,illustration3 ,,the ,,twins1 ,,bluff   
,,city1 ,,utah  ,the distance from the  
bottom of the cliff to the top of the   
erosion columns is #bge feet4           
,frontispiece     ,,the ,,western       
,,united ,,states   ,a ,,geographical   
,,reader   ,,by  ,,harold ,,wellman     
,,fairbanks1 ,,ph4,d4  ,,author ,,of    
,,stories ,,of ,,our ,,mother ,,earth1  
,,home ,,geography1 ,,stories ,,of      
,,rocks ,,and ,,minerals1 ,,physiography
 ,,of ,,california1 ,,etc4   ,,boston1  
,u4,s4,a4  ,d4 ,c4 ,,heath  ,,co41      
,,publishers  #aijd     ,,preface  ,in  
the preparation of this book the author 
has had in mind the needs of the upper  
grammar grades4 ,the subject matter has 
not been selected with the object of    
covering the field of ,western geography
 in a systematic manner1 but instead the
 attempt has been made to picture as    
graphically as may be some of its more  
striking and interesting physical       
features1 and the influence which these 
features have exerted upon its discovery

 and settlement4  ,those subjects have  
been presented which have more than     
local interest and are illustrative of  
world-wide principles4 ,clear           
conceptions of the earth and man's      
relation to it are not gained by general
 statements as readily as by the        
comprehensive study of concrete         
examples4  ,nowhere outside of the      
,cordilleran region are to be found so  
remarkable illustrations of the growth  
and destruction of physical features1 or
 so clear examples of the control which 
physical features exercise over the     
paths of exploration1 settlement1 and   
industrial development4  ,the fact that 
the ,west furnishes a wealth of material
 for geography teaching has long been   
recognized in a general way1 although   
there has been but little attempt to    
present this material in a form suitable
 for the use of schools4  ,the          
illustrations are1 with few exceptions1 
from the author's own photographs1 and  
the descriptions are made up from his   

personal observations4 ,since the       
illustrations are numerous and have been
 selected with much care1 it is hoped   
that they will add greatly to the value 
of the text4 ,they should be used1 and a
 proper understanding of the pictures   
made a part of every lesson4            
,,contents  ,,the ,,work ,,of ,,the     
,,colorado ,,river  ,a ,,trip ,,into    
,,the ,,grand ,,ca,,on ,,of ,,the       
,,colorado  ,,how ,,the ,,columbia      
,,plateau ,,was ,,made  ,,the ,,ca,,ons 
,,of ,,the ,,sierra ,,nevada ,,mountains
  ,,an ,,oregon ,,glacier  ,,something  
,,about ,,earthquakes ,,and ,,mountain  
,,building  ,,the ,,last ,,volcanic     
,,eruptions ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states
  ,,the ,,mud ,,volcanoes ,,of ,,the    
,,colorado ,,desert  ,,the ,,history    
,,of ,a ,,coast ,,line  ,,the           
,,discovery ,,of ,,the ,,columbia       
,,river  ,,the ,,great ,,basin ,,and    
,,its ,,peculiar ,,lakes  ,,fr,,mont',s 
,,adventures ,,in ,,the ,,great ,,basin 
,,the ,,story ,,of ,,great ,,salt ,,lake

  ,,the ,,skagit ,,river  ,,the ,,story 
,,of ,,lake ,,chelan  ,,the ,,native    
,,inhabitants ,,of ,,the ,,pacific      
,,slope  ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,lewis     
,,and ,,clark  ,,the ,,russians ,,in    
,,california  ,,death ,,valley  ,,the   
,,cliff ,,dwellers ,,and ,,their        
,,descendants  ,,the ,,life ,,of ,,the  
,,desert  ,,the ,,pony ,,express  ,,how 
,,climate ,,and ,,physical ,,features   
,,influenced ,,the ,,settlement ,,of    
,,the ,,west  ,,the ,,life ,,of ,,the   
,,prospector  ,,gold ,,and              
,,gold-,,mining  ,,copper-,,mining      
,,coal ,,and ,,petroleum  ,,the         
,,climate ,,of ,,the ,,pacific ,,slope  
,,something ,,about ,,irrigation  ,,the 
,,location ,,of ,,the ,,cities ,,of     
,,the ,,pacific ,,slope  ,,the ,,forest 
,,belt ,,of ,,the ,,sierra ,,nevada     
,,mountains  ,,the ,,national ,,parks   
,,and ,,forest ,,reserves    ,,the      
,,western ,,united ,,states   ,,the     
,,work ,,of ,,the ,,colorado ,,river    
,the ,colorado ,river is not old1 as we 

estimate the age of rivers4 ,it was born
 when the ,rocky ,mountains were first  
uplifted to the sky1 when their lofty   
peaks1 collecting the moisture of the   
storms1 sent streams dashing down to the
 plains below4 ,upon the western slope  
of the mountains a number of these      
streams united in one great river1 which
 wound here and there1 seeking the      
easiest route across the plateau to the 
,gulf of ,california4  ,at first the    
banks of the river were low1 and its    
course was easily turned one way or     
another4 ,from the base of the mountains
 to the level of the ocean there is a   
fall of more than a mile1 so that the   
river ran swiftly and was not long in   
making for itself a definite channel4   
,many thousands of years passed4        
,america was discovered4 ,the ,spaniards
 conquered ,mexico and sent expeditions 
northward in search of the cities of    
,cibola1 where it was said that gold and
 silver were abundant4 ,one of these    
parties is reported to have reached a   

mighty caon1 into which it was          
impossible to descend4 ,the caon was so 
deep that rocks standing in the bottom1 
which were in reality higher than the   
,seville cathedral1 appeared no taller  
than a man4  ,another party discovered  
the mouth of the river and called it1   
because of their safe arrival1 ,the     
,river of ,our ,lady of ,safe ,conduct4 
,they went as far up the river as its   
shallow waters would permit1 but failed 
to find the seven cities of which they  
were in search1 and turned about and    
went back to ,mexico4 ,for years        
afterward the river remained            
undisturbed1 so far as white men were   
concerned4 ,a great part of the stream  
was unknown even to the ,indians1 for   
the barren plateaus upon either side    
offered no inducements to approach4     
,trappers and explorers in the ,rocky   
,mountains reached the head waters of   
the river nearly one hundred years ago1 
and followed the converging branches    
down as far as they dared toward the    

dark and forbidding caons4 ,it was      
believed that no boat could pass through
 the caons1 and that once launched upon 
those turbid waters1 the adventurer     
would never be able to return4  ,the    
,colorado remained a river of mystery   
for nearly three centuries after its    
discovery4 ,when ,california and ,new   
,mexico had become a part of the ,union1
 about the middle of the last century1  
the caon of the ,colorado was approached
 at various points by government        
exploring parties1 which brought back   
more definite reports concerning the    
rugged gorge through which the river    
flows4  ,in #ahfi ,major ,powell1 at the
 head of a small party1 undertook the   
dangerous trip through the caon by boat4
 ,after enduring great hardships for a  
number of weeks1 the party succeeded in 
reaching the lower end of the caon4     
,major ,powell's exploit has been       
repeated by only one other company1 and 
some members of this party perished     
before the dangerous feat was           

accomplished4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4    
#a4--,,the ,,grand ,,ca,,on ,,of ,,the  
,,colorado  ,the work of a river  ,the  
,colorado is a wonderful stream4 ,it is 
fed by the perpetual snows of the ,rocky
 ,mountains4 ,for some distance the     
tributary streams flow through fertile  
valleys1 many of them now richly and    
widely cultivated4 ,but soon the        
branches unite in one mighty river      
which1 seeming to shun life and         
sunlight1 buries itself so deeply in the
 great plateau that the traveller       
through this region may perish in sight 
of its waters without being able to     
descend far enough to reach them4 ,after
 passing through one hundred miles of   
caon1 the river emerges upon a desert   
region1 where the rainfall is so slight 
that curious and unusual forms of plants
 and animals have been developed1 forms 
which are adapted to withstand the      
almost perpetual sunshine and scorching 
heat of summer4  ,below the ,grand ,caon
 the river traverses an open valley1    

where the bottom lands support a few    
,indians who raise corn1 squashes1 and  
other vegetables4 ,at the ,needles the  
river is hidden for a short time within 
caon walls1 but beyond ,yuma the valley 
widens1 and the stream enters upon vast 
plains over which it flows to its mouth 
in the ,gulf of ,california4  ,no       
portion of the river is well adapted to 
navigation4 ,below the caon the channels
 are shallow and ever changing4 ,at the 
mouth1 enormous tides sweep with swift  
currents over the shallows and produce  
foam-decked waves known as the bore4    
,visit the ,colorado ,river whenever you
 will1 at flood time in early summer1 or
 in the fall and winter when the waters 
are lowest1 you will always find it     
deeply discolored4 ,the name ,colorado  
signifies red1 and was given to the     
river by the ,spaniards4 ,watch the     
current and note how it boils and       
seethes4 ,it seems to be thick with mud4
 ,the bars are almost of the same color 
as the water and are continually        

changing4 ,here a low alluvial bank is  
being washed away1 there a broad flat is
 forming4 ,with the exception of the    
,rio ,grande in ,new ,mexico1 and the   
,gila1 which joins the ,colorado at     
,yuma1 no other river is known to be so 
laden with silt4 ,no other river is so  
rapidly removing the highlands through  
which it flows4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4  
#b4--,,looking ,,down ,,the ,,colorado  
,,river ,,from ,,above ,,the ,,needles  
,over a large portion of the watershed  
of the ,colorado the rainfall is light4 
,this fact might lead one to think that 
upon its slopes the work of erosion     
would go on more slowly than where the  
rainfall is heavy4 ,this would1 however1
 be a wrong conclusion1 for in places   
where there is a great deal of rain the 
ground becomes covered with a thick     
growth of vegetation which holds the    
soil and broken rock fragments and keeps
 them from being carried away4  ,the    
surface of the plateaus and lower       
mountain slopes in the basin of the     

,colorado are but little protected by   
vegetation4 ,when the rain does fall in 
this arid region1 it often comes with   
great violence4 ,the barren mountain    
sides are quickly covered with trickling
 streams1 which unite in muddy torrents 
in the gulches1 carrying along mud1     
sand1 and even boulders in their rapid  
course2 the torrents in turn deliver a  
large part of their loads to the river4 
,as the rain passes1 the gulches become 
dry and remain so until another storm   
visits the region4 ,it is storming      
somewhere within the basin of the       
,colorado much of the time1 for the     
river drains two hundred and            
twenty-three thousand square miles4 ,so 
it comes about that whether one visits  
the river in winter or summer one always
 finds it loaded with mud4  ,but what   
becomes of all this mud8 ,the river     
cannot drop it in the narrow caons4 ,it 
is not until the river has carried its  
load of mud down to the region about its
 mouth1 where the current becomes       

sluggish1 that the heavy brown burden   
can be discharged4 ,dip up a glassful of
 the water near the mouth of the river1 
and let it settle1 then carefully remove
 the clear water and allow the sediment 
in the bottom to dry4 ,if the water in  
the glass was six inches deep1 there    
will finally remain in the bottom a mass
 of hardened mud1 which will vary in    
amount with the time of the year in     
which the experiment is performed1 but  
will average about one-fiftieth of an   
inch in thickness4 ,each cubic foot of  
the water1 then1 must contain nearly six
 cubic inches of solid sediment or silt4
  ,it has been estimated that the       
average flow of the ,colorado ,river at 
,yuma throughout the year is eighteen   
thousand cubic feet of water per second4
 ,from this fact we can calculate that  
there would be deposited at the mouth of
 the river every year1 enough sediment  
to lie one foot deep over sixty-six     
square miles of territory4 ,nearly one  
three-hundredth part of the ,colorado   

,river water is silt1 while in the case 
of the ,mississippi the silt forms only 
one part in twenty-nine hundred4        
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,,looking    
,,toward ,,the ,,delta ,,of ,,the       
,,colorado ,,from ,,yuma  ,now we are   
prepared to understand the origin of the
 vast lowlands about the head of the    
,gulf of ,california4 ,long ago this    
gulf extended one hundred and fifty     
miles farther north than it does at     
present1 so that it reached nearly to   
the place where the little town of      
,indio now stands in the northern end of
 the ,colorado desert4  ,when the       
,colorado ,river first began to flow1 it
 emptied its waters into the gulf not   
far from the spot where ,yuma is        
situated4 ,the water was probably loaded
 with silt then as it is now4 ,part of  
this sediment was dropped at the mouth  
of the stream1 while part was spread by 
the currents over the bottom of the     
adjoining portions of the gulf4 ,the    
rapidly growing delta crept southward   

and westward into the gulf4 ,as fast as 
the sediment was built up above the     
reach of the tide1 vegetation appeared1 
which1 retarding the flow of the water  
at times of flood1 aided the deposition 
of silt and the building up of the      
delta4  ,as the centuries went by1 these
 lowland plains became more and more    
extensive1 until the gulf was actually  
divided into two parts by the spreading 
of the delta across to the western      
shore4 ,the portion of the gulf thus cut
 off from the ocean formed a salt lake  
fully one hundred miles in length4  ,we 
may suppose that for a long time before 
the barrier was high and strong1 the    
tidal currents occasionally broke over  
the delta and supplied the lake with    
water4 ,as the river meandered here and 
there over the flat delta1 its channels 
must have undergone many changes at     
every time of flood4 ,a part of the     
water without doubt flowed into the salt
 lake1 and another portion into the open
 gulf4 ,in fact1 the basin in which the 

lake lay1 now known as the ,colorado    
desert1 continued to receive water from 
the river1 at intervals1 until very     
recently4 ,in #ahia an overflow         
occurred1 through the channel known as  
,new ,river1 which flooded the lower    
portion of the basin and threatened to  
cover the railroad4  ,when the ocean had
 been permanently shut off from the head
 of the gulf1 and the river itself had  
been largely diverted toward the south1 
the lake began to dry up4 ,at last1 most
 of the water disappeared and there     
remained a vast desert basin1 at its    
greatest depth two hundred and fifty    
feet below the level of the ocean4 ,in  
the bottom of the basin a bed of salt   
appeared1 for this substance could not  
be carried away1 as the water had been1 
by the thirsty air4  ,remarkably perfect
 beaches still exist around the shores  
of this old lake1 and on them are found 
the pearly shells of multitudes of      
fresh-water mollusks4 ,the presence of  
these shells leads us to believe that   

after the salt lake dried up1 the river 
again broke in and formed a new lake of 
comparatively fresh water which also1   
after a time1 dried up4  ,the wonderful 
fertility of the ,colorado delta is just
 beginning to be appreciated4 ,canals   
have been dug to take the water from the
 river and distribute it over the land4 
,year by year the cultivated lands are  
being extended4 ,the change which       
irrigation is making upon the surface of
 one of the worst deserts in the country
 is indeed remarkable4  ,the ,colorado  
,river is working on quietly and        
steadily4 ,we may think1 and truly1 that
 it has already done a great at work in 
excavating the mighty caons along its   
course1 but1 in reality1 the work       
already accomplished is small in        
comparison with that which remains to be
 done4  ,in time1 if the land is not    
disturbed by the forces which build     
mountains1 the plateaus through which   
the river now flows in such deep caons  
will be carried away in the form of sand

 and mud4 ,broad valleys will replace   
the caons1 and the ,gulf of ,california 
will become a fertile plain4 ,as the    
highlands wear away the process will go 
on more and more slowly1 for there will 
be less rainfall4 ,the river will become
 smaller and its basin more arid4 ,all  
these changes will be brought about     
through the crumbling of the rocks1 and 
the removal of the waste matter by the  
running water4     ,a ,,trip ,,into     
,,the ,,grand ,,ca,,on ,,of ,,the       
,,colorado  ,we may read of the         
,colorado plateau1 and of the ,grand    
,caon with its precipitous walls of     
variously colored rock1 but unless we   
actually visit this wonderland1 it is   
hard to realize the height and extent of
 the plateau and the depth of the gashes
 made in its surface by running water1  
gashes so deep that they seem to expose 
the very heart of the earth4  ,nature   
has chosen a remote and half-desert     
region for the location of this1 the    
most picturesque caon in the world1 as  

if she wished to keep it as long as     
possible from the eyes of men4 ,once a  
traveller could not view the caon       
without making a long and weary journey 
across hundreds of miles of desert2 now 
it is quite different1 for one can      
almost look into its depths from the    
windows of a palace car4 ,but to        
appreciate and understand fully the     
stupendous work that nature has done    
throughout this region we must leave the
 cars at a somewhat distant point1 and  
before reaching the caon become         
acquainted with the country in which it 
lies through the old-fashioned ways of  
travelling on horseback or wagon4       
,flagstaff was formerly the             
starting-point for travellers to the    
caon1 and we will choose it now1 for the
 old stage road offers an interesting   
ride4 ,the road first winds around that 
lofty snow-clad peak1 the ,san          
,francisco ,mountain1 which can be seen 
from all northern ,arizona4 ,leaving the
 mountain behind1 we strike out directly

 across the high plateau4 ,the country  
is nearly level1 and the open park-like 
forest extends in every direction as far
 as one can see4  ,it is difficult for  
us to believe that we are seven thousand
 feet above the sea1 a height greater   
than that of the highest mountains in   
the ,united ,states east of the         
,mississippi ,valley4 ,it is this       
elevation1 however1 which brings the    
summer showers and makes the air cool   
and pleasant1 for the lowlands of this  
portion of the ,united ,states are      
barren deserts1 upon which the sun beats
 with almost savage heat4  ,after the   
rainy season green grass and an         
abundance of flowers appear in the open 
meadows scattered through the forest4   
,but1 as a rule1 the entire absence of  
water strikes one as being very strange4
 ,where are the springs and running     
streams which usually abound in         
mountainous regions8 ,throughout the    
whole distance of seventy miles from    
,flagstaff to the caon1 there are but   

one or two spots where water is to be   
found4 ,these places are known as       
water-holes2 they are simply hollows in 
the surface of the ground where the     
water collects after the showers4       
,there is another strange feature about 
the plateau over which the road leads2  
instead of sloping down toward the      
,colorado ,river and the ,grand ,caon1  
the surface slowly rises1 so that the   
little streams which are formed after   
the heavy rains flow away from the      
river4  ,our journey draws to an end1   
but there is nothing to indicate the    
presence of the caon until we get       
glimpses through the trees of an        
apparently bottomless gulf4 ,the gulf   
widens upon a closer view1 we reach the 
edge1 and all its wonderful proportions 
burst upon us4 ,does the ,grand ,caon   
look as you thought it would8 ,probably 
not1 for it is unlike any other in the  
world4 ,the caon is very deep4 ,the     
river has worn its way for more than a  
mile down into the plateau1 which once  

stretched unbroken from the cliffs upon 
which we stand1 across to those upon the
 opposite side1 nearly ten miles away4  
,the clear air makes objects upon the   
opposite side and in the bottom of the  
caon seem much nearer than they really  
are4 ,you may think that it is an easy  
task to go to the bottom of the caon and
 climb back again in a day1 but in      
reality it is so difficult an           
undertaking that only those who are     
accustomed to mountain climbing can     
accomplish it4  ,it is not merely the   
great width and depth of the caon that  
impress us1 but also the bright1        
variegated colors which the different   
rock layers display as they stretch in  
horizontal bands along the faces of the 
cliffs1 or sweep around the towers and  
pinnacles until their detailed outlines 
are lost in the distant blue haze4  ,our
 eyes wander far down1 toward the bottom
 of the caon1 following the alternate   
lines of precipitous cliffs and slopes  
covered with rock fragments4 ,the cliffs

 and slopes succeed each other like the 
steps in a giant stairway1 until at the 
very bottom the opposite walls meet in a
 gorge so narrow that in only a few     
places does the river come into view1   
glistening like a silver thread4  ,a    
hotel stands among the trees a short    
distance from the brink of the caon4    
,living here is expensive1 for every    
article of food has to be brought upon  
the cars and wagons for a distance of   
hundreds of miles4 ,even the water has  
to be brought in wagons from a distant  
spring4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--;,a 
,,scene ,,on ,,the ,,trail  ,in visiting
 the caon we have the choice of going on
 horseback or on foot4 ,while the latter
 method is much harder1 yet one feels   
safer upon his own feet while moving    
along the steep and narrow trail4 ,our  
start is made in the cool air of the    
early morning4 ,leaving the top of the  
plateau1 where among the pines the      
summer air is seldom sultry1 and the    
winters are cold and snowy1 we descend1 

until1 by luncheon time1 we are far     
below the heights and in the midst of an
 almost tropical climate4 ,this         
difference in climatic features between 
the top and bottom of the caon is equal 
to the change which the traveller       
experiences in a trip from the pine     
forests of the northern ,united ,states 
to the cactus-covered plains of         
,arizona4  ,as we look down from the top
 of the trail it does not seem possible 
to pass the great cliffs below1 and yet 
there must be a way1 since others have  
gone before us4 ,all that we have to do 
is simply to follow the beaten path4    
,nature has conveniently left narrow    
shelves1 crevices1 and less precipitous 
slopes here and there1 which need only  
the application of the pick and shovel  
to be made passable even for pack       
animals4 ,where the trail winds into    
shady recesses1 we find stunted fir and 
pine trees clinging to the crevices and 
stretching their roots down into the    
waste rock collected upon projecting    

ledges4  ,down1 down we go4 ,the belt of
 the yellow pine and fir is left behind1
 and we come to the habitat of the pion 
pine and juniper4 ,these two will       
flourish where there is less moisture   
than is needed by the trees which grow  
nearer the top4 ,soon the trees have all
 disappeared and such plants as the     
greasewood1 cactus1 and agave take their
 place4 ,here1 if it were not for the   
walls of rock rising on every hand1 we  
might imagine ourselves upon one of the 
desert plains of ,arizona4              
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4--;,,cliffs    
,,on ,,the ,,trail ,,into ,,the ,,grand 
,,ca,,on  ,new views open at every turn 
in the trail1 as it winds along the     
narrow shelves of rock with precipitous 
walls above and below4 ,now it zigzags  
back and forth down a gentle slope1 but 
is soon stopped by another precipice4   
,in one place1 to escape a rocky point1 
the trail has been carried around the   
face of a cliff on a sort of shelf made 
of logs4 ,it then passes through a      

crevice formed by the splitting away of 
a huge piece of the wall4 ,in many      
places the grade is so steep that the   
trail is made practically a stairway1   
for the steps are necessary to keep     
animals from slipping4  ,step by step we
 descend until the slope becomes more   
gentle and a sort of terrace is reached1
 where men are at work developing a     
copper mine4 ,everything needed for the 
mine is carried down packed upon the    
backs of sure-footed burros4 ,even the  
water has to be brought in kegs from a  
little spring still deeper in the caon4 
,the trail leaves the mine and winds    
down past another cliff1 until1 when    
more than three thousand feet from the  
top of the plateau1 we find water for   
the first time4 ,the little springs     
issue from the sandstone1 and their     
limited supply of water is soon drunk up
 by the thirsty sands4  ,as far as the  
water flows it forms a little oasis upon
 the barren slope4 ,along the course of 
the streams are little patches of green 

grass1 flowers1 and bushes4 ,birds flit 
about1 and there are tracks of small    
animals in the mud4 ,evidently the water
 is as great an attraction to them as it
 is to us4 ,if a well were dug in the   
plateau above1 we can understand now how
 deep it would have to be in order to   
reach water4 ,a well three-fourths of a 
mile deep would be a difficult one to   
pump4  ,we are now in the bottom of the 
main caon1 but deeper still is the last 
and inner gorge1 through which the      
,colorado is flowing4 ,for thousands of 
centuries the river has been sawing its 
way down into the earth4 ,the           
precipitous cliffs which we have passed 
are formed of hard sandstone or         
limestone4 ,the more gentle slopes      
consist of softer shales4 ,now the river
 has cut through them all and has       
reached the very heart of the earth1 the
 solid granite4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4  
#f4--,,the ,,inner ,,gorge ,,of ,,the   
,,grand ,,ca,,on ,,of ,,the ,,colorado  
,this inner gorge has almost vertical   

walls twelve hundred to fifteen hundred 
feet high4 ,we can sit upon the brink   
under a ledge of rock which protects us 
from the hot sun1 and watch the river as
 we eat our luncheon4 ,far below1 almost
 directly under us1 it rushes along4    
,the roar of the current rises but      
faintly to our ears4 ,the water is very 
muddy and not at all like the clear     
mountain streams1 far away upon the     
continental divide1 which unite to form 
the river4 ,it seems as if the water1   
ashamed of its soiled appearance1 wanted
 to hide from the sight of men4 ,if so1 
it has succeeded well1 for it can be    
seen only at rare intervals from the top
 of the caon walls1 and even at the     
bottom of the main caon the river itself
 is not visible unless one stands upon  
the very brink of the granite gorge4    
,the work of the river is not yet done4 
,it will go on until the great cliffs   
have crumbled and have been replaced by 
gentle slopes4 ,it will not stop until1 
at some far distant time1 a broad valley

 has been worn out of the rocky strata4 
,the caon appears much wider when viewed
 from the bottom than from the top1 and 
the great cliffs far back along the     
trail seem less precipitous1 but only   
because they are so far away4 ,a weary  
climb of several miles awaits us4 ,we   
must rest and take breath frequently or 
we shall not reach the top4  ,as night  
approaches and the shadows begin to     
fall1 every turret and pinnacle stands  
out in bold relief4 ,the bands of yellow
 and red shade into purple1 and         
everything1 save the long winding trail1
 begins to have a weird and mystical    
look4     ,,how ,,the ,,columbia        
,,plateau ,,was ,,made  ,years ago      
people disputed as to the way in which  
the earth was made4 ,those who lived    
where all the rocks had1 like lava1 the 
appearance of having once been melted1  
believed that fire had done all the     
work4 ,those who lived where the rocks  
appeared to be formed of hardened mud1  
sand1 and lime1 substances such as we   

find accumulating under water1 said that
 water alone had been the means4 ,but in
 later years the earth's surface has    
been more widely explored1 and now it is
 known that both opinions were partly   
right4 ,water and fire have both been   
concerned in the making of the earth4   
,in the great valleys fire-formed rocks 
are rare1 but they are more or less     
abundant in all mountainous regions1 for
 where mountains are1 there the crust of
 the earth is weakest4 ,there are many  
reasons for believing that the interior 
of the earth is very hot4 ,we know that 
the surface is settling in some places  
and rising in others1 and that where the
 strain of the upheaval is too great the
 rocks are broken4 ,these convulsions   
sometimes cause earthquakes and         
sometimes volcanic eruptions1 when      
enormous quantities of molten rock are  
poured out over the surface4 ,in all the
 long history of our earth probably no  
greater flood of lava than that which   
made the ,columbia plateau was ever     

spread over the surface of any region4  
,travel where you will over the plains  
of southern ,idaho1 central ,washington1
 or ,oregon1 and examine the rocks which
 here and there rise above the soil or  
are exposed in the caons1 and you will  
find that they all appear to have been  
formed by fire4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4  
#g4--,,snake ,,river ,,at ,,idaho       
,,falls  ,just beginning to cut a caon  
in the volcanic plateau  ,these rocks   
are dark in color and very hard4 ,they  
are not arranged in regular layers like 
sandstone and shale2 many of them show  
numerous little cavities which once     
contained steam4 ,these cavities give to
 the rock a slag-like appearance4 ,in   
this kind of rock1 which we shall call  
lava1 there are1 of course1 no remains  
of shells or bones of animals such as   
are often found in rocks formed from    
sand or clay4  ,do not picture to       
yourself the ,columbia plateau as one   
continuous stretch of level land1 for it
 is broken by many mountain ranges4     

,some of these are old mountains which  
were too tall to be buried by the lava1 
but most of them have been formed out of
 the plateau itself4 ,the eruptions     
which made the plateau extended through 
a very long time1 perhaps hundreds of   
thousands of years1 and the older lava  
is deeply decayed and covered with soil4
 ,some of the later flows show extremely
 rough and rugged surfaces and are      
probably only a few hundred years old4  
,illustration3 ,,map ,,of ,,the         
,,columbia ,,plateau  ,long ago1 before 
the eruptions began1 the geography of   
the ,northwest was very different from  
what it is now4 ,instead of a vast      
plateau there were mountains and        
valleys4 ,lowlands occupied most of the 
region where the ,cascade ,range now    
rises with its lofty volcanic peaks4    
,portions of the basin of the present   
,columbia ,river were occupied by lakes 
which extended southwest into           
,california4  ,movements of the earth   
began to affect the region of the       

present plateau1 and at many points the 
solid rocks were fissured and broken4   
,then from that mysterious region far   
beneath the surface came steam and      
gases1 escaping through the fissures    
with explosive force4 ,in some places   
cinder cones were built about the       
openings by the fragments of lava which 
were hurled out4 ,in other places1      
during periods of less explosive        
eruption1 molten lava flowed out in vast
 quantities4 ,the lava was very hot and 
almost as liquid as water1 so that it   
spread in thin sheets over hundreds of  
square miles of lowland4  ,one important
 series of fissures through which       
eruptions took place marked the line    
where the ,cascade ,range was to be     
built4 ,other volcanoes appeared over   
the surface of southern ,idaho1 central 
,washington1 ,oregon1 and northeastern  
,california4  ,the eruptions were not   
continuous over the whole field2 now in 
this place1 now in that1 there came long
 periods of quiet4 ,during such periods 

the earthquakes ceased1 the lava became 
cold1 and the clouds of volcanic ashes  
cleared from the air4 ,frequently the   
lava intercepted streams and blocked the
 valleys so that large lakes were       
formed4 ,whenever the periods of quiet  
were very long1 plants spread over the  
surface and animals of many kinds made  
their homes about the lakes4  ,in       
eastern ,oregon the ,john ,day ,river   
and its branches have eroded caons      
through the later lava and have exposed 
the sands1 clays1 and gravels which     
collected at the bottom of one of those 
ancient lakes4 ,in these beds the       
skeletons of many strange and           
interesting animals have been found4    
,evidently they had once lived about the
 borders of the lake1 and the streams   
had washed their bones into the water   
and mingled them with the sediment4     
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4--;,,blue      
,,lakes1 ,,idaho  ,formed by springs    
issuing from underneath the lava of the 
plateau  ,one of these animals appears  

to have been an ancestor of the present 
horse4 ,it was about the size of a      
sheep1 and had three toes instead of    
one4 ,another1 probably a very dangerous
 animal1 was related to our present hog1
 but stood nearly seven feet high4      
,others resembled the rhinoceros1 camel1
 tapir1 or peccary4 ,all but the peccary
 are now extinct upon this continent4   
,of the carnivorous animals there were  
wolves and cats of large size4  ,the    
eruptions continued1 filling the valleys
 little by little1 until in places the  
lava reached a thickness of nearly four 
thousand feet4 ,the lower mountains were
 hidden from sight4 ,we know of the     
existence of these buried mountains     
because the wearing away of the lava in 
some places has exposed their summits to
 view4  ,the lava flood reached farther 
and farther4 ,in southern ,idaho it     
formed the ,snake ,river plains1 which  
must have been1 when first formed1      
hundreds of miles long1 seventy-five    
miles wide1 and almost as even as a     

floor4 ,if we could have looked on while
 these things were taking place it would
 have appeared as if the whole land was 
about to sink under the fiery mass which
 flowed out of the earth4 ,the streams  
and valleys were completely buried4 ,the
 region of the ,john ,day ,lake1 with   
all its animal remains1 was covered4    
,the lava1 like a sea1 crept up against 
the mountains surrounding the plateau   
region4 ,bays of lava extended into the 
valleys among the mountains1 while      
mountain ridges rose like islands and   
capes from the surface of the flood4    
,we never tire of looking at the lofty  
snow-capped peaks of the ,cascade       
,range4 ,a dozen of them rise over ten  
thousand feet1 and two1 ,mounts ,shasta 
and ,ranier1 are more than fourteen     
thousand feet high4 ,all these mountains
 were formed of material thrown out of  
the interior of the earth during the    
building of the ,columbia plateau4 ,the 
process was very similar for each4      
,about some one exceptionally active    

crater immense quantities of scori#a and
 lapilli#b accumulated4 ,then came      
streams of fiery lava1 some of which1   
hardening upon the outer slopes of the  
crater1 added still more to the growth  
of the mountain4 ,the process was very  
slow1 however4 ,a time of eruption1     
marked by tremblings of the earth1      
explosive noises1 and a sky filled with 
dust and clouds1 might last for many    
years4 ,then came a long period of rest 
when the falling rains1 gathering in    
dashing torrents1 cut deep gullies down 
the sides of the mountain4  ,footnote   
#a3 scorioe1 cellular1 slaggy lava4     
,footnote #b3 lapilli1 volcanic ashes1  
consisting of small1 angular1 stony     
fragments4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4       
#i4--,,pitt ,,river ,,ca,,on1 ,,northern
 ,,california  ,the plateau is built of 
layers of lava  ,the volcanoes at last  
ceased to grow any higher1 for the lava1
 if the eruptions continued1 formed new 
craters at their bases4 ,it is probable 
that all these great peaks have been    

extinct for several thousand years1     
although some are much older and more   
worn away than others4 ,one of these    
volcanoes has completely disappeared1   
and in its place lies that wonderful    
sheet of water known as ,crater ,lake4  
,it is thought that the interior of this
 mountain was melted away during a      
period of activity1 and that the outer  
portion fell in1 leaving a crater five  
miles across and nearly a mile deep4    
,the streams of lava1 as they flowed    
here and there building up the plateau1 
frequently broke up the rivers and      
turned them into new channels4 ,as time 
went on the eruptions were less violent1
 and the rivers became established in   
the channels which they occupy to-day4  
,the ,columbia ,river1 winding about    
over the plateau1 sought the easiest    
path to the sea4 ,it soon began to dig a
 channel1 and now has hidden itself     
between dark walls of lava4  ,but other 
forces besides the streams were now at  
work in this volcanic region4 ,the lava 

plateau began slowly to bend upward     
along the line of the great volcanoes1  
lifting them upward with it4 ,in this   
manner the ,cascade ,range was formed4  
,the ,columbia ,river1 instead of       
seeking another way to the sea1         
continued cutting its channel deeper and
 deeper into the growing mountain range1
 and so has given us that picturesque   
caon which forms a most convenient      
highway from the interior of ,washington
 and ,oregon to the coast4  ,take a     
sheet of writing paper1 lay it upon an  
even surface1 then slowly push the      
opposite edges toward each other4 ,this 
simple experiment will aid one in       
understanding one of the ways in which  
mountain ranges are made4 ,besides the  
upward fold of the plateau which made   
the ,cascade ,range1 another was formed 
between the ,blue ,mountains in eastern 
,oregon and a spur of the ,rocky        
,mountains in northern ,idaho4 ,this    
fold lay across the path of the ,snake  
,river1 but its movement was so slow    

that the river kept its former channel  
and in this rising land excavated a caon
 which to-day is more than a mile deep4 
,the upper twenty-five hundred feet of  
the caon are cut into the lava of the   
plateau1 and the lower three thousand   
into the underlying granite4 ,the caon  
is not so picturesque as the ,colorado1 
for it has no rocks with variegated     
coloring or castellated walls4 ,its     
sides are1 however1 exceedingly         
precipitous and it is difficult to      
enter4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4           
#aj4--,,shoshone ,,falls1 ,,snake       
,,river1 ,,idaho  ,along portions of the
 lower ,columbia and ,snake rivers1     
navigation is obstructed by rapids and  
waterfalls4 ,the presence of these falls
 teaches us that these streams are still
 at work cutting their channels deeper4 
,the ,snake ,river in its upper course  
has as yet cut only a very shallow      
channel in the hard lava1 and the       
beautiful ,shoshone ,falls marks a point
 where its work is slow4 ,these falls1  

which are the finest in the northwest1  
owe their existence to the fact that at 
this particular spot layers of strong   
resistant lava cover the softer rocks4  
,there are other caons in the plateau   
region which are fully as remarkable as 
those which have been mentioned4 ,that  
of the ,des ,chutes ,river in central   
,oregon is in places a thousand feet    
deep1 with almost vertical walls of     
lava4  ,we have already seen how        
mountains have been formed upon the     
,columbia plateau1 by a bending of the  
earth upward4 ,other mountains of the   
plateau are due to fractures in the     
solid rocks1 often many miles long4     
,upon one side of these fractures the   
surface has been depressed1 while upon  
the other it has been raised4 ,the      
amount of the uplift varies from a few  
hundred to thousands of feet4 ,the      
mountains thus formed have a long1      
gentle slope upon one side and a very   
steep incline upon the other4 ,they are 
known as block mountains1 and those upon

 the ,columbia plateau are the most     
interesting of their kind in the world4 
,with the exception of a few large      
rivers1 the greater portion of the      
,columbia plateau is remarkable for its 
lack of surface streams4 ,the water     
which reaches the borders of the plateau
 from the surrounding mountains often   
sinks into the gravel between the layers
 of lava and forms underground rivers4  
,the deep caons which have been         
mentioned intercept some of these       
underground rivers1 so that their waters
 pour out and down over the sides of the
 caons in foaming cascades4 ,the        
greatest of these cascades is that known
 as the ,thousand ,springs in the ,snake
 ,river caon4 ,the waters of the ,blue  
,lakes in the caon of the same river    
below ,shoshone ,falls also come from   
underneath the lava4 ,they are utilized 
in irrigating the most picturesque fruit
 ranch in southern ,idaho4              
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--;,,ca,,on   
,,of ,,crooked ,,river ,,near ,,the     

,,des ,,chutes ,,river  ,eroded in the  
,columbia plateau  ,the climate of the  
plateau is dry1 and its eastern portion 
is practically a desert4 ,toward the    
west1 however1 the rainfall is greater1 
and in central ,washington and northern 
,oregon the plateau becomes one vast    
grain-field4 ,it is difficult to        
irrigate the plateau because the streams
 flow in such deep caons1 but above the 
point where the caon of the ,snake      
,river begins there is an extensive     
system of canals and cultivated fields4 
,with a sufficient water supply1 the    
lava makes one of the richest and most  
productive of soils4 ,along the ,snake  
and ,columbia rivers1 wherever there is 
a bit of bottom land1 orchards have been
 planted4 ,little steamers ply along    
these rivers between the rapids1        
gathering the fruit and delivering it at
 the nearest railroad point4  ,mining is
 carried on only in the mountains which 
rise above the lava flood1 for the      
mineral veins are for the most part     

older than the lava of the plateau4 ,we 
are certain that many very valuable     
deposits of the precious metals lie     
buried beneath the lava fields4  ,it is 
thought that the volcanic history of the
 ,columbia plateau has been completed4  
,now the streams are at work carrying   
away the materials of which it is       
composed and may in time uncover the old
 buried land surface4     ,,the         
,,ca,,ons ,,of ,,the ,,sierra ,,nevada  
,,mountains  ,the western half of our   
country contains the deepest and most   
picturesque caons in the world4 ,those  
of the ,colorado and ,snake rivers form 
trenches in a comparatively level but   
lofty plateau region4 ,the caons of the 
,sierra ,nevada ,range1 on the contrary1
 take their rise and extend for much of 
their length among rugged snowcapped    
peaks which include some of the highest 
mountains in the ,united ,states4 ,all  
these caons are the work of erosion4    
,the rivers did not find depressions    
formed ready for them to occupy1 but had

 to excavate their channels by the slow 
process of grinding away the solid rock4
  ,the streams of the ,sierra ,nevada   
mountains begin their course in         
steep-walled alcoves under the shadows  
of the high peaks1 where they are fed by
 perpetual snow-banks4 ,soon they bury  
themselves between granite walls1 which 
at last tower three thousand feet above 
their roaring waters4 ,after many miles 
the caons widen1 the walls decrease in  
height1 and the streams come out upon   
the fertile stretches of the ,great     
,valley of ,california4  ,nature works  
in many ways4 ,her tools are of         
different kinds1 but the most important 
one is running water4 ,the forms which  
she produces are dependent upon the kind
 of rock upon which she works4 ,where   
the surface of the earth is soft the    
results of her labor are not very       
interesting1 but if the crust is hard   
the forms which she produces are often  
so remarkable that they arouse our      
wonder and admiration4  ,illustration3  

,,fig4 #ab4--,,san ,,joaquin ,,river    
,,emerging ,,upon ,,the ,,plain ,,of    
,,the ,,great ,,valley  ,in shaping the 
,sierra ,nevada mountains ,nature had a 
grand opportunity4 ,here she produced   
the ,yosemite ,valley1 which has a      
setting of cliffs and waterfalls that   
attract people from all over the world4 
,hetch-,hetchy ,valley at the north of  
the ,yosemite1 and ,tehipite and ,king's
 ,river caons at the south1 are         
interesting places1 but not so majestic 
and inspiring as the ,yosemite4  ,nature
 never seems satisfied with her work4   
,after she has created a piece of       
wonderful scenery she proceeds to       
destroy it4 ,the great cliffs of the    
,yosemite will sometime lose their      
grandeur and be replaced by gentle      
slopes down which the streams will flow 
quietly4 ,the mountains of the          
,laurentian highlands in the            
northeastern portion of the continent   
undoubtedly were once lofty and         
picturesque1 but there were no people   

upon the earth at that time to enjoy    
this scenery4 ,now these mountains have 
become old and are nearly worn down4    
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--,,where     
,,the ,,ca,,ons ,,begin ,,under         
,,precipitous ,,peaks  ,the head of the 
,king's ,river  ,in one portion of the  
earth after another1 ,nature raises     
great mountain ranges and immediately   
proceeds to remove them4 ,this continent
 was discovered and ,california was     
settled at the right time for the       
,sierra ,nevadas to be seen in all their
 grandeur4  ,when the pioneers came in  
sight of the ,sierra ,nevada 7snowy     
range71 they little dreamed of the caons
 hidden among these mountains4 ,gold1   
and not scenery1 was the object of their
 search4 ,the great caons were outside  
of the gold regions1 and so inaccessibly
 situated that no one except the        
,indians looked upon them until #ahea4  
,in that year a party of soldiers       
following the trail of some thieving    
,indians discovered and entered the     

,yosemite ,valley1 but it was not       
explored until #ahee4 ,for many years   
the valley could be reached only by the 
roughest trails1 but as its advantages  
became more widely known roads were     
built1 and there are now three different
 wagon routes by which it may be        
entered4  ,the history of the ,yosemite 
,valley is like that of all the other   
caons of the ,sierra ,nevada mountains4 
,long ago there were no high mountains  
in eastern ,california4 ,if there had   
been explorers crossing the plains in   
those days1 they would have found no    
rugged wall shutting them off from the  
,pacific4 ,there came a time1 however1  
when the surface of the western portion 
of ,america was broken by violent       
earthquake movements1 and hundreds of   
fissures were formed4 ,some of the earth
 blocks produced by these fissures were 
shoved upward1 while others were        
dropped4 ,one enormous block1 which was 
to form the ,sierra ,nevada1 was raised 
along its eastern edge until it stood   

several thousand feet above the         
adjoining country4 ,the movement was    
like that of a trap-door opened         
slightly1 so that upon one side--in this
 case the western one--the slope was    
long and gentle1 while upon the east it 
was very abrupt4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 
#ad4--,,the ,,yosemite ,,valley         
,nature1 the sculptor1 took this        
mountain block in hand1 and with the aid
 of running water began to carve its    
surface into a most intricate system of 
caons and ridges4 ,the streams first    
flowed over the easiest slopes to the   
,great ,valley of ,california1 but soon 
they began to cut their way down into   
the granite1 while along the crests of  
the ridges the more resistant rocks     
began to stand out as jagged peaks4     
,thus ,nature worked until the mountains
 promised before long to be well worn   
down4 ,the caons had widened to valleys 
and the rugged slopes had given place to
 gentle ones4 ,toward the northern end  
of the range the work was even farther  

advanced1 for the streams1 now choked   
with gravel and sand1 flowed over broad 
flood plains4 ,in this gravel was buried
 a part of the wealth of ,california4   
,the rocks over which the streams flowed
 contained veins of quartz with little  
particles of gold scattered through it1 
and as the surface rock crumbled and was
 worn away1 the gold1 being much        
heavier1 slowly accumulated in the      
gravel at the bottom of the streams4    
,this gold amounted in value to hundreds
 of millions of dollars4  ,the forces   
within the earth became active again4   
,apparently ,nature did not intend that 
the gold should be forever buried1 or   
that the country should always appear so
 uninteresting4 ,internal forces raised 
the mountain block for a second time1   
tilting it still more to the westward4  
,volcanoes broke forth along the summit 
of the range near the line of fracture1 
and floods of lava and volcanic mud ran 
down the slopes1 completely filling the 
broad valleys of the northern ,sierras  

and burying a great part of the         
gold-bearing gravel4  ,the eruptions    
turned the streams from their channels1 
but on the steeper slope of the         
mountains the rivers went energetically 
to work making new beds4 ,they cut down 
through the lava and the buried gravel  
until they finally reached the solid    
rock underneath4 ,into this rock1 which 
we call bed-rock1 they have now worn    
caons two thousand feet deep4 ,the beds 
of gravel that lay under the old streams
 frequently form the tops of the hills  
between these deep caons4 ,here they are
 easily accessible to the miners1 who by
 tunnels or surface workings have taken 
out many millions of dollars' worth of  
gold4  ,the important caons of the      
northern ,sierras1 where the gold is    
found1 have been made by the ,american  
and ,feather rivers4 ,farther south are 
the deeper and more rugged caons of the 
,tuolumne1 ,merced1 ,king's1 and ,kern  
rivers1 which open to us inviting       
pathways into the mountains4  ,it might 

be supposed that the mantle of snow and 
ice which at that time covered most of  
the surface of the earth would have     
protected it from further erosion1 but  
this was not the case4 ,in the basin at 
the head of each stream the snow        
accumulated year after year until it was
 more than a thousand feet deep4 ,under 
the influence of the warm days and cold 
nights the snow slowly turned to ice1   
and moved by its own weight1 crept down 
into the caons4 ,the solid rock walls   
were ground and polished1 and even now1 
so long a time after the glaciers have  
melted1 some of these polished surfaces 
still glisten in the sunlight4 ,the     
glaciers deepened and enlarged the      
caons1 but running water was the most   
important agent in their making4  ,upon 
the disappearance of the glaciers1 the  
streams went to work again deepening    
their caons4 ,from their                
starting-points1 under the lofty crags1 
they first ran through broad upland     
valleys1 then tumbled into the caons2   

but until they had reached the lower    
mountain slopes1 to which the glaciers  
had not extended1 they passed through a 
dreary and desolate region devoid of    
almost every sign of life4 ,the glaciers
 had swept away all the loose rock and  
soil1 and it was many long years before 
the surface again crumbled so that      
forest trees could spread over it once  
more4  ,the grandeur and attractiveness 
of the ,yosemite is partly due to the   
precipitous cliffs enclosing the valley1
 some of which are nearly four thousand 
feet in height1 partly to the high      
waterfalls1 and partly to the green     
meadows and forest groves through which 
the ,merced ,river winds4  ,although the
 glaciers had little to do with the     
making of the ,yosemite ,valley1 yet    
they added to its attractiveness4 ,the  
valley is situated where a number of    
smaller streams join the ,merced ,river4
 ,erosion was more rapid here because   
the granite was soft1 while the vertical
 seams in the rock gave the growing     

valley precipitous walls4 ,when the     
glacier came it pushed out the loose    
rocks and boulders1 and dropping a      
portion of them at the lower end1 made a
 dam across the ,merced ,river4 ,at     
first a shallow lake filled the valley1 
but after a time the silt and gravel    
which the streams were continually      
bringing in filled the lake1 and formed 
marshy flats4 ,finally1 grasses and     
trees spread over these flats and gave  
the valley the appearance which it has  
to-day4  ,besides the meadows1 the      
glaciers gave us two of the waterfalls4 
,yosemite ,creek1 which comes down over 
the walls twenty-seven hundred feet in  
three successive falls1 was turned into 
its present channel by a dam which a    
glacier had left across its old course4 
,a glacier also turned the ,merced      
,river at its entrance to the main      
valley so as to form the ,nevada ,fall4 
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--,,the       
,,ca,,on ,,of ,,bubb',s ,,creek1 ,a     
,,branch ,,of ,,the ,,king',s ,,river   

