,,the ,,how-,,to-,,do-,,it ,,books ,,practical ,,mechanics ,,for ,,boys ,,the ,,how-,,to-,,do-,,it ,,books ,,practical ,,mechanics ,,for ,,boys ,in language which every boy can understand and so arranged that he may readily carry out any work from the instructions given4 ,,with ,,many ,,original ,,illustrations ,by ,j4 ,s4 ,,zerbe1 ,m4,e4 ,author of ,,carpentry ,,for ,,boys ,,electricity ,,for ,,boys ,m4 ,a4 ,,donohue ,,company ,,chicago 33 ,,new ,,york ,,copyright1 #aiad1 ,,by ,,the ,,new ,,york ,,book ,,company ,made in ,u4 ,s4 ,a4 ,,contents ,,introductory ,page #a ,i4 ,,on ,,tools ,,generally ,page #g ,varied ,requirements4 ,list of ,tools4 ,swivel ,vises4 ,parts of ,lathe4 ,chisels4 ,grinding ,apparatus4 ,large ,machines4 ,chucks4 ,bench ,tools4 ,selecting a ,lathe4 ,combination ,square4 ,micrometers4 ,protractors4 ,utilizing ,bevel ,protractors4 ,truing ,grindstones4 ,sets of ,tools4 ,the ,work ,bench4 ,the ,proper ,dimensions4 ,how ,arranged4 ,,ii4 ,,how ,,to ,,grind ,,and ,,sharpen ,,tools ,page #bf ,importance of the ,cutting ,tool4 ,the ,grinder4 ,correct ,use of ,grinder4 ,lathe ,bitts4 ,roughing ,tools4 ,the ,clearance4 ,the ,cutting ,angle4 ,drills4 ,wrong ,grinding4 ,chisels4 ,cold ,chisels4 ,system in ,work4 ,wrong ,use of ,tools4 ,,iii4 ,,setting ,,and ,,holding ,,tools ,page #cd ,lathe ,speed4 ,the ,hack-saw4 ,hack-saw ,frame4 ,the ,blade4 ,files4 ,grindstones4 ,emery and ,grinding ,wheels4 ,carelessness in ,holding ,tools4 ,calipers4 ,care in ,use of ,calipers4 ,machine ,bitts4 ,the ,proper ,angle for ,lathe ,tools4 ,setting the ,bitt4 ,the ,setting ,angle4 ,bad ,practice4 ,proper ,lathe ,speeds4 ,boring ,tools on ,lathe4 ,the ,rake of the ,drill4 ,laps4 ,using the ,lap4 ,surface ,gages4 ,uses of the ,surface ,gage4 ,,iv4 ,,on ,,the ,,first ,,use ,,of ,,the ,,file ,page #dh ,the ,first ,test4 ,filing an ,irregular ,block4 ,filing a ,bar ,straight4 ,filing ,bar with ,parallel ,sides4 ,surfacing ,off ,disks4 ,true ,surfacing4 ,precision ,tools4 ,test of the ,mechanic4 ,test ,suggestions4 ,use of the ,dividers4 ,cutting a ,key-way4 ,key-way ,difficulties4 ,filing ,metal ,round4 ,kinds of ,files4 ,cotter-file4 ,square4 ,pinion4 ,half-round4 ,round4 ,triangular4 ,equalizing4 ,cross4 ,slitting4 ,character of ,file ,tooth4 ,double ,cut4 ,float-cut4 ,rasp ,cut4 ,holding the ,file4 ,injuring ,files4 ,drawing ,back the ,file4 ,v4 ,,how ,,to ,,commence ,,work ,page #fa ,familiarity with ,tools4 ,file ,practice4 ,using the ,dividers4 ,finding ,centers4 ,hack-saw ,practice4 ,cutting ,metal ,true4 ,lathe ,work4 ,first ,steps4 ,setting the ,tool4 ,metals ,used4 ,the ,four ,important ,things4 ,turning ,up a ,cylinder4 ,turning ,grooves4 ,disks4 ,lathe ,speeds4 ,,vi4 ,,illustrating ,,some ,,of ,,the ,,fundamental ,,devices ,page #fh ,belt ,lacing4 ,gears4 ,crown ,wheel4 ,grooved ,friction ,gearing4 ,a ,valve which ,closes by the ,water ,pressure4 ,cone ,pulleys4 ,universal ,joint4 ,trammel for ,making ,ellipses4 ,escapements4 ,simple ,device to ,prevent a ,wheel or ,shaft from ,turning ,back4 ,racks and ,pinions4 ,mutilated ,gears4 ,simple ,shaft ,coupling4 ,clutches4 ,ball and ,socket ,joints4 ,tripping ,devices4 ,anchor ,bolt4 ,lazy ,tongs4 ,disk ,shears4 ,wabble ,saw4 ,crank ,motion by a ,slotted ,yoke4 ,continuous ,feed by ,motion of a ,lever4 ,crank ,motion4 ,ratchet ,head4 ,bench ,clamp4 ,helico-volute ,spring4 ,double helico-volute4 ,helical ,spring4 ,single ,volute ,helix ,spring4 ,flat ,spiral1 or ,convolute4 ,eccentric ,rod and ,strap4 ,anti-dead ,center for ,lathe4 ,,vii4 ,,properties ,,of ,,materials ,page #gi ,elasticity4 ,traction4 ,torsion4 ,flexure4 ,tenacity4 ,the ,most ,tenacious ,metal4 ,ductility4 ,malleability4 ,hardness4 ,alloys4 ,resistance4 ,persistence4 ,conductivity4 ,equalization4 ,reciprocity4 ,molecular ,forces4 ,attraction4 ,cohesion4 ,adhesion4 ,affinity4 ,porosity4 ,compressibility4 ,elasticity4 ,inertia4 ,momentum4 ,weight4 ,centripetal ,force4 ,centrifugal ,force4 ,capillary ,attraction4 ,the ,sap of ,trees4 ,sound4 ,acoustics4 ,sound ,mediums4 ,vibration4 ,velocity of ,sound4 ,sound ,reflections4 ,resonance4 ,echos4 ,speaking ,trumpet4 ,the ,stethoscope4 ,the ,vitascope4 ,the ,phonautograph4 ,the ,phonograph4 ,light4 ,the ,corpuscular ,theory4 ,undulatory ,theory4 ,luminous ,bodies4 ,velocity of ,light4 ,reflection4 ,refraction4 ,colors4 ,the ,spectroscope4 ,the ,rainbow4 ,heat4 ,expansion4 ,,viii4 ,,how ,,draughting ,,becomes ,a ,,valuable ,,aid ,page #ie ,lines in ,drawing4 ,shading4 ,direction of ,shade4 ,perspectives4 ,the ,most ,pronounced ,lines4 ,direction of ,light4 ,scale ,drawings4 ,degree1 and ,what it ,means4 ,memorizing ,angles4 ,section ,lining4 ,making ,ellipses and ,irregular ,curves4 ,focal ,points4 ,isometric and ,perspective4 ,the ,protractor4 ,suggestions in ,drawing4 ,holding the ,pen4 ,inks4 ,tracing ,cloth4 ,detail ,paper4 ,how to ,proceed4 ,indicating ,material by ,section ,lines4 ,,ix4 ,,treatment ,,and ,,use ,,of ,,metals ,page #aab ,annealing4 ,toughness and ,elasticity4 ,the ,process4 ,tempering4 ,tempering ,contrasted with ,annealing4 ,materials ,used4 ,gradual ,tempering4 ,fluxing4 ,uniting ,metals4 ,alloying ,method4 ,welding4 ,sweating4 ,welding ,compounds4 ,oxidation4 ,soldering4 ,soft ,solder4 ,hard ,solder4 ,spelter4 ,soldering ,acid4 ,the ,soldering ,iron4 ,x4 ,,on ,,gearing1 ,,and ,,how ,,ordered ,page #aba ,spur and ,pinion4 ,measuring a ,gear4 ,pitch4 ,diametral ,pitch4 ,circular ,pitch4 ,how to ,order a ,gear4 ,bevel and ,miter ,gears4 ,drawing ,gears4 ,sprocket ,wheels4 ,,xi4 ,,mechanical ,,power ,page #abh ,the ,lever4 ,wrong ,inferences from ,use of ,lever4 ,the ,lever ,principle4 ,powers vs4 ,distance ,traveled4 ,power vs4 ,loss of ,time4 ,wrongly-,directed ,energy4 ,the ,lever and the ,pulley4 ,sources of ,power4 ,water ,power4 ,calculating ,fuel ,energy4 ,the ,pressure or ,head4 ,fuels4 ,power from ,winds4 ,speed of ,wind and ,pressure4 ,varying ,degrees of ,pressure4 ,power from ,waves and ,tides4 ,a ,profitable ,field4 ,,xii4 ,,on ,,measures ,page #aci ,horse ,power4 ,foot ,pounds4 ,energy4 ,how to ,find ,out the ,power ,developed4 ,the ,test4 ,calculations4 ,the ,foot ,measure4 ,weight4 ,the ,gallon4 ,the ,metric ,system4 ,basis of ,measurement4 ,metrical ,table1 ,showing ,measurements in ,feet and ,inches4 ,,xiii4 ,,useful ,,information ,,for ,,the ,,workshop ,page #adh ,finding the ,circumference of a ,circle4 ,diameter of a ,circle4 ,area of a ,circle4 ,area of a ,triangle4 ,surface of a ,ball4 ,solidity of a ,sphere4 ,contents of a ,cone4 ,capacity of a ,pipe4 ,capacity of ,tanks4 ,to ,toughen ,aluminum4 ,amalgams4 ,prevent ,boiler ,scaling4 ,diamond ,test4 ,making ,glue ,insoluble in ,water4 ,taking ,glaze ,out of ,grindstone4 ,to ,find ,speeds of ,pulleys4 ,to ,find the ,diameters ,required4 ,to ,prevent ,belts from ,slipping4 ,removing ,boiler ,scale4 ,gold ,bronze4 ,cleaning ,rusted ,utensils4 ,to ,prevent ,plaster of ,paris from ,setting ,quickly4 ,the ,measurement of ,liquids with ,spoons4 ,,xiv4 ,,simplicity ,,of ,,great ,,inventions ,,and ,,of ,,nature',s ,,manifestation ,page #aeb ,invention ,precedes ,science4 ,simplicity in ,inventions4 ,the ,telegraph4 ,telephone4 ,transmitter4 ,phonograph4 ,wireless ,telegraphy4 ,printing ,telegraph4 ,electric ,motor4 ,explosions4 ,vibrations in ,nature4 ,qualities of ,sound4 ,the ,photographer's ,plate4 ,quadruplex ,telegraphy4 ,electric ,harmony4 ,odors4 ,odophone4 ,a ,bouquet of ,vibrations4 ,taste4 ,color4 ,,xv4 ,,workshop ,,recipes ,,and ,,formulas ,page #afj ,adhesives for ,various ,uses4 ,belt ,glue4 ,cements4 ,transparent ,cement4 ,u4 ,s4 ,government ,gum4 ,to ,make ,different ,alloys4 ,bell-metal4 ,brass4 ,bronzes4 ,boiler ,compounds4 ,celluloid4 ,clay ,mixture for ,forges4 ,modeling ,clay4 ,fluids for ,cleaning ,clothes1 ,furniture1 etc4 ,disinfectants4 ,deodorants4 ,emery for ,lapping ,purposes4 ,explosives4 ,fulminates4 ,files1 and ,how to ,keep ,clean4 ,renewing ,files4 ,fire-proof ,materials or ,substances4 ,floor ,dressings4 ,stains4 ,foot ,powders4 ,frost ,bites4 ,glass4 ,to ,frost4 ,how to ,distinguish4 ,iron and ,steel4 ,to ,soften ,castings4 ,lacquers4 ,for ,aluminum and ,brass4 ,copper4 ,lubricants4 ,paper4 ,photography4 ,plasters4 ,plating1 ,coloring ,metals4 ,polishes4 ,putty4 ,rust ,preventives4 ,solders4 ,soldering ,fluxes4 ,steel ,tempering4 ,varnishes4 ,sealing ,wax4 ,,xvi4 ,,handy ,,tables ,page #agh ,table of ,weights for ,round and ,square ,steel4 ,table of ,weight of ,flat ,steel ,bars4 ,avoirdupois ,weight4 ,troy ,weight4 ,apothecaries' ,weight4 ,linear ,measure4 ,long ,measure4 ,square ,measure4 ,solid or ,cubic ,measure4 ,dry ,measure4 ,liquid ,measure4 ,paper ,measure4 ,table of ,temperatures4 ,strength of ,various ,metals4 ,freezing ,mixtures4 ,ignition ,temperatures4 ,power and ,heat ,equivalents4 ,,xvii4 ,,inventions ,,and ,,patents1 ,,and ,,information ,,about ,,the ,,rights ,,and ,,duties ,,of ,,inventors ,,and ,,workmen1 ,page #ahh ,the ,machinist's ,opportunities4 ,what is an ,inventor8 ,idea ,not ,invention4 ,what an ,invention ,must ,have4 ,obligation of the ,model ,builder4 ,paying for ,developing ,devices4 ,time for ,filing an ,application4 ,selling an ,unpatented ,invention4 ,joint ,inventors4 ,joint ,owners ,not ,partners4 ,partnerships in ,patents4 ,form of ,protection ,issued by the ,government4 ,life of a ,patent4 ,interference ,proceedings4 ,concurrent ,applications4 ,granting ,interference4 ,steps in ,interference4 ,first ,sketches4 ,first ,model4 ,first ,operative ,machine4 ,preliminary ,statements4 ,proving ,invention4 ,what ,patents ,are ,issued ,for4 ,owner's ,rights4 ,divided and ,undivided ,patents4 ,assignments4 ,how ,made4 ,what an ,invention ,must ,have4 ,basis for ,granting ,patent in the ,united ,states4 ,reasons for ,granting ,abroad4 ,original ,grants of ,patents4 ,international ,agreement4 ,application for ,patents4 ,course of ,procedure4 ,costs4 ,filing a ,matter of ,secrecy4 ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,,fig4 ,,page #a4 ,bench vise #h #b4 ,pipe grip for vise #i #c4 ,swivel vise #aj #d4 ,speed lathe #aa #e4 ,calipers #ab #f4 ,engine lathe #ac #g4 ,center gage #ad #h4 ,pocket screw and wire gage #ae #i4 ,handy bench vise #af #aj4 ,combination square #ag #aa4 ,uses of the combination square #ah #ab4 ,a quick adjusting micrometer #ai #ac4 ,universal bevel protractor #bj #ad4 ,uses of universal bevel protractor #ba #ae4 ,grindstone truing device #bb #af4 ,set of tools and case #bc #ag4 ,the work bench #bd #ah4 ,hook tool #bh #ai4 ,parting tool #bh #bj4 ,knife tool #bh #ba4 ,right-hand side tool #bh #bb4 ,internal tool #bh #bc4 ,left-hand side tool #bh #bd4 ,tool for wrought iron #bi #be4 ,tool for cast iron #bi #bf4 ,end view of drill #ca #bg4 ,side view of drill #ca #bh4 ,hack-saw frame #ce #bi4 ,hack-saw blade #ce #cj4 ,plain hook tool #ch #ca4 ,plain straight tool #ch #cb4 ,proper angles for tools #ci #cc4 ,angles for tools #ci #cd4 ,angles for tools #ci #ce4 ,set of the bitt #dj #cf4 ,correct angle #da #cg4 ,wrong angle #da #ch4 ,too low #db #ci4 ,improper set #db #dj4 ,internal set #dc #da4 ,set for brass #dc #db4 ,surface gage #dd #dc4 ,uses of surface gage #df #dd4 ,rounded surface #di #de4 ,winding surface #di #df4 ,hexagon nut #ea #dg4 ,laying off hexagon nut #ea #dh4 ,cutting key-way #eb #di4 ,key-seat rule #ed #ej4 ,filing metal round #ed #ea4 ,filing metal round #ed #eb4 ,making a round bearing #ee #ec4 ,making a round bearing #ee #ed4 ,cross section of file #ef #ee4 ,files #eh #ef4 ,correct file movement #ei #eg4 ,incorrect file movement #fj #eh4 ,belt lacing #fi #ei4 ,belt lacing #fi #fj4 ,belt lacing #fi #fa4 ,belt lacing #fi #fb4 ,bevel gears #ga #fc4 ,miter gears #ga #fd4 ,crown wheel #ga #fe4 ,grooved friction gears #ga #ff4 ,valve #ga #fg4 ,cone pulleys #ga #fh4 ,universal joint #ga #fi4 ,trammel #gc #gj4 ,escapement #gc #ga4 ,device for holding wheel #gc #gb4 ,rack and pinion #gc #gc4 ,mutilated gears #gc #gd4 ,shaft coupling #gc #ge4 ,clutches #ge #gf4 ,ball and socket joints #ge #gg4 ,fastening ball #ge #gh4 ,tripping devices #ge #gi4 ,anchor bolt #ge #hj4 ,lazy tongs #ge #ha4 ,disc shears #ge #hb4 ,wabble saw #gf #hc4 ,continuous crank motion #gf #hd4 ,continues feed #gf #he4 ,crank motion #gf #hf4 ,ratchet head #gf #hg4 ,bench clamp #gf #hh4 ,helico-volute spring #gg #hi4 ,double helico-volute #gg #ij4 ,helical spring #gg #ia4 ,single volute-helix #gg #ib4 ,flat spiral or convolute #gg #ic4 ,eccentric rod or strap #gg #id4 ,anti dead-centers for lathes #gg #ie4 ,plain circle #ie #if4 ,ring #if #ig4 ,raised surface #if #ih4 ,sphere #if #ii4 ,depressed surface #if #ajj4 ,concave #ig #aja4 ,forms of cubical outlines #ih #ajb4 ,forms of cubical outlines #ih #ajc4 ,forms of cubical outlines #ih #ajd4 ,forms of cubical outlines #ih #aje4 ,shading edges #ii #ajf4 ,shading edges #ii #ajg4 ,illustrating heavy lines #ajj #ajh4 ,illustrating heavy lines #ajj #aji4 ,lines on plain surfaces #aja #aaj4 ,lines on plain surfaces #aja #aaa4 ,illustrating degrees #ajb #aab4 ,section lining #ajc #aac4 ,drawing an ellipse #ajd #aad4 ,perspective at angles #ajf #aae4 ,perspective of cube #ajg #aaf4 ,perspective of cube #ajg #aag4 ,perspective of cube #ajg #aah4 ,protractor #ajh #aai4 ,using the protractor #aji #abj4 ,section-lining metals #aaj #aba4 ,spur gears #abb #abb4 ,miter gear pitch #abc #abc4 ,bevel gears #abd #abd4 ,laying of miter gears #abe #abe4 ,sprocket wheel #abh #abf4 ,simple lever #abi #abg4 ,lever action #acj #abh4 ,the pulley #acb #abi4 ,change of direction #acc #acj4 ,change of direction #acc #aca4 ,steam pressure #ace #acb4 ,water pressure #ace #acc4 ,prony brake #ada #acd4 ,speed indicator #adb ,,practical ,,mechanics ,,for ,,boys ,,introductory ,the ,american method of teaching the mechanical arts has some disadvantages1 as compared with the apprentice system followed in ,england1 and very largely on the continent4 ,it is too often the case that here a boy or a young man begins work in a machine shop1 not for the avowed purpose of learning the trade1 but simply as a helper1 with no other object in view than to get his weekly wages4 ,abroad1 the plan is one which1 for various reasons1 could not be tolerated here4 ,there he is bound for a certain term of years1 and with the prime object of teaching him to become an artisan4 ,more often than otherwise he pays for this privilege1 and he knows it is incumbent on him to make good right from the start4 ,he labors under the disadvantage1 however1 that he has a certain tenure1 and in that course he is not pushed forward from one step to the next on account of any merit of his own4 ,his advancement is fixed by the time he has put in at each part of the work1 and thus no note is taken of his individuality4 ,here the boy rises step after step by virtue of his own qualifications1 and we recognize that one boy has the capacity to learn faster than another4 ,if he can learn in one year what it requires three in another to acquire1 in order to do it as perfectly1 it is an injury to the apt workman to be held back and deterred from making his way upwardly4 ,it may be urged that the apprentice system instills thoroughness4 ,this may be true2 but it also does another thing3 ,it makes the man a mere machine4 ,the true workman is a thinker4 ,he is ever on the alert to find easier1 quicker and more efficient means for doing certain work4 ,what is called ,efficiency in labor methods1 can never obtain in an apprenticeship system for this reason4 ,in a certain operation1 where twelve motions are required to do a certain thing1 and a minute to perform the twelve operations1 a simplified way1 necessitating only eight motions1 means a difference in saving one-third of the time4 ,the nineteen hundred fewer particular movements in a day's work1 being a less strain on the operator1 both physically and mentally1 to say nothing whatever of the advantages which the proprietor of the shop would gain4 ,i make this a leading text in the presentation of this book2 namely1 that individual merit and stimulus is something of such extreme importance that it should be made the keynote for every boy who tries to become a mechanic4 ,the machinist easily occupies a leading place in the multitude of trades and occupations4 ,there is hardly an article of use but comes to the market through his hands4 ,his labor is most diverse1 and in his employment doing machine work he is called upon to do things which vary widely in their character4 ,these require special knowledge1 particular tools1 and more frequently than otherwise1 a high order of inventive ability to enable him to accomplish the task4 ,the boy should be taught1 at the outset1 that certain things must be learned thoroughly1 and that habits in a machine shop can be bad as well as good4 ,when he once becomes accustomed to putting a tool back in its rightful place the moment he is through with it1 he has taken a long step toward efficiency4 ,when he grasps a tool and presents it to the work without turning it over several times1 or has acquired the knack of picking up the right tool at the proper place1 he is making strides in the direction of becoming a rapid and skilled workman4 ,these1 and many other things of like import1 will require our attention throughout the various chapters4 ,it is not the intention of the book to make every boy who reads and studies it1 a machinist2 nor have we any desire to present a lot of useful articles as samples of what to make4 ,the object is to show the boy what are the requirements necessary to make him a machinist2 how to hold1 handle1 sharpen and grind the various tools2 the proper ones to use for each particular character of work2 how the various machines are handled and cared for2 the best materials to use2 and suggest the numerous things which can be done in a shop which will pave the way for making his work pleasant as well as profitable4 ,it also analyzes the manner in which the job is laid out2 how to set the tools to get the most effective work2 and explains what is meant by making a finished piece of workmanship4 ,these things1 properly acquired1 each must determine in his own mind whether he is adapted to follow up the work4 ,over and above all1 we shall try to give the boy some stimulus for his work4 ,unless he takes an interest in what he is doing1 he will never become an artisan in the true sense of the word4 ,go through the book1 and see whether1 here and there1 you do not get some glimpses of what it means to take a pleasure in doing each particular thing1 and you will find in every instance that it is a satisfaction because you have learned to perform it with ease4 ,i do not know of anything which has done as much to advance the arts and manufactures1 during the last century1 as the universal desire to improve the form1 shape and structure of tools2 and the effort to invent new ones4 ,this finds its reflection everywhere in the production of new and improved products4 ,in this particular ,i have been led to formulate a homely sentence which expresses the idea3 ,invention consists in doing an old thing a new way2 or a new thing any way4 ,,the ,,author4 ,,chapter ,i ,,on ,,tools ,,generally ,judging from the favorable comments of educators1 on the general arrangement of the subject matter in the work on ,carpentry for ,boys1 ,i am disposed to follow that plan in this book in so far as it pertains to tools4 ,in this field1 as in ,carpentry1 ,i do not find any guide which is adapted to teach the boy the fundamentals of mechanics4 ,writers usually overlook the fact1 that as the boy knows nothing whatever about the subject1 he could not be expected to know anything about tools4 ,to describe them gives a start in the education1 but it is far short of what is necessary for one in his condition4 ,if he is told that the chisel or bit for a lathe has a diamond point1 or is round-nosed1 and must be ground at a certain angle1 he naturally wants to know1 as all boys do1 why it should be at that angle4 ,so in the setting of the tools with relation to the work1 the holding and manipulation of the file1 of the drill for accurate boring1 together with numerous little things1 are all taken for granted1 and the boy blunders along with the ultimate object in sight1 without having the pathway cleared so he may readily reach the goal4 ,,varied ,,requirements4--,the machinist's trade is one which requires the most varied tools of all occupations1 and they are by all odds the most expensive to be found in the entire list of vocations4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,bench ,vise4 ,this arises from the fact that he must work with the most stubborn of all materials4 ,he finds resistance at every step in bringing forth a product4 ,,list ,,of ,,tools4--,with a view of familiarizing the boy with this great variety the following list is compiled1 from which we shall select the ones essential in the initial equipment of a small shop4 ,,vises4--,one small1 good vise is infinitely preferable to two bad ones4 ,for ordinary work a #c-;inch jaw is preferable1 and it should be firmly mounted on the bench4 ,so many kinds are now made that it would be a costly thing to purchase one for each special use1 therefore the boy will find it profitable to make some attachments for the ordinary vise4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,pipe ,grip for ,vise4 ,,swivel ,,vises4--,a swivel vise is always a good tool1 the cost being not excessive over the ordinary kind4 ,then a pair of grips for holding pipe1 or round material which is to be threaded1 can readily be made4 ,the drawing 7,fig4 #b7 shows a serviceable pair of grips1 made to fit the jaws of a vise1 and will be acceptable in much of the work4 ,then1 the vise should be provided with copper caps for the jaws to be used when making up articles which would otherwise be injured by the jaws4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,swivel ,vise4 ,let us get a comprehensive view of the different kinds of tools necessary in a fully equipped shop4 ,,parts ,,of ,,lathe4--,the first thing of importance is the lathe1 and of these there is quite a variety1 and among the accompaniments are the slide rest1 mandrel1 back gear1 division plate1 angle plate1 cone plate and various chucks4 ,there must also be change wheels1 studs and quadrant plates1 self-acting feed for surfacing and cross slide1 and clamping nuts4 ,drilling machines1 both hand and power1 hand and ratchet braces and breast-drill stocks4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d--,speed ,lathe4 ,,chisels4--,chisels of various kinds1 for chipping and cross-cutting2 round-nosed1 centering1 set punches1 tommies and drifts4 ,back1 tee and centering square2 bevels1 spirit level1 inside and outside calipers1 straight edges1 rules and surface plates4 ,gages for boring1 scribing blocks1 steel and brass scribes1 stocks and dies1 screw-plates1 taps for bolts1 reamers4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,calipers ,files for various descriptions1 countersinks1 frame and hack saws4 ,,grinding ,,apparatus4--,emery wheel1 cloth and paper1 paper1 flour emery1 polishing powders1 laps and buffs1 and polishing sticks4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,engine ,lathe4 ,a4 ,lathe ,bed ,b4 ,rack ,gear ,c4 ,live ,center ,d4 ,dead ,center ,e4 ,dead ,spindle ,f4 ,face ,plate ,g4 ,feed ,screw ,h4 ,train of ,gears ,i4 ,head ,stock ,j4 ,mandrel ,k4 ,cone ,pulley ,l4 ,angle ,plate for ,tool ,holder ,m4 ,tool ,post ,n4 ,tail ,stock ,o4 ,wheel for ,slide ,rest ,mechanism ,p4 ,locking ,lever for ,tail ,stock4 ,forge1 anvils1 tongs1 swages1 punches1 bolt tools1 hot and cold chisels1 blow-pipe1 soldering iron1 hard and soft solders1 borax1 spirits of salts1 oil1 resin and spelter4 ,to this may be added an endless variety of small bench tools1 micrometers1 protractors1 arbors1 collets1 box tools and scrapers4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,center ,gage4 ,,large ,,machines4--,the list would not be complete without the planer1 shaper and milling machine1 with their variety of chucks1 clamps and other attachments1 too numerous to mention4 ,the foregoing show what a wonderful variety of articles are found in a well-equipped shop1 all of which can be conveniently used2 but to the boy who has only a small amount of money1 a workable set is indicated as follows3 ,a small lathe1 with an #h-;inch swing1 can be obtained at a low cost1 provided with a countershaft complete4 ,,chucks4--,with this should go a small chuck1 and a face-plate for large work1 unless a large chuck can also be acquired4 ,this1 with a dozen tools of various sizes1 and also small bits for drilling purposes4 ,the lathe will answer all purposes for drilling1 but small drilling machines are now furnished at very low figures1 and such a machine will take off a great deal of duty from the lathe4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,pocket ,screw and ,wire ,gage4 ,as the lathe is of prime importance1 never use it for drilling1 if you have a driller1 as it always has enough work to do for tuning up work4 ,,bench ,,tools4--,of bench tools1 a #c-;inch vise1 various files1 center punch1 two hammers1 round and ,a-shaped peons1 hack saw1 compasses1 inside and outside calipers1 screw driver1 cold chisels1 metal square1 level1 straight edge1 bevel square1 reamers1 small emery wheel and an oil stone1 make a fairly good outfit to start with1 and these can be added to from time to time4 ,everything in the machine shop centers about the lathe4 ,it is the king of all tools4 ,the shaper and planer may be most efficient for surfacing1 and the milling machine for making grooves and gears1 or for general cutting purposes1 but the lathe possesses a range of work not possible with either of the other tools1 and for that reason should be selected with great care4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,handy ,bench ,vise4 ,,selecting ,a ,,lathe4--,the important things about a lathe are the spindle bearings and the ways for the tool-holder4 ,the least play in either will ruin any work4 ,every other part may be defective1 but with solidly built bearing-posts and bearings1 your lathe will be effective4 ,for this reason it will not pay to get a cheap tool4 ,better get a small1 #f-;inch approved tool of this kind1 than a larger cheap article4 ,it may pay with other tools1 but with a lathe never4 ,never do grinding on a lathe4 ,the fine emery1 or grinding material1 is sure to reach the bearings2 it matters not what care is exercised4 ,there is only one remedy for this--overhauling4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4--;,combination ,square4 ,,combination ,,square4--,a tool of this kind is most essential1 however small4 ,it can be used as a try-square1 and has this advantage1 that the head can be made to slide along the rule and be clamped at any point4 ,it has a beveling and a leveling device1 as well4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4--,uses of the ,combination ,square4 ,the combination square provides a means for doing a great variety of work1 as it combines the qualities of a rule1 square1 miter1 depth gage1 height gage1 level and center head4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4--;,a ,quick ,adjusting ,micrometer4 ,the full page illustration 7,fig4 #aa7 shows some of the uses and the particular manner of holding the tool4 ,,micrometers4--,tools of this description are made which will accurately measure work in dimensions of ten-thousandths of an inch up to an inch4 ,the illustration 7,fig4 #ab7 shows an approved tool1 and this is so constructed that it can instantly be changed and set by merely pressing the end of the plunger as shown4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4--;,a ,universal ,bevel ,protractor4 ,,protractors4--,as all angles are not obtainable by the square or bevel1 a protractor is a most desirable addition to the stock of tools4 ,as one side of the tool is flat it is convenient for laying on the paper when drafting1 as well as for use on the work4 ,the protractor has a graduated disk1 and is adjustable so it can be disposed at any angle4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4--,universal ,bevel ,protractor1 showing its uses4 ,all special tools of this kind are serviceable1 and the boy should understand their uses1 even though he is not able for the time being to acquire them4 ,to learn how they are applied in daily use is an education in itself4 ,,utilizing ,,bevel ,,protractor4--,examine the full-page illustration 7,fig4 #ad71 and see how the bevel protractor is utilized to measure the angles of work1 whether it is tapering heads or different kinds of nuts1 or end and side surfacing1 and it will teach an important lesson4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4--;,grindstone ,truing ,device4 ,,truing ,,grindstones4--,devices for truing up grindstones are now made1 and the illustration 7,fig4 #ae7 shows a very efficient machine for this purpose4 ,it can be applied instantly to the face of the stone1 and it works automatically1 without interfering with the use of the stone4 ,it is frequently the case that an emery wheel will become glazed1 due to its extreme hardness4 ,this is also caused1 sometimes1 by running it at too high a speed4 ,if the glazing continues after the speed is reduced1 it should be ground down an eighth of an inch or so4 ,this will1 usually1 remedy the defect4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af4--,set of ,tools and ,case4 ,,sets ,,of ,,tools4--,a cheap and convenient set of precision tools is shown in ,fig4 #af1 which is kept in a neat folding leather case4 ,the set consists of a #f-;inch combination square1 complete center punch1 #f-;inch flexible steel rule center gage1 #d-;inch calipers1 #d-;inch outside caliper with solid nut1 #d-;inch inside caliper with solid nut1 and a #d-;inch divider with a solid nut4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag4 ,the ,work ,bench4 ,,the ,,work ,,bench4--,this is the mechanic's fort4 ,his capacity for work will depend on its arrangement4 ,to the boy this is particularly interesting1 and for his uses it should be made full three inches lower than the standard height4 ,a good plan to judge of the proper height is to measure from the jaws of the vise4 ,the top of the jaw should be on a level with the elbows4 ,grasp a file with both hands1 and hold it as though in the act of filing across the work2 then measure up from the floor to the elbows1 when they are held in that position4 ,,the ,,proper ,,dimensions4--,this plan will give you a sure means of selecting a height that is best adapted for your work4 ,the regulation bench is about #ch inches high1 and assuming that the vise projects up about #d inches more1 would bring the top of the jaws about #db to #dd inches from the floor4 ,it is safe to fix the height of the bench at not less than #cd inches4 ,this should have a drawer1 