accompanist is that he shall always be treated in a pleasant1 courteous way1 and the conductor must learn at the very outset not to expect impossible things from him2 not to blame him for things that may go wrong when some one else is really responsible2 and in general1 to do his utmost to bring about and to maintain friendly1 pleasant relations4 ,this will mean a smile of approval when the accompanist has done particularly well2 it may involve publicly sharing honors with him after a well rendered performance2 and it certainly implies a receptive attitude on the conductor's part if the accompanist is sufficiently interested to make occasional suggestions about the rendition of the music4 ,if you as conductor find it necessary to make criticisms or suggestions to the accompanist1 do this privately1 not in the presence of the chorus4 ,much of the sting of a criticism frequently results from the fact that others have heard it1 and very often if the matter is brought up with the utmost frankness in a private interview1 no bad blood will result1 but if a quarter as much be said in the presence of others1 a rankling wound may remain which will make it extremely difficult for the conductor and accompanist to do good musical work together thenceforth4 ,sidenote3 ,,necessity ,,of ,,providing ,,the ,,music ,,in ,,advance ,one of the best ways to save time at the rehearsal is to provide the accompanist with the music in advance4 ,even a skilful reader will do more intelligent work the first time a composition is taken up if he has had an opportunity to go through it beforehand4 ,this may involve considerable trouble on the conductor's part1 but his effort will be well rewarded in the much more effective support that the accompanist will be able to furnish if he has had an opportunity to look over the music4 ,when the accompanist is not a good reader1 it is1 of course1 absolutely imperative that he not only be given an opportunity to study the score in advance1 but that he be required to do so4 ,if in such a case the conductor does not see to it that a copy of the music is placed in the accompanist's hands several days before each rehearsal1 he will simply be digging his own grave1 figuratively speaking1 and will have no one but himself to blame for the poor results that are bound to follow4 ,sidenote3 ,,organ ,,accompanying ,if the accompaniments are played on the organ1 the conductor will need to take into consideration the fact that preparing and manipulating stops1 pistons1 and combination pedals takes time1 and he will therefore not expect the organist to be ready to begin to play the instant he takes his place on the bench2 neither will he be unreasonable enough to assume that the organist ought to be ready to pass from one number to another 7e4g41 from a solo accompaniment to a chorus7 without being given a reasonable amount of time for arranging the organ4 ,the fact that in such a case the accompanist has been working continuously1 whereas the director has had an opportunity of resting during the solo number1 ought also to be taken into consideration2 and it may not be unreasonable for the organist to wish for a moment's pause in order that he may adjust his mental attitude from that demanded by the preceding number to that which is appropriate to the number to follow4 ,all this is especially to be noted in performances of sacred music1 in which no time is taken between the numbers for applause4 ,in any case1 the least the conductor can do is to watch for the organist to look up after he has prepared the organ1 and then to signal him pleasantly with a nod and a smile that he is ready to go on with the next number4 ,this will not only insure complete preparedness of the organ1 but will help oil the machinery and keep relations pleasant4 ,the conductor of a church choir should remember that the organist has probably studied and is familiar with the dynamic resources of his instrument to a much greater extent than the conductor2 and that many times the organist is not depending upon his ear in deciding the amount of organ needed1 so much as upon his knowledge of what the total effect will be in the auditorium4 ,it is frequently impossible to tell from the choir loft how loud or how soft the sound of the organ is in the body of the house4 ,the conductor1 not knowing the dynamic values of the various stop combinations as well as the organist1 must not presume