,,ca,,on  ,after the valley had been    
made and clothed in vegetation1 it was  
discovered by a small tribe of ,indians 
who came here to make their home1 secure
 from all their enemies4 ,there were    
fish in the streams and animals in the  
woods4 ,the oaks supplied acorns1 and in
 early summer the meadows were covered  
with strawberries4 ,legends were        
associated with many of the cliffs and  
waterfalls1 for the ,indians1 like      
ourselves1 are impressed by the wonders 
of ,nature4  ,hetch-,hetchy ,valley1    
twenty-five miles north of the          
,yosemite1 has been formed upon much the
 same plan1 but a portion of its floor  
is marshy and there are few waterfalls4 
,king's ,river ,caon has no green       
meadows and no high waterfalls1 while   
its great granite walls are not so      
precipitous as those of the ,yosemite4  
,next to the ,yosemite1 in the wildness 
of its scenery1 is ,tehipite ,caon4     
,this caon is situated upon the middle  
fork of ,king's ,river1 about a hundred 

miles south4 ,for many miles its walls  
and domes present ever changing views4  
,a continual struggle is going on       
between the forces within the earth and 
the sculptor working upon its surface4  
,first one1 then the other1 gains the   
advantage4 ,where the mountains are     
steep and high1 often the forces within 
have recently been active4 ,where they  
are low and the slopes are gentle1 the  
sculptor has long held sway4 ,she begins
 by making the surface as rough and     
picturesque as possible1 but after a    
time she destroys her own handiwork4    
,,an ,,oregon ,,glacier  ,there are     
records all about us of events which    
took place upon the earth long before   
there were any human inhabitants4 ,these
 records have been preserved in the     
rocks1 in the geographic features of the
 land and water1 and in the distribution
 of the animals and plants4 ,on every   
hand appear evidences of changes in the 
surface of the earth and in the climate4
  ,through all the central and northern 

,united ,states1 if we except some of   
the mountains of the ,west1 the winter  
snows entirely disappear long before the
 coming of summer4 ,but the climate of  
this region has not always been so      
pleasant and mild4 ,lands now densely   
peopled were once buried under a thick  
mantle of ice which lasted through many 
thousands of years4  ,scattered over the
 surface of the northern ,united ,states
 are vast numbers of boulders and rock  
fragments which are not at all like the 
solid rocks beneath the soil4 ,the      
history of these materials takes us back
 to the ,glacial period1 which can be   
best understood from a study of some one
 of the glaciers now existing upon the  
mountains of the northwestern part of   
our country4  ,among the lofty mountain 
ranges of the ,cordilleran region there 
are many peaks upon which perpetual     
snow-banks nestle1 defying the long     
summer days4 ,where the winters are long
 and cold and the storms are severe1    
immense drifts of snow collect in the   

hollows and caons of the mountain       
slopes4 ,each summer all or a part of   
this snow melts4 ,upon the northern     
slopes the melting process is slower1   
and if there happens to be a large basin
 upon that side1 an extensive field of  
snow remains until the winter storms    
come again4 ,each winter new snow is    
added to the surface1 while the older   
snow1 becoming hard and firm through    
repeated freezing and thawing1 at last  
turns to ice4  ,this mass of snow and   
ice does not remain stationary1 as might
 be expected from its apparent solidity4
 ,under the influence of its own weight 
and of alternations of heat and cold1 it
 flows down the incline like a very     
thick liquid4 ,during the winter the ice
 melts but little1 and the movement is  
slow1 but in the summer1 under the      
influence of the warm days and cool     
nights1 both the melting and the rate of
 flow of the ice are increased4 ,a      
moving body of snow and ice of this sort
 is called a glacier4 ,it creeps down   

the mountain slope and into some caon1  
until1 in the warmer air of the lower   
mountains1 the rate of advance is       
exactly balanced by the rate of melting 
at the lower end of the mass4 ,the      
glaciers in the ,united ,states are at  
present comparatively small1 but once   
these icy masses stretched over the     
mountains and lowlands of a large       
portion of the continent4  ,in the      
southern ,sierra ,nevada mountains no   
permanent snow exists below an elevation
 of about eleven thousand feet1 but as  
we go north snow-fields are found lower 
and lower1 until in the fiords of       
,alaska enormous glaciers reach down to 
the sea4  ,a glacier worthy of our study
 may be found upon the ,three ,sisters1 
a group of lofty and picturesque        
volcanic mountains rising from the      
summit of the ,cascade ,range in central
 ,oregon4 ,there is a deep depression   
between two of the peaks1 which slopes  
down to the north and is thus           
particularly well adapted to catch and  

retain the drifting snows4 ,consequently
 the glacier to which it gives rise is  
of exceptional size1 being nearly three 
miles long and half a mile wide4        
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4--,,the       
,,three ,,sisters1 ,,from ,,the ,,north 
,showing snow-fields and glacier4       
,fields of recent lava appear in the    
foreground  ,the easiest path to the    
,three ,sisters is by way of the        
,mc,kenzie ,river from ,eugene1 ,oregon4
 ,the ,mc,kenzie is a noted stream and  
one of the most beautiful in the state4 
,the river courses through dense        
forests1 and its clear1 cold water is   
filled with trout4 ,so tempestuous is   
the weather about the ,cascade range    
that ,july is almost the only month in  
which one can visit the ,three ,sisters 
without danger of being caught in severe
 storms4  ,the traveller leaves the     
river a few miles above ,mc,kenzie      
,bridge1 where a small tributary known  
as ,lost ,creek joins it4 ,lost ,creek  
flows under the lava from a lake near   

the ,three ,sisters1 while another      
stream1 coming from the glacier of which
 we are in search1 flows down the same  
valley upon the surface of the lava and 
almost directly over the hidden stream4 
,upon the summit of the ,cascade ,range 
the dense forests of the river valley   
give place to more open woods           
interspersed with park-like meadows4 ,a 
few miles away to the south rise the    
volcanic peaks of the ,three ,sisters1  
clear and cold in the mountain air1     
wrapt about with a mantle of white      
except where the slopes are too         
precipitous to hold the snow4  ,an      
indistinct trail leads through the      
tamarack forest and over a field of     
rugged lava to the base of the peaks4   
,here we come upon a swiftly flowing    
stream of a strange milky color4 ,this  
appearance is due to the presence of    
fine mud1 the product of the work of the
 glacier at the head of the stream as it
 slowly and with mighty power grinds    
away the surface of the rocks over which

 it moves4 ,wherever one meets a stream 
of this kind1 he will probably be safe  
in asserting that it is fed by a glacier
 upon some distant mountain peak4  ,this
 little stream1 the course of which we  
must follow to reach the glacier1 is    
choked with sand and pebbles brought to 
it by the moving ice4 ,these are not    
ordinary stream pebbles1 for they have  
strangely flattened sides which often   
show scratches1 and look as if they had 
been ground off against a grindstone4   
,they are the tools with which the ice  
does its work4 ,the ice block takes up  
the rock fragments which fall upon its  
surface or which it tears from beneath1 
and carries them along1 grinding every  
surface which it touches4 ,the fragments
 are dropped at the end of the glacier1 
and the smaller pebbles are washed away 
down the stream that flows from the     
melting ice4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4     
#ag4--;,,glacier ,,on ,,the ,,three     
,,sisters  ,we follow up the little     
glacial creek1 past icy snow-banks and  

through groves of fir trees where the   
warm sunshine brings out the resinous   
odors4 ,upon one side of the caon there 
lies a field of black lava which not    
many hundreds of years ago forced this  
glacial creek from an earlier channel   
into its present bed4 ,now we come upon 
what appears at first to be a snow-bank 
lying across the course of the stream1  
and from beneath which its waters issue4
 ,deep cracks in the outer mass of snow 
show the clear1 pale-green ice below4   
,this is the lower end of the glacier   
which we have been so long a time in    
reaching4  ,a short climb up a steep    
slope brings us to the top of the       
glacier4 ,it forms a perfectly even     
plain1 extending back with a gentle     
slope to the head of a deep notch       
between the two northern ,sisters1 while
 above and beyond rise the steeper      
snow-fields1 from which this ice is     
continually renewed4  ,the glacier does 
not terminate in the usual manner1 with 
a stream flowing from its centre1 for   

the outlet is at one side1 while the    
middle abuts against a low mound of     
rock4 ,this mound we find most          
interesting1 for upon reaching its top  
we look down into a volcanic crater4    
,from this crater flowed the great      
stream of lava to which we have already 
referred4 ,the lava ran downward1       
bending this way and that among the     
hollows1 until it spread nearly to the  
,mc,kenzie ,river4  ,during the ,glacial
 period1 before the eruption took place1
 this glacier was much larger4 ,the     
summit of the ,cascade ,range was then  
covered by glaciers4 ,this fact we know 
from the presence of grooved and        
polished rocks wherever the surface has 
not been worn away or covered with newer
 lava4 ,the ,glacial period had passed  
away and the climate had become much the
 same as it now is when the volcanic    
forces broke out at the spot where the  
crater is situated4 ,the eruption       
undoubtedly melted the ice in the       
vicinity1 but after it had ceased and   

the rocks had become cold1 the glacier  
never gained strength enough to push the
 loose materials of the volcanic cone   
out of its path4 ,the ice banked up     
snugly against the obstruction1 and as  
it melted the water found its way out at
 the side of the lava4  ,although the   
surface of the glacier appears at first 
to offer an easy route to the higher    
mountain slopes1 yet there are numerous 
hidden crevices into which one may fall4
 ,the safest arrangement is to tie a    
company of people together with a stout 
rope1 so that if one falls into a       
crevice the rope will save him4 ,toward 
the middle of the glacier the ice       
becomes so badly fissured that it is    
necessary to turn toward the right      
margin4 ,there are two sets of these    
fissures1 one parallel to the direction 
in which the glacier is moving1 the     
other at right angles4 ,they are due to 
the strain to which the ice is subjected
 as it moves along at an uneven rate and
 over a surface composed of hollows and 

ridges4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4          
#ah4--,,moraine ,,at ,,the ,,end ,,of   
,,the ,,glacier  ,leaving the glacier1  
we climb upon a long low ridge of gravel
 and boulders mixed with fragments of   
ice4 ,the fragments of rock which have  
fallen upon the surface of the ice or   
been torn from the rock over which it is
 moving1 have been heaped up along its  
sides somewhat as a ridge of snow is    
raised along each side of the course of 
a snow-plough4 ,such a ridge of dbris   
along the side of a glacier is known as 
a marginal moraine4 ,a similar ridge1   
formed by the accumulation of rock      
fragments at the lower end of the       
glacier1 is a terminal moraine4 ,these  
ridges and hollows formed by the ice are
 found all over the northern portion of 
the ,united ,states4 ,the hollows once  
filled with ice are now occupied by the 
beautiful lakes of this portion of our  
country4  ,as we climb along the moraine
 at the margin of the glacier1 many     
openings appear in the clear green ice4 

,there is the sound of gurgling waters1 
and occasionally pieces of ice and rock 
fall into dimly outlined caverns which  
are narrow at the top1 but far below    
widen out to the proportion of chambers4
  ,after the head of the glacier is     
attained there is still a hard climb    
over the snow-fields1 which extend      
upward so far that they seem to have no 
end4 ,when at last the gap between the  
peaks is gained we are completely tired 
out4 ,the summit of the middle ,sister  
rising directly above us is still a     
thousand feet higher1 but there is not  
time to-day to reach it4  ,a magnificent
 vista is spread out upon every hand4   
,extending north and south along the    
crest of the ,cascade ,range there is a 
line of sharp snowy peaks with summer   
clouds floating about them4 ,how these  
peaks contrast with the dark blue of the
 surrounding forests6 ,opposite us1 upon
 the south1 is the third ,sister1 white 
with snow from top to bottom1 while in  
the basin between this peak and the     

ridge on which we are standing lie the  
remnants of a once mighty glacier4  ,but
 it is time to return4 ,the cold1 foggy 
clouds are hiding the summits and will  
soon envelop the spot where we stand4   
,we go down by a different path1 but    
over almost continuous snow-fields1 for 
more than two miles4 ,the return is much
 easier than the ascent1 although if one
 lost his footing upon some steep slope1
 it would mean a long slide or tumble4  
,the solid earth is reached without     
accident4 ,what a relief to have some   
firm hold for the feet again6 ,climbing 
over a field of rough lava is easier    
than toiling through soft snow4         
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--;,a         
,,boulder ,,left ,,by ,a ,,glacier  ,the
 region about the ,three ,sisters is    
just as nature left it1 for the home of 
the nearest settler is many miles away4 
,although now it has few visitors1 this 
country will become attractive when its 
wonderful volcanic and glacial phenomena
 are better known4     ,,something      

,,about ,,earthquakes ,,and ,,mountain  
,,building  ,our everyday experiences   
lead us to feel that nothing is more    
permanent than the features of the earth
 upon which we live4 ,great cities      
containing costly buildings are built by
 the water's edge with the expectation  
that the ocean will remain where it is4 
,the building of railroads and canals1  
and the establishment of industries to  
make the earth more fruitful and better 
adapted to our use1 are based upon the  
idea that the mountains and valleys with
 their various1 climates will not       
change4  ,the study of history1 however1
 makes plain the fact that at different 
times in the past certain portions of   
the earth have been visited by          
destructive changes4 ,cities have been  
shaken down by earthquakes1 and the     
ocean has swept in over the land1       
drowning thousands of people4 ,even the 
mountains1 which stand upon broad and   
firm foundations1 sometimes bring       
disaster1 by means of avalanches and    

land-slides1 to the people who live at  
their bases4  ,the truth is that the    
earth's surface is everywhere slowly and
 quietly changing2 but our lives are so 
short1 and the history of even the      
oldest cities is so brief in comparison 
with the rate at which most of the      
changes take place1 that we as a rule   
are aware of only the uncommon and      
sudden ones4  ,the occurrence of        
earthquakes establishes the unmistakable
 fact that there are forces at work from
 within disturbing the surface1 while   
land-slides1 and even little gullies    
washed out by the rain1 show that other 
forces are working from without4  ,the  
vibration or trembling of the earth     
which we call an earthquake always      
arouses alarm1 and frequently occasions 
great destruction and loss of life4     
,only a few of the various causes that  
may bring about earthquakes are as yet  
fully understood4 ,earthquakes are very 
interesting1 however1 because they are  
often associated with the birth and     

growth of lofty mountain ranges4        
,volcanic eruptions1 hot springs1 and   
the high temperature which exists toward
 the bottom of deep mines show us that  
the interior of the earth is very hot4  
,it is thought that at one time the     
whole earth glowed with heat1 but as    
ages passed it became cold upon the     
outside and a solid crust was formed4   
,every one has observed that fruit      
becomes wrinkled as the pulp within     
dries and contracts4 ,the materials of  
the earth occupy more space when they   
are hot than when cold1 and as the      
interior portion is still cooling1 the  
outer layer or crust continues to shrink
 down upon it1 forming folds or         
wrinkles1 as in the case of the skin of 
an apple4  ,there is probably no portion
 of the surface that is fixed in its    
present position4 ,the land is either   
rising or sinking continually4 ,if the  
area that is pushed upward is large1 it 
becomes a plateau2 but if long and      
narrow like a wrinkle1 it forms a       

mountain range4 ,we should not be aware 
of these movements in many cases if it  
were not for the horizontal shelf cut   
upon the borders of the land by the     
ocean waves4 ,along some coasts old     
wave-cut cliffs stand hundreds of feet  
above the present ocean level4 ,other   
coasts have sunk1 so that the water has 
flooded the adjoining land and made a   
new shore line4  ,when the movements of 
the land are sudden1 they manifest      
themselves to us through earthquakes4   
,the crust of the earth is not so       
flexible as the skin of an apple1 and   
when the strain upon it becomes too     
great it suddenly breaks4 ,the rock     
walls usually slide past one another    
along such a fracture4 ,if the rising   
wall becomes high enough it will form a 
mountain range4  ,the great mountain    
systems border the oceans1 for the lines
 of weakness occur where the land dips  
steeply down beneath the water4 ,it     
sometimes happens that the fractures in 
the rocks where mountains are being made

 are situated underneath the water1 or  
in some position where water passes down
 through them in large quantities4      
,what do you think would happen if such 
an underground stream of water came in  
contact with hot or molten rocks far    
below the surface8 ,note the effect     
produced by drops of water falling upon 
a hot stove4 ,each one1 as it strikes1  
is partly changed to steam with a slight
 explosive sound4 ,the result is similar
 when water is turned into the hot and  
nearly empty boiler of a                
steam-engine--an explosion is sure to   
follow4  ,when the pressure of steam    
suddenly formed within the earth is too 
great1 a volcanic explosion takes place 
at some point where the overlying rocks 
are weakest1 probably on or near one of 
the lines of fracture about which we    
have been speaking4 ,the explosion is   
accompanied by thundering noises1       
tremblings of the earth1 and the hurling
 of rock and molten lava into the air4  
,that the rocks of the earth's crust are

 elastic is shown by the rebounding of a
 pebble thrown against a large boulder4 
,if a file be drawn across the edge of a
 sheet of tin upon which sand has been  
sprinkled1 the tin vibrates over its    
whole extent1 as is shown by the jumping
 of the sand grains4 ,because of like   
elasticity in the materials which make  
up the surface of the earth1 the        
vibrations produced by an explosion are 
carried through the solid earth for     
hundreds of miles4  ,illustration3      
,,fig4 #bj4--;,,earthquake ,,fissures   
,,near ,,mono ,,lake1 ,,california  ,the
 records of earthquakes show that they  
are much more violent and occur oftener 
where the crust of the earth is being   
disturbed by folding4 ,we have seen that
 there are two main causes of           
earthquakes3 the slipping of portions of
 the earth past each other along a      
fissure1 and the contact of water with  
very hot rocks far below the surface4   
,it is probable that the earthquakes    
which occur so often in the western     

portion of the ,united ,states are due  
to the first of these causes4 ,the      
numerous extinct volcanoes show that at 
one period this region was frequently   
shaken by explosive eruptions4          
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--,,the       
,,wasatch ,,range  ,from ,salt ,lake    
,city  ,mono ,lake 7see ,fig4 #db1 page 
#ii71 at the eastern base of the ,sierra
 ,nevada ,range1 has been a centre for  
explosive eruptions1 which were         
extremely violent at one time4 ,the     
islands which rise in the lake are      
shattered1 while ,black ,point1 upon the
 northern shore1 has been uplifted by an
 explosion from beneath1 which split the
 rocks apart and formed deep fissures4  
,it is an interesting fact that in the  
,cordilleran region the mountains have  
been increasing in height in very recent
 years4 ,we might almost say that they  
are growing to-day4 ,in this region1    
then1 we can actually see how mountains 
are made2 we do not have to depend upon 
descriptions of the manner in which they

 are supposed to have been made         
thousands of years ago4  ,illustration3 
,,fig4 #bb4--;,,bluff ,,formed ,,by ,,an
 ,,earthquake  ,at the foot of the      
,wasatch ,range1 ,utah  ,any good map   
will show that the mountains of the     
,cordilleran region have in general a   
north and south direction4 ,their       
direction was determined by fissures    
formed long ago in the crust of the     
earth4 ,movements have continued to take
 place along many of these fissures up  
to the present time1 and probably will  
continue for some time to come4  ,in    
order to become better acquainted with  
these remarkable mountains1 let us      
examine some of them1 taking first the  
,wasatch ,range in eastern ,utah4 ,the  
range has an elevation of nearly eleven 
thousand feet1 rising gradually upon the
 eastern side1 but presenting a bold and
 picturesque front upon the west1 toward
 the plain of ,great ,salt ,lake4 ,a    
short drive from ,salt ,lake ,city      
brings us to the foot of the range1 at  

the mouth of ,little ,cottonwood ,caon4 
,a peculiar bluff which extends for a   
number of miles along the base of the   
mountains at once attracts our          
attention4 ,the steep face of the bluff1
 which is from fifty to seventy-five    
feet high1 appears to have been formed  
by a rising of the land upon the side   
next the mountains1 or a dropping upon  
the valley side4 ,there are reasons for 
believing that the formation of the     
bluff was due to the occurrence of an   
earthquake some time within the last    
century4 ,the bluff is closely related  
to the mighty mountains behind it4 ,it  
was formed by the last of a series of   
movements in the earth which raised the 
great block known as the ,wasatch ,range
 to an elevation of six thousand feet   
above the plains at its base4 ,is it to 
be wondered at that disturbances of the 
earth which result in the erection of   
mountains of such height are frequently 
so severe as to destroy the strongest   
buildings8  ,now let us go westward     

across the various parallel ranges of   
the ,great ,basin to ,owens ,valley at  
the eastern base of the ,sierra ,nevada 
mountains4 ,this is the highest and     
longest continuous mountain range in the
 ,united ,states4 ,for a distance of    
more than one hundred miles its         
elevation is from twelve thousand to    
over fourteen thousand feet4            
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4--;,,eastern  
,,face ,,of ,,the ,,sierra ,,nevada     
,,mountains  ,formed by a great fracture
 in the earth's crust  ,owens ,valley   
was in #ahgb the centre of one of the   
most severe and extensive earthquakes   
ever recorded in the ,united ,states4   
,the little village of ,lone ,pine1     
situated in the valley below ,mount     
,whitney1 was utterly demolished1 twenty
 people were killed and many injured4 ,a
 portion of the valley near the village 
sank so low that the water flowed in and
 formed a lake above it4 ,the land was  
so shaken up that the fields of one man 
were thrust into those of his neighbor4 

,for a distance of several hundred miles
 to the north along the base of the     
mountains the earth was fractured1 and  
bluffs from ten to forty feet high were 
formed as a result either of the        
dropping of the surface of the valley   
upon the eastern side1 or of the raising
 of the mountains upon the west4  ,this 
slipping of the earth which gave rise to
 the earthquake bluffs was the most     
recent of a long series of similar      
events which have raised the precipitous
 eastern wall of the ,sierra ,nevada    
mountains to a height of two miles above
 ,owens ,valley4 ,if you will go out    
into the centre of the valley and look  
west toward the mountains1 you will see 
three bluffs or scarps4 ,the first1     
which is twenty feet high1 was made at  
the time of the last earthquake2 the    
second1 known as the ,alabama ,hills and
 rising about four hundred feet1 was    
formed at an earlier time2 the third1   
rising back of the others1 is that of   
the main ,sierra4  ,similar cliffs      

appear at the bases of other ranges of  
mountains in the ,great ,basin4 ,springs
 abound along these fractures in the    
earth1 for the surface waters have an   
opportunity to collect wherever the     
rocks are broken4 ,numerous fertile     
valleys mark the line of earthquake     
movements1 for the broken rocks and     
abundant springs favor rapid erosion4   
,among the ,coast ,ranges of ,california
 there appears a series of fractures in 
the earth which form a line nearly four 
hundred miles long4 ,they extend from a 
point near ,san ,bernardino in a        
northwesterly direction to the          
neighborhood of ,san ,francisco4 ,severe
 earthquakes have taken place along this
 line since the country was settled4    
,the pressure and grinding of the earth 
upon opposite sides of the fissures has 
formed long low ridges of earth4 ,small 
valleys have been blocked1 and the old  
stage road from ,los ,angeles to        
,bakersfield1 which followed the course 
of the fissures for a number of miles1  

has been almost obliterated4            
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4--;,,elizabeth
 ,,lake1 ,,california  ,occupying a     
valley primarily due to earthquake      
movements  ,hundreds of cliffs and      
mountain scarps throughout the ,west    
have come into existence as the results 
of movements such as we have been       
describing4 ,where the disturbances have
 been recent the mountains are bold and 
picturesque4 ,those produced in earlier 
times are in many instances so worn away
 that it is difficult to tell with      
certainty how they were made4     ,,the 
,,last ,,volcanic ,,eruptions ,,in ,,the
 ,,united ,,states  ,there are more     
volcanoes in our country than is        
generally supposed4 ,some are very small
 and some rank among the greatest of    
mountain peaks1 but all together there  
are many hundreds1 perhaps thousands1 of
 them4 ,at present they are all silent  
and apparently dead4 ,we are accustomed 
to speak of them as extinct volcanoes1  
but of this we must not be too sure4    

,they stand dark and cold1 giving no    
clue to the nature of the forces which  
made them1 except perhaps by the        
presence of an occasional hot spring and
 the appearance of the rocks of which   
they are composed4 ,the slag-like       
character of these rocks we have learned
 to associate with intense heat4 ,some  
of these volcanoes are very old and have
 been nearly worn away2 others are new  
and almost as perfect as when they were 
first made4  ,where shall we go to find 
these volcanoes8 ,are there any upon the
 ,atlantic coast or neighboring         
highlands8 ,though you may travel over  
all that portion of our country1 you    
will find none1 although you will       
discover in places1 as for instance in  
the palisades of the ,hudson1 lavas     
which came from very ancient volcanoes1 
worn down so long ago that their very   
sites are lost to view4  ,if we search  
the ,mississippi basin we find there    
even fewer traces of volcanic action    
than upon the eastern highlands4 ,the   

greater portion of the vast area        
embraced by the ,mississippi ,river and 
its tributaries has had a very          
uneventful history1 although at times   
earthquakes may have occurred and the   
sky may have been darkened by ashes from
 eruptions in distant parts of the      
earth4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4           
#be4--;,,fissure ,,in ,,the ,,lava1     
,,shadow ,,mountain  ,the groovings in  
the lava show that it was squeezed out  
in a half-solid condition  ,it is in the
 country west of the ,rockies1 the      
region last to be explored and settled1 
that the objects of our search come to  
light4 ,here are volcanoes and lava     
fields so extensive as almost to bury   
from sight the older surface of the     
earth4 ,some of them appear as if but   
yesterday they had been glowing with    
heat4  ,in the ,cordilleran region      
,nature has carried on her work with a  
master hand4 ,she has lifted the earth's
 crust to form a great plateau4         
,portions of the plateau she has broken1

 projecting the fragments upward to form
 lofty mountains1 while along the       
fissures thus created she has squeezed  
out fiery molten matter from the        
interior of the earth4 ,this molten     
material has spread out in fields of    
lava or has piled itself about small    
openings1 forming volcanic cones1 which 
in some cases have overtopped the       
loftiest mountain ranges of the         
continent4 ,it is believed that a number
 of these volcanic eruptions have       
occurred in the ,cordilleran region of  
the ,united ,states since the discovery 
of ,america1 and that one took place    
within the lifetime of many persons now 
living4  ,san ,francisco ,mountain1 in  
northern ,arizona1 is the loftiest      
volcanic peak of a region dotted with   
volcanoes and lava flows4 ,this great   
volcano1 like most of its neighbors1 has
 long been extinct1 although a few miles
 to the eastward there appears a group  
of small but very new cones4  ,a ride of
 fifteen miles from the town of         

,flagstaff1 across the forest-covered   
plateau1 brings us to ,shadow ,mountain 
and the fields of lava and volcanic sand
 lying at its base4 ,the mountain1      
throughout its height of over one       
thousand feet1 is a conical aggregate of
 loose lapilli which give way under the 
feet and make climbing the peak very    
tiresome4  ,the lapilli and scori are   
slag-like fragments of lava which have  
been blown out of the throat of the     
volcano while in a hot or semi-molten   
condition4 ,these fragments1 as they    
fall back to the earth1 collect about   
the opening and in time build up the    
volcano1 or cinder cone1 as such a      
mountain is frequently called4 ,the     
finer particles1 which have the         
appearance of dark sand1 fall farther   
away and form a layer over the surface  
for some miles upon every side4 ,these  
products of an explosive volcano are    
sometimes called cinders and ashes1     
because of their resemblance to the slag
 and refuse of furnaces4  ,in the case  

of the volcano which we are studying1   
the lapilli are so black that they give 
the cone the appearance of being        
darkened by the shadow of a cloud1 and  
on this account the peak is named       
,shadow ,mountain4 ,as the days are     
usually bright here1 the shadow effect  
is very striking4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4
 #bf4--;,,edge ,,of ,,lava ,,field1     
,,with ,,pumice ,,in ,,the ,,foreground 
,near ,shadow ,mountain  ,there are     
several smaller craters1 east of the    
main one1 which also threw out volcanic 
sand and lapilli4 ,the surrounding hills
 are of volcanic origin1 although very  
much older than ,shadow ,mountain4      
,these hills are covered with pine      
forests2 but trees or plants have gained
 only slight hold upon the newer        
surfaces of the cinder cones1 which     
present a picture of almost complete    
desolation4  ,there have been two other 
eruptions since the making of the cinder
 cones1 and these were marked by flows  
of molten lava4 ,although the rough and 

rugged surface of the older flow has not
 yet begun to crumble and form soil1 as 
it must do in time1 yet a few trees are 
found here and there1 reaching their    
roots down for the scanty nourishment to
 be drawn from the crevices of the      
rocks4  ,the last flow of lava1 which   
was very small1 ran into a depression in
 the other flow just described4 ,this   
lava appears so fresh that we almost    
expect to find the rocks still warm4    
,what a contrast between the wooded     
hillside adjoining1 with its carpet of  
soft volcanic sand1 and the jagged      
surface of the lava6 ,care must be taken
 in climbing over the lava1 for the     
sharp points and angles are ever ready  
to tear one's shoes and hands4 ,it      
cannot be many years since these hard1  
cold rocks formed a glowing mass of     
molten matter creeping quietly out of   
some hidden fissure which reached far   
down into the earth4 ,the lava hardened 
as it became cold1 just as does molten  
iron when led from the furnace to make a

 casting4  ,at one spot in the lava     
field stand the remains of rude stone   
houses built into caverns in the lava4  
,about them are scattered pieces of     
broken pottery4 ,these rude dwellings   
were probably occupied by some of the   
prehistoric people whose homes are also 
found along many of the streams1 and in 
the caves of the plateau region4 ,we can
 see no reason for their coming to this 
desolate place1 so far from a water     
supply1 unless it was that the rugged   
lava offered some protection from their 
enemies4  ,now let us imagine ourselves 
transported to northern ,california4    
,near ,lassen ,peak1 the southernmost of
 the great volcanoes of the ,cascade    
,range1 there lies another field of     
recent volcanic activity of even greater
 interest than the first4 ,the centre of
 attraction is ,cinder ,cone1 similar to
 ,shadow ,mountain in its manner of     
formation as well as in materials1 but  
more symmetrical in form4 ,upon one side
 is a field of black lava several miles 

in extent1 while volcanic sand has been 
spread over all the adjacent country4   
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4--,,the       
,,crater ,,of ,,cinder ,,cone  ,as      
nearly as can be determined1 only a     
little more than two hundred years ago  
the valley now occupied by ,cinder ,cone
 and the lava fields gave no indication 
of ever becoming a new centre of        
volcanic action4 ,it has been thousands 
of years since the ancient volcanic     
peaks and cinder cones of this          
mountainous region became extinct4 ,the 
glaciers had come1 and torn and ground  
away the surface of the lava1 and       
afterward dense forests had hidden all  
the rocky slopes1 while lakes had       
occupied many of the valleys4 ,far      
below1 however1 the fires had not gone  
out4 ,in many places there were boiling 
springs from which the steam1 upon cold 
mornings1 rose in dense white clouds4   
,then1 for some reason which we do not  
understand1 the forces beneath the      
surface increased their activity4 ,the  

force of the steam and other gases was  
too great to be restrained1 and at a    
weak spot in the overlying rocks they   
broke through4 ,molten lava accompanied 
them1 and a new volcano came into life  
in the valley where ,cinder ,cone now   
raises its dark1 symmetrical slopes4    
,the eruptions were violent4 ,with      
explosive force the molten lava was torn
 into fragments1 and sand1 lapilli1 and 
bombs were hurled out into the air4 ,the
 finer particles were carried by the air
 currents far over the surrounding      
country4 ,the lapilli1 scori1 and bombs 
fell around the throat of the volcano1  
finally building up the cone to its     
present proportions4 ,the great bombs1  
some of them five feet in diameter1 are 
among the most remarkable products of   
this eruption4 ,they lie scattered about
 upon the surface of the ground at the  
foot of the cone1 and1 although they are
 often irregular in shape1 they might   
almost be mistaken for huge             
cannon-balls4 ,the eruption killed and  

burned the trees in the near-by forests1
 burying them under six or seven feet of
 fine sand or ashes4 ,after the cone had
 been built and the explosive eruptions 
had nearly stopped1 a stream of molten  
lava burst from the base of the cone and
 filled a portion of the valley4  ,now  
followed a long period of quiet4 ,trees 
began to grow upon the sand and         
gradually to encroach upon the barren   
wastes about ,cinder ,cone4 ,it appeared
 as if there were to be no more         
eruptions4 ,but the volcano was only    
resting4 ,at about the time1 perhaps1   
when the gold seekers began to pour     
across the continent to ,california1    
there was another eruption2 but this    
time it took the form of a lava flow and
 was so quiet as to create no           
disturbance in the surrounding country4 
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh4--;,,cinder   
,,cone  ,the trees were killed by the   
last eruption of volcanic ashes  ,a     
stream of thick1 viscous lava flowed    
slowly out of an opening at the southern

 base of ,cinder ,cone4 ,as the lava    
crept down the gentle slopes of the     
valley1 it crusted over1 forming a      
black1 slag-like surface4 ,the surface  
was from time to time broken up and     
mixed with the softer portions beneath1 
so that the movement of the flow was    
still further retarded4 ,at the lower   
end of the valley the lava occupied a   
portion of a body of water now known as 
,lake ,bidwell2 its rugged front made a 
dam across the valley above1 forming    
,snag ,lake4 ,the stumps of the trees   
which were killed by the water when the 
lake was first formed are still         
standing4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4        
#bi4--,,the ,,last ,,lava ,,flow ,,in   
,,the ,,united ,,states  ,at ,cinder    
,cone1 ,california4 ,it formed a dam    
across a valley1 thus creating ,snag    
,lake  ,one's feet sink deep into       
volcanic sands1 and walking is tiresome4
 ,the lava field resulting from the last
 eruption is free from sand1 but its    
rough surface1 formed of broken blocks1 

is difficult to cross4  ,a few charred  
stumps rise out of the sand1 pathetic   
remnants of the forest trees that were  
growing at the time of the first        
eruption4 ,most of the trees have       
completely disappeared1 leaving shallow 
pits where they once stood4  ,it is     
exceedingly difficult to climb the cone1
 which rises over six hundred feet1 for 
the slopes1 composed of loose lapilli1  
are so steep that one slips back at     
every step nearly as far as he advances4
 ,from the summit a remarkable sight    
meets the eye4 ,within the rim of the   
main crater is a second crater with a   
rim nearly as high as the first1 while  
the cavity within has a depth of about  
two hundred and fifty feet4  ,because of
 the loose character of the material of 
which it is built1 no streamlets have   
yet worn channels down the slopes of    
,cinder ,cone1 and except for the       
presence of two small bushes which cling
 to its side1 it is just as bare and    
perfect in form as when first completed4

  ,little by little the forests are     
encroaching upon the sand-covered slopes
 about the cone1 and in time these      
slopes1 the black fields of lava1 and   
the cone itself1 will be covered with   
forests like the older lava fields and  
cinder cones which appear upon every    
hand4     ,,the ,,mud ,,volcanoes ,,of  
,,the ,,colorado ,,desert  ,the         
,colorado ,desert is a strange1 weird   
region4 ,here is a vast basin at the    
head of the ,gulf of ,california which  
was once a part of the gulf1 but is now 
separated from it by the delta of the   
,colorado ,river4 ,with the drying up of
 the water1 the centre of the basin was 
left a salt marsh more than two hundred 
and fifty feet below the level of the   
ocean4 ,in summer the air quivers under 
the blazing sun1 and it seems as if no  
form of life could withstand the        
scorching heat1 but in winter the       
atmosphere is cool and full of          
life-giving energy4  ,around this desert
 rise the mountains1 some old and nearly

 worn down1 their tops barely rising out
 of the long slopes of sand and gravel2 
others rugged and steep1 lifting their  
crests far above the burning desert into
 the cold1 clear sky4  ,curious forms of
 plants and animals find their homes    
upon the slopes about the basin1 where  
they adapt themselves to the heat and   
dryness4 ,but toward the centre the soil
 is bare clay1 for when the water dried 
up so much alkali and salt were left    
that nothing could grow4  ,however we do
 not now intend to study the plants or  
the animals1 interesting though they    
are1 but rather a group of mud          
volcanoes1 which forms almost the only  
relief in the monotony of the bare      
plain4 ,these volcanoes are in no way   
related to real volcanoes except in     
shape1 for water and mud1 instead of    
fire and lava1 have been concerned in   
their building4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4  
#cj4--,,mud ,,volcanoes1 ,,colorado     
,,desert  ,once it required a long      
journey in wagons or upon horseback to  

reach the mud volcanoes1 but now the    
railroad takes us within three miles of 
the spot4 ,we alight from the train     
before a section house which stands in  
the midst of the great desert4 ,far1 far
 away stretches the barren clay floor of
 the ancient lake4 ,here and there are  
scattered stunted shrubs1 the only      
specimens of plant life which have been 
able to withstand the alkali in the     
clay4  ,seen from the station1 the      
volcanoes appear like dark specks almost
 upon the horizon1 but in reality they  
are not far away1 and an hour's brisk   
walk will bring us to them4 ,the mud    
springs1 which are scattered over an    
area of several hundred acres1 present  
many strange and interesting features4  
,there are holes in the earth with      
bubbling mud at the bottom1 cones from  
the tops of which streams of muddy water
 issue1 and ponds of mud1 in some cases 
as thick as molasses1 in others thin and
 watery4 ,there are little jets of      
steam1 strange odors1 and a vista of    

many mingled colors4 ,taken altogether1 
it is a place quite different from any  
other that we have ever seen4  ,the     
ground is soft and marshy1 and in some  
places undermined by the water1 so that 
we have to take great care in walking   
about4 ,some of the smaller springs     
occupy round depressions1 sometimes     
three or four feet across1 which look as
 if they had been made by pressing a    
large pan down into the clay4 ,the      
bubbling mud in the bottom of the pan1  
as well as the hot water in many of the 
springs1 makes it easy to imagine that  
we are standing upon the top of a great 
cooking stove in which a hot fire is    
burning4 ,as the gas with which the     
water is impregnated comes up through   
the mud1 it forms huge bubbles which    
finally break and settle down1 only to  
rise again4 ,in this way concentric mud 
rings1 perfect in form1 are made to     
cover the entire surface of the pool4   
,where there is little water1 the       
surface of the mud hardens and leaves a 

small opening1 through which the        
bubbling gas throws small columns of mud
 at regular intervals4 ,from the large  
pools1 some of which are forty to fifty 
feet in diameter1 there comes a low     
murmuring sound like the boiling of many
 kettles4 ,the water is sputtering and  
bubbling1 and in some places it is hot  
enough to give off thin clouds of steam4
 ,occasionally we get whiffs of sulphur1
 while about the borders of some of the 
ponds pretty crystals of this mineral   
can be found4  ,more commonly the pools 
are crusted about with a white deposit  
of salt1 for they all contain more or   
less of this substance in solution4     
,around a few of the pools the mud is   
stained with the red tinge of iron1 and 
red lines mark the paths of the streams 
as they run off from the pools toward   
the still lower portions of the desert4 
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#ca4--,,pot-,,holes  ,the built-up cones
 or volcanoes appear in every stage1    
from the little ones a few inches high  

to the patriarchs1 which in some cases  
have reached a height of twelve feet4   
,these cones are formed by the hardening
 and piling up of mud about the         
openings2 but when they have reached the
 height mentioned1 the passages up      
through their centres1 corresponding in 
each case to the throat of a real       
volcano1 become clogged and new holes   
are formed in the mud at the base4      
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb4--;,,an       
,,extinct ,,mud ,,volcano  ,with small  
active one at its side  ,many of these  
mud volcanoes closely resemble true     
volcanoes in form and structure4 ,the   
mud which pours out at the top forms    
streams down the slopes very like those 
of molten lava4 ,new cones are built    
upon the sides or at the bases of the   
old ones in much the same way as are    
those in the volcanic regions4  ,there  
are no signs of volcanic action in the  
vicinity of these mud springs1 and it is
 likely that the water is forced to the 
surface by large quantities of gas      

produced by chemical changes taking     
place deep within the clay beds of the  
old lake4 ,similar springs occur farther
 south1 nearer the mouth of the         
,colorado ,river1 in the ,yellowstone   
,park1 and near ,lassen ,peak1 but      
nowhere in ,america except in the       
,colorado desert have they formed such  
large and interesting mounds4     ,,the 
,,history ,,of ,a ,,coast ,,line  ,the  
story of our ,pacific coast reads more  
like a tale from the ,arabian ,nights   
than like a plain statement of events   
which have actually happened4  ,the     
meeting place of the land and ocean is  
not really so permanent a line as it    
appears4 ,the shore has been continually
 moving back and forth throughout the   
long history of the earth4 ,that which  
was dry land at one time was at another 
time deeply buried beneath the ocean4   
,the ,pacific border seems never to have
 been at rest4 ,it has risen and sunk   
again repeatedly4 ,it has been squeezed1
 folded1 and broken1 shaken by          

earthquakes1 and disturbed by volcanic  
eruptions4  ,one might be led to think  
from this statement that it would not be
 safe to live on the ,pacific coast1 and
 that both animals and men would shun   
the region4 ,the fact is1 however1 that 
these changes usually come to pass so   
very slowly that we are not aware of    
them4 ,severe earthquakes and volcanic  
disturbances take place so rarely in    
comparison with the length of a man's   
life1 that we may pass our whole lives  
without experiencing any of these       
violent disturbances4 ,the ,pacific     
coast region1 with its forest-covered   
mountains1 fertile valleys1 and         
beautiful homes1 presents so quiet and  
peaceful an appearance that it is       
difficult to believe that parts of its  
history have been so tumultuous4        
,perhaps you will ask how we can know so
 much about the past4 ,it is true that  
no one was here to witness the events   
which are supposed to have taken place4 
,but ,nature has left a record of her   

doings which we have only to see and    
understand in order to learn with       
certainty many things which happened in 
the far distant past4  ,too many of us  
go through life seeing and understanding
 almost as little of the world about us 
as if we were blind4 ,our early         
ancestors were obliged to understand    
many things about ,nature and to        
cultivate clear and close observation   
for the sake of self-preservation4 ,the 
very life of the savage depends upon the
 training of his eyes4 ,he must be able 
to tell the meaning of a distant object 
or an indistinct trail1 for his enemies 
may have passed that way recently4 ,if  
we could bring the sharp eyes of the    
savage to our aid1 the world would mean 
much more to us4  ,in order to learn    
something of the history of the ,pacific
 shore line1 we must see what the waves 
are doing at the present time4 ,the     
projecting points of land are being worn
 away 7,fig4 #cc74 ,the waves form the  
cliffs against which they beat1 and     

sometimes1 as they eat their way slowly 
into the land1 they cut off portions and
 leave them standing alone as islands4  
,the pebbles and boulders 7,fig4 #cd7   
were once angular fragments torn from   
the cliff4 ,they have been washed about 
and hurled against the solid rock until 
they have been worn smooth2 and the     
cliff in turn has had a cave ground out 
at its base4 ,above the lower cave there
 is a remnant of a second one1 with     
pebbles upon its floor4 ,this was made  
when the land stood ten feet lower than 
at present4  ,as the waves wear away the
 loose earth and the solid rock below   
it1 moving the cliffs inland1 they leave
 a comparatively smooth surface which is
 partly exposed at low tide4 ,the fact  
that this surface is not marked by      
stream channels1 as is the land1 helps  
us to realize the great difference      
between the irregular surface of the    
latter and the plain-like character of  
the ocean floor4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 
#cc4--,,point ,,buchon1 ,,california    

,the waves are eating their way into the
 land  ,along the whole coast of        
,california there are many old sea      
beaches and cliffs which the waves      
abandoned long ago4 ,the highest of     
these beaches lies so far up the slopes 
of the mountains bordering the ocean    
that it makes us wonder what the        
geography of ,california could have been
 like when the region was so deeply     
submerged4  ,the lowest and newest      
terrace is the one shown in ,fig4 #ce1  
ten feet above the ocean4 ,each         
succeeding terrace is less distinct1 and
 the highest1 fourteen hundred feet in  
elevation1 can now be distinguished in  
only a few places4 ,where the old sea   
cliffs are best preserved they form a   
series of broad1 flat steps1 rising one 
above the other4 ,each bench1 or terrace
 as it is commonly called1 is a part of 
an old plain cut out of the land by the 
waves when the ocean stood at that      
level4 ,the steeper slope rising at the 
back is the remnant of the cliff against

 which the waves used to beat4 ,if we   
are fortunate1 we shall find at its base
 some water-worn pebbles and possibly a 
few fragments of sea-shells4 ,the       
crumbling of the rocks and the erosive  
action of the rills are fast destroying 
the old cliffs1 so that in many places  
they have entirely disappeared4         
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd4--,,ocean     
,,cave ,,at ,,low ,,tide  ,pebbles of a 
former beach are seen above  ,upon the  
seaward face of ,san ,pedro ,hill1 in   
southern ,california1 there are eleven  
terraces1 rising to a height of twelve  
hundred feet4 ,what an interesting      
record this shows6 ,long ago the land   
stood twelve hundred feet lower than at 
present1 and the waves beat about ,san  
,pedro ,hill1 nearly submerging it4     
,then the land began to rise1 but       
stopped after a time1 and the waves cut 
a terrace4 ,the upward movement was     
continued1 with repeated intervals of   
rest1 until the land stood higher than  
it does now4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4     

#ce4--,,wave-,,cut ,,terraces  ,point   
,san ,pedro1 ,california  ,north of ,san
 ,francisco there stands a terrace      
fourteen hundred feet above the ocean4  
,numerous terraces appear along the     
,oregon coast1 but those in ,washington 
are not as high as those in ,california4
 ,it is probable that the land in this  
region was not so deeply submerged4     
,the ancient shore lines of ,british    
,columbia and ,alaska are now deeply    
buried beneath the ocean1 as those of   
,california once were4 ,the fiords1 so  
common in these countries1 are old river
 valleys which have been drowned by the 
sinking of the land4 ,the islands were  
once portions of the coast mountains1   
but have been cut off by the same       
process4  ,let us picture in our minds  
the changes in the geography of the     
,pacific coast of the ,united ,states   
which must have been made by a sinking  
of the land to a depth of only six      
hundred feet4 ,we will begin upon the   
north1 at the ,strait of ,fuca4  ,puget 