preferably near the right-hand end of the bench4 ,the vise should be at the left side1 and the bench in your front should be free of any fixed tools4 ,,how ,,arranged4--,have a rack above the bench at the rear1 for the various tools when not in use1 and the rear board of the bench should be elevated above the front planks several inches1 on which the various tools can be put1 other than those which are suspended on the rack above4 ,the advantage of this is1 that a bench will accumulate a quantity of material that the tools can hide in1 and there is nothing more annoying than to hunt over a lot of trash to get what is needed4 ,it is necessary to emphasize the necessity of always putting a tool back in its proper place1 immediately after using4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,how ,,to ,,grind ,,and ,,sharpen ,,tools ,it is singular1 that with the immense variety of tools set forth in the preceding chapter1 how few1 really1 require the art of the workman to grind and sharpen4 ,if we take the lathe1 the drilling machine1 as well as the shaper1 planer1 milling machine1 and all power-driven tools1 they are merely mechanism contrived to handle some small1 and1 apparently1 inconsequential tool1 which does the work on the material4 ,,importance ,,of ,,the ,,cutting ,,tool4--,but it is this very fact that makes the preparation of that part of the mechanism so important4 ,here we have a lathe1 weighing a thousand pounds1 worth hundreds of dollars1 concentrating its entire energies on a little bit1 weighing eight ounces1 and worth less than a dollar4 ,it may thus readily be seen that it is the little bar of metal from which the small tool is made that needs our care and attention4 ,this is particularly true of the expensive milling machines1 where the little saw1 if not in perfect order1 and not properly set1 will not only do improper work1 but injure the machine itself4 ,more lathes are ruined from using badly ground tools than from any other cause4 ,in the whole line of tools which the machinist must take care of daily1 there is nothing as important as the lathe cutting-tool1 and the knowledge which goes with it to use the proper one4 ,let us simplify the inquiry by considering them under the following headings3 #a4 ,the grinder4 #b4 ,the grinding angle4 ,,the ,,grinder4--,the first mistake the novice will make1 is to use the tool on the grinder as though it were necessary to grind it down with a few turns of the wheel4 ,haste is not conducive to proper sharpening4 ,as the wheel is of emery1 corundum or other quickly cutting material1 and is always run at a high rate of speed1 a great heat is evolved1 which is materially increased by pressure4 ,pressure is injurious not so much to the wheel as to the tool itself4 ,the moment a tool becomes heated there is danger of destroying the temper1 and the edge1 being the thinnest1 is the most violently affected4 ,hence it is desirable always to have a receptacle with water handy1 into which the tool can be plunged1 during the process of grinding down4 ,,correct ,,use ,,of ,,grinder4--,treat the wheel as though it is a friend1 and not an enemy4 ,take advantage of its entire surface4 ,whenever you go into a machine shop1 look at the emery wheel4 ,if you find it worn in creases1 and distorted in its circular outline1 you can make up your mind that there is some one there who has poor tools1 because it is simply out of the question to grind a tool correctly with such a wheel4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah4 ,hook ,tool4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai4 ,parting ,tool4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj4 ,knife ,tool4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba4 ,right-hand ,side ,tool4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4 ,internal ,tool4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc4 ,left-hand ,side ,tool4 ,coarse wheels are an abomination for tool work4 ,use the finest kinds devised for the purpose4 ,they will keep in condition longer1 are not so liable to wear unevenly1 and will always finish off the edge better than the coarse variety4 ,,lathe ,,bits4--,all bits made for lathes are modifications of the foregoing types 7,figs4 #ah1 #ai1 #bj1 #ba1 #bb1 #bc74 ,as this chapter deals with the sharpening methods only1 the reader is referred to the next chapter1 which deals with the manner of setting and holding them to do the most effective work4 ,when it is understood that a cutting tool in a lathe is simply a form of wedge which peels off a definite thickness of metal1 the importance of proper grinding and correct position in the lathe can be appreciated4 ,,roughing ,,tools4--,the most useful is the roughing tool to take off the first cut4 ,as this type of tool is also important1 with some modifications1 in finishing work1 it is given the place of first consideration here4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bd4 ,tool for ,wrought iron4 ,fig4 #be4 ,tool for ,cast iron4 ,fig4 #bd shows side and top views of a tool designed to rough off wrought iron1 or a tough quality of steel4 ,you will notice1 that what is called the top rake 7,a7 is very pronounced1 and1 as the point projects considerably above the body of the tool itself1 it should1 in practice1 be set with its cutting point above the center4 ,,the ,,clearance4--,now1 in grinding1 the important point is the clearance line 7,b74 ,as shown in this figure1 it has an angle of #aj degrees1 so that in placing the tool in the holder it is obvious it cannot be placed very high above the center1 particularly when used on small work4 ,the top rake is ground at an angle of #fj degrees from the vertical4 ,the arc of the curved end depends on the kind of lathe and the size of the work4 ,the tool 7,fig4 #be71 with a straight cutting edge1 is the proper one to rough off cast iron4 ,note that the top rake 7,c7 is #gj degrees1 and the clearance #ae degrees4 ,,the ,,cutting ,,angle4--,wrought iron1 or mild steel1 will form a ribbon when the tool wedges its way into the material4 ,cast iron1 on the other hand1 owing to its brittleness1 will break off into small particles1 hence the wedge surface can be put at a more obtuse angle to the work4 ,in grinding side-cutters the clearance should be at a less angle than #aj degrees1 rather than more1 and the top rake should also be less2 otherwise the tendency will be to draw the tool into the work and swing the tool post around4 ,,drills4--,holders for grinding twist drills are now furnished at very low prices1 and instructions are usually sent with the machines1 but a few words may not be amiss for the benefit of those who have not the means to purchase such a machine4 ,hand grinding is a difficult thing1 for the reason that through carelessness1 or inability1 both sides of the drill are not ground at the same angle and pitch4 ,as a result the cutting edge of one side will do more work than the other4 ,if the heel angles differ1 one side will draw into the work1 and the other resist4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bf4 ,end view4 ,fig4 #bg4 ,side view4 ,,wrong ,,grinding4--,when such is the case the hole becomes untrue4 ,the sides of the bit will grind into the walls1 or the bit will have a tendency to run to one side1 and particularly if boring through metal which is uneven in its texture or grain4 ,figs4 #bf and #bg show end and side views of a bit properly ground4 ,if a bit has been broken off1 first grind it off square at the end1 and then grind down the angles1 so that ,a is about #ae degrees1 and be sure that the heel has sufficient clearance--that is1 ground down deeper than the cutting point4 ,,chisels4--,a machine shop should always have a plentiful supply of cold chisels1 and a particular kind for each work1 to be used for that purpose only4 ,this may seem trivial to the boy1 but it is really a most important matter4 ,notice the careless and incompetent workman4 ,if chipping or cutting is required1 he will grasp the first chisel at hand4 ,it may have a curved end1 or be a key-way chisel1 or entirely unsuited as to size for the cutting required4 ,the result is an injured tool1 and unsatisfactory results4 ,the rule holds good in this respect as with every other tool in the kit4 ,use a tool for the purpose it was made for1 and for no other4 ,acquire that habit4 ,,cold ,,chisels4--,a cold chisel should never be ground to a long1 tapering point1 like a wood chisel4 ,the proper taper for a wood chisel is #ae degrees1 whereas a cold chisel should be #de degrees4 ,a drifting chisel may have a longer taper than one used for chipping4 ,it is a good habit1 particularly as there are so few tools which require grinding1 to commence the day's work by grinding the chisels1 and arranging them for business4 ,,system ,,in ,,work4--,then see to it that the drills are in good shape2 and while you are about it1 look over the lathe tools4 ,you will find that it is better to do this work at one time1 than to go to the emery wheel a dozen times a day while you are engaged on the job4 ,adopt a system in your work4 ,don't take things just as they come along1 but form your plans in an orderly way1 and you will always know how to take up and finish the work in the most profitable and satisfactory way4 ,,wrong ,,use ,,of ,,tools4--,never use the vise as an anvil4 ,ordinary and proper use of this tool will insure it for a lifetime1 aside from its natural wear4 ,it may be said with safety that a vise will never break if used for the purpose for which it was intended4 ,one blow of a hammer may ruin it4 ,furthermore1 never use an auxiliary lever to screw up the jaws4 ,if the lever which comes with it is not large enough to set the jaws1 you may be sure that the vise is not large enough for your work4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,setting ,,and ,,holding ,,tools ,some simple directions in the holding and setting of tools may be of service to the novice4 ,practice has shown the most effective way of treating different materials1 so that the tools will do the most efficient work4 ,a tool ground in a certain way and set at a particular angle might do the work admirably on a piece of steel1 but would not possibly work on aluminum or brass4 ,,lathe ,,speed4--,if the lathe should run at the same speed on a piece of cast iron as with a brass casting1 the result would not be very satisfactory1 either with the tool or on the work itself4 ,some compositions of metal require a high speed1 and some a hooked tool4 ,these are things which each must determine as the articles come to the shop2 but there are certain well-defined rules with respect to the ordinary metals that should be observed4 ,,the ,,hack ,,saw4--,our first observation should be directed to the hand tools4 ,the hack saw is one of the most difficult tools for the machinist to handle1 for the following reasons3 ,first1 of the desire to force the blade through the work4 ,the blade is a frail instrument1 and when too great a pressure is exerted it bends1 and as a result a breakage follows4 ,to enable it to do the work properly1 it must be made of the hardest steel4 ,it is1 in consequence1 easily fractured4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bh4--;,hack ,saw ,frame4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bi4--;,hack ,saw ,blade4 ,second4 ,the novice will make short hacking cuts4 ,this causes the teeth to stick1 the saw bends1 and a new blade is required4 ,take a long sweeping cut1 using the entire length of the blade4 ,do not oscillate the blade as you push it through the work1 but keep the tooth line horizontal from one end of the stroke to the other4 ,the moment it begins to waver1 the teeth will catch on the metal on the side nearest to you1 and it will snap4 ,third4 ,the handle is held too loosely4 ,the handle must be firmly held with the right hand1 and the other held by the fingers lightly1 but in such a position that a steady downward pressure can be maintained4 ,if loosely held1 the saw is bound to sag from side to side during the stroke1 and a short stroke accentuates the lateral movement4 ,a long stroke avoids this4 ,the hack saw is one of the tools which should be used with the utmost deliberation1 combined with a rigid grasp of the handle4 ,,files4--,for remarks on this tool see ,chapter ,,iv1 which treats of the subject specially4 ,,grindstones1 ,,emery ,,and ,,grinding ,,wheels4--,a good workman is always reflected by his grinding apparatus4 ,this is true whether it has reference to a grindstone1 emery1 corundum wheel1 or a plain oil stone4 ,nothing is more destructive of good tools than a grooved1 uneven1 or wabbly stone4 ,it is only little less than a crime for a workman to hold a tool on a revolving stone at one spot4 ,,carelessness ,,in ,,holding ,,tools4--,the boy must learn that such a habit actually prevents the proper grinding1 not only of the tool he has on the stone1 but also of the one which follows4 ,while it is true that all artificially made grinders will wear unevenly1 even when used with the utmost care1 due to uneven texture of the materials in the stone1 still1 the careless use of the tool1 while in the act of grinding1 only aggravates the trouble4 ,another fault of the careless workman is1 to press the bit against the stone too hard4 ,this cuts the stone more than it wears off the tool1 and it is entirely unnecessary4 ,furthermore1 it heats up the tool1 which should be avoided4 ,,calipers4--,a true workman1 who endeavors to turn out accurate work1 and preserve his tools1 will never test the work with his calipers while the piece is turning in the lathe4 ,a revolving cast iron disk will cut ruby1 the hardest substance next to the diamond1 so it is not the hardness of the material which resists wear1 but the conditions under which it is used4 ,,care ,,in ,,use ,,of ,,calipers4--,the calipers may be of the most hardened steel1 and the work turned up of the softest brass1 the latter1 when revolving1 will grind off the point of the tool1 for the reason that the revolving piece constantly presents a new surface to the point of the calipers1 and when tests are frequently made1 it does not take long to change the caliper span so that it must be reset4 ,as stated elsewhere1 the whole energy of the lathe is concentrated on the bit or cutting tool1 hence1 in order to get the most effective work out of it requires care2 first1 in grinding2 and1 second1 in setting4 ,,machine ,,bits4--,it does not always matter so much whether you use a square1 pointed1 or a round-nosed bit1 provided it is properly ground and set in the tool holder4 ,as a rule1 the more brittle the metal the less the top rake or angle should be4 ,in the chapter relating to the grinding of tools1 references were made as to the most serviceable bits for the various metals4 ,we are concerned here with the setting or holding of these articles4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cj4 ,plain ,hook ,tool ,fig4 #ca4 ,plain ,straight ,tool4 ,the two illustrations here given show a pair of plain bits1 in which ,fig4 #cj represents a hook-shaped formation1 and ,fig4 #ca a straight grind1 without any top rake4 ,the hooked bit would do for aluminum1 or steel1 but for cast iron the form shown in ,fig4 #ca would be most serviceable4 ,then the side bits1 such as the round-nosed1 ,fig4 #cb and the square end1 ,fig4 #cc1 may be ground hooked1 or with a top rake1 or left flat4 ,the too common mistake is to grind the lower or clearance side at too great an angle4 ,fig4 #cd shows the correct angle1 and the dotted line ,a illustrates the common tendency to grind the clearance4 ,,the ,,proper ,,angle ,,for ,,lathe ,,tools4--,now there is a reason why the angle of from #aj to #ae should be maintained in the clearance4 ,the point of the tool must have suitable support for the work it is required to do1 so it will not chatter or yield in the slightest degree4 ,a bit ground along the dotted line has a cutting edge which will spring down1 and consequently break or produce a rough surface4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cb4 ,fig4 #cc4 ,fig4 #cd4 ,proper ,angles for ,tools ,then1 again1 the angle of the clearance acts as a guide1 or rather1 a guard1 to prevent the tool from going in too far1 as will now be explained4 ,,setting ,,the ,,bit4--,in order to understand the correct setting1 examine the work ,a1 in ,fig4 #ce4 ,a is a cylinder being turned up in the lathe1 and ,b the cutting tool1 which approaches it on a horizontal line1 ,c1 extending out from the center of the cylinder ,a4 ,this setting is theoretically correct1 and in practice has been found most advantageous4 ,in this case let us assume that the clearance angle ,d is #ae degrees1 as well as in the following figures4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ce4 ,set of the ,bit ,suppose we have a piece of tough steel1 and the tool holder is raised so that the point of the tool is at the #ae degree line ,e1 as shown in ,fig4 #cf1 in which case the clearance line ,d is at right angles to the line ,e4 ,the line ,e is #ae degrees above the center line ,c4 ,,the ,,setting ,,angle4--,now1 it is obvious that if the tool should be raised higher than the line ,e it would run out of work1 because the clearance surface of the tool would ride up over the surface cut by the edge of the tool4 ,if1 on the other hand1 the tool should be placed lower1 toward the line ,c1 the tendency would be to draw in the tool toward the center of the work ,a4 ,in ,fig4 #cg the tool has its point elevated1 in which case it must be lowered so the point will touch the work nearer the center line ,c4 ,the foregoing arrangement of the tools will be found to be effective where the material is soft and not too tough as with aluminum4 ,,bad ,,practice4--,figs4 #ch and #ci show illustrations of bad practice which should never be resorted to4 ,fig4 #ch shows the tool1 held in a horizontal position1 but with its point below the center line ,c4 ,with any rough metal the tool could not possibly work1 except to act as a scraper1 and if it should be used in that position on cast iron1 the tool itself would soon be useless4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cf4 ,correct ,angle ,fig4 #cg4 ,wrong ,angle ,fig4 #ci is still worse1 and is of no value for any purpose except in polishing brass1 where it would be serviceable4 ,it would make a sorry looking job with aluminum4 ,brass requires a tool with very little top rake1 and the point should be set near the center line ,c4 ,,lathe ,,speed4--,it is often a question at what speeds to run the lathe for different work4 ,if you know the speeds of your lathe at low and high gear1 you must also consider the diameter of the work at the cutting point4 ,the rule is to have the bit cut from #ae to #bj feet per minute for wrought iron2 from #aa to #ah feet for steel2 from #be to #ej for brass2 and from #dj to #ej for aluminum4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ch4 ,too ,low ,fig4 #ci4 ,improper ,set ,as a result1 therefore1 if1 at low speed1 a piece #aj inches in diameter1 runs at the proper speed to cut at that distance from the center1 it is obvious that a piece #e inches in diameter should ran twice as fast4 ,this is a matter which time and practice will enable you to judge with a fair degree of accuracy4 ,observe this as a maxim3 ,slow speed1 and quick feed4 ,,boring ,,tools ,,on ,,lathe4--,the lathe is a most useful tool for boring purposes1 better for some work than the drilling machine itself4 ,the work which can be done better on a lathe than on a drilling machine1 may be classified as follows3 #a4 ,when straight and true holes are required4 #b4 ,in long work1 where the lathe is used to turn up the article1 and where the drilling can be done at the same time4 #c4 ,anything that can be chucked in a lathe4 #d4 ,where the work is long and cannot be fixed in a drilling machine4 ,the long bed of the lathe gives room for holding such work4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dj4 ,internal ,set ,fig4 #da4 ,set for ,brass ,,the ,,rake ,,of ,,the ,,drill4--,a boring tool requires some knowledge in setting4 ,it should have a greater top rake than for the outside work1 and the cutting edge should also be keener1 as a rule4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #db4--,surface ,gage4 ,in this class of work the material bored must be understood1 as well as in doing outside work4 ,the hooked tool1 ,fig4 #dj1 is shown to be considerably above the center line1 and at that point it will do the most effective cutting on steel4 ,if1 on the other hand1 brass is operated on there should be no top rake1 as illustrated in ,fig4 #da1 thus assuring a smooth job4 ,,laps4--,this is a tool which is very useful1 particularly for grinding and truing up the cylinders of internal combustion engines1 as well as for all kinds of bores of refractory material which cannot be handled with the cutting tool of the lathe4 ,it is made up of a mandrel or rod of copper1 with lead cast about it1 and then turned up true1 so that it is but the merest trifle larger than the hole it is to true up4 ,,using ,,the ,,lap4--,the roller thus made is turned rapidly in a lathe1 and the cylinder to be trued is brought up to it and the roller supplied freely with emery powder and oil4 ,as rapidly as possible the cylinder is worked over on the roller1 without forcing it1 and also turned1 so as to prevent even the weight from grinding it unduly on one side4 ,more or less of the emery will embed itself in the lead1 and thus act as an abrasive4 ,the process is called lapping4 ,,surface ,,gages4--,frequently1 in laying out1 it is necessary to scribe lines at a given distance from some part of the work2 or1 the conditions are such that a rule1 a caliper1 or dividers will not permit accurate measurement to be made4 ,for such purposes1 what is called a surface gage was devised4 ,this is merely a heavy base1 provided with a pivoted upright on which is mounted a scribe that is held by a clamp so it may be turned to any angle4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dc4--,showing uses of the ,surface ,gage4 ,,surface ,,gage4--,the clamp holding the scriber is vertically movable on the pivoted upright4 ,by resting the base of the surface gage on the line to be measured from1 and swinging one point of the scriber to the place where the work is to be done1 accuracy is assured4 ,one end of the scriber is bent1 so it can be adapted to enter recesses1 or such places as could not be reached by the straight end4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,on ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,the ,,file ,the most necessary tool in a machine shop is a file4 ,it is one of the neglected tools1 because the ordinary boy1 or workman1 sees nothing in it but a strip or a bar with a lot of cross grooves and edges1 and he concludes that the only thing necessary is to rub it across a piece of metal until he has worn it down sufficiently for the purpose4 ,,the ,,first ,,test4--,the fact is1 the file is so familiar a tool1 that it breeds contempt1 like many other things closely associated in life4 ,give the boy an irregular block of metal1 and tell him to file it up square1 and he will begin to realize that there is something in the handling of a file that never before occurred to him4 ,he will find three things to astonish him3 ,first3 ,that of dimensions4 ,second3 ,the difficulty of getting it square4 ,third3 ,the character of the surface when he has finished it4 ,,filing ,,an ,,irregular ,,block4--,to file a block of an irregular character so that the dimensions are accurate1 is a good test for an accomplished workman4 ,the job is made doubly difficult if he is required to file it square at the same time4 ,it will be found1 invariably1 that the sides will not be parallel1 and by the time it is fully trued up the piece will be too small4 ,see ,figs4 #dd and #de4 ,then1 unless the utmost care is taken1 the flat sides will not be flat1 but rounded4 ,,filing ,a ,,bar ,,straight4--,the next test is to get the boy to file a bar straight4 ,he has no shaper or planer for the purpose1 so that it must be done by hand4 ,he will find himself lacking in two things3 ,the edge of the bar will not be straight2 nor will it be square with the side of the bar4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dd4 ,rounded ,surface ,fig4 #de4 ,a ,winding ,face ,,filing ,,bar ,,with ,,parallel ,,sides4--,follow up this test by requiring him to file up a bar1 first1 with two exactly parallel sides1 and absolutely straight1 so it will pass smoothly between the legs of a pair of calipers1 and then file the two other sides in like manner4 ,,surfacing ,,off ,,disks4--,when the foregoing are completed there is still another requirement which1 though it appears simple1 is the supreme test4 ,set him to work at surfacing off a pair of disks or plates1 say one and a half inches in diameter1 so that when they are finished they will fit against each other perfectly flat4 ,a pair of such disks1 if absolutely true1 will hold together by the force of cohesion1 even in a dry state1 or they will1 as it were1 float against each other4 ,,true ,,surfacing4--,prior to about #ahej the necessity of true surfacing was not so important or as well known as at the present time4 ,about that period ,sir ,j4 ,whitworth1 an eminent ,english engineer and mechanic1 called the attention of machinists to the great advantage arising from true surfaces and edges for all types of machinery1 and he laid the foundation of the knowledge in accurating surfacing4 ,,precision ,,tools4--,due to his energy many precision tools were made1 all tending to this end1 and as a result machines became better and more efficient in every way4 ,it had this great advantage3 ,it taught the workman of his day how to use the file and scraper1 because both must be used conjunctively to make an absolutely flat plate4 ,contrary to general beliefs1 shapers and planers do not make absolutely accurate surfaces4 ,the test of this is to put together two plates so planed off4 ,there is just enough unevenness to permit air to get between the plates4 ,if they were perfectly true they would exclude all air1 and it would be a difficult matter to draw them apart4 ,,test ,,of ,,the ,,mechanic4--,to make them perfectly flat1 one plate has chalk rubbed over it1 and the two plates are then rubbed together4 ,this will quickly show where the high spots are1 and the file and scraper are then used to cut away the metal4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #df4 ,fig4 #dg4 ,hexagon ,nut ,in ,england the test of the mechanic used to be determined by his ability to file a piece of metal flat4 ,it was regarded as the highest art4 ,this is not the most desirable test at the present time1 and it is recognized that a much severer test is to file a narrow piece exactly flat1 and so that it will not have a trace of roundness1 and be square from end to end4 ,,test ,,suggestions4--,in a shop which does not have the advantage of a planer or shaper1 there are so many articles which must be filed up1 that it is interesting to know something of how the various articles are made with a file4 ,to file a hexagon1 or six-sided nut will be a good test with a file4 ,to do this a little study in geometrical lines will save a vast amount of time4 ,in beginning the work1 measure the radius with a divider1 and then step off and make six marks equidistant from each other on the round surface4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dh4 ,cutting ,key-way ,,use ,,of ,,the ,,dividers4--,the distance between each of these points is equal to the radius1 or half the diameter1 of the round bar4 ,see ,fig4 #df1 which shows this4 ,the marks should be scribed across the surface1 as shown in ,fig4 #dg1 where the lines show the ends of the facets of the outside of the nut4 ,do not let the file obliterate the lines at the rough cutting1 but leave enough material so you can make a good finish at the line4 ,,cutting ,a ,,key-,,way4--,another job you may have frequent occasion to perform1 is to cut a way for a key in a shaft and in a wheel hub4 ,naturally1 this will be first roughed out with a cold chisel narrower than the key is to be1 and also slightly shallower than the dimensions of the key4 ,a flat file should be used for the purpose1 first a heavy rough one1 for the first cutting4 ,the better way is to have the key so it can be frequently tried while the filing process is going on1 so that to fit the key in this way is a comparatively easy task4 ,,key-,,way ,,difficulties4--,but the trouble commences when the groove is filed for the depth4 ,invariably1 the mistake will be made of filing the width first1 so the key will fit in4 ,as a result1 in deepening the groove the file will contact with the walls1 and you have a key-way too wide for the key4 ,to avoid this1 file the depth1 or nearly so1 and then with a fine file cut in the corners in the direction indicated by the dart1 ,fig4 #dh4 ,a proper key is square in cross section4 ,in such a case the depth of the key-way1 at each side wall1 is just half the width of the key-way4 ,an excellent key-seat rule can be made by filing out two right-angled pieces1 as shown in ,fig4 #di1 which can be attached to the ordinary six-inch metal rule1 and this will enable you to scribe the line accurately for the key-way on the shaft4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #di4 ,key-seat ,rule ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ej4 ,fig4 #ea4 ,filing ,metal ,round ,,filing ,,metal ,,round4--,it is sometimes necessary to file a piece of metal round4 ,this is a hard job1 particularly where it is impossible to scribe the end of the piece4 ,suppose it is necessary to file up a bearing surface1 or surfaces1 intermediate the ends of a square bar4 ,you have in that case four sides to start from1 the opposite sides being parallel with each other1 so that you will have two dimensions1 and four equal sides1 as shown in ,fig4 #ej4 ,the first step will be to file off accurately the four corners #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 so as to form eight equal sides or faces1 as shown in ,fig4 #ea4 ,if you will now proceed to file down carefully the eight corners1 so as to make sixteen sides1 as in ,fig4 #eb1 the fourth set of corners filed down will make the filed part look like the illustration ,fig4 #ec with thirty-two faces4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eb4 ,fig4 #ec4 ,making a ,bar ,round ,this may be further filed down into sixty-four faces1 and a few cuts of the finishing file will take off the little ridges which still remain4 ,by using emery cloth1 and wrapping it around the bearing portion1 and changing it continually1 while drawing it back and forth1 will enable you to make a bearing which1 by care1 will caliper up in good