to criticize the latter for playing too loudly or too softly unless he has gone down into the auditorium to judge the effect there4 ,even this is not an absolute guide1 for the balance is very likely to be different when the auditorium is full of people from what it was when empty4 ,moreover1 the amount of choral tone frequently increases greatly under the stimulus of public performance4 ,all in all1 therefore1 a good organist should be permitted to use his own judgment in this matter4 ,in any case1 do not resort to conspicuous gestures to let him know that there is too much or too little organ4 ,he has probably discovered it as soon as you have1 and will add or subtract as soon as it can be done without making an inartistic break in the dynamic continuity of the accompaniment4 ,if a signal becomes absolutely necessary1 make it as inconspicuously as possible4 ,sidenote3 ,,accompanist ,,must ,,see ,,director ,we have previously stressed the fact that the conductor must stand so that his beat may be easily seen by all performers2 and this matter is of the utmost importance in connection with the accompanist4 ,he must be able to see you easily if he is to follow your beat accurately2 further1 he should be able to see your face as well as your baton1 if a really sympathetic musical relationship is to exist4 ,this may appear to be a small point1 but its non-observance is responsible for many poor attacks and for much dragging and running away on the part of accompanists4 ,the sum and substance of the whole matter may be epitomized in the advice1 ,be courteous1 considerate1 and sensible in dealing with your accompanist and verily thou shalt receive thy reward6 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,efficiency ,,in ,,the ,,rehearsal ,sidenote3 ,,organizing ,,ability ,,needed ,,to ,,avoid ,,wasting ,,time ,having now reviewed the various essentials in conducting from the standpoint of public performance1 we wish emphatically to state our conviction that in many cases both choruses and orchestras have been short-lived1 being abandoned after a season or two of more or less unsatisfactory work1 directly as a result of the inefficient methods used by the conductor in the rehearsal4 ,in an earlier chapter 7p4 #ah7 we noted that the successful conductor of the present day must possess a personality combining traits almost opposite in their nature2 viz41 artistry and organizing ability4 ,we were referring at that time to business sense in general as needed by the conductor in selecting works to be performed1 deciding upon the place1 duration1 and number of rehearsal periods1 engaging artists to assist in the public performances1 and in general1 seeing to it that the business details of the organization are attended to in an efficient manner4 ,but such organizing ability is needed most of all in planning and conducting the rehearsal1 and there is no doubt that mediocre results at the public performance and not infrequently the actual breaking up of amateur organizations may be traced more often to the inability of the conductor to make the best use of his time in the always inadequate rehearsal hour than to any other source4 ,it is for this reason that we have thought best to devote an entire chapter to a discussion of what might be termed ,the ,technique of the ,rehearsal4 ,sidenote3 ,,efficiency ,,not ,a ,,destroyer ,,of ,,idealism ,the word efficiency has been used so frequently in recent years that it has come to be in almost as bad odor as the word artistic1 as employed by the would-be critic of esthetic effects4 ,this antipathy to the word is perhaps most pronounced on the part of the artist1 and there has been a well-defined feeling on the part of a good many of us that efficiency and advancement in art appreciation do not perhaps go hand-in-hand as much as might be desired4 ,granting the validity of this criticism of efficiency as a national ideal1 it must nevertheless be evident that the artist has in the past been far too little concerned with life's business affairs1 and that both he and his family on the one hand1 and those having business relations with him on the other would be far better off if the artist would cultivate a more businesslike attitude in his relationships with the rest of the world4 ,however this may be in general1 it is certain that the conductor of the present must take more definitely into consideration what is