,sound once opened to the south as well 
as to the north1 so that the ,olympic   
,mountains formed an island4 ,the broad 
and fertile ,willamette ,valley was but 
an arm of the sea1 somewhat like ,puget 
,sound to-day4 ,the body of water which 
once filled this valley has been called 
,willamette ,sound4 ,the ocean          
overspread the low ,oregon coast1 and   
reached far up the valleys of the       
,umpqua and ,rogue rivers4 ,but the     
boundaries of the ,klamath ,mountains   
were not greatly changed1 for in many   
places they rise quite abruptly from the
 present shore line4  ,all the large    
valleys of ,california were flooded1    
including the ,san ,joaquin-,sacramento 
valley1 which was then a great sound1   
open to the ocean in the region of the  
present ,strait of ,carquinez4 ,the     
,coast range was broken up into islands 
and peninsulas4 ,the islands off the    
coast of southern ,california are high  
and therefore were not entirely         
submerged4 ,the ,gulf of ,california    

spread over the ,colorado ,desert1 while
 from the west the water penetrated     
inland over the plain of ,los ,angeles  
to a point beyond ,san ,bernardino1 so  
that at the ,san ,gorgonio pass only a  
narrow neck of land connected the ,san  
,jacinto ,mountains and the ,peninsula  
,range with the mainland4  ,if          
,california had been inhabited at this  
time1 the state would not have been     
noted for orchards and grain-fields1 but
 rather for its mineral wealth4 ,there  
would have been comparatively little low
 land fit for cultivation1 but the      
mountains1 where almost all the precious
 metals are found1 would have appeared  
nearly as they do to-day4  ,the surface 
of the earth may be divided into the    
ocean basins and the continental masses 
which rise above them1 but we must not  
make the mistake of thinking that the   
shore line always corresponds with the  
border of the continental masses4 ,we   
have learned that the land is almost    
always moving slowly up or down1 so that

 the shore is continually changing back 
and forth4 ,at one time the shore line  
may be far within the borders of the    
continent1 as we have seen was once the 
case upon our ,pacific coast2 at another
 time1 if the land should rise1 the     
shore line might coincide with the real 
border of the continent4 ,by the real   
border of the continent we mean the line
 along which the earth slopes down      
steeply to the abysmal depths of the    
ocean4  ,it is an interesting fact that 
outside the present shore line of       
,california there is a submerged strip  
of the continent varying from ten to one
 hundred and fifty miles in width4 ,this
 strip of land is like a bench upon the 
side of the continent1 and is known as  
the continental plateau4 ,the water over
 the plateau is comparatively shallow4  
,upon one side the land rises1 while    
upon the other there is a rapid descent 
into the deep ,pacific4 ,the surface of 
the plateau is in general fairly smooth1
 but in places mountains lift their     

summits above the water and form        
islands4  ,there was a time1 thousands  
of years earlier than the period when   
,california was so nearly covered by the
 waters of the ,pacific1 when this land 
stood far higher than it does now4 ,the 
coast line was then much farther west1  
near the border of the submarine        
plateau4 ,the ,santa ,barbara ,islands  
at that time formed a mountain range    
upon the edge of the continental land4  
,this fact was established by the       
discovery upon one of the islands of a  
large number of bones of an extinct     
,american elephant4 ,these animals could
 have reached the submerged mountains   
only at a time when there was dry land  
between them and the present shore line4
 ,we should like to know how it came    
about that these bones were left where  
they are4 ,perhaps the land sank so     
suddenly that the water cut the         
elephants off from the mainland and     
compelled them to spend the remainder of
 their lives upon these islands4  ,while

 the land stood so high1 some of the    
larger streams wore deep channels across
 what is now the submarine plateau4     
,these channels have been discovered by 
soundings made from the ships of the    
,united ,states ,coast ,survey4 ,the    
largest of the submerged valleys extends
 through the ,bay of ,monterey1 and runs
 so close to the shore that it has      
offered a favorable location for a      
wharf4  ,before the buried valleys upon 
the northern coast of ,california were  
all known1 the presence of one of them  
led to the wreck of a ship4 ,the shore  
was obscured by fog1 but the soundings  
made by the sailors showed deep water   
and led them to believe they were a long
 distance from land1 when suddenly the  
ship drifted in upon the rocks4  ,the   
last significant movement of the land of
 the ,pacific border was a downward one4
 ,it flooded the mouths of the streams  
and formed all the large harbors which  
are of so great commercial importance4  
,san ,francisco ,bay occupies a great   

stretch of lowland at the meeting of    
several valleys of the ,coast ,ranges   
and forms the outlet for the most       
important drainage system of            
,california4 ,if this region had been   
settled before the subsidence of the    
land which let in the ocean through the 
,golden ,gate1 how the farmers would    
have lamented the flooding of their     
fertile lands6 ,but we can understand   
how small the loss would have been1     
compared with the advantages to be      
gained from the magnificent harbor which
 now exists here4 ,if the land had not  
sunk the history of the ,pacific coast  
would have been far different4          
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf4--;,,island   
,,rounded ,,by ,a ,,glacier  ,near      
,anacortes1 ,puget ,sound  ,puget       
,sound1 another very important arm of   
the ocean1 is also a submerged valley1  
but it has had an entirely different    
history from that of ,san ,francisco    
,bay4 ,the valley was at one time       
occupied by a great glacier which came  

down from the ,cascade ,range and moved 
northwest through the sound and into the
 ,strait of ,juan de ,fuca1 scouring and
 polishing the rocks over which it      
passed4 ,a little island near ,anacortes
 7,fig4 #cf7 has been rounded by the    
action of the ice into a form like a    
whale's back4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4    
#cg4--;,,an ,,abandoned ,,ocean ,,cliff 
,southern ,california  ,the sinking of  
the land flooded the lower ,columbia    
,river and the mouth of the ,willamette1
 so that ocean ships may now go up as   
far as ,portland4 ,the currents and     
waves soon threw up bars across the     
mouths of the smaller streams1 and      
formed lagoons behind them4 ,ships      
frequently have difficulty in entering  
many of the harbors because of the sand 
bars which have been built up part way  
to the surface of the water4  ,it is    
thought that along some portions of the 
coast there has recently been a slight  
upward movement of the land4 ,figure #cg
 shows a bit of ,california coast1 near 

,san ,juan1 where the ,santa ,f railroad
 has laid its tracks for several miles  
along a strip of abandoned beach1 at the
 base of a cliff against which the waves
 once beat4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4      
#ch4--,,limestone ,,cliff1 ,,quatsino   
,,sound1 ,,vancouver ,,island  ,at the  
northern end of ,vancouver island there 
is a deep arm of the ocean called       
,quatsino ,sound4 ,a limestone cliff    
upon the shore of this sound 7,fig4 #ch7
 has been undermined by the dissolving  
of the limestone1 but now the water     
lacks three feet of rising to the notch 
which it recently formed4     ,,the     
,,discovery ,,of ,,the ,,columbia       
,,river  ,the influence exerted by the  
various features of the land and water  
upon the settlement of a new region are 
not always fully appreciated4 ,if the   
entrance to ,san ,francisco ,bay had    
been broader and more easily discerned  
by the early navigators who sailed past 
it1 and if the mouth of the ,columbia   
,river had not been obscured by lowlands

 and a line of breakers upon the bar1   
the history of western ,america would   
probably have been very different4  ,in 
the seventeenth century the prospect    
seemed to be that ,spain would control  
the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,she claimed1 by   
right of discovery1 all the lands       
bordering upon this ocean and the       
exclusive right to navigate its waters4 
,every vessel found there without       
license from the court of ,spain was1 by
 royal decree1 to be confiscated4  ,it  
is interesting1 after all these years   
and with our present knowledge1 to look 
back and see how unreasonable were the  
claims of ,spain4 ,in the fifteenth     
century the extent of the ,pacific ocean
 was not known4 ,in fact1 men's ideas as
 to the distribution of land and water  
over the earth were so indefinite that  
it was at first supposed that the       
islands which ,columbus discovered      
belonged to the ,east ,indies4  ,the    
claims of ,spain to the ,pacific ,ocean 
were based upon its discovery by        

,balboa1 but she never made any serious 
efforts to enforce them1 for the attempt
 would have involved her in war with all
 the maritime nations of ,europe4 ,spain
 lacked the ability to take advantage of
 the great discoveries which her        
navigators and explorers had made1 and  
for that reason she merely looked on1   
though with jealous eyes1 when in the   
eighteenth century the ships of         
,england1 ,france1 ,holland1 and ,russia
 entered the ,pacific ,ocean with a view
 to exploration and conquest4           
,determined at last to support their    
claim to the ,pacific coast of ,north   
,america1 the ,spaniards began to       
realize the necessity of exploring it   
more fully and of founding settlements4 
,it was their plan to take possession of
 the whole region between ,mexico upon  
the south and the ,russian trading posts
 along the shores of ,alaska4 ,as       
exploration by land was impossible      
because of mountain ranges and deserts1 
the ,spanish adventurers were forced to 

rely upon the ocean1 with all its       
uncertainties of storm and contrary     
winds4  ,between #aggd and #aggi voyages
 were made as far north as ,queen       
,charlotte's ,island1 in latitude #ed4  
,a station was established and held for 
many years at ,nootka ,sound1 upon the  
west coast of ,vancouver ,island4 ,the  
first expedition passed the ,strait of  
,juan de ,fuca apparently without seeing
 it1 although there was a rumor to the  
effect that a broad opening into the    
land had been discovered by a certain   
,juan de ,fuca in #aeib1 while he was   
exploring in the employ of ,spain4 ,the 
latitude of this opening1 as he gave it1
 nearly corresponds to that of the      
strait which now bears his name4  ,for  
many years the attempt to discover a    
passage around the northern part of     
,america engaged the early navigators   
upon both the ,atlantic and ,pacific    
oceans4 ,their desire to find an easy   
route to ,india spurred them to constant
 effort4 ,for a time it was believed    

that such an opening actually existed1  
and mariners went so far as to give it a
 name1 calling it the ,straits of       
,anian4 ,the reputed discoveries of     
,juan de ,fuca materially strengthened  
the general belief in a passage to the  
northward of ,america4  ,vizcaino1 in   
his voyage of #afjc1 reached latitude   
#dc north and thought that he had       
discovered a great river flowing into   
the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,this opening1     
although south of the point supposed to 
have been reached by ,juan de ,fuca1 was
 believed for a time to be the entrance 
to the long-sought ,straits of ,anian4  
,during the latter part of the          
seventeenth century ,california was     
represented upon the ,spanish maps as an
 island having ,cape ,blanco1 which     
,vizcaino discovered and named1 as its  
northern point1 and separated from the  
mainland by an extension of the ,gulf of
 ,california northward4  ,to return now 
to the ,spanish explorations1 in the    
latter part of the seventeenth century  

we find that ,heceta1 following the     
first expedition1 succeeded in getting  
as far as ,vancouver ,island1 where1    
having been parted from an accompanying 
ship by a storm1 he turned southward1   
passing the ,strait of ,juan de ,fuca   
and keeping close by the shore4 ,in     
latitude #df #ag' he found an opening in
 the coast from which a strong current  
issued4 ,he felt sure that he had       
discovered the mouth of some large      
river4 ,upon the later ,spanish maps    
this was called ,heceta's ,inlet1 or    
,river of ,san ,roque4 ,a glance at the 
map will show how closely the latitude  
given corresponds to the mouth of the   
river which was discovered later by     
,captain ,gray and named1 after his     
ship1 the ,columbia4  ,a short time     
before ,heceta's discovery1 ,captain    
,jonathan ,carver of ,connecticut set   
out on an exploring tour1 partly for the
 purpose of determining the width of the
 continent and the nature of the ,indian
 inhabitants4 ,he mentions four great   

rivers rising within a few leagues of   
one another1 ,the river ,bourbon 7,red  
,river of the ,north7 which empties     
itself into ,hudson's ,bay1 the waters  
of the ,st4 ,lawrence1 the ,mississippi1
 and the river ,oregon1 or ,river of the
 ,west1 that falls into the ,pacific    
,ocean at the ,straits of ,anian4       
,carver's descriptions are fanciful1 and
 it is not likely that he ever saw the  
river which is now known as the         
,columbia1 although there is a          
possibility that he heard stories from  
the ,indians of a great river upon the  
western slope of the ,rocky ,mountains1 
and invented for it the name ,oregon4   
,in #aghg ,meares1 an ,english trader1  
visited the coast1 and sailing southward
 from the ,strait of ,juan de ,fuca1    
attempted to find the river ,san ,roque 
as it was laid down upon the ,spanish   
charts4 ,reaching the proper latitude1  
,meares rounded a promontory and found  
behind it a bay which he was unable to  
enter because of a continuous line of   

breakers extending across it4 ,he became
 satisfied that there was no such river 
as the ,san ,roque1 and named the       
promontory ,cape ,disappointment and the
 bay ,deception ,bay4 ,if ,meares had   
entered the bay through the breakers1   
the ,english would undoubtedly have made
 good their claim to the discovery of   
the ,columbia ,river4  ,after the       
,revolution1 ,american trading ships    
began to extend their operations into   
the ,north ,pacific4 ,in #aghg two such 
vessels left ,boston1 one of them under 
command of a ,captain ,gray4 ,after     
reaching the ,pacific1 the ships were   
parted during a storm1 and ,captain     
,gray finally touched the ,american     
coast near the forty-sixth degree of    
north latitude4 ,for nine days he tried 
to enter an opening which was in all    
probability the one attempted by        
,meares4 ,after nearly losing his ship  
and suffering an ,indian attack1 he     
sailed north to ,nootka ,sound4         
,captain ,gray returned to ,boston1 but 

in #agij started upon another trading   
expedition in command of the ship       
,columbia4 ,arriving safely in the      
,north ,pacific1 he spent the winter of 
#agia-agib upon ,vancouver ,island4     
,vancouver1 whose name has been given to
 the largest island upon the western    
coast of ,north ,america1 and who did so
 much to make known the intricate coast 
line of the ,puget ,sound region1       
arrived upon the scene in #agib4 ,he was
 authorized to carry on explorations1   
and to treat with ,spain concerning the 
abandonment of the ,spanish claim to    
,nootka ,sound4  ,vancouver sailed up   
the coast1 keeping a close lookout for  
the river ,san ,roque4 ,no opening in   
the land appeared1 although at one spot 
he sailed through a muddy-colored sea   
which he judged was affected by the     
water of some river4 ,upon reaching the 
,strait of ,fuca1 ,vancouver expressed  
the opinion that there was no river     
between the fortieth and forty-eighth   
degrees of north latitude1 only brooks  

insufficient for our vessels to         
navigate4  ,shortly after this time1    
,vancouver met ,captain ,gray with his  
ship ,columbia4 ,the disheartened       
explorer placed no confidence in        
,captain ,gray's report that1 upon his  
former voyage1 he had discovered a large
 river to the south4 ,vancouver in his  
narrative says1 ,i was thoroughly       
convinced that we could not possibly    
have passed any safe navigable opening1 
harbor1 or place of security for        
shipping on this coast from ,cape       
,mendocino to the promontory of ,closset
 7,cape ,flattery74  ,captain ,gray1    
however1 determined to make further     
investigations4 ,he sailed southward and
 entered a port now known as ,gray's    
,harbor1 where he spent several days    
trading with the ,indians4 ,from this   
harbor he ran on south for a few miles  
past ,cape ,disappointment1 and then    
sailed through an opening in the        
breakers into a bay which he supposed   
formed the mouth of the river of which  

he was in search4 ,he finally anchored1 
as he says1 in a large river of fresh   
water4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ci4--;,a 
,,scene ,,on ,,gray',s ,,harbor1        
,,washington  ,showing sawmills and log 
booms  ,later ,captain ,gray took the   
vessel twelve or fifteen miles up the   
river1 and would have gone farther if he
 had not wandered into the wrong        
channel4 ,when he left the river he     
named it the ,columbia in honor of his  
vessel4 ,thus by the right of actual    
discovery the ,united ,states was at    
last able to make good its claim to the 
river4  ,the ,english claimed that ,gray
 did not enter the river itself1 as the 
tide sets up many miles farther than the
 point which his ship reached4 ,they    
insisted that what he saw was simply a  
bay4 ,but the truth is that ,gray was   
actually in the mouth of the river4 ,the
 mere fact that the tide enters the     
lower portion of the river makes no     
difference4 ,the actual mouth of the    
,columbia is marked by the north and    

south coast line4 ,the entrance of the  
tide water1 and the backing of the      
current for many miles up stream1 is the
 result of a recent sinking of the land4
 ,the same features are presented by the
 ,hudson ,river4  ,if the ,english had  
discovered and entered the river first  
it is probable that this stream would   
have become the boundary line between   
the ,united ,states and ,british        
,columbia1 in which case the whole      
northern portion of the ,oregon         
territory would have been lost to us4   
,as it was1 the ,english laid insistent 
claim to the northern bank of the river 
and established trading posts at various
 points4 ,the lowest of these posts     
stood upon the site of ,fort ,vancouver1
 a little above the mouth of the        
,willamette ,river4  ,the famous        
exploring expedition under ,captains    
,lewis and ,clark wintered at the mouth 
of the ,columbia in #ahjd-ahje1 in a    
group of rude log cabins known as ,fort 
,clatsop4 ,the first settlement in the  

vicinity was made in #ahaa1 when a fur  
company organized by ,john ,jacob ,astor
 attempted to establish a trading post  
upon the ,columbia4 ,two parties were   
sent out from ,new ,york4 ,one travelled
 by water around ,cape ,horn1 while the 
other1 with great difficulty1 crossed   
the continent by the way of the         
,missouri1 ,snake1 and ,columbia rivers4
 ,the undertaking proved unsuccessful1  
for after the ,war of #ahab began       
supplies could no longer be sent safely 
to the post4  ,the ,astor company       
finally surrendered its establishment to
 an ,english company1 and in this way   
the control of the river was transferred
 to ,england4 ,with the return of peace 
the post was restored to the ,united    
,states1 and its location is marked now 
by the city of ,astoria4  ,illustration3
 ,,fig4 #dj4--,,tillamook ,,rock  ,near 
the mouth of the ,columbia ,river  ,what
 small things sometimes determine the   
trend of great events6 ,a little more   
care and energy on the part of          

,vancouver or ,meares would have placed 
the ,columbia ,river in the hands of the
 ,english4 ,the existence of an open    
river mouth without any breaking bar    
would have brought about the same       
result4  ,the ,spaniards came first to  
the ,pacific slope1 claiming the whole  
coast as far north as the ,russian      
possessions4 ,later the ,united ,states1
 by treaty with ,spain and ,russia1     
acquired a right to all that portion of 
the ,pacific coast of ,north ,america   
which lies between ,california and the  
,russian possessions4 ,but because of   
the greater energy of the ,english1 and 
the failure upon the part of the ,united
 ,states to realize the value of this   
vast region1 a considerable section was 
again lost by the terms of the treaty   
which made the forty-ninth parallel the 
boundary line4 ,the intelligence and    
energy of ,captain ,gray alone preserved
 to us the rich lands of ,washington4   
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #da4--;,,astoria1 
,,oregon  ,at the mouth of the ,columbia

 ,river     ,,the ,,great ,,basin ,,and 
,,its ,,peculiar ,,lakes  ,as our       
country was slowly being explored and   
settled1 one region was brought to light
 which ,nature seemed to have left      
unfinished and in a desolate condition4 
,this barren stretch of country was once
 marked upon the maps as the ,great     
,american ,desert1 and included a large 
part of the extensive region lying      
between the ,rocky ,mountains upon the  
east and the ,sierra ,nevada ,mountains 
upon the west4 ,to the south lay the    
,grand ,caon of the ,colorado1 while    
upon the north the boundary was formed  
by the caons of the ,snake and ,columbia
 rivers4  ,after a time it was found    
that this region1 covering about two    
hundred and twenty-five thousand square 
miles1 not only was extremely dry1 but  
had no outlet to the ocean4 ,a rim of   
higher land all about made of it so     
perfect a basin that it became known as 
the ,great ,basin4 ,none of the water   
that falls upon the surface of this     

basin ever reaches the ocean through    
surface streams4 ,some of it soaks into 
the rocks1 but the greater part is      
evaporated into the dry air4  ,we have  
already learned something about the way 
in which the ridges and hollows of the  
earth's surface are made4 ,we have      
learned of the wrinkling of the crust1  
of the formation of fissures1 and of the
 erosive work of running water4 ,the    
interesting features of the ,great      
,basin are mainly the result of two     
causes3 the sinking of a portion of the 
earth's surface1 and the lack of        
rainfall4  ,long ago the ,wasatch ,range
 of eastern ,utah and the ,sierra       
,nevadas of ,california formed parts of 
a vast elevated plateau4 ,then there    
came a time when the forces holding up  
the plateau were relaxed1 and as the    
weight of the plateau pressed it down1  
the solid rocks broke into huge         
fragments4 ,some of the blocks thus made
 sank and formed valleys2 others were   
tilted or pushed up and formed          

mountains4 ,thus the north and south    
mountain ranges and valleys of the      
,great ,basin were born4  ,we must      
understand1 then1 that the ,great ,basin
 is not a simple depression with higher 
land all about4 ,the breaking up of the 
surface produced many basins1 large and 
small4 ,some of these basins are six    
thousand feet above the level of the    
sea1 others are much lower1 and one has 
been dropped below the level of the sea1
 so that if it were not for barriers the
 water would flow in4 ,some of the      
basins are rimmed all about by steep    
mountains1 others are so broad and flat 
that it is difficult to tell that they  
really are basins4 ,many of the valleys 
are so connected with one another that  
if a heavy rainfall should ever occur   
drainage systems would be quickly       
established4  ,the ,great ,basin now    
appears like the skeleton of a dried-up 
world2 but if the climate should change 
and become like that of the ,mississippi
 ,valley1 the surface of the desert     

would undergo a wondrous transformation4
 ,the hundreds of basins1 if fed by     
streams from the surrounding mountains1 
would then become lakes4 ,the highest1  
overflowing1 would empty into a lower1  
and this in turn into a still lower     
basin1 until the water had accumulated  
in vast inland seas4 ,these seas1       
overflowing the rim of the ,great ,basin
 at its lowest points1 would send rivers
 hastening away to the ocean4           
,illustration3 ,map of the ,great ,basin
 showing the location and extent of the 
ancient lake beds4  ,what a region of   
lakes this would be for a time6 ,then   
they would begin to disappear1 for lakes
 are short-lived as compared with       
mountains4 ,some would be filled with   
clay and gravel brought by the streams4 
,others would be drained by a cutting   
down of their outlets4  ,great ,salt    
,lake1 which is the only body of water  
in the ,basin that has ever sent a      
stream to the ocean1 was lowered four   
hundred feet by the washing away of the 

rock and earth at its outlet4  ,we know 
that the rainfall never has been heavy  
in this region since the ,great ,basin  
was formed1 although at one time it was 
sufficiently great to form two inland   
seas1 one in northwestern ,nevada1 the  
other in ,utah4  ,the chief reason for  
the dryness of the ,great ,basin is the 
presence of that lofty barrier1 the     
,sierra ,nevada mountain range1 between 
the ,basin and the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,the
 storms1 which usually come from the    
ocean1 are intercepted by this range1   
and the greater portion of their        
moisture is taken away4 ,the little     
moisture that remains falls upon the    
highlands of the ,great ,basin1 and so  
relieves its surface from utter         
barrenness4 ,the adjacent slopes of the 
,sierra ,nevada and ,wasatch ranges     
furnish numerous perennial streams which
 feed the lakes about the borders of the
 ,basin1 such as ,great ,salt ,lake1    
,pyramid1 ,walker1 ,mono1 ,honey1 and   
,owens lakes4 ,the wet weather streams1 

flowing down the desert mountains for a 
short time each year1 frequently form   
broad1 shallow lakes which disappear    
with the coming of the summer sun4  ,the
 climate of the ,great ,basin has       
changed from time to time4 ,during one  
period it was much drier than it is now1
 and the lakes were nearly or quite     
dried up4 ,it must have been a desolate 
region then1 shunned by animals and     
forbidden to man4  ,during the ,glacial 
period1 a few thousand years ago1 the   
climate was moister and cooler than it  
is now4 ,the mountains were covered with
 deep snows1 and glaciers crept down the
 slopes of the higher peaks4 ,great     
,salt ,lake covered all northwestern    
,utah2 to this former body of water the 
name ,bonneville has been given1 in     
honor of a noted trapper4 ,pyramid1     
,winnemucca1 ,carson1 ,walker1 and      
,honey lakes1 now separated from one    
another by sagebrush deserts1 were then 
united in one great lake1 to which the  
name ,lahontan has been given1 in honor 

of an early ,french explorer4           
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #db4--,,mono      
,,lake1 ,,california  ,lake ,lahontan   
covered a large portion of northwestern 
,nevada and penetrated into ,california4
 ,it was broken into long winding arms  
and bays by various mountain ranges4    
,the deepest portion of this ancient    
lake is now occupied by ,pyramid ,lake1 
which is1 perhaps1 the most picturesque 
of all the ,basin lakes4 ,fish can live 
in the waters of this lake1 although    
nearly all the others are so salty or so
 alkaline that they support none of the 
ordinary forms of life4  ,illustration3 
,,fig4 #dc4--,,round ,,hole1 ,a ,,spring
 ,,in ,,the ,,smoke ,,creek ,,desert    
,bed of old ,lake ,lahontan  ,upon the  
,black ,rock ,desert1 in northern       
,nevada1 there are large springs once   
covered by ,lake ,lahontan1 in which    
fish are found4 ,it is thought that the 
ancestors of these fish must have been  
left there at the time of the drying up 
of the water4  ,after the ,glacial      

period the present arid climate began to
 prevail in the land4 ,hundreds of the  
shallow lakes which had been scattered  
over this extensive region disappeared4 
,others contained water for only a      
portion of each year4 ,a body of water  
which is not permanent1 but comes and   
goes with the seasons1 we call a playa  
lake4 ,many of these playa lakes present
 in summer a hard1 yellow-clay floor of 
many miles in extent and entirely free  
from vegetation4 ,the beds of others are
 covered with a whitish crust1 formed of
 the various salts which were in        
solution in the lake water4             
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dd4--,,rogers    
,,lake1 ,,mohave ,,desert  ,a playa lake
  ,an important feature of the lakes of 
the ,great ,basin is the presence of    
large quantities of such substances as  
common salt1 soda1 borax1 and nitre4    
,the ocean is salt because it has no    
outlet1 while the rivers of the globe   
are continually bringing into it various
 minerals1 dissolved from the rocks over

 which they flow4 ,lakes with outlets   
are not salty1 because with a continuous
 change of the water there is no        
opportunity for the minerals to         
accumulate1 although they are always    
present in small quantities4 ,any lake  
which does not receive enough running   
water to cause it to overflow the       
borders of its basin1 will in course of 
time become rich in various kinds of    
salt4  ,no two of the lakes of the      
,great ,basin are alike in the          
composition of their waters4 ,this fact 
may be due to a difference in the rocks 
about the lake basin1 to the presence of
 varying mineral springs1 or to the     
drying up of one or more of the lakes at
 some time so that their former salts   
were buried under sands and clays when  
the water again filled the basin4       
,great ,salt ,lake contains little      
besides common salt4 ,in ,mono ,lake1   
soda and salt are equally important     
constituents1 while ,owens ,lake        
contains an excess of soda4 ,in other   

basins borax was present in such        
quantities that when the waters dried up
 it formed important deposits4 ,the     
value of these deposits is now fully    
understood1 and many enterprising       
companies are at work separating and    
purifying the borax4  ,owens ,lake was  
once fresh1 although now it is so strong
 with soda that it would destroy the    
skin if a bather should remain in it    
very long4 ,the former outlet of this   
lake was toward the south1 through a    
pass separating the ,sierra ,nevada from
 the ,coso ,mountains4 ,for a distance  
of thirty miles the old river-bed has   
been transformed into a wagon road1 and 
it is interesting to ride all day along 
the bed of this dead river1 past bold   
cliffs against which the waters once    
surged and foamed4 ,the river emptied   
far to the south1 into a broad1 shallow 
lake whose former bed is now white with 
soda and borax4 ,the old beach lines    
stand out distinctly upon the slopes of 
the enclosing mountains4  ,the lake bed 

is now the seat of an important         
industry--the gathering of the borax and
 its refining4 ,there are extensive     
buildings at one spot upon its border1  
and men come and go across the blinding 
white surface4 ,a twenty-mule team      
dragging three huge wagons creeps slowly
 along the base of the distant          
mountains1 but all that can be          
distinguished is a cloud of dust4       
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#de4--;,,freighting ,,borax ,,across    
,,the ,,desert  ,the slow crumbling of  
the rocks1 and the setting free of those
 constituents which are soluble1 the    
work of the streams in gathering the    
rock waste into the lakes1 the dry air  
and the heat of the long summer days1   
have all conspired together to give us  
these valuable deposits in the dried-up 
lakes of the ,great ,basin4  ,no portion
 of the earth seems to be without value 
to man4 ,the great bodies of water are  
convenient highways4 ,the rich valleys  
and timbered mountains offer useful     

products4 ,even the deserts1 where      
living things of every description find 
the struggle for existence very hard1   
become indispensable4 ,if the climate in
 the ,great ,basin had been moist1 the  
salts would not have been preserved1 but
 would have been carried away to the    
ocean1 from which only common salt could
 have been recovered in commercial      
quantities4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4      
#df4--,,mushroom ,,rock1 ,,pyramid      
,,lake  ,formed of calcareous tufa  ,the
 crossing of the ,great ,basin was      
dreaded by the early emigrants on their 
way to the ,pacific coast4 ,in many     
cases the locations of the few springs  
and water-courses were unknown1 and the 
journey over the vast barren stretches  
was fraught with danger4  ,stand upon a 
mountain in the desert some clear day in
 summer and you will see range after    
range1 with intervening sandy wastes1   
stretching away to the horizon4 ,the air
 below is tremulous with heat1 and every
 living thing that can move has sought  

the shade of some rock or cliff4 ,the   
plants seem almost dead1 for the little 
springs1 hidden at rare intervals in the
 deep caons1 are of no use to them4     
,what transformations would be wrought  
upon these desert slopes if it were     
possible for the soil to receive and    
retain large quantities of water6       
,forest-covered mountains1 green        
hillsides1 rippling streams1 lakes1     
farms1 orchards1 and towns would appear 
as if by magic4     ,,fr,,mont',s       
,,adventures ,,in ,,the ,,great ,,basin 
,frmont1 the ,pathfinder1 did greater   
service than any other man in making    
known the geographic features of the    
,cordilleran region4 ,in the fifth      
decade of the last century1 while       
,california still belonged to ,mexico   
and the pioneers were turning their     
attention to the ,oregon country1       
,frmont organized and conducted three   
exploring expeditions under the         
direction of the government4 ,when in   
,california upon the third expedition he

 took part in the skirmishes which      
resulted in the transference of this    
section to the ,united ,states4  ,a     
fourth expedition1 undertaken by ,frmont
 on his own account1 resulted           
disastrously4 ,the explorers foolishly  
tried to cross the ,rocky ,mountains in 
the middle of winter1 but had to give up
 the attempt after many of the party had
 died from cold and starvation4  ,it is 
hard for us to realize1 now1 that only  
sixty years ago the territory lying     
between the ,rocky ,mountains and the   
,pacific coast was practically unknown4 
,try to imagine the feelings of         
emigrants1 bound for the gold-fields of 
,california1 who have pushed into the   
,great ,basin without knowing where to  
look for grass or water4 ,they are      
camped by a spring of alkaline water    
scarcely fit to drink2 their weary      
animals nibble at the scanty grass about
 the spring2 far ahead stretches the    
pathless desert which they must cross2  
upon their choice of a route their very 

lives will depend4  ,now it is all      
changed4 ,the whole region is crossed   
and recrossed by wagon roads and        
railways4 ,many mining towns are        
scattered through the mountains which   
dot the seemingly boundless expanse of  
desert1 while in every place where water
 can be found there are gardens1 green  
fields of alfalfa1 and herds of cattle4 
,before the year #ahdj some knowledge   
had been acquired of the borders of the 
,great ,basin4 ,trappers and explorers  
had crossed the ,rocky ,mountains and   
had gone down the ,columbia ,river4     
,there were ,spanish settlements in ,new
 ,mexico1 ,arizona1 and along the coast 
of ,california4  ,frmont's first        
expedition had taken him to the summit  
of the ,rocky ,mountains in northwestern
 ,wyoming4 ,in #ahdc he started upon the
 second expedition4 ,he was at that time
 commissioned to cross the ,rockies1    
descend the ,columbia to ,fort          
,vancouver1 and return by a route       
farther to the south1 across the unknown

 region between the ,columbia and the   
,colorado rivers4  ,let us follow the   
little band of explorers led by ,captain
 ,frmont as day after day they made     
their way across what was then a        
trackless waste1 and see what troubles  
they encountered because of the         
inaccuracy of the maps of that period4  
,leaving ,fort ,vancouver1 upon the     
lower ,columbia1 for the return trip1   
the party ascended the river to ,the    
,dalles and then turned southward along 
the eastern side of the ,cascade ,range4
 ,they soon entered upon a region never 
before traversed by white men4 ,at the  
time when autumn was giving place to    
winter1 without reliable guides or maps1
 they were to cross the deserts lying   
between them and the ,rocky ,mountains4 
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dg4--,,map ,,of  
,a ,,portion ,,of ,,western ,,north     
,,america1 ,,made ,,in #ahbf  ,showing  
the ,buenaventura ,river  ,they met with
 no great difficulties until they had   
gone as far south as ,klamath ,lake4    

,from this point1 ,frmont says1 our     
course was intended to be about         
southeast to a reported lake called     
,mary's1 at some days' journey in the   
,great ,basin1 and thence1 still on     
southeast to the reputed ,buenaventura  
7good chance7 ,river1 which has had a   
place on so many maps1 and countenanced 
the belief in the existence of a great  
river flowing from the ,rocky ,mountains
 to the ,bay of ,san ,francisco4        
,figure #dg shows one of the maps to    
which ,frmont refers4 ,how interesting  
it is6 ,compare it with a good map in   
your geography and you will readily see 
that it is very misleading4 ,the ,sierra
 ,nevada1 one of the greatest mountain  
ranges in the ,united ,states1 hardly   
appears1 while traced directly across   
the map is the great ,buenaventura      
,river which ,frmont expected to find   
and follow eastward toward its source   
near the ,rocky ,mountains4  ,if this   
river had really been where it was      
mapped1 it is likely that ,frmont would 

have had no trouble1 for if hard pressed
 he could have followed the stream down 
to the ocean4 ,but a wall of            
snow-covered mountains lying in the way 
made matters very different4  ,winter   
was coming on when the party entered    
what is now northwestern ,nevada1       
looking for the ,buenaventura ,river4   
,for several weeks they toiled on1 often
 through the snow4 ,concerning this part
 of the journey ,frmont says3 ,we had   
reached and run over the position where1
 according to the best maps in my       
possession1 we should have found ,mary's
 lake or river4 ,we were evidently on   
the verge of the desert1 and the country
 was so forbidding that we were afraid  
to enter it4  ,the party then turned    
south1 still hoping that the river might
 be discovered4 ,after a time they came 
upon a large lake and travelled for many
 miles along its eastern shore4 ,one    
camp was made opposite a tall1          
pyramid-shaped island1 the white surface
 of which made it conspicuous for a long

 distance4 ,frmont was much impressed by
 the resemblance of the island to the   
pyramids of ,egypt and so named the body
 of water ,pyramid ,lake4 ,at the       
southern end of the lake the travellers 
found a large stream flowing into it    
7now known as the ,truckee ,river71 and 
followed along its banks for some       
distance2 but as the river turned toward
 the west1 they left it and struck out  
across the country4  ,frmont says again1
 ,with every stream ,i now expected to  
see the great ,buenaventura1 and ,carson
 7,kit ,carson1 the famous scout7       
hurried eagerly to search on every one  
we reached for beaver cuttings1 which he
 always maintained we should find only  
on waters which ran to the ,pacific4    
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dh4--,,pyramid   
,,island1 ,,pyramid ,,lake1 ,,nevada    
,but all the streams flowed in the wrong
 direction1 until at last the explorers 
grew weary of hunting for the river     
which had no existence4 ,although it was
 the middle of the winter1 ,frmont      

determined to cross the lofty ,sierras  
which rose like a white wall to the     
west4 ,once over the mountains1 he hoped
 to gain the ,american settlements in   
the ,sacramento ,valley1 where already  
,sutter's ,fort had been established4   
,the party ascended ,walker ,river1     
dragging1 with great difficulty1 a      
howitzer which they had brought with    
them4 ,the snows grew deeper as storm   
succeeded storm4 ,feeling that they were
 really lost1 the disheartened men at   
length abandoned the gun1 at a spot     
which has since been named ,lost ,caon4 
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #di4--,,lost      
,,ca,,on1 ,,eastern ,,slope ,,of ,,the  
,,sierra ,,nevada ,,mountains  ,when    
their own provisions were nearly gone1  
the party obtained some pine nuts and   
also several rabbits from the ,indians4 
,a dog which had been brought along made
 one good meal for the wayfarers4 ,an   
,indian who had been persuaded to act as
 guide pointed out the spot where two   
white men1 one of whom was ,walker1 a   

noted frontiersman1 had once crossed the
 mountains2 but the guide made them     
understand that it was impossible to    
cross at that time of the year1 saying1 
in his own language1 ,rock upon rock1   
snow upon snow4  ,although they could   
advance only by breaking paths through  
the snow1 and were reduced to eating    
mule and horse flesh1 yet the ,frmont   
party pushed on4 ,finally they reached  
the summit of the mountains and turned  
down by the head of a stream flowing    
westward1 which proved to be the        
,american ,river4 ,after three weeks    
more of terrible suffering they came out
 of the mountains at ,sutter's ,fort1   
where they obtained supplies and had an 
opportunity to rest and recruit4        
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ej4--;,,fr,,mont 
,,peak1 ,,mohave ,,desert  ,frmont now  
recognized the incorrectness of the maps
 which had so nearly caused the         
destruction of the party4 ,as he says in
 his notes3 ,no river from the interior 
does1 or can1 cross the ,sierra ,nevada1

 itself more lofty than the ,rocky      
,mountains444 ,there is no opening from 
the ,bay of ,san ,francisco into the    
interior of the continent4  ,when the   
return journey was begun the party did  
not recross the high ,sierras1 but      
turned southward through the ,san       
,joaquin ,valley and gained the ,mohave 
,desert by the way of ,tehachapai pass4 
,the route now led eastward across the  
deserts and low mountain ranges of      
,california and southern ,nevada1 until 
at last ,great ,salt ,lake was reached4 
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#ea4--,,sage-,,brush ,,in ,,the ,,great 
,,basin  ,among the many geographical   
discoveries of the expedition was the   
demonstration of the existence of the   
,great ,basin4 ,in his report1 ,frmont1 
while speaking of its vast sterile      
valleys and of the ,indians which       
inhabit them1 says3 ,that it is peopled 
we know1 but miserably and sparsely 444 
dispersed in single families 444 eating 
seeds and insects1 digging roots 7hence 

their name7 ,digger ,indians1 such is   
the condition of the greater part4      
,others are a degree higher and live in 
communities upon some lake or river from
 which they repulse the miserable       
,diggers4  ,the rabbit is the largest   
animal known in this desert1 its flesh  
affords a little meat4444 ,the wild sage
 is their only wood1 and here it is of  
extraordinary size--sometimes a foot in 
diameter and six or eight feet high4 ,it
 serves for fuel1 for building material1
 for shelter for the rabbits1 and for   
some sort of covering for the feet and  
legs in cold weather4 ,but ,i flatter   
myself that what is discovered1 though  
not enough to satisfy curiosity1 is     
sufficient to excite it1 and that       
subsequent explorations will complete   
what has been commenced4     ,,the      
,,story ,,of ,,great ,,salt ,,lake  ,the
 most interesting geographical feature  
of ,utah is the ,great ,salt ,lake4 ,few
 tourists now cross the continent       
without visiting the lake and taking a  

bath in its briny waters4 ,this strange 
body of water has1 however1 been slowly 
growing smaller for some years1 and     
probably will in time disappear4 ,a     
study of the history of the lake may    
throw some light upon the important     
question of its possible disappearance1 
and it will certainly bring out many    
interesting facts4  ,we do not know with
 certainty who was the first white man  
to look upon this inland sea1 although  
it is supposed to have been ,james      
,bridger1 a noted trapper1 who in #ahbe 
followed ,bear ,river down to its mouth4
 ,he tasted the water and found it salt1
 a fact which encouraged him in the     
belief that he had found an arm of the  
,pacific ,ocean4  ,more than two hundred
 years ago there were vague ideas about 
a salt lake situated somewhere beyond   
the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,in #afhi ,baron 
,lahontan published an account of his   
travels from ,mackinac to the           
,mississippi ,river and the region      
beyond4 ,he states that he ascended a   

westerly branch of the river for six    
weeks1 until the season became too late 
for farther progress4 ,he reports       
meeting savages who said that one       
hundred and fifty leagues beyond there  
was a salt lake1 three hundred leagues  
in circumference--its mouth stretching a
 great way to the southward4  ,this     
imaginative story aroused interest in   
the ,west4 ,in a book published in      
#aggb1 devoted to a description of the  
province ,la ,louisiane1 the possibility
 of water communication with the ,south 
,sea is discussed as follows3 ,it will  
be of great convenience to this country1
 if ever it becomes settled1 that there 
is an easy communication therewith1 and 
the ,south ,sea1 which lies between     
,america and ,china1 and that two ways3 
by the north branch of the great ,yellow
 ,river1 by the natives called the river
 of the ',massorites' 7,missouri71 which
 hath a course of five hundred miles1   
navigable to its head1 or springs1 and  
which proceeds from a ridge of hills    

somewhat north of ,new ,mexico1 passable
 by horse1 foot1 or wagon1 in less than 
half a day4 ,on the other side are      
rivers which run into a great lake that 
empties itself by another navigable     
river into the ,south ,sea4 ,the same   
may be said of the ,meschaouay1 up which
 our people have been1 but not so far as
 the ,baron ,lahontan1 who passed on it 
above three hundred miles almost due    
west1 and declares it comes from the    
same ridge of hills above mentioned1 and
 that divers rivers from the other side 
soon make a large river1 which enters   
into a vast lake1 on which inhabit two  
or three great nations1 much more       
populous and civilized than other       
,indians2 and out of that lake a great  
river disembogues into the ,south ,sea4 
,in #aggf ,father ,escalante travelled  
from ,santa ,f far to the north and     
west4 ,he met ,indians who told him of a
 lake the waters of which produced a    
burning sensation when placed upon the  
skin4 ,this was probably ,great ,salt   

,lake1 but it is not thought that he    
himself ever saw it4 ,the ,escalante    
,desert1 in southern ,utah1 once covered
 by the waters of the lake1 is named    
after this explorer4  ,nothing more     
seems to have been learned of the lake  
after its discovery by ,bridger until in
 #ahcc ,bonneville1 a daring leader     
among the trappers1 organized a party   
for its exploration4 ,washington        
,irving1 in his history of ,captain     
,bonneville1 says of the party1 ,a      
desert surrounded them and stretched to 
the southwest as far as the eye could   
reach1 rivalling the deserts of ,asia   
and ,africa in sterility4 ,there was    
neither tree1 nor herbage1 nor spring1  
nor pool1 nor running stream1 nothing   
but parched wastes of sand1 where horse 
and rider were in danger of perishing4  
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eb4--,,scene ,,on
 ,,great ,,salt ,,lake  ,although       
decreasing in area so rapidly1 ,great   
,salt ,lake is still the largest body of
 water in the western part of the       

,united ,states1 and the largest salt   
lake within its boundaries4 ,it has a   
length of seventy miles and a maximum   
width of nearly fifty miles4  ,desolate1
 indeed1 must have appeared the         
surroundings of the lake1 with its      
salt-incrusted borders1 as the ,mormon  
emigrants gained the summit of the      
,wasatch ,range and looked out over the 
vast expanse to the west4 ,but as the   
slopes at the foot of the mountains     
seemed capable of producing food for    
their support1 they stopped and made    
their homes there4 ,now in this same    
region1 after half a century1 one can   
ride for many miles through as beautiful
 and highly cultivated a country as the 
sun ever looked down upon4 ,in the early
 days the barren plains were broken only
 by mountains almost as barren1 which   
rose from them like the islands from the
 surface of the ,great ,salt ,lake4 ,the
 only pleasing prospect was toward the  
east1 where stood the steep and rugged  
,wasatch ,range1 with its snow-capped   

peaks4 ,from its deep caons issued large
 streams of pure1 cold water1 which     
flowed undisturbed across the           
brush-covered slopes1 then unbroken by  
irrigating ditches1 and at last were    
lost in the salt lake4  ,one might think
 that streams of water apparently so    
pure would at last freshen the lake1 but
 in reality they are carrying along     
invisible particles of mineral matter   
which add to its saltness day by day4   
,the dry air steals away the water from 
the lake as fast as it runs in1 but     
cannot take the minerals which it holds 
in solution4  ,great ,salt ,lake is     
still considered very large1 but at one 
time it was ten times its present size1 
while still longer ago there was no lake
 at all4 ,without a basin there can be  
no lake1 and at that far-away time1 as  
we have already learned1 the ,great     
,basin did not exist1 and the streams1  
if there were any1 ran away to the ocean
 without hindrance4  ,when the ,great   
,basin was formed by a breaking and     

bending of the crust of the earth1 many 
a stream lost its connection with the   
ocean and went to work filling up the   
smaller basins1 thus giving rise to the 
lakes which have already been described4
 ,the largest of these bodies of water1 
and in some respects the most           
interesting1 is ,great ,salt ,lake4     
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ec4--,,old       
,,shore ,,line ,,of ,,lake ,,bonneville 
,foot of the ,wasatch ,range  ,this     
lake1 lying close to the lofty ,wasatch 
,range1 received so much water from     
numerous streams during the ,glacial    
period that it slowly spread over       
thousands of square miles1 overrunning  
the desert valleys and making islands of
 the scattered mountain ranges4 ,it     
extended from north to south across     
,utah1 into southern ,idaho and almost  
to the ,arizona line1 until this body of
 water1 which arose from so small       
beginnings1 had become a veritable      
inland sea1 three hundred miles long1   
one hundred miles wide1 and one thousand

 feet deep4  ,by the time the lake had  
covered an area of twenty thousand      
square miles the lowest point in the rim
 of the basin was reached and the       
overflow began4 ,no map will tell you   
where the outlet was1 for no river      
exists there now4 ,if you could explore 
the shore lines of this ancient lake1   
which has been called ,bonneville after 
the noted trapper1 you would find two   
low spots in the mountains which hem the
 waters in1 one upon the south1 facing  
the ,colorado ,river1 the other on the  
north toward the ,snake ,river4 ,the one
 on the north happened to be a little   
lower1 so that the break occurred there4
 ,first as a little1 trickling stream1  
then as a mighty1 surging river1 the    
water poured northward down the valley  
of a small stream1 widening and         
deepening it until1 passing the spot    
where now the town of ,pocatello stands1
 it joined the ,snake ,river4  ,this old
 outlet is now known as ,red ,rock      
,pass1 and it forms an easy route for   

the ,oregon ,short ,line from ,salt     
,lake ,city to the plains of southern   
,idaho4 ,the old river-bed is marked by 
marshes and fertile farms4  ,with an    
outlet established1 ,lake ,bonneville   
could rise no higher1 and its waves     
began the formation of a well-defined   
terrace or beach1 just as waves are sure
 to do along every shore4 ,the level of 
the water could not remain permanently  
at the same height1 for the rocks at the
 outlet were being worn away by the     
large volume of water which flowed over 
them4 ,in the course of years the level 
of the lake was lowered four hundred    
feet4 ,the sinking was not uniform1 but 
took place by stages1 while at each     
period of rest the waves made a new     
beach line4 ,the lake during all this   
time must have been a beautiful sheet of
 fresh water filled with fish4 ,its     
shores1 also1 must have been much richer
 in vegetation than they are now4       
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ed4--,,red ,,rock
 ,,pass1 ,,southern ,,idaho  ,outlet of 