shape4 ,,kinds ,,of ,,files4--,each file has five distinct properties2 namely3 the length1 the contour1 the form in cross section1 the kind of teeth1 and the fineness of the teeth4 ,there are nine well-defined shapes for files4 ,these may be enumerated as follows3 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ed4 ,cross ,sections of ,files4 ,no4 #a4 ,the cotter file4 ,the small kind is called a verge or pivot file4 ,no4 #b4 ,square file1 which may be tapering from end to end1 or have parallel sides throughout4 ,no4 #c4 ,watch pinion file4 ,this may have its sides parallel or tapering1 to make a knife-shaped file4 ,no4 #d4 ,clock-pinion2 which may be used for either nicking1 piecing1 or squaring-off purposes4 ,no4 #e4 ,round1 with parallel sides for gulleting purposes1 or rat-tail when it tapers4 ,no4 #f4 ,triangular1 or three equally-sided body for saw filing4 ,no4 #g4 ,equalizing file4 ,this is parallel when used for making clock-pinions or endless screws2 or for slitting1 entering1 warding1 or making barrel holes1 when the body of the file tapers4 ,no4 #h4 ,cross1 or double-round1 half-file4 ,no4 #i4 ,slitting file2 which has parallel sides only4 ,a cant file4 ,,character ,,of ,,the ,,file ,,tooth4--,files are distinguished principally by the character of the oblique1 or cross grooves and ridges which do the cutting and abrading when the file is drawn across the surface4 ,this is really more important than the shape1 because the files1 by their cuttings1 are adapted for the various materials which they are to be used upon4 ,the files are classified as ,double ,cut1 of which there are the rough1 middle1 bastard1 second cut1 smooth1 and dead smooth4 ,the ,float ,cut1 which is either rough1 bastard or smooth2 and ,the ,rasp ,cut1 either rough1 bastard or smooth4 ,several types are illustrated in ,fig4 #ee1 which show the characteristics of the various cuts4 ,the rasps are used principally for soft material1 such as wood or for hoofs1 in horse shoeing1 hence they need not be considered in connection with machine-shop work4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ee4 ,files4 ,,holding ,,the ,,file4--,the common mistake on the part of the beginner is to drag the file across the work at an angle4 ,the body of the file should move across straight and not obliquely4 ,note this movement in ,fig4 #ef where the dash shows the correct movement of the file with relation to the work4 ,also observe that the file cutting ridges are not straight across the file1 but at an angle to the direction of the dart4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ef4 ,correct ,file ,movement ,,injuring ,,files4--,now the frequent practice is to use the file as shown in ,fig4 #eg1 in which case it is moved across obliquely4 ,the result is that the angle of the file cut is so disposed that the teeth of the file do not properly aid in the cutting1 but in a measure retard the operation4 ,file teeth are disposed at an angle for the purpose of giving them a shearing cut1 which is the case when the file moves across the work on a line with its body4 ,to use a file as shown in ,fig4 #eg injures the file without giving it an opportunity to cut as fast as it would when properly used4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eg4 ,incorrect ,file ,movement ,,drawing ,,back ,,the ,,file4--,in drawing back a file it is always better to allow it to drag over the work than to raise it up4 ,it is frequently the case that some of the material will lodge in the teeth1 and the back lash will serve to clear out the grooves4 ,this is particularly true in filing copper1 aluminum1 lead1 and like metals1 but it is well to observe this in all cases4 ,,chapter ,v ,,how ,,to ,,commence ,,work ,the question is often asked3 ,where and how shall the novice commence work8 ,when the shop is equipped1 or partially so1 sufficient1 at least1 to turn out simple jobs1 the boy will find certain tools which are strangers to him4 ,he must become acquainted with them and not only learn their uses1 but how to use them to the best advantage4 ,,familiarity ,,with ,,tools4--,familiarity with the appearance of tools1 and seeing them in the hands of others will not be of any value4 ,nothing but the immediate contact with the tool will teach how to use it4 ,,file ,,practice4--,the file is a good tool to pick up first4 ,select a piece of metal1 six or eight inches long1 and follow the instructions laid down in the chapter relating to the use of the file4 ,practice with several kinds and with different varieties of material will soon give an inkling of the best kind to use with the metal you have4 ,use the straight edge and the square while the filing process is going on1 and apply them frequently1 to show you what speed you are making and how nearly true you are surfacing up the piece4 ,,using ,,the ,,dividers4--,then try your hand using the dividers1 in connection with a centering punch4 ,as an example1 take two pieces of metal1 each about a foot long1 and set the dividers to make a short span1 say an inch or so1 and step off the length of one piece of metal1 and punch the last mark4 ,then do likewise with the other piece of metal1 and see how nearly alike the two measurements are by comparing them4 ,you will find a variation in the lengths of the two measurements at the first trials1 and very likely will not be able to make the two pieces register accurately after many trials1 even when using the utmost care4 ,sooner or later you will learn that you have not stepped paths along the two bars which were exactly straight1 and this will account for the variations4 ,in order to be accurate a line should be drawn along each piece of metal1 and the dividers should step off the marks on that line4 ,,finding ,,centers4--,by way of further experiment1 it might be well to find the exact center of the ends of a square bar1 putting in the punch marks and then mounting it in the lathe centers to see how accurately this has been done4 ,if either end is out of true the punch marks can be corrected by inclining the punch1 so that when it is struck it will move over the point in the direction of its true center4 ,this may be followed up by centering the end of a round bar so as to make it true4 ,this will be found to be a more difficult job1 unless you have a center head1 a tool made for that purpose4 ,it is good practice1 however1 to make trials of all this work1 as it will enable you to judge of measurements4 ,it can be done with the dividers by using care in scribing the centers4 ,,hack-,,saw ,,practice4--,practice with the hack-saw should be indulged in frequently4 ,learn to make a straight cut through a bar4 ,try to do this without using a square to guide you4 ,one of the tests of a good mechanic is ability to judge a straight cut4 ,the following plan is suggested as a test for the eye4 ,use a bar of iron or steel one inch square1 and make a cut an eighth of an inch deep across it2 then turn it around a quarter1 so as to expose the nest face1 and continue the cut along the side1 the same depth1 and follow this up with the remaining two sides1 and see how near the end of the first cut and the finish cut come together4 ,the test will surprise you4 ,,cutting ,,metals ,,true4--,when you saw off the end of such a bar for trial purposes1 use a square1 after the cut is made1 and note how much it is out of true in both directions4 ,it is a curious fact that most mechanics are disposed to saw or cut crooked in one direction1 either to the right or to the left4 ,in tests made it is found that this defect is persisted in4 ,it is practice only which will remedy this1 and it would be well for the boy to learn this for himself as early in his career as possible1 and correct the tendency to veer in either direction4 ,the test of sawing around a round bar is also commended4 ,after a few trials you will be surprised to see how your judgment will improve in practice4 ,,lathe ,,work4--,learn the uses of the chuck4 ,as you have1 probably1 economized as much as possible1 a universal chuck is not available1 hence the first experience will be with an independent chuck1 where the three dogs move independently of each other4 ,this will give you some work to learn how you can get the job true4 ,now1 before attempting to cut the material1 thoroughly learn all the parts of the feed mechanism1 and how to reverse1 as well as to cross feed4 ,learn the operation of the operative parts so that your hand will instinctively find them1 while the eye is on the work4 ,,first ,,steps4--,see to it that your tools are sharp1 and at the first trials make light cuts4 ,practice the feeds by manually moving the tool holder1 for surface cutting as well as for cross cutting4 ,,setting ,,the ,,tool4--,set the cutting tool at various angles1 and try the different tools1 noting the peculiarities of each1 at the different speeds4 ,do not1 by any means1 use refractory metals for your first attempt4 ,mild steel is a good test1 and a light gray iron is admirable for practice lessons4 ,,metals ,,used4--,brass is good for testing purposes1 but the difficulty is that the tendency of the boy1 at first1 is to try to do the work too rapidly1 and brass encourages this tendency4 ,feed slowly and regularly until you can make an even finish4 ,then chuck and re-chuck to familiarize yourself with every operative part of the lathe1 and never try to force the cutting tool4 ,if it has a tendency to run into the work1 set it higher4 ,if1 on the other hand1 you find1 in feeding1 that it is hard to move the tool post along1 the tool is too high1 and should be lowered4 ,,the ,,four ,,important ,,things4--,constant practice of this kind will soon enable you to feel instinctively when the tool is doing good work4 ,while you are thus experimenting do not forget the speed4 ,this will need your attention4 ,remember1 you have several things to think about in commencing to run the lathe1 all of which will take care of themselves when it becomes familiar to you4 ,these may be enumerated as follows3 ,first3 ,the kind of tool best to use4 ,second3 ,its proper set1 to do the best work4 ,third3 ,the speed of the work in the lathe4 ,fourth3 ,the feed1 or the thickness of the cut into the material4 ,,turning ,,up ,a ,,cylinder4--,the first and most important work is to turn up a small cylinder to a calipered dimension4 ,when it is roughed down ready for the finish cut1 set the tool so it will take off a sufficient amount to prevent the caliper from spanning it1 and this will enable you to finish it off with emery paper1 or allow another small cut to be taken4 ,,turning ,,grooves4--,then follow this up by turning in a variety of annular grooves of different depths and widths2 and also ,v-shaped grooves1 the latter to be performed by using both the longitudinal and transverse feeds4 ,this will give you excellent practice in using both hands simultaneously4 ,the next step would be to turn out a bore and fit a mandrel into it4 ,this will give you the opportunity to use the caliper to good advantage1 and will test your capacity to use them for inside as well as for outside work4 ,,discs4--,a job that will also afford good exercise is to turn up a disc with a groove in its face1 and then chuck and turn another disk with an annular rib on its face to fit into the groove4 ,this requires delicacy of measurement with the inside as well as the outside calipers4 ,the groove should be cut first1 and the measurement taken from that1 as it is less difficult to handle and set the tool for the rib than for the groove4 ,,lathe ,,speeds4--,do not make the too common mistake of running the mandrel at high speeds in your initial tests4 ,it is far better to use a slow speed1 and take a heavy cut4 ,this is good advice at all times1 but it is particularly important with beginners4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,illustrating ,,some ,,of ,,the ,,fundamental ,,devices ,there are numerous little devices and shop expedients which are desirable1 and for which the boy will find uses as he progresses4 ,we devote this chapter to hints of this kind1 all of which are capable of being turned out or utilized at various stages4 ,,lacing ,,belts4--,to properly lace a belt is quite an art1 as many who have tried it know4 ,if a belt runs off the pulley it is attributable to one of three causes3 either the pulleys are out of line or the shafts are not parallel or the belt is laced so it makes the belt longer at one margin than the other4 ,in ,fig4 #eh the lacing should commence at the center hole 7,a7 of one belt end and lace outwardly1 terminating at the hole 7,b7 in the center of the other belt end1 as shown in ,fig4 #eh4 ,in ,fig4 #ei the lacing commences at ,a1 and terminates at the hole 7,b7 at the edge4 ,this will be ample for all but the widest belts4 ,fig4 #fj is adapted for a narrow belt4 ,the lacing commences at one margin hole 7,a71 and terminates at the other margin hole 7,z74 ,fig4 #fa shows the outside of the belt4 ,fig4 #fb4 ,,gears4--,this is something every boy ought to know about4 ,fig4 #fb shows a pair of intermeshing bevel gears4 ,this is the correct term for a pair when both are of the same diameter4 ,illustration3 ,inside ,fig4 #eh4 ,belt ,lacing ,outside ,fig4 #eh4 ,belt ,lacing ,fig4 #ei4 ,belt ,lacing ,fig4 #fj4 ,belt ,lacing ,fig4 #fa4 ,belt ,lacing ,,miter ,,gears4--,in ,fig4 #fc we have a pair of miter gears1 one being larger than the other4 ,remember this distinction4 ,fig4 #fd4 ,,crown ,,wheel4--,this is a simple manner of transmitting motion from one shaft to another1 when the shafts are at right angles1 or nearly so1 without using bevel or miter gears4 ,fig4 #fe4 ,,grooved ,,friction ,,gearing4--,two grooved pulleys1 which fit each other accurately1 will transmit power without losing too much by friction4 ,the deeper the grooves the greater is the loss by friction4 ,fig4 #ff4 ,a ,,valve ,,which ,,closes ,,by ,,the ,,water ,,pressure4--,the bibb has therein a movable valve on a horizontal stem1 the valve being on the inside of the seat4 ,the stem of the handle has at its lower end a crank bend1 which engages with the outer end of the valve stem4 ,when the handle is turned in either direction the valve is unseated4 ,on releasing the handle the pressure of the water against the valve seats it4 ,fig4 #fg4 ,,cone ,,pulleys4--,two cone pulleys of equal size and taper provide a means whereby a change in speed can be transmitted from one shaft to another by merely moving the belt to and fro4 ,the slightest change is available by this means4 ,fig4 #fh4 ,,universal ,,joint4--,a wheel1 with four projecting pins1 is placed between the ,u-shaped yokes on the ends of the approaching shafts4 ,the pins serve as the pivots for the angles formed by the two shafts4 ,fig4 #fi4 ,,trammel ,,for ,,making ,,an ,,ellipse4--,this is a tool easily made1 which will be of great service in the shop4 ,in a disc 7,a71 preferably made of brass1 are two channels 7,b7 at right angles to each other4 ,the grooves are undercut1 so that the blocks 7,c7 will fit and slide in the grooves and be held therein by the dove-tailed formation4 ,each block is longer than the width of the groove1 and has an outwardly projecting pin which passes through a bar 7,d74 ,one pin 7,e7 is movable along in a slot1 but is adjustable at any point so that the shape of the ellipse may be varied4 ,the end of the bar has a series of holes 7,g7 for a pencil1 so that the size of the ellipse may also be changed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fb4 ,bevel ,gears ,fig4 #fc4 ,miter ,gears ,fig4 #fd4 ,crown ,wheel ,fig4 #fe4 ,grooved ,friction ,gears ,fig4 #ff4 ,valve ,fig4 #fg4 ,cone ,pulleys ,fig4 #fh4 ,universal ,joint ,fig4 #gj4 ,,escapements4--,various forms of escapements may be made1 but the object of all is the same4 ,the device is designed to permit a wheel to move intermittingly or in a step by step movement1 by the swinging motion of a pendulum4 ,another thing is accomplished by it4 ,the teeth of the escapement are cut at such an angle that1 as one of the teeth of the escapement is released from one tooth of the escapement wheel1 the spring1 or the weight of the clock1 will cause one of the teeth of the escapement wheel to engage the other tooth of the escapement1 and give the pendulum an impulse in the other direction4 ,in the figure1 ,a is the escapement1 ,b the escapement wheels and a1 b1 the pallets1 which are cut at suitable angles to actuate the pendulum4 ,fig4 #ga4 ,,simple ,,device ,,to ,,prevent ,a ,,wheel ,,or ,,shaft ,,from ,,turning ,,back4--,this is a substitute for a pawl and ratchet wheel4 ,a is a drum or a hollow wheel and ,b a pulley on a shaft1 and this pulley turns loosely with the drum 7,a74 ,four tangential slots 7,c7 are cut into the perimeter of the pulley 7,b71 and in each is a hardened steel roller 7,d74 ,it matters not in what position the wheel 7,b7 may be1 at least two of the rollers will always be in contact with the inside of the drum 7,a71 and thus cause the pulley and drum to turn together4 ,on reversing the direction of the pulley the rollers are immediately freed from binding contact4 ,fig4 #gb4 ,,racks ,,and ,,pinions4--,the object of this form of mechanism is to provide a reciprocating1 or back-and-forth motion1 from a shaft which turns continually in one direction4 ,a is the rack and ,b a mutilated gear4 ,when the gear turns it moves the rack in one direction1 because the teeth of the gear engage the lower rack teeth1 and when the rack has moved to the end its teeth engage the teeth of the upper rack1 thus reversing the movement of the rack4 ,fig4 #gc4 ,,mutilated ,,gears4--,these are made in so many forms1 and adapted for such a variety of purposes1 that we merely give a few samples to show what is meant by the term4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fi4 ,trammel ,fig4 #gj4 ,escapement ,fig4 #ga4 ,device for ,holding ,wheel ,fig4 #gb4 ,rack and ,pinion ,fig4 #gc4 ,mutilated ,gears ,fig4 #gd4 ,shaft ,coupling ,fig4 #gd4 ,,simple ,,shaft ,,coupling4--,prepare two similarly formed discs 7,a1 ,b71 which are provided with hubs so they may be keyed to the ends of the respective shafts4 ,one disc has four or more projecting pins 7,c71 and the other disc suitable holes 7,d7 to receive the pins4 ,fig4 #ge4 ,,clutches4--,this is a piece of mechanism which is required in so many kinds of machinery1 that we show several of the most approved types4 ,fig4 #gf4 ,,ball ,,and ,,socket ,,joints4--,the most practical form of ball and socket joints is simply a head in which is a bowl-shaped cavity the depth of one-half of the ball4 ,a plate with a central opening small enough to hold in the ball1 and still large enough at the neck to permit the arm carrying the ball to swing a limited distance1 is secured by threads1 or by bolts1 to the head4 ,the first figure shows this4 ,fig4 #gg illustrates a simple manner of tightening the ball so as to hold the standard in any desired position4 ,fig4 #gh4 ,,tripping ,,devices4--,these are usually in the form of hooks1 so arranged that a slight pull on the tripping lever will cause the suspended articles to drop4 ,fig4 #gi4 ,,anchor ,,bolt4--,these are used in brick or cement walls4 ,the bolt itself screws into a sleeve which is split1 and draws a wedge nut up to the split end of the sleeve4 ,as a result the split sleeve opens or spreads out and binds against the wall sufficiently to prevent the bolt from being withdrawn4 ,fig4 #hj4 ,,lazy ,,tongs4--,one of the simplest and most effective instruments for carrying ice1 boxes or heavy objects1 which are bulky or inconvenient to carry4 ,it grasps the article firmly1 and the heavier the weight the tighter is its grasp4 ,fig4 #ha4 ,,disc ,,shears4--,this is a useful tool either for cutting tin or paper1 pasteboard and the like4 ,it will cut by the act of drawing the material through it1 but if power is applied to one or to both of the shafts the work is much facilitated1 particularly in thick or hard material4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ge4 ,clutches ,fig4 #gf4 ,ball and ,socket ,joints ,fig4 #gg4 ,fastening ,ball ,fig4 #gh4 ,tripping ,devices ,fig4 #gi4 ,anchor ,bolt ,fig4 #hj4 ,lazy ,tongs4 ,fig4 #ha4 ,disc ,shears4 ,fig4 #hb4 ,,wabble ,,saw4--,this is a most simple and useful tool1 as it will readily and quickly saw out a groove so that it is undercut4 ,the saw is put on the mandrel at an angle1 as will be seen1 and should be run at a high rate of speed4 ,fig4 #hc4 ,,crank ,,motion ,,by ,a ,,slotted ,,yoke4--,this produces a straight back-and-forth movement from the circular motion of a wheel or crank4 ,it entirely dispenses with a pitman rod1 and it enables the machine1 or the part of the machine operated1 to be placed close to the crank4 ,fig4 #hd4 ,,continuous ,,feed ,,by ,,the ,,motion ,,of ,a ,,lever4--,the simple lever with a pawl on each side of the fulcrum is the most effective means to make a continuous feed by the simple movement of a lever4 ,the form shown is capable of many modifications1 and it can be easily adapted for any particular work desired4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hb4 ,wabble ,saw ,fig4 #hc4 ,continuous ,crank ,motion ,fig4 #hd4 ,continuous ,feed ,fig4 #he4 ,crank ,motion ,fig4 #hf4 ,ratchet ,head ,fig4 #hg4 ,bench ,clamp ,fig4 #he4 ,,crank ,,motion4--,by the structure shown1 namely1 a slotted lever 7,a71 a quick return can be made with the lever4 ,b indicates the fulcrum4 ,fig4 #hf4 ,,ratchet ,,head4--,this shows a well-known form for common ratchet4 ,it has the advantage that the radially movable plugs 7,a7 are tangentially disposed1 and rest against walls 7,b7 eccentrically disposed1 and are1 therefore1 in such a position that they easily slide over the inclines4 ,fig4 #hg4 ,,bench ,,clamp4--,a pair of dogs 7,a1 ,b71 with the ends bent toward each other1 and pivoted midway between the ends to the bench in such a position that the board 7,c71 to be held between them1 on striking the rear ends of the dogs1 will force the forward ends together1 and thus clamp it firmly for planing or other purposes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hh4 ,helico-,volute ,spring ,fig4 #hi4 ,double ,helico-,volute ,fig4 #ij4 ,helical ,spring ,fig4 #ia4 ,single ,volute ,helix-,spring ,fig4 #ib4 ,flat ,spiral or ,convolute ,fig4 #ic4 ,eccentric ,rod and ,strap ,fig4 #id4 ,anti-,dead ,center for ,foot-,lathes ,fig4 #hh4 ,,helico-,,volute ,,spring4--,this is a form of spring for tension purposes4 ,the enlarged cross-section of the coil in its middle portion1 with the ends tapering down to the eyes1 provides a means whereby the pull is transferred from the smaller to the larger portions1 without producing a great breaking strain near the ends4 ,fig4 #hi4 ,,double ,,helico-,,volute4--,this form1 so far as the outlines are considered1 is the opposite of ,fig4 #hh4 ,a compression spring of this kind has a very wide range of movement4 ,fig4 #ij4 ,,helical ,,spring4--,this form of coil1 uniform from end to end1 is usually made of metal which is square in cross-section1 and used where it is required for heavy purposes4 ,fig4 #ia4 ,,single ,,volute ,,helix-,,spring4--,this is also used for compression1 intended where tremendous weights or resistances are to be overcome1 and when the range of movement is small4 ,fig4 #ib4 ,,flat ,,spiral1 ,,or ,,convolute4--,this is for small machines4 ,it is the familiar form used in watches owing to its delicate structure1 and it is admirably adapted to yield to the rocking motion of an arbor4 ,fig4 #ic4 ,,eccentric ,,rod ,,and ,,strap4--,a simple and convenient form of structure1 intended to furnish a reciprocating motion where a crank is not available4 ,an illustration of its use is shown on certain types of steam engine to operate the valves4 ,fig4 #id4 ,,anti-,,dead ,,center ,,for ,,foot-,,lathes4--,a flat1 spiral spring 7,a71 with its coiled end attached to firm support 7,b71 has its other end pivotally attached to the crank-pin 7,c71 the tension of the spring being such that when the lathe stops the crack-pin will always be at one side of the dead-center1 thus enabling the operator to start the machine by merely pressing the foot downwardly on the treadle 7,d74 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,properties ,,of ,,materials ,a workman is able to select the right metals because he knows that each has some peculiar property which is best adapted for his particular use4 ,these with their meaning will now be explained4 ,,elasticity4--,this exists in metals in three distinct ways3 ,first1 in the form of traction4 ,hang a weight on a wire and it will stretch a certain amount4 ,when the weight is removed the wire shrinks back to its original length4 ,second3 ,if the weight on the wire is rotated1 so as to twist it1 and the hand is taken from the weight1 it will untwist itself1 and go back to its original position4 ,this is called torsion4 ,third3 ,a piece of metal may be coiled up like a watch spring1 or bent like a carriage spring1 and it will yield when pressure is applied4 ,this is called flexure4 ,certain kinds of steel have these qualities in a high degree4 ,,tenacity4--,this is a term used to express the resistance which the body opposes to the separation of its parts4 ,it is determined by forming the metal into a wire1 and hanging on weights1 to find how much will be required to break it4 ,if we have two wires1 the first with a transverse area only one-quarter that of the second1 and the first breaks at #be pounds1 while the second breaks at #ej pounds1 the tenacity of the first is twice as great as that of the second4 ,to the boy who understands simple ratio in mathematics1 the problem would be like this3 #be x #d 3 #ej x #a1 or as #b 3 #a4 ,,the ,,most ,,tenacious ,,metal4--,steel has the greatest tenacity of all metals1 and lead the least4 ,in proportion to weight1 however1 there are many substances which have this property in a higher degree4 ,cotton fibers will support millions of times their own weight4 ,there is one peculiar thing1 that tenacity varies with the form of the body4 ,a solid cylindrical body has a greater strength than a square one of the same size2 and a hollow cylinder more tenacity than a solid one4 ,this principle is well known in the bones of animals1 in the feathers of birds1 and in the stems of many plants4 ,in almost every metal tenacity diminishes as the temperature increases4 ,,ductility4--,this is a property whereby a metal may be drawn out to form a wire4 ,some metals1 like cast iron1 have absolutely no ductility4 ,the metal which possesses this property to the highest degree1 is platinum4 ,wires of this metal have been drawn out so fine that over #cj1jjj of them laid side by side would measure only one inch across1 and a mile of such wire would weigh only a grain1 or one seven-thousandth of a pound4 ,,malleability4--,this is considered a modification of ductility4 ,any metal which can be beaten out1 as with a hammer1 or flattened into sheets with rollers1 is considered malleable4 ,gold possesses this property to the highest degree4 ,it has been beaten into leaves one three-hundred-thousandth of an inch thick4 ,,hardness4--,this is the resistance which bodies offer to being scratched by others4 ,as an example1 the diamond has the capacity to scratch all1 but cannot be scratched by any other4 ,,alloys4--,alloys1 that is a combination of two or more metals1 are harder than the pure metals1 and for this reason jewelry1 and coins1 are usually alloyed4 ,the resistance of a body to compression does not depend upon its hardness4 ,strike a diamond with a hammer and it flies to pieces1 but wood does not4 ,one is brittle and the other is tough4 ,the machinist can utilize this property by understanding that velocity enables a soft material to cut a harder one4 ,thus1 a wrought iron disc rotating rapidly1 will cut such hard substances as agate or quartz4 ,,resistance4--,all metals offer more or less resistance to the flow of an electric current4 ,silver offers the least resistance1 and ,german silver the greatest4 ,temperature also affects the flow4 ,it passes more easily over a cold than a warm conductor4 ,,persistence4--,all metals on receiving heat1 will retain it for a certain length of time1 and will finally cool down to the temperature of the surrounding atmosphere4 ,some1 like aluminum1 retain it for a long time2 others1 as iron1 will give it off quickly4 ,,conductivity4--,all metals will conduct heat and cold1 as well as electricity4 ,if one end of a metal bar is heated1 the heat creeps along to the other end until it has the same temperature throughout4 ,this is called equalization4 ,if a heated bar is placed in contact with another1 the effect is to increase the temperature of the cold bar and lower that of the warm bar4 ,this is called reciprocity4 ,,molecular ,,forces4--,molecular attraction is a force which acts in such a way as to bring all the particles of a body together4 ,it acts in three ways1 dependent on the particular conditions which exist4 ,first3 ,cohesion4 ,this exists between molecules which are of the same kind1 as for instance1 iron4 ,cohesion of the particles is very strong in solids1 much weaker in liquids1 and scarcely exists at all between the particles in gases4 ,second3 ,adhesion is that property which exists between the surfaces of bodies in contact4 ,if two flat surfaces are pressed together1 as for instance1 two perfectly smooth and flat pieces of lead1 they will adhere4 ,if1 for instance1 oil should be put on the surfaces1 before putting them together1 they would adhere so firmly that it would be difficult to pull them apart4 ,third3 ,affinity4 ,this is another peculiarity about materials4 ,thus1 while cohesion binds together the molecules of water1 it is chemical affinity which unites two elements1 like hydrogen and oxygen1 of which water is composed4 ,,porosity4--,all matter has little hollows or spaces between the molecules4 ,you know what this is in the case of a sponge1 or pumice stone4 ,certain metals have the pores so small that it is difficult to see them except with a very powerful glass4 ,under great pressure water can be forced through the pores of metals1 as has been done in the case of gold4 ,water also is porous1 but the spaces between the molecules are very small4 ,,compressibility4--,it follows from the foregoing statement1 that if there are little interstices between the molecules1 the various bodies can be compressed together4 ,this can be done in varying degrees with all solids1 but liquids1 generally1 have little compressibility4 ,gases are readily reduced in volume by compression4 ,,elasticity4--,this is a property by virtue of which a body resumes its original form when compressed4 ,india rubber1 ivory and glass are examples of elasticity2 whereas1 lead and clay do not possess this property4 ,air is the most elastic of all substances4 ,,inertia4--,this is a property of matter by virtue