going on outside the world of art2 must recognize the fact that this is now a busy world and that there are a great many interesting things to do and a great many more distractions and amusements than there were a half-century ago2 and that if the members of a chorus or orchestra 7particularly in the case of an amateur society7 are to continue to attend rehearsals regularly and to keep up their enthusiasm for the work of the organization1 the conductor must see to it that something tangible is accomplished not only during each season1 but in each and every practice hour1 and that regular attendance at the rehearsals does not cause the members to feel that they are wasting time and energy4 ,this is1 after all1 the essence of scientific management--to accomplish some desired result without any waste moves and without squandering valuable material2 and surely no artistic loss will be involved if efficiency of this type is applied to conducting a musical rehearsal4 ,on the contrary1 the application of such methods will enable the conductor to secure a much higher degree of artistry in the public performance because1 by avoiding any waste of time in rehearsing1 he will be able to put the musicians through the music more often1 and thus not only arouse greater confidence on their part1 but be enabled to emphasize more strongly the interpretative1 the artistic aspect of the music4 ,most of the rehearsal hour is often spent in drilling upon mere correctness of tone and rhythm1 especially in the case of amateur organizations4 ,in order to make these matters as concrete and practical as possible1 we shall give in the remainder of this chapter a series of somewhat unrelated suggestions about conducting an ensemble rehearsal1 trusting that the reader will forgive the didactic 7and possibly pedantic7 language in which they are couched4 ,sidenote3 ,,planning ,,the ,,rehearsal ,do not make the mistake of attempting to study your score at the same time that your singers or players are learning it4 ,study your music exhaustively beforehand so that at the rehearsal you may know definitely just what you are going to do with each selection and may be able to give pointed directions as to its rendition4 ,this will enable you to look at your performers most of the time1 and the freedom from the score thus allowed will make your conducting very much more effective and will enable you to stir your singers out of their state of inertia very much more quickly4 ,weingartner1 in writing upon this point 7with especial reference to the public performance7 says3#cf ,he should know it the score so thoroughly that during the performance the score is merely a support for his memory1 not a fetter on his thought4 ,the same writer in another place quotes von ,blow as dividing conductors into those who have their heads in the score1 and those who have the score in their heads6 ,footnote #cf3 ,weingartner1 ,on ,conducting1 p4 #dc4 ,study the individual voice parts1 so as to find out so far as possible beforehand where the difficult spots are and mark these with blue pencil1 so that when you want to drill on these places1 you may be able to put your finger on them quickly4 ,it is very easy to lose the attention of your performers by delay in finding the place which you want them to practise4 ,it is a good plan1 also1 to mark with blue pencil some of the more important dynamic and tempo changes so that these may be obvious to the eye when you are standing several feet from the desk4 ,decide beforehand upon some plan of studying each composition1 and if a number of works are to be taken up at any given rehearsal1 think over in advance the order in which they are to be studied4 ,in brief1 make a plan for each rehearsal1 writing it out if necessary1 and thus avoid wasting time in deciding what is to be done4 ,in case you are a choir director1 learn also to plan your services weeks or even months in advance1#cg and then keep working toward the complete carrying out of your plan by familiarizing your musicians with the material as far in advance of the public performance as possible4 ,in this way the music is absorbed1 as it were1 and the singers and players are much more apt to feel at ease in performing it than when it has been taken up at only one or two rehearsals4 ,footnote #cg3 ,the complete list of works to be given by leading symphony orchestras during the entire season is usually decided