,lake ,bonneville  ,the water remained  
for a long time at the level of four    
hundred feet below its highest stage4   
,this fact is evident from the width of 
the wave-cut terrace1 which is the most 
prominent of all those that mark the old
 levels along the sides of the          
mountains4 ,finally1 for some reason the
 climate began to change1 the streams   
supplied less water to the lake1 and the
 evaporation from its surface became    
greater because the air was drier4 ,as a
 result the lake was lowered to such an 
extent that it lost its outlet4 ,the    
mighty river flowing down through ,red  
,rock ,caon grew smaller and at last    
dried up altogether4  ,in this manner   
the lake was again cut off from the     
ocean1 as it had been during its earlier
 history4 ,the waters still continued to
 recede1 but not at a uniform rate4     
,during periods of greater rain its     
level remained stationary1 so that the  
waves added new terraces to those       
already formed4  ,as the lake had no    

outlet and was decreasing in volume1 the
 water became salty1 for the minerals   
brought by the streams could no longer  
be carried away4 ,the fish either died  
or passed up into the purer waters of   
the inflowing streams4  ,the water of   
the present lake is so salt that in     
every four quarts there is one quart of 
salt1 and the preparation of this       
commodity by a process of evaporating   
the water in ponds has become an        
important industry4 ,the water is the   
strongest kind of brine and it is       
impossible for a bather to sink in it4  
,one floats about upon it almost as     
lightly as wood does upon ordinary      
water4 ,after bathing it is necessary to
 wash in fresh water to remove the salt 
from the body4  ,the dry bed of the     
former ,lake ,bonneville stretches far  
to the south and west of the present    
lake1 and forms one of the most barren  
and arid regions in the ,united ,states4
 ,it is sometimes called the ,great     
,american ,desert4  ,why is the lake    

receding now8 ,some people think that   
the climate is growing still more arid1 
and that the lake will eventually       
disappear4 ,others think that its       
shrinkage is the result of irrigation1  
for a large part of the water from the  
streams which supply it is now taken out
 and turned upon the land4 ,there is    
still another reason which may account  
for the low water4 ,the lake is known to
 rise and fall during a series of wet   
and dry years4 ,when first mapped1 in   
the middle of the last century1 it was  
about as low as it is now4 ,then it     
gradually rose for a number of years and
 lately has again been falling4  ,the   
story of ,great ,salt ,lake has been    
much more complicated than the statement
 given above1 but this is sufficient for
 our purpose4  ,irrigation has made a   
garden spot of a large part of the old  
bed of ,lake ,bonneville1 but much of   
the beauty and attractiveness of this   
region would be lost if the present lake
 should give place to a bed of          

glistening salt4 ,let us hope that it   
will remain as it is4     ,,the ,,skagit
 ,,river  ,the ,skagit is not one of the
 great rivers of the world1 for very    
little of its course lies outside the   
boundaries of a single state4 ,it is1   
however1 none the less interesting4 ,few
 rivers with a length of only one       
hundred and fifty miles present so great
 a variety of instructive features4 ,we 
shall certainly learn more from a study 
of the ,skagit than from many a better  
known and more pretentious river4       
,innumerable torrents1 fed by the       
glaciers of the ,cascade ,range1 pour   
down the rocky slopes and lose          
themselves in the wooded caons below4   
,the caon streams1 of much greater size1
 flow less impetuously over gentler     
slopes1 and are frequently blocked by   
boulders and logs4 ,these streams unite 
in one broad1 deep river1 which moves on
 quietly to its resting-place in ,puget 
,sound4 ,its name1 ,skagit1 is of       
,indian origin and means wild cat4  ,by 

following the ,skagit ,river and a      
tributary stream1 one can go from the   
bare and snowy summit of the ,cascade   
,range down through dense forests1 and  
come out at last upon a magnificent     
delta1 where a fertile plain is slowly  
but steadily encroaching upon the waters
 of the sound4 ,what contrasting scenes 
are presented along the few short miles 
of the course of the river6 ,a trip from
 its source to its mouth will be worth  
all the trouble it involves1 although   
the trail is often disagreeably wet and 
sometimes dangerous4  ,there is no      
grander scenery in the ,united ,states  
than that of the ,cascade ,range2 nor   
are there more dense forests than those 
found upon its western slope4 ,the range
 is hidden in almost perpetual clouds   
and storms1 and they are fortunate who  
can reach its summit upon a pleasant    
day4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4             
#ee4--,,summit ,,of ,,the ,,cascade     
,,range1 ,,near ,,the ,,head ,,of ,,the 
,,skagit ,,river  ,the forests of fir   

and hemlock have gained a foothold      
nearly to the summit of the range4 ,upon
 the little benches and in the protected
 nooks the trees grow thriftily1 and    
dense groves are found up to an         
elevation of nearly five thousand feet2 
but upon the more exposed and rocky     
slopes stunted trunks show the effect of
 a constant struggle with the rocks and 
winds4 ,upon other slopes1 too high for 
the trees to grow1 there are low shrubs 
and arctic mosses2 but above all rise   
precipitous crags and peaks1 utterly    
bare except for the glaciers nestling   
among them4  ,under the shade of the    
upland forests the moss is damp and the 
wood wet1 so that it is difficult to    
make a comfortable camp or to build a   
fire4 ,but these discomforts are not    
worthy of consideration in view of the  
inspiration which one gains by the      
outlook from some commanding point upon 
the summit of the mountain range4  ,all 
about are jagged1 splintered peaks4     
,upon every gentle slope there rests1   

within some alcove1 a glistening mass of
 snow and ice4 ,a score of these        
glaciers are in sight4 ,they are        
supplied in winter by the drifting      
snows1 and yield in summer1 from their  
lower extremities1 streams of ice-cold  
water4 ,a multitude of streams raise a  
gentle murmur1 broken occasionally by a 
dull roar as some glacier1 in its slow  
descent1 breaks upon the edge of a      
precipice and its fragments fall into   
the caon below4  ,from a position upon  
the summit above the point where the    
,skagit trail crosses the mountains may 
be seen a little lake1 on the surface of
 which remains some of last winter's ice
 not yet melted by the ,august sun4 ,if 
the climate were a little colder1 the   
basin would be occupied by a glacier    
instead of a lake4 ,all about the lake  
there are steep1 rocky slopes1 more or  
less completely covered with low arctic 
plants and stunted1 storm-beaten        
hemlocks4 ,from among the trees at the  
foot of the lake rises the roof of a    

miner's log cabin1 and a few hundred    
feet beyond a small1 dark opening in the
 face of a cliff shows where the miner  
is running a tunnel in his search for   
gold4  ,far below1 and heading close    
under the sharp crest of the range1 are 
densely wooded caons4 ,the fair weather 
is passing1 and it is necessary to find 
the trail and descend4 ,clouds are      
sweeping across the ridges and peaks1   
and soon the whole summit will be       
covered by them4  ,from a point a little
 east of the summit the clouds present a
 grand sight at the gathering of a      
storm4 ,higher and higher they pile upon
 the ocean face of the mountains4 ,at   
the bottom they are dark and            
threatening1 but the thunder-heads above
 can be seen bathed in the bright       
sunlight4 ,for a time the clouds hang   
upon the summit as if stopped by some   
invisible barrier2 perhaps they are     
loath to pass into the drier air of the 
eastern slope4 ,but finally they move   
on1 and rain or snow soon envelops the  

whole landscape4  ,the trail descends   
rapidly for four thousand feet to       
,cascade ,river1 a tributary of the     
,skagit4 ,it is a steep and slippery    
way1 and in many places it is not safe  
to ride the horses4 ,the sub-arctic     
climate of the summit is left behind1   
and one is soon surrounded by dense and 
luxuriant vegetation4 ,such a change as 
this1 in a short distance1 shows how    
greatly elevation affects climate and   
plant growth4  ,upon every hand there is
 the sound of rushing water4 ,from the  
cliffs ribbon-like cascades are falling4
 ,the rivulets unite in one stream1     
which roars and tumbles down the caon   
over logs and boulders4 ,the trail      
crosses and recrosses the torrent until 
the water becomes too deep for fording1 
and then it leads one to a rude bridge  
made of two logs with split planks laid 
across them4  ,as the caon widens1 the  
trail leads farther from the river and  
through dense forests4 ,the woods are so
 silent that they become oppressive1 and

 the air is damp1 for the sunlight is   
almost excluded4 ,the tall trees1 fir1  
hemlock1 and spruce1 with now and then a
 cedar1 stand close together4 ,shrubs of
 many kinds are crowded among them1     
while mosses and ferns cover the ground4
 ,the fallen trunks are wrapped in moss1
 and young trees are growing upon them1 
drawing their nourishment from the      
decaying tissues4 ,in the more open     
spots grow the salal bushes with their  
purple berries1 the yellow salmon       
berries1 and the blue-black             
huckleberries4  ,it is difficult to get 
an idea of the density of a ,washington 
forest1 or of the character of the      
streams1 unless one has actually taken a
 trip through the region4 ,if one wishes
 to escape the forest by following the  
streams1 he will find the path blocked  
by fallen trees4 ,it is necessary       
continually to climb over or under      
obstructions1 and the traveller is      
fortunate if he does not fall into the  
cold water4 ,upon the banks it is even  

worse2 one must struggle through dense  
prickly bushes and ferns1 and be tripped
 every few rods4 ,though the forest may 
appear at first to offer an easier way1 
it will soon be found that creeping and 
crawling through the undergrowth of     
bushes and young trees is exceedingly   
tiresome1 and one will gladly return to 
the muddy trail1 thankful for its       
guidance4  ,the mountains become less   
precipitous and the caon widens to a    
valley1 until at last the trail comes   
out at a clearing where the ,cascade    
,river joins the ,skagit4 ,at this      
point1 known as ,marble ,mountain1 there
 is a ferry1 also a store and several   
other buildings4 ,the cleared fields    
seem a relief after many miles of dense 
forest1 but such openings are           
infrequent1 for few settlers have yet   
pushed far into the forests of the      
,skagit valley4 ,to make a clearing of  
any size1 tear out the stumps1 and      
prepare the land for cultivation1       
requires many years of hard labor4  ,how

 silently and yet with what momentum the
 river sweeps on6 ,the water is clear in
 summer1 but in winter it must be very  
muddy1 for the ,skagit is building one  
of the largest deltas upon ,puget       
,sound4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4          
#ef4--,,skagit ,,river ,,in ,,its       
,,middle ,,course  ,at ,marble ,mountain
 the traveller may1 if he wishes1 leave 
his horses1 hire an ,indian canoe1 and  
float down the river to the nearest     
railroad station4 ,the ride in the cedar
 canoe1 with an ,indian at the stern    
carefully guiding it past snags and     
boulders1 is one of the pleasantest     
portions of the trip4 ,the winding river
 is followed for nearly fifty miles4    
,there is mile after mile of silent     
forest1 the solitude broken only here   
and there by camps of ,indians who are  
spending the summer by the river1       
fishing and picking huckleberries4 ,now 
and then a call comes from one of these 
camps1 and in spite of the danger of    
being swamped by the swift current1 the 

canoe is turned toward the shore1 but   
the stop is only for a moment4  ,at last
 a new railroad grade comes in sight1   
with gangs of men at work4 ,the valley  
of the ,skagit contains one of the      
finest bodies of timber in ,washington1 
and the railroad is being built for the 
purpose of reaching this timber4 ,there 
is little other inducement for the      
building of a railroad2 for beside a few
 summer visitors1 the only inhabitants  
are the scattered prospectors and       
miners4  ,we enter the train at a little
 town in the woods and are soon speeding
 down the valley toward the mouth of the
 river4 ,clearings appear in the forest1
 and at last the view opens out over    
extensive meadows which stretch away1   
almost as level as a floor1 to the      
waters of the sound4 ,here and there the
 meadows are broken by forest trees or  
irregular groups of farm buildings4     
,rich lands form the delta of the       
,skagit ,river4 ,the value of these     
natural meadows was quickly recognized  

by the early settlers1 for not only was 
the land exceedingly fertile1 but it did
 not have to be cleared in order to be  
transformed into productive             
grain-fields4  ,for centuries1 ever     
since the melting of the great glaciers 
which once descended the ,cascade ,range
 and crept down the sound1 the river has
 been building this delta4 ,it grew     
rapidly1 for immense accumulations of   
gravels and clays were left by the      
retreating glaciers4 ,the delta has     
already spread westward into the sound1 
until it has enveloped some of the      
smaller islands4 ,the forests growing   
upon these islands1 which rise from the 
surface of the delta plain1 are in      
picturesque contrast to the fields      
dotted with stacks of grain4  ,the delta
 is now practically joined to the       
eastern side of the ,san ,juan ,islands4
 ,the railroad reaches the islands by   
means of a trestle across the           
intervening tidal flats1 delivering its 
load of logs at the mills and leaving   

the passengers at the town of           
,anacortes1 where they may take one of  
the many steamers passing up and down   
the sound4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4       
#eg4--,,the ,,delta ,,of ,,the ,,skagit 
,,river  ,enveloping former islands in  
,puget ,sound  ,of all the deltas now   
forming about ,puget ,sound that of the 
,skagit is the largest and most         
interesting4 ,one might think that the  
forests would so protect the slopes that
 erosion would not be rapid1 but the    
valleys of all the tributary streams    
appear deeply filled with rock          
fragments1 which have1 for the most     
part1 accumulated from the higher       
portions of the range1 where frost and  
ice are slowly tearing down the cliffs4 
,at each period of flood some of this   
material is passed on to the river1     
which in turn drops it upon the borders 
of its delta4  ,the ,skagit ,river1 from
 its source to its mouth1 takes the     
traveller through varying climates and  
life zones1 from the barren crest where 

the miner is the only inhabitant1 down  
through forests where the lumberman is  
busy1 until it leaves him upon the rich 
meadows of its delta4     ,,the ,,story 
,,of ,,lake ,,chelan  ,chelan is the    
largest and most beautiful of our       
mountain lakes4 ,the lake itself is most
 attractive1 and the basin in which it  
lies has had an interesting history1 so 
that it is well worth study4            
,notwithstanding the beauties of this   
lake1 it is not widely known1 for it is 
situated far away from the main lines of
 travel1 in a remote caon of the        
,cascade ,range4 ,fortunately the lake  
and the rugged mountains about it have  
been included in a forest reserve1 so   
that they will be kept in all their wild
 natural beauty4  ,the ,columbia ,river1
 in its crooked course across the state 
of ,washington1 follows for some        
distance the junction of the vast       
treeless plateau of the central portion 
and the rugged1 forest-clad slopes of   
the ,cascade ,range4 ,we have already   

learned how the plateau grew to its     
present extent through the outpouring of
 successive floods of lava which swept  
around the higher mountains like an     
ocean4  ,many caons furrow the eastern  
slope of the ,cascade ,range1 and       
terminate in the greater caon of the    
,columbia at the edge of the lava4 ,one 
of these caons1 deeper and longer than  
the rest1 has been blocked by a dam at  
its lower end4 ,beautiful ,lake ,chelan 
lies in the basin thus formed4 ,it      
begins only three miles from the        
,columbia ,river1 but winds for sixty   
miles among the rugged and steep-walled 
mountains1 terminating almost in the    
heart of the range4  ,the lake can be   
reached either by crossing the mountains
 from ,puget ,sound1 over a wet and     
difficult trail1 or by ascending the    
,columbia ,river from ,wenache1 the     
nearest railroad station4 ,the trip can 
be made from the latter point either    
upon the stage or river steamer4 ,the   
wagon road is very picturesque1 winding 

now under lofty cliffs with the river   
surging below1 now along the occasional 
patches of bottom land where in ,july   
the orchards are loaded with fruit4     
,the first sight of ,lake ,chelan is    
disappointing1 for at the lower end1    
where the wagon road stops1 there is    
little to suggest the remarkable scenery
 farther back in the mountains4 ,rolling
 hills1 covered with grass and scattered
 pine trees1 slope down to the lake1    
while here and there farmhouses appear4 
,one cannot help asking at the first    
view what there is about ,lake ,chelan  
which has made it1 next to ,crater      
,lake1 the most noted body of water upon
 the ,pacific slope of the continent4   
,but wait a little4 ,either hire a      
rowboat and prepare with blankets and   
provisions for a camping trip about the 
shores2 or if the time is too short for 
carrying out that plan1 take the little 
steamer which makes tri-weekly trips to 
the hotel at the head of the lake4 ,long
 before you reach the upper end you will

 begin to appreciate the grandeur of the
 lake scenery in its setting of         
steep-walled mountains4  ,little of     
,lake ,chelan can be seen at one time1  
for its course among the mountains to   
the west is a very crooked one4 ,the    
noisy steamer leaves the town at the    
foot of the lake and in the course of   
ten miles steeper slopes begin to close 
in upon us4 ,many little homes are      
scattered along this portion of the     
lake1 wherever there is a bit of land   
level enough to raise fruit and         
vegetables4  ,now the mountains become  
more rugged and rise more steeply from  
the water's edge4 ,the steamer is very  
slow2 it takes all day to make the sixty
 miles1 but no one is sorry4            
,occasionally the whistle is sounded and
 the boat heads in toward the land1     
where some camping party is on the      
lookout for mail or a supply of         
provisions4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4      
#eh4--,,looking ,,down ,,on ,,lake      
,,chelan  ,the lake averages less than  

two miles in width1 and seems all the   
narrower for being shut in between      
gigantic mountains4 ,for some miles we  
pass under the precipitous cliffs of    
,goat ,mountain1 where formerly numerous
 herds of mountain goats found          
pasturage4  ,at every bend in the lake  
the views become more grand and         
inspiring4 ,here is a dashing stream1   
roaring in a mad tumble over the        
boulders into the quiet lake--a stream  
which has its source perhaps a mile     
above1 in some snow-bank hidden from    
sight by the steep1 rocky walls4 ,next a
 waterfall comes into view1 pouring over
 a vertical cliff into the lake4        
,occasionally snow-clad peaks appear1   
but only to disappear again behind the  
near mountains4 ,what pleasant spots we 
notice for camping by the ice-cold      
streams6 ,they are full of brook trout1 
while larger fish are to be found in the
 lake4  ,at the head of this body of    
water there is a little hotel for the   
accommodation of visitors1 and the      

,stehekin ,river1 which is steadily at  
work filling up the lake1 hurries past  
its doors4 ,since the melting of the    
glacier which once filled the caon1 the 
river has built a delta fully half a    
mile out into the water4  ,the lake has 
the appearance of filling an old river  
valley or caon4 ,perhaps the latter is  
the better name because the bed is so   
narrow and deep4 ,this caon winds among 
the mountains just like other caons in  
which rivers are flowing1 but it has no 
outlet at the present time4 ,in some way
 a dam has been formed1 and the caon1   
filling with water to the top of the    
dam1 has become a lake4  ,soundings have
 shown that the water is fourteen       
hundred feet deep2 that is1 a little    
more than a quarter of a mile4 ,with the
 exception of ,crater ,lake1 in ,oregon1
 this is the deepest body of water in   
the ,united ,states4 ,it is also        
interesting to note that the bottom of  
the lake is fully three hundred feet    
below the level of the ocean4  ,how     

could a river cut a channel for itself  
so far below the ocean level8 ,rivers   
cannot do work of this kind unless they 
have a swift current2 moreover1 as they 
empty into the ocean1 their beds must be
 above sea level4 ,some people think    
that the great glacier1 which certainly 
at some time occupied the depression in 
which the lake lies1 dug out the caon4  
,this glacier was over three thousand   
feet in thickness1 for the rocks are    
grooved and polished to a height of     
nearly two thousand feet above the      
surface of the water4 ,it is1           
nevertheless1 improbable that the       
glacier did anything more than deepen   
and widen the caon somewhat4 ,it was    
certainly made1 as we at first supposed1
 by a river which flowed through it at  
some remote period4 ,at that time the   
land of our ,pacific coast must have    
stood many hundred feet higher than it  
does now4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4        
#ei4--;,,goat ,,mountain1 ,,north       
,,shore ,,of ,,lake ,,chelan  ,the      

surface of ,lake ,chelan is a little    
more than three hundred feet above the  
bed of the ,columbia ,river1 which flows
 through a deep caon only three miles   
distant4 ,if we could remove the dam of 
glacial boulders and gravel at the lower
 end of the lake1 the water would be    
lowered only three hundred feet4 ,the   
lake would not be drained1 for it is    
very much deeper4 ,now here is another  
puzzle for us3 the bottom of the lake is
 more than one thousand feet below the  
level of the ,columbia4 ,we shall have  
to go still farther back into the past  
to get a satisfactory explanation this  
time4  ,hundreds of thousands of years  
ago there was no plateau filling central
 ,washington1 and no ,columbia ,river   
crossing it4 ,the ,cascade ,range stood 
where we see it to-day1 and the region  
of the plateau was a broad valley1      
toward which flowed the streams that had
 already cut caons upon the eastern side
 of the range4 ,these streams probably  
united in a river emptying westward into

 the ,pacific by a course now unknown4  
,the shores of the ocean were farther   
west than at present1 for the land stood
 higher4  ,the caon of ,lake ,chelan was
 made by a river of this period1 which  
through many long years gradually       
deepened and enlarged its channel4 ,the 
river worked just as we see rivers      
working at the present time1 for        
throughout all the history of the earth 
rivers have not changed their habits4   
,then came the long period of volcanic  
eruptions4 ,our ,northwest was flooded  
by fiery lava1 which built up the       
,columbia plateau and buried under      
thousands of feet of rock the old river 
valley into which the caon of ,chelan   
emptied4  ,then streams of water began  
to flow over the plateau from the higher
 mountains above the reach of the lava4 
,these streams formed the ,columbia     
,river1 which sought the easiest way to 
the sea1 and finally excavated a caon   
for hundreds of miles4 ,in a portion of 
its course the river came close to the  

edge of the ,cascade ,range4 ,the       
ancient caon of ,lake ,chelan had been  
dammed up by the lava1 and a lake       
occupied a portion of the former bed of 
the river4 ,the ,columbia could not cut 
its channel deep enough to drain the    
lake1 and there it remained4            
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fj4--,,looking   
,,down ,,lake ,,chelan ,,from ,,the     
,,upper ,,end  ,then another change     
came3 the climate grew cold and heavy   
snows gathered upon the ,cascade ,range4
 ,the snow did not all melt during the  
summers1 but went on increasing from    
year to year4 ,the masses of snow moved 
gradually down the mountain slopes1     
growing more and more icy until they    
became true glaciers4  ,in this manner  
it came about that a river of ice       
occupied the caon in which the old lake 
lay1 and1 displacing its waters1 scraped
 and ground out the bottom and sides4   
,the moving ice deposited the waste     
material at the lower end of the caon1  
where it joined the ,columbia ,river1   

the caon of which was also occupied by a
 glacier coming from farther north4     
,when the glacier began to retreat up   
the ,chelan caon1 it left a great mass  
of rock dbris1 forming a dam between its
 basin and the ,columbia4 ,after the ice
 had disappeared1 water collected in the
 caon above the dam1 and the narrow1    
deep lake was formed1 enclosed within   
granite walls4  ,as the snows melted1   
forests spread over the mountains1 the  
bear1 deer1 and mountain goats came back
 again1 while the streams1 bringing down
 earth and rocks1 began their work of   
filling up the lake4 ,this task they    
will succeed in accomplishing some day  
unless something unforeseen happens to  
prevent4 ,a valley1 composed partly of  
meadow and partly of boulder-covered    
slopes1 will then have taken the place  
of the lake4     ,,the ,,native         
,,inhabitants ,,of ,,the ,,pacific      
,,slope  ,the explorers and early       
settlers found a native race occupying  
nearly every portion of our continent4  

,these people had many characteristics  
in common and were all called ,indians4 
,it is believed that they came          
originally from ,asia1 but their        
migration and scattering occurred so    
long ago that they have become divided  
into many groups1 each having its own   
language and customs4  ,in the western  
portion of the country1 where the       
surface is broken by numerous barriers1 
such as mountains and deserts1 almost   
every valley was found to be occupied by
 a distinct group of ,indians called a  
tribe4 ,the language of each tribe      
differed so much from the languages of  
adjoining tribes that they could with   
difficulty understand one another4      
,these tribes were almost continually at
 war4  ,the ,indians upon the ,pacific  
slope were generally found to be        
inferior in most respects to those      
living in the central and eastern       
portions of the continent4 ,one might   
suppose that the tribes possessing the  
fair and fertile valleys of ,california 

would be the most advanced in           
civilization1 but such was not the case4
 ,many of them were among the most      
degraded upon the continent4 ,they      
seemed unable to adapt themselves to the
 white man and his ways1 and in the     
older settled districts they have now   
nearly disappeared4 ,in the newer       
portions of the ,northwest and along the
 coast toward ,alaska the ,indians have 
not yet come into so direct contact with
 the white men1 and remain more nearly  
in their primitive condition4  ,when the
 ,indians of central ,california were   
first seen1 they wore but little        
clothing1 and knew how to construct only
 the simplest dwellings for protection  
from the weather4 ,they did not         
cultivate the soil1 nor did they hunt a 
great deal1 although the country        
abounded with game4 ,along the larger   
streams fish was an important article of
 food1 but in other places1 acorns1 pine
 nuts1 and roots constituted the main   
supplies4 ,the acorns were ground in    

stone mortars and made into soup or into
 a kind of bread4 ,these ,indians have  
often been called ,diggers because they 
depended so largely for their living    
upon the roots which they dug4  ,it     
would seem natural that about ,san      
,francisco ,bay the natives should have 
used canoes1 but1 according to early    
travellers1 they had none4 ,when they   
wished to go out upon the water they    
built rafts of bundles of rushes or     
tules tied together4  ,at favorable     
points along the shore the ,indians     
collected for their feasts1 and these   
spots are now indicated by heaps of     
shells1 in some places forming mounds of
 considerable size4 ,many interesting   
implements have been dug from these     
mounds1 or kitchen middens as they are  
sometimes called4 ,in the mountains the 
sites of the villages are marked by     
chips of obsidian 7a volcanic glass used
 in making arrow-tips7 and by holes in  
the flat surfaces of granitic rocks near
 some spring or stream4 ,these holes    

were made for the purpose of grinding   
acorns or nuts4  ,many of the ,indian   
tribes developed great skill in the     
weaving of baskets1 which they used for 
many different purposes4 ,the baskets   
are still made in some places1 and are  
much sought after because of their      
beauty4  ,the ,indians of northern      
,california in building their homes dug 
round1 shallow holes1 over which poles  
were bent in the form of a half-circle1 
and then tied together at the top4 ,bark
 was laid upon the outside1 and earth   
was thrown over the whole structure4    
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fa4--;,,holes    
,,in ,,rock1 ,,made ,,for ,,grinding    
,,food  ,sweat houses were built in much
 the same manner1 and were used chiefly 
during the winter4 ,when an ,indian     
wished to take a sweat1 hot stones were 
placed in one of these houses1 and after
 he had entered and all openings were   
closed1 he poured water upon the stones 
until the room was filled with steam4   
,after enduring this process as long as 

he desired1 the ,indian came out and    
plunged into the cold water of a near-by
 stream4 ,as may be imagined1 such a    
bath often resulted disastrously to the 
weak or sick4  ,the fact that the       
,california ,indians could support      
themselves without any great exertion   
undoubtedly had the effect of making    
them indolent1 while in the desert      
regions of the ,great ,basin the        
struggle for something to eat was so    
severe that it kept the natives in a    
degraded condition4  ,illustration3     
,,fig4 #fb4--;,,california ,,indian     
,,basket  ,the ,indians of the ,columbia
 basin built better houses than those   
farther south4 ,where wood was abundant 
their homes were similar in some        
respects to those of the coast ,indians 
north of the mouth of the ,columbia4    
,fish was their main article of diet4   
,at certain seasons of the year1 when   
salmon were plentiful1 each tribe or    
group of ,indians established its camp  
near one of the many rapids and         

waterfalls along the ,columbia ,river4  
,large numbers of the salmon were caught
 by the use of traps4 ,after being      
partly dried they were packed in bales  
for winter use4 ,the fish thus prepared 
were considered very valuable and formed
 an article of trade with the tribes    
living farther from the river4  ,the    
,indians inhabiting the coast northward 
from the mouth of the ,columbia were    
different in many respects from those   
farther south or inland4 ,they built    
better homes1 took more pains with their
 clothing1 were skilled in the making of
 canoes1 and showed marked ability in   
navigating the stormy waters of the     
channels and sounds4  ,illustration3    
,,fig4 #fc4--;,,hesquiat ,,indian       
,,village  ,nootka ,sound1 ,vancouver   
,island  ,the ,vancouver ,island        
,indians are called ,nootkas1 from the  
name of an important tribe upon the west
 coast4 ,those of ,queen ,charlotte     
,islands1 still farther north1 are known
 as ,haidas4 ,these two groups are very 

similar4 ,they live upon the shores of  
densely wooded1 mountainous lands and   
travel little except by water4 ,some of 
the canoes which these tribes construct 
are over fifty feet long and will easily
 carry from fifty to one hundred        
persons4 ,such a canoe is hewn out of a 
single cedar log1 and presents a very   
graceful appearance with its            
upward-curving bow4 ,in these boats the 
,indians take trips of hundreds of      
miles4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4           
#fd4--;,,flathead ,,indian ,,woman1     
,,vancouver ,,island  ,a ride in one of 
the large canoes is an interesting      
experience4 ,when a party starts out to 
visit the neighboring villages1 carrying
 invitations to a festival1 the men are 
gayly dressed1 and shout and sing in    
unison as they ply their paddles4 ,the  
great canoe jumps up and onward like a  
living thing at every stroke of the     
paddles1 which are dipped into the water
 all at once as the rowers keep time to 
their songs4 ,but this enthusiasm       

quickly disappears if a head wind comes 
up1 and the party goes ashore to wait   
for the breeze to turn in a more        
favorable direction4  ,these ,indians1  
as might be supposed1 live largely upon 
fish4 ,berries are abundant during the  
summer and are also much used for food4 
,the clothing of the ,indians was       
originally a sort of blanket made of the
 woven fibres of cedar bark1 or more    
rarely1 of the skins of animals1        
although among the northern tribes skins
 were used almost exclusively4 ,matting 
made of the cedar bark is still in      
common use in their houses4             
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fe4--;,,indian   
,,houses1 ,,fort ,,rupert1 ,,vancouver  
,,island  ,among the ,vancouver ,island 
,indians1 a few have peculiarly         
flattened foreheads 7,fig4 #fd74 ,this  
deformity is produced by binding a piece
 of board upon the forehead in babyhood 
and leaving it there while the head is  
growing4  ,the villages are located in  
some protected spot where the canoes can

 lie in safety4 ,the buildings are      
strung along the shore close under the  
edge of the thick forest and just above 
the reach of the waves at high tide4    
,they are very solidly constructed1 for 
these ,indians do not move about as much
 as those farther south where the       
forests are less dense4 ,figure #fe     
shows the framework of a partially built
 house1 while another stands at one side
 completed4 ,large posts are set in the 
ground at the corners and ends of the   
building2 cross logs are then placed    
upon the middle posts1 and upon these a 
huge log is placed for a ridge-pole4    
,this is sometimes two feet in diameter 
and from sixty to eighty feet long4 ,it 
must require the united strength of many
 men to roll such a log into position4  
,upon the framework thus constructed    
split cedar boards are fastened1 and the
 building is practically finished4 ,such
 a house is usually occupied by a number
 of families4 ,upon ,queen ,charlotte   
,islands there is a dwelling of this    

kind large enough to hold seven hundred 
,indians4  ,the fronts of the houses are
 ornamented with figures hewn out of    
wood4 ,these represent men1 birds and   
animals and have a religious            
significance4 ,sometimes these figures  
are mounted upon the tops of tall poles4
  ,the totem pole is a most interesting 
affair4 ,figure #ff represents the pole 
at ,alert ,bay1 east of ,vancouver      
,island4 ,it is one of the finest upon  
the north coast4 ,the figures of animals
 and birds carved upon it represent the 
mythological ancestors of the family or 
clan in front of whose abode the pole   
stands4 ,the ,indians often hunt similar
 animals to-day1 but believe that their 
ancestors had supernatural power which  
raised them above the ordinary          
creatures4  ,the ,chinook ,indians live 
upon the lower ,columbia4 ,the name     
chinook has been given to a warm1 dry   
wind which blows down the eastern slope 
of the ,rocky ,mountains and out upon   
the ,great ,plains4 ,this wind is so    

named because it blows from the         
direction of the ,chinook ,indians'     
country4 ,the ,chinook jargon is a      
strange sort of mixed language with     
which nearly all the tribes of the      
,northwest are familiar4 ,it is formed  
of words from the ,chinook language1    
together with others from different     
,indian languages1 ,french-,canadian1   
and ,english4 ,through the influence of 
the trappers and traders the ,chinook   
has come into wide use1 so that by means
 of it conversation can be carried on   
with tribes speaking different          
languages4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4       
#ff4--,,totem ,,pole  ,alert ,bay1      
,british ,columbia  ,although there are 
so many different tribes1 with great    
diversities of language1 throughout the 
,west1 they were probably all derived   
from the same source4 ,as we go north   
the similarity between the coast        
,indians and the inhabitants of eastern 
,asia becomes more noticeable4 ,it seems
 almost certain that these ,american    

,indians originally came across the     
narrow strip of water separating ,asia  
from ,america4  ,we do not know how long
 the ,indians have occupied our country1
 but it has probably been several       
thousand years4 ,some of the main groups
 have undoubtedly been here longer than 
others4  ,unless we protect the ,indians
 and permit them so far as possible to  
lead their own natural lives1 most of   
them will soon disappear4     ,,the     
,,story ,,of ,,lewis ,,and ,,clark  ,in 
the seventeenth century it appeared     
likely that ,france would before long   
control the northern and interior       
portion of ,north ,america4 ,la ,salle  
discovered the ,ohio ,river1 traversed  
the ,great ,lakes1 and descended the    
,mississippi ,river to its mouth4 ,in   
#agdb other ,french explorers pushed    
west from the ,great ,lakes and sighted 
the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,but when the    
,english triumphed at ,quebec1 ,france  
gave up to them all of her possessions  
east of the ,mississippi ,river1 and    

ceded the province of ,louisiana to the 
,spanish4 ,this province was very much  
larger than the state which now bears   
the name4 ,bounded by the ,mississippi  
,river upon the east1 and the ,spanish  
possessions upon the southwest1 it      
stretched north and west with very      
indefinite boundaries1 although in the  
latter direction it was supposed to be  
limited by the ,rocky ,mountains4  ,at  
one time ,napoleon dreamed of founding a
 great colony in ,america1 and induced  
,spain to cede ,louisiana back to the   
,french2 but being unable to carry out  
his plans1 he made a proposition to the 
,united ,states to take this territory4 
,his offer was accepted1 and in #ahjc1  
during the presidency of ,thomas        
,jefferson1 the vast province was taken 
into the ,union4  ,it was immediately   
evident that more definite knowledge    
should be acquired concerning the great 
region beyond the ,mississippi1         
particularly the portion about the head 
of the ,missouri ,river4 ,the unknown   

region lying between the source of this 
river and the ,pacific should also be   
explored1 for ,captain ,gray's discovery
 of the ,columbia ,river gave to the    
,united ,states a claim upon this part  
of the continent which must be          
maintained4 ,if something were not done 
soon1 the territory would be occupied by
 the ,english fur companies4  ,two young
 men1 ,captains ,lewis and ,clark1 were 
chosen to lead an expedition into the   
,northwest1 which proved to be one of   
the most remarkable in the history of   
our country4 ,they were the first white 
men to cross the ,rocky ,mountains and  
to traverse the continent from the      
,atlantic to the ,pacific within the    
present boundaries of the ,united       
,states4  ,how interesting it must have 
been to push into the ,rocky ,mountains1
 beyond the farthest point previously   
reached by white men2 to see ,nature in 
her wild state1 to note the new plants  
and animals1 and to study the ,indians  
before their contact with ,europeans had

 changed their customs6  ,lewis and     
,clark were particularly instructed to  
investigate the sources of the          
,missouri1 to learn how the continental 
divide could be crossed1 and to         
ascertain the nature of the streams     
which flowed westward to the ,pacific4  
,they were also to study the resources  
of the country1 and to examine into the 
character and customs of all the ,indian
 tribes that they should meet4  ,the    
start was made from ,st4 ,louis in ,may1
 #ahjd1 with two large rowboats and one 
sail-boat4 ,the latter was to return    
with news of the party when the farthest
 outpost upon the ,missouri was reached4
  ,through the summer months and late   
into the fall the boats toiled up the   
river against the swift current1 finally
 reaching a village of the ,mandan      
,indians in the present state of ,north 
,dakota1 where the explorers spent the  
winter4 ,thus far they were in a region 
frequently visited by the traders and   
trappers from ,st4 ,louis4              

,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fg4--,,the       
,,great ,,falls ,,of ,,the ,,missouri   
,in the spring they pushed on again in  
canoes1 at length entering an unknown   
region4 ,the ,missouri forked so        
frequently that it was often difficult  
to determine which was the main stream4 
,to the surprise of the travellers1 the 
country appeared to be uninhabited1 so  
that they could get no assistance from  
the ,indians4 ,only a small stock of    
provisions remained1 and as the party   
numbered about thirty1 it was necessary 
to keep hunters out in advance all the  
time4  ,as we are carried swiftly       
through this region to-day in the cars1 
no signs of wild creatures are to be    
seen1 and it is difficult for us to     
believe that game was once abundant4    
,the narrative of the expedition abounds
 with descriptions of various large     
animals which the explorers met in      
herds1 such as deer1 antelope1 buffalo1 
bears1 and wolves4 ,the bears1 both     
white and brown1 were very numerous and 

bold4 ,the white bears in particular    
were so ferocious that the hunters had  
many serious encounters with them4 ,they
 would sometimes enter the camp at      
night1 and at one time a herd of buffalo
 stampeded through it4  ,when undecided 
at one point which branch of the river  
to follow1 ,captain ,lewis went some    
distance in advance and discovered the  
,great ,falls of the ,missouri4 ,he was 
greatly impressed and awed by the       
magnitude and height of the successive  
falls1 which were twenty-four1          
forty-seven1 and eighty feet high       
respectively1 and were connected by a   
series of cascades4  ,many days were    
spent there in a long and laborious     
portage1 for everything had to be       
carried a distance of twelve miles      
before the quiet water above the falls  
was reached4  ,how the coming of the    
white man has changed the region about  
the falls6 ,the game has disappeared2 an
 important city1 supported by the       
enormous water-power1 is growing up2    

while the smoke rising from extensive   
plants for reducing the gold1 silver1   
and copper ores mined in the ,rocky     
,mountains floats out over the country4 
,proceeding up the river1 the party     
reached the ,gate of the ,mountains--a  
picturesque spot where the stream leaves
 the mountains through a narrow defile  
between high and jagged cliffs and      
enters upon its long course across the  
,great ,plains 7,fig4 #fh74 ,gradually  
the river became smaller1 and at last   
the travellers came to the point where  
it divided into three branches1 to which
 they gave the names of ,gallatin1      
,madison1 and ,jefferson forks4 ,the    
party made their way up the latter fork1
 which flowed from a westerly direction4
  ,footnote3 ,,fig4 #fh4--,,the ,,gate  
,,of ,,the ,,mountains  ,the ,missouri  
,river at the entrance to the ,rocky    
,mountains  ,now they began to look     
anxiously for the ,indians1 from whom it
 would be necessary to get horses to    
transport their baggage when the river  

should become too small for the canoes4 
,this region was inhabited by the       
,shoshones4 ,it may well be asked how it
 happened that these ,indians had       
horses1 since no white people had ever  
visited them before4 ,their purchase of 
horses came about through the processes 
of trade with the tribes to the south1  
who in turn came in contact with the    
,spanish of ,new ,mexico4  ,one or the  
other of the leaders kept in advance1 on
 the lookout for the ,indians4 ,at last 
,captain ,lewis1 while crossing the     
divide at the head of the stream which  
they had been following1 came suddenly  
upon several ,indians4 ,after overcoming
 their fear by presents1 he accompanied 
them to their camp and induced them to  
return with horses to assist the party4 
,upon reaching the ,pacific side of the 
continental divide the explorers were in
 doubt as to which way to proceed4 ,no  
man had been before them1 and the       
,indians told stories of fearful deserts
 to the southwest 7probably the ,snake  

,river plains71 and said that the       
mountains were too steep for the horses1
 and the rivers too rapid for canoes4   
,if you will examine a map of the       
country about the head of the ,jefferson
 fork of the ,missouri1 you will not    
wonder that ,captains ,lewis and ,clark 
were in doubt as to which way they      
should go in order to reach the         
,columbia4 ,they first attempted to go  
down the ,salmon ,river1 but soon gave  
up this project4 ,they turned about and 
crossed the mountains to the ,bitter    
,root ,river1 which flows north and     
empties into ,lake ,pend d',oreille     
through ,clark's ,fork of the ,columbia4
  ,after going down the ,bitter ,root   
for a short distance they turned west   
again across the ,bitter ,root          
,mountains and came out upon the head   
waters of the ,kooskooskie ,river4      
,unable to follow its caons1 they       
wandered to the north among the         
mountains4 ,at this time their          
sufferings were intense4 ,food became so

 scarce that they were obliged to eat   
their horses4 ,after many weary days    
they again reached the stream1 but this 
time at a point where it was navigable4 
,they floated down to its junction with 
the ,lewis or ,snake ,river1 where the  
growing city of ,lewiston now stands4   
,at this point they met the ,nez ,percs 
,indians1 who assisted them in every    
possible way4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4    
#fi4--;,,celilo ,,falls1 ,,columbia     
,,river  ,the party continued down the  
,snake ,river in canoes until they      
finally reached the ,columbia4 ,the     
difficulties of navigation were great1  
for at intervals of every few miles the 
river was broken by rapids through which
 it was dangerous to take the canoes4   
,by treating the ,indians kindly1 the   
party succeeded in trading with them for
 such articles of food as horses and    
dogs4 ,they also obtained some salmon4  
,the presence of this fish in the       
streams gave them the first assurance   
that the ,pacific slope had been        

reached4 ,along the ,columbia ,river    
salmon was one of the chief articles of 
food for the ,indians4  ,at ,celilo     
,falls1 a short distance above the      
present city of ,the ,dalles1 the       
travellers found great difficulty in    
proceeding1 as the canoes and loads had 
to be carried1 or portaged1 around the  
falls4 ,lewis and ,clark called these   
the ,great ,falls of the ,columbia      
7,fig4 #fi74  ,as the canoes floated    
down through the magnificent caon by    
which the ,columbia passes the ,cascade 
,range1 they encountered another rapid1 
now known as the ,cascades of the       
,columbia4 ,this rapid is due to a great
 landslide which has formed a dam across
 the river4 ,captain ,lewis speaks of   
the broken trunks of trees rising from  
the water above the dam1 a fact which   
would lead one to suppose that it had   
not been very long since the slide      
occurred4  ,below the ,cascades the     
party soon began to notice the influence
 of the tides in the rise and fall of   

the river1 and knew then that the       
,pacific could not be very far away4    
,early in ,november they came in sight  
of the ocean1 and in a few days had the 
pleasure of standing upon its shores4   
,the long and dangerous trip of four    
thousand miles had been completed       
without any serious accident4           
,continual rains poured upon them1 and  
before winter quarters could be prepared
 they were in a very uncomfortable      
position4 ,a permanent camp was selected
 upon the ,oregon side of the ,columbia1
 and log buildings were erected4 ,the   
camp was called ,fort ,clatsop4 ,while  
in their winter quarters the party      
cultivated friendly relations with the  
,indians1 and made extensive notes upon 
their habits and characteristics4       
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gj4--,,the       
,,cascades ,,of ,,the ,,columbia  ,a    
steamer going up to the locks  ,in the  
spring1 since no ship had appeared which
 would carry them back by water1 ,lewis 
and ,clark determined to return         

overland4 ,first1 however1 they left    
some records with the ,indians1 with    
directions that these should be given to
 the captain of any ship which might    
happen to visit the mouth of the        
,columbia4 ,the leaders wished to make  
sure that if anything happened to the   
party the knowledge gained by their     
explorations should not be lost4  ,one  
can imagine with what pleasure the men  
turned homeward4 ,although they had     
started with flour1 rice1 corn1 and     
other articles of food1 these had given 
out long before they reached the lower  
,columbia1 and for some months their    
only diet had been fish and the animals 
that the hunters had killed4 ,their     
stock for trading with the ,indians was 
also nearly gone2 all the articles that 
were left could be put into two pocket  
handkerchiefs4  ,after ascending the    
,columbia ,river to a point above ,the  
,dalles1 the party left the stream1 as  
they found that it would be impossible  
to make much headway with the canoes4   

,obtaining horses from the ,indians1    
they followed the outward route back as 
far as the ,kooskooskie ,river4 ,then   
they turned north and crossed the       
mountains to the ,missoula ,river4 ,near
 the present city of ,missoula the party
 divided1 ,captain ,lewis going up ,hell
 ,gate ,river and crossing the          
continental divide to examine the       
country lying north of the ,missouri4   
,captain ,clark1 with another portion of
 the company1 went up the ,bitter ,root 
,river and over the mountains to the    
,jefferson ,fork1 which the whole party 
had ascended the year before4 ,he       
followed this river down to its junction
 with the ,gallatin1 and travelled for a
 distance up the latter stream1 then    
crossed by land to the ,yellowstone     
,river4  ,canoes were constructed upon  
the ,yellowstone1 and the party floated 
down to the junction of this river with 
the ,missouri4 ,there the two bands were
 fortunately reunited1 and together they
 passed rapidly down the ,missouri until

 they reached the village of ,st4       
,louis1 where the whole population came 
out to welcome them4 ,as the party had  
been gone more than two years1 it was   
feared that they would never be heard   
from again4  ,there can be no doubt that
 the expedition of ,lewis and ,clark    
added greatly to the public interest in 
the vast region which they traversed1   
and helped to bring about the final     
retention of the ,oregon country4 ,the  
,hudson ,bay ,fur ,company soon after   
established trading posts at various    
points along the ,columbia1 and kept up 
their contention that all the country   
lying north of the river rightfully     
belonged to ,england4  ,it was very     
remarkable that the ,lewis and ,clark   
expedition had made the long journey to 
the ,pacific and back without meeting   
with serious accident4 ,there were      
perils to be met on account of the      
ruggedness of the country1 the rapids in
 the streams1 the lack of food1 and the 
danger of attack from the ,indians4 ,the

 successful accomplishment of the plan  
was without a doubt largely due to the  
ability of the two brave leaders4       
,,the ,,russians ,,in ,,california  ,how
 many of us know that the ,russians once
 established a post upon the coast of   
,california and held it for nearly a    
third of a century8 ,if the geographic  
conditions about this post had been     
different1 it is possible that the      
,russian colonists would hold their     
position now4  ,the discoveries made    
upon the ,north ,american coast by the  
,russian navigator1 ,bering1 in #agda1  
led to fur trading with the ,indians2   
and in #agih the ,russian ,american     
company was organized and established   
its headquarters at ,sitka4  ,the       
,spaniards still claimed the whole      
,pacific coast of ,north ,america as far
 north as the ,strait of ,fuca1 though  
they had given up their station at      
,nootka ,sound1 ,vancouver ,island4     
,they had1 however1 made no settlements 
north of the port of ,san ,francisco4   