of which it cannot of itself change its state of motion or of rest4 ,newton's first law of motion is1 in substance1 that matter at rest will eternally remain at rest1 and matter in motion will forever continue in motion1 unless acted on by some external force4 ,a rider is carried over the head of a horse when the latter suddenly stops4 ,this illustrates the inertia of movement4 ,a stone at rest will always remain in that condition unless moved by some force4 ,that shows the inertia of rest4 ,,momentum4--,this is the term to designate the quantity of motion in a body4 ,this quantity varies and is dependent on the mass1 together with the velocity4 ,a fly wheel is a good example4 ,it continues to move after the impelling force ceases2 and a metal wheel has greater momentum than a wooden wheel at the same speed1 owing to its greater mass4 ,if1 however1 the wooden wheel is speeded up sufficiently it may have the same momentum as the metal one4 ,,weight4--,all substances have what is called weight4 ,this means that everything is attracted toward the earth by the force of gravity4 ,gravity1 however1 is different from weight4 ,all substances attract each other2 not only in the direction of the center of the earth1 but laterally1 as well4 ,weight1 therefore1 has reference to the pull of an object toward the earth2 and gravity to that influence which all matter has for each other independently of the direction4 ,,centripetal ,,force4--,this attraction of the earth1 which gives articles the property of weight1 is termed centripetal force--that is1 the drawing in of a body4 ,,centrifugal ,,force4--,the direct opposite of centripetal1 is centrifugal force1 which tends to throw outwardly4 ,dirt flying from a rapidly moving wheel illustrates this4 ,,capillary ,,attraction4--,there is a peculiar property in liquids1 which deserves attention1 and should be understood1 and that is the name given to the tendency of liquids to rise in fine tubes4 ,it is stated that water will always find its level4 ,while this is true1 we have an instance where1 owing to the presence of a solid1 made in a peculiar form1 causes the liquid1 within1 to rise up far beyond the level of the water4 ,this may be illustrated by three tubes of different internal diameters4 ,the liquid rises up higher in the second than in the first1 and still higher in the third than in the second4 ,the smaller the tube the greater the height of the liquid4 ,this is called capillary attraction1 the word capillary meaning a hair4 ,the phenomena is best observed when seen in tubes which are as fine as hairs4 ,the liquid has an affinity for the metal1 and creeps up the inside1 and the distance it will thus move depends on the size of the tube4 ,,the ,,sap ,,of ,,trees4--,the sap of trees goes upwardly1 not because the tree is alive1 but due to this property in the contact of liquids with a solid4 ,it is exactly on the same principle that if the end of a piece of blotting paper is immersed in water1 the latter will creep up and spread over the entire surface of the sheet4 ,in like manner1 oil moves upwardly in a wick1 and will keep on doing so1 until the lighted wick is extinguished1 when the flow ceases4 ,when it is again lighted the oil again flows1 as before4 ,if it were not for this principle of capillary attraction1 it would be difficult to form a bubble of air in a spirit level4 ,you can readily see how the liquid at each end of the air bubble rounds it off1 as though it tried to surround it4 ,,sound4--,sound is caused by vibration1 and it would be impossible to convey it without an elastic medium of some kind4 ,acoustics is a branch of physics which treats of sounds4 ,it is distinguished from music which has reference to the particular kinds4 ,sounds are distinguished from noises4 ,the latter are discordant and abrupt vibrations1 whereas the former are regular and continuous4 ,,sound ,,mediums4--,gases1 vapors1 liquids and solids transmit vibrations1 but liquids and solids propagate with greater velocity than gases4 ,,vibration4--,a vibration is the moving to and fro of the molecules in a body1 and the greater their movement the more intense is the sound4 ,the intensity of the sound is affected by the density of the atmosphere1 and the movement of the winds also changes its power of transmission4 ,sound is also made more intense if a sonorous body is near its source4 ,this is taken advantage of in musical instruments1 where a sounding-board is used1 as in the case of the piano1 and in the violin1 which has a thin shell as a body for holding the strings4 ,another curious thing is shown in the speaking tube1 where the sound waves are confined1 so that they are carried along in one line1 and as they are not interfered with will transmit the vibrations to great distances4 ,,velocity ,,of ,,sound4--,the temperature of the air has also an effect on the rate of transmission1 but for general purposes a temperature of #fb degrees has been taken as the standard4 ,the movement is shown to be about #ej miles in #d minutes1 or at the rate of #a1abj feet per second4 ,in water1 however1 the speed is four times greater2 and in iron nearly fifteen times greater4 ,soft earth is a poor conductor1 while rock and solid earth convey very readily4 ,placing the ear on a railway track will give the vibrations of a moving train miles before it can be heard through the air4 ,,sound ,,reflections4--,sound waves move outwardly from the object in the form of wave-like rings1 but those concentric rings1 as they are called1 may be interrupted at various points by obstacles4 ,when that is the case the sound is buffeted back1 producing what is called echoes4 ,,resonance4--,materials have a quality that produces a very useful result1 called resonance1 and it is one of the things that gives added effect to a speaker's voice in a hall1 where there is a constant succession of echoes4 ,a wall distant from the speaker about #ee feet1 produces an almost instantaneous reflection of the sound1 and at double that measurement the effect is still stronger4 ,when the distance is too short for the reflecting sound to be heard1 we have resonance4 ,it enriches the sound of the voice1 and gives a finer quality to musical instruments4 ,,echoes4--,when sounds are heard after the originals are emitted they tend to confusion1 and the quality of resonance is lost4 ,there are places where echoes are repeated many times4 ,in the chateau of ,simonetta1 ,italy1 a sound will be repeated thirty times4 ,,speaking ,,trumpet4--,this instrument is an example of the use of reflection4 ,it is merely a bell-shaped1 or flaring body1 the large end of which is directed to the audience4 ,the voice talking into the small end is directed forwardly1 and is reflected from the sides1 and its resonance also enables the vibrations to carry farther than without the use of the solid part of the instrument4 ,the ear trumpet is an illustration of a sound-collecting device1 the waves being brought together by reflection4 ,,the ,,stethoscope4--,this is an instrument used by physicians1 and it is so delicate that the movements of the organs of the body can be heard with great distinctness4 ,it merely collects the vibrations1 and transmits them to the ears by the small tubes which are connected with the collecting bell4 ,,the ,,vitascope4--,numerous instruments have been devised to determine the rate of vibration of different materials and structures1 the most important being the vitascope1 which has a revolvable cylinder1 blackened with soot1 and this being rotated at a certain speed1 the stylus1 which is attached to the vibrating body1 in contact with the cylinder1 will show the number per second1 as well as the particular character of each oscillation4 ,,the ,,phonautograph4--,this instrument is used to register the vibration of wind instruments1 as well as the human voice1 and the particular forms of the vibrations are traced on a cylinder1 the tracing stylus being attached to a thin vibrating membrane which is affected by the voice or instrument4 ,,the ,,phonograph4--,this instrument is the outgrowth of the stylus forms of the apparatus described1 but in this case the stylus1 or needle1 is fixed to a metallic diaphragm1 and its point makes an impression on suitable material placed on the outside of a revolvable cylinder or disc4 ,light4-,light is the agent which excites the sensation of vision in the eye4 ,various theories have been advanced by scientists to account for the phenomenon1 and the two most noted views are the corpuscular1 promulgated by ,sir ,isaac ,newton1 and the undulatory1 enunciated by ,huygens and ,euler4 ,the corpuscular theory conceives that light is a substance of exceedingly light particles which are shot forth with immense velocity4 ,the undulatory theory1 now generally accepted1 maintains that light is carried by vibrations in ether4 ,ether is a subtle elastic medium which fills all space4 ,luminous bodies are those like the sun1 which emit light4 ,rays may diverge1 that is1 spread out2 converge1 or point toward each other2 or they may be parallel with each other4 ,,velocity ,,of ,,light4--,light moves at the rate of about #ahf1jjj miles a second4 ,as the sun is about #id1jjj1jjj miles from the earth1 it takes #h-a_/b minutes for the light of the sun to reach us4 ,,reflection4--,one of the most important things connected with light is that of reflection4 ,it is that quality which is utilized in telescopes1 microscopes1 mirrors1 heliograph signaling and other like apparatus and uses4 ,the underlying principle is1 that a ray is reflected1 or thrown back from a mirror at the same angle as that which produces the light4 ,when the rays of the sun1 which are1 of course1 parallel1 strike a concave mirror1 the reflecting rays are converged2 and when the rays strike a convex mirror they diverge4 ,in this way the principle is employed in reflecting telescopes4 ,,refraction4--,this is the peculiar action of light in passing through substances4 ,if a ray passes through water at an angle to the surface the ray will bend downwardly in passing through1 and then again pass on in a straight line4 ,this will be noticed if a pencil is stood in a glass of water at an angle1 when it will appear bent4 ,refraction is that which enables light to be divided up1 or analyzed4 ,in this way white light from the sun is shown to be composed of seven principal colors4 ,,colors4--,if the light is passed through a prism1 which is a triangularly shaped piece of glass1 the rays on emerging will diverge from each other1 and when they fall on a wall or screen the colors red1 orange1 yellow1 green1 blue1 indigo and violet are shown4 ,the reason for this is that the ray in passing through the prism has the different colors in it refract at different angles1 the violet bending more than the red4 ,,the ,,spectroscope4--,the ability to make what is thus called a spectrum1 brought forth one of the most wonderful instruments ever devised by man4 ,if any metal1 or material1 is fused1 or put in such a condition that a ray of light can be obtained from it1 and this light is passed through a prism1 it will be found that each substance has its own peculiar divisions and arrangements of colors4 ,in this way substances are determined by what is called spectrum analysis1 and it is by means of this instrument that the composition of the sun1 and the planets and fixed stars are determined4 ,,the ,,rainbow4--,the rainbow is one of the effects of refraction1 as the light1 striking the little globular particles of water suspended in the air1 produces a breaking up of the white light into its component colors1 and the sky serves as a background for viewing the analysis thus made4 ,,heat4--,it is now conclusively proven1 that heat1 like light1 magnetism and electricity1 is merely a mode of motion4 ,the mechanical theory of heat may be shown by rubbing together several bodies4 ,heat expands all substances1 except ice1 and in expanding develops an enormous force4 ,,expansion4--,in like manner liquids expand with heat4 ,the power of mercury in expanding may be understood when it is stated that a pressure of #aj1jjj pounds would be required to prevent the expansion of mercury1 when heated simply #aj degrees4 ,gases also expand4 ,while water1 and the different solids1 all have their particular units of expansion1 it is not so with gases1 as all have the same coefficient4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,how ,,draughting ,,becomes ,a ,,valuable ,,aid ,the ability to read drawings is a necessary part of the boy's education4 ,to know how to use the tools1 is still more important4 ,in conveying an idea about a piece of mechanism1 a sketch is given4 ,now1 the sketch may be readable in itself1 requiring no explanation1 or it may be of such a nature that it will necessitate some written description4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ie4 ,plain ,circle ,,lines ,,in ,,drawing4--,in drawing1 lines have a definite meaning4 ,a plain circular line1 like ,fig4 #ie1 when drawn in that way1 conveys three meanings3 ,it may represent a rim1 or a bent piece of wire2 it may illustrate a disk2 or1 it may convey the idea of a ball4 ,suppose we develop them to express the three forms accurately4 ,fig4 #if1 by merely adding an interior line1 shows that it is a rim4 ,there can be no further doubt about that expression4 ,fig4 #ig shows a single line1 but it will now be noticed that the line is thickened at the lower right-hand side1 and from this you can readily infer that it is a disk4 ,,shading4--,fig4 #ih1 by having a few shaded lines on the right and lower side1 makes it have the appearance of a globe or a convex surface4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #if4 ,ring ,fig4 #ig4 ,raised ,surface ,fig4 #ih4 ,sphere ,shading or thickening the lines also gives another expression to the same circular line4 ,in ,fig4 #ii1 if the upper and left-hand side of the circle is heavily shaded1 it shows that the area within the circle is depressed1 instead of being raised4 ,,direction ,,of ,,shade4--,on the other hand1 if the shading lines1 as in ,fig4 #ajj1 are at the upper left-hand side1 then the mind at once grasps the idea of a concave surface4 ,the first thing1 therefore1 to keep in mind1 is this fact3 ,that in all mechanical drawing1 the light is supposed to shine down from the upper left-hand corner and that1 as a result1 the lower vertical line1 as well as the extreme right-hand vertical line1 casts the shadows1 and should1 therefore1 be made heavier than the upper horizontal1 and the left-hand vertical lines4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ii4 ,depressed ,surface ,fig4 #ajj4 ,concave ,there are exceptions to this rule1 which will be readily understood by following out the illustrations in the order given below4 ,,perspectives4--,the utility of the heavy lines will be more apparent when drawing square1 rectangular1 or triangular objects4 ,let us take ,fig4 #aja1 which appears to be the perspective of a cube4 ,notice that all lines are of the same thickness4 ,when the sketch was first brought to me ,i thought it was a cube2 but the explanation which followed1 showed that the man who made the sketch had an entirely different meaning4 ,he had intended to convey to my mind the idea of three pieces1 ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 of metal1 of equal size1 joined together so as to form a triangularly shaped pocket as shown in ,fig4 #aja4 ,the addition of the inner lines1 like ,d1 quickly dispelled the suggestion of the cube4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aja4 ,fig4 #ajb4 ,fig4 #ajc4 ,fig4 #ajd4 ,forms of ,cubical ,outlines ,but1 he remarked1 ,i want to use the thinnest metal1 like sheets of tin2 and you show them thick by adding the inner lines4 ,such being the case1 if we did not want to show thickness as its structural form1 we had to do it by making the lines themselves and the shading give that structural idea4 ,this was done by using the single lines1 as in ,fig4 #ajc1 and by a slight shading of the pieces ,a1 ,b1 ,c4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aje4 ,fig4 #ajf4 ,shading ,edges ,,the ,,most ,,pronounced ,,lines4--,if it had been a cube1 or a solid block1 the corners nearest the eye would have been most pronounced1 as in ,fig4 #ajd1 and the side next to the observer would have been darkest4 ,this question of light and shadow is what expresses the surface formation of every drawing4 ,simple strokes form outlines of the object1 but their thickness1 and the shading1 show the character enclosed by the ,,lines4 ,,direction ,,of ,,light4--,now1 as stated1 the casting of the shadow downward from the upper left-hand corner makes the last line over which it passes the thickest1 and in ,figs4 #aje and #ajf they are not the extreme lines at the bottom and at the right side1 because of the close parallel lines4 ,in ,figs4 #aji and #aaj the blades superposed on the other are very thin1 and the result is the lines at the right side and bottom are made much heavier4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajg4 ,fig4 #ajh4 ,illustrating ,heavy ,lines ,this is more fully shown in ,figs4 #ajg and #ajh4 ,notice the marked difference between the two figures1 both of which show the same set of pulleys1 and the last figure1 by merely having the lower and the right-hand lines of each pulley heavy1 changes the character of the representation1 and tells much more clearly what the draughtsman sought to convey4 ,,scale ,,drawings4--,all drawings are made to a scale where the article is large and cannot be indicated the exact size1 using parts of an inch to represent inches2 and parts of a foot to represent feet4 ,in order to reduce a drawing where a foot is the unit1 it is always best to use one-and-a-half inches1 or twelve-eighths of an inch1 as the basis4 ,in this way each eighth of an inch represents an inch4 ,if the drawing should be made larger1 then use three inches1 and in that way each inch would be one-quarter of an inch4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aji4 ,fig4 #aaj4 ,lines on ,plain ,surfaces ,the drawing should then have marked1 in some conspicuous place1 the scale1 like the following3 ,scale1 #a-a_/b #a'2 or1 ,scale #c #a'4 ,,degree1 ,,and ,,what ,,it ,,means4--,a degree is not a measurement4 ,the word is used to designate an interval1 a position1 or an angle4 ,every circle has #cfj degrees1 and when a certain degree is mentioned1 it means a certain angle from what is called a base line4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaa4 ,illustrating ,degrees ,look at ,fig4 #aaa4 ,this has a vertical line ,a1 and a horizontal line ,b4 ,the circle is thus divided into four parts1 and where these lines ,a1 ,b1 cross the circle are the cardinal points4 ,each of the four parts is called a quadrant1 and each quadrant has #ij degrees4 ,any line1 like ,c1 which is halfway between ,a and ,b1 is #de degrees4 ,halfway between ,a and ,c1 or between ,b and ,c1 like the line ,d1 is #bb-a_/b degrees4 ,,memorizing ,,angles4--,it is well to try and remember these lines by fixing the angles in the memory4 ,a good plan is to divide any of the quadrants into thirds1 as shown by the points ,e1 ,f1 and then remember that ,e is #cj degrees from the horizontal line ,b1 and that ,f is #fj degrees4 ,or1 you might say that ,f is #cj degrees from the vertical line ,a1 and ,e #fj degrees from ,a4 ,either would be correct4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aab4 ,section ,lining ,,section ,,lining4--,in representing many parts of a machine1 or article1 it is necessary to show the parts cut off1 which must be illustrated by what is called section lining4 ,adjacent parts should have the section lines running at right angles to each other1 and always at #de degrees4 ,look at the outside and then the inside views of ,fig4 #aab1 and you will see how the contiguous parts have the angles at right angles1 and clearly illustrate how every part of the wrench is made4 ,skill in depicting an article1 for the purpose of constructing it from the drawing1 will make the actual work on the bench and lathe an easy one4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aac4 ,drawing an ,ellipse ,,making ,,ellipses ,,and ,,irregular ,,curves4--,this is the hardest thing to do with drawing tools4 ,a properly constructed elliptical figure is difficult1 principally1 because two different sized curves are required1 and the pen runs from one curve into the other4 ,if the two curves meet at the wrong place1 you may be sure you will have a distorted ellipse4 ,follow the directions given in connection with ,fig4 #aac1 and it will give you a good idea of merging the two lines4 ,first4 ,draw a horizontal line1 ,a1 which is in the direction of the major axis of the ellipse--that is1 the longest distance across4 ,the narrow part of the ellipse is called the minor axis4 ,second4 ,draw a perpendicular line1 ,b1 which we will call the center of the ellipse1 where it crosses the line ,a4 ,this point must not be confounded with the focus4 ,in a circle the focus is the exact center of the ring1 but there is no such thing in an ellipse4 ,instead1 there are two focal points1 called the foci1 as you will see presently4 ,third4 ,step off two points or marking places1 as we shall term them1 equidistant from the line ,b1 and marked ,c1 ,c4 ,these marks will then represent the diameter of the ellipse across its major axis4 ,fourth4 ,we must now get the diameter of the minor axis1 along the line ,b4 ,this distance will depend on the perspective you have of the figure4 ,if you look at a disk at an angle of about #cj degrees it will be half of the distance across the major axis4 ,so you may understand this examine ,fig4 #aad4 ,the first sketch shows the eye looking directly at the disk #a4 ,in the second sketch the disk is at #cj degrees1 and now the lines #b #b1 from the eye1 indicate that it is just half the width that it was when the lines #c #c were projected4 ,the marks ,d ,d1 therefore1 indicate the distance across the minor axis in ,fig4 #aac4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aad4 ,perspection in ,angles ,fifth4 ,we must now find the focal points of the ellipse4 ,if the line ,a on each side of the cross line ,b is divided into four parts1 the outer marks ,e may be used for the foci1 and will be the places where the point of the compass1 or bow pen1 is to be placed4 ,sixth4 ,describe a circle ,f1 so it passes through the mark ,c1 and move the point of the compass to the center of the ellipse1 at the star1 and describe a circle line ,g1 from the mark ,c to the line ,b4 ,this will give a centering point ,h4 ,then draw a line ,i from ,h to ,e1 and extend it through the circle ,f4 ,seventh4 ,if the point of the compass is now put at ,h1 and the pencil or pen on the circle line ,f1 the curve ,j can be drawn1 so the latter curve and the curve ,f will thus merge perfectly at the line ,i4 ,,the ,,focal ,,points4--,the focal points can be selected at any arbitrary point1 between ,c and the line ,b1 and the point ,h may be moved closer to or farther away from the line ,a1 and you will succeed in making the ellipse correct1 if you observe one thing1 namely3 ,the line ,i1 which must always run from ,h to ,e1 and intersects the circle ,f1 is the starting or the ending point for the small curve ,f or the large circle ,j4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aae4 ,fig4 #aaf4 ,fig4 #aag4 ,perspectives of ,cubes ,,isometric ,,and ,,perspective4--,a figure may be drawn so as to show an isometric or a perspective view4 ,thus1 a cube can be drawn so as to make an isometric figure1 as in ,fig4 #aae1 where the three sides are equal to each other4 ,isometric means a method of drawing any object in such a manner that the height1 length and breadth may be shown in the proportion they really bear to each other4 ,fig4 #aae has the sides not only equal to each other1 in appearance to the eye1 but they have the same outlines and angles4 ,contrast this figure with ,figs4 #aaf and #aag4 ,in ,fig4 #aaf two of the sides are equal in angles and outline2 and in ,fig4 #aag each side has a different outline1 and different angles4 ,nevertheless1 all the cubes are1 in reality1 of the same dimension4 ,,the ,,protractor4--,this is a most useful tool for the draughtsman4 ,it enables the user to readily find any angle4 ,fig4 #aah shows an approved form of the tool for this purpose4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aah4 ,protractor4 ,section ,lining ,metals ,,suggestions ,,in ,,drawing4--,as in the use of all other tools1 so with the drawing instrument1 it must be kept in proper order4 ,if the points are too fine they will cut the paper2 if too blunt the lines will be ragged4 ,in whetting the points hold the pen at an angle of #ab degrees4 ,don't make too long an angle or slope1 and every time you sharpen hold it at the same angle1 so that it is ground back1 and not at the point only4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aai4 ,using the ,protractor4 ,,holding ,,the ,,pen4--,the drawing pen should be held as nearly vertical as possible4 ,use the cleaning rag frequently4 ,if the ink does not flow freely1 after you have made a few strokes1 as is frequently the case1 gently press together the points4 ,the least grit between the tines will cause an irregular flow4 ,,inks4--,as prepared liquid inks are now universally used1 a few suggestions might be well concerning them4 ,after half the bottle has been used1 add a half teaspoonful of water1 shake it well1 and then strain it through a fine cotton cloth4 ,this will remove all grit and lint that is sure to get into the bottle however carefully it may be corked4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abj4 ,section ,lining ,metals ,,tracing ,,cloth4--,it is preferable to use the dull side of the tracing cloth for the reasons that1 as the cloth is rolled with the glossy side inside1 the figure when drawn on the other side will be uppermost1 and will thus lie flat2 and on the other hand1 the ink will take better on the dull side4 ,if the ink does not flow freely1 use chalk1 fine pumice stone1 or talc1 and rub it in well with a clean cloth1 and then wipe off well before beginning to trace4 ,,detail ,,paper4--,the detail paper1 on which the drawing is first made in pencil1 should show the figure accurately1 particularly the points where the bow pen are to be used1 as well as the measurement points for the straight lines4 ,,how ,,to ,,proceed4--,make the circles1 curves1 and irregular lines first1 and then follow with the straight lines4 ,where the point of the circle pen must be used for a large number of lines1 as1 for instance1 in shading1 the smallest circles should be made first1 and the largest circles last1 because at every turn the centering hole becomes larger1 and there is liability to make the circles more or less irregular4 ,such irregularity will not be so noticeable in the large curves as in the smaller ones4 ,,indicating ,,material ,,by ,,the ,,section ,,lines4--,in section lining different materials can be indicated by the character of the lines1 shown in ,fig4 #abj4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,treatment ,,and ,,use ,,of ,,metals ,,annealing4--,a very important part of the novice's education is a knowledge pertaining to the annealing of metals4 ,unlike the artisan in wood1 who works the materials as he finds them1 the machinist can1 and1 in fact1 with many of the substances1 must prepare them so they can be handled or cut by the tools4 ,annealing is one of the steps necessary with all cutting tools1 and it is an absolute requirement with many metals for ordinary use1 as well as for many other articles like glass4 ,this is particularly true in the use of copper4 ,,toughness ,,and ,,elasticity4--,it means the putting of metals in such a condition that they will not only be less brittle1 but also tougher and more elastic4 ,many substances1 like glass1 must be annealed before they can be put in condition for use1 as this material when first turned out is so brittle that the slightest touch will shatter it1 so that it must be toughened4 ,malleable or wrought iron1 if subjected to pressure1 becomes brittle1 and it is necessary to anneal it4 ,otherwise1 if used1 for instance1 for boiler plates1 from the rolled sheets1 it would stand but little pressure4 ,the most immediate use the boy will have is the treatment of steel4 ,he must learn the necessity of this process1 and that of tempering1 in all his cutting tools1 and in the making of machinery where some parts are required to be constructed of very hard metal4 ,,the ,,process4--,to anneal steel it must be heated to a bright cherry red and then gradually cooled down4 ,for this purpose a bed of fine charcoal1 or iron filings and lime1 is prepared1 in which the article is embedded1 and permitted to remain until it is cold4 ,there are many ways of doing the work1 particularly in the use of substances which will the most readily give up their carbon to the tool4 ,yellow prussiate of potash is an excellent medium1 and this is sprinkled over the cherry-heated article to be annealed4 ,the process may be repeated several times4 ,,tempering4--,this is the reverse of annealing as understood in the art4 ,the word itself does not mean to harden1 but to put into some intermediate state4 ,for instance1 tempered clay means a clay which has been softened so it can be readily worked4 ,on the other hand1 a tempered steel tool is put into a condition where it is hardened1 but this hardness is also accompanied by another quality1 namely1 toughness4 ,for this reason1 the word temper1 and not hardness1 is referred to4 ,a lathe tool1 if merely hardened1 would be useless for that purpose4 ,,tempering ,,contrasted ,,with ,,annealing4--,it will be observed that in annealing three things are necessary3 ,first1 heating to a certain temperature2 second1 cooling slowly2 third1 the particular manner of cooling it4 ,in tempering1 on the other hand1 three things are also necessary3 ,first3 ,the heating temperature should be a dull red1 which is less than the annealing heat4 ,second3 ,instead of cooling slowly the article tempered is dipped into a liquid which suddenly chills it4 ,third3 ,the materials used vary1 but if the article is plunged into an unguent made of mercury and bacon fat1 it will impart a high degree of toughness and elasticity4 ,,materials ,,used4--,various oils1 fats and rosins are also used1 and some acids in water are also valuable for this purpose4 ,care should be taken to have sufficient amount of liquid in the bath so as not to evaporate it or heat it up too much when it receives the heated body4 ,different parts of certain articles require varying degrees of hardness1 like the tangs of files4 ,the cutting body of the file must be extremely hard1 and rather brittle than tough4 ,if the tang should be of the same hardness it would readily break4 ,gradual ,tempering4--,to prevent this1 some substance like soap suds may be used to cool down the tang1 so that toughness without hardness is imparted4 ,the tempering1 or hardening1 like the annealing process1 may be repeated several times in succession1 and at each successive heating the article is put at a higher temperature4 ,if any part of a body1 as1 for instance1 a hammerhead1 should require hardening1 it may be plunged into the liquid for a short distance only1 and this will harden the pole or peon while leaving the other part of the head soft1 or annealed4 ,glycerine is a good tempering substance1 and to this may be added a small amount of sulphate of potash4 ,,fluxing4--,the word flux means to fuse or to melt1 or to put into a liquid state4 ,the office of a flux is to facilitate the fusion of metals4 ,but fluxes do two things4 ,they not only aid the conversion of the metal into a fluid state1 but also serve as a means for facilitating the unity of several metals which make up the alloy1 and aid in uniting the parts of metals to be joined in the welding of parts4 ,,uniting ,,metals4--,metals are united in three ways1 where heat is used3 ,first3 ,by heating two or more of them to such a high temperature that they melt and form a compound1 or an alloy1 as it is called4 ,second3 ,by heating up the points to be joined1 and then lapping the pieces and hammering the parts4 ,this is called forge work or welding4 ,third3 ,by not heating the adjacent parts and using an easily fusible metal1 which is heated up and run between the two1 by means of a soldering iron4 ,the foreign material used in the first is called a flux2 in the second it is termed a welding compound2 and in the third it is known as a soldering acid1 or soldering fluid4 ,the boy is not so much interested in the first process1 from the standpoint of actual work1 but it is necessary that he should have some understanding of it4 ,it may be said1 as to fluxes1 generally1 that they are intended to promote the fusion of the liquefying metals1 and the elements used are the alkalis1 such as borax1 tartar1 limestone1 or fluor spar4 ,these substances act as reducing or oxidizing agents4 ,the most important are carbonate of soda1 potash1 and cyanide of potassium4 ,limestone is used as the flux in iron-smelting4 ,,welding ,,compounds4--,elsewhere formulas are given of the compounds most desirable to use4 ,it is obvious that the application of these substances on the heated surfaces1 is not only to facilitate the heating1 but to prepare the articles in such a manner that they will more readily adhere to each other4 ,,oxidation4--,oxidation is the thing to guard against in welding4 ,the moment a piece of metal1 heated to whiteness1 is exposed1 the air coats it with a film which is called an oxide4 ,to remove this the welding compound is applied4 ,the next office of the substance thus applied1 is to serve as a medium for keeping the welding parts in a liquid condition as long as possible1 and thus facilitate the unity of the joined elements4 ,when the hammer beats the heated metals an additional increment of heat is imparted to the weld1 due to the forcing together of the molecules of the iron1 so that these two agencies1 namely1 the compound and the mechanical friction1 act together to unite the particles of the metal4 ,,soldering4--,here another principle is involved1 namely1 the use of an intermediate material between two parts which are to be united4 ,the surfaces to be brought together must be thoroughly cleaned1 using such agents as will prevent the formation of oxides4 ,the parts to be united may be of the same1 or of different materials1 and it is in this particular that the workman must be able to make a choice of the solder most available1 and whether hard or soft4 ,,soft ,,solder4--,a soft solder is usually employed where lead1 tin1 or alloys of lead1 tin and bismuth are to be soldered4 ,these solders are all fusible at a low temperature1 and they do not1 as a result1 have great strength4 ,bismuth is a metal which lowers the fusing point of any alloy of which it forms a part1 while lead makes the solder less fusible4 ,,hard ,,solder4--,these are so distinguished because they require a temperature above the low red to fuse them4 ,the metals which are alloyed for this purpose are copper1 silver1 brass1 zinc and tin4 ,various alloys are thus made which require a high temperature to flux properly1 and these are the ones to use in joining steel to steel1 the parts to be united requiring an intense furnace heat4 ,,spelter4--,the alloy used for this purpose is termed spelter1 and brass1 zinc and tin are its usual components4 ,the hard solders are used for uniting brass1 bronze1 copper1 and iron4 ,whether soft or hard solder is used1 it is obvious that it must melt at a lower temperature than the parts which are to be joined together4 ,there is one peculiarity with respect to alloys3 ,they melt at a lower temperature than either of the metals forming the alloys4 ,,soldering ,,acid4--,before beginning the work of soldering1 the parts must be cleaned by filing or sandpapering1 and coated with an acid which neutralizes the oxygen of the air4 ,this is usually muriatic acid1 of which use1 say1 one quart and into this drop small pieces of zinc4 ,this will effervesce during the time the acid is dissolving the zinc4 ,when the boiling motion ceases1 the liquid may be strained1 or the dark pieces removed4 ,the next step is to dissolve two ounces of sal ammoniac in a third of a pint of water1 and in another vessel dissolve an ounce of chloride of tin4 ,then mix the three solutions1 and this can be placed in a bottle1 or earthen jar or vessel1 and it will keep indefinitely4 ,,the ,,soldering ,,iron4--,a large iron is always better than a small one1 particularly for the reason that it will retain its heat better4 ,this should always be kept tinned1 which can be done by heating and plunging it into the soldering solution1 and the solder will then adhere to the iron and cover the point1 so that when the actual soldering takes place the solder will not creep away from the tool4 ,by a little care and attention to these details1 the work of uniting metals will be a pleasure4 ,it is so often the case1 however1 that the apparatus for doing this work is neglected in a shop2 the acid is allowed to become dirty and full or foreign matter1 and the different parts separated4 ,,chapter ,x ,,on ,,gearing ,,and ,,how ,,ordered ,the technical name for gears1 the manner of measuring them1 their pitch and like terms1 are most confusing to the novice4 ,as an aid to the understanding on this subject1 the wheels are illustrated1 showing the application of these terms4 ,,spur ,,and ,,pinion4--,when a gear is ordered a specification is necessary4 ,the manufacturer will know what you mean if you use the proper terms1 and you should learn the distinctions between spur and pinion1 and why a bevel differs from a miter gear4 ,if the gears on two parallel shafts mesh with each other1 they both may be of the same diameter1 or one may be larger than the other4 ,in the latter case1 the small one is the pinion1 and the larger one the spur wheel4 ,some manufacturers use the word gear for pinion1 so that1 in ordering1 they call them gear and pinion1 in speaking of the large and small wheels4 ,,measuring ,a ,,gear4--,the first thing to specify would be the diameter4 ,now a spur gear1 as well as a pinion1 has three diameters2 one measure across the outer extremities of the teeth2 one measure across the wheel from the base of the teeth2 and the distance across the wheel at a point midway between the base and end of the teeth4 ,these three measurements are called1 respectively1 outside diameter1 inside diameter1 and pitch diameter4 ,when the word diameter is used1 as applied to a gear wheel1 it is always understood to mean the pitch diameter4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aba4 ,spur ,gears ,,pitch4--,this term is the most difficult to understand4 ,when two gears of equal size mesh together1 the pitch line1 or the pitch circle1 as it is also called1 is exactly midway between the centers of the two wheels4 ,now the number of teeth in a gear is calculated on the pitch line1 and this is called3 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abb4 ,miter ,gear ,pitch ,,diametral ,,pitch4--,to illustrate3 ,if a gear has #dj teeth1 and the pitch diameter of the wheel is #d inches1 there are #aj teeth to each inch of the pitch diameter1 and the gear is then #aj diametral pitch4 ,,circular ,,pitch4--,now the term circular pitch grows out of the necessity of getting the measurement of the distance from the center of one tooth to the center of the next1 and it is measured along the pitch line4 ,supposing you wanted to know the number of teeth in a gear where the pitch diameter and the diametral pitch are given4 ,you would proceed as follows3 ,let the diameter of the pitch circle be #aj inches1 and the diameter of the diametral pitch be #d inches4 ,multiplying these together the product is #dj1 thus giving the number of teeth4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abc4 ,bevel ,gears4 ,it will thus be seen that if you have an idea of the diametral pitch and circular pitch1 you can pretty fairly judge of the size that the teeth will be1 and thus enable you to determine about what kind of teeth you should order4 ,,how ,,to ,,order ,a ,,gear4--,in proceeding to order1 therefore1 you may give the pitch1 or the diameter of the pitch circle1 in which latter case the manufacturer of the gear will understand how to determine the number of the teeth4 ,in case the intermeshing gears are of different diameters1 state the number of teeth in the gear and also in the pinion1 or indicate what the relative speed shall be4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abd4 ,miter ,gears4 ,this should be followed by the diameter of the hole in the gear and also in the pinion2 the backing of both gear and pinion2 the width of the face2 the diameter of the gear hub2 diameter of the pinion hub2 and1 finally1 whether the gears are to be fastened to the shafts by key-ways or set-screws4 ,fig4 #abb shows a sample pair of miter gears1 with the measurements to indicate how to make the drawings4 ,fig4 #abc shows the bevel gears4 ,,bevel ,,and ,,miter ,,gears4--,when two intermeshing gears are on shafts which are at right angles to each other1 they may be equal diametrically1 or of different sizes4 ,if both are of the same diameter1 they are called bevel gears2 if of different diameters1 miter gears4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abe4 ,sprocket ,wheel4 ,it is1 in ordering gears of this character1 that the novice finds it most difficult to know just what to do4 ,in this case it is necessary to get the proper relation of speed between the two gears1 and1 for convenience1 we shall1 in the drawing1 make the gears in the relation of #b to #a4 ,,drawing ,,gears4--,draw two lines at right angles1 ,fig4 #abd1 as #a and #b1 marking off the sizes of the two wheels at the points #c1 #d4 ,then draw a vertical line 7,a7 midway between the marks of the line #b1 and this will be the center of the main pinion4 ,also draw a horizontal line 7,b7 midway between the marks on the vertical line 7#a71 and this will represent the center of the small gear4 ,these two cross lines 7,a1 ,b7 constitute the intersecting axes of the two wheels1 and a line 7#e71 drawn from the mark 7#c to #d71 and another line 7#f71 from the axes to the intersecting points of the lines 7#a1 #b71 will give the pitch line angles of the two wheels4 ,,sprocket ,,wheels4--,for sprocket wheels the pitch line passes centrally through the rollers 7,a7 of the chain1 as shown in ,fig4 #abe1 and the pitch of the chain is that distance between the centers of two adjacent rollers4 ,in this case the cut of the teeth is determined by the chain4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,mechanical ,,powers ,,the ,,lever4--,the lever is the most wonderful mechanical element in the world4 ,the expression1 lever1 is not employed in the sense of a stick or a bar which is used against a fulcrum to lift or push something with1 but as the type of numerous devices which employ the same principle4 ,some of these devices are1 the wedge1 the screw1 the pulley and the inclined plane4 ,in some form or other1 one or more of these are used in every piece of mechanism in the world4 ,because the lever enables the user to raise or move an object hundreds of times heavier than is possible without it1 has led thousands of people to misunderstand its meaning1 because it has the appearance1 to the ignorant1 of being able to manufacture power4 ,,wrong ,,inferences ,,from ,,use ,,of ,,lever4--,this lack of knowledge of first principles1 has bred and is now breeding1 so-called perpetual motion inventors 787 all over the civilized world4 ,it is surprising how many men1 to say nothing of boys1 actually believe that power can be made without the expenditure of something which equalizes it4 ,the boy should not be led astray in this particular1 and ,i shall try to make the matter plain by using the simple lever to illustrate the fact that whenever power is exerted some form of energy is expended4 ,in ,fig4 #abf is a lever 7,a71 resting on a fulcrum 7,b71 the fulcrum being so placed that the lever is four times longer on one side than on the other4 ,a weight 7,c7 of #d pounds is placed on the short end1 and a #a-pound weight 7,d71 called the power1 on the short end4 ,it will thus be seen that the lever is balanced by the two weights1 or that the weight and the power are equal4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abf4 ,simple ,lever ,,the ,,lever ,,principle4--,now1 without stopping to inquire1 the boy will say3 ,certainly1 ,i can understand that4 ,as the lever is four times longer on one side of the fulcrum than on the other side1 it requires only one-fourth of the weight to balance the four pounds4 ,but suppose ,i push down the lever1 at the point where the weight 7,d7 is1 then1 for every pound ,i push down ,i can raise four pounds at ,c4 ,in that case do ,i not produce four times the power8 ,i answer1 yes4 ,but while ,i produce that power ,i am losing something which is equal to the power gained4 ,what is that8 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abg4 ,lever ,action ,first3 ,look at ,fig4 #abg2 the distance traveled4 ,the long end of the lever is at its highest point1 which is ,a2 and the short end of the lever is at its lowest point ,c4 ,when the long end of the lever is pushed down1 so it is at ,b1 it moves four times farther than the short end moves upwardly1 as the distance from ,c to ,d is just one-fourth that from ,a to ,b4 ,the energy expended in moving four times the distance balances the power gained4 ,,power ,,vs4 ,,distance ,,traveled4--,from this the following law is deduced3 ,that whatever is gained in power is lost in the distance traveled4 ,second3 ,using the same figure1 supposing it was necessary to raise the short end of the lever1 from ,c to ,d1 in one second of time4 ,in that case the hand pressing down the long end of the lever1 would go from ,a to ,b in one second of time2 or it would go four times as far as the short end1 in the same time4 ,,power ,,vs4 ,,loss ,,in ,,time4--,this means another law3 ,that what is gained in power is lost in time4 ,distinguish clearly between these two motions4 ,in the first case the long end of the lever is moved down from ,a to ,b in four seconds1 and it had to travel four times the distance that the short end moves in going from ,c to ,d4 ,in the second case the long end is moved down1 from ,a to ,b1 in one second of time1 and it had to go that distance in one-fourth of the time1 so that four times as much energy was expended in the same time to raise the short end from ,c to ,d4 ,,wrongly ,,directed ,,energy4--,more men have gone astray on the simple question of the power of the lever than on any other subject in mechanics4 ,the writer has known instances where men knew the principles involved in the lever1 who would still insist on trying to work out mechanical devices in which pulleys and gearing were involved1 without seeming to understand that those mechanical devices are absolutely the same in principle4 ,this will be made plain by a few illustrations4 ,in ,fig4 #abh1 ,a is a pulley four times larger1 diametrically1 than ,b1 and ,c is the pivot on which they turn4 ,the pulleys are1 of course1 secured to each other4 ,in this case we have the two weights1 one of four pounds on the belt1 which is on the small pulley 7,b71 and a one-pound weight on the belt from the large pulley 7,a74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abh4 ,the ,pulley ,,the ,,lever ,,and ,,the ,,pulley4--,if we should substitute a lever 7,d7 for the pulleys1 the similarity to the lever 7,fig4 #abg7 would be apparent at once4 ,the pivot 7,c7 in this case would act the same as the pivot 7,c7 in the lever illustration4 ,in the same manner1 and for like reasons1 the wedge1 the screw and the incline plane1 are different structural applications of the principles set forth in the lever4 ,whenever two gears are connected together1 the lever principle is used1 whether they are the same in size1 diametrically1 or not4 ,if they are the same size then no change in power results2 but instead1 thereof1 a change takes place in the direction of the motion4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abi4 ,fig4 #acj4 ,change of ,direction ,when one end of the lever 7,a7 goes down1 the other end goes up1 as shown in ,fig4 #abi2 and in ,fig4 #acj1 when the shaft 7,c7 of one wheel turns in one direction1 the shaft of the other wheel turns in the opposite direction4 ,it is plain that a gear1 like a lever1 may change direction as well as increase or decrease power4 ,it is the thorough knowledge of these facts1 and their application1 which enables man to make the wonderful machinery we see on every hand4 ,,sources ,,of ,,power4--,power is derived from a variety of sources1 but what are called the prime movers are derived from heat1 through the various fuels1 from water1 from the winds and from the tides and waves of the ocean4 ,in the case of water the power depends on the head1 or height1 of the surface of the water above the discharging orifice4 ,,water ,,power4--,a column of water an inch square and #bh inches high gives a pressure at the base of one pound2 and the pressure at the lower end is equal in all directions4 ,if a tank of water #bh inches high has a single orifice in its bottom #a x #a in size1 the pressure of water through that opening will be only one pound1 and it will be one pound through every other orifice in the bottom of the same size4 ,,calculating ,,fuel ,,energy4--,power from fuels depends upon the expansion of the materials consumed1 or upon the fact that heat expands some element1 like water1 which in turn produces the power4 ,one cubic inch of water1 when converted into steam1 has a volume equal to one cubic foot1 or about #a1gjj times increase in bulk4 ,advantage is taken of this in steam engine construction4 ,if a cylinder has a piston in it with an area of #ajj square inches1 and a pipe one inch square supplies steam at #ej pounds pressure1 the piston will have #ej pounds pressure on every square inch of its surface1 equal to #e1jjj pounds4 ,,the ,,pressure ,,or ,,head4--,in addition to that there will also be #ej pounds pressure on each square inch of the head1 as well as on the sides of the cylinder4 ,fig4 #aca shows a cylinder 7,a71 a piston 7,b7 and a steam inlet port 7,c71 in which is indicated how the steam pressure acts equally in all directions4 ,as1 however1 the piston is the only movable part1 the force of the steam is directed to that part1 and the motion is then transmitted to the crank1 and to the shaft of the engine4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aca4 ,steam ,pressure ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acb4 ,water ,pressure ,this same thing applies to water which1 as stated1 is dependent on its head4 ,fig4 #acb represents a cylinder 7,d7 with a vertically movable piston 7,e7 and a standpipe 7,f74 ,assuming that the pipe 7,f7 is of sufficient height to give a pressure of #ej pounds to the square inch1 then the piston 7,e7 and the sides and head of the cylinder 7,d7 would have #ej pounds pressure on every square inch of surface4 ,,fuels4--,in the use of fuels1 such as the volatile hydrocarbons1 the direct expansive power of the fuel gases developed1 is used to move the piston back and forth4 ,engines so driven are called ,internal ,combustion ,motors4 ,,power ,,from ,,winds4--,another source of power is from the wind acting against wheels which have blades or vanes disposed at such angles that there is a direct conversion of a rectilinear force into circular motion4 ,in this case power is derived from the force of the moving air and the calculation of energy developed is made by considering the pressure on each square foot of surface4 ,the following table shows the force exerted at different speeds against a flat surface one foot square1 held so that the wind strikes it squarely3 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,,speed ,,of ,,wind ,,pressure ,,speed ,,of ,,wind ,,pressure ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ #e ,miles per hour #b oz4 #ce miles per hour #f lb4 #b oz4 #aj #h #dj #h #ae #a lb4 #b #de #aj #b #bj #b #ej #ab #b #be #c #b #ee #ae #b #cj #d #h #fj #ah ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,,varying ,,degrees ,,of ,,pressure4--,it is curious to notice how the increase in speed changes the pressure against the blade4 ,thus1 a wind blowing #bj miles an hour shows #b pounds pressure2 whereas a wind twice that velocity1 or #dj miles an hour1 shows a pressure of #h pounds1 which is four times greater than at #bj miles4 ,it differs1 therefore1 from the law with respect to water pressure1 which is constant in relation to the height or the head--that is1 for every #bh inches height of water a pound pressure is added4 ,,power ,,from ,,waves ,,and ,,tides4--,many attempts have been made to harness the waves and the tide and some of them have been successful4 ,this effort has been directed to the work of converting the oscillations of the waves into a rotary motion1 and also to take advantage of the to-and-fro movement of the tidal flow4 ,there is a great field in this direction for the ingenious boy4 ,a ,,profitable ,,field4--,in no direction of human enterprise is there such a wide and profitable field for work1 as in the generation of power4 ,it is constantly growing in prominence1 and calls for the exercise of the skill of the engineer and the ingenuity of the mechanic4 ,efficiency and economy are the two great watchwords1 and this is what the world is striving for4 ,success will come to him who can contribute to it in the smallest degree4 ,capital is not looking for men who can cheapen the production of an article #ej per cent41 but #a per cent4 ,the commercial world does not expect an article to be #ajj per cent1 better4 ,five per cent4 would be an inducement for business4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,on ,,measures ,,horse-,,power4--,when work is performed it is designated as horse-power1 usually indicated by the letters ,h4 ,p42 but the unit of work is called a foot pound4 ,if one pound should be lifted #eej feet in one second1 or #eej pounds one foot in the same time1 it would be designated as one horse-power4 ,for that reason it is called a foot pound4 ,instead of using the figure to indicate the power exerted during one minute of time1 the time is taken for a minute1 in all calculations1 so that #eej multiplied by the number of seconds1 #fj1 in a minute1 equals #cc1jjj foot pounds4 ,,foot ,,pounds4--,the calculation of horse-power is in a large measure arbitrary4 ,it was determined in this way3 ,experiments show that the heat expended in vaporizing #cd pounds of water per hour1 develops a force equal to #cc1jjj foot pounds2 and since it takes about #d pounds of coal per hour to vaporize that amount of water1 the heat developed by that quantity of coal develops the same force as that exercised by an average horse exerting his strength at ordinary work4 ,all power is expressed in foot pounds4 ,suppose a cannon ball of sufficient weight and speed strikes an object4 ,if the impact should indicate #cc1jjj pounds it would not mean that the force employed was one horse-power1 but that many foot pounds4 ,if there should be #fj impacts of #eej pounds each within a minute1 it might be said that it would be equal to #a horse-power1 but the correct way to express it would be foot pounds4 ,so in every calculation1 where power is to be calculated1 first find out how many foot pounds are developed1 and then use the unit of measure1 #cc1jjj1 as the divisor to get the horse-power1 if you wish to express it in that way4 ,it must be understood1 therefore1 that horse-power is a simple unit of work1 whereas a foot pound is a compound unit formed of a foot paired with the weight of a pound4 ,,energy4--,now work and energy are two different things4 ,work is the overcoming of resistance of any kind1 either by causing or changing motion1 or maintaining it against the action of some other force4 ,energy1 on the other hand1 is the power of doing work4 ,falling water possesses energy2 so does a stone poised on the edge of a cliff4 ,in the case of water1 it is called kinetic energy2 in the stone potential energy4 ,a pound of pressure against the stone will cause the latter1 in falling1 to develop an enormous energy2 so it will be seen that this property resides1 or is within the thing itself4 ,it will be well to remember these definitions4 ,,how ,,to ,,find ,,out ,,the ,,power ,,developed4--,the measure of power produced by an engine1 or other source1 is so interesting to boys that a sketch is given of a ,prony ,brake1 which is the simplest form of the ,dynamometer1 as these measuring machines are called4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acc4 ,prony ,brake ,in the drawing 7,a7 is the shaft1 with a pulley 7,a'71 which turns in the direction of the arrow 7,b74 ,c is a lever which may be of any length4 ,this has a block 7,c'71 which fits on the pulley1 and below the shaft1 and surrounding it1 are blocks 7,d7 held against the pulley by a chain 7,e71 the ends of the chain being attached to bolts 7,f7 which pass through the block 7,c'7 and lever 7,c74 ,nuts 7,g7 serve to draw the bolts upwardly and thus tighten the blocks against the shaft4 ,the free end of the lever has stops 7,h7 above and below1 so as to limit its movement4 ,weights 7,i7 are suspended from the end of the lever4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acd4 ,speed ,indicator ,,the ,,test4--,the test is made as follows3 ,the shaft is set in motion1 and the nuts are tightened until its full power at the required speed is balanced by the weight put on the platform4 ,the following calculation can then be made3 ,for our present purpose we shall assume that the diameter of the pulley 7,a'7 is #d inches2 the length of the lever 7,c71 #c feet2 the speed of the shaft 7,a7 and the pulley1 #baj revolutions per minute2 and the weight #fjj pounds4 ,now proceed as follows3 7#a7 ,multiply the diameter of the pulley 7,a'7 7#d inches7 by #c4adaf1 and this will give the circumference #ab4effd inches2 or1 #a4jdgb feet4 7#b7 ,multiply this product 7#a4jdgb7 by the revolutions per minute4 #a4jdgb x #baj #bai4iab4 ,this equals the speed of the periphery of the pulley4 7#c7 ,the next step is to get the length of the lever 7,c7 from the center of the shaft 7,a7 to the point from which the weights are suspended1 and divide this by one-half of the diameter of the pulley 7,a'74 #cf _/ #b #ah1 or #a-a_/b feet4 ,this is the leverage4 7#d7 ,then multiply the weight in pounds by the leverage4 #fjj x #a-a_/b #ijj4 7#e7 ,next multiply this product 7#ijj7 by the speed1 #ijj x #bai4iab #aig1ibj4h1 which means foot pounds4 7#f7 ,as each horse-power has #cc1jjj foot pounds1 the last product should be divided by this figure1 and we have #aig1ibj4h _/ #cc1jjj #e4ii ,h4 ,p4 ,,the ,,foot ,,measure4--,how long is a foot1 and what is it determined by8 ,it is an arbitrary measure4 ,the human foot is the basis of the measurement4 ,but what is the length of a man's foot8 ,it varied in different countries from #i to #ba inches4 ,in ,england1 in early days1 it was defined as a measure of length consisting of #ab inches1 or #cf barleycorns laid end to end4 ,but barleycorns differ in length as well as the human foot1 so the standard adopted is without any real foundation or reason4 ,,weight4--,to determine weight1 however1 a scientific standard was adopted4 ,a gallon contains #h4cc pounds avoirdupois weight of distilled water4 ,this gallon is divided up in two ways2 one by weight1 and the other by measurement4 ,each gallon contains #bca cubic inches of distilled water4 ,as it has four quarts1 each quart has #eg-c_/d cubic inches1 and as each quart is comprised of two pints1 each pint has nearly #bi cubic inches4 ,,the ,,gallon4--,the legal gallon in the ,united ,states is equal to a cylindrical measure #g inches in diameter and #f inches deep4 ,notwithstanding the weights and dimensions of solids and liquids are thus fixed by following a scientific standard1 the divisions into scruples1 grains1 pennyweights and tons1 as well as cutting them up into pints1 quarts and other units1 is done without any system1 and for this reason the need of a uniform method has been long considered by every country4 ,,the ,,metric ,,system4--,as early as #aebh1 ,fernal1 a ,french physician1 suggested the metric system4 ,our own government recognized the value of this plan when it established the system of coinage4 ,the principle lies in fixing a unit1 such as a dollar1 or a pound1 or a foot1 and then making all divisions1 or addition1 in multiples of ten4 ,thus1 we have one mill2 ten mills to make a dime2 ten dimes to make a dollar1 and so on4 ,,basis ,,of ,,measurement4--,the question arose1 what to use as the basis of measurement1 and it was proposed to use the earth itself1 as the measure4 ,for this purpose the meridian line running around the earth at the latitude of ,paris was selected4 ,one-quarter of this measurement around the globe was found to be #cic1gjg1ijj inches1 and this was divided into #aj1jjj1jjj parts4 ,each part1 therefore1 was a little over #ci4cg inches in length1 and this was called a meter1 which means measure4 ,a decimeter is one-tenth of that1 namely1 #c4icg inches2 and a decameter #ci4cg1 or ten times the meter1 and so on4 ,for convenience the metrical table is given1 showing lengths in feet and inches1 in which only three decimal points are used4 ,metrical ,table1 showing