upon during the preceding summer1 and somewhat the same procedure might profitably be followed with a church choir or an amateur orchestra4 ,sidenote3 ,,discipline ,,in ,,the ,,rehearsal ,it is impossible to conduct well unless you have the absolute attention of every singer or player4 ,hence the discipline at all rehearsals must be rather strict and the performers must be trained to keep their eyes on you practically all the time4 7,in the case of choral music1 it would be well to have a great deal more of it entirely committed to memory so that at the performance the singers might be enabled to give the conductor their absolute attention47 ,you have a perfect right to demand that all shall work industriously during every working minute of the rehearsal hour and that there shall be no whispering or fooling whatsoever1 either while you are giving directions1 or while you are conducting4 ,if you are unfortunate enough to have in your organization certain individuals who do not attend to the work in hand even after a private admonition1 it will be far better to drop them from the organization1 for they are bound to do more harm than good if they are retained4 ,on the other hand1 you will recognize the temptation to whisper which the performer feels while you are giving a long-winded explanation of some pet theory of yours1 and you will accordingly cut down the amount of talking you do to the minimum4 ,a good rule to follow is this3 ,talk little at the rehearsal1 but when you do talk1 be sure that every one listens4 ,keep your performers so busy that they will have no time to think about anything but the work in hand4 ,plan plenty of work so as to be able to keep things moving through the entire hour4 ,better a rehearsal conducted in this way and only one hour long1 than a slow-moving1 boresome affair1 two hours in length4 ,if the tax of such concentrated attention is too severe to be kept up constantly for an entire hour1 plan to have a five-minute intermission when everyone may talk and laugh and thus relax4 ,the author has found that with a body of amateur singers1 a ninety-minute rehearsal1 with a five- to seven-minute intermission in the middle1 works very well indeed4 ,sidenote3 ,,beginning ,,the ,,rehearsal ,do not shout at your chorus or orchestra if the members are noisy4 ,wait until the noise subsides entirely before you begin to speak1 and address them in a quiet1 dignified1 authoritative way when you do begin4 ,unless you have some pointed remark to make about the rendition of the music1 it is far better to give merely the place of beginning without making any remarks at all4 ,securing quiet by a prolonged rapping with the baton is a sign of weak discipline4 ,do not rap at all until the music is distributed1 the accompanist in his place and ready to begin1 your score open1 and until you know exactly what you are going to do first4 ,then let just a slight tap or two suffice to notify everyone that the rehearsal is to begin at once4 ,sidenote3 ,,learning ,,difficult ,,passages ,in drilling on a difficult passage1 it is usually better to stop at the actual spot where the mistake occurs than to go on to the end and then turn back4 ,find the exact spot that is causing trouble and reduce the area of correction to its narrowest limits1 as one writer#ch states it4 ,it is to be noted that merely one repetition of such a passage is usually of little avail4 ,it must be gone over enough times to fix the correct method of rendition in mind and muscle as a habit4 ,if a section sings a certain passage incorrectly twice and then correctly only once1 the chances are that the fourth time will be like the first two rather than like the third4 ,the purpose of drilling on such a passage is to eradicate the wrong impression entirely and substitute for it an entirely new habit at that point4 ,after learning a difficult tonal or rhythmic phrase in this way1 be sure to fit it into its environment before assuming that it has been finally mastered4 ,the difficulty in such passages often consists not in performing the intervals or rhythms in isolation1 but in doing them while the other parts are going on4 ,footnote #ch3 ,richardson1 ,the ,choir-trainer's ,art1 p4 #aef4 ,sidenote3 ,,locate ,,difficult ,,spots ,,quickly ,in directing attention to some particular place in the score about which you wish to speak1 give the details of your direction always in the same order1 