,it was nearly one hundred years ago    
that ,rezanof1 a leading ,russian       
official1 arrived at ,sitka and began to
 investigate the condition of the       
settlements of the ,russian ,american   
,fur ,company4 ,he found them in a sorry
 state2 the people were nearly starved  
and most of them were sick with the     
scurvy4 ,no grain or vegetables were    
grown along that northern coast1 nor    
could they be supplied from ,asia4      
,rezanof conceived the idea of          
establishing trade relations with the   
people of ,california4 ,by this means   
furs might be exchanged for the fresh   
provisions which were so sorely needed  
in the north4  ,rezanof sailed south in 
#ahjf and tried to enter the ,columbia  
,river1 where the company had planned to
 establish a settlement1 for upon the   
,russian maps of this time all of the   
coast as far south as the ,columbia was 
included under ,russian jurisdiction4   
,rezanof was1 however1 unable to enter  
the river1 probably for the same reason 

that ,meares1 the ,english navigator1   
had failed to enter4 ,he then proceeded 
down the coast and finally ran into the 
port of ,san ,francisco1 where he was   
treated in a fairly polite manner by the
 ,spanish4  ,after the return of the    
expedition to the north1 definite plans 
were made for the establishment of an   
agricultural and trading station on the 
,california coast1 as a permanent supply
 depot for the northern settlements4    
,rezanof hoped in time to secure a      
portion of this fair southern land from 
,spain4  ,several hunting expeditions1  
chiefly made up of ,aleut ,indians with 
,russian officers1 were sent south and  
told to keep a sharp lookout for a      
suitable place to begin operations4 ,in 
#ahji one expedition entered ,bodega    
,bay1 an inlet of some size about sixty 
miles northwest of ,san ,francisco4     
,this bay1 which had been previously    
discovered and named by the ,spaniards1 
was thoroughly explored two years later4
  ,no good spot for a settlement was    

found upon this inlet1 but in #ahab a   
location was determined upon1 ten miles 
north of the mouth of the stream we now 
know as ,russian ,river4 ,there was no  
good harbor here1 simply a little cove1 
but back of this cove a broad grassy    
tract formed a gently sloping terrace at
 the foot of a line of hills4 ,the soil 
was good and timber was near at hand4   
,the ,russians first made friends with  
the ,indians1 who ceded to them the     
territory in the neighborhood for three 
blankets1 three pair of breeches1 three 
hoes1 two axes1 and some trinkets4  ,in 
order to protect themselves from        
possible ,indian attacks as well as to  
be able to hold their position against  
the ,spanish1 the ,russians constructed 
a strong stockade4 ,it was made of      
upright posts set in the ground and     
pierced with loopholes4 ,at the corners1
 and a little distance within1 were     
erected two hexagonal blockhouses with  
openings for cannon4 ,as it happened1   
however1 no occasion ever arose for the 

use of the ten cannon with which the    
fort was supplied4 ,the post was given  
the name ,ross1 a word which forms the  
root of the word ,russia4  ,the         
,spanish1 of course1 claimed the        
territory by right of discovery1 and    
watched the work of the ,russians with  
jealous eyes4 ,they were not strong     
enough to drive the ,russians away by   
force1 although they protested more than
 once against the unlawful occupation of
 the land4 ,some trading was carried on 
between the ,russians and the ,spanish1 
and occasionally loads of grain and     
cattle were sent north4  ,the number of 
people at ,fort ,ross varied from one   
hundred and fifty to five hundred4 ,the 
population consisted of ,russians1      
,aleuts1 and other ,indians4 ,the       
,aleuts were the hunters and sealers4   
,they spent their time upon the ocean1  
sometimes entering ,san ,francisco ,bay1
 but usually hunting in the region of   
the ,farralone ,islands1 which were     
originally inhabited by great herds of  

fur seal4 ,there were also otters1      
sea-lions1 and an infinite number of    
seabirds4 ,a station was maintained upon
 the ,farralones1 where a few men stayed
 to gather birds' eggs and kill         
seagulls4 ,many thousands of gulls were 
taken each year1 and every part of their
 bodies was utilized for some purpose4  
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ga4--;,,fort     
,,ross ,,from ,,the ,,sea  ,schooner    
loading wood  ,kotzebue1 a ,russian     
navigator1 whose name has been given to 
a sound upon northern ,alaska1 visited  
,fort ,ross and also ,san ,francisco    
,bay4 ,he considered it a great pity    
that the ,russians had not gained       
possession of this territory before the 
,spaniards1 for the magnificent bay of  
,san ,francisco1 in the midst of a      
fertile country1 would have been a prize
 worth working for4  ,year after year   
the ,russian ,fur ,company sent         
expeditions to ,california to trade and 
bring back provisions4 ,they tried to   
extend the area under their             

jurisdiction1 but the geographical      
conditions of the country were          
unfavorable4 ,the narrow strip of land  
next the coast was cut off from the     
interior valleys by mountain ridges and 
caons4 ,if the ,sonoma ,valley had      
opened westward instead of toward ,san  
,francisco ,bay1 it would have been easy
 to extend their territory gradually4   
,as it was1 the ,spanish1 who were in   
control of the bay1 had easy access to  
all of the fertile valleys of central   
,california4  ,as the sealing industry  
decreased in importance1 and as the     
maintenance of ,fort ,ross was          
expensive1 the ,russians in #ahci began 
to consider the question of giving up   
their post4 ,they finally sold          
everything at ,ross and ,bodega1 except 
the land1 to ,sutter1 an ,american who  
had acquired a large ranch and          
established a post or fort at the mouth 
of the ,american ,river4 ,in #ahda the  
,russians sailed away1 never to return4 
,the ,spaniards were greatly relieved   

when this happened1 for they had not    
known how to get rid of their unwelcome 
neighbors peaceably1 and were reluctant 
to stir up trouble with ,russia4  ,the  
stockade at ,fort ,ross has entirely    
disappeared1 but two blockhouses1 the   
little chapel1 and the officers'        
quarters remain as the ,russians left   
them4  ,fort ,ross is now-a pleasant1   
quiet hamlet4 ,a store and a farm-house 
have been added to the old buildings4   
,behind the sloping meadows rise the    
partly wooded hills1 while in front lies
 the little bay where once the boats of 
the ,russian and ,aleut seal hunters    
moved to and fro4 ,occasionally a small 
schooner visits the cove for the purpose
 of loading wood or tan-bark for the    
,san ,francisco market4  ,illustration3 
,,fig4 #gb4--,,russian ,,blockhouse1    
,,fort ,,ross  ,fort ,ross was never    
marked by serious strife and seems      
destined to go on in its quiet way4 ,the
 blockhouses are rotting and beginning  
to lean with age1 and in time all       

evidences of the once formidable        
,russian post will have disappeared4    
,,death ,,valley  ,to most of us ,death 
,valley is thought of only as a         
mysterious region somewhere in the      
,southwest1 a place which we are        
accustomed to picture to ourselves as   
being the embodiment of everything that 
is desolate and lifeless1--a region     
where there is no water1 where there are
 no living things1 simply bare rocks and
 sand upon which the sun beats          
pitilessly and over which the scorching 
winds blow in clouds of dust4 ,the      
reality is hardly so bad as this1 for   
there are living things in the valley1  
and water may occasionally be found4    
,nevertheless it is a fearful spot in   
summer1 and has become the final resting
 place of many wanderers in these desert
 regions1 who having drunk all their    
water failed to find more4  ,we have    
already learned something about the     
,great ,basin3 we know that it is made  
up of vast desert plains or valleys1    

separated by a few partly isolated      
mountain ranges4 ,the valleys are       
peculiar in that they are basins without
 outlets1 and for this reason are known 
as sinks4 ,many of the lakes once       
occupying the valleys are now quite or  
nearly dry1 and the lower portions of   
their beds are either whitened with     
deposits of borax and soda1 or have been
 transformed into barren expanses of    
hardened yellow clay4  ,the long1 gentle
 slopes about the sinks1 which have been
 built up by the waste rock from the    
mountains1 as a result of the occasional
 cloudbursts are dotted with sage-brush1
 greasewood1 or other low plants1 and   
furnish a home for numerous animals4    
,back of the gravel slopes rise the     
mountains1 browned under the fierce rays
 of the summer sun4 ,in some of their   
deeper caons little springs and streams 
are found1 but the water usually dries  
up before leaving the protecting shadows
 of the cliffs4 ,toward the mountain    
tops the desert juniper appears2 and if 

the peaks rise high enough to get more  
of the moisture of the cooler air1 they 
support groves of the pion and possibly 
yellow pine4  ,the valleys are all much 
alike4 ,in summer the days are          
unbearably hot1 while in winter the air 
is cool and invigorating4 ,the skies are
 overcast for only a few days in the    
year1 but in the autumn and spring      
fierce winds1 laden with dust and sand1 
sweep across the valleys and through the
 mountain passes4  ,strange rock forms1 
of many contrasting colors1 worn out by 
wind and water1 mark the desert         
mountains4 ,the granite wears a brown1  
sunburned coat1 while the masses of     
black lava show here and there patches  
of pink1 yellow1 and red4 ,the air is   
often so wondrously clear that distant  
mountains seem much nearer than they    
really are4 ,during the hot summer days 
the mirage forms apparent lakes and     
shady groves1 illusions which have lured
 many a thirsty traveller to his death4 
,death ,valley is the lowest and hottest

 of the desert basins4 ,its surface1    
over four hundred feet below the level  
of the sea1 is the lowest dry land in   
the ,united ,states4 ,the valley is long
 and narrow and enclosed by mountains4  
,those upon the east are known as the   
,funeral ,mountains1 while upon the west
 the peaks of the ,panamint ,range rise 
to a height of about ten thousand feet4 
,if the rainfall were greater1 ,death   
,valley would be occupied by a salt or  
alkaline lake1 but in this dry region   
lakes cannot exist1 and the bottom of   
the sink1 sometimes marshy after        
exceptional winter rains1 is in many    
places almost snowy white from deposits 
of salt1 soda1 or borax4  ,death        
,valley1 then1 differs from scores of   
other valleys in the ,great ,basin by   
being a little lower1 a little hotter1  
and a little more arid4 ,strange as it  
may seem1 old prospectors say that      
,death ,valley is the best watered of   
all the desert valleys4 ,since it is the
 lowest spot in all the surrounding     

country1 the scanty water supply all    
flows toward it4 ,but the water runs    
under the gravels of the old river beds 
instead of on the top1 where it might be
 utilized4 ,occasionally1 however1 the  
water comes to the surface in the form  
of springs1 which are marked by a few   
willows or mesquite trees and little    
patches of salt grass4  ,long ago1 when 
the rainfall was greater1 ,death ,valley
 was a saline lake and received a number
 of streams1 two of which were large    
enough to be called rivers4 ,the        
,amargoza ,river1 starting from ,nevada 
and pursuing a roundabout way1 entered  
the southern end of the valley4 ,the    
,mohave ,river1 which rises in the ,san 
,bernardino ,range1 also emptied into   
the valley at one time1 but now its     
waters1 absorbed by the thirsty air and 
by the sands1 disappear in the sink of  
the ,mohave fifty miles to the south4   
,the summer is the dreaded season in    
,death ,valley4 ,a temperature of one   
hundred and thirty-seven degrees has    

been reported by the ,pacific ,coast    
,borax ,company at the mouth of ,furnace
 ,creek4 ,this temperature was recorded 
in the shade1 and is the hottest ever   
experienced in the ,united ,states4 ,in 
the sun it is of course much hotter4    
,many a person has lost his life in     
trying to cross the heated valley in the
 middle of a summer day instead of      
making the journey at night4            
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gc4--;,,entering 
,,death ,,valley  ,dangerous as this    
region is1 even now when we know so much
 about it1 it was of course much more   
dangerous for the first white men who   
entered it4 ,only those who have had    
some experience upon the desert can     
realize the difficulties and dangers    
which beset the first emigrants who     
attempted to cross the deserts lying    
between ,salt ,lake ,city and the       
,sierra ,nevada mountains4 ,the story of
 the sufferings and final escape of that
 party which1 by taking the wrong       
course1 was lost in the great sink1 is  

extremely interesting although sad4 ,the
 valley received its name from the      
experiences of the members of this      
party4  ,in the latter part of #ahdi    
many emigrants1 who had reached ,salt   
,lake ,city too late in the season to   
take the usual route through northern   
,nevada and over the ,sierra ,nevada    
mountains1 decided that rather than     
remain in the town all winter1 they     
would follow the south trail across     
southern ,nevada to ,san ,bernardino and
 ,los ,angeles4  ,a party of people     
finally collected with one hundred and  
seven wagons and about five hundred     
horses and cattle4 ,the course led in a 
southwesterly direction past ,sevier    
,lake and ,mountain ,meadows in         
southwestern ,utah4 ,in the latter      
locality the party divided1 the larger  
number leaving the old trail and taking 
a more westerly direction4 ,they thought
 in this way to shorten the distance1   
and hoped1 by skirting the southern end 
of the ,sierra ,nevada mountains1       

to-gain the ,san ,joaquin ,valley in    
,california4  ,now trouble began4 ,no   
one had ever been over the new route1   
and the location of the springs and the 
passes through which the wagons could be
 taken had to be sought out in advance4 
,soon many of the party turned back to  
the known trail1 but the others         
continued1 though with no knowledge of  
the nature of the country which they    
must cross4  ,day after day and week    
after week the slow ox-teams crawled    
across the broad deserts and over the   
low mountain ranges4 ,from the top of   
each successive mountain ridge the men  
looked with longing eyes toward the     
west1 hoping to get a sight of the snowy
 ,sierras4 ,finally want of water and   
food began to weaken the cattle and the 
wagons were lightened as much as        
possible4  ,as the party approached the 
eastern boundary of ,california the     
mountains grew higher and the deserts   
more arid4 ,in the clear air the        
snow-covered peaks of the ,panamint     

,range began to be visible1 although one
 hundred miles away4 ,the weary         
emigrants believed that these peaks     
belonged to the ,sierra ,nevadas1 and   
that beyond them lay the green valleys  
of ,california4 ,how great was their    
mistake6 ,the ,panamint ,range looks    
down upon ,death ,valley with a bold and
 almost impassable front1 while still   
other broad deserts lie between this    
range and the real ,sierras4  ,upon     
reaching the head of the ,amargosa      
,river the party began to separate1 for 
by this time many thought only of saving
 their lives at any cost4 ,some followed
 ,furnace ,creek to its sink in ,death  
,valley2 others went over the ,funeral  
range and came down upon the lower      
portion of the ,amargosa ,river4 ,in    
many cases the wagons were abandoned and
 the oxen were killed for food4  ,when  
they came into the sink we now know as  
,death ,valley1 the members of the      
different parties began to feel that    
they were really lost4 ,from the records

 that have come down to us we can see   
that they had not the slightest idea of 
the direction which they should take or 
of their distance from the settlements  
in ,california4 ,fortunately it was the 
winter season and the heat did not      
trouble them2 moreover1 the rains and   
snows furnished some water4  ,none of   
the wagons were taken beyond the camp at
 the western edge of the valley1 under  
the towering peaks of the ,panamint     
,range4 ,this place is now known as     
,bennett's ,wells4 ,here the wagons were
 broken up and burned1 and the loads1   
which were now very light1 were either  
taken by the men themselves or placed   
upon the backs of the few remaining     
oxen4 ,it was thought that the fair     
fields of ,california would be seen from
 the top of the ,panamint ,range2 but   
when the travellers reached the summit  
other desert valleys appeared in the    
west1 and beyond these1 in the dim      
distance1 another snowy range was       
visible4  ,the emigrants now divided    

into parties4 ,one party reached ,owens 
,lake1 and turning south1 finally passed
 over the ,sierras by the way of        
,walkers ,pass and went down the valley 
of the ,kern ,river4 ,another1 the      
,bennett party1 including some women and
 children1 remained at the springs in   
,death ,valley1 while two of the men    
started out alone1 in the hope of       
reaching the settlements and returning  
with food4 ,these men crossed the       
,panamint ,range and struggled on for   
days in a southwesterly direction1 over 
desert valleys and mountains4 ,they were
 frequently on the point of giving up in
 despair for want of food and water4    
,at last1 far to the south1 the snowy   
crest of the ,san ,gabriel ,range came  
into sight4 ,continuing in a            
southwesterly direction through the     
,mohave ,desert1 the men reached a low  
pass in the mountains and followed a    
stream until they came upon a ,mexican  
ranch1 where the sight of green meadows1
 upon which horses and cattle were      

feeding1 delighted their weary eyes4    
,several animals were secured and loaded
 with food4 ,then the men turned back   
into the desert4 ,they at last reached  
the desolate valley again1 after an     
absence of about a month1 and found most
 of the party alive1 although nearly    
driven to despair4 ,with the aid of a   
mule and several oxen1 the party came   
safely to the fertile valleys near the  
coast4  ,another party1 known as the    
,jayhawkers1 struggled on behind the two
 men who went for relief1 and the most  
of its members also came safely out of  
the desert1 though not without extreme  
suffering4 ,in all1 fourteen people of  
this expedition perished4               
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gd4--,,southern  
,,end ,,of ,,death ,,valley  ,showing   
the white deposits of soda  ,if you ever
 have an opportunity to travel over this
 region1 you will wonder that any of the
 people escaped4 ,the seemingly endless 
succession of deserts and mountains1 the
 lack of food1 and the scanty supply of 

water1 often unfit to drink1 would lead 
one to think that strangers to these    
wilds would be far more likely to perish
 than to find their way out4     ,,the  
,,cliff ,,dwellers ,,and ,,their        
,,descendants  ,the region of the high  
plateaus of the southwestern ,united    
,states presents many strange and       
interesting aspects4 ,equipped with pack
 animals for the trails1 and conducted  
by a guide who knows the position of the
 springs1 one might wander for months   
over this rugged and semi-arid region   
without becoming weary of the wonderful 
sights which ,nature has prepared4  ,in 
travelling over the plateau one has to  
consider that often for long distances  
the precipitous walls of the caons      
cannot be scaled1 and that the springs  
are few and inaccessible4 ,to one not   
acquainted with the plateau it appears  
incapable of supporting human life4     
,there is little wild game and scarcely 
any water to irrigate the dry soil4     
,however1 if the country is examined    

closely1 the discovery will be made that
 it was once inhabited1 though by a     
people very different from the savage   
,indians who wandered over it when the  
white men first came4 ,these early      
people had permanent homes and were much
 more civilized than the ,indians4 ,they
 lived chiefly by agriculture1          
cultivating little patches of land      
wherever water could be obtained4  ,go  
in whatever way you will from the       
meeting point of the four states and    
territories1 ,colorado1 ,utah1 ,arizona1
 and ,new ,mexico1 and you will find the
 ruins of houses and forts4 ,upon the   
tops of precipitous cliffs1 in the caves
 with which the caon walls abound1 by   
the streams and springs1 there are      
crumbling stone buildings1 many of them 
of great extent1 and once capable of    
sheltering hundreds of people4          
,scattered over the surface of the      
ground and buried in the soil about the 
ruins are fragments of pottery1 stone   
implements1 corn-cobs1 and in protected 

spots the remains of corn and squash    
stems4  ,the people who once inhabited  
these ruins have been called ,cliff     
,dwellers1 because their homes are so   
frequently found clinging to the cliffs1
 like the nests of birds1 in the caverns
 and recesses of the precipitous caon   
walls4 ,the ,cliff ,dwellers have left  
no written records1 but from a study of 
their buildings and of the materials    
found in them1 and from the traces of   
irrigating ditches1 we are sure that    
they were a peaceful1 agricultural      
people4  ,the oldest ruins are probably 
those in the open and less protected    
valleys4 ,it is evident that after these
 dwellings had been occupied for an     
indefinite time the more fierce and     
warlike ,indians began to overrun the   
plateau region and make attacks upon the
 primitive inhabitants4 ,these people1  
peacefully inclined and probably not    
strong in numbers1 could find no        
protection in the valleys where they    
irrigated little patches of land and    

raised corn and squashes2 so1 retreating
 to the more inaccessible caons1 they   
became cliff dwellers4 ,seeking out the 
caverns so abundant in these caons1 they
 went to work with tireless energy to   
build for themselves impregnable homes  
and fortresses to which they could      
retreat when the savage ,indians        
appeared4  ,the caon of ,beaver ,creek  
in central ,arizona contains one of the 
most interesting of these fortresses1   
known as ,montezuma's ,castle4 ,many    
small buildings nestle along the sides  
of the caon upon the ledges and under   
over-hanging rocks1 but ,montezuma's    
,castle is the most magnificent of them 
all1 and must have given protection to a
 number of families4  ,halfway up the   
face of a cliff two hundred feet in     
height1 there is a large cavern with an 
upward sloping floor and jagged         
overhanging top4 ,here with infinite    
toil the ,cliff ,dwellers constructed a 
fortress1 the front of which rose forty 
feet from the foundation and contained  

five stories4 ,this front was not made  
straight1 but concave1 to correspond to 
the curve of the cliff4  ,what an effort
 it must have been for these people1 who
 had nothing but their hands to work    
with1 to quarry the stone4 ,to carry    
their materials from the bottom of the  
caon1 by means of rude ladders1 up the  
steep and rugged wall to the foot of the
 cavern1 and then to lay the foundation 
securely upon the sloping floor1 must   
have been a still harder task4  ,the    
stones were laid in mud1 and in most    
cases were also plastered with it4 ,here
 and there little holes were left to let
 in light1 but the rooms1 with their low
 ceilings1 would have seemed very dismal
 and dark to us4 ,beams were set in the 
walls to support the different floors4  
,smaller sticks were laid upon the      
beams1 and then a layer of earth was    
placed over the top4  ,to pass through  
the openings between the different rooms
 the inhabitants had to crawl upon their
 hands and knees4 ,the places where they

 built their fires are indicated by the 
dark stains which the smoke has left    
upon the walls4 ,broken pottery and     
corn-cobs are scattered profusely about 
the building4 ,how safe these ancient   
people must have felt in this retreat1  
where they were protected1 both from the
 storms and from their enemies6         
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#ge4--,,montezuma',s ,,castle1 ,,beaver 
,,creek ,,ca,,on1 ,,arizona  ,near some 
of the ruined dwellings in this region  
there are remains of buildings which are
 supposed to have been watch-towers4 ,we
 can picture to ourselves the sentinels'
 alarm given to the workers in the      
fields at the approach of the savage    
,apaches1 and the hasty flight of the   
,cliff ,dwellers to the castle far up   
the caon wall1--the pulling up of the   
ladders and the retreat to the upper    
rooms from which they could look down in
 perfect safety4 ,they must have kept   
water and food stored in the cave       
houses4 ,as long as these supplies held 

out no injury need be feared from the   
attacking party4  ,but apparently there 
came a time when the ,cliff ,dwellers   
either abandoned their gardens and      
fortresses or were killed4 ,it is       
possible that the climate of the plateau
 region became more arid and that many  
of the springs dried up1 for there is no
 water now within long distances of some
 of the ruins4 ,it is1 perhaps1 more    
probable that the attacks of the savages
 became so frequent that the ,cliff     
,dwellers were driven from their little 
farms and were no longer able to procure
 food4  ,those who were not killed by   
enemies or by starvation retreated      
southward and gathered in a few large   
villages1 or pueblos1 where they were   
still resisting the attacks of their    
enemies at the time of the coming of the
 early ,spanish explorers4              
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gf4--,,pueblo    
,,of ,,taos1 ,,new ,,mexico  ,a careful 
study of the early inhabitants of       
,america reveals the fact that the      

,pueblo ,indians are the descendants of 
the race of ,cliff ,dwellers4 ,their    
houses1 their pottery1 and their        
religious ceremonies are1 so far as can 
be determined1 very similar to those of 
the ,cliff ,dwellers4 ,if you travel    
through northwestern ,new ,mexico and   
northeastern ,arizona1 you will find the
 villages situated upon commanding rocks
 which are often surrounded by almost   
inaccessible cliffs4 ,to these elevated 
villages all the food and water has to  
be carried from the valleys below4 ,the 
houses are solidly built of stone1 and  
rise1 terrace-fashion1 several stories  
in height1 each succeeding story        
standing a little back of the one below4
 ,these houses can be entered only by a 
ladder from the outside4 ,in time of    
danger the ladders are drawn up so that 
the walls cannot be easily scaled4      
,there are a number of groups of the    
,pueblo ,indians1 but the ,zuni and     
,moki are perhaps as interesting as any 
of them4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4         

#gg4--;,,grinding ,,grain1 ,,laguna1    
,,new ,,mexico  ,wonderful indeed are   
some of the pueblo villages which were  
still occupied at the time of the coming
 of the ,spanish1 more than three       
centuries and a half ago4 ,as in the    
pueblos now occupied1 there were no     
separate family houses4 ,the people of  
an entire pueblo lived in one great     
building of many rooms4 ,some of the    
pueblos were semi-circular1 with a      
vertical wall upon the outside1 while   
upon the inside the successive stories  
formed a series of huge steps similar to
 the tiers of seats in an ancient       
amphitheatre4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4    
#gh4--,,the ,,enchanted ,,mesa  ,the    
summit was once the site of an ,indian  
pueblo  ,in the pueblo of ,pecos were   
the largest buildings of this kind ever 
discovered4 ,one had three hundred and  
seventeen rooms1 and another five       
hundred and eighty-five4 ,taos is       
another of the large pueblos1 and is    
especially interesting because it is    

still inhabited4 ,this great building   
has from three to six stories with      
several hundred rooms4 ,in the          
foreground of the photograph 7,fig4 #gf7
 appears one of the ovens in which the  
baking is done4 ,in some of these       
pueblos the women still grind their corn
 by hand in stone matates1 just as their
 ancestors did for many hundreds and    
perhaps thousands of years4             
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gi4--,,pottery   
,,of ,,the ,,acoma ,,indians1 ,,new     
,,mexico  ,in northwestern ,new ,mexico 
there is a remarkable flat-topped rock  
known as the ,enchanted ,mesa1 which    
rises with precipitous walls to a height
 of four hundred feet above the valley  
in which it stands4 ,it was long        
believed that human beings had never    
been upon this rock1 although there were
 traditions to the effect that a village
 once existed upon its summit4          
,according to the tradition1 the        
breaking away of a great mass of rock   
left the summit inaccessible ever       

afterward4 ,the cliffs were scaled      
recently by the aid of ropes1 and       
evidences were found in the shape of    
pottery fragments1 to show that the     
,indians had once inhabited the mesa4   
,two or three miles away1 across the    
valley1 is the large village of ,acoma1 
where a great deal of pottery is made   
for sale4  ,the pottery of the ,pueblo  
,indians is very attractive1 and their  
religious festivals and peculiar dances 
draw many visitors4 ,these ,indians no  
longer fear attacks from the savage     
,apache or ,navajo1 but they have become
 so used to their rock fortresses that  
it is not likely they will soon4 leave  
them4 ,the ,navajos now live in peace   
and raise large herds of sheep and      
goats2 while the more savage ,apaches   
have been gathered upon reservations1   
never more to go upon the war-path4     
,most of the ,apaches still live in     
their rude brush habitations4           
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hj4--,,navajo    
,,woman ,,weaving ,a ,,blanket  ,while  

the ,pueblo ,indians make attractive    
pottery1 the ,navajos are noted for     
their blankets4 ,the wool1 which is     
taken from their herds1 is dyed         
different colors1 and woven upon their  
simple looms into the most beautiful and
 costly blankets4  ,we usually think of 
the native inhabitants of ,america as   
leading a wild and rude life1 moving    
from place to place in search of food1  
and constantly engaged in warfare with  
one another4 ,the ,pueblo ,indians alone
 are different4 ,possibly if the white  
man had never come to ,america these    
,indians might in time have become      
highly civilized4 ,but it is more than  
likely that in their struggle with      
,nature in this wild and rugged country1
 where they were constantly subjected to
 attacks from their more savage         
neighbors1 they would have sunk lower   
instead of rising1 and would finally    
have disappeared4  ,the ,apaches were   
dreaded alike by the agricultural       
,indians and the early ,spanish4        

,issuing from their mountain fastnesses 
the ,apaches would raid the unprotected 
villages and missions1 and then retreat 
as quickly as they came4 ,for many years
 after the ,american occupation         
prospectors had to be constantly on     
their guard1 and many are the tragedies 
that have marked this remote corner of  
our country4     ,,the ,,life ,,of ,,the
 ,,desert  ,during the blinding glare of
 summer the deserts of southwestern     
,arizona and the adjoining portions of  
,california are forbidding in the       
extreme4 ,day after day the pitiless sun
 pours its heat upon the vast stretches 
of barren mountain and plain1 until the 
rocks are baked brown and it seems as if
 every particle of life must have left  
the seared and motionless plants4       
,month after month passes without rain4 
,now and then light clouds float into   
sight1 and occasionally rain can be seen
 falling from them1 but they are so high
 that the drops all disappear in the dry
 and thirsty air long before they can   

reach the ground4 ,cloud-bursts may take
 place about the peaks of some of the   
higher mountains1 but they have very    
little effect upon the life out on the  
plains4  ,animals and plants brought to 
this region from a moister climate must 
drink continually to make up for the    
rapid evaporation of moisture from their
 bodies2 a day without water may result 
in death4 ,and yet the living things    
that have homes in the desert can resist
 the dry air for many months without a  
renewal of their moisture4 ,there are   
areas where the average rainfall is less
 than three inches1 and sometimes two   
years may pass without a drop of rain4  
,it will certainly be worth our while to
 find out something about these desert  
plants and the way in which ,nature     
enables them to get along with so little
 water4  ,go where we will1 from the    
moist heat of the tropics or the dry    
heat of the deserts to the icy north1 we
 find that everywhere the plants and    
animals are suited to the climate of the

 particular place in which they live4   
,therefore we might conclude that they  
thrive better in those places than they 
would anywhere else1 but that is not    
always true4  ,a struggle is going on   
continually among plants for a footing  
in the soil and for a share of the      
sunshine4 ,the weaker plants are        
generally killed1 while those hardy     
enough to survive have to adapt         
themselves to new conditions of life1   
becoming stunted and deformed upon      
barren slopes2 but they have plenty of  
room there because fewer plants are     
striving for the same place4  ,it is not
 likely that the deserts of the         
southwest have always been as dry as    
they are now4 ,as the amount of rainfall
 slowly lessened through thousands of   
years1 the animals could migrate when it
 became too dry2 but the plants1 fixed  
in one place1 had either to give up and 
die1 or change their characters and     
habits to suit the demands of the       
changing climate4 ,the fact that these  

extremely dry deserts are filled with   
plant life to-day is without doubt due  
to this ability to change4  ,in a moist1
 warm climate plants are luxuriant2 they
 take up a large amount of water through
 their roots and evaporate it through   
the leaves4 ,if placed in a desert1 such
 plants would immediately wither and    
die4 ,to avoid too rapid evaporation the
 bodies of the desert plants have become
 smaller1 and their leaves have either  
shrunk greatly or wholly disappeared4   
,strong-smelling1 resinous juices exude 
from the remaining leaves and stems1 and
 form a surface varnish through which   
water passes with difficulty4  ,some    
forms of plant life1 such as the        
prickly-pear1 are provided with fleshy  
stems which hold a supply of moisture to
 be drawn upon during the long dry      
season4 ,men and animals are sometimes  
saved from death by chewing the pulp of 
the prickly-pear or other cactuses4     
,after a period of exceptional drought1 
the stems of the prickly-pear lose their

 bright green color and become shrunken4
  ,illustration3 ,,fig4                 
#ha4--,,prickly-,,pear1 ,,ball ,,cactus1
 ,,and ,,spanish ,,bayonet  ,the        
development of the underground part of  
the plant is frequently out of all      
proportion to the part above the        
surface4 ,the manzanita1 which grows in 
the semi-arid climate of southern       
,california1 is a low shrub with        
branches that are rarely large enough   
for fuel4 ,the roots1 however1 are large
 and massive1 and are extensively used  
for firewood4  ,the desert plants are   
armed1 not only against the dry air1 but
 against the wandering animals which    
would bite them and suck their juices4  
,the smell of the sagebrush is such that
 very few animals will touch it4 ,other 
plants are protected by thorns4 ,in     
fact1 the drier the region1 the more    
thorny are its plants4 ,a little shrub  
called the crucifixion thorn has no     
leaves at all1 nothing but long1 sharp  
spines4 ,besides the straight thorns    

there are curved and also barbed ones1  
for every conceivable form is           
represented among the plants of these   
dry lands4  ,as the desert plants are   
armed against the animals1 so the       
animals are armed against each other4   
,many of the insects and reptiles are   
extremely poisonous2 the greater the    
heat of their habitat1 the more         
dangerous are their bites4 ,the horned  
toad1 while not poisonous1 is protected 
by having horny spines upon its head and
 back4 ,the little rattlesnake known as 
the side-winder is perhaps the most     
dangerous of all1 although the          
tarantula1 centipede1 and scorpion are  
formidable foes4 ,the ,gila monster1    
long believed to be so dangerous1 is now
 considered non-poisonous under ordinary
 conditions4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4     
#hb4--;,,crucifixion ,,thorn  ,the      
desert tortoise is perhaps the most     
remarkable of all the animals of the    
desert4 ,it is rare1 and little is known
 of its habits except that it lives in  

the most arid valleys of southeastern   
,california1 far removed from any water4
 ,this tortoise has a diameter across   
its shell of at least eighteen inches4  
,its flesh is much prized by the        
,indians and prospectors4 ,a specimen   
which had been without water for an     
indefinite period was dissected1 and the
 discovery was made that upon each side 
there was a membranous sac1 containing  
clear water1 perhaps a pint in all4 ,the
 desert tortoise1 then1 carries his     
store of water with him1 and is thus    
enabled to go many months without a new 
supply4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4          
#hc4--,,the ,,gila ,,monster  ,a trip   
across the deserts of the lower         
,colorado in spring1 before the bracing 
air of winter has entirely gone1 is one 
never to be forgotten4 ,the poisonous   
insects and reptiles are not at this    
time warmed up to full activity1 while  
many peculiar plants are just coming    
into bloom4  ,let us study some of the  
strange forms growing thickly over the  

rocky slopes and sandy plains4 ,there   
are miles of forest1 but not such a     
forest as we are accustomed to see4     
,tall1 fluted columns of the giant      
cactus 7saguaro71 with rows of sharp    
spines1 reach upward to a height of from
 twenty to fifty feet4 ,at one or more  
nodes1 bud-like branches spring from the
 main trunk and1 curving upward1 form   
columns about the parent stem4          
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hd4--,,the ,,palo
 ,,verde ,,tree ,,and ,,saguaro  ,the   
giant cactus bears near the top a purple
 flower and a large1 edible fruit4 ,this
 fruit1 which has a red pulp1 is a      
favorite food with the ,indians1 and    
also with many insects and birds4 ,it is
 gathered by means of long forked       
sticks1 for if it should drop to the    
ground it would be broken4 ,the pulp of 
the stalk yields a little juice or sap  
which is used by the ,indians when hard 
pressed for water4  ,illustration3      
,,fig4 #he4--;,a ,,forest ,,on ,,the    
,,plains ,,of ,,southern ,,arizona      

,showing cholla and saguaro  ,scattered 
among the huge club-shaped columns of   
the saguaro is the cholla1 the next     
largest of the cactuses4 ,this species1 
which is tree-like in its branching and 
in rare cases grows to a height of      
twelve feet1 bears bright red or yellow 
flowers4 ,one must approach with care1  
for its jointed stems are so easily     
broken that at the slightest touch of   
the hand or clothing1 pieces break off  
and adhere firmly by means of their     
sharp curved and barbed spines4 ,another
 species of the cholla is small1        
reaching but a foot or two above the    
ground1 but this and other low forms so 
cover the ground in places that one has 
to be constantly on guard to keep from  
running the spines into his feet4       
,these are not all the plants of this   
wonderful forest4 ,the ocatilla is a    
cactus-like form having a group of long 
slender stems bunched together at the   
root4 ,in the spring each is tipped with
 a spike of red flowers1 and as the     

snake-like stalks wave in the breeze    
they present an appearance scarcely less
 attractive than the saguaro4           
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hf4--,,ocatilla  
,scattered among the vegetation just    
mentioned is the palo verde 7green      
tree71 so named from the yellowish green
 of its bark4 ,it is remarkable for the 
small size of the leaves1 which afford  
scarcely any shade for the traveller    
upon a hot summer day4 7,fig4 #hd47     
,along the dry water courses we find the
 mesquite1 a tree which does not grow   
upon the gravelly plains and rocky      
slopes1 for it needs more moisture than 
most of the desert vegetation4 ,in the  
spring it puts out delicate green leaves
 which form a pleasing contrast with the
 other plants4  ,riding through one of  
these forests in the deepening twilight1
 one is impressed with a feeling of awe 
and mystery by the strange1 weird shapes
 outlined against the sky4 ,in the      
cooler air of evening the animals come  
from their retreats4 ,the insects and   

the snakes are then abroad1 and if one  
is on foot the sudden buzz of a         
rattlesnake is not a pleasant sound to  
hear4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4            
#hg4--,,mesquite ,,tree1 ,,santa ,,cruz 
,,valley1 ,,southern ,,arizona  ,the    
prickly-pear prefers slopes not quite so
 dry and hot as those of the forest just
 described4 ,its broad1 spade-like1     
jointed stems are very interesting4 ,the
 red fruit clustered upon their         
extremities is not disagreeable to the  
taste1 but is covered with a soft1      
prickly down4  ,associated with the     
prickly-pear is a species of agave1 but 
this does not grow so large in ,arizona 
as it does farther south in ,mexico4    
,the plant is familiar to us as the     
common century plant of our gardens4    
,the long fleshy leaves with spines at  
the ends are clustered at the surface of
 the ground1 and from their centre1 at  
blooming time1 rises a tall flower      
stalk4 ,the agave requires many years to
 mature4 ,when the flower stalk has once

 started it grows rapidly1 but after    
blossoming the plant dies4  ,the mezcal1
 or pulque1 the national drink of the   
,mexicans1 is made from the sap of the  
agave4 ,the fibre of the agave1 known as
 sisal hemp1 is used in the manufacture 
of rope1 twine1 mats1 brushes1 etc4     
,other parts of the plant have various  
uses4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hh4--,,the
 ,,agave  ,illustration3 ,,fig4         
#hi4--,,spanish ,,bayonet ,,in ,,bloom  
,there are many kinds of yucca in the   
more elevated portions of the desert4   
,they range in size from those only two 
or three feet high1 of which the        
,spanish bayonet is a type1 to the giant
 yucca of the ,mohave ,desert1 which    
attains the proportions of a tree and   
forms thick forests over an area of many
 miles4 ,the ,spanish bayonet1 with its 
long stalk of white1 waxy blossoms1     
presents a very beautiful appearance1 as
 do also the young specimens of the tree
 yucca4  ,at rare intervals1 once       
perhaps in many years1 there is an      

unusual amount of rainfall in the       
spring1 and in a few weeks the desert   
becomes transformed as if by magic4     
,seeds germinate1 the presence of which 
one would never have suspected in the   
drier weather4 ,in an incredibly short  
time the long gravelly or sandy slopes  
about the bases of the mountains are    
covered with a veritable carpet of      
green1 yellow1 and red4 ,the sand       
verbena1 the evening primrose1 baby     
blue-eyes1 and different kinds of lilies
 grow so thickly in places that every   
footstep crushes them4  ,illustration3  
,,fig4 #ij4--,,young ,,yuccas ,,in      
,,bloom  ,but in a few short days the   
beauty has disappeared4 ,the seeds      
mature speedily and drop into the sand4 
,a hot wind withers the stems and leaves
 and blows them away2 drifting sands    
take the place of the rich carpet4 ,how 
readily these plants have adapted       
themselves to the brief period in which 
life is possible6  ,thus it is that this
 vast region about the lower ,colorado1 

although so dry and hot1 and at first   
sight apparently so unfitted for        
sustaining life1 nevertheless supports  
its share4 ,many of the plant forms have
 assumed strange and monstrous shapes in
 their efforts to withstand the hard    
conditions in the struggle for          
existence1 while others simply lie in   
waiting1 sleeping during the long dry   
year1 but ready to spring into life when
 the favorable showers come1 as they    
sometimes do4     ,,the ,,pony ,,express
  ,although it is only a little more    
than fifty years since the discovery of 
gold was made and the rapid settlement  
of the ,west began1 what a change has   
come over this great region6 ,it was at 
first supposed to be impossible to      
connect the growing settlements upon the
 ,pacific with the ,east by anything    
more than a wagon road1 and those who   
advocated the building of a railroad    
were ridiculed4 ,now the journey across 
the continent is made upon smooth steel 
tracks in comfortable coaches1 for the  

skill of the engineer has overcome the  
difficulties of the desert1 the mountain
 wall1 and the caon4  ,the pioneers who 
pushed westward from the ,mississippi   
,river with their slow ox-teams took all
 summer to reach the fertile valleys of 
,california and ,oregon1 and considered 
themselves fortunate if they arrived at 
their destination before the coming of  
the winter storms4  ,the first overland 
stage line was established by way of    
,new ,mexico and ,arizona1 terminating  
at ,los ,angeles4 ,twenty-two days were 
required for this part of the tiresome  
and dangerous trip4 ,the route was      
longer and more desert-like than that   
farther north across ,nevada1 but the   
winter storms were avoided4  ,the       
stage-coach proved too slow for the     
needs of the growing settlements upon   
the ,pacific slope4 ,a telegraph line   
was planned1 but it could not be        
completed for some time1 and even then  
it was probable that the ,indians would 
destroy the poles and wires4  ,then came

 the idea of a relay of fast messengers 
upon horseback1 and the pony express was
 organized4 ,it is difficult to believe 
that by this means the journey of two   
thousand miles between ,st4 ,joseph1 a  
point upon the ,missouri a little above 
,kansas ,city1 and ,sacramento1         
,california1 was once made in about     
eight days4 ,this is only a little more 
than twice the time required by the fast
 trains at present4  ,for two years the 
trip was regularly made in about nine   
days1 averaging two hundred and twenty  
miles a day4 ,it can be readily         
understood that this wonderful feat     
required many relays of men and horses  
scattered along the route4 ,the express 
rider had no well-graded roads to       
follow1 but only the rough trail of the 
emigrants4 ,this led across broad       
deserts and over rugged mountains1 and  
throughout most of the journey exposed  
the rider to the attacks of ,indians4   
,let us take a map and trace the route  
of the express4 ,it followed closely the

 main overland trail which the          
gold-seekers had opened4 ,now towns and 
cities are scattered along the old      
trail1 and the railroad crosses and     
recrosses it4 ,but let us try to picture
 the country as it appeared in its wild 
state4  ,mountains1 valleys and plains  
made up the landscape4 ,vast herds of   
buffalo darkened the ,great ,plains east
 of the ,rocky ,mountains1 while farther
 west were numerous bands of antelope4  
,the streams were filled with beaver and
 other fur-bearing animals4 ,here and   
there along the rivers were ,indian     
villages with their curiously shaped    
tepees4 ,even the deserts of ,nevada    
were not uninhabited1 for the ,indians  
lived there also1 gathered in little    
family groups about the desolate        
springs4  ,when we speak of the overland
 trail we do not mean a narrow path for 
animals1 but the wagon road1 rude though
 it was1 which the early emigrants had  
made4 ,they were determined to cross the
 continent1 no matter what the          

difficulties and dangers4 ,wagons could 
be drawn by the oxen over the plains and
 deserts with little difficulty1        
although there were some dangerous      
rivers to be crossed4 ,mountains and    
caons offered the most serious          
obstructions4 ,in many places the wagons
 had to be let down over precipices with
 ropes1 or be taken apart and carried   
piece by piece around the obstructions4 
,it was not the mountains alone which   
made the trip across the plains one long
 to be remembered4 ,it was often        
difficult to obtain water and fodder for
 the animals1 and at many points savage 
,indians1 bent upon plunder1 were in    
hiding1 waiting for a chance to stampede
 the cattle or kill the emigrants4 ,the 
way was marked by abandoned wagons1     
household goods1 bones of cattle1 and   
the graves of human beings4  ,the trail 
led from the ,missouri across the state 
of ,kansas to the ,platte ,river1 then  
followed this long stream to its head at
 ,south ,pass on the continental divide4

 ,from the ,south ,pass the trail led   
southwest past ,fort ,bridger1 in       
southwestern ,wyoming1 through ,echo    
,caon and over ,emigrant pass of the    
,wasatch ,range down to ,salt ,lake     
,city1 which had been founded but a     
short time before the discovery of gold4
 ,west of ,salt ,lake ,city the trail   
skirted the northern shore of the ,great
 ,salt ,lake1 and after passing a low   
mountain divide in what is now          
northwestern ,utah1 reached the head    
waters of the ,humboldt ,river4 ,thence 
the path ran along by this river down to
 the place where it disappeared in a    
vast sandy desert known as the sink of  
the ,carson4 ,the ,carson ,river1 after 
the dreary desert was passed1 led the   
emigrants still westward toward a wall  
of mighty mountains known as the ,sierra
 ,nevada4 ,here ,nature seemed to have  
done her utmost to shut off ,california1
 with its fertile valleys and rich      
gold-fields1 from the longing eyes of   
the emigrants4 ,there are1 however1     

several low places in the range1 and    
through one of these openings1 at the   
head of the ,carson ,river1 the         
travellers gained the western slope of  
the mountains4 ,then in good time they  
reached the mining town of ,placerville1
 and at length ,sacramento1 the capital 
of ,california4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4  
#ia4--;,,chimney ,,rock  ,on the old    
overland trail near the ,platte ,river1 
western ,nebraska  ,in order that the   
pony express might make the time        
required over the two thousand miles1   
five hundred horses and several hundred 
men were needed4 ,the stations were     
placed about ten miles apart and were   
strongly built so that they might       
withstand the attacks of the ,indians4  
,these stations1 nearly two hundred in  
number1 all had to be supplied by means 
of freight teams1 which often hauled    
hay1 grain1 and food for the messengers 
for hundreds of miles4  ,the horses     
selected for the messengers to ride were
 the small1 sure-footed ponies called   

mustangs4 ,through a stretch of ten     
miles the pony was pushed to its utmost 
speed1 then it was carefully groomed1   
fed1 and rested until the time came to  
make the return trip4  ,in selecting the
 riders three things were of great      
importance3 they must be light in       
weight1 must be possessed of great      
powers of endurance1 and also must be   
brave and resolute4 ,at each station1 as
 the time approached for the express to 
arrive1 the relay horse was saddled and 
in waiting4 ,as the rider dashed in he  
jumped from his horse1 and with but a   
moment's rest1 threw the saddle-bags    
containing the letters upon the fresh   
horse and was off again1 riding like the
 wind4 ,upon smooth stretches the horses
 often made twenty miles an hour1 but it
 was quite impossible to maintain this  
speed over the rocky and rugged portions
 of the route4 ,storms and ,indian      
ambuscades often delayed the riders4    
,sometimes the messenger kept up a      
running fight with the ,indians for     

miles4  ,the riders were frequently     
killed1 but the mail-bags were rarely   
lost4 ,if a rider did not come in on    
time1 it was known that something       
serious had happened1 and search was    
immediately made4 ,the riders were not  
allowed to stop for any purpose         
whatsoever2 neither storms of the       
greatest severity nor even the presence 
of hostile ,indians near the trail kept 
them from their duty4 ,one of the few   
riders who are still living says that he
 was never afraid except on dark1 cloudy
 nights4 ,at such times he made no      
attempt to guide his horse1 but trusting
 to the intelligence of the well-trained
 animal1 gave it rein1 and at the same  
time spurred it to its utmost speed4    
,think of riding at such speed into the 
dark night1 not knowing what is ahead of
 you6 ,the rider's only safety lay in   
the carefulness and sagacity of the     
horse4 ,such a ride called for more     
courage than did a conflict with        
,indians6  ,illustration3 ,,fig4        