measurements in feet and inches3 ,,metrical ,,table1 ,,showing ,,measurements ,,in ,,feet ,,and ,,inches ---------------------------------------- -- ---------------------------------------- ,length ,inches ,feet ---------------------------------------- ,millimeter #j4jci #j4jjc ,centimeter #j4cic #j4jcb ,decimeter #c4icg #j4cbh ,meter #ci4cgj #c4bhj ,decameter #cic4gjg #cb4hjh ,hectometer #cicg4jgi #cbh4jhi ,kilometer #cicgj4gij #cbhj4hii ,myriameter #cicgjg4ijj #cbhjh4iib ---------------------------------------- ,,metric ,,system1 ,,showing ,,the ,,equivalents ,,in ,,our ,,measures #a ,myriameter #e4d nautical miles1 or #f4ba statute miles4 #a ,kilometer #j4fba statute mile1 or nearly #e_/h mile4 #a ,hectometer #aji4d yards4 #a ,decameter #j4dig chain1 #a4ihh rods4 #a ,meter #ci4cg inches1 or nearly #c ft4 #c-c_/h inches4 #a ,decimeter #c4icg inches4 #a ,centimeter #j4cicg inch4 #a ,millimeter #j4jcicg inch4 #a ,micron #a_/bedjj inch4 #a ,hectare #b4dga acres4 #a ,arc #aai4f square yards4 #a ,centaire1 or square meter #aj4gfd square feet4 #a ,decastere #ac cubic yards1 or about #b-c_/d cords4 #a ,stere1 or cubic meter #a4cjh cubic yards1 or #ce4c cubic feet4 #a ,decistere #c-a_/b cubic feet4 #a ,kiloliter #a ton1 #ab gal41 #b pints1 #b gills old wine measure4 #a ,hectoliter #bb4ja ,imperial gals41 or #bf4d ,u4 ,s4 gals4 #a ,decaliter #b gallons1 #a pint1 #b-b_/e gills1 imperial measure1 or #b gals41 #b qts41 #a pt41 #a_/b gill1 ,u4 ,s4 #a ,liter #a pint1 #c gills1 imperial1 or #a qt41 #a_/b gill ,u4 ,s4 measure4 #a ,decileter #j4gjd gill1 imperial1 or #j4hde gill ,u4 ,s4 measure4 #a ,millier #b1bjd4f pounds avoirdupois4 #a ,metric quintal #b hundredweight1 less #c-a_/b pounds1 or #bbj pounds1 #g ounces4 #a ,kilogram #b pounds1 #c ounces1 #d-c_/h drams avoirdupois4 #a ,hectogram #c ounces1 #h-c_/h drams avoirdupois4 #a ,decagram #aed4cb grains ,troy4 #a ,gram #ae4dcb grains4 #a ,decigram #a4edb grain4 #a ,centigram #j4aed grain4 #a ,milligram #j4jae grain4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,useful ,,information ,,for ,,the ,,workshop ,to find the circumference of a circle3 ,multiply the diameter by #c4adaf4 ,to find the diameter of a circle3 ,multiply the circle by 4#cahca4 ,to find the area of a circle3 ,multiply the square of the diameter by 4#ghed4 ,to find the area of a triangle3 ,multiply the base by one-half the perpendicular height4 ,to find the surface of a ball3 ,multiply the square of the diameter by #c4adaf4 ,to find the solidity of a sphere3 ,multiply the cube of the diameter by 4#ebcf4 ,to find the cubic contents of a cone3 ,multiply the area of the base by one-third the altitude4 ,doubling the diameter of a pipe increases its capacity four times4 ,to find the pressure in pounds per square inch of a column of water3 ,multiply the height of the column in feet by 4#dcd4 ,standard ,horse-power3 ,the evaporation of #cj pounds of water per hour from a feed water temperature of #a1jjj degrees ,fahrenheit into steam at #gj pounds gauge pressure4 ,to find the capacity of any tank in gallons3 ,square the diameter in inches1 multiply by the length1 and then by 4#jjcd4 ,in making patterns for aluminum castings provision must be made for shrinkage to a greater extent than with any other metal or alloy4 ,the toughness of aluminum can be increased by adding a small per cent4 of phosphorus4 ,all alloys of metals having mercury are called amalgams4 ,a sheet of zinc suspended in the water of a boiler will produce an electrolytic action and prevent scaling to a considerable extent4 ,hydrofluoric acid will not affect a pure diamond1 but will dissolve all imitations4 ,a strong solution of alum put into glue will make it insoluble in water4 ,a grindstone with one side harder than the other can have its flinty side softened by immersing that part in boiled linseed oil4 ,one barrel contains #c-c_/d cubic feet4 ,one cubic yard contains #g-a_/d barrels4 ,to find the speed of a driven pulley of a given diameter3 ,multiply the diameter of the driving pulley by its speed or number of revolutions4 ,divide this by the diameter of the driven pulley4 ,the result will be the number of revolutions of the driven pulley4 ,to find the diameter of a driven pulley that shall make any given number of revolutions in the same time3 ,multiply the diameter of the driving pulley by its number of revolutions1 and divide the product by the number of revolutions of the driven pulley4 ,a piece of the well-known tar soap held against the inside of a belt while running will prevent it from slipping1 and will not injure the belt4 ,boiler scale is composed of the carbonate or the sulphate of lime4 ,to prevent the formation it is necessary to use some substance which will precipitate these elements in the water4 ,the cheapest and most universally used for this purpose are soda ash and caustic soda4 ,gold bronze is merely a mixture of equal parts of oxide of tin and sulphur4 ,to unite them they are heated for some time in an earthen retort4 ,rusted utensils may be cleaned of rust by applying either turpentine or kerosene oil1 and allowing them to stand over night1 when the excess may be wiped off4 ,clean afterwards with fine emery cloth4 ,plaster of paris is valuable for many purposes in a machine shop1 but the disadvantage in handling it is1 that it sets so quickly1 and its use is1 therefore1 very much limited4 ,to prevent quick setting mix a small amount of arrow root powder with the plaster before it is mixed1 and this will keep it soft for some time1 and also increase its hardness when it sets4 ,for measuring purposes a tablespoon holds #a_/b ounce2 a dessertspoon #a_/d ounce2 a teaspoon #a_/h ounce2 a teacupful of sugar weighs #a_/b pound2 two teacupsful of butter weigh #a pound2 #a-a_/c pints of powdered sugar weigh #a pound2 one pint of distilled water weighs #a pound4 ,ordinarily1 #dej drops of liquid are equal to #a ounce2 this varies with different liquids1 some being thicker in consistency than others1 but for those of the consistency of water the measure given is fairly accurate4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,the ,,simplicity ,,of ,,great ,,inventions1 ,,and ,,of ,,nature',s ,,manifestations ,if there is anything in the realm of mechanics which excites the wonder and admiration of man1 it is the knowledge that the greatest inventions are the simplest1 and that the inventor must take advantage of one law in nature which is universal in its application1 and that is vibration4 ,there is a key to every secret in nature's great storehouse4 ,it is not a complicated one1 containing a multiplicity of wards and peculiar angles and recesses4 ,it is the very simplicity in most of the problems which long served as a bar to discovery in many of the arts4 ,so extremely simple have been some of the keys that many inventions resulted from accidents4 ,,invention ,,precedes ,,science4--,occasionally inventions were brought about by persistency and energy1 and ofttimes by theorizing2 but science rarely ever aids invention4 ,the latter usually precedes science4 ,thus1 reasoning could not show how it might be possible for steam to force water into a boiler against its own pressure4 ,but the injector does this4 ,if1 prior to #ahgf1 it had been suggested that a sonorous vibration could be converted into an electrical pulsation1 and transformed back again to a sonorous vibration1 science would have proclaimed it impossible2 but the telephone does it4 ,invention shows how things are done1 and science afterwards explains the phenomena and formulates theories and laws which become serviceable to others in the arts4 ,,simplicity ,,in ,,inventions4--,but let us see how exceedingly simple are some of the great discoveries of man4 ,,the ,,telegraph4--,the telegraph is nothing but a magnet at each end of a wire1 with a lever for an armature1 which opens and closes the circuit that passes through the magnets and armature1 so that an impulse on the lever1 or armature1 at one end1 by making and breaking the circuit1 also makes and breaks the circuit at the other end4 ,,telephone4--,the telephone has merely a disk close to but not touching the end of a magnet4 ,the sonorous vibration of the voice oscillates the diaphragm1 and as the diaphragm is in the magnetic field of the magnet1 it varies the pressure1 so called1 causing the diaphragm at the other end of the wire to vibrate in unison and give out the same sound originally imparted to the other diaphragm4 ,,transmitter4--,the transmitter is merely a sensitized instrument4 ,it depends solely on the principle of light contact points in an electric circuit1 whereby the vibrations of the voice are augmented4 ,,phonograph4--,the phonograph is not an electrical instrument4 ,it has a diaphragm provided centrally with a blunt pin1 or stylus4 ,to make the record1 some soft or plastic material1 like wax1 or tinfoil1 is caused to move along so that the point of the stylus makes impressions in it1 and the vibrations of the diaphragm cause the point to traverse a groove of greater or smaller indentations4 ,when this groove is again presented to the stylus the diaphragm is vibrated and gives forth the sounds originally imparted to it when the indentations were made4 ,,wireless ,,telegraphy4--,wireless telegraphy depends for its action on what is called induction4 ,through this property a current is made of a high electro-motive force1 which means of a high voltage1 and this disturbs the ether with such intensity that the waves are sent out in all directions to immense distances4 ,the great discovery has been to find a mechanism sensitive enough to detect the induction waves4 ,the instrument for this purpose is called a coherer1 in which small particles cohere through the action of the electric waves1 and are caused to fall apart mechanically1 during the electrical impulses4 ,,printing ,,telegraph4--,the printing telegraph requires the synchronous turning of two wheels4 ,this means that two wheels at opposite ends of a wire must be made to turn at exactly the same rate of speed4 ,originally1 this was tried by clock work1 but without success commercially1 for the reason that a pendulum does not beat with the same speed at the equator1 as at different latitudes1 nor at altitudes2 and temperature also affects the rate4 ,the solution was found by making the two wheels move by means of a timing fork1 which vibrates with the same speed everywhere1 and under all conditions4 ,,electric ,,motor4--,the direct current electric motor depends for its action on the principle that likes repel1 and unlikes attract4 ,the commutator so arranges the poles that at the proper points1 in the revolution of the armature1 the poles are always presented to each other in such a way that as they approach each other1 they are opposites1 and thus attract1 and as they recede from each other they repel4 ,a dynamo is exactly the same1 except that the commutator reverses the operation and makes the poles alike as they approach each other1 and unlike as they recede4 ,steel is simply iron1 to which has been added a small per cent of carbon4 ,quinine is efficient in its natural state1 but it has been made infinitely more effectual by the breaking up or changing of the molecules with acids4 ,sulphate of quinine is made by the use of sulphuric acid as a solvent4 ,,explosions4--,explosions depend on oxygen4 ,while this element does not burn1 a certain amount of it must be present to support combustion4 ,thus1 the most inflammable gas or liquid will not burn or explode unless oxygenized4 ,explosives are made by using a sufficient amount1 in a concentrated form1 which is added to the fuel1 so that when it is ignited there is a sufficient amount of oxygen present to support combustion1 hence the rapid explosion which follows4 ,,vibration ,,in ,,nature4--,the physical meaning of vibration is best illustrated by the movement of a pendulum4 ,all agitation is vibration4 ,all force manifests itself in this way4 ,the painful brilliancy of the sun is produced by the rapid vibrations of the rays2 the twinkle of the distant star1 the waves of the ocean when ruffled by the winds2 the shimmer of the moon on its crested surface2 the brain in thinking2 the mouth in talking2 the beating of the heart2 all1 alike1 obey the one grand and universal law of vibratory motion4 ,,qualities ,,of ,,sound4--,sound is nothing but a succession of vibrations of greater or less magnitude4 ,pitch is produced by the number of vibrations2 intensity by their force2 and quality by the character of the article vibrated4 ,since the great telephone controversy which took place some years ago there has been a wonderful development in the knowledge of acoustics1 or sounds4 ,it was shown that the slightest sound would immediately set into vibration every article of furniture in a room1 and very sensitive instruments have been devised to register the force and quality4 ,,the ,,photographer',s ,,plate4--,it is known that the chemical action of an object on a photographer's plate is due to vibration2 each represents a force of different intensity1 hence the varying shades produced4 ,owing to the different rates of vibrations caused by the different colors1 the difficulty has been to photograph them1 but this has now been accomplished4 ,harmony1 or being in tune1 as is the common expression1 is as necessary in light1 as in music4 ,some chemicals will bring out or develop1 the pictures2 others will not4 ,colors are now photographed because invention and science have found the harmonizing chemicals4 ,,quadruplex ,,telegraphy4--,one of the most remarkable of all the wonders of our age is what is known as duplex and quadruplex telegraphy4 ,every atom and impulse in electricity is oscillation4 ,the current which transmits a telegram is designated in the science as vibratory4 ,but how is it possible to transmit two or more messages over one wire at the same time8 ,it is by bringing into play the harmony of sounds4 ,one message is sent in one direction in the key of ,a2 another message in the other direction in ,b2 and so any number may be sent1 because the electrical vibrations may be tuned1 just like the strings of a violin4 ,,electric ,,harmony4--,every sound produces a corresponding vibration in surrounding objects4 ,while each vibrates1 or is capable of transmitting a sound given to it by its vibratory powers1 it may not vibrate in harmony4 ,when a certain key of a piano is struck every key has a certain vibration1 and if we could separate it from the other sounds1 it would reflect the same sound as the string struck1 just the same as the walls of a room or the air itself would convey that sound4 ,but as no two strings in the instrument vibrate the same number of times each second1 the rapid movement of successive sounds of the keys do not interfere with each other4 ,if1 however1 there are several pianos in a room1 and all are tuned the same pitch1 the striking of a key on one instrument will instantly set in vibration the corresponding strings in all the other instruments4 ,this is one reason why a piano tested in a music wareroom has always a more beautiful and richer sound than when in a drawing-room or hall1 since each string is vibrated by the other instrument4 ,if a small piece of paper is balanced upon the strings of a violin1 every key of the piano may be struck1 except the one in tune1 without affecting the paper2 but the moment the same key is struck the vibration of the harmonizing pitch will unbalance the paper4 ,the musical sound of ,c produces #ebh vibrations per second2 ,d #faf1 and so on4 ,the octave above has double the number of vibrations of the lower note4 ,it will thus be understood why discord in music is not pleasant to the ear1 as the vibrations are not in the proper multiples4 ,,odors4--,so with odors4 ,the sense of smell is merely the force set in motion by the vibration of the elements4 ,an instrument called the odophone demonstrates that a scale or gamut exists in flowers2 that sharp smells indicate high tones and heavy smells low tones4 ,over fifty odors have thus been analyzed4 ,the treble clef1 note ,e1 #dth space1 is orange2 note ,d1 #ast space below1 violet2 note ,f1 #dth space above clef1 ambergris4 ,to make a proper bouquet1 therefore the different odors must be harmonized1 just the same as the notes of a musical chord are selected4 ,a ,,bouquet ,,of ,,vibrations4--,the odophone shows that santal1 geranium1 orange flower and camphor1 make a bouquet in the key of ,c4 ,it is easy to conceive that a beautiful bouquet means nothing more than an agreeable vibratory sensation of the olfactory nerves4 ,,taste4--,so with the sense of taste4 ,the tongue is covered with minute cells surrounded by nervous filaments which are set in motion whenever any substance is brought into contact with the surface4 ,tasting is merely the movement of these filaments1 of greater or less rapidity4 ,if an article is tasteless1 it means that these filaments do not vibrate4 ,these vibrations are of two kinds4 ,they may move faster or slower1 or they may move in a peculiar way4 ,a sharp acute taste means that the vibrations are very rapid2 a mild taste1 slow vibrations4 ,when a pleasant taste is detected1 it is only because the filaments are set into an agreeable motion4 ,the vibrations in the tongue may become so rapid that it will be painful1 just as a shriek becomes piercing to the ear1 or an intense light dazzling to the eye2 all proceed from the same physical force acting on the brain4 ,,color4--,color1 that seemingly unexplainable force1 becomes a simple thing when the principles of vibration are applied1 and this has been fully explained by the spectroscope and its operation4 ,when the boy once appreciates that this force1 or this motion in nature is just as simple as the great inventions which have grown out of this manifestation1 he will understand that a knowledge of these things will enable him to utilize the energy in a proper way4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,workshop ,,recipes ,,and ,,formulas ,in a work of this kind1 dealing with the various elements1 the boy should have at hand recipes or formulas for everything which comes within the province of his experiments4 ,the following are most carefully selected1 the objects being to present those which are the more easily compounded4 ,,adhesives ,,for ,,various ,,uses4--,waterproof glue4 ,use a good quality of glue1 and dissolve it in warm water1 then add one pound of linseed oil to eight pounds of the glue4 ,add three ounces of nitric acid4 ,leather or ,card-board ,glue4 ,after dissolving good glue in water1 to which a little turpentine has been added1 mix it with a thick paste of starch1 the proportion of starch to glue being about two to every part of glue used4 ,the mixture is used cold4 ,a fine ,belt ,glue4 ,dissolve #ej ounces of gelatine in water1 and heat after pouring off the excess water4 ,then stir in five ounces of glycerine1 ten ounces of turpentine1 and five ounces of linseed oil varnish4 ,if too thick add water to suit4 ,for cementing ,iron to ,marble4 ,use #cj parts of ,plaster of ,paris1 #aj parts of iron filings1 and one half part of sal ammoniac4 ,these are mixed up with vinegar to make a fluid paste4 ,to cement ,glass to ,iron4 ,use #c ounces of boiled linseed oil and #a part of copal varnish1 and into this put #b ounces of litharge and #a ounce of white lead and thoroughly mingle so as to make a smooth paste4 ,water-proof ,cement4 ,boiled linseed oil1 #f ounces2 copal1 #f ounces2 litharge1 #b ounces2 and white lead1 #af ounces4 ,to be thoroughly incorporated4 ,to unite rubber or leather to hard substances4 ,one ounce of pulverized gum shellac dissolved in #i-a_/b ounces of strong ammonia1 will make an elastic cement4 ,must be kept tightly corked4 ,for uniting iron to iron4 ,use equal parts of boiled oil1 white lead1 pipe clay and black oxide of manganese1 and form it into a paste4 ,transparent ,cement4 ,unite #a ounce of india rubber1 #fg ounces of chloroform1 and #dj ounces of mastic4 ,this is to be kept together for a week1 and stirred at times1 when it will be ready for use4 ,to ,attach ,cloth to ,metal4 ,water #ajj parts1 sugar #aj parts1 starch #bj parts1 and zinc chloride #a part4 ,this must be first stirred and made free of lumps1 and then heated until it thickens4 ,united ,states ,government ,gum4 ,dissolve #a part of gum arabic in water and add #d parts of sugar and #a part of starch4 ,this is then boiled for a few minutes1 and thinned down as required4 ,,to ,,make ,,different ,,alloys4--,silver-aluminum4 ,silver one-fourth part1 and aluminum three-fourth parts4 ,bell-metal4 ,copper1 #hj parts2 tin1 #bj parts4 ,or1 copper1 #gb parts2 tin1 #bf parts2 zinc1 #b parts4 ,or1 copper #b2 #a of tin4 ,brass4 ,copper1 #ff parts2 zinc1 #cb parts2 tin1 #a part2 lead1 #a part4 ,bronzes4 ,copper1 #fe parts2 zinc1 #cj parts2 tin1 #e parts4 ,or1 copper1 #he parts2 zinc1 #aj parts2 tin1 #c parts2 lead1 #b parts4 ,german ,silver4 #eb parts of copper2 #bf parts zinc2 #bb parts nickel4 ,for ,coating ,mirrors4 ,tin1 #gj parts2 mercury1 #cj parts4 ,,boiler ,,compounds4--,to prevent scaling4 ,use common washing soda1 or ,glauber salts4 ,,to ,,dissolve ,,celluloid4--,use #ej parts of alcohol and #e parts of camphor for every #e parts of celluloid4 ,when the celluloid is put into the solution it will dissolve it4 ,to ,soften ,celluloid4 ,this may be done by simply heating1 so it will bend1 and by putting it in steam1 it can be worked like dough4 ,,clay ,,mixture ,,for ,,forges4--,mix dry #bj parts of fire clay1 #bj parts cast-iron turnings1 one part of common salt1 and #a_/b part sal ammoniac1 and then add water while stirring1 so as to form a mortar of the proper consistency4 ,the mixture will become very hard when heat is applied4 ,a ,modeling ,clay4 ,this is made by mixing the clay with glycerine and afterwards adding vaseline4 ,if too much vaseline is added it becomes too soft4 ,,fluids ,,for ,,cleaning ,,clothes1 ,,furniture1 ,,etc4--,for ,delicate ,fabrics4 ,make strong decoction of soap bark1 and put into alcohol4 ,non-inflammable ,cleaner4 ,equal parts of acetone1 ammonia and diluted alcohol4 ,taking dried paint from clothing4 ,shake up #b parts of ammonia water with #a part of spirits of turpentine4 ,cleaning ,furniture1 etc4 ,unite #b4d parts of wax2 #i4d parts of oil of turpentine2 #db parts acetic acid2 #db parts citric acid2 #db parts white soap4 ,this must be well mingled before using4 ,removing ,rust from ,iron or ,steel4 ,rub the surface with oil of tartar4 ,or1 apply turpentine or kerosene1 and after allowing to stand over night1 clean with emery cloth4 ,for ,removing ,ink ,stains from ,silver4 ,use a paste made of chloride of lime and water4 ,to clean ,silver-,plated ,ware4 ,make a mixture of cream of tartar1 #b parts2 levigated chalk1 #b parts2 and alum1 #a part4 ,grind up the alum and mix thoroughly4 ,cleaning a ,gas ,stove4 ,make a solution of #i parts of caustic soda and #aej parts of water1 and put the separate parts of the stove in the solution for an hour or two4 ,the parts will come out looking like new4 ,cleaning ,aluminum4 ,a few drops of sulphuric acid in water will restore the luster to aluminum ware4 ,oil ,eradicator4 ,soap spirits1 #ajj parts2 ammonia solution1 #be2 acetic ether1 #ae parts4 ,,disinfectants4--,camphor1 #a ounce2 carbolic acid 7#ge per cent471 #ab ounces2 aqua ammonia1 #aj drachms2 soft salt water1 #h drachms4 ,water-,closet ,deodorant4 ,ferric chloride1 #d parts2 zinc chloride1 #e parts2 aluminum chloride1 #d parts2 calcium chloride1 #e parts2 magnesium chloride1 #c parts2 and water sufficient to make #ij parts4 ,when all is dissolved add to each gallon #aj grains of thymol and a quarter-ounce of rosemary that had been previously dissolved in six quarts of alcohol4 ,odorless ,disinfectants4 ,mercuric chloride1 #a part2 cupric sulphate1 #aj parts2 zinc sulphate1 #ej parts2 sodium chloride1 #fe parts2 water to make #a1jjj parts4 ,emery for ,lapping ,purposes4 ,fill a pint bottle with machine oil and emery flour1 in the proportion of #g parts oil and #a part emery4 ,allow it to stand for twenty minutes1 after shaking up well1 then pour off half the contents1 without disturbing the settlings1 and the part so poured off contains only the finest of the emery particles1 and is the only part which should be used on the lapping roller4 ,,explosives4--,common ,gunpowder4 ,potassium nitrate1 #ge parts2 charcoal1 #ae parts2 sulphur1 #aj parts4 ,dynamite4 #ge per cent4 nitro-glycerine2 #be per cent4 infusorial earth4 ,giant ,powder4 #cf per cent4 nitro-glycerine2 #dh per cent4 nitrate of potash2 #h per cent4 of sulphur2 #h per cent4 charcoal4 ,fulminate4 ,chlorate of potassia1 #f parts2 pure lampblack1 #d parts2 sulphur1 #a part4 ,a blow will cause it to explode4 ,,files4--,how to ,keep ,clean4 ,olive oil is the proper substance to rub over files1 as this will prevent the creases from filling up while in use1 and preserve the file for a longer time1 and also enable it to do better cutting4 ,to ,renew ,old ,files4 ,use a potash bath for boiling them in1 and afterwards brush them well so as to get the creases clean4 ,then stretch a cotton cloth between two supports1 and after plunging the file into nitric acid1 use the stretched cloth to wipe off the acid4 ,the object is to remove the acid from the ridges of the file1 so the acid will only eat out or etch the deep portions between the ridges1 and not affect the edges or teeth4 ,,fire ,,proof ,,materials ,,or ,,substances4--,for ,wood4 ,for the kind where it is desired to apply with a brush1 use #ajj parts sodium silicate2 #ej parts of ,spanish white1 and #ajj parts of glue4 ,it must be applied hot4 ,another good preparation is made as follows3 ,sodium silicate1 #cej parts2 asbestos1 powdered1 #cej parts2 and boiling water #a1jjj parts4 ,for ,coating ,steel1 etc4 ,silica1 #ej parts2 plastic fire clay1 #aj parts2 ball clay1 #c parts4 ,to be thoroughly mixed4 ,for ,paper4 ,ammonium sulphate1 #h parts2 boracic acid1 #c parts2 borax1 #b parts2 water1 #ajj parts4 ,this is applied in a liquid state to the paper surface4 ,,floor ,,dressings4--,oil ,stain4 ,neats' foot oil1 #a part2 cottonseed oil1 #a part2 petroleum oil1 #a part4 ,this may be colored with anything desired1 like burnt sienna1 annatto1 or other coloring material4 ,ballroom ,powder4 ,hard paraffine1 #a pound2 powdered boric acid1 #g pounds2 oil of lavender1 #a drachm2 oil of neroli1 #bj minims4 ,,foot ,,powders4--,for ,perspiring ,feet4 ,balsam ,peru1 #ae minims2 formic acid1 #a drachm2 chloral hydrate1 #a drachm2 alcohol to make #c ounces4 ,for ,easing ,feet4 ,tannaform1 #a drachm2 talcum1 #b drachms2 lycopodium1 #cj grains4 ,frost ,bites4 ,carbolized water1 #d drachms2 nitric acid1 #a drop2 oil of geranium1 #a drop4 ,,glass4--,to cut glass1 hold it under water1 and use a pair of shears4 ,to make a hole through glass1 place a circle of moist earth on the glass1 and form a hole in this the diameter wanted for the hole1 and in this hole pour molten lead1 and the part touched by the lead will fall out4 ,to ,frost ,glass4 ,cover it with a mixture of #f ounces of magnesium sulphate1 #b ounces of dextrine1 and #bj ounces of water4 ,this produces a fine effect4 ,to imitate ground glass1 use a composition of sandarac1 #b-a_/b ounces2 mastic1 #a_/b ounce2 ether1 #bd ounces2 and benzine1 #af ounces4 ,,iron ,,and ,,steel4--,how to distinguish them4 ,wash the metal and put it into a solution of bichromate of potash to which has been added a small amount of sulphuric acid4 ,in a minute or so take out the metal1 wash and wipe it4 ,soft steel and cast iron will have the appearance of an ash-gray tint2 tempered steels will be black2 and puddled or refined irons will be nearly white and have a metallic reflection4 ,to ,harden ,iron or ,steel4 ,if wrought iron1 put in the charge #bj parts1 by weight1 of common salt1 #b parts of potassium cyanide1 4#c part of potassium bichromate1 4#ae part of broken glass4 ,to harden cast iron1 there should be added to the charge the following3 ,to #fj parts of water1 add #b-a_/b parts of vinegar1 #c parts of common salt1 and 4#be part of hydrochloric acid4 ,to soften castings3 ,heat them to a high temperature and cover them with fine coal dust and allow to cool gradually4 ,,lacquers4--,for ,aluminum4 ,dissolve #ajj parts of gum lac in #cjj parts of ammonia and heat for an hour moderately in a water bath4 ,the aluminum must be well cleaned before applying4 ,heat the aluminum plate afterwards4 ,for ,brass4 ,make a compound as follows2 ,annatto1 #a_/d ounce2 saffro1 #a_/d ounce2 turmeric1 #a ounce2 seed lac1 #c ounces2 and alcohol1 #a pint4 ,allow the mixture to stand for three days1 then strain in the vessel which contains the seed lac1 and allow to stand until all is dissolved4 ,for ,copper4 ,heat fine1 thickly liquid amber varnish so it can be readily applied to the copper1 and this is allowed to dry4 ,then heat the coated object until it commences to smoke and turn brown4 ,,lubricants4--,heavy machinery oils4 ,use paraffine1 #h pounds2 palm oil1 #bj pounds2 and oleonaptha1 #ab pounds4 ,dissolve the paraffine in the oleonaptha at a temperature of #afj degrees and then stir in the palm oil a little at a time4 ,for ,cutting ,tools4 ,heat six gallons of water and put in three and a half pounds of soft soap and a half gallon of clean refuse oil4 ,it should be well mixed4 ,for high-speed bearings4 ,use flaky graphite and kerosene oil4 ,apply this as soon as there is any indication of heating in the bearings4 ,for lathe centers1 one part of graphite and four parts of tallow thoroughly mixed and applied will be very serviceable4 ,for ,wooden ,gears4 ,use tallow1 #cj parts2 palm oil2 #bj parts2 fish oil1 #aj parts2 and graphite1 #bj parts4 ,,paper4--,,fire ,,proof ,,paper4--,make the following solution3 ,ammonium sulphate1 #h parts2 boracic acid1 #c parts2 water1 #ajj parts4 ,mix at a temperature of #abj degrees4 ,paper coated with this will resist heat4 ,filter ,paper4 ,dip the paper into nitric acid of #a4dcc specific gravity1 and subsequently wash and dry it4 ,this makes a fine filtering body4 ,carbon ,paper4 ,a variety of substances may be used1 such as fine soot or ivory black1 ultramarine or ,paris blue4 ,mix either with fine grain soap1 so it is of a uniform consistency and then apply to the paper with a stiff brush1 rubbing it in until it is evenly spread over the surface4 ,tracing ,paper4 ,take unsized paper and apply a coat of varnish made of equal parts of ,canada balsam and oil of turpentine4 ,to increase the transparency give another coat4 ,the sheets must be well dried before using4 ,,photography4--,developers4 #a4 ,pure water1 #cj ounces2 sulphite soda1 #e ounces2 carbonate soda1 #b-a_/b ounces4 #b4 ,pure water1 #bd ounces2 oxalic acid1 #ae grains2 pyrogallic acid1 #a ounce4 ,to develop use of solution #a1 #a ounce2 solution #b1 #a_/b ounce2 and