viz43 7#a7 page1 7#b7 score 7or brace if you prefer71 7#c7 measure1 7#d7 beat4 ,thus e4g41 ,page #dg1 second score1 fourth measure1 beginning with the second beat4 ,give the direction slowly and very distinctly1 and then do not repeat it2 i4e41 get your musicians into the habit of listening to you the first time you say a thing instead of the second or third4 ,carrying out this plan may result in confusing unpreparedness on the part of your singers or players for a time or two1 but if the plan is adhered to consistently they will very soon learn to listen to your first announcement--and you will save a large amount of both time and energy4 ,sidenote3 ,,rehearsal ,,letters ,,and ,,numbers ,ensemble music is frequently supplied with rehearsal letters or numbers1 these enabling the performers to locate a passage very quickly4 ,when not printed in the score1 it will often be a saving of time for the conductor to insert such letters or numbers in his own copy of the music in advance of the first rehearsal1 asking the members to insert the marks in their music as he dictates their location by page and score1 or by counting measures in the case of orchestra music4 ,these letters or numbers are best inserted with soft red or blue pencil4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,whole ,,method ,,of ,,learning ,when a new composition is to be taken up1 go through it as a whole a few times1 so as to give everyone a general idea of its content and of the connection and relation of its parts4 ,after this1 begin to work at the difficult spots that you have found1 then when it begins to go fairly well1 work definitely for expressive rendition4 ,you will of course not expect ordinary performers to go through the composition the first time in a very artistic fashion4 ,if they keep going and do not make too many mistakes1 they will have done all that non-professionals should be expected to do4 ,psychologists have found as the result of careful investigation that the whole method of study is much to be preferred to what might be termed the part method1 because of the fact that a much clearer and closer association between parts is thus formed1 and there is no doubt but that this point applies very forcibly to the study of music4 ,in an interview published in the ,new ,york ,world in ,june1 #aiaf1 ,harold ,bauer writes as follows about this matter as related to piano music3 ,now1 in taking up a new work for the piano1 the child could and should play right through every page from beginning to end for the purpose of obtaining a definite first impression of the whole4 ,a mess would probably be made of it technically1 but no matter4 ,he would gradually discover just where the places were that required technical smoothing1 and then by playing them over slowly these spots would be technically strengthened4 ,by the time the composition was thoroughly learned the technique would be thoroughly acquired1 too4 ,obtaining first a perfect mental picture of the whole1 and afterward working out the details1 is better than learning a work by starting with the details before gaining a broad impression of the composition as a whole4 ,this method of studying musical compositions is especially important from the standpoint of expression4 ,in many an instance1 the source of wrong interpretation 7or of no interpretation at all7 may be traced directly to a method of studying the composition which has not impressed the singers or players with its essential meaning and spirit1 and with the significance of the various details in relation to the plan of the work as a whole4 ,this is particularly true of choral compositions1 and in taking up such works1 it may often be well for the conductor to read aloud the entire text of the chorus that is being studied in order that the attention of the singers may be focused for a few moments upon the imagery conveyed by the words4 ,such attention is frequently impossible while singing1 because the minds of the singers are intent upon the beauty or difficulty of the purely musical aspects of the composition1 and thus the so-called expression becomes merely a blind and uninspired obedience to certain marks like piano1 forte1 and ritardando--the real spirit of interpretation being entirely absent4 ,sidenote3 ,,distributing ,,and ,,caring ,,for ,,the ,,music ,have the distribution and care of music so systematized that there will be neither