#ib4--,,palisades ,,of ,,the ,,humboldt 
,,river1 ,,nevada  ,near the overland   
trail  ,the pony express carried no     
passengers4 ,it carried no freight1 not 
even the usual express package4 ,the    
messenger was intrusted with nothing but
 two bundles of letters carefully stowed
 away in a pair of saddle-bags4  ,the   
letters were not like our ordinary      
letters1 for the paper used was the     
thinnest and lightest possible4         
,hundreds of the letters weighed only a 
few pounds4 ,it was very important that 
there should be no great weight1 for if 
the horses were heavily loaded1 they    
could not make the required time4 ,only 
those whose business was of great       
importance could afford to send letters 
by this express1 for the charge was five
 dollars upon each letter4  ,in spite of
 the high charge the pony express is    
said never to have been profitable1 for 
the expenses were very heavy4 ,it was   
discontinued in #ahfj1 as by that time a
 telegraph line had been constructed    

across the continent4     ,,how         
,,climate ,,and ,,physical ,,features   
,,influenced ,,the ,,settlement ,,of    
,,the ,,west  ,the story of the         
exploration and settlement of the       
,pacific coast1 and of the great region 
lying between the ,pacific slope and the
 ,mississippi ,valley1 offers a most    
interesting opportunity to study the    
control which physical features of the  
earth exert upon the trend of men's     
activities4 ,the position of the        
mountains1 the courses of the rivers1   
and the character of the sea-coast have 
all helped to shape the history of the  
,west4 ,the presence of gold in the     
rocks of the ,sierra ,nevada mountains  
was the chief incentive which led to the
 breaking down of the barriers placed by
 ,nature between the ,pacific and the   
,mississippi basin4  ,when an unknown   
land is accessible by water1 the shore  
line offers the easiest means for the   
first explorations and settlements4 ,so 
it came about that nearly all the       

eastern coast of ,north ,america was    
known before men ventured far into the  
interior4 ,then the large rivers1 like  
the ,st4 ,lawrence1 the ,hudson1 and the
 ,mississippi1 seemed to offer inviting 
routes into the recesses of the         
continent1 but exploration through the  
pathless woods and rough mountains was  
slow4  ,it was soon discovered that the 
,hudson was a short river and did not   
lead across the continent as was at     
first hoped4 ,because of the absence of 
other large rivers upon that portion of 
the coast which the ,english occupied1  
their settlements did not spread        
westward as rapidly as they otherwise   
would have done4 ,the country was       
covered with dense forests1 and savage  
,indians disputed the right to occupy   
it4 ,in time1 however1 passes were found
 leading over the ,appalachian          
,mountains to the ,ohio ,river and      
through the ,mohawk ,valley to the      
region of the ,great ,lakes4  ,the      
advantages for travel offered by the    

,st4 ,lawrence ,river and the chain of  
lakes above it were utilized at an early
 day4 ,the route of the ,french         
missionary explorers and fur traders was
 from ,montreal up the ,ottawa ,river1  
then by a short portage and a series of 
small lakes to ,lake ,huron4 ,from this 
point the most remote shores of ,lakes  
,superior and ,michigan could be easily 
reached4 ,by the aid of several small   
bodies of water west of ,lake ,superior1
 ,lake ,winnipeg and ,great ,slave ,lake
 were finally discovered2 but from this 
point the waterways into the ,west were 
small and could be followed no farther1 
so that it was a long time before the   
,rocky ,mountains were crossed4  ,by    
floating down the ,illinois ,river the  
,french arrived at the ,mississippi1    
explored much of its course1 and took   
possession of the country in advance of 
the ,english4 ,this fact was directly   
due to the difficulties which the       
,english explorers experienced in       
forcing their way over the ,appalachian 

highlands4  ,the ,spanish explored the  
southern shores of the continent1 and   
crossing the ,isthmus1 were the first to
 behold the ,pacific4 ,the fact that the
 ,pacific coast of ,north ,america was  
so easily reached at this point gave the
 ,spanish a great advantage1 and        
explains why they gained such a hold    
upon the lands bordering that ocean4 ,it
 was a comparatively simple matter for  
them to fit out ships1 and sailing north
 and south1 to take possession wherever 
they desired4 ,however1 when they had   
gone as far as ,california1 their       
progress was for a long time almost     
completely blocked by storms and head   
winds1 for the prevailing direction of  
the wind is down the coast4 ,the        
,spanish finally reached ,vancouver     
,island1 but never succeeded in making  
settlements north of ,san ,francisco4   
,even the interior of ,california was   
little known to them1 for the mountains 
and deserts discouraged their progress  
in that direction4  ,from an examination

 of a map we might suppose that the     
,colorado ,river would offer as good a  
means for penetrating the continent as  
did the ,mississippi ,river1 but as a   
matter of fact it is navigable for a    
comparatively short distance4 ,the      
,spanish made one attempt to ascend this
 river1 but finding themselves          
surrounded on every hand by a most      
desolate1 barren country1 they turned   
back before reaching the ,grand ,caon4  
,in the eager search for gold the       
,spaniards pushed north from ,mexico and
 planted settlements in ,arizona and    
,new ,mexico1 but upon the northwest    
their progress was stopped by caons and 
deserts4  ,now we are prepared to       
understand why it was that the western  
portion of ,north ,america remained for 
so long a time a mysterious and unknown 
region4 ,there were no waterways by     
which it could be explored1 while       
snow-clad mountains and deserts made    
access to it doubly difficult4  ,by the 
beginning of the last century the       

,americans had overcome the natural     
obstacles in their westward progress1   
and their settlements reached as far    
into the wilderness as the ,mississippi 
,river4 ,hunters and traders were soon  
pushing far beyond1 spreading over the  
,great ,plains and up to the very base  
of the ,rocky1 or ,stony ,mountains1 as 
they were then called4 ,the ,missouri   
,river became the great highway into the
 ,northwest1 for the adventurers took   
advantage of the streams wherever       
possible4 ,many other rivers were       
discovered flowing from the western     
mountains1 but with the exception of the
 ,platte and ,arkansas they were        
generally too shallow for navigation    
even with a light canoe4  ,starting in  
the early spring from the mouth of the  
,missouri1 the hardy trappers sailed and
 paddled up the river1 taking several   
months to reach the head of navigation  
at the ,great ,falls4 ,in the autumn1   
when the boats were loaded with furs1 it
 was a comparatively easy matter to drop

 down the river with the current4 ,it   
would have been almost impossible to    
transport the loads of goods on         
pack-horses across the thousand miles of
 prairie1 where the traders would be    
subject to attack from hostile ,indians4
  ,adventurous men pushed farther and   
farther west through the passes in the  
mountains and began trapping upon the   
waters which flow into the ,pacific4 ,it
 had long been supposed that the ,rocky 
,mountains formed a barrier beyond which
 our country could not be extended1 and 
that the ,pacific slope was made up of  
mountains and deserts not worth         
securing4  ,the explorers showed that   
the ,rocky ,mountains were not          
continuous1 but consisted of partly     
detached ranges1 and that while their   
eastern fronts were indeed almost       
impassable for long distances1 there    
were places so low that it was difficult
 to locate the exact spot where the     
waters parted to seek the ,pacific      
,ocean and the ,gulf of ,mexico4 ,in    

southwestern ,wyoming the continental   
divide1 known as the ,great ,divide     
mesa1 though more than a mile above the 
sea1 is but a continuation of the long1 
gentle slope of the ,great ,plains4     
,the ,rocky ,mountains decrease in      
height toward the south1 near the line  
between ,new ,mexico and ,colorado4     
,here is situated ,raton ,pass1 an      
ancient ,indian highway from the valley 
of the ,arkansas to the ,rio ,grande4   
,in the early half of the last century  
this trail was much used by the caravans
 of traders and came to be known as the 
,santa ,f trail4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 
#ic4--,,on ,,the ,,continental ,,divide 
,,in ,,southwestern ,,wyoming  ,in the  
early days of the ,american occupation  
of ,california1 the ,santa ,f trail     
became an important route to the        
,pacific4 ,from the ,mexican town of    
,santa ,f it led down the valley of the 
,rio ,grande1 following the old road to 
,mexico1 and then turned west across the
 broad plateau of the continental       

divide1 not far from the present course 
of the ,southern ,pacific ,railroad4    
,passing ,tucson1 the road kept near the
 course of the ,gila ,river to ,fort    
,yuma1 and then led over the ,colorado  
,desert to ,los ,angeles4 ,this path    
avoided all the high mountains1 but much
 of it lay across deserts1 where the    
heat and scarcity of water made it an   
impracticable route for the emigrants4  
,one not acquainted with the physical   
geography of the ,west might wonder why 
the gold-seekers on their way to        
,california did not make use of the     
,missouri ,river1 which1 except for the 
,great ,falls1 was navigable for small  
boats to the very base of the ,rocky    
,mountains4 ,a partial explanation is   
found in the report of the hardships    
endured by the ,lewis and ,clark        
exploring expedition1 and later by the  
,astor party1 which went out to found a 
fur trading post at the mouth of the    
,columbia4 ,it had been supposed that   
after once crossing the continental     

divide it would be an easy matter to    
embark upon some stream and float down  
to the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,the parties    
referred to became lost in the defiles  
of the mountains1 and when they finally 
reached the ,snake ,river it was only to
 find that rapids and waterfalls        
continually obstructed navigation4      
,although there was in most places      
plenty of water upon this northern      
route1 yet the mountains were impassable
 for wagons4  ,because of these         
conditions the emigrants started out    
boldly across the plains1 following the 
general course of the ,platte ,river1   
and crossing the ,rocky ,mountain divide
 at the ,south ,pass in western         
,wyoming1 a place famous in its day4 ,at
 this point those who were going to     
,oregon turned northwestward to ,fort   
,hall1 a trading post of the ,hudson    
,bay ,company4 ,from here they crossed  
southern ,idaho1 keeping near the course
 of the ,snake ,river until they reached
 the point where it enters the grand    

caon2 there they left the river1 and    
climbing over the ,blue ,mountains1     
entered the fertile valleys about the   
present city of ,walla ,walla4 ,from    
this place the emigrants followed the   
,columbia ,river to ,the ,dalles1 whence
 they proceeded either by boat or raft  
until ,fort ,vancouver and the mouth of 
the ,willamette were finally gained4    
,wagons were taken through on this      
route1 and it was not dangerous1        
although accidents sometimes happened at
 the ,cascades1 where locks were built  
at a later day4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4  
#id4--,,the ,,old ,,santa ,f ,,trail    
,over this thousands of freight and     
emigrant wagons have passed  ,the       
emigrants for ,california1 who were the 
most numerous1 turned southwest at      
,south ,pass1 and after crossing the    
,wasatch ,range through ,emigration     
,caon1 came out upon the plain of ,great
 ,salt ,lake4 ,then1 traversing desert  
plains1 they reached the ,humboldt      
,river1 which they followed until it    

sank into the sands4  ,several routes   
had been opened across the ,sierra      
,nevada mountains into ,california1 but 
those through the ,carson and ,donner   
passes were most used4 ,several high    
ranges of mountains lay between the     
,willamette ,valley of ,oregon and the  
,great ,valley of ,california1 so that  
in the early days there was very little 
travel between these two territories4   
,the overland trip required so long a   
time1 and involved such dangers and     
hardships1 that many preferred the water
 route1 in spite of the fact that its   
ships were crowded1 and the voyagers    
must cross the fever-infected ,isthmus4 
,it is very interesting to note how     
widely different the rivers are upon the
 opposite sides of the ,rocky           
,mountains4 ,those upon the east1 with  
the exception of the ,missouri at the   
,great ,falls1 are not marked by        
waterfalls after leaving the mountains4 
,there are few caons of importance4 ,the
 streams generally flow in channels only

 slightly sunken below the general level
 of the ,great ,plains4 ,the streams    
upon the west1 on the contrary1 are     
broken by rapids and waterfalls1 and are
 generally buried in caons so deep and  
precipitous that in places a man might  
die of thirst in sight of water4  ,no   
other great migration of people over the
 surface of the earth ever encountered  
such difficulties as that which pressed 
westward after the discovery of gold4   
,it was at first thought that railroads 
could not be constructed through the    
mountains and deserts1 and until the    
mineral wealth of the ,west became      
known1 many men believed that the       
greater portion of the country was not  
worth taking4  ,it would be interesting 
to consider each of the main lines of   
railroad which connect the ,mississippi 
,valley with the ,pacific1 and study the
 features of the country through which  
it runs1 determining as far as possible 
the surveyor's reasons for selecting    
that particular course4 ,some of the    

railroads follow for long distances the 
routes of the emigrants4 ,the emigrants1
 in their turn1 often made use of the   
ancient ,indian trails4  ,illustration3 
,,fig4 #ie4--,,the ,,carson ,,pass1     
,,summit ,,of ,,sierra ,,nevada         
,,mountains  ,one of the main emigrant  
routes to the ,pacific ,coast  ,while   
,nature seems to have striven to raise  
impassable barriers to shut off the     
,pacific slope from the rest of the     
continent1 yet she failed at some       
points1 and through the unguarded passes
 the wild animals and ,indians first    
found their way4 ,then came the         
trappers1 prospectors1 farmers1 and at  
last the railroad1 until the wilderness 
was over-run4  ,because of its temperate
 climate1 abundant rainfall1 and rich   
soil1 the ,mississippi ,valley was      
rapidly settled after the pioneers had  
once reached it4 ,the plains rising     
slowly westward toward the base of the  
,rocky ,mountains were found to be more 
arid the farther they were explored4    

,consequently there exists a broad strip
 of plain which is even to-day sparsely 
settled4 ,the emigrants went on to the  
fertile valleys nearer the ,pacific1    
where the rainfall is more abundant4    
,the ,american settlers did not then    
understand irrigation1 although it was  
practised by the ,mexicans to the south4
 ,because the discovery of precious     
metals was first made in ,california1   
the pioneers crossed the intervening    
mountains without giving a thought to   
the mineral riches which might be       
concealed in their depths4 ,later1 mines
 were opened in the mountains all       
through the arid regions4 ,the necessity
 of providing food for the miners       
brought about the discovery that the    
desert lands were very productive       
wherever the waters of the streams could
 be brought to them4     ,,the ,,life   
,,of ,,the ,,prospector  ,perhaps some  
of us who have comfortable homes1 sleep 
upon soft beds1 wear neat clothes1 and  
can obtain every variety of food that we

 wish1 think with pity of the men who   
lead a rough and lonely life among the  
mountains far from all comforts4 ,let us
 learn something more about the life and
 work of the prospectors1 for we may    
find much that is desirable in their    
experiences4  ,not many thousands of    
years ago our ancestors led what we     
would now call a wild and savage life4  
,they had no permanent homes1 but       
wandered here and there in search of    
food1 and lived in caves or constructed 
the rudest kind of shelter from the     
storms4 ,perhaps we are right in feeling
 thankful that we were not born in those
 primitive times1 but are there not     
really many things to regret about the  
way in which we have to live at the     
present day8  ,the utterly free outdoor 
life is not open to many4 ,we have      
little or no opportunity to become      
acquainted with ,nature1 the guardian of
 our ancestors4 ,the woods1 the rocks1  
the mountains1 and the dashing streams  
are almost complete strangers to many of

 us4  ,many men are now obliged to go   
every day to their work in office or    
shop1 and spend the hours shut in from  
the fresh air and bright sunshine4 ,at  
night they sleep in rooms into which    
they admit little fresh air for fear of 
taking cold4 ,to-day each man has to    
learn to do one thing well to the       
exclusion of nearly everything else1 in 
order to make a living4 ,for this very  
reason we are in danger of becoming     
human machines and of losing the use of 
some of the powers with which ,nature   
has endowed us4 ,many things about our  
present mode of life are not natural to 
us1 but through successive generations  
we have become somewhat adapted to them4
 ,the ,indians1 if taken from a life in 
the open air and made to live as we do1 
often sicken and die4  ,the farmer      
enjoys much more freedom and more of the
 sweet fresh air than do the artisans   
and office workers2 but of all the men  
in civilized countries the trappers and 
prospectors live most out of doors4 ,to 

be sure1 they have to endure many       
hardships and dangers1 and their beds   
are not always the softest nor their    
food the best1 but you will seldom find 
one who is willing to exchange his free 
life for work in the town or city4  ,the
 trappers have nearly disappeared4      
,their occupation will be gone with the 
passing of the wild animals which were  
once so abundant4 ,the prospectors are1 
however1 becoming more numerous year by 
year throughout the mountains of western
 ,america4 ,to them we owe a great debt1
 for had not their searching eyes       
brought to light the hidden mineral     
deposits this portion of our country    
would be far more thinly populated than 
it is to-day4  ,the discovery of gold in
 ,california was accidental4 ,a man     
named ,marshall was building a mill for 
,sutter in the foot-hills of the ,sierra
 ,nevada mountains at the time 7#ahdh7  
when ,california had just come into the 
possession of the ,united ,states4      
,while at work he noticed some shining  

grains in the sand of the mill-race4 ,a 
little testing of the grains led him to 
the conclusion that they were gold4     
,the news spread rapidly over the world1
 and since that time a constantly       
increasing tide of gold-seekers has been
 pushing out into the unexplored        
portions of the earth4 ,comparatively   
few of these men have become wealthy1   
but their discoveries have led to the   
settlement of new regions and to the    
growth of important industries4 ,in     
truth1 if it were not for the deposits  
of valuable metals1 large areas of the  
desert and mountainous ,west would be of
 small value4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4    
#if4--;,a ,,prospector ,,in ,,the       
,,desert  ,the prospector needs little  
capital except health and strength1 but 
he must be willing to lead a rough life4
 ,he will be more likely to succeed if  
he knows something about the different  
kinds of minerals and rocks1 and is able
 to distinguish the valuable ones from  
those which are of little or no worth4  

,the prospector may have a pack-horse   
and a second horse to ride1 or he may go
 afoot with merely two burros to carry  
blankets1 provisions1 and tools4 ,a     
burro costs little and will live upon   
almost anything4 ,the variety of food   
that can be carried is not large2 such  
things as bacon1 flour1 sugar1 beans1   
and coffee are the most important4 ,with
 the rifle one may frequently add to the
 supply4 ,this1 you may think1 is pretty
 hard fare1 but life in the open air    
will make one hungry enough to relish   
almost any sort of food4  ,the          
prospector does not need a road or even 
a trail4 ,he seeks the least-known      
portion of some mountain district where 
he has an idea that gold may be found4  
,through the caons he goes1 and over the
 mountains1 either on horseback or      
driving the burros before him4 ,water   
and grass are usually abundant1 and the 
little cavalcade stops where night      
overtakes it4 ,in the desert prospecting
 is more difficult and often dangerous1 

because of the scarcity of water4 ,it is
 necessary to know the location of the  
few scattered springs1 and to make one  
of the burros useful in carrying water  
kegs4 ,a spring must be the             
starting-point in the morning1 and a    
sufficient amount of water must be taken
 to last until the traveller can get    
back to the same spring or until he can 
reach another4  ,a pick1 a shovel1 and a
 hammer are among the most important    
parts of the prospector's outfit4 ,gold 
is a heavy substance1 and as it washes  
down the mountain sides and into the    
gulches from some quartz vein1 its      
weight finally takes it to the bed-rock 
beneath the sand and gravel4 ,with his  
pick and shovel the prospector can reach
 the bed-rock4 ,he takes some of the    
gravel from its hiding-place close to   
the rock1 places it in a pan filled with
 water1 and then1 with a peculiar rotary
 movement1 washes away the lighter      
materials1 leaving the heavier          
substances and the gold1 if there is    

any1 at the bottom of the pan4 ,if there
 is no trace of gold1 the prospector    
goes on to another creek2 but if some of
 the yellow metal is washed out1 he     
tests the place thoroughly for more4    
,in searching for ledges the prospector 
spends his time in the smaller gulches  
and upon the mountain sides4 ,every     
piece of detached quartz that meets his 
eye is examined1 and if any specks of   
gold appear1 the search is directed     
toward the vein or ledge from which the 
specimen came4 ,with the hammer1 pieces 
of quartz are broken from the veins     
which here and there rise above the     
surface of loose and crumbling rock4    
,when the worker finds a piece that is  
stained with iron and has the appearance
 of carrying gold1 he places it in his  
bag and keeps it for further            
examination4 ,at camp1 the pieces of    
quartz are pounded to a powder in a     
mortar and then washed in a horn spoon4 
,a string of fine grains of gold tells  
of the discovery of a rich vein4        

,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ig4--;,a         
,,prospector',s ,,cabin ,,in ,,the      
,,rocky ,,mountains  ,it is not usually 
an easy matter to find home of a piece  
of stray quartz upon the mountain side4 
,days and weeks may pass while search is
 made up the slope1 for the fragment    
must have come from some point above4   
,but the ledge1 once discovered1 is     
traced along the surface for the purpose
 of determining its direction and       
extent4  ,when a promising bed of gravel
 or a vein of gold-bearing quartz is    
found1 the prospector posts the proper  
notices of his right to the claim and   
has them recorded at the nearest land   
office4 ,then he makes a permanent camp 
by cutting down trees and building a    
cabin4 ,the interior of the cabin is    
very simple4 ,its table and chairs are  
made of split lumber4 ,one end of the   
single room is occupied by the bunk1 and
 the other by a large fireplace4 ,there 
may be no windows1 and the roof may be  
made of earth piled upon logs1 or of    

long split shingles commonly known as   
shakes4  ,sometimes1 after discovering a
 very rich quartz ledge1 the prospector 
goes back to a settlement to attempt to 
interest some one in buying or          
developing it4 ,sometimes it happens    
that he loses the location of the vein  
and cannot go back to the place where it
 was discovered4 ,in this way his       
discovery becomes a lost mine1 and grows
 in importance in people's minds as the 
story of its riches spreads from one to 
another4 ,although men may spend years  
looking for such mines1 they are not    
often found again4  ,frequently two men 
go prospecting together so that their   
work will be less dangerous and lonely4 
,if they are not at once successful1    
they manage in some way to get supplies 
for a trip each year into the mountains4
 ,often they are grub-staked1 that is1  
some man who has money furnishes their  
supplies in return for a share in their 
findings4  ,if they have enough to eat1 
the prospectors1 in their snug cabin1   

are comfortable and happy4 ,the cabin is
 built as near as possible to the mine1 
so that the men need not be cut off from
 their work during the stormy weather4  
,the temperature underground is about   
the same in both winter and summer1 so  
that winter storms and summer heat form 
no hindrance to the work4               
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ih4--,,mouth ,,of
 ,a ,,tunnel  ,years spent in life of   
this kind lead men to love the          
mountains4 ,they feel a sympathy with   
,nature and a companionship in her      
presence4 ,when they have to visit the  
town for supplies1 they long to get back
 to their little cabins4 ,they feel lost
 in the whirl and confusion of the city4
  ,summer is a delightful time at the   
many little miners' cabins scattered    
through the mountains4 ,the air is      
invigorating1 the water pure and cold4  
,there is everything in the surroundings
 to make one happy4 ,in the winter the  
miner sits by his great fireplace1 with 
the flames roaring up the chimney4 ,he  

has no stove to make the air close and  
oppressive4 ,about the fireplace his    
dishes are arranged--the kettle for     
beans1 the coffee-pot1 and the ,dutch   
oven in which the bread is baked4 ,if   
there are some old paper-covered        
story-books at hand1 it does not matter 
how fiercely the storms rage without4   
,ask any old prospector who has spent   
years in this manner if he would        
exchange his cabin for a house in the   
city1 and he will most decidedly answer 
no4  ,this lonely life in the mountains 
seems to engender hospitality4 ,the     
old-time prospector will make you       
welcome to his cabin and will share his 
last crust with you4 ,when he asks you  
in to have some coffee and beans1 he    
does not do it merely for the sake of   
being polite1 and he will feel hurt if  
you do not accept his hospitality4 ,his 
dishes may not be as white as those to  
which you are accustomed1 but ,i will   
venture to say that you have never      
tasted better beans than those with     

which he will fill your plate from his  
soot-begrimed kettle4  ,we ought all to 
see more of this wildlife4 ,even if we  
do not care to1 make our permanent homes
 among the mountains1 it would do us    
good to go there every summer at least1 
and so not only become stronger1 but    
cultivate that familiarity with and love
 for outdoor life which our ancestors   
enjoyed4     ,,gold ,,and               
,,gold-,,mining  ,gold derives its value
 partly from its purchasing power1      
partly from those properties which make 
it serviceable in the arts1 and partly  
from its beauty4 ,the high esteem in    
which gold money is held is as much the 
result of its comparative rarity as of  
its physical properties4 ,among nearly  
all the nations of the world it has been
 agreed upon as a standard of exchange4 
,gold has one disadvantage as a medium  
of exchange2 it is rather too soft to   
wear well4 ,but this difficulty is      
overcome by alloying the gold with      
another mineral of nearly the same      

color1--copper1 for instance4  ,in order
 that we may understand better the      
position which gold occupies in the arts
 and trades of the world1 let us compare
 it with other metals1 and first with   
platinum4 ,this mineral is far less     
abundant and has many properties which  
make it valuable in the arts4 ,like     
gold1 platinum is malleable and ductile 
and does not tarnish in the air1 but it 
differs from gold in not being easily   
fusible1 so that it is used in the      
laboratory for crucibles4 ,the          
steel-gray color of platinum is1        
however1 so much less attractive than   
the yellow of gold1 that it is not used 
for ornamental purposes4  ,an effort was
 made at one time by ,russia1 where a   
comparatively large amount of platinum  
is found1 to coin this metal into money1
 but its continued use was not found    
practicable because of its changing     
price in the markets of the world4 ,if  
the leading nations would agree upon a  
fixed value for platinum1 it might be   

used like gold as a medium of exchange4 
,silver is brighter and more attractive 
than platinum1 but is of little use in  
the laboratory4 ,it has been found in   
recent years to be so much more abundant
 than gold that its value has decreased 
greatly as a commercial article4 ,in our
 country when coined it has1 like paper 
money1 been given a value equal to gold4
  ,the diamond has a value far exceeding
 that of gold1 but this value is        
dependent almost wholly upon its        
ornamental properties1 although the     
brilliant stone is also useful as an    
abrasive and cutting agent4  ,from these
 facts it is evident that gold1 because 
of its rarity1 its physical properties1 
and its beauty1 combines a larger number
 of desirable characteristics than any  
other mineral4  ,gold can be found in   
very small quantities nearly everywhere4
 ,it is present in all the rocks and    
also in sea-water4 ,the gold that is    
distributed in this manner is of no     
value to us1 for it would cost many     

times as much to obtain it as it is     
worth4 ,nature has1 however1            
concentrated it for us in some places4  
,in portions of the world where the     
crust has been folded and broken there  
are veins of quartz extending in long1  
narrow1 and irregular sheets through the
 rocks4 ,this quartz is the home of the 
gold1 and it is usually found in hilly  
or mountainous regions4  ,do not mistake
 the yellow iron pyrites for gold4      
,pyrites is brittle1 while gold is      
malleable4 ,you can hammer a little     
grain of gold into a thin sheet4 ,do not
 make the mistake1 either1 of thinking  
that the shining yellow scales of mica  
which you see in the sand in the bottom 
of a clear stream are gold4 ,these      
yellow minerals that look like gold have
 been called fools' gold because people 
have sometimes been utterly deceived by 
them4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ii4--;,a  
,,gold-,,silver ,,mine  ,summit of ,san 
,juan ,range1 ,colorado  ,upon the      
,pacific slope minerals are now being   

deposited in some of the openings of the
 rocks from which hot springs issue4 ,a 
study of these springs has led to the   
opinion that the gold-bearing quartz    
veins were formed in a similar manner1  
but at a very remote time in the past4  
,the milky or glassy quartz1 which is so
 hard that you cannot scratch it with   
the point of your knife1 the little     
grains of pale yellow iron pyrites1 and 
the grains and threads of gold scattered
 through the quartz1 were at one time in
 solution in water4 ,this water came    
from some region far down in the earth1 
farther than we can ever reach with the 
deepest shafts1 and there1 where it is  
very hot and the pressure is great1 the 
water dissolved the little particles of 
gold and other minerals from the rocks2 
and then1 gathering them up1 bore them  
along toward the surface1 depositing    
them as solid particles again in the    
form of veins in the fissures through   
which the stream was passing4           
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   

#ajj4--;,,hydraulic ,,mining ,,on ,,the 
,,klamath ,,river1 ,,california  ,as the
 rocks upon the surface decay and the   
crumbling material is carried away by   
running water1 the gold1 being very     
heavy1 washes down the hillsides and is 
at last gathered in the gulches4 ,this  
fact explains why we find gold both in  
veins and in the gravel of the streams4 
,getting gold from the veins is called  
quartz-mining4 ,washing it from the     
gravel is called placer-mining2 and if  
the gravel is deep and a powerful stream
 of water is required1 the work is      
called hydraulic mining4  ,illustration3
 ,,fig4 #aja4--,,may ,,rock1 ,a ,,vein  
,,of ,,quartz ,,on ,,the ,,mother ,,lode
  ,everyone has heard of the ,mother    
,lode of ,california4 ,every miner      
wishes that his mine were upon this     
famous lode1 which is made up of a large
 number of quartz veins extending along 
the western slope of the ,sierra ,nevada
 mountains1 and is marked by hundreds of
 important mines4 ,a line of towns marks

 the course of the ,mother ,lode for    
over a hundred miles4 ,they are almost  
entirely supported by the gold which the
 lode supplies4  ,the gold first        
discovered in ,california was placer    
gold4 ,after the miners had worked over 
the stream gravels and had secured all  
that they could in that way1 they began 
to search for the home of the gold4 ,it 
could not always have been in the creek 
beds1 and the miners were correct in    
thinking that it must have been washed  
from some other place4 ,gold was so     
frequently found in pieces of loose or  
float quartz that this fact finally     
turned their attention to the quartz    
veins which were numerous upon the      
mountain slopes4 ,then came the         
discovery of the series of great quartz 
veins now known as the ,mother ,lode4   
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajb4--;,,an      
,,arastra  ,when the miners first found 
the quartz flecked with gold1 they used 
the simplest means for separating the   
two substances4 ,if the quartz was very 

rich in gold1 it was pounded and ground 
fine in a hand mortar4 ,then the lighter
 quartz was washed away and the gold    
left4  ,the miners also made use of the 
,mexican arastra4 ,this is a very crude 
apparatus1 and is employed even now by  
miners who cannot afford to procure a   
stamp-mill4 ,to build an arastra1 a     
circular depression ten or twelve feet  
wide and a foot or more deep is made in 
the ground4 ,this depression is lined   
with stone1 which forms a hard bottom or
 floor4 ,four bars extend outward from  
an upright post placed in the middle of 
the floor1 and a large flat stone is    
fastened to the end of each bar by means
 of a rope4 ,a horse is hitched to one  
of the bars1 which is purposely left    
longer than the others4 ,the ore is     
thrown into the arastra1 and water is   
admitted1 a little at a time4 ,as the   
horse is driven around the stones are   
dragged over the circular depression1   
crushing the ore and setting free the   
gold4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4            

#ajc4--,,the ,,stamps ,,in ,a           
,,quartz-,,mill  ,this way of separating
 the gold was too slow1 and in a short  
time the stamp-mill was invented4 ,it   
has grown from a very simple affair into
 the great mill which crushes hundreds  
of tons of ore in a day4 ,the iron      
stamps each weigh nearly half a ton4    
,they are raised by powerful machinery  
and allowed to drop in succession upon  
the ore1 which is gradually fed under   
them4 ,the stamps crush the ore to a    
fine sand more easily and rapidly than  
could be done by any other method4      
,water is kept running over the ore1 and
 as fast as it is crushed sufficiently  
fine for the particles to pass through a
 wire screen1 the water with which they 
are mixed is allowed to flow over large 
plates of copper which have been coated 
with quicksilver4 ,the latter mineral   
has an attraction for gold1 and so      
catches and holds most of the particles1
 no matter how small they are4  ,the    
compound of gold and quicksilver is a   

soft white substance known as amalgam1  
utterly unlike either metal4 ,when the  
amalgam is subjected to heat1 the       
quicksilver is driven off in the form of
 a vapor1 and the gold is left pure4    
,the quicksilver vapor is condensed in a
 cool chamber and is used again4  ,the  
iron pyrites in the ore contains gold   
which cannot be separated by the        
crushing process and a machine called a 
concentrator has been invented to save  
this also4 ,after passing over the      
copper plates the crushed rock and      
pyrites are washed upon a broad1 flat   
surface1 which is moving in such a way  
that the lighter rock waste is carried  
away by the water4 ,the pyrites now     
appears as a dark1 heavy sand4 ,this    
sand is placed in a roasting furnace1   
where the sulphur is driven off1 and the
 gold and iron are left together4 ,now  
the gold is dissolved by means of       
chlorine gas1 with which it unites in a 
compound called gold chloride4 ,from    
this compound the metallic gold is      

easily separated4 ,all this may seem a  
complicated process1 but it is carried  
through so cheaply that the ore which   
contains only two or three dollars to   
the ton can be profitably worked4       
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajd4--,,mining   
,,the ,,gravel ,,of ,,an ,,old          
,,river-,,bed  ,not all quartz veins    
carry gold4 ,there are many in which not
 a single speck of the precious metal   
can be found4 ,gold usually prefers the 
society of quartz to that of other      
substances1 for minerals1 like people1  
seem to have their likes and dislikes4  
,along the ,mother ,lode1 however1 gold 
is sometimes found in little bunches and
 stringers scattered through slate4 ,in 
such cases the slate is mined and sent  
to the mill4  ,some miners devote       
themselves to pocket mining4 ,they trace
 the little seams in the rock1 and where
 two seams cross they sometimes find    
what they call a pocket4 ,this is a mass
 of nearly pure gold of irregular shape1
 varying from a few dollars to thousands

 of dollars in value4 ,this kind of     
mining is very uncertain in its results1
 for a man may make hundreds of dollars 
in one day1 and then not find anything  
more for months4  ,the western slope of 
the ,sierra ,nevada mountains was once  
covered with the camps of thousands of  
placer miners4 ,piles of boulders and   
gravel are scattered along the creeks   
where the eager workers took out        
millions of dollars' worth of gold-dust 
and nuggets4 ,now many of the streams   
and gulches are entirely deserted4 ,but 
in other places1 where the quartz veins 
outcrop1 there are scores of stamp-mills
 at work1 night and day1 pounding out   
the gold4 ,some of the mines have been  
sunk more than a half mile into the     
earth1 and the gold is still as abundant
 as ever4  ,in some portions of the     
mountains hydraulic mining is more      
common than quartz-mining4 ,years ago   
many of the rivers occupied different   
channels from their present ones4 ,the  
gravels of these old channels in the    

,sierra ,nevada mountains1 and in other 
parts of the ,west where gold-bearing   
veins occur1 are rich in gold4 ,in these
 channels the gold is so deeply buried  
that it cannot usually be obtained by   
means of pick and shovel4 ,in order that
 the overlying gravel may be removed as 
cheaply as possible1 water is supplied  
by means of ditches1 often many miles   
long4 ,from some near-by hill the stream
 is conducted down to the mine in strong
 iron pipes4 ,it thus acquires a great  
force1 and when directed against a      
gravel bank rapidly washes it away4     
,torrents of water bearing boulders1    
gravel1 and sand1 together with the     
particles of gold1 are turned into      
sluice boxes lined at the bottom with   
quick-silver4 ,this metal catches the   
gold and forms an amalgam as it does in 
the quartz-mills4     ,,copper-,,mining 
,there is a city hidden away in a narrow
 caon in the extreme southern portion of
 ,arizona which is supported solely by a
 copper-mine4 ,the caon lies upon the   

southern slope of a range of mountains1 
and from its mouth one can look far off 
to the south across the desert plains   
and mountains of ,mexico4 ,the city has 
an elevation of more than a mile above  
the sea1 and the caon in which it is    
situated is so narrow and steep-walled  
that you can almost jump down from one  
street upon the roofs of the houses     
along the street below4 ,stairways1     
instead of walks1 lead up the hillsides 
from the main street in the bottom of   
the caon4  ,you might well wonder at the
 position of the city1 and think that   
out of all the waste land in this region
 a better place might have been selected
 for its location4 ,but cities grow     
where people gather1 and people do not  
come to live in the desert unless there 
is important work to be done there4  ,a 
party of prospectors who were searching 
carefully over the mountains found      
several mineral veins with green copper 
stains crossing this caon and           
outcropping in the adjacent hills4      

,claims were staked out and recorded at 
the nearest land office4 ,then shafts   
and tunnels were opened1 and the miners 
became confident from the rich character
 of the ore that an important           
copper-mine might be developed4         
,supplies were brought across the desert
 with teams1 and cabins were built in   
the lonely caon4 ,then an enterprising  
man started a store4 ,as the mine was   
opened farther1 its importance was      
better understood4 ,there was a call for
 more miners and the town grew larger4  
,the houses clustered about the mine1   
the centre of all the activities4 ,at   
last a railroad was built1 and the town 
became a city1 with narrow1 winding     
streets occupying the winding caon1     
while tier upon tier of houses crept up 
the sides of the caon1 which formerly   
had been covered only by growths of     
cactus and other plants of the desert4  
,if the mine should close1 there would  
be no inducement to keep people in the  
locality1 and the city would become     

merely a group of deserted buildings4   
,water is so scarce that only a small   
amount is allowed to each family1 and it
 is delivered in barrels instead of by  
pipes4 ,provisions of all kinds are very
 expensive1 for they have to be brought 
a long distance4  ,the great mine       
supports the thousands of inhabitants4  
,the varied industries represented there
 are dependent upon it alone4 ,as long  
as it pays to mine the copper1 the      
people are as contented as if they were 
not tucked away in a caon in a remote   
corner of the world4  ,the most         
interesting things to be seen about the 
city are the mine and the smelter4 ,in  
the former the ore is obtained2 in the  
latter the ore goes through various     
processes until it comes out in the form
 of shining1 metallic copper4 ,the      
copper ore1 we must understand1 is not  
metallic or native copper1 as it is     
called when found pure1 but a           
combination of copper with other        
substances which change its appearance  

entirely4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4        
#aje4--;,,copper ,,smelter ,,and ,,city 
,,of ,,bisbee1 ,,arizona  ,the pipe     
leading up the hill carries away sulphur
 fumes from the smelter  ,the mine is   
opened by a shaft1 that is1 a square    
hole sunk in the ground4 ,the shaft of  
this mine is a thousand feet deep1 and  
is being continually extended downward4 
,if we wish to go down into the mine1 we
 must put on some old clothes and get   
the foreman to act as guide4 ,the cage  
in which we are to descend stands at the
 mouth of the shaft1 suspended by a     
steel rope4 ,it looks much like the     
elevators found in city buildings4 ,at  
different levels horizontal passages1   
called drifts1 extend to the right and  
left upon the vein of copper ore4 ,we   
step out of the car at one of these     
levels and with lighted candles start to
 walk through a portion of the mine4    
,there are so many miles of tunnels that
 it would take us days to go through    
them all4  ,overhead1 under our feet1   

and upon the sides of the drift1 lies   
the vein of copper are1 presenting a    
different appearance at different       
places4 ,the various ores sparkle in the
 light and we gather specimens of each4 
,the common are is chalcopyrite1 a      
copper sulphide2 that is1 it is composed
 of copper and sulphur4 ,it has a       
brass-yellow color1 but is often stained
 with beautiful iridescent tints4 ,in   
places the chalcopyrite has been changed
 to the delicate green carbonate of     
copper called malachite4 ,in other      
places it has given place to the oxide  
of copper4 ,the little crimson crystals 
of this mineral give bright metallic    
reflections4  ,the deposit of copper ore
 is apparently inexhaustible1 for in    
places the vein widens so that chambers 
one hundred feet wide and several       
hundred feet long and high have been    
made in taking it out4  ,in going       
through the mine we have to be very     
careful not to step into openings in the
 floor of the passages1 or drop rock    

fragments into them1 for far below      
miners may be working4 ,the places where
 the men are taking out the ore are     
called stopes1 and to reach them we have
 to crawl and creep through all sorts of
 winding passages1 now through a        
manhole1 and now down a long ladder     
which descends into black depths4  ,from
 the stopes the ore1 as it is blasted   
out1 is shovelled into chutes running   
down to some drift where there are men  
with cars4 ,each car holds about a ton  
of ore1 and after being filled it is    
pushed along the drift and upon a cage  
which raises it to the surface4         
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajf4--;,,homes   
,,of ,,miners1 ,,bisbee1 ,,arizona  ,the
 mine is not wet1 for there is so little
 rain in this region that there are few 
underground streams4 ,in places1        
however1 it is warm1 for when the oxygen
 of the air reaches the fresh sulphide  
it begins to oxidize the ore2 that is1  
it begins to burn it1 and change it into
 a different compound1 just as fire     

changes wood or coal4 ,wherever         
oxidation is going on1 heat is produced4
  ,fresh air is constantly needed in    
these workings far underground4 ,a      
supply is forced down in pipes1 and then
 allowed to flow back to the surface4   
,in this way a thorough circulation is  
kept up4  ,underground one loses all    
thought of the changes between night and
 day1 for it is always dark there4      
,consequently we are surprised on coming
 up from the mine to find that night has
 settled over the town4 ,lights are     
twinkling everywhere1 and miners with   
their pails of luncheon are coming for  
the night shift4  ,another interesting  
experience now awaits us in the form of 
a visit to the smelter4 ,here the bright
 copper is extracted from the           
rough-looking ores4 ,how different the  
two substances appear6 ,they look as if 
they had scarcely anything in common4   
,the interior of the smelter seems like 
a bit of the infernal regions set upon  
the earth4 ,while watching what goes on1

 we might imagine that we were far down 
in the earth1 where ,vulcan1 the fire   
god1 was at work4 ,at night the scene is
 particularly weird and impressive1 for 
the shadows and general indistinctness  
make everything appear strange4 ,the    
glowing furnaces1 the showers of sparks1
 the roar of the blast furnaces1 the    
suffocating fumes of sulphur1 and the   
half-naked figures of the ,mexican      
workmen1 passing to and fro with cloths 
over their mouths1 form all together a  
bewildering scene4  ,the ore is first   
pulverized1 and then placed in large    
revolving cylinders1 where it is        
roasted4 ,a fire is started in the      
cylinder at first1 but after the ore    
becomes so much heated that the sulphur 
in it begins to burn1 no further        
artificial aid is necessary4 ,little by 
little the ore is added in quantities   
sufficient to keep the fire going4 ,the 
object of the roasting is to drive off  
as much sulphur as possible4  ,after    
being raked from the roasting furnace1  

the ore is wheeled in barrows to the    
huge upright furnaces and is thrown in4 
,here such materials as limestone and   
iron are also added to aid in the       
formation of a perfectly fused or molten
 mass4 ,these substances are known as   
fluxes4 ,with the melting of the ore the
 copper begins to separate from the     
impurities4  ,the melted ore1 in the    
form of a glowing liquid1 gathers at the
 bottom of the furnace and runs out into
 a large kettle-like receptacle4 ,when  
ore of these vessels is full it is      
tipped up and the molten copper which   
has collected at the bottom1 because it 
is heavier than the slag1 is allowed to 
run into another large kettle1 supported
 by chains from a rolling truck above4  
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajg4--,,shipping 
,,copper ,,matte  ,the slag is dumped   
into a car and is carried outside1 while
 the huge dish containing the copper and
 some slag is swung to the opposite side
 of the building1 where its contents are
 cast into another furnace4 ,a very     

strong blast of air is forced up through
 the molten mass in this furnace1 and   
the remaining portion of slag is blown  
out at the top in a shower of glowing   
particles4  ,from the bottom of the     
furnace the liquid copper is drawn out  
and allowed to run into moulds where it 
finally cools4 ,it is then known as     
copper matte4 ,the copper still contains
 some impurities1 and retains in        
addition whatever gold and silver may   
have been present in the ore4 ,most     
copper ores carry a small amount of     
these precious metals4  ,the heavy bars 
of copper matte are now ready for       
shipment to some manufacturing point1   
where they are refined still further and
 made into the various copper utensils1 
copper wire1 etc4 ,copper is valuable   
for many purposes1 as it does not rust  
easily1 is highly malleable and ductile1
 and is a good conductor of electricity4
  ,in the great copper-mines upon ,lake 
,superior1 copper is found in the native
 state mixed with the rock1 and does not

 have to be smelted2 but in most mines  
the ore must go through a process very  
like the one described before metallic  
copper can be obtained4  ,it does not   
matter how remote a region may be1 how  
intense the heat or cold1 or how        
desert-like the surrounding country1 men
 will go to it if minerals of value are 
discovered2 and there they will perhaps 
spend the whole of their lives1 mining  
these substances which are of such      
importance to the industries of the     
world4     ,,coal ,,and ,,petroleum     
,people are beginning to ask where fuel 
will be obtained when the coal-beds are 
exhausted and the petroleum is all      
pumped out of the earth4 ,the cold      
winters will not cease to come          
regularly1 and we shall continue to need
 fires for many purposes4 ,this is a    
question which need not trouble us4 ,so 
long as the sun lasts in the sky and the
 oceans cover so much of the earth1 and 
so long as there are mountains upon the 
land1 there must be streams with rapids 

and waterfalls4 ,the power of these     
streams1 which has for ages gone to     
waste1 is now being turned into         
electricity for purposes of light and   
heat4 ,we may be sure that long before  
the mines cease to produce coal and the 
wells to supply petroleum1 there will be
 something better ready to take their   
places4  ,but coal and petroleum are    
still such important commodities that   
everyone should know something about the
 way in which they were made4 ,this     
earth of ours has had a very long       
history1 much of which has been recorded
 in the rocks beneath our feet1 and the 
record is more accurate than are many   
human histories which have been         
preserved in the printed books4  ,the   
story of the earth has been divided into
 different periods1 each marked by the  
predominance of certain kinds of living 
things4 ,the ,carboniferous period has  
been so named because at that time the  
climate and features of the earth in    
many places favored the growth of dense 

and heavy vegetation4 ,this vegetation  
accumulated through the long years1 so  
that it formed thick deposits which     
gradually changed to beds of coal4 ,it  
would be wrong1 however1 to think that  
all the beds of coal were formed at     
about the same time4 ,ever since there  
have been forests and marshes upon the  
earth there have been opportunities for 
the forming of coal-beds4 ,materials are
 accumulating even now which will in    
time be transformed to beds of coal4    
,we must be equally careful to gain     
correct ideas of the making of          
petroleum1 for many wrong notions are   
current4 ,while coal has come from the  
accumulation of plant remains1 petroleum
 has been derived from sea organisms1   
chiefly animals4 ,if coal and petroleum 
are found near each other1 the          
occurrence is accidental and does not   
mean that the two substances are in any 
way related4  ,our earth is very old1   
and its surface has gone through many   
transformations2 mountains1 plains1 and 

portions of the sea floor have changed  
places with one another4 ,wherever there
 have been marshy lowlands1 since plants
 first began to grow luxuriantly upon   
the earth1 it has been possible for beds
 of coal to be formed4 ,we all know how 
rankly plants grow where there is plenty
 of heat and moisture4 ,many of us have 
been in swampy forests and have seen the
 masses of rotting tree trunks1 limbs1  
and leaves4 ,now1 if we should form a   
picture in our minds of such a swamp    
slowly sinking until the water of some  
lake or ocean had flowed over it and    
killed the plants1 and then washed sand 
and clay upon the buried forest until it
 was covered deeply in the earth1 we    
should understand how the coal-beds     
began4 ,veins of coal that have been    
opened by the miners frequently show    
trunks and stumps of trees1 as well as  
impressions of leaves and ferns4        
,underneath the coal there is usually a 
bed of clay1 while above sand or        
sandstone is commonly found4  ,the      

oldest coal has been changed the most4  
,it is hard and rather difficult to     
ignite1 but when once on fire it gives  
more heat and burns longer than other   
coals4 ,this coal1 known as anthracite1 
is not found extensively in the ,united 
,states outside of ,pennsylvania4 ,coal 
which is younger and has been less      
changed by the heat and pressure brought
 to bear upon it when it was buried deep
 in the earth1 is known as bituminous4  
,this is the kind of coal which is found
 in the ,mississippi and ,ohio valleys1 
in the ,rocky ,mountains1 and upon the  
,pacific slope4 ,a still younger coal1  
which is soft and has a brownish color1 
is called lignite1 and is found mostly  
in the ,south and ,west4  ,still another
 sort of fuel1 known as peat1 is found  
in swamps where considerable vegetation 
is now accumulating1 or has accumulated 
in recent times4 ,peat is a mass of     
plant stems1 roots1 and moss1 partly    
decayed and pressed together4 ,in       
countries where wood is scarce peat is  

cut out1 dried1 and used for fuel4  ,the
 larger part of the coal in the eastern 
,united ,states was formed during the   
,carboniferous period4 ,that part of our
 country was then low and swampy2 but   
the ,west1 which is now an elevated area
 of mountains and plateaus1 was at that 
time largely beneath the ocean4  ,then1 
as the surface of the earth continued to
 change1 the ocean retreated from the   
,rocky ,mountain region1 and extensive  
marshy lowlands with lakes of fresh or  
brackish water came into existence4     
,there were such marshes in the areas   
that are now covered by ,new ,mexico1   
,colorado1 ,wyoming1 ,dakota1 and       
,montana4 ,westward for some distance   
the land was higher1 but in the states  
of ,washington1 ,oregon1 and ,california
 there were other marshy lowlands       
covered with heavy vegetation4  ,we know
 from what we have seen of the manner in
 which wood decays1 that in the dry1    
open air it does not accumulate1 but is 
in great part carried away by the wind4 