water1 #c ounces4 ,stock solutions for developing3 ,make solution ,no4 #a as follows3 water1 #cb ounces2 tolidol1 ,i ounce2 sodium sulphate1 #a-a_/b ounces4 ,solution ,no4 #b3 ,water1 #cb ounces2 sodium sulphate4 ,solution ,no4 #c3 ,water1 #cb ounces2 sodium carbonate1 from #d to #f ounces4 ,fixing bath4 ,add two ounces of ,s4 ,p4 ,c4 clarifier 7acid bisulphate of sodium7 solution to one quart of hypo solution #a in #e4 ,clearing solution4 ,saturated solution of alum1 #bj ounces2 and hydrochloric acid1 #a ounce4 ,varnish4 ,brush over the negative a solution of equal parts of benzol and ,japanese gold size4 ,,plasters4--,court ,plaster4 ,use good quality silk1 and on this spread a solution of isinglass warmed4 ,dry and repeat several times1 then apply several coats of balsam of ,peru4 ,or1 ,on muslin or silk properly stretched1 apply a thin coating of smooth strained flour paste1 and when dry several coats of colorless gelatine are added4 ,the gelatine is applied warm1 and cooled before the fabric is taken off4 ,,plating4--,bronze coating4 ,for antiques1 use vinegar1 #a1jjj parts2 by weight1 powdered bloodstone1 #abe parts2 plumbago1 #be parts4 ,apply with brush4 ,for brass where a copper surface is desired1 make a rouge with a little chloride of platinum and water1 and apply with a brush4 ,for gas fixtures4 ,use a bronze paint and mix with it five times its volume of spirit of turpentine1 and to this mixture add dried slaked lime1 about #dj grains to the pint4 ,agitate well and decant the clear liquid4 ,,coloring ,,metals4--,brilliant black for iron4 ,selenious acid1 #f parts2 cupric sulphate1 #aj parts2 water #a1jjj parts2 nitric acid1 #e parts4 ,blue-black4 ,selenious acid1 #aj parts2 nitric acid1 #e parts2 cupric sulphate2 water1 #a1jjj parts4 ,the colors will be varied dependent on the time the objects are immersed in the solution4 ,brass may be colored brown by using an acid solution of nitrate of silver and bismuth2 or a light bronze by an acid solution of nitrate of silver and copper2 or black by a solution of nitrate of copper4 ,to copper plate aluminum1 take #cj parts of sulphate of copper2 #cj parts of cream of tartar2 #be parts of soda2 and #a1jjj parts of water4 ,the article to be coated is merely dipped into the solution4 ,,polishers4--,floor ,polish4 ,permanganate of potash in boiling water1 applied to the floor hot1 will produce a stain1 the color being dependent on the number of coats4 ,the floor may them be polished with beeswax and turpentine4 ,for ,furniture4 ,make a paste of equal parts of plaster of paris1 whiting1 pumice stone and litharge1 mixed with ,japan dryer1 boiled linseed oil and turpentine4 ,this may be colored to suit4 ,this will fill the cracks of the wood4 ,afterwards rub over the entire surface of the wood with a mixture of #a part ,japan1 #b of linseed oil1 and three parts of turpentine1 also colored1 and after this has been allowed to slightly harden1 rub it off1 and within a day or two it will have hardened sufficiently so that the surface can be polished4 ,stove ,polish4 ,ceresine1 #ab parts2 ,japan wax1 #aj parts2 turpentine oil1 #ajj parts2 lampblack1 #ab parts2 graphite1 #aj parts4 ,melt the ceresine and wax together1 and cool off partly1 and then add and stir in the graphite and lampblack which were previously mixed up with the turpentine4 ,,putty4--,black ,putty4 ,whiting and antimony sulphide1 and soluble glass4 ,this can be polished finely after hardening4 ,common ,putty4 ,whiting and linseed oil mixed up to form a dough4 ,,rust ,,preventive4--,for ,machinery4 ,dissolve an ounce of camphor in one pound of melted lard4 ,mix with this enough fine black lead to give it an iron color4 ,after it has been on for a day1 rub off with a cloth4 ,for tools1 yellow vaseline is the best substance4 ,for zinc1 clean the plate by immersing in water that has a small amount of sulphuric acid in it4 ,then wash clean and coat with asphalt varnish4 ,,solders4--,for aluminum4 ,use #e parts of tin and #a part of aluminum as the alloy1 and solder with the iron or a blow pipe4 ,yellow hard solder4 ,brass1 #c-a_/b parts2 and zinc1 #a part4 ,for easily fusing1 make an alloy of equal parts of brass and zinc4 ,for a white hard solder use brass1 #ab parts2 zinc1 #a part2 and tin1 #b parts4 ,,soldering ,,fluxes4--,for soft soldering1 use a solution of chloride of zinc and sal ammoniac4 ,powdered rosin is also used4 ,for hard soldering1 borax is used most frequently4 ,a mixture of equal parts of cryolite and barium chloride is very good in soldering bronze or aluminum alloys4 ,other hard solders are alloyed as follows3 brass1 #d parts2 and zinc1 #e parts4 ,also brass1 #g parts2 and zinc1 #b parts4 ,steel ,tempering-4-,heat the steel red hot and then plunge it into sealing wax4 ,for tempering small steel springs1 they may be plunged into a fish oil which has a small amount of rosin and tallow4 ,,varnishes4--,black ,varnish4 ,shellac1 #e parts2 borax1 #b parts2 glycerine1 #b parts2 aniline black1 #f parts2 water1 #de parts4 ,dissolve the shellac in hot water and add the other ingredients at a temperature of #bjj degrees4 ,a good can varnish is made by dissolving #ae parts of shellac1 and adding thereto #b parts of ,venice turpentine1 #h parts of sandarac1 and #ge parts of spirits4 ,a varnish for tin and other small metal boxes is made of #ge parts alcohol1 which dissolves #ae parts of shellac1 and #c parts of turpentine4 ,,sealing ,,wax4--,for modeling purposes4 ,white wax1 #bj parts2 turpentine1 #e parts2 sesame oil1 #b parts2 vermilion1 #b parts4 ,ordinary ,sealing4 #d pounds of shellac1 #a pound ,venice turpentine1 add #c pounds of vermilion4 ,unite by heat4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,handy ,,tables ,,table ,,of ,,weights ,,for ,,round ,,and ,,square ,,steel4 ,the ,estimate is on the basis of ,lineal ,feet4 #a cu4 ft4 of ,steel--#dij lbs4 ,weight in ,pounds ,weight in ,pounds ,sizes in ,sizes in ,inches ------------------ ,inches ------------------ ,round ,square ,round ,square ---------------------------------------- ---------------- #a_/af 4#aaj 4#jac #a-a_/af #c4jad #c4djj #a_/h 4#jdb 4#jec #a-a_/h #c4cgi #c4hch #c_/af 4#jid 4#aai #a-c_/af #c4gff #d4cjc #a_/d 4#afg 4#bab #a-a_/d #d4agc #d4gie #e_/af 4#bfa 4#ccc #a-e_/af #d4fjj #e4cab #c_/h 4#cge 4#dgh #a-c_/h #e4jdi #e4heg #g_/af 4#eaa 4#fea #a-g_/af #e4eah #f4dbh #a_/b 4#ffg 4#hej #a-a_/b #f4jjh #g4fej #i_/af 4#hde #a4jbf #a-i_/af #f4ebj #g4fej #e_/h #a4jdc #a4cbh #a-e_/h #g4jea #h4cja #aa_/af #a4bfb #a4fjh #a-aa_/af #g4fjd #h4igh #c_/d #a4ejb #a4iac #a-c_/d #h4agh #aj4da #ac_/af #a4ggc #b4bde #a-ac_/af #h4ggc #aa4ag #g_/h #b4jdd #b4fjc #a-g_/h #i4chh #aa4ie #ae_/af #b4cdg #b4ihi #a-ae_/af #aj4jb #ab4gf #a #b4fgj #c4djj #b #aj4fh #ac4fj ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,,weight ,,of ,,flat ,,steel ,,bars4 ,thickness in ,width ,inches ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- #a_/af 4#bab 4#bfe 4#cb 4#cgb 4#dbe 4#dgg 4#ec 4#ehh 4#fc #a_/h 4#dbe 4#ec 4#fd 4#gde 4#he 4#iee #a4jf #a4ag #a4bg #c_/af 4#fch 4#gig 4#ieg #a4aa #a4bh #a4dd #a4ei #a4ge #a4ia #a_/d 4#he #a4jf #a4bh #a4di #a4gj #a4ia #b4ab #b4cd #b4ee #e_/af #a4jf #a4cc #a4ei #a4hf #b4ab #b4ci #b4fe #b4ib #c4ai #c_/h #a4bh #a4ei #a4ib #b4bc #b4ee #b4hg #c4ai #c4ea #c4hc #g_/af #a4di #a4he #b4bc #b4fj #b4ih #c4ce #c4gb #d4ji #d4df #a_/b #a4gj #b4ab #b4ee #b4ih #c4dj #c4hc #d4be #d4fg #e4aj #i_/af #a4ib #b4ci #b4hg #c4ce #c4hc #d4cj #d4gh #e4bf #e4gd #e_/h #b4ab #b4fe #c4ai #c4gb #d4be #d4gh #e4ca #e4hd #f4ch #aa_/af #b4cd #b4ib #c4ea #d4ji #d4fg #e4bf #e4hd #f4dc #g4jb #c_/d #b4ee #c4ai #c4hc #d4dg #e4aj #e4ge #f4ch #g4jb #g4fe #ac_/af #b4gf #c4de #d4ad #d4dh #e4ec #f4ba #f4ij #g4fj #h4bi #g_/h #b4ih #c4gb #d4dg #e4bj #e4ie #f4fi #g4dd #h4ah #h4ic #ae_/af #c4ai #c4ii #d4gh #e4eh #f4ch #g4ah #g4ig #h4gg #i4eg #a #c4dj #d4be #e4aj #e4ie #f4hj #g4fe #h4ej #i4ce #aj4bj ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,,avoirdupois ,,weight4 ,for ,merchandise of all kinds4 #af ,drams 7dr47 make #a ,ounce 7oz47 #af ,ounces make #a ,pound 7pd47 #be ,pounds make #a ,quarter 7qr47 #d ,quarters1 or #ajj lbs41 make #a ,hundredweight 7cwt47 #bj ,hundredweights make #a ,ton 7,t47 #b1bdj ,pounds make #a ,long ton 7,l4 ,t47 ,,troy ,,weight4 ,for ,gold1 ,silver1 and ,precious ,metals4 #bd ,grains 7gr47 make #a ,pennyweight 7pwt47 #bj ,pennyweights make #a ,ounce 7oz47 #ab ,ounces make #a ,pound 7pd47 ,,apothecaries ,,weight4 ,for ,drugs1 ,medicals and ,chemicals4 #bj ,grains 7gr47 make #a ,scruple 7sc47 #c ,scruples make #a ,dram 7dr47 #h ,drams make #a ,ounce 7oz47 #ab ,ounces make #a ,pound 7pd47 ,,linear ,,measure4 ,for ,surveyors' ,use4 #ab ,inches make #a ,foot #c ,feet make #a ,yard #e-a_/b ,yards make #a ,rod #dj ,rods make #a ,furlong #h ,furlongs #a ,mile ,,long ,,measure4 #ab ,inches make #a ,foot #c ,feet make #a ,yard #f ,feet make #a ,fathom #e-a_/b ,yards make #a ,rod or pole #dj ,poles make #a ,furlong #h ,furlongs make #a ,mile #c ,miles make #a ,league #fi-a_/b ,miles make #a ,degree ,,square ,,measure4 #add square inches make #a square foot #i square feet make #a square yard #cj-a_/b square yards make #a square pole #dj square poles make #a square rod #d square rods make #a acre #fdj square acres make #a acre mile ,,solid ,,or ,,cubic ,,measure4 #a1gbh ,cubic inches make #a ,cubic foot #bg ,cubic feet make #a ,cubic yard #abh ,cubic feet make #a ,cord of wood #bd-c_/d ,cubic feet make #a ,perch of stone ,,dry ,,measure4 #b ,pints make #a ,quart 7qt47 #h ,quarts make #a peck 7pk47 #d ,pecks make #a ,bushel 7bu47 #cf ,bushels make #a ,chaldron 7ch47 ,,liquid ,,measure4 #d ,gills 7g47 make #a ,pint 7pt47 #b ,pints make #a ,quart 7qt47 #d ,quarts make #a ,gallon 7gal47 #ca-a_/b ,gallons make #a ,barrel 7bbl47 #b ,bbls41 or #fc gals41 make4 #a ,hogshead 7hhd47 ,,paper ,,measure4 #bd ,sheets 7sh47 make #a ,quire 7qu47 #bj ,quires make #a ,ream 7r47 #aj ,reams make #a ,bale 7ba47 or bundle4 ,,table ,,of ,,temperatures4 ,greatest artificial cold #bbj degrees below ,fahr4 natural #gc4g ,mercury freezes #ci ,mixture of snow and salt #d ,greatest density of water at #ci4b above ,blood ,heat #ig4i ,alcohol boils #agb4d ,water boils #bab ,mercury boils #ffb ,sulphur boils #hbd ,silver melts #a1gdi ,cast iron melts #b1ghf ,,strength ,,of ,,various ,,metals4 ,the tests are made by using a cubic inch of the metal and compressing it1 and by trying to draw apart a square inch of metal4 ,indicated in pounds4 ,tension ,compression ---------------------------------------- ------ ,aluminum #ae1jjj #ab1jjj ,brass1 cast #bd1jjj #cj1jjj ,bronze1 gun metal #cb1jjj #bj1jjj manganese #fj1jjj #abj1jjj phosphor #ej1jjj 444444 ,copper1 cast #bd1jjj #dj1jjj wire annealed4 #cf1jjj 444444 unannealed #fj1jjj 444444 ,iron1 cast #ae1jjj 444444 annealed #fj1jjj #hj1jjj unannealed #hj1jjj 444444 wrought #dh1jjj #df1jjj ,lead1 cast #b1jjj 444444 ,steel castings #gj1jjj #gj1jjj plow #bgj1jjj 444444 structural #fj1jjj #fj1jjj wire annealed #hj1jjj 444444 crucible #ahj1jjj 444444 ,tin #c1hjj #f1jjj ---------------------------------------- ------ ,,freezing ,,mixtures ,temperature ,changes in ,degrees ,fahrenheit --------------------- ,mixtures ,from ,to ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,common salt1 #a part2 snow1 #c parts #cb zero 4#j ,common salt1 #a part2 snow #a part #cb -4#d ,calcium chloride1 #c parts2 snow #a part #cb -#bg ,calcium chloride1 #b parts2 snow #a part #cb -#dd ,sal ammoniac1 #e parts2 salt-peter #e parts2 water #af parts4 #ej -#aj ,sal ammoniac1 #a part2 salt-peter #a part2 water #a part #df -#aa ,ammonium nitrate1 #a part2 water #a part #ej -#c ,potassium hydrate1 #d parts2 snow #c parts #cb -#ce ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,ignition ,,temperatures4 ,phosphorus #abj degrees ,fahrenheit ,bi-sulphide of carbon #cjj ,gun-cotton #dcj ,nitro-glycerine #dij ,phosphorus1 amorphous #ejj ,rifle powder #eej ,charcoal #ffj ,dry pine wood #hjj ,oak #ijj ,,power ,,and ,,heat ,,equivalents4 ,in studying matters pertaining to power and heat1 certain terms are used1 such as horsepower1 horsepower-hours1 watts1 watt-hours1 kilowatt1 kilowatt-hours1 foot-pounds1 joule1 and ,b4 ,t4 ,u4 7,british ,thermal ,unit74 ,the following tables give a comprehensive idea of the values of the different terms3 #a ,horsepower-hour #j4gdf kilowatt-hour #a1ihj1jjj foot-pounds of water evaporated at #bab degrees ,fahrenheit1 raised from #fb degrees to #bab degrees4 #a ,kilowatt-hour #a1jjj watt-hours #a4cd horse-power-hours #b1fec1bjj foot-pounds #c1fjj1jjj joules #c1dbj ,b4 ,t4 ,u4 #c4ed pounds of water evaporated at #bab degrees #bb4h pounds of water raised from #fb to #bab degrees4 #a ,horsepower #gdf watts #j4gdf kilowatts4 #cc1jjj foot-pounds per second #b1eej ,b4 ,t4 ,u4 per min4 #j4ga ,b4 ,t4 ,u4 per second #b4fd pounds of water evaporated per hour at #bab degrees4 #a ,kilowatt #a1jjj watts #a4cd horsepower #b1fec1bjj foot-pounds per hour #dd1bbj foot-pounds per min4 #gcg foot-pounds per second #c1dbj ,b4 ,t4 ,u4 per hour #eg ,b4 ,t4 ,u4 per min4 #j4ie ,b4 ,t4 ,u4 per second #c4ed pounds of water evaporated per hour at #bab4 #a ,watt #a joule per second #j4jjacd horse-power #j4jja kilowatt #cdb ,b4 ,t4 ,u4 per hour #dd4bb foot-pounds per min4 #j4gd foot-pounds per second #j4jjce pounds of water evaporated per hour at #bab degrees4 #a ,b4 ,t4 ,u4 7,british ,thermal ,unit7 #a1jeb watt-seconds #ggh foot-pounds #j4beb calorie #j4jjjbib kilowatt-hours #j4jjjcia horsepower-hour #j4jjajd pounds of water evaporated at #bab degrees4 #a ,foot-pound #a4cf joule #j4jjjjjjcgg kilowatt-hour #j4jjabi ,b4 ,t4 ,u4 #j4jjjjjje horsepower-hour4 #a ,joule #a watt-second #j4jjjjjjbgh kilowatt-hour #j4jjjie ,b4 ,t4 ,u4 #j4gd foot-pounds4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,inventions ,,and ,,patents1 ,,and ,,information ,,about ,,the ,,rights ,,and ,,duties ,,of ,,inventors ,,and ,,workmen ,there is no trade or occupation which calls forth the inventive faculty to a greater degree than the machinist's4 ,whether it be in the direction of making some new tool1 needed in some special work1 or in devising a particular movement1 or mechanical expedient1 the machinist must be prepared to meet the issues and decide on the best structural arrangement4 ,opportunities also come daily to the workers in machine shops to a greater extent than other artisans1 because inventors in every line bring inventions to them to be built and experimentally tested4 ,a knowledge of the rights and duties of inventors1 and of the men who build the models1 is very desirable2 and for your convenience we append the following information3 ,the inventor of a device is he who has conceived an idea and has put it into some concrete form4 ,a mere idea is not an invention4 ,the article so conceived and constructed1 must be both new and useful4 ,there must be some utility4 ,it may be simply a toy1 or something to amuse4 ,if ,a has an idea1 and he employs and pays ,b to work out the device1 and put it into practical shape1 ,a is the inventor1 although ,b may have materially modified1 or even wholly changed it4 ,b is simply the agent or tool to bring it to perfection1 and his pay for doing the work is his compensation4 ,an inventor has two years' time within which he may apply for a patent1 after he has completed his device and begun the sale of it4 ,if he sells the article for more than two years before applying for a patent1 this will bar a grant4 ,two or more inventors may apply for a patent1 provided each has contributed something toward bringing it to its perfected state4 ,each cannot apply separately4 ,the patent issued will be owned by them jointly4 ,joint owners of a patent are not partners1 unless they have signed partnership papers respecting the patent4 ,because they are partners in some other enterprise1 disconnected from the patent1 that does not constitute them partners in the patent4 ,they are merely joint owners4 ,if they have no special agreement with respect to the patent each can grant licenses to manufacture1 independently of the others1 without being compelled to account to the others1 and each has a right to sell his interest without asking permission of the others4 ,an inventor is one who has devised an invention4 ,a patentee is one who owns a patent1 or an interest in one1 be he the inventor or not4 ,the ,united ,states government does not grant ,caveats4 ,the only protection offered is by way of patent4 ,a patent runs for a period of seventeen years1 and may be renewed by act of ,congress only1 for a further term of seven years4 ,an interference is a proceeding in the ,patent ,office to determine who is the first inventor of a device4 ,the following is a brief statement of the course followed3 ,when two or more applicants have applications pending1 which1 in the opinion of the ,examiner1 appear to be similar1 the ,office may declare an interference4 ,if an applicant has an application pending1 and the ,examiner rejects it on reference to a patent already issued1 the applicant may demand an interference1 and the ,office will then grant a hearing to determine which of the two is entitled to the patent4 ,the first step1 after the declaration of interference1 is to request that each applicant file a preliminary statement1 under oath1 in which he must set forth the following3 ,first3 ,the date of conception of the invention4 ,second3 ,date of the first reduction to writing1 or the preparation of drawings4 ,third3 ,date of making of the first model or device4 ,fourth3 ,when a complete machine was first produced4 ,these statements are filed in the ,patent ,office1 and opened on the same day1 and times are then set for the respective parties to take testimony4 ,if one of the parties was the first to conceive and reduce to practice1 as well as the first to file his application1 he will be adjudged to be the first inventor1 without necessitating the taking of testimony4 ,if1 on the other hand1 one was the first to conceive1 and the other the first to file1 then testimony will be required to determine the question of invention4 ,the granting of a patent is not conclusive that the patentee was1 in reality1 the first inventor4 ,the law is that the patent must issue to the first inventor1 and if it can be proven that another party was the first1 a new patent will issue to the one who thus establishes his right4 ,the ,commissioner of ,patents has no right to take away the patent first issued4 ,only the ,courts are competent to do this4 ,a patent is granted for the right to make1 to use and to vend4 ,an owner of a patent cannot sell the right only to make1 or to sell1 or to use4 ,such a document would be a simple license1 only1 for that particular purpose4 ,a patent may be sold giving a divided1 or an undivided right4 ,a divided right is where a ,state1 or any other particular territorial right is granted4 ,an undivided right is a quarter1 or a half1 or some other portion in the patent itself4 ,if an inventor assigns his invention1 and states in the granting clause that he conveys all his right and title in and to the invention1 or words to that effect1 he conveys all his rights throughout the world4 ,if the conveyance says1 all rights and title in and throughout the ,united ,states1 he thereby reserves all other countries4 ,if a patent is issued1 and the number and date of the patent are given1 the assignment conveys the patent for the ,united ,states only1 unless foreign countries are specifically mentioned4 ,to convey an invention or patent1 some definite number or filing date must be given in the document1 with sufficient clearness and certainty to show the intent of the assignor4 ,an invention does not depend on quantity1 but on quality4 ,it is that which produces a new and a useful result4 ,in the ,united ,states patents are granted for the purpose of promoting the useful arts and sciences4 ,in ,england1 and in many other foreign countries1 patents are granted1 not on account of any merit on the part of the inventor1 but as a favor of the crown1 or sovereign4 ,originally patents were granted by the crown for the exclusive privilege in dealing in any commodity1 and for this right a royal fee was exacted4 ,from this fact the term royalty originated4 ,an international agreement is now in force among nearly all countries1 which respects the filing of an application in any country1 for a period of one year in the other countries4 ,in making an application for a patent1 a petition is required1 a specification showing its object1 use1 and particular construction1 followed by a claim1 or claims1 and accompanied by a drawing1 if the invention will permit of it1 7which must be made in black1 with ,india ink71 and an oath4 ,the oath requires the following assertions3 ,that the applicant is the first and original inventor of the device1 and that he does not know and does not believe the same was ever known or used before his invention or more than two years before his application4 ,he must also further allege that the invention was not patented or described in any printed publication here or abroad1 and not manufactured more than two years prior to the application1 and that he has not made an application1 nor authorized any one to do so more than two years prior to his application4 ,the first ,government fee is #ae1 payable at the time of filing1 and the second and final fee is #bj1 payable at the time the patent is ordered to issue4 ,the filing of an application for patent is a secret act1 and the ,patent ,office will not give any information to others concerning it1 prior to the issue of the patent4 ,,glossary ,,of ,,words ,,used ,,in ,,text ,,of ,,this ,,volume ,abrupt4 ,suddenly2 coming without warning4 ,abrasive4 ,a material which wears away4 ,actuate4 ,influenced1 as by sudden motive2 incited to action4 ,accumulate4 ,to bring together2 to amass2 to collect4 ,acoustics4 ,the branch of physics which treats of sound4 ,adhesion4 ,to hold together2 a molecular force by means of which particles stick together4 ,affinity4 ,any natural drawing together2 the property or force in chemicals to move toward each other4 ,aggravate4 ,to incite2 to make worse or more burdensome4 ,alloy4 ,a combination of two or more metals4 ,altitude4 ,height2 a vertical distance above any point4 ,alkali4 ,any substance which will neutralize an acid1 as lime1 magnesia1 and the like4 ,amalgam4 ,any compound of metal which has mercury as one of the elements4 ,amiss4 ,wrong1 fault1 misdeed4 ,annealing4 ,a process of gradually heating and cooling metals1 whereby hardness and toughness are brought about4 ,angle plate4 ,a metal structure which has two bodies1 or limbs1 at right angles to each other4 ,analysis4 ,the separating of substances into their elementary forms4 ,anchor bolt4 ,a structure intended to be placed in a hole in a wall1 and held there by a brew which expands a part of the structure4 ,apprentice4 ,one who is learning a trade or occupation4 ,artificial4 ,that which resembles the original2 made in imitation of4 ,arbor4 ,a shaft1 spindle1 mandrel1 or axle4 ,armature4 ,a metallic body within the magnetic field of a magnet4 ,arbitrary4 ,stubborn determination4 ,doing a thing without regard to consequences4 ,artisan4 ,one skilled in any mechanical art4 ,attributable4 ,that which belongs to or is associated with4 ,automatically4 ,operating by its own structure1 or without outside aid4 ,augmented4 ,added to2 to increase4 ,auxiliary4 ,to aid2 giving or furnishing aid4 ,avoirdupois4 ,the system of weights1 of which the unit is sixteen ounces4 ,back-saw4 ,a saw which has a rib at its upper margin4 ,barleycorn4 ,a grain of barley4 ,bastard4 ,a coarse-grained file4 ,b4 ,t4 ,u4 ,british ,thermal ,unit4 ,back-gear4 ,that gear on a lathe for changing the feed4 ,bevel4 ,not in a right line2 slanting2 oblique4 ,bibb4 ,a form of water faucet4 ,bit1 or bitt4 ,a form of tool for cutting purposes on a lathe1 planer1 shaper1 or drilling machine4 ,borax4 ,a white crystalline compound1 of a sweetish taste4 ,chemically it is sodium biborate4 ,buffs4 ,usually a wheel covered with leather or cloth1 and having emery dust on it1 for fine polishing purposes4 ,buffeted4 ,thrown back4 ,bronze4 ,an alloy of copper and tin4 ,calcium4 ,lime4 ,cant4 ,a form of lever4 ,carbonate4 ,a salt of carbonic acid4 ,caustic4 ,capable of corroding or eating away4 ,capillary4 ,that quality of a liquid which causes it to move upwardly or along a solid with which it is in contact4 ,caliper4 ,an instrument for spanning inside and outside dimensions4 ,centripetal4 ,the force which tends to draw inwardly1 or to the center4 ,centrifugal4 ,the outwardly-moving force from a body4 ,centering4 ,to form a point equidistant from a circular line4 ,chloride4 ,a compound of chlorine with one or more positive elements1 such as1 for instance1 salt4 ,circular pitch4 ,the measurement around a gear taken at a point midway between the base and end of the teeth4 ,circumference4 ,the outside of a circular body4 ,clef4 ,a character placed on a staff of music to determine the pitch4 ,clutch4 ,a mechanical element for attaching one part to another4 ,chuck1 ,independent4 ,a disk of metal to be attached to the live spindle of a lathe1 and which has on its face a set of dogs which move radially independently of each other4 ,chuck1 ,universal4 ,a disk to be attached as above1 provided with dogs which are connected so they move radially in unison with each other4 ,classified4 ,arranged in order1 in such a manner that each of a kind is placed under a suitable heading4 ,clearance4 ,to provide a space behind the cutting edge of a tool which will not touch the work being cut4 ,consistency4 ,harmonious2 not contradictory4 ,coherer4 ,that instrument in a wireless telegraphy apparatus which detects the electrical impulses4 ,commutator4 ,the cylindrical structure on the end of an armature1 which is designed to change the polarity of the current4 ,concentrated4 ,brought together at one point4 ,coinage4 ,the system of making money from metals4 ,compound4 ,the unity of two or more elements4 ,constant4 ,being insistent and consistent2 also a term to be used in a problem which never varies4 ,conversion4 ,the change from one state to another4 ,cone4 ,a body larger at one end than at another2 usually applied to a form which is cylindrical in shape but tapering1 from end to end4 ,compression4 ,the bringing together of particles1 or molecules4 ,convolute4 ,a spiral form of winding1 like a watch spring4 ,coiled4 ,a form of winding1 like a string wound around a bobbin4 ,conductivity4 ,applied generally to the quality of material which will carry a current of electricity2 also a quality of a material to convey heat4 ,cohesion4 ,the force by which the molecules of the same kind are held together4 ,concentric4 ,a line which is equidistant at all points from a center4 ,confined4 ,held within certain bounds4 ,corpuscular4 ,molecular or atomic form4 ,converge4 ,to come together from all points4 ,concave4 ,a surface which is depressed or sunken4 ,convex4 ,a surface which is raised1 or projects beyond the surface of the edges4 ,component4 ,one of the elements in a problem or in a compound4 ,coefficient4 ,a number indicating the degree or quality possessed by a substance4 ,an invariable unit4 ,cube4 ,a body having six equal sides4 ,cross-section4 ,a term used to designate that line which is at right angles to the line running from the view point4 ,cross slide4 ,the metal plate on a lathe which holds the tool post1 and which is controlled1 usually1 by a screw4 ,contiguous4 ,close to2 near at hand4 ,countersink4 ,the depression around a bore4 ,collet4 ,a collar1 clutch or clamping piece1 which has jaws to hold a bar or rod4 ,countershaft4 ,a shaft which has thereon pulleys or gears to connect operatively with the gears or pulleys on a machine1 and change the speed4 ,conducive4 ,tending to2 promotive of a result4 ,corundum4 ,an extremely hard aluminum oxide used for polishing4 ,cold chisel4 ,a term applied to an extremely hard chisel used for cutting and chipping metal4 ,combustion4 ,the action or operation of burning4 ,conjunctively4 ,acting together4 ,comparatively4 ,similitude or resemblance1 one with another4 ,cotter4 ,a key to prevent a wheel turning on its shaft4 ,dead center4 ,a term used to designate the inoperative point of the crank4 ,depicting4 ,showing2 setting forth4 ,deodorant4 ,a substance which will decompose odors4 ,developer4 ,a chemical which will bring out the picture in making the film or plate in photography4 ,decimeter4 ,the length of one-tenth of a meter in the metric system4 ,decameter4 ,the length of ten meters in the metric system4 ,defective4 ,not perfect2 wrong in some particular4 ,diaphragm4 ,a plate1 such as used in a telephone system1 to receive and transmit vibrations4 ,dissolving4 ,to change from a solid to a liquid condition4 ,division plate4 ,a perforated plate in a gear-cutting machine1 to aid in dividing the teeth of a wheel4 ,dispelled4 ,to drive away or scatter4 ,disinfectant4 ,a material which will destroy harmful germs4 ,diametral pitch4 ,the number of teeth in a gear as calculated on the pitch line4 ,dimension4 ,measurement2 size4 ,ductility4 ,that property of metal which permits it to be drawn out1 or worked4 ,dividers4 ,an instrument1 like a compass1 for stepping off measurements1 or making circles4 ,diverge4 ,spreading out from a common point4 ,drift4 ,a cutting tool for smoothing a hole in a piece of metal4 ,duplex4 ,two2 double4 ,dynamite4 ,an explosive composed of an absorbent1 like earth1 combined with nitro-glycerine4 ,dynamometer4 ,an instrument for measuring power developed4 ,eccentric4 ,out of center4 ,echoes4 ,the reflection of sound4 ,effervesce4 ,the action due to the unity of two opposite chemicals4 ,efficiency4 ,the term applied to the quality of effectiveness4 ,ellipse4 ,a form which is oblong1 or having a shape1 more or less1 like the longitudinal section of an egg4 ,electrolytic4 ,the action of a current of water passing through a liquid1 and decomposing it1 and carrying elements from one electrode to the other4 ,elasticity4 ,the quality in certain substances to be drawn out of their normal shape1 and by virtue of which they will resume their original form when released4 ,embedded4 ,to be placed within a body or substance4 ,emerge4 ,to come out of4 ,emphasize4 ,to lay particular stress upon4 ,emery4 ,a hard substance1 usually some of the finely divided precious stones1 and used for polishing and grinding purposes4 ,enormous4 ,a large amount2 great in size4 ,enunciated4 ,proclaimed2 given out4 ,equalization4 ,to put on an even basis2 to make the same comparatively4 ,eradicator4 ,to take out2 to cause to disappear4 ,escapement4 ,a piece of mechanism devised for the purpose of giving a uniform rate of speed to the movement of wheels4 ,essential4 ,the important feature2 the principal thing4 ,expansion4 ,to enlarge2 growing greater4 ,equidistant4 ,the same distance