confusion nor waste of time in this part of the rehearsal4 ,in a professional organization there will of course be a salaried librarian to see to such work1 but it is entirely possible to secure somewhat the same kind of results in an amateur body by having two or three members elected or appointed for the task1 these persons serving either entirely without salary or being paid a purely nominal sum4 ,these librarians will then be expected to take the responsibility of marking new music1 of distributing and collecting it at such times as may be agreed upon by librarian and conductor1 and of caring for it at concerts or at any other time when it is to be used4 ,it will be the duty also of the head librarian to keep a record of all music loaned or rented1 and to see that it is returned in good condition4 ,it would be well too if he kept a card index1 showing just what music is owned by the organization1 the number of copies of each selection1 the price1 the publisher1 the date when purchased1 et cetera4 ,ask the librarians to come five or ten minutes before the beginning of the rehearsal1 and make it your business to provide one of them with a slip having upon it the names or numbers of all the selections to be used at that particular rehearsal4 ,keeping the music in covers or in separate compartments of a cabinet1 one of which will hold all of the copies of a single selection1 and having these arranged alphabetically or numerically1 will considerably facilitate matters for both you and the librarians4 ,do not think it beneath your dignity to investigate the number of copies of any composition that you are planning to use1 and when there are not enough to supply each singer in the chorus and each desk in the orchestra with a copy1 to see to it that more music is ordered4 ,it is impossible to rehearse efficiently if the singers in a chorus have to use a part of their energy in trying to read music from a book or sheet held by some one else1 or if the players in an orchestra are straining their eyes because three or four instead of two are reading from a single desk4 ,it will be convenient for the conductor to possess a file containing a copy of each number in the library at his home or studio1 each copy being marked conductor's copy4 ,in this way1 the director will always be assured of having the same music1 and will feel that it is worth while to mark it in such a way as to make it more useful in both rehearsal and performance4 ,sidenote3 ,,counting ,,aloud1 ,,tapping1 ,,and ,,singing ,,with ,,the ,,chorus ,do not make the mistake of counting or tapping on the desk constantly during the rehearsal4 ,you may think you are strengthening the rhythm1 but as a matter of fact1 you are actually weakening it1 for in this way you take away from the performers the necessity of individual muscular response to the pulse1 and at the performance 7when you cannot1 of course1 count or tap7 the rhythm is very likely to be flabby and uncertain4 ,singing with the chorus is another mistake against which the amateur should be warned4 ,the director not only cannot detect errors and make intelligent criticisms if he sings with the chorus1 but will make the members dependent upon his voice instead of compelling them to form the habit of watching him4 ,the only exception to this principle is in teaching new music to a choir composed of very poor readers1 in which case it is sometimes much easier to teach a difficult phrase by imitation4 ,even here1 however1 it is almost as well to have the organ give the correct tones4 ,in leading community singing1 the conductor will of course sing with the crowd1 for here he is striving for quite a different sort of effect4 ,sidenote3 ,,ventilation ,see to it that the practice room is well ventilated1 especially for a chorus rehearsal4 ,plenty of fresh air will not only enable your chorus to sing with better intonation1 but will allow them to sing for a longer period without fatigue4 7,we are tempted to add a corollary to this proposition3 namely1 that sleepy congregations are not always due to poor preaching1 as is generally supposed1 but are as frequently the result of a combination of fairly good preaching and a badly ventilated auditorium67 ,sidenote3 ,a ,,cappella ,,rehearsing ,in directing a chorus rehearsal1 have your singers study without accompaniment much of the time4 ,the organ covers a multitude of sins and practising without it will