,it is only in swamps and shallow bodies
 of water that the decaying wood can    
gather in beds4 ,from these facts we    
have a right to draw conclusions as to  
the former nature of the surface where  
there are no coal-beds4 ,there are      
extensive beds of limestone in the      
western ,united ,states which are of the
 same age as the coal-beds in the east4 
,as such beds of limestone could have   
formed only in the ocean1 their presence
 throws a good deal of light upon the   
geography of those distant times4  ,upon
 the ,pacific slope the marshes were not
 so extensive1 nor did they last for so 
long a period1 as those in the ,east4   
,nature seems to have confined her      
strongest efforts at coal-making to the 
country east of the ,rocky ,mountains4  
,perhaps she thought that the people of 
the ,west would not need coal if she    
gave them plenty of gold and silver4    
,in the ,appalachian mountains ,nature  
folded the strata and left them in such 
a position that the coal could be mined 

easily4 ,in the ,mississippi ,valley the
 beds were left flat1 almost in their   
original position1 so that shafts had to
 be sunk to reach the coal4 ,upon the   
,pacific slope ,nature seems to have had
 a large amount of trouble in arranging 
things satisfactorily4 ,she has made and
 remade the mountains so many times1 and
 folded and broken the crust of the     
earth so severely where the swamps      
stood1 that now large portions of the   
coal beds which once existed have       
crumbled and been washed away by the    
streams4 ,the scanty supply of coal     
which now remains is in most places hard
 to find and difficult to mine4         
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajh4--,,seams    
,,of ,,coal ,,enclosed ,,in ,,sandstone1
 ,,california  ,the best coal mined near
 the ,pacific comes from ,vancouver     
,island4 ,large beds of a younger and   
poorer coal are found southeast of      
,puget ,sound4 ,there are other beds in 
the ,coast ranges of western ,oregon1   
and a few small ones in the ,coast      

ranges of ,california4 ,the great       
interior region between the ,rocky      
,mountains and the ,coast ranges has    
very little coal4 ,the people of        
,california have to import large        
quantities of coal4 ,some is brought by 
the railroads from the ,rocky ,mountain 
region1 but the most comes by ships from
 various parts of the world1 from       
,england1 ,australia1 or ,british       
,columbia4 ,the ships bring the coal at 
low rates and take away grain and       
lumber4  ,coal is almost the only       
important mineral which ,nature has     
bestowed sparingly upon the ,pacific    
slope4 ,in ,california1 however1 she has
 made amends by storing up large        
quantities of petroleum4 ,in            
,pennsylvania and ,ohio there is        
petroleum as well as coal4 ,oil has also
 been discovered in the ,rocky ,mountain
 region and in ,texas4  ,illustration3  
,,fig4 #aji4--;,a ,,spring ,,of ,,water 
,,and ,,petroleum  ,the black streak is 
petroleum  ,petroleum is found flowing  

from the rocks in the form of springs1  
either by itself or associated with     
gases and strong-smelling mineral water4
 ,the oil is usually obtained by boring 
wells1 but in southern ,california there
 is one mountain range which furnishes  
large quantities through tunnels which  
have been run into its side4 ,petroleum 
is commonly found in porous sandstones  
or shales1 from one or two hundred to   
three thousand feet below the surface4  
,it was not made in these rocks1 but has
 soaked into them just as water soaks   
into a brick4 ,the rocks which produced 
the oil or petroleum are dark1          
strong-smelling shales or limestone4    
,heat a piece of such rock1 and you will
 drive out a little oil4  ,illustration3
 ,,fig4 #aaj4--,,oil ,,wells ,,in ,,the 
,,city ,,of ,,los ,,angeles1            
,,california  ,pool of oil in foreground
  ,examine a piece of the shale from one
 of the oil districts of ,california1   
and you will discover that it is a very 
peculiar rock1 for it is made up almost 

wholly of minute organisms which once   
inhabited the ocean4 ,among the forms   
which you will find are the silicious   
skeletons of diatoms1 the calcareous    
skeletons of foraminifera1 scales of    
fish1 and1 rarely1 the whole skeleton of
 a fish4  ,where now there are mountains
 and valleys dotted with oil derricks1  
there was once the water of the open    
ocean4 ,this water was filled1 as the   
water of the ocean is to-day1 with an   
infinite number of living things4 ,as   
these creatures died1 their bodies sank 
to the bottom1 and while the soft parts 
dissolved1 the hard parts or skeletons  
remained4 ,through perhaps hundreds of  
thousands of years1 the skeletons       
continued to accumulate until beds were 
formed hundreds or even thousands of    
feet in thickness4 ,the materials of the
 beds1 at first a soft mass like the    
ooze which the dredger brings up from   
the bottom of the present ocean1 became 
packed together in a solid mass4  ,then 
disturbances affected this old sea      

bottom4 ,it was raised1 and gravel1     
clay1 and sand from some new shore were 
washed over the bed of animal remains1  
burying it deeply4 ,continued movements 
of the earth finally folded these rocks1
 which1 as they were1 squeezed and      
broken1 became warm4 ,the heat and      
pressure started chemical action in the 
decayed animal bodies1 and particles of 
organic matter were driven off in the   
form of oil and gas4 ,these substances  
were forced here and there through the  
fissures in the rocks4 ,part of the     
products found a way to the surface and 
formed springs1 while other portions    
collected to form vast reservoirs in    
such porous rocks as sandstone4 ,the    
sulphur and mineral springs which occur 
in oil regions tell us that this work of
 oil-making is still going on4  ,the oil
 as it comes from the ground is usually 
brownish or greenish in color1 and much 
thicker than the refined product which  
we use in our lamps4 ,some of the crude 
petroleum is thick and tar-like in      

appearance1 and when long exposed to the
 air turns to a solid black mass called 
asphaltum4 ,this1 when softened by heat 
and mixed with sand1 makes a valuable   
material for street pavement4     ,,the 
,,climate ,,of ,,the ,,pacific ,,slope  
,the western portion of the ,united     
,states exhibits very interesting       
climatic features4 ,in ,california1 for 
example1 there may be found every degree
 of temperature between tropic heat and 
arctic cold4 ,in the deserts of the     
southeastern portion of the state the   
air is extremely dry1 while in the      
northwest it rains nearly every month in
 the year4  ,upon the borders of ,puget 
,sound the thermometer seldom falls     
below the freezing-point1 while southern
 ,newfoundland1 in the same latitude1 is
 marked by cold and snowy weather for at
 least six months of every year4        
,southern ,california has the same      
latitude as central ,georgia1 but its   
average temperature near the coast is   
but little higher than that of ,puget   

,sound1 while it is warmer in winter and
 cooler in summer than ,georgia4 ,the   
deserts of southern ,california and     
,arizona are so hot that for four months
 of the year work in the sun is almost  
impossible2 yet the higher portions of  
the ,sierra ,nevada mountains1 but a    
short distance away1 have an arctic     
climate4 ,the whole ,pacific coast      
region has1 with the exception of the   
mountains1 a much milder climate than   
one would expect from a mere knowledge  
of its latitude4 ,it will be instructive
 to search out the reasons for the      
remarkable contrasts in climate         
presented by different portions of the  
slope4  ,the imaginary lines passing    
through points of equal temperature upon
 the earth are called isotherms4 ,these 
lines rarely accord in direction with   
the parallels of latitude1 but curve far
 to the north or south4 ,the irregular  
course of the isotherms is due to many  
causes4 ,among these are the            
distribution of the land and water1 the 

direction of the prevailing wind1 the   
position of the mountain ranges1 and the
 elevation above sea-level4             
,illustration3 ,,weather ,,maps  ,fair  
weather over central portion of ,pacific
 slope4 ,storm coming in upon coast of  
,washington  ,stormy weather over the   
western half of the ,united ,states  ,in
 winter the isotherms curve far to the  
north over the ,north ,pacific and      
,north ,atlantic oceans2 but over the   
intervening land they curve as much to  
the south4 ,in summer the isotherms are 
almost reversed in position1 at least as
 far as the land is concerned1 for they 
bend to the north in the heart of the   
continent4 ,there are important reasons 
for the slight variation of the         
isothermal lines upon the western       
borders of ,north ,america and ,europe1 
and their great change of position in   
the interior from winter to summer1 but 
these reasons are not at all difficult  
to understand4  ,the temperature of     
large bodies of water changes but little

 throughout the year1 for water warms   
and cools slowly4 ,the surface of the   
land1 on the contrary1 heats rapidly1   
and then as quickly loses its heat with 
the changing season4 ,the air over the  
ocean is cooler in summer and warmer in 
winter because of the influence of the  
water1 but over the land1 in districts  
far from a large body of water1 the     
changes in temperature between day and  
night1 summer and winter1 are very      
great4  ,it was formerly thought that   
the warm ,japan current1 which flows    
against the western shore of ,north     
,america1 was responsible for the       
exceptionally mild climate there1 and   
that the ,gulf ,stream produced a       
similar climate upon the coast of       
western ,europe4 ,more careful study1   
however1 has shown that not the warm    
ocean currents1 but rather the winds    
blowing from the water1 are the cause of
 the mild climate in those lands across 
which they blow4 ,in temperate latitudes
 there is a slow movement of the air in 

an easterly direction1 and in           
consequence the climate of the western  
coast of ,north ,america is not marked  
by such extremes in winter and summer as
 are the interior and the eastern       
sections4 ,it is also surprising to find
 how nearly alike the average winter and
 summer temperature is at ,san          
,francisco4 ,it is also surprising to   
note that the average temperature of    
,seattle differs so little from that of 
,san ,diego1 although these two places  
are separated by sixteen degrees of     
latitude4  ,in some places the climatic 
conditions which we should naturally    
expect seem to be reversed4 ,oranges are
 grown in the ,great ,valley of         
,california as far north as ,red ,bluff1
 and actually ripen a month sooner than 
they do near ,los ,angeles1 five hundred
 miles farther south4 ,the early        
ripening of fruits in the ,great ,valley
 may be explained by the presence of the
 inclosing mountain ranges3 the ,sierra 
,nevada mountains upon the northeast    

shut off the cold winds of winter1 while
 the ,coast ranges upon the west break  
the cool summer winds which come from   
off the ,pacific4  ,another interesting 
fact connected with the climate of the  
,west is the influence exerted by the   
direction of the mountain ranges4 ,as   
these ranges usually lie across the path
 of the prevailing winds1 their         
tempering influence is lost much more   
quickly than it otherwise would be4     
,west of the ,coast ranges the summers  
are cool and the winters are warm4 ,upon
 the eastern side of these mountains the
 winters are somewhat cooler and the    
summers very much warmer4 ,in the dry1  
clear air of the desert valleys1 far    
from the ocean1 the daily range in      
temperature is sometimes as great as    
fifty degrees1 while the winters are    
cool and the summers unbearably hot4    
,we all know how much cooler a hill-top 
is than a valley upon a summer day4     
,where the mountains rise abruptly to a 
great height1 as1 for example1 does the 

,san ,bernardino ,range of southern     
,california1 one can stand among stunted
 plants of an arctic climate and look   
down upon orange orchards where frost   
rarely forms4 ,mount ,tamalpais1 a peak 
of the ,coast ,range north of ,san      
,francisco1 has an elevation of nearly  
three thousand feet4 ,the summer        
temperature upon this mountain forms an 
exception to the general rule1 for while
 the lowlands are buried in chilling    
fog1 the air upon the summit is warm and
 pleasant4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4       
#aaa4--,,orange ,,orchards ,,close      
,,under ,,snow-,,capped ,,peaks         
,highlands1 ,california  ,the north and 
south mountain ranges not only make the 
interior hotter than it would otherwise 
be1 but rob it of much of the moisture  
which it should receive4 ,the winter    
storms coming in from the ocean find the
 cool mountains lying across their path 
and quickly part with a large proportion
 of their moisture4 ,where the coast    
mountains are low1 as is the case with a

 great part of ,california and of       
,oregon1 more of the moisture passes on 
to the next line of mountains1 the      
,sierra ,nevada-,cascade ,range1 the    
western slope of which is well watered4 
,in the region of the ,columbia the     
,cascade ,range is also low1 and the    
storms1 which often follow one another  
in quick succession1 sweep across the   
,columbia plateau and over the ,rocky   
,mountains4 ,farther south1 not only are
 the storms fewer in number1 but the    
mountains are very much higher1 so that 
the desert basins of the lower ,colorado
 and ,death ,valley region are extremely
 dry4 ,one can in imagination stand upon
 the summit of the ,sierra ,nevada      
mountains1 and upon the one hand look   
down upon barren valleys of vast extent1
 broken by mountains almost as barren1  
where nothing can be grown except by    
means of irrigation2 and upon the other 
side1 toward the coast1 see a country   
plentifully visited by rain1 and either 
covered with forests or given over to   

farming and fruit-raising4  ,the ,rocky 
,mountains form the eastern barrier     
which the storms encounter4 ,their      
summits are very high and are covered   
with deep snow during the winter4 ,east 
of these mountains lie the ,great       
,plains1 where the precipitation is     
light until we go far enough toward the 
,mississippi ,valley to reach the       
influence of the moist air currents from
 the ,gulf of ,mexico4 ,many storms     
originate over the region of the ,gulf  
of ,california1 particularly in the late
 summer1 and supplement to some extent  
the light winter storms of ,arizona and 
,new ,mexico4  ,the storms of which we  
have been speaking are known as         
cyclones4 ,this term does not refer to  
the local storms which occur in the     
,mississippi ,valley and are frequently 
so destructive1 but to great            
disturbances of the air4 ,sometimes the 
column of whirling air is more than a   
thousand miles in diameter4 ,the air in 
a cyclone is circling and at the same   

time rising1 so that the motion is      
spiral4 ,if you will study an eddy in a 
stream of water1 you will get an idea of
 the nature of the motion1 except that  
in the case of the water eddy the       
movement is downward4 ,the motion of the
 particles in the dust-whirls which all 
have seen moving across the fields near 
noon on warm summer days illustrate the 
movement of the air in one of these     
great storms4 ,the direction of the air 
in a cyclone is opposite to that of the 
hands of a clock4  ,when the wind comes 
up from a southerly point1 when high1   
thin clouds1 gradually growing thicken1 
spread over the sky1 and the barometer  
begins to fall1 then it is known that a 
storm is corning4 ,if one will learn to 
watch the clouds and the winds carefully
 he may become able to predict a storm  
with almost as much certainty as if he  
had a barometer4 ,this instrument       
registers the pressure of the air1 which
 is always less within the area of a    
storm1 because then the air is rising4  

,so when the barometer falls we may     
always know that a storm is approaching4
  ,the greater number of the storms     
which occur in the central and northern 
,united ,states come in from the        
,pacific ,ocean in the latitude of      
,washington4 ,continuing east or        
southeast they reach the ,mississippi   
,valley1 and then turn northeastward    
toward the ,st4 ,lawrence ,valley4 ,in  
the summer months there are few storms1 
and they very rarely reach as far south 
as ,california4 ,as winter approaches   
the storms become more frequent and     
severe1 and move farther and farther    
south until the whole land as far as    
,mexico receives a wetting4  ,upon the  
,pacific coast there is often very      
little warning of the coming of a storm1
 but in the ,middle and ,eastern ,states
 they may frequently be predicted       
several days in advance4 ,with the      
passing of one of these storms the      
temperature falls rapidly1 and this     
lowering of temperature1 together with  

the fierce wind1 gives rise upon the    
,great ,plains to blizzards or northers4
 ,these storms endanger the lives of    
both men and animals4  ,at different    
times in the year1 particularly in      
winter1 spring1 and early summer1 warm1 
dry winds occur4 ,those winds which     
sweep down from the heights of the      
,rocky ,mountains and quickly melt the  
snows are known as chinooks4 ,the hot   
north and east winds of ,california     
often do great damage to growing crops4 
,now let us sum up briefly the factors  
which have together produced the        
climatic features of the ,pacific slope4
  7#a7 ,ordinarily the factor of the    
greatest importance is latitude4 ,we    
should expect that ,seattle would have a
 much colder climate than ,san ,diego   
because it receives the sun's rays more 
slantingly4  7#b7 ,the influence of     
latitude is greatly modified by the     
temperate winds blowing from the        
,pacific1 so that places far separated  
in latitude differ but little in average

 temperature1 their summers being cooler
 and their winters warmer than we should
 expect them to be4  7#c7 ,the storms   
pass over the land with the general     
easterly movement of the air4 ,the      
largest number pass east across the     
northern portion of the ,united ,states4
 ,the farther south we go the fewer are 
the storms and the less the rainfall4   
,along the coast of ,washington the     
annual rainfall is nearly one hundred   
inches4 ,at ,san ,diego it is only about
 ten inches4  7#d7 ,the position of the 
mountain ranges causes the influence of 
the ocean on the air to be lost within a
 short distance toward the interior of  
the continent1 so that the extremes of  
temperature rapidly become greater4 ,the
 position of the mountains also affects 
the rainfall of the interior4 ,since a  
large proportion of the moisture is     
condensed upon their ocean slopes1 the  
climate of each succeeding range toward 
the interior becomes more dry and       
desert-like4 ,while in some of the      

lowlands thus cut off from the ocean the
 climate is extremely arid1 yet the     
country is relieved from utter          
barrenness through the presence of      
mountain peaks and ranges1 which often  
condense considerable moisture4         
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aab4--,,scene    
,,in ,,forests ,,of ,,washington        
,showing spruce and cedar  7#e7 ,the    
higher a region is above the sea1 the   
colder the climate4 ,the summit of a    
high mountain and the valley at its base
 may be in the same latitude1 and yet   
one may possess an arctic climate while 
the other has a sub-tropical one4  ,the 
heavy rainfall in western ,washington1  
,oregon1 and northern ,california       
results in dense forests4 ,to the south1
 the rainfall upon the lowlands is not  
sufficient to produce forests1 but as it
 is greater upon the mountains1 trees   
thrive upon their sides4 ,the elevation 
at which trees will grow becomes higher 
and higher as we go into the more desert
 regions1 until in northern ,arizona it 

is found to be above six thousand feet4 
,the high plateaus are generally        
treeless1 but are covered with such     
shrubs as greasewood and sage-brush4    
,we see now that our climate is the     
product of many factors4 ,it frequently 
varies greatly in places only a few     
miles distant from each other4          
,consequently there may be a great      
variety of productions and industries in
 one small area1 while in other regions 
the climate and productions are almost  
unchanged for hundreds of miles4        
,,something ,,about ,,irrigation        
,travellers from the ,eastern ,states   
who visit ,new ,mexico for the first    
time are attracted by many unusual      
sights4 ,there are the interesting      
little donkeys1 the low adobe houses of 
the native ,mexicans1 and the water     
ditches winding through the gardens and 
fields1 which are divided into squares  
by low ridges of earth4  ,if the fields 
are seen in the winter time1 when dry   
and barren1 the meaning of their        

checkered appearance is not at first    
clear1 but in the spring and summer one 
is not long in finding out all about    
them4 ,when the time comes to sow the   
seed1 water is turned into these squares
 from the ditches which traverse the    
valleys1 and one square at a time is    
filled until the ground in each is      
thoroughly soaked4 ,afterward1 when the 
ground has dried enough to be easily    
worked1 the crop is put in4 ,the seeds  
soon sprout under the influence of the  
warm sun1 and the land becomes green    
with growing plants4 ,the same method of
 moistening the ground is used for the  
orchards and vineyards4  ,what is the   
use of all this work8 ,why not wait for 
the rains to come and wet the earth1 as 
the farmer does in the eastern ,united  
,states8 ,the ,mexicans1 who have tilled
 these valleys for more than two hundred
 years1 ought certainly to have learned 
in all that time how to get the best    
returns4 ,you may be sure that they     
would not water the ground in this way  

if it were not necessary4 ,the fact is  
that over a large portion of the western
 half of the ,united ,states it does not
 rain enough to enable the farmer to    
grow his crops4 ,the climate is         
generally very different from that of   
the ,middle and ,eastern ,states4  ,when
 the ,mexicans moved northward into the 
valley of the ,rio ,grande ,river1 into 
,arizona and ,california1 they found a  
climate similar in many respects to that
 at home1 and soon learned that it was  
necessary to water the land artificially
 in order to make it productive4 ,though
 in many places sufficient rain fell1   
yet the heaviest rainfall came in the   
late summer or winter1 when the plants  
needed it less1 while the spring and    
summer were long and dry4 ,the ,mexicans
 were not the first to practise watering
 the land1 if we may judge from the     
ruins of ancient ditches constructed by 
the primitive ,indian inhabitants4 ,it  
is evident that they too made use of    
water in this manner for the growing of 

their corn and squashes4  ,this turning 
of water upon the land to make it       
productive is termed irrigation4 ,the   
work is performed in different ways1 as 
we shall see later4 ,irrigation is now  
carried on through all portions of the  
,united ,states where the rainfall is   
light and streams of water are          
available4  ,to one who has lived in a  
country where there is plenty of rain1  
it seems to involve a great deal of work
 to prepare the land and to conduct     
water to it4 ,one may feel pity for the 
farmer who has to support himself in    
this manner in so barren a country4 ,i  
am sure1 however1 that if any such      
person will stop to think1 he will      
remember times when in his own fertile  
home the expected rain did not come1 and
 the vegetation wilted and dried up4 ,he
 may have become discouraged because of 
a number of dry years1 but probably     
never thought that he had the means at  
hand to make up1 at least in part1 for  
the shortcomings of ,nature1 in sending 

too much rain one year1 and another year
 too little4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4     
#aac4--,,water-,,wheel ,,for ,,lifting  
,,water ,,for ,,irrigation1 ,,virgin    
,,river1 ,,southern ,,utah  ,it would   
doubtless have paid such a farmer many  
fold to have been prepared at the coming
 of a dry year to turn the water from a 
neighboring stream over his lands4 ,this
 process would have involved a good deal
 of labor2 but how the plants would have
 rejoiced1 and how abundantly they would
 have repaid him for the extra trouble6 
,the showers come without regard to the 
time when growing things need them most1
 but with irrigation the crops are      
independent of the weather4 ,the farmer 
may be sure that1 if he prepares the    
ground properly and sows the seed1 the  
returns will be all that he can wish4   
,in many localities several crops may be
 raised in a year by this method where  
otherwise only one would grow4  ,now let
 us see how the water is taken from the 
streams and what are the different      

methods employed to distribute it over  
the land4 ,almost every valley is       
traversed by a stream1 great or small4  
,it may be a river1 with a large volume 
of water1 or a creek which completely   
dries up during the long1 rainless      
summers of the ,west4  ,illustration3   
,,fig4 #aad4--;,,garden ,,irrigation1   
,,las ,,cruces1 ,,new ,,mexico  ,in rare
 cases the stream may flow upon a       
built-up channel which is as high as the
 valley1 but usually it is sunken below 
the level of the floor of the valley1   
and enclosed by banks of greater or less
 height4 ,how is the water to be sent   
over the land8 ,where the current is    
swift you may sometimes see a slowly    
turning water-wheel1 having at the ends 
of the spokes little cups1 which dip up 
the water as the wheel revolves and pour
 it into a flume that runs back over the
 land4 ,at some places engines are used 
to pump the water from the stream and   
lift it to the desired height4          
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   

#aae4--;,,irrigating ,,an ,,alfalfa     
,,field1 ,,arizona  ,generally1 however1
 another method is employed3 the water  
is taken out of the stream in an        
artificial channel dug in the earth4    
,but in order to get the water at a     
sufficient height to make it flow over  
the fields1 it is necessary to start a  
ditch or canal at a favorable point some
 distance up the stream1 perhaps miles  
from the garden4  ,the ditch is made    
with a slope just sufficient for the    
water to flow4 ,the slope must be less  
than that of the river from which the   
water is taken1 so as to carry the      
stream1 at last1 high enough to cover   
the lands to be irrigated4  ,visit      
almost any valley in the ,west where    
agriculture or fruit-growing is being   
carried on1 and you will at once notice 
the lines of the ditches1 apparently    
level1 as they wind around the          
hillsides4 ,at convenient distances     
there are gates to let out the water for
 the orchards and fields4  ,the ground  

may be moistened in different ways4 ,the
 first method is that employed by the   
,mexicans1 who1 if we except the ,cliff 
,dwellers1 were the first to introduce  
irrigation into our country4 ,this      
consists in dividing the land into      
squares by embankments and allowing the 
water to flood each in succession4 ,the 
method is known as irrigation by checks1
 and can be used conveniently only upon 
nearly level land4  ,in many orchards a 
series of shallow furrows is ploughed   
between the rows of trees1 and the water
 is allowed to flow down these until the
 soil is thoroughly soaked4 ,in alfalfa 
fields the water is often turned upon   
the upper end and permitted to work its 
way across until it reaches the lower   
edge1 soaking the ground as it goes4    
,the slopes must in every case be so    
gentle that the current will not be     
strong enough to carry away the soil4   
,once in every two to four weeks        
throughout the spring and summer1 the   
exact period depending upon the rapidity

 with which the ground dries1 the       
wetting is repeated4 ,if the soil is    
light the water must be turned on more  
often and a larger supply is required4  
,it frequently happens that the stream  
from which the water is taken so nearly 
dries up in the summer1 when the water  
is most needed1 that the cultivated     
lands suffer severely4 ,during the      
winter little if any irrigation is      
necessary1 but at that time the streams 
are so full that they frequently run    
over their banks and do great damage4   
,how to preserve the water thus going to
 waste and have it at hand for summer   
use has been an important problem in    
regions where every particle of water is
 valuable4 ,study of the question has   
led to the examination of the streams   
with reference to the building of       
reservoirs to hold back the flood       
waters4 ,a reservoir may be formed of a 
natural lake in the mountains in which  
the stream rises1 by placing a dam      
across its outlet and so making it hold 

more water4 ,if this cannot be done1 a  
narrow place in the caon of the stream  
is selected1 above which there is a     
broad valley4 ,at such a place the dam  
which is built across the caon is held  
firmly in place by the walls of rock    
upon each side1 and an artificial lake  
or reservoir is made4 ,ditches lead away
 from this reservoir1 and by means of   
gates the water is supplied when and    
where it is needed4  ,illustration3     
,,fig4 #aaf4--,,sweetwater ,,reservoir1 
,,near ,,san ,,diego1 ,,california  ,the
 streams which furnish the water for    
irrigation in the arid region rise in   
mountains with steep rocky slopes1 and  
until the water issues from these       
mountains it is confined to caons with  
bottoms of solid rock1 so that no water 
is lost except by evaporation4  ,after  
the streams emerge from the caons upon  
the long1 gentle slopes of gravel and   
soil which lie all about the bases of   
the mountains1 they begin immediately to
 sink into the porous material4 ,they   

frequently disappear entirely before    
they have flowed many miles4 ,some of   
this water can be brought to the surface
 again by digging wells and constructing
 pumping plants1 but the greater part is
 lost to the thirsty land4  ,to prevent 
the water from sinking into the gravel1 
ditches lined with cement are often made
 to carry it from the caons to the      
points where it is needed4 ,sometimes   
iron pipes or wooden flumes are used in 
place of the ditches4  ,what a          
transformation irrigation makes in the  
dry and desert-like valleys of the      
,west6 ,land which under ,nature's      
treatment supports only a scanty growth 
of sagebrush or greasewood1 and over    
which a few half-starved cattle have    
roamed1 becomes1 when irrigated1 covered
 with green fields and neat homes1 while
 sleek1 well-fed herds graze upon the   
rich alfalfa4 ,ten acres of irrigated   
land will in many places support a      
family1 where without irrigation a      
square mile would not have sufficed4    

,one might suppose that the soil of     
these naturally barren valleys was poor1
 but such is not the case4 ,the ground  
did not lack plant food1 but merely the 
water to make this food available4 ,with
 plenty of water the most luxuriant     
vegetation is produced4 ,the soil is1   
indeed1 frequently richer than in       
well-watered regions1 for a lavish      
supply of water carries away a portion  
of the plant food4  ,in some places1    
where the land is almost level and the  
soil is filled with large quantities of 
soluble materials1 such as soda and     
salt1 keeping the ground moist through  
irrigation brings these substances to   
the surface in such quantities as to    
injure and sometimes kill the           
vegetation4 ,in order that such lands   
may be successfully cultivated1 the     
salts have to be either neutralized or  
washed away4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4     
#aag4--;,,irrigating ,,ditch1 ,,near    
,,phoenix1 ,,arizona  ,many of the      
rivers of the ,west carry large         

quantities of silt in suspension1 which 
fills the ditches and causes a great    
deal of trouble2 but when the silt is   
deposited over the surface it adds      
continually to the richness of the land4
  ,the full development of irrigation   
will mean a great increase in the       
population and wealth of all the        
,western ,states4     ,,the ,,location  
,,of ,,the ,,cities ,,of ,,the ,,pacific
 ,,slope  ,this old earth has to be     
consulted upon every occasion4 ,it is a 
silent partner in all our undertakings4 
,we sometimes think that we come and go 
as we please1 but a little thought      
convinces us that we are not really so  
free4  ,the traveller must take account 
of the slopes of the land4 ,it is much  
easier for him to follow a valley and   
cross a mountain range through a low    
spot1 although his course be very       
crooked1 than it is to make a bee line  
for his destination4 ,the farmer1 in    
choosing his home and the kind of       
produce which he will raise1 has to     

consult the soil and climate4 ,he cannot
 expect to grow grain where the soil is 
poor and dry1 or grow apples where the  
late spring frosts kill the buds4 ,the  
miner knows that he cannot expect to    
find gold veins in the valleys1 where   
the rocks are deeply covered by the     
soil1 and so he turns his steps toward  
the mountains1 where ,nature has made   
his work easy by lifting up the rocks   
and exposing them to his view4  ,routes 
of commerce and trade are governed by   
geographic1 and to a certain extent by  
climatic1 conditions4 ,shallow streams  
with rapids and waterfalls obstruct     
navigation4 ,the absence of harbors     
along a given coast makes it difficult  
for ships to take and discharge cargoes4
 ,railroads cannot be constructed unless
 long and expensive surveys have first  
been made to determine the route which  
,nature has made the easiest between two
 given points4  ,the character of the   
climate and geographic features of a    
given country determine whether it shall

 become noted for agricultural          
productions1 mining industries1         
manufactures1 or commerce4 ,the         
locations of the cities and towns and   
the roads connecting them depend upon   
geographic conditions4 ,there is not an 
occupation of any importance in which   
people engage at any particular place   
that is not dependent in large degree   
for its success upon the conditions     
which ,nature has imposed upon that     
place4  ,a city will not grow up at a   
given point unless the geographic       
conditions are favorable4 ,there must be
 some natural reason to induce people to
 gather in large numbers in one place4  
,at one spot there are facilities for   
manufacturing1 such as water-power and  
coal1 and easy means of communication   
with other parts of the world4 ,at      
another1 the only reason for the growth 
of a city is the existence of rich      
mines4 ,a third place may be            
conveniently located in the midst of a  
rich agricultural region1 where it is   

easy to bring in supplies and ship out  
the products of the soil4  ,a study of  
the founding and growth of some of the  
cities of the ,west1 and particularly of
 the ,pacific slope1 will bring out many
 interesting facts4  ,san ,francisco is 
the metropolis of the ,pacific2 its     
population will soon reach half a       
million4 ,if we look back seventy-five  
years we find ,san ,francisco an        
unimportant ,mexican military post and  
the seat of one of the smaller missions4
 ,monterey1 the capital of the province 
of ,california and one of the two       
leading towns 7,los ,angeles being the  
other71 apparently had all the          
advantages in the race for supremacy4   
,in date of discovery 7#afjc7 ,monterey 
,bay has the advantage of more than one 
hundred and fifty years over ,san       
,francisco ,bay4 ,it is difficult to    
understand why the different navigators 
who sailed north along the coast failed 
to discover ,california's most          
magnificent bay4 ,sir ,francis ,drake   

went by it1 evidently not seeing the    
narrow opening between the headlands now
 known as the ,golden ,gate4 ,vizcaino1 
after discovering ,monterey ,bay1 also  
passed by and anchored where ,drake had 
stopped1 in a little bay now called     
,drake's ,bay1 a few miles north of ,san
 ,francisco ,bay4  ,after the founding  
of ,san ,diego1 in #agfi1 a party       
started overland for ,monterey1 but by  
reason of the peculiar position of the  
bay they passed it unknowingly1 and by  
accident came upon the body of water    
which has since been of so great        
importance to the commercial life of    
,california4 ,monterey ,bay in time lost
 its importance1 partly because it was  
not thoroughly protected from the       
storms1 and partly from the lack of easy
 communication with the rest of the     
state4  ,immediately after the          
acquisition of ,california and the      
discovery of gold1 the advantages of    
,san ,francisco ,bay began to be        
appreciated1 and the little ,mexican    

town grew rapidly4 ,the narrow entrance 
to the bay1 which had for so long a time
 delayed its discovery1 completely      
protected it from the storms1 while its 
long arms opened across the coast       
mountains directly into the important   
valleys of the interior4 ,ocean vessels 
could go up the bay and through the     
,strait of ,carquinez1 while river boats
 could be used for many miles farther4  
,after the discovery of gold1 ships from
 all parts of the world found ample room
 and shelter in ,san ,francisco ,bay2   
and the incoming miners1 going by the   
water routes to ,marysville1            
,sacramento1 and ,stockton1 easily      
reached the gold-bearing gravels of the 
,sierra ,nevada streams4  ,with the     
exception of southern ,california and a 
portion of the northern coast1 almost   
all the agricultural and mineral        
resources of ,california are directly   
tributary to ,san ,francisco4 ,this     
place is naturally the centre of home   
trade1 of foreign commerce1 and of      

population4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4      
#aah4--,,san ,,francisco ,,bay  ,formed 
by the sinking of the land and flooding 
of a river valley  ,nature failed to    
supply ,san ,francisco with one         
essential advantage1 namely1 cheap power
 for manufacturing4 ,there is no        
water-power near and but little coal in 
the state4 ,since the coal has to be    
shipped in from distant points1 its high
 price has impeded manufacturing4 ,but  
now it appears that ,san ,francisco is  
not so badly off after all1 for         
important deposits of petroleum have    
been discovered in the central and      
southern portions of ,california2 and   
besides1 processes have been invented   
for transforming the unlimited          
water-power of the mountain streams into
 electric energy1 and transmitting this 
power to all the cities about the bay4  
,the early ,spaniards founded the pueblo
 of ,los ,angeles in its present        
location1 because at this point the ,los
 ,angeles ,river carried an abundance of

 pure water which could be led out in   
ditches to irrigate the fertile bottom  
lands in the vicinity4 ,partly because  
it became a railroad centre1 and partly 
because it is surrounded by rich        
valleys1 ,los ,angeles has grown with   
great rapidity and now stands next to   
,san ,francisco in size among           
,california cities4  ,san ,diego1 which 
has a harbor next in importance to that 
of ,san ,francisco1 has grown more      
slowly1 because of the greater          
difficulty in developing water systems  
for irrigation1 and because access is   
not so easy on account of the enclosing 
mountains4 ,however1 it must in time    
become the second commercial city of the
 state4  ,mountain barriers make travel 
from one portion of ,california to      
another somewhat difficult4 ,mountains  
separate ,san ,francisco and the ,great 
,valley of ,california from all other   
portions of the continent4 ,nature seems
 to have planned here a little empire   
all by itself4 ,but engineering skill in

 the construction of railroads has      
overcome the barrier upon the north     
which separates ,california from        
,oregon4 ,the ,sierra ,nevada range upon
 the east has been crossed at ,donner   
,pass1 and upon the south an outlet has 
been found through the ,tehachapi ,pass4
  ,in the state of ,oregon1 the city of 
,portland ranks first in importance4    
,why did not ,astoria or ,fort          
,vancouver develop into the metropolis  
of the ,columbia basin8  ,astoria1 which
 was founded in the early part of the   
last century1 has a spacious and        
well-protected harbor1 but it has no    
large tributary agricultural valleys4   
,moreover1 the greater number of        
deep-water ships pass it by1 and go as  
far up the ,columbia as possible to take
 on their loads of grain4  ,fort        
,vancouver1 on the site of the old      
,hudson ,bay trading post1 is           
practically at the head of deep-water   
navigation upon the ,columbia1 but there
 seems to be no particular reason why   

trade should centre here1 and this town 
also has been left behind in the march  
of progress4  ,the earliest settlements 
in western ,oregon were made upon the   
,willamette ,river1 which drains a large
 and extremely fertile valley4 ,near the
 point at which this river joins the    
,columbia1 the city of ,portland sprang 
up4 ,this town occupies an ideal        
position4 ,it is accessible for deep sea
 vessels1 and has communication by river
 boats with the ,willamette ,valley and 
the upper ,columbia ,river4  ,in the    
eighteenth century1 when sailors were   
looking for a passage across the        
northern portion of the continent1 an   
opening was found extending into the    
land between ,vancouver ,island and     
,cape ,flattery4 ,it was at first       
thought that this was the desired       
waterway1 but various navigators1 among 
them ,vancouver1 explored the body of   
water into which the ,strait of ,fuca   
opened1 only to find that every branch  
and inlet terminated in the land4 ,puget

 ,sound is nearly enclosed by water and 
is so large as really to form an inland 
sea4 ,its long arms reach out in three  
directions among the most heavily       
timbered valleys and mountain slopes of 
the ,united ,states4  ,the cities of    
,puget ,sound had a later start than    
most of the other cities of the ,pacific
 coast1 for this portion of the old     
,oregon territory was for a long time   
claimed by the ,english1 and during that
 period was peopled only by ,indians and
 trappers4 ,in #ahdf the present        
boundary was established1 and ,puget    
,sound passed into the possession of the
 ,united ,states4  ,because of the dense
 forests1 agriculture could not play an 
important part in the development of the
 sound region for some time4 ,lumbering 
was naturally the leading occupation4   
,this industry could be carried on all  
the more advantageously because of the  
innumerable inlets penetrating the land4
  ,the advantages of ,puget ,sound for  
foreign commerce began to be evident1   

but the ,cascade ,range stood in the way
 of railroads from the eastward4        
,although it was a comparatively easy   
task to build a railroad north from     
,portland1 yet the sound region did not 
begin to grow rapidly until1 after      
careful surveys1 two railroads finally  
found passes through the ,cascade ,range
 so as to reach tide-water4 ,as in other
 places1 when the necessity for         
overcoming them arose1 the obstacles    
which ,nature had interposed were found 
not to be so troublesome as was at first
 supposed4 ,now the once formidable     
range has been tunnelled and will no    
longer form a serious barrier between   
the interior portion of ,washington and 
the coast4  ,tacoma1 ,seattle1 and      
,everett have grown up on the sound as  
important commercial and manufacturing  
cities1 and will1 on account of their   
favorable situation1 receive their share
 of the commerce of the ,pacific4 ,the  
cities of the sound are particularly    
well situated for intercourse and       

commerce with ,alaska and northeastern  
,asia4  ,these cities are also well     
situated for manufacturing1 because coal
 and wood are plentiful and consequently
 cheap1 but they have not in their      
immediate vicinity so extensive         
agricultural valleys as the ,willamette 
and the ,great ,valley of ,california4  
,the lumberman must be supplanted by the
 farmer and fruit-grower before the     
slopes about ,puget ,sound can be fully 
developed4  ,the natural outlet for the 
great wheat-fields of central           
,washington is by way of the ,columbia  
,river to the ocean1 but the tunnelling 
of the ,cascades partly diverts their   
products to the sound region4           
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aai4--;,,falls   
,,of ,,spokane ,,river  ,location of the
 city of ,spokane  ,the city of         
,spokane1 in eastern ,washington1       
clearly illustrates the control which   
physical features exert upon the        
settlements and industries of men4 ,the 
,spokane ,river1 soon after issuing from

 ,coeur d',alene ,lake1 flows out over  
the volcanic plains of ,washington4 ,in 
the course of a few miles it descends   
into a shallow caon by a series of      
cascades and waterfalls4 ,the           
water-power furnished by these falls has
 determined the position and growth of  
,spokane4 ,the falls brought sawmills   
and manufacturing plants1 and these in  
turn brought people and railroads4 ,the 
city has become a great commercial      
centre for all the region round about4  
,the extensive and rich mineral district
 upon the north1 extending even into    
,british ,columbia1 finds its most      
convenient source of supplies at        
,spokane4 ,east of the city is the      
,coeur d',alene mining region1 while    
south and west are large areas devoted  
to the cultivation of fruit and grain4  
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abj4--,,virginia 
,,city1 ,,nevada  ,supported entirely by
 mining  ,the city of ,great ,falls1    
,montana1 in the ,missouri ,river basin1
 is destined to become a great          

industrial centre1 because of the       
presence of unlimited water-power       
afforded by the ,great ,falls of the    
,missouri ,river4 ,no other reason would
 lead to the growth of a settlement at  
this particular spot1 for boundless     
plains extend about it in every         
direction4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4       
#aba4--;,,butte1 ,,montana  ,a city of  
smelters  ,the mining cities of the     
,west1 such as ,butte1 ,virginia ,city1 
and ,leadville1 illustrate the growth of
 important centres of population in the 
vicinity of large deposits of minerals4 
,in the case of these cities1 as well as
 many others1 there are no agricultural 
resources in the surrounding country to 
support the people gathered together    
here4 ,nearly all their food has to be  
shipped hundreds of miles4 ,cities      
supported by mining are less likely to  
be permanent than those supported by an 
agricultural community1 by commerce1 or 
by manufacturing4     ,,the ,,forest    
,,belt ,,of ,,the ,,sierra ,,nevada     