from a certain point4 ,evolved4 ,brought out of2 the result of certain considerations4 ,facet4 ,a face4 ,facilitated4 ,made easy4 ,flux4 ,any substance which will aid in uniting material under heat4 ,the act of uniting4 ,fluid4 ,any substance in which the particles freely interchange positions4 ,flour emery4 ,emery which is finely ground4 ,flexible4 ,the quality of any material which will permit bending4 ,float cut4 ,the term when applied to a tool where the cut is an easy one4 ,flexure4 ,the springing yield in a substance4 ,foot pound4 ,a unit1 usually determined by the number of pounds raised one foot in one second of time4 #eej pounds raised one foot in one second of time1 means so many foot pounds4 ,formulate4 ,to arrange2 to put in order from a certain consideration of things4 ,focus4 ,the center of a circle4 ,foci4 ,one of the points of an ellipse4 ,formation4 ,the structure of a machine or of a compound4 ,fractured4 ,broken4 ,fundamental4 ,basis2 the first form2 the original structure4 ,fulcrum4 ,the resting place for a lever4 ,fusion4 ,melting4 ,the change of a metal from a solid to a liquid state by heat4 ,fusible4 ,that which is capable of being melted4 ,fulminate4 ,a substance that will ignite or explode by heat or friction4 ,gamut4 ,the scale of sound or light1 or vibrations of any kind4 ,gear4 ,a toothed wheel of any kind4 ,gelatine4 ,a tasteless transparent substance obtained from animal tissues4 ,globular4 ,having the form of a globe or ball4 ,glazed4 ,having a glossary appearance4 ,graphite4 ,a metallic1 iron-black variety of carbon4 ,graduated4 ,to arrange in steps2 a regular order or series4 ,grinder4 ,any mechanism which abrades or wears down a substance4 ,gullet4 ,the curved notches or grooves between projecting parts of mechanism4 ,harmonizing4 ,to make the various parts act together in unison4 ,h4 ,p4 ,the symbol for horse power4 ,helico4 ,a form resembling that of the threads of a screw4 ,hexagon4 ,six-sided4 ,heliograph4 ,the system of signaling by using flashlights4 ,horizontal4 ,things level with the surface of the earth2 like the surface of water4 ,hydrogen4 ,the lightest of all the elements4 ,a tasteless1 colorless substance4 ,import4 ,to bear1 or convey as a meaning4 ,impulse4 ,the application of an impelling force4 ,impact4 ,a collision2 striking against4 ,invariably4 ,constant2 without failing4 ,inertia4 ,the quality of all materials to remain at rest1 or to continue in motion1 unless acted on by some external force4 ,intersect4 ,to divide at a certain point4 ,the crossing point of one line over another4 ,interval4 ,a space2 a distance between4 ,intensity4 ,strained or exerted to a high degree4 ,interstices4 ,the spaces between the molecules or atoms in a substance4 ,intermediate4 ,between4 ,intermeshing4 ,the locking together of gear wheels4 ,internal4 ,that which is within4 ,inability4 ,unable to perform or do4 ,initial4 ,the first2 at the start4 ,increment4 ,one of the parts which go to make up the whole4 ,inference4 ,drawing a conclusion from a certain state of things4 ,insoluble4 ,a substance which cannot be liquefied by a liquid4 ,indentations4 ,recesses1 or cut-out parts or places4 ,induction4 ,the movement of electricity through the air from one conductor to another4 ,inflammable4 ,that which will burn4 ,inclining4 ,at an angle2 sloping4 ,inconsequential4 ,not of much importance4 ,isometric4 ,that view of a figure which will give the relation of all the parts in their proper proportions4 ,jaw4 ,the grasping part of a vise1 or other tool4 ,joule4 ,the practical unit of electrical energy4 ,key-way4 ,a groove in a shaft and in the hub of a wheel1 to receive therein a locking key4 ,kilowatt4 ,a unit of electrical power2 one thousand watts4 ,kinetic4 ,consisting of motion4 ,lacing4 ,the attaching of the ends of a belt to each other4 ,lap4 ,a tool1 usually of copper or lead1 on which flour emery is spread1 with oil1 and used to grind out the interior of cylinders4 ,lapping4 ,the act of using a lap to grind out cylinders4 ,lacquer4 ,a varnish for either wood or metal4 ,lazy-tongs4 ,a form of tool1 by means of which a long range of movement is attainable1 and great grasp of power4 ,levigated4 ,reduced to a fine powder4 ,litharge4 ,a form of lead used in paints for drying purposes4 ,longitudinal4 ,lengthwise4 ,luminous4 ,that which has the capacity to light up4 ,magnet4 ,a bar of iron or steel that has electricity in it capable of attracting certain metals4 ,manipulation4 ,capable of being handled4 ,mandrel4 ,the revolving part of a lathe2 a rod or bar which turns and carries mechanical elements thereon4 ,manually4 ,operated by hand4 ,margin4 ,an edge4 ,malleability4 ,softness4 ,the state of being formed by hammering4 ,magnetism4 ,a quality of certain metals to receive and hold a charge of electricity4 ,major axis4 ,the measurement across the longest part of an ellipse4 ,minor axis4 ,the distance across the narrowest part of an ellipse4 ,meridian4 ,the time when the sun crosses the middle of the heavens2 midday4 ,metric4 ,measure2 a system which takes the unit of its measurement from the circumference of the earth4 ,micrometer4 ,a tool for measuring small spaces or intervals4 ,milling machine4 ,a large tool for the purpose of cutting gears and grooves or surfaces4 ,miter4 ,a meeting surface between two right-angled pieces4 ,momentum4 ,that quality of matter which is the combined energy of mass and speed4 ,molecular4 ,any substance that is made up of any particles2 the component elements in any substance4 ,modifications4 ,changes2 improved arrangements4 ,multiplicity4 ,many2 numerous2 a large quantity4 ,mutilated4 ,as applied to a gear1 one in which certain teeth are removed4 ,nautical4 ,marine2 applied to shipping1 and the like4 ,neutralizes4 ,any substance1 like a chemical1 which1 when added to another chemical1 will change them both4 ,nitro-glycerine4 ,an explosive made from glycerine and nitrogen4 ,oblique4 ,at an angle2 inclined4 ,obliterate4 ,to wipe out4 ,obvious4 ,that which can be seen2 easily observed4 ,obtuse4 ,a blunt angle2 not noticeable4 ,odophone4 ,an instrument for determining and testing odors4 ,olfactory4 ,the nerves of the sense of smell4 ,orifice4 ,an opening2 a hole4 ,oscillation4 ,a movement to and fro1 like a pendulum4 ,oxygen4 ,the most universal gas1 colorless and tasteless2 is called the acid-maker of the universe and unites with all known substances1 producing an acid1 an alkali1 or a neutral compound4 ,oxidizing4 ,to impart to any substance the elements of oxygen4 ,oxide4 ,any substance which has oxygen added to it4 ,pallet4 ,a part of a tooth or finger which acts on the teeth of a wheel4 ,parallel4 ,lines or sides at equal distance from each other from end to end4 ,paraffine4 ,a light-colored substance1 produced from refined petroleum4 ,perimeter4 ,the outer margin of a wheel2 the bounding line of any figure of two dimensions4 ,periphery4 ,the outer side of a wheel4 ,peen4 ,the nailing end of a hammer4 ,persistence4 ,that quality of all matter to continue on in its present condition4 ,perpendicular4 ,a line drawn at right angles to another4 ,perpetual4 ,without end4 ,perspective4 ,a view of an object which takes in all parts at one side4 ,physically4 ,pertaining to the body4 ,phonautograph4 ,an apparatus for recording sound4 ,phonograph4 ,an apparatus for taking and sending forth sound vibration4 ,phenomena4 ,any occurrence in nature out of the ordinary4 ,pitman4 ,the rod or bar which connects the piston and crank4 ,pivot4 ,a point or bar on which anything turns4 ,pinion4 ,a small toothed wheel4 ,pitch4 ,the number of vibrations4 ,the term used to give the number of teeth in a wheel4 ,pitch diameter4 ,the point from which the measurements are made in determining the pitch4 ,pivoted4 ,a bar1 lever1 or other mechanical element1 arranged to turn on or about a point4 ,plastic4 ,a substance in such a state that it may be kneaded or worked4 ,planer4 ,a large tool designed to cut or face off wood or metal4 ,porosity4 ,the quality in all substances to have interstices1 or points of separation1 between the molecules4 ,potential4 ,the power4 ,properties4 ,the qualities possessed by all elements4 ,projecting4 ,the throwing forward4 ,the sending out4 ,promulgated4 ,put forth2 enunciated4 ,protractor4 ,a mechanic's and draughtsman's tool by means of which angles may be formed4 ,promote4 ,to carry forward in a systematic way4 ,precision4 ,work done with care2 observing correct measurements4 ,prony brake4 ,a machine for determining horse power4 ,punch4 ,a small tool to be struck by a hammer in order to make an impression or indentation4 ,quadrant4 ,one-fourth of a circle4 ,quadrant plate4 ,a plate on which are placed lines and numbers indicating degrees4 ,quadruplex4 ,a term to designate that system of telegraphy in which four messages are sent over a single wire at the same time4 ,ratchet4 ,a wheel having teeth at certain intervals to catch the end of a pawl or finger4 ,ratchet brace4 ,a tool to hold a drill1 having a reversible ratchet wheel4 ,rasp cut4 ,a cut of a file which is rough1 not smooth4 ,rake4 ,the angle or inclination of the upper surface of the cutting tool of a lathe4 ,reverse4 ,to turn about2 in the opposite direction4 ,reciprocating4 ,to go back and forth4 ,revolve4 ,to move in an orbit or circle1 as a merry-go-round4 ,reciprocity4 ,to give back in like measure4 ,reflection4 ,the throwing back from a surface4 ,resonance4 ,the quality of vibration which adds to the original movement1 and aids in perpetuating the sound4 ,refraction4 ,the quality of light which causes it to bend in passing through different substances4 ,reducing4 ,bringing it down to a smaller compass4 ,rectilinear4 ,a straight line4 ,retort4 ,a furnace of refractory material to take high heat4 ,reamer4 ,a tool designed to enlarge or to smooth out holes4 ,regulation4 ,to do things in an orderly way2 a system which sets forth certain requirements4 ,refractory4 ,difficult to work1 and not easily fused4 ,recess4 ,a hole1 or a depression4 ,rocking4 ,a lever which rotates only part way and then moves in the opposite direction4 ,rotate4 ,a spindle which turns round4 ,compare revolve4 ,rosin4 ,certain gums2 particularly the sap of pine trees4 ,roughing4 ,the taking off of the first coating with a tool4 ,saturated4 ,a soluble substance which cannot be further dissolved by a liquid4 ,scribe4 ,to mark with a tool4 ,screw plate4 ,a tool which has within it means for adjusting different cutting tools4 ,section lining4 ,the marks made diagonally across drawings to indicate that the part is cut away4 ,shaper4 ,a large tool for surfacing off material1 cutting grooves1 and the like4 ,shrinkage4 ,the term applied to metals when cast1 as all will be smaller when cold than when cast in the mold4 ,slide rest4 ,the part of the lathe which holds the tool post4 ,sonorous4 ,having the quality of vibration4 ,slotted4 ,grooved1 or channeled4 ,solvent4 ,that which can be changed from a solid by liquids4 ,spelter4 ,a combination of zinc and copper4 ,a hard solder4 ,soldering4 ,uniting of two substances by a third1 with heat4 ,spindle4 ,a small shaft4 ,spur4 ,the larger of two intermeshing gears4 ,socket4 ,a depression or hole4 ,sprocket4 ,teeth in a wheel to receive a chain4 ,spiral4 ,a form wound like the threads of a screw4 ,surface plate4 ,a true surface made of metal1 used as a means of determining evenness of the article made4 ,sulphate4 ,any substance which is modified by sulphuric acid4 ,substitute4 ,an element or substance used for another4 ,superposed4 ,one placed above the other4 ,swage4 ,tool for the purpose of changing the form in a material4 ,swivel4 ,a point on which another turns4 ,surfacing4 ,taking off the outer coating or covering4 ,tap4 ,a small drill4 ,tapering4 ,an object with the sides out of parallel4 ,tangential4 ,a line from the periphery of a circle which projects out at an angle4 ,tension4 ,the exertion of a force4 ,tenacity4 ,the property of a material to hang together4 ,tempering4 ,putting metal in such condition that it will be not only hard but tough as well4 ,technical4 ,pertaining to the strict forms and terms of an art4 ,texture4 ,that of which the element or substance is composed4 ,threads4 ,the ridges1 spiral in form1 which run around a bolt4 ,theoretically4 ,the speculative form or belief in a subject4 ,tinned4 ,the term applied to the coating on a soldering iron with a fluxed metal4 ,tines4 ,small blades4 ,torsion4 ,the force exerted around an object1 like the action of a crank on a shaft4 ,tommy4 ,a lever to be inserted in a hole in a screw head for turning a screw4 ,transmitting4 ,sending forth2 to forward4 ,trammel4 ,a tool for the purpose of drawing ellipses4 ,traction4 ,drawing2 pulling power4 ,tripping4 ,a motion applied to a finger1 which holds a pivoted arm1 whereby the latter may be swung from its locked position4 ,triangular4 ,having three sides and three angles4 ,transverse4 ,across2 at right angles to the long direction4 ,undercut4 ,a wall of a groove or recess which is sloping4 ,undulatory4 ,a wave-like motion1 applied generally to light and electricity4 ,unit4 ,a base for calculating from4 ,unison4 ,acting together2 as one4 ,unsized4 ,generally applied to the natural condition of paper or fabric which has no glue or other fixing substance on it4 ,vaporising4 ,to change from a liquid or solid to a gas4 ,variation4 ,changing into different conditions2 unlike forms4 ,verge4 ,the edge2 usually applied to the shoulder of a watch spindle1 particularly to the escapement4 ,vertical4 ,up and down4 ,the direction of a plumb line4 ,velocity4 ,the speed of an article through space4 ,vitascope4 ,an instrument for determining the rate of vibration of different substances4 ,vibration4 ,the movement to and fro of all elements1 and by means of which we are made sensitive of the different forces4 ,vocation4 ,the business or the calling of a person4 ,warding4 ,the act of cutting a projection or guard1 such as is usually found on the insides of locks1 and the correspondent detent in the key4 ,watt4 ,in electricity the unit of the rate of working in a circuit4 ,it is the electro-motive force of one volt and the current intensity of one ampere4 ,,index 7,figures indicate the pages7 ,a ,acetone1 #afe4 ,acid1 #aai1 #abj1 #aef1 #afh4 ,acid1 ,acetic1 #afe4 ,acid1 ,carbolic1 #aff4 ,acid1 ,hydrofluoric1 #agj4 ,acid1 ,muriatic1 #aai4 ,acid1 ,nitric1 #afh1 #afi1 #aga1 #agc4 ,acid1 ,oxalic1 #agb4 ,acid1 ,pyrogallic1 #agb4 ,acid1 ,sulphuric1 #afi4 ,acoustics1 #hg1 #aeg4 ,adhesives1 #afb4 ,affinity1 #hc1 #hf4 ,agate1 #hb4 ,air1 #hd4 ,alcohol1 #afe1 #aff1 #afi1 #agj1 #agf1 #ahc4 ,alloy1 #ha1 #aae1 #aaf1 #aah1 #aai1 #adi1 #age4 ,alum1 #adi1 #aff1 #agb4 ,aluminum1 #ch1 #da1 #db1 #fj1 #hb1 #adi1 #afd1 #aff1 #afi1 #agj1 #agd1 #age1 #agf1 #ahd4 ,amalgams1 #adi4 ,amber1 #agj4 ,ambergris1 #aei4 ,ammonia1 #aff1 #agj4 ,ammonium ,nitrate1 #ahe4 ,ammonium ,sulphate1 #afh1 #aga4 ,analysis1 #ic4 ,analyzed1 #aei4 ,angle cutting1 #cj4 ,angle plate1 #aj4 ,angles1 #ca1 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,w ,water1 #afe1 #aff1 #afh1 #agb1 #ahc1 #ahf1 #ahg4 ,waterproof1 #afb1 #afc4 ,weight1 #he4 ,weight of steel1 #agi4 ,weight1 troy1 #ahj4 ,welding1 #aae1 #aaf1 #aag4 ,welding compound1 #aag4 ,wheel1 #bg1 #gb1 #gc1 #he1 #hf4 ,whiting1 #agd4 ,workshop1 #afb4 ,wrench1 #ajd4 ,y ,yokes1 #gj1 #gf4 ,z ,zinc1 #aah1 #aai1 #afd1 #aff1 #age4 ,zinc chloride1 #afc4 ,,the ,,boys' ,,elite ,,series #abmo1 cloth4 ,price #ge;c each4 ,contains an attractive assortment of books for boys by standard and favorite authors4 ,printed from large1 clear type on a superior quality of paper1 bound in a superior quality of binders' cloth1 ornamented with illustrated original designs on covers stamped in colors from unique and appropriate dies4 ,each book wrapped in attractive jacket4 #a4 ,cudjo's ,cave ,trowbridge #b4 ,green ,mountain ,boys #c4 ,life of ,kit ,carson ,edward ,l4 ,ellis #d4 ,tom ,westlake's ,golden ,luck ,perry ,newberry #e4 ,tony ,keating's ,surprises ,mrs4 ,g4 ,r4 ,alden 7,pansy7 #f4 ,tour of the ,world in #hj ,days ,jules ,verne ,,the ,,girls' ,,elite ,,series #abmo1 cloth4 ,price #ge;c each4 ,contains an assortment of attractive and desirable books for girls by standard and favorite authors4 ,the books are printed on a good quality of paper in large clear type4 ,each title is complete and unabridged4 ,bound in clothene1 ornamented on the sides and back with attractive illustrative designs and the title stamped on front and back4 #a4 ,bee and the ,butterfly ,lucy ,foster ,madison #b4 ,dixie ,school ,girl ,gabrielle ,e4 ,jackson #c4 ,girls of ,mount ,morris ,amanda ,douglas #d4 ,hope's ,messenger ,gabrielle ,e4 ,jackson #e4 ,the ,little ,aunt ,marion ,ames ,taggart #f4 ,a ,modern ,cinderella ,amanda ,douglas ,for sale by all ,booksellers1 or sent postpaid on receipt of #ge;c ,,the ,,how-,,to-,,do-,,it ,,books ,by ,j4 ,s4 ,,zerbe ,carpentry for ,boys ,a book which treats1 in a most practical and fascinating manner all subjects pertaining to the ,king of ,trades2 showing the care and use of tools2 drawing2 designing1 and the laying out of work2 the principles involved in the building of various kinds of structures1 and the rudiments of architecture4 ,it contains over two hundred and fifty illustrations made especially for this work1 and includes also a complete glossary of the technical terms used in the art4 ,the most comprehensive volume on this subject ever published for boys4 ,electricity for ,boys ,the author has adopted the unique plan of setting forth the fundamental principles in each phase of the science1 and practically applying the work in the successive stages4 ,it shows how the knowledge has been developed1 and the reasons for the various phenomena1 without using technical words so as to bring it within the compass of every boy4 ,it has a complete glossary of terms1 and is illustrated with two hundred original drawings4 ,practical ,mechanics for ,boys ,this book takes the beginner through a comprehensive series of practical shop work1 in which the uses of tools1 and the structure and handling of shop machinery are set forth2 how they are utilized to perform the work1 and the manner in which all dimensional work is carried out4 ,every subject is illustrated1 and model building explained4 ,it contains a glossary which comprises a new system of cross references1 a feature that will prove a welcome departure in explaining subjects4 ,fully illustrated4 #abmo1 cloth4 ,price #a4jj each4 ,for sale by all ,booksellers1 or sent postpaid on receipt of #a4jj4 ,the ,american ,boy's ,sports ,series ,,by ,,mark ,,overton #ab ,mo ,cloth4 ,illustrated4 ,price #fj;c ,each4 99 99 99 99 99 ,these stories touch upon nearly every sport in which the active boy is interested4 ,baseball1 rowing1 football1 hockey1 skating1 ice-boating1 sailing1 camping and fishing all serve to lend interest to an unusual series of books4 ,there are the following four titles3 #a4 ,jack ,winters' ,baseball ,team2 or1 ,the ,mystery of the ,diamond4 #b4 ,jack ,winters' ,campmates2 or1 ,vacation ,days in the ,woods4 #c4 ,jack ,winters' ,gridiron ,chums2 or1 ,when the ,half-back ,saved the ,day4 #d4 ,jack ,winters' ,iceboat ,wonder2 or1 ,leading the ,hockey ,team to ,victory4 99 99 99 99 99 ,phil ,bradley ,mountain ,boy's ,series ,,by ,,silas ,r4 ,,boone #ab ,mo4 ,cloth4 ,illustrated4 ,price #fj;c ,each 99 99 99 99 99 ,these books describe with interesting detail the experience of a party of boys among the mountain pines4 ,they teach the young reader how to protect themselves against the elements1 what to do and what to avoid1 and above all to become self-reliant and manly4 ,there are five titles3 #a4 ,phil ,bradley's ,mountain ,boys2 or1 ,the ,birch ,bark ,lodge4 #b4 ,phil ,bradley at the ,wheel2 or1 ,the ,mountain ,boys' ,mad ,auto ,dash4 #c4 ,phil ,bradley's ,shooting ,box2 or1 ,the ,mountain ,boys on ,currituck ,sound4 #d4 ,phil ,bradley's ,snow-shoe ,trail2 or1 ,the ,mountain ,boys in the ,canadian ,wilds4 #e4 ,phil ,bradley's ,winning ,way4 99 99 99 99 99 ,for sale by all ,booksellers1 or sent postpaid on receipt of #fj;c4 ,,girls' ,,liberty ,,series ,contains an assortment of attractive and desirable books for girls by standard and favorite authors4 ,the books are printed on a good quality of paper in large clear type4 ,each title is complete and unabridged4 ,bound in clothene1 ornamented on the sides and back with attractive illustrative designs and the title stamped on front and back4 #abmo1 clothene4 ,price #ej;c each4 #a4 ,camp ,fire ,girls on a ,long ,hike1 or1 ,lost in the ,great ,northern ,woods ,stella ,m4 ,francis #b4 ,daddy's ,girl ,mrs4 ,l4 ,t4 ,meade #c4 ,ethel ,hollister's ,first ,summer as a ,camp ,fire ,girl ,irene ,elliott ,benson #d4 ,ethel ,hollister's ,second ,summer ,irene ,elliott ,benson #e4 ,flat ,iron for a ,farthing ,mrs4 ,ewing #f4 ,four ,little ,mischiefs ,rose ,mulholland #g4 ,girls and ,i ,mrs4 ,molesworth #h4 ,girl from ,america ,mrs4 ,l4 ,t4 ,meade #i4 ,grandmother ,dear ,mrs4 ,molesworth #aj4 ,irvington ,stories ,mary ,mapes ,dodge #aa4 ,little ,lame ,prince ,mrs4 ,muloch #ab4 ,little ,susie ,stories ,mrs4 ,h4 ,prentiss #ac4 ,mrs4 ,over the ,way ,julianna ,horatio ,ewing #ad4 ,naughty ,miss ,bunny ,rose ,mulholland #ae4 ,sweet ,girl ,graduate ,mrs4 ,l4 ,t4 ,meade #af4 ,school ,queens ,mrs4 ,l4 ,t4 ,meade #ag4 ,sue1 ,a ,little ,heroine ,mrs4 ,l4 ,t4 ,meade #ah4 ,wild ,kitty ,mrs4 ,l4 ,t4 ,meade 99 99 99 99 99 ,for sale by all ,booksellers1 or sent postpaid on receipt of #ej;c ,,the ,,wonder ,,island ,,boys ,by ,,roger ,t4 ,,finlay #abmo1 cloth4 ,price #ge;c each1 postpaid4 ,thrilling adventures on land and sea of two boys and a man cast upon an island in the ,south ,seas without food or weapons2 their experience in fashioning clothing1 tools and weapons1 and in overcoming nature and subduing and civilizing savage tribes2 covers a wide range of subjects4 #a4 ,the ,castaways #b4 ,exploring the ,island #c4 ,the ,mysteries of the ,caverns #d4 ,the ,tribesmen #e4 ,the ,capture and ,pursuit #f4 ,the ,conquest of the ,savages #g4 ,adventures on ,strange ,islands #h4 ,treasures of the ,islands ,,the ,,boy ,,globe ,,trotters ,by ,,elbert ,,fisher #abmo1 cloth4 ,price #ge;c each1 postpaid4 ,this is a series of form books relating the adventures of two boys who made a trip around the world1 working their way as they go4 ,they meet with various peoples having strange habits and customs1 and their adventures from a medium for the introduction of much instructive matter relative to the character and industries of the cities and countries through which they pass4 ,a description is given of the native sports of boys in each of the foreign countries through which they travel4 ,the books are illustrated by decorative head and end pieces for each chapter1 there being #cf original drawings in each book1 all by the author1 and four striking halftones4 #a4 ,from ,new ,york to the ,golden ,crate #b4 ,from ,san ,francisco to ,japan #c4 ,from ,tokio to ,bombay #d4 ,from ,india to the ,war ,zone 99 99 99 99 99 ,for sale by all ,booksellers1 or sent postpaid on receipt of #ge;c ,,boys' ,,copyrighted ,,books ,printed from large1 clear type on a superior quality of paper1 embellished with original illustrations by eminent artists1 and bound in a superior quality of book binders' cloth1 ornamented with illustrated covers1 stamped in colors from unique and appropriate dies1 each book wrapped in a glazed paper wrapper printed in colors4 ,,motor ,,boat ,,boys ,,series ,by ,louis ,arundel #a4 ,the ,motor ,club's ,cruise ,down the ,mississippi2 or1 ,the ,dash for ,dixie4 #b4 ,the ,motor ,club on the ,st4 ,lawrence ,river2 or1 ,adventures ,among the ,thousand ,islands4 #c4 ,the ,motor ,club on the ,great ,lakes2 or1 ,exploring the ,mystic ,isle of ,mackinac4 #d4 ,motor ,boat ,boys ,among the ,florida ,keys2 or1 ,the ,struggle for the ,leadership4 #e4 ,motor ,boat ,boys ,down the ,coast2 or1 ,through ,storm and ,stress4 #f4 ,motor ,boat ,boys' ,river ,chase4 ,,the ,,bird ,,boys ,,series ,by ,john ,luther ,langworthy #a4 ,the ,bird ,boys2 or1 ,the ,young ,sky ,pilots' ,first ,air ,voyage4 #b4 ,the ,bird ,boys on the ,wing2 or1 ,aeroplane ,chums in the ,tropics4 #c4 ,the ,bird ,boys ,among the ,clouds2 or1 ,young ,aviators in a ,wreck4 #d4 ,bird ,boys' ,flight2 or1 ,a ,hydroplane ,round-up4 #e4 ,bird ,boys' ,aeroplane ,wonder2 or1 ,young ,aviators on a ,cattle ,ranch4 ,,canoe ,,and ,,campfire ,,series ,by ,st4 ,george ,rathborne #a4 ,canoe ,mates in ,canada2 or1 ,three ,boys ,afloat on the ,saskatchewan4 #b4 ,young ,fur ,takers2 or1 ,traps and ,trails in the ,wilderness4 #c4 ,the ,house ,boat ,boys2 or1 ,drifting ,down to the ,sunny ,south4 #d4 ,chums in ,dixie2 or1 ,the ,strange ,cruise in the ,motor ,boat4 #e4 ,camp ,mates in ,michigan2 or1 ,with ,pack and ,paddle in the ,pine ,woods4 #f4 ,rocky ,mountain ,boys2 or1 ,camping in the ,big ,game ,country4 99 99 99 99 99 ,for sale by all booksellers1 or sent postpaid on receipt of #ge;c ,,boys' ,,copyrighted ,,books ,printed from large1 clear type on a superior quality of paper1 embellished with original illustrations by eminent artists1 and bound in a superior quality of book binders' cloth1 ornamented with illustrated covers1 stamped in colors from unique and appropriate dies1 each book wrapped in a glazed paper wrapper printed in colors4 ,,motor ,,boat ,,boys ,,series ,by ,louis ,arundel #a4 ,the ,motor ,club's ,cruise ,down the ,mississippi2 or1 ,the ,dash for ,dixie4 #b4 ,the ,motor ,club on the ,st4 ,lawrence ,river2 or1 ,adventures ,among the ,thousand ,islands4 #c4 ,the ,motor ,club on the ,great ,lakes2 or1 ,exploring the ,mystic ,isle of ,mackinac4 #d4 ,motor ,boat ,boys ,among the ,florida ,keys2 or1 ,the ,struggle for the ,leadership4 #e4 ,motor ,boat ,boys ,down the ,coast2 or1 ,through ,storm and ,stress4 #f4 ,motor ,boat ,boys' ,river ,chase4 ,,the ,,bird ,,boys ,,series ,by ,john ,luther ,langworthy #a4 ,the ,bird ,boys2 or1 ,the ,young ,sky ,pilots' ,first ,air ,voyage4 #b4 ,the ,bird ,boys on the ,wing2 or1 ,aeroplane ,chums in the ,tropics4 #c4 ,the ,bird ,boys ,among the ,clouds2 or1 ,young ,aviators in a ,wreck4 #d4 ,bird ,boys' ,flight2 or1 ,a ,hydroplane ,round-up4 #e4 ,bird ,boys' ,aeroplane ,wonder2 or1 ,young ,aviators on a ,cattle ,ranch4 ,,canoe ,,and ,,campfire ,,series ,by ,st4 ,george ,rathborne #a4 ,canoe ,mates in ,canada2 or1 ,three ,boys ,afloat on the ,saskatchewan4 #b4 ,young ,fur ,takers2 or1 ,traps and ,trails in the ,wilderness4 #c4 ,the ,house ,boat ,boys2 or1 ,drifting ,down to the ,sunny ,south4 #d4 ,chums in ,dixie2 or1 ,the ,strange ,cruise in the ,motor ,boat4 #e4 ,camp ,mates in ,michigan2 or1 ,with ,pack and ,paddle in the ,pine ,woods4 #f4 ,rocky ,mountain ,boys2 or1 ,camping in the ,big ,game ,country4 99 99 99 99 99 ,for sale by all booksellers1 or sent postpaid on receipt of #ge;c ,,always ,,ask ,,for ,,the ,,donohue ,complete ,editions and you will get the best for the least money ,henty ,series ,,for ,,boys ,g4 ,a4 ,henty was the most prolific writer of boy's stories of the nineteenth century4 ,from two to five books a year came from his facile pen4 ,no ,christmas holidays were complete without a new ,henty ,book4 ,this new series comprises #de titles4 ,they are printed on an extra quality of paper1 from new plates and bound in the best quality of cloth1 stamped on back and side in inks from unique and attractive dies4 #ab mo4 cloth4 ,each book in a printed wrapper4 #a ,among ,malay ,pirates #b ,bonnie ,prince ,charlie #c ,boy ,knight1 ,the #d ,bravest of the ,brave #e ,by ,england's ,aid #f ,by ,pike and ,dyke #g ,by ,right of ,conquest #h ,by ,sheer ,pluck #i ,captain ,bayley's ,heir #aj ,cat of ,bubastes #aa ,col4 ,thorndyke's ,secret #ab ,cornet of ,horse1 ,the #ac ,dragon and the ,raven #ad ,facing ,death #ae ,final ,reckoning1 ,a #af ,for ,name and ,fame #ag ,for the ,temple #ah ,friends1 ,though ,divided #ai ,golden ,canon #bj ,in ,freedom's ,cause #ba ,in the ,reign of ,terror #bb ,in ,times of ,peril #bc ,jack ,archer #bd ,lion of ,st4 ,mark #be ,lion of the ,north #bf ,lost ,heir1 ,the #bg ,maori and ,settler #bh ,one of the #bhth #bi ,orange and ,green #cj ,out on the ,pampas #ca ,queen's ,cup1 ,the #cb ,rujub1 the ,juggler #cc ,st4 ,george for ,england #cd ,sturdy and ,strong #ce ,through the ,fray #cf ,true to the ,old ,flag #cg ,under ,drake's ,flag #ch ,with ,clive in ,india #ci ,with ,lee in ,virginia #dj ,with ,wolfe in ,canada #da ,young ,buglers1 ,the #db ,young ,carthaginians #dc ,young ,colonists1 ,the #dd ,young ,franc-,tireurs #de ,young ,midshipman ,all of above titles can be procured at the store where this book was bought1 or sent to any address for #ge;c1 postage paid1 by the publishers ,,always ,,ask ,,for ,,the ,,donohue ,,complete ,,editions--,,the ,,best ,,for ,,least ,,money ,,woodcraft for ,boy ,scouts and ,others ,by ,,owen ,,jones and ,,marcus ,,woodman ,with a ,message to ,boy ,scouts by ,,sir ,,baden-,,powell1 ,founder of the ,boy ,scouts' ,movement4 ,one of the essential requirements of the ,boy ,scout training is a ,,knowledge ,,of ,,woodcraft4 ,this necessitates a book embracing all the subjects and treating on all the topics that a thorough knowledge of ,,woodcraft implies4 ,this book thoroughly exhausts the subject4 ,it imparts a comprehensive knowledge of woods from fungus growth to the most stately monarch of the forest2 it treats of the habits and lairs of all the feathered and furry inhabitants of the woods4 ,shows how to trail wild animals2 how to identify birds and beasts by their tracks1 calls1 etc4 ,tells how to forecast the weather1 and in fact2 treats on every phase of nature with which a ,boy ,scout or any woodman or lover of nature should be familiar4 ,the authorship guarantees it's authenticity and reliability4 ,indispensable to ,boy ,scouts and others4 ,printed from large clear type on superior paper4 ,embellished ,with ,over #ajj ,thumb ,nail ,illustrations ,taken ,from ,life ,bound in ,cloth4 ,stamped with unique and appropriate designs in ink6 ,price1 #ge;c ,postpaid ,m4 ,a4 ,,donohue ,,co4 #gja-gbg ,s4 ,,dearborn ,,st4 ,,chicago ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,transcriber's ,note3 ,every effort has been made to replicate this text as faithfully as possible1 including obsolete and variant spellings and other inconsistencies4 ,obvious spelling_/typographical and punctuation errors have been corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within the text and consultation of external sources4 ,minor punctuation errors have been amended without note4 ,page #acg3 ,incorrect pressure of #hh oz4 for wind speed of #aj mph changed to #h oz4 ,page #adf3 ,micron incorrectly printed as #a4bedjj1 changed to #a_/bdejj4 ,page #agh3 ,corrected table entry for #a-g_/h1 printed as #a_/g-af4 ,alphabetic order errors in the glossary retained4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------