not only enable you to discover weaknesses of all sorts but will help the singers themselves enormously by making them more independent1 improving the intonation1 and compelling them to make cleaner and more definite attacks and releases4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,value ,,of ,a ,,sense ,,of ,,humor ,finally1 in concluding both this chapter and the book as a whole1 let us commend once more to the conductor that he cultivate the saving grace of humor4 ,this quality has already been commented on somewhat at length in an earlier chapter 7see p4 #h71 but it is in the rehearsal period that it is most needed1 and the conductor who is fortunate enough to be able to laugh a little when annoyances interrupt or disrupt his plans instead of snarling1 will not only hold the members of the organization together for a longer time1 because of their cordial personal attitude toward him1 but will find himself much less fatigued at the end of the rehearsal2 for nothing drains one's vitality so rapidly as scolding4 ,a bit of humorous repartee1 then1 especially in response to the complaints of some lazy or grouchy performer2 the ability to meet accidental mishaps without anger2 even a humorous anecdote to relieve the strain of a taxing rehearsal--all these are to be highly recommended as means of oiling the machinery of the rehearsal and making it run smoothly4 ,but of course1 even humor can be overdone4 ,so we shall close by quoting the ,greek motto1 ,nothing too much1 which will be found to apply equally well to many other activities recommended in the foregoing pages4 ,,appendix ,a ,,reference ,,list ,i4 ,,general3 ,berlioz1 ,the ,orchestral ,conductor4 ,a short treatise full of practical suggestions4 ,it is found in the back of the author's well-known volume on ,orchestration4 ,weingartner1 ,on ,conducting4 ,a small volume of about seventy-five pages1 but containing excellent material for both amateur and professional4 ,schroeder1 ,handbook of ,conducting4 ,a practical little book from the standpoint of both orchestral and operatic directing4 ,wagner1 ,on ,conducting4 ,a short treatise that every professional conductor will wish to read1 but not of much value to the amateur4 ,mees1 ,choirs and ,choral ,music4 ,a well-written account of the history of choral music from the time of the ,hebrews and ,greeks down to the present1 containing also an excellent chapter on the ,chorus ,conductor4 ,grove1 ,dictionary of ,music and ,musicians 7article1 ,conducting74 ,henderson1 ,what ,is ,good ,music8 7chapters ,,xiii and ,,xvii74 ,krehbiel1 ,how to ,listen to ,music 7chapter ,,viii74 ,,ii4 ,,interpretation3 ,coward1 ,choral ,technique and ,interpretation4 ,one of the few really significant books on conducting4 ,the author gives in a clear and practical way the principles on which his own successful work as a choral conductor was based4 ,matthay1 ,musical ,interpretation4 ,a book for the musician in general1 rather than for the conductor specifically2 an excellent treatise and one that all musicians should read4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,orchestra3 ,lavignac1 ,music and ,musicians 7chapter ,,ii74 ,mason1 ,the ,orchestral ,instruments and ,what ,they ,do4 ,corder1 ,the ,orchestra and ,how to ,write for ,it4 ,prout1 ,the ,orchestra 7two volumes74 ,kling1 ,modern ,orchestration and ,instrumentation4 ,henderson1 ,the ,orchestra and ,orchestral ,music2 contains two chapters 7,,xii and ,,xiii7 on the ,orchestral ,conductor that will be of great interest to the amateur4 ,mason 7,editor71 ,the ,art of ,music 7,vol4 ,,viii74 ,stoeving1 ,the ,art of ,violin ,bowing4 ,forsyth1 ,orchestration4 ,a particularly good book both for professional and amateur1 as it gives many illustrations and treats the various instruments from an historical as well as a practical standpoint4 ,widor1 ,the ,modern ,orchestra4 ,,iv4 ,,the ,,church ,,choir3 ,curwen1 ,studies in ,worship ,music 7two volumes74 ,dickinson1 ,music in the ,history of the ,western ,church4 ,helmore1 ,primer of ,plainsong4 ,pratt1 ,musical ,ministries in the ,church4 ,v4 ,,the ,,boy ,,choir3 ,bates1 ,voice ,culture for ,children4 ,brown and ,behnke1 ,the ,child ,voice4 ,howard1 ,the ,child ,voice in ,singing4 ,johnson1 ,the ,training of ,boys' ,voices4 ,richardson1 ,the ,choir ,trainer's ,art4 ,stubbs1 ,practical ,hints on ,boy ,choir ,training4 ,,vi4 ,,voice ,,training3 ,ffrangon-,davies1 ,the ,singing of the ,future4 ,fillebrown1 ,resonance in ,singing and ,speaking4 ,greene1 ,interpretation in ,song4 ,henderson1 ,the ,art of the ,singer4 ,russell1 ,english ,diction for ,singers and ,speakers4 ,withrow1 ,some ,staccato ,notes for ,singers4 ,,vii4 ,,miscellaneous3 ,hamilton1 ,outlines of ,music ,history4 ,hamilton1 ,sound and ,its ,relation to ,music4 ,,appendix ,b ,,haydn--,,symphony ,no4 #c ,surprise ,symphony ,score of ,second ,movement ,transcriber's ,note3 ,the modern designation for the ,surprise ,symphony is ,no4 #id4 ,music ,,index ,a ,a cappella singing1 #afb4 ,accompanist--,relation to conductor1 #adg4 ,choosing of1 #adg4 ,treatment of1 #adh4 ,accompanying1 organ1 #aej4 ,adolescent boy1 #abd1 #abe4 ,alto1 male1 #aai4 ,altschuler1 quoted1 #fa4 ,anglican chant--,baton movements for1 #cc4 ,attack--,how to secure it1 #cj4 ,in reading new music1 #cb4 ,b ,back stroke1 #bh4 ,baton--,description of1 #bj4 ,how used1 #ba4 ,position of1 #bb4 ,baton movements--,diagrams of1 #bb4 ,principles of1 #bb4 ,length of stroke1 #cb4 ,bauer1 quoted1 #aei4 ,berlioz1 quoted1 #fb4 ,boundaries of music1 #da4 ,bowing--,directions for1 #ajc4 ,signs1 #ajc1 #ajd4 ,boy--,problem of1 #abf-abi4 ,boy choir--,problem of1 #aah4 ,government of1 #abf-abi4 ,remuneration of members1 #abi4 ,boy voice--,in church choir1 #aah-abe4 ,life of1 #abc4 ,during adolescence1 #abd4 ,break--,adult voice1 #acg4 ,child voice1 #abb4 ,breathing1 #acb4 ,breath ,control1 #acc4 ,c ,canadian ,journal of ,music1 quoted1 #ai4 ,caruso1 quoted1 #dd4 ,chant1 ,anglican--,baton movements for1 #cc4 ,cheatham1 quoted1 #hg4 ,cheerful attitude--,value of1 #aj4 ,child ,voice--,peculiarities of1 #aah4 ,difference between boy and girl1 #abj4 ,compass of1 #aba4 ,children1 directing1 #gi4 ,choir1 boy--,problems of1 #aah4 ,boy voice1 #aah1 #aai1 #abj-abe4 ,qualifications of leader1 #aai4 ,remuneration of boys1 #abi4 ,government of boys1 #abf-abi4 ,choir1 church--,problems of directing1 #ajh4 ,remedies1 #aji4 ,difficulties involved in1 #aaa4 ,qualifications of leader1 #aab4 ,danger of individualism1 #aab4 ,solo singing in1 #aad4 ,chorus1 high school--,music for1 #hj4 ,direction of1 #hb4 ,seating of1 #hc ,church music--,remedies needed1 #ajh4 ,solo singing1 #aad4 ,importance of congregation singing1 #aaf4 ,clarinet1 #ii4 ,clearness of speech--,as element in leadership1 #af4 ,community music--,significance of1 #he4 ,social effects of1 #hf4 ,qualifications of song leader1 #hg4 ,song material1 #hi4 ,advertising1 #ij4 ,provision of words1 #ia4 ,compass of child voice1 #aba4 ,compass of orchestral instruments1 #ajg4 ,compound measures1 #bc1 #bd1 #bf1 #bg4 ,conducting--,definition1 #a4 ,history of1 #b4 ,psychological basis of1 #c4 ,orchestral1 #ic4 ,church choir1 #ajh4 ,boy choir1 #aah4 ,conductor--,qualities of1 #h1 #aaj4 ,present status of1 #b1 #c4 ,as organizer1 #ac4 ,as interpreter1 #cf4 ,orchestral1 #ic4 ,relation to accompanist1 #adg-aea4 ,congregational singing1 #aaf4 ,consonants in singing1 #ace4 ,counting aloud1 #afa4 ,coward1 quoted1 #fe4 ,creative imagination1 #aa4 ,crescendo1 #eh4 ,d ,diagrams of baton movements1 #bb1 #bc1 #bd4 ,dickinson1 quoted1 #fb1 #aji4 ,discipline in rehearsals1 #aee4 ,dynamics1 #eg-fc4 ,terms defined1 #ei1 #fj4 ,e ,efficiency in the rehearsal1 #aeb4 ,efficiency vs4 ,idealism1 #aec4 ,emotion--,in interpretation1 #ch4 ,enthusiasm as an element in leadership1 #af1 #ag4 ,expression--,meaning of1 #cf1 #dc4 ,in instrumental music1 #df4 ,elements of1 #df4 ,how produced1 #gb1 #ge4 ,f ,fermata1 #ca4 ,five-beat measure1 #bg4 ,g ,gehring1 quoted1 #db4 ,girl voice1 #abj1 #aba4 ,h ,harmony1 #ga4 ,haydn score1 #aff4 ,head voice1 #abb1 #abc4 ,high school chorus--,direction of1 #hb4 ,seating of1 #hc4 ,music for1 #hj4 ,history of conducting1 #b4 ,hold1 #ca4 ,humor--,sense of1 #h4 ,illustrations of1 #i4 ,value in rehearsals1 #afb4 ,hymns--,selection of1 #aag4 ,i ,idealism vs4 ,efficiency1 #aec4 ,imagination--,value of1 #aa4 ,individualism--,danger of in church choir1 #aab4 ,instinctive imitation1 #c4 ,instrumental music--,expression in1 #df4 ,timbre in1 #ff4 ,phrasing in1 #fi4 ,instruments--,proportion of1 #ig4 ,transposing1 #ih-ajj4 ,pitch standards1 #aja4 ,tuning of1 #ajb4 ,bowing1 #ajc4 ,range of1 #ajg4 ,interpretation and expression--,definition1 #cf4 ,interpretation1 #cf-ge4 ,emotion in1 #ch4 ,definition1 #dj4 ,in vocal music1 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