,,mountains  ,no other coniferous       
forests in the world can compare with   
those covering the western slope of the 
,sierra ,nevada and ,cascade ranges4    
,they are remarkable both for the number
 of species and for the size of the     
trees4 ,the moderate temperature and the
 moist winds from the ,pacific seem to  
offer the conditions which are best     
suited to the growth of cone-bearing    
trees4  ,as we go northward along the   
coast1 or ascend the mountain slopes1 we
 find the climate growing cooler and    
cooler4 ,with this changing climate the 
species of conifers change1 for each has
 become accustomed to certain conditions
 of temperature and moisture1 which it  
must have in order to thrive4  ,the     
,sierra ,nevada is the most continuous  
lofty range of mountains in ,north      
,america4 ,from the great valley at its 
western base to the crest of the range  
the distance is about sixty miles4      
,because of the great height of the     
mountains1 there is found within these  

few miles every variety of climate      
between the sub-tropical atmosphere of  
the valley1 where oranges ripen to      
perfection1 and the arctic cold of the  
summits1 where little or no vegetation  
can live4  ,thus1 by climbing a single  
mountain range1 we may experience all   
kinds of climate1 and have an           
opportunity to observe the different    
forms of plant life such as we could not
 otherwise obtain without a journey of  
several thousand miles4  ,illustration3 
,,fig4 #abb4--;,,forest ,,belt ,,of     
,,the ,,foot-,,hills1 ,,sierra ,,nevada 
,,mountains  ,passing through the groves
 of valley oak1 and beyond the orange   
orchards at the foot of the mountains1  
we reach the foot-hills and begin to    
ascend4 ,several species of oak are     
found upon the hillsides and in the     
valleys1 while mingled with them in many
 places appear such shrubs as the       
,california lilac1 chamiso1 and         
manzanita4 ,where the soil is too poor  
or the slopes too steep for the trees1  

these shrubs1 commonly called chaparral1
 are massed together in almost          
impenetrable thickets4  ,the first of   
the coniferous trees which we meet is an
 odd-looking one known as the digger    
pine4 ,instead of having a single       
straight trunk it divides a short       
distance above the ground into many     
branches4 ,the large cones are armed    
with long hooked spines1 so that they   
must be handled rather carefully1 but   
when opened they are found to be filled 
with nutritious nuts4 ,these nuts were  
an important source of food for the     
,indians who once inhabited the         
foot-hills4 ,now the ,indians are gone1 
but the nuts are not wasted1 if one may 
judge by the fragments of the cones with
 which the squirrels strew the ground4  
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abc4--,,the      
,,digger ,,pine  ,the road climbs the   
foot-hills by many turns and windings   
through caons and up and down ridges4   
,at an elevation of about two thousand  
feet specimens of the yellow pine       

appear4 ,the trees increase in size and 
grow more closely together as we ascend4
 ,we soon find ourselves in the edge of 
the forest belt which extends unbroken  
northward to the arctic zone1 and upward
 to the line of almost perpetual snow4  
,the yellow pine1 so named from the     
color of the bark1 sometimes attains a  
diameter of six feet1 but does not form 
so dense forests as we shall find higher
 on the mountains4 ,the rays of the warm
 sun1 reaching down between the trees to
 the carpet of needles and bear clover1 
draw out their spicy fragrance4 ,the    
yellow pine1 although it does not afford
 as good a quality of lumber as some of 
the other pines1 is one of our most     
important trees because of its wide     
distribution through nearly all         
mountains of the ,west4 ,it has a much  
wider range in elevation than most      
trees1 one variety reaching upward      
nearly to the timber line4              
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abd4--;,a        
,,yellow ,,pine ,,forest  ,after getting

 well into the yellow pine forest1 we   
soon come upon other trees that contend 
with the pines for a footing upon the   
slopes and for a bit of the sunshine4   
,among these the black oaks deserve     
special mention1 for in places they form
 dense groves upon the ridges4 ,the     
cedars1 with their rich brown bark and  
flat1 drooping branches1 are easily     
recognized4 ,as these trees grow old    
they become gnarled and knotty and very 
picturesque4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4     
#abe4--,,sugar ,,pine  ,we first meet   
that king of pines1 the sugar pine1 upon
 the more shaded mountain slopes4       
,although higher up1 on barren1 rocky   
ridges1 this tree grows to noble size1  
yet it cannot withstand heat and        
dryness4 ,our attention may be first    
called to the sugar pine by the slender 
cones1 ten to fifteen inches in length1 
which are scattered over the ground4    
,then1 as we look up to see whence the  
cones come1 our eyes light upon the     
smooth trunks1 often over six feet in   

diameter and reaching up one hundred and
 fifty feet before the branches appear4 
,from the ends of the long1 drooping    
branches hang slender green cones4 ,the 
name of this pine is derived from the   
fact that a white sugar gathers in      
little bunches at the spots where the   
trunk has been injured4 ,this sugar is  
pleasant to the taste and somewhat      
medicinal4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4       
#abf4--,,zone ,,of ,,the ,,fir ,,forest1
 ,,sierra ,,nevada ,,mountains  ,the    
wood of the sugar pine1 which is white  
and fine-grained1 is of greater value   
commercially than that of any of the    
other pines4 ,this fact leads the       
shake-maker and lumberman to seek out   
the noble tree and mark it for          
destruction4 ,the sugar pine1 when once 
destroyed in a given locality1 rarely   
replaces itself1 as it is crowded out by
 the more vigorous conifers4  ,scattered
 through the forests of yellow pine1    
cedar1 and sugar pine is the ,douglas   
spruce1 commonly known in the market as 

the ,oregon pine4 ,this is the most     
important forest tree in ,oregon and    
,washington4 ,it often grows to a height
 of three hundred feet1 and forms dense 
forests for hundreds of miles along the 
base and western slope of the ,cascade  
,range4 ,in ,washington it is found     
growing down to the sea-level1 but in   
the ,sierra ,nevada the requisite       
moisture for its growth is not found    
much below an elevation of four thousand
 feet4  ,as we go upward the pines      
become fewer and the firs and ,big      
,trees take their places4 ,the ,big     
,trees are found in scattered groves1 at
 an elevation of five thousand to eight 
thousand feet1 for a distance of two    
hundred and fifty miles along the slopes
 of the ,sierra ,nevada mountains4 ,the 
,sequoia1 as the genus is called1 which 
also includes the redwood of the ,coast 
ranges1 is in many respects the most    
remarkable of all our coniferous trees4 
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abg4--,,the ,,big
 ,,tree ,,forest ,,in ,,the ,,sierra    

,,nevada ,,mountains  ,after travelling 
through forests made up of other trees  
of great size it is difficult at first  
to appreciate the magnitude of the ,big 
,trees4 ,rising from a swelling base1   
which is sometimes thirty feet in       
diameter1 the symmetrical trunk reaches 
up and up1 finally terminating in a top 
three hundred to three hundred and fifty
 feet above the ground4 ,their size1    
their reddish-brown bark1 and their     
small cones1 clearly distinguish these  
trees4 ,great holes have been burned in 
many of them1 and in the hollows thus   
formed men have made for themselves     
comfortable living rooms4 ,in one of the
 southern groves a fallen hollow tree   
has been used as a cabin4  ,the ,big    
,trees and redwoods are the last        
surviving species of a genus which was  
once widely distributed over the earth4 
,the ancestry of the ,sequoia can be    
traced farther back than that of any of 
the other living conifers4 ,impressions 
of cones and small stems with needles   

attached belonging to the ,sequoia have 
been found in the oldest rocks of the   
,coast ranges of ,california4 ,these    
cones and stems were washed into some   
muddy estuary and there buried1 millions
 of years ago4 ,the mud inclosing them  
was compressed and hardened1 and finally
 changed to slate4 ,this was at last    
exposed upon the surface through the    
uplifting of a mountain range and the   
work of erosion4  ,some of the groves of
 the ,big ,trees have been included in  
government parks and reservations1 but  
others are being cut as rapidly as      
possible by the lumbermen4 ,the redwood 
of the ,coast ranges is not easily      
killed1 for it sprouts from the stump1  
and will in the course of time form     
forests again2 but the ,big ,trees      
rarely replace themselves when a grove  
has been cut down4 ,these trees are so  
few in number and of such remarkable    
interest that they should be spared the 
fate of the common forest tree4  ,it    
would make you feel sad to visit one of 

the groves and see1 as ,i did1 a fallen 
giant1 fully thirty feet in diameter1   
lying split open upon the ground4 ,this 
tree was so large that1 in order that it
 might be handled at all1 powder had to 
be used to blast it in pieces4 ,the tree
 was knotty1 and according to the       
lumbermen1 of little value1 and might as
 well have been left4 ,what excuse is   
there for the wanton destruction of a   
noble tree like this one8 ,it must have 
stood from five thousand to six thousand
 years4 ,it was a mighty tree at the    
beginning of the ,christian era1 and was
 growing1 a strong tree1 when our       
ancestors were the rudest savages in the
 wilds of ,europe4  ,but we must not    
remain among the ,big ,trees1 for the   
forests extend much farther up the      
mountains4 ,the most important tree of  
the upper forest belt is the fir1 which 
is found growing from five thousand to  
nearly nine thousand feet above         
sea-level4 ,it is one of the most       
graceful of the conifers4 ,sometimes    

these trees reach a height of two       
hundred and fifty feet and form dense   
forests with little undergrowth4 ,the   
branches make the soft1 fragrant beds   
which so rest and delight the tired     
mountain climber4 ,here and there about 
the springs and at the heads of the     
streamlets the firs appear to stand     
back1 making room for green meadows     
brightened with a profusion of flowers4 
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abh4--;,,alpine  
,,hemlocks  ,the tamarack1 or lodge-pole
 pine1 is sometimes found at about the  
same elevation as the firs1 but seems to
 prefer the moist lands about the       
meadows and the bottoms of the narrow   
valleys4 ,this tree is widely           
distributed at high altitudes all over  
our ,western mountains4  ,continuing our
 climb toward the alpine regions1 we    
reach an elevation where the trees begin
 to show the effects of the winter      
storms4 ,the fact that life is not so   
easy as it is farther down the slopes is
 apparent from the gnarled and stunted  

trunks4 ,here are the alpine hemlocks1  
dwarf pines1 and junipers4  ,the juniper
 somewhat resembles the cedar1 but has a
 short1 thick trunk4 ,near the timber   
line this tree grows but a few feet high
 and becomes exceedingly gnarled4 ,it   
seems to like the most exposed and rocky
 places1 but in truth1 like many another
 form of plant life1 it has become      
accustomed to such locations because it 
cannot successfully compete with other  
trees in happier ones4  ,most weird and 
picturesque of all are the dwarf white  
pines1 growing upon the extensive       
mountain shoulders and ridges at a      
height of ten thousand to eleven        
thousand five hundred feet above the    
sea4 ,since an arctic climate surrounds 
them for nine months in the year1 their 
growth is very slow4 ,their short1      
gnarled trunks and branches are twisted 
into all sorts of fantastic shapes4     
,when1 after struggling with the cold   
and the storms1 the trees at last die1  
they do not quickly decay and fall1 but 

continue to stand for many years4       
,these trees become smaller and smaller 
in size until at the extreme timber line
 they are almost prostrate upon the     
ground4 ,in many cases they rise only   
three or four feet1 and have the        
appearance of shrubs rather than trees4 
,still above them1 however1 there are   
rocky slopes and snow-banks reaching to 
an elevation of over fourteen thousand  
feet4 ,if we examine these upper slopes 
carefully we shall find that they are   
not utterly devoid of life1 but that    
certain plants have been able to obtain 
a foothold upon them4 ,in sheltered     
nooks there are little shrubs and       
lichens4 ,in some places among the      
rocks1 beneath overhanging snow-banks1  
beautiful flowers spring up at the      
coming of the late summer1 blossom1     
mature their seeds1 and die with the    
return of the winter cold4              
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abi4--,,the      
,,upper ,,limit ,,of ,,the ,,timber     
,sierra ,nevada ,mountains  ,the        

magnificent forests through which we    
have passed in our long climb1 if       
destroyed by the lumberman1 cannot be   
replaced for hundreds of years4 ,they   
contribute much to the glory of the     
mountains4 ,they hold back the water so 
that it does not run off rapidly1 and   
thus aid in giving rise to innumerable  
clear1 cold springs4 ,the springs help  
feed the streams during the long1 dry   
summers1 when the water is so sorely    
needed in the hot valleys below4        
,,the ,,national ,,parks ,,and ,,forest 
,,reserves  ,the people who first pushed
 into the unknown country west of the   
,mississippi1 in the earlier half of the
 last century1 were chiefly hunters and 
trappers4 ,they did not intend to make  
permanent homes in the wilds1 but rather
 to stay only so long as they could     
secure an abundance of fur-bearing      
animals4  ,then came the discovery of   
the precious metals1 and thousands of   
gold-seekers crossed the plains1 and    
spread out over the mountains of the    

,cordilleran region4 ,they1 too1        
expected to get rich by making use of   
the resources of the country1 and return
 to their homes in the ,east4  ,at the  
present time the destruction of our     
forests and serious injury to the water 
supply has been threatened through the  
organization of large lumber companies4 
,those interested in lumbering usually  
live far removed from the scenes of     
their operations1 and consequently care 
little about the condition in which the 
deforested lands are left4  ,the farmers
 were the first permanent occupants of  
the ,west4 ,unlike the wandering        
trappers and miners1 they established   
homes and made the land richer instead  
of poorer4 ,as long as the population   
was scanty there was not much danger of 
exterminating the wild animals1 and the 
demands for timber were small4  ,our    
forefathers who settled the ,eastern    
states had to contend with the forests4 
,nearly every acre of ground had to be  
laboriously cleared before anything     

could be planted4 ,it was only natural  
that they should come to regard the     
forests as a hindrance rather than a    
blessing4  ,as the settlers spread      
westward to the prairies and plains they
 came upon a region almost destitute of 
forests2 but still farther1 in the      
mountains of the continental divide and 
the ,pacific slope1 they again found    
extensive forests4 ,to them it seemed   
impossible that these forests could ever
 be exhausted1 and therefore little care
 was taken for their preservation4  ,as 
the population increased1 more and more 
lumber was needed for building purposes4
 ,before the sawmill came split lumber  
was used1 and the shake-maker did not   
hesitate to cut down the largest and    
most valuable pines on the mere         
possibility that fifteen or twenty feet 
of the butt would split well enough to  
make shakes4 ,it made no difference to  
him that the whole trunk rotted upon the
 ground4  ,when the sawmills were built 
and there came a demand from abroad for 

lumber1 the forests were attacked upon a
 much larger scale4 ,the need of the    
moment was all that concerned the       
lumbermen1 and they took no care for the
 preservation of the young trees1 which 
in time would have renewed the supply4  
,the litter of the trunks and branches  
which they left upon the ground         
furnished fuel for the fires which      
frequently swept over these areas and   
killed the remaining growth4  ,as a     
result of these fires1 the few animals  
that have escaped the hunters have been 
killed or driven from their homes1 and  
the forest cover1 which would retain    
much of the moisture and preserve it for
 the supply of the streams in summer1   
has been destroyed4 ,the removal of the 
forest cover leads also to the washing  
away of the soil1 the shoaling of the   
streams1 floods in spring1 and low water
 in summer4 ,in fact1 all the people and
 industries of the region are affected  
by its loss4 ,it may take hundreds of   
years for the country to recover2       

indeed1 if the rainfall is light1 the   
forests may never grow again1 without   
artificial aid4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4  
#acj4--;,a ,,burned ,,forest1 ,,cascade 
,,range1 ,,oregon  ,the careless        
stockman1 seeking to enlarge his        
pastures by burning the underbrush1 sets
 fires which often destroy hundreds of  
square miles of forest4 ,the summer     
camper and the prospector also          
frequently go on their way without      
extinguishing the camp fire1 though a   
great forest fire may be the result4    
,ours is a fertile and productive earth1
 capable of supporting a multitude of   
living things4 ,for ages the lower      
animals1 as well as savage man1 lived   
under the protection of ,nature1 making 
the best use of her products of which   
they were capable2 but they never       
brought about the unnecessary1 and often
 wanton1 destruction of which we are    
guilty1--we1 who call ourselves         
civilized4 ,in killing the wild animals 
we cannot make the plea of necessity1 as

 can savages who have no other means of 
support4 ,likewise1 there is no         
necessity for killing the beautiful     
singing birds1 merely for their plumage4
  ,illustration3 ,,fig4                 
#aca4--;,,erosion ,,upon ,,an           
,,unprotected ,,slope  ,the forests are 
cut away without any thought of the     
retribution which ,nature is sure to    
bring upon us4 ,they are of vast        
importance to the well-being of the     
country and are the natural possession  
of all its people4 ,we ought not to     
permit them to be destroyed             
indiscriminately for the benefit of a   
few4 ,we need lumber for many purposes2 
but a careful treatment of the forests  
with an eye to their continuance1 the   
plan of cutting large trees1 and        
preserving the small ones1 is a very    
different thing from our present        
wasteful methods4  ,every summer the air
 is filled with the smoke of burning    
forests1 and the lumbermen are at work  
harder than ever felling virgin forests 

upon more and more remote mountain      
slopes4  ,books of travel written fifty 
years ago tell of animal life in such   
abundance in many portions of the ,west 
that we can hardly believe their        
stories4 ,a description of ,california  
written in #ahdh mentions elk1 antelope1
 and deer as abundant in the ,great     
,valley4 ,how many of us living at the  
present time have ever seen one of these
 animals in its native haunts8  ,there  
is hope now that this wasteful use of   
,nature's gifts will soon be stopped4   
,large areas of the mountainous portions
 of the public domain are being set     
aside as parks and forest reserves4 ,the
 parks contain some of the finest       
scenery and most wonderful natural      
curiosities to be found upon the face of
 the whole earth4 ,this wild scenery1   
together with the forests and plants of 
every kind1 as well as the animals and  
birds that inhabit these areas1 are to  
remain just as they were when the first 
white man looked upon them4  ,the parks 

form asylums for the wild creatures     
which have been hard pressed for so many
 years4 ,in the ,yellowstone ,national  
,park1 where they have been protected   
the longest1 the animals have almost    
lost their fear of man and act as if    
they knew that they are safe within its 
limits4 ,in the ,yellowstone you may see
 great herds of elk feeding in the rich 
meadows2 deer stand by the roadside and 
watch you pass1 while the bears have    
become so tame about the hotels that    
they make themselves a nuisance4        
,sixteen bears at a time have been seen 
feeding at the garbage pile near the    
,grand ,caon hotel4  ,the forest        
reserves differ from the parks in that  
they are established for utility rather 
than for pleasure4 ,the forests now     
existing are to be cared for by the     
government and to be wisely used when   
lumber is needed4 ,fires are to be      
avoided so far as possible1 and burned  
areas are to be replanted with trees4   
,another object to be accomplished is   

the retention of the forests about the  
heads of the streams so as to preserve  
the summer water supply4 ,the water runs
 off more slowly from a slope covered   
with vegetation than from a barren one1 
and therefore has more time to soak into
 the ground4 ,this is a very important  
matter in all mountainous districts1    
particularly where the rainfall is      
light4  ,the ,yellowstone ,national     
,park is situated upon the continental  
divide in northwestern ,wyoming4 ,it is 
largely a plateau1 with an elevation of 
seven thousand to eight thousand feet   
above the level of the sea4 ,the surface
 of the plateau is covered with forests1
 meadows1 and lakes2 but the region is  
particularly remarkable for the geysers 
and hot springs1 and the ,grand ,caon   
and falls of the ,yellowstone ,river4   
,springs dot the surface of many parts  
of the park4 ,the hot water is          
continually bringing mineral substances1
 the chief of which is silica1 from the 
depths of the earth and depositing them 

about the orifices of the springs4 ,in  
this manner wonderful basins1 terraces1 
and cones have been built up1 while the 
rocks have been either reddened or      
bleached out and softened into a form of
 clay4  ,the park region must have been 
for a long period the seat of volcanic  
action1 for nearly all the rocks are    
cooled lavas4 ,while the heat has       
disappeared from the surface1 it must   
still be very great below1 if we may    
judge by the quantities of hot water    
continually issuing from the springs4   
,in many a subterranean cavern steam    
accumulates until its pressure becomes  
too great for the column of water       
occupying the channel that leads to the 
surface2 then the water is suddenly and 
forcibly expelled1 giving rise to a     
geyser eruption4 ,when the pressure of  
the steam has become exhausted1 the     
water sinks back into the earth1 leaving
 the basin of the geyser nearly or quite
 empty until the steam has again        
collected4 ,each geyser has its own     

period of eruption and is generally very
 regular4 ,one little geyser1 known as  
the ,economic1 because it throws out but
 little water1 spouts regularly about   
every five minutes4 ,other geysers are  
active at intervals of several hours1   
while some take several years to get    
ready for a new eruption and then spout 
whole rivers of boiling water4 ,in the  
,upper ,geyser ,basin the effect is very
 impressive1 particularly upon a cool   
morning4 ,the clouds of steam and the   
throbbing or roaring geysers lend to the
 region a weird and unearthly aspect4   
,the ,yellowstone ,lake is a large body 
of water situated almost upon the       
continental divide4 ,before the caon1 or
 ,great ,falls1 or even the ,yellowstone
 ,river itself existed1 the lake stood  
about one hundred and fifty feet higher 
than at present1 and its water emptied  
into the ,pacific ,ocean instead of the 
,gulf of ,mexico4 ,the drainage was     
changed by the work of a small stream   
having its source in the volcanic       

plateau north of the lake4 ,it deepened 
its channel and extended its head waters
 back until they tapped the lake at a   
point where the rim of the basin was    
lowest1 and so drew away its waters in  
the opposite direction4 ,the            
,yellowstone ,river1 with its deep1     
wondrously colored caon and grand       
waterfalls1 is the result of this       
change4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4          
#acb4--;,,economic ,,geyser1            
,,yellowstone ,,park  ,to the south of  
,yellowstone ,park1 but included in one 
of the forest reserves1 are ,jackson    
,lake and the ,teton range4 ,the ,three 
,tetons1 one of which reaches a height  
of over thirteen thousand feet1 were    
evidently noted landmarks for the       
hunters and trappers in the early days1 
for you will find them mentioned in many
 of the narratives of those times4 ,the 
precipitous range1 with its crown of    
jagged peaks and the beautiful lake     
nestling at its base1 presents a picture
 never to be forgotten4  ,very different

 from the region which we have been     
studying is that embracing the ,crater  
,lake1 ,national ,park1 which is        
situated upon the summit of the ,cascade
 ,range in southern ,oregon4 ,here      
occurred1 not many thousand years ago1  
one of the strangest catastrophes which1
 so far as we know1 has ever overtaken  
any portion of our earth4  ,towering    
over the present basin of ,crater ,lake 
was a great volcano1 reaching1 probably1
 nearly three miles toward the sky4     
,during the glacial period it stood     
there1 its slopes white with snow1      
apparently as strong and firm as ,shasta
 or ,hood or ,ranier4 ,but for some     
reason the volcanic forces within this  
mountain1 which has been called ,mazama1
 awoke to renewed action4 ,the interior 
of the mountain was melted1 and the     
whole mass1 unable to stand longer1 fell
 in and was engulfed in the fiery1      
seething lava4 ,this lava1 instead of   
welling up and filling the crater and   
perhaps flowing out1 was drawn down     

through the throat of the volcano into  
the earth1 and left an enormous pit or  
crater where once the mountain stood4   
,after the floor of the crater cooled   
and hardened1 small eruptions occurred  
within it and a new volcano grew up1    
but1 though nearly three thousand feet  
high1 it does not reach to the top of   
the encircling walls of the old crater1 
which are1 on an average1 nearly four   
thousand feet high4  ,then the rains and
 melting snows formed a body of water in
 the crater1 and the wonderful lake came
 into existence4 ,no such sight is to be
 found elsewhere upon the earth4 ,within
 a circling rim of cliffs1 from eight   
hundred to two thousand feet high and   
nearly vertical1 lies the lake1         
rivalling the sky in the depth of its   
blue coloring4 ,the height of its       
encircling cliffs and its five-mile     
expanse of blue water help to make the  
lake a spectacle grand beyond           
description4 ,at the present time the   
volcanic fires appear to be entirely    

extinct4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4         
#acc4--;,,crater ,,lake  ,from the top  
of the cliffs two thousand feet above4  
,upon the right is ,wizard ,island1 a   
volcanic cone  ,forests of fir and      
tamarack have spread over the once      
barren slopes of lava and pumice which  
extend back from the cliffs4 ,in the    
hollows1 after the lingering winter     
snows have melted1 there are grassy     
meadows dotted with flowers4 ,it is many
 miles from the lake to any human       
habitation1 and all the region about    
remains just as ,nature left it4 ,it was
 a happy thought to make another        
national park here4  ,illustration3     
,,fig4 #acd4--,,the ,,punch ,,bowl1     
,,yellowstone ,,park  ,we have already  
learned something of the grandeur of the
 ,yosemite ,valley and have seen how it 
came into existence4 ,the valley is     
owned and cared for as a public park by 
the state of ,california1 but1 with     
,hetch-,hetchy ,valley1 it is included  
in a larger park under the control of   

the general government4 ,within the     
boundaries of this national park1 as in 
the case of the others described1 the   
natural features of the landscape1 the  
forests1 and the animals1 are to be left
 forever undisturbed4 ,the ,yosemite    
,valley1 although situated in the heart 
of the rugged ,sierras1 is reached by   
several good wagon roads and many more  
people visit it than go to ,crater      
,lake1 although the latter is fully as  
interesting4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4     
#ace4--,,the ,,falls ,,of ,,the         
,,yellowstone1 ,,yellowstone ,,ca,,on   
,about a hundred miles south of the     
,yosemite is the ,general ,grant        
,national ,park4 ,this park is of       
comparatively small size1 but contains a
 group of some of the largest and finest
 ,big ,trees in the country4 ,still     
farther south there is a reserve called 
the ,sequoia ,park1 which contains the  
largest remaining groves of the ,big    
,trees4  ,there are also many state     
parks scattered over different parts of 

the ,union4 ,the establishment of these 
parks is intended to preserve either the
 forests or natural scenery4  ,the      
retention by the state or general       
government of large tracts of mountain  
and timber land1 and of those areas     
which are particularly interesting on   
account of their natural scenery1 is of 
the greatest importance4 ,the timber and
 water are preserved for the general    
good instead of being squandered for the
 enrichment of individuals4  ,the       
preservation of scenic features in their
 original wild state is just and right1 
because such things add to the pleasure 
of out-of-door life1 elevate men's      
feelings1 and cultivate a love for the  
beautiful4 ,the protection afforded the 
plant and animal life by these reserves 
gives a better opportunity for studying 
them1 and tends to foster a general     
interest in the welfare of living       
things4     ,,advertisements4   ,,the   
,,heath ,,readers  ,a new series1 that  
excels in its    #a4 ,interesting and   

well graded lessons4   #b4 ,masterpieces
 of ,english and ,american literature4  
#c4 ,beautiful and appropriate          
illustrations4   #d4 ,clear and legible 
printing4   #e4 ,durable and handsome   
binding4   #f4 ,adaptation to the needs 
of modern schools4  ,the ,,heath        
,,readers enable teachers1 whether they 
have much or little knowledge of the    
art1 to teach children to read          
intelligently and to read aloud         
intelligibly4 ,they do this without     
waste of time or effort1 and at the same
 time that the books aid pupils in      
acquiring skill in reading1 they present
 material which is in itself worth      
reading4  ,the purpose of the ,,heath   
,,readers is1 first1 to enable beginners
 to master the mechanical difficulties  
of reading successfully and in the      
shortest time2 second1 to develop the   
imagination and cultivate a taste for   
the best literature2 third1 to appeal to
 those motives that lead to right       
conduct1 industry1 courage1 patriotism1 

and loyalty to duty4 ,the larger purpose
 is1 briefly1 to aid in developing an   
appreciation of that which is of most   
worth in life and literature4  ,the     
series contains seven books1 as follows3
  ,primer1 #abh pages1 #be cents4       
,fourth ,reader1 #cbj pages1 #de cents4 
,first ,reader1 #acj pages1 #be cents4  
,fifth ,reader1 #ceb pages1 #ej cents4  
,second ,reader1 #agf pages1 #ce cents4 
,sixth ,reader1 #ceb pages1 #ej cents4  
,third ,reader1 #bef pages1 #dj cents4  
,descriptive circulars sent free on     
request4  ,d4 ,c4 ,,heath  ,,co41       
,publishers1 ,boston1 ,new ,york1       
,chicago   ,,revised ,,and ,,illustrated
  ,,the ,,heart ,,of ,,oak ,,books  ,a  
,collection of ,traditional ,rhymes and 
,stories for ,children1 and of          
,masterpieces of ,poetry and ,prose for 
,use at ,home and at ,school1 chosen    
with special reference to the           
cultivation of the imagination and the  
development of a taste for good reading4
  ,,edited ,,by  ,,charles ,,eliot      

,,norton  ,,book #a4 ,,rhymes1 ,,jingles
 ,,and ,,fables4 ,for first reader      
classes4 ,illustrated by ,frank ,t4     
,merrill4 #abh pages4 #be cents4  ,,book
 ,,ii4 ,,fables ,,and ,,nursery ,,tales4
 ,for second reader classes4            
,illustrated by ,frank ,t4 ,merrill4    
#agf pages4 #ce cents4  ,,book ,,iii4   
,,fairy ,,tales1 ,,ballads ,,and        
,,poems4 ,for third reader classes4     
,with illustrations after ,george       
,cruikshank and ,sir ,john ,tenniel4    
#ahd pages4 #dj cents4  ,,book ,,iv4    
,,fairy ,,stories ,,and ,,classic       
,,tales ,,of ,,adventure4 ,for fourth   
reader grades4 ,with illustrations after
 ,j4 ,m4 ,w4 ,turner1 ,richard ,doyle1  
,john ,flaxman1 and ,e4 ,burne-,jones4  
#bdh pages4 #de cents4  ,,book ,v4      
,,masterpieces ,,of ,,literature4 ,for  
fifth reader grades4 ,with illustrations
 after ,g4 ,f4 ,watts1 ,sir ,john       
,tenniel1 ,fred ,barnard1 ,w4 ,c4       
,stanfield1 ,ernest ,fosbery1 and from  
photographs4 #cah pages4 #ej cents4     

,,book ,,vi4 ,,masterpieces ,,of        
,,literature4 ,with illustrations after 
,horace ,vernet1 ,a4 ,symington1 ,j4    
,wells1 ,mrs4 ,e4 ,b4 ,thompson1 and    
from photographs4 #cgf pages4 #ee cents4
  ,,book ,,vii4 ,,masterpieces ,,of     
,,literature4 ,with illustrations after 
,j4 ,m4 ,w4 ,turner1 ,e4 ,dayes1 ,sir   
,george ,beaumont1 and from photographs4
 #chb pages4 #fj cents4  ,d4 ,c4 ,,heath
  ,,co41 ,,publishers  ,,boston  ,,new  
,,york  ,,chicago  ,,london             
,,america',s ,,story ,,for ,,america',s 
,,children  ,by ,,mara ,l4 ,,pratt4  ,a 
series of history readers which present 
the personal and picturesque elements of
 the story in a way as attractive to    
young readers as romance1 and which will
 supplement the regular instruction in  
history in an effective manner4  ,every 
statement of fact is historically       
accurate and the illustrations are      
correct even to the smallest details4   
,unusual care has been taken in these   
matters4  ,these books are effectively  

illustrated in black and white and in   
color2 are bound in attractive and      
artistic cloth covers2 uniform in size1 
#f-a_/d x #g-c_/d2 printed on extra     
heavy paper1 in large type and contain  
about #afj pages each4  ,,book ,i4 ,,the
 ,,beginners' ,,book4 #ce cents4  ,a    
delightful story book1 developing       
centers of interest through picturesque 
and personal incidents4  ,,book ,,ii4   
,,exploration ,,and ,,discovery4 #dj    
cents4  ,the great explorers and        
discoverers from ,lief ,ericson to      
,henry ,hudson4  ,,book ,,iii4 ,,the    
,,earlier ,,colonies4 #dj cents4  ,an   
accurate and fascinating account of the 
first settlements and the #ac colonies4 
,,book ,,iv4 ,,the ,,later ,,colonial   
,,period4 #dj cents4  ,settlements in   
the ,mississippi ,valley1 ,the ,french  
and ,indian ,wars1 etc4  ,,book ,v4     
,,the ,,revolution ,,and ,,the          
,,republic4 #dj cents4  ,the causes that
 led to it1 the men who guided events1  
and subsequent civil history4           

,descriptive circular free on request4  
,d4 ,c4 ,,heath  ,,co41 ,publishers1    
,boston1 ,new ,york1 ,chicago           
,science4  ,,ballard',s ,,world ,,of    
,,matter4 ,a guide to mineralogy and    
chemistry4 #a4jj  ,,benton',s ,,guide   
,,to ,,general ,,chemistry4 ,a manual   
for the laboratory4 #ce cents4          
,,boyer',s ,,laboratory ,,manual ,,in   
,,biology4 ,treats of both animals and  
plants4 #hj cents4  ,,boynton1 ,,morse  
,,and ,,watson',s ,,laboratory ,,manual 
,,in ,,chemistry4 #ej cents4  ,,burrage 
,,and ,,bailey',s ,,school ,,sanitation 
,,and ,,decoration4 ,illustrated4 #a4ej4
  ,,chute',s ,,physical ,,laboratory    
,,manual4 ,a well-balanced course in    
laboratory physics1 requiring           
inexpensive apparatus4 ,illustrated4 #hj
 cents4  ,,chute',s ,,practical         
,,physics4 ,for high schools and        
colleges4 #a4ab4  ,,clark',s ,,methods  
,,in ,,microscopy4 ,detailed            
descriptions of successful methods4     
#a4fj4  ,,coit',s ,,chemical            

,,arithmetic4 ,with a short system of   
analysis4 #ej cents4  ,,colton',s       
,,physiology3 ,,experimental ,,and      
,,descriptive4 ,for high schools and    
colleges4 ,illustrated4 #a4ab4          
,,colton',s ,,physiology3 ,,briefer     
,,course4 ,for high schools4            
,illustrated4 #ij cents4  ,,colton',s   
,,zoology3 ,,descriptive ,,and          
,,experimental4 ,illustrated4 #a4ej4    
,part ,i1 ,descriptive4 #a4jj4 ,part    
,,ii1 ,experimental4 #fj cents4         
,,fisher ,,and ,,patterson',s ,,elements
 ,,of ,,physics4 ,experimental and      
descriptive4 #fj cents4  ,,grabfield    
,,and ,,burns',s ,,chemical ,,problems4 
,for review and drill4 ,paper4 #be      
cents4  ,,hyatt',s ,,insecta4 ,a        
practical manual for students and       
teachers4 ,illustrated4 #a4be4          
,,newell',s ,,descriptive ,,chemistry4  
,a full exposition of modern inorganic  
chemistry4 ,illustrated4 #a4bj4 ,part   
,i1 ,without experiments4 #a4jj4 ,part  
,,ii1 ,experiments4 #dj cents4          

,,newell',s ,,experimental ,,chemistry4 
,a modern course for high schools and   
colleges4 #a4aj4  ,,orndorff',s         
,,laboratory ,,manual4 ,experiments in  
,organic ,chemistry4 #ce cents4         
,,palmer',s ,,questions ,,and ,,problems
 ,,in ,,chemistry4 #bj cents4  ,,pepoon1
 ,,mitchell ,,and ,,maxwell',s ,,plant  
,,life4 ,a laboratory guide4 #ej cents4 
,,remsen',s ,,organic ,,chemistry4 ,an  
introduction to the study of the        
compounds of carbon4 ,for students of   
the pure science1 or its application to 
arts4 #a4bj4  ,,roberts',s              
,,stereo-,,chemistry4 ,its development  
and present aspects4 #a4jj4             
,,sanford',s ,,experimental             
,,psychology4 ,part ,i4 ,sensation and  
,perception4 #a4ej4  ,,shaler',s ,,first
 ,,book ,,in ,,geology4 ,cloth1 #fj     
cents4 ,boards4 #de cents4  ,,shepard',s
 ,,inorganic ,,chemistry4 ,descriptive  
and qualitative2 experimental and       
inductive2 leads the student to observe 
and think4 ,for high schools and        

colleges4 #a4ab4  ,,shepard',s ,,briefer
 ,,course ,,in ,,chemistry1 with chapter
 on ,organic ,chemistry4 #hj cents4     
,,shepard',s ,,laboratory ,,note-,,book4
 ,boards4 #ce cents4  ,,spalding',s     
,,botany4 ,practical exercises in the   
study of plants4 #hj cents4             
,,stevens',s ,,introduction ,,to        
,,botany4 ,illustrated4 #a4be4 ,key and 
,flora1 #dj cents4 ,botany1 with ,key   
and ,flora1 #a4ej4  ,,stevens',s        
,,chemistry ,,note-,,book4 ,laboratory  
sheets and covers4 #ej cents4           
,,venable',s ,,short ,,history ,,of     
,,chemistry4 ,for students and the      
general reader4 #a4jj4  ,,walter1       
,,whitney ,,and ,,lucas',s ,,animal     
,,life4 ,a laboratory guide4 #ej cents4 
,,weed ,,and ,,crossman',s ,,laboratory 
,,guide ,,in ,,zo,,logy4 ,emphasizes    
essentials4 #fj cents4  ,,whiting',s    
,,physical ,,measurement4 ,parts        
,i-,,iv1 in one volume4 #c4ge4          
,,whiting',s ,,mathematical ,,and       
,,physical ,,tables4 ,paper4 #ej cents4 

,for elementary works see our list of   
books in ,elementary ,science4  ,d4 ,c4 
,,heath  ,,co41 ,publishers1 ,boston1   
,new ,york1 ,chicago   ,elementary      
,science4  ,,austin',s ,,observation    
,,blanks ,,in ,,mineralogy4 ,detailed   
studies of #ce minerals4 ,boards #hh    
pages4 #cj cents4  ,,bailey',s ,,grammar
 ,,school ,,physics4 ,a series of       
practical lessons with simple           
experiments that may be performed in the
 ordinary school room4 #ach pages4      
,illustrated4 #ej cents4  ,,ballard',s  
,,the ,,world ,,of ,,matter4 ,simple    
studies in chemistry and mineralogy3 for
 use as a text-book or as a guide to the
 teacher in giving object-lessons4 #bfd 
pages4 ,illus4 #a4jj4  ,,clark',s       
,,practical ,,methods ,,in ,,microscopy4
 ,gives in detail descriptions of       
methods that will lead the careful      
worker to successful results4 #bcc      
pages4 ,illustrated4 #a1fj4  ,,clarke',s
 ,,astronomical ,,lantern4 ,intended to 
familiarize students with the           

constellations by comparing them with   
facsimiles on the lantern face4 ,with   
seventeen slides1 giving twenty-two     
constellations4 #d4ej4  ,,clarke',s     
,,how ,,to ,,find ,,the ,,stars4        
,accompanies the above and helps to an  
acquaintance with the constellations4   
#dg pages4 ,paper4 #ae cents4           
,,eckstorm',s ,,the ,,bird ,,book4 ,the 
natural history of birds1 with          
directions for observation and          
suggestions for study4 #cja pages4      
,illustrated4 #fj cents4  ,,guides ,,for
 ,,science ,,teaching4 ,teachers' aids  
for instruction in ,natural ,history4   
,i4 ,hyatt's ,about ,pebbles4 #bf pages4
 ,paper4 #aj cts4    ,,ii4 ,goodale's ,a
 ,few ,common ,plants4 #fa pages4       
,paper4 #bj cts4   ,,iii4 ,hyatt's      
,commercial and other ,sponges4         
,illustrated4 #dc pages4        ,paper4 
#bj cts4    ,,iv4 ,agassiz's ,first     
,lesson in ,natural ,history4 ,illus4   
#fd pages4 ,paper4        #be cts4      
,v4 ,hyates ,corals and ,echinoderms4   

,illustrated4 #cb pages4 ,paper4 #cj    
cts4    ,,iv4 ,hyates ,mollusca4        
,illustrated4 #fe pages4 ,paper4 #cj    
cts4   ,,vii4 ,hyatt's ,worms and       
,crustacea4 ,illustrated4 #fh pages4    
,paper4 #cj cts4   ,,xii4 ,crosby's     
,common ,minerals and ,rocks4           
,illustrated4 #bjj pages4 ,paper1       
#dj cts4 ,cloth1 #fj cts4  ,,xiii4      
,richard's ,first ,lessons in ,minerals4
 #ej pages4 ,paper4 #aj cts4   ,,xiv4   
,bowditch's ,physiology4 #eh pages4     
,paper4 #bj cts4    ,,xv4 ,clapp's #cf  
,observation ,lessons in ,minerals4 #hj 
pages4 ,paper4 #cj cts4   ,,xvi4        
,phenix's ,lessons in ,chemistry4 #bj   
cts4        ,pupils' ,note-book to      
accompany ,no4 #ae4 #aj cts4  ,,rice',s 
,,science ,,teaching ,,in ,,the         
,,school4 ,with a course of instruction 
in science for the lower grades4 #df    
pages4 ,paper4 #be cents4  ,,ricks',s   
,,natural ,,history ,,object ,,lessons4 
,information on plants and their        
products1 on animals and their uses1 and

 gives specimen lessons4 #ccb pages4    
,illustrated4 #a4ej  ,,ricks',s ,,object
 ,,lessons ,,and ,,how ,,to ,,give      
,,them4   ,vol4 ,i4  ,gives lessons for 
primary grades4 #bjj pages4 #ij cents4  
,vol4 ,,ii4 ,gives lessons for grammar  
and intermediate grades4 #bab     pages4
 #ij cents4  ,,scott',s ,,nature ,,study
 ,,and ,,the ,,child4 ,a manual for     
teachers1 with outlines of lessons and  
courses1 detailed studies of typical    
forms of animal and plant life1 and     
chapters on aims and methods and the    
relation of nature study to expression4 
#feb pages4 ,illustrated4 ,retail price1
 #a4ej  ,,shaler',s ,,first ,,book ,,in 
,,geology4 ,a helpful introduction to   
the study of modern text-books in       
geography4 #bgb pages4 lliustrated4     
,cloth1 #fj cents4 ,boards1 #de cents4  
,,smith',s ,,studies ,,in ,,nature4     
,combines natural history and language  
work4 #dh pages4 ,paper4 #ae cts4       
,,spear',s ,,leaves ,,and ,,flowers4 ,an
 elementary botany for pupils under     

twelve4 #ajc pages4 ,illustrated4 #be   
cents4  ,,wright',s ,,seaside ,,and     
,,wayside ,,nature ,,reader1 ,,no4 #d4  
,elementary lessons in geology1         
astronomy1 world life1 etc4 #cgb pages4 
,illustrated4 #ej cents4  ,see also our 
list of books in ,science4  ,d4 ,c4     
,,heath  ,,co41 ,publishers1 ,boston1   
,new ,york1 ,chicago   ,heath's ,home   
and ,school ,classics4  ,large ,type4   
,good ,paper4 ,many ,illustrations4     
,durable ,binding4  ,,aiken ,,and       
,,barbauld',s ,,eyes ,,and ,,no ,,eyes1 
and ,other ,stories4 7,m4 ,v4 ,o',shea47
 ,paper1 #aj cents2 cloth1 #bj cents4   
,,ayrton',s ,,child ,,life ,,in ,,japan4
 7,w4 ,elliot ,griffis47 ,paper1 #aj    
cents2 cloth1 #bj cents4  ,,brown',s    
,,rab ,,and ,,his ,,friends and ,other  
,stories of ,dogs4 7,t4 ,m4 ,balliet47  
,paper1 #aj cents2 cloth1 #bj cents4    
,,browne',s ,,the ,,wonderful ,,chair   
,,and ,,the ,,tales ,,it ,,told4 7,m4   
,v4 ,o',shea47 ,two parts4 ,paper1 each 
part1 #aj cents2 cloth1 two parts bound 

in one1 #cj cents4  ,,carov,s' ,,the    
,,story ,,without ,,an ,,end4 7,t4 ,w4  
,higginson74 ,cloth1 #be cents4         
,,craik',s ,,so ,,fat ,,and ,,mew ,,mew4
 7,lucy ,wheelock47 ,paper1 #aj cents2  
cloth1 #bj cents4  ,,crib ,,and ,,fly3  
,a ,tale of ,two ,terriers4 7,c4 ,f4    
,dole47 ,paper1 #aj cents2 cloth1 #bj   
cents4  ,,defoe',s ,,robinson ,,crusoe4 
7,edward ,everett ,hale47 ,cloth1 #fj   
cents4  ,,edgeworth',s ,,waste ,,not1   
,,want ,,not1 and ,other ,stories4 7,m4 
,v4 ,o',shea47 ,paper1 #aj cents2 cloth1
 #bj cents4  ,,ewing',s ,,jackanapes4   
7,w4 ,p4 ,trent47 ,paper1 #aj cents2    
cloth1 #bj cents4  ,,ewing',s ,,story   
,,of ,a ,,short ,,life4 7,t4 ,m4        
,balliet47 ,paper1 #aj cents2 cloth1 #bj
 cents4  ,,fouque',s ,,undine4 7,e4 ,s4 
,phelps-,ward47 ,cloth1 #ce cents4      
,,goody ,,two ,,shoes1 attributed to    
,goldsmith4 7,c4 ,welsh47 ,paper #aj    
cents2 cloth1 #bj cents4  ,,hamerton',s 
,,chapters ,,on ,,animals3 ,dogs1 ,cats 
and ,horses4 7,w4 ,p4 ,trent47 ,paper1  

#ae cents2 cloth1 #be cents4            
,,ingelow',s ,,three ,,fairy ,,tales4   
7,c4 ,f4 ,dole47 ,paper1 #aj cents2     
cloth1 #bj cents4  ,,irving',s ,,dolph  
,,heyliger4 7,g4 ,h4 ,browne47 ,paper1  
#ae cents2 cloth1 #be cents4            
,,jordan',s ,,true ,,tales ,,of ,,birds 
,,and ,,beasts4 ,cloth1 #dj cents4      
,,lambs' ,,tales ,,from ,,shakespeare4  
7,e4 ,s4 ,phelps-,ward47 ,three ,parts4 
,paper1 each part1 #ae cents2 cloth1    
three parts bound in one1 #dj cents4    
,,lamb',s ,,adventures ,,of ,,ulysses4  
7,w4 ,p4 ,trent47 ,paper1 #ae cents2    
cloth1 #be cents4  ,,martineau',s ,,the 
,,crofton ,,boys4 7,w4 ,elliott         
,griffis47 ,cloth1 #cj cents4           
,,melville',s ,,typee4 7,w4 ,p4 ,trent47
 ,cloth1 #de cents4  ,,mother ,,goose4  
7,c4 ,welsh47 ,in two parts4 ,paper1    
each part1 #aj cents2 cloth1 two parts  
bound in one1 #cj cents4  ,,motley',s   
,,siege ,,of ,,leyden4 7,w4 ,elliot     
,griffis47 ,paper1 #aj cents2 cloth1 #bj
 cents4  ,,muloch',s ,,little ,,lame    

,,prince4 7,e4 ,s4 ,phelps-,ward47 ,two 
parts4 ,paper1 each part1 #aj cents2    
cloth1 two parts bound in one1 #cj      
cents4  ,,old ,,world ,,wonder          
,,stories4 7,m4 ,v4 ,o',shea47 ,paper1  
#aj cents2 cloth1 #bj cents4            
,,perrault',s ,,tales ,,of ,,mother     
,,goose4 ,paper1 #aj cents2 cloth1 #bj  
cents4  ,,ruskin',s ,,king ,,of ,,the   
,,golden ,,river4 7,m4 ,v4 ,o',shea47   
,paper1 #aj cents2 cloth1 #bj cents4    
,,segur',s ,,sophie4 7,ada ,v4 ,s4      
,harris47 ,paper1 #aj cents2 cloth1 #bj 
cents4  ,,segur',s ,,story ,,of ,a      
,,donkey4 7,c4 ,f4 ,dole47 ,paper1 #aj  
cents2 cloth1 #bj cents4                
,,shakespeare',s ,,comedy ,,of ,,errors4
 7,sarah ,w4 ,hiestand47 ,paper1 #ae    
cents2 cloth1 #be cents4                
,,shakespeare',s ,,the ,,tempest4       
7,sarah ,w4 ,hiestand47 ,paper1 #ae     
cents2 cloth1 #be cents4                
,,shakespeare',s ,,winter',s ,,tale4    
7,sarah ,w4 ,hiestand47 ,paper1 #ae     
cents2 cloth1 #be cents4                

,,shakespeare',s ,a ,,midsummer         
,,night',s ,,dream4 7,sarah ,w4         
,hiestand47 ,paper1 #ae cents2 cloth1   
#be cents4  ,,shaw',s ,,castle ,,blair4 
7,mary ,a4 ,livermore74 ,cloth1 #ej     
cents4  ,,six ,,nursery ,,classics4 7,m4
 ,v4 ,o',shea47 ,paper1 #aj cents2      
cloth1 #bj cents4  ,,swift',s           
,,gulliver',s ,,travels4 #a4 ,a ,voyage 
to ,lillipot4 ,,ii4 ,a ,voyage to       
,brobdingnag4 7,t4 ,m4 ,balliet47       
,paper1 each part1 #ae cents2 cloth1 two
 parts bound in one1 #cj cents4  ,,tales
 ,,from ,,the ,,travels ,,of ,,baron    
,,munchausen4 7,edward ,everett ,hale47 
,paper1 #aj cents2 cloth1 #bj cents4    
,,thackeray',s ,,the ,,rose ,,and ,,the 
,,ring4 7,e4 ,e4 ,hale47 ,paper1 #ae    
cents2 cloth1 #be cents4  ,,trimmer',s  
,,history ,,of ,,the ,,robins4 7,e4 ,e4 
,hale47 ,paper1 #aj cents2 cloth1 #bj   
cents4  ,see also our list of books for 
,supplementary ,reading4  ,d4 ,c4       
,,heath  ,,co41 ,publishers1 ,boston1   
,new ,york1 ,chicago4